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THE

Jewish Encyclopedia

A DESCRIPTIVE R.ECORD OF

THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS-
TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE

EARLIEST TIMES

Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD

Cyrus Adler, Ph.D. {Departments of Post-
Biblical Antiquities ; the Jews of America) .

Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D. {Department
of History from I4g2 to jgoi) .

Louis Ginzbkrg, Ph.D. {Department of
Rabbinical Literature) .

Richard Gottheil, Ph.D. {Departments of
History from. Ezra to I4g2 ; History of
Post - Tcilmudic Literature) .

Joseph Jacobs, B.A {Departments of the
Jews of England and Anthropology ; Revi-
sing Editor) .

Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D. {Department of the Talmud).
Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D. {Department of the Bible) .

Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D. {Departments of Theology

and Philosophy) .

Frederick de Sola Mendes, Ph.D. {Chief of the
Bureau of Translation ; Revising Editor).

Isidore Singer, Ph.D. {Department of Modern
Biography from ij^o to igoz).

Crawford H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. {Departments of
Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature) .

ISIDORE SINGER. Ph.D.

Projector and Managing Editor

ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS

(see page v)

VOLUME XII

TALMUD— ZWEIFEL

KTAV PUBLISHING HOUSE, INC.

KTAV PUBLISHING HOUSE, INC.
N.Y. 2, N.Y.

PRINTED AND BOUND IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

SRLF

LITERARY DIRECTORATE^/ 7^^^2 3

EDITORIAL BOARD

CYRUS ABLER, Ph.D.

(Departments of I'ufit-Bihlical A iitiquities ; the Jews of
America.)

President of tbe American Jewish Historical Society ; Librarian,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

GOTTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D.

(Department of Historjifrom lltSiS to 1901.)

Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati,

Ohio ; Editor of " Deborah."

LOUIS GINZBERG, Ph.D.

(Department of Rabbinical Liteiature.)
New York ; Author of " Die Haggada bel den Klrchenvatem."

RICHARD GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.

(Departments of Hixtorufrom Ezra to iW2 ; History of Post-

Talmudic Literature.)

Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York;

Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library ;

President of the Federation of American Zionists.

JOSEPH JACOBS, B.A.

(Departments of the Jews of England and Anthropology;
Revisinij Editor.)

Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England ;
Author of " Jews of Angevin England," etc.

MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D.

(Department of the Talmud.)
Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shalom, Philadel-
phia, Pa. ; Author of " Dictionary of the Talmud."

MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D.

(Department of the Bible.)

Professor of SeroUlc Languages and Librarian In the University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. ; Author of " Relig-
ion of the Babylonians and Assyrians," etc.

KAUTMANN KOHLER, Ph.D.

(Department.^ of Theology and Philosophy.)

Rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New York ; President of the Board of
Jewish Ministers, New York.

FREDERICK DE SOLA MENDES, Ph.D.

(Chief of the Bureau of Translation; Revising Editor.)

Rabbi of the West End Synagogue, New York ; Vice-President

of Board of Jewish Ministers, New York.

ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D.

Man'agi.ng Editor.
(Department of Modern Biography from 1750 to 1901.)

CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D.

(Departments of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic

Literature.)

Professor of Hebrew In Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. ;

Author of "The Religion of Israel," "Judaism and

Christianity," etc.

AMERICAN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS

BERNARD DRACHMAN, Ph.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Zlchron Ephraim, Dean of the Jewish
Theological Seminary, New York.

B. FELSENTHAL, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of Zion Congregation, Chicago; Author of "A
Practical Grammar of the Hebrew Language."

GUSTAV GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Emanu-El, New York.

EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Rabbi of Chicago Sinai Congregation, Chicago, 111.; Professor of

Rabbinical Literature and Philosophy, University of

Chicago ; Editor of the " Reform Advocate."

HENRY HYVERNAT, D.D.,

Head of the Department of Semitic and Egyptian Literatures,
Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C.

J. FREDERIC McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto,

Canada; Author of "History, Prophecy, and

the Monuments."

H. PEREIRA MENDES, M.D.,

Rabbi of the Shearith Israel Congregation (Spanish and Portu-
guese), New York ; President of the Advisory Board of
Ministers of the Jewish Theological Seminary.

MOSES MIELZINER, Ph.D., D.D.,

PYofessor of Talmudic Literature, Hebrew Union College, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio ; Author of " Introduction to the Talmud."

GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A., D.D.,

Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature and President of

Andover Theological Seminary, Andover, Mass. ; Author

of a Commentary on the Book of Judges, etc.

DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Bene Israel : Prufessorof Homiletlca,

Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; President of

Hebrew Sabbath School Union of America.

IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages and Literature, University of

Chicago, 111. ; Author of " The Monuments and

the Old Testament," etc.

UTERARY DIRECTORATE

HERMAN ROSENTHAL,

CHIKT op TUK llL'iUIA.S SECTION OT THE JEWISH ENCYCLO-
PEDIA.

In ctianre of Slavonic Deparuneot, Sew York Public Library.

JOSEPH SILVERMAN. D.D.,

PreaMeni of truimi lunfervnct- ^'l Auit-ncan HaOblA: Rabbi of

Temple Enianu-El. New Yurk.

JACOB V00R8ANGER, D.D.,

Rabbi of tbe (.'onifrepitlon Emanu-El, San Francisco, Cal. ; Pro-
fessor of Semitic LanjfuaKes and Literatures, Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley, Cal.

EDWARD J. WHEELER, M.A.,

Editor of •• Tbe Uterary Digest," New York.

FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS

ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.,

Coedltor of Ujt "" J»-wiatj yuiin»-rly Rtvuw " ; Author of '
bb Life Id tiie Middle ARes." etc. ; Senior TuUir
in Jews* ColU-jfe. Loudon, England.

Jew-

W. BACHER, Ph.D.,

VralemoT in tiie Jewi^u Ttit-uloKioul Seminary, Budapest,

Hungary.

M. BRANN, Ph.D.,
Profenor In the Ji-wish '1 h'-oiogical Seminary, Breslau, Ger-
many ; Editor of "' Monatsscbrift fQr OescUlchte und
Wlasenscbaft des Judeutbums."

H. BRODY, Ph.D.,

B*bbU Nacbod. Bohcmui, Austria ; Coedltor of
Hcbriiiscbe Blbllographle."

'Zeltschrift fur

ABRAHAM DANON,
Prlodpal of tbe Jewish Theological Seminary, Constantinople,

Turkey.

HARTWIG DERENBOURG, Ph.D.,

ProteflBor of Literary Arubu- at the Special School of Oriental

Languages, Paris, France ; Member of the French Institute.

8. M. DU3N0W,

Author of "Ist^rivu Vi-.ri >iv," iMiessa, Russia.

MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D.,

PrlDClpai of Jews' College. Lmdon. Kngland ; Author of "The
Jewish Religion." etc

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D.,

ProCeaaorof .vuiiilc i'hiljU>u)\ Cnlvtreity of lludapest. Hungary.

M. OUDEMANN, Ph.D.,

Chli-f Itabtii I'f Vii-iinu, Austria.

BARON DAVID GUNZBURG,
St. Petersburg. Russia.

A. HARKAVY, Ph.D.,

Chief of tbe Hebrew Ui-p^rtineut of tin- lni|ierlal Public Library,

St. Petersburg. Ruivsla.

ZADOC KAHN,

Chief Rabbi of France ; Honorary President of the Alliance

lara^Ilte I'nlvfrwlle ; Offlrt-r cif the Legion

of Honor. Parl.t. JYance.

M. KAYSERLING, Ph.D.,

Babbl, Budapest. Hungary ; Corresponding Member of tbe

Royal Academy of Hiirt/jry. Madrid. Spain.

MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D.,
Prafeaui EmerliuB of I'sycholirgy. Inlverhliy of Berlin; Meran,

Austria.

ANATOLE LEROY-BEAULIEXJ,

Member of the French Institute ; Professor at the Free School

of Political Science, Paris, France ; Author of

" Israel cbez les Nations."

ISRAEL LEVI,

Professor In the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Editor of
" Revue des fetudes Julves," Paris, France.

EUDE LOLLI, D.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Padua ; Professor of Hebrew at tbe University,
Padua, Italy.

IMMANT7EL LOW, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Szegedin, Hungary ; Author of " Die Aramalscben
Pflanzennamen."

S. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D.,

Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Chief Rabbi of
Florence, Italy.

H. OORT, D.D.,

Professor of Hebrew Language and Archeology at the State
University, Leyden, Holland.

ABBE PIETRO PERREATJ,

Formerly Librarian of the Ileale Biblioteca Palatina, Parma,

Italy.

MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D.,

Formerly Professor of History at the Universities of Bonn and

Brussels; President of the Deutsch-Judiscbe

Gemeindebund, Berlin, Germany.

SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D.,

Rabbi in Warsaw, Russia.

SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D.,

Professor of Hebrew, University College, London, England;

Reader in Rabbinic, University of Cambridge;

Author of "Studies in Judaism."

E. SCHWARZFELD, Ph.D.,

Secretary -General of the Jewish Colonization Association, Parla,

France.

LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D.,

Professor of Philosophy, University of Bern, Switzerland ; Editor
of " Archlv fiir Geschlchte der Phllosophie," etc.

HERMANN L. STRACK, Ph.D.,

Professor of Old Testament ExegesLs and Semitic Languages,
University of Berlin, Germany.

CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LL.D.,

Master of St. John's College, Cambridge. England ; Editor of
"Sayings of the Jewish Fathers," etc.

CONTllir.LTOrtS TO VOLUME XII

A Cyrus Adler, Ph.D.,

President o( the American Jewish Historical
Society ; Former President of the Board of
Directors of the Jewish Theological Semiruiry
of America ; Assistant Secretary of the Sriiitli-
SDUian Institution, Washington, U. C.

A. Bii Alexander Biichler, Ph.D.,

Kalibi, Keszthely, lliiiiirary.

A. Fe Alfred Feilchenfeld, Ph.D.,

l'nncii)al of the Realschule, Fiirth, Bavaria,
(iermany.

A. Ga Abraham Galante,

Formerly Editor of "La Buena Ksperanza,"
Smyrna ; Cairo, Egypt.

A. Kai Alois Kaiser,

fantcir, Temple Oheb Shalom, Baltimore, Md.

A. Ke A. Kecskemeti,

Rabbi, Makow. Hungary.

A. Ki Alexander Kiscn, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Meysel Synagoge, Prague, Bohemia,
Austria.

A. Ku A. Kurrein, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Teplitz, Bohemia, Austria.

A. Lew Abraham Lewinsky, Ph.D.,

Chief Uabl)i, Hihh-sheim, Hanover, Germany.

A. Lu Abraham Lubarsky,

New York City.

A. M. F A. M. Friedenberg:, B.S., LL.B.,

Counselor at Law, New York City.

A. M. H A. M. Hyamson,

Loudon, England.

A. M. Ho... A. M. Hofmann,

United States National Museum, Washington,
D. C.

A. P A. Porter (Office Kdilor),

Formerly Associate Editor of "The Forum."
New York ; Revising Editor of " Standard Cy-
clopedia" ; New York City.

A. Pe A. Peigrinsky, Ph.D.,

New York City.

A. S Abram Simon,

Rabbi, HebreAf Congregation, Washington,
D. C.

A. S. I Abram S. Isaacs, Ph.D.,

Professor of (ierman Language and Litera-
ture, New York University Graduate Semi-
nary, New York City; Rabbi, B'nai Jeshurun
Congregation, Paterson, N. J

A. S. W A. S. Waldstein. B.A.,

New York City.

A. Ta Aaron Tanzer, Ph.D.,

Rat)Ui, Ilolienems, Tyrol, Austria.

A. V. W. J. .A. V.W. Jackson, Ph.D. , Lit.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Indo-lranian Languages, Colum
bia University, New York City.

B. P Bernhard Pick, Ph.D., D.D.,

Pastor of St. John's Lutheran Church, Newark,
N. J.

B. B. Baer Ratner,

.\uthnr, Wilna, Russia.

C. I. de S Clarence I. de Sola,

President of the Federation of Canadian Zion-
ists; Belgian Consul. Montreal, Canada.

C. J. F Charles J. Freund,

Rabbi, Congregation B'nal Israel, Salt Lake
City, Utah.

C L Caspar Levias, M. A.,

Formerly Instruitoriii E.xegeslsandTalmudlc
Aramaic, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati,
Ohio.

D Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D.,

Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union
College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

D. P David Philipson, D.D.,

l{al)bi, B'ne Isntel Congregation ; Professor of
Homiletics, Hebrew Union (.oUege, Cincin-
nati, Ohio.

E. A. V Ernest A. Vizetelly,

Author of "Emile Zola, Novelist and Ke-

former"; London, England.
E. C Executive Committee of the Editorial

Board.
E. Co Ernst Cohn,

Berlin University, Berlin, Germany^

E. G. H Emil G. Hirsch, Ph.D.. LL.D.,

Rabbi, Sinai Congregatioti ; Professor of Rab-
binical Literature and Philosophy, University
of Chicago; Chicago, HI.

E. K Eduard Kbnig-, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Univer-
sity of Bonn, Germany.

E. L Eude Lolli (f/< ceased).

Late Chief Rabbi ; Professor of Hebrew at the
University of Padua, Italy.

E. Me Eduard Meyer, Ph.D.,

Professor of Ancient History, University of

Berlin, Germany.
E. Ms E. Mels,

New York City.

E. N Eduard Neumann, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi, Nagy-Kanizsi. Hungary.

E. O. A. M. E. O. Adelbert Marx, Ph.D.,

Professor, Heidelberg, Germany.

E. Sc Emil Schlesinger, Ph.D.,

Babbi, St. Gallen, Switzerland.

F. C Frank Cramer, B.Sc,

New York City.

F, C. C Frederick C. Conybeare, M.A.,

Late Fellow of University College, Oxford,
England.

F. H. V Frank H. "Vizetelly, F.S. A.,

Associate Editor of the Standari) Diction-
ary ; author of "The Preparation of Manu-
scripts for the Printer," New York City.

F. L. C Francis L. Cohen,

Chief Minister, Sydney, N. S. W., Australia.

F. N. L Florence N. Levy,

New York City.
F. S. W Franklin S. Wilson, M.A.,

New York City.

F. T. H Frederick T. Haneman, M.D.,

Brooklyn, N. Y.

G Richard Gottheil, Ph.D. ,

Professor of Semitic Languages. Columbia
University, New York ; Chief of the Oriental
Department, New York Public Library ; New
York City.

G. A. B Georgre A. Barton, Ph.D.,

Professor of Biblical Literature and Semitic
Languages, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr,
Pa.

G. L Goodman Lipkind, B.A.,

Rabbi, New York City.

CONTRIBLTORS TO VOLUME XII

G. Se G. Selikovitch,

J^■U^lia.l^[. Nrvv Vurk tit>.

H B H. Brody, Ph.D.,

lUi'l'i : l.-ctliior of the " Zeiisilirift fiir He-
liralxlif Ulbllug^rapbie" : Na<ti,«l. Bolit-iiihi,
Austria.

H. C. Henry Cohen,

i. . 1 U'uai Israel Conpreiraiion, Galveston,

H. F .Herbert Friedenwald. Ph.D..

niitemlt'iit of the Department

-, Libniry of Con(?ress, Wash-

invtoii. IJ. C; Uet-onling Swretary of the

Aiiierii-an Jewish Histurlc-al Society ; Phlla-

ilelphlii. I'a.

H. L Harry Levi,

Wlieeltiig, W. Va.

H. L. R Harry L. Rosenthal,

ArJwii k. Maiiil)<*si«-r. Eti);lanii.

H M Henry Malter, Ph.D.,

iT^iIi-sxir of Tulimnl and Instructor in Judaeo-
Arabic Philosophy. Hebrew Union College,
Cini-lnnatl, Ohio.

H. Ma .. Hillel Malachowsky,

Teailinr. .New ^Crk i ity.

H. R Herman Rosenthal,

Chief of the Slavonic Department of the New
York Public Library. New York City.

H. S Henrietta Szold,

.^M-cretary of the Publication Committee of the
Jewish Publication Society of America, New
York City.

I. A. H Isaac A. Hourwich, Ph.D.,

Exi>ert Special .\pent of the Bureau of the
Census. Department of Commerce and Labor,
Washington, 1). C.

I. Be Immanuel Benzinger, Ph.D.,

Profess<jr of t)ld Testament Exegesis, Uni-
versity of Berlin, Germany ; Jerusalem, Pal-
estine.

I. Br Isaac Broyd^ {Offlce Editor),

Doctor of tlie University of Paris, France; for-
merly Librarian of the Alliance Israelite I'ni-
verselle, Paris, France; New Y'ork City.

I. Gi Ignatio Guidi,

Professor of Hebrew Langiiaire and Compara-
tive Semitic Philology, Universitv of Uome,
Itiily.

I. K . Isidore Harris, A.M.,

Rabbi, West Londou Synagogue, London,
England.

I. K Isidor Eahan,

Uaiibl, Znalui, Moravia, Austria.
I. L. B I L. Bril,

As.so<'late Editor of the "American Hebrew " ;

New Y'ork City.

I. Lev Isaac Levy,

ciiiff l!ai)i)i, Bordeaux, France.

7. Lb Immanuel Low, Ph.D.,

< lili'f liabbi. Uu'lapesi, Hungary.

I. M. C I. M. Casanowicz, Ph.D.,

United States National Museum, Washington,

n. c.

I. M. P Ira Maurice Price, Ph.D., LL.D.,

I'n.fcjivir of Semitic i.:inguagi-s and Litera-
ture, UnlverBlty of Chicago. Chicago, 111.

I. R I. Rosenberir, Ph.D.,

Tliorn. l'ru.v<ia.

I. 8a I. Sachs,

Pan-*. Knince.

I. Sc I^naz Schipper, Ph.D.,

.'i/.czakowa, dallila. Au.slrla.

J Joseph Jacobs, B.A.,

Formerly Pn-sldeni of the Jewish lILstorlca.-
So<-lely of Entrland ; Com'spornllug Memln-r
of the Itoyal Academy of History, Madrid;
New York City.

J. D. E Judah David Eisenstein,

MiUior, .New York I'ity.

i J. de H J. de Haas,

Jouniali.st. New York City.

' J. F. McL.. .J. F. McLaughlin, M.A., B.D.,

Professor u( iiriental Languages and Litera-
ture, Victoria College, Tort)nto, Canada.

J. G. L J. G. Lipman, Ph.D.,

Assistant Agriculturist, New Jersey State Ex-
j>eriiiierit station. New Brunswick, N. J.

J. Go Julius Gottlieb, M.A., Ph.D.,

New York cuy.
J. Hy J. Hyams,

Boiuliay, India.
J. Ka Jacques Kahn,

Ualihi. Paris, France.

J. Leb Joseph Lebovich,

Har\ani University, Cambridge, Mass.

J. Si Jakob Sing-er,

Katbi. 'Pemesvar, Hungary.

J. So Josei>h Sohn,

Contributor to "The New International En-
cyclopedia": formerly Musical Critic on the
New York " American and Journal" ; New
York (ity.

J. Z. L Jacob Zallel Lauterbach, Ph.D. [Office

I'jililiir),
Rabbi. Congregation Agudat Acbim, Peoria,
111.

K Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Beth-El, New
Y'ork ; President of the Hebrew Union Col-
lege, Cincinnati, Ohio.

L. B Ludwig Blau, Ph.D.,

Profess«ir, Jewish Theological Seminary; Edi-
tor of "Magyar Zsido Szemle"; Budapest,
Hungary.

L. Q Louis Ginzberg, Ph.D.,

Professor of Talmud, Jewish Theological Sem-
inary of America, New Y'ork City.

L. Grii Lazarus Griinhut,

Director of Orphan Asylum, Jerusalem, Pales-
tine.

L. H. G Louis H. Gray, Ph.D.,

Assistant Editor of the " Orientalische Blbllo-
graphie " ; formerly on the editorial staff of
" The New International Encyclopedia " ;
Newark, N. J.

L. Hii L. Hiihner, A.M., LL.B.,

Counselcjrat Law. New York City.

L. K Lesser KnoUer, Ph.D.,

Rabbi; Principal of the Blldungsanstalt fur
Jiidische Lehrer; Hanover, Germany.

L. La Laura Landau,

New York City.

L. Lew Louis Lew^in, Ph.D.,

Rabhi, I'iniic, Poseii, (iermany.

L. Loe Louis Loewenstein,

Troy. N. Y.
L. N. D Lewis N. Dembitz, D.H.L.,

Counselor at Law, Louisville, Ky.

L. N. Le Lilian N. Levy,

Now York City.
Li. R Louis Roth,

New Yi>rk City.
L. V Ludw^ig Venetianer, Ph.D.,

Rablii, U.lpest. Hungary.

L. Wi Leo Wise,

Editor of the "American Israelite," Cincin-
nati, Ohio.

M. B Moses Beer,

Berlin, (ierniany.

M. C M. Caimi,

Corfu, (ireece.

M. Fi Maurice Fishberg, M.D.,

Surtreon to the Beth Israel Hospital Dispen-
sary; Medical Examiner to the I'nited Statej
Hebrew Charities, New York City.

CONTKIBUTORS TO VOLUMP: XII

M. Fr M. Franco,

I'riiicipal. Alliance Israelite Unlverselle

S<'li()()l, (i;illiiK>li, Turkey.

M. H. H M. H. Harris, Ph.D.,

Kabbi, Temple Israel of Harlem, New York
City.

M. K Meyer Kayserling-, Ph.D. {deceased),

I,:iti' lialibj, BiHtapt'st, lluiifrary.

M. L. B Moses Lob Bambergrer, Ph.D.,

Uabbi ; Lecturer on Uabbiiiics, Jewish Semi-
nary, Wiirzburn, Bavaria, (iermuny.

M. L. M Max L. Marg-olis, Ph.D.,

Professor of IJihIieal Kxe^resis, Hebrew Union
Collepe, Cincinnati, Ohio.

M. L. S M. Li. Stern, Ph.D.,

liaiibi. Tiiesrh, Moravla, Austria.

M. Lw M. Lewin, Ph.D.,

Habiii, Wresihen, Posen, Germany.

M. R Max Rosenthal, M.D.,

Visiting Physician, German Dispensary, New

York City.
M. Ri M. Richtmann, Ph.D. ,

Hudapest, Hungary.

M. Sa Max Samfield, Ph.D.,

Rablii, Children of Israel Congregation ; Edi-
torof the " Jewish Spectator," Memphis, Tenn.

M. Sal Marcus Salzman,

Wilkesbarre, Pa.

M. Sc Max Schloessingrer, Ph.D.,

Librarian aud Lecturer on Biblical Exegesis,
Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

M. Sal Max Selig-sohn {Office Editor),

Uiictor of the University of Paris, France;
New York City.

M. Si Moritz Silberstein, Ph.D.,

Kabbi, Wiesl)aden, Nassau, Germany.

M. W. M, . . .Mary W. Montgomery, Ph.D.,

New York City.

M. Z M. Zametkin,

New York City.

N. D Newell Dunbar, B.D.,

Author, Newark, N. J.

N.E.B.E...N. E. B. Ezra,

Shanghai, China.

N.Sl N. Slouschz,

Doctor of the University of Paris, France ;
Lecturer on Neo-Hebraic Literature, Univer-
sity of Paris, France.

N. T. L, N. T. London,

New York City.

P. S. M Percival S. Menken,

New York City.

P. Wi Peter Wiernik,

Journalist, New York City.

R. N Regina Neisser,

Author, Breslau, Silesia, Germany.

S Isidore Singer, Ph.D.,

.M,\.\a<;im; Kditok, New York City.
S. Hu S. Hurwitz,

New York City.
S. J S. Janovsky,

CouMselor at Law, St. Petersburg, Russia.
S. K S. Kahn,

Kabbi, Niines. France.
S. Kr Samuel Krauss, Ph.D.,

Professor. Normal College, Budapest, Hungary.
S. Led Sampson Lederh'dndler,

New York City.
S. Man S. Mannheimer, B.L.,

Instructor, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati,

Ohio.

S. O Schulim Ochser, Ph.D. {Office Editor),

Kabbi, New York (.'ity.

S. Sa Siegmund Salfeld, Ph.D.,

Kabbi, Mayence, He.sse, Germany.

S. S. W Stephen S. Wise, Ph.D.,

Kabbi, Tciiiyile Belli Israel, Portland, Ore.

S. We Samuel Wessel, Ph.D. ,

Kabbi, Sarajevo, Bosnia.

T Crawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Hebrew, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.

T. F. J T. F. Joseph,

Kabbi, Temple de Hirsch, Seattle, Washington.

T. K Theodor Kroner, Ph.D.,

Kabbi, Stuttgart, Wiiittemberg, Germany.

T. L Theodor Lieben, Ph.D.,

Secretary of the Israelltische Kultusgemelnde,
Vienna, Austria.

U. C Umberto Cassuto,

Editor of " La Kivista Israelitica," Florence,
Italy.

V. C Vittore Castiglione,

Chief Kabbi, Kome, Italy.

V. E Victor Rousseau Emanuel,

New York City.

V. R Vasili Rosenthal,

Krenientchug, Russia.

W. B Wilhelm Bacher, Ph.D.,

Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary, Buda-
pest, Hungary.

W. M.-A....W. Muss-Arnolt, Ph.D.,

Assistant Professor of Biblical Philology, Uni-
versity of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

W. M. M. . . . W. Max Muller, Ph.D.,

Professor of Bibli; Exegesis, Reformed Episco-
pal Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa.

W. N Wilhelm Nowack, Ph.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Uni-
versity of Strasburg, Germany.

W. Sa W. Salzberger, Ph.D.,

Erfurt, Germany.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME XII.

N. B. — In the following list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated
under each heading. Cross-references in tiiis list are to other items in the list, not to articles in
the Encyclopedia.

PAGE

Altdorf, Title-Pagc of " Sclor Nizzulion," Printed in 1G44 at 153

Auiericu: see United States.

Amsterdam, Tombstones from the Cemetery at 189

Typograpiiy : Page from " Mikra'ot Gedolot," 1724 303

Part of Page from a Passover Haggadah, 1695 802

Title-page of Bible, 1679 1.55

Title-Page of Later Prophets, with Abravanel's Commentary, 1641 157

Title-Page of a ^Miniature "Siddur," 1738 156

Title-Page of a Shabbethaian " Tikkun," c. 1666 156

Arch of Titus at Rome 164, 165 and Frontispiece

Archeology: see Temple; Titus; Titus, Arch of; Tombs; Tombstones; Vespasian ; Weight;

YOKK.

Architecture: see Synagogues; Temple; Titus, Arch of; Toledo; Tombs; Tombstones; Tripoli;

V^ENiCE; Vienna; York.
Art: see Archeology; Architecture; Costume; Pointers; Tent; Types; Typography; Well;

Zed ak A II Boxes.

Bible, Hebrew : see Typography.

Bomberg, Daniel, Page from the First Complete Edition of the Babylonian Talmud, Printed in 1520-

1523 by 17

Cemetery at Cochin, India 193

at Rome 190

at Tunis 193, 276

at Vienna 438

at Wilua 528

at Worms 562

Ceremonial: sceTASiiLiK; Yad.

Charity Boxes • 649

Cochin, India, Cemetery of the White Jews of 192

Coins: seoTiTi'S; Vespasian.

Column from the Temple of Herod 89

Costume: see Teheran; Tiberias; Tripoli; Tunis; Turicey; Yemen.

First Editions: see Typography.

Gate Leading to the Old " Judenstadt " at Vienna 427

Germany : see Worms.

Ghetto at Venice, Views of the 408, 409. 411

see also Surinam; Toledo; Valencia; Vienna; Winchester.

Hanau, Title-Page of " Shefa' Tal," Printed in 1612 at 154

Herod, Temple of, Column from 89

Sectional View of, Looking South 88

Substructure of, now Called " Solomon's Stables " 86

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IM VOLUME XII

PAGE
100

. 93

Holy of Holies, ** Dome of the Rock," Showing Traditional Site of the

of the Temple at Jerusakm, Reconstructed by Chipiez

Hungary: ?<-.- Tkaik>\ ah : Ti^za-Eszlau.

Incunabula : see Soscino.

Inscriptiuu. Greek. Found on Site of Temple Area, Forbidding Gentiles to Enter Within the Inner

Walls 85

Italy: see Rome; Turin; Venice.

Japanese Pictures Showing the Supposed Order of March of Israelites to Japan 251

Types Showing Jewish Features 249

Jerusalem, Temple of: see Temple.

Tombs Outside the City Walls of 184. 185, 186

" Judentunn," The Old, of Vienna 429

Manuscripts : see Talmih).

31up 01 Turkish Empire, Showing Places Where Jews Reside 289

of United States, Showing Places of Jewish Interest and Development of Jewish Population

plfUe beticeen 374-375

see also TYror.iiAPUY.

"Wa-Ani Tclillati." Music of 454

Wahrniau, Moritz, Hungarian Politician 457

Warsaw, Exterior of the Great Synagogue at 471

" Wayehi 'Ereb," Music of 478

" We-'Al Kullom," Music of 479

Weight, Babylonian, in the Form of a Lion 484

Weil, Gustav, French Orientalist 491

Henry, French Hellenic Scholar 492

Weiss, Isjiac Hirsch, Austrian Rabbi 496

Well, Village, in Use in Palestine 499

Werthcimer, Joseph, Austrian Philanthropist 502

Samson, Tombstone of, at Vienna 504

"We-Shamcru." Music of 505, 506

Wessoly, Naphtali Ilirz, German Hebrew Poet 507

West Indies: View of the " Jooden Savane"at Surinam, Dutch Guiana, Seventeenth Century 508

" We-Ye'e Tayu," Music of 512

Wilna, Interior of the Old Synagogue at 527

Part of the Old Cemetery at 528

Typography: Page from Babylonian Talmud, Printed by Romm, 1886 2)/«?e between 22-23

Page from Shulhan 'Aruk, Printed by Romm, 1880 529

Winchester, Plan of, Twelfth Century, Showing Position of Jewish Quarter 531

Wise, Isaac Mayer, American Rabbi 541

Wissotzki, Kalonymos, Russian Philanthropist 543

Wolf, Johann Christoph, Christian Hebraist and Bibliographer 548

Simon, American Communal Worker 550

Worms, Exterior and Interior Views of the Old Synagogue at 560, 561, 564

Interior View of the Women's Section in the Old Synagogue at 565

" Judenl)ischof " of Seventeenth Century 563

Old Cemetery at 562

*' Ya'aleh," Music of 577, 578

Yad. Specimens of the, for Scrolls of the Law 579

" Vail Shimeka," Music of 580

Yemen, Jews of 594

"Yigdal," Music of 607, 610

" Yimlok Adonai," Music of 611

" Yisrael Nosha'," Music of 612, 613

York, England: Clifford's Tower 621

Zangwill, Israel, English Author 634

Ifedakah Boxes. Wooden and Metallic 649

"Zekor Bcrit," Music of 654, 655

"Zcmirot," Music of 657-659

Zionism ; Interview Between William II and Theodor Ilerzl Outside of Jerusalem, 1902 677

Zunz, Leopold, German Rabbi and Author 700

THE

Jewish Encyclopedia

TALMUD ("llO^n) : Name of two works which
have biTH iir'SctvchI to jiosterity as tlie ])r()(luct of
the Palestinian and Bab}' Ionian sclioois diiriug the
amoraic pciiod, wliich extended from tiie third to
the lifth century c.e. One of tiu'se compiialicjiis is
entitled "Talmud Yerushalmi" (Jerusalem Talmud)
and the other " Talmud Babli " (Babylonian Talmud).
Used alone, the word "Talmud"' generally denotes
" Talmud Babli," but it frequently serves as a generic
designation for an entire body of literature, since the
Talmud marks the culmination of the writings of
Jewish tradition, of which it is, from a historical
point of view, the most important production.

"Talmud " is an old scholastic term of the Tan-
naim, and is a noun formed from the verb "lim-
med " —"to teach." It therefore means primarily
"teaching," although it denotes also
The Name, "learning"; it is en.">loyed in this
latter sense with special reference to
the Torah, the terms " talmud " and "Torah " being
usually combined to indicate the study of the Law
both in its wider and in its more restricted sense, as
in Pe'ah i. 1, where the term "talmud Torah" is
applied to study as a religious duty. On the other
hand, the learning acquired by study is also called
"talmud," so that Akiba's pupil Judah ben ]lai
could say: "He from whom one derives the greater
part of his knowledge [" talmudo "] must be re-
garded as the teacher" (Tosef., B. M. ii., end; Yer.
B. M. 8(1 : B. :M. 33a has "hokmah " instead of " tal-
mud "). To designate the study of religion, the
word "talmud" is used in contrast with "ma'aseh,"
which connotes the; practise of religion. Akiba's
view that on this account the "talmud" ranked
above the "ma'aseh" was adopted as a resolu-
tion by a famous conference at Lydda during the
Hadriauic persecution (see Sifre, Deut. 41 ; Kid.
40b; Yer. Pes. 30b; Cant. R. ii. 14). The two terms
are contrasted difTerently, however, in the tannaitic
saying (B. B. 130b), "The llaiakah [the principles
guiding decisions in religious law] may not be
drawn from a teaching of the master ["talmud"]
nor be based upon an act of his ["ma'aseh ''], unless
the master expressly declare that the teaching or act
under consideration is the one which is applicable
to tile practise."

In the second place, the word "talmud" — gen-
erally in the phrase "talmud lomar " — is frequenth'
used in tannaitic terminology in order to denote in-
struction by means of the text of the Bible and of
the exegetic deductions therefrom. In the third
place, the noun " talmud " has the meaning which
XII— 1

alone can be genetically connected with the name
"Talmud"; in tannaitic jjliraseology tJie verb "liin-
med " denotes the exegetic deduction of a halakic
principle from the Biblical text (for examjiles .see
k. II. ii. 9; Sifre, Num. 118); and in harmony with
this meaning of the word "talmud" denotes that
exposition of a halakic saying which receives an
exegetic conlirmation from the Biblical text. Of
the terms, therefore, denoting the three brandies
into which the studj' of the traditional exegesis of
the Bible was from earliest times divided by ihe
Tannaim (see Jew. Encyc. iii. 163, s.r. BiiiLii Exe-
gesis), "midrash" was the one identical in content
with "talmud" in its original sense, except that
the jMidrasli, which includes any kind of Biblical
hermeneuties, but more especially the halakic, deals
with the Bible text itself, while the Talmud is based
on the Ilalakah. The Midrash is devoted to Biblical
exposition, the result being the Halakah (comp. the
phrase "mi-kan ameru " [= "beginning here the
sages have said"], Avhich occurs frequently in the
tannaitic Midrash and whicii serves to introduce
halakic deductions from the exegesis). In the Tal-
mud, on the other hand, the halakic passage is the
subject of an exegesis based on the Bil)lical text.

In consequence of the original identity of "Tal-
mud " and " j\Iidrash," noted above, the former term
is sometimes used instead of the latter in taiuiaitic
sentences which enumerate the three

Relation branches of traditional .science, 3Iid-
to rash, Halakah, and llaggadah (see

Midrash. Ber. 22a [comp. M. K. ir)a and Yer.
Ber. (Je, 3!)]; Kid. 3(')a; Suk. 28a: B.
B. 134a; Ab. R. N. xiv. [comp. Masseket Soferim,
xvi. 8]; Yer. B. K. 4b, 31 [comp. Sifre. Deut. 33];
Tosef., Sotah, vii. 20 [comp. Yer. Sotah 44a]), while
sometimes both "Talmud " and ".Midrash " are used
(M. K. 21a; Ta'an. 30a); it must be noted, liow-
ever, that in the editions of the Bubli, "Gemara" is
usually substituted for "Talmud," even in the pas-
sages here cited. The word "Talmud " in all these
places did not denote the study suljscqnently pur-
sued by the Amoraim, but was used insleail of the
word "Midrash," although this did not preclude the
later introduction of the term "Talmud " into tan-
naitic sayings, where it either entirely displaced
" Midrash " or was used side liy side with it.

After the term "Talmud " had come to denote the
exegetic conlirmation of the Halakah, it was applied
also to the explanation and exposition of halakic
passages in general. As early as the end of tlie
tannaitic period, when the halakot were finally re-

Talmud

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

dactC'd by the patriarch Jiulali I. ami wi-re dcsig-
iiatfd as "Mishiiah." a turiii (irigiiially applicil
to tlie entire system of ti-aililioiial liarniiii,', the
Tahiiuil was developed sis u new division of tliis
sjimc science; and it was destined to absorb all oth-
ers. In a barajta dating, according to the aniora
Julinuan. from the days of .Iiidah I. (B. ^I. 33a;
conjp. Yer. Shall. Me, '22 t( sn/.), the Misliiiali and
the Talmud are defined as subjects of study .siile by
side with the " Mikni " (Bible), tlie study of the Tal-
mud being mentioned first. To this baraita there
is an addition, however, to the elTect that more
attention should be given to the Mishnah than to
the Talmud. Johanan explains this passage by the
fact that the members of Judahs academy, in their
eagerness to investigate the Talmud, neglected the
Mishnah; hence the patriarch laid stress upon the
duty of studying the Mishnah primarily. In these
passages the word ** Talmud " is used not in its more
restricted sense of the est^djlishment of halakot by
biblical e.xegesis. but in its wider signilication, in
which it designates studj' for the purpose of eluci-
dating the Mishnah in general, as ptirsued after
Judahs death in the academies of Palestine and
Babylon. This baraita is, furthermore, au authentic
document on the origin of the Talmud.

Three classes of members of the academy are men-
tioned in an anecdote referring to Judali I. (B. B.
8a): (1) those who devoted themselves chieHy to the
Bible ("ba'ale Mikra'"): (2) those whose principal
study was the Mishnah (" ba'ale Mishnah "); and (3)
those whose main interest lay in the Talmud (" ba'ale
Talmud "). This is the original reading of the pas-
sage, although the editions mention also the "ba'ale
Halakah " and the " ba'ale Haggadah " (see below).
These three branches of knowledge are, therefore,
the same as those enumerated in B. M. 33a. Tanhum
b. Hanilai, a Palestinian amora of the third centurj',
declared, witli reference to this threefold investiga-
tion (Wb. Zarah 19b): "Let the time given to study
be divided into three parts: one-third for the Bible,
one-third for the Mishnah, and one-third for the
Talmud." In Kid. 33a this saying is (juoted in the
name of the taima Joshua b. Hananiah, although
tliis is probably a corruption of the name of Jose b.
Hanina (amora). Yudan. a Palestinian amora of the
fourth century, found in Eccl. xi. 9 an allusion to the
pleasure taken in the three branches of study, Mikra,
Mishnah. and Talmud.

The old trichotomy of traditional literature was
changed, however, by the acceptance of the Mish-
nah of Judah I., and by the new study
The Three of the Talmud designed to interpret it.
Subjects of The<livisiontermed"Halakot"(singu

Study. lar. " Halakah") in the old classification
was thi-n called " Mishnah," although
in Palestine the Mishnah continued to be designated
as "Halakot." The Midrash became a component
part of the Talmud : and a considerable i)ortion of the
lialakic Bible hermencutics of the Tannaim, which
had been pres(;rvpd in various special works, was in-
corpomted in the Babylonian Talmud. The Hagga-
dah (plural, " Haggadot ") lost its imprirfance as an
individual branch of sfu«ly in the academies, al-
though it naturally continued to be a subject of in-
vestigation, and a portion of it also was included in

the Talmud. Occasionally the Haggadah is even
designated as a special branch, being added as a
fourth ilivision to the three already mentioned. Ha-
nina ben Pappa, an amora of the early part of the
fourth cenlury, in characterizing these four brandies
says: " The countenance should be serious and ear-
nest in teaching the Scriptures, mild and calm for
the Mishnah, briglit and lively for the Talmud,
and merry and smiling for the llaggailali '" (Pesik.
llOa; Pes. H. 101b; Tan., Yitro. ed. Buber, p. 17;
Massek. Soferim, xvi. 2). As early as the third
century Joshua ben Levi inter])rete(l Deut. ix. 10 lo
mean that the entire Law, including Mikra, Mishnah,
Talmud, and Haggadah, had been revealed to Moses
on Sinai (Yer. Pes. 17a, line 09; ^leg. 74d, 25), while
in Gen. II. Ixvi. 3 the blessings invoked in Gen.
xxvii. 28 are explained as "Mikra, Mishnah, Tal-
mud, and Haggailah." The Palestinian liaggadjst
Isaac divided these four branches into two groups:
(1) the Mikra and the Haggadah, dealing with sub-
jects of general interest ; and (2) the Mishnah and the
Talmud, "which can not hold the attention of those
who hear them " (Pesik. 101b ; see Bacher, " Ag. Pal.
Amor." ii. 211).

According to a note of Tauhumaben Abba (of the
latter part of the 4th cent.) on Cant. v. 14 (Cant. R.
ndloc), a student must be familiar with all four
branches of knowledge, Mikra, Mishnah, Halakah
(the last-named term used here instead of "Tal-
mud"), and Haggadah; while Samuel b. Judah b.
AbuD, a Palestinian amora of the same century, in-
terpreted Prov. xxviii. 11 as an allusion to the hala-
kist("man of the Talmud ") and to the haggadist
("man of the Haggadah"; Yer. Hor. 48c; see also
Pesik. 176a; Lev. H. xxi., Talmud and Haggadah).
Here ma}' be mentioned also the concluding passage
of the mishnaic treatise Abot (v., end): " At the age
of five to the Bible; at the age of ten to the Misli-
nah; at the age of fifteen to the Talmud." This is
ascribed by many to the ancient tanna Samuel lia-
Katon (see Bacher, "Ag. Tan." i. 378), although
the sequence of study which it mentions is evi-
dently that which was customary during the
amoraic period (comp. also the saying of Abaye
in Ket. 50a).

The following passages from the Babylonian Tal-
mud may likewise serve to illustrate the special
usage which finally made the word "Talmud"
current as the name of the work. Samuel, one
of the earliest Babylonian amoraim, interpreted the
words of Zech. viii. 10, "neither was there any
peace to him that went out or came in," as applying
to the restlessness of one who turns from the Tal-
mud and confines himself to the study of the Mish-
nah (Hag. 10a). Johanan, the younger Palestinian
contem])orary of Samuel, extends the allusion to
"him also who turns from one Talmud to study
another," referring here to Babli and to Yeru-
slialmi. It is very possible that he had noticed that
in the case of his numerous Babylonian i)upils the
transition from the mishnaic exegesis which they
had acquired at home to that of the Palestinian
schools was not made without disturbing their peace
of mind. Allusions to the "Talmud of Babylon"
by two prominent Babylonians who settled in Pal-
estine (Ze'era and Jeremiah) have likewise been pre-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmud

stM'ved (\i. M. Mo; Sanh 24a); and they fonfirni
Joliaiian's conception of the meaning of the term.

In babylonia the Aramaic noun " jicmar" (einpliat
ic r.tate, "freniara") was formed fiom llie vei'l) ICJ
(wliich does not occur in I'aiestinian texts), iiaviiig
llie meaning of "learn." Tiiis substantive accord-
ingly designatis that which has been
The learned, and the learning Iransnnlted

Gemara. to scholars by tradition, although it is
used also in a more restricte<l sense to
connote the traditional exposition of the Mishnah;
and it therefore gained currency as a designation of
the Talmud, In the modern editions of the Baby-
lonian Talmud the term ''Gemara" occurs very fre-
nuently in this sense; but in nearly every case it
was substituted at a later time for the objectionable
word "Talmud," which was interdicted by the cen-
sor. The only passage in Avhich "Gemara" occurs
with the meaning of "Talmud "in the strict sense
of that term and from which it was not removed by
(he censor is "Er. 32b, wliere it is used by Nahman
bar Jacob, a Babylonian amora of the second half of
the thini century. For further details see Bacher,
"Gemara," in "Ilebrew Union College Annual," pp.
26-36, Cincinnati, 1904, where the word is shown
to have been used for "Tafmud " from the geonic
period (see also idem, "Die Terminologie der Amo-
T&eT," pp.'iletseq., Leipsic, 1905). The later editions
of the Talmud frequently substitute for tlie word
" Gemara " the abbreviation D'CJ' (Aramaic, mO Nnc^'
=:"the six orders of the Mishnah"), winch has
come to be, with the pronunciation "Shas," a
popular designation for the Bal)y Ionian Talmud.

Here may be mentioned the term "Shem'ata"
(XnyDLJ'). which was used in Babylonia to designate
the halakic portion of the Talmud, and which was
thus contrasted with "Haggadah" (.see Hag. 26a;
Sotah 20a; Sanh. 3Hb; comp. also M. K. 23a, wliere
"Shemu'ah," the Ilebrew form, occurs in a baraita).
In the tenth century this word was used in Moham-
medan circles to designate Jewish tradition as well
as its chief source, the Talmud; so that Mas'udi refers
to Saadia Gaon as an "ashma'ti "(i.e., a believer
in the tradition), using this term in contrast to "Ka-
raite" (see Pinsker, " Likkute Kadmoniyyot," i. 5).
A "Kitab al-Aslima'ah" {i.e., "Talmud") is also
mentioned ("Z. D. M. G." Iviii. 659).

The theorem that the Talmud was the latest devel-
opment of traditional science has been demon-
strated by this discussion of the meaning and the
u.se of the word itself. The Talmud accordingly
dates from the time following the final redaction of
the Mishnah; and it was taught in the academy of
Judah I. as the commentary on the tannaitic Hala-
kah. The editorial activity which, from the mass of
halakic material that had accumulated since Akiba's
Mishnah, crystallized the Talmud in accordance with
the systematic order introduced by that teacher, im-
plied the interpretation and critical examination of
the Halakah, and was, therefore, analogous to Tal-
nuidic methodology.

There were, likewise, many elements of tannaitic
tradition, especially tlie midrashic exegesis of the
Bible, as well as numerous halakic interpretations,
lexicographical and material, which were ready
for incorporation into the Talmud in its more re-

stricted meaning of the interpretation of the^Iishnah
of Judah I. When this .Mishnah became the stand-
ard halakic work, both as a source for decisions of
(|uestions of religious law, and, even more espe-
cially, as a subject of study in (he acadennes, the
Talmud interpretation of the niishnaic text, both in
theory and in practise, naturall}' became the most
inijiortant brancii of study, and included the other
branches of traditional science, being derived from
the Halakah and the ]Midrash (halakic exegesis),
and also including haggadic material, though to
a minor degree. The Talmud, however, was not
an independent work; and it was this characteristic
which constituted the chief ditTerence between it and
the earlier subjects of study of the tannaitic jjcriod.
It had no form of its own, since it served as a run-
ning connnentary on the mishnaic text; and this
fact determined the character which the work ulti-
mately assumed.

The Talmud is practically a mere amjilification of

the Mishnah by manifold comments and additions;

so that even those portions of the Mishnah which

liave no Talmud are regarded as cc:..-

Relation ponent parts of it and are accordingly
to included in the editions of Babli. The

Mishnah. history of the origin of the Talmud is
the same as that of the Mishnah — a
tradition, transmitted orally for centuries, was finally
cast into detlnite literary form, althougii from the
moment in which the Talmud became the chief
subject of study in the academies it had a double
existence, and was accordingly, in its final stage,
redacted in two different forms. The INIishnah of
Judah I. was adopted simultaneously in Babylon
and Palestine as the halakic collection par excel-
lence; and at the same time the development of the
Talmud was begun both at Sepphoris, where the
Mishnah was redacted, and at Nehardea and Sura,
where Judah's pupils Samuel and Rab engaged in
their epoch-making work. The academies of Baby-
lon and of Palestine alike regarded the study of the
Mishnah and its interpretation as their chief task.
The Amoraim, as the directors and members of these
academies were called (see Amora), became the
originators of the Talmud; and its final redaction
marked the end of theamoraic times in the same way
that the period of the Tannaim was concluded by
the compilation of the Mishnah of Judah I. Like
the Mishnah, the Talmud was not the work of one
author or of several authors, but was the result of
the collective labors of many successive generations,
whose toil finally resulted in a book unique in its
mode of development.

Before entering into any discussion of the origin
and peculiar form of the Talnuid, the two recensions
of the work itself may be brietly described. The
general designation of the Palestinian Talmud as
"Talnmd Yerushalmi," or simply as " Yerushalmi."
is precisely analogous to that of the Palestinian
Targum. The term originated in the geonic period,
when, however, the work received also the more
precise designations of "Talmud of Palestine.**
"Talmud_of the Land of Israel," "Talmud of the
West." and " Talnuid of the Western Lands." Yeru-
shalmi has not been preserved in its entirety; large
portions of it were entirely lost at an early date.

Talmud

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

while other parts exist only in fragments. The editio
princeps(eil. Bomberg, Veuici', l5'2S((sfg.), on which
Jill later editions are based, terminates with tlie fol-
Jowing remark: "Thus far we have found what is
contained in this Talmud; and we have endeavored
in vain to obtain the missing portions." Of the four
manuscripts used for this tirst edition (comp. tlie
note at the conclusion of Shab. xx. 17il and the
passage just cited), only one is now in existence; it
is preserved in the library of the Univtrsity of
Lcyden (see below). Of the six orders of the Mish-
nah, thelifth, Kodashim, is missing entirely from the
Paltstiniau Talmud, while of the sixth, Tohorot, it
contains only the fii-st three chapters
The (if the treatise Niddah (iv. 48d-r)lb).

J*alestinian Tiie treatises of the orders of the
Talmud. Mishnah are arranged in the fol-
lowing se<iuence in this Talmud; the
pagination also is given here, in parentheses, to
indicate the length of the several treatises:

the treatise Niddah ends abruptly after the first lines
of ch. iv.

Maimonides expressly states in the introduction to
liis commentary on the Mishnah that in his time
Yerushalmi was extant for the entire first five orders
(comp. Abraham ibn Daud. ed. Xeubuuer, " M. .1.
C." i. 57); therefore he must have seen the Yeru-
shalmi of the order Kodashim, although he himself
does not quote it in his commentary on this order
(see FranUel, "^lebo," p. 45b). Except for the
treatise Niddali, on the other hand, there was, ac-
cording to Maimonides (Lc), no Yenislialmi for the
sixth order. A South-Arabian work of tiie fifteenth
century, liowever, quotes the Gemara "on 'Uk/in in
the Gemara of the people of Jerusalem," wiiich is
said to contain a pas.sage on the zodiac (see Stein-
schneider, "Catalog der Ilebrilischen ilandschriften
dcr KOnigliciien Bibliothek zu Berlin." p. Gl, Berlin,
lyTS). The author of this (juotation, tiierelore, knew
Yerushalmi for the last treatise of the sixth order.

.•,;-;",'<r*.'?3^^3*^ K*" w "^3 ^'^ rz "^ 'n
s»frY^-iir"^"'urrTr»^'^ "'*': ■••■(in n

J^»3 -^Jf^ ^^^Tn TV^yS/Q V,. ;^,^^^
*^n rjhtfljw TT^jTi;^ r:^yK^ -^a-Ofivoi

A Ma.MSCRIPT ok TllK JKKLsALLM TaLMU)
(From the C«lro Genlzah.)

I. Zera'im: It^rakot (2a-U(l): Pe'ah (l.'>a-21h); Demal (21c-
asri: Kl'luviriiCiJ.J-.'CJil); shcbrit COa-SIM): Terumot (40a-4«b);
Maa-wnit Ht't-rCnr, Ma'a.ser .Shcnl ( .i.'b-5«<l ) ; Hallah (STa-OOb);
•orlali lUk-tvfi,,: Blkkurlrn <»i:Jc 0;kI).

II. Mo'ed: siiiil)l>at iii-l»<a»; 'Krubln (18a-28U); Pesahim
(27a :r.li: Vntiia <:i*a-4.V): Shekiilitn <4V-.51bt; Siikkah (Slc-
55<1»; HtmU lia-Shanah i.'i»Ja-.'>iV|): Bf/ah ('>'M\-*m»: Ta'anit (ftjc-
eeri; Mttfilluh i69d-7.xl(: Hajflgali (75a-7«d); Mo'ed Katan
(»jb-«:vi..

III. Naahim: V^bamot (2a-l.')a); Sotah (1.5a-24r); KetiilxH
(24r .Win; .N.-.larlin (.Kc-tM); (iltjln «:Ja-50dr, Nazir (.51a-.Va);
Kid<tii><liin '■ii*H (iUti).

IV. Nezikin: Kaba l>amina (2a-7c); Baba .Mezl'a (7c-13c);
BafMi Balru ilil-lT.li; SanMclrtn (17<1 rtflr-); Makk'ol (30d-:J2b);
Sh<'bu'..t (CJc-'Wi,; '.ANHlHhZanih (:fl»a-l."»b); Horavnt (4.V- .tlSc)'

VI. Tohorot: Nlddab (4^d-.jlb).

In ordr-r ii. the last four chapters of Shabbat are
mis.singfrom the Palestinian Taimu<l. while the trea-
tise .Shekalim has been incorporated intft the editions
of the Babylonian Tahnud fmm Yerushalmi, and is
found also in a Munich manuscript of Babli. ki
order iv. the treatises Abot and "Eduyot are mi.ssing
in both Talmudinj. and the concluding chapter of
Makkot is wanting in Yerushalmi.- In order vi.

although it is possible that the passage quoted may
have been in the lost portion of the treatise Niddah,
and that the name "'Ukzin" may have been used
instead of "Tohorot." For further details on the
missing sections of Ycrushahni see Frankel, I.e. pp.
45a et i<eq.\ Weiss, "Dor," iii. 232; Buber. in Ber-
liner's " Magazin," V. 100-105; andStrack, "Einlei-
tuugin den Tahnud," pp. 03-65. The mi.shnaic text
on wiiich the Palestinian Talmud is based has been
preserved in its entirety in a manuscript belonging
to the library of the University of Cambridge, and
has been edited by W. II. Lowe ("The MLshnah on
Which the Palestinian Talmud Rests," Cambridge,
1H83).

The Palestinian Talmud is so arranged in tlie edi-
tions that each chapter is preceded by its entire
mishnaic text with the paragraphs numbered, this
being followed by the T;ilmiid on tiic several para-
graphs. In the first seven chapters of Berakot the
paragraphs are designated as "First ISIislmah"
( X '':nO), "Second Mishnah," etc. ; while in the re-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmud

niiiiniiiij cliapters and all the other treatises the
j)itiagrai)hs are tcriiicd " haiakot " ( K n^^H). In the
early chapters the nnshiiai(; text of each jiaragraph
is reiK'ated I'ntiie in the Tainuul at the beginning of
the j)arafi;raph ; l)iit later only the first words are
prefaced to the Tainiudic text. Even in cases
where tiiere is no Talmud the designation of the
I)ara.i;rapli and the beginning of the niishnaic text
are given. The editio jjrinceps seems to have bor-
rowed this arrangement from the manuscripts, al-
though the system is much more simple in the frag-
ment of Yeruslialmi edited by T'aul von Kokowzolf
in the " Memoires de la tiociete ArcheoiogicpU! de
St. Petcrsbourg" (xi. 195-205), which contains some
paragrajilis of the sixth and eighth chapters of I5al)a
Kannna. This fragment begins wilii the concluding
lines of the Talmudic text of ch. v. ; but between
them and the beginning of ch. vi. tlu; Mishnah is
lacking, so that the superscription, "Ciiai)ter vi.,"
is followed immediately by the Talnuulic text.
There is no reference to the ix'ginning of the para-
graph, either in the first or in the suc<'eeding para-
graphs; nor is there any explanation of the fact that
paragraphs 4 and 7 of ch. viii. have no Talmud. It
is clear, therefore, that tin; manuscript to which this
fragment belonged contained only the Talmudic
text, thus i)resupposing the use of a special copy
of the ]\Iishnah. It is likewise noteworthy that in
the first two chapters of Berakot the sections of the
Talmudic text on some of the paragraphs are desig-
nated in the editions b}' the word "i)iska" (section),
a term found occasionally also in other

The Style portions of the text of Yeruslialmi.
of the Ye- The style of Yerushalmi may be

rushalmi. indicated by a brief analysis of a few
sections, such as Ber. i. 1 ; R. II. i. 1,
2; Git. ii. 1; and B. B. i. 6.

Ber. i. 1 : The text of this paragraph, which
begins the Mishnah, is as follows:

" During what time in ttie evening is the reading of the 'She-
ina' ' t)egiin ? From the time when the priests go in to eat their
leaven [see Lev. xxii. 7] until the end of the first watch of the
night, such being the words of R. Eliezer. The sages, however,
say until midnight, though R.Gamaliel says until the coming
of the dawn."

The Talmud on this paragraph (2a, h'ne 34-3a, line
3) contains three sections, which correspond to the
three opinions and the contents of which are as fol-
lows: (1) A citation, from a baraita, of another
tannaitic regulation defining the Mishnah that
governs the reading of the "Shema'" in the eve-
ning; two sayings of Jose (a Palestinian amora of
the 4th cent.), .serving to elucidate the baraita (2a,
84-45). Remarks on the position of one who is in
doubt whether he has read the "Shema'," with
analogous cases, according to Jeremiali, who.se views
were transnntted by Ze'era II. (4th cent.), the first
case being decided according to the baraita already
mentioned (2a, 45-2b, 4). Another passage from the
baraita, designating the appearance of the stars as
an indication of the time in question; explanation
of this baraita by Abba bar Pappai (transmittei-,
Phinehas; both of the 4th cent.); other passages
on the appearance of the stars as bearing on the rit-
ual, together with a dialectic explanation by Jose b.
Abiu (second half of the 4th cent.) and a saying by

.hidah b. Pazzi (2b, 5-31). A baraita on the division
between day and night, and other passages bearing
on tile same suliject {ih. lines 31-41*. The meaning
of " ben iiashemashot " (twilight), and an answer
by Tanhuma b. Abba (latter part of the 4tli cent.),
together with another solution given by a baraita
{ib. lilies 41-46). Discussion of this baraita by Aha
and Jo.se (4th cent.); reference by Maiii to a question
dealing with this subject whicli liead(iressed to Hez-
ekiah of Ca.sarea (4ili cent.) fr()ni Mishnah Zab. i. 6,
and the answer of the latter (2b, 46-2c, 9). Anioraic
sayings and a baraita on the beginning of the day (/A.
lines 9-20). A sentence of tannaitic origin in no
way related to the preceding matters: "One who
])rays standing must hold his feet straight," and the
controversy on tills subject between Levi and .Simon
(3d cent.), the one adding, "like the angels," and
the other, "like the priests"; comments on tlie.se
two comparisons (2c, 20-31). Further discussion
regarding the beginning of the day, introduced by
a saying of I;Ianina's(3dcent.); haggadic statements
concerning the dawn ; a conversation between Hiyya
the Elder and Simeon b. Halafta (latter part of the
tannaitic period); cosmological comments: dimen-
sions of the firmament, and the cosmic distances ex-
pressed in units of 50 and 500 j'ears, together with
similar haggadic material, chiefly tannaitic in ori-
gin; Haggadic sayings on Gen. i. 6, introduced by
a saying of Abin's (4th cent.), and including sayings
by Rab, Judah b. Pazzi, and Hanina;
Examples. Haggadic material on Isa. xl. 22, in-
troduced by a controversy between
Johanan and Simeon b. Lakish (3d cent.), and on
Gen. ii. 4 (2c, 31-2d, 11). On the second part of the
first niishnaic sentence; the views of Judah I. and
Nathan on the number of the night-watches, and an
exegetic discu.ssion of them, with an allusion to Ps.
cxix. 62 ("at midnight"), as well as haggadic mate-
rial concerning David and his harp, with csjiccial
reference to Ps. Ivii. 9 (2d, 11-44).

(2) Assi in the name of Johanan: "The ruling of
the sages [" until midnight "] is the valid one, and
forms the basis for the counsel given by Jose f4th
cent.] to the members of the acadeni}' " (ib. lines
45-48). Baraita on the reading of the "Shema' " in
the synagogue; a question bearing on this matter,
and Iluna's answer in the name of the Babylonian
amora Joseph {ih. lines 48-52), an illustration being
given in an anecdote regarding Samuel b. Nahman,
together with a haggadic saying by him {ib. lines
52-58). A contradictory view by Joslma b. Levi,
together with pertinent haggadic sjiyings to the
effect that the "Shemoneh "Esreh" must follow im-
mediately the after-benediction of the "Shema""
(ib. lines 59-73).

(3) R. Gamaliel's view compared with an anal-
ogous opinion of Simeon b. Yohai, together with a
question which remains unanswered (2d, 74-3a, 3).

R. H. i. 1,2: These two ]iaragraiilis. which are
combined into one in Babli, deal with the commence-
ment of the four seasons (new years): Nisan 1, Elul
1, Tishri 1, and Shebat 1 (or !>)). The Talmud on
jMr. 1 is found in 56a, 44-56tl, 52, and that on par.
2 in 56d, 52-57a, 30.

Talmud on )iar. 1 : (a) The " new year of the kings."
Exegetic deductions and elucidations, beginning

Talmud

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

with tlie interpretation of Ex. xii. 1 ; Joluuians ex-
phiuation of Jl Cliron. iii. 2; u controversy between
Hananialj ami Muni niriiriling the same verse; an
explanation by Aha of Ex. xii. 1 ; a baraita l>y
Samuel on the same ver.«y.'; and similar material
{'>Qa. 44-56b. 10). Haniuas sayini: that even the
years of Gentile kings were dated from Ni.'^iui. and
the contirniai ion thereof by Biblical passjiges from
Haggai and Zechariah. together with the conlradict-
orv view of the liabylonian amora 'Efa or Hefa;
remarks and objections by Jonah and Isaac (oGb,
10-29). Jonah on the pmctical importance of the
new year fur dating business documents (//'. lines
29-xi3j. On the now year in the chronology of tlie
kings of Israel and Jiidah, together with an inter-
pn-tation of I Kings ii. 11, and several haggadic
pa.<isages referring to David (///. lines 33-52).

(b) TJie " new year of the feasts." Statement that
according ti> Simeon b. Yohai Nisan 1 marks the be-
ginning of the year for the sequence of the feasts;
a tnnnaitic midrash of considerable length on Lev.
xxiii. 1)8. and a reply by Ela (4tli cent.) to a ques-
tion bearing on this matter; additional remarks and
objections by amoraim of the fourth century, to-
gether with the citation of a .saying by the scholars
"of that place" ('■«•. Babylonia; oGb, 52-r)Gc, 15);
various discussions on kindred subjects, especially
those whose content involved halakic exegesis (56c,
15-5Gtl. 14).

(r) The "new year for tithes of cattle," declared
by ileir to be Elul 1. Proof by the Babylonian
amora Huna, who deduced an opposing view from
Ps. Ixv. 14; the relation betv»een Ben 'A/.zai, who
is mentioned in a baraita l)el()nging to this passage,
and Akiba (I'fj. lines 14-33^; interpretation of Misli-
nah Bek. vii. 7 as being analogous in content; a
citation by Mani of a halakic exegesis by his father,
Jonah (ib. lines 33-52).

Talmud on par. 2: (n) Tisliri 1, the "new year
for the counting of the years." Deductions from
Biblical passages; discussion on the subject be-
tween Jonah and the members of the college; Jo-
nah's quotation of Hauina's saying on the names of
the months, and a saying of Simeon b. Lakish on
the names of the angels (56d, 52-77). (h) The " new-
year for tiie Sabbatical years and tlic years of jubi-
lee." Biblical inference (56d, 77-57a, 2). (r) The
"new year for the jilanting of trees." Explana-
tion and exegetical deduction {ib. lines 3-14).
(rf) The "new year for vegetables." Elucidation
and discussion {i/j. lines 14-23). (<>) The "now year
for trees," lliis section being supplemented by an
example from a tunnaitic account of Akiba's prac-
tise, with explanations (»7a lines 23-30).

(i\\. ii. 1 : InachMpuite attestation of the prepara-
tion of a bill of divorce. The Talmud on the pas-
sage (44a. 34-71); a specim case in the Mishnah
sliown to contain the opinion of Judah b. Ilai (ib.
lines 34-40); two casuistic questions by Jose and
the Ba!)yloiiian amora Hisda. ati<l the

Further answers furnished by the .Misiuiah {ib.
Examples, lines 40-50); a more detailed discus-
sion of another question of similar
content, witii reference to a controversy between
Johanan and Simeon b. Lakish. together with
notes thereon l)y Amrni and Zecra and a discus-

.sion concluding with a comment by Mani {il>. lines
50-71).

B. B. i. 6: (<() A short exegetic proof by Ela, based
im Prov. xviii. 11 (12d, 71 ct scrj.). (li) A baraita
dealing with aiial(»gous matter, together with a re-
mark by Jose b. Abin {ib. lines 72-75).

Although this analysis of the contents of four
parts of Yeruslialiui gives iioade(|uate idea of the
structure of tiie entire work, it will serve to show
the dilTerenee between its several parts in regard
both to their length and to their amplilica-
tions of the simple explanations of the Mishnah.
A coini)arison of the portions of the Palestinian
Talmuil here summarized with the corresponding
sections of Babli, as given below, is especially in-
structive.

Yerushalnii, when regarded as a work of litera-
ture, is noteworthy for a textual peculiarity which
is characteristic of it, though found also in Babli,
namely, the large number of literal repetitions.
Entire passages, sometimes whole colunuis, of the
Talmud are found in two, occasion;dly in three,
separate treatises, in which tiiey di Her from each
other by mere variants, most of them due to cor-
ruptions of the text. These repetitions throw some
light on the redaction of the TalnuHlic text, since
they prove that before the editing of the treatises was
undertaken a uniform mass of material was already at
hand in a definitely revised form ; they likewise show
that in the compilation of the Talmud one portion
was explained by another, as was natural in view
of the character of the contents. The opportunity
was gladly seized, moreover, to repeat didactic ma-
terial in passages Avhere it did not
Passages strictly belong. These repetitions are
Repeated. ol)viously of great value in the textual
criticism of the Talmud. Since sulH-
cient attention has never yet been paid to this phe-
nomenon of Yerushalnii, a list is here given of those
passages of the first order, Zera'im, which are re-
peated in other orders. It must be noted, however,
that this list includes neither citations based on pas-
sages of another treatise nor parallel passages con-
sisting of a single sentence.

('/) Passages from the order i. repeated in the
order ii. :

Ber. 31), lines 10-,-».5 = Shab. :5a. m-.Mn, 20. Ber. 4a, :30 .")6 =
Shek. 4Ta, 13-.")!t = M. K. SJc, 4<l S.'Jd, S. Ber. .5a, :«-()2 = M. K.
H2b. 14-47. Ber. .VJ, 14-20 = Shab. :{;!. r>.5-<)l. Ber. .>!. (i.">-6a, 9 =
M. K. H.3a, r>-27. Ber. 6c, 4 17 = Yoiiia 44(i. "kS-CS. Her. 6U, CO-
OT - Mep. 7:jfl, 1.5-22. Ber. Tb, 70 7d, 2.5 ^ Ta'an. 67c 12-67tl, 47.
Ber. 7d, 7.5-8a, 59 = Ta'an. 6.5c, 2-69. Ber. 8c, 00-69 = R. H. r)9d,
10-2,5. Ber. 9a, 70-9b, 47 = Ta'an. C3c, 06-63(1, 44. Ber. 9<-, 20-31
= Mejr. 7.5c, 8-19. Ber. 9c. 49-.54 = Meg. 75b, 31-3r,. Iter. 10a,
32-43 == Pes. 29c-, 10 2r. Ber. lie, 14-21 = Pes. 37c. 54-71. Ber.
12c, 16-25 = 'Er. 22b, 29-37. Her. 12c, 44-fi2 - Suk. 24a, fr-21 =
.Meg. 72a, 1.5-31. Her. 13(1. 72-14a, 30= Ta'an. 04a. 75 04b, a5.
Pe'ah 1.5rt, 07 15b, 21 = Hag. 70b, 2t 53. Pe'ah 17a, 3!t-72 = Hag.
76b, 13-47. Pe'ah 18d, 10-:i;5 - Shek. 40a, 48 <i7. Pe'ah 18d,' 00-
19a. 5 = Shelj. 48c, 75 4H.1, 13. Pe'ali 21a, 25-.'.'9 = Shek. 48d, .55-
5;->. Deni. 22a. 31-40= Slick. 4Sd, 41) 49. Kil. 2i)h. 27' 61 = 'Er.
19c, 15-49 = Silk. .52a, 4f)-7:{.' Kil. 29b, 62-76 = Suk. .52a, 73-.52b, II.
Sheb. 34c, 27-49 = M. K. 80b, 26-.52. Sheb. .38a. .50 60 = Shab. :3c,
5.5-&5. Ter. 44a, 32 ;58 = .Shab. 44(1. 4-10. Ter. 4.5(i, 42-51 = Shab.
3d, 2-15 (coinp. '.\b. Zarah 41d, 13-28). Ter. 40a. 41 46b, 3:5 =
Pes. 28a. :J4-28b, ,37. Ma'a.s. 49a. 22-28 = Suk. .5.3d, 43 :>;!. Ma'as.
49h. 14-:-t2 = Shab. 6b. 17-36. Ma'as. 49b. 39-48 = Hezah 02b, 72-
02c. 0. Ma'as. Sh. .5.3b, 0-44 = Yoina 45c. 2-.3<) (comp. Shebii. 32b.
.56 31c. 3). Ma'as. Sh. .54h. iH-'iS = .«hek. 51b. 1.5-2.5. Ma'as. Sh.
.Vki.2;; .55 = 'Er. 24c, 3:H)6. Ma'as. Sh.' .55.1. 62-07 =: M. K. 80b,
7^80c. 10. Hal. .57c. 16-20 = R. H. .57b. 00 03.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmud

(h) l^iissiigcs from the order i. rcpoatpd in tlif
oitlor iii. :

Her. (Ja, ;r> Ch, 17 = Naz. 5fla, 12-68. Ber.Ob. 51-56 - Kid. Glc.
U-ir. Ber. i)(l, ;M!)= Git. 47h, wm. Ber. Ill), 42-GH = Niiz.
i)lb.-~-2:. Ber. 141), 4r)-7()'=: Sotah -tic. 10 ti4. I'e'uti 15b, 41-47
= Ket. :Kc, 10 Hi. I'f'ali IV, 7-1(1 = Kid. tilii, 75-lilc, 10. Dcili.
XVib, G()-25c, 7 = Kid. Ii:!a, 75 -Wb, »'l. Kil. IWa, 04-:J~'d, 7 = Ket.
:U(1, 74-;i.5b, r*. Stu-l). ailU. 25-«H= Kid. tile, 5(>-61d, 17. Ter.
4l)c, 4:.'-4(hi, 6 - Yeb. i:!c. 7l)-i;5d, 32. Tit. 42b, 44-:5.3 == Naz. .");3d,
16 27. 'I'er. 44c. 9-44(1, 44 = Ket. 27b. 5 27(', :«!. Ma'as. Sli. 55a,
6'J-;V)b, 13 = Git. 47d, 55-70. 'Orlall 61b, 8-33= Naz. 5.5f. 32-03.
Bik. 64a. 32-44 = Yeb. 9b, 71-9<-, 8.

(f) P!issai,a'S from tlu; ordi'i- i. repeated in tiic
order iv. :

Ber. 3a, 52-69 = Sanb. 30a, C5-30b, 8 = 'Ab. Zarali 41c, 4ii-i;:i.
V.er. 61), 20 41 = Sanli. 20a, 43 tiO. Pe'ah 161), 22-25, 43-<)0 = Sanli.
2rc, 3S-60. Slieb. ;)5b, 26-40 = 'Ab. Zarali 44b, 27-41. Slieb. 39b,
14-38= Mak. 31a, 33-50. Ter. 4^)C, 24-4.5d, U = "All. Zarab 41a,
is-41b, 3. Ter. 47c, 66 47d, 4='Ab. Zarab 41c, 13 23. Ma'as.
Sli. 54d. 71-5")a, 8 = Sanli. 19a, 63-76. Ma'as. Sb. 56c, 9-18 =
Sanh. 18d, 13-22. "Orlab 62b, 49-62c, 10=:'Ab. Zarab 45a, 32-
«b, 10.

The following parallel i)assa,i;es from the second and
fourth orders ma}' also be mentioned on aeeount of
their length: Shah. 9c, G2-9d, 59 = Sauh. 24c, 19-
24d, 14;'shal). 14d, lO-loa. 1 = 'Ah. Zarah 40d,
12-4 la, 4.

Despite tliose parallel passages in the four onlers
of Yerusiialmi, which nnght be regarded as a proof
of the uniform redaction of the entire work, there
is proof to the contrary, which shows that the first
two orders dill'er in oiigin from the third and
fourth. While the (irst and second contain a laige
number of baraitot witii the introductor}' formula
"Samuel ti'ansmits li^XIOC' ''Jn]." there is not a single
baiaita by Samuel in the third uud fourth oiders.
These latter two include, on the other hand, many
controvei'sies between JNIani and Abin, two amoraim
of the second half of the fourth century, while Ze-
ra'im and Mo'cd contain very few (see Bacher, "Ag.
Pal. Amor." iii. 398). The redaction of Yerushalmi
is discussed in further detail below.

The haggadic portions of Yerushalmi arc also
cliaructeristic of its style. As in Babli, they fre-
(juenlly have only a slight bearing, sometimes none
at all, on the subject of the mishuaic section and its
Talmudic interpretation, being added to the pas-
sages iu which they are found either because they
were mentioned in the academy on account of some
subject undei' discussion, or because, in the process
of the redaction of the treatise, this haggadic mate-
rial, which was valued for some spe-
The Hag-- cial reason, seemed to tit into the Tal-
g-adot of mudic te.xt at the passage in(iuestion.
the Ye- Many haggadic portions of Yerushal-
rushalmi. mi are likewise found almost word for
word in the earlier works of Pales-
tinian midrasiiic literature, especially in Genesis
I'abbah, Leviticus Kabbah, Pesikta di-Hab Kahana,
I'^kali (Lamentations) Kabbati, and Alidrash She-
nuicl. These parallel passages do not always prove
actual boiTowing; for the same earlier source may
have been used in the redaction both of Yerushalmi
and of the midrashic works. The haggadot of the
Palestinian Talmud were collected and annotated by
Sanuiel ben Isaac .Taffe Ashkena/i in his "Ycfeh
Mar 'eh " (Venice, 1589), and they were translated
into German by Wunsche(" Der Jerusalemische Tal

mud in Seinen Ilaggadischen Bestandtheilcn," Zu-
rich, 1880).

Linguistically, the Palestinian Talmud is Aramaic,
in so far as its framewoik (like the elucidations of
the mishnaic te.\t by the memi)ers of the academies
and the amoraic discussions connected witii them)
is I'edacted in that language; the greater portion of
the terminology is in like manner Aramaic. The
same dialect is employed in general lor the nar-
rative sections, including both the haggadot and
the accounts of the lives of the sages and their
pupils. The Ai'amaic portion conse(iuently com-
prises all that is popular in origin or content. The
Hebrew sections, on the other hand, include the
halakic sayings of the Taniiaim, the citations fi'om
the collections of baraitot, and many of the amoraic
di.scussions based on the tannaitic tradition, together
with other sayings of the Amoi-aim. This linguistic
usage is due to the fact that both in Palestine and in
Babylon the Halakah was for the most part elucida-
ted and e.\ [landed by the Amoiaiiu themselves in the
language in which it had been transmitted by the
Tannaim. In the academy the Hebrew of the Itlish-
nah held its place side by side with the Aramaic, thus
giving to the latter a certain coloring, especially
from a lexicographic point of view. Hebrew was
retained in great measure also in the amoraic Hag-
gadah. The Aramaic, which assumed a ti.Ked liter-
ary form in Yerushalmi, is almost the same as that
of the earlier Palestinian midi'ashic works, dilfering
from them only in a few peculiarities, mostly ortho-
graphic. This idioiu, together with that of the
Palestinian Targum on the Pentateuch, has been
analyzed in G. Dalman's " Grammatik des Jiidisch-
Palastinischen Aramaisch" (Leipsic, 1894; 2 ed,
1905).

The first complete edition of the Babylonian Tal-
mud ('^31 Tltt^D) was printed at Venice, 1520-23,
by Daniel Bomberg, and has become the basis, down

to the present day, of a very large

Editions of number of editions, including that of

the Babli. Basel, 1578-81, which, with thechanges

and omissions made by the censor, ev-
erted a powerful influence on later te.xts until the
edition of Frankfort-onthe-.Main, 1720-22. with
its additions, became the model of all subsequent,
editions of the Talmud (see below). The e.xternal
form of Babli was determined by the editio princeps.
While the first edition of Yerushalnu. in its two
columns on each folio page, contains only the te.xt,
the editio princeps of Babli adds the commentary
of Hashi on one maigin and the tosafot on the other,
together with kindred matter. Especially note-
worthy is the fact that the tirst edition of Babli has
a pagination which has been retained in all subse-
quent editions, thus rendering it possible to (|Uote
passages with exactness, and to find citations readily.
The mishnaic treatises which have no Babylonian
Talmud arc included in the editions of the Tal-
mud, together with commentaries, and these same
tractates are likewise found in the only complete
manuscript of Babli (that at Munich), where they
form an appendix, although they precede the post-
Talmudic treatises, which are likewise contained in
the editions. It has been noted above that the edi-
tions of Babli contain the Yerushalmi for the treatise

Talmud

THE JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA

Shekalim; and this is also the cast- in the Munich
manuscript.

The following list gives the names of the treatises
of Babli which have been iireserved. together with
the sequence generally followed in the editions, and
the number of folios in each tractate, the pagination
always beginning with fol. 2. Of the 570 leaves of
the Munich ccxlex. containing about eighty lines to
a page. 490 belong to Babli ; this gives an approx-
imate idea of the size of this Talmud. The amount
of te.xt on each page of the editions, however, varies
greatly on account of the varying length of the com-
mentary of Hashi and the tosafot which accompany
it; but the number of li-aves shows the comparative
lengths of the several treatises.

I. Zera'im: Berakot (64).

II. Mo'ed: StmblmUl.JTi; 'F.rubln (105); Pesahim (121); Be-
jab(iO»; Hiijfitrali '-*^': Mo"e*l KiHan (29); Uosh ha-Shanah (35);
Voma iSSi; SiikWab (56); Ta'anit (31i; MeKillah (32).

III. Nashim: Yebamot (122); Ketubot (112); Kiddushin
(82); (iittin Hi : Nedarim (91); Nazir (66); Sotah (49).

IV. Nezlkin: Uaha Kaiiinia (119); IJaba Mezi'a (119); Baba
Batra I ITf. ;■ -.KlKKlah Zarali (76); SanUedrin (113); Shebu'ot
(49i; Makk.n i24i; Horayot (14).

v. Kodasbim; Zebahim (120); Menahot (110); Bekorot
(leicHullin il42i; '.\rak'in (34); Temurah (34); Keritot (28);
Me'llah '2','': TainiJ (9).

VI. Tohorot: Nlddah (73).

Babli thus contains but one treatise each of the

first and sixth orders; of the second, Shekalim (see

above) is lacking ; and there is no Talmud on 'Eduyot

or Abot either in Babli or Yerushalmi. The fifth

order of Babli contains neither Middot

Missing nor Kinuim, nor the third, fifth, sixth,

Gemaras. and seventh chapters of Tamid. It is
incorrect, however, to speak of miss-
ing portions of the Babylonian Talmud, since in all
probability the sections which it omits were en-
tirely disregarded in the final redaction of the work,
and were consequently never committed to writing
(for a divergent opinion see Weiss, "Dor," iii. 271).
It will be shown further on that the mishnaic trea-
tises lacking in iiabli were subjects of study in the
Babylonian academies.

In the editions the Babylonian Talmud is so ar-
ranged that each paragraph of the Mishnah is fol-
lowed by the pf)rtion of the Talmud which forms
the commentary on it; the portions are frequently
divided into sections, rubricked by the successive
sentences of the mishniiic i)aragrapli on which they
are based, althougluui entire paragraph occasionally
serves as a single text. Thus Babli on Ket. ii. 1
(16a-18bj is divided into six sections; but there is no
division into sections for ii. 2(lbb-20b), ii. a (20b-
22a). ii. 5 (23b). and ii. 9 (27b-28a). There are three
sections for ii. 4 (23a); two for ii. 6 (23b-26a), ii. 7
(26»>-27a), and ii. 8 (27a, b); and eight for ii. 10
(28a, b). In the Munich codex, which is based on a
manuscript of the middle of the ninth century (see
Lewy in " Breslauer .Iahresl)ericht." 19(J5, p. 28), the
text of the entire chapter of the Mishnah is Avritten
in large characters on the inner portion of the page,
8e[)aratiil from the Talinudic text, which is in a
diffrrent script. In the fragments in the Bodleian
Library, Oxfonl, written in 1123 and containing a
portionof the treatise Keritot(sce "J. Q, K." ix. 145),
each chapter is headed by the entire mishnaic text on
which it is based. Then follow the sections of the

Talmud, each beginning with the word 'jno and
the first part of the mishnaic paragraph in question,
although some sections' are marked by the super-
scription 'D'D (= NpD'D). The superscription N1DJ.
which in the editions marks the beginning of the
Talmud on each jtaragraphof the ]^Iishnali, is found
neither in the Munich codex nor in the Bodleian
fragments. Most of the manuscripts containing one
or more treatises of Babli, and described by R. N.
Rabbinovicz in the introductions to vols, i., i v., viii.,
ix., and xi. of his "Dikduke Soferim," are so ar-
ranged that the entire mishnaic text is placed at the
beginning of the chapter; and this is also occasion-
ally the case in the editions, as in the first chapter
of the treatise Sanhedrin. In a St. Petersburg man-
uscript said to date from 1112 the paragraphs are
repeated in their proper places {ib. viii. 3). A number
of codices in the Vatican Libiary are arraug(;d partly
in the one way and partly in the other (xi. 13, 15,
17, 18), while the system adopted in the printed
texts occurs in manuscripts also (see tb. iv. 6. 8; xi.
20). It may be mentioned as a curious circumstance
that in one manuscript of the Vatican {ib. xi. 19),
containing the treatise Pesahim, many passages are
vocalized and accented, as is also the case in a Bod-
leian fragmentof Yerushalmi on Berakot(" J. Q. R."
ix. 150). A fragment of considerable length in the
Cambridge Library, and possibly the earliest extant
manuscript of Babli, also contains the treatise
Pesahim; it has been edited by Lowe ("The Frag-
ment of Talmud Babli of the Ninth or Tenth Cen-
tury," Cambridge, 1879); and in its
Earliest four folios it includes the text of fols.
Manuscript 7a, below -Da, middle, and 13a, below
of -16a, above, of the editions. The

the Babli. pages are divided into two columns;
and the entire mishnaic text precedes
the chapter; the several sections, even those begin-
ning with a new paragraph of the ]\Iishnah, have
au introduction only in the case of the first word of
the mishnaic passage in question, with the word
^jno as superscription.

The character of Babli and its divergencies from
Yerushalmi may best be illustrated by a citation of
its commentary on the same passages of the Mish-
uali as those contained in the sections of the
Palestinian Talmud already analyzed.

Ber. i. 1 (divided in Yerushalmi into four para-
graphs, but in Babli lornis one only, tlieexiiluiiations
of which are given in 2a-9a; for the purposes of
the present comparison, only those discussions in
Babli which refer to that part of the Mishnah which
in Yerushalmi forms the first paragraph are here sum-
marized) : (a) The initial question of the Mishnah and
its basis; two divergent answers, together with an
objection and its refutation (2a; all anonymous).
The initial statement of the ^lisimah, and an inter-
pretation of Lev. xxii. 7 based on u baniita on this
verse and conchiding with a note of Rabbah b. Shela
(2b), rind tiie method of teaching this interpretation
in Palestine. Tiie contradictions between the state-
ment of the Mishnah aiid three baraitot which are
successively stated and dialectically refuted (all
anonymous). A discussion of tiie third baraita (3a).
The opinion of R. Eliezer (" until the end of the
first watch of the night"), and the problem whether

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i^yiny 'jbp ^a/in ■nhj<^ i-tdn-

v«\y N^ w, ■«ar9 Sw:;S s* ^n ul"" "^
^bS" i3V^ 3'*n3 riy^ 'svr\ jns nhs-

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u«Ni^«M f>i^ii* 'TTi'V^'HJ jj»«*a>t»o*»^' ftp iD^vrt .»S>u in i/r^H t;)^ vjn
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rio ji-Vn -pwojuj .'awn >iii •ifuj .i^mix •»«i t-Siji <qj\npite<iy3 j>>A»^»<'jT<'jnr^t-jrria-TOi»'''''T'»J''.-'^^'^y''.i^y'''*';

Page from the Munich Manuscript of thk Babylonian Talmud.

Talmud

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

three or four night-watches were implied: a hag-
gadic baraita with a living of R. Eliezer on the
three watches of the night, together with a discus-
sion of it. A haggadic excursus of some length,
beginning with ILibs Siiying regarding the three
watches of the night, and containing a baraita (a
poem by Joso b. Halafta)and a disquisition on it (3b).
Further details of the niglit watches, beginning
with a controversy between Judah I. and Nathan
(in a l)aniita): a liaggadic saying of Joshua b. Levi
ininsfnitted by Zerika and Anuni, this section con-
cluding with a sjiying of Ashi. Another siiying of
Josiiua b Levi, transmitted in like manner, together
with two versions of a conunent by Abba b. Ka-
hana. Discussion of the first saying of Joshua b.
Levi, beginning witii the rising of David 'at mid-
night" (Ps. c.xi.v. 62), and devoted in the main to
tlie connotation of tlie word " neshef " {ib. c.\i.\. 147),
together with sayings of liubylonian amoraim. The
way in which Daviil knew when midnight had ar-
rived, and con<Trning his harp (4a). Further de-
tails regarding David, Ps. Ivii. 9, and E.x. xi. 4, with
an exegesis by Aslii, which concludes the entire dis-
cussion. Additional haggadic material concerning
David, and a controversy between the Palestinian
haggadists Levi and Isaac on Ps. Ixxxvi. 2 with ref-
erence to Ps. cxix. (i2. together with comments and
citations of a kindretl nature.

(b) Dialectic exposition of the relation of the view
of the scholars to the opinions of K. Eliezer and R.
Gamaliel, together with the citation of a baraita (4b).
A controversy between Johanan and Joshua b. Levi
on the sequence of the "Sliema' " and prayer, based
on a sentence in this baraita (" the ' SlieiTia' ' is read :
praj'er is offered"), together with a discussion
devoted chiefly to exegetic inferences. An objec-
tion alleged by Mar b. Rabinaand based on a passage
in the Mishnah, and a haggadic saying of Elea/arb.
Abina to the effect that he who recites Ps. cxlv.

thrice daily is assuredly a son of the

Examples wurld to come, the citation being

from made in this jilace on account of an

the Babli. aplmrism of similar content given by

Johanan in the course of the same
debate. A discussion of these matters, and a saying
of Johanan on Ps. cxlv., together with another hag-
gadic aphorism by Eleazar b. Abina on the angels
Michael and Raphael, and ils elucidation. The view
of Joshua b. Levi on the evening "Sheina'." which
should be recited in bed (.la), and amoraic sayings
on tlie same subject, together with a confirmation,
by a citation of Ps. iv. 6, of the ruling of Joshua b.
Levi; a haggadic saying of Simeon b. Lakish trans-
mitte<l by Levi b. Lahnia. as well as another apho-
rism of this scholar transmitted l)y the same author-
ity. A hatrgaflic saying by Isaac on reading the
"Shenta" " in bed. and a comment by Ashi, followed
by another haggailic aphorisnj by Isaac based on
Job V. 7; interpretation of tiiis verse as denoting
afflicti<jns .sent by God ("yissurim "). against which
the study of the Torah gives protection ; haggadic
sentences on the Law. \ long series of haggadic
sayings by Palestinian and Babylonian amoraim, and
especially by Joiianan, regarding afHiction (ob), with
anecdotes from Palestine and Babylon. A baraita
with a. saying of .Miba licnjamin regarding prayer

before retiring, and its elucidation, together with
three other baraitot and haggadic .sayings of Abba
Benjamin regarding prayer (6a), regarding demons
(witii various sayings of Babylonian authors), and
praying in the synagogue. A haggadic saying by
Lsaac on the last sul)ject transmitted by Rabin b.
Adda, together with a .saying of Asiii and adililional
tlucidations, followed by another aphorism trans-
mitted by Rabin in the name of Isaac regarding the
" l)hylacteries of God," and by a discussion of the
subject by Babylonian amoraim, the view of Ashi
stamling last. A third haggadic saying of Isaac, of
similar transmission, concerning prayer in the syna-
gogue (6b), and a series of aphorisms of a like nature,
the first being by Johanan, and the second l)y Iluna
transmitted by Hellio. These, interspersed with
other sayings, are followed by five more aphorisms
transmitted by Heiho in the name of Hiina and re-
garding departure from the synagogue, the Minhah
prayer, participation in marriage festivities, the fear
of God, and the refusal to return a .salutation. A
series (7a) of five haggadic sayings transmitted by
Johanan in the name of Jose ben Halafta : the prayer
offered by God, ])acification of an iingry neighbor,
discipline of one's own conscience, three requests of
Moses, and the teaching that a threat or pronnse by
God is not rec'allcd, even tliougii given only con-
ditionally, and tiiat neither, therefore, is ever luiful-
tilled. After a number of sayings, partly tannaitic
and partly amoraic in oiigin, come six liaggadic
aphorisms (71)) transmitted l)y Johanan in the name
of the tauna Simeon ben Yohai, the second treating
of the same subject as the eorrresijonding one in the
previous series. To these sayings are appended
various aphorisms and elucidations, followed by a
conversation between Nahnian b. Jacob and Isaac,
in which the latter cites a sixth saying, concerning
prayer in the synagogue, transmitted by Johanan in
the name of Simeon ben Yohai. Additional hag-
gadic aphorisms (Sa) on this subject as well as on the
importance of the synagogue, followed by three say-
ings of 'UUa transmitted by Hiyya b. Anuni, and by
various aphorisms on the reading of the Torah in
the synagogue (8b) and other kindred matters. This
portion is concluded by the instructions which
Joshua b. Levi gave to his sons, and by the analogous
instructions which Raba gave to his children, as well
as by elucidations of details of these teachings and
by sayings of a similar imjiorl.

(r.) In the name of Samuel, Judah declares that the
opinion of R. Gamaliel is authoritative. A baraita
giving a similar view by Simeon ben Y(thai, followed
by an interpretation of it with a final decision by
Joshua ben Levi, and by another version of the rela-
tion to it of tiie ruling of Joshua ben Levi. The section
(9a) terminates with an opinion on this baraita by
a scholar who had come from Palestine to Babylon.

R. II. i. 1 (iii; 1-2 in Yerushalmi; the Talmud on
the.se sections is contained in 2a-l5b): (n) Hisda's
answer to the (juestion as to the practical importance
of the "new year of the kings," with a citation of
the mishnaic passage (Sheb. x. 5) regarding
antedated and postdated promissory notes. A
baraita on the reckoning of regnal j'cars, and its
elucidation (2b). together with hermeneutic deduc-
tions from the Bible regarding Nisan as the begin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmud

iiing of the regnal year, introduced by an inference
of Jolianan based on I Kings vi. 1 as compared with
Num. xxxiii. 38, Dent. i. 3, 4, Num. xxi. 1 (3a), and
similar passages, jireference being tinally given to
Elea/.ar's deduction founded on II

Further ("liron. iii. 2. A liaraita giving the
Examples, dcduetion of Johanun. The assertion
of llisda that the regnal years of non-
Israclitisli lungs were leekoned fmni Tisliri, together
will) Biblical passages in e(MiHrmalion of this view,
beginning with Nch. i. 1 and its hermeneiitic exposi-
tion (31)), the conclusion beinii: formed by a variety
of iiaggadie mateiial on tiie Persian kings mentioned
in the Bible (4a).

(/)) IJisda's answer to the (juery why Nisan 13,
the lirst day of the Feast of Passover, was not made
the "new year of the feasts," while a baraita shows
that this view was promulgated by Simeon ben
Vohai himself. Another baraita (4b) on the ritual
order of the festivals, together with exegetic deduc-
tions from tile views contained tiierein and aildi-
tional discussions, concluding with an elucidation
(."ia) of other halakic and exegetic sayings on festi-
vals and sacrifices. Baraita (oh) on Deut. xxiii. 22
et Hi'ij., and a detailed discussion, followed by a simi-
lar section (6a, b) on Deut. x.\iii. 24. Baraita (7a) on
Nisan 1 and its four meanings, tiie first being deduced
from Ex. xii. 2 and Deut. xvi. 1, although an ob-
jection caused Lev. xxiii. 39 to be regarded by Hisda
as the basic passage, while Zech. i. 7 was cited
to refute an allegation made by Rabina, additional
Biblical passages being quoted bj' the Babylonian
amoraim 'Ulla, Kahana, and Ashi; the .section is
concluded by a deduction of the three other mean-
ings of Nisan 1 (7b) mentioned in the baraita.

{r) Tlic signification of Eiul 1 as the "new year
for tithes of cattle," as taught by R. Jleir. The
various origins of the sentences collected in R. H. i.
1. together with a saying by Joseph, followed by
a series of aphorisms of later Babylonian amoraim,
and one b^' A.shi (8a). Johanan's deduction, from
Ps. Ixv. 14, of the double view concerning the new
year fortithes of cattle, and its dialectic elucidation.

Second half of the mishnaic paragraph: {(t) Tiie
q\iestion regarding the practical utility of the new
year for the counting of the years, answered by
Pa]>pa in exactlj' the same way as Ili.sda had .solved
the (juestion concerning the new year of tlu; kings;
solution of the discrepancy and further elucidations
of the i)rineiple tliat Tishri 1 was the new year for
the counting of tlie years. Two baraitot on Ps.
Ixxxi. 4 et ncq. (8b).

(h) An inference regarding tlie year of jubilee,
basi'd on Lev. xxv. 4; and the obviatiou of the difii-
culty presented by Lev. xxv. 9 (with reference to
the Sai)batical year) by means of a baraita on tlie
following verse, together with two other baraitot
on the same subject (9a) and an elucidation of
Tishri 10, concluded by a baraita on Lev. xxv. 11
and its interpretation (9b).

(c) Biblical deduction regarding the planting of
trees and a baraita thereon, with an infei'ence drawn
from the Bible by Johanaii (lOa), and an elucidation
of another baraita cited in explanation of tlie first.
Johanan's deduction from Gen. viii. 13 regarding
the opposing views of R. Meir and R. Elea/.ar (101))

as to whether a day may be reckoned like a year, thus
introducing a baraita containing the controversy be-
tween li. Eliezer and R. Joshua on the month of
Creation, the former arginng for Tishri and the latter
for Nisan ; exegetic haggadot of con.siderable length
(lla-12a) on this section.

{(I) A ijaraita slating that "titiies" and "vows"
as well as "vegetables" belong to Tisliri 1, togetlier
with inter])retations by Jiermeneutics and otiier
methods (12b), and with di.scussions of the sub-
ject by the Palestinian and Babylonian schools,
and halakic exegeses (13a- 14a).

((') An argument b}' Iloshaiah transmitted by
Eleazar (14a), and a baraita recording the practise
of R. Akiba (14b-15b), as well as elucidations of it.
Another baraita on Sliebat 15, with a controversy
between Johauan and Simeon ben Lakish, and a dis-
cu.ssion of it.

Git. ii. 1 (the Talmud on this section is contained
in 15a-17a): («) The purpose of the entire paragraph,
although its content is immediately ajiparent from
tiie opening sentence of the mishnaic treatise.

{b) The problem of the connotation of "the half"
of the bill of divorce, and Ashi's answer.

(c) The law regarding a case in which only "the
half" of a bill of divorce is signed by witness in the
presence of the bearer; the more rigorous interpre-
tation of it b}' Hisda and sub.sequent modifications
by Raba and (lob) Ashi, as well as a dialectic dis-
cussion of these tliree sayings. Analogous cases
from other branches of the Halakah and casuistic
questions bearing on them (16a), concluding with
one b}' Pappa which remains unanswered.

{(l) Case in which one of the bearers of a bill of
divorce witnesses the engrossing of the document
and the other the signature ; exact definition given by
Johanan and transmitted by Samuel b. Judah (16b;;
the answer of the latter to the objection of Abaye,
although anotlier version of the entire aflFair makes
Ashi the author of tiie objection ; controversy on the
subject between Hoshaiali and 'Ulla. Anecdote of
a visit made by Judah b. Ezekiel to Rabbah bar bar
Hana during an illness of the latter, and their con-
versation on a jiroblem connected witli Git. i. 1.

(e) The case in which the engrossing of •> bill of di-
vorce is witnessed by one and the signa'-ure by two
persons (17a), and the exact definition of such an
event, given by Johanan and transmitted by Amnii,
the section being concluded by a discussion between
Ammi and Assi.

B. B. i. 6 (the Talmud on this section is contained
in 7b-lla): (a) " One who is part owner of a court-
yard is obliged to contribute to the
Legal cost of the gateway as well as of the
Example, door itself"; the citation of a legend
concerning Elijali to prove that a gate
way is not necessarily a suliject for praise, con-
cluded by a casuistic liefinition of the case presup-
posed by the Mishnali.

(b) According to R. Simeon b. Gamaliel. "Every
courtyard is not adapted to a gateway"; a ba-
raita containing the complete version of this saying.

(c) According to R. Simeon b. Gamaliel, "One
who dwells in a city is obliged to contribute to-
ward the building of the walls and the doors,"
etc. ; a baraita conlaining the complete version of

Talmud

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

this saving. Jolmuaus answer lo the query ad-
vanced by Eleazar conoerniug the method of levy-
ing contributions, followed by a second version of
the same account. The patriarcli Judah II. and the
scholars contributed toward building the wall, al-
though the legality of ihis action was questioned by
Simeon b. Lakish on the basis of a haggadic deduc-
tion from I's. c.v.xxix. 18, while Johanan proposed
another verse. Cant. viii. 10, to aid in the solution
of the problem (Sn): Kabbah's interpretation of this
passage of Canticles. An instance of contributions
on the part of the scholars of Babylonia, and the
proof of their illegality furuisheil by tiie exegesis of
three Biblical jiassiiges, taken respectively from the
Pentateuch, the Projihets, and the Ilagiographa.
Pappa's proof that a certain tax was imposed on
orphans, and a discussion of it, followed by a tan-
naitic account (half Ammaic) by Judah I. of the
support of scholars during a time of famine.

(</) " How long must one dwell in a city to have
equal rights with its citizens? Twelve months";
a conflicting baraita which speaks of thirty days;
Rabbah's solution of this contradiction, while
Johanan reconciles the discrepancy between the
period of twelve months and that given in another
baraita. The saying of Johanan as to the liability
of scholars to taxation, and various statements re-
garding the practise of the Babylonian sages. The
way in whicli Joseph (4th cent.) expended a sum of
money sent him by the mother of King Sapor, to-
gether (bb) with an interpretation of Jer. xv. 2.
Baraita on the mode of levying taxes for the poor,
and the right of assessment of municijial taxes.
The rule of the Mishnah (Shek. v. 2) t'lat the small-
est number of persons who may be entrusted with
raising taxes is two. and its Biblical basis according
to Xahmau b. Jacob, together with sayings and ex-
amples bearing on this matter. An interpretation of
Dan. xii. 3 as referring to the collectors and trustees
of the tax for the poor, followed by two baraitot on
these collectorsand Abaye's statements regarding the
practise of Kabbah b. Nal.unani, as well as (9a) b}^ a
note of Ashi and an opinion of Kabbah. Baraita on
the auditing of the accounts of the trustees of the
tax for the i>oor, and elucidations of it. Notes and
anecdotes illustrating Mishnah Pe'ah viii. 7 (on the
amount to be given to the poor), followed by hag-
gadic passjiges on the importance of almsgiving,
among these aphorisms being one cited b}' Kabbah
as transmitted to Eleazar by a certain 'Ulla with a
curious surname, which forms the basis of an anec-
dote. Purther haggadic passages on the charity of
Eleazar, Isaac, and others. A baraita giving K.
McYr's answer (10a) to the question why God Him-
self does not nurture the j)f)or, followed by an ac-
count of the conversation on this subject between
K. Akiba and Tineius Kufus. Sermon by Judah b.
Shalom (Palestinian amora of the 4lh cent.) on Jer.
Ivii. 17. and anecdotes from the lives of Johanan
b. Zakkai and Pappa. Haggadic sayings by taniiaim
and amoraim on alms. The vision of Joseph b.
Joshua b. Levi (10b) of the future life, together with
baraitot on tlu- interpretation of Prov. xiv. 34 by
Johanan b. Zakkai and his scholars as well as by
Gamaliel II. and the other sages of Jabneh. The
charity of the mother of Sapor, ancl two baraitot:

one (11a) the story of the benelicence of Benjamin
ha-Zaddik; the other an account of the generosity
of King Monobaz.

(f) " If one obtains a dwelling-place in the citv, he
immediately receives cijual rights with the citizens " ;
an opposing view by Simeon b. Gamaliel trans-
mitted in two versions.

This analysis of four dilTerent passages of the

Babylonian Talmud shows, in the tirst jdace, that

the framework, as in the Palestinian

FrameworK Talmud, is formed by a running

of Com- interpretation of the Mishnah, despite

mentary. the heterogeneity of the material
which is interwoven with it. The
Talmud, however, is not a mere commenUiry on the
.Mishnah, since, in addition to its Jia'^-^gadic j)ortions,
it contains a varied mass of halakic material, con-
nected only loosely, if at all, with the contents of
the mishnaic paragraphs in question; and while
the Talmud sometimes adheres clo.sely to the text
of such a paragraph, its commentary on a single
section of the Mishnah is often expanded into the
compass of a small book. In this respect Babli is
much more free than Yerushalmi, which is more
concise in other regards as well ; the wider interests
of the former and its greater variety and length are
due at least in large part to the fact that the Baby-
lonian academies enjoyed a longer existence and
hence its redaction extended over a more protracted
period.

The fact that the Haggadah is much more jiromi-
nent in Babli, of which it forms, according to Weiss
("Dor," iii. 19), more than one-third, Avhile it
constitutes only one-sixth of Yerushalmi, was due,
in a sense, to the course of the development of He-
brew literature. No independent mass of haggadot
developed in Babylon, as was the case in Palestine;
and the liaggadic writings were accordingly col-
lected in the Talmud. The most curious example
of this is a midrash on the Book of Esther, found at
the end of the first chapter of the treatise Megillah
(pp. 10b-17a). Except for the fact 11)at tlu- text of
tins section naturally alludes to the Book of Esther,
the midrash has no connecting-link with the prece-
ding portion of the Talmud. It is a true midrashic
compilation in the style of the Palestinian mid-
rashim, introduced by sixteen proems (mostly by
Palestinian authors), and followed by exegeses and
comments on individual verses of I^sther in the
order of the text, each preceded by a catchword (for
further details on this midrash see Baclier, "Ag.
Bab. Amor.")). 119). A fragment of a similar com-
pilation on Lamentations, treating of a few verses
of the first two chaiiters, is found in the last chapter
of Sanhedrin (104, 4 it wr/.), this fragment being in-
serted thereon account of the preceding casual allu-
sion to the Babylonian exile (ih. ji. 120). The trea-
tise Gilt ill (oou-.'jHa) contains a haggadic compilation
on the destruction of Jerusalem, its elements being
found partly in the Palestinian literatiu'c, partly in
Ekah Kabbati, and partly in the treatise Tu'anit of
the Jerusalem Talmud. This haggadah, which be-
gins with a saying by Johanan, is appended to the
brief halakic elucidation of the tirst sentence of the
mishnaic paragraph cm the law of the Sicarii (Git.
V. 6), mentioning those who fell in the war against

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(By courtesy of Prof. Solomon Schechter.)

Talmud

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the Romans. In Babli sucli liaggiulic intt-ipola-
tions, often of considemble lengili, are extremely
frequent, while the very content of the mishnaic
pa; ~ often affonlsa basis fur lengthy liaggadie

exc -. Thus the last (in Yerushaimi, next to

the last) chapter of Sauhedrin is made the founda-
tion for a mass of haggadic comments.
Hag^g'adah most of tiiem only loosely connected
of b}' an association of ideas with the text

the Babli. of the jiassjiges of the Mislinah to
which they are assigned. In this ex-
ceptionally long chapter of Babli (pp. 90a-113b)
only that portion (lllb-H2b) which refers to the
Law in Deut. xiii. 12 et seq. is halakic in nature.
The haggadic conclusion of the first chapter of Sotah
furnislies the basis for further Talmudic comments
in the style of the Ilaggailah (.Sb, 14a); .so that, for
example, the interpretation of Ex. ii. 4, cited in the
Mishuaii (11a), is followed (lla-13b) by an inde-
pendent section which forms a running midrash
on Ex. i. 8-ii. 4. Additional examples may be
found in nearly every treatise of the Babylonian
Talmud. The haggadic sections of this Talmud,
which form an important pait of the entire work,
have been collected in the very popular " 'En Ya'a-
Jjob" of Jacob ibn Habib (1st ed. 1516), as well as in
the rarer " Haggadot ha-Talmud" (Constantinople,
1511; comp. Rabbinovicz, " Dikduke Soferiin," viii.
131); and the}' have been tran.slated into German by
A. Wunsche ("Der Babylonische Talmud in Seinen
Haggadischen Bestandtheilcn," 3 vols., Leipsic,
18SG-89).

An important factor in the composition of the
Talmud, and consequently one it is necessary to con-
sider in a discussion of its literary form, is the fre-
quent juxtaposition of several sayings ascribed to
one and the same author. These saj'ings, which
are frequently linked together by the name of their
common transmitter as well as by that of their au-
thor, were evidently taught in this connected form
in the academies, thus finding their way into the
appropriate passages of the Talmudic text. Sucli
groups of aphorisms are extremely frequent in
Babli; and several of them are found in the pas-
sage from Her. 2a-9a which has been analyzed
above (regarding Yerushaimi see Frankel, "'Mebo,"
p. 39a). Other circumstances which must be con-
sidered in discussing the composition of the text of
the Talmud are set forth in the account of its origin
and redaction given behnv.

The remarks already made concerning the relation
of the Hebrew and the Aramaic elements in the
vocabulary of Yerushaimi apply with little modifi-
cation to Babli, although the Aramaic of the latter
is more nearly akin to the Syriac (the eastern Ara-
maic dialect then current in Babylonia) and is even
more closidy related to Mandiean (see NiJldeke,
"Mandflische Grammatik," p. xxvi., Halle, 1875;
on the Persian elements in the vocab-
Style and ulary of Babli see Jkw. Enxvc. vii.
Language. 313b, s.t. jLD.t;(j-PKiisi.\N). In re-
gard to Greek and Latin terms Levy
makes the incomprehensible statement ("Neuliebr.
WOrterb." iv. 274ai that "no Greek or I^tin words
are found in the Babylonian Talmud." This is,
however, incorrect; for a large number of words

from the Latin and Greek (see Krauss, "Lehn-
worter," i. p. xxiii.) are employed in the Talmud,
both in the tannaitic passages found in Baltli. and
in the sayings of Palestinian as well as of Babylo-
nian amoraim, such as Rab (siu Bacher, I.e. p. 32).
Ou the exegetic terminology as applied in Biblical
and traditional hermcneutics, see Bacher, "Termi-
nologie der Amorilcr,"' Leipsic, 1905. An interesting
linguistic peculiarity of Babli is the fact that tan-
naitic traditions, especially stories, arc occasionally
given entirely in Aramaic, or an anecdote, begun in
Hebrew, is continued in Aramaic (such as the story,
designated by \iy\ IJn as a baraita, concerning
Joshua b. Perahvah and his pupil Jcsiis [Sauh.
10Tb]).

The contents of the Talmud — this term being re-
stricted to Babli, altiiough much which applies to it
holds true of Yerushaimi as well — fall into the two
main divisions of Ilalakah and Ilaggadah. Al-
though, as stated above, the Mishnah itself fre-
quently furnishes. the ground for the inclusion of
haggadic elements in the Talmud, and although the
subjects discussed in the ilalakah fre-
The (luently leadof themselves to haggadic

Halakah in treatment, the Haggadah occupies
Babli. only a secondary position in the Tal-
mud, since this is, both in origin and in
purpose, a halakic work, and was intended to .serve
as a conunentary on the chief authoritative work of
the tannaitic Ilalakah, the .Misimah of Judah I.
Tho.se i)ortions, theiefore, which treat of the in-
terpretation of the Mishnah arc; the substance of the
Talmud. This interpretation, however, was not
merely theoretical, but was prinuirily devoted to a
determination of the rules apjilying to the piactise
of the ceremonial law; on the other hand, the de-
velopment of the ilalakah had not ceased in the
academies of the Anioraim, despite the acceptance
of the ]\Iish nail, .so that the opinions and the decisions
of the Amoraim themselves, even when they were
not based merely on an interpretation of the iMishnah
and other tannaitic halakot, became the subject of
tradition and comment. In addition to the IMish-
nah, furthermore, the Midrash (the halakic exegesis
of the Bible) and the Ilalakah in the more re-
stricted sen.se became the subject cf tradition and of
study, and were preserved in dilTerent collections
as being the other results of the tannaitic period.
In this way the Talmud, in its strict connotation of
the interpretation of the Mishnah, was increased by
an inexhaustibk; mass of material, which afforded
the amoraic academies a basis both for the interpre-
tation and for the criticism of the Mishnah ; for since
the Talmud deals with the criticism of the ]\Iishnah,
not only in text and meaning, butai.so in its relation
to the baraitot, these baraitot themselves were fre-
(juently interpreted in the same way as were mish-
naic passages (r.r/., R. H. 10a, 12b, 29a), and were
supplied with their Talmud. Moreover, the Talmud
was further augmented by the inclusion within it
of the views which the scholars expressed in the
course of their public, judicial, and other activities,
as well as by the data regarding their private lives
and their religious practises wliich were discussed
and memorized in the academies. If this brief
sketch of the Talmud as regards its halakic con-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmud

fonts be supplemented by tlie statement that the
sayings of the several amoraim as well as the op-
posing views of tlu'ii' conteMipiiiiuies and tiic incni-
l)ersof the academies, ■whether teachers or pupils, are
frecpientiy recorded in connection with the report
of the (liseiissionsof the acadcniirs, a more complete
view of the nature of the Tahnud and a better con-
ception of its form may be gained.

Tlu^ real framework of the Talmud, however, on
whicii the entire structure was built, was, as noted
al)0ve, provided by the (juestions, comments, and
discussions whicli are based on individual para-
graplis of tin; Mishuah, and which are anonymous,
or not ascribed to any author. Appended to these
passages and interspersed among them are sayings
whose autiiors are named; and this class freijuentl}-
preponderates greatly. The anonjniions framework
of the Talmud may be regarded as the
The warp resulting from tlie miited activ-

Framework ity of the members of the academy,

Anony- and upon which the woof of the Tal-
mous. mud was interwoven and developed
during three centuries, until its final
redaction gave it definitive form. The Talmud is
really the work of the body of scholars in the acad-
emies, who devoted themselvesto it generation after
generation, and kept its traditions alive. Although
many members of the acatlemies — the great as Avell
as the small, teachers as well as pupils — are men-
tioned as the authors of various sayings and de-
cisions, and as taking part in the discussions and
controversies, some of them being deemed scholars
worthy of record m account of a single remark, the
background of the Talmud, or rather the background
for those elements regarding whose authorship state-
ments are made, was formed by the united efforts of
those who labored to produce that work. The mani-
fold objections and refutations introduced by the
word " metibi " (= " they object "), and the questions
(generally casuistic in nature) preceded by the for-
mula "ibba'\a leliu " (= "they have asked") refer
to this body of scholars, regardless of the date at
which they lived.

This allusion to the anonymous framework of the
Talmud suggests the problem of its redaction, winch
is partially answered by the allusion itself; for the
work began with the inception of the collection,
and the first amoraim laid the founilation for the
task, which was carried on by succeeding genera-
tions, the final result being the Talmud in its pres-
ent form. The system of mishnaic hermeneutics,
which was in a sense oflScial, and was at all events
sanctioned by the lectures delivered in the academy,
was determined as early as the first generation, and
remained valid thenceforth.' It is interesting to
notice that the only certain occurrence of the word
"Gemara"iu the sense of "Talmud" ('Er. 3'2b) is
found in connection with an account which throws
a flood of light upon the first stages of the redac-
tion of the Talmud. Tiiis account begins with the
interpretation of 'Er. iii. 4. and is as follows: " R.
Hiyya b. Abba, R. Assi [Palestinian amoraim in
Babylon], and Rabba b. Nathan .sat; and beside
them sat also Rab Nahman. They sat and said
[here follows a dialectic discussion on the nature of
the place of the tree mentioned in the paragraph of

the .Mishnah]. Then R. Nahman said : ' Itiscorrect;
and Samuel also has approved of this explanation.'
Then the first three asked: 'Hast thou established
this explanation in the Gemara'^' {i.e., "Hast thou
inclu(l(!d it as a fixed element in the Talmud';' Nah-
man answers in tin; allirmative, whereupon a con-
firmatoiy amoraic tradition is added; and, in the
name of Samuel, Hal) Xahmaii interprets the misli-
naic p.issiige under consideration in the light of that
exegesis]." The term " kaba' " (" establish ") was
used in a later age by Sherira Gaon to designate the
incorporation of ])ortions that were used to make up
the Talmud into its text (see Lewy, "interpretation
des Ensten Abschnitts des Palilstinischen Talnuul-
Traktates Nesikin," p. 4 ; Bacher, in " Hebrew Union
College Annual," 1904, p. 34), while in the Talmud
itself the word was apidied to the redaction of tan-
naitic traditions (see R. H. 32a, above; Kid. 25a;
Sanh. 21b: Zeb. 114b). This account, which dates
from the beginning of the amoraic period in the
Academy of Nehardea, is, curiously enough, an iso-
lated instance; for among the many dates and ac-
counts which the Talmud con'ains in
Redaction, reference to the academy and its mem-
bers, there is no direct statement con-
cerning the redaction of the text, either in its earlier
stages or at its conclusion, although certain state-
ments on divergent traditions of amoraic sayings and
discussions afford an idea of the way in which the
Talmudic text emerged from the various versions
given by the scholars and schools that transmitted
it. These statements, which have been collected by
Lewy {I.e. pp. 4-14), use the verb "tanni" ("pa'el "
from 'Jn) in referring to lectures on the Talmudic
text as well as amoraic sayings or discussions on
them (Bacher, "Terminologie der Amoriier," p. 239).
Thus it is stated (Shab. 48h; B. B. 86a) that at Sura
a certain interpretation was given in the name of
Hisda and at Pumbedita in that of Kahana. There
are a number of other similar statements concerning
traditions, in regard to differences, as between Sura
and Pumbedita, and between Sura and Nehardea,
in the wording of the amoraic sayings and in their
ascribed authorship (Git. 35a). p]specially frequent
is the mention of amoraim of the fourth and fifth
centuries as transmitters of these divergent state-
ments, either two amoraim being named as author-
ities for two dilferent versions, or an amora being
cited as opposing another version to an anonymous
tradition. As examples of the former may be men-
tioned Rabba and .Joseph (Zeb. 25b), Papjia and Ze-
bid (Shab. 66b), Kahana and Tabyomi (Ned. 16b).
Ashi and Mar Zutra (Shab. 119a), and Rabina and
Aha (Ket. 31b); while many other instances are
cited by Lewy (I.e.).

Particularly interesting are the cases in which a
divergent account is presented before Ashi, and thus
before the one who projected the definitive redac-
tion of the Talmud, Ashi appearing in all these cases
as representing the version first given. Thus the
amora Mordecai said to Ashi: "Thou teachest thus;
but we teach differently" (Men. 42b; Ber. 5a). In
addition to such statements, which are ascribed to
members of the Babylonian academics, and which
indicate divergencies in amoraic tradition, the extant
text of the Talmud contains also a number of other

Talmud

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA

variants, which are included without such state-
ments. These are iolnxiuced by such formulas as
** And if you will say " (X^TI 'ND. referring to other
authorities, or '* There are those who say," or " There
are those who t<ach."aud similar phrases. The e.\-
pres-sion "another version" (x:nnK XiL*"^) fre-
quently appesirs in the te.\t as a supersc lipiiou to
a divergent accouut (Naz. 9b; B. K. 59a; Hui. 119b;
Tern. 5a. 6ji, 91), lib. 3ob [conip. Frankel in ":Mo-
natsschrift." 1861, x. 262]; Niddah 29a. SHu). All
these instances afford an idea, even though but an
imperfect one. of the gradual development of the
Talmudic text. To comprehend why only i)racti-
cally a single Talmud was produced, despite the
various academies, the great number of aulhorita-
tive tmnsmiiters of the mass of material, and tlie
number of generations that collaborated on the
work, it must be borne in miutl that there was a
continual interchange of ideas between the acade-
mies, and that the numerous pupils of the successive
generations who memorized the Talmud, and per-
haps committed at least a part of it to writing, drew
from a single source, namely, the lectures of their
masters and the discussions in the academies; fur-
ther, that, since tiie work on the Talmud was con-
tinued witliout interruption along the lines laid
down by tiie lirst generation of amo-
Technical raim, all succeeding generations may
Terms for be regarded as one body of scholars
Tradition, who produced a work which was, to
all intents and purposes, uniform.
This unity finds its expression in tiie phraseologj'
adopted in the anonymous framework of the Tal-
mud, which terras the authors "we," exactly as a
writer speaks of liimself as "I" in an individual
work. Examples of tiiis phraseology occur in the
following formulas: n3 jrini ("We then raised the
question"; see Shab. 6b, 71a, 99b; Yoma 74a, 79b;
Suk. 33a; Meg. 22a; Yeb. 29b; Kid. 49a; Git. 60b;
Shebu. 22b; 'Ab. Zarah 35a, 52b; Niddaii 6b);
inj'Om (" We have opposed [another teaching to the
one wliich has been quoted]"); |jn ("We have
learned," or, in other words, "have received by tra-
dition "), the conventional formula wiiicli introduces
mishnaic passages; and, tinally, |^ njD ("Whence
have we it?"), the regular preface to an inquiry re-
garding the Biblical basis of a saying. In all these
formulas the "we" denotes the authors of the
Talmud regarded as a collective unity, and as the
totality of the members of the academies whose
labors, covering three centuries of collaboration, re-
sulted in the Talmud. It was in the Babylonian
Acatlemy of .Sura, moreover, that the tinal redaction
of the Talmud took ijlace, the very academy that
took the lead in the first century of the amoraic
period; and the uniformity af the Talmud was thus
assured, even to the place of its origin.

The statements already made concerning the con-
tinuous redaction of tiie Babylonian Talmud apply
with equal force to tlie Yerushaimi, tliis £act being
expressed by Lewy {I.e. pp. 14-15) in the following
words: "In PalestiiK-, as in Baliylon. there may
have been different Talmudim in tiie various scliools
at different periods. . . . Similarly in the Palestin-
ian Talmud different versions of amoraic savings are
quoted in the names of dilferent authors, from which

it may be inferred that these authors learned and
taugiit different Talmudim." Lewj' speaks also (Z.c.
p. 20) of several reiiactions which preceded the final
casting of the Palestinian Talmud into its present
form. Tiie actual condition of affairs can scarcely
be formulated in these terms, however, since the di-
vergencies consist, for the most part, of mere vari-
ants in certain sentences, or in the fact that there
were different authors and transmitters of them ; and
although many of tiiese deviations are cited by B.
Jonah and K. Jose, who lived and taught contem-
poraneously at Tiberias, this fact scarcely justifies
the assumption that tiiere were two dilleient Tal-
mudim, one taught b}' Jonah and the other by
Jose; it will nevertheless be evident, from the
statements cited above, that the Talmud e\i.sted in
some definite form throiighout the amoraic period,
and that, furthermore, its final redaction was pre-
ceded by other levisious. It may likewise be as-
sumed that the contemporaneous schools of Tiberias,
Sepplioris, and Ca\saiea in Palestine taught the Tal-
mud in different redactions in the fourth century.
Lewy assumes, probablj' with correctness, that in
the case of Yerushaimi the trc.itise Xezikin (the
three treatises Baba Kamma, Bal)a Mezi'a, and
Baba Batra) was taken from a redaction differing
from that of the other treati.ses. (Allusion has
already been made to a difference of content be-
tween the first two and the last two orders of the
Yerushaimi.) With regard to Babli, Frankel has
shown (" Monatsschrift," x. 194) that the treatise
Tamid, in which only three chapters out of seven
are accompanied by a Talmud, belongs to a dif-
ferent redaction from that of the other treatises;
and he endeavors to show, in like manner {ib. p.
259), both "that the redactor of the treatise Kid-
dusliin is not identical with that of Baba Batra and
Xedarim," and "that the redactor of the treatise
Gittin is not the same as that of Keri-
Date of tot and Balja Batra." However, as
Redaction, these remarks refer to the final redac-
tion of the Talmud, the}- do not touch
upon the abstract unitj- of the work as emphasized
above. It is sufficient to assume, therefore, that the
final redaction of the several treatises was based
on the versions used in the different academies. It
may be postulated, on the whole, that the Pales-
tinian Talmud received its present form at Tiberias,
and the Baliylonian Talmud at Sura (comp. the pas-
.sages ill Yerushaimi in wiiicli N3ri [=" here "] re-
fers to Tiberias, and tlio.se in Balili in which the
same word denotes Sura [Lewy, I.e. p. 4]).

The chief data regarding the academies of Pales-
tine and Babylon, whose activity resulted in the
Talmud, have been set forth elsewhere (see Jew.
Encvc. i. 145-148, n.r. Acaoicmiks), so that here
stress need be laid only on those events in the his-
tory of the two schools and of their teachers which
are especiallj' noteworthy in connection with the
origin and the final redaction of the two Talmudim.
It may be said, by way of preface, that the acade-
mies of Palestine ami Babylon were in constant in-
tercommunication, notwithstanding their geograph-
ical position. Many prominent Babylonian scholars
settled permanently in Palestine, and nianj' eminent
Palestinians sojourned iu Babylon for some time,

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Page from the First Complete Edition of the Babylonian Talmud, Printed by Bomberg, Venicx, 1530-23.

(From the Sulzberzer collection In the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.)

XII. —2

Talmud

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

or evfu for a considerable portion of tlicir lives. In
the second half of the third century Babylonian stu-
dents sought the Palestinian schools with especial
frequency, while many pupils of Johauan went dur-
ing the same period to Babylon; and in the troub-
lous days of the fourth century many Palestinian
scholai-s S4iught refuge in the intue (juiet regions
along the Euphrates. Tliis uninterrupted associa-
tion of scholai-s resulted in an active inlerchangc of
ideas between the. schools, especially as the activity
of both was devoted in the main to the study of the
Mishnali. The Jciusalem Talmud accordingly con-
tains a large number of sayings by Babylonian au-
thorities, and Babli quotes a still larger number of
sayings by Palestinian scholars in addition to the
proceedings of the Palestinian academies, Avhile it
likewise devotes a very considerable space to the
halakic and haggadic teachings of such Palestinian
masters as Johanan. Simeon b. Lakish, and Abbaliu.
Anonymous Palestinian sentences are quoted in
Babli with the statement. "They say in the West";
and similar maxims of Babylonian origin are quoted
in Yerushalmi in the nameof "tiie scliolars there."
Both the Talmudim thus acquired more traits in
common than they had formerly possessed despite
their common foundation, while owing to the mass
of material which Babli received from the schools of
the Holy Land it was destined in a measure to sup-
plant the Palestinian Talmud even in Palestine.

The history of the origin of Yerushalmi covers a
period of two centuries. Its projector was Johauan,
the great teacher of Tiberias, who, together with
his pu|)ils and contemporaries, some of them of con-
siderable prominence, laid the foundations for the
work which was continued by succeeding genera-
tions. The extreme importance of Johauan in the
genesis of the Palestinian Talmud seems to have
been the basis of the belief, which first found ex-
pression in the twelfth century, although it is cer-
tainly older in origin, that he was the author of
Yerushalmi (see Frankel, "Mebo," p. 47b). As a
matter of fact, however, almost a century and a half
elapsed after the death of Johanan (279) beff)re thLo
Talmud received its present form, but it was ap-
proximated to this form, toward the end of the
fourth century, by Jonah and Jose, the two directors
of the Academy of Tiberias. Their joint halakic
sentences, controversies, and divergent opinions on
the utterances of their predecessors are
Activity of scattered throughout Yerushalmi ; but
Jonah the conclusion that Jose redacted it
and Jose, twice, which has been drawn from
certain statements in this Talmud,
is incorrect (Frankel, I.e. p. 101a; Weiss, "Dor,"
ill. \\Z et set]., 211; see Lewy, I.e. pp. 10, 17;
Halevy, " Dorot ha-Uishonim," ii. 332). Jonah's
son Mani, one of the scholars most frequently
named in Yerushalmi, seems, after studying at
Citsarea, where noteworthy scholars were living in
the fourth century, to have raised the school of
Sepphoris to its highest plane; and a large number
of the sjiyings of the "scholars of Cicsarea " was
included in Yerushalmi (see "Monatsschrift," 1901,
pp. 2HH-.310). The only other halakist of impor-
tance among the Palestinian amoraim is Jose b.
Abin (or Abun). According to Frankel {I.e. p.

102a), he occupied about the same position in
regard to the redaction of Yerushalmi as was held
by Ashi in regard to Ihat of Babli (see also Weiss,
I.e. iii. 117). The tinal redaction of the Talmud was
reserved for the succeeding generation, i)robal)ly
because the activity of the Academy of Tiberias
ceased with the discontinuance of the patriarchate
(c. 42'i). This was the time during which Tanhuma
b. Abba (see Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." iii. 5U2)
made his collection and detiniie literary arrange-
ment of the haggadic exegesis of the amoraic
period.

The beginnings of the Babylonian Talmud are
associated both with Ncliardea, where tlic; study of
the tradition hud llourisheii even before the close of
the tannaitic period, anil with Suia, where llab
founded a new academy which soon surpassed Ne-
hardea in importance. Hah and Samuel, who re-
spectively presided with equal distinction over the
two schools, laid the founclation of the Babylonian
Talnuul through their comments on the ^lishnah
and their other teachings. Their views are fre-
quently contrasted in the form of controversies; but
on the other hand the}' are often mentioned as the
common authors of sentences which were probably
transmitted by certain pujiils who had heard them
from both masters. One of these pupils, Judah b.
Ezekiel, when asked to explain .some of the more
obscure portions of the 3Iishnah, subsequently al-
luded plaintivelj' to the "hawayyot" of Rab and
Samuel, meaning thereby the questions and com-
ments of the two masters on the entire ]\Iishnah
(Bcr. 20a and parallels). In like manner, scholars
of the fourth century spoke of the hawayot of
Aba^'e and Raba, which formed, as it were, the
quintessence of the Talmud, and which, according
to an anachronistic addition to an old baraita, were
even said to have been included in the branches of
knowledge familiar to Johanan b. Zakkai (Suk. 28a;
B. B. 134a).

The pupils of Rab and Samuel, the leading amo-
raim of the second half of the third century — Huna,
Hisda, Nahman b. Jacob, Sheshct, and the Judah
mentioned above, who is especially prominent as a
transmitter of the sayings of his two teachers —
added a mass of material to the Talmud ; and the
last-named founded the Academ\' of Pumbedita,
where, as at Sura, the development of the Talmud
was continued. Pumbedita was likewise the birth-
place of that casuistic and hair-splitting method of
interpreting and criticizing halakic passages which
forms the special characteristic of the Babylonian
Talmud, although the scholars of this academy de-
voted themselves also to the study of the collections
of tannaitic traditions; and at the beginning of the
fourth century the representatives of the two move-
ments, "Sinai " Joseph and Rabbah, the "uprooter
of mountains," succeeded their master Judah and
became the directors of the school. Their saj'ings
and controversies, together with the still more im-
portant dicta and debates of their pu|)ils Abaj-e and
I{aba. form a considerable part of the material of
the Talmud, which was greatly increased at the
same time by the halakic and haggadic sentences
brought from Palestine to Babylon. All the six
orders of the Mishnaii were then studied, as is stated

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmud

by Ralni (not Rabba; see Rabbinovicz, "Dikdiike
Soferiin," ou Ta'aiiit, j). 144). alllioiigli in Jiidali's

time th(! Icctmcs liad been conlined

Activity of to the fourtli order, or, according to

Raba. the view of Weiss C'[)or,"iii. 187),

which is probably correct, to tiie first
four orders (comp. Meg. 2Bb; Ta'an. 24a, b; Sanii.
106b; Raba's pupil Pappa expresses a similar vi(!W
iu Ber. 20a).

Rab's activity marks the culmination of the work
on the Talmud. The time had now come when the
preservation and arrangement of the material al-
ready collected Avere more important than further
accretions. Nahnian b. Isaac, pupil and successor
of Raba (d. 352), wliom he survivetl but four )'ears,
expressed the task of the epigoni in the following
words (Pes. 105b): "I am neither a sage nor a seer,
nor even a scholar as contrasted with the u\ajority.
I am a transmitter ["gamrana"] and an arranger
[" sadrana "J. " The combination of the former term
with the latter, which occurs only here, very con-
cisely summarizes the activit}' of the redactor. It
is clear that Nahman b. Isaac actually engaged in
this task from the fact that he is mentioned as the
Babylonian amora who introduced ]\Inemonics
("simanim"), designed to facilitate the memorizing
and grouping of Talmudic passages and the names
of their authors. The mnemonics ascribed to him
in tiie Talmud (see J. Brlill, " Die Mnemonotechnik
des Talmuds," p. 21; Bacher, "Ag. Bab. Amor." p.
134), however, constitute only a very small part of
the simanim included in the text of that work.
These again form but a remnant of the entire mass
of what^N. Brlill ("Jahrb." ii. 60) terms the " mne-
motechnic apparatus," of which only a portion was
included in the printed text of the Talmud, altliough
many others may be traced both in the manu-
scripts of the Talmud and in ancient citations
(see N. Brlill, I.e. pp. 62 et seq., 118 et seq.). The
material, to which the epigoni of the second half of
the fourth centur}- had added little, was now ready
for its final redaction ; and it was definitively edited
by Asm (d. 427), who during his long period of
activity infused fresh life into the Academy of Sura.
In view of his recognized authority, little was left
for the two succeeding generations, except to round
out the work, since another redaction was no
longer possible. The work begun ])y Ashi was com-
pleted by Rabina(Abina), whose death in 499 marks,
according to an ancient tradition, the end of the
amoraic period and the completion of the redaction
of the Talmud.

The date at which the Talmud was committed to
writing is purely conjectural. The work itself con-
tains neither statements nor allusions to show that
any complete or partial copy of the work redacted
and completed by Ashi and Rabina had been made
in their days; and the same lack of information
characterizes both Yerushalmi and the Mishnah (the
basis of both the Talmudim), as Avell as the other
works of the tannaitic period. There are, however,
allusions, altliough they are only sporadic, which
show that the Halakah and the Haggadah were
committed to writing; for copies were described as
being in the possession of individual scholars, who
were occasiouall}' criticized for owning them.

This censure was based on an interdiction issued in
the third century, which forbade any one to com-
mit the teachings of tradition to writing or to use a
manuscript of such a character in lecturing (see Git.
60a; Tem. 14b). Replying to the scholurs of Kair-
wan, Sherira Gaon in his letter (ed.
Committed Neubauer, "M. J. C." i. 20) alludes to
to this prohibition as follows: "In an-

Writing. swer to your question a.sking when
the jMishnah and the Talmud were re-
spectively committed to writing, it should be said
thai neither of them was thus transmitted, but both
were arranged [redacted] orally; and the scholars
believe it to be their duty to recite them from mem-
ory, and not from written copies." From the sec-
ond part of this statement it is evident that even in
Sherira's time the "scholars," a term here restricted
to the members of the Babylonian academies, re-
frained from using written copies of the Talmud in
their lectures, although they were sufficiently famil-
iar with it to be able to recite it from memory. The
statement that the exilarch Xatronai (8th cent.), who
emigrated to Spain, wrote a copy of the Talmud from
memory (see Bri'ill, "Jahrb." ii. 51). would show that
the scholars of the geonic ])eriod actually knew the
work by heart. Although this statement is not al-
together free from suspicion, it at least proves that
it was believed to be within the powers of this
exilarch to make a copy of the Talmud without hav-
ing an original at hand. This passage also throws
light upon the period of the development and redac
tion of the Talmud, during which the ability to
memorize the mass of material taught in the schools
was developed to an extent which now transcends
conception.

On the other hand, Sherira's statement shows that
his denial of the existence of the Talmud and ihe
Mishnah in written form was limited to an officially
recognized redaction; for manuscripts of the kind
mentioned by him were then current, as they had been
in the geonic period, despite the interdiction ; for they
were used at least as aids to study, and Avithout them
the Talmud could not possibly have been memo-
rized. In like manner, this prohibition, in the light
of Sherira's words, does not preclude the existence
of private copies of portions of the traditional liter-
ature, even in earlier times. The concealed rolls
("megillot setarim") with halakic comments which
Rab found in the house of his uncle Hiyya (Shab.
61); B. M. 92a), as well as the note-books (r/ifixff)
mentioned at the beginning of the amoraic period
and in wliich such .scholars as Levi b. Sisi, Joshua b.
Levi, Ze'iri, and Ililfai or Ufa (Shal). 156a: Yer.
Ma'as. 49fl, 60b; Men. 70a) entered sentences, some
of them halakic in character, indicate that such pcr-
.sonal coi)ies were frequently used, while the written
Haggadah is repeatedly mentioned. It may tliere-
fore l)e assumed that the Mishnah and other tan
naitic traditional works were committed to writing
as early as the time of the Amoraim. In like man-
ner, there may have l)een copies of the amoraic com-
ments on the Mishnah. as aids to the memory and
to private study. In the early part of the fourth
century Ze'era disputed the accuracy of the lial.diic
tradition taught by the Bal)ylonian amora Sheshet;
and as he based his suspicious on Shesliet's blind-

Talmud

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

ness, be evidently believed that it was impossible
for tbe Babylonian scholar to contirm and verify his
knowledge by the use of written notes (see Bacher,
"Ag. Pal. Amor." iii. 4). When Ashi undertook
the final redaction of the Talmud he evidently had
at his disposal notes of this kind, although Brull
(^c p. 18) is probably correit in ascribing to Rabina
the first complete written copy of the Talmud; Ra-
bina had as collaborators many of the Saboiiaim, to
whom an ancient and incontrovertible tradition as-
signs numerous additions to the Talnunlic text.

AVhen Rabina died a written text of the Talmud
was already in existence, the material contributed
by the Saboraim being merely additions; although
in thus extending the text they simply continued
what had been done since the first redaction of the
Talmud by Ashi. The Saboraim, however, confined
themselves to additions of a certain form which
made no change whatsoever in the text as deter-
mined by them under the direction of Rabina (on
these saboraic additions as well as on other accre-
tions in Babli, see the statements by
No Formal Brill), l.r. pp. 69-86). Yet there is no
Rati- allusion whatever to a formal sanction

fication. of the written text of the Talmud ; for
neither did such a ratification take
place nor was a formal one at all necessar}'. The
Babylonian academies, which produced the text in
the course of 300 years, remained its guardians when
it was reduced to writing; and it became authorita-
tive in virtue of its acceptance by the successors of
the Amoraim, as tiie Mishnali had been sanctioned
by the latter and was made the chief subject of
study, thus becoming a basis for halakic decisions.
The traditions, however, underwent no further de-
velopment; for the "horayot,"or the independent
exegesis of the Mishnah and the halakic decisions
based on this exegesis, ceased with Ashi and Rabina,
and thus with the completion of the Talmud, as is
stated in the canon incorporated in the Talmud
itself (B. M. 86a). The Mishnah, the basal work of
halakic tradition, thenceforth shared its authority
.with the Talmud.

Among the Jews who came under the influence of
•western Arabic culture the belief that the Talmud
(and the Mishnah) had been redacted oralh' was su-
perseded by the view that the initial redaction itself
had been in writing. This theory was fir.st ex-
pressed by R. Nissim of Kairwan ("Mafteah," p.
3b), although even before his time the (luestion ad-
dres-sed. as already noted, to Sherira Gaon by the
Jews of Kairwan had shown that they favored this
view, and the gaon's response had received an in-
terpolation pf)Stulating the written redaction of the
Talmud.

Tiie definitiv(.' redaction of the Babylonian Tal-
mud marks a new epoch in the history of the Jew-
ish peojih', in which the Talnuid itself becomes the
most importJint factor, both as the i)iv()tal jioint of
the development and the manifestation of the spirit
of Juflaism, and as a work of literature deeply in-
fluenced by the fortunes of those who cherished it
as their palladium. On the internal history of Juda
ism the Talmuil exerted a decisive influence as the
recognized .source for a knowledge of tradition and
as tlie atitlioritativc collection of the traditional re-

ligious doctrines which supplemented the Bible; in-
deed, this influence and tlie efforts which were made
to escape from it, or to restrict it within certain
limits, constitute the substance of the inner history
of Judaism. The Babylonian academies, which had
gradually become the central autliority for the en-
tire Jewish Diaspora, found their chief task in teach-
ing the Talnuid, on which they based the answers
to the questions addressed to them. Thus was
evolved a new science, the interpretation of the
Talmud, which produced a literature of wide ramifi-
cations, and whose beginnings were the work of the
Geonim themselves.

The Talmud and its studv spread from Babylon

to Egypt, northern Africa, Italy, Spain, France, and

Germany, regions destined to become the abodes of

the Jewish spirit ; and in all these

Influence countries intellectual interest centered
of the in the Talmud. The first great reac-

Talmud. tion against its supremacy was Ka-
raism, which arose in the ver}' strong-
hold of the Geonim within two centuries after the
completion of the Talmud. The movement thus
initiated and the infiuence of Arabic culture were
the two chief factors wiiich aroused the dormant
forces of Judaism and gave inspiration to the scien-
tific pursuits to which the Jewish spirit owed many
centuries of marvelous and fruitful activitj'. This
activity, however, did not infringe in the least
on the authority of the Talmud; for although it
combined other ideals and intellectual aims with
Talmudic study, which it enriched and perfected,
the importance of that study was in no wise decried
by those who devoted themselves to other fields of
learning. Nor did the speculative treatment of the
fundamental teachings of Judaism lower the posi-
tion of the Talmud; for IVIaimonides, the greatest
philosopher of religion of his time, was likewise
the greatest student of the Talnuid, on which work
he endeavored to base his philosophic views. A
dangerous internal enemy of the Talmud, however,
arose in the Cabala during the thirteenth century ;
but it also had to share with the Talmud the
supremacy to which it aspired.

I)uring the decline of intellectual life among the
Jews which began in the sixteenth century, the
Talm\id was regarded almost as the supreme author-
ity by the majority of them; and in the same cen-
tmy eastern Europe, especially Poland, became the
seat of its study. Even the Bible was relegated to a
secondary place, and the Jewish schools devoted
themselves almost exclusively to the Talmud; so
that "study" became synonymous with "study of
tiie Talmud." A reaction against the supremacy of
the Talmud came with the appearance of Mo.ses Men-
delssohn and the intellectual regeneration of Juda-
ism through its contact with the Gentile culture of
the eighteenth century, the results of this strug-
gle being a closer assimilation to European culture,
the creation of a new science of Judaism, and
the movements for religious reform. Desiiite the
Karaite inclinations which frequently apiicared in
liiese movements, the great majority of the follow-
ers of Judaism clung to the principle, authorita-
tively maintained by the Talmud, that tradition
supplements the Bible; and the Talnuid itself re-

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Page jkom Tractatk Kidulsiiin ok thk Bauvloman Talmid, SAUuiu.NtriA, iiOy.

(From the Sulzberger collection lu the Jewish Theologlcil Semmary ot Aiueric», New York.)

Talmud

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

tained its authority as the work embodying the tra-
ditions of the earliest post-BibHeal period, when
Judaism wjis moldetl. Modern culture, however,
has gradually alienated from the study of the Tal-
mud a number of Jews in the countries of progres-
sive civilization, and it is now regarded by the most
of theni merely as one of the bruuches of Jewish
theology, to which only a limited amount of time
can be devoted, although it occuines a prominent
place in the curricula of the rabbinical seminaries.
On the whole Jewish learning has done full justice
to tlie Talmud, many scholars of the nineteenth cen-
tury having made noteworthy contributions to its
history and textual criticism, and having constituted
it the basis of historical and archeological researches.
The study of the Talmud has even attracted the at-
tention of non-Jewish scholars; and it has been in-
cludetl in the curricula of universities.

The external history of the Talmud reflects in
part the history of Judaism persisting in a world
of hostility and persecution. Almost at the verj^
time that the Babylonian saboraim put the finishing
touches to the redaction of the Talmud, the em-
peror Justinian issued his edict against the abolition
of the Greek translation of the Bible in the service
of the Synagogue, and also forbade the use of the
dnrriijuaii, or traditional exposition of Scripture.
Tiiis edict, dictated by Christian zeal
Edict and anti-Jewish feeling, was the pre-
of hide to attacks on the Talmud, con-

Justinian, ceived in the same spirit, and be-
ginning in the thirteenth centurj'' in
France, where Talmudic study was then tiourisliing.
The charge against the Talmud brought b}" tiie con-
vert Nicholas Donin led to the tirst public disputa-
tion between Jews and Christians and to the first
burning of copies of the work (Paris, 1244). The
Talmud was likewise the subject of a disputation at
Barcelona in 1263 between Moses ben Naliman and
Pablo Christiani. In this controversy Nahmanides
asserted that the haggadic portions of the Talmud
were merely "sermoues," and therefore devoid of
binding force; so that proofs deduced from them in
support of Cliristian dogmas were invalid, even in
case they were correct. This same Pablo Christiani
made an attack on the Talmud which resulted in a
papal bull against it and in the first censorship,
which was undertaken at Barcelona by a commis-
sion of Dominicans, who ordered the cancelation of
passages reprehensible from a Christian jioint of
view (1204). At the disputation of Tortosa in 1413,
Geronimo dc Santa Fe brought forward a number
of accusiitious, including the fateful assertion that
the condenuiatjons of j)agans and apostates found
in the Talmud referred in realitj' to Cliristians.
Two years later, Pope Martin V., wIkj had con-
vened this disputation, issued a bull (which was
destined, however, to remain inoperative) forbidding
the Jews to read the Talmud, and ordering the de-
struction of all copies of it. Far more imi)ortaiit
were the charges made in the early part of the six-
teenth century by tlie convert Johaiui PfelTerkorn,
the agent of the Dominicans. Tiie result of these
accusations was a struggle in which the emperor and
the jiope acted as judges, the advocate of the Jews
being Johaim Reuchlin, who was opposed by the

obscurantists and the humanists; and this contro-
versy, which was carried on for the most part by
means of pamphlets, became the precursor of the
Reformation. An unexpected result of this afTair
was the complete printed edition of the Babylonian
Talnmd issued in 1520 by Daniel Bomberg at Yen-
ice, under the protection of a papal privilege.
Three years later, in 1523, Bomberg published the
tirst edition of the Palestinian Talmud. After
thirty years the Yatican, which had first permitted
the Talmud to appear in print, undertook a cam-
paign of destruction against it. On New-Year's
Da}' (Sept. 9), 1553, the copies of the Talmud which
had been confiscated in compliance with a decree of
the Inquisition wer'^ burned at Rome; and similar
burnings took place in other Italian cities, as at
Cremona in 1559. The Censorship of the Talmud
and other Hebrew works was introduced b^-a papal
bull issued in 1554; five years later the Talmud
was included in the first Index Ex]Hirgatorius; and
Pope Pius IV. commanded, in 1565, that the Tal-
mud be deprived of its very name. The first edition
of the expurgated Talmud, on which most subse-
quent editions were based, appeared at Basel (1578-
1581) with the omission of the entire tieatise of
' Abodah Zarah and of passages considered inimical to
Christianity, together with modifications of certain
phrases. A fresh attack on the Talmud was de-
creed by Pope Gregory XIII. (1575-85), and in
1593 Clement YIII. renewed the old interdiction
against reading or owning it. The increasing
study of the Talmud in Poland led to the issue of a
complete edition (Cracow, 1602-5), with a restora-
tion of the original text; an edition containing,
so far as known, only two treatises had i)reviously

been published at Lublin (1559-76).

Attacks on In 1707 some copies of the Talmud

the were confiscated in the jirovince of

Talmud. Brandenburg, but were restored to

their owners by command of Freder-
ick, the first king of Prussia. The last attack on
the Talmud took place in Poland in 1757, when
Bishop Denibowski, at the instance of IheFrankists,
convened a public disputation at Kamenetz-Podolsk,
and ordered all copies of the work found in his
bishopric to be confiscated and burned by the hang-
man.

The external historj^ of the Talmud includes also
the literary attacks made upon it by Cliristian
theologians after the Reformation, since these on-
slaughtson Judaism were directed primarily against
that work, even though it was made a subject of
study liy the Christian theologians of the .seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1830, during
a debate in the French Chamber of Peers regard-
ing state recognition of the Jewish faith. Admiral
Verhuell declared himself unable to forgive the
Jews whom he had nut during his travels through-
out the world either for their refusal to recognize
Jesus as the ^lessiah or for their possession of the
Talmud. In the same year the Abbe Ciii.vKixi
liulilished at Paris a voluminous work entitled
"Tiieorie du Judai'snie," in which he announced a
translation of the Talmud, advocating for the first
time a version which should make the work gener-
all}' accessible, and thus serve for attacks on Juda-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmud

ism. In a like spirit modern anti-Semitic agitators
have urged that a translation be made ; and this de-
mand lias even been brought before legislative
bodies, as in Vienna. The Talmud and the "Tal-
mud Jew " thus beeame objects of anti-Semitic at-
tacks, although, on the oilier hand, they were de-
fended by many Christian students of the Talmud.

In consequence of the ciicckered fortunes of the
Talmud, manu.scripts of it are extremely rare; and
tiie Babylonian 'I'almud is found entire only in a
Mmiich eode.x (Ilebnjw MS. No. 95), completed in
1369, while a Florentine manuscript containing sev-
eral treatises of the fourth and fifth orders dates
from the year 1176. A number of Talnuidic codices
containing one or more tractates are extant in
Rome, Oxford, I'aris, Hamburg, and New York,
wliile the treatise Sanhedrin, from Reuchliu's library,
is in the grand-ducal library at Carlsruhe. In the
introduction to vols, i., iv., viii., ix., and xi. of his
"Dikduke Soferim, Varite Lectiones in IMischnam et
in Talmud Babylonicum," which contains a mass
of critical material bearing on the text of Babli, N.
Rabbinoviez has described all the manuscripts of
this Talmud known to him, and has collated the
Munich manuscript with tlie printed editions, besides
giving in his running notes a great number of read-
ings collected with much skill and learning from
other manuscripts and various ancient sources. Of
this work, which is indispensable for the study of
the Talmud, Rabbinovicz himself published fifteen
volumes (Munich, 1868-86), containing the treatises
of the first, second, and fourth orders, as well as
two treatises (Zebahim and Menahot) of the fifth
order. The sixteenth volume (Hulliu) was pub-
lished posthumously (completed by Ehrentreu,
Przemysl, 1897). Of the Palestinian Talmud only
one codex, now at Leyden, has been preserved, this
being one of the manuscripts used for the editio
princeps. Excepting this codex, onl}' fragments
and single treatises are extant. Recently (1904)
Luncz discovered a portion of Yerushalmi in the
Yulican Library, and Ratner has made valuable
contributions to the history of the text in his scholia
on Yerushalmi ("Sefer Aliabat Ziyyon we-Ycru-
shalayim"), of which three volumes Jiave thus far
appeared, comprising Berakot, Shabbat, Tcrumot,
and Hallrth (Wilna, 1901, 1902. 1904).

The first edition of Babli (1520) was preceded by
a series of editions, some of them no longer extant,
of single treatises published at Soncino and Pesaro
by the Soncinos. The first to appear was Berakot
(1488); this was followed by the twenty-three
other tractates which, according to
Early Gershon Soncino, were regularly stud-
Editions, ied in the yeshibot. The first edition
by Bomberg was followed by two
more (1531, 1548), while another was juiblishod at
Venice by Giustiniani (1546-51), who added to Bom-
berg's supplements (such as Rashi and the Tosafot,
wiiich later were invariably api)ended to the text)
other useful marginal glosses, including references
to Biblical quotations and to parallel passages of
the Talmud as well as to the ritual codices. At Sab-
bionetfa in 1553, Joshua Boa/, (d. 1557), the autlior
of these marginalia, which subseciuently were added
to all editions of the Talmud, undertook a new and

magnificent edition of the Talmud. Only a few
treatises were completed, however; for the papal
bull issued against the Talmud in the same year
interrupted the work. As a result of the burning
of thousands of copies of tlie Talmud in Italy, Jo-
seph Jabez published a large number of treatises
at Salouica (15G3 ct saj.) and Cunslantinople (1583
et seq.). The mutilated Basel edition (1578-81) and
the two editions which first appeared in Poland have
been mentioned above. The first Cracow edition
(1602-5) was followed by a second (1616-20); while
the first Lublin edition (1559 et secj.), which was in-
complete, was followed by one giving the entire
text (1617-39); this was adopted for the Amster-
dam edition (1644-48), the partial basis of the edi-
tion of Frankfort-on-the-Oder (1697-99). Many
useful addenda were made to the second Amsterdam
edition (1714-19), which was the subject of an in-
teresting lawsuit, and which was completed by the
edition of Frankfort-on-the-Main (1720-22). This
latter text has served as the basis of almost all the
subsequent editions. Of these the most iniportixnt
are: Prague, 1728-39; Berlin and Frankforl-on-the-
Oder, 1734-39 (earlier ed. 1715-22); Amsterdam,
1752-65; Sulzbach, 1755-63,1766-70; Vienna, 1791-
1797, 1806-11, 1830-33, 1840-49, 1860-73; Dvhern-
furth, 1800-4, 1816-21; Slawita, Russia, 1801-6,
1808-13, 1817-22; Prague, 1830-35, 1839-46: Wilna
and Grodno, 1835-54; Czernowitz, 1840-49; Jitomir,
1858-64; Warsaw% 1859-64, 1863-67 et seq. ; Wilna,
1859-66; Lemberg, 18Q0-65 et seq. ; Berlin, 1862-68;
Stettin, 1862 et seq. (incomplete). The edition of the
Widow and Brothers Roram at Wilna (1886) is the
largest as regards old and new commentaries, glosses,
other addenda, and aids to study.

Two other editions of Yerushalmi have appeared
in addition to the editio princeps (Venice, 1523 et
seq.), which they closely follow in coliimniation —
those of Cracow, 1609, and Krotoschin, 1866. A
complete edition with commentary appeared at
Jitomir in 1860-67. The latest edition is that of
Piotrkow (1898-1900). There are also editions of
single orders or treatises and their commentaries,
especially noteworthy being Z. Frankel's edition of
Berakot, Pe'ah, and Demai (Breslau, 1874-75).

A critical edition of Babli has been proposed
repeatedly, and a number of valuable contribu-
tions have been made, especially in the huge col-
lections of variants by Rabbinovicz;

" Variee but so far this work has not even been
Lectiones" begun, althougli mention should be
and Trans- made of tlie interesting attempt by M.

lations. Friedmann, "Kritische Edition des
Traktates Makk()th,"in the" Verhand-
lungen des Siebenten Internationalen Orientalisten-
Congresses, Semilische Section," pp. 1-78 (Vienna.
1888). Here the structure of the text is indicated
bj' such external means as dilTerent type, sections,
and punctuation. The edition of Yerushalmi an-
nounced by Luncz at Jerusalem promises a text of
critical purify.

The earliest allusion to a translation of the Tal-
mud is made bv Abraham ibn Daiid in his histor-
ical "Sefer ha-Kabb;ilah " (see Neuliauer, " M. J. C."
i. 69). who, referring to Joseph ibn Abitur (second
half of lOlh cent.), says: "He is the one who trans-

Talmud

THE JEWISH E^XYCLOP£DIA

lated the entire Talmud into Arabic for the calif
Al-Hakiiu." The tradition was therefore current
among the Jews of Spain iu the twelfth century
that Ibn Abitur had translated the Talmud for this
ruler of Cordova, who was especially noted for his
large library, this tradition being analogous to the
one current in Alexandria in antiquity with regard
to the tirst Greek translation of the Bible. No trace,
however, remains of Joseph Abitur's translation;
and iu all i)robabiiity he translated merely detached
portions for the calif, this work giving rise to the leg-
end of his complete version. The need of a translation
to render the contents of the Talmud more generally
accessible, began to be felt by Christian theologians
after the si.xteenth century, and by Jewish circles in
the nineteenth century. This gave rise to the trans-
lations of the Mishnah which have been noted else-
where (see Jew. Encyc. viii. 618, s.r. ^Mishnah).
In addition to the complete translations meiitioiied
there, single treatises of the Mishnah have been ren-
dered into Latin and into modern languages, a sur-
vey being given by BischofT iu his "Kritische Ge-
schichte der Thalmud-Uebersetzungen," pp. 28-56
(Frankfort-ou-the-3Iaiu, 1899). Twenty treatises of
Yerushalmi were translated into Latin by Blasio
Ugolino in his " Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrarum,"
xvii. (ITSo), XXX. (1765); and the entire text of this
Talmud was remlered into French by ^loise Schwab
("Le Talmud de JCM-usaleni," 11 vols., Paris, 1871-
1889). The translation by Wiuische of the hag-
gadic portions of Yerushalmi has already been men-
tioned ; and an account of the translations of single
portions is given by Bischoff {I.e. pp. 59 et seq.). In
1896 L. GoJdschmidt began the translation of a Ger-
man version of Babli, together with the text of
Bomberg's first edition; and a number of volumes
have already appeared (Berlin, 1898 et mq.). The
insufficiency of liiis work apparently corresponds to
the rapidity with which it is issued. In the same
year M. L. Kodkinson undertook an abridged transla-
tion of the Babylonian Talmud into English, of which
seven volumes apjieared before the translator's death
(1904); Kodkinson's jioint of view was quite un-
scholarly. Of translations of single treatises the
following may be mentioned (see Bischoff, I.e. pp.
68-76): Earlier Latin translations: Ugolino, Ze-
bahim, 3Ienahot (in "Thesaurus Antiquitatum
Sacrarum." xix.), Sanhediiu (ih. xxv.); G. E.
Edzard, Berakot (Hamburg, 1713); F. B. Dachs,
Sukkah (Utrecht, 1726). Noteworthy among the
Jewish translators of tlie Talmud are ;M. Rawicz
(Megillah, 1863; Rosh ha-Slianaii, 1886; Sanliedrin,
1892: Ketubot, 1897;; E. M. Pinner (Berakot, 1842,
designed as the first volume of a translation of the
entire Talmud); D. O. Straschun (Ta'anit, 1883);
and Sammter (Baba ^lezi'a, 1876). Tlieir transla-
tions are entirely iu German. Translations pub-
lished by Christian scholars in the nineteenth
century: F. C. Ewald (a baptized Jew), 'Abodah
Zarah (Nuremberg, 1850); in 1831 the Abbe Chiariui,
mentioned above, published a French translation of
Berakot; and in 1891 A. W. Streane prepared an
English translation of Hagigaii. A French version
of several treatises is included in J. iM. Rabbino-
vicz's works "Legislation Civile du Talmud" (5
vols., Paris, iy73-79) and "Legislation Criminelle

du Talmud " (ib. 1876), while WUnsche's translation
of the haggadic portions of Babli (1886-89) has been
mentioned above.

To gain a comprehensive view of the Talmud it
must be considered as a historical factor in Judaism
as well asa literary production. In the latteraspect
it is uniciue among the great masterpieces of the
literatures of the world. In form a commeutar3% it
became an encyclopedia of Jewisii faith and scholar-
ship, comprising whatsoever the greatest represent-
atives of Judaism in Palestine and in Babylon had
regarded as objects of study and investigation and
of teaching and learning, duiiiig the three centuries
which elapsed from the conclusion of the Mish-
nah to the completion of the Talmud itself. When
the Mishnah, with the man}' ancient traditions to
which it had given rise since the latter centuries of
the Second Temple, was incorporated into the Tal-
mud as its text-book, the Talmud became a record
of the entire epoch which was represented by the
Jewish schools of Palestine and Babylon, and which
served as a stage of tran.sition from the Biblical
period to the later aspect of Judaism. Although
the Talmud is an academic product and may be
characterized in the main as a report

Function (frequently witii the accuracy of min-
in utes) of the discussions of the schools,

Judaism, it also sheds a Hood of light on the
culture of the people outside the acad-
emies. The interrelation between the schools and
dail}" life, and the fact that neither teachers nor
pupils stood aloof from that life, but took part iu it
as judges, instructors, and expounders of the Law,
caused the Talmud to represent even uouscholastic
affairs with an abundance of minute details, and
made it an important source for the history of civil-
ization. Since, moreover, the religious law of the
Jews dealt with all the circumstances of life, the
Talmtid discusses the most varied branches of hu-
man knowledge — astronomy and medicine, mathe-
matics and law, auatom}- and botany — thus furnish-
ing valuable data for the hi.story of science also.

The Talmud, furthermore, is unique from the
point of view of literary hi.story as being a product
of literature based on oral tradition and yet sum-
marizing the literature of an entire epoch. Aside
from it, those to whose united efforts it may- be
ascribed have left no trace of intellectual activity.
Though anonymous itself, the Talmud, like other
products of tannaitic and amoraic literature, cites
the names of manj' authors of sayings because it
was a universal practise to memorize the name of
the author together with the saying. Manj'of these
scholars are credited with only a few sentences or
with even but one, while to others are ascribed
many hundreds of aphorisms, teachings, questions,
and answers; and the representatives of Jewish
tradition of those centuries, the Tannaim and the
Amoraim, leceived an abundant compensation for
their renunciation of the fame of authorship when
tradition preserved their names together with their
various expositions, and thus rescued even the least
of them from oblivion. The peculiar form of the
Talmud is due to the fact that it is composed almost
entirely of individual sayings and discussions on
them, this circumstance being a result of its origin:

u^yo 13 I

-w2 ':q: Q-q:l ^2^ PID cm: T?X nnyn pnp

nuo "iJ fi? 'ftp ^^^'' ^'"'^ '"5 I"!''' 1"^"" "'^"^ 1" ■'"''^ "'>' ^lW'h^p5

niin n"c jnphj rwi f^in

'•n f'i pipn 'i3fri nib izsa

■)C3n ri pdJ'i iiw ■)'0^c . ryci PiJn i?i-h : niin hip> 'm rj>c5

<]? pv^J'i '3333 ?i Vm 0'C7p7

'13ft nirins . ?cii> fti? 75'3 : ^"3

|P0 D'lJ OEi 'D ino P133-)p,->

|nw 13DC1 innt i3ft? V'y ni)5?
ihW on>i .f)':i' ft";; JRii) rb
inift ?rcn oft ore 'V ^"ci nib
p •-71 |3np» wfti pb3 V
»? P'y7' fti 'njfti nnji rpii»
'•jp'n? "ji ft)ni mnftp? ?yci mbri
wunc ]3Tini ..?inft ft7><> : min
?"n '■) i«ft'7 ft'?? p . ft7 : n
ftT? in i)i 7ni ?"D 't inib
hvri : rn;un 'D):3 i;p7 'von
oc in^'^ O'P" • Pi"'^ i" °''^''

7Pft 7Pft ^3115 : ]vvn ft^pj OT-O

J'fti? 153P M? fth . biM nin3
ri'sft lisfti ipmi 7nft 'ft ]W:^
Dib ftipjo ftnb xun ftb 'ftii>
?inft ftT.T : rif: ■ 'oi i3ius r»3
n'c inib . fti.'^ win ^u^^ P'i"
p'b ftipj j".-;? .irci pib li'Dft
'b nri : niin.'^ in 77i>3 iiofti
ft[;n37 D"c? p"7ni .'i3 ?nnp3
iiDft r3:b r))nr3' tpn isncn
. ?7ip rnnpj ft? ; ttj? ?37 ":i7
rb b» ?'rc ?7in 'nni pnnn
r3[; pn b b mb itu bn nnft

llOft 1377 IPin ?3 D'CP? oft)

ftpi7 pu b ';pp ftB'031 p"ip"n
iiDft ?7ip n)>nP3 ft? sKm trm

ftj? '77?ft ftD'DI ft:n7 ftp"7 ft'jpi'

: inin inft rft ft3?) iiDft i»ft rft
'ft7i ft?n inib . n? ]» ?/D):to
I>P7 ft?n ftb wn jjncni fti'i

niw oft hn inn'irs ciiui ''?'D niw d6 frift
n-jDif) rft' . r-5niS f)7? : niin -553 ^'p'n fti ri5C>
f))f) i'niR) p'iS pijs^p 6n piin "^p'n rtzi min '"oft

pn '5? li'cfti p'cmj r^jci

nv:rS sn cbiv"? n'bo I'S'o "jo ]nn" 'd;i

^jm >':; n>"u''7 ni'PD int \'< . xm ni'?rj nyj'?
':ij 'r^' cn^'sn ns pi3 ~vr; sin n^-o
KM s^'yr no n3S "1 nos .pBim nVan
ST'i .]'n'?03 p':? ]m« sin sn':.'o cs*:;
n\TT "pmjn* S3X 12 n^n 'n noT sn mos
sin bDMi) rh:22 ins nns ^aita ]tDVDn ]o
'b-; "-in .sn m'?o n^'trV sin m^o mos^
sn
sn

SD-

]-ins n^na sin io nryo'^^:
. niDS nun nonna sn .
niiDX niinn nonn cno
I'Tao '7'':': ^D'Js ^^sc' ,
DHD ]n'jo vn cs "jds

p'cmj
"5 : niin xa np-in '';nn3
'n"n 3"ri3 'im "ft? ■? . 'jpt
hn lio : j'D ninjn3 ri
: piJ3":p? PP'ins . rsvj
nir? ftn'C nir:? i^d . jjcin
f>"? ft";5 i"? : V7ij b3

pf) rr:;n5 Pi53";p3 en?
pip'C nb? IP c'-3"ft?
D'niin ps 65w nin? dud

sn 11DS 113 nos^bn rcnna ds nbiiPD) P'^' • ^^ ^^''^ ^■'"' •' ^''^l
sn .imo ]iu b'j dsi .imo mm nonn^ ['^ rwi^minc ?f iji^-.-:?*
SDm 11DS 10s ns S2n . nos nnn noun:: ''•'''"', "■'"'' ""^'''' • ^'^"''^

. in-io 10s ns
imo inoiinsi

□nois
ninio

D'oam

nonn
. 11DS

!?"'7:3i ]nnio niin^n ]'oin cno
. D'jna \oin pTso h'bi 'i^ yi^':^ ]nics
ns son .inio pno p^ao vn ds bss
-31 10s . 11DS 10s ns SD1 . iniD 10s
nroi" *ai los .]irs v'on rin uy'^s
in

'i?7 iiDft ?7iP punps ft? ?>"n unsi ipii) ipn'-^P3i p?ft pbs ]<piD
(|7 ftnp piD 'b3? r;pD))n «ncn p\ . riwii ,-7'p ]'i7Jnc ?i7)? ?37
ftn7 ftpi'7 'M "cpni . '13 oonift d'DJPi : onn ?")P3 ft"i3>; 'ji 3"'
?3:b rnnn ;-? n pftc iPin ^^33 mnn dpd7 ftnau 'j-p7 ftD'ci
rnnn opd rjcb nnnni I'Vjn v? oh bh fti? pui inu7 ftnponi
l'mn3 'jnp n7?i ft?nini ftp'ED7 ftnb ftp-sin i'i33 '>Dft icft
ipin i»nD 0'5?3 -ni:> 'pTsn r? eft bft uncoT .'o iviin cpo
ftc'7 ftiift 'ftiPS . ti5'ft r'JP ('IP : '13 ftj? ftiipi pp'OD finift ftp-:cn
y,v ftimnb ftp'5D3 i"ift ?n7 11 dc fti 11 ?;:; ■«' '';pn7 ftj-oi

Oili-J ?»ftp . ?'»?' 'JT : 'ft;P3 13"' q7 •b33 rb 'pin i31

■5))lb

pnnnj

ftjil llD'f)

icft "^rif) pft
men fjc-in 'nrfi pep ^d'ci ft:"-;7
i!5 o)'i!ne'3 : "icfn ::nc!5 ftc'cni -pio

6i ?j'n unenb f)?'!; p^n '';pn»

piP3 i)P7 •JiDfn rneni ni'fi. ip-^D cit ''jpimj pift

l^rft

II-

ftilpi i'lft

DPC •)■!> pu? pj5nP3 'f) ojciri rnn,-73 '6 ji ftpc^m
ftpn . 'ui -^piD "jrft nft 6:)n : f)-inv)> ftp>DD7 -'sf
rD"03i fi-jRini hp'CD rncn 6c'")3 m?ft i"cp Pvzi f^zri
: ftiipi ftp'DD isBT V'36t fiD-Di ft^njip) Pp";o -j:!:! ni?" '■; fteo p C'|S;d -pp . ;i;'iS p;p yiD : ftiipi rnti>

'I q7 Ji'un '0113 'njj p"7)t73 pr/M riw" won c>ii)> tj'.t i'>b p 7::3
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r? oft bft 0"3?;? "jnn' rft pi-jn i33 'isft pft: pnioft '7TJ21
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ibi lb i'T3n IT oft ftc'731 pipin '-? ibi lb I'Tsn r? oft 7"cpT
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'-? ofti Tnn?i 0'773 OPD oiiuii fti? ft3n 7r oiiwb 'soi '-nT
0'3?3? 'mn rft pTsn i'b 'csft I'ftc kdi ft?i pinm ibi ib pT3n
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fti? cnp crC7 'ft ?"73i fto.o'mn opd oft 'ft3P7 ftp;b ft;"ft
7'»3 '3?5n c; ftPib p:3"ft7 o'mP3 i'7iDft i-b ";;ft s"v\ c.-rsi
ftii pipin '•? o'3?3i c\'57P OPD ?;7ft7 iftni bft ?"73i o-rji? cr:
ibl lb ft3>i 0')37?37 ft'i pipm ibl lb p7'3n 1'? oft ft? pi7"P

l'P')P»3 mftp ';ri 0'3?;!) cm? opd'

cm? CPO 7:-ft7 p."53 13?3 fti 0'3?3

ft ?"73b O'.'m CPO •? ftjft

'0703 pTsn I'ij •:;ft pft7

i"'!! 'cm

fth 13 t'bro I'ft e"n3 ft?7 piK'ft?' iPin,-) .•'i) !;7pr! ftb ri'pn I'ji'i srri
rrtiJ r'7 ;•!) 3'? q7 rir'73 'ons i'l 'Oir? '37 ftn e"n>3 cr; •i:;' 'ir
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'I q7 jVun '0133 'n33 p"7)t73 ftr>,l)3 ft710'ft_li_'Dft Oill)i 713'ft I'b )'ft 7:33

r5ii3 ■ ' ■■ ' ' '

f,T7I '

ft;

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fti oft i'713'ft b io'T -P'.i 'J'?!! e'>:;i C7p? ?i E7pri C7pn- ?p'7iri ?p-,i?
'775 b 3'i>7 i)'7373 13 03 psw pfi? ft';i3?rt h'snh ?'i ft-';:7
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7ini ?,':? b p7 sirs i';i'.7 ftn-ft 3ir7 -ft?!) c'ETpj ft'iTft? r.'i ftO';o -377
b 03 i'isii:7 :'i> ?i'ar;i •37.-3 ri'sft 737 'Tr7 V's 3'» ftb ri^3ft ftb
»'? nuoiT 7"C3 i'l 6-3137? i';?i ftn'3 ?i3i ^'33 rr.iipn 1)01:37 ?i';ft
ruo: 3"n r'i3 wrn bftc !V3 r.-'ft i3ift ftb ih 11 7-3 bft fti: ?»i3:
81)133 11 733 bift ftb ?Bi3: irft riu'rft i:fts 7d 3-n i:-ft rbfti r;i3i?i fti:
ev? isift ftic ?so; 7i:ft oft i>i ''^si rnft ftift 3-p i)-ft ?i3hi rjisift fti:
131 r.-ft ftift 3'Ti "•ft 0'^? irift3 ?ii3 ri3fti ^)i;^• fti: i;3? ii) bszsi up)
wis."" fti: 733? ii) I-;:) oft ijft ?ui3;? i» rin rco: ;•^: ri3 ft>i-3 i3
?i):5: ot: 3"p rio ri:fti -i 733 i3ft> fti: ift 0133 i3ft' ^iE i>3::i 71.11
fti: ift isft- fti: i;;::i 7ir:;i rii3 i:ft'e 7P 3"n i;'ft •-■}* ft'i: ?bp 113:3:
p''?3 ft:'77 ft3:: i-i n';} -u i"i i'3i) 'i3 3"? p'O ?)rM) i3ft:n ?Pift i3ft^
e");) "i:;) n:r3 fc r;):ft' fti; 7333 is »;;3 oft ijft ''?3 ftcoi ft33i 21

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: r'.Ti :'•? p-ii 7i» -i7t!> fti ":: rpi3: im r'3 eii3
V:.-. ' 6 2

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ci;n fti? i'i3i ?7i?' P3C R"c;? ip'i) b ftift ft;n 'ftr3 i'i33i ft;n

iy J'ic) 13» 0-.P3 pi'31 V? fti ?7'r'31 pU 0103 ri'31 •'? i'i337

V-.i '\'\

?I? Cl'.l

?!)•;: left
i: i3:;i iiri

nilDO

c"L"n

;'? I'e f7>

7 6 Mi: PS

i"D h'Ti '';pp .'i;i c-P'f
mf) nnh bvj : nn^um
ftift iz'^:^ r3ip I'ftr . piR3
pp i;i? c'p: t]n'5i pin
3"P r;>i ip;i pin oft ftc"S3
0"P5 tp'i oft ftr'n p'ans
i"n 3"P Tn lijifti f)if>
M? rrsi piim n"c piin
. riiip pnrP3 ft? : P'in
'npin pmiPD Dpi ?::3-3ft
ft:)? : "^iDft p:i ijp'ji ?iit>
ftpvT .'151

pn'.-^n? ftpn ))"z ":nin ipnnP3\ p?ft-
y^n r? pft isft : "jcft pi^i pnnn? ft? "^pim

Page krom the Latest Edition ok the Jeiusai.em Tai.mip. rRi.\TED at 1'iotukow, 1899-1903.

(Ill tbtf posKssioD of J. V. ElMDStclu, New York.)

Talmud

Talmud Commentaries

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the fact that it sought especially to preserve the
oral tradition aud the transactious of the academies
allowed the iutroduction only of the single sentences
which represeuteil the contributions of the teachers
and schohirs to tiic discussions. The preservation
of tiie names of the aulliors of these apothegms,
aud of those who took part in the discussions, trans-
actions, and disputations renders the Talmud the
most imporlaut, and in many respects the only,
source for the period of which it is the product. The
sequence of generations which constitute the frame-
work of the history of the Tannaim and Amoraim
may be determined from the allusions contained in
the Talmud, from tlie anecdotes and stories of the
academies, and from other valuable iiterar}- material,
wluch exhibit the historical conditions, events, and
personages of ti»e time, not excepting cases in which
the facts have been clothed in the garl) of legend or
myth. Although it was undertaken with no dis-
tinctly literary purpose, it contains, especially in its
haggadic portions, many passages which are note-
wurtliy as litentture, aud wliich for many centuries
were the sole repositories of Jewish poetry.

After the completion of the Talmud as a work
of literature, it exercised a twofold inthicjice as a
historical factor in the Iiistory of Ju-
Its daism and its followers, not only in

Authority, regard to the guidance and formula-
tion of religious life and thought, but
also witii respect to theawakcning and development
of intellectual activity. As a document of religion
the Talmud acquired that authority which was due
to it as the written embodinieiitof the ancient tradi-
tion, and it fultilled the task wliich tlic men of the
Great Assembly set for the representatives of tlie
tradition when they said, "Make a liedge for the
Torah" (Ab. i. 2). Those who professed Judaism
felt no doubt that the Talmud was eiiual to the
Bible as a souice of instruction and decision in
problems of religion, and every effort to set forth
religious teachings and duties was based on it; so
that even the great .systematic treatise of ]\Iaimon-
ides, which was intended to supersede the Talmud,
only led to a more thorough study of it. In like
manner, the Shulhan 'Aruk of Joseph Caro, which
achieved greater practical results than the Mislmeh
Torah, of .Mainionides. owed its authority to the fact
that it was recognized as the most convenient codi-
fication of tlie teachings of the Talmud; while the
treatises on the philosophy of religion which strove
as early as the time of Saadia to Jiarmoni/e the
tnitiis of Judaism with the results of independent
thinking referred in all i)ossible cases to the author-
ity of the Talmud, upon which tliey could easily
draw for a confirmation of their theses and argu-
ments. Tlie wealth of moral instruction contained
in the Talmud exercised a profound intluence upon
the ethics and ideals of Judaism. Despite all this,
however, tlie authority enjoyed l)y it did not lessen
the authority of the JJiiile, which continued to ex-
ercise its influence as the primal source of religious
and ethical instruction and edification even while
the Talmud ruled supicnie over religious i)ractise,
preserving and fostering in the Diaspora, for many
centuries and under most unfavorable external con-
ditions, the spirit ofdeep religion and !^trict morality.

The history of Jewish literature since the comple-
tion of the Talmud has been a witness to its im-
portance in awakening and stimulating intellectual
activity among the Jews. The Talmud has been
made the subject or the starting-point of a large
portion of this widely ramified literature, which
has been the product of the intellectual activity in-
duced by its study, and to which both scholars in
the technical sense of the word and also a large
number of the studious Jewish laity have contrib-
uted. The same faculties which had been exercised
in the composition of the Talmud were requisite
also for the study of it; the Talmud therefore had
an exceedingly stimulating influence upon the in-
tellectual powers of the Jewish people, which were
then directed toward other de[)arlineuts of knowl-
edge. It is a noteworthy fact that the study of the
Talmud gradually became a religious dut3% and thus
developed into an intellectual activity having no
ulterior object in view. Consequently it formed a
model of study for the sake of study.

The Talmud has not yet entirely lost its twofold
importance as a historical factor within Judaism,
despite the changes which have taken place during
the last century. For the majority of Jews it is still
the supreme authority in religion; and, as noted
above, although it is rareh' an object of study on
the part of those who have assimilated modern cul-
ture, it is still a subject of investigation for Jewish
learning, as a product of Judaism which yet exerts
an intluence second in importance onh' to the Bible.

The following works of traditional literature not
belonging to tlie Talmud have been included in
the editions of Babli: AnoT de-Rabiu Xat.\n ; De-
iJEK Ehkz Rabb.mi; Deuek EiiEz Zlta; Kallaii;
Se.maiiot; Sokekim.

BiBi,io(;nAi"iiv : The manuscripts, editions, and translations
liave lieeii discussed in the article. Koran introduction to tlie
Talmud the following' works may l)e mentioned in addition
to the (general ones on Jewish history: Weiss, Dai-, in.; Hn-
levy, Ihivdt }in-Iiisho)iini, ii., Frankfort-on-the-Main, l',»()l :
H. L. Strack, Eiiileitium in den T(tlinu(l,'M ed., Leipsic, isiH
(covers Uw. Mishnah also and contains an extensive tiibliopra-
phy of the Talmud): M. Mh'lyjiwr. Inti-nductinn (<i the Tal-
HH«?, Cincinnati (alsopivesfrood bibliography of the Talmud;
the secoiiil part of this W(jrk contains a clear discussion of the
herrneneutics and the methodoloiry of tlie Talnnid). on the
Palestinian Talmud: Z. Frankel, Mcho. Hreslau, 1S7II; J.
Wiener, (lih'at l'cri(.»/(rt?a.i/im, Vienna, ]S7:J (reprinted from
H(i-Sliaha)): A. (;eiger. Die JcrusalciiUschc (ienmrn, in
his Jlht. Zcit. 1H70, pp. 27.S-30fi (coiiip. MDuatssclirift. 1S7I,
pp. 120-137); I. U'wy, Intfrptrtatio)! (ten Krstctt Ai>^v)niitts
(icn I'ah'Minixilun Tabniul-Tialitatcs Xcsiliiii. in liirx-
laucr Jnlircsherirlit, ISO."), pp. l-l'.t. On the I5at)ylonian Tal-
mud: Z. Krankel, licitnidi: znr KinlritiDKi in dm Tabnuil,
in M'inittssvlirift, IStil, pp. ItlS-lOt. 2l).")-212, 2.5.S 27-' : N. Brull,
Die Kiitstilniniitiiii:.'<()ii(ltt<: des l{aliiihiuis( lien Tabniidx nls
Seliriftwrrlies. in his ./aluli. 187ti, ii. 1 12:5. On the earlier
works introductory to tlie Talmud : ,1. H. Weiss, in Iht Tal-
mud, i.. ii., Vienna. ISSl, 1SS2; Samuel b. Hoplini, Mailklial
ila "<d-Tidntud (= " Introdm-iion to the Talmud"; this is
the earlii'Si work tjeariiig the title and is known only throuiirh
a (|iiotalion in the lexicon of Ibn .laiiah. .'-■.r. :;'i-i): Samuel
ha-Na^'^id, Milm ini-Talniud (formintr an appendix to tlie
first volume of modern editions of the Talmud); Joseph ibn
'Akiiin. an introduction to the Talmud (llebr. transl. from the
Arabic), edited in the Jidiehehrill des lireslaner Senti-
iinrx znni Siehzinen Geliurtstage Ft(i)diels, ]S71. For
other Works on the subject see Talmi'd IIkrmknkitics ; a
list Is Kiven in .lellinek. Kuntren lin-Kelediin. Vienna, \>*7X.
(ieniral articles on the Talmud'in reviews and encvclopedias :
Emil Deutsch, in (Judrterlji Iteeieie, 1S()7, fre(|uenily re-
printed and translated; J. Derenhourp, in Lichtenberg's Kii-
euelojiedie iles Seictiees h'riifiieiises, 1K82, xii. 1(KI7-I0:j6; Ar-
sene Darmesteter. in Ii. K. J. xviii. {Aetes ci Onifcirnecx,
pp. I'cclxxxi.-dcxlii.i: S. Scliecliter, in llastines. Diet. Tiihle,
extra vol.. liKtl, pp. r>7-(ii;: K. BischolT, 7'((/(;ii/(/-K'((^'<7/i.s))i7/.«,
Lelpsic. IIMII. On till- literature c)f the Talmud commentaries
see Ta(mii) <'(immk\ makiks. On Rrammatical and lexico-
graphical aids to the study of the Talmud see Jew. Kncyc. vi.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmud

Talmud Commentaries

80, 8.1). GRAMMAR, HKBRKW, and ih. iv. .VO .58."), x.v. DICTION-

ARIKS, Hkhrkw. t)ii ihi* t('itiiiiK)l())/.v of the Tiiliiiud see,
in addition to llic works on Tiilniudic inciliotlolo(;y : A.
Slt'in, Tatiiiudischc Tiriiuiuildiiir, AIiiIkiIh ti.scli (iKiiiliiit,
Priifrut', IHUy : W. Ituctici-, l>i( H.tiijitisrlir 'J'ntiiiiiiitimir tier
JUilisclnti TrdiUtidiisliltiraliir: part i., /)ii /ii/ir/i .ici/t-
tmlie TcnniiKiliniic drr TdiiiKiiti ii. I>i'ipslc, IH'.Kt (original
title, Dif Aelttxif Tiriniimlimir ili r Jl'iiiischcii Sv)iriltnux-
Iciiuinn: part ii., Die Hihtl- unit TraditiuiiitexcuetiiicUc
TcnniiKibniic (hr Atnarilir, ib. UK),").

AV. B.

TALMUD COMMENTARIES: The comiuon-
taric's oil Uie TuIhiikI coiistitiitc only it .siimll pait of
lialaUic liti-ralure in comparison witli the rosponsa
literature and tlie commcnlarics on the codices. At
the time when the Tahnvid was concluded the tra-
ditional literature was still so fnish in the memory
of sciiolars that there was no need of writing Tal-
mudic commentaries, uor were such works under-
taken in the tiist period of the gaonate. Paltoi Gaon
(c. 840) was the tirst who in his responsaoll'ered verbal
and textual comments ou the Talmud. Zemah b.
Paltoi {c. 872) i)arapliras(Hl and explained tlie passages
which he quoted; and lie composed, asanaid to the
study of the Talmud, a lexicon which Abraham
Zacuto consulted in the fifteenth century. .Saadia
Gaon is said to have composed commentaries on the
Talmud, aside from liis Arabic com-

Earliest mentaries on the Mishnah (Ben Jacob,
Attempts. "Ozar lia-Sefarim," p. 181, No. 430).
According to the Karaite Solomon b.
.Teroham, a commentary on Yerushalmi by Ephraim
b. Jacob existed as early as the time of Saadia, al-
though this is highly improbable (Pinsker, "Lik-
kutc Ivadmoniyyot," Supplement, p. 4; Poznanski,
in "Kaufmann Gedenkbuch," p. 182).

The last three great geonim, Sherira, Hai, and
Samuel b. Hofni, did much in this field. j\Iost of
Siierira's comments were explanations of ditficult
terms. Many of these are quoted by Abu al-Walid
(Bacher, " Leben und Werke des Abulwalid Mer-
wan ibn Ganah, " etc., p. 8.1). It appears from the
quotations in the '"Aruk" that Hai Gaon wrote
commentaries on at least eleven treatises (Kohut,
"Aruch Completum," xiii. et seq.). Abu al Walid
quotes Hai's commentary on Shabbat (Bacher, I.e.
p. 87). In the eleventh century commentaries on
the Talmud were composed not only in Babylon but
also in Africa, Spain, and Germany. In the first
half of that century Nissim b. Jacob, of Kairwan in
northern Africa, composed his"Kitab ]\Iiftah Ma-
ghalikal-Talmud" (Ilebr. title, "Sefer Mafteah Man-
'iile ha-Talmud" = "Key to the Locks of the Tal-
mud"), acommentary in which he exidains difficult
passages by references to parallel ones and occa-
sionally to Yeruslialmi also. The work of Hananeel
b. Hushiel corresponds more to acommentary in the
exact sense of the term. He sums up the Talnuidic
discussions, perhaps in order to facilitate the halakie
decision, devoting liis attention principally to deter-
mining the correct text of the Talmud. Tlie first
teachers in Spain, Enoch ben Moses, Joseph ibn
Abitur, Isaac ibn Ghayyat, and Isaac Albargeloni,
are also known to have composed commentaries on
the Talmud (Weiss, "Dor," iv. 276 it se<].). Nal.i-
mani quotes Talmudic comments from a work by
Samuel ha Nagid (Benjacob, I.e. No. 481). Accord-
ing to a not entirely authenticated statement (//*.
No. 247), the famous exegete Abraham ibn Ezra

compo.sed a commentary ou tiic treatise Kiddu-
sliin. In Germany, Ger.shom b. Judali engaged in
similar labors, though his commentaries have come
to ligiit only in the last century: they appear to
have been the cliief sources used by Basiii (1040-
1105), the greatest commentator of the Talmud.
Although liaslii drew ujxiii all his predecessors, yet
his originalfty in using the material olTered by them
lias always been admired. His commentaries, in
turn, became the basis of the work

Rashi. of his pupils and successors, who com-
po.sed a large number of supiilenien-
tary works that were partly in emendation and
l)artly in explanation of Hashi's, and are known
underthe title "tosafot." These works were printed
together with Rashi's commentaries in the first edi-
tions of single Talmud treatises, and then in the
collective editions. The tosafot included in the
present editions are taken from various collections.
There are tosafot of Sens, tosafot of Evreux, tosa-
fot of Touques, etc. (Winter and Wiinsche, "Die
Jiidische Litteratur," ii. 465). Instead of the simple,
strictly logical method of exegesis a dialectic method
showing great acumen is frecjuently employed
in the tosafot. Originating in the German and
French schools, and thence adopted by the Spanish
and Arabic, it found in the following centuries (13th
to 15th) brilliant representatives in Moses b. Nahman,
Solomon ben Adret, and others in Spain, as well as
in various scholars in Turkey, although the Oriental
Jews generally followed the simple method of Tal-
mud study. The commentators are called " rislio-
nim " (elders) down to the sixteenth century, and
subsequently "aharonim" (juniors).

In the sixteenth century the hair-splitting dialec-
tic study of the Talmud known as the Pili'I'l came
to the fore. The method called "hilluk," originating
in Augsburg and Nuremberg, claimed cliief atten-
tion, especially through the influence of Jacob Poi.l.vk
of Poland, that country becoming in the course of
the century the principal center of the study of the
Talmud. Special rules were formulated for com-
posing the hillukini (Jellinek, in Keller's "Bik-
kurim," i. 3). It is freiiuently iuti-

Method. mated in subseciuent pilpulistic works
of that the author himself regards his

Hillukim. expositions as artificial, though he
l)elievcs them to contain a grain of
truth. This method still dominates to some extent
the study of the Talmud in the eastern countries of
Europe. But Jewisli science demands a scientific
treatment of the Talmud — an examination of its
sources and parallel passages from a historical,
archeological, and ]diilolagical ]ioint of view, a
methodical analysis of its text, and a comparative
study of it by the side of other monuments of
antiquity.

The Palestinian Talmud was studied much less
than the Babylonian, although occasional comments
on Yerushalmi are found in Aifasi and other earlier
authorities, especially in the commentary of Samson
of Sens on the niishnaic order Zera'im. The first
connected commentary on many treatises of Yeru-
shalmi was comjiosed in the seventeenth centur}' by
|{. Joshua Benveiiiste. who had at hand R. Solomon
Sirillo's comuicntarv on certain treatises. Elijah

Talmud Comzneutaries

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Fulda commentated in 1710 the order Zeiiiim and
part of the order Nezikiu. The greater part of
Yerushahni wiis edited about the mid-
Palestinian die of the eighteenth cenlurv by 3Ien-

Talmud. dL-lssoliu's teacher Daviil Frilukei ; and
a compk'le commentary was writ-
ten by Moses Margoliotii. Xotewortliy as com-
mentators in the nineteenth century are Nahum
Trebitsch and Zacharias Frankel.

The commentaries on IJabii may be divided into:
(1) "perushim," running commentaries accompany-
ing the text: (2) " tosjifot " (additions), glosses on
Rashi's commentary; (3) "hiddushim " (novella;),
explicit comments on certain passages of the Talmud
text; and (4) "liaggahot, " or marginal glosses. As
appears from the following chronological list, the
treatises Seder Moed, Nashim, and HuUin, which
deal particularly with the religious life and which
were therefore made special subjects of study and
instruction, were most frciiuentl}' conunentuted,
while the Seder Kodashim is less often made the
subject of comment. In the subjoined list only the
edited commentaries are enumerated, no note being
taken of treatises on which there are no commen-
taries. The letter •' W " indicates the Wiliia (Widow
tfc Brothers Romm) Talmud edition of 1886.

CnuoxoLOGrcAL List of Commentatoks on Both
Talmudim.

Eleventh Century.

Niasim b. Jacob (d. 1040), Sefer Mafteah (see above ; Ber., Shab.,
'Er.), ed. I. Goldenthal, Vienna, IStV; in \V.

Gerehom b. Judah (d. lOW)), j)eru.sh (Ber.. Ta'an., B. B., entire
Seder Kodashim excepting Zeb.); in W.

Bananeel b. Hushiel (d. 10.t0), penisli (Seder Mo'ed, Seder Ne-
zikiu exiepling B. B.); in W.

Solomon b. Isaac (Raslii), commentary on thirty treatises; In
all editions.

TwEL>Tn TO Fifteenth CENTrRV.

Samuel b. MeTr, foinmentary on Haba Batra from the third sec-
tion and on the hist section of Hesal.iiin ; in all editions.

Isaac b. Nathan, commentary on Makkot : iu all editions, be-
Rlnning with 1%.

Ellezer b. Nathan, commentary on Nazir; in W.

Jacob Tam (d. 1171), -\2"n nco, on thirty-one treatises, Vienna,
IMl.

Isaac b. Samuel of Dampierre, tosafot to Kiddushin : in U'.

Joseph ibn MipLsh, hiddushim (Sheb., Salonica, 1759; B. B.,
Amsterdam. 1703).

Moses h. Malmon. perush (R. H.). Paris, ise.").

Judah Sir Lem (d. 12:i4), tosafot (Ber., in rz'^ry: .-1313), War-
saw. lH<i3.

Samson of Sens, tosafot (Shab., 'Er., Men., in all editions:
Sotah in W.).

Perez, UMntm (llezuh, Ned., Naz., Sanh., Mek., Me'i., In all edi-
tions; B. K., I.ephorn, 181'J).

Moses of Evreux, tosafot (Iter.); in all editions.

Samuel of Evreux, tosafot to Sotah. ih.

Samuel of Kulaise, to>afot to 'Abodah Zarah. ib.

Baruch. tosafot to /ebahlm, ili.

Meir Abulalla (d. l-'44), r\~^ n< (B. B.. Salonica, 1803; Sanh., i7<.
179K,.

Judah b. B<-nJamln ha-Rofe, penish (Shek.): in W.

I'erahyah b. NIssim (c. 1250),^jlddU8hlm, in npn nu>;":, Venice,
17.T:.'.

Isaiah dl TranI 'r. IZiO), trwafot d., B. K., B. M., B. 15., "Ah. Za-
nili, NIddah. Shab., Ha?.; il., "Er., R. H.. Yoma. Suk..
Meg., M. K., res., Bt-zah, Ned., Naz., Lemberg, 18<>2 ;
Ket.. C,\\., in W.).

Jonab Gerondi (d. 1203), hiddushim (Sanh., In :>'n :d), Leg-
horn, 1W)1.

Moses b. Nahinan uj. c. 1370), hiddushim fBer., 'Er., Tes., M. K..
Hat'., R. H., Suk., Ta'an., Meg., In r3-->- .-vj\-)^, Sa-
lonlca. 1701 ; Shab., in i-nj ->xin. Presburp, 1h:(7; Yeb.,
Homburg. 170(1; Ket., Metz, 17(>.j: (iit., NIddah, in
nvjs' nr-rn, Sulzbach, 17(12; B. B., Venice, 1723).

TiKlros ha-Levi (d. 1288), in:n -\sin 'on the baggadot), .\o-
vidvor, 1M>; hiddushim (Meg., Youia, in ^•'•'n :D), Leg-
Lorn, 1801.

Aaron ha-Levi (d. 1293), hiddushim (Ket., Prague, 1742 ; Bezah,
in S'jDiNH nN-\r, Leghorn, 1810).

MeTr of Rothenburg (d. 1293). tosafot to Yoma: in all editions.

Solomon b. AdretUl. 1310). hiddushim (Shab.. U. IL.Meg., Yeb.,
Ned., B. K., Hul., Constantinople. 1720; Sheb., Salonica,
172!); Niddab, Altona, 1737; Men., Warsiiw, 1861 ; 'Er.,
il>. 1893).

Yom-Tob b. Abraham, hiddushim (Sheb., Salonica. 1805; 'Er.,
Ta'an., M. K., Ket.. B. M., Amsterdam, Uat; R. H.,
Konigsberg. 1858; Youui, Constantinople. 17.")4 ; Meg.,
Warsaw, 1880; Yeb., Leghorn, 1787; Kid., Sabbionelta,
1553; Git., Salonica, 1758; *Ab. Zarah, in ^n.""''''."! piiN,
ih. 1759; Sanh., in c^c^n pr''. Leghorn, 1781: Sheb., in
C<|1^^S.^ nrj'-:, i"'>. 1780; Mak., Sulzbach. 1702; Jiul.,
Prague. 173.5; Niddah. Vienna. 1868).

Menahem .Me'irKc. 1:J00). m-n^n .■""j (Shab., Leghorn, 1794 ; Yo-
ma. i/). 17(iO; Meg.. Hag.. Ta'an., Prague, 1810; Ned.,
Naz., Sotah, Bezah, Berlin, 1859; Yeb., Salonica, 1794).

Asher b. Jehiel (d. 1327), perush (Ned., Naz.), in W.; tosafot
(Ber., in .t'^vj-: n^nj, Warsaw, 1862; Suk., Jerusalem,
1903; B. H., ih. 1871; Meg., i7». 18W; 'Ah. Zarah, i7*.
1888; Git., Constantinople, 1711; B. M., Dyhernfurth,
1823; Sanh.. Hul., in. -^lar n;:":n, Sulzbach, 1762 ; Sheb..
Venice, 1608; .Niddah, under the title B'-'^'J' .-117, Ven-
ice, 1741); Aaron ha-Levi, n'snn ^m^n, Kid.,Husiatyn,
1902; nuN^n c'-in-: vj'n^n (Pes.), Jerusalem, 1873.

Isaac Aboab <d. 14M), hiddushim (in the resportsaof Moses Ga-
lante), Venice, 1608.

Sixteenth Centcrt.

Jacob be-Rab (d. 1546), hiddushim (Ket.. Kid.), in his responsa.
Venice, ltiti3.

1549. Joshua Boaz Baruch, the indexes nix:: -\i •>:s'Z'r: yy, ^^l^^.
"M.N. Venice.

1552. Mattathias Delacrut, hiddushim CEr.), Lublin.

1561. Joscpli ibn Leb, hiddushim (Ket., B. K., Sheb., Constantl-
noiile, 1.561; Git., ih. 1573).
Solouion Luria (d. 1573), n::^z' ''^■•' a' (Bezah. Lublin. 1036;
Yeb.. Altoua. 1740; Kid., Berlin, 1766; Ket., Leiuberg,
1S02: (iit., lieriin, 1761 ; Hul.. Cracow, 1615); nr:'?u' pc;n
on nineteen treatises, Ciacow. 1581.

1573. Judah b. Moses, ^cSs'n^ iic':'.'^ P")1DC, Constantinople.

1577. Jacob v-''? ■'iht:), ap"' pn'''V"i (Bezah), Jerusalem, 1865.

1587. Samuel Jaffe Ashkenazi, nN-\o ns', on the baggadot of
Yeruslialmi. Venice. 1.590.
Abraham Burjil, z^iON cnS (Yeb., Ket., B. K., Bik.), i7j.
16(r).

1591. Joseph ibn Ezra, nor picxy (Kid.), Salonica.

Bezaleel Ashkenazi. .-i-iip": hb'-' (Ber., Warsaw. 18fi;j;
Bezah. Constantinople. 1731 ; Ket., ib. 17;J8; Naz.. Leg-
hoi^n. 1774: Sotah. ih. 1800; B. K.. Venice. 1762; B. M.,
A)nsterda)n. 1726; B. B.. Lemberg, 18(11); Seder Koda-
shim, excepting Hul., iu W.).

\atz.

1603.
1608.

1612.
1614.
1619.

16.52.
166(1.

1002.

Seventeenth Centcrv.

Samuel b. Eleazer. hiddushim (Ket., (iit.), Prossnitz.

Jedidiah (ialaute. hiddushim (Bezah, Yeb., Git., B. K., 'Ab.
Zarah), Venice.

Abraham Hayyiu) Shor, D'-n miP CEr., Pes., B. K., B. M.,
B. B. Sanii., Sheb., "Ab. Zarah, Hul.), Lublin; JNS
2':;-ip (Seder Kodiushlm), Wandsbeck. 1729.

Mordecai Jaffe (d. 1611), .""v^T'in n^iD": (glos.ses); iu W.

Moses b. Isaiah, hiddushim (Zeb.), Berlin. 1701.

Sainut'l Edels, hiddushim (.N'un.i:; on all treatises), Lublin.

Issachar Biir, i'3:;' -in3 (Hor., Ker., Sotali, Hul.). Venice.

Meir Lulilin, 2'~3n ^y; tn-; (on mostof the treatises*, ih.

Isaac ha-Levi, hiddushim (Sheb., Bezah, Yeb., Kid., Ket.,
'All. Zarah, Hul.), Neuwied. I7:«3.

Abrahaui di Boton (d. 162.5), hiddushim (B. K., in ^i-\n-:
C'-::), Venice, 1.599.

Joseph di Trani (d. hW), hiddushim (Kid.), H). 1045.

Joel Sirkes (d. lOIOi, haggahot; in W.

Joshua b. Solou)on (d. 1648), n-'^u" 'JJC (Shab., Pes., Be-
zah, Yeb.. Ket.. Kid., B. K.. Hul.), Amsterdam, 171.5.

Lip))ia>iu Heller (d. 16.54), 2vj cr r;,y''": (notes): in W.

Hiyya Itofe, N>'n '•ii'^'c (on nineteen treatises). Venice.

Mordecai Kremsier. n3;tn .""lap (on the baggadot of
Ber.). Amsterdam.

Joshiui Benveniste. ),"i''\n> n-i;:» (Yer. Zera'im, Constanti-
nojile. 1662; Mo'ed, Nashim, Nezikin, i7). 1754).

TPIE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmud Comzuentaries

Meir SchilT b. Jacob, hldiiushe halakot (1., 11., Sheb., Be-
zah, Ket.. (iU., B. K.. li. M.. B. B., Sanh.. Zeb., I.Iul.).
Zolkiev, lH~t), aiiJ in llie editiDiis.

Joshua Hoscliel (cl. 16li;i), l.iiildiisliim (B. K., B. M., B. B.),
Frank forl-ou-lhe-Muin, lT:i.").
1664. Polonum Algazi, a^-\rD sn"^ CAb. Zarab, Bt>r., I.Iul., Ven-
ice, lt!tl-t; ZT';^ riMir, Salonjca, Itl.V); and nz^ii' ant,
('i)iistantinople, Uks:!; on batrpatiot).

1669. Aaron Samuel Kaidanover, n^TH .-312 (Zeb., Men., 'Er.,

Ker., Teiu., Me'j.), Ainsterdain, KiO!); '^ni':!:' j — ind"^
(I'es., Bezab, Yeb., Ket..(iit.. B. K., B. M.. Hul.). Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, Hl'.M).

1670. Jonah Teuinini (d. lO'.lt)), njn jvp^"' (on thirteen trea-

tises), Amsterdam.

1671. Moses Benveniste f)f Sepovia, z^yc''< 'P3"' 32n (Ber., Se-

der Mo'edl, Smyrna.
Ha) vim ben Israel Benveniste (d. 1673), ~"ni Nitn (Sanh.).
' Lechorn, Isii;?.
168:2. Samuel Eliezer b. .ludab, liiddusbe agpadot, Frankfort.
1686. Isaac Benjamin Wolf, biddusliim (B. M.i, il>.

Mo.ses ibn Habib (d. ItilHJ), y-it<3 nici:' (II. H., Yoma,
Suk.), Constantinople, 1727.
1693. .Moses b. Simeon, rn^'aoc D':d (Ber., Seder Mo'ed),

Prague.
1698. Judah b. Nis.san, min^ :^>a (Yeb., Ket.. Kid., Git., B. K.,
B. M., B. B., Hul.), with biddushim of David Oppenheiin,
Dessau.

1698. Naphtali Cohen, mi.T' 0313 (Ber.), Frankfort.

1699. Samuel Zarfati, "^Nici:' nai (Ber., 'Kr.. Bezah, R. H., B.

K., Hor.), Amsterdam.

Meir SchilT b. Soloman, D^ ^'^2 h'jn -j-n (Ber., Sheb., Be-
zah, Pes., Men.), Fiirth, 1798.

Baruch Angel, hiddushim (Ket., Git., B. K., B. M., Sheb.,
'All. Zarab, Hul.), Salonica, 1717.

Nehemiah b. Abraham Feiwel Duschnitz, n'3J nan (on
twelve treatises), Amsterdam, 169-1.

Judah Liva b. Bezaleel n'-\D IIJ (Shab., 'Er., Pes.), Lem-
berg. 1801.

EIGHTEE.NTH CENTURY.

1700. Josephb. Jacob, nov i;'Ni (on thehaggadah), Ams;terdam.
Elijah Spira (d. 1712), n^i in^'^N (Kid., Ket., Git., B. K.,

B. M., Hul.), Furth, 1768.
Abraham Broda (d. 1717), DmaN hca (Pes., Git., B. M.,
B. B.), Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1747; cn-\3vS nn^in
(Kid., Ket.), Fiirtb, 1769; hiddushim (B. K., B. M.,
Sanli. in 2>jivS'jri >;:'nn), OfTenbach, 172:5.
1710. Elijah b. Judah, perush on Yer. Zera'iin and Shek., Am-
sterdam, 1710: B. K., B. M., B. B., Frankfort,' 1742.

1710. Abraham Naphtali Spitz, psi n'^c (on most of the trea-

tises), Frankfort-on-the-Main.

1711. Samuel Shotten, n1>''|■;'^"^ D13 (Seder Nezikin, excepting

Hor.), i/).

1714. Akibab. Judah l.ob, a'^i;' "^^xn (Ket.), ih.

1715. Meir Eisenstadt (d. 1744), nnwc D'JD (part i., Zeb., Shab.,

Hul., Amsterdam, ni.^i; part ii.. Git., Sulzbach, 1733;
part iil.. Kid., Bezah, il>. 1738 ; also B. K., Sudilkov, 1832).
Joseph ba-kohen Tanuji (d. 1720), r|Di> ijj (B. K., B.M.,
'Ab. Zarab), Leghorn. 1793.

1720. Solomon Kohen, hiddushim (on eleven treatises), AVil-
rnersdorf.

1725. Samuel di Avila, niin -i7D (Naz.), Amsterdam.

Menahem Nahum b. Jacob. ]nDO jns? (on fourteen trea-
tises), Dvhernfurth, 1726.

1728. Johanan Kremnitzer, -)v,:"n n")iN (Naz.), Berlin.

1728. Elijah b. Jacob, ih^Vn n3-\3 (Pes., Kid., Ket., Git., B. K.).

Wandsbeck.
Elijah ha-Kohpn (d. 1729), in^^'x pijs (Yer. Zera'im),
Smyrna. 17.")5.

1729. Judah of (iross-Glogau, min' ''i,-! (on most of the trea-

tises), Amsterdam.

1729. Jacob b. J()sei)h Ueischer, 3py^ ]v; (on haggadot), V>'\U

mersdorf.

1730. Menahem Manuele, "ii-ia yir (on most <if the treatises),

Wandsbeck.

1731. Isaac b. David, pnx' -jo (Ber., Seder Mo'ed), Amsterdam.
Jacob b. Joseph Kremer, ^nt;" >"^t (R. H., Anisterdan),

1731 : Meg., Alt<ma, 17:t5).
Aryeli I.ob b. Asher. 'in mOJ (Ta'an.). Wilna. 1862;

J3N 'iia (R. II.. Hag., Meg.), Metz, 1781.
1733. Selig b. Phoebus, jnn.y .-^v.' (on haggadot). OfTenbach.
1733. Ephi'aim b. Samuel, jn r^^^ (on most of the treatises),

Altona.

1737. Zebl Hirsch b. Joshua, '3X y<H} (Yeb., Ket., Kid., B. K.,
B. M., Hul.), Prague.

1739. Jacob Josliua Falk (d. 17.56). j,'a'VT 'jo (Ket., Git., Kid.,

Atnsterd.im, 1739; Ber., Shab., Pes.. R. H.. Suk.. Friink-
fort-on-tbe-Mult), 17.J2; B. K., B. M., ib. 175j: Hul.,
Mak., Shell.. FQrth, 1780).

1740. Sbabbethai b. Moses, jnj rmr: (on most of the treatises),

Fiirtb.

1741. Israel b. Moses, "^nt,:" nxj (on the mathematical pas-

sages), Fr<iiikfort-on-tbe-()der.
1743. David Friinkel, mj? p-\|i and pip 'T'l:' (Yer. Seder

Mo'ed, Dessau, 1743; Seder Nashlm, ih. 17."j7).
17.50. Moses Margolloth, nc": 'j2 (Yer. Nashlm, Amsterdam,

17.50: Nezikin, Leghorn, 177(J).
1751. Jacob Samosc, z;^-;' .'^nn (Ber., Suk., Bezah, Kid., B. K.,

li. M., Sheb.), Rodelhelm.
1755. Aaron b. Nathan, pins 2i;' (on most of the treatises),

Znlkiev.

17.56. Hayyim Joseph David Azulai, HDV ->y;' (Hor.), Leghorn.
Akiba Eger (d. 1758), NS-pj? '3m Pj'.r:; (Ber., Shal)., 'Er.,

Pes., Bezah. Suk., Yeb., Ket., Kfd., Git., Seder Nezikin,
Seder Kodashiiu. Niddah), Furth, 1781.

17.57. Joseph b. Meir Teomim (d. 1793), r|Di- .--m2 (Yeb., Ket.),

Zolkiev, 17.57; rjov -^I's-) (Hul., Frankfort-on-lhe-(Jder.

1794; Sheb., .Meg., Lemberg, 1863).
1760. Isaiah Berlin, 3::'it rvz'P and nno'jv-i -i-ix (notes on all

the treatises.- hiddushim on Naz.), n.p.; haggahot in W.

1763. Joseph Darmstadt. r|DV y; (Ber., Bezah. .Meg.), Carlsrube.

Jonathan Kybeschiitz (d. 1764), jrJirr' 'iDn (on most of the

treatises), Piotrkow, 1897.
1766. Isaac Ashkenazi, n-\^rt■' ^OJ (Git., Ket.. B. K.). Salonica.
1766. Isaac Nuiiez-Vaez, pnx'' n^iT'CYoma. Leghoni, 1766; IJag.,

i7). 1794).
Jacob Emden (d. 1776), glosses; in \V.
1776. Elijah Sidlov, n-^.s .-tj;- (Zeb., Men., Tem.), t"urth. 1776.

1776. Eleazar Kallir (d. 18f)l), c'-in -'1N (Pes., Frankfort-on-the-

Oder, 1776; Kid., Vienna, 1799).
Judah Lissa, jhd hnio (Zeb.), Frankfort-on-the-MaIn,
1776; ]r\2 nnj-; (Men.), Prague, 1788.

1777. Itzig b. Samson, z\ys pip (Yoma, Bezah, Sheb., Hul.,

'Ar., Tem., Me'i., Ker.), Sulzbach.

1778. Saul b. Aryeh (d. 1790), TicSn P^2 (on fourteen treatises),

Amsterdam.
1778. Raphael Reiser, n^i::"''-' iin (Pes., Shab., Bezah. Ket.. R.

H., Hul.), Dvhernfurth, 1778; rv.-nr r^-\: (Kid., Git.),

ih. 1805.
1781. Eliezer de Avila, C'-\13J IJ3 (i., B. M., Hor.; ii., Ket., Kid.,

Leghorn, 1781-85).
1784. Nathan Maas, nr:'-",;' ]':3 (Sanh., Offenbach, 1784; 'Ab.

Zarah, ih. 17%).

1784. Ezekiel Landau "n"S"x = n-n Z'Si^ jvx (Pes., Prague,

1784; Ber., (/-. 1791 ; Bezah, ih. 1799; Sheb., 'Er.. War-
saw, 1879; R. H., Yoma, Suk., Ta'an., Hag., Meg., i7>.
1890; Hul., Zeb.. Men., ih. 1891); glosses; in W.
Elijah Wilna (d. 1797), glosses and elucidations of both
Talmudim in various editions.

1785. Moses Katz, 3nr >ji3-n (Shek.), Fiirth.

1786. Phinelias Horwitz, ns'^Dn (part 1., Ket., Offenbach, 1786;

part ii.. Kid., ii). 1801 : part iii., Ber., Munkacs, 189:5).
1786. Meir Barby, hlddushe halakot (i., Bezah. Pes.. Kid., Ket..
Dyhernfinth. 1786; ii., Yoma, Suk., Git., Hul., Sheb.,
Prague. 1793).
Uziel Meisels, 31a .-yi.n y; (Sheb.), Lemberg, 1886.

1788. Wolf Lasch, ''niS" r\yy-<p (i., li., Ket., Kid., Git., Brunn,

1788; Vienna, 1829).

1789. Joseph David Sinzheim, "in i' (Ber., entire Seder Mo'ed),

OlTenbach.
David SchilT id. 1792), 3^7.1 ]YZ'^ (on most of the treatises),
ill. 1822.

1791. Levi Pollak. m'-

,2S ;.

^->^•:■; (B. K., B. M.. B. B.,

Sheb., 'Ab. Zarah). Prague.
Isaac b. Zebl, U'ipn ri">na (Zeb.). Lemberg.

17')2

17St2. .Meir Spitz, iiNc''' rv: (R. II

. Yoma. Suk.. .Meg.,
Leghorn, 175M ; rnrr
' vu (Ket.), Vienna,

Ta'an.), Vienna.
1794. Judah Najar, min' »d^n (Sheb.),

mn> (Ker.). Pisa. 1816.
1796. Baruch b. Samuel Zanwil. ■'N^tl

17!h;.
1790. Joseph b. Moses, 3U"in nrvt <B. K.i, Lemberg.
1799. Elijah Ventura. C'a-n N3r; 'on twenty-one treatises),

Salonica.
Aryeh .ludab Lob Teomim. :'3-i,s r'"N < Ber., Shab., Pes..

Bezah, Hul.. Kid.. Sheb.), Zolkiev, 1802.

Talmud Commentaries
Talxaud Heimeneutics

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ijlayyim Sbabbetbai Lago, 3''i; rnrc IBer.. Pes., Kid.,

" Sanh.. Hul.t. Salonka. 1S)1.

Abraham b. Jacob Mutal, -^-rj r-Mr (Xaz.), n.p., 1821.
Ijlayyiin Abratiaiu b. Suiiiuel, hiddusblni tSbab., R. H..

' Suk., Hul.). Salonica, ISlH.

XlXETtUi.\TH AND TWEXTIKTU CENTCRIKS.

- ' ! Hirscli Horwitz, M^ n:n^ (U treatists). Offenbach.

- .. i .UAT Kai-peles, sv-"" "J^Kr (Hor.). Prague : "-;• '2-\y

.Hul.. "Ar.), i/.. 181.').
l!*e. Bezaleel RoDsburg. -\3j nnin (Hor.), Prague; j'-( '-.yyc,

notes, in W.
ISie. Eleaziir Low. npn |rc (Ber.. Pes.. Bejzah), Prague.
HM. Abralium .\ryeh Kahana, 2-<7Ji "iix (on most of the trea-
tises i, ostrog.
l!*li). Melr Sthlesinger, -"'nc ^-»31 (Shab., R. H., Git., B. M.).

Prague.
1»U. Jawb Simeon Shabbethai. 2'n>^N r.-:: (Meg., Ta'an),

Pisa, ISJl : aiT' i'2N (Ker.), ib. 1811.
18U. Jacob (iunzburg, a,"";' >"" <Bcr., Shab.). Prague.
1M3. Benedetto Frizzi, S'j'j nrfl (on haggadot), Leghorn.
1S21. Nahum Trebltsch, B'Sni^ z^'^y (Yer. Seder Mo'ed), Vi-
enna.
1822. David Deutsch, in ^nx (on most of the treatises), Vienna,
1S:S^ 1825; Presburg, 1836; Ungvar, 18«J7.
Moses Sofer, -\ciD zrn 'S'n^n (Bezah. Piotrkow, 1898 ; B.
B., lb. 1896; Shab., Vienna, 1889; Hul., Git., ib. 1893;
Pes., Jerusalem, 1894>; haggahot in W.
1822. Gabriel Cohen, '^•Nir'' "rj" (B. B., Sheb.), Vienna.
1S3. Jacob Lissa, a,-";'' T'D (Kei.j, Hrubisov.
ls24. Manus Hirsch, I'^rn i-\t (Seder Mo'ed excepting Shab.,
"Er.. Hag.), Prague.
Shalom L'llniann (d. 1825), c'l •""i3i (on most of the trea-
tises), Vienna, 1826.
Aklba Eger (d. 1837), U'nni u'm (Ber., Seder Mo'ed,
Yeb., Ket.), Warsaw, 1892; -yyt* N3'p;- 'l ^S'nn (B. M.,
Git.), Berlin, 1858; notes in \V.
1826. Zebi Hirsch Leipnik, ]~-i'^. -^Z''^ ■<p}^ ap (Ber., Shab., 'Er.,
Pes., Bezah, Ket., Kid., Git., B. M., Ker., Zeb.), Ofen.
Isaac Ardit, T^yn np' ('Ar.), Salonica, 1828.
ISS. Jacob Weiler, jpi"' .-^"a CEr.), Zolkiev.

Aaron Kuttner (d. 1829), jnnN pniv^ (N'id.), Paks, 1901.
Cosman Wodianer (d. 1831), ycini p'^nj (2 parts, on most

of the treatises), ed. Bacher, Vienna, 189().
Zebi Hirsch Heller, pa'j 3VJ ''iriTn <Git.), Zolkiev, 1844.
ls»4. Solomon Kluper. mj 'c (Niddah), Zolkiev, 1834; av njj
2X2 (Bezah), Lemberg, 1891.
Ezekiel Binet (d. 18:j6), "^Nprni pni.-i (Shab., Pes., Bezah,

Kid., Git., Mek., Hul.), Paks, 1899.
Wolf Bar Schlll (d. 1842), jn^r rnjc CEr.), Cracow, 1894.
Koppel Reich, p'^in ^y yzy- 'cn^n, Presburg, 183".
Benjamin Rapoport, ^nt;"*^ r^-\•; (Mak.), Vienna, 1839.
1840. Hirsch Chajes. haggahot; in W.

Aryeh Judah b. Aklba, n«-\,x 3''' (Hul.), Lemberg, 1861.
IKjo. Samuel Freund, riija"? r;' (Seder Mo'ed), Prague.
\Sit). Jacob Ettlinger (d. 1869), -\js iny (Ker., Altona, 1850;
Veb., ih. 18.">4: R. H., Sanh., Warsaw, 1873); a'-n:3 -w^';
(Suk.), Altona. 18.58.
18.51. David b. Samuel, in 'S'-<p (Seder Kodashim). Leghorn,

18.51 ; in n' (Naz.), Algiers, 18.5:1
18.51. Isaac Kamanin, jpt >jfl ^Shek.), Lemberg.
I.S.54. Niitlian Comne!, ]rj V2 (Ber.), Vienna.
1^57. Usachar Bar ben Sinai, 'jy pnj2 (on most of the trea-

tis»*s), Vienna. 1K57.
Iti59. Wiesner. .scholia on Babli (part 1., Her., Prague, 1859; part

li., Shab.. i)). lWi2; part iil., 'Er., Pes., il,. im7).
1X50. Zeeb Ettlnger and Joseph .\alhansohn,;:£3-j'?:i';', 'jiyc ij,
c'^rn'i p'x, D'2'.n iv'?j (glosses, eu-., on Yer.), Jitotnir.
18<;i. Ezekiel b. M'n>es, ^xprn> \>:2 (Ket., .\ed.), Warsaw.

Mordf<:ii .Mullcr. '->1K p (Shab.), Vienna.
I.s»i2. WeLssman Chajes. Solomon Brann, Judel Slabatki, notes

on Yer.. Krotosj'hin.
1X64. Monlecai Her/ka, 3'-:n >13t (Ber.), Vienna.

Issjichar Prager, rui Sxn (Git.), Leml)erg.
1W.7. A. Kn^hmal. n^jan S'^'j-n* (notes on Yer.), Lemberg.
IW57-97. Rabblnovlcz. CioiO 'pnp-i, l.-xvl. (variant readings

on the entln- Talmud), Munich and Przeuiysl.
1.8(». Ar>eh Lob Ziinz. cni' C'lj fGlt.), Warsaw.

Joshua Elzlk, '-s^tn^n a;'ij (Yer. Seder Nezlkiu). Wiln i.
1874. Zaiharlas Frankel, jvj ranx (1.. Yer. Ber., Bezah , li.,

Dern.). Breslau. 1874-7.5.
1876. Asher Cohen, K'KI .131a (Naz.), Warsaw.

1877. Raphael Schlesinger, 'i'ndi "rn'r, (Sanb., Sheb.), Berlin.

1878. Naphiali Zebi ha-Levi, m^ .-i'3 (Git.), Przemysl.

1880. I. Hayyim Ueiches, c^'^m' ."^uv": (Yer. B. K.), Wilna.
1883. Benjamin Heshin, pc':3 rnr^N (Seder Nezikin, Ko-

dasliini), Warsaw.
1888. Melr Friedmann, notes on his edition of Mak., Vienna.
1888. A. Schmidl, qin nx "'j.' (Kid.), in " Ozar ha-Sifrut," ii.-iiL
1888. Simon Sidon, pyr-' '^2'-' (Bezah). Vienna.
1895. I. Lewy, interpretation of the Drst three sections of Yer.

Nezikin, Breslau, 189.5 1902.
1897. S. L. Brill. "Ausden Talmudischen Randnoton des . ..

von Ludwig Blau," in " Monatsschrift." 1897.
1899. Isaac Chajes, pns> n^;:' (.Mak.), Podgorze.
1897-1903. Joseph Diinner, haggahot (i., 'Er., Bezah, Suk.; ii.,

Ket., Kid., Git.; iii.. Sanh.. Mak.. Sheb., Hor.). Frankfort.
1901. Dob Baer Ratner. c«'';:'n''i |rx ro.ix (on Yer. Ber., Shab.,

Ter., Hal.). Wilna, 1901-4.
190.5. Sal. Friedliinder, ;:'n's and riBDi.n (on Yer. Yeb.), Szi-

nervareya.

Bibliography: WViss. Dor, Iv.. v., Vienna, 1887, 1891 ; Zunz,
Z. G. pp. 29-.59, Berlin, 184^5; Jellinek. A-'ofof Sedei- ha-Lim-
»i«d, in Keller's liikkurim (Vienna), i. l-2t3. ii. 1-19; idem,
■Koutres )ia-Mefare.s)i. Vienna, 1877; Frankel, liitroditctioin
Talmud Hierosnli/mitnintm. pp. 1:18-141. Breslau. 1870;
Steinschneider, Cat. Budl. passim ; Zedner, Cat. Hehr. Boolot
Brit. Mus. pa.ssim ; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. passim.
5V. B. U. Rl.

TALMUD HERMENEUTICS ; The science
which defines the rules anil methods for the investi-
gation and exact determination of the meaning of
the Scriptures, both legal and liistorical. Since the
Halakaii, liowever, is regarded simply as an ex-
position and explanation of the Torah, Talmud
hermeneutics includes also the rules by which the
requirements of the oral law are derived from and
established by the written law. These rules relate
to: (a) grammar and exegesis; (i) the interpretation
of certain words and letters and super-
Classes of fluous words, prefixes, and suffixes
Rules. in general ; (c) the interpretation of
those letters which, in certain words,
are provided witli points; (d) tlie interpretation of
the letters in a word according to their numerical
■value (see Gematuia); (e) the interpretation of a
word by dividing it into two or more words (see
Xotakikon); (/) the interpretation of a word ac-
cording to its consonantal form or according to its
vocalization; (.'7) the interpretation of a word bj'
transposing its letters or by changing its vowels;
and (/t) the logical deduction of a halakah from a
Scriptural text or from another law.

Compilations of such henneneutic rules were
made in tlie earliest times. The tannaitic tradition
recognizes three such collections, namely: (1) the
seven Kclks ok Hij.lkl (baraita at the beginning of
Sifra; Ab. R. N. xxxvii.); (2) the thirteen Rules of
R. IsHMAEi, rbaraita at tiie beginning of Sifra: this
collection is merely an amplification of that of Hil-
lel); and (3) the thirty-two Rules op R. Eliezeu
II. .Jose tl\-Gkmi,i. The last-mentioned rules are
contained in an independent l)aiaita which lias been
incorporated and preserved only in later works.
They are intendefl for Jiaggadic interpictation ; but
many of them aie valid for the Ilahikah as well,
coinciding with the rules of Hillel and Ishmael.

It must be borne in mind, however, tliat neither
Ilillel, Ishmael, nor Eliezcrben Joseha-Gelili .sought
to give a complete enumeration of the rules of in-
terpretation current in his day, but that they
omitted from their collections many rules whicli
were then followed. For some reason or other they

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmud Commentaries
Talmud Heimeneutics

restricted themselves to a comiiilation of the jiriiici-
pal metliods of logical (U'duetion, wliich they called
"iniddot" (measures), allliougli the other i ules also
were known by that term (conip. Sifre, Num. 2 [ed.
Friedmann, p. 2a]).

All the henncneutie rules scattereil through the
Talnuidim and Midrashim have been collected l)y
jMalbim in *' Ayyeletha-Siiahar," the introduction to
his commentary on the Sifra, and have been arbi-
trarily reckoned at (UB, to correspond with the VAo
conunandments. The antiquity of the rules can be
determined only by the dates of the authorities who
([uote them; in general, they can not

Dates of safely be declared older tlian the tanna
the Rules, to whonr they are first ascribed. It is
certain, however, that the seven middot
of Ilillel and the thirteen of Ishmael are earlier than
the time of Hillel himself, who was the larst to trans-
mit them. At all events, he did not invent them,
but merely collected them as current in his day,
though lie possibly amplified them.

Th(! Talmud itself gives no information concern-
ing the origin of the middot, althougii tiie Geonim
regarded them as SinaiticC'rofD HtTO^ nrj^H; comp.
R. Samson of Chinou in his "Sefer ha-Keritot "j.
This can be correct only if the e.vpression nD^JH
^J'DO nt^D^ means nothing more than " ver^' old,"
as is the case in many Talmudic passages. It is de-
cidedly erroneous, however, to take this expression
literally and to consider the middot as traditional
from the time of Moses on Sinai.

The middot seem to have been first laid down as
abstract rules by the teachers of Hillel. though they
were not immediately recognized by all as valid and
binding. DifTerent schools interpreted and modified
them, restricted or expanded them, in various ways.
Akiba and Ishmael and their scholars especially
contributed to the development or establishment of
these rules. Akiba devoted hisatteution particularly
to the grammatical and exegetical rules, while Ish-
mael developed the logical. The rules laid down
by one school were frequently rejected by another
because the principles which guided them in their
respective formulations were essentially dilTerent.
According to Akiba, the divine language of thcTorah
is distinguished from the speech of men by the fact
that in the former no word or sound is superfluous.
He established two principles broadening the scope
of the rule of his teacher N.viiUM ok Gi.mzo, who
had declared that certain particles, like nx. DJ, and
IK, were inclusive and certain others, sucli as 1X, pi,
and p, were exclusive. These two principles are:
(l)t3yD^ X^X "13-1 "inX "m pK( = "one inclusion
added to another is ecpiivalent to an exclusion";
Sifra, Zaw, Perek, 11 [ed. Weiss, p. 34d]); and (2)
p p^13~i niJIU*^ (= " wordsareamplificatious " ; Yer.
Slial). xix. 17a). Hence lie interprets the following
forms of expression as amplifications: an infinitive
before a finite verb, e.f/.. msn msn (Sanh. 64b);
the doubling of a word, e.;/., L''\^ C"X (Yeb. 71a);
and the repetition of a term by a synonym, e.g.,
"lOXI "imi (Yer. Sotah viii. 22b).

Ishmael, on the contrary, lays down tiie princi-
ple, mx "jn pr^s n-nn mm (="the Torah

speaks in the language of men"; Sifre, Num. 112),

The Bible may, therefore, have employed superfiu-
ous words anil sounds; and forced values should not
be assigned to tliem for the jiurpose of deducing
new rules therefrom. The .same statement iiolds
with regard to the rcpetilif)n of an entire section.
Ishmael is of tiie opinion that "the Torah at times
repeats a whole section of the Law in order to give
a new api)lication to it"(Dipo3 m?::N:t;' HL'nS ^3

^-TJ'a si'X nayc i6 inx Dipon nxrj* mm nnx

ri3 K'TnnJt' "im; Sifre, Num. 2, according to the
reading of Elijah Wilna). It is not necessary, there-
fore, to draw a new inference from every repetition.
Thus, for instance, in Num. v. ."5-8 tlie Torah re-
peats the section on ni^TJ DC'X in Lev. v. 20-26 (vi.
1-7, A. V.) for the purpose of teaching the new
ruling that in certain cases recompense for sin shall
be made directly to the priests. Akiba asserts, on
the other hand (in Sifre, I.e., according to the reading
of Elijah Wilna), that "Everything that is said in a
section so repeated must be interpreted" (= nO 73
t^"nn!5 "T"lV n3 IOXJK'), i^nd that new deductions
may be drawn from it. According to this view, in
Num. V. 5-8, for example, a new meaning must be
sought in the repetition of the Law.

Akiba's According to Akiba, the traditional

Rules. vocalization in the Bible of a word
which may be read in various ways is
well founded (XipJD^ DX C"); and he deduces many
rules from the mciiniiigs which such words have ac-
cording to traditi<Mial pointing. This rule had been
formulated before Akiba by a tanna named R.
Judali ben Ro'ez, who is not mentioned elsewhere,
and of whom, consequently, nothing more is known
(comp. Sanh. 4a).

Ishmael, in opposition to Akiba, follows the prin-
ciple miDD^ DX K'V «•<'•. that the tradition regard-
ing only the consonantal text is authoritative, and
that rules may be deduced only from that text.
A single example will serve to illustrate the differ-
ence between the methods of the two schools. In
Lev. xxi. 11. in the law which forbid.s a priest to
defile himself by touching a corpse, the word nt'D:
is written defectively. Since the traditional reading
indicates the plural, "nafsliot," Akiba draws the
conclusion that a (luarter-log of blood, the minimum
quantity by which a i)riest may be rendered unclean
through contact with a single corpse, also defiles
him wlien it issues from two bodies. According to
Ishmael, however, this minimum (]uaniity defiles a
priest only when it issues from a single corpse; for
the word, according to the consonantal text, i.s to be
read in the singular "nafshat" (comp. Sanh. 4a. b,
Hul. 72a. and Tosafot to both pas.sages).

According to Akiba, laws may be deduced from
the juxtaposition of two legal sections, since "every
passage which stands close to another must be ex-
plained and interpreted with reference to its neigh-
bor " (njD'H mo^ nm'3n^ hdi^d x'hl" n^n^^ isD ;

Sifre, Num. 1:51). According to Islimael. on tiie
contrary, nothing maybe inferred from the positiou
of tlie individual sections, since it is not at all cer-
tain t hat every single i^ortion nowstundsin it.= proper
place. Many a paragraph which forms, strictly
speaking, tiie lieginning of a book and should stand
in that jiosition. has been tninsposed to the middle.

Talmud HermeneutiCB
Talmudic Law

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Isbmael explains the occurrence of a section in a
place where it does not properly belong (3n3J T^U?'\
(ND) hy declaring that "there is no tirst or last in

the Scriptures "(n-nn2 "inxci mpo r^<^" '^-^ .*<^^)'
not as due to any speciiO reasnu^Mek., eii. Weiss, p.
48a; Ecd. H. i. ;'comp. Pes. 6b, where H. Pappa de-
fines this principle iu such a manner that it does not
contradict Ishmaers rules concerning " Kelal u-
ferat "). Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili expaudeil tiiis rule
iu his baraita and divided it into two parts (Nos. 31
and 32). The opposition between the scliools of
Ishmael and Akiba lessened griulually, and finally
vanished altogether, so that the later tannaim apply
the axioms of both indiscriminately, although the
hernieneutics of Akiba predominated. In this way
all the principles cited above obtained general rec-
ognition.

A more detailed discussion of the seven rules of
Hillel and of the thirteen of Ishmael may now be
given, together with certain other important canons
of Talmud hernieneutics.

1. Kal(kol) wa-homer: The first rule of Hillel
and of Ishmael. called also " din " (conclusion). This
is the argument " a miuori ad maj us " or " a raa jori ad
minus. "^ In the Baraita of Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili
this rule is divided into two (Xos. 5 and 6), since a
distinction is made between a course of reasoning
carried to its logical conclusion in the Holy Scrip-
tures themselves (" kal wa-homer meforash ") and
one merely suggested there (" kal wa-homer satum ").
The completed argument is illustiatod in ten exam-
ples given in Gen. R. xcii. The full name of this
rule should be " kal wa-homer, homer we-kal " (sim-
ple and complex, complex and simple), since by it
deductions are made from the simple to the complex
or vice versa, according to the nature of the conclu-
sion recjuired. The major premise on which the
argument is based is called ''nadon," or, at a later
perio<l, "melammed" (that which teaches); the con-
clusion resulting from the argument is termed
rnn po K3, or, later, "lamed" (that which learns).
The process of deduction in the kal wa-homer is
limited by the rule that the conclusion may contain
nothing more than is found in the premise. This
is the so-called "dayyo" law, which many teachers,
liowever, ii,'nored. It is formulated thus: ii2? VI
pn33 rWTlh PTH p ("The conclusion of an argument
is satisfied when it is like the major premise "). The
discovery of a fallacy in the process of deduction is
called " teshubah " (objection), or, in the terminology
of the Amoraim, "jiirka." The iiossihility of such
an objection is never wholly excluded, hence the
deduction of the kal wa-homer has no absolute cer-
tainty. Till- conseipiences of this arc: ('/) that the
conclusions have, according to many teachers, no
real value in criminal procedure, a view expressed
in the axiom that tiie conclusion is insullicient to
punish tiie violator of an inferred prohibition (px
pnn p p:;':iy; Sifre, Num. 1); (h) that very often a
passage is interpreted to mean something which
may be inferred by means of a kal wa-homer (SDTO
X-i;? rS 2nri ni'J ". ■;:: X'nxn: Pes. 18b; Yr)ma-13a).

2. Gezerah shawah ("Similar laws, similar
verdicts ") : The second rule of Hillel and of Ishmael,
and the seventh of Eliezer b. Jo.se ha-Gelili. This

may be described as argument by analogy, which
infers from the similarity of two cases that the legal
decision given for the one holds good for the other
also. The term "gezerah shawah" originally in-
cluded arguments based on analogies either in word
or in fact. Before long, however, the latter class
was designateil as "hekkesh." while tiie jdirase
•' gezerah shawah " was limited to analogy in the case
of two different Biblical laws containing a word
common to both. The gezerah shawah was origi-
nally restricted to a '5if '/.Eyofievov, i.e., a word occur-
ring only in the two passages offering the analog3\
Since such a word is found nowhere else, there is no
reason to assume that it bears different meanings iu
the two passages. The gezerah shawah conse-
quently attaches to the word in the one passage the
entire sequence of ideas which it bears iu the other.
Such a gezerah shawah is purely lexicographical,
as seeking to determine the exact signification of a
word by comparison with another passage in which
the full meaning of such word is clear. The rule thus
demonstrates itself. An example will illustrate this
more clearly. The phrase "IK'KT ns pi?D ("to wring
off the head ") occurs only twice in the Pentateuch,
namely, in Lev. i. 15 and ib. v. 8. In the latter pas-
sage, however, the meaning of the phrase is more
closely defined by iDiy ^"IDO (" from the neck "). The
Sifra(ed. Weiss, p. 9a) concludes, therefore, that the
nearer definition, "from the neck," in the second
passage, is part of the concept of the word p-)D,
and, consequently, that in the former passage, also,
p^D means "to wring the head from the neck." At
a later period, however, the gezerah shawah emerged
from these narrow bounds and inferred the identity
of legal requirements from the identity of their ter-
minology, even when such terminology occurred in
many passages besides the two which formed the
analogy. Thereby the gezerah shawah lost its in-
herent power of demonstration; for it is wholly un-
reasonable to attribute to a word a meaning which
happens to be associated Avith it in a single passage,
Avheu various other passages connect ideas entirely
different with the same word. Since, moreover,
each individual teacher might choose which two ex-
pressions he would select for a gezerah shawali,
contradictory conclusions might be drawn, which
would each have the same claim to validity, since
both were obtained by a gezerah shawah. Conse-
quently, in order to be binding, a gezerah shawah
was obliged to conform to two retjuirements which,
on the one hand, greatly restricted its apjilication,
and, on the other, gave legal decisions thus obtained
the value of those deduced from asuiierfluous word
in the Holy Scriptures. These conditions are: (a)
IDVyO niB' i-nn: p mx pS ("No one may draw a
conclusion from analogy upon his own authority";
Pes. 6Ga; Niddah 19b)." This rule, however, is not
to be regarded as implying that every gezerah
shawah must have been handed down from Sinai,
as Rashi (on the various passages) and many exposi-
tors who followed him explained it, but that the use
of this method of hernieneutics is to be ]ierniitted
only to an entire board or council, and is to be em-
ployed only when its resullsagrec with the traditional
halakah, which thereby acquires the importance of a

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmud Hermeneutics
Talmudic La-w

law implied in the Scriptures. In Yonishulini tliis
rule reads: D1X TKI HID^D D"P^ Hit' ni'TJ p D"!K
mO^ri h^2h t;* J p (''From ii gi'zerali sluisvali coii-
cltisions may be deduced which support tradition,
but not such as are opposed to tradition"; comp.
Maimonides in the introduction to his " Mishneli
Torah "). {/)) The words of the text which form the
basis of the deduction from analoj,^y must be free,
i.e., they must be supcrlluous antl non-essential, or
they may not be used (mnj i:D'n p^l :i'''\>r^h n^SID
niK'). Tins limitation of the gezerali shawah, how-
ever, to supertluous words is not generally recog-
nized. Akiba considers the gezerali shawah valid
when neither of the two words is superfluous (i;''S
^^3 njDin). According to Ishmael, it is sutlicient
if the analogy is free on one side ("tnX IVD njDICi),
i.e., if one of the two words forming the basis of tiie
analogy is pleonastic. Eliezer alone requires both
words to be superfluous (omV ''JC'D nJSin; comp.
HolTmann, " Zur Einleitung in die Halacliischen Mid-
raslichim," p. 6).

3. Binyan ab mi-katub ehad. ("A standard
from a passage of Scripture ") : A certain passage
serves as a basis for tlie interpretation of many
others, so that the decision given in the case of one
is valid for all tiie rest.

4. Binyan ab mi-shene kotubim ("'A stand-
ard from two passages of Scripture"): By this rule
a decision in two laws having a characteristic in
common (^'l:^•^ IVn) is applied to many other laws
which have this same characteristic. Isimiael unites
rules 2 and 4 in his third rule, while the same com-
bination forms the eighth rule of Eliezer b. Jose
ha-Oclili.

5. Kelal u-ferat and ferat u-kelal ("General
and particular, ])articular antl general," i.e., limita-
tion of the general by the particular and vice versa):
According to Islimael, this principle has eight spe-
cial applications, and thus includes eight separate
rules in his scheme (Nos. 4-11). This method of
limitation is one of the main points of difference be-
tween Ishmael and Akiba. According to the former,
wiio follows Ins teacher R. Nehunya b. ha-Kanah,
the particular is only an elucidation of the preceding
general expression, so that the latter includes only
what is contained in the particular (\'ii t3"lQ1 7?3
niDlt:' no N^X bh:i2)- Butif still another general
follows the particular, the two general expressions
are detined by the intermediate jiartirular, so that
the law applies only to what is like the particular

(tatsn pyD n^x nmn nns \x ^bi disi ^^3V

Akiba, on the contrary, applies the rule of increase
and decrease (Diyo"! "'13"!) which had been taught
him by his teacher Nahum of Gimzo. According to
this principle, the general followed by a particular
siibsumes cvcrylhing which is like the particular
<Sanh. 4r)h, 4(ia). If. however, another general
term follows the particular, the fornu'r subsumes
also what is not similar to the latter. The two gen-
eral terms are decreased in oidy one respect by the
intermediate particular (^sn n3n -mi Ciy'D") -Ul
"ins im nyo \XO"l: Slu-bu. 20a: comp. also Rashi
on Sanh. I.e.).

6. Ka-yoze bo mi-makom aher ("Like that

XII.— 3

in another place"): The explanation of a Biblical
passage according to another of similar <-onlent.

7. Dabar ha-lamed me-'inyano (" Something
l)rovcd by the context"): Deliidlioii from the con-
text. Ishmael omits rule Oentirely, and has another
(No. 13) instead which is not found in Hillel, and
which reads thus: HT JIX HT D'L*'"'nDDn D'^iriD "'JK'

DHTn yn^-"! -t'-'^c'n niriDn sa'ti'iy r'lf two pa.s-

sages contradict each other, this contradiction nuist
be reconciled l)y comparison with a third jmssage ").
The method of solution of such opposing statements
by the help of a third passage is a point of diver-
gency between Ishmael and Akiba. According to
the latter, the third sentence decides in favor of one
of the two contradictory statements (Mek., ed.Wei.ss,
Ga); according to the former, it modilies the inter-
pretation of both. With regard to the meanuig of
words which are pointed in the text, Simeon b.
Eleazar laid down the, rule that if the pointed part
of the word (mipJ) is equal to the unpointed part
(3n3) in length, the word must not be interpreted
at all; bvit if one part is longer than the other, such
part must be interpreted (Gen. K. Ixxviii.). Con-
cerning the interpretation of words by a change of
letters or vowels the rule is: N"ipn hn ("Ho not
read so, but so"). Under this rule the integrity of
the text itself is not assailed, the changes made
being only for the purpose of explanation.

To support a halakic decision, and more espe-
cially to tind a point of departure in the Ilaggadah,
the traditional reading of a word is altered by trans-
position of ilsconsonantsor by substitution of others
which are related to them, or the consonant-group
is retained with alteration of its vowels, the last
method being the most frequent. A halakic exam-
ple of this form of hermeneutics is the interpretation
of the word " kapot " (bough; Lev. xxiii. 40) as
though it were "kaput" (bound; Sifra, ed. Weiss,
p. 102d ; Suk. 32a). It is noteworthy, moreover,
that only the Tannaim derived new halakot with
the aid of these rules, while the Amoraim employed
them only in advancing haggadic exjdanations or
in establishing the old halakot of the Tannaim.

Ribi.tooraphy: Saadia Caon. Commentary on the thirteep
iiiiddot of U. Isliiiiai'l, imblislied by Sdiwliterin Ikl lolniua,
iv. 2:^7 ff SCI/., and in ttic (Kiivrcs Ciimitli'tis.ix.'-iXi; Uiistil,
Comnientary on the tliirtt'en rules, in Kobak's .Jtsclnniiii, vi..
Hebrew part, i)p.:«-4-l, •.il)l-:Ji)4; the remaining' cinnineniMrles
on the tliirteen rules are enumeniled by .lellinek in Ki>i>pf>i
ha-Kilalim. Nos. Ki:! 175; It. Samson of (hinipn, S^ifcr A«>i-
iiit Warsaw. 1S.">4; Malachi Kohen, Yiul Mal'niii, Berlin,
IS;")^; Aaron ibn Ilavvini, MUldat Aliarnii; U. Solomon
AlKazi, Ydhiii Slirniu'nii ; Jacob Hirscli Jolles, Mil<> lin-
Itd'iiii. part il.; Hirseh Cliajes. Mrhii lin-Tnlnivil. Znlkiev.
184.'') ■ Malbim, Afnirlct lin-Shdhfir; Frankel. }{n,liii>tl<a
i)l 3/i>r/i(l((»i.pp'. lit and lOS llrt». I.eipsie. IS.^)!*: 1. H. Weliw.
Dor i nu-ltvs, il. 1(1-); .M<)rde<-ai Plunpian. .s'l '« r Vo/jni/i/'if,
Wiliia IH4!t; H. S. llirs<'lifeld. //n/fTc/ii.-r/u- Kxi (/'X- Berlin,
1841); idem. Ilanivlisrhr /•>,(/<■.««■. ib. 1S47; (iralz. ;/(/;« lyiiiJ
Seine .s^V/x u Iiitcn>rftnti<>usir;i<h>. in Mn„iils.yrli}in. I.;
M Miel/iner. The Tnlniutlic Si//;<>(/i.-iii <»■ lii< Itifrrnicc
of kill Vnhnwir, in Hrhrrv Itrricir. i.. Cineinnall. )««•:
Hofrmann. '/.ur Eiiilrittnui hi <lu- Ih'lnvhisvhrit Mulrn-
srhiw. pp. 4 11. Berlin. 1HS7 ; i<lguvA"/ii .Vi'lin^ilj Ul.,i <lic
Dniziliii Mi<liliil.\n /?ei7i)ier fV>7.-« /ui//. pp. •>••) . I : !•• i»n-
dau iiisiihliii ilis Tiilmud inul <l,r liioiiiiii lll'ir ii,u
M'r'rth ilrr Mi(hit.<i!iisi-liin S(hiiltrtii.'<lra'iiHI. Hiinoyer.
isss- Dobschidz. Die Eininrhr nil><lr.iriir.-<rilri Tniiiinini,
Hall.- IS'.Ct: A.Schwartz. I>ir Urinxiirulisilir AnnhMiir.
Vienna ISitT ; idem. I irr HrnmucutiMlic SuUiniixiino'. lb.

W. 1!. •' '- ''

TALMUDIC LAW : The development of thou-
sands of yi ars is represented by the Jewish law as

Talmudic Law

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA

it is found iu the Sliiilhan •Aruk, Hoslieu Mislipat,
of Joseph Caro (16th cent.), as well as in uiimer-
ous other works whioli elabonile or elucidate indi-
vidual passages in various ways. The history of
tlje Hebrew cotle falls into three chief epochs: (1)
the Ptntateuch. (2) the Talmud, and (3) post-
Talniudie literaturt-. The Pent.iteuch forms the
basis of the Talmud, while the latter serves iu its
turn as a foundation for post-Talmudic law, which
has tenaciously maintained its validity
Three in less cultured countries to the pres-
Historical ent day. Although these three peri-
Periods ods are closely related in so far as the
of Jewish later epochs were tieveioped from the
Law. earlier, they must be regarded as mu-
tually independent, since they repre-
sent tlifferent phases of evolution. As controverting
the theory which formerly prevailed, especial stress
must be laid upon the fact that in tliecourseof time
the changes both in material and in spiritual life
profoundly moditied Jewish law, the stages of whose
evolution are linked together only by the legal
fictions conuuon to all history of law. It may ac-
cordingly be Siiid that tliere were three judiciary
systems: the Mos;iic, the Talmudic, and the rab-
binic. The Talmudic code is generally termed the
"Mosaic Talnuidic," since the authorities of the Tal-
mud took the Mosaic law as their basis. From the
jioint of view of judicial history, however, the Tal-
mud must be regarded as an independent structure;
and it is therefore more correct to use the simple
term "Talmudic law." The present article e.xcluiles
all reference to rabbinic law, and discusses only
those aspects of the Mosjiic system which facili-
tate an intelligent comprehension of the Talmudic
code.

The Torah, revealed by God, was the basis of the
code; and God Himself was consequently the Su-
preme Source of law. The Talmud, like the Torah,
drew no distinction between religious and secular
law, thus conforming to the general custom of an-
cient peoples, especially in the East.
Religious One result of this peculiarity was the
and Secular wide range and close articulation of
Law. the Talmudic system, since the com-
mandmontsof religion intiuenced secu-
lar law, and moditied civil relations in so far as any
infraction of them was punishable. It is impossi-
ble, therefore, to dilTerentiate sharpl}^ between relig-
ious and secular law. Everything pertaining to the
former is di.scusscd more jiroperly under H.\i..\k.\h,
and is, therefore, omitted here .so as to render possi-
ble a brief outline of secular jurisprudence and a
citation of parallels with other systems. While the
application of modern legal categories to Talmudic
law is foreign to its nature, it can not be avoided;
a careful check, however, must be kept upon this
method. In like manner a careful distinction must
br drawn between the civil and the penal codes of
Talmiulic law. While the civil code was actually
enforced, the penal code was a dead letter; for tiie
Momans. aijout SO O.K., had withdrawn all criminal
jurisdiction from the Jews(Sanh. 41a; Ver. Sanh. i.
1, vii. 2; .Momiii.sen. " Konusche Geschichte," v. r)12).
After the destruction of the Temple, in the year 70,
jurisdiction in civil cases as well seems to have been

given to the Roman courts (Mommsen, I.e. p. 548;
Frankel, " Uer Gerichtliche Beweis nach Mosaisch-
Talmudischem Rechte," pp. 4.1, 142;
Civil idem, "Zeitschrift fur die Religiosen

and Penal Interessen," i. 153, 189), although this
Codes. can have been only a temporary meas-
ure, and, in view of the power pos-
sessed by the parties involved to refuse to subunt
to such a court, can never have been rigidly enforced.
Civil jurisdiction may be regarded, therefore, as a
right which really existed, while criminal law was,
for the most part, merely theoretical from the very
beginning. Survivals from the ])eriod of indepencl-
ence, Pentateuchal laws, and the jtenal codes of
foreign rulers are the component elements of the
criminal law of the Talmud. Very frequent, more-
over, are the instances iu which exegeses of Biblical
passages served as sources, often elucidating laws
which were never actuallj' enforced. The origin of
the Talmudic jienal code explains the majority of its
peculiarities as well as its weaknesses and its merits.
The merits consist chiefly in leniency. Thus, for
example, while the code recognized capital puni.sh-
ment and the frecjuency of its infliction as ordered by
the Pentateuch, it rendered the death-sentence prac-
tically impossible, since this penalty was so condi-
tioned by requirements of proof of malice afore-
thought that finall}' guilt could no longer be proved.
Capital punishment, even for murder, was so abhor-
rent to the authorities of tradition that its infliction
was to be prevented by all legal means (Mak. i. 10
et passim). In view of these circumstances and prin-
ciples, the penal law in general and its theoretical
development in particular aimed at strengthening
moral consciousness and at rousing a sense of guilt.
In like manner, the punishments inflicted were mild.
Thus, a thief was obliged to return twice the value
of the stolen goods, while early Roman law visited
a thief caught in the act with a terrible penalty,
which was extended under the empire to other forms
of theft as well. The Germans freciuently punished
theft with death or at least with amputation of a
hand or a foot.

The impetus to the development of the Talmudic
code was given by the study of the divine law, the
precepts of which had to be expounded and eluci-
dated even to the least dot on the smallest letter.
No other people ever honored its national literature
so highly or guarded it so carefully as the Jews
did the teachings of ]\Io.ses. Numerous scholars
of the Law conseipieiitly arose, who may be re-
garded as jurists both individually and collectively.
Every place of any size had its bet ha-midrash,
where men of all vocations gathered daily for dis-
cu.ssions. The result of Ave centuries of this activ-
ity was the Talmudic code. The civil law was in-
telligible even to laymen, and it was, moreover,
interpreted by scholars; cf)nsequently its develop-
ment was essentially practical, not merely theoretical
as was that of the criminal code. These scholars,
all working without compensation, evolved a legal
.sj'stem which in scope and excellence stands far
above the period of civilization for which and in
which it was created. The wealth of Tainiudic
law and its comparative freedom from defects are
best seen when it is compared with a compendium

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmudic Law

of niodt'in law, such as Josef Kohlcr's " Einflihrung
ill (lit" Rcclitswisscnschaff " {2d cd., Bcilin, I!»Or)).

The liisioiT of (lie Jews explains the fiiliifss of
(levi'lopmont in the code of civil law, ils ddicieucies
as rcgai'ds ]iiibli(' law. and tlu! ciitiic absence thei'e-
froni of international law. In civil law the most
noteworthy features are the provisions relating to

persons, property, claims, family e.s-

Absence of tates, and inheritance. A distinct

Commer- branch of commercial law, such as

cial Law. has been highl}' tleveloped among

modern nations, does not exist in the
Talmudic code, although regulations concerning
commerce are not la(^king; for in Talmudic times
the Jews were not as distinctly a commercial nation
as they became in the post-Talinudic and medieval
periods. Indeed, the highly developed system of
damages, as, for instance, in the case of injuries
by animals (Kohler, I.e. j). 96), characterizes them
as an agricultural peojjle. The following is a
list of tlie various legal articles in The Jewish
Encyclopedia :

Abetinent

Abiopitioii (jf Laws

Acceptance

Accessories

Accident

.Accommodation of the Law

Accusatory and Iniiuisitorial

I'rocednrt^
Ac(|uittal in Talmudic Law
Admissions in Evidence
Adoption
Adultery
Agency, Law of
Agnates
Agrarian Laws
'Agunati
Alil)i

Alleiiaiion and Acquisition
Aliens
Alimony
Anattiema
Anointing
Asmatita

Assault and Battery
Assignment
Asylum

Attestation of Documents
Attoiney

Attorney, Power of
Authentication of Documents
Authority. Uabtiinical
Avenger of Blood
Azharot
Bal)a Hatra
Bal)a Kamma
Baba Mezi"a
Bail

Bailments
Bar Mizwah
Barter
Bastard
Beciuest
Bererah
Betrothal
Bigamy
Birthright
Blood-Money
Bormwcr
Boundaries

Breiichof Promise of Marriage
Bribery
Burgl:iry
Calumny

Cancelation of Documents
Capital Punishment

Captives
Caution

Charity and Charitable Insti-
tutions
Chattels

Circumstantial Evidence
Clerical Errors
Commercial Law
Conditions

Conllscation and Forfeiture
Conllict of Laws
Consent

Contempt of Court
Contract

Corporal Punishment
Corporation
Costs
Crime

Criminal Procedure
Crucifixion
Damage

Daughter in Jewish Law
Deaf and Dumb in Jewish Law
Det)t(ir and Creditor
Del)ts of Decedents
Deed
Demands
Derelicts
Desertion
Devotion
Din

Divorce

Domain, Public
Domicil
Dowry

Drunkenness in Law-
Duress

Earnest-Money
Easement
Eml)ezzlement
Embryo
Evidence

Excommunication
Execution

Family atid Family Life
?"amily Vault
Fault
Fee

Fituler of Property
Fines and Forfeiture
Fixtures

Foreign Attachment
Fraud and Mistake
(Gambling
(Jentile

Get
(iezerah

(lifts

(i leaning of the Fields

fiovernment

tiuardlati and Ward

Halizah

Hallah

Hammurabi

Hatra'ah

Hawkers and Pedlers

Hazakali

Health Laws

Ilefker

Heresy and Heretics

Hiring and Letting

Holy Days

Homicide

Husband and Wife

Identity, Proof of

Ignorance of the Law

Jllegitlmacy

Imprisonment

Incest

Indemnity

Infancy. Legal Aspects of

Inheritance

Insanity

Intention

Intermarriage

Joint Owners

Judge

Judgment

Jurisdiction

Ketubah

Ketubot

Kiddushin

Lamp, Perpetual

Landlord and Tenant

Law, Civil

Law, Codification of

Laws, Noachian

Levirate Marriage

Loans

Majority

Makkot

Marriage

Marriage Laws

Martyrdom. Restriction of

Master and Servant

Master and Workmen

Maxims (Legal)

Medicine in Bible and Talmud

Mezuzah

Miggo

Minyan

Mi'un

Monogamy

Mortgage or Hypothec

While the foregoing list will give an idea of the
extent of the Talmudic code, an estim.iteof its value
compared with other .systems may be gained by a
perusal of the following list of rubrics which do not
occur in the Talmud. The pages cited in paren-
theses are those of Kohler's above-mentioned work:

Navigation

NeighlMjring Ijindowners

New .Mo(jn, Blessing (jf the

Niddah

Oath

Oral Law

Orphan

Palest inc. Laws and Customs
Heialing to

Partnership

Paternity

Pedigree

Perjury

Pledges

Police Laws

Poll-Tax

Polygamy

Precedence

Primogeniture

Priority

Procedure in Civil Causes

Prosbul

Proselyte

Real Estate

Remainders and Reversions

Restraints r)n Alienation
Right of Way

Riparian Owners

Robliery

Sabbatical Year and Jubilee

Sale

Sanctuary

Sanhedrin

Seduction

Set-Off

Signature

Slander

Slaves and Slavery

Specific Performance

Subpoena

Suicide

Summons

Sumptuary Laws

Suretyship

Synagogue, Legal Aspect

Taxation

Tort

Treason

Trees

Trespass

Trusts and Trustees

Usury

Vows

Weights and Measures

Widow

Wills

Witchcraft

Woman

Associations (p. 81 ; societies
only)

Bankruptcy (p. 145)

Bills <if Exchange and Kin-
dred Matters (p. 88; prom-
issory notes only)

Connnercial Firms (j). 79)

Counterfeiting ip. l.V>)

Defamation of Character,
Slander, Calumny, etc. (p.
174 ; no specillc penalty
was fixed for these crimes :
they were bninded as most
immonil ; and the severest
divine punishment wils In-
voked uiton the olTender)

Embezzlement (included un-

der theft, and does not con-

.stituie a specific crime; p.

175)
Insurance (pp. W et Mq.)
Joint-Stock Companies (p. 68>
Lawful Duels la.s (irdeal.s,

which i-ea.sed in Ua\\ in the

thirteenth centiirv ; p. 170)
Ia'K Talionis (p. Kill
Limited Liability Companies

ami Financial Trusts (p >>2)
Maritime Ijiw (p. H7 . river

law. however, existed)
Ordeals (p. I.IJ)
Pardon (p. Ifti)
Secrets of Manufacture and

Commerce (p. 172)

Talmudic La'wr
Talmud Torah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tbe penal code made no provision for a public
prosecutor or for torture, althoutrh the latter was eni-
ployetl in Europe until the last quarter of the eight-
eenth century. A few examples will serve to show
the lofty standard of the civil and marriage codes of
the Talmud. According to Talmudic law, the agent
was equal in all respects to the party

High De- he represented; and the Jews even
velopment allowed betrothal, itself a contract, to
of Tal- t^ike place by proxy (ib. p. 32). On
mudic Law. this subject Kohler sjiys (I.e. p. 27):
" Representation is an institution of
elaborate development, iutro<iuced at a compara-
tively recent period by legal regulation. It is a
creation of the highest type, rendering it possible
for one to own a fortune of millions without having
to administer it in person." Among other ancient
peoples the debtor was held responsible for his debt
with liberty, life, and limb, the law relating to
debt being based on the value of the debtor; Tal-
mudic law, however, agrees with modern codes,
which permit the debtor neither to be sold as a slave
nor to be deprived of his liberty in anj- other way.
The payment of a debt was a moral, not a legal, ob-
ligation (B. B. 174a and parallel passages; comp.
Kohler, I.e. p. 58).

The Jewish laws relating to family life did not
recognize the unlimited authority of the head of the
household as did Roman law, but, on the contrary,
a son who had attained his majority (13 years) might
bold property in his own name. In the Christian
world this was not the case until after the reign of
Justinian (ib. p. 93). The law of inheritance, as in
modern codes, recognized the system based on kin-
ship. Jewish law restricted the prohibitions against
consanguineous marriages, and permitted divorce.
With regard to these cardinal points of marriage
legislation, modern codes, in opposition to canon
law, adopt the same point of view as Judaism, prob-
ably because derived from the Roman law. There
are numerous legal questions and even judicial
principles in which modern views coincide witli
those of the Talmud, and to which a general allusion
ma}' be made.

The Talmud has been completed for 1,400 years;

and the greater part of the legal material which it

contains is more than 2,000 years old. It is tiiere-

fore self-evident that foreign •iements from the

great civilized nalioiiS of the ancient

Assyro- world must have exercised an influ-
Babylonian encc on it. Following the chronolog-
Influence. ical order, mention should first be
made of the Assyro-Babylouian ele-
ments. With regard to the relation of the Mosaic
law to the code of Hammurabi, see II.wiMiR.Ma
and the literature there cited, as well as numerous
hiter works. There can be no doid)t that the
Assyro-Babylonian laws outlived the state bv cen-
turies, while their inlluence was felt even in the
Christian period, and may still be traced in Tal-
mudic law. The most common terms for written
contracts, "shetar " and "get," are Babylonian ; and
clay tablets were still used in Talmudic times for
promi-ssory notes (Blau, " Althebrilisehes Buch-
wescn," p. 18). A receipt was called '"zober," i.e.
"zebiru" in Assyrian contracts. Git. 86a gives

the text of a contract regarding the sale of slaves,
the first part of which is apparently Assyrian in
origin. Even in post-Talmudieal literature, as in
the "Sefer ha-Shetarot" of Judah b. Barzillai (ed.
llalberstam, Berlin, 1898), there are distinct reminis-
cences of Babylonian formulas. The contracts in-
cluded in this work number more than seventy, and
in them the phrase "the contracting party has
made all stipulations 'in accordance with his pleas-
ure ' " recurs in all varieties of terminology (e.g., pp.
9 etseq.). The same formula appears in Babylonian
contracts, this example, like others, being furnished
by Pick (" Assyrisches und Talmudisches Kultur-
geschichtn und Lexicali-sche Notizen." pp. 22, 30).
Incomparably greater was the inliuence exerted
by Greco-Roman jurisprudence in later days. The
lingua Franca of the East, even during the period
of Roman sovereignty, was the koivij; so that about
seventy of the seventy-seven foreign legal terms that
are found in the Talmud (Low, in Krauss, "Lehn-
worter," ii. 630), are Greek, only the remaining few
being Latin. As a rule the Jews learned Roman law
from the actual practise of the courts and not from
legal writings only. Greek terms are used for docu-
ment, will, protocol, guardian, contract, hypothec,
purchase, accusation, accuser, attorney, and the like ;
and Latin words for legacy, bill of indictment, di-
vorce, etc. Roman law, with its high development,
exercised a much greater influence on the Talmudic
system than has hitherto been shown, thorough in-
vestigations having as yet been made only sporad-
ically. Frankel ("Gerichtlicher Beweis," pp. 58 f<
seq.) thinks that the tiiajority of the legal ca.ses in

Talmudic law jiave parallels in the

Influence Roman code. "The same subjects

of Roman are often treated in both, and form a

Law. basis for the application of the legal

principles. This resemblance was due
to the conditions and requirements of the time; and
for the same reason many legal provisions are com-
mon to both codes." Tiie difference between the
two lies, in his view, "in the divergent mental proc-
esses of Orientals and Occidentals, so that Talmudic
law formulated anew the very parts it borrowed
from the Roman code. The Oriental in his method
of investigation is characterized by acutencss and
facility of comprehension ; so that he is guided in
his legal enactments by the vivacity of his mind
rather than by a principle. . . . The Occidental is
marked by thought fulness: he desires a universal
concept, not a schematized nexus or a reduction to
some principle. He therefore Cf)ml)ines the law into
a harmonious whole, while the code of the Oriental
consists of disconnected parts."

Although this characterization is in the main cor-
rect, it must be borne in mind that Fraidiel under-
estimates the influence of the Roman code on tiie
Talmud. Several Talmudists of the early jiart of
the second century were so deeply versed in the
Roman civil law that they decitled cases according
to it if they were so requested. Constantin I'Em-
pereur of Oppyck, in his " De Legibus Ebra'oruin
Forensibus" (1637; reprinted by Surenhuis in his
"Misclina," iv.), was the first to compare the Roman
and Tahnudic systems, although he did not postu-
late any adaptation from the one code by the other.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmudic Law
Talmud Torah

Subsequently Zunz ("'Etwas libcr die Habbinischc
Littemtur," 1818), Jost ("Gesch." iv. 144, and ap-
pendix), FranUel {I.e.), Krociinial (" Morcli Ncbui<e
lia-Zenian," 1845), and others (comp. IJlau, "Con-
cursus Vitiorum " [in Hungarian |, jip. b, 11, 13)
made similar eomj)arisons.

Tile Jews lived for a time both under the ancient
Persian regime of the Achtemenidje (r).'30-330 u.c.)

and under the neo-Persiau dynasty of

Infivience the Sassanids (200-000 c.e.). Persian

of Persian law has, therefore, also been a factor,

Law. although the present knowledge l)oth

of the Ach;emenian and the Sassanid
codes is insullicient for an estimate of the extent of
their inlluence on the Jews. The Talmud, on the
other hand, cliaracterizus the legal system of the
Sassanids as a superticial one, and quotes some ex-
tracts in support of its assertions, e.g., the creditor
ma_v seize the security (B. B. 173, borrowed from
Turkish law). See further Fraukel, I.e. p. 56, where
the theory is advanced that Sassanid law influenced
the code of the Babylonian Talmud.

Among the compilations of Talmudic law, the
"Mishneh Torah," or religious code, of Maimonides

took a foremost place. Sui)erior in

Compila- system and arrangement to its i)rede-

tions of cessors and successors alike, even

Talmudic though its author did not codify the

Law. law of the Talnuid in the strict sense

of the term, but only the rabbinico-
legal system as formulated at the time, it served as
an authority for subsequent centuries. Tlie Chris-
tian literature on the subject in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, and, to a great extent, even
the modern liteiature of the nineteenth century, are
dependent upon this work, even in cases wliere the
treatises are termed "Mosaic-Talmudic." The au-
thors who combined Talmudic and legal knowledge
were, general I}'' speaking, rare; for the majority
were either Talmudists or jurists, but not both.

In recent times Rapoport has begun a systematic
compilation of Talmudic law (the laws of inheritance,
endowments, obligations, etc.); and his work has
been favorably received by the eminent historian of
jurisprudence, Josef Kohler of Berlin. Kapoport,
however, has not drawn a sharp distinction between
the three chief epochs, the Mosaic, the Talmudic,
and the rabbinic, nor has he paid suflicient heed
to the historical criticism contained in traditional
literature. Much work still remains to be done in
this field.

BlBl.ioiJltAPllY : T/iKtovicusdeCoinpieKiKMlc Vcillc, lUhrcitrum
lie ('(iiniiihiis lusi 'irilc ft I'(i)ttiliciiini si it i.r I{. Musi.s M<iic-
mintiddf Srnniilar Ln.iissivf Mdinis Fmlis F.i> Lihrii.Qui
Estilc }{(• U.riiri(t. TraitatW! I'rinms. I'ari.s. KiTl! ; Sureiiliuis,
Di»xntatii) ilr Xittina I'diuhrtarinii Hi liniicurinn. .\m-
stenlaiii, 17(14 : Spencer. Dc Lruilni.-< Hchri nnnn liitiialilnts,
three bdoks. I,eip.si<', 170,"); four hooks. Tiibinfien. 17;i:i; Fnin-
kel, />/'(■ Eiilislcituiiij (/(■)■ Judili, Dresden, 1S4(I; jiieiii, Dir
GcriclitJiilii Bi}ii'i!i')iitc}i .Mosai.'irJi-'J'iilmuiliscliiiii Hirliti'.
Berlin. 1S4(1: Hinscli Biir Fassel, Xrr/cA- ii-Mishiiiit. VU-unn,
1S4S; iiit'iu. .MisliiH tr El: Das Slusiiiscli liiihliiiiisrlii' Ciril-
rcclit.i'tc, Xatrv-Kaiiizsii, ]S.')2-.")4: iilem. 'Asut Mishimt: Da.''
MoKaiscli-Iidhiiiuischc (Icrirlilsrrtfdhmi in Cirilivrlit-
Uchcti SiU'lini, ete., i7). IS,')'.); idem, Wi-Sliafctu vr-IUzzilu :
Das Miisniscli-I!iihhi)ii.'<rhr Strafrf'rht.fU\.'iIi. IS70; Saal-
soliiitz. Das Musaisrlir Kiclit. 2 vols., 2d ed., Berlin. lHr)2-.');};
M. Dtiseliak, lias ^fnsaisrll-Tahlnlllis(■^lf Fjhrrcvlit, mil Bc-
Komlnrr Blirhsirlit niif ilir Bi'ifurrliclirii (iisftzi\ Vienna.
1864; U\i']n. .Jiisi'iilnis Flariiis unit ilir Trailitiini. Iti. lSti4;
I. VVieslier. />( r llaiin in Sriiur (iisitiiilitlivluu F.ntirichc-
luiiil auf drill Bnili'ii (lis Jiulciitlntms.l,t'i]>sU\ IstU; Bruns-
Sachau. Suriscli-liiiinischcs lieditxbuch (comp. Perles in

i^. D. M. (1. XXXV.); Siiiniiej Mayer, Die Rechtc dcr Ixrncli-
ten. Attn III r luid llfniur, '.i vdIh., LeIpHic and Treves, IWiU-
lH7t>; Leopolil Auerlmrli, D(Uf JIh/Mc/ic OliUuoliniiKrecht
luuli iti II Qiiilli II iiitd iiiit BcxDitdirtr BerlUkHichtinuna
(lis l{iiini.-<ilirii unit I)iulsihi:n Btehtx Systennilisch D<ir-
{li.itilll, \i)l. (., Fnirissi- dif Kntu-ivlulundsuisiliiclilc den
JDdisrIiin Biilils; liii yatui ili r (Hiliualiiiii, Berlin, 1S70;
•J. Kiirst, /<((.s I'liiiliilii Ilii litsvi I faliii n iin .llldi.Hlun
vl/N/7/iin/ic, Heldellierir. 1^70; .M. .Sihiiii.'dl, l)i, Lrlin rnni
haiiiiif unm Unlit, Vienna, 1H7.'); S. Spitzer, Dax H<i i- uiid
\i'rlii{iisi tzdtr Alli n Israitilin, (irircliin iind Brum r. 2<1
ed., Viiikovce, 1S7'.); M. BIimIi, Dii.'< MiL-iiiimli-Talinudisrhe
I'atiziirnhl, Budapest, 187U (Knjflisli Inmsl., nnclnnuti,
ISSO); idem, J)ii' ('ivititriizens-()iitnHini niiiii Moxaisvli-
Balil)iiii.'<ilii III /i<(//^', Budapest. 1HM2; Idem, Das M<>^>ai.sr^l-
T<dllludi.•<i■llc Frlnirlit, Budai)est, IKhit; Ideiri, Di i \')tt)0{l
naili Miisaisrli-Tahiiiidisrlii in Biihti , lb. lH<):j; idem. Diix
yjasaiscli-Talnmdisvhc Bisilzrnlit, ib. 18',t7 ; Idem, Das
Miisni.sili-Tdliiiudi.sclic Slrafiin iciitsvcrfdiircn, lb. l'.«)l ;
idem. Die Viiiiimnilsctiafl nncli Mii.-<dixcli-Tdliniidix<liem
Beclitr, Ib. li»04; Israel Micliel Kabbinovlcz, Li'vixtdtinii Civile
<tu Tlinliiiitd, I'aris, isso; o. Biilir. has (Jcsclz tilitr Ffdxvlie
Zi: 11(11 n mull Bilni unit Talunid, Berlin. 1KK2; M. Mielziner,
Tlir Jcirisli Liiir uf Marriaiif and Dirurir, Cinciiiiiatl,
1SS4 ; Klijali Benamozegli, /.•<)■((/'( tt y/io,i(nii(/': iMiiinnstra-
liiiii dn i'lisiiKiiinlit isinc dans lex Dminies, lex Luis, etc.,
I-ejfhorn, iss."); I. Klein, Dnx Gexetz lllicr dnx (ici irlillivlie
Bi Hciweifaliien naeli Mi>xni.tili-'Jli<dnindixcli) ni Richie,
llalle-on-the-Saale, ISS.-); L. Blau, A Blinlialmazat Elmelete
a Uihrieknii Szent'iraxuh ex Hdi.nioindnyuli Szerint. Buda-
pest, 1SH7; I). Kink, 3/i(/f/o iilx Berldxhewcix im lUdniUmi-
sclien Talmud: Kin Beitrag zur Kenntni.ss drr Talnnidi-
xclien Metlti>di)lii(iie, Leipsie, 18!)1 ; I). Farbstein. has Bnlit
der Unfreini unit der Freien Arlnitci- nacli jnili.-<(li-Tal-
inudixrlicni Bcclit, VcmUclien niit dem Antilicn. Sitecirll
mit dem RCniischcn Reeht, Frankfort-on-the-Main, lt<96:
F. Kanter, BiitrUqc zur Kenntnixx dcx Recliixxyxtemx und
der Etiiili Mar Saninelx Reetorx der Hoclnichide zu Ne-
linrded und Batiiitmiiin. Bern, 189.5; S. Mandl, Dt r Bonn:
Fin Beitrau zuin M<<.--ai.^ili-Rat,hinixchen Strafrcchte
Daroextellt nacli der Bitiel und der Rahtnnixclien Liltera-
tur. BriJnn, 1S!)8; I. Ziegler, Die K6ni(j.-<iileiehnix.-<e des
Midrasch Bi'leuelitet Durehdie ROinische Kai.serzeit {Die
Jurisdiction der Kniser], pp. 101-1:32, Breslau. 19():j; H.
Pick, Asxjirixchex und Tatmndixclies Knlturyexchiclite und
Le.ricdli.sclir ]\'t)tizen, Berlin, l'.Ui; Rapoport. Der Tnliiiud
und Sein Reilit. in Zcitxvhrift fllr die Veraleicliende
[iecfitxiri.^xensclidft, xiv.-xvi.; V. H. W. Johns, Batiiilimiati
and Assjirian J^aus, Cuntracls. and Letterx, Edinburjrh,
190.3; I. Telski, Die Inncre Einriclituna ilex Gidsscu
Si/nedriniix zu Jerusalem und Hire Fdrtxctzium im
Spdteren Paldstinenxi.schen LeIirJiauxe hix zur Zeit ilea
R. Jeliuiln lia-.\axi : Ein Beitraij zuin Verxti'liidni.sxe unit
WiirdiDunu der Aeltcsten Talmiidisclien Quellcn, Breslau,
n.d.
w. I?. L. B.

TALMUD TORAH: Public free school for
poor and orphaned boys, who are there given an
elementary education in Hebrew, the Scrijitures
(especially the Pentateuch), and the Talmud (Ilala-
kah), and are thus prepared for the YESiiiB.xir. The
Talmud Toraii school is known simply as the Tal-
mud Torah, and lias the essential elements of the
Hedeu, the latter being a i)rivate self-supporting
.school.

In tiie remotest time of Jewish history the father
was the sole teacher of his children (I)eut. xi. 19).
The institution known as the "be rab " or "bet
rabban " (house of the teacher), or as the " be safra "
or "bet sefer" (house of the book), is sup|)oscd
to liave been originated by Ezra and his Great As-
sembly, who provided a pul)lic school in Jerusiilem
to secure the education of fatherless boys of the ago
of sixteen years and upward. But the school sys-
tem did not develop till Josm a ijkn

Origin Ga.mi.a the high jiriest catised public
of Schools, schools to be opened in every town
and hamlet for all children above six
or seven years of age (15. B. 21:i). Strict discipline
was observed. Hab, however, ordered Samuel b.
Shilat to deal lendeily with the pupils, to refrain
from corporal punishment, or at most to use a shoe-
strap in correcting pupils for inattention. A stupid
pupil was made monitor until able to grasp the art

Talmud Torah
Tarn

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

of learniDg. Raba fixed the number of pupils at
tweuty-tive for one teacher; if the uumber was be-
tween twenty-five and forty an assistant teacher
(" resh dukana ") was necessary ; and for over forty,
two teacliers were requireti. The expense was borne
by tlie community. There is a dillerence of opinion
regarding the (jualification of the "melammed"
(teacher). Haba preferred one who taught iiis pupils
much, even tliough somewhat carelessly, while li.
Dimi of Nehaniea preferred one who taught his pu-
pils little, but that correctly, as an error in reading
once adopted is hard to correct (iO.). It is, of course,
assumed that both qualifications were rarely to be
found in one person. Only married men were en-
gaged as teachers.

Girls were invariably excluded from the Talmud
Torah. first because teaching them is not obligatory,
and second because they are "light-minded." R.
Eliezer said : " Whosoever teaches his
Girls daughter the Torah is as one who
Excluded, teaches her frivolity" (Sotah 21b}.
Maimonides, however, held that the
prohibition refers to the Talmud, and not to the
Bible ("Yad." Talmud Torah, i. 13). Girls were
mostly taught privately, and received a fair edu-
cation. The teaching in the Talmud Torah con-
sumed the whole daj", and in the winter months a
few hours of the night besides. Teaching was sus-
pended in the afternoon of Friday, and in the after-
noon of the (lay preceding a holy day. On Sabbaths
and holy days no new lessons were assigned; but
the work of the previous week was reviewed on
Sabbath afternoons by the child's parent or guardian
(Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 245).

Tiie Talmud Torah did little for the religious
teaching and training of the pupils; this was left
to parents or guardians. The main object of the
early schools was to instruct the pupil in the laws
of Moses and in the knowledge of the rabbinical
writings, more from a literary than from a practical
standpoint. In later times, influenced in a measure
by tiie Christian parochial schools of the thirteenth
century, the reading of the prayers and benedictions
and the teaching of tiie principles of tlie Jewish
faith were included. In almost every community
an organization called "Hebra Talmud Torah" was
formed, whose duty was to create a fuu'l and pro-
vide means for the support of public schools, and to
control all teachers and pupils.

R. Asher b. Jeiiiel (1250-1328) decided to allow
witiidrawals from the funds of the Talmud Torah
for tiie purpose of meeting the annual tax collected
by tlie local governor, since otherwise great hard-
siiips would fall upon the poor, who were liable
to be stripped of all their belongings if they failed
in the prompt payment of their taxes (Responsa,
rule vi., ^ 2). On tiie other hand, nioney from the
general charity fund was at times employed to sup-
port tiie Talmud Torah, and donations for a syna-
gogue or cemetery were similarly used (ib. rule
xiii.. S^ 5,14).

Samuel (li Medina (1505-89) ruled that in case of
a legacy left by will to a Talmud Torah and guar-
anteed by the testator's brother, the latter was not
held liable if the jiroperty had been consumed owing
to the prolonged illness of the deceased (Responsa,

Hoshen Mishpat, No. 357). A legacy for the sup-
port of a yeshibali and Talmud Torah in a certain
town, if accompanied by a provision that it may
be managed " as the son of the testa-
In the tor may see fit," may be transferred,
Responsa. it was declared, to a yeshibali else-
where (ib. Orah Hayyim, i., No. 60;
see also "Pahad Yi/.hak," s.r. tnpn. p. 43ii).

Solomon b. Abraham ha-Koheu (16th cent.) de-
cided that it requires the unanimous consent of the
eight trustt^es of a Talmud Torah to engage teach-
ers where a resolution has been passed that "no
trustee or trustees shall engage the service of a
melammed without the consent of the whole" (Re-
sj)onsii, ii.. No. 89, ed. Venice, 1592).

As a specimen of the medieval organization of
these schools that of the Cracow schools may be
selected. From the congregational record (i)inkes)
of Cracow in 1551 it appears that the Talmud Torah
society controlled both private and piil)]ic schools.
It passed the following takkanot: (1) The members
shall have general supervision over the teachers and
shall visit theTalmuci Torah every week to see that
the pupils are properly taught. (2) No melammed
may teach the Pentateuch except with
The Pinkes the tran.slation "Be'er Mosheh " (Ju-
Record. dieo-Germau transl. by Moses b. Issa-
char, Prague, 1605), " which is in our
vernacular"; for the advanced pupils he shall use
no other than the Raslii commentary. (3) A melam-
med in the primary class shall teach not more than
twenty -five pupils and shall have two assistants.
(4) One melammed shall not compete with another
during the term of his engagement, and shall not
seek to obtain a pupil in charge of another teacher,
even at the expiration of the term, unless the father
or the guardian of the pupil desires to make a
change. (5) The members of the Hebra Talmud
Torah shall hire a competent and God-feaiing me-
lammed, with an assistant, for poor and orphaned
boys at the bet ha-midrash. (6) The melammed
and assistant shall teach pupils the alphabet (with
the vowels), the Siddiir, the Pentateucii (with the
" Be'er Mosheh " translation), the Rashi commen-
tary, the order of the prayers. eti(juette, and good
behavior — every bo3' according to his grade and
intelligence; also reading and writing in the vernac-
ular. The more advanced shall be taught Hebrew
gramrrar and arithmetic ; those of the highest grade
shall study Talmud with Rashi and Tosafot. (7)
Boys near the age of thirteen shall learn the regu-
lations regarding tefillin. (8) At the age of fourteen
a boy who is incapable of learning Talmud shall be
taught a trade or become a servant in a household.

The income of the society was derived from sev-
eral sources: (rt) one-sixth of the Monday and Thurs-
day contributions in the synagogues
Sources of and other places of worship ; (/*) dona-
Income, tions at circumcisions from guests in-
vited to the feast ; (r) donations at
weddings from the groom and the bride and from
invited guests; ((/) one-tenth of the collections in
the charity-box known as the "mattan ba-setar."
The election of ollicers was made by ballot — three
gabba'im, three vicegahba'im, and a treasurer.
Only learned and honorable men over thirty-six

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Talmud Torah
Tarn

years of age were eligible for electiou. The tukka-
uot regiihiting these sources of tlie Talniiul Tonih's
income were in existeuce iu the time of K. Moses
Isserles. K. Joel Sirkes, rabbi of Cracow in 1G38,
indorsed tiiese regulations and added many nllicrs,
all of which wereeontirmedal a general assembly of
seventy representatives of the congregations on the
2r)th of Tebct, 5398 (1G38; F. II. Wetstein, "Kad-
moniyyot," doeumeut No. 1, Cracow, 1893).

The Talmud Torah organization in Rome included
eight .soeii'ties in 1554, and was reconstituted Aug.
18, l(il7 (Hieger, "Gescli. der Juden in Rom," p.
316, Berlin, 1895). Later, certain .synagogues as-
sumed the name "Talmud Torah," as in the case of
one at Fez in 1603 (Ankava, " Kerem Hemed," ii. 78,
Leghorn, 1869) and one at Cairo. This Avas prob-
ably because the school was held in or adjoined the
synagogue.

The ISephardim conducted their schools more
methodically. The one iu Amsterdam was highly
praised by R. Sheftel b. Isaiah Horowitz (•' Wawe
ha-'Ammudim," p. 9b, appended to "Shelah," Am-
sterdam, 1698). Shabbetiiai Bass, in the introduction
to his "Sifte Yeshanim " (p. 8a, ib. 1680), describes
this Talmud Torah and wishes it might serve as a
model for other schools. He says: "It is built near
the synagogue, and lias six rooms, each accommo-
dating a separate class under a me-
Cur- lammed. The first class is for small

riculum. boys who are learning to read their
prayers. In the second class they
learn the Pentateuch from beginning to end, with
the musical accents. In the third, they translate
the Pentateuch into the vernacular and use the
Rashi commentary, divided into the regular weekly
sidrot. In the fourth, they learn the Prophets and
the Ilagiographa, with the properaccents and trans-
lation. In the fifth, they learn grammar and begin
upon a series of halakic excerpts from the Talmud,
the text being In Hebrew and the explanations in
the vernacular. Before the approach of a holy day
they memorize the laws in the Shulhan 'Aruk per-
taining to that holy day. The sixth class is prepara-
tory to tile yeshibaii in the bet ha-midrash and is con-
<iucted by the hakam-rabbi. In this cla.ss every day
one halakali, with the commentaries of Rashi and
the To.safot, is studied, and compared witii the con-
clusions in the codes of Maimonides, Asheri, and
Caro. The hours of study are from 8 (o 11 in the
morning, and from 2 to 5 iu the afternoon ; in win-
ter, till the Minhah prayer. The expense of main-
taining this school is defrayed from a fund contrib-
uted by the members of the Hebra Talmud Torah.
This Sephardic school made an exception to the rule
of keejung the pujiils in Talmud Torah all day, and
a few iiouis of tlie niglit in the short winter days."

The Talmud Torah at Nikolsburg, Moravia, "from
1724 to 1744, gave poor boys an education etpial to
that which was oflered their more fortunate com-
panions. The studies consisted of Siddur, Humesh
(Pentateuch), and Talmud (Giidemann. " (iuellen-
sehriften zur Gesch. des Unterrichts und der Erzie-
hnng bei den Deutsclien Juden," p. 275). The
schools in eastern Europe retained the ancient type
and metiiods of the Ashkenazic schools up to tiie
middle of the nineteenth century, wlien a movement

for improvement and better management took place
in the larger cities. Thus at Odessa, in 1857, the
Talmud Torah, wjiich had existed ever since the
city was chartered, was reorganized into a model
school by dislinguislied pedagogues. In 1881 S. J.
Abramowitch was apjiointed principal over 400
pupils. In 1904 two branches were

The Mod- opened in the sulnirlis with an ad-
ern Talmud dilional 400 pupils. The boys are
Torah. furni.shed text-books and clothing
free. The expenses are about 20,000
rubles annually. There is a Talmud Torah in every
city within the Pale in Ru.ssia. TJie income is de-
rived from the Jewish tax on meat and from private
contributions.

In Jerusalem the Talmud Torah of the Sephardim,
called "Tif'eret Yeruslialayim," was reorganized
by th(! hakani bash! R. Raphael MeVi' J'aiiejil in
1891, with 300 pupils and 13 teachers; there the
boys learn Arabic and arithmetic in addition to
other subjects, which range from the alphabet to
the Talmud. The time of study is from sunrise to
sunset. The largest contrilmtions for the support
of the school -jome from tiie Sassoons in Bombay
and Calcutta, through the meshullahim. The Ash-
kenazic Talmud Torah and yeshibaii 'Ez Ilayyim,
with 35 teachers and over 1,000 pupils, succeeded
the school established by R. Judah he-Hasid of
Siedlce. It was started with a fund contributed by
Ilirsch Wolf Fisclibein and David Janover in 1860.
The annual expenditure is about S10,000, over half
of which is collected in the United States. At Jaffa
the Talmud Torah and yeshibaii Sha'are Torah was
organized in 1886 by N. H. Lewi, with 9 teach-
ers and 9 classes for 102 boys. Its expenses are
about $2,000 yearly, mostly covered by donations
from abroad.

In America the Machzikei Talmud Torah in New
York was organized in 1883 by Israel (Isidor) Rosen-
thal. It maintains schools on its own premises at
225-227 East Broadway. It instructs
In over 1,100 boys at a yearly expense of

America, about §12,000". On Jan. 22, 1905. the
society opened a branch at 67 East 7th
street, to which Jacob II. Schiff donated S25,000.
The society is managed by a board of diiectors and
a committee of education. Tiie studies comprise
elementary Hebrew, the reading of the prayers, tlie
translation of the Pentateuch into Yiddish and Eng-
lish, and tlie principles of the Jewish faith and prac-
tise. The time of study occupies only two hours
per da3', after public-school hours, as all pupils
attend the city schools for secular education. Tliere
are several other Talmud Torahs in New York;
and similar institutions exist in all cities of llie
United States and Canada that have a large Jewish
population. See Education ; Heder; Ped.\gooic8;
Yksiiihaii.

Bini.!n(;RAiMiv : Judah L«b, 'Omer mi-Tehudah. Brflnn. 1790;
Zederhmim, Die (liheimnissr vmi lUrditchrv. pp. ;»s 44. War-
saw, 1870 (a .sketch); Brandstildter, sketch In H(i-h:xlih<il, v.
70-84. „

•T. J. D. E.

TAM, JACOB. See J.\coi{ hex Miiu Tam.

TAM, JACOB B. DAVID IBN YAHYA :

Portuguese-Turkish rablii and iihysician : Imrii in
Portugal in the second half of the fifteenth century;

Tain an
Tammuz

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

died in Constantinople between 1534 and 1542. His
father, David b. Solomon (d. C'oustuutiuople, 1504),
one of the most prominent members of tlie great
Yahya family, tlt-d from Portugal to Naples in 1493,
and thence went to Constantinople about 1497.
Tarn, who accompanied his father on both journeys,
was recognized as a Talmudical authority, and pre-
sumably he succeeded Elijah Mizu.viu as nibbi of
the Turkish capital. It is stated tiiat he was the
body-physician of Sultan Sulaiman and a renowned
authority on Mohammedan law, but there is reason
to believe that his admirers exaggerated his impor-
tance. Tams 213 responsa, which, under the name
"Ohole Tarn." form a part of "Tumniat Yesharim"
(edited by Benjamin b. Abraiiam Motal, Venice,
1622), constitute all that has been preserved of his
writings. The preface to "Yosippon," attributed
to him and tirst published in the Constantinople
edition of 1510, is really the work of Judah Leon b.
Moses Mosconi (see Jew. Encyc. vii. 260. s.r. Joskph
BKN GoiiioN). Tam had two sons. Joseph and
Gedaliah, and a grandson, Tam b. Gedaliah,
whu.se actual name, as in the case of his grand-
father, was Jacob.

Bibi.iooraphy: Benjarob. 0?nr/ui-Sefanm, p. 217; Carmoly.
Dihn h'li'.iiniin li-Bmc' Yahya. pp. Zi-Si. Frankfort-on-
the-Maln. ls5<i: Fursi, Bitil. Jwi. iii. 4 ; Kuenii. Kcitexct Yis-
rafL p. ^}T, Warsaw, l»a6; Steinschneider, Cat. liDtll. No.

s. P. Wl.

TAMAN : Peninsula between the Black Sea and
the Sea of Azof; now included in the Russian prov-
ince of Kuban. It contains the Cossack settlement
of Taman, wiiich has (1897) a population of 4,291.
The peninsula was the seat of prosperous Greek
colonies at the beginning of the Christian era. That
a large number of Jews lived there at that time and
subsequently is testified to by the Byzantine his-
torian Theophanes (d. 817) in his "Chronographia."
In 680(or 679) Taman was captured by the Ciiazars,
and was then known as Tame, from which orig-
inated the Russian Tmutarakan. Tiie peninsula
and the settlement near tiie site of tiie present town
of Taman were known also under other names,
among them Matega (by the Venetians). In 965
the Ciiazars were e-xpelled from Taman hy the Rus-
sian prince Swyatoslaw, a Russian colony being
established at Tmutarakan; and in 1010 they were
driven from their remaining (Crimean possessions.
In 1475, at the time of tiie conquest of the
Crimea by Mohammed II., Taman was under the
rule of the Guizoltis, descenilants of the Genoese
Jew Simeon d(; (iuizolfi (.see Gi tzoLKi, Z.\cii.\kias).

In the excavations made on the lanian peninsula
after the middle of the nineteenth century there
were discovered about sixty tombstones which once
marked Jew isli graves. Tiie inscriptions on two of
tiiese tomljstones were partiy decipliered ; on the
otiiers only single Ilciirew letters could lie made out.
All of tiiem Itear .lewisli .symbols — candelabra,
shofar, and liilal). Of the two partly deciphered
inscriptions one belongs to the foiirtii or fiftii cen-
tury, ami contains tiie name of Meiiaiiem, son of
Amtz; the otiier dates back to tiieeiglitii or ninth
century, and contiiiiis the words "in this grave lies
tlie body of Mir[iam]." A marble slab whicii forms
a part of tiie wall in the lodge of the synagogue in

Theodosia bears the name of the *' respected Joshua,
the son of Meir of Taman Aslikenazi," who died on
Wednesday, the 27th of Tebet, 5269 (Dec. 31, 1508).
SeeCuiMKA; Kaffa; Karaites; Keutch.

Bini.ioGRAPHV : ReoeKtu i iVn<}pt*i, vol. i.; A. Fatir, Drcvnu
But. etc.. Odessa, 1861 : Lowe, Die Reste der Oirnmiicn
am Sihwarzcn Mcere, Halle, 1896.
n. K. J. G. L.

TAMAR : 1. City mentioned in the vision of
Ezekiel (Ezek. xlvii. 19) as one terminus of tiie
southern boundary-line of Canaan, which extended
thence through Meribotli-kadesli to the Mediter-
ranean. According to Ezek. xlviii. 28, moreover,
this entire district was to belong to the tribe of
Gad. A comparison of this boundary-line with tiiat
given in Num. xxxiv. 3-5 shows that Tainar was
probably situated in the border-laud of Moab, near
the Dead Sea.

2. Same as Hazazon-Tamau.

s. S. O.

TAMAR: 1.— Biblical Data : Daughter-in-law
of Judah. After the death of lier husband, Er, she
married his brother Onan; but wlien he also died,
Judali sent her back to her father's house, fearing
to let her marry his third sou, Shelah. When
Tamar saw that Shelah, having reached maturity,
did not marry her, slie disguised herself and met
Judah on his way to Timnath. Supposing her to
1)6 of questionable virtue, he approached her and
entered into relations with her that resulted in her
pregnancy. As a pledge of payment, he left v.ith
her his staff, seal, and belt. When her condition
was discovered, and she was about to be burned to
death in punisiiment for unciiastit}', she confronted
her father-in-law with the tokens he had left with
her, declaring that she was with child by the man
to wliom they belonged. Slie bore him the twins
Zarah and Pharcz (Gen. xxxviii.).

In Rabbinical Literature : Tamar was the

daughter of Sliem, tiie son of Noaii. Sliem was
a priest, and wiien Tamar was charged witli for-
nication (Gen. R. Ixxxv. 11) she was condemned
to be burned to death in conformity with Lev.
xxi. 9.

In the house of Judah, her father-in-law, slie was
extremely virtuous and timid, and used to keep her
face constantly covered witii a veil, so tliat Judah
failed to recognize her wiien he saw her sitting by
the roadside (Sotali 10b; Gen. R. ixxxv. 9). Tamar
piayeii to God that she migiit not go barren from
Judaii's liouse, and resolved upon tiie course which
siie subse(iuentiy pursued (Gen. R. Ixxxv. 8). In
reply to Judah's questions slie declared that she was
not a Gentile, and that slie was unmarried (Gen. R.
ixxxv. 9; Sotaii 10a). When slie iiad become preg-
nant slie was not at all asiiamed of her condition,
but boasted to ail that slie would be tlie niotiier of
kings and redeemers (Gen. R. Ixxxv. 11). When
charged with uncliastity, siie was unwilling to
assert directly that she was with child by her father-
in-law, for she feared that such a disclosure
might liumiliate him, and she was ready to die
rather tlian incriminate him (Ber. 43a; Sotali 12b).
She was willing, iiowever, indirectly to cause iiim
to confess, and tiierefore sent him tiie articles wiiich
he had left her as a pledge, and which had been

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Taman
Tammuz

taken from licr by Samuel iimi nsionii by Gabriel.
After lier iniiocenee had been proved, Jiidali
continued to live with licr in marital ix-lalions
(Sotah lOh).

2. — Biblical Data : Sister of Absalom, and tin;
victim of the |)assi()n of her liaifbrotlier Amnon.
At the suggestion of Jonadab, his confidant, Amnon
feigned illness, and Tamar was sent by the king to
hisajiartment to prepare food for him. Amnon took
advantage of this opportunity to dishonor lier forci-
bly, after which lie drove Jier away. Weeping and
lamenting, she went to her brotlier Absalom, in
who.se house slic remained. Absalom avenged
his sister two years later by killing Amnon (II
Sam. xiii.).

In Rabbinical Literature : Tamar was the

natuial daughter of David by a captive whom he
married after she had abjured her Gentile religion,
and who became the mother of Absalom. Because
of her illegitimacy it would have been lawful for
her to marry Anmon, the son of David, and she
tlierefore besought him (II Sam. xiii. 13) not to dis-
honor her, but to ask the king to bestow her on him
as his wife, a request which would surely have been
granted (Sanh. 21a).

s. J. Z. L.

TAMARISK : Tree, several species of which are
found in anil around Palestine. The Hebrew term
for the tamarisk is doubtful. Tlie word pt^'N, which
occurs three times in the Old Testament, is inter-
preted by modern scholars as meaning "a tamarisk,"
and is so rendered in the Revised Version. Abraham
planted a " tamarisk-tree " (K. V.) in Beer-sheba (Gen.
xxi. 33 ; A. V. gives " a grove "). *' Saul was sitting
. . . under the tamarisk-tree in Ramah " (I Sam.
xxii. (), H. v.). Finally, the bones of Saul and his
sons were buried " under the tamarisk-tree in Ja-
besh" (I Sam. xxxi. 13, R. V.). The parallel pas-
sage of I Chron. x. 12 has nps, which is rendered
"oak-tree" by both the English veisions (R. V.,
margin, "terebinth"). Therefore ^{^x in the last-
mentioned passage is rendered " tree " in the Author-
ized Version.

s. M. Sel.

TAMID (in full, 'OLAT TAMID) : Treatise in
the Mishnah and the Babylonian Gemara; devoted
chierty to the regulations regarding the morning and
evening burnt offerings (comp. Ex. xxix. 38-42;
Num. xxviii. 3-8), but dealing also with other cere-
monies in the ritual of the Temple which are binding
on the priests and the Levitcs. In most editions this
treatise stands ninth in the order Kodashim, and it is
divided into seven chapters (six in Lowe's edition
of the Mishnah), containing thirty-four paragraphs
in all.

Ch. i. : The priests kept watch in three places in
the Tem|)le; where the young priests were on
guard, and wlieie the older ones slept vho heltl the
keys (5^ 1); all who sought admi.ssion to remove the
aslies from the altar wer(! obliged to prepare them-
selves by a ritual bath Ix'fore the olTicer appeared;
when he appeared and when he called upon the
priests to draw lots (ii 2); the mutual greetings of
the priests (j^ 3) ; how the one clioseu by lot to remove
the ashes from the altar performed his duties (^ 4).

Ch. ii. : IIow the other priests continued the task
of cleansing the altar (>; 1); the piling of the ashes,
in the center of the altar, into a hillock, which was
con.sidered an adornment (i? 2) ; the supply of fuel
for the altar and the kind of wood us('d(ti;3); the
arrangement of the wood and lire in layers (t-t^ 4-5).

Ch. iii. : The drawing of lots for various oflicial
duties, such as slaying the tamid, sprinkling its
blood, anil cleansing the altar and the candlestick
(§ 1); the announcement of the time of slaying the
morning sacrifice (^ 2) ; the bringing of the sacrifi-
cial lamb, which was given to drink from a golden
cup before it was killed; who was cliarged witli
taking it to the place of .sacrifice (§i^3-o); the mode
of cleansing the inner altar and the candlesticks, to-
gether with the statement, in conformity with Ezek.
.\liv. 2, that no man ever passed through the ])os-
tern on the southern side of the large door; how the
opening of this gi'cat portal was heard as far us
Jericho, as was the sound of the trumpets and other
music of the Temple (iii^ 6-0).

Ch. iv. : The ritual for killing and dismembering
the sacrificial lamb; how the parts of the sacrifice
were brought to the altar.

Ch. v. : The daily morning prayer in the Temple,
which was supplemented on the Sabbath by a bene-
diction on the division of priests wlio then com-
pleted tiieir duties (^^ 1); the drawing of lots for
offering incense; the question as to whether one
might make this offering twice, and the mode of
burning the incense (i^§ 2-o) ; the " magrefah," a
musical instrument used in the Temple (see Ono.xN),
and the various priestly and Levitical meanings of
the signals given on it (^ C).

Ch. vi. : Additional details in regard to offering
incense.

Ch. vii. : The ritual used in case the high priest
himself performed the sacrifice; the mode in which
he pronounced the benediction on the people ; the
divergency of this benediction from thnt bestowed
by the priests outside the Temi)le, and the music
which accompanied the high priest's performance
of his functions (jj^ 1-3); enumeration of the Psalms
sung by the Levites in the Temple on the various
days of the week (§4).

Although the extant Babylonian Gemara covers
only ch. i., ii., and iv. of Tamid. it contaitis several
sayings and ethical maxims of importance, as well
as stories and legends of much interest. The fol-
lowing saying may be cited as a specimen (29a):
"The Pentateuch and the writings of the Prophets
and the mishnaic sages contain many exaggerated
expressions which can not be taken literally, such
as, ' The cities arc great and walled up to lieaven ' "
(Deut. i. 28). On the legends contained in this trea-
tise concerning Alexander the Great, his conversa-
tion with the sages of the South, his journey to
Africa, and his adventures among the Amazons and
at the gate of paradise, see Jew. Encyc. i. 342 et

SCq., ft.r. Al-EXANDEIl THE GkEAT.

w. i(. J. ^ L.

TAMMTJZ (Assyrian, "Dumuzi"): Babylonian
deity sujiposed to be referred to in Ezek. viii. 14.
He is regarded as the husband, or sometimes as the
son, of the goddess Ishtar, who descended to Hades
every year in the fourth month, named after him,

Tammuz

Tanhum ben Joseph

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

aud reuijiiucd there till tUe following spring. He is

accordingly sujiposed to represt-nt the spirit of the

spring vegetation ; and there wasa period of niourn-

iug in Babylonia to mark tlie discontinuance of

growth. It has been suggested that the fast of the

Seventeenth of Taninuiz wasa survival in Jewish

folk lore of the nunirniug for Tamnniz; while the

myth of Afloiiis in classical literature has also been

associated with the legend. The reference in Eze-

kiel to the women weeping for Tammuz certainly

shows a traci- of a cult in early Israel ; but how far

it extended it is dillicult to say. W. Robertson

Smith attempted to associate the Tamnuiz-worship

with the .sacrificial rites connected with "the king

of the woods."

BlBiioGKAPiiv: Frazer. Gnhlen Bowg/i, 3d ed., i. 360 ct seq.;
Jastnjw, /{«Jii;i<»M nf the BtO>ylnnian.s (ind AsKi/riam, p.
.541*. Bostiin. lrt«t<; W. Uolx'n.son Smith. lid. nf Sem. p. 411;
Barton. Skilrli •<( Semitic Origiu.i, pp. 211 et Kcq.

8. J.

TAMMUZ (TT^n): Fourth ecclesiastical and
tenth civil uiontli of the Hebrew calendar. It con-
sists of twenty-nine days, and corresponds to part
of June and part of July. During the last years
of the Second Temple the 14lh of Tammuz was
decbre<l a feast-day in commemoration of a vic-
tory gained by the Pharisees over the Sadducecs
in a dispute regarding the interpretation of the
Law (Ta'an. iv. 6). The 17th of Tammuz is the
public fast-day called "Shib'ah 'Asar be-Tammuz,"
in commemoration of the breaking down of the
walls of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. As stated
in Jer. x.\.\i.\. 2, this catastrophe occurred on the
9th day of the month ; the 17th was selected be-
cause, during the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, a
similar catastrophe happened on that day (Ta'an.
26a; Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 549).

According to the Megillat Ta'anit (iv. 6), four
other calamities had overtaken the people of Israel
on the 17th: the breaking of the tables of tlie Law
by Moses, the cessation of the perpetual offering,
the burning of the Torali and the erection of an idol
in the sanctuary bv Apostomus (comp. Josophus,
"Ant." XX. 5, M; idem, "B. J." ii. 12, § 2), aud the
discontinuance of the sacrifices. With the 17th be-
gin the three weeks of mourning over the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem, which end with the 9th of Ab.
During this period it is forbidden to celeb'ate mar-
riages, to cut the hair, to bathe, etc. (Shulhan 'Aruk,
Orah Hayyim, 551). The pious fast everyday dur-
ing these three weeks (ih.). The 27th of Tammuz
is the anniversary of the burning of the tanna
Hanina ben Teradion during the Hadrianic persecu-
tions (additions to Megillat Ta'anit, ed. Neubauer,
in "M. J. C." ii. 24).

J. I. Bk.

TANG, ABRAHAM: English author; flour-
ishetl ill I^cikIdh in liic latter half of the eighteenth
century. In 1773 he published a philosophic com-
mentary on Ecclesiastes which gives evidence of
some classical scholarship. The mythology of
Greece and of Rome is presented in this commen-
tary in a very clear and concise manner; and the
" Anthologia Gneca." Ovid, Vergil, and Seneca are
frequently cited. Tang wrote also an exposition
of the Talmudical passages in which the sayings

of the "Ancients of Athens" are quoted (London,
1772); this work was dedicated to K. ^Moses of
Minsk.

G. L.

DiBi.iOGRAPHV : Jcu'. CIiroH. Dec. 19, 1884.
.J.

TANGIER. See Monocco.

TANHUM B. ELIEZER: Lithuanian rabbi
and merchant; born 1T4(>; died in Grodno Jan. 12,
1819. He was the son ot K. Eliezer of Urle (Orle),
in the government of Groilno, and succeeded his
father in that rabbinate. Later he occupied the po-
sition of "rosh bet din" at Grodno, where his father
had been called as rabbi. Upon his failure to
secure the rabbinate of Grodno after the death of his
father (1791), Tanhum engaged in business, in which
he was very successful. I'here is a tradition that he
enjoyed the confidence of the last king of Poland
and that he was well thought of by Emperor Alex-
ander I. His signature is first under the resolutions
adopted by the Jewish delegates who met in Wilna
in 1818 to select three deputies to reside permanently
in St. Petersburg and represent Jewish affairs be-
fore the government (see Jew. Encyc. i. 345, s.v.
Alf.xandku I). Tanhum left several works in
manuscript under the collective title "Nehamat
Ziyyon " ; these in 1860 were in possession of his
grand.son Elijah Perez of Wilna. His sou was Issa-
ciiAit Bar b. Tanhum.

BiBLioGR.\PHV : Fiienn, Kiri/nh Xe'cmanah, pp. 3.'). 3<<6, Wilna,
1860; Friedenstein, 'Ir aibhoj-im, pp. .>!, 69-70, Wilna, 1880.
E. C. P. Wl.

TANHUM BAR HANILAI (or ILAI):

Palestinian amora of the third century, although
his father's name suggests a Babylonian origin. He
transmitted the sayings of Joshua ben Levi, Jo-
hanan, and Bar Kappara. In the Babylonian Tal-
mud he appears as the autlior of decisions which in
the Jerusalem Talmud are attributed to older au-
thorities. Thus, in Sanh. 9na he is said to be the
author of a decision which in Pcsik. xi. (ed. Buber,
p. 99a) is ascribed to Eleazar b. Pedat. On the
other hand, halakic sentences of his have been pre-
served in tile Jerusalem Talmud (.Ma'as. 481); Hag.
76a ; Ter. 41c ; Shab. 5d ; Ta'an. 65a). Among those
who transmitted sayings of his were Abbahu (Cant.
R. ii. 7) and Tauhuma (Pesik. R. 112).

It appears from Yer. Ta'an. 65a, b that Tanhum
bar Hanilai was active as a preacher, and that he
once preached with Abba bar Zabdai and Jo.sefa.
He died during a Hanukkah festival (Yer. M. K.,
end). His sayings were of a high ethical and moral
character: " God speaks thus to Israel : ' My daugh-
ter [i.e., the Torah] is in thy hands; thy daughter
[soul] is in My hands. If thou protect JNIine, then
will I protect thine ' " (Tan., Ki Tissa, end). With
regard to the prohibition against certain kinds of
food, he said: "A physician once visited two sick
people; the one who had no hope of recovery was
permitted to eat everything, while the one who had
every prospect of recovery was allowed only cer-
tain foods. So God treats the Jews; because they
have hope of a future life, He gives them certain
dietary laws; while the heathen, who have no part
in the life to come, arc permitted to eat of all things"
(Lev. R. xiii. 2).

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tammuz

Tanhum ben Joseph

Tanhiiin bar Hanilai's haggadali is especially
clmmcteristic because of his system of eonneetii)g llie
last words of one IJible paragraph with the open-
ing words of the next, as Lev. i. 16 with ii. 1
(Lev. K. iii. 4), Lev. xii. 2 et xcf/. with xiii. 2 ct kc(j.
(Lev. \\. XV. 5). Ps. xciv. 1 witii xciii. 5 (Midr.
Teh. (id /"(•.), and Num. v. 12 d .vriy. with v. 2 ct arrj.
(>ium. ]{. ix. 4). Ilaggadic sayings of his are
quoted in the following places: Sanli. 7a. 100a;
'Ab. Zarah 18b, 191); B. M. 8f)b ; Shab. 22a; Hag.
7a; Ber. 8b, i;^l); Meg. 15b; Mak. lUa; Yer. Ta'an.
68c; Gen. R. iv. 6, xci., beginning; Pesik. R. 21,
end; Ex. B. xHi., end; and Lev. R. xxvi. The
Midrash ]\Iishle begins with a proa'inium by Tan-
hum liar llanilai, altliough his name is not men-
tioned in any other pait of the book. He is men-
tioned twiee in the Pirk(! Babbi Eli'ezer (xxxix.,
xlix.) by the name of Tanhum.

BiBMocKAPMY : Heilprin, Sedrr lia-Dorot, ii. ~'R1a; Baclier,
Ag. I'al.AniDr. iii.t>37-ti:3Gaii(t liiJex : P'raiikel, MelxKP. Vila.
-NV. 1!. S. ().

TANHUM B. HIYYA: Paleslinian amora of
the thirii century; a i)upil of Simeon b. Pazzi,
whose sayings he transmits. In the Babylonian Tal-
mud he is constantly referred to as B. Tanhum b.
Hiyya of Kefar 'Aliko (M. K. 25b; Yeb. 45a), of
which place he was a native; he resided, however,
in Tiberias, where on one occasion, with the aid
of Aha, the lord of the castle, he ransomed some
Jewish women who probably liad been taken there
by Boman troojis (Yeb. 45a). Tie was a mem-
ber of the commission which determined the in-
tercalations of the calendar (Yer. Sanh. 6c). He
was on terms of friendship with A.ssi, who visited
him (Yer. Shab. 6c), and he maintained friendly re-
lations with Hananiah b. Papa (Yer. M. K. 83c).
Tanhum was wealthy and philanthropic. It is re-
corded that when his mother purchased meat for tlie
houseliold a similar quantity was always purchased
for distribution among the poor (Lev. R. xxxiv. 1).

Only three halakic sayings by him have been pre-
served (Bek. 57b; Yer. Meg. Tiki, twice); but sev-
eral of his haggadic utterances are extant. The
following may be mentioned: "When one who has
learned, taught, and ob.served the Law fails to pre-
vent the evil which it is in his power to prevent, or
to confirm the good which it is in his power to con-
firm, then shall smite him the curse pronounced
[Dent, xxvii. 26] over those who fail to confirm ' all
the words of this law ' " (Yer. Sotah 21d). He in-
terpreted Prov. vi. 32 ("Whoso committeth adul-
tery with a woman lacketh understanding ") as re-
ferring to those who seek office for the sake of gain
(Pesik. B. 22 [ed. Friedmann. p. Ilia]). Tanhum
was the author also of a prayer to be read by any
one who has had an ominous dream (Yer. Ber. 9a).
It was told in Babylon that when Tanhum died all
the statues in Tiberias moved from their places (M.
K. 25b, according to the correct reading in Rab-
binovicz's " Variie Leetiones," ad he).

Bini.iO(!RAPHY : Franl<pl, Mchn, pp. 130b. 131a; Baoher, ^(7.
I'nl. Amor. iii. 036-0:59.
w. ]!. J. Z. L.

TANHUM BAR JEREMIAH: Palestinian
amora of the fourtli century ; pupil of B. Manis the
Elder. In the town of Hefer in Galilee he once ren-

dered a legal decision on a religious question, where-
upon his attention was called to the fact that his
action was unwarranted, since his teacher resided
within twelve miles of that place. Oidy one halakic
decision of his— regarding the liturgy— is extant
(Yer. Ber. 7b). He was tiie author of .several liag-
gadic sentences (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxxi. ; Gen. R.
iv. 8; Lam. B. ii. 1 ; and Pesik. 163b).

BlBUOGRAPiiv: nacher, Ao. Pol. Amnr.n\.7rt\-7;i2; Frankel,
Mchn, p. 131a; Heilprin, Seder ha-Ditrot, II. 192b.
E. C. S. O.

TANHUM BEN JOSEPH YERUSHALMI :

Oriental philologist and exegete of tiie tliirteenth
century. He was a scholar of great merit and was
one of the last representatives of the rationalistic
school of Biblical exegesis in the Orient; he is called
by modern writers "the Ibn Ezra of the East."
He lived in Palestine, perhaps for a time in Egypt
also, and had a son, Jf)seph, who maintained a corre-
spondence with David, the grandson of Maimouides
(comp. Brody la "Sammell)and," 1893, issued by
the Mekize .Nirdamim). Tanhum's very existence
was unknown to European scholars until the eight-
eenth century, when fragments of his works were
brought from the Orient by Pocock, who published
some of them in his "Porta Mosis." Tanhum skil-
fully handled the Arabic language, in which he
composed his works; lie possessed some knowledge
of Greek, and was well versed in philoso])iiy and
natural science. He was the author of " Kitab al-
Ijaz wal-Bayan," consisting of commentaries on the
Biblical books, with an introduction entitled "Kul-
liyyat" giving a sketch of Hebrew grammar and
an account of the philologists of the Middle Ages.

With the exception of those on Ezra and Nehe-
miah, the commentaries are found iu manuscript,
complete or in fragments, in the libraries of St.
Petersburg, Oxford, and London; and they are
known also through quotations made either by the
author himself or by later writers. The commen-
taries which have been published are: "Ad Libros
V. T. Commentarii Arabici Specimen una cum An-
nott. ad Aliquot Loca Libri Judicum " (ed. Ch.
F. Schnurrer, Tubingen, 1791); "Commentarii in
Prophetas Arabici Specimen, " etc. (ed. Theodor
Haarbrucker, Halle, 1842); "Commentarii Arabici
in Lamentat." (ed. Cureton, London, 1843); "Com-
mentaire sur le Livre de Habakkouk, Publie ea
Arabe avec une Traduction Francaise par Salo-
mon Munk" (in Cahen's French Bible, vol. xvii.);
" Arab, ad LibrosSamiieliset Begum LocosGraviores,
Edidit et Interpretationem Latinam Adjecit Th.
Haarbriicker " (Leipsic, 1844); on Joshua, by the
same editor (published with the "Bliltter aus der
Veitel-Heine-Ephraim Lehranstalt." Berlin, 1862);
extracts from the commentary on Judges, published
by Goldziherin his "Studien," 1870; on Kohelet(ed.
Samuel Eppenstein, Berlin, 1888); on Jonah (ed,
Kokowzow, in the "Rosen-Festschrift," St. Peters-
burg, 1897). In his commentaries, Tanhum, being
a decided adversary of midrashic exegesis, endeav-
ored to give a philological or a philosophical inter-
pretation of the Scriptural text. He quotes the
jirominent exegetes from Saadia down to Abraham
ibn Ezra.

Tanhum wrote also " Al-Murshid al Kafi." a lexi-

Tanhum of Nave
TanJ^Tiina, Midrash

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

con giving in alpliabetical order the etymologies
and signitications of all the vocables foiiiul in Mai-
nionides" "MislinehTorali," and of a great number of
those found in the Mishuah. The main sources used
are the ** "Aruk " and Mainionides' commentary on
the Mishnah. The author quotes Saadia, Ibn Ja-
nah, Dunash, Moses ibn Ezra, and other prom-
inent philologists. Specimens of the "ISIurshid,"
still extant in manuscript (Bagdad, Jerusjilem, and
Oxford), have been published by Wilbelm Bacher
under the title "Aus dem WOrterbuche Tanchuni
Jerushalmi's" (Strasburg, 1903).

Bibliography: Steln.schneider, Cat. B<tdL col. 2666; idem,
L'if Aniliiftht Littrntur Utr Jwhii, p. 174 ; (ioldziher, Stu-
dkn Ulitr I'dfic/iui/i, l.fipsic. I>s7ii ; Poznanski, in li.E.J.
xl.. .\li.; idtiu. in '/.i:HM-\tri(t i Or Hct>nli:<ilu liiliUnurapliie.
V. li.', IM: Ultin. in X. I>. M. a. Iv. WH; Harkavv, Studkii.
ill. 4;{ ; lilf III. iici(j<i.*'ii'/i </i 1/11 lV.»7i(iiii(ii. vi.2 ; tinitz, G't'»c/i.
vii. 144, uote 2."
w. I!. I. Bu.

TANHUM or NAVE. See Tanhima n.
Abba.

TANHUMA B. ABBA : Palestinian amora of
the lilth gciivnitiun; one ol the foi-emost haggadists
of his time. He was a pupil of lluua b. Abin (Num.
R. iii. ; Gen. R. xli.), from whom he transmits ha-
lakic (Yer. Hal. 57d; Shab. 10c) as well as haggadic
sayings (Yer. Pe'ah 15b; Shab. lid; 'Ab. Zarali
43a). He received instruction also from Judah b.
Shalom (ilidr. Teh. to Ps. cxix. 2) and R. Phine-
has (Yer. Sbek. 49d). According to Bacher, he re-
sided in Nave, a town in Peraea (comp. Neubauer,
"G. T." p. 23).

Of Tanhuma's life the Babylonian Talmud relates
the following incident, probably based on an actual
occurrence. The emperor — a Christian ruler no
doubt being meant — said to Tanhuma, "Let us all
become one people." To this the latter replied,
"Yes; but since we are circumcised we can not be-
come like you ; whereas you, by hav-
Retort to ing yourself circumcised, may become
the like us." The emperor thereupon said,

Emperor. " You have answered me correctly ;
but he who worsts the king must be
thrown to wild beasts." This was done, but the
animals did Tanhuma no harm. An unbeliever who
stood by remarked that perhaps they were not hun-
gry, whereupon he himself was thrown after Tan-
huma and was instantly torn to pieces (Sauh. 39a).

With regard to Tanhuma's public activity, the
only fact known is that he ordered a fast on account
of a drought. Two fasts were held, but no rain
came, whereu]ion Tardiuma oidered a third fast,
saying in his sermon: "My children, be chaiitablc
unto each other, and God will be merciful unto
you." On this occasion one. man gave money to his
divorced wife, who was in need; Tanhuma thcie-
upon lifted his face towaid the heavens and prayed:
"Lord of the Universe, this hard-hearted man took
pity on his wife when he saw that slie was in need,
and helped her, although not obliged to do so; how
much more shouldest Thou, the Gi-acious and Mer-
ciful, be filled with i)ity when Thou seest Thy be-
loved children, the sons of Abraham, I.sfuxc, and
Jacob, in need." As soon as he had ceased pray-
ing, rain came, and the world was relieved of its
distress (Gen. R. xxxiii. ; Lev. R. xxxiv.).

Tanhuma is not often mentioned as a halakist: a
few remarks on and explanations of halakic teach-
ings ai'e ascribed to him in the I'alestin-
His ian Talmud (Yer. 'Er. 2Gc ; Pes. 37b, d ;

Haggadot. Yoma 44d ; Shek. 47c: Taan. 67a),
while the Babylonian Talmud men-
tions an objection raised i)y him against a halakic
thesis advancetl by the Palestinian schools (Hul.
5ob). As a haggadist. on the other hand, he is fre-
quently mentioned, and the numerous haggadic sen-
tences of his which are still ]ireserved touch every
pi-ovince of the llaggadali. He often jtoints out the
Scriptural bases for the sayings of okler authors,
always using the chai'acteristic formula of introduc-
tion: "I give the reason " ; that is, " I cite the Bibli-
cal authority " (Yer. Ber. 12c ; Gen. R. i v. 3 ; Lev. R.
xxi.). He also explains and annotates older say-
ings (Gen. R. xxiv.), adjusts dillering traditions
(Lev. R. xxiv. 5), and varies the text of old hag-
gadic sentences (Gen. R. xliii. 3). His own haggadic
teachings dilTer but little fi-om those of his contem-
poraries, although some of his interpretations ap-
pi'oach the .sim]de exegetic method. An example
of this is furnished by his interpretation of Eccl. iii.
11, where he explains the woixl "ha-kol" as mean-
ing "the universe" (Gen. R. ix. 2).

Tanhuma often made use of symbolism to illustrate
his thought. Some of his haggadic utterances may
be quoted: "Just as the spice-box contains all kinds
of fragrant spices, so must the wi.sc youth be filled
with all kinds of Biblical, niishnaic, halakic, and
haggadic knowledge " (Cant. R. v. 13). On Isa. xlv.
8 Tanhuma said: " Nebuchadnezzar grudged his son
and successor Evil-merodacli his treasures, wherefore
he tilled iron ships with gold and sunk them in the
Euphrates. When Cyrus conquered Babylonia and
decided to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem, he di-
verted the river into another channel, and ' the tieas-
ures of darkness, and hidden riches of secret places '
were given to him" (Estli. R. iii. 1).

Tanhuma often held religious disputatious with
non-Jewish, especially Christian, scholars; and he
himself tells of one which took place in Antioch
(Gen. R. xix. 4). He was asked con-
Polemics, cerning Gen. iii. 5, where the word
"Ke-Elohim [yode'e tob Ava-i'a'] "
seems to point to a i)lui'ality of gods. Tanhuma
replied that such a construction was refuted by the
immediately i>i-eceding words, "yodea' [sinyulai]
Eloliim." His frequent intercourse with non-Jews
led him to formulate the following rvde: "When
a non-Jew greets j^ou witii a blessing, answer him
with an 'Amen'" (Yei-. Ber. 12c; Suk. 54a). The
Pesikta Rabbati contains about eighty proems said
to have originated with Tardiuma, and be<riiiniiig
with the i)hrase "Thus .said R. Tanhuma.'" A great
number of proems bearing his name are found al.so
in the IMidrash Tanhuma. In addiliou to these
proems several lenglhy sections of the Pesikta Rab-
bati as well as of the Midrash Tanhuma are followed
by the note "Thus explained for "preached"] R.
Tanhuma." See Tanhima, Midkasii.

Bnu.KiiiRAriiY: Weiss, Dur. iii. 142-144; Frankel, Mcbn, p.
litla, t) ; lUihcr, EinlrJimm zxim Midrnsh 2"a)i/ntmo, pp. 3a,
4a ; Bacher, Ad- /'<«'. Amor. iii. 4ti.">-.")14.

w. B. J. Z. L.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tanbum of Nave
Tan^uma, Slidrasb

TANHUMA, MIDRASH: Name given to

three (iillert'iit LoUeLtious of reiitateucli liaggadot ;

two are extant, while tiie third is kuown oulj-

tlirougli citiitioiis. Tlicse inidiasiiini,

Three Mid- althougii bearing the name of K. Tan-

rashim. huma, must not be regarchnl as liaving
been written or edited b}' iiim. Tiiey
were so named merely because tliey consist partly of
liomilies originating with liim (this being indicated
by the introductory formula "Thus began R. Tan-
huma " or " Thus preached K. Tanhunia ") and parti}'
of liomilies by liaggadic teacliers who followed tlie
style of 11. Tanhuma. It is possible that K. Tan-
hunia liimself preserved liis liomilies, and tiiat his
collection was used by the editors of tlie midrasii.
The three collections were edited at difTerent times;
they will, therefore, be treated in chronological
order.

Tan^iuma A : The collection published by Buber
(Wiliia, bSS.j), who gathered the material from sev-
eral manuscripts. This collection, consisting of
homilies on and liaggadic interpretations of the
weekly sections of the Pentateuch, is the oldest of
the three, as well as perhaps the oldest compilation
of its kind arranged as a running commentary on
the Pentateuch. It is even older than Bereshit Kab-
bah, which quotes several of its deci.sions. This
midrash (Tanhuma) was edited in the fifth century,
before the completion of the; Babylonian Talmud,
to which work it nowhere refers. On the contrary,
a passage in the Babylonian Talmud seems with
probability to indicate that the redactor of that work
lia<l referred to the Midrash Tanhuma. This })assage
(Kid. iVSh) says that two amoraim differed in their
interpietalions of the words "and [they] looked
after Moses, until he Avas gone into the tabernacle "
(Ex. xxxiii. 8). One amora interpreted the words
in a complimentary sense, while the other held that
the people looked after Moses and made unfavorable
remarks about him. The favorable interpretation
only is given in the Talmud, while the adverse
opinion is referred to with the words " ki de-ita " (as
it is said). Inasmuch as the adverse view is given
in the Tanhuma Pekude (ed. Buber, p. 65a), it is
extremely probable that the words "ki de-ita" in
the Talnuul have reference to the former work, or
that the reference originally read " ki de-ita be-
Taiihuma " (as it is said in the Tanhuma), the wortls
"be-Tanlinma " liaving been eliminated later.

The homilies contained in Midrash Tanhuma A
begin with the words "As tlie Scriptures say" or
sometimes "As it is written." Then follow a verse
(in most cases taken from the Hagiographa), its
ex]ilanatioii, ami a homily on the i)arlicular ]ias-
sage of the Pentateuch referred to. Several of
the homilies on the first, third, and fourth books
of the Pentateuch bei;in with brief halaUic
dissertations bearing on the pa.ssages to which the
homilies refer. The halakic treatises con.sist of a
question introduced with tlu; words " Yelanimedenu
rabiienu " (.May our teacher instruct us), and of a
reply beginning wiili the phra.se " Kak .slianu rab-
botenu" (Thus have our teachers instructed us);
the replies are always taken from either a mishnali
or a baraita. Many of the homilies close with words
of hope and encouragement regarding tlie future of

the Jews; but several of them are abbreviated and
not entirely completed, this curtailment being apol-
ogized for in the words "Much more might be
said on this subject, but we siiall not tire you"
(Noah XX vi. 27b), or "Tliis jiassage has been eluci-
dated by several other interpretations and exposi-
tions, but in order not to tire you we quote only
that which is necessary for to-day's theme" (Huk-
kat xvi. 57a).

Although essentially a liaggadic midrash, Tan-
huma A contains many halakic .sayings. In addi-
tion to its sixty -one introductions to
Contents, homilies, which contain halakic (pies-
tions and answers, there are several
halakic rules and decisions quoted throughout the
work. These halakic passages were taken from the
Mishnah or the Baraita, and not from the Babylonian
Talmud; indeed, many of the decisions given are
in opposition to those of the latter work (conip.
Buber, Introduction, jip. lo et scq.). The liaggadic
contents of the midrash are also very extensive and
varied; it contains, too, simple exjiianations of
Scriptural passages; several refutati(jns of heretics;
explanations of the differences between "kere" and
"ketib" and between words written "plene" (male)
and defectively ("baser"); interj)retati(ins according
to notarikon and gematria; several narratives and
parables; and numerous ajihorisms, moral sayings,
and popular proverbs.

Some of the aphorisms and proverbs may be cited
here: "One may not give an honest man an ojipor-
tunity to steal, much less a thief" (Wayi.siilah xii.
85b). "The office seeks those that would escape it"
(Wayikra iv. 2b). "If you yield not to wickedness
it will not follow you nor dwell by you" (Tazria' xi.
20b). "Do the wicked no good in order that thou
reap not that which is evil " (Hukkat i. 50a).

This Tanhunia midrash has been referred to in
many other midrashim, as. for example, all the Rab-
bot, Pesikta de-Rab Kahana, Pesikta Kabbati, and
in the midrashim to Samuel, Proverbs, and P.saliiis,
which all quote passages from it. The Geonim also
and the older rabliinical authorities made use of it,
and cited halakic as well as liaggadic sentences from
it (comp. Buber, I.e. \\p. 87 et seq.). The first to re-
fer to this midrasii by the name of Tanhuma, how-
ever, was Raslii, who mentions it in several ]iassages
of his commentary, and quotes from it. ilost of
Rashi's ([uotations are taken from Tanhuma A (see
Buber, I.e. i>p. 44 d xeq.).

Tanhuma B, or Yelammedenu : This second
midrash with wliicli the name of Tanhuma is associ-
ated is known as the "Yelammedenu" from tlie
opening words of the halakic introductions to the
homilies — "Yelammedenu rabbenu " (May our
teacher instruct usV It is referred to al.so under tiie
name of Tanhuma, though by only a few authorities,
as Ilai Caon and Zedekiah ben Abraham (Hubcr.
l.r. pp. 44a, 50a). The reason for this confusion of
names may be found in the fact that a later collec-
tion of midrashim (Tanhuma C) included a great
part of the material contained in the Yelammedenu.
especially that referring to the second book of the
Pentateucii. The Yelammedenu, which contains
several passages from Tanhuma A, is often cited in
the"'Aruk." and has been extensively referred to

Tanhuma, Midrash
Tanna debe £liyabu

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

by the redactor of the Yalku^ Other oUl rabbinical
authoritii-s refer to the YelamnuHleuu by tliat imine,
and quote passiiges from it; but otherwise the work
has been completely lost.

Tanhuma C : The third haggadic midrash to the
Pentateuch bearing the name of Tanhuma contains
many passages taken from A and B. It is, in fact,
an amended edition of the two earlier works, with
various additions by later authors. Its homilies
on Genesis are original, althougii they contain
several revised passiiges from Tanhuma A as well
as from tiie Yelammedenu, tiie Babylonian Talmud
being largely drawn upon for additional interpreta-
tions and expositions. The part referring to Exo-
dus is borrowed almost entirely from the Yelamme-
denu, with the exception of the Wayakhel and
Pekude sections, wliich contain homilies not em-
bodied in the lost work. For the portions to the books
of Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy the redac-
tor of this midrash has made extensive use of the
material that he found in Tanhuma A, whicii he
has revised and supplied with numerous additions.
The first authority to cite this midrash was Kashi,
who in some passages of his commentary refers to
Tanhuma C and not to the A collec-

Literary tion (comp. Buber, /.c. py>. 44: et seg.).

History. Because of the fact tliat the third
midrash contains much of the material
of the lost Yelammedenu, the two works wore often
confounded. Some authorities believed that it was
the Tanhuma C and not the Yelammedenu which
had been lost (Menahcm de Lonzano, in "^Nla'arik,"
«.r. "Tanhuma"; comp. A/.ulai, " Sliem ha-Gedo-
lim," ii.). Others erroneously considered this mid-
rash identical with the Yelammedenu, thinking the
work had a double title; and the first editions of
Tanhuma C appeared, therefore, under the title
"Midrash Tanhuma, Called Also the Yelammedenu."

Tanhuma C was first published at Constantinople
in 1522, and was reprinted without emendation
at Venice in 1545. The third edition, which
served as a basis for all the later editions, was pub-
lislied at Mantua in 1563 by MeVr b. Abraham of
Padua and Ezra of Fano. Tiiis edition contains
several additions, consisting of single sentences as
well as of entire jiaragraphs, which Ezra of Fano
selected from two of the original manuscripts and
also from the Yalkut. Ezra indicated the added
matter by marking it with open hands, but in the
following editions these marks were omitted, so
that it is no longer possible to distinguish between
original contents and material added by revisers.
Ezra of Fano further added to his edition an index
of all halakic decisions, as well as of the legends
and parables contained in this midrash; this index
lias been retained in all later editions.

Bibliography : Zunz. G. V. pp. 22ft-238; Solomon Buber's/ii-
triniuitinn (yfrliin tolils eilltion of the Midrnsh Tfnihnnia.
Wiln:i. IKSl; Tlieodor. In Monnlssclirift. IKK'j-Hti; Biulier,
A(i. Pnl. Amur. ill. .'lOl^ .')14 : Wel.s.s, Dor. ill. -XtH-Sr'.i; A.
Epst«-in, Kn'tiniit }in-Tnuhniii(i. in lid Tnlrnnd, v. 7-2}; L.
Griinhut, Siftr Ita-Likhutiin, iv.-vl., Jeru.salern, VM*).
w. n. " ' .J. Z. L.

TANHUMA B. SKOLASTIKAI : Palestinian
teacher ol tin,- L;i\v. liis pciiod is not known, but
according to a conjecture (.see *"Aruk," «.r. " Asko-
la.stika")he was tlie .son of that Joshua b. Ilana-

niah who in Gen. R. Ixiv. 10 is called " Askolas-
tikus." Tanhuma is mentioned but once in the
Palestinian Talmud, namely, in Ber. 7d, where it
is said that he read the following prayer: '"^May it
be Thy will, O Lord my God, and the Cod of my
fathers, tliat the evil desire wliieh dwells within our
hearts shall be destroyed. Thou liast created us to
do Thy bidding, and we are constrained to follow
Thy will. Thou desirest it, and we also desire it,
but the 3'east in our dough [i.e., the tendency to-
ward evil] hinders us. Thou knowest that we do
not possess strength enough to withstand it; let it
therefore be Thy will to destroy and suppress it, so
that we may do according to Thy will with all our
hearts." According to Frankel C'Meho," 131b),
Tanhuma b. Skolastikai is identical with Tanhuma
I). Abba (comp. Bacher, " Ag. Pal. Amor." iii. 470).

HiBLioGRArny : Ueilprin, Seder ha-Ditrnt, ii., Warsaw, 1882.
w. B. J. Z. L.

TANHUMA B. YUDAN : Palestinian amora of
the fourth century, some of whose haggadic utter-
ances have been preserved. The words 1133 "IDNT
in Ps. Ixxiii. 24 are interpreted by him as implying
that on account of the honor in which Esau held his
father, Isaac, the recognition of Jacob's merit in this
world was delayed (Pesik. R. xxiii. 124a). On ac-
count of the different meanings of the two names of
God he declared (Yer. Ber. 14b), with reference to
Ps. Ivi. 2, that he praised the name of God regard-
less of whether it indicated severe justice ("middat
ha-din ") or mild grace ("middat ha-rahamim ").
From the fact that in Judges vi. 24 (see margin) God
is given the name of "Peace" he deduces that it is
forbidden to use the word " peace " as a term of
greeting in an unclean place (Lev. R. ix. , end). Two
other sayings of Tanhuma b. Yudan are really trans-
mitted baraita sentences (Yer. Ber. lid [comp. Fran-
kel, "Mebo," p. 24b] ; Yer. Yoma38b; in the latter
passage it is noted that the saying is contained in a
baraita).

Bibliography: Frankel, .Vc/k/, p. i:ila: Bacher, .!(/. Pal.
Amor. iil. 752-753 ; Heilprin, Seder lia-Dorut, ii. 192a.

w. B. J. Z. L.

TANNA. See Taxnaim and Amouaim.

TANNA DEBE ELIYAHU : Composite name
of a midrasii, consisting of two parts, whose final
redaction took place at the end of the tenth century
of the common era. The first part is called "Seder
Eliyahu Rabbah " (thirty -one chapters); the second,
"Seder Eliyahu Zuta" "(fifteen chapters). A dis-
tinct reference to this midrash occurs in the Tal-
mud in Ket. 10(5a: "Elijah used to come to K.
Anan, upon Avhich occa.sions the prophet recited the
Seder Eliyahu to him. Wlicn, how-
Origin of ever, R. Anan had given this decision
the Name, [one jireviously narrated in the Tal-
mud] tlic prophet came no moic. R.
Anan fasted in consequence, and begged forgive-
ness, whereupon the prophet came again ; but R.
Anan had such great fear of Elijah that, in order to
avoid seeing him, he made a box and sat in it until the
recitation was over " (but see Jew. Excyc. i. 552,
fi.v. Axan). Hence, according to Rashi, the mid-
rash has the two names, "Rabbah" for tiie earlier,
and "Zuta" for the later lectures. Anan was a

THE JEAVISII ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tanhuma, Midrash
Tanna debe£U>abu

Babylonian ainoia of tlie tliird century. Tlie ool-
lecliou of baiaitot couccrning liini, ic.-ferrod lo in
this midrash, is cited in the Babylonian Talmud
iir.der the title "Tanna dcbc Eliyalni" (see below);
and the utterances in (jueslion are found in the nn'd-
rash itself. The tosafotto Ketubot(106a, *.». ^J^m)
say tliat the nudrasli consists of a larjie book and a
small one. K. Nathan in liis " 'Aruk " (s.r. ilD, ii-)
says: "The midrash contains baraitot which the
proi)het taught to Anan, and consists of two ])arts,
a large seder with thirty chapters, and a small seder
with twelve chapters; and all of the Tanna debe
Eliyahu cited in the Talmud is to be found in these
baraitot." The inner connection between these two
midrashim is a loose one, and it is only in sections 5
to 10 that tlu; second refers to the first.

Tiie underlying theme of the Tanna debe Eli-
yahu, which, with many interruptions, runs through
the whole work, is the evolution of the world-
system. The midrash calls the single periods of
tlie history of man "shittot" (series). The first
series, which deals with the; beginning of the world
and extends to the moment when man was driven
out of Eden, consists of two subsections, (a) "Ma'a-
seh Merkabah " and (b) " .Ma'aseh Bereshit. " The six
series of the world-sj'stcm, however, were created

in tlic divine mind even before

The an}' being, with the exception of

Underlying Israel, existed. They were: (l)thedi-

Principle vine law (min); (2) hell (Djn'J) and

of (3) paradise (py p), or punishment and

the £ook. reward in tlu; future world; (4) the

throne ("113311 XDD), or the divine
government of the woild ; (T)) the name of the Mes-
siah (riT'On DtiM, or the restoration of the universe
when ai)out to be destroyed; and (6) the 'J'emple
(CJ'TpOn n'3), or the dependence of man upon God.
Even before these six foundations, however, Isiael
was, as stated above, already in being in the divine
mind, because without Israel there could have been
no Torah (Friedmann, " Seder Eliyahu," p. 161).

The second series embraces the period fiom the
expulsion of man from Eden to the Flood. In the
ten generations from Adam to Noah man did not
adhere to "meekness," did not do what was right
(lb. p. 80), but fell lower and lower until he practised
violence, theft, immorality, and murder. For this
reason his destruction became a necessity (ib. p.
190).

The third series extends from the Flood to King
Manasseh of Judah. It treats of the time of the
study of the Law, of the priestly office, of the king-
dom, and of the end of Israel's prosperity through
the evil administration of Manasseh. In the da}s of
Abraham the jieriod of "tohu wa-bohu " (confusion)
ceases and the 2,000 years of law begin. This time

is divided into the following periods:
The (1) the sojourn f)f the ciiildren of Israel

Periods of in Egypt, the Exodus, lo Joshua; (2)
Jewish the kingdom of love extending to Sam-
History, ucl ; (8) tiie kingdom of fear, to the

time of Elijah; (4) tiie kingdom yf
truth, to the time of Jeroboam II. ; (5) the time of
Israel's salvation from oppression under Hczekiah ;
(6) from the time of Ilezckiah to the reign of Ma-
nasseh (see Friedmann, "Mel)o," v. 108).

The fourlJi series is filled with "meekness" (il>. p.
1G;5). Whoever studies the Torah receives " meek-
ness " as a reward. In addition there is a second
recompense, whicii is the Jlishnah. lu tiiis intro-
duction of the Mishnah there is a trace of apology
intended for those who believe tiiat only the Toiah
was delivered on Sinai. Tlie fifth series extends
from King :Mauas.seh to the Iniilding of the Second
Temple (ib. p. 163). The last series treats of the
future. Goii, surrounded by all the saints, sits in
His bet ha-midrash and counts up the generations
of the dillerent jjcriods of time, what tiiey liave
learned, and wiiat reward they shall receive tlierefor
{ib. p. 4). The future of these saints will be like
the beginning of the life of man (ib. p. 164).

These six series are again divided into three main

periods: (1) the present world; (2) the Messianic

period; and (3) the future world.

The Three These are sulxlivided into: (a) 2,000

Periods. years of confusion ("tohu "); (b) 2,000
years of the Torah; (c) 2,000 years
of the Messiah; (r/) inauguration of a general peace;
(e) tlie future world {ib. p. 115).

Besides this fundamental idea both parts of the
midrash emphasize the importance of virtue, of a
religious life, and of the study of the Law, and ex-
hort to repentance and almsgiving, greater tolerance
toward both Jews and non-Jews, diligent study and
respect for scholars, modesty and humility, and the
avoidance of non-Jewish manners and customs.
The midrash, further, attempts to prove that all
human life is based on the two extremes, toil in the
sweat of the brow, and the regaining of the freedom
of the soul. Hence it begins with the expulsion of
Adam from Eden (Gen. iii. 24), and closes with the
same theme. The cherubim in Eden are identified
with man, and are the symbol of tlie reward of well-
doing; the flaming sword is hell, the punishment
for evil-doing. The way to the tree of life is said to be
"derek erez" (good behavior); while the guarding of
the tree of life is like the guarding of the word of
God. By derek erez the midrash understands that
which is fitting, useful, and honest; and these three
qualities are the fundamental principles upon which
the human world-system and society rest. An ex-
ample of derek erez in this midrash is the following:
The princes of the Philistines po.ssessed derek erez,
because when the Philistines wished to convey the
Ark to the Israelites they would not send it back
without sacrifices (I Sam. vi. 3; Friedmann, I.e. p.
58). On the other hand, the inhabitants of Beth-
shemesh did not possess it, inasmuch as instead of
bowing before the Ark they rejoiced and danced
before it 1)oldly, so that misfortune came upon
them and 50,000 of them fell (ib.).

The opposite of derek erez is "to walk in the

crooked way," i.e., to do unworthy deeds and to

give oneself up to immorality. Yet no nation of the

world, with the exception of Egypt, has sunk so

low as this. In ordinary life, liow-

Q,ual- ever, the tran.sgres.sion of a command

ity of or prohibition, indecency, or even

Derek Erez. theft is a most pronounced opposite

of derek erez; and every fatlier of a

family should strive to preserve those depending on

him from these vices, because they belong to tliose

Tanna debe Eliyahu
Tannaim and Amoraim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

evils which might bring about the destruction of the
world.

The twelve chapters of the second part of the
midrash are clmracterized by the fact that the nar-
ratives showing why in this world things often go
amiss with the good and well with the wicked, are
comnidnly intn^duced by the words "It happened"
(nryo) or " Once on a time " (nnX DyS)- The mid-
rash is sometimes interspersed with very beautiful
pravers (see, for example, Friedmaun, I.e. pp. 6, 18,
19. 28).

The Tanna debe Eliyahu is the only haggadic work
which contains a rabbiuic-karaitic polemic. In the
second chapter of the second part is an account of a
meeting of the author with a Karaite, who possesses
a knowledge of Scripture, but not of the Mishnah;
the differences discussed, however, are not im-
portant. Tlie polemical attitude is much more
noticeable in ch. xv. of the tirst part. There the
following points are treated in detail: (1) washing
the hands (comp. Hul. 106a: Sliab. 62b; Sotah 4b);
(2) slaughtering (conip. Hul. 27a); (3) partaking
of human blood (comp. Ker. 20b) ; (4) prohibition
against eating fat (comp. Lev. vii. 23; Ker. 4b;
Pinski'r, "Likkute Kadmoniyyot," p. 20); (5) rob-
bery- from a Jew and from a non-Jew (comp. B. K.
113b); (6) degrees of relation.ship as bearing on
marriage (comp. "Eshkol ha-Kofer," p. 117b); (7)
grades of purity (comp. ib. p. 111b ; Sliab. 13a). Un-
like other polemics, this one is not couched in acrimo-
nious terms; but it adopts a mild, conciliatory tone.

As to the time of the composition of the work, all
scholars agree in a.ssigning it to the end of the tenth
century; but as to the place where it
Composed was written, authorities differ. Where-
in as certain scholars {e.g., Zunz, Rapo-
the Tenth port, Bacher, Oppenheim, and Iloch-

Century. mulh) suppose Babylonia or Palestine,
Glidemann is of the opinion that the
work was written in Italy, or at least that its author
must have been an It.illan who had traveled a great
deal and had been as far as Babylon, who learned
there of the polemic between the Kabbiiiites and
Karaites, but who abstained from mentioning Eu-
rope or Italy because he considered he would be
likely to create a greater impression among his fellow
countrymen by relating observations which he had
made abroad. Furthermore, the fact that he knew
nothing of Babylonia beyond its name .shows that he
could not have been a native of that region. Dercn-
bourg also places the origin of the work in Rome.
Gratz goes farthest of all. by simply identifying the
Baijylon of the nudrash with Rome, and tiie tights
of Gog and .Magog described in the work with the
devastating invasion of the Ilinigarians into Italy
from 889 to 9rw. Tlie most radical opponent of
this view is Friedmaun. Fr)r him all arguments
concerning the age of the Tanna debe Eliyahu and
against its identification with the Seder Eliyahu
mentioned in Ket. 10b, are only superficial and
only apparently sound; and he accordingly assigns
the origin of tlie work "eo ijiso " to Baiiy Ionia.

The age of tlie midnish isapi)rf).\imately ascertain-
able by three data contained in the book itself. (1 ) In
ch. ii. the author speaks of the seventh century of
the 2,000 years of the Messianic jicrind as having

passed; this period began in 242 c.e., hence tlie
time of writing must have been the tenth century.
(2) The second datum relates to the temporal reckon-
ing of the jubilees, and is treated by Rapoport in
"Toledot de-R. Natan," p. 144. (3) The third
datum (ch. xxx.) indicates that nine centuries had
passed since the destruction of the Temple; hence
the last redaction of the midrash falls iu the interval
between 9G8 and 984.

Of especially original midiashim contained in the
work a few may be noticed here. On the passage
"and set me down in the midst of the valley which
was full of bones" (E/,ek. xxxvii. 1-11) it is said,
" Instead of ' bones ' [niOVy] should be read ' tree of
death' [niD |*yl ; for it was the same tree which,
through Adam's disobedience, brought death to

him and to all his descendants " (v. 24).

Examples "'And this man went up out of his

of city yearly ' [I Sam. i. 3]: from these

Exegesis, words it appears that Elkanah went

to Shiloh four times a year, three times
in accordance with the legal prescription, and once
in addition, which last journey he had assumed vol-
untarily " (Friedmaun, I.e. p. 47). "On the day of
Adam's death his descendants made a feast, because
on account of his age he had long been a burden
to himself and to them" {ib. p. 81). "'I will not
execute the fierceness of mine anger ' ("Hos. xi. 9] :
God has sworn to His people that He will not give
them in exchange for another people, nor change
tliem for another nation" (Friedmaun, I.e. p. 127).
" ' The fool hath said in his heart, there is no God '
[Ps. xiv. 2]: a man may not say in his heart, ' This
world is a tohii wa-bohti; I will give myself up to
sensual pleasures and will retire from the world ' "
(xxiii. 127-128). "Prom the words 'Israel was
holiness unto the Lord ' [Jer. ii. 3] it follows that
the holiness of God, of the Sabbath, and of Israel is
the same" (Friedmaun, I.e. p. 133).

The passages in the Talmud cited in Tanna debe
Eliyahu are:' Shab. 13a; Pes. 94a, 112a; .Aleg. 28b;
Kid. 80b; 'Ab. Zarahob, 9a; Sanh. 92a; Ta mid 32a.
Those cited in the Talmud under " Tanu Rabbanan "
and found also in tliis midrash are : Shab. 88b and
Git. 36b = Tanna debe Eliyahu (ed. Friedmann), p.
78; Pes. 49a = rt. p. 30; Pes. 49a = jA. p. 68: Suk.
52a rz ih. p. 20; R. II. 18a = ih. p. 53 ; Meg. 14a = ib.
p. 82; Kid. 82a = ib. p. 101 ; B. K. 97b = ib. \\ 21 ;
B. B. 9db = ib. p. 77; B. B. 147a = ib. p. ir)7; Sanh.
\9ii = ib. p. 147; Sanh. 43b = zi. p. 102; Sanh. 109a
= ib. p. 168; Sheb. 39a = rt. p. 132; Yeb. 62b = z/>.
p. 78. Furthermore, in the midrash are found sen-
tences of the following amoraim: Johanan, Joshua
b. Levi, R. Ablmhu, and Elea/ar.

The first edition of the midrash appeared at Ven-
ice in the year 1.598, prepared from a copy dated

1186. In 16T7 an edition by Samuel
Editions, ii. Moses Ilaida, with changes in t!ie

text and with a c(unmentary (piiy^
XIIJT l''p'lpT XK'NT. appeared in Prague. The text
itself was jjiesented in a " nuslia hadasha " (new text)
and in a "nusha yesliana" (old text), being wholly
distorted from its original form by Taimudic and
cabalistic interpolations. This edition consists of
three parts, the first two of which contain the text
of the Rabbah and the Zuta (thirty-one and twenty-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tanna debe Eliyahu
Tannaim and Amoraim

niue cliaptcrs respectively). These two parts are
preceded by prefaces bearing the titles " Mar Kash-
shisiia " or " Sod Malbush ha-Ncshainah " (Mystery
of the Clotliiiig of the Soul) and "Mai Yaiiuka" or
"Sod Ilaluka de-Kabbaiuin " (Mystery of tiie Cloth-
iug of the Kabbis). Then follows au introduction
(conunon to jiart ii. and part iii.), with the title
"Slia'ar Sheniuel" (Gate of Samuel), and a third
part consisting mainly of au exegesis of ch. xx.

The following editions are specially to be recom-
mended, namely: that by Jacob b. Naphtali Ilerz
of Drody, with a commentary, " Yeshu'at Ya'akob "
(Zolkiev, 1798): that by Abraham b. Jndah Lob
Schick, with the commeutar_v " ]\Ie'ore Esh " (Sidl-
kov, 1835); that by Isaac Elijah b. Samuel Landau,
■with a commentary, "Ma'aneh Eliyahu" (Wilna,
1840). Among the best editions is the "Warsaw one
of 1880 containing both texts. The latest edition
appeared in Vienna in ]900andl903, under the titles
"Seder Eliyahu liabbah " and " Seder Eliyahu Zuta,"
after a Vatican manuscript of the year 1073, critic-
ally revised, and with a commentary entitled " Me'ir
'Ayin," and a voluminous introduction by M. Fried-
mann. In this edition Seder Eliyahu Zuta is divided
into tafteen chapters.

Bibliography: Bacher, in Monafssrhi-ift, xxiii. 267 ct .«er/.;
idem, in R. E. J., xx. 144-146; T. Derenboiirfi, in Ii. E. J.
ii. 134 vt xcq., iii. 121-122; Friedinann, introduction (3/c/)o)
to his ed. of Nc(Jcr jy/iya/iu; Griitz, Gesc)i. 'M ed., v. 21)4-
295; Giidemann, Gcsclt. ii. 50, 52 et sc(i.. 'M)-:Hi; Hochinuth,
In JVc»(2Ci7, 18(i8, Nos. '£i ct seq.; Oppenhniw.. Bet Tahiiiid.i.
30ietxeq.; Rapoport, Toledot de-Rabhi A'ataii, in Bikhurc
hn-'Ittirn. x. 4;i; J. Theodor. in Monati^schrift. xliv.;i8{)-;jK4,
550-561 ; Zuuz, G. V. il. 119-124, FrankfortK)n-Mie-Main, 1892.
w. n. S. O.

TANNAIM AND AMORAIM: The name
"tanna" is derived from the Aramaic " teni " or
"tena" (r="to teach"), and designates in general
ateachcrof the oral law, and in particular one of
the sages of the Mishnah, those teachers of the
oral law whose teachings are contained in the
Mishnah and in the Baraita. The term was tirst
used in the Gemara to indicate a teacher mentioned
in the ^Mishnah or in a baraita, in contradistinction
to the later authorities, the Amoraim. Not all the
teachers of the oral law who are mentioned in
the Mishnah are called tannaim, how-
The Name, ever, but only those belonging to the
period beginning with the disciples of
Sliammai and Ilillel and ending with the contempo-
raries of Judah ha-Nafii I. Tlie authorities prece-
ding that period arc called "zekenim ha-rishonim "
(the former elders). In the time of the Amoraim
the name "tanna" was given also to one well versed
in the Mishnah and the other tannaitic traditions.

The period of the Tannaim, which lasted about
210 years (10-220 c.e.), is generally divided by Jew-
ish scholars into five or six sections or generations,
the jMirpose of such division being to show which
teachers developed their principal activity contem-
poraneously. Some of the tannaim, however, were
active in more than one geneiation. The following
is an enumeration of the .six generations and of the

j more prominent tannaim respectively belonging to
them :

First Generation (10-80 C.E.) : Principal
tannaim: the Shammaites (Bet Shammai) and the

' XII.— 4

Ilillelites(BetHillel), 'Akal)yab. Mahalaleel, Rabhan
Gamaliel the Elder, Hanina, chief of the priests
("segau lia-kohanim "), Simeon b. Gamaliel, and
Johaiian b. Zakkai.

Second Generation (80-120): Principal tan-
naim: Rabban Gamaliel II. (of Jabneh), Zadok,
Dosa b. Ilarkinas, Elie/er 1). Jacob, Elie/.er b. Ilvr-
canus, Josiiua b. Ilanaiiiah, Eleazar b. Azariah, Ju-
(lah b. Bathyra.

Third Generation (120-140): Principal tan-
naim: Tarl'oii, Ishmael, Akiba, Jolianan b. Nuri,
Jose lia-Gelili, Simeon b. Nanos, Judah b Baba, and
Jolianan b. Baroka. Several of these flourished in
the preceding period.

Fourth Generation: Tliis generation extended
from the death of Akiba (c. 140) to that of the pa-
triarch Simeon b. Gamaliel (c. 165). The teachers
belonging to this generation were : Meir, Judah b.
Ilai, Jose b. Ilalafta, Simeon 1). Yohai, Eleazar b.
Shammua, Johanan ha-Sandalar, Eleazar b. Jacob,
Nehemiah, Joshua b. Karlia, and the above-men-
tioned Simeon b. Gamaliel.

Fifth Generation (165-200): Principal tan-
naim : Nathan ha-Babli, Symmachus, Judah ha-
Nasi I., Jose b. Judah, Eleazar b. Simeon, Simeon
b. Eleazar.

Sixth Generation (200-220) : To tliis gener-
ation belong the contemporaries and disciples of
Judah ha-Nasi. They are mentioned in the Tosefta
and the Baraita but not in the Mishnah. Their
names are: Polemo, Issi b. Judah, Eleazar b. Jose,
Ishmael b. Jose, Judah b. Lakish, Iliyya, Aha,
Abba (Arika). These teachers are termed "semi-
tannaim " ; and therefore some scholars count only
five generations of tannaim. Christian scholars,
moreover, count only four generations, reckoning
the second and third as one (Strack, "Einleitung in
den Talmud," pp. 77 et seq.).

For the term "amora" and a list of the generations
of amoraim, see Amor.a..

w. B. J. Z. L.

The following list enumerates all the zekenim ba-
rishonim, tannaim, and amoraim mentioned in the
Talmudic-Midrashic literature, those avIio are well
known and frequently mentioned as well as those
whose names occur once only in the Mishnah and
Tosefta or in the Talmud and ]\Iidrash. To this
IH-etannaitic period belong the so-called "pairs"
("zugot") of teachers: Simeon the Just and An-
tigonus of Soko; Jose ben Joezer and Jose ben
Johanan ; Joshua ben Perahyah and Nittai of Ar-
liela; Judah ben Tabbai and Simeon ben Shetah;
Shemaiali and Abtalion ; Ilillel and Shammai.

Stars indicate that separate articles appear under
the names so marked.

List of T.xnxaim.

AM)a Benjamin

Abba Koben of Bardala

+.\bba Doresli

*Abba Saiil

.\bba Eleazar h. Dula'i

♦Abba Saul b. Batnlt

,\bba Eleazar b. (iaiualiel

Abba Yiidan of Sidon

♦.M)ba (iorion of Sidon

♦Absalom the Elder

*Abba Hanin

♦Abtalion

*Atiba Jose b. Dosetai

Abtolenius

*Al)ba Jose b. Hanin

Abtolos

*Abha Jose of Maluiza

Admon

Al)ba Jose Torti

♦Aha I.

Abba Joseph the Horonite

A^al b. Joslata

Tannaim and Ainoraim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

•'Akabya b. Mahalaleel
•Aklba b. Joseph
*Aiiiii.'oniis of Soko

ADtuiiiuus

AzHrlah
•Babii ben Biita

Billies b. Zoniu
•Bar Kuppani
•Ben Bajr-BaK

Ben Biikri

Ben Paturl

Benaiab

•Benjamin (an Egyptian pros-
elyte)

Doea

r><»a b. Harkinas
•I>.'M-tai

•I)'>etai b. Jiidah
• I '■ setai of Kefar Vatnn
•DoNetai b. Yanuai
•Eka/ar l>en Al.nvai
•Ki-azar li-n 'Arak
•F.l'-;izar b. Azariall
•F.leazar ben Daiiia

£lea;:ar l>en Hananiah ben
Hezekiah

Eleazar b. Harsom
•Eieazar b. Hisina
•Eleazar b. Jacob
•Eleazar b. Juse
•Eleazar b. Judah of Bartota

Eleazar b. Judab of Kefar

Obelini
•Eleazar lia-Kappar
•Eleazar b. Matlai
•Eleazar of .Modi'irn
•Eleazar Ijen Penita I.
•Eleazar ben I'erata II.

Eleazar b. I'liinelias

Eleazar b. Pilai (or Plabi)
•Eleazar b. Shanimua
•Eleazar b. Simeon

Eleazar b. Vannai
•Eliezer ben Hyrcanus
•Eliezer b. I-saac
•Eliezer b. Jacob (1st cent.)
•Eliezer b. Jose ha-tielili

Eliezer b. Judah (contempo-
rary of Judah I.)
•Eliezer b. Taddai
•Eliezer b. Zadnk, I.
•Eliezer b. Zadok. II.
•Elisha ben Abiiyah
•Ephraiiu .Maksba'ah
•Eurydemiis ben Jose
•Gamaliel I.

•(iainaliel II. (of Jabneh)
•Gamaliel III. (h. Judab I.)
•HalafUi

Halafu b, Hapra

Halafta b. Jose
•Halafta b. Karuya
•Halafia of Kefar Hananiah
•Hanan, Abba
•Hanan the Egyptian

Hanan b. .Menalieiii
•Hananiah (nephew of R.
Joshua)

Hananiah b. 'Adai
•Hananiah b. 'Akativa
•Hananiah b. '.Akasliyah
•Hananiah b. Hakinai

Hananiah b. Hezekiah b. Ga-
ron

Hananiah b. Jose ha-Gelili
•Hananiah b. Judah
•Hananiah of f)n<)
•Hananiah (Hanina) b. Tera-
dion

Hananiah of TIbe'lm
•Hanina

•Hanina b. Adda
•Hanina b. Antli^onus
•Hanma b. Dosa

•Hanina b. Gauuiliel II.

Judah b. Gamaliel

Samuel the Younger

Hanina Sepan ha-KohanIm

Judah b. (lerim

Shammai

Hezekiah Abl 'Ikkesh

Judah b. Hananiah

Shela

•Hidka

♦Judah ben llai

Shemaiah

•Hillel

Judah b. Jair

Siinai

•Hiyya bar Abba (Kabbah)

Judah b. Johanan b. Zakkal

Simeon (brother of Aza-

l^iyya b. Eleazar ha-Kappar

Judah b. Jose

riah)

Hiyya b. Nahniani

Judah ha-Kohen

♦Simeon b. 'Akashyah

Huzpii the Meturgeman

♦Judah ben Lakish

Simeon b. Akiba

llai

Judah b. Nakosa

Simeon b. Azzai

Isaac

Judah b. .Nehemlah

Simeon b. Bathyra

Ishmael b. Eleazar b. Azariah

Judah b. Uo'ez

'Simeon b. Eleazar

•Ishmael b. Elisha

Judah b. Sbammua

Simeon b. (Jauuiliel I.

•Ishmael b. Johanan h. Baroka

Judah b. Simeon

Simeon b. (Gamaliel II.

•Ishmael b. Jose h. Halafta

Judah b. Tabbai

Simeon b. Gudda

♦Jacob of Kefar Hittaya

Judah b. iVmah

Simeon b. Halafta

♦Jacob b. Korshai (U. Jacob)

Levi ha-Saddar

♦Simeon b. Hanina

Jaddua (Babylonian pupil of

♦Levi b. Sisi

Simeon he-Hasid

•Jeremiah [U. Meir)

Levitas of Jabneh

Simeon b. Hillel

Jeshebab

♦Mattithiah b. Heresh

♦Simeon b. Jehozadak

♦Johanan b. Baroka

Mattithiah b. Samuel

♦Simeon b. Jose b. Lekonya

Johanan b. Daliabai

♦.Me'asha

*Simeon b. Judah of Kefar

♦Johanan b. (iudpada

♦Meir

'Ikos

•Johanan ben ha-Horauit

Menahem of Galya

♦Simeon b. Judah ha-Nasi I.

Johanan b. Joseph

Menahem b. Jose

Simeon the Just

Johanan ben Joshua

Menalicui b. Nappaha

Simeon b. Kahana

Johanan b. Josiah

Menahem b. Sagnai

♦Simeon t)f Kitnm

Johanan b. Matthias

Mona

•Simeon b. Menasya

♦Johanan b. Nuri

Monobaz

♦Simeon of Mizpah

♦Johanan ha-Sandalar

♦Nahuiii of (iimzo

♦Simeon ben Nanos

♦Johanan b. Torta

-Nahuni ha-Lahlar

♦Simeon b. Nethaneel

♦Johanan l)en Zakkai

♦XaluinL the Mede

♦Simeon ha-Pakoli

Jonathan b. AWolemus

♦Nathan

•Simeon ben ha-Segan

Jonathan b. Balhyra

Nehemiah

•Simeon ben Shetah

Jonathan b. Joseph

Neheniiah of Bet Deli

•Simeon Shezuri

Jonathan b. Meshullam

Nehorai

♦Simeon of Shikmona

♦Jonathan ben I'zziel

Nehunya b. Elinathan

♦Simeon b. Tarfon

Jose (son of the Damascene)

Nehunya b. (iudgada

♦Simeon of Temau

♦Jose b. 'Akabya

♦.Vehunya ben ha-Kanah

♦Simeon b. Yohai

Jose b. Assi

♦Xittai of Arbela

Simeon b. Zoma

Jose b. Eleazar

♦Onias ha-Me'aggel

•Symmachus

Jose b. Eliakim

♦dnkelos

♦Tarfon [ Rome

Jose b. Elisha

Pappias

♦theodosius (Then das) of

♦Jose ha-Gelill

♦Pappos b. Judah

♦Yannai

Jose b. Gilai

Perida

Zachariah b. Abkulas

Jose b. (iurya

♦Phinehas ben Jair

Zachariah b. Kabutal

♦Jose b. Halafta

Polenio

Zachariah b. ha-Kazzab

Jose b. Hanina

♦Ueuben ben Strobilus

♦Zakkai

Jose ha-Horain

J. Z. L.

♦Jose ben Joezer

♦Jose ben Johanan

List of j

Vmokai.m.

Jose ben Josiah

[Babylonian and Palestinian

amoraiin are distinguished re-

♦Jose (Ise) ben Judah

spectively by the initials B am:

P in i)arentlieses : the llgures

Jose b. Kazrata

indicate the centuries to which

they belonged. For amoraim

Jose 1). Kippor

whose lUiuies are preceded by

the dagger-sign, see also Jkw.

Jose b. Kisma

E.NCYC. S.V. YlZl.IAK.]

♦Jose ha-kohen

♦Aaron (B)

♦Abba bar Jeremiah (B)

Jose 1). Menahem

Aaron (B) [P)

Abba b. Jonah (P)

Jose b. Meshullam

Abba (father of Abba Mari ;

Abba b. Joseph (B)

Jose of Modi'im

Abba (father of Hiyya; B)

Abba b. Judah (IM

Jose b. Petros

♦Abba bar Abba (B)

Abba b. Kahana (P)

Jose b. Shammai

Abba b. Abimai (B)

Abbab. Levi (B)

Jose b. Vasyan

♦Abba b. Abina (P)

Abba b. Lima

Jose 1). Zimra

♦Abba of Acre (P)

Abba b. Mar Papa (B)

Joshua b. Akiha

Abba b. Aha (P)

Abba Mari (B)

Joshua b. Balhyra

Abba Arika (B)

Abba Mari (P)

Joshua ha-(iarsi

Abba of Bira (P)

Abba Mari (P)

♦.losliua b. Hananiah

♦Abbab. Bizna (P)

Abba Mari (brother of Jo-

Joshua b. Hyrcanus

Abba of Ctesarea (P)

se; P)

Joshua b. .lonathan

♦Abba of Carthage (P)

Al)ba b. Mari (?)

Joshua b. Kaposal

Abba b. Eliashib (P)

*Abba bar Memel (P)

♦Joshua b. Karha

,\bba b. Hamnuiia (P)

Abba b. Mina (P)

Joshua b. Martial

Abba bar Hana (P and B)

Abba b. Nahman (B)

Joshua b. Matthias

Abba Hanan (B)

Abba of Narsoh

♦Joshua b. Penihyah

Abba b. Hanina

Abba b. .Nathan (P)

Joshua b. Ziruz

Abba b. Hilefai (P)

Abba bar Papa (P)

♦Josiah

♦Abbab. Hiyya (P)

♦Abba h. Papi)ai (P)

♦Judah I. (ha-Nasl)

Abba b. Huna (B)

Abba b. Safia (P)

Judah b. Apra

Abba b. Huna (P)

Abba b. Samuel Kabbah

♦Judah b. Baba

Abba b. llai (P)

Abba b. Shi la

♦Judah b. Bathyra

Al)ba b. Isa (P)

Abbab. Tahlifa (P)

.ludah b. Daina

Abba b. Isaac (P)

Abba Umana (B)

Judah b. Doroteus

Abba b. Jacob (B)

Abba b. Zabda (B)

Judah b. Gadish

Abba b. Jacob (P)

♦Abba b. Zabdai (P)

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tannaim and Amoraim

Abhab. Ze'era (P)

Abba Zuti

Abba b. Ziitra (P)

Abbabii (I')

Abbiiliu (fatbcr of Samuel)

Abbalui b. Aha (P)

Abbahu b. IJebi (B)

Abbahii I). Khi (H)

Abbabii b. (;fniba (B)

Abbahu b. Ziilarti (B)

Abbal (called Nahinanl; B)

Abbai b. Abbin (15)

Abbai b. lieiijaiuiii (P)

Abbai the Elder (15)

Abdima b. Haiiia (B)
♦Abdiina b. Ilaindure (P)

Abdima b. I.Iisda (B)

Abdima b. Neluinya (P)
♦Abdima of Sepphoris (P)

Abdiini (brother of Jose)

Abdiiiii (father of Isaac)
*Abdimi of Haifa
*Abiathar
*Abimi (B)
*Abimi b. Abbahu (P)

Abiini the Colleague
*Abinii of Ila^'riinya

Abiiiii the Nabatiean

Abiinl h. Papi (B)

Abiiiii b. Tobi (P)

Abi!) (the pupil of Johanan)
*Al)in (Ilabin) b. Abba (P)
*Abin ben Adda (B)

A bin b. Bisna (P)

Abin ti. Hinana (B)
*Abinb. Hiyya (P)

Abin b. Hiina (B)
*Abin b. Kahana (P)

Abin ha-Levi (P)

Abin NafTf^ara

Abin b. Nahman (B)

Atiiii of Nashikiya

Abin the Old
*Abin b. Rab Hisda (P)

Abin b. Samuel

Abin of Sepphoris
*Abin b. Tanhum (P)

Abina I. (P)'

Abinall. (B)

Abina III. (B)

Abnim of lluza (B)

Abudemi (grandson of To-
bi; P)

Abudemi b. Tanhum (P)

Abudemi b. Tobi (P)
*Addab. Abimi (P)

Addab. Abin (B)

Adda b. Aha (B)
*Addab. Ahabah (B)

Adda of Be Zeluhit
*Adda of Civsarea

Adda b. Isaac (B)

Adda of .lafTa

Adda Karhina
*Addab. Matnah (B)
*Adda b. Minyomi (B)

Adda of Niiresh

Adda b. Papa (B)

Adda b. Simi (B)
"Addab. Simeon (P)

Adda of Sura

Afes(Efes) (P; 1)

Apgara or Agra (B)

Aha (brother of R. Jose)

Aha b. Abba Hi)

Ahab. R. Abba (B)

Ahab. Abba b. Aha (B)

Ahab. Abbai (B)'
Ahab. Abin (P)

*Ahab. Adda (B)

Aha b. Aha (B)

Aha b. Ahaba (P)
Ahab. Ami (B)
A^ab. Ashi (B)

Aha b. Awira (B)
*Aha b. Awya (B)

Aha 1). Azza (B)
♦Aha Biinhila

Aha of lie Ilusa

Aha b. Mebi (B)

Aha b. Bi/.na (P)

Aha of Carthage

Aha of Carthage (P)
♦Aha of Difti

Aha of (ialilee
♦Aha b. Haiiina (P)

Aha b. Haya (B)

Aha b. Hoshaiah (P)
♦Aha b. Hima (B)

Aha of Huzal
♦Aha b. lka"(B)
♦Aha b. Isaac (P)
♦Aha b. Jacob (B)

Aha b. Jose (P)
♦Aha b. Joseph (B)

Aha b. Kattina (B)

Aha the Long (B)
♦Aha b. Minyomi (B)

Aha b. Nahman (B)

Aha b. Papa

Aha b. Phinehas (B)

Aha of Porsika

Aha b. Rabbina (B)

Aha Saba

Aha Sar ha-Birah
♦Aha b. Shila (P)
♦Aha b. Tahlifa (B)
♦Aha b. 'Ula (B)

Aha b. Yeba

Ahat)ah b. Ze'era (P)
♦Al.iadboi (B)
♦Ahadboi b. Amnii (B)

Ahadl)oi b. Matnah

Ahilai (B)

Aibu (name of several Pal-
estinian amoraim)

Alexa (P)

Alexandra b. Haga (P)
♦Alexandri (P)
♦Alexandrl (P)
♦Amemar I.
♦Amemar b. Mar Yanuka (B)

Ammi (P)

Ammi (father of Samuel)

Amini b. Abba (B)

Ammi b. Abin (B)

Ammi b. Ada (B)

Ammi b. Aha (B)

Aiumi the Babylonian

Ammi b. Karlia (P)

Ammi b. Matntih (B)

Ammi b. Nathan (B)

Ammi b. Tobi

Ammi of Wadina (P ; 3)
♦Amram R. (B; 3)
♦Amram Hasida (B)

Anan b. Hiyya (B)

Anan b. Joseph (P)

Anan b. Tahlifa (B; 2)
♦'Anani b. Sa.son (P ; 3)

Armania (P; 1)
♦Ashi (B: 0)

Ashi b. Abin (B ; 4)

Ashi of Awira? (6)

Ashi of Huzal (B ; 4)

Ashi the Old (B : 1)
♦Ashyiin bar Jakim (P; 4)
♦A shy an Naggara
♦Ashyan b. Nidbak (P)
♦Assi I. (B)
♦Assi II. (P)

Assi of Nehor Bal (B)
♦Awia Saba
♦Awira (B; 3)

Babahu (B)

Bali(B; 4)

Banna'ah or Bannayah (P:
1)

Banna'ah b. 'Ula (B; 4)

Barukaof Iluza (B; 5)

Haruna (B : 2)

Baiha (B and P; 3)

Bcba b. Abba (P; 3)
♦Hebiii b. Aliaye (B; 5)
♦Bel)ai b. Abba (P)

Beliai b. Ashi (B; (5)

Bebai b. Mesharshiya (P; 5)
♦Benjamin b. 'Ashtor (P; 3)
♦Benjaridn 1). Glddel (P; 4)

Benjamin Hiyya (B)
♦Benjamin b. "japhet (P; 3)
♦Benjamin b. Levi (P; 3)

Beotes (P; 3)

Berechiah (P ; 5)
♦Berechiah (P; 2)

Berechiah b. Abba (P)

Berechiah b. Haimna

Berechiah ben Helbo (P; 4)

Berechiah b. Judali (P)

Berechiah Saba

Berechiah b. Simeon ( P ; 2)

Berim (P; 2)

Berna or Bera (B ; 4)

Bisa or Bisna (P; 1)
♦Bisna (P; 4)

Bisna b. Zabda (P)

Budia (B; (i)

Burakai (P: .5)
♦Daniel, Hayyata (P)
♦Daniel b! Kattina (B)

Dari b. Papa'(B)
♦Dimi (brother of Rab Safra ;
B; 4)

Dimi b. Abba (B)

Dimi b. Abui
♦Dimi b. Hinena (B; 5)
♦Dimi b. Huna of Damharia

(B; 6)
♦Dimi b. Isaac (B: 4)
♦Diud b. Joseph (B; 3)
♦Dirnib. Levai (B; 4)

Dimi b. Nahman (B : 5)
♦Dimi of Nehardea (B)

Dimi b. She.shna

Dosetai (father of Altoriki)

Dosetai of Beri

Dosetai b. Alaton

Elai b. Berechiah (P)

Elaib. Eliezer (B; 2)
♦Eleazar b. Abina (P)

Eleazar b. Antigonus (P; 2)

Eleazar of Basra (P)
♦Eleazar of Hagrunya (B ; 4)

Eleazar b. Hagya

Eleazar b. Hanina (P)
♦Eleazar b. Jo.se II. (P: 5)
♦Eleazar b. Malai (P; 3)

Eleazar b. Maram (Miriam or
Maron?) (P; 4)

Kleazar b. Marinus (P)
♦Eleazar b. Menahem (P ; 3)

Eleazar the Nabattcan

Eleazar of Nineveh (B ; 3)
♦Eleazar b. Pedat (P ; 3)

Eleazar of the South (P; 5)

Eleazar b. Yannai (P; 2)

Eleazar Ze'era (the little)

Eliakim (B; 5)

Eliehoenai (P)

Ezekiel

Gadda (B; 4)

Gamaliel b. Elai (P; 4)

Gamaliel b. Hanina (P ; 4)

(iamaliel Zoga (1* ; 2)

Gamda

♦Gebihaof Argizah (B: 5)
♦Gebiba of Be Katil (B ; 5)

Gedaliah

Geniba (B: 1)

Gershom (P : o)

(iidal orGiddul (B; 2)

Gidal b. Minvcmi

(iidal of Naresh

(iiddul b. Betijandn (P; 2)

Giddul b. Mena.schl (B; 5)

Giora (proselyte)

Gorion <P; 2)

Gorlon of Aspanik (B; 3)

(iorion h. Asllon (B)

Hablba (B: 1)

Hablbaof Huza (B; 6)

Habiba b. Joseph (1!; 4)

Habiba of Sora IB ; tl)

Habiba b. Surinakl (B and

P: 4)
Hagga (B: 4'/). ronlenipo-

rary of R. Nahman
Hagga (pupil of R. Huna;

B; 4)
Hagga of Sepphoris (P ; 2)
Haggai (P; 3)
Ilaggai Kusinai (?)
Haggai of the South (P; ?)
Hiigra (Haggaria; P; 2)
Halafta of Ca'sarea (P)
♦Halaftaof Huna (P ; 1)
♦Halafta Karoya (the Bible
reader)
Halafta of Radfa (P; 2)
Haifa b. Idi (P)
Hama (grandfather of Raba)
Ha ma b. Adda
Hama b. Ashi (P)
♦Hamab. Bisa (P)
Hamab. Buzi (B; 5)
Hamab. Gurya (B: 3)
♦Hamab. Hanina (P; 2)
Hama b. Joseph (P; 2)
Hama b. Miiri
Hama of Nehardea (B; 5)
Hama b. Osha'ya (P; 2)
Hamab. Papa (P; 5)
Hama b. Rabbah (P ; 4)
Hama b. Tobia (B; 6)
Hama b. 'Ukba (P ; 3)
Hamniina (B : 2)
«llamnuna I. (B ; 3)
♦Hamnuna II. (B; 3. 4)
llamnuna 1). Ada b. Ahabab

(B; fl)
llamnuna of Babylonia
Hamnuna b. Joseph (B; 4)
Hamnuua b. Rabbab of Pash-
ronia (B)
♦Hamnuna Zuta
liana b. Adda
liana b. Aha
liana of Bagdad
*Hana b. Bizna
liana of Carthage
♦Hana b. H;inilat
liana b. Hinena
Hana b. Judah
Hana b. Kattina
Hana of Kefiir Tehumlm
Hana b. Lewai
Hana Sha'onah
Hanan b. Abba (B; 2)
Hanan b. A mini
Hanan of Be Zeluhit
Hanan Hayyata
Han;in b. Hi.<da <B : 4)
Hanan of Nehardea (B : 2)
Hanan b. Rabbnh (B; 2)
Hanan b. Tahlifa (B: 4)
Hanan b. Zalidi (P; 1)
Hanana (B: 3)
♦Hananeel (B: 2)
Hananeel b. Papa (B)
Haiianiah (B)
Hananiah ( B ; 4)
Hananiuh (B)
•Hananiah (P: .3. 4)
Hananiah b. Aibu (P)
Hanilni of Huza
Hanllai b. Idi

Tannaim and Aiuoraim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Hanina (B; 6)
•Hanina b. Abbabu iP: 4»

Haiiiaa b. Abdimi (B)
•Haiiiiia b. 'Apul 'P; 3)

Hanina of Akra

Hanina <•( Anal

Hanina U. AnUrai (P)

Hanina )>. Atal

Hanina )>. Hi-bai (B; 3)
•Hanina b. Hania <P: 1)

Hanina b. IMIIt-l (P)

Hanina b. Hlyya (B: 3)

Hanina of Huza
*Hanina b. Ika

Hanina b. Isi (P: :5>

Hanina b. Joseph (P ; 1)

Hanina Kara (the Bible
reader*
•Hanina Katoba (the writer)
♦Hanina b. Papa (B)
•Hanina b. Pazi (P)

Hanina b. Siunson (P)

Hanina b. Samuel (P; 2)

Hanina Sholka (the cook)

Hanina b. Sisi (P; 1)
•Hanina of Sura

Hanina of Sura near the Eu-
phrates

Hanina b. Tiba

Hanina of Tirta or Tarna
•Hanina b. Toria

Hanina b. Uri
•Hasa

Henak

Hezeklah (B)

Hezekiah (P)

Hezekiati Akkaya

Hezekial) b. Hiyya

Hezekiali of Hukuk

Hilfa (P; 2)

Hilfa (grandson of Abba-
hu : 4)

Hilkiah (father of Minja-
niin: B)

HilKiah b. Awia (B)

Hilkiali of Ha^Tunya (B)

Hilkiah b. Tobia (B; 3)

Hilkiah of the South (B)

Hillel (P; 3)

Hillel (B; ti)

Hillel (son-in-law of Jose ;

P; 6)
♦Hillel b. Berechiah (P)

Hillel b. Helena (P)

Hillel of Kifra (P; r.)

Hillel b. Pazi (P; 4)

Hillel b. Samuel b. Xahman
(P: 4)

Hillel b. Vales (Valens ; P ; 3)

Hinena (.father of Yanta)

HInena b. Abin

Hinena b. Assl

Hinena b. Kahana (B ; 3)

Hinena b. Uablmli (B; 4)

Hinena b. Shelaniya (B; 2)

Hinena b. Shila <B; 1)

Hinena of Wardan
•HIsda (B: 3)

HIsda b. Abdanii

HIsda b. Joseph (B: 4>

Hiyya

Hiyya (Pand B; 4)

Hiyya b. Atitia (B and P; 3)

Hlyya b. Abbahu (B)

Hiyya b. Abbul (B; 4)
♦Hlyya b. Adda (P)

Hlyya i). Adda (P; 5)

Hlyya b. Adda or Joppa (P)

Hlyya b. Arntnl (B: 4)

Hlyya b. Ainrarn (B)

Hiyya Arika (the tall one)

Hlyya b. AshI 'B; -)

Hlyya b. Assi (B)

^[lyyab. Awla (B: 3)

Hiyya of Ctesiphon (B; 3)
Hiyya of Difta (B; 3)

*Hiyya b. (ianiinada iP)
Hiyva b. (iarya (B)
Hiyya i.f Hajira (B: 3)
Hiyya b. Hanina (Bt
Hiyya b. Hnna iB : 5)
Hiyya of Hurniis (B ; 4)
Hiyya b. Isiiac (P)
Hiyya b. Isaac (P; 5)
Hiyya b. Jacob (P»
Hiyya b. Joseph iBand P; 2)
Hiyya b. Joshua V (B ; 4)
Hiyya b. Judah
Hiyya b. Judah (B; 3)

•Hiyya Kara (the Bible reader)
Hlyya of Kefar Tehuniiin
* (P: 4)

Hlyya b. Lulianos (P; 5)
Hlyya b. Luliba (P; 4)
Hiyya b. Matnah (B; 3)

♦Hiyya b. Moria (P; 5)
Hiyya b. Nahman (P; 3)
Hiyya b. Nathan (B; 4)
Hlyya b. Papa (P; 3)
HIvva of Parwada (B; 3)
Hiyya b. Rab (B; 2)
Hiyya b. Rabbah (B; 4)
Hiyya b. Shabbethai (P ; 4)
Hlyya b. Tauhuiu (P; 4)
Hivva b. Tiba
Hiyya b. Titus (P ; 4)
Hiyya b. 'Ukba (P)
Hiyya b. Yannal (P)
Hlyya b. Zarnaki (P; 2)

♦Huna (B)
Hunab. Abin (B; 5)
Huna b. Aha
Hunab. Ashi (B; 2)
Htina b. Berechiah
Huna of Damliaria
Huna of Diskarta
Huna b. Geniba
Hunab. Halob (B: 4)

♦Huna b. Hanina (B ; 4)
Huna of llauran
Hunab. Hillel (P)
Huna b. Hiwan (B ; 6)
Huna b. Hlyya (B)
Hunab. Ida (B; 6)
Huna 1). Ika (B; 6)
Huna b. Hai
Huna b. Jeremiah (B ; fj)

♦Huna b. Joshua (B ; 5)
Huna b. Judah (B: 4)
Huna b. Kattina (B; 3)
Huna b. I.ewai (B)
Hunab. Manoah (B; 5)
Huna .Mar b. Awia (B; 5)
Huna 1). Mareinor (B ; (>)
Huna b. Matnah (B ; 4)
Huna b. .Minyonii (B; 3)
Huna 1). Moses (B; 4)
Huna b. Natiriian (B : 4)

♦Hunab. Nathan (B; 7)
Huna I). Neheiniah (B; C)
Huna b. Papi
Huna b. Phinehas (B)
Huna of Poi'sica
Hunab. Rabbah (B; 6)
Huna b. Sahhora (B; 4)
Huna of Sepphoris
Huna of Siira
Huna b. Tahllfa (B; 5)
Huna b. Torta
Huna b. Zutl (B; 0)
llunya Jacob of .\pretalin
Ishmael (father of Judah;

P : 3)
Ishmael b. Abba (P; 2)
Ishmael b. Jacob (P)
I.shiiiael b. Kathrlel (P; 1)
Ishmael of Kefar Yama (P; 3)
Isiiac ( B ; (i)

Isaac (father of Samuel)

Jacob of the South

Isaac b. Abba (B; 2)

Jacob li. Tahlifa

Is:iacb. Abba (B ; 4)

Jacob b. Yannal

I.sjiacb. Abdiini I. (P; 1)

Jacob b. Yohai

Is;uicb. Abilimi II. (B: 3)

♦Jacob b. Zabdai

Isaac b. Abin

Jehiel

+Isaac b. Adda (B)

Jeremiah (B; 0)

Isiiac I). Aha (B)

Jeieiiilah (B and P; 2)

Isiiac b. Aimni (P)

♦Jeremiah b. Al)ba (B; 3)

Isiuic b. A mini (B; 4)

Jeremiah b. Aha (B)

Isaac b. Ashi (B. 2)

♦Jeremiah nf DIfle

Isjiac b. Ashya (B; 3)

Jeremiah of (iiifta

+Is:iac ha-Babli

Jeremiah Rabba (the great)

Isaac Berrabi

Jeremiah Safra (the scrll>e)

Isaac b. Bisiia (B; 2)

Jeieiniah of Shebshab

+Isiuic of Carthage

Jfivmiah of the .South

Isaac Uibaha

Jeremiah b. Tahllfa (B)

Isaac b. Elai

Johanan (son of the smith)

Isaac b. Eliashib (P; 4)

Johanan (brother of Safra; B)

+I.saacb. Eleazar (P; 4)

Johanan .Antonarta

I-siiac of Ciufta

Johanan b. Kassaita

+Isaac b. Hakola

Johanan of Mal.iuka (P; 1)

Isiuic b. Haiub (B; 3)

•jolianan b. Merlya (P; 5)

Isaac b. Hanina (B; 3)

•Johanan b. Nappaha

+Isaacb. Hlyya (P; 2)

Johanan b. Rabbiiia (B; 5)

Isiiac b. Jacob

Johanan Safra of (iufta

Isaac b. Jonathan (P ; 4)

Johanan b. Shila (P)

Isaac b. Joseph (P; 2 and 3)

Johani (B; 1)

Isaac h. Judah (B ; 3)

♦Jonah (P; 4)

Isaac b. Kappara (P)

Jonah of Bosra (P; 3)

Isaac Kaskasa

Jonah b. Tahlifa (B; 4)

Isaac of Kefar 'Itos

Jonathan (I> ; 1)

Isaac Krispa

Jonathan b. 'Akmai (P; 3)

Isaac b. Levi

Jonathan I). Amram (P; 1)

+lsaac of MaRdala

♦Jonathan of Bet (iubrin (P)

+Isaac b. Marion (P ; 3)

Jonathan 1). Eliezer

Isaac h. Mcnaliem (P)

Jonathan b. Haggai (P)

Isaac b. Mesliarsliiya (B, P; 0)

Jonathan b. Hila (P)

Isaac b. Nal.imani (P; 3)

Jonallian b. Isaac b. Ahor (P)

Isaac b. Naplilali (B : G)

Jonathan Kefa (P; 4)

+Isaac Nappalia (the smith)

Jose b. Abba or A hai

Isaac b. Ostiya (P)

♦Jo.se b. Abin

+Isaac b. Parnak

Jose b. Ashyan

Isaac Paska

Jose b. Bebai

+Isaac b. Phinehas (B and P; 3)

Jo.se of Ca?sarea

Isaac b, Rabbah b. bar Hana

Jose b. Elai

(B; 4)

Jose b. Eliakiin

tlsaac b. Redifa (P; 4)

Jose the Galilean (amora)

Isaac b. Samuel (B: 2)

Jose b. (iezira

Isaac b. Shila (B)

Jose b. Hananiah

Isaac b. Simeon (P)

Joseb. Hanina

+Isaac b. Tabla (P; 4)

Jose of Kefar Dan

Isaac b. Teradion

Jose of Kefar Gufta

tlsaac b. Ze'era or Sita (P ; 4)

Jose Kuzira |

Jabez [Jacob)

♦Jt>se b. Jacob

Jacob (grandson of Aha b.

Jose b. Jason

Jacob (grandson of Samuel)

Jose b. Jose

•Jacob b. Abba I.

Jose b. Joshua

♦Jacob b. A))ba II.

♦Jose b. Kazrata

♦Jacob b. Abbulia

♦Jose of Malahaya

♦Jacob b. Abina

Jose the Mede

Jacob b. Adda

Jose b. Menashya

Jacob b. Adda b. Athaliah

Jose of Nahar Bui

Jacob of Adlal)ene

Jose b. Nathan

♦Jacob b. Aha (B;3)

•Jose b. Nehorai

Jacob b. Aha (P)

Jose of Oni

•Jacob!). Aha (P;4)

Jose b. Pazi

Jacob b. Aha b. Idi

Jose b. Petros

Jacol) b. Aiiinii

Jose Resha

Jac(ibof Armenia

Jose b. Saul

Jacob b. Dosai

Jose of the South 1

Jacob of F.iiiaus

Jose b. 'Panl.ium 11

Jacob of (iebula

Jose of Yoilkarat II

Jacob b. Hama [tus)

Jose of Zaitiir II

Jacob b. Hapiliti (Hippoly-

Jose h. Zebida H

Jacob b. HIsda

Jose b. Zeniina 11

Jacob b. I'dl

Jose b. Zimra 11

Jacob b. Idi b. Oshaya

Joseph b. Abba M

.Jacob b. Ise (Jose)

Jos<M)h b. Ammi |

♦Jacob of Kefar Hanin

Joseph b. Habu . 1

Jacob of Nehoria

Joseph b. Hama

.lacob of Nehar-Pekod

Joseph b. Hanin

Jacol) of liumania

Joseph b. Hiyya

Jacob b. Slsai

♦Joseph b. Joshua b. Levi

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

Tannaizn and Amoraiiu

.losepli b. Moiiiisviiof Dewil

Joseph 1). Miiiyoiiii

Josi'|ili ii. Nfluinya

Joseph li. Uiilibu

Joseph b. Siilla

Joseph b. Samuel

Joseph b. Sheiiiaiilh

Joseph of Sidoii

Joshua (brother of Dorai ; D

Josliua b. Aliba
*JoslHia b. Abiii (I')

Joshua b. Henjaiuiu

Joshua b. Heii (P)

Joshua b. lioethus

Joshua of (iizoia (P; 4)

Josliua b. kli
♦Joshua (ha-Kohen) b. Nehe-

niiah (P)
*Joshua b. Levi

Joshua b. Levi b. SluUuni

Joshua b. Maria (15; 1)

Joshua b. Nahnian
♦Joshua b. Neheuiiah

Joshua of Una (P)

Joshua b. Peilaya
*Josluia of Sliikuiu

Joshua of the South

Joshua li. Tanluuii

Joshua b. TiMii (P)

Joshua of 'I'zza

Joshua b. Ziiial (P; 1)

Josiah

Josiah of Huzal

Josiah of Uslia [sida)

Juciah (brother of Sola Ha-

Juthih b. Ahitai

Judah b. Aibu
*Juilah b. Aiuiui

Judah b. Aslii

Judali b. Ashtita

Judali I). Astira

Judali b. Kisua

Judah b. Buni

Judah of Difte

Judah of Diskarta
*Judah b. Ezekiel

Judah of Gallia

Judah b. Ganida

Judah b. Habiba

Judah of Hayrunya

Judah b. llama

Judah b. Hanina

Judah b. Hiyya

Judah b. Huua

Judah b. Idl

Judah b. Isaac

Judah b. Ishmael

Judah b. Joshua

Judah Klaustra

Judah b. Levi

Judah b. Menashya

Judali b. Mereinar

Judah Mosparta

Judah b. Nahmani

Judah b. Oshaya

Judah b. Pazi

Judah b. Pedaiah

Judah b. Samuel

Judali b. shalum

Judah b. Shi la
♦Judah b. Simeon

Judah b. Simeon b. Pazl

Judah of Soporta

Judah b. Titos

Judah b. Zabda

Judah b. Zel)ina

Judah b. Zeniya

Justa Habra (the Colleague;
P)

Justa b. Judah (?)

Justa of Sliuuem (P ; 5 and 6)

Justa b. Siuieon (P ; 4)

Justina (P;3)

Kadi

Kahana (li)
Kahaiia (H and P)

Kahana (brother of Judah)

Kahana (father-in-law of Me-
sharshiya)

Kahana b. Ilanina

Kahana b. .lereuiiah

KalKiua b. Malkai

Kahana b. Malkiya

Kahana b. Nathan

Kahana b. Neheuiiah
*Kahana b. Tahllfa

Kama
♦Kaltina

Kirisof Urmia

Krispa

Knispedal

Levant!

Levi b. Herechiali

Levi of IMri

Levi b. lUita

Levi b. Haita

Levi b. Hama

Levi b. Hini

Levi b. Hiyya

Levi 1). lluna

Levi b. Isaac
♦Levi b. Laliina

Levi b. Panti

Levi b. Parta

Levi b. Pitam

Levi b. Itabbi

T^evi Saba

Levi b. Samuel

Levi b. Samuel b. Nahmau

Levi of Sandaria

Levi b. Seira
♦Levi b. Sisi

Levi of Suki

Luda

Lullanos of the South

Liilianos of Tiberias

Malkio

Maluk of Arabia

Mana of Sepphoris

Mana of Shab

Mana b. Tanhuin

Manasseh

Manasseh b. Zebid

Mani b. Jonah

Mani b. Palish

Mar b. Aslii

Mar Johanya (B; 4)

Mar b. Joseph

Mar Kashshisha

Mar b. Rabina

Mar Yanka flsar)

Mari (son of the proselyte

Mari b. Abbuh

Mari b. Bisnaa

Mari b. Hisda

Mari b. Huna

Mari b. Kahana

Mari b. H;ir

Mari b. Phinehas

Mari b. *Ukba

Marino

Ma rill us

Marinus b. Oshaya

Marion

Matnah

Mattatya b. Judah

Matuu

Menahem of (iallia

Mcnalicm b. Nopah

Menahem b. Simai

Menahem Tt)louiia

Jlenashyii

Menashya of Devvif

Menashya b. Gada

Menashya b. Jacob

Menashya b. Jeremiah

Menashya b. Judah

Menashya b. Menahem

Menashya b. Haba

Menashya b. Tahlifa

M ere mar

Meieraar b. Manilla

Mesliurshiya b. Amiiii

Mesharshiya b. Idi

Mesliai-sliiya b. Dimi

Mesharsliiya b. Nathan

Mcsharshiya b. PakoU

Mesharsliiya b. Haba

Mesharsliiya of Tosnia

Minyomi

Mona

Mordecai

Nahman b. Ada

Nahman b. Baruk

Nahuian b. (iurya

Nahman b. Hisdal

Nahman b. Isaac
♦Nahman b. Jacob

Xahiiian b. Kohen

Nahman b. Minyomi

Nahman b. Papa

Nahman b. Parta

Nahman b. Kabbah

Nahman b. Samuel

Nahman b. Zabda

Nahum (brother of Ila)

Nalium (servant of Abbahu)

Nahuuii

Nabuuii b. Zechariah

Naphtali

Nasah

Nathan (father of Huna)

Nathan (brother of Hiyya)

Nathan b. Abba

Nathan b. Abbai

Nathan b. Abin

Nathan b. Ammi

Nathan b. Asya

Nathan b. Berechiah

Nathan of Bira

Nathan b. Mar Tkba

Nathan b. Mar Zutra

Nathan b. Minyomi

Nathan b. Oshaya

Nathan b. Tobia
♦Nathan de Zuzita (exilarch)

Neheuiiah

Neheuiiah b. Hiyya

Nehemiah b. Huna

Nehemiah b. Joseph

Nehemiah b. Joshua

Nehilai

Nehorai

Nehorai b. Shemaiah

Nilia b. Saba

Nikoiiieki

Osha'ya (Hoshaiah)

Paddat

Paddaya

Panda
♦Papa

Papa b. Abba

Papa b. Aha

Papa b. Hanan of Be Zeluhit

Papa b. Joseph

Pajiab. Nabmau

Papa Salia

Papa b. Samuel

Parnak

Pazi
♦Pereda

Philippi

Phinehas

Phinehas b. Ammi
♦Phinehas b. Haiiia

Phinehas b. Hananiab

Phinehas b. Hisda

Phinehas of Joppa

Phinehas ha-Kohea

Phinehas b. Mari

Phinehas b. Zakkai
•Raba b. Ada

♦Ilaba b. Joseph" b. Hama

Haba b. Tla

Kabbah b. Abba
*Kabbah b. Abulia
I Kabbaii b. Aim

Kabbah b. Ahllal

Kabbah b. Ahini

Kabbah b. Ainiiii

Rabbah b. Aslii

Kabbah b. Bar Hanali

Kabbah of Barnash

Kabl)ali b. Baruiia

Kabbah b. Haklal
♦Kabbah b. Hanan

Kabbah b. Ilanina
♦Kabbah b. Hivya
♦Kabbah b. Huna

Kabbah b. ]di b. Abiii

Rabbah b. Ilii or Iti

Rabbah b. Ilai

Kabbah b. Isaac

Rabbah b. Ishmael

Rabbah b. Isi

Rabbah b. Jeremiah

Kabbah b. Jonathan

Kabbah b. Kahana

Kabbah b. Kisma

Rabbah of Kubaya

Rabbah b. Leina

Rabbah b. Lewai

Rabbah b. Marion
♦Rabbah b. Matnah

Rabbah b. Mehasya

Kabbah b. Mcsharshiya

Rabbah b. Minyomi

Rabbah b. Papa
*Kabbali of Parziki

Kabbah b. Raba'

Kabbah b. Saba

Rabbah b. Safra
♦Rabbah b. Saiuuel
♦Kabbah b. Sliela

Rabbah b. Shutnnl

Rabbah b. Siiiii

Rabbah b. Tahlifa

Rabbanai

Rabbanai of Huza
♦Rabina I.
♦Rabina II.

Rabina III.

Rafram

*Kafram I. (b. Papa)
♦Rafram II.

Rahbah or Rehabah

Rahinai

Rakish b. Papa

Rainmi b. Abba

Ramini h. Berechiah

Raiiimi b. Ezekiel

Kaiiimi b. Hama

Rammi b. Judah

Rainmi b. Papa

Rammi b. Rab

Ramuii b. Samuel

Kaiiimi b. Tamre

Kaniuii b. Yeba

Redifa

Reuben

Romanus

Safra

Safra b. Se'orara

Safra b. TobIa

Safra b. Yeba

Sal.ihorah

Sal la Hasidu (the plous>

Saiiilai

Samlai of BIra

Samlai of Ciesarea

Samlai of Lydda

Sainma b. Aibu
Samina b. Asi
Samina b. Halkai
Sainma b. Jeremiah
Sanima b. Judah

Tannaim and Amoraim
Tarascon

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sanima b.

Mari

Samiuu b.

Mesharshiya

Saiiinia b.

Rabbah

Sainiiia b.

Rakta

Samuel

brother of Bere-

cbiuli)

Samuel (brother of Osha'ya)

Samuel (brotber of Pbinehas

b. ^ama)

Samuel b.

Abba

S«amuel (Mari b. Abba b. |

Abba

Samuel b.

Abba of Hagrunya

•Samuel b.

Abbabu

Samuel b.

Abdimi

Samuel b.

A bin

Samuel b.

Ada

Samuel b.

Aha

Samuel b.

Ahitai

Samuel b.

Aliunal

•Samuel b.

Aiiiuii

•Samuel b.

Aiiaya

Samuel b.

Bisua

Samuel of Cappadocia

Samuel of Difte

Samuel b.

Gedaliab

Samuel b.

Halafta

Samuel b.

Hananiab

Samuel b.

Hanina

•Sauiuel b.

Hiyya

Samuel b.

Ika

Samuel b.

Isaac

Samuel b.

Jacob

•Samuel b.

Jose b. Bun

Samuel b.

Judab of India

Samuel b.

Kattina

Samuel b.

Marta

Samuel b.

Nadab

•Samuel b.

Nahinani

•Samuel b.

Nathan

Samuel b.

Papa

Samuel Podajrrita |

Samuel b.

Raba

Samuel b.

Rabbi

Samuel Saba |

Samuel b.

Shaba

Samuel b.

Shilot

Samuel b.

Simi

Samuel of Sofafta |

Samuel b.

Susira or Susreta

Samuel b.

Sutar

Samuel b.

Yeba

Samuel b.

Zadok

Samuel of Zarkonya |

Samuel b.

Ze'era

Samuel b.

Zutra

Saul of Nawah |

Se'oram

Sbaba

Shabbethal

Sliabljetliai h. Marinus

Shabbetli:

1 of Sadukl

Shalemya

Shalman of Be Zeluhit

Shalman b. Levi

Sliapplr

Shayin

Shazbl

Shela

Shela b. Ablna

Shela b. Isaac,

•Shela of h

efar Taraarta

Shela Ma

Shela of S

halomya

Sliemalah

Sliernalali b. Zera

Shephatiah

Shereblah

Shesha b.

Idi b. Abln

•Sheshet

Sheshet b

. Joshua

Sheshet of Kartlza |

Sheshna I

. Samuel

Sldor

Simeon b. Abba

Simeon b. Abishalom

Simeon b. Aibu

SiiiuHin b. Bisiia

Simeon b. Hillel b. Pazi

Simeon b. Hiyya

Simeon b. Hiyya of Huza

Simeon b. Jacob of Tyrus
♦Simeon b. Jakini

Simeon b. Jasina
•Simeon b. Jelmzadak

Simeon b. Jonah

Simeon b. Joshua

Simeon the Judge

Simeon b. Kana or Sana

Simeon b. Karsena

Simeon b. Kisma
•Siiheon b. Lakish

Simeon b. Levi

Simeon b. Me asha

Simeon b. Narshiyah

Simeon b. Nezira
•Simeon b. Pazi

Simeon the Pious

Simeon the Scribe

Simeon of Shiloh

Simeon b. Simeon

Simeon b. Tahlifa

Simeon of Tospata
♦Simeon b. Yannai

Simeon b. Zachariah

Simeon b. Zebid

Simeon b. Zirud

Simi b. Abba

Simi b. Ada

Simi b. Ashi

Simi of Birtadesl.iore

Simi b. Hezekiah

Simi b. Hiyya

Simi of Mahaza

Simi of Nehardea

Simi b. 'Ukba

Simi Ze'era

Sisai

Surhab b. Papa

Tabida
♦fubi

Tabi (grandson of Mar Tabi)

Tabi, Mar

i'abut

Tabut Rishba
♦Tabyome (B)

Tabyome (P)

Tabyome II. (B)

Taddai

Tahlifa

Tahlifa (father-in-law of Ab-
bahu)

Tahlifa (father-in-law of Aha)

Tahlifa (father of Huua)

Tahlifa b. Abdimi

Tahlifa b. Abiiiii

Tahlifa b. Abina

Tahlifa b. Bar Hana

Tahlifa of Caesarea

Tahlifa b. Gazza

Tahlifa b. Hisda

Tahlifa b. Iiiio

Tahlifa Ma'araba (the Pales-
titilan)

Tahlifa b. Samuel

Tanhum b. Ammi

Tanhuin of Bosra
*Tanhum b. Hanilal

Tanhum b. Hanina
*Tanhinn b. Hiyya

Tanhum b. Hiyya b. Abba

Tanhum b. Hiyya of Kefar
Agin

Tanhum b. Hiyva of Kefar

Ako
•Tanhum b. Jeremiah
•Tanhuma b. Abba
•I'anhuma b. Judah

Tanhum of Parwad

Tanhum b. Skolastikai

Tanhuma

Tarayya

Tayyefa Simmuka

Tobi b. Isaac

Tobi b. Kattina

Tobi b. Kisna

Tobi b. Mattanah

Tobi b. Nehemiah

Total

Tkba b. Abba

'Ukba b. Hama

Tkba b. Hiyya

Tkba, Mar

Tkba of Meshan

'l^kba of Pashninya

T'kba, Rabbana

nia b. Abba

nia b. Ashi

L'lla of Biri

nia of Ciesarea

l'lla Hazzana

Ulla b. Hinena

Ulla b. Idi

Ulla b. llai

Ulla b. Ishmael

Ulla b. Mcnasya

Ulla b. Rab

Ulla Kabbah

Uzziel (grandson of Uzziel

Rabbah)
Uzziel b. N'ehunya
•Yannai
♦Yannai (grandson of Yannai

the Elder)
Yannai b. Ammi
Yannai of Cappadocia
♦Yannai b. Ishmael
Yannai b. Nahmani
Yannai Ze'era (the little

one)
Yeba (father-in-law of Ash-

yan)
Yeba Saba (the old one)
Yemar

Yemar of Difte
Yemar b. Hashwai
Yemar Saba (the old one)

Yemar b. Shazbi

Yemar b. Shelmia
♦Yudan (father of Mattaniah)

Yudan b. Aibu

Yudan of Cappadocia
♦Yudan of Magdala
•Vudan b. Pliila

Yudan of Sakiiin

Yudan b. Shakii

Zabda

Zabda (father of Abba)
♦Zabda b. Levi
*Zakkai

Zakkai of Alexandria
♦Zakkai the Butcher (Tab-
baha)

Zakkai the Great (Rabbah)

Zakkai of Kabul
♦Zakkai of Sliab
♦Zebid

Zebid of Nehardea

Zebid b. Dsha'ya

Zebulun b. Don (B)

Zechariah

Zechariah (son-in-law of

Joshua b. Levi)
♦Ze'era (P)

Ze'era b. Abbahu (P)

Ze'era b. Hama (P)

Ze'era b. Hanina (P)

Ze'era or Zera (B and P)

Zemina (P)
♦Zerika

Zerika (brother-in-law of Ze-
rikan)

Zerikan

Zuga

Zuga or Zawwa of Adiabene

Zuti

Zutra b. Huna [Ashi)

Zutra, Mar (the colleague of

Zutra, Mar (the great)

Zutra, Mar (the pious)

Zutra b. Mari

Zutra b. Nahman

Zutra b. Rishba

Zutra b. Samuel

Zuira b. Tobia

Zutra b. Ze'era

L. G.

TANNENBAUM, ABNER : Yiddish aud He-
l)re\v joiuualisl; born iit Sfliirwiiui, East Prussia,
i\Iarch 1, 1848. He stiuiied in Kaincuetz-Podolsk
and in the Kishiuef Lyceum, and was awarded a
diph)ina by tiie Imiierial University of Odessa for
his historical and geographical studies. He chose a
coniineicial career, aud, after having held various
l)o.sitions, became manager of a wholesale drug l)usi-
ness. In 1H87 he emigrated to New York, where he
devoted Jiimself to journalism.

Tannenbaum has translated into Yiddish several
of the works of Jules Verne, among which maj' be
mentioned "Kalt und Warm," Loudon, 1895, and
"Gesucht und Gefunden," New York, 1896. He is
especially known as a populai"izer, among Hussiau
immigiauts, of the secular sciences, having written
extensive ti'eatises on historical topics, natural
science, etc., in almost all Yiddish periodicals of the
United States. He is tiie author of a " History of
the Jews in America" (2 jiarts. New York, 1905)
and of a "Commercial, Industrial, anil Agricultural
Geography of the United States" (ib. 1905).

.T." ' L. La.

TANUJI, ISHMAEL HA-KOHEN : Egyp-
tian rabbi and author of the sixteenth century. He
was a descendant of the Tanuji (from "Tanjah " =

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tannaim and Aznoralm
Tiiniecon

"Tangiers") fiiniily of Tunis, to wliicli belougcil R.
Siiimifl lui-Kolien and his son H. Judali, bolii rabbis
of Jcrusiik'Ui. In 1543 lie wrote a book, poiiuiar in
style, entitled "Sefer ha-Zikkaron " and containing
liiilakio decisions on current topics (Ferrara, lo.o.")).
As the chief of the EgyjUian rabbis he appended his
name to an apiuobation of the responsa of H. Eli-
jah lien Hayyiin (Kanah). There still exists in
Ku:vi>t a synagogue in which Ishniael ha-Kohen
Taiuiji had been wont to pray, and which is there-
fore called liy his name (see Jkw. Encyc. v. 73a,
line 1).

BiBi.KKJKArnv : Azulai. Slteni ha-Gedolim, i. Ill: I'uenii.
A'oiiM' I'l.-'dt'. P- 074. ^^ r^ ^

G. N. T. L.

TANYA : Collection of ritual laws and customs,
inibiislud first at Mantua, 1514, then at Cremona,
15()5. and later in two other editions. The epigraj)!!
of the .Mantua edition reads as follows: " ' Minhag
Allot Sefer Tanya' was terminated in the month of
Siwan, 5074 of Creation" (=1314). This is in-
terpreted by Dukes ("Orient, Lit." v. 219), to mean
that the work was originally called "Minhag Abot"
and that it was composed in 1314. Buber (intro-
duction to his editiou of "Shibbole lia-Leket "),
however, jiroves that 1314 is a misprint for 1514,
which is the date of the first edition. Steinschnei-
der supposes that the " ]Miuhag Abot " mentioned by
Abraham ha-Levi in his treatise "Ha-Hora'ah" (see
"Ozar Nehmad," ii. 15'i) is the same as "Tanya."
This book is arranged in the same w-ay as the "Shib-
bole ha-Lcket." which, as well as its author, Zede-
kiah ben Abraham, is often tiuoted. The author of
the "Tanya," besides, freciuently cites as his teach-
ers Benjamin b. Abraham (Zedekiah's brother) and
Judah b. Benjamin; and in certain places the ex-
pression "I, Jehiel the scribe," is found. These
details gave rise to a discus.sion among difl'ereut
authorities as to the authorship of the book, which
is variously ascribed to Judah b. Benjamin, to u
pupil of his, and to Jehiel b. A.sher b. Jekuthiel.

Among the opinions of modern scholars that of

Osias Schorr may be mentioned, namely, that the

"Tanya" is simply a copj^ of tlie "Shibbole ha-

Leket," called "Tanya" after its initial word, but

written in such a way as to make it appear the

copyist's own composition; c.^^., in many places

Schorr declares the copyist ascribes this or that to

the "Shibbole ha-Leket " to make it appear that he

took only so nuicli from that work. Where the

author of the "Shibbole" refers to "m}^ brother

Benjamin " the copyist of the "Tanya" omits the

words " my brother." The copyist for the most part

confined his attention to the Law, neglecting the

customs. He also added extracts from Maimonides'

"Yad."

Bibi.iography: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim: Benjacob, Ozar
ha-SefarUn, p. tr)?. No. 060; Conforte, Kore lin-Dorot, n.
21a ; Schorr, in Znnjim, i. 147-148 : idem, in Ke-Halvz, i. ItM-
165 ; Steinsclnit'idcr, Cat. Dixll. I'ol. 2771.
w. n. ]\I. Sel,

TANZER, AARON : Austrian rabbi ; born at
Prcsburg, Hungary, Jan. 30, 1871; studied at the
Presburg Balibinerschule, and Oriental philology
and history at the University of Berlin (Ph. D. 1895).
In 1896 he was called to Hohencms as chief rabbi of
Tyrol and Vorarlberg ; and since 1904 he has been

rabbi of Meran (Tyrol). He is tjie autjior (jf " Die
lieligionsphilosophie Josef Albo'.s," Frank fort -ou-
the-Main, 1«90; " Der Israelitischc Friedhof in
Hohencms," Vienna, 1901; "Judenthum und Ent-
wickelungslehie," Berlin, 1903;and "Ge.schichte der
Judcn ill Tirol inxl \'oiar!b' i-'j.'' v-.l i //- 1903-4.

S.
TAPPUAH: 1. City in the Shelelali, described
as lying between the townsof En-gannim and Eiiam ;
probably situated north of the Wa<li al-Sunt, and
identical with the modern "Artuf (Josh. xv. 34).
2. City in Ephraim, marking the western boundary
of the tribe (Josh. xvi. 8). 3. The land of Tap-
puali, which l)elonged, Avith the exception of the
city of the same name, to the tribe of Manasseii
(Josh. xvii. 8). It was one of the thirty-one districts
whose kings were vanciuished b^' the Jews when
they first invaded Palestine (Josh. xii. 17). 4 (En-
tappuah). Southern boundary of tl)e tribe of Manas-
seii (Josh. xvii. 7). 5. Sou of Hebron (I Chron. ii. 43).

Bini.TOGRAPHY: Schwarz, Palestine, pp. 89, 103, Pliiladt'lphia.

1850.

.1. s. o.

TARASCON (Hebrew, |ipK>1t3. IP'l^'XIXO) : City
in the department of Bouchcs-du-HhOne, France.
In 127G King Cliarles I. intervened in behalf of its
Jews against the inquisitors, who had obliged them
to enlarge the wheel-shaped badge worn b}' them,
and had extorted large sums from them in the guise
of a tine. Several Jews who were expelled from
Lauguedoc in 1306 went to Tarascon, where they
were cordiall}^ received; but in 1308 Charles II., (m
the complaint of Christians, forbade Jews to hold
public oilice. Queen Jeanne, however, took the
Tarascon Jews under her protection (1348 and 1378);
and her daughter, Marie de Blois, treated them still
more favorably, making no distinction whatever be-
tween her Jewish and her Christian subjects (1390).
Louis II. of Anjou exempted them (1400) from all
new taxes, and granted them a special letter of ]iro-
tection ("sauvegarde"), by the terms of which the
other inhabitants of Tarascon were enjoined to pro-
vide for their defense and for the preservation of
their property. Louis III. appointed conservators
of these privileges in order to remove the Jews from
the ar])itrary jurisdiction of the courts.

In 1454 King Bene issued a decree mitigating the
severity of the edict of Charles I. relative to the
wearing of the badge; but in 1460. at the recj nest
of the syndics, he ordered that no Jew should thence-
forth hold public office, on pain of a fine of fifty
marks in silver. In 1475 he obliged the Jews of the
city to pay him a subsidy of 8.000 florins. Owing
to their letter of protection of 1400, the Jews of
Tarascon did not suffer during the bloody excesses
committed in Provence in 1484 by a band of reapers;
and in 1489 the municipal council, in conformity
with the "sauvegarde." took steps which enabled
the .lewish inhai)itanls to escape from tiie populace,
which had attacked their quarter.

This quarter was commonly called tlie "Carriere
des Juifs." or simply the "Carriere." tliough the
names "Juzataria" and "Juateria" also f ►ecu r oc-
casionally. It included, on the one side, the portion
of the i^ie du Chateau between the royal court
and the chateau of King Rene, and. on the other

Tarfon
Targ-um

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

side, the portion which separated the traverse, now
the Rue des Juifs, from the monastery of the Benedic-
tines of St. Honorat. Wliiu some Jews settled out-
side of the Carrirre a royal tleeree of 1377 ordered
them to return to their former domicil. on pain of a
tine of 100 livres. In case of necessity, liowever,
tlic Jews were i)ermitted to go outside as far as tlie
Rue des Biiptemes, but the condition was made that
they shouhl construct no gate or otiier opening to
this street near tlie Ciiurch of St. 3Iartiie.

Ti»e exact site of tlie synagogue is unknown. In
1368 the community paid to tlie public treasury a
tax of 10 oboles for the possession of this building.
In the Middle Ages the community had two ceme-
teries, one of them situated on the island of Tar-
negue near the old commandery of St. Antoine, and
the other outside of the Cou(himine gate between
the road to Maillaue and that to St. Georges. In
1526 the latter became the property of the city,
which erected a pest-house on the plot.

The following scholars of Tarascou are known:
R. Eliezerand his brother Joshua, Solomon of Salon,
Israel of Valabregue, Immanuel ben Jacob (Bon-
fils), Joseph Caspi, Don Bouafous, Samuel b. Judah
and his brother En Bondavi of Marseilles; also the
following physicians: Comprat Asser, Bonjulias
Guassin, Rossel, Ferrier, Bellant, Nathan, Jacob of
Lunel, Orgier, ilaystrc Arou, Mosse ^Meyr, and Jo-
seph b. Joseph.

Bibliography: Amaud Camille, E><xai fntr la Cnvditimi des
Ji(if'.s en Provence, pp. 24, 3»5, 37.39.52; Bardinet, Revue
HiMoriiiue,!^^); Blancard, Iiiveutaire Sotnntnire des Ai-
chive.s Drjjartemeiitalcs des BoxicItes-du-Rln'mc, B. 142; Be-
darride, Les Juifs en France, pp. 317, 320; Bondurand, Les
Cuutumes de Tai'CU<con, pp. o3, 64, 6.5, 80, 84, Nime.s. 1892 ;
Bouche Hon. Histnire de Provence, II., book ix., seotion iv.;
Deppinp, Las Juifs dans le Mot/en Afje. pp. 198,206,207:
Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 249-250; S. Kahn, Lcs Juifs de
Tarascon. pp. 3-57 (reprinted from R. E. J. 1889); Nostra-
damus, Histnire de Provence, part 6 ; Renan-.Neubauer, Lcs
linli})inx Fran(;ais. pp. 477,561. 688; idem, Les Ecrivains
Juifs Frauf;ais. pp. 692 et seq.; Revue des Langues Ro-
manes. 1897, pp. 2^4-226.
S. S. K.

TARFON (Greek, Tpvduv; Yer. Bik. 64c): Tanna
of the tliird generation, living in the period between
the destruction of the Temple and the fall of Bethar.
He was of priestly lineage, iind he expressly states
that heofliciated in the Temple with the priests (Yer.
Yoma iii. 7) ; in the pride of his rank he used to de-
mand tlie-heave-oCfering even after the Temple had
fallen (Tosef., Hag. iii., end). His devotion to his
motlier was such that he used to place his hands be-
neath her feet Avhen she was obliged to cross the
courtyard barefoot (Kid. 61b), while his generosity
made him return to the father the redemption-money
for the first-born, altliough it was liis priestly per-
quisite (Tosef., Bek. vi. 14). Once, in a time of
famine, he took 300 wives so that they might, as
wives of a priest, exercise the right of sharing in the
tithes (Tosef., Ket. v. 1). On one occasion, when
from Ids window he saw a bridal procession evi-
dently of the poorer classes, he refjue.sted liis mother
and sister to anoint the bride that the groom might
find more joy in her (Ab. H. N. xli., end). Although
he was blessed with riches, he possessed extraordi-
nary modesty; in one instance he deeply regretted
having mentioned his name in a time of peril, since
he feared that in using his position as teacher to
escape from danger he had seemingly violated the

rule against utilizing knowledge of the Torah for

practical ends (Ned. 62b).

Although as a halakist R. Tarfon was an adherent
of the school of Shammai, only two passages de-
scribe him as following its teachings (Yeb. lob;
Y^M-. Sheb. iv. 20), and he always inclined toward
leniency in the interi)ixtation of those halakot of
Shammai which had not actually been put into

practise (Kil. v. 6; Yeb. xv. 6; Ket. v. 2); often he

decided in direct opposition to the Bet Shammai

when it imposed restrictions of excessive severity

(Yob. XV. 47; Naz. v. 5). R. Tarfon

As was also the author of independent

Halakist. halakot, one being on the form of ben-
ediction when quenching thirst Avith
water (Ber. vi. 8), and another on the benediction for
the eve of the Passover (Pes. x. 6). The majority
of his rulings, however, deal with subjects discussed
in the orders Nashim, Kodashim, Tohorot, and
Nezikin. In those found in Tohorot his tendency
is always toward severity, while in Nezikin are
found his sayings on lost objects and usufruct (B.
M. iv. 8, v. 7), the payment of debts, the money due
a woman when she receives a bill of divorce (Ket.
ix. 2, 3), and damage caused by cattle (B. K. ii.
5, and the baraitot connected with tliis passage, p.
26). If he had belonged to the Sanhedrin, the
death-penalty would have been abolished (Mak. i.
10; comp. Frankel, " Der Geiichtliche Beweis," p.
48, Berlin, 1846). R. Tarfon engaged in halakic
controversies with R. Akiba (Ket. 84a; Pes. 117,
118), but the two agreed with regard to a tosef ta
(Mik. i. ; Kid. 66; Y'er. Yoma i. 1 ; Ter. iv. 5; Mak.
i. 10; Ker. v. 3), with R. Simeon (Men. xii. 5; pos-
sibly, however, an error for R. Akiba), and R. Elea-
zar ben Azariah (Yad. iv. 3). Other sayings of his
have been preserved which were accepted without
controversy (Pes. 117a, 118a; Git. 83a); and two of
his apothegms are especially notcworthj' as indica-
ting his intense earnestness: "The day is short, the
labor vast, the toilers idle, the reward great, and the
^Master urgent " ( Ab. i. 15) ; " It is not thy task to com-
plete the work, neither art thou a free man that thou
canst withdraw thyself; if thou hast learned much,
great shall be thy reward, for He that doth hire thee
will surely repay thee for thy toil; }'et the requital
of the pious is in the future" (Ab. i. 17). In
the discu.ssion as to the relative importance of
theory and practise, Tarfon decided in favor of the
latter.

When Eliezer ben Hyrcanus was sick, and a dep-
utation was sent to him, R. Tarfon acted as the
sjiokesman, addressing him as follows: "Master,
thou art of more v,orth to Israel than the sun, for
that gives light only on earth, while

Incidents thou dost shed thy rays both in this
of world and in the world tocome"(Sanh.

His Life. 101a; Mek., Bahodesh, xi. [ed. AVeiss,
p. 80a]). In like manner he led a num-
ber of scholars in a vLsit to R. Ishinael ben Elisha,
upon the death of the sons of the latter (M. K. 28b) ;
and when Jo.se the Galilean, R. Tarfon, R. Eliezer ben
Azariah. and R. Akiba assembled to decide on the dis-
puted sayings of Eliezer ben Hyrcanus, Tarfon was
the first speaker (Tosef., Git. vii. ; Git. 83a). He was
one of those whose names occurred in the deposition

THE JEWlbll E>:cvrr,()PEDIA

Tarfon
Targ-um

of Giuiialic! II.. :in(l it is cxitressly stated tliat lie was
luidrcsscd as " l)iiitliiT " by the other scliolais. He
is said to liavc dwelt at Jabiieli, alMioiigli it is
evideut tluiL lu' lived also in Lydda (Ta'an. iii. !) ;
JJ. M. iv. 3: Ihiii. 18a).

1{. Turfoii was accustomed to open his liaggadic
discourses with a halukic (juestion (Tosef., Ber. iv.
16). In ids own upper chamber at Jabiieii it was
decided that benevolence should be pniclised ac-
cordiug to the injunction of Ps. cvi. 3 (Estli. K. vi.
2, 5). Tarfon lield that (Jod did not allow His
glor}' to overshadow Israel luilil the people liad
fulfilled a ta.sk (Ab. H. N. ii.), and that death can
overtake one only when he is idle (comp. Gen.
xlix. -.v.]).

On festivals and holy days K. Tarfon was accus-
tomed to (U'liiiht his wife and c'hildren by ])reparinij:
for them the linest fruits and dainties (Yer. Pes.
87b). When he wished to express ap-
Domestic jiroval of any one, he would say, "'A
Life. knop and a llower ' [Ex. xxv. 33];

thou hast spoken as beautifully as the
adornments of the candlestick in the Temple"; but
when it was necessary to upbraid another, he would
say, " ' My son shall not go down with you ' " (Gen.
R. xci.), repeating the words of Jacob to his sons
in Gen. "xlii. 38. When lie perceived that his two
nephews, whom he was instructing personally, were
becoming careless, he interrupted his lecture and
regained their attention by saying, "Then again
Abraham took a wife, and her name was Johanna "
(instead of Keturah; Gen. xxv. 1), whereupon his
pui)ils interrupted him by exclaiming, "No, Ketu-
rah ! " (Zeb. 2Gb). His chief scholars were R. Judah
CEr. 4ob; Yeb. 101b), Simeon Shezari (Men. 31b),
and Judah ben Isaiah ha-Bosem (Hul. 55b).

R. Tarfon was extremely bitter against those
Jews who had been converted to the new faith ; and
he swore that lie would burn every book of theirs
which shoidd fall into his liands (Sliab. 116a), his
feeling being so intense that lie had no scruples
against destroying the Gospels, although the name of
God occurred frequently in them.

BiBi.ioouAPiiY : Frankel, llinlcoctica in Misrhnnm, pp. 101-
1(1.'), Lei|isic, 18.VJ: liriill, Eitihituiiii in die Misclnia, i. 1(K>-
!(«, Fraiikfort-iiii-the-Main, If^Tti : liaclier, .If/. 7Vni. pp. 34:i-
35:i; Haiul)iirfrer, Ii. li. T. ii. ll'Jti: DereiibourK, //i,s(. pp. 379
et xeq. A list of the mishnayot wliich inentioii 11. Tarfon is
given by Schiirer, CtWC/i. ii. I57S, note Ki" ; of tlit» Tosef ta pas-
sapcs in wliicli his name occurs, by Ziicliennaniiel in his edition
of the Tosefta ; of similar sections in the Mekilta, 8ifra, and
Sifre, by Hoffmann, Zur Einlcitunij in die llaku}ii!<chcn
Midratichim, p. 85, Berlin, 1887.
AV. H. S. O.

TARGUM : The Aramaic translation of the Bible.
It forms a part of the Jewish traditional literature,
and in its inception is as early as the time of the
Second Temple. The verb DJID. from which the
noun D13"in is formed, is used in Ezra iv. 7 in refer-
ence to a document written in Aramaic, although
"Aranut" (A. V. "in the Syrian tongue'") is added.
lu nnshnaic phraseology the verb denotes a transla-
tion from Hebrew into any other language, as into
Greek (see Yer. Kid. 59a, line 10, and Yer. Meg. 71e,
line 11 ; both statements referring to the Greek ver-
sion of Aquila) ; and the notni likewise may refer to
the translation of the Biblical text into any language
(see Meg. ii. 1 ; Shab. 115a). The use of the term

"Targum"' l)y itself was restricted to the Aramaic

version i<( the liibli' (see Bacher, " Die Tenninologie

iler Taimailen." ])p. 205 et mfj.). In

Name. like mamier, the Aramaic imssages in

Genesis, Jeremiah, Daniel, and Ezra

were brielly called "Targum," while the Hebrew

text was called "Mikra" (see Yad. iv. 5; Shab.

115b).

As an interpretatinii of tiie Hebrew text of the
Bible the Targum had its place botii in tlie .syna-
gogal liturgy and in Biblical instruction, while the;
reading of the Bible te.xt condjiued with tiie Taiguni
in the presence of thi; congregation assembled for
jmblic worship was an ancient institution winch
dated from the time of the Second Temple, and was
traced back to Ezra by Rab when lie interpreted
the word "meforash" (Nch. viii. 8) as referring to
the Targum (.Meg. 3a; Ned. 371); comp. Yer. i\Ieg.
74d, line 48; Gen. R. xxxvi., end). Tlic rules for
reading the Targum are formulated in the Halakah
(see Meg. iii. and the Talmud (td Inc. ; Tosef., !Meg.
iv.). The Targiun was to be read after every verse
of the parashiyyot of the Pentateuch, and after
every third verse of the lesson from the Prophets.
Excepting the Scroll of Esther, which might be
read by two persons in turn, only one person might
read the Targum, as the Pentateuch or prophetic
section also was read by a single person. Even a
minor might read the Targum, although it was not
fitting for him to do so wlien an adidt had read the
text. Certain portions of tiie Bible, although read,
were not translated (as Gen. xxxv. 22), while others
were neither read nor translated (as Num. vi. 24-20;
II Sam. xi.-xiii.). The reader was forbidden to
prompt the translator, lest any one shoidd say that
the Targum was included in the text of the Bible
(Ulla in iMeg. 32a). With regard to the translation
of Biblical passages, Judah ben Ilai, the pupil of
Akiba, declared that wliosoever rendered a verse of
the Bible in its original form was a liar, while lie
who made additions was a blasphemer (Tosef., Meg.,
end; Kid. 49a; comp. the geonic rcsponsum in Har-
kav}', "Responsen der Geonim," \)\). 124 et neq., and
the quotation from 3Iidr. ha-Gadol in "J. Q. R."
vi. 425). A passage in Ab. R. N. (Recension B,
xii. [cd. Schechter, p. 24]) referring to R. Akiba's
early training says that he studied tlie Bible and the
Targum; but allusions to the Targum as a special
subject of study in connection with the Bible arc
excessively rare. It must be assumed, however.
that the Targum was an integral part of the Bib-
lical course of study designated as "Mikra"; and
Judah b. Ilai declared that only he who coidd read
and translate the Bible might be regarded as a
"karvana,"or one thoroughly versed in the Bible
(Kid. 49a). In Sifre, Deut. 161 the Targum is men-
tioned as a branch of study intermediate between
the ^likia and the Mishiiah.

The jirofessional tiaiislator of the text of the
Bible in the synagogue was called "Uirgeman"
(•' torgeman," " ntetorgeman " ; the common pronun-
ciation being MKTrH(iF..M.\N ; see Meg. iv. 4). His
duties naturally formed jiart of the functions of the
comnuuial official ("sofer") wlio had charge of Bib-
lical instruction (.see Yer. y[vg. 74d). Early in the
fourth centurv Samuel ben Isaac, upon entering a

Targ^um

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

synagogue, once saw a teaclicr ("sofer") read the
Targum from a book, ami bade him desist. Thisauec-
dote shows that there was a written
Liturgical Targum which was used for public
Use. worship in that century in Palestine,

although there was no definitely deter-
mined and generally recognized Targum, sueii as
existed in Babylonia. The story is told (Yer. Ber.
9c) that Jose b. Abin, an amora of the second half
of the fourth century, reprehended tiiose who read
a Targum to Lev. x.xii. 28 which laid a biased em-
phasis on the view that the command contained in
that verse was based on God's mercy (this sjime para-
phrase is still found in the Palestinian Targum); see
also the statements on tlie erroneous translation of
Ex. xii. 8, Lev. vi. 7, and Deut. xxvi. 4 in Yer. Bik.
65d; as well as Yer. Ivil. viii., end, on Deut. xiv. 5;
and Meg. iii. 10 on Lev. xviii. 21. In addition to the
anecdotes mentioned above, there are earlier indica-
tions that the Targum was committed to writing,
although for private reading onh'. Thus, the Mish-
nah states (Yad. iv. ')) tliat portions of the text of
the Bible were " written as a Targum," these doubt-
less being Biblical passages in an Aramaic transla-
tion: an(l a tanuaitic tradition (Siiab. 115a; Tosef.,
Shab. xiv.; Yer. Sliab. 15c; Massek. Soferim v. 15)
refers to an Aramaic translation of the Book of Job
which existed in written form at the time of Gama-
liel L, and which, after being withdrawn from use,
reappeared in the lifetime of his grandson Gamaliel
II. The Pentateuchal Targum, which was made
the oflicial Targum of the Babylonian schools, was
at all events committed to writing and redacted as
early as the third century, since its ]\Iasnrah dates
from the first half of that century. Two Palestinian
amoraim of the same century urged the individual
members of the congregation to read the Hebrew
text of the weekly parashah twice in private and
the Targum once, exactly as was done in public
worship: Josluia ben Levi recommended this
practise to his .sons (Ber. 8b), while Ammi, a pupil
of Johanan, made it a rule binding on every
one (j'i. 8a). These two dicta were especially in-
strumental in authorizing the custom of reciting
the Targum; and it was considered a religious duty
even in later centuries, when Aramaic, the language
of the Targum, was no longer the vernacular of the
Jews. Owing to the obsolescence of tlie dialect,
however, the strict observance of the custom ceased
in tlie days of the first geonim. About the middle
of the nintii century the gaon Natronai
Disuse. ben Hilai reproached those who de-
clared that they could dispense with
the "Targum of the scholars" because the transla-
tion in their mother tongue (Arabic) was suflicient
for them (see Midler, "Einleitung in die Responsen
der Geonen." p. I'JO).

At the end of the ninth or in the beginning of tlie
tentji century Judah Ibn Kuraisii sent a letter to
the community of Fez, in wliich he reproved the
members for neglecting the Targum, saying that he
was surprised to hear that some of tiiem (li<l not
read tlie Targum to tlie Peiitateucii and the Proph-
ets, although the custfmi of such a perusal had
always been observed in Babylonia, Egypt. .Vfrica,
and Spain, and had never been abrogated, llai

Gaon (d. 1038) was likewise much astonished to
hear that the reading of the Targum had been
entirely abandoned in Spain, a fact which he had
not known before (Midler, I.e. p. 211); and Samuel
ha-Nagid (il. 1056) also sharply criticized the
scholars who openly advocated the omission of the
reading of it, altliougii according to liiiii the Tar-
gum was thus neglected only in the northern prov-
inces of that coinitry (see the responsum in Ber-
liner, "Onkelos," ii. 109). As a matter of fact, luuw-
ever, the custom did entirely cease in Spain; and
only in southern Arabia has it been observed until
the present time (see Jacob Sajiliir, "Eben Sappir,"
i. 58b; Berliner, I.e. p. 172), although the Targum to
the haftarot, together with introductions and poems
in Aramaic, long continued to i)e read in some rituals
(seeZunz, "G. V." pp. 410, 412; iilein, "Literatur-
gesch." pp. 21 et seq. ; idem, "Kitus," pp. 53, CO H
seq., 81; Bacher, in "Monatsschrift," xxii. 220-223).
In the synagogues of Bokhara the Persian Jews
read the Targum, together with the Persian para-
phrase of it, to the haftarah for the last day of I'ass-
over (Isa. x. 32-xii. ; see "Zeit. fur Ilebr. Bibl."
iv. 181).

The Aramaic translations of the Bible which have
survived include all the books excepting Daniel
and Ezra (together with Nehemiah), which, being
written in great part in Aramaic, have no Targuin,
although one may have existed in ancient times.

Targumim to the Pentateuch : 1. Targum
Onkelos or Babylonian Targum : The ollicial Targuin
to the Pentateuch, which sub.sequently gained cur-
rency and general acceptance throughout the Baby-
lonian .schools, and was therefore called the "Bab}--
lonian Targum "(on the tosatistic name "Targum
Babli" see Berliner, /.c. p. 180; " IMordekai " on Git.
ix., end, mentions an old "Targuin Babli" which
was brought from Rome). The title "Targum On-
kelos " is derived from the well-known jiassage in
the Babylonian Talmud (Meg. 3a) which discusses
the origin of the Targumim: " R. Jeremiah [or, ac-
cording to another version, R. Hiyya bar Abba]
said : ' The Targum to the Pentateucli was composed
by the pioseh'te Onkelos at the dictation of R. Elie-
zerand R. Joshua.' " Thisstateinent is undoubtedly
due to error or ignorance on the part of the scholars
of Babylonia, who applied to the Aramaic transla-
tion of the Pentateuch the tradition current in Pal-
estine regarding the Greek version of Aquila. Ac-
cording to Yer. Meg. 71c, "Aijuila the proselyte
translated the Pentateuch in the presence of R. Elie-
zer and R. Joshua, who praised him in the words of
Ps. xiv. 3." h\ this passage, moreover. R. Jeremiah
is described as transmitting the tradition on the au-
thority of R. Hiyya bar Abba. There is no doubt
that these accounts coincide: and the identity
of -|jn Dl^pJIN and ijn D^'PV is also clear, so that
Onkelos and Akjdas (Aquila) are one and the same
person (but see O.nkici.os). In the Babylonian Tal-
mud only the first form of the name occurs; the
second alone is found in, the Palestinian Talmud;
while even the Babylonian Talmud mentions Onke-
los as the author of the Targum only in the passage
cited. The statements referring to Onkelos as the
author of the Aramaic translation of the Pentateuch
originated in the post-Talmudic period, although

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tar^um

tlR'V arc based tiitircly <>u Meg. 3a. The first cita-
tion of a largiiiiiic passage (on Gou. xlv. 27) witli
the direct statement "Onkeh)s has transhiled " oc-
curs in Pirke H. EI. x.xxviii. Tlie gaon Sar Siia-
loni, -writing in (he ninth century, expressed him-
self as follows on the Targuiu Onkelos: "The
Tnrgum of which the sages spoke is the one which
we now have in our hands; no sanctity attaches
to the other Targuniim. We have heard it reported
as the tradition of ancient sages that God wrought
ii great thing [niinvcle] for Onkelos when He per-
nutted liini to compose the Targum." In a similar
fashion Maimouidcs speaks of Oukelos as the beaver
of ancient exegetic traditions and as a thorough
master of Hebrew and Aramaic (see Bacher, "Die
Bibelexegese jMoses ]\[aimunis," pp. 38-42). The
designation "Targum Onkelos" was accordingly es-
tublisheil in the early portion of the geonic period,
and can no longer be elTaced from the terminology
of Jewish learning.

The accepted Targum to the Pentateuch lias a
better claim to the title "Targum Babli " (Babylo-
nian Targum), as has already been exjilained. It is
noteworthy, moreovc^r, that the Jews of Yemen re-
ceived this Targum, like that to the Prophets, with
tile Babylonian jMinctuatiou (see Merx, "Chresto-
matliia Targumica "); and the colophon of a Dc
Rossi codex states that a Targum with Babylonian
punctuation was brought to Europe (Italy) from
Babylon in the twelfth century, a copy with the
Tiberian punctuation being made from

Babylo- it (see Berliner, I.e. ii. 134). In the
nian Babylonian Talmud the accepted Tar-

Influence, gum is called "our Targum," thus
connoting the Targum of Babylonia
or of the Babylonian academies (Kid. 49a, "Targum
didaii," for which Maimonides, in his " Yad," Isliut,
viii. 4, substitutes "Targum Oukelos"). Passages
from the Targum are cited with great frequency in
the Baliyloniau Talmud with the introductory re-
mark "As we translate" (Berliner I.e. p. 112), and
the Babylonian geonim also speak of " our Targum "
as contrasted with the Palestinian Targum (see Hai
Gaon in Ilarkavy, I.e. Nos. \~t, 248).

The Targum Onkelos, uioreover, shows traces of
Babylonian influence in its language, since its vocab-
ulary contains: (1) Aramaic words which occur else-
where in the Babylonian vernacular, e.g., the Hebrew
nxi ("'to see ") is always translated by Ntn, and not
by the Palestinian NDPI. w'hile the Hebrew ^'SD
{"round about") is rendered liy "ilTn ")1Tn and not
by tin D nriD; (2) Aramaic words used to render
Greek words found in the Palestinian Targum:
(3) a few Persian words, including " nahshirkan "
(hunter; Gen. xxv. 27); and "enderun" {ib. xliii.
30) instead of the Greek koituv found in the Pal-
estinian Targum. Those peculiarities, however,
justif}' only the assumption that the final redaction
of the Targum Onkelos Avas made in Babylonia:
for its diction does not resemble in any other re-
spects the Aramaic diction found in the Baby-
lonian Talmud; indeed, as Noldeke has shown
("Mandaische Grammatik," p. xxvii.), "the official
Targum, although redacted in Babylonia, is com-
posed in a dialect fundamentally Palestinian." This
Statement is confirmed by the text of the Targum

(Jnkelos, by the results of historical investigations
of its origin, and by a compari.son of it with tiie
Palestinian Targum. These researciies into its his-
tory show that the Targum wliicii was made the
official one was received by the Baliylonian authori-
ties from Palestine, whence they had taken the Mish-
nail, the Tosefta, and (lie halakic midiashiin on tlie
Pentateuch. The content of the Targum shows,
moreover, that it was composed in Palestine in the
second century ; for both iu its halakic and in its
haggadic portions it may be traced in great part to
the .school of Akiba, and especially to liic; tannaim
of that period (see F. Rosenthal in "Bet Talmud,"
vols, ii.-iii. ; Berliner, I.e. ji. 107). The Targum
Oukelos can not be compared unqualifiedl}' with the
Palestinian Targum, however, since the latter has
been preserved only in a much later form ; moreover
the majorit}^ of those fragments which are earliest
seem to be later than the redaction of the Targum
Onkelos. Yet even in this form the Palestinian Tar-
gum to the Pentateuch furnishes sufiicient evidence
that the two Targumim were originally identical,
as is evident from many verses in which they
agree word for word, such as Lev. vi. 3, 4, G-7, 1), 1 1,
18-20, 22-23. The difference between the two is due
to two facts: (1) the Pentateuchal Targum of tlie
tannaitic period was subjected to a thorough and
systematic revision, which may have taken place in
Palestine, this revi.sion of subject-matter being fol-
lowed by a textual revision to make it conform
with the vernacular of the Babylonian Jews; and
(2) the version of the Targum resulting from this
double revision was accepted and committed to
writing by the Bab3'l()nian academies.

Despite the fact that the Targum was thus re-
duced to a fixed form in Babylonia, the Palestinian
meturgemanim had full license to revise and am-
plify it, so that the final redaction as it now exists
in the .so-called "Targum pseudo-Jonathan" (and
this is true iu even a greater degree of the "Frag-
menten-Targum" mentioned below), though it was
made as late as the seventh century, approximates
the original Targum much more closely both in
diction and iu content, and includes manj' elements
earlier than the Targum bearing tlie
Peculiari- name of Onkelos and belonging in
ties. its final form to the third century.

The Masorah on the Targum Onkelos
is first mentioned in the " Patshegen," a commentary
on this same Targum, Avritten in the thirteenth
century ; it was edited by Berliner (1877), and reedited
in alpiiabetical order Ity Landaiier (" Letterljode."
viii., ix.). This Ma.sorah contains statements con-
cerning the divergencies between the schools of
Sura and Nehardea, exactly as the Talmud (Zeb.
o4a; Sanh. 99b) alludes to controversies between
Rab and Levi over individual words in tiie Targum.
The system followed in the revision of the subject-
matter which resulted in the Targum Onkelos be-
comes clear when the latter is compared with the
Palestinian Targum. The principal object being
to conform the Targum as closely as possible to the
original text both in diction and in content, explana-
tory notes were omitted, and the Hebrew words
were translated according to their etymological
meaning, although the geogmphical names were re-

Targuxn

THE JEWliJlI E^X'YCLOPEDIA

tained in their Hebrew form almost without excep-
tion, and the grammatical structure of the Hebrew
was closL'ly followed. The paraplinistic style of
tniiislation affected by the Targuiinm generally, in
order to obviate all anthioi)omorphisms in reference
to Gi><l, is observed with special care in tiie Targum
Unkelos, which employs paraphrases also in tlie
poetic sections of the Pentateuch and in many other
cases. In some instances the original jiaraphrase is
abbreviated in order that the translation may not
exceed the length of the text too greatly; conse-
quently this Targum occasionally fails to represent
tiie original, as is evident from paraphrases preserved
in their entirety in the Palestinian Targum. as in
the case of Gen. iv. 7. 10; xlix. 8, 22; Ex. xiv. 15;
Num. xxiv. 4; and Deut. xxix. 17. An example
of an abbreviated ]iaraphrase is found also in the
Targum Onkeios to Deut. i. 44, as compared with
the paraplij-ase in Sotah 48b made by a Babylonian
aninra nf tlie tiiinl century.

2. The Palestinian Targum (Targum Yerushalmi) :
A respousum of Hai Gaon, already cited with refer-
ence to the Targiiniim, answers the question con-
cerning the "Targum of the Land of Israel [Pales-
tine] " in the following words: "We do not know
who composed it. nor do we even know this Tar-
gum, of which we have heard only a few passages.
If there is a tradition among them [the Palestinians]
that it has been made the subject of public discourse
since the days of the ancient sages [here follow the
names of Palestinian amoraim of the third and fourth
centuries], it must be held in the same esteem as
our Targum; for otherwise they would not have
allowed it. But if it is less ancient, it is not author-
itative. It is very improbable, however, in our
opinion, that it is of later origin " (comp. ''K. E. J."
xlii. 235). The following statement is quoted (" Kol
Bo," § '61) in the name of R. Meir of Rotheuburg
(13th cent.) with reference tothe Targum : " Strictly
speaking, we should recite the weekly section with
the Targum Yerushalmi, since it explains the He-
brew text in fuller detail than does our Targum ; but
we do not possess it, and we follow, moreover, the
custom of the Babylonians." Both these statements
indicate that the Palestinian Targum was rarely

found in the Middle Ages, althougli it

Supposed was frequently quoted after the elev-

Author- enth century (see Zuuz, "G. V." pp.

ship. GQctserj.), especially in the *' 'Aruk" of

Nathan b. Jehiel, which explains
many words found in it. Another Italian, Mcnahem
b. Solomon, took the term "Yerushalmi" (which
must be interpreted as in the title "Talmud Yeru-
shalmi") literally, and quoted the Palestinian Tar-
gum with the prefatory remark, "The Jerusalemites
translated. " or " The Targu m of the People of the Holy
City." After the fourteenth century .Jonathan b.
Uzziel, author of the Targum to the Prophets, was
believed to have been the author of the Palestinian
Targum to the Pentateuch also, the first to ascrilje
this work to him being Menahcm Recanati in his
commentary on the Pentateuch. This error was
probably due to an incorrect analysis of the abbre-
viation 'n (= "Targum Yerushalmi"), which was
supposed to denote "Targum .Jonathan." The state-
ment in the Zohar (i. 89a, on Gen. xv, 1) that

Onkeios translated the Torah, and Jonathan tiie
3Iikra, does not mean, as Ginsburger thinks
("Pseudo-Jonathan," p. viii.). that according to
the Zohar Jonathan translated the entire Bible,
and thus the Pentateuch; but the word "]\Iikra"
here refers to the Prophets (see "R. E. J." xxii. 4G).
It is possible, however, that the view, first advanced
by Recanati. that Jonathan composed also a Tar-
gum on the Pentateuch, was due to a misinterpreta-
tion of the passage in the Zohar. Azariah dei
Rossi, who lived in the sixteenth century, states
C'Me'or 'Enayim,"' ed. Wilna, p. 127) that he saw
two nianuscriiUs of the Palestinian Taigum which
agreed in every detail, one of which was entitled
"Targum Yerushalmi'' and the other "Targum
Jonathan b. Uzziel." The editio jirinceps of the
complete Palestinian Targum was ]n-inted from the
latter (Venice, 15911, thus giving currency to the
erroneous title.

In addition to the complete Palestinian Targum
(pseudo-Jonathan) there exist fragments of the Pal-
estinian Targum termed "Targum Yerushalmi";
but of these fragments, comprised imder the generic
term "Fragment-Targum," only those were until
recently known which were first published in Bom-
berg's "Bil)lia Rabbinica " in 1518 on the basis of
Codex Vaticanus No. 440. A few j-ears ago, how-
ever, Ginsburger edited under the title "Das Frag-
menteuthargum " (Berlin, 1899) a number of other
fragments from manuscript sources, especiall}' from
Codex Parisiensis No. 110, as well as the quotations
from the Targum Yerushalmi found in ancient au-
thors. This work rendered a large amount of ad-
ditional material available for the criticism of the
Palestinian Targum, even though a considerable ad-
vance had already been maiie by Bassfreund in his
"Fragmenten-Targum zum Pentateuch " (see " Mo-
natsschrift," 189(5, xl.). The general views concern-
ing the Palestinian Targum and its relation to On-
keios have been modified but slightly by these new
publications. Although the relation of the Targum
Yerushalnii to Onkeios hasalready been discussed, it
may be added here that the complete Palestinian Tar-
gum, as it is found in the pseudo-Jonathan, is not
earlier tiian the seventh century ; for it mentions
Ayeshah ( 'A'ishah) (or, according to another reading,
Khadija [Hadijali])and Fatima,the wife and daughter
of Molianinied, as wives of Ishmael, who wasregard-
edasMohammed's ancestor. It originated, moreover,
at a period when the Targum Onkeios was exercising
its intluence on the Occident; for the redactor of the
Palestinian Targum in this form combined many
passages of the two translations as they now exist
in the Targum Yerushalmi and the Targum Onke-
ios (see "Z. D. M. G." xxviii. 69 ct seq.), besides re-
vealing his dependence on the Onkeios in other re-
spects as well. The fragments of the Targura
Yerushalmi are not all contemporaneous; and many
passages contain several versions of the same verses,
while certain sections are designated as additions

(" tosefta "). The text of the majority

Relation to of the fragments is older than the

Onkeios. jiseudo-Jonathan; and these remnants,

which frequently consist of a single
word only or of a portion of a verse, have been fu.sed
according to a principle which can no longer be

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Targ^um

rccoffiiizc'd ; but tliey may liiivc coiisisicd in jiait
of glosses wiiltcn by some copyist on tlic juuiumii
of tlic Oiikcios, iiitluiugli witliout system ami
tlius witliout completeness. Many of these frag-
ments, esix'cially the haggr.dic paraphrases, agree
with the ])seu(l()-.Ionathan, which may, on the
other hand, bo older than some of them. In like
manner, haggadic additions were made in later cen-
turies to the te.\t of the Targum, so that an African
manuscript of the year 1487 alludes to the cajiture
of Constantinople by the Turks in 145;]. Early in
the twelfth century Judah ben Bar/iilai wrot(! as
follows with regard to these additions: "The Pales-
tinian Targum contains haggadic .sayings added by
those who led in prayer and who also read the Tar-
gum, insisting that these sayings be recited in the
synagogue as interpretations of the text of the
Bible." Despite the numerous additions to the
Palestinian 'I'argum, and notwithstanding tlie fact
that the majority of the fragments are of later date
than Onkelos, both pseudo-Jonathan and tlie frag-
ments contain much that has survived from a very
early period; indeed, the nucleus of the Palestinian
Targum is older than the Babylonian, which was
redacted from it.

Targum to the Prophets : 1. The Official Tar-
gum to the Prophets : Like the Targum Onkelos to
the Pentateuch the Targum to the Books of the
Prophets gained general recognition in Babylonia in
the third centurj'; and from the Babylonian acade-
mies it was carried throughout the Diaspora. It
originated, however, in Palestine, and

Targum was then adapted to the vernacular of
Jonathan. Babylonia; so that it contains the same
linguistic peculiarities as the Targum
Onkelos, including sporadic instances of Persian
words (e.<7., "enderun," Judges xv. 1, xvi. 12; Joel
ii. 16; "dastaka" = "dastah," Judges iii. 22). In
cases where the Palestinian and Babylonian texts
differ, this Targum follows the latter ("madinha'e ";
see Pinsker, " Einleitung in die Babyloni.schc Punk-
tuation," p. 124). It originated, like the Targum to
the Pentateuch, in the reading, during the .service,
of a translation from the Projjhets, together with
the weekh' les.son. It is expressly stated in the
Babylonian Talmud that the Targum accepted in
Babylonia was Pulesliniau in origin; and atannaitic
tradition is quoted in the passage already cited from
Megillah (:Ja), which declares that the Targum to the
Prophets was composed by Jonathan b. Uzziei
"from the mouths of Ilaggai, Zcchariah, and ]\Iala-
chi," thus implying that it was ba.sed on traditions
derived from the last prophets. The additional
statements that on this account the entire land of
Israel was shaken and that a voice from heaven
cried: "Who hath revealed mj^ secrets to the chil-
dren of menV" are simply legendary reflections of
the novelty of Jonathan's undertaking, and of tJie
disapprobation which it evoked. The story adds
that Jonathan wished to translate the Ilagiographa
also, but that a heavenly voice bade him, desist.
The Targum to Job, which, as already noted, was
witlidrawn from circulation by Gamaliel I., may
have represented the result of his attempts to trans-
late the Hagiographa (see Bacher, " Ag. Tan." i. 23
et seq.; 2d ed.. pp. 20 et seq.). Jonathan b. Uz-

ziKi, is named as Iliilers most prominent pupil
(comp. Jkw. Encvc. vi. :«){>. K.r. Hii.i.Kl-) ; and the
leferenee to his Targum is at all events of historical
value, so that there i.s nothing to controvert tlie
assumption that it served as the foundation for the
l)resentTargum tothe Prophets. It was thorougldy
revised, however, before it was redacted in Baby-
lonia. In the Bal)yloniaii Talmud it is (pioled with
especial frequency by Jo.seph, iiead of the Academy
of Pumbedita (see ISacher, "Ag. Bab. Amor." p.
103), who says, with reference to two Biblical i)as-
.sages(Isa. viii. GandZech. xii. 11): " If tliere wereiio
Targum to it we should not know the meaning of
these verses" (San h. 94b ;i\I. K. 28b; Meg. 3a). This
shows that as early as the beginning of the fourth
century the Targum to the Prophets was recog-
nized as of ancient authority. Hai Gaon apparently
regarded Jo.seph as its author, since he cited passages
from it with the words " Kab Joseph has trans-
lated" (commentary on Tohorot, quoted in the
" 'Aruk" ; see Kohut, " Aruch Completum," ii. 293a,
308a). As a whole, this Targum resembles that of
Onkelos, although it docs not follow the Hebrew
text so closely, and paraphrases more freelj', in har-
mony with tlie text of the prophetic books. The
Targum to the Prophets is undoubtedly the result
of a single redaction.

2. A Palestinian Targum (Targum Yernshalmi) :
This Targum to the prophetic books of the Bible
is frequently cited by earl}- authors, especially by
Kashi and David Kimhi. The Codex Reuchlinianus,
written in 110r)(ed. Lagarde, "Prophetic Chaldaice,"
1872), contains eighty extracts from

Targum the Targum Yerushalmi, in addition
Yeru- to many variants given in the margin

shalmi. under different designations, many of
them with the note that they were
taken from "another copy " of the Targum. Lin-
guisticall.y they are Palestinian in origin. Most of
the quotations given in the Targum Yerushalmi are
haggadic additions, frequently traceable to the
Babylonian Talmud, so that this Palestinian Targum
to the Prophets belongs to a later period, when the
Babylonian Talnuul had begun to exert an intiuence
upon Palestinian literature. The relation of the
variants of this Targum to the Babylonian Targum
to the Prophets is, on the whole, the .same as that
of the fragments of the Palestinian Targiun to the
Onkelo.s; and they show the changes to wjiich the
targuniic text was sul)jected in the course of centu-
ries, and which are shown also both by the earliest
editions of the Targum to the Prophets and l)y their
relation to the text of the Codex Beuchliniauus.
This question is discussed in detail by Bacher,
" Kriti.sche L'ntcrsuchungen zum Prophetentargum "
("Z. D. M. G."xxviii. l-r)8). Additions ("to.sefta")
to the Targum to the Prophets, similar in most
cases to those in the Targum Yerushalmi, are also
cited, especially by David Kimhi. The chief extant
portion of this Palestinian Targum is the translation
of the haftarot (see Zunz, "G. V." pp. 79. 412).

Targum to the Hagiographa : The Babylo-
nian Targumim to the Pentateuch and that to the
Piophets were the only ones which enjoyed oflicial
recognition ; so that even in Babylonia there was no
authorized Targum to the Hagiographa, since this

Tar gum
Tamopol

THE JEWlJJiI ENCYCLOPEDIA

portion of the Bible furnislied no sidrot for public
worsiup. Tins fact is in«'nti()ne(l in the U-irentl, al-
ready noted, tliat Jonathan hiii I'zziel was forbidileu
to translate the IlaLMOixnipha. Nevertheless, there
are extant Targuniini on the hagiographic books;
tliey are, for the most part, Palestinian in origin,
although the Babylonian Talmud and its language
inlluenceil the Targuniini on the Five Megillot.

1. To the Psalms aud to Job : These Targumim
form a separate group, and. in view of their entire
agreement in dietion, hermeneuties, and use of
the Haggadah, may have a eommon origin. In
no other Targum, excepting the Targum Sheni to
Esther, does a;;.f/of, the Greek -word for "angel,"
occur. In rendering Ps. xviii., the Targum to

Psidms avails itself of the Targum to

A Separate II Sam. xxii., although it docs not

Group. reproduce the linguistic peculiarities

found in the Babylonian recension of
the latter. The Targum to Psalms contains an in-
teresting dramatization of Ps. xci., cxviii, and
cxxxvii., while both in it and in the Targum to Job
the two constant themes are the law of God and its
study, and the future life and its letribulion. In
Ps. cviii. 12 the parallel construction in the two sec-
tions of the verse is interpreted in such a way as to
mention Rome and Constantinople as the two capi-
tals of the Roman empire, thus indicating that the
work was composed Ijeforc the fall of Rome in 476.
The Targum to Job iv. 10 (where ^Jt;> is read instead

of *2:;»l also seems to allude to the division of the

empire; and this hypothesis is confirmed by the
presence of a Greek and a Latin word in the Tar-
gum to Job, which in all cases renders "nagid" or
"nadib" by apx^i' (on this word as an oUlcial title in
the Jewish communities, see Schiirer, "Gesch." ii.
518), and translates "hanef" by "delator," a term
which was applied in the Roman empire to the
vilest class of informers. Characteristic of Ijoth
these Targumim is the fact that they contain more
variants from the Masoretic text in vowel-]ioiiils and
even in consonants than any other Targum, about
fifty of them occurring in the Targum to Psalms, and
abnost as many being ft)und in the Targum to Job,
despite its relative brevity. A number of these
variants occur also in the Septuagint and in the
Peshitta, thus alTording a confirmation of the early
date of composition as.signe(l to the two Targumim.
Both of these contain, moreover, a number of vari-
ants, fifty verses of Job having two, and sometimes
three, translations, of whieh the second is the orig-
inal, while the later reading is put first (for a con-
firmation of the statements in "Monatsschrift," xx.
21H, see Perles, ?■//. vii. 147. and " R. E. J."xxi. 122).
The Targun) to Psalms, like that to Job, isfjuoted
by Nahmanides under the title "Targ\un Yeru-
slialmi " (Zunz. '(i. V." p. 80).

2. To Proverbs : This Targiun differs from all
oilier Juda'O-Aramaic translations of the Bible in
that it shows S^'riac characteristics, and also agrees
in otiier respects with the Peshitta, to which, ac-
cording to Geigcr (" Nachgelassene Schriften," iv.
112). one half of it corresponds word for word.
This Targum contains scarcely any haggadic para-
phrases. It may be assumed either that its author

used or, rather, revised the Peshitta, or, with a
greater degree of probability, that the Targum
to Proverbs was deiived from the same source as
tlje Peshitta of that book, the Syriac version itself
being based on a translation originally intended for
Jews who spoke the Syriac dialect. This Targum
also is quoted in the "'Aruk" and by Nahmanides
as"T:irgiiin Yci'uslialini " (Zunz. l.r.).

3. To the Five Megillot : These Targumim arealike
in so far as all of tiiem are essentially detailetl hag-
gadic paraphrases. This is especially the case in
the Targum to Canticles, in which the book is in-
terpreted as an allegory of the relation between God
and Israel and of the history of Israel. In the
" 'Aruk," the first work to cite these Targumim, the
Targiun to Canticles is once {s.r. x^D^S) called
"Targum Yerushalmi '' ; and Raslii applies the .same
name (Targ. Ycr. to Deut. iii. 4) to the second Tar-
gum on Esther, the so-called "Targum Sheni,"
which may be termed, in view of its length, and
of the fact that it betrays eastern Aramaic intluences
in its diction, an Aramaic midrash on Esther. This
last-named work, which is quoted as early as the Mas-
sek. Soferiiu (xiii. G), has proved extremely popular.
The Book of Esther is the only one of the hagio-
graphic books which has a Targum noticed by the
Halakali, rules for its reading having been formu-
lated as early as the tannaitlc period. The other
" .scrolls," however, were also used to a certain extent
in the liturgy, being read on festivals and on the
Ninth of Ab, which fact explains the discursiveness
of their Targumim.

4. To Chronicles : This Targum follows the Pales-
tinian Targumim both in language and in its hag-
gadic paraphrases, although it shows the influence
of the Babylonian Talmud also. It remained almost
wholly unknown, however, not being cited even
in the "'Aruk," nor included in the first editions
of the Targumim. It was first published in 1680
(and 1683) by M. F. Beck from an Erfurt codex of
13-18; and it was again edited, bj' D. Wilkins in
1715, on tiie basis of a Cambridge manu.script of
1347, this edition containing a later revision of the
targumic text.

Among the apocryphal additions to Esther the
"Halom Mordekai " (Dream of Mordecai) has been
preserved in a Targum which is designated in a
manuscript as an integral portion of the Targum
to the ilagiographa. This passage, divided into

fifty-one verses in Biblical fashion, has

Apocryphal been printed in Lagarde's edition of

Additions the Targumim (" Hagiograjdia Chal-

to Esther, daice," pp. 3o2-36o) and in Merx's

"Chrcslomathia Targumica," pp. ir)4-
164 (see Bacher in "MonatsschrTft," 1869, xviii.
o43 et seq.). On the Targum to the Book of Tobit,
known to Jerome, and preserved in a recension
published by A. Neubauer ("The Book of Tobit,"
Oxford, 1878), see Dalnian, "Grammatik des Ju-
disch-Paliistinensischen Arainiii-sch," ])p. 27-29). It
is probable, moreover, that a complete Aramaic
translation of Ben Sira once existed {ib. p. 29).

The view^ previiilcd at an early time that the
amora Josejih b. Hama, who had the reputation of
being thoroughly versed in the Targumim to the
Prophets, was the author of the Targumim to the

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Targ-um
Tai'nopol

Hugiognipha. In the Musseket Sofeiiin (i.c.)a quo-
tation from tlie Targiim Slicni to Ustli. iii. 1 is in-
troduced b)' tiie words "Tirgein Hal) Yosef " (Rab
.losepli lias translated); and a inaiiuseript of 1238,
in the municipal library of Breslau, appends to the
" Dieam of Mordecai " the statement: "This is the
end of the book of the Targumon the Ilagiographa,
translated by Rab Joseph." The manuscript from
wliich the copyist of the Breslau codex took the
"Dream of Mordecai," together with this colophon,
included therefore all the Targumim to the Ilagi-
ographa, excepting that to Chronicles, the one to
Esther standing last (see "^Monatsschrifl." xviii. 343).
In his conuuentary on Ex. xv. 2 and Lev. xx. 17,
moreover, Samuel ben Meir, writing in the twelfth
century, quoled targ\unic passages on Job and
Proverbs in the name of R. Josei)li. The belief
that Joseph was the translator of the Ilagiographa
was due totiie fac^t thai tin; phrase frequentlj' found
in the Talmud, "as Jtab Joseph has translated,"
was referred to the Targum to the Ilagiographa, al-
though it occurred only in jias-sages from the Proph-
ets and, according to one reading (Sotah 48b), in a
single passage of the Pentateuch. The Palestinian
characteristics of the hagiograi)liic Targumim, and
the fact that the translations of the several books
are differentiated according to the grouping noted
above, prove that the view is historically baseless.
The Tosafot (to Shab. Ii5a, below), since they as-
cribed a tannaitic origin to the Targum to the
Hagiograplia (comp. Tos. to ]\Ieg. 21b), naturally
refused to accept the theory of Jose]ih's authorship.

Bim.HXJUAriiY : Editions— Targum to thePentiiteiioh : Onkelos,
editio princeps, Bologna, 1482; Sabbionetla, irj.")" (reprinted
by Herlinff. Taroum Oukclos, Berlin, 1884); pseudo-Jonathan,
Venice, 1501; Frannient-TargHUh in BihUa lialjliiiiica.
Appendix. //*. l.">18. Targum to the Prophets : editio princeps,
Leiria, 1494; Venice, 1518; Lagarde, Prirplictcc Chahiaice,
Leipsic, 1872. Prictorius has edited Jnxhua and Juilges on
the basis of manuscripts from Yemen with superlinear punctu-
ation (1!KK>, 11101; see Tlieolofiische Literaturzcituiig, x.xv.
164, xxvi. 131); Alfr. Levy. A'o/ieJuf, Breslau, li>()o. Targum
to the Hagiographa: Venice, 1517; Lagarde. HaoiDnnipha
Chahiaice, I.eipsic, 1873. On the editions of the Tartrum to
Chronicles see above. Tanjiim Sheiii. ed. L. Munk, Berlin,
1876. The polyglot and rabbinical Bibles (see Berliner, I.e.
li. 187-IHO), as well as niunerous other editions. The three
Targuiiiiiu to the Pentateuih were translated into English
by J. W. Etheri<lge (London, 18(J2. 1865); and (Jerinan trans-
lations of considerable length are given by Winter and
Wiinsche, Die JihUtfchc. Litteratur, i. 63-7i).

On the I'argum in general : the various introductions to the
Bible; Zunz, ^x. V. pp. 61-83; Z. Frankel, Eitiigcs zn deii
Tariixiniin, in Zritsrhrift fi'ir die, lieligii'isrn Interexsen
(les .Juiieulliimia, ]S46, iii. 110-111; (ieiger, Ursclirift, pp.
162-167; iiUnu. Nncliiielas.teiie Scliriftnuiw 98-116; G. Dal-
man, flirniiinntik <les .Ilidisrh-Paldstiuensiselu'}! Araind-
i.sc/i. pp. ~'l 27 ; Hamburger, R. li. T. ii. 11(!7-1195 ; E. Nestle,
in Bilieltr.it mid BdieJiUiertraijinujen, pp. 1()3-170, Leii)sic,
1897; Hulil, Kaiion uiid Text des Alten TeManicnts, WJ],
pp. 168-184.

On the Targumim to the Pentateuch : Luzzatto, Oheh Ger,
Vienna, 1830 (see Cracow ed. isa")); Levy. Ueher Oiikdns,
etc., in (ieiger's Wi.ss. Zcit. Jlid. Ttieitl. 1844. vol. v.: Fiirst,
in Orient. Lit. 1845; A. Geiger. Dit-f Xiuli Oiikclns Be-
vnniite BaliiiUiiiit:r)ir Tarimni. in his./fhf. Zeit. ix. 85-194;
A. Berliner, Das Targum Uiikelos, ii.. Berlin, 1884 : Anger, Dc
Oiiketo Clialdaivi), Leipsic, 1846 ; M. Friediuunn. (»ikcli»iund
.lAi/Zas, Vienna, 1896; Schdnfelder, (luheliis inul Peschdta,
Munich, 1864; Maybauiii, Die Aiitliritpmnnrjiliieji itnd An-
thriijtDiiattiieii hei (>iil;rh)s, etc., Breslau, 1870; S. Singer,
OidieUis mid ilas Verlidltiii.ss Seiiiex Tariium ziir Halacha,
Frankfort-on-the-Main. 1881; H. Bamsleiii, T/ic Targum nf
Oiikehis to Genesi.<, London, ISiHl; K. Kautzsch. Mitttiei-
iuiiiKU iilur eiue Altc Ifdiidsrlirift dea Tarijum Onkelns,
Halle, 1893; A. Merx, Aiimerkiiiigeii lilier die Vocali.'^a-
tian der l^argume, in Verhniidlungen den FllnftenOricii-
tnlistenrniigrei^ses, ii. 1, 145 188; G. B. Winer, Dc Jntia-
thaiiin ill Priitatenclinm Paraphraxi Chaldaica. Erlangen,
1823: H. Peteimann, De Iiidntr Paraplira.'<eo.^ Quein .Iniia-
thanifi Ksne Dicitiir. Berlin. 18:^1 ; S. Baer. Geist de.-< Veru-
shalmi, in 3Io/(0(,ssc/iri ft, 1851-5;J, 1. 2:3,5-242; Seliirsohn and

Traub, Uelierileii Gci.st der L'rliernetziiiig dcs Janathaii h.
Vaiel zuin Pciitateueh, lb. 18.57, vl. 69 114 ; .Seligsolin. Dc
Duahiis /7iV»o.so(//»;i(((i;<i(.v I'entideuelii Paraiilinmlius,
Breslau, 1K5H; S. (ironeinann, l)ie JititidtiaiCsehe Ptiita^
teueliUliersetzinm in llirem \'erhdlluiaKe zur llalaelia,
Leipsic. 1879; W. Baclier. Velier das Geginseil ige Virlidlt-
iiiss der Puitateueli-iargiimim. in /,. I). M. G.\x'A.xx\M.
59-72; J. Ha.ssfreunil. I his Fragmeidi ii-Taiyiiiit ziim I'en-
tateueli,in Mniiatsseliritt. \x'.H>. xl. 1 M. 49. 67. 97 KKt. 145-
Its;!, 241.2.52. :i5:i :<ii5. :fi»ti-l(»5; M. Neumark. Leriltalixrhe
Uidermelinngeii zur Siiraefic den Jcru.-'ulemisrlieii Penlii-
tcHcli-Taniiim, lieilin, \>.m.

On the Targum to ti.e Prophets: Z. Frankel. Zudcin Tar-
gum iter Pmiiln I, ii. lin'ubni, IK::-. H. S. Lew. 7(i((/i(;ii to
Isaiah i., vdli ('umiiieiitarn, London. 18.8",) ;' (■..riilll. Dan
Targum zuden Proplieteu, I., InStade'sXi i7>r/(;/Y(, vli. 731-
767; idem. £)a.s Bueli des I'mplicten Kziehirl, iKHi. pp. IKk
13<) ; II. Weiss. Die Pcscliitlia zu iJfuleni-Jesaja uiid llir
Verlidltiiiss zum . . . Targum, Halle, istcj; M. Sebiik
(Schonberger), />ic Sijrisrhe I'eliersetzuiig der Zuulf Klei-
neii Priiiilieten tiiid Ihr Vcrli'lUuLsn zttni . . . Targum,
Breslau. 1887.

On the Targum to the Hagiographa : W. Bacher. Das Tar-
gum zu den Psalmen. in ^f(}|latss,■|,rift. 1872. xxi. 4ii8 416.
4()2-673; idem. Das Targum zu Jfiah, ih. 1871, xx. 208-223,
28:1 et .sc/.; S. .Maybaum. Uelier die Sprarltc dcs Targum
zu den Sprlichen uiid Dessen Vcrhdilnimtzum Surer, in
Merx's Arcliir. ii. 66 9:{; T. Niildeke, Das Targum zu den
Sprllclieii, ib. pp. 216-249; H. "iiikusz. Die S!iri--<clie I'elicr-
setzungder Prmrrliieii . . . iUid llir '\'erlidltiii.-'s zum Tar-
gum, in Stade's Zeitselirift, 1894, xiv. 65 III, 161 162; A.
A belesz, Z)iB Sgri-selie Vehersctzung iter Kiagdieder uiid
Ilir Verlidlt Hiss zum Targum, Glessen, 1896; A. Wei.>i.s. De
Lilir i Ji)h Pnrapii7-asi CInddaica, limtiaii, 1873; A. I'osner,
Das Targum Iliselion zu dem Bihli.iclien Buelic Esther,
ib. 1896 ; S. (ielbhaus. Das: 'Targum Slieni zum Buelie K.sthcr,
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1S9:J; .1. lleis. Das Targum Slieui zu
dem Buelie Estlicr. in M<iiials.sehrift, 1876, xxv.; 18><l, xxx.;
P. Cassel, Zi(v?i7c.s- Targum zum Buehe Esther. Lci))slc, iSJSo;
M. Rosenberg and K. Kohler. Das Targum zur ilironik, in
Geiger's JfifL Zcit. 1870. viii. 72-80. ia5-Hk(. 2»>{-278.

Hebrew works on the Targum : the commentaries Patshr-
gen of the thirteenth century, printed in the Wilna edilion of
the Pentateuch. 1874 ; N. Adier, Netinali la-Ger, in the same
edition ; S. B. Scheftcl, Bi'ure Onkelos. ed. I. Perles. Munich,
1888: Abraham ben Elijah of Wilna, Targum Aliraham. .le-
rusalem, 1896. other Hebrew works: Isaiah Berlin. Mine
r«)(/(/)U(. Breslau. 1831; Wilna, is;!6; 11. Chajes. ;;»rc Bi-
iiah, Zolkiev, 1849; B. Berkowitz. 'Oteh Or, Wilna, 1843;
idem. Lehem we-Sindali. ib. 1850; UUm, Hidifnt u-Seiiudot,
ib. 1874; 'idem, Attiic Zijiijoii, ib. 1877; .L Reifmann, Sedeh
Aram, Berlin. 1875; idem, Ma'amar Darke ha-Targumim,
St. Petersburg, 1891.

W. B.
TARNOPOL : Town of eastern Galicia, Aus-
tria; situated on the Sereth. It was founded in 1540
by the Polish hetman Johann Taruowski. Polish
Jews were at once admitted, and soon formed a ma-
jority of the population; during the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries there were 300 Jewish families
in the city. Among the towns destroyed bj'
CiiMiELNicKr during his march of devastation from
Zloczow through Galicia was Tarnopol, the large
Jewish population of whicli carried on an extensive
trade. Shortly afterward, however, when the Cos-
sacks had been subdued by John Casimir II., of
Poland, the town began to prosper anew, and its
Jewish population exceeded all previous ligures.
It may be noted that Hasidism at this time domi-
nated tiie community, which opposed any introduc-
tion of Western culture. During the trotiblous times
in the latter part of the eighteenth century tlie city
was stormed (1770) l)y the adherents of the Confed-
eracy of Bar, who mas.sacred many of its inhab-
itants, especially the Jews.

After the second jiartition of Pohiini, T;iin<iiiol
came under Austrian domination; antl Josepli Pkul
was able to continue ids efforts to improve the con-
dition of the Jews there, which he liad begun under
Russian rule. In 1813 he est.iMished a Jewisli
school v.hich liad for its chief object the instruction
of Jewish youth in German as well as in Hebrew
and various other branches. The controversy be-
tween the Hasidim and the Maskilim wiiich this

Tarnow
Tarsus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

school caused resulted four years later in a victor^'

for the latter, whcreupim tin- institution received

otlicial recognition and was placed lanlor conununal

control. Since 1S63 the school policy has gradually

been modified by Polish infiuences. and very little

attention has been given to instruction in German.

The Tempel fur Geregelten Gottesdienst, opened

by Perl in 1S19. also caused dissensions within the

comnuuiity, and its rabbi. S. J. Hapoport, Avas forced

to withdraw. This dispute also was eventually

settled in favor of the Maskilim. The present (1905)

nibbi of the Tempel is Dr. Taubeles, who ofliciates

also as a tejicher of religion in the local gymnasium.

The Jewish community is still growing, and at

present numbers 14,(100 in a total population of

30.415. The Jews are engaged principally in an

active import and export trade with Russia through

the border city of Podwoloczyska.

BiBLlor.R.tPii V : AUo. Zcit. dcx Jml. ISW. iii. G06 : A. Bresler,
Jitsifli Pi W. Warsiiw, IS79, jxiaaini \ orpt-lbrandt, in Eticu-
kU>i»iljn I'i)H>-Zifhii<u xiv. 4<K); J. H. (Jurliind, Lf-Korot
ln^-Gtztrot. p. ii, Odessa, IfeVJ; Afi'j/cr.s Kunvcrxathinx-
LexikDU.

J. s. o.

TARNOW : Town of Austrian Galicia. An
organized comnuuiity existed there in the middle
of the si.xteenth century. The Jews were, for the
most part, under the jurisdiction of the lords of
Tarnow, the city being tlie liereditary possession of
the latter. In 1637 Lailislaus Dominik granted the
Jews a privilege placing them under the jurisdiction
of the castle, assuring them of protection, and per-
mitting them to engage in commerce on the same
footing as other citizens. In 1654, however, popular
jealous}-, combined with tlie intrigues of the magis-
tracy, secured the abrogation of this privilege; but
■when the town was brought to the verge of ruin
in 1070 by the plague, conflagrations, and attacks
of the Swedes, Alexander Jaiiusz, its overlord, was
forced to restore the luivilege to the Jews in the
interest of the town. This jHivilege was confirmed
by Michael Itadziwill in the same year, by Stanislaus
Koniecepolski in 1676, and by Katarina Radziwill in
16«1 and l(;s4.

In 1070 Janusz sticceeded in effecting the follow-
ing agreement between the Jewish inhabitants and
the magistrate and the gilds: (1) the Jews should pay
80 per cent of all numicipal ta.xes; (2) they should
purchase goods only from the gilds within the
town, except at the annual and weekl}' fairs; (3)
they should surrender to the gilds a certain percent-
age of all goods purchased in the markets for retail
purp.'>ses.

When misfortune on misfortune had reduced Tar-
now to nuns early in the eighteenth centur}', its re-
vival was due to the Jews, who paid, in accordance
with a decree of Paul, Prince Sanguszko, then the
lord of Tarnow, about three-fourths of all the taxes of
the mimiei|)ality (1730), receiving in return certain
commercial privileges. Scarcely had the town been
reestablished by these measures when the citizens,
and even more eagerl}- the Christian gilds, resumed
their attacks upon the Jews and the Jewish gilds,
which had been organized about that time. This
crusjide was headed by the clergj-, who insisted on
Jewish isolation, although they maintained profita-
ble business relations with the sj-nagogue of Tarnow.

In 1765 the community of Tarnow numbered 2.325
persons, but it ceased to exist after the first partition
of Poland (1772).

s. I. So.

TARRAGONA (njl^nc, n^mo) : Capital of
the iiro\in(c ol 'I'arragona. Spain; the aneieiU Tar-
raco. It was called the "City of the Jews" by
Edrisi (ed. Conde, p. C4), and contained a commu-
nity at an early date, as is shown by Jewish coins
discovered in the course of excavations there some
decades ago (IleliTericli, " Der Westgothische Ari-
anisnujs," p. 08, Berlin, 18G0). The Jews' quarter was
in the street now known as Plaza dc las ]\Ionjas de
la Ensenanza; and their cemetery was near the Plaza
del -Milagro. Wlien the Count of Barcelona won
Catalonia froiu the Moors, he granted rights and
privileges to the Jews of Tarragona, whose ghetto
contained ninety-five houses in 1239. They elected
their own ailininistrators, and engaged in commerce,
industiT, and brokerage, their circumstances and
their taxes being similar to those of their coreligion-
ists at Barcelona and other Cataloiuan cities. In
1322 the Archbishop of Tarragona confiscated the
property of the Jews of the city, and in 1348 almost
300 Jews were killed at Tarragona and the neigh-
boring Solsona, while in 1391 the community suf-
fered the same fate as that of Barcelona, many of its
members being slain. Even after this Tarragona
was the residence of a number of Jews, who were
noted for their piety. Isaac Arama officiated for
some time as rabbi there ; and a certain D. Benjamin
was city physician. Two tombstones with Hebrew
inscriptions, dating from the years 1300 and 1302,
have recently been found at Tarragona: one (H
meters wide and 43 centiiueters high) marks the
grave of Hayyim b. Isaac, who died in the month of
Nisan, 1300; and the other commemorates Hananiah
b. Simeon "'ai?nx, i^erhaps Alrabi.

Tarragona must not be confounded with Tara-
zona in Aragon, where the philosopher and apolo-
gist Shem-Tol) ben Isaac ibn Shaprut lived for a
time, and where there was a small but wealthy com-
munity, Avhich paid a poll-tax of 145 "sueldos
jaqueses" in 1282, and one of 200 "sueldos" in the
middle of the fourteenth century.

BmLiorTR.\pnv : Solomon hen .\drpt, Rexpmixa. Nos. .191. 4.")2,
13:H; Isaac tjen Shesliet. AVn/jo/i.svi, Nos. -MO. ii6, 51.5 : Rios,
Hitt. i. :.'4.5 ft ««;.; ii. 14, fflT ; iii. S-'it ; .losepli lia-Kolien.
^Enifk hn-Uaka, p. fi6 (where njirn-^; should he read instead
of njvi^NS ; .see Wiener's (iernian translation, pp. 'ki, 185);
Ii. E. J. .viii. -41; linlftin Aoul. 1! ixt. xUii. 400 c( Kcq.;
Fidel Fita, La Eifvana Hebrea, i. 175.
c;. ^I. ^^■

TARRASCH, SIEGBERT : German physician

and cliess-inaster; born at Breslau ]\larch 5, 1802;
studied medicine at the universities of Berlin, Ilalle,
and Nuremberg, in which last-named city he. en-
gaged in practise as a jdiysician. Tarrasch has been
one of the most succcssfnl of modern chess-players,
as the following list shows. In the tournaments at
jManchester, Dresden, and Lcipsic he lost but a sin-
gle game.

1889. Breslau, first prize.

1890. Manchester, first prize.
1892. Dresden, Orst prize.
18!t4. Leipsic. first prize.

1895. Hastings, fourth prize.

1896. Nureinberp, fourth prize.

1884. Nuremberg, first prize.

1885. Hainhurp. tied for sec-

ond prize.
1887. Frankfort-on-the-Main,
divided fifth and sixth
prizes.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tarnow
Tarsus

18!)S. Vicuna, II rst prize.
V.tir,;. Mdiiif Carli), .sixili i)riz('.
imf. MoriU" Carlo, llrst iirixc.

lito."i. ostciiil, divided scrond
and tliird prizt-s willi
•lanowski.

lu 1893 lie plii3(cl a drawn nialcli with Tcliiij;()iiii,
9 games all, 4 being drawn. In 1005, at Nuremberg,
lie i)lay('d witli Marsiiall a match of eight games
up (draws not eounted) in whieh the Ameriean
jdaycr won only one game.

'i'arrasch is an able writer on ehess; and hi.s anno-
tations of games evince great analytieal power. For
some time lie was joint editor with Gotlschall of the
"Schach/.citung." He has ]ml)lishcd "Dreihundert
8eiiaehpartieen Gesi)iclt uml Krliiutert " (Leii)sie,
1894).

inm.iouKArii V : Mci/crx Ki)nvrrs(itin)i!t-Lc.rikoii ; C. T. Rlau-
slianl, E.ntinplcs of Cliisn MdsUr-I'Utji, 2d series, London,

isy4.

s. A. P.

TARREGA: City of Catalonia. Jews ^vere
among its inhabitants when the counts of Barcelona
took Catalonia from the Moors. They enjoyed cer-
tain jirivileges, whieh were contirmed in 1332 and
later. At the special request of the king the com-
nuiuity was permitted in 1346 to build a new syna-
gogue 80 feet long, 50 feet wide, and GO feet high ;
also a school. On this occasion Pedro Montell,
vicar of the Bishop of Vich, assured the Jews that,
in conformity with canonical law, their cemeteries
should not be desecrated, nor the}' themselves dis-
turbed on their holy days; further that any one
found guilty of acting contrary to this assurance
would be strictly punished. Three years later, on
tiie Ninth of Ab (July 26), the citizens of Tarrega
attacked the Jews, killing more than 300, throwing
their bodies into a pit, and plundering their houses.
The survivors, robbed of all their possessions, fled,
and remained hidden until the danger had passed.

Jlaiiy Jews of Tarrega were killed during the per-
secutions of 1391 ; but a small community continued
to dwell in the town, and it sent delegates to the
funeral services held for King James at Cekveua.
In the civil war of 1462 some Jews of Tarrega and
Cervera were killed and their possessions confiscated.

BiBi.ioc.RAPii V : Uios, Hist. ii. 162 et seq.; Jacobs, Sources, Nos.
1001, 1181); Joseph ha-Kohen. "Emek ha-Baka, p. 66.

J. ■ M. K.

TARSHISH : In the genealogical table of the
Noachithe, Tarshish is given as the second son of
Javanand is followed byKittimaud Dodanim (Gen.
X. 4; I Chron. i. 7). As with all these names, Tar-
shish denotes a country ; in several instances, indeed,
it is mentioned as a maritime country lying in the
remotest region of the earth. Thus, Jonah flees to
Tarshish from the presence of Yiiwii (Jonah i. 3, iv.
2). With Pul, Tubal, and Javan, it is mentioned as
one of the remote places that have not heard of
YnwH (Isa. Ixvi. 19, comj). Ix. 9; Ps. Ixxii. 10; Ezek.
xxxviii. 13). Any large vessel capable of making a
long sea-voyage was styled a "ship of TarshLsh,"
though this did not necessarily mean that the vessel
sailed either to or from Tarshish (Ps. xlviii. 7; I
Kings X. 22, xxii..48; Isa. ii. 16; et al.). It seems
that in jvirallel ])assages referring to Solomon's and
JehoshapluU's ships (I Kings I.e.) the author of
Chronicles did not understand the meaning of "ships
of Tarshish" (II Chron. ix. 21, xx. 36).
XII.— 5

Tarshish appears to have liad a considerable
trade in silver, iron, tin, and leiid (Jer. x. U; Ezek.
wvii. 12). It gave its name, besides, to a i)reciou8
stone which has not yet lieeii satisfactorily idenii-
tied (see Gk.ms). 'I'he Targum of Jonathan renders
the word "Tarshish" in tiic |>rophetieal books by
".sea," whicii rendering is folio we<l by Saadia.
Moreover, the term "ships of Tarshisli " is rendered
liy Jewish scholars "sea-s]iii)s" (conip. LXX., Isa.
ii. 16, nAtj'iaOn'/noar/c). Jerome, too, renders "Tar-
shish" by "sea" in many instances; an<l in his com-
mentary on Isaiah {l.r.) he declares tliat he had been
told by his Jewish teachers that the Hebrew word
for "sea" was "tarshish." In Isa. xxiii, 1 tjie Sep-
tiiagint, and in Ezek. xxvii. 12 liotii the Septuagiiit
and the Vulgate, render "Tarshish " by "Carthage,"
apparently suggested by Jewish tradition. Indeed,
the Targum of Jonathan renders "Tarshish" in I
Kings xxii. 48 and Jer. x. 9 by "Afiiki," that is,
Carthage.

Josephus ("Ant." i. 6, g 1), apparently reading
"Tarshush," identifies it witli T.vusus in Cilicia.
This identification was adopted by Bunsen and Sayce
("Expository Times," 1902, p. 179); but it seems
from Assyrian inscriptions that the original Hebrew
name of Tarsus was not "Tarshush." Bochart (in
his "Phaleg''), followed b}' many later scholars,
identities Tarshish with Tartessus, mentioned by
Herodotus and Sirabo as a district of southern
Spain; he thinks, moreover, that "Tartessus" is
the Aramaic form of "Tarshish." On the other
hand, Le Page Renouf (" Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch."
xvi. 104 ct .v^Yy.) refutes this theory, declaring besides
that Tartessus never really existed. Kenouf's opin-
ion is that "Tarshish" means a coast, and, as the
word occurs frequently in connection with Tyre,
the Phenician coast is to be understood. Cheyne
(in "OrientalischeLitteraturzeitung,"iii. 151) thinks
that "Tarshish" of Gen. x. 4, and "Tiras" of Gen.
X. 2, are really two names of one nation derived
from two different sources, and might indicate the
Tyrsenians or Etruscans. Thus the name may de-
note Italy or the European coasts west of Greece.

s. M. Sel.

TARSUS : Turkish town in the vilayet of
Adana, 12 miles from the ^Mediterranean, on the
River Cydnus. During the Roman period it was
the capital of Cilicia. It was important on account
of its commerce and its textile jiroducts, and was
famed for its schools of rhetoric. In Tarsus, as in
Cilicia generally, the original population was Sem-
itic, a fact reflected in the tradition that the city
was a Phenician colony (Dio Ciirysostom, " Ora-
tiones," xxxiii. 40), while on Piienician coins it was
often called " Taraz " (nn'i. Josephus (" Ant." i. 6,
§ 1), in agreement with rabbinical literature (Gen.
\l. xxxvii. 1; Yer. Meg. 71b; Targ. Yer. to Gen. x.
4), identified the city withT.XHsnisii (Gen. x. 4). and
accordingly believed it was to Tarsus tiiat Jonah
wished to flee ("Ant." ix. 10. § 2). A monument
to Jonah was discovered in Tarsus in 1876; but it
doubtless dales from the Christian period.

The Hellenization of the city began in the days of
Alexander the Great; this influence was fully felt
by the Jews, who had been colonized at Tarsus by

Tartak
Taussig

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the Sek'ucids about 170 B.C. During the idgn of Aii-
tioclius Epiphants a revolt of these eolouists proved
a faetor in Jewish iiistory (II JIaec. iv. 30-38).
Nothing further is linown regarding tlie Jews of
tliis city, although it later became famous as the
birthplace of S.WL ok T.\usi"s, wlio lived there lor
a time (Acts ix. 11, xi. 25. xxi. 39, xxii. 3) and
claimed Homau citizenship in virtue thereof. Ham-
sjiy, followed by Schurer, has proved (.see Hastings,
"Diet. Bible," ii. 105, s.v. " Diaspcn-a") that a Jew
could not have been a citizen in a Greek town unless
the sovereign had orilered tiiat the Jews of the city
iu question form a separate gens, an event which
must have happened iu Tarsus, probably, as Ram-
say thinks, at tiie instance of Antiochus Epipliaues
("E.xpository Times," xvi. 18 et seq.).

The city of Tarsus is frequently mentioned by
the Kabbis. Tliere R. Jose ben Jasian boarded
a ves.sel (Eccl. R. vii. 11), and R. Naiium ben Si-
niai lectured (Pesik. R. 15 [ed. P'riedmann, p.
78a]). The Rabbis allude to the inhabitants and the
language of Tarsus in connection with IJigthan and
Teresh(Esth. ii. 21), although the exiict meaning of
this pas-sage is not clear. The presence of Jews in
Tarsus is further evidenced by inscriptions: one in
Rome names a certain Asaphafc of Tarsus (Levy, in
"Jaiirbuch fiir die Gesch. der Juden," ii. 287), and
an epitaph found at Jaffa was inscribed to the mem-
ory of one Judah ben Jo.seph of the same city
(Schllrer, "Gesch." 3d ed., iii. 17). Mention is like-
wise made of one Isaac, elder of the synagogue of
the Cappadocians at Tarsus, who was a dealer in
linen ("Pal. Explor. Fund, Quarterly Statement,"
No. 110, p. 18), proving not only the existence of a
Jewish community at Tarsus but also Jewish partici-
paticm in mercantile pursuits. In the Middle Ages the
town came under the dominion of the Isaurians and
other barbarians, later falling into the hands of the
Arabs and Turks, who deprived it of its importance.
Its present (1905) permanent population is about
7,000.

Bibuography: Ritter, Erdkumle, ii. 197-220; Winer, if. /?.;
B(»ettffer. Lciican zu Flaviiis JosfpliUK ; S. Krauss, in Mo-
)i<M><«chrif(, xxxix. 53; Hastings, Diet. Bible.

J. S. Kk.

TARTAK : Deity mentioned but once in the
BiljJe (H Kings xvii. 31). His name occurs together
with that of Niijuaz or Nibhan, who was a divinity
of the Avites, a trilx' colonized bj' Sai'gon on Israel-
itish soil. In the Babylonian Talmud (Sanh. 63a;
comp. Yalkut Shiin'oni. 234) R. Judah, transmit-
ting a saying in the name of Abba Arika, states that
Tartak was worshiped in the form of an ass. All
attempts to identify this god have thus far proved
unsuccessful. Nosimilar divinity is found among
the Babylonians or Assyrians; and an Egyptian
parallel exists only in so far as the ass was sacred to
the god Typhon and was sacriticed to him.

y- c. S. O.

TARTAN (A.ssyrian, "tartanu," "turtanu"):
Title of an Assyrian official ; twice mentioned in the
Bible. A tartan, accompanied by a "rabsaris" and
a "rab-shakeh," was sent to Jerusalem by Sennache-
rib to command Hezekiah to surrender the city (II
Kings xviii. 17); and another is mentioned as Sar-

gon's envoy to Ashdod in the year of a piophecy of
Isaiah (Is;i. xx. 1). The title was borne only by the
two generals next to the king; thus there were a
"tartanu rabu" (great tartan) and a "tartanu
shaiiu" (second tartan). It is no longer possible to
identify the tartans mentioned in the Bible, although
the names of three of these oflicials are known:
Ashur-isku(?)-udannim in 720 (the lirst year of
Sargon's reign), Ihi-ittea in G94 (the begimiing of
the reign of Sennacherib), and Bel-emuranni in 086.

BiULiOGRA PHY : De!it2scli, AssyriolouiiichesHaiulivOrtcrbudi.
s. S. O.

TARTAS, DAVID. See Castiio T.\i{t.\s.

DaVI1> 15. AlJUAHAM.

TARTAS, ISAAC DE CASTRO. See Cas-

xno Takias, Isaac.

TARYAG MIZWOT. See Co.m.mandments,
The 613.

TASHLIK : Propitiatory rite, the name of wliieh
is derived from the passage (Micah vii. 18-20) re-
cited at the ceremony. In illustration of the sen-
tence " Thou wilt cast all their sins into the depths
of the sea," it is customary to congregate near a
running stream on the afternoon of New-Year's
Day, Avhen Micah vii. 18-20 is recited and penitential
prayers are offered. The prayers and hymns used
are given iu Emden's Siddur ("Bet Ya'akob," ii.
54b, 55a, Warsaw, 1881).

When and where the custom was first introduced
is problematical. Kalmau Scluilman (in " Ha-
Meliz," 1868, viii., No. 14) is of the opinion that it
is referred to in Joscpluis (" Ant." xiv. 10, §23). in
the decree of thellalicaniassians permitting Jews to
"perform their holy rites according to the Jewish
laws and to have their places of piaA'er by the sea,
according to thecustonisof their forefathers." The
Zohar, perhaps, refers to the custom when it says
that "whatever falls into the deep is lost forever;
... it acts like the scapegoat for the ablution of
.sins" (Zohar, Leviticus, p. 101a, b). But the fact
that the Talmud, the geonic literature, and Iheearly
casuistic authorities arc silent on this custom gives
the impression that it originated not earlier than the
fourteenth centurj', with the German Jews. Th;'
first direct reference to it is by R. Jacob Molln (d
1425) in "Sefer Mahai'il" (p. 38a, Warsaw, 1874),
where, by the midrashic haggadah of the "Sefer ha-
Yashar," he explains the minhag as a reminder of
the "'Akedah" incident; i.e., Satan, by throwing
himself across Abi'aham's path in the form of a deep
stream, endeavored to jirevent him from sacrificing
Isaac on Mount Moriah ; Abraham and Isaac never-
theless plunged into the river up to their necks and
prayed for divine aid, whereupon the river disap-
peared (comp. Tan., Wayera, 22). M(5lln, however,
forbids the practise of throwing pieces of bread to
the fish in the river during the ceix'inony, especially
on the Sabbath, being opposed to carrying the bread
without an 'Euuu. This shows that in his time
tashlik was duly performed, even when the first
day of New- Year fell on the Sabbath, though iu
later times the ceremony was on such occasions de-
ferred till the second day. The significance of the
fish is thus explained by R. Isaiah Horowitz

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tartak
Taussig

("SliC'lali," p. 214b); (1) llicy illustrate man's pli,i;lit,
aiul also arouse him lo icpculaiu'c: "As tlio lislics
lliat are taken in an evil net" (Ecel. i.\. 12); (2) as
fishes have no eyebrows and their eyes are always
wide open, Ihey symbolize tlie guardian of Israel,
who sluniberetli not. Moses Isserles gives this ex-
planation : "'I'lie deeps of the sea saw the genesis of
Creuliou; Iherei'ore to throw bread into the sea on
New-Year's Da}', the anniversary of Creation, is an
apjjropriate tribute to the Creator" (''Torat ha-
•Olah," iii. oG).

The cabalistic practise of shaking the ends of
one's garniciils at the eeremoii}', as though casting
oir the "kelippol" (lit. "shells"; i.e., the clinging
demons of sin), has caused many avIio are not caba-
lists to denounce the whole custom, as it created the
impri'ssion among the common ])eople that by liter-
ally throwing their sins into the river to be swept
away by the streuni, llicy might escape them with-
out rejienting and making amends. Tlie Maskilim
in particular have ridiculed the custom and charac-
terized it as heathenish. The; best satire on this
subject is b}^ Lsaac Erter, in his " Ila-Zofeh le-Bet
Yisrael" (pp. 64-80, Vienna, 1864), in which Samael
watches the sins of the hypocrites dropping into tlie
liver. Tlie Orthodox Jews of New York perform
the ceremou)^ in large numbers from the Brooklyn
and ilanhattan bridges.

BinMocRAPHY: SHinlhan "Arnk, Orah IJainiim, 583, 3, Is-
scrk's' note; Baer's'siddiir, '.I/kk^i/ i'i.^iidnt, p. 407; Moses
Briick. Udhhini.fche CfronoiiialiieJjrduclir, § 4, Breslau,
18;J7; I. Abratiams, in Jew. Chron. Sept. 37, 1889.
s. J. D. E.

TATNAI (K. Y. Tattenai) : Governor of Ccele-
Syria under Darius Hystaspes (Ezra v. 3). He was
one of those who tried to prevent Zerubbabel and
Jeshua from continuing the building of the Temple,
and Avho sent to Darius asking that search be made
in the royal archives to ascertain whether there was
any foundation for the claim put forward by the
Jews that Cyrus liad given them permission to re-
build the sanctuary.

According to Eduard Meyer ("Entstehung des Ju-
denthums," p. 32, Halle, 1896; comp. also Justi,
"Irani.sches Namenbuch"), the Old Persian name
was probably " Thithinaya " or " Thathanaia. " Both
the Septuagint and Josephus ("Ant." xi. 4, §§ 5, 6,
7) transcribe the name by Itahr/^.

s. S. O.

TAUBE, DIE. See Peuiodic.\ls.

TAUBER-BISCHOFSHEIM. See BiscnoFS-

iieim-on-thk-Taubeu.

TAUBES, AARON MOSES B. JACOB:

Rumanian rabbi and author; born in Lemberg 1787;
(lied in Jassy 1852. He became rabbi of Sniatyn
and its districts in 1820, and in 1841 was appointed
rabbi of Jassy, where he remained until his death.
His works are: (1) "To'afot Re'em," responsa on
the four parts of the Shulhan 'Aruk. Among these
are some written to his sou K. Samuel and some to
his grandson R. Shalom Taubes (Zolkiev, 1855). (2)
"Karne Re'em," novellaa on the Talmud, mentioned
in " She'elat Shalom," No. 254. (3) NovelUe on Alfasi
(according to Walden in his "Shem ha-Gedolim
be-Hadash," Let. A, No. 129), which remained in

manuscript. He corresponded on halakic sidijecls
with Raiiiii Solomon Kluger and with Rabbi Jacob
Ornstein, author of " Yeshu'ot Ya'akob."

BiHi.ioHK.U'iiv: Buber, ^iii.sUc Slicni, p. 37.

I • '• N. T. L.

TAURIDA, RUSSIA. See Cki.mk.v.

TAUSIG, CARL: Polish pianist and compo.ser.
born at Warsaw Nov. 4, 1841 ; died at Leipsic July
17, 1871. He received his early musical ecbuation
from his father, Aloys T. Tau.sig (1820-85). who was
a pupil of Thalberg and a composer of brilliant
pianoforte music. When Carl was fourteen years
of age his father took him lo Weimar to study under
Liszt, whose favorite pupil he soon became, in
1858 he made his debut in public at an orchestral
concert conducted by Biilow at Berlin; and during
the following two years he gave concerts in various
(Jernian cities. After a sojourn at Dresden he went
to Vienna (1862), where, however, liis clas.sical pro-
grams and his artistic views failed to find accept-
ance. He married in 1865 and settled in Berlin,
where he opened a Schule des Hoheren Klavier-
spiels, and occasionally gave pianoforte recitals.
Shortly before his death he made several concert
tours through Germany and Russia, and was every-
where received with enthusiasm.

Carl Tausig ranks with Liszt and Rubinstein as
one of the three greatest pianists of the nineteenth
century. He was one of the stanchest champions
of the "music of the future," and a close personal
friend of Ricliard Wagner. It was he who formu-
lated a plan for raising 300,000 thaler for building
the Bayreuth Theater, and who " with his excep-
tional endowment and splendid energy seemed to
regard theexecution of this plan as liis own particu-
lar task" (Richard Wagner, " Gesamnielte Schrifteu."
ix. 385). An epitaph compo.sed b}'- Wagner {I.e.
p. 380) was inscribed on Tausig's tombstone.

Of Tausig's original compositions and numerous
arrangements of classical works the following may be
mentioned: "Deux Etudes de Concert," replacing
an earlier pianoforte transcription of his symphonic
ballad " Das Geisterschiff " ; " Ungarische Zigeuner-
weisen," a composition for pianoforte; "Nouvelles
Soirees de Vienne"; "Tiigliche Studieu," finger ex-
ercises of high value; a selection of studies from
dementi's " Gradus ad Parnassum " ; a transcription
of Bach's "Toccata und Fuge fiir die Orgel in J)
moll"; and adaptations of Weber's "Aufforderung
zum Tanz,"of six Beethoven (juartets, and of Wag-
ner's "Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg. "

BiBUOORAPHY: Musiknlischcs Wochcnhlatt. il. 488-490, Leip-
sic, 1871; Grove, Dicti(»inru of .V».«ic ami .Vi/.«iciVth.><:
Ricliard Wapner. (ii,-<iimmeltf .s'r/inOt'ti, Ix. ;{8.'>, :iMi ; Bakor,
Biogi-nphical Dictiomiru >>f Music; K.ihiit. 7ii ilihmlc Is-
raelitischc MUiiner und Fraiteii.
s. J. So.

TAUSSIG, EDWARD DAVID : American

naval officer; born at St. Louis. Mo.. Nov. 20, 1847.
Educated at the public schools of his native city,
he entered the United States Naval Academy at An-
napolis in 1863, graduating in 1867, since which date
he has been in active service. In 1868 lie wa.s ap-
pointed ensign; 1870, master; 1872, lieutenant;
1892. lieutenant-commander; and 1902, captain. He
served on the Pacific and European stations and in

Tau"witz
Taxation

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the coast-survey until 1898. wheu lie wus iiiailc com
mauder of the "Bcuuingtou." lie took possession
of Wake Island fertile United States, and was placed
in charge of Guam when that island was ceded by
Spain on Feb. 1, 1899. During the following year
he served in the Philippines, and during the early
part of 1900 in China, assuming command of the
'•Yorktown" in June of the latter year. From
Nov., 1901. to May. 1902, he served in the uavy-
yard at Washington, D. C, and at Boston, and
was then appointed commander of the "Enterprise."
Since the beginning of 1903 he has been commander
of the navy-yard at Pensjieola, Fla.

Although of Jewish descent, Taussig was brought
up in the Unitarian Church.

Bibliography: fMio's ^Vhn in America, 1905.

A. F. T. II.

TAUWITZ, EDUARD : German composer;
born Jan. 21, 1812, at Glatz; died July 26, 1894,
at Prague. While studying law at the University
of Breslau he devoted liiinself to music under the
direction of Wolf and 3Iosovius. At the same time
ho took charge of the Akademische Gesangvcrein.
Having decided not to follow a juridical career, he
left Breslau in 1837 to accept a call to Wilna as di-
rector of the orchestra of the theater there. In 1840
he went in the same capacity to liiga, but in 1848
returned to Breslau. and two years later accepted a
similar position in Prague, where he al.so taught
music. On the death of Leopold Zwonar he suc-
ceeded liini as the director of the Sophicnakadeniie.

Tauwit/ was a very prolific composer of songs;
he wrote in addition two operettas, "Schmolke und
Bakel" and "Bramante." Of his songs the follow-
ing are worthy of special mention: "Zwolf Sok'aten-
lieder fur Vier-und Fiinfstimmigen Miinnergesang "
and "Zwciundzwanzig Banner- und Schwertlieder
flir Vierslimmigeu Miinnergesang."

BiBMOORAPHY: Wurzbarh. BiofjrfljjJ/i.sTJifs Lrrikon: Freni-
ileulilntt (Vlennn). lima. No. 72; Luiiiir, Belletrvitickii Ty-
dcHHiVf. 1851, p. 6:i3.

TAW (n) : The twenty-second letter of the He-
brew alphabet. Its name is connected with "taw "
= "sign " (see Alpii.^bkt). "Taw " has a twofold
pronunciation: (1) asoft, lisping sound uttered with
a gentle expiration, like the Greek "theta" and the
English "th" in "thin," and (2) a hard, attenuated
sound without expiration, like the English "t"; the
latter pronunciation is indicated by a "dagesh lene "
in the letter. In tiio cla.ssification of letters (con-
sonants) as it is found for the first time in "Sefer
Yezirah " (iv. 3), the "taw " is included in the group
of linguals nj?t3T, which are formed at the upper
edge of the tongue. According to modern phonetic
terminology, "taw" i.s a surd mute dental, corre-
sponding to which is tiie sonant dental "d." "Taw "
sometimes interchanges with the lingual "tet" ai.id
the dental "shin." It occurs both as a radical and
as a formative element. Asa numeral "taw" has
(in the later period) the value 400.

T. I. Bu.

TAWTJS, JACOB B. JOSEPH : Persian trans-
lator of tiieBiljle; tlouri.slicd in the sixteenth cen-
tury. The polyglot Pentateuch printed at Constan-
tinople in 1546 included a Persian translation in

Hebrew characters, in addition to the Targinn of
Onkelos and the Arabic reniiering by Saailiu Gaon.
In liis preface the editor of the polyglot referied to
tiiis version as "a Persian translation which a wise
and learned man, H. Jacob b. Joseph Tawus,
has made for us"; this is followed by a statement
indicating that the translator or the translation had
been brought to Constantinoi)le by Closes Ilamon,
the phy.sician of Sulaiman I. Of the two interpre-
tations, the view which makes the word "Iiebi'o"
refer to the translator, thus implying that Jacob
Tawus went to Constantinople at the request of
Moses Ilamon, is probably correct, as the editor ex-
pressly says "us"; the version accordingly .seems to
have been made by Tawus at Constantinople sjiecif-
ically for this polygot. Except for these data, noth-
ing is known concerning the translator, who.se name
denotes " peacock." About 1570, however, a certain
Jacob ben Issachar Tawus is described in a respon-
sum of K. Moses Alshcch (Xo. 103) as a thorough
Talmudist. According to Zunz (in Geiger's " Wiss.
Zeit. Jiid. Theol." iv. 391), this Jacob ben Issachar
was a nephew of the translator, a view which is far
more plausible than that of Kohut, who seeks to
identify him with the translator himself by sub-
stituting tlM3 name Issachar for Jo-sejih (" Kritische
Beleuchtung," etc., p. 10). When Moses Ilamon ac-
companied Sulaiman on his first Persian campaign
(1534-35), he may have induced the scholarly Persian
Jew to return with him to Constantinople (see GrStz,
"Gesch." ix. 34). Jacob Tawus based his work on
the old traditions of the Ju(la'o-Per.sian Bible trans-
lations (see Jew. Excvc. vii. 317), although he was
influenced in many passages by the Targum of
Onkelos and Saadia's Arabic version, as well as by
the commentaries of Kashi ami Ibn Ezra. His ver-
sion, transcribed in Persian characters, was reprinted
in 1657 in the fourth volume of the London Poly-
glot, with a Latin translation by Thomas Hyde; but
it remained almost unnoticecl initil 3Iuuk recog-
nized its true character, and determined its date in
his " Notice sur K. Saatlia Gaon " (Paris, 1838). The
work is apparently known to a certain extent among
the Jews of Persia, inasmuch as Simeon Hakam,
the latest Ju(l;eo-Persian translator of the Penta-
teuch, states in the preface to his "Mikra Meforash "
(Jerusalem, 1901, vol. i.) that he remembered seeing
as a j'outh a copy of the Constantinople Polyglot of
the Pentateuch in his native place, Bokhara, although
he became acquainted with the translation by Tawus
onlv when he found it in the London Polyglot at
Jerusalem.

Bibliography: Kohut. Kvitixche lieleuchtung der Persisrhen
Pentateuch-Ufhi:rsetzutnnl€!<Jac<th h. Juseph Tdwrn'. I^ip-
.slo, 1871 ; A. GeiRer's review of the same in JWI. Zeit. x.
103-113.

W. B.

TAWWAH, ABRAHAM BEN JACOB

IBN : Algerian Tahiiudist; tlourished at Algiers in
the sixteenth century. On his mother's side he was
a grandson of Solomon b. Simeon Duran, and there-
fore a descendant of Nahmaiiides and a great grand-
son of Simeon b. Zemah Duranl., toallof whomashis
ancestors he refers fretjuently in his respon.sa. Taw-
wah was the contemporary of Solomon b. Zemah
Duran and of his brother Simeon b. Zemah Duran
II., the hitter's son Zemah having been Tawwah's

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tau'witz
Taxation

|iiipil. Of Tawwah's rcsponsa tliirty-live were in-
stiled in I 111' foiiitli iiuit, of Siiiicoii 1). Zciiiah Diiran's
icsiionsii <iititl((l '■ Hut iui-.Mcsluillasli " ; otlicrs arc
quoted in jiait and also copied by various autiioii-
ties. Judali 'Ayyash (juofes a j)art of Tawwalis
responsa, entitled " NofeU," in his "Bet Yeliudali "
(p. 113a) and his "iMatteh Yeluidah " (p. 2()b), and
Solomon Zeror, in Ids " PeriZaddik," No. 10, quotes
that pait of his rcsponsa entitled "Sappir." It
may lie eonehuled that Abraham ibn Tawwah di-
vided his resjionsa into twelve parts, railing them
after the precious .stones in the high priest's breast-
l)late.

BiBi.KxiUAPnv : Fnenn, Kcncsct YtarmU p. 3.5 ; Michael, Or
lt(i-H(iiliiitii, No. ItX).
K. c. M. Skl.

TAX-GATHERERS (pODID) : During the
Egyptian government of I'alestine the taxes of each
cil\' Aveie annually leased to the lughest bidder
(Josephu.s, "Ant." xii. 4, i^ 3). The lessee paid into
the royal treasury a fixed annual sum; and whatever
the revenue yielded in excess was his gain, wliereas
if the sum was not realized he had to bear the loss.
Under Ptolemy IV. , Philopator, all the royal revenues
from C(ele-Syria, Pheincia, anci Judea were leased
by Jo.seph ben Tobiah, nephew of the high priest
Onias II. He held the office of tax-collector for
twenty-two years, and Avas succeeded by his son
Ilyrcanus. How exacting the tax-collectors must
have been maybe judged from the factthatin spite
of the increase of the annual rental from 8,000 to

16,000 talents, Joscpii and Ilyrcanus
In Pales- were still able to accumulate immense
tine Under riches. The former, according to Jose-
Egyptian phus {ib. % 4), beheaded twenty dis-
Rule. tinguished citizens of Ascalon and

Scythopolis for refusing to pay their
taxes, and then confiscated their possessions. How-
ever, both father and son showed great leniency to-
ward their coreligionists; and their accumulated
we:dth raised the material condition of Judea.

Under the government of Palestine by the Syrian
kings all the taxes were collected by state officials.
The Romans left to the governors or procurators
the collection of the regular taxes, such as the land-
tax and poll-tax, but leased the customs duties, the
market tolls, and similar special imposts. The lessees
were generally Roman knights; but there were;
among them Jews also. Mention is made of a Jew-
ish tax-gatherer named John, who headed a deputa-
tion sent to Florus by the inhabitants of Caesarea
(Josephus, "B. J." ii. 14, § 5). The fact that tiiey
were helping t he Romans in the exaction of the heavy
taxes imposed upon the Jews, combined with the
rapacity of some tax-collectors who, taking advan-
tage of the indetiniteness of the tariffs, overcharged
the taxpayer, rendered this class of officials hateful
to the people. Hence tlie stringent Jewish legisla-
tion which classified the tax-collectors with robbers.
TJnis, for instance, it was forbidden to take payment

in coin from the treasury of the tax-
In the gatherer or to receive alms from it,
Talmud, because the money liad been gained by

robbery (B. K. x. 1 ; " Yad," Gezelah,
§ 5; Shulhan 'Aruk, Hoslien Mishpat, 370, 389).
The tax-gatherer was ineligible to serve as judge or

even as a witness (Sanh. anb). If one member of a
family was a tax-gatherer, all its mendters were
liable to be considered as such for the purpo.^es of
testimony, because they would be likely to shield him
(Sheb. 3f)a).

During the Middle Ages the position of tax-col-
lector was often filled by Jews. Mention is made of
Jewish tax-collectors in France as early as the si.xth
century (Gregory of Tours. "Hisloria Francorum,"
vii. 23). In 587 the Council of Macon issued among
other ])rohil)itions one against farnn'ng (he taxes to
Jew.s. That this iJiohibition was disregarded is seen
from the fact that the Council of Meaux (849) deemed
it necessary to renew it. The collection of Jewish
taxes was always entrusted to Jews; during tlie
reign of Charles V. (1364-80) ]\Ienassier of Vesoul
was receiver-general of the Jewish taxes for the
north of France, and Denis Quinan for Languedoc.
The kings likewise often entrusted to Jews the
position of receiver-general of taxes. Among the
renowned receivers mention may be
In made of Joseph Pichon, Jo.seph of

the Middle Ecija, and Samuel ibn Wakar, all of
Ages. whom paid with their lives for the
riches they had accumidated in office.
Until the regency of John I. of Castile (138.'j) Jews
held the jjosition of tax-receivers in Portugal also.

In Germany the Jews were very early excluded
from all public ofiices; and it can not be ascertained
whether they ever filled there the position of tax-
receiver. It seems, however, that such Jewish ofli-
cials existed in Austria in the thirteenth century ; for
in a document dated 1257 two Jews are mentioned
as the king's financiers. In Hungary the Jews were
excluded from the office in 1279 by the Council of
Buda. The higher Polish nobilitj', however, de-
pended largely on the Jews for tax-collectors;
until lately the Russian government also made use of
Jewish tax-gatherers ("sborschiki") for the collec-
tion of taxes from the Jews; and it still leases to
the highest bidder the special Jewish taxes, such as
that on kasher-meat(" korobka "), and on the candles
used for Sabbath atid for other religious purposes.
Until the middle of the seventeenth century the cus-
toms duties were generally leased by the Turkish
government to Jews. According to Mana.s.s( h lien
Israel (1656), "the viceroy of Egypt has always at
his side a Jew who bears the title ' sarraf l)ashi,' or
' treasurer,' and who gathers the taxes of the land.
At present Abraham Alkwla holds the position."
Alkula was succeeded by Raphael Josepli Halabi,
the rich friend and protector of Shabbctliai Zebi
(Griltz, "Gesch." x. 34). Sec Pvblican.

Bibi.iograpiiy: For the tax-jrntherers in Juden : WflnM'lie,
Neue licitn'lae zar Erlilulcrniin <lcr thniHicUrn. ISTH,
p. 71 ; HiiiiibiirKtT. li. Ii. T. ii.. .s.v. ZaU : Scliilrer. ^;<>t/.. i.
i~S et seq.; Herzfeld, Ildtuhhiin^iliirhte (hr Jiiilm, pp.
161 ct seq.
J. I. Bh.

TAXATION.— Biblical Data: The Bible gives
scant information concerning the secular or political
taxes of the Jews. Practically all that can be gnlli-
ered is the following: Just as Abraliam (Gen. xiv.
20) voluntarily gave a tentli "of all " (/.«., according
to the context, of the whole spoil taken in war), so
the Israelitish and foreign sul)jccts of the kings of
Israel voluntarily brought presents to their rulers.

Taxation
Taylor

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

These gifts were Avitlilield by churlish people only
(comp. I Sam, x. 27), but were given l>v all others
(j6. xvi. 20; II Sam. viii. 2. 11 it seq.'; xii. 30; I
Kings X. 10, 25; II Kings iii. 4: II Chrou. ix. 24;
Isa. xvi. 1; Ps. Ixxii. 10). A cliicf source of the
king's income consisted in his landed jiossessious (I
Cliron. xxvii. 25 et sey.; II Chron. xxvi. 10): but
a money- or poll-tax is not mentioned among the
n-yal prerogatives, even in the detailed description of
them with which Samuel tried to deter the people
from choosing a king (I Sam. viii. 11-17). The census
of the people which was ordered by David (II Sam.
xxiv. 1 et seq.) was intended perhaps to furnish a
basis for a methodical distribution of the military
burdens and taxes; but Solomon was the lirst mon-
arch to systematize the furnishing of loodstuflFs
(I Kings iv. 7-28 ), and to demand toll from the
merchants {ik x. 15), and he, moreover, made the
lot of tlic people an inordinately heavy one (xii. 4),
probably imp'tsing an additional money-tax. The
later kings again received only voluntary gifts from
their subjects, as is recorded of the time of Je-
lioshaphat and Ilezekiah (II Chron. xvii. 5, xxxii.
23). a money-tax being levied in time of Avar onl_v,
wiieu the demands of victorious enemies had to be
satistied (II Kings xv. 20, xxiii. 35).

The repugnance of the free Israelites to the pay-
ment of a money -tax was overcome by the post-
exilic foreign rulers. Although the Persian kings
exempted the priests and Levitcs (Ezra vii. 24),
they demanded toll {~pn) and other imposts which
likewise had to be paid in money (Ezra iv. 13;
Nell. V. 4: '" We have borrowed moucj' for the king's
tribute "). The taxes often grew to be an especially
heavy burden under the Ptolemaic and Seleucidan
kings. These rulers employed tax-farmers, who, of
course, endeavored not only to collect the taxes, but
also to derive a large personal profit in addition (I
Mace. xi. 28. xiii. 15; Josephus, "Ant." xii. 4, ^§ 1,
Actseg.). Josephus (in the passage just cited) nar-
rates that Joseph, the son of Tobias, accumulated
great wealth as a tax-farmer, although he had to
pay to the Egyptian king Euergctes the enormous
sum of 16,000 talents. The Seleucidan kings likewise
demanded a poll-tax (I Mace. x. 29: (p6povq, accord-
ing to "Ant." xii. 3, § 3, denoting what is paid pef
head).

This tax was imposed bj' the Roman rulers also.
Julius Ca-sar, it is true, showed him.self verj- lenient
toward the Jews, and even was considerate with
regard to the Sabbatical year ("Ant." xiv, 8, §3);
but under Augustus conditions changed. During
the latter'sreigna"descriptio orbis" was completed,
in wliich the property of the inhabitants of the
whole Roman empire was set down. He chose
twenty of the most eminent men, and sent them into
all the countries of the subjugated peoples, to make
a list of persons and property: moreover he av rote
with hi.s own liand a "breviarium totius imperii,"
■which contained a li.st of the number of citizens
carrying arms and of the allies, of the tributes or
taxes, etc. This census was introduced into Judea
when Herod's son Archelaus was removed, in the
year 760 of the foundation of Rome, and was exiled
to Vienna in Gaul; it is mentioned in Matt. xxii. 17.
The precise amount of this tax is not known, nor can

it be estimated with certainty from the fact that the
denarius is called the "coin of the census" (A. V.
"tribute money ") in Matt. xxii. 19; for these words
may mean also "a sample of the Roman coins with
which the tribute is j)aid." In any case the tax im-
posed by the Romans was high and oppressive.

Refusal to pay taxes involved rebellion against
the suzerainty of the Romans, as in the case of
Judas the Gaulonitc in the year 760 of the founda-
tion of R(mje (■' Ant." xviii. 1, § 1).

Bini.iociUAPiiY: I. Benzinjror, Arch. 18iM. pp. 174. 221, 3nS rf
>C(;.; I'Yitnz Walter, Die I'mphnlcn in Ihrcin Socialoi lic-
rufc, I'.HK), p. 20.

K. 0. II. E. K.

-Middle Ages: A direct result of the perse-

cutions of the Jews in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries was that the}' came under the immediate
protection of the rulers; this, in turn, led to their
becoming Kammeuknechte. The imperial rights
were often transferred to minor rulers.
Trans- Thus, the widow of Duke Roger of
ferred to Apulia bequeathed to the church of
Nobles and Salerno the revenues derived from
Church the Jews: and in like manner the Jews
Dig-- of Bohemia, in the twelfth century,
nitaries. came under the immediate protection
of the Bohemian juinces. In the thir-
teentli century the Jews became at times the wards
of the ecclesiastical potentates also, to whom they
were then obliged to j)ay their taxes. For example,
in 1209 the taxes paid by the Jews of the arch-
bishopric of ]\Iayence fell into t4ie coffers of Arch-
bishop Siegfried: in 1212 the Jewish taxes for
Provence were paid to the church of Aries.

The assessment of taxes to be paid by individual
members of the communities was the dut}' of the
elders, Avho took into consideratitm both the property
owned ])y each member and his yearly income.
t*articularly wealthy Jews, by placing themselves
under the personal protection of the ruler, sometimes
escaped communal taxes; this aroused the anger of
the communities and caused them to complain to
the emperor. As a rule only JcAvish
Special physicians and such Jews as had ren-
Taxes. dercd the state special services were
exempt from tax;ition. The follow-
ing twelve taxes, which may almost be termed "offi-
cial," were generally levied upon German Jews of
medieval times:

(1) The Coronation Tax: When this tax was in-
troduced is not known ; but the Jews of the entire
German empire were compelled to pay a certain sum
Avhenever a new ruler a.scended the throne. At the
coronation of Philip the Fair tlie Jews of Cham-
pagne paid a tax of 25,000 llorins French money:
Avhile the Jews of Italy, upon, the accession of a
pope, paid a tribute consisting of one pound of pepper
and two pounds of cinnamon.

(2) Taxation on Dress: In 1405 the Jews of several
German and French cities were allowed to purchase
exemjition from wearing the Jewish badge l)y pay-
ment of a higher annual tax (Weizsilcker, "Reichs-
tag.sacten," v. 637).

(3) The Golden Opferpfennig : Introduced by
Ludwig the Bavarian (1342). The income derived
from this tax amounted in the fourteenth century

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Taxation
Taylor

to 30.000 £?ul(lcn. Beginning witli tlie sevcntopnth
ceiilury il was gradually abolishod (scl- OrFKit-

I'FKNMG, G<)I,1)KNKI{).

(4) Jiuicngcleitsgt'ld : For each safe-conduct n
payiiKMit of 1 turnose was exacted, and even a Chris-
tian, if traveling with a Jew, had to pay this fee.

(")) Landfrieden Protection Tux: Tliis was one of
the heaviest taxes imposed ii|ion the Jews, and was
paid only when the latter Jiad been iMiblicly assured
that lu-otection had been granted tiieni, as, for ex-
aniiile, by Henry IV. (1103) and Henry of Holien-
.staufen (1254), by the cities of Worms, Mayencc, and
Oppenheim (12()0), and by Arclibishop Werner of
.Mayence (1205).

(6) The Leibzoll (see Jew. Encyc. vii. 669).

(7) The Heal Estate and Btiilding Tax: Levied as
early as the ninth century. When a Jew purchased a
house or a lot he placed himself under the i)rotectiou
of the local church or monastery, to which he paid
a certain tribute: for a house, oue-teuth of the in-
come derived from it; for a lot, a certain quantity
of barley, Avlicat, and wine. The custom of acquir-
ing real proi)erty under the protection of the Church
was rendered more diflicult during the thirteenth
century, measures against it being taken in Nor-
mandy, 1222, in northern Germany, 1240, in Gas-
cony, 'l 288, and by Charles of Valois, 1324. Toward
the middle of the fifteenth century it fell entirely
into disuse.

(5) The Reichssteuer: Imposed by the emperor
AVenceslaus (1383). The right to levy taxes upon
the Jews was granted to cities only on condition
that one-half of the income thus derived should be
jiaid into the treasury of the state. A similar Jew-
ish tax existed in Prance from the middle of the
fourteenth century.

(9) Koyal and Papal l^rotection Tax: From the
twelfth century the popes granted letters protecting
the Jews against the severity of their overlords.
The amounts jiaid for these privileges varied from
1,000 to 3,000 marks for each letter. Such taxes
were received by popes Alexander III., Clement
IIP, Innocent III. (1199), Houorius III. (1217), Greg-
ory IX. (1235), Innocent IV. (1240), and Innocent
V. The same cla.ss of tax was imposed in England
for the renewal of charters; e.g., 4,000 marks were
l)aid to John in 1200.

(10) The Servitium: Sum paid in lieu of personal
services. It was first paid in Spain and in France
in the middle of the thirteenth century, especially
under Charles the Wise, when exemption from stat-
ute lal)or might be purchased W'ith mone}'. It was
collected also in Germany, especially in Cologne.

(11) The Tenth Pfennig: Levied upon all German
Jews within the jurisdiction of the archbishops of
^[ayence. The fact that the archbishops had this
jirerogative caused a rupture between, John II. and
Emperor Rupert (1403-4); eventually an agreement
was reached by which the emperor acquired the
right to levy the tax.

(12) The Third Pfennig: Imposed b}' the Nurem-
berg Reichstag (Aug. 9, 1422) to defray the ex-
penses of the Hussite war. It Avas levied on all
Jews of the German empire, which, for that pur-
pose, was divided into four districts presided over
by Maigrave Bcrnhard of Baden, Palsgrave John of

Neumarkt, Landgrave John cf Lujjfen, and Freiherr
del la Scala of Jiavaria.

Besides these regular tuxes, liowever, the Jews
were often forced to pay extra tributes. Notewortiiy
instiinces of such extra taxation occurred under
Conrad IV. and Ludwig the Bavarian, but especially
under Emperor Sigismuud (1410. 1418, 1423). The
si)ecillcally Jewish taxes, in vaii(jus forms, contin-
ued to be kvicd until the nineteenth century, and
were not abolished until the Jews liad been gener-
ally accorded full civic rights. It should be added
that, while mure onerous, taxes on Jews weie, as a
rule, not more numerous than tho.se levied on all
citizens possessing means. See Spain; Tallage.

BiBi.iOftRAPiiv: St()t)l)P. Die Jiidcn in DntlKrhhnul.v.
Niiblititr, hie .Judcudniiiintliii tlis Mitlcldlln.-. p.,
Aroiiiiis, ncfiesteii. pas.siiii ; Ueppinfr, JMeJwIcn nn M. :.,-
alter, passim, Stuttgart, 1»34; Wiener, Regenten, pajwlni.
J- 8. O.

TAXO : The mysterious name of " tiie man of
the tribe of Levi " who, under a Roman governor in
the time of Herod, according to the A.ssumi)tio
i\Iosis, ix. 1-7, underwent martyrdom with his seven
sons amidst the cruel per.secution of the Zealots
(vi.-viii.). He exhorted his sons thus: " Let us die
rather than transgress the commands of the Lord of
Lords, the God of our Fathers, for if we do this and
die our blood will be avenged before the Lord."
Here the story breaks off abruptly. It appears,
however, that Josephus ("Ant." xiv. 15, § 5) refers
to this martyrdom of Taxo during Herod's cruel on-
slaught against the Zealots, when he states that
"one old man was caught within one of these caves
with seveu children and a wife, and rather than per-
mit any of these to surrender he killed them all and
finally himself, preferring, as he .said, death to sla-
very, and reproaching Herod with the meanness of
his family although he was king." Charles, in the
•'Assumptio Mosis" (1897), thinks that "Taxo"
(XDDD) is a corruption of the word NJpH ("the
Zealot "), and that the Samaritan legend of Moses
in Ileidenheim's " Vierteljahrschrift " (1871, iv. 210),
in speaking of a " Levite " who would be a zealous bat -
tier for the congregation "and die and after three
days rise again," refers to the same Taxo mentioned
in the "Assumptio Mosis." Accordint,' to Gen. R.
Ivii. end, "Tahash" ("Tahshon ") signifies a rebel.

TAYLOR, CHARLES : English Ciuistian He-
braist; born in London 1^40; educated at King's
College, London, and St. John's College, Cam-
bridge, of which he is now master. In 1874 he pub-
lished an edition of "Coheletii "; in 1877 "Sayings
of the Jewish Fathers," an elaborate edition of the
Pirke Abot (2 ed., 1897); and in 1899 a valuable ap-
pendix giving a list of manuscripts. This is prob-
ably the most important contribution to rabbinic
learning of any living Christian Hebraist. Taylor
discovered the Jewish source of the " Didaclie '" in
his "Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," 1886, and
has published also "Essjij' on the I'licology of the
Didache," 1889.

Taylor took great interest in Professor Sclieclitcr's
work in Cairo, and the genizah fragments presented
to the University of Cambridge are known as the
Taylor-Schechtcr Collection. He was joint editor

Tayyib
Teliereui

THE JEWISH E^XYCLOPEDL\

with Schcchter of "The Wisdom of Bcu Sira," 1899.
He lias published separately " Cairo Geuizah Palimp-
sests," 19U0.

He has published also several works on geometry.

Bibliography : Tl'/io's irjio in Englnnd.

TAYYIB : Tunisian family, first known in the
seconil iialf of the seveuteeiith century. The more
promim-ut members are tlie following:

Abraham Tayyib : Grandson of Abraham b.
Isaac Tayyib (see below) ; lived at thecud of tiieeight-
eenth century. He was the author of " Hayye Abra-
ham" (Legl"^"i. 1826). a commentary on the treatises
Shabbat. Pe.>^diim, 3Iegiila!i, Taanit, Mo'ed Katan,
Yebamot, Ketubot, Kiddusiiin, Baba Kamma, Sanlie-
drin, Makkot, Shebu'ot, "Abodah Zarah, and 'Arakin.
Appended to it are notes on Maimonidcs' "Yad,"
on Alfasi. and on Raslii to the Pentateuch.

Abraham ben Isaac Tayyib (surnamed Baba
Sidi) : Kabbi of Tunis, where he died in 1741. He
was a companion of Zemah Zarfati and one of the
teachers of Isaac Lombroso, chief rabbi of Tunis.
He was the author of novelhe on tlie treatises of the
order Kodashim, printed in Jacob Faitusi's "Miz-
bah Kapparah" (Leghorn, 1810). Other novelise of
his are to be found in Joseph Tanuji's "Bene Yo-
sef" (Salonica. 1726).

Hayyim ben Abraham Tayyib : Rabbi of
Tunis, and author of "Derek Hayyim" (printed
with his father's Hayye Abraham"), a commentary
on Pesahini, Ketubot, Kiddushin, Baba Mezi'a, and
Hullin. '

Isaac ben Benjamin Tayyib: Rabbi and
cabalist of Tunis; died in 1830. He was the author
of: (I) ""Erek ha-Shulhan," novella? on the four di-
visions of the Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim (Leg-
horn, 1791; preface by Joseph Sarko, who seems to
have been Isaac's teacher), Yoreh De'ah {ib. 1798),
Hoshen Mishpat [ib. 1815; Tunis, 1890-92), and
Eben ha-'Ezer (Leghorn, 1844); (2) "AVawe ha-
'.Vmmudim" (ib. 1837), a commentary on Eliezer of
^letz's "Sefer Yere'im," cabalistic in spirit and con-
taining quotations from cabalistic works; (3) " Huk-
kot ha-Pesah " (I'b. 1853), novelise on the part of tiie
Shulhan 'Aruk containing the laws regarding the
Passover feast; (4) "Sefer ha-Zikkaron" (Tunis,
1892), in two parts, the first being a collection of
Isaac's divers notes, and the second a cabalistic com-
mentary on Abot and on the Pesah Haggadah.

Bibliography: D. Cazf^* Xotes Bihlioorf'Vhiques, pp.307 et
.-f'/., Tunis, lb93; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. iil. 40ti.
.1. M. Sel.

TEBET : Tenth ecclesiastical and fourth civil
monili; it invariably has twenty-nine days. The
name, like those of the other montha, appears to be
taken from the Assyro-Babylonians, who called their
tenth month, described as the month of violent rains,
" Tebetu " (I)elitzsch, " Worterbuch," p. 298). This
month fell near the close of the rainy season in Pal-
estine, to which fact tlie gloss in Ta'an. Cb alludes,
holding that the year will be fertile if Tel)et be
"ugly" (i.e., rainy). The observation that that
year will be a good one in which Tebet is " widowed "
{i.e., rainless) presupposes that a sufficient precipi-
tation had preceded the month, the rainy season

normally beginning with the month of Heshwau
(the 8tli mouth).

Of notable events and dates connected with this
month, the following are among tiie moreiuipoitant ;

Tebet 1 and 2: Seventh and eighth days of Hanuk-
kah. Tebet 5: See E/.tk. xxxiii. 21; R. H. 181).
Tebet 8: Day on which the translation of the Septu-
agint was completed, when the earth was shrouded
in darkness for three days (" .Megillat Taanit." end).
Tebet 9: Fast-day, but for reasons not known (ib. ;
Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 580); it is said to
have been the day on which Ezra died (ib.), and Abu
Husain Joseph ibn Nagdela was killed on this day
(lOGd). Tebet 10: Fast-day, comuiemoraliug the
beginning of the siege of Jerusalem under Nebu-
chadnezzar (see Jer. lii. 4; II Kings xxv. 1; Ezek.
xxiv. 1; R. H. 18b); when this fast-day falls on
the Sabbath, it is observed on the day following.
Tebet 12: Ezekiel received a revelation (Ezek. xxix.
1). Tebet 20: Death of Moses Mainiouides (1-204).
Tebet 24: The discomfiture of the Sadduceau party
(B. B. Hob) by Jolianan ben Zakkai (according to
"Megillat Ta'anit," thisoccurretl on the 24th of Ab).
Tebet 25: Said to have been the day of Alexander
the Great'sappearancebefore the walls of Jerusalem
(Yoma 60a). Tebet 28: Another anti-Sadduceau
feast-day ("Megillat Ta'anit," x.); on this day the
majority of the Sanhedrin passed over to the Phari-
sees. E. G. H.

TEBUL YOM : Name of a treatise in the Mish-
nali and in the Tosefta; in most editions of the Mish-
uah it is tenth in the order Tohorot. According to
Lev. XV. 5 et scg., one who takes the prescribed bath
still remains unclean until sunset. The degree of un-
cleanness in such a case is slight, and according to rab-
binical interpretation neither the "hallali " nor sancti-
fied flesh is rendered unclean by being touched by such
a person, even before sunset; it is merely rendered
unlit (" pasul "). Profane or unsanctified things may
be touched by him without fear. The treatise Tebul
Yom more closely defines the degree of uncleanness
attaching to such a person, and stipulates also how
far the purity of anj'thiug is affected by his touch.
The treatise comprises four chapters, containing
twenty-six paragraphs in all.

Ch. i. : Regulations concerning bread and other
things which are of such a form that if a tebul yom
or any other uncleanness touches part of them the
whole is rendered unclean.

Cii. ii. : Concerning liquids touched by a tebul
yom; when such contact renders the whole unfit,
and when it affects only the part touched.

Ch. iii. : Continuation of ch. ii. : regulations con-
cerning liquids easily rendered unclean.

Ch. iv. : Regulations concerning utensils touched
by a tebul yom; enumeration of halakic rules which
have undergone changes in the course of time; of the
halakic regulations which R. Joshua declared were
introduced by the sages ("sofcrim"), and which he
was unable to explain.

In the Tosefta the treatise is divided into two
chapters.

w. IK J. Z. L.

TEDESCHI, MARCO: Italian rabbi and poet;
born at Piova, Piedmont, in 1817; died at Triest in

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tayyib
Teheran

1870. He removed to Vercelli Aviili his fiiUicr (il.
18;JG), who liiul been appointed rnhlii there; and in
1838 lie went to Turin to stndy under K. llilicl
Cantoni. He was successively elected rabbi of
Ni/./a-lSloni'errato, Saiuz/o, Asti, and Triest. His
])iincipal poems Avere published by Vitlorio Casti-
glionein the"Yelid Kinnor " (I)rohobycz, 1880). He
transhited from the French " Les Prieres d'un Ca'ur
Israelite." Marco Tedeschi was celebrated as a
preacher.

s V. C.

TEDESCHI, MOSES ISAAC: Italian traus-
lati)r, Biblical commentator, and teacher; born at
Triest Jime G, 1821; died there June 17, 1898. He
lectured on Bib-
lical exejxesis in
the Tamud To-
rahof his native
city, and occa-
sionally deliv-
ered sermons on
holy days. He
was the author
of the following
works: "Ilo'il
^losheh," com-
prising commen-
taries on the
Earlier Prophets
(GOritz, 1870),
the Book of Job
(Padua, 1877),
the Psalms (Leg-
horn, 1880), the
Five Megillot
and the Book
of Proverbs {il>.
1880), the Penta-
teuch {ib. 1881),
theMinor Proph-
ets (Triest, 1887),
the books of
Daniel, Ezra,
and Nehemiah,
and C h r o n i -
cles (Przemysi,
1889); "Musar
Mclakim," a collection of ethical honn'lies based
on the Pirke Abot (Triest, 187S); "Zeker Kab,"
an Italian translation of the didactical prose-poem
of Mussafia (Padua, 1878); "Ozar Nirdefe licshon
'Ibri," on Hebrew syncniyjns (//;. 1879); "Simhat
haPcgel," homilies and glosses on the Targum to
Proverbs. The author's autobiograjihy is appended
to the last-named work. He published also, in " Ha-
Asif " (1886), an introduction to the Minor Prophets.
BiBi.iOGRAPnv : Zeitlin, Bihh Pont-Mendch. p. 394.

s :\i. B.

TEDESCO, IGNAZ AMADEUS : Austrian
pianist ; born at Prague 1817; died at Odessa Nov.
18, 1H82; a pupil of Triebensee and Tomaschek at
Prague. He made numerous successful concert
tours, especially in southern Russia, and settled at
Odessa, although he lived for a short tiine at Ham-
burg (1848) and London (l8o6).

As a pianist Tedesco was distinguished for his

Interior of the Great Synagrogriie at Teheran.

(From .1 photoer.iph by E. N. Adler.)

line techni(iue; he was called the "Hannibal of oc-
taves." In recognition of his ability he was aj)-
pointeil pianist to the Grand Duke of 01deni)urg.
He wrote brilliant .salon music, comprising a piano-
forte coneerlo, caprices de concerts, mazurkas, noc
turnes, ihap.sodies, waltzes, and trau.scriplions.

Bini.inciUAPiiv: (haniplln, ('nr.of Mult^caml^ful>ic^nnH•, II-
hislrirtc Ztitunu, ISTA I. :««; Baker. Diet, of Muxtc and

^- J. So.

TEFILLIN. See Piiylacteuies.

TEHERAN: Capital and commercial center of
Persia; situated about seventy miles .south of the
Caspian Sea. The chief development of the city

took jjlace with-
in tlic last lialf
of the nineteenth
century, under
Shah Nasir al-
D i n , w hose
court physician,

J. E. POLAK,

was a Jew. The
antitjuitj' of Te
he ran is not
great, since its
existence can
hardly be traced
beyond the
twelfth century.
It appears grad-
ually to have
taken the place
of the ancient
Kai, which s;ink
slowl}'' into ob-
livion and is now
a mass of ruins
in the suburbs
of Teheran. Rai
itself had a long
history, being
the ancient me-
tropolis of Me-
dia mentioned in
the Ajiocryplia
as Rages (Tobit
i. l-i et Hcq.) or Ragau (Judith i. 15), in the A vesta
and Old Persian inscriptions as Raglia or Raga
(Vendidad, i. lo; Yasna, .\i.\. 18; Behistun, ii. 70-
74, iii. 1-10), and in the classics as Rliaga? (Strabo,
^^1,3, 19, etc.). It is mentioned as an emporium
of Jewish trade by Ibn Khordadhbeh, 817 (■^w Jkw.
Encvc. iv. 189, s.v. Commerce).

Teheran covers a considerable area, as im- w.ill
which surrounds it is eleven miles in circuit and is
pierced by twelve gates. The Europeans reside in
the northern section of the city, w here the foreign
legations are located. The Jews live in a quarter
of their own. In their daily life they are subject
to much the same restrictions and disabilities as tlie
Gabars and the Armenians: and they were formerly
liable to acts of persecution which resulted in redu-
cing them to a state of misery, ignorance, and degra-
dation. A riot against them occurred in Teheran
as late as May ic, 1897. The Alliauce Israelite

Tehina
Teixeira

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Universelle has accoinjilishcd a great deal toward
renioviug this condition of affairs liy ln-ttiTing tiie
position of the Jews in the coinniunity and hy estab-
lishing scliools for the education of the children.
The Alliance report for 1904 shows a combined at-
tendance of nearly 400 pupils at the two schools,
established six years previously for boys and for
girls. The occupations of the Jews in Teheran, as
elsewhere in Persia, are largely tiiose of traders,
silversmiths, wine-merchants, and petty dealers.
Teheran has a total population of 250,000, including
about 5,000 Jews.

BiBLior.RAPMY: Ciirzon, Persia and the Persian Qtiestinn, i.
300 3j:i Lomion, 1893; Benjamin. PersiaaiKi tlic Ptrsiaiix.
Huston, iNSi; Ha.>«et, Laiiil nf the Imams, New Vork, ISST ;
Wilson. PeraUui Life anti CuMitwu. New York. IWtt ; Bnipsd),
7//I Lnmic iler Smhu; Berlin, IHSti; t'tiivers Ixrailitc, .^ur.
12. I'.K.il ; liuHetin de l\4Uia)ice Israelite, 1897, p. TO.

J. A. V. W. J.

TEHINA, ABBA (called also Tehina ben
Perisha L" the Pharisee"] or Hasida [" the pious
one"]): A leader of the Zealots. Together with
Elk.\z.\h ben Din.\i, he is mentioned in the remark-
able dictum of Johanan ben Zakkai concerning the
Zealots: "Since
the murderers
have increased,
the expiation
ceremony of the
' eglah ' arufah
[the heifer
whose neck is
broken for a
rauider the per-
petrator of
which is un-
known; Deut.
XX i. 1-9] has
come into a])ey-
ance because of
the many mur-
dcis by these
only too well-
known Zealots.
Such murderers
are Eleazar ben
Dinai and Te-
hina, who was
formerly called
' the Pharisee '

and later on received the name of ' the ^Murderer ' "
(Sotah ix. 9; Sifre, Deut. 205).

This Tehina has aptly been identified by Deren-
bourg ("'Essai sur I'llistoire et la Geograiihie de la
Palestine d'Apres les Thalmuds et les Autres
Sources Rabbinhpies," i. 279-280, Paris, 1867) with
the Abba Tehina llasida of Eccl. U. ix. 7. Deren-
bourg, however, takes the epithet " Hasid " to be
ironical; but lie ignores the very nature of the pas-
sage to which he refers and which is as follows:
"Tehina the Essene [Hasid] Avith the title Abba
[see Kohler, "Abba, Father," in "J. Q. R." xiii.
567-575], returning to his native town on Friday
afternoon shortly before tiie beginning of the Sab-
bath, and carrj'ing upon his shoulder a bundle con-
taining tiie provisions for his household for the
Sabbath, met a disease-stricken man unable to move.

Synagogue of AsUer Uje

(From a photograph

who asked him to have pity on him and bring him
into the town, wliere his wants might receive the nec-
essary attention. This placed Tehina in a quandary :
he was afraid if lie left his bundle he might lose all
his Sab'iath provisions; and if hedidnotaid the sick
man, he (Tehina) would be accounted as guilty of
death. His better impulses proving victorious, he
carried the sick man to a .safe place, and then went
back for his bundle. Meanwhile it had grown dark ;
and the people, seeing him carry a bundle on Sabbath
eve, wondered, saying, 'Is this Abba Tehina the
Pious? ' Tehina him.self was in doublas to whether
he had really violated the Sabbath, when a miracle
happened: God caused the sun again to shine forth
to show that the Sabbath had not yet begun, as it is
written (Mai. iii. 20 [A. V. iv. 2]): 'But unto you
that fear my name shall the sun of righteousness arise
with healing in his wings.' " Later the jiunctilious
Essene became a tierce Zealot (see Zealots).

Eleazar ben Dinai is mentioned by Jo.sephus sev-
eral times, while Tehina is not. He has been
identified with the Alexander mentioned together
with Eleazar b. Dinai by that author (Josephus,

'•B. J."ii. 12, §
4 ; see Eleazau
Bicx Dinai); but
Alexander ap-
]iears to be iden-
tical with Am-
rani, cited as
companion of
Ben Dinai in
"Ant."xx. 1, §1
(comp. Cant. K.
iii. 5: "In the
(lays of Amram
[?] and in the
(lays of Ben
Dinai they at-
tempted to bring
about the Mes-
sianic time by
violence"; see
Griitz, "Gcsch."
3d ed., iii. 431),
whereas it is
(] uite possible
that Tehina is
identical w i t h
order of Fadus
p. 278). K.

rij\>iciuii at Ttiherau.

by E. N. Adler.)

'Avvi,3a^ who was executed by
(Josephus, "Ant." I.e.; GrJUz, I.e.

TEHINNAH. See Devotional Litekatuue.

TEITELBAUM, MOSES: Austrian Hasid;
died July IT, isll. According to Low, he signed
his name Tamar, this being the e(iuivalent of
Teitelbaum, which is the Yiddish for Dattel-
baum = " jialm-tree." He ofliciatcd as rabbi, first
in Przemysl, and later in Satoralja-Ujliely, to
which latter place he was called in 1809 In
Ujliely he founded a Hasidic congregation wliicli
was independent of the Galician leaders. In 18'22
Teitelbaum was suspected of having supplied
amulets to certain Jewish culprits who had
been east into ])rison lor libel, in order to assist
them in escaping. "When called upon to vindicate

THE .TKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tehina
Teixeira

himself lie declared that the amiikts in question
served only as substitutes for the inezuzah aud
tiiat llicir only iMirpose was to jjroloct tlieir bearers
against demons.

Teitelbaum enjoyed au enviable reputation, even
Tl. Moses Sofor paving him homage. lie was the
author of: " Yismah Mosheli " (l!^4'.) ; 2d ed. 1898),
homilies on theTorah; "Telillah le-.AIosheh," com-
mentaries on th(! Psalms; and "lleshib Mosheh," a
colleelion of responsa.

Hini.infiUAPnv : Wiikien, Shcm lia-dcilnlim hi-Hadanh, p. 101 ;
I.ilw, (icsaniinrltc Scltriftcn, ii. "(i, 84, 91.

s. L. V.

TEIXEIRA, TEIXEYRA, TEXEIRA, or
TEIXARA: Xoble Porluguese .Marano luniily,
originally bearing the surname of Sampayo. In
accordance with a decree of King Philip IV. of
Spain, its coat of arms — azure, a cross poteucee or —
was included in the Spanish roll of arms. In the
patent, dated 104:5, conferring nobility on Diego
Teixeira his armorial bearings are blazoned as fol-
lows: Quarterly, 1 and4, or, an eagle displayed pur-
ple; 2 and S,
cheeky or and
sable (sixteen
fields); bordure
cules, charued
by eight "S's"
argent. This
coat of arms was
exchanged by
the family, with
the exception of
a few members,
for another,
probably that of
the De ^Mattos,
with whom they
inter man' ied,
the new bear-
in g s 1) e i n g :
Gules, a lir-tiee
siuople, rooted
argent between
two lions ram-
pant, afTronte,
or, armed azure.
The family
was known also
as Teixeira de Mattes, and members of it, dis-
tinguished for tlieir riches, philanthropy, commer-
cial activity, and influence, liave resided until very
recently in Hamburg, Holland, London, Vienna,
and Venice.

Diego Teixeira Sampayo (Abraham Senior
Teixeira): Portuguese IVIarano; left Portugal for
Antwerp in 1048; died at Hamburg Jan. 0, 1006.
After a brief residence at Antwerp he settled in
Hamburg, professing Catholicism until Good Friday
in 1047 or 1648, when he aud his wife openly ac-
knowledged Judaism, while Diego, who was ap-
proaching seventy, together with his two sons, one
of whom Avas born out of wedlock, was circumcised
by a rabbi. The imperial government thereupon
demanded the surrender of Diego's person and the
confiscation of his estate, but the senate of Hamburg

Jewisli School

(From .1 photograph

energetically opposed this demand (M. Grunwald,
"Portugiescngraber," p. 124). Diego Teixeira, wlio
never added "de IMattos" to liis name, was known
in Hamliurg only as the "rich Jew." He rode in an
ornate carriage upholstered with velvet, had liveried
servants, and kept a jirincely house, which, in 1654,
was for some lime the residence of Queen Chrislinu
of Sweden, to whom Diego liad been recommended
by the Spanish ambassador D. Antonio Pimeiitel,
and by whom he was held in high esteem. He al-
ways took a keen interest in tlic aflairs of his core-
ligionists; and at Jiis intercession in ]6.'57 King Fred-
erick III. of Denmark granted them privileges, whicli
were later confirmed by Christian V. For several
years he was the head of the Spanish-Portuguese
community in Hamburg, and at his s<m's wedding
he presented the congregation with a ewer and a
basin of silver plated with gold, while in 1GJ59 he
contributed 15,000 marks for the erection of a syna-
gogue. It was he who sujiiilied the copper roofing
for the great Church of St. ^Michael in Hamburg,
and when the elders asked for his bill he requested

them to accept it
receipted with-
out payment.
There still exist
two benevolent
institution.?
founded by Di-
ego Teixeira and
his wife, Sara
il'Andrade (d.
Dec. 5, 1693):
ZurAusstattung
Dl'irftiger Jung-
fiauen and Zur
Auslosung von
Get'angenen.

Hinr.iooRAPMV: Ar-
clienholtz, Me-
moire dc Chrii'-
tiue lie Sui'ilf, i.
■J-'jO.iii.—S.Atiiiter-
darn, 1651 ; (;nitz,
Odfch. X. 23; D.
H . de Castro,
Keur vci)i tirnf-
fifeeHfii.pp. KHrf
scq.\ (irmuvald,
I'nrtmiii siuijrtl-
htr, jip- i:^f ' ' i^i'Q-
(tlie epitaplis be-
inp pivfii on p.

Manuel Teixeira (Isaac Hayyim Senior
Teixeira): Only son of Diego 'i'eixeira and ."^ara
d'Andrade; born in Lisbon about 1025; died at
Amsterdam June 5, ITOo. He was twice married,
his second wife being Esther Gomez de Mesquita,
whom he wedded at Hambvirg Aiiril 7, 1654.
Like his father, he was the financial agent and resi-
dent minister of Queen Christina of Sweden, re-
taining this position until 1087, as is proved liy the
patent of dismissal given him by her (Archenlioltz,
"Memoire de Christine de Su^dc," iv.). Christina
esteemed her ambassador so higlily for his integrity
and discretion that wlien the magistracy of Ham-
burg attempted to prevent him from leaving the
city the queen regarded their action as a personal
affront. She considered Teixeira'sopinions and ad-
vice of such value that she recommended her am-

at Telierau.

bv E. N. .AciUr.)

Teixeira
Teles

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

bassador Rosenbacli to follow his counsels, "for
they arc wise aud clever, and I upprttve of them,"
while in one of her letters to Count Wassenau the
queen said: "Teixeira has written you a letter so
clover aud sjigacious that Kins; Solomon himself
could not have improved upon it. I can only add
that ytni must do all tliinirs as he bids you, and un-
dertake nothing in opposition to his views. ... Be
careful not to do anything without his st\nctiou"
(Areheuholtz. I.e. iii. ":]99, 4G5).

During her repeated visits to Hamburg, Queen
Christina always took up her residence in Teixeira's
house, which was situated in the most beautiful
portion of the town, on the Jungfernstieg; she re-
mainetl there for an entire year in 16G1. When she
revisited Hamburg in July. 1666, and instead of ac-
cepting the hospitality of the nuniicipal council be-
came the guest of Tei.xeira, the rabble, instigated by
the clergy, endeavored to storm the house. For
more than a quarter of a century Teixeira served the
queen faithfully, and, even when, in 1G85, he re-
fused to advance further sums on her appanage, her
governor- general, Olivekraus, did not succeed in
disgracing him ; on the contrary, she maintained a
correspondence with him until her death.

Although Manuel Teixeira, like his father, kept
a princely house aud moved in the highest cir-
cles, he was a faithful adherent of Judaism, and
supported a Talmud Torah in which Jacob Sas-
porias was employed as teacher. Like many other
Jews of Spanish-Portuguese extraction, he was a
follower of Sliabbethai Zebi. In 1670, when the
Jews were threatened with expulsion "from Vienna
and from the Austrian domains, Teixeira, in response
to the appeal of the Vienna community, advocated
their cause with great devotion. He accordingly
wrote to several of his friends among the grandees
of Spain aud invoked the aid of Cardinal Azznlino
at Home, the coutideutial friend of Queen Christina,
while at his request the queen herself wrote to the
papal nuncio in Vienna and sent Teixeira letters f(u-
the dowager empress aud for the empress. Manuel
must have removed to Amsterdam before 1699, since
in that year he was head of the Spanish-Portuguese
congregation in that city.

BiBr.iofjp.APiiY: Jolirhuch fUr Inraeliten, vil. 1-13, Vienna,
IKOii; (Jratz, CeticU. x. 227, 263; xxii. etscq.: J. Sasportiis,
Ohcl Yn'nkol), responsmii No. 77 ; Zcitsclirift dis Hain-
tiiirfier (icKcliirlitxvercius. ii. 4fl9 ct set].; I). M. de ("astro,
fCeur vnnGrnfst<:i')ie)i. pp. 104 el .s<(/. ; Jeu\ Chron. .Aug. 11,
I'JU't; DiamaDt, in Magyar Zsidij Szemle, vi. 269 et ife(i., 3Zi
et seq.
s. M. K.

TEIXEIRA, PEDRO: Portuguese traveler;
born at J.,islj()n of Maiaix; parents; died about the
niiddh; of the .seventeenth century either at Verona
(according to De Barrios, who is followed by Wolf,
Zunz, and others) or at Antwerp (according to Bar-
bosa Macliado), whither he had removed from Ven-
ice. A man of education aud a close observer, he
traveled for eighteen months through the Philip-
pines, ('hinji, and parts of America, and, after spend-
ing two years at Lisbon, tmdertook ascientitic jour-
ney to India, Persia, and other countries. Asa re-
sult he puljlished " Rclacionesde Pedro Teixeira d el
Origen, Descendencia, y Sucesion de los Reyes de
Persia, y de Horinuz, y de un Viage Hecho por el
Mismo Autor Dende la India Oriental Hasta Italia

por Tierra" (Antwerp, 1610), containing a history
of the kings of Persia according to Persian sources,
as well as a fund of information on the Jews of
Aleppo, Bagdail, and other cities, with notes on
Jewish monuments. It served as a guitle for
Thomas de Piiiedo and others, and has been trans-
lated into English by W. J. Sinclair, and edited by
D. Fergesou ; the latter also supplied the edition
with an introduction.

Bibi.10(;rapiiv : Barrios, Ilclnrin}i dr los Pnrlas K.<pa (To? c.v, p.
5)S: Wolf, /{(/./. Ill In: iii. it22: Zimz, G. S. i. IW; n.irlHisa
Mai'lia<lo, IHIiUdIicii Liisilaiin, \\\. (122: Kayserlinf. I'ctlio
Tei.reira : Kiiie lieisesliizze ala Kiiileitiuni i" J- J- liriija-
miii, Aclit Jalnr in Asirii uud AfricfU Hanov(>r, IKVi (Enjr.
lish transl. ih. Ittt)); idem, Bibl. Efp.-Port.-Jud. p. I(r>.

s. M. K.

TEKI'AH. See SnoF.\R.

TEKOA : City of southern Judea, frequently
mentioned in the Old Testament. Tiie "wise wom-
an " who brought about the recall of Absalom was a
resident of the city (II Sam. xiv. 3 et set].), and it
was also the lion)e of the prophet Amos (i. 1), the
herdsman aud the gatherer of sycamore fruit. The
fortification of Tekoa by Kehoboam (II Chron. xi.
6) gave it strategic importance. In the post exilic
period its inhabitants were Calebites (I Chron. ii.
24); and they aided Nehemiah in rebuilding the
wall (iii. 0, 27).

The site of Tekoa is tixed by Biblical data. It
was in the south (Jer. vi. 1), and in the vicinity of
the valley of Berachah ("blessing"), near the desert
to which it gave its name (II Chron. xx. 20, 26: I
Mace. ix. 33). The place is still more accurately
localized in Josh. xv. 60, where the Greek text of
a passage lost in the Hebrew places it, together with
Beth-lehem aud other towns of the hill-countrj'' of
Judali, south of Jerusalem. According to the
"Onoinasticon " of Eusebius aud Jerome, it lay
twelve Roman miles (eighteen kilometers) south of
that city aud to the east of Beth-lehem on the edge
of the desert. The site of the city is represented by
the modern Khirbat Taku'ah, a mass of scantily in-
habited ruins, with ancient cisterns and tombs and
the remains of a church, lying on a hill which
commands a wide landscape. Since the days of
Jerome the grave of Amos has been shown I
there. The Mishnah speaks in high i)raise of the
oil of Tekoa; and medieval Arabic authors mention
its honey.

E. c. I. Be.

TEKUFAH (lit. "turn," "cycle"): Season of
the year. The four tekufot are: (1) Tekufat Nisan,
the vernal equinox (March 21), when the sun enters
Aries; this is the beginning of spring, or " 'et ha-
zera' " (seed-lime), when day and night are e(iual;
(2) TekulatTammuz, the summer solstice (June 21),
when the sun enters Cancer; this is the summer sea-
son, or " 'et ha-kazir" (harvest-time), when tlie day
is the longest in the year; (3) Tekufat Tishri. the
autumnal equinox (Sept. 23), when the sun enters
Libra, and autumn, or "'et ha l)azir"

Seasons, (vintage-time), begins, and when the
day again equals the night; (4) Te-
kufat Tebet, the' winter solstice (Dec. 22), when thej
sun enters Capricornus; this is the beginning of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Teixeira
Teles

winter, or " 'et lia-horef " (stiipping-time), wlien the
iiiglit is tlie longest during the year. Each tekufah,
acconliiig lo Samuel Yarl.iinai, marks the beginning
of a period of 'Jl days and 7i hours.

that lias been boiled or used in salting or pickling.
'I'lic (hunger in unused water may be avoided by put-
ting in it a i)iece of iron or an iron vessel ("Bet
Yosef " on the "Tur," .■iiid Iss.rlcs" n,,\,. to Shulhan

Table of tue Tekufot During 1903-14.

a>
>-

Tekufat Tebet.

Tekufat Nisan.

5-1'

Tekufat Taiumuz.

Tekufat Tlshrl.

-4

liXl".

1().:!()

11.111.

Kri., Jan. G

G p. in

Fri.. April 7

1.30 a.ni

Sat., Julv8

9 a.m.

Sat., Oct ■

i'.m

4.;«i

|i.iii

Sat., Jan. 6....

12 p.m.

Sal., April 7

7.30 a.m.

Sun., JulvS....

1 3 p.m

Sun., Oct. '■

19(17

l(i.:i()

i>.iii.

Sun., Jan. G. ..

G a.m.

.Mon., April 8

1.30 p. m

M.in., Julv8...

2ti

9 p.m.

Moll., Oft. 7

iV)

19(18

•l.:i(i

a.m.

'I'lics., Jan. 7..

12 a.m.

Tiit'.-i., April 7

7.30 p.m

Tues., July 7...

. 3 a.m.

Wed., Oct. 7

liKK)

](i.:!(i

a. 111.

Wi'd.. Jan. G..

i;{

G p.m.

Wi'd., April 1

<■'■ 1

1. :50 a.m.

Thur.. Julys...

, 9 a.m.

Thur., Oct. 7

1910

4.:!()

)>.iii.

'rtiur., Jan.C..

2i)

12 p.m.

Ttiiir., April 7 ...

28*

7.30 a.m.

Fri., JulvS

I 3 p.m

Fri., Oct. 7

1911

!(!.:!( 1

p. 111.

Fri., .lan.G.. . .

Ga.m.

Sat., April 8

1.30 p.m.

Sat., JulvS

9 p.m.

Sat., (Jet. 7

1912

■l.:iii

I. HI.

Sun., Jan. 7...

12 a.m.

Sun., April 7

2(t

7.:iO p. in

Sun., Julv 7

•£i

' 3 a.m.

Mon.. Oct. 7

?«

19i;i

l().:i()

i.iii.

.Moil., Jan. 6. .

(i p.m.

Mon., April 7

1.30 a.m.

Tues.,Juiv8...

9 a.m.

Tues., uct. 7

1914

4.;w

p.m.

Tues., Jan. 6. .

12 p.m.

Tues., April 7

7.30 a.m.

Wed., July S...

14 1

3 p.m.

Wed., Oct. 7

*Adar II.

It will be noticed that the tekufot fall from four-
teen to eighteen days later than the true solar
equinox or solstice; this, however, does not inter-
fere with the calendar, which follows the figures of
R. Ada.

An ancient and widely believed superstition is

connected with the tekufot. All water that maybe

in tlie house or stored away in vessels in the first

hour of the tekufah is thrownawayiu

Supersti- the belief that the water is then poi-

tion. soned, and if drunk would cause swell-
ing of the body, sickness, and sometimes
death. Several reasons are advanced for this. Some
say it is because the angels who protect tiie water
change guard at the tekufah and leave itunvvatched
for a short time. Others say that Cancer fights
with Libra and drops blood into the water. Another
authority accounts for the drops of blood in the
water at Tekufat Nisan by pointing out that the
waters in Egypt turned to blood at that particular
moment. At Tekufat Tammuz, Moses smote the
rock and caused drops of blood to flow from it. At
Tekufat Tishri the knife which Abraham held to
slay Isaac dropped blood. At Tekufat Tebet,
Jephthah sacrificed his daughter (Abudarham,
"Slia'ar ha-Tekufot,"p. 122a, Venice, loGG).

The origin of the superstition can not be traced,
llai Gaon, in the tenth century, in reply to a ques-
tion as to the prevalence of this custom in the
" West " (i.e., west of Babylon), said it was followed
only in order that the new season might be begun
with a supply of fresh, sweet water. Ibn Ezra ridi-
cules the fear that the tekufah water will cause
swelling, and ascribes the belief to the "gossip
of old women " (ib.). Hezekiah da Silva, however,
warns his coreligionists to pay no attention to Ibn
Ezra's remarks, asserting that in his own times
many persons who drank water when the tekufah
occurred fell ill and died In consequence. Da Silva
says the principal danger lies in the first tekufah
(Nisan) ; and a special announcement of its occur-
rence was made bj' the beadle of the congregation
("Peri Hadash," on Orah Hayyim, 428, end).^ The
danger lurks only in unused water, not in water

'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 455, 1; "Be'er Heteb," to
Yoreh De'ah, 116, 5). R. Jacob MOlln required
that a new iron nail should be lowered by means of
a string into the water used for baking mazzot dur-
ing the Nisan tekufah ("Sefer Maharii," p. 6b, ed.
Warsaw).

See Calendar ; Montxi ; Sux, Blessing of.

J. J. D. E.

TELASSAR (iti'N^n) : City, along with Gozan,
Haran, and Reseph, which Rabshakeh mentions as
having been conquered by Sennacherib's predeces-
sors (II Kings xi.x. 12; Isa. xxxvii. 12). This city
was inhabited by the Bene 'Eden. Tlie cuneiform
in.scriptions mention a Bit-Adini, located in the up-
per Mesopotamiau country, which ma}' be identical
with the Biblical place. " Telassar " is probably, as
Schrader holds, the same name as "Til-Ashshuri "
(the hill of A.shur), and may have been given to any
])lace on which a temple was built. One such place
is found east of the Tigris, as shown by Schrader;
and another, mentioned by Tiglath-pileser III., was
probably in Babylonia. Esarhaddon, too, mentions
one near the land of the Mitanni. Telassar, tlien,
being a possible general, name, is located in at least
three sections of the great Mesopotamian valley by
as many separate cuneiform documents.

E. c. I. M. P.

TELCS, EDUARD : Hungarian sculptor; born
at Baja May 12, 1872. At the age of twelve he
went to Budapest and studied decorative art, but he
soon left tliat city for "Vienna, where he was edu-
cated for four years in the Allgcmeine Bildhauer-
scliule, winning the Fi'iger gold medal with his
"St. Boniface Striking Down the Banner of Wotan."
Heuextentered Professor Zumbu.-ich's school. wJiere
he studied for three years, gaining the school's first
prize with his "Two Drinkers," which later won a
medal of the second class at the World's Fair in
Antwerp. Teles attracted particular attention in
1900 by being awarded, for his monument in honor
of Empress Elizabeth of Austria, first prize among
many competitors. He is now (1905) at work on
a statue of the poet VOrOsmarty to be erected in

Telesinus
Temesvar

THE .T?:WISn EXCYCLOPEDIA

Budapest, and another of Kossuth in Kecskemet,
having been awarded both these commissions as a
result of competition.

s. L. V.

TELESINUS : Jew of Telesia, who lived at
Rome about 480. Not only did Pope Gelasius refer
to him, in a letter to IJisliop Quingesius, as a " vir
clarissimus" and his most deserving friend, but he
reconunended Telesinus' relative Autouius (Autius)
to the bishop. Telesinus. moreover, is mentirmed in
papal docinnents as the i)liysician of Pope Gelasius.
Of late it has been denied that Telesinus was phy-
sician in ordinary to Gelasius or even a physician
at all.

BlBLiOGR.^PHY: Berliner. Ge^ch. <lcr Jiuliti in Hum, ii. 4;
Viifrelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Jmtai in if«/»i, i. I".i8, and
note.
s. A. M. F.

TELL EL-AMARNA : Xame derived from the
Beni 'Ammnor El-Amarna Bedouins, and now given
t» the extensive ruins and roek-cut tombs which arc
the last relics of the ancient royal city of Kliut Ateii.
These ruins are in middle Egypt, on the east bank
of the Nile, near the villages of Hagg Kandil on the
south and Et-Tell on the north. They are the ruins
of a city built by Amenophis IV., of the eighteenth
Egyptian dynasty. Shortly after the beginning of
his reign, Amenophis broke away from the worship
of all gods except Aten, the god of the solar disk.
Heaccordiugh' removed from Thebes, which for cen-
turies had been the Egyptian capital.
Of the and built a new city, in which ancient
Eighteenth traditions and inversted religious inter-
Dynasty, ests should not be al)le to oppose his
reforms. lie selected the site now
known as fel-Amarna, in the Heimopolitan nome
in central Egypt, in Avhich a royal palace and
a temple of Aten were soon surrounded by resi-
dences of nobles and of others who would naturally
follow in the train of royalty. After the death of
Amenophis the old religion reasserted itself, the
royal residence was soon moved back to Thebes, and
the city which he had been at so much pains to
build fell into decay. As the reign of Amenophis
was less than twenty years, the occupation of his
new capital can not have been long. Its site was
never reoccupied, so that the course of the streets
of Khut Aten and the plans of the ancient palaces
and houses may still be traced in the mound.

The position of the jjalace of Amenophis was dis-
covered by Petrie during his excavation at El-
Amarna in 1891-92. It is indicated on the mound
to-day by a building erected to preserve some painted
stucco pavements which once formed a part of the
palace. These paintings, as well as those in the
neighboring tonil)s, prove that tiie artists of the
time of Amenophis had emancipated themselves
from ordinary Egyptian conventions, and repre-
sented objects much more naturally than had liitli-
erto been the case.

The attention of the modern world was first called
to El-Amarna by the discovery, accidentally made
by a peasant woman late in 18H7, of more than 300
cuneiform tablets, which turned out to be letters
written to Amenophis III. and Amenophis TV. l)y
kings of various Asiatic countries and by Egyptian

olHcials or vassals in Phenicia, Syria, and Palest im-.
This correspondence opened vistas of Oriental his-
tory that had been entirely unsuspected. Kadash-
UKUi-Bel and i.'urnalniiiasli, kings of
The Babylon ; Ashuruballit, a king of As-

El-Aniarna syria ; Dushratta, a king of .Mittani;

Tablets. and a king of Alashia (supi)ose(l lo lie
Cyprus)— all had friendly correspond-
enc-e with the Egyjitian kings. An entirely new
conception of international r(.latk)us at this period
was thus ac(iuired ; and the remarkable fact was es-
tablished that the language of diplomatic intercourse
was then the cuneiform Babylonian. The majority
of the letters Avere from vas.sals or otlicials in places
like Gebal, Tyre. Sidon, Lachish, Jerusalem, etc.
— letters which proved that even in writing to Egyp-
tians the natives of this region used Babylonian
cuneiform. Thus a long domination of tiiese coun-
tries by Babylonian inlliience, before the Egyptian
conquest by Thothmes III., was evident. The con-
tents of the letters alTord a vivid picture of the way
in which the Asiatic empire of Egypt was disinte-
grating under the weak administration of Ameno-
phis IV.

Amenoi)liis IV. Iiad an Asiatic mother. He was
accordingly more interested in preserving these let-
ters than most P^gyptian kings would have been;
those which had been written to his father he took to
his new capital, while those Avhich were written to
himself were stored in the same archive, wheie they
remained until 1887. After their discovery the P.rit
ish Museum i)urcliased 87 of llieni, the Berlin ^lu-
seum IGO (a considerable number being fragments),
the Gizeh ^Museum at Cairo oblaiiunl CO, while about
20 were purchased l)y jirivale persons.

niHi.iotJRAi'iiv : Bai'iicker, Kf/i/p/. pp. :?n:! ct siy/., I.pipsio,
liKL': Budpe, Hist<iriii>f Kivi],t, iv. 117-141. 1S4-»'41, London,
1!HL»; Bczokl, The TiU-FA-Amarua TahUts in thf livitish
Musrtiiii, Liiiidon, 1S91 ; Oriental J)i}il(inHU'>i, Lotidon. 1893;
Wiiicklcr, Ihr ThnntdfelfundVDn El-AniariKi. Berlin, isyj;
Dii Tlmntiifdn von TeU-El-Aniarna (vol. v. of Sclirader,
A'. /}.).

K. c. G. A. I].

TELLER, LEOPOLD: Hungarian actor ; born
at Ibulapest April 8, 1S44. For a time he studied
medicine at the University of Vienna, but in 1862
he went to Laibach, where he joined a theatrical
company. Duiing the following ten years lie i)layed
at small theaters in Iglau, Klagenfurt, Tropjiau,
Budapest, Leipsic, and Liebenstein; and from 1874
to 1890 he was a member of the " ]\Ieininger," and
appeared in such roles as tiliylock, Ifi'jo, Gessler,
Franz Moor, and Marinelli. On leaving the " iMein-
inger" he secured an engagement at theStadttheater
in Hamburg, where his principal roles weie Gruf
Trust, Doctor Crttsiiis, and Graf Menr/es. In 1899 he
retired from the stage, and settled as teacher of
elocution in llanihurg. He has written a play
entitled " Wintersoimenwende," which has met with
considerable success.

BinLiOfiR,\rHv: Eiscntierp, Tiinij. Lex.

F. T. H.

TELLER, PROBST. See Fi:iedlander,
David.

TELLHEIM, CAROLINE. See Bettelheim,

C.\i:oi.iM-: VON.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Telesinus
Temesvar

TEMAN : OrigiiuiUy, the name of a tribe and then
of ;x ilislrict of tlie Kdomitos. In Biblical genealogy
it is the name of the eldest son of Kliphaz, the
lirst-boin of Esau, and one of the "dukes" of Edoni
(Gen. xxxvi. 11, 15,43; I Chron. i. iifi, 53). The
genealogy here noted proves that Tenianwas one of
the most important of the Edomite tribes, and this
is conlirmed by the fact that "'Tenian " is used as a
synonym for Edom itself (Amos i. 12; Obad. 9;
comp. Jer. xli.\. 20, 22; llab. iii. 3). The Teman-
ites were famed for their wisdom (Jer. xlix. 7;
Baruch iii. 22); Eliphaz, the oldest and wi.sest of
tlie friends of Job, is described as a member of this
tribe (Job ii. 11 ct pasfdin).

Teman is referred to in Obad. 9 us a part of the
mount of Esau, while Amos i. 12 mentions it in cou-
nection with the Kdonntic "palaces of Bozrah '' ;
Ezek. XXV. ISspcaksof it in contrast to the southern
boiuulary Dedan. The " Onomasticon " of Eusel)ius
(260, 155) mentions a region called Tliaiman, in Geba-
lene (the Ckhal of Ps. Ixxxiii. 8 [A. V. 7]), and thus
in the district of Petra, noting also an East Teman,
a town with a Roman garri.son fifteen (according to
Jerome, five) miles from Petra.

E. c. I. Be.

TEMERLS, JACOB BEN ELIEZER (known
also as Jacob Ashkenazi) : German Talmudist
and cabalist; born at Worms at the end of the six-
teenth century; died at Vienna about 1607. At an
early age Temerls went to Poland, and for some
years directed a Talmudical school at Lublin.
Thence he removed to Kremenetz, where he passed
♦the greater part of his life. In his old age he
settled at Vienna, where he remained until his death.
He enjoyed a high reputation both as a Talmudist
and as a cabalist, and was lauded by his contem-
poraries for his great piety. He is said to have
fasted forty years, during which period he never
left the bet ha-niidrash.

Temerls was the author of " Sifra di-Zeni'uta de-
Ya'ukob," containing a cabalistic commentary on
the Pentateuch and rules for the study of the Cab-
ala (Amsterdam, 1669). He left in manuscript:
"She'elot u-Teshubot," a collection of responsa,
quoted in "Emunat IShemuel" (t^ 53); a comprehen-
sive commentary on the Pentateuch and the Megillot,
quoted by himself in his "Sifra di-Zrni'uta de-
Ya'akob"; a commentary on the "Idrot"; a com-
mentary on difficult passages in the Babylonian
and Palestinian Talmuds; explanations of some
passages of the Zohar, the books of the Prophets,
and the Ilagiographa; and a dissertation on Luria's
cabalistic writings.

BlBLiofJUAPHY : Nepi-Ohirondi, Toledot Gedole YUraeU PP
210, :iT(l (where .lacob is confouiKled with the brother of Shab-
bethai Bass); Steinsilineifier, i'nt. lindl. col. 12.'>S; Fuenii,
Keyieset Yisrael, p. 581 ; Dembitz, Kelilat Yofi, il. 117.
s. I. Bn.

TEMESVAR: Hungarian city. The oldest
gravestone in the Jewish cemetery is dated 1636, and
was erected in memory of Azriel Assacli of Salonica.
Between 1552 and 1716 large numbers of Spanish
Jews settled in Temesvar, where the Turkish gov-
ernment received them with favor; but after the
capture of the city in 1716 by Prince Eugene their
treatment became less favorable, for Temesvar and

its district were annexed to Hungary and adminis-
tered as an Austrian province. In 1718 the pro-
vincial government ordered the expulsion of the
Jews from the city on the charge of being Turkisli
spies. The order was not strictly enforced, how-
ever, on account of the intlucnce of .Mo.scs Lopez
Pereira Diego d'AGiri.AU, the founder of tlie Se-
phardic community; Maria Theresa even jiermitled
five other Spanish Jewi.sh families to settle- in tlic
city. D'Aguilar presented to the Sephardic com-
munity mantles of the Law and silver crowns for
the scrolls of the Torah. At that time the Span-
ish Jews had a society for the promotion of llie
study of the Bible, while another association re-
ceived official recognition from the Count of Wallis,
ihe commander-in-chief of the citadel.

Asin Bohemiaand Moravia, the Jewsof Temesvar
were oppressed by the restrictions formulated i)y
Maria Theresa in 1776. Only forty-nine were per-
mitted to reside in the city. They were restricted to
a single community, headed by a dayyan and a
rabbi; nor might they contract mar-
Residence riages or leave the city without the
Limited, permission of the authorities. Only
eight were allowed to engage in com-
merce ; and the distinction between Ashkenazim and
Sephardim was abolished, the whole Jewry being
comprised under the term "protected Jewsof the
cities and counties of the Banat." Jews from other
places were forbidden to enter the city except for
commercial purposes, when they were required to
pay a daily tax of five groschen for protection, and
were obliged to leave the city at night. Jews were
forbidden either to have Christian servants or to live
in the houses of Christians, and Avere compelled to
reside in a ghetto in the citadel, their quarter being
bounded by the streets now called Varoshaz, Szerb.
Erzsil)et, and Jeno. Marriages might be performed
only by the rabbi of Temesvar, and all Jews who
died in the province were to be buried in the ceme-
tery of the city. It was not until the reign of Jo-
seph II. (1780-90) that the condition of the Jews of
Temesvar began to improve.

The community's most important societ}', next to
the charitable organization, is the Jewish Women's
Club of the citadel, one of the oldest societies of
Hungary, founded by Sarolta Fischel in 1846. This
is the famous Jewish society which gave Louis Kos-
suth 800 crowns for patriotic purposes on the out-
break of the Hungarian revolution. During the oc-
cupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina this society
rendered valuable aid by sending food to the
wounded ; and at the time of the flood at Szcgedin,
in 1879, it materially assisted the poor, especially
by maintaining a soup-kitchen. The commu-
nity supports two other women's clubs, founded in
1847 and 1869 respectively, as well as the Talmud
Torah (a charitable organization), the Maskil el Dal.
and a hcbra kaddisha, the last-named established in
1748, although its hospital in the citadel has since
been demolished.

Temesvar has had the following rabbis: Jacob
Moses of Belgrade (Sephardi : 1739); Eliczer Lip-
mann, author of the commentary "Migdal Pawid "
(1748); Jonathan Trebitsch. chief rabbi of Transyl-
vania (1752); Johanan b. Isaiah (1775); Zebi Hirsch

Temesvar

Temple, Administration of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

b. Israel (Hershelc Haiif; 178'2); and David h. Zcbi
Oppenheiin (1801), and his son David Hirsch Oppen-
hciin, author of " 'Eue lia-Da'at " (Budapest, 1829).
The rabbinate of Temesvar has always included
the entire district composed of Lugos, Versecz,
Karansebes. Pancsova, and Nagv Becskerek. In

city possesses a synagogue in the Moorisii style, built
in 1865. There is a small Sepliardic synagogue in
the citadel, but the Spanish Jews in Temesvar are
now very few, and their old place of worship, the
Judenhof, founded in 1760, has been demolished to
make room for the new Reform synagogue.

Synagogue at Temesvar, uunuarv.

(From a pholoi^raph.)

1863 Moritz Ilirschfeld was elected rabbi, and was
succeeded by Moritz Lowy. Since 1860, however,
internal dissensions have divided the community
into factions, with the Reform rabbi, Moritz LOwy,
at the head of the one in the city, and the Orthodox
rabbi, Jakf)b Singer, leading that in the citadel.

The lattercontainsasynagogue intiie Renaissance
Gothic style, designed by Leopold Baumhorn; the

The earliest Jewish census at Temesvar was taken
in 1739, when liiere were 139 Ashkenazim and 81
Sephardim (46 families altogether). In 17'),") there
were 23 Jewisii families in the city; 53 in 1772; 76
in 1776; and 72 in 1781. In 1840 the Jewi.sh popu-
lation of the city was about 1,200, of whom 750 lived
in the citadel, 340 in the city, and about 50 in the
suburbs. In 1858 the number was 2,202; in 1890,

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Temesvar

Temple, Administration of

4,.S70; and in 1901, 5.788 (incliulinij; .Tcwisli sol-
.licrs, 5.910). Tiio total populiiliuu of 'J'l'iuesvur is

53,<);j;3.

I',ii!i.i(i(!KAriiY : M. I,(i\vy. Shizzcn zur (Irxfliiclitr (In-Jiidcii
III 'I'l iiirsi'i'ir : .lakobSiiifiLT, .l((((((i <( Jianat i Zs'iili'ik 'J'iirliit,
Hiuiapcsl, VM'>.
s. .). Si.

TEMPLE, ADMINISTRATION AND
SERVICE OF : 'liiu alliiir.s of tlie Si-coiul Tciiipic
wcn' iiiaiiagiHl by aboard of fifteen appointed olliccis
Cnicinunniin"). The .Mi.si)nali records liie following
naniesof ollieers of the Temple without stating their
respective jieriods of activity ; l)iitilis presiin)ed they
were those api)ointed in the time of Agrippa: (1) Jo-
lianan b. Phinehas, in charge of the seals given
ill e.\(liange for money to purchase sacrifices, (2)
Aiiijah, of libations; (3) JMatlithiah b. Samuel, of
allotments {i.e., the .selection f)f jiriests for the day);
(-1) Pethahiah. of the nests of fowls (for sacrifices);

(5) Ben Ahijah, of the health department (treat-
ing especially a disease of the bowels caused by
the bare feet touching the cold marble pavement);

(6) Nehunya, of the digging of wells (for the
pilgrims on the highways leading to Jei-usalem);

(7) Gebini (Gabinimus), of announcements (the Tem-
ple crier); (8) Ben Geber, of the gates (ojicning and
closing then;); (9) Ben Babi, of the wicks for the
candlestick (" menorah") ; (10) Ben Arza, of the cym-
bals (leading the music of the Levites); (11) Ilugras

(Ilugdas) b. Levi, of the musical in-

OflBcers. strunients; (12) the Garnui family, of
the i)reparation of the showbread ;
(13) the Abtinas family, of the incense; (14) Elea-
zar, of the curtains; and (1.")) T^hiiiehas, of the ve.st-
ments (Shek. v. 1; comp. Maimonides, "Yad," Kele
ha-Mikdash, vii. 1).

Seven trustees ("'amarkelim ") and three cashiers
("gi/.bariiu ") had charge of the Temple treasury.
In the courts were thiiteen contribution-boxes in
the sliajie of sholarim, Avith narrow necks and broad
bases (Shek. vi.). The half-shekel contribution for
public .sacrifices, etc., was demanded on the first
of Adar and was payable by the twenty-fifth of
the same month {ib. i. 1, 3). Tliere was a special
room, called " Lishkat Hashsha'im " (Secret Cham-
ber), for anonymous donations, out of which fund
the worthy i)oor were supported. Into the Vessel
Chamber the ])eople threw donations of silver and
gold vessels. Every thirty days this chamber was
opened by the cashiers, who selected such vessels as
could be >itili/.ed in the Temple, the rest being .sold
and the jtroceeds applied to a fund for repairing
the Temple building ("bedek ha-bayit"; ib. v. 4).

The jiriestly oflicials were: the high priest, his
dejiuty c'segan"), and his two attendants ("katoli-
kin" = "cat'holicus").

A strict watch over the Temple was maintained,
ihe guard being composed of three priests and
iwenty-one Levites. The priests were stationed one
at the Chamber of the Flame ("Bet ha-Nizoz "), one
at the Chamber of the Hearth ("Bet ha-Moked "),
and one at the Chamber (attic) of Abtinas (see dia-
gram, page 95). The Levites kept guard as fol-
lows: one at each of the five gates of the mount
entrances; one at each of the four corners within
the mount enclosure; one at each of the five impor-
XII.— 6

tant gates of tlie courts; oueaLeacii ol the lnurcor-
ners within the court; one ul the Chandier of Sacri-
fice; one at the Chamber of Curtains;

Priestly and one behind the " Kapi>oret " (Hf)ly

Guard. of Holies). The captain of the

guard saw that every man was alert.

chastising a i)riest if found asleep at Ids post, and

sometimes even i)unishing liim l)y Ijurning his sliiit

u|)on him, as a warning to others (Mid. i. 1).

The priests were divided into twenty-four p;iii<Ms
("nushmarot'), which were changed every week.
The jiatrol was quartered jiartly in the Chandler of
the Flame and principally in the Chamber of the
Hearth, botli of which were on the north side of tiie
inner court (" 'azarali "). The latter chandxT was a
capacious one, surmounted by a dome. Half of llie
chamber extended outside the court to the "hel." u
kind of ]ilatform suirounding the courts, winch was
considered as secular, in contrast to the sacred jucin-
iscs within, where the priests were not allowed to sit
down, much less to sleep. A fire was always kept
burning in the outer extension, at which the priests
mightwarm their hands and bare feet. Hereakso iliey
might sit down and rest for a while. At night the
elder priests slept liere on divans placed on rows
of stone steps one above another. The younger
priests slept on cu.shions on the floor, putting their
.sacred garments under their heads and covering
themselves with their secular clothing (Taniid i. 1).
The elder priests kept the keys of the Tenijile, put-
ting them at night under a marble slab in the floor;
to this slab a ring was attached for lifting it. A
])riest watched over or slejU on the slab imtil the
keys were demanded by the olVicer in the moining.

The king when visiting the Temple had no riglits
bej'ond those of the (udinary Israelite; only the
kings of the house of David were i>rivileged to sit
down in the 'azarah (Sotah 41b; Tamid 27a).

The major Saidiedrin. Cf>mposed of 71 members,

sat in the Chamber of Hewn Stone ("'Lishkat ha-

Gazit")on the extreme north of the priests' hall.

Two tribunals of minor Sanhedrin. each composed

of twenty-three members, sat f)ne by

The the south gate of the mount and one

Judiciary, in front of the hall on the north side.

The sessions were held from the mmn-

ing sacrifice till that of the afternoon. On Sabbaths

and holy days, to facilitate increased business the

major Sanhedrin .sat ouLside on the he! (Sanh. 88b),

and the minor Sanhedrin assembled in the bet lia-

midrash situated on the moimt (Tosef., Hag. ii.).

Entrance within the enclosure of the mount was
permitted to any one who was decently attired and
who carried no burden. Lsraelites wjien ritually
unclean and Gentiles were not allowed to pass be-
yond the "soreg," a fence which surrounded the
courts at a distance of ten cubits. The outer court,
called " 'Ezrat Nashim " (Women's Hall), was for the
use of ordinary Israelites. The priests'
Local hall was reserved for the prit sts and
Divisions Levites; occasionally, liowever, men
and Water- and women juesenting sin-oJTerings,

Supply. sacrifices on wiiich they were rc«i<iired

to place the hands (".<;eniikah "). made

iise of it. At the festivals, to accommodate the

large crowds, all Israelites were permitted to enter

Temple, Alministration of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the priests' ball, on which occasion the curtain of
the vestibule was raised to show the people the in-
terior of the ''Hekal" (see Pilguimage). The
people, though tightly packed, were able to find
sufficient space in which to prostrate themselves,
this being one of the miracles associated with the
Temple. The people crowded to within eleven
cubits behind the Holy of Holies (Yoma 21a).

Another phenomenon was the water-supply. A
spring rising below the Holy of Holies from an
opening as narrow as the antennrc of a locust in-
creased when it reached the entrance to the Hekal to
the size of a warp-thread; at the entrance to the
vestibule it assumed the size of a woof-thread; and

rah. being unfit for service till sunset of the same
day.

The order of the priests' daily service in the
Temple was as follows: One of the priests arose
early and bathed before the arrival of the officer,
who usually came about cockcrow. The officer
knocked at the door of the Chamber of the Hearth,
and the priests opened it. He called for the priest

who had bathed, and ordered him to
Order of decideb)lot which of the priests should
Service. serve that day. The officer then took

the keys and entered through the
wicket C'pishpush ") of tJie door to the 'azarah, fol-
lowed by the priests who formed the patrol, each

^SZ^i^^^^^^^^^Oi

TiiK Tkmple at Jkrisalkm.

(From a Passover Ha^-gadah, prioUd at Amsterdam, 1695.)

at the house of David it became an overflowing
brook (Yoma 77b, 78a). This spring is referred to
in the pa.ssage " And behold, waters issued out from
under the threshold of the hou.se ... at the south
side of the altar " (Ezek. xlvii. 1, 2); it was the mys-
terious spring that filled the bath of Ishmael the
high priest, situated by the attic of Abtinas on the
south of the court, at the water-gate. There was
another bath, in a passage under the Cliamber of
the Hearth, for the use of any ordinary priest who
might become ritually unclean. This was reached
by a winding staircase. The priest, having bathed,
dried himself by the fire; he then dressed and re
turned to his comrades above, withAvhom he waited
until the gates were opened, when he left the 'aza-

holding two torches. Tin; iiutinl was divided into
two sections ; one going through the colonnade on the
east, and one on the west, the sections meeting on
the south side at the chamber where they prepiired
the "habittin" (the baked cake for the meal olTer-
ing). The priests now asked one another "Is all
well? " and received the answer " All is well.'" Tlie
officer assigned by lot the making of the habittin.
Similarly be selected a priest to clean the altar of
ashes, his comrades uttering the warning: "Be
careful not to touch the sacred vessels before thou
sanctifiest [by washing] thy liands and feet at the
laver; and see that the coal-shovel ["mahtah"] is in
its place [near the " kebesh," the inclined plank or
bridge leading to the altar]." Proceeding without

Temple, Administration of
Temple of Herod

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

any light sa%-e that of the pyreC" lua'tiiakah '') on the
altar, he disappeared below, aud was next heard op-
erating the machinery for raising the laver from the
well. This consisted of a wooden wheel and shaft
and a chain, a device designed by tiie high priest Ben
Kattin. The noise caused b}' this operation fixed
tiic time for washing hands and feet. The priest took
the silver " mahtah" aud ascended the altar; push-
ing the large coals aside, he took a shovelful of ashes
and charred wood, and, descending, turned north-
ward anil deposited the ashes in a heap on the lloor
three handbreadths from the" kebesh," where also the
ashes from the golden altar and the candlestick were
placed. The authorities disagree as to the disposi-
tion of the ashes: some say they fell through a grate
in the fioor; others, that they were removed later.
Observing his act, the priest's comrades hurried to
wash their liands and feet at the laver. They then
took large shovels ("' magrefot ") and maile a heap
("tappuah "; of the ashes of the altar in the center,
other priests meanwhile using flesh-hooks to place
a.side the portions of the sacrifices that had not been
consumed during the night. When the heap of
ashes was sufiiciently large it was removed outside
the city. The priests now brought pieces of all
kinds of wood except olive and vine, and built a
new pyre, on which they replaced the unconsumed
portions of the sacrifices. For a second pyre, in-
tended for the burning of incense, they selected the
best fig-wood. Having lit the two pj'res, they de-
scended from the altars.

The officer then ordered the priests to decide bj'^ lot
■who should slaughter the sacrificial victim, wlio
should sprinkle the blood, who should clean the
ashes from the golden altar and from the golden
candlestick, and who should attend to the sacrifices
in detail. This being done, the oflicer commanded :
"Go ye and see if it is time to commence the sacrifi-
cial service!" Mounting to an eminence of tiie
Temple, they looked toward the east, till at length
one shouted, "Barkail" (the morning light has ap-
])eared). Mattitliiah b. Samuel said
The Tamid they asked him, " Has the light in the
Sacrifice, east reached Hebron?" and he an-
swered. "Yes." The mention of He-
bron was made to honor the memory of the ])atriarchs
buried there. The ofiicer then said: "Go and fetch
a lamb from the Chamber of the Lambs" (situated
at tlie nortiieast corner of the 'azarah). The priests
entered also the Ves.sel Ciiamberand took theiefrom
ninety-three vessels of silver and gold. The lamb
was now examined by the liglit of torches lo see
whether it was free from blemishes; and water from
a golden cup was given it to diink. The priest
selected by lot then dragged the animal to the abat-
toir, north of the altar. Meanwhile other priests
advanced with tiie "tcni," a gold dish in the shape
of a l)asket of a"tarkab" measure; tiie "kuz," a
gold pitcher ; and two keys wherewith to open the
Hckal, one from the outside and one from within
tlirough the wicket or lattice of a cell on the north
side of the vestibule. The bolt was thrown back
and the doors unlocked, causing a noise which was
heard a long distance and which was the signal for
the sholiet to slatighter the jierpetual morning sac-
rifice ("tamid shel shal.iarit") at the abattoir, while

the i)riest in the Hekal carefully gathered up all the
ashes of the golden altar into the teni, put this on
the floor, and went out. The priest with the kuz
cleared the candlestick of ashes, leaving the two
lights nearest to the east to burn till the evening.
li he found them extinguished he renewed and re-
lighted them, after which hetrimmedtheother lamps.
In front of the candlestick were three marble steps,
on the top one of which the priest stood to trim aud
light the lamps. When he had finished he i)ut the
kuz on the sectmd step and went out. On the first
step the tongs aud suuiT-dishes were placed (Maimou-
ides, " Yad," Bet ha-Behirah, iii. 11). The teni was
removed by tlie priest chosen to remove the ashes of
the altar after the incense had been offered ; the kuz,
by the priest who in the afternoon attended to the
two lights of the candlestick that had been burning
all day.

'J'he slaughter of the lamb was clTected as follows:
The front legs were bound to the hind legs, the head
pointiug south with its face toward the west. The
shohet stood facing the west. The
The morning tamid was slaughtered at the

Abattoir, northwest corner, that of the after-
noon at the northeast corner, of the
altar at the second ring. There were tweiitv-four
rings, in four rows, fixed to the floor on hinges; in
these tlie heads of the animals were held in jiosition.
The priest who received the blood in a basin stood
facing the south. He sprinkled the blood ou both
sides of the northeast aud southwest corners of the
altar. The removal of the hide and the dis.section
of the carcass were shared by the priests, and
were followed by the meal-ofl'eriug (Lev. vi. 13).
This accomplished, the priests went to the Chamber
of Hewn Stoue. There the ofiicer directed them to
recite one benediction (" Ahabah liabbah ") and to
read the Ten Commandments and the "Sliema',"
after which they blessed the people. On Sabbaths
they blessed also with "love, brotherhood, peace,
aud friendship " the patrol that was about to go oflf
duty.

Finally, the priests drew lots for the incense serv-
ice, and the various assignments were made, only
those who had not been previoiKsl}' selected being
admitted to tiie ballot. The priests
The that were not to sliaie in the service

Incense of the day now removed their priestl}'

Service. garments and then, having delivered

them to an attendant who placed them

in the proper lockers, dres.sed themselves in their

secular clothes aud retired from the 'a/.arahtill tiieir

next turn.

During the sacrifice the Lcvites were at tiieir sta-
tions on the steps leading to the jiriests' liall, and iu
front of the dukan; but the}'' did not connneuce
their music until tiie liliation at Hie conclusion of
the service. Tlie musical iuslrument called the
"magrefah," somewhat similar to the organ, stood
lietween the altar and the vestibule. Its tones,
which could be heard a long distance, Avere the
signal for the priests to prostrate themselves: this
took place after the inceuse-on'eriiig.

Special honor was paid to the high ]iriest. He
was attended by three priests: one on his right, one
on his left, and one holding up the breastplate

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Temple, Administration of
Temple of Herod

adorned willi precious stones. The liigli priest
euteretl tiie Ilekul alone, and after tlic eurlain was
lowered, lie prostrated liinisiif and retired. The
ofliecr who waited in the vestibule, on hearing tlie
sound <jf the bells on the Jieni of the; high priest's
garment, raised the cnrtain. After

Honor to tlie high priest had left, the ollieer

the Hig-h who acted as sagan entered the Ilekal

Priest. and prostrated himself; and on liis

retirement the other priests entered

and followed his example. In case tlie high priest

desired to offer the incense he was assisted by the

odicer and two attendants.

At tlie conclu.sion the priests bearing the live
empty vessels — the basket, pitcher, laiUe, spoon, and
cover — used in the service of the allar, and those
carrying the candlestick and incense, stood in line
on the staircase
of the vestibule,
and. raising their
hands as high as
their shoulders,
recite d t h e
priestly benedic-
tion.

T h e li i g li
priest; then of-
fered the liba-
tion of wine
(" nesakini ").
Tlie()Hicer stood
in the corner
with kerchief
(flag) in hand,
and two priests
with s i 1 v e i'
trumpets by the
table, the cym-
bals meanwhile
playing between
them. The
t r u m peters
sounded "tcki-
'ah, teru'ah, tv.-

kiah"; the high priest commenced the ceremony
of the libation; the ollieer unfurled the kerchief;
the cymbals clashed ; and the Levites .sang liymns
accompanied by music. During the pauses the
trumjiet soiuided "teki'ah," and the people in the
'azarah prostrated themselves; at every pause a
teki'ah and a prostration. The order of the daily
Psalms from Sunday to Saturday was as follows:
Ps. xxiv., xlviii., Ixxxii., xciv., Ixxxi., xclii., xciv.

.1. J. D. E.

TEMPLE OF HEROD: In the eighteenth year
(20-lU r..c.) of his reign Herod rebuilt tlie Temple
on a more niagniticent scale. There are many evi-
dences that lie shared the passion for building by
which many powerful men of that time were moved.
He had adorned many cities and had erected many
heathen temples; and it was not fitting that tlie
temple of his capital should fall beneath these in
magnificence. Probably, also, one of his motives
was to ]ilacate the more pious of his subjects, whose
sentiments he had often outraged.

The Jews were loth to have their Temple pulled

Greek Inscription, Found on Site of Temple Area, Forbidding Geuules to Kiner
Witliin tiie Inner 'I'einple Walls.

(In the iiiuseuui at CoDstantiuople.)

down, fearing lest it might not be rebuilt. To de-
monstrate his good faith, Herod acccumulated the
materials for the new building before the old one
was taken down. Tlie new Temple was rebuilt
as rapidly as po.ssible, being finished in a year and
a half, although work was in pnjgress on tlu; out-
buildings and courts for eighty years. As it was
unlawful for any but priests to enter the Temple,
Herod employed 1,000 of them as masons and car-
penters.

The Temple pro|)er as reconstructed by Heroil was
of the same dimensions as that of Solo-
Dimen- mon, viz. : (50 cubits long, 20 cubits
sions, wide, and 40 cubits high. This space
was divided into the Holy (jf Holies
and the " Ilekal." The former measured 20 X 20 cu-
bits; thelatter, 20x40("B.J."v. 5, §5). Attheen-

t ranee to tlic
outer Temple
hung a veil em-
broidered in
blue, white (bys-
sus), .scarlet, and
purple ; the
outer Temple
was .separated
from tin; Holy of
Holies by a sim-
ilar cnrtain.
The outer cur-
tain was folded
back on the
.«outh side, and
the inm-r one on
the north side,
so that a ])riest
in entering the
Holy of Holies
traversed the
outer Temple di-
agonally. The
Holy of Holies
was quite emp-
ty. In the Holy
Place stood the altar of incense, near the entrance to
the Holy of Holies the seven-branched golden C.\N-
DLESTICK to the south, and the table of showbread to
the north. Above the gate of the Temple were golden
vines and grape-clusters as large as a man ("Ant."
XV. 11, p; "B.J. "v. 5. §4). the Temple building
had an upper story similar in size to the lower (" B.
J." V. 5, i; 5). Side-structures, as in Solomon's Tem-
ple, aiTorded space for three stories of chambers on
the north, south, and west siiles of the Temple.
These chambers were connected by doors; and trap-
doors alTorded communication from tho.sc of one
story to those of the story immediately above or be-
low. The whole breadth of the structure inclu-
ding the side-buildings was 70 cubits (Mid. iv. 7).
East of Herod's Temple there was, as in Solo-
mon's, a jioreh, 100 cubits wide, 100 cubits liigh,
and 20 cubits deep, thus extending 15 cubits on
either side of the Temple (" B. J." v. 6, ti 4). Its
gateway, which had no gates, was 20 cubits broad
and 70 cubits high. Over this gateway Herod erected
a golden eagle, which was afterward pulled down

Temple of Herod

THE JEWISH E>'CYCLOPEDIA

by the Jews(~AiJt."xvii. 6. § 2t. Tbe front of the
p - ■■-'■■■ .-oldCB.J." V. 5. ^4):r.- ■

i: a the rays of th« nion. .

sua feil uiKtp it.

Iq front of the Temple, 22 cubits dij.j... ;■ n
the porch, stootl the altar of burnt offerin?. con-
structed of unhewn stones. Its length .
were each 50 cubits, and its height 15 ^ . ..-
J." V. 5. ^ 5). To the north of the altar twenty-
four rings were fixed in the ground, to which the
sa - •' ■ ••■ . •■ ' '! i. ^e&T by were eight

J. _ .na5, on which tbe car-

casses of tue aniiiiais were hung. 1
eight marble tables for preparing :h.-..^^..-. :: -^-

J." V. 5, § 2). If the first part of this account

,•; r^,.. only the lengtli of the Temple area was

. the width remaining the same. It is more

that Herod eularged the area in both di-

- though it is possible that it had been en-

tbe size of a square stadium by one of the

The size to which Henxl increaseti

.. .. -.- almost that of the prest-ni Haram en-

.re. The sacred territory has been increased

since the time of Herod only on the north.

In order to obtain space for this area on the top of

a hill the sides of which sloped so steeply, it was

' to extend artificially the surface of the

.:.--.:. This was done, especially t^ tl>e ^initli.

i;-..i. Now Calixd "Solomox's Stables.

(Mid. iiL 5, V. 2; Tamid iii. 5; Shek. vi. 4). On

t: ': was a bronze laver for the priestly ablu-

ti i. iii. 6: Yoma iii. 10).

If sacred tradition compelled Herod to conform

closely to the ani ' ■ ' la of the holy hous-

in_ vary little from pr -

save in its fayade. his Grecized taste
an!' ■ s '■- ■■ -'■■■■■ -■:■-.-•■ ■■- ■■ -■-

The Tem-
ple
Coxirts.

i-^rst of ail, he greatly enlarged

^ = phus says that before the

■• area was square, each side

being a stadium ("Ant." xv. 11, § 3 — conflicting

ters.
the Temr'
time of li
a
with the statement of Hecataeus, see Jew. Excyc.
xii. yTb), and that Herod so enlarged the courts
that the perimeter was increased to six stadia (~ B.

where the massive masonry (called by the Arab^
■ -^ ' u's Stables") which Herod constructed t;
- , . a pavement on a level with the surface oi
the bill farther to tbe north may still be seen. The
whole was surrounded by a battlemented wall ("B.
J." iv. 9, § 12). The number of gates which this
wall contained is somewhat tmcertain, as Josephus
and the Mishnah differ. The former says ("Ant."
XV. 11, § 5) that there were four gates in the west-
em wall. Probably one of these was at the south-
west comer and led to the upper city over the bridge
where Robinson's arch may still be seen. This
bridge, broken down by Pompey, was reconstructed;
indeed, the remains of the arch in the modern wall
are evidence that it was rebuilt. Probably there
was another gate some 600 feet farther to the north.

o
a
o

so ->

O -a

Temple of Herod
Temple, Plan of Second

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

3 M

2" 5

where Wilson's arch (comp. Warieii aud Conder,
"Jerusalem," pp. 195 et scq.) supported a cause-
way across the valley to the city. The gates in
the south wall may be more easily traced. Jose-
phus says ("Aut." .\v. 11, 5^ 5) that it had gates iu
the middle; these the ]\Iishuah calls " gates of IIul-
dah,'" and they may still i)e traced in the substruc-
tures of the present wall. From them a double
tunnel leads by an inclined plane under the modern
mosque AlAksa to the level of tiie Temple courts.
About 250 feet farther to the east a triple gate
may also be traced. Josephus does not mention
this; but perhaps it was the second Iluldah gate of
the Mishuah.

Around the entire interior of this wall were ranged
porticoes or cloisters. The finest were tho.se on the
south. They consisted of four rows
The of Corinthian columns of white mar-

Cloisters, hie; ami there were 102 columns in
all. The ceilings were of carved
wood ("Ant." XV. 11, i5 5; "B. J." v. 5, § 2). The
eastern cloister was known as "Solomon's Porch"
(John X. 23; Acts iii. 11, v. 12); it must accord-
ingly have been believed that there were here Sol-
omonic subslruct\nes.

The open space beyond the cloisters was paved
with various kinds of stone, probably forming a
mosaic. This outer court was. strictly speaking, not
a part of the Temple. Its soil was not sacred, and
it might be entered by any one. Some distance
within, one came to an interior court which was
I'aised 15 cul)its above the other. Access to it was
gained by means of fourteen steps. This was the
beginning of the sanctuary. It probably coincided
Aviththe elevated court still to be seen in the central
part of the Haram area. This raised court Avas sur-
rounded by a terrace 10 cubits in breadth ("'B. J."
V. 5, § 2). A breastAvork of stone ran around the
whole at the level of the steps. On it Avere placed
at frequent intervals inscriptions in Greek and
Latin forbidding a non-Jew to enter faither on
pain of death. One of these lias been recovered.
It reads: "No foreigner may pass Avithin the lattice
and wall around the sanctuary. Whoever is caught,
the guilt for the death Avliich Avill follow Avill he his
own " (comp. " Pal. Explor. Fund, Quarterly State-
ment," 1871, p. 1:52; Benzinger, "Arch." p. 404;
Nowack, "Lehrbuch der Hebriiischen Archilologie,"
il. 77). This enclosure Avas penetrated by nine
gates. Four of these Avere on the north, four on the
south, and one on the east, the Avestern side having
none. The eastern part of this court Avas sejiarated
from the Avestern, and formed the court of the women.
Women might pass beyond the court of the Gentiles
into tills court alone. The Temple proper might he
entered by men only. One of the four gates on tiie
north and one on the south gave entrance to the
Avomen's hall, as did likewise the .sole gate Avhich led
on the east from the court of the Gentiles. The re-
maining six of the nine gates led into
The Gates, the court of the men. A large gate
led from the court of the Avomen into
the court of the men. The gates had double doors
which Avere covered Avith silver and gold donated
by a certain Alexander of Alexandria. The gate
on the east Avas especially magnificent, and was

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA

Temple of Herod
Temple, Plan of Second

covered with Corinthian bronze. The greatest of
all tiie gates was, however, tlie "gale of Nieanor,"
wiiich led fi'oni tlie eourt of tlic women into the
court, of the men. It was llie "great gate," its
lieiglit being 50 cubits and its breadth 40 cubits
("B. J." V. 5, §3>; fifteen steps led up to it from
the women's court. \Vh(tlier this gate or the one
directly east of it in the eastern wall of the women's
court was tlie gate "neautiful" of Acts iii. 3 can
not now be determined. Each gate was jJorch-liUe
in form.

Along the enclosing wall of the men's court was
a series of chambers for storing utensils, vestments,
and other articles. Within this western court, or
court of the men, was another raised platform, to
which access was gained by twelve steps, and on
which the Tem-
])le, as already
described, was
situated. On
tlie north tlie
fortress which
had existed from
tiie time of Ne-
Jiemiah was re-
built and named
" A n t o n i a " i u
honor of Mark
Antony. It was
connected with
the Temple by
a secret passage
(•'xVnt." .\v. 11,
§7).

The constiuc-
tion of all this
work occ-upied,
accord i n g t o
Joim ii. 20, for-
ty-si.x years; in
reality, how-
ever, it was not
completed until
the procurator-
ship of Albinus
(62-64 O.K.),
m ore t h a n
eighty years
after its com-
mencement. Less than a decade later (70) it was
destroyed by fire during the siege of Jerusalem b}'^
Titus.

Bnu io(.i;.\piiv : Josppliu.s, .-in?, especiallv xv. 11 ; idem, B.J.
t'specially V. .") ; n\k-\i\. Contid AjJ. i. :l'i; Nowack, Ltlirhncli
drr Hilitiiisi n'li AtrliihiUHjir, 1S<M, ji. 71-s:!; Hcnziiipt'r,
Arch. ISiW, I)]). :i'.«l-4l)+ ; Soliick, Dir StiftsliUttf. ilo' Ttinpd
in Jcrn.-<aleiii uiid dvr Tetnprliildtz dcr .Jctztzrit. IHittl;
Sandav, Sacred Sites of the Gospch, 1903, pp. .V-O:!, 107-117.

K. c. n. A. B.

TEMPLE OF MOUNT GERIZIM. See

GeUIZIM, ]\I()rNT.

TEMPLE OF ONIAS. See T t:oxtopoi,is.

TEMPLE, PLAN OF SECOND: The plan
and deseri|)lion of the Second Tenqjle according to
Talmudic sources were as follows:

Mount ]\Ioriah. known as the " Har ha-Bayit"
(Mount of the House), had an area of 500 x 500

Coliiiiin from the Temple of Herod.

(From a |'hutoKrai)h by the Palestine Explor.tticn Fuiul.)

cubits or ells (1 cidjit = 21.85 inches). It -was low-
est on the east side, rising gradually to its highest
point on the west, and was walled on all sides. The
main entrance was on tiie south, and consisted of two
gates near the center, tlie one on the right for admis-
sion, and the other for c.vit. The two gates we-e
named "Huldali," after the projilietcss who used to
preach there to the peoiile; the space on this side
being the greatest, 2(55 cubits in width. The next
largest space, 115 cubits, was on the east side. The
eastern gate was called "Shuslian " because it bore a
model of Stisa, the capital of Persia, in recognition
of the permission given by that government to re-
build the Temple. The entrance on the north was
through the "Tiirli" gate, i.e., the gate of obscurity
or privacy, it being used only by tho.se who were

ceremonially
unclean and by
mou rners and
those under the
ban. The space
on this side Avas
100 cubits. The
s p a <; e on the
west was the
least of all,
measuring only
(i-i cubits to the
com t wall. The
gate on this side
was called " Ki-
ponus," meaning
"garden bow-
er," from the
fact that Joshua
plante<l on its
site the herbs,
etc., from which
the ingredients
for the incense
were derived.
Each gate was
10 cubits wide
and 20 cubits
h i g h . T h e
height of the
walls above the
gates is not re-
corded; but it
does not appear that they were raised much above
the lintels. The 'i'adi gate had no lintel, but was
triangular in shape, this distinguishing it as a jui-
vate entrance. The walls were all 5 cubits thick
and of a unifoim height. From the eastern side of
the mount, which, as stated above, was the lowest,
artiglit of steps, con.sisting of thirty riine of a rise of
4 cubit each and one of 1 cubit (total, 2<H ciiliits^,
gave access to the floor of the Hekal. which was
nearly level with the top of the eastern wall, render-
ing it easy for the ])riest to observe the inside of the
Holy of Holies while standing on Moiuit Olivet op-
posite the eastern gate, when he sprinkled the ashes
of the red heifer in the direction of the Sanctuary.

A reticulated fence of sticks, called "soreg," 10
handbreadthsin height and at a distance of 10 cubits
from the outer wall of the courts, surrounded the

Temple, Plan of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Temple. This fence was on the edge of the fouuda-
tionof the platform called "hel," which was between
the fence and the courts. The soreg
The Soreg. served as a barrier be30ud which Gen-
tiles and the ceremonially unclean
might not pass (Kelim i. 8); and it was provi-
ded with a guarded entrance opposite each gate of
the courts. The exclusion of Gentiles angered the
Greeks, who, when they gained control over the
Jews, made thirteen openings in the soreg; but after
tlie ^laccabeau victory these breaches were repaired.

women (hence its name), especially during the cele-
bration of the water libation at the close of the
first day of Sukkot, when the women occupied the
galleries above (see G.\lleuv). This court con-
tained four unroofed chambers, one at each corner,

each measuring 40 X 40 cubits. They

The were used as follows: (1) that on the

Courts. southeast as the Chamber of the Naza-

rites, where, after the expiration of
their terms, the Nazariles cooked their peace-offer-
ings and burned their superfluous hair ; (2) that on

The Temi'lk akea.

(Reconstructed by Cbipiez.)

Leading up from the hel to the courts were twelve
marble steps, each of \ cubit rise. These steps were
protected from the sun and rain ; and on them the
people sat and rested (Pes. 13b).

Within the soreg were the courts: the outer
court, known as "'ezrat nashim " (women's liail),
to the east, and the inner court, the Temple en-
closure, to the west. The two together measured
13o X 322 cubits, the dimensions of the outer court
being 135 Xl35 cubits and those of the inner one
135 X 187 cubits. The Temple service was con-
ducted in the inner court, the outer one being used
mainly for the gathering of the people, including

the northeast as the Chamber of Wood, where fuel
for the altar and the hearth was stored ; (3) that on
the nortliwcst as the Chamber of the Lepers, where,
after they had been cured and had bathed on the
eighth day of their purification, lepers remained
prior to their admittance to the inner court for the
anointing of their toes, etc. ; (4) that on the south-
west as the Chamber of Oils, in which oil for the
candlestick and the meal-offering, as well as wine for
the libation, was kept.

The inner court, with the Nicanor gate in the
center, was 1\ cubits higher than the outer one, and
was connected with the latter by fifteen steps (each

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Temple, Plan of

of i cubit rise). Ou these steps the Levites saug
the "hymns of degrees," hfteeu in nuinhcT (Ps.
cxx.-cxxxv.), correspoiuling with the luunbi'V of
stops (Youni 38a); these were recited at the festival of
the rejoicing of the water (Sul<. 51b). Several cham-
bers built under the inner court opened on either side
of the staircase into the outer court below ; among
these were two music chambers for the Levites. In
the inner court above were two chambers, one on
each side of the Nicanor gate. On the right was the
Chamber of Phinehas, the vestment-keeper, who had
charge of the priests' lockers built in the wall and
who arranged for the 24 patrols (" mishmarot " ;
Tamid v. 3). To the left was the Chamber of the
Pancake-Makers (" 'ose habittim"), where twelve
cakes were prepared daily, six for the morning and
six for the afternoon sacrifice (ih. i. 3). The high
priest had a special chamber called "lishkat parhe-
drin " {-apeSiwi = " assessors " ) = " the Counselors'
Chamber" (Yoma 10a). The inner court was divi-
ded. On the east was the Israelites' liall (""ezrat
Yisrael "), 135 X H cubits; and on the
The Hall west the priests' hall ("' 'ezrat koha-
of the nim"). Slats or sticks, also a step of
Priests. 1 cubit rise, divided the priests' liall
from that of the Israelites. In front
of the priests' hall stood the dais (Dukax), three
j stone steps, from the highest of which the priests
' blessed the people. This hall contained also several
I chambers (Mid. v. 16).

! The space between the priests' hall and the vesti-
jbule of the Temple proper was 54 cubits. The altar
'occupied 32 cubits, leaving 22 cubits vacant. The
ispace of 135 cubits along the width of the 'azarah,
I from north to south, was made up as follows: 8
jcubits space from the wall; 12i cubits for the four
[rows of po.sts on which the slaughtered sacri-
Ificial victims were hung and Hayed; 4 cubits for the
leight marble tables, in two rows, on which the ani-
inial sacrifices were washed (ji. iii. 2); 4 cubits be-
jtween the tables and the rings; 24 cubits for the
twenty-four rings, in four rows, to which the ani-
mals were secured for slaughtering (ib. v. 2); 8
cubits between the rings and the altar; 32 cubits
f(ir the altar; 30 cubits for the "kebesh" (plank
• r bridge) leading up to the altar; and 12^ cubits
tn the southern wall. In front of the kebesh
were two tables. The laver stood southwest of the
tltar.

On the north of the 'azarah was the Chamber of

tlie Hearth ("Bet ha-Moked "), which extended to

(he hel, and part of which was used as a shelter for

the patrol. This chamber was capacious and was

surmounted by a dome. Four small chambers

ipeued into it: (1) the one in which the sacrificial

ambs were kept, on the southwest; (2) that in which

he showbread was made, on the southeast; (3) a

liamber in which the stones of the altar defiled by

he Greeks were preserved (I !Macc. ii. 25), on the

lortheast ; (4) the bath-chamber, on the northwest.

\. row of slats or sticks divided the Bet ha-Moked,

separating the sacred jiart within the court from

'he secular part in the hel. In the bath-chamber

vas a trap-door leading to a bath and lavatory be-

ow {ih. i. 6; Tamid iii. 3).

The vestibule was 6 cubits higher than the 'azarah,

and was connected with it by twelve steps, each of
j; cubit rise. The front wall of the vestibule was
100 cubits long from north to south; its thickness
was 5 cubits; and its iieight up to the Hekul was
100 cubits (il). iv. 7). The entrance to the vesti-
bule was 20 cubits wide and 40 cubits high. It had
in jilace of do(jrs a richly embroidered
The curtain. The lintel of this entrance-

Vestibule, way consisted of five superimposed
oaken beams artistically carved. The
lower one extended 1 cubit on each side over the en-
trance, Avhich was 20 cubits wiile; the second beam
extended 2 cubits, or 1 cubit beyond the first; and so
on to the fifth, which extended 5 cubits on each side,
bringing its total length to 30 cubits. A row of
stones separated each beam from the next {i/j. iii. 4).
Cross-beams of cedar stretched from the vestibule
wall to that of the Hekal. From the ceiling of the
vestibule were suspended golden chains, up which
the young priests climbed to see the crowns in the
windows of the Hekal, such as the crowns of Helem,
Tobijah, Jedaiah, and Hen ben Ztphaniah "for a
memorial in the Temple of the Lord " (Zech. vi. 14;
Mid. iii. 5). From the cedar cross-beams was sus-
pended a golden vine on the branches of which vari-
ous donors hung nuggets of gold and precious ves-
sels. The vine was a symbol of Israel. The dimen-
sicms of the vestibule were 1 1 cubits from east to west
and 70 cubits along the Hekal {ib. iv. 7). In it stood
two tables: one of marble, to the right, on which
were laid the loaves of showbread prior to their
being taken into the Hekal; and one of gold, to the
left, on which the old loaves were temporarily placed
(Shek. vi. 4; Men. xi. 7). On each side, north and
south of the vestibule, was a Chamber of Knives
("Bet Halifot"), each chamber being 11x15x8
cubits; evidently they were used for other pur-
poses besides the storing of the sacrificial knives. A
wicket on either side of the vestibule gave entrance
to the closets or cells around the Ilekal. The south-
ern wicket, however, was always closed.

The Temple proper, known as the Hekal, had an
entrance 10 X 20 cubits, with a double door. The
thickness of the walls was 6 cubits. The height of
the Hekal was 100 cubits, made up as follows:
foundation 6 cubits ; inner height 40 ; paneling (entab-
lature) 1 ; receptacle for water, which might drop
through a leak in the roof, 2 ; beams 1 ; concrete of
ceiling 1; attic 40; paneling 1; receptacle for drip-
ping 2; beamsl; concrete of ceiling 1 ; balustrade3;
device to exclude the ravens 1 {ib. vi. 5). It
is thus seen that the Hekal was a
The two-story building, the upper story

Hekal. being of the stune .size as that
below. The Hekal proper was 20 X 40
X 40 cubits. Besides the golden table to the riglit.
on which every Sabbath the showbreatl was placed,
and the seven-branched candlestick to the left,
were five tables along the north and five tables
along the south, with five menorot on each side,
which Solomon had added to the Temple. The
golden altarstood between the showbread -table and
the candlestick, a little nearer the vestibule. The
Hekal had windows near the top.

The dimensions of the Holy of Holies were 20 X 20
X 40 cubits. It was divided from the Ilekal by two

Temple, Plan of [ture

Temple in Rabbinical Litera-

TIIE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

curtains. The outer one was folded back to the
right ; the inner, to the left. There was a space of
1 cubit between the two, whidi was considered
doubtful ground, it being uncertain whether it be-
longed to the Hekal or to the Holy of Holies; hence
the space was named "anmiah teraksin " (7iiiia^i^ =
'•confusion "). Nearh' in the center of the Holy of
Holies, somewhat toward the west, was the founda-
tion-stone C'eben shetiyyah "), on wiiich was placed
the Ark of the Covenant. In the Second Temple
the Ark was missing, and the eben sheliyyah was
there exposed to the extent of three thumb-breadths
(about G inches) from the ground.

Thirty-eiglit evils surrounded the Hekal. There
were fifteen, in three rows of five cells each on the

tiiick, which surrounded the cells; this space on the
north and south sides was a " mesibbah " (winding
passageway). A bridge reached from this pas-
sage to the upper cells on the northwest. From

the upper cells southwest the bridge

Cells and stretclieil upward to the southeast

Attic. corner of the Hekal, connecting

with the attic, whence a trap-door and
staircase led down to the roof of the Hekal (tft.
iv.o). On the south side a leader carried olT the
rain from the roofs of the Hekal and of the upper
cells (rt.).

The use of the attic above the Hekal and of the
38 ceils is not mentioned in the Talmud, but there is
no doubt that they were built feu- defense and for

^n^is.

Court ok Pkiksis.

(Reconstructed by Chipiei.)

north side, and the .sanu; nund)eron Ihesoutii. The
bottom row was 5 cubits deep ; tiie second, G cubits;
and the third, 7 culnts. The length of the cells from
cast to west is not recorded; but it is presumed to
have been about 8 cubits. On the west side of the
Hekal were eight cells in three rows, namely, two
of three cells each and one, tlie uppermost, of two.
Their depth corresponded with that of tlmsc on the
sides. Three doors in each cell connected it with
the side ami upper cells, except in the case of the two
corner cells on the northeast and southeast, each of
which had 1 (2 V) in addition, connecting with the
Hekal ami the vestibule. The door of the southeast
cell to the vestibule was, however, never used (lO. iv.
7). The cells had bay windows. The thickness of
the walls was 5 cubits, and there was a sjiace of 3
cubits between the lower cells and the wall, 5 cubits

the storage of weapons, etc., wiien nccessar}'. Tlif

two chambers for knives in the vestibule are signiti

cant in this connection.

It appears that there was a colonnade or verandii

insiile tiie courts; the size of it is not recorded.

BlHI.IocRAPllY : Middiit. passim: Miiiiiionidcs, Ydtl, Hit hit
111 Ijiidli, passim ; .lacol) di' Leon, Titlniit llihul. .Aiiisieidatii
1650; Israel Lipscliiitz, Ziirat lift ll<l-^Tik(l(lsll (annexed i
liis eoinmeiilary (in .l/i'i/r/o/ ); Menaliem Iliivvim I.ewinsdlii
liiiilifm iNVjri/i, Warsaw, 1S7.'); Israel Kjijali Plotkin. lii'm
Urn Shcl<>nuih\s\. reter-sliurR. IKT."); Joshua J. Kollio, Hiii
lian vlri'f/, Vienna, iss;{ ; iilem. 77/c (ildfiiius Tniijih nii'
Citti (if .IcrriKnIfni. London, 1SH4; James Fergusson, Tli>
Tcniijle Iff tlic Jtws. London. ISTH.
J. .T. T). E,

TEMPLE IN RABBINICAL LITERA

TURE: .MdUiil, .Miniali, uii whicli the Tc iui)lc wa

erected, is known by tradition as the spot wlier

Adam was born and where he built an altar to God

where Cain and Abel offered their sacrifices; autj

Holy ok Holiks ok tiik Tkmplk at Jkrcsalkm.

(KecoiistrticU-d by Chiptez.)

Temple in Rabbinical Litera-

[ture

THE JENVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

where Xouli built an altar after the Flood (Geu. viii.
20). Abraliain offered Isaac as a sacrifice on this
" mount of the Lord " {ib. xxii. 14) ; David purchased
the spot from Araunah "to buiUl an altar unto the
Lord" (II Sam. x.xiv. 21); and finally it was chosen
as the site of the permanent altar in the Holy of Holies
of Solomon's Temple (Mairaouides, "Yad," Bet ha-

of Judah and Benjamin. The area of the mount,
the halls, and the chambers of the courts were as-
signed to Judah; but the vestibule ("ulam"), the
Ilekal, and the Holy of Holies were built on the
lot of Benjamin. However, a strip of laud running
into the Hekal, on which stood the altar, belonged
to Judah. According to another authority, Jerusa-

Tadi Gate

Jeconiah Gate

63 Cubits

US Cubits

Upper Gate

MOUNT M 0 R I A H
500 Cubits X 500 Cubits

Huldah Gaten

Hiildah Gate I

Pla.\ .Showing Positio.n of thk Te.mple on MorNX Moriah According to tiik Tai.mid.

(DcsigDeii by J. D. EiMnstflo, New York.)

Behirah, ii. 2). The stone on which rested the Ark of
the Covenant was called "eben shetiyyah " = "the

founilution-stone," on which the world
Site. was based (Yoma 54b). The west side

of the mount was selected for the Tem-
ple site because llie Sliekiiuili rests in the west (R.
B. 2.5a), and also in opposition to the rite of the
heathen, who worslii]) tlie sun in the east (Maimon-
ides, "Moreh," iii. 45).

Mount Moriah was allotted by Joshua totlic tribes

lem was not divided among the tribes, and Mount
Moriah became their common property.

King David proposed to build the Temple; and
he designed the plans and prepared the materials.
God would not, liowever, allow him to build it be-
cause he had been a man of war and had shed Ijlood
(I Chron. xxviii. 3); but its erection was entrusted
to Solomon, who, being a man of peace, was well
fitted to construct an edifice representing jieace.
The people, being aware of this fact, anxiously

Upper Gate

IIcl

Jeconiah Gate

Lighting Gate
(Sha'arhii-DeleV)

PLAN OF THE TEMPLKl
ACCOKDIXO TO THE

TALMUD. Firstborn Gate

(Sacrifice Gate)

(Designed by J. D. Eisenstein.)

NOTE. The smallness of the
scale has remlcred linjios-
sil)lc the (leliiicatiou of the
fuUmiinber of steps hi each
staircase. The exact position
of the Temple ui>on Mount
Moriah is indlcatetl in the il-
lustration given on the pre-Water Gale
cedhigpage.

Flanic Gale

Sacrifice Gate

12 steps

[LaveA

INNER

COURT

1 Eben Shetiyyah

2 Candlestick

3 Altar of Incense

4 Table of Showbread
5, 6 Chamber of Knives
7 Attic of Abtinas

5 Chamber of the Pancake

Makers

9 Chamber of Phinehas the
Vestment Keeper

!o Fifteen Semicircular Steps

11 Chamber of l,ambs

12 Bath Chamber

13 Chamber of Showbread

Kebesh

Brazen
Altar

n o n o

n o n n

n n r n

n n n n

r n o o

Priests'

Dukan

Hall

Israelites'

Nicanor

Hall

Women's Gate

The Hearth
Gate

Women's Gate

Chamber
of
Oils and Wines

Chamber
of

Lepers

General Entrance
Gate

14 Chamber of Stones of De-
filed Altar

OUTER COURT

(Women's Hall)

Music Gate

I.ower
"ciatc'

12 Mcps

Hcl

t«

Soreg

borcj

Temple in Rabbinical Litera-
Temple, The Second [ture

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

awaited Solomon's accession. A haggadah says
David once overheard the people say : "How soon
will the old man die, that his sou may commence to
build the Temple and we may visit the house of
the Lord?" Their talk pleased David somewhat:
and he chanted: "I was glad when they Siiid unto
me. Let us go into the house of the Lord " (Ps. cxxii.
1). The Almighty consoled David, assuring him
liiat " A day in thy courts is better than a tiiousand "
(ib. Ixxxiv. 10); that is, God prefers one day of
David's study of the I^aw in the courts of learning
to 1,000 offerings of sacrifice in the Temple by Sol-
omon (Mak. 10a). In the same sense Kaba said:
" One who is engaged in the study of tiie Law need
bring neither a burnt offering, a sin-otTering, nor a
meal-offering" (Men. 110a), showing the tendency of
theTalmudiststo belittle the importance of .sjicrificcs.

David was apprehensive lest his enemies should
assign his sin with r.ath-sheba as the reason for
God's refu.sal to allow him to build
Legends of the Temple: he therefore appealed for
David and divine intervention, praying, "Show
Solomon, me a token for good; that they which
liate me may see it, and be ashamed "
(Ps. Ixxxvi. 17). God granted his wish when Solo-
mon had linished the Temple and was about to
bring in the Ark to the Holy of Holies. At this
moment the doors slammed to and could not be
opened. Solomon thereupon recited twenty-four
hymns and cried: "Lift up your heads, O ye gates
. . . )'e everlasting doors; and the King of glory
sliall come in " (i'j. xxiv. 7). But no response came.
Finally he prayed, "O Lord God, turn not away
the face of tliine anointed : remember the mercies of
David thy servant " (II Chron. vi. 42); and imme-
diately the doors opened of themselves. Then the
enemies of David were cast clown, and their faces
turned black, the people being convinced that the
sin of David had been forgiven (Shab. 30a).

Everything connected Avith the Temjile is distin-
guished as "yedid " = "amiable," "beloved." A
Talmudic epigram runs: " Solomon, who was named
Jedi(!iali[=" God's beloved"; II Sam. xii. 2:)], had
built the Temple [Tabernacle], referred to as 'amia-
ble ' [Ps. Ixxxiv. 1] and situated in the lot of Benja-
min 'the beloved' [Dent, xxxiii. 12J, in honor of
God, who is ' beloved ' [Isa. v. IJ, in order that the
sins of Israel who is 'dearly beloved' [.Icr. xii. 7]
might l)e forgiven " (.Men. 53a. b).

Through the agency of Ashmedai, Solomon ac-
quired the Shamir, either a worm or an exceedingly
hard slone, which hewed or cut with ju-rfect ease
all kinds of granite, marble, and glas.s niccssary in
building the Teuiple (Git. (yXh). Indeed, its meie
touch cleft tlie hardest substance in e.\istence (Sotah
9a). In size the shannr was no lirger than a grain:
and it had been preserved since tlie Creation. ]{.
Osliaya (Hoshaiah) df'clarcd that Solomon jilanteil in
tile Temple various kinds of aromatic trees of gold,
bearing fruit which, when the lieathcn entered llie
Temple, withered away, but which the Alniighly
will restore in the future Tem])le: "It shall blos-
som abundantly ... the glory of Lebanon sliall
1)0 given unto it" (Isa. xxxv. 2: Yoina 21b).
"Lebanon" is the poetic name of the Temple, be-
cause the latter was built of cedars of Lebanon.

Solomon's Temple was an artistic structure of the
liighest conception. In its conunanding position
on the mount, in the pleasing effect of its white
stone ornamented with cedar-wood, and in its sym-
metrical proportions it surpassed Herod's Temple,
though the latter exceeded the former in mere mag-
niJicence. "One who did not see Herods Temple
nn.ssed seeing the most beautiful building in the
worUl. It was constructed entirel}- of polished
granite interspersed with dark -colored

Herod's marble, with beveled edges, set in

Temple. plaster. Herod even proposed to fill
up the edges with gold ; but the Rab-
bis advised liim to abstain from doing so, as the
white i)laster combined with the granite and marble
gave the Temple the appearance of waves of the
sea " (Suk. oTb). Thus it is evident that Herod was
somewhat gaudy in his taste and that his Temple
was less artistic in design and coloring than that of
Solomon. Two views are expressed in conunenting
on the verse "The glory of this latter house shall be
greater than that of the former" (Hag. ii. 8). One
is that the Temple was more beautifid than its prede-
cessor, while the other says it was only "greater"
in years, alluding to the fact that it stood 420 years,
whereas that of Solomon existed for 410 years only
(Mid. iv. 6; B. B. 3a).

The sacred ness of Solomon's Temple was greater
than that of Herods, as the latter lacked five impor-
tant accessories: (1) the Ark and the "kapporet"
(mercy-seat, cherubim), (2) the divine fire, (3) the
Sliekinah, (4) the Holy Spirit, and (o) Urim and
Thuminim (Yoma 21b). It lacked also the pot of
manna and Aaron's staff alongside the

The Two Ark, the jar of holy oil, and the coffer

Temples with jewels of gold presented by the
Compared. Philistines asa trespass-offering on re-
turning the Ark (I Sam. vi. 8). King
Josiah, anticipating the fall of the Temple, con-
cealed these sacred objects ( Yer. Shek. vi. 1). Evi-
dently they were hidden in the subterranean passage
under the Temple, where, it is claimed, were buried
also, as soon as the Temple was finished, all the
parts of the Tabernacle (Sotah 9a). A jiriest in the
Temple once noticed that the flooring under his feet
was uneven; and he showed it to a comrade, with a
view to investigation. No sooner had he spoken
about it, however, than a spark i.ssued from a crev-
ice in the floor and killed him. Tiie juiests then
surmised that the Ark was buried in that jilace. K.
Hoshaiah says that t lie priest pounded the floor with
a hammer, whereupon afire arose and consumed him
(Yei-. Shek. vi. 2; Vouia r)4a). In the Second Teiii-
])Ie two curtains, instead of the cedar-wood parti-
tion of the First Temple, separated the IleUal from
the Holy of Holies. The First Temiile was des-
tioyed on account of three sins, namely, blooiished,
immorality, and idolatry. In the Second Temple
there were learning, oliedience to the command-
ments, and charity, but there were also enmity and
malevolence among the people, which outweighed
the three great sins for which the First Temiile was
destroyed (Yoma 9b).

After the destruction of the Temple the Habbis
endeavored to enshrine its memory in the hearts of
tlie Jews. As a reminiscence of its usage (" zeker

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Temple in Rabbinical Litera-
Temple, The Second [ture

le-mikdasli ") R. Joliaiuin 1). Zakkai nnleietl tliat the
celebialiou of tlie lulab be coiitiiiui'd lor seven ilays
(luring tlic Sukkot festival as had been the custom
in the Temple, although in Temple limes the cele-
bration was observed outside the sancluar}' on one
da}' only (Suk. iii. 12). Asa sign of mourning for
the destruction of the Temple, one should not white-
wash or paint his house entirely, but should leave a
space about one cubit square above the door (H. B.
60b). Sec Sanctuakv.

J. J. D. E.

TEMPLE, THE SECOND : The Temple of
Solomon was destroyed by iScbuchadue/zar in 586
B.C. (II Kings XXV. 9). It is usually supposed that
its .sacred site was desolate and unused for fifty
years, until the accession of Cyrus made the re-
building of the Temple possible. This view is
shown by Jer. xli. 5 to be mistaken; for two mouths
after the city was destroyed a company of men from
Samaria, Shechem, and Shiloh came to keep the
Feast of Ingathering at Jeru.sulcm. It is true that
Giesebrecht {'td loc.) argues that the men were bound
for Mizpah and not for Jerusalem; but if that
be so the whole narrative is meaningless. No reason
is known why at this date men from a distance
should go to Mizpah to worship. More probably
they were on their way to Jerusalem, when the
messenger from Mizpah enticed them into that
town. It is probable, therefore, that, though the
building was in ruins, the site of the Temple was
used by the poor Hebrews resident in Palestine as a
place of worship all through the Exile.

With the accession of C3'rus in 538 it became pos-
sible— that monarch replacing the old Assyro-Baby-
louian i)olicy of transportation by a policy of toler-
ation— for the Jews to resuscitate their religious
institutions. The Chronicler, who wrote much of
the Book of Ezra, represents Cyrus as
The issuing a decree for the rebuilding of

Decree of the Temple at Jerusalem; but tins
Cyrus. assertion is of doubtful authority.
The Aramaic document in Ezra relates
that the sacred vessels whicli Nebuchadnezzar had
carried away were delivered to Sheshbazzar with
authority to take them back and rebuild the Temple
(Ezra V. 14, 15). It states also that Sheshbazzar
"laid the foundations of the house," but it is doubt-
ful if any building was tiien done, as the house re-
mained unbuilt in the tinu; of Ilaggai, twentyyears
later. Tiie Chronicler (Ezra iii. 1) declares that
Zerulibalx'l (whom he jhus in jjlaee of Sheshbazzar,
thus placing him twenty years too early) "builded
the altar of the God of Israel, to oiler burnt offerings
thereon"; but as Ilaggai (ii. 14) declared that all
which was oU'ered here was unclean, it is altogether
probable tiiat the altar was the same that had been
used throughout the I']\ile, and that the Chronicler's
statement is a mistake.

In the second year of t!ie reign of Darius Ilys-

tasi)es (519) the real rebuilding began. The people

were aroused to the elTort by the preach-

The Re- iiig of Haggai and Zechariah; and in

building, the course of three years the rebuild-

I ing was accomplished. It is now

'< generally recognized that the representation in the

: Book of Ezra, that the work was be^tui immediately

! XH.— 7

upon the accession of Cyrus and was then inter-
rupted by opposition from Israel's ueiglibors, is uu-
historical.

Of the dimensions of this Temple there are given
but few data, llecatieus, a Greek writer contem-
porary witli Alexander the Great, is quoted by Jo-
sephus ("Contra Ap."i. 22) as saying that the Tem-
ple area was enclosed by a wall a plelhra, or 500
Greek feet, in lengtli and 100 Greek cubits in
breadth, i.e., 485i X 145A English feet. The altar
was btnlt of luihewn stones in conformity with the
precepts of the Law (comp. I Mace. iv. 44: etseq.).
The dimensions of the building wen; jjnjbably the
same as those of Solomon's Temple, though the edi-
fice was apparently at first lacking in ornament. It
was probably because the biulding was less ornate
that the old men who had seen the former Temple
wept at the sight of its successor (Ezra iii. 12; Jose-
phus, "Ant." xi. 4, § 2). Nehemiah in rebuilding
the city wall followed the lines of the former wall,
and it is altogether likely that the old lines were fol-
lowed in building tlie walls of the Temple also. The
statement in Ezra vi. 3 that Cyrus gave permission
to make the Temple 60 cubits high and
Di- 60 cubits broad lias probably no con-

mensions. nection with its actual dimensions:
lunv the statement arose can now be
only conjectured. The authorities for this period
make no mention of the palace of Solomon. If the
wall of the Temple was at this period less than 500
feet long, the whole Temple court occupied but
about one-third the length of the present Haram
area, and less than half its width (comp. Baedeker,
" Palestine and Syria," ed. 1898, p. 39). It is prob-
able that the site of Solomon's palace either lay
desolate or was covered by other dwellings.

The Temple was surrounded by two courts (I
Mace. i. 32, iv. 48); but until the time of Alexander
Jaun;eus (104-79 B.C.) it would seem that these were
separated by a difference of elevation oul}'. That
ruler surrounded the inner court with a wall of
wood because the Pharisees, with whom he was un-
popular, had pelted him with citrons while officiating
at the altar at the Feast of Tabernacles (comp.
"Ant." xiii. 13, § 5). The inner court contained
chambers for storing the garments of the priests (I
Mace. iv. 38, 57). The stone altar of burnt offering
probably occupied the site of the bronze altar in
Solomon's Temple.

The Temple, or Holy Place, seems to have had

two veils or curtains at its front {ib. iv. 51). It had

also one holy candlestick, a golden

Furniture altar of incense, and a table of show-

of the bread (ib. i. 21, 22). Separated from

Temple. the Temple by another veil was the
Holy of Holies (Josephus, "B. J." v.
5, ^ 5). According to Josephus, this contained
notliing; but, according to the Mishnah (^lid. iii. 6),
the "stone of foundation " stood where the Ark used
to be, and the high priest put his censer on it on the
Day of Atonement. According to the Babylonian
Tainuid (Yoma 2'2b), the Second Temple lacked five
things which had been in Solomon's Temple.
namely, the Ark, the .sjicred fire, the Shekinah. tlie
Holy Spirit, and the Urim and Thummim.

In the time of Nehemiah there were two towers.

Temple, The Second
Temple of Solomon

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

named respectively Hauanecl aud Meali. Avhicli
probably formed parts of a fortress ou the site after-
ward occupied by the tower Antonia (comp. Neh.
xii. 39. and Mitchell in "Jour. Bib. Lit." xxii. 144).
The small size of the Temple area at this period
makes it improbable that this fortress adjoined the
Temple court. The " gate of the guard " (Neh. xii.
39) was probabh' an entrance into the Temple
court on the nortii side. From the time of Zerub-
babel to the time of Antiochus Epiph-

History. anes the history of this Temple was
comparatively uneventful. Sirach
(Ecclus.) 1. 1 ei seq. says that "Simon, son of Onias,
the great priest," repaired the Temple aud fortified
it; but the text of the passage is corrupt. In the
year 168 Antiochus, as a part of a policy to enforce
Hellenistic practises on the Jews, robbed the Temple
of its candlestick, golden altar, table of showbread,
and veils (these being its distinctive furniture), and
compelled the high priest to sacrifice swine upon its
altar. This led to the Maccabean revolt (comp. I
Mace, i.), as a result of which the Jews after three
years regained possession of their Temple and reded-
icated it. They carefully replaced the stone altar
of burnt offering with stones which had not been
defiled, and replaced the other characteristic articles
of furniture (z6. iv. 43-56). Judas Maccabeus at
this time fortified the Temple with high walls and
towers(/6. iv. 60, vi. 7) ; so tliat thenceforth the Tem-
ple was the real citadel of Jerusalem. These walls
were pulled down by Antiochus V. {ib. vi. 02), but
were restored by Jonathan Maccabeus ("Ant." xiii. 5,
§ 11). The fortifications were afterward strength-
ened by Simon (I Mace. xiii. 52). At the time of
the rededication, in the year 165, the front of the
Temple was decorated with gilded crowns and
shields (ib. iv. 57).

At some time during the ascendency of the Has-
monean dynasty a bridge was built across the Tyro-
pocon valley to connect the Temple with the western
hill ("Ant." xiv. 4, § 2). This bridge was probably
situated at the point where Robinson's arch (so
called because its nature and importance were first
discovered by Prof. Edward Hobinson ; see his " Bib-
lical Researches," ed. 1856, i. 287 et seq.) ma}^ still be
.seen. The nature and purpose of this bridge have
been regarded as ob.scure problems; but there can
be little doubt that the structure was intended to
afford easy access to the Temple from the royal
palace which the Hasmoneans had buil'on the west-
ern hill ("Ant." XX. 8, tj 11). Fron- this palace the
movements of people in the Temple courts could l)e
seen, as Josephus records; and as the Hasmoneans^
were high priests as well as monarchs, the purpose
of the bridge is clear.

In 63 15. c. Pompey, the Roman general, captured
Jerusalem and had a hard struggle to take the Tem-
l)le ("Ant." xiv. 4). In the confiict the bridge was
broken down. In exploring Jerusalem Sir Charles
Warren found its remains, or the remains of its suc-
cessor, lying in the ancient bed of the Tyropoeon
valley eighty feet below (comp. Warren and Conder,
"Jerusalem'" p. 184, London, 1884). Pompey did
not harm the Temple itself or its furniture: but
nine years later Crassus plundered it of all its gold
("Ant." xiv. 7, g 1). In 37 n.c Herod during his

siege of Jerusalem burned some of the cloisters

about the courts, but did not otherwise harm the

Temple (ib. 16, § 2).

BiBLioGR.\PHY: See Temple ok Herod.

1-. c. G. A. B.

TEMPLE OF SOLOMON.— Biblical Data:

David, according to 11 Sam. vii. 2 et «(/., desired to
build a temple for Yiiwii, but was not permitted to
do so, although, according to the Chronicler (I Chron.
xxii. 14 et seq.), he prepared for the building a large
quantity of material, which he later gave to his son
Solomon. David also purchased a thrashing-floor
from Araunah the Jebusite (II Sam. xxiv. 21 et seq.),
on which he offered sacrifice; aud there Solomon
afterward built his Temple (II Chron. iii. 1). In
preparation for the building Solomon made an
alliance with Iliram, King of Tyre, who furnished
him with skilled workmen and, apparently, per-
mitted him to cut timber in Lebanon. Solomon
began to build the Temple in the fourth j-ear of his
reign ; its erection occupied seven years (I Kings vi.
37, 38).

The structure was 60 cubits long, 20 cubits wide,
and 30 cubits high (I Kings vi. 2). It faced the
east (Ezek. xlvii. 1). Before the Temph; stood a
porch 20 cubits long (corresponding to the width of
the Temple) and 10 cubits deep (I Kings vi. 3). II
Chron. iii. 4 adds the curious statement (probably
corrupted from the statement of the depth of the
porch) that this porch was 120 cubits high, whicii
would make it a regular tower. The stone of which
the Temple was built was dressed at the quarry, so
that no work of that kind was necessary within the
Temple precincts (I Kings vi. 7). The roof was of
cedar, and the whole house was overlaid with gold
(I Kings vi. 9, 22).

The structure was three stories in height. The
wall was not of eijual tliickncss all the way up,
but liad ledges on which the floor-
Structure, beams rested. Around the structure
was a series of chambers, of varying
size because of the differences in the thickness of
the wall. Those of the lowest story were 5 cubits
in depth; tliose of the second 6; and those of the
tliird, 7. The Temple was also provided with win-
dows of fixed latticework (I Kings vi. 4, G, 8, 10).
At the rear of this edifice was the Holy of Holies,
which was in form a perfect cube, each of its dimen-
sions being 20 cubits. The interior was lined with
cedar and overlaid with pure gold. The Holy of
Holies contained two cherubim of olive-wood, each
10 cubits high (I Kings vi. 16, 20, 21, 23-28) and
each having outspread wings 10 cubits from tip to
tip, so that, since they stood side by side, the wings
touched the wall on either side and met in the center
of the room (comp. Chickcb). According to II
Ciiron. iii. 14. a veil of variegated linen se])arated
the Holy of Holies from the rest of the Temple.

The rest of the building, the Holy Place, was of
the same width and height as the Holy of Holies,
but 40 cubits in length. Its walls were lined with
cedar, on which were carved figures of cherubim,
lialm-trces, aud open flowers, which were over-
laid with gold. Cliains of gold further marked it
off from the Holy of Holies. The floor of the Tem-
ple was of fir-wood overlaid with gold. The door-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Temple, The Second
Temple of Solomon

posts, of olive-wood, supportoil loldinfj^doors of fir.
The doors of the Holy of Holies were of olive-wood.
On both sets of doors were carved cherubim, palm-
trees, and tlowers, uU being overlaid with gold (I
Kings vi. 15 et seg.).

Before the Temple, Solomon erected two bronze

pillars, called Jacliin and Boaz. Each of these was

18 cubits iu height, and was surmounted by a capital

of carved lilies, 5 cubits high. Before

The the Temple, a little to the southeast

Pillars. (I Kings vii. 39), there stood the molten
sea, a large laver 10 cubits in diame-
ter, ornamented with knops. This laver rested on
the backs of twelve oxen {ib. vii. 23-26). The Chroni-
cler gives its capacity as "three thousand baths" (II
Chron. iv. 5-6) and states that its purpose was to
afford opportunity for the ablutions of the priests.

Another article of Temjile furniture is described as
a "base." It was a portable holder for a small la-
ver, and was made of bronze, provided with wheels.

- 1 II nil i>— 1

: 0 Hi

. 11 1 1 1 1 I i r-'

D Q"

Plan of the Rotal Buildings Erected by Solomon on
THE Temple Motind (According to Stade).

1. Great court. 3. Middle court. 3. Temple court. 4. House
of Lebanon. 5. Porch of pillars. 6. Ttirone porch. 7. Uoyal
palace. 8. Harem. 9. Temple. 10. Altar.

and ornamented with figures of lions, cherubim,
and jialm-trees. These vessels especially excited
the admiration of the Jews. The author of the
books of the Kings describes their minute details
with great interest (I Kings vii. 27-37). Each of
these "bases" supported a laver which held "forty
baths" (I Kings vii. 38). From II Kings xvi. 14 it
is learned that a brazen altar stood before the Tem-
ple. II Chron. iv. 1 says that tliis altar was 20 cu-
bits square and 10 cubits high; ac
The cording to I Kings vii. 48 there stood

Vessels, before the Holy of Holies a golden
altar of incense and a table for show-
bread. This table was of gold, as were also the five
candlesticks on each side of it. The implements

for the cure of the candles — longs, basins, snuffers,
and tirejnuis — were of gold ; and so were the hinges
of the doors. The Temple was surrounded by a
court, which was separated from the space beyond
by a wall of three courses of hewn stone, surmcjunled
by cedar beams (I Kings vi. 30). The Chronicler
calls this the court of the ])riesls (II Chron. iv. 9).

The 'i'emple did not stand alone; it was part of a
splendid pile of buildings which Solomon constructed
in immediate connection with it. This pile included
Solomon's own residence, the ])alace of Pliaraoh's
daughter, the throne-room, the "porch of pillars,"
and "the house of the forest of Lebanon " (I Kings
vii. 1-8). These were so arranged that in entering
the palace enclosure one came first to the " house ol
the forest of Lebanon," with its splendid ])illar3,
then to the inner "porch of pillars," the i:all of
state, or throne-room, Solomon's private dwelling,
and, lastly, to the palace of Pharaoh's daughter.
For the splendor of these buildings Solomon was in-
debted to Phenician architects and workmen (I
Kings vii. 40-47).

E. c. G. A. B.
Critical View : "When the Temple was con-
structed it was, together with Solomon's palace, by
far the most splendid pile of buildings that the He-
brews had ever seen. Even to this day, as one comes
from the surrounding country to Jerusalem, the city
seems magnificent, although in comparison with a
European capital it is far otherwise. Similarly the
influence of environment may be seen in the descrip-
tion of Solomon's Temple. "With the lapse of time
Israel's fortunes declined, and the age of Solomon
seemed even more glorious in compar-
Exaggera- ison with later obviously decadent

tions in periods; and this increased the tend-

Account, ency to exaggerate the splendor of
the Temple. Moreover, religious re-
forms made some of the arrangements of the Tem-
l)le seem unorthodo.x, and various scribes seem to
have amplified its description; as they did not al-
ways have the same point of view, present ac-
counts are confused to a degree (comp. Stade's
"Zeitschrift," 1883, pp. 129 et seg.). One of the
exaggerations of later times jirobably produced all
those statements wliich declare that the inner parts
of the Temple and all its implements were overlaid
with gold (comp. Kittel, " Konigsbucher," in Xo-
wack, "Hand-Konuncntar," pp. 46-55).

As a result of editorial reworking of the descrip-
tion, the narrative in Kings contains no account of
the great brazen altar which stood before the Tem-
ple. Ex. XX. 24 et seg. provided that an altar might
be made of earth or unhewn stone; and as it offended
a later age to think that Solomon made an altar of
bronze, its description was removed from I Kings
vii. Nevertheless it is recorded elsewhere (ib. viii.
64; II Kings xvi. 14) that it was a part of the fur-
niture of the original Teinple. Later scribes, too,
are responsible for those stjitements which repre-
sent David as desiring to build the Temple, and as
making preparation for it. Had he desired to liuild
it he certainly could have done so. But in his reign
the nomadic idea still prevailed, and a tent was
thought to be Yiiwh's proper dwelling (comp II
Sam. vii. 6). Later generations, to whom the Tem-

Temple of Solomon
Templer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

100

pie seemed a neLx;?sitji , tnuia ijut uiulerstaudwliyso
veueratcd a man as David did uot build it ; lieuce
these statements.

There can be no doubt that the Temple of Solo-
mon was situated upon the more easterly of the two
hills which form the site of the present Haram area
in Jerusalem, in the center of which area is the
Mostiue of Omar. Ferirusson, Trujip, Lewin, and
W. H. Smith held that the Temple was built in the
southwest corner of the present Haram area; but
the view is false. That site is a part of an artili-

It was probably a sacred place of the Jebusites be-
fore David's time, though II Sam. x.xiv. connects its
consecration with an incident in David's reign. Sol-
omon's palace probably lay to the south of the
Temple. The most probable arrangement of the
buildings is that suggested b}' Stade ("Gesch. des
Volkes Israel," i. 314^^ 315).

The Biblical te.\t makes it clear that Solomon re-
ceived from Hiram, King of Tyre, nuieh aid in con-
structing his buildings. As the Hebrews were an
agricultural people, this aid probably involved uot

l.NTtKlOK OF TllK " DO.NM-; OK THE IlOCK "' SlIOWl.NG TitAIin ION Al, blTK IIK llOI.V UK HULIKS.
(From a photograph liy tht Atnericaii Colony at Jerusalem.)

cial extension of the level of the Temi)lc area over
the Tyropoeon valley, and ]irobal)ly was not made

l)ef()re the time of Herod. Tlie most
The Site, jirobable site <jf the Temple is just

west of the "Dome of the Hock " in
the center of the Mosfjuc of Omar. The bronze
altar was probably on tiiis rock. The mosque was
built overarock the traditions of which were sacred ;
probably the site was the same as that of the temi)le
which Hadrian erected to Jupiter. This in turn
was on the site of Herod's temple, wiiieh would
naturally be on that of Solomon's. The peisisleiicy
of sacred sites in the East makes this most likely.

only material (cedar-wood, etc.), but architectural
direction and skilled craftsmen. The architectural
features will be ctjusidered later. Among the details
wliieh were probably copied from Tyre were the
two pillars Jachin and Boa/. Herodotus (ii. 44) sa3's
tliat Ihe templi- at Tyre contained two such, one of
emerald and the other of fine gold. In the same
way the ornamentation of palm-trees and cherul)im
were probably derived from Tyre, for E/.ekiel
I (.\.\viii. 13, 14) represents the King of Tyre, who
was high priest also, as being in the "garden of
fJod." Probably both at Tyre and at Jerusalem the
cherubim aiul palm-tree ornaments were survivals

101

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Temple of Solomon
Templer

of an oiulicr conception — tliat the abode of God was
a " garden of Eden." The Tyrians, th(!refore, in tiicir
tenii)l('iMUtat('d to some extent tiic primitive garden,
and Solomon borrowed these features (eomp. Paka-
dise). Simihirly, tlie bronze altar was a Phenieian
innovation; and probably the same is true of the
bronze implements which were ornamented with
palm-ti'cesand cherubim. Tlie Orthodox Israelitish
altar was of earth or unhewn stone. The Decalogue
of Ex. XX. (Elohist) proliibited the making of graven
images, while that of Ex. xxxiv. (Jahvist) i)rohil)ited
the making of molten gods; and the Deuteronomic
exjiaiLsions prohibited the making of any likeness
Avhatever. All these are, to be sure, later than Sol-
omon's time; but there is no reason to believe that
before that time tlie Hebrews had either tlie skill or
the wealth necessary to produce ornamentation of
this kind.

Several temples in Babylonia, many in Egypt,

and some of tlie Piienieians are now known. In

Babylonia tlie characteristic feature was a "ziggu-

rat,"or terraced tower, evidently intended to imitate

a mountain. The chamber for the di-

Compari- vine dwelling was at its top. The

son early Egyptian temples consisted of

with Other buildings containing two or three

Temples, rooms, the innermost of which was the
abode of the deity. A good example
is the granite temple near the sphinx at Gizeh. The
]\Iiddle Empire (12th dynasty) added obelisks and
pylons, and the New Empire (ISth dynasty) hypo-
style halls. The Phenieian temples varied somewhat
in form, and were surrounded by courts. Solomon's
Temple was not a copj' of any of these, but em-
bodied features derived from all of them. It was on
the summit of a hill, thus expressing the Babylo-
nian idea of the divine abode; it was surroiuided by
courts, like the Phenieian temples and the splendid
temple of Der al-Bakri at Thebes, while its general
form reminds one of Egyptian sanctuaries. The
two pillars Jachin and Boaz had their parallel not
only at Tyre but at Byblus, Paphos, and Telloh(see,
however, De Sarzec, "Decouvertes en Chaldee," ]ip.
62-04). In Egypt the obelisks ex])ressed the same
idea. All these were phallic emblems, being sur-
vivals of the primitive Hamito-Semitic "niazzebah "
(eomp. W. n. Smith, " Kel. of Sem." 2d ed.,' p. 208;
Schmidt, "Solomon's Temple," pp. 40 et seq.).
Jachin and Boaz were reall}' isolated columns, as
Schick has shown ("Die Stift.shiitte, der Tempel in
Jerusalem," etc., pp. ^2etscq.), and not, as some have
supi)osed, a part of the ornamentation of the buikl-
ing. Their tops were crowned with ornamentation
as if they were lamps; and W. K. Smith supposed
(I.e. ji. 4S8) that they may have been used as tire-
altars. This assumes that they contained cressets
for burning the fat.

The chambers which surroimded the Holy Place in
Solomon's Temple are said in I Chron. xxviii. 12 to
have been storehouses for the sacred treasure. These
are jiaraileled in Babylonian and Egyptian tem-
ples by similar chamliers, which surrounded the
naos, or hypostyle hall, and were used for similar
purjjoses. The "molten sea" finds its parallel in
Babylonian temples in a great basin called the
"apsu "(deep). As the ziggurat typified a moun-

tain, so the apsu typified the sea. The Temple thus
became a miniature world. Tiiis ajjsu was used as

early as the lime of Gndeaand contin-

A ued in use till the end of Babylouiuu

Miniature history; it was made of stone and was

World. elaborately decorated (eomp. Jaslrow,

"Kel. of Bab. and Assyria," p. 653).
In Solomon's Temple there was nothing to corre-
spond to the hy|)oslvle hall of an Egyptian temple;
but this feature was introduced into Sfjlomon's
palace. The " hou.se of the forest of Lebanon " and
the " porch of pillars" remind one strongly of the
outer and the inner hypostyle hall of an Egyptian
temple.

Solomon's Temple was, then, a fine example of an
Oriental temple. Although it had features in com-
mon with the temples of all the laces kindred to the
Jews, it combined those features in a new and inde-
pendent way, so that the Temple at Jerusalem was
(Mieof the most interesting architectural products of
the Hamito-Semitic religious life.

The Temi)le of Solomon was in reality an innova-
tion in Israel. It was a part of a regal magnificence

Avhich Avas foreign to the national life,
The Temple and which had to be introduced from
Solomon's outside and patterned on foreign mod-
Chapel, els; and it was looked upon with little

favor by many of his subjects. More-
over, the Temi)le was erected upon a site but re-
cently conquered from the Jebusites, and which for
the Israelites had no .sacred associations. Othersites
— rhosc of Shechem, Beth-el, Hebron — were conse-
crated liy patriarchal tradition (Gen. xxii. 2 is the
product of a later time), but Jerusalem was unhal-
lowed by such associations, and its sanctuary was
full of foreign innovations. When Jeroboam re-
volted and erected Beth-el and Dan into royal sanc-
tuaries he perpetuated a ritual of a simpler and more
national character (eomp. I Kings xii. 28). The
Temple at Jerusalem was in reality Solomon'schapel
— a part of that regal iiile of buildings which he
had constructed not so much for the use of his sub-
jects as for his personal aggnindizement. It was
later events, such as Sennacherib's invasion, Isaiah's
conception that Jerusalem was inviolable, the Deu-
teronomic reform (which made all .sanctuaries except
that at Jerusalem illegal), and, above all, the tragic
events of the Exile, which made this Temple su-
premely sacred in the thought of Jews of later times.

Rini.ioc.RAPHY : Ptade, Gcxch. dcx Volkcn L<roeU i. 311 ct scq.,
Berlin. 1S89; N()\viKk» llchrili.'ichc Architnhifiit. il. met seq.,
Leipsic, 1S94 : Benzinger, Anh.\ Schick. Dif StifMillttr.ricr
Tempel in Jerit.'<akm mid drr TcmpclplaU dtr Jetztz>it.
Berlin, 1896; Emanuel SclimidL, S'>Uininii"!i Tempk in (he
Liaht of Other Oriental I'emplcs, Chicago, line.
E. c. ■ G. A. B.

TEMPLER, BERNHARD: Austrian theolo-
gian ; born at Brzesko, Galieia, May 1, 186"); educated
at the Uuiveisity and the Bet ha-Mi<lrash of Vienna,
and at the Hochschule flir die Wissenschaft des
Judentumsat Berlin. Atthe ageof fifteen he began
contributing articles to various Hebrew periodieals,
and two years later he iiublished his " Dobcr Tob "
(Lemberg, 1882), novellie and connnentaries on ob-
scure TaTmudic ]iassages. Of other works from his
pen may be mentioned : "Pekuddat lia-Zaddikim "
(Cracow, 1883), comments on Biblical passages; and

Temurah
Tenczer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

102

"Die Uusterblichkcitslelire (Psj'chologie, ^Mcssia-
nologie unci Escliatologie) bei den Judiscbeu Pbiloso-
pheu des Mittelalters " (Leipsic, 1895).

Bibliography: Deittsch-Oestcrreichi:<chci> Kllustler- inul
SchriftstiUer-LcxihKii, p. 4^, Vienna, lOfti; Dr<t>ii>buczcr
Ztitttno, U*W, No. 15.

TEMXTRAH (" Excbange ") : Treatise in tiie
Misiinali, Tdsefta, and Babylonian Talmud mainly
concerned witb tbe regulations in Lev. xxvii. 10, 33
regarding tbe excbange of consecrated tilings. In
most editions of tlie Jlisbnab tins treatise is tbe sixtb
in tbe order Kodasbim. It is divided into seven
cbapters, containing altogetber tbirty-four para-
grapbs.

Cb. 1. : Regarding tbose wbo are allowed to make
an excbange; tilings tbat may be cxcbanged, and
tbings tbat may not be excbanged (>;§ 3-6). Regu-
lations concerning drawn water wliicli is unfit for
tbe mikweb ; concerning ■water for sprinkling, and
a field in wbicb tbere is a grave tbat can not be
found (§§ 4-5).

Cb. ii. : In what ways tbe sacrifices of tbe congre-
gation are different from tbe sacrifices of individuals
(§^ 1-2). Difficulties connected Avitb consecrated ob-
jects in general wbicb do not affect objects conse-
crated tbrougb temurab and vice versa (§ 3).

Cb. iii. : Sacrifices in wbieb tiie young of tbe sac-
rificial animal is equivalent to tbe sacrificial animal
itself; sacrifices in which tbis is not tbe case (§§ 1-2).
What must be done when some one consecrates a
female animal for a sacrifice for which only a male
animal is appropriate (^§ 3-4). In wliat ways the
first-born and the tenth are different from other sac-
rificial animals (§ 5).

Cb. iv. : Tbe young of a sin-offering; temurah in
connection witii a sin-offering; other regulations
concerning sin-offerings. Cases in wiiich tlu; l)ringer
of tbe sin-offering dies before tlie sacrifice is made ;
in wbicb tbe sin-offering has been lost and found
again ; in which a sin-offering with a blemish is con-
secrated.

Cb. v.: How, an animal being pregnant, its young
may be consecrated wliile still iuiborn(i;^ 1-3). The
form of words with which a temurab is made.

Cb. vi. : Things that may not be placed on the
altar (t;^ 1-4). The young of animals which may not
be placed on the altar may be sacrificed; sacrificial
animals wliich liave become unfit ("terefali")
through sickness may not be redeemed (§ o).

Cb. vii. : In what ways things which have been
consecrated for tlie altar are different from tbings
whicii are dedicated only lor tlu; maintenance of the
Temple, and in what ways tliey are similar (^§ 1-3).
"What sacrilicial objects must be burned and what
buried; in this connection are enumerated other
unconsecrated things which must be partly buriKd
and partly buried (^^ 4-0).

Tbe Tfjsefta to tbis treatise is divided into four
chapters, and contains various additions to and aiii-
]>lification3 of the Mishnab. The Geinara of the
IJabylonian Talmud contains, in addition to the dis-
cussions and explanations of the Mishmih, many in-
teresting Jiaggadic utterances. Of tliise, two de-
serve special notice: (1) tbe saying concerning the
custom of not writiuir down sentences of oral teach-

ing, and bow tbis was abrogated because if it bad
been adhered to the oral teaching would have been
forgotten (14b), and (2) tbat concerning the numer-
ous balakic utterances which were forgotten in tbe
days of mourning for the death of Moses (IGa).
w. B. J. Z. L.

TEMURAH, MIDRASH (or MIDRASH
TEMUROT) : Ethical baggadic work consisting
of three chapters. Its tendency is to prove tbat
changes and dilTerences are necessary to the world's
welfare, and that earthly contrasts — as wealth and
poverty, beauty and ugliness — serve to harmonize
the whole, thus giving evidence of tbe divine wis-
dom. From this purpose the work has derived its
name.

In the third chapter of tbe ]\Iidrash Temurah, Ps.
cxxxvi. is interpreted as referring to the changes in
human life mentioned in Eccl. iii. 1-8. Tbe first
and second cbapters introduce R. Ishmael and R.
Akiba as lecturers; and for tbat rea.son this midrash
Avas erroneously ascribed to those two tannaim.
Certain passages in tbe work indicate that it was
not written until the end of tbe twelfth or the be-
ginning of tlie thirteenth century. According to
Jellinek, the author of the Midrash Temurab made
use of the works of Ibn Ezra as well as of Galen's
dialogue on tlie soul ; this would show that he could
not have lived before the latter part of the twelfth
century. The literary style of the work, ■which
contains in the initial chapter later Hebraisms as
well as some medical terms, also points to t)ie twelfth
century. Tbe first chapter includes anthropological,
and the second cosmogonic, passages. The first
author to refer to tbis work as the Midrash Temurah
was Gedaliab ibn Yabya, in bis " Shalsheletha-Kab-
balab " (ed. Amsterdam, p. 24b). The midrash was
first printed by Azulai, after part ii. of bi3"Shem
ha-Gedolim " (Legliorii, 178G) ; later it was reprinted
with the Agadat liereshit (Zolkiev, 1804). The last-
named edition is that included by A. Jellinek in his
"Bet ba-Midrash" (i. 106-114).

Bini.iooRAPiiv: Ziinz, G. V. fed. liriill, Frankrort-on-the-Main,
l.H',):.'). pp. l:.'4-l:i.-); Jellinek, in Ii. 11. i. -'() 21 (German part).

w. v.. J. Z. L.

TEN: The art of counting was founded on the
number of the fingers and toes, which constituted
the basis for the (luinaiy, decimal, and vigesimal
systems, according to wiiether one hand was used
or two, or whetlier the toes were included or not.
Among the ancient Hebrews tbe decimal system pre-
vaileil, as is shown by the Hebrew names for the
nunilK-rs from one to ten. In the later development
likewise the number ten preserved its importance as
a higher unitj', although the number seven, which
was, like three, a sacred number, luedoniinaled in
religious usage.

Ten forms a basal unit in the round numbers of
the iiicasuremeiitsof Noali's ark, and is c-leail}- pres-
ent in the dimensions of the Tabeinacle
Bible. (Ex. xxvi.-xxvii.) and of liotb Solo-
mon's and Ezekiel's temples (I Kings
vi., vii.; Ezek. \I.-xlii.), and in the number of (lie
commandments (Ex. xx. ; Dent, v.); and jiossibly it
served to measure the week (Gen. xxiv. 55; comp.
I);ui. i. 1-1). It ajipcared also in the ritual for the

103

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Temurah
Tenczer

Diiy of Alonement (I.cv. xvi. 20), wliich wan ol)-
sei'Vfd on the tenth day of the sevciitli niontli, iiml
ill the celebratiou of tlie Passover (Ex. xii. I!). The
Egyptians were visited with ten pUigues(Ex. viii.-
xi.); fts a punislmicnt ten women weic to haUe
bread in one oven (Lev. xxvi. 2G), wiiiie of a hundred
who went forth to war ten only would remain alive
(Amos V. 3). Furtliermore, ''a new song" was
])layed in the Temple on an instrument of ten strings
(Ps. cxliv. 9), and Jacob promised to give God a
tenth of all that lie migiit give Iiiin (Gen. xxviii.
2"-2). Abraham bestowed a tenth of everything on
the priest (Gen. xiv. 20), so that the Levites and the
]i()or received a tithe (Xum. xviii. 26; Lev. xxvii.
;^0-32; et nl.), while acconling to a very ancient cus-
tom the king domandeil a similar portion (I Sam.
viii. 15, 17).

Ten is n.sed also as a round number (Gen. xxxi.
7; Num. xiv. 22; Job xix. 8; I Sam. i. 8; c< «^.), and
it often occurs in the Bible, although a large portion
of its symbolic interpretations are unwarranted.
The nudtiples of ten likewise occur frequently; but
seventy (as in Num. xi. 16) is to be regarded as a
iindtipie of seven. In general, ten is the number of
completion, of perfection, of foundation, and the
like.

In the Talmud and ^Midra.sh the number ten is

still more important: out of a single incomplete

series of sayings beginning with a deli-

Talmxid nite number, twenty-six commence

and with ten("Pirke de-Habbenu ha-Ka-

Midrash. do.sh," in Sehonblum, '' Sheloshah Se-

farim Niftahim," pp. 39-41, Lemberg,

1877). It is found also both in the Halakah and in

the Ilaggadah.

In the regulations governing the day on which the
scroll of Esther is to be read a "large" city is de-
fined as one in which there are ten men who have
no occupation, and hence are always free for divine
service (Meg. i. 3; comp. Batl.\ni.m); and in Nicg.
iv. 3 nine functions are enumerated at which ten men
must be present, since they form a congregation in
themselves (Abotiii. 6; Meg. 23b; see Jkw. E-NXVc.
viii. (iOob). Ten classes of families were distin-
guished in regard to racial purity (Kid. iv. 1), and
just as many kinds of leprosy in houses (Neg. xiii.
1), while ten verses of Scripture in which God"sattri-
butes are nieutioned were to be recited on New-Year's
Day (R. II. iv. 6). Ezra instituted ten laws (li.
K. 82a, top), and there were ten special legal regu-
lations for Jerusalem (//). 82b). A large number of
similar laws existed. Josephus, for example, states
C'B. J." vi. 9, ^ 3) that as a rule not less than ten
men gathered around every Passover meal.

The Ilaggadah is even more partial to the number
ten, as a reference to a few selected passages will
show. The world was created by ten utterances of
God, while between Adam and Noah, as well as be-
tween Noah and Abraham, there were ten genera-
tions. Ten things were created in the evening twi-
ligiit of thelirst Fi'iday, including the
Haggadah. rainbow, theartof writing, the stylus,
and the two tables of the Law (Abot
v. 1-6). There are, moreover, ten things (the in-
stances cited number tweh;e) which form a series in
the order of their strength, so that cue overcomes the

other: rock, iron, tire, water, cloud, wind, the bod)'
(wliich iniiales the wind), anxiety, wine, sleep, death,
and alms (B. B. 11a). Ten measures of wisdom
came down from lieaven to earth, the land of Israel
taking nine, and the rest of the world one. The
same proportion is observed in the distribution of
beauty between Jerusalem and the world; nine-
tenths of the wealth in the world was Home's; of
poverty, Babylon's; of i)ride. Elam's; of bravery,
Persia's; of lice, JVIedia's; of magic, Egypt's; of
immorality, Arabia's; of shameIessne.ss(or bastards),
Me.sene's; of gossip, woujcu's; of druid<enness,
Ethiopia's; of sleep, slaves' (Kid. 491); Ab. K. N.,
Receu.sion A, xxviii., ])eginning; Recension B, xli. ;
comp. " Monatsschrift," xxii. 270-276). There are
also midrashic works whose titles contain tlie num-
ber ten: Ten :\Iartyrs (Jellinek, " B. H." ii. 66, vi.
19-35); The Ten Signs of the Jlessiah {ib. ii. 58);
and The Exile {ib. iv. 133, v. 113).

Pythagorean sjieculation ascribed a peculiar crea-
tive power to the number ten, which is impor-
tant also in Jewish mysticism. According to the
"Sefer YezirJi]i,"a work basedon Pytliagorcan prin-
ciples, beside the twenty-two letters of the ali)habet
stand " the ten digits, since tliey, as a complete dec-
ade, form the higher principle of existence which is
superior to that of the letters" (Bloch, "Gesch. der
Entwickelungder Kabbala," p. 23; translation of the
chief passages, p. 27; comp. Epstein, " Recherches
sur le Sepher Ye^'ira," p. 29; Lehmann, "Aber-
glaube und Zauberei," p. 122; and Jew. Encyc. iii.
474 ei seq., s.i\ Cais.vi.a [the Ten Setirot]).

The custom of pouring out ten glassesof wine for
the mourners on the day of a funeral (Sem., end) and
for a bridegroom on the wedding-day bilou'j-^ to the
domain of folk-lore.

Bini.ioGRAPiiy : Biihr, Si/ni/)oh7f tla> Mi)mi'<chrn Cultun. Hei-
tlelberR, lKi7: Z. I). M. G. x.xiv. 6tK cl foi.; Blocti. GcmIi.
da- Eiitickhchnni dcr KahhaUt, Treves, 1S94; Epstein,
Eccherchegmr le Srplicr Ycrira, Versailles, 1S!>4 ; I.eliinaim,
Aherulmihe lutd Zaulierei, Stiittpart. 1S98: Pick. Der Eiti-
nusH derZehmahl und der Sieheiuald auf das JudctUhuiii,
in AUij. Zcit. dcs Jitd. Iviii. :.'<J-31.
w. n. L. B.

TEN COMMANDMENTS. See Dkcai.ogie.

TEN PLAGUES. See Plague.

TENANT. See Lanuloud and Tkxant.

TENCZER, PAUL: Hungarian author; born at
Nagy Bejom April 11, 1836; died at Budapest Feb.
6, 1905. He was educated at Keszt hely and in Buda-
pest, where he studitd law. In 1861 he was one of
the founders of the society for the naturalization
and emancipation of Hungarian Jews; and from
18(52 to 1867 lie edited the " Magyar IzraeliUi." tiie
organ of that society. In 1S68 lie was elected a
member of the Diet, in which he was one of tlie lead-
ers of the Radical party.

Tenczer founded the periodicals " Magyar L'jsag "
and "Neues Politisches Volksblatt," the latter of
wliich he edited for eighteen years. He was prom-
inent both in Jewish and in communal affairs in
Budapest, and it was due to his efforts tiiat tuition
was made free in the public schools of the Hun-
garian capital.

Bnu,io(:K.vpnv : P'l'/.is T.' r.
S.

L. V

Tennessee
Te'omim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

104

TENNESSEE : Oue of the Southern States of
the Aiiiciicuii L'liion; admitted in 1796 — tlie third
after the iucorporation of the original tliirteen; se-
ceded June 18, 1861; readmitted in 18GG. A few
Jews were among a number of traders wlio set-
tled near the Holston J{iver, iu the present Haw-
kins county, in 1778; otherwise no traces of Jewish
settlement during the eighteenth century are found.
Tlie first congregations organized were those of
Mkmpiiis (see Jew. Excyc. viii. 463) and Nashville
(sve lielow).

Chattanooga : Jews settled here in 1858; but for
many years divine services were held onl}' during
the holy days. About 1890 the Mizpah congregation
was organized and Reform worship introduced, the
ofliciating rabbis being successively Judah Wechs-
ler, L. "Weiss, Moses Gries, L. Rubinstein, S. H.
Sonneschein, and Leo 3Iannheimer. The present
(190")) iucumbent is the Rev. Jonah Wise. An Or-
thodox congregation, the B'nai Zion, has also been
established. The societies organized for benevolent
purposes are: the Hebrew Ladies' Aid Associatiou ;
tlie Jewish Relief Society of Chattanooga: the Fed-
eration of the Sons and Daughters of Zion; Chat-
tanooga Lodge I. O. B. B. Two of the most prom-
inent members of the conununity have been Adolph
Ochs and George W. Ochs, the former as editor of
the "Chattanooga Times," and the latter as mayor
and president of the Chamber of Commerce, the
Board of Education, and the Library Association.
As publishers of the "New York Times" and the
" Piiiladelphia Public Ledger," both brothers now
reside on the Atlantic coast. Chattanooga has a
]iopulation of 30,154, including not more than 600
Jew«.

Knoxville : The community of Knoxville is di-
vided into two Orthodo.x congregations — Beth-
El and Cheska Emunah. Recently (1904) a B'nai
B'rith lodge has been organized; a Young i\Ieu's
Hebrew Association was formed in 1900. The
Ladies' Hebrew Benevolent Society and the Jewish
Ladies' Sewing Circle attend to the needs of the poor.
Tlie Rev. I. Winnick is tlie rabbi of the Clieska
Emunah congregation. Knoxville lias a population
of 82,637, including about 700 Jews.

Nashville: In 1845 several Jewish families set-
tled in Nasliville. Additions totliese resulted in the
cstabli.sl)ment in 1854 of the Congregation Magen
David, with Abraham Schwab as president. An-
dtlier congregation was formed at the same time
under the name B'nai Jeshurun; and this in 18G5
was merged in the Reform congregation Oliavai
Sliolom, with the Rev. Judah Wechsler as rabbi.
The latter congregation, wliose pulpit has been oc-
cui^ied in turn by H. GoMammer, L. Tinlner, T. S.
Moses, and I. Lewintlial (tlie present incumbent), is
I)rogressive and prosperous; it has a synagogue on
Vine street and a cemetery with a mortuary ehajxl.
Its membership is 225, and 150 ]iupils attend the
Sabbath-.school. A Ladies' Auxiliary Society is at-
taeiied to it. Tlie Orthodox congregation Adalh
Israel is fully organized, and its membership lias
been augmented by an inllux of Russian immigrants.
The following benevolent societies have iieen estab-
lished: Maimonides Lodge I. O. B. B. : Gal-Ed
Lodge, Free Sons of Israel ; tlic Ibbriw Relief So-

ciety (founded 1885); and the Standard Club (1880;
a social organization). Nashville has a population
of 80,865, of whom about 2,400 are Jews.

Brownsville (population 2,645) and Jackson
(population 10,039) both liave congregations.
Though the Jewish jiopulation of Biijwusville is
only 100, its congregation, known as Adas Israel,
was established and its burial-ground purchased as
early as 1867. The present incumbent of tiie rab-
binate is Eiiiil Tannn. Its synagogue was dedicated
in 1883 by Dr. M. Samfield of :Mempliis. West
Tennessee Lodge I. O. B. B. and a Ladies' Hebrew
Relief A.ssociatiou discharge the charitable obliga-
tions of the community. Jackson, with a Jewish
population of 150, has a congregation and a syna-
gogue. A IViKii B'rith lodge was formed there in
1903. Columbia and Clarksvillehave small Jew-
ish communities; and Jewisji settlers are found in
Franklin, Ripley, Mui-^freesboro, Bristol, Pu-
laski, and Dyersburg.

A. :m. s.\.

TENT (^HK) : Tlie usual home of nomads, who
are accordingly described as dwelling in tents (Gen.
iv. 20). As distinguished from the hut of boughs
("sukkah")itisa portable habitation of skin or cloth
stretched over poles. The tent of the ancient Israel-
ites was in all probability very similar to that of the
modern Bedouins of Syria and Arabia. The cover-
ing of the tent (" yeri 'ah ") originall}' consisted of
skins, later of the modern coarse tent-cloth spun of
the hair of black goats (comp. Cant. i. 5); the Arabs
accordingly speak of their "houses of hair" ("bait
wabar," "bait slia'r"). Tliiscloth, which is spun in
long narrow strips on primitive looms b}' the Bed-
ouin women, felts (luickly, and is proof against
the heaviest rains. The strips are sewed together to
form a covering of the required size, and are stretched
over three rows of three tent-i)oles each (" 'ammu-
dim " ; Judges xvi. 26). The center poles are some-
what higlier than tli(-se iu front and beiiind, and the
covering of the tent consequently falls away slight-
ly on either side, wlicre the rows of poles, also, are
frequently lower, so that the roof is .somewhat
arched ; Isaiah accordingly compares the heavens
to a tent which is spread out (Isa. xl. 22).

The covering of the lent was held in place by
strong cords ("metarim," Ex. xxxv. 18, Isa. liv. 2,
Jer. X. 20; "yeter," Jobiv. 21), which Avere fastened
to wooden jiegs driven into the ground (" yated " ; .sec
below), whence were derived such phrases as"na-
sa'," with or without "yated," in the sense of break-
ing camp (Gen. xxxv. 16 ct pttfiKuit). A tent-cloth
was hung from the top in sueli a way as to give
protection against wind and sun; and a curtain su.s-
pended on the three middle jioles divided the tent
into two sections, one for the men and the other for
the v.'omeu ("heder " ; Judges xv. 2; Gen. xliii. 30),
since only the wealthiest hail sjiecial tents for the
latter (Gen. xxiv. 67, xxxi. 33). The tents of a clan
or a family were grouped as a camp, a small nuni
ber being pitched in a circh' (eomi). "tirah " [= "en-
closure"] used as a term for the camp of tiie Is-
raelites), while larger encampments formed long
rows.

The tents were furnished with extremesimplicity.
A few coarse straw mats covered a portion ot the

105

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tennessee
Te"omim

floor and served for both chairs and beds, while a
liolc in tlie ground in tlic men's division formed the
heurtli. Around piece of leatiior was spread on tiie
floor as a table ("sliulluui "), and bags of goatskin
("no'd," "henief") with the hair outward contained
water, milk, or grain, the equipment being com-
pleted by a baking-pan, a few rougli metal spoons,
a hand-mill for grinding grain, and saddles for the
camels.

After settling in the land of Canaan, and in pro-
portion as they became agriculturists, the Hebrews
ceased to dwell in tents, although, for religious rea-
sons, the l{i;( UAiiiTKS long observed the ancient

into the ground at a certain distance from the tent.
These pegs are of wood, about a foot long and an
inch in diameter, pointed at one end, and with a
hook at the other, to which tiie rope can be tied.
The Hebrew equivalent for the expression " to pitch
a tent" is, therefore, " taka' " (comp. (Jen. xxxi. 25;
Jer. vi. 8). which means "to drive in tiie teut-pius."
In the same way "to pull out the tent-pins," as noted
above, means to strike lent for a jouriiev.

K. c. ' I. 151..

TE'OMIM, HEZEKIAH (FEIWEL) BEN
JONAH: Kabbi at Przemysl; lived in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries. He was the au-

Bedouin Tk.nt.

(From a photograph hy JJonfils )

mode of life; and even to the latest period the He-
brew language retained, even in cases where the
primitive idea was no longer present, a number of
terms originally derived from life in tents, as is shown
by the i)lirase " halak le-oholo " = " to return home "
(comp. Josh. xxii. 4 et seq. ; Judges vii. 8, xix. 9; I
Kings xii. 10), and by the frequent mention of tents
in symbolic language {e.(i., in Isa. xxii. 23, xxxviii.
12; "Ezra ix. 8; Jer. iv. 20).

The wonl " yated " (Ex. xxvii. 19, xxxv. 18,
xxxviii. 31; Judges iv. 21, 22; Isa. xxxiii. 20, liv.
2) designates a tent-]iin. Among the Bedouins to-
day the poles which form the framework of the tent,
as well as iiart of the tent-cloth placed upon them,
are held in place by ropes fastened to pegs driven

thor of " Teka- be-Shofar " (Breslau. 1719), containing
documents concerning the litigation between the
author and the community of Przemysl. which, in
spite of a formal contract, had nominated for rabbi
Samuel of Lemberg, formerly rabbi of Slonim.
BiBLiotiRAPHV : Steinsclineider, Cat. Bodl. col. SiH.

K . C. ^- ""•

TE'OMIM, JONAH BEN ISAIAH: Bohe-
mian rabbi at Prague; died at Metz April Ifi. 1069.
After having exercised the function of rabbi at
Nikols])urg and in several other Bohemian commu-
nities he was called in 1000 to the rabbinate of Metz.
In 1600 he was appointed rabbi of Posen, but he was
ju-evailed upon by the community of Metz to remain
in the latter city. Te'omim was the autlior of

Te'oniiin
Terah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

106

'•Nimukim," containing notes on David ben Sam-

uel's "Tuie Zalmb" (on Hoslicn Mislipiit; Cracow.

1G92). and " Kikayon de-Youali," uovi-ll;v on three

Talmudical treatises (Amsterdam. ]66'J-70).

Bibliography: Zunz, in Liebermann's Dcutxchci^ Vnlkaka-
lendtf. ISiJ. p. 68; Cannoly. in Josts .4)ni«/(", ii.^'<; idem,
in lievue Orkittalc, ii. 172: Steins* bneiUer. ('((^ /Jod/. col.
1430: Abraham Cobeu, JLf s liabhiiis dc Metz^p.M. I'ans,

im>.

E. C. I. Bh.

TEOMIM. JONAH (HAYYIM) BEN
JOSHUA FEIWEL : Kablii successively at Przem
vsl, Ziilz, ami IJreslau; lived in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries: son-in law of David Oppen-
heini, rabbi of Prague, and later of Ilirsch ben Ben-
jamin, rabbi of Berlin. He was the author of:
"'Aleli deVonah," novellaj on Shulhan 'Ariik, Ho-
slicn Mishpat, and including some parts of his com-
mentary on Maimouides' " Perush ha -^lishnah " ;
"Kontres R. Hayyim Yonah," novelhc on the laws
called ""Onj (Jesuitz, 1723); and novelhc on She-
bu'ot (ih. 1724).
BiBLiooKAPiiv: Steinschneider, Cat. Dodl. col. 1431.

E . V. I. Br.

TE'OMIM, JOSEPH BEN MEIR : Galician
rabbi; horn at Lemberg in 1727; died at Frankfort-
on-the-Oder in 1793. While still young he siic-
ceedeil his father in the position of preacher and
rabbinical instructor in the yeshibah of Lemberg.
Later he went to Berlin, where he stayed several
years in the bet ha-midrash of Daniel Jafe. Then
lie resumed his former position at Lemberg, and in
1782 was appointed rabbi at Fiaiikf(jrt-on-tlic-Oder,
where he remained until his death.

Te'omim, who was one of the foremost rabbis of
his time, was a thorough student of rabl)inical liter-
ature, and was not unlearned in the secular sciences.
He wrote: "Peri Megadim," a twofold commentary
on the Orah Hayyim — one part being entitled
"-Mishbezot Zaliab," containing a sui)cicommentaiy
on David ben Samuel's " Ture Zahab," and the other
"Eshel Abraham," on Abraham Abelc's "^lagen
Abraham" (Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 17.>3); "Porat
Yosef," novelhc on Yebamot and Ketubot, with
rules for haiakic decisions (Zolkiev, 17.")G); "Ginnat
Weradiiu," seventy rules for the comprehension of
tlie Talmud (Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1707); "Peri
Mcgadiiu," a twofold commcntaiy on the Yorch
De'ah — one part being entitled " .Mishliezot Zahab,"
containing a supercommentary on David ben Sam-
uel's "T'l't^ Zahai),"and the other "Sifte Da'at,"
on Shabiielhai Kohen's " Sifto Kohen " ("["l^f; Ber-
lin, 1772): "Tebat Goine,"on the Sabbatical sections
(Franktort-on-tlie-Oder,17S2); "Shoshanat ha-'Ama-
kim," a metliodology of the Talinu<l, published
together with the preceding; "Nc»'am ]\Iegadim,"
commentaries on the prayers, ])ul)lished with the
l)rayerbook " Hegyon Leb." Te'omini left in manu-
script "Seferha-Maggid" (a commentary on the Pen-
tateuch and the Haftarot, sermons for Sabl)aths
ami festivals, and a twofold coinmeutary on Pirke
Abot) and "'Em la-Biiiali" (a Hebrew, Aramaic, and
Clialdaic lexicon; Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Ilebr.
MSS." No. 1500). In the introduciion lo the last-
named work Te'omim mentions a great number of
writings of his own, on halakot ami ethics, which
are no lonjrcr in existence.

Bibliography : D. Caswel, in Krsch and Gruher, Eucyc. section
ii., pan lit, p. 97; Steinscliueider, Vat. Ditdl. col. l.>14 ; Neu-
baiur. in Ilti-Mmmid. .xiii. :iSi; Fueun, Kcne^ct Yistael, p.
514; Huber, Anffii ^7lt'(^l, p. 95.
E. C. I. Bli.

TE'OMIM, JOSHUA FEIWEL BEN JO-
NAH : Kalilii ai i'rzciuysl in the SLvenleeiilh and
eighteenth centuries. He was the author of " Panim
Masbirot," a polemical work directed against Meir
ben Isaac Eisenstadt (1715).

Bibliography: Steiusclmeider, Cat. liadL col. 1564.
E. c. I. Br.

TE'OMIM (ARYEH JUDAH), LOB BEN
MOSES (called also Zunz or Zinz) : Habhi and
scholar of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries;
lived in Piuczow, and later in Plotzk. He was the
author of the following works: " Ya'alat Hen " (Zol-
kiev, 1802), sermons on different parashij-yot ; "Get
Mekushshar" (Warsaw, 1812), compendium to that
jiartof Maimonides' " Yad " which treats of divorce;
"Magen lia-Elef," called also "Shem Hadash " (//a
1817), on the regulations of the ritual codex refer-
ring to the Passover festival (to this work are ap-
pemled notes on the '" Mahazit ha-Shekei " of Samuel
ha-Levi Kolin); "She'elot u-Tesliubot Gur Aryeh
Yehudah" (Zolkiev, 1827), compendium of the four
ritual codices; "Hiddushim" (Warsaw, 1830), treat-
ing of the shehitah and terefah ; " Sinihat Yom-
Tob" (aVj. 1841 ), complete commentary on the trea-
tise Bezali ; " She'elot u-Teshiibot ^leshiiial Nefesli "
{ib. 1849), responsa on the ritual codices; "Hiddu-
shim" (ib. 1859), compendium of the ritual codex
Yoreh De'ah; "Birkat ha-Shir " (n.p., n.d.), aPass-
over Haggadah together with commentary; "]\Ielo
ha-'Omer, " commentary on the Pentateuch and the
Five Megillot; and "Tib Halizah " and "Tiii Kid-
dushiu" (n.p., n.d.), collections of responsa on the
ceremony of H.m.iz.vii as observed in modern times,
and on marriage contracts.

Bibliography: Fiirst, Bihl. Jitd. s.v.Zinz; Benjacoh. Ozar
ha-Scfarinu pp. 04, %, 175, 208, 227. 29(5, 376. 591. .592. 594, 636.
S. S. O.

TE'OMIM, MEIR BEN SAMUEL : Polish
Taliuudist of the eighteenth century; died July,
10, 1773. ]\Ieir was a grandson of Jo.seph Te'o-
mim, and wasn preacher in Lemberg, He wrote:
" Nofet Zufim" (included in his son Joseph Tc'o-
niiin's " Kab Peninim"; Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
1782); "Birkat Yosef wc-Eliyahu Rabba" (Zolkiev,
1750). According to his son Joseph, he wrote a work
entitled " 'Einek Ilalakah," comprising explanations
of a large part of the Talmud. His decisions are
cited in the works of later Talmudists.

BMn.iOGRAPiiv : Waldcn. filiem hn-Gcdnliii) hr-HnilaKh.l. 87;
UiiliiT, .\)islic Shrill, p. 1:^1): Benjacob, dzar liaSefarini. p.
88. .No. 654; p. 542. No. .'>'.) ; Stein.sclineider, ('at. lindl. col.
1717 ; Zedner, Cat. llchr. Bonks Brit. Mus. No. 256.
K. r. .\. Pf-..

te'omim-frAnkel, baruch ben

DA"VID : Kabhi at \Visnicz, Austrian Galicia, and
at Leiimik, JMoravia, dining the first half of the
nineteenlh century; giandson of Aryeh Lob ben
Joshua Feiwel Te'omim. He was famous as a Tal-
nnidist, and was the author of "Baruk Ta'am"
([..emberg, 1841), Talmudic (lissert;i1ions, and of
notes to the Mishnah and the Talmud, included in

107

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Te'omim
Terah

'Jie LcmbcM'g (18G2) edition of the former and in tlie

Warsaw (1859-()4) edition of tli(^ latlcr.

Uiiti.iofiiiAriiY : Zt'dncr, Cat. Ifdir. Hooks Hiit. Miik. ]i. 7X;
fnvtil, mill. Jud. i.:i\K): W'nhk'u, Slum liii-(li<li)liin lu-lln-
dash, \i. :!:.'; Duinbitzer, Kclilat Vo/i, i. W, tioti-.

s. s. A. I'K.

TEPLITZ : Town in nortlicrn IJoliemla, abont
4C miles noitliwest of Prague. Tiie earliest doc-
umentary evidence of tlie presence of Jews there is
dated 1414; but the earliest Jewish source referring
to them belongs to the end of the sixteenth century.
In 1480 the Jewish conununity obtained from the
town a burial-ground and built a synagogue. In
an agreement ilated Aug. 1, 15S3, the Jews bound
themselves to pay the town a certain sum yearly,
in return for which they were permitted the unre-
stricted use of the baths. The Thirty Years' war
cavised a decrease in the numljcrof Jews in Teplitz;
in 1(521 there were only 24 Jewish families there, oc-
cupying 11 houses; but in spite of thi.-5 small num-
ber the old synagogue was torn down antl rebuilt
on a larger scale.

With the counter-reformation in Bohemia evil
times came to the community in Tei)litz. Tliose
Jews who had no fixed business there were expelled
(1C67); this left, only 8 families (84 persons): and
though enough returned to bring the number up to
262 before the j^ear expired, in 1668 they were again
forced to leave the town. The Jews were by this
time restricted to the Judengas.se, and as a distinct-
ive badge they were required to wear a large ruff
around the neck. About this tjme, too, the old
cemetery was closed and a new one opened. The
wearing of the white ruff around the neck was
abolished in 1781, in accordance with the decree
of toleration issued by Emperor Joseph. Three
years later, in accordance witii a law relating to the
Jews throughout the empire, the Teplitz Jews,
wh().sc disputes hitherto had been .settled by their
rabbi, were placed under the jurisdiction of the
civil authorities.

After 1848, when the walls of the ghetto disap-
peared and the Jews obtained full liberty, the com-
munity grew appreciably. The Jews wen; active
not only in commerce, but in manufacture, the intro-
duction and development of which must be largely
attributed to them, for they were among the
founders and tirst builders of factories in Teplitz.
Hosiery and glassware are the chief manufacturing
products. In 1802 the second cemetery was closed
and a new one opened. In 1883, about 400 years
after the binlding of the tirst place of worship, a
new liasilican synagogue was erected at a cost of
150,000 kronen.

Whether the Jews of Teplitz had a rabbi previous
to 1548 is doubtful, as the following clause is found
among the instructions given them in that year by
the lord of the manor Kadislau : "The Jews of
Teplitz must in thc! future; conform to the order
issued to c;uiicr Jews, forbidding them to submit
their (lillicuUics to the rabbi in Prague, and requiring
them to lay tlicm before the elder of the Jewry and
the local authorities in Teplitz." No mention is
here made of a rabbi in the latter place. Probably
the tirst rabbi was Nathan, son of liabbi Joseph,
who died in 1599, and whose tombstone was dis-

covered in the old cemetery. Other rabbis known
to liave olliciated in Teplitz were: Jacob, son of
]\Ionasch (d. 1717); Simhah Kohen Poppers(d. 1744);
Abraham Kohen Popp(!rs(d. 1775); I.saac Kaliscii(d.
1783); Nai»htali Ilerz Emden (d. 1796); Josepli b.
Abraham (d. 1800); Solomon Stras.ser 01. 1820);
Isaiah Levi p^idlitz (d. 1831); Zaciiarias Erankel
(called to Dresden in 1830); David Pick (district
rabbi; d. 1878); Adolf Hosenzweig (to 1887, wjieu
he was called to Berlin); Adolf Kurreiu (the jircsent
[1905] incund)ent).

The conununal institutions of Teplitz iiM mdc a
hebra k^'ddisha, a bikkur holim, an almshouse
(founded 1834), a i)rides' dowry society (founded
1860), a women's society (Nashim Zidkoniyyot), a
society for the aid of sick and necessitous women,
a Tempclverein (founded 1882 for the building and
decoration of the synagogiie), Samel's orpiian
foundation, Philipp Spitz's Chanukkastiflung for
clothing poor school-children at Hanukkah, Wil-
helm Rindskopf's institute for the blinii, a society
for the support of poor wayfarers passing through
Teplitz, and a hospital for residents or visitors in
need of treatment at the springs (founded in 1830 by
Naphtali Katz).

The following table shows the growth of the Jew-
ish population of Teplitz:

NumlM>r of
Year. .Jfwisli

Inliiiljiiuiits.

178ti (47 bouses) ■IK

1791 403

1792 425

1S23 (ijO houses) 496

1835 554

ISTO 1.290

1SK() 1.720

18SKI l.itOO

1900 :}.ooo

The total resident population of Teplitz is 30,000.

BiBLiocRAPHV: Hallwich, Gcsch. vnn Teplitz, Leipsip, 1886;
Rospiizweijr, Skizzc ziir Gcsch. ilcr Judcn in Te)>litz. in
,1//!/. Zcit.dcs Jud. 1887, pp. 13 ct scq.
8. A. Kf.

TERAH : Father of Abraham, Nahor, and Ilaran
(Gen. xi. 20). His original home was Ur of the
Clialdees; but later he emigrated with his sons to
Haran, where he died (Gen. xi. 32). According to
Joshua's remarks at the assembly of the Israelites at
Shechem, he was au idolater (Josh. xxiv. 2). Mod-
ern exegetes do not agree as to the etymology of the
name " Terah. " .some identifying it with the As.syriau
"turahu" (wild goat), with which the name of the
Mesopotamian town Til-sha-turakhi might ])e com-
pared, while others su]) pose it to be identical with
the Syriac "tarha." Hecently the name "Tendi"
has been regarded as a mutilation of "yerid.i"
(moon); in this case it would refer to a niytlio-
logical person.

According to the Midrash (Gen. K. xxxviii.),
Terah, in addition to being an idolater liiin.self.
made and sold idols; and during his absei>ce lie
compelled Abraham to act as a merchant for Idm.
The "Sefer ha-Yashar" (ed. Leghorn. 1870. pp. 14b
et seq.) re '^i\n\^ him as a great general of Nimr<Hl.
whomheaccompaniedonall his<-ampaigns. Angry
at Abraham for the destruction of his idols. Terah

Year.
1414....

NmiilHT of

Jcwisli
Inlial)itants.
20

1590....

16;n....

1640....

211

1650

2:51

1660. . . .

237

1667. . . .

2t;2

1674

1.54

1702. . .
1724....

..(944 Christians) 187
321

Teraphim
Teretah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

108

accused his son before 2simrod, who condemned liiin
to be burned to doatli. Thereupon Abraliam per-
suaded his father to emigrate to Canaan. See Abka-
iiAM IN' Apocuypiial anu Rabbinical Liteuatvre.

Bibliography: Hastings. Diet. Bihlc; Friedrich Delitzsch,
Pmlegdmena zu cintm .Vikc/i Hchr.-Aram. W'Orttrliuc)^,
p. 80. Leipsic, ISsti: Noldeke. in Z. D. M. G. 1886. p. 1K7 ;
Winckler, Oofcli. dcs Volkcs Israel, ii. ^4. uote 1, Leipsic,
19Uti.
W. B. S. O.

TERAPHIM (D'Sin): Phiral word of unknown
derivuliuu used in the Did Testament to denote the
primitive Semitic house-gods whose cult liad been
handed down to historical times from the earlier
period of nomadic wanderings. The translation of
the term "teraphim " by the Greek versions, as well
us its use in the Scriptures, gives an excellent idea
of the nature of these symbols. Thus Aquiia ren-
ders the word by "figures"; the Septuagint in Gen-
esis by "images," in Ezekicl by "carved images,"
in Zechariah by "oracles," and in Hosea by "mani-
fest objects" {(^/.oi). The Authorized Version often
simply transcribes the word, as in Judges xvii. 5,
xviii. 14 et seq., and IIos. iii. 4, but frequently trans-
lates it "images," as in Gen. xxxi. 19 et passim.
Tlie rendering "images" occurs in I Sam. xix. 13
also, "idols" in Zech. x. 2, and "idolatry" in I
Sam. XV. 23.

The form of the word in Hebrew must be regarded
as a plural of excellence. Just as "Elohim" de-
notes "gods" and "God," the form "teraphim" is
applicable to each single object as well as to tlie en-
tire class (comp. I Sam. xix. 13 and Gen. xxxi. 19).

Biblical Data: That teraphim were really

images of human shape and of considerable size is
plainly seen from I Sam. xix. 13, where IVIichal, the
daughter of Saul, places one in David's bed in order
to conceal his escape from her enraged father. It
is furthermore evident that they Avere not too large
to be easily portable, inasmuch as Gen. xxxi. 19 men-
tions that Rachel, without her husband's knowl-
edge, stole the teraphim which belonged to her
father, Laban, and, when slie wished to conceal
them, placed them among the camel's furniture and
sat upon them (Gen. xxxi. 34).

The nature of the teraphim cult and its gradual
decay seem also perfectly clear. It may be noted
that teraphim were regarded in early times as
representatives of real gods endowed with divine
attributes (comp. Gen. xxxi. 30, where Laban, rebu-
king Jacob for Rachel's theft of the
Nature of teraphim, asks, " Wherefore hast thou
Cult. stolen my gods? "), and that evidently

the teraphim cult was practically on
a plane with Yiiwii worship. In Judges xvii. 5
I^Iicah has "an house of gods" (D'H^JN D'^) with a
duly appointed priest; he makes an epliod (see lie-
low) and teraphim, which were used together with
"a graven image" and "a molten image" made
from silver dedicated to Yiiwii; the figures were
evidently Yiiwii images. The value of the teraphim
to the family and the tribe is sliown I)y the state-
ments that Rachel stole them from her father (Gen.
xxxi 19), and that tlie Danites, wiien they went to
spy out the land of Laish, took away l)y force from
the house of Micah not only the Yiiwii images just

mentioned, but also the ephod, the teraphim, and
the Levitical priest (see Judges xviii).

In early times teraphim-worship Avas undoubt-
edly tolerated by the Yiiwii religion, as may be
seen, for example, from I Sam. xix. 13 (the story
of Michal, the daughter of Saul), where
Acceptance it is tacitly implied that a teraidiim
and was a usual piece of furnituie in the

Rejection, household of a loyal follower of Yiiwii.
In Hos. iii. 4 and in Gen. xxxi. 19, also,
teraphim are alluded to without comment, although
Prof. H. P. Smith ("Samuel," p. xxxiv.) thinks he
detects a touch of sarcasm in the latter passage. It
is certain, however, that teraphim soon became an
object of distinct condemnation in the Yiiwn cult.

In Gcn.xxw .2 et seq. Jacob orders tliat the "strange
gods" ("I3jn 'n^X). by which teraphim images were
probably meant, be put awaj' by his household and
buried. The spot which was thus defiled was made
a holy place i)y Joshua (Jo.sh. xxiv. 20-2(5). Fur-
thermore, in I Sam. xv. 23 Samuel in his rebuke to
Saul is made to classify teraphim Avith iniquity
(px) Jtnd rebellion (""lO). Josiah, the reforming
king, (lid away with the magicians and wizards as
well as with the teraphim and idols (□'77J), all of
which are grouped together as "abominations " (II
Kings xxiii. 24). With these passages should also
be compared Zech. x. 2 (R. V.): "for the teraphim
have spoken vanity, and the diviners have seen a
lie; and they have told false dreams."

It will appear from the above quotations that the
most important function of the teraphim, at any
rate after the spread of the Yiiwii cult over Israel,
was that of divination. Evidently the images were
used cliiefiy for oracular pur])o.ses, al-
Function. though nothing is known of the meth-
od of their consultation; it is proba-
ble, however, that they were used in connection
with casting the sacred lot (comp. Zech. x. 2; Ezek.
xxi. 26 [A. V. 21]). The mention of an ephod in
connection Avith teraphim (Judges xvii. 5, xviii. 20)
is a peculiar use of that Avord, Avhieh in these pas-
sages represents merely "a portable object employed
or manipulated by the priest in consultation Avith
the oracle" (comp. ^loore, "Judges," p. 379, and see
Judges viii. 27, Avhich clearly describes an ephod as
an object employed in divination). This use of the
Avord seems to be quite distinct from that in the so-
called P document (Ex. xxviii. 6 ct seg.), Avhere a
high-priestly garment of the same name is referred
to (see p]i'ii()D).

Such oracles were probably consulted down lo a
quite late date (comp. IIos. iii. 4, Hebr. : "for the
children of Isiael shall abide many days Avithout a
king, and Avithout a prince, and Avithout a sacrifice
[n^T]. find Avitiiouta iiillar [niVJDj, and Avithout an
ephod, and Avithout teraphim''). The passage II
Kings xxiii. 24, cited above, makes it evident that
teraiihim liad survived in later Ju<lah. The mention
of terai)liim in Zech. x. 2 may have been due loan
archaizing tendency of the author of this section (see
Zrciiahiau), and avouUI not in itself be suflicient
evidence to prove that the teraphim cult had con-
tiimed into the Greek period; if, hoAVCA'er, this
]">assage is taken in conjunction Avith the statement
of Josephus ("Ant." xviii. 9, §5) that the custom

109

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Teraphlm
Terefah

of carrying house-gods on journey's into strange
countries prevailed in liis time in tlie Mesopotaniian
regions, it appears liiglily likely tliat llie use of tera-
pliini continued into the first Christian century and
possibly even hiter.

It would seem, then, as remarked above, that tera-
phim, like the Koman Lares and Penates, originally
represented house-gods, whieh were carried about
by the primitive Semitic nomads as fetishes along
with their family elTects, anil that
As these deities were in all probability

Household worshiped at first as the most impor-
Gods. taut divine objects known to the fol-
lowers of this cult. Although nothing
whatever is known about the origin of the teraphim
cult, it may have been a survival of primitive ances-
tor worship; i.e., the images may have originally
represented the deitied ancestors of the family which
revered them, and may have become later a sort of
Manes oracle. They were prol)ably not astral per-
sonitieations. Tlie cult coukl not have been regarded
as indigenous among the Israelites, because the dei-
ties are characterized as " gods of the stranger " (A. V.
"strange gods ") in Gen. xxxv. 4. In Ezek. xxi. 26
(A. V. 21) it is recorded that the King of Babylon
consulted teraphim and "looked in the liver"; i.e.,
he made use of magical incantations as well as of
the astrological rites common in Babylonia. It is
not at all unlikely that the Israelites obtained the
teraphim cult from their Aramean kinsmen.

E. c. J. D. p.
In Rabbinical Literature : The word " tera-
phim " is explained by the Rabbis as meaning "dis-
graceful things" (Yer. 'Ab. Zarah ii. 41b; Tan.,
Wayeze). It is rendered " zalmanaya " or "zilma-
naya" (= "images") by the Targumim of Onkelos
and pseudo-Jonathan to Gen. xxxi. 19, 34, and by
the Targuni of Jonathan in the other parts of the
Bible, except in connection with the image of Micah
(Judges xvii. 5; xviii. 14, IS, 20), where it is ren-
dered "dema'in "(=" likenesses "). The nature of
the teraphim is much discussed by ancient commen-
tators. According to Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to
Gen. xxxi. 19, the teraphim were made of the head
of a man, a lirst-born, which, after the man had
been slain, was shaved and then salted and spiced.
After a goklen jilate on which magic words were
engraved had been placed under the tongue, the
mummified head was mounted on the wall, and it
spoke to tlie people. This legend is more fully
developed in Pirke R. El. xxxvi., where it is said
that after the liead had been displayed on the wall,
lighted candles were placed round it ; the people
then prostrated themselves before it, and it talked
to them.

Ibn Ezra (on Gen. I.e.) records two definitions
of "teraphim"; namely, (1) a copper tiial by means
of which one might ascertain the exact time, and (2)
an image made by astrologers at a certain time and
under the intluencc of certain stars, which cau.sed it
to speak. Ibn Ezra himself favored the latter in-
terpretation, it appearing from I Sam. xix. 13, 10
that the teraphim had the shape of a man. Nah-
manides (on Gen. I.e.), liowever, thinks that while
the teraphim of Laban might have been idols, those
of I Sam. I.e. were not, inasmuch as there could have

been no idols in David's house. He thinks that in
general terapliim were astrological tables by means
of which one might learn future events (comp.
Kimhi on I Sam. I.e.). Tiie "Sefer ha- Yashar " (sec-
tion "Waye?,e," pp. 46b-47a, Legiiorn, 1870), afier
having repeated the description which Pirke R. ¥A\-
ezer gives of tiie teraphim, deelaivs that they were
made of gold or silver, in the inhige of a man and
at a certain moment, and that by the intluence of the
stars they revealed the future. It adds that the te-
raphim of Laban were of the latter description,
w. 1!. M. Sel.

TEREBINTH. See ().\k and Tkhkbinth.

TEREFAH : Term .signifying originally the
flesh of a clean animal that had been torn ormo'lally
womided by beasts of prey, and had been rendered
thereby unfit for food. In rabbinical literature
the word came to be applied to the flesh of an ani-
mal that had received a fatal injury, or suflered
any one of certain diseases, or was marked by .some
physical abnormality, but which otherwise would
be " kasher " (fit and proper as food). " Terefah " in
a broader sense includes also a regularly but unskil-
fully killed animal, in contradistinction to Nebk-
L.\H, which refers to the carcass of a clean animal
that has died an unnatural death or been killetl ir-
regularly (comp. Hul. iv. 2). Both flesh that is
nebelah and flesh that is terefah are forbidden as
food by the Mosaic law (Lev. xxii. 8).

Tlie Talmudic rule is that when an animal is so
injured that it can not live, its flesh is terefah;
lience only such injury, disease, or abnormality is
involved as must cause an untimely death and afifect
the health of the animal at the time it is slauglitered
(Hul. iii. 1 ; 42a).

According to 'Ulla, the Mosaic law recognizes
eight principal terefah signs, as follows: (1) "deru-
sah " (violent attack by beast or bird of prey); (2)
" nekubah " (perforation of a vital organ) ; (3) " hasu-
rah" (natural deficiency of an organ); (4) "netu-
lah " (loss of an organ) ; (5) " keru'ah "
Symptoms (a rent in the body); (6) "nefulah " (a
of fall that might cau.se internal in-

Terefah. juries); (7)"pesukah" (severance or
dislocation of a limb); (8) "sheburah"
(fracture of a rib or other bone). In each of these
classes th(!re are a number of cases. Tlie Mishnah
gives a list of eighteen principal ones: (1) when
the gullet ("wesliet") is punctured or perforated,
the hole penetrating to the interior; (2) when the
windpipe ("gargeret") is split or torn across its
width; (3) when the membrane ("kerum") near-
est to the brain is perforated; (4) when the lieart is
pierced as far as one of its ventricles; (5) when the
spine is broken and the spinal cord is .severed ; (6)
when the liver is entirely wanting; (7) when there
is a perforation thrcnigh the two membranes cover-
ing the lungs; (8) when the lungs lack any of their
lobes; (9) when there is a hole in the maw, or (10) in
the gall-bladder, or (ll)in the intestines; (12) when
there is a hole in the interior, or lower, stomach, or
when (13) the greater part of the flesh covering the
stomach is torn; (14) when there is a perforation of
the omasum (DDl^n = " many plies"), or (15) in the
greater venter, or upper stomach, beyond the place

Terefah
Terumot

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

110

where the two stomachs are joined; (16) when tlie
animal has fallen olT a roof; (17) when the major-
ity of tlie ribs are fractured; (18) wiien the animal
has been seized by a wolf with its lorepaws or
claws. A small bird is terefah when a sparrow-
liawk has struck its talons into it; and a larger
bird, as a fowl or goose, when it has been struck
by a falcon, eagle, or other large bird of prey.

Maimonides enumerates seventy indications of
terefah (" Yad,"' Shel.iitah, x. 9), and says: "Seventy
terefot are the limit, and must not be increased or
diminished, even tiiongh it should be found by
scientilic investigation liiat some of the injuries are
not dangerous to tiie life of the animal,
The or that some unenumerated conditions

Seventy are dangerous to its life. Only those

Terefot. indications of terefah ma}- be followed
which have been accepted by the
Rabbis and handed down by tradition '' {ih. x. 12,
13). Questions of Jewish law can not be decided by
the cviiience of philosophers (R. Sheshet, responsum
No. 447).

The Slmlhan 'Aruk arranges tlie symptoms accord-
ing to the various parts of the animal, desciibing
minutely every injury, disease, or abnormality, from
tiie head to the hind legs, internally and externally,
whether a perforation, fracture, amputation, or dis-
coloration, whicli might make the Hesh of the ani-
mal terefah; stating also when such defects are
harmless. The lungs are more liable to injury than
any other organ: the number and position of the
lobes, the bronchial tubes, the tubercles, and any
adhesion to the flesh C'sirka") must be considered.
The lungs are inflated to discover any perforation.
When the lungs are shrunk it is a sign of fright,
and if the fright has been caused by human agenfy,
as when an animal sees a man killing another ani-
mal, the flesh is terefah. But if the fright was
caused by an act of God, as by thunder or lightning,
or if the animal has seen one animal kill another,
the flesh is kasher. A test is made by soaking the
lungs in lukewarm water for twenty-four hours: in
the flrst case the shrinkage remains; in the second
case the shrinkage disappears. Double organs, such
as two livers, in an animal or fowl lender it tcrefali,
as the rule is that "a superfluity is to be treated
like a defleiency." When the gall is waTiting, the
flesh is terefah ; but when a part of it remains, it is
kasher. A test is made by cutting the liver across
and touching the incision with the tongue; if there
is no bitter taste, it proves the entire absence of the
gall. Two gall-bladders render the animal terefah ;
but when there is a connecting flow between them,
though they appear double, it is kasher. Some
species of fowl, as doves and pigeons, have no gall-
bladders, and are kasher.

A cow or an ox has twenty-two large ribs, eleven
on each side; if twelve or more are fractured, it is
terefah. Tiie extraction of only one rib with its
vertebra renders it terefah. If the spine is broken,
but the spinal cord is not severed, it is kasher.

The signs of terefah in ueru.sah are explained.
The lion's attack is fatal to any animal; the wolfs
is not fatal to large cattle, like oxen or calves, but it
is fatal to small cattle, like sheep; that of a eat or
marten ("nemiyyah"; Hul. 52b) and a fox is fatal

only to kids, lambs, and fowls; that of a weasel is

fatal only to fowls. The lion and the wolf are the

most ferocious animals of their size;

Derusah. the attacks of other beasts of prey
are not fatal to animals. The attacks
of birds of prey are not fatal to cattle, except in
the case of the hawk, which is fatal to kids and
lambs when it pierces their bodies Avith its beak.
The attacks of ordinary birds of prey are fatal only
to birds of their own size, or smaller; tliat of the
eagle is fatal to all other birds.

A fall of ten "tefahim" (handbreadth.s) renders
the flesh of an animal terefah. A shorter fall, if
sudden, without a chance of adjustment on the part
of the animal, might be fatal, as internal injuries
are ))o.ssible. Therefore special care must be taken
when casting the animal for the shehitah.

In later rabbinical speech the term '"terefah "is
applied to food rendered unlit by tlie mixture of
meat and milk; or to things forbidden by the diet-
ary laws; or to things to which the terms '' pasul "
and "asur," often interchanged, are applied. See
Bedikaii; C.\i{C.\ss^ Ci-e.\n .\nd Uncle.\x Ani-
mals; DiKTAijv Laws; Kasiieu; Nebelaii; Poi?g-

ING ; SllEIUTAlI.

Bini.ior,i!.\riiv : Maiinonides, Yn<}, Slirhitali, v.-xi.; Joseph
Curo, Sliiilhau 'Anih, Voieh Dc'a}i. 'M-tlO; Ale.xander Sen-
der Schorr,''i'c)/i('()< Sliar, Zoll^iev. \~'.ii ; IJenjaiiiin Wolf Win-
terniiz, (jclnil liiiiijdtiiiii, Vienna, 1.H24 ; I.saac ha-Kolien. Zib-
he Ktilieii (Hebrew and Italian), Le(?horn, 183:i; Kabbino-
wicz, Priiicipcs Tdhnuitiijites dc Sclicliitah ct dc Tcfeplia,
Paris. 1877 ; idem, Mi'ilicinr dcs TIinlwiKla. pp. 2;5H-2t)2, 1,eip-
sic. lH.Si; Kroi.'hinal, in Jlc-Haluz, i. 'H. ii.87, iii. 2."); Wiener,
Die JUdisclicn Siicisiycsctze, pp. 220-2-18, Berlin, 1895.
W. 15. J. D. E.

TERNI, DANIEL BEN MOSES DAVID :

Italian rabbi, poet, and Biblical conimeiitator of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; a native of
Ancona. After having taught for some time at
Lugo, he was called to the rabbinate of Florence,
lie was the author of the following works: "Se-
'uddat Mi/wall " (Venice 1791), consisting of ser-
mons for holy days and some respousa; *'Siiiil.iat
IMlzwah" (Florence, 1793), a dramatic poem in two
parts composed on the occasion of the inauguration
of a new synagogue at Florence, and mentioned in
his -"Ikkere Dinim"; "Mattenat Yad" {ih. 17!).")),
a treatise on charity in tlie form of sermons; "'Ik-
keie Dinim," called also " 'Ikkere ha-Dat " = " lia-
liab Daniel Teriii " (ih., 18U3), a conipcndium of
the laws contained in the Shulhan 'Aruk (Oiah
Ilayyiin and Yoieh De'ali), arranged according to
ancient and later responsa; "Derek Siah," casuistic
sermons, and " En Ke/," a bibliographical work
similar to Sliabbetliai Bass' "Sifte Yeslieiiim " (both
of tliese works ai(! still uniniblished) ; and '" Siiem
'Oiam " a commentary on the Pentateuch (a manu-
script of this work was in Osias Schorr's library).

TJUiMOfiRArnv : Fiienn. Knimrl yhrncl. p. 26.3; Fiirst. nil)!.
J ml. iii. 418; Nepi-GliironUi, 'Tolcdnl Gcdntc Yisntcl. \i.''X
K. r. M. Si r..

TERNI. MATTATHIAH NISSIM BEN
JACOB ISRAEL : Italian rabbi and poet; Ihiur-
isiied ill the cigiitcenth and nineteenth centuries.
lie was rabbi at Florence, Urliino, Pesaro, and Siiii-
gaglia. He wrote: "Sefat Emet," halakic decisions
(Leghorn, 1797): " ^lidbar ba-'Arabali," on the mar-
riage laws (Florence, 1SU7 [?J); "MidbarMattaiiah,"

Ill

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Terefah
Terumot

respoiisa, in four parts {ib. 1810; the appcMidix, in
Italian, was publislied at IJrbino). A volume of
jiocnis l»v liini is entitled "No'am Ave-Hobolini wo-
Dcick Emunali" (Goiger, "Zoit. Jud. Thcol." iii.
28G, No. 44).

BiBr.ior.nAPnv : Filrst. Tiilil. Jml. iii. tlS; Mortara, /)i(?icc, p.
64; Steinschueider, Cut. liixll. col. 1(>.S4.-
E. C. ^I. SeL.

TERONGI, RAPHAEL BENITO : Martyr.
He, his teac'lier Kapliacl Vails, and his sister Ca-
talina Terongi Avcre together publicly burned as
".ludios iinpenitentes" at the auto da fe held in
Pahna, ]Majorea, May G, 1(50 1. As soon as the vic-
tims behekl the flames they tried with all their
]io\ver to escape the fetters, in which elTort Papluiel
Terongi finally succeeded, immediately Hinging liim-
self uiion the pyre. Catalina imi)lorcd pitifully to
be saved from the frames, though she was not able
to bring herself to utter the name of Jesus. Ac-
cording to a report of James Stanhope (who was
an eye-witness of this and other autos da fe held in
Palma) to his father in ]\Iadrid, th(> victims were, in
most cases, wealthy and the owners of magniticent
dwelling-houses.

Bibliography : Spain Under Charles II. pp. 12t(se^.; Garan,
La Fe Trinmfante, in A. de Castro. Judios en Espana. p.
215; Kayserling. GV.sf?iic/i<f der Juden in Spanien, \. 1^1 \
idem, Ein Feiertag in Madrid, p. 45.
s. IM. K.

TERQ,UEM, OLRY : French mathematician ;
born at Metz June 16, 1782; died at Paris May 6,
1802. In 1801 he began his studies at the Ecole Poly-
technique in Paris, where he became assistant pro-
fessor in mathematics in 1803. In the following year,
after obtaining his degree as "docteur ^s sciences,"
he received a call as professor of liigher mathematics
to the Lyceum of Mayence, then still a French city.
In 1811 iie became professor at tlie artillery school
at Mayence, and went in the same capacity to Gre-
noble in 1814. In 1815 he returned to Paris as libra-
rian of the artillery central depot of St. Thomas
d'Aquin, which position he retained until his death.

In 1842 he, together with Gerono, founded the
"Nouvelles Annales de Mathematiques " (continued
by Charles Brisse). He also edited, from 1855 to
1861, the "Bulletin de Bibliographic, d'Histoire et
de Biographic de Matliematiques."

In 1852, when Napoleon III. visited the Musee
d'Artillerie, Olry Terquem was created an oflicer of
the Legion of Honor. His funeral, which was at-
tended by General Leba'uf as representative of the
emperor, and a dozen other generals, all his former
pupils, was remarkable in that Terquem insisted on
being buried according to the rites of Judaism, al-
though no other member of his family remained true
toliis ancestral faith. Isidor, chief rabbi of France,
oOiciated ; but General de Bressolles as representa-
tive of the minister of war delivered the funeral
oration.

Besides several handbooks on elementary mathe-
matics and mechanics, a " C'ommcntaire sur la Me-
canique Celeste [of Laplace]," and a "Ilistoire
d'Artillerie" (the latter two works remaining unfin-
ished), Teriiuem wrote "Lettres Tsarphatiques "
(nine pamphlets, Paris, 1831-37), which were first
published in the "Journal de la Moselle." In tliese

letters lie pleaded for the introduction of reforms in

Judaism, especially for a Sumlay Sabbath.

Terquem contributed also several treatises to the

French Jiible translation by S. Cahen, and a great

number of articles to the "Archives Israelites."

BiBMOGRAPiiY : E. Prouhet. In nullrtin de TiihUoqraphie,
d' llixliiire el de nifmnijiliiede M(itlii'iiiiiti<iiie.'<. iKtll, pp. 81-
90; .t rc/i iiv.s /.s'm<'7i7(.s. iwi:.', pp. Ui:f :j2li; l,a (Innide En-
cyclopidiei Fuenri, Kcncaet Yixrael, s.v. (Jlry Tirtiuem.

TERRACING : Italian rabbinical family, of
wliich the I'dilowing members arc; known:

David Mordecai Terracino : Rabbi at Asti in
the nineteenth century.

Hezekiah. Terracino: Italian scholar of the
seventeenth century; flourished in Lugo, wliere he
probably held the position of ab bet din; a contem-
porary of Nathanael Trabotti. In a responsuin
printed in Lampronti's "Pahad Yizhak " (i. 112)
Hezekiah pleads total blindness as jin excuse for
the incomplete answer given to a question addressed
to him.

Moses ben Menahem Terracino : Kaltbi at
Ferrara in the seventeenth century. He was the
author of a responsum on the controversy at Lodi
between jVIanasseh ha-Kohen and the Pavia brothers;
also of a responsum (in the collection "Paige Ma-
yim," p. 36) in which he retracted a decision previ-
ously given.

Solomon Terracino : Mentioned in Shabbethai

Bar's respousa collection (§ 51).

BinLioCRAPHV : Mortara, Indice, p. fi4 ; Nepi-Gtiirondi. Tule-
dnt Gedolc Yixrael, pp. HI, 237; Fiirst, iii/jL Jud.Ui. -118
and note 2.

E. c. S. O.

TERRITORIALISTS. See Zioxis.v.

TERU'AH. See Siiofar.

TERUEL (isn'O): City of Aragon. In the Mid-
dle Ages it possessed a ])rominent Jewish commu-
nity, which enjoyed several privileges, and which
paid in the fourteenth century a yearly tax of 300
sueldos. Its members were engaged in commerce
and industry, especially in wool-weaving. During
the persecutions of 1391 many of them were killed,
while others accepted Christianity in order to save
their lives. The Jews of Teruel had a statute ac-
cording to which a document was legal only if it
had been drawn up by the communal secretary and
bore his seal. Failure to comply with these regula-
tions entailed a fine of 20 gold gulden (Isaac b.
Sheshet, Besponsa, No. 304). About 1385 a delator
(" malsin ") ajjpearedat Teruel ; and the community
asked Isaac b. Sheshet how, under existing circum-
stances, lie slioidd be dealt with. Among the many
wool-dealers of the city were Don Solomon ilm
Yahya and Don Judah ibn Yahya. Other promi-
nent Jews living in Teruel were the scholarly Judah
ben David, whom Isaac b. Sheshet commended to
the community, and hiscontemporari.-^ l^Mbbi .Moses
Gabbai and Isaac Lappa.

niBJ.iocRAPHV : Jacolis, S<>nrre.«. Nos. 780. ".m, ItNS ; R}>>».JJ if ■
ii. 297, 378. 402; Isaac b. Shcslu't. /fc.sjx/ii.xH, Nos. 2U2. 22o,~J4
ct seq., 252, 347, 452.

TERUMOT : Treatise in the Mishnaii, Toscfta.
and Palestinian Talmud. There were two kinds <.f
heave-offerings or gifts to the priest: one was tlie

Temmot
Testaments

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

112

regular heave-offering, known also as tbe " great
heave-offering" (" leruraah godolah"), which the
Israelites were required to give to the priest from
the fruits of their fields (comp. Num. xviii. 8 et seq. ;
Deut. xviii. 4); the other was the so-called "tithe
heave-offering" ("terumat ma'aser "), i.e., the tithe
which the Levites put aside for tlie priests from the
tithe due to them as Levites (comp. Num. xviii. 25
et seq.). The treatise gives a more precise definition
of the rules governing both these heave-offerings,
but the great heave-offering forms the chief subject
of discussion. In most editions of the Mislinah this
treatise is sixth iu the order Zera'im. It is divided
into eleven chapters, containing altogether one hun-
dred and one paragraphs.

Cli. i. : Enumeration of five classes of persons who
may not make the heave-offering (§§ 1-3). From
1^'hat saciifices the heave-offering may not be taken
(§§ 4-5). Five other classes of persons who may
not make the selection, though where they have
done so in ignorance of the prohibition, their act is
considered valid (§ 6). The selection is not to be made
according to measure, weight, or number, but ac-
cording to estimated value (§ 7). Different cases
in which the heave-offering is considered valid,
although the method by which it was selected is
generally not permissible (§§ 8-10).

Ch. ii. : Further enumeration of cases in which
the heave-offering is valid, although the method of
procedure followed in selecting it was not legitimate,
such as in selecting clean grain for unclean as a
heave-offering (^ 1). Cases in wiiicli tlie heave-offer-
ing obtained by an unallowable method of procedure
is valid only if the wrong method was used unwit-
tingly. In this connection various methods are
enumerated which, although properly not allowed,
are considered valid if they have been
Contents, used unwittingly (^§ 2-3). The
heave-offering may not be made from
one kind for another kind, nor from imperfect fruits
for perfect ones of the same kind, altliough perfect
fruits may be given as a heave-offering for imperfect
fruits of the same kind (^g 4-6).

Ch. iii. : Circumstances under which the heave-
offering must be given twice (§§ 1-2). A case in
which each of two joint owners sets apart the
heave-offering from the fruits belonging to them
in common (t^ 3). The owner may empower his serv-
ant to set apart the heave-offering (i^ 4). How the
heave-offering is determined (§ 5). In wiiat order
the different taxes, as the first-born tax, the heave-
offering, and the tithe, are to be given (j-^ 6-7).
What sliall be done when one makes a slip of the
tongue while selecting tlie heave-offering, or during
the consecration of the sacrifice or the taking of an
oath (§ 8). Gifts and offerings of non-Jews (i; 9).

Ch. iv. : Selecting and measuring tlie great heave-
offering. The great iieavc-offering should be about
one-fortieth, one-fiftieth, or one-sixtietliof the whole
from which it is taken, according to the generosity
of the giver (^§ 1-5). The litiie Jieave-offering, like
the tithe, is taken according to number, measure,
or weight (^ 6). Coiiceniiiig the mixing of heave-
offerings witii other fruits and liie proportions of tiie
various ingredients in regard to the question of
"meduma'"(§§7-13).

Ch. V. : Further iliscussion concerning the mixing
with other fruits of clean heave-offerings and of
those which have become unclean.

Ch. vi. : Concerning the compensation that must
be made by one who has eaten, or otherwise derived
benefit from, a heave-offering (comp. Lev. xxii. 14).

Ch. vii. : Continuation of ch. vi. ; cases in whicli
only tlie value of wliat has been eaten need be
paid, without the additional fifth part ("homesh";
§§ 1-4). Further regulations concerning the mixing
of heave-offerings (^j^ 5-7).

Ch. viii. : Tiie same theme continued (§§ 1-3).
Regarding wine, set apart for the heave-offering,
which hasstood uncovered; the danger of poLsouing
(^§ 4-7). Concerning the defilement of heave-offer-
ings (i;i^ 8-11). Regarding women who are in dan-
ger of being outraged by lieathen (^ 12).

Ch. ix. : What must be done in case, either wit-
tingly or unwittingly, a heave-offering has been
sown; regulations concerning tlie fruits from the
sowing of a heave-ottering.

Ch. x. : Cases in which the taste which certain
foods have acquired from a heave-offering makes
them unlawful; regulations regarding other cases
in wliich lawful foods become unlawful tlirough the
taste which they have derived from unlawful foods.

Ch. xi. : liegulations concerning the use wliich
may be made of clean heave-offerings, as well as of
tho.se which have become unclean.

The Tosefta is divided into ten chapters, and, be-
sides additions to and amplifications of tlie Mislinah,
contains some interesting utterances, as, for instance,
the definition of the boundaries of the

Tosefta territory belonging to the land of Israel
and (ii. 12). The Palestinian Gemara to

Gemara. this treatise explains and discusses the

halakot of the Mislinah and contains

almost no haggadic sayings. There are only a few

narratives in it; from these the following has been

selected :

Diocletian, in his youth, was a swineherd in Ti-
berias, where the young pupils from the school of
Judah II. used to beat him and make fun of him.
When he became emperor he determined to revenge
himself on the Jews and especially on the scholars.
He went to Paneas, a place at some distance from
Tiberias, and from there sent a summons to Judah
(ha-Nasi) II., ordering him, witli the other scholars,
to appear before the emperor on Sabbath evening.
He directed his messenger to deliver the summons to
Judah on Friday evening so that the .scholars, wlio
would not travel on the Sabbath, would have no
time to make the journey, and would therefore ren-
der themselves liable to piinishinent for disobedience.
By a miracle, however, the scholars succeeded in
appearing before the emperor on Sabbath evening;
and they appeased his anger by saying that they
.scorned only the swineherd Diocletian, but obeyed
and honored the emperor. Diocletian then remarked
that they should lie cautious, and never insult a
Roman even of lowly condition, because he might
mount in rank and take revenge (46b). The same
story, with a few divergencies iu detail, is found in
Gen. R. Ixiii. 12.

w. I!. J. Z. L.

TESTAMENT. See Wills.

113

THE JEAVISII ENCYCLOPEDIA

Terumot
Testaments

TESTAMENTS OF THE TWELVE PA-
TRIARCHS : 'ritk'dl' Iwflvccdriiicctt'd (Idcuiiieiits
which pmiiort to rcconl the last words uiid exlior-
tations of tlie twelve sons of Jueol). Tl)ey also bear
in several of theinauuscrii)ts subtitles indicatini; the
virtues inculcated or the vices condemned by eaeii of
these patriarehs in turn. Thus IJeuben discourses
of evil motives and desires, especially as regards
women; Simeon, of envy; Levi, of priesthood and
pride: Judah, of coura,!j:e, avarice, and fornication;
Issachar, of simi)le-mindedness; Zebulun, of com-
passion and pity ; Dau, of anger and falsehood ;
Naphtali, of natural goodness; Gad, of hatred;
Asher, of the two characters of vice and virtue;
Josepli, of temperance and chastity; Benjamin, of
purity of lieart.

In each testament the patriarch first narrates his
own life, dwelling on his virtues or his sins. Next
he exhorts his descendants to enuilate the one and to
avoid the other. Lastlj% he launches
Contents, out into prophetic visions of their fu-
tures. In these apocalyptic passages
the writings of Enoch are often appealed to and
cited, though the citations arc seldom found in the
Ethiopic or Slavonic Enoch. In the biographies the
writer follows the Old Testament, adding many
details from Jewish tradition.

Many prophetic passages are apparently of Chris-
tian origin, and foretell the incarnation, tlie sanctifi-
cation by water {i.e., baptism), and the crucifixion of
the Higliest. In them Jesus is often identified with
God. It is easy to detect and detach these Christian
passages; and the manuscripts and versions assist
one in doing so. Notably a eulogy of Paul (in
which, however, his name is not mentioned), found
in the Greek text of the Testament of Benjamin, is
absent from the old Armenian version. TertuUian
("Adversus Marcionem," v. 1) seems to allude to
this passage. If so, it was interpolated at least as
early as the second century. However, Tertullian's
allusion is not certain.

There is little external testimony regarding the
Testaments. Besides the doubtful allusion of Ter-
tuUian {c. 200), a mention of them byname occurs in
Origen ("Ilomilia XV'. in Josuam," ch. vi.). There
are doubtful references also in Jerome and Procopius,
as well as specific mention in the "Synopsis Sacra?
Scriptune " WTongly ascribed to Athanasius, and in
the " Stichometria " of Nicephorus. The Testaments
are not again heard of until .Matthew Paris relates in
hischroniclefed. London, 1571, p. 801), under the year
1242, that Piobert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln,
translated them into Latin, a certain John of Basing-
stoke having brought them from Athens. This
translation was rendered into n)ost modern lan-
guages, as a weapon serviceable against the Jews.
It was freciuently printed l)efore Grabe in 1698
edited the Greek text in his " Spicilegium."

Apart from Christian interpolations, these Testa-
ments are Jewish documents, originally written in
Aramaic or Hebrew ; and in the ge-

Jewish nizali of old Cairo, fragments of the
Documents, original Semitic text have been discov-
ered by M. Gaster, II. L. Pass, and A.
Cowley. Dr. Gaster's Hebrew fragment (,"Proc.
Soc. Bibl. Arch." vol. xii.) answers to a part of
XII.— 8

Naphtali ; but it is prolnibly a late Jewish paraphrase
of an older Aramaic text. The otiier fragments
are Aramaic, and closer to the Greek text. Tliey
belong together and answer lo parts of Levi. Pass,
assisted by J. Arendzen, published his fragment in
"J. <^ K." (iii. 6r,l-661). Cowley's awaits public^i-
tion. An old Syriac fragnu-nt (noticed by Sinker)
in Brit. Mus. Codex Add. 17,11)3 (of the year
874) is nearly identical verbally with the Aramaic
fragment.

These discoveries confirm the i)reviou8 conjectures
of such scholars as Grabe, Kayser, Sclilirer, and
Schnapp, and explain the many Semitisms of tiie
Greek text. They |)rove that the latter is a i)ara-
phrase of an old Aramaic midrash, interpolated by
generations of Christians.

The only critical edition is that ul \{. Sinker
(Cambridge, 1869), who takes a tenth-century Cam-
bridge manuscript as the basis of his text, adding'a
collation of four more. AcoUalion of
Editions, a twelfth -century manuscript in tlie
Vatican (No. 1238) has been published
by the present writer ("J. Q. R." v., viii.). as wellasa
collation of the old Armenian. An old Slavonic ver-
sion also exists, and has been published by Tichon-
rawow. An old Georgian version also exists.

The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs are

usually included in Armenian codices of the Bible;

the Vatican codex mentioned above as containing

them is a Septuagint, and entitles them " Leple

Genesis" or " Parva Genesis." A new critical edition,

taking account of the recovered Semitic texts, of the

Greek codices in Athos, Patmos, Paris, and Home,

and of the ancient Armenian and Slavonic versions,

is being prepared by Professor R. H. Charles.

Bibliography : Besides the works mcntionod above see the
references given under Apocalypse and apocrypha.

T. F. C. C.

Owing in part to its Christological interpolations,
and in part to the similarity of many of its teachings
and utterances to those of the New Testament, the
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs was regarded
as a Christian work until by critical analysis Grabe,
in his "Spicilegium Patrum " (Oxford, 1714), arrived
at the conclusion that the basis of the work is Jew-
ish, though there are many Christological interpola-
tions. Nevertheless, the old view jjrevailed, and the
work was ascribed to a .Tuda-o-Christian (.see, e.g..
Sinker, in his edition of the Testaments, Cambridge.
1869). Schnapp, liowever, in his "Die Testamentc
der ZwOlf Patriarcheu L'ntcrsucht"
The (Halle, 1884). revived Grabe's view

Hebrev7 and elaborated it, proving the spuri-
Original ous character of the Christian jia.ssages
and Its and also distinguishing twodilTerent
Hagg-adic Jewish sources in the main work.
Character. Schnapp's results were approved by
Schlirer (" Gesch." 3d ed.. iii. 2.J2-262)
as far as the Jewish origin of the book is concerned,
while the Armenian version brought to light by
Conybeare ("J. Q. R." v. 37.5-378; viii. 2(}0-268.
471-485) shows the gradual growth of Christian in-
terpolations. New light was thrown on the book
by "The Pre-Talmudic Ilaggadali " of Kohlcr (ift.
v"400-414). who found <lirect allusions to the Testa-
ments in Sifre, Num. 12: Sotah 71), and Yer. Sotah

Testaments

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

114

IGd, where " early writings "' (" ketubim rishonim ") are
nieutioned containiug baggadic matters couceruiiig
the relations of Reuben with Bilhah and of Judali
and his relations with Tamar. In the same article it
was shown that the king and priest with prophetic
powers described in the Testament of Levi is none
other than John Hyrcanus, and that the campaigns
of the sons of Jacob recounted in the Testament of
Judah correspond exactly with the Maccabcan wars.
The various spellings of the names in Test. Patr.,
Joseph, 1-9 and 10-18 led Sinker to postulate a
double authorship for this section of the work, al-
though twoditferent tendencies are distinctly visible
throughout the book, especially in the Testaments
of Levi and Joseph, thus indicating two different
writers, one Hasidaan and the other Maccabean.
The monition to respect the priestly tribe of Levi is

shown by closer investigation to be a

Com- mere addition to the main part of the

position, book, which is ethical in character and

may have been used in the Temple
like one of the Hagiographa. The apocalyptic por-
tion in Test. Patr., Levi, 14 seems to refer to the
orgies of Alexander Jannseus (Josephus, "B. J." i.
4, g 6), but there are no allusions to Rome, thus
disproving the hypothesis of Bousset, who dates
the work in the time of Pompey. The original lan-
guage of the Testaments of the Patriarchs was
Hebrew, as is shown by the etymologies of the
names (Test. Patr., Simeon, 2: Levi, 11; Judah, 1;
et passim), by the Hebrew parallelism of poetry,
and especially by many mistranslations of Hebrew
words, such as " King Zur " and " King Tapuah "
for "King of Hazor" and "King of Tappuah."

Omitting the Christian interpolations altogether,
the following summary may be given of the twelve

sections in which each of the twelve

Contents sons of Jacob delivers a farewell ad-

of dress giving an account of such of

the Book, his experiences as offer some lesson,

either warning against sin that he had
committed or exhorting to virtues that he had
practised.

Reuben : Unchastity. Reuben relates (ch. i.
3-4) how. inflamed with passion at the sight of Bil-
hah, he had committed an incestuous crime in Edar
near Beth-lehem (Gen. xxxv. 21-2'2). Stricken with
sorrow and Shame, he had suffered for seven months
from disease of the loins, owing his recovery only to
his father's prayer. He then became a life-long
penitent. Seven months he fasted, abstaining from
wine and meat and pleasant bread (comp. Dan. x.
3; and for Reuben's repentance see Pesik. 159b;
Gen. R. Ixxxii. 12, Ixxxiv. 18). He accordingly
■warns his children against looking on women with
lustful eyes (comp. Matt. v. 28; Sifre, Num. 115;
Ber. 12b, 14a; Ned. 20b; B. B. 571); 'Ab. Zarah 20a,
b), against being alone with a married woman (comp.
Sanh. 21a) or meddling with the affairs of women
(Kid. 70a, 80b; Ab. i. 5). and against every lustful

thought (Fier. 12a; Yoma 29a), since
Testament it is the imagination, wlien man is
of Reuben, filled with the spirit of Bki.i.u., which

works iniquity. Ch. iv., on the seven
evil spirits, seems a later interpolation. The fall
of the angels in the legend of Enoch, on the other

hand, is used (ch. v.-vi.a; comp. Enoch viii., xvi.
3; Jubilees vii. 21; 'Ab. Zarah 20b; Targ. Yer. to
Gen. vi. 2; I Cor. xi. 10) to warn women against
captivating men by their adornments of head and
face. Even the longing for licentiousness (" zenut ")
is destructive (comp. Job xxxi. 1 ; Prov. vii. 26-27),
to say nothing of licentious conduct. Joseph, how-
ever, was protected against lustful thought in the
hour of temptation by his singleness of heart in the
fear of God.

This section is followed, with no connecting-link
except the word "kiu'ah "( = " jealousy ") inch, vi.a,
by a warning against any jealousy of the tribe of
Levi, who was the priest that gave instruction in
the Law, and the judge that offered up the sacri-
fices for Israel, blessed the people whom he ruled
with Judah, and gave his life for them in wars visi-
ble and invisible, thus reestablishing the kingdom
for all time (comp. Targ. Yer. to Deut. xxxiii. 11
with reference to John Ilyrcanus).

Simeon: Envy. In the first four chapters of his
Testament, Simeon dwells on the spirit of jealousy
with which Satan, the "sar ha-mastemah" of theJubi-
lees, had filled him so that he had hated his brother
Joseph and had plotted his murder, being prevented
only by Judah, who had sold Joseph as a slave while
Simeon was absent. The lameness of his right hand
for a week showed him God's punitive justice in
view of his own five mouths' wrath, and for two
years he had repented and fasted. In like manner,
he looked upon his imprisonment in Egypt by Jo-
seph as a punishment which he indeed deserved
(comp. Targ. Yer. to Gen. xxxvii. 19, xlii. 24; Gen.
R. xci. 6). He accordingly warns his children
against jealousy, which destroys both him that is
envied and him that envies, and he exhorts them
(ch. iv.-v.) to emulate Joseph, who loved his broth-
ers, though they had hated him; and who was good
to look upon, since there was no wickedness in him,
nor liad the evil eye any power over him (comp. Targ.
Yer. to Gen. xlix. 22"; Sotah 36b). "You also," he
says in conclusion (ch. vi.), "will flourish after all
envy has been removed from your hearts, and your
holy ones will multiply, and their branches Avill
spread afar, and the seed of Canaan,
Testament Ainalek, Caphtor [Cappadocia], Kit-
of tini [Macedonia], and Ham [= Egypt]

Simeon, will be destroyed for the triumi)li of
Shein and the establishment of the
kingdom of the God of Israel, before whom all the
spirits of deceit [idolatry] will vanish forever."

The Testament closes with a warning against a
war of rebellion against the IVIaccabcan dynasty
represented bv the priestly tribe of Levi and by the
victorious royal leader from the midst of Judah.
In the concluding words the bones of Simeon are
described us ))l,icc<l inacoflin of incorru])til)le wood.

Levi: The Priesthood and Pride. The Tes-
tament of Levi, which is incomplete at the begin-
ning and at the close, contains two dilTcrcnt ac-
counts of his election to the i)riesthood, the Ilasida'an
version being spiritual in character, and the IMacca-
bean political. According to the former (ch. i.-iv.),
Levi, when a youth of twenty, was filled with sor-
row for the iniquit}' and corruption of men, where-
upon God answered his prayer for salvation by

115

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Testaments

sending liim unansjcl wlio sliowrd him liic throne of
tlie Most High in Iho tliird houvcn. He was also
told that he should stand in the presence of the
Lord, and serve llim, and be llisson; that heshould
be a light of knowledge and a sun to Israel; and

that he should be given undeistanding
Hasidaean and counsel to instruct his sons con-
Testament cerning Cod. In ancnhcr vision (ch.
of Levi. viii.) the seven insignia of priesthood

were conferred upon him by seven
angels, who anointed him with pure oil and conse-
crated him, since his seed was to be divided into the
three Uingdoinsof the priests, the judgesand scribes,
and the guardians of the sanctuary. Thereupon, in
accordance with a vision, Levi's father, Jacob, made
him {)ricst over his house, while his grandfather,
Isaac (comj). Jubilees xxxi. 9-32), instructed him in
all the laws concerning priesthood, sacrifice, and
purilication. Levi is jiarticularly warned against
(Samaritan) jiollution of his seed by marrying a for-
eign (I'hilistine) or Gentile (Amorlte) wife; and he
accordingly married his kinswoman I\Iilkah, who
bore him tiiree sons, among whom Kehat, the ances-
tor of Aaron and Moses, stood forth in his vision as
"one amid the haughty of the assembly." In ch.
xiii. Levi admonishes his children to walk in the
Avay of the Law in all simplicity of heart and in the
fear of God, and warns them never to cease to study
it, lest they should fail to give their children knowl-
edge which should win them honor and friends.
" Perform righteousness on earth that ye may find
treasures in heaven [comp. Luke xii. 21] ; sow good
works in your souls that ye may reap them in life."
This exhortation is followed by a eulogy of wisdom,
and the address closes with tlie words: "If a man
teach these things and do them, he shall sit upon a
throne with the king, as did our brother Joseph."

According to the other version (comp. Jubilees
XXX. 17-23), Levi's act of vengeance upon Shechem
fitted him for the priesthood (ch. v.-vii. and part of
ch. viii.), for Michael, "the angel who intercedeth
for the race of Israel," bestowed upon him a shield
and a sword with which he should wreak vengeance
on Shechem for Dinah; and though the Shechemites
were circumcised, he acted in accordance with the
will of God, despite his father's curse (Gen. xlix.
7), and exterminated the city of "the foolish"
(comp. n!?3J = " folly," Gen. xxxiv. 7; Ecclus. [Si-
racii] 1. 20). The "three kingdoms" that were to

spring from Levi were, accordingly,
Maccabean distinct from the three clas.ses men-
Testament tioncd above, being ]\Ioses, who was
of Levi. "faithful" (Num. xii. 7), Aaron, and

John H\-rcanus, the royal priest who,
like ]Melchizedek (Ps. ex. 4), was to manifest his
prophetic power (comp. Josepiius, "B. J." i. 2, | 8;
Tosef., Sotah, xiii. 5). Ch. x. and xiv.-xvii., devoted
to the fearful corruption and deiiravityof the priest-
hood under Alexander Jann;cus, Avhichis mentioned
also in the Psalms of Solomon, disclose the last ex-
periences of the Maccabean writer. The Messianic
prophecy in ch. xviii. seems to belong to the older
Hasithean document, and its Messiah opens the gates
of paradise to the saints while he overcomes Belial
with his hosts. In the closing chapter Levi bids his
children, who are themselves represented as speak-

ing, to choo.se between the Lord and Belial, where-
upon they swear allegiance to God.

Judah : Courage, Avarice, and Fornication.
Judali narrates to his children (ch. i.-vii., ix.)the
feats of strength which he, who was, like David,
destined to be a king, had displayed in his youtii.
He also tells tliem of the swiftness, courage, and
power which he had shown in his wondrous ccjndmts
with all kinds of wild beasts that a.ssiiiled Jiis flock
and with the Canaanitish kings of Hazor and 'I'ap-
puah and their men, besides describing how he sur-
jiassed his brothers in the war with the Ainorites
and the sons of Esau (comp. .Jubilees xxxiv. 1-9;
Midr. Wayissa'u, ed. Jellinek. " B. H." iii. 1-5 and
Introduction; Kohler, ^.r.). A boast of immaculate
youth which he made to Reuben caused him, like
David (Sanh. t07a), to be ensnared by a woman (ch.
viii. 10-14). At a feast given him by
Testament IJarsua', the King of Adidlam, he be-
of Judah. came druidi, and in that state he fell
inlove with the princess Bat Sua', who
was presented to him decked with gold and i)earls.
lie married her, but the children of the union were
wicked (Gen. xxxviii. 3-10). Bat Sua' hated Tamar
because she was related to Abraham, being the
daughter of Shem, according to Gen. K. Ixxxv. 11;
Targ. Yer. to Gen. xxxviii. 6, and refused to allow
her sons to marry her. Even when Tamar contrived
to be united with Judah in a levirate marriage, he
was again deceived by drunkenness, due to the
feast he celebrated at the waters of Kezib (ch. xiii.-
xvii.). Judah accordingly warns his children
against excessive pride, covetousness, and licentious-
ness, but most of all against indulgence in wine,
since it reveals all the secrets of God and leads to
sin. Ch. XV. is an interpolated midrash on Gen.
xxxviii. 18 (comp. Gen. R. Ixxxv. 10). His moni-
tion concludes with the statement (ch. xx.) that Sa-
tan is the cause of sin, wherefore they must choose
between the Lord, the Spirit of Truth, who sees each
act of man written on his breast, and the Spirit of
Error. The address closes (ch. xxii. 24-25) with a
]\Iessianic proiihecy which emphasizes Judah"s last-
ing claim to the resurrection of the saints, the tri-
umph of the poor and the martyrs, and the burn-
ing of Belial and all his hosts. A deuimciation of
the royal custom of embalming, which was antago-
nistic to the doctrine of the resurrection, ends the
Testament.

In sharp contrast to this Judaic or Davidic proph-
ec3' stand the accentuation of the Levitic or Mac-
cabean royalty (ch. xxi.) and the references to itshero
(ch. XXV.). These are obviously interpolations by
the Maccabean reviser, and ch. xxiii. is a still later
insertion.

Issachar: Simplicity. Issachar, whose name
is cxiilaincd at length in accordance with Gen. x.\x.
14-18, represents himself to his children as one who
walked all his life in simplicity (ch. iii.). Being a
husbandman, he never failed to give the priest the
first-fruits f)f his lands, sharing the residue with his
father and with the poor and afilicted, so that he
was greatly blessed. He spoke ill of no one, nor
did he meddle in the a flairs of others; he harbored
no lustful thoughts in his heart and was happy with
his wife and his field. He accordingly admonishes

Testaments

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

116

his children (ch. iv.-vii.) to walk in simplicity, and
to refrain from envy and all lustful thoughts, pry-
ing into uo secrets, but loving God
Testament and man, and tillt'd with compassion
of for the poor and feeble. He urges

Issachar. iliem, moreover, to lind contentment
in husbandry and to seek the divine
blessing in the fruit of the soil, for abandonment of
agricultural life would, in his view, lead them in the
latter days to transgression and dispersion among
the Gentiles. This denunciatitm of mercantile pur-
suits, which were the chief occupations of the Jews
in the Diaspora, indicates the period at which the
original Testaments were written. With a glance
at the Epicurean life of the Sadducees, Issachar con-
cludes with the words: "I am 120 years old, and
have known no mortal sin. E.xcept my wife. I have
known no woman, nor have I gone a-whoring with
the lifting up of mine eyes; I have drunk no wine
to lead me astray, nor have I desired the desire of
my neighbor. Craft hath not been in my heart, nor
hath falsehood come through my lips. I sighed
with every one that was troubled, and I gave my
bread to the poor. I ate not alone ; I broke no oath ;
I wrought piety and truth all my days. I have
loved the Lord with all my might, and I have loved
every man even as my children. Do ye these things,
my children, and every spirit of Belial will flee from
3'ou, and uo deed of evil men will have power over
3'ou ; and ye shall subdue every wild beast, having
with you the God of heaven, that walketh with men
in simplicity of heart." In this picture of the ideal
Hasid, who dies "at a good old age and with his
strength unabated," the pas.sage in ch. v., which em-
phasizes the supremacy of Levi and Judah as priest
and ruler, contains no indication of late Maccabean
influence (comp. Targ. Yer. to Gen. xlix. 14-15; Gen.
R. .xci.x. 11).

Zebulun : Compassion and Pity. L'nlike the
rabbinical conception of Zebulun, which is that of
the merchant who supports Issachar while he de-
votes his life to the study of the Torah (see Targ.
Yer. to Deut. .\x.\iii. 18), Zebulun in the Testaments
Hasidically typifies the fisherman who supplies the
household with fish and gives of his store to the
stranger, the sick, the aged, and the
Testament needy that he may bo blessed by God
of for his compassion (ch. vi.). He tells

Zebulun. his children, moreover, tliat it was his
deep compassion for Jo.seph which re-
strained Simeon and Gad from bloodshed, for he had
joined his youngest brother in an appeal to their
sj'mpathy and had adjured them with tears not to
commit the crime, thus anticipating even Reuben,
who made the pro|)osal to cast Joseph into the pit to
save the young lad's life. When the other brothers
took the twenty pieces of silver for which they sold
Joseph and useil tliem to buy sandals (Pirlu; R. El.
xxxviii. ; Targ. Yer. to Gen. xxxvii. 28, based on
Amos ii. C), Zebulun, like Reuben, refused to share
in the money. Whenever he saw a i)erson unclad
he used to cover him witii garments of his own, and
lie was accordingly blessed bj- God, nor did any
sickness befall his house, for "as man showeth com-
passion on his fellow beings, so doth God show
compassion on him" (Sifre, Deut. 90; Shab. IHlb).

Zebvdun therefore admonishes his children to show
mercy to every man, and to bear neither grudge nor
malice toward any, but to love one another, taking
Joseph for their model. The address closes (ch. ix.)
with a warning against dissensions in Israel, since
they would lead to a division of the kingdom and to
dispersion among the Gentiles, and with an expres-
sion of his longing for the 3Iessianic period, when
Belial and his hosts should be trodden under foot
and God alone should reign in Jerusalem as the
sun of righteousness with the healing of compassion
on its wings. The closing chapter expresses the
hope of resurrection as forming part of the final
judgment in which Zebulun. one of the twelve
judges, will appear as the ruler of his tribe. The
name of Levi does not occur in this Testament.

Dan : Ang-er and Falsehood. Dan, the black
sheep among the tribes of Israel (see D.\n), tells his
children (ch. i.) that, under the influence of Belial,
he had been filled with anger against Joseph and
that, "eager to devour him as a leopard devours a
kid," he had planned to kill him that he might sup-
plant him in the heart of his father. Dan accord-
ingly warns his children (ch. ii.-v.a) against anger,
since it heeds neither parent, nor brother, nor
prophet, nor righteous man, nor friend. Ch. iii. and
other interpolated passages add a warning against
lying which is scarcely a genuine part
Testament of the Testament. Anger may he

of Dan. roused by words only, yet it leads to
action. Therefore his children are
exhorted to refrain from anger either at spoken
words or at misfortunes, lest they should be over-
come by Belial and the Lord should depart from
them, the lesson of the Testament being that they
should flee from wrath and love God and man in or-
der that the Lord might dwell among them and Be-
lial be driven from them. The last sentence of the
Testament is obviously a Jewish interpolation.

Naphtali : Natural Goodness. Naphtali, who
(lied in perfect health at the age of 132, relates to his
children that he resembled Joseph since he was born
on Rachel's knees. The explanation of the names
of Naphtali (comp. Gen. R. Ixxxix. 22; Nu]n. R.
xiv. 23; Epstein, " Mi-Kadmoniyyot ha-Yehudim,"
p. 74), Bilhah, and Zilpah are curious haggadic
remnants. Swift of foot as a deer (Gen. xlix. 21;
comp. Pirke R. El. xxxix. ; Sotah 13a), Naphtali
served his father, Jacob, as a messengi-r; and in the
father's grief at the loss of Joseph he was comforted
by Naphtali, who told him of two dreams in wliieh
the future greatness of Levi, Judah, and Joseph had
been revealed to him (ch. v.-vi.). The
Testament text is extremely corru]it, and must
of be corrected on the basis of the He-

Naphtali. brew " Testament of Naphtali " discov-
ered by Gaster in the "Chronicles of
Jerahmeel " and reproduced in a German translation
iiy Schnapp, in Kautzsch, " Apocryphen," ii. 489-
4!)2. According to this doctiment, which is deci-
dedly belter preserved than the Greek version, Naph-
tali speaks of the pleasant land that fell to the lot
of his tribe (Deut. xxxiii. 23) and then warns his
children not to become overbearing in their prosper-
ity. The monition to ob.serve the law of God and
to refrain from such corruptions as had been prac-

117

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Testaments

tisod by tlie men of Sudoiii, tlio idolatrous nations,
and the fallen angels in the days of Enoch is jn-eee-
ded by the lesson that, in aeeorilancc \vilh J)eut.
xxxii. 8-9 (conip. Targ. Yer. (td Ivc), each of tin!
seventy nations worsbips its own guardian angel as
adeily, wlule Abiahaiu chose on behalf of his de-
scendants the only one God and (Jieator of the worlil
as Giude and Protector, since jVIichael, tiie guardian
angel of Israel, had taught him the Hebrew lan-
guage, thus enabling him to learn the true order of
things and the wisdom of creatii)n. As sun, moon,
and stars change not their order, so should the children
of Najihlali not change the order of tiungs. This sec-
tion is followed by theapocalyptic pari, in which Mac-
cabean elements referring to the sui)remacy of Levi
seem again to be mingled with Hasidaan tenets.

Gad : Hatred. Gad tells his children that in his
strength he had been accustomed to guard the Hock
at nigiit, and to kill every wild beast that assailed
it. Joseph, however, was too delicate to stay with
the flock in the licat of the day and went home to his
father, whom he informed that Gad and the other
sons of the t wo concubines were eating lambs tiiat had
been torn by wild beasts and had not been slaugh-
tered either by Judali or by Reuben according to
the prescribed rule (comj). Targ. Yer. to Gen. .\.\.\ vii.
2; Pirke H. El. xxxviii. ; Gen. K. Ixxxiv. 7). This
so provoked Gad that he hated Joseph, and, like Sim-
eon, wished to kill him, being eager
Testament " to devour him as the calf devours the

of Gad. grass." His hatred finally brought
upon liim a disease of the heart which
lasted for eleven months, the length of time that he
entertained this feeling of enmity before he repented
and his father's prayers saved him from death (eh.
i.-ii. 5). He therefore warns his children against
the spirit of hatred which fills the heart with poison,
and allies itself with Satan and with every evil,
leading to all manner of impiety and death, while
love elTects the salvation of man. "Love ye one
another in act, and word, and thought. ... If one
sin against thee, tell him in peace, removing the
poison of hate, and foster not guile in thy soul
[comp. Lev. xix. 17; Matt, xviii. l.'j]. And if he
confess and repent, forgive him [Yoma S7a; Luke
xvii. ;5] . . . and if he deny it, strive not with Jiim
lest he swear and thou sin doubly. . . . But give
the vengeance unto God" (Dent, xxxii. 35; Ilom.
xii. 19). "Envy not the prosperous, for the poor
man who is free from envy is rich " (ch. vi.-vil.). As
its concluding words this Testament contains a to-
tally irrelevant passage concerning Judah and Levi.

Asher: The Two Characters of Vice and
Virtue. It is possiljle that the Testament of Asher
is defective, since tiie only reference to his own per-
sonal experience is found in ch. v., -where he says
that he ol)servcd life and sought out the command-
ments of God, only to lind that the two ways of light
and darkness, of good and evil, and of
Testament truth and error must ever be kept dis-

of Asher. tinct. for doublefacedness serves not
God but Belial (ch. iii.). The allu-
sions in ch. ii to unclean ainmals. such as swine,
which appear half clean but in reality are unclean,
and the reference in ch. iv. to clean animals, such as
stags and hinds, which appear unclean in a wild

state but are actually clean, are indicative of such
conce[)ts as are expressed in the Letter (»f Aristeas,
t^^ l.J3-ltJy. Tiie moral of the Testament may be
summed up in the words: "Follow tiie truth with
singleness of face and hale the spirits of error, . . .
distinguishing the angels of the Lord and of Satan "
(eh. vi.; comp. II Cor. xi. 14), and it closes wilii a
brief apocalyptic passage jiredictiug the exile and
the restoration.

Joseph: Chastity. The Testament of Joseph
presents Joseph in two dilTerent aspects. In the hrst
parf. (ch. i.-x.a) he speaks as the same ty])eof clias-
tily in which he is ])resented i)y the rabbinic Hag-
ga(lah(Targ. Yer. to Gen. xlix.'22;So-
Testament tali aCb; Pirke K. El. xxxix.). lu the
of Joseph, second part (ch. x.b-xvii.) he appears
as the model of brotherly love. In
the former, Potiphar's wife is termed "the Egyp-
tian"; in the latter "the ^Memphian." The first
portion of the Testament is written in forcible po-
etic style; the latter, which chronologically is the
earlier, is in simple pro.se, so tliat the whole is evi-
dently the work of two dinerent authors.

Joseph begins by declaring that his trust in God
brought him rescue and exaltation through all the
time that be was envied and hated, .sold and slan-
dered. It is, accordingly, the picture of a Hasid,
the persecuted saint, tliat is exhibited in the first
two chapters. During his slay of seven years with
"the shameless woman," he proved another Daniel,
even his fasting lending greater beauty to his face.
He gave his food to the ])oor, and wept and i)rayed
for the conversion of Potiphar's wife, even after his
ju-ayer had obtained for her, in her childless state, a
son. He wished to instruct lier in the way of right-
eousness, Avhile she attempted to capture him by
means of witchcraft (ch. iii.-vi.); and finally, when
all her contrivances failed and he was cast into pris-
on because of her slander, he sang songs of thanks-
giving to God for his escape from the allurements of
her shameless attitudes (ch. vii.-ix. ; the last sen-
tence is misplaced). " God loveth the chaste who cu-
dureth in his den of darkness. . . . If, therefore, ye
follow after chastity and holiness in patience and
humility of heart, the Lord will dwell among you,
. . . and exalt you, and bless you with all good
things even as He blessed me " (ch. ix.-x.).

In the second part (eh. x.b-xvii.) Joseph dwells
on the fact that, lest he should put his brothers to
shame, he never revealed Ins birthplace and his fam-
ily either to the merchants, who had bought him as
a slave, or to Potiphar, whose wife had fallen in
love with the beautiful lad at sight of liim, or to
any of the eunuchs of Pharaoh, who stripjied and
beat him to wrest from him the confession that he
was the son of a mighty man in Canaan (comp. Gen.
xl. 15). "Therefore," said he to his children, "love
one another, and with long-su fieri ng hide each oth-
ers faults, for God delighteth in the unity of breth-
ren " (ch. xvii.).

The aiiocalyptic passjigo. preserved in longer
form ill the Armenian version, but obviously cur-
tailed and interpolatetl by Christian hands, describes
the captivity and downfall of the kingdom of Jo-
seph and the permanence of the kingdom of Judah.
The reference to Levi is a Maccabean insertion.

Testaments
Tetragraramaton

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

118

Benjamin : Purity of Heart. Bcujamiu. avIio
is rei)ivsented bulli by tlic Tcstameut wliicli boars
his name and by rabbiuic literature as the ouc who
clings lovingly to his brother Joseph (see Gen. U.
xciv. 7), typities airectiouate regard for the right-
eous. The hero himself, whose name is explained iu
rh. i. as "the child of old age," dwells on the nobil-
ity of Joseph, but siuee he would not impute an evil
act to his brothers, he construed the stor}' of the
coat iu their favor (ch. ii.), and be-
Testament sought his father to pray to God that
of He should not impute to them the evil

Benjamin, they had devised against him (ch. iii ).
Benjamin accordiiigly aihuouishes his
children ever to direct their mind toward the good
and pure, for the good man has no "evil eye," but
sympathy for all, and mercy to the poor (ch. iv.),
tlius having a good influence even on the evil (ch.
v.). The spirit of Belial will have no power over
him, nor will he look with lust upon woman. Cain,
the evil brother, had to suffer for seven hundred
j'cars, but Joseph could be defiled by sin no more
than is the sun by shining over dung and mire.
The whole monition (ch. ii.-viii.), however, is in
great disorder. The apocalyptic portion (ch. ix.-
xi.), based partly upon Gen. xlix. 27 and partly
upon Deut. xxxiii. 12, is so interpolated by Christian
writers that any analysis of it is extremely difficult.
Charles (I.e.) has alread)' called attention to the
frequent use of the Testaments of the Twelve Patri-
archs by Paul and other writers of the New Testa-
ment. I The.ss. ii. 16 is a quotation
In of Test. Patr., Levi, 6, 10; Kom. xii.

the New 19 of Gad, C, 10; Rom. xii. 21 of Ben-
Testament, jamin, 6, 3; II Cor. vii. 10 of Gad, 5,
7; and Ephes. v. 6 of Naphtaii, 3, 1.
As has been indicated above, the New Testament
teaching of forgiveness, of love even for enemies, of
chastity in thought, and of similar matters is clearlj'
presented in these far older Essene utterances of the
patriarchs Gad, Issachar, Joseph, Benjamin, and
others. The dualistic psychology and cosmolog\',
as well as the eschatolog}', are the same in both,
and the Testaments belong to the same class of liter-
ature and age as the Dii).\chk and Didasc.\lia, be-
ing Jewish works appropriated and remodeled by
the Church.

Bibliography: Edition by Sinker, Camhridpe, I860; trans-
lated by the same scholar on the basis of this text in ihe Atiti-
Nicene Lihrnrjl. Kdinhurgh, 1S90. For the literature see
Schflrer, Gench. 3d ed., iii. ii2-262, and Bousset in Zeit. fUr
yenteMamentliche iri««en»c7ir(/M9()0, pp. 141-209; Charles,
in Hiljljcrt Jounial, 1905, pp. .5.58-573.
T. K.

TET (o) : Ninth letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
The signification of its name is uncertain. Its sound
is that of an emphatic surd dental (palatal I-]ngiish
" t "). It occurs only as a radical, never as a forma-
tive element. It sometimes interchanges with the
dentals T and n and with the sibilant V- As a
numeral, "tet" (in the later period) has the value 9.

T. I. Br.

TETRAGRAMMATON : The quadriliteral
name of God, niHV whicii is thus referred to in Jose-
phus, in the Church Fathers, in the magic jiapyri,
and in the Palestinian Talmud (Yoma 40a, below),
whence it has passed into the modern languages.

Other designations for this name, such as "Ha-
Shem," "Shem ha-.Meforash,"' and "Sliem ha-Meyu-
had," have frequently been discussed by recent
scholars (see bibliography in Blau, " Altjudisches
Zauberwesen," p. 128, note 1, and, on the terms,
pp. 123-128). The term "Tetragrammaton" appar-
ently arose in contradistinction to the divine names
containing respectively twelve and forty-two letters
and formed likewise from the letters v, n, w, ii (ili.
pp. 137-146); for only thus is the designation intel-
ligible, since Adonai likewise has four letters iu
Hebrew.

The Tetragrammaton is the ancient Israelitisli
name for God. According to actual count, it oc-
curs 5,410 times in the Bible, being divided among
the books as follows: Genesis 1.j3
Statistics times. Exodus 364, Leviticus 2Nj,
of Oc- Numbers 387, Deuteronomy 230 (total
currences. in Torah 1,419); Joshua 170, Judges
158, Samuel 423, Kings 467, Isaiah
367, Jeremiah 555, Ezckiel 211, ]^Iinor Prophets 345
(total in Prophets 2,696): Psalms 645, Proverbs 87,
Job 31, Ruth 16, Lamentations 32, Daniel 7, Ezra-
Nehemiah 31, Chronicles 446 (total in Hagiographa
1,295).

In connection with *jix the Tetragrammaton
is pointed with the vowels of "Elohim" (which
bej'ond doubt was not pronounced in this com-
bination); it occurs 310 times after ""JTS. itnd five
times before it (Dalman, " Der Gottesname," etc., p.
91), 227 of these occurrences being in Ezekiel alone.
The designation "Ynwii Zeba'ot," translated "Lord
of Hosts," occurs 260 times, and with the addition
of " God " four times more. This designation is met
with as follows: Isaiah 65 times, Jeremiah 77, Minor
Prophets 103(Zechariah 52 ; Malachi 24), Samuel 11,
Kings 4; but it does not occur, on the other hand,
in the Pentateuch, in Joshua, in Judges, or in the
Hagiographa. Adding these 264 occurrences and the
315 just noted to the 5,410 instances of the simple
Tetragrammaton, the word "Ynwn" is found to
occur 5,989 times in the Bible. There is no instance
of it, however, in Canticles, Ecclesiastes, or Esther;
and in Daniel it occurs 7 times (in ch. ix.) — a
fact which in itself shows the late date of these
books, whose authors lived at a period when the use
of the Tetragrammaton was already avoided, its ut-
terance having become restricted both in the read-
ing of the Bible and still more iu colloquial speech.
For it was substituted Adonai; and the fact that
this name is found 315 times in combination with
"YHWii"and 134 times alone shows that the cus-
tom of reading the Tetragrammaton as if written
"Adonai " began at a time when the text of the Bib-
lical books was not yet scrupulously protected from
minor additions. This assumption explains most of
the occurrences of " Adonai " before " Ynwii " ; i.e.,
the former word indicated the pronunciation of the
latter. At the time of the Chronicler this pronunci-
ation was so generally accepted that he never wrote
the name "Adonai." About 300 B.C., therefore, the
word " YiiWH " was not pronounced in its original
form. For several reasons Jacob ("Im Nainen
Goltes," p. 167) assigns the "disuse of the word
' Yiiwii ' and the substitution of 'Adonai' to the
later decades of the Babylonian exile."

119

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Testaments
Tetrag-ramznaton

Tlic avoidance of the original name of God Ijotli
ii, spccfli and, to a certain extent, in tlie IJible was
due, according to GeigerC'Ursclnifl,"
Reason for p. 262), to a reverence whieli siiranic
Disuse. Ironi the utterance of the Sublime
Name; and it may well Iw. that such
n reluctance lirst arose in a foreign, and iience in
an "uucleau" land, very possibi}', therefore, in
Babylonia. According to Dalman (I.e. pp. 66 et scq.),
the Kai)ltis forbade the utterance of the Tetragram-
maton, to guard against desecration of the Sacred
Nnme; but such au ordinance could not have been
effectual unless it had met with po])ular approval.
The reasons assigned by Lagarde (" Psalteiium Hi-
eronymi," p. 155) and Ilalevy ("Recherchcs Bib-
licjues," i. Gfy et serj.) nrc untenable, and are refulcd
by Jacol) [I.e. \^\). 173, 174), who believes that the
Divine Name was not pronounced lest it should be
desecrated by the heal lien. Tiie true name of God
was uttered only during worship in the Temple,
in Avhich tlie people were alone; and in the course
of the services on the Day of Atonement the high
priest pronounced the Sacred Name ten times (To-
sef., Yoma, ii. 2 ; Yoma 39b). This was done as late
I as the last years of the Temple (Ycr. Yoma 40a, 67).
i If such was the purpo.se, the means were inelTectual,
] since tiie pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton was
known not only in Jewish, but also in non-Jewish
circles centuries after the destruction of the Temple,
I as is clear from the interdictions against uttering it
1 (Sanh. X. 1; Tosef., Sanh. xii. 9; Sifre Zuta, in
Yalk., Geu. 711; 'Ab. Zarah 18a; Midr. Teh. to Ps.
j xci., end). Raba, a Babj' Ionian amora who flourished
) about SoO, wished to make the pronunciation of the
j Tetragrammaton known publicly (Kid. 71b); and a
I contemporary Palestinian scholar states that the
I Samaritans uttered it in taking oaths (Yer. Sanh.
28b). The members of the Babylonian academy
probably knew the pronunciation as late aslOOOc.K.
(Blau, I.e. pp. 132 et seq., 138 et seq.). The physi-
cians, who were half magicians, made special efforts
to learn this name, which was believed to possess
marvelous powers (of healing, etc. ; Yer. Yoma 40a,
below). The cures, or the exorcisms, of demons in
the name of Jesus which are mentioned in the New
Testament and the Talmud (see Exohcism) imply
that Jesus was regarded as a god and that his name
was considered as efficacious as the Tetragrammaton
itself, for which it was even substituted. It was in
connection with magic that the Tetragrammaton
was introduced into the magic papyri
Church and, in all probability, into the wri-
Fathers tings of the Church Fathers, tliese
and Magic two sources containing the following
Papyri. forms, written in Greek letters: (1)
"laoouee." "laouc," "labe"; (2)
"lao." "laho," "lae"; (3) "Aia"; (4) "la." It is
evident that (1) represents nin\ (2) in\ (3) n\nK. and
(4) nv The three forms quoted under (l)are merely
three ways of writing the same word, though
"labe" is designated as the Samaritan pronuncia-
tion. There are external and internal grounds for
this assumption ; for the very agreement of the
Jewish, Christian, heathen, and Gnostic statements
proves that they undoubtedly give the actual pro-
nunciation (Stade's "Zeitschrift," iii. 298; Dalman,

/.'•. 1^. 41; Deissmann, " Bibelstudien," pp. 1-20;
Blau, I.e. p. 133). The "mystic (j\iadriliteral name"
(Clement, "Stromata." ed. Dindorf, iii. 25, 27) was
wi'll known to th(' Gnostics, as is shown by the fact
that the third of the eight eons of one of their sys-
tems of creation was called "the luipronouuced,"
tiie fourth "the invisil)le," and the seventh "the
unnamed," terms which are merely ilcsignalions of
the Tetragrammaton (Blau, /./■. p. 127). Even tlie
Palestinian Jews had inscrilxd the letters of the
Name on anudets (Shall. 1151); Blau, /.f. pp. 93-06);
and, in view of the frequency with which the ap-
pellationsof foieign deities were employed in magic,
it was but natural that heathen magicians should
show an especial preference for this "greatand lioly
name," knowing its ])ronuuciation as they knew the
names of their own deities.

It thus becomes possible to determine with a fair
degree of certainty the historical pronunciation of
the Tetragrammaton, the results agreeing with the
statement of Ex. iii. 14, in which Ynwu terms Him-
self TVT^^, "I will be," a phrase which is inuue-
diately preceded by the fuller term "I will be that I
will be," or, as in the English versions, "I am" and
" I am that I am." The name mri' is
Meaning accordingly derived from the root
and. Ety- nin (= n\"l), and is regarded as an im-
mology. perfect. This passage is decisive for
the pronunciation " Yahweh " ; for the
etymology was undoubtedly based on the known
word. The oldest exegetes, such as Onkelos. and
the Targumim of Jerusalem and pseudo-Jonathan
regard " Ehyeh " and " Ehyeh asher Ehyeh " as the
name of the Divinity, and accept the etymology of
"hayah" ="tobe" (comp. Samuel b. Meir, com-
mentary on Ex. iii. 14). Modern critics, however,
who, after the lapse of centuries, correct the Hebrew-
texts without regard to the entire change of point
of view and mode of thought, are dissatisfied with
this etymology; and their various hypotheses have
resulted in offering the following definitions: (1)
he who calls into being, or he who gives promises;
(2) the creator of life; (3) he who makes events, or
history ; (4) the falling one, the feller, i.e., the storm-
god who hurls the lightning ; (5) he who sends down
the rain (W. Ii. Smith, " The Old Testament," p. 123) ;
(6) the hurler; (7) the destroyer; (8) the breather, the
weather-god (Wellhausen). All these meanings are
obtained by doing violence to the Hebrew text(Her-
zog-Hauck, "Real-Eucyc." viii. 5'iQ et seq.).

Attempts have also been made to explain the Di-
vine Name nin' as Hitlite, Persian, Egyptian, and
even as Greek; but these assumptions are now ab-
solutely set aside, since the name is at all events
Semitic. The question remains, however, whether
it is Israelitish or was borrowed. Friedrich Dc-
litzsch, in discussing this question, asserts that the
Semitic tribes from whom the family
Assyro- of Hamnuirabi came, and who en-
Babylonian tered Babylon 2500 n.c, knew and
Cuneiform worshiped the god Ya've, Ya'u (i.e.,
Inscrip- Ynwu, Yahu ; " Babel und Bibel," 5f h
tions. ed., i. 78 et seq.); and Zinunern (in
Schrader, " K. A. T." 8d ed.. pp. 465-
468) reaches the conclusion that "Yahu" or
" YnwH " is found in Babylonian only as the name

Tetragrammaton
Texas

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

120

of a foreign deit}', a view with which DL-litzscli
agrees iu his tliird and final lecture on "Bal)el unil
Bibel" (pp. 39. 60. Stuttgart, 1905). Assyrioiogists
arc still divided on this point, however; and no
detinite conclusions have as yet been readied (conip.
the voluminous literature on "Balul und Bibel").

"Yah. "an abbreviated form of the Tetragramma-
ton, occurs 23 times: 18 limes in the i'salms, twice
in Exodus, and three times in Isaiah. Tin's form
is identical with the final .syllaljle in the word " Hal-
lelujah," which occurs 24 times in the last book of
the Psalms (comp. also "be-Yah," Isa. xxvi. 4 and
Ps. Ixviii. 5). It is transcribed by the Greek " la," as
** Ehyeh " is represented by " Aia," thus showing that

"Yah" was the first syllabic of mnv

Abbrevi- The form corresponding to the Greek

ated Tetra- " lao " does not occur alone iu He-

gramma- brew, but only as an element in such

ton. proper names as Jesaiah (" Yesha'ya-

hu"), Zedekiah ("Zidkiyahu"), and
Jehonathan. According to Delitzsch (" Wo Lag das
Paradies? " 1881). this form was the original one, and
was expanded into nin'; but since names of divini-
ties are slow in disappearing, it would be strange if
the primitive form had not been retained once in the
Bible. The elder Delitzsch thought that " Yahu "
was used independently as a name of God (Herzog-
Plitt, "Real-Encyc." vi. 503); but. according to
Kittel, "This could have been the case only in the
vernacular, since no trace of it is found in the literary
language" (Herzog-Hauck, "Real-Encyc." viii. 26,
533). All the critics have failed to])erceive that the
name " Yao " was derived from the same source as
"Yaoue," namely, from Gnosticism and magic, in
whicli Jews, Christians, and heathen met. " Yahu "
was in fact used in magic, as is clear from the " Sefer
Yezirah," which shows many traces of Gnosticism ; in
the cosmology of this work the permutation of the
letters in^ furnishes the instruments of tlie Creation.
With the Tetragrammaton must be included the
names of God formed of twelve, forty-two, and
seventy-two letters respectively, which are impor-
tant factors in Jewish mysticism (Kid. 71a ct pn-ssini).

Thc\' have, according to traditicm, a

Other magical effect; for mysticism and

Names of magic are everj'where allied. These

God. great names are closely akin to tiie

long series of vowels in the magic
papyri, and are obtained by anagranimatic combina-
tions of the effective elements of tiie Tetragramma-
ton. The simplest way of determining these three
names is to form a magic triangle, whose base is a
single Tetragrammaton, and its apex the Tetragram-
maton repeated thrice. The four upper lines (12 -j-
ll + 10-|-9) give the names with forty-two letters;
and the entire figure represents the Divine Name of
seventy-two letters (Blau, I.e. pp. Hi et sprj.). Ac-
cording to the book of B.viriR (ed. Amsterdam, 1651,
fol. 7a), the Sacred Name of twelve letters was a
triple mn"' (Dalman, l.r. p. 39; Blau, I.e. p. 144).

In the earliest manuscripts of the Septuagint tiie
Tetragrammaton was given in Hebrew letters, which
in Greek circles were supposed to be Greek and
were read -n^i (Field, "Origenis Ilexaplorum Qiuc
Siipersunt," i. 90, Oxford, 1875; Herzog-Hauck, l.r.
viii. 530; Blau, I.e. p. 131). See also Auonai:

Aqitla; Gnosticism; Jkiiovah ; Namks ok God;
SiucM iia-Mi:koi{ash.

I?iHMOC;R.\pnY : Hamburcrer. R. 7?. T. i. 4><-.">6, ."jSS ; H:i.stin(rs.
Diet. I{ilih\ ii. I'.t'.l; Herzog-Hauck, Ilcal-Eiiciic- viii. 3M-
iHl; Baiiiiissln. Stwlifii zur Sfiniti.iclun IicU{jii»i.-<iie-
scliichtc. i. 181-2r>4, Leipsio, l^Tii; S. 11. Driver, liiccnt Tin--
ivif.t on the Ori(iiii ainl rWihor nf tlie Tctmiirnmtnntoii, in
^7i((/i}icn.i. I-XIJ. O.xfoni. KS8."); \y,\Unan. Jhrdnttcsim-
tiir Adotiaj unii Seine Oi srJiUlile, Berlin, IS"^!!; Deissmann.
liHiehtuilien. Marburp, 189.'); Blau. r>a*- ^lUjVi<li.''e)ie Z<ii(-
/)C»"i('(.'st')i, Strasburg, 1898; M. Jiistrow. .Ir., in Stade's Zi it-
srlirift, 1896. pp. 1 ct seq. (on the proper names combined
with'ViiWH); Scbrader, K. A. T. :M ed.. pp. •tifcV4t>^. Berlin,
19(tt-;3; Jacob. In) \<inHU Gutte.-', Berlin. ItMW. For fuitber
material, especially earlier works, see Herzog-Hauck. I.e.

T. L. B.

TETRARCH (Greek, -erpapx'K): A governor of
a (J nailer ul a i)roviiice; the title of several feudal
lords of Palestine and neighboring countries who
were subject to Roman suzerainty. This title,
which evidently implies a rank somewhat lower
than that of Ethxauch, was held by the following
Jewish princes: Herod the Great before he became
king, and his brother Piiasaki., both of whom re-
ceived the office from Antony (Josephus, "Ant."
xiv. 13, § 1; idem, " B. J." i. 12, § 5); Pheroras,
whom Augustus, at the request of Herod, appointed
tetrarch of Perea (20 B.C.), a post whicli yielded
him an income of 100 talents ("Ant." xv. 10, § 3;
"B. J." i. 24. § 5); IIkhod Axtii'as, who was tet-
rarch of Galilee (Luke iii. 1); Phimp, who governed
Iturea and Trachonitis {ib.); and Lysanias, who
ruled Abilene (ib.).

The district governed by a tetrarch was called a
tetrarch}' ("Ant." xx. 7, t^ 1); and this term was first
used by Eurii^ides, who applied it to Thessaly, at-
tributing to it its original connotation of a quarter
province, since Thessaly was divided into four dis-
tricts. "Tetrarch" was emidoyed in a similar sense
with reference to Galatia; but in other countries, as
well as among the Jews, it lost its primary meaning,
and came to imply a ruler whose power Avas less
than that of a king. Such tetraichs were especially
numerous in Syria (Plin}', " Historia Naturalis," v.
74), and one Soliemus of Lebanon is mentioned bj'
Josephus ("Vita," § 11). Kings and tetrarchs fur-
nished auxiliary troops to the army of Varus

("Ant." xvii.

10, §

9). The Herodian tetrarchs.

either from error or from mere flattery, were ad-
dressed also as kings (comp. Matt. ii. 22, xiv. 9);
and it was with but little justification that Agrippa
II. styli'd himself "king," since, as a matter of fact,
he was but a tetrarch.

Bini.ior.RAPiiY: Winer, Ii. Ii. 3d ed., ii.i\; Schurer, GcKch. 3d
ed., i. iZi.
K. C. S. Kr.

TETTJAN. See ^MoRorro.

TEWELES, HEINRICH: Austrian drama-
tist; linrn at Prague Nov. 13, 1856. He made his
debut in 1881 with a drama entitled "Die Scliau-
spielerin." His otlier works are: "Kampfumdie
Sprache," 1884; " Die Armen," novel, 1885; " Presse
und Staat," 1886; "Eherecht," a comedy, 1886;
"Schuleder Frauen," comedy, 1887; " Der Ringdes
Polykrates," comedy, 1888; "Gesellschafterin,"
comedv, 1889; " Der Hundertste Geburt.stag," play,
1891; "Mein Papa," farce, 1893; "Johann Strauss,"
play, 1894; "Demetrius," a rewritten version of
Hebbel's play, 1895; " Volksfreund," sketch, 1898;

121

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tetrag-rammaton
Texas

and "Beitiiiii zur Goctlicfoicr in Pia.ir." I«n9. He
])ul)lisliL-(l also the " Piagcr Diclitcibucli," 181)3.
Towc'les is dramaturgist of the Gcrmau Landes-

tlicatiT in his native city.

TEXAS : T/irgest state in the American Union;
admitUil in 18-15; secoded Fib. 1, ISGl; anil read-
mitted in 1870. Previous to its admission to tlie
Union, Texas was an imh-pendent re|nibiie(lS3(3-4r)).

Samuel Isaacs lemoved l'ri>m tlie United States to

Te.xas in 1831, Nvilh Austin's lirst colonists. For

.serving in the army of the lieimbiic of Texas he was

given ;i'20 acres of land. When Abraham Colien

Labatl visited Texas in 1831, he found

Early at Velaseo Jacob Henry and Jacob

Settlement Lyons, of England and Charleston,

and S, C, respectively, engaged in nier-

Mexican eantile pursuits. Jacob Henry's will
Wax-. luovided for the building of a hospi-

tal at Velaseo. Nacogdoches seems to
have been the center of immigration. Prominent
settlers (18o2-40) were Adolphus Sterne, who partici-
iniled in the Fredoniau war, subsequently acting as
alcalde and ollicial interpreter; Dr. Joseph Hertz
and his brother Ilyman, Simon Schloss, Albert
Emanuel, Sam. Maas (who married a sister of Offen-
bach, the composer), and Simon Weiss. They were
pioneers in mercantile enterprises, and served the
government in civil and military capacities. Simon
and Jacob ^Mussina settled in Galveston (1836), the
former editing a paper and practising law. Edward
J. Johnson, from Cincinnati, Ohio, was killed while
lighting imder Fannin at Goliad (1836), where three
other Jews also fought— Benjamin II. JMordecai
(killed by Indians in 1840), M. K. JMoses, and Her-
man Ehrcnberg. Notable services were rendered to
Texas by Levi Charles Harby (sometimes known as
Levi ilyers Harby), Isadore Dyeu, and Leon Dyer.
Michael Seeligson settled in Galveston in 1836; lie
was alderman of the city in 1840 and 1848, mayor
in 18.13, and worked untiringly for the annexation
of the Republic of Texas to the United States.
Henry Seeligson, his son, went to Galveston from
]Michigan in 1839, held several military api)oint-
meuts, and fought in three wars, in one of which
he was highly complimented by Gen. Zachary
Taylor. Prominent in the early wars, from San
Jacinto (1835) to the war with ]\Iexico (1846), were:
EugeneJosephChimeue,Kohn(Texasspy-company),
Henry Wiener, ]\Ioses Albert Levy (surgeon-general
in Sam. Houston's army in the Texas-]\Iexicau war;
was present at the storming of tlie Alamo, Dec. 5,
1835), A. Wolf (killed in the Alamo, 1836; his name
is inscribed on the Alamo monument at Austin), Dr.
Isaac Lyons of Charleston (surgeon-general, 1836),
and D. I. Kokernot. Michael de Young, a French
Jew, settled in San Augustine in 1840, and furinshed
the necessary equipment to volunteers during the
warwitii i\Iexico. Three years earlier Edward S.
Solomon settled in the s:une town. ^Many acres of
land in Texas, now under cultivation, were origi-
nally allotted to David Closes and ]\Iichael de Yo>nig
for serviees rendered to the republic.

Jacob de Cordova (b. Spanish Town, Jamaica,
1808; d. Texas, 1868) removed to Galveston from

New Orleans in 1837, and became an expert in leal
estate; " De Cordova's Land Agency " was known
throughout the slates. Upon a vi.sit
Jacob de to JamaiiM in 1833 he founded tlie
Cordova. " Daily Gleaner." In 18.JG he pub-
lished at Austin "The Texas Emi-
grant's and Traveler's (Juide- IJooic," and later
"Texas, Her Resources and Her Public .Men " (I'hil-
adelphia, 1858). De Cordova introduced the Order
of Odd Fellows into Texas. In 1847 lie represented
Hariis county in the Texas iegislatuic, and in 1849
he laid out the city of Waco. During 1856-58 lie
lectured on the resources of Texas in the large eities
of the United States and in England. In 1848 his
brother Phinehas (1). Philadelphia, 1819; d. 1903)
joined him in the eslaljlishment of the "Texas
Herald," a fortnightly. Phineiias subse<iuent!y ed-
ited in Austin the "South-Western American," a
weekly (1849-52), which successfvdlj' advocated the
loaning of the school-fund and the donating of a
portion of the public lauds to aid the building of
railroads.

Emigration to Texas found an active advocate in
Henry Castro (b. France. 1786; d. Mexico, 1861).
In 1842 Castro entered into a contract with Sam.
Houston, President of the Republic of Texas, to set-
tle a colony west of the jMedina, and Houston ap-
pointed him consid-general in France for Texas.
Between 1843 and 1846 Castro .sent to Texas 5,000
emigrants from the Rhenish provinces — the first or-
ganized emigration to Texas from a foreign country ;
considering the unsettled state of the country, it was
a masterly luuiertaking. These emigrants settled
in the towns of Castroville and Quihi (1845), Van-
denburg(1846), and D'Hanis(1847). Castro county,
in northwest Texas, was named in honor of this in-
trepid Jew, wdio sank 8150,000 of his personal estate
in the venture. Castro published pamphlets and
maps in French and German to facilitate Jiis emigra-
tion scheme.

The Jewish settlers in each district began com-
munal life by establishing first a cemetery and then
a synagogue. A cemetery was established in IIou.s-
tou in 1844, and a synagogue in 1854; in Galveston,
1852 and 1868 res]iectively ; in San Antonio, ls.54 and
1872; in Austin, 1866 and 1876; in Waco, 1869 and
1881 ; in Dallas, 1872 and 1874.

German immigration from the fifties to the seven-
ties was followed by Russian inunigration from the
eighties to the present time (1905); during the latter
period Orthodox synagogues have been erected in all
the foregoing cities. Synagogues, cemeteries, and
communally active congregations exist in the follow-
ing towns: Beaumont (synagogue erected 1895),
Brenham (1895), Corsieana(1898), El Paso(1898K Fort
Worth (Orthodox, 1892; Reform, 1904). Gainesville
(1882), Hempstead (1897), Marshall
Syna- (1886), Palestine (1900), Texarkana
gogues. (1900). Tyler (1889). Victoria (1894).
Tiiere are cemeteries in Ronliam.
Brownsville, Bryan, Calvert, Clelnirne, Columbus.
Corpus Christi, Denison. Ennis, Greenville, Ilalletts-
ville. Henderson, JelTerson. Larctlo, Lufkin. Lvding,
Marlin, Mexia, Mineola, Nacogdoches, Navasota,
Orange, Wharton. In these towns .services are held
on Ro.sh ha-Shauah and Yom Kippur, and religious

Theft and Stolen Goods

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

122

schools have been organizeil in most of them, largely
throngh the iutluonce of Jeanuette Miriam Goldberg.
Hebrew benevolent associations, ladies' auxiliary
and general social societies, and branches of national
and international Jewish organizations are wide-
spread; a few Zionists are founti in the larger
cities.

The following towns in addition to those which
have been mentioned have from two to ten Jewish
families each: Abilene, Alto, Alvaratio, Amarilliv
Aquilla, Beeville, Bellville, Bremond, Caldwell,
Clarksville, Columbia, Crockett, Decatur, Del Kio,
Denton, Eagle Lake, Eagle Pass, Elgin, Farmers-
ville, Giddings, Gonzales. Groesbeck, Ilearne, llills-
boro, Honey Grove, Jacksonville, Kaufman, Ken-
nedy, Kyle, Lagrange, Llano, Lockhart, Lougview,
McDade, McKiimey, Mount Pleasant, ]^Iouut Ver-
non, Paris, Pittsburg, Richmond, Hio Grande City,
Rockdale, Rusk, San Angelo, San Diego, Schulen-
burg. Scaly. Seguin, Sherman, Skidmore, Sulphur
Springs, Taylor, Temple, Terrell, Uvalde, Waelder,
AVaxahachic, Weatherford, Weimar, Wichita Falls,
Willis, Wills' Point, and Yoakum.

In the early days, before there was any Jewish
communal life, intermarriage between Jewsand non-
Jews was not uncommon; but to-day throughout
the state, although Jew and Gentile mingle freel}',
intermarriage does not obtain to any appreciable
degree.

During the Civil war 103 Texas Jews served in
the contending armies (Simon Wolf, "'The Jew as
Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen," p. 424), and the de-
fense of Galveston is inseparably connected •with
the name of Capt. L. C. Ilarby {ib. pp. 72 et seq.,
116). The ntmiber of Texas Jews serving with the
American forces in the Spanish-American war (1898)
was: regular officers and enlisted men, 07 (state
volunteers); non-commis.sioned officers and privates,
25. Benjamin Frenkel was surgeon
Texas Jews on the U. S. S. "Hornet," and sub.sc-

in Army ([uently served at the naval station
and Navy, at San Juan, Porto Rico. Adjutant-
General Opeuheimer, Texas State
Militia, served as colonel of the Second Volunteer
Infantry and major-general of the Texas Volunteer
Guard ("Am. Jewish Year Book," 1900-1, pp. 535
et serj.). Colonel Openheimer is a member of the
National Board for the Promotion of RiHe Prac-
tise, appointed by the secretary of war March 11,
1893.

Jews are foimd in both houses of the Texas legis-
lature; Jewish physicians and lawyers are to be met
with in all the larger towns; and the state's second
assistant attorney-general, Isaac Lovenberg, is a
Jew, as was Leo N. Levi (b. Victoria, Texas, 1856;
d. New York city, 1904).

In C. W. Raines's "A Bibliography of Texas"
(Austin, 1896) mention is made of the following
publications of interest to Jews: George M. Walton,
"The Jews, Their Origin, History, and Final Des-
tiny " (Austin, 1895); J. E. McAshen, " The Jews," in
the "Texas Quarterly"; Major B. Rush Plumley,
"Poems for Rosh Ilashono " (Galveston, 1876-78).
Mrs. Leah Cohen Hauuy is the author of the " Flag-
Song of Texas."

A considerable number of local and national

Jewish and non-sectarian institutions have been the
beneficiaries of Texas Jews; in this way the names
of Rosanna Osterman, Isadore Dyer, Mrs. Tennie II.
Northman, ^Moritz Kopperl, and Isabella Kopperl
have become well known.

Texas has a total popidation of 3,048,710. of
whom about 17,500 are Jews. The Jewish popula-
tion is increasing as a consequence of direct immi-
gration from Europe through the port of Galveston.
SeeAMEUiCA: Dallas; Galveston; HorsTON; San-
Antonio.

Bini.iocjRAPUY: Henry Cohen, Scltlcmcnt of the Jcwst in
Tcras: idem, T)ie Jftrs in Terns; IJcnru VnMii), Pioneer
and Cftlnniat, in I'ulil. Am. Jew. HiM. Soe. Nos. 2,4,5;
Simon Wolf, 'T)u: Jew as Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen.

A. H. C.

TEXEIRA. See T'^ixeiua.

THANKSGIVING. See Benedictions.

THEBEN, KOPPEL (JACOB BEN ABRA-
HAM MANDL) : President of the Jewish com-
miuiity in I'resburg; died at Prague Aug. 26, 1799.
As "shetadlan" of the Hungarian Jews he gained
distinction; and under Joseph II., Leopold II., and
Francis I. he labored indefatigably in behalf of his
coreligionists, striving to protect them from harsh
regulations. On March 31, 1783, Joseph II. issued
the proclamation which was the foundation of the
culture of the Hungarian Jews and the beginning
of a happier era. One of its provisions, however,
was that the Jews should not wear beards; but
Theben obtained the revocation of this clause.
When Joseph II. compelled the Hungarian Jews to
perform military service, Theben sought, though
unsuccessfully, to have this ordinance also revoked.
In these undertakings his associate was Naphtali
ben Isaac Judah Rosenthal, a wealthy citizen of
Jloor, and in his youth a friend of Moses Mendels-
sohn.

In 1791, when Leopold II. was crowned at Pres-
burg, the Hungarian Jews, led by Theben, arranged
an enthusiastic celebration, during which Theben
urged the king not to require the Jews to serve any
longer as soldiers. On this occasion the king pre-
sented Theben with a gold medal. In the same
year Theben strove to free certain Jews who had
been imprisoned and tortured in Per on account of
a blood accusation. Indeed, there was scarcely
any important matter connected with the Jews
in which the Theben comnuinity did not take an
active part.

"Theben" (Hungarian, "I)eveny")is the name
of a place near Presburg, whence Theben 's ances-
tors probably came.

Bibliography: Ipnatz Reioh. Beth-El. Sd ed., il. 363-381;
Joshua Levinsohn, lialtlti Ya'ahoh KopiKl Thehen. Warsaw,
1899.

E. c. A. Bij.

THEBES : Ancient and famous c\iy of Greece;
capital of Ba'otia. Although there is no documen-
tary evidence of the presence of Jews at Thebes in
antiquity, it may be assumed that they resided
there, since their coreligionists had lived from a
very early period throughout Greece, including the
neigiiboring cities of Athens and Corinth, while
in the letter of Agrippa to the emperor Caius, Boeo-

123

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tlieft and Stolen Goods

tia is dc-scribcd as iiiliahitcd 1)\' Jews (Pliilo, " Loga-
tio ad Caiuiu," ^ oG). At llii- liiiK,- ol' llic First Cru-
sade a certain Tobias of Thebes isileseribedas bring-
in i; Messianic proi)lie{-ies from Saloiiica to Cairo
('•".I. q. K." X. 1-18). and in Al-Harizi's " Taidco-
luoni " (ed. Lagarde, p. 92) nieution is made of one
Michael ben Caleb of Thebes. Abraiiani Zutra (or
Znta) of Thebes, moreover, was the author of a
commentary on the Sifra (Zuuz, in Asher's ed. of
Benjamin of Tudela's " Itinerary, " ii. 3() ; MiehacI,
"Or ha l.Iayyim," No. 80) ; for tiie study of theiMid-
rashim was cultivated in Thebes as well as elsewhere
in the By/.antin;- empire.

These scanty data are insufficient to determine the
size of the Jewish community in Thebes, the earli-
est specific information in relation to which is de-
riveil from Benjamin of Tudela {vd. Griinliut, i. lij),
wiio describes the city as a large one with more than
2.W0 Jewisli families, including the most skilful
manufacturers of silk and purple in all Greece.
Among them were many students of the 3Iishnah
and of the Talmud ; and they belonged to the fore-
most scholars of their age. At the head of the com-
munity stood R. Aaron Kuti, his brother R. Moses,
U. Elijah Tortono, and K. Joktan; and their equals
were not to be found in any of the Greek dominions
e.xcept Constantinople. Of the large and prominent
community of Thebes no further data exist.

E. c. S. Ku.

THEFT (ni::) and stolen goods.—

The Moral Aspect: To steal is to break one of
the Ten Commandments, "Thou shalt not steal";
and it is immaterial Avhether one steals from an
Israelite or from an idolatrous Gentile, from an
adult or from a child. The value of a penitah was
regarded as the nnnimum value the theft of which
constituted a complete transgression. But it is for-
bidden to steal anything, even as a joke, or with
the intention of returning it or of paying for it; for
by acting thus a person learns to steal in earnest (B.
M. 61b;"Sanh. 57a).

It is forbidden to buy a stolen article; indeed, it
is a great sin ; for thereby the hand of transgressors
is strengthened, and the thief is led to steal more.
If there were none to buy, there would be none to

steal ; whence the Scripture, " Whoso
Receiver is partner with a thief hatetli his own
Worse than soul" (Prov. xxix. 24).

Thief. And one should not buy from men

whose emplo^-ment indicates that the
articles offered by them belong to their employers. In
the Talmud this law is applied mainly to herdsmen.
Wool or kids should not be bought from them;
milk and cheese only in the wilderness, not in the
settled covmtry. However, one may buy four sheep
or four fleeces from the shepherd of a small flock,
and five from the shepherd of a large one, there
being no presumption against these being liis own.
Nor should grain or fruits or wood be l)ought from
those charged witli w;itching such articles, unless the
sellers offer their wares in public, with the baskets
and scales before them; and garden stuff shoidd
be purchased onl\' at the front gate of the gar-
den, not at the back gate. It is, liowever, allowable
to buy produce from a tenant on shares. Goods

should not ]u' bought from luju.sewives, finni serv-
ants, or from childicn, except those articles which
such persons are in the Jiabit of selling with the
knowledge of the owner. Nor sliDuld remnants be
bought from an artisan working up for his custom-
ers materials which by the custom of the country
do not belong to him; and in all cases it is forbidden
to buy from a person who says "Hide it"(H. K.
118b).

Criminal and Civil Liability : There is this
dislinctiiMi between theft iind robbery: the thief
takes the property of another secretly and without
his knowledge, while he who takes openly by force
is not a thief, but a robber. One is not punished as
a thief for stealing either slaves, or documents having
no intrinsic value. On the principle that where the
Torah prescribes another penalty for a forbidden
act stripes are not inflicted, tlie only punishment for
theft is double restoration, and for stealing an ox or
sheep, and selling or slaughtering it. fourfold and
fivefold compensation (Ex. xxi. 37,

Punish- xxii. 3); and on the strength of tiic
ment words (i/). xxii. 8) "he shall pay

Double doidjle to his neighbor " it is held tliat

Restitu- lie who steals either from a Gentile or
tion. from the Sanctuary is held only for

single compensation: in other word.s,
he is not punished at all. No compensation may be
recovered from infants — not even simple restitution
if the stolen article has been consumed — nor from
a slave, as he has no property; but should the
latter be manumitted, he is then liable for double
compensation. It is, however, the duty of the court,
when a boy is caught stealing, to cause a moderate
whipping to be administered to him, and to a slave
a sound whipping, so as to check the stealing habit.
The master is not liable for what his slave steals any
more than for damage arising from the latter's negli-
gence.

The verse quoted above refers to the depositary
who steals deposited goods. It orders double com-
pensation only from him whom the judges con-
demn. Hence this penalty can not be imposed
where the thief confesses; and opinions in the Tal-
mud go so far as to relieve him, if he confesses to
the court, of all but simple restitution, even tlnmgh
witnesses appear against him immediately there-
after. Nor can he in any case be sold for a Hebrew
.servant in satisfaction of more than simple restitution
(Kid. 18a, expoimding Ex. xxii. 2). lie who steals
a thing from a thief before the owner has given up
the hope of recovery, and before the thing has been
changed in substance, is not liable to tlie penalty,
eithertothe first thief orto theowner. Tomakehim
liable for double compen&ition there must be sucli a
taking of possession by the thief as woulil in a sale
give "kinyan" (see Ai.if.n.\tiox .xnd AcQf isition);
hence pulling the article or beast as long as it is
within the owner's premises, even with delivery to
a third person, is not sufficient ; but lifting it, which
always gives kinyan, completes the theft (B. K.
vii. (5).

The fourfold restitution for an ox winch the thief
has sold or slaughtered and the fivefold restitution
for a sheep <ir goat so disposed of are thus treated in
the Mishnah {il>. vii. 2):

Theft and Stolen Goods
Theodora

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

124

'■ He who liiis stolen, as proved by two witnesses, ami has slaugh-
tered, as proved 'jy these or by two others, must pay fourfold
or fivefold ; he who has stolen and sold on the

Fourfold Sabbath, stolen and sold for idol- worship, stolen
and Fivefold and slaughtered on tlie Day of Atonement,
Restitution, stolen his father's beast and slauKhteredor sold
and whose father then dies, or stolen and
slaughtered and has then conseerated, pays fourfold and live-
fold : he who has stolen and slaughtered for use as a medicine
or as food for dops, or has slauphtered and the carcass proves to
be unsound [" terefah "], or has slaughtered common food
within the Temple yard, pays fourfold or llvefold."

The validity of the last two provisions is disputed.
After auother section dealing with the liability of
plotting witnesses (see Ai.iiu) who have testified
against the supposed thief {ib. vii. 4), the Mishuah
proceeds:

'■ He who, accordinfr to two witnes-ses, has stolen and, ac-
cordinp to one witness or his own admission, has slaughtered
or .sold pays twofold restitution, but not fourfold or tlvi-fold ;
he who has stolen or slaughtered on the Sabbath, or for the pur-
poses of idol-worship, or has stolen from his father and, his
father having died, has sold and slaughtered thereafter, or
has sold and con.secrated and thereafter sold or slaughtered,
pays double, but not fourfold or llvefold [with a disputed dis-
tinction, ill. vii. 5]. He who has sold all but a one-hundredth
part thereof [which refers to other than horns or fleece] or has
sold an article in which he himself has a joint interest, or has
slaughtered in an unlawful manner, pays twofold, but not four-
fold or Qvefold. He who has stolen within the domain of the
owner, but has sold or slaughtered outside thereof, pays fourfnUl
or fivefold; but if he has stolen and sold or slaughtered all
within the owner's dominion he is free."

The depositary who, when he has converted goods
to his own use, claims that they are lost, is deemed
a thief (Ex. xxii. 8); and if the deposit is an ox or a
lamb, which he has sold or slauglitered, he is liable
to fourfold or fivefold restitution (B. K. 106a).

In the baraita under these sections there are a
number of other distinctions, especially as to the
conditions and value of a stolen Least at the time of
the theft and the time of the trial. The restitution,
beyond the simple return of the stolen thing, is in
all cases to be made in money, not in kind.

It happens sometimes that, in order to avoid dis-
grace, a tliief voluntarily restoresastolen article with-
out acquainting the owner of the restitution. In
such a case, if he puts it back in its place and it is
lost or stolen before the owner who has missed it has
knowledge of its return, the repentant thief is liable
for the loss (ib. 118a, where some nice distinctions

will be fouiul).

The Stolen Article; Title: As a general j)rin
ciple, when the stolen thing is given, bartered, or sold
to a third person, or when, upon the death of the thief,
its possession passes to his sons, the title remains
in the former owner; and his rights are more fully
enforced as regards goods stolen than those taken
by robbery and force. However, the 1 almud speaks
of an " institution of the market " (ib.
Sale 115a), according to which, when the

in Market seller of the stolen goods is not a no-
Overt, torious thief, tiie owner should repay
to tlie buyer the price — generally
much less tlian the value of the goods — which the
latter has paid the tliief, should take the stolen thing,
and should then go to law with the thief re-
garding the sum ])aid. This institution calls to
mind the sale in market overt under the common
law of England. But, to bring the institution into

play, the thief must have sold for money: it does
not apply where he has i)aid a tlebt with the stolen
thing; but it does apply where he has pawned the
thing for an advance of money.

It would .seem that the circumstances mentioned
above, under which it is forbidden to buy goods be-
cause they are presumably stolen, would alTect not
only the conscience but al.so the title of the buyer;
but the codes do not say so explicitly, referring
(>nly to jmrchase from a notorious thief. Certainly
the wonls " Hide it " are an indication of theft.

If the stolen thing has been sold after the owner
has lost all hope of recovery (see Rohbeuy) or after
it has lost its shape and name, the title passes to the
buj'er. It is remarked that where the stolen articles
are (Hebrew) books, the presumption will hardly
ever arise that the owner has lost all hope of recov-
ery, inasmuch as the thief can not sell them to Gen-
tiles, but only to Israelites.

When implements, books, or other articles in a
house are not kejit for sale, and .some are stolen, and
the owner finds them and recognizes them as his; or
when goods are kept for sale, but the owner, after a
theft, recognizes articles that were kept to be hired
out, then the owner should prove by witnesses that
they are his, and the buver should swear in solemn
form what he has paid for them. On repaying this
amount the owner should recover his goods, but not
otherwise; for, as the 3Iishnah (ib. x. 3) says, he
might have sold them to a third person, from whom
they were bought. This passage in the ]\Iishnah is
a basis for the "institution of the market" found,
as above cited, in the Talmud.

BiBi.iOfiRAPiiv: Ji. K. ch. vii., x., and Talmud thereon ; Yad,
(iriicl)ali ; ^liuUia'n 'A)-uk, Haslioi Mixhiiat. SS »'4S ^.'iS.

w. n. ■ L. N. I).

THEOCRACY (Greek, Gfo/cpar/rt) ; System of
state organization and government in which God is
recognized as the ruler in whose name authority is
exercised by His chosen agents, the Priests or the
Prophets. The word in its technical meaning seems
to have been first used by Josephus, to describe the
peculiar nature of the Jewish government as devised
under divine direction by Moses : " Our

Derived legislator . . . ordained our govern-

from ment to be what, b^- a strained e.xpres-

Josephus. sion, may be termed a theocracy, by

ascribing the authority and the power

to God " ^" Contra Ap." ii., § 17).

The term expresses most succinctly the concep-
tion of the Old Testament historiogra]ihers, and more
especially tiiat of the books which are written from
a priestly-Levitical point of view (e.g., Chronicles,
the Levitical code P). Basic to the notion is the
relation of Israel to God as His peculiar jieople
(comp. Ex. xix. 5), which therefore is to constitute
"a kingdom of jiricsts and an holy nation " (ib. xix.
6). By redeeming Israel from Egyptian bondage
God has acquired this people for Himself (<7a xv.
IG). The wonderful inaiiifcstations of divine jiower
at the Red Sea proclaim God the Ruler forever {ib.
\y. 18). Moses is only God's man, bringing the
ju'ople's concerns liefore Yiiwir (//;. xviii. 19), and
communicating to the people God's will. Gideon
rejects the ]iro(Tered crown on the plea that God
alone should rule over Israel (Judges viii. 22 et seq.).

125

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Theft and Stolen Goods
Theodora

The desire of the people for a kiiif^ is regarded as
eqiiivalenl to the rejcetion of Yinvjr (I Sam. viii.
7). Even after tiie kiiisjdom is estahlislied God is
said to go before tlie iiing (II Sam. v. 24). There-
fore, down to tlieir least details all leual, political,
and social provisions are essentially reliiiioiis, as the
direct outtiow of God's regal and suincine will ; and
the Torali as God's word is th(> ultimate revelation
of tli(> divine King's commands, and tlie basic hiw
of the nation. Even tiie retribution meted out to
criminals and their detection are the immediate con-
cern of God (Lev. xx. 3, 5-6, xxiv. 12; xx. 20; Num.
V. 12 it scq. ; Josh. vii. l(i).

The visible king — originally not known and rec-
ognized in Israel— is seated on God's throne (I Chron.
xxix. 23; comp. //;. xxviii. 5). His authority is
derived from that of the real ruler.

Relation God : hence tlie projihet's preroga-

Between live to dethrone even the king (comp.

Heavenly S.vmiei,; see I Sam. xv. 2G, xvi. 1 it
and seq. ; I Kings xi. 29. xiv. 10, xvi. 1 et

Earthly .vr/., xxi. 21). Tlie king rejiresents be-
Ruler. fore the people the reliecled majesty of
God (Ps. xlv. 7). The king's enemies
are God's enemies (Ps. ii. 1 et scq., xxi. 10): hence
tiie Messianic visionsare organically interwoven with
tlie restoration of the kingdom in tlie dynasty of
David (see ^Ikssi.vii). But tiie rerise of this tlico-
cratic kingdom in Israel will coincide with the
acknowledgment of God as the ruler over the
whole earth (see 'Alenu; Rosh ita-Shanaii; Sue-
par).

It is certain that in antiquity every people felt
itself to be under the direct tutelage and govern-
ment of its ancestral god : all government in ancient
days was theocratic ; and the conception that Israel
is bound to be loyal to Yiiwir is not exceptional. In
the stories relating to tlieri.se and fall of Saul's fam-
ily and the choice of David, later antipathies and
sympathies of tlie prophetic party come to light
(see Sa.mtkl; Saul). The theocratic idea, in the
sen.se that it postulates the supreme authority of the
Torah with tlieelTectof making Israel a holy nation,
is the final development of tlie Levitical-sacerdotal
program culminating in P, and carried out under
Ezra and Neiiemiali, leading at the same time to the
recasting of antecedent history along the lines of tliis
sacerdotal program (see Ciikonici.es).

An original theocratic republicanism of Israel
can not be admitted. Tiie tribal organization of
Israel was none other than that obtaining among its
cognates. The restrictions placed upon royal au-
tliority (Deut. xvii. 14-20) by the Deuteronomist
reflect on the practises prevailing at court, as the
strictures placed on the lips of Samuel (I Sam. viii.
6 et seq.) describe actual conditions tliat prevailed in
pre-Deuteionomic times and that were, of course,
condemned by the Prophets. The hereditary king-
dom was probably an adopted foreign (Canaanitish)
institution; tlie Israclitish tribes, jealous of theirin-
dependence, being ruled by elders (sheiks) or judges,
pos-sibly by elective nionarchs. But even these
sheiks were only in so far agents of theocracy as the
"oracles" of the tribal deity were consulted and
obeyed. The dominance of the Law is as clearly
recognized iu Islam as it ever was in post-exilic

Judaism. In fact, Islam is even to-da}' a theocracy
(comp. Juynliojl, " llandlciding der IMoliamme-
daan.sch \Vetenscliai\" [.cvdcii. ]WA\

N. E. G. H.

THEODOR, JULIUS (JUDAH) : German

lalilii; b.iiii Dec. JH, 1^.11), ;il SchmalleningUcn.
East Prussia. He studied philosopliy and Orienlalia
at the University of Brcslaii and raliliiiiica al tlie
Jewish theological .seminary in the .same city. After
receiving from Breslau his diploma as rabbi and ids
Ph.D. from the University of Konigsiierg (187G), he
became second rabbi and teacher at liie religious
scliool at Bromberg. In 18H.") he was called as rabbi
to Berent; and since 18HH he lias occupied tJie rab-
binate of Bojanowo, Po.sen. In 1890 lie visited
London, Oxford, and Paris for tiie purpose of ex-
amining the midrashic manu.scripts in the libraries
of tlio.se cities.

Theodor is tlie author of: "Zur Compo.sition der
Agadischen Homiiien,"in " Monatsschrift," 1H79-H0;
" Die Midraschim zum Pentateuch und der Drei-
jillirige Paliistinisclie Cyclus," ib. 1880-87; "Der
Midrasch Bercschit Kabba," ib. 1893-9o; and "Bere-
sciiit Rabba mit Kriti.scliem Apparate und Kom-
mentare," parts i. and ii., Berlin, 1903, 1904.

s. F. T. H.

THEODORA: Queen of Bulgaria from 133.1 to
185.'); born at Tirnnva la Grande, cai)ital of tlie an-
cient kingdom of Bulgaria, of a family of Byzantine
Jews, from whom she received the Greek name of
Theodora, although she was called also Sarah and
was termed " the beautiful Jewess. " Slie was chosen
on one occasion to present a petition to Ivan Alex-
ander, Czar of Bulgaria, and that monarch, though
he had had two wives and was the father of tliree
children, became infatuated with her and married
her after she had accepted Christianity of her
own accord. He became by her the parent of three
children: two sons, named Assen and Ivan Cliich-
man, and a daughter, called Taniar or ]\Iara (but sec
Jew. Encyc. iii. 426a, .i.r. Bilgakia).

According to Christo J. Poppof. an ecclesiastical
historian of Bulgaria, the Jews of Tirnova, taking
advantage of the fact that one of their number
sat on tlie throne, and presuming on tlhc queen's
favor, set no limits to their insolence, profaning the
icons, tlie cliurches, even the cucharist it.self. and
blaspheming all that is most sacred to Christianity;
so that their evil deeds encouraged heretics and
fomented popular disturbances.

By tlie advice of the patriarch Theodore, Ivan
Alexander called a national council in 1352, which
was attended by all the prelates of the country ; and
in the presence of the czar himself and of Queen
Theodora and lier children a solemn anathema wa3
pronounced against all heretics and Jews, and their
expulsion from the country was decreed. Owing to
the entreaties of Theodora, liowevcr, three Jews
who had Iteen condemned to death for blasphemy
were reprieved, their sentences being commuted to
other punishments; but in accordance witli the <lc-
cree of the council, the community of Tirnova.
which liail long inhabited a ghetto at the foot of the
citadel of Trapcsitza. was dispersed, and Jews never
settled again in that city. According to another ac-

Theodore of M opsuestia
Theodotion

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

126

cmint (SL'f Ji:\v. Encvc. I.e. p. 4201)). tlicy emigrated
to Nieopolis ou the deutli of Ivun Cliicliiuan.

Tlieodora brought her iiitlueuee to bear on her
htisbaiid and seemed tlie tliroue for Ivan Cliichman,
iier own son by him, leaving for lier two stepsons
onl}' the provinces of Widdin and Dobrudja, and
thus exposing lierself to the charge of tlie Bulgarian
historians that in her maternal blindness she weak-
ened the kingdom. Ivan Chichman was defeated
by Sultan -Alurad I. about 13G0; and Theodora died
some years later.

BinLiOGRArnv : Voppol, Etvimii,DcniicrPatrMrchc(lc Tir-
uncn ct lit- T/ny«Ni72rt.Philippopolis, 1901 : Rcvuc dcs ?><il(s
lie rAlliaiici: J.-'iai'litc Uiiicersi-Uc. July, 1901. A portrait
of TheiKlorji and lier children appears h\ Scui-ttih Xatvdni
Umutvurciiia, SoUa, lbV.J.
s. M. Fr.

THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA: Christian
bishop and Church father; born and educated at
Antioch; died at Mopsuestia about 429; teacher of
Nestorius and Theodoret, and the foremost e.xegete
of the school of Antioch, Avliieh was represented
also liy Lueian, Diodorus. and several others. In
that school tlu; historical interpretation of the Old
Testament, which was at variance with the allegor-
ical hermeneuties of Origex, had become the rule;
and in this, the onlj- rational and adequate exegesis,
no one in antiquity was greater than Theodore, who,
therefore, is in perfect harmony with modern meth-
ods of interpretation.

The early maturity of his friend Chrysostom im-
pressed Theodore to such an extent that he, after a
crisis in his life, early devoted himself to the stud}-
of the Bible, and at the age of twent}' published his
commentary on the Psalms, his most

Commen- important work from a Jewish and an
tary on the exegetical point of view. As a priest

Psalms. in Antioch Theodore sided with Dio-
dorus and with Flavian, likewise a
famous exegete; and he Avaged an active warfare
against Aiians, Apollinarians, and other heretics
(Tlieodoret, "Historia Ecclesiastica," v. 39), al-
thougii there is no mention of Jews in the long list
of those whom he opposed. The fame which he
acquired secured for him the bishopric of ^lojisu-
estia, which he retained for the remainder of his life.
After his death his works, like those of Diodorus,
were declared heretical by the Fifth Ecumenical
Council on the ground that he had interpreted the
Psalms "in Jewish fashion."

None of the Church Fathers equaled Theodore
either in accurate grammatical and historical her-
meneuties or in originality of view. His commen-
taries are fi'ce from rhetoric and homiletics; but
this very fact gives tiicm value in the eyes of mod-
ern exegetes. lie is, moreover, rigid in his inter-
pretations, since he systematically avoids symbol-
isms and allegories, lie is the chief authority, the
"interpreter" par excellence, for the Syrian Nesto-
rians. The boldness of his hermeneuties is astonish-
ing; and in his criticism he is centuries ahead of
his time.

Theodore was the author of numerous works, the
titles of forty-one volumes by him being mentioned
by Assemani ; and to the.se works must be added
several written in Syriac (A.ssemani, "Bibliotheca
Orientalis Clemen tino-Vaticana," ii. 478). His chief

works of Jewish interest are his commentaries on

the Psalms, on Job, on Canticles, and on the

Twelve Minor Prophets, as well as

Works. his five books against the allegorists;

the latter work, now lost, probably

contained his principles of exegesis.

Although Theodore made the mistake, Avhicli
Jkhome alone avoided, of interpreting the Septua-
gint instead of the Hebrew, he knew that the text
of the former was sometimes corrupt : and he there-
fore examined it criticall}', having recourse to the
Syriac version, to Aquila, to Theodotion, and, above
all, loSymmachus (Stade's "Zeitsehrift," vi. 26o).
Diestel alleges that Theodore knew neither Syriac
nor Hebrew, and consequently lacked the funda-
mental knowledge necessary for exegesis, but
Baethgen has proved that his connnentaries show
a certain knowledge of Hebrew, and that he was
familiar with the curt lapidary Hebrew style which
becomes incomju'ehensible when imitated in Greek.
It must be confessed, nevertheless, that his knowl-
edge of Hebrew was faulty, and that he relied far
too much on the text of the Septuaginl. His brother
Polychronius, who was an adherent of the same
school, was far su]ierior to him in knowledge of
Hebrew; but Theodore was the more important
exegete.

Theodore interpreted most of the Psalms histor-
ically, holding, however, that David's prophetic
gifts enabled liini to foretell future events and to
identify himself with them. He carried the idea of
prophecy too far, however; for in his
Views on opinion it consisted merely in the
Prophecy, ability to foretell events, enil)iacing
the immediate as well as the far dis-
tant future. But, though he refers much (in the
Psalms) to the future, he conlincs his references to
Jewish history, alluding but seldom to Jesus, which
is the more remarkable since his was the period of
the wildest allegorical and typological interpretation.
He considers that Jesus is referred to in only three
of the Psalms, namely, viii., xlv., and ex., to which
may possibly be added, on the basis of other indica-
tions, Ixxxix. and cxviii. ; but not in xxii. nor in
Ixxii., which at most, he thought, might be inter-
preted typically in so far as Solomon, like Jesus,
was a inince of peace. For seventeen psalms he
offers no historical explanation, while ho holds
that references to David and his time occur in nine-
teen, to Jeremiah in one, to the A.ssyrian in twenty-
five, to the Chaldean in sixty -seven, and to the Mac-
cabean ])eriod in seventeen. This feature of his
commentary is of especial importance as showing
the keenness and soundness of his criticism. Not
less noteworthy is the courage with which he re-
jects the authenticity of the superscriptions to the
Psalms, which, he declares, were added b\' ignorant
scribblers who could not be too severely censured.

He absolutely denied, moreover, that the Old
Testament contained any references to the Son of
God or to the Trinity, Avhile any interpretation of
Zech. ix. 9, 10 as ajiplieable to Jesus was, in his
view, evidence of extreme ignorance, since this pas-
sage, like Amos ix. 10, 11 and jMicah v. 2, referred
rather to Zerubbabel. The Song of Solomon he
regarded as a secular epithalamium; and the Book

127

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Theodore of Mopsuestia
Theodotion

of Job ho considered a mixture of fact and fiction.
It was a cardiniil maxim of Tlieodorc's tiiat tiie aii-
tliors of tiie Old and Mew Tesliimcnts were ecjiiall}'
endowed with tiie mysterious gift of tlie Holy Spirit
(commentary on Neh. i. 1).

Tiiree degrees of iuspiiatiou were recognized by

Theodore, although he gave no clear definition of

them, asserting, for example, that David had the

gift of the spirit (on Ps. Ixxxi. 3, rii

Views on roi Trvti'w/arof ;i;(i/»r^), yet regarding hiin
In- in all other respects as a prophet. Ac-

spiration. cording to Tiieodore, Solomon had the
gift of wisdom oiilv, not that of
prophecy; this view shows the inlluence of Jewish
tradition, which accepted a similar gradation as exist-
ing in the three groujis of the canonical Scriptures.
Although Baelhgen has advanced the hyi)othcsis
that Theodore's works contain other traces of Tal-
mudic tradition, such as the view advocated by him
in his commentary on Ps. Iv. that the son of Simon,
and not the son of Onias III., built the temple at
LiiONTOPOLis, no deductions can be drawn from
such meager data. In his theories concerning the
superscriptions in the Psalter and the Maccabean
portions of that book, Theodore showed himself
a decided opponent of tradition. The orthodox
Church, however, could not endure the candor of
liis exegesis; and consequently only fragments of
his commentaries have survived, namely, of that on
the Psalms (part of which exists in a Syriac version),
of that ou tlie Twelve ]\Iinor Prophets, and of those
on various books of the New Testament (see Baeth-
gen's "Studies" in Stade's "Zeitschrift," v.-vii.)

BiBLiOfiRAPiiY : Fabricius-Harles, Bihliotheca Grccca, x. 340-
36a (listof the works of Theodore); Migne, Palroloijin OvKcn,
Ixvi. 647-696 (incomplete collection of the fragments); Corde-
nns.Expmitin Pairum Gnvatrum in PsalmaK. ii.. Antwerp,
1643-46 (the catena of Theodore on the Psalms); SietTert,
T/icodorHs Mdpsuestrnnx Vctcris Tcstdmfuti S<il>rie Inter-
pretandi Vinder, KOnigsberg, 18;.'7; I'ritzsche, i>*' Ttieodoii
MopsueMeni Commentariis iji ZViioios, etc., Halle, 1836;
Idem, Dfi Vita et Script is Thcodori Mopsiicsteni, IHSO;
Water, De Thcndnro Prnphrtnrum Intcrprr.tc. Atnsteidam.
1837; Wegiiern, Tlifodnri Antioclicni . . . Qncc Supcrstuit
Omuin, i., CDmmoitarius in JhKHlecim Pruptiet. Minnirs,
Berlin, IKU ; L. Diestel, Gescti. des Altiii Trstamnitu in dcr
Alten Kirclie, pp. 1~'9-13:3, Jena, 186'.); E. Sachan, Thcodori
Mopsneiitiani Fragmenta Sip-iacn, Leipsic, 1869; I. P. de
Barjean. L'Ecolc Exeqetiqiie d'Antiorhe. pp. 36-39. Paris,
1898; Harnack, Doumenneschirtitc. 3d ed.. ii. 78; Kihn,
Thcodtirns foi Mopsuestia nnd Jiinilius Africanits ats
£xecr«:feH. 1880; Siiiith-Wace, Dictionary of (liristian Bi-
vnraplni, iv. 934.

T. S. Ku.

THEODOSIA. See Kaffa.

THEODOTION : One of the Greek translators
of the Old Testament (see Jew. Encyc. iii. 187, s.r.
Bible Thanslatioxs). He is the supposed author
of one of the two extant Greek versions of the Book
of Daniel and the apocryphal additions thereto, to
a discussion of which the present article is confined.
The other version is that of the Septuagint. In
Church use the latter has been replaced by the
former so effectively that only one manuscript of
the Greek Old Testament ccmtains the Septuagint
text, viz., the Codex Chisianus, known

Used in as Codex 87 (Holmes and Par.sons MS.

Daniel for 88), though the translation of tiie Sev-

Septuagint. enty underlies the Syriac Ilexaplar

(see Swete, "The Old Testament in

Greek," iii., pp. vi., xii. ; he pubhshes both texts).

"The relation of the two extant Greek versions of

Daniel is a perplexing jiroblem " (Swete, "Introduc-
tion to the Old Testament in Greek," j). 4(i). The
preference for Theodotion goes hack to a very early
period. Origen gave tiic Septuagint a jilace in his
llexapla, Init an examination of his ((notations
proves that in his writings he almost invaiialily
cites acconliiig to Theodotion. Jerome (in his iiref-
ace to Daniel) iccords the fact of the rejection of the
Septuagint version in t'hurch usjige, a.ssigniiig as the
reason therefor that that translation is very faulty.
Earlier Church fathers, Clement of Alexandria, for
instance, had set the precedent; and in Hernias and
in Justin clear indications are found of the extensive
popularity of Theodotion'.s version (Swete, "Intro-
duction," p. 47; Gwynn, in "Dictionary of Ciiris-
tian Biograjihy," s.r. "Theodotion," iv. \)7 it serj.).

Still it is plain that Theodotion did not translate
Daniel directly from the Hebrew-Aramaic (^laso-
retic). For the apocryjihal additions no Aramaic
(or Hebrew) original may be assumed. Gaster (in
"The Unknown Aramaic Original of Theodotion 's
Additions to Daniel," in " Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch."
1894, xvi.) proves that the Aramaic text is itself an
adaptation from the Greek of Theodotion, not its
original (see, also, Schurer in Ilerzog-IIauck, " Real-
Encyc." i. (j'M). Nor are other Araniaic-IIehrew
accounts of the Dragon or of Susanna (Neubauer,
"The Book of Tobit," 1878, p. xci. ; Jellinek, "B.
H." vi. 126-128) entitled to be considered as orig-
inals. The original language of the additions was
Greek. Theodotion's version is an elaboration of
this Greek original; and his translation of the text
of Daniel also is manifestly a working over of a
previous Greek rendering.

But whether this Greek version which underlies
Theodotion's text is the Septuagint as contained in
the Chigi manuscript or another, independent, trans-
lation, is still in doubt. Schurer (I.e.)
Relation to inclines to the opinion that Theodo-
Chigi tion used the Septuagint and corrected
Manuscript it and suiii)lie(l itsdeliciencies by com-
of Sep- parison Avith the ]Masoretic text, wliile

tuagint. in the additions he recast the Septua-
gint with a free hand. Gwynn, who.se
treatise on Theodotion in the " Dictionary of Christian
Biography " presents an elaborate investigation of
the matter, argues for the view that two iire-Christian
versions of Daniel, both passing as Septuagint texts,
were current, one of which is that preserved in the
Codex Chisianus, while the other furnished the basis
for Theodotion's revision, the reviser cousultiug
where possible the standard Hebrew text.

In order to illustrate the character of Theodotion's
work, a comparison of his version of the additions
to Daniel with that of the Chigi manu.script is very
helpful. In The Song of the Three Holy Chihiren
he and the Septuagint agree in the main. The
prayer of Azarias is iilaced after Dan. iii. 2:1. In
the Septuagint the text of tlic preceding Biblical
passages is somewhat changed in order to establish
a better connection for the insertion. Theodotion
omits verse 22b, while in verse 23 the simple state-
ment is made that Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-
nego (Septuagint has Azarias) had fallen bound
into the lieafed furnace. Verse 24 in the Septua-
gint reads: "In the following manner di<l Ananias.

Theodotion
Theolog-y

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

128

Azaiius, aiul ^lizacl i)iay and praise the Lord wlien
the king hail conunaiuleil tliat they should be cast
into the furnace." Theodoliou's rendering is as fol-
lows (verse 24): '' And they went about in the midst
of the tlanies, praising God and blessing the Lonl.
Then [verse 2.")] Azarias stepped forth and prayed ; he
opened liis mouth in the midst of the tlanies and
spake." Other variants consist in transpositions of
verses (^.^7. , verses 54 and 55 occur in
Variants the reverse order in Theodotion), the
from Sep- omission of conjunctions, the substi-
tuagint. tution of the singular for the plural,
and of the definite for the iudeJinite
article, and the dropping of parts of verses. Analy-
sis of these discrepancies confirms the view that
Theodotion's text presents a recast of an anterior
Greek version which, if not identical with, must have
been similar to the one now e.xtant in the Sep-
tuagint.

The history of Susanna presents wider divergen-
cies, the Septuagiut being briefer, and Theodotion's
te.xt exhibiting the character of an elaboration. The
fact is clear that they are based on a common tradi-
tional stor}-, while it is perhaps doubtful Avhether
Theodotion's amplifications presuppose his use of
the extant Septuagiut text. The possibility that
the two are parallel developments of an antecedent
written account is, theoretically, certainly admissi-
ble. A few passages may illustrate the foregoing
observations. Verses 12 et seq. read in the Sep-
tuagint:

" But when the morning- had dawned, they set out and hur-
ried clandestinely, each hiding before the other, who should
meet her and speak to her. And behold she was walking about
as was her wont. But as soon as one of the elders had arrived,
the other also made his appearance, and one asked the other:
' Why art thou gone forth so early without bidding me go
along ? ' And they confessed to each other their pains of love."

Theodotion's version is as follows:

" Yet they watched jealously from day to day to see her. Antl
the one said to the other, ' Let us now go home ; for it is dinnt^r-
tiine.' So when they were gone out, they parted one from the
other, and, turning back again, they came to the same place.
After they had asked one another the cause, they acknowledged
their lust, and then appointed a lime both together when they
might And her alone."

The account of how they met Susanna is verj-
elaborate in Theodotion (verses 15-28), while the
Septuagiut sums up the proposal and answer in two
tei'se sentences. It must be noted that the plaj' on
the names of the respective trees occurs in both ver-
sions (ver.ses 55 and 59).

In Bel and the Dragon Theodotion affects greater
historical accurac}', giving details concerning names
and dates that are not found in the Septuagiut,
where general .statements, such as the " King of
Babylon," predominate. Theodotion's Daniel is
more ]U'ofuse in his profession of faith, e.f/., ver.se
25, "Thy Lord, my God, will I worship; for lie is a
living (3od," whicli the Septuagiut oinits. These
traits again suggest that Theodotion's method was
that of an elaborator.

T. E. G. II.

THEOLOGY : The science that treats of God
anti of His relation tf) the world in general and to
man in particular: in a less restricted sense, the
didactic representation of the contents and es-

sence of a religion. Jewish theology, therefore, de-
notes the tloetrinal representation of the contents
and essence of Jewish religion, the principles on
which it rests, and the fundamental truths it en-
deavors to express and to realize.

Orthodox, or conservative, Judaism, from the
standpoint of which this aiticle is written, regards
the Jewish religion asaievealed relig-
Judaisni ion, the teachings of which were made
a Revealed known by God to man by supernatu-
Religion. ral means. These supernatural, divine
conununications of religious truths
and doctrines took place, however, only at certain
times in the past; and they were made only to
chosen people (the Prophets, among whom Moses
was pi'eeminent). With the cessation of proph-
ecy the}- were discontinued altogether. Through
these supernatui-al manifestations God revealed to
human beings all the religious truths essential to
their guidance through life and to their spiritual
welfare. These religious truths it is not necessary
for man to sujiplement with human doctrines; nor
may any of tiiem be annulled. They are maiidy
contained in the Holy Scriptures, written by men
who were inspired by God; and in part they are
among the teachings and manifestations revealed
by God to Moses which were not written down, but
were preserved to the nation by oral tradition. Al-
though the soui'ce of all religious truths within Ju-
daism is to be found in revelation, Jewish theology
is not solely revealed theology: natural theology
has received recognition also. It is considered a
fundamental maxim among alinost all JewLsh theo-
logians and religious philosophers that the teach-
ings and religious truths contained in the Sci'iptures
as emanating from God can not be in dii'ect con-
tradiction to human intellect, which is itself of di-
vine origin. The truths, understood and accepted
by the human mind, which constitute the sum of nat-
ural theolog}' are therefore taken into consideration
in the determination of revealed religious truths.
And, i)esides, the human mind has been allotted a gen-
eral right to judge of the value and importance of the
divine teachings; this it could iloonly
Connection by using as a standard the fundamen-
with tal truths recognized by itself. The

Natural theological system binding on every
Theolog-y. Orthodox, conservative Jew, and con-
taining his confcssirju of faith, is there-
fore a composition of natural and revealed theology.
Kevealed theology, however, is the preponderating
element; for even such teaciiiiigs and princijiles as
might have been set up by human intelligence are
considered, wiien cmlxidied in llic Holy Scrijitures,
as revealed by God. This theological .system is
not, however, simply a system of abstract truths
and articles of laitii in wliicli the Jew is merely
re(iuircd to believe; for it contains the fundanu'ntal
theological teachings and religious principles on
which is based the Jewish conception of the world
and of ]\U'; and it requires not oidy a belief in and
approval of these principles, but also, as a neces.sary
adjunct to such approval, the doing of deeds which
are in keeping therewith. It imposes upon tlie be-
lieving Jew duties by which his life must be regula-
ted. It nuist be admitted that Judaism — that is, the

129

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Theodotion
Theology

sum total of the rules and laws, ideas aud seutiiuents,
iiianiieis and custoiiis, which regulate the actions,
tccliiigs, and thoughts of the .Jews — is more than a
mere theological s^'Slem, inasmuch as man}' of its
rules and customs are of national characlei'. It is
not easy, however, to dillerentiate strictly between

the national and the theological ele-

Connection ments in Judaism. Several national

with customs are also divine i)rece]Hs,

Jewish whose observance is recomnieiuled in

National the Scrijitures. Anil, besides, there

Customs, exists between the Jewish religion

and its sujiporters, the Jewish nation,
I connection so intimate that Jewish nationalism
and Jewish theology also are closely allied. National
rustoms have become formulas exi)ressing certain
ilieological ideas and doctrines, while, on the other
hand, theological rules have come to be considered
characteristics of the nation, because they have
become habitual to the people. Thus, for example,
the customs aud habits observed in commemoration
of the most important national event — the delivery
from Eg\'pt — at the same time convey an idea of
God's providence and of His influence upon the
historv of the nation which found such glorious
expression in the Exodus. On the other hand, the
theological system, Avith its precepts and require-
nu'nts, has l)ecome a national bond which keeps tiie
Jews together as one peojjle. Without denying the
partly national character of Judaism, it may there-
fore be said that Judaism is a peculiar theological
system which, among other purely theological doc-
trines and religious principles, also sets up as
aiticles of faith the belief in the imperishability of
the .lews as a nation and the hope of a revivilication
of their independence. It imposes also the duty of
preserving the nationality of Israel by observing the
prescribed customs.

The present article gives a representation of this
theological system: the individual religious truths
and fundamental teachings — the dogmas of the
Jewish faith — will be cited and exi)lained; and
their importance for the practical religious life,
as well as the moral and religious duties deduced
from them, will be referred to. This imposition of
moral and religious duties is characteristic of the dog-
mas of tiie Jewish religion, which, however, are not
dogmas in the sense that belief in them alone in-
sures the salvation of the soid ; for mere belief in
them, without action in accordance with such belief,
is, according to the Jewish theological conception,
of no value. The dogmas of the Jewish faith must
not only be believed and acknowledged, but they also
demand that one act in accordance with their
logical requirements. In this sense the dogmas of
the Jewish religion are not only those truths and
fundamental doctrines with the denial of which
Judaism would cease to be a religion, but also such
teachings and articles of faith as are obligatory

upon each individual. With these

The doctrines and articles of faith the most

Dogmas of enlightened spirits and the most

Judaism, prominent thinkers of the Jewish

nation have at all times occupied
themselves. This being tlie case, it is not to be
wondered at that differences of opinion have arisen
XII.— 9

with regard to details of individual ijoiuls, one
scholar having interpreted a particular sentence at
variance wiiii another. In all such cases where the
most enlightened men of the n.tiion Jiave disagreed
in the interpictation of a doctiine or an article of
faith, the authoritative opinion of the majoiily is
used as a basis in the following discu.ssion (see
AiTtioiiiTV). Such views and teachings as were at
all times considered obligatory on ailherents of the
Jewish religion are the fundamental doctrines of
Judaism. Any interpretation of an article of fuitii
which was at any time advocated by only one or a
few persons is to be regarded merely as his or llieir
indiviilual opinion; it is not obligatr)ry upon all
followers of Judaism and will therefore ncjl be con-
sidered here.

The fundamental dogma of the Jewish religion,
without which such faith would be inconceivable,
is the belief in the existence of Goii. This is also
the fundamental principle of all other religions;
but the conception of God taught by the Jewish
faith is in essential points dillerent from the con-
ceptions voiced by other creeds. This peculiarly
Jewish conception of God regards Him as the Crea-
tor of the world and of all creatures; and it be-
stows upon Him, therefore, the name "Ha-Bore
yitbarak shemo " (The Creator whose name is glo-
rilied).

The conception of God as the Creator of the uni-
verse, which is taught in the history of the Creation
(Gen. i.), finds expression in the Decalogue also (Ex.
XX. 11), and is often repeated in the

God as i)i()plietic books. "I liave made the

Creator. earth, and created man tipon it: I,
even my hands, have stretched out the
heavens, and all their host have I commanded," says
God through the mouth of the prophet (Isa. xlv.
12). Nehemiah says: "Thou, even thou, art Lord
alone; thou hast made heaven, the heaven of heav-
ens, with all their host, the earth, and all things that
are therein, the .seas, and all tiiat is therein, and thou
preservest them all" (Neh. ix. 6); and the Psalmist
calls God the Creator "which made heaven, and
earth, the sea, and all that therein is" (Ps. cxlvi. 6).
The creation of the world by God, as the Jewisli re-
ligion teaches, was a "creaiio ex uihilo," since God,
the Creator, merely through His will, or His word,
called into existence the world out of absolute noth-
ingness (Maimonides, " Yad,"Teshubah, iii. ; "Moreh
Nebukim," ii. 27; Albo, " ■Ikkarim,"i. 12). God, as
the Creator of the world, is its preserver also; and
the creation is nota completed act. but a continuous
activity. The laws which, with great regularity,
rule the world have been instituted by Gf>d. and
remain valid only through the will of God, who in
this way "repeats every day the work of creation
through His goodness." But "whatsoever the Lord
pleased, that did he in heaven, and in earth, in llie
seas, and all deep places" (Ps. cxxxv. 6); and He is
able to abolish the laws which govern nature. At
certain times in the world's history, when it was
necessary for liigher purposes. He has done this,
and caused events and iihenomena to hajipen
which were contrary to the usual laws of nature
(see Miu.\ci.K). All the miracles recorded by tlie
Scriptures happened in this manner. Tlic natural

Theology

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

130

laws are nevertheless to be legaicled as valiil for-
ever; for they were introduced by God iu His wis-
dom as pernuineut rules for the order of nature, and
He never lias cause to change the plans once made by
Him. uor to change the arrangements made accord-
ing to tiiese plans. Even the miracles, although
taking place during a temporary suspension of nat-
ural laws, were not due to changes in the divine
plans, for they were embodied in the original jilan.
For from the very creation of the workl and the cs-
t^iblishment of natural laws, God, in His prescience,
realized that at certain times a deviation from
this order would be necessar}' for the welfare of
humanity, in onler to show it that the laws of na-
ture had no independent power, but were subject to
a higher being, their Creator. It was theieforc
prearranged that these deviations should take place
at the times decided upon. In the personificative
language of the ^lidrash this teaching is expres.scd
as follows: "When God ordered Moses to cleave the
sea, the latter wondered, and said, ' Thou, O Lord,
hast said it Thyself, and hast instituted it as a natu-
ral law, that the sea should never become dry.'
Whereupon the Lord said, ' From the beginning, at
the time of creation, when I decided the laws for
the sea, I have stipulated that it should divide itself
before Israel, and leave a dry path through its midst
for that nation ' " (Ex. R. xxi. 6). What has here
been said concerning the phenomenal division of
the water refers also to every other phenomenon
which is a deviation from the natural order of
things.

Even as God is recognized as the Creator and
Upholder of the world, so is He regarded as its
Rider. God's rulership over the world is secured
th^ough His creat.orship (Ps. xxiv. 1-2). The doc-
trine of recognizing iu God not only the Creator
of the world, but also the Arbiter of its destiny, was

revealed by God Himself upon Mt.
God in Sinai when He declared to the Israel-
History, ites that it was He who had freed

them from Egyptian bondage and
made them an independent nation (Ex. xx. 2).
Nehemiah, after having recognized God as the
Creator and Upholder of the world, enumerates His
marvelous deeds, thereby acknowledging Him al.so
as the Arbiter of its destiny (Neh. ix. 7-13). In Ps.
cxxxvi. God is praised and acknowledged both as
the Creator of the world and as the Author of all
events. The direct result upon man of this be-
lief in God as the Creator and Upholder of the
world and as the Arbiter of its destiny, is to make
him dependent upon and responsible to God who
created him. According to Gen. i., God's creation
of the world culminated when He created man in
His own image. This resemblance of man to God
refers to his spiritual qualities, which rai.ie him
above the animals, and enable him to rule the world.
It also enables man to commune with God, to ac-
knowledge llitn, and to act according to His will.
It therefore becomes the dutj'of nnm to exercise his
God-given ndership of the world only in accordance
with divine precepts. He may not follow his own
inclination, but must in all things do accoriling to
the will of God. And in order to make it possible
for man to do according to the divine will, God has,

through a revelation, communicated His will to
man (.see Kevei,.\tion).

The belief in God as the sole Creator of the world
and of all living creatures necessitates also a be-
lief in the eternity of God. He is the Cause
which has called all things into existence. But He
neeiled no outer cau.se for His own existence. He
Himself being the cause thereof. From this it fol-
lows that no limit can be placed upon His existence,
that He has existed from all eternity, and tlmt He
will continue to exist forever. " I am the lirst, stud
I am the last," says the Lord through the mouth of
the prophet (Isa. xliv. 6). He is called, therefore,
" the eternal God " (" Elohe kedem " ; Deut. xxxiii.),
and the Psalmist calls Him the God who "from ever-
lasting to everlasting is God " (Ps. xc. 2). This God,
teaches the Jewish religion, is no carnal being; no
carnal attributes may be assigned to Him, nor do

earthly conditions ap'pl}' to Him; and

God In- there exists, moreover, no other being

corporeal, that resembles Him. This doctrine

is especially emphasized by Jewish
theologians, because several Biblical expressions ap-
parently favor a conception of God as a carnal being,
and many teachers take these expressions literally.
It is the nature of a carnal body that it is limited
and defined by space. God, as a non-corporeal being,
is not limited by space ; and Solomon says, therefore,
"behold, the heaven and heaven of heavens can not
contain thee " (I Kings viii. 27). The sages ex-
pressed this conception thus: "God arranges the
whole universe and sets its limits: but the universe
has not sufficient room for Him; it can not contain
Him " (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xc. 1 [ed. Buber, IQob-
196a]). God is thus omnipresent. Wlien expres-
sions occur in the Holy Scriptures mentioning God
as dwelling at a certain place, or when a house of
God is spoken of, it is not to be understood that
God is subject to limitations of space. For the
heavens and the entire universe can not contain
Him; how much less can a temple built by human
hands? All such expressions are only means to con-
vey the idea that certain places are fitted to bring hu-
man beings into such a frame of mind that they may
approach God and find Him. In like manner do the
Holy Scriptures warn against the attribution to God
of any definite shape, and the conception of Him in
any given likeness. "Ye heard the voice of the
words, but saw no similitude. . . . Take ye there-
fore good heed unto yourselves; for ye saw no
manner of similitude on the day that the Lord spake
unto you in Horeb " (Deut. iv. 12, 15). All the Bib-
lical expressions which mention God in anthropo-
morphic terms are to be understood figuratively.
God's "hand" signifies His power; His"eye"and
His "ear," His omniscience, through which He sees
and hears everything. His "joy" signifies His sat-
isfaction; His "anger," His disapprobation of hu-
man acts done against His will. All the.se expres-
sions are merely metaphorical, and were selected in
onler to make the ])0wer of God comjirehensible to
human beings, who are accustomed to see every
action done Ihnnigh a human agency. When
the Bible wishes to explain anything that has
taken place on earth through divine intervention, it
uses the same expressions as are employed in the

131

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEniA

Theology

rase of human acts. But in reality tlierc is no
comparison wliatcver possible between God, tlie
absolute, spiritual being, and man, or between
God's acts and man's. "To whom then will ye
liken God? or what likeness will ye compare unto
him? ... To wliom tlien will ye liken me, or shall
I be equal? saitli tiie Holy One" (Isa. .\1. 18, 2')).
"For my thougiits are not your thoughts, neither
are your ways my ways, saitii the Lord " {ib. Iv. 8;
conip. i\Iaimoni(les, "AI<)reh,"i.48; All)o,^c.ii. 14-17).

A further article of faith teaches the acknowledg-
ment of God as the only God, and the belief in no
gods besides Him. "I am the Lord
God thy God, which have brougiit thee

Unique, out of the land of Egypt, out of the
house of bondage. Thou shalt liave
no otiicr gods before me," says God to Israel on ]\It.
Sinai (E.\. x.\. 2-3). Even prior to the revelation
on Sinai monotheism (the belief in one God) was an
inheritance of the Jewish nation. The patriarch
Jacob, in hisdying hour, is filled with unrest bccau.se
he doubts whether his children will preserve the
faith which Abraham trunsinitted to him. His
children, who are gathered about him, declare, how-
ever, that even as he believes in one God only, so
also will they believe in the only God; and they
pronounce the monotheistic article of faith; " Hear,
O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord" (Deut.
vi. 4; Gen. li. xcviii. 4). This confession of faith the
Jew pronounces thrice daily, and even in his dying
hour he breathes it (see SnEM.\'). With this confes-
sion on their lijis, thousands of Jews liavc suffered
martyrdom because they would not deny the unity
of God. Many later religions have derived the mono-
theistic belief from Judaism, without, however,
preserving it in the same degree of strict purity.
Tlie Jewish religion not only teaches its adherents
to believe in no other god Ix-sides the One, but it
also forbids the ascription to God of any attributes
which, directly or indirectly, conflict with the strict
belief in His unity. To ascribe to God any positive
attributes is forbidden because it might lead to a
personification of the divine qualities, which would
interfere with the purity of the monotheistic faith.
Many of the attributes ascribed to God aie ex plained
as negative characteristics. Thus, when it is said
that God has rt will, it implies only that He is not
con.strained in His actions; it must never be under-
stood in the sense that His will is anything apart
from Himself. Nor may it be taken to mean tiiat
His will is a part of His es.sence, for the. unity of
God is absolute and indivisible. Most of the attri-
butes ascribed to God in Holy Writ and in the
prayers are to be understood not as iidierent quali-
ties, but as ways and means by whicli He rules the
world (see Middot, Shei-osh-'Esheh). The em-
phatic mention of these divine attributes occurs so
often in the Bible and in the prayers, because they
exercise a great influence upon the religious and
moral life of man. And for the same reason, and
that its adherents may realize that they can rely
only on God, does the Jewish religion impress upon
them the fact that God is omnipotent. In their be-
lief in God's omnipotence they can say with the
Psalmist: "The Lord is on my side; I will not fear:
what can man do unto meV" (Ps. cxviii. 6). God,

in His omnipotence, can frustrate any plans made
against tliem; and the fear of man need therefore
never leail them astray from the path of their re-
ligion. Tliey can proudly refuse to commit any im-
moral act, although demanded of them by the might-
iest of the earth, even as Ilunaniah, Mishael, and
Azariah refused the order of >iebucliadnezzar with
the words: "If it be so, o\ir God wliom we serve,
He is almighty, and He can deliver us and [jrotect
us" (Dan. iii. 17, Hel)r.). To the many occasions
on which this confidence in the omnipotence of God
has protected the Jews from denying their faith,
every page of their history bears witness.

God is onniiscient. This is the basis of the belief

in the divine iirovidcnce, of whicli the following

is a circumstantial treatment. The belief in God's

onmiscience exercises great influence

God's Om- also on the moral and religious

niscience. thoughts and acts of human beings.

"Can any hide himself in .secret ))lace3

that I shall not see himV " says the Lord through the

mouth of His prophet (Jer. xxiii. 24). All human

acts are seen by God; and though they may be hi.!

den from the eyes of human justice, they can not

be hidden from Him. Therefore, no evil deed may

be committed even in secret. Also the inmost

emotions of the human mind are known to God, for

He "knoweth the thoughts of man" (Ps. xciv. 11).

Man may entertain no wicked feelings in his heart;

for God "seest the reins and the heart" (Jer. xx. 12).

God is omniscient and all-kind. This faith is the
foundation of Jewish Optimism. The world is the
best possible world that could be created (Gen. B.
ix. 2), for "God saw everything that he had made,
and, behold, it was ver}' good " (Gen. i. 31). Also
in His government of the world does God exercise
His loving-kindness, and "all that God does is done
for the good " (Ber. 6()b), even when it does not so
appear to human beings. This faith, together with
the belief in God's justice and never-ending love,
gives man courage and strength to follow the straight
path to his perfection unhindered by the adversi-
ties of life, and to endure with equanimity and with
faith in God all the hardships of life. " It must not
be believed of Gotl tliat He Avould pass an unjust
judgment upon man" (Ber. 5b). When, therefore,
man is vLsited by aftliction, he should first submit
Iris entire conduct and all his actions to a .severe
test, to see if he has not called down his sufferings
upon himself through his own mi.sconduct. But
even if, after a strict examination of Jiis life, lie can
find nothing which could have been the cause of his
sulTering, he should despair neither of himself nor
of divine justice; he should regard his aftlictions as
the "sufferings of love" ("yissiirin shel ahabah ")
which God, out of His loving-kindness, has visited
upon him (Ber. 5a). "For wliom the Lord loveth
he correcteth " (Piov. iii. 12). and He inflicts snlTer-
ings upon him in order to lead him to his salvation.

The Jewish faith in the absolute unity of God
necessjirily implies His immutability,

God Im- the unchangeableness of His resolu-

mutable. tions, and the constancy of His will.

This doctrine of Gods immutability is

often emphasized in the Seriiitures: " For I am the

Lord, I change not" (Mai. iii. 0); "God is not a

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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

132

man, that Jie should lie; neither the sou of man, that
he should repent" (Num. xxiii. 19); "And also the
Strength of Israel will not lie nor repent: for he is
not a man, that he should repent" (I Sam. xv. 29).
It is also said with reference to His ordinances that
the)' are everlasting and unchangeable: "He hath
ilso slablished them for ever and ever: He hath
made a decree which shall not pass" (Ps. cxlviii,
6; comp. Maimouides, "Moreh," iii. 20; Albo,
I.e. ii. 19).

This doctrine of the immutability of God and the
constiincy of His will is in apparent conflict with
two other important teachings of Judaism ; namely,
the doctrines of the power of rc]>entance and the
efficacy of prayer. These doctrines will therefore
be briefly treated here; and it will be shown liow
Jewish theologians view this apparent contradiction.
Almost all the prophets sjieak of the power of Re-
pentance to avert from man the evil which
threatens him, and to procure for him the divine
grace. "Let the wicked forsake his way, and
the unrighteous man his thoughts: and let him
return unto the Lord, and he will have mercy upon
liini; and to our God, for he will ubundanlly par-
don," says the prophet Isaiah (Iv. 7); and in the
same spirit speak Hosea (xiv. 2), Joel (ii. 12-14),
Amos (iv. 6-11), Jonah (iii. 8-10), Zephauiah (ii.
1-3), Jeremiah (iii. 22, iv. 1-2), and Ezekiel (xviii.
21-32). And in like manner speak the sages of the
Mishnah and the Talmud, comparing repentance
to a shield which protects man from the punish-
ment decreed upon him (Al). iv. 13), or to a media-
tor who speaks to God in man's defense and obtains
for him divine grace (Shab. 32a), or to a medium
which brings salvation to the world (Yoma 8Ga).
The question arises: How can God, on account of
man's repentance, change His resolve, and avert the
unfavorable judgment jiassed u;ion him; and does
not such action conflict with the doctrine of the
immutability of His plans? The answer to this
question is that God never changes His will ; and
when man is able, through conversion, to escape
the unhappy fate whicli would otherwise have
been his, such escape is due to the fact that it was
included in God's original (ilan. "Have I any
pleasure at all that the wicked should die? saith the
Lord God : and not that ho shoidd return from his
■ways, and live?" (Ezek. xviii. 23, 32). SulTerings
and misfortunes were preordained for man on
account of iiis sins; but it was also preordained
that they should afflict him only as
Re- long as he persisted in his ungodly life

pentance. and evil ways — the cause of his suf-
ferings. And it is preordained, also,
that when man through repentance removes the
original cau.se of his sufferings, these and his
misfortunes shall leave him (comp. Albo, I.e. iv.
18). The sages of the Talnuid exi)ressed this as
follows: "Even before the world was created re-
pentance [" tcshubah "] was called into existence "
(Pes. 54a); which means that before God created the
world and human beings, before He decreed any fate
for man, and before He made any resolutions, He
had "teshubah" in mind; ordaining that through
penance, which changes man's attitude toward God,
God's attitude toward man should also become more

favorable. !Man's repentance, therefore, causes no
change in God's will or decisions.

What has been said above in regard to the power
of penance applies likewise to prayer. The belief
in the power of prayer to obtain (lod's help and
grace finds expression in the Bible, where it is said
of the Patriarchs and the Prophets that they prayed ;
and the Biblical exam]des of prayers that have
been answered are numerous (see Ph.weu). The
most conspicuous examples are the ]irayers of
Hannah (I Sam. i. \0 et seq.) and Jonah (Jonah ii. 2
ct seq.). But the cflicacy of prayer does not necessi-
tate a change in the divine plans. The only way
in which to pray so that the prayer may be hoard
and answered is for man to turn to God with all his
heart and with all his soul (comp. I Kings viii. 48-
50), to repent all his sins, and to resolve ho!icoforth
to live in such a way as will be pleasing to God,
from whom he solicits aid and giacc. A prayer
uttered in such a frame of mind and with such in-
tention is not only a desire spoken to God, but it is
an expression of the inner transformation which has
taken place in the one who jirays. His thoughts
and his intentions have become entirely changed,
and pleasing to God ; and he deserves, therefore,
the divine grace which has jireviously been withhold
from him onl}' because he lacked the sentiments to
which his prayer has given expression (comp. Albo,
I.e. iv. 18). The Talmudists express this teach-
ing as follows: "How can a i)rayer help anyone
who is sick? If it be the divine intention that he
die from his disease, no prayer can help him, since
the divine resolution is unehangoable. But if it be
the intention of God that he recover, why then
should he pray?" The answer is: "Prayer can
help man, oven if the divine decree be not in his
favor "(K. H. 10a). The unfavorable decree lias
been rendered conditionally and is to bo fulfilled
only if the man remains in his original

Power of frame of mind. But if he repents, and

Prayer. through prayer expresses the change
that has taken idace in him, then the de-
cree is annulled ; for thus was it preordained by God.

Besides the belief in the onicacj^ of prayer, the
Jewi.sh religion teaches also another sentence re-
garding prayer which distinguishes it from other
creeds. This doctrine is that prayer may be di-
rected only to God; and that, besides Him, there is
no other being worthy of prayer (Maimonides' com-
mentary on Sanh. xi. 1). This doctrine is, of
course, only a consequent result of the doctrine
of God's onuiipotence, and that He alone is the Cre-
ator and the Ruler of the world, so that He alone
can grant men their desires. But in this inhibition
against praying to other beings, the Jewish religion
includes also the invocation of angels or aught else
as mediators between God and man. The Jew
needs no agent whatever when he prays to his
God: "When men will approach God," says the
Talmud (Yor. Ber. ix. 13a), "they need sock out no
mediator, nor need they announce their arrival
through a doorkeeper. God says to them, ' When
ye are in need, call upon none of the angels, neither
Michael nor Gabriel, but call upon ]\Io, and I will
hear ye at once, as it is wiitten (Joel iii. 5 [A. V. ii.
32]): " Wiiosoever shall call on the name of the Lord

133

THE JEWISH EXCYfLDPEDIA

Theology

sliiill be delivered." ' " Every man can reach his God
tl:i()U,i;li luaycr, willioiit iiiiy nicdiution ; for even
tii()ii,i;li (lod is elevated lii^li ahuve tiie world, when
a Mian enters a house of (iod and utters a jtrayer,
even in a whisper, He hears it iniiuediately (Yer.
Ber. /.'•.). "The Loid is iniih unto all them that
call upon him, to all that call upon him in truth"
{Ps. cxlv. 18). lie is equally near to all: to the
hi;j:hest as well as to the lowliest. If a jnayer Ijc
uttered in the right frame of mind and with right
intentions, it is etlicaeious whether pronoimeed l)y a
Closes or by the lowliest one in Israel (eomp. E.\. R.
x.\i. 8).

Holy Scripture mentions several instances where
a projjhet or a i)ious man ])rays for another; as, for
example, Abraham for Abimelech, Moses for Pha-
raoh, etc. These prayers, although not exjircssive
of the improved condition of those for whom they
are uttered, are nevertheless heard by God, in order
to sliow that He is the Ruler of the world and that
tiiose who believe in Him do not call upon Him
in vain. "lie is a prophet, and he shall pray for
tiiee, and thou shall live," says God to Abimelech
(Gen. XX. 7). God intlicts sufferings upon unbe-
lievers, with the intention of recalling them through
tiie prayer of a pious one, thereby to show the un-
believers that He, the Ruler of the world, is accessi-
ble to the prayers of those that believe in flim.

As has been said above, the circumstance that
man was created in the image of God imposes upon
him the duty of ordering his life entirely according
to the will of God ; and only by doing so can he at-
tain the liighest perfection and fulfil his destinj-.
In order to act according to the will of God it is
necessary that man should know what God wills of
him. Through his God-given intellect man is en-
abled, in many cases, to recognize the will of God;
but, in order to understand it fidly, he needs a
direct communication from God; tliat is, a divine
revelation. Such a manifestation of the divine will
was made even to the first human being, Adam,
as well as to Noah and to the patriarchs Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob. Moses assured Israel tliat God
would raise after him other prophets, who would
j make known to the people the divine will (Dent.
j xviii. 15-18); and he indicated to them the signs
i by which they might distinguish a true prophet
j from a false one («7a xiii. 2-6, xviii. 20-22). Tlie |)ur-
pose of the true Prophets was only to enlighten the
people as to the will of God, thereby bringing them
to a clearer understanding of their duty: to live
according to that will (Albo, I.e. iii. 12). The
seers that arose in Israel and in Judah, and whose
prophecies have been preserved in the books of the
Old Testament, proved themselves true prophets
through their personal characters as
Divine well as through the nature of their
Revelation. ])rophecies. The Jewish religion lias,
therefore, establisiied as an important
doctrine the recognition, as inspired by God, of all
the prophetic utterances that have been handed
j down (Maimonides' commentary on Sanh. xi. 1).
I The times and places at wliich God bestows on a
I man the distinction of revealing Him to the people
I depends entirel\' upon His own will; but prophets
i must possess certain virtues and characteristics that

make tliem worthy of receiving the divine com-
niunications (see Pkoi'iiktk and PiMd-iiECY). Tho.se

whom God found worthy of receiving such direct
information regaiding His will were, in a manner
which seemed inexplicable and supernatural to the
laity, |)ossessed of the (irm impression and the un-
shakable conviction that Goil sp(»ke to them and
apprised them of His will. They were convinced
also that this imi)r(ssiun was not a mere fi-eling
of their souls, but that it came lo them from with-
out: from God, who revealed Ilim.self unto them,
making them His instruments through which He
communicati'd His will to their fellow !« ings (see
Ri:vKi-.\TioN). But in order to inspire the laity
with faith in the Prophets, God considered it
necessary on ^Mt. Sinai to let the whole Jewish
people hear that lie spoke to ^lo.ses, that they nnght
believe him forever (Ex. xix. 9); and when God
then revealed Himself to the entire nation He con-
vinced them " that He could conunune with a human
being" (comp. Deut. v. 24). They thereupon re-
nounced all desire to receive commands and teachings
from God direct. They were convinced that .Mo.ses
repeated God's words to them faithfully; and they
declared themselves willing to hear all that he
spoke in God's name, and to act accordingly (Deut.
V. 24). God thereupon revealed to Moses all the
commandments and all the statutes and judgments,
which Moses communicated to the ]ieople (rt. 31)
This revelation on ]Mt. Sinai is therefore the chief
foundation of the Jewish faith, and
The Torah. guarantees the divine origin of the
Law as contained in the Pentateuch.
Before his death Moses wrote down the five books
named after him (the Pentateuch), and gave them
to the people (ib. xxxi. 24-26); and he commande<l
them to observe everything therein written, and
to transmit it to their children as the teaching of
God. However much the succeeding generations of
Israel, after the death of Closes, fell off from God
and became idolaters, there has been in each genera-
tion a group of jiious men who have guarded faith-
fully the holy inheritance and tran.smitted it to their
children. And through this careful transmission
the teachings of Moses have been jn-eserved un-
changed through all ages. It is therefore set up as
one of the fundamental dogmas of the Jewish
religion that the Torah contained in the Pentateuch
is identical with that which was revealed by God to
ISIoses on Mt. Sinai (Maimonides* commentary on
Sanh. xi. 1). No changes have been made therein
except with regard to the characters in which it was
written (Sanh. 21b).

The Torah contains rules and regulalioiis which
should govern the life of man and lead him to
moral and religious perfection. Every rule is ex-
pressive of a fundamental etliical, moral, or relig-
ious idea. Those regulations in which human intel-
ligence is unable to discern the fundamental idea
are, through belief in their divine origin, vouchsafed
the same hiirh religious importance: and the ethical
value of submission to the will of CJod where its
purpose is not understood is even greater. In
observing the Law man's good intention is the
chief jKiint (see Nomism).

These written laws are supplemented through

Theolo&y

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

134

oral teachings; and the iuterprctation of tlic written
doctrines is entrusted to tlie sages and scholars, who
expound them according to prescribed rules. They
add to or ileduct from the individual regulations;
and in many instances, wiien it is for the gooil of
the Law, they may annul an entire clause. In such
cases, however, the whole body of scholars, or at
least a majority, must agree as to the necessity and
correctness of the measure (see ArTiiouiTY ; Ou.vL
Law). Aside from such minor changes and occa-
sional annulments, whieii are made in the spirit of
tlie Law, and are intended to sustain the entire
Torah (" Bittulali^sliel torah zehu yissudah " ; Men.
99b), the Law is to lie regarded, in wliolc or in parts,
as unchangeable and irrevocable It is a lirm article
of faith in the Jewish religion that tiiis Law will
never be changed, and tiiat no otiier doctrines will
be given by God to man (Maimonides, I.e.).

Of many clauses of the Law it is expressly stated
that they are meant to be eternal rules ("hukkot
'olam"), or that they are obligatory on all genera-
tions ("le-dorot 'olam"); and there is not a single
indication in the Holy Scriptures tiiat the Law is
ever to be replaced by other revealed doctrines.
The new covenant of which Jeremiah speaks (xxxi.
31-33) is not to be made on the basis of a new re-
vealed law, but on the basis of the okl law, which
sliall take firmer root in the hearts of the believers.
It was even promised to the Israelites that new
jirophets siiould arise, and they were commanded to
iiarken to ^\e words of tlicse prophets (Dent, xviii.
l-j-18). But the new propiiets can reveal no new
hiw, and a propiiet wiio sets up a law which con-
flicts with the old doctrines is a false

Perma- i)rophet (i/). xiii. 1-4). And also a
nence and prophet who declares the old law to
Sufficiency be valid for a certain period only, is a
of false prophet, for his statement con-

the Torah. liicts with the teachings of Moses, tiie
greatest of all prophets, who plainly
says in many pas.-;ages (Ex. xii. 14, 17 et .<<e(j.) that
the regulations shall be obligatory forever (Miiinioui-
des. "Yad," Yesode ha-Torah. ix. ; idem, "Moreh,"
ii. 39; Saadia, "Emunot we-De'ot," iii. 7-10). The
words "It [the commandment] is not in heaven"
(Deut. XXX. 12) are explained in tiie Talmud (H. M.
59b) as meaning that tliere is notliing left in iieavou
tliat has yet to be revealed in order to elucidate the
Law. A decision or a legal question based only on
such a heavenly revelation is not recognized (Mai-
monides, "Yad," I.e.). The doctrine of the un-
changeableness of tlie Law is further emphasized
by another fundamental dogma of Judaism, which
declares the prophecy of Mo.ses to surpass that of
any of liis predecessors or successors (Maimonides,
I.e.). That the prophecy of Closes is dilTerent from
and superior to tiiat of an}' other jiropiiet is ex-
plicitly stated in Num. xii. 8. ■Whether this differ-
ence was one of quality, as Maimonides thinks
("Yad." I.e. vii. G; "Moreli." ii. 35), or one of degree
only, as Albo (I.e. iii. 17) supposes, is immaterial.
Tlic fact is suflicieiit that tlic propliecy of Moses
was superior to that of any other prophet. The
Torah was given through Moses, of whose superior
gift God Himself convinced the Israelites on Mt.
Sinai. Slionld another prophet arise and declare

the Law given by God through Moses to be invalid,
then he would have to be a greater prophet than
..Moses; this, however, is inconceivable according to
the fundamental doctrine which declares Moses to
be the greatest projihet of all time. Those iirophets
are not to be believLil who declared the old covenant
to be dissolved, and that they were sent by God to
make a new one; for one can not be as lirmly con-
vinced of their divine authoril}- as of that of the old
covenant, which they themselves do not deny
(Abraham ibn Daud, in " Emunali Hamah," ii. ;
comp. also Albo, I.e. iii. 19).

The fact that the Law was given to man, and that
he was requested to ob.serve its inecepts, implies
that it depends on man alone whether or not he will
do so. The freedom of the human will is explicitly
announced in the Bible also: "I call heaven and

earth to record this day against you.

Freedom of that I have set before you life and

the Will, death, blessing and cursing : tlicrefore

choose life, that both thou and thy
seed may live: That thou mayest love the Lord thy
God, and tiiat thou mayest oi)ey his voice, and that
thou mayest cleave unto him: for he is thy life, and
tlie leng'tli of thy days" (Deut. xxx. 19-20). The
Mishnah teaches: "Everything has been foreseen by
Gotl, and yet He has given to man freedom of will"
(Ab. iii. 15). Also the Talmud plainly teaches of
the freedom of will: "Everything is in the hand of
God, with the exception of the fear of God, and
piety: these alone are dependent upon the will of
man " (Ber. 33b). " When any one would keep his
life clean and virtuous, he is aided ; but if he chooses
to keep it unclean and wicked, he is not hindered,"
says Simeon ben Lakisli (Shab. 104a). The teachers
of post-Talmudic times all regarded the liberty of
the human will as a fundamental doctrine of Juda-
ism. Although it is difficult to reconcile this doc-
trine with the knowledge or prescience of God,
various attempts have been made to effect such a
reconciliation, in order that it might not become
necessary to deny either of them (comp. Saadia,
"Emunot we-De'ot." ii. 9; "Cuzari," v. 20; Mai-
monides. "Moreh," iii. 20; Crcscas, "OrAdonai," II.
i. 4; Albo, I.e. iv. 5). Tlie liberty and responsi-
bility of man justify some retribution for his acts:
rewards for the observance of divine precepts and
commandments, and punishment for their trans-
gression. A just retribution presupposes God's
providence and His omniscience. Tlie belief in
God's omniscience — that is, the belief that He sees
and knows everything, even the secret thoughts of
man, and that nothing can take place in the world

otherwise than by His will — is one of

God's Prov- the fundamental dogmas of Judaism.

idence. Moses warns Israel not to foiget that

all events jiroceed from God: "And
thou sa}' in thine heart, ]My power and the might
of mine hand hath gotten me this wealth. But '
thou shalt remember the Lord thy God : for it
is lie that giveth thee power to get wealth" (Deut.
viii. 17, 18). Isaiah jiromises that punishment shall
be meted out to the Assyrian king becau.se he flat-
tered himself with the belief that he owed his glory i
to his own jiower and to his own wisdom, and did
not realize that he was only God's instrument (Isa.

135

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Theolog^y

X. 12-16). Only I lie ungodly say. "The Lord shall
not see, neitlicr shall tho God of Jacob regard it"
(Ps. xciv. 7). The Psalmist icproves IhcMn, and
says to them that God sees and hears everything,
and that He knows the very thoughts of men, even
when they are vain {ih. verses H-Il). And in another
passage Jie thanks God for regarding even the low-
liest and most insigniticant of men and for caring for
them (Ps. viii. 5, cxliv. 4). The words "Pear thy
God " are, according to the Pahhis, added to com-
mandments which depend upon the intentions of
man; as if to say to him: "Fear God who knows
thy thoughts" (Kid. 32b). Tliat nothing takes
place in the world without divine ordination is ex-
pressed by the Pabbis in the maxim that uo man
hurts his linger here on earth unless Heaven willed
itso(Hul. 7b). Also the theologians and religious
philosophers of the Middle Ages recognized the be-
lief in divine providence as a fundamental doctrine
of Juilaism (comp. Maimouides, "Moreh,"iii. 17-18;
Albo, I.e. iv. 7-11; see also Puovidence).

In close relation with the doctrine of divine provi-
dence stands the doctrine of retribution: that God
rewards those who keep His commandments, and

punishes those who transgress them.

Divine The doctrine of retribution is one of

Retribu- the fundamental teachings of Judaism,

tion. and was revealed to the Jews on ^Vlt.

iSinai when God said to them that He
would visit the sins of the fathers upon the children,
and show mere}' to tho.se who loved Him and kept
His commandments (Ex. xx. 5-6). In many com-
mandments the reward given for their observance is
indicated (Ex. xx. 12; Deut. xxii. 6-7). This doc-
trine, however, contains also a ditliculty; for if
uothing can take place in the world without God's
will, and since He rewards the pious and punishes
the transgressors, how does it come to pass that
so many pious suffer while the ungodly prosper?
This problem, which engaged the prophets Jeremiah
<xii. 1) and Habakkuk (i. 13, ii. 4), the author of
Job, and the psalmist Asaph (Ps. Ixxiii. 2 et seg.), has
also in post-Biblical times held the attention of the
most prominent spirits of each generation ; and in
Talmudic, as also in post-Talmudic, times several
attempts were made to solve and explain it (comji.
Ber. 7a; Albo, ^.c. iv. 7,12-10). Most of the solu-
tions and explanations have been ba.sed on the fol-
lowing two ideas: (1) IMan, with his limited intel-
lect, is not able to determine who is in reality a
pious man ("zaddik gainur")or who is in reality
a sinner ("rasha' gamur"). Man can mistake a
pious one for a transgressor, and vice versa. Nor
can man correctly determine actual good and actual
evil. Much which appears evil to man proves
to be productive of good ; while, on the other hand,
many things which are seemingly good have evil
results for human beings. Shortsighted man, there-
fore, able to judge from appearances only, may
not pretend to judge the acts of God. (2) The
other idea which endeavors to reconcile the doc-
trine of divine retaliation with the fact that pious
men suffer while transgressors prosper, is the idea
of the inunortality of tiie soul. "When man dies his
soul does not die with him, but returns to God who
gave it to man (Eccl. xii. 7). The soul is immortal,

and after the death of man, separated from the body,
it continues its existence in another world ; and in
this other world doesc(jmplete retaliation take place.
The doctrine of tlic immortality of the .soul and of
a future lif(! is not definitely stated in the Holy
Scriptures; but it is implied in many pas.sages, es-
pecially in the Psalms (comp. "Cuzari." i. 115;
Albo, l.r. iv. 39-40; Wohlgenuith. "Die Unsterb-
lichkeitslehre in der Bibel." in " Jahresbericht des
Habbiner.seminars in Berlin." 18tt9).
Immortal- The doctrine of the soul's immortality,
ity of and of a future life in whieii retribu-
the Soul, tion shall take place, is set forth
plainly and em|)iiatically in post Bib-
lical Jewish literature— in the Mishnah ami in tlie
Talmud. "Let not thy imagination persuade thee
that the grave is to be a place of refuge for tliee."
says the Mishnah (Ab. iv. 22); "Thou wert born
against thy will, and against thy will livest thou.
Against thy will shalt thou die and be compelled to
account for thy life before the King of Kings, the
Holy One, praised be He." In Deut. vii. 11 it is said
with reference to the commandments: "which I
command thee this day, to do them," and these
words are explained by the Pabbis as meaning: "To-
day— that is, in this world— shall man observe the
commandments; but he should not expect his reward
in this world, but in another " (' Ab. Zarah 3a). " Pe-
ward for good deeds should not be expected in
this world " (Kid. 39bK By the promise of a long
life for those who honor their ]iaixnts (Ex. xx. 12)
is meant eternal life in the hereafter. The reward
and punishment for good and evil deeds respect-
ively to be meted out in the other world, can be of
a spiritual nature onl}-, since they apply entirely
to the soul. "In the future world are to be found
no material pleasures; but the pious ones, with
their crowns of glory, enjoy the splendor of God,"
says the Talmud (Ber. 17a). As the object of doc-
trines and commandments is to lead man totiie high-
est degree of perfection, so also is the reward for his
observance of the Law an eternal enjoyment of the
presence of God and tr>ie knowledge of Him. The
punishment of the transgressor consists in his being
excluded from all the divine splendor. This causes
the soul to experience the greatest agony and re-
morse for its ungodly life. Although tiie belief
in divine retribution is a f\indamental doctrine of
the Jewish religion, the latter teaches at the same
time that neither the expectation of a reward nor
the fear of punishment should inllueucethe mind of
man in his observance of the divine pivcepts. Jti-
daism sets it up as an ideal tliat the command-
ments be kept through love of God (Sotah 31a;
'Ab. Zarah 19a; see I.M.MOUT.\i.nv; Nomis.m).

The belief in the resurrection of the dead is clo.sely
connected with the doctrine of the immortality of
the soul and of retribution in the hereafter. Tliis
belief in resurrection is couceiveil in various man-
neis liy Jewish theologians. Some
Resurrec- hokl tliat, since retribution in tiie
tion of world to come can fall upon the soul
the Dead, only, bodius will, upon the day of res-
urrection, rejoin their souls so that
both maybe rewarded or punished together for the
deeds done in common (comp. Albo, I.e. iv. 35).

Theologry
Theophany

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

136

This conception is expressed also in tiic parable of
the lame and the blind (Sanh. 91a, b). ^^lainuniides,
on tlie other luiml. understands resurrection tigura-
tively only, and believes it refers to the imniortalily
of the soul, which, after deatli. awakens to a new-
life without incarnation ("Ma'aniar Tehiyyat lia-
iletini," passim).

But no matter how differently the tiieologians
view the doctrine of resurrection, they all lirmly
believe that God can quicken the dead, and that
He will do it when He so chooses (Mainionides'
commentary on Sanh. xi. 1). As to when, in
what manner, and for what purpose resurrec-
tion will take place; who will participate there-
in, whether the Jewisli nation alone, or even
only a part thereof; and whether the resurrected
dead will thenceforth live forever or die anew — •
all the.se questions can not be answered. Explana-
tions bearing on them have been made bj^ various
teachers (Saadia, "Eniunot we-De'ot," vii.), but
they are all mere conjectures (com p. Albo, I.e.
iv. 3.j).

The doctrine of resurrection is expres.sed by Dan-
iel (.\ii. 2): "And many of them that sleep in the
dust of tlie earth shall awake, some to everlasting
life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt."
The sages of the Talmud hold that resurrection is
alluded to also in various passages of the Pentateuch
(comp. Sanh. 90b), one of which is as follows: "I
kill, and I make alive " (Deut. xxxii. 89). Tlie Misli-
nah sets up this doctrine as an important article of
faith, and holds that those who do not believe there-
in, or who do not believe that it is embodied in tlie
divine teachings of Judaism, and indicated in the
Law, can have no share in the world to come (Sanh.
xi. 1). By the Talmud, and by the theologians and
religious philosophers of medieval times also, the
doctrine of resurrection was recognized as an im-
portant article of faith (comp. " Albo," /.c). The
supporter of the Jewish religion and of all the
ethical and moral ideals therewith connected is the
Jewish nation, which God chose from among all peo-
ples (Deut. vii. 6). The selection of the Jewish na-
tion is evidenced in the fact that God found it wor-
thy of a direct manifestation on ]\Ir.
The Chosen Sinai, that He revealed to it religious

People. truths, and that He bestowed upon it
the peculiar grace of causing prophets,
who should explain these truths, to arise from its
midst.

Tiiis choice of the Jewish nation was not,
however, made arbitrarily by God; it was based
upon special merit whicli the Jews po.ssessed above
other ancient peoples. Abraham, the progenitor of
the Jewish nation, po.ssessed a true knowledge of
God; and he commanded his children and de-
scendants to "keep the way of the Lord, to do jus-
tice and judgment " (Gen. xviii. 19). But of all the
descendants of Abraham, the Jewish people is the
only one Avhich has kept the legacy of its progenitor
(comp. "Cuzari," ii. 6).

This knowledge of God which the Jews inherited
from Abraham made them more religiously inclined
than other nations; it made them fit to receive reve-
lation, and to acknowledge the value of the laws
and accept them. R. Johanan expresses this as fol-

lows: "God offered the Torah toall the nations, but
none could or would acccjit it. until He olTercd it to
the Israelites, who were both willing and ijualitiedto
receive it" ('Ab. Zarah 2b). Lsrael, however, may
not keep these teachings for itself alone; they were
not given it for its own exclusive property. The
doctrines were given to Israel only because it was
the only one among the nations which was (lualilicd
to accept them and to live acc(jrding to them. And
through Israel's example the other nations will be
led to a true kiunvledge of God, and to the accept-
ance of His teachings. In this way will l)e fullilled
the promise which was given to Abraham (Gen.
xxii. 18), that "in thy seed shall all tlie nations of
the eartli be blessed." With the exception of such
laws and precepts as are based on national events,
the whole Law is intended for all of humanity,
whicii, through ob.servance of the divine doctrines,
may acquire a true knowledge of God and of His
will.

With reference to Lev. xviii. 5, the sages say that
by the statutes of the Law are designated not the
law for the priests or the Levites or the Israel-
ites, but the statutes of the Law which man has
to observe, and according to the regulations of which
he must live (Sifra, Ahare ]Mot, xiii. [ed. Weiss, p.
86b]). Israel has acted according to this princi-
ple, and has not withiield the laws of God from the
nations. Most civilized nations owe their knowl-
edge of God to these teachings. But the nations
have not yet attained to a correct understanding of
these doctrines, and neither in their political nor
in their social lives have they reached the ideals of
justice and brotherly love. The Jews, in posses-
sion of the revealed doctrines, and peculiarly gifted
to comprehend the same and to realize their itleals,
have been called upon, as they once taught the na-
tions the knowledge of God, so in future to teach
them other religious ideals. But this they can not
ilo as long as they live in exile, dependent and per-
secuted and despised, and regarded as the reprobate
.sons of God. They can do this when they again
attain political independence, settling in the land of
their fathers, where they, in their political and social
life, can realize the ideals of justice and love taught

by the Jewish religion. The belief
The that this will some time happen con-

Messiah, stitutes an article of faith in Judaism

which reads as follows: "A redeemer
shall ari.sc for the Jewish nation, who shall gather
the scattered Jews in the land of their fathers. There
they shall form an independent Jewish state and
reawaken to independent national life. Then all
nations shall go often to Palestine to study the in-
stitutions of a state founded f)n love and justice.
From Zion the peoples shall be taught how they,
in tiieir own state institutions, may realize the ideals
of justice and brotherl\' love; and the highest re-
ligious doctrines shall go forth from Jerusalem"
(comp. Isa. ii. 2-4; Mic. iv. 1-4). The mission of
salvation to l)e accomplished through the redemji-
tion of Israel is, however, only an indirect and re-
mote aim. The direct and first aim is to compen-
sate the Jewish nation for all the sufTerings it has
endured through its years of exile. God's relations
to a nation are similar to those toward an individual.

137

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Theology
Theophany

Tlic Jt'wisli nation lost its poliliciil independence on
account ol its sins and failings, and was sent into
exile for that reason. This punishment, iiowever,
is not calculated to annihilate the Jewish jieo-
|)Ie; for as God iloes not wisli the death of the indi-
vidual transgressor, hut ratlier ids couversion,
neither does He wish the destruction of a nation
which lias siiuied. God has pronused
The Resto- the Jews that He will not cast them
ration away even while thej'are in the lands
of Israel, of their enenues; neither will He
break His covenant with them (comp.
Lev. xxvi. 44).

God has promised to redeem them wlien they
repent of all the sins which caused the loss of their
national indcjiendence. " And it shall come to pass,
when all these things are come upon thee, the bless-
ing and the curse, which I have set before thee, and
tliou shalt call them to mind among all the nations,
whither the Jjord thy God hath driven thee. And
shalt return unto the Lord thy God, and shalt obey
his voice according to all that I command thee this
day, thou and thy chiklrcn, with all thine heart, and
with all thy soul; That then the Lord thy God Avill
turn thy captivity, and have compassion upon thee,
and will return and gather thee from all the nations,
whither the Lord thy God hath scattered thee. If
any of thine be driven out unto the utmost parts of
heaven, from thence will the Lord thy God gather
thee, and from thence will he fetch thee: And the
Lord thy God will bring thee into the land which
thy fathers possessed, and thou shalt possess it; and
he will do thee good, and multiply thee above thy
fathers" (Deut. xxx. 1-5). When and in which
manner this redemption will take place is not ex-
plained by any reliable tradition; and the many de-
scriptions given by various teachers are only per-
sonal conjectures. W^hen will the redemption take
place? That is a question which can not be an-
swered. And all calculations regarding the time of
the advent of the redeemer are only conjectures.
But it is a traditional belief among the Jews that it
may take place at any time when the people are
properly prepared to receive him (Sanh. 98a). The
natural consequence of this belief is the demand for
good acts. The nation must uphold its national and
religious endowments, and not, through ill conduct,
irreligious actions, and autinational endeavors,
frustrate or make difficult its I'edemption. When
the Jewish people believe in their redemption,
when they desire ifft'ith all their hearts, and wiieu
■with all tlieir actions they strive; to deserve it — then
the redeemer may at any time arise from among
them (ih.).

BiBi.iociRAPHv : Besides the works cited throuphout the article
see also : Bahya b. Joseph. Hnhiit ha-Lilinlmt ; Samson Ra-
phael Hirsch.iVotc^f f »i Letters of Tien Uziel. transl. by Drach-
man. New York. 1899; S. Sohechter. Studies in Judaism.
Philadelphia, 1H96; M. Friedlander, The Jewish [{eligitDh
London, 1891; Morris Joseph, Ji(dai>(m as Creed and Life,
lb. 1903.
K, J. Z. L.

THEOPHANY : Manifestation of a god to
man; the sensible sign by which the presence of a
divinity is revealed. If the word is taken in this
sense, and the passages which merely mention the
fact of a revelation without describing it are sepa-
rated from those which speak of the "angel of God,"

.)nly four theophanies will be found in the Bible.
Kautzsch (in Her/.og-Plitt, " Ueal-Encyc." xv. .'il^S)
intcri)rets the term in a broa<ler sense, and divides
theophanies into three classes, as follows; (1) tiiose
related as liistorical facts; (2) lho.se which are the
subjects of i)rophetic vision or aunuuciutiou ; and
(3) those which consist in purely poetic fancy. Tliis
classification may be applied to the f(iur theophanies.
The Sinaitic revelation is historical; the passages
relating the divine inspiration of Isaiah (Isa. vi.)
and of E/ekiel (,Ezek. i.) represent sulijects of
prophetic vision; and Ps. xviii. 4-10 is poetic de-
scription.

The Sinaitic revelation is related in calm, simple

language in Ex. xix. lC-25. The manifestation is ac-

com]ianie(l by thunder and lightning;

The Sina- there is a fiery llame, reaching t(^ the

itic The- sky ; the loud notes of a trumpet

ophany. are heard; and the whf)le mountain
smokes and quakes. Out of the midst
of the flame and the cloud a voice reveals the Ten
Commandments. The account in Deut. iv. 11, 12,
33, 36 and v. 4, 19 is practically the same; and in its
guarded language it strongly emphasizes the in-
corporeality of God. Moses in his blessing (Deut.
xxxiii. 2) points to this revelation as to tiie source
of the special election of Israel, but with this differ-
ence: with him the point of departure for the
theophany is Mount Sinai and not heaven. God ap-
pears on Sinai like a shining sun and comes "ac-
companied by holy myriads " (comp. Sifre, Deut.
243). Likewise in the song of Deborah the manifes-
tation is described as a storm: the earth quakes;
Sinai trembles; and the clouds drop water. It is
poetically elaborated in the prayer of Habakkuk
(Hab. iii.); here past and future are confused. As
in Deut. xxxiii. 2 and Judges v. 4, God appears
from Teman and Paran. His majesty is described
as a glory of light and brightness; pestilence pre-
cedes Him. The mountains tremble violently;
the earth quakes; the peojjle are sore afraid. God
rides in a chariot of war. with horses — a conception
found also in Isa. xix. 1, where God appears on a
cloud, and in Ps. xviii. 11, where He appears on a
cherub.

Isaiah and Ezekiel receive their commigsions as

prophets amid glorious manifestations of God.

Isaiah supposedly sees God on a high and lofty

throne. In reality, however, lie sees

In Isaiah not Him but onlj- His glorious robe,

and the hem and train of which fill the

Ezekiel. whole temple of heaven. Before the
throne stand the seraphim, the six-
winged angels. With two wings they cover their
faces so as not to gaze on God; with two tliey
cover their feet, through modesty ; and with the re-
maining two they fly. Their occupation is the
everlasting praise of God, which at the time of the
revelation took the form of the thrice-repeated cry
"Holy!" (Isa. vi.).

Ezekiel in his description is not so reserved as
Isaiah. Tiie divine throne appears to him asa won-
derful chariot. Storm, a great cloud, ceaseless fire,
and on all sides a wonderful brightness accompany
the manifestation. Out of the tire four creatures be-
come visible. They have the faces of men ; each

Theophilus
Thessaly

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

138

one has four wings; and the shape of their feet en-
ables them to go to all four quarters of the earth
with equal rapidity and without having to turn.
These living creatures are recognized l»y the prophet
as cherubim (Ezek. x. 20). The heavenly tire, the
coals of which burn like torches, moves between
them. The movement of the creatures is harmoni-
ous: wherever the spirit of God leads them they go.
Beneath the living creaturesare wheels (" ofannim '')
full i>f eyes. On their heads rests a firmament upon
which is the throne of God. When the divine chariot
moves, their wings rustle with a noise like thunder.
On the throne tlie prophet sees the Divine Being,
having the likeness of a man. His body from the
loins upward is shining ("hashmal "); downward it
is tire (in Ezek. viii. 2 the reverse is stated). In the
Sinaitic revelation God descends and appears upon
earth; in the prophetic vision, on the other hand,
He appears in heaven, which is in keeping with the
nature of the ca.se, because the Sinaitic revelation
was meant for a whole people, on the part of which
an ecstatic condition can not be thought of.

Very different is the theo])liauy of the Psalmist
(Ps. .wiii. 8-16). He is in great need; and at his
earnest solicitation God appears to save him. Be-
fore Him the earth trembles and tire
In the glows. He rides on a cherub on the

Psalms. wings of the wind. He is surrounded
with clouds which are outshone by
His brightness. With thunder and lightning He
destroys the enemies of the singer and rp.«cues him.

As may be seen from the descriptions of the vari-
ous theophanies, the deep monotheistic spirit of the
Israelites hesitates to describe the Divine Being, and
confines itself generally to describing the influence
of the revelation upon the minds and characters of
those beholding it. See Revelation.

Bibliography: Kautzsch. In Herzog-Plitt, Real-Encyc. xv.,
8.V.; Hamburger, R. B. T. i., s.v. Ileirlichkeit Oottes.

K.. M. Ri.

THEOPHILUS : High priest: .son of Anan, and

brother of Jon.\th.\n, who was deposed by Vitellius

in 37 c.E. in favor of Theophilus (Jo.sephus, "Ant."

xviii. 5, § 3). He officiated for about three j'cars,

when he was succeeded by Simon Cantheras. This

Theophilus is probably identical with the father of

the high priest .Matthias, and, according to Biichler,

he is likewise the same as Hananeel the Egyptian

(Parah iii. rj). The name of Theophilus figures in

the Seder 'Olam (Neubauer, "M. J. C." i. 107).

BiBl.iofiRAPHY : fifatz. Grxrh. 4th pfl.. lil. :n7 : SchiirPr, GeKch.
M od.. ii. 21H; Biicliler, Das Sj/netinoii iu Jcrmalein, p. 97,
Vienna, mrZ.
w. ]5. S. Kll.

THEOSOPHY. See Cabala.

THERAPEUT^ (Greek, Gf^jaffftn-of = " Wor-
shipers r»f God"): A communit}' of .Jewish ascetics
settled on Lake Mareotis in the vicinity of Alex-
andria at the time of Philo, who alone, in his work
"•Dc Vita Contemplativa," has preserved a record of
their existence. The fact that the Therapeutic are
mentioned by no other writer of the time, and that
they are declared i)y Husebius (3d cent. )in his "His-
toria Ecclesiastica" (II., ch. xvi.-xvii.) to have been
Christian monks, has induced Lucitis, in a special
work entitled "Die Therapeuten und Hire Stellung

in der Geschichte der Askese " (1879), to attempt to
prove the Ciiristian origin and character of the
Piiilouean work and of the "monks and nuns" de-
scribed therein, after Griltz (" Gesch. " 4th ed. . iii. 799)
had declared it to be spurious. Lucius found many
followers, among whom was Schllrer ("Gesch." 3d
ed., iii. 53.")-538). His arguments, however, have
been refuted by the leading authorities on Philo,
viz., Ma.ssebieau ("Revue de I'Histoire des Reli-
gions," 1887, pp. 170-198, 284-319), Wendland (" Die

Tiierapeuten," 1896), aiul most thor-
Depicted oughly and effectively by Conybeare
by Philo. (•'Philo About the Contemplative

Life," Oxford, 1895; see also Bousset,
"Religion des Judenthums im Neutestamer.tlichen
Zeitaltcr." 1903, pp. 443-446). Although the life of
the Theiapeutie as depicted by Philo appears rather
singular and strange, its Jewish character may as
little be questioned as the authenticity of the
Philonic work itself. The influx of many currents
of thought and religious practise produced in the
Jewish diaspora many forms of religious life
scarcely known to the historian: several of these
helped iu the shaping of the Christian Church.
The name "Therapeuto; " {Qepn-evrai ; 'iKerai is
another name for these ascetics) is often used by
Philo for Jewish believers or worshipers of God ; and
it was the official title of certain religious gilds found
in inscriptions, as was also the Latin name "Cul-
tores" = "Worshipers" (see Conybeare, I.e. p. 293,
and Metuentes). It corresponds with the Aramean
"Pulhaiie di-Elaha." The members of the sect seem
to have branched off from the Essene brotherhood ;
hence also the meaning "Physicians " given to the
name "Therapeutie " (Philo, I.e. § 1), just as the
title " Asaiai " (= " Healers ") was given to the Esaioi
(see Essen'es). The Therapeutte differed, however,
from the Essenes in that they lived each in a sepa-
rate cell, called "monasterium,"in which they spent

their time in mj'stic devotion and

Mode of ascetic practises, and particularly in

Life. the study of the Toiah (" the Law and

the Prophets") and iu reciting the
Psalms as well as hymns composed by them.
While remaining in retirement they indulged in
neither meat nor drink nor any other enjoyment of
the flesh.

Like the Essenes, they offered every morning
at sunrise a prayer of thanksgiving to God for the
light of day as well as for the liglit of the Torah,
and again at sunset for the withdrawal of the sun-
light and for the truth hidden within the soul. In
studying the Scriptures they followed the allegor-
ical system of interpretation, for which they used
also works of their own sect. They took their meals
only after sunset and attended to all their bodily
necessities at night, holding that the light of day was
given for study solely. Some ate only twice a week ;
others fasted from Sabbath to Sabbath.

On the Sabbath they left their cells and assembled
in a large hall for the common study of tlie Law
as well as for their holy communion meal. The

oldest member of the community be-
Sabbath. gan witli a benediction over the Torah

anil tlieu expounded the Lawwhileall
j listened in silence; the others followed in turn.

139

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Theophilus
Thessaly

After this tlicy siit down to n common uical.
wliicli was Vfi V simple, eonsistiiii^ of lirciid and sail
and lierl)s (liyssop); and water from a spring was
llieir drink in place of wine. The Theriipeuta',
dilTerint;- in this respect from the Essencs, included
women mendxrs. These, tlioiigh ad vanccd in years,
were regarded as pure virgins on account of tlieir
lives of abstinence and eliastity; and they seeuj to
have been heljjfnl in nursing and educating waifs
and non-Jewish children that took refuge in such
Essene communities (Pliilo, I.e. ^ 8). For these fe-
male members a partition was made in the assembly
hall, separating them from the men by a wall three
to four cubits in heiglit, so that they might listen to
the discourses on the Law without infringing the
rules of modesty becoming to women (comp. the
"tikkun gadol" in the Temple gatherings at Sukkot ;
Suk. V. 2); also at meals the women sat at sepa-
rate tables remote from the men. Young men, but
no slaves, waited at table; and probably young
women at the tables of the women. They all wore
white raiments like the Essenes. After the repast,
passages of Scripture were explained by the presi-
ding otticer and other speakers, with sjiecial reference
to the mysteries of the Law; and each of these in-
terpretations was followed by the singing of hymns
in chorus, in which both men and women invariably
joined.

Of all the festivals of the year they celebrated
with especial solemnity "the night of the seventh
Sabbath" (Pentecost), when they ate unleavened
bread in ])lace of the two loaves of leavened bread
from the new wheat offered on Pentecost in the
Temple. After this they spent the whole night until
sunrise in offering up praises and in
Pentecost, songs of thanksgiving sung in chorus
by men and women ; tlie song of Moses
and Miriam at the Red Sea was thus sung. The
singing itself was rendered according to the laws of
musical art, which seems to have been borrowed
from Egyptian temples, and was then trans-
mitted to the Christian Church (sec Conybeare, I.e.
p. 313).
Whether these nocturnal celebrations took place
I every seventh week or only at Passover and Pente-
■ cost (and the Feast of Sukkot), as Conybeare thinks,
is not mad(' clear in Philo's description. The prob-
I ability is that the Passover night gave the first im-
pulse to such celebration (sec Wisdom xviii. 9); and
the custom of rendering the song of the Red Sea
chorally appears to have prompted its recitation
every morning in the synagogal liturgy in a manner
betraying an Essene tradition. How far back the
celebration of the night preceding Shabu'ot by
stiuly and song until daybreak goes may be learned
from the Zohar (Emor, iii. 93), where refeience is
I made to the custom of "the ancient Hasidim who
I spend the whole night in the study of the Law and
thus adorn Israel as a bride to be joined anew to
God, her bridegroom."

In no way, however, does the Pliilonie description
bear any trace of the Christian character attributed
to it by Grittz and Lucius. See also Jkw. Encvc.
X. 8b, s.v. Philo Jud.eus. K.

THESSALONICA. See Salonica.

THESSALY : Province of northern Greece, on
the .Egcan Sea. It numben-d Jews among its in-
habitants at a very early dale, allhougli tho.se tiiut
now (1905) live there sjieak Spaidsh and claim to
be descendants of refugees who emigrated from
Spain. There are Jewish communities at La-
ris.sa, Trikala, and Volo. None of then> Inis a
rabbi; and Hebrew studies there are in a slate of
decay. At Larissa and Trikala religious instruction
is given in Jewish public schools esUiblished under
the i^rovincial law relating to such schools; they are
supi)orteil by the government. Tiie (^immunity of
Trikala, by reason of numbering (according to the
censu.s) "not more than 1,000 mend)ers," lias no
special school. The Jewish students tinish their
education in the government higher schools; and
some even enter the University of Athens.

The congregations have synagogues similar to
those of every community in Turkey: one story,
with colored windows, and with columns in
the middle which support the (hikan and candle-
sticks. The most beautiful of these symigogues is
that at Larissa, which is very large and is situated
in the center of a court in which there are several
"batte midrasliim"; one of these .serves as a library
and yeshibah, where religious studies are daily pur-
sued. The congregation of Larissa is i>ro\ul of its
past grandeur. Its n)end)ers speak of the famous
" Yeshibat Rabbanim," which was a seat of learning
at which twenty to twenty-five chief rabbis studied
the Talmud and wrote religious works. Of the
latter some manuscripts still e.xisl in the old librar}'.

Larissa, which formerly pos.se.ssed a great num-
ber of rich Jews, was called "The Tree of Gold."
About fifty-five years ago a riot took place, the poor
Jews rising up against the rich. It became so serious
that many of the wealthy Israelites emigrated, which
wrecked the city's prosperity. To-day its rich Jews
may be counted on the fingers; and the numerous
poor ones are cared for by a charitable institution.
Among the philanthropic members of the congrega-
tion should be mentioned the Matalon brothers. The
Greco-Turkish war of 1897 gave the finishing stroke
to this already impoverished community: besides
the misfortune which the Jews, shared in common
with the other inhabitants in having their liomes
destroj-ed and their jiroperty stolen, they were ac-
cu.sed by slanderers of having taken part in the
plundering.

The community of Trikala, which is younger
than that of Larissa, is more prosperous, not having
suffered from the ruinous consequences of the
war. This community numbers anxing its mem-
bers the richest (ireek Jew, Elia Colin, whose for-
tune is estimated at from five to ten million francs.

Volo possesses the youngest Jewish community in
Thessaly. It was organized toward the close of the
nineteenth century by Spaniards of the province,
and by other Jews who came from Janiua. Chalcis.
and Sidonica. Since ils annexation to Greece the
city has become the first port in Thessaly. Most of
the Jews of Volo are in easy circumstances; there
are hardly any iioor among them. The community
is the most progressive in Greece. The Jewish youtli
speak Greek even in their social intercourse; and they
have organized a club, called "The Future." in con-

Theudas
Throne

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

140

UL'Ctiou with which iustructive lectures are ilelivercd ;
and work is undertaken haviug for iisaiiu the build-
ing up of the counnwnity. This club is presided
over by Solomon Dallas, formerly director of a
school of the Alliance Israiiite L'uiverselle. The
Jews of Yolo have organized also a Philharmonic

Society.

s. M. C.

THEUDAS: 1. Pseudo-Messiah, who appeared
during the consulate of CuspiusFadus and succeeded
in winning a large number of ailherents. In proof
of his Messianic mission he is said to have promised
to lead his followers across the Jordan after divi-
ding its waters simply by his word. Regarding this
as indicative of open rebellion against Kome, (Uis-
pius sent a division of cavalry against Theudas and
his followers, who were almost entirely annihilated
(comp. Acts v. 3G). Theudas was decapitaletl, and
his head was carried to Jerusalem as a trophy of
victor}'.

BiBLinGR.\PHY: .losephus, ,-liif. xx. 5, § 1 ; Eusebius, Ilixt.
Eccl. II. ii.: Schmidt, in Herzop-Plitt, Hr.al-Enc]ic. xv. .>>3-
557; Klein, in Schenkel, liibcl-Lcxilioii, v. 510-513; ScLurer,
Gesch. I. 566, and note U.

2. Expounder of the Law; flourished in Rome
during the Iladrianic persecutions. He aided with
generous gifts of money the teachers of the Law
who had suffered fi-om these persecutions, and ar-
ranged with the Roman communities that tiie taxes
formerly paid to the Temple in Jerusalem should be
used for the schools, which otherwise would have
been without any source of support (Yer. M. K.
81a).

Theudas introduced into Rome the practise of eat-
ing on the eve of Passover a lamb prepared in ac-
cordance with the custom observed in Jerusalem
with regard to the sacrificial lamb (Pes. 53a, b; Ber.
19a; Bezah 23a). According to tradition, this so
enraged the Palestinian codiliers that they sent him
the following message: "If you were not Theudas
we would excommunicate you." In his capacity as
archi-synagogue it was Theudas' duty to deliver a
sermon in the synagogue each Saturday. One of
these sermons has been preserved, in which he em-
phatically asserts that it is the duty of a Jew to suf-
fer martyrdom rather than abandon his faith (Pes.
o3b; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxviii.).

In the Talmud, Theudas is once erroneously men-
tioned in connection with Simeon ben Slictah — a mis-
take which has been pointed out by Bacher. Tiie
oldest Mishnah teacher to mention Theudas is R.
Jose.

BiBi.lonRAPHY: UruU, Jahrb. viii. 27; Baoher, .!(;. Tan. Ii.
5«(J ; Vogelsteln and Rieger, Gesch. dcr Judcn in Rom, I. 30,
70. 108 et seq., 17«.

W. I!. S. O.

THIEF. See Tmekt AND Stolen Goods.
THIENGEN. See TYPOGR.\pnv.
THISTLES. See Thorns and Tittsti.es.

THOMAS, EMILE (EMIL TOBIAS) : Ger

man actor; born at Berlin Nov. 24, 183G. Thomas
has had a most varied career. He made his debut in
1852 with the company of Pitterlin, which traversed
the Erzgebirge, Saxon}'. The plays were ultra.sen-
sational — " Der Wahnsinnige," "Die Giftmischerin,"

and "Die Giabesbiaut." Thomas received no mone-
tary compensation, being paid in food; and tlie ar-
rangement lasted for thret; years. He then ob-
tained engagements in Gorlitz, Leipsic, Cologne,
Danzig, and Breslau. In the last-named city,
Dieiciunann, director of the Friedrich-Wilhelinstadl-
ische Theater, Berlin, saw the young actor and en-
gaged him for his house. Thomas made his debut
there Dec. 3, 1861, as the Baker's Boi/ in "Hermann
und Doiothea." So great was his success that he
was made stage-managei'. In this capacity he pro-
duced OlTenbach's "Die Schone Ilelene" (himself
playing Kdlrlias) and Salingre's "Pechschulze." In
IHGG Cheri ^laurice engaged him for the Tlialia
Theater, Hamliurg, where he remained until 1875,
when he became manager of the WolterstlotlTtliea-
ter, Berlin. Two years later he resigned and went
on a starring tour which lasted a year; he then
joined the Ringtheater. Yienna. After the destruc-
tion of this house in 1881, Thomas appeared at the
Wallnertheater, Berlin. In 1886 he went Avith his
wife, Betty Thomas-Damhofer, to the United States,
scoring tiuaneial ami artistic successes.

On his return to Germany in 1887, Thomas as-
sumed the management of the Centraltheater, Ber-
lin, which he renamed the " Thomas-Theater "; but
his direction was most unsuccessful, and he was
forced to relinquish it. Since then he has i)laycd iu
the principal theatersof Germany and Austria. Since
1902 he has acted at the Metropoltheater, Ilambiirg.
His best roles are: Stn'esem "DerRaub der Sai)i-
nerinnen"; Kalhcheii in "1733 Thaler, 22A Silber-
groschen " ; and Geier iu " Dcr Flotte Bursche."

Bibliography : Das Geistiye Berlin, p. 540; EisenberR, Bi<nj.
Ler.
s. E. Ms.

THOMAS, FATHER. See Damascus Affair.

THOMASHEFSKI, BORIS : JudtTCO-Germaa
actor; born at Kiev ]\Iay 30, 1866. He Avent to New
York to seek woric in 1881 and soon oj-ganized a
Jewish troop which played in Turn Hall, Fourth
street. Three j'cars later he removed to Chicago,
where he became a theatrical manager. In 1893 he
settleil iu New York, and became one of the leading
Yiddish actors. At present (1905) he is lessee and
manager of the People's Theater in that city.

Thomashefski plays the chief character in almost
all the pieces produced at his theater, most of which
are written by Latteiner. He has himself writtea
some Ju(keo-German plays and published a collec-
tion of witty sayings (in "Theatre Journal," 1903-
1905, i., ii.).

Bibliography: Amrrican Jnvish I'fnr 7?oo?f, ofkVi (1005), p.
■m); H. HapKood, The Spirit of the G/ief to, pp. i:«-140, New
Vork, 1902.
A. M. Skl.

THORN : Town of West Prussia, founded in
1233 by the Knights of the Teutonic Order. Jews
weie not permitted to dwell in Thorn while the
knights held sway; and after the Polish govern-
ment took possession of the town, in 1453, they
were admitted only occasionally. Several Jews
were living there about the middle of the .seven-
teenth century; and in 1749 they were allowed to
open a school. In 1766 all the Jews except six
were expelled; but they seem to have returned in

141

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Theudas
Throne

tlic following j'cius. In 1774 and 177'J the Jews
were iiiiiiin driven out; ret willing, tiicy ^\■(•^e once
more ordcivd to leave in 17*.i;!, wlien rrussia tooii
liosscRsionof the town ; and, though tliey succeeded
in obtaining a res])ite, tliey were exjiclled in 17!)7.
3Iany Jews settled gradually in tlie town when it
heeanie jiart of the ducliy ol' Warsaw, after the
Peace of 'I'ilsil ; according to the town records, tliey
stole in during the French occupation. In \S2d the
<'oininuiiity numbered 53 families, comprising 248
individuals.

'I'he lirst rabbi was Suinuel lleilniann Leyser of
Lissa, who seems to liave settled in the towu to-
ward the end of the eighteenth century : heofliciuted
without remuneration down to 1.S47. His succes-
sors were: Dr. KraUauer (1847-r)7); Dr. Engelbert
(1857-02): Dr. Rahmer (18G2-G7); Dr. Oppcnheim
<1S0!)-!)1): and Dr. I. Koseiiherg, the present in-
cumbent, who lias held ollice since 1802. The fol-
lowing scholars have lived at Thorn : Zebi Ilirsch
Kalischer (d. 1875), author of " Derishat Ziyyon,"
"Emunah Kamah," and "Sefer ha-Berit 'al ha-
Torah"; his .son Louis Kalischer, author of "Kol
Yehudah"; and Isaac 3Iiesses, author of "'Zofnat
Pa'neah " and other works.

The community jiossesscs a synagogue, l)uilt in
1847; a home for the aged, organized in 1892; a re-
ligioiis school, a loan society, a hebra kaddisha,
and a literary society. In 19()<} the Jews of Thorn
numl)cred 1,200 in a total population of 30,000.
The Jewish inhabitants of the suburbs of Podgorz
and Mocker, and of several neighboring villages,
are members of the Thorn congregation.

UiBLioiiRAPiiT : Toppen, Actcn (Jcr SUfindctagF Prc7is!<c)ifi,
Leipsic, 1878-86; Werni(;ke, Goicli. TJioriix- MittlieiJuiiacii
((es Coppcrnicusvereins zu Thorn, No. viii.. Thorn, 1842.

s. I. H.

THORNS AND THISTLES : The desert
flora of Palestine is unusually rich in thorns and
thistles, containing a whole series of acantluiceous
shrubs and various thistles, including Acanthus,
Carduus (thistle), Centaurea Calcitrapa (star-thistle),
Cirsium acarna, Linn, (horse-thistle), Cnicus bene-
dictus, Linn, (blessed thistle), Cynara S3M'iaca, Linn,
(cardoon), Echinops (globe-thistle), Eryngium ui-
traria, Noea, Notobasis Syriaca, Linn. (Syrian this-
tle). Ononis antiquorum, Linn, (tall rest-harrow;
var. leiosperma, Post), Onopordon (down-thistle),
PhaH)paiipns scoparius, Sieb., Silybum Marianum,
Linn, (miik-thistle), Tribulus terrestris, Linn, (land-
caltrops), and others, some of them in manj' sub-
species. All these plants were very troublesome to
the farmer (Prov. x.xiv. 31), who fre(iuenlly set fire
to his fields to get rid of them (Isa. x. 17), while
the Pro]dicts threatened the people with a plague of
briers and thistles (Isa. v. 6; Jer. xii. 13). The ty-
rant is compared to the useless bramble (Judges ix.
14); and King Amaziah is likened to the thistle (II
Kings xiv. 9). Instead of fruit the earth is to bring
forth "thorns and thistles" (Gen. iii. 18), which
must, therefore, bo edible, and which are considered
by the ]\Iidrash to be artichokes.

Many names for these plants are found in the

Bible as well as in post-Biblical literature. Acan-

thaceous trees and shrubs, some of them admitting

j of classification, constitute the first group, which

includes: TDN. Biiile and Mishnah (also As.syriau,
Phcnician, and Aramaic) = Lyciinn Europa'um,
Linn, (not Hhamnus), box-thorn; njD, Bible, .Mish-
nah, and Aramaic = l{id)us sanctus, Schreb., black-
berry; not:' = Acaeia ; liny. Mishnah, and tSiO,
Talmud = Crataegus Azaioiiis, Linn., hawihorn;
P0'"l, Mishnah, and K-|J3. Talmud = Zizyphus lotus.
Lam., jujube, and Zizyiihiis KiiiiiaChristi. Linn.,
Christ's-thorn ; ]'2T'L'', Mishnah, and 'pD'L*'. Talmud
— Zizyphus vulgaris. Lam., common jujube.

The second group comprises acanthaceous or
prickly herbs, shrubs, and nettles: r^'i]}^ (V), Bible,
nyn, Mishnah, and Nnvn, Tabnud (Assyrian, "egu "
[•.']) = Alhagi Mauroiiim, DC., alhat:i; ynn and
]>)p, Mishnah, NpniD and Np-IIO, Talmud = Car-
thamus tinctorius, Linn., safilower; "iTn, Biljlc. and
NIT'n. Talmud = Centaurea Calcitrafia, Linn., star-
thistle; mnCO, liible, X^Pn. Mishnah and Talmud =
Echino])sspinosus, Linn., or Echinops viscosus, DC,
echinops (V) ; nj'3n"in = Eryngium Creticum, Lam.,
button -snakcroot ; Dl^p. "IJ33 = Cynara Scolymus,
LiiHi., artichoke; n'33y = Cynara Syriaca. Boi.ss.,
and Cynara Cardunculus, Linn., cardoon (the heads
of which are well descrilied by Bashi in his conmien-
lary on Ps. Ixxxiii. 14); TOt^ = Palituais aculeatus,
Linck., garland-thorn; D'Jp"l2 (?), Bible = Pha?o-
pappus scoparius, Sieb., pha-opappus; mn = Sola-
num coagulans, Forsk., nightshade; TD~iD. t'OP (?),
Bible, and X31V"lp, Talmud = Urlica urens, Liun.,
nettle.

General terms, some of them applied also to
thorns, are niH. "I'D. D''JV, pp. D'DL". and n^C i"
the Bible, and \S3in. HIH. Niyv XaiD, D'Jnvy. and
VIp in the Mishnah and Talmud.

s. I. Lo.

THRASHING-FLOOR. See Agriculture.

THREE. See Numbers and Numerals.

THRESHOLD : In early times the threshold
had a special sanctity ; and that of the Temj^e was
a marked spot, indicating specific taboos (see I Sam.
V. 4 et seq. ; comp. Zeph. i. 9). There were special
keepers (A. V. " porters ") of the threshold (II. Kings
xxii. 4; I Chron. ix. 22; II Chron. xxiii. 4; Jer.
xxxv. 4). There is a wide-spread custom of making
family sacrifices at the tliresliold in addition to those
at the hearth. Herodotus reports this of the Egyp-
tians (ii. 48). Trumbull suggests that there is a
specific reference to the threshold in Ex. xii. 22
(LXX.), in connection with the institution of the
Passover. Even to the present day it is considered
unlucky to tread on the threshold. He suggests
also that the word " pesah." or " passover," means a
" leaping over " tlie threshold, after it has been sanc-
tified with the blood of the threshold-covenant. Tlie
threshold of Dagon's temple was evidently .sacred
in this way; and it has been suggested by Cheyne
that I Kings xviii. 20-21 should be rendered "How
long will ye leap over both thresholds?" (that is,
worship both Baal and Yhwu).

niniioiutAPiiY: H.Clay Trumbull. Thrcstiold Covetmtit, Plill-
udflphia, 18%.

J .

THRONE: 1. A royal seat, or chair of state.
The king sits "upon the throne of liis kingdom"
(Deut. xvii. 18). Pharaoh delegated full power to

Throne
Tiberias

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

142

Joseph to rule over Egypt; "only in the throne
will I be greater than thou"(Gt'n. xli. 40). The
royal throne is sometinifs (U-signatod as "the
throne of the kings" (Jer. Hi. Si). The most mag-
niticent throne was that of Solomon (see Jkw.
ExcYC. xi. 441 et seg.; J. S. Kolbo niaile a model
of Solomon's throne and e.xhibited it in New York
city in 1888). The throne, like the crown, AViis a
symbol of sovereign power and dignity. It was
also the tribunal, the "throne of judgment" (Prov.
XX. 8), where the king decided matters of law and
disputes among his subjects. Thus "throne" is
synonymous with "justice."

2. The Throne, the abode of God, known as
"Kisse ha-Kabod " (the Throne of Glory), from
which God manifests His majesty and glory. Mi-
caiah "saw tiie Lord sitting on his throne, and all
the hosts of heaven standing by him on his right
hand and on his left" (livings x.\ii. 19; compare
the vLsion of Isaiah [vi. 1] with that of Ezekiel [x.
1]). The throne of God is Heaven (Isa. Ixvi. 1); in
future it will be Jerusalem (Jer. iii. 17), and even
the Sanctuary' (Jer. xvii. 12). Thus the idea of the
majestic manifestation of God gradually crystallized
in the cabalistic expression "koah ha-zimzum" (tiie
power of concentration). God's Tlirone is the
symbol of righteousness; "justice and judgment
are the habitation of thy throne " (Ps. Ixxxix. 15
[A. V. 14]).

The Throne of Glory is an important feature in the
Cabala. It is placed at the highest point of the
universe (Hag. 12b) ; and is of tiie same color as tlie
sky — purple-blue, like the "sapphire stone" whicli
Ezekiel saw and which had previously been per-
ceived by the Israelites (Ex. xxiv. 10; Sotah 17a).
Like the Torah, it was created before the world
(Pes. 54a). R. Eliezer said that the souls of the
righteous are concealed under the Throne (Siiab.
152b). When Moses ascended to heaven to receive
the Torah the angels objected, whereupon God told
him to hold on to the Throne and defend his action
(Shab. 88b). It is asserted that the likeness of Jacob
is engraved on the Throne of Glory (Zoliar, Wayig-
gash, p. 211a). For the throne of Elijah see
Elijah's Chair.

J. J. D. E.

THUNDER: The sound tluit follows lightning.
The proper Hebrew term for it is DJ/I (Ps. Ixxvii.
19 et pasHim; Job xxvi. 14; Isa. xxix. 6), but it is
often rendered in the Bil)le by ^ip, plural rn^"lp( =
"voice," "voices"), the singular being always fol-
lowed by mrP (= "HiL" voice of Yhwii" ; Ps. xxx.
3; Isa. xxx. 30). In the plural, with the exception
of Ex. ix. 28, where it is followed by D'H^N, the
word "God" is omitted but understood i^ib. ix. 23
and elsewhere).

Thunder is one of the phenomena in which the
presence of Yhwh is manifested; and it is also one
of His instruments in ciiastising His enemies. Ac-
cording to Ps. Ixxvii. 18-19, it was a thundercloud
that came between the Israelites and the Egyptians
when the former were about to cross the Red Sea
(comp. Ex. xiv. 20). The hail in the seventh
plague of Pharaoh was accompanied by thunder {ih.
ix. 23 et passim). The Law was given to the Israel-

ites from Sinai amid thunder and lightning (ib. xix.
16). In the battle between the Israelites and the
Philistines in the time of Samuel, a thunder-storm
decided the issue in favor of the Israelites (I Sam.
vii. 10; Ecclus. [Siracli] xlvi. 17). Later, when Die
Israelites asked Samuel for a king he prayed to God
for a thunder-storm that the petitioners might be
overawed (I Sam. xii. 18). The declaration of Jere-
miah (Jer. X. 13): "When he uttereth a voice there
is a multitude of waters," probably refers to thunder.
The most poetical description of a thunder-storm
occurs in Ps. xxix. 3 et seq. Thunder following
lightning is spoken of in Job xxxvii. 3-4; and in
two other j)assages they are mentioned together (ib.
xxviii. 26, xxxviii. 25). The seiiaration of the water
from the dry land at the time of the Creation (comp.
Gen. i. 9) is said in Ps. civ. 7 to have been accom-
plished by the voice of God, which probably refers
to thunder. The clattering noise of battle is likened
to thunder (Job xxxix. 25). Thunder is metaphor-
ically used to denote the power of God {ib. xxvi.
14). The goods of the unjust disappear in a noise
like thunder (Ecclus. [Sirach] xl. 13). In the ritual
is included a special benediction to be recited on
hearing thunder (see Lightxixg, Benediction on).
s. M. Sel.

THXJRGAU. See SwrrzKULANn.

TIAO KIU KIAOU. See China.

TIBBON. See lux TinuoN.

TIBERIAS: City founded by Herod Antipas in
the year 26 c.E., and named in honor of the emperor
Tiberius; situated on the western shore of Lake
Geunesaret, near certain hot springs, in the most
beautiful region of Galilee. The population of the
city was very heterogeneous, thus giving rise to
various stories. For example, one legend was to
the effect that after the building of the city had
l)een begun human bones were found.
Founded whence the conclusion was drawn that
by Herod the site must once have been a burial-
Antipas. place; so that the wliole city was de-
clared unclean. The i)ious were ac-
cordingly forbidden to dwell there, since the merest
contact with graves made one unclean for seven
days (Xmn. xix. 16; Oh. xvii., xviii.). Herod, be-
ing determined to people the city at all hazards,
was, tlierefore, obliged to induce beggars, adven-
turers, and foreigners to come there; and in some
cases he had even to use violence to carr}' out his
will. The majority of the inhabitants, nevertheless,
were Jews.

The city had its own government, with a council

{,3ov/J/) of 500 members at the head, the arclion

(ipjwi') being the presiding officer. From this

council was chosen a board of ten members called

"the ten elders" ((^tKa Trpuroi), their chief function

being the i)unctual levying of the taxes, for which

their own means were securitj'. There were also

hyparchs and an "agronomos" at the

Govern- head (cf)nip. Pauh'-Wissowa, "Heal-

ment. Encyc." s.v.). Since Tibenas was the

capital of Galilee, it was ruled by

Herod until he was exiled to Lyons (France) in 39.

It then came under Agrippa I., in whose possession

143

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

Throne
Tiberias

it remained until liis death in 44, after which it was
subject directly to Rome. It was tiu; capital of
Galilee until Gl, when Nero gave it to Agrippa II.,
and tlnis detached it from Galilee, since that prov-
ince did not belong to liini.

When, in GO, the great icvolulion raged through
the whole of Palestine, the inhabitants were divided
into three factions: (1) the party on the side of
Agrippa and the Romans; (2) the great mass of the
poor, who were parti/.ans of the rebellion ; and (8)
the neutrals, including the historian Justus of Ti-
berias, who were neither friendly to Home nor eager
for the revolution. The revolutionists, headed by
Jesus ben Zapjiha or Zopha, arcln)n of the city, soon
gained control; but the Roman faction would not
give way. When, therefore, John of (Jiscala lodged
a complaint in the S:inhc(lrin at Jerusalem against
Josepluis, who
was then at Ti-
berias, the coun-
cil sent to the
cit}' an embassy
of f o u r men
with 2,500
troops. Jose-
ph us at first
sought to annul
the decision of
the iSanhedrin ;
but his efforts
proved unsuc-
cessful, and,
compelling the
embassy to re-
turn to Jerusa-
lem, he subdued
the revolution-
a r y part y ,
whereupon the
Roman sympa-
thizers appealed
to Agrippa for

aid, which he refused to grant. After Vespasian
had conquered the greater part of Galilee, however,
Tiberias voluntarily opened its gates to him, and
favor was shown the inhabitants for Agrippa's sake.
Of the famous buildings in Tiberias the most
prominent were the royal palace (which was stormed

and destroyed in the Jewish war on
Building-s. account of its pictures), the stadium,

a synagogue (Trpoaevxr/), and a great
assembly hall (ueyiarov oIkti/io), while after the clo.se
of the war pagan temples, including the Adrianeum
{'At^piavelov), were built there as well as in other
cities. The baths of Tiberias, called "demosiu " or
"demosiu de-Tebarya" (<h//x6cria), were famous as
early as the third century (Yer. Ber. ii. 5, 3; iii. G,
3). The synagogues of the city were the Kifra(Yer.
Meg. i. 1) and the Kenishta 'Attikta de-Serongin
(Yer. Kil. ix. 5), while the "castle of Tiberias,"
mentioned in Yer. 'Ab. Zarah iii. 1, appears to have
been the building which Josephus fortified to de-
fend the city. A saying of Raba or of Abaye, "I
know this or that halakah as well as Ben 'Azzai [a
tanna of the early part of the second century]
knows the streets of Tiberias" ('Er. 29a; Kid. 20a;

Sotid»45a; 'Ar. 30b), shows that Jewish scholarslived
in the city, at least temporarily, very Hotm after its
foundation, although there is no mention of a defi-
nite Jewish settlement there until the second half
of the .second century.

After Simeon i)(n Yohai had fled from tlie perse-
cutions of the Romans, and had lived in liiding for
many years, thus injuring his Jieallh, he bathed in
the sjjrings of Tiberias and recovere<l. He seems,
! in his gratitude, to have declared either a part or
the whole of Tiberias to be clean (Yer. Shel). i.\.
38d; Gen. R. l.\.\ix. ; Eccl. R. on x. «; Esther R. i.
9; Shab. S.ib; 'Ab. Zarah 10a; Griltz, "Gescli."iv.
208, 473). Jiulah ha-Xasi also resided there (R. II.
31b; comp. Rashi, s.r. "Bet She'arim"); and from
the time when Johanan b. Najtpaha settled in Ti-
berias (Yer. Siieb. ix. 1 ; Be/ah i. 1) the city became

the center of
scholarship, so
that other acad-
emies could not
comj)are witli it.
Even R. Abbaliu
sent his son
frf)m Casarea to
Tiberias to
study (Yer. Pes.
iii. 7). It was,
moreover, the
last city in
which a Sanhe-
drin held sit-
tings (R. H. 51b;
Yer. Pes. iv. 2)
During th
persecutions ii
the reigns of the
emperors Con-
stantius and
Gallus the Ti-
berian scholars
decided to in-
tercalate a month in the calendar for the )'ear 353;
but fear of the Romans led to the substitution of
"Rakkath" (Josh. xix. 35) for."Tibe-
During- rias" in the letter which conveyed
Per- the information to Raba at Mahuza

secutions. (Sanh. 12a). The sessions of the schol-
ars were held in a grotto near Tiberias,
and only by tlie flickering of torches was it pos.sible to
distinguish between night and day (Gen. R. xxxi.).
In several places in the Talmud, e.ff., in Meg. 6a, the
identity of Tiberias with Rakkath is established.

Even in the sixth century Tiberias was still the
seat of religious learning; so that Bishop Simeon of
IJet-Arsham urged the Christians of Palestine to
seize the leaders of Judaism in Tiberias, to put them
to the rack, and to compel them to command the
Jewish king, Dhu Nuwas. to desist from persecu-
ting the Christians in Najran (As.semani. "Biblio-
theca Orientalis Clementino-Vaticana." i. 379).

In 614 a monk of Mt. Sinai went to Tiberias to
become a Jew. He received the name of Abraham,
and married a Jewess of that city (Antiocliius,
"Homilia Octoginta-Quarta," in Migne, "Patrologia
GrfEca," xii. 265). In the ninth century the gram-

Jewi-sli Scliool-riiildren at Tiberias.

(From a photograph by E. N. .\dler.)

Tiberias
Tiktin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

144

mariaus aud Masoritcs Moses and Aaron ben Asher
lived at Tiberias, which was then called ^lu'izziyyah.
in honor of the Fatinule calif .Muizz. The system
of Hebrew punctuation still in use orisiuated in
Tiberias aud is accordingly called the Tiberian sys-
tem (comp. Griltz, I.e. 3d ed., v., note 23, ii., aud
the remarks of Halberstam).

At the beginning of the twelfth century the Jew-
ish community in Tiberias numbered about tifly
families; and at that time the best manuscripts of
the Toi-ah were said to be found there. According
to some sources the grave of Moses Maimonides is
at Tiberias; but this statement is of very doubtful
accuracy (see Conforte, "Kore ha-Dorot," p. 13a;
"8efer Yuhasin,'" ed. Filipowski, p. 131b).

In the sixteenth century Joseph ben Ardut, aided
by the riches of Dona Gracia aud by the daily re-
mittances of 60 aspers sent him by order <if Sultan
Sulaiman, undertooK to rebuild the city of Tiberias,

BiBLior.RAPHV: Robinson, Rtscarchc.<. iii. MO-jij; Sepp. Je-
/■|/.s(i/« //I iiitd ihts HtilKjf Laiui, ii. 188 -.VJ: Z. iJ. P. V. 1886,
i.\. 81-10;!; Kiiiniiikit. Stmiictt zur (J csv Indite GuUl{i(t)i,
Berlin, 1>89; Scliiirer. Gisch. '.k\ oil., UvlfX, >'.(•.; Ciriitz,
(iixch. iii. -'(■.!• (( SHI.; iv. 181 <' ■«'/•: >i. ir/.t. -M'i Ix. ;iiKs.
H. T. (le Ciraaf. Oc Jttoil.'ichr \]'t tijiliinh n in Tihiiiit< vmi
;o-',0(J H. C, Grouiugen, 190",'; NeubaiHT, CV. T. |ip, ~'>. :i'>, -W
et ftai.
K. r. S. ().

TIBERIAS, LAKE. See CiiiNNKiiKTU.

TIBERIUS JULIUS ALEXANDER. See

Ai.i:\A.M)i:i;, TiuiiiULs Jti-iis.

TIBNI : One of the rulers of the kingilom of
Isiael duiiug the interregnum between Ziiini and
Omii; son of Ginatii. Wiieii Zinui, after a reign of
seven days, had ended his life, the people of Isiael
were divided into two factions, one siding with
Oinri, aud the other with Tibni. Oinri's followers
gained the upper hand; and, finally, Tibni having
died. Oniri w:is declared king (I Kings .\vi. 21-22).
From a comparison of verses 15 and 23 of the

View of Tiberias Showing the tomb of Rabbi MeIr.

(From a pboto^aph by the American Colony at Jerusalem.)

Don

Joseph
Nasi.

and to allow only Jews to reside there. The old
superstition was revived, however, that the Jewish
religion would conquer all others when Tiberias
was rebuilt, whereupon the workmen
refused to work and had to be forced
to do so. After a year the city was
completed, and Joseph wished to in-
troduce thebreedingof silkworms and
the manufacture of wool (Chariere, "Negociation,"
ii. 736; Gratiani, " De Belle Cypro," p. 492, note).
The first Jewish innnigrants to the new city went
thither from the Pontifical States, as a result of a
papal bull; and they were aided by Joseph Nasi.
Their numbers and fortunes are alike unknown.

In 1837 an earthquake destroyed most of the
city, while in 1865 and 1866 the ravages of the chol-
era forced the leaders of the comnnuiity to apply to
Europe for aid, appeals being printed in nearly all
the Jewish weekly periodicals. Conditions have-
raiich improved, however; aud since the year 1889
the community has had its own physician. The
cemetery is situated on the ruins of the old city.
The Jews of Tiberias number about 2,000 in a total
population of 3,600.

chapter just cited, it appears that Tibni was regent
over half the kingdom of Israel for a period of four
years. According to the Septuagint (ad loc), Tibni
had a brother named Joram, who seconded him in the
dispute over the tiirone and who died at tiie same
time as himself, probably at the hands of Omri's
party.
.1. M. Sel.

TIEN-TSIN: Commercial city of China. Its
Jewish inhabitants number about 150, most of whom
are Russian and Polish. They have not organized
as a commuuit}" and hold divine services only
during the penitential season, when private halls
are used and Sefer Torahsare brought fiom Shang-
hai. In 1902 J. Dietricii jiurchased a piece of land
and presented it to the Jewish inhabitants for burial
purpo.ses. In 1004 a branch of the Anglo-Jewish
As.sociation was f(jrmed, of which Dr. M. Liuscer is
president. TheTien-Tsin Jews are mainly merchants
and hotel-keepers.

.1. N. E. B. E.

TIETZ, HERMANN: German rabbi; born at
Birnbaum, Posen, Germany, Sept. 3, 1834, and edu-

145

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tiberias
Tiktin

Ciitcdat the University of Berlin (Pli.D. Halle). He
was nibbi in iSclirinun, and since 1888 lie has been
a ".Stil'tiabbiner " and teacher in the bet iia-niidrasli
atlnowra/.law. lie has i)ublisiicd " Das llohe Lied,"'
traiislulcd in verse, and \vitli notes according to the
Midrash (Berlin, 1878), and "Megillat Eka," with
a metrical translation and a Hebrew commentary,
under the title "Zikron Vchudah " (Hchrinun, 1881).
s. F. T. H.

TIFLIS. See Caucasus.

TIGLATH-PILESER (Hebrew, -iDX^DTli^Jn,
and a corrupt form, IDjisSTU^D. in I C'hron. v. G,
~'0; H Chron. x.wiii. ^'0; Assyrian, "Tukulti-apil-
e-sar-ra " = " my help is the son of E§arra ") : King of
Assyria from 747 to 727 u.c. ; designated by modern
Oriental historians as Tiglath-pileser III. He lirst
appears under the name "Pul" (II Kings xv. 19;
conip. I Chron. v. 2G), the i)roper form of which is
"Pulu," as is seen in the list of Babylonian kings.
"When he assumed the crown over Assyria he seems
to have called himself Tukulti-pal-Esar-ra after the
great ruler of the same name in the twelfth centiny.

Tiglath-pileser left several important inscriptions
of his reign; but these were badly broken when
tliscovered. Upon his accession he inaugurated a
new policy for the government and administration
of Assyria. Former kings had maintained by mili-
tary force the union of the so-called empire; the
new policy established a method of organization
which more closely united the central and provin-
cial sections of the government : systems of trans-
portation and transplantation of strong but rebel-
lious subjects minimized dangers that had Avrecked
other governments. This was the method pursued
by Sargon at Samaria, by Sennacherib, and by other
rulers down into Persian times.

Tiglath-pileser's lirst campaign into tlie west
country took place in 743-742, wlien he entered
northern Syria. While here he received tribute from
Rezin of Damascus and Hiram of Tyre. A two-
year siege was necessary to reduce to complete sub-
mis.sion the plucky little city of Arpad, in 740
(comp. Isa. X. 9; II Kings xix. 13). The very next
year lie seems to have clashed with the interests of
Azariah (Uzziah), King of Judah, far in the north
(comp. II Kings xiv. 28) and to liave established
Assyrian sovereignty there. Either in this or in the
following year ]\[enahem (II Kings xv. 19, 20), king
of northern Israel, purchased his throne of the As-
syrian ruler.

Not until 734 was Tiglath-pileser's presence again
required in the west. Pekah, who had secured by
strategy and tragedy the tlirone of northern Israel,
formed a league with Rezin of Damascus to with-
stand any further assumption of sovereignty over
Israel and Syria by the power centered on the Tigris.
Together they besieged Ahaz at Jerusalem, either
to force him to join the anti-Assj^rian coalition or to
put a man of their own choice on the tlinuie. Ahaz
in desperation appealed to Tiglath-pileser for help.
[The Assyrian king made a dash for Damascus anil
;laid siege to it. In the meantime lie ravaged north-
lern Israel (comp. II Kings xv. 29) and other terri-
|tory all the way to Philistia. In 732 Damascus fell
j<comp. Isa. viii. 4: II Kings xvi. 9). At this time
XII.— 10

apparently Ahaz, among n numlier of petty kings,
appeared within Dania.scus before the throne of the
great conijueror and paid the jirice of sulimissiou.
Soon after this event, probably. Tiglath-pileser in-
cited or encouraged Hoshea to slay Pekah, the un-
yielding king of northern Israel. Hoshea was re-
warded by being put in authority over this Assyrian
province; and Tiglath pile.ser retired to tin- east.
In 728 he became master of Babylon, and died the
following year.

•'• I. M. P.

TIGRIS (Hebrew, ^pnn; Aramaic and Talniudir,
roil: the modern Dijlah) : One of the four streams
mentioned in Gen. ii. 14 as watering the Garden of
Eden, and described, from the standpoint of Pales-
tine, as Mowing " in front of Assyria " ( H. V.). 'I he
Tigris has its source in several springs in Mount
Ararat, not far from the head-waters of the Eujihra-
tes. Near one of tlie.se springs the figures of Sarda-
napalus and Tiglath-pileser HI. are found carved
in the rock. After flowing a short distance the river
receives the waters of several mountain brooks from
the east; and at Diarbekr it is already a fairly large
stream. South of Mosul it is navigable for rafts,
and at Bagdad it carries boats, while at Korna it
unites with the Euphrates to form the Shatt al-
'Arab, which empties into the Persian Gulf. Its
chief period of rise occurs, opposite Mosul, at the
time of the melting of the snow (Ecclus. [Sirach]
xxiv. 25), when it devastates the surrounding
country. Hence, even in antiquity it was necessary
to dig transverse canals in various jdacesto carry olT
the superfluous water, which is whitish in color and
is famed for its potability among those who live in
the vicinity and who are accustomed to it. The
river contains great numbers of fish. The Tigris
is referred to in only one other place in the Bible,
namely, Dan. x. 4, where in the English version the
name is transliterated simply " Hiddekel."

The Targum and the Talmud terra it the Diglat,
the earlier form of the name. In answer to the
question why this river was called also Hiddekel,
R. Ashi replied that it was on account of its sharp-
ness and swiftness, the word SpTH being etymolo-
gized as a compound of in ("sharp." "swift ") and
pp(" light," "quick " ; Ber. 59a). Neubauer proposed
to separate the name into Tn or |*n and 7pT("the
swiftly running Diklah "). In the Talmud the water
of the river is considered to be both quickening for
the mind and healthful for the body on account of
its lightness {ib.). It was also held to be one of the
oldest rivers; and Avhen a Jew sjiw its waters from
the bridge Bostane he was enjoined to recite the
blessing " Blessed be He who hath made the work of
Creation " (ib. ; Yeb. 121a).

From Bagdad to Apameia the river formed the
boundary of Babylon (Kid. 71b).

BiBUor.KAPHV : McCUntock and Strong. Cur. 1v. 232. x. *m;

Herziie-Hauck. /f»n/-Knri/r. xv. tifi',' ; NriMfke. in SohcnkPl.
liiliillrricnn.Y. ^iV> ft Sill.: Frii'drir-h Delltzsch. fn Limiln*
I'nrniliray Index. Leipsir. IHSl ; .Ni'ulwiner. '«. T. rp. CM-
3=57. Paris. 1S«8; S. Ldv.isobn. Mthhtrc Erc^ pp. 13ft- 137,
Vienna, 1819.
s. S O.

TIKTIN : A Silesian family of rabbis originating
from Tiktin, a town in Poland.

Tiktin
Tirhakah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

146

Abrabaiii Tiktin.

(From su old print.)

Abraham ben Gedaliah Tiktin : German
ral)l)i; born at Scliwersiuz, Post-u; (lit-il ut Brcslaii
Dec 27, 1820. In isn lie was appoiuteil rabbi at

Glogau, and five
years later, by a
royal rescript of
Sept. 5, he became
chief district rabbi
at Breslau, where
he officiated until
his death. He was
the author of sev-
eral works, al-
though only one
appeared in print,
namely, " Petah ha-
Bayit" (Dyhern-
furth, 1820), novel-
la? on the fourth
part of the Shul-
han 'Aruk.

At Tiktin's fu-
neral Rabbis Jacob
of Lissa, Moses Kronik, and Solomon Plessner de-
livered sermons, all of which were published,
s. S. O.

Gedaliah. Tiktin : German rabbi ; born about
1808 ; died at Breslau Aug. 8. 1886. Like his father,
Solomon Tiktin, whom he succeeded in the rab-
binate of Breslau in 1843. Gedaliah was the cham-
pion of Orthodox Judaism. The war which had
been carried on for years between the Orthodox and
Reform parties, headed respectively by Solomon
Tiktin and Abraham Geiger, was continued after
the former's death. The Reform party endeavored
to influence the German government to recognize
Geiger as rabbi of Breslau; but, owing to Tiktin's
personal merit, King Frederick William IV. con-
firmed him in office, and, later, even conferred on
him the title of " Koniglicher Landesrabbiner." It
was not until after Geiger's death that Tiktin and
Joel, Geiger's successor, came to an understanding
in order to maintain peace in the Jewish community
of Breslau. Even after his confirmation by the king,
Tiktin had not e.xercised his power with regard to
the slaughterers ("shohatim "), but had contented
himself with abstaining for several years from eat-
ing meat.

Tiktin was known also for his charitiible activity
during the forty-three years of his rabbinate; and
there was hardly any charitable institution of which
he was not a member. In 1870 he received the dec-
oration of the Order of the Red Eagle in recognition
of services rendered by liim to the sick and wounded
during the Franco-German war of 1870-71. Special
courtesies were paid to him by the German govern-
ment on account of his weekly visits to the Jewish
prisoners.

Tiktin was the atithor of a pamphlet entitled
"Beitrag ziir Bearbeittmg dcr von Seiten der Be-
h(jrde . . . Gericiiteten, den Ji'idischen Kultus
BetrefFenden Fragen" (Breslau, 1843).

Bibliography : Allfi. Zeit. den Jud. 1886, p. .554 ; FQrst, Bihl.
Ju'l. lii. 4H1 : }1n-Zrf\rah. xiil.. No. 106.

Solomon Tiktin: German rabbi; bom at Glo-
gau; died in Breslau March 20, 1843; son of Abra-

ham Tiktin. He was a prominent champion of Or-
thodox Judaism; and some idea of his anti-Reform
activity may be gathered from the writings of his
opponent, A. Geiger. Tiktin became rabbi at Bres-
lau in 1824. In 1830 he prohibited the printing in
Breslau of Moses Briick's "Die Reform des Juden-
thums." But the real war betw;een Tiktin and the
Reform party began when Geiger presented himself
as a candidate for the position of second rabbi (" Rab-
binatsassessor " or "dayyan") of Breslau. Geiger
was invited to preach in Breslau on July 21, 1838;
but Tiktin is said to have applied to the police to
prevent Geiger from doing so. In 1842 Tiktin
published his two pamphlets, "Darlegung des
Sachveihahnisses in Seiner Hiesigen RabbinatsAn-
gelegenheit" and "Entgegnung auf den Bericht des
Ober-Vorsteher Collegiums der Hiesigen Israeliten-
Gemeinde an die Mitglieder," in which he accused
Geiger of having deliberately planned the destruc-
tion of the foundations of Judaism. Tiktin insisted
that Geiger should not be present either at a divorce
or at a halizah ceremony, thus denying him recogni-
tion as a rabbinical authority.

Bibliography: A. Geiger. Xnchodasnene Schriftfii, i. .i:i ct
seq.; idem, in Der Isrnclit. 184:J. p. 64 ; E. Schreiber, Ahra-
liam Geiijer, pp. 20 et seq., Spokane, 1892.
s. :M. Ski..

TIKTINER, JTJDAH LOB BEN SIMHAH :

Russian rabbi of the eighteenth cciituiy. He offi-
ciated as ab bet din in Zagora, and later was a resi-
dent of Wilna. Tiktiner was the author of "Shalme
Simhah" (2 vols., AVilna, 1806), containing novt^lhe
on the halakot of Asher ben Jehiel, preceded by a
presentation of various basal principles of the Tal-
mud, as well as of various casuistic writings. Tlie
work is, however, incomplete, extending only as far
as the treatise Ta'anit.

Bibliography: Steinsehneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1373; Benja-
cob, Ozar ha-Sefarim. p. 589.
E. c' S. O.

TIKTINER, REBECCA BAT MEIR : Aus-
trian authoress of the sixteenth century; flourished
at Prague, where she died, apparently in 1550. She
wrote two works: (l)"Meneket Ribkah " (Prague.
1609; Cracow, 1618), divided into seven "gates,"
treating of a housewife's duties, and containing
various Talmudic and Midrashic anecdotes; (2i
" Simhat Torah Lied " (Prague, n.d.), a poem for the
Simhat Torah festival.

Bibliography : Hock-Kaufmann. Die Familien Praqs. p.
15.3a; Zunz, Z. a. p. 285; Benjacob, (>znr lia-^i fnriin, p.
32.'»; StPinsohneider, <'iit. Bodl.<'o\s. ri62.'u-i.2VM-2V.i.'>; Ni'pi-
(ihirondi, Tuledol Gedole i'lsrae/, p. 310; De Rossi, Dizio-
iHtrid, p. 313.
E. C. S. O.

TIKTINSKI, HAYYIM JUDAH L(DB B.
SAMUEL: liitliuanian 'raiiiiudi.-<t ; Ijoni in .Mii-
Oct. 13, 1823; died in Warsaw March 30, 1899.
He was the second son of Samuel Tiktinski, founder
of the yeshibah in Mir, who died in 1835, leaving
his eleven-year-old son without any material means.
Despite his very unfavorable circumstances, young
Tiktinski succeeded by diligent application in pass-
ing a rabbinical examination Ifcfore he was twenty,
at which age he jpfficiated as substitute for Rabbi
Eiihu Shik in Deretschiu when the latter went on a
long journey. In 1850 he was invited by Kabbi

147

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tiktin
Tirhakah

Moses Abraham ben David of Mir to deli ver leeluies
before the loeal yesiiibah. Hy his brilliaiil delivery
and his rejection of tlie i)ilpul he attracted many
scholars; and when, in 18GT, Moses Abraham died,
Tiktinski was I'nlrusted with the entire control of
the yeshibah. Among his many pupils were Me'ir,
rabbi of Draderkewin, and Mordecai Elihu, author
of "Ner le-Ma'or."

In 1876 Tiktinski's son Samuel delivered some of
theiectiiresat the yeshibah : and in 1883, when Samuel
died, his younger brother, Abraham, took his place.
When, in the summer of 1898, the yeshibah was des-
troyed l)y fire for the second time, Tiktinski, in spite
of illness, procured the necessary funds to rebuild
it. He left no works, his contributions to the ex-
planation of the Talmud having been destroyed in
the above-mentioned tire.

Bibliography : M. L. Goldberp, Sefer Toledot lia^Oaon Han-
yim Judali L/>h, Warsaw, 19()1.
E. c. A. Pe.

TIMBREL or TABRET : ]\Iusical instrument.
In the lleliiew music of Old Testament times, as in-
deed in Oriental music to-day, rhythm was of mucli
greater importance, in comparison with the melody,
than it is in modern Occidental music. Accord-
ingly instruments like the drum and tambourine,
which serve principally to accentuate the rhythm,
jilayed the greatest part. The most ancient means of
marking rhythm was the clapping of hands, a
method which is still employed. Among the instru-
ments of percussion, the timbrel or hand-drum
("tof")isthe oldest and most popular. It is very
simple, consisting of a broad or narrow hoop of
wood or metal over which the skin of an animal is
stretched. Sometimes small, thin pieces of metal
are hung upon the rim, which jingle when the tim-
brel is shaken, as in the modern tambourine. The
instrument is held high in one hand, while the
performer beats on the drumhead with the fingers
and the back of the other hand. The form of the
instrument is similar to that of the modern tambou-
rine, as is also the manner of playing on it.

The Egyptians and the Assyrians pcssessed tliis
instrument. The pictures of the former show it
only in the hands of women; among the Assyrians
it was Jilayed by men also. Among the Hebrews
it Avas usually played by women, as an accompani-
ment to joyful dancing (Judges xi. 34; I Sam. xviii.
0; Jer. xxxi. 4) and to songs (Gen. xxxi. 27; Ex. xv.
20; I Sam. xviii. 6). The timbrel is an instrument
which in its whole character is inappropriate for
mournful occasions, being in keeping only with
clieerful songs and games, such as accompany wed-
dings (I >Iacc. ix. 39), popular rejoicings (e.f/., the
reception of a victorious general; I Sam. xviii. 0 rt
mi.), bancpiets (Isa. v. 13), and religious festivals of
a joyful and jiopular character (Ex. xv. 20; Ps.
Ixxxi. 2). It is more rarely found in the hands of
men. All the prophets who speak at length of
music refer to the hand-drum (I Sam. x. 5).

The tamboiuine apparently had no place in the
Temple service, liowever; at least in the enumera-
tion of the instruments of the Temitle orchestra (II
Chron. v. 12 et .teq.) only the cymbals are mentioned
among the instruments of percussion.

E. c. I. Be.

TIMNATH-SERAH (in Judges ii. 9, Tim-
nath-heres) : 'l'(j\vn in .Mount Epiiraiin. situated
on tlie nortliern slope of the Itill of Gaash (Josh,
xxiv. 30). It was given to Josliiiaasan inlieritance,
was fortified l»y him (ih. xix. 50), and served as his
place of burial {ib. xxiv. 30). According to the
"Onomasticon " of Eusebius, Timnaih was an im-
I)ortant city in the distriet of Diospolis (Lydda);
and the grave of Joshua was shown there. On tlic
site of the city is situated the modern town of Tilnm,
about ten miles north of Beth-el on the Roman road
from Ciesarea to Jerusalem. Among its ruins and
tombs is a grave of remarkable size and construc-
tion, which is luobably tlie one identilied in the
days of Eusebius as that of Jo.shua. Anotiicr tradi-
tion, however, of Samaritan origin, locates the tomb
farther to the northeast, in the small village of Kafr
Haris, which is therefore fretiuently regarded as the
site of Timnatli. The city seems to have been iden-
tical with the Thilmnatha of I Mace. ix. 50, which,
according to Jo.sephus ("Ant." xiv. 11, t^ 2; " B. J."
iv. 8, § 1), was the capital of a Jewish toparchy.

Bibliography: Guerin, ./ifrfrc, lil. 37; idem, Samaric, 11. 89
et xcq.\ Pal. Explor. Fund, Mcintiirs, II. 374 et tieq.; Idem.
Quarterly Slntement, 1H79, pp. IS} «-( se<i.: Z. D. P. V. 11. 13
et seq.; Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., 11. 181-18(5.
E. c. I. Be.

TIN. See Metals.

TIRADO, JACOB : Convert to Judaism in Am-
sterdam in the sixteenth century ; died in Jerusalem.
With several Marauos he sailed from Portugal in a
vessel which was driven out of its course to Enuien
in East Friesland. Following the advice of Habbi
Moses Uri ha-Levi, he continued his travels with his
companions to Amsterdam. After his arrival there
he confessed the Jewish faith openly, and afterward,
though advanced in years, underwent the rite of
circumcision.

Together with Jacob Israel Belmonte and Samuel
Palache, Tirado founded tlie Spanish -Portuguese
community of Amsterdam, being its first president.
Having ac([uired a house on the Houtgracht, lie
transformed it into a synagogue, which was called
after him "Bet Ya'akob," or "Casa de Jacob," and
was consecrated at the New-Year's festival, 5358
(=:Sept., 1597). Annually on Yom Kippur a spe-
cial prayer in his behalf is recited as an acknowl-
edgment of his important services to the community.
In his old age Tirado traveled to Jerusjilem, where
he died. See Moses Uhi b. Joseph ii.\-Levi.

BinMOGRAPMY: Pp Barrios, Cnsn dejnrnh. pp.,T.f xiv/.; Idem,
Ildariim dr Ills Piutn.-; p. ."vl; H. H. de Castro. De Sini<iiii>{je
ihr Piirlinieexch-Isratlitisvhe (ii nucule tc Amsterdam, pp.
5, 7 ; Griitz. Oesch. Ix., pp. Ixxxlil. ct tseq. '
s. M. K.

TIRHAKAH (npmn) : King of Ethiopia (i.e..
Nubia). When Sennaclierib and liis general (Hab-
shakeh) were besieging Lachish, Libnali, and Jeru-
salem, it was reiiortcd that Tirhakah was approach-
ing with an army to assist the Palestinians against
the Assyrian forces (II Kings xix. 9; I.sji. xxxvii. 9).

This kinir. the Tarakos of Maiietho (comp. "Tha-
raca." LXX. and Vulgate), the Tearkos of Strabo,
the Tharsikes of Josepliu.s, and tlie Tarku of the As-
syrian inscrijitions (written "Ta-h-ru-k" in liiero-
glvpiiics with strange v(u>alization ; tlie consonants
suggest as emendation a transposition of the second

Tirhakah
Tisza-Eszlar Affair

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

148

and third consonants in the Hebrew form), was the
third Pharaoh of the tweuty-tiftii or Ethiopian
dynast}' of Egypt. He was a usurper who tried
later to legalize liis usurpation by niairiage with the
widow of his predecessor, Shabataka(the Sebichos of
Mauetho). Assyrian reports assign his death to 668-
667 B.C. ; and Egyptian inscriptions state tiiat he
leigned twenty-six years (twenty or eighteen ac-
cording to Manctho). Thus his ascension to tlie
throne would fall in 694-093 B.C. (according to
others, his coronation occurred in 691 and his death
in 665).

Tiriiakah has left in Egypt many monuments, ex-
tending from Tunis to NapatiX, his capital in Nubia.
No line of his inscriptions speaks of the great wars
•which he had to ■wage, at least from 676. The
Assyrians, accusing him of having aided their rebel-
lious vassal, King Baal of Tyre, invaded Egj'pt in
that year, but their army was finally annihilated.
In 671, however, King Esarhaddou undertook an-
other expedition, invaded Egypt by way of Magdali
(perhaps the Biblical Migdol), defeated an army at
Iskhupri, and by two further victories drove Tirha-
kah out of Egypt. The twenty petty rulers (nom-
archs) among whom this country was distributed
by the Assyrians followed a treacherous course,
wavering between the Assyrians and Tirhakah, who
invaded Egypt again in 669 and occupied the land.
A third Assyrian army, however, was victorious at
Karbanit (in the northwest of the Delta), destroyed
the rebellious Sais, Mendes, and Tanis, and pursued
Tirhakah as far back as Thebes, which closed its
doors to the fugitive king. The energetic Ethiopian
rallied his troops for another campaign, and had
already forced Thebes to surrender, when he died.
His stepson and successor, Tandamani (thus the As-
syrian ; Tinwat-Amon in hieroglyphics; Tementhes
in Polyienus, "Strategica," vii. 3), made only one
more futile attempt to regain Egypt.

It will be seen from the above chronology that the
monumental data can not easily be harmonized with
the seemingly conflicting chronology of the Bible,
which mentions Tirhakah in 701 both as king
and as at war with the Assyrians. It is at present
not possible to explain this discrepancy ; the latest
attempt at an explanation is that of Prasek("Mit-
teilungcn der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft," 1903,
viii. 148), who holds that the Biblical passage con-
cerning Tirhakah referred originally to an expedition
in 691 or later, the report being misplaced in the
present text.

BiBi.inf;RAPHY : For the monuments of Tirhakah : Wiedemann.
(Itscli. ,lff/!/p/r)i.x, p. 59(J. For his a-scension to the tlirone:
.Maspero, Jfistoite Aiicieiuic. IWtil. lil. ;5til (with some reser-
vations). On ihecuneiform accounts : Wincliler. in Schrader,
K. A. 7'. 3d ed., pp. H8 ft sni. (also Mitlciluinicn ilf t'oc-
ilrrasiiitixclieii OescUsclioft, 1898, p. -"9; Altoricnlalische
FiirKcltHimot, p. 97).

E.G. W. yi. -M.

TIRZAH: 1. Ancient Canaanitish capita! (Josh,
xii. 24), whicli, from the context, seems to have
been situated in the northern part of tiie countrj".
Po.ssibly, therefore, it should be distinguished from
the Israelitish capital of the same name (1 Kings
xiv. 17; XV. 21. 33). which was made a royal city Ijy
Jeroboam I. (ih. xiv. 17), and which remained the
residence of the kinirs of Israel until Omri. Subse-

quently Tirzah is mentioned only as the center of
the revolution of Menahem (II Kings xv. 14, 16);
and even in this passage "Tirzah," on the basis of
the Septuagint text, should perliaps be read "Thar-
seila" anil be identified with the village of that
name, which, according to the "Ouomasticon " of
Eusebius, was a Samaritan town in Bashan, corre-
sponding to tiie modern Tsil.

The only information possessed concerning the
royal city of Tirzah, which is praised for its beauty
in Cant. vi. 4, is that it was situated in the district
of Zelophehad in the tribe of Z>Ianasseh (Num. xxvi.
33, xxvii. 1, xxxvi. 11; Josh. xvii. 3); but, since
neither Josephus nor the " Onomasticon " gives any
details regarding it, all identifications are uncertain.
Robinson considered it to be the site of the modern
Talluza, the Tarlusa of the Talmud, a town about
seven kilometers northeast of Nablus (Neubauer,
"G. T." p. 26S), while Condcr, on the other hand,
identified it with Tayasir, an ancient site with cav-
erns, tombs, and other remains, nineteen kilometers
northeast of Nablus. The translation of "Tirzah "
by "Tir'an" in the Targum to Cant. vi. 4 has led
other scholars to identify the place with the modern
Al-Tii'iih, which lies south of Nablus, although this
Tir'an may perhaps be represented rather by Tiii"'au,
northeast of Nazareth.

2. The youngest of the five daughters of Zelo-
phehad (Num. xxvi. 33).

E. c. I. Be.

TISHBI, ELIJAH. See Levita, Elijaii.

TISHBI, JUDAH BEN ELIJAH: Karaite
scliolarand liturgical poet; flourished at Belgrade in
the first half of the sixteenth century; grandson of
Abraham ben Judah. He copied and completed
the exegetical work of his grandfather, entitled
"Yesod Mikra," and was the author of liturgical
poems, several of which have been inserted in the
Karaite prayer-book ( "Siddur ha-Kera"im," ii. 215;
iii. 171, 172, 174). Judah was the copyist of the
" Yehi Me'orot," on the precepts attributed to Tobiah
ben Moses.

Bibi.iography: Pinsker,Likhute ^admonimiot,p.9S; Fiirst,
Gesch. des Kariiert. 11. 293". '

K. I. Bu.

TISZA-ESZLAR AFFAIR : Accusation of
ritual murder brought against the Jews of Tisza-
Eszlar, a Hungarian town situated on the Tlieiss.
On April 1, 1882, Esther Solymosi, a Christian
peasant girl fourteen years old, servant in the home
of Andreas Huri at Tisza-Eszlar, was sent on an
errand from which she did not return. The search
for her being fruitless, a rumor was circulated that
the girl had become a victim of religious fanaticism.
The agitations of the anti-Semites, whose leaders,
Onody of Tisza-Eszlar and Victor von Istoczi, had
in the House of Deputies proposed the expidsion of
the Jews, exercised a most pernicious influence upon
the country population. In the gen-
Origin of eral excitcnient which they stirred up
the Ac- and which led to bloody excesses in
cusation. many parts of Hungary, the suspicion
that the Jews had foully dealt with
the girl, in order to use her blood at the approach-
ing Passover (April 4), found ready credence; and

149

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tirhakah
Tieza-Eszlar Affair

on May 4 tlic alarmed niotlior arcuscd llu- Jews be-
fore tlie local judge of having killed her daughter,
aud urged him to hold an investigation.

On May 10 the county court of Nyiregliyiia/a sent
the notary Bary to act as examining judge at 'JMsza-
Eszlar. After having placed the susi)ected Jews
under the surveillance! of the police, Bary l)egan his
inciuiry with Samuel, the live-ycar-old son of the
synagogue sexton Josef Scharf. The babble of this
child, from whom by means of money i)resents and
pieces of sugar some women and girls had elicited
the statement that his father had called Esther into
liis house and pinioned her, and that the slaughterer
("shohel "') had cut oil' her head, was the point at
issue in all the proceedings. Before Bary the boy
stated that in the presence of his father and other
men the slaughterer had made an incision in the
girl's neck, while he himself and his brother Moriz
liad received the blood in a plate. The father, as
well as ]\I()riz,
who was nearly
fourteen years
old, and the
other suspected
persons, denied
any knowledge
of the disappear-
ance of the girl
aud of her con-
jectured mur-
der. On iVIay
19 Scharf and
his wife Avere
arrested ; Moriz
repeated his
statement, and

said in addition that he had never known anything
about the missing girl, not even from liearsay. On
the evening of that day Moriz was given in charge
of Kecszy, the commissary of safety, who took
him to his country house in Nagy-
"Confes- Falu, where the court clerk, Peczely,
sions " of received orders to watch over the
the Scharf boy's safety. Peczely, a brutish man
Children, who had served twelve years in jail
for murder, connived with liecszy to
make Moriz the instrument of a blood accusation.
Intimidated by cruelty and threats, the boy con-
fessed in the night that after Sabbath morning serv-
ice his father had called Esther to his Iiouse under
the i)rete.\t of reriuiring her to remove some candle-
sticks (an act forbiihlen to Jews on Saturday] ; that a
Jewish beggar, Hermaim Wollner, who lodged with
them, had led tiie girl to the vestibule of the syna-
gogue and felled her; and that, after having lui-
dressed her, two slaughterers, Abraham Buxbaum
and Leopold Braun, had held her Avhile another
slaughterer, Solomon Schwarz, incised her neck
with a large knife and emptied the blood into a pot.
These three men, applicants for the vacant position
of precentor and sliohet, had come to Tisza-Eszlar to
officiate on that particular Sabbath, and had, as the
boy said, remained in the synagogue after morning
service. All this, according to his confession, Mori/.
had observed througli the keyhole of the synagogue
door. During forty -five minutes that lie thus stood

Synagogue at Tisza-Eszlar, witli Home of Joseph Scharf.

(From a photograph.)

on watch, he saw also that after the operation a rag
was tied around the neck of the gill and her body
dressed again, in the jiresence of Samuel Lustig,
Abraham Ihaun, I.,azar Weis.ssteiu, and Adolf
Jiinger. The two conspirattjrs Hecszy and Peczely
immediately sent for the examining judge Bary,
before whom the same night Moriz rejx'ated his
account, adding thai, after the perpetrators had
left the scene of their crime he Iiad locked the syn-
agogue, and that neither tlu; corpse nor any blood
marks were to be found. With feverisli zeal Bary
ccmtinued his investigations in the synagogue and
houses and among the graves; but nowjiere could
any traces of the living or dead girl be disccjvered.
Twelve Jews were arrested on suspicion; aud Moriz
Scharf was given in charge of the jailer.

On June 18 there was drawn out of the River
Theiss near Dada a body which the district i)hy.si-
cian declared to be that of a fourteen-year-old girl,

and which many
■;"=— -~S: 5 recognized as

^g-^ Xo that of Esther

' T^ -^ -3 ^ Solymo.si. Her

mother, liow-
ever, emphatic-
ally denied that
it was Esther's
corpse, although
she afterward
recognized the
clothes in which
the body was
found as those
of her daughter.
A committee of
c .K p e r t s , two
physicians and one surgeon, declared that the
corpse was that of a girl eighteen to twenty
years of age, who had met with her death but
eight or ten days before. It was then buried in
the Catholic cemetery of Tisza-Eszlar. The anti-
Semites, among whom was the Catholic priest of the
town, insinuated that the body had been smuggled
in by the Jews and clothed in thegarmentsof Esther
Solymosi in order to conceal thecrimeof ritual mur-
der. Several of the raftsmen who had found the
body were induced by promises, threats, and cruel
treatment to revoke their former testimony and to
declare that they had brought the body to the river
aud that an unknown Jewess had furni.shed them
with the clothes in which they had dressed it. New
arrests were made; and the atlair, which had now
become a cause celC^bre, was considerably protracted.
On Jidy 29 formal accusations were nuide against
fifteen persons, as follows: Solomon Schwarz. Abra-
ham Buxbaum, Leopold Braun. and Hermann Woll-
ner, of minder; Josef Scharf. Atlolf Janger. Abra-
ham Braun. Samuel Lustig. Lazar Weissstein, and
Emanuel Taub, of voluntary assistance

Formal Ac- in the crime: Anselm Vogel. Jankel

cusations Smilovics. David llcrsko, Martin

Made. Gross, and Ignaz Klein, of abetting

the crime and smuggling the body.

The delay in the case was caused mainly by tlie

illegal and arbitrary acts of Bary. who conducted his

exaniinations without the aid of the state attorney.

Tisza-Eszlar Affair
Tithe

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

150

-wrote without witnesses the minutes of the proceed-
ings, and tortured the accused and suspected. By
order of the government, Moriz Scharf was given in
charge of the district baililT, wlio placed him in the
custody of the warden llenter; thus renuived from
contact with his coreligionists, lie was entirely under
the intiuence of their adversaries, and received in-
structions as to the testimony to be given by him at
the trial.

The accused were defended by Karl EotvOs, jour-
nalist and member of the House of Deputies, with
whom were associated the advocates B. Friedmann,
Alexander Funtak, Max Szekely of Budapest, and
Ignaz Heumann of Nyireghyhaza, the seat of the
county court before which the case was tried. In a
petition to Minister of Justice Pauler, E()tvos pro-
tested against the system of torture practised by Bary ,
Ueesz}-, and Peczely ; but this protest had little effect
upon that otlicial. The affair was so long drawn out
that State Attorney Kozma of Budapest went to Nyi-
reghyhaza in September to hasten the examination.
This dragging on of the proceedings attracted
general attention. The country was greatl}' agi-
tated. A number of pamphlets appealed to the pas-
sions of the people, and attempted to establish the
guilt of the accused. Louis Kossuth, then living in
exile at Turin, raised his powerful voice to castigate
the action of the authorities and to deprecate this
stirring up of medieval prejudices. The suspicion
of ritual murder, he considered, was a disgrace to
Hungary; to represent as a racial
Protest by crime or as a ritual crime a murder
Louis which at the worst was an individual
Xossuth. one was, he said, unworthy of modern
civilization. This cry of indignation
from the veteran patriot was strangely in contrast
with the fury of persecution and prejudice which
raged throughout the country and which was
echoed in the House of Deputies. An interpellation
addressed to the minister of justice by the deputy
Ernest Mt;zEi in Nov., 1882, called forth exciting
scenes. The attorney-general Havas was then sent
to Nyireghyhaza, and he found that, despite the
official declaration of the examining judge, the ac-
cused had not had a single hearing. He released
some prisoners; but, realizing that he was hampered
by powerful influences in his endeavor to accelerate
the affair, he offered his resignation, which was
readily accepted.

In the middle of November the wife of Josef
Scharf was .set free, her husband and the other pris-
oners being still detained. At the request of the de-
fending lawyers the body found in the Theiss was
exhumed (Dec. 7) and reexamined by three professors
of medicine at the University of Budapest— Schen-
thauer, Belky, and Mihalkovics. They foimd that
the opinion of the members of the former committee
of examination had no .scientific basis, and later, be-
fore the court, the\' taxed them with
Esther's gross ignorance: the body was too
Corpse much decayed to allow a positive
Exhumed, judgment. The fact that the corpse
was not claimed by any one, left no
doubt in their opinion, however, that it was that
of Esther Solymosi ; and as the neck was not cut,
no ritual murder could have been committed.

On June 17, 1883, the last act in this shameful
affair began before the court of Nyireghyhaza.
Judge Francis Korniss presided, Eduard Sze3'ff"ert
acting as state attorney. Although the testimony
of Moriz Scharf was the only basis of the accu.Sii-
tion, the court held thirty sessions to examine the
case in all its details; and many witnesses were
heard. The glaring contradictions of the boy de-
spite the careful training he had received, and the
fal-siiy of his accusation as exposed by a local in-
spection of the alleged scene of the murder made b}'
the court in Tisza-Eszlar on July IG, resulted, as
was inevitable, in the imanimous acquittal of the
accused (Aug. 3). Szalay, the attorney for the
widow Solymosi, in a speech full of bitter in-
vectives, appealed against the decision ; but the
supreme court rejected his appeal and confirmed the
verdict of the county court.

The youthful accu-serwhom the maneuvers of the
anti-Semites had alienated from his faith and his
coreligionists, and whose filial feelings they had
suppressed, returned to his parents, who gladly re-
ceived him. Moriz fully redeemed his past: he sup-
ported his father until the death of the latter (1905).

The verdict of acquittal and the deliverance of
the prisoners, most of whom had languished lifteen
months in prison, were the signal for
Acquittal uprisings in Presburg, Budapest, and
of the other parts of Hungary. The specta-
Accused. tors who thronged the court-house
during the sessions, and among whom
Onody, the representative of Tisza-Eszlar in the
House of Deputies, was most conspicuous, con-
ducted themselves scandalously during the proceed-
ings: they insulted the prisoners, threatened the
witnesses and lawyers for the defense, and exhibited
intense passion, prejudice, and hatred.

bibliography: AUg. Zeit. de^Jnd. 1882-83, 1884. p. 248; Die
Neuzcit, 1882-83; Der Blutprozejis von Twza-E.sz/ar, New
York, 1883: Paul Nathau, Dcr Prozess von Tiiiza-Eazlar,
Berlin, 1892.

s. S. Man.

TITHE ("iK'yD) : The tenth part of anything,
appropriated as tax or sacrifice. — Biblical Data:
Tithing one's possessions was a very ancient cus-
tom, existing as early as the time of the Patriarchs.
Abraham gave ]\Ielchizedek "tithes of all " (Gen.
xiv. 20); and Jacob made a vow that if he should
return to his father's house in safety he wouKl ac-
knowledge Yiiwii as his Lord and would give Him
a tenth of everything he possessed (ib. xxviii. 20-
22). Later the Mosaic law made the tithe obligatory
upon the Israelites. The tithe, whether of the seed
of the land or of the fruit of the tree, belonged
to YiiwH and consequently was holy. It was re-
deemable by "adding thereto the fifth part there-
of." The tithe of cattle, however, was not redeem-
' able; and if one beast was exchanged for another i)oth
i)ecame holy unto the Lord. The method of levying
the tithe of cattle is indicated: they were counted
singly ; and every tenth one that passed under the
rod became the tilhe animal (Lev. xxvii. 30-33).

There is apparently a discrepancy between the
Book of Numbers and that of Deuteronomy with
regard to the tithe. In Num. xviii. 21-26 it is stated
that "all the tenth in Israel " is given to the Levites
"for an inheritance"; as they had no part in the

161

THE JEWISH E^X"YCLOPEDIA

Tisza>£Bzlar Affair
Tithe

land, the tithe was to be tlieir principal source of
sustenance. On the other hand, the Levites tlieni-
selvcs were rcqiiireci to give the priests a tenth of all
the tithes received by them. Deut. xiv. 22-29, how-
ever, enjoins the annual tithing of the increase of
the lielil only ; this was to be eaten before the Lord,
tliat is to say, in the city in which the Temple
was built. But if the distance to such city was so
great as to render the transportation of all the
tithes impracticable, the people might convert the
tithe into money and spend the sum in the city on
eatables, etc. ("whatsoever thy soul desireth"; ib.
vcr.se 2(5). Every third 3'ear the tithes were not to
be carried to the city of the Temple, but were to be
stored at home (" within thy gates "), and " the
Levite, tlie stranger, an<l the fatherless, and the
widow " were to "eat and be satisfied " {ib. verse 29).
It is to be concluded that, the seventh year being a
Suhbatical year and no tithing being permissible
therein, iJie tithe of the tirst, second, fourth, and
tilth years of every cycle of seven j'ears had to be
1 nought to the Temple and eaten by the landowner
;iiid his family, while the tithe of the third and sixth
years was to be left at home for the poor.

The third year was called the year of tithing; and
after the distribution of the tithe among the Levites
and others, the landowners were required to an-
nounce solemnlv before the Lord that they had ob-
served all the laws connected therewith, concluding
such declaration with a prayer for God's blessing
{ib. .\xvi. 12-13). A mourner was not allowed to eat
the tithe, nor might one employ it for any unclean
use, nor give it for the dead.

Samuel informed, the Israelites that they would
have to give a tenth of everything to the king (I
Sam. viii. 15, 17). When the Israelites afterward
fell into idolatry, they continued to bring their tithes
to the temple of their idols; but they seem to have
adopted another system of offering them (comp.
Aniosiv.4, Hebr. and R. V.). King Hezekiah again
imposed the tithe on his subjects; and the people of
Judah brought it in abundance, apparently for the
use of the Levites. Indeed, the quantity was so
great that the king ordered special chambers in the
Temple to be prepared for its reception (II Chron.
xxxi. 6-12). The same arrangement was made later
by Neiieniiah (Neh. x. 39, xiii. 12).

.1. M. Sel.

In Rabbinical Literature : According to the

Uabliis, the Hooks of Numbers and Deuteronomy
are complementary to each other (comp. Tithk,
Bim.ic.M. D.vT.\); consequently there can be no
contradiction between them. Tiius there were
three kinds of titlies: (1) that given to the Levites as
stated in Num. xviii. 21 et secj., and termed "the hrst
tithe" ("maaser rishon"); (2) the tithe which was
to be taken to Jerusalem and there consumed by the
landowner and his family, and which was termed
"the second lithe " (" ma'aser sheni "), it being taken
from what remained after the first tithe had been
appropriated; and (3) that given to the poor ("ma-
'aser "aiii"). Therefore two tithes were to betaken
every year except in the seventh year: Nos. 1 and
Sin the first, second, fourth, and fifth years; Nos.
1 and 3 in the tliird and sixth years.
The Rabbis inferred from Deut. xiv. 22 that each

tithe was to be taken of every year's produce sep-
arately, whetiier of crops, of cattle, or of anything
else subject to tithing (Sifre, Deui. 10.0; Ter. i. 5;
It. II. 8a, 12b). Also they fixed a par-
The licular day to mark tlic beginning of

Tithing the year for titiiing. The first of Elul
Year. according to R. MeVr. or the first of
Tishri according to R. Eleazar and R.
Simeon, is the new year for the tithing of cattle;
the lirst of Tishri, for the produce of the land; the
first of Shebat according to the school of .Sliammai,
or the fifteenth of Sheba^^ according to the school of
Ilillel, for the fruit of the trees (U. H. i. 1). The
removal of the tithes and the recitation of the con-
fession (comp. Deut. xxvi. 12 et seq.) must take place
on the eve of the Passover festival of the fourth and
seventh years of every cycle of seven years. Al-
though the removal is mentioned only with regard to
the tithe of the poor, tiie Rabbis concluded that the
other two tithes must also be cleared away ai the
same time (Sifre, Deut. 109), The Rabbis fixed the
following rules by which one might distinguish
tithable produce: it must be eatable, the property
of an individual, and the product of the soil. Fruit
must be ripe enough to be eaten; when one eats un-
tithed fruit in an immature state, he is not guilty of
having transgressed the Law (Ma'as. i. 1 et seq.).
As appears from tiie Bible, the law of tithing was
originally to be applied in Palestine only; the
Prophets, however, ordained that tithing should be
observed in Babylonia also, it being near Palestine.
The earlier rabbis applied the law of tithing to
Egj'pt and to the lands of Ammon and Moab (Yad.
iv. 3); and the scribes seem to have instituted tithes
in Syria (Dem. vi. 11; corap. Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh
De'ah, 331, 1 et seq.).

The Rabbis emphasize in more than one instance
the importance of tithes. Tithing is one of tlie three
things through the merit of which the world was
created (Gen. R. i. 6), and by virtue of which the
Israelites obtain from God their desire (Pesik. xi.
96b; Tan., Re'eh). Through the merit of tit lies. also,
the Israelites after death escape the
Merit of punishment which the wicke<l suffer
the Tithe, for twelve months in hell (Pesi^. xi.
97b-98a; Midr. Mishle xxxi.). The
Patriarchs observed the law of tithing, concerning
which statement there are two different accounts:
(1) Abraham offered the first tithe, Isaac brought the
iieave-offering for the priests ("terumah gedolah ").
and Jacob brought the second tithe (Pesik. R. 2.5 (ed.
Friedmann, p. 1271)]); (2) Abraham presented the
heave-offering, I.saac offered the second tithe, and
Jacob brought the first one (Pesik. xi. 98a: comp.
Gen. R. Ixiv. 6; Num. R. xii. 13; Pirke R. El.
xxvii., xxxiii.). He who partakes of fruit that has
not been tithed is like one who eats carrion; and
Judah ha-Nasi's opinion is that one who eats fruit
of which the tithe for the poor has not been appro-
priated is deserving of death (Pesik. xi. 99a. b).
One of the interpretations of Prov. xxx. 4 is that
he who fulfils the duty of tithing causes rain to falL
and that he who fails therein causes drought ( Talk..
, Prov. 962). Non-fultilment of the law of tithing
i brings hurricanes (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xviii.).
i The tithe for the poor gave rise to the tithing

Tithe
Title-Page

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

152

of one's earnings, with the object of distributing
among the needy tlie sum so appropriated. This is
inferred in Sifre (quolt-d iu Tus. to Tuan. 9a) from
Dent. xiv. 23, and is therefore considered as an obli-
gatit>n imposed by the iMosaic kw("Ture Zahab " to
Shuihan "Aruk, Yureh Dt-aii, 349, 1 ; comp. Isaiali
Horwitz, "SheneLuhot ha-Beril," and Joseph Ilahn,
" Yosef Omez," p. 176, Frankfort -on-the-Maiu. 1728).
Joel Sirkes iu his "Bayit Hadash " (to Shuihan
'Aruk, I.e.), however, thinks that tithing ones earn-
ings is simply a custom and is not obUgatory eitiier
under the 3Ios;iic or under the rabbinical law. The
whole of the tithe must be given to the poor; and
no part of it may be appropriated to any other relig-
ious purpose (Sliulhan "Aruk, I.e., Isserles' gloss).
W. 15. M. Sel.

Critical View : There are evidently two con-

flictinir sources with regard to tithes. D mentions

That the tithe spoken of in D, and which is termed
b}' the liabbis "the second tithe" (see Tithe i.\
]{.\B];iNRAL LiTEii.vTi HE), is more ancient iias
been concluded by W. K. Smith (" Kcl. of Sem." 2d
ed., pp. 245 et seq.), who, moreover, thinks that in
earlier times the tribute was not a li.ved amount, but
that it took the form of first-fruits, and that at a
later period a tithe was ti.xed to provide the public
banquets at sacred festivals. Subseciuently the
tithe became the prerogative of the king (I Sam.
viii. 15, 17); but from the Book of Amos (iv. 4) it
appears that in the time of that ])rophet the Israelites
paid tithes for the use of their sanctuaries in the
Northern Kingdom, as, similarly, in the Persian
period the tithes were converted to the u.se of the
Temple of Yiiwn (Mai. iii. 8-10). Those instituted
by Nehemiah for payment to the Levites were a
development of the heave-olTering ("terumali")

ri:U?3 3N UrinD UT3DU

Titlk-Pa(;e ok Tractate Mknahot, Pri.vtkd by Uaxiei. Bombkuu, Venice, IK-.

(From the SuUberKer collection in the Jewish Theological Seinioary of .America, New York.)

only the tithes of corn, wine, and olive-oil, which
were to be levied every year and to be eaten by the
landowner in the Holy City in the first, second,
fourth, and fifth years of every Sabbatical cycle,
while in the third and sixth 5'ears they were to be
distributed among the Levites, strangers, orphans,
and widows (Deut. xii. 16, xiv. 22 ei seq.). P, on
the other hand, destines this tithe for the Levites
(Num. xviii. 21 et seq.); and, in a probably late ad-
dition (Lev. xxvii. 30-33), tithing is extended to the
fruit of the trees and to cattle also. It is true that
in I) the Levites, too, have a share in the tithe
(Deut. xii. 18; comp. xiv. 27); but the owner's in-
vitation to tlie Levite to partake thereof seems to
have been voluntary. It may be noticed that in
the priestly part of the Book of Ezekiel (xliv. 15
et ser/.) there is no mention whatever of a tithe
appointed for the Levites. Nehemiah instituted
suchatithe; and he directed that the Levites should
give a tithe of their portions to the priests (see
TiTHK, BiniJCA,!. D.\TA). Hence it may be con-
cluded that the passages in Numbers and Leviticus
regarding tithes were written under the influence of
the Book of Nehemiah.

given to the priests. Not only do the terms
"teruniah" and"ma'aser" often occur together in
the Old Testament, but it is stated in Neh. x. 87 tt
seq. that the Levites were required to collect tlieir
tithes under the supervision of a priest. R. Eleazar
b. Azariali held tliat tlie first titlie might also be paid
to the piiest (Yeb. 86b).

Comparing verse 30 with verse 33 of Lev. xxvii.,
it may be concluded that the tithe of cattle was to
go to the priests or the Levites. This was the opin-
ion of l^hilo ("De Pra?miis Sacerdotum," §2 [cd.
Mangcy, ii. 234]); but the Babbis refer the whole
passage to the second tithe (Sifre, Deut. G3; Hag.
i. 4; Men. vii. 5).

.1. M. Ski,.

TITLE-PAGE : Hebrew incunabula, like iikiiiu-
scripts, were mostly provided with coloplioiis, wliicii
served as title-iiagcs. The title of the Soncino edi-
tion of Berakot, 1483, is given in the printer's colo-
phon. The title-page of Urn Gabirol's (or Jedaiali
Bedersi's ?) " Mibhar ha-Peninim " (Soncino, 1484) is
preceded by a siiort preface. In Nal.imaiiides' com-
mentary on the Pentateuch (Lisbon, 1489) the ti-
tle, "Hiddushe Torah," precedes the preface. In

TITLE-PAGK of "SEFSR NlZZAl.lUN," ALTUORF, i6U,
(From the Suliberger collection io the Jewish Theologlcil Semiosry of Anierlca, New York.J

Title-Page

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

154

"Seder Im-Tahauunira Aslier Nahagu Bene Roma "
(= The Order of Devotious According to the Cus-
tom of Rome) the title is given in the colophon
(Soncino, 1487). lu David Kimhi's "Sefer lia-
Shorashim" (Naples. 14yi) the title, on the first
page, is surrounded by a wood-engraving.

In the early sixteenth century the colophon still
predominated. The title of the "Sefer Minhag
Abot," the condensed liturgical code of Zedekiah b.
Abraham's " Shibbole ha-Leket." appears in the colo-
phon (Mantua, 1514). About this period the titles
of books began to
appear on the first
page, next to the
cover. In the first
complete Babylo-
nian Talmud, which
was printed by
Bomberg in Venice,
1520-23, the title on
the first page oc-
cupies a narrow
space of five lines,
a little above the
center, and, trans-
lated, reads: " Mas-
seket Niddah, witii
Commentaries of
Rashi, Tosafot, Ex-
tracts of Decisions
in Tosafot, Com-
mentary on the
Mishnah by Mai-
monides. Commen-
tary and Decisions
by Asheri. Printed
by Daniel Bomberg,
in the year 5289, in
Venice." Soon,
however, the titles
began to occupy
the entire page,
some being bor-
dered with orna-
mental wood- or
metal - engravings
of flowers, or of
Moses, Aaron, Da-
vid, and Solomon,
or of angels, deer,
and lions. The
original engravings
were sometimes
used by non -Jewish
artists, which ac-
counts for the non-Jewish character of some of
tlic title-pages. Tiie borders included the print-
er's device and marks. The printers at Prague
in the sixteenth century decorated tiicir title-
pages in the .style of an illuminated manuscript.
As a popular title-page design, the entrance to
the Temple, above which wjis inscribed "This
gate of the Lord, into which the righteous shall
enter" (Ps. cxviii. 20), with the i)iilars of .Tachin
and Boaz. occupied high rank. The Amsterdam,
1G66, "Tikkun," for night reading, has an engraved

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title-page with a representation of Shabbethai
Zebi and his disciples. Isaac Aboab's " Menorat
ha-Ma'or" (Amsterdam, 1722) has a
Decora- very elaborately engraved title-page.
tions. Maimonides' "Sefer ha-Mi?\vot"
(with Judaio-German translation by
J. Landau, Prague, 1798) has the entire first title-
page, including the title and inscription of the
book, engraved, and contains the figures of
David and Solomon, the Levites' musical instru-
ments, the Ark, and the candlestick.

Frequently two
title- pages were
used, the first being
ornamented and
giving the name
and contents of the
book in general
terms, the second
giving a fuller de-
scription in plain
type. The Amster-
dam, 1679, edition
of the Bible, which
has a Juiheo-Gcr-
man translation, has
a second engraved
title-page. Often
the title-page was
artistically very at-
tractive; the largest
types were u.sed for
the title. The Tal-
mud published by
Schapira in Siobuta

V*i *ti m» ■aynir ma.

(1817-22) gives the

*N Cum licctyw fupcciotura.,, ,

._ : .— '■"-. -fVl

(From the Sulzberger collection In the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, Ne

titles of the treatises
and the special com-
mentaries (not
printed in former
editions) and the
name of Siobuta in
red. In the second
Siobuta edition,
1834-36 (only Bera-
kot, Shabbat, and
'Erubiu being pub-
lished), there were
two title-pages,
some lines being in
red and some in
black ; the Wilna-
Grodno edition
(1832-52) followed
this style. The
the title-page is .sometimes spaced and
ciowded. Tlie Venice Abudarham of

■ York.)

matter on
sometimes

1566 has the author's preface of eighteen lines on the
title-page. Josliuji Faik Cohen's " Abne Yehoshua',"
the first rabbinical work [niblished in America (New
York, 1860), has the desciiption of the contents, on
the title-page, set in the form of a triangle. A num-
ber of modern books use vowel-points on the title-
page.

Some title-pages misrepresent the contents of the
book. The title-page of the Bomberg Pentateuch,

Iiiliim.i.,, 'r.'uiiiiiiilii. irli;:i imi n'Huufw. i.,| ii,;ii,r. |...n;-iiiii. i,. ..jiji. ;i

--jaL^.J,^>^,..A^:^.i;..V.A. .,^:.:>!i..-'U.\^ ■^'■^fi^i

Titi.k-Pagk of Biiu.k. AMSTKKDAM. lt)T9.

(From the Suliberger collection lu Ihf Jewiih Theologksl SeDiluiry of Anirrlc*. Nrw York.)

Title-Pagre

Titles of Hebrew Books

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

156

Veuice, 1524, calls for Ibu Ezra's commentary on
the Five Rolls, which, however, is not in the book.
The same thing occurred in the case of Isaac Abra-
vanel's commentary on the Meirillot (Venice, 1573).
Judah ha-Levi's "Cuzari," with translation and
commentary by David Cassel (Leipsic, 1853), Las a
second title-page, dated 1841, which states that part
of the commentary was written conjointly by II.
.lolowicz and D. Cassel. Moses Hayyim Luzzatto's
"Migdal Oz" {ib. 1854) mentions " F. Deiitzschii
prolegomena" in the title-page, but the latter is not
included in the book.

Some old works were supplied with new title-
pages. Elijah Levita's "Scfer ha-Tishbi " (Isny,
1541) was given a new title-page and preface at

Title-Page from a Shabbkthaian "Tikkdn,'
Amsterdam, c. 1666.

(From the SDlzb#rf;er collection In the Jftvish Theological Seniinary of Arnericn,
Ntw York.)

Basel in 1557. The title-page bearing the imprint
of Frankforl-on-tiie-Oder, 1595, covers tlie edition
of Wittenberg, 1587, by Crots. Tiie "Yosippon,"
with the title-page of Leipsic, 1710, is the old
edition of Gotiia, 1707. The commentary of Abra-
vanel on the Early Prophets with the title-page of

3»> D!)V)3

Title-Page from a Miniature Stdilur,
Anisterdarn, 1728.

(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish
Theological Seminary of America, New York.)

Frankfort-on-the-^Iain, 1736, is the Leipsic edition
of 1686. Tliis ileviceof changing the title-page was
probably due to tiie bookseller's desire to mislead
the purchaser; or perhaps the old title-pages were
missing and were
replaced by a sec-
ond printer. Still
it is difficult to e.v-
])lain why one edi-
tion of a certain
date and place
should have various
title-pages, as in the
("ase of Ibii Sliu-
'aib's"KolBokim,"
a commentary on
Lamentations (Ven-
ice, 1589), and Hay-
yim Abraham Os-
trosii's "Sefer Ben
le-Abraham " (Salo-
nica, 1826), some
copies of which
read "Sefer Ben
Abraham," omit-
ting tiie " le " ; per-
haps the printer dropped that letter from the form
before he liad linislied llie edition.

Some of the errors in the title-pages affect tlie
name of the author. In i\Ioses b. Elijah Galina's
"llokmat ha-Parzuf" (Amsterdam, 1658) the name
reads "Elijah ben Closes." In Elijah Alfandari's
"Seder Eliyahu Kabbah," responsa (Constantinople,
1719), the name " Shabbethai " on the title-page is

an error. Mistakes in dates of piiblica-

Errors in tion, especially in acrostics, are nu-

Names and merous. Sometimes the date on the

Titles. title-page is dilTereut from tliat in tiie

colophon, or the two title-pages dis-
agree. For example, the Amsterdam, 1705, edition
of the Bible has a second title-page dated 1700-8.
Elijah b. Joseph Trillinger's "Mishnat R. Eli'ezer"
(Fiankfort-on-the-Oder, 1707) gives tlie correct date
in the coloplion, but on the title-page of the tirst
volume the date 1655 is given in acrostic. On some
title-pages the dates are incorrectly given, as in the
Tur Hoshen Mishiiat r)f Venice, 1567, in which the
date given is 5027, instead of 5327. A similar mistake
occurred in Joseph b. Hayyim Jabez's commentary
on the Psalms (Salonica. 1571), in which the words
"Shelosh Me'ot " (= "three hundred ") arc omitted.

BinMOfiRAPiiv : De Vinne, Title-Pa^es as Seen hy a Priutcr,
New York. 1901.

.T. J. D. E.

TITLES OF HEBREW BOOKS : In Hebrew

literature, Ixioks, with few exceptions, are recog-
nized by their titles independently of their authors'
names. Citations from ami references to the " Pene
Yehoshua'," or "Sha'agat Aryeh," are often made
by students who neither know nor care to knf)w the
name of the author. Hence the bibliographer's first
aim is the listing of Hebrew books by their titles
ratlier than by the names of tlieir authors.

The titles of the Biblical books are said to have been
decided by the Great Assembly, headed bj' Ezra.
"Torah," "Nebi'im," and "Ketublm " (Pentateuch,

fi6«ew4vici i8w»«» <;<»«.*.■ c-«»»'i<yaM.aQi6aiii>><.v>fcioBfcoa«»aaaai^fcco

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1 51

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•< -

Titles of Hebrew Books

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

158

Prophets, aiul Ilagiographa) were the titles given
to the principal divisions. The Torali was subdi-
vided into five "fifths." entitled " Ilainislishah
Humshe Torah " (Hag. 14a). The Book of E.xodiis
\vas called " Honiesli Slieni" (Second Fifth), and
Numbers, " Hoinesh ha-Pekudim " (Fifth of the
Numbered; Sotah 36b). The Minor Prophets were
known as the "Shenem 'Asar" (The Twelve), and
Chronicles as "Dibre ha-Yamim" (The Events of
the Days; B. B. 14a).

In a later period the five "books of Moses" re-
ceived respectively the titles "Bereshit," "Shemot,"
" Wayikra," '-Beinidbar," and " Debarim," these be-
ing merely the first important words in

Biblical the five books; while the separate
Titles. sections of the Talmud and the dif-
ferent midrasliic works became known
by titles iudiaiting cither their contents or the gen-
eral nature of their relation to the Law. The Misli-
nah and Gemara togetlier form the Talmud, i.e.,
the '"Study," "Teaching."

In the geonic period, besides the collections of re-
sponsa and codes called " Halakot Pesukot," or " Ha-
lakot Gedolot" (halakic decisions credited to Judah
Gaon), there Avere Saadia Gaon's "Sefer ha-Emunot
we ha-De"ot " (Book of Creeds and Opinions), Ilai
Gaon's "^Mikkah u-Mimkar" (Buying and Selling),
and Amram Gaon's " Seder," or " Siddur." The title
" Reumah " is curious for a work on "shehitah " by
Nahshon Gaon; but thisise.x|ilaine(l by Reifmann to
be a misprint, the proper title being " Re'u Mali "
(See What), the two words beginning the te.xt.

Immediately after the geonic period the works of
legal authorities were known by their authors'
names— Alfasi, RaMBa.M (Mainionides), Mordecai,
Asheri. Tiie commentators Rashi, Ibn Ezra,
RaSHBaM, Abravanel, and others gave no other
title tlian " Perush " (exposition, commentary) to
their works. Later, the titles of the books again took
the place of the authors' names, and references were
made to the "Ba'al ha-Turim," the "Ba'al ha-Lebu-
shim," the "Bet Yosef," and the "Shulhan 'Aruk";
among the few exceptions in later times were the
works of AVilna Gaon and R. Akiba Eger. Cabalis-
tic books bear fanciful and highly poetical titles:
" Zohar " (Brightness), formerly known as the " Mid-
rash of R. Simeon b. Yohai"; "Bahir" (Shining);
"Ra'ya Mehemna " (True Shepherd) ;" Sifra diZe-
ni'uta" (Book of Secrets); " Liljiiat lia-Sappir " (Sap-
phire Paving); " Ginnat Bitan " (Garden of the Pal-
ace); "Bat Melek" (Daughter of the
Cabalistic King) ; " 'Ez llayyim " (tree of Life).
Books. General titles were given to certain
classes of literature, such as "Tosa-
fot " (additions or glosses to the Talmud, chiefly by
French rabbis), " Poskim" (decisions), " Hiddushim "
(novella; on halakic subjects), and •'Derushim"
(notes on haggadic expositions). The "She'elot
u-Teshubot" (responsa) bear sometimes the name of
the author, .sometimes a special title. In modern
times "Bi'ur" (explanation) has replaced the title
"Perush."

Most Hebrew titles are catchwords or familiar
Biblical jihrases; some have reference to the name
of the author; for example, "Zera' Abraham"' or
" Zera' Yi/.hak " (Seed of Abraham, or Isaac). " Helel

ben Shahar " (" Lucifer, son of the morning " ; Isa.
xi V. 12) is appropriated by an author whose first name
is Hillel. " Derek Ouiyyah " (" the way of a ship " ;
Prov. XXX. 19) is due to the surname of the author
being "SchifT" (ship). One author by the name of
Cohen made the titles of all his works refer to that
name, all beginning with a " waw " : " We-Shab ha-
Koheu " ("And the priest shall come again"; Lev.
.\iv. 39); "We-lle'erik Oto ha-Kohen " ("and the
priest shall value him"; Lev. xxvii. 8); "We-llish-
shab-Lo ha-Kohen" ("And the priest shall reckon
unto him"; Lev. xxvii. 18, Hebr.). SamuelJalTe chose
as titles for his works Biblical ]ihrases begininng
with his name; thus, " Yefeh "Enayim " (Beautiful
Eyes), "Yefeh Kol" (Beautiful Voice), etc. "Elef
ha-Magen " ("a thousand bucklers"; Cant. iv. 4) is
the title of a work by Moses Galante containing a
thousand responsa. The title of one of Azulai's
books is " Debash le-Fi " (Honey to My :Mouth), " De-
BaSh" being the abbreviation of " David ben Sarah."
Lipschutz's "Tif'eret Yisracl " contains references
to his own name and to the numerical
Special values of the names of his father, chil-
Ex- drcn, and grandchildren (see his intro-

pedients. duction toTohorot). Most of the Bib-
lical phrases used as titles have no re-
lation to the names of the authors of the works, as in
the case of " Ba-Urim Kabbedu Ynwii "(" Glorify
ye the Lord in the fires" ; Isa. xxiv. 15), the title of
a conunentary on Rashi on the Pentateuch.

Some authors found titles in the nomenclature of
the Tabernacle — its accessories, the vestments of the
priests, the various ingredients of the incense — and
the names of flowers, fruits, wines, and oils. Morde-
cai JalTe is the author of the " Lebushim" (Garments),
divided into "Lebush Tekelet" (Blue Apparel),
"Hur" (White), "Buz we-Argaman " (Linen and
Purple), "'Ateret Zahab " (Crown of Gold), " ' Ir
Shushan " (" the city of Shushan " ; based on Esth.
viii. 15). It made little dilference whether the
title had or had not any bearing on the contents of
the book so long as it appealed to the fancy of
the author. Abraham Jacob Papcrna, in criti-
cizing this method, said that if the custom of choos-
ing Biblical phrases at random were continued,
it would soon be po.ssible to read the whole Bible by
collecting and arranging Hebrew book-titles. Ac-
cording to a popular belief, the Messiah will appear
v.'hen that has been done ("Kankaii Hadasli Male
Yashan," p. 24, Wiina. 1867). Authors borrowed
also Talnuidical phrases, such as the one just
quoted, which means "A New Vessel Full of Old
[Wine]" (Ab. iv. 2!)), and "Emat Mafgia' 'al Ari "
(The Lion's Fear of the Gnat; see Shab. 77b), the
title of a counter-criticism by Benamozegh of Leon
of ^Modena's" Ari Nohem " (The Howling Lion),
an attack upon the Zohar.

The relation of a commentary to a text is .some-
times indicated by a similarity in titles; Mainion-
ides' "Mishneh Torah" was followed
Self- by Caro's commentary " Kesef ^lish- i

Flattery in neh " (Double Money), De 15oton's |'
Titles, " Leheni Mishneh " (Double Bread), and

Judah Rosanes' "Mishneh Ic-Meiek " i,
(Vice-King). Caro's Shulhan 'Aruk (Table Pre- I'
pared) is covered by Isserles' "Mappah" (Table-

■ "^■■'."f .i.p

^jE^dSFUSAJSYSM'y^^^ l^:^B

ttntmwTwitnr©

TITLE-PAGE IMITATING VIGNETTES IN HEBREW MaXISCRIPTS.

(From GiiMburg'. •' Ornamentation de. Anci.u. M.nuvripU," Su P.Ur.burK. 1»0I.)

Titles of Hebrew Books
Titles of Honor

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

160

cloth), annotations. Caro himself annotated his
"Bet Yosef" (House of Joseph) in his"Bedek ha-
Bj\vit" (Breach in the House). In his eagerness to
embellish his work \Yith a beautiful Biblical phrase
an author rarely hesitated, on the score of modesty,
to select such a title as "Zeh Yenahamenu " (He
[This] Shall Comfort Us) or "Malok mi-Debash"
(Sweeter than Honey). Highly extruvagaul titles,
especiallj' when referring to nobles or kings, some-
times aroused the suspicion of a government. This

was so in the case of Yom-Tob Lip-
Eulogistic mann Heller's commentaries on Asheri
Titles. which he entitled " Ma'adanne Melek"

(Royal Dainties) and "Lehem Hamu-
flot" (Pleasant Bread [from the King's Table]; see
Dan. X. 3; the Prague, 1628, edition), the author
being accused of treasonable pretcn.sions. Conse-
quently the publishers of the edition of Fiirth, 1745,
were compelled to change the titles to " ^la'adaiine
Yom-Tob" (Dainties of Yom-Tob) and "Dibre Ha-
mudot " (Pleasant Words).

On the other hand, some authors to<ik pains to
select titles that would indicate the nature of the
contents of their books, as in the works "Agur"
(Gatherer); " Kol Bo" (All in It), collections of litur-
gical minhagim ; " Keueset ha-Gedolah " (Great As-
sembly), a digest of all the responsa in the order of the
Turim ; " Torat ha-Keua'ot" (Law of Jealousies), rules
for polemics; and "Shebet le-Gew Kcsilim " (Rod
for the Fool's Back), the last-named being a severely
censorious work. Perhaps the most appropriate
titles are those used in memorial and eulf)gistic
works. The Talmudical treatise "Ebel Rabbati "
(Great Mourning) later received the euphemistic
title '• Semahot " (Joys). The modern manual for
mourners is similarly called "Sefer ha-Hayyim"
(Book of the Living). Tiie book of recitations and
prayers in commemoration of Simeon b. Y'ohai
is called "Hillula Rabbah" (Grand Celebration).
Others have such titles as "Alion Bakut" (Gen.
x.vxv. 8), "Ebel Kabed " (Grievous Mourning),
"Ebel Mosheh " (Mourning for Moses), "Misped
Mar" (Bitter Wailing), "Kol Nehi" (Voice of
Lamentation), " Kol Bokim " (Voice of Crying),
"'Emek ha-Baka" (Valley of Baca; see Ps. Ixxxiv.
6). Some books have two Hebrew titles, and others
have one in Hebrew and one in another language,
references being made to either.

The repetition of the same title bj' various au-
thors is a source of annoyance and confusion 1o the
bibliograpiier. Benjacob, in his " Ozar haSefarim "
(up to 1863), records no less than 27 ])Ooks entitled
" 'Ez Hayyim " ; 2(J entitled " Shir Yedidut " ; 16 en-
titled "Zofnat Pa'aneah "; 15 entitled " Lcshon Lini
mudim"; 14 each entitled " Keter Torah," "Lekali
Tob," "Maamar Mordekai," " Mekor Havyim,"
"Sefat Emet"; 13 each called " Heshek Shelomoli,"
"Safali Berurah"; 12 eacli entitled " Ebon Bohan,"
"Derek Hayyim," "Mikweh Yisrad"; and there arc
twenty other titles each of which is used for from 8
to 12 books.

Bini.IOfiRAPnv: Df'Irnwlipo. Tii'hinat Jin-Dat. r-il. Rfpirio. p.
i:{:i, Vifiinsi. Is^SJ: I. l)"IsraHli,'f'i(ri<<.«i7/(;.s uf Litniil iitr. p.
lot; Rcifinanri, in Ifii-Shdhiir. ii. ;U2; S. Scht'chttr, Stinliis
in Jnilnixin. xi.: A. BiTliner, Hehrilischc lilichcrtitcl.
Frankforl-on-the-MaiD, 19U.J.

•r. J. D. E.

TITLES OF HONOR : Words and jdirascs ap-
plieil III pel suns to distinguish their noble birth,
or their olficial or social rank and station, or as marks
of aiknowledgnient of their learning and piety.

BiblicalData : The title " adon " = " lord "

was given to the owner of property and slaves; also
to the person to whom homage was paid as a guest
of honor (Gen. xviii. 3) or who has done an act of
kindness (/6. xix. 18). Abraham was entitled "lord"
and "nesi elohim " = "mighty prince" {ib. xxiii. 6),
also "prophet" {ib. xx. 7). The representative of
the people was a "melek" := "leader," or in some
cases "king." Next in rank was the "aluf":=
"duke " or "chieftain." Each of the dukes of Esau
was the ruler of a family or clan {ib. xxxvi, 15),
and was probably subject to the head of the whole
tribe. Tlie king appointed a viceroy

Origin, termed " mishneh " = "second." Jo-
seph was niishneh to Pharaoh, with the
title "abrek" = "bow the knees" {ib. xli. 43), de-
noting the reverence due to his dignitj'; though ac-
cording to the Talmud "ab-rok" (~|-| 3X) is a com-
pound word whose two elements signify respect-
tively " father " (in wisdom) and " young " (in years),
the whole denoting "young father " in the sense of
"Jupiter" = " Ju " -f "pater" (Levinsohn. "Shora-
she Lebanon, " .<*. v. ~|"i3N). Pharaoh renamed Joseph
"Zaphnath-paaneah " = "the revealer of secrets."

Moses as a spiritual leader was recognized by the
titles " ish ha-Elohim " = " the man of God " (Deut.
xxxiii. 1) and " 'ebed Yhwh " = " the servant of the
Lord" {ib. xxxiv. 5). These titles were applied to
other prophets also (I Sam. ii. 27; Isa. xlii. 19).

The civil administration was conducted by judges
who had tlie title of "prince," "ruler" ("sar,"
"sarim ") over certain divisions of the people, com-
prising thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens (Ex.
xviii. 21). In a later period the judges ("shofetim")
became the real rulers of the Israelites, till, like the
Gentiles, the latter adopted a king. In Moses' time
these were called also the "zekenim" = "eiders"
and the "nesi'im" = "rulers" (Lev. iv. 22) of the
congregation.

The title of birth, "bekor," assigned to the first-
born son in every family, carried with it special
privileges of inheritance. The title "koiianim" =
"priests," applied to all descendants of Aaron, and
that of " Lewiyim " = " Levites," to the rest of the
tribe of Levi, carried with them privileges with
regard to titlies and certain duties in

Titles of connection with the administration of
Birth and religious services in the Temple; tiins

Nobility, the senior jiriest was called "koiien

mashiah " = "the anointed priest" or

"kohen gador' = "the high priest." The prophet

("nabi") bore also the titles "ro'eh" and "hozeh"

~ "seer" (I Sam. ix. 9; II Kings xvii. 13).

Titles of nobility not connected with the tribe of
Levi, but recognized by the people or conferred by
the king as distinctions of ancient and noble stock,
liigh (leseent. and gentility, were tlie following:
"azil," "l.ior" = "freeman""; and "nasik." "ro-
zcn," or "razon " (Prov. xiv. 28) = "prince." Titles
of civil ofticers clioscn by the jjcople were: "aluf,"
"nasi," "nagid," "kaziii," and "rosh " = "chief."
Titles of ollicers connected with the royal palace

161

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Titles of Hebrew Books
Titles of Honor

Avere: "abi lia-melok " (the father of the king, i.e.,
])iim(! minister); "saris" (eunuch, chamberlain, tiie
king's friend; I Kings iv. 57); " rab ha-tabbui.iim "
(executioner); "yorcsh 'ezer " (crown prince); "misli-
neh" (viceroy); "shalish " (third in rank, cliief
of stall); "ni/zab" or"nezib" (tribal governor;
I Kings iv. 7); "pehah," "sagan" (lieutenant and
deiiuty; Jer. li. 2i5); "abir," "addir" (knight and
hero); "kereti" and " peleti " (royal couriers and
lieadsmen foruung tlie body-guard of David);
"seren" (satrap of the Pliilistines) ; "tifsar" (a
military prefect); "partani," "'ahashdarpan "
(satrap under the Persian government); "sarek"
(overseer; Dan, vi. 3); "rab," "rabreban" (chief,
chieftain); " niazkir " (recorder). During tlie Exile
the Persian king gave his courtiers titles: thus
Daniel was renamed "Belteshaz/.ar " {ib. i. 7), and
Nehemiah "Tirshatha" (Neh. viii. 9). For later
titles see Exilakch, Gajjbai, Gaon, Nasi, Paknas,
Kabui, etc.
J. J. D. E.

In Rabbinical Literature : The Rabbis lay

stress on the distinction due to "yihus" and "zekut
abot " (see Patkiarchs). A descendant of a noble
family is a "yah.san" (well-born; comp. "gentle"
in "gentleman"). The destruction of Jerusalem
is ascribed to the lack of distinction between the

nobles and the common jieople: "As

Aris- with the people, so with the priest;

tocracy. as with the servant, so with the mas-

ter"(Isa. xxiv. 3; 8hab. 119b). With
the exception of Simeon ha-Zaddik (= "the just")
the members of the Great Assembly and of the San-
hedrin were not referred to by any title (Ab. i. 2).
The Biblical title " nasi " for the president of the
community and "ab bet din " (father of the court of
law) for the chief justice existed at au early period
in the Palestinian academies. The title " rabban "
(general master of tlie community) was given to
Johanan b. Zakkai and to Gamaliel the Elder. The
title "rabbi," designating an individual master, was
only less honorable than "rabban." In the Babylo-
nian schools "rab" was used instead. The title
"rabbi" without the proper name was used to des-
ignate Judah ha-Nasi I. The scholars mentioned
in the Mishnah, known as Tannaim, except tho.se of
the early period, have the title "rabbi " prefixed to

their names, as have also the Palestin-

Communal ian amoraim, the Babylonian amoraim

and bearing that of " rab " (see Amohai.m).

Relig-ious The laterTalmudists bear the title Mar

Titles. (master). Haber ("colleague") and

IIakam were titles used in Palestine.
Abba was used in Babylon, as was the title " resh ga-
luta" (Exii.ARCii). or "rosh ha-kene.set " (head of
the synagogue). Rksii Kallaii denoted the presi-
dent of the students who assembled in the months
of Adar and Elul. Parnas was the title of the ad-
ministrator of the community; Gabbai, that of the
pnl)lic almoner, the collector and distributer of char-
ities (Ned. Gob). The IIazzan in the nu"shnaic period
was the sexton of the synagogue; in later times he
was the reader of prayers ; while the sexton or beadle
was known as the "shammash." A teacher was
called "melammed," and his assistant "resh dukana "
(B. B. 21a). The latter taught the class of younger
XII.— 11

children stationed on a platforni; beuce the name

DlKAN.

Honorific phrases used as epithets were assigned
to the gieat rabbis in the Talniudic jjcriod by their
disciples and admirers. H. Johunun b. Zukkai was
called "the light of Israel, the right jiillar, tlie
mighty hanuner" (Ber. 2l^b). Jose tlie priest, ii dis-
ciple of Johanan b. Zakkai, was styled " hasid " =
"pious" (Ab. ii. 11); there was also a It. Simeon
Hasida (Suk. 521)). H. Eleazar <alled ]{. Asi "mofct
ha-dor " r= "the wonder of the generation" (Hul.
103b). Metaphorical terms were similarly used : U.
Eleazar b. Simeon was "a lion the .son of u lion"
(B. M. 84b); B. Hiyya b. Abin was exalted us "the
liou of society " (Sliab. Ill); Samuel was kuuwa us
"the lion of Babylon" {ib. 53a); H. Akiija, us "ozur
balum" = "a treasure of knowledge" {(j\\. GTuj;
R. Meir (whose real name was Me'asliali) was so called
because he enlightened the eyes of the wise in the
Ilalakah ('Er. 13b); R. Menahem b. Simeon, "the
son of the holy " ('Ab. Zarah 50a) ; R. Eleazar, " the
best scholar" (Ker. 13b); R. Joseph, a "sharp
knife" (Yeb. 122a), meaning that lie was keen
and logical in reasoning. The last-mentioned
title was given also to Raba. Joseph's son (Hul.
77a). R. Jo.se ph was styled "Sinai," and Ral)bah
" 'oker harim " = " mountain-razer " (Ilor. 14a). The
former title describes the traditional and logical
scholar; the latter, the pilpulist who depends on
technical argumentation.

In the geonic period the title Gaon replaced
"nasi" as referring to the president of tlie commu-
nity. The principal of the academies of Sura and
Pumbodita were known as "rosh yeshibah" or
"resh metibta." The principal teachers were tiie
"resh sidra " and the "resh kallah."

Titles in The title "nagid" was conferred ou
the Middle R. Samuel (1027-55), the author of
Ages. "Mebo ha -Talmud," and later re-
placed the title "gaon" in Egypt
(see Egypt). The title "dayyan " (judge) appears
to have been first used in the eleventh century, in
Spain (see Bauya, Joseph iun Pakvda). In France
and Germany the title "parnas" was revived,
" manhig " (leader) being applietl to the sameotlicial.
The title Gabbai for the receiver of the taxes and
contributions of the congregation was revived
among the Sei)hardim ; he ranked next to the par-
nas. The title " rabbenu " (our master) was given
to Gershom, Tam, Hauaneel, and Nissim.

The title MouENf ("our teacher") as a rabbin-
ical degree introduced by R. Meir ha-Levi of
Vienna, was first conferred ou R. Shalom and ]{.
Jacob M(')lln at tlieend of the fourteenth century. The
titles "darshau" and MAccau weregiventopreacliei-s.

Among the titles conferred on eminent Jews by
governments in various countries were tlie follow-
ing: In England during the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries Bishop of the Jews, or "cpiscopus Ju-
daorum." and Presbyter JfD.KORiM, equivalent
to the title "rabbi" or "ab bet din." In Germany
the rabbi was sometimes called Hochmei.ster, " Ju-
denmeistcr," or " Judenbi.schoir " ; the learned Jew.
"gelehrte Jude." "Ccmrt J.w " ("Ilofjude") was
equivalent to Shetadi.an (|^nnC'). the title of the
attorney and representative of the Jews in their re-

Titles of Honor
Titus

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

162

lations with the government in Poland and Uiter
in Russia.

King 3Iatthias of Hungary created the offices of
"princeps Juda;oium," "suprenius Juda-orum,"
and " pra?fectus Judieorum." held by members of
the Mexdel family (1482-1539). who were respon-
sible for the Jewish taxes and were

Govern- clothed with special jurisdiction over
ment the Jews. Other government officials

Titles. were "doctor Judaorum" and "ma-
gister Judiuorum," whom the emperor
appointed to settle all disputes between the Jews
(Jost, "Gesch. der Israeliten," vi. 54, Berlin, 1826).
Habbi Leon of ^Mantua in the lifteenth century re-
ceived the title of Messer ("maestre"), usually given
to physicians. The Turkish government confers
the title "hakam bashi " on the ciiief rabbi of the
Sephardim; it thus also occurs in Egypt.

hi the sixteenth century the title " maran " (our
lord) was applied to Joseph Caro of Safed, author
of the Shulhan 'Aruk; and for a long time there-
after it was not given to any other person. The
title "gaon" was revived in honor of ELi.T.\n b.
Solomon of Wilna (1720-97); and since it has been
misapplied to ordinary rabbis, the gaon of Wilna is
described also as "gaon amitti" = "the genuine
gaon." The title "harif," from the Talmudic title
"sakkina harifa " (sharp knife), was revived in the
eighteenth century. The title B.\huh dates back
perhaps to the fourteenth century. It was used later
in combination with an adjective, as "bahur he-
hashub" (the honored or worthy youth); and "ye-
shibah bahur" designated the student in the yeshi-
bah. The title "•illuy"(par excellence) described
the young Talmudic genius.

The Ha.sidim came into existence in the time of
Elijah Wilna. Their rabbis are variously styled
"zaddik" (righteous), " ba'al mofet" (wonder-mas-
ter), " ba'al shem " (renowned master), and in Jud«o-
German "Rebbe" or "guter Yid."

In modern times the principal rabbi is known as

"rab ha-galil" (district rabbi) and "rab ha-kolel"

(equivalent to "chief rabbi " and "grand rabbin ");

also as "rabbi" and "dayyan," with

Modern "ab bet din " connoting the president

Titles. of the religious and civil court. A

new title, " zekan ha-rabbanim " (elder

rabbi), was conferred by the United Orthodox Rabbis

of America, at their convention in Philadelphia in

1903, on R. Jacob David Ri»i5.\z.

The German titles arc " Raljbiner," " Rabbinats As-
ses.sor " (dayyan), and "Rabbinats Verweser. " The
title "reverend," conferred by the chief rabbi of
England upon a Hebrew teacher, was criticized
on the ground that " it ranks among the most mis-
chievous and un-Jewish innovations peculiar to
latter-day Anglo-Judaism " ("Jew. Chron." Jan. 3,
1902).

During the nineteentii century all Jewish titles
were used in great profusion and indiseriniinately.
The title "gaon " was applied to nearly every rabbi,
and some were addressed as " ha-ga'on ha-gadol "
(the great gaon), "lia-ga'on hu-nicfursam "(the well-
known gaon), and, as if to out-IIerod Herod, "ga'on
ha-Ge'onim " (the gaon of the Geonim); also as "ha-
ma'or ha-gadol" (the greater light), "me'or ha-

Golah''(tlie light of the Exile), and "rabban shel

kol bene ha-Golah " (the master of all the members

of the Exile).' The titles "harif,"

Abuse of "baki" (familiar with the Law), and
Titles. " mullag " (extraordiuarj-) were com-
mon ones for the ordinary learned
layman. The abuse of titles has been the subject
of biting criticism, sarcasm, and even ridicule by
the Maskilim, especially by Isaac Euteu and Leon
Gordon.

As to the moral right to address one by an un-
merited title, R. Samuel di Medina (1505-89) rules
against it, though he permits .such titles as are cus-
tomary (Rashdam, "Eben ha-Ezer," No. 65). Hay-
yim Hezekiah ^ledini, in his " Sedch Hemed " (i., let-
ter n, S I'i*); p. § IS". Warsaw, 1896), reviews the
decisions in the responsa collections on this question,
and comes to the conclusion that since the title
" gaon " has become a common rabbinical one it
would be a breach of etiquette to omit it in address-
ing a rabbi of some authority and repute.

Some authors in compiling their responsa are
careful to remove personal titles from their corre-
spondence. R. Akiba Egeu in his testament ordered
his executors to erase before publication all titles
except "rabbi " in the numerous letters addressed to
him on matters of casuistry.

Joel H5schel(" 'Ateret Yeshu'ah," Wilna, 1799)and
Jehiel Heilpkin (" 'Erke ha-Kinnuyiin," Dyhern-
furth, 1806) give lists of epithets of Biblical person-
ages. Certain Hebrew letter-writers also contain
various forms of titles; in particular that of Joseph
Rakower, "Leshon Naki " (Prague, 1704, and
often reprinted), should be mentioned. The only
special work known on the subject of this article
is one in manuscript by Jehiel Mendelssohn (d.
1904).

J. D. E.

name, Titus Flavins Sabinus
Emperor of Ronie from 79 to 81;
died Sept. 13, 81 ; son of Vesp.\-
si.\N, the conqueror of Jerusalem. He waseducated
at the courts of Claudius and Xero. Titus. served first
in Germany and later in Britain under his father,
whom he subsequently assisted greatly in Judea by
suppressing the rebellion of the Jews.

While Vespasian was operating in Galilee, the
news of the death of Nero (June 9, 68) was received;
and Titus, accompanied by Agiuppa II., was sent to
Rome to swear allegiance to Nero's successor. Galba
was murdered in the meantime, however; and Til us
hastened back to Judea, where the Egyptian and
Syrian troops jiroclaimed Vespasian emperor, an oc-
currence which Jo.sephus declares he had predicted
in the presence of Titus himself (Josephus, "B. J."
iii. 8, § 9; comp. Suidas, s.r. ' luari-jroq ;
In Judea. in Dion Cassius, Ixvi. 1, Titus is not
mentioned). It was Titus, moreover,
who, under the leadership of his father, reduced the
cities of Jotapata, Tariche;e, and Giscala, where he
displayed, on the one hand, great courage and con-
tempt of death, and, on the other, bitter cruelty to-
ward the coiKiuered; when, therefore, Vespasian
went to Rome as emperor, Titus was left to prose-
cute the Jewish war.

With a considerable force he left Caesarea and

.1.

TITUS (full
Vespasianus) :

born in 39 or 41

163

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Titles of Honor
Titus

naclied the walls of Jerusalem a few days before the
I'assover festival of tlie year 70. Omit ting the de-
tails of this memorable war, only those events whieh
concorn Titus personally need be mentioned liere.
Together with 600 liorsemeu lie rode ahead of Jiis
main army to reconnoiter the surrounding country,
and had ventured so far in advance that only his
valor saved him from capture in a Jewish attack
("B. J." V. 2, ^5 2). He endeavored at tirst to per-

Coln of Titus Struck In Palestine, with Inscription, "Ivdaea
Devicta."

(After Madden, " Uiatory of Jewish Coinage.")

suade the Jews to submit by making promises to
them (Dion Cassius, Ixvi. 4); and Josephus was sent
to them several times with messages to that elTect.
They refused all overtures, however; and battering-
rams were then set in action, and the beleaguermeut

of Jerusalem began. The Jews often

Besieges destroyed these siege-works, and dur-

Jerusalem. iug one of their sorties Titus himself

was so severely wounded in the left
shoulder by a stone that his hand remained weak
over afterward (Dion Cassius, I.e. § 5; Josephus in
"B.J." v. 6, § 2 relates a similar occurrence, although
he does not mention the w^ounding of Titus). Ac-
cording to Dion Cassius, the Romans refused to at-
tack the Temple on account of their respect for its
sanctity; and Titus had to force them to do so. Jo-
sephus, on the other liand, differs on this point also,

Coin of Titus, witti Inscription "Ivdaea Navalis."

(.\fter Madden, " Hislory of Jewish Coinage.";

Stating instead that Titus first lield a council of war
with his commanding otlicers. among them Tihe-
nirs Julius ALii.\ANDEi{, and that certain generals
advised the destruction of the Temple. Heliim.self,
liowever, wished to spare it (" B. J." vi. 4, i^, 3), and
gave orders to extinguish the lire which had begun
to consume the cloisters, aiijiarently displaying this
mildness either on account of Bkkknich or to show
his friendship for Agrii)pa. Against this stands the
narrative of the monk Sulpicius, who is said to have
drawn his information from Tacitus; and, follow-

ing this authority, Jacob Beruays (" Programm des
JiUli.scli-Theologischeii Seminars in Ibcsliiu," 1861,
p. 48) cluirges Josephus witii unlnilhfuhiess; GiUtz,
however ("Gesch." iii. 539), is inclined to believe in
the veracity of Josephus' statement.

On the following day (tiie tenth of Al), 70) the
Jews made a desperate sortie, and one of tlie Homan
soldiers, weary of lighting, tiirew a burning jiiece of
wood into tlie Tern pir. In vain did Tit us give orders
to extinguish the llames; his voice was drowned ia
the uproar. Titus himself, impelled by curiosity,
entered the Sanctuary, but the smcike forced him to
withdraw; and thus the destruction
Burning of of the Temple of Jerusalem became
the as.sociated with his name. On the

Temple. ruins of the Sanctuary Titus was pro-
claimed emperor by liis soldiers ("B.
J." vi. 6, § 1; Dion Cassius, l.r. § 7; Suetonius,
"Titus," v.), although !)oth he and liis father re-
fused the epithet "Judaicus," because the word
might suggest an inclination toward the Jewish re-
ligion (see. however, JolM. " Blicke in die Religions-
geschichte," ii. 46).

Even Josephus was able to point to only scanty
traces of mildness in the life of Titus, while, on the
other Iiand, cruelties are recorded which must be at-
tributed to personal hatred on his part, and not to
the unavoidable harshness of war. In C;esarea in
Palestine, in Ciesarea Philippi, and in Berytus he
forced the captive Jews to light against wild ani-
mals and also against one another; and many thou-
sands more were slain to please the revengeful Syr-
ians and Greeks. It was in Home, however, that he
celebrated his triumphs, together with his father
and his brother Domitian; there 700 Jews of splen-
did physique and the leaders of the Zealots, John of
Giscala and Simon bar Giora, helped to grace liis
procession. Two triumphal arches were erected iu
his honor. Of these, one no longer
Arches of exists, and is remembered only on ac-
Titus. count of the inscrijition which it bore
C'C. I. L." vi. 444), but the other, a
beautiful structure, still stands in Rome, and on it
may be seen representations of the captured vessels
of the Temjilc. See Titus, Auch of.

The Jews hated Titus on account of his share in
the destruction of the Temple; and the Kabl)is ac-
cordingly termed him "Titus the miscreant," thus
contrasting sliarpl}- with the statements of the clas-
sical writers, who regarded him as an ornament of the
human race. It may be proved, however, that lie
was anything but upriglit while he was crown
prince; indeed, he was ciuel, licentious, and am-
l)itious, and was even suspected of having sought to
poison his father. Only during the latter part of his
reign did he disjilay prai.seworthy (jualities. A sig-
niticant saying of fre(iuent recurrence in ralibinic
sources is to the effect that lie was honored in Kome
as the conqueror of the barbarians (i'<«J7r»)f (lapfSapuv;
Gen. M. X.; Lev. H. xxii. .1; Lam. H., Introduction,
No. 23, etc.), thus showing tiiat the Jews were re-
garded as an inferior and barbarous nation. All the
other accmmts of Titus in rabbinical literature are
jiurely legendary, and their utter unreliability is
shown by the fact that he is called the nephew instead
of the son of Vespasian, a view which was repeated

Titus
Tobacco

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

164

in medieval chiouicles (Neubauer, ">I. J. C." i. 50,
70). lu the Holy of Holies, moreover, he was said
to have pierced the veil of the Ark, to have had iu-

tercourse with two courtezaus (a rem-

Rabbinical inisceuce of his relations with Bere-

Legends. nice), and to have detiled the Torah

{ib. ; Git. 56b) ; in short, to have blas-
phemed God. That he packed the sacred vessels in
a basket and took them on board his ship was also
stated in rabbinical tradition. As he stepped from
Ills bath — so runs a legend — a drink was handed to
him, when suddenly a gnat (tlD') stung him in the
uose, and thus caused his death (Ab. R. N., Re-
cension B, vii. ; it is
noteworthy that this
form of retribution
also figures in Arabic
legends, which often
confuse Titus with
Xebuchadnezzar,
who likewise d e s -
troved the Temple;
•'R". E. J."l.\ix. 212).
This has been inter-
preted as implying
that Titus became mel-
ancholy and insane
in his declining years
(Hamburger, " R. B.
T." s.i\); but such an
explanation seems in-
admissible. Despite
the Jewish hatred of
Titus, many Jews as
■well as Christians
have borne his name
(in the New Testa-
ment, Titus i. 4; Gal.
ii. 3; II Cor. ii. 13,
and elsewhere; for
the Jews, see Krauss,
•• Lehnworter," ii.
262); and in later
times four prominent
Jewish families of
Italy have traced
their descent from
prisoners taken by
him (see Ro.me).

The medieval Jews
invented numerous legends concerning Titus; thus,
according to " Yosippon " and Benjamin of Tudela,
the Roman consuls {i.e.. senators) blamed him for
taking three years instead of two to concivier Jeru-
salem. Benjamin claims al.so to have seen tlie sup-
posed ])alace of Titus at Rome; and, according to
Abraliani ibn Daud ("Sefer liuKul)balah,'' ed.
Prague, 1795, p. 40b), Titus put to death tlie high
priest Islimael b. Elislia and R. Simeon b. Gamaliel,
althougii only the latter was actually executed. Tlie
names of hosts of other patriots and martyrs who
lost their lives through Titus are unknown.

Bini.iOGRAPHV : Gratz, Gcxch. 4th ed.. 111. 4!tl. 'i\2, 539, r/ paf-
Him ; Schurer. Gesc)i. 3d fd., 1. 610-^37 et jtnsxim : Vopt'lstdn
and Rleger, Gexch. der Jnilen in Rnnu I. 22 i5. 91. For tlie
Jewish legends, see I. Levi in Ii. E. J. xv. 03-ti9.
J. S. Kr.

Arch of Titus at Rome.

(From « photograph.)

TITUS, ARCH OF : A triumphal arch erected
at Home in honor of the emperor Titus and in
celebration of his victory over the Jews. It rises
on the prominent part of the Via Sacra, about 20
yards above the Til)er. One of its faces fronts the
Colosseum ; the other, the Forum. Under the pon-
tificate of Pius VII. the arch was restored in its
lateral portions, which had become injured by time.
The structure consists of a single arcade adorned
with sculptured crowns and tympans. On the right
anil on the left are two united columns of a compos-
ite order with rich entablature, and an elevated
attic. Three bas-reliefs adorn the passage of

the arcade. One, on
the Colosseum side,
shows Titus, crowned
by Victory, standing
upright in a car
drawn liy four liorses
and conducted by a
female personifying
the city of Rome.
The second repre-
sents Roman soldiers
without weapons,
crowned with laurels,
and carrj'ing the
spoils of the Temple
of Jerusalem. These
spoils are: two tab-
lets fastened on
staffs, the seven-
branched candle-
stick, and the golden
table upon wliich are
leaning the sacred
trumpets. The third
bas-i'clief, under the
vault, exhibits Titus
sitting on an eagle, as
he appears on the
medals struck to
consecrate his apo-
theosis.

A tradition, which
still prevails in Rome,
says that formerly no
Jew ever passed un-
der this arch, and
that, in order to go
from the Colossemn to the Capitol, the inhabitants
of the ghetto opened a way between the arch and
the Palatine.

Bini.ior.R.viMiv : Philip|)i, Uchrr dir liomixrheii Tri}niiphal-
relicfa, pi. ii., iii., Leipsio, 1872; Ileinacli. L'Arc dc Tittts, in
Ii. K. J. XX., Ixv.: lielaiui, l)c .•<ii(iliix Tenipti Ilicriino-
llliiiitaiii in Arcu Tit'unm. Sfc, also, T. Kfinach. i'<. xx.;
Appendix. Ixv.-xci.: 1$. VVol(T-IU*ckh. Kaisir Titus uml der
Jlidisrfic Kriro. in Neiic Jiihrhlirlier flir das Klnssische
Atti rOium, 19(W, vl. (also published separately, Berlin. I'MU).

.;. ,n{. I. Be.

TOB 'ELEM, JOSEPH. See Bonfii.s, Joseph

B. .SaMIKI..

TOB L.E-HODOT. See MiZMou Siiiu m>Yom^

IIA Sll Alii; \T.

TOBACCO ("ipxaXC, poia): The use of tobacco
for smoking and iu the form of snuff is commoQi

-"^r ^

165

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

among Jews, who in some countries control to a large
extent tiie manufafture and sale of tlie iiroduct.
It is asserted that a Jew named Luis de Terres, wlio
accompanied C'oluiulius on his expedition in 14i)2,
settleil in Cuba, learned the use of tobaeeo, and in-
trotlueed it into Europe. From this time Jews have

Titus
Tobacco

("Keneset ha-Gedohiii." to Orah Hayyim, 551. 21).
He i)oints out till- inc(jnsistency of those autiiorities
wiio permit smoking on lioly days because it is a
"necessity," a "means of sustaining life." and who
allow it on fast -days because smoke has no "sub-
stance" ]ik(f food. In Ik'uvenisle's (ipiniou smoking

Spoils of the Temple, Pictu

(After Barloll'9

ibeen connected with the trade in tobacco, one of the

jmost important in early American history (M. J.

kohler, in " Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. See." x. 52). The

Introduction of tobacco into Europe encountered the

j'esolute opposition of the clergy, who characterized

pobacco-smoking as "offering incense to Satan."

iFlie Kabbis, however, discussed the use of tobacco

pot from a moral, but from a legal standpoint — con-

peruing its prohibition on Sabbaths, holy daj^s, and

i fast-days, and as to whether smoking

In Jewish requires a special benediction. As a

Law. subject of controversy it appears first

in the " Keneset ha-Gedolah " of R.

Hayyim Benveniste (1603-T;i) and the " Magen Abra-

|iam " of Abraham Combiner (1635-83), which fact

ends to show that during the seventeenth century

he practise of tobacco-smoking spread rapidly

unong the Jews of all nations.

Combiner describes tlie "drinking of tabak
hrougli a pipe by drawing the smoke into the
noiith and di,scharging it." The rabbi is in doul)t
vliether or not one must pronounce a benediction
)cfore inhaling the snu^ke, since it is a means of re-
icshment. As an argument against pronouncing
I blessing he observes that tliere is no "substance "
n the benefit derived ("Magen Abraham," to Shul-
lan 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 210, 9). He prohibits
moking tobacco " through the mouth " on Passover,
iS he was informed that the tobacco was soaked in
)eer, which is "hamez" (i/>. 343). Benveniste ex-
)resses himself very forcibly against smoking "tu-
un" (tobacco) on the Ninth of Ab; and he even
xcommuuicated one who smoked on that day

RED ON TUE ARCH OK TjTUS.
'Adiniranda.*')

should be prohibited on holy days; he quotes the
venerable K. Josepii Escapa as coinciding in this
view, though he thought it unwise to euforce a

generally accepted law.

Table of Showbrend, Pictured on tbe Anb of Titus,

(Afl»r Rrl«n.l. " De Spoliu Tcmpll," 1716.)

The Jews of Turkey at that time must have been
very much addicted to the habit, for Benveniste
pictures them as iuvctcrate smokers, impatient for
the close of Sabbath, when they nu"ght resume smo-
king, and as watdiing for tiie appearance of the three
stars which indicate the end of tlie day; some began
smoking even before " Habdalah. " " They lingered

Tobacco
Tobiads

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

166

in the streets and public houses, every man w'nh a

censer in his hand, inhaling the smoke and dis-

cliarging it in fantastic dilTusion,"

Tobacco- until "a thick cloud of incense went
Lovers. up" (comp. Kizck.viii. 11). Ilcdcclarcs
that the Name of God is desecrated
when the Gentiles observe Jews smoking on their
fast-days, while Mohanuncilans refrain from smoking
on theirs C'Kenesct ha-Gedolah," ib. oOT [ed. Con-
stantinople. 1729, pp. 101 etseq.]). Some Jews, unable
to abstain from tobacco even for one day, lilled a
hooka with smoke on Friday and inhaled it on the
Sabbath. Others would visit iSIohammedan neigh-
bors for the sake of the tobacco smoke in their
liouses. This practise was eventually prohibited on
the ground that it would make Judaism ridiculous
in the eyes of the Gentiles (Alkalai, "Zekor le-Abra-
ham,"i."l42-143, Salonica, 1798).

The Turkish narghile, in which the smoke passes
through water, early became popular; Bcnveniste
rules that the "tumbak" (cake of tobacco, over
which a burning coal is placed at the other end of
the narghile) extinguishes the fire, which is forl)id-
den even on holy days. Gombiner prohibits tum-
bak because it is like "mugmar" (spice for burn-
ing), mentioned in the Talnuid, which likewise is
prohibited. This, however, is disinited by K. Mor-
decai ha-Levi in his '• Darke No'am " (No. 9, Venice,
169>*). Avho permits the use of the narghile on holy
days (see "Be'cr Heteb," to Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah
Hayyim, 514, 1). The controversy finally ended in
a victory for those rabbis wlio jicrmitted the use of
tobacco on holy days and fast-days, except of
course on Yom Ki])pnr, Avhich is like Sabbath ; still,
some Jews still abstain from smoking on the Nintli
of Ab.

In spite of some oI)jections, snuff-taking was
permitted at any time — Sabbatlis, holy days, fast-
days, and Yom Kippur (•' LeUct ha-
Snuflf. Kemah," p. olb, Amsterdam, 1707).
Jacob Haziz (1020-74) quotes a rc-
sponsum of Isaiah Pinto jiermitting the use of sniilf
on Sabbaths, even though it cures catarrh ; for every-
body, even healthy peo]>lc, snuff, and it can not
therefore be considered a drug ("' Ilalakol Ketannot,"
No. 101).

It a)i]iears that women used tobacco almost as
much as men (see Elijali of Lidjlin, " Yad Eliyahu,"
responsum No. G5, Amsterdam. 1712). Jewish wom-
en in the Orient mostly used tiie narghile, while
in Russia old women used snuff; others smoked
cigarettes, like men. So prevalent was the lialiit of
smoking that it was practised even in tiie l)et iia-
midrasli. A strong effort, however, was made to
prohil)it smoking and snutling in i)laces of wor-
sliipC'Pahad Yizhak." n, p. G2a). In sonu' batle
midrashot ])rohibilory notices were posted in
front of tli(; doors (" Ila-^Iaggid," 1S59. vol. iii.,
No. 10).

In coimtries where the government had a monoji-
oly of the tobacco trade, manufacturing and trading
privileges were assigned to Jewish merchants at a
fixed price per annum for a number of years. The
question was raised whether the contractor had a
prior right to the next contract as against the claims
of a new competitor. Lampronti decided that con-

tracts were open to competition, inasmuch as the
matter depended on the laws and regulations of the
government (" Pahad Yizhak," N. P- 90a). Rnssiau
Jews have invented some practical cigarette-making
machines for which they liave obtained patents.

A remarkable book is Raphael Kohen's " Hut ha-
]\Ieshullash " (Odessa, 1874), which deals with the
question of cigar-smoking on Sabl)aths, and which
finally reaches the conclusion that it is permissible ou
the ground that it affords " 'oneg shabbat" (delight
and enjoyment). Not daring to publish his name,
the author issued his book under a pseuiiouym.
His discussion was not considered a serious one;
nevertheless it is of a kind unusual in Hebrew
literature.

There are several Hebrew poems for and against
smoking. Solomon "Wilder of Amsterdam composed
one in acceptance of a tobacco-pipe as a birthday
present ("Ha-Karmel," 1862, vol. ii., No. 20). An-
other poem characterizes the cigar and cigarette as
"the two tails of these smoking firebrands '" (Isa.
vii. 4; see "Ha-Boker Or," i. 123).

BuiMOCRAPHY: Ha-MaiJiiiiJ. viii.. No. 37; Ha-Zrfirnh, i.. No.
S; Ktntci'Ct )ia- (ii'iii)la)t, iii.. end: A. K. Kaufinan
liiiKcltcrt lOi Sliilihert. AVarsaw, 19(X); Low, Lel>e)i>-
(titer, p. ;i51 ; Abrahams, Jnt'/.v?! Lifr i)i tlic Middle Aot'^.
p. 139; Steinschneider, iu Die Deborah 08^4), vol. xl.. No. 1.
.1. J. D. E.

TOBIA BEN MOSES HA-ABEL (surnamcd
also Ha-'Obed = •' the worshii)er," Ha-Baki =
"tlic erudite," Ha-Maskil = " the teacher." and
Ha-Ma'tik = " the translator"): Karaite scholar,
Biblical commentator, liturgical poet, and transla-
tor; fioiu'ished at Constantinople in the eleventh ami
twelfth centuries. Furst ("Gesch. des Karilert."
ii. 198 ct fteq.) conjectures Tobia's dates to have been
about 1070 to 1140; but it will be seen later that he
was born earlier (see also Steinschneider, " llebr. i
Uebers." ]). 4.'57). Tobia's last three surnames indicate
the range of his erudition and literary
Epoch, and activity;, indeed, his works them-
At- selves show his thorough knowledge

tainments. of iabl)inics, philosophy, and theology.
He moreover went to Jerusalem,
where he studied for some time under Jeshc.a li
Judah, and where he became acquainted with tl]-
Arabic writings of the latter as well as with tlio<;i
of J()sei)h b. Al)raham ha-Ro'eii, afterward ti'anslii
ting into Hebrew many of the works of both. In
one of his books, entitled "Yehi ^le'orot," Tobi;!
declares that he was a propagandist of Karaism
owing to which he sufTeied many ]ier.secutions froii
his own family as well as from hisopponents. But |
he says, when one is fully convinced of the trutl
he nuist regard neither family nor his own life. 1
would thus appear that Tobia was of a Rabbinil'
family and that thiough studying Karaite works li'
became an adherent of Karaism, in conseciuence o
which his family turned against him. Possibly tin
writings of no other .scholar weie the subject of si
much disjiute as those of Tobia ben j\Io.ses. Tiin
following is a list of them as may be gathered froii|
various souiccs: '

(1) "Yehi ^le'oi-ot." a work on the command
meiits, so called after the opening sentence; ii
is called also "Sefer ha-Mizwot." Firkovicii ns!
cribed it to Judah Hadassi; but Aaron b. Joseph i|

167

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tobacco
Tobiada

liis "i\Iil)l.iar " (on Eiiior) and Elijah Basliyazi in
his " Atltictret Eliyaliu" clcarlv sliow Tohiu to
have been its aullior. Tlic earliest l^abbinite au-
thority quoted therein is Hai b. David, whose anti-
Karaite W((rk with regard to the Kalibinite calendar
is repeated ; then comes Saadia, many of whose anti-
Karaite passages are repeated and refuted ; and of
Saadia's successors may be mentioned Tobiah b.
Eliezer (" Lekah Tob "). It may be concluded from
the hitter's work that Tobia wrote the
Works. " Yehi Me'orot " not earlier than 1100.
(2) "Zot ha-Torah," commentary on
the Pentateuch, a manuscript of which was found
in the library of Eupatoria (Kozlov), but was lost
during the Crimean war of 1853-56.

Another important work by Tobia was (3) "Ozar
Nehmad," described by Simhah Luzki ("Orah Zad-
jdikim," p. 22b) as in two parts, the lirst treating of
ilawful and lorbiddeu foods, and the second of the
ilaws regarding cleanness and uncleanncss. In real-
jity this work deals with all the laws contained in
Leviticus, as appears from P)ash3'azi {I.e. pp. 41d,
43b). The author quotes all the Karaite Biblical
icommentators; and he particularly refutes the doc-
itriuesof ]Mesiiwi al-'Ukb.\ui, orMosesof Baalbek,
!whom he declares to have embraced Christianity
toward the end of his life. The main authority
lupon whom the work is based is David b. Boaz
ha-Nasi. Besides Simhah Luzki {I.e.), who asserts
jthat the "Ozar Nehmad" was the work of Tobia,
;Delmedigo ("Nobelot Hokmali," p. 5Ga, Basel, 1681)
.ind Aaron b. Josejjh (in his "Sefer ha-Mizwot,"
{quoted by Mordecai b. Nissan in liis " Dod ]Mor-
Jekai ") ascribe it to him. Pinsker (" Likkute Kad-
iinoniyyot," Appendix, pp. 93-94), however, thinks
[that the work belongs to Jeshua b. Judah, as is indi-
:?ated by Basliyazi (/.r.), and thatas Tobia translated
phis work from Arabic into Hebrew, Luzki mistook
jtiim for its author. It must be said, however, that
jLuzki distinguishes between the "Ozar Nehmad"
pf Tobia and Jeshua's work which bears the same
|:itle and which was actually translated by Tobia.

Other works by Tobia were: (4) "Teshubat ha-
Ikkar" (Eupatoria, 1834), which, according to Fl'irst
V.c), is a compendium of Jeshua's "Kitab al-'Ara-
rot" (but see Steinschneider, I.e. p. 943). In the in-
j;roductiou the author speaks of the four kinds of
intellect <("da'at"), termed in Hebrew "sekel,"
'hokmah," "tushiyyah," and "binah"; he then
jives the rules for exegesis, the thirteen hermeneu-
io rules ("middot") of K. Ishmael, and the twelve
)f the Greeks, (o) Keligiophilosophical questions
"she'elot") addressed to liis teacher Jeshua b. Judah
11 Jerusalem (see J udahlladassi, "Eslikol ha-Kofer,"
1. 76a). (6) Addition ("tosafah") to Joseph lia-
to'eh's "Kitab al-Man.suri," which he translated
nto Hebrew under the title "Mal.ikimat Peti."

Tobia's surname "Ha-Ma'tik" shows his great

ictivity in translating. Steinschneider {I.e. p. A'f!)

fupposcs that this activity began about the middle

of the eleventh centuiT : Tobia would

Transla- then be the first known translator from

tions. Arabic into Hebrew. Flirst enumer-

, ates the following thirteen works of

soscph ha-Ro'eh and live of Jeshua b. Judah

vhich were translated by Tobia: (1) " Kitab al-Sih-

hah"; (2) "Kitab al-Shira'"; (3) " Kitab al'Ara-
yot"; (4) " Kitab al-Tauhid," wjiidi Steinschneider
supposes to be a mistake for "alTamyiz " ; (5)
" Kitab al-Siraj " under tiie Hebrew title "Sefer ha-
INIa'or" or "Sefer hu-.Me'oroi" or "Sefer lia-Urim";
(0) a work on "Abib" written against Saudia; (7)
one on feasts under the Hebrew title " Sefer ha .Mo'a-
dim": (M)"Kitai) al-Mansiiri " under tiie Hebrew
title "Mahkimat Peti" (see above); (9) "Kitab a!-
liudd 'Ala Abi Glialib Thabit"; (10) "Alnval al-
Fa'il"; (11) "Ziddukha Din": (12) " Al Muhtawi,"
in Hebrew "Sefer liaNe'imot" or "Zikron lia-
Datot"; (13) "Masa'il waJawa'ii)." in Hebrew
"She'elot u-Teshubot." Jeshua's works translated
by Tobia were: (1) the first part of his religious
])hilosophy, under the Hebrew title "Marpe la-
'Ezem"; (2) "iMeshibat Nefesh"; (3) "Ozar Neti-
mad "; (4) a work on speculation under the Hebrew
title "Sefer ha-Pa'yon "; (5) Jesliua's completion of
Joseph's "Al-Muhtawi." Farst, liowever, nmils
mention of (6) Jeshua's commentary on the Deca-
logue translated by Tobia under the title "Pitron
'Aseret ha-Debarim" (see P. Frankl in "Moiiats-
schrift," xxi.x. 472).

The "Hazanya" (old Karaite ritual) contains two
piyyutim by Tobia: one beginning " f^lohenu ini-kol
iimmah ahabtanu," arranged in alphabetical order,
and signed " Tobia b. Moses Hazak " ; the other be-
ginning "Esh'alah me-El," and being an acrostic on
"Toliia b. Moses ha-'Obed." The "Siddur ha-lva-
ra'im " (iv. 88) also contains a piyyut by Tobia. It
may be added that Firkovich, in a note to Gott-
lober's "Bikkoret le-Toledot ha-Kara'im " (p. 169).
distinguishes between Tobia ha-Baki, the author
of "Zot ha-Torah" and of a metrical piyj'uf begin-
ning "Tahor 'en.sefatai tiftah,"and Tobia lia-'Obed,
the former liaving lived abouta century earlier tiian
the latter. Firkovich thinks that Tobia lia'Obcd
was a descendant of Tobia ha-Baki and was tlie
author of "Zot ha-Hayyah," a work on clean alid
unclean animals. Still, Firkovich, in a letter to
Pinsker ("Likkute Kadmoniyyot," Apjiendix, p.
94, note 1), contradicts himself in this matter.

Bibliography: Fiirst, Gcucli. <lex KciriUii. ii. lOSac ; Ciott-
lober, lii\k(int Ic-Tolntut Im-Kind'iin, \<yi. lt!'.t-17tl; S. I'ln-
sker, LiUlhiti: A'ndmodi'i/j/o', p. -lit, A|>i>fndtx. pp. S« ft
seq., 139 • 'steinschneider, ]iel>r. Uthcis. pp. 154 ct eeq., 9W
et seq.
E. c. M. Skl.

TOBIADS : Jewish party in the .Maccabean
period. A combination of the statements of Jose-
phus ("Ant." xii. 4, gt^ 1-11) and of II Mace, iii. 11
yields an interesting family history, whicii, liow-
ever, requires critical examination.

During the reign of the Egyptian king Ptolemy
and his wife Cleopatra, the high priest Onias. wim
was feeble-minded and extremely miserly, refused
to pay the Jewish tribute of twenty talents which
his father, Simon the Just, had always given from
his own means. In his anger the king sent Athenion
as a special envoy to Jerusjilem. threatening to seize
the land of the Jews and to hold it by force of arms
if the money was not forthcoming. Although the
high jiriest disregarded this threat, the people were
greatly excited, whereupon Onias' nephew Joseph, a
sonof Tobias and a mangreatly beloved and respected
for his wisdom and piety, reproached liis uncle for

Tobiads

Tobiah ben Eliezer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

168

bringing disaster upon the people, declaring, more-
over, that Onias ruled tlie Jews and held the higii-
priestly otiice solely for the s;ike of gain. He told
him, furthermore, that he ought at all events to go
to the king and petition him to remit the tribute-
money, or at least a part of it. Onias, on the other
hand, replied that he did not wish to rule, and ex-
pressed himself as willing to resign the high-priest-
hood, although he refused to petition the king. He
permitted Joscpii, however, to go to Ptolemy, and
also to speak to the people. Joseph quieted the
Jews, and received the envoy hospitably in his own
house, besides giving him costly presents, so that,
when Athcnion returned to Alexandria, he informed
the king of the coming of Joseph, whom he styled
the ruler {-poararr/c) of the people. Shortly after-
ward Josepii started on his journey, having first
raised a loan of about 20,000 druchmiXi in Samaria,
although he was obliged to submit to the jeers of
prominent men of Syria and Phcnicia, who were
visiting Alexandria in order to farm the taxes, and
who derided him on account of his insignificant
appearance.

Xot finding Ptolemy at Alexandria, Joseph went
to meet him at Memphis, where the king graciously
granted him a seat in his own chariot, together wiili
the queen and Athcnion. His cleverness won for him
the monarch's friendship; and by his offer of 16,000
talents against the 8,000 bid by his
Relations o])ponents he secured the contract
with Alex- for farming the taxes, the king and

andria. queen becoming his sureties, since he
did not have sufficient ready money.
He left Alexandria with 500 talents and 2,000 sol-
diers, and by punishing all who opposed him in Asli-
kelon and Scythopolis and confiscating their estates,
he made himself feared through all the cities of Syria
and Phenicia, while the great fortune which liis ex-
tortions won was held secure by his continual pres-
ents to the king, queen, and courtiers, so that he
retained his ofiice of tax-farmer until his death,
twenty-two years later. By his first wife Joseph
had seven sons. At Alexandria he became infat-
uated with a dancer, for whom his brother Snlyniius,
who lived in the city, substilutetl his own daugliter,
the child of this union being Hyrcanus, who was his
father's favorite son and consequently the object of
his brothers' enmity.

On the birth of a prince, Joseph feeling too old to
visit Alexandria and in's other .sons likewise declining
to go, sent Hyrcanus to bear his congratulations to
the court. Arion, Joseph's representative in Alex-
andria, however, refused to allow Hyrcanus money,
and the latter accordingly jiut him in chains, not
only escaping punishment from the king, l)ut even
wiiming both his favor and that of tlie courtiers,
whose aid his brothers had secretly invoked against
him. Although tlie king sent letters recommending
him warmly to his father, his brotiiers, and the offi-
cials of Co'le-Syria. the other sons of Josej)!! met
him with armed resistance. He defeated them, how-
ever, and killed two of them; but, being imable to
remain in Jerusalem, he cros.sed the Jordan, and in
the vicinity of Heshbon built the castle of Tyre,
carrying on war with the Arabs, and ruling the dis-
trict east of the Jordan during the entire seven

years of Seleucus IV. The following statement is
made by Josephus (" Ant." xii. 4, i^ 10): "And Hyr-
canus' father, Joseph, died. He was a good man,
and of great magnanimitj-, and brought the Jews
out of a state of poverty and meanness to one that
was more splendid. He retained the farming of the
taxes of Syria, and Phenicia, antl Samaria twenty-
two years. His uncle, Onias, also died, and left the
high-priesthood to his son Simon."' This statement
of Josephus is followed by the correspondence be-
tween Onias and King Areus of Sjiarta, and by an
account of the Jewish disturbances due to feuds
after the death of Joseph, when the Tobiads be-
came involved in a civil war. The majority of
the people, as well as Simeon the high priest, how-
ever, sided with the elder brother, and Hyrcanus
did not return to Jerusalem, ])ut continued his war-
fare against the Arabs. Both for his own comfort,
and also as a safeguard against attacks by his
brothers, he built the castle of Tyre and various
other strongholds, ruling there until the death of
Seleucus IV. Ptolemy Epiphanesalso died, leaving
two young sons; but when Hyrcanus saw that Anti-
ochus Epiphanes, the new king of Syria, possessed
great power, and when he realized that he would
be unable to vindicate himself for his murderous
attacks upon the Arabs, he conunitted suicide, and
his property was .seized by Antiochus.

It is clear, therefoie, that there are here two ac-
coimts, both legendary, the hero of the one being

Joseph, and of the other, Hyrcanus.
The Two The liistory of the earlier years of the
Accounts, tatlier closely resembles that of the

son ; in both cases the ambitious youth
is opposed by the miserly parent, and in both cases
the youth succeeds in putting his competitors {<<
shame before the royal court. The narrative is sus-
jiicious in many respects. Onias angers the king,
but J().sepli travels to the court both to assuage tlir
king's anger and to farm the taxes, while tin
sanguinary battle between Hyrcanus and his brother-
is also obscure. The mostseriousdifficulty, however,
is the chronology. An old interpolator of Josephu^
advanced the opinion that the king mentioned ii;
the story was Ptolemy III. ; but this monarch wa-
not the consort of Cleopatra, nor was his ininic
diate successor Seleucus IV. The only ruler tn
whom the narrative can properly refer is Ptolemy
v., Epiphanes (SOo-lSS), who in 193 married Cleo-
patra, the daugliter of Antiochus III. In that case,
however, Jo.seph could not have farmed the Egyp
lian taxes, since Ccrle-Syria was then luuler Syrian,
and not under Egyptian, suzerainty, while the asser
tion that the two powers had divided the revenue-
of tiie country is merely an attempt on the part
of Josephus to evade the difficulty. Nor was tin
period between Ptolemy V.'s marriage (193) and lii>
death (182) sufficiently long to agree with the state-
ment concerning the length of time during which
Joseph farmed the taxes (twenty-two years), and
still less could Hyrcanus have reached manhooi:
in so short a space. Bi'ichler, therefore, find-
himself comiielled to place Josejili's term of offir«
between 219 and 199, although this stultifies tin
statement of Josephus regarding a division of tht
taxes.

169

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tobiads

Tobiah ben Eliezer

Wfllliaiison accordinj^ly denies botli tlie liisloricity

and the value of the luunitive, altliough lie thinks

that the portion dealing with the period

Modern of Seleucus IV. and Antiochus IV.

Views. may be trustworlliy, antl he regards
the suicide of Ilyrcanus as probable,
since tiic latter supported the Ptolemies against the
new regime of the Syrians, and might consequently
fear the revenge of Antiochus IV. II ]\Iacc. iii. 11
mentions money dejiosited by Ilyrcanus, the son of
Tobias, "a man of great dignity," taking it for
granted that a friendship existed between Onias and
Hyrcanus, a supposition which is very reasonable,
since only the oilier Tobiads. the brothers of Ilyr-
canus, were involved in quarrels with the legitimate
higii priest. Tiiat Ilyrcanus is called the son of
Tobias, and not of Joseph, is due, Wellhausen holds,
to mere abbreviation, and does not imply any diver-
gency in the two accounts.

Willreich distinguishes a threefold tradition con-
cerning the Tobiads, the first being that of the
pseu(lo-Hecata;us (according to Willreich's interpre-
tation), which represents Onias as a worthy man,
and attributes to the Tobiads all the misfortunes
which befell the Jews. The account of Josephus, on
the other hand, which represents Onias as a weak-
ling and the Tobiads as the promoters of Israel's
welfare, is drawn from Samaritan sources. With
this theory Blichler also agrees, thus explaining
why Joseph sought aid in Samaria, and why the ac-
count fails to express disapproval of the non-Jewish
conduct of Joseph, who ate at the court of an Egyp-
tian king and had dealings with Gentiles. Willreich
likewise brings the Tobiads into association both
with Tobiah, the servant mentioned b\- Neheniiah as
an Ammonite (ii. 19), who consecpiently came from
the east-Jordanic district, and with the Tubieni (II
Mace. xii. 17), who were the enemies of the Jews
(conqi. I ^lacc. v. IR). Although Willreich does
not ab.solutely deny the historicity of the narrative,
since the castle of Hyrcanus has been discovered in
modern times (Schlirer, "Gesch." 3d ed., ii. 49), he
incorrectly regards Joseph and Ilyrcanus as mere
names, representing in part Jason and ]\Ienclaus,
although such a view is quite untenable. The third
form of the tradition is that of Jason of Cyrene, on
which the second Book of the .Maccabees is based ;
and Schlatter is even of the opinion that Josephus
himself drew his account of the Tobiads from this
same source.

Bl'ichlcr's researches have probably established
the historicity of the account of the Tobiads, thus
furnishing a valuable contribution to the history of
the period preceding the ^laccabean revolt. The
author of the first Book of the Maccabees makes no
mention of these events because they added little
credit to the fame of the Jews. The quarrels were
factional ones, the issue being whether the old and
popular government of the Ptolemies should con-
tinue, or whether the Jews should deliver them-
selves over to the Syrian kings and their llelleiiiza-
tion. When Jason and Jlenelaus struggled for tiic
dominant power in Jerusalem, which was. according
toBi'icliler, political office (the -pocracia mentioned in
the account of the Tobiads), and no longer the high-
priesthood, the sons of Tobias {ol Tujiiov Tznl^tq) took

.sides with Menelau.'} (Josei)lius, "Ant." xii. 0, ^ 1 ;
"B. J." i. 1, g 1); and BUchler justly regards' the
struggle between the Tobiads and tlie Oniads as a
contest between Ptolemitan and Seleucid supremacy
in Jerusalem. According to the same scholar, more-
over, Mcnclaus and Jason themselves were Tobiads,
although this is denied by Schlirer. All sciiolars are
agreed tiiat many pe.ints of thcTobiad problem still
await .solution ; and it is al.so a moot jxiint whether
a number of jiassages in Ecclesiasticus (Sirach) and
one in the Assuinptio Mosis (v. 3-G) refer to the
Tobiads.

BiBLiofiKAPMY: Wlllrelrh. Jud«n wiil Oriechtn mr iter yfak-
knlifii.-icliiii K»/i(7ii()i(/. pp. tM-l()7. (;nttln(f<'n. 1h«6; Wj'II-
liausen, I. J. (J. 4tlifil.. pp. :,'4:{ ^Jf, ; Hii.liliT, loliuuli ii unit
Onia<kii. Vienna, iKStit; ScbluUer. In Thenloaixrhc Sltulien
xttui hritil;en, IWtl ; GrUtz. In MtinaUschrift, 1B72; ScliQrer.
(Jcxch. 3U ed., 1. 195.

J- S. Kr.

TOBIAH BEN ELIEZER: Talmudist and

poet of the eleventh century ; author of the " Lcijcati
Tob" or "Pesikta Zutarta," a midrashic commentary
on the Pentateuch and the Five Megillot. Zunz("G.
V." pp. 293 et serj.) inferred from Tobiah's reference
to his father as " tlie great " and from his mention of
the massacre in Mayence in 1096, that he was a na-
tive of Mayence and a son of Eliezku b. Is.\ac n.\-
G.\DOL, who is thought by Conforte ("Kore ha-
Dorot," p. 8b) to have been one of Rashi's teachers.
But as in the course of his work Tobiah often at-
tacks the Karaites and, besides, manifests a thor-
ough knowledge of Mohammedan customs, Rapo-
port, in his biography of Kalir, note 33 (in " Bikkure
ha-'Ittim," x. 122-123), concluded that toward the
end of his life Tobiah settled in Palestine. As to
Tobiah's birthplace, it has been proved by Solomon
Buber that he was a native of Castoria in Bulgaria,
as is testified to by Tobiah's countryman Judah Leon
Mosconi in his supercommentary on Ibn Ezra's com-
mentary on the Pentateuch. According to him, the
author of the commentary on the Pen-
A tateuch mentioned by Ibn Ezra in the

Bulgarian, preface to his own work was a certain
Meir of Castoria, a pupil of Tobiah b.
Eliezer. On the other hand, in his commentary on
Ecclesiastes, Tobiah mentions a R. Samson as Jiis
teacher; and Buber supposes that he may be identical
with the Samson quoted by Rashi in his commentary
on Isa. Iviii. 14 and Amos vi. 3. It is also to be con-
cluded from various dates given by Tobiah in the
course of his work that he wrote it in 1097 and re-
vised it in 1107 or 1108.

Tobiah himself entitled his work " Leljal^ Job"
in allusion to his name Tobiah; and it is so cited
by the earlier rabbis, e.ff.. Ins Ezit.v (I.e.), Asiieri in
" HilkotTefillin." Zedekiah b. Abraham in "Shibbole
ha-Leket " (§ 1 18), and many others. Since the mid-
dle of the sixteenth century, however, it has been
most often referred to as " Pesikta Zularta " (= " tlie
Lesser Pesikta") in distinction to the "Pesiljta
Raltbati" (= "the Greater Pesikta"). This second
title was due to the fact that the editors of the part
relating to Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy
(Venice, 1546), found no title in the manuscript, but
noted that every verse was headid DD (= "piska"),
and took it for granted that it was entitled " Pesikta. "
Consequently the rimed title which, Zunz (Z.c.) thinks,

TobiAh ben Ell<
Tobtt, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

170

Treves

- • X -- 7: I be it

rs call

latter

1 the

let

•in

,.. , ... or

The - Lekalj

i by a

• r.

...._ vr"

iu the Jerusalem

■.in

^I't

\ as written by

.u-

•n in question

I^kabT"b" is botha

giving the gram-

ry often a hag-

But in many

The

ires that the

"L<>k&^

•lie simple

Tob-

. interpre-

rivcs from the Tal-

IT" ' - • ' '•

mud post-Talmutlic

>vo of good style.

ihc various midrasliim in

•

.... . ..I Ihcm in few words and

•e. }\e thcfpfiire shortens the mid-

f the Animaic in which

- • - 1 -

... ;cntl<rs llifin into good

Hrbrtw.

■ the foreitrn words which oc-

' of the Penia-

....i.nts he inserts

tnken from various hula-

Aliai Gaon's

, - .- - wliicli lie cites

wiib llie Iwlakot Jio often interprets

Jiitown Judgment and differently from

1 '

• llic wbolc commentary Tobiah shows

■ '

Miiiiar and

.: liiT giam-

y it may be remarked tiiut

1 '

' ' •' ' ' ' ■' that tiio He-

ll. In certain

d word as though it

« '

c one. Ho considers

'iy or to«i few in the

y of his hag-

r - • - ■ - -

n.,. and "ketib."

Ont of t

f hi4 commentarv is

Iheal

1 tlK' nildicalpas-

■ , *■ '"' 1 ■ ' •\ rorpo-

ChariictAr-

«r. Hr isthal

■ 'i

.'iH "Hc-

- ...itivcly (Roe

-I/kdi Tob" on Dcut. iv. 12). In

r .

' "f Dip Karaites,

tJ.

'■'»■ il.<ir authors.

Like many other Biblical commentators, he trans-
laU?s certain words into the language of the country
Cla'az") in which he is living, namely, Greek.

;:ih seldom mentions the sources for his com-
:„i V ; but they are found to be as follows: Tar-
gum of Onkelos; Baraita of R. Ishmael ; Baiaita of
H. Eliezer ben Jose ha-Gelili; Sifra; Sifrc; Mekilta;
Seder 'Olam; "Sefer Yczirah''; both Talmudim;
Genesis Kabbah : a midrash on the blessing of Jacob

" ■ rk. "B. U. " iW.'^S et seq.): Leviticus Rablmh;
,~li on the Five Megillot ; Tanhunia; Yelam-
medenu; Pirke de-Rabbi Eli'ezer; Baraita di-
MeUket ha Mi-shkan ; Agadat Mashiah : " Hekalot "
of R. Islimael: "Sefer ha- Yasliar " ; 3Iidrash Abkir;
Midrash Ilashkem; and many other midrashim. It
seems that he utilized the "Slie'cltot" of R. Ahai,
the "Ilaiakot Gedolot," and the "Yosijipon." He
quotes also Eleazarha-Kalir, Saadia, Ilai Gaon, Shab-
betliai Donnolo, Ben Asher, Bon Naplitali, and his
teacher R. Samson, while he cites passages from
Menahem b. Saruk and Moses ha-Darshan without
mentioning their names. Tobiah is in turn quoted
by those of Rasiii's pupils who redacted the "Lik-
kute ha-Pardes," and by the following: ]\Ienahem
b. Solomon in his "Sckel T<''' " ; Jacob Tarn in his
"Sefer ha- Yashar"; RaSIIBa^I in his commentary
on the Pentateuch; Ibn Ezra (see above); Tobiah b.
Moses the Karaite in his " Yeiii Me'orot"; Isaac b.
Abba ]^Iari in his " Sefer lia-'Ittur " ; Isaac b. J\Ioses
in his "Or Zarua'"; Zedekiah b. Abraham (see
above); Judah b. Eliezer in his " Minliat Yeluidah " ;
Eliezer b. Nathan in his piyyut "Lei Sliimnuirim ";
and numerous later Biblical coninientators, hala-
kists, and casuists. It will thus be seen that the
" Lckah Tob " was considered as an autliority by the
German, French, and Italian, but not by the eailier
Spanish, scholars. Of the latter Ibn Ezra alone men-
tions it, disparagingly. But later Spanish authori-
ties who, after the expulsion, settled in the East
considered the " Lekah Tol^ " as the chief source for
their works.

As has been said above, only that part of Tobiah 's
work covering Leviticus, Numbers, and Deute-
ronomy was edited iu Venice, 1.546. The same
jmrt was afterward reedited with a Latin trans-
lation under tlie title "Pesikta" by Ugolino in his
"Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrarum " (.\v.-.\vi.);
and was sub«equf'nl]y rcpublisliod by Aaron Moses
Padua tnider the title " Midrash Lckai.i Tob " ( Wilna,
1880), with a short commentary or "bi'ur." Four
years later tiie jiart comprising Genesis and E.xodus
was publi'.siicd. also under tlic title "Midrasli Lekah
Tob," by Solomon Buber (Wilna, 1884), who added
a long introduction and cojiious notes. The part
covering the Five Megillot is not yet printed; but
extracts were published l)y Jellinek in 18.5.5. Tiie
conunentary on Lamentations was edited l)y Nacht
("Tol)iah 1). Eliezcr's Conimentar zu Tlireni," Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, 1H9.5), and that on Ruth by Bam-
l)eri:er (Mayence, 1.S87).

Tol)iuh is known as a Hebrew poet throiigh four
poems of his which are still e.xtant. One is an in-
troduction to his commentJirv on Genesis, another
is an epilogue to tiie .same, both being acro'^tics
on "Tobiah bar Eliezer Hazak"; a third is a short
acrostic on "Tobiah," forming an epilogue to Le-

171

THE JEWISH ENX'YCT.OPrniA

Tobiab ben Elieaer
Tobit, Book of

viticus; aiulUie remaining one is a "selihali" begin-
ning "Ehyc'li aslier Eiiycii," tlie verses being ar-
ranged in aipliabeiical order, and signed "Tobiali
b. Eliezer llazak." The last-cited poem has been
publisiied bv IJuber at the end of his intro(hiotioii to
the "Lei.<al.i T'>lJ."

Bibliography: AxwlaU Shcm hn-Gednlim, i.; nriWVs Jahrb.
V. V.i'Z rt .ST'/.; Midi: Lckah Toh, pd. nubcr. Introductldn ;
lla-M(iilUiil- x.\xix., Nos. ;iti ;f7 ; SUnnsclinclilcr, Ciir. iiix//.
col. :it;71; Wiiili'rand W'i'mavhc. J iuliscln Lilenitur, W. 'J7H
et seq.; Ziinz, (i. V. pp. 293 ct sec/.; Kaufnmnii, Kim Unhc-
kaunte Mcsaitininchc liiAveumiu Utitrrdr)! Jml, it, in ./<i/i»--
h'tch fllr JlldUiChc GeschickU und Litcratur, 1. 148e(»fo..
Berlin, 189X. '

s. M. Ski..

TOBIAH BEN ELIJAH OF VIENNE
(BURGUNDY) (called also Tobias of Burgundy
or siniplj- R. Tobias) : French tosatlst of the thir-
teenth centiuy. lie was a j-ounger contemporary,
and perhaps also a pupil, of Isaac ben Abraham of
Dampierre, at whose funeral lie was present in 1310.
Autiiors of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
speak of Tobiah as a very prominent teacher of the
Law ; and he is known also as a Bible commentator
and liturgical poet. It seems that he wrote a highly
important casu'istic work, from which the many de-
cisions quoted in his name were taken. His pupil
Abraham ben Ephraim often refers, in his "Sefer
lia-Mizwot," to Tobiah as an authority.

Tobiah is quoted in the Tosafot (B. K . 69b), sev-
eral times in " Mordekai," in the "Shibbole ha-
Leket, " and in "Tashbez." His religious poetry,
inspired by the persecutions of his coreligionists,
consists of "selihot," included in a Burgundian Mah-
zor. They are impressive in style, and show mas-
tery of form. It appears from a passage in a Cam-
bridge manuscrii)t that Jehiel of Paris visited Tobiah
on his journey to Palestine in 1200.

BiHi.ior.RAPHV: Ziinz, Z. G. p. 56: ideal, Litcraturaesch. p.
303: Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 192.
E. c. A. Pe.

TOBIAS, EMIL. See TnoM.\s, E.mile.

TOBIT, BOOK OF : A late Jewish work, never

received into the Jewish canon, and included in the
Apocrypha by Protestants, although il was ]uo-
nounced canonical by the Council of Carthage (397)
and the Council of Trent (1546). It takes its name
from the central tigure, called TuSeir {TiJ,3cT, 1u3dd)
in Greek, and Tobi {''2^\2) in a late Hebrew manu-
script.

The story of the book is as follows: Tobit, a pious
man of the tribe of Xaphtali, who remained faithful
to Jerusalem when his tribe fell awa}' to Jeroboam's
cult of the bull, was carried captive to Xiiie\eii in
the time of Enemessar (Shalmaneser), King of As-
syria. There, together with his wife, Anna, and his
son Tobias, he gave alms to the needy, and buried the
outcast bodies of the slain, keeping himself jmre,
moreover, from the food of the Gentiles. He was
in favor Avith the king, however, and so prosperous
that he was able to deposit ten talents of silver in
trust with a friend in Media. "Witii
Outline of the accession of Sennacherib (the sire-
the Story, cessor of Enemessar) the situation
changed. Accused of burying the
dead slain by the king, he had to flee, and his prop-
erty was confiscated ; but when Sarchedonus (Esar-

liaddon) came to the throno Toblt ,i U)

return to Nineveh ul Die liitfrctMlon of liis neph-
ew Acliiuclmrii8 (Ai,iii^.\it), i|,e kii
Here he continued IiIk works of ni«'r<
tally losing his . ho fell iiitn great poverty.

so llmt in liis di:. ... . .. x.h lie pr;:- ■ ' •' • ' - '"

<lie. On that same day a siiiiila

l>y Sarah, the daughter of Huguei «)1 J

Me.lia), in despair l)ecauw hIic liad I. .i

to seven husband.s who had eacli b.-.n kl.iiii ».v n
demotion tiic wedding night. Tlie

remembering his deposit of iiioouy j.. 4

mined to send liis 8on for It. A cnmimnlon and
guide(\vlioturnsout to 1
found for him, the two 1

At the river Tigris. Tobit caught a tlsli aud wa« In-
structed by Ills coiiipiinion to . .irt.
liver, and gall. Conducted l<. i, , ho
asked Sarah's liand in marriage, drove away Iko
demon by buridug the lieart and liv. ' '
the bridal chamber, sent Baphael .
name was Azarias) for the money, and returned,
with him and Sarai), to Nineveh. wJiere Tobil's eye-
sight was restored by smearing his eyes wjtli tlie
fish's gall. Father, mother, and son reached a good
old age (Tobias living to rejoice over the destruction
of Nineveh), and died in peace. This brief outline
does not do justice to tlie artistic construction of the
story, or to the fine touciies in its descriptions of
family life, social customs, and individual expe-
liences. It may be reckoned among the most de-
lightful of short stories.

The text exists in Greek, Latin. Syriac, and Ju-
dito-Aramaic, besides two late Hebrew translationa.
Of the Greek there are three versicjiis. one given in
the Vatican and Alexandrian manuscripts of the
Septuagint ; one in the Siiiaitic; and one in Co<lice«
44, 106, 107 of Holmes and Parsou.s. Of the Latin
there are two recensions: the Old I.Jiliu, which
agrees substantially with the Sinaitic S
aud the Vulgate, made by Jerome from :.
text, which often agrees with it. although it pre-
sents many divergencies. The Syriae ^ " the
Vatican in general, altiiough il is by ij lit-
eral, while Codices 44, 106. 107 agree
Text and sometimes with this text, sometimes
Original with that of the Sinaitic. The Ara-
Language. maic text (published by Ncubaucr)
also represents the Sinaitic recension
in a general way, but is late, and «aii scarcely be
considered the descendant of Jerome's original.
The Hebrew copies are late and of no authority
The two chief Greek recensions arc tlio earliest
sources for the text of Tobit, though - : >n9

mav be gained from the Latin and the h. Of

the Greek forms the Vatican is the shortest (except in
ch. iv.); its style is rough and often incorrect, and it
has many erroi-s, frecpiently clerical in nature. The
Sinaitic text isdilTusc. but frequently gives the better
readings. Both of them may depend on an earlier
form which has been corrupted in the Vatican aiul
expanded in the Sinaitic, although the question is a
diliicult one. Equally problematical is the deter
mination of the original language of the book. The
forms of the proper names, and such an expression
as x»P'^ "«' fop<p(/v (1. 13), which suggests loni |n

Tobit, Book of

Todros ben Mesbullam

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

172

(Esth. ii. 17). may be held to point to Hebrew, as
may also the type of piety portrayed, although it
must be uoted that tliere is uo mention in early
times of a Hebrew text, which Jerome would doubt-
less have used had he known of its existence. The
Sinaitic forms "Ather" for "Asur" (xiv. 4) and
" Athoureias " for " Asureias " (xiv. 15), on the other
hand, are Aramaic. The excellent Greek style of the
Sinaitic may suggest a Greek original. In view of
the conflicting character of the data, it is best to
reserve opinion as to the original language; the text
appears to have sulYered a number of revisions and
misreadings.

Tiie picture of religious life given in Tobit (espe-
cially the devotion to ritual details) indicates a post-
Ezran date for the book. The special significance
attached to almsgiving (iv. 10; xii. 8, 9) is identical
with the idea in^Eccius. (Sirach) iii. 30 (comp. also
Prov. X. 2), and the injunction in iv. 17. " Pour out
thy bread on the burial of the just, but give nothing
to the wicked," is repeated in import in Ecclus.
(Sirach) xii. 4-5. The prediction in xiv. 5 implies
a period after the building of the Second Temple,
and, apparently, before the commencement of
Herod's Temple. The prominence given to the
duty of burying the outcast slain (the survival of a
very ancient conception) seems to point to a time
when the Jews were slaughtered by foreign enemies,
as, for example, by Antiocluis or by
Time and Hadrian. The necessity of marrying
Place. within the kin was recognized during
a long period and does not define the
date precisely. Polycarp's saying ("Ad Phil." x.),
"Almsgiving delivers from death," does not prove
that he was acquainted with Tobit, since Prov. x. 2
may have been so understood by him. There is no
Messianic hope expressed in the book. The more
probable view is that it was composed between 200
and 50 B.C. If the original language was Hebrew,
the place was Palestine; if Greek, it was Egypt; but
this point, too, must be left undecided.

The reference in xiv. 10 to Achiacharus introduces
new perplexities into the question of the origin of
the book (see Ahik.\r). Here it need only be re-
marked that the reference is merely an illustration,
showing acquaintance with an Ahikar story; the
allusion is scarcely organically connected with tlie
story of Tobit.

The original form of the book may have told sim-
ply how a pious man, doing his duty, came safe out
of trouble. The episode of Sarah and Asmodkis
appears to be a separate story, here skilfully com-
bined with the other. The advisory discourses in
iv. (much shortened in tlie Sinaitic text) and xii.
look like the insertions of an editor. For Mie etiiical
tone see especially iv. 15, 10, and for tlie religious
ideas, xii. 8. The book is to be compared with Prov-
erbs, Ecclcsiasticus (Sirach), Daniel, and Ecclesi-
astes.

Biru.ifionAPHv: Swetn. T/ic Old TcMamcut in Greek (tpxts of
th«' Viitican. Alexamlrian, ami Sinaitic codices); FritzschP, in
Jiandliuch zn ilrii A iu'lniiiilun : NculiaiitT. VVif liitnU of
Toliit (ftlii Latin, .\rainaic. atnl nixdfrn llctircw ti-xtsi; Scliii-
rer. in Hcrzotr-Haiick. Hidl-Eiiciic. i.; Iloticrtson Smitli. in
Ennie. Uril.: Erlit, in ("licvnc and Black, Kiiri/c. /{i7//.; Mar-
shall, in Ha-stinps. Diet, liililr; Sctipnkcl, Hilnt-I^rrihoii;
Schurer, Gateli. M ert.. iii.; AndnV. Les AixicriDilim <le.
VAiicien Tr>itament; NiMdeke, in Mmiatshcriehte <li r J!n-
llner Akadcmic tier iriwscn.sc/in/fcx, 1^70; Koliiit, in Gci

ger's Jlld. Zcit.: Griitz, Gcscli. iv.; Plath, in ThcoJogitsehe
Studkii UHd Kritikcn, I'.tCU : Israel U-vi, in Ii. E. J. 190-.i;
Abrahams, in J. (J. Ii. i.; Bissell, Tin .ipoc/i/p/ia or the Uld
TcMaineiit (Lange series); Fuller, in Wace. Apocruphn.

TOCKELS, MORDECAI BEN ABRAHAM

(called also Mordecai Lisser) : German Talmud-
ist; l)orn at Lissa; died in Berlin June 12, 1743.
As a i)oor young man he went to Berlin, where he
was adopted by a Frau Tockels, whose name he
adopted in gratitude for her kindness. Tockels'
first wife was the daughter of the chief of the Vienna
exiles, Abraham ben Model Ries; his second, a
daughter of the equally prominent "Wolf ben ^le-
shuilam Salman. In 1723 Tockels was appointed
dayyan; and in 1726 he was made assistant rabbi
("rosh bet din") under Chief Rabbi Michael Hasid.
In 1729 he was chosen director of the hebra kad-
disha, which office he held until his death.

Tockels was the author of "Torat Hayyim we-
Ahabat Hesed," wiiich was edited by his brother-iu-
law Abraham ben Meir (Berlin, 1750, 1829).

Bibliography: Zedner, Cat. Hehr. Bnnha Brit. Mus. p. 439,
s.v. Li.-iscr; Laudshutli, Tvlcdot Anshc Shem, p. 20.
E. c. A. Pe.

TODESCO, HERMANN: Austrian financier and
philanthropist; born at Presburg 1792; died there
Nov. 23, 1844. At first engaging in the silk trade, he
later won fame and wealth in the cotton business;
and he established in Marienthal, near Vienna,
one of the first cotton mills worked by machinery.
In 1835 he bought the state domain of Legnaro, near
Padua, where he establislied a cotton-mill wliicli
became one of the most important of its kind iu
Europe.

Todesco's main activity, however, lay in philan-
thropy. At an expense of 25.000 gulden he estab-
lished a primary and infant school in his native town
in 1843, and its inaugural ceremonies, on ^lay 7 of
the following year, were attended by the arch-
duchess Maria Dorothea. Todesco was also one of
the jirincipal founders of the Jewisli hospital at
Baden, near Vienna.

After his death his son Eduard became the head
of the banking firm of Hermann Tode.sco's Sons,
and was raised to the Austrian nobility in 18G1).
Among his piiilantliropies special mention may be
made of his gift of 100,000 gulden in 1854, of wliicli
three-fifths went to tlie Erzherzog Albrecht Vor
schussfund fiir Unbemittelte K. K. Ofliziere. and tin
remainder was devoted to the establishment of ::
Speise-Anstalt fi'ir Anne Israelilisciie Studentei
His daughter was married in 18G4 to Baron Henry
de Worms (later Lord Pikhuiciit).

Hermann's other son, Moritz Ritter von To-
desco, who was an associate of the firm, died Jiil\
17, 1H73, at the age of fifty-seven. Eduard's sm
Hermann (litirn 1850) died at Baszon, Veszpriin
Hungary, June, 1870.

Biiu.I(i<;r vlMlY : yrun- Xelnrilaif der DetttseheiK ii. "'
Weimar, IH41 ; W'iiiKV Zd'doii/, 1»45, No. 17 ; Wurzhai
/{ii/f/rKc'""-'''"''* Le.tilidii. ^

TODROS OF BEAUCAIRE: 1 (called Ha
Kazin). One of the chief poets of the second lial
of the tliirtecntli ccntiuy; resided in ^Montpellier
In 1277 he was one of the five representatives of tli'

173

THE JEWISH E^X•VCLUPEUIA

Tobit, Book of
Todros ben Mesbullam

Jewish community to which .Iiimcs H. oi Aragon
granted a syiia.^ogiie for a hmg term of years in
cousideration of tlie payment of tive Melgorian sous
auuually by the Jews of tiie city. Aljralunn He-
dersi, wiio esti'cmed Todros iiigldy, and considered
him, togeliier with Kalonynuis ben Meir of Aries
and Kalonynuis ben Todros of Narbonne, as one of
tlic greatest men of his period, complained to him
in bitter terms of liie evil days in which they lived
and, of the low opinion held of poetr}'. Abraham
also replied in verse to a poem which Todros ad-
dressed to him and which when read from left to
right has an entirely dilTerent sense from that which
it has when read from right to left.

BiBLiOGRAPnv : Renan-Neubauer, Lcs liabhiufi Fra)i(;ai'', pp.
7i;i, 710; ii. E. J. xix. :205, 273.

2. Rabbinical scholar of ^Vlontpcllier at the begin-
ning of the fourteenth centur}-. He was one of the
most devoted adherentsof Abba Mari of Lunel during
the period of religious polemics between 1303 and
13UG, bitterly opposing all who studied science or
philosoi)hy. Despite the presence of Don Crcscas
Vidal of Peri)ignan, who was at Montpellier at the
time, the fanaticism of Todros drove him to protest
I violently against the author (probal)ly JMoses ibu
j Tibbon) of a conunentary on the Pentateuch which
i explained as allegories events recorded in the first
I five books of the Bible. Like Abba Mari, he did not
hesitate to disregard the opposition of Jacob ben
I Machir, and to read publicly in the synagogue of
Montpellier the letter addressed by tafteen rabbis of
[ Barcelona, headed by Solomon ben Adret, to the
' Jewish community, in which the sentence of excom-
I munication was pronounced against all who should
devote themselves to the study of philosophy under
; the age of thirty. This rabbi is identitied by Zunz
j and Gross with Todros ha-Ka/in of Beaucaire.

BlBLiOfiUAPiiY : Gross. (Inllin Jadaica, p. 329; Ahba Mari,
' Miiihat KciicCiit, ed. Pn'sl)iirg, pp. 4S. (il, f>3; Renan-.Neii-
liaiu'i-, I/t's Rabbins Fraiirais, pp. ().')9, t>t)3 ; Zunz. Z. G.
p. 47(5.
s. S. K.

TODROS (or TAUROS) OF CAVAILLON :

French i)hysician of the latter part of the fourteenth
century, who flourished, accoriling to Carmoly,
[about 137i). He was the author of a treatise enti-
itled "Sha'are ha-Harkabot" (MSS. Paris, No. 1191,
1 ; Cat. p. 219), a sort of pharmacoptt'ia, written
partly in Hebrew and partly in Latin. Carmoly
states that Todros was aj) pointed rabbi of Cavaillon
by the "elders of the community," but gives no
proof of his assertion. Todros is probably identical
with the ]\Iaestro Toros de Cavaillon Avho was one
of the live " baylons " or directors of the Jewish com-
munity of Avignon in 14-40. See also Touuos ben-
Moses YOM-TOB.

Bini.ior.KArnv: Carinolv, Histoirc den Mrilcci us. p. Wi^: Hriill,
J<i)ir}i. ix. Ki; GrosA,' <;nll id JudaUa. p. Wit; Uenan-Nmi-
bauiT, Lis Ecrirniii'' Jiii/s Fraiirais. p. 379; K. E.J. i.
-73; Stfiuscbin'ider, Hchr. Uebcrs. p. 7S3.
s. S. K.

TODROS BENISAAC: Talmudist ; lived in Italy
or ill soulliern Fiance in the latter part of the thir-
teenth century ami the early part of the fourteenth.
He was the author of novelke on the Talmud
treatise Nazir, which are still extant in manuscript
(Neubauer, " Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS. " No. 447). To-

dros concludes his work by saying that he composed
il in 1322, a year in whicii tiie Jews were undergo-
ing many jiersecutions. After tiie massjicre of the
lepers (see Jew. Encyc. v. Hi'i et geq.), foliinved by
the outbrcjik of the Pastoiukaux, the Talmud was
burned, and the Hoinan emperor projected still oilier
liersecutions. According to Grillz, this l{(jiiian em-
jieror was Frederick, the rival of Louis of Bavaria
and an enemy of the Jews; and lie al.so advances the
theory that an allusion to the jjcrsecution mentiuncd
by Todros is contained in an ile>:y which a certain
Joab wrote on the burning of the Talmud and which
is found in an Oxford maniiscri])t (Neulmuer, "Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. :\ISS." No. 1001; comj). i.lem in " Mo-
natsschrift," lb72, p. 370).

mnLior.riAPiiv : GrUtz, In Monatsachrift, 1880. p. 8; <(/ei;i. in
.;. Q. li. ii. 1(H.
E. c. I. Bit.

TODROS BEN KALONYMUS : Kiencli schol-
ar and liturgical jioel; lived at Narlxmne in the first
half of the twelfth century; son of Kalonymus the
Great, who flourished at Narbonne in the eleventh
century, and reached the age of eighty years, being
renowned for his learning and the services which he
rendered to his coreligionists. A war of succession
between the city of Narbonne and the Count of
Toulouse, which lasted nearly ten years, entailed
much suffering on the Jews, then numbering about
two thousand; and Todros gave his family in bond-
age for the special taxes which were imposed upon
the Jews to meet the expenses of the war. He was
the author of " Azharot," or liturgical jiocms. He
had a son, Kalonymus Nasi, as well as a nei>hew,
Todros ben Moses, who flourished at Narbonne
about the middle of the twelfth century, and is
probably identical with the Todros b. Moses who,
together with other rabbis of Narbonne, signed a
responsum written about 1150.
BIBLIOCKAPIIV : Gross, Gallia Judaica^ pp. 400-407.

D. S. Max.

TODROS BEN MESHULLAM BEN DAVID
(called also Todros Todrosi) : Provencal liaiisia-
tor; born at Aries in the early jiart of the fourteenth
century. Of his life no details are known except
that in 1337 he lived at TriiKpietaillc, where he
completed his translation of Aristotle's "Rhetoric."
Many hypotheses have been put forth to exphiin
why Todros, in signing this translation, added to
his name the words "mi-zeia' ha-Yehudim " (= "of
the seed of the Jews"), and aflixcd to the date
"hcshbon ha-Yisra'elim " (= "chronology of the
Israelites"), although it is possible that he feared
that he might be confused with a relative of the
same name who had embraced Christianity.

Todros made himself known by his Hebrew trans-
lations of Arabic philoso|ihical works, these versions
being as follows: (1) "'En Mishpat ha-Dernshim."
a selection of philosophical apliorisms by Alfarabi
(Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 1339.2;
also in many other libraries), which Totlros trans-
lated when "he was only twenty years of age; (2)
"Hazzalat ha-Nefesh." a rendering of the physical
and metaphvsical sections of Avicenna's "Kitali al-
Najah " (Cod. Paris. 1023. 4) ; (3) " Bi'ur," the Middle
Commentary of Averrocs on Aristotle's "Rhetoric "

Todros ben Moses
Toledano

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

174

(ib. 932, 4; 933, 3; also in many other libraries); (4)
"Bi'ur Sefer ha-Siiir," the Middle Commentary of
Averroeson Aristotle's" Poetics" (in many libraries);
(5) the following three treatises of Averroes: refuta-
tion of Aviceuna's system, which divided all tilings
into the two categories of those whose existence is
only possible of themselves while necessary as a
result of the causes from which tiiev proceed, and
those whose existence is necessary of tliemsel ves ; an
essay on this system ; and " Ma'amar be-Da'at ha-
Kiddum," a treatise on the problem wiiether God
knows tlie details concerning His creatures before
they are created, and whether His creatures exist
potentially before they are actually formed (in many
libraries); (6) "Ma'amar be-Sekel ha-Hayulani," a
fragment of the treatise of Averroes on the hylic
intellect (Cod. Paris, 989, 2; 1023, 5).

Bibliography : Carmoly, Tiiimmpliie (/cs I^rat'litc^dc Francr.
p. 91 ; (;n>ss, iu Mniicitsschrift. KSSI, p. (51; Steinsclineider,
Ht:hr. L cbcr.-^. pp. tiS, ISi, 197, :i85. 21H ; idem. Cat. Dodl. cols.
26SO-:J6S}; Renan, Avenocs et Avcnoisme, pp. 69-70.
J. I. Bh.

TODROS BEN MOSES YOM-TOB (or BON-

DIA) : French i)hysieian ; flourished at Cavaillon in
the second half of the fourteenth century ; identified
by Steinschueider with Todros of C.waillox. In
1394 he prepared a Hebrew translation of a Latin
treatise on fever by Jolianan ibii Masuyah with a
commentary by Peter of Spain. He likewise trans-
lated other works, the most important being the
treatise of Arnold of "Villeneuve on digestive and
purgative medicines.

BiBt.ior.RAPHV : Renan-Xeubauer, Les Ecrivains Juifs Fran-
gais, p. 72t5; Steinschneider, Hchr. Uchei'S. p. 791.

s. S. K.

qpOHOROT (•' Purifications ") : 1. Xame of the
sixth and last order in the Mishnahand the Tosefta.
"Tohorot" is a euphemism for uncleanness, all the
treatises of this order dealing with the laws govern-
ing impurity. The order comprises twelve trea-
tises, Avhich, arranged according to the number of
their chapters, are as follows: Kelim (30 chapters),
Ohalot (18). Nega'im (14), Parah (12), Tohorot (10),
Jlikwa'ot (10), Niddah (10), IMakshirin (6), Zabim
(5). Tr\m\ Yarn (4), Yadayim (4), 'Ukzin (3).

2. Treatise in the ^lishnah and in the Tosefta,
treating especially of the lesser degrees of unclean-
ness the elTects of which last until sunset only. In
most editions of the 3Iishnali it is the fifth treatise
in the order Tohorot. It is divided into ten chap-
ters, compri.sing ninety-six paragraphs iu all. The
contents maj' be summari7,ed as follows:

Ch. i. : The thirteen regulations concerning the
Nehel.xh of a bird, i.e., a fowl ncjt litually slaugh-
tered; wiiat quantity of such fowl causes unclean-
ness as nebelah, and what quantity uncleanness
merely as other unclean foods; which parts are not
included to make up the minimum required ([uantify ;
from which moment a heail of cattle not ritiially
slaughtered aciiuires a lesser degree of uncleanness,
i.e., that of ordinary foods, and when the higher
degree of impurit}-, that of tlie nebelah ; which jiarts
are included in order to make up the minimum
quantity for the lesser degree, but not for the higher
degree (5^ 1-4); the mixing of different unclean
foods to make up the required (piantity — the size

of an egg; cases in which, when the parts possess

different degrees of impurity, the entire quantity

becomes unclean either in the lesser

Contents : or in the higher degree (^§ 5-6); parts

Ch. i.-iv. of a mass of dough or a loaf of bread
connected with or touching each
other; hov/ the uncleanness of one part affects the
others (^§ 7-9).

Ch. ii. : How foods become imjiure when touched
by an unclean person (§1); how a person becomes
unclean through partaking of impure food (§2);
dilTerence between foods not sanctified, those con-
stituting " terumah " (see Heave-Offeuing), and
other sanctified foods, as regards their becoming un-
clean in the various degrees (^§ 3-8).

Ch. iii. : Impurity of beverages when in a liquid
state, and when they have solidified; which drinks
acquire the same degree of uncleanness in the
liquid as in the solid state (§§1-3); how uncleaa
foods become clean by a change of the prescril)cd
quantity (§ 4); the degree of uncleanness of a thing
is judged from the condition in which it is found
(§ 5); doubtful cases of uncleanness, when it is not
known whether the unclean parts have been touched
by the person in (juestion ; the difference between
reasoning and unreasoning beings in such cases;
cases in which it is doubtful whether an animal has
transferred impurity from unclean drinks to foods
(§§ 6-8).

Ch. iv. : Doubtful cases of impuritj' (§§ 1-4); six
cases in which terumah is burned because of sus-
pected impurity (^§ 5-6); doubtful cases of impu-
rity in wliicli the sages declared the object to be
clean ; other doubtful cases in which the sages de-
clared the object to be permissible (§§ 7-12).

Ch. V. : Regulations concerning various cases of
doubtful impurity.

Ch. vi. : Difference between juivate domain (" rc-

shut ha-yahid ") and public domain (" reshut ha-

rabbim") with reference to cases of

Ch. v.-x. doubtful impurity: in the former in
all doubtful cases objects are to be
declared unclean; in the latter, clean (§§ 1-5);
different localities which are considered privates do-
main with reference to the Sabbath, but public
domain with regard to cases of doubtful impurity
(§§ 6-10).

Ch. vii. : Various cases in which a thing is ren-
dered unclean by being touched by a jierson ignorant
of the law ("'am ha-arez"): as such a pcr.son does
not observe the laws of cleanliness, his toiicli is nec-
essarily unclean. Cases in which one must suspect
an 'am ha-arez of having touched foods and driiiUs,
although he, personally, may have had notiiiiig to
do with them^ If, for example, the wife of an 'am
ha-arez is seen to attend to the fire in a stove on
which a pot containing terumah is standing, it must
be assiuned that .she, although atteniliiig to the fire
only, has touched the food also; Avomen being
generally curious to find out what their neighbors
are cooking, she would most likely remove the cover
of the pot in order to discover the contents.

Ch. viii. : Further regulations concerning precau-
tions to be taken by one conversant with the Law
("haber")in order to protect himself against un-
cleanness caused bv the touch of an 'am ha-arez

175

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Todros ben Moses
Toledano

(§§ 1-5); what is to be considered fit f(ir liuniau
food, tlius foniiiiiij: a basis for liu! leguUitious coii-
cerniuy the impurity of foods (§ (i); furtiier regula-
tions concerning tlie impurity of beverages (^t^ 7-9).

Cli. ix.-x. : Concerning olives and tlie pressing of
oil; how they can be rendered unclean. Other reg-
ulations concerning cleanness and uncleanuess, with
special reference to wine-presses.

The Tosefta to this treatise is divided into eleven
chapters, and contains many passages elucidating
the niishnaic treatise.

w. n. J. Z. L.

TOKAHAH (-'admonition," "malediction"):
The term used to connote the prediction by Moses
of due punishment in case of disobedience of the
divine law on the part of the children of Israel. It
was first pronounced in Lev. x.wi., and repeated in
Deut. x.\ viii., the blessings for obedience to the Law
being cited first in both passages. According to the
Midrash (Deut. R. 1. 4), 11. Aha b. llanina declared
that the tokahah should, strictly speaking, liave
been pronounced by Balaam and the blessings by
I Moses, but this order had been reversed that the
! Gentiles might learn the blessings through their
I prophet Balaam, and that the children of Israel
1 might not ciuestiou the motive of the tokahah when
given by their friend Moses. The Mishnah terms
1 the tokahah "kelalot" (= "curses"), in contradis-
tinction to"berakot" (= "blessings "), both being
I read together on public fast-days, and the whole
i chapter being assigned to one person (Meg. iii. 6).
R. Hiyya b. Gammada quoted the verse "Despi.se
not the chastening of the Lord ; neither be weary of
I his correction " (Pro v. iii. 11) as a reason for insisting
j that the reading be continuous and not in sections,
I while H. Jose b. Abin interpreted it as implying that
I the portions read in public must be so arranged that
i each passage should begin and end with a cheerful
! verse (Yer. ib.).

I Later custom, however, forbade any subdivision
'of either version of the tokahah (Shulhuu 'Aruk,
' Grab Hayyini, 428, 6). The order of reading the
I sidra " Behukkotai " for the third person called up to
1 the Law is Lev. xxvi. 10-46, and that of " Ki Tabo,"
; for the sixth, is Deut. xxviii. 7-G!), both these sections
I beginning and ending with "good " verses, with the
tokahah between them. The Ashkenazim do not
I call up l)y name the person to whom the tokahaii is
I assigned at the public reading in the synagogue; the
iSephardim do, although they permit liim to read
I the t(jkahah by himself instead of tiirough the
"ba'al kore," or public reader. In some cougrega-
Itions the passage was assigned to an "'am ha-arez,"
|vvho did not understand the meaning of the text;
hence the reading of the tokahah became a sort of
reproach, so that many declined to read it when
called up to do so. To remedy tiiis disrespect for a
portion of the Torah, the hakam or rabbi then volun-
teered to read the passage. In Yiddish parlance,
"to lay the tokahah on him" means to curse one
with all the contents of the tokahah.
w. n. J. D. E.

TOLA : 1, A son of Issachar who had journeyed
to Egypt with Jacob (Gen. xlvi. 13). In the census
of the people made by Moses and the iiigh priest

Eleazar after the plague tiie Tolaites appear us a
trilju (Num. xxvi. 2:5). and during llie reign i>f David
they could put 22,0UU warriors in the Uchl (1 Chron.
vii. 2).

2. The son of Piaii. He became judge in Israel
after the death of Abimeltch. He ilwcli in Shamir
in the plateau of Ephraim, upparenlly residing in
the extreuK- northern portion near the lirtrders of
Issachar. He was judgir f(jr twenty-three years,
and was buried in his native city of Slminir (Judges
X. 1-2).

K. O. II, s. O.

TOLEDANO (mi DE TOLEDO): A family
taking its name from Toledo, the city in which
it originated, and including printers, Talmudic
scholars, rabbis, and diplomats in Turkey, Africa,
Holland, and Englan<l, being still represented in
Salouica, Jerusalem, Tiberias, and elsewhere.- Its
most important members are as follows:

Aaron de Toledo : Author of religious lectures
which appeared at Salonica in 1790 under the title
"DibreHefez."

BiBi.iOfJRAPHV : Conforte. Kore hn-Doml, p. 40n ; Zcdner,
Cat. Hclir. liixihs livit. Mux. p. 75U.

Abraham Toledano : Rabbi in Salonica about
1640; a contemporary of Shabbethai Jonah, with
whom he corresponded.

Abraham de Toledo : Author of " C'oplas de
Joseph ha Zadilik. This work was written in
JudajoSpauish and published at Constantinople in
1732.

Daniel Toledano: Born at Mifpienes; a friend
of K. Jacob Su.sporlas. He was thoroughly versed
in the Talmud, possessed a consideral)le knowledge
of statesmanship, and acted as councilor to Sultan
Muley Ismail.
BiBi.ior.RAPny : Gratz, Gesch. x. 259.

Eliezer Toledano : A scholar who went from
Toledo to Lisbon, where he established a i)rinling-
house froni which he issued the following works be-
tween 1489 and 1492: an edition (tf the PeuUiteuch
with the commentary of Nahmanides, David Abu-
darham's work on tlie ritual, I.saiah and Jeremiah
with the commentary of Kimhi, Proverbs with the
commentary " Kab we-Naki," and the "Halikot
'01am," but neither the"Tur Orah Ilayyim " nor
any treatise on the Tahnud was issued from his
press, despite statements to the contrary. Don
Judah Gedaliah (nob"Yahya). who was employed in
Eliezer Toledano's priuiing-oftice, later established
a press at Salonica (not Constantinople) with type
brought from Lisbon.

Biiil.iooR.vriiv: Ersch iind GriilKT, K»irf/c. section II.. jwrt 2S,
p. .\7: Kavscrlinir, (;,.-<ili. ili r Jwhii in /'<-rM«i;<i/. p. «•; \>-
luumi. Miiitchc I huliw, p. \Si; seealwiJKW. E.ncvc. >Ul. 107.

Eliezer de Toledo: Rabbi at Costa, where lie
died in 184S. lie was the author of the collection
of responsa entitled "Mishnat R. Eli'ezer" (2 vols..
Salonica, 18.j3).
BiBLio(;nArMV: .lelllnck. Is'wtrcs /ia-.V<Mj><<'. P- "-

Habib Toledano : Son of Eliezer, and brolher
of Abraham anil Jonah Toledano; born at Mi<nienes.
where he suffered great hardships throughout his
life. He was the aiithor of the " Derek Emunali."
a cominentarv on the Passover Huggftdah. which

Toledano
Toledo

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

176

was published, together with the commentaries of
IJashi. Samuel ben Meir, and Yoni-Tob Ishbili, under
the title "Peh Yesharim" (Leghorn, 1838), while his
apologetic work, "Terumat ha-Kodesh " {ib. 1866),
is chiefly devoted to a criticism of Reggio.

BiBi.ior.RAPnv : Nepi-Ghirondi. Tulcdot Galnlc Yi:tracU PP-
Uu'. 114, whu-h also contains Habib Toleilano's penealogical
tret' of Ills family : Steinschaeider. Ihhr. DibL xiii. 54.

Hayyim Toledano : Brother of Joseph Tole-
dano. About 1700 he was appointed ambassador to
Holland and England by Sultan Muley Ismail of
Morocco.
Bibliography: Gratz, Gcsch. x. 260.

Hayyim de Toledo: Lived at Salonica, where
he published his "Hayyim Medabber," a collection
of commentaries
on legal codes
and rulings (Sa-
lonica. 1818).

Isaac Tole-
dano: A con-
temporary of
Elijah Mizrahi
and TamYahya;
lived at Brusa
about 1530.

Bibliography:
Zuuz, Z. O.p.UO.

Isaac Tole-
dano : Rabbi at
Salonica; died
there in Nov.,
1683. He was
the teacher of
R. Joseph Da-
vid, who deliv-
ered a funeral
oration in his
honor.

Isaac ben
Joseph Tole-
dano : Rabbi in
Salonica ; died
Aug.. 1713.

Jacob Tole-
dano: Corre-
spondent of
Elijah Mizrahi;

lived at Salonica about 1510. Another Jacob
Toledano — possibly the one that .sent to A/.ulai
the manuscript treatises which the latter printed at
Leghorn in 1805 — was dayyan, together with his
brother Hayyim, at Miqueues in 1748.

Bibliography : Zunz, Z. G. p. 441 ; Stelnsclineider, Vcrzeich-
;ax iter Hehriiixchen llnmUchriftcn dvr KDnii.iliclicn Tiih-
liotliek in Berlin, Nos. .5ti, <i6 ; the lattt-r work also mentions
other members of the Toledano family, chielly those living at
Miquenes.

Joseph Toledano : Son of Daniel, and brother
of the ambassador Hayyim Toledano. Muley Is-
mail, the Sultan of Morocco, who liad received val-
uable assistance from Joseph on his accession to the
throneof Muley Mohammed, sent him to The Hague
to conclude treaties of reciprocity regarding peace,
navigation, and commerce.

IniiTii.i (if the Church of St.

Bibliography: De Barrios. HiMoria UiiivcrsalJudaucii. pp.
9 ft yei/.. 23 ; Manasseh ben Israel, Spf.s Isnidis. Hebr. transl.,
p. .">6b ; Koenen, Gcxvhinlcnis dcr J mien in yederhind. p.
2(19: Isaac da Costa, 7»7(u! und die Tof/icr, German transl.
by Mann, p. 27ti.

Moses de Toledo : A resident of Jerusalem, and
the author of the " Hazozerot Mosheh ; LaTrompeta
de Mose de Toledo, Dividida en Siete Voces, con los
Dinim de la Tcphillay C<isa de la Oracion " (Venice,
1643), which is probably identical with the " Advcr-
teneias Devotas " (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1641) gen-
erally attributed to him.

Bibliography: Wolf. JiilA. Hehr. ill. 821 ; Furst, Bill. Jud.

iii. iM: Kayserling, liihl. E.-P<>rt.-Jud. p. llHi.

Moses ben Daniel Toledano: A native of Mi-
quenes; author of "Meleket ha-Kodesh," a com-
mentary on Rashi, published by Jacob Toledano

(Leghorn. 1803).
Solomon To-
ledano : Son of
Isaac Toledano-
died of the
plague at Salo-
nica in April,
1697.

B I H 1. 1 o G r A p n V :
Jellinek, Kuntrcs
lia-Masjiid, pp.
ai, 41.

J. M. K.

TOLEDO:

Met lopoli tan
cit}' of Gothic
and ^Moorish
Spain, and capi-
tal of Old Cas-
tile. Jews must
have been estab-
lished there as
e a r 1 y a s the
si.\th century;
for the third To-
ledo Council
(589) inserted in
its canon provi-
sions against the
iiilermarriage of
Jews and Chris-
t i a n s , and
against J e w s
holding public
ollicc or possessing Christian servants. The
eiglitii Toledo Council (652) confirmed the anti-
Jewish legislation of the laws of King Sisenand
(Scherer, " Rechlsverhaltnisse der Juden," pp. 22-
25), while the ninth council (654) ordered l)aptized
Jews to observe Christian as well as Jewish feasts
(Aguirre, " CollectioMaximaConciliorum Ilispania',"
ii. 507). Similarly in 681 the twelfth Toledo Council
confirmed the Erwicz decrees against Jewish con-
verts to Christianity (Aguirre, I.e. pp. 682-680), and
in 693 tlie si.xteentii Toledo Council confirmed the
other anti-Jewish laws. It is not surprising, there
fore, that the Jews are reported to have assisted tli<'
Arabs in the conquest of Toledo (715). During liie
Arabic period of the city's history little is known of
the position of its Jews. Probably it was very ad-
vantageous, and the Jews doubtless thoroughly as-

Maria la Blanca, Toledo, Formerly a Synagogue.

(From a photogr.ij'h.)

'^,-«.'«- 4'

xn.-i2

Toledo

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

178

similated themselves with the general population in
language ami customs, inasmuch as the minutes of
the congregation were kept in Arabic down to the
end of the thirteenth century (Asher b. Jehiel,
Responsa, Xo. 56; Solomon ben Adret, Responsi^,
iii. 427).

Several Jewish authors who wrote in Arabic were
born and probably educated at Toledo, even after
its conquest by the Christians, not to speak of Judah
ha-Levi and Abraham ibn Ezra, who were born in
Toledo but educated at Cordova. Other Jewish
writers in Arabic were: Abraliam ibn alFaklikliar
the poet (b. in
Toledo; d. there
1231 or 1239);
Israel of Toledo
(Zunz. ''Z. G."
pp. 427-428); Is
rael Israeli bcii
Joseph, who as
late as the second
half of the four-
teenth century
wrote on the rit-
ual {idem, "Ri-
tus," p. 30). It
is not surpri-
sing, therefore,
that Toledo
should have
been the cente:-
of European ac-
tivity in transla-
tion from Arabic
into Hebrew.
Latin, and Cas-
tiliau, as will be
seen later.

When Alfonso
X. took Toledo
from the Arabs
he recognized
the position of
the Jews b }■
granting them
full eciuality
with the Chris-
tians; but fric-
tion soon arose
between the
members of the
two faiths. Al-

fasi refers to persecutions in Toledo in 1090 (re-
sponsum No. 217); and there was a massacre of the
Jews in 1108, in which Solomon ibu Farissol was
murdered (Rios, "Hist." i. IbO, 297). The eciuality
of tiie Jews with the Christians was short-lived ; for
in 1118 a local decree was passed proiiibiting any
Jew, or any convert, from exercising jurisdiction
over a Christian. It would appear that the "nasi,"
orchief justice, of tiie Toledo Jews, who is mentioned
about this time, had previously had theriglit to hale
Christians before liis court. In 1147 Judah b. Jo-
seph ibn Ezra, probably a relative of the poet and
e.xegete, was nasi at Toledo, and at the same time
court chamberlain. In the same year many Jewish

Dulaili

ul liilonui' UiiiumuiituUuu ou Wall uf

(Front a photograph.)

exiles, driven out of Arabic Spain by the persecu-
tion of the Almohades, took refuge in Toledo. The
Jews held important positions at court there, possi-
bly owing to the influence of Fermosa, the Jewish
mistress of Alfonso YIII. Thus Hayyuj Alfata be-
came the royal physician. This favoritism appears
to have led to a riot in Toledo in 1178, in which Fer-
mosa was killed (Lindo, "History of the Jews of
Spain and Portugal," p. 71). It is possible that at
the same time Judah and Samuel Alnaqua suffered
martyrdom (Zunz, "Z. G." p. 434).
At the beginning of the thirteenth century the Shu-

shans, the Al-
Fakhkhars, and
the Alnaquas
were among the
chief Jewish fam-
ilies of Toledo,
Samuel ibn Sbu-
shan being nasi
about 1204. His
son Joseph built
a synagogue
which attracted
the attention of
Abraham ben
Nathan of Lunel
("Ha-Manhig,"
§ 22), who set- ,
tied in Toledo '
before 1205.
During the
troubles brought
upon Castile by
the men of " Ul-
trapuertos " in
1211-12 Toledo
suffered a riot
(Rios, I.e. pp.
347-349); and
this api)ears to
have brought
the i)osition of
the Jews more
close) J' to the at-
tention of the
authorities. In
1219 the Jewish
inhabitants be-
came m o r '■
strictly subjec
to the juriscli(
tion of the Archbishop of Toledo, who imposii:
upon every Jew over twenty years old an annual!
poll-tax of one-si.\th of a gold mark; and ai)\
dispute about age was to be settled by a jury of si.\,
elders (Jacobs, "Sources," No. 12G5), Avho wen I
l>rol)ably supervised by the nasi, at that tiiii'
Solomon ben Joseph ibn Shushan. In tlie same yea
pai)al autlKjrity also interfered with the affairs o.
the T(jledo Jews, ordering them to pay tithes oi
houses bought by them from Christians, as other
wise the Church would be a considerable loser (Ja
cobs. I.e. No. 1273).

Under Alfonso X., the Wi.se, Toledo rose in impor
tance as a center of Jewish activity in translation frnn

•El Transilo," Toledo.

HOUSE OF SAMCEL HA-LKVI AT TOLEDO, FOVRTEENTH CEXTCRY.

(From I photograph.)

Toledo

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

180

the Arabic into Hebrew, and less often into Latin and
Spanish. Similar activity had occurred previously ;
but the Jewish translators either were not born in

Toledo (as Johannes Hispanensis, who
School of only settled there, and Samuel ibn
Transla- Tibbon) or flourished mainly else-
tors Under where (as Judah ben Solomon ha-
Alfonso X. Kolicn ibn Matkah, who was born in

Toledo, but passed the greater ]iart
of his life in Italy). However this may be, the
number of Jewish translators increased under the
patronage of the king. Don Zag ibn Sid was the chief
compiler of the Alfonsine Tables; and Judah
Moses Cohen also translated works on astronomy
from Arabic into Spanish, as diil Abraham of Toledo
and Samuel ha-Levi Abulafia. In medicine Abraham
Alfaquin was active, as were also Hayyim Israel
and Judah Cohen. Todros ha-Levi was another
translator of the same period and the same place.
It is probable also that the Spanish translation
of "Kalilah wa-Dimnah" was executed at Toledo
about this time.
It was likewise
at this period
(1260) that the
Jews of Toledo
obtained permis-
sion from Al-
fonso to build
the largest and
most beautiful
sj'nagogue in
Spain, though a
bull of Innocent
IV. expressly
forbade the erec-
tion of any new
synagogue, es-
pecially any
building higher
than or in any Old Juderia of Toledo, from

way superior to (From a photograph by

the surrounding

churches or houses. After the expulsion this syna-
gogue became the Church of St. Maria la Blauca ; and
it still (l9Uo) survives as a national monument. Its
numerous pillars and arches render it one of the most
characteri.stic buildings of tlie Moorish type in Spain ;
and during the nineteenth century its ornamentation
formed the model for numerous synagogues in
other countries (see Svnagogue Akciiitectuue).

The favorable condition of the Jews of Toledo
during Alfonso's reign is indicated by the large pro-
portion of the poll-tax for Castile paid by them in
12'J0— namely, 1,062,902 maravedis out of the total
of 2,094,014, the amoinit of their "servicio" not
being given for that year. In addition to this pay-
ment, they liad to pay tribute to the archbishop in
the following year (1291; Jacobs, I.e. No. 1282);
and there are occasional indications of friction be-
tween the royal ofllcers and the episcopal digiiituiics
as to the exact limitation of their taxation rights
over the Jews.

It was toward the beginning of the fourteenth
century (probably about 1300) that the Jews of To-
ledo, on the recommendation of Solomon ben Adret,

chose as their spiritual leader Asher ben Jehiel (d.
1328), perhaps the greatest halakist of his time in
Germany. His iuHueuce, like that of
Asherites. his two sons (Jacob, author of the
"Tur," and Judah, who succeeded liis
father in 1328), was directed against the more ration-
alistic and philosophical tendenciesof Jewish Spain:
and the family of the Asherites, of which the pedi-
gree given by Zunz ("Z. G." p. 422) is here repro-
duced, thenceforth ruled spiritual matters in Toledo.
In the great controversy between the Maimonists
and anti-Maimonists, the Jews of Toledo — e.f/., Meir
ben Abraham, Jacob Crisp, Jonathan Ashkenazi,
Samson b. Meir, Meir b. Jo.seph, and Solomon b.
Moses Abudarham — supported the traditional side
(Perles, "R. Salomo b. Abraham b. Adereth," 1863,
pp. 10, 45, 48).

In the middle of the fourteenth century there rose
into prominence in Toledo, Samuel ha-Levi Abulafia,
who appears to have acted as a kind of treasurer and
general adviser to Pedro the Cruel. It was on his

advice that the
king established
Maria dePadilla,
his mistress, at
Toledo; and in
the struggles be-
tween Pedro and
his brother
Henry de Tras-
tamara this fact
was cited by the
adherents of the
latter as an ex-
planation of
their opposition
to Samuel Abu-
lafia. On May
7, 13.j5, an at-
tack was made
the Plaza de Barrio Narcvo, on the "alcana,"

Dr. William Popper.) qj. smaller JCW-

ry, of Toledo by
Henrj^ de Trastamara, in which no fewer than 1,200
Jews were killed or wounded (Hios, I.e. ii. 224). Not-
Avithstanding this, Samuel AbuUitia's intluencc and
riches grew apace; and, in addition to a magnifi-
cent private mansion, he obtained permission to
build another synagogue, inscriptions in which still
recall his munificence. After the expulsion the
synagogue was turned into a church and became
known as "El Transito"; but in the year 1888 it
was converted into a national monument, and the
interior decorations, which are in the finest Moorish
style, were cleansed and restored. While not pre-
senting so striking an interior as St. Maria la Blauca,
the friezes on the walls and the interior lighting by
narrow windows near the roof make it remarkable,
and have led to imitation in many modern syna-
gogues (see Synagogue Auciiitectuke). In the
! very year (1360) in wiiicli the synagogue was built
Samuel Abulafia lost his influence with Pedro and
was seized and forced to leave Toledo.

Notwithstanding the influence of the Asherites,
the increasing stringency of the Castilian laws
against the Jews and the great inducements held out

181

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Toledo

to tlicm to accept baptism led to a large iiumber of
conversions, cither forced or voluntary, ut Toledo.
The converts ("eonversos ") were freed from the
anti-Jewish legislation of the Cortes, and had at the
same time relations with and support from their
former brethren in faith; and (heir political and
social influence was increased. This condition of
things was strongly oi)p()sed by the ecclesiastics of
Toledo; and the complaints antl bickerings between
the two parties led to a violent outbieak against the
eonversos, lasting three weeks (July 11) to Aug. 9,
1367), during which no fewer than 1,600 houses
were burned and a considerable number of conver-
ses lost their lives (Rios, I.e. iii. 149; for the details
sec Ji;w. Encvc. viii. 319, s.r. M.vij.vxos). Notwith-
standing, or perhaps in consequence of, this, a trib-
ute of no less than 20,000 (l()ul)ioons was extorted
from tlie Jews of Toledo by the king (June 6, 1369).
Friction continued to exist between the ecclesiastical
authorities and the Jews. Thus a (juarrel arose be-
tween the monastery of St. Ursula and the Toledo

Asher and Israel b. Jose|)h Alnaqua. Four years
later, inhabitants of tJie neighixiring villages of
Carlo and Santa were summoned Ixfore tin- Arch-
bishop of Toledo to account for fill ir aclidii uii thf
day of tlie riots (j7». No. 1317)

This was practically the nun of tin TohUn Jewry.
Only a few years later Jlenry III. threatened tlic
Jews with slavery if they did not pay all their taxes
{ib. No. 1300); and the next year John II. with-
drew civil jurisdiction from tliem and entrusted it to
the alcaldes. Ferrer visited the city for a fortniglit
in :May, 1411, with the result that, as stated above,
the synagogue was turned into the Church of St.
Maria la Bianca. In truth, the majority of the .sur-
vivors of the massacre of 1391 had saved their lives
by becoming convertr-d; so that very few true be-
lievers still remained in the city, and the history for
the following century deals mainly with the eon-
versos. These were deprived in 1419 of all oppor-
tunity to hold public ollice (///. No. 1204); and on
June 15, 1449, thirteen of them were turned out of

Jehlel

I
(laupliter
— Judith
ben Asber

Juduli

I
Eliakim

I
Uri = Yehudit

Jehiel

Eleazar

Ha Willi

(d. 1314)

ASHER — Reine
(d. 1328) (d. 1327)

Solomon = Gutele

Judah

(d. 1349)

Miriam Asher

— Judah
ben Asher

Solomon
(d. 1349)

Havyim
(b. i3i>": d. 1349)

Jacob

("Ba'al ha-Turim")

I ■
Solomon
(d. 1354)

Eliakim

Judah

Simeon
(d. 1342)

dauphtrr

= Juduh

Crisp

AsiiKUiTES AT Toledo.

aljaina with regard to certain rights connected
with the Jewish abattoirs (Jacobs, I.e. No. 1291).
Nevertlieless, Archbishop Pedro, on ISIay 17, 1388,
appointed his own physician, Havyim, as judge of
the Jews throughout the whole archbishojiric during
the absence of Rabbi Don Zulema al-Fakhkhar
(Rios, I.e. p. 257). The king, liowever, claimed the
right of confirmation for this ofiice (Jacobs, I.e. No.
1294).

In the terrible massacres of 1391, induced by the
violent exhortations of Vicente Feuueh, the city
was the scene of one of the most appalling out-
breaks. Hitherto the nobles of Toledo had on the
whole done their part in protecting the Jews; but
when the agitation reached that city (Aug. 5) they
were found among the most violent in the onslaught
on the larger Jewry. This had resisted the attacks
of Henry II. ; but it was uow entered by the rioters
at different gates, almost all the Jews being put to
death, and their houses and .synagogues sacked.
Many of the latter edifices were torn down. Among
the victims of the riots were Chief Rabbi Judah b.

office as "suspects in faith," among them being
members of the Lunez, Lopez, Gonzalez, Herrera,
and Cota families, afterward distinguished among
the ^laranos, whose very name is supposed to liavo
originated in Toledo at this time (Rios, I.e. iii. 128).
The converses did not yield their positions without
a struggle. There was even another riot in 1407. in
which they appear to have got the better of tlieir
oppressors; for in the same year they were foi bid-
den to bear arms thenceforth, and in the following
year theirexclusion from pTd»licotlice was confirmed
by Ferdinand IV. (Jacobs, I.e. No. 1322).

The few writers whose birth or activity connects
them with Toledo after 1391 are mainly converts, as
^lartiu of Toledo, the mathematician; Juan de Es-
paiia and Rodrigo Cota. the poets: and Alfonso do
Spina, the controversialist, who was the first to sug-
gest the expulsion of the Jews. A furtiicr indica-
tion of the low condition to which the Jews of
Toledo had fallen is the fact that they were able to
pay only 2,000 maravedis for their servicio to the
archbishop (1474). Though freed from taxes upon

Toledo
Tombs

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

182

inheritance tliroughout Castile, at Toledo the Jews
had to pay on succeeding to tlie property of their
fathers.

Though the Inquisition was tirst introduced at
Sevillo, in Jan. 6, 1481, the largest number of autos
da fe in Spain during the existenceof the Jews tiierc
were held at Toledo. In 1484 many Jews were rec-
onciled bv the Inquisition [ib. No. 12G0). An auto

da fe was held on Dec. 10, 1486, at

Introduc- which no fewer than 1,640 were ab-

tion of the solved or reconciled, and others on Jan.

Inquisi- 15, March 15. and May 7 in the follow-

tion. ing year, when 822 were reconciled. In

1488 two autos were held, on May 24
and July 30, respectively, at the former of which 21,
and at the latter 16, Jews were burned, 400 others
being punished
1 a t e r . T h e
tragedy of La
Gr.viiDiA was
immediately
connected with
the Jewry of
Toledo ; and a
representation of
the punishment
of the victims is
still extant in
one of the clois-
ters of the ca-
thedral. The
affair is said to
have had a de-
termining influ-
ence in connec-
tion with the
expulsion which
took place two
years later.

Toledo was
practically the
cen ter of the
Spanish Jewry
in Christian

Spain. Besides the writers already mentioned,
both Judah ha-Levi and Abraham ibn Ezra were
born at Toledo, though both left it early for
Cordova; Abraham ibn Daud was a Toledan ; Ju-
dah al-Harizi was born and passed most of his
life in the city. Among the payyetanim of To-
ledo may be mentioned Joseph b. Israel, Jacob b.
Eleazar, and Mar Isaac b. Jacob. Of secular poets
may be mentioned Judah ibn Shabbelhai and Joliici
b. Asher. Besides, the astronomer Israel Israeli the
Younger deserves notice, as well as Joseph Nahmias
and Aljraham ibn Zarzal, though the last-named
was more of an astrologer, Toledo being a center
for the magic arts generally. It is said that Michael
Scott learned his magic from a Toledo Jew named
Andreas, who translated works on magic from tlie
Aral)ic. Jvidah ibn Balaam the grammarian, Judah
ben Shabbethai the satirist, and the cabalists Shem-
Tob ben Jacob, Joseph ibn AVakkar, and Joseph ben
Judah lived there; and Jonah Gerondi, Todros Al)u-
lafia, Moses Narboni, Solomon Zarfati, and Azariah
ben Joseph (Bonafos Astruc) were among the vis-

■ I.I ir:in^ii"," l-iini

(From a photograph by

itors to the city. After the arrival of Asher b. Je-
hiel, Toledo was distinguished as a center of Tal-
nuidic study also. Jeroham b. MeshuUam lived
there, as did Aaron ben Joseph ha-Levi
Rabbis and Toledo (for a short time about 1291);
Scholars. Menahem b. Aaron was an authority on
the ritual there about 1374; Samuel
Sevillo and Joshua Levi b. Joseph learned the Tal-
mud at Toledo; Mei'r Cohen, the casuist, lived there,
and Isaac, the father of Joseph Caro, was born
there; while the name of the first printer in Portu-
gal, Eleazar Toledo, indicates his connection with
the Spanish citj'.

At one time the whole of the southwest portion of
the city was inhabited by Jews, and there were two
Jewish quarters — the Alcana, or smaller Jewry, and

the Juderia it-
self, in wliich
both the still ex-
tant synagogues
were located.
The Jewish
quarters werr
surrounded by
a wall after the
Catholic mon-
archs at the Cor-
tes of Toledo in
14S0 had ordered
that all Jews
should be sepa-
rated in to special
" bari'ios. "

Tombstones
of the old To-
ledo Jewry arc
still in e xist-
ence ; and tlu
inscriptions oii
them have been
published by
i>uzzatto under
the title "Abne
Zikkaron."

Biblioouaphy: Zunz. Z. G. pp. 404-441 ; Jacobs. Sources, pp.
69-T8, 209,210,248b; Ilios. Tnlcdn Pintorixca, Toledo, 1848.

E. C. J.

TOLEDO, OHIO. See Ohio.

TOLEDOT YESHU'. See jESfS ix Jewish
Leg EN n.

TOLERANZPATENT. See Joseph IL

TOLL. See Leiuzoi.i,.

TOMASHOV, JACOB B. SIMEON: Polish
rabbi of the seventeenth century. His father is
styled "ha-Kadosh," a term generally given to a
martyr, so that Simeon may have been martyred
during the massacres instigated by Chmielnicki.
Jacob was probably rabbi at Nemirov, where his
wife and three sons were murdered in 1648. H*'
then resolved to emigrate to Palestine, but seems t"
have remained for several years in Venice, where li'
published his"Ohcl Ya'akob " (1667). a homily on
that part of the Pentateuch which deals with the
'Akedah. He left a work, as yet unpublished, en-
titled "Toledot Ya'akob," which contains homilies

iiTly a Synagogue.

Dr. William Popper.)

183

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA

Toledo
TombB

on the Pentateuch, the preceding work prohubl}-
being a part of it.

Bibliography: Renjiicol), Ofnr ?/(i-.Sc/anni, p. lii. No. :(:4 ;
Nepi-litilrondi, Tahdot OciUtlc Yisracl, p. 182; Slelnsfhnel-
der. Cut. Bodl. cul. lUM.

8. j\I. SkL.

TOMBS : From tlie earliest times tlie Hebrew-s
practised burial of the dead ("l3p, whence "kcbcr"
= "tonib"), so that cremation, which was custom-
ary among the Moal)itesantl Edomitcs, was regarded
by the Jewish i)rophets as sinful and inhuman
(Amos ii. 1), and was used only as an additional
punishment in the case of criminals (Josh. vii. 25;
but see 1 Sam. xxxi. 12). The most ]u-imitive mode
of burial seems to have been either to throw the
corpse into a pit or to pile stones over it wherever
it happened to be at the time of death, an analogy

passage, whicli refers to Joab. shows that this custom
was not restricted to the liurial of kings and proph-

el.s. as Winer (" B. H." i. 444) has
Single supposed. Tlie custom of interring
Tombs. Jewisii kings in their castles, close to

the T<inpk' wall, is severely condenujcd
by the prophet (Ezek. xliii. 7-9), this criticism 8hr>w-
ing that graves were considered unclean, and were
therefore not to be ma<ie near human habitations
(Num. xix. 16). Graveswere. accordingly, outside the
cities (Luke vii. 12; John xi. 30), or. according tf) rab-
binical precepts, lifty ells from the town (H. IJ. ii. 9).
A special field thus came to be set apart for the dead.
but the simple methods of burial observed by the
Jews iiieventcd any development of a necropolis
resembling the Greek or the modern Italian type.
Special care was taken to keep lepers separated from

Church of St. Maria la Blanca at Tolkdo, Formerly a Synagogue

(From Amador de los RJos, ** Mommientos.'*)

being found in the Mosaic law that the blood of ani-
mals which had been killed must be covered with
dust on the place where it had been poured out
(Lev. xvii. 13). According to Josh. vii. 26, the re-
mains of Achan were buried under a heap of stones
in the valley of Achor, and the corpse of a con-
iquered king was similarly interred {ih. viii. 29),
j while Absalom's body was thrown into a pit in the
Iforest, and covered with stones (II Sam. xviii. 17).
'Adam and Eve are said to have been taught inter-
inient by seeing a raven bury its young in the sand
t(Pirke R. El. xxi.), and even Moses interred an
Egyptian in the very place where he had killed him
l(Ex. ii. 12).

1^ Single burial was customary in ancient times, as
is still the case among many peoples and in many
[lands. The most natural method was to bury one's
Idead near the house on one's own land, as is clear from
I Sam. xxv. 1 and I Kings ii. 34, while the latter

others in death as well as in life, and the body of a
leprous king was accordingly buried in the open
field (II Chron. xxvi. 23). The graves of the com-
mon people were likewise kept separate from those
of the Avealthy and prominent (II Kings xxiii. 6;
Jer. xxvi. 23).'

The tomb is to the dead what the house is to the
living, so that the grave is termed a "house" (Isa.
xiv. 18), or the "long home" (Ecd. xii. 5), while in
Job XXX. 23 it is called " the house appointed for all
living." The terrors a.ssociated with it areexpressed
by the terms "pit" (Isa. xiv. 19, xxxviii. 18). or
"pit of destruction" (Ps. Iv. 24), while the appro-
priate metaphor "silence" {ih. xciv. 17, cxv. 17)
is still in current use among the Jews. The powers
of death are implied by the words " hell " ("sheol ")
and "destruction " ("abaddon"; Prov. xv, 11; Job
xxvi. 6). The later Jewisli terms, on the other
hand, contain no allusion to the horror of death, the

Tombs

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

184

cemetery bcinir called simply the "house of graves"
(nnnpn n'2). or the "house of eternity "(po^y n'3;
see Eccl. xii. •")), <n' even, in u euphemistic sense, the
"house of life" (D"nn JTa).

The wealthy and prominent followed the cu.stom
of the neighboring country of Egypt, and preparcil
their tombs in their own lifetinje, often on an elab-
orate scale, as is evident from the allusions to Jacob
(Gen. xlix. 29, 30; 1. 5, 13), Asa (II Chrou. xvi. 14).

Shebna (Isa. x\ii. 10), and Joseph of

Family Arimathea (.Matt, xxvii. 60), the refer-

Sepulchers. ence in all these instances being to

family sepulchers, whiclnvere the rule.
Thisisconlirmcd by such phrases, freiiuently used iu
meutioninu" the Patriarchs and David, as '" gathered

stances of prominent men who were interred there.

This custom has increased in the course of time to

such an extent that many Jews make a point of

spending their last days in Palestine so us to be

buried there.
Desecration of a tomb was regarded as a grievous

sin, and in ancient times the sanctity of the grave
was evidenced by the fact that it was
chosen as a place of worship, thus ex-
plaining the circumstance tiiat a sacred
stoue(" ma/.zebah'") wasseton Kachel's
grave, and that sacred trees or stones
always stood near the tombs of the
The ancient Bedouin custom of placing

the graves of their ancestors and of men of superior

Desecra-
tion and
Conse-
cration.

righteous

TlXADITIO.NAL TOMUS OK THE Kl.NGS. NE.\R jEKUS.iLE.M.
(From a photograph by Bonfils.)

unto jiis fathers, ""slept with his fathers," or "gath-
ered unto his people." Not only was this true of
kings and men of prominence (II Kings ix. 28; II
C;hron. xxxii. 33, xxxv. 24; I .Mace. ii. 70, ix. 19,
xiii. 2')), but the custom was a general one (Gen.
xxiii. 20; Judges viii. ;;2; II Sam. ii. 32; I Kings
xiii. 22; Tobit xiv. 10), arid it was the natural desire
of those who died away from home to be buried in
the family grave (Gen. xlvii. 29; II Sam. xix. 38;
I Kings xiii. 22, 31 ; Neh. ii. 3). One who could not
hope; to be interred thus was at least eager to rest
in his native country (II Mace. v. 10) and in holy
ground (Josephus, " Ant." x. 4, ^3). From the Tal-
nuidic period to the present time it has been the de-
sire of all pious Jews to be buried in the sacred soil
of Palestine; and the Talmud itself enumerates in-

sanctity on high mountain ]ieaks was imitated l)y
the Israelites, who located the toml) of Aaron on
Mount Ilor. The mountain sunuiiit thus became a
place of worship of the divinity, and may, by a
slight extension of the term, be designated as taboo,
since it was partly liol3'aiiil partly unclean. Tiaces
of such places of worship can still be fouinl in Pal-
estine, and the Mohammedans in like manner use
higii plaeesas burial-grounds. "In this resjiect the
usage corresponds precisely to what we find to-day.
The ' makam ' is the place of the saint. It is pref-
erably on a hilltop, but may simply be a tomb of a
saint in a rude enclosure under the open heavens,
or the tomb may l)e in a little building, usually
with a dome, called a 'kiibbah'" (Curtiss, "Primi-
tive Semitic Religion To-Day," p. 143, London,

185

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tombs

1902; see illustration annexed to p. 178: "Grave of
Holy Man near 3Ie(leba ").

No siran^^cr might he inteiTcd in a family scpul-
cliei(.Matt. xxvii. (iO); and the Nabaliean inseriptions
contain curses aj^ainst those who desecrate tiie fam-
ily tond)s (Neuhauer, in •' Studia IJiblica," i. 212), a
sinular inscriplion i)eing found on tiie sarcophagus
of Eshnuinazar, King of Sidon. Freedmen, how-
ever, were buried in tlie fanuly tombs of their
former masters. Violation of the tomb was punish-
able by lines (Schiirer, "Gesch." 3d ed., iii. 54).

The preference for family sepulcliers resulted in
the development of a monumental style of tomb in

Interment in the rocks of the hills was sujirgested
to the I'henicians by ihe natural conformation of
the country, whi<h contained cuvcs every where lliat
reciuired artiliciai agencies only for the (inai touch.
These cavc-tondis were often sitiuited at in ights
which seemed almost inaiccssible; and wliere no
natuial caverns were formeil in ihi; walls of tlic
rock, rectangular and roomy caves were ariiticially
made by hewing excavations into the sloncr fmni
above, wliile. occasionally subterranean chaniliers
were cut with lofty walls in which the graves were
made. According to a Palestinian exi)lortr. "tlie
Pheuiciau sepulchral chambersal Sidonand at Tyre

ANCIENT Tu.MHS OlTSIDK Tllfc CiTY WALLS OK jEliUSALE.M.
(From a photograph by Boofila.)

Palestine as elsewhere. Although such structures
afforded ample opportunity for a display of pomp

and for the employment of sculpture

Rock- and painting, as is shown by Egypt,

Tombs. the Jews did not bend their energies

in that direction. Despite their insig-
nificant appearance, however, these tombs are the
very ones which testify to the activity of the former
inliabitants of the country, since the graves, hewn
into the solid rock, have shown themselves proof
against decay. Few of these tombs reflected any
architectural credit on the Jews, since they were
mere feeble imitations of the work of the Pheniciaus
and developed no originality of their own.

consist for the most part of (|uadran.i;ular vaults
with three half-arched niches, one facing the en-
trance, and the other two on tiie sides. The Jewish
tombs, on the other hand, arc low, oblong clmmbcrs
with many rows of i)arlitions. so that the corpses
are separated only by a small stone ridge. The
Pheuician structures apparently conU>inc«l sar-
coi)liagi, while the jdan of the Jewish tondts shows
that they were intended for corpses wrappc<i in
cloth" (Van do Velde, " Reisc Dnrch Syrien und
Pahlstina," German tninsl. liy K. GObel, i. 2:35. I.rf»ip-
sic, IbJo).

According to the results thus far obtained, three
difTerent types of Palestinian tombs may be distin-

TomlM

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

186

A»

with several

-. in

. aicli

h wcreofieu

r galleries, whidi were

led

ridili of

'Ei^ftfl

^, _ . r

•• *.

r^^^ ■

^^^^Hr^

i|A?^^B

■^ u

■

i^^^^^^^M

ben. V

of:

xnil Ibe level of the ground, were

•mall stiiirways hewD into the rock.

ifls, liliu those con-

nfit thu^ far been

.:cT dale and

iiiimreii wiili

•• hich cousist of "an

' ' . . . made

dies. Over

lonumcnt (called

' "la or np-

(I-ane,

of inc Modern Egyptians,"

.1, ..1 ;; ..<ir,)

liropoid in shape

li ronsistcd in their

•I ■■ -^ "" 'o tiie length

• hfwn • ■.alls. They

^verc, therefore, virtuall}' shelf-graves, although
iiey also bore a certain resemblance to the vertical
>mbs.

The two types chiefly known to the Rabbis
V ere thrust-graves ("kokini") and vertical graves
f kebarot"), neither of which might be constructed
on a festival, although it was permitted to dedicate
tiie former if the communal interests rcqiured it
(M. K. i. 6). A tannaitic and an amoraic saying state
that kokim were dug, while kcbarot \yore built.
Tlirust -graves were so little known among the Jews
(if tlie later period that 3Iaimonides did not mention
tiiem in his coditication of tlie passitges bearing on tlie
.subject, alluding only to the earth-grave ("keber").
A section of the ISIishnah, however, clearly explains
the constr\Kti(in of a family tomb (B. B. vi. 8).

In case one sold a, place of burial to an associate,
or obtained one from him, he might make the inner
room four ells i)road and si.\ ells long, the height of
the cave being given in Tosef.. B. B. vi. 22 as four

ells. In this
room, moreover,
he might con-
struct eight cav-
ities, three in
either side wall,
and two in the
narrow wall
facing the en-
trance. Each
cavity was four
ells in length,
seven in height,
and six in width
(the Toscf.,
however, made
the height seven
" tefahim," or
handbreadths,
an extra tefah
being added for
the arched cover
of the sarcopha-
gus).

According to
R. Simeon, "the
inner room of
the cavc/is six ells broad and eight ells long, and
it contains thirteen cavities, four on the right, four
on the left, three opposite the entrance, and one
on each side of it." The owner of the ground on
which the tomb Avas situated was required to grant
a frontage of six ells square, so as to admit the bier
and its bearers. The purchaser of the vault migiit
from its interior open an additional one to the right
and one to the loft, of the original tomb. In the
opinicm of R. Simeon, however, the purchaser migiit
open an additional vaidt on each of the four sides,
while R. Simeon b. Gamaliel regarded this as de-
pendent on the formation of the rock (see Samuel b.
MeYr's commentary ad loc, and the plan given in all
editions of the Talmud).

As the honor of the dead was carefully guarded,
the Talnuid entered into a discussion of R. Simeon's
scheme of construction, which allowed two giaves
at the entrance since visitors to the tomb would

' 11. <• TnnJluoii.U I'oiiilo Kil il»f Juilgcs, SLiowiiij.' .Vrrauj^'eiiKLl ut Vaults.

(From the " Journal of Biblical Literature.")

187

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tombs

necessarily liave to step on them. To the suppes-
tinn that they might projeet Iromtlie wall likeljolts
from a door, tiie retort was given that not even an
ass (or, uocording to Yer., not even a dog) would be
buried in such a fashion. They could, therefore,
be located only in the corners of the cave opi)osite

Forms of Tonibsioncs from the Old Cemeterj- at
Kiaiikft)rt-oii-tl'.e-Main.

(From Horovitz, " Insihriften.')

the entrance, and must have been sunk deep in the
wall, otherwise they would have touched each other
(B. B. 101b). The Palestinian source, however, i)re-
supposes a special construction of the cave itself,
and considers it allowable to have two cavities, one
above the other, provided the cave was protected
against trampling (Yer. B. B. 15c).

A field in which such graves were located was

subject to special laws. Trees might not be planted

upon it, nor might seed be sown in it.

Laws About In Oh. xviii. 4 the corrupt form n^:^'

Tombs. )012 appears, which was erroneously
derived in M. K. 5b from "baka,"
since it was the scene of wailing and lamentation
over the dead. Tosef., Oh. xvii. 1, however, lias
the better reading D'^ID ill^, Avith the correct in-
terpretation: "A kokini held is one in which the
earth has been dug up and cavities excavated at
the sides." Such niches were known to all ancient
Semitic races; the Nabatseans called them "goh,"
and the Palmyrenes "gamchin" (Krauss, "Lehn-
worter," ii. 282; I. Low, ib.). The pious will ri.se
from the dead by means of these niches (Targ. Cant,
viii. 5), which in other pa.ssages are described as
cavities ("mehilot"; Ket. Ilia).

Outside of Palestine the custom of interring
bodies in galleries was continued in the C.\tacomt!s;
but among the Jews the single grave became more
common, as was also the case in Babylonia, where
the soil was sandy. Later information concerning
the subject is found in a responsum by Natronai,
gaon of Sura, who was asked whether the face of a
corpse laitl in a cavity should remain exposed, or
whether it should be covered with earth (Kohut,
" Aruch Completum," iv. 210). The Jewish graves
in Carthage have the exact measurements of the
rabbinical kokim.

Many natural graves have been preserved in Pal-
estine. Van de Velde {Lr. i. 136) saw at the ancient
Cauaauitish town of Hazor a vault, called "kabur,"

or gravecellur. which lie dwlurotl inust liave a very
large sulXerruneuu clminlx-r. though Uic cninioce

was (ilk'd up.

Among the famous graves which hnv« 1»oom pnrtly
preserved, and more or less a( ,.<i

may be mentioned tiie tombs ot ii ... ; .'

cnnus, Ale,\uuderJaniia'u«. Hii

Famous most of ilic ii.ndmf.f •

Graves. Iho tonibclmnjbt is of ii ;

bene, mid the tomb of St. Jamcn with
liif \(iy ancient inscription " I',. n jr •• All nf
these graves, wliich an- of tin vi.. me t.l

Jeru.salem.

No less reiKiuiM-u are ine tonil)s of ti,.
at Hebron, Joshua's tomb at Tlmiiiim, i
the Maccabees at M(Hlein, and the grave of Arrhe*
laus at Bethlehem, while Jewish ' ■ •

numerous ftliier graves of prop,
Palestine and Babyloniu (sec Liincz, **JcTiiR«le:n,"l,
Tlfiscq., where aijout 300 are mentioned), wh- ' • "
receive great honor, even from Mfihami.
That so few tombs Jiave been preserved is iluc, ac-

'y^^::^:-

fufy:^^^

Tombst-'ii'- >M iu- ...vi.. ..;h Century.

(lo th« MuMO CIvIro, Bolofii*, lulf .)

cording to the Jewish traveler Benjamin of Tudela,
to the fact that " the graves of the Jews are situaU'd
about three miles from Jerusjilem. In ancient times
the dead were buried in caves, and eacii pnive was
marked with the year of death ["tarikh," whioli.
however, can hold good only of the medieval

Tombs

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

188

period], but the Christians destroyed the graves,
and used the stones for buikliiig-uiaterial " ("J. Q.
R." vii. 128). It is clear, therefore, that llie same
fate was theu befalling the Jewish monuments
which is still annihilating them, like all other antiq-
uities of the Holy Land.

In ancient times the graves had but one enemy,
the mveuous jackal (Pliny, "Hist. 2sat." viii. 44),
and the tombs were, therefore, closeil by means of
doors, or by large stones (.Matt. .\.\vii. GO, x.wiii. 2;
John xi. 38), which in the Talmud is often ex-
pressed by the phrase ^^Ijn DnoC'he closed the

The mishnaic .saying (M. K. i. 1), " The graves should
be marked [pj"VOj at the festival," probably re-
ferred originally to the tombstones, since the Tal-
mud itself bases the passage on the Biblical jVV (M.
K. oa). It is generally regarded, however, as an
allusion to the whitening of the graves after the
rainy season (.Ma'as. Sh. v. 1; B. K. G9a, where the
reason is given "that the bones are white"), which
was done to protect against delilement the numerous
pilgrims who traversetl the roads at the Passover
festival (see Josephus, "Ant." xviii. 2, g 3; Matt,
xxiii. 27). R. Baunaah was especially praised for

''li' rH,

^fS^V

\ ' ?^ ■ '*^-~'J'-t ■ ," • - '•. ' *^-^.^J, ^^^^J^TJ lit''' ' '

1- A^ t3V '

I.N"?CRIPTIO.\ ON THE TOMBSTONE OF RAMrEI. HEN SHEAI.TIEL, D.\TED MONZO.N, PALENCIA, 4857 (1090).
(From the " Boietin de la R<>al Acidemia de la Historia," Madrid.)

top-stone " : see Kohut, " Aruch Completum," ii. 281 ;
Jastrow, ''Diet." p. 23?), "gold" being frequently

used in combination with "dofek"
Protection (Jastrow, l.r. p. 287), which signifies a
of Graves, low estrade of stone enveloping the

grave on all .sides, and probably used
to support the stone cover. In addition to closing
the grave with a stone, it was occasionally sealed
(Krauss, "LebenJe.su," p. 262, Berlin, 1902).

These stone covers, however, must not i)e con-
founded with the tombstones erected on graves in
honor of tlw' dead. The Sephardic Jews lay these
tombstones flat on the graves; but since these monu-
ments arc erected to be .seen, the upright position,
preferred bv the Oerman Jews, is the more normal
one. In Bii)licai Hebrew the tombstones arc called
P"'^(II Kings xxiii. 17; Jer. xxxi. 21; Ezek. xxxix.
15), while the Rabbis termed them t^>23. The grave-
stone was erected at the expense of tiie estate of the
deceased (Shek. ii. 5), although it was not necessary
to set up a monument in memor}' of the righteous,
.since their own deeds (their teachings) were a me-
morial of them (Yer. Shek. 47a; Gen. R. Ixxxii.).

thus marking caves (tombs), including that r'
Abraham (B. B. 58a), while Simeon ben Lakish i
likewise said to have marked the burial-place of R
Hiyya(B. ^I. 85b), and tohaveca.st himself in prayrr
for the propitiation of the great, on the graves of tli'
pious (ib.), of the Shammaites (Hag. 22b), of tli
justified (ih. I6b), and of the wronged (Yoma 87:1
In the Middle Ages Jonah Gerondi wished to olTi
an apology on the grave of Maimouides (Grat/.
"Gesch." 3d ed., vii. 98).

The custom of making pilgrimages to famou'
tombs, and of praying at the graves of parents ain

ancestors, is still maintained anioiiL
Pilgrim- all classes of Jews. Even in the Bil'
ages. Ileal period the belief was current tliati

interment lieside a great man niiglil
work miracles (II Kings xiii. 21). Sec Pii.GniM.\GES.
Judicial procedure required two forms of burial
one for criminals who had been beheaded or hanged
and the other for those who had been stoned oi
burned (Sanli. 46a), while interment among convictf
was the utmost disgrace (Yeb. 32b). The tombs o!
Gentiles were entirely different from those of Jew;

' ? V.'-:'T-TT -Tt ^

inwi

^Wf^^m

<r-

-^\x

., o^^i^ ;^ >r U i^ M

^^ V V VI ■• R 2 P n -q i^ T' ^
■ 'k^i >A- Xi: '-^ C ' L, ^ V? 5^1 pi . .'/]

^' 4 /I //-l^ ' R L V, r' ^- n ■ u

, •/■i'-ipf < r V yv!'Vin.;'»y M't"

Wir.:^!, "i,.>-\ U^ :. .ttrfirt .-■ if.:.

Tombstones

THE JEWISH KNCYCLOPEDIA

190

{ib. 61u). Special caves were used for tlie inter-
ment of the pious ("hasidim ") and of the members
of the Sauhedrin (" dayyanim " ; M. K. 17a), as well
as for still-boru children ("nefalim "; Ket. 20b).
In the ancient cemeter}- of Prague the Nefel-Platz
is still to be seen: dilleront legends are, however,
attached to it, and its origin can not, therefore, be
determined. Even at the present time all Jewish
communities invariably bury suicides in a sepa-
rate i)art of the cemetery. Abba Saul was buried
at his father's feet (Sem. xii.), thus reviving
in a certain measure the use of family tombs.

TOMBSTONES (Hebr. naVD. pi. nnvo): The
custom ol" marking a grave by a stone which bore an
iuscrijuion describing the qualities of the deceased
and giving his age and the date of his death was
foreign to the ancient Hebrews. Stones were indeed
used to mark tiie sites of graves, such as the pillar
(" mazzebah ") placed by Jacob on the tomb of Rachel
(Gen. XXXV. 20), and the sign ("ziyyun ") set up ac-
cording to Ezekiel (xxxix. IC); but they were not
intended as monuments and bore no inscriptions.
Even in the geonic period the custom seems to have
been unknown to the Jews of the East, and it can not,

Ckmkteky at Rome.

(From a photograph.)

Every one who beholds a Jewish grave is required
to repeat the following prayer: "Blessed be He
who begat thee in righteousness, who nurtured
thee in righteousness, who letteth thee rest in right-
eousness, and who will resurrect thee in righteous-
ness. . . . Blessed be He who giveth life to the
dead" (Ber. 58b). For other expressions of the re-
ligious sentiments of the Jews as displayed in their
tombs, see Burial; Burial Society; Cre.viation;
Funeral Rites; Mourning.

Bibliography: Nioolal. De Sepulcris Hehrnicis, In UproIIno,
Ttiemunis, xxxiil.: Winer, R R. 1.44.3; Nlcoll, in Hastings,
Diet. Bilile, Iv. 4.')4: Stade, (icath. <\ex Valkei Israel, i. 14-
15: Hamburger, R. Ti. T. I. 47ti : Klnzlpr, Die BiliUsi-hfji Al-
tctiilmer. \>. ^'>. Calw and StuUtrurt, 1884: Roseaniuller,
Arch. il. 2; Benzlnger, Arch. pp. 1(53 et seq.

J. S. Ku.

therefore, have been current in Talmudic times. The

stone termed "golel" in tlie Mishnaii (Oh. ii. 1),

which, according to Ilai Gaon, was laid up on tlie

side-walls (dofekin), served only to protect the

grave from jackals, while that called "ziyyun " was

merely a mark to warn passers-by against Levitical

impurity. Graves in Palestine were

None in not devoid of monumental ornamcu-

Palestine tations, however, for "nefashnt,"

in Biblical or stone buildings in the shape of

or houses or cupolas,

Talmudic Phenician fashion.
Times. v. 1; Shek. ii. 5).

of his father and brothers at Modin,
Simon Maccabeus erected a monument consisting of
seven pyramids on wliich were carved armor and

were erected, iu
over them ('Er.
On the

tomb

191

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

TombBtones

ships (I Mace. xiii. 27-29). Such monumeiita be-
came the fashion in the lirst centuries of the com-
mon era, wliile tlie rivahies wiiich arose between
families, and tlie love of ostentation, led to the
spending of great sums for tiie adornment of graves.
To put an end to this oxtrnvagancc Simeon ben
Gamaliel declared that the pious were rememhcreil
by their words, and that it was an insult to tlieir mem-
ory to put monuments on their gravcsas thougli they
would have been forgotten without them (Yer, Shek.
ii. 7, 47a). It
was only outside
Palestine that
some Jews,
adopting the
custom of the
Greeks and the
Romans, began
to use tomb-
stones with in-
scriptions com-
memorating the
status of the de-
ceased. These
epitaphs were
written in Greek
or Latin in the
first centuries of
the common era,
and began with
the mime of the
deceased or with
the introductory'
phrase ^EvOaSe
Kalrni (KElrai) or
"Hie j a c e t "
(=" Here lies"),
while eulogies
recalling Bib-
lical verses and
idioms were
used as final for-
mulas, as, for in-
stance, Isa. Ivii.
2 or Ps. iv. 9.
The stones were
adorned with a
variety of sym-
bols in addition
to the epitaphs
themselves, the
most common
being a seven -

branched candlestick (in allusion to Prov. xx. 27,
"The spirit of man is the candle of the Lord "), a
fruit from which sprang an ear of grain (probably
an allusion to the resurrection of the dead), an oil-
vessel, a palm-branch, or a curved horn represent-
ing the SnoF.\n which will be blown by the Messiah
to announce the resurrection of the dead. Except
for the presence of these symbols, the Jewish tomb-
stones of the first centuries of the common era
could not be distinguished from those of the Chris-
tians. Later gravestones, however, bore, in addition
to the Greek or Latin inscription, the Hebrew for-
mula i)X"lK*' hv Dl^t^, as does the tombstone of Nar-

Sectlon of the Old Chatliam Square Cemetery, Nt

(From a photograph.)

bonne of 688; or else tlicy liad a. Hebrew translation
of the Greek or Latin inscription, as docs tliat of
Tortnsa.

It can not l)e determine*! with certainty when the

custom of inscribing Heljrew epitapljs

Earliest in (in tiMubstones lirst became gencnil

Europe. umi.ng tiie Jews in Europe. The

iiidest exami)le known is a gmvcBtone

(if Briiidisi dated 832. It is true thjit Jiirob

M6\\n (MalhiHIIv) asserts that iu liis lifetime a

gravestone was
discovered in
tiie cemetery of
Mayence bear-
ing a Hebrew
epitaph wiiieh
was eleven hun-
<lred years old,
but as he does
not state that
he himself deci-
phered the in-
scription, no
credence can be
given to his as-
sertion ("Lik-
kute Maliaril,"
ed. Warsaw, p.
86b). A char-
acteristic fea-
ture of the ep-
itaphs of the
early Middle
Ages was the
simplicity of
their style.
They usually
began with the

words nrn ;vvn.
n%s:n px.n. or
riNTn n3V?2n,

and closed with
one of the usual
eulogies (see
Ixvoc.\TioN).

In the later
medieval period
epitaphs became
more detailed
and bombastic,
and in some Gor-
man cemeteries
various em-
blems representing the profession of the deceased
were added to the inscriptions. Thus, for in-
stance, a tailor hail a i>air of shears on liis tomb-
stone; a musician, a violin or a harp; a gold-
smith, a crown and two chains; a physician, a
lion holding a sword ; and an ajiothecary, a mortar.
In some places in Germany the tombstones bore the
emblems of the houses in which the decea.se<l had
lived, thus showing figures of dragons, bears, lions,
or stars. The tombs of kohanim are distinguished
by two open hands as place<l during the priestly
benediction, while a Levite*s gravestone often Ix-ars
a ewer. Names, especially those derived from plants

Tombstones

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

192

orfroniauiinal life, are frequently represented picto-

rially ; ami reliefsof the whole luiniau bmly are found.

The form of the tombstone was generally very

simple : and the material varied considerai)ly in dilfer-

eut countries. In Fraukfort-onthe-

Inscrip- Main gravestones were generally made

tions. of red sandstone, rarely of white

sandstone or granite. The Ashkc-
naziin usually placed the tombstones upright, while
the Sephardim laid them horizontally on the graves.
The custom of
carving Hebrew
inscriptions on
gravestones seems
to have developed
much later in the
East than in Eu-
rope, since there
is no mention of
it in geonic liter-
ature. Althougli
Benjamin of
Tudela attributes
the dearth of very
ancient tomb-
stones in Pales-
tine to the fact
that the Christians
destroyed the
Jewish graves
and used the
stones for build-
ing-material, this is a mere supposition, and there
is no proof whatever that the use of tombstones
with Hebrew inscriptions became general in Pales-
tine much earlier than the twelfth century. It
is true, on the other hand, that both in the life-
time of Benjamin of Tudela and for several cen-
turies afterward Jewish graves were often des-
troyed and the stones were used for building
purposes in Chri.stian and ^Mohammedan countries
alike. Thus, when the Jews were banished from
Flirth, the gravestones of the communitj' were
used to erect walls around the city ; and David ibn
Abi Zimia (sixteenth century) rehites that in his
lifetime the Egyptian Mohammedans used to steal
Jewish toni])stones and resell them to Jews after
having obliterated the inscriptions. To put an
end to this traffic, the local rabbis allowed their
congregations to use only newly (juarrifd stones for
monuments to the dead (Badbaz, i. 741, quoted by
Abrahams, "Jewish Life in the Middle Ages," p.
78). Although tombstones becMmc custoniaiy, tlu-y
were not obligatory (.Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreii De'ah,
364), and every Jewish cemetery contains some
graves without them. The stone was seldom set up
before the expiration of a year after the date of
death, since the departed soul reciuired that lapse of
time before it could be purified. Inscriptions are
generally dated according to the era of creation; and
the year is preceded by the day of the month, or the
Sabbatical section, or both. In some cases the nu-
merical value of a Scriptural phrase is used to mark
the date, and there are also instances in which the
Christian date is given side by side with the year of
creation.

The following are specimens of Hebrew inscrip-
tions found on the tombstones of prominent men.

The gravestone of Elijah Levita reads: ps N^n

"^y II minpn ns? ^^v !i i3iy h::b nr^nni '^ pyrn Tp*:
N^niimyDa in-t'Sii D'o:;*a n^yinnp^: tj-s pi
mix^ "iniN DL"i II in^ss p'lipn^ ii i^nh il-x nr Nin
.D'-nn -invn mnv vj'ejji i; 12102 nbv cm- :: l" n:'j'

"The stone crieth from tbe wall, and nioiirnetli before

every imsser-by over
the prave — over our
rabbi \vl)o bath de-
parted and asL-ended
into heaven. Elijah
is gone to the l.ord
in a whirlwind
[coiiip. II Kiiips ii.
11] -he who shed
light on the darkness
of grammar and
turned it into light.
He ascended Sliebat
toward the end, in the
year :>0'.l [ = l.")40]. and
his soul is bound up in
the bundle of life."

The fulkiwing
epitaph is found
on the tombstone
of Leon of Mo-
dena : mON V^IN
Cemetery of the White Jews of Cochin. 3JX HT "l\'n3 VP"^?

(From a photogr.iph.) niD'D 1110 ]''^p

.D!?y:i -iriDJ nn njmoo nnx min'^

" Four yards of ground in tliis graveyard. ' by purchase
by kerchief." were from eternity transferred from nlmve to
Judah Aryeh of Modena. In these he hid himself and disap-
peared."

Manasseh ben Israel's tombstone bears the words:

"•oncn "'n uniy njn ii nj n^a ah niy nin no i6
Ti3r ri'n'' nvj ii nana py dj loy nyni ii )-iy

"The rabbi did not die; his light is not yet extinguished;

he liveth still in the heights of the Terrible.

Examples of By his pen and the sweetness of his speech his

Inscription, remembrance will be eternal like the days of

the earth."

On the tombstone of Joseph Delmedigo is found

the following inscri]-)ti(iii: nSDI nj'pi H^^^ '33 ISl*'

ncj' isDj 'D II r\ivh:2 ixl" nnn^Di n':N3i ni^'nsn
II njiani r{i^n\r:i ■'r^^n^ mt^y r\'r\ ii^'wS njncn h^^^i^
12V ^33 nT3 xvr^jn nji3nn n-inoji nD3nn mm:
I3ip3 wnha nn irs n:i2vi n3:: nonpi nro"' i; nrsi
nj'3'j'n •'2:3 nnn incL"j njnn )'in3 ino3n !i r\:r\:
hv "I3J hv 'ini "'iwV nsDi nn^ ii nji'Dci nruj x'n
flDV nr xin '3 II ■i3y n-i'nn r3 i-^'x ^xi::'"' psj
nnn p-iso ■i3y ^33 i^in iyD:i» -i:rx -13 -i'3L*'Dn
m3TD pL"!'3 -131 ^3 ij!:»3 nhv: xf?i 11 "i3L" cy^oi
nn33j nD3nn ni^3ij 120 11 i3n Dn2D ni^n:
D*-i2D mcy!? ii nu^yi noVw"23 nji3n3 '! n3no Dn3
xfj 13: 13133 n\n mo3n y3::^ ^31 "i3D1 -ioj n3"in
.■13V1 eiDX h^n fjinji pp 131 n'jn

"Take up weeping, wailing, and lamenting, howl in mourn-
ing and desolation, suffer bitterness like wormwood, for a chief

103

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Toxnbatones

and a great man is fallen In the camp, one who was the crown
of the inherited [sciences, i.e., Jewish learning] and astronomy.
Wisdom was lost [with hiiiij and understanding disappeared.
Is there one -like him in clime or country- west, east, south,
north- to whom the spirit of God hath been given V His wisdom
singetli in the streets, while his soul, under the wings of the
Shekinati, is hidden and preserved. Hasten, break out in lamen-
tations and howlings over tin; man, the pride of Israel who hath
passed away [the phrase ni'Tjn |'3 is merely a rhetorical figure
in imitation of Gen. xv. 17]. For he is the Joseph who sold corn
[i.e., propagated learning; comp. (ien. xlii. 0], whose reputa-
tion spread everywhere, who tore up mountains and broke
rocks. Nothing was hidden from liim. In a tongue that speak-
eth proud things he c()m()osed works. In the 'Noblot Hok-
inah ' he creditat)ly speakelh of a.stronomy and **Ibhur.' To
compose many works was his Intention and desire. In all the
seven sciences he was very eQlcient. He omitted nothing,
small or great ; he collected and thesaurized everything."

Some prominent nion composed for tliemselvestlic
epitaphs wliicli lliey \vi.she(l to be put ontlieir tomlj-
stoues, such us the one found on tlie j^ruvestoue
of Jonathan Eybeschlltz, which reads us follows:

noy "iCT'K ly'nn w nim^n hv nnnn iniy h^ ikt
L'"XD "inxioi -icy hn 2i""i / nmiE: ;l'":l"3 n\ni c:h
nh^ni: nm'} nairni 3"il*6 2'? ^y icl" Niiinni":
^31 PiiDN^ v^x iL"2: li ninnn 'p^k^ nya mn

Q'D^i^'z: "•nn n^njoi nnD x"ijt;6 "idid noi) i! nnx

.nn-113

" Every passer-by should see what Is en(rravpd on th<«f' tabU-x.

TiiK Cemetery at Tunis.

(From a photograph in the possession of Dr. Maurice Fisliberg, New Yorli.)

The tombstone of ]\Ioses Hagiz bears the epitaph:

inn'2 pyo pdh t^^ux ^nnn ii nixj snp ^^x hjq naiy
1^'N ii imxDm in^ij mnn Dvn iinD hdik "^'M

II V^X inyj i6 eriJ irXI f\Mn niOT [read : 1^ px]

[P injion] injicn hen my ^3 ym ^v nps pi i^
P'T 3^ DDn "'3 -iiL" pinx DrinmD2n3 ^ej "ic3

"Passer-by. turn toward me, read something beseeming:
Pnderneath me a man prepared his dwelling-place. Yesterday
jthe light of his face shone majestically, showing his greatness
and sovereignty ; to-day clods of earth encompass the beauty of
his liody atid its brilliancy. It hath neither bodily form nor
isubstance; we can compare naught unto it. It behooveth thee
only to keep thine eyes open ; know that, like him, as a still-
'bom child thou wilt fall in its [death's] trap. Beware of the last
day, for the wise man foreseeth the end from the beginning."
XII.— 13

The man who stood as a model, who flourished like n Illy, re-
turned to du,st, and his visage became marred more than any
man's. Pray, take it U) heart to repent sincerely and to offer
for him many prayers lo the Lord of .spirits that He should
gather to Him liLs soul, and not cast It away. The merit of your
deeds will lie a protection, for all the s*)Uls of Israel are one.
Learn lo despise honors and to llee from gn-alni'ss."

See, also, the articles IkuiAL. Cemetkhv. and
Paleography.

RiBi.TonRAriiv : Perles, Die LcirhenfcitrUehl:

liihli.^ilii II Jiiiliiilhitins, In Mmtafiifcliri''

ZcitM-hrift ftir iU( (ii.Th. iln Jwhii '••

»11 ct .•.('(/.; Mender, Jiititfs. lUten. au'

("Diiucrtcd with Ilrath. Hurinl. itwi M

18W, 1WI5; S. Rapoport, Gal 'Ki/, Ini

liischriftni ilcn Allen Frisdhofn. Ii.

on-the-Slaln, 1901 : Schuchostov, Mafitinn i\'

tion. Lemberg. 186»-G9.
J.

Tlie shape of Jewish tombstones varies, as n rule,
according to the country in which they are found,

■ v--h-
r,

. . .11.

'. Q It.

■7.

I. imr -!uc-

I. Bn.

Tombstones
Tophet

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

194

tlioimh occasionally the Jews cany with lliem to
other couutrios the practise of tlieir uative land. No
very careful examination of the developnieut of
Jewish tombstones has hitherto beeu made ; but it
appeal's probable that in the earlier instances the
grave of an important personage was coveretl by a
stone in the shape of a sarcophagus, at the end of
wliich a description of the person interred beneath it
Avas inciseil. This is clearly shown in tlie collec-
tion of tombstones in the old Sarajevo cemetery

(see Jew. PLxcyc. xi. 60) and in the

Sar- tomb of Isaac ben Sheshet (<'i. vi.

cophagus 632). A further development of

Model, this method is found in the tomb

of Joseph Delmedigo at Prague
(ib. iv. 509), with which
may be compared the
tombs of Judah Low
ben Bezaleel {ib. vii. 354)
and Mordecai Meisel {ib.
viii. 442). All these have
ornamental and decorated
panels of stone, corre-
sponding, as it were, to
the head and foot of an
old-fashioned bedstead.
From this type the shape
of tombstones appears to
have developed in two dif-
ferent directions, adopted
by the Sephardim and
Ashkeuazim respectively.
The Sephardim, who, at
Amsterdam, for example
{ib. i. 544, iii. 435), used
the sarcophagus form
without end-pieces, grad-
ually lowered the sarcoph-
agus till it was almost
level with the ground, as
can be seen in the Beth
Holim burial-ground at
London {ib. viii. 158) ; the
top was rounded, and on
this the inscription was
engraved. In Amsterdam
this rounding was found
inconvenient for the
somewhat elaborate coats
of arms carved upon tomb-
stones, and the top was made perfectly flat, and
practically rested on the ground, so thatas the grave-
yard became filled up it was almost entirely paved
with tombstones, as at Altona {ib. i. 475) and at
Tunis. In Cochin occur .sarcophagus tombstones on
which the inscriptions still retain their original posi-
tion at the end (see illustration on p. 192). In Italy
the sarcophagus form appears to have been retained
only as regards the lid, which formed the whole of
the tombstone {ib. x. 61).

With the Ashkenazini, on theotiier hand, the loot-
piece, possibly for economy's sake, was detached
from the sarcophagus, and the inscription was in-
cised upon it, apparently on tiie outside of tiie
grave, as in the case of the Brody cemetery {ib. iii.
640), where obviously the inscriptions which abut

Vault of Friedlander Family at Saint Petersburg, Russia.

(From a photograph.)

on the path must be at the ends of the graves, since
the latter would otherwise be under the path. After-
wanl the inscription was cut on tiie interior of the
upright stone, i.e., the portion facing the tomb
itself.

The earliest form seems to have been a plain,
square, somewhat thick stone, as at Mayence, with
which may be compared the Seville tombstone illus-
trated in Jkw. Encyc. xi. 208. This square form is
found also in the old cemetery at Worms (see page
562). At Erlangeu each grave w:is marked by a
perfectly square block of stone, as can be seen in the
article Buri.\l {ib. iii. 434). The first attempt at
ornament seems to have been to make the top of the
stone come to a point, as is seen in many of the

tombstones in the old
Prague cemetery {ib. x.
165). The headstone was
shaped at the top, and the
inscription was inserted
over the head of the corpse
and facing the grave itself.
A further jirocess was
to make a kind of margin
for the inscription, which
took various forms accord-
ing to the outline of the
stone itself (see illustra-
tion on p. 187). Excel-
lent examples of all these
types can be seen in the
illustration of the Endiu-
gen cemetery {ib. iii. 639).
In the later forms of the
sarcophagus tombs of
Prague these borders and
outlines became very elab-
orate, as can be seen from
the tombstone of Judah
Low(i6. vii. 354). Florence
uses round pillars instead
of the sarcophagus model.
In western Europe and
America, Jewish tomb-
stones have become exact-
ly similar to tho.se of the
surrounding population.
Thus, in the United States
the stone put over Moses
Seixas is a plain square
slab of the old-fashioned type {ib. xi. 161); that
over Judah Touro is a short obelisk {ib. ix. 295),
while the monument over the grave
Modern of Uriah Levy is in its way quite a
Forms. work of art, and has distinct reference
to his naval career {ib. viii. 65). In
the richer Jewish families the gravestone has al-
ready been replaced by a family vault of a some-
what elaborate character. Reference to the follow-
ing illustrations in Thk Jewish Encyclopedia
(volume and ]iage are given) will show the variety
in the .shape of tombstones.

Altona 'P

Amsterdam 1. »*•»

Brody f"-*""

Delmedigo. Joseph iv. 509

195

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

TombBtones
Tophet

Dessau iv. 535

Endlngen ill. 639

Frankfort-on-the-Main 111. KW

Gans, Diivid v. 5(J<J

Isaac ben Slieshet vl. (Wi

Juduh Low ben Hczaleel vli. Ii')4

Levy, Uriah I'biUips vlil. 65

London vlll. 158

Mayence vlil. 3)Sti, 387

Meisel, Mordecal vlil. 443

Mendelssobn, Moses vill. 484

New York 1. 511; ili. 641; Ix. 284, 288

Newport i. 510, Ix. 295

xi.x. 0, 11. 12, 13, 14) and once in II Kings (xxiii.
10) to tlosiguate a i)lace in one of tlic valleys just
outside the walls of Jerusalem. The meaning of
the word is niueh in dispute. W. liolxTtson Smith
("Rel. of Sem." p. 227, not«) connects it with au
Aramaic loan-word wiiich means *' tireplaces." Tlie
formation of the word is similar to that of "Moleeli "
and " Ashtoreth. " Tlie passage in Kings locates tho
place in the valley of tiie son of Hinnom. Now
there are three valleys in Jerusalem which converge

Vaults ok aknhki.m and Zorkowski Families, Salem Fields Cemetery, New York.

(From a photograph.)

Nlkolsburg Ix. 306

Pisa X. 61

PraKue x. 165

Saint Petersburg x. 64:i, 645

Sarajevo xi. 60

Selxas, (lersbom Mendez xi. 160

Selxas, Moses xi. 161

Seville xi. 208

Tunis xii. 276

Vienna xii. 438

■Wertheimer. Samson xii. 504

Worms xii. 562

Bibliography : Admirable examples of old tombstones are
given in H. de Castro, Keur van (jraf»teenciu Leyden. 1S8;5,
and in L. Jerabek, Bcr Altc Prafjcr Juden-Fricdhof, 1903.

J.
TOPAZ. See Gems.

TOPEKA. See Kansas.

TOPHET (nsn; nnsn. Isa. xxx. 33): Old Tes-
tament term used chiefly by Jeremiah (vii. 31, 32;

just below the pool of Siloam: Kidron from the
east side of tiie city; Wady al-Habalti from tlie
southwest; and the Tyropceon extending from the
Jaffa gate to Siloam. There is no consensus of opin-
ion as to wliich of the.se valleys represents the an-
cient Tophet. There is, however, agreement that
the convergence of the three valleys marks a part of
Tophet. It is also very generally agned that To-
phet did not extend up the valley of the Kidron on
the east side of Jerusalem. It is to be connected,
then, eiliier witii the Tyrnpa-on depression or. pref-
erably, with the great valley marking thesoutiiwest
border of the city.

Topliet as described especially in Jer. viu 31, 83
was dedicated to the horrible rites of human sacri-
fice, of tiie immolation of children to Baal and other
abominable idols. Josiah takes especial pains (II
Kings xxiii. 10) to defile this desi}icable spot and

Torah

THE JEWISH E^X^YCLOPEDIA

196

thus to put a stop to tlie atrocious sacrifices of hu-
man life which had been made by at least two kings
of Judah. Jeremiah's references to Tophet charac-
terize it and at the same time specify that the pun-
ishment whicli threatens rebellious Judah shall so
revolutionize and reverse current wrongs as to till
tliis valley with the corpses of those who shall be
slain in the impending calamities. Tophet shall
henceforth be called "the valley of slaughter" (Jer.
vii. 32). After the overthrow of Jerusalem in 586
B.C., and down to New Testament times, incidental
references to Tophet or Gehenna (Djn p K^J) indi-
cate that it was a kind of perpetually burning
rubbish-heap, where the refuse of Jerusalem was
consumed.

E. G. II. I. M. P.

TORAH (Hebrew, min; Aramaic, Nn-niX:
Greek, Nouof): Name applied to the tive books of
Moses, Genesis, Exodus, Levitkis, Numijeus,
and Deuteronomy. The contents of the Torah
as a whole are discussed, from the point of view of
modern Biblical criticism, under PENT.\TEUcn, where
a table gives the various sources; while its impor-
tance as a center of crystallization for the Hebrew
canon is treated under Bible C.\non. The present
article, therefore, is limited to the history of the
Pentateuch in post-Biblical Judaism.

The Torah receives its title from its contents, the
name itself connoting "doctrine." The Hellenistic
Jews, however, translated it by rdfioq — "law " {e.g.,
LXX., prologue to Ecclus. [SirachJ, Philo, Jose-
phus, and the New Testament), whence came the
term "law-book"; this gave rise to the erroneous
impression that the Jewish religion is purely no-
mistic, so that it is still frequently designated as the
religion of law. In realit)', however, the Torah
contains teachings as well as laws, even the latter
being given in ethical form and contained in his-
torical narratives of an ethical character.

In the books of the Bibie the following names of
the Pentateuch occur: niiT min "ISD in H Cliron.
xvii. 9, Nell. ix. 3, and, with the added
Name. epithet n:;>D T3, H Chron. xxxiv. 14 ;
while nin^ min alone, without ISD.
is found in II Kings x. 31, 1 Chron. xxii. 11, antl II
Chron. xii. 1, xxxi. 3, 4, and xxxv. 26. Sometimes
D'n^K, or a word of similar meaning, is added, as
DM^X min IDD, Josh. xxiv. 26, Neh. viii. 18 (with-
out "IDD. tb. X. 29). Another designation is "iQD
ntrO min, Josh. viii. 31, xxiii. 6; II Kings xiv. 6;
Neh. viii. 1; or HK^ min, I Kings ii. 3; II Kings
xxiii. 25; Mai. iii. 22 (A. V. iv. 4), with the addi-
tion of '"J3y; Ezra iii. ^ (with the addition of
DM^JKH [^"K), vii. 6; r\Z*D "IQD, II Chron. xxv. 4
(preceded by n~nn3), xxxv. 12. The oldest name
doubtless is minn "IDD (Deut.i. 5; xxxi. 9, 11, 24;
xxxii. 46; Neh. viii. 2), sometimes shortened to
minn (Deut. i. 5; xxxi. 9, 11, 24; xxxii. 46; Neh.
viii. 2), or to IDDH (Neh. viii. 5), or to min (Deut.
xxxiii. 4). The last two names occur with great
fre(iuency in Jewish tradition, where the Torah
becomes a living creature. The expression "the
five books," which is the origin of the term "Penta-
teuch," occurs only in Jewish tradition, which has
also been the source for "Genesis," etc., as the

names of the books of the Pentateuch (see Blau,
"Zur Einleitung in die Heilige Sehrift," pp. 40-43).
According to all critics, regardless of the schools
to which they belong, the Torah forms a single
work, which is represented, even at the present day,
by the synagogal Scholl of the Law; nor does
history know of any other Torah scroll. The five-
fold division of the Pentateuch was
Q,uinary due to purely external causes, and not
Division of toadiversity of content ; for in volume
the Torah. the Torah forms more than a fourth
of all the books of the Bible, and
contains, in round numbers, 300,000 letters of the
1,100,000 in the entire Bible. A work of such com-
pass far exceeded the normal size of an individual
scroll among the Jews; and the Torah accordingly
became a Pentateuch, thus being analogous to the
Homeric poems, which originally formed a single
epic, but which were later si)lit into twenty-four
parts each. Like them, moreover, the Pentateuch
was divided according to the sense and with an ad-
mirable knowledge of the subject (Blau, "Althc-
braisches Buchwesen," pp. 47-49), while subdivi-
sions were also made into the so-called open and
closed "parashi3'yot," whose exact interrelation is
not yet clear. There arc in all GG9
Division, sections, 290 open and 379 closed,
into Another class of parashiyyot divides

Sections, the weekly' lessons, now called "sid-
rot," into seven parts. The Torah
also falls, on the basis of the lessons for the Sab-
bath, into 54 sidrot according to the annual cycle,
and into 155 according to the triennial cycle. The
former division, whicli is now used almost univer-
sally, is the Babylonian; and the latter, which has
reccntlj' been introduced into some Reform congre-
gations, is the Palestinian. Thelatter class of sidrot,
however, has no external marks of division in the
scrolls of the synagogue; while the divisions in the
former, like the parashiyyot, are indicated bj' blank
spaces of varying length (see Sidr.v). This proba-
Ijiy implies a greater antiquity for the sections
wiiich are thus designated, although the divisions
into 5,845 verses, which seem to be still older, have
no outward marks. The system of chapters was in-
troduced into the editions of the Hebrew Bible, and
hence into the Torah, from the Vulgate. This mode
of division is not known to the Masorah, though
it was incorporated in the final ^hisoretic notes,
for inilividual books of the Pentateuch. It is
given in modern editions of the Hebrew Bible
simply on the basis of the stereotyped editions of
the English Bible Society, which followed earlier
examples.

The external form of the Torah is discussed in
sucli articlesas Manusckipts, Scroll of the Law,
and Mantle of the Law; but so numerous are
the assertions of tradition concerning its contents
and its value that the repetition of even a very
small part of them would far exceed the limits of
this article. Every page of the Talmud and Midrash
is filled with citations from the Pentateuch and with
the most fulsome praise of it, united with super-
human love and divine respect therefor. In the five
volumes of Bacher's work on the Haggadah, the
Torah and its study form a special rubric in the

197

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Torah

account of each "sofer," or scliolar of the Law. lu
all probability there never was another people, ex-
cept piissibly the Rialiiiiaiis, tliat sur-
Jewish
Tradition

and
the Torah.

rounded its holy writings with such

respect, transmitted them througli the
ecutuiies witii sucji self-sacrifice, and
preserved tliem with so little cliange
for more than 2,000 years. The very
letters of the Torah were believed to have come from
God Himself (H. H. loa). and were counted carefully,
the Avord "soferim " denoting, according to the Tal-
mud (Kid. SOa), "the counters of the letters." A
special class of scholars devoted all their lives to the
carefid jircservation of the text (" Masorah "), the
only analogy in the literature of the world being
found in India, where the Vedas Avere accurately
preserved by similar means.

The Torah is older than the world, for it existed
either 947 generations (Zeb. 116a, and parallels) or
2,000 years (Gen. R. viii., and parallels; Weber,
"Jhdisehe Theologie." p. 15) before the Creation.
The original Pentateuch, therefore, like everything
celestial, consisted of fire, being written in black let-
ters of flame upon a white ground of tire (Yer. Shek.
49a, and parallels; Blau, " Althebrilisches Buchwe-
seu," p. 156). God held counsel with it at the crea-
I tion of the world, since it was wisdom itself (Tan.,
I Bereshit, passim), and it was God's first revelation,
■ in which He Himself took part. It was given in
I completeness for all time and for all mankind, so that
! no further revelation can be expected. It was given
j in the languages of all ]ieoples; for the voice of the
I divine revelation was seventyfold (Weber, l.r. pp.
i 16-20; Blau, "Z.ur Einleitungin die Heilige Schrift,"
1 pp. 81-100). It shines forever, and was transcribed
by the scribes of the seventy peoi)les (Bacher, " Ag.
Tan." ii. 203, 416), while everything found in the
Prophets and the Hagiograplia was already con-
tained in the Torah (Ta"an. 9a), so
Preexist- that, if the Israelites had not sinned,
ence of only the five books of ]\Ioses would
the Torah. have been given them (Ned. 22b).
As a matter of fact, the Prophets and
the Hagiograplia will be abrogated; but the Torah
will remain forever (Yer. Meg. 70d). Every letter
I of it is a living creature. When Solomon took many
wives, Deuteronomy threw himself before God and
Icomplained that Solomon wished to remove from the
[Pentateuch the yod of the word n3"1'(I^eut. xvii. 17),
!with which the prohibition of polygamy was
ispoken; and God replied: "Solomon and a thousand
like him sliull jierish, but not one letter of the Torah
jShall be destroyed '' (Lev. B. xix. ; Yer. Sanh. 20c;
Cant. B. 5, 11; comp. Bacher, I.e. ii. 123, note 5).
The single letters were liypostatized, and were act-
jive even at the creation of the world (Bacher, I.e. i.
347), an itlea which is prol)ably derived from Gnos-
tic speculation. The whole world is said to be only
f^Vu of the Torah ('Er. 21a).

Israel received this treasure only through suffer-
ing (Ber. 5a, and parallels), for the book and the
sword came together from heaven, and Israel was
obliged to choose between them (Sifre, Deut. 40,
end; Bacher, I.e. ii. 402, note 5); and whosoever de-
Inies the heavenly origin of the Torah will lose the
jfuture life (Sanh. x. 1). This high esteem linds its

expression in the rule that a copy of the Pentateuch
is unlimited in value, and in the ordiniiiice that the
inhabitants of a city might oblige one another to
procure scrolls of the Law (Tosef., B. M. iii. 24.
xi. 23). The pious bequeathed a copy of the Torah
to the synagogue (ih. B. K. ii. 3); and it was the
duty of each one to make one for himself, while
the honor paid the Bible greatly inlluenced the
distribution of copies and led to the foundation
of libraries (Blau, " Allhebrttisches Buchwescn,"
pp. 84-97).

The highest ideal of young and old ami f>f small
and great was the study of the Law. thus forming
a basis for that indomitable eagerness of the Jcwisli
people for echication and that unqucnchalile tliirst
for knowledge which still characterize them. ''As
the child must satisfy its hunger day by day. so
must the grown man busy himself w ith the Torah
each hour" (Yer. Ber. ch.ix.). The misluuih (I'e'ali
i.) incorporated in the daily prayer declares that the
study of the Law transcends all things, being greater
than the rescue of human life, than the building of
the Temple, and than the honor of father and mother
(Meg. 16b). It is of more value than the offering of
dailj' sacrifice ('Er. 63b); a single day devoted to
the Torah outweighs 1,000 sacrifices (Shab. 30a;
comp. Men. 100a) ; while the fable of the Fish and
the Fox, in which the latter seeks to entice the
former to dry land, declares Israel can live only in
the Law as lish can live only in the ocean. Who-
ever .separates himself from the Torah dies forth-
with ('Ab. Zarah 3b); for fire con-
Study of sumes him, and he falls into hell (B.
the Torah. B. 79a); while God weeps over one
who might have occupied himself with
it but neglected to do so (Hag. 5b). The study
must be unselfish: "One should study the Torah
with self-denial, even at the sacrifice of one's life;
and in the very hour before death one should devote
himself to this duty" (Sotah21b; Ber. 63b; Shab.
83b). "Whoever uses the crown of the Torah shall
be destroyed " (Ned. 62a). All, even the lepers and
the unclean, were required to study the Law (Ber.
22a), while it was the duty of every one to read the
entire weekly lesson twice (Ber. 8a); and the oldest
benediction was the one spoken over the Torah (i*.
lib). Prophylactic power also is a.scribed toil: it
gives protection against suffering (ih. 5a), against
sickness ('Er. 54b), and against oppression in the
Messianic time (Sanh. 98b); so that it may be said
that "the Torah protects all the world " (Sanh. 99b;
comp. Ber. 31a). The following sayings may be
cited as particularly instructive in this respect: ** A
Gentile who studies the Torah is as great as the
high priest" (B. K. 38a). "The practise of all the
laws of the Pentateuch is worth less tiian the study
of the scriptures of it" (Yer. Pe'ah i.). a conclusive
refutation of the current view of the Nomism of the
.Jewish faith. After these citations it becomes
readily intelligible that, according to the Talmtidic
view, "God Ilimself sits and studies the Torah"
('Ab. Zarah 3b).

The spirit of criticism naturally developed from
this devotion to the Pentateuch, in spite of faith and
reverence. The very existence of the doctrine that
the Law was of heavenly origin, and that whosoever

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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

198

denied this do'gma liad no share in the life to come
(Sanh. X.). shows that there was a school which

assumed a critical attitude toward the

Criticism of Torah. There is much evidence in

the Torah proof of this; but here only the history

Among of criticism within the orthodox syn-

Jews. agogue will be discussed. It was a

moot point whether the Law was
given all at once or in smaller rolls at different
times (Git. 60a); and the further question was dis-
cussed, whether Moses or Joshua wrote the last eight
verses of the Pentateuch (B. B. 14b-15a). It Mas
definitely aftirmed, on the other hand (tb.), that
Moses composed the sections concerning Balaam
(Num. xxii.-xxiv. j, thus closing all discussions on
that score. Many tacit doubts are scattered through
the Talmud and Midrash, in addition to those which
Einstein has collected. In the post-Talmudic period.
in like manner, there was no lack of critics, some of
them recognized as such again only in recent times,
although Abraham ibn Ezra, who was joined by
Spinoza, has long been recognized as belonging to
this class.

The composition of the Torah should be discussed
on the basis of the old Semitic concepts, which

planned a work of literature practi-

Composi- cally rather than systematically. Re[t-

tion. etitions, therefore, should not be

eliminated, since things which are
good and noble may and should be brought to re-
membrance many times. From the point of view
of effective emphasis, moreover, a change of context
may develop a new and independent application of
a given doctrine, especially if it be repeated in other
words. Thus tradition (The Thirty-two Rules of Eli-
ezer b. Jose ha-Gelili) took "the repeated doctrine"
as its rule of interpretation, and left large numbers
of repetitions (parallel passages) in its collections of
oral teachings. The framework of the Pentateuch
is historical narrative bound together by the thread
of chronology. There is no rigid adherence to the
latter principle, however; and the Talmud itself
accordingly postulates the rule : " There is no earlier
and no later in the Torah " (Pes. 6b et passitn). From
a Masoretic point of view, the Mosaic code contains
the history of a period of about 2,300 years. As has
already been noted in regard to the names of the
individual books, the Talmud and the Masorah
divided the Torah into smaller units according to its
contents, so that Genesis includes the story of Crea-
tion and of the Patriarchs, Exodus the account of
the departure from Egypt, the revelation, and
so on.

The style of the Pentateuch, in keeping with its
content, differs widely from the diction of the
Propiiets and the P.salms. It is less lofty, although
it is not lacking in dramatic force, and it is concrete
rather than abstract. Most of the laws are formu-
lated in the second person as a direct address, the
Decalogue being the best example. In certain
cases, however, the nature of the subject requires
the third person; but the Torah reverts as quickly
as possible to the second as being the more effective
form of address (comp., for example, Deut. xix.
11-21). In the Pentateuch, temporal depiction is
the usual method. The process of creation, rather

than the universe as a whole, is described; and the
account brings the world visibly into being in six
main parts. In the creation of man, of i)lauls, and
of paradise God is seen at work, and tlie same proc-
ess of comiug into being may be tracetl in the ark

of Noah and similar descriptions. A
Style. remarkal)le example of word-painting

is the account of the consecration of
Aaron and his sons to the high-priesthood (Lev.
viii.). Here the reaiier watches while Moses washes
the candiilates, dresses them, etc. ("Magyar-Zsido
Szemle," ix. 565 ei scq.). Naive simplicity is a char-
acteristic trait of Pentateuchal style, which under-
stands also the art of silence. Thus, as in ail great
products of world-literature, feminine beauty is not
described in detail; for Sarah, Rachel, and other
heroines are merely said to be beautiful, while the
completion of the picture is left to the imaginatiou
of the reader.

The contents of the Torah fall into two main
parts: historical and legal. The latter commences
with Ex. xii. ; so that the Tanuaim maintained that
the Law actually began there, proceeding on the
correct principle that the word "Torah"' could be
applied only to teachings which regulated the life of
man, either leading him to perform certain acts
(commands = r['C*]} fllVD) or restraining him from
them (prohibitions = Hii'yn X^ mVD)- The Talmud
enumerates a total of 613 rules, 248 being commands •

and 365 prohibitions (see Jew. Encyc.
Laws of iv. 181, s.v. Comm.\xdments, The
the Torah. 613). In the post-Talmudic period I

many works were written on these 618 !
"mizwot," some even by Maimonides. The legal i
parts of the Pentateuch include all the relations of '
human life, although these are discussed with i
greater detail in the Talmud (see T.\lmudic Laws).
The Torah recognizes no subdivisions of the com-
mandments; for all alike are the ordinances of
God, and a distinction may be drawn only accord-
ing to modern ideas, as when Driver (in Hastings.
" Diet. Bible," iii. 6G) proposes a triple division, into
juridical, ceremonial, and moral "torot."

Montefiore was correct when, in laying emphasis
on the ethical aspect of the Biblical concept of God,
he declared that even the law of the Bible was per-
meated with morality, propounding his view in tiie
following words (" Hibbert Lectures." p. 64) : " Most
original and characteristic was the moral influence
of Jahveh in the domain of law. Jahveh, to the
Israelite, was emphatically the God of the right.
. . . From the earliest times onward, Jahveh's
sancttiary was the depository of law, and the priest
was His spokesman." The most prominent charac-
teristic of the Pentateuchal law, as compared with
the laws of ancient peoples and of medieval Europe,
is mildness, a feature which is still further devel-
oped in the Talmud. The Torah is j ustly regarded as

the source of humane law. Although
Penal such phrases occur as " that soul shall
Law. be cut off from his people" or "so

shalt thou put the evil away from the
midst of thee," it would be incorrect to take them
literally, or to deduce from them certain theories of
penal law, as FQrster has recently done. On the
contrary, these expressions prove that the Mosaic

199

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Torah
Toronto

law was not a legal code in the strict sense of the
term, but an ethical work. Although the Tahniid-
ists nuule it a penal code, instinetively reading that
character into it, tlie penal law of the Torah is some-
thing theoretical Avhich was never put into practise.
This view is .supported by the fact that a command-
ment is stated sometimes without the tlireat of any
penalty -wliatever for its violation, and sometimes
with the assignment even of death as a ininisinnent
for its transgression. In like manner, tradition fre-
quently substitutes such a phrase as " he forfeited
Lis life " for "transgression worthy of death."

On the other hand, the civil law of the Torah,
wliich is more developed and bears a practical char-
acter, probabl}'' accords more closely
Civil Law. with ancient Jewisli legal procedure.
It reflects the conditions of an agricul-
tural state, since most of the laws relate to farming
and cognate matters. There was no Hebrew word
for "store," although "just measure" was men-
! tioned. It must be borne in mind, however, tliat to
1 satisfy the more advanced conditions of later times,
the Talmudists both supplemented the Mosaic law
land by means of analogy and similar e.xjiedients
interpolated into the Torah much which it did not
contain originally.

From the earliest times the Synagogue has pro-
claimed the divine origin of the Pentateuch, and has
held that Moses wrote it down from dictation, while
the religions based on Judaism have until very re-
cently held the same view. Biblical criticism, how-
ever, denies the Mosaic authorsliipand ascribes only
a"portion of varying extent to so ancient an origin.
A history of criticism in regard to this point is given
by AViner ("B. R." ii. 419 et seq.) and by Driver (in
'Hastings, "Diet. Bible," iii. 66), wiiile Montefiore
[expresses himself as follows {I.e.) :

j "The Torah— or teaching— of the priests, half judicial, half
ipaedagopric, was a deep moral influence; and there was no ele-
ment in the religion which was at once more genuinely Hebrew
and more closely identified with the national God. There is
Igood reason to believe that this priestly Torah is the one relig-
'lous institution which can be ciirrectly attributed to Moses. . . .
Though Moses was not the author of the written law, he was
unquestionably the founder of that oral teaching, or Torah,
which preceded and became the basis of the codes of the Penta-
teuch."

The legal parts of the Torah are found in E.k. xx.-
xxiii., xxv.-xxxi., xxxiv.-xxxv. ; Lev. i.-viii., xi.-
XXV., xxvii. ; Num. v.-x., xviii., xix., xxvii.-xxx.,
these laws being repeated in Deut. iv. et seq.

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Tan.\ idem, Ay. Pal. Amor.
Index, s.v. Torn and Studium dcr Lehie ; Baumgartner,
Lea Etudes Imgodinui)! chez les Juifn, Geneva, 18S6 ; Hlau,
Zur EinlciUtny in die Hciligc Schrift, Strasburg, 1894;
Idem, Studien ziim Althehraischiii Buchwo'eji nnd zur
Biblischen LitteraUirgeschichte, Strasburg, 1902; Biichler,
The Triennial Reading of the Law and Prophets, in J. Q.
B. vi. 1-73; Elsenstadt, Ueher Bibelkritik in der Talmud i-
schen Litteratur, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1894; FSrster, Das
Mnsaiachc Strafrccht in Seiner Gcschichtlichen Entwicke-
hina. Leipsic, 1900; Hamburger. R. B. T. supplementary vol.
111. 60-75; Hastings. Diet. Bible, iii. &4-73 ; Jew. Encyc vii.
633-638; Michaelis-Saalschutz, Mo^aisrhes Richt, Berlin,
1842^6; Herzog-Hauck, Real-Enn/c. xiii. 486-502; Weber.
JUdische Theolngie, pp. 14-34, and Index. Leipsic. 1897; Wi-
ner, B. R. 3d ed., 1. 415-432. For the criticism of the Torah
compare the text-books of the history of Judaism and of Old
Testament theology. See also Pentateuch.
J. L. B.

TORAT KOHANIM

MiDRASn H.\GGADAH.

(THE SIFRA). See

TORDESILLAS : Spanish city near Vulladolid,
with a Jcwisli cninmunity, wliicli was visited by
Vicente Ferrer toward the tnd of 1411 for |>ropu-
gandic purposes. He advised the Jews of ilie city
to change their abode for the narrow ghetto of Vul-
ladolid, but ids counsel was di.srcgiirded. In 1474
the number of Jews in Tordesillas was still so great
that they paid 1)00 maravedis in faxes. Tordesillas
was the birthplace of Moses ha-Kohen de Tou-

DKSILLAS.

BiBi-iOfiRAPiiV : Rl')s, Hi.st. II. 428 et ««</., 111. 5m.

.1. .M K

TORDESILLAS, MOSES HA-KOHEN DE :
Spanish coiitroversialisi, who was railed ujinn to
suffer for his faith, an attempt being made lo con-
vert him to Christianity by force. Despite cruel
persecution, he remained true to his convictions,
although he was robbed of all his possessions and
reduced to poverty. Before long he was chosen
rabbi by the community of Avila, where he was
compelled to carry on a religious debate, about
1372, with the convert John ok Vai.i.aixh.id in
the presence of Christians and Mohammedans. It
was an easy task for Moses ha-Kohen, who was ac-
quainted with the Christian sources, to refute in
four debates the arguments of his opponent, who
tried to prove the Christian dogmas from the Scrip-
tures. Soon afterward he was obliged to enter upon
a new contest with a disciple of the convert AnxEn
OP BuuGos, with whose writings, especially with
his "Mostradorde Jeosticia," Closes was thoroughly
acquainted. In 1374, at the desire of the meml)er8
of his community, he wrote, in the form of a dia-
logue between a Jew and a Christian, the main sub-
stance of his debates, which treated of the Trinity,
of the virginity of Mary, of sacrifice, of the alleged
new teachings of Jesus and of the New Testament,
of the seven weeksof Daniel, and of similar matters.
His book, which is divided into seventeen chapters,
dealing with 125 passages emphasized by Christian
controversialists, is entitled "'P>.er ha-Emuuah "
(The Support of Faith). It was sent by its author
to David ibu Ya'ish at Toledo, and manuscripts of
it are found at Oxford, Berlin, Parma, Breslau, and
elsewhere.

BiBLlociRAPHY : De Rossi-Hambergcr. f^i^^ HV,jf<i7'. pp.317
ctseq.; GrMx. Geftch. M ed., vlil. 20-21: .Nenbnuer. Jcirfwi
Interjn-itatimixof the Fiftu-thint Chaittimf /.mikWi, p. 10;
Steinschneider, Vcrzeiclnii.idir Hrhrilischru Hntiil.<cliriflen
der Koniglichoi Biltliothek zu Berlin, p 51 ; Idem. }i(l>r.
Bibl. ii. 85. note 10.
.1. yi- i<-

TORONTO: Canadian city; capital of the prov-
ince of Ontario. Toronto possesses four regularly
organized Jewish congregations, the oldest being
the Holy Blossom congregation, which hail its be-
ginnings in 1845, though it was not formally organ-
Tzed until 18")2. Its first synagogue was In H't'l^"-
mond street, the building being dedicated in 1857;
later the congregation moved to its present home in
Bond street. Attached to it is a large and well-
organized Sabbath-school. The Goel Tsedck con-
grecatiou, founded in 1880, has a synagogue in Elm
street; the Shomerci Shabbas. an Austrian congre-
gation organized in 1891. worships in Chestnut
street; and the Chevra Tillim congregation, organ-
ized in 1895, is at Richmond and York streets. In

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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

200

addition to these there are a number of minor cou-
gregutions. formed in recent years, but aeqiiiriug a
large membership and steadily growing in impor-
tance.

The Jewish communal institutions of Toronto in-
clude organizations of a philanthropic, educational,
religious, and literary character. Among these are
the Jewish Benevolent Society, the Latlies' Moutc-
fiore Aid Society, the Hebra Kaddisha, the Toronto
Hebrew Ladies' Aid Society, the Hebra Liuous Ha-
tsedek. the Austrian Hebrew Ladies' Aid Society, a
branch of the Anglo-Jewish Association, the Toronto
branch of the Council of Jewish Women, the Young
Men's Hebrew Association, the Jewish Literary So-
ciety, the Talmud Torah, the Toronto Hebrew Benev-
olent Society, the Jewish Shelter Society, the Judean
Club, several lodges, and four Zionist organizations
— the Agudath Zion, Toronto Daughters of Zion,
B'nai Zion Association, and Ahavath Zion Society.

Toronto has a population of 207,971, of whom
about 7,000 are Jews.

A. C. I. DE S.

TORaUEMADA, TOMAS DE. See AiTO

DA Fi: . ISKtV \>l[U>S.

TORRE, LELIO (HILLEL) DELLA : Ital-
ian rabbi and educator; born in Cuneo, Piedmont,
Jan. 11, 1805; died in Padua July 9. 1871. His
father, Solomon Jehiel Raphael ha-Kohen, died in
1807; and Lelio was brought up by his uncle Sab-
batai Elhanan Treves, a rabbi in Piedmont. From
1823 to 1829 he acted as tutor in Hebrew and in Bib-
lical exegesis in theCollegioColonnae Finzi founded
in Turin by the Jewish community; and in 1827 he
was appointed as.sistant rabbi. "When the rabbin-
ical college was founded in Padua in 1829, Delia
Torre was appointed professor of Talmud, homi-
letics, and pastoral theology, which position he held
until his death; in 1869 he occupied for several
months, during a vacancy, the rabbinical chair of
Padua. Cuneo, his native town, honored him b}'
engraving his name on a bronze tablet among those
of the most illustrious citizens of Italy.

Besides his thorough familiarity with all branches
of Hebrew literature and Jewish history-, Delia Torre
was master of several ancient and modern languages,
writing Hebrew, Italian, and French witii eciual
facility. He wrote numerous Hebrew poems, most
of which were included in his collection "Tal Yal-
dut," which, together with a supplement of later
compositions entitled "EgleTal," appeared in Padua
in 18G8. He was the author also of various articles
in Hebrew periodicals, treating mostly of subjects re-
lating to the science of Judaism and written in pure
classical Hebrew. They may be found in "' Kerem
Hemed" (iv. 9), in tiie new "Bikkure ha-'Ittim," in
"Ozar Xehmad " (i.), and in various volumes of
" Kokebe Yizhak." Of his publisiied works the fol-
lowing may be mentioned: "Cinque Discorsi,"
Padua, 1834; "Delia Condizione Degli Ebrei Sotto
rim])ero Germanico nel Medio Evo," ib. 1842; "I
Salmi Volgarizzati sul Testo Massoretico ed Illus-
trati con Argomenti e Note. Parte Prima, Testo,
Traduzioneed Argomenti," Vienna, 1845; "Preghi-
erc degl' I.sraeliti. Traduzione dall' Ebraico," ib.
1846; " Orazioni per Ordinazioni Rabbinichc," Ven-

ice, 1852; "Poesies Hebraiciues."' Padua, 1869; " Is-
crizioni Sepolcrali," rt. 1870; and " Pensieri suUe
Lezioni Sabbatiehedel Pentateticho." //;. 1872. His
"Orazioni Postume " (Padua, 1879, pp. 189-202)
contains an autobiographical sketch and a complete
list of his works.

Bibliography: Ozar ha-SifnU, iii. 91-92; S. Jona, in Cor-

ricrc hraeliticii, 1872.

s. P. Wi.

TORT (Hebrew, rp'TJ: Latin, "delietvun "):
Any wrongful act, neglect, or defavilt whereby legal
damage is caused to the person, property, or repu-
tation of another. Liability arises either from con-
tract or from tort. Direct and wilful tort is Tuiis-
p.\ss. Trespass on the person is Assault and
B.VTTEIJV. Other torts arise from lack of skill or
care (see Accidknt; Bailments [sometimes deemed
liabilities from contract] ; Fault; Fraud and Mis-
take; GoKixo Ox). Among the torts not elsewhere
trcatetl are :

Mesne Profits: The income derived from land
imlawfully held by the possessor, for which he is
answerable to the true owner when the latter recov-
ers the land from him b}^ the judgment of a court.
The Talmud speaks of the possessor of land without
right as the " robber of the land " (in English law,
"disseizor"): and he, or even a third person who
takes fruits or branches from land thus withheld
from the true owner, is considered as morally guilty
of robbery (see the prohibition of an Israelite using,
in the ritual thyrsus on the Feast of Booths, a
palm-branch or citron taken from land held by a
disseizor [Suk. iv. 1,2]). The liability to pay
mesne profits is implied and rather distantly indi-
cated in the Mishnah (Git. v. 2). Assuming that he
who sells land with warranty is liable not only for
the price of the land which he re-
in the ceives, but also for the mesne profits
Mishnah which the purchaser will have to pay
and after eviction to the true owner, it is

Talmud, here taught that from motives of pub-
lic policy the warranty inserted in the
deed of sale, though in the nature of a bond, is to
be levied, as far as it secures the purchaser against
this liability, only upon "free property," not on
"subjected i)roperty," i.e., on lands which in the
meanwhile have been given away, sold, or encum-
bered (for the distinction see Deed). The Gemara
(B. ^I. 14a, b) discusses this matter fully in the
light of the warranty, the liability of the unlawful
possessor being taken for granted (see Maimonides,
"Yad," Gczelah. ch. .xiv.).

Depasturing-: A liability for full damages is im-
posed by Ex. xxii. 4 (llebr.). "If a man pastures
on field or vineyard and sends his cattle to pasture
in the field of another, he shall make it good with
the best of his field and the best of his vineyard."
When he pastures thus purposely, it is reallv a tres-
pass; but the liability for " foot or tooth " is often as
full when beasts go of themselves into the (loniaiu
of another. Accidental injuries of this kind have
been referred to under Accident. But when a
beast eats the neighbor's produce, is the owner lia-
ble for the harm done, or only for his profit by its
eating? In the case put in Scripture he is of course
bound for the former. Other cases are thus put by

201

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

Torquemada
Tortoise

]\Iuiinonides ("Yad," Nizkc iMainon, iii. C-12), who
draws from B. K. 14-27 ;«/*■«/;// ;

When, from necessity, a beast eats something
not its usual food, c.r/., wlicii an ass eats vetclies or
fish, tlic owner paj's full chimage, if the occur-
rence took place on the grounds of the injured
party; but if on the hiiihway, he i)ays oidy the
amount whiiii he has prolited. Where
Wilful and a beast of jirey enters the grounds
Ac- of the injured party and tears or de-

cidental. vours a domestic animal, the owner
of the beast is liabU; for full damage,
because it is its nature to act in the maimer as it did:
but if a dog should trespass and eat lambs or a
cat eat grown hens, only half damage is due; for
this is unusual. When an ass, linding bread in a bas-
ket, eats the bread and breaks the basket, the owner
pays full damage for both. Where a beast, whether
walking or standing, eats grass from tiie middle of a
square, the owner pays what he prolils: where it
eats from the side he pays full damage. For what
it eats out of the door of a shop, its owner is required
to pay the equivalent of what he has i)rotited there-
by ; from the interior of the shop, full damage. If,
■walking along the road, a beast eats off the back
of another beast, only the saving in fodder is paid
for; if it jumps out of its place, full damage is due.
If one's beast glides or stumbles into another's garden
and eats, etc., the owner owes only for what he prof-
its, even if the beast goes from bed to bed, or stays
in the garden all day ; but if it walks into tiic garden
in the regular way, there is liability for full damage.
So, also, if it is ])ushed into the garden by a com-
panion ; for the owner should lead his herd in single
file.

Unintentional Injury: Though "a man is al-
ways forewarned," that is, liable for his actions,
asleep or awake, intentional or unintentional (see
Assault and Batti^ry, and authorities there cited),
there is a broad exception to the rule; viz., when
the mischief is done on the ground of the injuring
party. For what a man does within his own do-
main, he is liable in damages only if it was done
•wilfully ; but he is not liable if done either un-
consciously or under compulsion. Where a man
climbs a ladder, and a rung falls out under him and
strikes another, he is liable if the rung was not
strong enough or not well set; but if it was strong
and well set, the harm done is regarded as providen-
tial, and he goes clear, even if it happened within
the domain of the injured party; while on his own
ground he woukl go clear in either case ("Yad,"
Hobel, iv. 3, 4, based on B. K. 28).

Betrayal : The man of vii)lenee ("annas," gener-
ally denoting an arbitrary or cruel ollieial of the Gen-
tile kingdom) is often mentioned in the Talmud and
the codes. The most odious among torts was that of
betraying the person or property of a fellow Israel
ite into the hands of the annas (see B. K. 5a,
114a; "Yad," Ilobel, viii. ; Sluilhan 'Aruk. Hoshen
Mishpat, 328). In the 'Aruk it is put thus: "He
who [by informing] delivers up property into the
hands of an annas, whether Gentile or Jew, is
bomid to make good, from the best part of his estate,
■whatever the annas has taken, though he has not
handled the thing at all, but has only shown the

way ; and if he dies, the dumugedone is levied from
his estate in the iiandsof ids heirs." Tlie iuformer
is excused if he has given informa-
Informers. tion under bodily duresK; but if he has
handled the pr<>|>erty hiniKelf, lie is
liable even then; for a man lius no right to suvc
himself at the cost of another. Kurtiier nii. u relig-
ious .sanction is given to this civil liubilily; "lie
who delivers up an I.sraelile, cillier in Ids body or
in his jirfjpcrty, to the Gentile has no share in the
world to come." And on the strength of u case re-
ported in B. B. 116a it is also sind that it is not only
pernd.ssible but meritorious to kill an informer in
order to put a stop to his villainous trade.

Slander and Insult: It has been shown under
AssAii.T AM) BArriKV that the insult or liumili-
ation incidental to an assjiull is to be paid for sepa-
rately; but in the case of an insult when there is
no assault, even when one spits at another and
does not reach his body but only his garment, there is
no ground for recovery (B. K. Ola). And in the
same connection a Palestinian amora is (pioted " The
tradition goes [mOIN nxtj. ' He who shames an-
other by words is free from everything.' " Bui the
Jerusalem Talmud (B. K. 6c) makes an exception in
favor of the "elder," meaning a rabbi. Thus; "He
who puts an elder to shame pays him the jtriee of
his shame. One Meshullam alTronted H. Judah ben
Hanina: the matter came before H. Simeon ben
Lakish ; and he tined M<'shullam a litra
Elder of gold." This precedent was carried
" Put to into the Halakah ; and all the Geonim
Shame." followed it. They applied it to every
scholar (QDn TD^n). and thus the ride
appears in the code of Maimonides (" Yad," Hobel,
iii. 5), where the penalty is put at 35 denarii of gold
(the weight of 8f shekels of gold) ; but he adds that
in Spain many of the scholars waive their privilege.
While others than scholars have no civil remedy for
insult or slander, the act of " blanciiing a man's face
in public " or that of " attaching a nickname to one's
neighbor" is, as has been seen in Ona'aii, among
the unpardonable sins punished in the future world.
It is also found (Ket. 46a^ that the sin of "bringing
out an evil report" (slaniier) is fully recognized, on
the strength of the text "Thou shall not go up and
down as a tale-bearer among the people " (Lev. xix.
16) ; but there is no civil remedy for the wrong done.
K. r L- N !>•

TORTOISE : Rendering in the Authorized Ver-
sion of the Hebrew word "7.ab"(Lev. xi 29; .see
LiZAKD). Some commentators assume "gallim " in
IIos. xii. 12 to mean "tortoises." a view which has
the support of the Septuagint, the Peshitla. and old
Arabic versions. Two species of land tortoise. Tf*-
tudo f/ra>ra and Tcstmlo In't/iii. and several of the
acpiatic tortoises have been found in Palestine. Of
the latter the Emt/s caspira is the niost numerous.

The Talmud Tiscs"zab" and also "zabuni" to
denote the toad (T"li- v. i). In Ber. 33a if is saiil that
the water-snake is the issue of ihc toad and the snake.
The tortoise is assumed to be intended in Nn7'3
and ^^"^ in Nid. ITa and Gen. R. Ivii. 2.
BiBLiofiRAPnv : Tristram. Xat. HM. p. 2.V. ; l^\vvs4ihii. Z. T.

E. G. n. ^- •*'• ^-

TortosA

THE JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA

202

uhI Lrnda, tu

TORTOSA : Ciiv io CAUlooia where Jews lived

.1. This

-t in the

lU Bud fourleeuth centuries.

' ioli wcif

In 1202

ihe -I <i aotl farimr of the itjyal

he kiutr. with whom he

. ly, however,
. o( the couii
I money f* i
oi" Urgei. whicli also con-
■■ 'he Jews of Tortosn,
a. Geiona, Valeuiia.
iim with 115. IKK) livres; ami
- - ' ' ■ • ! successor of James, was

Mr the conquest of Cer-

iiniiy of Tortosa contrilnited

aim ui.iiiii.-i i"' ^-.iiiS. being exempted from all

tase« for several years in recognition of their

■ervicf*

X' . ! :. f "'1! nations of the Jews of this city

wt iilture, commerce, and muuufac-

. :u the brothers Astrnc of Tortosa

, . . .-. upon the island of Majorca. They

€i» jf establiiihments for dyeing linen and

wares in a special niarket-
, — , . ■ ... wed to take an annual inter-

est of four dinars per livre, but were subject to
' '-f they were obliged to ])ay
:i 12^4 alone, as table-moneys
("(• in addition to the municipal assessments

! lands, (bi its own respoiisibil-
iiiunity in Tortosa ordained that,
to be valid, all marriages must be performed be-
' ' ' - of the community and in the

men, and thai any woman of

Tnrtom could contract a new marriage without a

: ■ ■ " ■' ' '• . unless married in this

. I. 1391, was eventful for

< in Tortosa as well as in other cities. The

•' ; - • : iisly so wealthy, could no longer

; there, as elsewhere, many ac-

. numy Maranos fell victims to the

r -"sa.

I ■ rtho birthplace or the residence

lis. Menahem ben Saruk, the

►.rapher; Shem-Tob ben Isaac

.Kbruhani Ixiih Hebrew translators: and
tn and lit-r Jacob Mantino were

■ there. ; .. ..ved Isjiac Maimon and

Abmlutm b. Alfual. who carried on a correspondence
*•' ■ the modern Hebrew

•■*' . • 'U Bonfed, rabiji and

d<'l«-jr«itc of tlie coniniunily at the disputation of

trnr ■ V.^'.^jnirr. rri.inrin ,f,- ralnUnn \i 1'?; Hn-

■' ■. .Nos.

• . M.'H ■

Ut<«. /Ii»'. 11. .!, 1,>>. '

• M. K.

T0RT8CHINER. LOB B. ABRAHAM. See
< oiiiMi* >.iui. Auvf.ii Lou.

TOSAFOT r* additions "): Critical and cxplana-
turv iiiiissisun the Talmud, printed, in almost all edi-
tions, on the outer margin and opposite Raslii's notes.
The authors of the Tosafot are known as Tosafists
("ba"ale ha-tosafot'"). For what reason tln-se
glosses are called "tosafot " is a matter of disjuitc
among modern scholars. Many of them, including
Graetz. think the glosses are so calletl as additions
lo Kashi'sconunentary on the Talnuid. In fact, the
pcriotlof the To.safot began immediately after Kashi
IkuI written his commentary ; the tirst tosatists were
Rashi's sons-in-law anil grandsons, and
Meaning of the Tosalot consist mainly of strictures
Name. on Rashi's commentary. Others, espe-
cially Weiss, object that many tosafot,
particularly those of Isaiah di Tiani, have no refer-
ence to Rashi. Weiss, followed by other schohirs,
asserts that "tosafot" means "additions" to the Tal-
mud, that is to say, they are an extension and de-
velopment of the Talmud. For just as the Gemara
is a critical and analytical commentary on the Mish-
nah,soare the Tosafot critical and analytical glosses
on those two parts of the Talmud. Further, the
term " tosafot " was not applied for the first time to
the glosses of Rashi's confinuators, but to the To-
sefta, the additions to the Mishnah compiled by Ju-
dah ha-Nasi I. "Tosefta" is a Babylonian term,
which in Palestinian writings is replaced by " tosa-
fot " (see Yer. Pe'ah ii. ITa; Lev. R. xxx. 2: Cant.
R. vi. 9; Eccl. R. V. 8). The Tosafot resemble the
Gemara in other respects also, for just as the latter
is the work of dilTerent schools carried on through
a long period, so the former were written at dilTer-
ent times and by different schools, and gathered later
into one body.

Up to and including Rashi, the Talmudic com-
mentators occupied themselves only with the plain
meaning ("' peshat ") of the text; but after the be-
ginning of the twelfth century the spirit of criticism
took possession of the teachers of the Talmud.
Thus some of Rashi's continuators, as his sons-in-law
and his grandson Samuel ben Meir (RaSIlBaM),
while they wiote conunentaries on the Talmud after
the manner of Rashi's, wrote also glosses on it in a
style peculiarto themselves. The chief characteristic
of the Tosafot is that they evidence no recognition
of any authority, so that, in spite of the great respect
in which Rashi was held by the Tosafists, the latter
freely corrected him. Besides, the Tosafot do not
constitute a continuous conunentary, but. like the
" Dissensiones " to the Roman code of the first quar-
ter of the twelfth century, deal oidy with the ditli-
cult passages of the Talmudic text. Single sen-
tences are explained by quotations which are taken
from other Talmudic treatisesand which seem at first
glance to have no connection with the
Character, sentences in question. On the other
hand, .sentences which seem to be re-
lated and interdependent aie separated and embodied
in different treatises. It must be added that the
Tosafot can be understood only by those who arc
well advanced in the study of the Talmud, for the
most entangled discussions are treated as though
they were simple. Glosses explaining the meaning
of a word or containing a grammatical observation
are very rare.

203

THE JEWISH ENryrT.oPEDIA

T'rtoi

LfOl

The Tosafot may be consiclen-d from the point of
view of a metiiodology of tiic Talmud. The rules
are certainly not gatliered together in one series, as
they are, for instance, in Mainionides' introduction
to the Mishnali; they are scattered in various parts,
and their niunber is quite considerable. Neither are
they stated infixed terms; a generally accepted rule
is followed by "This is the way of the Talnuid " or
"The Talmud usually declares." Sometimes the
negative expression is found, "This is not the way
of the Talmud." A fre(|Uentl}' recurring rule is in-
dicated by some such f(jrniula as " We (ind many
like this." It must be borne in mind that what has
been said hitherto concerns the general features of
the Tosafot, and does not conllict with the fact that
the writings of different tosatists dilTer in style and
method. With regard to method, it should be S!U<I
that the Tosafot of Touques (.see below) concern
particularly the casuistic interpretation of the tradi-
tional law, but do not touch halakic decisions.

The chief home of "tosafot literature was incon-
testably France, for it began with Rashi's pupils,
and Avas continued mainly by the heads of the
French .schools. It is true that, practically, tosafot
began to be written in Germany at the same time as
in France, but the French tosafi.sts al-

Mostly ways predominated numerically. The
of French first tosafot recorded are those written

Origin. by Kashi's two sons-in-law, ^leir b.
Samuel of Hamerupt (RaM) and Judah
ben Nathan (RIBaN), and by a certain R. Joseph
(Jacob Tam, "Sefer lia-Yashar," No. 252; " Hagga-
hot ]Mordekai," Sanh., No. 696; see below). But
their tosafot not being otherwise known, the actual
father of the tosafot in France was undoubtedly
J.\coB 13. Meiu Tam, whose style was adopted by his
successors. He wrote a great nmnber of tosafot,
many of which are to be found in his "Sefer lia-
Yashar " ; but not all, as many passages that are
cited in the edited tosafot are not found in the work
just mentioned. In Germany, at the same time, there
flourished Isa.^c bkn Asiiek ha-Levi (RIBA), leader
of the German tosafists. who wrote numerous tosa-
fot, which are mentioned by Abraham b. David
("Temim De'im," Nos. 158, 207-209), and which are
very often cited in the vxlited tosafot {e.g.. to Sotah
1Tb). But Isaac ben Asher's tosafot were revised
by his pupils, who, according to Jacob Tam ("Sefer
ha-Yashar," No. 282), sometimes ascribed to their
teacher opinions which were not his. Zedekiah b.
Abraham ("Shibbole lia-Leket," i., No. 225), how-
ever, refutes Jacob Tarn's assertion.

The most prominent tosalist immediately after
Jacob Tam was his pupil and relative Isaac ben
Samuel ha-Zakex (RI) of Dampierre, whose to.sa-
fot form a part of the Tosafot Yeshanim (see be-
low). Isaac was succeeded by his pupil Samson ben
AimATiAM OF Sens (d. about 1235), who, besides en-
riching the literature with his own comi)Ositions,
revised those of his predecessors, especially liis
teacher's, and compiled them into the group known
as the Tosafot of Sens (|'J^<:^• ni£Din). Samson's
fellow pupil JuDAii B. Isaac of Pahis (Sir Leon)
was also very active; he wrote tosafot to several
Talniudic treatises, of which those to Berakot were
published at Warsaw (1863) ; some of those to 'Abo

dah Zarah arc extant iu manuBcrJpt^ Ant'.»" it-
many French tosuflgts deserving gpeclid i
was SA.MrKi, n. Soi • "'

who, owing to the

France in Ins linie. fL-lied for the textti
his memory (.Meir of l; ■■

The edited tosiifdt
to Samson of Sens und lo the fo:
tosafists of liie thirteenth < ■ •

EvKEUX. (2) El.IK7.Klt OK 'I

ni.N Ei, I.I All OK CoKitKii

(1) Moses of Evreux, t.i.. .., .,,
fists, furnisiied glosses to the v .

form a distinct ^roiip known an jJic
Schools of Tosafot of Evreux (JOO'K ""' — ""
Tosafists. or Ki'ix n'.CCmi It "my

suincd that the "'\
mentioned by Mordecai b. Ilil.. .
Sanh., No. 987) are idenlicjil with the
mentioned. According to Ji.s.ipli f

No. 52) and Elijah Mi/rahi ^•* .Nliiy i:.. .v

i., No. 37). Moses wrote his glosses on the margin of
Isaac Alfasi's "Halak..!," probably at the time of
the burning of the Talmud.

(2) Eliezer of Touques. of the second half of the
thirteenth century, made a conip ' "
Tosafot of Sens and of Evreux, tli

is called the Tosafot of Touques ("iiD mEDID). and

forms the basis of the edited tnsjifoi I"

own glosses, written on the margin, are ki

the Tosafot Gillayon or Gilyon Tosafot. It

must be i)reinis(d, however, tiiat the Tosafot of

Touques did not remain untouched; tliey woro rp

vised afterward and sup])lemented by tl

later tosafists. Gershou Soncino, wlio pi..M. m w.. -!

tosafot, declares that his ancestor Moses of FOrtb,

who lived in the middle of the fifteenth renturj-,

was a descendant in the fiftii generation of >! ■ - *•

Speyer, who is mentioned in the Tosafot of 1

It is supposed that the last redactor of ihcse lutiufut

was a pupil of Samson of Chinon.

(3) Perez ben Elijah of Corbeil was one of the
most active of the later tosafists. B<-s

ing tosafot to several treatises, whicii ail , _,

many old authorities and are included amone tlie
edited tosafot (and many of wlii< '
manuscript by Azulai), lie revised ti: ,

ecessors. His pupils were not less active; their
additions an' known as the Tosafot of Perez b.
Elijah's Pupils.

It has been said that the first German tosaflst.
Isaac 1). Asher ha-Levi, was the head of si
and that his iiupils, besides composing t< -
their own, revised liis. In tliethirterntli century the
German .schools were represented by Baiucii nF.N
Isaac, in Regensburg. and later by MkIu ok Ho-
THENBURG ; the Italian scliool was represented by

Isaiah ni TuANi. Ifthetosafot •' \ '■•••':

(d. 133^) are to be included, thr
tended through more than two centuries. Wlicn the
fanaticism of the French infmnsteries and the hi.-- •
ry of Louis IX. brought about the destruction o! •
Talmud, the writing of tosjifot in France soon ceased.

Other bodies of tosafot are:

French Tosafot: Mentioned in tlic novella- on
Tamid ascribed to Abraliam b. David Zunz("Z.

To«aXO(

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

204

!^ iiiHV ho

I-

•>'

ami

ill
of

Ml-

aod 1.021 to So-
to

,it,
auii Hulliu number fullv

■ '. ' • . TIr-

Iwitli

:i Jucob b. Aslier,

giveu

also,

:ir; in

i .safot "

■ : s.

•il by Josepli

> liHriich Lun-

to Talmudic

ill b. Joseph

u." i 327). ap-

I of Isaac boll

. T 6a:ut -..Lil also Our Tosafot):
ii have been publisiietl with tlie

■-t (ditioii

.. ; to tiiiity-

: in Talmud. Most of

t of Towqucs.

arc provided

authors, revised by

■ ip of the

be estab-

t. .Moses of Evrcux ;

■ ■'. r fr.t of

'■'• ikkot,

iiiatiy wrineu

'•'•I' ' i Hot hen burg:

H'dlin, ilic Tosafot

i:vreux; 'Abo<lah

".:irucli b. Isaac

"ti w«re writ-

'he author of

. I., . . ...... ;

1 Uj;:<.i tu fclylu fiuiit ihtiMu to other

li C«ilon <Uf-

Evreux

■rnith ^**:-

is'oC.N
-"-loii.'-u Algazi ("Uiifc

Halakot." No. 195). the latter quoting these tosafot

liabu Kamnia. But as tlie same (luotatiou is made

lie/aleel Ashkeuazi (" Shittah Mei<ubbezet," to

.lia Kaiiinia) aud ascribed to a pupil of Perez ben
Azuhii (".Shein ha-Gedolim,'' ii.) concludes

: iiesc tosiifot originated in Perez b. Klijali's

school. Still. Mordecai b. Hillel (" Mordekai." B. B.
No. 886i ineiilions a H. Jutlah of Goniish, and

I iraiiam ibii Akm (" Meliarere Nemeiiin," Venice,
1599) reproduces Talmudic novella} by "^I. of Gor-
iiish " (Einbden gives "!Meir of Gornish '" in the
Latin tniiislaliou of the catalogue of the Opiicnlieim
Library. No. C6T). Manuscript No. 7 of the Giinz-
burg collection bears the su]ierscription "Tosafot of
Gornish to Yeiiamot," and in these tosafot French
aud German ralibis are quoted. Manuscript No. 603
of the same collection contains aLso the Tosafot of
Gornish and novelhe by Judah Miuz, and frag-
ments of Gornish tosafot are found in manuscripts
in other libraries.

Ditfereut theories have been advanced wiUi regard
to the name "Gornish." According to Schechter
("Jew. Chron." May 4, 1888), it is a corruption of
"Mayence," while II. Adler thinks it a corruption
of pxilJ (the English "Norwich"; see Neubauer
in " U. E. J." .wii. 1.5G, and Gross, "Gallia Judaica,"
pp. 136 et serj.). Gross (I.e.) thinks that Goniish
may be identical with Gournay, in France, and that
" .M. of Gornish," apparently the author of the Tosa-
fot of Gornish, may be ]VIoses of Gornish and iden-
tical with the Moses of p^ij mentioned in the Tosa-
fot of Sens (to Pesahim). It may be a'dded that in
the supplement to Zacutos "Yul.iasin" (p. lC4a,
Cracow, 1.581 ) a David of " Durnish " occurs.

Tosafot Hizoniyyot (•' E.xterior " or "Uncanon-
ical Tosafot''): Tu.safol which are neither of Sens
nor of Touques. They are so called by Bezaleel
Ashkenazi; he included many fragments of them
in his "Shittah Mekubbezet," to Baba Mezi'a, Na-
zi r, etc.

Tosafot Shittah (or Shitt^ah) : Name some-
times applied to the recensions of Perez b. Elijah
or to the to.safot of Jeliiel of Paris (Bezaleel Ashke-
nazi, I.e. ; notes to "Sha'are Dura," § 57; and many
other authorities).

Tosafot Yeshanim (" Old Tosafot ") : This group
comiMises fcnirsmaller ones: (1) the general tosafot
of Sens, including those appearing among tlie edited
tosafcit; (2) the earlier unedited \osafot (for exam-
ple, those to Kiddushin by Isaac b. Samuel lia-Zaken
of Dampierre, and those to 'Abodah Zarah by his
son Elliaiian 1). Isaac); (3) acollection of old tosafot
published by Joseph Jcssel b. Wolf ha-Levi in
"Sugyot ha-Shas" (Berlin. 173G); (4) various tosa-
fot found ill ancient manuscripts, as the to.safot to
I.Iullin written in 136U, the manuscript of which is
in the Munich Library (No. 236). In the collection
published by Joseph .le.ssel b. "Wolf ha-Levi (Xo. 3),
besides the old tosafot to Yoma by Moses of Coney
^comp., liowever, Israel Isserlein, "Terumat ha-
Desheii," No. 94, who declares they belong to the
To.safot of Sens), there arc single tosafot to si.\teen
treatises— Shabbat, Hosh lia-Shanah, Megillah, Git-
tin, Baba Mez.i'a, Menahot, Bekorot". 'Enibin,
Be/.ah, Ketubot, Kiddushin, Nazir, Baba Batra,
Horayot. Keritot, aud Niddah. In the recent Wilna

205

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

ToBafot

Talmud edited by Romm the old tosafot to several
treatises are priuted.

The Tosafot (luute principally Rashi ( very often
uuder the designation "kontres" [— "eoniinenta-
rius '"?]), most of the tosatisls, many of the ancient
authorities (as Kalonymus of Lucca, Nathan 1).
Jehiel, anil R. Ilananeel), some eoutemiiorary
scholars (as Abraluun h. David of Posquieres,
Maimonides, Abraham ibn Ezra, and others), and
about 130 (Jerman and French Talmudists of the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Many of the
last-named are known as authors of general Tal-
mudic works, as, for instance. Eliezer b. Nathan
of Mayence, Judah of Corbeil, and Jacob of Coucy ;
but many of them aie known only through their
being quoted in the Tosafot, as in the case of
an Eliezer of Sens, a Jacob of Orleans, and many
Abrahams and Isaacs. Some are even mentioned but
once, as Eliezer of N-i^isa (Tos. B. B. 79b), Ephraim
b. David (supposed contemporary of Judah Sir Leon ;
Tos. "Ab. Zarah 39a), and one liezekiah (Tos. B. B.
44b). A commentary on the Pentateuch entitled
"Da'at Zekenim" (Legiioru, 1783) is attributed to
the Tosatists. In form this commentary follows the
style of the Tosafot ; Rashi is often discussed, and
sometimes corrected.

Of the great number of tosafists oulj' forty-four
are known by name. The following is an alphabet-
ical list of them; many, however, are known only
through citations:

A(HaRA) : Quoted in the edited tosafot to M. K.
14b, 19a, 2()b, IMa ct seq.

Abigdor b. Elijah ha-Kohen : Flourished in
the middle of the thirteenth century; his tosafot are
mentioned in tiic edited tosafot to Ket. 63b.

Asher b. Jehiel: His tosafot, entitled "Tosefot
ha-Rosh " or "Tosefe Tosafot," appeared in various
epochs and works. Many of them were inserted by
Bezaleei Ashkenazi in his "Sliittah Mekubbezet";
those to Yebamot and Ketubot appeared separately
at Leghorn, 1776; to Sotah, partly at Prague, 1725,
and partly in Jacob Faitusi's "Mar'eh ha-Ofannim "
(Leghorn, 1810) ; to Megillah and Shebu'ot, in Eli-
jah Borgel's -'Migdanot Natan " (i6. 1785); and to
Kiddusliin, in the "Ma'aseh Rokem " (Pisa, 1806).
They are included in Romni's recent edition of the
Talmud.

Baruch b. Isaac (see above and Jew. Excyc.
ii. 559).

Eleazar b. Judah of Worms : Author of tosa-
fot to Bal)a Kamma, extracts from which are
found in Bezaleei Ashkenazi's "Shittah Mekub-
bezet."

Elhanan b, Isaac: Flourished at the end of the
twelfth century; his tosafot are mentioned by Abra-
ham b. David in his "Temim De'im " and in the
edited tosafot to B. M. lib and Sheb. 28a. Ilisto.sa-
fot to Nedarim are referred to by Joseph Colon
(Responsa, No. 52); those to Megillah, in Isaiah di
Trani's "Ha-j\rakria' " (No. 31, p. 19(1); those to
'Abodah Zarah, in "^lordekai" (No. 1364).

Eliezer b. Joel ha-Levi (n^^2N"l): Flourished
in the beginning of the thirteenth century; author
of tosafot to several treatises (comp. Michael, " Or
ha-Hayyim," No. 427).

Eliezer ben Samuel of Metz (Re'EM) : Au-

thor of tosafot to several treatises, of whicli those
to Huiiin were seen by Azuiui.

Eliezer of Toul : French tosafist of ilie begin-
ning ol i\w thirteenth century, wljosc tonafot nre
mentioned by Zedekiah Anaw in his "Shiljbole La-
Lckct."

Eliezer of Touques f-.c.ib.,veund Jkw. Ekctc.
v. 120).

Elijah ben Menahem : His tosafot ure men-
tioned in "llaggaiiot .Miiiniuniyyol," J^innini.No. 20.

I (RI, probably R, Isaac, l)ut not U) be coiifuiMrd
with Isaac 1). Sannicl ha-Zakeii. wlio occurs most
often as RI): His tosafot, in which llic oldt-r HI is
quoted, are mentioned by Samson b. Zadok ("Tosh-
bcz," ii 330).

Isaac ben Abraham (RIBA .., RIZBA), sur-
named ha-Bahur ("tiie younger," in di.sliuctlon
from histcadier i.saac b. Samuel lia-Zaloni Brotlicr
of Samson ben Abraham of Sens. Like his hrcnlier,
Isaac lived as a youth at Troyes, where he attended
the lectures of Jacob Tam ("femim De'im." No. 87).
and afterward at Sens (rt. ; "HaggalKU Mainiuuiy-
yot,"Ishut, No. 6). After tlie death of Isaac ben
Samuel, Isaac ben Abraham succeeded him as head
of the .school of I)ami)ierre, after which place he is
often called ("Or Zarua'," i. 22oa). I.saac ben Abra-
ham was one of the French rabbis to whom MeVr beu
TodrosAbulatia addressed his letter against Maimon-
ides' theory of resurrection. He died at Dampicrre
prior to 1210, not long before his brother Sams<in emi-
grated to Palestine ("Semak," No. 31. "Mordekai"
on Ketubot, No. 357). As he is mentioned often in
the edited tosafot (Shah. 3a, puMi'/n ; Yoma 20a ; et
(d.) fiud by many other authorities ("Or Zarua'."
i. 26b; "S'hibbole ha-Leket," i., No. 231). it may Iw
concluded that he wrote tosafot toseveral Talmudic
treatises. Those to Bekorot were in the possession
of Ilayyim Michael of Hamburg. Isaac ben Abraham
is freipiently mentioned as a Biidical commentator
("Da'at Zekenim," 3a, 48b. 49b. Leghorn. 1788;
"Minhat Yehudah," 3a, 13a), and his ritual derisions
and respou.sa are often (juoted ("Or Zarua'." i. 13b
et passim; Meir of Rotheuburg, Responsa, No. 170;
et id.).

Lsaac ben Abraliam ha-Bahur may l)e identical
with the liturgical poet Isaac b. Abraham who
wrote a hymn beginning " Yesliabbchuiuka 1)0 kol
initial," for Simhai Torah or for the Sabbath after
it, and a selihah for Yom Kippur l)oginning "Hen
yom ba la-Adonai " (comp. Zunz. " Literaturgescli."
p. 335).

Isaac b. Asher ha-Levi (see above and Jkw.
E.NCVc. vi. (»'J0i.

Isaac ben Jacob ha-Laban : Pupil of Jacob
Tam and one of the earlier tosatists (" baalc tosjifol
yeshanim ";. He was the author of a commentary
on Ketubot quoted by Isaac Or Zarua' (see Jutluh
."Minz. Responsa. No. 10). He is quoted very often
in theeililed tosafot (Yelv 51); B K. 72a. tt nl).

Isaac ben Meir (RIBuM) of Ramerupt :
Orandson of Rashi. and fjrother of Samuel b Meir
(UaSlIBaM) and Jacob Tam; died In-fore hisfathfr.
leaving fourchildreu (Jacob Tam. " Sefer Iia-Yashar."
No. 616. p. 72b. Vienna. 1811). Altliou).;li lie died
young, Isiiac wrote tosafot. mentioned by Eliezer b.
Joel ha Levi ("Abi ha-'Ezri." ^ 417). to several

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

206

often
Ket. 29b

sburg' (RI-

univ-

.1
He

who

32d.

- •'

1 (see above and

HID):

luliun tosafist of the

* 'T

-69): and

1.1 A^Kiuazi in Lis

.el of B

J. Cohan

Ift^

i in the middle of the

" (to Shub.
I's pupils

■••)•
rary of Melr
ips identical
In the ex-
i. inserted in
imong many
r, the Kolien
I be identical

- i ...m the "Siiit-

Mezl'a It is seen that J.

..jirteonth cen-
iiM. author nf n

: Flourished

-viilonymus b.

in. "Ebenha'Ezer."

kaf."IIul..No. 1188).

''' p. 60a. Cremonn.

•Hshcii,
Zunz ,
• I b. Mclr w
• Jot (to Kot. Twji I

■ml think* lit ,1, the .lowph r.f

OHnnt oflcn c:UU ju iha ediit-d tosafot (Shab.

to /

12a et ptu»im). If so, he must be identified, accord-
ing to Gross CGullia Judaica," p. 84), with Joseph
BEN Isaac Bekou biion. Weiss, however, suggests
that this .loseph niigiit have beeu either Joseph
Jacob Tarn's teacher, or Joseph b. Isaac of
., ,v>. one of Rashi's pupils. Thus it seems that
in any case the tosalist mentioned in the "Sefer ha-
Yasiiar" must be distinguished from the one men-
tioned in Tos. Ket. 70a, as the latter was a pupil of
11. Samuel.

J. s-'ph Porat : Many fragments of his tosafot to
.- .[ ;in' iiulutieil in tlie edited tosafot.

Judah b. Isaac of Paris (see above and Jew.
Emyc. vii. S44)

Judah ben Nathan (RIBaN) : Son-in-law and
pupil of Kashi, and to a great extent his continua-
tor. It was Judah who completed Raslii's commen-
tiiry on Makkot (from 19b to the end) and who wrote
the commentary on Nazir which is erroneously attrib-
uted to Rashi. He wrote, besides, independent com-
mentaries on 'Erubin, Shabbat, Yebamot (Eliezer
b. Joel ha-Levi, "Abi ha-'Ezri," g§ 183, 385, 397,
408), and Pe&ihim ("Semag," prohibition No. 79).
Finally, llalberstam manuscript No. 323 contains
a fragment of Judah's commentary on Nedarim. It
is generally considered that Judah b. Nathan wrote
tosafot to several treatises of the Talmud, and he is
mentioned as a tosafist in " Haggahot Mordekai "
(Sanh., No. 696). He is often quoted in the edited
tosafot.

Levi : His tosafot are quoted in the " Mordekai "
(B. M. iv.. end).

Meir b. Baruch of Rothenburg (see above and
Jew. Excyc. viii. 437).

Meir b. Samuel of Ramerupt : His tosafot are
mentioned by his son Jacob Tarn (" Sefer ha-Yashar,"
Xn. 252) and often in the edited tosafot.

Moses b. Jacob of Coucy : Author of Old
Tosafot to Yoma and of some published in the col-
lection "Siigyot lia-Shas" (Berlin, 1736).

Moses b. Meir of Ferrara : Flourished in the
thirteentii century; probably a pupil of Judah b.
Isaac of Paris. His tosafot were used by the com-
piler of the "Haggahot Maimuniyyot" (see Jew.
Enctc. ix. 86).

Moses b. Yom-Tob of Evreux (see above and
Ji;\v. Enc'Yc. i\. (')")).

Perez ben Elijah of Corbeil (see above and
Jkw. Encyc. i.\. ()()()).

Samson b. Abraham of Sens (see above and
Jew. Entyc. xi. 2).

Samson b. Isaac of Chinon : Flourished in the

thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; author of the

"Sefer Keritut." In this work (i. 7, § 1 ; v. 3,

120, 148) Samson refers to his glosses on 'Erubin

1 Abodah Zarah ; he appears to have written
glosses on other Talmudic treatises also.

Samuel of Evreux : Author of tosafot to sev-
>ial ireatises; tho.se to Sotah are among the edited
tosafot (see Jew. Encyc. xi. 16).

Samuel ben Meir (RaSHBaM) : Author of
to.safot to Alfasi; under his supervision his pupils
[prepared tosafot to several treatises ("Sefer ha-
Yasliar," p. 8.5(1).

Samuel b. Nat^ronai (RaShBaT) : German
Talmudist of the end of the twelfth century ; author

207

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Toaafot
Toaelta

of tosafot to 'Abodah Zarah (see "Kerem Hemcd,"
vii. 50).

Samuel b. Solomon of Falaise (see above and
Jkw. Kncyc. xi. L'.S).

Simhah b. Samuel of Speyer : Flourished in
the thirteenth century; his tosafot are mentioned bv
Meir of Rothcnburg (Kespousa, iv., No. 154).

BiBLiOOKAPHY : Azulal, Sliem ha-Gedi>Um,i\.; Benjacob. Ozar
ha-Scfarim, pp. 621 et stq.; Buchholz, in M<inat>ischrift,
xxxviii. 'M2. ;«t8. 450, 5.59 ; (Jriitz, (Jesch. 3(1 eel., vl. 143-144,
2Ut; vil. 108-110; Karpeles, Gracli. drr Jaiiiftchin Litemtur,
1. 574 et scq.; Weiss, Dor, iv. 33«)-;i")2 ; idem, Toledot Ralilicun
Tarn, pp. 2-4 ; Winter and Wiinsche, Jlldixclic Litcrntur, li.
465 et Kcq.\ Zunz (the chief source for this article), Z. CI. pp.
29 e( scq.

J- M. Sel.

TOSEFTA (lit. "extensions"; "additions"):
Name of a collection of baraitot which treat in a
more complete form than does the Mishnah the sub-
ject of traditional law. In tannaitic literature old
lialakot are often amplified bj' explanatory notes
and additions. Such additions were made by R.
Akiba ('Eduy. ii. 1, viii. 1; Kil. i. 3; 'Orlah iii.
7), K. Eliezer ben Zadok (Tosef., Men. x. 23), R.
Simeon (Sifra, Wayikra, Hobah, vii. [ed. Weiss, p.
21b]), R. Judah (Shab. 75b; 'Ab. Zarah 43a), R.
Jose (Tosef., Kelim, B. K. vii. 4), and other tan-
naim. The explanatory notes are introduced with
the woril " Hosif " (" He has added " or " He has
extended "). A sentence thus elucidated and com-
pleted was called a tosefta, this term being used
not for the additional notes only, but for the entire
aphorism in its completed form. This meaning is
plainly seen in Yer. Shab. viii. 11a (comp. also
Pesik. R. 14; Eccl. R. viii. 1), where it is stated
that H. Abbahu was greatly pleased over the dis-
covery of an ancient tosefta, which, as a matter of
fact, was an old tannaitic maxim -with added ex-
planatory matter.

The work known by the name " Tosefta" consists
of a collection of such elucidated maxims, giving
the traditional sajings in a remarkably complete
form, whereas the Mishnah gives
Contents, them in a condensed form only. The
title of this collection, NnEDID. is
really a plural word, and ought to be pronounced
"Tosefata," as is apparent from the Hebrew form
(niDDin, which is used for the Aramaic NnSDID ; Eccl.
R. v. 8). Erroneously, however, the singular form
"Tosefta" has been adopted. A compilation enti-
tled "Tosefta" is often mentioned in Talmudic-mid-
rashic literature; and most authoritative critics re-
gard it as identical with the extant Tosefta, of which
this article treats. From R. Johanan's allusions to
the Tosefta (Sanh. 86b) nothing can be adduced
against the theory of the identity of the extant To-
sefta with the work to which he refers; and his
words in no way indicate, as Briill has interpreted
them, that R. Nehemiah was the author of the To-
sefta (see below). Moreover, the Babylonian Tal-
mud refers to a Tosefta wJiich is certainly identical
with the work here treated. Thus Yoma 70a cor-
rectly cites a .saying by R. Akiba as being contained
in the Tosefta (Tosef., Yoma, iii. 19, textusreceptus).

Scholastic tradition regards ihe tanna Hivy.\ b.\r
Abba as the author of the Tosefta. this belief being
based on the circumstance that the schools of the
Amoraim regarded as authoritative only those tan-

naitic rraditiniis wiiicli hud their origin in the col-
lections of R. Hiyya or R. Hoshaiah; and inan-
much as only one Tosefta from ilie
Attributed period of tiic Aniomini hud been pre-
to Hiyya served, tiiere was juslifloHtion for tlie
bar Abba, belief that only tiie auihcntie (aud
tiierefore the most comtnonlv used)
collection Jiad been saved in tlie vicissitudes of the
ages. On a closer view of the nialter. however, this
circumstance can tiot be acrcpiod as proof of Hiy-
ya's autijorship; for since the collection of Hoshaiuli
was also considered authoritative, there are i.jual
grounds for supposing either tliat the latter was llie
sole author of the To.sefta, or that lie and Hiyya
edited the work in collaboration. Inasmuch, how
ever, as Hiyya himself is mentioned in the Tost-fia
(Neg. viii. G), the linal ledaclion of the \v..rk must
be attributed to a later hand.

To define the purpose of the work ji- .s

many difficulties as does its authorshij). i y

the Tosefta was generally regarded as a sort of com-
mentary on the Mishnah, this belief I ' •]
by afalse interpretation of its title a8"s . .'
But even disregarding the fact that the correct dell-
nition of the word " Tosefta " as given above stamps
the work as independent of the Mishnah, a cursory
examination of its contents will show that it can not
be regarded as a commentary. It does not disou.s8
the passages in the Mishnah in a commentarial
manner, and, to judge by its contents, it might be
regarded either as a continuation of the Mishnah or
as a work of equal rank therewith; for it cites tiie
mishnaic passages in almost the same terms as the
Mishnah itself. The latter circumstance, also, pre-
cludes the possibility of regarding the Tosefta as a
commentary, inasmuch as it contains additions and
supplements to the Mishnah : for in a mere supple
ment there would be no room for al-
Relation to most verbatim repetitions of sentence*
Talmudic contained in the Mishnah itself. To
Baraitot. this succeeds the question of the rela-
tion of the Tosefta to the baraitot cite<i
in Talmudic discussions; for several such baraitot
are contained literally in the Tosefta, while other*
are paraphrased, although the redaction of the par-
allel passages dilTers in respect to important pointi?.
The question which thus presents itself is whether
the Talmudic baraitot are mere citations from tlip
Tosefta, or whether they originally constituted an
independent collection. In the first case it would
be difficult to explain the reason for the n ' . ' " ,1
differences in the parallel pa.s.sapes. In th. i.
on the other hand, it would be necessary to take for
granted not only the existence of an earlier Tosefta.
but also that this, and not the one now extant, was the
authentic one. For. as stated above, the Amoniim
made use of authentic sources only: anti those
baraitot that are cited in the Talmud but are not
contained in the extant Tosefta must n^ \

have been taken from an earlier work. Tli. -. li

disprove the identity of the existing Tosefta with
the work mentioned in Talmudic \\'.' All

these questions show how difiicult it is : rinine

the origin, the nature, and the importance of the
Tosefta. The solution of the problem ha^ "
tempted by various scholars at various pen i

To*eft*

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

208

■ at
lis

.1-

ui in

1 and

trntii

- utv sup-

. .. V. . <■ . . conception

ilii' Tosiifta uiuy be

;.4ius of the

■ wiuir points:

■;; its

. . :.., bami-

11 bearing on

, .111 from a liter

Cr »• . by li. Johanaii

I after eliminating

y for tliis qiies-

■slinaic sentences

lucnliou of tbe author's name

:-: . ■; in the To-

iiiilior are H.
ill, however, are given in the spirit

U. Akiba." This

iherefore, that as
Hi- reilactors (Akiba,

*' must also the redac-

<1 to have been three
It) . Neheniiah, and a third.

rigin of the Tosefla can

to Akiba, who laid the

work as well as of the Mishnah,

...,.1 .. . ...i;..p redactorial sys-

i -iiah he gave only

s in condensed form, in

' ^ ..-"ik of traditions as an aid

to In tlip Tosefta. however, he gave

in their complete form,

■ .-ii explanatory notes; he

f» - which in the Mishnah were

ut. These two col-

- .') different methods,

•• i-ment each other; and it was

rvc the traditional

i systematic way,

•• well M lo promote a knowledge of them. MeVr
■ ■ ■ ' \ h.i^ endeavored to

• by their master;
•4.'lf to otic of Akiba'smcthods.
n. and com-
' h of the ma-
la, ami which combined
" ' -- in bf)th of

* ' ed I he same

; iiing bolhof Akiba'scol-

■*'**•«">■ ' but in doing so

to Mi.hnah method. In this

of R M.-.r. ,.(1 two collective works

.'i.-linnh, edited according to
Ibc ■jrMcm umd by Akiba in his edition of that

'•.|itfd according to

■ • ■• in his To.sefta edition.

The rriiiii.,, of Meirs Minhuah to Nchemiahs

Tosefta was not, however, the same as that which
existed between Akiba's collections of the same
names. The former were not two collections mutu-
ally dependent on and supplementing each other:
they were rather two independent works, both of
which aimed at the preservation and proper arrange-
ment of trailitioual ma.\ims. The dillerence between
them consisted only in the different methods cm-
l)loyed in their compilation. Meir's 3Iisbiiali con-
tained tl»e traditional ina.xims in coudttised form,
while Nehemiah's Tosefta cited them in their com-
plete form anil provided tiiem with explanatory and
supplementary notes. The methods evolved by
Akiba and used by Meir and .Neheniiah were
adopted also by later compilers in their endeavors to
preserve and transmit traditional doctrines. Judah
ha-Nasi I., whose i\Iishuah compilation was based ou
thai of Mfir, followed the latter's method of redac-
tion; while the redactor of the Tosefta now extant
followed the method used by Nehemiah, whose To-
sefta constituted the basis for his work. The rela-
tion between the Mishnah of Judah lia-Nasi antl the
Tosefta which has been preserved corresponds with
that which existed between MeYr's Mislmali and
Nehemiah's Tosefta. They are independent works
which seek to accomplish b3' different means a simi-
lar purpose. There is, of course, a certain homo-
geneity between the two works, inasmuch as the
Tosefta treats and elucidates the corresponding
passages in the Mishnah; but the puri)ose of the
redactor of the Tosefta was to produce an independ-
ent collection, and not merely additions to aiul ex-
planations of another comi)ilatiou.

AV'ho Wiis tlie redactor of the extant Tosefta? As
has already been proved, the scholastic tiadition at-
tributing its authorship to H. Hiyya
Author- is unreliable, since the circumstance
ship. that Hiyya himself is mentioned in tlie
Tosefta eliminates the possibility of his
being its author; and that Hiyya and lloshaiah
edited the work in collaboration is most unlikely.
The Jerusalem Talmud often refers to dissensions
between these two amoraim; and if the Tosefta
should be considered the product of their combined
efforts, it would be natural to ask whose autliority
was accepted as decisive in cases where the redac-
tors disagreed. How, indeed, could a decision have
been possible in a case where the difference of opin-
ion related to a halakic tradition? To regard Ho-
shaiah as sole redactor of the Tosefta is not possible
cither; for in many questions on which, according
to the Jerusalem Talmud, he and Hiyya disagreed,
tiie ojiinion of the latter has been given general
validity (eomp. Frankel, "Mebo," p. 25a). Only
one surmise is possible; namely, that Hiyya and
Hoshaiab, independently of each other and perhaps
with quite different objects in view, were engaged
in the compilation of baraitot, as were also their
contemporaries Levi, Bar Kappara. and Samuel.
The collections of Hiyya and Hoshaiab differed from
the others in that these two compilers took Nehe-
miah's Toseftaasa l)asis forthcir collections. Each
of them thuscompiled an extended Tosefla enriched
with new elements; and these two Toseftot differed
in various important respects. A later redactor,
whose name has not been ascertained, combined

209

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tosefta
Totbrief

tlifse two Toscftot into one work, to which lie added
some maxims taken from tlie collections of Levi,
Bar Kappara, and Samuel; and in this manner orig-
inated the Tosefta in tlie form in which it is now
<'\lant. This final redactor considered Hiy^'a's opin-
ions authoritative; and in all points where Hoslia-
iah's Toseflailiilered from Hiyya'sthe hitter's opin-
ions alone were given validity.

The preference thus given to Hiyya's work, how-
ever, must not be ascribed to any views held by the
schools of the Amoraim, but to the personal convic-
tions of the final redactor. In the schools both To-
seftot were considered authoritative, and baraitot
cited from either were regarded as authentic. Tliis
view also explains the relation of the existing To-
sefta to the Talmudic baraitot, wliich latter could
have been taken only from one of these authentic
Toseftot. Such baraitot as are given verbatim in the
existing Tosefta are either citations from Hiyya's
work or baraitot which were given alike in both
Toseftot; while those baraitot which, either essen-
tially or verbally, ditler from the i)arallel passages in
the present Tosefta were taken from the Tosefta of
Hoshaiah, the reason for the divergence being that
the final redactor of the existing Tosefta preferred
the opinion of Hiyya.

Like the Mishnah, the Tosefta is divided into six

orders (" sedarim "), the names of which correspond

to those of the mishnaic orders; namely, (l)Zera'ini,

(2) Mo'ed, (3) Nashim, (4) Nezikin or

Division. Yeshu'ot, (o) Kodashim, and (6) Toho-
rot. The orders are subdivided into
treatises, which, with a few exceptions, bear the
same names as those of the Mishnah. Four treatises
an; missing from the Tosefta, namely, Abotiu tlie or-
der Nezikin, and Kinnim, Middot, and Tamid in the
order Kodashim. The number of treatises in the
Tosefta is thus fifty-nine; but the treatise Kelim in
this Avork is divided into three parts, namely, Baba
Kamma, Baba Mezi'a, and Baba Batra. If these
three " babot " were regarded as three different trea-
tises the total number would be sixty-one. The
treatises are divided into chapters ("perakim"),
which again are divided into paragraphs; but the
division into chapters is not the same in the different
manuscripts. According to the Erfurt manuscri{)t,
the total number of chapters is 428; according to
the Vienna manuscript and the older Tosefta edi-
tions, 421.

The Tosefta appeared first as an addendum to Isaac
Alfasi's " Halakot " (Venice, 1521), and has since been
appended to all editions of that work. The best
edition of the Tosefta is that published by M. S.
Zuckermandl (Pasewalk, 1880), who made use of the
Erfurt manuscript. Zuckermandl i)ul)lished also a
supplement (Treves, 1882) containing a summary of
the work, an index, and a glossary. A Latin trans-
lation of thirty-one Tosefta treatises w-as published
by Ugolino in his "Tliesaurus Antiquilatum Sacra-
rum" (vols. xvii. -XX., Venice, ITo.j-ST).

The Tosefta has been the subject of many com-
mentaries. The Wilna edition of the Talmud, for
example, which contains the Tosefta in addition to
Alfasi's "Halakot," reprints the following two com-
mentaries: (1) "TauaTosefa'ah," by Samuel Abigdor
b. Abraham, a work in two parts, part i., entitled
XII.— 14

"Minhat Bikkinim." heing ilie niuiu coniinentiiry,
while partji., entitled " Mizpeh Sliemu'c ' •
tains an index to the Tosefta ;

Texts and cited in ti:e Talmud and in the .Mid-
Com- rashim. (2) " Husde Dawid," cvplau-

mentaries. atory notes by David Pardo. Inaddi
lion to tlicsetwo commentaries, which
cover the entire To.sef la, the same Talmud edition con-
tains the following conimentJirieH on single treatises:
"Magen Abraham." by Abraham Abali of Kulisz,
on the order IS'ezikin ; a commentary by Elijah (hum
of Wilna on the order Tohorot; and Jacob Kaiiana
of Wiina's ":\Iare de-Matnita." on the treatise 'Eru-
bin. .AL Friedmann wrote a commentary on the
order Mo'ed, which he published under tlie title
"Tekelet i^Iordekai," ai)p(nding it to his edition of
tlie Tosefta (part i., containing the treatises Shahbat
and 'Erubin, Paks, 1898; jiart ii., Pesahim. SlieHu-
lim, Yoma, and Sukkah, i'>. 1900). Medieval au-
thors mention two To.seflot to Berakot (see BrQll ia
" Ha-Maggid," xiii. 127). but it is not clear to which
works they applied the name "Toseftot."

Bibliography : Letter of SluTira (;aon. In Nt-uhaufr. .V. J. C.
i. 13-15; Maiinoniiifs, Kiiileitttim in ilii Mi.-^tlnuih ; .M«-irl.'
in his eomineiitary un Almt, cd. stt-rn, Vlcntm, KM ; Franker.
HiKleuctka in Misihiinni. pp. 304-a()7. L<'ii>sic-. IK.V.1; J. op!
\wnhe\m, Tolcddt lia-Mi.sluiah. in Hit TalniutI, M.Sr:--M.
34s-;j.")3; J. H. Uiinner, Die Tliinricti Ul»r UV>. n uinl I'r-
sjinnio dcr Tn^cfta Kiitiscli Dtirtit-stellt, .Aiiistcnlaiii. 1S74 :
i>. HolTmann. J/i.s-(7iii(i/i uitd Tnsi fin. in IJiTlint-r's May<i-
zi)l, 188:.', pp. l.>3 lei; .M. S. Ziickcrnianill. hi,- KrUmir
Handsclirift dcr Tiisrfla. IStTlin. 1871), idem, y>> u ■• ■■•-
Tiistifin Coder, Majfdeburjr, 1877; idt-in. TnMfla \ ■
Treves, 1881; N. BruU. liii.iriff und L'r*prtiini d, i
in JuheUchrift zum Ninmiu^ten (JeburUilau dcs l/i . L.
Zunz, pp. 93-110, Berlin. 1884.

w. B. J. Z. L.

TOTBRIEF : Term applied in Germany to tlie
edicts issued by the kings and emperors, to the papal
bulls, and to the edicts of various ecclesiastical au-
thorities, by which the Christians were exempted
from paying theirdebtsto.Jews. The Totl)rief might
deprive the creditor either of the interest due on the
money loaned or of both principal and interest.
The first Tolbrief known was that of Louis VIL of
France, who, at the instigation of Peter Veiienibilis,
Abbot of Cluny, issued in 1146 a decree exempting
all Crusaders from ]iayment of their debts to the
Jews, in accordance with the pajml enactment of
Eugeuius III. in the preceding year. Later, in 1180,
Philip Augustus relieveil all C'hristians from their
liabilities to their Jewish creditors on condition of
their paying to him the fifth part of tlieir debts.
Louis Vill. annulled, in 1223. all debts due to Jews
by Christians that had been outstanding for live
yea.sor more, and canceled the interest on debts less
than five years old.

In Germany, in the fourteenth century, surli can-
celations were common. The tirst case in which
Jews were deprived of the interest due to them was
in 1299, when King Albert diverted such interest
payments to the Monastery of p"l)erbach. After the
time of Henry VII. and Louis the Bavarian cancel-
ations of the whole debt, principal and interest.
were very frequent. The former exempted (1312)
Conrad of Weinsberg from the payment of such
debts ; while the latter relieved (1815) the city of Ess-
lingcn from its debts to the Jews of Ueberlinpen as
well as to other Jews who had settled in cities hos-

THE Ji:wl^a ENCYCLOPEDIA

210

. I 111 Tlik I

.i;

to Jl'WS of

t Uanibcrg.

^ in the

^cutury,

ihc emperors cud-
■ ..1.

celation

r King Weuzel, to-

• ' the

I'or-

king concluded a

■ ■' ' -^ !iiiiii

aid

ion in return for a"privi-

!>y wliich their

r puilially ean-

.'h whieh the Jews finally lost all

Jews who had the

icy due to them by

. sum to the city authorities, Kiug

' >k this, issued a second

• .Ii'ws to abandon all

s. It must be sjud,

■'"'> did not apply

. , but only to its

.varia, WUrzburg, and other

f' sort of edict was

:i?, "Sources," pp.
'.J; p. xliii., No. xlv.).

ill r>iut>ch-
. in Dculsch-

M. Sel.
TOTEMISM : A primitive sorinl system in which

■1 through their

.....; or plant which

r and the image of

i ilieir iHTsons. It was

in (in "Tlie Fortnightly

that this system existed

" his view was taken

J i'j Journal of Philol-

his theories upon the re-

-m. Robertson

1 li his theory of

led OS originally a method

II the niem-

'• lug are tiie

the existence of totem

"• ■' ' ■ ' ' s :

'• los: A considerable

the Old Testament

' "r jilants. Ja-

-y," pp. 94-103)

' such names, including

• •• olf), princes of the

I (the worm). Shual

Jonah (the dove), IIul-

^' ■'■■■^'■'"■-'-■nrpent),

Ajalon

•tin;. Many of

— but among the

!»ed in Num. xxvi. are the

Shualites, or fox clan of Asher ; the Shuphamites, or
•rpeut clan of Benjamin; the Bachrites, or cauul

clan; and the Arelites, or Jion clan of

Arg'uments Gad. Other tribes iiaving similar

in Favor of uames arc the Zimrites, or hornet clan,

Totemism, and the Calebites.or dog tribe. In the

genealogy of the IIorites(Gen. xxxvi.)
several animal names occur, such as Shobal (the
young lion), Zibeou (the hyena), Anah (the wild ass),
bishan (the gazel), Akan (the roe), Aiah (the kite),
Aran (the ass), and Cheran (the lamb). The occur-
rence of such a large number of animal names in
one set of clan names suggests the possibility that
the Horites, who were nomads, were organized on
the totcni-clan system.

II. Exogamy is the system under wliich any
member of a clan may not marrj' within his own
clan, but must marry a member of a kindred clan.
Smith deduces the existence of such elans among the
Horites from the mention of Anah clans and Dishan
clans in the list. He also draws attention to Shimcis
among the Levites, Reubcnites, and Benjamites.
Female descent is the only means of tracing kin-
ship in exogamous clans; and Smith sees a survival
of this in the case of the marriage of Abraham and
Sarah, who were not of the same mother, while
Abimelech appealed to his mother's clan as being of
his flesh (Judges viii. 19), and Naomi told Ruth to
return to her mother's house (Ruth i. 8).

III. Ancestor and Animal "Worship: Smith
attributes the friendship between David and Na-
hash, King of the Ammonites, to the fact that thej'
were both members of a serpent clan spread through-
out Canaan. That animals were worshiped among
the Hebrews is well known, as is shown by the leg-
ends of the golden calf and the brazen serpent. The
second commandment ]irohibits this. Smith draws
attention to the case of animal worship in P^zek. viii.
7-11, where Ezekiel sees "every form of creeping
things, and abominable beasts, and all the idols of
the house of Israel, portrayed upon the wall round
about," and in the midst of them stood Jaazauiah
ben Shaphan (the rock-badger), "with every man
his cen.ser in his hand, and a thick cloud of incense
went up." Here there is animal worship connected
with the name of a person who appears to be con-
nected with an unclean beast, the "shaphan." See
also Ancestou "Woitsuir.

IV. Forbidden Food : Members of a totem clan
did not eat the totem animal. Assuch totems grad-
ually spread throughout the nation, a list of forbid-
den animals would arise which might be analogous
to the list of forbidden animals given in Lev. xi. and
Deut. XV. Jacobs, however, has shown that in the
list of animal names given by him forty-three are
clean as against forty-hvo unclean.

V. Tattooing and Clan Crests : A totem is
tattooed on the skin of the totem worshiper; and
there is evidence in Lev. xix. 28 that the Israelites
were forbidden to make tattoo-marks, while an allu-
sion to this practise may be contained in Isa. xliv. 5
and in Ezek. ix. 4. The mark of Cain may perhaps
have been a tattoo-mark. In none of these instances,
however, are there indications that the tattoo-marks
were in an animal form or connected with animal
worship. The tribes of Israel when on the march

211

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Totemism
Toulouse

had standards (Num. i. 52, ii. 3 et seq.)\ and mbhinic

literature gives details of the crests (see Fi^acj), which

were dei-ived from the blessings of

Absence Jacob (Gen. xli.x.) and Moses (I)eut.

of Historic x.x.xiii.). In these most of the tribes

Con- are compared to an animal: Judali to

nection. a lion; Issachar to an ass; Dan to a
serpent ; etc. In Moses' blessing, how-
ever, Dan is compared to a lion's whelp, which
seems to show that the tribes were not arranged on
a totemic system.

VI. Blood Feud : The practical side of the totem
system insured the existence of relatives scattered
throughout a tribe, who would guarantee the taking
up of the blood feud in case one of the members of
the totem clan was injured or killed. The existence
of the blood feud can bo recognized in Israel (sec
Go'kl), but there is no evidence of a connection with
totemism. Altogether, wliile traces and survivals
are found of institutions similar to those of the totem
clan, there is not sufficient evidence to show that it
existed in Israel during historic times, though it is
possible that some such system was found among
the Edomites.

Bibmograpiiy: W. Robertson Smith, ^loi'ma/ Worship an(J
Aiiiwnt Tribes Amoiuj tlic Aiicinit Afalis nitd in tlic Old
Tatainoit, in Jnunial of PJiHuUign. ix. 75 la); .Jacobs,
StmlifK in Biblical Arclucohmi, iip. (it-KKJ ; ,1. S. Coojj, in
J. Q. R. 1903; Zlapetal, J'otcniiamn/i im AUrii Tcxtamente,
Freiburff, KW ; I.Levi, La Famille chez Ics Aiiciens Hi-
hreux, Paris, 1903; S. Reinach, Cultcs, Mi/thes ct ReUaionn,
Paris, 1904.

TOUL (Hebr. ^1D, N^ID; "Or Zarua'," i. 131b;
" Mordekai " on B. K. x. , No. 193) : Capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of ]\Ieurthc-ct-Moselle,
France, with a Jewish population dating from the
thirteenth century. Among the scholars who were
once residents of this city maybe mentioned R. Elie-
zer of Toul, the author of tosafot; and his brother
Al)raliam, a pupil of Rabbi Isaac the Elder of Dam-
pierre and identical, according to Gross, with Abra-
ham of -]it3 (read ^10), one of the scholars to whom
Meir ben Todros Abulatia of Toledo addressed his
epistle assailing the doctrine of the resurrection as
set forth by Maimonides.

In 1708 the liishop of Toul petitioned the French
government to expel from Nancy the Jewish bank-
ers Samuel and Solomon Levy, Jacob Sclnvob, Isaiah
Laml)ert, and ]\Ioscs Alcan, but his efforts were un-
successful. In 1721, 180 Jewish families, many of
them residents of Toul, were permitted by Duke
Leojioid to remain on his estates without molestation
in their religion and commerce. Leon Cohen, one
of the leading members of the community of this
city, took part in the General Assembly convoked at
Paris by Napoleon in 1800. The community of Toul
is governed by the Jewish consistory of Nancy, and
at jjresent (1905) contains forty or fifty Jewish
families.

BiBi,iO(iRAPiiv: Gross, (inllia Jvilaica, pp. 211-213; idem,
Monafsschrift, iaH.5. p. .')19; Ii. E.J. .x.xxiv. 108; Zunz, ;i.
G. p. 39.

s. S. K.

TOULON (Ilcbr. p^iu) : Capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the (lepartnunt of the Var, France. Like
most of the principal cities of Provence, Toulon
contained a Jewish communitv in medieval times;

and unchr Die counts of Provence the Jews of the
city fared like those of many oUkt communities,
being sometimes ojipressed and sometimes tr.aicd
with kindness. When the IJIuek Deatli niged
throughout France in 1348, the Jewsof Toulon were
accused of having poisoned the neighboring s|)ring8
and wells, and forty were killed in a single night.
Noteworthy among the scholars of the city were:
Berechiah ben Azariah of p^m or f?)*^ (Habbinovic/..
"DikdukeSoferim," xi. 17), to wlu.ni belonged the
Codex Yat. 120, dating from the fourteenth century
and containing a number of treatisesof the Talmud ;
and Astruc of Toulon, one of the imblishers of tlie
first edition of Jehiel ben Jekuthiel'-s "Bet Middot."
At the present time (1905) the Jewish community
of the city forms a part of the consistorial circum-
scription of Marseilles, and numbers about thirty
families.

RiBMor,u.\pnv: Gross. Oallia Jndaira. p. 2i:!; I»up<in JUju
UnrcGnurale dc Provence, III. 190; .stelnschn.-lder'. Cat.
liodl. eol. 1278; Steinscbnelder, llcbr. Dihl. xlll. m.

^- S. K.

TOULOUSE (Hebr. HK^^ID, nnijID) : Capital
of the department of Haute-Garonne, Fraure. wliere
a large number of Jews lived as early as the l)egin-
ning of the eighth century. In conformity witii an
old custom, and in punishment for some fancied
crime, one of their numlier, generally the most re-
spected old man of the community, Avas obliged to
appear every Good Friday at the door of the cathe-
dral to have his ears boxed in public. They vainlv
addressed a i)etition to King Ciiarles the Bald in 850
to have this custom abolished ; but it continued until
the beginning of the twelfth century, when it was
replaced by an annual tax payable to the monks of
St. Sernin between All Saints' Day and the feast
of St. Sernin, and by a yearly contribution of 44
pounds of wax, to be delivered on Good Friday at
the Cathedral of St. Stephen.

In the thirtecntii century the counts of Toulouse
were favorably disposed toward the Jews on all oc-
casions, and granted them the right of acquiring
real estate without paying rent. Many estates were
held by two prominent Jewish families, one repre-
sented by Espagnol and his sons Solomon and Pro-
ven9al, and the other by Alacer (Eliezer) and liis
sons Abraham and Belid. In 1243 Raymond VH.
granted the Jews the right of freely disposing of
their jiroperty, and of selling, mortgaging, or leas-
ing their farms, estates, and seigniories on condition
of jiaying a tax of 13 Toulou.se deniers on cacli
pound of the s;ile price andOdeniers on each pound
of the rent; but in 1290 King Philip the Fair tfKik
action against thfi.se Jews who hail surr Ay

obtained letters of exemption from tin ;iii-

])0sed upon them. In the district of the sefieschnl of
Carcassonne a sjieeial judge was ai>point<'d ; ' '
charge of the cases in which Jews were int<
but in Toulouse the Jews were fried In-forc the
same judges asthe Christians. Philip the Fairrnn-
linned this airangement in 1304 by decreeing tlint
the regular judges should handle all Jewisli aiscs,
whether civil or criminal. Several Jews who were
arrested in 1300 accepted bajUisin rather than leave
the citj', but Solomon ibn Verga goes too fwr when
he savs that the whole conununitv was converted.

Toaro

Toum

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

212

:i nn"i

• il the re-

.iu» ituiiiiiiiutiiig the

: he Jews of Toii-

• us uiulcr tlic

,iu. wliohUer

1 n>'Tjn NCn in " R.

. ' , V conjfc-

inust be

lie was situut<.>(l

' * it was eou-

uud sold in

Settles in

New
Orleans.

• by the Pastoureaux
y at Toulouse until
li century. At the
J between fiftv anil

who are

TOURO. JUDAH

iiiii

f llic .)

i^ rcsi(h-nce in tlie
• ; Ezrii Stih-s.
of the AnuTJcaii Revo-
by tlie lliitish. and the

itferedthrougli-

Judah went to

1 Dec. 8. 1783;

unic«l to the United States

ilhlierl)rothor,

■me an cniineut

She died in 1787: and younp

■ I l>y his uncli', in

'1(T cuihli.vc il \i

the age of twenty-two he was sent as siipeicargo
with a valuable shipment to the Meditenanean ; and
the results of the trip showed his remarkable busi-
ness ability.

A few years later (1802) he went to the French ter-
ritory of Louisiana, settling at New Orleans, then a
small town of about 10,000 inhabitants. There he
opened a store, and soon built up a
thriving trade in New Englaml prod-
ucts. Later he became the owner of
many ships and of valuable real estate,
until he was numbered among the
most prominent merchants of the place. After the
territory had become part of the United States,
Touro repeatedly exhibited his public spirit. Dur-
ing the defense of New Orleans by Andrew Jackson
he entered the ranks as a common soldier, and was
severely wounded on Jan. 1, 1815, being given up
for dead: but he -was saved by the bravery and
care of his friend Reziu Davis Shepherd, a young
Virginian merchant, who had settled in the same
city. Their friendship continued throughout their

lives; and both of them
amassed great for-
tunes.

Touro's name will al-
ways be numbered among
the foremost in the an-
nals of American philan-
thropy. His charities
knew neither race nor
creed, and his public
spirit was no less note-
worthy.

To Amos Lawrence and
Judah Touro belongs the
credit of supplying the
funds for comjileting the
Bimker Hill Monument,
each subscribing §10,000
for the purpose. In 1843
the completion of the
monument was celebrated
l)y a banquet in Faueuil
Hall, Boston, at which
the generosity of the two
donors was publicly ac-
knowledged. A resolution
was also adopted by the
directors to the effect that
Jnhn Quincy Adams, Dan-
iel Webster, Joseph Story,
Edward Everett, and Franklin Dexter be appointed
a conuniltee to prepare an inscription for a tablet
winch was to be placed on the monument and wliich
was partly to record the liberality of Lawrence and
Touro.

Anotlicr object of his generosity was liis native
city of Newport. In 1843 he improved the enclo-
sures of the old Jewish cemetery im-
mortalized by Longfellow ; and it was
ins money which purchased the Old
Stone ]\Iill siiiijiosed to have been
built by the Norsemen, Touro's de-
sne being that tlie historic landmark and the sur-
rounding grounds might be saved for the town.

Judah Touro.

Benefac-
tions to
Newport.

213

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Touro
Tours

Tlic groiiiuls in wliich the mill is situated are still
kiiowu as Touro I^irk.

lu him the poor of New Orleans liad a constant
friend ami iK'nefaelor, and many iueidenis of his
charitj' are recorded. A noteworthy case was that
of a Universalist congregation whose church was
sold at auction under foreclosure of a mortgage and
was bought by Touro, who returned it to tl)e wor-
shipers. Its minister, the Rev. Theodore Clapp, be-
came Touro's friend; and in his memoirs he gives a
most appreciative account of the benefactor of his
church.

Though he gave lil)erally to charitable objects
during his entire life, the jjrovisions of the will of
Touro, who died unmarried, disposed of over half
a nnllion dollars in charity, an enormous sum in those
days. These ]irovisions were publishetl throughout
the United States and even in the jour-

Toiiro's nals and periodicals of many Euro-
Will, pean countries. Among the larger be-
quests were 880,000 for founding the
New- Orleans Almshouse, liberal endowments for
nearly all the Jewish congregations of the country,
bequests to the JMassachusetts Female Hospital, the
Female Asylum, and the Boys' Asylum of Boston,
and one for the preservation of the old cemetery at
Newport, and for the payment of the salary of the
minister of the old synagf)gue in that city. A large
sum was also left in trust to Sir Moses ]\Iontctiore
for almshouses in JEUusAI,E^r. In addition to these,
there were private bequests, including one to the
Kev. Theoilore Clapp already mentioned; while
the entire residuary estate was left by Touro to his
friend Shepherd, His body was taken to Newport,
and lies in the old Jewish cemetery. The funeral is
stated "not to have been equaled since the reinter-
ment of Commodore Perry in 1826." Ata later date
a public meeting was held at Boston to express re-
gret at his death. On his tombstone, which may
still be seen, are inscril)ed the appropriate words:
"The last of his name, lie inscribed it in the Book of
Philantiiropy to be remembered forever."

A few years after his death a public movement
was inaugurated by the citizens of New Orleans to
erect a monument to liis memory; but opposition to
this tribute came from a number of Jewish labbis
throughout the country, who claimed that Judaism
forbade the erection of any graven image, and that
a statue came within the .scope of iirohilrition. Tliis
led to an inteiesting theological controver.sy, much
of which has been preserved in Benjamin's "Drei
Jahre in Amerika " ; but the outbreak of the Civil
war put a sudden end to the matter. The story of
Touro's life has been woven into Wassermaun's
German novel "Judah Touro "(Leipsic, 1871).

f.Ilu.iiKMt.MMlv : Walker, Judali Titvrn. jti Hunt. Livc.< (if
.iiiiiiiiaii Mfrrhiiiits. \i. -iMt ■{<i7. New York, IS.VS ; Apple-
Inirs ri/c/nj/i (/id lit Aiiiirictni liiiiijriiplnh vi. 1-14. Hi. ISiM ;
Di'iiison. 'llir lsi(i(lil(s nf lilindi l.-laml, in \in tiiijinisitt
llisliirinil licijiflcr, iv. :5(lS-:il:.' ; Waricn, Ilistmii nf llttiilur
Hill Miiintiiuiil. iM'. ~s'i. :{11-:)1^'. :i;i(i: Clapi). Auliiltiiuiutph-
iciil Shi trliifoiiil Ui riilhrliniis Diniiiijii Tliiitii-livc Years'
Hisithiin: in Ni ir Oiliiiiis, :!d vd.. pp. ",M 104, Boston, ]S.')S;
Iialv, 'J'lir Si'fUrinnit of the Jews in Xmtli Awericn. New
'\oik. lsi);i; W'o\f. The A tmriean Jew <xs Patriut, S^nldier,
tuiil Citizen, pp. tVi lU, 71. ■11(1; Hetijatiiiii II.. f»ei Jiihie in
.1 (IK )i7,7(, pp. ;!rk")-'.iSl, Hanover, isc.ri; Memles, Tin ./< iri's/i
Ci null I'll lit yi ifjiiirt. ii) IHinili- Islanil Ilislnt ii nl .1/i'(/(i-
zine. vi. 10;! ; Xat iminl ( 'iiiliijn ilia ul A un riemi Ilmiii iijjlni.
vi. 3iJl, New York, liXH ; Aliraliaiu, iu I'uhl. Ant. Jiw. Hii<t.

III Histiinj. ill Anuricnn J,,/V .l„,iu<i/, ll«ftl K. p. '«"

L. IIP.

TOURS (Hebr. t;niO. " Mordekai " on M. ]^. No
i'21 ; (u :>-iin, " Yo.sipp(.ii," ed. Venice, p. Ob) Capi
tal of the de|)artment of Indre-et-Loire. France
Since the first iialf of tlie si.xlli century Jewg Imvc
lived either in the city or in its enviroi.
in Civray. About the year TiSO a Jew i
erer of Tours named Ainantius, tofiether wjili Ids
three attendants, one Jew and two Clnislians, n. ..
attacked by a certain Injuriosus, stripped, miird.i. .,
and thrown into a well. At the dose of Iheelev-
enth century I'hilip I. of France made over lo liis
wife, Bertrade, lialf the revenues from the Jews
of Tours, while in llliJand 114:3 Louis VL and Ids
son, Louis VII., piesented this inconie as an oller-
iug to the Abbey of Saint Martin. In 1141 the
Jews were obliged to give the king at Easter tlic
sum of thirty sous, together with half a pound of
pepper and other gifts in kind ; and at Chrislma.s
they were forced to give half a i)onn<l of j^epper,
two loaves of bread, a pitcher of wine, and a certain
quantity of meat. At theend of the twelfth century
they were compelled to pay ^50 .sous annually to
Bichard, King of England and Count of Tours.'aiid
to the Abbey of Saint Martin. After the year 1202
the kings of France collected the revenues of tiie
Jews, which amounted to 120 livres in 1234, but
which increased to 1,024 livresand 5 denarii in 1298,
and reached the sum of 2.077 livres, 9 denarii in the
following year. In 1800 the Jews weree.xpelled fmm
Tours; but they returned in 1315, and were mo-
lested four years later by a band of rogues who jire-
tended to have a comnnssion fiomthe king toext«>rl
money from them. Then came the cliarge of poison-
ing the wells; and in 1321 they were again driven
from Tours, Amboise, Loches, and Chinon.

The Jews of Tours liad their own ghetto, wliicb
was called "la Juiverie " and was situated in the
parish of Saint Pierre du Boile in the Rue des
]\Iaures, called the Rue des Morts or de la Juiverie
in the eighteenth century. In 1300 Philip the Fair
liresented the Jewish (juarter to the archbishop ami
his clerg}'.

The cemetery was in the parish of Saint Vincent,
in fiont of the "olil garden"; it extended from the
vineyards of Saint Vincent to the I{ue de la Clievre.
and from the vineyards of the vestry of Saint Julian
to the street which ran in front of the "old garden."
In the thirteenth centuiy certain disputes arose Ik--
tween the Jews of Tours ami tli(* archbishop. Pierre
de liamballe, but in 1255 the latter L'uaninteed tliem
lierjictual ]iossession of their cenx'ti-ry and of a
liou.se and the vineyardsattached. reserving for liini-
self only the right of jurisdiction and a n-nl of five
gold oboles of the value of 25 sous, payalile an-
nually at Chiistmas. In case of non-payment llic
Jews were liable to a tine of 7* sous, and tliev wore
forbidden to till the groumi until they si
discharged their debt, In return, the :.
in guaranteeing the peaceable p«»SRes.sion of ilic
cemetery, granted also the right to inter tlien-iu I lie
liodies of their coreligionisls without rrgard to the
place of death, while in the Iwmse attached to llic
graveyard they were permitted tf» place a guardmu

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

214

.)f Pierre

■ U-ry

,..,,,;tyof

> in 13.59-CO.

i 1 liio city were:

■It ol liashi. wlio

A of Tours; and

' of Corbeil

.-"-'")) there ure

: the city.

'. II.. No. 5713;

-T. i:{S; Gross.

ilcti Huts

::» ; xvili.

..:u», I'u.i ^viJK'ti (Jcniiani.

S. K.

TOWER !! br HjD) : A buihiiug of strength
i ii. 15; Cant. iv. 4, vii. 4). and.

' ■■ '• t watch-tower in

ion. Itwascus-

■ rs iu tiie vineyards for

.... ..... sucli round and tapering

still be geeu iu the vineyards of

built for the protection

I ..^ id, in the enclosures in

placed for the night (comp.

r of the flock," Gen. x.vxv. 21;

i it is expressly stated that Uzziali

•arcs in the desert for his enormous

Around these towers

i peasants doubtless de-

gradually. thus often forming the nuclei

erected chiefly on the

I cities, the walls themselves being

n. 1), and the angles

'•d by strong towers

Fhus the walls of the city of

ided with towers in

1 of Piiasaei (the .so-

liavid ") in the modern citadel is an

• ' •' • lode of defense, its sub-

rubblework, and the

ower erected upon it being

■ ■ for illustration see

.'■I forming the cen-

d tity wiis also termed "migdol"

f. 46). It was usually erected at

t of the rity, and formed the lu.st

wu was besieged and its

TOY. CRAWFORD

- The

and

I. Be.

HOWELL: .\merican

't Norfolk, Va., .March

I at the University of

dia at the University of

'rn from Europe lie was

■vut iho .Southern I3ap-

'Jrecnvillc. S. C. and

-or of Hebrew and

Lnivcrsily. He is

of Israel "(1882). and

■ l>^f»0), aeareftd

'U between the

two religions. He edited the Hebrew text and the
English translation of Ezekiel for the Polychrome
Bible in 1899. and published a commentary on Prov-
erbs in the " International Critical Series " in the same
year. Toy has been editor of the Hellenistic de-
partment of The Jewish Encyclopedia since its
inception.
BuiLioGR.\i'iiv: TTfto's ir;io in America, 1905.

J.
THABOT (TRABOTTI): Family of Italian
scholars of the lifleeuth, sixteenth, and seventeenth
centuries, which immigrated to Italy from France, so
that several of its members bore the additional name
"Zarfati." The most important representatives of
the family are as follows:

Azriel Trabot : 1. Scholar of the sixteenth
century ; probably a member of the rabbinical college
in Rome. Nothing is known of his literary activity.
2. Kabbi at Florence and Ascoli in the sixteenth
century ; son of Jehiel Trabot (1). A responsum by
him, dated 1567, is extant in manuscript. 3. Rabbi
of Ascoli at the beginning of the seventeenth century ;
son of Jehiel Trabot (2). He was the author of
some responsa, extant in manuscript, and of a list of
rabbis (reprinted iu "R. E. J." iv. 208-225) from
Rabiua and R. Ashi to R. Nissim the Younger.

Jehiel Trabot: 1. Rabbi at Pesaro during the
earlier part of the sixteenth century ; son of Azriel
Trabot (1). On the maternal side Jehiel was a
grandson of Joseph Colon, whose name he bore in
addition to his own. He is mentioned in Jacob
Alpron's collection of responsa entitled "Nahalat
Ya'akob," and responsa signed by him in 1519 and
1520 are extant iu manuscript. 2. Rabbi of Ferrara
and Pesaro; died after 1590; son of Azriel Trabot
(2). He was the author of certain responsa divided
according to the ritual codes; they have been pre-
served in manuscript.

Levi Trabot: One of the earliest members of the
family. He tlourislied in the first half of the fif-
teenth century, and emigrated from France to Italy,
whence he went to Jerusalem, so that his son Na-
thaniel called him D^'C^'n' f-N. Like .several other
members of the family, he bore the name "Zarfati."
Codex Turin No. 65 contains two poems by another
Levi Trabot, written in honor of the presentation of
scrolls of the Law to the synagogue iu Mantua, one
being rompo.sed in 1.581, and the other in 1596.

Menahem ben Perez Trabot : Rabbi at Ferrara
in the latter part of the fifteenth and the beginning
of the sixteenth century. Responsa by him are
still extant in manuscript.

Nethaneel ben Benjamin ben Azriel Trabot :
Rabbi of Modena; born about 1576; died Dec. 22,
10.53; uncle of Solomon Graciano. He was one of
the greatest and most respected of Italian rabbis.
Of his works the following have been preserved: a
ritual decision at the beginning of the collection of
responsa entitled "Kenaf Renanim"; a responsum
in the "Pahad Yizhak "of Lampronti(i. lllb-112a);
and a responsum in the " Debar Shemu'el " of Samuel
Aboab (No. 19). His great learning is mentioned in
the collection entitled "Bc'er 'Esek " (No. .53); and
his so-called "Testament" has been reprinted by
.Mortara in Berliner's " .Magazin " (xiv. 11-22). Men-
tion should also be made of a responsum treating of

215

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tower
Trode-UnionUm

the reformation of synagogal music, addrossed to
Samuel Norzi, and reprinted in the " Monatssciirift,"
xxxix. 350-8o7. Four elegies on his death were re-
printed in "R. E. J." xxxv. 250-268.

Nethaneel ben Levi ha-Nakdan Trabot :
Calligrapher and punctuator; tiourislied in tlie six-
teen tli century. A copy of tlie Masorah entitled
"Patshegen" (Codex de Kossi No. 7), and a manu-
script of the Pentateuch (Codex Ambrosianus No.
35) are still preserved as specimens of his -work. He
was also known as a liturgical poet, being the author
of two Ilabdalot (Codex de Rossi No. 1050). He
likewise composed an elegy in twenty-six stanzas.
E- c. S. O.

Perez Trabot: Hebrew lexicographer; lived
in Italy at tlie close of the fourteenth and the
beginning of tiie tifteenth century. He calls Iiim-
self either "Zarfati" or " Katelani," thus showing
that he had emigrated, probably after the expulsion
of the Jews from France in 1395, to Catalonia, and
thence to Italy. He was the author of a work enti-
tled "Makre Dardeke," containing a Hebrew-French
or a Hebrew-Catalan vocabulary (Naples, 1488), and
in his introduction to this work he speaks of the
banisluneut of the Jews from France.

BiBUOGRAPny : Neubauer, in R. E. J. ix. 316 ; Schwab, ih. xvi
2o.i: Perles, Bcilriine zur Gesch. der Hehrilischen nnUAra-
mdischcn SprachsUidien, pp. HI et seq.; Ilenan. Los Ecri-
vams Juifs Frangais, pp. 576 et seq.

^- c- I. Br.

Perez Jehiel ben Nethaneel Trabot : Litur-
gical poet of the sixteenth centuiy. He was tlie
author of tliree elegies beginning (1) pyfri ~l^'50 nX"
(2) n3C'^ nD\X ; and (3) l^" >:ii

The following members of the Trabot family are
also mentioned: Abraham Trabot, who wrote
Codex Turin No. 17 as far as Numbers, and dated
the coloplif)!! on the 2d of Heshwan (Nov.), 16()4;
Berahiel ben Hezekiah Trabot, author of a small
mahzor completed at Florence on the 7th of Nisan
(.March 9), 1490 (Codex ModenaNo. 6) ; Hayyim ben
Raphael Trabot, whose signature appears in a
Florentine codex (Plut. L, No. 30) of 1462; Jacob
ben Aaron Trabot, the author of marginal glosses
in Codex Turin A. xiii. 3 ; Judah Trabot of Nizza,
the author of a commentary on the "Tempio" of
Ricti ((^odex Turin A. v. 27); Menahem ben Ne-
thaneel Raphael Trabot, who puichased Codex
Turin A. vii. 18 on July 22, 1472; Perez ben
Menahem Trabot, rabbi at Ferraia in the six-
teeiilii century (Lauipronti, "Pahad Yizhak,"iv. 22);
Phinehas ben R. Menahem Trabot, rabbi of
IVnaiii in the sixteentli century (i7/., s.v. nV'^Jn);
Raphael Trabot, who .sent Abraham of Perugia
an account of a journey to Jerusalem, dated the
28thof Ab (Aug. 21), 1523 (Cod. Florent., Plur. II.,
No. 35) ; Solomon Trabot, said to Jiave been the
father of Joseph Colon (Codex Parma No. 1420;
Codex No. 2 of the Foa collection^; and Solomon
(da Trevoux) Trabot, rabbi of Savigliano in the
tifteenth century (Steinschneider, "Ilebr. Bibl."
xii. 117).

BiBMOCRAPHY : Kaufmann, in R. E. J. iv. 208-225. .\.\xv. 2.50-
2t):i; Mortara. in Berliner's Maiiazhi, xiv. 1121: Aziilai.
Vic/H )i(i-(jrdi<Unt, i.4^a.74b-7v.i; fiedaliah ihn Yahva. Slial-
sheht Iin-Kniihalah, ed. Amsterdam, pp. -isi), .Via. 52-.5:< :
Nepi-GbJrondi, Tolrdot (iedolr r/.srac/, pp. :!4, 210. 271. 20ti-
Fuenn, Kcmsct Visrad, p. 52oa ; Steinschneider. Hnhi: liiUl.

xll. 117. XV. lot; Kerem //' mf<Ml. l.-iO-LVJ; Conf-.n.- Kin-r

M>i AM- Kaufmann, In Monul^^rhntt I

Mortani, litdic; pp. nr> (Hi; M,m\ v. l.V>- vl ',
i.i^c/(i(ur(;t«(/i. pp. .J07. ."iSB. ■'■'

"'• '-'■ 8. ().

TRACHTENBERG, HERMAN: Russian ju-
rist; boruin.Iiluniirl?s;jy; died tlien; 1H'J5. He stud
ied law at the University of St. Peterhburg, and m
the end of his cour.se entered the government serv-
ice. For meritorious work he was granted the Order
of Stanislaus of tlie third degree and that of Vladi-
mir of the fourth degree, thus gaining Die rights and
privileges of a hereditary citizen. He was noted
for his compilations of briefs on criminal cases. At
the end of the .seventies he was accorded the rare
honor of being elected honorary justice of the peace
for the district of St. Petersburg.

Trachtenberg always took an active interest in the
alTairs of the Jewish community of St. Petersburg,
and in 1891 devoted much time and energy to the
case of the Starodub Jews, who were victims ol the
anti-Jewish riots.

Bibliography: Khronika Vnskhnda, 1895, No 34

"• ''■ J. G. L.

TRADE. See Commf.ucf.

TRADE-UNIONISM.-In England : Except-
ing in Holland, the creation of a Jewish proletariat
has everywhere followed inunigration from the east-
European centers, where the massing of population
gradually led to the formation of a Jewish laborinp
class. The first union in which mainly Jews w.i.-
interested, the tailors' tiniori, was founded in ]>-:.'.
Prior to that date, and for some years after, tlie
Jews had no specific reason for being interested in
labor organization. Excepting two, such crafts as
the earlier settlers followed called for individual
rather than organized effort. These twocxcepti • -
were the various branches of tin- . ;
In Dia- niond and cigar trades, both of Dutch
mond and origin. Diamond-polisliing was early
Cigar subdivided into four branches; and
Trades. the introduction of steam fostered the
natural tendency in this trade toward
factory methods. But few men were engaged in the
trade at the time of the di.scovery of the South-Afri-
can diamond-fields, and the labor system in vogue
among them maintained a certain form of master-
ship for one in every three of the mill-hands.

The cigar industry, owing to liwivy duties and
licenses, was at an early date forced to follow the
factory system, although there was little if any
machiner}^ employed in the work, and the sulxlivi-
sion of labor was of the simplest kind. This trade,
however, was one of the first to adopt (he trade-
union juinciple. and the Jews cntere<l thisorganiza
tion, still one of the strongest in existence, in larcc
numbers; only recently, owing to the <
in some cases of cigar- and cigarette-n
to the ii.se of Yiddish, liave Jews found it neccs.««ry
to form a specific Jewish union in that tnide.

The formation of a Ji'wish artisan class, particu-
larly in East London, after 1881. together with the
introduction of machinery, created possil>ilitics of
Jewish lalior combination, and the history of s<>mc
of the strongest organizations l)egins with 1882.
The immigrants introduced into England the manu-

TrsdA-nxuoaism

TllL Ji^wi^il ENCYCLOPEDIA

216

, ;,i; the historic

mantle making, ami

In th.

Clothing
Industries

Royal Commission on

' tlio foiind-

iiich iutcr-

There were at

11 the various

but the intro-

scwing-, cutting-, and

' iMiof tiie industry

II- work to factory

/111 kind. The Jews were

' ' for tliis. One of

le llie Royal Coni-

>n\ Alien Immigration said that

' the sowing-machine as

:iuncut of production."

•(•d the possihiiity of the

• r," and forcing down

ing the "greener," the

It who could learn one or another

-'-:_'■ to the degree of skill

s to eighteen months.

es applied to the leather and cubi-

' •• owing to the existence of

: prior to the introduction

.. hinery the general trade-unions in

i sutliciently powerful to be able

ial Jewish unions soon after their

Jewish unions or Jewish unionists, as

• ■•• -liys found engaging in strikes.

liowevcr. became more strong-

-^'J the musters confronted the

: i..^ ir employees by forming their

the Jewish Masters' Society. Jew-

:i followed logically upon the

;. r, and the demand for cheap

I. the creative cause and the condi-

i told in the following

' -ii ike in which fully

•)r1i shall be reduced to twelve, with
fi»r U'ii.

•iili' I lie factory prpinises.
■.1 •-•jiii.-jct.'rs sliall pay wuRes at trade-

'lull not give
IT hours.

TliU

ol l<

vooks, and It seems to have
anUigc of the Jewish
of the movement from
f attempts to organi/.e
,' unijuestionably hani-
".. iiift that the union is
>\ friim the general trade-tinions
f Yiddish in all meetings
.. (-xiKlcnr<: of marked social-
tendcncies among the leaders.
!>itfdii Wfll-defiiR'd
■ there were a iium-
•• end cascH tlie.se resulted in
' The strikers also

' . ir desire to observe

Ihc SablMth and the Jcwikh holy days; and in this

Tho First
Strik"

brr of •!

way they gained the support of the rabbinate. It can
not, however, be said that at any time a serious at-

nipt was made to enforce this observance, and it

luld appear that the pleas of the strikers were
more political than religious in purpose.

With the growth of immigration there came an
increase in the number of the trades in which the
Jews were interested, and a corresponding growth in
the strength of the trade-union organizations formed.
The movement spread to Birmingham, Leeds, Man-
chester, and other manufacturing cities. Inter-
Jewish conferences were held, an attempt was made
to bring the Jewish labor movement as a whole
under one organization, and the representatives of
the Jewish unions were recognized and took part in
the general trade-union conferences held from time
to time. Of all these unions only one has so far be-
come conspicuous — that of the Jewish bakers, who
have not only fought their masters for sanitary bake-
houses, better wages, and shorter liours, but have
aided their masters in the fight against the general
trade-union of bakers, which endeavored to compel
the Jews to obej' a law several hiuidred years old
prohibiting the baking of bread in London on Sun-
days, a restriction that was apparently ignored when
Parliament enacted the Sunday exemption clauses
for Jews in the Factory Acts.

The strength of the movement has differed at vari-
ous times; to-day (1905) it is weaker than it was ten
years ago. It has had its organs and its recognized
leaders ; but it is contended that a Jew does not make
a good unionist, "because one ruling passion never
leaves him — his desire to rise from his low position
and be a master." Lewis Lyons, who has been par-
ticularly active in the creation of the
Weakness specifically Jewish unions, told the
of the above-mentioned commission that the
Movement. "Jewish trade-unions fluctuate in
conse(iuence of excessive inunigration,
and that the labor leaders have from time to time
the utmost dilHculty in maintaining a solid and dis-
ciplined organization." On the other hand, statistics
show that in the tailoring trade proportionately more
Jews than non-Jews arc united.

There are no accurate statistics as to the number
of Jews in the various Jewish and general unions in
England; and the following is merely a list of the
number of organizations existing in London be-
tween 1883 and 1902: tailors, 31 unions; butch-
ers, 1 ; bakers, 1 ; cigar-makers, 1 ; iron and tin-plate
workers, 1 ; compositors,!; brush-makers, 1; house-
painters, 1; card - box makers, 1. Of these 39
unions, 6 were dissolved and 3 were merged in other
organizations. A furriers' and a costcrmongers'
union have been founded since 1902, bringing the
juesent total up to 32. There are. in addition,
Jewish tailors' unions in IJinningham (1). Leeds
(2, with 1,300 member.s), Manchester (3), and
Sheflield (1). Tailors' organizations probably ex-
ist also in Bradford, Bristol, Glasgow, Hull, and
Reading.

The chief organs of the Jewish tradc-iuiiou move-
ment have been: " Der Polischer Jlidel" (1882),
"Die Zukunft" (1884), "Die Neue Welt " (1900-1).
News items are also given in " Reynolds's News-
paper."

217

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Trade-unionism

BiRMOfiRAPiiY : Georir Ilalpprn, Die Jlidisrhrn Arheitrr in

JjiiikIiiii. ill Mliiichi III r \'iilhswirl>:vliaftliilir Sliiilicn, Sliitt-
ir;u'I iiiiii Ufilin, HKKi; John Dycko, ThrJrwisli /i/imii/Mnif,
in 0))ilciiii)ii>ar!i iioricic. vol. Ixxv. (IS!*!)): liipint of the
Select Coininittec i>f llic Hmise of [joriis on llie Sivcutiim
Systeni. issu-'.iii; ]]'a(jrs in Jeii'isli 7'oilori}m }Vorltslio]>s in
Leril:< and Manchester, in Jjahor (lazettc, vol. 1., No. 1
(180:f): llt'iiri Dntrnii. Le Protilariot .luif, in Ld Rivne
Jlhtnrlie. Oct., I'.KH ; I). V. Schloss. The .Je\r as Worlniian.
in Siiuteenth Centunj, .hiii., IHill ; Iteiiorl of the liojial
Conuiiission o)i Aliin Innniiiration. I^ondon, l!Mi:5: ./i ic.
Cliron. (Labor Column), passim ; Jcu'i>>h Year Booli. 1!K>~ .'>.

J. J. I>K H.

In the United States : It i.s only in tlic United

States and in England that Jews find tiie oppor-
tnnity to enter uou-Jewish trade-unions in large
numbers. In tliese countries Jewish "workers, like
otiiers, enter the unions of tlieir various ci-afts. From
their ranks liave risen sueii tnuk'-union leaders as
Samuel Gompers (for more than twenty years presi-
dent of tlie Ameriean Federation of Labor), Joseph
Barondess, and Henry White. Jews have shown a
special preference for the clothing trades. Accord-
ing to oflleial reports, three-fourths of the workmen
in these ti'ades in New York aix' Jews. In these in-
dustries, therefore, the iniions are practically Jewish
organizations.

Tiie tirst attempts at organization among Jewish
workmen antedate tiie main intlu.x of Jewish immi-
gration into England and America. Tlie first union
of Jewisii tailoi's in New York was

The Be- organized in 1S77. It had an eiihem-
ginnings. era! existence. When, in tlie eighties,
Jews began to arrive in large numbers,
the need of organization was soon realized. Several
uniiins came into existence, and stiikes were declared
which niet with var3'ing degrees of success. About
the lime of the eleventh census (1890) New York city
liad become tlie center fur the manufaetun! of wom-
eifs ready-made clothing. The year 181)0 witnessed
the first great strike of Jewish workmen : the cloak-
makers struck in all factories and sweat-slio]is, and
aflcr enduring great sulTeiing for eiglit weeks tliey
won the strike. Wages were raised to such an ex-
tent that the workers were able to earn during tlic
busy season from §'.25 to S^O a week.

The first success cemented the union. In the
winter of 1893 another general strike was declared
with the object of maintaining the advantages which
had been gained by the previous movement; and
although this time the employers formed an associa-
tion and firmly withstood for a while tlie demands
of the strikers, they at length gave way. The union
tlieii demanded from tlie employers the jiayment of
an indemnity for the losses incurred through tlie
strike. The employers regarded this demand as ex-
tortion; tliev paid, but instituted a criminal prose-
cution against the secretary of the union, Jose|)h
Barondess. lie was indicted, found guilty, and sen-
tenced by the trial court. The Supreme C(Uirt of
the State of New York reversed the sentence, holding
that in the absence of intent to appropriate the
nioiiey to jiis own use the defendant, who merely
acted as the representative of his union, was not
guilly of extortion. The decision of the Supreme
Court was reversed by the New York Court of Ap-
]ieals, which afiirmed the sentence of the trial court.
The defendant, however, was soon pardoned by the
governor.

Litigation had exhausted llio Ksourees of the

uni(jn, and wlien the general depression of biisiiie&s

began the union was .soon brokeu up. With the

restoration of liusiness prosperity in

Varying: 1897 it was revived, and liassince had a

Fortune, continuous existence, its paying mem-
bcrsiiip n-aciiing at one time !.'>,()()(»;
but at other times its membersliip lias sunk very
close to the zero jioint.

The history of other Jewisli unions is siinilur to
tliat of the Cloak-Makers' Union, which under nor-
mal conditions has the largest membersliip. The
weakness of all Jewish unions in llie tailoring tiiulcs
is tlie tluctuating character of their niemljership.
Prof. John K. Commons, in his report on "Iminigm-
lion and Its Economic EtTecls," prepared for the In-
dustrial Commi.ssion, speaks as follows regarding
the character of Jewish trade-unions in the United
States:

" The Jew's ronoeptlon of a lalwr organization Is Hint f a
tradesman rather than that of a workman. In tli'
manufacture, whenever any real abuse arises ani>>nir i i

workmen, they all come together ami form a plant union and
at once engage in a strike. Tliev brintr in ft'i iK-rrenl of the
trade. They are enert'etic and determined. Thev demand the
entire and complete elimination of the abuse. The di'iiuind k
almost always unanimous, and is made with entliusiiisin unit
bitterness. They stay out a lonfriime, even under the cn-atcsi
of sulTeriiip. During a strike larfre numbers of iliem are ti> Ijo
found with almost nothintf to live upon and tlieir faniill>-s siif-
ferinrf. still insisting, on the streets and in their halls, that ilieir
preat cause must be won. But when once the strike is s<'ltled.
either in favor of or apainst the cause, they are contented, and
that usually ends the union, since they do not si-e any pructiral
use for a union when there is no cause to light fur. Tonse-
quently the membership of a Jewish union is whollv uncertain.
The secretary's books will show tl(i,(l()<l nieinlM'rs In one month
and not .").(l()0 within three months later. If perchance a lo<-.i I
branch has a steady thousand members from year t"> year, and
if they are indeed paying members, it is likely that they are not
the same members as in the year before."

The instability of the Jewisli unions has !»ccn
ascribed to the character of the Jew, who hiis an in-
born desire to be "his own boss"; the ambition of
the Jewi^ll worker is to rise above the workingclass,
rather than to improve his own condition simultane-
ously with that of his da.ss; hence thcfiwealing sys-
tem, with its numerous contractors and subconinut-
ors. The clothing trade in its betrinniiiirs reipiiring
little cajiital, the development of theclothing indus-
try in New York within recent years lias lun-n
marked, in contrast with the genemi
Sweating, trend of the time, liy a teiulonry
toward small-scale production The
scattering of employees in numerous small slmp.s
is unfavorable to organization. Another cause which
has interfered with the |>rogress of organiz.-ition in
trades followed largely by Jews is llie inlliience <if
Socialist agitation among Jewish workers. Morn
than one Jewish trade-union has been ' ^ by

dissensions between divergent schools ot - -in

One of the oldest and St longest. JewKsh lnidc-iini<iii»
is the organization of compositors of Jewi^i
papers and priDting-ollices. the lIebiew-.\:
Tvpographical Union, w liicli is alliliated with iho
International Typographical Union. The Ji-wish
unions of New York are combined in a central IkxIv.
known as The United Hebrew Tratlcs. This fi'dor-
.ition romiuisesthe unions of lliosr wo-' the

clothing trades, of compositoi-s, of cmpl the

.0 Judeiiiiium,

lor.

Das THE JE^VISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

218

i,;.,tis. Stime of
: icau Feder-

1 A. ir.

TTJ Ar.TTTnvriXE JTTDENTHUM, DAS.

TRADITIONS: l>

'^ trans-
...... ,.; ;....iilh, aud

I'. Such tniditions
MIL'S (see

,. . ; seek to

■ in Mount Sinai (see

Tliere arc otlier tradi-

.. ..:<T to national aud liis-

than to lialakic problems. Of

; Tulmudic and

_ iwo may be cited

'Ob: " We liave received the

■ Amoz. the father of

. . . .V. . . : ;ih, tlie king of Ju-

; and(2) Yer. B. B. 15c: "It is

■ - lec occupied by tlie

1 , was not included in

rement of the latter."

- fiT traditiini are "Ma.so-

:i ■' (n^3p), while lialakic

d also as " Halakah " (n^bn).
J. Z. L.

TRAJAN

T ;;. '.

r from 98 to 117.

...;.. K. .lian, he is frequently

•Ji writers: and he exercised a

ly of the Jews

.1 :■, and Hellenistic

His ambition led him to the farthest

'I empire, where he

liou;ili in the mean-

Umc the Jcwg arose in Egypt and in Cyrene "as

■ wild and riotous spirit"

-). The insurrection at

<l in a papyrus fragment in

• it brought before the

. a Jew, allhougii the

If Hadim.vn, Trajan's

• '■ "U. E. J." .\x.\vii.21H).

T iif Jews in Egypt and

11 to Marcius Turbo,

I 1^ iMiifused in rabbinical

•ly write the name Trajan

"1{. E. J." XXX. 200, xxxi.

■*• .,' ii. 27:i). Cyprus also was

t JcwiKh uprising, which seems

lied by Turbo. In the

!i ycjir later, when Tra-

ibdued. the Jewsof Mes-

.< nl which their I'al-

... at the hands of the

'. anil of Uiclr own sufTcrings, especially at

' ' '• four years of Tra-

: ilion, determineil to

expel llic Koiiinns from tlicireountry. Trajan there-

upon ordered the Mauritanian prince Lusius Qui-
ETVS to proceed against the Jews, and gave him
strict orders to purge the provinces of them, his
rigid obedience to this order winning for the legate
the governorship of Palestine (Eusebius, "Hist.
Eccl." iv. 2; idem, "Chrouikon," ed. Schocne, ii.
164; Orosius, vii. 12; Dion Cassius, Ixviii. 32).

In the meantime, however, rebellion had again
broken out in Judca; and it is highly probable that
the Palestinian Jewsalso rendered assistance to their
oppressed brethren elsewhere, especially in Egypt,
this fact possibly furnishing an explanation of Tra-
jan's expedition to Egypt (Esther H. proem, § 3).
The rabbinical legend gives the following reason for
the revolution: The emperor's wife (the governor's
wife is probably meant) bore a child on the 9th of
Ab, when the Jews were lamenting, and it died on
the Feast of Hanukkah, when the Jews illuminated
their houses ; and in revenge for these fancied insults
the wife urged her husband topuni.sh the Jews (ib.).
No such legend, however, is needed to explain the
Jewish rebellion against the Roman government, for
diu'ing the reign of Trajan the Christian descend-
ants of David, who were relatives of Jesus, were
persecuted; aud Schlatter rightly infers that the pa-
triarchal family likewise died for its faith, since
it was supposed to be Davidic. The Palestinian
revolt appears to have been organized by two
brothers, P.\ppus and Luliani, and rabbinical sources
expressly allude to Trajan's proceedings against the
])air (Sifra, Emor, viii. 9, and parallels; see also
Kohut," Aruch Completum,"iv. 74), whom heissaid
to have sentenced to death in Laodicea, although he
afterward ordered them taken to Rome, where they
were executed. Here again the rabbinical sources
confuse Trajan with his governor, Lusius Quietus,
who was later deposed and executed by Hadrian.
The marvelous escape of Pappus and Luliani was
celebrated by a semifestival called "Trajan's Day,"
which fell, according to the Meg. Ta'an., on the ISth
of Adar (see Ratner in Sokolow, "Scfer ha-Yobel,"
p. 507), although it is more probable that this day
really commemorated the succe-ss of the Jewish forces
against the Roman army. Denarii of Trajan are
mentioned in the Talmud ('Ab. Zarah 52b); and it
is also noteworthy that, according to the inscrip-
tions of this emperor, he constructed a road from the
Syrian border to the Red Sea. The unrest wliich
marked the end of his reign was not allayed until his
successor Hadrian became emperor.

Bini.ionRAPHV: Gnitz, Gcsch. .3d ed.. Iv. 112-11"; Scliiirer.
(IrsvU.M I'd., i. «>l-fi6.M; Schlntter, Die Taqc Trajans uiid
7/(I(0kui.s, p. S8, (iiitersIoL, lt>97.
S. S. Kl{.

TRANI : Family of scholars, members of which
were |iiiiiiiiiifiit in Spain and the Levant.

Aaron di Trani : Spanish tosafist; born in Cas-
tile; descendant of a family which produced several
eminent Talmudists. He received his education
under the direction of R. Joseph Alfasi. At an early
age he removed to Italy, whence he went, in 1502,
to Adrianople. There he made the acquaintance of
Joseph Caro, who had gone thither to publish his
"Bet Yosef." As a Talmudist, Trani was very
highly esteemed by his contemporaries. He ranks
among the representatives of pilpul, not only on ac-

219

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Traditionelle Judenthuxn, Das
Translations

count of liis preference for the Tosafists, but also by
virtue of the fact that his nepliew and pupil Moses
(li Trani, in conjunction with the son of Josepli
Caro, introduced pilpul into tliesciioolsof Palestine.
It may, however, be assumed that Aaron Trani's
pilliul did not go to extremes, else Joseph Caro
would not have spoken of him so highly. The few
notes concerning him which may be found in the
works of others were collected by Michael in his
"Or ha-IIayyim."

J. sii. L. G.

Isaiah (ben Elijah) di Trani (the Younger) :
Sec Ji;\v. Encyc. vi. ()44.

Isaiah (ben Mali) di Trani (the Elder ;
RID) : See Ji:w. Encyc. vi. G44.

Joseph di Trani: Scholar of the liftcenth and
sixteenth centuries; uncle of Moses di Trani. Ex-
pelled, with his l)rotlK'r, from the city of his birth
in loO^, ho settled in Salonicn.

Joseph di Trani (the Elder): Talmudist of the
latter part of the sixteenth century ; lived in Greece.
By contemporary scholars he was called D^C^inO,
and regarded as one of the foremost Talmudists of
his time. He Avas the author of "She'elot u-Teshu-
bot,"a work in three parts: part i. comprises 152
responsa, together with a general index (Constanti-
no|il(', 1641); part ii. consists of 111 responsa in the
order of the first three parts of the ritual codex
(Venice, 1645); part iii. contains responsa to the
fointh part of the ritual codex, together with no-
velliu to the treatise Kiddushin, and supercommen-
taries on RaN's and Alfasi's commentaries on the
treatises Kctubot and Kiddushin {ib. 1645). The
entire work appeared in Furth in 1764. Joseph also
published novelL-e to the treatises Shabbat, Ketubot,
and Kiddushin (Sudzilkov, 1802), and the responsa
which were embodied in Alfandari's "Maggid me-
Eeshit" (Constantinople, 1710). He left several
commentaries in manu.script — on Alfasi, on Maimon-
ides' " Yad." and on R. Nathan's '"Aruk."

Joseph (ben Moses ben Joseph) di Trani (the
Younger): Talmudist; born at Safed 1573; died
at Constantinople 1644. He early showed a marked
]iredilcction for Talmudic studies, and upon the
death of his father (1.585) he was sent to Egypt,
where he continued them under his uncle Solomon
di Trani. When the latter, in 1587, fell a victim to
the i)lague, Joseph returned to Safed, where he be-
came a pupil of Solomon Sagi. There he remained
until 1609, when he received a call to a rabbinate in
Constantinople, where he officiated until his death.
He is reported to have founded seveiul benevolent
institutions in Constantinople. Of his works the
only one known is "Zofenat Pa'neah " (Venice,
1653; Frankfort-ou-t he-Oder, 1694), a collection of
sermons on the weekly lessons and the festivals.

Moses ben Joseph di Trani (the Elder ; called
tO'^^Dil): Tahnutlist; born at Saloniea 1505; died
in Jerusalem 1585. His father had lied to Saloniea
from Apulia three years prior to his birth. While
still a boy Moses was sent to Adrianople to pursue
the study of the Talmud under the supervision of
his uncle Aaron. At the age of sixteen he went to
Safed and completed his studies under Jacob Berab.
In 1.525 he was appointed rabbi at Safed ; beheld
this office until 1535, when he removed to Jerusalem.

Moses di Trani was the author of; " Iviryat Sefer "
(Venice, 1551), conunentary on the Bible, ihe Tal-
mud, and dilficult passages in the con)mentaric8
of Maimonides; "Sefer ha-Tehiyyali wehaPidul "
f Mantua, 1.5.56; Wilna. 1799; Siui/ilkov, 1834; War-
saw, 1841), commentary and notes on ch. vii. and
viii. of Saadia Gaon's "Emunot we De'fit"; "Bet
Elohim " (Venice, 1576), a moral and philosoplncul
work on prayer, atonement, and the fundamental
principles of faith; "She'elot u-TeshuLot " (vol. i..
ib. 1629; vol. ii., ib. Mm), a collection of H41 re
sponsa, with an index.

Moses ben Joseph di Trani (the Younger):
Flourished during the first half of the seventeenth
century. He published the commentaries of his
father, and wrote some sermons, whicli appeared in
the "Zofenat Pa'neah " (Venice, 16.53).

Solomon di Trani : Son of Moses ben Jf)seph
the Elder, and brother of Joseph di Trani the Elder;
flourished in Egypt, where he died from tlic plague
in 1587. He wrote a preface to the works of his
father, in which is contained much information bear-
ing on the Trani family. He is also the reputed
author of "iVIarbiz Torah be-Yisrael," a collection
of sermons, still extant in manuscript.

Bibliography: Zunz, Z. G. pp. 58, 229-230; Idem. LItcratur-
(lesch. p. 3ftJ ; Azulai, Slicrn hn-GedoUm ; CoDfoite, ^'<>rt ha-
Dornt (ed. Cassel); Jest, Ge.'nli. <lcr Jmlcii. vni. 4.^»i. note:
Giidemiinn, Gcxch. ii. 189 d hcq.: fiass, .Sifte Yrshiuim. 1.
49a, 68a; Berliner, Pclctat Suferim. p. 13; itlrni. In his
Maaazin. i. 4.>, 54; FuVnn, Kiue.'ot Ywracl : I'.cnJuiHib.
f>znr Jia-Sefnrim ; Sieinschnelder. Ta'. B<i<(/. cols. Vlf.i-i. |.V}6.
2006-2()07; De Rossi, Diziimario. p. 319; Ibn Yuhva. .S/ki/-
shelet ha-Kahbalahy ed. Amsterdam, p. 51a.
E. c. S. O.

TRANSFER. See Alienation and Acqiisi

TION.

TRANSLATIONS.— Into Hebrew: After the
earl}' victories of the Mohamniedans and the conse-
quent spread of Arabic civilization, the Jews of the
Eastern countries became familiar with and adopted
to a large extent the Arabic language; so much so
that rabbis and scholars, if they desired to be under-
stood by the masses, were comiielled to write their
works in that language. After the center of Jew-
ish learning shifted from the Orient to Spain and
southern France, some of these works, especially
those dealing with the Halakah and Hebrew pram-
mar, were translated from Arabic into Hebrew.
In the lists of translations in this article the title of
the translation is. as a rule, given in parentheses,
with the date and place of publication of llie first
edition.

The oldest Hebrew translations from Arabic date
from the eleventh century. In 107H Isaac ben Reu-
ben Albargeloni rendered into Hebrew, imder I lie
title "Ha-^Iikkah weha-Mimkar." Hai Gaon's tren-
tiseon purchase(Veni( e. 1H0'2>. alsolbn
From Janah's lexicon " Kitabal-l'.Mil '' ("Sc

Arabic. fer ha-Shorasliim "). About the same
time, jierhaps a little earlier, sonic
Karaite writings were translated into Hebrew by
Moses ben Tobla. At the Ix-ginning of the twelftli
century ]\Ioscs ben Sanmel liaKohen ibn Gikatilla
translated the two principal works of Hayynj. the
treatises on "Verbs Containing Weak Letters" and
"Verbs Containing Dmible L<'tters" (edite«l with an
English translation by John W. Nutt, London and

Tr&AsUtioiia

Tilt JLUiMi ENCYCLOPEDIA

220

-If of the twelfth

nitliir a para-

:iiula tnius-

r Yi'^iruli,"

Towunl the

uuil-Katlrut").

r ha-C.onili't'").

,;ic ibii CJhayyat

I ou a part of

• r .,,>v.!i.i!i< are saitl by Judah ibn Tib-

to the "Hobot ha-Lebabot, "

r iiiipcrfectii)ns

iigli know leilgf

\ on the i>art of the translators,

' .• their own opiuions

A similar view is

itcn llarzillai, in his commentary

•' _ ;r(.l to Moses ben

- . - .inentiiry on that

.« Hebrew of which he declares to be unin-

'f^ennl to methods of translation be-

^n wiUi J'. Tiituox. -the father of trausia-

;. r> At the request of Meshullam

The Ibn boo Jacob and his son Asher. Judah

Tibbons. tmnslated, in llGl, the first treatise of

" ■ i iM-n Joseph ibn Pakuda's eth-

icnl wr- llidayaii ila Fara'id al-Kulub."

I Joseph Kind.ii translated the

--■ and tlui) the tirst one also.

; I of Abraham ben David of

I ;.letcd, imder the title " Ho-

I-.ii.lcs, 1489), tlie translation of

!ii-< version gnidually superseding

1 only a small fragment has

.. ,.<(1 by Jellinekin Ben Jacob's

i; '".t Im-U-babot," Leipsic, 1846).

work was followed by

-Kitablslahal-Akhlak'"

. Nefesh." Constantinople, 1550),

.h al-Hujjah" ("Sefer ha-

I Janah 's " IvitabalLuma' "

1. B. Goldberg, Frankfort-

• Kitabal Ustd" C Sefer lia-
. Iier. IJerlin,'lH9C). and Saa-

d Amunul wal-I'tiljadat" ("Sefer

' ' ititinople. 15G2). To

1 also, although on

'iind«. the translation of the col-

r ha Peninim," usually

-f Aristotle's "Posterior

>• tnuislations Judah cndeav-

■'■«• very words of the au-

y limk, considering the

Arabic vocabulary and the poverty

.rndiiro the abstract ideas found in
new word-forms and
tablished. These word-
were naturally modeled

• . whirh. in their turn, were
" il>c Greek. It is not sur-

prifcing, therefore, timt in the Hebrew versions of

the philosophical writings there are many expres-
sions which are unintelligible to those unacquainted
with the Arabic terminology; but this can not be
imputed as a fault to the translator, who could not
find in Hebrew words adequate to the expression of
abstract ideas, Hebrew being essentially the lan-
guage of a people of concrete ideas. Judah's work
is nevertheless far from being above criticism; it
contains many faults which are due either to the
translator's limited knowledge of Hebrew or to his
misunderstanding of the original. Desiring to be
faithful to the latter, Judah, like

Literal all the translators who took him as
Method of their guide, invariably rendered each

Transla- Arabic word into an equivalent in He-
tion. brew, without considering that a lit-

eral translation is not always i)ossible
and that some sentences must necessarily be recast
in order to make them intelligible to a reader who
is a stranger to Arabic constructions.

Another giave defect in Judah's method of trans-
lation, and one which gave rise to many errors and
misunderstandings, was tliat he always used the
same Hebrew word as an equivalent for a given
Arabic word, regardless of the variations of meaning
attached to the latter. Thus, for instance, he
always uses the Hebrew verb IJSy ("to stand ") for
the Arabic f]pi, although, according to the preposi-
tion by which the latter is followed, it may also
mean " to read," " to study," etc. Yet, notwithstand-
ing numerous faults, Judah's translations were
recognized as standards and accepted as models by
all tlie Hebrew translators of Arabic in the Middle
Ages. Thus his version of the " Cuzari " superseded
that made a little later by Judah ibn Cardinal, as
his rendering of the "Kitab al-Usul " superseded
those made by Isaac ha-Levi and Isaac ben Judah
Albargeloni.

The thirteenth century was especially rich in He-
brew translations from the Arabic, and those of
Samuel iun TiunoN, the son of Judah, were jtromi-
nent among them. An enthusiastic admirer of ^lai-
monides, Samuel began by translating several of
his works, the most important among which was
the "Dalalatal-Ha'irin," which he linislied in 1190
under the title "Moreh Nebukim." Samuel clung
more tenaciously than his father to the

Transla- Utter of the Arabic text ; he even in-

tion of troduced Arabic words into his trans-
Maimoni- lations, and, by analogy with the Ara-
des. bic, gave to certain Hebrew words

meanings different from the accepted
ones. This system of translation could but impair
the intelligibility of a text dillicultin itself ; and thus
the "Moreh " abounds in passages which are enig-
matic to those who do not i)ossessa ])rofonnd knowl-
edge of Arabic. Samuel's translation was, indee.l,
approved by ^Vlaimonides himself, to whom it had
been sent for revision ; but in such a case Mainionides
was the person least (jualilied to ju<lge, since, as the
author of the original and an expert in Arabic, he
naturally had no dillicidty in reading the; Hebrew
version. This at least must have been the opinion
of the poet Judah al-IIarizi, who, at the beginning
of the thirteenth century, made a new translation of
^Maimonides' work and accused Samuel ibn Tibboa

221

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

TranslatioziB

of liaving intentionally obscured the text. Al-
Ilarizi was not successtui in his attempt to super-
sede Samuel's tianslatidu with his own, for llie
former was found by some eiitics to be more faith-
ful to the original. Thus ShemTob il)n FahKiuera,
passing judgment upon l)oth translations, says:
'"In Ibu Tibbon's translation the errors are few,
aiul if the learned translatoi- had had time he cer-
tainly would have corrected them ; butiu AlHarizi's,
mistakes are numerous and words are often given
wrong meanings."

In addition to the "^loreh," Samuel translated
the following works of Maimonides: a treati.se on
resurrection ("Iggeret," or "Ma'amar Tehiyyat lia-
^Ictim"); tlie IMislmah commentary on Pirke Abot,
witli the psychological introduction ("'Shemonaii
Perakim ") ; the " Thirteen Articles of Faith " (" She-
losh 'Esrch 'Ikkaiim"); a letteraddressed to Joseph
ibu 'Aknin. Samuel did not coutine his activity
to Jewish Avrilings, but translated works written
b}' Arabs and bearing on ]ihilosophy and medicine.
Among these were: Yahya ibn Batrik's Arabic
translation of Aristotle's "Meteora" ("Otot lia-
Shamayim," or "Otot "Elyonot"), three small trea-
tises of Averroes ("Siieloshaii Ma'amarim ''), and Ali
il)u Ridwan's commentary on the"Ars Parva"of
Galen. '

No less prominent in the field of translation was
the above-mentioned poet Judah al-Harizi. In ad-
dition to the " Dalalat al-Ha'iriu," lie translated .Mai-
monides' treatise on resurrection (already rendered
into Hebrew by Samuel ibu Tibbon)
Judah and his 3Iishnah commentary on Ze-
al-Harizi. ra'im, Ilariii of Busrah's " Makaniat "
("Mahbcrot Itiel"), Ali ibn Ridwan's
ethical epistle, Galen's es.say against hasty inter-
ment, a treatise on the soul ("Sefer ha-Nefesh ")
also attributed to Galen, an originally Greek work
on the " Dicta of the Philosophers " (" Mussare ha-
Filosolim "), and an anonymous treatise on geomancv
{" Sefer ha-Goralot").

A prolific translator, whose style, although less
poetic, was more clear than that of hiscontemi)orary
Al-Harizi, was Abraham ben Samuel Hasdai.
Among Ids translations are the following: the
pseudo-Aristoteliau " Kitab al-Tuffahah " ("Sefer
ha-Tappuah," Venice, 1519; frequently reprinted);
Ghazali's ethical work "]\Iizan al-'Amal" ("Mozene
Zedek," in which the translator rejilaccd the quo'.a-
tions from the Koran and the Sunnah with their
equivalents from Bible and Talmud ; ed. Goldentiial,
Leipsic, 1839); Isaac Israeli's "Kitab al-Istiksat "
{"Sefer ha-Yesodot ") ; IVIaimonides' "Sefer lia-Miz-
wot," with his letter to the Yemenite Jews(" Iggeret
Teman"); and a romance presenting incidentsin the
life of Buddha ("Ben lia-Melek weha-Nazir," Con-
stantinople, 1518). About the same timeastlie last-
named Avork a famous book of fables was translated,
under the title "Sefer Kalilah wa-Dimnah," by the
grammarian Jacob ben Elcazar.

From about 12;]0 to 1300 the most important Ara-
bic works on ]diil,osop]iy, medicine, astronomy,
mathematics, and other branches of learning were
tran.slatcd. The leading translators of that period
weri! Jacol) Anatoi.io (son-in-law of Samuel ibn
Tibbon), Closes ir.x Tibuon, Jacob ben JIachir ihn

'riHi;u.N, tile Italian physician Nathan 1ih-Mk".\ti,
and Zerahiah ben Isaac i)en Siiealliel Glt.\cUN. ,\na-

toliolranslated the "Almagest" of Ptolemy ("Hibbur
iia-Gadol lia-Nikra al-.Majcsti "i, tlie "Elemenis of
Astronomy" by Al-Fargani, a treatise on Bvilngjsms
by AlFarabi ("Sefer He^ljiesh ha-Ka?cr"). and the
first five books of Averroes" Middle Coinmentjiry ou
Aristotle's "Logic," consisting of ijie Introduction
of Porphyry and the four books of Aristotle on the
"Categories," "Interpretation." "Syllogi.sms," and
"Demonstration."

Closes ibn Tibbon, like his father, begun liis career
as a translator with .several works of Maimonides. in-
cluiling the treatise on hygieneC'Miktab,"or " Ma'u-
mar be-Ilanhagat ha-Beri'ut "), a mishnuic commen-
tary (probably on Zera'im), the "Book of Precepts"
("Sefer ha-3Iiz\vot," Constantinople, <•. 1510). ilie
treatise on logic ("Millot hu Higga-

Arabic yon," Venice, 1552), the treatise on poi-

Philosophy .sons ("Ila-Ma'amar liaNikbad." or

and "Ha-Ma'amar be-Teri'ak "), and the

Science. commentary on llippoerutes' "Apho-
ri.sms. " Moses' other translations are :
Averroes' commentarieson Aristotle's" Physica Ans-
cultatio" ("Kizzure ibn Itoshd 'al Sheina' Tib-j,"
RivadiTrento, 1559); "DeCadoet Mundo " ("Kelnlc
lui-Shamayim weha-'Olam ") ; " De Generatione ct
Corruptione" ("Sefer ha-llawayah weha-Hefsed ");
" Meteora " (" Sefer Otot ha-'Elyonot ") ; " De Anima"
("Kelale Sefer ha-Nefesh ") ; the Midille Commentary
on the last-named uork (" Bi'ur Sefer ha-Nefesh ");
"Parva Naturalia" ("Ila-Hush weha-Muhash "):
" -Metaphysica " (" Mali she-Ahar ha-Teba* '') ; a corn-
men tary on A vicenna's"Arj iizalT'C l$i'urArpuza");
Avicenna's "Small Canon "(" Ha-SederliaKutan ");
Batalyusi's " Al-I.Iada'ik " (" Ila-'AguIlot ha-Ua'yo-
niyyot," ed. Kaufmami, Leipsic. 1880); AlHas-sjir's
treatise on arithmetic (" Seler ha-Heshbon") ; Euclid's
"Elements" ("Shorashim." or " Yesodot "); Al-
Farabi's "Book of the Principles "(" Hathalot lia-
Nimza'ot Iia-Tib'i3'yim," ed. Filipowski, Ltipsic,
1849); Geminus' introduction to the "Almagest"
("llokmat ha-Kokabim," or " l.lokmat ha-Teku-
nah"): Ibn al-Yazzar's " Viaticum "("Zedat liaDc-
rakim"); Huiiain's introduction to medical science
("Mabo el-Meleket ha RefiTali "); Razis works on
the division of maladies ("lla Hilbik weim-Hilluf ")
and on the antidotes; Hunain's translali<in of The-
mistiiis' commentary on the treatise "I^nnln"
("Perush ]\Ia'amar ha-Nirsham be-Ot Lamed •■) and
of the Aristotelian i)hysical questions ("Slie't-lot
Tib'iyyot"); Kosta ben Luka's translation of the
"Splucrica" of Theodosius Tii|>olitanns (-Sefer
Teodosiyus be-Kadiir"): and Ibn Atluh's astronom-
ical work "Kitai) Ilahiyah."

Jacob ben Machir ilm Til)l>on translated: the
"Elements" of Euclid; the treatise of Kosia ben
Liikaon the armillary sphere; the "Data" of Euclid
("Sefer ha-!Mattanot ") a<'Cf)rding to the Arabic
translation of Ishak ben Hunain ; the Irentisc of Aii-
tolycus on the spliere in movement (** Mn'nnmr Tal-
kus'"); three tie.-itises on the sphere by M ' of
Alexandria: Aim 'Ali ilm Hasjui ibn al i I's

astronomical work ("Ma'amar bi Tekiinali." or
"Sefer 'al Teknnah"^: Abu alKasini Ahmnd ibn
al SalTar's treatise on the use of tlie astrolabe-; Abu

Tr«AslAtions

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

222

•.. ■ ■ - ......K.iiji of the

,s astro-

iiah Lii-

. . .rlliyya's

• Aliimirc'St"

f tlie

._..you,"

paniphrase of
of animals;

1 are refuted

u» religion (" Mo-

".^1 til.' "Prince of Transla-

. ." trauslated the fol-

IK.U 'Alial-Mau§uli's

on the treatment of

\vieenna; the aphorisms

•it-ntary, the

III from vari-

» from Galen (-Pirliie Mosheh."

"- ^ Many anonymous

ittributed to Natlian

C«niury ha-Me'ati: Hazfs treatise on bleeding

Actiyity. i *' ' " .kkazah "): Zahrawi's

••(Mi-brew title, "Ze-
ro* ZubfB -Kilabal-Aghdhiyah" ("Sefer

- -.vork on the causes of

l,il>kutha-Me'orot").

A • commentary on Hippocrates'

■:■■'] Phices," begun by
. .1 by his son Solomon,

U'i in mrn concluded the translation
. ii.>m Galen's commentary on Hippoc-
"On H«*L'im»'n in Acute Diseases," and
! work by Ibn Zuhr.
.^.... ; . .. Sliealliel Gracian trans-
la* ■•'« -Plivsics" CSefer ha-Teba'"),

-Ahar ha-Teba'"), " De

... ."iiamayim weha-'Olam "),

• 'T ha-N'efesli "), and " De Causis "

.ur"); Averrocs' Middle

... .s"Pliysic.s," "Mct.iphys-

ct Mundo." with the conunen-

•d work ; tlic first

' .;. ii"; Al-Farabi's

- Ki«Uali n Mahiyyat alNafs " (" Ma'amar bc-Mahut

'• ' " ' ■ ■ ■, (if Galen from the

i ("iSefer hallola'im

in ") : throe chupUTS of Galen's Karayevn,

' ' ' IS. Maimon-

Aphorisms"

II*

JlrV-'

brr

• f the second half of the

■I<1 Bl-Fnliuilfah": Elijah

iii.r " AMembllc>s " of Hariri).

.11 '

• ■ •■■ '>n lyrxiashim.
I'lffli to 'All ben

'iionldes' commentary on

Malmooltlea* Mlnhnah commentary on

nMe*' " Iinrcn>t Toman " (" Petah
"x, rommenlary
■ .MI<T<wosmos "
"ti the thirtfcn
• li .Mlddot").

Shera-Tob ibn Falaquera : Ihn Gabirol's " Mekor Hayylm."

Sheui-fob ben Isj»;ic : Averroes' Middle Commentary on " De
Anima"; Uazl's " Al-Maasuri " ; Zabrawi's " Al-Tasrif."

Stilomon ibn Ayyub: Averroes' " De Coelo et Mundo": Avi-
cenna's "Arjuza"; Ibn Janah's " Kitab al-Taswiyali " ; Mai-
monides' " Kitab al-Fara'i4."

Solomon ibn Ya'at;ub: Malmonides' commentary on Nezikin.

A great number of Arabic works on mathematics,
medicine, astronomy, and philosophy, especially by
Averroes, were translated during the fourteenth cen-
tury. The leading translator in the first twenty
years of that century was Kalonymus ben Kalon-
YMis 15EN MEltn (Maestro Calo), who rendered the
following Arabic woiks into Hebrew:

Al-Farabl's treatise on the Intellect (" Ma'amar be-Sekel we-
ha-Muskal '").

Al-Karabi's division of the sciences (" Ma'amar be-Mispar ha-
Hokinot ").

AI-Farabi's treatise on the method of studying philosophy
(" Igt'cret be-Siddur Keri'at ha-Hokmot").

Al-Kindi's treatises on nativities ("Iggeret be-Kizzur ha-
Ma'amar be-Moladot ") and on the influence of the heavenly
bodies on rain (" Iggerei be 'Ulot ").

Al-Kindi's treatise on humidity and rain (" Iggeret be-Lahit
ube-Matar").

'All Ibn Ridwan's "Kitab al-'Imad fl Usui al-Tibb" ("Ha-
* Ammad be-Shoroshe ha-Ref u'ah ") .

Archimedes' treatise on the sphere and the cylinder, from the
version of Kosta ben Luka.

Averroes' commentaries on the "Topics" ("Bl'ur Sefer
Tobiki") and on "Sophisms" ("Bl'ur Suflstika").

Averroes' Great Commentary on the "Second Analytics"
("Bl'ur Sefer ha-Mofet").

Averroes' Middle Commentaries on " Physics " ; on " De
Generatione et Corruptione" ("Sefer ha-Ha-
Transla- wuyali weba-Hefsed"); on "Meteora" ("Otot
tions of La-Shamayim").

Averroes. Averroes' Middle Commentary on the " Meta-
physics" ("Sefer Mah she-Ahar ha-Teba'").

Averroes' dissertations on the first book of the " First
Analytics."

Commentary on the Kapjrds of Ptolemy, from the Arabic ver-
sion of Abu Ja'far Ahmad ben Yusuf ben Ibrahim (" Sefer ha-
Perl ha-Nikra Me'ah Dibburim").

Galen's treatise on clysjers and colic, from the version of Hu-
nain ibn Ishak ("Sefer Cialyanus be-Hakna ube-Kulga").

Galen's essay on bleeding ("Sefer (ialyanus be-Hakkazah ").

Nichomacus of Gpra,sa's treatise on arithmetic, with a com-
mentary of Abu Sulaiman Rablya ibn Yahya.

Ptolemy's treatise on the planets ("Be-'Inyane ha^Kokabim
ha-Nebukim ").

Thabet ibn Kurrah's work on geometry, " FI al-Shakl al-
Kutta" ("Sefer ha-Teiiiunah ha-Hittukit ").

Treatise on the triangle by Abu Sa'adan.

Treatise on mathematical propositions ("Sefer Meshalim be-
Tlshboret").

Treatise on F.urlid's five geometrical bodies in relation to the
theory of ApoUoiilus, and the commentary of Simplicius.

Treatise on cylinders and cones ("Ma'amar be-Iztawwonot
ube-HldduUim").

Treatise on plants, attributed to Aristotle, with Averroes'
commentary ("Sefer ha-Zemahini ").

Treatise tin animals ("Iggeret Ba'ale Hayyim "), from the
twenty-llrst treatise of the encyclopedia of the Brethren of Sin-
cerity (Mantua. 1557).

Another important translator from the Arabic,
and of the same period, was Samuel ben Judah
(IJonjudas) Males. His ti-anslations include:

Abu Abdallah Mohammed ibn Mu'ad of Seville on the eclipse
of the sun, July 3, 1097, and on the dawn (" Iggeret be-'Ammud
hn-Shahar " ) .

Abu Ishak al-Zarkalah on the movement of the fixed stars
(" Ma'amar be-Tenu'at lia-Kokabiin ha-Kayyamim ").

Abu Mohammed Jabbar Ibn Aflah's compendium of the " Al-
magest."

Alexander of Aphrodlsias on the intellect (" Ma'amar Alek-
satidcr al-Firduzi ").

Averroes' Middle Commentary on Aristotle's " Nlchomachean
Ethics."

223

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Translations

Averroes' commentary on Plato's " Republic"
Averroes' Short Commentary on the "Organon " ; on peoniet-
rloal bodies (books xxx. and xxxi. of Euclid), a supplement to
the translation of Kalonymus ben Kalonymus ; commentary on
the "Almapest," i.-iii.

Dissertations on some obscure passages of Averroes' com-
mentary on the "Orpanon," by Abu al-Kasim ibn Idris, Abu
al-Ha]jaj ibn Talmus. Abu al-'Abbas Ahmad ben Kaslm, and
*Abd al-Rahman ben Tahir.

Otlier Arabic works were translated in the four-
teenth century by :

Ibn Vives al-Lorqui : Various books of the "Short Canon " of
Avicenna.

Isaac ben Joseph Ibn Pulgar: Ghazall's " Maka§id al-Falasl-
fah " (" Kavvwanot ha-FilosuQm ").

Isaac ben Nathan of Cordova : Maimonides' " Makalah (1 al-
Tauhid" ("Ma'amar ha-Yihud"), Tabrizi's commentary on
Maimonides' tweuty-flve premises, and probably Joseph ibn
'Aknin's metaphysical essay.

Joseph ben Abraham ibn Wakkar: A medical work ("Sefer
Refu'ot") and Zahrawi's " Kitab al-Tasrif."

Moses ben Samuel ben Asher: Averroes' commentary on
" Logic."

Moses ben Solomon of Beaucaire : Averroes' Great Commen-
tary on the '* Metaphysicii."

Nathan Judah ben Solomon : Ibn Abi §alt Umayya's medical
work ("Kelal Kazer weha-Sammim ha-Nifradim ") and Gha-
zali's "Maka^id" ("Kawwanot ha-FilosuQm").

Nethaneel ben Meshullam (or Menahem ben Nethaneel): Ju-
dah ibn Balaam's treatise on the Hebrew accents ("Horayyat
ha-Kore").

Samuel Motot : Abraham ibn Baud's " Al-'Akidah al-Rafl'ah "
(" Emunah Ramah " ; the same work was translated, under
the title " Emunah Nisa'ah," by Solomon Labi). Samuel Motot
translated also passages from pseudo-Ibn Ezra ("Sefer ha-
'Azamim").

Shem-Tob Ardotial : Isaac Israeli's ritual work ("Mizwot Ze-
maniyyof).

Samson ben Solomon : The compendium of Galen's writings
by the Alexandrians (" Ha-Kibbuzira le-Aleksandriyim ").

Solomon Dapiera : Moses ben Tobi's commentary on the di-
dactic poem " Al-Saba'niyyah " (" Batte ha-Nefesh ").

Solomon ibn Patir : Ibn Haitham's astronomical work " Kaul
fl Hi'at al-'Alam."

Todros Todrosi : Averroes' Middle Commentaries on the

"Poetics" and "Rhetoric," the three essays

Aristotelian against Avicenna, the treatise on the intellect.

Com- Avicenna's "Naja," and Al-Farabi's philo-

mentaries. sophical questions, " 'Uyun al Masa'il " (" 'En

Mishpat ha-Derushim ").

Averroes' treatise against Ghazali's " Tahafut al-Fala-

sifah" ("Happalat ha-Happalah").

Ghazali's answers to philosophical questions ("Ma-
'amar bi-Teshubot She'elot Nish'al Mehem ").

Pseudo-Ibn Ezra's " Sefer lia-'Azamim," and Joseph

ibn Wakkar's and Solomon ibn Ya'ish's supercommentaries on
Ibn Ezra's commentary on the Pentateuch.

Witii the fourteenth centiirj'- tlie era of transla-
tions from tlie Arabic was practically closed, only a
few works being translated during the fifteenth and
si.vtecnth centuries. These were:

Hayyim ibn Musa : A medical work of Al-Jazzar.

Isaac ben Joseph Alfiisi : Ghazali's " Mishkat al-Anwar"
("Mashkit ha-Urot we-Pardes ha-Nizanim ").

Mazliah of Galilee and Solomon Ma'arabi : Isaac Alfasi's rules
relating to the treatise Ketubot.

Moses Galina: An astronomical treatise of Omar ibn Moham-
med Mesuman ("Sefer Mezukkak"). Moses Galina translated
also a work on astrology ("Mishpat ha-Mabbatim ") and one
on geoniancy ("Sefer ha-Goralot").

Moses ben Joseph Aruvas: The pseudepigraphic work
known as the Aristotelian " Theolngy."

Saadia ben David al-Adeni : (ihazali's " Zakat al-Nufus."
(Saadia declared this to be his own work.)

Tanbiim Moses of Beaucaire : Hippocrates' " Prognostics "
(" Panim le-Panim").

Zerahiah ha-Levi Saladin : Ghazali's " Tahafut al-Falasifah "
(" Mappalat ha-PilusuOm ").

Several translations from the Arabic were made
in the second half of the nineteenth century: Reck-

ciidfirf translated the Koran (Leipgic, 1857); Joseph
Deienlxiiirg triuislali-d Maiinonides' conuneulurv < •
Seder Toiiorot (Ik-rlin, iy87-»y); fragments of Su.>
dia's commentaries on Proverbs, Isaiah, and Jr.
were translated by Dcrenbourg. Meyer Lumbci;
and Wilhebii Bacher; Isaac Broyde translated ]'.■'
ya's "Ma'ani aINafs" ("Torot ha-Nefesh " ]'.
1896).

TJie following are among the numeroii'^ uv,.Lu
translated anonymously by Jewish authors
Sahl ibn BIshr, astrologjcul work, under the title ' i
four works attributed to Lsaac Isnicll : (l)"Kltali..

al-Mufrldah wal-Aghdhlyah." on diet i
Anonymous Mehubbar mi-Ma'auiar ha-Rlshnnlin Ix
Transla- ha-.Mezonot we-Kohatatn "): <:.') "Kli.r
tions. Bui" ("Sefer Mehubbar ml-Ma'amur ! .^ 1

shonlm be-Vedl'at lia-Sheieu "): (3) " Klta
al-Hummayat"; (4) "Aphorisms" ("Musar ha-Rofe'iu. '
Saadia's "Emunot"; Hal Gaon'a treatise on oath.s (".Mi-
Shebu'ot"); Responsaof theGeonlm (Natronal. Saadlu.Si
Hal); Japheth ben All's coinmenUary on the Pentateuch:
ua's " Teshubot ha-'Ikkarim " and Bereshlt Rabljuh : Jud.i;. ..
Baalam's works on homonyms ("Kitab al-TaJnIs"). on t)
particle ("Otot ha-*Inyanim "),and on " Vert)a Denoinlnn'" ■
'' Al-Af'al al-Mushtakkah mln al-Asma" (" Ha-Po"»llni S!
me-Gizrot ha-Shemot"); Moses ibn Ezra's " KItah ul-Had.. m i.
Ma'ani al-Mujazwal-Hakikah" ("'Arugat ha-Bosem "/: JoM-jih

ibn Zaddik's "Microcosm" ("'Olara Katan"); .M:: .■•■<.-•

treatises on the calendar ("Sefer ha-'Ibbur"), on
" Makalah U al-Sa'adah " (" Plrke ha-Hazlahah "), an.i • ,,
conversions (" Iggeret ha-Shemad "), responsa on heniori
"Fi al-Bawiisir" (" Ha-Ma'amar be-Refu'at ha-Teharliu ' > .
sexual intercourse, " Fl al-Jama'ah " (" Ma'amar ha-Mlshpnl "
and on poisons. "Al-Sumum wal-Mutaharrlz mln al-Ad- •
al-Kitalah," and the commentary on Hippo<rates' " Aplmri-
Joseph ibn 'Aknin's " Makalah 11 TIbb nl-.Nafs " (" .MariH-
fesh"); Abraham Maimonides' "Kifayah"; Moses Al)i:
theological work "Ma'amar Elohi"; Joseph ibn Niihmla- ?.-
tronomical work "Nur al-'Alam" ("Or'Olam"); Joseph II i
Wakkar's work on the SeBrot.

The oldest known Hebrew translation from tin
Latin belongs to the thirteenth century. About V2!)0
Solomon ben Mo.scs ^Iclgueiri translated the treatise
known as " De Soinno et Vigilia " and attributed
to Aristotle ("Ha-Shanah weha-Yeliizah"); Aver
roes' commentary on the third book of Aristi'
"Metaphysics"; Avicenna's " De Ccvlo et Miiin:
and Matthreus Platearius' "De Simplici Medicina,
About the same time Berechiah ben Na^ronai Kr.
ha-Nakdan gave a Hebrew version of Adehu .
Bath's "Quajstiones Naturales," and of a "I^api
dary " containing a description of si.xty-thrce kinds
of stones. Toward the end of the same rrntury
Samuel ben Jacob of Capua rendered into Ilelircw.
underthe general title "Meha-'E?.ah wcha Tiba'itn '
tlie Latin version " De Medicamentnnmi Pmji
tionum Delectio," or "Castigatione," of a work vi
^lesue the Elder. About the same time Hillel 1« n
Samuel transhited the Latin version of Hippoora'
" Aphorisms " by Constanlinus Africanu.<». and ** Clii-
rurgia Burni."

Tlie fourteenth century, an age of translations
from the Arabic, was equally fertile in tnr
from the Latin. About 131)5 Estori Farl.ii tra;
under the title "Targum Sefer Refu'ot." Armengnud
Blaise's " Dc Bemediis." and. tinder the title "S«f<T

ha-Kibbusiin."an anonymous work «n

From the purgatives that liad boon rcmlcrwl

Latin. into Latin from tin' Ambir by Elijah

ben Judah. In V.V20 H'-zckiah ben
Halafta gave a Hebrew version of Petrus Hispanus'
treatise on logic ("Higgayon"). About the same

THE JEWISH E^XYCLOPEDIA

224

Ute vl I

Imto I> • uudcr the

;V -Do

Casluri

c lille -.Ma ainar Ik- Haiiliagat

1 dc YillfiHUV, •>; '• liigiiiuu

itioiis from

Ik iiiaiu), who,

V r«'ii«lc*ivtl into

- . " De Esse

.,..,/.. ... .... Mczi'nt'');

.if till* soul (-Ma'amar
•ht'in "). and ou

. ha-ilL'l>l>eshiy-

:i ilif thiitl book of AiJstot-
mj till' com men tjiiy

.iu"; AlbertusMag-

. tlic tliiril book of Aristotle's
tots from Albert us
Minarite's glos.ses
\ tracts from Augelo
.k». Uic "LilH-r de Causis"
Thomas Aquinas' "Treatise
from his "Coutra Gentiles"
■ "Di- Substantia Or-
Hoitliius' *' De Uni-
>laamar Im-Ehad wcha-Ahadut").
' ' Ijil in \v< re as follows:

.>n tilt' lui'diial virtues
• lljc scriK'iit (-Ma'amarbiSegullot 'Or
' - David ibn Bilia; Francesco dei
. da Foligno's, and John of Bur-
s'* -Consilia" ("'Ezah"), by Joshua of Bo-
' -• .'id de Villcneuvc's treatise " De Vinis"
|M-.Y»'not "). an<l Bernard of Gordon's
son fevers, both translated by
i.ii Bongodas" and "Bonjues");
It's- Liliiiin Medicin;u"C" Perah ha-
>en .Samuel of Uoccambra (.John
• . Jekuthiel ben Solomon of Nar-
Im-Hefu'ah "); Leon's " llistoria de
i'-r "). iiy Inunanuel ben

. .. iti's "Materia Medica"

"». Arnaudde Villeueuve's "^ledi-

liis work on digestion and

;-tary of Gerard de Solo on

' Itiizi'g "AI-Manzuri," and Petrus

Abraham Abiirdor

- lomon; Gerard de

ry oil the ninth book (" Pathology ")

' of nu'dicine ("Mcyasiishcr

r on tlie relation between

lite attributed to ni|)pocrates.

■ f ' irn McdiciiKi- " anrl

;li of Carc.issonne;

a." l)y Todros ben

■ n< \ iilcneuve's " De Ju-

lim la Mishpat ") and Sac-

li "(".Mnreh ha Ofannim"),

'. ' ■ dor (ihe fust work

of lifteen); Arnold

I Super Vila Bievis." by

^n Hijal's astronomical

; of .Eddius or of Pe-

i\i: hu-Kokabim '•). by Solo'non

The tifteeuth century was for the Hel)rew transla-
tions from the Latin what the fourteenth was for
those from the Arabic; it was the richer in literary
productions, but with it the era of translations
closed. The most important of the translated works
in that century were:

Abnitiain ben Joseph bon Nahmias: Thomas Aquinas' com-
mentary "11 Aristotle's " Meiiipliysics."

Abraliaiii Solomon Tatalan : Albertus Mairnus' " Philosonhica
Pauperuin" C" Kizziir ha-Filosolla lia-Tib'it "), and Mai-siliiis'
"Questions" on the " Isairoge" of Porphyry, on the "Cate-
gories," and on hermeneutics.

Abual-Khair: Albul>ather's " Liber de Nati\ itatlhiis" ("Sa-
fer ha-Moladot ") and Rajil's astronomical work "Completiis."

Asherben Moses Valabrega: Guy de Chauliac's "Chirurgla
Parva."

Azariah ben Joseph ben Abba Mari : Boettiius' " De Consola-
lione Philosophiir," the twenty-eiphth book of

Medieval Zahrawi's "Liber Practioa'" (after the Latin
Science and of Simon of Genoa), the second book of the
Philosophy. "Simplicia" of Dioscorides, and Gerard de
Sabbionetta's astronomical work " Theorica."

Baruch ben Isaac ibn Ya'ish : Aristotle's " Metaphysics " and
the tales, "Gesta Romanorum " ("Sefer Hanok"),of Petrus
Alfonsis.

Benjamin ben Isaac of Carcassonne: Juan de Burpundin's
treatise on the spread of the plague ("Be-'lppush ha-Awwir
weha-Deber," or " 'Ezer Eloah ").

David ben Jacob Mei'r : John of Gmiind's astronomical work.

Daviil ibn Shoslian ben Samuel of Avipnon : Thomas Bicot's
"Textus Abl)reviatus Aristotelis. Super VIII. Libros Physicie et
Tola Natur.ilis Philosophia" ("Toledot Adam").

Elijah ben Joseph Habillo: Thomas Aquinas' "Qujpstiones
Disputatae," "CJuiestio de .\nima," " De Anima Facultatibus"
("Ma'amar be-Ki>hot lia-Nefesh," published by Jellinek in
" Philosophie und Kabbalah," Leipsic, 1.S54), and " De fniver-
salibus"; Questions on Thomas Aquinas' treatise on "Beinff
and Quality" ("She'elot Ma'amar be-Nimza ube-Mahut ");
Occam's "Summa Totius Loirices " and " QuiPstiones Philo-
sophise" ; Aristotle's " De Causa" ; and Vincenz de Beauvais's
" De Universalibus."

Ephraim Mizrahi : Geor? Purbacli's astronomical work "The-
orica" ("Te'orikaha-Nikra Malialak ha-Kokabim ").

Isaac Caitret (orCabrit): John Sancto Amanelo's " Expositio
In Antidotarium Nicolai."

Joseph ben lienvenisle : Joshua ben Joseph ibn Vives al-Lor-
qui's treatise on the effects of nourishment, and on the simple
and compound medicaments ("(ierem ha-Ma'alot ").

Judah Shalom (Astruc) ben Samuel : Petrus Hispanus' "Parva
Logica" and his commentary on Hippocrates' " Aphorisms."

Mei'r Alpuadez : Aristotle's " Ethics" and "Economics."

Mordecai Kinzi : The Alfonsine Tables.

Moses ben Abraham of .Nimes : The Alfonsine Tables.

Moses ben Mazliah: .Serapion's "Simplicia," from the Latin
of (ierard de Cremona.

I'hinehas ben Zebi ben Nethaneel : Raimundus LuUus' " Ars
Brevis."

Solomon ben Moses Shalom : Antonius Guainerius' " De Fe-
bribis" (" Kelal meha-Kaddahut") and Bartolomeo Monta-
gnana's "Consilium" (" .Melia-'Ezah ").

Thaddeus: Treatise ou fevers ("Kelal Kazer 'al Minhag ha-
Kaddahul").

After the si.xtecnth century Hebrew translations
from the Latin became very scarce. The few works
translated included : a treatise on eclipses of the sun
and moon ("Ma'amar NiUbad be-Likkuyot Slium-
shiyyot wc-Yerahiyyot "), by Moses beii Abraham
Sahliui; Albertus' (Magnus ?) "Questions uiui An-
swers on the Si.\ Natural Tilings Jie()uire(l by the
Body According to the Science of Medicine," by
Moses ibn Habii); an ethical woik("Zemah Zaddik,"
Venice, 1(500), by Leon dc Modciia ; Thomas Atiuinas'
"Summa Theoiogiiu Contra Gentiles," by Jo.soph
Zahalou; the letters of Seneca, by Judah Leon ben
Eliczer Bricli (published in " Kercm Hemcd," ii. 110
ctsrfj.); Spinoza's "Ethics," by Solomon Itubin
(" Hekcr Eloah ") ; the thirteenth chapter of Tacitus'
history, by Solomon Mandelkern.

225

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

TranBlations

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
very few works of any kind were translated into
Hebrew; but with the Ilaskalah movement in Rus-
sia and Galicia the works of pronii-
Modern nent European writers began to be ren-
Times. dered into that language. The fol-
lowing is a list of Miein, given under
the heading of the language from which the trans-
lations were made :

Eng-lish. ARUilur, Grare : " Vale of Cedars " (" 'Emek ha-
Araziiii," by Abraliaiii Slialoin Friedberp, Warsaw, 1875).

Banyan : " Pilgrim's Progress " (transl. by S. Hoga, London,
184."».

Byrou : "Hebrew Melodies" ("Shire Yeshurun," by Solo-
mon Maudelkern, Leipsic, ISiK)).

Cumberland, Uicbard : "The Jew" ("Ish Yehudi," by Jo-
seph Brill, VVilna, 1H7J*).

Defoe, Daniel: "Robinson Crusoe" (" Kur 'Oni," by Isaac
Moses Uuinseh, Wilna, 18til).

Disraeli, Benjamin: "David Alroy" ("Hoter mi-Geza' Yi-
shai," by Abraham Abel Ilekowski, Warsaw, 1880); "Tancred"
("Nes la-Goyim," by Judah Liib Levin, ih. D<8I5).

Eliot, Ceorge: "Daniel Deronda" (transl. by David Friseh-
man, Warsaw, 1894).

Longfellow: "Excelsior" (transl. by Henry Gersoni, New
York, 1871).

Milton : " Paradise Lost " (" Wa-Yegaresh ha-Adam," by Isaac
Edward Salkinsoii ; al.so under the title "Toledot Adam we-
Hawwah," by Samuel Raffalowich, Jerusalem, 1892).

Mocatta, F. D.: " The Jews in Spain" ("Ha-Yehudim bi-Se-
farad," by Israel Be'er Franklin, Jerusalem. 187t)); "The Jews
in Spain and Portugal, and the Inquisition " (transl. by Isaac
Hirsch Barth, Cracow, 1888).

Shakespeare: "Othello" and "Romeo and Juliet" ("Itiel"
■and " Rom we-Ya'el," by Isaac Edward Salkinson, Vienna, 1874
and 1878).

Spencer, Herbert: "Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Phys-
ical " (" Sefer ha-Hinnuk," by Judah Lob Davidovich, Warsaw,
1894).

Zangwill, Israel : "Ghetto Tragedies" (" Mahazotha-Getto,"
by S. L. (iordon, Warsaw, 1896).

French. Bernardln de Saint Pierre : " Harmonie de la Na-
ture" ("Sulam ha-Teba'," by Joseph Herzberg, Wilna, 18o0).

Carnot, Hippolyte: "Histoire de la Revolution Fran(;aise "
(" Ha-Mahpekah ha-Zarfatit," by Ludvipol, Warsaw, 1H98).

Daudet, Alphonse : A short novel transl. by Abraham Shalom
Friedberg, In " Me-Sifrut ha-'Ammim."

Florian, Jean Pierre Claris de : " NumaPompilius" ("Eli'ezer
Tve-Naftall" [?], by Aaron Margolis, Warsaw, 1864; also by
Isaac Troller, Wilna, 1867).

Halevy, Ludovic : A short novel transl. by Abraham Shalom
Friedberg, in "Me-Sifrut ha-'Ammim."

Hugo, Victor : " L' Ane " (" Ha-Hamor weha-Filosof," by Wolf-
gang Gronich, Vienna. 1881); "La Guerre Civile" ("Milhemet
ben Ahim," by J. Lewner, Warsaw, 189(>); " Le Dernier Jour de
la Vie d'un Condamne " (transl. by Safran, ih. 1898).

Kahn, Zadoc : "L'Esclavage Selon la Bible et le Talmud."

Maspero: "Histoiredes Anciens Peuples de rOrieiit " (transl.
by Ludvipol and Joseph Halevy, Warsaw, 1898).

Mass^, Victor: "Histoire d'une Miette" ("Toledot Pas Le-
hem," by Abraham Jacob Tik tin, Warsaw, 1882); "line Episode de
la Revolution Fran(;aise" (transl. by Moses Weissberg, ih. 1884).

Maupassant, Guy de : "Selections" ("Ketabim Nibharim,"
7 vols., Warsaw, 1904-5, by N. Slouschz).

Mickiewicz, Adam: " Le Llvre de la Nation Polonaise et les
Pelerins Polonais " ("Sefer 'Am Poloiiim we-Gere Polonlm," by
Moses Ezekiel Ascarelli, Paris, 1881).

Racine: "Esther" (transl. by Josejih Ilaltren and Solomon
J. Rapoport) and "Athalie" (transl. by Meir ha-Levi Letteris,
Prague, 184:^).

Scribe: "LaJuive" (" Rahel ha-Yehudiyyah," by Susmann
Marik, Warsaw, 1886).

Sue, Engene: "Les Mysteres de Paris" ("Mistere Pariz."
■by Kalman Schulman, Wilna, 18.57 76): " Le .luif Errant"
("Ha-Zofeh be-Erez Nod," by Simhah Posner, Warsaw, 18,56-
1873); " Les Sept Peches Capitana " ("Sheba' Hatta'ot She'ol,"
by Lasar Schapira, in " Meged Yerahim").

Verne, Jules: " Vingt MilleLieues sous les Mers" (" Be-Mezu-
lot 5'am," by Isaac Wolf Sperling); "Voyage au Centre de la
Terre" ("Be-Beten ha-Adamah," idem).

Zola: Three short stories translated by S. Sluschtsch. War-
saw, 1898.

XII.— 15

^' ski, L.: Novel, published by the "Archives Isn»eliii-H."

depicting Jewish life In Russia (" iluian Duuilin," by Abralmm
Jacob llruck, Leriiberg, 1H7M).

German. Andersen : " Mftnlien und Ere&hlungen" (transL
by D. Krischmann, Warsaw, 1W»").

Bernstein : " Ausdeni Relche derNntur" ("Yedl'at ha-fcba',"
by D. Krischmann, ih. 1SH2-«5|; " Bruliiimnlnche WelubeU"
(" Mlshle Hrakman," by Schorr, I^nil)erg, 1k«17).

Borne, Ludwig: " Brief e aus I'arls" (trun«l. by S. J. E. Trl-
wasch, Warsaw, 1897).

(ampe: "Theophron" (" Musar Haskel," by Banich 8«hrin-
feld, Prague, IKJI ; tninsl. also by Arno|i.)lsky, (idevji. IWtl);
on sea-voyages ("Ma.ssa'ot lia-Ynm." by Elliut I>evl. Zolklev,
1818); "Sittenbik'hleln" (transl. by David Ziimowz, Bn-slau.
1K18); "Die Entdeckung Ainerlka's " C Mezl'at Atnerika." by
Moses Mendelsohn, Altona, 1807; transl also by DhvIiI Ziirn>.s<-/,
Breslau, 1824); "Robinson der Jungere" (transl. by Duvld
Zamoscz, ih. 1824).

Cassel, David : "Geschlchteund LlteruturderJuden " (transL
by D. Radner. Warsaw, 18«0).

Ecktiard: (ierman transl. of Phllo's " I^gatlo ad Calum "
("Malakut Filon ha-Yehudi," by Marcus Aaron (iOn/burg.
Warsaw, 18;i7i.

EUenberger, Henri: "Die Leiden und Verfolgiingen <lerJu-
den" ("Zal we-Or," by Hermann Horowitz, Pn'sburg. I^«2).

Francolm: "Die Juden und die Kreuzfahrer" ("Ha-Yebu-
dim be-Angliya," by Miriam Mosessohn).

Goethe: " F'aust" (" Hen Abuvah," by MeTr hn-l,evl I^tierta.
Vienna, I860); "Hermann und Dorothea" (" Ha-Z<*dek," by
Marcus Rothenburg, Warsaw, 1857).

Gratz, Heinrich : " (ieschichle der Juden" ("DIbre ha-Ya-
mim li-Bene Yisrael," by S. P. Rabbinowitz, Warsaw, ixidh.

(iiidemann: "Geschiclitedes Erziebungswesens" (" tia-Toruh
weha-Hayyiin ba-Arazot ha-Ma'arab li-Veme ha-Benaylin." by
Abraham Shalom Friedberg, ili. lK9:i <)5).

Gnstavsobn : "Sammlung von Jugenderzablungen " (transl.
by N. Pius, Warsaw, 1896 98); "Die Drel Bruder" ("Shela.sbot
Ahiin "); "Der Hirt und ilie Kcinigstochter" (" Ha-Ro'eh we^
Bat ha-Melek "); " Der Schlaflose Kcinig " (the last Uirve traosl.
by J. Lewner, Warsaw, lS9ti-98).

Heine, Heinrich: "Judah ha-LevI," a poem (transl. by Solo-
mon Luria. Warsaw, 1886).

Heise, Paul : "Sulamit" (transl. by S. Gordon, ih. 1898).

Herzberg. Frankel: "Die Vergeltung" (" Ha-Gemul." by P.
Sionimsky, Odessa, 1867).

Herzl, Theodor : " Der Judenstaat " (" Medlnat ha-Yehudlrii."
by Michel Berkovitz, Warsaw, 1S96); "Das Neue Ghetto"
("Ha-Getto he-Hadash," by Reuben Urainin. ih. 1898).

Hoffmann, Fr.: " Kiinigssohn " ("Ben ba-Melek." by Moses
Samuel Sperling, Warsaw, 1876); " rnredliches (Jut" ("Naha-
lah Mebohelet," by Manus Manassewitz, Wilna, 1>0<T).

Honigmann : "Die Erl)schaft" (" Ha-Yerushshah," by
Samuel Joseph Fuenn, Wilna, 18H4).

Jellinek, A.: " Der Jiidische Stamm In Nichtjudls'-hen SprOrh-
wortern " (transl. by Elimele<'li We<-hsler, in " Ha-Aslf." vol. 111.).

Josephus: "Judische .\llertliiiiner " i" Kadmonlyyoi ha-Ye-
hudim," by Kalman S<hulman, Wilna, 18W); "Krtege" ("Mll-
hamot ha-Yeluuliiii," iilein. lb. I.HH4).

Kayserling : " Biographische Skizze des Menaaseh ben Israel "
("Toledot Mana.^seh ben Yisrael," by Joseph Ijisar Epstein. In
" Ha-Karinel," iii.).

Klopstock.G.: " Der Tod Adams " ( " Mot Adam," by Menahem
M. Litinsky. Prague. 1817).

Kohn,S.: "DerRetter" (" Podeh we-Mazzll," by Lasar l.«ac
Sehapini, Warsaw, 1866).

Kompert, L.: " Zwei Triinmier" ("Shete IJarabot," by SQ»-
mann Marik. St. Petersburg. 1880 ; transl. also by Wolf JaweU.
Warsaw, 1887).

Kotzebue: "DerSchatz" (" Ha-Ozer." by David R(>«>nhand,
Warsaw, 1845); "Der Arnie Poet" ("Ha-Meshorcr ha-'Anl."
by Isidor Brustlger, Leniberg, 18H4).

Lazarus. M.: "Der Prophet Jeremiah" (transl. by IU>uben
Brainin, Warsaw. 189<)).

Lehinann, M.: "Der Graf und Jude" (transl. by Joseph Lflb
Petuchowskv, in " Ha-U'lmnr)n," 1^*72; also by Samuel J.wph
Fuenn, under the title " na-Hilluf," Wilna, l^Hli; " i>n-« I.l.ht
der Diaspora" C Ma'orba-cioiah." by Joseph t/'b Pi ■
i7).1890); " Bostanai" (transl. by S4imuelJo)i«-ph Kuei

Lessing, (iotthold Ephruini : " .Nathan der Wel<w '" ' .V.ui.au
he-Hakam," by S. Bacher. Vienna. 18iV>; transl. al!«> bv a. B.
(iotiloljer, who rendennl the Hebn-w in the same f
original, ih. 1874); "Philotas" (" Abinadah," by J.
Odessa. 1S68); " Die Juden " (" Ha-Yehdim." by Ja< ..li K .lin.
Warsaw, 1H75; also in verse by HIrsh Teller, Vienna. 18»*li:
"Der Frelgelst" ("IJonen we-Noten." by D. Kobn); "Miss

Tr«n«l*ttoiui

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

226

kel.

'Mot Uasblaniat

it Beter." by
<-u Abuyab " (in

wa ^lr»nsl. by Joseph Kuttner.
IMe MrUplKmJwe" (limittt. by J. Leaner. Warsaw,

T
(I
K
I-
I

- by A. B. GotUo-

A-, Vii-niia. 1^715);

.'■ hy Samuel

; .\ Isaiali Beer-

"••'■■ Mninsl. by Dtvtd Radner, Warsaw,

•■^ ),.. r!..iiw'i,,ijsl.iire" ("Yesod

-■^berg. 1M9k

......unit," by Jo

iiiiil Jerusalfiu"
. .. rit-r. In "Ha-Asif,"
\ israt'l," by Abraham
II Tlrado " (" Ya'akob
.:i, 1874); "Der Flut-ht-
:•< Miriam Mosessohn);
-.. iiv Solomon Mandelkern,
iiui " ("Klddusb ha-Shem." by
in" (transl. by S. Bacher, vi-
ler Juden" ("Zlkronot le-Bet
'. ursaw. lWfl-95; under the title
• volume was translated by Abra-

UesundbellM-blQssel" ("Nellb ^ayyim," by A.
LTjltz" (" Rab le-Uoshla'," by Abra-

■ A. lh((6).

ren " (transl. by A. Mlrsky, in
.).

nt<Tden Linden " (transl. by Kalman

.' Wllna, 1H47); " Philosophische

.bin. Lembenf, 1851»: " Die Zer-

iva," in verse, by .Micah Leben-

.riu Mdw-s" ("Dibre Emet." by

^lessina" ('■ Medanim

: -liie l{aul)er"("Ha-

■-■m. 1871); "Wilhelm

. 1878); "Don Carlos"

f .'"iiiHri" (iransl. by Solomon

■' '"Tir/ah." by Oslaa Atlas.

! H.-sko." by Samuel Apfel,

■ Aitiarli Yesh Tlkwah," by

:r ha-I^'Vi Leiteris trans-

' lia-shaliar." Vlr-nna, 18»i0.

i.r Juden" ("Mlf'alot ha-

:/. Wllna, 1882).

iterenika" uransl. by David Frlschmann,

. I lathe Literatur" ("Slfrut

iH-nuncUt" (" Ha-Moser," or " Alja-

(" Rehobha-Zahah." hy J.
"•-•huldlKunK" {"'Alllot

iiV, 187H).

.^ UTit und Jildlsches Le-
Ik. Drohoblcz. IKKJ).
■ ■ '•tlininacht"("Lel8hlm-

' ii" ("Mar'ot Elohlm."

area 11 StaU) DprII Hobrel.

•>. In "Iinreret Yushur." vol. ij.

" ....K"jy (iranal. by Samuel Aaron Ro-

• ,•••.,... V .k." by Elijah Bnrdnch.
.'•I l)l-Yede Yehudit,"

a drama ("Ma'aseh Es-

' (transl. by Abraham

Pauliokl : Onpopular medicine ("Marpele- 'Am," by Beza-
leel Juduh Eliiusberp, Wilna, 1834, 1842; Jitomir, 1886).

Riualdo Rinaldini : novel ("Lahakat Shodedim," by Hayyim
Goldstein, Wars<iw, 18.59).

Russian. Bopron : " Poimannik " ("Ha-Nilkad be-Shehl-
tot .\nslic Kesha"," by Isaac Andres, Warsaw, 1877).

Frug: Poems ("Kol Shire Frug," by Jacob Kaplan, Warsaw,
1898).

Harkavy: "Judah ha-Levl" (transl. by Abraham Shalom
Friedberg, in " Keneset Yisrael." vol. ii., 188(5).

Hufeland: "Enchiridion Medicon" ("Darke ha-Refu'ot," by
Jacob Frohnberg, Jitomir, 18()9).

Krilov : Fables ("Tikkun Meshalim," by Moses Reicherson,
Wilna, 1860).

Lewanda: " Genev 1 Milost Mapnata " (" 'Ir u-Behalot." hy
Samuel LiJw Citron, in " Keneset Yisrael," 1880); " Abrahaui
Yosefovich" ("Abraham ben Yosef," i(/e//i).

Habbinovlch, Osip : "Shtrafnoi" ("Ben 'Onesh," by Kanel-
sky. Odessa, 1805).

Turpenef: Short story transl. by Abraham Shalom Friedberp.
in "Me-Sifrul hii-'.\mmim."

Spanish. Cervantes: "Don Quixote" ("Abino'am ha-Ge-
1111," hy I. Fraenkel. Leinherg. 1871).

Crescas. Hasdai : " Tratado " ( " Bittul 'Ikre Dat ha-Nozartm,"
by Joseph ihn Shem-Tob, published by Ephraim Deinard,
Kearny, N. J., 1894).

Escudero, Lorenzo (Abraham Peregrino): " Fortalezza del
Judaismo y Confusion del Estrano" ("Zeriah Bel El," by
Marco Luzzatto of Triest [in manuscript]).

Morteira, Saul : " Tractado de la Verdad de la Ley " (" Torat
Mosheh," by Isaac Gomez de Gosa [in manuscript]).

From the Hebrew : Aside from tlie Arabic

versions of tlic Bible, tiie Talmud, and tlie prayers

(with which this article is not concerned), only three

Arabic translations from the Hebrew

Into are extant: the travels of Eldad ha-

Arabic. Daui, b}" an anonymous translator;

the Yosippon (" Yusuf ibn Karyun"),
by Zechariah ibn Sa'id; and Isaac ibn Crispin's
"Sefer ha-Musar " ("Mahasin al-Adab "), by Joseph
ibn Hasan, which is supposed by Steinschneider to
have been itself an adaptation from the xVrabic.
Through the Hebrew versions of the Arabic scien-
tific works the treasures of the East and of ancient
Greece were opened to the "West. Indeed, with the
exception of a small numl)er of Latin translations
made directly from the Arabic, mostly with the
assistance of Jewish interpreters, all the works from
which the Latin workl learned mathematics, astron-
omy, medicine, philosophy, and other sciences were
translated from the Hebrew versions made from the
Araliic. Although it is possible that some among
the Latin translations of the twelfth century were
made from the Hebrew, the oldest known dates only
from the thirteenth century. About 1200 John of
Capua translated, under the title " Diiectoiium Vita?
Human;e " (published by J. Deiciibourg, Paris,
1887), Joel's Hebrew version of the " Kalilah wa-
Dimnah." He translated also ^laimonides' work on
the dietary laws and Ibn Zuhr's medical work " Al-
Tai.sir." Toward the end of the same century Ar-
mengaud Blasius translated Jacob ben ^Machir ibn
Tibbon's treatise on the quadrant invented by tiie
latter, under the title " Quadrans Novus " or " Quad-
rans Judaicus."

During the fourteenth century only a few Avorks
were translated from the Hebrew into Latin. Among
these were the anonymous "iSefer ha-Hinnuk," on
the precepts, and Abner of l^urgos' " Iggeret ha-
Gezerah." During the tiffecnth century Latin litei-
ature was enriched with many valuable works from
the Hebrew. About 148G Elijah Delmedigo made
the following translations: " (jua?stiones Tres : i. De

227

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Translations

Prinio Motore; ii. De Mundi Eflicientiii; iii. Do Esse
Essc'iilia et Uno " (Venice, lOUl) ; " Avorrois Qiui'S-
tio in Lihro Prioium " ("Analytics," Venice, 1^97);
Avermes' comnieutiiry on Pluto's "Republic" (" Dc
Pegimine Civitatis"); " Averrois CoMunentuli(j

[Summa] in Meteora Aristotelis," with
Into Latin. I'ragnieutsfroni Averroes' MidilleCoin-

meiitary (ib. 1488); "Averrois Coni-
mentatio [Media] in Mctaph. Aristotelis," i.-vii.
{lb. 1560): Averroes' proem to the Large Commen-
tary on Aristotle's "Metaphysics," xii. ; Averroes'
"De iSubstantia Orbis"; "Sperma." Delmedigo's
jirotector, Pico de Mirandola, translated at the same
time the commentary of Menahem Recauati on the
Pentateuch, the " Hokmat ha-Nefesh " (" iScientia
AnimiC ") of Eleazar of Worms, and the "Sefer ha-
Ma'alot" of Sliem-Tob Faluquera. The teacher of
Pico de Mirandola, Flavins Mithridates, translated
thirty-eight fragments of various cabalistic works,
Maimonides' epistle on resurrection, Levi ben Gcr-
shon's commentary on Canticles, and Judah's
"Ma'amar ha-Hawwayah ha-IIekkeshiyyah " ("Ser-
mo de Generatione Syllogismoium Simplicium et
Comi)Ositorum in Onmi Figura ").

Very important contributions to Latin literature
from the Jewish mystical writings were made at the
end of the fifteenth century and at the beginning of
the sixteenth by Cardinal ^'Egidius de Viterbo, who
translated the Zohar, "Ginnat Egoz," "Sefer
Razi'el," "Ma'areket Elahut," " 'Eser Setirot," and
other cabalistic works. Among the translations of
purely scientific works made in the sixteenth cen-
tury, the most noteworthy are those of Abraham de
Balmes, Kalonymus ben Judah (Maestro Calo), Ja-
cob j\Iantino, and Moses Alatino. Abraham de
Balmes translated Ibn Ilaitham's astronomical work
("Liber de JMundo ") from the Hebrew version of
Jacob ben j\Iachir ibn Tibbon, and the "farewell
letter " of the Arabic philosopher Ibn Baga or Avem-
pace ("Epistolaj Expeditionis "). Kalonymus ben
Judah translated Zerahiah ha-Levi's Hebrew version
of Ghazali's "Tahafut al-Falasifah " (" Destruc-
tio," Venice, 1527), Samuel ibn Tibbon 's Hebrew
version of Averroes' treatise on the intellect (" De
Conversione Intellectus, " tA.), and Moses ibn Tib-
bon's Hebrew version of Alpetragius' treatise on
astronomy (Venice, 1531). The translations of Ja-
cob ]\Iantino were: "Paraphrasis Averrois de Par-
tibus et Generatione Animalium," with the comnien-
tarjr of Levi ben Gershon; Averroes' compendium
of Aristotle's "Metaphysics"; the Middle Commen-
tary on Aristotle's "Isagoge"; books i.-iv. of
"Topics" and "Poetics" (Venice, 1550); a commen-
tary on Plato's "Republic"; proem to the Large
Connncntary on tiie third bo(/k of Aristotle's treatise
on the soul; proem to book xii. of Aristotle's
"Metaphysics"; the Middle Commentary on Aris-
totle's "Physics"; Averroes' medical work " Col-
liget " ; the first book of Avicenna's " Canon " ; Mai-
monides' "Shemonah Perakim." Moses Alatino
translated Moses ibn Tibbon 's Hebrew version of
Themistius' paraphrase of the four books of Aris-
totle's "De Ccrlo" (Venice, 1574); Avicenna's
"Canon"; Nathan ha-Me'ati's Hebrew version of
Galen's commentary on a work of Hippocrates(" Dc
AOre, Aquis et Locis "). Among other works trans-

lated into Latin in the si.xteenth century were;
Ezobi's "Ka'aral Kesef"(by Reuchlin, Thbin- •
1512-14, and Jean Mercier, Paris, 15«I); Le\ i : ~
"Tishbi " (l)y Puul Fagius. ir,U. who trauslutedalso
the " Alfabcta de Ben Hira" and the "Sefer Amu
nah"); Benjamin of Tudela's travels (by Alius .Mun
tanas); the travels of Eldad lia-Dani (by G. Oeue-
lirard, Paris, 1584); Levita's grammuticul works and
Maimonides' treatise on logic (by Sebastian Miln
ster, Basel, 1524 et Hcq., wjjo transhilcd also the Vo-
sii)pon, 1529-41); and a list of the Oia command-
ments from "SeMaG" (1533).

With the close of the sixteenth century tlie era of
Latin translations, from the Hebrew, of Arabic
.scientific works ended, and the Jews ceustd to .servr
as intermediaries between tlie civilizations of tli.
East and the West. The work dropped by ihein
was taken up by Christians, who had acquired from
Jews their knowledge of Hebrew and otlier Oriental

languages, and wiio made Latin truns-

Christian lationsof many JewisJi writings of tlie

Transla- Middle Ages. Foremost among llus<-

tors translators, in the first half of tliesev-

into Latin, enteenth century, were the Bu.xtorfs;

the elder Buxtorf translated the Bil)-
Ileal concordance, "Me'ir Netib," of Isaac Nathan
ben Kalonymus and the "Iggcret Shelomim " (" In-
stitutio Epistolaris Hebraica, sive de Conscribendis
Epistolis Liber, cum Epistolarum Heiiraicarum Cen-
turia," Basel, 1610); the younger Buxtorf, Jolian-
nes, translated Maimonides' "Moreh Nebukim"
(" Doctor Perpiexorum," Basel, 1G29) and Judah ha-
Levi's "Cuzari " ("Liber Cosri," ih. 16(50). Among
the other Jewisli works translated in the same cen-
tury the most noteworthy were: Lipman-Mi'ihl-
hausen's "Sefer lia-Nizzahon " (by John Heinricli
Blcndinger, Altdorf, 1645); tlie disputations of \\.
Jehiel and of Nahmanides; Isaac Troki's " HizzuH
Emunah " ; the " Toledot Yesliu " ; the " travels " of
R. Pethahiah and the "Megillat Wcnz" (by Wa-
genseil); Cordovero's "Pardes Rimmonim" (" De
Sanctissima Trinilate Contra Judaos," by Jo<5epli
Ciantes, Rome, 1664); Leon de Modena'^s dialogue
on the subject of gambling (by August Pfeifer,
Wittenberg, 1665; also by Thomas Hyde, Oxford,
1698, who translated Farissol's "Iggeret Or^iut
'01am," under the title "Tractatusllinerum .Mundi."
ib. 1691); the commentariesof .Vbravanel and others
on Joshua; Moses Kimhi's " Introiluctio ad Scien-
tiam"; Joseph Yahya's commentary on Daniel:
" Itincrarum Benjaminis of Tudela " (by Co'
rEmjiereur); the " Alphabet of Ren Sim." " ^l
Antiochus," "Otiot de Rabbi "Akiba." a part of
Eldad ha-Dani's mythical travels, and .V/ariali dei
Rossi's "Me'or 'Enayim " (all by Bartolocci in Ids
"Bibliotheca^Iagna iiabbinica"); Abravanel's com-
mentary on Daniel (by H(Utingcr); tlie"Idni Rah-
tiah," the " Idra Zuta," the "Sifm deZ<-ni'uln." tiic
cabalistic essays of Naphtali Heiz and Jacob El-
ba nan , t he " Sha'ar ha-Shamay iin " of Abniliam Cohen
de llerrera, and several of the writings of Isjiar Luria
(by Knorr von Rosenroth in his " Kabbala Donu-
data." Sulzbach, 1677-78); Maimonides' hilkot
"Abodat Ycmi ha-Kipi)urim." " Hame? n-Maz^li."
"Kiddush ha-Hodesh," "Taaniynt," "Se<irr ha-
'Abodali,"an(l "Seder lia-Korbonot " H.y Ludwig

. •- ion

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

228

Tob'

' mm

; of

(by Willielm Varot and also

-^ " ti." various

;iiid part of
of tbe imvels of Uie Karaite Sjtimiel

• '■ . ■ " Talmud Torub aud

s).

^ of the eighteenth

, ;iri-: part of Maiiuon-

iMracts from the rab-

.1119 (by Heiuricb Jacob

• HI. 1712); the^Scfer

lUouum," Giessen,

ou the Bible aud the

rick Breilhaupt, Golha,

\Iordecui ben Nissim's

Noiitia Kanvorum ex Tractate

' w>' ■ translated also various

. - in his " liibliotheca He-

iiii Ihc commentaries of Rashi,

. and Isaiah di Tniiiiou Joshua,

> "Sha'ar ha-Negiuot" (•* Porta

' ; 'ir Abicht); a part of

- ;^ l,..;..-t " (by Nagel, Altdorf,

:i8 of the "Tahkemoui" (by Ure);
:it "Olmn" (by rchtinaun);

ail " (by Eduard Maier).

. is a list of tiic works which have
J Irom Hebrew into mo<lern languages:

''-r ha-Tappiiah," on the

1. tx^trulu W-).
' L'> luiJiuK (jiMMlinun).
-<«"ot" (bv Asher. I^indon. 1840).
'. .-rlis Coniiiiiiirif; Treble
-•■ ou PuiictuattuD " (by

. i . ;iii" (by Blulloblotzky,

A'f-

M: Poritofi* nf iho " TaliWf monl" (by F. de

■ . ixr.i).

■ d. In "GInze Oxford,"

.■. Ill "Jew. giiart. Uev." vii. 4m ;

.iLi " ; Emilia Lazarus, " .Songs of

-'. Uidy Matriius, '"Jewi.sh Porlrults,"

■ in "Ji-wi.sti Year Book," I»ndon.

:le." Philadelphia, IWJl).

l/x'We. Loiid<m, 1M()).

• i iia-MttiLvinih " (by Cb. D.UiDSburg,

(hv Michael Friedliinder,
i oruh " I by H. Bernard and

.h»t ?lyyon" (by Frank-JafTe. Lon-

^rMr "MaKHi Dwj" (by Ix>ewe, London. 1842).

, nthurt: "Mama'ol" (by Benlach. Lon-

Mmm' b«-Ar»b" (by tw-blller-Szlnessy, Cam-

'■" »»«frr»phr of Palestine (by Isaac

• • i;iun»h"("FaJlhStn»njflhened,"

■ Noah. New York. 1840).
- vb. IK77).
: l-mru Kbf uuter, io " Jerahmeel," London,

Abf»»i»ni Ihn rar%: " Ma'adanne Meiek " ("D<?-
—*.(M U^ J.-u <U» fcrbera." by Hollaenderekl, Parl.s,

r.-Tni* : " ^ r. r TI:.m,k," U|f>« (by PJrqueji).

»m : " B«^la«t ha-'Olam" (by
: .. . ii.»T).
. of Tuoeta : " MumoI " (by Je«i Philippe Boratler,

BiUa, Darld ben yom-Tob ibn : " Yesodot ha-Maskil " (by S.
Klein. Meiz, 1849).

Caro. Joseph : Shulhan 'Aruk (extracts from the first and
sei-ond parts under the title " Rituel du udaisme," by Pavly
and Neviasky, Orleans, 1W*> IWl).

KIdad ha-Dani (transl. by faniioly, Brussels, 18;J4).

Joseph ha-Kohen : " 'Euiek ha-Baka " (" Vallee des Pleurs,"
by Julian See, Paris, 1881).

Judah al-Harizi: "Tahkeinoni" (by Carmoly, Brussels, 184S-
1S44 ; parts were translated by Svlvestre de Sacy).

Malumuides: Treatise on poisons ("Tniite de Poisons," by 1.
M. Habblnowicz, Paris, ISfia): "" Moreh Nebiikiui " (" Guide des
Kgarvs," by S. Munk, Paris, l&iti).

.Modena, L/eon of : Diaiojrue on the subject of gambling ("Le
Joueur Converti." by Carmoly).

Pethahiah of Regenshurg: "Sibbub Rab Petahyah" (by Car-
moly, who translated also, under the title " Itineraires de la Terre
Sainte," accounts, by various writers, of travels in Palestine).

German. Aboab. Isaac: " Menorat ha-Ma'or " (by Jacob
Raphael Kui-stenlhal, Breslau, 1844).

Abraham ibn Daud : " Emuuah Ramah " (by S. Weil. Frank-
fort-on-the-Main. 1882).

Abraham ibn Ezra: " Y'esod Mora" (by Michael Creizenach,
•Mayence, 1840).

Albo. Joseph: "Sefer ha-'Ikkarim" (by W. Schlessinger,
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1844).

Aristotle, Pseudo-: "Sefer ha-Tappuah " (byJ.Musen, Lem-
l>erg, 1873).

Bahya ben Joseph: "Hohot ha-I.ebabot" (by Fiirstenthal,
Breslau, 18li5, and by Bauiiigarten sind Stern, Vienna, 18r)4).

Bedersi, Jedaiah : " Hakkasliat ha-Memlm" (by Benjamin
Wolf Prenui. Briinn, 1799); " Behinat "Olam " (by Isaac Auer-
bach. Hirsh ben Meir. Joel ben Joseph Faust, Simson Hambur-
ger. Auerbach. J. Levy, Joseph Hirsbfeld, Stern [in verse], and
Judah Kron).

Benjamin of Tudela : "Massa'ot" (by Mordecal Drucker,
Amsterdam, 1691).

Carmoly : " Maimonides und Seine Zeitgenossen " (Frankforl-
on-the-Main. 1840).

Caro, Joseph : Shulhan 'Aruk (by H. Lowe, Vienna, 189(), and
by Fr. Lederer, 1897-1901).

Crescas, Hasdai : The Ufth chapter of the " Or Adonai " (by
Philip Bloch. 1879).

Duran, Pnitlat: "Al Tehi ka-Aboteka" (byOeiger, in "Wiss.
Zeit. Jud. Theol." Iv.).

Eldad ha-Dani (Dessau, 1700; Jessnitz. 1723; and in Eisen-
menper's " Entdecktes Judenthum." li. .527).

Epiiraiiii of Bonn: The persecutions by the Crusaders (by S.
Baer, Berlin, 18!r-').

Francis, Iinmanuel : "Metek Sefatayim " ("Die Hebraische
Verskuust," by Martin Hartmann, Berlin, 1894).

Ha.sdal. Abraham: "Ben hu-Melek weha-Nazir" ("Prinz
und Dervisch," by Wolf Alois Meisel, Stettin, 1847).

Isajic Israeli: "Sefer ha-Y^esodot" (by S. Fried, Frankfort-
on-the-Main, 1900).

Joseph ha-Kohen : " "Emek ha-Baka " (by Wiener, Leipsic,
1858).

Judah al-Harizi: "Tahkemoni" (by Kampf, Berlin, 1845);
"Mus.saie ha-KilosuIlm " (liy J. Lihventhal).

Judah ha-I.^vi: "Cuzari" (by D. Ciissel and Jelowicz, Leip-
.Ic, 1S41) ; poems (by Zunz, Geiger, Kiimpf, 8achs, Steinschnei-
der. Heller, and Sulzliach).

Kiilonymusben Kaloiiymus : " F.ben Bohan " (by Moses Elsen-
stadt, or, according to Zedner, by Katzenellenbogen, Sulzbach,
1705; In condensed prf)se by W. Meisel, Budapest, 1878).

Leb«'nsohn. Micah Joseph: "Shire Bat Ziyyon" ("Gesange
Zion's," hy Joshua Steinberg, Wilna, 18(j9).'

Levlnsohn: " Efes Damim " (by Albert Katz, Berlin, 1884).

Levita. Elijah : " Massoret ha-Massorah " (by Mayer Gottlieb,
1772).

Maimonides: "Moreh Nebukim" (the first part by Fursten-
thal, Krotoschln, 18:19; the second, by M. Stein, Vienna, WA;
the third, by S<-heyer, Frankfort-on-the-Main. WiS); " Millal
ha-Hlggayon " (by M. S. Neumann, Vienna, 1822; by Heilberg,
Breslau, 1828); Introduction to the .Mishnah ("Das Judische
Traditlonswesen " (by Fiirstenthal, Breslau, 1844); treatise on
pf)isf)ns ("(iifte imd Ihre Helliingen," hy M. .Sieinschneider.
Berlin. 187;}); essays on hygiene (by D. Winternitz, 184;^).

Mapu. Abraham: "Ahabat Ziyyon" ("Tamar," by S. Man-
delkern, U-iimlc, 1885).

Mendel.ssohn, Moses: "Sefer ha-Nefesh " (by David Fried-
lander. Berlin. 1887).

Modena, Leon of: Dialogue on gambling (by Friedrlch Al-
bert Chrlstlanl. IKiH); the abridged commentary on the Pafl.sover
Haggadahof Isaac A bravanel, entitled "Zell Esh"(Furth, 1804).

229

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Translations
Transliteration

Rashl: Commentary on the Pentatcurh (PniRue, 18:13 :{8).

Rosenfekl: " Termbot Sadcli," poems auii eplgraiiis (by
Fursteiittial, Hreslaii, IM^!).

Saadia: " Kriiuiiot we-De'dt " (by .Iiiliiis Fiirst, Leipsic, 1845;
tbe introduction and llist ctiapti-r, !)>• I'liilip Blocli, 1871ti.

Schweitzer: " Mazl<erct Alialiati " (iiietricallv Iruuslatea by
Furstetithal, Hre.slau, IMl).

Verga, Solomon: "SLehet Veliudali " (l)v Wiener, Hanover.
1850).

Wiener: "Gezerat Ostraik" (by Jelilel Michael Morowey-
c/yk, ( racDW, IK'c'i.

Italian. Huhya : "Tnkabah" (by Deborah Ascarelll, Ven-
ice, KXIl).

Bedersi, Jedalah : " Betiinat ' Olam " (in "Antolopia Israeli-
tlca," 1880).

Judah al-Harizi : "Mishle Hakamim" ("Motti di Diyersi
Sapgi," by Simon Massarani).

.Iiidah ha-Levi : "C'anzoniere Sacra di Gluda Levita" (bv S.
de Benedetti. I'isii, 1871).

Luzzatto, S. 1).: "Derek F.rez " ("II False Tropresso," by
rontreinoli, Padua, 1879).

Maimonides: " Mnreh Nehukim " (by Jedidiah Moses of Re-
canati, IM\, and by D. J. Maroni, 1870).

Mizrahi, Elijah : Part of the "Sefer ha-Mispar" (by M. Stein-
schneider, Rome, I8()(ij.

Modena, Leon of: The abridtred commentary of Abravanel
on the Passover llapgadah, entitled "Zeli Ksh."

Moses : " Vita e Morte de Mose " (by Benedetti de Salvatore).

Rieti, Moses: The second part of the ".Mikdash Me'at," en-
titleil " Me'on ha-Sho'alim " (by Deborah Ascarelli. Venice, l(j01).

Soldinon : "t'lavis Solomonis" (by Abraham Colorni).

Russian. Abramovicli : "Ha-Abot weba-Banim" ("Otzy
i Dyeti," by Leo Bienstok, St. Petersburg, 18(17).

Brandstiidter: "Mordekai Klzvviz" (in " Yevreiskaya Biblio-
teka").

Eiclihorn : " Ha-Kerab " (by Osip liabbinovich, 1847).

Joshua l)en David of Samoscz : " Zuly ha-'lttim " (" Byedstoiya
Vreiiiion," by Moses Berlin).

Nathan Nata of Hanover: " Yewen Mezulah " (by S. Mandel-
kern, St. Petersl)urs, 1878).

Rosensohn : " Shelom Aliim," on the catholicity of the Mosaic
rell<:j(in (Iransl. Wilna, 187ti).

Spanish. Abnerof Burgos : " Moreh Zedek " (" El Mostador
de Jiisticia"); " Milhamot Adonai " ("Las Batallas de Dios").

A Iguadez, Meir : Prescriptions for various diseases (by Joseph
ha-K<ihen).

Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakuda : " Hobot ha-Lebabot " (by Jo-
seph Pardo, Amsterdam, UilO).

Elijah de Vidas: Several sections of the "Reshit Hokmah "
(by David Cohen Lara, under the title "Tratado del Temur
Divino," Amsterdam, ItiSJ).

" Hinnuk, Sefer ha-" : Anonymous work on the precepts, of
the tliirteenth century.

Jonah (ierondi: Ethical work (by Joseph Shalom Gallego, or
Cialigo. under the title " Sendroe [Sendero] de Vidas," Aiiister-
dairi, l(i40).

Judah ha-Levi : " Cuzari " (by Jacob Abendana).

Maimonides: ("Tratadode los Articulos de la Ley Divina."
by David Cohen de Lara, Amsterdam, ltJ5~); commentary on the
Mishiiah (by Jacob Al)endana).

For other translations from and into tlie Hebrew

see Bible Translations; Mahzou; Talmud.

•T. I. Br.

TRANSLITERATION.— Into Hebrew: The

Greek and Latin words whieh entered into tlie lan-
gna^eof the Hebrews are ti-anscrihed in the Talmud,
]Vli(lrasli, and Targum according to purely phonetic
principles, their etymologies being entirely disre-
garded. Besides the lack in Hebrew of that rich
sj'stem of vocalization which characterizes the Latin,
and esi)ecially tiie Greek, the alphabets of these lan-
guages include characters which are not represented
in the Hebrew, and therefore their transliteration is
attended with many complications; sometimes it is
even very difliciilt to detect the root of the tran-
scribed word. Tiie Hebrew consonants represent
the following Greek and Latin equivalents: 2 = /?
or " b, " 7r or " p, " i;i or " f " ; J = y or " g " and some-
times also K ; 1 = (5 or " d " ; 1 = the Latin " v "

and sometimes also /J or " 1) " ; t = C or " z " and
sometimes also a. r]= \: a = « ami also r or
"t ; ^ = t'lti Latin "j"; 3 =: _;j- aud so/netimc8
also k; ^ = / or "1"; 0=// or "m"; : = v or
"u"; y has no etpiivaient either in Greek or in
Latin; s = rr or "p" and ^or "f "; v = o: p = « or
" k " and Die Latin " q " ; -) = /j or " r " ; f^-o; n = «.
The Greek doid)le letters f and V are reHpcclively
represented by Dp or D3. and by DD 'l"lie nanal
sounds )7, yK, yx are reproduced in a manner analo-
gous to the Latin, Syriac, Arabic, etc., as. for in
stance. N^JJX for n)>t/.of, 'pjjx for avdyKr/, »3jip
ior Ku)x'/. The Latin and Greek vowels are Iran
scribed as follows: n by x, sometimes by yorn: i
or "e" by k. sometimes by y or \ <"by j<. 'x.
or >; o by N, IX, or 1; r/ by <x or \ less frequently l)y
n; 0) by IX or 1: m (j.atin ":e ") by 'x or'; tt by V
01 by X or •>; av by IX. 'N. '>r 2X; 't' i)y IX, '^K*. or
■•X, oi; (Latin " u ") by ix or V The hiatus is always
neglected, while both the sidritusasperand thespir-
itiis Icnis are .scrupidousiy represented, the former by
n and the latter by X- The aspirated /> is indicated
by m or -in: even internal aspiration occurs, as. for
instance. jmrUD fi>r awii'ipiov. However, the vow-
els are not always kept intact, but are often inter-
changed contrary to the rule. Syllables arc fre-
quently elided by apocope, apheresis, and es|iccially
syncope.

With the adoption of the Arabic language by the
Jews residing in Moslem countries, the .Jewish wri
ters tretiting of subjects pertaining to religion and
Judaism were forced in some degree to conform to
the culture of the people for whom they wrote.
the great mass of whom, though speaking Arabic as
their mother tongue, were not able to read il. Jew-
ish authors, or at least those among them whose
works were destined for the common people, were
therefore compelled to transliterate their Arabic into
Hebrew characters. The system of translitemtion
generally adopted by them was as follows: For each
Arabic letter the corresi)()nding ...
Hebrew was given. The letters, 9" ]i> ^ ^ t" C^
which have no equivalents in ^^
Hebrew, were represented by JDVHDn. with dots
above or below the letters except in the case of the j.

which, when dotted, corresponds to ^ and not to
9' . In some writings both ^^ and ^ arc ren-
dered by a dotted V- In vocalized texts the vowel-
points are reproiliiced either by the sjune signs a.s arc
used in the Arabic or by the vowel letters 'ix; tlie
"hamza." the "waslah," and tlie "tashdid" are al-
ways rendered by the stime signs as in the .\rabic.
Indeed, the transliteration into Hebrew from the
Arabic is the most simple and the easiest, since, wiili
the exception of the six letters nientioneil, whi( h are
always transcribed in the SJime way, the pronuncia-
tion of each Arabic letter tindsan exact equivalent
in Hebrew. Far more compliGited is the system of
transliteration from the Pei-sian. which incbnU-s four
additional (-haracters that have no cqiiivahnlscitliir
in Arabic or in Hebrew; even the purely Amhic
characters have not always the sami* sound in l»olh
languages, and their transcription in Hebrew is
variable. Thus in the older Judwo-Persian literary
productions tbe system of transliteration is diflerent

Tr«salit«r*Uon
TnuxMniTTAUon of 800 1 6

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

230

: iM#d in more recent writings iu Bokhai-a.

11 with dagfsli

.1 ilugesli wlien

: witli or witboul dagesh corre-

i» to ibe t'e: _ i corresponds ^o f" ^ ^I

and ako to j|: 1 r«pr»»enU the S , and soiiieiinics

•be >; 3 with or xsithout dagfsh ivpiesoiUs

--^ texts the long " a " is

X «"■ l>y kainez ; slioit

. : either by shewa or by K:

y tlie vowel letter V short

V Iu the modern writings

.« of 3 are used: (1) 3 for ^; (2) J for the

^ : <S» j fnr ■> ; «nd (4) j for CL

.'iicters for foreign words or

.vi.l into France in the tenth

(•al or Tulniudieal coinnienta-

Inn.. tn (.■: the reader the exact mean-

i- :• . f ". ... ..ce not easily explained in

luied the Hebrew word or sentence
ni in the vernacular. With the
... following letters, the metiiod of
ition adopted by these commentators is the
: in the Talmud for the Latin cou-
:>re "a." **o," "u," or in combina-
tloo with "h" ia represented by p, and before "e,"
"!.' "y." or when it is provided with a cedilla ("<; "),
^y V; " g " iH-'fore "a." **o," " u " is reproduced by j,
aod l>efore**e," "l." "y," by T: double "s" isrepre-
■ • Y: " j " by a single or double ', and some-
. - • by 3. as. for instance, TD'J (= " jeter ");
■gn ■* i« rendered by a single or double V and also
by 3; "n " is often eliminated in the transliteration,
a* for ioHtance, DiDK (= "enfant"), and o is often
red by 3. as. for instance, pj(= "nom "); "h " is
- ! by K or ' : " X " and " z " by 5:^ or Y ; " v " is
The system of transliteration of

■y 3 or V

'a." **e," "i," "o," "u," "y" is

' '1 in the Talmiid for the Latin,

t ing identical in botii languages:

"a = K; "o and "u" =1; and "c," "i," "y " = v
The accrntuated "e" is sometimes rendered by a
double *. and the mute "e " at the end of a word by
K ' n or by tjoth. As to the diphthongs, "ai,"
■--. "ic"arc represented by a single or double',
with or without K: <-.«7.. Kr'^X (= "haleine"), }"3
i "); "oi." "tiui." -aeu," und "eui " arc re-

1' ! by ft single or double ' ])receded by \ as,

for iiMtaoce. )6<*^Q (= "feuille"). x-i2"ix ( =
" i "can" are rendered by X "r '\

'■ 1 "ou " almost always by V

With the single exception of "a." which is some-

' f" N. the simple vowels

~'panish. or Ladino, in

way an In French. The Spanish diph-

' *" ' ■■'! in number, and euch of

• I, ej-d, present nodillicully;
et. "py.^ and "ic " are always rendered by a
s\ while "lo,""ya,"and "yo" are reproduced
by either adoubic or a single «,"iu" is reproduced by
R ' 'Wfl by X or n or both. Great con-

'' •" H'c transliteration of the consonants,

ti-
lt

tl.
tl
t)iii<i

doijMc «, while

many of which are indifferently reproduced by va-
rious Hebrew letters, while the same Hebrew letter
may represent many Spanish. Thus the soft "c " is
indifferently represented by T, D. V, and K>; "f " and
"g" are rendered by n, e.g., 'Xin (= "fue"), XTJ-'H
(= "genero"): "h" by J (especially before "te"), B.
and X. and when occurring at t lie beginning or in the
middle of a word it is frequently omitted; "j"by
J, n. t. C. 'intl sometimes also by V "11 " and " fi " by
double'; "m" and "n" often interchange iu the
transliteration, as, for instance, 'DJXp (= "campc"),
DID {= "nos"). Metathesis of "d " before "r" takes
])lace in the transliteration, as, for instance, 'ITI
(=*'vcrde"), "lX"nipX (= "accordar "); or of "r"
before "e," as, for instance, rmxta (="tarde");
"q " preceding "i" is rendered by 'p; "s" = D. tT,
and T ; " X " = tJ>; " z " = D or f. The other conso-
nants are represented by the same Hebrew letters as
their equivalents in Latin or French. The follow-
ing first two verses of the Bible in Ladino and in
Spanish may serve as an illustration of the method
of transliteration: ^^}y VT ^'N IXnp VD'CnS pN

'K nxiixi ni'x m-'D np \x m^D

^K K'1P"D

^\h n t;'^DXD ^•^y\^ ^^T^iyo'z'^^ vn ^^xn lorii

C'XUX = "En principio crio el Dios los cielos y la
tierra. Y la tierra era vagua y vacia y escuridad
sobre fa^es del abysnio, y viento del Dio esmonieuse
sobre fac^'cs de las aguas."

The transliteration of Italian into Hebrew
differed but little from that of French and Span-
ish. The soft "c" was represented by T. D. V,
while the hard "c," "cli," and "ccli " were rendered
by p; "g" before "e," "i," "1," or "n," and "gg"
were rendered by a single or double ', as, for in-
stance, 'VTC (= "giudice"), IJIV (="giorno"),
1"D"lQ (= "formaggio"); "gu" and "qu" were
generally reproduced by ")J : "s," "ss," and "so"
were rendered by t, D. and ^\ when the "c" fol-
lowing the " s " was a hard one they were rendered
by Dp or ti'p- In some cases the " t " was rendered
by V, as, for instance, nX'V'Ii^ltDD (= "stoltilia ");
"z" and "zz" were reproduced by T, V, and B>,
and in some cases also by t3. The vowels were len-
dered iu the same wa}' as in French, with the ex-
ception of the "o," which in Italian was represented
by X or IX instead of \ The diphthong "ia" was
rendered by a single or double ' followed by nX or
by X alone; "ie" was represented by a single or
double \ "au " and "ao" by 1X: "ae" by a double
'; the vowels which are not pronounced were left
out altogether, as, for instance, ^'L31V (= "ciottolo").
As an illustration of the Italian method of translit-
eration the following verse of the "Me'on ha-Sho'a-
lim " of Moses liieti may serve, which was translated
into Italian by Deborah Ascarelli, and incorporated
in Hebrew characters in the IJoinan Mahzor: IX

xpi'V -p n n^'rDJ'-x x'^^'i nioxixT vcd'd

"lOn^m 'OilD X1D "-1X11x2 "X X"VX-|J XD"D
riD^injXDD — " O teinpio doratori, voglia inlinita, di
chi cerco j)ieta grazia e favore, tuo foutc benedctto
spanda vita."

Judging from the Anglo-Jewish contracts of the
thirteenth century published by the Anglo-Jewish
Historical Exhibition, the method of translitera-

231

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Transliteration
TransiniKTaiiou of Souls

tion into Ilfhrcw from the English dilTered from the
French or Italian only in those consonauts and vow-
els which have a special pronunciation. The soft
"c'' was represented by V or j**; "ch" by p or V.
"j" and the soft "g" by a single or (iouble >;
"s" or "ss" by C^, V. orT; "tli" by T. tOT. or nt3.
followed by ^ or V ; " v " by 11 or 12. 3 some-
times stands for p; r\ for t3 ; 2 (rafeh) for l; and
J for O- Tlie simple vowels were transcribed in the
same way as the French; as to the diphthongs, "ai"
nnd "ay " were rendered by double ' ; "au " and " on "
by 1, XI, or X; "ea" and "ee" by a single'; "ei"
by a single or double 1; "ia," "ie," and "ey " by a
■double or single ' followed by X or n or both ; "oi "
and "oy " by V; "ew " by y or by 1. In the trans-
literation of the numerous English words which en-
tered the JudiEO-German in the English-speaking
countries, the pronunciation was faithfully pre-
served. The hard "c," "ch," and "q"are repre-
sented by p, while the soft "c" is re:idered by V;
the " f " and " p " are both rendered by Q, with the
only difference that for the former the D is rafeh,
while for the latter it is with a dagesh ; the soft
"g" is represented by B*! ; the "j" by ^]T, "s"
or "ss" by D; "t" by tD, and before "ion" by
^ ; " th " by m ; " v " by 3 (rafeh) or 1 ; " w " by 11
■or IX. According to the English pronunciation, the
" a " is represented by N or " ; the " e " by j; or ■• ; the
" i " by ' or vx ; the " o " by 1 ; the " u " by 1 or X-
In tiie transliteration of the diphthongs the vowels
that are not pronounced are left out altogether.

Up to the beginning of the nincteentli century the
transliteration of the German words which form the
bulk of the jargon called Judseo-German differed
little from that current in the other Western dialects;
the only deviation in the transcription of the vowels
was the use of the X to represent both "a" and "o,"
whereas the latter was rendered in Spanish and
French by 1. At the beginning of the nineteenth
century the tran.sliteration of the German under-
went many changes. X became silent at the end of
words after vowels, and at the beginning before 1 and
" E " was represented by y instead of by ■> : " aj "
and "ej" by '^ "5" and "ii" by "l; "a," "au,"
"eu" by ^'1; "ei" by '''> or '""X; " au " by '1 or ""ix.
Of the consonants the following may be mentioned:
"ch" was represented by 3 (rafeh), but when fol-
lowed by "s,"by p; "sch" and "ss" by t**; soft "s"
by T ; " s " before " t " or " p " by {^ ; " f " and " v " by 2
(rafeh) and 1. In modern times " v " is rendered by 1
and not bj' 3, and " w " by 11, so that only one letter
occurs with rafeh, namely, D for "f." In printed
books 3 stands generally for "p," while Q is "f."

From Hebrew: From the time of Origen (c.

185-254), who in his Hexapla transliterated the text
of the Pentateuch into Greek characters, to the mid-
dle of tiie nineteenth century no attempt was made
to elaborate a scientific system of transcription of
Hebrew in foreign character's, and every one fol-
lowed his own caprice. In 18.-)4 Barges published
the Book of Ruth w itii a French transliteration .of
the text. In his system, which was followed by
nearly all the French Orientalists, the letters
nD31J3. according as they have or have not dagesh,
are represented bv their equivalent French letters
with or without "h." Thus 3 = "b," 3 = "bh," 3

= "g,"j = "gh,"n = "d,"n = "dh." 3 = "k." 3 =
"kh," Q = "p." E3 = "ph." Both n and n are rep-
resented l)y "ii," tlie former pronounced will) a
slight asjjiration, and the latter wiili a hard one. y
is represented by a capital " H " ; v by " la " or " g " ;
p l)y "(1 "; f by ".sell." The following may Jk-rve
as an illustration of IJarges' method of trunsliteru-
ting both the Hebrew consonants and vowels: "Va-
iehi b-lme .schephot huseii-schojihctim va-ield ra
Habh ba'arets. Va-ielekh isch mib bet Ijeliem ie-
houdhah la-gliour bi-sedhe Mo'ab hoii vei»cht-o
ou-schene bhanav," which reads in Hebrew: «n«i

n'30 t"X Tl^'l pX3 3]n '.Tl D'DEB'n CIE'J* "2'3

.VJ3 ^:m int'xi xin 3xiD nb3 -ii:^ mm' onij

A more rational system of transliteration was
suggested by the Royal Asiatic Society for Great
Britain and Ireland, which transcribes the Hcljrew
alphabet as follows: x="'": 3="b"; 3 = ''b";3 =
; j = "g";-n = "d"n = "d"; n = "Ii"; rl =

h " or " hh " ; 1 = " V " ; T = " z " : n =" h " : C = " t " ;
' = «y " ; 3 = " k " : 3 = " k " ; f) ^ " 1 " ; D = - m " ; 3
= " n " ; D = " s"" ; y = " ' " ; B = " p " ; D = " f " : V

" 0-"

.■5

"1. "

"r"; {5> = "8"; b> = "8"; W

= "s"; p = "q"; I
= "t "; fi = "t." The long Towels are represented
by "\" "e," "I," "o." "ii"; the short by "a," "e."
"i," "o," "u"; the three vowels with the ha^af
by "a," "e," "o"; the dagesh forte by doubling
the letter. As an illustration of the latest system
of transliteration adopted by German .scliolars
the following passage of Jeremiah published by
Wilhelm Erbt <Gottingen, 1902) may serve: "Pil-
titani, Jahve, wa'eppat ha-zaqtani wattukal.
hajiti lishoq kolliajjom kuUo lo'eg-li ki-midde
'adabber ^'ez'aq: hainiis wasod 'eqra'. Ki Iiuj4
debar-jahwe Ii leherpa ul-qeles Kol-hajjom. We
'amarti: lo-'ezkereunu, we lo 'adabber 'od bi.smo. we-
haja belibbi ke'e§ bo'eret 'asur be'asrnoiai. wenil'eli

kaikel, welo 'ukai." = ^3^ni ':!nprn riEXi nin' ':n'n3
i3nx '■no-'3: '^ iV^ n^3 Di'n-b pint*6 'n"n
nsnn^ 'h nin'-i3n .Tn-'3 x-ipx nbn opn pv^a
niy n3ix-x!?i ^nztx-x^ 'nn»:xi: Dvr\-h3 oi'ph
^n^x^Ji 'novys ivy my3 l"X3 '3^ n;ni ir:r3

.i53ix i6^ bb

In regard to the system of transliteration followed
in The Jewish Encycuoi'EDi.^, see p. vii. of this
volume. , „

s. ^ I^"-

TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS (termed
also Metempsychosis) : The pas-sing of soul.s into
successive bodily forms, either hunmn or animal.
According to Pythagoras, who probably learned the
doctrine in Egypt, the rational mind {<^pin). after
having been freed from the chains of the Iwxiy. as-
sumes an ethereal vehicle, and pas.sc3 into the region
of the dead, where it remains till it is sent back to
this world to inhabit .some other body, human or
animal. After undergoing succes-sive purgininns,
and when it is sufliciently purified, it is received
among the gods, and returns to the eternal source
from which it first proceeded. This doctrine wan
foreign to Judaism until about the eighth century.

Tr«SBna«^ration of Souls

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

233

_:_ (.-^ of the Mohamiuetlan
WAS adopietl by tlic Karaites and other

; ill Jewish

liust this

was shared l)y llie Yud-

• inptinm<ly (lesijr-

i." p. 166; itlem. in "Monats-

. . bar Hiyya's

p. hi.: Jeliiuek, in "Orieut,

-• -<'■ 'ides Karaert." i.

- ludia, the reasons

I the adhereuts of inetempsy-

Rxri....-^ L> r their belief are partly iii-

8««dia. 1 and partly Scriptural. Tiie

(!) Observation

... .iiiites of animals,

a" > of a lamb, the rage

of • w -iiiiiiiuy of a dog. the light-

ocM i; .. Tlie.se peculiarities, tliey

•■irrt. pruve lltat their possessors have in part

•' animals. (2) It would
L t God to inflict pain upon

cl< iicut for sins committed by their

lie. The Scriptural reasons

. from certain Biblical verses,

•ucli as; "Neither with you only tlo 1 make this

it with him that siandeth
re the Lord our God, and
•bo wiUi him that is not here with us this day "
(Ik-uL xxix. 14. l.l); -Blessed be the man that
wn!k<-!(i ti"? In tlie counsel of the ungodly," etc.
ts of reasons are refuted by Saa-
•»• ' ' .1(1 not consider it worth

* ess and the low-minded-

n« - in metemp-sychosis, were he not

■' ■ "Xercise a pernicious influence

**] we-De'ot," vi.).

counte<i so few adherents among the

■■ '• exception of Abraham ibn Daud

(" ' " i- 7), no Jewisli philosopher

utitil IIas4lui ("rescas even deemed it

Influence ii<'<-s.sury to refute it. Oidy with the

of Cabala. -ir.-;.dof the Caltaladid it begin to take

rfxjt in Judaism, and then it gained be-

lierrn >uu ..mong men who were little inclutcd to-

I. Thus one sees a man like Judah

tig the doctrine in a let-

.< avoring to place it upon

basis ("Taum Zil^enim," vii). The
•d th.' <lfK,trine on account of
■ "*'' t" mystic specidations.
Morc«.vi.r. It waa almost a necessary corollary of
■'•m. The absolute condition
"g to them, its return, after
• perfections the germs of which
' in it. to the Infinite Source
1 Another term of life must
I to those souls which have
:iy liere below and have not
•I for the state of reunion with
-p. Hence if the soul, on its first
iman iKMly imd sojourn on earth,

wanj I

• I

Ihr
of

ar<
ff.

br.
Ui<

a»i

falls to acquire that experience for wl.jrh it de-
scended from heaven, and Incomes c«,ntiiminate(l by

that which is polluting, it must reinhabit a body
till it is able to ascend in a purified state through
repeated trials. This is the theory of the Zohar,
which Siiys: "All souls are subject to transiiii-
gmtion; and men do not know the ways of the
Holy One. blessed be He! They do not know that
they are brought before the tribunal both before
they enter into this world and after they leave it;
they are ignorant of the many trausmigratious and
secret proi)ations which they have to undergo, and
of the number of souls and spirits which enter into
this world an<l which do not return to the palace of
the Heavenly King. Men do not know how the
souls revolve like a stone which is thrown from a
sling. But the time is at hand when these mysteries
will be disclosed " (Zohar. ii. 9'Ji)). Like Origen and
other Church Fathers, the cabalists used as their
main argument in favor of the doctrine of metemp-
sychosis the justice of God. But for the belief in
metempsychosis, they maintained, the question why
God often permits the wicked to lead a happy life
while many righteous are miserable, would be un-
answerable. Then, too, the infliction of pain upon
children woulil be an act of cruelty unless it is
imposed in punishment for sin committed by the
soul in a jirevious state.

Although rai-sed by the Cabala to the rank of a
dogma, the doctrine of metempsychosis still found
great opposition among the leaders of Judaism in

the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

Opposition In iiis "Iggeret Hitnazzelut," ad-

to dressed to Solomon ben Adret in dc-

the View, fense of philosophy, Jedaiali Beclersi

prai-ses the phihisophers for having op-
posed the belief in metempsychosis. Ilasdai Crescas
(■■ Or Adonai." iv. 7), and after him his pupil Joseph
Albo ("'Ikkarim," iv. 29), attacked this belief on
philosopiiical grounds, considering it to be a heathen
superstition, opposed to the spirit of Jiuiaisni. The
opposition, however, gradually ceased : and the be-
lief began to be shared even by men who were im-
bued with Aristotelian philosopiiy. Tlius Isaac
Abravanel sees in the commandment of the levirate
a i)roof of the doctrine of nietemjisychosis, forwiiich
he gives the following reasons. (1) God in His
mercy willed that another trial sljould be given to
the .soul whicii, liaving yi<'lded to the .sanguine tem-
perament of the body, hud comniilted a capital sin,
such as murder, adultery, etc.; (2) it is oidy just
that when a man dies young a ciiance should be
given to his soul to execute in auntlicr body t lie good
deeds which it had not titue to lu-iforiii in the first
body: (I^) the sf)ul of the wicked sometimes passes
into another body in order to receive its deserved
punishment here below instead of in the other world,
where it would be much more severe (conunentary
on Deut. x.vv. 5). These arguments were wittily
refuted by the skeptical Leon of Modeuain his pam-
phlet against metempsychosis, entitled "Ben I)a-
wid." lie says: "It is not God, Imt the planets,
that deteiinine the temperament of the bod}'; why
then subject the soul to the risk of entering into a
body with a temperament as bad as. if not worse
than, that of the one it has left? Would it not be
more in keeping with God's mercy to take into con-
sideration the weakness of the body and to pardon

233

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Transmigration of Souls

tlie soul at onco? To soud the sotil of a man wlio
died j'ouug into anollier body would he to make it
run tlie risk of losing tlic advantages it liad aequired
in its former body. Wiiy send tlie soul of the wieked
to another body in order to jmnisli it here below?
Was there anything to prevent (Jod from jiunishing
it while it was in its first body V "

Upon the doctrine of metempsychosis was based
the psychological system of the practical Cabala,
inaugurated by the eabalists of the
The school of Luria. According to them,

School of all the souls destined for tlie human
Luria. race were created together with the
various organs of Adam. As there
are superior and inferior organs, so there are supe-
rior and inferior soids, according to the organs with
which they are respectively coupled. Thus there
are souls of the brain, of the eye, of the head, etc.
Each human soul is a spark ("nizaz ") from Adam.
The first sin of the first man caused confusion among
the various classes of souls; so that even the purest
soul received an admi.\ture of evil. This state of
confusion, which gives a continual imjiuLse toward
evil, will cease with the arrival of the Messiah, who
will establish the moral system of the world on a
new basis. Until that time man's soul, because of
its deficiencies, can not return to its source, and has
to wander not only through the bodies of men, but
even through inanimate things. If a man's good
deeds outweigh his evil ones, liis soul passes into a
human body; otherwise, into that of an animal.
Incest causes the soul to pass into the body of an un-
clean animal; adulter^', into that of an ass; pride
in a leader of a community, into that of a bee; for-
gery of amulets, into that of a cat; cruelty toward
the poor, into that of a crow; denunciation, into
that of a harking cur; causing a Jew to eat unclean
flesh, into a leaf of a tree which endures great suf-
fering when shaken by the wind; neglect to wash
the hands before meals, into a river.

The main dilTeience between the passing of the
soul into a human bod}' and its transmigration into
an animal or an inanimate object consists in the
fact that in the former case tin; soul ignores its
transmigration, while in the latter it is fully aware of
itsdegradation, and sulTers cruelly therefrom. With
regard to the transmigration of the soul into a crow-
Moses Galante, rabbi at Sated, relates that once lie
accompanied Isaac Luria to 'Ain Zaitun to pray at
the tomb of Judah ben Ilai. Ou apiiroaching the
place he noticed ou an olive-tree which grew near
the tomb a crow which croaked incessantly. " Were
you ae([Uainted," asked Luria, " witii Shabhethai,
the tax-farmer of Sated'/" " I knew him." answered
Galante: "he was a very bad man and displayed
great cruelty toward tlu; por)i-, who were not able to
pay tin; taxes." "This crow," said Luria, "contains
his soul" ("Shibhe lia-Ari," p. 29).

A (luite new development f)f the doctrine of me-
tempsyciiosis was the theory of tlieini-
Impreg-- juegnation of souls, propounded by
nation of the eabalists of the Luria school. Ac-
Souls, cording to this theory, a purified soul
that has neglected some religious du-
ties on earth must rettirn to the earthly life and
unite with the soul of a living man, in order to make

good such neglect. Furtiier, tiie soul of a man frce.i
from sin appears again ou earth to support a weak
soul unequal to its task. Thus, for instance, the
soul of Samuel was supported by those of MoseBund
Aaron; thesoid of ndnehas. by those of Na.hib ami
Abihu. However, this union, which may e.Merid lo
three souls at one time, can take place only belween
souls of a liomogeneous character. Hint is, betwi-eu
those which are sparks from the same Adami'
organs. As the impregnated soul conies eiliier t
make good a neglect or to support u weak soul, it
enters into the body only after the man has com-
pleted his thirteenth year, when he reaches the ntio
of religious duty and resiionsibilily.

The dispersion of Israel has for its purpose llic
salvation of man; and the jjuritied .souls of Israelit<*s
unite with the souls of other races in order to fi'
them from demoniacal influences. Each man. ac-
cording to the practical Cal)ala. bears on liis foro-
head a mark by which one may recognize tlie natu'
of the soul: to which degree and class it belonf:>..
the relation existing between it and the superior
world; the transmigrations it lias already accon
l)lished; the means by which it may contribute ti»
the establishment of the new moral system of ilic
world; how it may be freed from demoniacal influ-
ences; and to which soul it should be united in
order to become purified. He who wLslies to ascer-
tain to which of the four worlds his .soul belongs
must close his eyes and fix his thought on the four
letters of the Ineffable Name. If the color he then
beholds is a very bright, S|)arkling white, his soul
has proceeded from the world of emanation (D7IP
riv^VSri); if an ordinary white, from tliat of creative
ideas (nx^l^n C^iy ; if rfd, from that of creative
formation (m''V''n D^iy); and if green, from that of
creative matter (r\''li']}r\ D^W-

The eabalists of the Luria .school pretended 10
know the origins and transmigrations of all tiie
souls of the human race since Adam; and in their
works accounts are given concerning Biblical per-
sonages and the great teachers of J u-

Special daism. Thus, for instance, tlie soul
Instances, of .Varon is said to Jiave been derived
from the good part of that of Cain. It
entered into the body of the high priest Eli, who. in
expiation of tlie sin committed by Aaron in making
the golden calf— a sin punishable with la|udali<in^
broke his neck in falling from liis .scat. From Eli it
transmigrated into the body of P>.ra: and it then
became i)urilied. The name " Adam " contains the
initials of David and Mes.siah. into whose bo<lie9 the
.soul of the first man successively entered. The
name " Laban " contains the initials of liaiaam and
Nabal, who successively received Laban s soul.
Jacob's soul passefl into Mordecai ; and iH-causc the
former had sinned in prostrating hims«-lf before
Esau. Mordecai obstinately refused to prostrate
himself before Haman. even at the risk of emhin-
geriiig the safety of the Persian Jews. InKrenCinp
is the account given in the "Sefcr ha Cilguliui " of
the souls of some contemporaries of Isjiae Luna. The
soul of Isaac de Lattes is said there to have l)cen a
s)iark from that of a pious man of the olden times
(nonp P'nV); llint "f Jo«?P'' Vital, one from the
soul of Kzra; that of Moses Minz. one from thcsouJ

of Souls

THE JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA

234

10 tte l>

.11. To .1 of Moses

of tlie aiuora Samuel beu

' ichiug.

, jarlook

I Ik'U Jfhoiuda ; licucc the

- ' ' 'Iiern. Be-

I iu a pre-

atquire a pei-

1 iM sDiil of Josepli

.g Hiiyyiin Vital pos-

Luria. a soul which had

■•.I. Luria himself pos-

h hail previously been

r>mK*on bca Yohai and Hamnuna

ly thi» »ouI« of men transmigrate into the

»»n into the bo<^lies
...v . Av, j.i.oiis. The soul of
. .b. was in part that of a wom-
;i of a man. Tamar's

1 therefore the latter

.r children until Go<i had imparted to
The tniiismigratiou

-.. of u woman is consid-

c«balist8 to be a punishment for the

c - when a man refuses to

e ;iis wisdom to others.

Tb* II. nation gave birth to the

: i.i "ililihuk " or "gilgul," which

ill prcvaiU. among the Oriental

tlinsc of eastern Europe. This belief as-

» '- which are condemned to

» • Aorld, where they are tor-

nirated by evil spirits which watch and accompany

' ' '' ' their tormentors such

.11 the Imdies of living
r and women, over wliom the evil spirits

*' • ■'■■ ' '^"' ■ ~ 1 to whom such a soul

^ g and loses his own

IndiYkluaitty ; he acts as (hough he were quite an-
other man. un<l loses all moral sen.se.
Oillful. Hi- ran Ik.- cure<l only by a miracle-
-' rabbi (" Im'al shem ") who is
— - - . ... -Ill frotn his body by exorcisms

•ml •ffliiUrtB. The usual e.xorcism in such cases con-
1 reciting, in the presence of ten
•. the 91st P.sjilni, and adjuring
the Kiul in ihc name of God to have the body of the
• T --. of refusal on the part of

*'' . 'IS simple injunction, the ban

and Uto blowlDff of the shofar are resorted to. In

I'le amount of
ivs directed to
• rouRh the Kmall toi

• ek refuge in the
' more and more
Ucrply mnu-ii; and regular methodH for exnellinir

le works of the seven-
'lition is still widely
M Masidic circles. Ciirtiss relates
" ■ ^ of To-[)ay," J). l.-jO)
was exorcised in Pal-
ih.ii tiio spirit when questioned replied
I* the wml of a. lew who had been mur-
derofl in Nal,|„« twelve years before. The migrant
•oul was ifenerally IwHeved to belong to a wicked

or'

l»K-
If

•r

rr..

that a

tin'. .

or murdered person; but it may happen that that of
a righteous man is condemned, for a slight olleuse
committed by it, to wander for awhile in this world.
Such a soul is, however, free from demoniacal in-
fluences, and it enters the body of a living person
not to avoid evil spirits (who have no power over
ii), but to atone for the fault it has committed. As
soon as this has been accomplished it leaves the
body of its own free will. Hayyim Vital records
that while sojourning at Damascus in 1G99 he was
called upon to entertain himself with the soul of a
pious man which had entered tlie body of the daugh-
ter of Raphael Anaw. The soul informed him that
it was exiled from heaven for having slighted the
virtue of repentance. For a time it dwelt in a
lish, but this tish was caught and sold to liaphael
for the Sal)l)ath meal ; the soul then entered the bod}'
of the daughter of the house. In proclaiming be-
fore Vital the great impcrtauce of repentance it
became free to return to its heavenly abode ("Shib-
he Hayyim Wital,"' ed. Lemberg, p. 11). Narra-
tives of this sort abound in the cabalistic writings of
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and many
of them are reproduced in the "Xishmat Hayyim"
of Manassch ben Israel, who showed himself a firm
believer in all kinds of gilgiilim and dii)bukim.
He even went so far as to endeavor to demonstrate
that references to them are to be found in the Bible.
It is noteworthy that most of the cases of exorcism
occurred at Safed or iu its neighborhood; that is,
in localities where mysticism was flourishing. A
curious case is cited by Moses Prager in his "Zera'
Kodesh": it is interesting from the fact that David
Oppeuheim, the collector of Hebrew books and
manuscripts, who was the rabbi of Nikolsburg,
Moravia, was one of the signatories of the narrative.
See DiBBUKiM.

Bini.iOGRAPHV : Azariah da Fano, Gilfjiilc Xeshamnt, passim ;
Manasseh l)en Lsrael, Nislimnt Hin/i/im, part iii., eh. xiv.;
part Iv., ch. xx.; Luria, Srfer lia-OihiuUm. passim : fiJielxihe
ha-Ari, pas.siiii : Israel Sanik. Shililu- Hayi/iin Witnl, pa.s-
slm : Abraham Shalom H.ii. Sefrr Xi'ltaHm Sla'ascls'a, p. 18;
Ginsburg, 3'/ic Kalilxihili. p. 42: liarppe. Etude siir VOii-
(liiie (Iu Ziihiir. pp. :^:.'(» rt seq.. Pahs. 1903; P. Ruderniarin,
Uehcrxicht lihrr tlif hire, der Seelonvnxdrnnni. Warsaw,
1X78: S. \iuh\n. (iiliiul A>8/ianiof, Cracow. iSilH; Alexander
\\. M. .Mcnz. Iximiiiiiv I'lisscssiiui iu the Xor Trstaiiioit,
Edinburgh, llXri; Ciudemanu, Oisvh. i. 202, 205, 210.
K. I. Bu.

TRANSVAAL. See SofTii Africa.

TilANSYLVANIA (Hungarian, Erdely ; Ger-
man. Siebenbiirg-en): A district which has formed
a i)art ot llun^^ary since 1807. According to one
tradition, the first Jewi.sh settlers of this region
were subjects of the Persian king Xerxes, who
fled thither after the battle of Salamis; while
another tradition states that they were coloinzed
there by the Dacian king Decebiilus. It is certain,
at all events, that Jews lived in Transylvania soon
after the country had become a part of Dacia
during the Roman period. The earliest mention
of them in historical sources, however, is in ir)78,
when it was decreed in Art. xxii. of tlie regulations
passed by the national a.ssembly at Kolozsvar that
"Greeks and likewise Jews might not engage in
trade, except in jilaces especially assigned them
for residence." This "locus deposit ionis" in which
Jews were allowed to live wasGyulafehervai- (Karls-

235

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Transmigration of SouU
Tittubel

burg, formerly called Weissenburg, Alba Julia,
and Albu Carolina), a frontier town, where the Turk-
ish tnuie passed tiirout;;h Jewish hands. In 1023 the
grand duke Gabriel liethlen granted tiie Jews the
privilege of settling in fortified cities, of carrying on
commerce throutrhout the country, and of unre-
stricted observance of religion. This privilege, al-
though made a law bj' the national assembly in 1627,
was of short duration. The ordinances pa.ssed by
the national a.ssembly in 1650 provided that the
Jews should be restricted commercially, and should
be forced, like the Greeks, to wear distinctive
articles of clothing and badges; and tlie intolerant
grand duke George Rakoczy II. deprived them of
the right of residence in fortified towns. These pro-
visions, however, were never carried out. While
the emperor Joseph II., in his patent of 1781, ap-
pointed Gyulafchervar as a residence for the Jews,
and while the same provision was made by the gov-
ernment as late as 1845, the Jews have always lived in
various parts of the country, although their numbers
may have been small. The religious congregation
and the only community officially recognized, how-
ever, were at Gyulafehervar, where there was a bet
din as early as 1591. The first rabbi whose name is
known was Joseph Reisz Auerbach (1742-50), who
was succeeded by Solomon Selig b. Saul ha-Kohen
(1754-58), Johanan b. Isaac of Belgrade (until 17G0),
Benjamin Zeeb Wolf of Cracow (until 1777), Moses
b. Samuel ha-Levi Margolioth (1778-1817), Mena-
hem b. Joshua Mendel (1818-23), Ezekiel b. Joseph
Panet (1823-45), and Abraham Friedmann (1845-79),
all of whom held the title of district rabbi.

The Sabbatarians (Sambatianer) are important
factors in the history of the Jews in Transylvania.
This sect originated among the Christians, under the
influence of the Reformation, and was founded in
1588 by Andreas Eossy, who.se ff)!lowers regarded
the Jews as the chosen people and held their belief
to be the only true faith. They observed the Jew-
ish ilietary laws, kept the Jewish feasts, and were
especially strict in their observance of the Sabbath.
The persecutions of the princes Gabriel Bethlen
and George Rakoczy I. alienated the Sabbatarians
further and further from Christian doctrines, until
they approached Judaism so closely that the only
congregation which survived the persecution, and
which still cxistsin Bozod-Ujfalu, ofliciaily adopted
Judaism with the permission of Bai'on Eolvos, min-
ister of religion. At present (1905) the Jewish pop-
ulation of Transylvania is 59,239.

BiBr.iOGRAPnv: S. Kohn, A Siznmhnfnxnk. TortenrtUh, Dng-
jDntiki'ijuh, f'>> Irixialmvh, Hiidn pest, 1888 ; H. Hazni. 3/i/»i-
lu'ilattih a S:zii)Ti})at()stth7-i')h ib. 19(j:j; Eisler, Ar EnU'li/i Zsi-
<Ji'ik Multjahul, Klausenburf?, I9()l.

s. L. V.

TRASTEVERE. Sec Rome.

TRAUBE, LUDWIG : German physician and

medical author; born at Ratibor, Prussian Silesia,
Jan. 18, 1818; died at Berlin April 11, 1876; elder
brother of Moritz Traube. He studied at the gym-
nasium of his native town and the universities of
Brcsliiu, Berlin (M.D. 1841), and Vienna. After a
postgraduate course at Vienna University lie estab-
li.shed himself as a physician in the city of Berlin in
1843. In 1843 he opened a private seminary course

on auscidtation iiml piTcussinn, wldeh lie i |

for a year; in 1844 he commenced his r\i i^

on animals, especially in regard to airections of tiio
lungs through culling of the nervus \ m

which experiments he followed tiie work «.;
The results of liis labors were: "Die Ursuchen und

die BeschaiTenheit Derjenigen Vcrilnd

Welche das Lungenparenciiym nach Diir
dung der Nervi Vagi Krieidet " and "Bcitnig zur
Lehre von den Erstickungserscheinnngen am ]{■
rations-Apparat," pui)lishedin 184(5and 1847 ns;
ivelyin " Bcitrilgezur Experimentellen Pmliol.

Traube became privat-tlocent at Berlin L'Mivii-,i>
and assistant to Schoenlein at the Charite HoHpitiil
in 1848, and was appointed chief pjiysician of a
department of the same institution and assistant
professor in 1857. In 1802 he was appointed jirn-
fessor at the Prussian institution for army surgeons
(Friedrich Wilhelmslnslitut zur Ausbiidung von
Militarjlrzten); in 1866 he received tlie title of "Gc-
heimer Medizinalrath " ; and in 1872 lie became
professor at the university.

Through the above-mentioned essays Traube \>v-
came one of the leading German specialists in ex-
perimental pathology, in which field he remained
prominent up to his death. His fame as a clinician,
too, was great, he being one of the best teachers at
his university. Traube was also one of the leading
practitioners of Eurojie. Many of his essays were
epoch-making. To these belong his monographs
on digitalis, fever, thermometry in medicine, dis-
eases of the lungs, heart, and kidneys ("Ueber den
Zusanunenhang von Herz- und Nierenkrank]ieit<'n,"
Berlin, 1856), and above ail his works on experi-
mental pathology. His cssjiys were originally
published in the "Charite Annalen," "Verhanil-
lungen der Berliner Medizinisclien Gesellschaft."
and other medical journals. He collected tlu-m
later and published them in "Gesammelte Beitrilge
zur Pathologic und Therapie" (vol. i., Berlin.
1871, contains his experimental essays; vol. ii.. tl>.
1871, his clinical experiments; vol, iii., ib. 187^.
])ublished after his death by bis neplicw Albert
Frilnkel, contains his diary, and minor .scientific
works). In 1867Traul)e published "Die Syniptonie
der Krankheiten des Respirations- und Circulalions-
apparates" (not complete).

In 1878 a monument was erected to tlie memory
of Traube in the second court of the Cbarii.

Bnu.ior.RAPHY: PnppI.Biof;. I-cr. Vienna
t^ersntif»iK-Lrj'il<(Hi; linicklimts Kmir.
Lcyden, Gedflchtuixsriik axif LviUrio Tiiu. ;

Freiind, Oedilchtiii^sredf auf Ludwig Ti

F. T. H.

TRAUBEL, HORACE: American editor; bom

at Camden, >;. J.. Dec. li», 1858; educate«l in the
public schools of his native town. In 1892 he was
appointed, jointly with Richard Maurirt- Bu(klcand
Thomas B. Ilarned, literary executor of Walt Wiiil
man; he has contributed to the perimlicai press a
number of essays on that poit. In 18x6 he foi:-
tiie Contemporary Club in Philadelphia. Anion^.
publications which Traubel has edited are: "The
Conservator" (Philailelphia ; from 1890 to 1905);
"Tlie Dollar or the Man." and "Cartoons of Homer
Davenport" (1900). In conjunction with his coe.x-

Tl— ■-':■

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

236

1 imeon Walt Wliit-

• -The Artsman."

ill liH)3 He

A alt Wliitiiiuu

i-. H. V.

<•

TRAVELERS : Jews early became accustomed
^^ ' IS in the Exile

. .Mil dispersion.
•J of the Jewish race iu the first and

"iiitrness to cliangc
^ undcT the Hoinau
the local nature of their cults.
' ' IVmplo there was noth-
ig in any part of the
Jews were found as far north as
' . -r as Spain, and the in-
.i.i Biihyloniawascon-
.n by the cases of Hilkl, Akiba.
■■ !is between Palestine and
i the example of Saul of
the wide extent of country that an
J. • .nv means could cover in the

cs ^ (st-e Haruack. "Ausbreitung

d ims. lierliu, 1904). With the spread

o: ' '-li-rs became the chief internie-

d 111 and Christian hinds; and

l\. ~ beiwtfii Spain and China are recorded as

lr ■ '■ " ish inukrs known as "Radanites,"

« 1 in the "Book of Ways." written

•biiui Mi l»y liiu Khordadhbi'h (see Commkuck).
O'i • T. 1:^1. -r ..leroutc-s ran from Byzantium to
I* ily extended farther north. A Jew

nii>aiiiid an c'ml)assy of Cliarle-

la-Chapt'lle to Bagdad in 802. It

U nid that Jacob ibn Tarik was sent in the ninth
c« ' -lad as far as Ceylon to obtain as-

Ir - from the Indians; and according

I' .:i» ibn Ezra a Jewish traveler brouirht from

!• i Arabic numerals (see "Fables of

|i , lis, p. xxiv.). His name is given

•bn u "Jnscpb of Spain" (Weisscnbron, "Zur
r. ■ ■ • 7ifTern." 1«92. pp. 74-78).

id ha Dani are staled to have
f from babylonia to Spain, but their au-

t: '.:il doubtful. The travels of

A ; ween 1140 and 1108 extended

MM far an Palestine on the one side, and to England
on ■' ■': ' The same century was distinguished
b. , -'lint travelers. Bk.n.i.\.min of Tiidela

•tartitt from - <i in linOand went at least as

fn' - " ■' , .■ .iiiiing to Spain abiiut 1171. It
I' h<'tlM-r his accounts of countries east

o' I from personal kimwletlge or

f' -.• A it the samc! time I'etiialiiah of

1; .re travplMl from Prague to Poland and

i" lad. to Jerusjilen). and back to

tj - . :....4. In 1210 a band of over 300

rabbU from France and England made a j)ilgrimage
•* iiig the example of Judah

'' •::iugthe practise of pilgrim-

8»r« «. a !Ut of which will lie found under Pikoium
*'•>'• " ' '" ''i was perhaps the most iiii[iortant
"f th' . aft<-r the f.vpiilsion of .lews from

France in 1306 he wandered in Spain, Egypt, and

Palestine, over which he traveled very thoroughly
for seven years for geographical purposes.

Jews were intimately connected with the impor-
tant extension of geographical knowledge iu the
lifteenth century— theoretically tiirough llie school
of ilajorca map-makers to which belonged Ckksqves
i.o Jliiku and Meci.\, and practically

Part in through a number of travelers like Af-

Geograph- fnnso de Bay ba, Abraham of Bcga, and

ical Joseph of Lamejo, who accompanied

Discovery. Pedro ile Covilham on the discovery

of the land-route to the East Indies,

and Caspar da Gama, who had gone from Poland to

Goa, where he met Vasco da Gama (Jacobs, "Story

of Geographical Discovery," p. 89, New York, 1904).

Jews accompanied Columbus on his first voyage to

America (see Amkkra, Disiovkhy of).

Pilgrimages like those of MeshuUam b. Menahem
of Volterraand Obadiah Bertinoroto the Holy Land
and back became too frequent to deserve special
mention; David Keubeni's travels were in the oppo-
site direction. A certain Jew named Jehonadab of
Morocco, mentioned by Andre Tlievet as having ac-
quired twenty -eight languages from personal inter-
course with those who spoke them, was probably
well acquainted with North Africa. Antonio de
]Montesiuos appears to have traveled widely iii South
America; he claimed to have discovered there the
Lost Ten Tiibes about 1042. ^MosesPeicira de Pavia
traveled from Holland t(j Cochin and described the
Jews there (1687), while Teixeira's descriptions of
his travels in the Philippines, China, and parts of
America are of consideraijle interest. In the eight-
eenth century few names of travelers occur, apart
from those of pilgrims to Palestine antl wanderers
through P^urope, though Samuel liomanelli of .Man-
tua, who lived in Berlin in 1791, described his travels
from Gilualtar to Algiers and Morocco, giving many
interesting details. In the nineteenth cent my Jews
took a large share in travel in uid<nown parts. .Men-
tion may be made of .Joseph Wolf and his travels to
Bokhara; of Nathaniel Lsaacs, who was one of the
earliest to explore Zululand and Natal ; and of C. S.
Pollack, one of the earliest settlers in New Zealand,
of which he wrote an account ("Residence in New
Zealand," 2 vols., London, 1881-37). W. G. Pal-
grave gave an interesting account of his joiii-neys in
central Arabia; Arminius V;imbeiv of his in cen-
tral Asia; Captain Binger discovered the bend of
the Niger; and Captain Foa wandered fromSoiilli to
North Africa. Einin Pasha and lyouis A. Lucas arc
also to be mentioned as having added to the knowl-
edge of darkest Africa. On Pul.ir expeditions
Bessels, Israel, and Angclo Heilprin liave done
service.

Among modern travelers who have devoted their
attention particularly to the condition of Jews in
various lands have been: Benjamin II., who
wandered over all the continents except Australia;
Jaeoii Saphir, who was especially interested in the
Jewsof Yemen ; J. Ilalevy. who visited tlicFalaslias;
and J. Rinmaiui, who traveled among the Jews of
India. Chorny's travels among the Jews of the
Caucasus and Deinard's among those of the Crimea
should be mentioned. To these should be added E.
N. Adler, who has visited mo.st of the outlying

237

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Traveler*
Treason

colonies of Jews in Africa, Asia, and America
("Jews of Many Lauds," Pliiiadelphia, 1905).
BIUI.IOGRAPHY : '/Any/., LiteraturderJuden, In G. S. 1. 14ti-210.

s J.

TRAVNIK : Town of Bosnia. The first Jews
settled there at the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
tury, during the reign of the sultan 'Abd al-.Majid,
most of them being Sejihiirdim from Sarajevo. The
first to come were the army purveyor Abraham Es-
kcnasi, the Ottoman army surgeon Isaac Salom (de-
scendants of both of whom are now living at Sara-
jevo), and the rabbi Isaac Attias. About this time
Moses Amar, a Jew from Belgrade, whose descend-
ants still live in that city, was employed by the
Ottoman government as collector of taxes at Trav-
nik. His successors down to the time of the occu-
pation (1878) were the following Jews: Judah ]\Ion-
tilijo, R. Salom, T. Levi, D. Salom, and M. I. Salom.
The Ottoman government treated them liberally,
allowing them to close the ta.x-oftice on Jewish
feast-days and on Saturdays— a fact which indi-
cates the influence and respect which the Jews
enjoyed.

The Jews of Travnik have always been conserva-
tive. About 1840, when their number had increased,
they built a wooden chapej, which was replaced by
a massive temple in 1863, the leading Jews of the
community heli)ing in its construction by personally
carrying stone and brick. A schoolhouse was erected
in 1877, l)ut both these edifices were burned in the
conflagration of Sept. 3, 1903. The acting rabbi,
Isaac Attias, who has already been mentioned, was
succeeded by Abraham Abinon, who ofliciatcd for
tweuty-si.\ years, when he was called to Sak.\,ievo
as chief rabbi of the Sephardim in Bosnia-Herzego-
vina. The Jews of Travnik have never been sub-
jected to any persecutions or restrictions on account
of their religion, and have always lived peaceably
with the followers of other creeds. In 1903, out of
a total population of 6,626, tiiere were 426 Jews in
the town, comprising in a single community si.xty-
five Sephardicand twenty-four Ashkenazic families,
the latter having come after 1878.
J. S. We.

TREASON.— Biblical Data: In the strictest
sense there is no record in the Bible of an attempt
to betray one's country, nor is there any mention of
an unsuccessful attempt at regicide, wliich is high
treason; but there are numerous instances of suc-
cessful attemjits to overthrow the government by
killing its head. Abimelech, the son of Jerubbaal,
slew his half-brotliers, the seventy sons of Gideon,
and proclaimed him.self ruler of Israel (Judges i.\.
1-5). Athaliah annihilated all those of royal
l)lood and made herself Queen of Judah (II Kings
.xi. 1).

Saul evidently con.sidered David's action as
treasonable and deserving of death (I Sam. xx. 31),
and he executed Abimelech and his family of priests
for aiding David (I Sam. xxii. 11-18), though Sam-
uel, by God's command, had alread\' anointed David
as Saul's successor. Nevertheless, David killed the
Amalekite who assisted Saul in committing suicide,
"for stretching forth his hand to destroy the Lord's
anointed " (II Sam. i. 14). Baauah and kechab, two

captains, killed Ish-bosheth. the .son of Saul, in tli.
expectation of being rewarded by Duvid; but tli.
latter charged them with treason uud executed thei.
(II Sam. iv. 2-12). J„ub killed Ab.salom for Imvinu
attempted to overthrow the government and lo
depose his father, David, in the kingship (H Sum
xvui. 14). Shimei, the son of Gera. was guilty of
treason in insulting and cursing David (H Su„,. xvi.
5-8). When Shimei begged David's forgiveness, th-
latter pardoned him (II Sam. xix. 21). but Kin '
Solomon found a pretext to avenge liis father (I
Kings ii. 46). Sheba, the son of Biehri. niis«-d the
standard of rebellion against David, and was killed
by those lie had misled (H Sam. xx. 22). Adonijali
was found guilty of treason, and was finally executed
(I Kings i. 5, ii. 25).

Zimri, a captain in the army of Elah, the son of
Baasha, killed his king, and after a reign of scvti.
days, fearing capture, committed suicide (I King.s
xvi. 9-18). His action became proverbial, and was
recalled in Jezebel's remark, "Zimri, . . . who slew
his master " (II Kings ix. 31). IVkahiah, the .son of
Menahem, King of Israel, was killed by liis captain
Pekah, the son of Remaliah, who succeeded him. In
return, Hoshea, tlie son of i:iah, conspired against
Pekah, killing and replacing liim (II Kings xv. 25.
30). Ishmael killed Ahikam's son Gedaliah. wIkwu
the king of Babylon had appointed governor (II
Kings XXV. 2.-)).

In Rabbinical Literature : The Rabbis find

the penally of death lor disobedience to tiie king in
Josh. i. 18 (see Sanh. 49a). A Jewish king may in-
flict death upon those guilty of revolt. Even if the
king orders one of his subjects to go to a certain
place, or forbids him to leave his own liou.se, he
must obey or become liable to ca|)ital punishment.
The king also has the right to kill one who insults
or disgraces him, as in the case of Shimei hen Gera.
Death for treason is by the sword only. TIio king
may also punish the olTender otherwise, but he may
not confiscate his property, as this would be rob-
bery (Maimonides, " Yad," Melakim, iii. 8). David
ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra defines a king as one
cho-sen by a projdiet or elected by the people, but
not a self-appointed ruler who lias acf|uire<J Ids
kingdom by usurpation. No one can be guilty as n
" mored be-malkut" in the case of such a king
(commentary on the "Yad," «rf^x-., ed. Wiliia. I9U<i).
R. Joseph partly justifies Daviil's action against
Uriah l)y the latter's reference to " my lord Jnab, and
the servants of my lord" (II Sam. xi. 11). which
placed Joab on equal terms with the king, an ofTenac
which amounted to treason (Shab. 56a). Others are
of the opinion that Uriah deserved death becauso he
disobeyed David's command to go liome (Tog. ad
lor., s. V. ~)DX1)- David adjudged Nabal guilty of
disrespect to the king; but Abigail pleaded thai
Saul was still living and that David was not yet
recognized generally as king: David admitted the
force of her argument (I Sam. xxv. 33; Meg.
14b). Amasa was guilty of disobedience wlien he
"tarried longer than tlie set time wliich he [Da-
vid] had appointed him," and thereby earned his
death at the hands of Joab (II Sam. xx. 5. 10;
Sanh. 49a).
J. J. D. E.

Ti«*>W

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

238

TRZASTJBE-TllOVF c-F-v*^

TREBINO (TREMINO) DE SOBRE-

■%' ~ ' ■''," " 'iii-il a[ lilt- slake

!I<' hud provi-
, . , i)u; but in

.:iada. iiifor-

wife. Maria

■ n thrown into llie

• ''me, and kept in

V in order that

his fortune;

:.„ . ..i with using

(in notliing. because it
Out «)f a group of

;nonUJ was tlie only

He dicil without uttering

• and Ills hirelings," as

...; his tormentors witli his

the Spanisli-Jewish histo-

i Uaycune in 1660, dedicated two

rnr oto-c n, yferieo VUJo, vol. U.: C. Adler. in
vll.. pp. vL 5. 59, (JO. W; U. A.
:. 1»M.
A. J.

— "T5ITSCH, ABRAHAM BEN REUBEN

AT: A .-iri.iii Mlmhir. lioiii at -Tvi'ljitscli,

about 1700; died at Nikolsburgin tlic first

■' ■ cntury. He attended the

- at Prague in 1775 (" Korot

" p. "-Ma), and then settled in Nikolsburg,

Totnry to the '• Landesrabbiner."

- Korot lia-Ittim,"a liistory of

. niouarrhs, including the emperors of

'"!' to 1801 (part i.. Brlinn, 1801;

r llie title " Korot Nosafot." iip

by Jacob Bodek, Lemberg, 1841).

.■ with tlie history and literature of

Austrian states. Ticbitsch's work

of Menahem Mann ben Solomon

.ilYisniel," which traces the history

1 to the year 1740 (see Jew. E.vcyc. i. 490, «.r.

Willi Hirsch Mcnakker, was the author

.vylm." a story of the exorcising nf an

' man (ptililishcd in

" • -'. 1785;-Frankfoit-

oo-tbcOdcr, 17{*;

jtf f^ ». 1:6.
n.

'nrtm. p. 527. No. .127;
' /f''" Hi)i,kii Drit.

S. M\N

TREBIT8CH. NEHEMIAH (MENAHEM
NAHUM) : AuNtriau rabbi; born at Prague Aug.

'' ' " • '■ 'v 4. 1842. He was a son

' ■ ''1 at the Altneuschulc. and

' lalmudical training at the

y ' -L'. I'jion the rerom-

\ !'incr" Mnrdecai Ik-net

* " . TrebitJtcli became rabbi of Pross-

I, _

On May 13. 1882. the trovornmont confirmed the
'.' 'biner" of Moravia,

'• •■• '. and granted him a

ilary of 600 florins; he was the last Moravian

• Landesrabbiner" of the old school. In Sept., 1833,
the provincial government issued a decree conferring-
upon the chief rabbi the power of proposing candi-
dates for the various rabbinates of the province, and
of making an appointment when the congregation
failed to inform him of a vacancy or rejected the
candiilate proposed by the "Landesrabbiner." This
decree, for which Trebitsch was declared by his o|)-
ponents to be responsible, brought him into con-
flict with the congregations of Gewitsch, Weiss-
kirchen, Prossnitz, and Loschitz; and live years later
(May 23, 1838) another decree canceled the chief
rabbi's privilege of proposing candidates. Abraham
Neuda, rabbi of Loschitz, whom Trebitsch refused
to confirm on account of liberal tendencies, was re-
instated after liaving passed a successful examina-
tion before a committee of which Trebitsch was a
member. This defeat, and the censure of the gov-
ernment for his opposition to the use of the German
language among the Jews greatly affected Tre-
bitsch, who died while on u journey to Carlsbad.

Trebitsch wrote: "Shelom Yorushalayim," glosses
on Seder Mo'ed of the Palestinian Talmud, with the
text and David Frilnkel's commentary (Vienna,
1821); "Kobez 'al Yad," notes on Maimonides'
" Yad ha-Hazakah," part i., with text {ib. 1835).

BiBi.iOGRAPiiv : Kdl Xe.hi, a funeral sprmon fHehr. and Ger-
man), PraKue, 1842; L. Low. Das Mdhrische iMiuksrah-
binat, in Ucsaminelte Schriften, ii. 195-212.

s. S. Max.

TREE OF LIFE.— Biblical Data: According
to Gen. ii. 9, there stood in the midst of the Garden
of Eden a "tree of life," apparently by the side of
the " tree of knowledge of good and evil. " Although
Gen. iii. 3 seems to presuppose but one tree there.
Gen. iii. 22 asserts that, after tiie primitive pair
liad eaten of the tree of knowledge, they were ex-
pelled from Eden lest they should put forth tiieir
hands and take of the tree of life and live forever.
The view of the writer was that Eden contained a
tree the magical power of the fruit of which con-
ferred immortality upon him who partook of it,
though Yiiwii prohibited mortals from partaking
of this fruit.

A tradition of this tree lingered long in Israel. In
Prov. iii. 16-18 the poet says of wisdom, "Length
of days is in her right hand; . . . She is a tree of
life to them that lay hold upon her," a passage
which clearly alludes to the primitive conception of
a life-prolonging tree. Again, Prov. xi. 30 reads,
"The fruit of the righteous is a tree of life"; and
Prov. xiii. 12, "Hope deferred maketh the heart sick:
but when the desire cometh, it is a tree of lite." In
Prov. XV. 4 it is said, "A wholesome tongue is a tree
of life." In the last three references the thought
may not be so literal as in the tirst, but the use of
the tree of life in this gnomic poetry
Referred to is evidence that the tradition lived,
in In p]/.ek. xlvii. 12 also there seems to

Proverbs, be an allusion to the tree of life. In
describing the river which would flow
out from Jcrusalenj to the Dead Sea tiic prophet
says, "And by the river upon the bank thereof, on
this side and on that side, shall grow all trees for
meat, whose leaf .shall not fade, neither shall the
fruit thereof be consumed : it shall bring forth new

239

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Treaaure-Trovd
Tree-Worahip

fruit according to liis months." In the New Testa-
ment, where this jjassage is quoted (Kev. xxii. 2),
the tree is described as tlie tree of life.

In the extracanouical literature there are two or
three additional references. The Etiiiopic Book of
Enoch (xxiv. 4) describes the tree of life as having
"a fragrance beyond all fragrance; its leavc-s and
bloom and wood wither not forever; its fruit is
beautiful and resembles the dates of a palm." The
Slavonic Book of Enoch (viii. 3) sa)'s, " In the midst
tliere is the tree of life . . . and this tree can not be
described for its excellence and sweet odor." IV
Esd. viii. 52, in describing the future, says, "Unto
you is paradise opened, the tree of life is planted,"
etc.

Critical View: Buddc ("Urgeschichte," pp.

46 (>< «6'(/.) showed that in the original narrative of
Gen. ii.-iii. there was bui one tree. This, he thougiit,
was the tree of knowledge, and he accordingly elim-
inated the tree of life. Barton, however, has sliown
(•'Semitic Origins," pp. ^JSetxerj.) that in primitive
Semitic life the especially sacred tree was the date-
palm, and that, because of its bisexual nature and
because of a belief that man came to self-realization
through sexual relations, it was regarded as both the
tree of knowledge and the tree of life. The differ-
entiation which divided these functions between
two trees came in at a later time, when knowledge
of the origin had become in part obscured. That
this is the source of tlie idea of the tree of life among
the Hebrews is rendered probable by the following
considerations: (1) the Temple of Solomon, which
was evidently intended to imitate a garden (comi).
Bevau, in "Jour, of Theol. Studies," iv. 502 et seq.),
was carved with cherubim, palm-trees, and flowers
(I Kings vi. 29-32); (2) a recollection of the real
origin of the tree of life crops out in Ethiopic Enoch,
xxiv. 4; (3) the tradition came to the Hebrews by
way of Babylonia (comp. Pakauisk, Ckitical
View), and in Babylonia not only was the palm the
sacred tree of a sacred garden (comp. Barton, I.e. p.
107), but in the literature its name is sometimes
written with the determinative for deity {idem,
"Documents from the Archives of Telloh," 1905,
plate 25). For a similar Bab3'f()niau conception of a
food of life see Pakadise, Critical View. In
Hebrew literature this idea first appears in its literal
form in Genesis, is used as a literary metaphor in
Proverbs, and in Ezekiel and the apocalypses be-
comes a part of the picture of the heavenly paradise.

Bibliography : Budde, UrarKchicMe, pp. 46-S8, Giessen. 1883 ;
Toy, Proner/w, in International Critical dim. I8!t9, pp". 69,
TO ; Barton, Sketch of Semitic Origins, pp. 90-98, New York,
1902.

E. G. IT.

G. A. B.

TREE-WORSHIP : Trees have been objects of
worship in all parts of the world (comp. Mannhardt,
"Wald- und Feldkulte," Berlin, 1875). They were
worshiped among the Semites (comp. AVellhausen,
"Keste Arab. Ileidentums," 2d ed., 1897, pp. 101 et
seq.; W. R. Smith, "Bel. of Sem." 2d ed , 1894, pp.
185 et seq. ; Barton, " Sketch of Semitic Origins." pp.
87 etseq.), and the Hebrews were no exception to this.
The tree that was generally regarded as sacred iu
Palestine Avas the oak, or the terebinth, which in hot
countries, especially the more southerly of those

about the Mediterranean, takes tlie piuceof iJie oiik.
It is called "allon," wliieli posMihly meant "di-
vine tree" (from ^H). though another etymology is
perhaps n)ore prolmble. This was not the only
sacred tree; for traces of the worship of the palm-
tree survive (comp. Tree ok Like), and Ahrahum
planted an"esher' (tamarisk) by the fiacred wells
at Beer-sheba and called on Die name of GotI ihere
(Gen. xxi. 83). Tamarisks existed also at Itumali in
tlie time of Saul and at Jal)esh in (Jiiead (I Sum.
xxii. 6, xxxi. 13, Hebr.). It was the terebinth, iiow-
ever, which was generally worshiped, and the wor-
ship of which was denounced by the Prophets.

The worship of tiiis tree is connected wiili the
earliest traditions. At Shechem. Viiwii is suid lo
have appeared to Abraliam at the terebinth (K. V.
margin) of ^loreh, when he first entered tlie laud
(Gen. xii. 6 et seq.). Under this tree Jacob buried
the foreign gods of his followers (Gen. xxxv. 4);
and Joshua set up a "maz^eliah" under
The Sacred tlie terebinth which was in the sane-
Terebinth, tuary of Ynwii(Josh. xxiv. 20). Per-
haps it was this tree to which allusion
is made in Judges ix. 37. Near Belh-el there was
another of these sacred terebinths (Eng. versions,
"oak "; Gen. xxxv. 8), At Hebron, Abraham built
an altar under one; there he dwelt, and there Ynwn

Sacred Terebinth on Jabal Ausha", Palestine.

(From ft pbotCYTiph. )

appeared to him ( Gen. xii. 18, xiv. 18. xviii. 1 e:
seq.). A descendant of this tree (see illustration
s.v. Abraham's Oak) is still ]wiu ■ at

Hebron, and is venerated by the ii ;:eck

pilgrims who visit Palestine every year: it has prob-
ably maintained its sacred chanuter tin
intervening centuries. At Oplira a saci'.
(A. V. "oak") existed in the limeof Gideon (Judges
vi. 11. 19). The wide-spread existence of t'
is evidenced by the names derived Irom it —
(Ex. XV. 27), Elon (Judges xii. 11). and £l»«.h ill
Kings xiv. 22). The extent «)f its wur«'
cated also by the denunciations of tl. .
A favorite phrase of theirs in describing idoiairous
practises was "upon every high hill and under
every green tree" (Deut. xii. 2; Jer. ii. 20). Some-

TrsMi

TOE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

240

ibincd with
. .. vi. 13. n.

y iS to tliis tree the

. -rr of mnny of these trees has
is. for exumple,
Ain Yajiiz iintl
A." VJiH. xxiv.
-A Vt-urs Wandering in Bible
• ': ■ Suf istiiicklyhunir

today tlie limbs of
.1 lor tire-wood, so that
■ • <;mall anil are mucii
:i the contrary, are
Perliaps tliis was
>.,.-. If so. it would ex-
tree" as applied to those

• 'I'ioned may have had

let! by the fact that

_'!i the mulbcrry-

. . ;.. ii >am. V. 24): but

ha character has disappeared.

Prnphets were unable

,. ..^ worship, which has sur-

ic through all religious changes to

Ul ihtV.

;.s nn'titinnfii, see Baii-
■ m in Dihlkal Arclict-

"a G. A. B.

TREES. LAWS CONCERNING: Cutting

• il irtcs is lorbidden by

vur the fruit-trees about

d dty maj' not be injured or used to build

.1 against foes, and not

vorks of nature (I)eut.

The Kiibbis regard this as an admoni-

' ' ' -te orwilful destruction.

. iy known as " bal tash-

• not destroy; Shab. 129a). Some
'Ver. permit the cutting down of

llie site is needed for a dwelling
1 .rv ZAiuib," to Shulhan "Aruk, Yoreh De'ah,

A tr«« whirh cxt/'nd« into the public road may be
' its rider to i)as3 beneath (B.

i • • " '!-■■! to mark the bound-

1 (litTcrent owners.

i . ;> lo the owner of the

'...u l.ic is planted, tlutugh the

over other property. If the trunk

ies. the two owners be-

I divide the fruit (B. M.

'•). One wlio purchases

' lim the right to as

1- is necessary for the

' uid hiM banket (B. B. 82b); one who j)ur-

Mo <laim to ground.

/ <t becjiusc the roots

"f I "• <• are in hid ground. He may, however, cut

' ' ' 'hey are In tin- way of his plow or if

• 11. When I hf-re is no fence bet ween
twowpuniK-lyownofl flj-his, one must not plant trees
noari-T than 4 flls from his neighbor's bo\indary line
(B. B. 26ft^ Eiinui:li vpd,,. must Ik- left on either

side of a river to allow a rower room to run his
boat ashore (Shulhan 'Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat,
155).

XV B. J- r>- E.

TREMELLIUS, JOHN IMMANUEL : Ital-
ian Hebraist; born at Ferrara 1510; died at Sedan
Oct. 9. 1580. He was educated at the University of
Padua. He was converted about 1540 to the Cath-
olic faith through Cardinal Pole, but embraced Prot-
estantism in the following year, and went to Stras-
burg to teach Hebrew. Owing to the wars of the
Reformation in Germany he was compelled to seek
asylum in England, where he resided at Lambeth
Palace with Archbishop Cranmer in 1547. In 1549
he succeeded Paul Fagius as regius professor of He-
brew at Cambridge. On the death of Edward VI.
he revisited Germany, and, after some vicissitudes,
became professor of Old Testament at Heideliierg
(1561). He ultimately found refuge at the College
of Sedan, where he died. His chief literary work
was a Latin translation of the Bible from the He-
brew and Syriac. The live parts relating to the
Old Testament were published at Frank fort-on-the-
Main between 1575 and 1579, in London in 1580, and
in numerous later editions. Tremellius also trans-
lated into Hebrew Calvin's •'Catechism" (Paris,
1551), and wrote a " Chaldaic " and Syriac grammar
(Paris, 1569).

BiBi-iooRAPiiv: Dictionary of National Biography.
T. J.

TRENEL, ISAAC : French rabbi ; bornat:\retz
Dec. 2S, l.s-J-2; died at Paris in IbUO. He studied at
Marmoutier under his uncle Jacob Haguenauer, a
famous Talmudist, and later at ^Merzig, Prus.sia,
under the Talmudist Moise Levy, known also as li.
Moche Merzig. After completing his studies at the
rabbinical school of ^letz, Trenel was appointed
rabbi at Besancon; he resigned tiiatoflicesoon after,
however, and went to Paris, where he was for a
time secretary of the Comite dc Bienfai.sance Israe-
lite. After some years he was appointed assistant to
the chief rabbi of Paris, and in 1856 director of the
Ecole Centrale Rabbiniciuo, wliicli was transferred
to Paris in 1859; he retained the latter oflice until
his death. He was the author of a Hebrew -French
dictionary, compiled in collaboration with N. Sander
(Paris, 1859). and of a study on the life of Hilli-l the
Elder, published in the report of the Seminaire
Israelite {ih. 1867).

s. I. L.

TRENT (German, Trient) : Oldest city of the
Tyrol; a sovereign bishopric from 1027 to 1803.
During the tirsi half of the fourteenth century a
small number of Jews, probably from Italy, settled
in the episcopal city. During the first decades their
history dilTered in no wise from that of the Jews
living in the rest of the Tyuoi, ; but by the begin-
ning of the fifteenth century there existeil for the
Jews of Trent special ordinances similar to those in
force in Bozen, as is jiroved by an order pro-
mulgated by Bisho]) Ulrieh HI. of Brixen in 1403.
The Jews as prominent business men showed them-
selves of service to the bishops, and accordingly
stood high in favor with them. Thus Bishoj) Alex-
ander of Masovia (1423-44) on one occasion gave a

241

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

TreeB
Trespass

decision in favor of the Jew Isa.ic against Peter
von IJido (Sept. 3. 1440). The Jewish physician
Tobias, who later (147o) died a martyr for liis
faith, was likewise very popular among the Cliris-
tians.

The Jews owned liouses, estates, and a separate
Jewish school, and in general lived on tiie hcst of
terms with their Ciiristian fellow citizens, until the
fanaticism of a priest caused untold disaster to
descend upon the small but prosperous community.
Beriiiiniinus of Fellre, the indirect and ))r()l)alily tiie
direct instigator of the murder of Simon of Tient,
brought about the notorious ritual-murder proceed-
ings of 1475 (see Simon of Tijent). The commu-
nity was dissolved; its rich members were put to
death after the confiscation of tiieir property by
order of Bishop Iliuderbach ; and the surviving mem-
bers were expelled. Si.xtus IV., seriously ill at the
time, in the bull "Facit nos pietas," dated June 20,
1478, sanctioned these proceedings in spite of the
efforts made by the Bishop of Ventimiglia, who
showed that the charges which had been brought
were a mere tissue of lies. For centuries from that
time no Jews dwelt in Trent; and as late as Oct. 20,
1638, the proceediugsof 1475 were cited by the prince
bishop Karl Emanuel of Madruzzo as ground for
forbidding the settlement of Jews in tiie town. On
the same occasion a law was promulgated to the ef-
fect that Jews when traveling might not pass through
tiie i^recincts of Trent in closed wagons or sedan-
chairs, and that they must wear on the breast a
badge the size of a thaler. The penalty for violating
this law w^as to be a long imprisonment or heavy
fine. In 1725 and again in 1731 it was ordered that
Jews wear hats covered with red or 3'ellow cloth.
A few Jews were allowed to stay in Trent wlien
provided witli special letters of protection from the
emperor, but only for a few days. Such a safe-con-
duct was granted, for example, by Emperor INIaxi-
miliau to the Jew Emanuel, son of Samson, on
March 1, 1516.

In recent times several Jewish merchants have set-
tled in Trent; but they have no opportunities for
holding religious services, and, like all tiie Jews in
the Tyrol, they belong to the community of Hohen-

EMS.

J. A. Ta.

TRESPASS : Injury done directly, in most cases
purpo.sely, to the person or property of another.
Trespass on the person has been discussed under the
head of Ass.\ri,T and B.\tteky: it remains to speak
of the Talmudic law of trespass on property.

According to the Mislinah (B. K. ii. 6), "a man is
always forewarned." That is, like the master of the
forewarned ox (see Goking Ox), he is always liable
for the whole damage arising from his direct act;
and the words are added : " wliether awake or asleep,
wiietlier acting of purpose or from ignorance."

The Scripture prescribes punishment for only one
typical case ("ab") of trespass on projierty (Lev.
xxiv. 8,Hebr.) : " And he who kills a domestic aniiiwil
shall make it good, life for life " ; and (ib. verse 21):
"And h<! who smites a beast sliall make it good."
This is extended by the oral law to all cases of direct
harm done to property ; but the above-quoted sectiini
of the Mishnah also singles out as a case, "whether
XII.— 16

Trespass

on
Property.

he has blinded one's eye, or lias liroken IiIh vessel,
he pays full damage." In other pluces tlie Mishnull
or Baraitaspeuks of tearing a person's
clnljies, or destroying Ids croitB or
plants, or killing Jiis beast. Only one
exception is made: viz., when tiie
trespass constitutes otherwise a death-
deserving, sinful act, there is no liability to make
the damage good in money (see the case of the bur-
glar in Sanh. viii. G).

Not only is sleeji or ignorance no defen.se against
the charge of trespass, but unwillingness or acting
under compulsion (Di:X) <loes not free from liability
—for instance, where one stumbles or falls from the
roof and in so doing hurts a pei-son or breaks a
thing— unless the hurtful movement was made
under irresistible force and was not caused by lack
of care (B. K. 26-28). This is illustrated in the
Mishnah (B. I^. iii. 4-5) thus:

" When two potters [men carrylnfir earthenware) iire walklnK
one behind the other, and the first stumldes and falN. and the
second stumbles overlilm, the Ilist Is liable for the daiuuKe dune
to the other. Or when one (foes aloiin with his Jar or burrel,
and the other with his joist [meaning side by side], and the Jar
of the one is broken against the joist of the other, the laUer fKMt
clear; for each had the riRht to (fo where he went. If the mnn
with the joist walked in front and the Jar or barrel wa.s bp.k<-n
against it, the man with the joist goes clear; but If hi-.ki.--l
.stiil. unless he told the man with the barrel to stand still ulvi.
he is liable. If the man with the barrel walked in fn)nt. uini
the other man behind him, and the barrel was bnikeii by the
joist, [the bearer of the latter] is liable; but If the man with
the barrel suddenly stands still, without tellinir the man U-hInd
him to stop, the latter goes free. And ihe same results will
follow where one carries a burning lamp and another a bundle
of ilax."

But when the injurious act is committed on Ihe
grounds of the injuring party, lie who commits
it is liable only for what he does wilfully, not for
what he does unwittingly or involuntarily ; such at
least is the opinion of .Maimonides, taken from post-
Talmudic authorities, l hough based upon hints and
analogies in the Mishnah and the Baraita.

The trespasser is responsible not only for wiiat he
does with his hand or other parts of liis body, or
with aweaivmor implement wliicii he
Extent of wields, but also for any injury wliicli
Trespass, he does by throwing or sliooting or by
spitting. But if he casts anything ou
the ground (even his saliva) and injury arises there-
from afterward {e.f/., \\ hereit causesamati ora In-ast
to stumble), it is not a trespass, but is in the iialure
of a pit (see Jew. Encvc. i. 100b, #.r. Accii>ent)

Where one strikes iron with a hammer so that
sparks issue therefrom, by which a neighlM»r"8
house or goods are burned or otherwise damngnl. it
is deemed a trespass, for wliidi the wielder of llic
hammer is liable. When one pusiies his neluhbor'g
beast into the water, or prevents it fmn
water, and it is drowned, or when he
circumscribed place, where it dies from heat or from
lack of air. he is liable: and thus in similar caws of
death indirectly inllicted.

Where an injury does not affect the neighljors
]iroperty in the body and can not be seen — wiierc
tiie shape of the thing is not cliangeti. yet the thing
itself is diminished in vabie— it is held (GiJ. -V^li)
that under the letter of the Torah flu-re is r '■ ' '
itv for daniasre; but tiiere is a rabbinical < :

^•-OffennKS

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

242

an were defllod by the

'• wiuc of ii

ilh anotlier

s use uolawful; or iu like

' ' ■ . *' trespasser's
: the Jewisli
- laws.

another to

'. both priii-

i are liable for the tlam-

Tt' " •' construction of

Ti. • thing iu which

Agvul. sevomt work together, causes an iu-

•• •' doing the several parts

of tfM" work is partners therein, all

V as emploj'ces, each for
.ill i.iv .lit who actnallv causes the

men have each put a

.1 ks along; a sixth puts a

on it, and it stops and dies; the

If, however, the beast had

''itional weight was laid on it,

but if there is doubt as to

liable, and the damage is di-

and generally, when two or

have killed an animal or broken an im-

; by them in equal parts.

, , -. ue paid iu money, and

• d by subtracting the value of the dead

from the worth of the beast

■ trcsimss was conimitted.

are

Sec KouuEK\

'■' u-.VazziTf, vii. " ;

• :'.'■<. jHttisiin.'

L. X. I).
TRESPASS-OFFERINGS. See S.\crifice.
TREUE ZIONSWACHTER, DER. See Peri-

OM' Ki -

TREUENBURG ,r TREUENFELD, JA-
COB. -. i, I.VCOB; Co.VT OK Au.MH:.

) ,

TREVES t Augusta Treverorum;

' f Hhenisli Prussia, formerly

'■'"•rand lower bishoprics

ipitals(see Jkw. Kncvc.

- lived in the city iu

uon era. for Treves

t conne<-tinj; Gaul aii<l Home,
of tlicin, however, be-
!• Eberhard (1047-66)
ilh expulsion uidess ihey should
r; but this threat wms
;<Te<l nil Feb. 12. 1060.
by a iirit-wl named Christian, who had been in-

** ' " ■ ■ l.-w.s. Thirty years

bands of Emikos
' "P"" '"■• I Jews committed

palar.. of Ar endeavored to

them to accept bapti.sm. allhoinrh those

rr; converted obtained the permission of

1 Henry IV. in the followjnc- vcar to return

I:
ft

to Judaism ^sc^.■ Griltz, "Gesch." vi. 102 ct seq. ; Sal-
feld, "Martyrologium," pp. 3, 19 [Hebrew part], and
pp. 98, 140 et seq. [German pait], where a list of the
names of the martyrs is given). The other commu-
nities of Treves, iucludiug those at Berncastel,
Cochem, and Wittlich, were almost totally destroyed
by the Crusaders. During the archbishopric of
IJruno of Treves early iu the twelfth century (1102-
1124), one of the residents of the city was a Jew
named Joshua, who later embraced Christianity, and
who enjoyed a reputation as a physician, mathema-
tician, astronomer, and student of Hebrew literature.
Abrion, the Jew of Treves, who was unusually well
versed iu German, seems to have been a conteiupo-
rary of Joshua (Goethe, " Reineke Fuchs," ii.).

In 1262 the Jews were expelled from Treves by
Archbishop Heiurich of Vinstingen, who invited
Lombards to take their places, although the latter
proved to be even more usurious than
First the Jews. The elector Baldwin of
Expulsion, Treves employed Jewish financial
1262. agents, among them Muskiu (1323-86) ;
Jacob Daniel (until 1341), a banker
who had a Hebrew chancellerv and who, like his chief
manager, bore the title of "Juda'orum dominus";
aud Michael, Jacob's son-in-law, who wasin the elect-
oral service until 1349. The Jews of Treves suffered
much during the Akmledeu PEUSECtTiONS in 1336,
when their houses were pillaged (Salfeld, I.e. p.
239, note 1); but three years later they were per-
mitted to remain in Troves in consideration of an jui-
nual tax of 100 pounds heller, half this sum being
paid in ^May and half on St. Martin's Day. At Co-
blenz on March 17, 134.5, two Jews of Treves farmed
the archiepiscopal " HheinzoU " of 15 tournois for
three years at 6.5.5 Hvres gros tournois annually.

At the time of the Black Death the Jews of Treves
were persecuted, like those of the entire Moselle val-
ley (Salfeld, I.e. pp. 69, 78, 80, 84 [Hebrew part];
pp. 246 et seq., 268, 276, 286 [German part]). On
Oct. 9, 13.54, Archbishop Boemund II. engaged the
Jew Symon as his physician in ordinary, aud Em-
peror C:hark's V., in a document dated Met/, Dec.
13, 13.56, granted the elector the right of admitting
Jews. On Sejit. 30, 1362, an agreement was made
between Arclibishoi) Cuno of Falkeiistein and the
city of Treves by which the latter jiledged itself to
protect the Jews of the archbishopric like any other
citizens, although the number of families permitted
to reside there was limited to fifty; and they were
ordered to pay an annual tax of lOOlivres noir tour-
nois in two instalments, at St. John's Day an<l at
Christinas, while in case twenty-five families or fewer
lived there, they were to pay -50 livres. On Aug.
24. 140.5, King Kuprecht waived his claim to the
Oi'FKiM'FKNNK! wliicli li.ul iiot becu Collected
from the Jews of Treves for scveial years, al-
though he ordered them for the future to pay it
annually (Stern, "Konig Hupncht von der Pfalz,"
p. 31. Kiel, 1,S9H).
The Jews of Treves anciently lived in a district
(" Vicus Juda'orum," mentioned in a
The Jewry, document of Sept. 21, 1284) repre-
sented by the modern Judenplatz ; the
main street of residence was the Judenmauergasse
cJiVleinergasse) near the Jewish cemetery. This

243

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

TrespaBB-Offerln^
Treves

Jewish quarter is inentioned iu documents of 1330,
134G, ami 1350; tiie synagogue ("scohi") in one of
123o; tlieccniotciy, of 1240; the "Si)yllius," or dan-
cing-hall, which was uscil for marriages (see Gude-
mann, "Gcsch." iii. ISSctseq.), of 1315; the hospital,
of Oct. 12, 1422 ; and a " Judenporte " in Siniconsgasse,
of 1460. At the head of the Treves conununity,
whose members appear as owners of real estate as
early as 1229 and Feb. 19, 1235, was a Bisnoi- ok
THE Jews ("episcopus," "magistratus Juiheorum "
[1307]), who was required to loan the archbi.shop 10
marks yearly without interest, receiving in return
a cow, an aam of wine, two bushels of wheat, and
a discarded cloak. Each Christmas and Easter the
Jews gave si.\ i)ounds of pepper to the archbishop
and two to the chamberlain, besides furnishing silk
and girdles for new garments for the former. For
their cemetery they had to i)ay six denarii to tlie
cathedral on St. Stephen's Day (Dec. 26 or Aug. 3).

In 1418 Archbishop Otto von Ziegenheim banished
the Jews from the entire electorate of Treves ; and al-
most seventy years elapsed before the

Second Jew Ytzinger was admitted (1486)
Expulsion, as a veterinary surgeon into Vallendar,
1418. south of Coblenz, where other Jews
were afterward allowed to settle (July
19 and Oct. 7, 1499) for a period of five years, on pay-
ment of an annual tax of 35 gulden. In the begin-
ning of the sixteenth century Jews were again per-
mitted to live in the archbishopric of Treves, and in
a document dated at Cochem, Feb. 1, 1555, Arch-
bishop Johann of Isenburg granted them the privi-
lege, renewed in 1679, of appointing a rabbi, al-
though they were obliged to submit to additional
taxation. On July 1, 1561, liowever, Archbishop
Johann von der Leycn notified the Jews that they
must leave the archbishopric witiiin live months,
though twenty -three families were permitted to re-
main for another period of five years from Dec. 1,
1561; while Jacob III. and Johann VII. of Schoene-
berg ordered the Jews to leave Treves in 1580 and
the following years, their complete expulsion occur-
ring on Oct. 2S, 1589. After a few years, however,
the electors of Treves granted special commercial
privileges to some Hebrew merchants, headed by the
silk manufacturer Magino, and as early as 1593-94
Jews were again residing iu the episcopal city,
although, according to the statute-books, tiiey were
compelled to wear the yellow Badge on their gar-
ments. On Jan. 15, 1618, Archbishop and Elector
Lothar von Metternich promulgated a special ordi-
nance for the Jews, which was reissued on Feb. 14,
1624; and iu 1663 the electoral court chancery en-
acted that those Jews of Treves who were under the
archbishop's protection should be permitted to use
wells and pastures and to gather firewood any-
where.

The 15th of Elul, 5435 (= 1675), marked the begin-
ning of a persecution of the Jews iu Treves which
lasted until Puriin of the same year; and by order of
the physician Tewle, who was the head of the Jew-
ish congrciration, and who began the Treves menior-
book in"l664, this day was appointed a general fast
for the community in memory of this event. At
Treves, as elsewhere, the Jews suffered at times from
the pranks of Catholic students, as in 1666, 1687,

1707, and 1723. In 1681 Archbishop J(»haim Hugo
issued a new Jewish ordinance, and in 1096 the Jews
were forbidden to ac(iuire real estate. A law rela-
ting to the Jews, promulgated by Elector Franz
Ludwig in 1723, remained in force until ilie end
of the electorate, although the archbishopric wuu
secularized in 1803.

The city of Treves was taken by the French on
Aug. 10, 1794; by a law enacted on the 29lli of
Fructidor, year 5 (= Sept. 15, 1797),
Under the the Lemizoli, was abolisiied (see Hun-
French, sen, " Treviris, oder Trierische.s Arciiiv
fiir Vaterlandskunde," ii. 37, No. 217.
Treves, 1841); and the French invasion brought also
civic eciuality to the Jews. Treves then became a
consislorial diocese, like Bonn and Krefeld. On
Sept. 9 and 10, 1859, the new .synagogue of Treves
was dedicated. At present (1905) the community
numbers 900, and maintains several benevolent soci-
eties, as well as a Society for Jewish History and
Literature. A separate Orthodox congregation also
exists.

Among the rabbis and scientists of Treves the fol-
lowing may be mentioned: David Tewle b. Isaac
Wallich, communal leader and physician (exiled
from Fulda; died Oct. 5, 1691; see Kanfmann,
" Vertreibung der Juden aus Wien," pp. 225 [note 3],
226 [notelj; Lowensteiu, "Gesch. der Juden in der
Kurpfalz," p. 6, note 2; also mentioned iu Gerslion
Ashkenazi's Kespon.sa, Nos. 13, 21, 84, 89. and in the
preface); K. Joseph Lsrael b. Abraham Worms (died
in Bingeu Sept. 9, 1684); his son H. Isaac Aaron
Worms (died in Metz July 25, 1722: see LOwen-
stein. I.e. p. 99 and note 1 ; Gerehon Ashkenazi's Ke-
sponsa. No. 18; Cahen. "Le Babbinat de Jletz." iu
"R. E. J." 1886, pp. 48 ct mj.); Moses Meir Grot-
wohl (died 1691 ; see LOweusteiu, I.e.
Rabbis and p. 86, note 2; Jair Hayyini Bacha-
Scholars. rach's Responsa, p. 234b; Jacob Rei-
scher's Responsa, i. 110; Freudentlial,
"Aus der Heimat Mendekssohns." p. 287); Moses
Lewow (see Friedberg, " Luhot Zikkaron." 2<1 e<l.,
1904, p. 78; Lewinstein, " Dor Dor we-Dorsliaw." p.
95, No. 028); R. Moses b. R. Ileshel (died 1st of Ah.
1788); R. Moses Shah (or Moses Trier 1). R. Eliezer
= R. :Moses Levy, died Nisan, 1840; see LOwensU-in
in "Blatter fl'n Jndische Gesch. und Litenitur." iii.
98): Joseph Kaiix; Dr. I. Hollilnder (died Dor. 8.
1880); Dr. M. S. Zuckerniandel (at present "Stifts-
rabbiner" in Breslau); and the present chief rabbi,
Dr. Bassfreund.

Bibliography : Eliminnn. In InraelU. 1881. Nos. 34 rt wq.: 0.

Uel)P. in M'c.'^UIcul.-'vlu- ZcH-'- " •"•'.-• ' «-■■-*

xii. ;«1 it .St'/.; A. SclK^.p. .

SCI/.: sclii'uniinn. in./(i/in>'<> '

lichi Fin-arlniini zu Tritr.

epitiinlis iif i:!4()): I.ewln. l'

mer'sJIhl. Lit.-lilall. ISMl.

Ocxtcn, Nos. -'. ItKI. 1T6. 1>^>.

.snicliiscpl' lin-Knlifii, '/'

niite (>:?, f. \i'<~- noteSO (■

Liinipn-<-ht, Dnili'iliia r.

issfi, 1. •-'. WW rl >../.. U7-' ,1"

Bninn's MciKit.'isrhrift. V.' '^

et sc<i.\ l.'^il. pp. :V>S»7 »«•</.: '

Grtcli. (Irr 1 irMtschrn Juil)

tiKti.-'rhf.'' .Inhrhurh den DcuL-<ii-l.'>a>_i}n.'rf,.,. .,..,....,.,.■

/)i(iif(«s. imw. I>. t*-i. . , _„.

1^ A. IjE" .

TREVES : Family which derived its name from
[ the Prussian city of Treves, famous for ita prominent

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

244

1:
I

D
I

, , ;i;i ! :i a COlltlUUOUS

la-s uf which have

Treves, Tribas,

m. Tliciv i.vist.

ig Uie cunncctiou of

irly as the

(• uln-atly

Italy, soulheru Fniuce,

■ U.

!. Hi. 14. T. : >t.-ins»'bneiatT,

r JuWoi III

,4-'; A. Ep-
■ Tifi, xi»i. ii» luu. uou» -'-iJ.

s. o.

is that of the Italian branch,
.iv oiic of which a genealogy can be

BiBLiOGRAPHV: Mortara, Indicc. p. 66; Zunz, Ilitm, p. 32.
noie b; Steinsc'lmeider, Cat. Bndl. col. 711: Henjacob, Ozar
ha-Stfariiii, p. 87 ; Azulai, S)iciu lia-Ocdnlim, ii. M; iJrii'irs
JiOirh. 1. M> 111.

Aryeh Lob ben Naphtali Treves : Russo-Polish
scliolar; boru 1848; dicti 1873; lived in Augustovo.
He was a valued collaborator on the journal "Ila-
Mr.^gid." to which he contributed articles over the
signature "Ture Eben."
BinLior.R.vniv : Sriin'sJulnh. i. 121 ; Ha-.Matwiil. 1873. p. 60.

Dob Bar ben Judah Treves : Scholar of the
eighteenth century; died 21st of Tishri (Oct. 17),
1803. Prior to 17G0 he oHiciated as rabbi in Hungary,
and from that year to 1790 as rabbinical judge in
Wilna. He was the author of " Rebid ha-Zahab "
(Grodno, 1797), a commentary on the Pentateuch,
in wliicli, through cabalistic explanations, he cn-

Johuiiuii T.
(13tb cent.)

Joseph T. (the Great)

(13th cent.)

Mattithiah T. of Provence

(b. f. 13:3; d. e. 1387)

-t)

vULt

Joseph T. of Paris
(d. Auir.. 1W9)

Jobanan T.

<d. after 1.S49)

I
Johanan T.
(d. July 21. 1439)

MattiUiiah T.

Mt»«-s T.

Isaac T.
(lOUi C«Dt.)

Raphael T. of

Ferrara
(d. after 1.566)

Joseph T. of Constance
(d. after 1429)

Abraham T.

(d. end
of 16th cent.)

Joseph T.
(d. after 1566)

Jehlel T.
(d. after 1508)

Samuel T.

(d. after 1450;

rabbi in Alsace)

I
Eliezer T.

Naphtali Hirz T.

(d. after 1531)

BrOll. JahrhUcher, I. Itti et seq.

Joseph T.
(d. 1504)

Eliezer T.

(d. 1567)

s. o.

TitEVEs Pedigkee.

Abraham b. Gershon Treves (called also Zar-
fa.ti) : Fi. iich admliht; llouri.sii<.'d about l.^;72. He
wa* the autlinr of tlie following works: (1) com-

'ketiiaElahut" of R. Perez;
r Yezirah " and to the com-
"'' arc-j, Nuhniani, and Abraham

b. ..the "Sha'are Orah."

P.P;

Bn
*

'• 'M Ocdtilf Yisraci,
I titrh.i. 113 111.

F. T. H.
Abraham ben Solomon Treves (called also Zar

fkti)

A.: .
tl>

to Joflcph <

tllT '

of the sixteenth century. He cmi-

'' -y. where he ofTlciated as

. J tiiguese congregations in

and various other cities. He favored

iided with David

1 .1 one of his letters

Vbl>at Hokel." No. ;J4) it appears

■ He was the first scholar

I was the author of '-Bir

kat Abraham," a work ou the ritual.

deavored to establish a connection between the writ-
ten and the oral law. He wrote also " Shir Hadash "
(Wilna, 1800), a commentary on the Song of Solomon.

Bibliography: Steinschneider. Caf. Bndl. cols. 893-894; Ben-
jacob. Ozor hn-Sirfdriiii, pp. ,54:}, .575; Fuenn, Kiryah Ne'e-
tnaiiah, p. 2()0 ; Brull's Jahrli. 1. 121.

Eliezer ben Naphtali Hirz Treves (known also
as Eliezer Frankfurt) : Gorman rabbi ; born 1495;
died ir)(j7. 1 le odiciatcd as rabbi in Frankfort-ou-
thc-Main. He was an adherent of Asher Le.m.mi.ein,
a pseudo-Messiah who appeared in the sixteenth
century, and attributed the non-fultilment of Lemm-
lein's prophecy concerning the Messiah to circum-
stances other than fraud.

Eliezer held the Frankfort rabbinate for twenty-
two years; and during a ritualistic controversy which
took place in l.'j.'JO he was called upon to render a
dcci-sion. In 1.5r)8 he was a member of a com-
mittee appointed by Emperor Ferdinand I. to organ-
ize a system for registering the votes of the Jews
of Prague. In l.")61 he went for a time to Cracow,

245

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Trevi

Avheie he copied SoIoiikmi IMolko's coiiinientiuios.
lie was an eutliusiastic coili'ctor of iiianiiscripts,
from whicli he prepared eertaiu treatises. Tiiere
are extant several decisions signed by Eliezer, per-
taining to the community of Frankfort-on-the-Main,
and extending over tiie period ir)r)()-()0 with tiie ex-
ception of the time sjjcnt by him in Cracow.

BntLiOGRAPHv: Gans, Zenialt. Dawid.p. 40b; Moses Isserles,
lirKpiDisa. No. ")8; Wolf, in Stcinschneider, Jlrhr. Bihl. istil,
p. l.'il ; (iriilz, Gcscli. ix. ;ii>4 ; Ziiiiz. Z. <1. p. -.i'.'^i and note d ;
(.edaliailm Yaliya, .s'/ki/.s/u (r( liit-Kdhlialah, ed. Aiiisterduiii,
p. "da; I)e Kossi, DUiotuDio, p. .",:,'(); steiusclineiaer. Cat.
liiiilt. col. 967 ; Briill's Jalirh. i. 1(15-1111!.

Eliezer ben Samuel Treves (siirnamed Ash-
kenazi) : Polish scholar of the sixteenth and seven-
teenlli centuries; olliciated us rabbi in Opatow. He
wrote several Talmudic commentaries, of which,
however, only one was published; namely, that on
the treatise Hulliu, entitled " Dammesek Eli'ezer"
(Lublin, UUG). In the same year lie published a
Cf)lIection of daily prayers under the title " Siah lia-
Sadeh." He was the author also of a treatise on the
writing of names in bills of divorce; and on a
journey through Belgrade he gave a copy of that
work to Rabbi Sind.iah ha-Kohen Porlrapa, who
happened to be there at that time, and who later
embodied it in a work published by himself. In
1048 Eliezer approved Jacob Cheutschiu's commen-
tary on the Masorah.

BiBLior.RAPHY : Azulai, Shem ha-Gednlim, i. 23b ; Steinschnei-
der, Caf. BodL col. 964; Bass, Sifte Yeshoiim, p. 75b, No.
106; Benjacob, Ozdi' ha-Scfarinu p. 175; BriiU's Jahrb. i.
117, 118.

6. S. O.

Emilio Treves : Italian writer; born at Triest
Dec. 31, 1834. He was educated in his native town,
and when quite young entered the printing-office of
the " Oesterreicher Lloyd" in that city. He con-
tributed to the"Raccolta del Classici," a work is-
sued from that press and edited by Anton Racheli.
At the same time Treves wrote anonymously for
"L'Anelo," a journal prohibited by the Austrian
government. When his association with "L'Anelo"
was discovered he went to Paris, where he was cor-
respondent for the "Crepusculo" of Milan. Two
years later he went for a short time to Turin, and
then became manager of a printing establishment at
Fiume. When this liouse failed Treves followed
the vocation of a teacher in Udine.

In 1858 he settled in Milan and became transla-
tor for the official journal "Gazzetta di Milano," at
the same time contributing to the "Italia Musicale''
and " Uomo di Pietra." In the war of 1859 he served
in Garibaldi's legion, and after peace was declared
resumed his connection with the "Gazzetta." In
18(33 he founded the "Museo di Famiglia," and in
1865 the "Biblioteca Utile," comprising examples of
Italian literature as well as various works translated
from other languages in to Italian. In 1869 he resigned
his position on the " Gazzetta di Milano " and found-
ed the "Corriere de Milano," which he sold in 1871.
In the latter year he entered into partnership with
his brother Giuseppe, and in 1874 the two founded
in Milan the "Illustrazione Italiana," which proved
very successful.

Treves has written many articles for various jour-
nals and publications, and is the author also of .sev-
eral dramas, e.g., "Richezzae Miserie," Triest, 1847, |

which Wii.. ,v, ,, iLceived. and "II Diica d'Einelilfn "
iO. 1850. *■

Bmi.io.iiupiiY: p. wurzbuch, ni.,umj,hisc)ia Lexicon da
h.nsotliums Ocxtcrrctvli, VIeiinu, lBJi2.

Gershon Treves : Scholar of the Jifteeiilh cen-
tury. He was of German descent uud resided ia
Avignon. Ujion the deatjj of Joseph Colon. Iiin
father-in-law, lie arnuigeii tiie Jailer's rollcclion of
responsa, Nos. 13. 14, 98, and 102 of which contula
letters addressed to himself. During u controversy
between the rab])i of Padua and Lewii Limdun,
Treves was drawn into liie dispute (see Moses Miuzi
Responsa, No. 98).

BinMOGRAPMY: Co\on, licHponm, No. 102; Brflirn Jnlnl.. \.

Giuseppe Treves : Brother of Emilio Treves.
and with him cof(juuder in 1874 of the " Illusti-a'
zione Italiana."

'^^ F. T. H.

Hayyim Treves (known also as Hayyim
Schwarz) : Scholar of the sixteenth century ; rabbi
of the former provinces of Cologne and Jlificli. In
1577 he resided in Konigswinter, and from 1585 to
1595 in Ahrweiler. His son-in-law was Isaac ben
Hayyim of Ahrweiler. Treves in deciding a certain
(luestion was said to have attacked Christianity;
and his son-in-law, together with other contempo-
rary scholars, was compelled to give testimony in
the matter.

Biiu.iograpiiy: Auerbach, Bcrit Abraham, p. 23a: Brfill's

Jahrb. i. 106-107.

Isaac Treves: Son of Shneor Treves of Frank •
fort-onthe-Maiu. He was rabbi of Kopytzk; but

no details of his life are known.

Isaac ben Gershon Treves : Venetian scholar of
the sixteenth century. He was employed as a cor-
rector of the press on several rabbinic Bible editions
which appeared at Venice in 1508, and lat<.'r on
Issachar ibn Susan's " 'Ibbur ha-Shanim " (Venice,
1579), a work treating of the Hebrew calendar.
Isaac was the author of an introduction to Eliezer
Ashkenazi's "Ma'ase Adonai,"of an index to Elijah
de Vidas' "Reshit Ilokmah," and of additions to
Solomon allyabiz's commentary on the Book of
Esther.

Bini.iOGRAPiiv : Steinschncirter, Cat. n<><U.ci':- : .Nepl-

Gliirondi, Tulnlnt (liiinl,- Yixratl.Tt. is:,'; /.,-. - . Hcbr.
Books Brit. Miis. p. 36.5 ; Bruit's Jahrb. I. 114.

s. 8. O.

Isaac and Jacob Treves: Two Austrian philan-
thropists who in 1828 donated a fund of 2. lOOilnrins
to the Sick Soldiers' Home in Vienna (Militflr-Inva-
lidenhaus).

6. F. T. H

Israel Hezekiah Treves : Ha ' " n

synagogue in Pailua in tiieeightei i,

on the death of its rabbi in 1783, rabbinical judge

there. He was a pupil of the poet M *' 'n\

Luzzatto, who introduced him to tin 'f

Cabala.

Bim.ionRAPnv: Almanzl. In A"' t,

in lifvuc t>rirutnU.n.\y2: «

YU-^rail, p. -in ; Grutz, (ictch. x.. ii- ; i;i u.. ■ J " > . i . .•■•

Jacob Treves (called also Jacob Brisker, after
his native town, Brest, in Russia): Scholar of the

Till- Ji-\Si?ii r-XCYCLOPEDIA

246

iu Fniukfort-ou-thc-

ip-3Iaiu. 1712).

" I holar t)f

rabbi <if

iitlior ol important iiDtos

.lot of tbc treatise Be?al»

.. WIW. H«'?ir. 11.910: BrQll'sJa^irJ). i. IIT.

Jehiel ben Simeon Sofer Treves (Ashkenazi):

ry ; utliciatt'd

_ . .. . \ n coucerning

r llc'U'b," a compeudium

von tlif approval of

>> a standard work on

• nt Talmudists. bowever

■ "■' - ' for i'xami>Ie),

lice in attack-

11 an unjustitiable manner ("Sbe-

:a.. No. 41 : introduction to tbc "To-

ider. Cat. Timll. col. 1342; Azulai.
Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 64 ;

S. O.

- ' - >T 'tithiah Treves: Cbief rabbi

i;;.N3 to i;!04: died in Italy

r liaving received his rabbinical

• •lif-r. wlio was cbief rabbi of

'buiL'litcr of tlie ricb and in-

ul, and lillcd the position

•vn. On tbc deatb of bis

. ^ and was appointed, by

.<- VI. with the community, to

\ ears of liis incumbencj' be suf-

■1 at the bands of Isaiah ben

\ ^'ruc of ISavny "), a former

-' well versed iu rabbin-

ited to himself, with the

Barueb of Vienna, the

ordain French rabbis, and endeavored by all

MIC .lobanan's aulborit}-.

' 1 to Jlxsdai Crescas and

laaac bt-ri no pronounced themselves in

I nibbi. blaming both Isaiah

ir Ihmi Haruch ("yhe'elol u-

270). Tlie quarrels, how-

of thf Jews

iliil in Ttalv.

were oflen cited
-Cat. Bodl. H'
ouricd on a s

until his death,
of the nn '
tim«-: and

nt ral)l)ini('al
livic decisions
■<• Dura," see Neubauer,
From Italy he
.'•nee with .lacob
A responsurn of his on the

1 ■» for their deceased parents, and

a letter aildrcssed to the community of Padua, an-
•lUI extant in manuscript in the Florence Library

(lliscoui, "Bibliolbeca) Hebraica) Florentinaj Cata-

logus," p. 426).

BiBLiOfiRAPiiY : Rieli. Mihdash Me'at. p. 104: Lebrwht. Hand-
Kiliiifteii uiiil die K)f:tiii Auftouhoi dcs Talinudx. p. 57, note
2; CarmoLv, in Arch. i.sr. l«ot), p. 2t)2 ; Brull's Jaliili.i.9o
et fcq.: liross, Gallia Judaica, p. SH.
(.. I. Br.

Joseph, ben Hirz Treves : German scholar ;
born in 14!)(). Togetiier with his brother Eliezer be
published bis father's commentary on the prayer-
book, to which be added an introduction and glosses.
He took part iu the publication of the mystagogic
.Midrash ou Ruth, which appeared under the title
"Tappuhe Zaliab," or "Yesod Sbirim" (Thingen,
1560; Cracow, 1569).

BiBLiOfiRAPUY : BruU's Jahrb. i. 104-105 and note 76.

Joseph ben Johanan Treves I. (surnamed ha-
Gadol = " the Great '') : First bearer of the name of
Treves. He flourished in the fourteenth centurj',
and, according to Zunz ("Z. G." p. 173), was rabbi
in Paris. Bri'ill, however ("Jahrb." i. 90), refers to
him as rabbi of Marseilles about 1343. His wife was
well versed in Jewish literature, and e.\])lained sev-
eral Talmudical passages; and when later she with
her sons took up her residence in Paris the Avhole
family was exempted from wearing the Jewish
badge.

BIBLIOGRAPFIT: Zunz, Z. G. p. 173; Gratz. Gesch. viii. 8-9;
Isaac ben Slieshet, Rc>'pnu.<a. No. 371 ; Isaac de Lattes, Rc-
spiiiisa. p. W, Vienna, 1S6U; Carnioly, in Reviie Orioitalc, ii.
114; Briill's Jf(/ir/j. i. !«)!)!.

Joseph ben Lipmann Eliezer Treves (sur-
named Ashkenazi) : Kabbl of the seventeenth
century; olMciated in Prossnitz, Moravia. Hecdited
a brief abstract of Jacob Weil's "Hilkot Sbehitah "
(Amsterdam, 1660), and wrote an elegiac poem
("kinah") on the destruction of Kremsir by the
Swedes in 1643 and on the devastations which took
place in Poland and Lithuania. The poem ap-
peared in 1648.

Bibliography: Zunz, Literaturacfich.p. 43.J; Steinschneider,
Cat. Bod/, col. 1456.

Joseph ben Mattithiah. Treves : Brother of
Johanan Treves; scholar and liturgical poet of the
fifteenth century; died on the Ninth of Ab, 1429.
At an early age be emigrated to Italy, aud there
wrote the following liturgical poems: a yozer for
the Sabbath preceding New-Year; "Silluk," con-
sisting of three parts and containing exhortations
to repentance; and "Tokahab," a prayer written in
the form of a dialogue between the living and the
(lead. In Italy he had copies made of several wri-
tings, of which one, of the "Sefer ha-Nayyar," writ-
ten in 1392, is still extant.

r.uti.iocRAPiiY: Zunz, Lilcraturaa^ch.
p. :n ; Brull's Jd/ir/). i. 09.

p. 370; idem, Ritus,

Joseph ben Mattithiah Treves : Rabbi of Sa-
vii,'iiano, Italy, iu the sixteenth century. In the
divorce proceedings instituted by the physician Jo-
seph Tamaii of Venice against his son-in-law Sam-
uel Venturozzo of Perugia, Jo.seph sided with the
latter. Of his writings only a responsum has ap-
peared in print (in Lampronti's "Pahad Yizhak,"
i. 105a). A commentary by him on the first ciiapter
of Genesis, aud a treatise of his ou the Talmudic
proverb " An old man in the bouse is a burden ; an

247

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Treves

old woniiin, a treasure" ('Ar. 19a), are extant in
manuscript.

Bihliograpuy : Nepi-Gliirondi, Tulcdnt Gednlc Ymacl, p. ICl ;
Mortaru, Iiiidce, s.v. Trercg; Ziinz, Ila-l'nlit, pp. ri^-:.*:).

Levi ben Jacob Treves (suruaincd Zarfati) :
French scholar of the sixteenth century. He was
tile first who declared it permissible at the reading
from the Law to call up before anj' Cnlicii wlio
might be present an Israelite who paid for tlie
privilege. In the course of time this seems to have
become customary in several places; for even in the
eighteenth century German casuists protested vigor-
ously against it. Levi is probably identical with
the Levi ben Jacob wiio copied Abravanel's com-
mentary on Isaiah, and who, at an advanced age,
emigrated to Jerusalem.

BiHi.ioGRAPnv: Ibn Yat.iya, >^liahliflct )ia-Kahhalah. ed. Ain-
sttTiliiiii, p. 48b; tiavyiiii Hciiveiiiste, KciiC!<ct l\a-Gciliihili
on Shulljiui 'Aruii, Onih Htuiii'nn, No. Ki'j ; Ezi-kiel
Katzent'lli'iilioaren, Ki'iicsrt Yihczkcl. No. 7; Sieinsclinel-
liiT, Hcl»: mill. 1S71, p. l:i5; Briiirs J(i/i)7>. 1. 115.

Mattithiah ben Joseph Treves (calleil the
Provengal) : French scholar; chief rabbi of Paris;
born there about 1325 ; died about 1387. He was edu-
cated by his father, and later studied under Nissim
ben Reuben and Perez Cohen ben Isaac. He lived in
various Spanisli cities until 1361. when he returned
to Paris; and, as at that time tiiere were only a few
scholars in France, he founded a seminar3' in the
French capital. Through the intercession of his
brother-in-law. Procurator iSIanessier de Vesoul,
Charles V. in 1363 appointed him chief rabbi of
Paris.

jNIattithiah collected books, and also engaged in
literary pursuits. A respousum signed by him is
extant in the Paris Library (Codex 676. No. 5).
He was the author of a work on Talmudic meth-
odology, fragments of which have been preserved
in Joseph ibn Verga's "She'crit Yosef " (ed. Man-
tua, pp. 3b, 4a). He is said to have been styled " Ha-
Parnas," and to have composed several liturgical
poems, among which were bne for the eve of the
Day of Atonement, and one— a penitential prayer in
twenty stanzas — treating of the Ten Martyrs.' He
is the alleged author of a work entitled "Eben
Bol.ian." A manuscript copy of the Talnuid, now
in the Royal Library, jMunich, and which was made
bj' a German copyist for Benjamin Josiphiah, was at
one time in the possession of Mattithiah.

Bibi,I()(;rai'IIt: Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 532-534; Judah
ibn Verga, SUnihet Yehudah, ed. Amsterdam, p. 50: Ziinz,
Litcratuidesch. p. 368 : Ibn Yalna, Shalshclet ha-KahhaUdi,
ed. Zolkiev, p. 48a ; Bass, ISiftc Ycxhcniin. x.. No. 9 ; Heilprin,
Seder /in-Dorof, ji. 327; Dukes, in IZohez, Introduction, p.
6; Rabbinovicz, DikdvUe Snferim, i.. Introduction, pp.
27-35 ; Briill's Jahrh.'U 91 et seq.

Menahem ben Abraham Treves (Dreifuss) :
Rabbi in Sul/.burg; died 1857. He was the author
of -'Orah Mesharim " (xMiihlhausen, 1858; 2d ed.,
Mayence, 1878), treating of the dogmas of faith.

BIBLIOGUAPIIY : Zedner, Cat. Hehr. Bnnka Brit, ^^us. p. 701 ;
Benjacob. Oznr lia-Sefarim, p. .50; Zeitlin, Di1A. PoKt-Meii-
deis. p. 398 : Brull's Jahrh. i. 122.
s. S. O.

Michael Treves : Italian engineer of the nine-
teenth century : lived in Venice. He is the author of
" Sulla Perforazione Meccauica delle Ferriere ed in

I'ailii iil.in- Mil (.i^;iiit('S(() liatoro delle ATpi t o/it-
dette del :\Ioiitc(nisi«j," Venice, 1804; " Di Alcuui
Errori Economici . . . della Veneta Industriu Ve-
traria,"?:i. 1864; " Pensieri kuH' Avvenire del Com-
mercio c dell' Industria in Italia," if>. 1«04; "Lczioul
Popohiri Presso I'Atcneo Veneto," etc., ih. ISOrj.

Buu.lo(iRAPiiy : FQrst, lilll. Jud. HI. Ui:
fir(ii)lii.'<clicii Lcjiain den KiiixcrttniinH Ot

1882.

1. nil*'

^ F. T II.

Mordecai Treves: Italian sciiolar of the four-
teenth century. He was tlie uutlior of u hislorlcal
work treating of the aelihali poets, in the intro-
duction to which he tells of tlie persecutions of
1349. He mentions a town named Ileila (K^"n).
where Mar Zutra was liuried, and whicli containeil
large institutions of learning. From tiiis. as well iis
from the circumstance that Treves coufuKt-s Iht*
names of the sclihah poets, Zunz deduces that he
failed to consult historical sources.

BiBLiOGRAPav: Zunz, Litcraturgc^ch. pp. 625 627; BrOII's
•Jalirb. i. 115.

Moses ben Jacob Treves: Venetian rabbi and
scholar of the seventeenth century. His father was
a friend of David de Pomis. From 1648 he main-
tained a regular correspondence with Samuel Abnab.
In 1661 he wrote a poem in honor of Yom-Tob Val-
vason, the founder of a bet ha-midrash in Venice;
this poem was published in"Hed Urim " (Venice,
1661). In 1668 lie was a member of the rabbinical
committee of Venice before which the itinenint
prophet Nathan of Gaza was arraigned. In 1670
he sanctioned the publication of Solomon Hoccu's
"Kawwanat Shelomoh," a cabalistic commentary
on the prayers.

Bibliorrapiiy: Dc/wr Shc»»ii('c/. No. 375; F"''- " '.•'' tia-
Kcna'ot, ed. Leinl)er>r. No. t>7 ; Nepl-Glil: '»'<•-

dole YixracI, p. 245; .Morlara, Indicc, I'- ' ' '''•

Hcbr. DDuks Brit. Mim. p. 786; BrQil's J(i/ir6. i. ll.»-llt>.

Naphtali Hirz Treves : Younger brother of
Eliezer ben Samuel Treves (Ashkenazi). He held
an important rabbinate in Poland, but no details of
his life and literary activity are known.

Naphtali Hirz ben Eliezer Treves : Cal»-
list and scholar of the sixteenth century; officia-
ted as hazzan in Frankfort-on-the-Main. He was
the author of " i\'ru.sh " (1560), a famous cabali.stjc
commentary on the prayer-book; and probably also
of "Naftule Elohim " (Heddernheim, 1546). an index
to Bahya ben Ashcr's commentary on the Penta-
teuch. The preface to the " Naftule Elohim " consists
partly of the result of private .studies and partly of
quotations fromother cabalistic works. Treves wrote.
too, a supcrcommentary on Hashi. which is still ex-
tant. Naphtali Hirz engaged in disputations wllli
Christian scholars; and he made comments on the
pronunciation of German. He is especially impor-
tant for his accounts of Jewish customs nid <i re-
monies.

BiBi.iocKAPHV : Slolnschnelder. Cat. I'
Nepi-(iliir(>ndl. ToUdol (icd-ilr Yi-^'^r'
hd-Diiriit. yt.'27\i; Jost"s,l>i'
(iaiis. Zernah i>iu'i'f. p. 4"
.Vzulal.'.'^^ic;" /i<i-^»f''"''fii. II. "-i; /..m/. )ii .-i.-..i- ........ ..

H,ln: Bilil. x. VM : BrQIfs JnUrh. I. 101-101.

Raphael ben Baruch Treves : Italian scholar

of the seventeenth century. He was the author of

a commentary on the Song of Solomon, whicli, to-

Trioes. Loat Ten

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

248

>, was
1 liis coiiiincii-

' ' - ' rs

.:s

lis of "IVslmt." "Hv

" ' ' .m.xt'd liis

; 3Iusar"

• ' iifouiulcil witli

_;iiuiiig of tlie

. II pmitiiii; i-^tablisliinent

ijifh U. Nissim's uovclltv

^ '■tit. Mus. p. 701 ;

. idem. Jli-
. section li..
»Jahiii. 1. ii;

' -n Johanau Treves : Habbi

mil «.ciiliiiy. (»f Jiis nwjiks

. are exUint, one treating of the

.iriaj|:e, and tlie other of

<s partnerships between

s when the latter attend to busi-

' Jewish holy days. Treves is

irrector of tlie piess in Foa's

.siiincut at Sabbionetta. He wrote

Mainionidcs' "Moreh," and MeYr

N'jitib," which appeared iu l/j.-jS; and

.:il glosses to Abi-aham ben Isaac

■ ■......viitary on the Song of Solomon

.ri-Vcnturozzo case Treves played a
ufUT having signed the sentence of
•n against Samuel (l.'JGB), he appealed
a* u vviiucaa for the latter.

■lot (Iciliilc Visract, p.
parti', pp. 21-:i:J: steln-

_•• • ■ . -*.-. M'uii, V. l:J5, 231. 2:J2- vi

3»: Hmiit Jahrh. i. U3. ' "

•• s. o.

Sabbato Graziado Treves: Austiian mbbi;

brirn at Vercelll in Piedmont about 1780; died at

' "■" " •■•<t<d by his fiithei. who

line, about IbOO, a rabbi

where lie remained until 1820, when he be

T in. Thisonice he held until

■ d to Triest, where he oflici-

»l«] ilunog iJic remainder of his life.

" F. T. 11.

Samuel ben Eliezer Treves (surname! Ash-

kenazir. iLil.l.i <.f()pai„w in i|,e si.vtrenlli and

■ s. He was the author of no-

>on the treatises Ketiibot and

/. 1000-2). coiisisling of abstracts

ph ibn Leb. Samuel di Medina,

.. ;i. Ho app(urs to have settled

pennanently In M.miviu lowurd the clo.se of his life.

lin.Srfnriin, p.']Ki; Sleln-
U, ,;;"• ^' : ^^ ""' Jf"'f- IM>r. 1. 1(J81J ;

Samuel Isaac Treves: Italian scholar of the
He p'lhlisheil a work entitled

, „ '"^''^•«l«"rn. 1876). and consist-

ing of Bongn. elegies, and lyric poems.

niBuooRAPiir: 7>ltllii. na,l. n«J-.VcmW«. p. 388.

Shneor ben Joseph Joel Treves : Rabbi of
Frankl'ort-on-tlie-3Iaiii in the seventeenth century.
He was the author of a Biblical coiniiieutaiy enti-
tled "Hibbur," which was known in Kussia in the
eighteenth century. With him originated the often-
mentioned custom followeil by the Tieves family of
not paitaking of a meal in the tabeiuacle on the
eve preceding Shemini 'Azeiet.

Hini.ionnAPiiv: Fnenn, Kinjah Xi'cmaiKj)!, pp. 172. 2(KI. 284,
2S7; Briill's J(i/i)7<. i. ll'.i; Kpsteiii, in Moiuitsscltrift, xlvi.
l.V.t-ltJ(i.

Simeon Treves : Sou of Shneor ben Joseph Joel
Treves. He was secretary to the community of
Fiankfort-on-tlie-Maiu.

s- S. O.

Virginia Treves (nee Tedeschi) : Italian au-
thor; born at Verona; wife of Giuseppe Tieves.
She contributed to the " Illustrazionc Italiana " under
the nom de plume " Coidelia," and was the author
of "II Regno della Donna" (Milan, 1879) and
"Prime Battaglie" {ib. 1881).

Bini.iOGRAPiiY : Wurzbacl), liioyraphischeH Lericnn (ha Kai-
Kcrthums UesteiTeiclt. Vienna, 1882.

s- F. T. II.

Zebi Hirsch Treves : Scholar in Wilna ; son of
Zed) Wolf Trcvi-s,

Zeeb Wolf ben Jacob Treves : Scholar of the
eighteenth century. He lived in Wilna; and his
signature appears attached to rabbinical decisions
of the period.

BinLiOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Iflirmh Ne'emanah, pp. 122, 196-
Brull's Jail)}), i. 121.

i'- S. O.

TR]&VOUX (Hebrew, omtD) : Principal town
of the arr(jiulissement of the same name iu the de-
partment of Ain, France. Henry of Villars, Arch-
bishop of Lyonsand seigniorof f revoux, stipulated
in the charter wiiicli he gave to the latter town in
1300 that no Jew should be allowed to settle in it.
A certain number of Jews nevertheless obtained per-
mission to establish themselves there on payment
of a yearly tax of lo livres. The Jews who were ex-
pelled fiom Lyons in 1420 sought refuge at Tre-
voux, where they engaged in making craU] and
silver wire. In 1425 they were obliged to contribute
largely to the forced loan wOiich the city had to
make to the Duchess of Bourbon, who had succeeded
to the seignioralty of Tievotix.

The other inhabitants of the town, who were jeal-
ous of the Jews, especially of their commercia! pros-
perity, accused them in 142!) of having in their pos-
session Hebiew books containing blasphemies against
the Chi-istian religion. At the instance of the arcii-
bishop the Duchess of Bourbon ordei-ed an investi-
gation, which she entrusted to Jean Namy, appellate
judge of Beaujolais; Jean Chalon, licentiate in law;
and Ayme, a baptized J.'w of Cliamljc'iv, who was
commissioned to inspect the Hebrew books and to
ti'anslate the reprehensible passages. The books
were thereupon seized and burned, and the Jews,
ai'ler b(;ing .sentenced to pay vai-ious tines, were ex-
pelled from the city (see Cn.v.MnEnv). Three years
later a few of them returned; but they were again
driven out in 1467; and there was another expulsion
in 1488. A certain number of these Jews subse-
quently took the name "Trabot" or "Traboto,'*

249

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Treves

Tribes, Lost Ten

iiidicaling tlieir native place. Steinsclineider (" Cat.
15(1(11." col. 20.")2) has i^ivcii a list, which lias been
coinpk'Ud by lk'rlincf(scc his " Maga/.in," ii. 16, 1)6).

Biiu.UKiUAiMiv : Bi'ilariidc, Ijia ,Jiiif.-< rn Fntiin, i-[i\, p. :U0;
Dcpiilliy, Lis J nil's linns /c Mojirn A\li\ p. 1'.).'); (ini.ss,
Odiliii juilaiva, pp. '^\\) 'SS.i; Joliliois, Uistuirc (/c la Villc
et (III I'liiitiiii (Ic Trevoux, pp. 12 ct seiy., Lyons, Wii; R. E.

J. X. y3-.'y.i.
s. S. K.

TRIAL. Sec PnocEDunE in Civil Causes.

TRIBES, LOST TEN: According to the Bible,
TiiiliiLh-iiilcscr (II Kings .\v. 29) or Shahnancser {ib.
xvii. 6, .wiii. 1 1), alter the deleat of Israel, trans-
ported the majority of the inhabitants of the North-
ern Kingdom to Assyria, and placed them in Ilalah
and Ilabor, on the stream of Gnzau, and in the towns
of Media. In their stead a mi.xcd multitude was trans-
ported to the plains and mountains of Israel. Asa
large number of prophecies relate to the return of
"Israel" to the Holy Land, believers in the literal
inspiration of the Scriptures have always labored
under a ditticulty in regard to the continued ex-
istence of the _ _

tribes of Israel,
with the excep-
tion of those of
Judah and Levi
(or Benjamin),
which returned
with Ezra and
Nehemiah. If
the Ten Tribes
have d i s a J)
peared, the lit-
eral fultilmentof
the prophecies
would be impos-
sible; if they
liave not disap-
peared, obvious-
ly they must
exist under a
dilferent name. The numerous at tempts at identifi-
cation that have been made constitute some of the
most remarkable curiosities of literatiue.

In the Apocrj'pha it is presumed that the Ten
Tribes still exist as tribes. Thus Tobit is stated to
be of the tribe of Naphtali, and the Testaments of
tlie Twelve Patriarchs assume their continuous ex-
istence. In the Fourth Book of Ezia (xiii. H9-45) it
is declared that the Ten Tribes were carried by
Ho-sea, king in the time of Shahnancser, to the Eu-
phrates, at the narroAV passages of the river, whence
they went on for a journey of a year and a half to a
place called Arzareth. Scliiller-Szincssy pointed out
that "Arzareth" is merely a contraction of "erez
aheret," the "other land " into which the Lord says lie
" will east them [the people] as this day " ; see Deut.
xxix. 27, which verse is referred by K. Akiba to the
Lost Ten Tribes (Sanh. x. 4; comji. "Journal of Phi-
lology," iii. 114).

According to haggadic tradition, the Ten Tribes
were divided into three groups, one on this side of
the River Sambation, another on the opposite side,
and the third in the neighborhood of Daphne, near
Antioch(Lam. K. v. 2). This was based on the Tar-

Japanese Types, Sliow

(According to McLeod, "Epitome of the

gum Of pseud(.-Jonulhiin to Ex. xxxiv. 10; but iho
course of the Kiver Sundmtiou is dilTereutly given,
according to the prepossessions of ihii various wri-
ters (see S.VMU.VTio.N). Akiba, indeed, l)eaiu.se lie
was a Ixlievrr in the Messianic cljiims of BarKoUba,
anil trusted in the ininiediule fullilineiitof sucii piw-
sages as Isa. xi. 11, Jcr. xxi. 7, Ezek. xx.wii l.-J.
without the restoration of Israel, distinctly expreRHoU
tiie opinion that the Ten Tribes would never rclurii
(Sanh. X. ;j). In the ninth eentury Elijad isk.n M.mii.i
UA Da.ni came forward, claiming to give 8|K-citic
details of the contemporary exislcnec of the Tc-ii
Tribes and of their loeation at that time. Dun,
Naphtali, Gad, and Aslier were in Haviluh; Zrliu-
lunand H(id)en in the mountains of Paran ; Kplintini
and half of Manasseh in South Arabia ; Sinie.in and
the other half of ]Manasseh in the laud of the
Chazars (V). According to him, therefore, the
Ten Tribes were .settled in parts of southern Arabia.
or iierhaps Abyssinia, in conformity with the identi-
fication of Ilavilah. The connection of this view
with that of the Jewish origin of Islam is olivious;

and David Heu-
beni revived the
view in stating
that he was re-
lated to the king
of the tribes of
Heubcn situated
in Khaibtir in
North Arabia.

According to
Abraham Faris-
.sol, tlie remain-
ing tribes were
in the desert, on
the way to Mec-
ca, near the He<l
Sea : b u t be
hiinsc*lf identi-
fies the Hiver
Ganges with
the River Gozan, and assumes that the Beni-
Israel of India are the descen<lants of the Lost
Ten Tribes. The Ganges, thus iihiitilied by him
with the River Sambation, divides the Indians from
the Jew.s. The confusion between Klbiopia and
Farther India which existed in the minds of the
ancients and medieval geographers caused some
writers to place the Lost Ten Tribes in Abyssinia.
Abraham Yagel, in the si.vteenth cenHiry. iliil 9o.
basing his conclusions on the accounts <if David
Reubeni and Eldad ha-Dani. It is probable that
some of the reports of the Falasiias led t<i tliisiilen-
tification. According to Yagel. nn «

sent to these colonists in the time of 1 , at

VII., some of whom dietl. while the rest
Arabia, brought back tidingsof (lieg; 'f

India, and the tribes and their very v i-

Abyssinia. tories. Yagel quotes a Christian
tiavfler, Vincent of Mil.m. \ - a

prisoner in the hands of the Turks for x^'- >o

years, and who went as far as Fez. and tlienrc to
India, where he found the River Sambation. and a
number of Jews dressed in silk and purpif. Tin y
were ruled by seven kings, and upon being a.sked to

ing Jewisli Features.

Ancient History of Japan," Tokyo, 1879.)

Tr:t««. Lost Ten

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

250

hi.

ftU.

At
T.

.1 lliey declared tliey

to auy sultau or kiug. It is

' ,= reference to

. It is further

• a Jew of Salouica traveled to

, . . . . .: .. umi that ill 16-16

claimed to have

of tiie tribe of Naphtali,

- '■ •" tbe king of tiie

■ fn by Azulai. It

. d ill J:. iii's book of

• "- .1— ^ Edrehi wrote

So much interest was

■bai 111 1831 a certain Baruch

-n. was sent to search for the

ill Yemen. He traveled fifteen

and ileclared Jie met Danitcs

. ...vp. So, too, in 1854 a certain

lii set out from Safed in search of the

iS followed in 1857 iiy David

-i-d over tliiough Suakiu to

ries about the Jews of Abyssinia.

an Aineiican physician, was

_. rican Board of Foreign Mis-

sioDs lo pursue his calling among the Nestorians

i He fonufl among them a tradi-

were descendants of the Lost Ten

Tribes, a tradition which had already

N' - ' d by Smith and White

an . I carlirr mission ("Re-

Worship- searches in Armenia," vol. ii.). He

ere. f ' ' iinong the Jews of the

I- 1 of L'rumjah recognition

of ■ ion, which he considered to be confirmed

' ■ " " ' ■ they dwelt in the neighbor-

;tes were originally deported,

declared that the Ten Tribes lived

..• i. ., '• • • up to his time ("Ant." xi. 5,

id his at is confirmed b}- Jerome

»." vi. 78U); liuir language is a branch of the

-•• • ^: they still olTer sjicritices and first-fruits

like the Hncient lsra«-lite8, and they prepare for the

g evening; they have Jewish

...lures. Other similarities of

i by Grant ("The Nestorians, or

■ ■ New York. 1845). Grant was of

•hatthe Yczidis, or devil- worshipers,

of t on were likewise descended from the

Tpo 1. ,(1 fhe rite of circumci-

**'■"• •■'■' iding that of the paschal

. Ihc 24th of Nisan, and also abstained from
»" ' • ■ • :{72).

'^ '^ traditions, the Afghans

alto arc to be lclentlfic<l with the I/ist Ten Tribes.
''"'"^y ''■ ' ' " " Klnezzar banished them

'"'" " ' ur, whence they main-

lence with the Arabian Jews. When
h...... .,i tn.nr . 'Tted by Mohammed, one

'"^ to the Afghans and in-

Afghana. vjted them to embrace Islam. Several

Afghan nobles went to Arabia under

onr Kni* who claimed to trace his descent through

rations from Saul. Hewasaccord-

. mv Mohammcfl by the title of "malik,"

to this illustrious descent. Kais is re-

poru-U lo have died at the age of eighty-seven, in

662; and all the modern chiefs of Afghanistan claim
to be descended from him (Malcolm, "History of
Persia," ii. 596, London, 1815). The Afghans'still
call themselves "Beni-Israel," and are declared to
have a markedly Jewish appearance. Their claim
to Israelitish descent is allowed by most ^Moham-
medan writers. G. 3Ioore, in his "I^ost Tribes"
(pp. 143-160, London, 1861). also identified the Af-
ghans with the Ten Tribes.

In order to avoid the disabilities imposed upon
Rabbinite Jews, the Karaites of Russia attempted
to prove that they were guiltless of the execution of
Jesus because they were descended
Karaites from the Lost Ten Tiiiies and had
and the been settled in the Crimea since the
Caucasus, time of Shalmaneser (seventh centurj'-
B.C.). In particular Abrahum Fikko-
vicii edited a number of forgeries of insciiptious on
tombstones and manuscripts to prove the earlj' date
of their settlement in the Crimea. The argument
was effective with the Russian government in 1795,
when they were exempted from the double taxation
imposed upon the Rabbinites, and in 1828, when it
obtained for them exemption from military service.
From the similar traditions among the Jews of the
Caucasus, according to Chorny (" Sefer ha-Massa'ot,"
p. 585, St. Petersburg, 1884), the Jews of Derbent de-
clared that the Daghestan Jews were those who
were carried away by the Assyrians, and that some
of them had ultimately migrated to Bokhara, and
even as far as China. It is, of course, only natural
that the outlying colonies in China, in India, and
even in the Sahara should have been at one time
or another identified as remnants of the Lost Ten
Tribes.

G. Moore, indeed, attempts to prove that the high-
class Hindus, including all the Buddhists, are de-
scendants of the Saca?, or Scythians, who, again,
were the Lost Ten Tribes. He transcribes many of
the Indian inscriptions into Hebrew of a wonderful
kind to prove this contention. Buddhism, accord-
ing to him, is a fraudulent development of Old Tes-
tament doctrines brought to India by the Ten Tribes.
The Kareens of Burma, because of their Jewish ap-
pearance, their name for God (" Ywwah "), and their
use of bones of fowls for divination purposes, are
also identified by him and by Mason as descendants
of the Lost Tribes.

The identification of the Sacee, or Scythians, with
the Ten Tribes because they appear in history at the
same time, and very nearly in the same place, as the
Israelites removed by Shalmaneser, is one of the chief
supports of the theory which identifies the Eng-
lish people, and indeed the whole Teu-
Anglo- tonic race, with the Ten Tribes. Dan
Israelism. is identified sometimes with Denmark,
and sometimes with the Tuatha da
Danaun of Iri.sh tradition ; but the main argument
advanced is that the English satisfy the conditions
of the Prophets regarding Israel in so far as they
live in a far-off isle, speak in a strange tongue,
have colonies throughout the world, and yet wor-
ship the true God. For further discussion of the
argument and the history of its development see
Anglo-Isr.\elis.m.
One of the most curious offshoots of the theory is

Trib««. Lost Ten
Tribes, The Twelre

THE JEWISU ENCYCLOPEDIA

252

Japan.

^liimliii. or holy cli\ss, of
■ Tt'ii Tribes.
s " EpitoiiK'
Jnpan''(3Ucd.. Tokyo.
• f iijirccmt'iit
y, the fact
kuovrn king of Japan
. and the last king
cf : .-2 H.c. In aililition

:it3 out tlial the Shinto tem|)ie
' i most holy place. Tlie
. lH>niU't. anil breeches,
■ I old. anil ihe ancient Teni-
: in the Shinto temple. The
incestors, as the old Israel-
si to this McLeod points out
. V of some Japanese, and sup-
ine" with a volume of illustra-
other ihiniis the supposed

V .> 4ilites cros.sed, via Saglialien,

. ami iheir suppo-^ed order of march, t^tiil
^'estion of some writers

;..,.. ... .••. ..- ..: :iie Lost Tribes because

lh<ey practise circumcision (**Allg. Zeit. des Jud."

■■'.'y the Masai nf British East Africa
ried owing to similarity of custom
^Al V isai," Berlin. 1004).

I: . r the discovery of Central and

South America the legend of the Lost Tribes be-
' to the aboriginal inhabitants.

I, in his^Origen de los Media-
America. no8" (1607. pp. 79-128), declares that
the Tribes passed over the " Strait of
Anfmr" i.e.. Ik-ring Strait, and went by that way
o and .South America. He deduces tlieir

' immon cowardice and want of

. ites and Indians. Bothofthe.se

:ig to him. bury their dead on the

on the cheek as a sign of peace, tear

I sign of nioiirning, and dance as a

Ntrn of .1. Garcia claimed to have found

null" !' . Nrrns in the American language.

A t<i Mana.«iseh ben Israel, Antonio Mon-

in lfi44 before the bet din of Am-

••■.■ -.idle traveling in Peru he had met

«ith a numIxT of the natives who recited the
" rew, and who informed him

■ , ' ter that they were Israelites

• d from Heiiben. and that the tribe of Jo.sepli

;i. Hi; supported tlieir

- J '.;>1» customs among other

• f Central and Sfjuth America. The In-

•\ the M< xirans rent their gar-

and kept perpetual fires upon

th'traltarH. ils4) the Peruvians. The Mexi-

■•« Idle the Indians of Peru and

I the custom of levirale mar-

"'»^^'•* ' Ix-n Israel therefore concluded that

f America were the Lost

i lie opinion that the Mes-

- . would come when the whole world was in-

■ "f Isniel, he directed his

"11 for the Jews to the

H : ■:. 1 ,'..is. from which they were at that time

< .\< lijdi d (M-e Manabseii hen Ibuael). The Mexican

theory waslatertaken up by Viscount Kiiigsborough,
who devoted his life and fortune to proving the Ihe.sis
that the .Mexicans were desceniled from the Lost
Ten Tribes, and published a niagiiilicent and ex-
pensive work on the subject ("Antiquities ot Mex-
ico." 9 vols., 1837-4.J). Kingsborougirs chief argu-
ments are that Mexicans and Israelites believe in
both devils and angels, as well as in miracles, and
use the blood of the sacrifice in the same waj'.
namely, by pouring it on the ground; also that the
high priest of Peru is the only one allowed to enter
the inner, most holy part of the temple, and that
the Peruvians anointed the Ark, as did the Israelites.
He also linds many similarities in the myths and
legends. Thus certain Mexican heroes are said to
have wrestled with QuetzalcoliuatI, like Jacob with
the angel (" Antiquities of Mexico," vol. vii.).

Manasseh b. Israel's views were taken up by T.
Thorowgood in his "Jewes in America" (London,
1650), and he was followed by the " Apostle " Eliot

in a publication ten years later; and
North- their views, referringnow to the North-
American. American Indians instead of the Mexi-
Indians. cans or Peruvians, were adopted by

Cotton Mather, Roger Williams, and
even William Penn. S. Sewall also gave expres-
sion, in 1697, to the same views in a special pub-
lication.

Charles Beatty, in his "Journal of a Two-Months'
Tour " (London, 1678), declared that he had found
among the Delaware Indians traces of Israelitish oii-
gin; and J. Adair, in his "History of the American
Indians" (London, 1775), devotes a considerable
amount of, attention to the same view, wliich he
accepts. Adair was followed by Jonathan Edwards.
A special work was written by E. Boudinot (" A Star
in the West," Trenton, N. J., 1816); and he was fol-
lowed by Ethan Smith in 1825, and by Israel Wors-
ley ("View of the American Indians, Showing Them
to Be Descendants of the Lost Tribes of Israel, " Lon-
don. 1828). Mordecai M. Noah accepted the Israel-
itish origin of the Indians (1837) in a pamphlet re-
published in Marryat's " Diarj' in America " (vol. ii.).
J. B. Finlay claimed to have found traces among
the Wyandottes in 1840, and the view was even con-
sidered by George Catlin in his "Manners ... of
the North American Indians" (London, 1841). Dis-
coveries of alleged Hebrew tablets, as at Pittsfield,
Mass., 1815, and Newark, Ohio, about 1860, have
given fresh vigor to the theory. Altogether, with
the exception of the Anglo-Israelite craze, a larger
amount of literature has been written on this identi-
fication than on any other.

It was doubtless owing to this belief in the identity
of the Lost Ten Tribes with the American Indians
that Joseph Sinith was led to adopt a somewhat
similar view in his celebrated "Book of Mormon."

According to him. America was colo-

The nized by two .sets of people — one being

Mormons, the Jaredites, who came over after

the dispersion from the Tower of Ba-
bel; the other a group of .sixteen, who caine from
Jerusalem about 600 n.c. Their chief families were
destroyed about the fourth century n.c, and de-
scendants of the remainder are the North-Americaa
Indians.

253

THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA

Tribes, Lost Ten
Tribes, Tlie Twelve

Bnii.iofiRAPHY : Manasseh h. Israel, Hope of hrncl, ed. Wolf,

pp. )>i-2», London, litOl : ElscniiiciiKcr, KntdicUm Jtulcu-
tltmn. il. 51')-.')T:t; A. Ni-uUimt-v. U'lun At r tlie 'I'cit Trilicn?
in ./. Q. /.'. i. U-UH. 9.")-!14, IS.") ;.'01, M)H-i-S.i: A. V. liyiiinson.
The Lust Trihr^ and the Iiiltm titc < if the Searclt fur Tlirm
on tlic llituni (if the ./< ic.s in KiiftliuKt, in ./. Q. }{. xv.: M.
I.cwiii. Do Sitid <tit' Stiiiniiii: Isrui Is zn Sitclirii / I'ri'sburjr,
r.H)l ; Bancroft, A'df/iv Haas of t)n' I'drilic, v. TH-Ku";
Justin Winsor, Aarrative atitl Critiral Ilistornnf Awrrica,
i. 115 110; Mallory, IsntclUe (ind linliaii. New York, 1HS9.
E. C. J.

TRIBES, THE TWELVE: The iiidividiud
tiibi's liaviiiL,^ \)vvn ticalcd under their lesix'Ctivo
captious, it is ])rop()sed to discuss in the present
article the theories conccrniiijz: the nalinc. iminher,
and ori^gin of the tribes of Israel. 'Die iiiicritieal
oi- i)rccritical theory accepts as data of ])ersonal
Instories the Biblical accounts of the Patiiarchs'
lives. Accordingly, the tribes are regarded as iiav-
ing been formed in the main by the natural increase
of the olTspring of Jacob, The descendanls of each
of his sons are believed to have lield together and
thus constituted a social entity, though foreign
wives and slaves were at times admitted and their
offsi)ring absorbed. Thedillicultics which have led
to the rejection of this theory by most Biblical
scholars are of a twofold nature. In the fii'st i)lace,
such Jiatural origin could by no means account for
the numbers given in the Biblical books as the cen-
sus of the various tribes. Anthroi^ology furnishes
no other example of a nation having arisen l)y nat-
ural descent from one ancestral family. In the sec-
ond place, the study and comparison of the various
(and only in one instance perfectly concordant) lists
of the tribes, as preserved in the Bib-
The Lists, lical records, suggest that considera-
tions otlier than the fact of common
descent underlie the dilTerent groupings and dis-
cordant order of these tribal tables, and the com-
mon origin is thus shown to be on)}' theoretical.
The tribes are arranged in twenty different orders,
only one of which (Num. ii., vii., x. 14-29) recurs.

Various principles arc readily detected to be
worked out in the tables. (1) A certain number of
tribal lists (e.f/., those in Gen. xxix.-xxxv., xlvi..
xlix.; Ex. i. ; Num. i., ii., vii., x., xiii., xxvi. ; 1
Cliron. ii., xxvii.) trace descent from Jacob, but
through his various wives and concubines, grouping
those always together that have a common mother,
thus: (a) tribes of Leah: Reuben, Simeon, Levi,
Judah, Issachar, Zebulun; {b) tribes of Zilpah
(Leah's slave): Gad, Asher; (c) tribes of Racliel :
Joseph, Benjamin; {<!) tribes of Hiliiah (Rachel's
slave): Dan and Naphtali. (2) Other lists are ar-
ranged according to geographical position (Num.
xxxiv.; Deut. xxxiii. ; Josh, xiii.; Judges v.; I
Chron. ii. JJ-viii.). (3) Tradition concerning both
affinity and geographical position (Deut. xxvii.).
But even here the relative impoitance of the tribes
decides whether the}' are to receive a blessing or a
curse. Ezekiel's list (Ezek. xlviii.) reflects the
prophet's ideal conceptions. It is thus plain that
the records do not give simpleand indidiitable facts,
but disclose certain theories and reflect certain posl-
patriarehal conditions.

Asanthropology presents no warrant forassuming
that nations are formed through natural descent
from one ancestor, so the jiroccss of a tribe's origin
must be the reverse of that underlying the i)resenta-

tion of Bililicai paiiiaiciiui iraiiiiiun. Tribj-s result
from combinalidus of various sepis or tluns. The
tribe (Ilehr. " niatteli " or "sliebc-V") wuh n c-oiiffdcr.
ation of "mi.shpnl.iot" (R. V. "famili. " (,;

and tiiese again weie composed of vnri.. idg

(" bnttim " or " i)alle abof '). ("(.inmuiiity of worBlijp
is the characteristic and constitutive c-k-iniiit of this
ascending and erdarging order of trilial 8<wi.-lv
(com p. 1 Sam. xx. G). Tlie nanic-8 of tlio Irilijg
l>roi)ably r( jireseut. tlierefore, form. •
deities whose "sons"— even in a jiii .
tlie members of the trilie felt theniHclvpsio l)o. The
tribal denonnnalions therefore do not reprewnt his-
torical and iKM-.sonal jtrogcnilors, liut mylhicul fig-
ures, former divinities, or heroes.

This is the theory now held by most of the mhhI-

em scholars, modilied by tlie recognition that nmny

of the sul)clans' nanus point to UkiiI-

Modern ities— the nuincn of the place Ix-hig
View. believed to he the futherof Ihc iiiluih-
itants. This fact suggests a similar
original meaning of the names of some of Jncjih's
sons(e.5r., Asher, Benjamin (the southern]): and it in
evident that in the patriarchal cycles later history is
projected into eailier ceiitinies, so ihtit tribal rank-
ings as expressed in ])atriarchal family events corre-
spond to subse(|iu'nt historical reialions. For ex-
ample, Jo.seph and Judah tyi)ify two distinct lines
of descent, Judah in ail likelihood being n noii-
Israelitish mixed tribe. In the (luarrolsof ' ' nd
Rachel are mirrored the struggles for the i ny

waged by these two sets of tribes.

That some of these tribes are descended through
a concubine, the bondwoman of a legitimate wife,
expresses the historical fact that they were deemed
to be of less pure blood or of less importance than
others, and were held to a certain e.vtent in vas-
.salage by the more powerful tribes. In like manner
later territorial relations are worked out in the tribal
genealogies, which accounts for the omission of some
of the tribes (<;.<7., Simeon and Levi) from the lists or
from tiie blessing*: (Deut. xxxiii., for instance).

The historical kernel involved in all the tribal cat-
alogues and the ])atriai(hal legends woulil ap|N-urto
be this: In the Sinaitic Peninsida a nunilier of pas-
toral tribes had for centuries been pasturing their
flocks; and at times, when food w:i- were

diiven to take refuge in Egypt, in the < :istrict

of wliich country some (e.g., Joseph) of their num-
l)er foiuid settled habitations. These t ' ■ re

loosely conscious of their conunon religioi > ,

regarding as their progenitor Israel, w hose sons I hey
were Ciilled (" Beni Ismel "). This l<Mise conscious-
ness gave way to a deeinr national .sense of unity
under Moses, though in the concjuest of Palestine
the tribes still actinl witliotit coher-
Historical eiice. Judah seems to liavo stood

Kernel. idoof from the trilu* of Josejih and
its vassals, and to have joined its
fortunes with theirs only after the Joseph group
had finally gaine<l a foothold across the Jonlan.
Geographical consi<lerations after this replaced the
traditional memories of relations that prevailed in
the trans-Jordanic districts, Judah and lienjamin in
the south gaining for a time the ascendency "vr-r
Joseph in the north.

Triennial Cycle

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

254

.'t.i,,. nr ..r* il... kingdom uuil the
1^1 . of tribal iissoci-

uiirchical

.„ , : ;i;il fcuiis

s to a state of weak-

ioii by their

This process

leruted by the Syrian

it ion ami

N'orthern

through natural decimation

.r and famine at home and

. the "people of the laud,"

th of them aud the colonists settled

la ■ ' ' ' m conquerors.

'1 r twelve is apparent.

s of Joseph (Ephraitn and Mauassch)

' ' "imal notation, while, on the

.- freijuently reduce the num-

at times is treated as two, which

■■•h the theory. That twelve is a

;il number, even in connection

tribes, appears from Gen. xvii.

-T. ...\v. 13-16; x.x.wi. 15-19,40-43.

It . is nf mythologiail character, having

h the twelve months of the year

•* of the zodiac. According to B.

"Zeitschrift" [1901], xxi.), this

twelve departments into which

. ...e land of Israel, which division,

> the sacred nature of the number,

isa round figure. Other reckon-

- - veu, arc indicated in II Sam. xix.

43; 1 Kintrsxi. 31.

Bii> Yt G. B. Ornv. Tlif j.iMx nf the Twelve Trihen,

' ' - Hook nf JuhilecsA^OrZ,

pp. 11-13; idem, Prnle-

'••. OcKCh. (ic)< Volkes

tsclirift, i.; Steuer-

iiscltci) Stilmme in

tti.. p. 3s.i: C. Matthes,

uTlteoli>uijich Tijdsdirift

E. G. H.

TRIENNIAL CYCLE: A cycle of three years,

li tlie wiiole Law is read on Sab-

This was the practi.se in Paies-

;is in IJabylouia the entire Pentateuch

le in the cour.sc of a

i iie modern practise fol-

II ; but as late as 1170 Benjamin

' '■ I congregations that

■ laii ("Itinerary," ed.

reading of the Law in the syn-

■ ' ist about the .second

I of Sirach refers to

ptian practise; it must,

I earlier in Palestine. It

reading of the Law was

vert the views of the Samar-

,...!...,,,. ft-stivals, for wliich

to have the passages

to those festivals read

lays thems«.'lvcs.

The Ma«oretic . known as "sedarim"

ill the text, number 154 in
. i'lobably correspond, there-
fore, to the Sabbath less<ins of the triennial system.

as was first surmised by Rapopon ("Ilalikot Ko-
dem," p. 11). The number varies, however, so tiiat
Menahem Me'iri reckoned 161 divisions, correspoiid-
ing to tile greatest number of Sabbaths possible iu
three years; the Yemen grammars and scrolls of the
Pentateuch enumerate 167 (sec SinK.\); and the trac-
tate Soferim(.\vi. 10) gives the number as 175 (comp.
Yer. Shab. 1. 1). It is possible that this last divi-
sion corresponds toa further development by which
the whole of the Pentateuch was read twice in seven
years, or once iu three and a half years. The min-
imum seder for a Sabbath portion when seven jier-
sous are called up to the Law (see 'Ai.iyaii) should
consist of twenty -one verses, since no one should
read less than three verses (Meg. iv. 4). Some seda-
rim have less than twentj'-oue verses, however, as,
for example, Ex. xxx. 1-8.

If the 154 sedarim are divided into three portions

corresponding to the three years, the second woukl

commence at Ex. xii. and the third at

Divisions Num. vi. 23, a passage treating of the

and Begin- priestly blessing and the gifts of the

ning- of twelve tribal chiefs after the erection
the Cycle, of the Tabernacle. Tradition assumes
that the events described in Num. vi.
took place on the 1st of Nisan, and it would follow
that Gen. i. and Ex. xi. would also be read on the
first Sabbath of that month, while Dent, xxxiv., the
last portion of the Pentateuch, would be read in
Adar. Accordingly, it is found that the death of
Moses is traditionally assigned to the 7lh of Adar,
about which date Deut. xxxiv. would be read.

A. Buchler has restored the order of the sedarim
on the assumption that the reading of the Law was
commenced ou the 1st of Nisan and continued for
three years, and he has found that Genesis would be
begun on the 1st of Nisan, Deuteronomy ou the 1st
of Elul, Leviticus on the 1st of Tishri, and Exodus
and Numbers on the 15th of Shebat, the four New-
Years given in the Mishnah (R. H. i. 1). Nisan has
always been regarded as the ecclesiastical New-
Y'ear. This arrangement would account for many
traditions giving definite dates to Pentateuchal oc-
currences, the dates being, strictly speaking, those
of the Sabbaths on which the lessons recording the
occurrences are read. Thus, it is declared that the
exodus from Egypt took place on Thursday, the
15th of Ni.san ("Seder 'Olam," x.), and the passage
relating to the Exodus was read on that day. The
slaying of the Passover lamb is said to have occurred
on the 10th of Nisan, and is described in Ex. xii. 21,
the passage read in the triennial cycle on the second
Sabbath of Ni.san, which would be the 10th where
the 15th fell on Thursday. This likewise explains
the tradition that the Israelites encamped at Ram-
eses on a Sabbath, the 17th of Nisan, on which Ex.
xii. 37 would be read in the triennial cycle. The
tradition that Rachel was remembered on New-Year's
Day (R. II. 10b) is due to the fact that in the first
year of the cycle the sidra Gen. xxx. 22, beginning,
"And God remembered Rachel," would be read ou
Ro.sh ha-Shanah. As the reading of Deut. xxxiv.
would occur ou the 7th of Adar, there would be
four remaining Sabbaths to be filled in before the
new triennial cycle, which began with Nisan. Four
special Sabbaths, Shekalim, Zakor, Parah, aud Ha-

255

THE JEAVISn ENCYCLOPEDIA

Trienuial Cycle

Hodosh, still occur in Adar. Includiug these aud
the festival i)arashiy3'()t, and i)ossibly also the special
sedarim for llanidikah and Pmini, eleven extra di-
visions would bo obtained, making up thelGOor 1G7
of the Yemen Bible.

The triennial cycle seems to have been estaljlished

in New Testament times. John vi. 4 contains an

allusion to the Passover, aud vii. 2 to

Connec- the Feast of Tabernacles, while in vi.
tions 59, between the two, reference is made

Between to a sermou on the manna delivered in

Readings the synagogue at Capernaum. This
and would be appropriate for a discour.sc

Festivals, on the text for the first or eighth of
tlie month lyyar {i.e., l)etween Pass-
over and Tabernacles), which, in the triennial cycle,
dealt with E.\. vi. 1-xvii.l, where the account of the
manna is given.
So, too, at the
season of Pente-
cost the cycle of
readings in the
first year would
reach Gen. xi.,
which deals with
the story of
Babel aud the
confusion of
tongues, so that
in Acts ii. Pente-
cost is a.ssociated
with the gift of
the spirit which
led to a confu-
sion of tongues.
Similarly, the
Decalogue was
read on Pente-
cost in the sec-
ond year of the
cycle, whence
came, according
to Blichler, the
traditional asso-
ciation of the
giving of the
Law with Pen-
tecost. Ex.
xxxiv., which
contains a sec-
ond Decalogue,
is accordingly
read on the 29th
of Ab, or 80
days after Pen-
tecost, allowing
after the sin of
v., containing a

Diagram Showiii^^ .\iTaiij:ena'nt of Ueaaiiifzs from Hit- l.aw Durum' iW TiK-nnluI
Cycle. The Ueadiiifrs are Kepreseiued by Concentric Circles; Hebrew Montlis
are Indicated by Radii.

(From the " Journal of TheoloKical SIndlrt.")

rangement of the Psahns ou the sunie system, tlius
accoiuiling for their lection iu a trieuuiul cycle
wiiich varied between 147 and 150 Subbullis; uud
he also shows tiie agreumeul of llie live divisiuuti or
books of llie P.suliiis, uow llxcd by the
The Trien- doxologies, with the Jive divlHionsof
nial Cycle the Pentateuch, llie tirst and third
of the books of boiii the Psjilier and the Pen-
Psalms, tateuch ending in the inoiilh SlielmV-
Ps. Ixxii. I'J woidd be read on llioKuiiie
day as Ex. xl. 34. tl»e two paswiges llirowiug light
on eacii other. The Asa|>]i pKnlms (l.K.\iii.-i\xxtii.)
would begin, on this principle, on the Feast of
" Asif" in the seventh month, just when, in the Jirut
year of the Penlateuchal cycle, Gen. xxx. et »eq.
would be read, dealing wiiii the birtli of Jowph,
whose name is there derived from the nxjl "aJiaf."

A still more re-
nnirkaljle cuiii-
I ideucc is the
fact that Ps. v..
would ( onie just
at tlie time iu
Adar wiien, ac-
cording to irudl-
tion, the death of
Moses orcurretl,
and when DeuL
xxxiii. would be
read ; lieuce, it
is suggested,
originated the
heading of Ps.
xc," A prayer of
.Moses, the m.in
of God." Til'-
Pilgrim Psalms
(cxx.-rxxxiv.)
would be read,
in tliis system,
during the fif-
teen Sublmihs
from the 1st of
Elul to Hauuk-
kah. the very
lime \v h e n a
constant ■
sion of 1
was bringing
the first-fruits to
the Temple.
Many other as-
sociations of
appropriate
Psiilins "•

exactly forty days before and
the golden calf. So too Deut.
third Decalogue, began on the
same day, the 29th of Ab. The above diagram
shows the arrangement and the connection of the
various dates with the successive sedarim, the three
concentric rings showing the three cycles, and the
twelve radii separating the months of the Jewish
year indicated in tlie inner circle.

In addition to this division of the Pentateuch into
a triennial reading, E. G. King has proposed an ar-

festivals which they illustrate have been ;

0"t- . try

Besides these examples Biichler gives lli<- fol-
lowing sections of the PentuU-uch read on various
Sabbaths in the dilTerent years of the cycle, basing
his identification on certain h:'.
of the Sabbaths with the events i
In the first rear the ft»ur se<larim of Nisi»n ap|><»r
to be Gen. \. 1-ii. 3. ii. 4-iii. 01. iii. 22-iv ■' I v.
1-vi. 8. The second Sabbath of lyyar w .; dily

devoted to Gen. vi. 9-vii. 24 (comp. vii. 1). In the

Trisanial Cycle

Trier

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDLl

256

J-; ( n tlio Sahliutlis of Nisan

r!i. xjv. con-

! tilis rea.s<)ii

.1 taiiyrlit liis

since I Ik- passage

vi r week iu the

I I lie seeoiiil year

.\i. l.xxvjii., xvii. 1. xviii.

" live Sabbaths iu

iS for Si wail arc

:is Ex. XX. 1. xxii.4: at tlic eiul of

na« read: while on the lirsi (hiys of

1, V ! and vi. 12 were the readinas.

: ••1
Af...

OIK'S

\ I

f Iv-

tiic ad of Ab
lo that of fVy.
xsxvl. Some
of these pas-
sages were re-
taincfl for lh<'

• iulro-

tii.-

also arran>,'ed in a triennial

' . ; -^r to Jiave liccii originally a

t. A vl.TUrd verses inlciuled to slienfithen tlie i)as-

the Law read previously,

Hol^rot. .necl ii with tlie following

dlicoiinicof tlie preaehcr. whidi look

["'"".' -f the haftarah. Thns

' ' 111. rf-.i was at one tune
a^ u complete haftJirah to Gen. xx\ix 1
'- •■ ■ ;'*"7'*: ' '■ ' ""• •^""WM. as Ezek. xlv.
' ""'« I«« Uvl on New Moons. A li.st of

iitahle for the festivals is given
IL 1 r ■; ■ '',■ ""!"■''' "' *"■" ''"ftarol for one fes-
tival U shown In the case of Passover, for whirl,
.l'«h. V. 10 and Josh. iii. are mentioned. This

can easily be explained b}- the existence of a trien-
nial cycle, especially as Niiin. i.\. 2-3 was the read-
ing for the tir.st day of Passover, and coriesiionds
e.xacily to Josh. v. 20. Jn the case of the New-
Year it has been po.ssible to deternune the hattarot
for the three cycles: I Sam. ii. 21, Jer. xx.xi. 19, and,
for the third year, Joel ii. 1, corresponding to the
reading Dent, v., which formed the Pentatevichal
lesson. For Hanukkah, the Toiali seder of which
tieatsof lainps(Niini. viii. 1-2), the haftarot Zeeli. iv.
2 and I Kings vii. 49 were selected as being suitable
passages. A third haftarah is also found (I Kings
xviii. ol). completing the triennial unaugeinent.

Tlie Karaites
adopted some of
the t r i e n n i a 1
haftarot in their
leading of the
Law. >l,e haf-
tarot of the first
year of the cycle
can often be
identified by this
fact. Of the
twenty-nine se-
darim of the
Rook of Exodus
eighteen were
taken f r o m
Isaiah, three
from Jeremiah,
four from the
Minor Prophets,
three fiom the
historical works,
and one from
E/.ekiel, whose
words, for ."-ome
reason, seem on
the whole to
have been es-
chewed by those
who selected
the prophetic
readings. A
certain c o n -
fusion seems to
have arisen
among the haf-
tarot, OAving to
the fact that
among sonic congregations the reading of the Pcn-
lateuchal portions was begun on the 1st of Elul
(also regarded as a New-Year).

In the Masoretic text of the Prophets occur a
number of divisions marked as sedarim which cor-
respond to smaller divisions in the Torali. Among
the.se may be mentioned :

I Kfncs vi. 11 i;j corresponding: to Ex. xxv.
y.y.i-h. xii. :.'(!

I Sam. vi. 14
Josh. xvii. 4
Jer. ix. 2.' :>4

II KliiRs xiii. 23
Judpesli. 7

The pi-esent arrangement of haftarot seems to have
been introduced into Babylonia by Kab, especially

l.iaKr«;n M,o\Miii,' .Virai.-.ii.en. of liL>a.iinjrs from llic I'salins UurinK Uie Triennial
(y.le. Ih.- I'Salins are Ueprescuted by Concentric Circles; Hebrew Months
aix' Indlcaied by Iladll.

(From the "Journal of Thtolojflciil Slli.lie.s.")

Lev.xxvl. ;]or 4?
Num. iv. 17
Num. xxvi. .52
Deut. viii.
Deut. X.
Deut. xxxi. 14

257

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Triennial Cycle
Trier

tliosofor the three Sabbaths of repentance preceding
the Ninth of Ab, and the tliree consolatory ones suc-
ceeding it. Biichler has traced tlie proi)lietie por-
tions of these tiiree hitter Sabbaths for eacli of the
lliree years of the cycle as follows:

I. I.sa. xl. 1, li. 12, liv. 11.
II. Isa. xlix. U, Ix. 1, Ixi. 10.
III. Isa. liv. 1, Zecli. il. 14, ix. 9.

He finds traces of the trieiniial cycle also in the
prophetic portions for the four supplementary Sab-
baths, Sliekulini, Zakor, Parah, and Hodesh. For
SheUalini haftarot are found from {ii) \l Kings \ii.,
{/j) E/.ek. xlv. onward (among the Karaites), and (c)
I Kings iv. 20 onward. It is tolerabl}' clear that
these were the haftarot of the three different yeais
of the cycle when that particular Sabbath came
round. It is possible that when the arrangement of
llie calendar and of the reading of the Jjaw was first
made these four suiiplcmenlary Sabbaths weie in-
tended to till out the time between the 7th of Adar,
when the account of the death of Moses in Deut.
A.wiv. was read, and the first Sabbath in Nisan,
when the cycle began. Traces of the cycle are also
foiuid in the haftarot for the festivals. Thus, on the
first day of Passover, Ex. xii. 29 was read, approxi-
mately in its due place in the cycle in the second
year; and corresponding to this Josh. v. 10 Avasread
in the Prophets, whereas there are also traces of
IS' urn. ix. 22 being read on that day, as would occur
in the third year of the cycle, when Josh. iii. was
read as the haftarah. The passage for the seconil day
of Passover, Num. ix. 1 etseq., which was introduced
by the Babylonians, has attached to it II Kings xxiii.
21 as the haftarah, and would correspond to the sec-
tion in the first year's cycle. On Pentecost, Ex. xix.
was read in the second year, while Gen. xi. 15 was
read for the first year of the cycle. So, too, on New-
Year, Gen. XXX. 22 was read in the first year. Lev.
iv. in the second, and Deut. v. in the third, the cor-
responiling haftarot being Jer. xxxi. 19, I Sam. ii.,
and Joel ii. For the Sukkot of the first year for the
sidra of Gen. xxxii., the haftarah was Zech. xiv.
16-19; for that of the second year. Lev. ix. 10, the
haftarah was I Kings viii. 8; and for that of the
third year, Deut. viii. 9, the haftarah was Isa. iv.
G (among the Karaites).

In the accompanying diagram the sidrot of the Law
for the Sabbaths of the three years of the cycle are
indicated, as well as the liaftarot which acconipany
them. Sometimes these have alternatives, and in
several cases, as for Gen. xl. 23, xliii. 14, Ex. i. 1,
xxvii. 20, and Lev. xix. 1, three haftarot are given
for the .sidra, iiointing in all probability to the haf-
tarot reading during the triennial cycle. In this
enlarged form the connection of the beginning of
the reading of the books with the various sacred
New-Years", those of Nisan, of Elul (for tithes), and
of Shebat (for trees), comes out most clearly and
convincingly. The manner in which the present-
day reading of the Law and the Prophets has been
derived from the triennial cycle is shown clearly by
the diagram. It would appear that at the beginning
of the cycle all the sidrot of the month were read to-
getlier; but this was soon given up, as obviously it
would result in the whole of the Law being read
in three-quarters of a year or less.
XII.— 17

There are indications of tlie application of the t rieii-
nial cycle to the Psalms al.so. The Aggudal Htiihhit
treats twenty -eight sedarini of Genesis uniformly iu
three sections, one devoted to a pu.sKiigc in Gene.sis,
the next to a corresponding |)roiiheiic jmssuge (liuf-
tarali), and the third ton passage from tlic PKalmg,
generally cognate with eitiier the Imw or the Proph-
ets. It may be added thai in Luke xxiv. 44 ii
threefold division is made of "tlie \ji\s- of MuHcs
and the Prophets and the P.sjilnis."

The transition from the triennial to the unnuul
reading of the Law and the transference of tlie Ik'-
ginning of the cycle to the month of Ti.sliri ure at-
tributed by BQchler to the inllueucc of Uab, und
may have been due to the smallnes.s of the sedarijii
under the old .system, and to the fact that people
were thus reminded of the chief festivals only once
in three years. It was then arranged that Deut
xxviii. should fall before the New-Year, and that
the beginning of the cycle should come inimediately
after the Feast of Tai)ernacles. This arra:
has been retained by the Karaites and by
congregations, leaving only slight traces of the tri-
ennial cycle iu the four special Sabbaths and in ^ ^ •
of the passages read upon the festivals, wliicii ,i ■
frequently sections of the triennial cycle, and not of
the annuid one. It would further be of interest to
consult the earlier lectionaries of the Church (winch
has borrowed its first and second lessons from tli<
Jewish custom) to see how far they agree with tin
results already obtained for the triennial cycle. Th<
Church father Chrysostom about 175 c.K. declared
that it was customary to begin reading frouj Genesis
during Lent, that is, in Ni.Siin, thus showing that to
the end of the second century the Church followetl
the Synagogue in commencing the reading of tin-
Law at tiie beginning of the Jewish ccclesia.'^tical
New- Year. See also Pau.\siii wot; Sidha.

Builioguapht: Biuhlcr. in J.Q. U. v. 420 •ICS, vl. 1
Adler, i7*. viii. ."i2S-.i2".); E. (i. Klnif. J«>nni(i/ <>/ ;
Studies, Jan., 1904; 1. Abrahams, in J. y. Ii. xvl. o,l»-iS>.

4I .

TRIER, ERNST JOHANNES: Danish edu-
cator; born ill Copenhagen Jan. 2;i. lSi7; died at
Vallekilde Dec, 29, 1893. He was gmduated In.m
the University of Copenhagen (B.I). lt<l>8). oill. j.
ated for some time as teacher at Blaagaards >
nary, and took part in the war with Germany (1-' •
In i8G5 he became an ardent adherent of Grund;\;.:.
at whose initiative he found.-d (1866) at Vallekilde
a high school which soon grew to be the ^ -t

school of its kind in Denmark. It of i

only the ordinary high-school curriculum of studies,
but also courses in navigation ami in •*

branches of trade. It was the first Danish - 1

which the Swedish system of gymnastics was Intro

duced.

Of Trier's memoirs, entitled "Fern og Tyve Aara
Skolevirk.somhed i VallekiUle." ..nly two volumes
appeared (Copenhagen. 1890. 1H94). his untimely
death— brought on by overstudy— preventing him
from completing the work. Trier was a convert to
Christianity.
BiHLioGR.APiiv : I . F. Brlcka, Dau«k Diooralisk -I^-rJcon.

8. '^ ^'

Trier

Tric«t

THE JEWISU ENCYCLOPEDIA

258

nrpTc-p FP.Fr>T""R IK JACOB: Daiiisli pliy-

tu J uui- 14. 1831 ; died there
I ul tUe Metroiiolitiin
V of Copenhagen (M. U.
ir be published several
: ' !ii " was the
:..- .; r of " I'ge-
i.-al journal, a position wliich
! some years co-
. ," to which he
.1 papers. In 1881 bis
tie i)f professor.
I - ri'sident physi-
al division of the Communal Hos-
MivsiiK'nt of the
al Congress of
'■nliagen in 1884. He was
il board of revisers of the
,1889).

-•liner. Den Datiskc Lagestand,

». F. C.

TRIER. HERMAN: Danish educator, writer,

. iti Copenhagen May 10, 1845.

y education at the Von AW'St-

r attending the Universitj' of

...i ....... he studied jurisprudence for a

> In isr>4 he took up the study of peda-

; he has won international fame.

publishing a series of " Kultur-

leder," containing biographies

> of different authors. In the

.... his first work on pedagogics,

som Videnskab," which cndeav-
for pedagogics a place among the

' Trier, together with School -Inspector

lias published "Vor Ung-

ted to pedagogics. From

he published " Pa?dagogiske Tids- og

I." and in 1901 a valuable addition

• of the medieval history of Copen-

imgta, entitled "Gaarden No. 8 Amagertorv." In

""■■ ' ' • ' '.rof the Danish Folke-

ior the first district of

and in 1898 he became a member of

ildenncn of that city.

• F. C.

TRIER. SALOMON MEYER: Danish phar-

ii.;i<iht, l...rn 111 Ci.pL'nhageu in 18U4; died there in

I>ir . iKJvi. Ho wiui graduated from the Copen-

luxevu Colh-L'e of Pharmacy in 1826, and was from

owner of a pharmacy in Lyngby,

: ... 1H44 to 1806 Trier publi.shed

\ • for Pharmacy. "and in 1868 he a.ssisted in

>pi'a Danica," which is still
• "' w!iy.

F. C.
TRIER. SELIGMANN MEYER: Danish

I ' '" * "I" .liiiie 7, 1800; died

''•i- He -onof poor i)arents,

: him for a mercantile career. His un-

' ''T. attract. •,] th,. attention

• "'. Professor llcrholdt, who

t<H.k an interest in him and sent him to the Univer-

sity of Copenhagen, where he studied medicine. He
giiiduateil in 1823, and in 1825 was appointed phy-
sician for the Jewish jioor, and shortly after assist-
ant physician at the Koyal Frederik's Hospital in
Copenhagen. In 1827 lie obtained the degree of
doctor of medicine from his alma mater. In 1828
Trier's attention w as called to the French physician
LaCnnec's great discoveries in the field of patholog-
ical anatomy, and to his invention of the stethoscope
for e.\aniiuatiou of the thorax. Trier devoted some
time to the intimate study of these discoveries, and
published in 1830 his "Auvisniiig til at Kjende
Lunge og iljtertesygdomme ved IVrkussion og Mid-
delbar Avskultation." This work was translated
into Swedish (Stockholm, 1831) by Elliot, and it
was for a long time the only authentic Danish
manual on stethoscopy. From 1831 to 1832 Trier was
coeditor of "Samlinger til Kundskab om Kolera,"
an instructive work on the symptoms and treatment
of Asiatic cholera. In 1836 be was appointed a
member of the Copenhagen board of health, an ap-
pointment whicli, on account of his religion, caused
a great deal of comment. In 1842, on the death of
Prof. O. Bang, Trier became pliysician-in-chief of
the Royal Frederik's Hospital, a position he held for
eighteen years. From 1848 to 1853 he assisted in
the publication of "Hospitals-^Ieddelelser," a med-
ical journal of prominence. In 1847 his alma mater
conferred upon him the title of professor, and in
1857 King Frederick 'VII. honored him with the title
of "Etatsraad." Trier was a member of the board
of revisers of the "Pharmacopea Danica " (1863).

BiBLioGRAPHT: C. F. Bfick-a, Dausk Biografisk Lexicon;
Smith and Bladt. Den Dan.ske LiXHie»lamU 4th ed.; Erslew,
Forfattcr-Lexicon ; lllustreret Tidende, v. 222.
S. F. C.

TRIESCH : City in Moravia. Its Jewish con-
gregation was most jirobably founded by exiles from
Iglau shortly after 1426. In the latter city the
Jews of Triesch transacted their business during the
day, spending the night beyond the city limits, and
returning home for the Sabbath. They dealt chiefly
in wool, which they sold to the cloth-makers in
Iglau. Joseph l)en ]\Ioses, a disciple of Israel
Isserlein of Marburg, mentions in liis "Leket
Yosher" (ed. J. Freimaun, Berlin, 1904) a rabbin-
ical scholar named Isaac of Triesch (1469). It may
be, too, that Isaac of Otyno, mentioned in the letter
of Jonathan Levi Zion to the congregation of
Frankfort-on-the-Main (1509) as having assisted
him in his elTorts to obtain from Emperor Maximil-
ian the repeal of the confiscation of Hebrew books
(see Pfefkeukokn), was from Triesch, which the
Jews called '• Trieschet " or •'Tritsch,"aud not from
Triest ("Monatsschrift," 1900, p. 125). The grant
of freedom of residence to the Jews of Austria in
1848 reduced the congregation of Triesch consid-
erably; and the national fanaticism of the Czech
population deprived the Triesch Jews of their for-
mer position in the commercial life of the town.
On the other hand, Jews became prominent manu-
facturers of cloth, furniture, and matches.

Of the rabbis of the city the following are known:
Mordecai Bet ha-Levi, a prolific cabalistic author
whose numerous manuscripts were destroyed in the
great conflagration of 1824. He composed for the

259

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Trier
Triest

Seventli of Adar a special service Avhicli is still in
use. Eleazar Low, author of ".Sliciiieii Kokeul.i," was
rabbi in Triesch about 1800 to 1810 and, after having
ofliciated meanwhile at Ronsperg, again from 1812
to 1820. lie was a proiilic author, and took an
active i)artin the controversy on the Hamburg Tem-
pel. Before his second term of office IMosesSciiUEinKii
urged the candidacy of liis own fatiierin-law, Akiba
Egek. Low was succeeded by Moses Friedentlial,
Joseph Frankfurter, B. Friedmann (later in Gkatz),
and Dr. M. L. Stern, the present (1905) incumbent,'
who has held office since 1885. IMoses Joseph Spiuo
was a native of Triesch.

The congregation of Battelau belongs to the dis-
trict of Triesch. The Jews of Triesch number about
300 in a total population of 5,000. Tlie congrega-
tion has numerous well-endowed foundations.

11- M. L. S.

TRIESCH, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV (psen
donynis, Alex Hartmann, Paul Richter, H,
Martin): Austrian dramatist; bornat Vienna June
16, 1845. Triesch studied sculpture for a time at
the Akademie der Bildenden Kiinste, Vienna, but
soon turned to literature. Lack of means forced
him to follow mercantile pursuits for a short period,
but the success of his second piece, the farce "Lach-
ende Erben " (1867), caused him to devote all his
time to play writing. In 1868, in the prize competi-
tion of theHofburgtheater, Vienna, he obtained hon-
orable mention and a production for his comedy
"Im XIX. Jahrhundert,"and in 1877 two of his
plays, " Hohere Gcsichtspunkte " and " Die Wochen-
chronik," were similarly honored. In 1879 his com-
edy " Neue Vertrage " won the first prize offered by
the Munich Hof theater; and in 1892 his drama
" Ottilie " won the first prize in the competition insti-
tuted by the Litterarisches Vermittlungsbureau of
Hamburg, there being 383 competitors.

Triesch is also the author of numerous poems and
short stories and of the following plays: "Amalie
Welden," comedy, 18G5; "Madchenherzcn," drama,
1873; "Triiume Sind Schilume," comedy, 1878;
" Vorsicht," comedy, 1876; "Reine Liebe," comedy,
1877; "Anwalt," drama, 1881; " Ile.xennieister,"
comedy, 1884; "Nixe," comedy, 1887; "Hand in
Hand," 1890; "Factotum Flitsch," farce, 1892;
"Liquidator," farce, 1896; " Ihr System," farce,
1898; "Endlich Allein," comedy, 1900.

Bibliography: Das Gcistigc Wicn, i. 586-58".

s. E. Ms.

TRIEST : A commercial city and an important
seaport, situated at the liead of the Adriatic; ethno-
graphically Italian, but politically Austrian. Al-
though no consecutive history of tiie Jews of Triest
has ever been written, much information concerning
them may be gleaned from unpublished documents
preserved in the municipal records. The city was
originally an insignificant town, and first gained
importance after it placed itself under Austrian con-
trol in 1382. Even before that time, however, a
small colony of Jews liad settled there, and one of
them, the cit}^ banker, was permitted to reside in
the great square of the cit}\ It appears, moreover,
that certain banking establishments existed at
Triest under the management of Jews from various

parts of luily, altlioijgh tlie earliest Jcwisli inhab-
itants of the city seem lo have bien Gem i.e

Ashkenazic ritual wasa(li.|)tcd in tiie Jji ,^..

This building was situated in the nioHi uncSenl |Mirl
lion (.f iii(. ghetto at the liead of the Via del C'upl-
telli, where the structure tmditionailv repard.d as
the synagogue was still in existence thirty yeur*
ago. Strictly speaking, however, it iias been limny
years since there has been a ghetto at TricM. ng
the Jews liavc always enjoyed exceptional favor
there, being allowed to live in any part of the city
and being exempt from wearing the B.\im!K. With
the growth of Tri.st the center of the Jewjsli quar-
ter changed to what is now the Piazza dellc Scuole
Ebraiche, where an Aslikcnazic synagogue was
elected. This edifice, together with all the ancU-nt
records, was destroyed in a cijnllagnitiou, and was
subsequently rebuilt. A new synagogue, with the
German ritual, was erected about 1787 to m<-»t the
rc(iuirements of the rapid growth of the community.
This building, a magnilicent structure for its time.
is still standing. The first floor is now ' ' a
synagogue by the Jews who have imnu, ;.i

Triest from Dalinatia and the East; tbey adopt the
Sephardic ritual. A number of years later a syn-
agogue was built especially for the Sephardim in
a central part of the city on the site of an ancient
cemetery in the Via del Monte, near the Talmud
Torah (to which is annexed a Jewish public school)
and the Jewish hospital. The oldest gravestones
in this cemetery are between 140 and 150 years old.
showing that the Jews must formerly have pos-
sessed another burial-place. A new cemeterj-, re-
cently enlarged, was opened about seventy five years
ago on a site allotted by the municipal government
at .some distance from the city and in the vicinity
of the other cemeteries. Triest likewise 1ms an
orphan asylum, a convalescent home for aged in-
valids, and many charitable societies,

Institu- the principal one being the wealthy
tions. Fraternitil della Misericordia. while
the Beneficenza Israelitica al.so dis-
burses large sums of money. The community has
recently acquired a site for a new temple, the j)lan»
for which are already in j)rr)c<'ss of prii

The Jewish po|)ulation of Triest has : . been

increased by a large number of German and Hun-
garian families, attracted thither by commercial in-
terests. Among the noted Jewish families of the
city are the Parentes. Morpurgos, Hirschels. Salems,
and Minerbis. Aaron Parente was president of the
chamber of commerce of Triest, and was succiiMhd
by his son Solomon, while Baron Elio Morpuri.'oan(I
his son >Iario have been presidents of the Austrian
Lloyd. Caliman de Minerbi lias l)cen vicc-po<!«-stA.
and the Hirschcl family was received at court at a
time when the Jews of other cities were perse<-uletl
and despised. At jiresent Jews control the princi-
pal banks and commercial institutions and the rhicf
insurance companies. The rabbinate of Triest has
recently included such noted men as Formiggini,
Levi, Treves, Castiglione, and Marco T ' i.
The city ranks high in the history of Jew; r-

ature as the birthplace of Samuel David I^uzzatto
and his cousin, the poetess Rahcl M : of

Giuseppe Lazzaro Morpurgo. an econ<: i He-

Trie«t«

Tripoli

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

260

, .^ i« -..:..:..; •• 1- • • rjmslated DjiD-

. ,ulI Vita Zei-
; oi tlic " Vfiid Kinnor"; of

. and author of "Moil :Mo-
>n the entire Bible), of a dic-
li, i of other works: and of

,.,;orio Castiglione, Hebrew-
inn ihe latter being also the
.'V. philosophical, and

J. ... . and Italian, and the

pr 1 of Home. The population of

Tnc»t t> too* vliHA5) 180.000, including 5,000 Jews.

V. C.

TP.TF'^TF GABRIEL: Italian merchant and

p. born Die. 24, 1784; died at Padua

He was president of the Jewish

.;. Padua. Of his many benevolent

to s two call for special mention: viz., that

•: lire for the promotion of art

^ • ish artists, and his prize of 1,000

i;uid«o. io 1850. for the publication of a history of
Trieste translated Trokis "Hizzuk Emu-
i .

BiMJnAKJkPHT: Joaepb Wenbeimer. in Jahrhuch fUr luraeli-
t- .ulS61 ; Wurzbacb. Bi<>j;r(ip/ii*c/ic»- I,tJ-i7((t)i. S.V.;

t JUti. S.V.

TRILLINGER, ELIEZER BEN JOSEPH
YOSPA called also Eliezer Nin of Nikols-
burg) : A ' ' i; lived in liie latter halt of

the sevtut' . the beginning of the eight-

eratli century: died at Wilna. The name "Trillin-
. ' ' ' .' ly derived from " WassertriUlingcn,"
Jews ** Wasscrtrilling " or "Trilling."
Ti vus active in several congregations. At

ail d age he set out for Palestine, but on his

w;. . ill at Wilna and, as suited above, died

Uiere. He was the author of "Mishnat Rabbi Eli-
'CT'- " ■> '•;■ ' -t on the Pentateuch, published by his
•o: . -pa at Frankfort -on-the-Oder in 1707

(noi 17i 7. as erroneously stated by some bibliograph-
ical aulliors).

4 -^ 11 ' •. t V' j ,

!■ • 'i'lJoUm, 1. 18b. No. la**: ii.
^' faiiiii. p. iW.-). So. 2,5:3.'>;
* Or lia-Hniiuiin, So. i:i^;

Z/oiUKt. Ltii. Jiti.t. liiMh* Ui i(. Mtu>. p. iJ:i.

'» S. M.\x.

TRINITY: The fundamental dogma of Chris-
tianity; the concept of the union in one God of
Falhcr. Son. and Holy Spirit as three infinite per-
mtta. It was the Niccne Council and even more
CTperially the Allianasian Creed that first gave the
<1„,,,..., ;...!. ... ... formulation: "And the Catliolick

f*' ' we worship one God in Trinity,

n»d I • y : Neither confounding the Per-

•"O": '• - the Substance." Equalization of

the Son with the Father marks an innovation in the
Paiilini- thcingy: " Yet to us there is one God. the
Fuiher. of wliom are all thing.s. and we unto hiin ;
and one Ixird, Jesus Christ, through whom are all
•■'' I him" (I Cor. viii. 0, R. V.).

^■'' , - -ige the Holy Ghost is added

{ib. x\\. 8: comp. Titus il. 13). thus rapidly develop-
ing the concept of the Trinity (II Cor. xiii. 14).
Although the Judn o-Chrifitian sect of the Eniox-
ITE8 protested against this apotheosis of Jesus

("Clementine Homilies," xvi. 15), the great mass
of Gentile Christians accepted it.

The Holy Ghost as the tliinl person of the Trinity
coulil originate only on Gentile soil, since it was
based on a linguistic error. The " Gospel According

to the Hebrews," which wasonce held

The Holy in liigh esteem, especially in Ebiouitic

Ghost. circles, still regards the term " mother "

as equivalent to " Holy Ghost " (Ori-
gen. Commentary on John ii. 12; see Preuschen,
"Antilegomena," p. 4, Giessen. 1901; Henneke,
"Neutestamentliche A]iokiyphen," ji. 19, Tubin-
gen, 1904), since in Aramaic, tiic language of this
Gospel and possibl}' the original di;ilect of all
the Gospels, the noun "ruha" (spirit) is feminine
(comp. the Gnostic statement fvTevfievTTu?.iv avai^ex^V-
vai fir/repa Kai vi6v; Irena?us, "Ad versus Htcreses," i.
271). The Opiiitks, furtliermore, actually taught a
trinity of father, sou, and mother (Hilgenfeld, " Ket-
zergeschichte," p. 255); and the fact that the Church
father Hippolytus found among the Ophites the
Assyrian doctrine of the trinity of the soul (Hilgen-
feld, I.e. p. 259) justifies the assumption of a kinship
of the dogma of the Trinity with older concepts.
The MAND.i;ANs also believe ruha to be the mother
of the Messiah, though they regard them both as
demons (Brandt, '" Die Mandiiische Religion," p. 124,
Leipsic. 1889). The original trinity must, there-
fore, have included a feminine being, since thus
alone could the concept of ruha have been ob-
tained, and only after this form of trinity had been
accepted in Judteo-Christian circles could the Greek
70 TTvei/ia be regarded as a person, although it then
became masculine instead of femiuine. Philo's doc-
trine of the Logos is connected with this belief.
God, who created His son in His own image (Gen. ii.
7), thereby made Himself triform, so that He Him-
self and the biform first Adam (= Logos = Jesus)
constituted the first trinity.

The controversies between the Christians and the
Jews concerning the Trinity centered lor the most
part about the problem whether the writers of the
Old Testament bore witness to it or not, the Jews
naturally rejecting every proof brought forward by
their opponents. The latter based their arguments
on the Trisagion in Isa. vi. 3. a proof which had
been frequently ofTered since Eusebius and Gregory

of Naziauzus. The convert Jacob

Jewish Perez of Valentia (d. 1491) even found

Objections, an allusion to the Trinitj'- in the Avord

"Elohim," ami Luther saw distinct
traces of the doctrine in Gen. i. 1, 26; iii. 21 ; xi. 7,
8, 9; Num. vi. 22; II Sam. xxiii. 2; and Dan. vii.
13. The Jewish polemics against this doctrine
date almost from its very conception. Even in the
Talmud, R. Simlai (3d cent.) declared, in refutation
of the "heretics," "The three words' El,' 'Elohim,'
and 'Ynwii ' (Josh. xxii. 22)connoteoneandthesame
person, asonemightsaj', 'King, Emperor, Augustus'"
(Ver. Ber. ix. 12d), while elsewhere ho substitutes
the phrase "as if one should say, 'master, builder,
and architect ' " (i/j. 13a). There are, howcxcr, no
other allusions to the Trinity in Talmudic literature,
as has been rightly pointed out by Herford ("Chris-
tianity in Talmud and Midrash," p. 395, London,
1903), since the polemics of the rabbis of that period

261

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Trieste
Triijoll

were directed cliietl}' ai^ainst dualism (nV1tJ'"i "DZ')-
Another polemic, wiiicli is noteworthy for iis anticj-
uity and its protagonists, was the disputation be-
tween Pope Sylvester]. (314-335) and the Jew Noah
(.Migne, " Patrologia Gra-ca," viii. 814).

In the Middle Ages the nature of the Trinity was
discussed in everyone of the numerous disi)iitations
between Christians and Jews, the polemic of Abra-
ham Roman (in his " Sela' ha-Mahaloket," printed in
the"Milhemet Hobah," Constantinople, 1710) being
especially bitter; while in his well-kuowu disputa-
tion Nahmanides wrote as follows;

"Fra Pablo asked nu' in (ionma whether I lielievetl In tlie
Trinity [i:mSw'1. I said to him, ' Wtiat is the Trinity ! Do ttn-ee
great human bodies cnnstitute the Divinity V ' ' No ! ' 'or are
there three etliereal l)odies, such as tlie souls, or are ttiere three
angels?' 'No!' 'Or is an object composed of three liindsot
matter, as bodies are composed of the four elements ? ' ' No ! '
'What then is the Trinity?' He said: 'Wisdom, will, and
power' [comp. the dellnition of Thomas Aquinas cited above].
Then I said : ' I also acknowledge that (.od is wiseantl not fool-
ish, that He has a will unchangeable, and that He is mighty
and not weak. But the term "Trinity " is decidedly erroneous;
for wisdom is not accidental in the Creator, since He and His
wisdom are one. He and His will are one. He and His power are
one, so that wisdom, will, and power are one. Moreover, even
were these things accidental in Him, that wiiich is called God
would not be three beings, l)Ut one l)eing with these three acci-
dental attributes.' Our lord the king here quoted an analogy
which the erring ones had taught him, saying that Uiere are also
three things in w ine, namely, color, taste, and bouquet, yet it is
still one thing. This is a decided error; for the redness, the
taste, and the bouquet of the wine are distinct essences, each of
them potentially self-e,\istent ; for there are red, white, and
other colors, and the same statement holds true with regard to
taste and bouquet. The redness, the taste, and the bouquet,
moreover, are not tlie wine itself, but the thing which fills the
vessel, and which is, therefore, a body with the three accidents.
Following this course of argument, there would be four, since
the enumeration should include (iod. His wisdom. His will, and
His power, and these are four. You would even have to speak
of five things ; for He lives, and His life is a part of Him just as
much as His wisdom. Thus the definition of God would be
'living, wise, endowed with will, and mighty'; the Divinity
would therefore be fivefold in nature. All this, however, is an
evident error. Then Fra Pablo arose and said that he believed
in the unity, which, none the less, included the Trinity, although
this was an exceedingly deep mystery, which even the angels
and the princes of heaven could not comprehend. I arose and
said : ' It is evident that a person does not believe what he does
not know; therefore the angels do not believe in the Trinity.'
His colleagues then bade him be silent" (" Milhemet Hobah,"
p. 13a).

The boldness of the Christian exegetes, wlio con-
verted even the "Shema*," the solemn confession of
the Divine Unity, into a proof, of the Trinity (Mai-
monides, in "Tehiyyat ha-Metim," beginning), fur-
nishes an explanation of the bitterness of the Jewish
apoloLi-ists. Joseph Kind.ii assailed the doctrine of
the Trinity first of all ("Milhemet Hobah," p. 19a),
refuting with weighty arguments the favorite; proof
based on Gen. xviii. 1-2, where Yhwh is described
as first appearing alone to Abraham, who later be-
holds two persons (comp. Abraham ibn F^zra's com-
mentary, (id Ice). Simeon ben Zemah Duran, who
also refuted the Trinitarian proofs, added; "The
dogma itself is manifestly false, as I have shown by
philosophic deduction; and my present statements
are made only with reference to their [the Chris-
tians'] assertions, while the monk Nestor accepted
Judaism for the very reason that he had ref utetl them "
("Milhemet Hobah." p. 48b). Noteworthy among
modern polemics against the Trinity is Joshua
Segre's critique ("Zeit. fur llebr. Bibl." viii. 22).

The Cabala, on I lie oilier hand, c- ". the

Zohar. its funchimentnl work, was fur i lie to

the dogma of liie 'I'rinity. since by it« Kpeculutions
regarding tlie fatlier. tlics<jn. and llie
In the spirit it evolved u new trinity, and
Zohar, thus became dangerouH U> JuihiiNin.
Such terms a.s "maVrnnila," "brKly,"
" spirit." occur fre(|Uontly (/■.//., "Ta/.ria',"e(l. Poliia,
iii. 43b); so that Cliiistians and convertH like Kii(»rr
von Hosenroth, Kiuciii.in, and Uittanoki. f«iuml
in the Zoiiar a confirmation of Cliristiatiity and es-
pecially of the dogma of the Trinity (Jilliiiek. " Die
Kabbala," p. 25(J. I.eipsic, 1H44 [traiisl. of Krumk'a
"La Kabbale," Paris. 1843]). Heuchliu souclit on
the basis of the Caiiala the words " Father - I

Holy Ghost" in the second word of the Pc; . :i.

as well as in Ps. c.wiii. 22 (»'/'. p. 10), while JoliaDO
Kemper, a convert, left in manuscript a v i

tied " Matteh Jlosiieh,"' which treals in its •
tion of the harmony of the Zohar with the doctrine
of the Trinity (Zettersteen. " Ver/cichniss dir Hc-
briiischen und Aramilischen Handsrhriftcn zu L'p-
.sala," p. 10, Lund, 19U0). Tlie study of the Cabala
led theFrankists to adopt Christianity , but the J<wa
have always reganled the doctrine of the Trinity
as one irreconcilable with the spirit of the Jexvish
religion and with monotheism. See Ciiiiistiamty
IN Its RiiLATiON to Judais.m; Poi.kmics.

Bibliography: F. C. naueT, Die C'lirlnlUctir Lchre mu tier
Drcitiniukcit. etc., .3 vols.. TOblnffen. IMl-W; M. tin-ner.
Die Drcilirit, in lilicinijichcs Muetttin fllr Klaimitfhe Phi-

liili)(jic„ Iviii. 1-47.

K. S. Ki(.

TRINaUETAILLE (Hebrew, L*'"^KCNr':"iO or
t^'"!'OpJ"lO) : Suburb of Aries, France, on tin- right
bank' of the Rhone. Its Jewish community was of
much importance in the Middle Ages. Favoni!)ly
received by the lords of Bau.x, the Jews lived peace-
fully at Trinquetaille until 1300. when the town
was incorporated with Aries, the two coi '• s

being likewise united. In 13411. however. ■ y-

lons" of Aries were obliged to request the provost
to authorize them to separate from tli' ' "f

Trinqiietaille. who "refused to share in tin i-

nal expenses." A reference to the place occurs in
Isaac ben Jacob Lattes. " Sha'are Ziyyon." pp. 78,
75 (see "R. E. J." ix. '222).

In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries Trin-
qiietaille was the home of many scholars, including
the following: MeVr ben Isiac. author of the "Sefer
ha-'Ezer," in which he defended Alfa-si against ihe
;ittacks of Zerahiah l)en Isaac ha-Levi Gerondi; Na-
than ben :Meir, author of a commentJiry on the Pen-
tateuch and of the " Sha'are Tellsih." on i-
zures; and ToDiios dkn Mksiiij.i.am >•
(Todros Todrosi).

:l>

Bini.iofiRAPiiv:Carnioly. Hioi/'oji/.
p ill : (;ros.x. (iallin JinliUrii. w.
Ivlirift, ISTs. p. ;iT<.<; Lssn. v ■'

r-
r.

17.

S. K.

TRIPOLI (ancient Oea) : Seaport on the north-
ern coast of Africa: capital of tli.- Turkish vilayet
of the same name. Local tradition states that
under the Fatimite dynasty in Egypt. Jews from the

Tripoli

Trojti

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

262

- " • -.1.1: 1.,..} jjjp most ancient com-
.imin of Tudi'la. on ihe
oiber h«ad, who travt'led through northern Africa
Jq •' ' •• - ■ •• •■ •':«' twelfth century and visited
T,. makes no mention of Trip-

oli «■ were exiled from Spain in

1499, ii.. . .. .K . .-■. . ..i'oli. which was then a part of

the dominions of Ferdinand the Cath-
Eiirly ' did tliey settle there until it

History. , :.to the iiands of Sultan Sulai-

in;i:i the Magnificent in 1551. The
lies of Tripoli show
. d in tlu' city in con-
ic Duni-

Hke -To

-('

-'1 ^
tbej are

"ArMb." "Ua-
ma" -Hal.fi."

-i{. ;

7*x. ~
etc. >;

tbe traveler lk>D-
jamlo II. driw
particular uii* n-
tk>n to ibe fact
tliat the family
of Hylva wa.s
;ed from
i>ji..: ..'11 Mara-
0(M who had
come to the city
at (iuinc un-
koowD pcrio<l.
In 1667 Miguel
Caiux"-' ■ ■ ''
tiic m<

.: - .,f

/xbi.

lm(Ti..r of ;i li.-t iia-M
(From^t pkintiDg by

TrijMjli, hut WOH

r by the

■■• l'a\c
On
I
of .

war upon Halil
'' ' ^ f»f Tripoli, and threatened to put

' to the 8W(ird; but his camp was

mvnjjwl by an epidemic, an*! he was forced to rc-
tn-at. In r; ' i,is event the iocjil rabbis in-

lililul«-<l a \ . . i on the 24th of Tebet. called

-Purini Sherif." or -Purim Kidcbuni." Eijihty-

"d Ror/jrhel attacked

Mior, and committed

many atrocities in the city, burning at

the stakr- the R<.n of Al)raham Halfon,

the caiii of the Tripolitan Jews. At

the end of two years, however, Ka-

ramnnli succwded in expelling tlie invaders; and

In commemoration of this deliverance the Jews

established the Purim Borghel, which falls on the
29th of Tebet. See Purims. Si'ECI.m..

When Benjamin II. visited Tripoli in 1S50, he
found there about 1,000 Jewish families, with eight
synagogues and several Talmudic schools, while the
spiritual interests of the community w^ere in the
keeping of four rabbis.

Tripoli has produced a number of rabbinical au-
thors, the nio.st important being the following: Sim-
eon b. Labi, who tlourished about 1509 and was the
head of a local Talmudic school, besides being the
author of a cabalistic commentary on Genesis enti-
tled " Ketem Pa/ " and of a hymn on Simeon b. Yo-

hai ; Abraham
Halfon, who
Hourished in the
latter part of
the eighteenth
century and
wrote "Hay ye
Abraham "(Leg-
horn, 1826), on
the ritual laws
of the Bible and
the Talmud, in
addition to a
manuscript di-
ary, still extant ;
Moses Serussi,
who flourished
in the second
half of the nine-
teenth century
and wrote the
" Wa-Yasheb
]Mosheh " ; and
Hayyim Cohen,
author of "Mil-
lot ha-Melek,"
"Leb Shomea',"
" Zokrenu le-
Havyim," " 'E-
reb Pesah,"" Al-
io n B a k u t , "
" Perush al-Soli-
hot," "Na'awah
Kodesh," "To-
rat Hayyim,"
"Perush Ho-
sha'anot, " and
"Mikra Ko-
desh."

Klrasli lit Tripoli

brul G«nti.)

•f-V
Ali

Special
Purims.

The administration of the community, which paj's

an annual ta.\ of 4,890 francs for e.xempiion from

militarj' service, is in the hands of a chief rabbi

("hukam bashi "), who is assisted by

Rabbis and four judges. Since 1840 the following

Scholars, chief rabbis have officiated at Tripoli:

Jacob :\rcnuin (d. 1849), Shalom Tito,

Moses Arbib, Elijah Hazan (1874-88; appointed by

a firman of the sultan A/iz and decorated with the

Order of the Medjidie), p:zekiel Sasson (1897), David

Kimhi (1897-1902), and the present incumbent,

Shabbethai Levi. The Jews of Tripoli, whoarechar-

uelerized by many superstitious beliefs, now (1905)

number 12,000 in a total population of 40,000. Tliey

263

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tripoli
Trokj

have many representatives in various ineclianioal and
mercantile iniisuits. They possess eighteen syna-
gogues, eleven yeshihot, a society for the relief of
the sick; also t.vo schools maintaiueil by the Alli-
ance Israelite Universelle.

A number of towns in the vicinity of Tripoli con-
tain a considerable Jewish population, <>. ,7. , Amrum,
1,000; Derne or Derna, 150; Garian, ^300; Horns,
300; Messilata, 350; Misserato, Idir, and Ma-
atin, 400; Tajoorah, 200; Yiffren or Jebel, 1,000;
Zanzbur, GO; Zawiel, 450; anil Ziliten, 450.

Bibliography : Dezobry, Dictinimaire d'HMinre et de Ge-
ographic \ Renlaiuin II., 37((,sV; Yi»iacl.\^. 16t>; Franco, His-
tDirc ileji Isratiitcs de VEnipirc Oltdiniui, p. 121; Ilazan,
Ha-Mn'al(it H-Sltclimvi}), pp. UH, llti; Azulal, S7if/)i li(i-(Jc-
(l(inm,s.\.S;iwci))i h. Lain; liuUctinde VAUinnce Israditc
UiiivcrscUc. ISST), 1889, 18iMJ, 190;i; Revue dea Ecolcn de r Al-
liance Iftmelite Universelle, pp. 81, 153, 35», 421, 428; It. E.
J. XX. 78 et seq.
S. M. Fr.

TRISTRAM, HENRY BAKER: English
clergyman. Biblical scholar, and traveler in Pales-
tine; boru May 11, 1822, at Eglingham, Northum-
berland. He was educated at Durham School and
Oxford University, and took orders in 1845; but
sickness compelled him to live abroad. lie explored
the northern Sahara, and in 1858 paid his first visit
to Palestine. In 1863 and in 1872 he again visited
Palestine and spent a great deal of time there in
making scientific observations and identifying Scrip-
ture localities. In 1873 he made a similar tour into
Moab. In 1879 he declined the offer of the Anglican
bishopric of Jerusalem, made to him by the Earl of
Bcaconsfield. In 1881 he journeyed extensively in
Palestine, the Lebanon, Mesopotamia, and Armenia.
Since 1873 he has been canon residentiary of Durham.

Among Tristram's many publications those deal-
ing with the Holy Land are: "The Land of Israel,
a Journal of Travels with Reference to Its Physical
History," London, 1865 (many editions); "The Nat-
ural History of the Bible" (ib. 1867); "Land of
Moab" {ib. 1874); "Pathways of Palestine" {ib.
1882); " The Fauna and Flora of Palestine "(i^*. 1884);
and " Eastern Customs in Bible Lauds " {ib. 1894).

Binr.iOfiRAPHY: Men and Wmncn of the Time, 1899; Ulio's

'J:"- '"^^ A. M. F.

TRIWOSCH, JOSEPH ELIJAH: Russian
Hebrew writer and poet; born at Wilna Jan. 18,
1856; settled at Grodno as a teacher of Hebrew ar.d
Russian. His literary activity began in 1873, in
which year he published in " Ila-Lebanon " his first
articles. Since then he has contributed to most of
the Hebrew literary periodicals. With the excep-
tion of his " Dor Tahapukot " (Warsaw, 1881), which
describes the activity of the Russian Social-Demo-
crats, all his novels, representing Jewish life in Rus-
sia, have been published in various periodicals.
They are as follows: "Tohelct Nikzabah," in " Ila-
Shaiiar," viii., No. 12; "Bi-Mekom Zawwa'ah." in
"Ha-Karmel," iv. ; "Ha-Lito'i," in "Ila-Shahar,"
X., No. 12; "'Al Shete lia-Se'ippim," in "Ha-Asif."
ii. 577-629. Many of his poems likewise have been
published in "Ha-Shahar" and in other periodicals.

Bibliography: S<oVo\ov,\ Scfcr Zikkaron, p. 4C; Zeitlin. BiW.

Post-Mcndcls. p. 398. ,_ £,

H. R. ^I- ^EL.

TROKI: District city in the goveri f

Wilna, Russia. It was an iniportuut Jc\si i

in the fourteentli. fiftoentli. and sixteeuUi cen-
turies; and there is a tradition, quoted liy Flr-
kovich, that 330 out of the 483 Karuiie fuiiiilies
which Grand Duke Witold of Lithuuuiii hrougiit
from the Crimea after hi.s war with tlie Tutjirs, were
settled in the new city of Troki. which wuh Ijuilt
expressly for them. Tlie provisions of Wilold'g
charter of 13b8 to the Jews of Lithuania npplird lo
those of Troki also. In descriliing Troki us il ap-
peared in 1414 Gilbert de Lannuaof Hurirundy siiys;
"In this city there live Germans, LilhuaniaiiH, UuB-
sians, and a great number of Jews, cuch of lhe«c
peoples using its own language."

Casimir IV. granted tlie Magdeburg Rights to the
Karaites of Troki in 1441. The latter were to be
subject to the jurisdiction of their own elder; an<! he
in turn was to be responsible directly to the king or
to judges appointed by the latter. Neither tlie way-
wode nor the starost was to interfere in l<Kal mat-
ters concerning only the Karaites. Lawsuits l)c-
tween Karaites and Christians were to be decided by
a tribimal composed of the Karaite elder and the
vvaywode. These privileges were confirmed by Al-
exander Jagellon in 1492.

Toward the end of the fifteenth century the au-
tonomy of the Jewish community in Troki was still
further strengthened by a royal order (HW.*)) direct-
ing a separate levy and collection of taxes fur its
members. Lnlividual Jews gained in influence
through their growing commercial enterprises, as
is shown by a series of contemporary documcnu.
Thus in 1484 the customs duties of
Fourteenth, Novogrudok were leased to the Troki
Fifteenth, Jews Ilia Moiseyevich, Rubim Sako-
and vich. Avram Danilovich, and Eska

Sixteenth Shelemovich; in 1486 those of Jito-
Centuries. rair, Putivl, Kiev, and Vysliegorod
were leased to Sinisa Kravchik. Sadka.
Shamak Danilovich, and Rizhka. Jews of Kiev and
Troki; and in 1489 those of Troki were lea.sed to the
Jew Mikhail Danilovich. of whom mention occurs
in a document of 1495 also.

At the beginning of the sixteenth century the
prosperity of the T:oki Jews had declined consider-
ably, and they petitioned King Sigismund for relief,
In response the king issued the following ilecree.
dated July, 1507: "In view of the impoverished
condition of the Jews of Troki. and desiri: ' - Ip

them to regain the prosperity which th< <h1

under King Casimir, King Sigismund conUnus to
them theirancient privileges," Suits iH-twem Jews
were to be decided by the Jewish elder appointed
by the waywode of Troki with the
Decree of king's consent. Suits of Jews against
1507. "Litliuanians. Rus.sians, and others"
were placed under the jur of

tiie waywode or his vicegerent. The Jew - -ki

were to pay taxes once a year on equal terms with
the other citizens; and no other taxes ■ Jje

levied upon them. In emergencies, foi an

ancient practise, they were to contribute accorthnR
to their means, in common with the - - of

Troki— Lithuanians. Russians, and i ing

in the Jewish portion of the town. They were

Troki

THE JKWibll ENCYCLOPEDIA

264

• ire tlicir cattle and to
> wliich Jews had used
Tuey were exempted from all
•■ y were further permitted to
tlio liiehways aud rivers.
;k aud simi-
, ..4. i.-^ . ■ ... ^.. ■- iu Troki.
.I.\\<4 atraiu petitioned the king
' aiK'ieiit privileges; and
. , >;, " ill respouse to the pe-
ls of Troki of the Roman,
V in consequence
( iiy," that semi-
i.aud that all merchants
u. Wilna, or vice versa, pass
Niurcli. 1521, the Jewish elder
. Yeskovich. complained to the
" of Troki had quartered his
nouses contrary to previous
.1 permitted the quartering of ollicers and
- of the Jews only during the king's
•V The king's decision was favor-
rs. In 1522 mention is made of
-' iring the privileges granted
>!)iu, aud in 1029 as iuiviug
paiii their share of the tax of 1,000 kop groscheu
■' ■' /w-s of Lithuania. A document
Troki Jew Batko Agriauovich
In t 1 of lands and of two lakes fcrmer-

Royar Yuri Stanislavovich. The
mentioDetl in 1551 as being exempt
Iroiu the payment of the Sekeuszczvzn a ; also

i- ' • • of 15,52 and 1555. From a docu-

appears that the salt monopoly of

d in that year to the Jew Yesko

i.. . ..v^a; and from one of 1563 it is cvi-

.t th<> Jews of Troki paid a tax of 376 kop

d on the Jews of Lithuania. Ini-

• - were at this time held by Jews of

1 by a document of 1568, where-

s the Jew Zakharias Moizcsho-

.. , . jnof one of the castle properties,

•od by another of 1569, which refers to the sale of

" held l>y the Jew Ogron Mor-

i .,■• castle property included fields,

irc«, swamps, etc., as is indicated by the

lie, which was signed by Ogron in Hebrew

Stephen Bathori included the Jews of Troki in

the conflmuitiftn of ancient privileges granted to

the Jews of Lithuania in 1576. In

Under 157H lie reminded them of tlieirarrears

8t»-phen of • mul in 1579 he decreed that

Bathori. t;. imposed upon them should

not exceed in amount those levied in

•' ■■>■■:- -■■• — - .„] fonfirmed the i)rivileges

iiund in 1507. In 1579 Ba-
thori found it I) to iidjust a suit originating
in the rommer* i.ii ii..iiry between the Christians,
Jcwii, and TaUirs of Troki and the Christian burgh-
ers of Kovno. In 1.582 the Jewish burghers of
Troki, reprew-nted by their elder Alexander Isako-
vlch. made complaint to Kin^ Stephen Bathori
against the waywrnle Stephen Koributovich, who
had quartered his servant.s in Jewish houses during
the king's absence from the town. The complaint

was sustainctl. In 1585 the Jews together \\ itii the
Christians of Troki are meutioued in a lawsuit
atrainst the farmer of the customs duties, wlio had
seized merchandise belonging to them. The dinicuity
seemingly arose in the abuse by the citizens of Troki
of an old privilege exempting thorn from the pay
ment of customs duties. Four years later liio Jews
of Troki, through their elder Aaron Sholoniovich,
complained to King Sigismund that the burghers of
Kovno prohibited them from trading freely in that
city and contiscated their wares contrary to priv-
ileges granted to the Jews by the Polish kings and
Lithuanian grand dukes. In respouse to this peti-
tion the king directed (March 28, 1589) that the
rights of the Jews of Troki be respected. In 1G19
reference is made in a legal document to the Jew
Samuel Yakhimovich of Troki.

In 1897 Troki had a total population of 2,390, of
whom 818 were Habbinites and -124 were Karaites.
The Karaites, who enjoy full civic rights, are as a
rule friendly to their Rabbinite neigh-
Present l)ors, but live separate from them.
Day. Considerable antagonism arose be-
tween these two classes in the reign
of Nicholas I., largely through the action of Firko-
vich. A law was passed prohil)iting Rabbinites
from residing in Troki; but thiswas repealed in the
.sixth decade of the nineteenth century. The Ka-
raites still use their ancient Tatar dialect; but in
their religious services according to the Sephanlic
ritual they employ Hebrew. In olden times the
Karaites were granted 250 deciatines of land, which
they are now permitted to use for farming purposes.
Most of them are market-gardeners and truckers,
and lease their meadows to the peasants. They are
engaged also in retail trade and iu handicrafts. The
young Karaites, desiring broader opportunities, leave
their native town to seek their fortunes elsewhere.
Some of them enter the liberal professions or become
government ofRciaLs; and not a few have achieved
notable success as merchants and manufacturers.
Most of them remember their native town and con-
tribute generously toward its connnu-
The iial needs. Large numbers return to

Troki Troki for the fall lioly days. The
Karaites, evening after Y'oni Kippur is cele-
brated with great gaiet}'. A Karaite
hakam was formerly stationed at Troki; but now
there is only one for all the Russian Karaites: he
resides at Eupatoria. The Karaites of Troki have
their own sliohet; but they employ the Rabbinite
mohel. Troki has one Karaite school, in which re-
ligious instruction is given to the children. The
Raldjinites are for the most part merchants of small
means. There are no very important industries iu
the place.

Some of the early Karaite settlers in Troki emi-
grated to Lutsk in Volhyniaand to Ilalicz in Galicia,
and estal)lished Karaite conununities in those towns.
See Jf:w. E.ncvc. vii. 438, n.v. K.\i{.\rrp:s.

BiBi.H(CiR.\rMY : 7?<'f/cxf)/ i Xndpisi, s.v.; Ruxukn-Vevrrishi
Arkliiv, viils. 1. and il., s v.: Kliraiiiha Viishhoila, VM);
fjntzil:li)}jcilivhfski Slovnr. xlv. -i:}! -13-; Harkavy. AltjU-
(Uxdic Dtnliniilkr aua dcr Kriiii, lii76.
II. R. J. G. L.

The Karaite community of Troki produced several
important scholars, among them being the follow-

265

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Troki

iiig: Isaac ben Abraham Troki (16tli cent.), autlior
of the apologetic work "Ilizzuk Einiuiuli"; Zerali
Troki (ITtii cent.), for whom Joseph Solomon Del-
medigo wrote his "Elim"; E/.ra Troki (cl. 1666),
wlio was a relative and pupil of the above-mentioned
Zerah, and studied medicine under Delmedigo, later
becoming physician to King John Casimir of Po-
land; Abraham b. Samuel (second lialf
Scholars, of ITtii cent.), a judge of the Karaites
of Troki, and reputed to have been
a favorite of King John Sobieski. At that time
Troki was recognized as the seat of authority for
the Karaites of the surrounding towns of Posvol,
Birzhi, Seltz, Shat, Zernier, Neustadt, and others;
but the number of Karaites in Troki was apparently
very small. In a decision of the Lithuanian council,
or " wa'ad, " dated Zabludowo, 9th of Adar (March 7),
1664, and relating to the adjustment of the rates of
taxation (a matter in which the Karaites seem to liave
been dependent on the Rabbiuites), the authority of
the Karaites of Troki was recognized on the condi-
tion that at the end of two years Troki should be
found to have not less than ten Karaite "ba'ale bat-
tim," or heads of families. This amply disproves
Firkovich's statement that prior to the pestilence of
1710, in which almost all of them perislied, Troki had
500 Karaite families. Since then Troki has been of
little importance among the Karaites; and its name
is seldom seen in the lists of subscribers to Karaite
works. Gabriel Firkovich, son-in-law of Abraham
Firkovich, was probably the last Karaite of Troki to
attain any prominence.

The Rabbinite community of Troki is likewise
of little importance. Rabbi Zebi Ilirsch, father of
Samuel Salant of Jerusalem, was rabbi of Troki in
the first half of the nineteenth century, and Benja-
min Friedman, later rabbi of Antokol, a suburb of
Wilna, occupied the Troki rabbinate from 1865 to
1870.

Bibliography : Firkovich. Atme Zikkaron, pp. 251-2.54, Wilna<
1871 ; Fiirst, GcscJi. dcs KarHert. iii. 42, Leipsic, 1869; Mag-
pid, Z,ur Oeachichte laid Genealouie der Oilnzburge, pp.
207 210, St. Petersburg, 1899.

n. R. P. Wi.

TROKI : Karaite family deriving its name from
the city of Troki, in the government of Wilna, Rus-
sia. The more important members of the family are:

Abraham hen Aaron Hazzan Troki: Karaite
liturgical poet; lived at Troki in the sixteenth cen-
tury. A liturgical poem of his, beginning with
the words XIIDa D^iy \Mi6 "ni^i'X, l'"r the Sab-
batical section " Beshallah," has been inserted in the
Karaite Siddur (i. 815). It is jiossible that the nu-
merous liturgical poems found there under the name
"Abraham" without any other indication may also
have been composed by Troki.

Bii!i,ior,RAPHY: Fiir.«t, Gn^cli. dcs KarUcrl. iii. 37 ; Gottlober,
lUhhan-t Ic-Tolcdot h(t-Kora'i))i, p. 151, Wilii;i, 18f).5.

Abraham ben Josiah ha-Shofet Troki: Karaite

physician and scholar; born at Troki; died Dec,

1688. He was physician to John III., Sobieski, and

later to Grand Duke Sigismimd II. Troki was

the author of two medical works: one, in Hebrew,

entitled " Ozar lia-'Am." and the other, in Latin, still

extant in manuscript (St. Petersburg Cat., No. 732).

According to Abraham Firkovich, Troki wrote also

a work in seven sections entitled "Masa lia-'Am,"

which, after liaving translated it into Latin, lie sold
to the Dominican friars at Wilna. Sinihnh Luzki
mentionslwootherwork.s i.vTroki, "Bft ■. ' ,,"

and " Pas Yedu," both of which dealt wii . lic

subjects.

niauor.KAVtW.Vant.driirli.drHKnr/lrrl i ■ ,.r

lUkiinn't li:-Tiilt,l(,t )iii-Kiti<i'uii. p. l.')l ■ si ,h

?'«f(((/fim,s.v. aun.l c: Kiii-nii. Ain.xcn . , ... ,, , ., ...u".
bnuer. Aus dcr l'ctaHhu)ai:r UihlloOuh. p. VI.

« I. Di..

Isaac hen Abraham Troki: Karaite polcmicul

writer; born at Troki 15;j;!, «lie<l in tlie same
city l."J94. He was instructed in IJible and Hebrew
literature by the Karaite scholar Zoplmniali ben
Mordecai, and in Latin and Polish literatures by
Christian teachers. Moving in Christian circles.
Troki was often called upon to take part in;cligiou8
controversies; and this prompted liini to study re-
ligious philosophy and Christian theology and to
acquaint himself with the tenets of tlic various
Christian sects. In the cour.se of his studies In- be-
came interested in the anti-Christian and anti-Jew i.sU
writings of his contemporaries and compatriots
Nicholas Paruta, Martin Czecliowic. and Simon
Budni. To refute the arguments of the writers
against the Jewish religion and to show the superi-
ority of Judaism, Troki wrote his epocli making
"Hizzuk Emunah."

This work is in two voluines, containing ninety-
nine chapters in all. The autlKjr begins by demon-
strating that Jesus was not the Messiah predicted by

the Prophets. "This," he says, "is

His evident (1) from his pedigree. (2) from

"Hizzuk his acts, (3) from the period in which

Emunah." he lived, and (4) from the fact that

during his lifetime the promises that
related to the advent of the expected Messiah were
not fulfilled." His arguments on these ■ ire

as follows: (1) Jesus' pedigree: Witlnjut'. ng

the question of the relationship of Joseph to Duvid,
which is more than doubtful, one may ask. What
has Jesus to do with Joseph, who was not his father?
(2) His acts: According to Matt. x. 34. Jesus said,
"Think not that I am come to make peace on earth:
I came not to send peace, Imt a sword. For I am
come to set a man at variance against his father, and
the daughter against her mother, and the daughter-
in law against her mother-in-law." On the other
hand. Holy Writ attributes to the true and expected
Messiah actions contrary to tho.se of Jesus. (8) The
period of his existence: It is evident that Jesus did
not come at the time foretold by the I'ropluts; lor
they predicted the adventof the Messiah in the "last
days " (Isa. ii. 2). (4) The fulfilment of the Messianic
promises: All the Prophets predicted that at tlie
advent of the Messiah peaceand justice would reign
in the world, not only among men. but even among
the animals; yet there is not t>iie sincere Cbristian
who would claim that this has been fullillc<l.

Among Trokis objections to tlie divinity of .lout
the following may be mentioned: The Ciiristian
who oppo.ses Judaism must believe that the J«w9
tormented and crucified Jesus either witli his con-
sent or against his will If with his '. then
the Jews had ample sjinction for ^\ .• did.
Besides, if Jesus was really willing to meet such a
fate, what cause was there for complaint and afllic

Troki
Troym

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

266

And why did he pray in the mrtnner related
ill Mttti. xxTi I, if it be as-

i uwasagainst

Argu- his will, how then can he be regarded
inant«. ^ unable to resist

who brought him
to ibe cro«8? How could one who had not the

' ' ■ ■ ' ! as the Savior of

. i). xlvii). In the

l*st chapter Troki quotes Itev. xxii. 18. and asks

■ ' ' ' !!}• make cliaugcs of

.;ingc of the Sabbath

fr th to the lirsl day of the week was

' :<; or by any of his disciples.

f the blood and flesh of a

• is a palpable infringement of the

\ •' -^.

! nipleting his work, the index

wiiich were made by his pupil Jo-

• Malinovski Troki.' Tlie " Hizzuk

i for many years in manuscript,

'. uudiTWcnt many changes at the hands

-■•^ One rabbi went so far as to substi-

tut iif Troki's philosophical arguments

T» - The work was first pul)lished,

wl:. L .ation, by Wagenseil in his "Tela

Iroea Salans" fFreibere. 1681), and was reprinted

' -:ilem (1845), and Leipsic
..; ... :...;. ..ited into Judaio-German
(Amstcnlam.1717). intoEnglishbyMocatta(London,
-" ''y David Deutsch (Sohran, 1865,

■J Hebrew te.xt) and into Spanish,
tbe lost mentioned translation being extant in manu-
^ itin translation the "Hizzuk
lijcct of passionate debates in
Christian circles ; and its arguments against Chris-
tiiinity were used by all freethinkers.
Editions Voltaire gives the following apprecia-
and Trans- tion of it: "II a rassemble toutes les
lations. i!!'"" ''> que les incredules ont
1 ' s dei)uis. Enfiu les incre-

dules Irs plus determines n'ont presque rien allegue
qui nc soi- ' ~ !.-■ Rempart dc la Foi du rabbin
I*MC"(-M iii. 344).

Simhah Luzki mentions two other works by Troki ;
namely, a treatise on the new moon, according to the
"Oan 'VUh-n " of Aaron the Younger, and a v. nrk, in
tions and answers, on the slaughter-
••"- • ■'^« according to the "Gan 'Eden."

Troki ( liturgical poi-ms. some of which

have betu iustru-d in the Karaite Siddur.

' ■ iTii'V/TMII. SOff ocj.; Neu-

nn.linilirli. p. ft4: (ieleer,
i|.. 1:k-2-J4. Uerlln, |S76; (iott-
' lin-KarnUm, p. im ; Gratz,
'■-' ^''rncl, p. (J14.

•'• I. Br.

Joseph b<n Mordecai Malinovski Troki:
Kuruit.- Mjh'i.ir. lived ul Troki in tlic si.\teentli
cenlur>': pupil of Isaac ben Abralmm Troki, to
''' ' '' .!i" he wrote the preface and

. 1. ;.i was the author of: "Ha-
Elcf Ix-kn" (Amsterdam, c. 1026), a prayer consist-
' • 000 WW ■ h beginning with the letter

'■"""I". - -iiah" (Vienna. 1830), on the
lawBconceming the slaughtering of animals accord-
ing to Elijah Bashya/.i, published together with the

" Dod Mordekai " of ^lordecai ben Nissim. Simhah
Luzki attributes also to Troki: "Sefer Minhagini,"
on the ritual customs of the Karaites; " Perush 'al
Hakdamat Azulah," a commentary on the prayer
" Azulah " ; a commentary on the ten Karaite articles
of faith ; and " Perush 'al 'Inyan ha-'Arayot," on the
laws of incest according to Elijah Bashj'azi.

BiBLiOfiRAPHT: Furst. Gesch.dcK Kariicrt. iii. 37; idem. Bihl.
JiuHW.US; Simhah Moses Luzki. Orah Zaddikini, s.v. £3;
Steiuschneider. Cat. Budl. col. 15U9.

Solomon ben Aaron Troki: Karaite scholar;
lived at Troki iu the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies. He was a relative of Mordecai ben Nissim,
author of the "Dod Mordekai," whom he surpassed
in knowledge both of rabbinical literature and of
secular science, of which latter he made use in his
writings. Troki was the author of: "3Iigdal 'Oz,"
a polemical work, in seven chapters, against Chris-
tianity; "Rak we-Tob," a controversy between Ka-
raites and Rabbinitcs, in the form of questions and
answers; "Lehcm Se'orim," in two volumes, each
containing five chapters, on the differences between
the Karaites and the Rabbinites; " Appiryon," a re-
ligious code in two volumes, the first, entitled "Re-
haba'am ben Shelomoh," giving the Karaite view of
the Mosaic precepts, and the second, entitled
" Yarabe'am ben Nebat," refuting the Christian dog-
mas. Troki displayed in the last-named work, which
is extant in manuscript (St. Petersburg Cat.,Nos.
754, 755), a wide knowledge of ralibinical literature.
He enumerates the Lithuanian scholars of his time
and gives a list of the Karaite works in tlie posses-
sion of Joseph Delmedigo. One chapter is devoted
to pedagogy and the religious customs of Karaites in
Poland. Troki was the author of another work,
also bearing the title "Appiryon," in which he an-
swers iu concise form the questions of the minister
of the government of Sweden as to the origin of
Karaism and as to the points iu which it differs from
Rabbinism. It is divided into twenty-four short
chapters, in which all the ceremonial laws of the
Karaites are passed in review. The "Appiryon" has
been published by Neubauerin his " Ausder Peters-
burger Bibliothek " (p. 79, Leipsic, 1866).

BinLiOGRAPHY: FOrst. <7e,<tc?i. des Knriicrt. Iii. 80 et scq.;
Gottlober, Dikkorct Ic-Tolcdot lia-Kara'im, p. 201.

Zerah ben Nathan Troki : Karaite scholar;
born at Troki 1580. He ud.lressed to Jo.seph Del-
medigo twelve questions on mathematics, astron-
omy, angelology, Cabala, etc. The answers to
these questions, together with seventy mathemat-
ical paradoxes, form the subject of Delmedigo's
" Elim," which work the Karaites attribute to Troki.
Troki's letters to Joseph Delmedigo and to Meir
of :Metz, with whom the Karaite scholar became
acquainted, were iiublished by Abraham Geiger
under the title " Miktab Ahuz " iii his " .Melo Chofua-
jim." Tioki compo.sed several liturgical poems,
two of which have been inserted in the Karaite
Siddur (i. 402; iv., end).

Binr.iOGRAPiiV: Fiirst. GcKch.drx Karitert. i\\. 28; GottloTier,
lUkhoret Ir-Toledot ha-Kain'iin, p. l(x>; Geiger, Mclo Hof-
iiayim. Introduction, p. xxxvil.

P- L Br.

TROP : Judajo-German term for tropes, the
short musical cadences, called "distinctions" in the

267

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Troki
Troyea

Church plain-song, which are the traflitional vocal
interpretation of the accents in tlie Cantillation
of the Hebrew Scriptures. See also Accents in
IIebkew.

•I- F. L. C.

TROY, N. Y. : City and tlic capital of Renssel-
aer county in the stale of New York; situated on
the east bank of the Hudson River six miles above
Albany. Although it was settled in 1787, no au-
thentic record is found of a Jewish inhabitant until
about 1842, when Emanuel Marks of Albany, now
<1905) a retired merchant, established business rela-
tions with some of the people of Troy and, being
pleased with their public spirit and progressiveness,
settled in that city. He was followed in 1843 l)y
Herman Levy and family, aud in 1845 by Charles
Wolf.

In Sept., 1851, Emanuel Gratz, who also had set-
tled in Troy, undertook the task of organizing a
congregation. He rented two rooms, one for men and
one for women, in the old Wotkyns Block on Con-
gress street, aud engaged a certain Konigsbcrg as
cantor for the holy days, thereafter olliciating him.self.
In 1853, the membership having increased to eight-
een, he organized a permanent congregation under
the name "Anshe Chased." A hall was hired in
Wotkyns Block and furnished in the Orthodox style.
In 1855 dissensions arose among the members, aud
many withdrew, leaving in the old congregation
but eight members, not sufficient for a quorum. The
seceding members organized a congregation of their
own.

In 1857 Aaron Ksensky made Troy his home, and
became active in Jewish matters. Seeing the use-
lessness of two congregations, he at once took steps
to reunite them. At a meeting, lasting almost an
entire day, harmony was restored, and a congrega-
tion was organized under the name " Berith Shalom "
(Covenant of Peace). This congregation in 1870
erected on the corner of Third and Division streets
a synagogue which is known as the Third Street
Temple. About this time some members adhering
to the Orthodox doctrine withdrew and formed a
congregation known as "Beth Israel Bickur Cho-
lim"; they now (1905) worship in a hall at No. 8
State street. In 1873 another Orthodox congregation
came into existence under the name "Sharah Tephi-
lah " : it has erected a synagogue on Division street.

The following orders have lodges in Troy: B'nai
B'rith, Free Sons of Israel, Kether shel Barzel,
B'rith Abraham, and Sons of Benjamin. The fol-
lowing Jewish charitable organizations exist in the
community: Sisterhood of the Third Street Temple,
the Hebrew Shelter Society, the Ladies' Hebrew
Aid Society, aud the Ladies' Hebrew Benevolent
Society.

J. L. LoE.

TROYES (Hebrew, ti'^i-iD or }"nD) : Capital
of the department of Aube, France. It contained
a Jewish population as early as the tenth century,
as is clear from a responsum addressed to the com-
munity of Troyes about the year 1000 by Judah
ben ]\Ieir("Sire Leontin")and Eliezer ben Judah
(or, luore probably, Eliezer the Great, pupil of R.
Gershom). Another "teshubah," sent to the same

conununity by Joseph b.-n Samuel BonJiis of LlmoRea
in the early part of llie elevenlliccnturv '
at tliat time the Jews of Troyes, with th.
the counts of Champagne, who reganhd ihem twan
unportant .source of revenue, owned vineyards an<l
other real estate. At the end of the twelftlK .-nturv
and at the beginning of the thirteenth llierr.unls o'f
Champagne and the King of France entered into an
agreement by whicli tiie contracting i.arlies bound
themselves to surrender to each other all Jews wlio
should (juit tlie domains of the one and sellle in the
territories of the otlier. In 1204 all righU over
the Jews who settled in Ervy were waived by the
Seigneur d'Ervy in favor of"Counles.s Blanche of
Troyes: and in 1222 Thibaud. Count of Ch.unpuguo.
acknowledged the receipt for 100 livres given by the
Jews of the city to Jacob, "Master of il..- .T.u< ,,f
Troyes."

In March, 1288, the Jewish iidiabitants <-f 1 ;,,y.H
were accused of a ritual murder: and on Ai)ril 24 of
the same year the tribunal of the Inquisition cod-
demued to the stake thirteen Jews, whose names.
according to the elegy of Jacob ben Judah on Ihc
auto da fe, were as follows: Isaac Chateiain. with
his wife, two sons, and daughter-in law. S
Kadmon, Solomon or Salaniin ben Vivant, i
d'Avirey or Baruch Tob 'Elem (Bonfils). Simeon of
Chatillon, Jonah or "le Beau Colon," Isaac Cohen.
Hayyim of Brinon (department of Yonne) or "Ic
Maitre de Brinon, " and Hayyim of Chaource (depart
ment of Aube). In 1298 Vivant of Troyes was one
of the Jews sid)sidized by the treasury as an admin-
istrator for the Jews of France.

The Jewish revenues from the bailiwick of Troyes
indicate that at this lime the Jews were very numer-
ous throughout the country : for in 1301 their t'ltal
income amounted to 1,000 livres. Prosperity reigncil
among them; and the seigniors of the country and
the ecclesiastical dignitaries when finanrially em-
barrassed applied to them for assistance. The Jews
were expelled from Troyes in 1306, but returned in
great numbers in 1315. The " Document sur Ics
Juifs du Barrois" contains the names of some who
settled at Troyes during the years 1321 to 1323:
Maistre Deuaye, Bonjuyf son of Bonjuyf, Bonne
Vie and Domini his son, Terine, and Ilacpnnet. In
1379 the family of Isaac Lyon of Troyea obtained as
a special favor permission to reside in I' !v.

Toward the close of the fourteenth cci. .u-

ham of Treves, son of Mattithiah, and Jolianun of
Treves lived at Troyes. At the present day (I IKM)
the Jewish community contains about forty families.

A Hebrew school of great importance, direete<l by
the highest rabbinical authorities and nv • ' ' l>y
numerous students from various lands. .Ay

Germany and France, flourished at Troye.s in the
twelfth century. Several synmls whose ordinances
were adopted in foreign countries assemble*! at
Troyes about 11 CO.

Among the most noted scholars of tlie city were
Rashi and his cliief disciples, Sinihah of Vitrr.
Judah ben Nathan (pn), Joseph ' - "' -n.

Sliemaiah and Judah ben Altni. . .. ~ '.n

,MeVr (RaSHBaM). Jacob ben MeTr (R. Tnm). Joseph
ben Moses, Isaac ben Iloshaiah hn-L<' ' ' ~ 'n
the Tosafist (11th and 12th cents. V as :<h

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

268

M. r iilii m liuil Uis disciple

Trt)ves is ineu-

^: ' : 16. The

litt'tl by

publisUeil in houor

TRUMBULL. HENRY

•The 1

•n

otimbtT won n-'

S. K.

CLAY : American

J ton, Conu ,

, Dec. 8, 1903.

- niiuaiy. Mass., and
;ing iu 1858

V..., ; .V ..;. .~- .:.... iV-School As-

<: New Enclaiul secretary of

' !i. In 1875 lie

- .. 1 Times,"'' which
le iutlueuce, even in

1 caused Iiim to

... , . and Syria, and

he identified the site of Kadesh-

';iph (Piiila-

s in Oriental

dealing especially with the as-

Bililical archeology;

iutluence; namely,

vcnuDt"(New York, 1885), in which

. afterward developed by W.

was a blood covenant ; and

liold Covenant" (1896; sec Threshold).

f American BiiHJiaphy, vol. ix.

TRUMPET '"Imzo^cmh"): In Shab. 36a(comp.

. that since the destruction of the

for tijc shofar and the trumpet

Tho same complaint may be

lit, which generally reu-

iiy ad'/-i)^, properly ap-

: all, and against the Eng-

uiidiT it by "trumpet" or, still

y "cornet." In the Ileitrew text

eon SiioKAU and trumpet is well

I from such passages as

. XV. 28, where "shofar"

<! mentioned side by side.

• riuni)ets of beaten silver

. . 1. according to II Chron.

iinIxT wiig inerejisod in Solomon's Teni-

fri>m the representation

Hc^rodian Temple tlie

iginal two. liesides

iiiusieal instru-

:iing whose shape

ty, tlicre being exUuita de-

; 11 in .T<is4-phus and repiesenla-

of Titus and on a Har Kokba

com. Acconiuig to Jowplins ("Ant." iii. 12. Js C),

the lnim|K-l was nearly u yard long and a little

wider than a flute, wiih a slight (xpansirm near the

mnuUipiccc to catch the breatli. and U-rminated in a

bell. This description tallies better with the repre-
sentation on the Bar Kokba coin than with that of
tlie two trumpets leaning against the table of show-
bread on the Arch of Titus.

The trumpet, like the shofar, was not so much an
instrument of music as one of "tcru'ah" (noise),
tliat is. of alarm and for signaling. Its primary use
A-as to give signals to the people and their chiefs to
tssembie and to break camp (Num. x. 5 <7 wq., 1),
where the manner of blowing is specified so as to
indicate the different signals intended); also gi'ii-
erally to announce an important event and to aid in
the joyous shouting of the people on festive occa-
sions (II Kings xi. 14; IIos. v. 8; Ps. xcviii. G, cl.
3). But its chief use, at least in later times, was re-
ligious; and ic was therefore almost exclusively a
priestly instrument (Num. x. 8, xxxi. 6; II Chron.
xiii. 12, 14). It was sounded on New ]Moons; at the
daily offerings; and during the pauses in the singing
of the P.salnis, when the people fell down and wor-
shiped (Num. X. 10; II Chron. xxix. 2G-28 ; Tamid
vii. 3; comp. Ecclus. [Sirach] 1. l^ctseq.; I Maec.
iv. 40, V. 33). Altogether from twcnt3--onc to forty-
eight trumpet-blasts are said to have been sounded
daily in the Temple (Suk. 53b). The sound of the
trumjiet also accompanied the joyous ceremony of
water-drawing on tlie Feast of Tabernacles (d7». 511));
and a blast of trumpets announced the beginning and
close of the Sabbath {ih. .531); Shab. 35b). As the
shofar was the instrument par excellence of New-
Year's Day, so was the trumpet that of solemn fast-
days (R. 11. 26b; Ta'an. 15b." 16b).

From Nell. xii. 41 and 1 Chron. xv. 24 it has been
inferred that there were seven trumpets in the Tem-
ple orchestra (comp. Stade's "Zeitschrift," 1899,
p. 329).

BiHLiOGRAniY: Adler.ind Cas.inowicz. Bihlical Autiquiticit,
in Report of the U. S. Xatintinl Mu-'^eiim for 1890. p. 977;
Brown, Musical Instruments a mi T/h i)- AVoiics, New York,
1880; H. (irossiimnn, Musik iDid Musik-lnstrunicntc iin
AUen Tcitdnient. Giessen, 190.3; Pfeifler, Die Musik der
Alten Hchriler, 1779; Psalms, in ^\ D. O. T. (Enn. ed.) p.
220; Joliiinn We)s.s, Die Musikalischen JiistrJimente in den
Heiliuot Scliriftcn Alten Testaments. Gratz, 1S9.5.

A. I. M. C.

TRUMPETS, FEAST OF. See New-Yi:ah.

TRUSTS AND TRUSTEES : It has been
siiowii uiuler CuAiiUiAN a.nu Waijd and under CoM-
MiNiTV how the Jewish law took notice of the vari-
ous i)owers and duties of tiiose to whom the prop-
erty of orphan children or of the community was
entrusted for management. But a fiduciary relation
iniijht also lie sustained toward other parties, as, for
instance, a betrothed or married woman; and then
the trustee was known as K>^7tJ' (lit. "a third man ").
There is. however, no wide development of the law
of trusts, such as is found iu modern, especially
Anglo-American, law.

The Mishiiah (Ket. v. 8) ]iuts the case of a hus-
band who maintains his wife in food and clothing
through a trustee, and prescribes the least amount
of food, raiment, and pin-money wliieli he must fur-
nish annually. A much more important pa.ssage
for this purpose, however, is Ket. vi. 7, which pre-
sents a case like that of a trust for the separate
u.se of a married woman under the English equity
system :

269

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Trumbull
Tudela.

"When one puts money in the hands of a trustee for his
diuiKhter and she says, ' I have full conlldence In my hustiand,'
the trustee should nevertheless cany out the trust pliieed in hini
[that Is, he shoukl disregard her wish and Invest the money in
land for the daughter's use]. Such is the opinion of 11. Meir ;
while U. Jose says, even if the field has been already Imujrht
and she is willing to sell it. it is sold right then. Wlien does
this apply ? In the case of an adult wouum ; hut the wishes of
an infant amount to notliing."

In the Talmud (Kel. G9b), on llio basis of a baraita,
tlie position of the sages is thus c.\ plained: A be-
trothed damsel may not, according to R. ;MeTr, turn
the trust funtl over to her beti'othed. K. Jose says
she may. Both, however, agree that, when actually
married, the wife, if of age, may turn the fund over
to her husband. Later ^autliorities (see Berliuoro
ml loc.) hold tiiat the Ilalukah is with R. Meir.

In Git. 64a a trustee i^^'h^) is entrusted by the
husband with a bill of divorcement, and a dispute
arises between the husband and the trustee as to
whether the bill was merely deposited with the lat-
ter, or was given to him for delivery to the wife, to
dissolve the marriage bond. Twoamoraim differ on
the point whether the husband or the trustee should
bo credited in his assertion in such a case; but the
question is broadened to apply to the more frequent
case in which a bond or deed for money or property
is deposited with a trustee for both parties to the
instrument. The conclusion arrived at is that the
word of the trustee must be taken, without any oath,
against the assertion of either of the parties who
appointed him ; for by making him their trustee they
have vouched for his truthfulness. It Is so ruled in
the codes; e.g., in Maimonides, "Yad," Malweh,
XV. 8; Shulhan 'Aruk, Hoshen Mislipat, 56, 1.

K. c. L. N. D.

TRYPHON: 1. Son of Theudion; one of the
four envoys sent by the Jews in 45 c.e. to petition
Empeior Claudius that the high-priestly vestments
might remain in the possession of the Jews (Jose-
phus, "Ant." XX. 1, §§ 1-2; see also Dokotheus).

2. See Tarfon.

!«. S. Kr.

TSCHERNIGOFF. See Ciiehnigov.

TUBAL-CAIN : Brother of Jabal and Jubal,
sons of Lamech, who appear to have been the origi-
nators of several industries and arts. The correct-
ness of the Masoretic text 6l"i31 DL'TIJ \y~\Tvh2 t'£3^)
of Gen. iv. 21-22, describing Tubal-cain, is in dis-
pute. Holzinger and Gunkel maintain (hut ^\2h
was a marginal gloss to t^'IPl, and that, as in verses
20 and 21, there stood before "^D originally n\"l NIH
^3K. This would give Tubal-cain a position in metal
industries comparable with those of his brothers in
their lines. The Septuagint, liowever, omits any
equivalent of pp. This fact is noted by Dillmann,
Wellhausen, and others, who think that "Tubal"
originally stood alone, and \'<^, being a later addition,
was translated "smith."

Tubal is identified (by Dillmann, Schratier, and
Delitzscb) with the Assyrian Tobal, a people living
southeast of the Black Sea, and known in later his-
tory as the Aryan people, the Tibareni, with whom
Phenicia (Ezek. xxvii. 13) traded for articles of
bronze (A. V. "brass"). This fact would seem to
point to the correctness of the view that "Tubal"

originally stood alone antl thai tlio bearer of that
name was the progenitor of 11 people \vl: ' ;,.f

industry was Ihe production of vessels, in- s

and other olijecls of bronze and iron

'••• '•■ "• I, .M. 1'.

As stated above, the Septuagint text calls the lii-
venfor " Tobcl " (" Tubal"). An apocryphal trudillon
adds " Kainan " to the name ("The Book of tli< I; •'
ed. Budge, ch. xix.). This variance of lru<lit!. ■
tinues in later times. Philo of Hyblns (in 1
"Pneparatio Evangeliea." i. 10)"nume8 Us-, .,,,.1..-
ers as the inventors, one of wlioni was called
"Chrysor" {xi^'oij^, perhaps from tnn). Tlicae
brothers discovered enchantment and sorcery as
Avell as the art of working in iron (comp. 'jnn and
Cnb>: also t'HJ and nm:). and iu vented rafts and
various tishing-iniplemcnts.

E- «. H. s. Kn.

TUBERCULOSIS. See Consumption.

TUCHMANN, JULES: French folk:
born in Paris March ','J, 1n3u. died there Fii. .-
1901. Privately educated, he devoted his whole life
to investigating the traces of supernatunilism \u
traditional beliefs. Tiie results of sonie of his in-
vestigations appeared in a remarkable series of arti-
cles on "The Evil Five" ("La Fascination") which
ran through the whole ten volumes of tlie folk-lore
journal "Melusine." While nominally devoted to
this subject, however, the monograph deals with all
kindred topics, as, for example, witches and witch-
craft, folk-medicine, etc. It is perliaps the most
thorough investigation of any single branch of folk-
lore.

Bibliography: Melusine, x. 8, April. 1901.

TUDELA (n^niD, X^'Cn; ancient Tutela) :
The oldest and most important Jewish comnumity
in the former kingdom of Navarre. "\Vh< • '> ' -•»
the Valiant captured the city from the Mi>. : \

it contained a large number of Jews. As tlicy were
mentioned after the Moors and the Cln' ' * >■

"fuero" giaiited (hem in 1115 l)y the 1 ■ I

suspecting that their safety was threatened, the .lews
decided to emigrate; and only at the .<:i .' -l

of Alfonso and on his promise that tl. ,c

granted municipal rights similar to those of Najern.
did they consent to remain. As they • ••'•■■■ ' -n
sufTer much from the hatred of the CI, y

declared to the king that they would be 1 1

leave the city if these abuses were •■ ' ;;

whereupon Saiicho the Wise in 1170 coi <•

rights which Alfonso ha<l granted thcni. Fur lin-ir
greater security he even assigne«l to them the for-
tress as a residence and freed them from llic tax
on merchandise ("lezta "). Hi-; "■'

to sell their houses located in : i.

and allowed them to establish a cemetery outside the

city. He also showed tolerance in hi« f

their legal status (romp

Jewish "Gcscli. derJudrn in Spaniel)."!. •:
Body-Phy- Like his ■ .... ^

sicians. liody-iih} . i'

and Don Moses Aben Samuel, Sancho

also had a Jewish pliysician. named - ' ;i. to

whom he not onlv cranted baronial : ^ ■ the

i .. -i T . a

Tunj»

THE JEWISH ENCYf'T.npEniA

270

u- ami vine-lands

:er. in 1193. a few

' Solomon also

.1 in front of

.1 ,jf jj rebellion

. Jews were

<»1 to tlie rage of

1 only through a

.11(1 the eity coun-

shepherd

... ,.. i I. About

II upon the Jews in
^'. • • time

. .., Li, ^ju, made

the Jews, they Avere
y in wait for them.

c for their escape from

.iiT Jews endeavored to alle-

rcligionisls wlio had

!is. They collected

and supported poor

:" three years. In the

. - during which 6.000

io Navarre, those of Tudela did not

■ Tudelii followed the most varying
traded in grain, wool, cloth, and

:iir them tanners, who
s a year to the king

■ )t the use of their tannery, which
■ ." 1 on theEbro; audthe Jew-

.iPS and gold- and silver-

.t-rs had their shops in a special

• ■ ' ". for which in the year

! II. 1.36.1 suehlos. fliey

own "I :" or gagers' bureau.

■'rsaii'i I. - - were subjected to

They i in moncy-lend-

■ some of tliem — D. Joseph and D.

• ;-■ f'T '-runple — had large commer-

-' of the ta.xes likewise was

u and Jacob Baco and Ezmel

. ...nners, and Natiian Gabai was

rli Luxes.

~^l)ain, in Tudela the Jews

— ; (■* Juderiu "), which was

locRtctl io part of tiic city, where were

ired in 1401) and sev-

. . Liieir own magistrates,

' two ji - and twenty representa-

\ip new statutes, in-

:ii membership in the

ct-i , . and prooouoced the ban. In 1359 tlie

' n. Lui.s. Ijrotlier and rep-

^ II., that they niigiit be

aitowe<l to pu: «? Jcwg who violated their re-

" ' ' ■ ... ,^ iipin Murcli,

luuiiity it was
deri.jc<l to d<ai energtiically wiili denunciators and

•l"'' ' ''"' ■ • ' ' 'v read in all

Sp.

l?*»tlt*'V

th-

iient; and in

140U it was renewed for a |)eriod of forty years
(the slatule i» given in Kay^ '' ' r. pp. 2()Qf(
aeq.). The Jews of Tudela. wi • families had

by 1868 diminished to 270, were greatly oppressed

by the tiixes imposed on them by the king. These
in 1340 and the following years had amounted to
2.000 livres annually, and in 1375 to 3.382 livres;
in addition, the Jews had to pay subsidies from
time to time. In consequence of the war with
Castile and owing to the ravages of the plague in
1379 and 1380, the community continued to decrease
in numbers till in 1386 there were scarcely 200
Jewish families in the city, and these were so jioor
that the taxes could not be collected from them.

In 1498 King John, urged by the sovereigns of
Castile, issued an edict to the effect that all Jews
must either be baptized or leave the
Baptism or country. In Tudela 180 fiimilies re-
Exile, ceived baptism, many of them emigra-
ting a few years later to France. The
Maranos. or secret Jews, were subjected to scorn,
their names being published in a great roll called
"La Manta" and exposed ia the nave of the cathe-
dral at Tudela.

Tudela was the birthplace or residence of several
Jewish scholars, the most famous of whom was the
traveler known as Ben.i.\min ok Tidel.v, the ac-
count of whose travels was translated into several
languages. The cabalist Abraham Abulafia passed
his youth in Tudela; and l.Iayyim ben Samuel, au-
thor of the "Zeror ha-Ha3'yim," Sliem-Tob ben
Isaac Shaprut, the philosopher and apologist, and
several members of the learned Miniu family were
born in the city. The following rabbis of Tudela
are known: Joel ibn Shu'aib, author of sermons and
Bible commentaries; Hasdai ben Solomon, a contem-
porary of Isaac ben Sheshet ; and R. Astruc.

BiBLioGRAPUV : Jos^ Vanpuas y Miranda, Hhtoria dc A'a-
i-arra. San Sebastian, is:i2; idem, Dicrionarin dc AutignV-
dadesde Xavnrta, Pamplona, 1842; Rios, HiM. ii.2**, .tO, 17;{,
291, 453; iii. 191, 328; Kayserling, Gc^ch. der Judcn in Spa-
nien, i.\ Jacobs, Sources, Nos. 1569, 1619, 1629, 1651. 16.59.
s. M. K.

TUGENDHOLD, JACOB : Russian educator
and author; born in Breslau 1791; died at Warsaw
April 20, 1871. Realizing that education was one
of the best means for improving the condition of
tiie Jews in Poland and Lithuania, he founded at
Warsaw in 1819 a school for Jewish children, where
the instruction was given according to the most
modern principles of pedagog}'^ and was not limited
to purely Jewish subjects. In carrying out this
plan Tugendhold had to overcome manj'^ obstacles
which the conservative "melammedim" put in his
way. In 1820 he was appointed by the Russian
government censor of all the Jewi.sh publications
that appeared in Warsaw ; and when the rabbinical
school was established in that city, in 1853, Tugend-
hold was made director of the institution. Avhich
post he held until the school was closed in 1862.

Tugendhold was active not only as an educator
but also as a communal worker. It was due to him
that the Warsaw Home for Aged and Invalid
Jews was built; and he was instrumental also in es-
tablishing a number of other benevolent institutions
in that city. For a number of years he served as
president of the Warsaw kahal.

Tugendhold 's literarj' works include the follow-
ing: "Book of Errors'" (in Polish, Warsaw, 1830),
u work, written with the assistance of Dr Stern,
which points out more than 900 errors in L. Chiarini's

271

THE JEWISH ENCVCLUl'EDIA

Tudela
Tuuis

■work on the Hebrew language; an answer to the
Avork "Sposob ua Zydow " {ib. 1831); "Obrana Iz-
raelitow " {ih. 1831), a translation into Polish of
Mauasseh ben Israel's "Vindiciie Judteoruni," a de-
fense against the blood accusation;" Fedon," a trans-
lation of Moses ^lendelssohn's "Phildon"; "Ren
Yakkir" {ib. 1824), a text-book on the fundamental
principles of the Jewish faith; "Pierws/.a Wskrzes-
zona Mysl o Jstnieniu Boga " (ib. 1840), a translation
into Polish of Solomon Cohen's poem " Ha/.zalat
Abram me-Ur Kasdim"; "Kosht Imre Emet we-
Shalom " (Polish title. "Wskasawki Prawdy"; ib.
1844), a collection of passages from ancient and
modern Jewish writings, showing Judaism in its
relation to otiier religions; "Behinat '01am," a trans-
lation of Bedersi's work on the vanity and instability
of all that is worldly.

Tugendhold wrote also "Marnot" {ib. 1851). a
drama in three i)arts, and contributed extensively to
many Polish and German periodicals of his time.

Bini.iociRAPHY: Zeitlin, in Maoqid Mishnch. 1873, pp. 59-61 ;
idem, BihL Poat-Mendcls. p. 400; Den, 1873, No. 21.

s. J. Go.

TUGENDHOLD, WOLF: Russian educator
and author; brother of Jacob Tugendhold. He was
teacher in the rabbinical school of Wilua and also
censor of all the Jewish publications that appeared
in that city. Of his writings the following are the
most important : " Der Denunciant," a story of Jew-
ish life in Poland based partly upon his brother's
drama; "Stimmender Feieruden IVIeuge " (Warsaw,
1841), a translation of Lebensobn's "Kol Hamon
Hogeg," which was made on the occasion of the
celebration of the betrothal of the heir to the Rus-
sian throne ; and a eulogy on the life and works of
the Hebrew writer M. A. Glinzberg.

Bibliography: Zeitlin, In Maggid Mishneh, 1845; idem,
Bihl. Post-Menddn. pp. 30, 193, 352.
S. J. Go.

TULL, EDMUND: Hungarian artist; born at
Szekesfejervar 1870. He was educated at Buda-
pest, Milan, and Paris, being in the last-named city
a pupil of J. P. Laurens and of B. Constant. His
first work, " The Cathedral of Notre Dame, " attracted
attention at the exposition in Budapest in 1896,
while his etchings are especially valued in London
and Vienna. His best-known works are: "Peasant
Mowing," "A LaneinDort," and "The Island of
Capri," in the historical art museum of Budapest;
and "The Smithy," owned by Archduchess Isabella.

s. L. V.

TUNIS : Formerly one of the Barbary States of
North Africa, but since 1881 a dependency of France ;
situated between latitude 31° and 37° north, and lon-
gitude 8° and IT east, and bounded north and north-
east by the IVIcditerranean, southeast by Tripoli,
south and southwest by the desert of Sahara, and
west by Algeria. A tradition is current among the
descendants of the first Jewish settlers, traces of
Avhom are still to be found among the nomadic
Mussulman tribes of Drid, Ilenansha, and Khumir,
that their ancestors settled in that part of North
Africa long before the destruction of the First Tem-
ple. Though this is unfounded, the presence of
Jews there at the appearance of Christianity is at-

tested by the Jewish monument found by Prud-
hommeat Haiiiiiiamal-LaUf in 1S83 (sec " Meiii<iii<-s
de I'Aeademie des lnscripti<ins ct Ik- lies Ln

1883 ; " Revue Archeologi.jue. " \'.
In Roman and April, 1883; " H. E. J " .
Times. After the dissolution of the JewihU

stale a great number of Jew" " -

by Titus to Mauritania, and many of tliein
Tunis. These settlers were engaged ii

cattle-raising, and trades. They wen; ,.,

clans, or tribes, governed by their rehpeclive lieadH,
and had to pay the Romans a capiUUion-tax of Z

Tunisian Jewpss.

shekels. Under the dominion of tho nomnns nnd
(after 429) of tiie fairly tolenmt Va i

inhabitants of Tunis inereas<'<l and ; i

a degree that African Church coun<
essary to enact restrictive 1 • r

the overthrow of the Vaiu. .. ... .. • .

Justinian issued his edict of porsocuHon. in wUuh
tiie Jews were clas-sed witli the Arians and heathens
("NovelkT." -xxxvii.).
In the scventli century the Jewish population wa»

Tuiu«

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

272

Iif J. .V a

ni-n"-
T

:sh jminigrants, wlio,

08 of the Visigothic king

' ctl to Mauritania

- Tliese settlers,

.1 with the

. iw.iii. powerful

Judaism until the

'.er of the liiriside dynasty. Al-

,1. . ... .1,.. ,;..,,^of ji,^. conquest

.. m in 698 the gov-

. Jew. When Tunis came

Arabs, or of tlie Arabian

: intlux of Amb Jews into

Like all otlier Jews in ^loham-

,.,<,. ,,f T'nii-; n.-re subject to the

I Idris proclaimed Maurita-

... : the califate of Bagdad, tlie

joined his army under the leadership

ben

bowerer: pri

parts of 51aun-

lie of

and

Idris
St J c w -
The vic-
s Idris
1 this de-
by at-
tacking the Jews in tlieir cities. After an unsuc-
■ce peace was concluded, accord-

- ^ f>f which the Jews were required to

Ii«y a capitation tax and to provide a certain num-
ber of virgins r for Idris' harem. The Jew-
i- 'Lbaid Allah preferred to
Under migrate to tlie East rather than to sub-
Islam, r ■ ris; according to a tradition.
' - of the island of Gerba aie
the dwsccndants of that tribe. In 793 Imam Idris

• f'f Ilarun al-Ra.shid

physician Shamma,

y a Jew), and about 800 the Aghlabite dy-

'"^'.* •■ ■ ' ' '■ ■ the rule of this dy-

•J^'y- •. the situation of the

JtwH in Tunis was very favorable. As of old. Bi-

r. anrl the political influ-
: f'lt in tlio administration
itiu country. Especially prosperous at that time

'^ " "" ' '"''y of Kaihwan, which was estjib-

r the foundation of that citv bv Tkl.a
Ibu 2Stth , iu ihc year CTO.

luierior of tbe Great SyrwKogue at Tunis.

(From & photograph.)

A period of reaction set in with the accession of the
Zirite AI-Mu'izz (1016-62), who persecuted all heter-
odox sects, as well as the Jews. The persecution
was especially detrimental to the prosperity of the
Kairwan community, and members thereof began
to emigrate to the city of Tunis, which speedily
gained in population and in commercial imjiortauce.
The accession of the Almohude dynasty to the
throne of the Maghreb provinces in 1146 proved very
disastrous to the Jews of Tunis. In pursuance of a
fanciful belief, of which there is no trace in 3Ioslcm
tradition, the fir.st Aimohade, 'Abd al-]SIu'min,
claimed that ]\Ioliammcd had permitted the Jews
free exercise of their religion for only five hundred
years, and had declared that if, after that period, the
Messiah had not come, they were to be forced to em-
brace Islam. Accordingly Jews as well as Chris-
tians were compelled either to embrace Islam or to
leave the country. 'Abd al-Mu'min's successors

pursued the
same course, and
their severe
measures re-
sulted either in
emigration or in
forcible conver-
sions. Soon be-
coming suspi-
cious of the sin-
cerity of the uew
converts, the Al-
moliades com-
pelled them to
wear a special
garb, with a yel-
low cloth for
a head-covering.
The intellec-
tual status of the
Tunisian Jews
at that time was
ou a level with
their political
situation. Mai-
monides, who, while on his way to Egypt, sojourned
some time in the island of Gerba and other localities,
exjircssed himself, in a letter addressed to his son,
in the following terms:

" Beware of the inhabitants of the West, of the country called
Gerba, of the Barbary States. The intellect of these people is

very dull and heavy. As a rule, beware always

Maimonides' of the inhabitants of Africa, from Tunis to

Opinion. Alexandria ; and also of those who inhabit the

IJaitiary coasis. In my opinion they are more
Itrnorant than the rest of mankind, though they be attached to
the l)elief in God. Heaven is my witness that tln-y can be com-
pared only to the Karaites, who possess no oral law. They
evince no lucidity of spirit in their study of the Pentateuch, the
Prophets, and the Talmud ; not even when they discuss the
hapffatiot and the laws, although there are ainonp them rabbis
and dayyanim. With regard to impure women they have the
sarne beliefs and customs as the Bene Meos, a Mussulman tribe
which Inhabits the .same country. They do not look upon the
Impure woman, and turn their eyes neither to her figure nor to
her garments. Nor do they speak to her ; and they even scruple
to tread on the ground touched by her feet. They do not eat
the hinder part of slaughtered animals. In short, there is much
to say about their ways and customs."

The Jews of Tunis at that time scrupulously ob-
served most of the festivals, but did not celebrate

273

THE JEWISH E.NX'YCLOPEDIA

Tunis

tlie second days; tlioy entirely ignored the festivnl
of Purim, although they observed that of Hauuk-
kali. According to their statutes, a man wlio liad
lost two wives could marry only a widow ; on the
other hand, if a woman lost two liushands she was
called a "husband-killer" and was not allowed to
remarry. This i)rohibition included also a woman
who liad been twice divorced. Male twins were al-
ways named Perez and Zerah ; female twins, Sarah
and Kebekah ; a male and female, Isaac and Kebekali.
Under the Hafsite dynasty, which was established
in 1'28(), the condition of the Jews greatly improved.
Besides Kairwan, there were at that time imjxjrtant
communities in Mehdia, Kalaa, the island of Gerba,
and the city of Tunis. Considered at
Under the tirst as foreigners, the Jews were not
Hafsites. permitted to settle in the interior of the
last-named city, but had to live in a
building called " Funduk" ; later, liowever, a wealthy
and humane Mussulman, Sidi Mahrez, who in 1159

had rendered great
services to the first
Almohade, 'Abd al-
Mu'min, obtained for
them the right to set-
tle in a special quar-
ter of the city proper.
This quarter, called
the "Hira," consti-
tuted until 1857 the
ghetto of Tunis; it
was closed at night.
In 1270, in conse-
quence of the defeat
of Saint Louis of
France, who had un-
dertaken a crusade
against Tunis, the
cities of Kairwan and
Hanimat were de-
clared holy ; and the
Jews were required
either to leave them
or to embrace Islam.
From that year until
the conquest of Tunis
by France (1857),
Jews and Christians Avere forbidden to pass a night
in either of these cities; and only by special per-
mission of the governor were they allowed to enter
them (luring the day.

That the Jews of Tunis, during the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries, were treated more cruelly
than those of the other Barbary States may be sur-
mised from the fact that, while refugees from Spain
and Portugal flocked to Algeria and I\Iorocco, only
a few chose to settle in Tunis. Indeed, the Tunisian
Jews had no rabbis or scholars worthy of mention,
and had to consult those of Algeria or Morocco on
the most ordinary religious questions. Their com-
munal affairs were directed by a council, nominated
by the government, the functions of
Taxation, which consisted in the administration
of justice among the Jews, and, more
especially, in the collection of the Jewish ta.xes.
Three kinds of taxes were imposed upon the Tuni-
XII.— 18

^jd

L^r'13

W^S J^^m

Wj*j^^^^^^^^^

Tunisian Jewess.

(From a photograph.)

sian Jews: (1) a comnuuial Uix. i„ which every
member c.utributed uec.r.ling to his means; (2) a
personal or capitation tax; and (3) a eeneml lax
which was levied upon the Mohar „ j,J

addition to these, every Jewish ti:. . nuhiti-

trial had to pay an annual tax to the gild to which

TuoisiaD Jewesst-s.

(From • pholofrmph.)

his trade or industry belonged. In spite of all these
exactions, however, the commerce of the country
was in Jewish hands, and even the government was
compelled to have recourse to Jewish nierchanls for
the exploitation of the various monopolies; after the

\^-H-

Jewlsl

(Fr,

inU.

thirteenth century it adopted the policy of cntnist-
ing to a Jew the post of receiver of taxes. This

functionary, who bore the title of •• •

as an intermediary between ihego\i; e

Jews, and his authority within the Jewish commu-

Tunis

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

274

roconii!
udI

Under the
Spaniards.

ui. The members of the council of

is the rabbis, were iiomiuateil at his

and no rabbinical decision was valid

' • !iim.

- isli occupation of the Tunisian

74) tilt- Jewish conununities of Bizerta.

ind other seaports suffered greatly at

the hands of the conquerors, while

under the subsetiuent Turkish rule

the Jews of Tunis enjoyed a fair

amount of security, being practically

the flee exercise of their religion, and

administer their own affairs. Tiiey

er* however, always exposed to the caprices of

i to outbursts of popular fanaticism.

i'^._ als were allowed to impose upon them

Uie inoBl difficult drudgery without compensation.

• . > wear a special costume, consist-

, Aithout collar or ordinary sleeves

(loose linen
s being
a utcd).
wide linen draw

black skull-cap

tei: only. The>
might ride only
on asses or
mules, and were
not permitted to
use a saddle.
From the b<
■ ■ ■ 1- of tli<-
:ith cen
tury the politii -
al status of the
Jews in Tunis
steadily iiii-
provi'd. This
was due to the

cverjii - influence of the political agents

of the i- .. , ; an powers, who, while .seeking to
ameliorate the condition of the Christian residents,
had to plead also the cause of the Jews, whom Mos-
lem legisktiou cla.ssed with Christians. Joseph
Azulat, who visited Tunis in 1772, described in
the influence at court of the caid
. .:. Forty-two years later the United
BtAtes consul to Tunis, Mordecai M. Noah, gave the
' ' ing account of the situation of the Tunisian

" with kll Um> aprMuvnt opprcwdon. the Jews are the leadini?

■'I'? prlnripai irifchanlps. they are at

■«»•. iht'V farm the revenues: the ex-

and the monopoly of various iner-

■rri hv pun-hase, they control the

"f iiiciney. they keep the hey's

. .ire hit treasurers, secretaries,

Kiiown of arts, science, and medl-

If a Jew conimit.s a crime, if

i-se iMfiple. so national, always

•• of onealTectji the whole corn-

III the pnr^i-nce of the l)ey. every mln-

lewiHh at'enis. and when they unite to

;.••... f, .111 . I.J.-, t. It ijinnot U- prev<-ni<'<l. These people, then,

wiia!'v.-r may t^e said of their oppression, possess a very con-

Itjti-n"r of the (jreal Synagogue at Tunis, Showing Aik u[ iht,- Law

(From a photograph.)

of their

trolling influence, their friendship is worthy of being preserved
by |)ublic functionaries, and their opposition is to be dreaded"
("Travels in Europe and Africa," p. 308, New York, 1819).

During the long reign of Ahmad Bey the Jews
enjoyed a period of great prosperity. His successor,
Mohammed Bey, inaugurated his reign in 1855 by
abolishing the drudgeries formerly imposed upon
the Jews; the caid Joseph Scemama, with whom
the bey was on very intimate terms, probably used
his influence in behalf of his coreligionists. In
the same year, however, Mohammed Bey, being
very religious, caused the execution of a Jew named
Batto Sfoz on a charge of blasphemy. This execu-
tion aroused both Je'w s and Christians,
Moham- and a deputation was sent to Napoleon
mad Bey. III., asking him to interfere in their
behalf. After two j^ears of diplo-
matic negotiations a man-of-war was sent to enforce
the demands of the French government. Mohammed

Bey yielded, and
issued a consti-
tution, accord-
ing to which all
Tunisians, with-
out distinction
of creed, were to
enjoy equal
rights. The fol-
lowing articles
of this constitu-
tion were of
special interest
to the Jews:
(§ 4) " No man-
ner of duress
will be imposed
upon our Jewish
subjects forcing
them to change
their faith, and
thej^ will not be
hindered in the
free observance
synagogues will
and protected from insult." (§ 6)

religious rites. Their

be respected
" When a criminal court is to pronounce the pen
alty incurred by a Jew, Jewish assessors shall be
attached to the said court." The constitution was
abrogated in 1864 in consequence of a revolution,
which entailed great suffering on several .Jewish
communities, especially on that of Sfax ; but the
constant fear of foreign interference rendered the
government very circumspect in its treatment of the
Jews. Since 1881 Tunis has been a dependency of
France; and the Jews now enjoy the same rights as
their ^Mohammedan fellow citizens.

The bulk of the Jewish population of the regency,

which numbers about 50,000 souls, is found in the

city of Tunis (about 30,000 in a total population of

180,000). The Jews of that city are

Population divided into two distinct communities:

and Or- (1) the Tunsi, which comprises the de-
g-anization. scendants of the first settlers, and (2)
the Grana (from " Granada"), which in-
cludes the descendants of the Spanish and Portu-
guese exiles, and of Jews of Leghorn ("Gorneyim")

276

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tunii

who settled there during the seventeenth and
eighteeulli centuries. At first, owing probably to
their small numbers, the Spanish and Portuguese
exiles mixed with the old settlers; but toward the
end of the sixteenth century they formed a separate
congregation under the name "Kelial Gerush," and
worshijjed iu a reserved place in the Great Syna-
gogue. The new congregation was greatly aug-
mented by the arrival of Italian, or Leghorn, Jews,
and by the middle of the seventeenth century it
had its own .synagogue and its own rabbis. The
two congregations, however, were xmitcd in so
far as both were under the jurisdiction of the caid,
both contribu-
ting to the com-
munal revenues
derived from
taxation on ar-
ticles of con-
sumption, more
especially on
meat and Pass-
over bread. A
complete separa-
tion of the two
congregations
took place at the
end of the seven-
teenth century,
when the Leg-
horn Jews estab-
lished butcher-
shops of their
own, refusing to
pay the high tax
on meat. Tins
naturally pro-
voked bad feel-
ings ou the part
of the Tunsi
congregation,
which now had
to bear the whole
burden of this
tax. At last, in
1741, the two
congregations
entered into an
agreement ac-
cording to which
the Tunsi was to
pay two-thirds
of the taxes and the Grana the remaining tliird. The
Grana congregation remained under Die authority of
the caid until 1824, when Husain Bey officially rec-
ognized its autonomy.

The intellectual condition of the Tunisian Jews

kept pace witli their political progress. Even in

the seventeenth century there were prominent rabbis

and scholars in the city of Tunis and in Gerba. In

the middle of that centurj' a descend-

Rabbis and ant of Zemal.i Duran .settled at Tunis

Scholars, and established aTalnuid Torah which

produced many Talmudic scholars.

Isaac Lombroso, who officiated as chief labbi of Tunis

from about 1710 to 1753, was the author of a

Jews of Tunis in Native Costume.

(From a photograph.)

commentary, entitled "Zera" Yizhak," on dim-rent
sections of the Talmud; this work, which appeared
posthumously in 1768, is the only Hebrew book
which has as yet been publish.-d in Tunis Loni
broso's successor as chief ral,lji was .Muh'ud l{u|.huel
Altasi, who, conjointly with his sous Hayyiiu aud
Solomon, publi.slied the "Mishha de Habuta" in
Joseph Caro's Shuihan 'Aruk (Leghorn. 18U5)
Among other rabljisof the eigiiteentli centurv wi-ro
Nathan ben Abraham Hurgel, author of'"Hu|j
Natan," novella; and explanations on the niiHlmuic
order Kodashim and the treatise Horayot, etc. ; and
Elijah Hai Vita liurgel, author of "M '

Natan." :
on varioiiH Tal-
mudic treat isc-B.
'I'henioKt promi-
nent rabbis of
the uineteenib
I entury were:
•loscph IJuriL'cl,
luthor of "Ze-
i.i' de-Yo8cf,"
• ■n the To.safot;
Isjiac Tayyib,
aiithorof** 'Erek
ha Shuihan," on
the Shuihan
'Aruk. -Hulj-
kot lia-Pcsjil>,"
on the laws of
Passover, aod
" AVaweha'Am-
niudim." on the
■ SeferYcre'Jm'^
of E I i e z e r of
^I e t /. ; J II d a h
Nijar, author of
"Oholo Yihu-
dah." on the
Sifre. "Shcbut
Ychudah." on
the .M e k i 1 1 a .
"Alfe Yehu-
dali," on tlic
treatise Sliebu-
'o t . " M o- a d e
Adonai." on Uio
Semap, and
"Simhal Yehu-
da li . " on the
small Talmudic
Nathan Hurgel; Samuel
Mnuiidar; Abniliam Im-

treatises; Joshua Bases;
Sefag; Aaron liaKolien
Kohen Tanuji; Samuel Sefag; Aliraliam HajjaJ;
Moses Faitusi; Ni.><sim Marik; and Hai ni.<inuil.
The Tunisian rabbis possess full judicial power
in all civil and commercial niattci-s. and even in
ciiminal cases if the crime comtniltrd i- nc

that calls for capital punishment. Tin- » ■ iiy

of Tunis possesses twenty-seven synagogues, among
w hich the Great Synagogue of the Tunsi mnpn-ga-
tion, and that of the Portuguese, are very large.
The Jewish inJiaiiitants of Tunis include some finan-
ciers and a number of jiersons folhiwing li' * ' to-
fessions, but they are mostly engaged in i ■ c.

TuAis
Turin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

276

in per'v irafflr. an*! especially in brokerage. There
i« ii !e number of persons who follow

var

'1 inilic* nf the regency of Tunis

arr Biaerta. wuii ii ' opulation of about

GuO ptrrwub . Gabea, wii.. - ..cws; Gerba, having

4 r><Hi Jews and six synagogues; Go-

letta, 400 Jews and one synagogue;

Keif, with 450 Jews, one synagogue;

Mehdia, 100 Jews; Monastir, ton-

ogue; Nabel, liav-

. . , Port^ Farina, 1,500 Jews; Ras

el-Jabel. \s iiliGOO Jewsand twosyinigogues; Soli-

Susa, witli a Jewish popula-

.^ (Is for children were estab-

the Alliance Israelite Universelle at Tunis,
1 other places; special
^hed liv the iroverument

Other Com-
munities.

brated with great pomp, and the rabbis proclaim
publicly full absolution from all sins. Passover
cakes, as made in other countries, are "wholly un-
known to the Tunsi, but they use a peculiar method
of their own in fashioning the unleavened dougii
into sticks, by joining the cuds of which the cukes
are made in the forni of rings.

The Tunsi pronounce Hebrew largely accord-
ing to the plionetic rules of Arabic. No distinction
is made between the long and short vowels; the
"kamez" is always pronounced as "a." Tlie pro-
nunciation of the " zcrc " resembles more the " hirik,"
wliile that of the "segol" approaches the "patah."
Tile B and the 2 are often confounded in pronuncia-
tion. No distinction is made between the " sliewa "
quiescentand the " shewa " mobile. Very peculiar is
their custom of separating the Sabbatical sections
"Mattot u-Mas'e " at times when elsewhere they are

Jkwisii Ckmetery at Tunis.

(From t photoftr.ph In th-. ,Knseuion of Dr. Maurice Fishberg, .New York.)

nod

r- -

■er.

Sf:ar .and GuIk-s. Tlie superior hygienic condi-

iiK among the Jews of Tunis, in com-

iur nationalities, caused great

II niilitary physician.s Testivint

Instituting an inipiiry into tiie

' l)y tuberculosis amongtlie

"fy. ll'L-y found that from

'""■*•*' J'^'*^t''t' deaUi-rute among the Mussulmans

^" " "' ■ Jiitants; among the Euro-

' , / ' "«• Jews ..111 V 0 T.l f " Hevuc

'' 'J.^ xxil.. .No. 11).

'•rvc many peculiar religious cus-

whicii are not followed elsewhere

R«-htf.ou8 rinir riluul. especially for the divine

Customs. M rvire on festivals, differs from the

S. pliardic as well as from the A.shke-

na/ic. .S<.mc of the prayers are in Arabic The

fir.f ,,r -very montii the Yom Kippur Katan is cele-

read together, and vice versa. Contrary to the Maso-
rali, th(! section Mislipatiiu is subdivided by the Tunsi
into two sections, the first bearing the title of "Mish-
patim," and tlu- second that of" Im Kesef." Likewise
another order is adopted in reading the Haftarot.
With regard to thec.xaminationofthelungsof slaugh-
tered animals ("bcdikah "), the Tunsi do not follow
the regulations of Joseph Caro, but an older author-
ity, whose prescriptions are less rigid.

llrides of twelve or tliirteen are not uncommon
among the Tunsi. The marriage ceremony is per-
formed by a rabbi, and usually takes place in the
synagogue. The bride and bridegroom are seated
on chairs placed on a table, and a tallit covers the
heads of both. Two witnesses stand one on each side,
while the officiating rabbi takes his position in front
of the table, with the jirayer-book in one hand and
the cup of blessing in the other. It is customary

277

THE .TEAVISII ENCVCL()iM:i>l.\

Tunis
Turin

aiiioiig tlio Tunsi women to appear every Friday in
tiie cemetery with a small earthen jar contiiinin,!;
slaked lime, and a brush, -with whioli they clean anil
wliilewash the tombstones of their relatives and
fiieuds. The cemetery is usually outside the city
walls, and, not being enclosed, is frecjuently en-
tered by animals; the tombs, which arc- built of
brick and mortar, are flat, and not more than six
inches above the ground. See CA»TiiA(iE.

BniMOGKAPHY : L. Afidison, The Ptrftcut f^talr of the Jnrx
in tlie lidiliarii States. 1075; Muifraii, htniin tliuH Stall
d'Alueri, Titiiisi, Triiiali, e -I/omicco, Loiuion, 17S4 ; Marcus
Fisclier, Taleihit Yesliurun, Prafrue, 1M7: I). C:\y.bi, Kssni
siir rilistoiic (teg hrailitesilc Tuiiixie, I'aris, 188S; E. Mer-
cier, II Moire <le VAfriquc Scpte)ilrio)ialc, i. 1(57, Paris
1888 ; (iriitz, Gesch. v. 236 et Kcq.: vi. G, 9 et .vcr/.; FJiezr r Asli-
kenazi, in Ha-Letianon, ii. 181 et '^eq., iii. 0 et .s<(/., iv. 7r> et
,v(7y., V. ~:5t)('^ w/., vi. 85 et sec/.; Freuiid, Void Tuiiesiseheii
Judeiitlnuii. in Yeslninui, iv. 5!):^; Cognat, Israiiitcs d
Tunix. In Toin- dti Monitc, 1893, ii. 08.

•T. I. Bk.

TUR, NAPHTALI WOLF : Russian Hebra-
ist; born at Wilna; died there May 29, 1885 (accord-
ing to Zeitlin, June 8, 1884). Tur settled in Warsaw,
where lie taught Hebrew and several modern lan-
guages. He was a talented poet; but, owing to liis
untimely death, most of liis productions remain
unpublished. Of those which have been printed
may be mentioned: " lla-Yobel " (in "Ha-Asif,"i.
1-10), a long poem in honor of Sir IMoses Monte-
fiore's centenary ; "Gebeiet Iia-Heshbon"; and "El
ha-Ishshali " (ib. ii. 556-561). Several of his poems
are ]niblished in Gottlober's "Ha-Boker Or."

Biiu.iorjRAPiiY: Ha^Asif. ii. 763; Zeitlin, J?i7)?. Post-Meudch.
I). 4U().

s. M. Sel.

TURIM. See Jacoh ben Asiiek.

TURIN : Italian city on the River Po; formerly
capital of the duchy of Savoy, and later of the
kingdom of Sardinia; now (1905) tiie chief city of
the province of like name. Jews were admitted to
Turin in 1424, probably because tliey loaned inoney
at a lower rate of interest than the Christians. The
first Jew to settle with liis family in the city in that
3'ear was Elia Alamandi. A statute of Amadeus
VlII., dated June 17, 1430, obliged the Jews of the
duchy to wear a badge of red cloth on the shoulder,
forbade tliem to live among Christians, and proliib-
ited them from building new s3'nagogues, besidesim-
posing other restrictions. The Jews were now com-
pelled to live in the Via San Toinmaso, near the
so-called "Gamelolto." About this time originated
the treaty or agreement between the duke of Savoy
and tiie Hebrews. It was made for ten years only,
but was renewalile; it guaranteed to the Jews free-
dom of residence in Turin, and regulated their
rights and privileges. Amadeus, besides, promul-
gated a special decree forbidding Christians to kill,
wound, or Hog tiie Hebrew residents, or to disturb
them in their religious worship or festivals.

The reigii of Emmanuel Pliilibert (1558-80) fell
ilia disastrous period for all the Italian Jews. Those
of Piedmont alternately received concessions and
sufTered persecutions, according to the duke's need
of money. On July 19, 1560, Emmanuel Pliilibert
decreed the e.xpulsion of all Jews from liis domin-
ions: but their own entreaties and the intercession
made in their behalf by the Duchess Margherita

secured for tlicm a rcspjto of four n...iuh.v one
of the dukes councilors. Negrori de Nigriof Geiio«.
nrged his master to renew the decree of expul«loa
and to insi.st upon tlie departure of the Jews williin

ten days. Furlunately. Imwever. ilio

Under Em- kindly intervention of an ollJcial at

mauuel the ducal tribunal olitaincti (lie revn.

Philibert, (ati( f thf dicree; and llie diiku

nia<lc an agreement with Jin- JeWKiiudtT
which they weresiill permitled loinliabil Pl.-dmoiit.
Very soon after, however (Oct.. 15(M5). Emmanuel
Pliilibert again issued a decree ordering the dcpur-
ture of the Jews from his donniins witliin a Kpace of
lifteen days unless they paid down 4(I.0(KJ gold
llorins. The Jews at once (|iiilt<'d his doininioiiH, but
on the payment of lialf the sum demanded they
were permitted lo return. Tliey llien executed u
new agreement under which tiuy plrdp.d them.
selves to pay a yearly ta.\ of 1.500 gold llorins. Uy
another decree (Sept. 4, 1572) Emmanuel Pliilibert.
attliercquestofVitaleSarerdoti.il
favorable alterations into the stalui'
VIII. Among other things, the Jews were pprmitti-d
to enjoy the right of "hazakah" and of 1 ;.iil

estate. Simon, a brother of Hacerdoti, \ by

the duke in the same year to Const^iutinople to pro-
pose the establishment of a consulate then-. Km-
nianuel Philibert furthermore granie<l the Jews the
right of assembling once a year (for religious pur-
poses), and of owning a speciid piece of land as a
cemetery.

At Philibert's death his son. Charles Emman-
uel I., ascended the throne (1580-1030). Cardinal
Borromeo of Milan tirged him to e.vpel the He-
brews again from his dominions. He yielde<l. how-
ever, to the entreaties of the latter, and made a
new contract with them, allowing them to reinaiu
in the country on certain conditions. He also con-
firmed the privileges granted them by lii.s father,
and placed them under the juri.sdiclion of ii spe-
cially a]i])ointed judge called the "eonscrvatore."
The tiist "couservatore " was the senator G.ispam
Tesauro. Marquis of Fossiano. Charles Enuminucl
also repealed the obligation, impostMJ on tlu- Jews in
1560, of paying a yearly sum of 25 s<-udi lo tin- stu-
dents of the university on St. Catherine's Day. He
twice renewed the decree forbidding CI to

molest the Jews or to olTeiid them by ■ ng

their religious functions (Dec. 15, 1603. and Oct.
20, 1610). In the lirst instance he ii! ' .m .

condition of a donation of GO.OOO Ic

in twelve years beginning with 1604. that tlie Jews

shoulil engage unmolest<'dly in tnideand r -.c,

and should not b ■ more heavily ta.xtd tha: tl-

zens. Further, he allowed them to lend on plrdum.
which had been forbidden Ihem by Amadeus VIII.

This was. however, regulalcd by sik--

In the Sev- ciallaws. The tribunals wore rc<|uire<l

enteenth to recognize the trustworthines.s of the

Century, books in which the Jews rnter«*d lliolr

contracts. Permis.sion was fiirilior
granted the Jews lo meet twice a year lo clecl lliclr
leaders and lo arrange for the payment of llie tribute
due the stale. In onler to rai.se this tribute the
Jewish community was allowed to In.v all Hebrews
who came to reside within the limits of the stale.

Turin
Turkey

THE JE\VISH ENCYCLOPEDL\

278

111.

• {

stirceons were allowed to follow

ct, however, to the consent

I "-in. Finally, he granted

offensi'S, and infractions

up to the day of publication

■• '>f the payment of 2,000

.in niLinbers of the com-

G. Laiti-s, M. Jarach, C. and S.

'- " 'lo were afterward exempted

1 live badge. In Aug., 1612,

- 1.MC was murdered in the

.>.v. The Jews accused of this

. on the payment of 50,000 "du-

i." lu

11 8cn-

t«iic«s then be-

' of the

'of

;iil-

la IGlb the

Jewish com-

munity of Pied-

city and tcrri-

nee

the

a s

1, and

, .

-trict

T 1 >

:)io
1

1 ,

"' was as-

. I.

J nest

Treves.

tcs.

and

I.«vj, confirmed

■ II the rights

privil.

....led to ;.■■

>wg by his

rs.

;ancc

f the Jewish community, which presented him
■0 lire, these privileges were further con-
y the Sf-nate on the occasion of the mar-
riage of Charles Emmanuel II. in 1002. In 1080, l)y
'; '. -^'adamaKeale, dated Aug. 12,

'' - ■-:. ;,'lietto was again changed, this

time to the quarter of Beatus Amadcus; and hero the
•^ I'-d to rlwcll until 1828, in which year

' ''}■ families obtained leave to reside be-

yond Ihc ghetto limits. In 1706 the Jewish cemetery
' r thf. arsenal was destroyed l)y the

• r, and the Jews obtained leave to bury
theirjlt-nd in Kan Giovanni diDio, abandoned in 1680
(in 1782 r" . tory became part of the Vancliigjia

district: Kiver Po; and at length, in 1854,

it was Incorporated with the common cemetery)

Tiji,- Synagogue at Turin. Italy.

(From a photo^aph.)

The condition of the Jews of Piedmont was no

better during the eighteenth century, owing to the

intolerant spirit shown by the papal government.

Indeed, their legal status became in some respects

considerably worse. For instance, Victor Amadeus

II. wished to deprive them of the

In the power of acquiring landed property.

Eighteenth lie tlicrefore enforced the constitu-

Century . tions of the years 1723, 1729, and 1770,

which, like so many of the ducal laws,

were hostile to the interests of the Jews. A certain

Luigi Pisjini of Jerusalem, formerly a rabbi, but

later converted to Christianity, preached a sermon

to the Jews of
Turin on Feb. 7,
1715, in the
church of San
Francesco di Pa-
ola, to demon-
strate to them
"the blindness,
error, and false-
ness which en-
veloped them."
In 1780 there
were about 1,500
Jews in Turin.

The first indi-
cations of the
approach of
better times for
the Jews came
with the French
Revolution; but
the provisional
Austro-Russian-
Pied montese
government
(^lay, 1799) de-
manded a strict-
er observance of
all the laws and
regulations than
had been exact-
ed of the Jews
before the Revo-
lution, and sub-
jected the en-
tire community
to heavy penal-
ties for the slightest infraction. On the return
of French domination, the Jews of Turin obtained
from the imperial government equality with their
French coreligionists; but upon the restoration the
old restrictions soon came into force again. Jewish
students were expelled from the schools; and the
proprietary classes were allowed five years in which
to sell their possessions. At length, by a decree
dated March 6, 1816, Victor Emmanuel I. finally ex-
empted tlie Jews from wearing a distinctive badge,
and gave them full liberty to engage in trade, com-
merce, and the useful arts. They were still ex-
cluded, however, from the universities, from munic-
ipal offices, and from the administration of works of
charity. But better times were approaching. In
1848 a pamphlet, entitled "Deir Emancipazionc

279

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Turiu
Turkey

Civile tlegl' Israeliti," by tlie Marquis Massimo d'A
zeglio of Turiu, later minister of the kingdom of
Sardinia, api)t'arcd iu Florence, and
Eman- was followed by the statute of March

cipation. 4 of that year. On July 19, 1848, a
law was passed declaring the equal-
ity of Jews with other citizens.

The following rabbis of note were natives of
Turin: sixteenth century: Nethanecl ben Siiab-
belhai ha-Dani; seventeenth century : Joseph Calvo,
Daniel ben Joseph Calvo, and Joseph ben Michael
Ravenna; eighteenth century : Joshua Colon, l.saac
Formiggini, Abraham Sanson ben Jacob ha-Lc^i
Fubini, Michel Solomon Jonah, Gabriel Pontremoli,
Jacob ben Joshua Bcnzion Segre, Abraham ben
Judah Segre, Daniel Valabrega; nineteenth cen-
tury: Abraham de Cologna, Felice Bachi, Elijah
Aaron Lattes, Samuel Solomon Oljicr, Isuiah Foa
Lelio della Torre, Sabbato Graziadio Treves, Giusep-
pe Lattes, Samuel Ghiron, G. Foa, and G. Bolaffio.

The Jews of Turin iu 1901 numbered 5,700.

Bibliography: M. Finzi, in Rivinta Tm-ne1itica, I. 226 et !<eq.;
Mortara, /(idicf, passim ; (i. Sacerdoti, in Vexsillo Ixraelitivi),
1901, pp. 2-45 et set/.; Volino, O'ltdizioin Giuridiche DcuH
Israeliti in Piemontc Prima fU-lV Emnnripazioue, Turin,
19()4 ; Joseph lia-Kohen, 'Emek ha-Baka, ed. Wiener, pp. 102,
105, 126; iJ. £. J. V. 231.

S. U. C.

TURKEY : Empire of .southeastern Europe and
•western Asia. For present purposes Turkey is
taken to mean that part of Europe which is directly
under Ottoman rule, Asia Minor, the islands of tiie
Archipelago, and Mesopotamia. Syri.\ and Pal-
KSTiNE, although under the direct administration of
the Porte, and Akabia are considered as distinct
countries, and have been so treated in The Jewish
Encyclopedia.

Jews have lived in Turkey from very early times.
Tradition says that there was a colony of them in
Thessaly at the time of Alexander the Great; and
later they are found scattered throughout the east-
ern Roman empire (see Adkianople; Byzantine
Empire). The first Jewish colony in Turkey proper
was at Brusa, the original Ottoman capital. Ac-
cording to one tradition, when Sultan Urkhan con-
quered the city (1326) he drove out its former inhab-
itants and repeopled it with Jews from Damascus
and the Byzantine empire. These Jews received a
firman permitting tlicm to build a synagogue; and
this edifice still exists, being the old-
Early est in Turkey. The Jews lived in a

History, separate quarter called "Yahudi Ma-
halessi." Outside of Brusa they were
allowed to live in any part of the country; and on
payment of the "kharaj," the capitation-tax re-
quired of all non-Moslem subjects (see below), they
miglit own land and houses iu the city or country.

Under Sultan ]Murad I. (1360-89) the'Turks crossed
over into Europe, and the Jews of Thrace and Thcs-
sal}' came under Ottoman dominion. Tlie ciiange
was a welcome one to them, as their new Moslem
rulers treated them with much more toleration and
justice than thej' had received from tlie C'liristian
Byzantines. The Jews even asked their cobelicvers
from Brusa to come over and teach them Turkish,
that they might the quicker adapt themselves to
the new couditions. The Jewish community of

i\w, ,,u.w|,,,- lii-;^!iii 111 liiiuiisli, ami ; i; at-

tracted pupils not only from nil j,; i ,,c'y,

but also from Hungary. Polund. and
Fourteenth Russia. Tlie grand ■ '

and nopleadn)iniHt<r<dall ,

Fifteenth of Rumclia. About ilfly years aft^r
Centuries, tlicconqmst of Adr ' i

Jewisli Moslem, i
name, took part in an insurrection ot dervlslic* anil
preached conununistic doctrines, for wliich ho wa*
hanged by Sultan Mohammed I. (1413-*J1).

Sultan Muiad II. (1421-.'J1) was favorably
toward the Jews; and with his reign began !• i in- m
a period of prosperity whicli lasted fi,r two centu-
ries and which is une(|ualed in tlicir histury in any
other country. Jews held influentiul positions at
court; they engaged unrestrictedly in tmdo and
commerce; tlicy dre.s.sed and lived as they ;
and they traveled at tlieir pleasure in all j ... , ..;
the country. Murad II. had a Jewish b<Kly-phyiii
cian, Isl.iak Paslia. entitled " hakim bashi

in-chief), to whom the ruler granted a sj :.......;;

exempting his family and de.scendantg from all
taxes. This was the beginning of a lr)ng line r.f
Jewish physicians who obtained power and influ-
ence at court. The .same sultan created also an army
corps of non-Moslems called "gharibah " (~ " stran-
gers "); and to this Jews also were admitted when
they were unable to pay the kharaj

Murad's successor, Mohanmied iiic t'
(1451-81), issued three days after the con-,
Constantinople a proclamation inviting all former in-
habitants to return to the city without fear. Jews
were allowed to live freely in the new capital as
well as in the other cities of the empire. Permission
was granted them to build syn i - ■■ . ' ' ';
and to engage in trade and cc :
strictions of any kind. The sultan iuviteil Jews
from the Morea to settle in Constantinople; and he
employed Jewish soldiers. His minister of finance
("defter-dar ") was a Jewish physician name<l Ya'-
kub, and his body-phy.sician was also a Jew. Mnw^s
Hamon, of Portuguese origin. The latter likewis'-
received a firman from the sultan exempting Ids
family and descendants from tuxes.

It was iu this reign that the office of haknm bashi
of Constantinople came to have so mucli

Moses Cai'sai.i was thcJi: .
Office position, being appointed lliereto by
of Hakara the sultan. He i
Bashi. Turkish divan, or ...

the mufti, or chief of the Ulcma. and
above the Greek patriarch. He ■
representative of the Jews before t: i
ernment: lie apportioned and collected tliclr taxes.
ajqiointed rabbis, aete<l ns ; ' ^ • • . t

the allairs of the Jewish .

After Capsali the Jews themselves elected tUclr chief
rahbi, the government ratifying their choice as a
mere matter of form.

Another celebrated rabbi who live<l during the
reign of Mohammed the Great was Mor' = '
Eliezer Comtino. Karaites as well as R.i
studied under him. The former, although having
been the most influential element among tlie Jews
during the Byzantine empire, had now fallen into

Turkey

THE JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA

280

^,,.1, -, w.,.'..of igDoraoce that for a full century they
■d uo author of repute nud had been

,,1 • . the llabbiuites for

Comtino 11- i . were stirred to new

and the life, however, by the increase in their

Karaites. isuiiiIht-s ■ ration from

P..l;iiui a ■ ;i. and by

contact with the Kabbinites; and they used their new

'tinselves. notably in

u with tlic Sabbath

light and about the old question of the calendar (see

■■ "'■■'•?. therefore, jmrtic-

.ght tlic pro|)ertinie

. <nciliation between the two

( .iiitino spoke with respect of

.0 Kamites and Kabbinitcs who

under him acquired tolerance as well as

I' !^lbbinite teachers Enoch Saporta,

. Elijah ha-Levi made their Ka-

not to speak disrespectfully of

..^.ii..<rities, and to observe the Rah-

ils. On the other hand, the grand rabbi,

.li, was strongly opposed to any aflilia-

.... ;.vo parties, holding that Karaites ought

• to be instructed in the Talmud, since they re-

His successor, Elijah 3Iizrahi, was more

and used all his iutluence to preserve

relations. The Karaite communit}', how-

• more and more isolated. Many of its

LUt to the Crimea; and those who were

iivcd in a separate quarter walled off from the

1 :•■- ■- -- ;i of the Jews in Turkey about the

Miiddle of the fifteenth century was so prosperous

and in such contnist to the hardships endured by

their fellow Ismelites in Germany and

Isaac Europe generally that Isaac Zarfati,

Zarfati'e a Jew who had settled in Turkey, was

L'tter. moved to send a circular letter to the

Jewish communities in Germany and

uiviiing their members to emigrate to

The letterisi)reservedin the Bil)liotliequc

■ at Paris (Ancien Fonds, No. 291). It

ii''* :i ' " ' -cription of the lot of Jews in

Turkey see Griltz, "Gesch." viii., note

C). i^rfaii suys:

' In whirh mithlnt: Is larklnjr. If yrm wisli.

^'"i- Tlinnmli Turkey you can safely reach

l* It mil U,-tt«-r u> live under Moslems than

■ '' Hi-r- voii iiiuy wear ihe llni-st stulTs. Here

■'1 vine and llir-lree. In fhristen-

• niure to dress your children in

viMjsiiiK Uieiu to the dancer of being beaten

ridi letter caused an influ.x into Turkey of Ashke-
■: be<-ame amalgamated with the
; - . iiauts.
The greatest Influx of Jews into Turkey, how-

' '' '•'""'iijr the reign of .Moiiiimmecrssuc-

. ./i<l 11.(1481-1512). after the e.xpuLsion

of the Jews from Spain and Portugal.

EflTects of That ruler recognized tiie advantage

Exj.uUion to liJK c.Mintry of this acces.siou of

from Spain, wealth and industry, and made the

Spanish fugitives welcome, issuing

orders to his prr)vineial governors to receive them

hospitably. The sultJin is said to have exclaimed

thus at the Spanish monarch's stupidity: "Ye call
Ferdinand a wise king — he who makes his land
poor and ours rich ! " The Jews supplied a want in
the Turkish empire. The Turks were good soldiers.
but w^ere unsuccessful as businessmen ; and accord-
ingly they left commercial occupations to other
nationalities. They distrusted their Christian sub-
jects, however, on account of their sympathies with
foreign powers; hence the Jews, who liad no such
sympathies, soon became the business agents of the
country. Coming asthe^'did from the persecutions
of Europe, Mohammedan Turkey seemed to them a
haven of refuge. The poet Samuel Usque compared
it to the Red Sea, which the Lord divided for His
people, and in the broad waters of which He drowned
their troubles. The native Turkisli Jews helped
their persecuted brethren; and Moses Capsali levied
a tax on the community of Constantinople, the pro-
ceeds of which were applied toward freeing Spanish
prisoners.

The Spanish Jews settled chierty in Constantino-
ple, Salonica, Adrianople, Nicopolis, Jerusalem, Sa-
fed, Damascus, and Egypt, and in Brusa, Tokat, and
Amasia in Asia Minor. Smyrna was not settled by
them until later. The Jewish population at Jerusa-
lem increased from 70 families in 1488 to 1,.')00 at the
beginning of the sixteenth century. That of Safed
increased from 300 to 2,000 families and almost sur-
passed Jerusalem in importance. Damascus had a
Sephardic congregation of 500 families. Constanti-
nople had a Jewish community of 30,000 individuals
with forty-four synagogues. Bayazid allowed the
Jews to live on the banks of the Golden Horn.
Egypt, especially Cairo, received a large number of
the exiles, who soon outnumbered the native Jews
(see Egypt). The chief center of the Sephardic
Jews, however, w-as Salonica, which became almost
a Spanish-.Iewish city owing to the
Sixteenth fact that the Spanish Jews soon out-
Century, numbered their coreligionists of other
nationalities and even the original na-
tive inhabitants. Spanish became the ruling tongue ;
and its purity was maintained for about a century.

The Jews introduced various arts and industries
into the country. They instructed the Turks in the
art of making powder, cannon, and other imple-
ments of war, and thus became instruineiits of de-
struction directed against their former persecutors.
They distinguished themselves also as physicians
and were used as interpretersand diplomaticagents.
Salim I. (1512-20), the successor of Bayazid II., em-
ployed a Jewish physician. Joseph H.vmon. This
.ruler also was kind to the Jews; and after the con-
quest of Egypt (1517) he appointed Abraham de
C.\STKO to the position of inaster of the mint in that
country. Salim changed tlie administrative system
of the Jews in Egypt, and abolisiiid the oOicc of
nagid. It is interesting to note that the Turkish
Jews were in favor of the conquest of Egypt, where-
as the orthodox [Moslems opposed it.

Sulaimau the lyiagnilicent (1520-66), like his pred-
ecessor Salim I., had a Jewish body-physician,
Closes Ilamon II., who accompanied his royal mas-
ter on his campaigns. Turkey at this time was at
the high-water mark of its power and influence and
was feared and respected by the great jjowc^rs of

281

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Turkey

Europe. Its Jews were correspondingly prosper-
ous. Thej' held positions of trust and honor, took
part in diplomatic ncgotiutions, and had sf) much
iiillucnci; at court that foreign Cliris-
TJnder tian ambassadors were frequently
Sulaiman compelled to obtain favors thmuixli
the Mag-- them. Commerce was largely in their
nificent. hands; and they rivaled Venice in
maritime trade. In Constaiilinoplc
they owned beautiful houses and gardens on the
shores of the Bosporus. In 1551 Nicolo Nieolai,
chamberlain to the King of France, who accompa-
nied the French and)a.ssador to Constantinoi)le,
described the Jews in Turkey as follows:

" There ai-e so many Jews tlirniicrliout Turkey, and in Greece
espeejally, tliat it is a great marvel and d(j\vnrifrlit increditde.
They increase daily throiiRli the commerce, money-chant'inp,
and peddling which they carry on almost everywhere on lanil
and on water ; so that it may be said truly tliat the greater part
of the commerce of the whole Orient is in their hands. In Con-
stantinojile they have the largest bazars and stores, with the
best and most cn pensive wares of all kinds. In addition, one
meets among them numy skilled artists and mechanicians, espe-
cially among the Maranos, who some years ago were driven out
of Spain and Portugal. These, with great harm and injury to
Christendom, have taught the Turks to make
Nicolo implements of war. . . . The said Jews have
Nicolai's also estatilished a printing-press, which is a
Account, wonderful thing to the Turks. They print
books in Latin, (ireek, Italian, Syriac. and He-
brew ; ^ut in Turkish and Arabic they are not allowed to print.
Besides, they know most languages ; so that they are employed
as interpreters" ("Viaggi nella Turchia," pp. 142-143, Venice,
1580).

Nieolai al.so mentions Hamon as "a person of great
honor, great activity great renown, and great
wealth."

If one recalls the warlike activity of the Turks at
this time, when they were laying .siege to Vienna and
threatening to overrun Europe, the full significance
of Nicolai's allusion to the manufacture of imple-
ments of war is evident. The Jews also had a more
direct influence on the making of war and of peace
through the diplomatic negotiations in which they
took part. INIoses llamon influenced the sultan in
favor of Donna Gracia I^Ikndksi.x; and the ruler sent
an imperial messenger to Venice demanding that
the authorities set her at liberty and allow her
to proceed to Turkey. 8he and lier nephew Don
Joseph N.\si at once took a ]iromineiit ]iart in Jew-
ish alTairs in Turkey. Joseph, through his wide
business connections among his fellow Maranos in
the capitals of Europe, was able to furnish the sul-
tan with conlideniiul information as to what was
taking jjlace at the foreign courts; and he soon be-
came a favoriti; ccjunselor. The stdtan was induced
to take an interest in the fate of the Turkish Jewish
prisoners at Ancona; and he wrote a haughty letter
to Paul IV. demanding their release. In revenge
for the fate of the other Jews at Ancona, the Turkish
Jews, led by Donna Gracia and Joseph, endeavored
to place an ellective boycott upon tin; p.ort of that
city, and to transfer its trade toFerrara; but the
scheme fell through owing to lack of unity among
its promoters. Jo.seph's inlluencc at court was fur-
ther strengthened by the fact that he opcidy sup-
ported the claims of Sidaiman's son Salim to the
throne at a time when the succession was doubffid.
He thus won that prince's lasting favor, of which all

the later intrigues of tjic French and the Venetian
envoys were unable to deprive him.

Sulaiman instituted for the benefit of ibe Jew*
the olliceof "kiahya" or Kaiiiva (N"np) Ii wan
the duty of tlii.s olliciui to rejjris. m
Office of them at court and to defend th. n,
Kahiya. against injuBiice and* :
first incumbent of ih(
by the sulUm hinis.lf, was Slicaltlei. There was the
more need for such u defender, since thr ' ■ ■'

Turkish cm|)irc were continually b«i: i

by their Christian neighbors. In Ainiu*ia, in Amu
Minor, the old accusation of ritual murder wax re-
vived; and several Jews were slain. loiter, when
their innocence had been established, the cadi in
anger put to deatii .some of the Greeks who had
made the accusation. Another insUmee of llie kind
led Sulaiman to enact a law tinder whidi all fuiure
blood accusations should be iri.d before the huhan
himself.

Sulaiman conferred the city ol Tib. ■' ; itx

environs upon his favorite Josepli Na i|if

latter at one time planned the foundation of n Jew-
ish colony in Palestine. The walls of Ti' ■
rebuilt, and Josej)!) invited Jews from I. .
providing shijis for their transportation. It is not
known how many responded to the call; '
scheme of a Jewish colony in Tiberias \.
realized, and Jo.seph appears to have transferred his
interest elsewhere.

At the accession of Salim II. (1566) Joscpii was
created Duke of Xa.xos and of the Cyclades Islands:
but he continued to reside at Constantino; '
pointing as his vicegerent for the islands u ."
nobleman named Coronello. Thus in less than luu
years after the Jews had been diiven out <>f 8|min a
nobleman of that realm was in Jewish em|Wny. In
the year following Salims:. an

French Austrian embassy was co: — in-<I

Ships to call on Jo.sepli Na,si and oUcr him
Seized by a fixed sjdary to secure !

Joseph In the next year he rn

Nasi. from the sultan empowering him to
seize the cargoes of French ships in
Turkish waters, to the amount of the debt wliich the
French government had long owed to the Mende«ia
family and which both Sulaiman and Salim hud un-
successfully tried to collect for him. In l.'iGU lie
finally succeeded in reimlmrsing himself from car-
goes .seiz('(l in the jwrt of Alexandria. F'
plaining and luotestingin vain. Not nmi'
were the efforts of the Frencii ambassador l<» under-
mine Jo.seph's position at the Turk '
Nasi, JosKi'ii). A few years later J. -
in influencing the sultan to make war jcc

bccatiseof Cypru>i. Joseph's infituii' >>• r.iil-

tan was known to be such that even i ndeni

applied directly to him. Emp«ror F< of

Austria addres.«ed a Utter to him. a.s did ...- ■ A jU-
iam of Orange, the latter Irving to jmiurc liim to
declare war on Spain. This move, althoi:

by Don Joseph, was oppose<l by tlie g:

^iohammed Sokolli. who liad long In-en his enemy.
Joseph's iidluence ceased at the <leath of Salim.
when the rule of the grand viziers. IxgitiiiiiL' with
Sokolli, commenced.

Turkey

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

282

V->"'- ' ''•ice was taken by another Jew,

who. although remaining more

li the grand

lUtact with

was even more influential than Jo-

' uily mentioned

f the time bc-

twtt^n the Porte and the other European courts.

"I been begun by one

i. Ashkenazi, who
:ig in behalf of peace while hostil-
was delegated by the
peace and was sent to
T that purpose. The Venetians, distasteful
' vt-re obliged to receive the Jew

. ue the ambassador of so power-
ful • nation as Turkey. Ashkenazi was influential
■' hoice of a king of Poland to fall
. He was likewise entrusted
. the negotiations for a peace between Spain and

1 . : ^ <" V

.\ i '!k- favor shown to individual Jews, however,
t the lot of the community as a whole,
» i, - I . depended on the caprice of a despotic
ruUr Sultan Murad III., for instance, on one oc-
casion ordered the execution of all the
Sumptuary Jews in the empire merely because he
Laws. was annoyed by the lu.xury which
they displayed in their clothing. It
waa only after the intervention of Solomon Ash-
kenazi and other influential Jews with the grand
vizier, t by the payment of a large sum of

'• • '■ ■.... I..: order was changed into a law re-
dress. Thereafter Jews were required to
■i of a turban, and to refrain

_ .--;ig their garments.

Certain Jewesses became prominent about this
itis and intriguers. Esther Kier.\
, imous as tiie favorite of the Vene-

tian sultana BafTa, wife of Murad III. and mother
'd III. Turkish women of tlie harem
exercised more influence than is com-
in Illy attributed to them: and the Jewesses who
■ me tliere in various capacities fre-
.- go-betweens, and indirectly influ-
1 the actions of prominent men. Esther Kiera,
•' ' - : ition as an intimate of tlie sultana
.il-imporlant in liie diplomatic iii-
f the time; and she carried on a traffic in
a ..._. i -.sf?. She acquired great wealtli, much of
\\\A(\i WHS fcfM-nt in helping her poor coreligionists
-' their literary efforts. Greed, how-
' -.ve overmastered her discretion ;
end. The Meiidesia family pro-
M, (iracia Mendk8I.\ and her daugh-

• -■ wife of Joseph Nasi, who did much

for the Jew* of Turkey. Another Jewess of irnpor-

low of Solomon Asiikenazi. Shesuc-

....^- the young sultan Ahmad I. of the

•nuiUpox. after all other doctors had failed. A con-

'■ ' • Ki<-ni in \rm wrote a letter

: a present from the sultan's

mother to the Queen of England. A translation

' ' ■ found in Kayserling. "Die JUdischen

i . , 91-92.

The prosperity enjoyed by the Jews of Turkey in

and in f
f-v« r
anri

the sixteenth century led them to entertain hopes of
«the Messiah, and cabalistic doctrines spread rajiidly.
Especially prominent in promoting them were Judah
Hayyat.liaruch of Benevento, Abraham b. Eliezerha-
Levi of Adrianople, Meir ibn Gabbai, and David ibn
Abi Zimra (Franco, " Histoire des Israelites de I'Em-
pire Ottoman," p. 52). In the early part of the cen-
tury the appearance of that eccentric adventurer Da-
vid Reubeni, who claimed to be an ambassador from
an independent Jewish king in Arabia, sent to seek
aid against the Turks, aroused hopes throughout the
Jewish world that he was the precursor of the Mes-
siah. Influenced by him, Solomon Molko of Portu-
gal began to have visions, and was moved in one of
them to go to Turkey. In Salouica, one of the chief
seats of the Cabala in the empire, he fell in with the
aged cabalist Joseph T.^iIT.^zak; and
Messianic in Adrianople he inspired the j'oung

Hopes. Joseph Caro with cabalistic visions.
Molko went also to Palestine and re-
mained for some time in Safed, at that time a veri-
table nest of cabalism. He proclaimed that the Mes-
sianic period would begin in 1540(5300 a.m.). After
Molko's death (1532) the Jews of Safed still clung
to their hope of the Messiah ; and, in order to pre-
pare the way for him, they attempted to introduce
unity into Judaism by organizing a recognized Jew-
ish tribunal or Sanhedrin. The plan, however, came
to nothing, owing to the personal rivalrj'' of the two
leaders of the Safed and Jerusalem communities re-
spectively, Jacob Bekab and Levi b. Jacob Habib.

After Berab's death Joseph Caro became the lead-
ing rabbi in Safed, having come to Palestine filled
with the idea that he was destined to take a promi-
nent part in preparing the way for the Messiah. He,
like Molko, saw visions and dreamed dreams. But
the visions and religious ecstasies of Molko and Caro
Avere as nothing compared with the extravagances
of the cabalistic leaders who succeeded them. In
the last three decades of the sixteenth centtiry Safed
and all Galilee became the scene of excesses of re-
ligious demoniacs, conjurers, and miracle-workers;
and cabalistic notions spread thence throughout Tur-
key and into Europe. This movement derived its
impulse principally from two men, Isaac Luria
and his disciple Hayyim Vital. The former com-
muned with departed spirits, talked with animals
and angels, and developed a peculiar theory con-
cerning the origin and quality of souls and their
migrations. The Zohar was placed on a level with
the Talmud and the Bible.

The prosperous condition of the Jews in Turkey
during this period was not a deep-rooted one. It
did not rest on fixed laws or conditions, but de-
pended wholly on the caprice of individual rulers.
Furthermore, the standard of civilization through-
nut Turkey was very low, and the masses were
illiterate. In addition there was no unity among
the Jews themselves. They had come to Turkey
from many lands, bringing with them their own
customs and opinions, to which they clung te-
naciousl)', and had founded separate congregations.
And with the waning of Turkish power even
their superficial prosperity vanished. Ahmad I.,
who came to the throne in the early years of the sev-
enteenth century, was, it is true, favorably disposed

283

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Turkey

toward the Jews, having been cured of smallpox by
a Jewess (see above); and he imprisoned certain
Jesuits for trying to convert them.
Seven- But under Murud IV. (1623-40) tlie
teenth Jews of Jerusalem were persecuted by
Century, an Arab who had purchased the gov-
ernorship of that city from the gov-
ernor of the province; and in the time of Ibrahim I.
(1640-49) there was a massacre of Aslikenazic Jews
wlio were expecting the Messiah in the year 1648,
and who had jirobably provoked the Moslems by
their demonstrations and meetings. The war witli
Venice in the first year of this sultan's reign inter-
rupted commerce and caused many Jews to remove
to Smyrna, whore thoy could carry on their trade
undisturbed. In 1660, under Mohammed IV. (1649-
1687), Safed was destroyed by the Arabs; and in tlic
same year there was a fire in Constantinople in which
the Jews suffered severe loss. Under the same sultan
Jews from Frankfort-on-the-Main settled in Constan-
tinople ; but the colony did not prosper. It was also
during this reign that thepseudo-MessiahShabbethai
Zebi caused such an u plieaval in Judaism. It is char-
acteristic of the Turkish attitude toward the Jews,
and in striking contrast with the attitude of Euro-
pean powers, that no steps were taken to punish the
Jews who took part in the agitation. Shabbethai Zebi
was one of the few pseudo-Messiahs who have left
sects behind them. The chief seat of his followers
is at Salonica. They are called " D5nmeh " (a Turk-
isii word signifying "apostates") or
The "Ma'aminim." There are three sub-

Donmeh. sects, Avliose devotions are separate and
secret. The first is tliatof the Ismirlis
or Smyrnians, who shave their cliins; the second is
composed of the followers of Jacob Querido, a
reputed son of Shabbethai, who shave their heads,
but not their chins; and the third, the mem])ers of
which shave neither the chin nor the head, consists
of followers of Othman Baba, who in the eighteenth
century tried to reconcile the first two sects. The
Donmeh resemble the Moslems and outwardly prac-
tise their customs, even going to the mosques on
Fridays. Their own meeting-houses, or "kals," are
secret, and connect with their dwelling-houses by
interior passages. They are very respectable and
prosperous, and are said to have no poor among
them (see Donmeii ; J. T. Bent, "A Peculiar Peo-
ple," in "Longman's Magazine," xi. 24-36).

Michel Febrc, a Capuchin monk who lived in
Turkey for eighteen years and wlio published an
account of his experiences there and in other lands,
has given a description of the Jews in Turkey in the
middle of the seventeenth century. lie says(" The-
atre de la Turquie," in "R. E. J." xx. 97 ct seq.):

"There are two classes of Jews in Turkey, viz., natives, or
original inhabitants of the rotintry, and stranpers, so called be-
cause their ancestors came from Spain and
Michel Portugal. The former, like the Christians.
Febre's De- wear colored turbans, and are only to be dis-
scription. tiiiRuislied from them by their shoes, which
are black or violet, while those of the Chris-
tians are red or yellow. The second class wear a ridiculous
head-dress, like a biimless Spanish hat. They have separate
cemeteries and do not agree with Jews of the other class on
certain tenets of religion. Both classes are found in large num-
bers in most of the cities belonging to the grand st-ignior,
<;specially in commercial towns such as Smyrna, Aleppo. Cairo,

Thejutalonlca. et^. Thi-v are in;iln!v'»-.-Tii.)ivi n« i

changers, and UHiirem ; In bi;

llifiii, hflling thi'Mi ui> iifw ;

as intermediaries In bair

terpn-ters. . . . Tlir-y hi.

mak(^ themselves uwful tn .

found any famllv of ImixirtJi-

cigii mercliaiit.H which har< not In Us

estimate mercliariUlM- and to Jud|{<< of

preter, or U) give advlci' on everything thu ukai iim ■

Febre also comments on llie liltli which he uoUcvd
in the Jewisii houses.

The history of the Jews in Turkey In the elRht
eentli century is princiiuilly a very lirief < '

(if niisf(trliincs. One; name hi
Eighteenth against the dark backgroiiDd — tliatof
Century. Daniel de Fonskca, who wa« . ' '
court |ihy.siciaii atxl played a c< :
political role. lie is mentioned by Voltaire, who
speaks of liim as an acquaintance whom ' •
highly. Fonseea was concerned in the
with Charles XII. of Sweden.

In 1702 a law was passed forbidding Jew h i. vs-.ir
yellow slippers and ordaining that in future lln-y
should wear only l)laek coverings for tiic feel and
head. In 1728 the Jews livingnear tiie Ihiluk Bu7.ar.
or fish-market, were obliged to sell llieir houws to
Moslems and to move away so as not to defile llic
neighboring mosque by their presi'ncc. In 17.')6<>ne
of the most terrible fires that Constantinople has
ever experienced broke out in the Jewish <jnarter
and devastated the city ; in the following year the
sumptuary laws against the Jews were renewo*!;
and in the next year an earthquake destroyed 2.000
Jewish houses in Safed.

In the beginning of the eighteenth centurj' a col
ony of Turkish Jews settled in Vieima. T' i-

tion was established in the I . f

Turkish Passarowitz (1718) between Turkey
Colony at and the German em|)ire. whirli made

Vienna. it po.ssibk' for the inhabitants of one
country to live in and to receive the
protection of tlie government of the other, and vice
versa. Many Turkish Jews took advunlJiire of tiiis
treaty to live in Vienna, which was forbidden to
native Austrian Jews. Consequently the latter ob-
tained passports allowing them to live iuVienna us
Turkish subjects (sec Austiua).

The destrtiction of the janizaries in tlie early part
of the nineteenth century (1826) wa.s a gn^at l»oon
to the Jews; for this lawless corp.s of soldiery bad
long been sucli a terror to thcin iliat
The the word "janissaro" was(an«I still is)

Janizaries, used by Jewish mothers to fri^:liten
tlieir di.sobedient children. The word
"janizary" (Turkish, "yeniciieri") was nppHcd to
soldiers recruited from Chri.«tians who ns rhiUlren
had been taken away from their parents and
brought up in the Moliammednn faith. Tlie corps
was first instituted in the middh' of tl ' 'h

century. No Jews appear ever to liav • ■ d

into this service; but they suffered most from the
excesses of this unruly , • • ' ", 'y

every great fire in Const . . c

Jewish quarter, being lighted by greedy janizaries,
who then pretended to help to qtiench the (lames.
while in reality they plunderetl the houses. The
rabbinical responsa from the sixti-enlli lo the nine-

Turkey

THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA

284

cvniury are full of cases submitted to Jewish
I, ■•«, asiyissiuations,

,, - mto victims at the

hands uf iIk-m.- soldiers, both iu Constantiuoplc aud
iij . V ' ' - Oil tain wealthy

J^ ^ . .11, held the posi-

tion of banker to this c»»rps. They were called

-. '' -111," "ojak sarrafi," or

". ., own Jews wlio occu-

|, were Judalj Kosaues, McYr Ajiman,

'" '. Ajiman. in the eighteenth

III and Belior Carmona,

I t ibe be^iinning of the uineteenth century. The

' ■' ' .vest classes at times fraternized with

;a tluir drunken debauches; and on

Hie day of ilieir destruction many janizaries sought

j^t. ... r .. :^|, liouSCS.

1 le of civilization existing throughout

T iie beginning of the wars with Hussia

jn ■ viiihcentury seriously affected the status

of >, who were in a miserable condition until

toward ihe end of the nineteenth century, when the
fruit of the labor expended by the Alliance Israelite
Univers»llc for their enlightenment began to be vis-
ible. The masses are still very ignorant; and in
the large cities they live iu cramped,

In the ilirty quarters. Their siifTerings arc
Nineteenth due not to the legal discriminations
Century, against them, but to the general eco-
nomic condition of the country and
U' erty and ignorance caused by tlie des-

pci. - - uf centuries. The attitude of the gov-
ernment is uniformly kind; and prompt punisli-
ws attacks on the Jews. Tlius repar-
•u the part of the government followed
the events that caused the D.\mascus Aff.\ik in
1840; the alxluction of a Jewish girl at Haifa iu
1804; tlie extortions of the governors of Bagdad,
I^rissu, and Salonica in 1866; the troubles in Janina
in 1S72; and those in Smyrna in 1873. In 1875,
through the intervention (jf the Alliance, the Jews
in the region of Diarbekr were protected from moles-
tiitjon by surrounding Kurds. In tlie same year in
Khuniu the Alliance brought about iheappointment
of a representative of the Jews in the general council
of tiic island ; and again in 1882 the threatened elec-
toml rigiits of the Jews were safeguarded. In 1883
the sultan publicly expressed his sympathy for

tl»" •" *" 'he Jews of other countries and declared

Id- tion at the presence of Jewish oMicialf! in

*•'• .Madministnition. That same year, when

a ■ -• .'.d the Jewish quarter at Ilaskeui, in

C' I he Kiiltnn subscribed .€T1 ,000 for the

relii ! ..(!(,..>.■ who had been left homeless, and placed
certain barracks at their dispo.sal. In 1887 the minister
plenipotentiary from the United Slates to Turkey was
a-^ ' irS. Stnius. Wlien Straus was replaced
by :i Hirsch. the grand vizier in his address

of welcome to the latter said (see "Allg. Zeit. des
Jud." Aug. ir,. 1889): "I can not conceal the satis-
fmlion U gfvtsmc to see that for a second time your
country has calle<l a son of Israel to this eminent
position. We have learned to know and esteem
your coreligionistH in our country, which they serve
with distinction." Sfraiis was again minister from
1897 to 1900. The Jews have been loyal sup-

porters of the government. Iu the war of 1885, al-
though not admitted to the army, they gave jiecu-
niary and other aid. In Adrianojjle 150 wagons
were placed by them at the disposal of the govern-
ment for the transportation of anuminition; and in
the war of 1897 the Jews of Constantiuoiile contrib-
uted 50,000 piasters to the army fund.

On the failure, iu 1866, of a Belgian firm, Baron
de HiRSCii acquired from the sultan concessions for
the construction of railways in Turkey ; and it Avas
owing to his enterprise that the importaut. line con-
necting Constantinople with the rest of Europe was
carried through.

The Turkish government discriminates against
foreign Jews visiting Palestine ; and they are not
allowed to stay in the Holy Land longer than three
mouths. The question of Jewish immigration to
Turkey came to the front in 1883, when the good
offices of the United States were invoked in obtain-
ing permission for Russian Jews to settle in Turkey.
In 1885 the Lubrowsky brothers, two American citi-
zens, were expelled from Safed because they were
Jews. The United States government at once pro-
tested ; but no permanent settlement of the ques-
tion was arrived at. In 1888 the Porte declared that
foreign Jews could not remain in Palestine longer
than three months, whereupon the governments of
the United States, Great Britain, and France sent
notes protesting against such discrimination against
creed and race. The Turkish government then an-
nounced that the restriction applied only to Jews
arriving in Palestine in numbers, the political effects
of colonization there being feared. Various protests
have since been made at different times and by dif-
ferent governments, but the rule remains iu force,
and foreign Jews are not allowed to remain in the
Holy Land longer than three months.

In 1895 the further question arose whether foreign
Jews might hold real estate in Jerusalem, and the
Porte decided it in tlie negative.

On the subject of Zionism, Dr. Theodor Heuzl
had several long interviews with the sultan in May,
1901 (see also Zioxism).

Accusations of ritual murder were frequent dur-
ing the nineteenth century, hardly an interval of
more than two or three years passing
Blood Ac- in which a disturbance on that scok;
cusations. was not created in some part of the
country. So late as 1903 there was a
serious outbreak in Smyrna. The Ottoman govern-
ment has always been quick to punish the guilt3\
The law made in the sixteenth century by Sulaiman
the >Iagniticent in this connection has already been
noticed. In 1633 a plot to injure certain Jews by
the same accusation was discovered by the grand
vizier, and the offenders were summarily puiiislied
by the sultan. In 1840 an outbreak in Damascus
(see Damascus Affaik) caused so serious a ina.ssacre
of the Jewish inhabitants that (he attention of the
outside world was attracted to the sufferings of the
Jews. A committee composed of Moses Montetiore,
Isaac Adoljihe Cremieux, and Salomon ]\Iunk jour-
neyed to the Orient and insi.sted on reparation to the
injured. This event, by revealing to the Western
world the miserable condition of the Jews in Tur-
key, led to the foundation of the Alliance Isuae-

Turkey

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

286

LITE L >

I.E. This society, through its
its manual-trainiug and agiicul-
^ -'.oir pupils for occupa-
■od with the handling
ey~kas done much and is doing more to ele-
r • ' ' >. The names of the Hirsch
s as well as that of Sir I^Ioses
will bo forever assotiated with the work
■'•-;, of the Jews in Turkey,
y and through philan-
Uiropic f' :s they have ably seconded the

' ' • ice. At different times cholera,

ive reduced the Turkish Jews to
■.-ry. which their Western coreligion-
• ' ■ ' <t to alleviate. The Jews in
I also by the Armenian troub-
le^ t uf the nineteenth century ; and
a : .- „.,..J in Keui Sanjak on the Little

; - period of Jewish literature in

Tu;-. ... :... fifteenth and si.vteenth centuries,

after the arrival of the Spanish exiles,
latarature. though before this time, also, the Turk-
ish Jewry had not been without its
literary and scientific men. Printing-presses and
!-; were established; and an active cor-

._, . . ith Europe was maintained. Moses

Capsali and his successor, Elijah ^Mizrahi, were both
■ rank. Thelatter was noted also as
rhiscomnieutary on Euclid's "Ele-
ments." as well as for his independent work "Sefer
" Mordccai Comtino wrote a Bible coni-
. titled " Keter Torah," and commentaries
on the mathematical and grammatical works of Ibn
E/ ' ' ;s, and on (he logical works of Aris-

U) . iionides. Elijah Cajjsali, in Candia,

a nephew of the hakani bashi, wrote in Hebrew a
' • -. of the Turkish dynasties (1523), and his cor-
. k-nce, entitled "Sefer No'am," is of histor-
ical value concerning the disputes between Italian,

'• ' ! Turkish rabbis. Another contributor to

ittrature was Samuel Shullam from Spain,
who edited Abraham Zacuto's " Yuhasin" (156(j) and
wr- • ■ ' '>ntinuatiou of Abu al-Faraj's "Historia
D. im." Solomon Algazi wrote a compen-

dium of chronology ; and Peraliyah and Daniel

C*-' ''■■'her and son) in Salonica, and L;sachar

Itj ill Safed, published mathematical and

il works. Karaite literature was repre-
Elijtth Bashyazi and Caleb b. Elijah
Af

lit as Talmudic authorities were

i.i- n of Jacob b. Habib of Salonica,

author of " 'En Ya'akob ") and Jacob Berab, the dis-
' hum, noticed above, causing tli(! lead-
writers to take sides with one or the
other. Moses Alttfihkar. the synagogal poet, defended

" " •< b. Joseph Trani, the ethical anrl

"»k up the cudgels in behalf of
Ik-mb. Trunl wrote a collection of ethical treatises
entitled "I" " Mm." and a commentary on Mai-
monlde«' ■ ,i Torah." Ilisson. Josc|)li Trani,

was also prominent in this field. Other Talmudic

"'''I'l"' David ihn Al)i Zimra, who wrote e.\e-

/»'''•''•' .and methodological wf)rks; Samuel

Soflilloof Egypt; and his namesake in Safed, who

wrote a commentary on the Palestinian Talmud. Col-
lections of responsa were made by David lia-Koheu,
David b. Solomon Vital, Samuel of

Talmud- Medina, Joseph b. David ibn Leb, Jo-
ists, seph Taitazak, Eliezer Sliiin'oni, Eli-
jali ibn Hayyim, Isaac Adarbi, Solo-
mon b. Abraham ha-Kohen, Solomon Levi, Jacob b.
Abraham Castro, Joseph ibn Ezra, Joseph Pardo,
Abraham di Boton, ^Mordecai Kala'i, Hayyim Sliab-
bethai, Elijah Alfaudari, Elijah ha-Koheu, Benjamin
b. IMetalia, and Bczaleel Ashkenazi of Egypt.

Commentaries on different books of the Old Testa-
ment were written by Jacob Berab, David ibn Abi
Zimra, Josejih Taitazak, Isaac b. Solomon ha-Kohen,
Joseph Zarfati, Moses Najara, Mei'r Arama, Samuel
Laniado, Moses Alshech, and Samuel Valerio. ]\Ioscs
b. Elijah Pobian published a translation of the Bible
into modern Greek (1576); and a Persian translation
was made by Jacob Tawus, who appears to liave
been brought from Persia to Constantinople by Moses
Hamon. Moses Almosuino, a celebrated preacher in
Salonica, wrote articles on philosophy and astron-
om}^ a coiTimentary on the Bible, a collection of
sermons, and a description of Constantinople enti-
tled "Extrcmos y Grandezas de Constantinople."
Poetry, al-so, flourished. The most important He-
brew poet of Turkey and of the century was Israel
b. Closes Najara of Damascus, who is represented in
the ritual of Jewish congregations everywhere.

The more distinguished cabalistic writers were:

Moses Cordovero, Solomon Alkabiz, Moses Galante

and his sons, Elijah di Vidas, Moses Alshech, Moses

Basula, and, most celebrated of all.

Cabalistic Isaac Luria and Hayyim Vital. The

Writers, leading representative of the Halakah

was Joseph Cauo, whose Shulhan

'Aruk, the only reallj' great work published on

Turkish soil, marked an epoch in the history of

Judaism.

Jewish literature in Turkey declined somewhat
after the sixteenth century. The best-known writers
of the seventeenth were Joseph Delmedigo, Joseph
Cattawi, and Solomon Ayllon; of the eighteenth,
Jacob Culi, Abraham of Toledo, and Jacob Vitas,
who wrote in Juda-oSpanish. A large number of
Talmudic works appeared in the eighteenth century
(see Franco, I.e. pp. 124 et seq.). Manj'- rabbinical
works in Hebrew were published during the nine-
teenth century also; but the Judteo-Spanish litera-
ture underwent a change, becoming more jiopular in
style and including translations of novels, biogra-
phies of eminent men, histories, scientific works,
etc. (see list in Franco, I.e. pp. 270 et scq.). A
certain amount of Hebrew literature has been pub-
lished in Turkey by Protestant missionary societies
(Franco, I.e. p. 276).

The only important Jewish writer in Turkish
was Haji Ishak EfTcndi, who became converted to
Islam and was in the service of the Ottoman govern-
ment as professor of mathematics and interpreter.

Tlie total number of Jews in Turkey, including
Syria, Palestine, and Tripoli, is estimated at 463,-
688 ("Bulletin de I'Alliance Isra.'lite Universelle,"
1904, p. 168). Of these, 188,896 (including the
Jews of Constantinople) arc in Europe. The accom-
panying table No. I. (coinpiled from Cuinct, "La

287

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Turkey

Distribu-
tion
of JeAvs.

Turquie d'Asic," Paris, 1892) shows the distribution
of Jews in Asiatic Turkey, Syria, and Palestine, ac-
cordini? to vilayets, saiijaks, and nnites-
sarifats or nuitessaritliks. Table No.
II. shows tlie Jewish population ac-
cording to cities, and the schools of tlie
Alliance Israelite Uuiverselle. AV'here
the two tables do not agree the figures in No. II.
should be given the; preference, as the Jews for vari-
ous rea.sons {e.g., the fear of increased taxation) are
disinclined to give correct figures to a representative
of the government ("Bulletin de I'Alliance," 1904,
p. 1G4). In the tables, names are spelled as in the
authorities cited.

Table No. I.

Jewish

vilayet.

Sanjak.

Popu-
lation.

Vilayet.

Sanjak.

Popu-
lation.

Adana . . .

No
Jews.

Dlarbekr.

Arghana . . .
Diarbekr . . .

405

284

Aleppo...

Aleppo

19,265

Mardin

580

Marasli

368

Erzeruni .

Erzeruni

Urfa

367

Konia

Adalia

424

Angora . .

Angora —

6 1

Burbur

Cirsarea.

H a ui i d -

Kir Sliehr.

A bad.

Vuzsat

478

Konia

Bagdad . .

BagduU

52,200

Nigdeh

Hillah

.500

Mamou-

Kerbela —

800

ret ul-

Jews.

Bassora . .

Amara

9:1(3

Aziz.

Bassora

2,050

Mosul. . . .

Mosul

6.000

Muntefllk . .

Sivas

Nejd

i,.5no

Jews.

Beirut . . .

Arre

20,637

Smyrna...

Aidln

2,024

Balka

297

Denizli.

Beirut

3,100

Menteche . .

423

Latakia.

Sarukhan . .

1,939

Tripoli

1,102

Smyrna —

18,130

Bitlis

Syria

Hamah.

Jews.

Hauran.

Brusa —

Brusa

2,701

Ma'an.

Ertoghrul..

S h a m - i -

5,380

Kara Hlssar

Sherif (Da-

Sahib.

mascus).

Karassi

501

T r e b i -

U u ni u s li -

Kutava

100

zond.

Khana.

Castamu-

Bolu.

Lazistan . . .

ni.

Castamuiii .

Samsun —

250

Kangheri.

Trebizond..

110

Si nope

Van

3<i0

Constanti-

(Asiatic)...

5,670

Bigha (cap.

2,062

nople.

Darda-

Crete

Candia

nelles)

Khania

525

Ismid

2.500

Lassethi

Jerusalem..

39,866

Rethymo...

Zor

Table No. II.

(Asterisks denote cities that have Alliance scboolsj.)

Tir.KJ';V IN EUROPE.

City.

♦Adrianople

Avlono

Baba-Eski

Camanova

Caraferia

Castoria

Caterina

Cavalla

♦Constantinople.

Dc leagi'.tch ...
♦Deniotika

Djumbala

Doiran

Drama

Eskiji.

Jewish
Popu-
lation.

17,000

iV)

.'JOO

1,6(K)

2,0(X)

65,000

200

906

175

380

185

Gallipoli I 1,200

No. of Pupils in Alliance Schools.

Primary.

Boys. Girls

355

1,338

558

1,861

Apprentice.

Boys. Girls

Table No. \\.— Continued.

(Asterisks denote cltloH thai have Alll^.n. <• ^

.No. of Pui

Prlmarv.

Boys.

Gumuljlna

Istip

♦Jiinina

Kirjiill

♦Klrklis-sfh

Louie liurgmi

♦MiiiiiisMr

Miistai)lia l'a.sha.

Nevrokop

Ouzun Ki'iprl

Preveza

Prk'htina

♦Rodosto

*SalonUMi

*Serre4j

♦Silivri

SouflU

Slruinnitza ..

Tcliorlu

♦Uskub

Yenibazar

Yenije Vardar .. .

Yevguell

l.:.i"

5UI

4,0U0

fl(t

1.000

360

o.(irii

172

1.7UI

;.*' > '

21IU

300

2.100

2.0IIU

1.200

INKI

1.7(»)

i:«i

Totals 18I-.

Turkey in Asia.
City.
Archipelago :
♦Chios

Cos

Milylene

♦Rhodes

'IVnedos

Asia Minor:

Adalia

Add Djevas

Adraliiit v ■ •

♦Aidin

Aliitab

Ak-lssar

Akra

Ala.shfblr

♦Aleppo

Alexandretla

Ainadia

Angoni

Aiitioch

Ardjesh

Argliana

Balikesser

Baindir

Bairaiiiltcli

liazddghan

BIridjick

Boiidroun

♦Brusa

♦Cassaba

Castainunt

♦Dardanelles

Iieiruiendjik —

DenlzU

Dlarbekr

Elbab-DJebul . . .

Elback

Endeiidsh

Erdeck

Ertoghrul

Erzeniin

Eski Sliehir

Ciheviis

(ilievasli

Hainid .\bad....

llchkiarl

Hfrina.stI

Ishifh

Isinl.t

Kardlglian

Kills

Konia

Kutava

LainpsakI

Lazistan

•.Magnesia

Makri

Mani-sh

Mardin

Ut\

100
4,(J(I0

21 1 J

211

3.500

K")7
427

:iM
;Wt

10,000
42

1,900
NK)
2t;6

1(11

170

1?!
4o I

3..VI;

i.ir>o

iiii

)..,

.'VAJ ,

K",

808 T24 50

138

48
1.17

241

121

311)

330
85

161

12t>

irj

!•«

Turkey

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

288

•J-..,.. V. iJ—Continufd.
<Aaert>x - that h«Te Alliance schools.)

TFMUT IJI ASJA

oir.

" *

■ 1

Skii>i

i •

KNPlrti ...

;

IV^~ '

1* »

!•

' Schools.

I'rtmary.

Apprentice.

vs. GirU. ' Boys. '. Girls.

:4r,

Mil
0 '

Tlijnm

Tokat

TreMxoiKl

Crta

V«a

ToarU

Crrtf:

Kiumia . . .

LUM'ttll ..

■.Ill I

A! l.mi

At.. . !."•'

Artt-U

Azer

•li-.-

CbaftNn

Cbatn

DIvanieb . . 7 1

VieUuk ]-■"

Faloud)!...
HalatxljB . .

HanaltiD i..>'

Hav -VI

Hlllaij ! Ml

HiDdleb

K.
K'

K.
K
K
K

M.-,,.i.,..

M'«.'il

Mou*M-)t>. . ■ «

Nanflfh ... ; «

|||.X..t ,1. .. .,,

hi.

.ua.';>rui

. , \\ <

•n-

c ;, •
'iMimasiTU*. .

<ta»

•H.. '

H-
'J*!" I .», <li

•J*ru«8Ufm 40,f««i

IVkliin ...

lluuWU

•*«ar.-<j

•Sai'U (aod eii»|.j

r.n«» I flio

•Tl»»rla«

291

4u4
IV)

ITU

;;ii

l^^t
321

19S
204

i:",

290

..^,,

3.715

2.431

Besides these schools, the Alliance has charge of
the following: the Talnuid Torahs of Adrianople
and Damascus, numljering respectively 1,0S3 aud
771 pupils; the Talmud Torah of Smj-rna; the
schools Revka-Nurial and Aaron Saleh, numbering
500 pupils, in Bagdad; and the common .school
in Smyrna, numbering 255 pupils. The Alliance
has also agricultural schools, which, together Avith
the industrial ones, olfer the most hopeful outlook
for the Jews of Turkey.

The Sephardim have held themselves more aloof

from the original Jewish inhabitants of the country,

and have preserved many of the customs which they

brought with them from Spain. The

Charac- chief seat of the Sephardic Jews is at

teristics. Salonica ; but they predominate in the
other cities of ■western Turkej'. Be-
sides these Jews of foreign descent there are the
original Jewish inhabitants of the country, called in
Palestine "Musta'ribin,"and also the^'Maghrabin,"
or Jews of northern Africa. In the eastern part of the
Turkish empire, in the vilayets of Van and Mosul,
are Jews who are said to be descendants of the As-
syrian captives and of those brought back from Pal-
estine by the Armenian king Tigranes III. They
are hardly distinguishable from tlic other inhabitants
of the country e.vcept by the long curls that they
wear hanging over the temples (Cuinet, I.e. ii. 654).
Of the 5,000 Jews in the vilayet of Van, only 360
adhere to their ancient faith, the rest having adopted
the religion of the Armenians.

The language spoken by the Jews in Turkey is
mainly a mixture of Spanish and Hebrew, in which
the former is the predominating element. The Ash-
kenazic Jews speak a Judteo-German
Languag-e. jargon. For about a ceutur}' after
their arrival in Turkey the Spanish
exiles preserved their mother tongue in its original
purity. Gonsalvo de lUescas, a Spanish writer of
the sixteenth century, says that he met Jews in Sa-
lonica who spoke Castilian with as pure an accent
as his own. In later years, however, through the
intermixture of words from Hebrew and other
tongues, the language degenerated into a jargon (see
Juu/KO-Sr.\Nisii). For some unknown reason, con-
trary to their practise in most lands, the Jews have
been slow to learn the official language of the coun-
try, which is Turkish. Even in the schools founded
by the Alliance a knowledge of French was at first
held to be more important. Of late years, however,
tlie Jews have become alive to tiie fact that through
their ignorance of the oflicial language they have
been crowded out of governmental positions by
Greeks and Armenians: aud an earnest effort is being
made to sjiread the knowledge of Turkish. The
Jews do not appear to have tlie same antipathy to
Arabic; and in Aleppo, Syria, and Mesojiotsimia, or
.south of the linguistic line dividing Turkish and
Arabic, the Jews ordinarily sjieak the latter, al-
though Hel)rew also is used. In the vilayet of
Van the Jews use an Aramaic dialect. Tlie Jews
are called " Yahudi" by the Turks, or, with more
respect, "Musavi" = "descendants of Moses." A
term of contempt which is very commonly applied
to tliem is "tchifut" = "mean," "avaricious."

The Jews Iiave in the main been well treated bv

XII.— 19

Turkay

Typ«B

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

290

he Turk'sh irovemment ; and, as compared with
llieirco: >ouutries gcueially,

n., - ,,j. V cil to few restrictions

Legal ai - dress aud residence. To-

Stalus of day ih .• tbe same privileges as

the Jews, all'-r.. -. nouMoslem sub-

jects, ■ - position wasestab-

1 iu the laws ul iIjc " uuzimet " (reform).
^ ,. ,. .'aiued iu tbe hatti-sherif of Gul-

1 d the hatti-humayuu of 1856, both

\ alMejid. The former

..... :.. ., ;;..s on an equal footing,

in inviolability of person and prop-

ned aud the privileges

„ ;c increased by the l.mtti-

■ assured to all subjects of the sul-
reed, the following rights: (1)
; .•-, and property; (ijcivil equal-
ity. (3Midmisjjion to civil and military service; (4)
1 -hip and public instruction ;

j^. . , , ' aiality on tlie witness-stand ;

(7) spijcial and mixed courts; and (8) representation
!■ .... inal councils and in the su-

j ^ e. This edict also adn)its

tlie principle of exemption from military service
" ' - on the payment of a fixed tax ;
- em at present in vogue, nou-
'•Iiislems not being admitted to the army and paying
' I tjix known as " bedel-i-askerieh " (see be-
After Uie D.\.M.v6Cis Akf.\iu in 1840 the sultan
:- ' - ial tinnan defining the position of the
.' lecting them from calumnious accusa-

tions, buitan Abdul-Aziz issued a similar firman
i- "•'■'• for a similar cause (Franco, " Ilistoire des
: - de lEmpire Ottoman," p. 222).

The constitution of 1876 proclaimed the equality
f ..11 < >... .;,^iis before the law, and admitted them
•e. Thus in the national assembly of
i-7 7 iiinf nf the deputies were Jews; there were two

i<vv8 iu " - Ue, and two in the council of state;

• nd the ,• of the council was also a Jew.

'111. however, was adjourned sine die
;.. world was able to discover what a
I urkiiih |)arliament could accomplish.

At the time of the Armenian troubles more re-

f .ii.s :iml privileges were granted to the sultan's

••m subjects, without, however, materially

their position. It is not from the nature

iws but from the method of their execution

liat the Jews in Turkey suffer; and in tiiis partic-

' '• no worse than all the other classes of

. . '0.

As n-gards taxation, it may be remarked that

■•'' a!)ove) was a ransom ex-

iimcdan law from conquered

u*s who ref use<I to accept Islam and hence were

iMi. I.ater it came to be regarded as a

:i for excn>i)tion from military service.

lUf Jrws of IJrusa were the first to pay tlic tax.

^' ' ' ■ - - Jfws wen; distributed into three

- to propr-rty: those of the first class
paid 4Mdnimsof silver; those of the second, 20; and
those of the third, 10 (a dram at that time was worth
a little over 5 rents). Thr- " hakam bashi," or chief
rabbi, the "millet-cha'ush." or secular agent of the

community, the " hakam cha'ush," or rabbinical rep-
resentative, the olUciatiug ministers, teachers, tlie
public slaughterer, and a few families specially fa-
vored by the state, were exempt from the tax. It
was collected by the millet-cha'ush;
Taxation, and as it was discovered that the sta-
tistical lists were not trustworthy, ow-
ing to the fact that the rich Jews sometimes paid
the tax for the poor, the Jewish tax-gatherers were
required to take an oath on a scroll of the Law be-
fore delivering the taxes collected by them.

At the end of the sixteenth century the significa-
tion of the term "kharaj " was extended to include
twelve different taxes; so that to be exempt from
the kharaj was to be exempt from all taxes. The
twelve taxes, paid by Jews and Christians alike,
were the following: (1) " saliane," or annual levy;
(2) •' ordu-akchesi," or army-tax ; (3) "resim-kismet,"
or heritage-tax; (4) "cherahor-akchesi," or impe-
rial pasturage-tax; (5) "kaza-akchesi," or tax for
maintaining the residence of the governor; (6)
"kassab-akchesi," or meat-tax; (7)
Amplifica- "chair-akchesi," or bird-tax; (8)
tion of "rab-akchesi," a tax payable by the
the Term community collectively; (9) "bedel-
" Kharaj." kharaj," or "bashi-kharaj," tax for
exemption from military service; (10)
" jelb-akchesi," tax for the support of the imperial
flocks; (11) tax for the support of the imperial cou-
riers; aud (12) tax to supply the sultan with furs.
Besides these levies the kharaj included certain serv-
ices to the number of seven, exemption from which
might be purchased. These were: work on the
fortifications, public buildings, roads, etc. ; sentry
duty, etc. ; and the quartering of new recruits. The
promulgation of the hatti-sherif of 1839 abolished
the kharaj in principle, although the tax survived in
fact as compensation for non-performance of mili-
tary duty, until the issue of the hatti-liumayun.
The admission of rayahs into the army as ordained
by this edict presented so many difficulties that a
new device was invented: every rayah purchased
exemption from military duty by paying the bedel-i-
a.skerich (see above) instead of the old kharaj.
The rayahs of Constantinople — Jews and Christians
alike — were exempt from this tax. In the prov-
inces the tax was collected by the "niukhtar," or
collector for the rabbinate.

In its turn the bedel was modified ; and to-day
the rayahs throughout the empire (Constantinople
excepted) pay iu place of the old kharaj two annual
taxes, namely: (1) the "bedel-i-askerieh," which
amounts to at)out SI. 68 for every male between the
years of twenty and sixty; and (2) the "darbieh," or
" yol-parasi " (road-tax), which averages about 76
ceuts for every male between the same jx'ars. In
addition the Jews pay communal taxes.

In the year 1864 the Jews of Constantinople, at
the request of the government, drew up a constitu-
tion which was approved bj' Sultan
Present Abd-ul-Aziz ]\Iay 5, IHO,"). This jiro-
Admin- vided for three councils: (l)a"mej-
istration. lis-'umumi," or national assembly, to
be composed of eighty members: (2) a
"mejlis-jismani," or temporal council, of seven lay
members; and (3) a "mejlis-ruhani," or spiritual

291

THE JEWISH E:^(JVCLU1'£I)IA

Turkey
Type*

council, of nine rabbis. The grand rabbi at Con-
stantinople has no authority over tiie other grand
rabbis of the empire, merely representing tluMU be-
fore the Porte and transmitting to them communi-
cations from the government. It should be stated
that beginning witli the reign of Sultan ]\Iahmud
II. (1808-39) the spiritual chief chosen by the Jews
has received the imperial sanction before entering
upon his duties. Tlie first rabbi to be elected in
this way was Abraham Levy (1885), wlio was in-
stalled in office with much pomp and ceremony.
His successor, Samuel Hayyim, was removed by
the government after a year of office because he
was a foreigner. Since that time there have been
fivehakam basins (see Constantinopi.k). The pres-
ent chief rabbi, Moses ha-Levi, bears the title
"kaimakam " (= "locum tenens")-

The judicial authority is in the hands of a bet din
of three members, who adjudicate civil and religious
cases, but may not pronounce sentence of capital
punishment. In the provinces the rabbi or a mem-
ber of the bet din represents the community before
the governor of the province. There are hakam
bashis also at Adrianople and Salonica in Europe
and at Aleppo, Bagdad, Beirut, Jeru.salem, and
Smyrna in Asia. See Auabia ; Bulgaria ;
Egypt; Palestine; Rtmamia; Seuvia; Syria;
and special articles on the cities of these countries
and of Turkey.

Bibliography : R. Andree. Zur Vnlh>^kunde tier Judcn, Bie-
lefeld and Leipsie, 1881 ; V. Baudin, £,«■ s Ixraelitex dc 0»i-
fttaxtinoplc ; Bidletiii de rAllUiiice IxratUtc, passim : V.
Ciiinet, La Turquie d'Asie, Paris, 1892; idem. Siiric Lilian
ct Palestine, Paris, 1896-1901; Pulido Fernandez, Log
Ixraelitas Expafioles, Madrid, 19(H; M. Franco, Exsai sur
VHistoire des Israelites de VEmpire Ottnman, Paris, 1897;
Frankl, Tlie Jeics in the East, transl. bv P. Beaton, London,
1859; L. M. G. Garnett, The Women of 'Jurkey, ih. imi;
(iratz, Gesch. Index ; J. von Hamraer-Purgstall, Gesch. dcs
Osmanischen Reiches, passim; M. A. Levy, Don Joseph
Nasi, Breslau. 18.59 ; I. Loeb, La Situation des Israelites en
Ttuyuie. Paris, 1877; Nicolo Nicolai, Viauui nclla Turchia,
Venice, 1850.
J. M. W. M.

TURTELTATJB, WILHELM : Austrian i)hy-
sician and poet; born at Rzeszow, Galicia, March
25, 1816. At the age of twelve he wrote a comedy
in imitation of Kotzebue's "Sorgen Oline Noth."
In 1830 he entered the University of Vienna to study
medicine (M.D. 1840), collaborating atthesame time
on the "Zuschauer," "Wanderer," and "Sammler."
From 1841 he practised his profession m his native
town. In 1835 his first work, " Wiener Fresko-Skiz-
zen," was published; and his one-act comedy "Der
Nachtwandler beiTage" was i)r()duced with success
at the Lcopoldstiidter Theater. At this time he
made the ac(iuaintance of Saphir, who induced him
to contribute to his periodical " Der Humorist." In
1837 his"JMur Eiiie Lost den Zauberspruch " was
played in Vienna and various otlier cities of Austria,
and in Germany also. His "Der Abcntcuerer " and
" Der Jusrendfreund " were produced at the Ilofburg
Theater, Vienna. In 1859 Turteltaub edited the
"Wiener Volksblihne."

Bini.ior.RAPiiY: Der Jlldisehe riutarch; Wurzbacb, liio.

graphisches Le.riko)t.

TUSHIYYAH (lit. "sound knowledge"): Pub-
lisiiing establishmeut founded in Warsaw in IHUfl,
which, though a iirivule enlerpriBe, in iu reulily u
Hebrew publication .socifty Ktrivjng lo further the
development and spread of Nco-llebrew litfniturc.
Its founder, BE.v-AvifiDou, wiio wuk also one of the
founders of the older and siniilar concern, tlie Ai.iia-
SAF, was its first editor, and .M. IJulusthor was his
associate in the business miinagemt nt. Tiie pri-wnt
(1905) editors arc Ben-Avigdor and 8. L. Gordon
(born iu Lida, government of Wihia. 1866). The
Tushiyyah's prf)gram is given in its Huijtiiie: "Tlic
editing of good and useful books in the Hebrew
language for the spreail of knowledge and for the
teaching of morality aixl civilization arnoir,; J<'wisb
youth; also scientilic books in all branciieH of litera-
ture." It has published, either in the original or in
translations, numerous novels, biographies, poems,
and historical and miscellaneous works, and has
contributed much to the revival of Hebrew liicra-
ture in its latest piiases. It has provided Hebrew
teachers with the most popular textbooks for the
elementary teaching of Hebrew according lonnMlem
methods, and has also done much to encourage tal-
ented Hebrew writers. Among the authors wIkjsc
works have been jjublished by the Tushiyyah are:
Frischman, Bernfeld. Brainin. Ludvipol. Slouschz,
Taviov, Berdvczewski, and Rabinowitz.

Bini.iooKAPiiv : }Ap\»;Bililiiiura))hiJThi
384, Vienna, 1899; U. E. J. 1902. j»j.«i
II. ]{.

jhiAcht)! Lcxtcnu, il. 32, STV-

fii.

IV Wi.

TURTLE-DOVE. See Dove.
TUS, JACOB. See Tawus.

TYCHSEN, OLAUS GERHARD: ( liiistian
Hebraist and Orienlalisl ; born at Toiidern ia .Slcs-
wick, Denmark, Dec. 14. 1734; died at R(»stock.
Germany, Dec. 30. 1815. He studied rabbinics at
the University of Halle, and journeyed thrmigh
Germany and Denmark in the years 1759 and 1760
on a fruitless mission for the conversion of the Jews,
giving ri.se to an unseemly altercation by a conver-
sionist sermon in the Altona synagogue. In the lat-
ter year he was called to the newly founded Univer-
sity of Biitzow, Mecklenburg, anil remained there as
profes,sor of Oriental languages till the university
ceased to e.xist (1789). when he l)ecai! • ' ' *" libra-
rian and director of the museum at 1. ^ Be-
sides many works on Arabic and Syriac archeology
and philology, he published "Bntzowische NelK'n-
stunden" (C vols.. Wisinar. 1766-69i. containing a
large amount of material regarding the text of the
Old Testament, derived mainly from J( v- ' -m-
mentators like Uashi and from the older n :is
the Septuagint and Targum. He clainutl the aluiity
to speak "the Talnuidic langmigc." and in a 8|XTial
monograph ilenied the authenticity of the Macca-
bean and other Jewish coins.

Bini.iofiRAPnv : Hiirtmiinn. ojiir (, -n.

1S18-2II; nnnkhnus KoinirMi ■<^«

and Stronjf, fi/c s.v. .

TYPES, ANTHROPOLOGICAL : Correlated
norms of racial .pialitics. Individ.iais av ' • ut

an inteirelation between the color of tb. .nd

that of the eves arc considered typical represrnta-
tives of their race. In the blond races fair hair is
generally accompanied by blue eyes; in brunette
races brown or black hair is generally accompanied

Type*

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

292

1 V I'.irk i V !. The former arc cousidcrcd antliro-

J types; tlie latter, bruiiLtte types.

■ - ' ibitsuch au iiitc-rrelatioii

1 eyes, having dark hair

with blue eyes ami vice vt-rsa, are called mixed

-' ■ - louderance of dark hair

L-e Eye; H.\in), authro-

w couuted them among the races of a

• e investigations of the color of the

1 oyt-s of the school -children in Germany,

' . 'own that the Jews have not main-

in as pure a state as has been gen-

Of 75,377 Jewish children e.\am-

- per cent were brunettes having both

.rkcycs; 11.17 per cent were blonds

• hair and light-colored eyes; and 42

... .. . ;o of the mi.xed type having cither dark

.. i r with fair eyes, or vice versa. In Austria, ac-
;iner. 3'2 to 47 per cent (according to

, ,: the Jewish children are pure bru-

s. and 8 to 14 per cent are pure blonds. In
T has found that only 49.57 per cent

: . :rcn are brunettes, while 8.71 are

slonds and 41.72 are of mixed type; and even in
North Africa, where the dark type predominates
among the Jews, 76.40 per cent are brunettes, 4.62
j-er cent are blonds, and 18.98 per cent are of mixed
tyi>e

Types op Pigment.vtiox in Jews of Vakious
cointries.

Type (percent).

Nativity.

Galirtan Jctrs :

M.-n in .New York ' 4.3.93

« .men in .New York.i 50 82

P ■..'••

... WM
.... •■. lilte-

•a
e
c

•r VorV.

.►5.09

13.12
16.39

0..52
5.:«
0..V)
8.50

8.73
12.f)0
10.19

42.95
32.79

36.83
44.64
41.5:3
33.00

38.18
ii.OO
26.75

j: >

=^5

Observer.

'huania.. 74.0i>

■, rV ♦'.! rii

Womim In LlUle'Rus- 68.69

•w York 46.07

'\ .New York..! 50.00

VI.81

O.UJ

2U.IJU

7.31

M.ll
16.20

43.38
;t<i.49
34.0U

0.90

24.30

10.06
13.64

42.07
30.36

12.14
5.13

42.15

8.87

40.32

305 Flshberg.
122 Fish berg.

315 Hshberjr.
5ti FishberR.
lK:t Elkind.
118 Elkind.

275 Fishberp.
100 Fishl)Prg.
314 Vakowenko,

Talko-Hryn-

cewiez.
iuu Vakowenko.

219|FLshberg.
74 ' Fishberg.
869 Talko - Hryn-

cewlcz.
799 Talko - Hryn-

cewlcz.

150

FLshberg.

44 I Fish berg

140 Fishberg.
:J9 Fisbberg.

124 1 Fish berg.

' adults anthropological investiga-
' 'at the brunette type is not in Uie

majority. From the accompanying table it will be
'' "' ' '" "'L'e of brunettes is only 43

'' ^. ^vhile it reaches as high

as 74 per cent among Lithuanian Jewesses. Blonds

are verj' rare among the Jews of Russian Poland ;
but among other classes they are encountered (juite
often. Among the Little-Kussian Jews the propor-
tion reaches 16 per cent. The mixed types are
everywhere found in the proportion of from 30 to
40 per cent of all the individuals examined.

The origin of the blond and mixed types among
the Jews has been a favorite topic of discussion for
many anthropologists. Some have maintained that

they are the product of intermixture

Orig-in of with the indigenous peoples of the

Blond European countries in which the Jews

and Mixed have lived; others show that even

Types. among Jews who do not live among

blond races, as, for instance, those of
Syria, Tunis, Morocco, and Algiers, many blonds
are met with. It is also shown that if intermixture
with northern European races were the origin of the
blond Jews, the countries whose non-Jewish popu-
lations present the largest percentage of blonds,
as Prussia, Lithuania, etc., should have the largest
proportion of Jewish blonds also. On the other
hand, in the south and the east of Europe, where
the Gentiles are darker, more Jewish brunettes and
fewer blonds should be found. That this is not the
case is shown by the following ligures, taken from
Virchow's cen.sus of the color of the hair and eyes
of school-children in Germany :

Per Cent of Blonds.

Per Cent of
Brunettes.

Province.

Jews.

Chris-
tians.

Jews.

Chris-
tians.

Prussia

11.23
11.17
10.32
10.38
13.51

39.75
31. .53
24.at
20.36
18.44

43.34
41.50
41.ft5
39.45
34.59

14 05

Hesse

VA 22

Baden

21.18
21 10

Bavaria

Alsace-Lorraine

25.21

These figures show in a striking manner that in
the provinces of German}' whore the percentage of
brunettes is smallest among the Christian popula-
tion—in Prussia, for instance, only 14.05 per cent —
the Jews have 42.34 per cent of brunettes; while in
Alsace-Lorraine and Bavaria, where the Christians
show 25.21 and 21.1 per cent of brunettes respect-
ively, the Jews have only 34.59 and 39.45 per cent
respectively of such. This is further confirmed by
the following figures (from the works of Virchow
and Schimmer) showing the distribution of Jewish
liure blond and brunette types in Germany and
Austria:

Germany
(Virchow).

Province.

Austria
(Schimmer).

Province.

Pure
Blonds.

Pure
Brunettes.

Silesia (<.20

Poiiierania S.a5

Brandenburg 9.64

49.53
.50.58
47.39

43.04
:».22

Bohemia

Lower Austria...
Moravia

8.29

8.69

9.86

13.55

13.97

46.87
46.16
4.3.15

East and West
Prussia 11.61

Bukowina

Galicia

35.21
32.91

Posen

I2.;j9

It is evident from these figures that the farther
one goes south and east in Europe, the smaller is the

293

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Type*

percentage of brunettes encountered among the
Jews and the larger tlie percentage of blonds. With

the non -Jewish population tlie reverse is the fact.
Most of the blonds are found iu Prussia, Ponicrauia,
Sleswick-Holstein, Hanover, Westphalia, etc.,'
while farther east, reaching to Posen, Silesia, Bohe-
mia, Moravia, Upper and Lower Aus-

Distribu- tria, Bukowina, and Galicia, the per-
tion centage of pure blonds decreases

of Blonds, and that of brunettes increases. It is
also noteworthy, as has been pointed
out by Virchow, that in localities where, owing to
religious and social prejudices, the Jews have lived
for centuries in strict isolation from other races, and
presumably have not intermarried with their Gentile
neighbors, the proportion of blond types is larger
than in the Prussian provinces, where they have not
been socially isolated, but, on the contrary, have
entered into general social intercourse with the non-
Jewish inhabitants. Here the largest proportion of

served that tlie Jews with fair eyes measure uu the
average l.()44 meters, and those with dark eyes 1.617
meters only. But all these couclusions are bused on
a small number of cases, and other investiga-
tions tend to disprove them. In Baden. OttoAmmon
found no relation between blond hair, blue eyes, and
dolichocephalism. while in Poland, Elkind noticed
that Jews with dark hair and eyes were Uiller tliuu
those with fair hair and light eyes, which phenom-
ena are the revei.se of those in the so-culled Aryun
typp- Similar results were obtained by Fishberg in
his observations of the immigrant Jews in New
York. The darker Jews had practically the same
head-form (cephalic inde.x bl.97) as the blond haired
(82.35). The same was the case with tall Jews aa
compared with those of siiort stature: the crunio-
metrical lines were about the same. Indeed. Jews
with fair hair and eyes were taller than those with
dark hair and eyes.

Fishberg concludes from all the statistics gathered

A c B

Composite Portraits of Ten Boys of the Jews' Free School, Lo.ndos.
A is the composite portrait of Ave boys, B of another Ave, and C a composite of A and B.

(From the " Journal of the Anthropolof^ical Institute.")

brunettes is found among the German and Austrian
Jews. But it must be mentioned that in Algiers,
Tunis, and Morocco, where the indigenous popula-
tion is of a dark type, the Jews also are darker.

It has been suggested tliat the blond tj'pe among
the Jews is due to intermixture with the so-called
Arjan, or north-European, races, in proof of which
the following argument has been advanced: The
Aryan type is known to consist in the combination
of blond hair, blue eyes, tall stature, and dolicho-
cephalism or long-headedness. Among the Galician
Jews, Majer and Kopernicki found that while
among the brunette Jews 6.2 per cent are dolicho-
cephalic, 20 per cent of the blond Jews of the same
section are so. This has been repeatedly cited as
evidencing a relation between bloudness and long-
headedness among the Jews in Galicia, and is
thought to be due to Teutonic intermi.xture. In
Odessa, Pantukhof (" Proc. Russian Anthropological
Society," pp. 26-30, St. Petersburg, 1889) has found
that the Jews who have dark hair and eyes are of
short stature, while those who have fair eyes and
hair are taller. In Caucasia the same author has ob-

by him that the ideal Aryan type is not to be ob-
served among the Jews. On the contrary, the rule
appears to be that tall persons have darker liair and
e^'es, and that a smaller percentage of them arc
dolichocephalic; while Jews of short stature arc t)f
fairer complexion and include a larger percentage of
dolichocephalic persons. This tends to exclude
the hypothesis that Aryan intluence is the cause of
the Jewish blond type; but it tends to conllmj the
theory of admixture from the Slavonian type.

BiBLiOGUAPHV : M. Fishbpr(j, 3/'i'< 'i.ii> (■■>■ thf rJin^ii-.i: In.
thri)^)i>lii{iji i)f the Ka.'<tern /■. '

the iV( ir Yurk Acailetim "* >
thrapiiliifiisi-hc lieiilitieltl "
Haare iinUOer lUiut In i .••
Pinimkeii, Tiitiiriu, Art
nnlotirieii, in t'lirrcKiiiii

schafl flir Anthroi)oUi\/n.. ..-

Eye and Hair.
.1.

M. Fi.

What is popularly known as " the Jewish type " fs
not a correlation of definite antliropological measures
or characteristics, but consists prin(' " <'ul-

iar expression of face, which is imii.' . . un-

mistakably recognized as "Jewish " in a large num-

Typography

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

294

M writ as

- ,.; ;... Jewish race. It has

lr<«n in New Yorii, Geutilc

• i;ly tlistiiiiruisli l)c-

r juvfiiile tT iiihill.

.le said to diffcieuti-

~ Willi oqviiil cxacti-

\vhites ami a Jew,"

whites" (Aiulrce, "Zur

: -' Yot when taken

; . .1 - usidemble proportion

ly their racial provenience. In

' .lol-chililren and

.iiind tliat while

r cent of the subjects can he more or

' as Jews hy tlicir facial ex-

4 47 per cent fail to show

feature which would definitely

thouprh if compared with

, i-;s they could probably be

It lias also been remarked that per-

' . e tlie Jewish expression in their

^ le and more as they grow from

inidiilc lookl age. Although Jewesses appear to be

' !e in appearance than Jews, they seem

type in its greatest purity when they

•ctunlly are Jewish in features.

T' - ' ■ iture of this Jewishness is ver}' dif-
fici. .ue with any degree of certainty or

accuracy. Evidently it is not in any
Expres- one feature, for whenever any single
sion. trait, such as the shape of the nose or
the brilliancy of the eyes, is assumed
to bff characteristic, the very next example is liable
tn lijsprnvc tiie validity of the test. The sole at-
any scientific discrimination of the
„ ...:,.. . ,j .. --iiin was made by F. Galton and Jo-
seph Jacolis in 1885. hy means of composite portrai-
• •• experiments Jewish boj'S of the
; ii. .-. liool, Loudon, were selected as being
.• Jewish in appearance, and full face and
were first taken on a uniform

i .. .... -;ierimposcd on a single plate, so

that the eyes and mouth in each case fell u))on the
" ite. By this means all the vnry-
, „ res blurred out, while the com-

mon characteristics were emphasized and became
results were given in "The Plioto-
, . April, 18Si, and in "The Journal of

the Antliropologicnl Institute," ISSo. The full face
■ ' ' n is made up of (/^f) that of five

.■ of another live, and (r) one; of
tlius giving the summary of the cliar-
■ - of ten typically Jewish boys.
"' . wibly Jewish in appearance, and

it will Ik? fdun.i that this character is given l)y the

,.. . 1 ' yc-s, nose, and lips, while the position

' of the cheek bone also serve to deter-
mioc it. The eyebrows are generally well-dftinod,
soinfwhut bushy toward the nose, and
Composito ! iiK-ring o(T toward the extremities.
Portraits. The eyes Ihem.selvesare generally bril-
liant, both lids arc heavy and bulging,
and it seems lo Im; the main characteristic of tlie
that the upper lid covers a larger pro-
; -. • -;ie itu|iil than among other persons. This
may serve to give a sort of nervous, furtive look to

the eyes, which, when the pupils are small and set
close together with semistrabismus, gives keenness
to some Jewish eyes. The lymph-sac beneath the eye
is generally fuller and more prominent than among
non-Jews." The high cheek-boue gives as a rule the
hollow cheek that adds to the Jewish expression,
while the nose in full face can be discerned only by
the flexibility of the nostrils, the chief Jewish char-
acteristic of this organ (see Nose). The upper lip
is generally short, and the lower projects, giving a
somewhat sensual appearance to the face. Thechin
almost invariably recedes from the lip, leaving an
indentation beneath it in the great majority of in-
stances. The ears of many Jewish persons project,
and in boys increase the impression of Jewishness.

With growth, as already noted, the Jewish ex-
pression becomes even more marked. In males this
may be due to the appearance of the mustache and
beard, and it is frequently found that

Adults. the mustache is somewhat sparse, a
rather bare portion intervening be-
tween the tuft imdcr the nostril and the mustache
proper. The beard is in some cases comparatively
thick and in others luxuriant, curling, and part-
ing naturally. It is to be observed that some Jew-
ish faces have almost all of these stigmata. Tiie min-
iature of Spinoza (.liiw. Encyc. xi. 512) shows the
brilliant and sensitive eye, the conspicuous nostril,
and the thick underlip. That of Benfey (id. iii. 16)
has the projecting ears, the thick underlip, and the
conspicuous ala; of the nose, while the lymph-sac is
well developed and the pupil of the eye is nearly
half hidden by the upper lid. Tiie same character-
istic will be seen in the portrait of ]\Ioses Berlin (ib.
iii. 80), which has, in addition, tlie marked eye-
brows and the curved nostril.

Besides all these details, there is something in the
whole formation of the face which is generally
found in the Jewish type. As a rule, the face is oval
in shape, especially in the best type of Jewesses,
and if regarded in profile, it is distinctly convex,
the nose being, as it were, an appendix to the ellip-
soid. It is rare indeed that a Jew is found with a
prognathous jaw.

Notwithstanding the .similarity of expiession
found in large measure among all Jews, there are a
nuiid)er of distinctions which eiiuble a close observer
to distinguish between various sut)lypes of the
Jew. Close attention to Talniudic study, combined
with the peculiar work of the sweatshop, ])roduced
ill eastern Europe what is known as " the ghetto
bend." The need for wearing phylacteries on the
forehead while the head is covered has led in many
instances to the hat being worn upon the back of
the head. These two characteristics often enable
observers to identify Jews from eastern Kuiope,
even before their faces are seen. Among them, too,
it has been claimed, various subdivisions can be dis-
cerned, consisting mainly in differences in the pro-
jrciion of the cheek-bones, tiie formation of the
e3'elids, and the thickness of the lips. It has even
been held bj'' those who believe in a strong ad-
mixture from surrounding nations that there is a
Slavonic, Mongoloid, and Armenioid t)'pe of the
Jew, due to admixture of Slavic, Tatar, or Arme-
nian blood. LiLschau indeed professes to regard

295

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Types
Typography

the last-named as the original source of the Jewish
race.

Numbers of Jews are found, on the other Iiand,
who possess none of the characteristics here noted,
and yet are recognizable as Jews. Tiiis is especially
true of the Little-Russians, who apparently resem-
ble their Gentile neighbors in every facial character-
istic, but are dilTerentiated from them by some sub-
tile nuance which distinguishes them as Semites. It
is seemingly some social quality which stamps their
features as distinctly .Jewish. This is continued by
the interesting fact that Jews who mi.x much with
the outer world seem to lose their Jewish quality.
This was the case with Karl Makx, II.\i,evy the
musician (Meyeiiheeh was remarkably Jewish), Sir
Julian GoLDSMiD, Sir John Simon (in -whom there
was a mixture of Gentile blood), Sir David Salo-
mons, and KuBiNSTKiN. Two illustrious living Ital-
ians, LoMBRoso and Luzzatti, woidd scarcely be
taken for Jews; and even the late Theodor Hehzl
was not distinctively Jewish, all observers drawing
attention to his resemblance to the Assyrian rather
than to the Jewish type.

BiDLiOGRAPnY : Jarobs, Jewish Statistics, pp. xxxii.-xxxiv.

TYPOGRAPHY : The art of printing. The
invention of printing was welcomed by the Jews as
"the art of Avriting with many pens." From the
time of the earlier printers reference is made to their
craft as "holy work" ("'Abodat ha-Kodesh"). It
may here be treated under the two headings of his-
tory and characteristics.

I. History: The history of Hebrew printing is
divided into live stages, of whicli only a sketch can
be attempted in this place, many of the details being

Jews made use of the art fur Htlircw printing, as the
conditions in Germany ditl not admit of their doing
so there; and all lh<' Hfbnw j)rintiMg of tin- fiftocntli
centnry was done in tiu; Italian and Il)eriun pi-nin-
sulas, where about 100 works were produccHi before

loOO. Hebrew p. ;

Incunab- and ajmrt from Ic .i,

ula. where the lirst printed book was

produced in liirt, and Rome, where
possibly llic earliest Hcbrfw press was set up, print-
ing was centered about Mantua, wlicre il begun In
1477. In the same ye.ir Ferrara and Bolo^a
started printing. The chief printt-r family of Italy
was that of the Soncinos, whi( h besides workiiiir at
]\Iantiia ])rintcd at Casale-Mag'giore, Boncino,
Brescia, Naples, and Barca. Uiblr, Talmud, and
ritual, halakic. and ethical works natunilly formed
the chief subjects of printing in tlifs<- early duyn.
In Spain, Hebrew printing begaji at Guadalajara in
I-IH'2, went three years later to Ixar, and Imi^licd at
Zamcra, while in Portugal it began at Faro in 11«7,
went to Lisbon in 1489, and finished at Leiria in
1792. The total number of books printed in Spain
and Portugal amounted to only 17. Tlie early typea
were rough in form ; but the presswork for the nio»t
part was excellent, and the ink and i)ap<r were of
very enduring quality. Owing to the work of tlie
censor and the persecution of tlie Jews, the early
productions of the Hebrew presses of Italy an<l the
Iberian Peninsula are extremely rare, one-!iftli of
them being unique (for further particulars sec Is-

Cl'NABULA).

II. (1500-42): This period is distinguished by the
spread of Jewish presses to the Turkish and Holy
Roman empires. In Constantinople, Hebrew pritit-

■ tJTjp Di5p3» r3P 5r J ic rbJ fro

'i)3i rr5i:i rin!' \r^bn .— rjo

?SD3

DW^iN iyaN'xn rm'^ua fm '?3iN

OT N^'n^Ni 21 noN mi.T 21 ion nn'H
i:!3ts5mu©mon'3N':oT.~a'xnT'pnr ^

'3nD1tWNinn3^a*7arODnhn3u;hn3i'.:NN:on^3n3'or'3nnSy3Syn33nb'pSnN3'«oNhNnn'n tikJ

«7Kya«;mi ':ilN:mTN nnaspi3 -3pn 3^mo nSi \i:pi ^:)ni 2P2^ fpi 'jnw 2^2 ioip::S '£)v %m rw" n

From the Tractate Baba Me/i'a, So.nci.no, 1515.

already treated under Hk; names of jn-ominent print-
ers or' presses. The five stages of Hebrew typog-
raphy are as follows: I., 147o-ir)00, incunabula in
southern Europe; II., ir)00-42, spread to north and
east; III., 1042-1027, supremacy of Venice; IV.,
1627-1732, hegemony of Amsterdam; V., 1732-
1900, modern period, in which Frankfort, Vienna,
and, more recently, Wilna and "Warsaw have come
to the front. For the most part Hebrew printing
has been done by Jews, but the printing of Bibles
has been undertaken also by Christian typographers,
especially at the miiversity towns of Europe. These
productions, for lack of space, are for the most part
to be neglected in the following sketch.
I. (1475-1500): It was twenty years before the

in<r was introduced bv David Nahmias and hw Ron
Sa'nuel about l.-)03 ; and they were joined in the year
1530 by Gershon Soncino. wij<.se work was token
up after his death by his son Eleazar (M-e Cox-

stantinopi.i:-Tvi'o.;kmmiv). Gershon S v'lt

into tvpe the tirsl Karaite work printed 1 1 i »

"Adderct Elivahu") in 1531. In Salonicu, Don

Judah Gedaliah printed about 80 llehi. w wm ks fitim

150(1 (mward. mainly IJibles. and Gei-shon Soncino. Ihc

AVandering Jew of early I'

Second pography, joined Ids kin.-. - . -^

Period. Som ino, who bad already produced 8

works ther. 'cd

the Arag«m Mahzor (iv..^ :. ^ ™-

shim " (1533). Tiie prints of both these Turkish citiea

Tvi-'Osraphy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

296

not of a very bigli order. Tlie works selected,

,.jwevcr. were important for their mrityaud literary

■ - The type of Salouica imitates the Span-

ty|>e.
Turning: to Germany, the nrst Jewish press was

- ; Pra^e by Gershou ben Solomon Cohen,

.Jcii in iliat city a family of Hebrew print-
rs, known commonly as "the Gersonides." He

burg and Ulm, and finally settled in 1546 at Hed-
dernheim, wliere he published a few works. At
Au"-sburg, ir)44, the couvert Paulus Emilias printed
a Judao-German Pentateuch. Three works of this
period are known to have been printed at Cracow,
the first of them, in 1534, a commentary of Israel
Isserlein on "Sha'are Durah" with elaborately dec-
orated title-page.

' 6-

- - t) 'i'j T" r^^ f^ =h:r^pfv J-s^i p ■; .^-3

pu.'T' -.- '31^ p3x.- rr3f>'-J
vnjx"' o-ur3rrr:;rrc;'rv
"J e5rrjT33x'35P&''wr"''i'3

■'c3 3i 3"^) j-':'p3 c^i^ { v?*? "^jsp (Syj^Pj-? u^j-? i" ji

*%>

j'':'p3 -5'r i.'.?''"^'.'^ rj) '5- '"5jn ^r*?:; ':^S jt? i^S^jj py«

«j NDX' in*: VwS 3r3i ^t y'^n Suyn

p:i )"P' :)-i-) 70 -ior ir nor 3o
7^3rp'-7 3v- {crirj -]':; o';r3
3d V2r/^r> n»"5D P)7i^ 3r j^p

From Tractate 'Ercbin, Printed by Bomberg, Venice, 1521.

.11 printing in 1513 with a prayer-book, and
uu:ing the period under review confined himself al-
most exclu.'iively to this class of publications, with
\ hich he supplied Jewish Germany and Poland.
;Ic was joined about 1518 by Hayyim ben David
^chwurlz, who played in northern Europe the same
wi:.,k'ring role the Soncinos assumed in the south.
Eruui 1514 to 1526 he worked at Prague, but in 1530

Other towns of Germany also printed Hebrew
works during this period, but they were mainly
portions of the Biblical books, mostly editions of the
Psalms, produced by Christian printers for Chris-
tian professors, as at Colog'ne (1518). Wittenberg'
(1521 onward), Mayence (1523), Worms (1529),
and Leipsic (1538). To these should be added
Thomas Aushelm's edition of the Psalms at Tli-

,"Q B^"tira

'7^1

From the First Illustrated Printed Haggadah, Prague, 1526.

he was found at Oels in Silesia, printing a Penta-
teufh with the Megilh.t and Haffarot. He tians-
ferr.fl his activity to the soiithwe.st at Augsburg,
where in 1533 lie publislud Raslii on the Pentateuch
and Megiliot. the next year a IIai,'gadah, in 1536 a
IctttTwriter and German prayer-book, and in 1.540
an fdition of the Turitn, followed by rimed Judieo-
German versionsof Kinss n.543) an<l Samuel (1.544).
In 1544 he moved to Ichenhausen, between Augs-

bingen in 1512. It Avas followed by his edition of
Kimhi's grammar at Hagenau, 1519. With these
may be mentioned the Paris printers of the si.\tccnth
century (from 1508 onward), who produced gram-
mars and Bil)les (see P.\uis).

Returning to the earlier home of Hebrew print-
ing, a considerable number of towns in Italy inul
Hebrew presses early in the sixteenth century,
mainlj' through the activity of Gershon Soncino,

^ «3f.o.-i •*•»'?> 'i;» -qp oil trm '
» ■ 'Cii^ja ajn^Ta 159^1 •' ip-jM ly^-

ypfn\V2 '^ifi' -na^^ nyff: witj.;

I '^siw :'n('>?-iv'-jTy»3.'.ii9'}«7^

From "Seder Teflllot," Verona,
1648.

;?? fv*>37) TJxS of^.Jjfl

«rja

From " Koh Tebareku,"
Leghorn, 1653.

fj:;^-> tt'*ipi it'tn '2^
i ci'?iy |nNi mu'S ij''?pi

p'yS Nat -iifcwnv pc'ibt'^

From "Seder Ttiiii.H.

ir^.

AuisiurUuni,

1J3*;) Tis'^^j ^r::;2 ^s:3 an

" " . I . ■• i T ,^^

From "Teflllot Ma'ariv," Sulzbacli, 173G.

I >i awy ^3 .Ik oaS >nnj run cn(< na^M

n>ri> 03S jri; vnt(»y ns ta ic»« i'>n

13 ic:i< ;nj<n Sj> c":n SsSi s'ovsm
13>ninh3t<S2vyv pTS3ri,s- n^cca

»iVK.n aunps i^Maiy »nM in-a
*) tj J3

SS'I : Ch3jf '•3' pic<ni :;iDun 1^5»1

ici* »r3t<S'.' Sao 'v'^co s'o ri3U^»i
»;;>3tn ci' nt< 3t"^^j< ti3»i i ncv

tn3t<S'2 Sao M3;:f 13 ?j OH cn,"jii

ewi3na pit<ni n-oo^i n^iStft n***

loy Sa» pKrj -.:•.■) 010 niunri'O
nn« I'j'ST wS o poy> n^u nnwn

From Peiituteucii, CuUsUtuUiiuiilt: ur baiuiik*. l-»<'.

Si'K( IMKN^ iiy SMALL Format.

Typorrmphy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

298

who is found in Fano (1515). Pesaro (1517), Or-
toi: "R !ii '1">'-1'. "tlicr presses were

• i:.. . Trino, Genoa, aiul Rome,

tbe lust under Elijah Levita. In Uologiut niue
works were pitxluced between 1537 auU 1541. maiii-

^w K'7^ 1ST}'] sV S:^'s n:Gn "nvv?

V b!;") TrA^^2n n^3 bv v^i5 mn
M r—.-:: i^.n'i? --^-^-g mn-s . t:V'i?^v

Protn tlw ** Wlkkiu^ " Printed by Sebastian Munster,
Basel, 1539.

It prayer-books and rcspousa. Above all. this
period is distinguished in Italy by the fouudation
and contiuuauee of tlie Venetian press under tlie
guidauee of Daniel IJomhehg, a Dutchman from
Antwerp. His thirty-live years' ac-
Daniel livity from 1515 to 1549 was in a
Bomberg^. imasure epoch-making for Hebrew
typography. His i)roductions shared
In all the excellence of the Venice press, and in-
' ' " ndibinie IJible in 1517, the first rom-

, f the Babylonian Talmud in 1520

(iU pagination is followed at the jjicsent day), a
'■<-rof ediiiniis of the Bible in wliole or
; »' grammatical, lexicographic, and mid-

ruliic wurks, seven conjmentaries on the Pcnta-
-i collections, iiliilosoidiical and
iiid several rituals, including a
and a Mahzor according to the Spanish rite,
' - • > the Greek rite (Mahzor Romania),
one. Finally, reference should bo
■ llie university press of Basel, where the
• pnMhiced Hebrew works in a remarkably
[X-. with tlie letters slanting to the left,
il after the manner of the early Mantua
Frolx-n began in 15IG with an edition of
:n«, and pro.|inr-d many of the works of Eli-
lx-vii:i iind Sebastian MCxstkk. Altogether
•'■■■- InriinablisOricnIaux." pp. 49-12S),miu-
11430 works produced between 1500 and
' forondssions by him, not more than
imKlured iK-tween 1475 and 1.540.
'': Thethird period isdistinguished
.ly of the censor, which lasted for two
; more in southern and eastern Europe.
The principle of regulating the books to be read
"iful, and even iiy the unfaithful, was
I by the Roman Curia in 1542, though
the flrsi carrj'Injf out of it was with the burningljf
' '"■ Hut even iirevif)U3 to that date
, 'autions U> remove all cause of
offense. About 1542 Metr Katzenellenbogen cen-
tred the selil^ot of the German rite, and Schwartz

< III- HI

and n

j..h

l."»4u. .\
OUO wor

in. C

adopted liis changes in the edition which lie pub-
lished at lledderuhcim in 1546.

Resuming the histoiy of the Italian presses, that
of Venice first engages attention. Bonibeig Avas not
allowed to have a monopoly of Hebrew
Third printing, which had been found to be
Period. exceptionally profitable. Other Chris-
Supremacy tiaus came into the field, especially
of Venice. ]Marco Antonio Giustiniani, who pro-
duced twent3'-fivc works between 1545
anil 1552. Another competitor arose in the person of
Aloisio Bu.\GAinNr, who began printing in 1550. In
the competition both jnirties appealed to Rome; and
their disputes brought about the burning of the
Talmud in 1554 at Ferrara, and the strict enforce-
ment of the censorship, even in Venice, the presses
of which stopped printing Hebrew books for eight
years. Similar competition appears to have taken
place with regard to the Hebrew tj'pesetters whom
the.se Christian printers were obliged to cmi)loy.
Cornelius Adi^lkixd and his son, German Jews of

nVan nh urn qcn n'?jn it^ aoK rx-^vy aoK mnp

c t irnnv n'?jn nV vin mSic is na n*no

Hi q'3KTtnK nny o j nnny nVjn »^ Kin
-'nMrny c jj<>n aoK -wv-o nVjn

q»nirmjt'K niTy 'p" ' j'nnny nVjntiV
'^5'?* ^}?^ 0 ! xw q-njt rv"*p nV jn w*;

^.';'"*."'"j n*'>«i 1 «■)" ~!t\^?^ h'^??' "rr?? riViS

r*'K'?Ki.t n'»n3n"»y nmiy p'jVjV iTvVnpn w*?
-Htt'N-'yjjt I nr^;^» niVj'? 3-ipn' Kb FinKCo rl^a a
^V^\V inrr-iHpob y->ij? qV3p\c'|nn-i<'7 qr'rp

rn3?)n n*'K osifp spvri »b n^rrwi i tit 'Sfi
rwH] pvnitcoV qnxip';np-i('7 ncn3-'7j3i twn

rW-p 'iH■l^,, C3;i'n iKce? Wtn^b^^ip nW-'7:3
y\Hr. Kpnin^Sjj nviy.ipi^i^y-iKn Kooni TtaoBi? ^ 3
^■J1 'cD«,'p-rKi •Wpri-rK a^ cn-ici^ i n'sw'-r^

From Pentateuch, Sabbionetta, 1557.

Padua, first worked with Bomberg, and then were
taken over by Farri (1544), and they appear to have
also worked for both Bragadini and Giustiniani.
There was a whole body of learned i)re.ss-revisers.
Among them should be mentioned Jacob b. Hayyiin,

299

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Typoirraphy

the editor of the rabbinic Bible, and McYr Katzciicl-
lenbogen. who helped to edit Mainionides' " Yad "
(1550). When Venice ceased for a time to issue He-
brew books, printins-: ^vas taken up in Ferrara(1551-
1557) by Abraham Usciue, -who ])rinted the " Couso-
laram" of his broMier Samuel Usque (1553). In
Sabbionetta (1551-59) Tobias Foa printed about

Keycrting u, Venice, printing was resumed io
l;)bt by Giovanni de Gnra. who took up V
of liondjerg. and between 15«.l und \r,(Vj , .\

more than lOo difT.-rcnt works. uiakinR use of Chris-
tian as well as .Jewish typcsotiers. among tl ' • •
bemg Leon of Modrna in the years l.",
Besides Gara there were Grippe. Georgio do CavaUI.

^nb^^pa ^tpi ^^hjy^h -iS^n'ia nb.isin ^f^fc^un " " ' j

From a Selm.iah, Heddernhkim, 1546.

twenty works, among them a very correct edition
of the Targum on the Pentateuch, employing the
ubiquitous Adelkiml to print a fine edition of the
"Moreh" and an edition of the Talmud in parts,
only one of which is extant. The Sabbionetta types
are said to have gone back to Venice when'the Braga-
diuis resumed work. In Cremona a Hebrew press
was set up in 1556 by Viucentio Conti, who issued
altogether forty-two works up to 1560, including

and tlie Zanctti family, but none of tliem could com-
pete with the activity of the Braga<linis. which was
resumed about the same time. They made us*- uf
Samuel Archevolli and Leon of Moderia among their
typesetters. It is wortliy of mention that several
important works appeared at Venice from printini:
establishments which can not l)e iilentilied. inclu-
ding the editio princepsof theShulhan "ArukdSeS).
A few works were printed at Rome (1546-61) by

r ''V^I^J

\n \

s-^ntr wi^^

X III

'^^5•".to^ T^ra dcs niTcm -fcv nra pn-- : ^^ ^--;.-

From the Hi:tteii Bible, Hamburo, 1587, Showi.no Hollow srrvilk Lktter.'!.

the first edition of the Zohar. 2,000 copies of which
were saved with difficulty fi-om the fires of the In-
quisition. His first edition of Menahem Zioni's
connnentary was not so fortunate; notwithstanding
that it had received the license of the censor, it was
burnt. About Ihirty-tlirce works were jjroducOd
<luring this period at Riva di Trento by Jo.seph
Ottolenghi under the auspices of Cardinal Madruz,
Avhose titular hat appears upon the title-pages of the
volumes.

Antonio Bladaoand Francesco Zanetti. and a couple
of works in Verona l)y F'rancesco delle I^inne.
The greatest activity in Italy out."- e wna

that carried on at Mantua by the 1; s. who

employed Jo.seph Ashkenazi and MeVr Sofer. both
from Padua, as their chief tyi 'v-

ity was followed by that of :., nf

Padua and Moses b. Kntriel of Pmguc. boih work-
ing in the last decade of '" "he
latter for the publishers N 'cr

Typocrapby

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

300

— . ... -vorks produced ul

iiicludiug a "Se-

vboabs "Monorat ha-

. •■: .v.i.a iu Itulian.

. tlie Hebrew press of Basel

r, c in the advent from Italy of Israel

t - one of those wandering master

V .e Soncino and Schwartz, charac-

teri/.etl the early history of Hebrew

FroV^en and printing. Through his workmanship

Wj.ldkirch. a nuinlK-r of important works were

d by Fruben of Basel between

1578andl584. ng a Babylonian Talmud, Isixac

Nttttian's Concortlauce. and the "'Ir Gibborim,"

for ^

Lxcerpts from the Bible; and in 16G3 Ilenrik GOde
printed similar extracts. In 1734 Marius Fogh (who
later bccanje city magistrate of Odense) published
an edition of Isaac Abravaucl's commentary on Gen.
xlix. This work, which bore the imprint of the
Copenhagen publishing-house of I. C. Kotlie, was
for sale as late as 1^93. Christian Nold's concord-
ance of the Bible appeared in 1679 from the press
of Corfitz Luft in Copeidiagen, and the solid quarto
volume, containing 1,210 pages, gives evidence of
the author's diligence, as well as of the printer's
skill and caro. A Lutheran pastor, Lauritz Petersen,
iu Nykobing on the island of Falsler, published
in 1040 a new Hebrew versification of the Song of

*>:? pb o?k:^ TDD if Qinb
r^'=.bpr> cpfr OP irb) p>j':i5

• • ,

0'^2nt2 D;jt)p o^Sycf D^Hyjf )

From a Commentary on Song ok Songs, Safkd, 1578.

whose publisher in Prague, finding that he could
not have printing done as well there as by Sifroni,
sent it to the latter in Basel. In the year lo83-84
Sifroui was working for Frobcn at Freiburg-im-
Breisgau, where he printe<l several Juda;o-German
worKs. including the Five Megillot with glossary in
red ink; lie printed also an edition of Benjamin
of Tudela"s "Travels." Froben's success, like that
oJ Bomlwrg. induced other Christian printers to join
in competition, as Guarin (for whom Sifroni also
worked). Helx-r. and especially Conrad Waldkirch,
who from 1598 on published a Great Tefillah, an
"Anik. an Alfasi in octavo, and "Synagogue Music
0! " by Elijah b. Moses Loans, who was lor

a '^ -idkirch's corrector for the press. Mordc-

cai b, Jacob of Prossnilz, who, as shown below,
had had a large printing experience in the east of
EurojK-. also a.s.Msled Waldkirch in 1622. After his
departure the Ba.sel Hebrew prints became scarcer,
"' ' 'led mainly to the productions of the

li- ..<• only sporadic Hebrew works were

produced at Altdorf, Bern, and Zurich (where,
however, one of the finest specimens of Hebrew
printing hud been pr(}<luced in the Jud:eo-Gcrman
•*Yo«ippon"of 154C). Reference may be here made
to prints of Paubi.s Fapiiisat Constance in 1043-44,
mainly with Jud:eo-G<rniau or Latin translations! i
Altogether the loUtl number of Hebrew works pro- I
dured in Switzerland was not more than fifty. '

The history of the H.-brew jiress in Denmark de-
«crv«s irtalmcnt in lidler detail, as it has been re- '
crnily investigated by SimoMsen. In l.")98 Ilcinrich
Wnldkirrh imporU-d some inferior Hebrew type to I
Copenhagen from Wittenberg; but nothing of im-
pori.inec was iirinled duiing the followin" three •
dccadea. In 1031 Solomon Sartor published some i

Solomon, intended as a wedding-present for the
son of King Christian IV. and his bride Magdalena
Sibylla. This work, which was entitled "Cauticum
Canticorum Salomoiiis," consisted of Hebrew verse
with Danish translation, and with various melodies
added; it was printed by Mclcliior ]\Iartzau. Sam-
uel ben Isaac of Schwerin published iu 1787 some
Talmudic annotations entitled *' Minhat Shemu'el,"
printed by the Copenhagen firm of Thiele, but
showing evidence of lack of skill.

To revert to Switzerland, Fagius printed a number
of Biblical, grammatical, ami polemical works at

I'P bh Tpij o»rD") V'^^ ^^^ '"^-^''"^ ^■''^'^
LJ2li^jr«np.icp,:.7.D r'="! cv-.n rnntru; ,

From a ConiiiiL'iitary on PirUL- Aljut, Cracow, l.W).

Isny, with the hel]-) of Elijah Levita, who produced
t here the" Tishbi.''-':\Iel urgcman," and "Bah ur. '■!)(•-

sidesaGerman translation of the '" Scfcr

Fag-ius and ha-.Middot " in ir)42, which is now very

Hene. rare. Another Chiistian ]Minter who

IS mentioned thioughout this period is
Hans Jacob ilcnc. who iiro(luce(l about thirty .Jew-
ish works iu Hebrew at Hanau (1010-30). He ca-

301

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Typography

tered more to I lie students of tlie Talmud and Ila-
lakali, producing three responsa collections, three
commentaries on the Talmud, the Tur and Shulhau
'Aruk, and three somewhat similar codes, as well
as a number of Judico-German folk editions like
the "Zuchlspiegel" or the " Brandspiegel "(1020),
and the " Weiberbuch " of Benjamin Aaron Soluik!
Among Jiis typesetters were a couple of the Ulmas,
of the Gi'mzburg family, and ]\Ioniecai h. Jacob
I'rossnitz, who Jias already been mentioned. Ilene's
type is distinguished by its clearness, and by the
peculiar form nf the " shin " in the so-called " Weiber-
deutsch." Oilier isolated appearances of Hebrew
works at Tannhausen (1594), Thiengen (1000),
and Herg-erswiese did not add much to German
Jewish typography in this period.

Meantime, in eastein Europe, the Gersonidcs con-
tinued their activity at Prague, especially in the
printing of ritual works; but they sulfercd from tlie
competition of the Bak family, who introduced from
Italy certain improvements from the year 1605 on-

trade Iroin 1550 onward, when an edition of the
tractate 8hebu'ot ajipeured in tlie former city lis
ininters were nmiuly of the JalTc family ; Kalouy-
niiis Ai)raliam (1502-1000) was followed by his son
Zebi (1002 onward), wjio made use of the s- ■ • .,{

the above-mentioned Mordecai b. Jacob of ]
The prints of the JaiTc.s were mainly prodnctjous of
local rabbis and Juda-oGerman works. Dining the
plague which ravaged Lublin In 15D2 Kulonvnni«
Jade moved his printing esUiblishmenl to Bistro-
vich, whence he is.sued u Haggudah witli Ahn.vi,-
nel's commentary.

It should perhai)s be added that at Antwerp mid
Leyden in tiiis luriod Hiblical works by Chiistiun
printers ajipcared, at the former place by llie cele-
brated Christopher Plantin, who got his type from
Bomberg's workshop.

IV. (1027-1732): This period is opened and dom-
inated by the foundation of the jire.ss at Amster-
dam, the rich and cultured Maranos of the Dutch
capital devoting their wealth, commercial connec-

jsy 3 spr.-t

Vsnc"

Tnlo ?3iliP3 of? ;?^ir> fhory p •jpfti >T)'br> ^^iw

i tniy :ipy) Dbnp I

vh j'b)pD *>-))p»?) prn\i?r> pw}> )0d: incbio I
Dppi )!> r»r'D iwi ?:)■) P)r:> 6iD r'pnc/'r5|>ft '
j»j6r \r)'bip rnpr? )rh) »p 6)?d d'RT zp)h rj)o
D)pr? Jpn D'>P? )Ij Jip'D ')b-) ?>?> ' >pjlw jtd ci'D
076? oj^if^i o')6p )'?) ^:;i »>p o?i r'Poroa
hz^L j:»Di inj pji 6i6 n^ij )3'b ^D^D pbiPD

Jl^LJy)53_3ij?3o6_a-ji)? 036 r?? if^b 2?i^ ■

From "Kkiiu.i.ot Va'akob," Venice. 1599.

•ward. Among the typesetters at Prague in this
period was the Jewess Gutel (daughter of LiJb
Setzer), who set up a work in 1627. At Prague
almost for the tirst time is found the practi.se of rabbis
issuing their responsa from the local presses. The
decoration employed by the Prague press of this
period was often somewhat elaborate. Besides the
illustrated Ilaggadah of 1526, the title-page of the
Tur of 1540 is quite elaborate and includes the arms
of Prague.

Ill Cracow Isaac ben Aaron of Prossnitz revived
the Hebrew press in 1569, and produced a number
of Talmudic and cabalistic works from that time to
his death in 1614, Avlien liis sons succeeded to his
business. He was assisted by Samuel Bohn, who
brought from Venice the Italian methods and title-
]iage designs, Avhich were used up to
Cracow and about 1580. He produced, besides the

Lublin. Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds,
two editions of the I^Iidrash Rabbot.
the " Yalkut Shim'oni " (1590), and several works of
]\Ioses Isserles and Solomon Luria, besides the " Yu-
l.iasiii," "Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah." and '" Yosippon."
Isaac 1). Aaron tor a time ran a jiress in his native
city ot Prossnitz, where from 1002 to 1005 he pub-
lished four works.

Lublin competed with Cracow for the eastern

tions, and independent position to the material de-
velopment of Hebrew literature in book form. For
nearly a century after its foundation Amsterdam
sujiplied the whole of Teutonic Europe with Hebrew
books; and the term "Defus Amsterdam" was used
to denote tyjie of special excellence evi-n tlioiiL'!)
cast elsewhere, just as the term "Itjdic" wnsappiinl
to certain type cast not only in Italy but in other
countries. The lirst two jiresses were set up in tlic
year 1027, one under Daniel de Fonseca. the otin r
under Manasseh ben Israel, who in the followiDg
twenty years ]irinted more than si.xty works, many
of them his own, with an excellent edition of the
Mishnah without vowels, and. chnrac-
Fourth uristically enough, a reprint of Al-
Period. molis " Pitron Haloinot ' (1637). The
Hegemony work in later times was mainly done

of Am- by his two sons. Hayyim and S-; '

sterdam. Toward the latter part of y\

ben Israel's career as a printer mi im-
portant competitor aro.se in the pers<in of ImmanticI
Benveniste, who in the twenty years 1641-60 pro
duced prayer-books, a Midrash Rabbali, an .Mfn'^i.
and the Sliulhan 'Aruk. mostly decorated with
elaborate titles supported by columns, which be
came the model tor .all P>urope. He was followed
bv tlw firm nf r;un)p.l A' Fxvi nr.4»^-00i. P.ar-

Typography

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

302

I;
11

to b

,, - -f Uni Phoebus

"s who was in

rdain on his own account from 1G58

'■'im through which the

:iting were transferred

between 16tf2 and 1695. His productions,

• • ' •■ style, were generally

nature, and he appears

prBycr- books. Mahzors. calendars,

rks for the popular mar-

'nis worked for the Ger-

iporaneously published

in- oi-ai.i.-ii Jcw<= wlin demanded

uprisings in 1648-56 were employed by Christian
printers of that city, as Albertus Magnus, Christoph
von Ganghel, the "Stceu brothers, and Bostius, the
last-named of whom produced tlie great i^Iislmali of
Surenhusius (1698-1703). A most curious phenom-
enon is presented by iMoses ben Abraham, a Chris-
tian of Nikolsburg, who was converted to Judaism,
and who printed several works between 1690 and
1694. Abraham, the son of another proselyte named
Jacob, was an engraver who helped to decorate the
Passover Haggadab of 1695, printed by Kosman
Emrich, who produced several important works be-
tween 1G92 and 1714.

nn^n

Mn3

il»rft; 7i:i r**) li?!^ »7 f>Tj

nop') 'r)\ tin^i ^5 ^^i^n

I venrinvaa -notriPimp o:33cdivi •mvoVcnn'sca pnocDi niTn ^ja'Dpi^-.rvKnrVrn^TnVvN'^vi

I ?rTn;a')ritfnTp3'oc^^'3*i'-Dn':E3^2^soin'3»5aiKinatt'»3''y • fn'iSmii*Dipnv''a;;t:'3py3n>':rmmi>'D*c3
I : C'T,-?; TN'V' is'D3 "nsV 'nh 'nV3DSiy3 nS*t23 nnx' dvc>3 oSipiv-^'^" kVi ,

\ . .- :^^_^l^^>^Ji '^*'»ni 'nKv^m x^tn ninca nViw Sr maiyVT ta: npisya^s gyp j

From a Passover Hagoadah, Amsterdam, 1095.

iisiK.ltv n much higher grade of printing, paper, and

than did their poorer German coieligion-

•'•). Athias' editions of the Bible, and

f the Pentateuch, for which he had

8 lielp. are cppecially line; and tlic edition

1 " wliidi his son and successor,

I in 170:3. is a noteworthy piece

of printing. A third member of the Athias family

pri! ■ ' ■ * • • .slat«!as 1739-40.

T iiiityof Atnst(!rdam liad also

of Abmham dc Castro Tartas (1603-95),

--< tmiler the Ben Israels.

in Spanisli and Portu-

nd in the decoration of his titles was fond

■ -" from the life of David. A number

' (1 to Amsterdam from the Ccssack

of I

Less important presses at the beginning of this
period were erected in Amsterdam by IMoses Cou-
tinlio, Isaac de Cordova, ISIoses Dias, and the firm
of Soto <k, Brando. Members of the Maarsseii fam-
ily are also to be reckoned among the more pro-
ductive Hebrew printers of Amsterdam. Jacob,
Joseph, David, and Mahrim IMaarsscn produced
many works between 1695 and 1740, among them
reproductions of cursive writing. Tin; last-named

settled later at Frankfort-on-the-]Main.

The By this time the Hebrew press at

Proopses. Amsterdam had ])ecome entirely

dominated by mercantile considera-
tions, and was represented by the publishing- and
printing-houses of Solomon ben Jo.seph Proops,
whose printed catalogue " Appiryon Shelomoh," 1730

'«^ nn nipt:? "ISO

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■lC-!DiiJft 1137 pft PMi

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Page from TIIK "MlKKAui uhia-

,\ .^I.-- 1 t 1.1 'A .■^i.

Trpocraithy

THE JEWlMi ENCYCLOPEDIA

304

' -. of its kind), shows works pub-

!'<« inaiuly rituals aud a few re-

: the - En Yaakob." the " Ho-

tl»e "Menorat hiiMa'or," two

1715). and the Jiidaeo-German

1." hroops was evidently adapting

, ■ -ulartasle from IC'JT onward. The

} . by him continued to exist down

of ihe nineteenth ctnlury, Joseph and

. I.. I in being members thereof from 173-i

u They were followed by Solomon

- in 179y, while a David ben

... ...-t of the family, died in 1849,

V sold the business to I. Levisson.

:•_• here of the two Ashke-

;,... . .; ; .....i-rdam, who added printing

to tbcir juridical accomplishments, Joseph Dayyan
fr ' : and Moses Frankfurter from 1720

U ; produced between the years 1724

and 1728 the best-known edition of the rabbinic
Bible. The only other Amsterdam printer whom it
U necessary to mention is Solomon Loudon {c. 1721),
on account of his later connection with Frankfort-
o- " .in.

,:)g the history of the Prague press during

two works there in poor style in 1691. lie was fol-
lowed in 1712 by Israel ben Meir of Prague, who
sold out to Ilirsch ben Hayyini of Fiirtli. Among
the loO productions of tiiese presses may be men-
tioned a list of post-offices, markets, and fairs com-
l)iled by the printer Ilirsch beu Hayyim aud printed
in 1724.

In Prague itself the Baks found a serious com-
petitor in Moses Cohen Zedek, founder of the Katz
family of tj'pographers; this comi>etiIion lasted for
nearly a century, the two houses combining in 1784
as tlie firm of Bak *.t Katz.

Cracow during this period is distinguished by the
new press of Menahem (Nahum)Meisels, which con-
tinued for about forty years from 1G31 onward, pro-
ducing a considerable number of Talmudic aud cab-
alistic works, including such productions of the local
rabbis, as the " Hiddushe Agadot " of Samuel Edels;
this was put up in type by Judah Cohen of Prague,
and corrected by Isaac of Brisk. The year 1648, so
fatal to the Jews of Slavonic lands, was epoch-ma-
king for both Cracow ami Lublin. At the latter place
a few works appeared from 1665 onward, mainly
from the press of Samuel Kalmanka (1673-83) of the
JalTe family.

c ?Dip rp 'C '51 ri':?5 *7o i3 c tit n^j rjip 'tv »'*'7f> ^5 ijui 3>'p ns

' ^^3^ racS ri-iiti) -yyw- i)0'c ^^^: '7D f o^ t^t • 7>i»p ?7c it rinj ,*>76 hs'o »7D nol

>pD5 c'p::i:?n b ^^^l (t':? t^3 t'pmipp J?jr» »i;'c o 7':? 7"d Po*?? 'wi7P' O'^dj J?•JT^ cj
'5)y'C3 nyi »ipc i'7i nt^c 'vi3 '10 •ji^J'w nui 'ipc7 'iST> o^vZi \*tc i':>i "?D 7»pyr5 c'o^ pVd
KD1J p v)37 •'>f>*J3 '^•)^"r np) ii|>c7 7"po piosi hh ^t ytopt o^ppj mspo oj ?i»w »7D

rpiipP OIC *h P>3 t'iP 'P'nPj CJ7 7Tyi P*3? nj7 07) 'J-} D/>S7 DPP hsi >S >3ih a>3-> ti'ni i
From Bacharach's "IJawwot YaTr," Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1699.

this period, the Buk family continued its activity,
especially in printing a number of Juda?o-German
works, mostly without supplying the place or the
diitcof publication. Many local folk-songs in Ger-
man now exist only in these productions. One of
the productions of this linn, a Mahzor, tlie lirst

pnrrro pi?:) ^"^^ ninsc^n j^^arn

From a Pentateuch. Amsti-nlam. lT2i>.
yoi. ...... r.r ^hifii rippoared in Prague in 1679, was

fl' 1 Wt'kfdBdorf by (lie production of the

s> •'. '

; .1 ilic Prague i)ress was that of

Wilhermsdorf, which was founded in 1669 in order
'• of the paper mills erected there

I'j ;l^>lienlohe. The first i)riiiter there

was Isaac Cohen, one of the Gersouidcs who printed

This period is especially distinguished by the rise
of the Jewish Hebrew press in Germany, chiefly in
five centers: (1) Frankfnrt-on-tlie-]\Iain, (2) Sulz-
bach, (8) Dessau, (4) Hamburg, and (5) Dyhernfurtli.
For various reasons presses were erected also in
tiie vicinity of eueli of tliese centers.
Germany. In Frankfort-on-the-Main the mu-
nicipal law iMohibited any Jew from
erecting a printing-press, so that, notwithstanding
its large and wealthy Jewish population, the earliest
Hebrew productions of this city came from Chris-
tian printers, especially Christian Wi'ist, who pro-
duced a Bible in 1677, and an edition of the " Haw wot
Yair " in 1699. Then came the press of Blasius Ilsner,
who began jirinting Hebrew in 16!^2, and produced
the "Kuhbueh" of Moses Wallich in 1()S7, in which
year he produced also part of a German Pentateuch
as well as a standard edition of the Yalkut. This
last was i)ul)lislie(l by the bookseller Seliginann
Reis. Besides other Cliristian printers like Andreas
and Nicholas Weinmann, .lohann Koelner produced
a nmnlier of Hebrew works during the twenty years
1708-27, including the continuation of an edition of
the Talmud begun at Amsterdam and tinisiied at
Fraukfoit-on-the-Main (1720-23); it is probable that

305

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Typography

the type was brought from Amsterdam. An at-
tempt ot Koelner to ])roduce 1,700 copies of an Al-
fasi by means of a lottery failed, though an edition
was produced in Amsterdam four years later. Many
of the typesetters of Amsterdam and Frankfort
about this period frequently alternated their resi-
dence and activity between the two cities. In 1727
few Hebrew books were produced at Frankfort-on-
the-j\Iain. In connection with the Frankfort book
market a number of presses in liu! lu'igiiborliood
turned out Hebrew books, in Hanau as early as
1674. The book entitled "Tarn we-Yashar" was
printed there, with Frankfort as its place of publica-
tion. From 1708 onward Bashuysen produced a
series of books, including Abravaiiel on the Penta-
teuch (1710), which was issued by Reis of Frankfort.
Among his workmen were David Baer of Zolkiev,
who had worked at Amsterdam, and Menahem
Maneli of Wilmersdorf. Bashuysen sold his rights
to Bousang (1713), who continued producing He-
brew works till 1725.

Homburg- was also one of the feeding-presses for
Frankfort, from 1711 to 1750. Its press was pos-

these first productions till the " Kubjjulu Di-niidata "
was finished in I(i»4. when Kuorr determined U> liavo
an edition of the Zohar prinU-d ut Sulzbacli. und
for that purpose Imd one Moses Hindi cut llibrcw
letters, with which theZnhar wus prinU'd in u rather
elementary fashion. This altnu-te<I utienlii.n to
Sulzlmeh as a printin^'-place ; ntid an irnpirf«ct
edition of the Talmuil wus printed in 1094 by Bloeli
and his son (the latter siieeeeded Blocb). The com-
petition of the Amsterdam cdidDn of 10»7-99 |)re-
vcnted its cotnphlion. Oiu: of the most curious pro-
ductions of the Sulzbacli press was a Piiriin paro<iy,
which was i.ssued anonymously in Ifiyrj. Bl A

followed by Aaron Frankel, son of one of ll,. ^

of Vienna, and founder of the Frankel-ArnBtein fam-
ily, having worked at the ollicc of Bloch im etirly uh
16H5. He set up his press in KJUil. his lirst prixlue-
tion being a Mahzor and part of the Talmud ; and
his son Meshidlam rarried on the press for forty
years from 1724 to 1767. One huniin-d and four-
teen productions of the Sulzbach press have Ix-en
enumerated up to 1732.
Fiirth also commenced in this period its remarka-

pt) m^ nwn mri rnv

tnvh w tvprf\ T^)Hi ^\)^x> ]^xn iio ")«i!) oipn nf> '):r)bT pi^n? ^i> iw? v?i nit '>? rh oj^ yi^ "rrS '

tlii o^3v frP p!)3u f)^c 'f T)')yo3 t^):ni r"w ivf^p i'"?? Vi j'pi? b3f> '^5n^3 rrf> zt? ]b'} h'^) ?c3ic
p^^r^bpi nop 0.11 D3 Di^pi, ft r)"r) 6^? 'f 0^3 ]>ii)i' inp73i: V'n 'yYif>3 'niJ? 'wi '^)rf)5 ^yf^: y^j t";:?^
rbiP r>"):55 r'i^^c?7 'r>j3 , , '^t^ ir>'\ i^'pi 'u^c: n^a

*'"^5:>7 '''vn ''•i)f>')D^ '''Ob '^Vy Nysaionjso mnsa ipoynjoN (to) p) 6'n qM-:5 y U^3 35

r3 ni^P "in^ b ?bD b^i of> r)"m '>bwm 'tppw v. w?) '^^^^ P'l^ '^3 ^?'^^ ^^^^

rbw i)>f> '^^f)X^37 )''b pnn6i f^.1pI5p^^^^v■!r):3PJ;7rc^rmD731pDPPP 'V5 'f 'iTr-3 ?-? '>:^' '01

piP7y p P?3 D.n fn-^-i ■ 'p)hn r; nvo^' ncxn n^ (op:o -i^i^'c: c-3 'vc H^ ^''^ ''^'"" '^ "I'^i ^-cnj

FUOM A "SHE'KI.OT I-TKSHUBOT" ok EYHKSClli'TZ, CARLSRrHE, 1773.

sessed from 1737 on by Aaron of Dessau, an inhabit-
ant of the Frankfort Judengasse, who produced
among other works two editions of the " Hiddushim "
of Maharam ScliilT (1745). Selignuuui Keis, who had
learned printing in Amsterdam, started another press
in Offenbach (1714-20), mostl}^ for Juda'o-German
pamphlets, including a few romances like the " Artus
Hoof," " P'loris and Blanchetleur," and "The Seven
Wise Masters." In opposition to Beis was Israel
IMoses, working under the Christian ])rinter De
Launov from 1719 to 1724 and for himself till as late
as 1743.

The history of the Sulzbach. Hebrew press is some-
what leniarkable. On May 12, 1664, one Abraham
Lichtenthaler received permission to found a print-
ing-press at Sulzbach. He began to print in l(i67
Knorr von liosenroth's " Kabbala De-
Sulzbach. nudata," a work which was for the
Christian world the chief source of
information as to the Cai)iila. This appears to have
attracted to Sulzbach Isaac Cohen Gersonides, who
produced in the year 1669 a couple of Juiheo-Ger-
man works, " Leb Tob " and "Shebet Yehudah."
from the press of Lichtenthaler. Nothing followed
XII.— 20

ble activity as a producer of Hebrew works, more
distinguished perhaps for quantity than quality.
Beginning in 1691 just as the \Vilnurs<|orf |>refi8
gave up, Joseph Shneiorestalilislied a pres.Hat Kimh.
which produced about thirty works during tin- m-xt

eight years. Most of his types<>tt«>r«
Fiirth and had come fnun Pnigue. An iqip***!-
Hamburg, tion pnss was .set tip later (Irt'.M, 1699)

by Zihi Hirsch liaLevi an<l his .son-in-
law Mordecai Model. This wa.s one of the presses
which had as a typesttter a woman. Heidiel. daugh-
ter of Lsaac Jutels of \Viln)ers<lorf. The former
press was continued in 1712 by Samuel Bon fed. son
of Joseph Shnei<ir, togi'tlur with Abniham Bing
(1722-24); the firm lasted till 1730.

Similar presses were lounde(J at Dessau l>y .Moses
Bonem (16<)6\ and at Kdthen in 17o7-lH by Isr.n-I
ben Abraham, the prosclytr. who had pnviously
worked at Amsterdam. OfTcnbach. and Neuwjwi.
Israel then transferred his press to Jessnitz, where
he worked till altout 1726, at whii h d;it<' ln' rcmovrd
it to Wandsbeck, near Hamburg, staying tlierc till
1733, when he wandered to Neuwied and bark to
Jessnitz (1739-44) together with ids sous Abraham

TypocT^phy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

306

aad Tobm-. Another proselyte. Moses ben Abra-
ham, had printiil Htbrew in HaHe (1709-14).
The • >u of the Hebrew press of

HAXobuig v....i,;kabIo eilition of a Hebrew

Bible, sti up by a Christian. Elius Hutter, and hav-

lifd by hollow type,

> ... ., ^ , ... ... y the radical letters.

Hutter was followed by two Christians: (1) George
who priutetl a Pentateuch witli Targiim

;'ar.>t in IGii'i; and (2) Thomas Kose, who

fr ::i 1'>"J i) 1715 printed several Jewish books and
y his.son Johann Roseup lo 1721.

i ^ (, ity of Altona Samuel Poppart

of Coblenz started printing in 1720, mainly ritual

1 he was followed by Ephraim Heksher

.Varon Cohen of Berlin in 1735.

Finally more to the east Shabbethai Bass estab-

T) . ' ■ rnfurth in 1689 a printing-press cs-

1 ; to iiK-eting the wantsof the Breslau

bcH'k tnarket, which had liilherto been dependent

upon Amsterdam or Prague. For the

Dyhern- varying history of his press, which

furth. lasted till 1713, see his biography

(Jew. E.ncvc. ii. 583). It was sold

by Shabbettiai's son Joseph to his son-in-law Issachar

( iiin for 5.000 thalcrs, who carried it on till

1T,"J, when he

li.i'l. his wife

then continuing

the business.

Hibrew works
were early print-
ed at Frank-
fort-on-the-
Odvr, by two
C;.;.stiaiis, Hart-
manu Brothers,
:i 1595 to
. ..i. who pro-
duced Bibles,
and Eiclihorn.
who printed
the •* Musar Has-
k'l" of Hai
Ga-'u in 1597. Their work was continued in the next
century by Profes-sor Beckmaun in 1681, and >Iicliael
<'■ • ■ k. who produ(;ed, at the cost of Baermann
idc, an edition of the Babylonian Talmud
ia 1698 to supply the loss of the Talmuds during the
f' -ack outbreaks. A second edition of this Tal-
r ! -vis prcMluced by Gott.schek in company with
i at Berlin, who had purchased a Hebrew
in 1097. They b.gun work in 1099, and
i vntateuch with a Bashbam in 1705, and
! Talmud in 1715-21. One of his chief
•^ was Baruch Buchbindcr, who afterward
i n Prausnitz. Otlier H.-hn w books were

I r aicitl by Nathan Neumark (1720-2(5). in whose
< !! jloy Aaron Cohen, afterward at Altona, learned
t. w I type.

In this period a beginning of Hebrew typography
waH made alw, in the Britisii Isles, by Samuel Clarke
at OxPOHD about 1607. and by Thomas Hive (1714-
I71«) in Ix>NDON. both Christian printers.

To return to the south of Europe: the Venice i)rc.ss
was carrif^l on by a succession of the Bragadiuis-

I
I

From

Aloisio II. (1625-28), Geralamo (1655-64), and Aloisio
III. (1697-1710). Among the Jewish setters or cor-
rectors for the press employed by the Bragadinis
may be mentioned Leo de Modena, Moses Zacuto,
Menahem Habib, Moses Hayyim of Jerusalem, and
Solomon Altaras. The chief competitor of the Bra-
gadinis was Vendramini, from 1631 cmward ; but the
opposition of Amsterdam reduced the activity of the
Venetian press toward the end of the seventeenth
century, while Leghorn began to cater to the
printing of the Oriental Jews about 1650, when Jed-
idiah Gabbai produced the "azharot'' of Solomon
ibn Gabirol. His chief production was a Yalkut in
1660, after which he removed to Florence and finally
settled in Smyrna, where his sou Abraham printed
from 1659 to 1680 with the aid of Samuel Valenci
from Venice. Abraham's productions include a few
Ladino works in Hebrew characters, among the
earliest of the kind. In Constantinople a family of
printers named Franco — Solomon (1639), Abraham
(1641-83), and Abraham (1709-20)— luoduced a num-
ber of casuistic works. Among llieir typesetters
was Solomon of Zatanof (1648), who had escaped the
Cossack outbreaks. The pause from 1683 to 1710
was broken by two Poles from Amsterdam, Jonah
of Lemberg and Naphtali of Wilna. Jonah of Lem-

berg printed a
\ • ■ • : 1 few of his works

at Ortakeui,
near Constanti-
nople, and final-
ly settled at
Smyrna.

With the year
1732 the detailed
history of He-
brew typogra-
phy must cease.
It would be im-
possible to fol-
low in minute
detail the spread
of II e b r e w
presses through-
out the world diuing the last 160 years. The
date 1732 is also epoch-making in the history of
Hebrew bibliography, as up to that date the great
work of Johann Christoph Wolf, amplified and

• r\}i0r\ -pem^ e]Da o'W} rlviuo n*^ i^

0V2

Sefer HokOiat ba-MLshkan," Lephorn, 1773.

pnM

V : rp^'J '5 |H32in (lb

From Moses Eldlitz's "Meleket ha-Heshbon," Prague, 1775.

corrected by Steinschneider in his "Bodleian Cat-
alogue," givesa complete account of the personnel of
the Hebrew press, both Jewish and Christian. The
list of these printers given by Steinschneider is of

♦ *»^»^!^»^ *^wk •>«»t^i«« «KB>^^_^ i_.^_: J -IT ' 1 ■ yij

■•• ijH'^sn rx ]yi~\2'' D''pn-]3 "^ap. 'p)

'|1m3X^ a-jp^^bx^p- V?7 linoiyDi |innlS^ '?3;2ni^'

From "sinniR Hkgyon Leb," KiiNiosBERO, 1845.

:fjf| D^^m oiTpg ^itDi'ts^ 1 105)5* lo^nss; ^'r)i;r2Dp l^^^1 :n^o't^^*j^J

nr)i-t5»KS nij? n^^s; »>? ^ jpnT ^ri-rn npieeKi -f^^'^ ^TQ^^n 1)^^^^^^^"^ ' tDTTT-

DK^itt^i Knerni «ians nncm «icJ:t Kwanr6 nro:^ ^i*%i-,^ «^(^'i-^-<' ^^f^ti'ml' um"^' »^-.«''vs

nV7B n? Tirmi' n :r6 nas^ri^ na n'a^ iTn-a nnnK '"^J? P|1D3 Dt^ill I'^'^rfTK H^ Dt*^1

^J3» nnPNi '^ni'?;; npni ^53 KP^bi^j? khi K^an'ri: nrni "^3 "^'If'^ ^ ♦ Y, •"^•TSr'^^ /7^*^ •

nJ5Ki '?TKn ,i:?nB n?V nnnK nneMi ''iV-f km ^xnin^ ri'^H H^n^J?;*! iN'.T'rp f*h17 rtynjp

: ran r: t^ T^^ «nn^.T fp Kn,^rp srrK T^ ^^j^^ 'f^^^ri'r^^ ^^r^^ ^><.n T'':^

■n^Ht'i,!^ rrtni) oninj-n h^h^ in\j>!} anw wnB'^n Mfp'jix ^ rwg •w'tH rt k't. o • KjfBT f-Tcirc^ frrr. rhn rrr^xir .«■- -^-p

tcifPV [tt fWrpK T f8< ?!ri3«3i MTtJi.i Ti rKR'Ufi K^'.D'J 135 «jrn3'?i S» j<;du U2 flw^. H^ij T'. ?m}:j rr.r'. »«'??*!S' rs"^: "~eri

T^ ♦^W ST»«n .ir* w"? ^'rr-H mew o : p^. HV1 invT, 'ja }p , t: nyj^ z\ hv. ."ntK» .Trmr^ <3)i

Kn«M '^.<-"'> ;!T^ t;3J/t .T^ jttjrrx^ ,rrnp .rrrir rx r-jryrr «-)

fWI" D^^'ttn '?;J3

j'UBp Mii ^6 *'t) fc«D7 bpiiJ (») : MhJ BTO17 i'o )iBi 6ip> PBWJ p^ pis' f'M 77•^1 t»o 'w«J 'j ..'b:- (>y(j):nr».'» eT»i' ?> '•? .-f»)f
PMb D?»!i bip ftvOTJ :B»in jib iici» hwi bJr»» p Jim m yjoi »7'c "its vmb ustn vp^p bpd '-tOi pb» p^»ii «i ppob »»V» c.-7u»

;tt>> r»?,('n Ji»f>) ft»u Pbj\-> Ji«bJ i?'*" b»».'i5 i*>>">i pwb bj wpt ?•> d^o cj ••»ho («)• ''oc) e-ii <>» V» Nu 'ijw D-rS o«j nix.-* 7T♦^^
i»«»i»Ji spji opm 77»M fesp (P91PB3) 'J 'p*m?i»i :i":n{ib psJpb rm pdvbb wiB pp^ p'p p»">t bj "'p' (3) : '"p "?» *»•' »~^ ^'ft'
:ft?D(> Dn»5 pcpii P3>np nopi pui5»b 'r.b o\j?m 7fe>»p Mb p'owd) nfei pbt »b>bb pjb>i p'bitoj pbi p>ci v''" "^^'to pcto pcwh 'r-Xis •)»ii j
Tvifci (ys 6'D) 7T7 '31 o'bdJbj 'B'spi iVftP T'''" *"'' PTipuj 'i iSHw (i) : f)P3Pj ppfc PI '•" PM ■»» Pi'^p »f> .vcopo r""" " -w ''^ f 'f ( 1

f30"l M-t:^f3K

rtKODJiu^ '\rt bsft .f>i3 sn? '3 dwI) ^'^^ T'* f^^ P^'' ^'' P''' ^*''* P'""' ""*' ^"^ *'^'^ """" ^ '^^ '''** ^^'^ • *'*^'
o>i \f) o>fl? pbi .^}?n p? 13 OTt)' '3'03CPi D71W 31P 13 ?D^?c ."WD ifr fc^p' bf^TTJC' ]"icbi . "3W Dwb* ^r)^3 "T-- "■—

From rE.sTATEicn, Vie.n.na, l^^y.

Typoe^rftpby

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

308

couiiderable importance, both for identifying un-
knowu or imperfect works of the earlier period, and

•A of persons learned in
1 it only us typesetters or
Many, if not most, of the
f recent date have been
rs of printing, whose
names are thus of impiirtance for pedigree purposes
(«- ■' .y). For tiiese rea8«ins Steinschneider's

li, rinted in shortened form.

a>
U
corrector* for the press

c»

.Vanie.

OK PUINTERS TO 1732.

A J
A
A
A

A
A

A
A-

u...

lanii b.Siini-

Place.

Lr»-Ou

:i) lMi\i(l Ueri. ..

ind

lD ut Ham-

>arnn (Shnoor Zalman) b. Gabriel

Afc ■■ '11

A i-ic (Drucker) b. Aaron

AnisurJara

AIn^Ie^(Jatn —

Hanuii

AmsUfrdani —

Amsterdam

Zolkiev

A <

Aa-

.r<^.f.T

b. Isruc

• -I'll Kpliralm.
Kruiiii'nau. .,

Akron Rodrimies-Mendes.
AaruD b. Sf lig u( Ulogau.

Aiiisterdain...

Haiiibiin-'

Offt'iiliucli

Siilzbacli

Frunkfort-on
ilie-<iiler.

Jessriitz

Berlin

Wandsbet-k . .

Altona

Aiiislerdnm...
Constantinople
Prossniiz

Amsterdam....
Wylifrnfurth . .
.\iii,sterUaiji

Constantinople
Amsterdani..

I'rdKiK'

frufow"

Aamn
Aarun

Abh»

A-

Ai., .

IlUtt.

iiiizl

'- .'■ ■' -• I'll

^^amuc-l b. Moses Ezra,
.^aron ,.

Jr.

A
A

Amsterdam...

IJerlin

Uyhernfurtli .

Hi-Tlin

Amsterdam...
Amsterdam...

Basel

Prajrne

Prague

Constantinople

Prague

Cracow

Crarow

Amsterdam..
Prag lie

Venice .
Venice.

Abraham h A l«»xfin'1«»r

A" II..

A ti.

.\
/.■

all b. Jarub

Abrahnm Amn^n h. Jamh Israel..

-' .rfali i).

A' ■ 'f .leniHalfm

Aiif.ii. , .. ..^iiUU; b. Aarun

AtiraiMin b. Uezalel of Puoen

A'
A

I'fi I iinK.ir
Abraham Breit b. .M

Adrianople (?)
CuiisiJiriiinople

Salonli'a

Venice

C^iiistanllnople

Smyrna

C<iiiHtantlno|i|e

I).llllil.S<-llS

Knmkfort-un-

tlie-<)der.
Leghorn ....

Salon lea

I'tajaro

Amsterdam.

Venic«

Lublin

Aarrm Smyrna

. I Brandon Am.sterdam...

Amsterdam...

Date.

-13.

1703,6
1097
1722
17-'l>, 30

1726

1716. 18, 21,
47

Ui59-64
1714-15,32
1716
1717
1719

1724

1724-26

1726

17;»

1721

1423

1608-9, 10-

12. 12

lS-19
1713
KVO
lti.59
1702 _
1576-77
16))1
170.V13
1608-9, 10-

j2, 17-18
1728, 30
170S)
1713
1717
1726
172:3-24
1700-17
lti09
162:j
17(Xi, 10

ir>t7
1614
16:i8-40.

■<S
l'il3
17(W
1674 (?)
irvJO
1.590
Ui-Vj, 57, 59,

60,69

1&54

1595

1599

1606

1711

1659

1516

lti<r>-6

1697-99

1653 54
1520
151 1

1722
1546

1622 26, 30,
:«'.}4.45,46
IIKXI. 71, 74
(d. 172.5)

1(5.50

43,

Name.

Abraham Broda b. Elijah of
Prague.

Abraham Ca.ssel

Abraham ("Senior") Coronel —

Abraham Dandosa

Abraham b. David Gojetein

.\braham b. David Nahman

Abraham h. David Posner

Abraham b. Doh (Baer) of Lissa..
Abraham Dorheim b. Moses

Dorheim.
Abraham b. Eliezer Braunschweig

Abraham b. Eliezer Kohen

Abraham b. Eliezer Rodelsheim. .

Abraham ibn Ezra

Abraham Facon (?)

Abraham Karaji b. Meir

Abraham de Konseca

Abraham ben (ibn) Garton b.
Isaac.

Abraham Gedaliah

Abraham tier

Abraham Haber-Tob b. Solomoa..

Abraham Havez

Abraham b. Hayyim.

Abraham Hiiyyim of Fano

Abraham Hayyon b. Solomon b.

Abraham".

Abraham Hurwitz b. Isaiah

Abraham Hurwitz b. Judah (Lob)

Deborles Levi.

Abraham t). Isaac Ashkenazi

Abraham b. Isaac b. David

Abraliam b. Israel

Abraham b. Israel Menahem

Abraham b. Israel b. Moses

Abraham b. Issachar Kohen (Kaz)
Gersoui of Prague.

Abraham b. Jacob

Abraljam b. .lacol) Levi

Abraham 'Israel) b. Jacob (Kop

pel) of Vienna.
Abraham Jedidiah de Cologna.

Abraham b. Jekuthiel

Abraliam b. Jekuthiel Kohen

Abraham b. Joseph

Abraham b. Joseph Manasseh...

Al)raham b. Joshua Sezze

Abraham b. Jcjshua of Worms...

Abraham b. Judah

Abraham b. Judah (Loeb)

Abraham b. Judah b. Nisan.
Abraham b. Kalouymus Keuinold.

Abraham Kara

Abraham Landau b. Jacob

Abraham Laniado

Abraham (.Kohen) de Lara

Abraham Lichtenthaler

Abraham Luria

Abraliam -Metides-Lindo

Abraham b. Meshiillam of Mo-
detia.

Abraliam Molko b. Joseph

Abraham b. Mordecai Kohen

Abraham b. Moses (Schedel)

Abraham b. Moses (joslar

Abraham b. Moses Kohen

Abraham b. Moses Nathan ,

Place.

Sulzbach

1715

Wilmersdorf ..

1716

Strasbuig

1521

Amslentam —

16(31, 67

Constantinople

1513

Cracow

1-586, 93

Plague

l(i()8

Salonica

1709, 13, 24,

Constantinople

1711

Wilmersdorf . .

1685

Amsterdam —

1701

Frankfort -on -

1719

the-Main.

Hanau

1610, 17

Basel

I61H-19

Cracow

1.589

Wilmersdorf . .

1 (i 8 5 - 9 0,

1712-23

Sulzbach

1691-1712

Cracow

1600

Salonica

1721

Naples

1492

Salonica

1.5i);3-94

Ainstt-rdam....

1627

Ileggio

1475

Leghorn

16;50-.57

Salonica

1651-55

Venice

1595, 99,

1614. 17-19,

24. 32-34,

37. 40. 42,

Leghorn

l(«)0-57

Amsterdam... .

1724

I'esaro

1477

Feriara

1479

Bologna

14H2

Soncino

14S8

Ferrara

1693

(.'oustantinople

1578-79

Amsterdam....

1728,29

Safed

1577-79, 87

I.xar

1491)

Cracow

1617, 18

Lublin

1.578

(Jtlenbach

1729

Neuwied

i 7:35-37

Jessnitz

17:39-40

Wilmersdorf . .

lt)79, 82

Sulzl)ach

16S4

Prague

1686, 88, 90-

Hanau

1726

Amsterdam —

172(i. :30

Frankfort -on -

17();5. 9. 11-

the-Uder.

Hanau

171.5. 47

Hanau

1611-14. 23-

:30

Lublin

1.571-73

Hamburg

1690

Constantinople

1732

Venice

lb96

Amsterdam —

164:3-48, 45-

Frankfort -on -

1697-99

the-Oder.

Constantinople

1 710, 12, 16-

20. 26-27,
37

Prague

I6I4. 17-19,

21-24,25

Salonica

I.5S7

Venice

1.5S9

Mantua

L>9-90

Naples

1491-92

Venice

160:3

Amsterdam....

1691

Sulzbach

1697

Jessnltz

1723

Amsterdam

1725

Mantua

1558-60

Salonica

1709

Amsterdam

1661

Prague

1602-4

W' andsbeck . . .

17:33

Bologna

1.5:38

Amsterdam....

1700

Date.

309

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Typography

Name.

Abraham b. Nahman Kohen

Alirahiun b. Nathan

Al)rahaiii ibn NaUian b. Hayyim
of Salonica.

Abraham Netto b. Joseph

Abraham (Hai) Ortona b. David..

Abraham ibn Paredes

Abraham Pereira b. Elijah

Abraham Perls

Abraliam Pescarol b. Kalonymus.

Abraham Ibn Phorni

Abraham Porto

Abraham Porto b. Jehlel

Abratiam b. Reuben Abi Saglo . . .

Abraham Reyna

Abratiam Rosanes b. Meir

Abraliam Sacchi

Abraham b. Solomon Levi

Abraham b. Samuel b. Uavld
Levi.

Abraham b. Samuel Kohen

Abraham b. Selig of Glogau. . . .

Abraham Selzerb. Aaron of Minsk

Abraham b. Shalom

Abraham Shalom b. Isaac

Abraham ibn Shangi b. Ephraim

Abraham b. Shemariah

Abraham Shoshan

Abraham de Silva b. Solomon

Abraham b. Simeon Friedburg. . .

Abraham b. Simeon Kolin

Abraham Sonina

Abraham Talmid Sefardi

A braham Uzziel b. Baruch

Abraham von Werd

Abraham ibn Ya'ish b. Joseph

Abraham ibn Yakkar b. Jacob

Hananiah.
Abraham Yerushalmi (b. Yom-

Tob V)

AbVaham Zalah b. Shabbethai

Abraham Zarfati

A braham b. Zebi

Abraham (Hayyim) b. Zebi

'Hirsch).
Abraham b. Zebi of Cracow

Abraham b. Zebi (Hirsch) Kohen

Abraham b. Zeeb (Wolf) Levi..
Adelkind (Brothers)

Adelklnd (Cornelius b. Baruch) . .

Adelkind (Daniel b. Cornello).. .

Akiba b. Uri (Phoebus)

Alexander b. Ezekiel

Alexander b. Hayyim Ashke
nazi.

Alexander (Siisskind) b. Kalony-
mus.

Alexander (Sender) b. Me'ir Kas-
sewitz.

Antunes (Antones ?), Aaron

Aryeh (I.oeb) b. Uershou Wiener.

Aryeh (Judah Loeb) Krochmal b.

Menahem.
Aryeh (Judah) Sabibl b. David.
Aryeh (Loeb) b. Saul b. Joshua...

Aryeh Sofer b. Hayyim

Aryeh b. Solomon Hayyim

Aryeh (Loeb) b. Solomon Kohen

of Przemysl.
Aryeh (Judah Loeb) Te'omim b.

Aaron.
Aryeh (Loeb) b. Zeeb (Wolf)

Levi.
Asher (Anschel)

Place.

Lublin

Amsterdam.
Constantinople

Venice

Verona

Constiintlnople
Ctm.stantinople
Amsterdam...
Venice, Cre-
mona.

Venice

.Venice

Verona

Venice

Constantinople
Constantinople

Venice

Hamburg . . .

Constantinople

Berlin

OlTenbacli. ...
Wilmersdiitf . ,
Dyhernfurth . .
Wandsbeck . . .

Hombiirg

Frankfort -on -
the-Oder.

Prague. .

Salonica

Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople

Venice

Amsterdam . ..

Prague

Constantinople

Naples

Venice

Fiirth

Constantinople

Salonica

Venice

Date.

Ifi35

uv,->

1718, 17, 18,
19

1(123
lt«2
l.')23
1642-43
ltl78
1544, 65

65,
84,

Constantinople

Venice

Amsterdam...

Lublin

Verona ,

Amsterdam....

Amsterdam...,

Cracow

Frankfort -on •
the-Oder.

Amsterdam

Venice

Venice .

1565
1.563. 64,

66, 74,

88.89
1594
16(KJ

\rm

1711. 19-20
1586
1706-7
1692

1.561

1711-12

1721

1726

1733

1738-41

1702

1608
1717
1534
1539-40

1672,78,1728

1728

1713

1697

1717

1492

165,5-56

1699

15a5, 9

1.520

1718

Sabbionetta . .

Venice

Herlin

Prague

Amsterdam...

Plague

Amsterdam...

Frankfort -on

the-Oder.

Amsterdam..

Berlin

Bologna

Zolkiev

Frankfort - on -
the-Main (.')
Amsterdam....

1512

1.599-1606
162(3-27
16:^7
1649 (?)
1725-32

1641, 43

16(i3

1697-99

l(5as. 1706
1519. 21, 22,

22. 24
1524. 24-25.

27, 28-29.

44. 45. 45.

46, 46-48.

48-49. 50-

52, .52
lo5;i-54
l,>I9-53
1713
1618-20
1616-17

1700, 2, i

1718-19

1717-21(25?)

1727

1711
17(W

1709

1710

1686,99

1700

Name.

Asher (Ans.hel) AllscbQler b.
Naphtall llcrzel.

Asher (Anschel) b. Ellezer..

Asher (An.schel) b. FJl)ah

Asher (An.schel) b. fierslicm Kohen
Asher (Selig) Uurwliz b. liuiac

Levi.
Aslier (Selig) b. Isaac of Diibno. .
Asher (Selig) b. Isjiuc Kohen....
Asher (.Anschel) b. Meir Proslllz.

Asher Miriz b. Perez

Asher (Anschel) h. Mo.ses ....

Asher Parenilo (I'arenz) b. Jacob.

Asher Tikttn b. Menahem

Astruc de Tonic, n b. Jacob

Athias, Abrahuni b. Raphael Hez-

ekiah.

Athias, Immaniiel b. Jcweph

Athias, Joseph b. Abraham

Azariah

Azariah Talmid

Azriel b. Joseph (b. Jacob Uuil

zenhauser) Ashkenazl.
Azriel b. Moses

Azriel b. Moses Schedel

Azriel Penihyah Kohen

Azriel ben Solomon Diena

Baer (b. Meshullam Zalman

MirlsV)of Posen.
Baerle Rappa

Baermann b. Judah Lima Levi

of F.ssen.
Bak (Israel b. Joseph b. Judah). .

Bak (Jacob [II.] b. Judah)

Bak (Joseph [I.] b. Jacob)

Lublin '.«

Prague livo

Prague Itta. 23-^.

I 24,29,.'.7-00.

I I ^

Bak (Joseph [II.] b. Judah) ' Prague '■ ■-• T».

PUce.

Dale.

Pnmiinltz

uvu

Pmgue

\>*n. n-17.

IK. ■M-Sl.

22 21

AriiRleriliim....

lUttl H5. Ml,

KJUB ■ KlU.

5. 13

AitiKitTdnm

liitw

I'nigue

liUW lU

Lublin

1(124

Sulzbttch

i:(«

Heiiin

I70B

AiMNii'nliim... ,

I7i«

Nupli-K

( nu'ow

l(H3

\enlco

l.'i7Ufi6

(nicow

L'AIH

CoriHtanilnopje

I'.KI ;«

Amsierdum....

172H 41

Amsterdam

I7f«)-fl

Amsterduin...

ll.-J. K-,

Bnlcgna

Venice

Naples

l4Ui. M

Hanau

iTia

FQrtb

I72B

ItKr.' 9. 13

Amsterduiii...

17(11

Sabbionetta \.;)

IVi(>-.5l

Beriln

1716-17

Frankfort -on-

1713

the- .Main.

1007-80.1721

Prague

\l\^^ hii, 90,

Bak (Judah [I.] b. Jacob)

Bak (Judab [II.] b.Mosesb.Jacob)

Bak (Moses [I.] b. Jacob b. Ju-
dah).

Bak (Moses ben Judah)

Bak ( Vom-Tob Lipman b. .Moses b.
Jacob).

Bak, Jacob (I.) b. Gersboo Wahl..

Baruch

Baruch Bloch b. Jacob

Baruch Buchblnderof Wilna.

Baruch b. Ellezer Kohen

Baruch of Frankfort-on-lhe-Oder,

Baruch b. Joseph b. Baruch.

Baruch of Korez

Baruch b. Lipmann Wiener.
Baruch (Bendet) b. .Nathan.

Baruch b. Simluih Kalman

Baruch b. Siinliah Levi

Baruch b. .'iolomon

Baruch Czzlel

Baschwltz (.Meir b. Zebi Hlrscb)

Baschwltz (Zebi Ulrscb b. Meir).

Bat-Sheha (Abraham Joseph)..
Uat-siieba (Abraham b. Matla-

tliiahi.

Bat-Slieba (Mattlthiab)

Bella Hurwitz l>evl

Benjamin ( Benus<-h)

Benjamin (Wolf) h. Aaron Ellezer

Worms of Durlach.
Benjamin b. Aan.>u Polacco

Prague.

Prague .
Prague. ,
Fflrth . . .
Venice..
Prague.,

Benjamin b. Abrabam Cracow

Pesaro . . ,
Cracow . ,
Herol ...,

PrnvIllLZ

Berlin '

Venice

Frankfort -on -
thiM Hler.

L«'gbi)rn

ITacow t

Ain.Hlerdani I

Fuitb

Sulzbach

Venlcv

Anist«Tilani ,

.ul>lln
Kerrara.
Jessnitz
Iterlln
llerlln
KniniifiTf -on-

I n

Salonica

Venmn

Saliinlea

Sjilonlca.
Prague.
Ijfmlvrg (?)
y ' .-n

. 61-
17(6,6.8.13-
ltitB.07.1716

ltW7

IT! : 14 is

1.5
1517
1(M)
I7t»*9
1711

I7I2 1.5. 17
!■.:■'

Mantua

Venice

1-V.7
lit (7

iTaiJ-?7

I7•J7■,^s

l(J7ii. 74
llEtU
l.UI. M

ir.»i-x'

1738

17(11. a. 9

17W

171(1.9)
1723

Lvte-iaos

1.WI
l«i'>. S-4

172*
1712 16

1719. 21
1724.27
172h. 29. 30.
♦4. 53
163!i-;». 40

Typo»T»phy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

310

Nftme.

: > b. Abnluun
: Abraiuuu Ki>-

Lublin 1.t74-"5, 76

Wlluieredorf . • 1 Ibi <

IWoU) b. Aiiber lAn- Amsterdam.

b....
;iafi..

BM>)uiiln b. Eltjati Le^

(ZievO MuU> b. Jacob of I

AtnsienlaiM....
Frankfort -on -
•' • i >iler.
,a-li.
A...>i. rJam...

Prague

Amsterdam...
Prague

iMriijaiixin b. Jehiel Olicbael) of Amsterdam

1692. a>-96,

irr. 1703

164o

KkJO. 97-99

1631-33
ltt.'4
U>87-«8
1688

1702

^ i'rmno. .

ivyau

B-

M'^ws b. MatUUilab

'all Moees.

.- Uubels

. 'UCantoris

tj. Solomon Ko-

-;iac...

r ».-ijL»-iiiMe (Im-

" ''^■'■•i<)

. ZaI-

Hanau 1624

Amsterdam.... 1708-10

Uniiie I 1.>4B

Berlin I 1711-12. 17

Amsterdam....! 1722, 23. 24,

1 2ti. 27. 30
Venice ' 1614

Offenbacb .
Ferrara . . .
Lublin . . . .
Cracow . . .
BerUn

Amsterdam... .

Prajjiie

Amsterdam

Venice...
Lublin...
Furth . . . .
Sulzbacli.
Furth . . . .

1 U.*'!' l>. JliUtlll Muiiiia

i^nplllAS ( Vom-Tub b. Muses) '

C'utro- (Cruto-) Tartas (David b.|

.\hr3?nrr:'

Abraham).
'.Mordecai,

Smyrna

Constantinople
Constantinople

Salimica

Amsterdam

Amsterdam....
Wilniersdorf . .

Solomon I

Abraham b. Jo-; Chleri

Venice . .
Mantua .

r<if<riora (Abraham b. Jacob) I

' iMUkc Hezeklab b. Jacob

■i). i

.-■I'l .a <Jacub HayyIm h. Y -
iUpbael).

Oordora (Moses b. Isaac de)

•- ' r*.n-ira b. Abraham

Aaron Judah Levi of

-»ab b. Samuel

Abrabatu (Azublby Aso-

*ei !l.

DarM AbniviinH-lwinnldo

'>n

ii.u|.jKi.-l IJayyim.

Amsterdam...
Amsterdam...

Hamburg

■ rusterdam...

Wllmersdorf .

Amsterdam...
Amsterdam...
Amsterdam...

Venice

Salonica

Amsterdam...

Venice

Leghorn.
Venice

vl..

AmHterdam...

L»a» iJ b. Latz* r Levi of Darllpsladt Amsterdam.

Constantinople

Da-. !■! .; n .:.
l>avi.! J ,M,-,

.MVld)

non

Salonica

Amsterdam....
Uffenljacb

iti

Smyrna

1...*

l"U.r of

FQrlh

Z<jlklev

Berlin

Amsterdam

Hanau

Zolkiev

f>els..

'^katels...

Prague

1716
1554
lb24, 37
1646
1712

]72.>-29

ltil4

1641-59

1606-7
1U14
1722-24
1684-93
1722-24, 2^
2X, 29
17:30
172t>-37
1711

1713-24, 29
16«)0-95

1664-65,69
1713

1675
1476

1627-28

1700-5, 6, 8

lti.'<8-1726

1710-14

im-z-u. 64,

6.5, 66. 67-

69.75,78.81
](m. 92-9:3,

98-99, 1701-

3,14
1641-42
1729, 31
' 1685

1702
1.578-86 (87?)

1642
1075-1718

1704-5, 6, 7,
7-8, 16, 20-
21.32

IWJl

1489

1723, 28, 30,

:»

1.574. 7.5, 86

171:^-21,29

171.5. 26

1717

1712

1729-41

1644

1727

1(W4, 96

mr.t. 1701,
■.i. 12
170(1. 1,5
1710
1721

i.5;j()

1705-6

Name.

David Jonah b. Shabbethai Jo

nah.
David b. Judah (Loeb) of Cra

cow.

David Kohen

David de Lida b. Petbahiah b. Da

vid.

David of Maarsen

David Maza b. Aaron

David b. Menahem Kohen

David b. Moses of Rheiudorf.

David NSrdlingen

David Nufiez-Torres

David Peppe b. Abraham

David Pizziphetton b. EliezerLevi,

David Portaleone b. Moses

David Portero

David Provencal b. Abraham

David (Naphtali) di Rieti b. Hana-
niah.

David de la Rocca

David b. Saniut^l K oben

David b. Shemaiah Saugers

David de Silva b. Hezekiah.

David (Israel) del Soto

David b. Uri (Phoebus)

I David Valensi

I David ibn Yahya b. Joseph.
David h. Vom-Tob Deuz —
Eleazar (Enoch) Altschul ..

F.leazar b. David

Eleazar b. Isaac Levi.

Eleazar b. Moses Kohen

Eleazar b. Shabbethai BalRid

Eleazar Sussmann b. Isaac

Elhanan Uacob) Archevolti b.
Samuel.

Elhanan b. Naphtali

Eliakiiti (Goetz) b. Israel

Eliakim b. Jacob

Eliakiiii (Goetz) b. Mordecai.

Eliezer (Leser) b. Abraham

Eliezer (ibn) Alanlansi b. Abra-
ham.

Eliezer b. Benjamin of Prossnitz.

Eliezer of Braunschweig

Eliezer Darli

Eliezer (Lasi) b. David Emrich. .
Eliezer (Leser) Floersheim

Eliezer b. Hayyim.

Eliezer Hayyut b. Isaac

Eliezer b. Isaac Asbkenazi.

Eliezer
Eliezer
Eliezer
Eliezer
Eliezer
Eliezer
Eliezer
Eliezer

b. Isaac Jacob of Lublin . .

b. Isaac b. Naphtali

b. Isaac of Prague

(Hayyim) b. Isaiah Nizza.

(Leser) b. Israel Levi

d'ltalia

b. Jacob

b. Joseph of Lisk

Eliezer b. Joshua Nehemiah

Eliezer Kohen

Eliezer Liebermann b. Alex-
ander Bingen.

Eliezer Liebermann b. Yiftah
Levi.

Eliezer Lipmann b. Issachar
Kohen Hannover.

Eliezer b. Meshullam

Eliezer b. Meshullam of Lublin.. .
Eliezer b. Mordecai Reckendorf..
Eliezer Provencal b. Abraham b.
David.

Eliezer b. Samuel

Eliezer (Leser) Shuk

Eliezer ibn Shoshun b. David.

Eliezer Supino

Eliezer Todros

Eliezer Toledano

Salonica.
Lublin.

Constantinople
Frankfort -on -

the-Main.

Amsterdam

Mantua

Salonica

Hanau

Frankfort -on -

the-Main.

Cremona

Amsterdam

Venice . .
Venice . .
Mantua..
Pesaro . .
Venice..
Mantua.

Venice

Amsterdam

Frankfort -on -
the-Main.

Amsterdam

Amsterdam....

Amsterdam

Zolkiev

Leghorn

Constantinople

Amsterdam

Prague

Date.

Cracow

Frankfort - on -
the-Oder.

Amsterdam

Venice

Amsterdam..
Venice

Amsterdam..
Homburg . . .
Amsterdam..

1653

1.509
1727

1715

1612

1614

1626-28

1692

1.565

1 697-99,
1700^
1663
1524
1623
1511
1565

1601-2
1726,32

170O

1706,26
1642
1664, 66
1705-15 (?)
16.50-57
1-509
1649-.53
1686, 1705-
6

1.596
1686

1693
1.586-87

17:«
1602

1628
1724
1685-1705

Jessnitz

1724-26

Ixar

1487-90

Cracow

1.591

Prossnitz

1602

Sabbionetta . . .

ir)67

Salonica

1.522

Amsterdam....

1692

Frank fort- on -

1707, 8, 9

the-Main.

Prague

1610

Hanau

1614, 15

Frankfort -on -

1732

the-Oder.

Constantinople

1575-76, 86

Safed

1.577-79, 87

Lublin

1646

Wllmersdorf . .

1727

Lublin

15.56-73.

Venice

16.57

Amsterdam....

1726, 33

Mantua

1612

Constantinople

1670-71

Wllmersdorf . .

1673-75, 77

Frankfort -on -

1680-81

the-Oder.

Wandsbeck . . .

1732

Cracow

1.59:1-94

Hanau

1715

Amsterdam....

1710

Amsterdam....

1682

Frankfort -on -

1683

the-Oder.

Lublin

1.567

Prague

1.578

Prague

1601

Offenbach

1716

Mantua

1596

.Soncino

1490

Frankfort - on -

1690-1700

the-Main.

Venice

1718

Salonica

1532-33

Lisbon

1489-92

311

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Typography

Name.

Eliezer Treves b. Naphtali Hirz. .

Ellezer Zarfati b. Elijah.

Elijah Aboab

Elijah b. Abraham (Israel)

Jacob Levi.
Elijah b. Azriel Wllna

Elijah Belin b. Moses (Joseph)... .

Elijah (ialinldi

Elijah (Menahem) Halfan b. Abba
Marl.

Elijah b. Isaac Schleifer

Elijah b. Joseph Krankfort

Elijah b. Joseph of Samoscz

Elijah b. Judah Uliua

Zurich

ThienRen.

Elijah (Judah de) Leon b. Mi-
chael.

Elijah Levi b. Benjamin

Elijah Levita

Eliiah b. Moses b. Abraham Abinu

Elijah Rabbah b. Menahem

Elijah Ricco

Elijah b. Simeon Oettingen

Elijah Velosinos

Elijah Ziinzburger b. Seligman

(Selikmann) b. Moses Simeon

Ulma.

Elijah Zur b. Samuel Zuri

Elitnelech b. David Melammed

of Cracow.
Elishama Sifroni b. Israel

Ella (bat Moses ben Abraham ?). .

Ella bat Hayyim

Enoch

Enoch b. Issachar (Baermann)
Levi.

Ephraim Bueno (ben Joseph)

Ephraim b. David Patavlnus.,

Ephraim b. Isaac

Ephraim b. Jonah of Tarli —

Ephraim Kohen

Ephraim Melli b. Mordecai

Ephraim b. Pesach of Miedzyboz
Ephraim (Zalman) b. Solomon

Reinbach (Rheinbach ?) of Lis-

sa.
Esther, widow of Elijah Handali .

Ezekiel b. Jacob

Ezekiel (Moses) b. Jacob

Ezekiel b. Moses Gabbai

Ezra Alchadib b. Solomon.
Ezra b. Mordecai Kohen.. .

Foa (Nathaniel)

Foa (Tobia b. Eliezer)

Fonseca (Daniel de)

Franco (Abraham b. Solomon).

Franco (Solomon)

Frosch, Christian, of Augsburg.

Fundam (Isaac)

Oabbai (Abraham b. Jedidiah) . .

Oabbal (Isaac)

Cabbai (Jedidiah b. Isaac) . .
<iabriel Levi of Vratislavia..

Gabriel Strassburg b. Aaron. . .

Gad Conian b. Israel

Gamaliel b. Ellakim (GOtz)

Lissa.
Gedallah (Don Judah)

Amsterdam... .
Frankfort- on-

the'-oder.
Amsterdam... .
Frankfort -on -

the-Main.

Homl)urg

Hamburg

Coiistantinople
Venice

Gedaliah Cordovero b. Moses —
Gedaliah b. Solomon Lipschiitz..

Gela (Gella)

Gershon Ashkenazi

Gershon b. Havvlm David Levi..
Gershon Hefez b. Kalonymus . . .
Gershon Popef (or Popper)

Prague

Verona

Amsterdam..

Hanau

Basel

Hanau

Amsterdam..

Constantinople
Venice

Frankfort - on ■
the-Oder.

Venice

Salonica.

Fiirth

Amsterdam...

1.558
1.560

1(544-45
1711-12

IGiK)
1704-18

1738
lliti3
1.574
1551

1613

1649

11197

1611-14

1622

1659, 66

150:}, 9
1.5i5, 29, 32,

38, 45, 46,

47,48
1704-8

1604-5
ir)29
1693
1664

Hanau 1615-1'

Constantinople
Berlin

Mantua

Venice

Mantua

Frankfort -on

the-(Jder.

Lublin

Prague

Berlin

Frankfort - on

the-Oder.
Amsterdam...

1601

Mantua

Frankfort -on

the-Main.
Adrianople. ..

Mantua

Lublin (?) ...
Amsterdam...

Constantinople
Amsterdam....

Prague

Cracow

Venice

Dyhernfurth . .

Amsterdam....
Sabblonetta,.. .
Amsterdam...
Constantinople
Constantinople
Frankfort -on -

the-Main.
Amsterdam... .

Smyrna

Constantinople

Venice

Leghorn

Frankfort - on -

the-Oder.

Soncino

Constantinople
Hamburg

Lisbon.

Salonica

Venice

Halle

Cracow

Zolkiev

Venice

Prague

1.537
1705

1593
1.596,
1612
1699-1700

1.5.56
1603
1709
1713

1636-28, 30,
48, 50, 52,
61-64

1589-90

1563

1681

1.5.53
1676
1673
1699

93-

1.566
1695
1.590
1587-88.

1608-9
1712, 13, 15

19, 20, 36
!7!!3-15
1.551-59
1627
l(M0-83
lt«8-40
1711

1 6.57-75

1662

1.597

16.50-57

172.5

14M
1719, 20
1687

1.51.5-a5
1.587, 88
1616
1709-10
1646-47
17»1
1627
1610. 11

.Nuiiie.

Gershon Wiener b. Niiphtall HInicb

Gumpel Kohen b. Jacob Hannover
(iumi)rlch b. Ahrahiiin

Pluce.

Gdtel bat Judah I><N-b b. Alexan-
der Kohen.

Haehndel (Elhanan) b. i;(ayyln)
DruckfT.

Hallcz (.Johannes)

Halicz (I'aul)

Halirz iSamuel b. Hiiyyiiii)

Hananiah b. Eliezer ha-SUImeonl
Sustln.

Hananiah FInzl

Hananiah b. Jacob Saul

Hananiah llin Yakkar

Hananiah Marun'. .'

Hananiah ilm Slkrl (Succarl ?) b.
Isaiah.

Hayyim b. Abraham

Hayyim A Ifandarl

Frank fort -un
ibi-Oder.

Date.

Berlin

AlliHt«T<luni

AniKterdHiu....

Pntffue.

Amsutrdam.

Hayyim Alschelch b. Moses

Hayyim Alton b. Moses

Hayyim AlLschul b. Mordecai
(Gumpel) of Prague.

Hayyim Ca-sino

Hayyim CesarinI (Caalrino) b.
■ Shabbethai.
Hayyim b. David Kohen

Hayyim b. Ephraim (Gumprecbt)
' of Dessau.

Hayyim (Jedidiah) ibn Ezra j

Hayyim (iatigiio b. Samuel I

ijavyim b. Hayyim '

yayyim Hazzan b. David Hazzan'

Hayyim b. Isaac b. Hayyim

Hayyim b. Isaac Levi Asbke-

' nazl. I

Hayyim b. Israel i

liayyim b. Issachar h. Israel \

Hayyim b. Jacob Drucker '

yayyim b. Jacob of Hamelburg. .
Hayyim b. Jacob (Gel Jiikels)

' Kohen.
Hayyim (Mordecai) h. Joseph...-

Hayyim b. Joseph Kohen

Hayyim b. Judah

Cracow

ConKtantloopte

SaloDica

Venire

Salonica . .
ConsUtntln

Mantuu

Ani8t<-rdani... .

ConstnntlnopI'-
Coniit«n(ln<i|j|i-

Ortakeul

Venire

Dessau

Dyhfmfurth ..
Amsterdam... .

Constantin' ■
Cdn.siuntlij' .

Constantinople

Venice

Berlin

K«Hhen

Jessnitz

Berlin

Prague

Sulzlmcli

.•^ulonlca

Cremona

Wllmersdorf . .
Constantinople

Lublin

Naples

Km. M. fla,

i:<«i. 2.8.4.
. 14. 17.

:«
I'.ic. J. «

i7r-'

1717. 21. 24.
»J. 27. a»

1711. 13

i5aK-ao

1513

utn

171f.

171»
1717
1719
lOOl. 3.
1.535! -Si.
\H»\ W

17tn

I7IW. 9.
10- 13.
IK. 21.

;?4. *i. :

5. 7

lOl

17-

1537

154rt

1713.

1717

1719

1T24 (?)

17S>«(UM136)

1729

I7«l

i.vv*-ao

I7i:«, 17. 19

1717

l.Vi6-«7

Amsterdam....! 1T09

Prague I KBS-S4

Ainstenlam....' IWO-ITSI
Ain>t»'nlam — KHIP
Pn.k'ii. lfllB4

147

Pnojue ' l»Ol.l70&-«

Lublin I 1M»«

I'rague 1*S7. 8S-83,

i 7.5

Hayyim b. Judah (Loeb) Tniguo

^avvim b. Judah (I..oeb) .

Hayyim b. I^atrlel of Cracow .

9ayy1m Katschlgl b. Jacob

Havvlm Kinibl b. Jacob

Hay vim Lubllner

Hay'vim (Shalom) Ma'all Kohen b.

■ Benjamin.

Hayyim b. Moses Menahem (Man)

■ Danzigcr Danzig.

Hayvlm (Sellgi l>. Nathaniel

Ha'v'yiin b. Samuel Ashkenazi :

yaVylm Ibn Saruk ...••■'

yayyim b. Slnil.mb Ashkenazi I>-vl

Hayvlm b. Solomon ,\usierlit2

Hav> im Tawll b. Moses •

yayyim b. Zebl iHlrwh) Kohen of
KaIWz

Havv'in'b. Ze«'b (Wolf) Levi

Hen'e (Coellus)of Basel

HezelMah Fano

Hezeklah Montro

Hirsch (^hl) b. Hayyim

lam. 91. 9t,

SH.97. ino-

Itfrrt

ir,-«. '.HI. {•!.
W(. (til. W
Berlin ' 17iO .5.9.14,

! 17
FranVfTf -on-' 1717

( 1732

Ain.sterdam...

Prague

Uyhernfurtli .

( .

Amsterdam..

Con.-rtantlii
Veulr*'...

B«M-I

Prague.. .
Constantli .
DyhemfurUi .

Hanau

AmsterTl«ni...

Prague

Venice

\Vii,, .--^V.rf

....■ 30

iTsvn, a^

3»-IO
IAI7
•V «

-l«
r.uu. 13. 15
1710

1674-781. »
1«34
1574-7S
1477
ITIS-W
49

Hlrz, Gener Eliezer Vlndob >

Trporr»phy

THE JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA

312

Smmt.

Place.

IdtU

Date.

Name.

Place.

Date.

HtnUMVUtl*..

1721, 35, 36.

27 <i8

Isaac b. Judah Kohen Wahl of
Janospol.

Amsterdam...

1685-87

r.is* 22

Isiiac h. Kalonvmus of BilporaJ. . .

Jejisnitz

1720

1.'.74

Isaiic (Ei.sak) b. Kalonymus Kohen

Dyhernfurth . .

172.V26, 27

l-WJ-W

Isiiac KusiKila

(Constantinople

1.5(1.5, 9

14»3

Isjiac Katzenellenbogen b. Abra-

Amsterdam....

!()««

lam

1UK6

ham.

l\\<-«)

Isaac (Kohen") de Lara b. Abraham

Amsterdam....

1699-1704

lam...

17:«i. 32

ItMi

ItHfi

Rome

1.540

Venice

l()U5

Constantinople

1018

. ' ^ _, r 1 f V

LVil*- 1(312

Venice

lo:«)

'.z

10112-5

1610

l.">18

I*umr hn-T>pvl b Jacob

Venice

hiV), 52

Venice

1712

Isaac Mahler

Prague

1700

l.'i!KI

Isiuic Marquez di Paz

Amsterdam... .

1706

Amsierouui....

1026-27

Niutc Ma.sia

'I'annhausen.. .

1,594

1574-76

I>ouu' b Mfir AshkenazI

Amsterdam... .
Cracow

169:5

t v'-'-n

I.saac b. Metiaheiii

1.534

15y7
10U6

Isaac (Eisak) b. Menahem (Zoref)

Cracow

Lublin.

1638-40. 48

i'a::-.L^-US

Ki>ti«;n ot Me- Lublin

lt>46

Isaac b. Meshullam Posen

Cracow (No-
vidvor).

1591

:i b. Abrabam

Conslantlnople

Venice

Anihterdaiii

1711 16-20

Naac Montalto h Eliiiihi

1637

1648
1727

Isaac b. Moses Eckendorf

Isaac (Eisak) b. Moses GrilllnKen.

Bii-sel

Wilinersdorf ..

1.599

AO«*'> <L«i*b) Oayyan

1732

Fiirth

17;i8-45

^•hrr (Ensel = Anaciiel)

Wands beck

1732

Isaac (Eisak) b. Naphtali Diden-
hofen.

Wilinersdorf . .

1736

->.iri b. f^unufl

Venice

1.560

Isaac b. Naphtali (Hir2) Kohen...

Amsterdam....

1710, 2»-24»

iaaac B«aireoM« b. Juac pb

HaniburK —

171(1-11

Aiiisienlaiu....
Lublin

1715
l(>t6

Isaac Nehemiah

Amsterdam....
Mantua

1627

Isaac Norzl b. Samuel

1,593

Venice

Prapiie

1054
1623

Isaac Nufiez b. David

Amsterdam...
Venice

1664

b»& ' ■ Urwnliz LpvI

Isaac Pacitlco h. Aslier.

1713-15

laa.v If MKMjulta b. Jo-

Amsierdain....

1718

Lsaac (Lopez) Pereira b. Moses....

Amsterdam....

1726. 29

Isaac della Pinia b. Abraham

Amsterdam....

1712

Amsterdam....
Venice

Amsterdam....
Frankfort -on -

16K5
1624

1719
1725.29

Isiiac Rabhino b. Abraham

Isaac Sasportas b. Jacob

Mantua

Amsterdam

Frankfort -on -

the-Oder.
Frankfort -on -

1718

■ h. Eliezer Pata-

1685

Isaac b. Selitr

1735, 27, 29

Im. ':ain

Isaac Simeon b. Judah (Loeb) of

laaai: t-'vii, ij hiia of Rogasen..

1697

I he-Oder.

Hei'hineen.

the-Main.

ImMC (Etaak) b. Ella of Tarll

Frankfort -on-

the-( Kler.

1717

Isaac b. Simeon Samuel Levi

Hanau

1610, 11-14,

2;i

I<u< ^ niatin .-.f BInRen

Aiiistenlam

1643-44

Isaac b. Solomon (Ciumi ?)

Constantinople

1.511

ta. • r 'Lipniani...

Hamburg

1090

Isaac b. Solomon (Zalman)

Dyhernfurth . .

1695. 96

lia~ . iT b. Isaac i>f

Lublin

1.567-68, 70-

Frankfort - on -

1098. 1708,

Pnvfcjc.

the-Oder.

13, 17, 18,

Uaac (Jacob) b. Eliewrof Prostltz

Lublin

1016, 26. 39,

Amsterdam....

40
1706
16:{1

Isaac b. Solomon b. Israel

Wilmersdorf..

Lublin

Mantua

Venice

1730

Uur <EUak) b. Elijah of Berlin..

Isaac Spird b. Nathan

1597

Iau4 • riiiah of Brzear

Isaac SuUam (Salem ?) b. Joseph..

I5(i3 65

Lu.. : nufokel Teomlm...

Amsterdam....

1070-78

1,568. 1687

I«

Salonica

Venice .

1.594
1.5H7 1615

Prague

17113 6 10.

18-19 25

Berlin

17(J6

28 35-36

i».>a' '■■ ' f Torbin

Cracow

Cracow (?)

1628

Isaac Treves b. Gershon

Venice

1,508. 78, 83,

iMac b. ! ' Cracow

8,5

Lublin (?) ....
Prairue (?)

16-

Isaac Tschelebi b. Ella Polichrono
Isaac (Elijah! b. L'ri Kohen

Venice

ia30

Prague

1621

laaac b. t^]rJlln of Cracow

Waiidsbeck . . .

1727-30

Isaac (Eisak) b. Zebi (Hirsch)

Jessnitz.

Berlin

173;{

AmHterdam....

Des-sau

Constantinople
Prague

1739
1743
1.5.50

Isaiah Anaw

Basel

1610

Isaiah Ashkenazi

Constantinople
Frankfort -on -
the-Oder.

1719

bue b. tja jrytm Ijazzan

Isaiah b. Isaac b. Isaiah of Woidi-
slaw.

1717

IMW b. "yiyjrlm'b. Isaac Kobcn

16.55

b. Hlmai^.

Frank fort -CD -

1687

Kothen

1717

Ihe-.Main.

.Icssnitz

1719-30

lm»r Hazzar.

1567
1.571
1677,80

Isaiah b. MeYr Bunzlau

Isaiah b. Moses of Sniatyn

Isaiah Parnas h. Elasiir (Eliezer)..

Cracow

Constantinople
Venice

1594
1711
1.529. 31-32

laucfl. Hor». i..J«ihua)
laMc Hurwlu U.i b. Mmbullatn.

Cmcow

Frankfurt - on -

lhe-()der.
Prasrue

>SR»-04. 95
rc'il7-99

17(1.5-6, 10
17U)-1

Isaiah di Trani b. Jo.seph

Ccmstantinople
Venice

1041

Ishmael Marono

i(>(n

t rank fort -on -
the-i )der.

Pniiriie

Hamburg

Israel b. Abraham

Kothen

Jessnitz

1717

1719-26

laur Uunriu L«v| b. Moaea {jay-

Wandslieck . . .
.lessnitz

172(i-33
17.19-44

Tim,
laaar b. I«lah Jehiel

CnnstAntliiople

Cracow

Venice

I&54
1.596
1695, 96,

Israel Altschul h. Solomon

Isriiel Ashkenazi

Pnigut^

1613. 20

Immc Urat-l

Pisaur

Venice

Amsterdam....

1704-5
1088

laac b. Jarobb. lm»c

Israel h. Havvim Hunzlau

Ua..

1700. 2. 5, 6

Israel 1). Je<iidlah of Leipnik

Lublin

1(519

Berlin

1717

Israel Kohen b. Joseph

Israel b. Meir

T>4me1 h Mn*if>(i

Lublin

Wilmersdorf . .

Dessau

Frankfort - on-

t he-Oder.
Dessau

1.5;56. 66

1713

1696

I»ai. . .1

U»i. ■Ktia

Venice

.Mantua

1.597-1606
171H-2;i

laaa -1

Sfiiyrna

Lublin

J''>»nltz

HV.9
1.5tt5
1724.28

I>a>'

1700
1704

Iiyhernfurth ..

1725

Israel b. Moses b. Abraham

Offenbach

1719-33

' ;«) b. Judab BudlD

WiindslH'ik....

'"' • "furth..

1727-32
loiri

Homburg

Neuwied

1734
ir3.5-.36

laaac b. Jiutab (Loeb) JOdela K»
ben

^'lorf . .

1670-90

Offenbach

Jessnitz

1737-38
1739

tattc b. Judab Kohen (Kaz) 1

^uUllac||,
Prague

1648

Israel h. Moses b. Abraham Abinu
Israel b. Moses of Berlin. .

Amsterdam....
Berlin

1694
1737

313

THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA

Typoirraphy

Name.

Israel Sifronl b. Daniel.

Israel Zarfati of Mllhau

IsMichiir (Uaer) b. Aaron b. Isaac

Drucker.
Issuchar (Haer) b. Abrahiim of

Kalisz.
Issacliar (Baer) b. Eliezer of Min

lien.
Issachar (Dob Baer) b. Gershon

Wiener.

Issacliar ( Baer) Hazzan

Issachar (Dob lla'er) h. Isaac

Issacliar (Baer) b. Issacliar Kolien

Issachar (Dob Baer) b. Judah
(I.oeb).

Issachar (Baer) b. Nathan Ko-
lien.

Issachar Perlhefter

Issachar b. (Abi Esrl) Seike

Jabez (Solomon b.
seph b. Hayyim).

Isaac b. Jo-

Jabez Joseph b. Isaac.

Jacob b. Aaron Ashkenazi

Jacob (Koppe!) b. (Hayyim?)

Jacob b. Abigdor Levi

Jacob Aboab b. Abraham

Jacob Aboab b. Joseph

Jacob b. Abraham

Jacob b. Abraham Ashkenazi...
Jacob b. Abraham Ashkenazi of

Ziwatovv.
Jacob b. Abraham Ger

Jacob b. Abraham Israel Ger

Jacob b. Abraham of Jerusalem.
Jacob b. Abraham of Leipnlk

Jacob b. Abraham of Lublin

Jacob b.
Jacob b.

Abraham Moses.
Abraham Polak..

Jacob b. Abraham of Rowno

Jacob b. Abrahiuii Tininger

Jacob Alfaiidari b. Hayyim

Jacob Alvarez-Soto.

Jacob (AlnisVl

Jacob Auerbach b. Isaac Reis of

Vienna.
Jacob Baruch b. Samuel Baruch.

Jacob Basch

Jacob Hassan b. Abraham

Jacob Bibas

Jacob Broda

Jacob Carillo

Jacob Castelo

Jacob b. David (Gutrath)

Jacob b. Eliakim Ashkenazi.
Jacob (Zebi) b. Eliezer

Jacob b. Eliezer Levi

Jacob b. Enoch b. Abraham b.
Moses Mcla'.nmed.

Jacob Klnreiitii)

Jacob (Hai) p'lorez b. Abraham...

Jacob Gabbai

Jacob of Haap

Jacob Haber Tob

Jacob ibn Hason

Jacob b. Hayyim

Jacob b. Hayyim b. Jacob Erb-
ich.

Jacob Hazkuni b. Abraham

Jacob b. Hillel of Lublin

Jacob b. Isaac Gomez

Sabhlonetta.

Basel

Krciliiiiff. . . .

Venice

CtmsUintlnople
Cracow

Dessau .

Amsterdam

Frank fort -on -
the-Oder.

Prapue

Lublin

Kiirlh

Prague

Amsterdam....

Dyhernfurth . .

Prague

Fran k fort -on -

the-(Mer.
Berlin

Prague

Frankfort -on -
the-Oder.

Adrianople

Salonica

Constantinople

Adrianople

Salonica

Venice

Offenbach

Home

Tridinl

Venice

Damascus

Constantinople

Amsterdam

Constantinople

Cracow

Lublin

Amsterdam....
Basel

Berlin

Basel

Constantinople

AinstiTdam

Venice

Sulzbach

Venice

Prague

Amsterdam

Constantinople

Gies.sen '. ..

Amsterdam

Lublin

De.ssau

Berlin

Venice

Jessnitz

Salonica

Leghorn

Venice

Constantinople

Amsterdam

Mantua

Salonica

Venice

Constantinople
Amsterdam —

Amsterdam....

Prague

Verona

i"i;k-hi, Ki

l.'iKI H4
ir>HK, lOOl
l.MM
1U19

17(H

1085. 88,
SKJ 1703. U
17->7-7:J

1609-10
1680-81
lti91
1692. 95,

1718-19
17;i>2ii. 27,

•M). Xi
1718-^3

1687
1697-99,

1703, 11
1712, 14-1.5,

17
1718-20
1727,29

1.544
15.55
1.559-67, 73-

75
1.554
1.5t«-72, 73-

75, 76-84
1704
I7I8
1518
1525

1669, 82, 83
1708, 11
16().5-72

1(;48, ,52, 54

1708-9, 9, 12,
13, 15, 21,
22, 25, 28,
30

1664

1719-20

1618

1627, 3.3-a5

1618-20, 22-
27, 33 (So?)

1661

1598, 99,
1600,3

1726

1.599

1670-71

1708-10

1621

1716-17

1636
1627
1725
171.5-16
1714
1644
16tU-64
15.56. 59, 67,
68. 78
1.574-76
1698
1699
1.5«>6
1720

1724

16i)0

1651

l(M0-43

1728, 30

1718-23

1732

1520

1711

1700-26, 32

1694. 1726

1675

1650

Ja<'ob b. Iwuicl^evl.
U'Vl.

Jacob It. Isaac

Jacob iHnifj.

Jacob b. I.ssii.tiar (Dob) Cantor"

Ja<-ob Ji-Mhiiriin

Jacob b. JiM'l Levi

Jacob I) JoHcpb.

Jacob (Ijal) b. Joseph (Hnl) Ko-
hen.

Jaofib b. Juflah Noali Kohen .Nor-
den.

Jacob b. Juduli ShnjHjr

Jacob (Koppel) Koben

Venice..

ArimtiTrluin

• I

■'I

Venice : c • -jr

i. 4.

Aniitli-rdain... luiu

' • •-:«

Jacob Koben della Man.
Jacob KulK

Jacob
Jacob
Jacob
Jacob
Jacob
Jacob
Jacob
Jacob
Jacob
Jacob
Jacob
Jacob
Jacob
Jacob

Landau

(Koppel) I^evl

Levi of Tara.scon

Lubenilla

Luzzat b. Isaac

Ma'rcaria

b. Meir

b. Meir H(51ls«-hau....

Meridez da Costa

de Meza

b. .Mordeca)

b. M<irdecal b. Jacob.

b. Moses

<Zebl) b. Moses

Venice , liilH

coiLiUMiiu'.pie i:i«. f7. a.

Nisleii..

Kuf/bnrii.
Miinlua

\ iii«terilttlli...

■ >w

i I dl Trt-ni'

l.ublin

<"nic«iw

\Vand)iUH-k . . .
.ArriKlerdHiri... .

1 .i«i

Alil>- ItW
l-.->
IV/.'
.' ' '." 'T*

ITU'.

\^ uiuefBdurf .

I FOrth.

:\2

:34-

Sulzliach

Jacob D. Moses Bohemus Lubiin

Jacob b. Moses Drucker A ni-ierUain.. . .

Jacob b. Moses Kohen Ilanau

Jacob (Eliezer) b. Moses Lesers of Cracow ..

Wilna. i

Jacob b. Moses Levi Amsterdam...

Jacob b. Moses Levi Josbel Venice

Jacob b. Moses-Loeb PIzker Prague

Jacob b. Moses of Posen i l>es.Hau

Jacob b. .Naphtali Cracow

Jacob b. Naphtali KOnh

I WiinienMlorf .

Siiizburh ,

HirTh

Jacob b. Naphtali (Hlrsch) | >

Jacob b. Naphtali Kohen of Gazolo' >.ii i. .ii'iia

.Manluu

Jacob (Koppel) b. Naphtali

(Hirsch) Pas.
Jacob Ibn Phorna b. David

Jacob (Jokew) b. PhinebasSellg.-

Jacob (Israel) de la Pinia

Jacob Rewalj

Jacob Itodriguez Guadeloupe b.

Abraham.

Jacob Siigdun

Jacob b. Samuel

Jacob b. Samuel i San wel i

Jacob b. ."Samuel of U-uilM-rg

Jacob Sanival b. Joshua Neliemlah

Jacob Sasportas..

Jacob (Isnieli Shalom b. Saniue! .

Jacob .SIbuyah

Jacob b. Solomtm

Jacob Slabnitz I>evl

Jacob Sullam

Jacob Tiibuh

Jacob 'Treves b. Mattalbtan of

Worms.

Jacob b. I'zziel ."Vdomon

Jacob Wlinpfeii b. Eliezer Wlmp-

fen.

Jacob Ibn Yaklfar

Jacob b. ^-bl'.

Jacob b. Zebl

Amsterdam....
Coiuitanllnuple

.1.

I ■ - .■•

Ain.HtenUro.. .

Venice

Aiii.Hlerdani...

KOrlh

.AniHterdani...

\ ,

i:i'i II

I "

I 2i.-

• .. <; -tN

.01.07

iat«

l.'.76-«I?
1723

i72>«-at. ao-

ITSO
IT5T. OB

tut (K

1710. 11, 13.

.... 3j

|(Ul«t. OB.
ff.i

ltV7
SI

pruiiuc.
Veoli*.,
Smrmii.
Prague..

1614-15

Jacob b. ?ebl of FOrth.

Comrtanltnopte
Wllmersdort . .
Lublin

1 ii,..»..r.|.. (II

1.11 1
IfMt 00

i«h:

SuUbftrli.

Typoe^r^pby

THE JEWISH EN-CYCLOPEDIA

314

Name.

Place.

Ji-'-

I.tiMln .

' o( K*lony
■ Jacob
.ii kuijcii t>. Ar>cti Judab

■wit/ —
II J

i.ubllu

Lublin

CousUntlnople

Zolkiev ' 1718

15T8-96
1572-:5
1033

1556-97

IMS

1635-46

l."i77. 7S. 96.
16iM-:J». •»«
1663

1665-85

1732

L> uanich.

IUi|>a...

•'U b. MenaiitfOi Levi

'ion

:il

>-.. r:. f\<<ben b.

•avid uf UalinKen

-*'h

■ r

Dan ..

•-ind) b.

Isaac of

pk;nMf! '7_i!rran b. Kaulel of

hen

-anejro

■n-miaD lAryen Loeb) b. Samuel
' Menabem o( Slonlm . .

iVilriiersdorf ..|

•le !

• Isdorf ..!

intinople
.. le

V\-.:\W I

I la> o\V

Venice

Smyrna j

Constantinople

Venice ]

Bologna \

Frankfort -on -

tlif-Maln.

Hanuu

Venice

Offenbach

Aiiisterdaui....

Salonica

Ains'.iTdain

PniRue

Pra>rue

Fnmkfort -on-

thc-Main.

Offenbach

Constantinople

Frankfort - on -
the-Oder.

Venice

Cracow

Furth

Amsterdam.

Smyrna

itelll (V) I Venice

FQrlh

a Isaac,
riti

in Treve*.

■I.

f Strlm...

Xi. Jwntb Akbkenazl

Lublin

■\Vundsl)erk . .
Ainsterdaiu...

Veni'-e

Frankfort -on
the-Oder.

Venice

Amsterdam...

WandslH'ck..
Constantinople

Ortuklewiil

Ainsterdaiii

.''Smyrna

f I'nufue [ I'rajTue

Venice

I'oltti I Amsterdam....

! Venice

Wuhl). Pmsrue

■ •> I Venice

Juacpb b. Abrabam.

ach

I AiijMterflam

Joaepli b. Abraham Benjamin AinsU^rdam... .

Zoefo. I

ioteffbh. A f Jerujialein . Amsterdam....

J'"*"'' ' ' • .' . ftOiaklnd. '. •■•'KTdam... .

J rim

J ■ ' iJinllnopU

J'>v(w< Aii>iM4ua b. Abraham.. . 'ii<-a

' -lantlnopU
JoKpb (Jotepb) AlTalensi b. Abra , Vuulcc

1670

ItiTi. 78

imi, 89, 92

1;>3

ir>4(>-47

lb75

15(19-18

1587

1.". 44-47

DMIl

i::w-3i

1734, 36
15&".
l.>}7-40
1713

1715

lt>40

1717

17(13. 9

1.5S7

W)9, 60. 61

I.5il7-I618

1512, 15, 18

1726

1714-26

n;54

1702

inoo

15-4
1694,
1722
11*97
KitHI
;.i65
1GV»2 93
l.-|itH-99
1727
1713
1578
1697-99

98,

1.545

l(Ki8, 30. 48,
50. 52
1731
i; 12-42
1717-19
1721
1729-41

mm, 10

1666

1727, 29. 30,

32, 3:j. 39
1592
1.587, 92
Itttl, 52. 5.3,

.54, .5.5. .56,

57. .59. 60,.

62, 03, 64,

<W, 75
1477
1728
1729
17:12
1727

1712

1677

1671. 83

1711

152<)

1522

1676. 78

Joseph (ibn) Alzaijr, the elder....
Joseph Alzalg b. Isaac, the younpr-
er.

Joseph .\marapi b. Moses

Joscpli b. Aslier of I'rapue

Joseph .Vskaloni b. Isaac

Joseph b. Benjamin Hayyim Levi.

Joseph BIbas

Jost^ph Caravita b. Abnihain

Joseph (Siinel) Cividal b. Asher..

Joseph Crasnik of Rakow

Joseph di Cnisto

Joseph ibn Danan b. Jacob

Joseph h. Daniel

Joseph b. F.liakim li. Naphtjili

Joseph b. Eliezer H;ilfan

Joseph b. Eliezer liazzan of Posen

Joseph Elkeser b. Henjamin

Joseph b. Ephraim (Hunfranis).. .
Joscpli Epstein b. Benjamin Zeeb

Wolf Levi.
Joseph Esobi b. Judah li. Solomon
Joseph Falcon b. Solomon Zalman

Joseph Franco Serrano

Joseph Fiirst

Joseph Gabbai

Joseph b. (lershon of Torbin

Joseph ( Iseppo) Goa

Joseph ibn Ha.san b. Solomon

Joseph b. Hayyim Gumpels

Joseph b. Hayyim Kaddisb

Joseph Hazzan

Joseph li. Iiniiianiiel Kohen

Josei)h b. Isaac b. Isaiah Woidi-
slaw.

Joseph b. Isaac b. Jehiel

Joseph b. Isaac Kohen

Joseph b. Israel

Joseph h. Israel {b.'n Hirsch

Josei)h b. Issachar Baer

Joseph ibn Jacob

Joseph ibn Jacob Ashkenazi

Joseph ibn Jacob Braunschweig..
Joseph b. Jacob Kohen

Jo.seph ibn Jakkar

Joseph b. Jekiit'hiel Zalman

Joseph (Jospe) b. Joseph But Levi
Joseph b. Joshua (Hoeschel) Ko-
hen.

Joseph (Jospe) b. Judah

Joseph Kabizi b. Ayyid

Joseph Khalfon

Joseph Kohen

Joseph b. Kiitiel

Joseph de Leon b. Solomon Israel.

Joseph b. Manasseh b. Israel

Joseph (Solomon) b. Mendel Plotz-

kers.
Joseph b. Meshullam Phoebus

Hazzan.

Joseph Metatron

Joseph b. Michael Neheitiiah

Joseph Molcho

Joseph b. Mordecal Gershon

Josei)ii b. Mordecal Kohen

Joseph b. Moses Levi of Hamburg.

Joseph b. Moses IlevizI (Rachizi ?)

Joseph Mubhar Sefarili .'. . .

Joseph b. Naphtali (Treves?)

Joseph b. Naphtali of Konskawola

Joseph b. Nathan

Joseph Nis-sim

Joseph de Noves b. Judah b. Sam-
uel.

Joseph Oberlaender

Joseph ( Xtfllengo

Joseph Pardo

Joseph (Solomon) Pinla

Constantinople 1643
Constantinople, 1511

Salonica '

Prasrue >

Belvedere.
(Kuru Ches-
niel. I

Verona

Constantinople

Bolopriia

Venice

Pr.ipue

Salonica

Venice '

Cracow

Venice

Basel

Basel I

Berlin (V)

Lublin

Berlin

16.53

1674-75

1.593-94,

97-

Venice

Constantinople

Amsterdam

Hamburtr

Constantinople

Lublin

Padua

Salonica

Frankfort -on -

the-Oder.
Prague

Frankfort -on -
the-Main. I

Venice

Salonica

Dyhernfurth . .

Venice

Constantinople

(V)
Constantinople
Prague

Prague.
Lublin .
Naples .
Basel...
Venice .

Schenhausen . .

Berlin

Prague.
Offenbach

Lublin

Constantinople

Lisbon

Constantinople

De.ssau

Venice

Amsterdam....
Cracow

Frankfort -on -

the-uder.
Salonica.

Hamburg

1711

Venice

1.589

Cracow

1571

Amsterdam....

1708

Amsterdam....

1692-93, 99,

1702. 3-6,

11. 14. 16,

18-19, 26.

»)

Venice

1.528-29

Constantinople

1509

Zurich

1558

Thiengen

1.5(»

Amsterdam....

1648

Furth

1726

Ferrara

1693

Venice

1605

Venice

1701

Riva dl Trenta

1.558-60

Venice

1.597-1606

Leghorn

1657

16.50

1.50.5-22

1482

1665

1732

1.522

161.5. 17-19

1.587-88

1606

1602

lti!»<>-1700

1.577

1713

1621
171(1
1680. 83
1716, 18
1512
1627, 30
1640
1732
1677. 80, 86

1691-92, 94-
95, 1700-1
1GK8

^:m. 67

1517

16!16, 97,
1700.3, 4 -.5,
13, 16. 18,
20

1.544

1->17

1518

1691

1616, 21

1618-20

1487-90

](ifl9

1(»7, .59-60,
61, 7.5, 85,
1709, 12-15

1.544

1715

1721

1.598-99

1515

1491

1.509

1698

1690-91.

94
1646^7,

48
1642-44

93,
47,

1701-2

315

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Typog^raphy

Name.

Joseph ibn I'iso

Joseph rorjcs b. Judati Loeb

Joseph Saiiiejra

J<iseph (l).V) (Moses) b. Samson ..

Joseph b. Saiimel Levi

Joseph ibn isaruk b. Hayyiin

Joseph Sason. ...',....*

Josepli Sason b. Aaron of Gallip-
oli.

Joseph Sason b. Jacob

Josepti 1). Shabbethal Bass

Joseph Shallit

Joseph ilin Stioshan

Joseph Sid l>. Isaac

Joseph b. Simeon

Joseph (Dob Baer) b. Solomon

Joseph b. Solomon b. Isaiah Nizza
Joseph (Sofer) b. Solomon Levi...
Joseph (Hayyim) Strasburg b.

Aanm.
Joseph (Jospe) Trier Kohen

I'lace.

Naples

Amsterdam

Venice

Venic(!

Constantinople

Venice

C'onstantlnopU
Venice

Venice

Dyhernfurth ,

Joseph Trillinger b. Eliezer.
Joseph Wehle b. Solomon..,

Joseph of Wltzenhausen.

Joseph ibn Yahyah b. Tam

Joseph b. Zalm'an Shneor

Joseph b. (Solomon) Zalman

■\Vilna.

Joseph Zarf ati

Joseph Zarfati b. Judah of Zafat

Joseph Zarfati b. Samuel.. .'

Joseph (Jost)el) b. Zebi

Joshua (Klhanan)' b. Abraham

Joseph.
Joshua Falk of Lissa ,

Constantinople

Salonicii

Atnsterrlam

Dyhernfurth .

Venice..
Cracow .
Bolojfna.

iMte.

Frankfort -on-
the-Main.

Amsterdam...

Zolkiev

Berlin

Amsterdam...

Constantinople

Furth

Amsterdam..

Joshua b. Israel

Joshua ((iershon) Levi

Joshua b. Meir Levi of Schwer-
senz.

Joshua b. Michael of Sezze

Joshua da Silva

Joshua Sin (?).

Joshua (Hoeschel) b. Solomon Ko-
hen.

Joshua Sonina

Joshua (Falk) b. Zalman of Wisc-
nowicz.

Joshua Zarfati (Gallus)

Josiah b'. Ahigdor of Kalisz

Josiah Mizrahi

Judah (Loeb) b. Aaron of Prague

Judah (Loeb) h. Abraham...

Judah A hudienti

Judah Albeklab. Moses

Judah b. Alexander Kohen.

Amsterdam..

Lublin

Venice

Offenbach . . .
Venice

Fninkfort - on
the-Oder.

Lublin

Mantua

Wilmersdorf . .

Mantua

Amsterdam

Offenbach

Constantinople 1717, 19
Constantinople. 1710-11

14?»2

17(19

ir.H7

l')9H

iri4tl-47

l.")9l, 10()7-«

]7-'<i

ltil8

liVH. 98-1000
1707-18
l.'wO-73
l.'c'O-aJ
1529. 35
1717

17i:!, 15, 17,
19
1711. 13
l.')97-98
1482

1690-1715

1707
l(5«r.-87
l(i9:i-96
H)9i»,1700, 17
ltJ44, 47-48,

68-70, 73,

76. 79-86
1542. 43
1691-92, 98
1726. 27. 29

1702

1693.

I(il3

1525

1716-19

1730

1697-99

1619-28

1672

1727

1718-32
1666-67

1719

Amsterdam..

Berlin

Constantinople
Prague

Judah b. Alexander Levi of

Worms.
Judah (Loeb) b. Asher Anschel

Abigdor.

Judah (Loeb) b. Baruch Wahl

Judah Bassan b. Samuel

Judah b. Benjamin Zeeb

Judah of Berlin

Judah Briel

Judati (Lewa) b. David

Judah b. David b. Judah

Judah b. David (Isaac Saekel) Levi

of Kiirth.

Judah b. David Reuben

Judah b. Eleazar Lubemila

Judah (Selig) b. Eliezer Lipman

Kohen of Zolkiev.
Judah (Loeb) Ginzburg.
Judah b. Hananiah Castoriano . . .

Judah Hazzan

Judah (Loeb) Hurwitz Levi of

Prague.

Judah h. Isaac

Judah (Loeb) b. Isaac Brzesc

Judah (Loeb) b. Isaac Joel

Cracow

Amsterdam

Venice

Prague

Lublin

Cracow

Frankfort -on -

the-.Main.

Prague

Cracow

Dyhernfurth . .

Verona

Prague

Frankfort -ou-

the-Oder.
Amsterdam....

Mantua

Prague

Cracow

Berlin

Venice.

1658-59. 66
16i)9. 1700
1711
1691, 95.

1700, 1, 7,

10
1642-44
1675

1600-1, 2
1602, ;m, 5.

6, 9-10, 10.

11. 13. 14.

a"). 4»

16:30, 39

1631

1697

1669
1670
1725
1650
1688
1691

1682

1672. 94-95
1615
1644
1709

1661
1603
Zolkiev 1721,33

Constantinople

Smyrna

Sulzbacb

1732
1730
1688

Prague 1660,62

Amsterdam 1713

Am.sterdani I 1712

Name.

Judah (Loeb) b. Isaac JQdeU Ko-
hen (Kaz;.

Judah b. Isiuic Levi

Judah b. I.H1UU- Levi Auhkeniizl..! !

Judah (Loeb) b. Isiwc of TIkotln..
Judati b. Israel .Saimiel Kohen..
Judati t). I-tsiictiar Kohen. ...
Judati (Loeb) b. Jacob of VrottUU.

Judah (Loeb) b. Jacob WanOHbec'lc

of KrotoHchln.
Judah (Loeb) b. Joel b. Eliezer.

Judati (Loeb) b. Joel l^vl

Jiiilah b. (Jo.seph) JohIm-I Wet/'lar
Judah (U>vh) b. Joseph

Judah (Loeb) b. Joseph

Juilah (Loeb) h. Joseph

Judah b. Jos«'pli Levi .'.'.'.'.

Judah b. Jo.seph Obiidlah

Judah (Aryeh Loeb) b. Joiieph
Samuel.

Judah (Loeb) b. Judati Joseph....

Judah (Loeb) b. Judah Kohen... .

Judati Karo b. Joseph

Judah (Loet)l Klesmer b. Wolf" '.

Judah (Loeb) b. Zebl of Janow. .

Judah Lai)apa b. Isiuic

Juilah Luria t>. .lohimaii

Judah (Aryeh Loei)) of Lublin

Judah (Aryeh Loeb) .Maeler b. Jo-
seph.

Judah di Medina b. Moses Sustln.

Judati (Loeb) h. Meir

Judah (Loeb) ti. Menahem

Judah (Loeb) b. Menahem Nahum
Kaz.

Judah di Modena

Judah (Loeb) b. Mordecai Uurapel

Mantua^

llOSJ

Venict;

'■" IT. ih

Munuia...

Lublin

Pr»*»nltz .

Wlliiieniaoi.'

Lublin

Hum burg

1 itjr,. n,-, \MJ

Amnterdaiij

OlTenbttch .

Wllmenklort . .

1 -

Ctbtow

.. .A*

Berlin

T'JO

ConNlMtltlno;

Coniiiantinopic

in*,

Frankfiin-un-

1713

tbe-Maln.

AniHU-nlain

I7f«i

1 III. Ill,

iuav-3S

1. . • • • • .

itm

1701,7

■*•,•••

vns-a

i«r4

Judah (Loeb) b. Mordecai b. Ju-
dah.

Judah (Saltaro) b. Moses de Fano.

Judah (Loeb) b. Moses Jacob of
Leipnik.

Judah (Loeb) b. Moses Schedel...

Judah (.Aryeh Loeb) b. Kaphtall
(Hirsch).

Judah b. Nathan of Cracow

Judah (Loeb) NIkolsburg

Judah Perez

Judah Pesaro

Judah Kosanes

Judah (Loeb) b. Sara

Judah Sason b. Jo.seph

Judah (Loeb) Schnapper

.Mi.5i'rdam. ' •

Cracow

Amsterduui i<«'>

.Salonlca ' lOli

Hamburg l*"*

Dvhernfunh.. 1T1»

Prague 16B6

' IV- •-;

Amst4>rdatn.... I

Dyhernfurth .

171U

Judah (Gur Aryeh) b. Shalom..

Judah Stiamu

Judah b. Sim^iah

Judah (Loeb Rofe) b. Sloieun ..

Judah b. Solomon Kohen Llp-

schiitz.

Judah ibn Ya'Ish

Kalonymus b. Isaac b. Isaiah of

Woidlslaw.

Kalonymus b. Isaac of ZIoc2ow.. .
Kalonymun (Kalman) b. Judab

Ashkenazl.
Katonviiius (Kalman) b. Judah

(I»eb) Ka!ls<'h.
Kalonymus b. Zebl (Hirsch) Kohen

b. Kalouvnius.
Katrlel b. Jekuthlel Zalman of

Satanow.
Katrlel b. Zebl Szldlower

Venice lOB

Prague 1808,13, 18.

24
Prague 18U2. 3. 4, \

6-7. ».», 13
Amsterdam.... IflBO

Cremona 11565

17(11 (?)
I7(»-11

1718
- ||
14. 15, 1«

i:iu

1402
Irtitt

1. 'lie; 93

I8T7
1«2S(I7-?)

Venice

Peaaro

Con>ttjiiiiiiii.ii;t
An.-
Coh-
Frankfori -ku-

the-Maln.

Naples

Venice

Crncow

Frankfort -OH'

the-Maln.
LOblin

Venire ITTIS

Pnownitz 1711

Dvbemfurth .. i:i2. 13. IS.

I It*, at. 20
Frankfort -on-. 1717

the-<»der.
nvbernfurtii..] ITOB
Comiunilnople 1718.30

Kaz.

Amstenlam

Dyhernfurth . .
ConstanUnople

Cracow

l.uMin

I r i.ow

I'nigue

1781

ITOa. 4. 7,
13-13, 19
1048

ia»U3B,43

Kaz

Kaz (Aaron b. Israel)

Pnunie

Kmnkfort -oi.

the-4Hler.

Prague I IflH

Typo^r*phy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

316

NitUit?.

PUu-e.

Date.

Ka« (Bomleel b. MordMrai).

si t. *»r •; }• I-r4.-!i .

Pramie.

PrajTue. ,

I'r .
Pr...... ....

Prague

PraRiie

Prague —

Prague.

k«_ - ilJi., b.J«jM.-i>U Ik-- I'rujfue.

K».- Judah [L(K'b] ) ...
Kju •

Ka^ V • an)

Kmf {.HvfttKKMi iU.j b.(ienboo).

K«| (MoMcb. G«r^'

ll.l b. Jo«tepb Beza- Prague.
K3^'P'«^^ M^rrl^^l^

uV.;.'

[ni ] b. r.ershon).

! 1 •> MonleiiiO . Prague

Prague.
Prague.
Prague.

lkklG«rabuO vl.>.

Prague.

r Lelpstc

■ .-i-ii.-i uf Liibin I

Emncli b. Elljab Cleve. .

l^nnDrnrer (Abnibam b. Siine^in,

iplo (Isaac b. Solomon

L" :.i<-iuplo (Solomon)

I.. r,.T..., r.i., <-.!oinon Judah

Jessnitz

Consumiinople
Ain.stenlain....

Prague

Amsterdam..

Amsterdatn..

15»i9. 78. 85-

1701. 3, 8
1526

Vi.<6. 89. av

IM). HiOO.

N. i». 10
UiTC {>)
1.V41

l.-^U-flO
IdOH, 30, 23,
-'4

30, 40, 41,
49 .TO. 56
l.Vt'-94, 99-

li>;>">, 47('0,
48 Vf)

i.v>«>-e9

l.Tti9. 78
1.t29, 30, 33-

:{4,;io,:iG.40

160-<

1.J69, 80-81,

8.-)-88, 90,

92-94
151.5, 18, 22,

26, 29, 30.

41
1720
1711
l(iK8-89, 92-

97
1610, 12, 13-

28
172(5

30,

Lrvt LauUMlu vaad Isaac Lanlu-
<1"V

f FurUi

— m

Mabalalel b. Mi'nahem Lsaao Levi'
Matirtm b. (Muses) Jacob Maars-

•<b) b. Judab Levi

Solomon

Mii?-,^ b. A.i-ii»Ii Jer

Mrlr

Miflrb. A»h«T

Meir b. David

MflT b. David h. lu-njamln

Mrir b. David uf Kulk

MeIr b. Ellezer Llpinan Kaz (Ko-
b«i).

Mefr b. Epbrmlm

' Jacob Levi

li'bV'jfd
ibronn (Hellpron) b.
Mfir b. I-

. ^Ju^^^<e> Kohen of

-^'h .MkoUburg

■ lit ij^y\.. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.
Metr 0. Maptauil Kostowlu

MelrOetUngi-n....

Amsterdam....

172«-29, 30,

a5. 39-40, 4tJ

.Amsterdam

1626-40

Cracow

1590

Venire

159^-1600

Hiille

1711

Amsterdam....

17:«)

Verona

1647

Venice

1.5ft5, 74

Prague

1512, 1.5, 18,

22, 2(5. 29

Hamburg

171.5, 20

Lublin

1627

Cracow

1H42-44

Prossnitz

1711

Frankfort -on-

1717

thi'-oder.

l»ybernfurth . .

1718-20

Mantua

1.557-60, 63-

Pnigiie

151.5, 18, 23

Hanuii

1719

I'rugue

1617 (?)

Veillr«'

H5.57

Cremona

1.5.57-53

Miintiia

1.56:5

SllIZlKlch

1703

llHiiihurg

1711

Offenbacb

1717

Prague

KSSO

Venice

1617-19

Lublin

1.568

Prague

1691

Krankfort-on-

1698

the.f)der.

Prague

1709, 13, H,

28,35-36

Offenbach

1722

1726-27,
31
Am.sterdam.. . . | 1697-99, 1703

Venice 1602

Venice 1657

Amsterdam.... 1701
Const;iiitinuple 1652

Hamburg ' 1715

Aiiislenlarii 1711

Frankfurt -on- 1688
the-.Main. j

Mantua 1713,24

Amsterdam....! 1710, 15, 20

Name.

MeTr Oppenheim b. Abraham b.

Baer.

Meir Parenz

Meir h. Peth.ihiah

.Meir Unfe li. Hlvya Rofe

Meir ibn S<-liarigi

Meir li. Selig (if Kaliwli

Meir b. Slialuiii

.Meir b. Soliinion

.Meir b. Wolf scliwab

Meir (ibn) Vahva b. Joseph

Meir b. Zt^'liariah

Meisel(s) (Judah Loeb b. Sirahah

Bonein).
Meisels (.Menahem)

Mcisels (Tchernah bat Menahem).
Menahem b. Aaron Polacco

Menahem b. Abraham Kohen

Menahem (Mannes) b. Abraham

Kohen of (ilogau.
-Menahem b. Abraham of Mo-

dena.

Menahem Azariah

Menahem (Mendel) b. Beza 1 eel of

Lublin.
Menahem (Mendel) Bloch b. Moses

Place.

Frankfort -on -
the-Main.

Venice

Lublin

Venice

Constanliuople

HiiUe

Lublin

Amsterdam

Fano

Venice

Lublin

('ra<'(iw

Lublin

( racow

("racow

Venice

Frankfort -on -

the-Main.
Bologna

Date.

1697

1.545-75

1643

1657

I. 58(5
1710

ir.()8
lii.^1
1722-24
l.VKi
lti:W 61
lli-18
\mi-70
l()2;i 27
1 (53 1 -.")!)

lii:!8-;«, 46
1704 .5. 8, 11,

12, 19, "

30, 60
Hi4M
1694

1.5:57-40

28,

Menahem Crispin

.Menahem Day van

Menahem (.Man) b. Eliezer

Menahem (.lacob) b. Kliezer Judah

.\shkenazi.
Menahem (.Mandel) Griinhut b

David.
Menahem (Mendel) b. (Bar)

Hirschel.

Menahem (Man) b.
of Prague.

Isaac (Jacob)

Menahem Mendel b. Isaac Levi..

Menahem (Mendel) b. Israel Ko-
hen Jaroslaw of Leniberg.

Menahem b. Jacob of (^racow ....

Menahem (Man) b. Jacob Jeku-
thiel.

Menahem b. (Noah) Jacob Kohen
of Xorden.

Menahem Jaffe b. Isaac

Menahem (Manusch) b. Judah... .

Menahem b. Meir Wilna

Menahem Mendel Kurchman b.

Samuel Kohen.
Menahem b. Moses Israel

.Menahem (Mendel) b. Nathan
F.isenstadt.

Menaheiri de Rossi b. Azariah

.Menahem b. Samuel Esra

J.Ienahem (Man) b. Solomon Levi.

Venice 1589

Lublin 1665,

81
Frankf(irt-on-, 1713
the-.Main.

Salonica ! 1709

Constantinople 1.525

Amsterdam ]t)99

Venice lfi(X5

,80-

Hanau .
Prague.

Berlin

Prague

Pratrue

Wilmersdorf .

Sulzhach

Dyhernfurth .

(racow

Amsterdam...

Menahem Stnmmer Kohen

Menahem Trinki b. David

Menahem (Man'le b. Judah Loeb)
of Wilmersdorf.

Meshullam (Phoebus) b, Aaron

Hay vat.
MesiiuUam (Zalman) b. Aaron b.

Uri.
Meshullam (Zalman) b. Abraham

Berech Plnkerle.

Meshnllam Ashkenazi

Meshullam Bassan

Mesliiillam Cusi

Meshiillatn f'tisi Levi

Meshullam (Phoebus) b. Elijah...

Meshullam Gentile b. Moses

Venice

Wandsbeck . . .

Altona

Amsterdam

Venice

Constantinople

Venice

Hanau

Sulzbach

Kiirth

olTenbach. ...

Hiimlmrg

Aiiisteniaiti... .

Frankfort -on -I

t he-Oder. |

Prague

Ferrara

Prague

92,

Mantua..

Amsterdam...

Prague

Venice

Dyht-rnfurth.

Sulzbach

Hanau

Wilmersdorf.

Berlin

Frankfort -OH'

the-oder.
Frankfort- on

the-Oder.
Sulzbach

Amsterdam.

Venice

Piove di Sacco.

Venice

Frankfort -on -

the-Oder.
Mantua

1717

1689-90,

1701
1703

1714, 20, 28,
1668
1671, 73-74,

80.81
1084-88
1(389-90, 93
1587-88
1690

1712
1732
173)
1649, 76

1631

1648

1(5.57

1712

1716-17

172:5-26

1729

17:i4

lt)6:5, 69

1701-2

1549-50

15-55

1705

1565
1614

1724-27, 32,
3:5, 38-39
1(586-90
1622
169091
1701
1710-12
1713-14
1716-17
1717

1703, 12, 25,

29
1716-17, 22,

(i7 (?)
16K5, 84-«5,

1700. 4
1685
1587
1475
1614
1709.

29.32
1673

11 12,

317

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Typography

Name.

Meshullatn (Phoebus Zalman)
Hurwitz.

Meshullaiii Hurwltz Levi.

Meshullam (Phoebus) b. Isaac

MeshuJlam (Kofniann) b. Stieina-

iah.

Me.sliullam b. Solomon

Me.shullaiu SuUam (Salem?) b.

Isiiar.

Michael b. Abrabain

Miibael Uiaz Mocatto

Michael G'acon (?)

Michael Hanau b. Solomon.

Michael b. Hayyim Taltnesinpen.

Michael b. Yom-Tob Kohen

Mordecai

Mordecai b. Abraham of Posen. . .
Mordecai b. Abraham Teimer of

Zolkiev.
Mordecai Alfandari b. Shabbetbai.

Mordecai of Ansbach

Mordecai ibn 'Atthar b. Reuben...

Mordecai Azulai b. Moses

Mordecai b. Baruch of Tivoli
Mordecai b. Benjamin Zeeb of

Cracow.

Mordecai b. David

Mordecai ((iumpel) b. Eleazar

Hendels.
Mordecai Gener Baermann Hal

berstadt.
Mordecai b. Jacob of Prostitz

Mordecai (Baer) Jakerl

Mordecai b. Jehiel Michael Slawa-

ticli.
Mordecai b. Joseph Judah Wahl. .
Mordecai (Guinpel) b. Judah Loeb

(b. Mordecai) Polak.

Mordecai b. Moses Levi

Mordecai b. Moses Menahem
hum.

Na-

Mordecal b. Naphtall

Mordecai b. Naphtali Hlrz.

Mordecai b. Reuben Basla ,

Mordecai Saul b. Samuel Saul

Jlordecai b. Shabbetbai

Mordecai b. Slmhah

Slordecai Sofer of Prague

Mordecai b. Solomon

Moses (b ?)

Moses (Moses b. Moses ?)

Moses b. (Aaron?) of Zolkiev

Moses b. Aaron A.shkenazi

Moses b. Aaron Kohen of Wit-

mund.
Moses b. Aaron of Worms

Moses b. Abraham Ablnu.

Moses b. Abraham Kohen.

Moses b. Abraham of Leipnik

Moses b. Abraham Nathan

Moses Abulafla

Moses b. Alexander Levi

Moses Alfalas

Moses A Itaras

Moses (Nathaniel) Altschul
Aaron Freund of Prasrue.

Moses Amarillo b. Solomon

Muses (Isaac) b. A.ssher

Moses b. Asher Kohen of Halle. . .

Moses (Simeon) Basllia b. Shab-
betbai.

Moses Belmonte

Moses Benveniste

Moses Ben-Zion

Place.

Frankfort -on -
the-Oder.

Date.

1703, .5, 8.
lI-l->. i:i.
I 2!»

Prague i )t)47. 48, 03

Wilinersdorf..[ l(i71, 73
Frankfort - on- 1077
the-Uder.

Sulzbach l(;i».'.-96 (?)

Amsterdam..

Venice.
Lublin .

ir)4.->-46,
.52
l.W). .-)9. 66

49,

Mantua 15ts9-90

Berlin

Leghorn

Constantinople

Frankfort -on -

the-Main.

Fihth

Salon ica

Verona

Offenbach

Dyhernfurth . .

Amsterdam

('(mstantinople

Fiirtli

Amsterdam i

Amsterdam '

Venice

Prague

Cracow t

Prague

Amsterdam.... 1713

1 («)!•- 1700
lt/)U-5-', 55-
57
1732
1717, 20

1727

1732

1047

1718

1715

1717-18, 20

1719. 23

1092-93, 1701

1721

1093, 97

1585

1657

1070

1512

Lublin

Prague ,

Hanau

Basel

Hanau

Prague

Frankfort -on
the-Oder.

Basel

Amsterdam... ,

Basel . .
Berlin..
Prague.

Basel

Fiirth

Amsterdam..

Soncino

Venice

Basel

Venice

Prague

Amsterdam..

Lublin

Cracow

Zolkiev

Constantinople
Amsterdam..

Amsterdam..

Amsterdam...

1.596,1602-5

1008, 9

1010

1022

1023-25

1705

1090

1611-12

1048-50, 50-
51, 53, 50,
.58, 00-04,
0-

Halle

Wilmersdorf..

Lublin

Venice

Basel

Venice

Frankfort -on
the-Oder.

Salonica

Prague

Jessnitz

Vei ona

Amsterdam... .

Venice

Mantua

60, 07

71,83,
1580
]70;5
170.5-6,

10
1012
1092
1702
1489
1007

1598,1618-19
1570
1.512
1732
1646

1.586, 93-93
1718
1653
1737

16.50, 53, 56-
57, .58, 01-
6:3, 64 - 60,
70-71. 80

1080, 87, 90-
94

1709-14

]721-2;i. 27-
28, ;{0, 32

1019

lo:jo (?)

1587

1010

1.598-1600

1619

1097-99

1719. 22
KHiH. 1673-75
1725
1052

I&14-40

1047

1067

Naiii

Host's (ii,n Vakkar) Brandon.

Mo.st'M Carlllo

Moses Corcos " ] '

Mo.ses b. Imnlcl of itoliiityii ..

Moses b. liiivld

Mose.s liiaz b. I.saac .,'.

Moses Uorhelm

Moses b. K.llezer

Moses b, Kliezer

Moses b. Kliezer of Wllna. ......

Moses b. Kzra

Moses Kacllino b. Samuel......!

Moses Falcon b. Smnuel

Moses Fninkfurter .'...

Mdses (;abhal " '

Moses (iabbul ....[

Moses GIfrut '..,

Muses (iomez Mesqulta b. Isaac

Moses Habib

Moses Haglz ....,

l>liice.

Atniiu-nliun..

Bniyrnii

\ en Ice

Zolkiev

Auisterdaiii..

DaU>.

Moses b. Hiillfah Sa'adia

Moses Hallirii b. S(iloiiir)n

Moses Haumn b. .Juseph

Mnses Hansen b. Josepli Most-s...

Moses (David) Hansen b. Zalman.
Mr)ses (David 'I'ebele) b. Hayyim
Koethen.

Moses b. Hayyim of TIkotIn

Moses lleilpriu b. I'hinebas

Moses Hock b. Isaac

Kninkf<irt-(in
the. Main.

Venice

Cnir<iw

riii.iiii

J>al<iiiliu

AinNtcrUam...

Venice

Sniiinlcu ,

Sinyrnii ,

Amsienlam.. ..

Napleft

Venice

AMihterUam...,
Waiidnbeck. ..

Venice

Consiantlnopli
Corisiantlnopit

Sul/bucii

Fiirih

Venice

Wandsbwk . . .

Moses b. I.<;ajic.
Moses b. Isaac.

Moses b. I.saiah b. Isaac

Moses b. Israel (Isser) La.sar Cra-
cow.

Moses b. Issachar (Baermann)
Wink.

Offenbach

Aliisterduni

Prague

Frankfurt -on -
the-Oder.

Berlin

I'nigue

Naples

( onstantinople

Salonica

Cracow

Lublin

Cracow

AMLslerdum... .

Moses b. Jacob Gelhaar of Prague Prague.. .

Moses b. Jacob Maarsen Levi of.
Amsterdam. |

Moses b. Jacob of Slutzk..

Moses Jaffe

Moses b. Jonah tJamburg.

Moses b. Joseph

Moses b. Jose|ih

Moses b. Joseph Aryeh

Moses b. Joseph (b. Isimc
of Woidislaw).

Isaiah

Moses b. Joseph Kmden

Moses b. Judah (Loeb) Cleve

Moses b. Judah of Emden

Moses (Menahem Nabuin) b. Ju-
dah (Loeb) Kaz.

Moses Kala'l b. Mattithlati b. Sam-
uel.

Moses Kaiaz ( Khallaz)

Moses b. Kiiliiian Speler

Altiina

Hainburg

H'WIelbelm . . . .
Frankfort- on

the-Muln.

Melz

Jessnitz

Venice

Frankfort -on ■

tbe-MulD.

Lublin

Amsterdam... .

Venice

Pnssiittz

D>berii(unii .

Je.vMlIt/

Kvtiernfurtb .
WandslMik...
Ainst«'nlain... .

Jessnitz

Ainstenlain... .

Lublin

I'nigue

WeckeKsdorf
Jtlrtb . . .

, 17t»-I0
.! IttSU

.' idW
.1 ITZl

I7U^-I3(15?)
- 17l», Zi

. 1614
' liMO

'ID
. i:i»-29. 32

1721
. I.'.7M

IHTiM

I7;»l. ."iK, 04

17IC »

14^N

i:i(i-4

17l»* 14
Kdi :»
1711

• l.'llK

' I.^I.V in. 44
IUH4-H'.. 88

i;ui

I7IH-5
^ 1723

1722
liL'iil, 62

18M

inen-1701
17 III. IK at

USti

I71ti 17.

17la. 31

U»H

liCJtl

DMA

1?J5 2B. »-

27..IH.. •«.;«.
ai» 40

HKb-lo. vi,
14. UK 17?).

:». sj

1728
1741

IT.Vi

K.VJ

1764
1724
MM
1722-28

1643.48

USXi
lllIU
1711
1719

i:j<i«

1720
1727,
|iW
1722
171«

\\i

,3S

Praifiie.
Venice..

Moses Levi AshkenazI of Modena.

Moses Levi Hazzan

Moses Levi Sliija

Moses Mahbub b. Maliiion

Moses MajTuni b. Daniel

Moses dl Meillna b. Samuel

Moses di Medina b. Sbeinalali

Moses ( Voni-Tot) Lipmnnn'tb. Men-
ahem (Man'l b. Isiuic Jacoli.

M<\M>s Mendez Coutlnho b. Abra-
ham.

Moses b. Meshullam (Zalman)

Moses ibn Mlnir

Con-
Frnii-:

(lie-Mnii>
Con.Hiantlnop'
Venli-e..
Vpnire . .

■<*i.

/r-37

«2

. j

..5W-17H

Venice iM

Trpoc^rapby

THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA

318

Name.

; b. Atbifr.

. 1 t>. Imuc Mena-

Plai-e.

J b. MucalU I Amstfrdam

Date.

V' -

> • Brawc

^ luer

k .il b. I^ayylm Sab-

f Ixiktsth . .
. iiao; Kolien.

>f ... •«^- «> Shan

>: ■ -. ;.• u (b.) Aiis<hel Her-

^' - N Bonem

> n AsbkenazI

a n L«?vi

Mu»^ ^iiuu b. Jacob

V - . . I'blnebas Sho^et .

V rMorea....

' ila. ••iiidliD b. JO-

■jf Vienna

MoBia W'aaK

Mom WetewaaKT b. Katrlel ....

MoMiWelacb

Motta b. Zacbarlab Koben Corfu.
Mow* Zacuto

u -.,. II. ..1,.,, ^m-h

ijeruna

y "i KaJunymus of Hal

■ 111

^ -- - ■ .-..^.'.'.'.'.'.

N«h-im K'>h«fn

^ ■

Aiimri A"hlc<'nf«l ....
■• il.

A n-' li'-i II. .\il|lh-

■ tiazl b. Jooepb

Nat'hiaJI (Ulnrb) b, Azriel Wll-
tta

NaphUll (Hlmrh) b. Jnrob

•^ Levi of

.Va|iht«a (Hirz) b. Judah Lima of

Constanlinople

A ':.-'.erdani — i

■~::. .Ilia !

\ : -tt-nlaiii — i

I : -lalltllKiple
i 111

. ;ie

Knitikfort-on-
Ibe-Uder.

(''■■L'l'-

I in

Luljiiu

Prajrue

Cimstaniinople
Saioulca

Prague

Arii>terilaiu...

Berlin

Sabbionetta...

Saloniea

Amsterdam...
WUmersdurf .

Prague

!i—isai:

' -lillZ

I ■ :;. .iW

Wnu-e ,

Amsterdam....

Frankfurt -on

the- Main.

Smyrna ,

Venice

Dvliernfurtli . .
Berlin

Frankfort -on
the-Oder.

Venice

Prague.

Venice

Prajrue

Frankfort -on-
the-.Main.

Mantua

Prague

Cracow

Prague

Frankfort -on

the-Muin.
Venice

Venice

Mantua

Venice

Amsterdam

Dyhernfurth . .
Amsterdam

f'onstantlnople

I-utjlln

J<-s.snltz

• ''instiintlnople
Constantinople

Amsterdam....

Lublin

Venice

C'rni'ow

I'nifc'ue

Ralonica

Vcnli'<'

Constantinople

Amsterdam....

Venice

Berlin

Sulzbach.

1713

leui

1708

1.V.^. 96, tf9
.•■,-28
..'1
1044. 49
1712

154fi-47. 47-
50.54
ItitvS
1731
1U4
l.Vl
1715
1617
1705

1606,11

1690

1709

1571-72

1.585-1605

1.^22

1651

1.590

1707

1715

1.5.54-55

1621

1687

1671-73

1686

1696-1701, 4

1720

1&42

1713

1669

1719

1730
1606
1696,97
1699. 17a5,
9, 14-15. 17
1724-25, 33

1620
1610, 12
1707

1623
1711-12

1589,93
1. '195-97
1598

1605-6, 9, 10,
14,18,21-22
1704

154«, 49, 51,
51!, 76

1673-95

1665

1728

1690-91

1712

1728
1648 (?)
1724
l.T<i:i-ll
1503-11.
22
1669
1648
1704-5
1.5)):t-94,
1629. 49

11-

1.596-97

lWtl-2

1510-11

1683-85

KVI9

1715

161.5-17

Name.

Naphtall (Hirsch) b. Moses of Go-

jetein.
Naphtall (Zebi Hirsch) h. Moses

Totiiah (liulinann).
Naphtall (Hirsch) Pappenheim . . .

Naphtall b. Samuel Heida

Naphtall Scb warz

Naphtali (Hirz) b.Simson Langlos

Nathan Auerbach b. Moses of Wls-
nlcz.

Nathan b. David Levi

Nathan b. Gershun Ashkenazi

Nathan Gota (Gutta?) b. Isaac b.
Abraham.

Nathan b. Isaiic Friedburg

Nathan (Feitel) b. Judah

Nathan Michelbach b. Eliezer

Nathan (Pheibel) b. Moses

Nathan b. Moses Petlitzer

Nathan de Salo

Nathan b. Samuel

Nathan (Nata) b. Samuel

Nathan (Nata) b. Simeon of Posen
Nathan b. Solomon Ashkenazi. . . ,

Nathanael Halfan b. Perez

Nathanael b. Judah ,

Nathanael b. Levi of Jerusalem.. ,

Nehemiah b. Abraham ,

Neumark (Nathan b. Loeb) ,

Neumark, Moses (or Judah Loeb).
Nicolai (Christian)

Place.

Prague.
Cracow

Amsterdam..

Prague ,

Lublin

Frankfort- on

the-Oder.
Wilinersdorf .

Altona

Lublin

Frankfoit -on

the-Main.
Venice

Nisslm b. Azriel

Nissim Halfan b. Abba-Marl..
Nisslm b. Hay vim Ashkenazi.

Nissim (David) b. Moses

Nlssira ibnShoshan

Nisslm Vlleisit

Noah Casirino

Noah b. Hezekiah

Noah b. Samuel

Obadiah Maron and Jehiel d'ltalia

Obadiah Sabbakh

Obadiah b. Zachariah

Paulus of Prague

Pelta (— Paltai) of Meseritz

Perugia (Joshua b. Judah Samuel)

Perugia (Judah Samuel)

Perugia, Louis of (?).

Pethahiah(Moses)b.JosephofOfen

Phinehas b. Eliakiin

Phinehas Heilpron b. Judah of

Neuersdorf.
Phoebus b. Menahem b. Phoebus .

Pinne bat Wolf

Polychron b. Isaac

Proops (Solomon)

Proops' Heirs

Pugil ( Johann Kaspar)

Rahamlm Halfon

Raphael . . .'.

Raphael Abbas b. Joshua

Raphael Altschul b. Mordecai

(iumpel of Prague.
Raphael Hayyim Suplno (Sopino?)

Raphael (Hayyim) d'ltalia

Raphael b. Moses b. Isaac Judah..

Raphael dl Pala.sios h. Joshua

Raphael b. Solomon of Lithuania.
Raphael b. Samuel

Cracow

Amsterdam...

Basel

Frankfort -on

the-Oder.

Cracow

Ferrani

Amsterdam...

Fijrtli

Lublin

Venice

Trini

Lublin

Naples

Amsterdam...

Berlin

Beilin

Frankfort -on

thc-Miiin.

Hanau

Venice

Constantinople
Venice

Constantinople

Mantua

Prague

Lublin

Mantua

Constantinople

Venice

Helmstadt

Frankfort- on
tlie-Oder.

Mantua

Mantua.,

Prague

Amsterdam.
Basel

Raphael de Silva b. Solomon

Raphael Talml b. Immanuel of
Forll.

Raphael Treves

Reliccca bat Isaac b. Judah Jiidels
Relchel bat Isaac b. Judah Judels.

Rels (Hlrz b. Seligmann) ..
Rels (Isaac Elsak b. Hirz).

Rels (Seligmann b. Hirz).

Offenbach

Berlin

Constantinople

Amsterdam

Frankfoit -on -
the-.Main.

Venice

Hague

Amsterdam..
Fiirth

Leghorn

Mantua

Cracow

Amsterdam..

Frankfort- on
the-Oder.

Venice

Bologna

Constantinople
Wilinersdorf . .
Wilmersdorf . .

Sulzbach

FOrth

Offenbach

Frank fort -on -

the-Maln.
Frankfort -on -

the-Maln.

Homhurg

Offenbach

Date.

1595

1625

1650. .56. 56-
57. 58
1675, 82. 86
1568
169:>

1726-27
1732
1614
1699

1629-30

1593
1700-10
lbl2
1702

1569-71

1477

1726

1722 27

1623-27

1605

1525

1623-27

1487-92

1721-27(26?)

1719-26

1699-1703 (?)

1699

1712
1545
1732
1719
159;

99,
16<11, a-4. 5
1643
1653
1675
1623-27
1672
1578
1549
1.580
1697-99

1648
1622 26
1657, 59, 61,

62,64
1667-72. 95,

1586. 90-92
1706, 10
1602

1723

1717

1726-,17

1704-34

1734-1849

1704

1711
1518-19
1709
1691-92

1651-62
1724

1667, 70
1714-16
1692
1683

1656
1537-40

i:n

1677

1677.79,80,82

1691

1692-99,1701

1715

lt>87

1687, 1706-11

1711-12
1714-19, 21

319

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Typoirrftphy

Name.

Reuben b. Eliakim of Mayence... .

Reuben Fiirst (Ferst) b. Nethaneel
Rfubt'ii b. Isaac Levi Breidenbacb

Uirtitenbacb).
Reyna (Donna)

Rolzel (wife of Flshel)

Saadlab. Ablgdorb. Eliezer Koben
Saadia Angel b. Samuel

Place.

Amsterdam.

Saadia b. David

Saiidia Koben b. Zalman.. .

Samson b. Aaron Isaac

Samson Habillo

Samson Hanau b. Solomon.
Samson Melli b. Mordecai. .
Samson b. Moses

Samson Sanguine b. Michael

Samson Tarnigrod b. Hayyim . . .

Samuel b. . . ? (of the family of

Isaiah b. Samuel Levi).

Samuel Abravanel Soeyro

Samuel Amato

Samuel Archevolti

Samuel b. Aryeh (Loeb) Levi of

Posen.

Samuel b. Asher Levi

Samuel ibn Ashkara Zaifaii

Samuel Baruch and Jacob Baruch
Samuel Bergel b. .ludah Ueutling,

Samuel Blocb b. Jacob

Samuel Caleb

Samuel di Campos

Samuel Cases b. Moses

Samuel di Cazeres

Samuel b. David Gumpel

Samuel ibn Deisus

Samuel Dresle

Samuel (Sanwel) b. Eliakim b.

Mei'r.

Samuel b. Elkanah

Samuel FurtlKsameas preceding?)

Samuel (Don) G'acon

Samuel Habillo

Samuel Hagiz

Samuel b. Hayyim

Samuel Hazzan

Samuel Heidab. Joseph of Hamburg

Samuel b. Hezekiah Levi

Samuel Hurwitz b. Meshullam

(Zalman) b. Joseph Levi of

Prague.

Samuel b. Isaac Boehm.

Samuel (Sanwel) b. Jacob (of
Lissa).

Samuel b. Jacob Levi Brandeis. .
Samuel (Sanwel) b. Jacob Poppicz

Samuel b. Jerahmeel

Samuel (Zebi Hirsch) b. Joel Sirks

Samuel b. Jonah (Askeri ?) of

Salonica.

Samuel b. Joseph

Samuel b. Judah.

Samuel b. Judah Shammash

Samuel Katzenellenbogen

Samuel Kolodro. . .

Samuel Kusin b. Levi

Samuel Latit

Samuel Levi

Samuel Levi ibn Hakim

Samuel Magreso

Samuel Mantino b. Jacob

Samuel Maniuez b. Solomon —
Samuel di Medina b. Stiemaiah. . .

Samuel Meisel

Samuel b. Michael

Samuel b. Mordecai Ashkenazi of
Przemysl.

Date.

Berlin

Frankfort -on -

tbe-Odt-r.
Constantinople
Kuru Tchesh-! l.VJT-ys

IW4, ■1(J-~I7.
47 -"kl, M,
.08. Ol-tKJ,
70-Tl, 78

1706

1725,29

1593-94

me.

Cracow

I'rague

Salonica...

Venice

Leghorn . ,

Lublin

Venice

Homburg
Mantua ...
Lublin

29.

23-

Verona

Frankfort -on

the-Oder.
Lublin

Amsterdam..
Constantinople'

Venice

Amsterdam....

Prague

Ferrara

Venice

Sulzbach

Zolkiev

Salonica

Amsterdam —

Mantua

Amsterdam —

Prague

Venice

Cracow

Berlin

Frankfort -on -

the-Main.

Fiirth

Hanau

Faro

Venice

Homburg

Venice

Berlin

Naples

Wilmersdorf...
Frankfort -on-

the-Oder.

Cremona..

Padua

V^eniee

Cracow

Hamburg..

Furth.

Wilmersdorf..
Wilmersdorf..

Lublin

Wilmersdorf..

Cracow

Amsterdam...

Venice

Leiria

Venice

Naples

Mantua

Cracow

Constantinople

Venice

Amsterdam —

Venice

Mantua

Prague

Venice

Cracow

15W.
1014
1720-21,

32
1623
10.55
1(5.30 ?
1054
1724 25
1070
1618-20.

27
1650
1691

1646

16.50-52
1728

1564-1602
li07. 7-8. 8.

15
1512
1.551-52
1056
1712
1695
1597
1085
1.559
1659
1515. 18
1.596, 97, 98
1631 (?). 39-

40, 1737
1712
1714

1724, 25, 26

1719

1487

1643

1590-98

1712

1048

1706

1492

1070. 73-74

1677, 80, 86,

89. 91-1701,

5, 11, 13
1556
1.562
1.565-67
1589-81
1686, 87, 88,

80
1691-92. 93-

94
1716
167:i-74
1.599
1729
16.31-40
1728

1681-82

1713
1503
1492
1636-37
14iK)
1.5i:}-14
1013(?)
1.540-47, 47-
48
1717
1,546

1709, 14-16
1047
1648
1014-15
1721
1612

Name.

Samuel (Joseph) b. MurU(«cal brua

murk.
Samuel b. Muscm Frnnkfurtcr....,

Satiiuel b. MuM'H l.t-vl

Samuel b. Mo.s«-.s Levi

Samuel b. Mown Sedjelmtfiaa

Samuel b. ,Musu

Samuel Norzl b. Iwmc

Samuel b. Peniljyuh

Samin'l PInU)

Samuel I'oppert

Samuel Rlkomln

Samuel UiMlrlgiies-Mendcs

Samuel Rosa b. Isiiac Baruch

Samuel b. Samuel ile Uoriui

Samuel Schwab b. Joseph o( dUnz-

burg.
Samuel Shalom SedJelmessI of

Lepanto.
Samuel Telxelra

Plm-iv

Cnu-«jw.

Date.

•"1

5 06.
«

Rze

/...,.. . ., .

... J

Mantua.

|.>4« 00

IV-.'. x«

AriiKUTdtttii..

AltOHH .

<-<.Ii.'

Am-'

i 11

. CA

Samuel ValensI

Sauuiel (Oppenheim) of Vienna...

SaumelZarfatl

Samuel b. Zeeb Wolf b. Ephralm
FIschel of Lemlx'rg.

Sarah bat Jacob

Saul Belgrad b. Joseph of Udlne. .

Saul b. Benjamin b. Isaac

Saul of Frankfort-on-the-Oder

Saul (Simeon) b. Judah Levi.
Schwarz (Hayyim b. David)

Selig b. Abraham Levi

Selig (Abi 'Ezri) b. Solomon
Venice.

Venice . . .
Amsterdam...

Smyrna

Rome

Amsterdam..

Prajnie

Venice

Frank fort -on
th«MKler.

Lublin

PraKUe

HlTrt.

MM?

linii I 1

liMH, 17
1712

Kt. W-
" '05.

Seligmann Ulma b. Moses Sim-
eon.

Shabbethal (?)

Shabbethai Bass

Shabbethai b. Mordecai of Posen

Shalom b. David Moses !

Shalom Galliago b. Joseph of Sa-,

lonica. '

Shalom b. Gershon of IIoriKllo — '
Shalom (Sehechna) b. Nahum Kui-

danower. '

Shalom (Mann) Stoks

Shemariah b. Ahrou i

Shemariah b. Jacob of Grodno 1

Shem-Tob

Shem-tob ibn Mlnir

Sbem-tob ibn Polkur b. Moses. . .
Shneor Falcon b. Judah i

Shneor (Zalman) b. Israel Baruch

Blei-hower.
Shneor (Zalman) b. Jonathan Ko-

hen of I'oscn.

Simeon A Imosnlno

Simeon Altachul b. Asher Anschelj

Herzels. '

Simeon Alt-'a-hillerb. Judah ( Upt-b >
Simeon (Wolf) b. Asher kolien

Ashkenazl of Fninkfort. •

Simeon Blansii Asbkemizl '

Simeon (Wolf) Bnindeis b. Jacob.'

Simeon CoHo (Copio?) I

Simeon b. Isaac Cracow I

Simeon b. Judah Joseph '

Simetin (Isiuu-) Kohen

Simeon Ij»bl

Simeon Levi

Simeon (or Wolf) Men?, b. Abr»-|
bam.

Simeon b. Naphtall Hlr7.
Simeon Ranerof Danzig.

Simeon Rodeii

Simeon Treves

Oels

Augsburg

Icbellhuil.sen . .

Hedclembeim.
Anisterdum... .
Itybernfuilh ..
F'rankfort-on •

the-<Kler.

Berlin

Frankfort -on

the-dder.
Hanau

Venice

.AiiLHtenlam...
Dvhenifurlb .

BiLsel

Pniglie

.\msterdaui..

Lublin

Wllmefiwlorf ,

Je.ssnitz

OffenliHcb —

Cmiiiw

.\lli.sterdum..

Venla-

Amsterdam....

Venire .
Pnijnie .

I'rague.
Cnui)W.

bill 21.27
I5|.\ 18. 22.

I.'nW
l'.;« 43
I'M! 45

1%40
lt»'7
|t.'.<2 W
1097-99

ITol. .',
I Til'.. V
17 1-'. 13. a.

29. :m

laiu-ifi. 16

167.5

1679. (O. «e

l<irt»-|71»

I.MIU

171)1
1721
I7IX
l.'»«9. 98
1711

■I

i.ilA)

I.'«17
l<Jv5 87

la*. 1701. 7

imft-47

Venice

Frankfort ■'<
llw-i Kler.

Venliv

Croixiw

Amiitenlan).

Franltfort - on

tbp-Maln.

IfAC
I. '.7 4
I7t«

i7i«» 13

Simeon Wltxenhausen b. Joseph.

on-

•'1

r-. ll-lS

-'«

r 1 V
tl

Am-'

FmnkfoM -
tbe-Maln.

i 1

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

320

S«ni«"-

Pl«<-e.

Date.

U. lia*i

(•r....,w !l.V8,9T-9'*

..i i«e. »

.• .,,. ;.' ITIT

•A

Aftruo Isaac Uauil>ul|{ ^'^

• e.

b. I>«%id Krankfort-on-

! " .11.

.:il

.azt.

KurUi .

1648

va)

1571

ItiK'i

1712. 18, 19.

1722-30
1730

l."l«i.')

1729,30

K'lhcn Ashkenazi

ii'i

J^uMti JuUdti of Nur

■ -.ona l-'>70

. i,iia I l.-i;ti-33

ViiiKv IWO

Fniiikfiirt-on- lb'97
tlii'-Muin. 1

I.ulillii lAli

.\iii>tfniaiii I7U8 _

Siiivma j li>57-"4

Ciiiistuntinople lt>«i2

Wnk-e I 1")99

Pruniie lt>2l)

Fninkf.irt-on-j H192-17U,
tlie-Main. (17?)

Salonka IjW

n I lioine i l■'>^^5

I Vi-nke 16H4

Aiiistfrdam ' 1719

Ainst<»rdain....; IGW, 42

' aN-r-Tob.

>iiuu Ash-

Venire .
Prat'iie .
Prague .

. Kuliiian kt

>n Ibn Knpr&t

an) of Lemherg...
II

•b I PntRue

Juduti IxH'b.i Wilini-rsiiorf ..

Fniiikfurt -on-
llif-.Main.

Lfgl)i»rn

V»-nii'i'

Aiiisti-nlain

Kniiikfori -on -
the- .Main.

OITi-nbacli and
Hanau.

Aiiisterdani

Venice

Venire

CiinsUintinople

Berlin

Abrabain..

•.tltlihiti.

■■n h. M«-!

U. Mcir Levi uf

C'rarow. .
Jessnitz.

■:l.

Morxlecai .

PrT!--mnTt b. VfTw^ A^^l()nm.

>iik-

Constantlnople
Fnmkfori -(.>n -

the-()(Jer.
Amsterdam..

Pntifue

byhfrnfiirth
Amsterdam..

M<i»M» Ija/JMQ Venice.,

•\L..

SainU)

Amsterdam

Con.siantinopU

« b. I)a\lil. . . Venice

V.-iilce

Mantua

Amsterdam

ofol^rfati.. Soncino

I .N'apl<-s

I>evl I'niu'in-

'■ Samuel SulzbacU

b. Sebe- Venice.

■n Shfwhan b. Samuel ,

.Miiwa.

«nltd b. Judab...
M.«»

Salonicn

.\m!iterdam

Am.sterdum... .

Venice

Constantinople

V.-nice

Zolklcv

Ojustantinople

16CC
l.WS

irm

172)

lGSX-89

1UH9-17U)

lf.,-)0
ITKi
17li!)-I4
1714-25

1716-20

17.31-35
lia)7
1.5ti7
l.")'.)".)
l.")i:j-49
17(15. ti, 8,
i:i. 15
1.5.H7-H8
l?20-23

1710
1708

1717-18
17 UK?)
1712

1722, 24, 26,
:«
1711
ItiKl, 76
lt>42-43
1.VJ9
1««7

irm

ItiW). 86
14K4
1490.92
1512. 15. 22
1(^

1667

1.580, 82

ItiM

lfV12(?)

lfi29-30

1.5til

1.521

l7(«-4

1.522

Name-

Solomon Verushaluii b. Mena
hem.

Solomon Zaimati b. Maimon

Solomon b. Zebi Lokaischer

Soncino (Moses b. . . ?)

Soncino. Eliezer b. Gershon

Soncino, Gershon b. Moses

Place.

Soncino. Ist^el Nathan b. Samuel

b. .Moses.
Soncino. Joshua Solomon b. Israel

Nutlian.

Soncino, Solomon b. Moses

Tobiah b. Abraham Koheu

Uri (Phoebus) b. Aaron Witmund
Levi.

Uri (Phoebus) b.Abraham Barmes

Uri h. Abraham Kohen

Uri (Phoebus) b. Joseph

Uri b. Moses

Uri (i>hragga Phoebus) b. Solomon
(Zalman).

Usque (Abraham)

Veile bat Moses Schlenkerof Furth
Vitioria Eliauo

Weglin (Sebald)

Yahya b. Abraham ibn Hama Fas.

Yom-Tob b. .Mi<liael Kohen

Yom-Tob Modifrliano b. Samuel..

Yom-fob Zikri li. Uafael

Yom-fob Zarfati b. Perez

Zachariah.

Zadok b. Abraham of Mesuritz —

Zebi (Hirscli) b. Aaron Hayyat... .

Zebl (Hirsch) b. (Jacob) Abraham
Zebi (llii-sch) b. Abraham of

Wronek.
Zebi (Hirsch) b. Elijah b. Baer

Lubeck.

Zebi (Hirsch) b. Falk Kohen Kiim-

niell)rod.
Zebi (Hirsch) b. Gershon

Zebl (Hirsch) b. Isaac Levi

Zebi b. Isaac of Ostrog

Zebl b. Isaac of Posen

Zebl b. Jacob

Zebl (Hirsch) b. Joseph Levi

Zebi (Hirsch) b. Josiah Cnisnik.. .
Zebi (Hirsch) b. Kalonymus Ko
ben of Kalisz.

Salonica

Sabbionetta...

Ixar

Dyliernfurth...

Berlin

.^alonica

Constantinople

Soncino

Brescia

Barco

Fano

Pesaro

Fano

Ortona

Rimini

Constantinople

Salonica

Soncino

Casal Maggiore

Soncino

Naples

Soncino

Wilmersdorf...

Sulzhach

Furth

Amsterdam

Zolkiev

Amsterdam

Amsterdam... .

Amsterdam

Cracow

Date.

Ferrara

AViliiiersdorf .
Cremona

Venice .

1551

1.554

1490

17(J«t. 2

17(i:}

1.52IJ-2T

1.534-47

14H8 90

1491-94

1491) 97

150;i, 5-6

1507-20

1516

1518. 19

1521-26

1. 5:30-33

1.5:12-33

148;J

1486

14S3-88

149(M)2

1490

1714, 16-18,

21, 29-30
1741
1745
l(i4.5-48.

.58-89
Hi92 95
]t;7U-J^0,

1698

172:3, 24, 26,

56,

82,

43,

Zebl Levi Hazzan

Zebi (Hirsch) Liberls Sofer

Zebi (Hirsch) b. Meir of Janow.. .
Zebi (Hirsch) b. Meir of Kossowitz
Zebi (Hirsch) Minz Levi h. Asher.

Zebi b. Moses

Zebi (Hirsch) b. Moses Frankfort.

Zebi b. Shalom

Zebi (Hirsch) b. Tobiah

Rome

Frankfort -on

the-Main.

Venice

Salonica

Constantinople

Naples

Venice

Frankfort -on -

the-Oder.

Frankfort -on-
lhe-( )der.

Cracow

Amsterdam

Prague

Dessau

Frankfort -on-
ttie-Oder.

Berlin

Prague

Fiirth

Amsterdam

Cracow

Lublin

LubUn

Furth

Lublin

Dyliernfurth .
Frankfort -on

the-Oder.
Dyhernfurth..

Venice

Prague

Jessnitz

Pi ague

Amsterdam...

I.ublin

Amsterdam...

Cracow

Lublin

ItviO
l(y»-40,

48
1.5.5:}-57
1727
1,557, 58, 58-

1)0
1564, 6.5, 66,

1.578, 81
1709

I -

1574

1717

172:3

1519

1489

1667

16 9 7-99,
17(r-'. 5-8,
11-1:5. 13,
20. 24. 25

1714

1(542-4:3

17(KH1

11)91 9;?

ni9»)

11)97-9!)

1(;99. 1700
ro'i-O. 25
1692

10,

99,

1700-5,

11. 14
1717-18, 23,

2(i. 2S, :50,

:i:i, :i8-39
1.57(;-77
1622
1(18")
Kid I 94.

1701
l(i27
ir,91.96
1697-99

1700-1

1.598

1707

1720. 21. 22

1713

1725 26, 36

11)22

1701

1H42-44

1023-27

321

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

TyjjOKrftphy

Name.

Place.

Date.

Zeeb (Wolf) b. Aryeh (Loeb) b.
Isaac.

Zeeb ( Wolf) b. Isaac Josels

Zeeb (Wolf) Levi

Zeeb (Wolf) b. MeshuUam

Zeeb (Wolf) b. Mordecai

Amsterdam....

Cracow

Ainsterdaiii

Berlin

Cracow

Amsterdam....

1724
1(538-39

1702-3. 12.

l(i-17
l():;8-40. 43.

48
1698

Zeeb (Wolf) b. Samuel

List of Christian Printers.

Name.

Albert! (Idzardus)

Albrizzi (Hier.)

Aiiibrosini (Cbristoforo)
Andreae (Jo I'b.)

Andreae (Matth.).

Andreae (St.)

Ansbelm (Thom.).

Bakenhoffer (Jo. Phil.)

Baron (Jo. Zach.)

Baroni (Andera)

Bashuv.sen (H. J. P.)

Bauernfeld (Jac.)

Beausang (Jo. Jac.)

Bebel

Beckmann (Job. Christ.)

Blaak (Laur.)

Bladao (Maestro Anton. B. Ue
Asula).

Blaise (Thom.)

Blaue (Wilh.)

Bomberg (Daniel)

Bona (Doinenico)

Boom, Baum (Job.)

Borstiiis ((ierbard and Jacob). .

Bragadina

Bragadini (Aluise, Aloyse)

Bragadini (Aluise [II.], Aloyse)..

Bragadini (Aluise [III.])

Bragadini, Bragadino

Bragadini (Glacomo, Jacob)

Bragadini ((iirolamo, Gerollmo,

Hieronym.).
Bragadini (Juan, Zuan, Giovan.,

Joliann.).
Bragadini (Lorenzo, Laurent.)

Bragadini (Nicol.).,
Bragadini (Pietro).

Bragadini (Vicenzio [I.], Vincent.)

Bragadini (Vicenzio [II.])

Brand (Justin.)

Brandenburger

Brandmiiller (Jo.)

Breitkopf (Bernh. Christ.)

Brion (Anton)

Brocario (Bui. de)

Brucello (Franc.)

Cajon

Calleoni, Caleoni (Anton).

Caphallon

Cavalli, Caballi (Zorzo)....

Christlani (Wilin.)

Clugus (Jos.)

Collegium Italoruni

Comnu'lius

Conti (Vicenz., Vincent.)..

Cramosiiis (Seb;ist.)

Cralaniler (Audr.)

Crati (Zach.)

Crato(Jo.)

Crivellari (Gaspar)

Crivi'llari (Giulio, Julius)

Decker (Ge.)

Donne ( lYancesco delle)

Doriguzzi (Zuane, Job.)

Draconi (Cliristoi)!) ) Cremona

Dreunen (Meinardus) I Utrecht..

XII.— 21

Franeker

Venice

Frankfort -on

tbe-xMain.
Frank fort -on

the-( )der.
Heidelberg ...

Tiihingen

Hagenau

Copenhagen .

Leyden

Venice

Hanau

Jena

Hanau

Basel

Frankfort -on

the-t)der.
Amsterdam ..
Rome

Paris

Amsterdam...

Venice

Venice ,

Amsterdam... ,
Am.sterdam... ,

Venice

Venice .
Venice.
Venice .
Venice .

Venice .

Venice .
Venice .

Venice

Leipsic

Basel

Leipsic

Riva

Complutum.

Venice

Paris

Venice

Leyden

Wittenberg.

Paris

Heidelberg.
Cremona. . .

Sabbionelta . .

Paris

Basel

Wittenberg

Wittenberg . .

Padua

Biisel

Verona

Venice

lfU2
1707 (?)
1()67, 71-74
171()

1707-12

1.5W)

1 012-14

ir)l«-19

169«

l(i,58

1692

1709-12

1678

171.^19

l.>34-95

]()77

1676-78

1524. 46-47

1622

1676-78

1516-48

1678

1705

1698-1703

1664

15r)0-53, 63

(?)-75
1624-30, 39-

.50

1697-98, 1710
1.5.50-1800
1639-50
1639-50, 55-

64,67
1579-1614

(15?)
1615-30, 39-

1639-50
1614-30, 39-

1(539-49
1697-98
16a3-8ti
1712
16'.)1
1725
l.'!.57-58
1514-17
1.544
1(513-22. 22-

41
1642-.57

1.565-Os
16:53

1525. 29
1539

1599-1616
1.5.56-61. 65-

66,67
1567

16; (2
1.5:51

]. 5,^^87
1.56:5-76, 82
1622-23
1(510
166(1

i.5m-a5

1670. 85

1.576

1665

Name.

KicblKjrn.

Kllinger (J.(,.)

Klzevlr ■"■_■

Episcopus (Mcol.). . . . . . .,.', '. '. ', [ ', ,'

Krpenlann

Facclotto or Kazot de Mcinii-cchio

(Glov.. (i(ac).
Faglu8(Paul.)

Farrl (Mcsser Zuane orGlovant
FlllpiH)n(o), Filipi".iil (Flldtun.

Filippono (FllilireWK)

Fll.ml

Friiben . .'. I .

Froben (Ainbros.)

Froben (Hleron.)

Fn.ben (Jo. [I.])

Kuldlus (Mart.)

Fyner (Conrad)

(ianghel (Chrl-.toph. van).
<.iira. Garra (dl. del)..

f:anIoni (Alessandro)

<.iiistinlanl, Jiisilnlanl (Bern).
Oiusliniani. JustlnlanI (.Marco Ai.
tonio).

Goebellus

Gottschalk (Mich.) "

Gourmont ( Aegid.) pa

!■-***.

iMte.

y ■ ■ 'D •

liw;

Uulijsk

' •■* *

Uydcn . .

Hftwl

*;-

Leyden

Rome

iftid

.11

►•^rrum

Hamburg

Itaat'l

i/i:»-«i

Frt'lhunr

1VO.M4

««-. .■

:' - '.1

n, .

/•»•

I.'

}

1 1

Vculce 1

16n4-l«09

*lni

» '"iij" t- . . .

...

A lIL'vl.iirir

IT^M

Gross (Jo. Ad.).

Gruler (Peter)

Grunbergius (J.)

Grymm (sigisinund), Medlcus.

Gryphius (Franc.)

Gryphlus (.^ebast.)

Grypho (Glov.. Joh.)

Guarin (Thom.)

Gyselaar, GiJ.selaar (Joh.)

Halma(Fr.)

Hamm (Gn. Woifg.)

Harper (Thom.).

'I..

A;.,. ,►

Parte

Lyon.o

V.-.' .
li:,-
F'
A'

H.-.,n-.-n

London...

Hartmann (Joach. and Frid.) Fniiii.f..rt

. 15

Hayes (Jo.)

Helnschelt, Henscheld (Anion)

Henckel (Mart.)

Hene (Hans, Jacob).
Hering (Joh.)

Hofer (?Joh.)

Hoogenhtivsen (Cornel.).
Hutter (Ellas)

Hive (Thom.)

Ilsnerus (Blaslus).

Joh.).

C
1

Hanau

Fmnkfort - >
theCKler.

i)- 171M'J

1'^-'

H .

*•

.Nui'ii.i- rj:

:'!

Ixndon .. .

■ *

JYiinkfort-. i.

i- b\^

the-.Maln.

Venice

ICI -M

BOJM-I

■ : -ii

B«Tlln

LObwk....

GILttrnw ..

I^lpric...

A misUTdini

PaM*,

- ;',

Imbertl (Zuane, Glov..

Isingrinius (.Mich.)

Jablonski (Dan. Km.).

Jaeger Uimtfr.)

Jaeger (.Heredes Jos.).

Jansson (Ant.)

Jansst>n (Joh.)

Jay i.Micb.)

Julllenm (.N'Icol.)

Juslinianiis (Aug.)

Juvenis (Martin;.

KeIner(G.) , »^ nt'-ni-rv

Killus (.NIC. ) I Rostock .. .

Kirchner (Christ.) i ..l..^,.■
KIlebel (Jo Henr.)

Koelner iJ<>h.)

Koenlg(Joh.)

K oen Ig ( Lud. )

Kopineler

Kurzlu.H (Joh.) of Gross-UIORBU

I.ncqurhav (Job. >

Liiunm OlonaventuruUe)

LauR'ntius (Henr.) Anwienlaii<

Ix>tther(Melchlor)..
I.uchiiiinns (Joril.).
Lucius (Jac.)

Madniz (Chrlstofolo).
Magnus ( AllH-rtu.s)...
Main.' (Joh.)

MartlnelU (Glov.. Jos.) ' Venice .

1636^.50

Ty:

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

322

Place.

Date.

^;actllUl>).

IIISJ..

j<>ii.>.

.-umaii.;.

-■u Luiiunno)..

. -uc).,

IU-.

'.ftn

. . . ; rt-on-
tUe-Maiii.

PhTlt

vealce

Purls

Leyden

AuRsbunr

Ba.sfl

Hulk-

lirwlii

Mantua

Venice

Padua

l°pA«ala

(ienoa.

Bajsel

Ainsterdain

Lyons

Antwerp

Padua

Venii-e i

Venire

Home

Venice

Franeker I

Leyden }

' St- Amsterdam.

Hamburg;....

(iedani

I Kiel

Leipsic

... Venice

I aou ufllioui.) Hamburg....

' Hamburg. . .

-'•ode) j Veruna

■ !a) Geneva

London

,Ja<'.) Mantua

• (Messer Ven- Mantua

- . Thoni.) Mantua

Oinr. ) Wiitenlierg

Copenhasren...

^ I Hamburg.

■ ■ ) ' Strasburg ,

. ) Worms ,

' Gotha

.h. Henr.) Altdorf

. -^n) Tannliatisen.. ,

les Sam.) Wittenberg

Cologne ,

Solingen

I.) Strasburg

ti.) Berlin

I Amsterdam...,

• •• arul.) Paris

ISU-pbJiflus IRub.) Paris

I Geneva ,

VfcwJj^-nre (Jo.) .

Paris

Frankfort- on •

tlie-()der.
Utrecht

VedeUucu (UomenlK.. j Venice .

Vcndramlol. Veodnunln 1 Venice .

VeodrwDlnl Venice .

' ' Venice

(ieneva

Paris

ikob) Basel

'• Bhael

■I Amsterdam.. . .

rirecht

Kninkfort -on^
thc-Main.

Franeker

Upoala

••■■ ' — ■' ' LeIpsIc

Wu*l (Jo.) Frunkfort-on

I the-Main.
Z«n«-ttl. OUnetU, Zanctliis (Chrte- Venice,
•'•f '

WfiiiiUiAiiU <Mc.;

1640
li;8U

1.5.59-&3

ie»5(>-65

IMl

lliaO. (C

l.-il*

1.J6T

1710-19

ITU

it;*»

1708-12, 15

l.Tti.'. ti7

lii"C'-00

1510

1530-57

1043

IGii

15ti»^-H9

l.^>e2. 67

l.v.t;i-iK;

ltijU-07
UiKi

1.>I'J

1.597
1590-1615,

21 -2a

1KJ8. 48

lU(a-tit!

1075

1709

1.504

1 1057-.59. 00
'1709, 11, IJ-

I -1
Il0««-1709

1040-52

1609-18

ItVil, .^3-57

1560 90

1550-59

1.593

1.580-87

1631

1580-87

1.591

1.529

1707. 10

1074

1.593-94

1015

1538

1070

1710

1692-1703

1.5.5<;-.59

1.528, 39-46

l.V)4, 50

1.56:1-66

1030

16.57

1062 64. 03,

05, 74-83
1630-41
1642-1705.

1051,53,55
1643-54
1.578
I0:.'.H^5
1.5K!

I.5'.t.H 1012
1701
168:{-88
1709

Rome

Venice

lan. Glov.. Jo.) Venice

M.d. Mii!«el..i Magdeburg.

I'irdaniiR) Venice

■ ) ; Jyeipslc.

Z>il HjUU.) Utrecht.

1(S63
1727
lOtil
1094-1707

1.504-60

1.59i;.!»7-lf)()»l
1.57K. 8(1-81
15'r.t '.HI
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17<KI
1.571-72
I09'>
10.50

V. (1732-1900): From 1732 many of the pit-sst'S
already refL-rroil to have contiuucd their activity
down to tiie piesciit day. Tliat ot Leghorn, for ex-
ample, beiran a new life in 1740 in the workshop of
AbralKiin .Meldola ; and he was followed by a iiiini-
berof Hebrew jiriiiters, who found a market for their
products in the Levant and the Barbary States, so
much so that Christian jirinteis like Carlo Gorgio
(1779) and Giovanni Falerno (1779) found it worth
while to compete in producing ritual and cabalis-
tic works for the southern markets. This period
also saw the beginning of the remarkable activity of
Wolf Ileidenheim at Rddelheim, producing the
well-known editions of the ritual. Tiiese. while
originally intended for the Frankfort market, have
been used by Ashkenazic congregations throughout
the world ; and tiic Tetillah had run to as many
as 128 editions by 1902 ("Zeit. fiir llebr. Bibl.""
V. 99). This ])criod was likewise marked bj' the
inauguration of Hebrew printing at Carlsruhe, at
first under the egis of Christian printers beginning
with Johann Herald in 17r)5, and later under Wilhelm
Lotter fi-om 17G6. It was not till 1782 that Ilirsch
Wormser and his brother-in-law were allowed ti>
start a printing-press, chiefly for ritual works. They
were followed in 1814 by David ]Marx. Altogether
about Gl Hebrew pi-ints from this press are known.

But the period is especially noteworthy for the
rise and development of Hebrew printing in the
lands where most persons lived wlio were acquainted
with Hebrew. It is somewhat diflicult to account
for the fact that there was absolutely no Hebi'ew
printing in the districts now constituting Russian
Poland and the Pale of Settlement till past the mid-
dle of the eighteenth century, though they have for
the i)ast 200 years contained the largest number of
Jews and the greatest nuinber of those acquainted
with IIel)rew. Intheold Polish kingdom the Coun-
cil of the Four Lands kept a somewhat rigid conti'ol
over the production of Hebi'ew books,

Russia. to whieii it secured a kind of copy-
right by threatening excomnuuiica-
tion for anybody reprinting works having its ap-
probation. The Cossack outrages of 1/548 liad
destroyed the chance of any independent printing
in these counti'ies, and the markets were mainly
supi^lied by Prague, Cracow, Lublin, and later
Frankfort-ou-the-Oder. It was not till after the
troublous period of the three partitions (1772-95) that
local jji'esses began to be established in Russia.
Mention ma}' hei-e pcrhai)S be made of tlie printing
of the Karaite Tefillah (1784) at Eupatoria(notyet,
however, within the precincts of the Russian em-
pire), foUoweil by that of the Krimchaks in the next
year, and reference may also be made to two or
three works printed at Olexnitz (17C0-G7) in con-
nection with the beginnings of llasidism. (Soon after
this, jninting liad begun in Koretz (1777), and was
f 1)1 lo wed ;itNeuliof(XovyDv()r) near Warsaw (17S2),
at Polonnoye (17S3-91), at Shklov (1783), and at
Poretzk (1786-91). Lithuania for the first time ob-
tained a ])rinting-press of its own by the privilege
granted by King Stanislaus Augustus to Banich
lio.M.M, who established a printing-office at Grodno
in 1789. After the settlement at the third partition
under Catherine II., a considerable number of lius-

323

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Typoifraphy

sian pniitiug-ofTices sprang up, which will be found
in the list on pages 32^ and 8:50. They continued to
increase during tlie niiieteentli century till Nicholas
I. in 1840 passed a law lestrielini; all llel)ic\v printing
to two eslablishnients, one at Wilna, the oilier at
Slavuta. Konigsberg, Johannisberg, Lyck,
Memel, Eydtkuhnen, and other cities of East
Prussia supplied the Russian reipiirenients. This
practically gave a monopoly of the Russian maikct
tothelirniof Koniin, -which had moved from Grodno
to Wilna in 1799. Rut it maintained eoimection with
Grodno, itrodueing in 1S35 a well-known edition of
the Talmud which bears the imprint " V.'ilna and

the busnuvss was bought by Ik- la Torre. Th.- inonop-
oly bemg given up, J. Schlesinger assumed the
work; he devoted hinisclfespecinlly to rilu.ilsi.ls<. for
tlieontlyuigcolonies(.f.Icws. |)ro.bieinga Sid.lnr for
the Yemen Jews, u Mahzi.r for the Algeiiun Jews,
and other rituals for northern Africa; the Cutalo-
nian and Aragonian congrecalions «.f Sal<ini,u also
had their rituals printed at Vieiniu. Other Austrian
and Hungarian presses were nt Leinberg, Cracow
(Joseph Fischer). Presburg (Alkuluii. Paks,
Przemysl, Lublin, (i< . j

.Mention has already been made of tlie Iicgln-
niugsof Oriental typography in the city <.f Con-

(Dim WN) : r,y-;p h^b ^^ 2iip t

:nDr i:^:i-)i'ii'T in^ ^rnpP* "ni^^v i6z '"^n nV"

..^. *.' • ..r ••I X — • — • • . . ^ . ,. .

C «» • « f «

; pn -Jn ^rt: fu^o |r:;Nn ni;iirt 'p

.ur:Ar:i?A ^i? Jm /rpir^D prr*n irn*^:

From thk Hkiukxukim Maiizor. UOdkuikim. 1s:c.'.

Grodno." The Romms down to the present day con-
tinue to be the most extensive IIel)rew juinters in
Russia; but of recent years the Warsaw i>ublishing
firms *' Tushiyyah " and " Ahiasaf " jiroduce i)erhaps
even to a larger extent than the Wilna firm.

IVIention may be made hereof the Austrian presses
in the nineteenth century, which have been very pro-
ductive, csjiecially those of Vienna,

Austria, where Anton von Scimin obtained
from 1800 onward the monopoly for
the Austrian empire, and as a consecpience pro-
duced about 250 Hebrew works, including a re-
print of the JMendelssohn Bible and many Jewish
prayer-books, besides the periodical "Bikkure ha-
'Ittim." He Avas succeeded by his sou, from whom

stantinople. Toward theend of tlicsixtecnlli cpit-
tury Donna l?eyna Mendesia founded what ndglil
be calkMl a i>rivate printing press at Belvedere or
Kuru Chesme (lo!):}). The next cenlury tlie Franco
family, pmbably from Yenice. also eslublislicd a
l)rinting-i)ress there, and was followed by Jost-pb
b. Jacob of Solowitz (near Leniberp), who rslab-
lished at Constantinople in 1717 a press which
existed tn the end of the century. He was fo»

lowed by a Jewish printer front
Oriental. Yenice, Isjiac .! '' ' n (1764-1^"J).

who .settled at ( inoplc in 1>06;

his i>ress is carried on by his son Klia de Castro,
who is still the oflieial printer of the Ottoman em-
pire. Both the English and the Scotch niis.sion»

TTPorT*phy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

324

1^, .}.,. .T,. i Hebrew works at CoustoDti-

.— li 'ulJbcmeutioned
gtj . .iiiili begau printing in

1513. and was followed bv Soloraou Jabcz (151C)
•Dd Abmham Bat-Sheba (1592). Hebrew printing

r 3 yt* H p^n

i ro-j rrp 'n cr crrn^ pn«t)*n crxc I'nS'p
cr^ ^ p-rc-n cr::c 3"W n™^* '"'r r-ocro
i DioVp>;p rf.TP^'^^rcpr^bp f^rc p>:p?j

Yr ::i U^TTim VIUI'b "SUa'are Keduslisbab." Alt-'iipo, 1S66.

inducted here by a convert, Abraham lia-
ticr. In the eighteenth century tlie lirms of Nahnian
(1709-89). Miranila(1730). Falcon (1735), and Kalai
(ITWt supplieil the Orient with ritual and halakic
works. But all these firms were outlived by an

Griflith, the printer of the English Mission, and B.
Tatikian, an Armenian, also printed Hebrew works
at Smyrna. A single work was printed at Cairo in
1740. Hebrew printing has also been undertaken at
Alexandria since 1875 by one Faraj Hayyim Miz-

rahi.

Israel Bak, who had reestablished the Safed He-
brew press, and was probably connected with the
Bak family of Prague, moved to Jerusalem in
1841 and printed there for nearly forty years, up

to 1878. Quite a number of presses
Jerusalem, which deserve enumeration have been

set up in the Holy City ; viz., those of
Israel Bak (1841) and his son Nisan ; Joel Moses Solo-
mon (1863); Elijah Moses Hai Sassoon (1864) ; Israel
Dob Frl'mkin (1871), the editor of the journal " Ha-
bazzelet"; Isaac Goscinny (1876); Elhanan Tcncn-
baum (1879-90); Lsaac b. Jacob Hirschensohn
(1880) and his successors; Samuel Levi Zuckermann
(1882); Moses Perez (1884); Abraham :Moses Luncz
(1885), known for his annual publications "Luah
Erez Yisrael" and " Yerushalayim " ; Eliezer ben
Judah, called Perlemann, director of the journal

mi^m TOsnrro ccya i3 umn ponn nrtDrt .ncK^a man ^ED^ n:i2~

»tr?c nro .minn ]n ypn ]';qi ]mo D'?irn 'o' tjii'na ':© ir© .n^nnrr
p^w\ n:isnn rroDmo -anoi ,roin Sipiro c'n?3n n"nn '» ni-QDi nvioa
cnran rrnn by nirro orra onpnns'i minnp niira'mnwa n'jun nv>ra
icra cnon n"nn nyi ypn pn «n>E3 'S'3i lyo .minn jo n^nnn citdi
rur iCN c<3':rn nm ypn ]':d xdite^ 'crsn -iriu .'oipn 'ano iotjqi bn'jT

.D'2Di33 D'rnn nno D':'\CNin onsd

nVi tnAn -rhy 'ara- kVc obija Tsy^ bo' dik fKW lain -rom i a"? n"D riT •bp^u ^yw
noi pa.Tr Bin nan itk , p ^ too irsa Hbi m by jms obivn noi fKO 'soa rm'o t^k y:n
Vpnai cr-oavt naana errs cnl> nan o'KDnn "Ban kxid nriK o ,iTia' ipv mp v'ti oViyn
SVa n-MVi K^a arm «a' Sa rnn oinya "nav'j o'S-O' vm rjiin'ais !?3ai nnoaai baxaa cjroD
rrrp cna ttth rrn Toai .iropi nn'a kSw 'Vin iwa vna» k!ji .onaa nniaj cwia kVk
nya c^»«n na ■uhb' i»k rrrasn xnai m pya -lam . nn*an p Sira loy m-ain V13a■l^a
BTrtMj rrm DB-naa niyu riKi \-naoa n>-ji , D':vn Ssk nxa rrn -i\?>( inn naa man p inT^

From "Seker ha-'Ibbir," Printed by Filipowski, London, 1853.

.* .m printer, Bfzaleel ha-Lcvi, who settled at

.*^,. a 1741, and in whose name the publication

of Hebrew and Ladino books and periodicals still con-
tinues. Tlie Jabez family printed at Adrianople be-
fore establishing its press at Salonica; the Hebrew
printing annals of this town had a lapse until 1888,
whf-n fi lit<niry society entitled Doreshe Haskalah
pul)iii,lii<i SMiiK- Heljrew pamphlets, and the oflicial
printing-press of the vilayet printed some He-
I' ■ ks.

-il'inica printing passed to Safed in Pales-
tine, where Abraham Asljkenazi established in 1588
ri ' . ' of liis brother Eleazar's Salonica house.
.\ J to some, the Sluilhan 'Aruk was first

printtfi there. In tiie nineteenth century a member
of the Hak family printed at Safed (1831-41). and
from 1864 to 1HM4 Isniel Dob Beer also printed
tiiere. So too at Damascus one of the Bat-Shebas
brought a press from Crmi^tiintinoplc in 1706 and
prinUtl for a time. In Smyrna Hebrew printing
iKL'nn In 1600 with Abraliam b. Jedidiah Gabbai;
and no Icrs tiiun thirteen other establishments have
from time to time been founded. One of them, that
of Jonali A.shkenazi. lasted from 1731 to 1863. E.

"Hashkafah," originally "HaZebi"; J. Nahum
Lewi (1887); Adelmaun and Meyuhas (1887); M.
Lilienthal (1895); Meir Blumenthal (1897); Sonnen-
feld ct Blumenthal (1897); Loeb Kahana (1899) ; A.
M. Goldberg (1901); and Moses A. Azriel (1901).

One of the Jerusalem printers, Elijah Sassoon,
moved hiscstablishment to Aleppo in lf^fi6. About
the same time printing began in Bagdad under
Mordecai & Co., who recently have had the com-
petition of Judah IVIoses Joshua and Solomon Be-
kor Hussain. At Beirut the firm of Selim Mann
started printing in 1902. Reverting to the countries
formerly under Turkish rule, it may be mentioned
that Hebrew and Ladino books have been printed at
Belgrade since 1814 at the national printing estab-
lislimenl by members of the Alkala'i family. Later
Jewish printing-houses are tho.se of Eleazar Rako-
witz and Samuel Horowitz (1881). In Sarajevo
Hebrew printing began in 1875; and another firm,
that of Daniel Kashon, started in 1898. At Sofia
there have been no less than four printing-presses
since 1893, the la.st that of Joseph Pason (1901),
probably from Constantinople. Al.so at Rustchuk,
since 1894, members of the Alkala'i family have

-0

f>yyitfyi vpc'corn'Tn rc-^'n to -xyj* 3r:Jii-if-'>ro»E r5otn r^s' rf- pr f7»j^>j tj^rma tit"-- - - ^

r*--" ft in^p fpn3 "w r-Ttij ,"^7 ^„^ZZ ,, ^T

•^p-m '<Eft "TD Wti XE(S7 pri"^ik f^n r-li-' • - i*,^

ro "nis p-7f-j r;i 'm:ft •,-;f'j JTH pnira ,Trv3 tx unr -n nS::T'i n'rjj'p vprt-^V ■ ^JZ
, ■ " * • -67 r.7.7 r-ri. tft.7 -.7 t':-' ^^ mw "oy 3"n v:y c^ttji V? -pec -^rn :5^ t^Trf ^■4.' ,r^ ^^'^

I 'C7 cTy brxxra b^-'W7 ^^^3 i?niT nj< jt'tttc' irm 3'Ti rcrs ^v^J^ :" /^.r,

"xw rt;p.)OT «ft pir: o\'Ji o>o ITt^fi v?,^^^- U.

1; 'PV ■E^j'lTrt'^Dr«>-ft£>_£'''^^!>7 ioj»n P7r P'>7?i 'jrtn ^cn >o iri tjio 00 pnn f«c7 'fr«p ,-«. , . ,-, fc?

From Jerisalem Talmud, Jitomir, iwr,.

«''3^^>"^ •^^f^- °'"^*< *<^ 'i«'*<- vna '^BKncN y rr-o ntc:-? i^ck v^-^-

a? ^i; /:)iwn'?w m;m^„^2on.^ ^a now" row a^-n m-v, cn-i;D>- -^r,
^2 ^x^^Ka. m ,>xi. 5Kn KVT,mnaT • rum K^T-mn xii ov.t r,i4 4c

TN n^Dipa.^jjfiD njci v.DpBnpo.'n.^:« n^^:»a-,i«n -W"^ ;:,,. roc-> rSvv

From "Skkkr Gan 'Eden," GfZLow. !«<•.»;,

OHKi ,iKB^*ji pvya ipojmji vn>«' 'I'jSFt tMc ,-^nrW^ pi ,*jb''? pi r^v

]2^ S3 hS ,]^o*Se^ rn hn'w hff prv)W« (-u) .o»'iyo ^ o.n^j3 [w
f>r niiDo tikvw yM> Tfyp^ K-p nyr nniHi H^jnriH yk (rul , fn^nitrjs
nnD3^ pw^S (nj) Yrn (?j) ; pnuH mns iSn nmy t^jt lu) rm , ivt-ti
^J3wn

.o'3ipni nnyn

5i? in';> n)>3^ nm ,p^rn f)7W3i ir'pDi>3 iporp^i 'bwip ^'P3> /7-)^PDp^ 03
>S>r-):) '•^jvV^l^^Dp^J'^^ DJ r^^'j Jjn*u:nDi (83) jptpj dl pP7) P'rn ,)n5D

From Bibkr's Pksikta. Lyck, If'CS.

ly'^D;' mp '3 r;'"iS hn-^oi .nonpn r\'^'^ii r]iD3 r:D' rm-n-^i m^p pj;'S "inn Kin nr>;'
•]Sin'j]« njn /S OiT-n cnnoi «iiy niK-ki-D ■]« .nipn d' o inin-02nt? ma .ij"ik

.no"i-"i3p3 -mpni .nS'i 'tin pii*:3i /nunn o^p-Di 'n'2 di7 .nrDvnSiKwS

3icp!) \^!) ^^ 7ii> iPP t^In rHjui ^::i!)p is^ ^t ^i^^ ,ii3V'!D* (^0
,x>f'i IP** j^sol) ,u^;ro p3 rj^:3 ,p>5ri)>ri nri^o ,ipnJ 'PitDr • cr^b

/:^^)? ippr;) ^''p^'J

FROM SZOLD'S COMMENTARY ON JOB, BALTIMORE, 1886.

TyT>o«T»phy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

326

pj.; •;"■ polls the Piudo Brothers

gf^_ a-furc inoviug it toSafed.

Ahoefihtr in the Levant about eighteen cities liave
■ ' cstablishmeuts between
.actions have been mainly
ritu&ls. responsa of local rabbis, and Cabala; the
tv ■ -!ly Rj\shi, and the result has not

J. M. F«.

In the } -ing lands Hebrew printing

pr ' ■ ._. .....og the Jews. In England, for

ex . : ;i few Hebrew books had been printed

bj Cbristiau printers the Alexanders began their

series of prayer-books about 1770,

England which have continued to be reissued

and il'wn to »he present day ; they were

the United succeeded by the Valentines. The

States. linn of Wertiieimer, Lea& Co. printed

most of the Jewish Hebrew produc-

tioDft of England till recently, including the first

ctliiion of the popular authorized prayer-book,

of which 100.000 copies have been issued. The

Clarendon I'ress. however, has during the last thirty

years printetl many works on rabbinic subjects, and

0^ nvi^z -.rrv T31 r'svr\ rbtr . c hVkk *;-2 "rT?; 90
irtn -irj r5J*> r-?r -m^ rsaxp -.-^ H"i n
rrvT •'s Tjrp .U2rj« n-ii ^y .r^tr nn; t'; bv rt'rtrn
•r'a r;c: -t-r-e br.p rzizrs r; (■':■-• "E'c 'r>tt^ cr^sK -la
Twz.c .— r-t -wo ~:'it .-jr.-. ,-:r?2 cy —13 •21b -k^j 'Sia

^"^^7 *= TH-rr ant^n 'is c."Di roirji vnph rvwi r:r\on
n'lz' "7 "» .ZT'n -rvr Times buz- -its nryo-^zo kt
■'o T zv r'SM oyz 'y n"n rr-D ay TxtJ '"2 2?y '■'d
'.TI '"~ ■"7-''*~73 '""" ""V ^ '"ao or-U' oit3'ji:>? 12 rcr
■2^ 2* K-Ji" ■'arr T-T^-n ca Mm rov "o cpinr ■]-"• ■
-m; r-jp-w - 'jipj.-! T^ptj-i ::n.-i^ -vir: 2-7:;r3.- -,m *
2f:j -"T -J- ^op n'i'iie ,t»ica -cn> ^?g nrcpr. 00 'fipryn •

rrom lUbiiiuwicz's "Catalogue Merzbacher," Munich, 1888.

has been followed by the Pitt Press of Cambridge,
which issued espcciallv tlie Misl)nali edition by
W. H. Jyjwe and the " Pirke Abut" of C. Taylor.

In the British colonies only sporadic works have
b*' ■ ' ' I at Bombay and Aden, where the

Y' ij.ivc rcci'iilly bcLii printing a few of

tbeir manuscripts in oblong format. The use of
Hebrew type in tlie Australian and African colonies
apiK-ars to be confined to newspapers. The same
applic-8 to the French colonies in North Africa,
tli<>ii;:li viirions prr.dwrtions have appeared at Al-
g-iera, Tunis, atnl Oran.

In the United States Ildirew printing was even
latrr in ajipciruiKir. Apart from a reprint at Phila-
drlpliia in 1^14 of Athias' unpointed Bible, and Lee-
•cr'H reprint of the Van der Hooght Bible in 1849, the
flr-* H ' --w book printi-d in America was " Abne
Y' ," by Joshua Falk. at New York in 1860.

Thu ciiii-f pro«iuciion of the Hebrew press of the
United States hitherto has been the commentary on
Job by B. Szold, printed by I. Friedenwald at Balti-
more; but since tlie emigration from Russia and
Rumania large numbers ofofcasional works iiave been
pro<liiced at New York, Philadelphia, and Chi-
cago. In tli<' first-namcflcity the productions of the
prcha of A. II. Ro.senberg are voluminous.

A great deal of very good Hebrew printing, how-
ever, is done by non-Jewish printers, and often at

• vnuo i^i^b D'li "^nl fion ^^/j
. r-3 : ^y^o n;^:i ♦m^ "niDr pS j

: ^"3 : y^n rKm '^hiK n^DS'l
■iO * *]Sia >j<Dr? nniD »jk o^m |

*,-iDm Dir.m o'^nh vin^n* :3inDi

HDID^

ktow:-

From "Ziiiirut. Visrael," Adwn, 1^'Jl.

universitj'' presses, where the Ciiristian theologians
who devote their attention to rabbinics print their

[:j '^^ 'n pns-'f h? '1 p^sj nvii^]

38'^ 1

PP21 PDnp riD3i ^i^np3 ]-)rif> 55r P'3i -TD P'3 '-)3-': -);'7 r)^s3i

w UPJ7 P3'")i r:'6 '-):?i6 "pd P'3 'p7j)iP3 rrj r:ii irsf- rf^ li^-? ric
^^'pnf>D' ]P.rD-7:p:D ]rr3 'ppf> os uj or^ r3'")i hr)6 i5r p'3i '^d j

From W. n. lowk's "The Mishna," Camdridgk. ihsj.

innb 8nn« trf^xn yv;in np^ 1

t5^« IDS 11^ -ic'w T2^nj J

I • I ^- I • T -1 • I - - 1

.^3pi M\n n^ap D«^ ,ipn^ n-on ]^K»_pipDn n^jn"? ,ni li-i"? ipncn tk k'sh .

».JL<Jtvji^C..;^.'T..: -..*!W.-i^v-".:

FUOM THE "STEIXSCHNEIDKR FFSTSfHIMI-'r,''' T,KiCSIC, 18CC.

irj<5^~^'"^"jj^^ n^n iy\iV SivV ins^m p:jertY s\t ptrm"N^'n~Nn?^i3'"*3'-]32~
! i8^»n pn Knnaw D^yau^ bv o^yatf^, ,ps j*cSx nt^cn nnnana pn .ic« p

From Schorr's "Skker Ha-'Ittim," Cracow, mc.

W /W

I r^ir 'CIS rni-T 'n nnw wy -(^^sj psn ns on-nro ':iTi -cw yh

KihiCK "if7 nS^p 'j: n3 rn pS'p D*U''?n mso

♦fTii^ mes ^jt:>i |s:o nS^pi ^sac nS'p jiios "'ri-3 n',":^' |ccS

n"p p^^^30 '^j? ('is) .v"X (Xi) .v"-; kt .ro rcT »npv3 pjjcn^ nm^ nan,- [K2 nnchn- tro y^ ra •>]; (aoX

^p«^23i .(nrbo 'n.) ^(J^^3!^ a"\n3a-. fnj n nana ^y n'o H'it ra V7i -a*? 't n»'3' ""•' "P? TT73i ="/

'j?T vj? tfsn "jn? -inyaai n^iKj t.d Wr rv53 Cxi .n-c riK ri'iyna fopV "^ (no) .(mrw t) rrmK

From Sciikchter's "Miorash ha-Gadol." Vienna. 19(K.

Tyi>offrapby

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

328

. 1 ^ .; . ., j„ addition, presses that make a

uess of Oriental printing, like those of

Druguiin of Leipsic and Brill of Leyden, also pro-

1 II I .. .^v works, the former having printed the

. Polychrome Bible edited by Professor

Uaupt and published at Baltimore. By a special

... . .; iiie various sources of the Biblical books in

ion are distinguished by different colors, not

pe, but of the paper upon whicii the sections

.... , ..u'.ed. The various Bible societies have also

produced some fine specimens of Hebrew printing,

the chief being the so-called Letteris Bible, having

liie Authorized Version at the side, printed at

Vienna; and the Ginsburg Bible, printed by the court

printer Karl Fromme in Vienna. The Masorah, also

editetl by Ginsburg, is another tine piece of Hebrew

priming by Fromme; while one of the best Hebrew

- - the tifth edition of the translation into He-

L i the New Testament, by Franz Delitzsch,

printed by Trowitsch & Co, of Berlin.

T' ' ' _' is a list (extending from the intro-

duc , ing to the present day) of towns at

which Hebrew presses are known to have existed;
' . - in which only Christian printers have
;icd. mainly in issuing Biblical editions,
are set in italics. As far as possible, dates have
' ■•. en for the first publication of Hebrew at the

■ localities. Where this was effected by
Clinstian printers the date is marked with an
asterisk. The letters "J. E." within parentheses
follijwing the names of towns indicate tliat spe-
cial articles are given in The Jewish Encyclo-
PKDiA upon the typography of such towns. In a
number of instances special monographs have been
written upon the typography of various places, and
these are cited together with their references. The
remaining towns are mentioned by Steinschneider
in his "jQdische Typograpliie," in Ersch and
Gruber, "Encyc." (section ii., part 28, pp. 21-94),
or by Zedner and Harkavy. In a few instances the
entries from Zedner may refer to publication rather
than to printing.

Hebkew Presses.

A«len 189-

AdrUaople loJM-55

AU 185,5

Aleala (Complu-

tomi 1514

• •• 1W«

i (No-

1875

1855

A'i'fT' 167i

AIU»tl» \7rielMq.

fi r u n w a I <1 . Hambu ryB

h'uiffhr Juden; Steln-

^ ZfitM-hrift

lUr Juiltn in

I' I'M. 1 .'-,.

IffiT ft tr.q.

Am>

Mii.«.

1.514 «

XritMChrift
■It r Juden
I. 1. 1-5.

>'• .:.- tin"l'l*T
fUr(,,
in 1).

Avijrnon 1705

B««<l»d 1657. 1867

Baltimore.

Bwatjem 1837

Bareo 14i»vtrr

Baati l.5ia

Bath 1803

Beirut 1839, 1902

Bel^frade 184!

Bi-nlythev 1798

]i<T(ranio 1.599

Berlin *1699

li"n 1.5.5.5?

BIstrovltz 159a

Bllzurka 1806-7

BojfUKlav 18(J9-

Bolo|?na 148:J-8;}

Bumbay 1^56

lioiin 1.5:37^1

Brwton •17.^5

Bremen 1673

Brescia 1491 94

Breslau I7i<j

Bratin. Viilk»kalendcr, 1890.
Breztiltza.

UrilifH 1H(J2

BriKly.

Br<x.klyn 1893

BrOnn 1799

Brunswick 1838

Brussels 1841

Bucharest I860

Buda[»est 1823

Buenos Ayn-s... 1891
Byelaya Tserkov 1817-

Byelostok 18').5-

Cairo 1740

Calcutta 1844

Cambridge *1685

Carlsrutie 1755-

Biberfeld. Zeitachrift fllr
Hebr. Bibl. i., 11.
Carpentras.
I'a.sal-Maggiore.. 1486

Cassel 1807

Chicago.

Chieri 1627-29

Cincinnati 1857

Cleveland.

Cleves 1770

O'loone 1518.53-63

Coloinea.

ConiitaHce 1543-44

Constantinople

(J. E.) 1503-86

Copenhagen 1628

Corfu 1829

COthen 17013

Freudenthal, Aus der Hci-
mat Moses Mendels-

,So/l?!S.

Cracow (J. E.) . . 1.5.30-1670

Cremona 1556-60

De Rossi, Annali Typn-

araphici, 1808.

Czernowitz 1856

Damascus 160.5-6

Danzig 1849

Darmstadt 1822

Dessau (J. E.)... 1696
Freudenthal, Ann der Hci-

mat Moses Mendels-

^ohns.

Dorpat 1804

Drogobuzh.

Dubno 1794

Dubrovna 1802-4

Dyherrifurth (J.

E.) 1689

Brann, iu Monntsschrift,

1896.

Edinburgh ia57

Erlauficn 1593

Esslingen 1475

Eupatoria 1734

Eydtkuhnen.

Fano 1.503-16

Faro (J. E.) 1487

Ferrara (J. E.).. 1477
De Rcssi, De Typngraphia

Hchrczo-Ferraricnsi,

Parma, 1780.

Florence 17;}6

Fraiiekcr 1597-1681

Frankfort-on-the-

Main (J. E.)... 1512
Frankfort-on-the-
Oder (J. E.)... 15.5U?),1677-

Freiburg 1583-84

Furth 1691-1730

Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl.

xviii. 114 etseq.

Galatz *

Cieismar 1649

Genera 15.54

(ienoa 1.516

(iiessen 170.5, 14

(ilogau 1840

Gtirltz 1852

Gotha 1702

GOltingcn 1742

Grodno 1788-

(irrndngen 1676

(irul)eschov 1817-

(iuadalajara 1482

(iiistrow 1634

Hagenau 1515

Hague 1779-

Halberstadt 1859

Halle 17(10-19

Freudenthal, Aus ihr HeU
mat Moses Me ndels-
soh ns.

Hamburg 1587-

Grunwald, Hamburgs
Deutsctie Juden. pp. 153.

Hanau ] ^^i

Hanover 1840

Heddernheitn ... 1546

Heidelberg 1586

Helmstedt.

Hergeswiese ?

Homburg 1711-50

Hrubieszow 1819

Husiatyn.

Ichenhausen 1.544

Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl.
xii. 125, Suppl.; idem. Cat.
Biidl. No. 361.

Inonrazlaw.

Isny 1541^2

Ixar 148»-95

Jassy 1813

Jastovvitz *1898

Jena 1675

Jerusalem 1846

Jessnitz 1719-26

Freudenthal, Aus der HeU
m n t Mo scs Mc ndels-
sohns.

Johannesburg. . *1897

Johannisberg. . . . 1855

Jozefov 1826

Kale 1734

Kalios 1809-10

Kearny (N. J.) .. 1904

Kiel 1709

Kishinet 1883

Kones 1797-

Kouigsberg 1759

Kopust 1818

Koretz 1776-

Koslov (see Eu-
patoria).

Kremenetz 180,5-

Krotoschin 1837

Kupil 1796

Kuru Chesme . . . 1597

Ladle 1805

Laszow 1815

Leghorn 1650-

Lcipsic 1538-

Leiria 1492-94

Lemberg 1810

Leaden 1528-1756

Libau *1879

Lisbon 1489-92

Lissa 1824

Lewln, Geschichte der Ju-
den in Lissa, pp. 153-154,
Plnne, 1904.

London (J. E.)..*1711-

Lilbcck 1&50

Lublin (J. E.)... 1550,56-74
Friedberg, Zur Geschichte
der Hebi-Uischei} Tiipo-
graphic in Lublin, Cra-
cow, 1890.

Linieville 1798-

Lyck 18.59

Lyons 1.526

Madras 1819

Madrid.

Magdeburg 1607

Mannheim 1856

( 1476-80

Mantua (J. E.).- 1513-14
/ 1.580-1699
Zunz, Z. G. pp. 249-260.
Marburg.

Mayence 1.523-

Mecklenburg 1724

l^C^") iwi 0O3i3:> nwiw Oipn? own? oil3> 0?'b r»" ^-O'O-a kw nsnSo 103 ccr m,-n n"rn ^1:03 nroi

;^6 3Kn6J J/^x' >ppmh ?ni37 ^jf) . ^27 (a) :nn^'o C^,^ »'^?-,'?« '^^"',';T'^ 'l^'"^' vM-.en t>«n^ ^^-u

mioi

w^'c onc?i onniD? . nmny mjinx oan (») '" ^^«? ort> mow injim in** sns^ ^^

W'7 >» npvni in^nnn Wl JDV DJ^n p) f"D?*«>3 mm jno ^» >atfi' J31 're Q»nSt6 rion vrt? nrj 3«w:

Dftm ?cicr? nn noDi in^c . Tn h >hi psbinc imfti "n"" ^"^ •'^''' ^"^ ^^^ 1*^3 "f^t' "^oa "■^rvi D>po o^
pcwpopwi D^PD^i ooniftosnft o'55nkn ^ipnScfJ "^.='^. '■»?° T^^ '^^ «^ c*^ i'" oia» r-n

i«M v^? r? 6i i>i3f <j3»i '>pw ;j3» ticc Bii o'dJ6 posxa pT) --.rp p«m pi e-r-T*.- jnj »-,;. f.»." t^eff f)'^. -ri

0'»;do r? . ift-jn* 'ppinJ '3> (O) : O'CPm O'Wfe d6 «3 '""J f^a cv . ay> (p) : r>>B D«>i«>s en»»3i ' "* r-„^ Vjj

^3 )67E' p6 »<C)oc dM7j? ocicrs >c oicc^ ceo T»i KjJ ^163 o» r)5ai crjip 07»i>i cs-icri or3 o'^xssc c-ctcn
r/6r3 r^i37) -jnci p'ppm» o?» nrc lior '» J»j 'inc? »» i» pi -scft i6 yift rnic inib, ,-,,0 -rnib pjirrrto
o^33cn«i j'7» ri ic ow« r?D P)»> r»T6 '33n c>7335r o'orc? . 'ui rujnft '33n (') : oi 3D6 ts-c >»3 rcnioa
BiyrJ 'sJi?) 07pD r«3 3»fe ins »n'C p7 ftioi 306 y.i Jo d:W 0337 idm yt tto <5de -iro otjt o'jrri ii3T« 6ii 00

7mh ?DKi pj 6i >"3 , IJ1 'ppm^ »3i> (c) : n»i3i ii»3i -tio: (f — '

cos DcJpi 0'375n»C) i63D' 'ppioi 337ft 3iO pniun 6'3 DO '3 O'p
CTCO p . '331 {') : 3Ta»i 03J3 jPiD 0» ij5 'Oi 1333' D«»J . HT

maso '3ct* o'»3no p oinjo 3t3J di)3> Di)in6 >d cssno ' : , . , , ._ .^.

IW 3C6 ifi 0>05D31 . 9rinj3 n6C» 3C6 5» O^CO.'O PiJod 1337Hn'&03Jl3 . 1773 O'jk)? C3riD0 ■p

■i

{
i.

«*'!.- L '^^ / • , ' 'l' '• ' ** KT ra JWJKJJ D'J K^t I'3M,n pjr'1 CC7-; ivt wi •»•

leHiiil Ti-MATtl Cil. L; ;....;.

Typo«T»pby

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

330

Utiii

1817-18

1861

1T85

itOi

1 -thi'-

. in«-
. i«o

H86-«

sorjr-

1788^

irJ6-49

.N. , . iseo

Newark.

N - . -v 1767

.^ ) . . . . 1W9

»Mi-?pj 1W5-

Optt 153033

SlriMThiiflder. Cat. DihII.
No. 3Uti.

. - . ::u

< . i7ao-«7

Ot»i. 1S.'<6

Ortakol 1717 19

1513-
. 1:^-90

tu/nrxL I'VVJ

Padua. Ijd2-16l0

Paks.

p*ri.<j.E.,....;:>»^i«»
111..

I'arma 1805

riwA«lk.

p.-«.r M. r..)... 1507-27

I- l....»lMU

I'! .!».... 1HB8

Piotrkow 1877-

Plove '11 S.iroj

U.Y . MTo

Plv-i. Ihlti

! •

I 1790-1801

!• 1783-91

I'niil/frnfl 1810

'• "'>■ I7W5-91

IMO

1512

. z. (J. pp a-.i-nm.

.r« 1KB

irife-5

II yiitiziilnft iler

>•■ ' '• ilrK Arhtr.

!"< If. SCet KC'i.

•^' ■•■ i"U ii

R»«r«" H75

R»K» IMS

Rimlnl (J. E.)... 1581-28
Blra dt Trrnto

<J. K.l l/WMtt

(Art ■ ifiitnlr;

r. Hrhr.
.. 11-1 114.

w,:

r. 111. aro.
1 1518, 40-

Riietotk 1C37

" ■••^lam 18S7

uk 189*

•..•:a iy.1-59

:. Autmlcs Typo-
' ij'iiici, ISUO.

V. Mra 189-

Mil.il 150-87.16G4

.>>t. Louis.

St. IVtersburR... 1S18-

SallnKiatl 15ir>-16Xi

Saloniru 1515

San Francisco

Sarajevo 1875

Sensbun?.

Senihi'Ini.

ShtumluU 1851

Shklov 1783

SlankowUz is<t7

Slavuu 17ai-96

Smvrna Iii57

Sona 1893

Solingen.

SonclnoU. E.).. U83-90

Sorvl 17W

Stadc IKJ!

StPttin 1861

Strcuihurii 1591

StutUiart 1724

Siiazilkov 171)8-18.36

Sulzbach 1C84-

Weinbfrj?. Die Hebrdi-
schc Dniclierei in Sidz-
hach, 1GG0-1S5U Frank-
fort, 1904.

Suwalkl 18CI-

Szlget.

Tannhausen — 1593
Perles, in Mnnatxschrift
(1876). xiv. 350 ff mi.

Tarnopol 1814

Tamov 1860

Thienuren 1560

Wiener, in Mniiataschrift,
xii. 273 et seq.

Thorn.

Trlest 1S58

Trino 152.5

Tubingen 1512

Tunis 176S

Turin !.")2ti

Turko 1763

Umivar l.VU

UfjHala 1655

Vtrechl 16.)7

Venice *1517-56. 64

Verona 1.504-1650

Vienna 1827

Wiiltzcn *18'J2

Wandsbeck IVOC

Grunwald, H nmhiirax
iJnitHchc Judfu.

Warsaw 179G-

n'ckdfdorf 1600

Wengrov 1794-

Wilky (Kovno)..*|8ft.5-1901

Wllini-rsdorf 1670-17:x;

Frelinann, Die Amudcn
ilcr Dnickcrci in Wil-
mcrfidinf. In Berliner's
FegtKchrift.

Wilna 1709-

Witlcnherg .... 1.521-87
Bauoh, in MonatHschrtft,
1904.

Worms ].->20

WQrzburK 1K21

Vanwslav.

/amora 1482-87

Zanlav IK<I7

Zhitomir 1804-5

Zolklpv ifiO^

ZQlIlrhaii 1728-

ZuHch 1546

II. Characteristics : There are in all four
chief forms in wliich Hebrew letters are printed:
the square; the Hashi; the AVeiberteutsch, so called
because it was used for the "Ze'enah u-Re'enah"
read by women ; and linally the cursive, imitating
the hantlwritiug used for business and other corre-
spondence. The first three appeared
Form as early as the beginning of Hebrew
of Letters, typography (see Incunabii.a) ; the
fourth, only in the eighteenth century,
mainly inbooksonbusinesstraining, writing-booUsin
this character being produced at Amsterdam in 1715.
One of the characteristicsof Hebrew printing from
its beginning was the dilTereut sizes iu which the
characters were printed, tlie Tor of Piove di Sacco,
1475, already showing three forms. This is attrib-
uted to the commentatorial character of rabbinic
literature, the commentary naturally being printed
in a smaller type than the text, anil the supercom-
mentary in a still smaller one, and the index to both
in a yet more minute type. Such a dilTereuce of types
soon led to the arrangement by which the text was
printed in the center, with the commentaries in
concentric arrangement around it. This plan has been
employed witli increasing elaboration; and in the
last rabbinic Bible printed by the firm of Schrif-
giesser at Warsaw no less than thirty-two commen-
taries are included, many of which are on a single
page. In the beginning this arrangement sim-
ply followed that of the ordinarj- medieval manu-
scripts in which commentaries occurred. To fill
spaces that would othcrwi.se remain empty recourse
was had to the use of letters of greater width, the
so-called "littere dilatibiles" ; but in early prints the
first letter of the following word was often inserted in-
stead. Sheet-marks and pagination were only grad-
ually introduced ; they were almost invariably in He-
brew letters printed on the recto only; each second
page was numbered, the reference to- the two sides
(pages) of the sheet being by alef, bet, nowadays
represented by a, b; e.g., B. K. 10b; R. H. 17a(rsaiah
Berlin tried to introduce the full point and colon, but
without much success). The pagination of the Tal-
mud was established by Bomberg, the arrangement
of whose pages has been followed in all subsequent
editions. Vowel-points and accents occur for the
most part only in Bibles and prayer-books, and
divisions of chapter and verse in the Bible only
rarely till later times.

The paper of the early prints is generally good ; that
of the eighteenth century usually the opposite; the
issues of Flirth, Cracow, and Rodel-
Paper and heim are generally distinguished by
Format, their foxy paper. White paper was
generally used, but the Oppenheimer
collection contained fifty-seven volumes on blue,
seven on green, two on yellow, and a Hagga-
dah on red paper. Rubrics are printed in red in
a work issued at Freilnirg in 1584. Amsterdam
printers sometimes print red on white; Deinard at
Newark on varicolored paper. Large-paper edi-
tions occur rather frequently, and parchment was
used for special copies, the Oppenheimer collection
having fifty-one of these, and many of the copies of
the Bologna Tefillah of 1537 being printed on that
material, tliough one on excellent paper is to be

331

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPKDIA

TFPOjrrftphy

found in the Sulzberger collectiou at New YoiU.
All kinds of format occur from the earliest times,
but the folio und (|U:uto were chielly used, the oc-
tavo and duodecimo being employed mainly in
prayer-books. In the Ojipenlicimer collection the
proportions of the various si/es were as follows:

Folio 1.0a> Octavo 901

Quarto 1.;.'40 DuDilwiiiio 330

Strange to say, one of the most bulky of Ilebrew
books was also one of the earliest, Aviceuna's
"Canon," with 82G folio jiages; this, liowever, is
now far exceeded by the Ilabli with its 2,947 pages
iu one volume (Berdychev, 1894).

The Leghorn prints were at times in oblong form,
while the recent Aden productions are of the same
form, but with the longer side at the back. For vari-
ations of the Title-Pages see Jkw. Encvc. xii. 154,
and for ornamentations see the article Puinters'
Marks. To those mentioned in the latter article the
following may be added: Ashkenazi (Safed, 1587),
lion with two
tails; Bat-Sheba
(Salonica), half
lion, half eagle;
Mayer ben Jacob
(Venice), ele-
phant; Conti
(Cremona),
shield, angel,
eagle ; Abra-
ham b. David
(Talmud Torah,
Salonica, 1719),
three crowns;
Koelner (Frank-
fort-on -the-
JMaiu), imperial
eagle ; De Lan-
noy (Offenbach), nest of bird with flowers; Aaron
Lipman (Sulzbach), tree, crab, fish, and serpent;
Shabbethai Bass (Dyliernfurth), two bars of music.
The idea of representing the title-page of a book
as a door with portals appears to liave attracted
Jewish as well as other printers. The fashion ap-
pears to have been started at Venice about 1521,
whence it spread to Constantinople. Bomberg used
two pillars in his "Miklol " of 1545, and this was
imitated at Cracow and Lublin. These pillars are
often supported by, or support, figures, draped or
undraped, as in the "Toze'ot Hayyim " of Cracow
(c. 1593). A JIahzor of Cracow (1619) has a flying
angel of death, while the Pirke K. Eliezer of Con-
stantinople (1640) has a centaur and siren. The tree
with the shield of David supported by two lions ap-
pears first in the Sabbionetta prints, anil is imitated
by other symbolic figures, as the eagle in the Am-
sterdam Sclihot of 1677. These decorations of the
title-page led later to illustrations within the work
itself, the first of these being in the
Colophon "Mashal ha-Kadmoni," Soncino, 1491.
and The "Yosippon" and other works of

Title-Page. a historical character were favorite re-
ceptacles for rather crude illustrations
of this kind, as were also the Passover Haggadot. in
which even maps of the Holy Land were printed
(see Haggadah).

Die place and duleof printing. 08 ol«<' -i • f

the printer, were generally expiestied iii '

but in later times were also jjliiced on liif tr

The day of the week is often indicuU-d t., .■ .

ences to Biblical texts, Jiaving in view Uii- )>.. ,

character of Tuesday as u !

Week). The date is also orit-u ui. .

(see CiiU()NoiiKA.M). TiieoniiKsionof IclU-r* In 1 1

dates often leads to confusion (Zun/. "I-

stinnnungen." in "0. S." i.); and llic place - . ,

cation doesnotalwuyscoincidc with tliutof printihL'.

Even the place of |)rinting h .

checked, as frequently Cermun j ;

to claim the style and auliiority of AmsU-rdani, and

those of Flirth piussed themsilvc-s ofT

from Sulzbach. The jjlaeeof priming wa

omitted in order to evade the censor.

Information is often given in tli' , ,ih

to the size of the ollke and tlie nu: .,,i,„

engaged therein and tlie cliaractcr of ihelr worlt.

In llic larger

f2 cjrr]2 TTT}^ -I'nfa

nt]^ d2^T[^ i;^r2 nnx t\v::] lib^? ^t ins r^

jnn. ^3 n^^ns n^n? - r\r\\ 7;^^ ^nn fr'^ rsrs
nt;^rJ7t:b :3^nK-I3 ^yr^^ i;?^^ : V^n rsrs-r-a

AT . I • J' t T : V -:.!•; T T II • --; ~-

Frotn the Letteris Bible. Vienna. 1892.

• I f f i 1- 1 s there
would he a
ma«ter printer
( ■* ba'ul niud-
ids"). who WM
^"iiietimes Idfu-
' il with tlie
proprietor of
theollirfClMiul
hadefus"). The
actual printer
was called
" madpig. " or
S'lnetirnes •* nie-
linlset^.- The
master printer

ly assisted liy a manag^er or factor i
defus"). Besides these tliere was a compositor
("me?aref"or "inesadder"), first nu-nti
"Lcshon Limmudim " of t

Printers. ple(1542). .Many of tlicsccom|K>8iiora
were Cliristians. as in tlio w. ' '
of Juan di Gara, or at Frankfort-on-tiieM
sometimes even proselytes to Judaism (see al)ovc).
Finall}', good proof-readers or rornrtors for the
press were always indispen.sable. They w«Tr mllcii
"maggihim." Notwithstanding their h 'of

errata was often neces.sary, one of tlieca: 'tr-

ring in a German .Mahzor pro<hjcetl at ^ . in

1563.

Up to the nineteenth century all work wn.snutiiimlljr
hand-work, and printing wa.s comjwraiively slow.
It took nearly a whole year for t
off 638 folio pages, while sixt\ . .: .. .
tiniani printed 190 j)agcs of Maimouiilos' leltrm In
seven days.

For the injury done to llic correctness of the text
by the censors before and even after printing, see
Censorship ok IlKniiKw Rooks T'
censors in Italy, (ferintwiy, and poiu.
works printed previous lo l.'>54 (Uic date of the
Ferrani conference on this SI! ■
for the text, thougii care n'. .

themselves before that date not to offend Chris-

Typog^rapby

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

332

^ too much by printiug the more out-

s. lu a measure Jews hail their own

tlie form of Aitiuhjations ("haska-

;t which in the sevciilocijth aud eight-

, no book was considered altogether

!is were sometimes ac-

, _ts, us when the rabbis

t-e against any one buying a
;he printer; and the par-

; the liglit of inflicting a

the infringement of the copyright of any
i. In thf case of the Frank-
Mcnnission was found neces-

■ary tu produce it.

• of printing in euny
-Ye

It-
et
of
ceruio bi

„„.;,,, of A...

limes little is

^*r

I-,

))

<\i

ii;

!•••

/- ■■ ^ J

%KV Tob" of Venice
(1- - a

th to

print, while the
th' of

th. -l>"

(?) of Venice (1019)
Cf«t as much as
twenty-five ducats.
Joseph Witzenliau-
een got four t balers
a sheet for the Ju-
daro-German tmnsla-
tion<if the Bible pub-
lished by Atliias. In
the early days 300
copies of a work were
sufficient. This num-
ber of the Ps!ilms
with Kimhi (1477)
was printed; so, loo,
of the -Yafelj Ru-
?on." while of the
"Torat Hesetl" only
200 caine into e.xist-
eoce. For the meth-
odsadoptedin selling
\y the article

b' 1 .OK.

Tumlngtothe technical side of Hebrew printing, it

\v\ .' i tliat in tiie justification of Hebrew,

* !»(' preferred, and that the vowels

and accents have to be justified in a

Technique hi fmrate lineafter the consonants have

of Hebrew It-, n set up. Tiie wide spacing is

Printing, rendered neces.««ary by the fact that
hyphens can not be used in ordinary
Hebrew printing, though in modern works lliis use
is creeping in. To till out spaces, as mentioned
abfjve. the extended letters, "alef," "he," "hot,"
"lamed," "mem," an<l "taw," are used.

In ordinary Hebrew printing "the coinpo.sitor be-
gins as he do<?» with English, by setting the char-
sct^rrs at the loft hand of his copy, turning tlie nicks
of his type inward to face the composing-rule.
When the line has Itecn spaced antl justified ... it
i8 turned in the stick" (De Vinne, ".Modern Metli-
wls of JkKik Composition." p. 245, New York, 1904).
The arrangement of cases for Hebrew varies in
dilTercnl ofilces, but the accompanying illustration

0 0

•

5e"
spacft

rorpcwb

en
Qvjds
fc-porfi

It
I

-I

*
•

•

/ , :>

Hebrew Upper and Lower Cases.

(From Thfodore L. De VInne'i " Modern Methods of Book Composition," New York, 1904.)

shows that generally adopted. The characters and
points most used are in the lower case; accents,
broad or extended letters, and letters with points
are in the upper case.

The difficulty of Hebrew printing for persons not
accustomed to the language consists in tiie great
similaritv of some of the letters, as "he," "het,"
and "ta'w." "dalet" and "resli," "shin" and
"sin," and other letters only distinguished by a
dot. representing the (lagesli. Final "pe" and final
"zade" also are sometimes confounded, wliiie their
hair-lines often tend to break off during press-
work. The contrast of the siiaded portions of the
letters with the hair-lines is perhaps the most marked
type-founder's characteristic of Hebrew as compared

with Roman type, in
which hair-lines are
avoided as much as
possible. The actu-
al forms of the letters
have changed little
since the first appear-
ance of matrices in
Italy in the fifteenth
century. The tend-
euc}- is rather toward
making the letters
smaller in size and
squaier. Some of the
most beautiful type
of tliis kind is that
of Filipowski. It is
said tiiat compositors
unfamiliar with He-
brew tend to set type
more accurately,
though more slowly,
owing to the extra
care they devote to
following copy. Few
ordinary ]iriiitiiig es-
tablishments have
Hebrew tj'pe, and on
the rare occasions
when it is necessary
to u.se it it is customarj' to borrow it from an estab-
lishment with a UKU'e varied outfit of types, or to
have the type set up in such an estalilisiiinent, the
whole matter cast, and transferred bodily as a sin-
gle type into the text. Cliristian printeis handle only
the square letter, Rashi ami cursive always being set
up by Jewish typesetters.

With regard to the works wiiich have been
turned out by Hebrew printers during the last 450
years, it would be interesting to determine approxi-
mately their number and character. During t he first
([uarter of the century in wliieh incu-
Produc- nabula were produced (1475-1500) 100
tivity of Hebrew works were issued, at the rate
Hebrew of four jier annum. During the next
Presses. forty years (1500-40) about 440 were
issued (M. Sciiwab, in " Les Incuna-
bles Oiientaux," enumerates 430 up to this jieriod)
averaging eleven per annum. During the next two
periods from 1540 to 1732 a rough estimate would
give the number of works at 6,605; namely, Bibles,

333

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Typography

710; Targuin, 70; Talmud, 590; ritual, 1.000; anon-
ymous, lijO; Judito-Gcrnian, 385; and woiksof spe-
cific authors, 3,500 — an aveiagc of about thirty -
thrco -works issued per annum. During the 160
years since tiie last-mentioned (hite the production
has rapidly increased, hut it is difficult to determine
the exact numbers. Some indication can be ob-
tained by the gradually increased number of Hebrew
works mentioned in the various sources as follows:

Bibliographer.

Date.

Hebrew Books.

1 Shnhhpthfti Rnss

1680
1693
1733
1790
1826

l&->8-82

1860
1863
1867

1880

1880-89

1894

1895

1899

1904

2200

2. IJartoloccl

3 J C Wulf

1,943
2,8:?2

3,527

4,221

6. Steinsrhncider, " H ebr. (.
Blbl " )

2,004

7. Steinschneider

5.232

8 Fiirst

9,360

9. Zedner

5,220

10. Benjacob (including)
manuscripts and refer- V
ences) )

( 14,978
-; really about
/ t)„500

11. Lippe (vols. i. and ii.)

12. Van Straalen

1,210
11,100

13. Zeillin

3,643

14. Lippe (vol. ill., addenda)..

15. Wiener (to "tet")

878
4.575

Wiener's list promises to run to 17,000. If one
may judge from the numbers given by him, and
take account of the fact that the average recorded
by Steinschneider between 1860 and 1880. about 100
per annum, is at best only a minimum, liaving been
recently largely increased, there

Number can be no doubt that 20,000 volumes
of Hebrew have been produced during the last

Works. period. This is confirmed by the fact
that the Asiatic Museum of St. Peters-
burg, containing the largest Hebrew collection in
the world, has no less tlian 30,000 volumes, of which

Classes.

1. Bibles

2. Bible I'oinmentaries

3. Talmud

4. Talmud Conuiientaries

5. Methodology

6. Codes

7. Code Commentiiries

8. Novella;

9. Responsa

10. Liturgy

11. Midrash and Valkut

12. Sermons '. . .'

13. Cabala ...

14. Grammar and Dictionaries

15. History, Archedlnfj-y, and .Memoirs,

16. (Jeograptiv and Travels in Palestine

17. Poetry. Critieism

18. Science

19. Theology and Polemics

20. Ethics

21 . Educational

22. Fiction

23. Periodicals.N'ewspapers.Catalogues

24. Yiddish

Zedner.

1,260
510
730

7(KJ

1,260
'^

i.l'bi)

1.50
450
460
4.50
320

■ 770
ISO
691)

Chazano-
wlcz.

794

202
272
447
386
644
512
881
389
587
533
.588
1,2:11
292
585
260
449
430
265
510
648
900

5,000 are written in Judoeo-German and Yiddisli.
The Jerusalem National Library (founded by Cha-
zauowicz)in 1902 had 23,233 volumes, 10,900 of them
Hebrew ("Ha-Meliz," 1902, No. 259). The British
Museum in 1867 had nearly the same number. It
would be of interest to compare tlie cla.sses under

which these various works are in< ludcfl. witli tlie
relative number of volumes conUiined in tin m- two
collections (see preceding table).

It would be still nioreinten ' „;

actual works and <'iliiions of i, ,^c

up the 20,000 tir so separate works whfcli have been
produced by the Helircw pres.ses iip to the end
of the nineteenth century. Lnfortunnttly Hebrew
bibliography is not in such a slate timt tljJH could
be done with any ap|)roac!i to acciimry, but n con-
siderable number of subject lists have been made
from wiiich a clo.se aj)pro.\iiiiuti<)n can be given for
the various branches. The sources from wliicli lints
are derived vary in thoroughness, inaiidy uc<ording
to their date. Information from Hclaticl. or the old
Oppenheim catalogue of 1826, naturally (IfH'SUot vJo
with points ascertained from Steinschneider or 8.
Wiener, but such as it is, thr- following list will
serve both as an indication of the topics treal<»<l of
in Hebrew literature and as a guide to the sources iu
which the fuUestaecountat present known is piven.
Occasionally the lists include .sections of works
which should not strictly be counted, as this leads
to duplication, and besides some of the entries in-
clude also manuscripts. On the other haml. these
items probably do not more than compensate for the
omissions in the older lists. In sf)me few instances
no actual enumeration is accessible, and in these
cases the number given by the Chazanowicz collec-
tion has been repeated as being the c) ' xl-
mation that can now be offered. Al' ul
15,380 works are thus accounted for out of the
18,000 or 20,000 Hebrew works and editions that
have been produced.

Subject.

No.

Source.

I Bibles

BriUsb MuMum OiUlofru*.

Polvfflot

220

175

177

214

106

145

III

Comolpl^

Yiddish

Pentateuch

Prophets

Haglographa

Pentateuch Parts.
Meglllot Parts....
Psahns

Prophets, addi-
tional.

Apocrypha

II. Bible Commenlarles

Complete Bible...

Pentateuch

Pronhels

Reland. " Analfcu OabM-
Dlca."

Haglognipha

Supen-ommenta-

rles.
Meclllot

MlscellanetiUS

Tariruni

III.

IV.

VI.
VII.

Talmud

Tahiiud Conuiienta-
ries on Separate
Tractates.
Methodology.

Inde.Tes

Hernieneutlcs

Codes

Code CoinnienlarlM

Malmonldi-s

ticn.

90 Jelllnels. "Kontrw."

II.'

On the 613 Com-
mandnients.

VIII. Novelhe

I'oskini

Nami-s

I.V. Resiwnsa

Imm."
171 i Jclllnek. "SoD^rm Tarrat."

eii

udel Ab»»-

Typography
Tyre

THE JEWISH E^XYCLOPEDIA

334

gubJecL

No.

Source.

X. Liiurrf

THiinnot..

XI. Mtdrasti .•

XIL Sermont....
Burtal. .

xni. c.v

XJV. I.

i.nu;

Xf. Huu>n. Afiiiiui-

iiffV, and Mein-
Hutory..

. t.ston? In-

iiid Van Straalen.
' nil.
• 1111.
- .- - w . iKT. "OsterHappa-
a.i;.. SI. Petersbuiv. ly""--
213 . Jellinek. "tyonires Mld-
' rash."

••lj:ontres ba-Mas-

1(M 1.

"»-'■ ^ .......... -wlcz.

• Wolf.
i:U stelnschnelder.
Hand."

'Blbl.

xn. G«(«npbT..
Palestine.

317

118
154

Stelnschnelder. "Ge-

schichts-Lltteraiur der

Juden." 19U5.
Jew. E.ncyc. lit. 041-642, ,«.r.

" Ceineterii's."
Stelnscbuelder, " Hebr.

Blbl.'" vl. 16.
Zunz. "'fi. S."
Stelnschnelder, in Luncz s

'•Liiah." 1(<72.

TVTT

P, «-'r. rriliolgm.. .

.■iai

Chazanowlcz.

Poetry

2117

Benjacob, s.v. "Shirini."

142

Benjacob. x.v. " Ipperoi."

1 .i.-'>.. ■■••••■■•••

150

Benjacob, s.v. " Mu'assim."

K: - '.^rtc

5«>
28

Oppenheim.

Curiiu and Paro-

Stelnschnelder. in " Monats-

.11^.

schrlft." I'.tlW.

Funm Parodies...

Steinschueider, in "Letter-
bode."

Drama, OrlKlnal..

Berliner, "Yesod '01am," p.
xlll.

XVIIL Science

260

Chazanowlcz.

Mathematics

271

Stelnschnelder, "Matheina-
tik bel den Judeu" (to
1650).

Medicine

Benjacob. s.v. " Refu'ah."

* .'r.,ti,,ti!V

BartolDCCI.

-■ ■•

Bartoloccl.

Zeitlln. In. Gurland's "Lu-
ah," 1882.

XIX.

Tli">ifHry and Po-

449

Chazanowlcz.

-ilan Po-

182

De Rossi, "Bibllotheca Jii-

.• i.ii- r..

duicu .\ntl-Christlanii."

Future Life

E. Abbot. "Literature of
Future Life," 1891.

Delnanl (MS. list).

ai?

XI.

Ki:.. .-

Stein. "F.thlkdesTalmuds."

wills. Ethical

Abmhaiiis, in "J. Q. U."
481, 4.

1 .,.

Oppenhelra.

184

Bernstein, " Livres Pareml-
oloplques," Warsaw, liKX).

XXI.

RduratlonnI

as5

Chazanowlcz.

XXlt.

KU-tlon

510

Chazanowlcz.

XXIll.

IVriiMiir-aiii.

t; ■

190

191

.5h

Benjacob, h.v. " Luhot."

' .-, •;»

Zedner.

XXIV.

YtdUtafa

311

Wiener "Yiddish LIteru-

ture." p. 99.

' '>-OenDan ..

3KJ

Stelnschnelder, "Sera-
IK-um." 1848.

XX.

i-i'iiii'»

164

Kavserllnp, "Blbl. Esp.-
Port.-Jiid."

ITVI

Tnin<l.illi,n«. M.xl-

1 ". ■'

'^w. Encvc. «.r.

■n to the examples of Hebrew printing
which are given as illustrations in the present ai-
^ ' " '»f them beinj.' rlerivod from t lie Sulzberger
II in the Jcwi.sii Thcologicul Seminary of
America in New York city), the volumes of Tiik
Jkwish ENCVCi.c.PF.rMA ronUiin a lurL'cr number of
rcprfxliictions of Hebrew typograpliy tlian have
ever yet been brought together, a li.st of wiiich, in
nrfler of place of publication, may filly conclude
tbi.s account.

Where Printed.

Alcala..
Altdorf.

Amsterdam

Amsterdam.

Aiiistentain

.\nibtei-dam

Amsterdam
Amsterdam

A msterdftm

Basel

Berlin ,

Bologna..
Bolopna..
Holopna..
Brescia . .

Date.

Brescia . . .
Budapest..
Constantinople
Constantinople

Constantinople.

Crucow

Crdcow

Dyhernfurth..

Fano

1514
1644

10C6

1679
17(11
1726

1787

1.534
1702

1477
1482
1538
1491

1494
190:i
1512
1517

1520

1532

1620
1571

1771
]5(«
1.T06
1516

Faro 1487

Ferrara i IVk>

Genoa : 1612

Guadalajara 1482

Homberjr - vor •

der-Hohe

Isny

I.xar

Lisbon .
Lisbon.

London .
Lublin...
Lyck....
Mantua..
Mantua..

Mantua.,

Mantua..

Mantua.,
Naples...
Naples...

Naples.

Naples

New York

Paris

Pesaro

Piove di Sacco.

Prapue .
Prapue .
Prapue .
Kepplo .

Uiidelheim

IIOIIIH

Uiiine ,

Rome

Sabblonetta

Salonica

Sonclno.

Sonclno.
Sonclno.

1737
1541
14b5

1489
1489

1813
1.590
1865
1475
1476

Before

1480
Before
1480
1561
1487
1488

1489

1489
1K99
1.54:i
1807
1512
1475

1.535
1526
1526
1475

1868
1480
1480
14H()
1559
1,522

1484

148.5
1485

Title.

Bible Polyglot

TItle-pape of "Sefer Nlzza-
hon "

TItle-pape of Shabbetbalan
"Tikkun"

Title-pape of Bible

" Sefer Raziel "

Picart, title-pape of Penta-
teuch

" Me'ah Berakot "

Title-page of miniature Sid-
dur

Title-page of Bible

Miinster Bible

Jacob b. Asher, Tur Oral^
Hayyim .'

Psalms with Kiiiihl

Psalms with i'entateuch

"Teflilot Latinl"

Immanuel b. Solomon, "Me-
habberol "

Bible

Karaite Siddur

Midrdsh Tilllm

Moses ibn Tibbon, transla-
tion of Maiinonides' "Sefer
ha-Mizwot"

Bahya b. Asher, " Kad ha-
Kemah"

Elijah Mizrahi, "Mispar,"
.'^oncino

Midrash F.leli F.zkerflh

Mahzor (Judtco-German) .. .

Printer's mark of Isaac b.
Aaron of Prossnitz

Periodicals

HaiGaon, "Musar Haskel".

Judah ha-Levl. "Cuzari"...

Jacob b. Asher, "Arba' Tu-
rin!" '. ..

Pentateuch

Hai>daiCrescas,"Or Adonai"

Title-pape of " Shefa' Tal ". . .

David Kiinhi's Commentary
on the Prophets

Schiff, " Hiddushe Halakot "

Elijah Levita, "Tishbl "

Jacob b. .\sher, Orah Hay-
yim

Abudarham

Nahmanides, Commentary on
the Pentateuch

Almanac

Mordecai Jaffe, "Lebushim "

Periodicals

" Yosippon"

Jacob b. Asher, Tur Oiah
Hayyim '.

Levi h. Gershon, Commen-
tary

Levi b. Gershon, Commen-
tary on the Pentateuch

"TetiUoi Vulgar"

KImhi, Commentary

Abraham ibn Ezra, Commen-
tary on the Pentateuch —

P.ahya's " Hobot ha-Leba-
bot" .■

Kalonymus, " Eben Bo^an".

Periodicals

Stephanus Bible

Sanhedrln Prayers

Soncino, " .^efer Yehoshua' "

Jacob b. Asher, " Arba' Tu-
rlm"

Mahzor

Hagpadali

Hagpadah

RashI, Commentary on the
Bible

Sidilur

'"Aruk"

" Moreli Nebukim "

"Semap"

Tuliiuid

Isaac Araina, " 'Akedat Ylz-
hak" '.

Soioihon Ibn (iablrol, " Mib-
l.iar ha-Peniiiim"

" 'Ikkarim "

Mahzor

VI.

xi.
vill.

335

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Typotrraphy
Tyr»

Where Printed.

Date.

Soncino Before

I IMK)

Venire ! ]')17

Venice 1520

Venice 15:i2

Venice

Venice ,

Vienna

WihiH

Wilna

MMInii

Zurich

1536
1504

1547

mn
mi')

188()
1884
1546

Title.

Title-papc of nn unknown
ciiitiiPN of the Taluiuil

Hdiiiln-rjir Hil)le

HouiberK- Talmud

Title-i)HKe of BoniberB Tal-
mud

Bomberjr Talmud

licrslion 1). Solomon, "Sefer
Sha'iir ha-Stumiayiui "

Caro, Sliulhan 'Aruk

" Slie't^lol u-Te.slmbot "

Title-paj-'c of Kitual

Periodica l.s

Tiilc-piitriMif Bible

Shull.ian 'Aiiik

Roimii Taluiud

" Vosippon " (.JudiEo-Ger-
niau)

Jew.
Encyc.

xli.
lii.
xli.

xil.

iii.

ill.
iii.

xi.

xli.
Ix.
xii.
xli.
xli.

i;i

imi

1.53
301

045
587
&')•'>
414
615
1.57

vil. 363

Bibliography: Cassel and Steinschneider, JlldisrlLC Typo-
(liaiihii\ in K.r.scli and (irutier. E)iciir. section ii., part 38,
pp. 31-lM, on which tlie above account i.s founded; De Rossi,
Auiialcs llcliiivi) - TuiKiiintpliici, I'aniia, 1795; Schwali,
Lcs IiicuiuthU'sOriciilaii.r. I'aris. 18SJ; Harkavy, in Cat. of
Biiok KxposUion. part viii. (in Hus.sian). St. Petersburjr, 18"J4 ;
Sitnonsen, Hehraisk linulriih, ('opcnl)a)fen, liKIl ; Theodore
L. De Vinne, Motion Mel)io(ls of linok Comjjosition, p. 346,
New York, l'J04; Ehrard, AusstiihDin Hchriiixcinr Biiclt-
(Jniche. 3d ed., Frank fort-on-lhe-Main, 1903; Steinschneider,
Cat. liodl. cols. 2813-3103.

TYRE: Principal city of Phenicia. By "the
strong city Tyre," mentioned in Josh. xix. 29 and
II tSam. xxiv. 7 as marking the frontier of Israel
(Asher), is evidently meant not the main city, but
an outpost in the mountains protecting the road to
it 'and to the coast (the Septuagint furnishes in
Joshua an interesting variant, making that point a
" fountain " in place of a "city ").

Tyre is first heard of under King ITirain, who
furnished to his friends David (II iSani. v. 11) and
Solomon (I Kings v. 1), for their building operations,
wood from Mount Lebanon and skilled working men
C'Sidonians," ib. v. G), for which aid
Under he received not only pa3'meut in grain
King Hi- (ib. v. 11), but also land concessions
ram. in Galilee (//;. ix. 11). Solomon's chief
architect, Hiram, also, was a Tyrian
(ib. vii. 13=11 C'iiron. iv. 11). Tyrian ships in Solo-
mon's service sailed even from the ports on the Ked
Sea {lb. ix. 27-2«).

Tyre became immensely rich (Zech. ix. 3) by her
commerce (Isa. xxiii. 2-3; conip. the elaborate de-
scription in Ezek. xxvii.); and the curses of the
Prophets refer especially to its flourisliing slave-
trade (Amos i. 9; Joel iii. 4). Tyrian merchants —
if the term " Tyrians " did not include all Phenicians
at that period — furnished the timber for Ezra's
Temple also (Ezra iii. 7), and " broiight fish and all
manner of ware" to Jerusalem (Neh. xiii. 10).

Ps. xlv. 2, Ixxxiii. 7, and Ixxxvii. 4 treat the city
as representative of all Phenicia; elsewhere, how-
ever, the Tyrians and tlie Zidonians are identified in
a way which seems to indicate that '' Zidonians " was
the earlier name for the Phenicians (comp. I Kings
V. 6; Judges xviii. 7; Isa. xxiii. 2; and the Homeric
use). "Ethbaalking of the Zidonians." tlie father of
Jezebel (I Kings xvi. ;51), is identical with Ithohalos
of Tyre (Josephus, "Ant." viii. 13, S 2), who, how-
ever, may have possessed both cities. This earlier
usage dates from a time when Zidon was prepouder- |

!.i- El-
King
to

atingnmongthePhenicinncIti ,^

inGen.x. 15 to Sidon.llie firs' .^

is not even nieulioued in vcreo 10 of tlic same

chapter).

Zi(h.n alwayschiinied that Tyre wuamen-Iy a later
colony. However, the E«yptiau inscripliMiig of tbc
eighteenth and nineteenth (lyiuiHtieH, wh: ' ' ]\y
mention Zidon, seem to sliow ihut even • , , re

("Sa-ru," "Sara") pre(h)minmed (W. M. MuiiiT.
"Asieii uiid Europa." p. IW.')). althou:-' ■
Ainarna tablets (ed. Wineklcr, Nos.
Abimilki of "Surri" seems to have !•
his adversary, Zimrida of Ziduna. 'i...^

nance of Tyre if) shown alno in tlic

Its Pre- fact that the grcatoBt Phc-niriim rol-
dominance, ony. Carthage, claimed to have been
founded from Tyre (probably miicli
before the i)roblemalic date as.siiiiu(I by ti ' , «.
i.e., 82G or 814 » c). (Isa. xxiii. 1. Q, In . :,„'i
necessarily imply Tycian colonization of TarbhisU.
but only flourishing intercourse with that remote
country.)

Josephus (I.e.) givesa list often Tyrian kings from
9G9 (Hiram!) to 774 (for some kings I. f - " -r

Assyrian time see Delitzsch. " Wo Ltg ■ "

p. 284). The long siege by the Assyrians, reported by
the local historian Meiiander (in J().se|)hu8, l.r. \x. 14)
to have taken place under Siialmane.ser (IV.). is by
modern critics considered as a confu.sion of several
Assyrian attacks under Sennaciierib, Esarhaddou,
and especially Assurbanii)al (.see Winrkler. "Alto-
rientalische Forschungen," 2d ed.. ii. 05). Finally.
Tyre submitted to Assyria, but kept always her own
kings (comp. Jcr. xxv. 22. xxvii. 8; Ezek. x xviii. 2),
as also under Persian rule. A naval battle against
the Egyptian king Apries (Herodotus, ii. 161) sit-ms
to indicate that this independence sought to main-
tain itself against the two rivals
Stormed by Egypt and Babylonia, but Nebudtad-
Alexander nezzar (comp. Ezek. x xvi. 7) obtained,
the Great, afterasiegeof thirteen years, a reriaio
submission in 574 n.c. Alexander the
Great (332) first stormed the island-city after build-
ing a large dam across the shallow strait; and be
sold 30,000 inhabitants as slaves.

Nevertheless, the city soon regained great im-
portance. It enjoyed a certain liberty until .Augus-
tus, and under the Uomans was the most populous
of the Phenician cities (frequently mentioniHl in the
Mew Testaments. During the Cr . ' n-

portant owing both to its unusual. »-

tions and to its factories of glass, sugar, etc. The
Christians under Baldwin II. took it in 1124 and held
it to 1291 (Frederick Harbarossa wax buried in the
cathedral in 1190). The place «!• > <1 after-

ward into a miserable village. «■' '''r the

Shi'iticsectof the .Malawilah hail i . on of

it: now SAr has from 6.000 to 6,0<)U inliabiiMUlo.

The name seems to have meant ** rock " . the Gnvk
form "Tyros" suggests to some Semiti.sis the pres-
ervation of the earlier "?" for "a." 1 r

Latin form was "Sar(r)a." Now a pen;: .y

the accretion of «uid to Alexander's dam, the city
was originally an i.shind (Ezek. xxvii. .3. 4) of lim-
ited space (how much of its former area has now
been submersed by the sea is a subject of dispute).

Tyria

U-Ba le-Ziyyon

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

336

so that lUe large- population was crowded together
in very high bouses. NevcrtUeless it coniaiued a

■ lagniticeut temple of Mel-

Ita 11 Mace. iv. 18 ou games

Temple, held every fifth year in honor of Ikr-

The local female divinity was

A*;tarte. On ..liland was a cousidt-ralile city,

1 . -yrus. which seems to have had the earlier name

'■• \ .,;i tablets; comp. "Oiu" in the

1^, . ..iu, -U6u";Talmudic. "Usha."

which, however, may be another city); from this

J • ' 'ore the Roman time. Tyre was provided

V r. The island had two harbors: one to the

north; the other, now sanded, to the south. Strabo

"* reports'' • -'le purple-factories filled the

.h an ». . it smell from the crushed

shells of which the purple was made.

>i. dcr PhfmizUr, pp.

-, T)inti< his zur Zeit

.1,; . , :.taU»chc Fi)rsc)nitigen,

. zur OcschichU dea AUertums,

Vo. li W. M. M.

TYRIA or TIREH : City of Asia Minor, si.\ty
mik* from Smyrna, its Jewish community is of
ancient date, the earliest members having arrived at
Tyria before the Spanish expulsion; but catastro-
phes ha%-e reduced the Jewish population to insig-
nificant proportions. Since 1825 the laws of the
community have been motleled on those of Smyrna;
a- ■ ' -1 the same year until 1882 the community
I its revenue by means of assessments, al-

jii its income is now derived from the salt-tax,

j iax. gifts, and rents. Most of the Jews of

Tyria. who came originall> from Constantinople,
Brusa. Salonica. and Smyrna, and who speak Turk-
ish. Greek, and Judao-Spanish, live in a narrow
plipttn while some of them have their residences
h . iherents of other creeds. The community

three synagogues, the latest of which was
:i 1887: and there are a number of benevo-
iriii »-« i'tics. including one for the burial of the
poor. The cemetery contains a number of ancient
gravestones, one of the oldest being that of Jehiel
(nro, who died in 14^8. The Talmud Torah at
Tyria was converted in 1h9."> into a school con-
trolled by the Alliance Israelite Universellc.

The list of the chief nil)bis of the city includes
Hay vim Ikiiveniste (author of the " Keneset lia-
<;<<lolah" and later rabbi at Smyrna), Benjamin
I ■ vif«- died in 1694), Hayyiin Danon,

1 Hayyini Isiiac JalTe, Isaac Aria,

M'»«es Capeluto, Abraham Sasson, Moses bar Siman
T ' •■ '■ ia. and I he present (IIJO.')) rabbi, Nis-

!- ua. It is noteworthy, however, that

in the series of "haskhabot" recited on the eve of
Yoin Kipimr for the repose of the souls of rabbis the
nam<- i.f RaMii Lapapa is preceded l)y the names of
Mattathias ben Hey. Joseph Galante. I.'isachar Abu-
hitia. S<ilom(m Mutevili, and Isnul Obadiah, the
last named lieing followed by Abraham Sasson, al-
tli"U'_'h no fixed order and no rlefinile dates are
■.- 'ned them. The rabbi and physician Moses
tS and Ital)bi Elisha (lallico. both of them pred-
v< • -~or8 of the rabbis mentioned above, arc al.so
noti worthy.

The Jews of Tyria number about 1,600 in a total

population of 20,000. In commerce and in industry
they have displayed much activity, exporting rai-
sins, cereals, silk, and cotton, and importing mer-
chandise from Europe, while nearly every trade
numbers Jews among its craftsmen. The govern-
ment service likewise is open to Jews. Hayyim
Jeremiah Danon, who built a Talmud Torah in 1837
and an asylum for the poor iu the following year,
held a governmental appointment as cashier from
1828 to 1845; while Behor Danon was municipal
physician from 1895 to 1904. Formerly the govern-
ment tithes were collected by Jews.
D. A. Ga.

TYRNATJ or TERNAVA (Hungarian, Nagy-
Szombath) : Manutactuiing town of western Hun-
gary. Ii was the scene of two martyrdoms of Jews:
the'first, in 1494, when fourteen men and two wom-
en gave up their innocent lives, as a manuscript
dirge of the Cracow community recounts; the sec-
ond, when the revenge and hatred of the citizens of
Tyrnau were aroused against the Jews at the time
that the inroads of the Turks terrified Hungary.
The burning of the Jews at Posing in 1529 was fol-
lowed by similar acts in the communities near Tyr-
nau. Still, the latter city did not succeed until ten
years later in getting rid of the Jews within its lim-
its. In 1536 a three-year-old boy of Tyrnau was
found dead, whereupon the citizens, who were in-
triguing against the .lews, accused them of having
murdered the child. King Ferdinand I. tried in
vain to pacify the angry citizens: the Jews that
were suspected were executed; and on the request
of the city authorities Ferdinand banished (Feb.
19, 1539) forever the remaining ones (this decree
was confirmed by Leopold I. in 1686). Jews were
strictly forbidden to set foot within the city or the
territory belonging to it ; and those who even un-
wittingly violated the order were severely punished.

In 1717, when a subject of Count Kaunitz was
punished, the count, wishing to put an end once for
all to these proceedings of the city, did his utmost
to secure the annulment of the charter of Ferdinand
I. ; but he succeeded only so far as to bring about
the execution of an agreement between the city of
Tyrnau and the Jews, the latter being represented
by Simeon ]\Iichel, an ancestor of the German poet
Heinrich Heine. Under this agreement the Jews
renounced all claims that might be brought either
by themselves or bj' their landlords against the city
on account of their former imprisonment, while the
city promised to allow Jews to pass through Tyrnau
on payment of a certain toll. Though the agree-
ment was suppo-sed to be made for all time, ]\Iaria
Theresa annulled it, and the Jews were again ex-
cluded from Tyrnau.

King Joseph II. allowed them to settle in the

city (.NIarch 31. 1783); and from that time the once

famous Jewish community of Tyrnau again began

to flourish. See Is.\.\c Tyrnau.

IMnt.iofjRAPHV: Knhn. Die Gescli. (irr Jwlfn in Uiff/arii, i.
411 : Schiirtt. JIUIiarhr Mirclarliriligkeitcn. i.; Alex. Biich-
IfP, in Ktiiioilnsi'ii. xvi.. No. 6: idem, Histnrn (if tlic Jrirs
in Tiuitnprxt (In Hungarian), pp. 9>-97 ; David Kaufmann,
Aus Ifriiiricli Uriiic'x AlnioifaaJ. p. 220.

s. A. Bu.

TYROL : Crownland of Austria. The earliest
documents referring to its Jews date from the

337

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Tyrla

beginning of the fourteenth century. Tlie state-
ment, found in the "Privilegiuni Eeclesitu 8. Ste-
pliaui" in Rendena^Horiuayr, "Gesch. Tirols," 1808,
document 231), according to whicii Ciiarlemagnc
overcame certain Jewisii owners of castles in 800,
can not be credited. In the fourteenth century
Jews settled at Bozen, Meran, Riva, Hovereto, and
in the ei)iscopal cities of Ibixen and Trent, as
merchants, money-lenders, and mint- and tax-farm-
ers. Isaac, "Judeus de Luncz (Lienz) " is men-
tioned (Aug. IG, 1308) as farmer of the mint at
]VIeran. In 1318 the Jew Nilvolaus of Bozen re-
ceived in fief from King Ileiurieh of Carintliia a
house and garden in tliat city. According to the ac-
counts of the monk Goswin i\nd others, the Jews of
Tyrol were bitterly persecuted in the fourteenth
century at the time of tlie Black Death, wiien tiic\'
■were accused of poisoning tlie wells.

There were no general statutes for the Jews of
Tyrol; but to individuals a number of grants of
privileges were made, many being quite important;
noteworthy among them was the liberal decree,
containing twenty-seven clauses, issued at Martin-
mas, 1403, by Bishop Ulrich III. of Brixen, in favor
of the Jews Isaac, son of Gansmann, and his
brother-in-law Samuel. Still more liberal was the
decree, granted ISlay 1, 1431, by Duke Frederick
With the Empty Pocket, to the Jews Mendlein,
Simeon, and Rubein. Frederick's son Sigmund iiad
the Jew Seligmau in his employ as surgeon. Sig-
mund's reign was marked by tlie imposition of the
first Jews' tax in Tyrol and by the notorious tiial
for ritual murder on account of Simon of Trent.
A similar occurrence is connected with the names
of Anderle of Rinn near Innsbkuck, and of Ursula
of Lienz.

In 1475, while the events at Trent were still fresh
in memory, twenty-one peasants of Lienz testified
that on Good Friday, 1442, Ursula, the four-year-
old daughter of Thomas Pock of Lienz, had been
murdered for litual purposes by the few Jews of
that city; and in consequence of this testimony the
alleged murderers, two Jews, two Jewesses, and their

accomplice, a Cliristiun woman, were executed after
a siiort trial and excruciating tortures. Ou Juu. 22.
1520, the Landtag issued a decree exiielljngall Ji-wg
from Tyrol. Soon after, jiowever, Jews were uguio
living at Bozen, Riva, and Nori ; but they wen- for-
bidden to peddle, and were required to weara Imdge
and to pay a personal lax. Tliis tax was reduced
in 1578, on the complaint of one Ahmham, spokea-
man for tiie Jews of Tynil. Jews first settled at
I.NNsiu<rcK in 1578

In the seventeenth century important priv:
were granted to sevend Jews of Tyrol, espedahy
to the descendants of Sidomon of Bu.ssuno. In con-
sequence of the attempt of Maria Theresa to expel
all Jews from Tyrol in 174H, their numbers (l<Treuse<l
so rapidly that by the end of the eighlrenth century
only eiglit Jewish families, lolemted under Jowpli
II., were living at Innsiiruek -and Bozen. Wliilc
Tyrol was under Bavarian rule (IHCG-H) llie edict
issued by the king in 1H13 granted to the Jews an
assured legal status. The ancient rights of the Jews
of Tyrol were confirmed by Austria in 1H17, when
Tyrol was again taken bv that country, thnugli the
laws prohibiting the acfjuisition of real estate and
the holding of jiublic ollices, as well as tlios4^> against
new settlers, remained in force. Still, llierc was a
Jewish postmaster at Bozen at the end of the eight-
eenth century; Jews acted as purveyors to the Aus-
trian army in the Napoleonic wars; and they look
an especially prominent i)art in supporting IIk- re-
volt of Andreas Ilofer in Tyrol in 1809.

There is no legally recognized Jewish community
in Tyrol, its Jews being subject to the comniunily
at Hohenems (Vorarlberg) in virtue of the law of
1890. Several Jews of IIf)henenis. as Sdiwarz of
Bozen, have achieved distinction in in<luMtrial under-
takings, notably in the building of railroads, and as
brewers and liankeis. Jews are now (U»05i living in
Tyrol only at Innsbuick, liozen, Meran. and TiiKST.

Bibliography: Tilnzer. Ge*ch.(ler Juden in Tirol wiirf Vnr-

arltierii. 130:?. vol. i.; St-herpr, liechtuvfrUilKiiiJw <Ur Jxulfn
in den Drutxch-Oestcrrcichiifchcn L,<7ii<i<-r«. pp. .ir.' r( iv/..
Lelpsic, 1901.
S. A. Ta.

TJ-BA LE-ZIYYON ("And the Redeemer shall
come to Zion " ; Isa. lix. 20) : Opening words of the
closing prayer of the daily morning service, before
which one should not leave the synagogue (Shulhan
'Aruk, Oral) Hayyim, 132). The prayer consists of
a series of texts, in which are included the Kkdusii-
sii.xii following the lesson, with its Aramaic par-
aphrase (comii. Sotali 49a), and two brief, ancient
prayers embodying an aspiration for enlightenment

through that and other studies. It is always pre-
ceded imir.ediately or closely by Ashkk (Ps. cxlv.;
Ps. XX. intervening on onlinary weekday^ ' it

is repeated in such association before tlif .i a

prayer on Sabbaths and festivals, and l»efore Nki
LAU on the Day of Atonement.

"U-Ba le-Ziyyon"is not chanted ul length: the
greater portion is read in an undertone after the
hazzan lias intoned the introductory lines. The

U-BA LE-ZIYYON

mf Adagio molto tranquiUo.

U-B* le-Ziyyon

•Ukiii-

TIIE JEWISH E^XYCLOPEDIA

338

fe - sh«* be - Ya - 'a - kob

ffe:

1 — r

Wa • •

ni,.

=t2:

zot be - ri

tarn,

^^^S;

a - mar

i§:^^ 1^

nai:

rai

sber

-0^=lir.

-^-=^--

itztzT^^ti:

sam - ti be - fi

ka, lo

sha

-^-i

ka,

zar

•i?

ka.

pi.

-.^—■^

ze - ra' zar - 'a

ka,

:t2=t2:

mar.

rii.

nai,

•at - tab

•ad

'o - lam.

rthcse. in the ritual of tlie Aslikcnazim, is

. ; on the prayer-motive of the Sabbath after-

:i service (see Mrsic, Svn.\gogal); but in the

of the Spphurdiin tiierc is employed a spe-

l, of which u variant is used for Ps. xvi.,

lorily afterward, at the e.xpiration of Sab-

... It is tliis melfKly whirh is here transcribed.

1 s fr. Miicnl repetition of a short phrase, and the

of It to fit the text, it reproduces the

of the worshif) music traceable to

<!irli.-r tIi:,M 1 jri2

A. F. L. C.

UCEDA, SAMUEL LEN ISRAEL DE : Pal-
■ ■ r and iireaelier ; born at Safed

of ilie fti.\teenth century. His
name. I re<i(i. originally wus derived from the town
of that name in the archbishopri<- f)f Toledo. lie
wan ft pupil of Is.iar I. una and Ilayyim Vital, with
whom he studied Cabala, and became rabbi and
; '• -leher in Safed and, later, in fonstantinoplc.
- . .ucl wns the author of the following works:
I>.')?eret Shcmu'el," commentary and supercom-
menrnry on the Bof)k of Ruth (published in 1.".7:
together with the text and the commentary of Ra.shi,

Kuril Chesme, 1597; Amsterdam, 1712; Zolkiev,
1800); "Leheni Dini'ah," commentary on Lamenta-
tions, with the text and the commentary of Hashi
(Venice, 1600; Amsterdam, 1710, 1715); "Midrash
Shemu'el" (Venice, 1579, 1585, 1597; Cracow, 1594;
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1713). The last-named work
was his chief one, and consisted of a detailed com-
mentary on the Pirke Abot, with reference to the
commentaries (at that time in manuscript) of Jonah
Gerondi, Meir Abulatia, Samuel ben Mcir, Meiiahem
Me'iri, Samuel ibn Sid, Joseph ibn Nahmias, Baruch
ibn Mclek, Joseph ibn Susan, Moses Almosnino, and
others, most of which have since been printed.

Bini.ior.RAPKV: Ponforle, Knrr ^fT-Drlro^ pp. ■ISa. 48ii ; Azii-
liii, .s/(f(?i lin-fifdolhn. i. 172; De Rossl-Hanil>fTir«'r, Hist.
}\r,rlrrl>. p. Z'A \ Steinsehneider, Cat. Bodl.p. 2494; Fiirst,
Itil.l. J ltd. Hi. 44.
w. 15. M. K.

UFHAUSEN, SOLOMON ZEBI HIRSCH.

See IjitKNz, Sa.mlkl Fkikduich.

TJGOLINO, BLAISIO: Italian polyhistor; boru
at Venice about 1700. He is stated to have been a
Jewish convert, and was certainly well acquainted
with Talmudic literature. He is known for tiie
huge collection of treatises on Jewish antiquities,

339

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

written in Liitiii, whicli lie broii/ijlit togothcr in liis
"TJicsanrus Anticiuitatuni Sacranim " (84 vols.,
Venice, 1744-69). In tliis work lie reprinted most
of tiie seventeenth-century treatises on Jewisli an-
tiquities by Bocliart, Bonfrere, Buxtorf, Carp/ov,
Celiarius, Clavering, Deyling, Goodwin, llottinger,
Iluot, Lowth, Opitz, PfeilTer, Prideaux, Keland,
liiienfei'd, Saubortius, Selden, Sigonius, Spencer,
Trigland, Van Til, Wagenseil, and Witsius, besides
obtaining fresh contributors, and translating much
himself from the Midrashim. The subjects treated
are as follows: (a) Festivals, i. {b) General antiq-
uities, ii.-iv. (c) Geography, v.-vi. (d) Priests
and temple, vii.-xiii. (e) IMidrashim, xiv.-xvii. (/)
Talnnid, xvii.-xx. ([/) Ritual and synagogue, xxi.
(h) Sects and proselytes, xxii. (/) Gentile deities,
xxiii. {j) Jewish law, xxiv.-xxvii. (k) Numis-
matics, xxviii. (/) Costume, marriage, and medicine,
xxix.-xxx. (w) Poetry and music, xxxi.-xxxii. (n)
Death and burial, xxxiii. Biblical, Hebrew, author,
and subject indexes are contained in vol. xxxiv.
Ugolino himself translated the treatises Menahot
and Zebahim (vol. xix.); Pesahim, Shekalim, Yoma,
Sukkuh, Kosh ha-Shanah, Ta'anit, IMegillah, Hagi-
gah, Bczah, Mo'ed Katan, ]\Ia'aserot, Ma'aser Sheni,
Hallah, Orlah, and Bikkm-im (vols, xvii.-xviii.) ;
Sifra, Sifre, and Tosefta (vols, xvii.-xix.); besides
a part of Maimonides' " Yad " and of Abraham
Portaleone's "Shilte ha-Gibborim."

Bibi.ioorapuy: McCllntock and Strong, Cyc: Stelnschneider,
Cat. liodl. s.v.
T. J.

UJHELY (SATORALJA-UJHELY) : City in
the county ofZeuipiiu. Hungary. Documents in its
archives show that in 1734 Jews were living at
Ujhely and that they were allowed to acquire real
estate. It is evident that the community was then
increasing ; for ten years later the Jews possessed a
school which in 1829 received a bequest of 260,000
gulden from ]\Iartiu Raphael Kiistenbaum, and which
was thenceforth known by liis name. The oldest
tombstone bears date of 1760, although the hebra
kaddisha, with which was connected a hospital, was
not established until 1772, its founder being an itin-
erant rabbi named Najihtali Hirsch. The first hebra-
book has a drawing on its title-page representing
the last rites.

A synagogue was built at Ujhely in 1790; and
when it was demolished in 1887, to be replaced by
anew house of worship, it was found to have eight
subterranean chambers, which probably served as
dungeons. The oldest document of the conununity
is dated 1831, during the rabbinate of Moses Teitel-
l)aum, of whom the story is told that Louis Kossuth,
afterward leader of the Hungarian Kevolution, when
suffering from an infantile sickness, was brought to
him, and that the rabbi blessed the child and,
referring to the word "koshet" in Ps. Ix. 6 (A.V.
4), prophesied his future greatness. Teitelbainn
died in 1841, and was succeeded by his son Leopold.
who, however, soon went to ISlarmaros-Sziget. Jere-
miah Low was then appointed rabbi of Ujliely.
Linv, who was one of the leaders of the Orthodox
party, was succeeded by the present chief rabbi,
Koloman Weisz. and the preacher Lsidor Gold-
berger. Michael Hkilprin. who acted as secretary

to Minister S/eniere in 1-
lution. a teacher in the J. ...
The Jews of tlje city now
a total population of 13.000.

lUllI.IOOR.^PMV : Alt . •

prior t

ve-

i-. V

«UKBA, MAR : Exilarcli at BagflnH In tlir flntt
half of the lentli century; tliewcon*! cxiliirrli tn die

in banishment Wlien Koni:v / ,p.

pointed gaon of Pumhedita he in . .... n a

controversy with Mar Tkhn over lli. .m

Khorasan ; and the calif Al-Mul ■

induced by Zedek's friends to . ,

Soon afterward (917) tlie lattor left nacdad for

Karmisin (Kermanslmh), but w|.

went for tiie sununer to Ids piil

'Ukba devised a scheme to wjn the royal favor

by meeting Al-Muktadir's fiecrefary d.

gardens and greeting him with the r"
beautiful verses. Tliese pleased the calif's Hfcretary
so much that he wrote them down and si
to his master, who in his turn was so dc ;
he sent for Mar Tklm. entere<
The calif granted this wish, and Mar 'I'l, re-

turned to Bagdad as exilarcli. Kohcn Z- ■ •■'

his friends, however, again succeeded in .'■■
his deposition and banishment from the (

whereupon he went to Africa, and was r. .

with high honors at Kairwan as a do.scondant of the
royal house. A sort of throne (** himah

for him in the synagogue, near the Ark ■

and he was always the third to read the ** parashah."
the scroll of the Law being brought to liim in hla
seat.

Bini.ioORAPliv : NfiitmiK-r. 3f. J. C. 11. T^-TB; th.

V. 24G-24S. noie 12: Halcvl. D"r. > i.. .-!!••'■■ ... ^ tt

»cq.; Weiss, Dor, Iv. 134 r ( itq.
K. r. S O.

UKRAINE. See Rissi.K.

'UKZIN ("Stalks of Plants"): Nameof atn^itlse
of the Mishnah and the Tosofla. dejillnp rliiofly with

the conveyance of ritual impurity by n ' •' ■

roots, stalks, and hulls of plants. In •■
it is the twelfth and last treatise of • no-

rot; and it is also the last of the w , . '■', ih
]\Iaimonides says: "This treatise has Inen jOnred nt
the end because the impurity of stalks is
jilained in the Bible, and depenils solely on tl
nunt of the Babbis." It is divided into tlir-
ters. containing twenty^ inall. lu

contents may be summai.. . .. :

Ch. i. : Difference between roots, stalk*, and hull*
in regard to impurity; we'
sooner than dry ones (^^ 1-2! .
certain roots that convey no Impurity
that have been ctit from tli<'
of (igs (fresh or dried), or an.N ,
or other portion of a plant, ronveys impurity If «!;. n
taken together - »»ody of the plant it l« o«

larire as an egg ...

Ch. ii : (>liv«'8 preserved with their leaves in
licpior receive no Ini; '^"^

imi.uiity (^^ 1-2); i ''■*

Uiain

TJlm

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

340

]'^- been partly cnisbed so that the remuaiit is
r tbau an egg iii" uot become uucleau; all
1^ ty. Itabbi Juilab says: "Au

f,, - ihe oulenuosl uever receives

li: tiie innermost always receives impurity;

jj ■ urity when whole, but

^ . _ 3-4). What parts of

ganneuis and plants couvey impurity (^§ 5-8);
J, ■' rurth can not be unclean;

l^ .wing in vases (i;^ 9-10).

Ql^ jij - c-an become unclean only

. ri. wet (^^ 1-3); umler what
s. pepper, unripe fruit, fish,
s rit-eive impurity (^^ 4-11).
li»s witli the following para-
. are later aikliiious: " Kabbi
n Ixrvi says, 'The Holy One, blessed be
cause every righteous man to inherit 310

a!
t<
milk, and n<

J
}{

v .> it is said: "To make those that love me

inlK-rit substance : and their treasuries I -will till
[Prov. viii. 21, Ilebr. ; numerically the letters in
tlie wonl cf (= "substance") amount to 310]."'
IJ ~ n Halafta says, ' The Holy One,

1 ... ; and no other vessel capable of con-

much blessing for Israel as peace, as it is
toiii "1 : will givestreiigth unto his people;

tUcL'"''! - Iii> iiioiilf with jicacc [Ps. xxix.

Ill"

In ■ i^t \vi5c. L'k/in is the last treatise.

It is .. . three chapters, containing forty-

two iMiragrapbs in all. It includes uo haggadic
_'8 I'kziu has no Gemara.

S. Led.

ULAM. See Tkmpi.e ix Rahbixic.xi. Liter.\-
Ti ll^

XTLAMO. JACOB DANIEL. See Olmo.
ULIF, GERSHON ASHKENAZI. See Asn-

TILL A (K^y; called Rab 'Ula in Ket. 65b and
I^jil "f tliL- k-aiiing halakic aninraim

in Pit ig tlie latter part of the third and

in the liegiuning of the fourth century. In his
youth he studied under H. Eleazar II. (Tos. to Hul.
34a, *.r. ** Man Habraya ") ; and he transmitted nine of
hi- tf-iicher's halakic sayings, seven of which are con-
taimd in H. K. 11, end, one in "Er. 21b, a. id one in
Kit. 74a. He was greatly resiiected for his learn-
ing; and during his visits to Babylonia he seems to
liavc been invited fre(juently by the"resh galuta"
lo deliver halakic lectures (Ket. 65b; Kid. 31a;
Bhab. 15TI»). He traveled rejxatedly to Ruby Ionia;
"• ■' "n one of IiIk journeys he was in danger of as-
■ition by one of his companions, saving his life
i.iily by condoning the murder of another (Ned. 22a).

I'lla rendered important decisions regarding the
iMUi-dictionsand tliecalculationof the new moon, and
'^' ifd to prontwlgatc his rulings in Bab}--

1' wenttliilher(Ber. 3«l); R. H. 22b; Pes.

58b. 1041)). He wa« very strict in his interpretation
'■' " lb 1 iTii, loTl)); and on one oc-

c ■ lid U. lluna u.sc an expression

which he did not approve, he retorted, "As vinegar
'■ ' ' 'as smoke to the eyes, .so are the

^■^ I." ajiplyinc to him the first half

of Prov.. X. 20 (I^id. 45b). Only in the presence

of K. Kahman did Ulla hesitate to pronounce his
opinions, generally waiting until the former had
departed (Git. lib, 12a); although he frequently
sought Nahmau's company (Ket. o3a). Of his con-
temporaries with whom he engaged in controversies
may be mentioned, besides K. Nahman, R. Abba
(B. M. 11a), Abimi bar Papa, Hiyya bar Ammi (Ket.
o3a), and R. Judah (Ijul. 68b, 70a): but his per-
sonal friend, with whom he associated most fre-
quently, was Rabbah bar bar Hana (Tosef. , Hul.
xxxiv. 1).

In addition to the sayings of his teacher Eleazar,
Ulla transmitted those of R. Hoshaiah (Hul. 76a),
Joshua ben Levi (ib. 122a), R. Jolianau ('Er. G7b),
Rab (Shab. 143b), and Simeon ben Lakish (Hag. 8b),
while his own sayings were transmitted by R. Aha
bar Adda (B. 7>l. 117b), Hamnuna (Shab. 10b), Hiyya
bar Abba (Hag. 25b), Hiyya bar Ami (Ber. 8a), Raba
bar Hineua (Men. 30b), R. Hisda (Ber. 38b), Judah
bar Ammi(M. K. 5b), and Joshua bar Abba (ib. 5b).
Raba appears to have been his only son (Shab. 83b).

Ulhi died in Babylonia, before his teacher R. Elea-
zar; but his remains wx're taken to Palestine for
burial (Ket. Ilia).

Bibmooraphy: Heilprin,Scrfer7ia-Do»'Of, pp. 229-230; Bacher,
Ag. D(il). Amor., pp. 9i3-97.
E. C. S. O.

ULLMANN, ALEXANDER DE ERENY :

Ilungaiian deputy and political economist; born at
Budapest Feb. 18, 1850; died there 1897; son of
Karl Ullmann (b. 1809; d. 1880), founder of the
first Iluiiuarian insurance company, and viee-presi-
dent of t lie Bank of Commerce at Pest. Ullmann was
educated in Budapest and Vienna (LL.D. 1872),
and was admitted to the bar in 1873. On the death
of his father the family was elevated to the Hun-
garian nobility. From 1884 to 1892 Ullmann repre-
sented the electoral district of Also-Arpas in the
Hungarian Parliament.

In addition to numerous .juridical and economic
essays in the "Pester Lloyd," "P^llenor," and "Neu-
zeit," Ullmann wrote the following works: "A
Re.szveuyes Kereseti Jogarol " (Budapest, 1877), on
the right of stockholders to institute legal proceed-
ings; " A Kenyszeregyezseg Kerdesehez " (rt. 1879),
on compulsory settlements; "Az Ipartorveny Re-
vizi6.ia" (ib. 1880), on the revision of the industrial
laws; "A Magyar Kereskedelmi es Iparkaniarak
Reformja" (ib. 1882), on the reform of the Hunga-
i-ian board of trade and commerce; and "Z.sid6 Fele-
kezeti Ugyek Rendezese" (ib. 1888), on the legal
regulation of Jewish affairs.

Bibliography: Sturm, Ozsniaofmsi Almanach, 1887.
s. L. V.

ULLMANN, SHALOM: Hungarian Taliiiud-
ist; flourished in the beginning of the nineteenth
century; olliciated as rablii in Fiirtli, and lateral
Boldogasszony (Frankirchen), a small place in the
county of Wieselburg. He was the author of "Dibre
Rash" (1826), a work containing notes on various
Talmudic treatises.

s. A. Ke.

ULM : f'ity and district of Wlirttemberg. As
in many other German cities, there is in Ulm a leg-
end that Jews lived there before the Christian era;

341

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ulaxn
Ulm

but tlie first liistorical evidence of a Jewisii settle-
meut is a tombstone dated 1243 and erected in mem-
ory of Iluknali, dauftlitcr of 1{. Solomon iiu-Levi.
Tiie next oldest record is a declaration, issued by the
city council of Ulm in 1274, which terms the Jewish
connnunity a ]M-ivilegcd " Darleihergenossenschuft "
(loan society), I'uily autiiorized to ilispose of unre-
deemed pledges. By the aid of a Jew the Bava-
rians, who in the fourteenth cenlury
Thirteenth were at war with Austria, succeeiled
and in reducing the city (April 20, 1316);

Fourteenth and eight years later (Nov. 10, 1324)
Centuries, Louis the Bavarian pledged to the
counts of Ottingen the state ta.xes
payalile by the Jews of Ulm. In like manner Charles
IV. pawned the Jewish ta.xes of Ulm to Albrecht
of Hechberg; and the Jews of the city thus found
themselves compelled to collect part of their taxes
from their coreligionists of Schelklingen and Ehin-
geu. The Jews of the latter place, however, com-
plained of this procedure; and on Aug. 1. 1:548, the
Jew^s of Ulm were oilicially reprimanded. The im-
perial prefects of Swabia finally took them under
their protection on condition that they paid their
"Schutzgeld" (protection-money) promi)lly. The
other fees which they gave for protection went to
the city treasury of Ulm, and were used to defray
the cost of new fortifications.

About this time the Jews of Ulm were accused
of poisoning the wells, and were persecuted by
mobs, while the city council, on being called to ac-
count by Count Helfenstein, declared itself power-
less to check the rabble. The property of the vic-
tims was attached by the city authorities; and on
this occasion a letter from the Jewish
Accused of community of Jerusalem, informing
Well- the Jews of Ulm of the crucifixion of
Poisoning. Jesus, is said to have been found (Nub-
ling, " Die Judengemeinden des ]\Iit-
telalters," p. 300, Ulm, 1896). On the career of the
" Grossjuden " Jilcklin, who was an important figure
in Ulm during the latter half of the fourteenth cen-
tury, see Jew. Encyc. vii. 19.

The Jews of Ulm suffered much during the war-
fare between their city and the kingdom of Wiirt-
temberg; for when Eberhard III., the Mild (1388-
1417) ascended the throne of Wluttemberg he asked
the as.sistance of the empire in enforcing the laws
whicli had been introduced to liquidate the Jewish
debt. Ilis recjuest was gianted; and Borziwoy of
Swyuar was appointed prefect. The Jews of Ulm
realized that, so far as they were concerned, the
intention was to annul their outstanding claims in
order to defray the cost of the war and to cover the
so-called " Judenbrande " (riots against the Jews) of
the Swal)ian Bund in the county of Win ttend)erg;
conse(iuentl3- they either took tiieir promissory notes
to places of safety or else openly resisted these
demands, and delayed iiayment. Conse()Uently the
proposed li((ui(lation was postponed until Aug. 11.
1392, when Wenceslaus issued an edict containing
the following four clau.ses:

(1) The city of I'liii is frranted the privilege of adniittInK Jews
and Je\vesse.s.

(2) One-lialf of the Jewish taxes is to be paid to the city, and
the Opfeui'fk.nnkj is to be paid during the week preceding
Christinas.

(:i> Junwii, iiuu la i„au priH.wUiinf» la vwu^ wtelr in llM
supri'iiie court of tin). ' "*

(4) Kora \n-riiMi <.f {■ r
[mid the city l.y u|| lUe ,

There are no records exluiit dhowtnp thf nfrr of
the Jewish community of Uhii ul •

llie frequency of the fuinily n

" Ullniann" points toa niiiiierou-
it took high raidi

Importance evidenced by tlic ;... .

in a ycsliibuh, over which H

Spiritual sided. In addilion t

Affairs. were tiiree oiiur i..

namely. Seligmunii. Ijifen, uml (.
shon. Simelin violuted a i

community of Nuremberg, : .., ;

sub.scribed; and the result wiisu contruvcniy whi. ii

involved the entire con- '

leailers of the eonununi! .

before .Jacob Weil for adjudication; ami the bitter

decided that Simelin should m.-il

tion of his utterances in three di:.

or suffer the penalty of excommuiiicatinu.

Nothing further is known of the
the Jews of Ulm at this period; biii
dition .steadily delerioratejl. Tlie follow ib-

tions (dated Nov. 24, 1395j fiom tlie so-caum - HttI
Book" are e.xtunt:

(1) The Jews mnst weigh on "sworn moneyHmlcB** CGcid-
wage ") I'verylhing which ihcy l>iiy or -m-II.

(2) From Talin Saturday until Knvt.-r Wwln«~liir. n^ wr'! ««
on Corpus ( hristi Day. all Jews ir i

(luartcr ; tran.xgr'
"Red Book" be punishable «r
Regru- (:t) Any dlscon'

lations. tian will be pur u ka wtt^idj ■• i/

shown to anothc;
(4) A Jew may not lend money uu u fl»lK« unlns be koowv
the debtor well.
(')) No Jew may have a Chri.stlan M-nnnt !•
(6) No inhabitants of Ulm other than J. - . .■• to

pawnbroklng.

As a result of a complaint Kulged by li
smiths' gild the following restrictions were
by the city council of Ulm: (1) No Jew n
gold, silver, or other precious metuls withixii Uio
knowledge of the gild. (2) Jews may neillivr buy
nor sell silver btillion in the city. (3) They urc per-
mitted to trade only in pearls, gems, and im<:
wares in gold and silver. On Sipl. 30, 1
following laws were promuigat<-<l: (I) Cl<
may not be employed by Jews:
by Jews in the market, or meat
be examined only by Cliristian butclicre. and ani-
mals may be slaughtered only i " " '
the synagogue; (3) Jewsare foil'
visions while purchasing them in the uiarki^

On May 15. 1422. the Jews of Ulm
from advancing loans on wik»I or
middle of the fifteenth century they were

of the ritual nuirder of a Swis^s Iwiy ; ' '

of Brink at Havensburg. near Ulm.
the end of this century nothing fnrthcT is knn»r.
concerning the Jewish mmmunily : but under Max-
imilian I. the city council complained to the < nip«^i€ir
of the residence of Jews in the city, and r

from him a so-called " Freilu-itsbrief " aiill k'

their expulsion under the following conditions: (1)

Ulin
XJuger

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

342

sit

• -I? to be given the shortest time pos-
to dispose of their movable prop-
erty. ('2) The proceeds of the sale
Expulsion .-f the synagogue, cemetery, hospital.
in the !':itli. dwelling-houses, and the like,
y ' - with their apinirtenances.

Q^. _ : accrue to Wolf of Asch, the

prefect of Gcislingen. (3) All former
p. annulled. (4^ After the date

o( w... ., ...... ;y Jew remaining in the city

was to be outlawed. This manifesto was published
o: HiH); and after four days the imperial

til.. .. . .-.Id to the city of Ulm for 5,000 gulden

the n-ai estate belonging to the Jews, the date of the
ex t for five months later. No Jews

^, L-d to any town in the district of

Ulm until 152G. when one was allowed to settle in
Albeck. c ' ''in that he charged interest at the

mtc of 1. :. •-, heller per gulden. In a short

time this Jew succeeded in bringing coreligionists to
tl; t. and the council of Ulm again com-

pl . . the emperor; whereupon, on July 18,

1541. Charles Y. issued a " Freilieitsrccht " from Re-
g, ' taining the following clause: "This

J, :initted to borrow money. If he does

flo. be is liable to a tine of 10 marks in gold ; and the
money, together with interest, shall go to the city of
Ulm." Further, a debtor was forbidden to waive
bi^ rights under the " Freiheitsbrief " in favor of his
creditor: this rendered it impossible for the Jews
to remain in the city. A second "Freiheitsbrief "
was issued by Ferdinand I. (Vienna,
Jews March 28. 1561); and throughout the
Again in seventeenth century Jews were found
trim in the in the district of Ulm only during
Sixteenth the Diets, as imperial or princely
Century, envoys, or when traveling with safe-
conducts, although occasionally they
sojourned for some time in the city, and even had
their own slaughter-houses.

DuriiiL' the eighteenth century the condition of
the Jews improved slightly. On Jan. 19, 1712, the
council permitted them to attend the horse-markets
or !it of 10 krcutzer per diem ; but the}' were

f> . to peddle leather. In the middle of the

eighteenth century, however (May 20, 1750\ they re-
c< ' -'•hm to attend all the fairs and to deal

ii. . :y kind. They were charged 1 gulden

a <lay for the privilege of staying in Ulm; and their
safe-conducts cost 3 kreutzer pvr hour. At the out-
break of the French war several Jews
Eighteenth went to Uhn. among them being the
and armycontrart^jrsKaullaof Hechingen,

Nineteenth and Gumberz. manager of the Stadt-
Centuries. theater in Ulm. When the condition
of the Jews in Wlirttemberg was reg-
ulate<l ll):^7)and civic equality wasgranted to them,
tin- Dietof Ulm hxliJied an unavailing protest. Soon
afterward the Rpecial ta.xes levied on Jews for pro-
teciir)ii nnd the like were repealed.

On F>l). 3. 1H45, the Jews of Ulm organized di-
vine services. Sitnon Einstein of Laupheim being
ch'XK-n bazzan. In 1853 a Jewish cemetery was
opened; ut\ Sept. 12, 1873, a new synagogue was
dedicaU-il: ami in 1888 Holomon Fried of Hatibor
was calUd as rabbi. The Jews of Ulm now (1905)

number 730 in a total population of about 43,000.
They support four charitable organizations.

BIBIIOGRAPHY: Deppinp, Juden im MittchiUcr. Stuttgart,
1834- Haid. nm uiid Sein Gf/jicf, Ulm, 178(5: Hassler, Die
L'lmer Judmuruhsteiitc. ib. 1S«J8: Niibling. Die Judeiwe-
mciiidcn dcx MittclaUers, ib. 18% (stronjily prejudiced
ajfaiust the Jews); Pressel. Ge.^ch. dcr Judcn in Ulw, ib.
1873; idem, ITlminches Urkundeiihucli. i., Stuttfiart, 1873:
Schultes, niroHi/f von LTm, Ulm, 1881; Veesenmeyer. Ef irn«
Uber den Ehcntalioin Aufenthalt dcr Juden in I'lm, in
Programm dex Ulmer Gumnasiums, 1797: Salfeld. Martyr-
olnaium, s.v. ; Kohut, Gesch. der Deutschen Juden, s.v.
D. S. O.

ULMANN. ALBERT : American banker and
author; born in New York city July 2, 1861; edu-
cated in the public schools and at the College of the
City of New York. In 1900 he became a meinber
of the New York Stock Exchange firm of J. H.
Sulzbaclicr. He is one of the founders and gov-
ernors of the Juda?ans, and has been interested in
the history of New York and of the Jews in that
city. He has contributed to the " New York Times
Saturday Review," to the "Saturday Evening Post,"
and to other journals, and is the author of : " Frederick
Struther's Romance" (New York, 1889); "Chaper-
oned" (lb. 1894); "A Landmark History of New
York"(j/>. 1901); and "New York's Historical Sites,
Landmarks, Monuments, and Tablets" (ib. 1902).

BIBI.IOORAPHY: Tlic American Jewii^h Year Bank, 19(U-5;
H'/io'.s- ir/io in America, 1903-5; IHio's lU/io lu New
York City and State, 1905.

XJLMANN, BENJAMIN : French historical
painter; born at Blotzheim, Alsace, May 24, 1829;
died at Paris Feb. 24, 1884. He studied at the Ecole
des Beaux-Arts under Drolling and Picot, and in
1859 won the Prix de Rome.

Of his paintings may be mentioned: "Sylla at
the House of ]\Iarius" (1866; now in the Luxem-
bourg Museum); "Patroclus and Ami)hidamas"
(in the art gallery at Mans); "Junius Brutus" (in
the museum at Melun) ; " Remorse " ; " The Gitanos
of Granada"; "The Bell-Ringers of Nuremberg"
and " The Lorelei " (exhibited at the Paris Salon, 1872) ;
"A Defeat"; "The Hour of Wailing"; and "The
Deliverer of the Fatherland." At the Paris Salons
of 1859 and 1872 Ulmann's exhibits won medals of
the second and third class. In 1872 he was deco-
rated with the cross of the Legion of Honor.

Bini.iOGRAPiiY : Hans Wolfgang Singer, Allocmeincs A'lidsf-
ler-Lc.ricitii, Fraiikfort-on-the-Main, 1898; Clement and Hut^
ton, Artixtx of t)ie Ninetccntli Century and Their ^york8,
Boston, 1880; La Grajule EncycUrpi'die.
S. F. C.

ULMANN, SALOMON: French rabbi; born
at Zabern, Alsace. Feb. 25, 1806: died at Paris May
5, 1865. He commenced his rabbinical studies at
Strashurg under Moise Bloch (better known as Kabbi
Mosche Utenheim), and was the first pupil enrolled
at the initial competitive examination of candidates
for the Ecole Centrale Rabbinique, inaugurated in
July, 1830. He was also the first in his class at this
institution to receive the diploma of chief rabbi.
In 1834 he was appointed rabbi of Lautcrbourg,
Alsace; in 1844 he became chief rabbi of Nancy, in
Lorraine : and in 1853 he succeeded Mai'chaud Ennery
as chief rabbi of the Central Consistory of the Israel-
ites of France.

Ulmann published a limited number ot sermons
and pastoral letters, and was the author also of

343

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ulm
Un«er

"Catecliismo, on Elements d'liistriictioii Hcligieiise
et Morale il I'Usage des Jeunes Isiuclites" (ytras-
Ijurg, 1845; 3d cd., Paris, 1871), which is considered
a classic!.

The most important act in Uiraann's rabbinical
career was the organization of the Central Confer-
ence of the Chief Rabbis of France, over whose de-
liberations he presided at Paris in May, 1800. In
that year Ulmann addressed a " Pastoral Letter to
the Faithful of the Jewish Religion," in whicli he
set forth the result (jf the deliberations of the confer-
ence, which were as follows: (1) revision and abbre-
viation of the piyyutim; (2) the introduction of a
regular system of i)reaching; (3) the introduction of
the organ into synagogues; (4) the organization of
religious instruction; (5) the institution of the rite
of confirmation for the Jewish youth of both sexes;
(6) a resolution for the transfer of the Ecole Centrale
Rabbinique from Metz to Paris.

BwiLiOGKAPHY: Ardiivcs Israelites and Univem IsrailUe,
Miiy, 1805.

s. J. Ka.

UMAN. See Haidamacks.

UNCLEANNESS. See Ablution.

UNGARISCH-jtJDISCHE WOCHEN-
SCHRIFT. See Peiuodicals.

UNGARISCHE ISRAELIT, DER. See

Pkkiodicals.

UNGER, EPHRAIM SOLOMON: German
educator and writer; born at Coswigon-the-Elbe
March 8, 1789; died Nov. 1, 1870. He studied phi-
lo.sophy, mathematics, and natural science at the
University of Erfurt, and from 1810 to 1816 was
privat-docent in mathematics and philosophy at
the same institution. In 1820 he founded, together
with his brother David, a school for mathematics
and modern languages, which fourteen years later
was transformed into a real-school. The school
board offered him the directorship on condition that
he embraced Christianity, but he refused to do
so. He retained, however, the position of " Ober-
lehrer" until 1862, in which year he was pen-
sioned.

Unger was for many years a member of the city
council of Erfurt. He was made an honorary citi-
zen ; and the King of Prussia conferred upon him
the title of professor and decorated him with the
Order of the Red Eagle in recognition of his serv-
ices. Through his clforts the Jewish congregation
of Erfurt was incorporated in 1812; and for many
years he was its first overseer. Of his works the
following may be mentioned : " Handbuch der .Mathe-
mati.schen Analysis," 4 vols. (Gotha, 1824-27);
"Abriss der Geschichte der Zahlenlehre von Pytliag-
oras bis Diophant"; and "Die Bedeutung der Zwei
Rlicher des Apollonius von den Berechnungen fHr
die Geometrische Analvsis."

s. " W. Sa.

UNGER, JOACHIM JACOB : Austrian rabbi ;
born at Homona, Hungary, Nov. 25, 1826; studied
at the University of Berlin (Ph.D. 1859). and was
appointed rabbi of Iglau, Moravia, in 18G0. He is
the author of several works, of wiiich the following
may be mentioned: " Hebrilische Philologic uud

Biblische E.vegese," in "-Mannhelnier- Album," Vi-
enna. 1804; "Bemerknngcn 111.. "
(Jpfertufeln von Murseille urid <
sehrift der Deiitsclien M' iicn Gf«cll
schaft," x.\iv. ; "Die Jt: '
"Neuzeit," 1874; " I'a

Iglau, 1881 (2d ed. PruL'uc. Inuid; -|, , o^-

i/j. 18H."); "Fest- und Sublmlli-Predigliii, iiugut
and Breslau, 1903.

nmiio(;nAi;.iv: 1,1pp.. «(.«/• I^'- PP. VASfr. vu-diuu 1«1 :
Zeltnn. Uilil. P(MU.MeuildH.. p. 401.

s F. T. II.

UNGER, JOSEPH: Austrian jurUt nnd •inlM-

man; born in Vienna July 2. lK2y. Hu

law at the university of Ids native city, ... n, ,'.,.j

was appointed a.s.sistant librarian, uiid in 1852 privut-

doccnt, athis alma mater. The following,' y«-iir be

was called to Prague as a.ssi.stunt pr()fe.vs<.rat " • •

versity, and in 1855 to Vienna in a similar <

In 1857 lie was appointed profes.st>r of ji.

at the latter institution. In 1867 lie •.. ..

sively elected a member of the Austrian I

and of the Reiclisrath ; but on urrount of ii

he had to resign in the following jenr. Aj..; :

in 1869 by the Emperor of Austria u lifc-mciubcr of
the House of Lords, lie soon became the wjiip of the
Liberal Party. Two years later he became minis-
ter (without portfolio) in Prince Auerspcr^'s cabi-
net, but resigned upon the prime u ' '
in 1879. In 1881 lie was appoint-
the Reichsgericht (Supreme Court of Administn-
tion). Unger is a convert to Christianity.

Of Unger's works the following may l>c men-
tioned : •' Die Ehe in Ihrer Welthistoriscbcn Kntw Jck-
lung" (Vienna. 1850); " Ueber W: • ' •' '
Behandlung des Oesterreiehisc lun (;.
reclitcs" (i6. 1853); "Der Entwurf eincs i
lichen Gcsctzbuches fiir das KHnigreich S
{ib. 1853); "System des Oesternicliischfu A
nea Privatreehts"(Leipsic, 1850-64; vol.s. i. Hiid ii..
5th cd., 1893; vol. vi., 1894). a slandani work no
Austrian law, which established lujrer's rrpula-
tion; " Die Rechtliche Natur der 1:
(Vienna. 1857); " Der Revidiertc Eni
gerlicheuGesetzbuches flUdasKoni. n"

{ib. 1861); "Zur Li'isung der Un^aii^ i.iji
{ib. 1861; written in collaboration with F
and published anonymously), n work advocating a
dual monarchy for Austria and Hungary,
pcarance marking Unger's entry upon u \
career; "Die Verias.senschaft.sabliandlung in Oculcr-
reich"(i7». 1865); "Zur Reform .' " '

sitilt " {ib. 1865) ; " Die Vcrtrttge ,
(Jena, 1869); "ScliuldObcrnahme" (Vienna, Ibtfl*);
"Handeln auf Eig'-ne Gefahr" ' 1891): and

" Handeln auf Fremde Ci fahr " 1^.

BiBi.ioonAPiiv : Brttekhaut KonpcniaHan*-IXTiknH; ilrytn

Ki>inir.*(Uii»ni-Lcrihiiii.

p. r , I . 1 1 .

UNGER, MANASSE: German art criiic;

born in C'oswig-on-ihe Kll)e N' :

Berlin May 17, 1808. When

of age his parents movvii to Erfurt, wliorc he re

ceived his first instn" . / . - . ^^

atid wlific 111' .nlsn (1. . of

Unicorn
United States

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

344

hiter passing the stale
, licrliu. in spile of
tl g. however, he decided to pursue an art-

Ul * ctu^^r. ' - vernmeut scholar-

.-- . he tra>. .... visiting \ euice

Florcuco. and Rome (IMS), and returning in
j^. he resided until his deatli.

D , a of 1848 Ungi-r was elected

captain of ihe artists' corps whicli protected the ir.u-
lu 1H.V3 he traveled through France, Bel-
;md Holland, in which last-named country he
dtacovervU Uubeus' "Sacrifice of Abraham."

! no paintings of importance, only
>inteil by him being in existence;
but his knowledge of the technique and individual-
jls ' .-- it painter made it possible for him

iii .;, tings and to become an ait critic

of note. He was the author of " Das Wesen dcr
M.' '■ " Leipsic. 1851; "Kritische Forschungen
in, , . der Malerei Alter und Neuer Zeit," Ber-
lin. leOB; and "KOnstler und Flirst," an epos,
published posthumously. Berlin, 1875. After the
dcalli of his parents Unger joined the Protestant
CburcU.

B , . HY ; .\.'"Ti Pick. Uchcr (Itii Erfurtcr Malcr und

} '.rtfii Matia»e l'ngit\ Erfurt. 1890.

F. T. II.

UNICORN : Rendering in the Authorized Ver-
sion of tlie Hebrew Qn or QXl, following the Sep-
tuagiut and the Vulgate. Aquila and Saadia. on
Job xxxix. 9, read "rhinoceros"; Bochart (" Iliero-
roicoD")and others, "oryx," or "white antelope";
Iteviscd Version, "wild ox" (margin, "ox-ante-
lope"). The allusions to the "re'eni " as a wild, un-
tamable animal of great strength and agility, with
mighty horns (Job xxxix. 9-12; Ps. xxii. 21, xxix.
6; Num. xxiii. 22. xxiv. 8; Deut. xxxiii. 17; comp.
Ps- xcii. 11). best (it the a\iToc\is (I3os pnmigenius).
Ti V is supported by the Assjrian "rimu,"

wi.. Iten used as a metaphor of strength, and

is depicted as a powerful, fierce, wild, or mountain
bull with large horns. The term evidently denotes
from its connection some animal of the bovine or
aotelo|)e class, perhaps the oryx (so LXX.). The
or " 'lie wild Ijull and ox, is common in

r,. . ill ; and aurochs' teeth were found

by Tristram on the flooring of an ancient cave in the
Leimnon.

The Talmud has for "re'em " X^'pIN or N^S'TIX.
which elymologically recalls the Arabic "ghazal"
(— ■* 1,'azel "), i)iit is said to be the name of an
animal of such size that it couhl not enter the ark of
Noah, but had to be fa.stcned thereto by its horn
(Zelj. 113b. comp. B. B. 74b; Shab. 107b; Yalkut
Sliim'oni, ii. 97<1, where it is said that the re'em
tiMichiMt the chtuds). If the Talmud intended the
ur/.ila for the unicorn, it can not be identical with
the one-horned ox which Adam is said tohave ofTered
a- (l.lul. GOa ami parallels), because the urzila

!•,. .... . .kuiong theanimalsof the field that may not

be offerwl for that purpose. The Tosefta on the
passjipc in Z<liiihim explains the urzila as the biifTalo.

.\gain ill Hill. .5!lb is mentioned an animal called
Cnp (perhaps Hlioriene<l from "monoeeros" or
" rhinfK-eros "). whifli. "thoupii it has only one horn,
IS allowed as food." and is then cxiilaiiwd as the

"hart of the forest 'Ilai " (^t6v '31 X'3t3; comp. B.
B. 10b). The Talmud apparently thinks here of the
antelope oryx, the mode of depicting which on Per-
sian monuments gave rise to the belief by the an-
cients(comp. Pliny, " HistoriaNaturalis," viii. 21, 30)
in the existence of the unicorn (comp. "S. B. O.T.,"
Psalms [Eng. transl.], p. 173). In Arabic like-
wise "re'em" is applied to the leucoryx. The au-
rochs is mentioned in the Talmuil under the name
"I3n -nt^(="oxof the plain"), in explanation of
S^2")"in. the rendering of ixn (Deut. xiv. 5) by the
Targuni, which Rashi (Hul. 80a) explains as the
"ox of the Lebanon." It is classed among cattle
(Kil. viii. 6), and is caught with slings (B. K. 117a;
comp. Isa. li. 20).

nini.ior.R.\PiiY: Tristram, Xat. Hist. p. 146; Lewysohn, Z. T.
pp. 114. lu'»j, 149; C. Cohen, (Jcsch. dcs Einlionis, Herlin. 1896.
K. o. H. I. M. C.

UNION OF AMERICAN HEBREW CON-
GREGATIONS, THE : Association of American
Jewish c(jngregalions composed cliietly of the Re-
form element, and established largely through the
persistent eflorts, extending for a period of over
twenty years, of Isaac M. Wise. The initiative
was taken by Moritz Loth, president of Wise's con-
gregation in Cincinnati, who, in his annual message
of Oct. 10, 1872, recommended the appointment of a
committee to act with committees from other local
congregations for the purpose of calling a conven-
tion for oruanization. The live Cincinnati congre-
gations joined in a call, issued on March 30, 1873, in
pursuance of which delegates from thirty-four con-
gregations met in that city on July 8, 1873. "The
LTnion of American Hebrew Congregations" was
the official title adopted; and under that name the
organization was i-iibsequently incorporated i)ur-
suant to the laws of Ohio.

The objects of the organization are set forth ia
section 2 of the constitution :

A.— To establish and maintain institutions for instruction in
the higher branches of Hebrew literature and Jewish iheolopy,
with the necessary preparatory schools In such cities of tliuse
States as may hereafter be designated.

B.— To provide means for the relief of Jews from political op-
pression and unjust discrimination, and for rendering them aid
for their intellectual elevation.

C— To promote reli^Mous instruction and encourage the study
of the Scriptures and of the tenets and history of Judaism.

All this, however, without interfering in any manner whatso-
ever with the worship, the schools, or any other of the congre-
gational Institutions.

Under provision (A) the Hebrew Union College
was called into existence by the lirst council,
which met in Cleveland in July, 1874 (see Hebuew
Union CoLi,t:GE). Under (B) a Board of Delegates
on Civil Rights has been created with its seat in
Washington, D. C, Simon Wolf being its chairman.
The objects provided for by (C) have been en-
trusted to a Board of Managers on Synagogue and
(Sabbath) School Extension, which body has charge
of the work formerly carried on by the Hebrew
Sabbath-School Union of America, which went out
of existence in Jan., 1905.

The presidents of the onion have been Moritz Loth
(1873-89); Julius Freiberg (1889-1903); and Samuel
Woolncr (since 1903) ; and Lipman Levy has been sec-
retary from the beginnin.f,'. The legislative body of
the union, and its highest authority, is a council

345

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

whicli meets l)icniiially, tlie inembeis of wiiicli are
elected by tlie eon.stilueiit coiigregalioiis. In fleet-
ing these representatives lliereis no restriction as to
sex. During the intervals l)et\veen the meetings
of the council the union is goveiued by an execu-
tive board of thirty members elected by the
council. This executive board in turn elects the
Board of Governors of the Hebrew Union College,
the Board of Delegates on Civil Rights, and the
Board of Managers on Synagogue and (Saljbath)
School Extension. At present (IIK);")) the union is
composed of 128 congregations with an aggregate
contributing membership of 14,000.

Bnn.iocRAPiiY: 31 Anuunl Hrport^ of The U)ii<m of Anuri-
can IlrlircwCoimrrgotioiis; scvi'iitv-oiie volumes of iiiami-
script correspondence collecttMl bv I.ipinan Levy, seciviary of
The Union of American Hehrew ConKre^iitions : Tlir \tiiiri-
can Israelite, ISTiiUm; Die Dehorali, liir>r>-\m): 1) I'liilip-
son and L. (irossman. Life and Writiuan of Isaac M ]Vii<e
Cincinnati, I'JOO; Isaac M. Wise, licminivee'nccs, ib. 1901
•f- L. Wl.

UNION ISRAELITE. See Periodicals.

UNION OF JEWISH LITERARY SOCIE-
TIES : An association of societies founded in 1!JU2
in London, England, for the diffusion of Jewish lit-
erature, history, and sociology, and for the coordi
nation of the work of Jewish literary societies. The
organization grew out of a conference of Jewish lit-
erary societies convened by the North Loudon Jew-
ish Literary and Social Union, chief among whose
objects was the study of Jewish literature, liistory,
and sociology. Its tirst president was Israel Abra-
hams.

The union has constituent societies in many dis-
tricts of the British empire. Each reserves its com
plete l(K;al independence, and is in no way controlled
by the central organization. The union, however,
renders assistance to the constituent societies in many
ways. It has published a directory of Anglo-Jewish
lecturers, with a supplementary list of Jewish litter-
ateurs resident abroad who have placed papers pre-
pared by them at its disposal. It also provides lit-
erary material and guidance for members of the
constituent societies desirous of preparing lectures,
and it has arraugeil a number of illustrated lectures
for their use.

An iiuportant feature of the work of the union is
its pul)iicati()ns. In addition to a number of pam-
phlets, it issues yearly, in time for the annual con-
ference of constituent societies held in the month of
June, the "Jewish Literary Annual," which, besides
supplying a record of the work of the union and its
constituent societies during the previous year, con-
tains the installation address of the retiring presi-
dent and a selection of the papers read before the
constituent societies during the preceding tAvelve
months. Another feature is a bibliogiaphy of books,
essays, etc., of Jewish interest published in English
during the year.

The union has been instrumental in introducing
the Jewish Chautauqua movement into England
It has also arranged with considerable success sum-
mer gatherings at English seaside resorts.

J. A. M. II.

UNITARIANISM : A denomination of the
Christian Church which rejects the doctrine of the

Unicorn
United mates

Trinity. One of the protesUi.t gccta timt dovflop,^

out of the Beforniatic.n, it i ^

names, first in Poland in th.

teenth century, un.l ,i little later In TmuHvlvaiiU

where it still lloiirishes. alth '

of gravity is England and ih.

countries, notably thu United Stutwi. Ev

from Protestunl synods cryntulli/ed ' i

into a separate churcli in l/iJJ/i. An.

nent exponents may be nienlionnl the clUer a'lid Uio

younger Socinus, who forniuluted its tiiHt il,. •

Francis David. Us first martyr; ami Jowph I':

the English discoverer of "oxygen. It u\m, tluJin.

-Milton, Locke, and Newton, and it ow. ■, m

James Marlineau, who rationalized the . , of

Priestley's theology, while Emerson gave it ii«

transcendental touch and the writim.- • ' ' nnnlng

and Theodore Parker furthered its p: :„

From its inception this sect ha-s been divuie<l into
conservative and radical wings. In i|,e former
school the divinity of Jesus is rejected, hut tlie
miracles ascribed to him are aecepte<l. and w.nie re-
gard him as i)ieexistent and superangelic. .ScHJnuB
insisted on his worship. In the new. or radicRl.
wingof Unitarianism. Je.susisstill sn' ve

all humanity, while the cross, the ^ . ; :i,e

wholcof Christianity, is accepted metuplmricaliy as
expressed in poetry and hymnal. The Lokd"!* Si p-
TEH is observed as a commemomtion. tlinn uniting
Unitarianism with the whole Church. For about
fifteen centuries, accordingly, Unitarianism luwlMH-n
historically linked with Christianity, imin wlncli it
has never entirely broken away. The Ap«»slle8. ilic
Church Fathers, and the Holy Roman Empire are
its remote progenitors. .More specifically, tts pro-
gressive steps may be traced from llie Anan move-
ment through Calvinism, Socinianisni. Arniinian-
ism, Presbyterianism. and Congregationalism, the
Hick.siie Quakers and the Universalist,s occupying
parallel places. Unitarianism has. therefon'. Ikvo
a development out of Trinitarianism. Gradually llic
Holy Ghost was rarefied into an "inMuence." and
the Son of God was explaine<l away a-s a (if;ure of
speech. The piepondeniting influence of the parent
faith, however, still abides, and the Un lo

not look upon the charat tcr i>f Jesus i:. .Id

light of history.

K. Ml! H

UNITED STATES: A fedtnil t. .f

North America. The history and conditi he

Jews in this territory— apart from Ru.s«ia and

Austiia the largest concours*' of Isiaelites ' iic

goveriunent in the world — is trcate<I. e-
nience, under the following rubrics:

I. Successive Waves of ImmlinHlon

■-'. Sepiinile ( Itles and States On •■'••••r "f fiOt-n^^ni "r r>nf)u.
latlont-Ne\v York. .SVu ; -i.

rennsylvunla. (Jeorvla. .'^ •••

Viriflnia. West Virjrmiii. 1 i-

nes-see. .\lal>iinin. Ml^Ms-U'I'i "•

Wisconsin. Olilo. Illnioi.. M > •«•

Iowa. '."Hlirornln. (<ri-v*-n. I ' .*,

Waslnnuioii. ldah«. " ■ 'a^

3. Jews In TDeii Itelatloli

4. Education.

a. Plnlantliropy.

6. UcliKious I>e\clopment.

7. Military. .Naval, and State Service.

Umted St&tas

THE JEWlbli ENCYCLOPEDIA

346

i'l

.:.», U.-

, and ibe Learned Professions.

-trtbuUon. List of States and Cities

" ' "-•0, Xalloualities of Iiuiui-

.• Trade, Social Condition.

s and Delinquents, Syna-

PtTiodicals, DlsluiBUislied

1. Succesaive Waves of Immigration : Per-
Bwmioii is the pi iucipal factor alTcctiugJe wisiiiiiinii-
g: . the L'nilfd States. The adventurous pio-

I, ■ ' new lands from the desire to conquer

c, , live a life untrainineled by the oouveu-

l: ty. is less frequently found among the

1, „. .vish settlement in this country ihuu the

I victim of persecution — broken in almost

t .,' but spirit and energy— in search of the

oj., ay merely to live in unmolested e.xercise of

bis faith. The effectsof the events of European his-
l, ; American development might bo written

a.... . : i.iirely from the annals of Jewish iminigra-
tioo. The first explorers and settlers of America
c. :i Spain and Portugal; and Jews naturally

ii . . in their wake when the Inquisition made

further residence in those countries an impossibility.
Natumlly, also, following the lines of least resist-
ance, the Jews went to those places
First Set- where the languages were spoken with
tiers from which they were familiar. Therefore
Spain and the lirst traces of Jews are found in
Portugal. South and Central America and 3Ie.\i-
co, whence they si)read to the West
Indies: and the changes in the map of Europe which
are rttlected iu America during the seventeenth and
i-\. ■ 'li centuries caused tiie first settlements in
I. 'ry which is now the United Stales.

The tolerance of Holland (practically the only
Jewisii refuge in Europe in the sixteenth and seven-
teenth ceuiuiies) wa.s extended to her dominions in
the New World, and resulted in laying the founda-
tion of what has developed into the great New York
community. IJy way of gratitude for the favors
shown them, Jews effectively aided the Dutch iu
their rcsi.statice to foreign encroachment, especially
iu S<mth America. From Spain, Portugal, and Hol-
land, then, cainemostof the first settlers; and though
the large majority were of .Sephaidic stock, a few
Germans are also to be found among them. Eng-
land, wliere until the beginning of the eighteenth
century but few Jews dwelt, contributed but a. small
number to the efTeclivc settlements slu- was making
'■ 'lof themainlaiid. Thfiiigh the colony

o: ...id Jewish immigrants in large numbers

from 17:J3on. they came in ships from England only
IxHuuse ; to the New World could be pro-

cure«I ni' . .iy from that country.

The large numbers of Germans who sought refuge

from persecution in the freer air of Pemisylvania,

iluring the eighteenth century, at-

The Iracted Jewsaswell. They .settled not

German oidy in the coast towns, but made their

Elem«'nt. way into the interior, and before the

close of the century they were to be

foun<l:ii; •' -'• en iTJiged ill developing the western

partsof.:., Similarly, the unhappy fate of

Poland, dating from 1772, caused that state to send
forth its quota of Jews to the United States, and the
contribution of that country would be notable if
only for the commanding figure of Haym S.^i.o.mon.
The Napoleonic wars and the distress which they
wrought, especially upon the South German princi-
palities, once again caused a tide of German immi-
gration to set toward the United States. The Jews
joined this migratory movement begiiuiing toward
the enil of the first quarter of the nineleenlli cen-
tury, and increased in numbers rapidly by reason of
the eventsof 1848. From that time until 1870, when
this phase of immigration lost its strength, they
came iu a steady stream, so that the Jewish popula-
tion of the United States was quadrupled within
the twenty years between 1850 and 1870.

But none of the early migratory movements as-
sumed I he significance and volume of that from Russia
and ueigiiboring countries. This emigration, niaiul}'
from Russian Poland, began as far back as 1821, but
did not become especially notewortln' until after the
German immigration fell oil in 1870. Though nearly
50,000 Ru.ssiau, Polish, Galician, and Rumanian Jews
came to the United States during the succeeding dec-
ade, it was not until the anti-Jewi.sli uprisings in
Russia, of the early eighties, that the emigration as-
sumed extraordinary proportions. From Russia alone
the emigration rose from an annual average of 4,100
in the decade 1871-80 to an annual av-

Russian erago of 20,700 iu the decade 1881-90.
Im- Additional measures of persecution in

migration. Russia in the early nineties and con-
tinuing to the present time have re-
sulted in large increases iu the emigration, England
and the United States being the principal lands of
refuge. The Rumanian persecutions, beginning iu
1900. also caused large numbers of Jews to seek ref-
uge in the latter coimtry. The total Jewish immi-
gration to the United States, through the three main
ports of entry. New York, Philadelphia, and Balti-
more, from 1881 to Oct. 1, 1905, is stated to have
been 996,908, although it is by no means certain that
this number does not include Christians from Russia
and Austria (see statistical section of this article for
details).

In considering the separate states of the Union in
detail, the varying recordsof their Jewish inhabitants
may be sketched iu outline, reference being made
for further particulars to the special articles devoted
to each state in Tiik Jhwisit Encvcloi'kdi.x.

2. Separate Cities and States : AstheJewsof
the United States were destined to become more nu-
merous, and conseciuently of more significance, iu the
state of New York than elsewhere, it were fitting on
this account to begin this summary with the account
of theirsettlementaiid development there. But there
is a historical reason as well: the earliest docu-
mentary evidence concerning the Jews in this coun-
try relates to New York. Jewish connection with
the Dutch colony of New Netherlands antedated by
many years the beginnings of the migratory move-
ment, for among the iiitluential stockholders of the
Dutch West India Company, founded in 1020, were
a number of Jews. Their inilueuce tipon the fortunes
of this company from that lime on was of consider-
able importance. It would appear that Jews were

347

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Unit«d 8t«tMI

on the imisttT-rolls of soldiers and sailors sent out to
the colony of IS'ew Anistciciiun iu 1052, uud thai they
had engaged to serve for the term of oue year. Tlicir
identity, however, has been lost.

The lirst known Jewish settler in New Amster-
dam was Jacob Bahsi.mson, who arrived on July 8,
1()54, in the ship ''Pear Tree." He was followed in
September of the same j'ear by a party of twenty-
three who had taken passage in the
First Set- bark "Saint Catarina." They proba-
tlement. bly came from Eu.vzii-, b}' way of
Cuba and Jamaica, having been driven
out when that country capitidated in 1654. The
first authentic record of their arrival is obtained
from the legal proceedings instituted against them,
by the officers of the ves.sel, to procure the pa.s.sage-
money for which they had made themselves jointly
liable. Some were unable to pay, and two were im-
prisoned in consequence. Others arrived while these
proceedings were pending, much to the displeasure
of Peter Stuyvesaut, the Dutch governor of New
Netherlands, who ordered tiiem to leave the colon}',
and wrote to the directors of the Dutch West India
Company asking authority for their exclusion. The
directors overruled Stuyvesant, and under date of
April 26, 1655, instructed him that his attitude " was
unreasonable and unfair, especially because of the
considerable loss sustained by the Jewsinthe taking
of Brazil, and also because of the large amount of
capital which they have invested in the shares of
thecomininy." They directed that " they [the Jews]
shall have permission to sail to and trade in New
Netherlands and to live and remain there." Stuyve-
sant carried out his instructions with no good grace,
evaded them whenever possible, and put many ob-
stacles in the way of these early settlers. Further
appeals to the directors of the company followed,
resulting in the issuance of a reproof to Stuyvesant
in March, 1656; the instructions to him directed that
the Jews should be permitted to enjoy all the civil
and political rights in New Netherlands that were
accorded them in Amsterdam, and they were to be
allowed to hold real estate and to trade. But they
were not to be employed in the public service, nor
allowed to open retail shops. This provision against
engaging in retail trade had a marked effect upon
their own future, as well as upon that of the colony.
It resulted in their engaging in foreign intercolonial
trade, for which, because of their connections, the}-
were peculiarly fitted. The part the Jews played
as importers and exporters, and in the general field
of colonial commerce, is accordingly one of great sig-
nificance.

The most prominent figure among these pioneers
of the New Amsterdam colony was Asser Lkvy;
and it was due to his determined efforts that many of
the political rights which the Jews en-
Asser joyed at this lime were granted. In
Levy. 1655, among otliers, he sought enlist-
ment in the militia; this was refused,
and instead, he, with other Jews, was ordered to
pay a tax because of their exemption. He declined
to do this, and on Nov. 5. 1655, petitioned for
leave to stand guard like other burghers of New
Amsterdam. The petition being rejected, lie ap-
pealed to the higher authorities, and in 1657 suc-

ill

ceeded in obtaining certain burgher righu, uud wub
liermilted to perform guunl dul\ ' '
He was the lirsl Jew tn owji hn.
known as Aliiany and New York clly. His aamo
figures consUmtly in the court rccnr.: ' ■ 'iil.
gation almost invariably reHulteil f u . m.

He appears to Imve aiimi4.Kfd <on»>idcTahle wculib,
and to have obtained the respfcl and . ■
of the leading men of tlic town. Auoilier
prominent early settlers wu« Abraham de Lickxa.
who. with several others, in 1055 applj.-d for |><?r-
mission to purchase a site for a burial-Kiouud. Tl»l«
was denied at the time, on the giouml llint there
was no need for it. but was granted a year laler. In
June, 1658. the burgomaslerK de( lined to |>eriiili
judgment in civil actions to be takei: ■ Jacob

Barsinison, holding thai "though d< : i U ab-
sent, yet no default is entered against him. u!t ho was
sununoned on his Sabbath." This unusi. cc

of religious toleration foreshadowed a J . i ..rk
statute of two centuries laler, wliicli rendcm it a
nn'sdemeaiior maliciou.sly to Rerve : Jili

process on his Sabbath, or with pr<>< ■ .;jle

on that day. When, in Oct., 1060. Asser Levy aud
Moses de Lucena were licenwd as but< "
were sworn "agreeably to the oath of i
aud were not to be compelled to kill any liogs

Upon the capture of the colony by the I'
1664, the rights hitherto enjoyed by the •
not interfered with, and for twenty yetirs Uiey ap-
pear to have lived much as iK-forc
Under the British occupation, though with

English slight increase in their niunlK-rs. la
Rule. 1072 Babba Couty attained prom-
inence by his appeal to llie King's
Council, in England, from a decree passed against
him by the courts of Jamaica, as a result of which
one of his ships had been seized uud declnrr*! for-
feited. His apjieal was successful and • in
establishing the rights of Jews as Briti.sh ... j. . is,
and his appears to be the first case iu wliich a colo-
nial grant of naturalization was recopnizi ,|.

In 1685 the a|)plication of Said Brown i . . ut
retail was denied, as was also that of the Jews for
liberty to exercise their religion publicly. That they
did so privately in some delinite place of won>liip
would appear from the fact tliat a map of New
York, dated 1695. shows the U« ' • ,'

synagogue in Beaver street, als«. li

was the minister, and that the congregation roni-
jirised twenty families. Fiv« i . - .. .. ,,f

the synagogue was .mi well ki. y-

ance of jiroiK-rty the premises were n-ferrwi to as a

landmark. In 1710the minister of the < •• n.

Abraham de Lucena. was gninled cv :n

civil and military service by rrastm ol d

functions, and reference is iutt<le to; ut

of the .same privileges by his pnnl. The

minutes of the Congregation Shearith ' w

York begin in 1720. wl. io-

Shearith cated in Mill street. ttn«l n-fcr to rer-

Israel. ords dating " '•

congri'gatiii: t.

in 1730, on a lot purcha.'M>d twoycsira before, thctiret
synagogue in the United Slates. T' " ' " is

appear that the religious righisof thcv -b

United StAt*a

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

348

d.
not b-

• in I he Ixciiuiing of tlie
i;it iliey III ji'veil also many
<. Au act passe<l by the General As-
\, IV. 15. 1727. provided that
, .,.n was to be taken by any
British subject professing the Jewish religion, the

'.ith of a Christian" might

, . ^ later au act was passed

natumlizing one Daniel Nunez de Costa. A bitter

f the year 1737 resulted in the
,il Assembly that Jews should
1 to vote for members of that body,
lent passed a general act permit-
- to be naturalized in the colonies,
•us to this date, however, the Xcw York Colo-
v had passed numerous special acts of
. stjme of which were applicable to
individuals only; others, more general in character,
under which Jews could be natunilized without ta-
king with "upon the true faith of a Christian," were
also put upon the statute-book. Between tliis time
and Uic Revolutionary war the Jewish community
in this colony increased by slow stages, the piincipal
jnunignmts coming from Spain. Portugal, and the
We<t Indies.

During the French and Indian war Jacob Franks

was the royal agent, in association with a British

eyndicnte, for provisioning the British forces in

America; his dealings with the crown during this

•d €75(l.0<X) in value.

., i during the Revolutionary war the

Jews had representatives of their faith upon both
sides of the controversy, thougii the majority joined
the colonial side. On the Xon-Impor-
In the tation Agreement of 1769 the names
Revo- of not le-:s than live Jews are found;
lution. this is also the case with respect to
otiier agreements of a similar nature.
T" ' of the Hevolutionary war dissolved the

( in New York; and upon the eve of the

Britisli occupancy of the town the majority of the
c .'ion. headed by Gershom Mendes Seix.\s,

t' "he belongings of the synagogue and re-

movwl to Philadelphia, where they established the
fi^ ■ ~ lur congregation, the Mickve Israel, in 1782.
'1 1 number who remained in New York oc-

casionally held services in the synagogue. At the
close of tin; war most of the Jews wlio had gone to
Pliiladelphia returned to New York, whi(li was rap-
Jilly iK'Conung one of the most important commercial
riiienof the country. From this time on the com-
munity grew slowly, so that by 1H12 it is estimated
then- were not more than 500 Jews in New York.
However, a number of Jewish soldiers participated
in the War of 1812. and the prosperity of the conunu-
I cvor on the increase. The great tide of

I ....^;..:. iU from Germany that set in toward the be-
giunine of the first quarter of the nineteenth cen-
I ight with it many Jews. They were in

s . . numbers by 1H25 to est;il)li.sh the first Ger-
ninn Jcwinh congregation. During the next forty
.•^ '■ 'I congregations iiureased rapidly,

. > less than ten had been organized.

Cliaritnblc and roliff organizations were established ;
and a considerable number of Jews took part in the
Mexican war and entered the publicr service. The

large influx which followed in the late forties and
early fifties laid the foundation for the great com-
munity which afterward developed. Previous to
1881 the emigrants came for the most part from
Germany, Bavaria, and Poland. Since the latter
date Russia, Rumania, and Galicia have furnished
the greatest numbers. At the present time (1905)
the Jewish population of the state of New York
is estimated at 820,000. Jews are now represented
in New York city in every walk of life, political,
professional, commercial, and industrial. See New
Youiv.

Though most of the earlier emigrants settled in
New York city, a few wandered beyond its limits,
some even as far as the confines of what now consti-
tutes the state of Fkxnsylvani.\. In 16(31, when
Albany was but a trading-post, Asser
Up-State Levy, as noted above, owned real es-
Set- tate there, but between that date and

tlements. the early years of the nineteenth cen-
tury there are no records of any settlers
in that town. They were not there in sufficient
numbers to form a congregation until 1838, and they
had no rabbi until 1846. The present Jewish popu-
lation is estimated at between 4,000 and 5,000.

Buffalo attained prominence in 1825 through the
scheme of 3Iordecai 31. Noah to establish Ai<.\u.\T
as a city of refuge for the Jews. The corner-stone
of the projected city was laid in one of the churches
of Buffalo in that year; but, as is well known, this
scheme attracted no settlers, and the first religious
organization was not established until 1847. The
number of Jews there increased gradually from that
time, and many members of the Jewish conuuunity
have held distinguished political office. The present
Jewish population is estimated at 7.000.

The first settlement of Jews in Syracuse proba-
bly antedates 1839, and a pernuinent religious organ-
ization was established in 1846. At the present
time the number of Jews is estimated at 5,000. There
are Jewish communities in at least fifty-two of the
cities of the state of New York, and most of them
have been established within the past twenty years.

Next in historical importance to the settlement of
New Yoik city is that of Rhode Island, at New-
port. Established by Roger AVillianis upon a basis
of toleration for persons of all shades of religious be-
li(!f, the Jews were among the first settlers. Though
the earliest authentic reference to Jews at Newport
bears the (late 1658, no doubt a few stragglers arrived
as early as 1655. Fifteen Jewish families arrived in
1658, bringing with them the first degrees of ma-
sonry. They established a congregation almost im-
mediately, and in 1684 had their rights to settle con-
firmed by the General Assembly. There is record of
the purchase of a burial-place in Feb., 1677. Be-
tween 1740 and 17G0 a number of enterprising Por-
tuguese Jewish settlers from Spain, Portugal, and
the West Indies arrived, and by their activity estab-
lished Newport as the seat of the most extensive trade
of the country. The most prominent of the settlers
during this jieriod were the Lopkz, RtvEU.x, Pollock,
H.\i<T, and ll.ws families. Aaron LorEZ was one of
the leading merchants of his time, and owned as
many as thirty vessels. With the advent of Jacob
Rodriguez Rivera, a native of Portugal, in 1745, the

349

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

United Stales

iiiiuiufactuie of spcnnucoti was introduced in Amer-
ica. In 1T(>2 liie erection of a synagogue was begun,
and was completed and dedicateil in

Aaron tlic following year. From 17(10 until

Lopez. the outbreak of tJie K(!Volution the
Rev. Isaac Touro, who had conio from
Jamaica, was the rabbi of the congregation. In 17G3
there were between GOand 70 Jewisii families in New-
port. The first Jewish sermon which was preached in
America, and which has been published, was delivered
in the Newjjort synagogue on May 28, 1773, by Kabbi
Hayyim Isaac C.\ukkgai.. This was delivered in
Spanish, and was afterward translated into English.
Carregal was a most interesting personality ; he aj)-
pcars to have come from Palestine, and was on terms
of intimacy with Ezra ISliles, the president of Yale
College. The lir.st Jewish club in America was formed
in 1761 at Newport, with a membership limited to
nine persons. Just before the outbreak of the Kev-
olutionary war the Jewish population of Newport
must have numbered nearly 1,000 souls. The war
dispersed the community, which never regained its
importance. The Jews for the most part espou.sed
the colonial cause, and lost the greater part of their
property when the town was captured by the IJrit-
ish. In 1790 the congregation presented an address
to Wa.shington on the occasion of his visit to the
city. The letter of welcome is still preserved and
is reproduced here by courtesy of the owner, ^Ir.
Frederick Phillips, New York. Abraham Touro
bequeathed a fund to the city of Newport to main-
tain the synagogue as well as tlie cemetery; this
fund is still in existence, though no representatives
of the original families now live in the city. The
present Jewish population is about 200. There are
Jewish settlements likewise in Providence, Woon-
socket, and Pawtucket. The entire Jewish pop-
ulation of the state is estimated at 3,500.

In Other Parts of New England there were
probably occasional stray settlers in th(! .seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, but the intolerance of the
Puritans rendered impossible the establishment of any
religious communities. An interesting personality
is that of Judah Monis, who became a convert to
Christianity and filled the chair of Hebrew in Har-
vard College from 1722 until his death in 17(54.

]\Iention is found of a Jew in Connecticut under
dateof Nov.9, 16o9, and of another in 1070. The first
Jewish family to settle in New Haven came in 1772,
though a few individuals who had become converts
to (Christianity dwelt there a few j-ears before. The
first congregation was established about 1840, the
congregants being members of about twenty Bava-
rian families. From that date on the conununity
increased by slow stages, and then; are at thejircsent
lime (I'JOo) in New Haven about 5,000 Jewish in-
habitants. There are Jewish settlements also in
Bridgeport, Ansonia, Derby, Waterbury, New
London, and Hartford. In tlu; last-mentioned city
theie are about 2,000 Jewisli inhabitants, the first
congregation having been established in 1843. Since
1891 a number of Jewish farmers have been settled
in various parts of the state. The total Jewish
population of the state is about 8,500.

The earliest mention of a Jew in Massachusetts
bears the date Mav 3, 1649, and there are refcrcnrrs

to Jews uniting ilie inhiil>iUiiilH..f iii.Hinn in 1GU5 uud
1702; but they can be regurdujl only im -•• - • •■ -rfi,
as no settlers made their Iionn-g in .Ma its

initil the Hcvoluiionary war drove llio . m

New|)()rl. In 1777 AuroiiLojJezand Jacob 1; iih

fifty-nine others, went from Newport U» Letc«s-
ter, and established llicm- " ^.-ri-; lint tJiU

settlement did not hiirvivc th' f tin; wur. A

iuiml)er of Jews, including the Hays fumlly. tu-nlvti

at Boston befon'lH(K). 0( tlr "■ i'

was I lie most important. In i

rian Jews went to Boston, but they »Kin <iiKap|ican-d.

The history of the present conih

the year 1840, when the first (•<•:

tablished.

The Jewish immigrants to Vermunl N'.-w

Hampshire have never been very iiuiik !• _li

there are congregations in Burlington, Vl.. and in
Manchester, Portsmouth, and Nashua, N. II.
Thenumberof Jewsat llie present timet V.Hi'i in llieae
two states does not exceed 2,000. J.,ittlc of impor-
tance can be said about the comnninnl life of the Jews
in New England, and their numbers increaM-<l but
slowly until after the beginning «if the great I{uK.«iau
emigiation in 1882, when the overllow from New
York as well as the emigration through Canada com-
menced to stream into New England. It: •(.•<1
that the number of Jews now iiihubilii.,, ;.. ..i w
England States is between 80.000 and 90.000. more
than 60,000 of whom reside in .Ma^s^irhu- -le.

The opening uj) of the West and tb'. . • ;iig
unprofitable nature of farming in N«'W Entfland
drew away from this part of the l'iiil«il S' ny

thrifty farmers, who abandoned their Jul

fields for the more attractive opportunities in tlio
Western States. Of interest in connection with ihiti
shifting of the population is the fact that many of
these abandoned farms, especially in Connc<tirul,
have been taken up by Russian Jews, w ' ri-

jKilly as dairy farmers, have added a ne\\ . !ul

element to the agricultural community.

It wouM seem tli.it oidy n few Jews found their
way to Maryland during the first half of the seven-
teenth century, and that the first settlers of tliis
colony came as individuals, and not in considerable
numbers at any time, as was tlv case in New York.
Newport, Savannah, and Charleston. To judge by
the names alone it would appear that a few Jews
were resident in Maryland fr<»m the earliest days of
the colony. The most prominent tigiire. %%
unquestionably a Jew. was n Dr. Jacob LiMi

who had arrived Jan. 34. I65A. and
Jacob who. in 1658, wast'
Lumbrozo. but was released b\

eral anuiesty gnmte<l In honor of llio
accession of Richard C- " Y

Letters of denization \v(i. .

10, 1663. Besides practising me«licine, lie aim
owned a idantatioii. . : in trade wi' "~ In

dians, and had aeii\ 'irs<- with T ■ r-

chants. He was one of the earliest H-

tionersin thecolony, and his. - " -bt

upon the history and nature : *"

Maryland. Rythe .strength of his p« ;

able to disreirard nearly all the law- .. ,,

I have rendered his residence iu the colony imi><^s.''iUle.

T7nit«d Stat«8

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

350

^. •• - ' '---rved his faith even though

,, ., forbidileu. The unfavor-

able cnvironmenl rendered the admittance of Jews
l,, '• ' ' '■•'■■'• -•■d until the Constitution of
17 .ous rights of all. few Jews

settled in the colony. Beginning with the year 1797,
jj^. , : ■. .:..,p jj considerable number of Jews had
ft: the history of the Jews of Maryland

is of special interest. By the terms of the Constitu-
tion of 1776 none could hold oflice in the state who
was not a subscriber to the Christian religion. In
tJie year just mentioned Solomon Ettinq and Bar-
ni- ' '■•"TZ, and others, presented a petition to the
G \ssembly at Annapolis asking to be placed

upon ibe same footing with other citizens. This
was the beginning of an agitation, lasting for a gen-
eration, to establish the civil and polit-

Jacob I. ical rights of the Jews. As this first
Cohen and effort failed it was renewed at almost
the Strug- every session of the Assembly until

gle for 1818. During the succeeding seven
Religious years the Cohen family, which had

Liberty, come to Baltimore in 1803 from Rich-
mond. Va., took an important part in
the attempt to establish their rights as citizens. The
most active member of the family in this struggle
V 'I. Cohen, who was ably assisted by Solo-

D. - „ :.g. Their persistent efforts met with suc-
cess in 1825, when an Act of Assembly was passed
r ■ the disabilities of the Jews; and in 1826

bi ic above-named were elected members of

the city council.

At tiie outbreak of the Civil war Maryland, al-
though remaining in the Union, niimbered among
her citizens a large bwly of sympathizers with the
(' ' ' .• . --. Owing to the pronounced anti-
si . . .-sumed by Kabbi David Ei.niiorn,
the contlict of opinion was especially severe among
the Jews. For tlie most part the history of Mary-
land is the history of Baltimore, where Jews
had settled in small numbers prior to the Revolu-
tion. The most prominent of tliese settlers was Ben-
jamin Lkvv, wlio, in addition to being a prominent
merchant, had the distinction of being appointed
one of the committee to arrange the celebration in
Baltimore of thea<loption of the Declaration of In-
dependence. Tlie first cemetery was procured as
early as 1786, and the beginnings of communal or
ganization date from 1826, although the congrega-
tion was n(jt regularly organized until 1838. The
Jews of the city have participated to a considerable
extent in the civic life of the town and state, and
have t/iken some part in national affairs. A number
liavc been members of the Assembly, and at the
present lime (1905) Isidor R.wneii is a United
States senator. The Jewish pojMilation of Balti-
njorc in 19f;2 whs estimated at 2r),000. and that of the
twenty-three counties, including towns outside of
B / . at 1.500. making 26,500 the total Jewish
p . II of the slJite.

It is nf record that Jews from New Amsterdam
traded along the Delaware River as early as 165.").
There were probably some settlers in the southeast-
ern portion of the territory of which William Penn
took pos.scs8ion in IfiHl. A very cdnsiderable niitn-
ber of the early Pennsylvania colonists were Ger-

man Jews. The first Jewish resident of Phii.adel-
i'iii.\ was Jonas Aaron, who was living there in
1703. Another early pioneer and one of consider-
able prominence was Isaac Miranda. He was the
first to settle at Lancaster, at which place, as
also at Shaeflerstown, there was an early Jewish
immigration. ^lirauda became a convert to Chris-
tianity and held several state offices. A number of
Jews settled in Philadelphia in the first half of the
eighteenth century, and became prominent in the
life of the city. Among these were David Franks,
Joseph ^Marks, and Sampson Levy. The Non-Im-
portation Resolutions of 1765 contained the signa-
tures of eight Jews, an indication of the importance
of the Jewish community at this time. As early as
1747 a number of persons held religious services in a
small house in Sterling alley, and af ter-
Philadel- ward in Cherry alley — between Third
phia. and Fourth streets. They were mostly
German and Polish Jews; and their
differences as to the liturgy to be followed pre-
vented, at the time, the formation of any regular
congregation. Attempts, indeed, were made in 1761
and 1773 to form one, but none was established
until the influx of Jews from New York during
the Revolutionary war, with the arrival of Ger-
shom Mendes Sei.xas, gave the community sufficient
strength to carry out this cherished object. A lot
was purchased and a synagogue erected, the dedica-
tion occurring in Sept., 1782. A number of Phila-
delphia Jews served in the army of the Revolution ;
and the inestimable services rendered by Haym Sal-
o.MON to Robert Morris in the finances of the Revo-
lution make his name stand outas the most prominent
character in American Jewry. The Congregation
Mickve Israel adopted the Sephardic ritual, and the
most important minister of the congregation after
Seixas was Isaac Leeser, who arrived in 1829. He
was the leading Jewish minister of his time, and few
others have left such an impress upon American
Jewish affairs as he. As minister, teacher, organ-
izer, translator of the Bible, editor, and publisher
he was a man of indefatigable energy and rare abil-
ity. Prominent also were members of the Phillips
family, chief among Avhom were Zalegman Phillips
and Henry M. Phillips. The latter was one of the
leading lawyers of Philadelphia, a politician of im-
portance, and a member of the 35th
Mickve Congress. Leeser's successor as min-
Israel and ister of the ]\Iickv6 Israel congregation
Rodeph was Sabato Mouais, a native of Leg-
Shalom, horn, Italy, who, from 1851 until his
death in 1897, was a leading figure in
American Jewish affairs. It was due to his efforts
that a Jewish Theological Seminary was established
in New York.

The first German congregation was the Rodeph
Shalom, which Avas organized in 1802, but which
pro1)ably had meetings at an earlier date. The
most prominent of its rabbis was IMarcus Jastrow,
who was succeeded by the present incumbent,
Henry Berkowitz. The best-known cantor of this
congregation was Jacob Frankel. During the Civil
Avar he acted as chaplain of hospitals under the
United States government. The first leading Re-
form minister installed in Philadelphia was

351

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

United States

Samuel Ilirsch. Many other congregations Iiavc
been formed, especially since 1882, when the Rus-
sian emigration brought large numbers to tlic city.
Next in importance to the settlement at Philadelphia
was that at Lancaster, where Jews were to be
found in 17:30, before the town and county were
organized. Joseph Simon was the best known of
the first arrivals. Meyer Hart and Michael Hart
were among the earlier settlers at Easton, where
they arrived previous to the Revolutionary war. A
synagogue was established there in 1839. Shaef-
ferstown had a few Jewish settlersat an early date,
and a synagogue and cemetery in 1732. For a con-
siderable number of years preceding the Revolution-
ary war a number of Jews of Pennsylvania were
engaged in the exploitation and sale of western Penn-
sylvania lands. Among the more prominent of these
were Jacob and David Franks, Barnard and Michael
Gkatz, Joseph Simon, and Levy Andrew Levy.

There is an important Jewish settlement in Pitts-
burg-, where Jews arrived in considerable numbers
as early as 1830, organizing a congregation in 1846;
in Harrisburg-, Avhere a congregation was estab-
lislicd in 1851 ; and in Wilkesbarre, Scranton, and
Reading'. As elsewhere, the Russian emigration of
1883 largely increased the number of Jews in
Pennsylvania, and communities are now to be found
in at least fifty towns of the state. The present
(1905) Jewish population of Pennsylvania is esti-
mated at 115,000, of whom nearly 75,000 live in
Philadelphia.

The Jewish settlement in Georgia dates almost
from the very foundation of the colony ; and the
early history of Georgia is practically the history of
the growth and development of Savannah, Jewish
life centering in that city. It would appear that a
movement was set on foot in London to settle some
Jews in the colony even before Oglethorpe, in June,
1733, led his first band of followers to the point
■which soon after became the city of Savannah. The
second vessel which reached the colony from Eng-
land (on July 11, 1733) had among its i)assengers
no less than forty Jewish emigrants. Though their
arrival was unexpected, the liberal-minded governor
welcomed them gladly, notwithstanding that he was
aware that the trustees of the colony in England
had expressed some opposition to permitting Jews to
settle tiiere. These first settlers were all of Spanish
and Portuguese extraction, thougli within a year of
their arrival others, who were apparently German
Jews, also took up their residence there. These two
bands of settlers received equally liberal treatment
from Oglethorpe, and were the progenitors of one
of tlie most important communities of Jews in the
United States. Many of their descendants are still
liviiig in various parts of the country. The first
male white child Ijorn in the colony was a Jew,
Isaac Minis.

Among the first immigrants was Dr. Nunez, who
was made welcome because of his medical knowl-
edge, and because lie, with a number of otiiers,
brought sutlicient wealth to the colony to enable
the immigrants to take up large tracts of land. A
congregation was organized as early as 1734. Tin-ee
years later Abraham de Lyon, who hud been a
"vineron" in Portugal, introduced the culture of

grapes. Thecullivalion and iimnii 1

the pursuit of agriculture uud ol . , ,,.,^

the chief occupations of tliese enrlv w.'ltliT« A din-
pute with llie trustees of the <

introduction of Bhives caused a:. ... . ....^.a-

tion toSoutli Carolhm in 1741. and rc?«ulu-d in the
di.s.solution of the. i IT.-Jl n num-
ber of Jews retUM, ■ ^ i jn the wiine

year tiie trustees sent over Joseph OltoUnirhi to

superintend the soniewlml e.\ tensive

in the colony. Ottolcnglii srxni aH ,

neuce in the political life of liisiusociaten, nnd wan

elected a member of the A!>srinl)ly in 17^" i,

succeeding years. There scfiiis to Imvo b

if any distinction made socially between the Jcwh

and the other settlers, and cducati ' ■ • •

thropic institutions seem to have ]»

all alike.

Though the Jews participated promin<iitly in the
events leading up to tlie Rcvolulion. it would np-
])ear that even in the niidst of an
In the ing political di.scussions they

Revolu- able, in 1774, to start anotliercc:
tion. gallon. Tlicy were not all, howcvrr.

to be found on the rolonial •■'<■''■■ ''••■
ing the war, for Mordecai Siikktaij., Levi
Philip Jacob Colien, PhiMp Minis. 1

Shef tail were in the first days of tlie Ri. ... ....

qualified by the authorities from liolding any office
of trust in the province because of the proiiounr»>«l
revolutionary ideas which they advoaited. The
community was dispersed during the Revolution,
but many Jews returned immediately n'
of the war. In 1787 the congregation
lished, largely owing to the energy of Moniicni
Sheftall, and it was incorporated on Nov. 80, 1790,
under the name of Mickve Israel of S-ivannah. The
charter, with the minutes of the congregation of
that date, still exists. Under date of Ma;. '" "' "
Levi Siieftall, in behalf of the Hebrew .
tion of Savannah, presented an address to \N i-h
injjton on the occasion of liis electif)n to •' •
idency, to which Washington made a
reply. The community does not seem to have ;
pered in the last days of the eigliteentli ntv' "
ginning of the nineteenthcentury. but in !"• i

to increase in importance; and on t)ieo< ! the

consecration of a new synagogue in Ju. . . . . \ Dr.

Jacob de la ^lotta delivered an address which wgg
printed, and which is still a document <•'

to American Jewish history. The syi

destroyed by fire in 1829. but wasreplnce<l by a sub-
stantial brick structure fen years later, and
secrated in Feii., 1841. by Isaac Ix-e.«or. •<

the old synagogue, having been outgrown, was
closed, and a new edifice w.i< • •• ,.

same day. The community )i . .
ally within the past twcnty-flve years, and n mun-

ber of its membei-s have holil important ■ ' .'

ofiice. Herman Meyers has helti tlie :

mayor of the city of Snvannnli for a number of

years.

After Savannah. Augusta appears to hriTo been
the next town in the suite in which Jew In

1 825 one Florence, accompanicf! by ' ^
first arrival. Other families came l

•1 ,.

TTxutad States

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

352

from Cbarlesion. though a congregation was not or-
gaui/.til uuiil 1S46. Atlanta, Columbus, luul
Macon have quite exU-usive couuuuuilics. and (i»n-
gn guiioiis are to hv fouuil iu Augusta. Albany,
Athens. Brunswick, ami Rome. They were all
e«- ; after liyiO. and most of them within the

pa-. , lytivc years. At Atlanta there is a home

for orphans founded and managed by the ludepend-
ei ■ li B rith. The community at Sa-

va .:aies to be the most imjiortant, and

numbers nlxiut 3.000. The total Jewish population
of stimaled at 7.000.

1 charter which John Locke drew up

in 1669 for tijc governance of tlie Carolinas should
have oiK-rated to attract Jews thither at an early
date, since "Jews, licathen. and dissenters" were
by the terns of Locke's charter granted full liberty
of Though political changes modified

L< :iul plans considerably, the spirit of

tolcmncc was always retained. Nevertheless no
Jc\\ s in any mnnbers appear to have come to South
Carolina until the e.xodus from Georgia iu 1740-
1771. already referred to. However, one Simon Val-
entine is mentioned as living in Charleston in
169!S, and jirobably arrived there three years cailicr.
A fewothei-s followed him, for in 1703a protest was
raisttl against "Jew strangers" voting in an election
for members of tlie As.sembly. In 1748 .some promi-
nent ].,ondon Jews set on foot a scheme for the ac-
qiii.sition of a tract of 200,000 acres of land in South
Carolina. Nothing came of this, however, though
on Nov, 27. l".!"), Joseph S.\i.v.\nou purchased 100,-
000 acres of land near Fort Ninety-six for £2,000.
Twenty years later Joseph Salvador sold 00,000
acres of land for £3.000 to thirteen London Scpliar-
dic Jews. This land was known as the "Jews'
Lands." Anollier of the S.m.vadoijs (FiiANCis, the
nephew of Joseph) purchased extensive tracts of
land in the same vicinity in 1773-74. Moses Lindo,
likewise a London Jew. who arrived in 1756, became
actively engaged in indigo manufacture, spending
large sums in its development, and making this one
of the principal industries of the state. During the
Revolutionary war the Jews of .South Carolina were
to be found on both sides; and the niost eminent
of the revolutionists was Francis Salvador, who was
elected a member of the First and Second Provin-
cial Congresses which met 177.1-76,

Jewish the most important political office
Company, held by any Jew during the Uevolu-
tion. Two-thirds of a company of
militia conunandcd by Richard Lushington was
made up of Charleston Jews. After the fall of
Charleston in 1780 tlie majority of Jews left that
city, but most of them returned at the close of the
war. The Sephardic Jews established a congrega-
tion in 17.*)0. and the Jews of Germ.ui descent an-
othcrshortly tliereafter. In 1791, when the Sci)har-
dic congregation was incorporated, the total number
of Jews in Charleston is estimated to have been
400. At the opening of the juneteenth century the
Charleston Jews formed the most important com-
munity in the United SUites. A number of its
members held im|>ortant political oflice, and Mayer
Moses was a mendter of the; legislature in 1810.
About this time it was due to the Jews that free

masonry was introduced into the state. A large
number of Jews from New York went to Charleston
at the close of the Pevolutionary war and remained
there until the commencement of the Civil war.
Tlie Jews of South Carolina participated in the AVar
of 1812 and in the Mexican war, and were in con-
siderable numbers on the Confederate side during
the Civil war. ]\Iany South Carolina Jews moved
north during the reconstruction period.

A congregation was organized at Columbia in
1822. Conununities also exist at Darlington,
Florence, Orangeburg, and Sumter. The lirst
Keform movement in any congregation in America
was instituted at Charleston in 1824 and another in
1840 (see below). The total number of Jews in the
state at the present time (1905) is estimated at 2,500.

Tiie first settlers iu North Carolina seem to
have come to Wilmington before tlie end of the
eighteenth century, and appear to have been an
offshoot of the Charleston community. In 1808
an attempt was made to exjiel a member of the
General Assembly because of his Jewish faith. The
community grew slowly, so that in 1826 it was esti-
mated that there were but 400 Jews in the state.
No considerable augmentation of their numbers oc-
curred until after the immigration of 1848. Wil-
mington continues to be the leading community;
a congregation was cstablislied there in 1867.
There are small communities iu about ten other
cities. The total Jewish population of the state is
estimated at 6,000.

To judge b}' names alone it would appear that a
few Jews wandered into Virginia as early as 1624.
A small number seem also to have been there be-
fore the end of the seventeentli century, but for
nearly 100 years no traces of Jewish settlement arc
found. At least one Jewish soldier — possibly two
— served in Virginia regiments under "Washington
in his expedition across the Alleghany ]\Iouutains iu
1754. It is luobable that Jews drifted into the
colony from Baltimore and other jioints in Mary-
land at an early date. By 1785 Richmond had a
Jewish community of about a dozen families of
SpanishPorlugue.se descent, which organized a
Sephardic congregation in 1791. This congrega-
tion remained in existence until 1898. The mi-
gration of German Jews to Kiclunond l)egan early
in the nineteenth century; and in 1829 they were
in suOicicnt numbers to organize a congregation.
In 1870, when the ]iublie-school system was estab-
lished in Kiclunond, the lirst sessions were held in
the rooms of the German Jewish congregation.
Over one Inuulred Virginian Jews saw military
service during the Civil war. The Hiclunond com-
munity has achieved prosperity, and now (1905)
numbers about 2.500 .Tews. Aw important comuui-
nity is established also at Norfolk. Nearly twent}^
other congregations exist in the remaining towns of
the state, and there are similar orgiuiizations in about
six towns of West Virginia. Tlie present Jewish
]iopulation of the entire state of Virginia is about
15,000, and that of West Virginia aliout 1,500.

The most ))rominent early figure in the history of
the Jews in Louisiana is Judah Toruo, who went
to New Orleans about 1801. The community in-
creased but slowly during the first half (jf the nine-

353

THE JEWISH ENCVCLol'l.DlA

UniteU Statea

teentli century, but has grown rapidly since that
time. The lirst congregation was established about
1830, and since tiuit date, and especially during the
last twenty years, a number ol' additional congre-
gations have been formed and important charita-
ble organizations established. Martin Behrman is
mayor of New Orleans (1905). About twenty towns
now have Jewish communities with an estimated
population of 12,000.

The Western wave of migration which took place
in the early years of the nineteenth century carried
with it a considerable number of Jews to Ken-
tucky. Among these was one Salamon from I'liila-
delidiia, who established himself at Harrodsburg
about 1808. In 1810 he was made ca.shier of the
Bank of the United States at Lexington. Shortly
after the War of 1813 the Jews began to go to
Louisville, where the most important comnuuiit}'
of the state is still located. The lirst congregation
thei'e was chartered in 1842, and a synagogue was
built in 1850. Another congregation was organized in
185G, and since the Russian enngration, beginning in
1881, a nmnber of others have been established. In
1901 Louisville had six congregations and numerous
philanthropic and educational institutions. There
are other communities in at least half a dozen other
towns in the state. The total Jewish population at
the present time (1905) is estimated at 12,000.

A few Jews were among the traders who settled
in Tennessee, near the Holston River, in 1778, but
they were mere stragglers and made no permanent
settlement. About 1845 some Jews began to arrive
in Memphis, where they had been preceded by Jo-
seph J. Andrews. In 1853 a congregation was or-
ganized, and an Orthodox congregation in 1862.
At Nashville a congregation was eslablished in
1854. Jews have been prominent also in Chatta-
noog-a ; in the years 1894 to 1898 George W. Ochs
was mayor of the city. There are several commu-
nities in other towns of the state, though the total
Jevvi.sh popidation probably does not exceed 7,000.

Of the remaining states of the southern group
cast of the Mississippi River the principal Jewish
settlements have been made in Alabama and Mis-
sissippi. An occasional Jew made his way into
the territory which is now Alabama during the early
part of the eighteenth centiu'y. One Pallachio be-
came i)rominent in 1770. Abraham Moidecai came
from Pennsylvania and settled in Montgomery
county in 1785; h(i established trading-posts, and
dealt extensively with the Indians, and in Oct., 1802,
with the aid of two Jews, Lyons and Barnett, wiio
had come from Georgia, he erected the lirst cotton-
gin in the state. Of the other early settlers Philip
Pun. I. ITS was the most prominent. He moved to
Mobile about 1835, from Charleston, and held jiromi-
nent jiolitical otlice; in 1853 he was elected to Con-
gress. He afterward resided in Washington, and
became known as a leading attorney there. The
first congregation in jMobile was formed in 1841,
where the largest community of the state is slill to
be found. A number of other congregations were
established about the middle of the century, notably
at Montgomery. About six other towns have
Jewish eonunimiiies. The present Jewish jjopida-
tionis estimated at 7,000.
XII.— 23

It i.s likely that thcro wen .. \, „ Jcvcn In the
Natchez district of Mississippi hi-fiin- (h<- < low c,f
the eighteenth century. Itul no ( \\a»

organized until lluit of Nulchuz v..... .; ,i.nl in

1843. No otlier congregation was orgauize«l iM-fore
1850. The i)resenl Jewish population of (his ntute
does not exceed 3.0(J0.

Florida has u Jewish popuiution of ulMiiit 8,000.
and I lie eailiest congregntinn wuu eslablislKHj at
Pensacola, in 1874.

Of the Western Sttttt'8 of the Roiitliern group none
has such Jewish iiitip Texas, and wiih Ihr

early development of i ^ otiiir than (irorgiii

and California have Jews been so iutiniately axitori-
ated. They were among tile flrstofAustinV 'i

in 1H21, when Texas was still u part <.f M. ,|

Samuel Isaacs, who served in the Army of the Re-
public of Texas, received 820 acres of Ian ' '" rt
Bend county for his services. Many of t r

settlers came from England. Wlien .Mitahani C.
Labalt arrived in Velasco in 1><31 Jic found that kv-
eral other Jews liad preceded liim. I{<-t\\i<n \^'.i2
and 1840 rpiitea mind)er of Jews 8(.-ttle<i in the Nac-
ogdoches district, serving the government in civilund
military capacities. Au unusually large numlKT of
Jews were attracted by the stirring events which
preceded the annexation of Texas to ilie L'nion.and
many took part in the military expculitions. Sfvenil
were with Sam Houston's army in the \\t\

and were present at the .storming of the ;n

Dec, 1835. A number received land ami pro|HTty
for services rendered to the shortIi\
Jacob de Cojjuova, a native of Jam , to

Galveston from New Orleans in 1837. and during the
next thirty years was prominently iilentr ' h
the development of the country. The i c

operations in which lie engaged in the early days
became known farand wide. He published a new*-
paper, introduced the Orthr of Odd

Jacob de Fellows, was elected to the U-gi^laiure

Cordova, from Harris county in 1847. and in
1849 laid out the city of Waco. An
other of the prominent early pioneers was Henry

Castro, a native of France, who had si-en -■ in

the French army and had gone to the Tni «

in 1827. He lived for a time in Ul.ode Isiiimi. hut
went to Texas about 1840. In 1.H42 he made a c<in-
tract with Sam Houston to settle a colony west of
the Medina. Bet ween 1S43 and l«4fl h— ■■<1

emigrants from the Rheni.sh provinces to i a

remaiUaliiy organized emigiati«tn for that early
period. Castroville and Castro 'i

west Texas, serve to perpetuate h •<•

admission of Texas into the I'nion David S. Knuff
man, a Jew. was elected a member of '" ■ d

.served until his death in 1^«51. The i i

tion was established at Houston as earJy a** I'^Vt
and others followed in Galv. ' ' San An-

tonio slmrtly I heicafter nil ;...,i.mu-

nities are at Dallas and Waco. ('apt. L. C H
playeil a piominiiit part in the di ' '.: i

during the Civil war. Tlare are •'

twelve otlier congregations within tlic state. wIiom
Jewish iiopulatiim now numl" • < -m 17. .VX)

Tl ouirli no congrecation w;; -hi^lin Mich-

igan until 1850, a number of individualJe^vsplay*^!

United States

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

354

of
til

lai.
ini

•irt in tlic scitkment and early history
us Indian traders. The principal set-

- ucen at Detroit, wlii-re the first arrivals

(.Jennauy. Since 15«?2 there has been a

>. of Russians, who have grown to be an

iintof thecomnninity. In 1883ac<)l-

od; . .... Jews was established near Bad Axe,

wliich met with some snccess. Eleven towns have
i\ congregations, and there are
; in many other towns. After De-
troit, the principal set llements are at Grand Rapids,
K'i' o. Bay City, and Alpina. It is esti-
iu„_ ;ji. .1. wisli )ioiiuhitiiin of tlie state num-
bers 10

T' Jewish setiler in tlic tcrriuny now com-

pn- :iin the state of Wisconsin was Jacob

Fnuiks, who went to Green Bay from Canada as
early as 1792. and wlio two years later was granted
by the Indians a tract of land on Devil River, about
four miles from Fo.x Itiver. He carried on an ex-
tensive trade with the Indians. In 1805 he was
known far and wide among them, and eslab-
lislietl a high reputation for integrity, fair dealing,
and hospitality; he erected the first saw- and grist-
mill ever put up in that region, and returned to
Canada in the same year. Other traders followed
in his wiike, but none came in sufficient numbers to
establisii any congregation until shortly before the
mtd«lle of the uineteentli century. The principal
settlement was made in Milwaukee, where a con-
gregation was organized in 185.J. In 1900 there
were congregations in ten other cities, and in 1905
the totjil Jewisb jiopulationof the state is estimated
at 15.000.

Tl)e im portant community of Cincinnati, in Ohio,
is the oldest west of the Alleghany Mountains. From
the middle of tlie nineteenth century its Jewish com-
munity has played a significant part in Jewish affairs
in tlie United Slate.s. The Jewish pioneer of the Ohio
Valley was Joseph Jonas, who went to Cincinnati
fniin England in March, 1817. He attracted others
from Ills native country a few years thereafter, and
in 1H19 they held the first Jewish service in the west-
of the United States. Previous to 1880
e additions to the community came from
England, and in 1824 the first congregation was
forme<l. B<'ginning with 1880, a large number of
Girman Jews made their way to Cincinnati, and the
flfKl synagogue was erected in 1836. The community
was of significnnce as early as 1850, and contained
cipable and i)ublic-spirited members. Isaac M.
WihK. who went to Cincinnati in 1854, and Ma.x Lil-
IKXTII.M.. who arrived in lH.-)5, helped materially to
enable Cinciiuiati to impress indelibly its individu-
ality u|)on Judaism in America. These two men
aided in making Cinciiuiati a center of Jewish cul-
ture, and assisted in tliedeveiripment of a number of
movemonln that were national in scope. Cincinnati
is the s.-at of the Union of American Hebrew Con
gieeiiiions. the Central Conference of tiie Reform
Ifcil.liis of .\nierican Judaism, and the Hebrew Union
College, and its gmduates occupy manv pulpits
tbrr.nplioiit the country. The Jews of Ciiuiniiati
have always shown great public; spirit and have
filled many local positi<iiis of trust, as well as state,
judicial, and governmental offices. At the lueseut

time (1905) Julius Fleischman is the mayor of the
city. Next in importance to Cincinnati is the com-
munity of Cleveland, where Jews settled as early
as 1837, and established a congregation in 1839.
The history of the Jews in Ohio during the first half
of the nineteenth century is confined to the cities
just mentioned. After that date congregations
grew up throughout the state. There are at the
present time congregations in twenty other towns.
About 1,000 Jews of Ohio saw service during the
Civil war a number only exceeded by the Jewish
contingent from New York. The present popula-
tion of Oliio is given as ."JO.OOO.

The largest conununit}- of Jews in America, out-
side of New York and Philadelphia, is to be found in
Chicago. It is probable that there were Jewish
settlers in the Illinois territory when that country
was still under French control. John Hays seems
to have been the earliest Jewish pioneer, and beheld
the office of sheriff of St. Clair county from 1798
to 1818, and was appointed collector of internal
revenue for the territory by President Madison in
1814, but no Jews appear to have followed in his
footsteps until twenty years later. Considerable
numbers of Jews found their way to the rising
city Chicago previous to 1850, and the first con-
gregation was organized in 1847. In 1842 a Jewish
Colonization Society of New York sent Henry
Meyer to select a tract in the vicinity of Chicago
for a Jewish colony. He succeeded in attracting
a considerable number of settlers, though only a
few became farmers, the remainder removing for
the most part to Chicago. After Chicago the next
town to be settled by Jews was Peoria, and after
the middle of the nineteenth century they settled
in considerable numbers in most of the important
towns in the state. Through the endeavors of
B. Felscnthal, who went to Chicago in 1858, the
Reform Congregation Sinai was established in 1861.
He played an important part in the history of the
development of the community. After the great
fire of 1871 the community grew rapidly, and
it has become one of the most prosperous in the
country, its members being actively interested in
the political life of the city and slate. There are
over fifty Jewish congregations in the city, and the
population is estimated at 80,000. Soijieof tlie most
important manufactories of the state are controlled
by Jews. Samuel Altschuleu of Aurora was a
Democratic nominee for governor in 1900. The
Jewish community of Chicago has many notable
educational establishments and relief institutions,
and has furnished distinguished members to the
legal profession, as well as renowned archiiects and
musicians. Among its prominent rabbis, liesides
B. Felsenthal, have been Licbinann Adler and Emil
G. Ilirsch. The Jewish iiopulation of the slate is
estimated at 100,000.

In the soiitliern and northwestern gi-oii]> of states
Missouri stands out in special pidininciice. Be-
tween Chicago and San Franci.sco there is no city
in wiiich Jews have settled where they ii.nc foniied
.so jirospe rolls a community as in St. Louis. The
pioneer Jewish .settler in the state was Wolf Bioch,
a native of Bohemia, wiio is r( porteil Id have icached
St. Louis as early as 1810. A few others followed

355

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

United States

sliortly thereafter, but their identity has been lost.
They were not in sufficient numbers to hold services
until 1836, and in the following year tin; first, (^on^rrc-
gation was established. Two other congregaticjus
were organized before 1870. During the Civil war
Isidore Bush attained prominence as a deh-gate on
the "Unconditional Union Ticket " to the convention
which decided that Missouri should remain in the
Union. St. Louis harbored a number of refugees
from Chicago after the tire of 1871, and .since tliat
time has grown rapidly in numbers and wealth.
Representatives of the community have attained
distinction jiolitically and commercially. Moses N.
Sale has been judge of the circuit court, and Nathan
Frank was elected to the Fifty-first Congress. Next
in importance to the community of St. Ijouis, whose
numbers aggregate about 40,000, is that of Kansas
City. The Jewish residents of the city number
about 5,500. At St. Joseph Jews began to settle
as early as 1850, and a congregation was organized
nine years later. The Jewish population numbers
1,200. Tiiere are congregations in eight other cities
of the state, whose Jewish population, however, is
estimated at 50,000.

The tirst Jewish congregation in Kansas was
established at Leavenworth in 1859; another was
organized at Kansas City in 1870. Jews to the
number of 8,000 are to be found in at least nine
other to^\•ns of the state.

The first Jewish settlement made in Nebraska
was on the site of the present city of Omaha in
1856, but it was not until ten years later that the
first congregation was organized. There is also a
congregation at Lincoln, and communities in several
smaller cities. The great bulk of the 8,800 Jews of
the state live in Omaha.

Jews are recorded as having lived in the river
towns of Iowa, especially at Dubuque and Mc-
Gregor, as early as 1847-48. These were the main
shipping- and stopping-points for the far West, and
attracted settlers on this account. As the popula-
tion moved westward small Jewish comnuuiitiesalso
found their way to Davenport, Burlington, and
Keokuk. The first congregation was established at
Davenport in 1861, another at Keokuk in 1863,
and that at Des Moines in 1873. The largest Jew-
ish community is in the last-named city. There are
Jewish communities in eleven other towns of the
state, whose total Jewish population, however, does
not exceed 5,000.

The gold discoveries of 1849 on the Pacific Coast
proved not less attractive to some Jews than to
other adventurous spirits, and to such an extent
that as early as 1850 two congregations were organ-
ized ill San Francisco. A striking characteristic
of California Jewish migration is the cosmopolitan
nature of its early Jewish population. Every
country, even Australia, was represented among
these pioneers. Another significant feature of the
early settlement in California was the number of con-
gregations which were organized in the fifties,
when the gold fever was at its height, and which
soon dwindled to insignificance, and during the
course of the next ten or fifteen j'cars passed out of
existence. Noteworthy also is the high character of
these early settlers, and the leading part they played |

m consequence in il„. i„,mi<:il as well as i1k-,.,m.-

mercial devci(,pMu.,il of tlijs new country. Among

tiic most dlHtiugiiiKhed was Solnniou

Solomon Hkvdk.nkki.dt. wim l '
Hey- incnee in Alabama I

denfeldt. California, where he aimiiiMl the rnru
•listinction of i)eing elf( • ■ - ^.

tice of the .state, a i)08iiion whicli ho i ih

resignation in 1S57. Subsequently he; took a k-ad-
ing part in the politics of the slate. Hern •
Lyons was one of tix; first three juKtiteH of li,
preme Court of California. A niimlnTof other Ji-mb
have occupied prominent political oflice; hi-' .
mercial world the Jews have been among th-
in the development of Ijic state. Some of tito load-
ing Jewish bankers of New York came fmm San
Franci.sco, where Jews are still a decided power in
financial and commercial undertakinps. Nor liav«r
they failed to develop on cultunil lines; and llie
name of Peixotto is one of distinction in art and
scholarship. Enuna Woi.k is a iiisiinguish.d au-
thoress. M. H. De Voung is proprietor of the "San
Franci.sco Chronicle." and Max C. SIossIb prominent
as one of the judges of the Superior Court of San
FrancLsco. Julius Kahn represents tli.- S^n Fnn-
cisco district in Congress.

The two congregations already mcniiomii .
rapidly; at the present time (1905) tiicre are :
teen congregations in all, and the Jewish (xipuhi-
tion of the city is estimated at 17.000 Then- ate
other congregations at Sacramento, Los Angles,
and many other towns, making up a .Jewish popula-
tion for the state of 28,000.

The overflow from California made it.s way into
Oregon, where Jews were to be found as early a«
1850; the first congregation wasestablishefl in Port-
land in 1858. As in California, they jilaved a |>rom-
inent part from the very begiiuiing in municipal and
state politics. Solomon Hiksch was in lMt«',t ■.:■
pointed minister to Turkey by President Ilarr:
he having previously made himself one of the lU-
publican leaders of the slate. Jo.sc>ph Simo.n Utis
the distinction of having been one of the few Jews
who represented a state in the Uniti-d '^ -

(1898-1903). Others, notably I). SolLs i ..
been active in local politics. There are small com-
munities in various towns of the state, whose Jew-
ish population numbers O.tMXl.

Jews first settled in Utah in 1860, but there is no
recoi'd of religious services Ix'fore 1S66 TIm- fimt
congregation was esUihlished in Salt Lake City in
1880. A few Jews have hehl important political
office. The present population is i-stlmato<l at
1,000.

It would appear that there were a cm
numberof .lewsamong the first settlors of Coi.-i n .
The jirincipal community is that of Denver, ^^
the congregation was establislunl in ]>*14. One of
the ]u-onnnent philanthropic institutions of the <)<\-
is the National Jewish Hospital for Consumpt;
founded in 1H90. Leadville is .s.-nd i
lished its congreiration in l>ii4. Five c:..
Colorado have Jewish ronprepations. and the total
Jewish jiopulation of ihr' st.nte nunibi t>; 5 mmi

The stalls of Montana. Woahing'ton, Idaho,
and North and South Dakota have not failed to

United States

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

366

attiHCl Jewish stiilers. though for the most part they
did not arrive previous to the Hussiau immigraiiou.
J 1 into cvL-ry state and all the

itr, 11, so that at this time prac-

tically no settlement of any significance in any part
of the r '' ~ - is without its Jewish commu-
iiiiy.sii iniay be. Certain pliasesiuthe

development of the Jewish communities ihrough-
• ■ - • States have been conunou to all.
lays have always brought tliem to-
gether, often from far distant points,
Character- for religious worship. These occa-
istics of sional meetings soon resulted, when
Congrega- the conmiunities grew greater, in the
tions. organization of congregations, which
was often preceded, sometimes fol-
lowed, bj' the purchase of a place of burial.
As the communities grew the need for care of the
sick and poverty-stricken resulted in the establish-
ment of philanthrojiic institutions of various kinds.
These were followed by the creation of various
social oiganizations, many of which had beneficial
features; and closely following in the wake of this
development came the establishment, as prosperity
became more enduring, of educational institutions;
and practically no organized congregation ever
failed to cure for religious instructinn.

3. Relation to the Federal Government:
The r)AM\stLS Akkaik of 1M4U murks the real be-
ginning of the diplomatic or international phase in
the history of American Jews, though a reference to
the services which Mordecai M. Noah rendered his
country as consul at Tunis (iyi3-16) should not be
omitted. The persecutions and tortures to which
some of the most prominent Jews of Damascus had
been subjected were reporteil to the Department of
State at Washington by the United States consul at
Damascus. Immediate instructions, under date of
Aug. 14, 1840, were thereupon issued to John Glid-
don, the United States consul at Alexandria, Egypt,
by Secretary John Forsyth, in which he directed that
all gcKxi oUices and efforts be employed to display
tlie active sympathy of the United States in the at-
tempts that the governments of Europe were making
lo mitigate the horrors of these persecutions. Three
•lays lau-r David Porter, the United States minis-
ter to Turkey, was instructed by Forsyth to do
everything in his power at the Porte to alleviate
the condition of the unfortunates. In both these
communications the reasons for the intervention of
the I'nited States are based upon sentiments of jus-
tice and humanity, no American citizens being in-
volved; in the conununication to Minister Porter
strefts wiw laid upon the peculiar propriety and rigiit
of the intervention of the United States, because its
political anil civil institutions make no distinction
In fav«ir of individuals by reason of race or creed.
hut treat all with absolute equality.

Though it would appear that this action of the
United States was taken without the solicitation of
any JfW.s of this country, measures
Damascus wirrealreatly on foottodisplay tin- fecl-
Aflfair. ing of the Jews at this time. Pul>lic
m<-ctii)gs were held in .August and Sep-
t<-mber, 1840. in New York. Philadelpiiia, and Rich-
mond, participated iu by both Christians and Jews,

at which resolutions were passed asking the United
States to intervene to procure justice for the ac-
cused and the mitigation of their hardships. Among
the leaders who were instrumental iu calling these
meetings were Jacob Ezekiel of Kichmond, J. IJ.
Kurscheedt and Theodore J. Seixas of New York,
and Isiiac Leeser and John Moss of Philadelphia.
Considerable correspondence passed between these
leaders and the Department of State, in which the
humanitarian attitude of the government and the
nature of its intervention are fully disclosed ("Publ.
Am. Jew. Hist. Soc." No. !^, p. 141; No. 9, p. 155;
No. 10, p. 119).

Ten years later the Jews of this country were con-
cerned iu the diplomatic relations witli Switzerland.
Almost simultaneously the negotiations assumed
two phases: (a) respecting the ratification of a treaty
in which lurked the possibility that American citi-
zens who were not Christians might be discriminated
against, and (h) concerning the actual discrimina-
tion iu Switzerland against American citizens, on
the ground that they belonged to the Jewish faith.

In Nov., 1850, A. Dudley Mann, the American rep-
resentative, negotiated a treaty with the Swiss Con-
federation, which was transmitted to the Senate on
Feb. 1.3, 1851, by President Fillmore. At the same
time the president sent a message in which he took
exception to a part of the first article of the treaty,
which specifically providt'd that Christians alone
were to be entitled to the privileges guaranteed.
An agitation against the ratification of the treaty
was started by the Jews as soon as its existence was
learned of, and Daniel Webster, then .secretary of
state, and Senator Henry Clay at once (Feb.. 1851)
went on record as oppo.sed to the objectionable
clause of the treaty. The principal
Swiss Dis- agents in stirring up the opposition

abilities, were Isaac Leesi:i{, David EtNiiouN,
J. M. Cardozo of Ciiarleston, S. C,
and Capt. Jonas P. Levy of New York. A move-
ment was set on foot in this country shortly there-
after (1852-.53) to procure religious toleration
abroad for American citizens generally ; this was
quite distinct from any movement started by the
Jews, but greatly aided the latter. As a result of
this combined opposition the Senate declined to
ratify the treaty. Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan
figured largely in the opposition to it. He corre-
sponded with Rev. Isaac Leeser and Captain Levy
respecting it, delivered several notable speeches in
the Senate against it in 1854, and presented a peti-
tion on April i9, 1854, which had been signed by
Jews of the United States at the instance of a com-
mittee of New York Jews, of which Alexander J.
Kursheedt was chairman. As a result the treaty
was amended by the Senate, and in its amended form
was ratified and proclaimed Nov. 9, 1855. Hut the
amendment, though less objectionable in jdini.seol-
ogy, retained the same connotation aiiti rendered it
po.ssible, under its terms, for the Swi.ss cantons to
discriminate against Jews in the manner they had
adopted in 1851. Though unsuccessful in preventing
the ratification of the treaty, the agitation again.st
it did not cease. Notwithstanding the treaty was
proclaimed at the end of 1855, it would appear that
this was not generally known until 1857. Attention

357

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

UniteU States

was drawn to it by the fact that one A. H. Gootman,
an American citizen and a .lew, had received notice
in 1856 to leave Cliaux-de-Fonds, in Nciiciiatel,
where lie had transacted business fcjr five years. Pub-
lic meetingsof protest were held during the year 1857,
in Pittsburg, Indianapolis, p]aston, Pa., Charleston,
Baltimore, and elsewhere, and a vigorous opposi-
tion was voiced by Isaac M. Wise in his paper, " The
Israelite," by David Einhorn in "Sinai," and by
Isaac Leeser in "The Occident." A convention of
Jews met in Baltimore in October, and a delega-
tion appointed b}' this convention waited on Presi-
dent Buchanan in the same month to protest, against
the treaty and request its abrogation ; the president
promised to take steps to accede to their reiiuest so
far as hi}' in his power. Numerous memorials were
also transmitted to tlie president and the Senate.
That this agitation attracted general attention is
manifested by the fact that the newspapers through-
out tlie country expressed vigorous opinions against
the treaty.

Thougii sporadic cfTorts to procure an alteration
in the treaty and the establishment of the rights not
only of American Jews but of tlie Jews of all nations
in Switzerland continued to be made in the United
States, tlie principal scene of negotiations shifted to
the former country, and the princijial actor was Theo-
dore Fa}', the American nunister. Beginning in
Aug. , 18^3 (" U. S. Ex. Doc. " xii. 3), when an Ameri-
can citizen, the same Gootman referred to above, re-
ceived orders from the authorities of Chaux-de-
Fonds, canton of Neuchatel, to leave that canton
on the ground that he wasa Jew, Fay, though at first
disinclined to take any very energetic stand, finally
became much interested in the subject of Swiss
discrimination against Jews and kept up an active
agitation luitil his recall in 1860. He succeeded in
procuring permission for Gootman to remain, but
only as an act of grace, not by right. The obstacle
Fay had to attempt to overcome lay in the nature of
the Svviss Confederation, which left to tlie cantons
tlie regulation of the rights of domicil, the Federal
Council having no control over the cantons in this
respect. Fay was ably supported in his conten-
tions by the secretaries of state Marcy and Lewis
Cass, especially the latter. In the course of his
negotiations Fay made an elaborate study of the
Jewish question as it affected Switzerland, and in
June, 1859, transmitted what he called his " Israel-
ite Note " to the Federal Council. This is an exten-
sive treatise explaining the American contention
with" much force, and embodying besides a general
defense of the Jews. It was translated into German
and French, was offered for sale by the Federal
Council, received much notice in the Swiss news-
papers, and caused the restrictions against Jews to
be abolished in several cantons. In 1860 the execu-
tive committee of the Board of Delegates of Ameri-
can Israelites, of which ]\IyerS. Isaacs was secretary,
took steps to continue the agitation in America.
Henry I. Hart, the president of the above-mentioned
board, took up the matter with Secretary Seward
shortly after he assumed ollice in 18G1, and the sec-
retary issued specific instructions to the new minis-
ter to Switzerland, Fogg, to be no less active in
his endeavor to establish the rights of American

Jl■^\^l than WHS Ills p|. 'IJn- . jy

the cantons were grml , .uliMied .u|

rights were finally guaranteed to ull Jews l»y the new
Swiss Constitution of 1H74. It may I • \.

ever, tiiat tiw; treaty of 1855 is sliil ji, : ,.jj:,-

"Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. 8oc." No. 11. pp. 7 etaeg.).'

In 18G7.MyerS. l.saacs, . • ■ '^ ■ ,f

Delegates of American i SI , ,, .

cessfully to liave the goveriinient take kuiiic steps to
alleviate the condition of the J. , In

1883 Gen. Ljw WhI. . >tuitii

Servia and minister to Turk<-y, moved by Uic
Palestine, hardshipssulfered liy H'l ' ..»

wliom lie found slurvin;.- ■ \n

of Constantinople, called at llie Foreign OMice and
received a communication from tlie miiiiHU-r of
foreign affairs in which the statement was nia<le
that Jews would be made welcome anywhero in
Turkey except in Palestine. In 1884 he t^Kik vigor-
ous action against the threatened expulsion from
Jerusalem of sundry natiiralizi-d American Jcwh. In
1887 and 1888 attemi)ts were made by the Turkisli
government to limit the sojourn of Aniericaa Jew»
in Jerusalem to one mont'i— later e.vtcnded to three
months. This was earnestly oppo.sed by the Anieri-
can minister, Oscar 8. Straus, ably supported by
Secretary Bayard, who contended thai tiit- United
States, by reason of its Constitution, could not rec-
ognize any distinction between American citizens
in respect to their religion. By liis exertions Slntuti
successfully halted any ste|)s to expel Ameri-
can citizens who happened to be Jews ( " U. S. For.
Kel." 1887, 1888, 1889). Secretaries Blaine. Gresliam.
and Hay repeatedly took a similar stand, and it
would appear that rights of American citizens who
are Jews have been carefully guarded in Turkey
("U. S. For. Rel." 1894. 1898." 1901).

In 1863 atrocities perpetmted upon the Jews of
Morocco led the Board of Delegates to ask the int4'r-
vention of the United States. Secretary Sewarfi in-
structed the United States consul at Tangier •
his good oflices to further the nussion of Sir .M — -
Montefiore, basing his act on the ground of common
humanity. For two years the consul cxi' ;-

self to carry out his instructions and met ■• .o

slight success. In 1878 the Board of Del
newed its endeavors to have the g •»

good offices in Morocco, and the c j . _ r,

F. A. Matthews, took earni-st steps to alleviate the
condition of the Jews w' 'v

arose during this and su' . . '•

Sanger, on behalf of the Board of Delegates, in IHHO
sent out an agent. L. A. <'oli. • •' ■ -, .

portonconditiousthere. In M . d

States minister at Madrid. Lucius t
ceeded to Morocco to inv • - ■ tin- <
the Jews. He made a syni, and va

port to the secretary <)f state, lilaine. in wlmn he

displayed an acute interest in the unf' ...n-

ditions in that country, and did Ids ut:

ate them.

Rumanian conditions, which have so vitally inter-
ested th." United States, first had attention drawn to
them by the Board of Del. '

the cood oflices of the Uni;- . .-

persecute<l Jews of Rumania were requcrted. In

pro-

UnitAd States

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

358

1870 B. F. Peixotto of New York was appointed
consul-general to Rlmania, and during the six years
that he held otlice he exerted himself
Rumanian to bring about an improvement iu the
Dis- condition of the Jews. In 1878 John

abilitiea. A. Kasson, minister of the United
States to Austria, in a despatch to
the Department of State proposed as a condition
pr the recognition of Rumanian inde-

ptu the United Stutis join with the Euro-
pean powers in exacting from Rumania, at the Con-
gr : rliu. the recognition of the equal civil,

CO: - -J, and religious rights of all classes of

her population, as also equal rights and protection
ui. tn-aty and under Rumanian laws, irrc-

sp f nice or religious belief. In opening

negotiations with Rumania in the following year,
til' ' ' 1 by that country of the rights of so-

j«) . . .f of all classes of Americans irrespec-

tive of race or creed was strongly emphasized,
■8 it was by Kasson about the same time with re-
spect to Servia. The continued persecutions of the
Jews of Rumania, her violations of the provisions
of the Treaty of Berlin, and the greatly increased
proportions which the Rumanian emigration to the
United States assumed in consequence, as also the
failure to conclude a naturalization convention be-
tween the two countries, because Rumania would
not recognize the rights of American citizens who
were Jews, moved Secretary of State John Hay to
address on Aug. 11, 1902, identical instructions to
the representatives of the United States in Russia,
France. Germany. Great Britain, Italy, and Turkey
upon the subject of Rumania's attitude. In this
note he drew attention to the consequences to the
Unite<l States of the continued persecutions in Ru-
mania—namely, the unnatural increase of immigra-
tion from that country — and upon this based his right
to remonstrate to the signatories to the Treaty of
Berlin against the acts of the Rumanian government.
Further, he sustained the right of the United States
to ask the above-mentioned powers to intervene upon
the strongest grounds of humanity. Acting upon
thf forcible instructions, the representatives of the
United States presented this note to the government
to which each was accredited. But beyond the aboli-
tion of the OATn Moke Jcdaico (1904) and some
slight diminution of the harshness of tiie persecu-
tion, little has been accomplished, and Rumania con-
tinues (190.')) almost unrestrictedly to violate the
treaty which established her as an independent
nation. In 1905 Congress made provision for an
Am<ri' ' f ion at Bucharest.

Til' ■ 'iccftrrespoudence between Russia and

the Unitwl States involving Jews is of considerable
bulk. It relates for the most part to the failure of
Ru-'-'ia to recognize the validity of American pass-
ports where Jews are involved, which
Russian is the principal cause of difTerencc be-
Pasaporta. t ween the United States and Russia.
Russia has constantlv violated the pro-
vi.sions of her treaty of 1832 with the United States,
which gives to the citizens of the two countries un-
restricted rights of sojourn, travel, and protection.
Until the persecutions in Russia assumed acute
form, beginning with 1880. the correspondence be-

tween the two countries was not of importance,
though occasional earlier instances of discrimination
by Russia against American citizens who weie Jews
had been vigorously protested against by the United
States authorities. For the past twenty-five years
the record is one of unceasing effort on the part of
the United States to establish the rights of American
citizens who are Jews, and of continued declination
of Russia to live up to her treaty stipulations. The
threatened expulsion from St. Petersburg of an
American citizen named Pinkos, iu 1880, was the
occasion for the presentation of energetic notes of
remonstrance by John W. Foster, the American
minister to Russia. He acted not alone of his own
responsibility, but was the recipient of specific in-
structions from the secretary of state, William M.
Evarts. In the course of one of Evarts' letters
of instruction the attitude assumed by the United
States was clcarl}' set forth in the following terms:
" In the view of this government the religion pro-
fessed by one of its citizens has no relation to that
citizen's right to the protection of the United States "
("Am. Jewish Year Book," 1904-5, p. 287). The
first protests of Foster and Evarts, inasmuch as they
brought forth no satisfactory replies, were suc-
ceeded by others of the same tenor, in one of which
Evarts stated "that we ask treaty treatment for
our aggrieved citizens, not because they are Jews,
but because they are Americans " (ib. p. 290). All
the answers of the Russian Foreign Oflice are based
on the claim that the proscriptive laws against the
Jews were in existence prior to the treaty of 1832,
that they, therefore, must be assumed under the
treaty, and, furthermore, that the Jewish question
in Russia was complicated bj'' economic and other
difficulties. These views were answered in the able
despatch of James Blaine, secretary of state, of July
29,1881. This despatch covers in considerable de-
tail the whole of the American contention, and is
so forcibly put that subsequent consideration of the
same subject by the Department of State has been
unable to add much to it (" For. Rel. U. S." 1881, p.
1030). As continued remonstrances during subse-
quent years led to no results, in 1893 tlie Depart-
ment of State took the stand that it could not acqui-
esce in the action of Russian consuls in asking the
religion of American citizens desiring to travel in
Russia before granting a vise to their passports,
and refusing Jews. The government regarded this
as the "assumption of a religious inquisitorial func-
tion within our own borders, by a foreign agency,
in a manner . . . repugnant to the national sense."
In 1895 this view was forcibly presented to the Rus-
sian government by the American minister, Clifton
R. Breckenridge, and in July of that year the Depart-
ment of State took the attitude that a "continuance
in such a course, after our views have been clearly
but considerately made known, may trench upon
the just limits of consideration" (ih. p]). 20."), 297).
But in spite of the i)resentation of the American
contention in every possible light and with all pos-
sible emphasis, Russia stubbornly refuses to live up
to her treaty obligations.

In April, 1902, at the instance of Henry M. Gold-
fogle, a member of Congress from New York, the
House of Representatives passed a resolution calling

359

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Unit«<l Stat«a

upon tlic secretary of state to inform the House
"whether American citizens of the Jewish religious
faith liolding jjassports issued l)y tiiia government
arc barred or excluded from entering tiie territory
of the Empire of Russia," and what action concern-
ing tiie matter had l)een taken by the government.
A few days later Secretary Jlay replied, stating in
brief wliat efforts had been made by the United
States for the protection of American citizens in
Russia, and added that though " begun many years
ago . . . [they] have not been attended with en-
couraging success " {ib. pp. 301, 302).

In Jan., 1904, Goldfogle introduced anotiier res-
olution, requesting the president to resume nego-
tiations with Russia looking to the recognition of
the validity of American passports irrespective of
the religion of the holder. This resolution gave rise
to notable addresses on the part of a number of
members of the Flouse, and was passed, in substance,
in April of that year {ib. pp. 304, 305). In conse-
quence of this resolution the question of American
passports was taken up anew by the Department of
State during the summer of 1904. The Russian re-
ply made at that time was to the effect that a com-
mis.sion had been created in 1903 to consider the re-
vision of the passport regulations, and that the
desires of the United States would be brought to the
attention of that commission. In his annual mes-
sage, De«., 1904, President Roosevelt wrote vigor-
ously against the Russian attitude, characterizing it
as "unjust and irritating toward us." In Feb., 1905,
a committee of members of the House of Represent-
atives was formed, with Wachter of Maryland
as chairman, to urge further action by the Depart-
ment of State. As yet nothing signiticant has been
accomplished.

The massacres at Kishinep in April, 1903,
aroused indignation throughout the United States.
Though in response to a cable of inquiry sent by
Secretary Hay to Ambassador ^IcCor-
Kishinef mick at St. Petersburg, asking if relief
Petition, could be sent to the sufferers, the am-
bassador stated that he was informed
oflicially that there was no distress or want in.soutli-
western Russia, nevertheless mass-meetings were
held in almost every city of importance, and the com-
ments in the newspapers portrayed the feelings of
horror of the American people. A practical turn
was given by the collection of considerable sums to
alleviate the misery of the unfortunates. In the
hope that if the attention of the czar were directly
brouglit to the plight of the Jews in his domin-
ions their condition might be alleviated, tiie Inde-
pendent Order of B'nai B'rith took measures to pre-
pare a petition for transmittal to liim. On June 15,
1903, a committee of the order waited upon Secre-
tary Hay and President Roosevelt, and presented a
tentative draft of the petition. Tiiis liaving met
with tlieir ajiproval, it was then circulated through-
out the I'uited States, and over 1'2,500 signatures of
Christians and Jews in all walks of life were ap-
pended to it. On July 15 tlie American representa-
tive at St. Petersburg was instructed to ask an audi-
ence of the minister of foreign affairs in order to
find out whether the petition, which was given in
full in the despatch, would be received by the

minister to be put before tlie czar. Tlie mininu-r
declined to receive it, and tin- bound copy will, ilio
signatures was placed by Secretary Hay in the «r-
ciiives of the Department of Stale in Oct . 1W3
Though the petition did not reach its de»iinaliuu.
its words attained world-wide publicity, und iu ob-
ject was in a measure accoin ' ' . wav
(Adler. " Voice of America on I .

Throughout the hisUjry of the United HtiiU-s the
government has insisted with gr«-at f.
equal treatment of all American citiz« i .i,

countries, irrespective of race or creed. Furtbcr, It
never lias failed to intercede with foreign j?nv :•
ments on hunnmitarian grounds, whenever th.
portunity aro.se, in behalf of Jews who were Ix uig
persecuted or oftho.se to whom life was - • ' - t
precarious by inhuman proscrijitiv*! lawH.
erable number of Jews have held diphnnatic |
among the more prominent being Mordecui .M
Noah, consul to Tunis. 1813-16; E<lwin de Lk.on.
consul-general to Egypt, 1H54; August lJ«-li:

retary of legation at The Hague. l«53-.'i.'5. u;... ,-.•

ter resident, 1855-58; Oscar 8. Sthai-b, mini*ler to
Turkey, 1887-89, 1897-1900; Soh-mnn Hiks<h. min-
ister to Turkey, 18.^9-92; B. F. Pkixotto. consul
to Bucharest, 1870-76; Simon Wolk. consul-ecneral
to Egypt, 1881 : .Ma.x Jioi), consul-gent ' ■
1893-97; and Lewis Einstein, third '.

embas.sy at Paris, 1903, and London, 1905.

4. Education : Early in the history of
Jewisli congregation iu New York tiiere wa^ . 1

to the .synagogue a school in which secular as wfli
as Hebrew branches were taught. It w.i- f

the earliest general schools in America; \
dren received instruction gratis. Relipiou.s insinic-
tion was established in connection with m< ' ' ■''»
early synagogues. For ordinary secular t :i

the Jews resorted, in large measure, to the Brhools
and colleges. There was a Jewish matriculate at
the University of Pennsylvania, for instance, as eaily
as 1772. The older communitie.s, howi-vrr. I»e-
fore the general estai)lisliment of the public-school
system, frequently provided regular instruction in
the secular branches. These schools or

adjuncts of the religious s<hool8 main:

congregations. In Philadelphia as early as IH38 »
general Sunday-school, quite ir'
gational organization, was i i
through the instrumentality of RelieccaGRATZ. ^ho
was its superintendent and presidei!' •■ •: ■ > .,

was the beginning of a movement. ^ i

throughout the country, for the organiratjon of
educational work along lines quite Independent of
congregational activities.

A similar school was organized in Char'
C., in the same year; in the following yem ■ ..■ >a
Richmond. Va. ;" in 1845 this movemmt M-r.-nd to
New York, being taken up first by «:

Society, altlumgh the Shearith Israel . . .

had stJirleda Hebrew-.school .system as carl van 1- -
In 1848 the Hebrew Education Society

at Philadelphia— originally a school U'. .

struction in the ordinary branches uptoand throuirh
the grammar-school grade. t<

tion in Hebrew and in the Jewi. .. .- ^

the Hebrew Free School As3<x;lallon was incorporatod

Qnited States

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

360

in New York : and throughout various states of the
Luinu a movciueut gradually spread lor the organi-
zation of free religious schools which would bring

into a common-school system children

Free from tl>e various congregations in each

Schools, city. These were largely intended to

supersede the private institutions that
hail hitherto existetl. They were, in the main,
: in by volunteer teachers; and their distin-
j....^.....g feature was that the instruction was usu-
ally conducted by native-born persons and in the
■ ainst the German teaching in

:... . .._.- _..: •- -- ---ois.

The whole trend of this educational work was
the uniticaliou of the coninuinity and tiie
I. . :.ing of ihe interests of the individual mem-
bers, with a tendency to overcome the narrowness of
jitionallifetliatiuul prevailed. Witliintho
. i- or so there has been a decided reaction;

aoil religious schools and Sabbath-schools have been
iiiized in connection witli individual con-
; Particular stress is laid upon tiiem bj'

Uie congregations, which derive from them much of
their communal strength. While many of the He-
brew education societies and schools continue in ex-
istence, they do not develop or flourish as might be
expected: in fact, since 1882 they have largelj'
taken upon themselves an entirely new function.
With the sudden arrival in the United States of a
large number of Russian Jews having no knowl-
edge of the English language, and in many cases
without any particular handicraft, there devolved
upon the American Jewish community the neces-
sity of providing, first, day- and niglitschools for
teaching English to the new arrivals, and, second,

manual-training and technical schools.

Technical These have been established in New

Schools. York, Piiiladelphia, Chicago, and

other cities, more or less with the aid
of the Baron de Hirsch Fund. The most note-
worthy of these educational institutions called into
existence since the Uu.s.sian immigration began is the
Educational Alliance of New York.

Until recently provision for higher education on
Bpeciticidly Jewish lines was not found practicable,
though as early as 1840 the versatile and suggestive
*•' d .M. No.Mi urged the formation of a Jewish

in the United States. His project met with
no response. Nor was 1. M. Wise more successful
when in IH.'i.') he endeavored to establish a theolog-
ical college in Cincinnati under the nameof "Zion
Collegiate Institute." In 1867 the scholarly and
enterprising Isiuic Leeser. however, estahiislicd Mai-
monides College at Pliiiadelj.hia. It was intended
that general collegiate instruction should be provided
there, though nuturully the Jewish branches were to
»)o given particular attention. A certain measure
of r<Ktpeniti.)n with the University of Pennsylvania
wiis planned, and the idea held in mind was t"liat the
college Khr>uld serve as tin; caiistone to tiie scheme
of education buildcl by the Hebrew Education So-
ciety. The college was. however, much ahead of ilie
times, and after a few years of laiignisluiig ijf,.
pass«-d out of existence. Not until nearly twenty
years thereafter was the first institution for the
irammg ol rabbis and teachers founded. This was

the Hebrew Union College of Cincinnati, established
in 1875 by the Union ov Ameuican Hebijew Con-
CJKEOATioNS, an organization created at that time
for the purpose, and mainly at the instance of I. M.
Wise. The existence of the college has been contin-
uous, and, though theoretically without puvtizan
bias, it is practically the representative of- ilie He-
form wing in America. Graduates from this insti-
tution are to be found in charge of congregations
in nearly every city of importance in the countr}'.
Rev. Dr. K. Kohleu is president (1905), and there
is a faculty of ten professors and several instruct
ors. In 1886 there was establisiied in New York
the Jewish Theologicai. Seminahv,

Theolog- also for the training of rabbis and

ical In- teachers, and representing the Ortho-
stitutions. ilox wing of the community. The
reorganization which tiiis institution
underwent in 1901-2 resulted in the calling of Dr.
S. Schechter to its presidency. At the same time
it was lichly endowed, and in lOOC look possession
of a new building, the gift of Jaeol) H. Scuikf.
Its library, largely the gift of Judge Mayer Sui.z-
Bi:uGEi{, contains one of the greatest collections
of Ilebraica. In 1893, through a trust vested by
Hymau Gratz in the Mickve Israel congregation,
Gratz College was founded in Philadel|)hia, which
is devoted to the preparation of teachers for Jew-
ish schools, practically occupying the place of a
normal school. The largest sum ever made availa-
i)le for the promotion of Semitic investigation is that
bequeathed in 1905 by Aloses A. Dropsie of Phila-
delphia for the establishment of a .Jewish college
along broad lines, for instruction "in tiie Hebrew and
cognate languages and their respective literatures,
and in the rabbinical learning and literature." The
amount of this beeiuest is about $800,000.

Throughout the United States there have been es-
tablished in connection with the various congrega-
tions, and also imlepeudently, Young Men's Hebrew
Associations and other societies which are to a certain
extenteducational in their character. They usually
maintain small libraries and provide lecture-courses
on secular and religious topics. In 189;} there was
founded the Jewish Chautauqua Society, which has
branches all over the country and bears tiie same re-
lation to the regular .schools and colleges as does the
University Extension movement, as interi)reted in
America, to regular colleges for university work.
The.CorNciL ok Jewish Women has engaged to a
considerable extent in educational work among its
own members. In 1880 the; Reform wing of Amcri
can Jewry organized at CMncinnati a Hi;i5i{KW Sab-
iiathSciiool Union for the purjiose of promoting
uniformity and approved methods in Sabbath-school
instruction. In 1900 tiiere were in the United
States 415 Jewish educational organizations, 291 of
which were religious schools atta(;lied to congrega-
tions, with 1,127 teachers and an attendance of about
25.000 pupils. There were also 27 Jewisli free
schools, chiefly in large cities, with about 11,000
pupils and 142 teachers.

Tiirec .societies have been organized in the United
States to issue Jewish jiublications — the first, in
Philadel|ihia, in 1845; the second, in New York in
187:$; and the third, in Philadelphia in 1888. This

361

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

United Stktea

last is a flourishing organization, and has issued
many instructive and important works. Among tiie
educational activities should also he
Publica- mentioned the Anierieau Jewish Ilis-
tion Soci- lorical Society, organized in 1892,
eties and which in its twelve volumes of puhli-
Libraries. cations has maile notable contributions
to American Jewish history. Associ
ated with many of the schools are circulating and
reference libraries— notably the Leeser Library of
the Hebrew Education Society of Philadelphia— and
there are several independent ones, the largest of
wiiich is the Aguihir Library in ^Jew York, founded
in 1886. The Maimonides Library of tlie Independ-
ent Order B'uai B'rith in New York was organized
in IH.")!. The last two are now merged in the New
York Public Library, which itself contains the lar-
gest collection of Judaica and modern Ilebraica in
the country. The Order IJ'uai B'rith and many
other orders and lodges did pioneer vi'ork in the
education of their members and included lectures
among the educational features. The various Zion-
ist societies throughout the country make educa-
tional work along Jewish lines one of their principal
activities.

6. Philanthropy : The measure of the American
Jewry's philanthropic activity is full to overflowing.
Prom the beginning of direct aid of individual to
individual, philanthropy has progressed until it
now devotes a large part of its endeavor to prevent-
ive work — the higher philanthropy — along the most
approved scientific lines. In this the Jewish organi-
zations have often been the pioneers. Dating from the
days of the first arrivals, the ideal constantly main-
tained has been that none of the Jewish poor should
become a charge upon the general community.

The simple chanty of the first settlers was soon
superseded by the dispensing of collective funds
through the congregations. But this did not take
the place of the "personal service " of our time,
since the care of a needy family by one more favor-
ably situated is one of the connnonest phenomena of
the earlier days. Soon, as the population increased
and its needs outgrew individual or even congrega-
tional generosity, societies with specific objects were
started. Some were established for the visitation of
the sick and the burial of the dead ; some, under con-
gregational direction, for general charitable purposes ;
others for the distribution of unleavened bread at
Passover. Gradually hospitals for the care of the
sick, asylums for orphans, and homes for the aged
were established. At first a large measure of vol-
unteer work lightened the burden of the commu-
nity, but this, though never entirely superseded,
has had to give wny to professional and trained
service. Similarly, tiie small societies of the early
days found it advantageous to cooperate, resulting in
the formation of the United Hebrew Charities, which
took general ciiarge of all philanthroiiic work ex-
cept that of hospitals and orjihan asylums. In re-
cent times the problem has become so complex tliat
in a number of cities all of the charitable organiza-
tions have been federated, and the funds collected
from all .sources distributed pro rata to the various
constituent organizations. The first Jewish liospi-
tal, the Mount Sinai, was established in 1852 in New

York.iiii.i liielndependetit (Jr.iir IJ urn n nilill. :
for the Aged and Intirru in 1848 at the humc pi .
The first orphan asylum was thai of New Orb m ^
established in IHrt't. ihough one had bfeii proj.
in New York as early us 1H2U.

The Russian immigration, which has brmighl no
many perplexing philauihr()|iic . ' ■
problems to the surface, Ints mad'
particular degree on account of the i f.r

the develo|)nR'nt of coopi-rative >^ ■
thropic methods. The federated ati-
to have been found neces.sary because nt ilie in< :
ing inadequacy of the simpler luellKKJH of i!
days to cope with the new condiiifHiH. aw:
of the fact that relief, to be elTective, inUKt be- a<l-
ministered not only from the Ktand|)oinlof the pr«-t
but with a view to the promotion of the Ik'hi n.t' :
ests of the conununity at large. Trained experln in
this work have been developed, and m tlie lur-'- r
cities the more extensive sy.stenis of relief are (;■
their direction, though they in turn are (
by volunteer Ijoards of trustees. Out of ii.i
tions just noted has developed the National Confer-
ence of Jewish Charifiesof the United States < •
ized at Cincinnati in 1899, witii liiirty-eighi i ;
organizations composing its membership, di8lribtito<l
throughout the country. Its seat ' '
and the objects it furthers are the ■.
problems of charity and the promotion of reforms io
administration, with a view of acromi ' ' '
formityofactionandcooperation. Annua
for the reading and discussion of papers are hehl.
The more or less mechanical methods by whicli relief
must be distributed on the large scale now found
necessary, with the element of personal sympathy
largely eliminated, have, however, r-- '.- • ■
In recent times societies, largely con.
been organized, whose object is tlie i
personal service in looking after thcwtii.M' ■■:
unfortunate. See Sistkhiioods.

The numerous fraternal orders, of which '
B'rith (1843), the Free Sons of Israel (l^i.
B'rith Abraham (1859), and the Sons of Benjamin
(1877) are the must important, do a large measure of
charitable and benelicial work.

The inability of the Jews of the United Slate* lo
bear the tremendous strain jnit
by the Hussiau immigration. ; ,
Hir.sch in 1890 to come to their ai«i and lo ■
the Baron dc Hinsrn Find (••? •
since grown to .?3.3U(».(H)0). to I ■

board of iriislces named by him. lU
Baron annual income,
de Hirsch $125,00(1, is ex pei

Fund. the reception of immigmnlx
motion of English .• ' ■
education, and, through the Jewish
Industrial Aid Society (1899). the v.
farming and the transfer of fnd" ■
munities. The last-incnlionetl
and its ielate<l organization. Uie Ii
moval Otiice. receive large subventions ...
Jkwisii Coi.o.niz.vtion A«*<h-iation. a town and
agricultural colony were f' ' "^

J., in 1891. followe<l by an ..^:

trial school at the sam«- place in 1894 OUior coin-

United Statas

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

362

Dies under the same direction have been established
at Aniance, Carmel. and Hosenbayn in the Siinie
■• ■' present time (1905) the total num-
> ill New Jersey is about 2.500. but
not more tlian half of the adults are engaged in
far ■ - .ml its related work. Industrial establish-
in, U-en intrmluced, and a large part of the
several communities is employed in them. Other
j^i. ..: , I . .. \yf^.n aided in removing to New Eug-
la:. rly to Connecticut, where about 600
persons are now engageti in agricultural pursuits,
niainly dairy-farming. Efforts at the establishment
of agricultural colonies in various other parts of the
country have been made, but they have almost in-
rarijibly been ultimate failures (see Aguicl"ltuu.\l
CoLuNiKS IX THE Umtkd St.\tes).

The Natioual Farm School, established through
the instrumentality of Dr. Joseph Kruuskopf in
1890. at Doylestown. Pa., aims to tmin boys for
agrieultunil careers, and has met with some meas-
ure of success. Its pupils number about forty.
There are two charitable organizations with a ua-
ti' I of activity, tlie Ai.manck Ishaklite

U> ii.K, whicii bus had branches in the Uni-

ted Slates since 1868 (eight in 1905), and the Jew-
ish Hospital for Consumptives at Denver, Colo.,
foundeil in 1890. A noteworthy charity is that in-
stituted in New York in 1890 by Nathan Straus for
the distribution to the poor, at nominal cost, of
milk carefully prepared in accordance with the
roost scientitic hygienic principles. Similar insti-
tutions have been aided by him in Philadelphia
and Chicago. Statistical reports show a large re-
duction in infant mortality as a result of this effi-
cient remedial tJieasiire.

6. Religious Development : As elsewhere, the
religious life of the Jews in the United States has been
centered for the most part about the congregations.
The lack of theological seminaries until a compara-
tively late period necessitated that religious leaders
should be brought from abroad. England, Ger-
many, and to some extent Holland supplied the in-
cumbents for pulpits in the earlier days. Natu-
rally Germany furnished the large majority between
1840 and 1881, since which time, as in so much else,
RiKsiji bus been predominant. Sepliardini were at
first in the majority, and organized the four earliest
congregations in the country ; namely, those of New
York. N«'wport, Savannah, and Philadelphia. As
early as 176« a translation of the prayers into Eng-
lish by Isaac Pinto — probably the first English-
Hi-bnw prayer-l>ook ever issued— was published in
New York.

In Jamaicjiand in Canada there have always been
more fir less direct relations with England;' but in
the United States the entire religious life of the Jews
has Ijcen especially characterized by the absence of
depend r.rtn any European authority, as well

** '*>■ ' '<■•• of any central authority in Amer-

ica. Congregational autonomy has been emphasized.
and is perhaps the most striking characteristic of
American Jrwish religious clevelopnieiit.

Priori/) \'*2r, all the congregations followed the
Orthodox ritual. In that year, however, a move-
ment for ceremonial reform began in Charleston,
whose congregation was made up almost exclusively

of Sephardim. Meeting with some success at first,
the movement soon languished, only to be re-
vived upon a more enduring basis in

Reform 1840. The Reform movement made
Movement no headway until about the middle of

Beg'un in the nineteenth century, when Isaac M.
Charleston. Wise at Albany gave it consider-
able standing. But little was accom-
plished, however, until the arrival in the United
States of David Einhoru and, later, Samuel Hirsch.
Under the influence of these men and of other rabbis
— principally from Germany — the trend toward al-
terations in the liturgy and ritual set in very strongly
about 1860. In 1869 attempts were made to formu-
late the principles of Reform Judaism, followed by
others in 1871 and 1885. But the large amount of
autonomy common to all congregations and the ab-
sence of any generally recognized authoritative head
have rendered any acceptance of a program by all
congregations impossible. As a consequence the
Reform movement varies from the extremes of Sun-
day services only, on the one hand, to a conservatism
that lends its support to an Orthodo.x seminary, on
the other. The reaction against excessive radical
tendencies attained force about 1880, resulting in the
formation of an intermediate or distinctly conserva-
tive group. This wing has grown in importance
and has been largely instrumental, in cooperation
with the outspokenly Orthodox, in the reorganiza-
tion of the Jewish Theological Seminary on a firm
basis. One of the results of Reform was the intro-
duction of changes in the prayer-ritual, culminating
in the adoption by most congregations of a Union
Prayer-Book in 1895. This is not used universally,
and individual idiosyncrasy still shows a decided
preference for other forms.

An outgrowth of certain phases of the trend to-
ward extreme liberalism was the society for Ethical
Culture.founded in New York by Prof. Felix Adler
in 1876, and still claiming numerous adherents (see
Ethical Cii-tirk, Society for).

The Reform movement has not failed to arouse a
vigorous opposition from the representatives of the
Orthodox rite; chief anK)ng them, in the days of the
inception of Reform, was Isaac Leeskr, to whom
Sabato Morais proved an able successor. In the
main, holding that its principles, having been tried
by time, needed no defense, the representatives of Or-
thodoxy have supported their views with an intelli-
gent perception of the needs of the new environment
and conditions. The Orthodox .seminary already
referred to is to some extent the outgrowth of a de-
sire elTectively to counteract the inroads of Reform,
as also to render a service in fitting tlic ancient
forms to American conditions. The influx of Rus-
sian Jews during the past twenty-five years has
given to the Orthodox greatly increased strength,
for the Reform movement has made but slight im-
pression u])ou the Russian mind as yet.

Indicative of a recognition that congregational
autonomy is not free from a tendency to develop
into a characterless individualism are the formation
of the Union of American Hebrew (Reform) Congre-
gations in 1878, and, more recently (1889), the estab-
lishment of the Central Conference of American
Rabi)is. A recent deveh)pmeut has been an agita-

363

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

UnltMl 8t«t«a

tion for the calling of an American Jewish synod.
As a means of strengthening Orthodox Judaism a
Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations in the
United States and Canada was formed in IHUH, fol-
lowed by the creation of a similar organization, rep-
resenting Russian Orthodoxy, in 1901. A Society
of American Cantors was established in 1894. For
further details see Ameuica, Judaism in, and Rk-

FOHM Jl n.MSM.

7. Military, Naval, and State Service : From
tin; Dutch .settlements in Brazil ami other parts of
South America
the services ren-
dered by the
Jews to the
states of their
adoption or na-
tivity have been
largely in excess
of their projior-
tionate share.
It is likely that
a few of th(!
more adventur-
ous pioneers en-
gaged in con-
flicts with the
Indians, and, as
already men-
tioned, Asser
Levy, as early
as 165/), claimed,
on bclialf of
himself and his
associates, the
right to serve in
Stuyvesant'sex-
pedition against
the Swedes on
the Delaware,
instead of pay-
ing a tax for ex-
emption from
military service.
An occasional
Jewish name ap-
pears in the ros-
t c !■ s of those
serving in the
colonial expedi-
tions against the
French and In-
dians, and one
or perhaps two
Jews were with
Washington on
his expedition

across the Alleghanics in 17r)4, and were among the
recipients of grants of land for their services.

At the outbreak of the Revolutionary movement
and before the formation of strong parties was
brought about, the Jews were almost to a man sup-
porters of the colonial contentions. Though number-
ing only a bare 2,000 in a total population of 2.000.-
000, they had developed large commercial interestsin
Newport, Philadelphia, Charleston, Savannah, and

New York. None the legs, n,

were ardent supporters of Uk

non imp<,rtation ,i,.si>.r.ed to frustniU- llie ilriti*)',

acts, and this in the fa< . ' •> '

greatly engaged in int.

and in .some places, hh in Philadelphia «n.| '.

were the largest ship-owners. *•'

del|)hia Jews were among ili».. m

porlationresolutionsadopledlnth«uityjnl7e5 uad
live subscribed to lhos<. of N.-w Y<.rk in 1709 W|,..„
war actually broke out Jewish nam.-H ..<< u.r.d .„,

tile (ir*t rr>iiti Is
Tlioiigh ■
pi etc :
have U-en i • ■
piled, it i- •
able tint
than 10'

a'ld nu I. ^ , .. ,.
at one time or un-

Noteworthy io

this (•( ■

are tin ; .

Jews umoDK the

Richard Lusli-
ington's com-
pany of Cliarlcfl.
ton. Twcnty-
foiirolflr. - '
l)een <

among tlie moat
distinguished
being Lieut.-
Col. David 8.
FiiANKn. Lieut.
Isjiar Fkankm
I Io-

' >y\-

^ania militia,
iTi'l . and Ma-
j r iicnjamin
Nonea. The
s!i:'h! ^

Monument Erected in Memory of the Jewlsli Soldiers Wlm I)le<| m tlie ("Ivil War.
Cypress Hill Cemetery. Brooklyn. New York.

(From II phitt"er»ph.)

during the latter war. render it li
fifty Jews ]>articipato<J in It. a.
to have gained sjucial disiinriinn.
war about sixty Jews s»i\'
nent being Major and Sui^
twice received the thank.s of (
and who as .«urgcon-genenil •

inies organized their medical d , .. :

The effect of the increase of the Jewish popula-

Ui t!,.

JM.pi;

1*.

t W ' 1 1 1

..f Ih.-

tionary
the r ■

war and

' • of

t ho

II-

■d

1 !!■

.--

In II

.lO

lent 14.' ar-

United States

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

364

tion botween 184S ami 1860 is shown in the military
ft-corils of the Civil war. Between 7,000 ami 8,000
Jews, in !i service ou both sides of this

terrible c. . • «iiii nire distiuction. In-

cluded in this number are 9 generals, 18 colonels, 8
Ij, 205 captains, 325 lien-

If., ~ i 25 surgeons. In the

recent Spanish-American war (1898) Jews formed a
f(,. •' 'lie forces, and served with

d,. I -engaged were as follows:

Offlcere: army. 32 ; navy. 27 ; non-commissioned ofti-
ct ' army, 2,450: navy, 42.

., .:ile number of Jews have always been

found in the regular army and navy. As officers the
fo!" ■ _- have been conspicuous: ]^lajor Alfred
M' : (1804-87), expert on ordnance and e.vplo-

■lve«: Commodore Uriah P. Levy (1792-1862),
GDcured the abtilition of corporal punishment in
the navy; Capt. Levi M. Hakbv (1793-1870); Capt.
Ailolph.M.\uix(1848); Col. Charles H. Lauchhelmer
'"■"" and Capt. E. L. Zalinski (retired 1894).

:a the days when Georgia was a colony and a
Jew iK'Cupie<l the governor's chair, and from those
when Haym Sai.omo.n not only sustained the weak
cro<lit of the Congress of the Revolution but out of
bis private purse supjiorted somcof the most promi-
nent of the li»aders of the time when, without his aid,
the country would have been deprived of their serv-
ices, down to the appointment in 1902 by President
Koosevelt of Oscar S. Stuaus to the position
of successor to the late President Harrison as
memlx-r of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at
Tlie Hague, there has been a full record of service.
Though five Jews have been elected to the Senate
(Drivid L. Yri.EE [1845-61]; Judah P. Bk.n.iamin
|1H.52-«1J: Benjamin F. Jon.\s [1879-85] ; Joseph
BiMON [1897-1903] ; and Isidor Rayner [1905]), it
is a noteworthy fact that none of these has ever held
a position of leadership in the Jewish connnunity,
and their selection has been made irrespective of any
support from specifically Jewi.sh sources. Nor has
any. with tlie exception of Judah P. Benjamin, at-
tninc<l a position of leadership among his colleagues
in the Senate. Benjamin's services to the Coufed
eracy as secretary of sUite after his resignation from
the Senate, an<l his sub.sequent career in England
stamp him as the foremost Jew of American birth.
Till- llouseof Ikpresentativcs has had about forty
Jewish members, of whom four are serving at the
pr<s.iit lime. Henry M. Goi.dfooi.e, representing
u < .,t stituency made up largely of Jews, has dis-
play <diin intelligent activity in jjromoting measures
of spicilically Jewish interest, and has taken a promi-
nent part in tlie endeavor to compel Russia to rec-
ognize Amenrun |)assports held by Jews. In 1904,
moreover. lK>th political parties adopted declarations
In their platforms, pronouncing in favor of tiie in-
»'!■ C measures to insure the eiiual treatment

•*" . ' li"D of all American citizens sojourning
or traveling in foreign countries; and in his messngc
*" '■ •' Hee,, 1904. President Koosevelt spoke

*■' '''i«t the Ru.ssian attitude as affecting

American Jewish citizens. Of Jews who huve served
tlielr communities in the lesser offices, ranging from
that of city alderman or councilman to tlie higher
state positions, the numbers are so great that no ac-

count is possible here. Yet space must be allowed
for the mention of Judge Mayer Sii-zuergeu of
Philadelphia, conspicuous among American Jews
not only by reason of his exceptional learning, but
also because of his activity in all fields of Jewish
activity.

Especially noteworthy also is the fact that the
first statue presented to the United States, thereby
originating Statuary Hall in theCapitolat Washing-
ton, was the gift, in 1838, of a Jew, Lieutenant, later
Commodore, Uriah P. Levy. The statue is one of
Thomas Jefferson, in bronze, and was executed l)y
the French Jewish sculptor David d 'Angers.

8. Civil and Political Rig-hts: It was within
the bounds of w hat .soon became the United States
that Jews for the first time in modern history were
put upon a jilane of absolute equality wiiji other
races. Rliode Island, founded by Roger Williams
as a refuge for the persecuted of all forms of reli-
gious beliefs, welcomed the Jews not less than
others. For that reason the Jewish conmuinity in
that colony attained iiromiuence at an early date, and
contributed largely to its development along com-
mercial lines. New York, Soutii Carolina, Pennsyl-
vania, and Georgia gave the Jews a generous welcome
as well, and attracted in con.sequence considerable
Jewish communities at an early ])eriod of their re
spective histories. The unfavorable environment of
Puritan New England, wliich actuated Roger Will-
iams to establish his colony as a protest against the
illiberal views which predominated in the adjoining
colonies, rendered the estal)lishmcnt of any .sort of
Jewish community in their midst an impossibilitj-.
This was all the more remarkable since the earlier
forms of government and laws were fashioned in a
manner upon Old Testament lines. This was par-
ticularly the case in Massachusetts (whose first
criminal code [1641] gave chapter and veise from
the Bible as its authority), as also in Connecticut.
The records of the colony of New Haven, founded
in 1638, have a distinctly Old Testament character,
and Biblical precedent is quoted ioralmostevery gov-
ernmental act. One can form some opinion of the
measure of Old Testament infiuence when one con-
siders that in the code of colony laws adopted in
New Haven in 1656 theie arc 107 references to the
Old Testament to 29 to the New, and of the latter
5 are of an ecclesiastical character.

But Jews as individuals contributed little or
nothing to direct the trend of the colonial legisla-
tion of this earlv period. The few who arrived
previous to the birth of liberal ideas during the
period of the Revolution were contented to be
allowed the rare opportunity of living in \inmolested
exercise of their religion, and made no contest for
political rights, though an occasional bold character,
such as Asser Levy and Rabba Couty, helped nuich
to make it known that the heavens would not fall
if a J(Mv were accorded certain political i)rivileges.
The participation of Jews in the control of the
Dutch West India Company caused the extension of
liberal political ideas to the colony of New Amster-
dam, and they ilo not ajqiear to have been seriously
curtailed after the English occupation. Jews were
naturalized occasionally in most of the colonies else-
where than in New England ; and in New York they

365

THE JKWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA

United 8tKt«a

appear to have voted for state oflicials before 1737
(see page 348). Under tlie Parliamentary Act of
1740 foreigners who liad been resident in liie
Britisii colonies for a period of seven
Natural!- years could be naturalized without
zation Act taking the sacrament, merely ati oath

of 1740. of licU'lity taken upon the (Jid 'i\-sla-
ment being reiiuired. Before 1702
there is record that thirty-five Jews availed them-
selves of this privilege, and after that date many
others must have taken the oath. Georgia, Rhode
Island, and South Carolina placed no o!)stacles in the
way of a Jew holding any olHce, though in. most of
the other colonies Jews were barred because of the
necessity, on the assumption of otVice, of taking an
oath eiliuT "upon the true faith of a Christian " or
declaring a belief in the divine inspiration of the
New Testament. Similarly, iu tlie more illiberal
colonies tlie right of sulTrage was restricted to
Christians, though it is likely that the restrictions
were not .severely enforced.

Though the constitutions established during the
Hevolutionary period (i.xed no religious (juiUilicatious
tor thesulfrage, except that of New Hampshire, they
were far more stringent where the matter of holding
ollice was conceiiied. All but Rhode Island, New
Voik, and South Carolina restricted otliee-holders
to those professing the Christian religion, and this
too in spite of the fact that the preambles to most of
the constitutions proclaimed emphatically the rights
to which man was by nature entitled. To men of
logical mind, like JelTerson and Madison, this incon-
sistency was always a thorn in the llesh, and in
their own state, Virginia, the}' soon began an agita-
tion that culminated in 1785 in the passage of the
Religious Freedom Act. This liberal movement
was responsible for the guaranties embodied in the
ordinance of 1787, which efTectively insured for all
time the fullest degree of civil and religious liberty
in the territory northwest of the Oliio River. With-
in a few months the same idea was written in the
Constitution, which provides that "no religious test
shall ever be required as a qualification to any pub-
lic office or public trust under the United States";
this clause, strengthened by the first amendment,
"Congress shall make no law respecting an estab-
lishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof," tixed the federal law and established the
absolute equality t)f citizens of all creeds in all the
territory over which the United States
Principle of had control. Though there is no evi-
Religious dence that Jews had any direct hand

Liberty. in placing this fitting capstone to the
constitutional structure, the inlluence
exerted by the example of so commanding a figure
as Haym S.\i>omon, and the services rendered the
United States by the Jewish soldieis in the field,
probably i)layed their part. In this connection may
be mentioned the ]^etition which Gershom Mendes
Seixas, Simon Nathan Asher Myers, Barnard
Gratz, and Haym Salomon, the mahamad of the
Mickve Israel synagogue of Philadelphia, on Dec.
23, 1783, sent to the Council of Censors of Pennsyl-
vania praying for the removal of the declaration of
belief in the divine inspiration of both the Old and
the New Testament as a qualification for member-

ship in the Pen 'vani . . ' v

widcii Jonas Phillipsa,!,:

veution. Se|)l. 7. 17»7, refjueHtiiif,' ihut it ulxilMi ||ie

same (lualilicution (-INibl. Am. J. !! •

No. 2, p. 107). Before the cloHe oft I,

was great advance in conforming tlu' HUiie conHlKu-

lions to the more libenil federal conRtitulioi I '

spread of dem«)cnitic ideas, slartt-d by Uu- .

of JHTerson to tlie presidency, which wua clmr-

acteristic of the Jirst (juurU-r of the iiiin" v

century, broke down the barriers of int.
everywhere but in Maryland, anil timt Kiate kivc
way just as the jieriod wjis bnmght lo a cIom-. The
effective work accomplislied by the Coiikn unil
p]TTiNo families in pushing throiigli tlicr " Jew Hill"
after more than twenty-live years of agiiali<.n liM
already been referred to and can bo found trcaleiJ in
detail in the article Mauvi.ami. It in-
stance in American Jiistory where til .ml

of a fundamental constitutional principle can be
credited directly to the specific lalwrs of iDdivi<iual
Jews.

There have been numerous instances in which

Jews have come in confiict with the univenwil Sun

day laws. In practically all cases the riglil of Uu-

state to enact Sunday laws as police regulaliunH liu

beensusUiincd. The statutory lawsof

Sunday New York and Indiana exempt one
Laws. who observes son»e day of the wwk
other than the first day and refmins
from labor thereon, from .suffering prosecuiion under
the Sunday laws("Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. S<»c.'* No.
11,1). 101). In 1901 S. H. BoitoKsKY. a memiRT of the
Massachusetts House of Representatives. intnMlnccil
a bill exempting persons who observ«'d • th

day as Sabbath from any penally f<>r l.i ..^ on

the first day. The bill passed the Hou.sc. but was
defeated in the Senate. That the Simday laws in
many cases infiict direct hardship upon large sec
tions of the Jewish community can n<»t be denied.
and any interpretation of them e\' ice

regulations would undoubtedly be < ,- in-

fringements upon the religious liberty of the indi-
vidual. A solution of the dilficulty r • • •
in thegeneraladoptionof the New Y'
statutes, but there is as yet no indication of any
movement to bring thisabout. I: . ' n Jew*

are interested jjarties or witne^- n ]m.%

at times been raised against going lo trial or
giving testimony on the seventh day of ■' ' fk.
Occasionally a postponement has Uen . or

a witness excused, i»ut the pn-vailinp attitude of the
courts has been that where <luties t<i one's leligina
and to the state come in confiict the Initi-r mii«i pre
vail. The fact that there Iiils In-en «l-

ency on the part of even the hi*; ■ to

maintain that this is a Christian cxmntrv and thai
legislation which is in confiict with f of

Christianity cannot be allowe<l to p; ... sioi

faileil to arouse decided op|>o8ilion in many Jewl»h
(pnirlers.

9. Science, Art, Literature, and the Learned
Professions : Jews have In-en niemlMTs of all the
learned ]irofes.sions— pri ' «nd

medical— and they have ' . l'» the

advancement of nearly al I ihe sciences and oflbcfloe

Unitod States

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

366

arts. Many eminent physicians, medical writers,
and professors in medical schools are Jews. There

li. . ' '1 Hebrew sculptor.

>1 ' ral otliers of rank,

•mooK whom Ephmirn Keyser and Katheriue M.
C ' ■ tioncd. Louis Loeh is one of

11, - of the country, and 1ms done

illustrating of a high order; the Rosen-
Jews thills of Philadelphia, fatiier and son,
Eminent in are distinguished as etciiers and en-
All De- gravers. Among other artists of note
partments. are Toby Rosenthal. L. Dessar. E. C.
Pei.xotto, Henry Mosler, and Albert E.
Sterner; Leo Mielzineris both sculptor and portrait-
painter. As caricaturists Henry Meyer and F. Opper
have made their mark. Bernanl Berenson is one of the
foremost living art-critics, and Ciiarles Waldstein is
one of the leading authorities on ancient art. Jews
are also found jvs inventors, e.g., Einil Berliner, in-
▼entor of the telephone-transmitter, and Louis E.
and Max Levy, inventors of photoengraving proc-
esses; as architects, such as Dankmar Adler of
Chicago, and Arnold W. Brunner of New York;
ami as engineers, the most distinguished of whom
is Mt-ncles Cohen of Baltimore, one of the pioneer
railroad-builders of the country, and at one time
president of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
Many Jews hold professorships in colleges: M.
Bloomtield and J. IT. Hollander at Johns Hopkins;
Franz Boas, Richard Gottheil, and E. II. A. Selig-
man at Columbia; Morris Loeb at the University of
New York ; Morris Jastrow and Leo S. Rowe at the
University of Pennsylvania; Joseph Jastrow at the
University of Wisconsin; Charles Gross at Harvard;
Ernst Freundat the University of Chicago; Jacques
Loeb at the University of California; Isidor Loeb at
the University of Missouri; while a much larger
number are assistant professors or instructors. Si-
mon Flkx.nek is one of the leading pathologists, and
Is director of the Rockefeller Institute of Medical
Research ; and Franz Boas is eminent as an anthro-
pologist.

The most distinguished Jewish writer of poetry
in the United States was Emma Lazahus; Michael
Heilprin gained eminence as an editor and writer, as
have Louis Heilprin as an encyclopedist, Angelo Heil-
prin as a geologist, and Fabian Franklin as a matiic-
matician; A. Cahan, Ezra S. Briiduo, Annie Nathan
.Mayc-r. Mary Moss, and Emma Wolf are successful
novelists; and Morris Rosenf<'ld is a gifted Yiddisii
poet. Martha Wolfenstein has written Jewish talcs
of rare literary charm.

Of Jewish periodicals and newspapers published
iu the United States the number has been legion (see
PkkioI)Ic.\ \.h,. The wide distribution of the Jewish
community and the marked division into the Ortho-
dox and Reform camps have rendered impossible
llie ffitablishmc-nt of one central organ for the Jews
of tiio country, as in England. Weekly newspapers,
largely of local interest, though containing much
r' liable material upon general Jewish
News- ulfiiirs. and making some pretense to
papers. produ<:e articles of literary quality, are
published in all Ih.' large cities. The
first Jewish pf-riodiad published in the United
States was "The Jew." issued at New York in 1823-

1825; and unquestionably the most significant was
the "Occident," published at Philadelphia by Isaac
Leeseh from 1843 to 69 (the last volume edited by
Mayer Sulzbekger).

Among the more important weeklies are "The
American Israelite," Cincinnati, 1854; "The Jew-
ish Messenger," New York, 1857-1903; "The He-
brew," San Francisco, 1863; "The American He-
brew," New York, 1879; "The Jewish E.vponent."
Philadelphia, 1887; "The Reform Advocate,"
Chicago, 1891; and "The Jewish CJomment," Bal-
timore, 1895. At the present time three Jewish
monthlies are issued : "The Menorah " (1886), organ
of the B'nai B'rith and the Jewish Chautauqua;
"The Maccabean" (1901), the Zionist organ; and
"The New Era Literary Magazine" (1903); all pub-
lished at New York. The United Hebrew Charities
of New York also publishes a magazine, "Jewish
Charity," devoted to sociological work, and there
are numerous publications of a similar nature issued
by other philanthropic organizations.

Several periodicals have been published in Ger-
man, and, since the Russian immigration, a number
in Hebrew. All of these have been organs repre-
senting specifically Jewish religious and literary in-
terests. In this respect the\' have differed from the
multitudinous issues of the Yiddish press which
have seen the light since 1882, and which, though
reflecting Jewish conditions, have in only a few in-
stances had any religious cast; they have been more
literary and scientific than religious.

In music a number of Hebrews have acquired a
reputable position; and Fanny Bloomtield-Zeisler is
one of the greatest of living pianists. Jews are
prominent also as actors and as dramatic authors.
Among actors of bygone times may
Music and be mentioned Aaron J. Phillips, who
the Stage, first appeared in New York at the
Park Theater in 1815 and was a very
successful comedian; Emanuel Judah, who first ap-
peared in 1823; and Moses S. Phillips, who acted at
the Park Theater in 1827. Mordecai M. Noah, best
known as journalist, politician, and diplomat, was
also a dramatic author of considerable note. Other
dramatists and authors were Samuel B. II. Judah
(born in New York in 1790) anc" Jonas B. Phillips;
and at the present time David Belasco is a most suc-
cessful playwright. The control of theatrical pro-
ductions in this country is mainly in the hands of
Jews at the present time. The introduction of
opera into the United States was due largely to
Lorenzo da Ponte. Alfred Hertz now conducts
at the Metropolitan Opera House, which is under
th(! direction of lleinrich Conried.

10. Conamerce and Industry : In commerce
Jews were notably important in the eighteenth cen-
tury. In the early colonial period, more especially
in Pennsylvania and in New York, many of the
Jews traded with the Indians. The fact that the
earliest .settlers were men of means, and were Span-
ish and Portuguese Jews who had relatives and
friends settled throughout the Levant, gave them
specially favorable opportunities for trading. Some
were extensive ship-owners, as Aaron Lopez of
Newport, who before the Revolutionary war had a
fleet of thirty vessels; and David and mioses Franks

367

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

UnltAd 8tat«s

of Philadelphia. Jews very early traded between
the West India Islands and the North- American colo-
nies, as well as with Anistcnlani, Venire, etc.

The Jewish iniinigrants who arrived in America
during the nineteenth century were in the main poor
people who commenced trading in a small way, usu-
ally by peddling, which, before the existence of
railroads, was a favorite method of carrying mer-
chandise into the country districts. By industry
and frugality they laid the foundations of a consid-
erable niunber of moderate fortunes. The Jews of
New York became an integral part of that great
trading conuuunity.

The organization out of which grew the Stock

Exchange of New York originated in an agreement

in 1793 to buy and sell only on a definite commission ;

and to this document were attached the signatures

of four Jews. Since then Jews have

Jews Act- been very active in the Stock Ex-

ive in change and in banking circles, both

Financial in New Y"ork and elsewhere. The

Circles. great-grandson of Haym Salomon,
William, is a factor of consequence in
New York financial circles. Jacob H. Schifif and
James Speyer are counted among the leading finan-
ciers of the country. The Jews have also taken an im-
portant part in controlling the cotton trade, and in
large measure the clothing trade has been through-
out its liistory in their hands (see below). They are
likewise very prominent in the manufacture of
cloaks and shirts, and more recently of cigars and
jewelry.

1 1 . Social Condition : The social organization
of the Jews resident in America has differed little
from that in other countries. In the early colonial
period the wealthier Hebrews seem to have taken
part with their Christian fellow citizens in the or-
ganization of dancing assemblies and other social
functions, and clubs. Nevertheless, in the main,
and without any compulsion, Jews preferred to live
in close proximity to one another, a peculiarity
which still prevails.

At the time when little toleration was shown in
other countries, there were in America many inter-
changes of mutual good-will between Christians and
Jews. Rabbi Hayyim Isaac Carregal was one of the
close friends of Ezra Stiles, president of Yale Col-
lege; and as early as 1711 the Jews of New York
made a contribution of £3. 12s. for the build-
ing of a steeple on Trinity Church.
Jews and Gershom Mendes Seixas, minister of
Christians the Shearitli Israel congregation, New
Cooperate. York, was a trustee of Columbia Col-
lege (1784-1815), although this organi-
zation was under the Episcopal Church ; and the
Episcopal bishop of New York occasionally attended
service in the synagogue. After 1848 there arrived
a large number of Jews who could not speak the
English language, and to them a certain odium at-
tached on this account; but this seems gradually
to have worn off. The general American public ex-
hibited great sympathy for the Jews in 1840 at the
time of the Damascus murders, in 1853-57 at the
time of the Swiss troubles, and again in 1882. 1903,
and 1905 on the occasion of the persecutions in Russia.
Hermann Ahlwardt. on his visit to America in 1895,

foiind the8f)il an unfavombif- '

propaganda, and wiu^n lie pi.

from violence by Jewish policenieu.

Though there Ih nolhini,'
anti-Semitic movements of

undoubted and extenHive social preju<li«e afcniDSl
the Jews exists, whi<'> ■•■••■f • ■• >'
petty though not ii,

Eastern States, where Uii-ii niinilM-n* |i

has assumed the form of excluding .)..•>
from certain private 8chof)l8. and their ■
clubs and some hotels.

Very early the Jews in America Ix-g.... .. ,.,.,„

social organizations. A club was sUrt4><t in Nlw.
port as early as 1769; and s-

prising many i:, : . ,

Hebrew of magnificent propcrtiwj — ha

Clubs. established in inn: ..ns «.f iJ.e

country. The <lf. , .-it of He-
brew social clubs has been larger in the Inlted Stales
than elsewhere. Amerienn Jews ii .
especially given lo the forming of
which, while they had primarily an educatiooal aod
charitable purpose, had much .«<'■ .' ' '
tended powerfully toward the C(. I
of Jews with one another when the hold of the
synagogue upon them relaxed. Th* rle

mented later by the formation of Yo. He-

brew Associations, which, like the oniers, partake
to some extent of the nature of social organi/atiotu.

A. H F.

12. Russian Immigration : Individual Rus-
sian and Polish Jews, especially the latter. i-migrat«-d
to the United States at the time of the American
Revolution, among whom was Haym Salomon, one
of the noblest examplesof devotion to .Vnicrican lib-
erty and a friend of Kosciusko. The Russian ukaae
of 1827 drafting Jewish boys at the ape of twelve to
military service (see Jew. Encvc. iii. 5401), it. Can-
TONisTS), and that of 1845 extending the conscription
to Russian Poland were the startinc
gration to England and thence to .■
epoch-making period of 1848 and the revolt io Po-
land in 1863 were factors in i
tion of Jews from Russia.

emigration en masse did not begin till IWl. i*i1or
to that date it had been restri • ' " •- 'to

the provinces lying about tht .a.

and the emigrants were vohmwry ones who desired
to better their economic condition and to tempt for-
tune elsewhere.

With the anti-Jewish riots of April 27. 1881. at
Yelizavetgrad, and the later riots in K" -^ ■• ■' ■■•her
cities of South Rus-sin . m-

Emigra- tion to the United ^ m

tion. entirely different i ... re-

ceived an impetus so r to

create a new epoch in '

first group of the new 1 _

of about 250 meml>ers of the Am 'Olam Socletj
("Eternal People"), v '" -• • ' ;1v

29, 1881; the third an.: . . . , '.*'

arrived May 80. 1882. and was followed by rtn^nw
of Ru.sso-Jewisli ' "^" ' - ly

increased from 1- '^^

MlGR.ITIOX).

Umt«d States

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

368

I
xU

The forced craigraiioQof the Russian Jews owing

to iheir persecution by the Russian government

, • ■ ' ' ■ -'s from prominent men in the

L ..luch sympathy was expressed

for llie rclujiees. The most important meeting.

1 bv c\-Presideut U. S. Gnint and seventy

;is'beld Feb. 1. 1882. at Chickeriug Hall,

Vork. and was pn-sideil over by the mayor.

" 'Irace. In Philadelphia a similar meet-

; a fortnight latir (Feb. 15) under the

V *>t Mayor Siimuel King; and through the

^ . i Orexil. Ihe banker, a fund of §2d,O0U for

ffliif of the refugees was collected. Indeed,

•f the Russian Jews were raised in all

, ... citiesof America. The Hebrew Immi-

s Aid Society of the United Suites collected in
1 - i(X). of whioli the Alliance Israelite

L . ..iris contributed $40,000, the General

CommitU'e of Paris S'20,000. the Berlin Committee
J 'lit- Miiu>.i(>ii House Committee of London

:» . .ind the New York Russian Relief Fund

:• H. SchifT. treasurer) SoT.OOO. Altogether the
; amounted to about $70,000. In
1*~ .. : 'Mj moie was collected, for the im-

mcdiulc relief of the Russian immigrants, and tem-
[ •rs were built on Ward's Island and

a- • . , :ii. L. I. About 3,000 immigrants were
lemporarily housed and maintained there until they
' ' ploymeut.

I Hkilpuix induced the various committees
to colonize the immigrants; but nearly all such un-
dirt.ikinL's proved unsuccessful. The Jewish Ag-
ricultural and Industrial Aid Society, however,
reports for 1904 some improvement in this respect
C American Hebrew." March 17. 1905; see also Jew.
E.NCvc. i. 256 etseq., s.v. Agricultcr-
Agricul- AL Colonies in the United States).
tural This society is endeavoring to extend
Colonies, its work by starting small agricultural
settlementsat different points. Many
farms in Connecticut and Massachusetts have passed
into Jewish hands, and the number of Jc'wi.sh farm-
ers in the United States is now estimated at 12,000.
Altogether the various committees and societies as-
sisted probably 5 per cent of the total Jewish imini
grants. Of the remainder, some were dependent
on relatives and friends; but a great majority,
independent of any assistance, worked out their own
destiny asdiij tlwir countrynien wlio preceded them.
The Hebrew Immigrants Aid Society of New
York helps U> find th.- relatives and friends of Jew-
ish immigrants, and pleads for the discharge of de-
tained immigrants. The society engages lawyers to
defend cases of deportation. From Sept. 1, 1902, to
.\<ig. 1, 1M4. it appeah-d 217 cases, 128 of which
were susUiined and b'J dismis.sed. The cost of the
appeals amounted U) $1,305.78. The total income
ff)r that period was §6,029.29.
1 pioneers from Russia and Poland be-
came glaziers, cigar-makers, pedlers.
Develop- small shopkeepers, and j)ropriet()rs of
ment of supply stores for pedlers. Inthetifties
Industry, there were about a dozen Russian
Jews in New Ynrk engaged in various
trades, as tobacco, jewelry. pas.s<-meiiterie, millinery,
hats and caps, and general dry-goods. During

of th'
Tl.

the sixties there were Russo-Jewish manufacturers
of hoop-skirts, cloaks, and clothing. A few Rus-
sian Jews were among the California pioneers, and
achieved their successes not as miners, but as mer-
chants. Others drifteil to the South, especially to
Charleston and New Orleans, where they prospered
as business men, cotton-planters, and even as slave-
owners. Some became importers and exporters of
merchandise. Abraham liallel, a native of Suwalki,
exported agricultural machinery and windmills to
Moscow in 1^02. Mo.ses Gardner, a native of Sherki
(b. 1815; d. 1903 in New York), imported linen
cra.shes and furs from Russia, making annual trips
to St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Nijui-Novgorod for
that purpose. Solomon Silberstein, a native of
Grodno, arrived in New York in 1849, went to Cali-
fornia in 1850, and prior to 1867 was engaged in the

Name of Union.

Approximate
Percentage of
Russian Jews.

Amalgamated Waiters' Union, No. 1, of
N. Y

200

5(X)

.50

200

10,000

.500

:X)0
6.000

•
•

•

200

,5a)

300
•
2.50

rm
m)
:m

.500

•
•

1.50
100

.50

2U)

9,000

475

150
3,000

170

475

270

125
375
2.->.->
270

400

112
90

Bakers' Union (Brooklyn and Harlem).

BJll-Posters' and Ushers' Union

Boys' Waist Makers' Union

40
90
30

Brotherhood of Tailors, U. G. W.)
of A

Pants Makers' Union, U. G. W. of A.

Vest Makers' Union

Knee-Pants Makers' Union, U. G.W.
of A

Sailor Jacket Makers' Union, U. G.

W.of A

Children's Jacket Makers' Union, U.

G. W. of A

Washable Stuff Sailor Suit Makers'
Union

Second-Hand Clothing Tailors' Un-
ion

Choristers' Union

Cigarette Makers' Union, Flat ]

Cigarette Makers' Union, Paper [

Cigarette Makers' Union, Progres- 1

sive Rolled (60 per cent girls) J

Clipping Sorters' Union (girls)

Cloak and Suit Tailors' Union

Cutters' Union

.50
50

East Side Barbers' Union

Hebrew Actors' Protective Union

Infant Shoemakers' Union

Knitters' Union, New York /

Brooklyn \

Ladies' Waist Makers' i:nion

Ladies' Wrapper Makers' I'nion

Mineral-Water Bottlers' and Drivers'
Union f

95
90

Mattress Makers' Union

Paper Box Makers' I'nion

Purse and Bag Makers' IJnion

Shirt Makers' Union

75
85
90

Suspender Makers. L. !».560 A. F. of L. (.
Trimming Operators' Union (
Theatrical Musical Union (about 1,000
Jews)

Trunk .Makers' Union

Tvpdgniphical I'nion

Variety Actors' Union

Totals

20,970

15,582

* Joined non-Jewish unions.

importation of furs from Alaska, then a Russian
posses.sion. Silberstein even ventured across Bering
Strait to Kamchatka and Vladivostok to import
merchandise to California. His business increased
to such an extent that he chartered a special vessel
to transport his goods; and it may be added that he

369

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

nnit«<l Statss

gave orders to the captain uot to begin tlie voyage
on a Sabbatliday. Russian Jews were largely in-
terested in tlie Alaskan Fur Company.

Reuben Isaacs, a native of ISuwalki, arrived in
New York in 1849 and went to California in 1850.
From 18G8 he was engaged with his brother Israel
in the exportation of kerosene oil to Ja|)an. Later,
under the firm name " R. Isaacs A: Bro.," they opened
a branch at Yokohama and Kobe, Japan, and, as
"The American Commercial Co.," they established
another at .Manila. Piiilippine Islands. There are
several American-Russian Jews now (1905) doing
business Avitb Japan.

Up to the eighties the Russian Jews were princi-
pally i)edlers, shopkeepers, and manufacturers, but
with the Jewish persecution in Russia many skilled

I'enal Iiistltutlont.

Albany PeDit«ntlanr

Aiiliiini "

IJliKk wells Inland Aliriiili.'iiVsi-
Hliickwells Inland Workhouw

Clinloti I'rlsdii

Kliiilru UcforiiuiUiry

Kin^s (•oiitiiv I'rtiMjD

SluKSlri)^ Prison

Totals

T..UI
Pn»uu«n.

ToUl

Jewa.

Hti»ian

'. ';

• *

■-■■■

Dr. liiidin gives the following ngur«« for the New
York city prisons for the years 1902, 1908 aod

1904:

Penal Institutions.

Black wells Island Workhouse

[Blackwells Island Workhouse dur-
ing the year]

Brooklyn Disciplinary Training
School

City Penitentiary

House of Refuge

Tombs

1902.

1908.

Total
Prisoners.

Total
Jews.

Ru.ssian
Jews.

Total
Prisoners.

1,8(»

Total
Jews.

Russian
Jews.

Total ,
Prlaoueni.

1,930

4«

[17,745]

[4&5]

[19,9(53]

[767]

[19.53); '

225
SiO

a50-9(X)
430-4.J0

227

30-35

about 2/'3

240-250
.580-620
>N50-9nO
450-500

16-20

45 .50

210 2;"<l

■3b-M)

27 '■
about 2/3 74'
K%

1.:^'

'i.mei

aU'UtaOO

laborers were forced to emigrate to America. These
were later organized into various unions; and many
affiliated with the United Hebrew Trades of the
state of New York, organized in 1889 by Morris Hill-
quit and Joseph Barondess. The skilled Jewish
laborers in New York city now number over 75,000,
of whom two-thirds are Russian Jews. The United
Hebrew Trades represent about 25,000, but in times
of strikes they increase to 50,000. Abraham Lipp-
man, secretary of the United Hebrew Trades, has
furnished the above table on page 308, showing the
various unions, their average memberships, and the
number of Russo- Jewish members in Jan., 1905.

Russo-Jewish skilled laborers are found elsewhere
than in New York. In the silk-factories of New
Jersey, in the machine-shops of Connecticut, and in
the jewelry-factories of Rhode Island they are to be
seen side by side with the best non-Jewish working
men.

Russian Jews havealso helped to develop the real-
estate market in the principal centers of the United
States. In the city of New Y'ork they are among
the largest operators; and they have built up
Brownsville, a suburb of Brooklyn, and a consitler-
able part of the Bron.x on the Harlem River. Russo-
Jewish activity in every line of industry extends to
all cities of the Union, but more particularly to
New York, Philadelpliia, Baltimore, Boston, Chi-
cago, Pittsburg, and St. Louis.

Criminal statistics show a low jiercentage of crime
among the Russian Jews as compared with the gen-
eral population. The report of Dr. A. M. Radin,
visiting chiijilain of New York state prisons, for
the year 1903 i)resents the following details concern-
ing the Jewisli prisoners:
XII.— 24

The large percentage of Jew i.'-! ' Uu- Hous*

of Refuge on liiindails Island is a^ i for by the

existence of special secturiaii jjrotectories, which care
for a large number of boys, while the Jews !
separate house of refuge. Tiie.se stuiistics, f:
densest and most crowded Jewisli pupubtion in tlie
Union, are the best evidence of the moral and law-
abiding character of the Jews in general and of tl»c
Russo-Jewish immigmnts in particular. Where ihc
Jews are not so thickly congregated few if any arc
to be found in the pri-sons: in each of iLrct- uf li»f
penal institutions of the upper part of the state of
New York, namely, the Syracuse IVnitontiary. the
Monroe County Penitentiary at R<«-licstt'r. and the
Erie County Penitentiary at BulTalo, there was In
1903 only one Jew.

The Russian Jews, even those who liavc neelected
or have had no opportunity to study :

the English language a . .

Education, arrive in America; and some studjr

the higher ' ■ • rm.

ture. Their children aii; . '«t-

tend the public schools: and many avail liietiwcire*

of the education afforded in th'

City College, and llic Normal C".

universities. More than 60 per cent of t; ^u

in these collegesarc Rus.s<)-Jewi.<j|i imr

children of Russian Jews. The n.

parents are poor: but tliey pinch iheniacivc* lo

keep their children in college rather limn lei them

contribute to the support of the family

Among the Russian Jews in New "» re

are about 400 physicians. 1.'""' '"• -o-

tists, 40o lawyers, and 2.5 a: many

in other professions, particularly muwcians aod

T7nited States

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

370

e,.,, T.,,., rs of popular music. Biographies of tlie
I! ;aiuent professional meu will be found in

tj - ■ ■ V Ruok for 5665." Also

,j ._ ^ in the city departmtu-

t . . uml a large number are teachers in the

-.„. .'. 1885 the Russian Jews in America

have created an amount of literature in Yiddish
cv ' -of the same kind that have

\), ^ . and elsewhere during the

same period (see L. Wiener, "A History of Yiddish
I. " the Nineteenth Century," New York,

I- ..ly Yiddish newspapers are printed in

Uie city of New York (circulation exceeding 100,000
c, ■ ' !i inform the Jewish imniignints of the

g, - of the day and serve by their advertise-

ments as aids in securing employment. They serve
also to help the immigrants in the reading of news-
papers in English. Tiiere are, besides,

Yiddish the Hebrew weekly " Ha-Leom " and
Press. other Yiddish and Hebrew periodicals.
The Yiddish and Hebrew press is al-
most exclusively in the hands of Russian Jews,
who are well represented also among the reporters
and journalists of the secular press (see Draciiman,
" N\'>-Hebmic Literature in America," in "Seventh
Report of Jewish Theological Seminary Associa-
tion." New York, 1900).

Russo-Jewish educational work in the city of New
York is conducted by The Educational Alliance,
of which David Bl.\csteix is superintendent and
Adolph M. Itadin and Harris Masliansky are lec-
turers. Others hold special classes in various
branches of science and literature. Russian Jews
are devoted frequenters of the public libraries, read-
ing the best selected literature and but little fiction.
Their principal literary societies are the Ohole
BiiEM Associ.vTiON and McfizeSefat Eber. Among
earlier literary societies were Doreshe Sefat Eber,
foundedinl880(i8Sued"Ha-Me'assef,"No. i.,1881);
the Hebrew Literary Society of Chicago (issued
"Keren Or." 2 Nos., Chicago, 1889); Metize Sifrut
Yisrael be-Amcrika (issued "Ner ha-Ma'arabi,"
New York, 1895-97); and the Russian American He-
brfw Assoriatinn, organized by Dr. A. Radin in

11.- iii>i Hu>-()-.Irwish congregation, the Beth
HaiTiidnish Hagodal. was organized in New York in
There are now more than 300 large and small
"it ions and hebras; also orders, lodges, and
1' 't and cliarit;ible societies and institutions,

foil-Ill. .st among which are the Beth Israel Hospital
and tlie Gemiiuth Hasadim Association. With re-
gard Ui the synagogues it siiould be noted that the
Riissiim Jew docs not adopt Reform customs, but is
strictly Orthodox. Short biographical sketches of
their rnbbis and cantors will be found in the " Aineri-
cjin .T V.-ar Book for .5n()4."

Ti,' 111 Jew is quickly adaiiting himself to

American life. According to Dr. M. Fishberg,
J^ ' ' ''' immigianis improve in stature, cliest-

'' . . and muscular strength after their ar-

rival. Their descendants, he says, are improving
I ' ' 'lly, and iiitclleflually under the

f- '• of American conditions. When

called upon the Russian Jews in America do not

hesitate to tight for the country which has given
them freedom. During the war with Spain the
number of Russian Jews who enrolled as volunteers
in the United States army was greater in proportion
to their population than that of other foreigners.
The regular army also has a goodly number of Rus-
sian Jews in its ranks; and their bravery, energy,
and power of endurance have frequently been
praised by their ollicers.

See also Agkicultuhal Colonies in the United
States; Dkama, Yiddish; Miguation; New
Youk; Russia, Emiguation (where statistics are
given).

BiBLiOfiR.\rnY : History and Data : G. M. Price, Russki Yevrei
V Amerikiie (a review of events from 1881 to 1891), St. Peters-
burg, IHiKi; Edward A. Steiner, in T)ie (Jutlook (Sept. and
Dec, 19ir2), Ixxii. 528; Eisenstein, in Puhl. Am. Jew. Hixt.
Sue. No. i); Maurice Fishberg, in Ameiiean MmiUilu Re-
view (if Rcviewn (l!)t)2). xxvi. 315; A. Cahan, in Atlantic
Montldii (.Inly iind Dec, 1898), Ixxx.

Imiingratiori: A. J. L. Hurwitz, liumaiiia xva-Ameriha,
p. 47, Herliii, 1^74; Repoi't.^ of Hebrew Einiyrant Aid Sn-
cictij. New York, 1882 and 188;i; B. F. Pelxotto, What Shall
^ye'D(lWitll Our Inimiijratioii? New York, 1887; H.S. Miirals,
The Jetvg of Philadelphia, pp. 20tJ--'08, Philadelphia, 1894;
Eisenstein, in Ha-Modia' le Hada^him. pp. 21-229, New
York, 1901; L. E. Levy, Russian' Jew i.^h Refugees in Amer-
ica, Pliiladelphia, 1895 (reprint from Simon Wolf, The Amer-
ican Jew o.s I'atri'it, Soldier, and Cdizcn, pp. .544-564).

Colonization : Menken, Report on tlie First Ruaaian Jetc-
i,</i Colony in the United Statc.% New York, 1882 (published
by tlie Hebrew Emigrant Aid Society); Goldman, Cohniiza-
tion of Runsian Refugees in the West, 1882 (published by
the same society); Inaugural Report of Jewish Alliance of
America, Philadelphia, 1891; William Stainsby, Tlie Jewish
Colmiies of S<ndh Jersey, Camden, N. J., 1901 ; The Ameri-
can Hchrew, April 10, 1903, and March 17. litO.5 (on the work
of the Removal Office); The Re form Advocate, March 21 and
April 4. lito;!.

."^aniuuiiin: Maurice Fishberg. Health and Sanitation of
the Immigraid JcwiKli I'oprdation of New York, 1893 (re-
print from Mcnorali, Aug. and Sept., 1902).

Criminality: Adolph M. li&din. Report of Vi.<iiting Chap-
lain, 1893; idem, . ■!.>-■ I re oni u-Barzcl (in Hebrew and Ju-
dyeo-(ierinan). New York, 189:3; Israel Davidson, in Jeicish
Charity. Nov., 1903. and Jan., 1904.

Descriptive: Eisenstein, in Ha-Asif (1886), ii. 214-219; M.
Weinberger, Ha-Yeliudim weha-Yehadut be-Newyork,
New York. 1887 ; Adolphe Danziger . . . . New York Ghetto,
in Jew. Chron. Aug. 9, 23, 30, and Sept. 6, 1901 ; A. H. Ford,
in Pearson's Magazine, Sept.. 1903; H. Hapgood, I'/ie Spirit
of the Ghetto, New York. 1902; Ezra S. Brudno, in The
World's TroWf.vii. 4471, 455.5; M.J. McKenna. (Mr lirethren
of the Tenement and the Ghetto, New York, 1899; Katherine
Kaufman, 7)i the New York Ghetto, in Munsey's Magazine
(1900), xxiii. 608-(Jl9; S. Rubinow, /Jcoi/omic Conditions of
the Rus.si(in Jcics in Neiv York, in Voskhod, liK15, No. 1,
XXV. 121-146 (Russian); A. Tiraspolski, Jcit'i.s;i Immigjants
in the United States, in Voskhod, ib. No. 2, pp. 86-98; M. Z.
Raisin, In Ha-Sliiluah. vols, iv., v., vi., vii.

Fiction: N. Bernstein. In the Gates of Israel, New York,
1902; Abraham Cahan. Tlie Imported Bridegroom, and
Other Stories of the, New York Ghetto. Boston and New
York. 189S: idem, Yekt,a Tale of the New York Ghetto,
189!»; Bruno Lessing, Cliildren of Men. New York. 1903; Ezra
S. Brudno. The I-higitive, New York, 1904.
II. U. J. D. E.

13. Statistics: The growth of the Jewish popu-
lation in the United States during the nineteenth cen-
tury has been quite extraordinary. At the beginning
of the century it probably did not number more than
2,000 {mo in Charleston, 500 in New York, 150 in
Philadelphia, and the remainder scattered through-
out the rest of the original states). The population
received accretions, mainly from England and Ger-
many, up to 1848, when the number liad increased to
50,000. Then from the Teutonic lands there occurred
a great immigration due to llie failure of tiie Revolu-
tion of 1.S48, and up to 1881 tiio immigrants piobably
numbered over 100,000; then the population was
estimated at 2130,257. During the twenty-five years
1881-1005 very nearly 1,000,000 Jewish immigrants
reached the United States, as follows:

371

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

United Statoa

Years.

New York.

Philadel-
pbia.

Baltimore.

Totals.

1881-84

18a5-98

1899

1900

1901

1902

i9o:i

'404,10l"
29,088
.5:i,t)87
;i7,!)52
54,.5',t4
00,815
89,442

100,3:58

'3ti.';i9()'
l.(i49
;i870
2,2.5;)
2.475
:i,:{57
5.310
9.393

'i8,"(i77"

i,4ii:i
2,4:)'.)
i,;54:5
l,5(i(;
2,'.t'.t;i

6,006
5,080

62.02:;

459. 16H

;$.'.2(>)

59.99(5
41,548
58,0:1,5
07 1U5

19(«

1905

101,:}.58
114.816

Totals

830,017

64.696

40,173

996.908

Against the extraonlinary immigration must be
counted a certain amount of emigration, including
about one per cent who are deported, and a large
number of Russian Jews who sulfer from nostalgia
(" American Hebrew," May 15, 1904), but no complete
figures are ascertainable with regard to the numbers
thus returning. On the otiier hand, a considerable
number of Jews, especially from England and Ger-
many, travel above the steerage class; and the sta-
tistics above given do not include persons who went
through Canada. Allowing for the natural in-
crease, the Jewish population can not at present be
much below 1,700,000.

The original 250,000 who were in the United
States in 1877 would by natural increase have
reached 400,000 by this tiiue, and the 1,000,000 im-
migrants that have poured in since then must have
increased at least 200,000 if they are reckoned on a
mean population of 400,000 immigrants during the
last twenty-five years. The movement of popula-
tion within the last thirtj' years may be estimated as
follows:

Native
(1877).

Immigrant

(1881-1905).

Totals.

Numbers enumerated

Deaths

2,50,000
1(K),(K)0
2,50,000
150,000
400,000
350,000

1,000,000
1.50,(KI0
3")0,000
200,000

1,200,000
300,01)0

1,2.50.000
2.50, (K)0

Births

600,000

Increase

a5(l,0(X)

Total

1,600,000

Born in America. ;

650,0(X)

The above is quite a conservative estimate. For
example, the increase on the immigration reckoned
at 1.03 per annum upon a mean population of 400,-
000 would by geometrical progression for twenty-
five years reach 1.66 (= 1.03 raised to tlie 25th
power). This would imp!}' an increase of 266,000
rather than 200,000. Similarly, applying an in-
crease rateof 1.02 to the 350,000 original inhabitants
of 1877, it would increase to 1.78 (1.02 to the 28th
power) during the twenty-eight intervening years,
and would show an increase in numbers of nearly
200,000 instead of the 150,000 estimated. If these
figures were adopted, the total number for the
United States at the present time (1905) would be
1,700,000. of whom 750,000 would have been born
in llic country.

The Jews are spread unequally throughout the
United States. On the whole, their relative den-
sity of population corresponds to that of the popu-
lation in general except as regards the North At-
lantic States. A large proportion of them have
landed on the Atlantic coast, and have for vari-

ous reasons roniuincd in the Iv -
liowevcr, a misiuUr to ilijnk t|,..

main in the tititHut which Ibey l«iid.

Distribu- Apart frc.in the ■•
tion. lions like the A,

Henirivul S()<iely, muny ji: .,,f

their own accord niove inland. It i
exami)lc, that of the Hau,017 who r. a
during the years 1 hm.-V- i oo.-, ;,.,i ^^^f. ,

ing liie year in which tiicy u "]']■,■ <

table represents the distrihiition of .l«-v

to states, with the chief town ij,c.

population, and the dulcs of .m.:. .,

can be ascertained, accordint; to the

and that made in the ar''

slates in TiikJkwisii V.-

mates, and are therefore likely to be »
aiiove the reality, but vwh i ' '

probable that the inconipl' , . ,

the overestimation. In a few inslaoccs nanK>s of

towns and agricultural ( ■

settled but no longer reside a;

Alabama

Anniston

Bessemer

Birmlnfihain

Claiborne (1840).
Demopolis (18.50)...

Eufaula (18SK))

Huntsvllle (1850)...

Mobile (1724)

Montpomerv (18.52)

Selma (18.V))

Sheffleld (1884)....
Tuscaloosa (1904)..
Uniontown (1840) ,

Alaska.
Cape Nome.
Dawson.

Arizona

2 045

Arkansas

CaiMcliii

Fort Siiillh (184.5)..

Helena (I8»i9)

Hot Springs (IsVi).
Jonesboro (IKsui ..
Little Rock (IKIh) .
PineBlutT (1845)...
Texarkana

California

Alaiiii'Oa.

Cblc.)

(Fiddlt-town, 1857).

Folsom (18.59)

(Ora.ss Valley, 1856)....
(Jackson. 18;50).
(Jesu .Maria. 18.50).

U)S Anireles (1N54)

Marvsvlll*' (1H;57)

(Nevada. 1855)

Oakland

Sacra nto (18.51)

San Mcrnardlno

San Diego

San Krnnclsro (ItHD)...

San .low-

(Shasta, 18.57)

(.»;onuni, ls52).
Stc>ckt<pii ^\<'<\)

Colorado

Col. ■

(C •

CrliM-. .•..

Denver (IKVi

I,ea(l\ii:- 'l-^>n

ni' '

Tni.

1,466

44
18,&80

422

7,000

' -Ai

Ml
l.MJO

! ■*

1J7

i.aoD

Aono

3,066

38,000
M
18

in
«4

tW»

&,800
7S

V Hit CHI oiitlcB

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

372

1877.

•at.

1,492

i).
t).

WaUTtury

■.on (1S19: 1S60).
District of Columbia . .

Ion .

:lle (ISfiJ).
iVllffV)'.!!

Geoi^ia

W (1885).
--A) .

. (1733).

l.OUO

'""68
585

1,508

772

13(1

2,704

Kxi
110
52.5

■ ' '27.5

350

603

Idaho

1; .s<5 City

Illinois 12,625

IKO).

-)■

......■■ 1-65).

Indian Territory.
Aniiiiore.
Atoka

Indiana

■I)...,

n aauo)

I ^11

•■■.KB)

K:u.sas.

IH'

<■'

I>-
(I>

'--•' f-!.] In IlotlKe-

• 'il. In C<iiiiun-
IttoO;.

■ "-'.I

'ounty, 1886).

115

10,000

13
400

27
.500

iso

3,381
375
275
125

"225

(15
100

1,245

121

260
.55

1.52
24
48

819

455

1905.

8,500

320

200
2,000

200
5.5O0
40(1
125
400

1,500

1,109

3,500

3,000
312
158
250
200

7,000
2UJ
120

2,UJ(J
125
200
3*5
500
100

1,500

300

ll«

100,000

141

80,000

100

2,000

12(5

200

350

112

25,000

8(J0
50(J

lai

2,300

200

151

100

12:5

132

147

5,000

l(«j,

2(U

5(J0
400

420
3,000

(Monteftore [col.] in Pratt County,
lt<*4).

Topeka (1885)

(Touro [col.], 1886).
Wichita.

Kentucky

Henderson (1879)

Lexington

Louisville (1814)

Owensboro ( 1865)

I'aducali (1805)

Louisiana

A lexandria 1 18«>4)

Bastrop (1874)

Baton Rouge (1884)

Doiialdsonville (1850)

Lake Charles.

Monroe (1872)

Morgan City (1870)

New Orleans (1815)

Shreveport (18titj)

(Sicily Island near Bayou Louis Col-
ony, 1881).

Maine

Auburn (1897)

Bangor

Biddeford (1892).

Lewiston

Portland.
Rockland.

Maryland

Baltimore (1750)

Cumberland ( 1856)

Double Trouble (col.).

EUicott City (col. near).

Frostburg.

Hagerslown (1893)

Massachusetts

Boston ( 1095)

Brockton

Cambridge.

Chelsea

Fall River (1885)

Haverhill (1899)

Holyoke

Lawrence

(Leicester, 1777).

Lowell

Lynn (1886).

Maiden

New Bedford

North Adams.

Pittstleld

Quincy.

Revere

Salem (1894)

Springneld (1895)

■Worcester (1875). .

Michigan

Alpeua (1870)

( Bad Axe, 1883 ; colony of farmers) .

Battle Creek

Bay City (1880)

Detroit (1848)

(irand Rapids (1871)

Hancock

Jackson

Kalamazoo (1873)

Lansing.

Palestine (col.. 1891, near Bad Axe)

Port Huron (1893)

Saginaw

Minnesota

Duluth

Miiineaijolls (1865)

St. Paul (18.50)

(Taylor Falls, 1852).

Mississippi

Columbus (1872)

Jackson (UrA)

Meridian ( 1868)

Natchez (1800)

Port Gibson (1859)

Vlcksburg (184;})

Woodvllle (1849)

1877.

3,602

2,500
213
203

7,538

2u6

179

128

' 'ii.im

900

500

10,337

10,000
140

8,500

7,000

3,233

153

2,000

201

141

217

414

"172
225

2,262

100

160

220

■"'526
74

1905.

117

12,000

189
125
7,000
1.5.5
234

12,000

600
40

200
35

5,(K)0
700

5,000
100
215

100

26,500

25.000
165

209

60,000

45.000
300

2,000

1,.500

200

aio

600

800

GOO
1,000

350

300

1.000

16,000

8,000

275

13,000

1,000
5,000
3,.500

3,000
75
10(J
3.38
450
171
659

373

THE JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA

United States

Missouri

Kansas City (1870)

St. Joseph (IH.-1O)

St. I.(iuis (l«;!(l)

Montana

Aliacdiida.

IJutte (18M1)

Helena (187^)

Nebraska

Lincoln (1880)

Omaha (1856)

Nevada

Uoldtleld.

New Hampshire

Manchester.

Nashua

New (;a.stle(lf)il3).

I'ortsinoutli (178.5)

New Jersey

Alliance (col. 1882)

Atlantic I'itv

hayonne (1896)

Camden (1894)

Carmel (col. 1882)

Elizabeth (1850)

Hoboken (1871)

Jersey City (1870)

Lakewooti.

hontx Branch

Morristown.

Newark (1848)

New Brunswick

Oranpe.

Passaic. (1893)

Paterson (1849)

Perth Amboy.

Plainlleld

Rosenhayn (col. 1882)

Trenton

Woodbine (1891)

New Mexico

Albiuiuerque (1882)

Las Vegas (1878)

Roswell

Santa Fe (1846)

New York

Albany (1061)

Amsterdam ( 1865)

("Ararat "on Grand Island, Niagara
Falls [1825J, near Buffalo).

Arverne.

Ben.sonhurst.

Binjrhamton

Brooklyn (1850)

Buffalo (1825)

Coney Island.

Elmira (1801)

Flushing •

Glens Falls

Ithaca (1891)

Kingston (18.53)

Newburgh ( 1865)

New York (ia54)

Port Chester

Poughkeepsie

Rochester (1840)

Schenectady (18.56)

Sharon Springs.

Staten Island

Syracuse (1839)

Tannersville.

Troy

rtica.

(Wowarsing [Sholom] Agr. Col., Ul-
ster County. 1837).

Yonkers (1882).

North Carolina

Astieville

Goldsboro (1,SS3)

Raleigh (1870)

Stat«'sville (1883)

Tarboro (1872)

Wilmington ( 18.52)

North Dakota

Grand Forks.

(Painted Woods, 1882, col. near Bis-
marck).

7,380

2 III

3.25

6,2IK)

131

112
222

' ' m
780

150

5,593

600
4.50

3„500
173

427

50
108

108

80,565

2,000

13,0(H)

775

300

■■"27
.55

1.58

60,0Ot)

1.175

.500

820

H7
78

54
200

50,000

."),.'>! HI

1,2IK(

40,(KI0

2,500
250

3,800

22.5

3,:M)

300

1,000
160

400

40,000

512

800

1,200

500

471

1,200

1.000

6,000

20,000
400

2,000
6,000

200

294

1,500

2,000

800

1&5

250

820,000

4,000
250

2.50

lOO.CXIO

7,000

1,.500
25

100

600

500

672.(i*K>

300

5,000

550

7.50
5,000

3,000

6,000

lU)

125

100

1,500

Ohio

14,b81
'fti

110

" "(W

; ( -

isnr,
50 000

.Akron

Bellalre (1850) ','.'

i«ii

Canton

Cincinnati (1817) , .

Cirdevllle

Cleveland (1837) ""

Columbus

Davton (18.54) .'

i^j

Ilandllon (18<W)

Lima

U-1

Marlon

piqua (18.58) ;;

Porfiinouth

Springlleld (1866)

Toledo (1867)

Xit

Young.stown (1867)

140

Oklahoma Territory.

Oklahoma City.

Oregon

(New Odessa. iXiC: col. near Glen-
dale, on Cal. and Oregon R. R.).
Portlan<l (1K58)

Pennsylvania

Aaronsburg (1786).
Allegheny.

Altoona

Braddock

Bradford.
Dovlestown (1894).

Easton (17.50)

Erie.

Harrislnirg (1835)

Johnstown.. ...

Lancaster (17:«)

Philadelphia (17(0)....

Pittsburg (1804)

Reading (1864)

SchaelTerstown (1732).

Scranton (1862)

Wilkesbarre (1848)

Williamsport

York.

Bhode Island

Newport (16.58)

Pawtucket

Providence (1878).
Woonsocket (1892)

South Carolina

Charleston (169.51

Columbia (1822)

Darlington (18'.I6)

Florence (18S7i

Orangeburg (1885)

Sumter (1.88*5)

868

18,097 ?

n.-s

245

South Dakota '

(Bethlelieui-Yehudab, near Cn'-
mieux). I

(Cremieux Colonv, 1882. Dnvljaml
County. 14 miles from Ml. Vernon'.'

Sioux Falls.

Tennessee

(■|ia!tanoogn (1881)

Knoxvjlle (lS«Vi) j

Memphis ( 18.55)

Nashville (1873)

Texas

Austin (186*;(

Beaumont (18it5i.
Cast rov Hie.
Corslcana ( l.'<75) .

Pallas (1S71)

El Pa.si 1 1 1-M>8i

Fort Worth (ISftJ) ..

Gainesville (1882)

(ialve.st<in ilSJ7)

Halleltsville

Hompslead

Houston il8M>

Snn Antonio (1854)

Tvler

Vel«.s«-o ilKll).

Victoria ( 1 876)

Waco 11869)

1,000

1,415

3,751

lir.

Utah

Salt Uke City (before 1881).

l.v-

258

IN.

7f>
6.000

4. fill
115,000

i.ai)
330

&S0

Hi)

.'..nrn

I.HII

1.500

in
2,500

350

r.ooo

17.500
:tH[i

19>

1,000

United States

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

374

1877.

i9art.

yezBumt

Burliufcnon ' ISSji

.' >5)

I ....•.., •..••••

•»

I. - J)

r" roioii y * f i Hsij ' on the
lupijaliiinnock lilver).

"vr..--: .♦ n

-i)

Tacwma (1S90)

W :iia

'isr,h

! :i (1KS7)

1 riT

W^ic.UK' UWJ

^ff i Krnn ci ?i ^

. -Xji

V ■ (im)'^\\v^v^'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.

WToming

120
2,506

500

163

1.300

145
56

511

2,559
143

lOJ

' '2,075
40

700

450

15,000

110

140

500

1,200

2,500
45

2,800

15:)

1,500

142

150

4;K)

15,000

162

60
8,000

The accompanying map gives most of this infor-
mation in graphic form, indicating the relative im-
portance of towns by tiie size of the characters in
whicli tiieir names are printed, and indicating those
towns in which Jews were settled before 1800 in red ;
those between 1801 and 1848 in purple; those fiom
1849 to 1881 in green; and the remainder in black.

It will be of interest to compare the distribution
between 1877 and 1905 in the various geographical
divisions:

1877.

I'JtJO.

Geoirniphical DIvl.slons.

No.

Per

Cent.

No.

Per

Cent.

North Atlunllc Division..

- ' "■■ "••-■•■n..

--■- u..
VVcslern Ulvtstun

116.017
2I.)5S
2:).9(>4
40.478
2I,4A5

50.64

9.2:}

10.41

20.34

9.33

1,103.700

64.425

()2,OR5

277,(KX)

.51,.500

70.80
4.13
3.9S

17.77

3.:w

Totala

229 083 I'l-i

1,5:)«,710

90 98

Owing to the enormous numbers that remain in
New York and I he vicinity, the North Atlantic Di-
vision lias greatly increased its quota during the last
quarter of a century. Next to thi.s, the greatest rela-
''■ 'is been in the North Central Division.

f' 277,000. The increase in the Western

States lias not been relatively large, but from 21,46")
to 01 ". "v no means insitrniticant considering

the di - and the e.xiirnsiN of tran<;piirtation to

the Pacific coajst.

No materia!- ' ''r deciding upon the jiational-
itles of thf Jc ili-rs in the United States as a

whole, but for the immigration of
National- the last twenty years (1H84-1905) the
ities. countries from which the Jewish im-
migrants have come have been noted,
and the numl)ers ami perccntaires. together with the
percentages of the 10 015 of dilTerent nationalities of

those applying to the United Hebrew Charities for
aid during the vear 1904-5, are as follows:

Nationality.

Numbers.

Per Cent.

Per Cent

Applyinp

for Charity.

Russians

Austrians

Itiimanuiiis

551,708

192,.")ii9

43,757

16,619

451

499

3,6(H

2,074

261

421

67.94

23.70

5.38

2.04

.05

.06

.44

.25

" ■.6;3

■'.(1.3

50.70

29.20

t). 1 7

(leniiuiis

5.S9

Krenoli

Duti'li

.12
.21

Ensrlish

.76
.43

Syrians

Danes

Swiss

Spanish

■■.03
.24

Swedes

.03

.a5

BulUiirians

Ureelis

Toti:ls

811,936

99.94

These ttgurcs, which relate only to the immigrants
arriving in New York, do not, of course, apply to
the whole Jewish population, and especially leave
out of account the English and German immigrants
of superior social standing, whose numbers are not
counted in the immigration returns. Besides this,
the oiTspring born on American soil for the last
thirty years must by this time be at least one-third
of the total number (see above).

It will be observed that the Russian Jews who
have arrived in the United States constitute only
two-thirds of the Jewish immigration, nearly a quar-
ter of it coming from Austria. The number of
Jews from Denmark and Sweden seems rather large
compared with the Jewish population of those coun-
tries. The Turks include Jewish inhabitants of Asia
Minor and Palestine, as well as of Constantinople and
Salonica.

It will also be observed that the Russian Jews
apply for charity in somewhat smaller proportions
than those of the numbers of arrivals of the .same
nationality, while the Austrian Jews apply in larger
numbers, thus confirming the impression of the great-
er " Jmlenelend " of Galicia. Only 2.39 per cent of
the applicants were American-born Jews.

The actual figures for the chief occupations of
88,827 Russian and Polish Jews and 24,221 Jewesses
in New Y'ork, 1900, are:

Enpaffed in iiianiifacture of clothing

Laborers (not speeitled)

A(rents

( lerks and copyists

Hucksters and peddlers

Retail iijercliants

Salespeople

hoot- and shoe-tnakers

Carpenters and joiners

Lawyers

Hat- and cap-tnakers

Manufacturers and oOlcials

'I'libacco aixl cipar operatives

'I'eacliers and professors in colleges..

rhvslcians and surgeons

(lergVMien

Dentists

Musicians

r.lectrlcians

Servatits and waitres.ses

Dressmakers

Actresses

Males.

Females.

25,074

8,545

4.088

1,663

2.754

4.215

9,016

3,2iJ6

l.l'jIHi

1,554

1,574

217

1,543

2,513

1,778

526

132

30.5

298

403

114

135

2.878

2,168

375

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

United Statea

As with nationalities, it is impossible to give full

details of the occupations of American Jews, but

tlie Pok'S and Kussiuiis in New York

Occupa- are almost cxchisively Jewish (tiiere is

tions. only one Orthodox Greek church in

tlie city), and their occupations are

given in the Twelfth Census.

It is possible to add to the above the occupations
of the more recent Jewish immigrants. Out of lOG,-
236 (65,040 males, 41,196 females) wlio arrived from
July 1, 1903, up to June 20, 1904, there were:

Tailors 10,420

Carpenters 4,078

Butchers 1,401

Bakers 1,173

Painters and glaziers. . 1,970

Seamstresses 2,4()8

Shoemakers 2,7ti3

Other artisans U,8:J0

Unskilled laborers 8,371

Merchants and clerks.. 3,464

Servants 9,2i)2

Professionals 843

Miscellaneous 672

Without occupation,
chiefly wives and

children 38,485

106,230

It will be observed that the predominant industry
of the liussian Jews is tailoring, and Jews in gen-
eral have been more intimately connected witli the
clothing trade than with any other oc-
Clothing- cupation in the Union. The history of
Trade. this connection has been recently in-
vestigated by J. E. Pope ("The Cloth-
ing Industry in New York," Columbia, Mo., 1905).
Up to about 1840 the working classes mainly de-
pended for their every-day clothing either on home-
spun goods or on renovated second-hand garments.
The trade in the latter was mainly in the hands of the
Jews, and this led to a connecti(m with the clothing
trade, just at the time when the sewing-machine made
the ready-made trade possible.

The Jews not alone made clothing, but it was
they who first developed a system of distributing
ready-made clothing, and it was due to them that
clothes which were sold in the general stores up to
about 1840 were deposited and distributed in cloth-
ing stores almost entirely manipulated by Jews
from that time onward. Outside of the jewelry
trade the clothing trade was almost the sole oc-
cupation of the Jews up to 1860, and many mer-
chants and firms that afterward branched out as
general merchants, as the Seligmans, Wormsers, and
Seasongoods, began in the clothing industrj', but
were diverted from it by the Civil war, which sud-
denly broke off the large trade with the South.
Several of the Jewish tailoring establishments en-
deavored to replace this business by supplying uni-
forms for the Federal soldiers, but other firms had to
divert their attention to new lines of industr}\ On
the cessation of hostilities very large demands for
clothing arose from the million and a half men sud-
denly released from their uniforms, and these were
mainly supplied by Jewish tailors, who about this
time appear to have introduced the contract system,
letting out to subcontractors in tiie rural districts
contracts for large con.signments of clothing to be de-
livered at the great centers, and tiience distributed
throughout the country. In this development of
the tailoring industry, Avhich lasted from about 1805
to 1880, Jews became mainly the lai'ge contractni-s
and distributors, but the actual work was done
apart from the great centers of Jewish activity.

The next stage seems to have restored the industry

to the tirban districts by bringing

of construction inside factorii-H. I

direct work of Jews. A certuin numUT of En.

Jews who liad learned tlic tailorin

to Boston in llie seven! ieH. and i.

York in tlie early part of the oightJe«. iDtriMl.;

what is known as "the Hf.

division of lul)or was wide; .

iiig trade. "Teams" of workmen turned out a

single article at a much grcatf r - ' '

pait of the work was learned i

comers. Hus.so-Jewisii immigruuts who arnvttl in

large numbers at tiiis time (IHHl onwar ' ' ■ • .,

incapacitated by their piiysi(iuo for un\

and in some eases iiad begun the fontiar t hv^Kni «i

tailoiing either in England or in Hiissia; tlu-y w. -

therefore, ready to take up tailoring work in

"sweat-shops" as almost tiie sole mi-ans hy w

they coidd obtain a liveliliood immedi ■.'•'' ..'•...

Their participation in the trade be< .

greater, till in New York, the center of it. i.

predominant. lu 1888, of 241 clothing i:

turers in New York city 234 were Jews.

previous to 1880 the imports of read-

fiom Germany had been almut 12.0

year, this was reduced hy 1894 to less tlian 2

On the other hand, the clothing industry i:i

turned out in the five chief centers gotnls li'

amount of $157,513,528, and in 1900 SSU.Hfi.M.W. an

increase of 97.22 per cent. By 10(»0 there «•

clothing establishments in New York city.

ing 90,950 workmen, with a capital of 87'-

and an annual product of $2.'}9.H79.414 (Tw.

sus, viii. 622). According to Profe.ssfir I"

the Jews more than to any other people belongs the

credit for the magnificent development which the

clothing industry has attained " (ib. p. 293).

The social condition of the American Jews, Inclu-
ding those of recent arrival, is eminently "' '
tory. Notwithstanding the fact that tli>
immigrant arrives with an average fortune of »'!, y
§15, nothing is more remarkable than the 8pee<l « i'.l.
which he makes himself self-supporting }'•■•■<

those who find it ncces.siiry *
Social on their arrival to tli<" ■ ' ■''•
Condition, tutions for some sliglr

get on without it. t>f 1
]ilicants who thus applied to the Uni'"'
Charities of New York in Oct.. 1894. «>■ nv-

plied again, and live years Inter only AT
remained on the books, to be reduced i -
1904 (nernheimcr, "Russian Jew." p. (Ml. I
pliia, 1905). It is quite a mistake t
Jewish workman accepts much I"
his fellow workmen in tlie same in«l
that during the first rusli ii!'
in the eighties the early con.

almost starvation wages, but by the end of the n n
tury Jewish laborers •
factories were getting ^ .

89.82 for American working men in general. «. ■
Jewish women v ' ' - on women'- '' "•

getting $5.80 as $5.46. W

are comparatively high, however, t

crea.sed by their * ' ' " ' '

the real condil;

United States

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

376

Thus in Boston it has been observed that 39.65 per cent
of llie Uussian Jews dwell in " poor and bad tene-
ments." V "le Irisli liave only 27.15 per cent
of Lbis clu^ . ^Ii the Italians have 56.23 percent.
So. too. in New York, of 1.795 Kusso-Jcwish families
jn' ■ V tlie Federation of Charities, 1,001
hu ; :is, and only 158 had baths. Also in
Philadelphia, in a Jewish population of 6^8 the aver-
aj: lis to a room was 1.39, while
in icts the average was 1.26 per-
sons per room ("Tenement Conditions in Chicago,"
p. 64) Tl ;je number of persons to a Jewish
bouse- in r. 1. la was 9. 17. as against 5.4 for the
general population; of 75 houses, only 8 had bath-
tu' - ilarly in Chicago, only 3.73 per cent of a
p.. of 10.452 Jews had bathtubs. It should,
however, be added that the Russian Jew uses the
public baths, of which there are large numbers in
the Jewish nuarters.

Regarding persons higher in the social scale, it is
obviously difiicult to obtain definite information.
A careful estimate, however, was made in 1888 of
the annual turnover of different classes of manufac-
tures in New York, a list of which may be sub-
joined as indicating the chief lines of commerce in
which Jews are engaged (ligures in parentheses give
the number of employees) :

Man ifn. Tiirpps of clothinp S->5,000.000

J.' .velry 30.oa).0(X)

W: ;t/^hers (6.000) 2.5,0U1.00()

D«aiere in «vin -s. spirits, and beer 2.5.000.0C0

Jolit..rs . f i..:.f !,,1,;„rO 15,000.000

M;, !S (8.000) 1.5,000.000

Ma . ..ks 1.5,000,000

In: .mis 12,000.000

D. .......and hides 12.000.000

Mi. s of overshlrt^ 10.000.000

In.;. . ;- .' watches 6.000,000

Dealers In artiUcial flowers aud feathers 6.000,000

IlD!- " - ' '-hers Of furs 5.000.000

M:.- Linderparments 5,000,000

1> ... I. lery importers 4,000.000

Mi -^ of white shirts 3,000.000

M.. 'sofhals .3.000,000

M.. :^ of caps 2,000.000

§248,000,000
Ik-sidi'sihis, it was reckoned that tho Jews of New
York at that time had $150,000,000 worth of real
estate, and that the Jewish bankers of the city had
a< . • ■ r.siOO.OOO.OOO. Thf'se figures would have
to ' -idcraltly increased, jirobably quadrupled,

after the lapse of twenty years. As is pointed out
atiovo. the turnover of the clfithing trade alone in
New Ytirk w.is equal in 1900 to the total amount of
the Jewish industrial output in 1888. while one
J<- ' ' ' iig-house. Kulin, Loel) & Co., issued
81 worth of bonds during the five years

iy«K>to rj<)5. and represents financially railway com-
p:i' ' ■ " 22.200 miles of railroad and over'

81. I..

in n list ol 4,o«Hi millionaires given by the " World
Almanac" for 1902, the Jewish names nimiiiered
114. wimewhat over their pmportion cominired with
their pereenUige in popnlution, btit somewhat under
their proportion if Hm; fact bo taken into consider-
ation that they are mostly n.-sideiits of cities, where
alone the very wealthy are to be found. The
generally satisfactory condition of the immigrants
within a few years after their arrival is perhaps best

indicated by the fact that the twelve great Jewish
charities of New York altogether dispense only
81,143,545 annually in a population of over 750,000,
about 81.50 per head. Again, in Chicago only
8150,000 per annum is spent in charity upon a popu-
lation of at least 75,000, about $2 per head.

It is, of course, impossible to give the full score
of Jewish philanthropy in the United Stales, but a
rough estimate may be derived from
Charity, the expenditures of the chief federa-
tions for charit}^ found in several of
the main centers of the Jewish population. To this
may be added the e:.pendituie of the twelve largest
Jewish institutions of New York:

New York (twelve largest institutions) §1,143,545

Philadelphia Federation.

Cincinnati Federation

St. Louis Federation

Chicago Federation

Boston Federation

Detroit Federation

Kansas City Federation..
Cleveland Federation

119,700

29,022

43.108

148.000

39,000

6,662

4,508

41,;J50

In addition to these sums, donations by .Jews were re-
ported for the year 1904 to theaiuount of 83,049,124,
making a total of more than §5,000,000; or about
S3 per head for charity and education.

It is also of interest to indicate the causes which
led 10,015 applicants to appeal to the United Hebrew^
Charities of New York during the year 1904-5:

Transportation 360

Release bagpage or

family 12

Lack of tools 43

Shiftlessness 63

No cause 253

Cause unknown 261

All other causes 504

Total 10,015

Sickness 3,229

No male support 2,0.50

Lack of work 1.641

Insuftlcient earnings 781

Physical defects 178

Old age 471

Insanity of wage-earner.. 86

Intemperance of wage-
earner 40

Imprisonment of wage-
earner 44

The number of persons who are being puni.shed

for their crimes in tlie United States

Destitutes, has not been ascertained ; but the

Defectives, numbers of Jewish aliens who are in

and Delin- various institutions, as given in the

quents. report of the commissioner-general

of immigration for the year ending

June 30, 1904, are as follows:

Charitable.

Insane.

Penal.

All.

No.

Per
Cent.

No.

Per
Cent.

No.

Per
Cent.

No.

Per
Cent.

Hebrews..

1,274

8.2

932

559

6.5

2,765

6.2

Considering that the Jewish immigrants arc fully
10 per cent of the total volume of imniignition to
the United Stales, this is an excellent showing, and
considering that 1,000.000 have arrived in the ]a.st
twenty-five years, the sinallnc.ss of tlie numbers is
still more remarkable.

It should be oliserved that of the 559 Jews (484
males, 75 feiuaies) found in iienal institutions, 170
were imprisoned for graver offenses, and IJHO for mi-
nor offenses, whereas of the total number of immi-
grant prisoners. 4.124 wt 'e for graver as against
5,701 for minor offenses, Jews, as is well known.

377

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

United Statss

not being addicted to crimes of violence. Similarly,
of the criminals reported to the Board of Magistrates
of the City of New York for the year 1898, tliose
from Russia formed 8.2percentof tlie total number,
whereas their proportion of the population was 11.2.
In Philadelphia the Jewish inmates of the prisons
were found in 1!)04 to be 2.7 per cent,
Syna- whereas the percentage of Jews in the
g-ogues and population was 7.7.

Institu- In some of the early censuses of the

tions. United States details of places of wor-
ship were given for the different sects,
and from these the following table was taken (ex-
cepting the last line, which is from the returns
made to W. B. Hackenburg) :

Cen.sus.

SynaRogues.

Accommoda-
liou.

Property.

1&50

77
152

278

18,371
34,412
73,265
12,546»

$ 418,000
1.13.5,300
5,1.55.234
6,648.730

1860

187(1

1877

♦This enumeration is of membership, not of accommodation.
In 1905 the real property held by synagogues and
Jewish charitable institutions in New York city, and
which was exempted from taxation, was valued at
$13,558,100.

For the present condition of affairs the following
data are given in the "American Jewish Year Book,"
5662:

Congregations 850

Income of 431 $1,233,127

Reform congregations (C. C. A. R.) 86

Schools 421

Pupils 38,694

Educational Institutions and libraries 78

Colleges for Hebrew studies 3

Agricultural schools 3

Technical, industrial, or trade schools 13

Societies conducting industrial classes 16

Societies conducting evening classes 9

Kindergartens 11

Kitchengardens 2

Training schools for nurses 3

Libraries 19

Income of 20 $160,4.56

Charitable institutions 500

Income of 243 $1,808,663

Young Men's Hebrew Associations 23

Income of 10 §29,828

Social clubs 117

Income of 33 $307,412

Other clubs 66

Mutual benefit associations 63

Income of 3:$ $36,784

Loan associations 22

Others 52

Zionist societies 124

Sections of Council of Jewish Women 49

Lodges 954

These results were reported from 503 places in
thirty-seven out of the forty-seven states. There
are now in the United States about 1,000 synagogues,
to which may be added 314 houses of prayer ii.scd
in the East Side of New York (" Federation," March.
1904), making a total of 1,314, of which about 100
use the so-called Reform ritual. Notwithstanding
this comparatively large number of .synagogues,
certain districts of New Y'ork have 80 per cent of
their Jewish inhabitants unaffiliated with any place
of worship, though in Brooklyn the proportion has
sunk to 33.8 per cent ("Federation," Oct., 1905).

It i.s interesting to note the t'rowtli of ■
sy.stem. of wliicli the dciuilK ^iv.-n in i!,.
pultlication of the American Hebrew (
of 1880 may be compared '
"American Jewish Year l!

4iV(.n 111 llic

li'nai B'riih..

Independent Ui del I ree t»,iuti,t Jurwi-i

Order Kesher Shel Bnrzel

Improved Onler FYee Sons of I»r
IiideiK-ndeiit Order .Sons of Bt-iili.
Order B'rlih Aliralmiii

i.i.'J

Miscellaneous : in I.sso ili. ri-

ish perioiiicai.s publislied in the I .

1904 there were eighty-two. ns well as lliirt.
books or occasional publications. Of tl
persons mentioned in " Who's Wlio in Amii. .. . ..i

were of Jewish race, about the proper proportion «»f
the native Jews.

Investigation has established that the fc-rllHty
of the Jews in tlje United States is greater thmi
that of other creeds and nalionalitioH. "'
was found by an investitration in New ^
whereas tiie average number of cliildrcn in Pri
tant families was 1.85 and in Roman C /'
in Jewish families it was 2..J4 ("Ftd< i
York, June, 1903, p. 34). Against all other t\' •
rience, it was fount! that Jewish familicH wir! '
tics have a higher average of children tli
without servants. This had been pr^
served by J. S. Billings ("Vital Stati
Jews of the United States." p. 17). It
ular ward of New York the Jewish f
superior in fecundity to all others, ^^ ''
of 2.9. There is clearly no race snii

Besides being very fecund. I heir iim

excessively high, bccau.se of tin- i "

nubile persons arriving in the I'l
is great inetpiality of tliesev

between the years Ibtii aim ..■ :.

arrived, as compared with 221,247 women. It l« s;ii.i

that intermarriage is occurri'

deficiency; yet of 9,G6H Nc i

investigated by the Fedenilion of Cln:

marriage was reported in the case of onl^ .5. u.vs

than one i>er cent.

Some remarkable restilts l«ave l»ocn r
the low deatli-nite of the Ji
In 1S90 J. S. i

Death- death-rat*' of nearly i

Rate. found it as low ~ '
States 0.29. I
Russian Jews in Boston was only 0
probably refer either to tlic wr!' •
investigated by Dr. Billings, or
migrants of the most viable apos— i
five and forty-five— amoi- •
Illation the tieath-nite v
confirmed by the fart •
Boston in 1S95 hatl ad
children died onanaver;i„

VI iuii , I

rvi-n \t^9 Thin In

XTnlted States of Colombia
UniverBities

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

378

is about the normal death-rate iu the most congested
districts, and it would be safe to take the average
deatli-rateof the Jews of the United States at 14, that
for the whole population. In the year 1900 the death-
rate of the ninth ward in Chicago (an almost entirely
Ji- •• ' ■■ -.rd) was only 11.99.

u observed that American Jews, even when
in. ^, are taller than the average of the Jewisli

poj..i ...... a of the countries whence they come, the

average for New York city being 164.5 cm. as against
162.0 cm. for Russia and Galicia (see Stature).

Bin - * 'if the Jiw^ nf the United States,

s d lUiJoitK nf (/if Onnmivsioiier-

'i, I, Wa^iliitijrto'ii, 19t>2-4; American

J. ,; Atuumt He ijiiylsnf United He-

l ^, l8^j-lHl^) : W. Laidlaw, in Jeui^^h

I J. Markenn, Hclnews in America, New

•i :i(fs. Vital Stdtiiitics of tlie Jewish Race

I V. in Eleventh Cenmin Bulletin, No. 19,

1- • >,e Rungian Jew. Philadelphia, 19<.^; F.

.K .K Factors in the Pitpulation of Boston,

.s .; Hull liouKC Mapx and Papers, Boston,

1-.., . - ■i ■■■iulin)ji of a New York City Block, New

York. ' olonicM of New Jersey, Camden. 19()1 ;

M. H jioument of Women in the Clothinu

7 . V..ra. Unt; R. A. Woods, The Citu yVilderness,

li "; idem, Americansin Process, Boston, 1902; M.
>:b:.L-. Tij. Matt rials fur the Anthropology of Western Jews,

N«-\v Vork, IRO. J

UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA. See
Sorin A.M> (,i.MitAi. Ami;iuc'a.

UNITED SYNAGOGUE: A body composed
of sixteen synagogues in London, England, consti-
tuted in 1870 by Act of Parliament (33 and 34 Vic-
toria, cap. 116). Originally the "city " synagogues,
as the Jewish f laces of worship within the borders
of the city of London were called, were independent
of one another, and each one had its own chief rabbi
and charity organization. This led to considerable
duplication of diarity. In 1802 Solomon Herschell
was appointed chief rabbi of the Great and Hambro'
synagogues; and shortly after his accession to office
he induced the three German congregations to come
loan agreement for charitable purposes. This agree-
ment continued in force until the year 1834, when a
new compact was made and tlie scope of action was
enlarged. Tiie Great Synagogue agreed to contrib-
ute CDC half, and the Ilambro' and New synagogues
one-quarter eacli, toward general and conmiunal
expi'nditure. both cliaiitable and religious.

The migration of Jews westward, however, made
the continued force of tliisagreement impracticable;
and the late Chief Rabbi N. M. Adler suggested an
amal^'amation of the three synagogues and the Cen-
tral and IJayswater synagogues in the western part
of I>indon. The project was taken up by Lionel
L. Cohen, who energetically championed it; and a
union was agreed to April 19, 1868. The consoli-
dation was furtiier strengthened and legalized by
llie passing «)f an "Act for Confirming a Scheme for
the Charity Commis.sioners for the Jewish United
8ynag«gues." which received the royal assent July
14. 1870. The Borough Synagogue, in the south
of London, entered the union in 1873; and the North
London Synagogue in 1878. The other nine syna-
gogufs liavc been built unrlcr the auspices of the Uni-
te<i Synagogue. The first secretary of the United
Synagogue was Dr. A. Aslier. Subscfiuently another
act was passed {or the definition of the rights of the
chief rabbi and the bet din and of the powers of
the chief rabbi.

Each constituent synagogue controls its own sur-
plus (if any), and pays 40 per cent of its income
from seat rentals for communal purposes. In 1904
a scheme providing for "Associate Synagogues"
was adopted, whereby synagogues in poorer neigh-
borhoods might enter the union without assuming
all the burdens of the fully constituent synagogues.
The first synagogue to enter on such terms was the
South-East London Synagogue.

The United Synagogue is governed by a council
constituted of : (a) life-members and certain officials;
(6) the wardens of the constituent synagogues for
the time being; (c) a certain number of represent-
atives according to the number of members of
the constituent synagogues, one in each case being
the financial representative who acts as treasurer.
The total number of members of the council is 150.
Lord Kolhschild is (1905) the president.

J. I. L. B.

UNIVERS ISRAELITE, L'. See Periodicals.

UNIVERSITIES : Places of higher and liberal
learning, so called from the Latin word "univer-
sitas," signifying an association or a corporation.
There are traditions of the connection of Jews with
the medieval universities of Salerno and Montpellier
(see Medicine) and with that of O.xford. No Jew-
ish names are connected with the development either
of the southern (Bologna) or the northern (Paris)
type of university from the twelfth century onward.
A degree or right to teach seems to have been re-
garded as a feudal tenure; and the acceptance of a
degree was always accompanied by payment of
homage to the rector or councilor. Such homage
involved the recital of Christian formulas, which
Jews could not recite. Besides this the twenty-
fourth canon of the Council of Basel (1434) distinctly
prevented Jews from taking any academic degree.

A distinction, however, is to be made between the

faculties of theology, philosophy, and law and that

of medicine. Jews would naturally

Medical not study in the first of these, and

Degrees, they could scarcely work at medieval
law, which was as much canonical as
civil, while the philosophical faculty was mainly a
development of the Christian metaphysics of Thomas
Aquinas. But Jews appear to have studied, and even
to have taught, in the medical faculty; thus, Elijah
Delmedigo was profes.sor of medicine at Padua at
the end of the fifteenth centuiy. As late as 1700 the
universities of Ilostock and Wittenberg counseled
the Christians against employing Jewish physicians,
who probably practised without taking a degree.
Most of the Jewish doctors whose academic training
can be traced received such training at Padua.

With the revival of learning, scholars of Jewish
birth, mainly those who accepted baptism, were
utilized for the chairs of Hebrew in the various uni-
versities, as in the case of Tre.vieli.ius at Cam-
bridge, etc. This practise was continued almost
down to the present time, and spread to the whole
circuit of tlie Semitic languages, in which Jews,
from their proficiency in Hebrew, have a large op-
portunity.

In Holland rigid restrictions on university training
do not seem to have existed, though there were few

379

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

United StaicB of Colombia
UnivemitieB

names of Jewish students recorded till the nineteen lii
century. So, too, in Austria, the toleration ediet of
Joseph II. plainly deciiued that there was no e.\-
press law against the admittance of Jews into the
Austrian universities; but the fact of its heiiig thus
mentioned is sutlicient to indicate that the admission
had either not taken place or was extremely rare.
In France the Revolution opened the higiicr .schools
of learning to the Jews; but in England they shared
the disabilities of all dissenters, and were prevented
from taking degrees. Thus, Professor Sylvester,
though second wrangler in the mathematical tripos
at the University of Cambridge in 1837, did not ob-
tain a degree there till 1872, after the passing of the
University Test Act (1871), which was partly caused
by the attainment of the senior wrauglership by
Numa II.\UToo in 1809.

The Jews of the various German states were mostly
debarred from participation in university education
till the nineteenth century, though exceptions were
occasionally made for Jewish medical students. In
Prussia the first Jewish student at a
Germany, university was Tobias Cohen, whom
the Grand Elector allowed to study
medicine at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1675. After
the Mendelssohnian period many Jewish students
began to attend the universities, but soon found that
any university career was closed to them unless they
were willing to submit to baptism. The Prus.sian
government has always regarded the universities
as especially connected with the cultural side of
the state organization and, therefore, as bound up
with the interests of the Protestant Church. Hence,
from the times of Ganz and Benfey down to those
of Kronecker and Hirschfeld, the majority of
capable students who desired to pursue a university
career found it necessary to become baptized. In
Austria a very similar state of affairs existed, as is
shown by the cases of Mussafia and Blidinger. In
the sixties and seventies no discrimination took
place, but with the rise of anti-Semitism Jewish
students suffered various disabilities which caused
tliem to form special clubs (see Zionism).

Notwithstanding these quasi-disabilitics, Jewish
students have thronged to the universities in excep-
tional numbers, as can be seen from the accom-
panying statistics. A comparison with the other
creeds may perhaps best be made in Prussia, where
the Protestants had 8.37, the Catholics 6.61, and rise
Jews 54.75 per 10,000 attending the universities in
1902-3. In Austria the proportion of Jewish among
other students indicates the same condition:

Number of Students of Diffeuent F.mtiis at
THE Austrian UNivEiisiTiEs in 1902.

That the proportion in Prussia has not considera-
bly increased during the last few years is borne out

l)y the detailed list ,.f sf „d-ni9atu.-nijjne the Pru
universities:

NUMIIEU OK ClIUIHTIAN AND Jkwihh StU

DBNTB IX

I'lilverslty.

Berlin

Bonn

Brt'sliiu

(ifitllnjfen. . .
lirelfswttlde .

Halle

Kk'l

KiinlpshtTK

Murhurif

AoiKlfiiiy at MQiisit'-r

I-yceum Hoslanurn in

BruuusberK

(•hrl»-
UiinK.

3,9;.-.

1.177

l.(lt«

l.OM

UMl

.Vi-

:.'l

Totals .

12.015

i -;

; -'f »

'. •»'

' ji-,.

K»»l

i.i.

1.-

ZSi

i.i-

vs.-

•>

7(»-

i.'

■.^

1,4.11

Kr.:

1 » .

£!

4'-

I.ai3 1

14.«

I'.'i

l/»'Dib»'rK
Criirow . .
C'zern<iwii.-

The numbers of Jews attending the AuHlrian uni-
versities may also be given here:

Jewish Students at the Austkia.n Usiver8Itie«
During the Summer ok 1902.

Vienna 1,4:3 I>'Dib»TK «M

Graz jfl

Innsbruck 2

Prague (German) Ms

Prague (Bohemian).... 70 xot^i , j-^j

There are special conditions which wouhl seem in
prevent any large attendance of Jewish gtudents at
the Russian universities, their per

limited to 3 per cent of the whole 1. , . »

at Odessa and St. Petersburg, and 6 per ctnl in \\te

Pale. Notwithstanding this, the hi-

twenty years shows that these i.

largely exceeded, as can be seen from the followiog

table :

Percentaok of Jewish Student" t<> T<>ta<
Nu.MHEii (Russia).

X'p!v«t\:1IV.

•

St. Pet«rsburjr

Moscow

1 t

Cracow

5.a

Odessa

11 9

Kasan

1.0

Kiev

1A.2

Dorpat

Warsaw

114

Tomsk

1, •«

To the above details it may lu .....; ..: Co-
lumbia University. New York, in 1903. out of WO
students whose creeds wen' i;
declared themselves Jews. w;.

students out of tlie 2,100 of the < ■ iiy

of New York in 1903 were J
mal College of that ritv 7") 1
were Jewish

For Prussia (
and Ruppiu. sh.
ency from the me<iical to the Juri«llcal faruliy.

Thus in 1886-87 there were n" " ' ' ' '

698 of medicine, wjienas i:

studying law, and only 369 studying mwiicine. Tbe

Unleavened Bread
UrbinL

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

380

perrfniaffc of JowK among the law students remained
p. t 9 ptT cout, Avlierciis that of

ni .....;ued from 19.6 to lo. In philo-

s* unities a rise in numbers t«»ok phice from

24 .'3. In tlie latter year

J, , • -'ic students devoted to

p! ijofmathematicians, 2.9 of economists,

9 • ntistry.

f the Jewi.sh faith are

given authoritatively. Servi recorded that

in iialv i " " iitoen Jewish pro-

f.-s.^.is":it ^ (".Statist lea degli

Israelili," p. 298). About 1880 it was
Prolessors. <n<\ that there were si.v ordinary and

iwrhty e.vtraordinary professorships
ami twenty-nine readerships held by Jews at Berlin
V: rd with sixty-one, liftytliree,

ai lively by Christians. Breslau

records that there were seventy Jewish professors in
German u; - ^ "ii'S out of a total of 1,800, abotit
the usual i ai ("Zur Juilcnfrage," p. 17. Ber-

lin. 1880). About the same time si.v of the 259 chairs
in the English universities were held by Jews. In
1903 it was declared that the University of Munich
had ninety-nine Catholic, eighty -seven Protestant,
an<l seventeen Jewish professors and privat-docents;
WQrzburg had thirty-eight Catholic, tifty Prot-
estant, and one Jewish privat-docents; while Er-
langen had twelve Catholic, fifty-three Protestant,
and two Jewish professors (Bloch's " Wochen-
sdirift." July 4, 1903). At Strasburg there were si.x
Jewish professors {ib. Oct. 31, 1902). The only pro-
fessing Jews who have ever held the rectorship of a
Pru.ssian university are Prof. Hosanes of Breslau
and Prof. Julius Bernstein of Halle. Lazarus was
rector at Bern; Gomperz at Vienna; Ilalberg at
Czcmowitz ; and Zucker in Prague.

Bi ■ '■<../«• If i.x?i f^tatislica. p. -17 ; Rnppin, Ji<-

'. [i|>. :JM-2i>H; Thon and Uuppin. I)cr

.1 ■■ . .' iin ritlcrrUhtswcseii in Prcuiisoi. Ber-

Ilo, 18U3: ZelUKhrlfl fUr jadiHche Statistik, passim, 190.5.

UNLEAVENED BREAD. See MAZZ.\n.

UNNA, PAUL GERSON : German phj'sician
and dermatologist; born at Hamburg Sept. 8, 1850;
son of Moritz Adolph L'nna; etlucated at the uni-
versities of Heidelberg, Leipsic, and Strasburg
(M.D. 1875), He was severely wounded in the
Franco Prussian war. in which he served as a pri-
vate. After gr.iduatif)ti he became assistant to Wal-
fleycr at Strasburg. and in the following j'ear he

re" - ' M Hamburg and established a iiracti.so.

I' '77 he was a.ssist^int at the general hospital

in that city. In 1881 he became interested in der-

"'■''' and opened a private hospital forskin-

di aid in 1SH4 he gave up his general practise

and fiiunded tlie well-known hospital for skin-dis-
cjises at Einisbnttel near Ilami)urp. This he en-
larginl in 1887 by a<l«ling a laboratory, which soon
iH-eanie tlic center for dermalological researches in
German)'.

L'nna is an untiring worker; he has written over
one hundred rss:iys in all fields of medicine and
many standard works on his specialty. In 1882 he
founded the semimonthly "Monafshefte fiir PraU-
tlsrhc Dermatologie." He is collaborator for der-

matology on Eulenburg's "Realcncyklopadie der
Gesammten Ileiikunde"; on Baunigarteu's " Jahres-
bericht iiber die Fortschritte in der Lehre von
den Pathogenen Mikroorganismen " ; and on Vir-
chowHirsch's " Jahresbcricht iibcr die Fortschritte
und Leistungcn in der .Medizin."

Among Unna's publications may be mentioned:
"Kuno Fischer und das Gewissen," in "Zeitschiift
fi'ir Volkcrpsychologie und Sprachwisscnschaft,"
1875, ix. ; "Anatomic der Haul," in Ziemssen's
"Ilandbucli der Allgemeinen Therapie." 1882;
" Hisl()patliologiederHaut,"in supplement to Orth's
"S|)ezielle Pathologic," 1894, and" Allgemeine Ther-
apie der Ilaut," 1898. AH three are standard works.
He publishes the " Histologi.scher Atlas zur Patho-
logic der Ilaut," and, together with Morris, Besnier,
and Diiliring, the " Internationaler Atlas Seltener
Hau tkran kheiten . "

niBLiOGRAPiiY : Hirsch, Biog. Lex.; Pagel, Bioo- Lex.
s. F. T. H.

UNTERFtJHRER. See M.\kki.\ge Ceremo-
nies.

UR : A locality mentioned four times in the Bible
(Gen. xi. 28, 31; xv. 7; 'Neh. ix. 7) with the qualifi-
cation DHK'S (="of the Kasdim," or Chaldees),
and described as the original home of Abrani. Mod-
ern scholars, with few exceptions, are agreed that
Ur is identical with the mound of ruins in southern
Babylonia on the right bank of the Euphrates,
known as Al-Mukair or Al-^Iughair. Tliis was
an ancient seat of lunar Morship; and it was
dominant as a political center as early as 3000 li.c.
Those scholars who incline to establish a connection
between moon-Avorship ("Sin " = "moon") and the
monotheism of Israel ("Sinai") find a corroboration
of their theory in the fact that Abram's original home
was the seat of the worship of Sin (com p. Jensen
in "Zeitschrift fl'ir Assyriologie," xi. 298 et seq.).

E. G. H.

URANIA : Daughter of Abraham the Precentor,
of Worms, who herself acted as precentor in the
women's s\'nagogue in that city before 1275. See

S.VGERIX.

A. F. L. C.

URBINO : Italian cit}'; capital of the province
of Pesaro e Urbiuo; originally tiie capital of the
duchy of Urbino, and later a portion of the States of
the Church. Jews seem to have resided in the city
as early as the thirteenth century, Abraham Anu-
i.AFiA having sojourned there; but existing docu-
ments make no mention of them until the follow-
ing century, in tiie first decades of which a certain
jNIaestro Dauielc went from Viterbo to Urbino, where
he opened a loan-oflice. Toward the close of the
same century his son Isaac received privileges from
Count Antonio. During the following century the
Urbino Jews increased in jirospeiity ; l)ut their gain
in numbers was small. The privilege of lending
money at interest was leserved to the descendants
of Maestro Daniele. Other Jews who
Maestro wished to establish themselves in the
Daniele. business were obliged to obtain per-
mission from the rulers and the privi-
leged families. In 14.30 Sabbatuccio di Alleuzzo, a
Jew of Recanati, was obliged to guarantee the pay-

381

THE JEWISH ENC'Vcini'KDiA

TTnleaTenod Br««d
Urbino

ment of a yearly' tax of 500 sciuli to tlieso families
before he was allowed to ojien a banking-house
in Urbino. With these exceptions, the eity con-
tained only a few Jews, who were either i)iiysieians
or were engaged in the humbler brancjies of trade.

Until the beginning of the sixteenth century the
Jew.s of Urbino were permitted to buy, hold, and
sell real estate; to deal in metals and paper, and to
follow the trades of tailoring and tanning; to reside
iu all portions of the city; and to emjiloy Christian
servants. They were, however, subject to special
taxation, for iu addition to the ordinary taxes and
the "impost of the Marches," levied on all the Jews
of those districts, the mone3-lenders i)aid a separate
tax, though one of them, Solomon of Urbino, stood
high in the favor of Duke Frederick.

Toward the close of the fifteenth century and in
the beginning of the sixteenth the Jews became the
objects of popular persecution. In the year 1468 a
Monte di Piet.\ was established iu opposition to
them; but as it loaned money to the very jjoor only,
and allowed but 4 florins every six months to each
person, the Jews still maintained their banks, and
at the end of the C(;ntury the}' obtained from Guido
Ubaldo a ratification of their former privileges. So
great was their increase in numbers and influence,
moreover, that in 1507 an ellort was made to check
them. The sale of pledges outside the city was for-
bidden; and a committee was appointed to revise
and limit their prerogatives. Then began the pro-
mulgation of a series of decrees against them, which,
however, being issued merely to conciliate the papal
see, produced little eifect. On May 20, 1508, Duke
Francesco Maria annulled all the privileges granted
by his predecessors, and forbade the Jews to acquire
real estate or to act as bankers. He compelled them
to restore without interest all pledges in their pos-
session, to wear the Badge (which consisted of a
yellow cap for uieu and a yellow veil for women),
and to purchase food in the evening onlj'.

Shortly afterward the Jews, who then numbered
about 500, were obliged to take up their abode in a
separate qirarter, known as the "Audrone delle
Giudei," and were forbidden to employ Christians
as servants. Despite these harsh measures, the
Jewish bankers continued to prosper.
The increasing both in numbers and in in-

Ghetto. Huence. At length, in 1512, the munici-
pal council resumed the practise of
borrowing money from them, and sometimes, as in
1571, even pledged to them articles received from
the monte di pieta. In 1598, however, a new de-
cree was issued against lending money ; but an edict
published by the duke in the following year men-
tions the Jews of Urbino, " who conduct loan estab-
lishments," and laws enacted in the same year also
allude to them.

In 1529 Solomon Moi,ko was brought from An-
cona to Urbino by the duke, who sought to shield
him from the consequences of a dispute in which
this protege had been involved in the market-jdace
of Urbino. A Jew named Moses was for many
years the municipal physician of Urbino; and the
court of Guido Ubaldo contained many Jewish
courtiers, who were treated as the equals of their
Christian confreres, although they were so uupopu-

ro-

lar witij the pciii

midgate special decrees for their i.

1024).

In 1556 Guido UbuUlo offcrwl a«ylura In 1.!^ ut-
ritorics. especially at Pesuro, to the *l sho

had lied from Ancorr, ...

there, hoping llnis i. .

of the East. When, however, ho WW that h

were vain, he expelled the r '

For the same reason he wek.

from the Ponlilical Stales hi IMV, only to drive

them out in March, 1570. at llie itihtitncc of I*^ •,'

and when some ventured to reluru, he |..

them a third time (Aug. 10, 1571).

Urbino then entered upon a •■■•■''■ -^ ' >■■.■-■■■■■*
decay; and ihe Jews began to 1.
condition of those who remained U .

worse; and the taxes levied upon 11

ually discontinued. At length, tlirouch «hi
tion of Francesco Maria II. ddla I;

the duchy of Urbino passed into Ihi. ; ....

pope, thus precipitating the dissolution of the Jew-
ish community. In 1718 Ihe nun
was reduced to 200, almost all Ix ,^
erty that they petitioned the pope to exempt them
from contril)uting toward tip ' ■ ,

of the Roman Jews, remindii

occasion, had he not extended aid tu them, tbcjr
would have been obliged to lea'. '
their fortunes elsewhere. The i.
of Urbino at that period was identical with tiiat

of their coreligionists throughout the !'• .'

States. They obtained civic e(|uality at tin

the French Revolution, but lost it ut the in,

receiving it again when the Marches wi • '

to the kingdom of Italy (IHiO). The

of Urbino was owned partly by Catholics unlii i(wl,

when it was acquired by the Jews, and '-'■ ' " "

restored and beautitied. The decay of tin- •

continued, however, until in the y

were but 181 Jews iu the city. whi..

were only 92.

Among the noted rabbi.H of Urbi-

tioned the following: Solomon b. Ai

mon (15th and 16th cents. ~ b.

Rabbis. Abndiam Corco.s. Epir
Porto. Zechariah b. i
Solomon b. Moses Rocoi. Jedidiah l» i i S»h«*

(17thcent.); Jedidiah Hayyim (Ji:
]Mattithiah Nissim b. Jaculi Isr:. i
19th cents.); and Isaac Joseph Cingoll (l»tU ccoL).

BiBi.lor.RAPiiY: Ilavft. In Kihifalxrr
Vojrplstfin ami Hltt.'«T. ' ■ - ' • • '
HtTluifr's Mmiiiziu.
(iriitz. f»V,vf/i. ".Jd ml.. i>
xvl. 61 rt x»i/ . XX. 47
ItiiUa, t*«l. WlentT. p. 1
hiiui ncW EUi Ducate.

u. c.

URBINO : Italian family. oripinatinR in the city
of the same name. The following imporUnl rarm-
bers art' citi'd ill cliriiMiil

Solomon dUrbino : . in»ho«irly

part of the fourteenth 'century, wiurv

the favorof Duke Frp«lerick. am! '■

entitled " Ycf.h Nof."

Isaac Saba' d'Urbino : Son »»( Solumou tlL'r-

Uri
Uriel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

382

bino; nientionwl by Moses Ricti in liis "Mikdasli
Meat " («1. Gulilentlml. p. lOGh).

e '- -n b. Abraham b. Solomon d'Urbino:
F, . ill tlic h»tt«.r i)aii of the tifti-tuth ceiitiii y

and at ihe beginning of the sixteenth. In ir>OUhe
' • ! his -Ohel Mn'ed." a work on Hebrew
- wliich he dedieated to his teacher Oha-
diab. Tliis IxKik was i)rinled at Venice in 1548, and
jj,,..:. . 1 \,y Wiiiluinier with notes by Heidenheim
ai - Vienna. 1881; the " YeUul lia-Ohel,"

Is. .!i Canton's commentary on it, has re-

in.,. • ■ . ... ... ...iiscriiu.

Joseph Baruch b. Zechariah Jedidiah d'Ur-
bino: Live<l in tlie sevi-nteenth century at Mantua,
.VliNli-na. and Busseto. He was the author of the
" Mizmor Shir Yedidot u-Beuot ha-Sliir " (Mantua,
16.j9), a eollt'ction of poems on various subjects.
He gave his approbation to a decision of Ilauaniah
Shullam (Mo<iena,16;36). and made a Hebrew transla-
tion of an Italian work on astronomy, which, how-
ever, has not been printed. He is probably identical
with the Joseph Baruch d'Urbino whoowned Codex
Oxon. 911, and perhaps with Joseph Baruch b. Zera-
biah Urliiiio of Busseto, who possessed Codex Oxon.
848.

Moses Judah b. Isaac d'Urbino : Flourished
at Aucoua in tin.- sevtnleentii century. He is men-
tioned by Abraham Solomon Grazianoin bis annota-
tions and novellffi on the Shulhan Aruk (iii. 308 of
the manuscripts

Jedidiah Zechariah d'Urbino : Nephew of
JehJL-l Trabotti; lived at Pesaro in the eighteenth
century. Ik- was the author of a manuscript vol-
ume of responsa ; and a responsum of his is cited in
the " Shfiiiisb Z<'dakah " (ii. 24) of Samson Morpurgo.

Isaac d'Urbino : Son of Jedidiah d'Urbino;
Jived at Pesaro in the eighteenth century. Codex
Montefiore 111 contains one of his letters ("J. Q. R."
xiv. 185).

BiBMor.RAPHV: Nepl-Ghlrrmdl. Tolednt Gednle Tisrnel. pp.

107, 177. 21<t. 333; SU-lnsM-hnelder. Cat. Bodl. cols. 1538, 2391;

MoriAra, Indict, p. 67; Furst. Dihl. Jud. iii. 461.

" U. C.

URI. See SwiTZF.ni,.\Nn.

URI BEN DAVID BEN MOSES (l^'D^xp) :
Grciil-^:r:iii(is<in ul Sanuiel Edels (MuHaRSHA) ;
ral*bi of Pollno. Lithuania, and chief rabl>i of the
district; flourished in the middle of the seventeenth
century. He was the author of "Or Torah " (Lublin,
1072), commentaries and s<'rmons on the Pentateuch ;
and he includetl in his work several ''peshatim " by
hi- ■- ■ randfather.

"'I 'v: sU'lnwhnfldor, Cat. Umll. col. 3092; Fuonn

h...,..i 1 ,.,,1^/, p. fltj; Stemberi?, (iesch. der Juden in

' ' S. O.

URI PHOEBUS BEN AARON HA-LEVI
(knownalsoasUri Witzenhausen/: Dulcli juinter;
»K)m at .\instenliiui \(;i:i: died tiiere Jan. 27, 1715
(not at Zolkiev in 1713, as Steinschneider records);
son of Aaron lja-I.,evi, hazzan at the Neweh Shalom
^y Amsterdam, and grand.son of Moses Uri

lia 1 .under and first hakam of the Spanish-

Portuguese congregation in that city. After having
first worked as a typesetter for Immanuel Benve-
niste. in wlio'.e establishment he printed Pappen-
heim's edition of the "Mishlc Hakamim" in 1656,

Phoebus opened an establishment of his own in 1658
and carried on business as a printer till 1689. His
imprint was a ewer and two fishes. In the first
year he printed several books, among them a prayer-
book of the German ritual. The last work he issued
was a Sejihardic Mahzor, completed in 1689. Of more
important works only two were printed by Phoebus,
the Shulhan 'Aruk. Hoshen Mishpat, with the
commentary " Sifte Kohen " of ShabbetJiai ha-Kohen
( 1663), and a Juda'o-German translation of the Bible
by Jekuthiel Blitz, who worked as a conector in
Phoebus' printing-house. In 1693 Phoebus opened
a printing-house at Zolkiev, and there printed calen-
dars and ritual and Ju(l;eo-Gernian works till 1705.

It is doubtful whether Uri Phoebus was the
author of the evening benediction in Juda?o-GermaQ
(Amsterdam, 1677) attributed to him; aud he can
scarcely have written the rare Spanish work " Me-
moria Para os Siglos Futuros" {ib. Kislew 10, 5471
= Dec., 1710). which was printed in Portuguese at
the expense of Moses Levy jNIaduro under the title
"Narracao da Vinda dos Judeos Espanhogs a Am-
sterdam " (il>. 1768), this version forming the basis of
the Hebrew translation by Isaac ha-Koheu Belin-
fante.

Bibliography: Furst. Bihl. Jud. iii. 95; SteinschnHder,
Hchi: Bihl. iii. 6: idem. Cat. Budl. cols. 3061 et ae<i.; Stein-
schneider and Cassel. Jlidische T!iiJO(ira))liie, in F:rsct) and
Griiber, Ehcj/c. section ii., part 28, pp. 6,5 -tW ; Hillesiim, in
Centraal Blad voor Israeliten in Ncdcrland, 19(X). No.
13..599; Cardozo de Bethencourt, Aanknmt't der Jodeii te
Amsterdam, pp. 10 et sea., Amsterdam, U)04; Kayserline.
Bibl. Esp.-Pnrt.-Jvul. p. 59.
J. M. Sel.— M. K.

URI (OKI) BEN SIMEON: Scholar of the
sixteenth century; born at Biel (N^'3) ; resided at
Safed. He made an abstract of a manuscript of
1537, giving a list of all the places said to contain
the tombs of the Patriarchs, Prophets, Amoraiin,
and Tannaim, to whicli he added descriptive mate-
rial gathered in the course of his extensive travels,
as well as illustrations of various graves. To this
w-ork, which appeared in Venice in 1659 (2d ed.
1699) under the title "Yihus lia-Abot," was ap-
pended a description of a calendar compiled by him
in 1575. The entire work was translated into Latin
by Hottinger under the title "Cippi Hcbraici, Gcne-
alogia Patriarcharum" (Heidelberg, 1659; 2d ed. ih.
1662); and E. Carmoly later translated the book into
French under the title "Jichus lia-Abot, ou Tom-
beaux des Patriarches," and published it in his
"Itineraires de la Terre Sainte " (" Ilalikot Erez Yis-
rael"), together with a preface and twenty -seven
illustrations from the first Venetian edition. The
"Yihus ha-Abot" was rendered also into Juda-o-
German by an unknown translator, being j)ublislied
under the same title at Wilna in 1853.

Uri ben Simeon was likewise the author of a cal-
endar ("luah") covering a period of forty years.
This work, which first appeared in Venice (1575),
was tran.slated into Latin by Jacob Christmann of
Heidelberg, in which city it was published in 1594.

BiBi.U)f;RAPiiv: Ziinz. In The Ttiuernrti of Ren.laniin of Tu-
dela, pp. 275 27r,. notes a and li ; E. rarniolv. Itiii/rniieK de
la Trrrc Saiiitc. pp. 419-496, Brussels. 1K47; Steinschneider,
Cat. Bodl. cols. 5,58. 815, 3693-2695; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefa-
rim, p. 221.
r.. c. S. O.

URIAH, URIJAH. — 1. Biblical Data: A

Hittite; husband uf Bath-sheba, aud one of David's

383

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

pick(;d warriors. The scanty Biblical allusions to
him are of value as illustrating the taboo under
•\vliicli warriors were eonstraiiu'd to al)stain Inini
sexual intercourse (II Sam. xi. 7-15; see Schwally,
"Kriegsaltertiimcr," p. 48), through which circuni-
staiiee David's plan tocover his illicit relations with
Batlislieba was frustrated. Sent back to camj),
Uriah was placed, by David's secret orders, "in the
forefront of the hottest battle," and fell at the siege
of Kabbah.

Josephus ("Ant." vii. 8,^1) adds many embellish-
ments to the account of the death of Uriah, declar-
ing that when the Ammonites made a sortie and re-
pulsed the besiegers, Uriah remained on the held
with a few others, exposing himself to danger more
than all his comrades, and maintaining his position
until the enemy had surrounded the little band of
heroes and completely destroyed them.

In Rabbinical Literature : The Rabbis, who

naturally could not admit the existence of any flaw
in David's character, regarded Uriah as the one at
fault. They claimed that he had delied David,
since, when the king commanded him to go home,
he replied, "My lord Joab is encamped in the open
fields," thus disregarding the royal bidding (Sliab.
56a; Tos. to Kid. 43a, above).

2. High priest during the reign of Ahaz. Ac-
cording to Isa. viii. 2, he was taken as a faithful
witness bj' Isaiah when the prophet married the
mother of Maher-shalal-hash-baz. II Kings xvi.
10-16 states that Ahaz sent Uriah the pattern of an
altar seen by him at Damascus after the concpiest of
the city by Tiglath-pileser, directing the prophet to
erect a similar one in the Temple, for the olTering of
certain sacrifices. In the list of high priests given
in I Chron. v. 30-40 Uriah's name does not occur,
although it is interpolated in Josephus, "Ant."x.
8, §6.

3. Son of Shcmaiah of Kirjath-jearim; a prophet
of thereign of Jehoiakim. Like Jeremiah, in foretell-
ing the destruction of Jerusalem by the Assyrians
he brought upon himself the anger of the king and
the princes. In fear of death he fled to Egypt,
whereupon Jehoiakim sent an embassy headed l)y
Elnathan b. Achbor, which seized the prophet and
brought him to Jeru.salem, where he was beheaded
by the express command of the king, his body being
tlirown into the graves of the common people (Jer.
xxvi. 20-23).

4. Son of Koz (Neh. iii. 4), probably of the sev-
enth class of priests (com p. I Chron. xxiv. 10). On
the fourth day after the return of the exiles to
Jerusalem, his son ]\Ieremoth weighed the gold, sil-
ver, and vessels brought back from Babylon (Ezra
viii. 33).

5. One of the men who stood at the right hand of
Ezra while the latter read the Law to the people
(Neh. viii. 4).

E. c;. II. S. O.

URIEL : Name of an archangel. Of the four
chief angels, Michaei., Gabkiel, Raphael, and
Uriel, who preside over the four quarters of the
globe (Jensen, " Kosmologieder Babylonier," p. 163),
and who are frequently grouped together, Uriel is
generally, but not invariably, mentioned last,
although in this quartet his name is frequently re-

placed by that .-i ,inwtii< r . ■ ,.

diversity of Ids nature U

Aniel. Sthbe. " JlklisdiHul

p. 26. Halle, 181)5; Nuriel, .-. ,.. i «,.

Oeliinnom," in Jellinek. " B. H." Iii. .

likewise one of tiie seven archiingfU. ljeinKiii«- I ■

of the angels and of TarUiniH (p:n."

his name is given first in tin- list of :
cordini,' to Kautz.«cli (" Apdkrvphcii," ij
("Michael," p. 36), and otherH. Uri-' •
thunder and eartlxiunke, and Ih. n
vine messenger who warns the mm of I,..

end of the world, and bills him hide (Ki ^ . . .

he appears in a like capacity in II Kwl Iv ,

where he propounds three dilhcnll ;

and in.structs him. Of these problt;..

"Weigh me the weight of tlic flro.** a

closely connected in concept with f!

(f'K + 1^K = "the fire of GrKi"). f. : :

from ^K -f lix (= " light of God." "jrlory of GotI •;

Kohut, " Angelologic," p. 83) is -•

conseipiently, the attem[>t to identi:_. : .

the Zoroastrian " Hvarenah " (= "jflory

ond question addressed to Ezm

the waters in the dejiths of thr

firmairient, and thus with the two "teliomot," m

well as with the underworld fShcnl. I!," ■' \

being in entire harmony with KruK-h, .\ •. .

nating Uriel as the archangel of fire and of (.t

iikxna, where flame is tlie chief i ' , • '

passage under consideration this -

speaks of the wind.

In medieval mysticism Uriel is rejf-' i;
source of the heat of the day in winter, a:
princely angel of Sunday, the first day of the \\> • ,.
thus agreeing fully with the explanation of '■'-
ture already given. I.jiter Hutlinritii-s. i
brought his name into a :i with n»K

"light"), mi.sled in part liy i ^ lul that Uri>

structed (enlightened) Ezra. "Why Is he c\
Uriel? On account of the Torali. tin- !'

the Hagiographa, since through him '»

atonement and brings light to Israel " (Num. R. H.

10). Conforming to this view, snl —

ideutitied him with Ha]ihael. the re

(Zunz, "S. P." p. 476). and his name wan wrilU-n on

anudets intended to "illumine " th-

studies ("Sefer Raziel," |i. 42b). I :

also in the magic papyri (Wesw-ly. - ■

Zauberpapyrus," Index. Vi'

GriechischeZaul)erpapyri.' .

I.e. p. 71), and in Babylonian

l.r. p. 231, while accord; ' ininn

thirteenth century the '» of I

ten times in one breath hi ilie mon

fortune for the day (Srhwali. '•^.•.,.

rAngilologie." pp. " 47. «04) On Uriel lo ' ■
PivviT see Zunz. I.e.. ami on - of liin> '.:■.

Christian writings comp. I"-' i>. 114. N-

also Rai'iiaki, for data coi the four •nf •>

as ft group.

jjllll I- . ... I-.I,,-.I.. I!,,l.^^hf lli.»»'

L. a

Uriel d'Acosta
Urim and Thummim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

384

UBIEL DACOSTA. Sec Acosta.

URIEL VON GEMMINGEN. See Pfekfeu-
KORN; IlKlfill.lN.

URIM AND THUMMIM.— Biblical Data:
(J uiiiilcd \M:h llic brcustphitc ol" the high

pr ; used liS a kiutl of divine oracle. Since

Ij. f the Alexandrian translators of the Old

Tt-v I it has been asserted that D'om Dmx

mean -revelation and truth" ((>//?ua<f Kal a/.r/Heia),
or "li. •ions" (cxj7"«T^oi khI rc/.eoTr^Ter) ■

the n. . , , of Synimachus (Jerome, " per-

fectjo et doclrina": Field, "Ilexapla" on Deut.
XX- ' 1 the Ounauoi nai Tc'/.edjaciq of A(iuila

aii^; i ..an. The Vulgate has "doctriiia [after

Symmachus; Old Latin, "ostensio " or "demonstra-
tie"] ct Veritas." There is. however, no foundation
for such a view in the Bible itself. E.x. xxviii. 13-
80 describes the high-priestl}- ephod and the breast-
pi the Urim and Thummim. It is called a
**L - , lie of judgment" C'hoshen ha-mishpat");
it is four-square and double ; and the twelve stones
were not jmt inside the hoshen, but on the outside.
It is related in Lev. viii. 7-8 that when, in compli-
ance with the command in Ex. xxix. 1-37, Moses
ci • 1 Aaron and his sons as priests, "He
[M , It upon him [Aaron] the coat, and girded
him with the girdle, and clothed him

Biblical with the robe, and put the ephod upon
References, him, and he girded him with the cun-
ningly woven band [A. V. "curious
girai"- ■■] of the ephod, and bound it unto him there-
with. And he put the breastplate upon him: and
in the breastpUite he put the Urim and the Thum-
mim." Deut. xxxiii. 8 (R. V.), in the blessing of
Mose.s, reads: "And of Levi he sjxid: Thy Thum-
mim and thy Urim are with thy godly one, whom
thou didst prove at Massah, witii whom thou
didst strive at the waters of Meribah " (see Steuer-
nagel, " Deuteronomium," p. 125, Gottingen, 1898;
Bertholet, " Deuteronomium," p. 106, Freiburg,
1899; Driver, "Deuteronomy," in "International
Critical Conunentary," p. 398, New York, 1895;
Baudissin, " Gesch. des Alttcstamentlichen Priestcr-
thuin.s," p. 76). The most important passage is I
Sam. xiv. 41, where Wellhausen and Driver have
corrected the text, on the basis of the Sei^tuagint,
to read as follows: "And Saul said: Lord, God of
Isra<'l, why hast thou not answered thy servant this
day? If this iniquity be in me or in Jonathan my
son. Lord, Gml of Israel, give Urim; but if it be
in thy people Israel, give Thummim. Then Jona-
than and Said were taken by lot; and the people
escaped" (Driver, "Notes on the Hebrew Text of
the B(K>ks of Pamuel,"p. 89, Oxford, 1890; Budde,
"The Books of Samuel," in Polychrome Bible, \). 63;
II. P. Smith. "The Books of Samuel," p. 122; Kirk-
putrirk. "The First Bonk of Samuel," in "The Cam-
bridge Bilile for Schools and Colleges," 1891, p. 137).

I Sam. xxviii. 3-6 mentions three methods of di-
vine communieation : (1) the dream-oracle, of which
frequent mention is made also in Assyrian and
Babylonian literature; (2) the oracle by means of
the Urim Hiere. undoubtedlj', an abbreviation for
"Urim and Thummim "); (3) the oracle by the word
of the Prophets, found among all Semitic nations.

The only other mention of actual consultation of
Yiiwii by means of the Urim and Thummim
found in the Old Testament is in Num. xxvii.
21. Eleazar was then iiigh priest, and Moses was
permitted by the Lord to address Him directly. But
Joshua and his successors could speak to the Lord
only through the mediation of the high priest and
by means of the Urim and Thummim. It is quite
probable that the age of Ezra and Nehemiah was no
longer cognizant of the nature of the Urim and
Thummim (Ezra ii. 63; Neh. vii. 65; see also I
Mace. iv. 46, xiv. 41). Post-exilic Israel had neither
the sacred breastplate nor the Urim and Thummim.
Ezra ii. 63 tacitly contradicts the assertion of Jose-
phus ("Ant." iii. 8, ^ 9, end) that the Urim and
Thummim first failed in the j\Iaccabeanera(B. Niese,
" Flavii Joseplii Opera," i. 202; see also Sotah ix.
12;Tosef.,Sotah, xiii.2;Yer. Kid. iv. 1 ; Hyle,"Ezra
and Nehemiah," p. 32). Ecclus. (Sirach) xxxiii. 3
may possibly prove a knowledge of the tradition
concerning the use of the Urim and Thummim ; but
it can not be inferred that answers were received at
that time by means of them(V. Ryssel, in Kautzsch,
"Apokryphen," p. 394).

The Urim and Thummim are implied, also, where-
ever in the earlier history of Israel mention is made
of asking counsel of the Lord by means of the ephod
(Josh. ix. 14; Judges i. 1-2; xx. 18 [rejected as a
later gloss from ib. i. 1 by most commentators], 26-
28; I Sam. x. 22; xiv. 3, 18, 36 et seq.; xxii. 10,
13; xxiii. 2, 4, 6, 9-12; xxviii. 6; xxx. 7 et seq. ; II
Sam. ii. 1; v. 19, 2'ietseri.; xxi. 1. Ou the nature
of the ephod see G. F. Moore, "Judges," 1895, pp.
380-399, where copious references and the literature
are given; idem, "Ephod," in Cheyne and Black,
"Encyc. Bibl."; and especially T. C. Foote, "The
Ephod," in "Jour. Bib. Lit." [1902] xxi. 1-48). In
all cases except I Sam. x. 22 and II Sam. v. 23 et
seq., the answer is either "Yes" or "No." It has
been suggested by Riehm and others

Answer that these two passages have under-
"Yes" or gone editorial changes. After the
"No." death of David no instance is men-
tioned in the Old Testament of con-
sulting the Lord by means of the Urim and Thum-
mim or the ephod. This desuetude is undoubtedly
occasioned by the growing influence of the Old
Testament prophecy.

The ancient, and most of the modern, explanations
of these mysterious instruments through which
Ynwii communicated His will to His chosen people
identify them with {a) stones in the high priest's
breastplate, {!>) sacred dice, and (f) little images of
Truth and Justice such as are found round the neck
of the mummy of an Egyptian priest (see Muss-
Arnolt, "The Urim and Thummim," in "Am. Jour.
Semit. Lang." July, 1900, pp. 199-204). The "Tablets
of Destinj' " which occur in the Assyro-Babjionian
account of Creation and otherwise figure in Assyro-
Baby Ionian conceptions suggest the correct explana-
tion of the Hebrew Urim and Thummim. One of the
functions ascribed to tlie Babylonian seer was to
deliver oracles and to consult the god, whose an-
swer was either " Yes " or " No. " Quite often the god
sends to his people an " urtu," a command to do, or
not to do, something. " Urtu " belongs to the same

385

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Uriel d'Acoata
Urim and Thummim

Stem fioin which is derived "ertu," the "terminus
tecliiiiciis " for "oracle." TIk; gods speak (■'taimi,
utanimti ") to tlie priest tiu; oraeie whieh tliey re-
veal ; and the oraeie is called " the mysterious word,
revelation." Since God "at sundry timesand in divers
manners spake in time past," not only unto the
fathers by the Prophets, but to all maidsind in waj's
which it is now almost imjxjssihle to trace precisely,
it is quite ])ossible that the mythological acc:ount
■of the Tablets of Destiny and the Old Testament
Urim and Tlnunmim, both shaping the destiny of
king and nation, revert to the same fountaiidiead
and origin. Notwithstanding the fragmentary ac-
count of Babylonian literature and the scanty report
of Old Testament writers, some points conmiou to
both may yet be gathered.

(1) According to Iv\. xxviii. 30 and Lev. viii. 8,
the Urim and Thummim rested within the breast-
plate, that is, on the breast of tlie liigli

Babylo- priest; in the Babylonian account the

nian Tablets of Destiny rested on the

Accounts, breast of their possessor. Only so

long as they were resting on the breast

of the god in the case of the one nation, and on the

breast of the high priest in that of the other, were

they efficacious.

(2) In the Babylonian accounts, only tliose gods
who, in some way, were considered the messengers
and mediators between the other gods and mankind
were the lawful possessors of the Tablets of Des-
tiny. In Israel the Urim and Thummim were en-
trusted by Yuwii to Moses, and througii him to the
high priest as the representative of Yiiwii and as
the mediator between God and the nation to whose
decisions, through the Urim and Thummim, even
kings bowed.

(3) There is, to be sure, in the Babylonian records
no statement as to the e.vact number of the Tablets
of Destiny. It is known that there were more than
one; it may not be too hazardous to assume that
there were only two, one lying on each breast: one
revealing (or prognosticating ?) good fortune; the
other, misfortune. The Old Testament accounts of
the Urim and Thummim indicate that there were
only two objects (lots '!).

(4) Marduk, after he had torn the Tablets of Des-
tiny from tlie breast of his dead foe, sealed them
with his own seal. There may be a reminiscence of
this in Ex. xxviii. 21. The use of twelve stones,
one for each of the twelve tribes, in addition to the
two lots (of stone), is perhaps of some significance in
this connection.

(5) Marduk, bearing on liis breast the Tablets of
Destiny, presided at the annual assembly of the
gods, where the fate was determined and the lot
was cast for king and nation. It is the general opin-
ion that the Urim and Thummim were consulted
only in cases where the safety of king or nation was
concerned.

In Israel the development of a strict monotheism
necessarily modified the conception of the Urim and
Thummim. No description of them is found in the
Old Testament; they are mentioned as something
familiar both to Moses and to the people— an in-
heritance received from the time of their ancestors.
The very fact that the Old Testament assumes that
XII.— 25

the

Moses and the people were ttC(|iiuin!

nature (.f the Urim uml Tliiininiim -

view that llie latter were i ,

the functions of the high ,

between Yiiwii and Ilin people

The etymology of Qn^x ami D":,"
Zimmerii and others, supports llie < '
here. The so-called plural ending of tlic Iwov
expresses the "plunilis int. ■ •• •

forni, but not in meaning. • 1 ;

not with -n{<T= "curse, put under llic !
Schwally and others have held. b«it • ■' •

Ionian " u'liru." the :
Etymology " piel " of "a'aru," fnmi win.

of rived also tlw nounH^ur''-

the Words, mand, order, deeision " 0

gods) and "tertu " (oi

same meaning). TIkhc worda <M-t..; i

Assyro-Babyloinan literature in senten.

inform to those in wliieh"L'rim and '1 h

are used in the Old Testijnient. The pb. is

(" fires ") has no doubt had some influenre ii

the analogous form DniX ~ "urtu." C"-"~

ent writer connects with the .Vssyrian ' . I

" tummu," verbal forms also belonging; to the •

ular language. "Urim and Thununim "

then, to the Babylonian "uitu" and "

latter a synonym of " piristu " = "omcle, orui-uhtr

decision [of the gods]." That '"

of the two words and their sii:ii i

even at the time when the Old Testament reconU. in

which they are mentioned, were writt V

ingly doubtful; that they were not kii' »

the Greek translators or to the early Ma»oritot is

practically certain.

15nu.iO(iKArii Y : In ndditlon tn works nn'l nrttflt^ ?n#n!»»»t»«w1 Jn
tlie l)i>il.v of tlie ariicl*'. Biixtnrf. Hi"'
in tiis ihJ.rrrcitntiinifii, pp. rafTff •
Kdurux, vol. xii.: Spt-ncfr. /'<• /
hU!<. !(►'<">; I.iulwiir Dlestel. di ■
(lir Clirisllichi ti K'irc/ic, .leiia. .
Hnupt, /{«M/-K)ir i/r. xvl. 74<l<f m ,
226 rl .•.«;</.. l>y KaiilZ-M-li : IJiilir. >
Robert-son Smiili. Thf OhI Tcfi
2d ed.. p. 2!^', London, lWt'>; I
AUtrxtniiiciillifhi II l'rii~'
27. 140. 141 ; H.-nzinir.-r, .i
7?. K. :Vl.>d.. li.Wi i-.l- ■
lam (l.><tJlti. ii. 4(i:{; >■
Das I')iisUrlic)ir ' •
Uichm. JlninlwCiiiiThurh. ild mi., i.

nrhichlc. 2d ed.. i. l.'A 471 4T;<. .'HiV-'irtl, !

literaiure is fminil in Ki
lirflcr. i. .5, .No. 2; Hiin<-." •
in Otil Trxtitiiiitit Siu<l.
un.siitlsfiict.iry): Doskcr. 7
hfltiriiui (Uiil liitiiiiiiiii 1
in T. Wlit.in Iinvi<'S. .Vo
1S9M. A vcrv convi'iili'iit -
Thf First iimili ni -
added the arililf Ji
ar\i iif till- Itihlf. 111. 1"" I"'
nedv, I'riin mtil Tliuinmiin.

Ktt^l. New York, lat.': and 1

nif (If" Ml the Ltritlcal Ritual, In Jour. Uii- ■ '

.W. 72 W.s,-,.

E. O. II. *^ ' **•

In Rabbinical Literature: 1- ' •- '•

uiiuniinous in stating that the ii<«- '<f
Thununim ceased with the de-
Temple, or. in other word.s. w,;.,
Older Prophets; and they were
things lacking in the Se<ond Ten
[=481)]; Yoma 21b: Yer. Ivid. '
states ("Ant." iii. 8. ^ 9) that "this oracle bad '
silent" for 200 vears before his lime, or from the days

TTrim and Tbuxmnim
Usque

THE JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA

386

of John Hyrcanus. The teachers of tlie Talmud,
however, if their own stutemeuts may be believed,
1 ■ - :.ver seen tlie Urim and Tliummim, and re-
. them as the "great and lioly name of God "
written on the breastplate of the high priest (Targ.
pseudo-Jonatlian to Ex. xxviii. 30i; and they ety-
n>ologi/.e" L'rim " as "those whose words give light,"
while "Tlmmmim" is explained as "th<ise whose
wonls are f ultilled " (ib. ; Yoma 73b ; Yer. Yoma 44c).

Tlte omele was consul led in the following manner:

The high priest donned his eight garments, and tiie

person for whom he sought an answer

Mode of stocKi facing liim, while he himself
Con- turned toward God {i.e., the Sukki-

Bultation. sah). It was necessary tiiat the ques-
tion shouKl be brief and tliut it siiould
b« .':ced, but not aloud; while the answer was

a r^ , ..;. :i of the query, eitijer in the allirmalive or
in the negative. Only one question might be asked
at a time: if more than one were put, the first alone
received a reply. Tlie answer was given by the let-
ters of tJjc names of the tribes which were engraved
upon the high priest's breastplate (Yoma 73a, b;
Yer. Yonm44c; Sifre, Num. 141). If the queslion
was not distinctly worded, the reply might be mis-
ui! " 1. as in Judges xx. 18 et seq. (Slieb. 3.")b;

Yi . A decision by the oracle migiit be de-

inande<I only by the king, or by the chief of the
-' court, or by a prominent man within the
.nity, such as a general of the arm}', and
it might be sought only for tiie common weal
(Yoma 7. end. 73a: "one anointed for war"; Targ.
pseudo-Jonathan to Ex. xxviii. 30: "in case of
need").' According to Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to
Ex. xxviii., the breastplate was used to proclaim
victory in battle. It was neces.sary that the high
priest who questioned the oracle should be a man
upon whom the Shekinah rested (Yoma 731)).

The chanicteristic feature of the Shekinah was
radiance; and Joseph us, who believed that God was
pre.s«-nt at every sacrifice, even when offered by
Gentiles, states that the oracles were revealed
through rays of light:

" But aa tf> those stones, which we told you before, the hiRh

priest barv on his dhoulders ... the one of them shined out

when (jod was pre.sent at their sarriflces . . .

Belation hrlfrht raysdartlntfout thence ; and being seen

to the even hy lhi»8<i that were most rehiote; which

Shekinah. splendor yet was not before natural to the

stone. . . . Vet will I mention what is still

■ ' ' "' ■ ■ this: for God declared beforehand, by

■ h the high priest bare on his breast, and

»iii. ri «.r. Ill- ri.-.i into his bn-astplut*', when they should be

vlrUirloud In Uiltle: for so threat a splend<jr shone f(jrth from

them U'fori- '' •, l(, march, that all the people were

m-nnlbleof (, nt for their a-sslstance. Whence It

'^" ' i!i'M: urcfliswho had a veneration for our

'■■•' 'ould not r>o»sibly contradict this, called that

••- !/.'. Oracle " (" Ant." Ill, 8, g 9, Whiston's transl.) .

1 ii. Tiilmudic concept seems to Imve been iden-
tirjil wiih the view of Jnsephus, holding that the re-
ply of the Urim and Thummim was conveyed by
rays of light. Two scholars of the third century,
however, who iiad lost the vividness of the earlier
concept, gave the explanation that tho.se stones of
the brejistplate which contained the answer of the
oracle either stood out from the others or formed
lhem.««;lves into groups (Yoma 73b).

The division of the country was made according
to tiie L'rim and Thummim, since the high priest,
"filled with the IIt)ly Sjiirit," proclaimed the tribe
to which each division should belong. After this,
lots were drawn from two urns, one containing the
name of the tribe and the other that of tiie territory,
and these were found to harmonize with the high
priests announcement (B. B. 122a; Sanli. 16a;
comp. Yer. Yoma 41b, below). To enlarge the Holy
City or the Temple court the orders of the king, of
a prophet, and of the Urim and Tliumiiiiin were
necessary (Sheb. 2, 3, 16a; Yer. Slieb. 33il, below).
In Yer. Sauh. 19b the question is propounded why
the Urim and Thummim are needed when a prophet
is present.

BiBLiOfJRAPHT: Winer. Ii. R. ii. f>44-r4.'); Hamburper. E. Ti.
T. i. lUK-llKM; Herzop-I'litt. Heal-Eiiciic xvi. 2-J«-:i3:i: Has-
tings, Diet. Bible, iv. ^4(»-H4l ; M. Duscbak, Josep/ius Flavins
und die Tradition, pp. 5-7, Vienna, 1861.
w. B. L. B.

URY, ADOLPHE (SIMON): Alsatian rabbi;
born at Niederbronn, Lower Alsace, June 14, 1849.
He was educated at the lyceum of Strasburg and
the rabbinical seminary in Paris, receiving tJie de-
grees of doctor and cliief rabbi, his thesis being " Les
Arts et les Jletiers chez les Ancicus Juifs Selon la
Bible et le Talmud." In 1875 he was appointed
rabbi of Lauterburg, Lower Alsace, whence he was
called ten years later to the rabbinate of Brumath,
succeeding Solomon Levy. In the following year
he became professor of Bible exegesis and Jewish
history at the rabbinical school which had been es-
tablished at Strasburg; and when, in 1890, that in-
stitution was clo.sed for lack of funds, Ury was
chosen chief rabbi of Lorraine, with his seat in Metz.
In 1899 he became cliief rabbi of Strasburg and
Lower Alsace, which position he still (1905) holds.

USAGE. See Custom.

USHA. See Synod of Usha.

USISHKIN, MICHAEL : One of the leaders
of the Russian Zionists; born in 1863 in Dubrovna,
government of Moghilef (Mohilev). In 1871 he went
with his parents to Moscow% He studied the Bible
and Talmud in the heder till he was thirteen years
old, and then passed successively through the pro-
fessional and imperial technical schools, graduating
from the latter in 1889 as an engineer. Since 1891
he has resided in Yekaterinoslav.

In addition to his secular instruction, Usishkin
obtained a thorough Jewish education, and he has a
good knowledge of the Neo-Hebrew literature. His
public activity began while he was yet at sciiool. lie
was one of the founders of the Bilu, the Jewish
national students' organization, which formed the
first Jewish colony in Palestine (see Ji:w. Encvc.
i. 248b); afterward he was one of the organizers of
the students' Chovevei Zion and Bene Zion societies
in Moscow. In 1887 he took part as delegate from
Moscow in the Chovevei Zion conference at Drus-
genik, government of Grodno; and in 1890 he was
one of the founders of the Odessa Association for
Aiding the Jewish Colonists in Palestine. After
the Palestinian scheme had been transformed into
the present jiolitical Zionist movement Usishkin be-

387

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Unm ttiid Thummim

cume one of the most ardent followers and collabora-
torsof Herzl, with wiiom ]ie began a correspondence

in IsfiO; and since tlicn he has bi'cii one of tiie most
cnersjelic propagandists of Zionism among the
Russian Jews. Usishkin has taken part in all the
Zionist congresses except tiie sixth, and is one of
the members of the Zionist Actions-Connie. In
1903 he was sent to Palestine by this committee and
by the Chovevci Zion to jnirchase land for new colo-
nies, and to organize the colonists anil other Jews
of Palestine.

Usisiikin is a stif)ng opponent of the Uganda proj-
ect, and stands at the head of the party in Zionism
which believes that the regeneration of the Jewish
people can be accomjilished in Palestine alone. In
tiie twenty-four years of his activity as a leader of
the Zionist movement lie has contributed to the
Jewish magazines many articles on different ques-
tions relating to Zionism; and ins latest Avork is
an account of the Zionist program, published by him
in five languages (Hebrew, Yiddish, Russian, Ger-
man, and English). See Zionism.

II. K. S. Hu.

XJSQ,UE : Family deriving its name from the
Spanish city of Iluesca (the ancient Osca; Ilebr.
npt^'IS), where it originated, its members emigrating
thence to Portugal, and finally to Italy, to escape
the Inquisition.

Abraham TJsque : Italian printer; born at Lis-
bon, where he was known as Duarte Pinel ; son
of Solomon Csque. Some time after 1543 he went
to Ferrara, where he termed himself "Abraham
Us(iue," and established a large piintery, adopting
as his imprint a globe with Isa. xl. 31 as the legend.
His establishment published some Juda'o-Si)ani.sh
rituals and Portuguese works, and between ISOl
and lo.lTit issued about twenty-eight Hebrew books,
including an unpointed Hebrew Bible, all of these
works being edited by Samuel Zarfati, Isaac al-
Hakim, Menahem b. Moses Israel, and narueh Uzziel-

Usque's principal work was the valuable Ferrara
Bible, bearing the title "Biblia en Lengua Espanola
Traducida Palabra por Palabra de la Verdad Ilebra-
yca por Muy Excelentes Letrados, Vista y Exanu-
nada por el Oficio de la Inquisicion. Con Privilegio
del Yiustrissimo Senor Du(iue de Ferrara." Tiiis
Bible, which isa revision of an earlier translation
rather than a new version, was issued at the expense
of the Spaniard Y'om-Tob b. Levi Athias, who,
as a Marano, assumed the name " Jerouimo de Var-
gas." Two slightly modified copies (not two
editions) of tliis Bible were struck off, to be sid)-
mitted to the Inc^uisition, one of them being dedi-
cated to Duke Ercole de P^ste, and the other, in-
tended for the Jewish public, inscribed in honor of
D. Gracia Nasi. New editions of the Ferrara Bible
were published at Salonica in 1568, and at Amster-
dam in 1611, 1630, 1646, 1661, 1695. etc. Before
leaving Lisbon, Abraham Duarte Pinel published a
"Latiuaj GrammaticiC Compendium" anda"Trac-
tatus de Calendis" (Lislmn, 1543).

The identity of Abraham Usque and Duarte Pinel,
as well as of Y'om-Tob b. Levi Athias and Jeronimo
de Vargas, was first shown by Isaac da Costa in his
"Israel und die Volker" (German trausl. by Mann,

p. 282). See Jew. Encvc. .. ..,..,,, ... Yon-Ton
iJEN Levi Athias.

Unil.IfXiRAPllv : G. B. tin n<»wil. Ix ,(tn.

Firrariiuxi, eh. vl.; Idf-nj, iJizimm
:(-'•»); Sttlnsrhni'liiir. llilir. Ililil. n
dim. ]). HO; Idem, Uilil. Enii.l'nrt.J

Samuel Usque: Poet and historian: ancnrkini^

man (iiut not a brother) of the prinltr A'

Usijue, whose contemporury he wuh ut i .

whence Samuel later went to Sufe<l. No fiirtlier

details of his life are known, but !

high culture, and one of the most iij

among the Jewish writers of the mi<ldlf of tlichiv-

teenth century. He was tlioronghly v.

Bible, wrote Portuguese correctly, iind« i

ish and Latin, and had a pliilo»ophicul Ix-nt.

To confirm the >hiranos in their faith and to pre.
vent aposta.sy from Judaism. I'sque wrote in P".|.
tuguese " Consola(;am as Tril)ula^-oe8 do YHnu'l"
(Ferrara, 1553; 2d ed. Amsterdam, n.d ), a work on
the trials and tribulations of tiie Jewish peojiie. tn.
getherwith the causes of their vari(ai8 sorrows. Thin
l^rose poem, wiiieh is dedicated to Gracia Mcmifsi*
is divided into three dialogues between th«' pnln-
arch Irabu (Jacob), who is intnHluced as a -
lamenting the fate of his ciiildren yumro i "
and Zintreo (Zechariah). In the first two d:
the author narrates the liistory of tlie i
down to the destruction of the Second Ten;; .. .
describes their sulferings under the Honmn rtih-, lo-
sing his account on the Books of Ma<( ii!ni-s iv:.! ,■::
Josephus. The work derives its impoitann. jm'A.
ever, and its martyrologic charncter from the Uilnl
dialogue, which, in thirty-seven numi" •
the sufferings of the Jews to the auliior -
and quotes tiie prophecies whicli were thereby ful
filled. The narrative begins with tin-
by Sisebut, which is followed by the -
alleged desecrations of the host in France und ^Snain
the sufferings of the Jews in Persia. Italy, r
and Germany ; the accusjitions against tliem
and France;their persecution in Spuinand Porn;.
ami the fortunes of those who were exileti f- "
last-named country. The story of tlicso u:'
most of them given in chronological onler. ronriu«l< s
with words of consolation tjiken from tlic Bible.

Usque's chief sources for his history worn Alfoniwi
de Spina's "Fortalitiuin Fidei " (cited as " F. Y " ■■
"F. Fi<l."). which he attacked, am! also the "( • '
nica de Espana," "Estorias de S. Denis de Frai. .
(ch. X.). "Coronica Dos Empenidores e '
and other similar records. The abbri ...... .

I. E. B," "E. B." and "V. M." aliio occur frr-

quently in Usque's work. The first two

posed by Isidor Locb to stand for "LiImt I«

Berga" (Verga), in which case they would tJ.

the first edition of the "Shehet Yeliudnh " < ' '

ibn Verga. Gratz, however, thinks they ■

" Liber Efodi." and lie thus aASumcathat bolJj JmUh

and Usque, who generall.v

"Zikron ha Shemadot " of 1

breviaiion " V. M " is a.s yet unexplained.

" Consolavam " was freipienily ' ' "•; J^ •- l "

Kohen, author of the " Emek 1.

BiBMor.RArMT: DeRo«|.H.mhj.r«.T. »i'^:_^,f''^'r*':^f*'*
»tn ; ni.>s. f>hi.li<M«. pp. <»< " "■</.;<•'*

TJaury

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

388

V5, ., ,•*-.'••'.■ Troof igraeVit in Seinrn Trahiioietu in
V^^ ' . stifUmnfft-gt d€.^ Al:ailemt:<chen

I <ch pi>. -M-~. Berlin. ISW; Kayser-

Jiii*:. Xi..-' . i-j'.-i . ' ;.-ju.(. p. KIT: K. K.J. xvi. 211 t( sty.,

Solomon Usque (Salusque; called by Barhosa
M:uh;i.l.. Seleuco Lusitano ; .Maraiio uame, Du-
arte Gomez) : Pott ami iiiLTchaut ; born in Portu-
gal; lived at Ferrara, Venice, and Ancoua in the
middle of the sixteenth century ; died after 1567.
He made a Spanish translation of the poems of Pe-
trarch, entitled "Sonetos. Canciones, :\Iadrigales y
Se.\tinas de Grande Poeta y Orador Francisco Pe-
trarcha: Primeira Parte" (Venice. 1567), and dedi-
cated to Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma and
Piacenza. It was greatly admired by his coutem-
poruries for its artistic workmanship. Usque wrote
also an Italian ode on rlie si.\ days of Creation, dedi-
cated to Cardinal Borromeo; and he collaborated
with Lazaro Graziano in the composition of the
Spanish drama "Esther," which was translated into
Julian by Leon of M(Hlena( Venice, 1619). He acted
also as a business agent for Joseph Nasi, and en-
joyed both his favor and that of Nasi's mother-in-
law, Gracia Mendesia.

Another Solomon Usque (probably a native of
Huesca, whence his name) was the father of the
printer Abraham Usque; and a third was a typog-
rapher at Constantinople in 1561.

BrBi.iOGRAPHV : Barbosa Machado. BihJintheca Lusitana, iii.
671.716; Wolf, liild. Hehr. iii. :!nO. lUi.5: iv. 97;i; De Rossi-
Hambenrer, HUt. ^VOrterh. p. 324 ; Gratz, Oixcli. i.\.. pp. Ixii.
el frq.; Kayserlinp. Sephardim, pp. 141, ;J40; idem, BihI.
F.iip.-1'rTt.-Jufl. p. 107 ; Ersch and Gruber, Encyc. pan ii..
iw^tlun 2». p. 'Ji).
c. M. K.

USURY : In modern language this term denotes
a rate ot interest greater than that whicli the law or
public opinion permits; but the Biblical law, in all
dealings among Israelites, forbids all "increase" of
the debt by reason of lapse of time or forbearance, be
the rate of interest high or low, while it does not
impose any limit in dealings between Israelites and
Gentiles. Hence in tliscussing Jewish law the
words "interest" and "usury" may be used indis-
criminately.

There are three Biblical pa.s.sages which forbid the
taking of interest in the case of "brothers," but
which permit, or seemingly enjoin, it when the bor-
rower is a Gentile, namely, E.\. x.xii. 24; Lev. .\.xv.
36, :i7: Deut. xxiii. 20, 2*1.

The Hebrew word for " usury " is "neshek," mean-
ing literally "abite," fiomits painfulnessto the debt-
or; while in Lev. xxv. 36, 37 "increase" is the ren-
dering of the Hebrew "marbit"or "tarbit" which
denotes the gain on the creditor's side, and which
in the later Hebrew becomes "ribbit." Lending on
usury or increase is classed by Ezekiel (xviii. 13, 17)
among the worst of sins. See also Ps. xv., in which
among the attiibutes of the righteous man is reck-
oned the fact that he does not lend on usury.

The Talmiid (B. M. 61b) dwells on Ezek. xviii.
13(Hebr.): "He has lent on usury; he has taken
interest; he shall surely not live, having done all
these, abominations"; on the words with which the
prohibition of usury in Lev. xxv. 36 closes: "Thou
Shalt be afraid of thy God"; and on the further
words in which Ezekiel (/.c.) refers to the usurer:

"He shall surely suffer death; his blood is upon
him " ; hence the lender on interest is compared to
the shediler of blood.

The sages of the Mishnah knew full well that the
forbearance of a debt causes a measurable loss.
Thus the following case is i)Ut: A holds a demand
on B for 1,000 zuzim payable by agreement in ten
years; but two witnesses testify that
Loss on a B had agreed to pay in thirty days.
Debt. An alibi is proved against the wit-
nesses: and they are condemned as
"plotting witnesses" to i)ay the difference between
1,000 zuzim payable iu ten years and the same sum
payable in thirty days (^lak. i. 1). It often happens
that money is paid to. -i husband in right of his wife,
in which right he hasan estate for life or during cov-
erture. In modern times the money might be in-
vested, and the husband would draw the interest or
dividends; but in all such cases the IMishnah says:
"Let ground be bought and the huslmnd receive the
income!" The Babylonians, from whom the post-
exilic Jews learned much in the way of legal terms
and forms, were accustomed to charge interest at
the rate of 20 per cent per annum. Nearly, if not
(juile, all of their contract tablets show this rate of
increase. (The first allusion in the Babylonian Tal-
mud to a rate of interest [B. B. GOa] is to one of 20
per cent.) Yet with this knowledge, that the use
of capital has a measurable value, and with the ex-
ample of the Babylonians before them, the sages of
the Mishnah not only do not mitigate the Scriptural
injunction against interest, but carefully close many
avenues of evasion, and forbid even all kinds of
"moial usury."

The chapter on usury and increase (B. M. v.) com-
mences thus: " What is usury ["neshek "J and what
is increase [" tarbit "] 'i " ; but by the latter word it
seems to refer only to the rabbinical enlargement
of the antiusury law. The former mode of dealing
is easily illustrated; e.g., "where one lends 4 denarii
on a promise of the return of 5; or
Usury and 2 bushels of wheat when 3 are to
Increase, be returned"; but the latter, an in-
crease in "fruits" (i.e., provisions
which pass by quantity), is more complex and is
put thus: "A has bought from B a kor of wheat
for 25 denarii ( = zuzim),which is the market price;
afterward, when wheat has gone up to 30 denarii,
A says: ' Deliver to me the wheat which I bought
from you, as I wish to sell it and buy wine with the
proceeds.' B answers: 'Very well, your wheat is
sold to me lor 30 zuzim, and you have wine [as
much as 30 zuzim will buy at the ruling market
price] in my hands ' ; when in fact B has no wine
in his possession." Now the first deal, i.e., B's
buying the wheat back ataliigher price than he had
.sold it for, is not objectionable as usury but his
agreeing to deliver a named quantity of wine which
is then worth 30 zuzim, but which he does not own,
at some future time, when he might have to buy it
in the open market at a higher price, is not indeed
Scriptural but is rabbinical usury. The reason is
given: B, who owes A 30 zuzim, takes the risk of
having to pa\' it later on in wine, which maj' cost him
more than 30 zuzim, in order to gain forbearance
for his debt. This rule forbids, on the ground of

389

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Usury

usury, the sale of futures, made wlien the market
price has not yet been tixetl.

Bonie kinds of par! iicisiiip (h-alings also are forbid-
den, because the partner without means is made to
incur the risk of his time and labor

Case of besides tiiat of loss by accidents or de-
Partner- prcciation, in consideration of tiie cap-
ship, ital furnished by the other. For in-
stance, one may not fjive one's corn to
a shopkeeper to sell at retail on half the profit over
the wholesale price with which he is charged, nor
may one give the shopkeeper money wherewith he
may buy at wholesale and then sell on half the prof-
its— because he runs the risk of fire and Hood and
robbery and of fall in price — unless he is paid wages
for selling. And so with the breeding of chickens
or the feeding of calves or colts on half profit;
though the rule does not apply to cows or other
grown beasts which "earn their keep." Comment-
ing on B. M. V. 4, K. Judah (tanna of the 2d cent.,
pupil of Akiba) says {ih. 68b) that a nominal
compensation, say a single dry fig, given to
the working member of the special partnership is
sufficient to exempt it from the usurj^ laws. In mod-
ern Jewish practise this view has been followed.
The contract between the moneyed man and the
small trader is known as "shetar 'iska"; and in the
well-known scrivener's handbook "NahalatShib'ah "
(Amsterdam, 1667) two forms of such an instrument
are printed, which the compiler (Samuel ben David
Jia-Levi) follows up with an extract from an emi-
nent rabbi of Lublin to this effect: "A man may
say to his friend: ' Here are a hundred florins for
thee in business [KpOy^], half profit and half loss.
If thou shoulde-st say, " I have lost " or " I have not
earned any monej'," thou must take a solemn oath
to clear thyself.' But he must give him wages for
his trouble; however, anything [XinjJ' PD] is enough
for the purpose." Such special partnerships date
back a very considerable time; for 4,000 years ago
the}' were fully regulated by King Hammurabi in
sections 100-107 of his code of laws for Babylon,
and it seems that in quite modern times they have
been common.

One may not give to an Israelite (money where-
with) to buy a certain quantity of corn before the
market price ("sha'ar")is known; this restriction
also is made in order that the man without means
may not incur the risk of loss by higher prices in
return for capital furnished. A landlord may lend
to his metayers (tenants on shares) Avheat for seed to
be returned in kind, but not wheat for food. A man
should not say to his neighbor, "Give me a kor of
wheat and I will return it at thrashing-time " ; but he
may request such a loan "till my son comes home,"
or " till 1 find the key " (B. M. 75a). The reason is,
that wheat might rise and the lender would profit.
However, the Talmud abrogates this prohibition by
allowing such a loan to be made when the boriower
has some wheat of his own, though it be a much
smaller quantity than that which he borrows. The
>Iishnah goes even so far as to forbid an exchange
of work betw-een neighboring farmers, where the
later work is more laborious than the earlier. All
these prohibitions are rabbinical only: that against
a loan in kind might be called anti-Scriptural; for

the Bible, wlicn it speaks of " usury of \ "

(Dent, xxiii. 21)), ronu-mplutt-H u loan to Ix ,i

in kind, and forbids only the return of a gnmUT
quantity tiian that wliicli was lent.

The lendcrshoiild not lodge in the »K»rrower'8 iiuuM

free of rent, norut less than the usual rent. Tho pur

cha.se-price must not be increnw'd on iicroimt of drlny

in payment, such as an offer to mII a licid sif 1 <nm»

zuzim if paid now, butut l.'J i

Possible in u years time; but in .
Evasions, rent the landlord nmy elm.

when |)ayable ut the end of the yrar
than when the rent is paid evi-ry inontli. It U im
proper for the seller ui u field. nUvr riTHvlnj? p«rt
of the price, to say, " Bring me the :

whenever you will and then take \i ; , ,.r

own " ; for the income on the field would be Inli r«'Kt
on the deferred payment, and tli<- j)urrham-r •
ready a partial owner. But. what nmy turn i. .;
be much more oppressive, a man inny leml n Huni of
money \ipon a field on the terms " If you <!

turn me the money in Ihreryeam. tin- field i- :

and it actually becomes his. "Once Ii<H«tlio«. son of
Zenon, did so under tiie advice of the " " dl

M. 63a). It may thus be seen that n bun

upon interest led to forfeitures which miglil give to
the moneyed man more gain than even a L
of interest. The mortgage in the English hi \
ican form is just such a contract as HoetboK uxetl to
impose on borrowers. This form was contr- '■
cause the English law forbade loans up«>ii
and in early times it was literally carried out. ilie
land becoming the property of the niort •/■:■' ;■
once if the bon<l was not paid on the day aj

The Talmud and the codes distinguish l>etwe«n
"fixed increase" ("rihbit kezu?ah ") and the mere
"dust ["al)ak"]of increase." The .Mishnali a'wt-*
some instances of the latter; e.g., a, man .vnds ;
cnts to a well-to-do neighbor, expecting t«i obt.»... ..
loan from him. This is interest in mlvance. Or
after he has repaid his loans. ■<

"Fixed" presents, "because your nn : .^

and Other idle in my hands." Again, if A ImmI

Increase, not been in the habit of pi' H

first, he should not do him ii ;

after he had obtained a loan from him ; and. •» llic
later authorities put it. if he was nut ii " '

teaching B the Tnmh before the li>.iii.
do it thereafter.

One differem-e between usury uim- rtn'
the Law and rabbinical iiurea.se is tlii> il.'
when collected by the crc<litor. may »k' rorlainu ;

action, while the latti-r may not. It. .' '

of the Palestinian amoraini, insists tlwi;
nite usury," such as is forbidden by the wn
can not he recovered legally. In llii" '
supported (B. >L Gib) by others on the .
in the Scriptural words qtiote<l alMtve t
of Heaven is invoked upon the usurer. .....

rule that he who incurs the pain of dratli i-
to payment in a civil suit. The tr
pute as laid down in the cwles ; ;
Aruk, Yoreh Deah. 161. 2): The rob ■

will render judgment for the r
usury that has been collected. :■.:-
the judgment by levy on the lands or goods of Uic

Usury

Utah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

390

usurers property, but only by force against his

body.

When an Israelite lends money to a Gentile or
touu "indwelling stranger" (a half-convert of for-
eign blood), he may and should charge him interest;
and when he borrows from such a person he siiould
allow him interest. It is the opinion of Maimonides
that for Jews to charge Gentiles interest is a positive
command of the wrilteu law. [The reason for the
non-prohibition of the receipt by a Jew of interest
from a Gentile, and vice versa, is held by modern rab-
bis to lie in the fact that the Gentiles had at that time
no law forbidding them to practise usury ; and that as
they took interest from Jews, the Torah considered
it equitable that Jews shoidd take interest from
Gentiles. Conditions changed when Gentile laws
were euacteil forbidding usury; and the modern
Jew is not allowed by the Jewish religion to charge
a Gentile a higher rate of interest than that Ji.xed by
the law of the land.— e. c] The intervention of a
Gentile may lead to an evasion of the law between
Israelites. For example, t)ne not standing in need of
it has bon"owed the money of a Gentile; the bor-
rower lends it to another Israelite, he to pay the in-
terest thereafter; this the tirst borrower may do
only with the consent of the Gentile, if he will ac-
cept the other Israelite as his debtor, but not on
his own responsibility, although the first borrower
would pay to the Gentile the same interest which he
should receive from his brother Israelite (B. M. v. 6).
In a baraita (ib. 71a) the other case is
Case of a also put: "A lends money to a Gen-
Gentile, tile; the latter needs it no longer, but
meets an Israelite who does. If the
Gentile is willing to lend him the money on interest,
he may do so, remaining bound to A; but A must
not be a party to the change of debtor." However,
it must have been easy to evade the usury law
through the Gentile intermediary, even while main-
taining these distinctions.

The guilt of breaking a Scriptural command falls
not on the lender alone, but on the borrower as well
(on the supposition that the verb referring to usury
in Deut. x.xiii. 20, "tashshik," stands in the caus-
ative form); also on the surety for the borrower,
the witncs.ses, and, according to some opinions, the
scrivener. The latter participants violate the pre-
cept ** thou shall not put a stumbling-block before
the blind" (Lev. xix. 14).

Mai?nonideg treats of interest in his " Yad " (Mal-
wcli. eh. v.), following the Gcmara and the responsa
of the Geonim. He to a certain extent mitigates the
usury law ; mitigation had indeed become a necessity
in his tin»e, as the Jews no longer dwelt in com-
jmct fanning Sf;ttlements like those of Palestine and
Habylonia in the days of the Mishnah and the Tal-
mud, but had been forced to become traders, bro-
kers, and money-lenders. He says (if), ch. xiv.):
"There are things resembling interest that are al-
lowed ; e.f/., a man may buy at a discount bonds be-
longing to his neighbor; a man may give his neigh-
bor a denarius, on condition that he lends 100 de-
narii to a third person. A may give B a denarius
to induce C to lend him (A) 100 denarii " {ib. ch.
XV.). Some things arc allowed by law, but have
been forbidden by tlic l{;ibliis as a cunning evasion.

A says to B, "Lend me 100 zuzim." B says, "I
have no money, but I have wheat worth tlial sum,
which I can lend you." Then he buys the same
wheat from him for 90 zuzim. He may afterward
by law recover 100 zuzim because it is not even " dust
of interest." Thus a man who has taken a field in
pledge should not rent it back to the owner. But
if such evasions are forbidden only by an appeal to
the lender's con.science, very little is left of the en-
forceable law^ against usury.

The Shulhan 'Aruk treats of usury not in the

fourth or juridical part, but in the Yoreli De'ah,

among moral and religious duties (§§ 15!)-177).

While Maimonides would restrict the

Views of lending of money to Gentiles within

Maimoni- narrow limits, lest the lender should

des and the acquire a passion for taking usury,

Shulhan and practise it on his fellow Israel
'Aruk. ites, this later standard declares it
"allowable nowadays in all cases"
{ib. g 159). It allows also the money of orphans or of
a poor- or a school-fund to be lent on terms which
would be "rabbinical increase"; and if a guardian
has improperly lent the money of his wards even at
a fixed interest, the wards who have had the enjoy-
ment of the income are not bound to restore it when
they come of age. To save oneself in great need,
however, one may borrow on interest {ib. § 160).
The relaxation on behalf of infants and charities
was unavoidable; for in numerous countries the
Jews were precluded from the old plan of investing
funds in land, which alone was permitted by the
Talmud.

As a matter of jurisprudence it is foimd here {ib.
% 160; Hoshen ]\Iishpat, § 52) that when a bond pro-
vides for principal and interest separately, it is en-
forceable as to the former, but not as to the latter;
but if both are cast up into one sum, the bond is
void in toto. "When interest, even such as is forbid-
den b}' the written law, is once paid, it is said
(Yoreh De'ah, § 161) that the courts may compel its
restoration only by process of contempt (Hogging
until the defendant is willing to pay). When this
power no longer rested with the Jewish courts, there
was no remedy. If the lender died after he collected
unlawful interest, it is here expressly said that
his heirs are not even morally bound to make resti-
tution.

E. c. L. N. D.

Medieval Doctrine: The Church, basing itself

upon a mistranslation ot the text Luke vi. 35 inter-
preted by the Vulgate " Mutuum date, nihil iude spe-
rantes," l)ut really meaning " lend, never despairing "
(see T. Reinachi'n "R. E. J." xx. 147), declared any
extra return upon a loan as against the divine law,
and this prevented any mercantile use of capital by
pious Christians. As the canon law did not apply to
Jews, these were not liable to the ecclesiastical pun-
ishments which were placed upon usurers by the
popes, Alexander III. in 1179 having excommuni-
cated all manifest usurers. Christian rulers gradually
saw the advantage of having a class of men like the
Jews who could suppl}^ capital for their use without
being liable to excommunication, and the money
trade of western Europe by this means fell into the
hands of the Jews. They were freed from all compe-

391

THE JEWISH ENX'Y('I,OPKI)I.\

U«ury
Utiili

tition, and could therefore charge very higli interest,
and, indeed, were obliged to do so owing to the inse-
cure tenure of tlicir ])roperty. In almost every in-
stance wiiere huge aniounls were acquired by Jews
through usurious transactions the property tiius ac-
quired fell oitiierduriiigllieir life or upon tiieir death
into the hands of the king. Tins haj)pened to Aaron
of Lincoln in P^nglaud, Ezniel de Ablitas in Navarre,
Ilehot de Vesoul in Provence, Benveniste de Porta
in Aragon, etc. It was for this reason indeed liiat tlie
kings supported tiie Jews, and even objected to their
becoming Christians, because in that case tiiey could
not liave forced from tliem money won by usury.
Tluis both in Eiighind and in France the kings de-
manded to be compensated for every Jew converted.
In the former country only in 1281 would Mie king
give up his right to half the property of Jews who
were converted. There was a continual conflict be-
tween tiie papal and tlie royal authority on tiiis sub-
ject, and thus as early as 1146 the pope Eugenius de-
clared all usury null and void, while the debtor was
on a crusade, and Innocent XIII. made an indignant
protest against usury, calling on all Christian princes
to demand the return of the interest. Clement V.
in 1311 protested against all civil law which per-
mitted any form of usury by Christians.

It was irnpo.ssibie to carry out the canonical re-
strictions without stopping ail progre.ss in com-
merce, and numerous expedients were adopted to
avoid the canonical laws. Especially the Caliorsins
and Lombards invented methods by which usury
was disguised in tiie form of payment for possible
loss and injury, payment for delay, and so on. The
competition of these Italian usurers — they were called
the "pope's usurers" — rendered Jews less necessary
to the kings in France and England in the middle of
the thirteenth century, and botli Louis IX. (1254)
and Edward I. (1275) attempted to influence the Jews
to avoid usury, but without effect (see Engl.\nd).
No other means of livelihood was open to them.

Very high interest was permitted the Jews in
France under Philip Augustus, two deniers on the
pound per week, or 43.3 per cent per annum, and
King John in 1360 allowed this even to be doubled.
In Sicily Frederick II. allowed 10 per cent in 1231.
In Castile Alfonso X. allowed 25 per
Amount of cent, while in Aragon the Cortes of

Interest. Tarragona put 20 per centas thema.\i-
muni, and this was reduced to 12 per
cent in the year 1231. In Navarre Philip III. estab-
lished 20 per cent ("5 for 6 ") in 1330, while in Por-
tugal Alfonso IV. (1350) fi.\ed the maximum at 33^
per cent.

The enormously rapid increase of indebtedness due
to this large interest caused ordinances to be passed
to prevent interest being counted on interest, but
without avail. As an instance of the extent to wliich
interest could grow, the abbot of St. Edmund in
1173 borrowed about 40 marks from Benedict the
Jew, and this had grown to £880 in seven years,
though not entirely through interest (see Jacobs,
"Jews of Angevin England," p. 60).

The loans were generally made upon Pledges,
which could not be sacred vessels of the Church, to
pledge which was ptmished as early as 814 by confis-
cation of goods. Almost all other objects could be

pledged, and it became a problem whether \m. i
Jew had the i)le(lge he could claim Uhuiy hh u .

Tiiisapplicd when liiMiis were pleflHctl for hiaus.wheo
it was claimed the lanii or tlie produce " - '
sullicieut tocompensjite lorany Iokh of <.
without further paymeiii, Notwiil.

Jews claimed interest until UHh cuj.,; , ,,,,. ,. ,t

were repaid.

Later on in the Middle Agc« the •: ■

totle that " money docH in»i breed .;..

usury, and forms the buaJH of Shy lock « uml ,\,
nio's contention in "Tin- Merchant of Venice." 1..
iii., and lite casuists of l{oman law drew ailitilinr-
tion between things consumable and funirible; tlmt
is, the u.se of which is e.vhausled |. ,. ,|

things which can be used over and > ._ . in

terest or usury was allowed for the latter, but Dot
for the former class, to which nn.ney \\ i

to belong, because every i>a.H.sing of >
garded as a separate use. The lending of ni<.!i, .•
with the expectation of any further return I

regarded as unnatural and disreputable, b.
later Middle Ages the Jews had Ix-en bereft of all
capital, so that from the fifteenth century onward
they are found mostly as dealers in second-lia.id
clothing, rather than as usurers. Moreover a
class of(Jhristian merchants arose which evaded the
canon law and lent money on interest without any
opposition.

Notwithstanding this, the reputation of usurer- ' --
clung to the Jews even to modern times, though ■
is little evidence of their being more addict*-*! l^i il
than other persons who trade in money. In Hm--' »
the Christian " kulak" is regarded as being much •
stringent in his demands than the Jewish inoii. ) -
lender, though in Bukowina the latter ha.s provitl
to be somewhat of a plague. The poverty of the
majority of Jews jirevents them from any exten-
sive addiction to this practise (see Povkhtv).

Bibliography: Endemann, Die y(>t(,>ri,i:'i:,-,wrn\>^>,fn
Grunilnittze der KnnDninclten Ixh'
iseq.; Asliley, Kao/is/i Commrrrr. I. ; .

verhiiUiiUase dcr Judeiu, pp. 1S5-196.

UTAH : One of the Western States of the United
States of America; admitte<l into the Union In 1H90
Jews first settled in Utah about 1H60. an, • '
earliest comers being Isidor .Morris. Ni<
Ransohoff. Samuel Kahn. Fred Auerlwch. I>juw
Cohn, Aaron Grcenewald. Ichel Watters. and Emao-
uel Kahn.

Religious services were first conducle<l in J= '
Lake City during the fall b '• ■ • '
In tlie course of a few years Co: .i

Israel was established ; and after its i<
solution it was reorganized in 1880. I;- ■
ministers have been: J. Kai.scr. L. Slramw. H\
G. Elkin, Moses P. Jacobsou. Gustavc H
stein, Louis 0. Reynolds, and i! • '"■■ ^ ' '
cumbent, Charles J. Freund. <
flore was organized March 20. 18Wt,

its pre.'sent structure since 1903. I^ -

ister has been J. O. Brolly. The Jewish He!;, f
Society was organized in 1><T3 and p '

1888 TheCouncilof Jewish Women ha-
lve section, mainly promoting the religious objccU

Utrecht
Uzziah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

392

of the orgaoizaiion. Bt'iijainiu F. Peixotto I^odge
421 1. O. B. B. has been in existence since 1892, and
at present has eighty members.

The Jews of Utah have from the time of their ar-
rival taken a leading part iu the (Uivelopnient of its
iuteUectual and industrial welfare. During Utah's
existence as a slate they have tilled responsible gov-
ernment positions. Among those who have held
public oftiee have been: Simon Bamberger, state
lienalur and chairman of the Democratic Slate Cam-
paign C'timmillee; Harry S. Josepli and Hiuiolpli
Kucliler. members of ihe slate legislature; Joseph
Obtrndorfer. member of llie board of education iu
Salt Ijike City; Herman Bamberger, county com-
missioner of Salt Lake county ; and Louis Cohu,
councilman in Salt Lake City.

Besides those in Salt I^ake City, the cajntal of the
state, a few Jews are located in Ogden, Provo,
Price, ami Logan. The Jewish inhabitants of
Utah number ap|iroximaiely l.OOOina total popula-
tion of about 277,000.

A. C. J. F.

UTRECHT : Province of the Netherlands, with
its capital of the same name. Jews resided in
Utrecht prior to the expulsion from Spain and Por-
tugal. In 1424 they were banished from the city ;
and their synagogue was trausfornied into ithe
Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary. They evidently
soon returned; for in 1444 the city council issued an
ordinance directing that they be tortured on the
wheel, imprisoned, and expi.-lled. The reason for
this procedure can no longer be determined with
certainty; but it was due either to the fact that tlie
Jews had championed the claims of Wolravus of
Meurs to the bishopric, or toallcgations made against
them of insulting Christianity both pulilicly and
piivately. The ordinance of exi)uision was quickly
repealed, however, by the council itself; and Jews
were permitted to settle in the village of Maarsen,
near the city.

As early as 1004 a distinction was drawn between
the German and Portuguese communities; the for-
mer consisting largely of the poorer classes, which
earned a livelihood by pechlling, while the Portu-
guese engaged in extensivecommercial undertakings,
an<l were wealthy and respected. An ordinance of
Oct. 1, 1730, furthermore, gave the Portuguese the
official right of residence in the province, and i)er-
mitled them to conduct their business operations in
the city its.|f. This privilege was renewed in 1777 ;
and in llH'J it was extended to the German Jew.s
on tlic condition that they assumed all communal
duties.

After the ujjrisingof the patriots against William
of Orange and his expulsion by the French. France
declareri the Jews citizens, and granted them all
civic rights and liberties. In 17!i6 a convention of
the most prominent Jews of Holland assembled at
Utrecht, before which Ihe new constittition was sol-
emnly read. Its text was translated into Hebrew
by Zebi Hirsc-h Meilfeld, and published under the
title " Dibre Negidim " (Utrecht. 1800).

BlBMOfJRAPnv: K'^nen. GrxrhirihuU iler Jixlm in Nnlrr-
^.h; h '•"■'^- ''^■'- ^ '"'^ NETl.KRLA.NDS and the b.blloi-

rapby there (^ven. -

^- S. O.

UZ (|*iy): 1. Son of Aram, and grandson of
Shem, according to Gen. x. 23; but I Chrou. i. 17
records him as a sou of Shem.

2. Eldest son of Nahor by ]\Iilcah ; nephew of
Abraham (Gen. xxii. 21; A. V. has "Huz").

3. One of the sons of Dishau, and grandson of
Seir the Horite (ib. xxxvi. 28; I Chron. i. 42).

4. Geographical name occurring three times in
the Old Testament and connoting: (1) the native
land of Job (Job i. 1); (2) a country northeast of
Egypt, which it separated from Pliilistiu, being one
of the lands to which, at the command of Yiiwii,
Jeremiah gave the wine-cup of fury to drink (Jer.
XXV. 20;; and (3) a country comprising ])art of
Edom, siinunoued to rejoice over the destruction of
the Temple (Lam. iv. 21).

According to modern investigators, who regard
the names given iu Genesis as geographical terms,
the territory of Uz embraced the regions represented
by the names of the persons mentioned above; and
iu like manner the brief notices in Jeremiah and
Lamentations agree with those concerr.ing the na-
tive country of Jcjb's friends, as well as with other
data concerning the laml in the first chapter of
Job. According to verses 15 and 17 of that chapter,
the country was first invaded by the Sabeans from
the south, and later" by the Chaldeans from the north,
which implies that the district lay on the northern
edge of tlie great Arabian desert. Elipliaz, one of
the friends of Job, wasfroni Teman, a town of south-
ern Edom; his companion, Bildad, came from Sliuali
(Gen. XXV. 2), which, acc'ording to the ciuieiform
inscriptions, lay south of Karkemesh (Carchemish);
and Elihu was a native of Buz (comp. Jer. xxv.
2:3; Gen. xxii. 21). According to the cuneiform
inscriptions, Shalmaneser II. received tribute from
one Sasi, a son of the land of Uzza, from 859 to
831 H.c. ; and the Midrash also identifies the name
of Uz with the country, making Job a contemporary
of Abraham (Yalk. Shim'oui, cii. 2; Gen. R. Ivii. 3).

Bibliography: Kiuitzsch. in Riehm's }1nndwOrterbuch,s\.;
Dehtzseli, Wd Lay das Parudias/ p. 259.
K. G. II. S. O.

UZES ()>niX or DmN) : Town of France, in the
department of Gard, about 15 miles north-nortlieast
of Nimes. Jews were settled there as early as the
fifth century. St. Ferreol, Bishop of Uzes, admitted
them to his tabh; and enjoyed their friendship. On
this account complaint was made of him to King
Childebert, whereupon the bishop changed his atti-
tude toward the Jews, compelling all those who
would not leave Uzes to become Christians. After
his death (581) many who had received baiitism re-
turned to Judaism ("Gallia Christiana," vi. 613;
Dom Vaiss^te, •' Histoire Generale de Languedoc," i.
274, 545). Before the French Revolution there were
seven Jewish faniiiies at Uzes, comprising forty-six
individuals, who later settled either at Nimes or at
Pont-Saint- Esprit. Toward the end of the nine-
teenth century there was only one Jewish iidiabitant
in Uzes, namely, A. Mosse, an attorney. He was
mayor of the town for .several years (see Kahn,
"Notice sur les Israelites de Nimes," p. 31).

Among the scholars of Uzes were: the anonymous
compiler (13th cent.) of the Talmudic collection
mentioned iu Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." No. 2343;

393

THE JEWISH ENC'VrToPEDIA

Utrecht
Uxxiah

Siuiiucl bi'ii .luilah, Gabriel of Millmud, and Don
Dieulosal ("K. E. J." xliii. 247).

BlBLlOURAlMlY : Gfoss, Gitllia JuOaica. pp. 'i^i, 24.

e. S. K.

TJZIEL : Family name occurring principally
anions the JScpliunlim in Spain, wiiere it is found as
early as tlio tUtecnth century. After the expulsion
of tlie Jews, from .Spain and Portugal, the Uziels
were scattered throughout northern Africa, Italy,
and the J.,evant. The following are the more im-
portant members of the family :

Hayyim loen Abraham Uziel : Scholar and
author of Spanish extraction ; nourished in the lat-
ter half of the sixteenth century in Greece and Asia
Minor. He wrote "Mekor Hayyim" (3 vols.,
Sn\yrua, n.d.), an ethical work in Judieo-Spanish.

D. «. O.

Isaac b. Abraham Uziel : Spanish physician
and poet; born at Fez; died in Amsterdam April 1,
1G23. At one time he held the position of rabbi at
Oran ; but late in life he left that city to settle in
Amsterdam, where he opened a Talmudical school
which counted among its p>ipils Manasseli ben Israel.
Dissatisfied with the laxity in religious matters which
lie noticed among many members of the Sephardic
community, Uziel delivered a series of lectures which
led to the" foundation of a new congregation under
the name of "Neweh Shalom." In 1610, at the
death of Judah Vega, the tirst rabbi of the new con-
gregation, Uziel was called to the rabbinate. Uziel
was the author of a Hebrew grammar, "Ma'acoh
Lashon," edited by his pupil Isaac Nehemiah at
Amsterdam in 1627 (2d ed. 1710). He left also in
manuscript many Hebrew and Spanish poems ("Li-
bros Poeticos en Declaracion deTodos losEquivocos
delasSagradasLetras"); these are highly praised by
De Barrios, who represents the author as a great
poet, an able musician, and a distinguished mathe-
matician. Joseph Serrano dedicated a poem to Uziel;
it is inserted in the "Temime Derek."

Bibliography: Koenen, Geschiedenis der Jndenin Neder-
land, pp. 144, 428.JeIlinek, in Orient, Li<. viii. 364. -'«b ;
Kavserling, Gef<c)iichle derJuden in Pnrtuml P- »« : idein.
Bibl. EsiJ.-Port.-Jiid.p. 107; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl.s.w,
Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 64(5.

G. I- Br.

Jacob Uziel : Physician and poet of the seven-
teenth century; died at Zante 1630. He was of
Spanish extraction, but emigrated to Italy at an
early age, and settled in Venice, where he became
famous for his medical skill. He was the author
of "Dawid " (Venice, 1624), an epic poem in twelve
cantos, written in Italian.

Joseph Uziel: Italian scholar and rabbi; died at
Ferrara 1572. He was a pupil of Isaac Aboab of
Castile, and left a responsum, whicii is included in
the collection of Joseidi di Trani (i. 39).

Judah Uziel: Italian scholar of tiic sixteenth
century; born in Spain; died, probably at Venice,
in 1634. He was the author of sl.xteeu sermons on
the Pentateuch, which were published under the
title "Bet ha 'Uzzieli " (Venice, 1603-4).

Samuel Uziel : Talmudist and scholar of the
seventeenth century; rabbi of Leghorn. He is men-
tioned in a responsum in the collection " Mayun
Rabbim " (ii. 52) of Haphael Meldola,
Samuel ben Joseph Uziel : Rabbi and physi-

cian of Spanisli extruction; Hve<l In the sUlccolb
and seveuleenlli ceulurifs. He. ! ii« rabbi at

Salouicu, where he also pnu-liiM.-<l .lic.

Bnil-KHiKArilY : StelnnrliiifltJtT. rnt /l.ff r. "i M'.«. !T<" ;
Morlarii, /ii<((f», |>. (17 ; .\f|il-<il.:'
Mi</. p. 171); ('uiiriilt«-. ^k'.f )■■
.hii'dtih. .Siinrifx. p. ai>;'K
rmtiniiil. pp a^'■^ aM . |i|.
107 ; Bcnjucot). ()f<ii liii-Si .'■.. .... , .... . ,^ ■., .,

Itonkx lirlt. Mux. i>. am ; KUrei. /liW. Ju/1. Ill
1). II

UZZA, UZZAH(Niy, niy): 1.- Biblical Data:
Son of Abinadab. Tu^iilier with ItiH briitlH-r Ahlo.
he drove tiie new carl <jn whi< h wim jihr

of tiie Covenant wjien, accompanied i»\ i ' ;

all the liousc of Israel, it wan brouglit from Abiua-
dab's house at Gibeah t<> J<TUwilem. Wl
came to the thrashing-lloor of Nuclioi), Tj
which drew the cart stumbled, and Uzza U>f>k bold
of tiie Ark to steady it ; whereupon he wuh hIuIu by
God " al ha-shal " (= "for IiIh error "j. David, ia
memory of the event, called the place " Penn-
uzzah" (II Sam. vi. 3-8; I Chron. xiii. 7-11, where
tiie tiuasiiiiig tloor is called "Chidon"; cniup ilie
conuiientariesof Bndde, Loiir, ami Nowuck.

In Rabbinical Literature : The Hub'

variousaltcniptsto ex[ilain and palliate tin- '

Uzza. By an "argumentum a niajore ad niiiiu»"
proof is offered that if the Ark cniiltl U-ur tlio«e
wiio bore it, so much the more could it Imir Itself.
By not perceiving this, and thinking that tin- Atlt
miglit be prevented from falling by stoppi'itf »hc
oxen, Uzza had brought death on himself. U. Jo-
iianan thougiit tliat"'al ha-shal" im|>li<d that h?
had died asa result of his act. while H. Eliazur <irew
from "shal" the inference that Uzza had fow-d
himself near the Ark. He was, ne\'
share in the world to come: for it is e.\ I •
tliat he died "by" the Ark; and as the latu-r U--
longed to eternity, Uzza in like manner must »x i •
mortal (Sotah 35a; Yalk.. I Sam. 142. .<! AN ■ i

1898).

2. Grandson of Eiiud. and a member - i tn. '.-.un-
of Benjamin (I Ciiron. viii. 7).

3. Head of a family of Ncthinim who rcti.

to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezni Ji. 49; N- ..

vii. 51).

4. Garden attached to the royal palace.

ing to Slade, "Gescli. des Volkes Israel, " i ■■•• ■■
679, "Uzza" should be corrected to "Uzzlab." thus
implying that the garden had been laid out b>
king. It apparently contained a tomb in ^v
Manasseli ami his son Anion were burinl (UK
x.xi. 18, 26).

E. o. H. ° "

UZZIAH (Try, in-ry): l. J^n "^ Anm/lnh
ealied also Azariah (cmp. II KinRS xr. 1. 18 ■
He was king of Judah, and 1
age of sixteen, in the twenty - .

reign of Jeroboam II. The Kings record {tt> x» «>
states that his reign ext.nde«l tb
years (788-737 n.c). and that !»<• ^^
ids fatiier had In-en. though he «Iid not t
high places, but allowed il
burn incense at them H <
Uzziah conquered the PhiliMine* and :
and received tribute from the Ammoni ■ -

TTzziel
Valencia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

394

refortified his country, reorganized and reequipped
Ilia armv, and personally engaged in agricultural
pursuits'. His success as king, administrator, and
commander- in -chief of the army m^de liim ruler
over the largest realm of Judah since the disruption
of the king.lom. His power and authority over the
peoples of this realm help to explain to a certain
extent the political situation in the reign of Judah 's
later kings, and probably also in 739. when Tiglath-
pilcser III. conquered nineteen districts in northern
Syria which had belonged to Uzziah (Azri-ia-u).

Uzziah's strength became his weakness; for lie
attempted to usurp the power of tlie priesthood in
burning incense in the Temple of Yuwii. While in
the act he was smitten with leprosy ; and he was
subsequently forced to dwell in a leper's house until
the day of his death (II Chron. xxvi. 21). While ho
was in this condition Jotham, his son, ruled in his
stead. The total number of years, fifty-two, attrib-
uted to Uzziah's reign include the period from his
accession to his death.

K O H. I. M. P.

T7ZZIEL (^X'ly) : 1- Son of Kohath and brother
of Amram (Ex. vi. 18; I Chron. vi. 2). He was the
father of Mishael, Elzaphan, and Zithri (Ex. vi. 22).
The first two, at the bidding of Moses, carried from
the Tabernacle the bodies of Nadab and Abihu, their
:ousins (Lev. x. 4). Elzaphan, moreover, was chief

of the family of the Ivohathitesduring the wandering
in the wilderness (Num. iii. 30). Another son of
Uzziel, named Amniinadab, was one of the Levite
chiefs selected to carry the Ark of the Covenant to
tlie tent which David had pitched for it in Zion (I
Chron. xv. 10). Two other sons of Uzziel were
named respectively Micah and Jesiah (ib. xxiii. 20).
His descendants were termed "Uzzielites" (Num.
iii. 27; I Chron. xxvi. 23).

2. A Simeonite; son of Ishi ; one of the chiefs
who, during the reign of King Hczckiah, passed
over the Jordan, annihilated the remnants of the
Amalekites. and settled in their territory around
Mount Seir (I Chron. iv. 41-43).

3. One of the eponymous heroes of the tribe of
Benjamin ; described as one of the five sons of Bela
[ib. vii. 7).

4 (Called also Azareel). Son of Heman. He
belonged to the eleventh order of those who were
chosen by lot to serve as singers in leading the wor-
ship in the Temple during the reign of David (I
Chron. xxv. 4, 18).

5. Son of Jeduthun; one of those who were
chosen to resanctify the Temple during the reign of
Hezekiah (II Chron. xxix. 14).

6. A goldsmith who repaired part of the walls of
Jerusalem under Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 8).

E. G. H. S. O.

VAEZ : Prominent family of Lisbon, whose fore-
most members, the four brothers Immanuel, Pedro,
Ay res, and Salvador, resided in Portugal as Maranos
during the sixteenth century.

Abraham Vaez : Hakam of the Portuguese con-
grcgatiun in Bayonne during the latter half of the
seventeenth century. He was the author of a work
on Jewish ritual laws entitled " Arbol de Vidas," to
which was appended a lengthy treatise on rituals by
Abraham Ro<lriguez Faro (Amsterdam, 1692). He
wrote also several sermons on tlie Pentateuch, and
a number of ethical treatises, which were collected
under tiie title " Discursos Predicables y Avisos Es-
piritiiiilcs" and ptiblislied, at the expense of his son
Jacob Vaez, by -Isaac Aboab (Amsterdam, 1710),
who himself wrote a. long introduction.

BlBl-ifKJRAPiiv: Ffirst. Tiihl. Jud. 111. 465; Kayserllng, BUd.
Koji.-I'nrt.-Jud. pp. 1(J7-1(«.

AyreB Vaez: Physician to John III. of Portu-
gal; brother of Immanuel Vaez; died at Rome about
tlie middle of the sixteenth century. At the request
of the King of Fez, with whom John, however, was
not on terms of amity, Vaez was sent to Africa, where
he Hucceedfd in curing the monarch of a dangerous
illness. Upon his return to Lisbon, Vaez devoted
liimself to the stiidy of astronomy and astrology.
In consequence of predicting to the king and queen
the death of one of their children, a prediction which
was fulfilled, he lost the royal favor. Thinking to
regain the king's cf)nfidence, Vaez declared, in the
course of a discussion, that astrology was an unre-
liable mode of divination, and that its practise was

foolish and irreligious. The king, who had recently
read a treatise expressing similar views, delivered
Vaez to the Inquisition, charging him with being
a heretic and a secret Jew. Vaez was ordered to de-
fend himself before the inquisifors, and later to en-
gage in a disputation with the theologian Sorao;
but Capodiferro, the papal nuncio, succeeded in
removing him from the jurisdiction of the Inquisi-
tion, and sent him to Rome to be tried by the Curia.
Pope Paul, who was himself a believer in astrology,
not only set Vaez at liberty, but even issued a bull
(June 6, 1541) protecting the entire Vaez family, as
well as the lawyers who had defended Ayres Vaez,
against the In(|uisition.

Daniel Vaez: Portuguese scholar; flourished at
Amsterdam in the seventeenth century. Together
witli Joseph Athias. he published a prayer-book en-
titleil " Olden de las Oraciones del Todo el Anno "
(Amsterdam, 1677).

Bibliography : Kayserllng, Bihl. Esp.-Porl.-Jud. p. 60.

Immanuel Vaez : Physician ; eldest of the Vaez
brothers. According to the account of Rodrigo
de Castro ("De Universa Mulierum Morborum Me-
dicina," ii. 47, 332, Hamburg, 1603), who was his
nephew, and who settled in Hamburg in the six-
teenth century, Immanuel was appointed physician
to four kings of Portugal — John III., Sebastian,
Henry, and Philip II. He won this distinction by
virtue of his erudition and the experience which he
had gathered in his extensive travels.

Pedro Vaez: Physician at Covilha, Portugal;
second in age of the Vaez brothers. He is repeat-

395

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

edly mentioned in the "Medicorum Principum His-
toriii " of Abraham Zacuto.

Salvador Vaez : Youngest of the Vacz brothers
lie served as a page to the papal nuncio Hieronymo
liicenati Capodifcrro in Lisbon, and was able to in-
terest tlie prelate in the case of liis l)iotlier Ayres
and to induce him to interfere in the latter 's beiialf'
The result was tiiat after the sessions of the Inquisi-
tion liad begun, Salvador suddenly entered the Jiall
and declared the sitting dissolved by order of the
nuncio. Later he probably accompanied Capodiferro
to Rome.

^'ppS^-^^'' •^''^'^'■""8. Gesch. dcr Juden in Portugal,
"•' "" S. O.

VALABRiJGUE, ALBIN: French dramatist-
born at Carpentras, Vaiicluse, Dec. 17, 1853. He is
one of the most prolific of modern French drama-
tists, producing about two plays a year and in
addition acting as dramatic critic of the Paris
"L'lilustration." Among his dramatic works are-
" La Veuve Chapuzot, " 1879 ; " Clarvin P^re et Fils "
Paris, 1880; "Le Crime "(with Bertol-Graivil), Dec ,
1882; "Les Maris Inquiets," 1883; "La Flamboy-
ante" (with Paul Fcrrier), 1884; "Les Grippe-Sou "
1885; "LaNuitdul6,"1885; "L'HommedePaiUe'"
1885; "La Filled Georgette," 1886; "Le Bonheur
Conjugal," 1886; "Le Sens-Prefet," 1886; "Les
Vacances du Mariage" (with Hennequin),' 1887-
"Durand et Durand " (with Ordonneau)' 1887-
"Clo-Cio" (with Decourcelie), 1887; "Les Satur-
nales," operetta (music bv Lacombe), 1887- "Doit et
Avoir" (with Felix Cohen), 1888; "La Securite des
Families," 1888; "Madame a Ses Brevets" 1890-
" Les Moulinards," 1890; " Les Menages Parisiens."
1890; "Le Pompier de Justine" (with Davril), 1890-
^"La Femme," 1891; "Les Vieilles Gens," 1891 !
"Le Commandant Laripi^'te" (with Silvestre), 1892-
" Le Premier Mari de France, " 1893.

BiBLioGRAPirv: Vapereaii, nirf. des Contemnorain■ Iji
rousse. Diet. Supplement, ii. 1968. '-"niemporams , La-

^- E. Ms.

VALABRi&GUE, MARDOCHEE-

GEORGES : French general ; born at Carpentras,
\aucluse, Sept. 20. 1852. He was educated at the

Ecole Poly technique
and the Ecole d 'Appli-
cation de I'Artillerie
etdu Genie; and, after
reaching the rank of
captain, he studied at
the Ecole Superieure
de la Guerre from 1878
to 1880, when he was
attached to the staff of
the general of division
in command of the ar-
tillery and fortifica-
tions of Paris. In 1884
he was made comman-
dant of the third bat-
tery of the seventh
battalion of artillery,
and two years later
ordnance to General
of war. Valabregue

Mardoch^e-Georges Valabr6gue.

was appointed officer of
Boulanger, then minister

Vttlencl*

in 90.. vMei he became cnm.an.iunt ..f iho tx-.,le
Md.taire de lArtillerie et du G.nie. I„ wu '

wr'rr,r:t"'''*''''''''"'^" '"'•-*•"•'-- ^

war. In 1905 h.' became bri/radiir - • ,.

made commaudunt-inehief of tl„ '.

de Guerre and n.ember of the tt^bn.cal ajmmliu*

of the general stalT. "'ivurc

Valabregue whs crem.-d an oflloer of the I .
"f Honor in 1904; an.i h.is lK.^.n the rt^-lpleoi of
numerous foreijrn deidratiMnH.

' J. Ka.

VALENCE: Chief town of the department of the

IJronie and former capital of the c ■• • ' v ■. •
tinois in the ancient province of 1 ) .
Several Jewish families that harl liw-n .
the Comtat-Venais.siu in 1823 sought in,.
lence and its territories. Guillaumede I(.
Bishop of Valence, also brought a numlMT m-
diocese in 1330, and granted them in.porinnt ,
leges. In 1441 there were eighteen Jewish fm
m Valence, each of which paid to the bi.«hop,
of Poitiers, an annual pension of one pnU\ '
("R. E. J." ix. 238). The same prelate cmi
them to wear the badge of the wheel (J-
vier, "Dissertation Historiqu.- snr I., ',
Valence," p. 301).

The dauphin Louis showed nr i-will t..w .rd

the Jews of Valence and its i >. Jl. .

firmed the privileges which his predecev i

granted them, and invited all the Jews wh
to do so to settle within his <lomitn()n«, | ■
them immunities and protection similar to t
enjoyed by their coreligionists in other "
Dauphine, on condition that tliey jmi
dues. An anonymous writer of Valentinnia io the
fifteenth century composed a conir • (!,,.

astronomical tables of Immanuel Jn.

BrBi.iOGRAPny: Gross, Gnllia JudaU-a. pp 304. 388- PhkI-
homme, J,&k Juifs tn Dauphi"- -••r \n ■ -• xv* su-
des, p. 67, Grenoble. 1883.

G- S. K.

VALENCIA (n'Dr^3): Capital of the former
kingdom of the same name. During tlie domioioo of
the Moors, Valencia had a Jewish
for its size and wealth. Wiieii .
made his entry into the conquered city on l>cl. P.
123S, the Jews went out to meet !■-' ■ ■' -' -
rabbis and delegates at tlieir head, ai: .
with a roll of the Ijiw in token of homage. Asa
reward for the important servire.s which tl' • ' '
rendered him in the conquest of the •••
fortified city, he pre,<4ented to s<>me of t
belonging t<i the Moors, as well an real <
city and its precincts. Amonir those w'
such gifts after the "r

were the secretaries an.; ,

Maestros R. David. I;
James I. R. Moses I'
Makes secretary!'
Presents to Maestros (or Alfaquins) R. Jowpb.
the Jews. Abraham ibnVi
of the wealthy
in 1271 held a lease of the salt-work* of Valeocte.
and who. as Amador di
ancestor of the Spanish h'

Valencia

Vali

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

396

a stri'oi ia Valencia is named), ami R. Samson.
Bt-siilL-s, preseuts were received by the gold-workers,
ni <, and moriey-cliaugers Most-s Alcoustan-

ti;.. , ably tbesamewboin 1271 indiscreetly ex-

hibitiil certain letters of the king). G. il)u Ya'isli,
hinuin Al y a relative of Moses and

Joseph A L -, -.- 1 ; ia),and Astruc de Tortosa
(without doubt the same that had possessions on the

^ ^ signed the Jews a comnio- |

dious quarter for residence, extending from the wall
A ■■ i to 'Alxl al-Malik; tlience to the Puerto
d ; or Puerto de la Ley (=*'gate of the

law"): and from this gate to the "homo de Ahen
Nulid " and to the wall of Ibraiiim al-Valenci. The
Juderia or ghetto was lirst surroumled by a high
wall in 1390. and was provid'?d with three gates
whicli were closed at night. The main gate was at
tlie entrance of the long street which cut tlirougli
the Juderia, hard by the Place de la Figuera (Ili-
gueraK where now the monastery of S. Thecla stands.
Another gate, DE.\-
arca. was at the ter-
mination of the long
street of the Jews;
and a third gate led
to the Place de la
Olivera, now called
" De Comedias."
This rest riction of the
Jews met with oppo-
sition on many sides,
espc-cially from the
Dominican friars, be-
cause by the estab-
lishment of the ghetto
their church was
wholly isolated.

Otherwise the Jews
of Valencia enjoyed
for a lonir time per-
fect frec(lr>m. They
were not restrained
in their tra<h(ir cnm-

jiursuits and largely in coniinerce. aroused the envy
of both nobles and citizens through the wealth and
luxury displayed in their houses and apparel. In
i;57() louil complaints were raised to tliu elTect that
the Jews had built houses outside the Juderia; and
although they protested that this had Ix-cn done with
the consent of the king and by special permission
of the queen, who received the Jewisi) taxes for
rent, the king nevertheless decreed that the Jews
should thereafter live only in the Juderia.

The inner government of the aljama was con-
ducted by deputies ("adelantados"); and this body by
royal permission had erected a school in l^d-i. Near
the .Jew street stood the large synagogue; and not
far distant fnun this was a smaller one. The Jewish
cemetery was outside the Juderia but within the
city wall ; and leading to it was the Puerta de los
Judios, or Gate of the Jews. •

The year of terror (1391) saw tiie abrupt dissolu-
tion of the flourishing Jewish community of Valen-
cia. In the last third of the fourteenth century the

city had sunk to a

low level both moral-
ly and materially.
The nobles wasted
their property in ex-
cesses and indulged
in the most extrava-
gant luxury. Valen-
cia, the heautiful gar-
den of Spain, became

Puerta
de lOK Judlot«

Plan of Valencia in the Fourteenth Century, Showing Position of
Jewish Quarter.

merce; and they were I'ot required to appear be-
fore the magistracy. They were subject solelv
to the city "ijaile," the representative of the
crown. For sevenil decades the baile-general was
R. Judah (Jchudano). the king's confidant. The
Jews \MTe permitted to hold public office; but they
were not allowi^l to execute justice upon a Chris-
tian, In 1283. however, this freedom was materially
restricted. King Pedro (hcreed that no Jew should
theiireff»rth hold any public ollieii with wliieh juris-
diction over Christians was connected. Moeover,
Jews were to he admitt<-d as sworn witnesses only
in di'!i)uies involving sums not exceeding .5 sueldos.

The Jews in Valencia had a special

Restric- formula, in Catalan, for an oath,

tions which was not very dilTerent from that

in 1283. in liarcelona (see Rios, "]Iist."i. 570

et KCf/.). They were not ))ermitled to
kill cattle in the ])ublic slaughter liou.se, and they
were refpiired to payaspecial tax on the necessaries
of life, merchanfli.se. etc.

The Valencian Jews, who engaged in industrial

the refuge of vaga-
bonds and adventur-
ers from all paits of
the country. People
were attacked,
robbed, and even
murdered in broad
daylight; and the
time was one of com-
plete anarchy, the
conditions being such
that the Jews of Va-
1 e n c i a trembled
when tiiey heard of the massacie in Seville iu
1391. They sought protection from the magistracy
and the city council, who took energetic measures
for their defen.se. Quite unexpectedly, however,
at noon on Sunday, July 9, 1391, St. (Christopher's
Day, a mob of between forty and fifty half-
grown }'ouths gathered in the market-place and
formed themselves into a procession carrying a ban-
ner and several crosses. They marched to the main
gale of the Juderia on the Placode la Figuera, shout-
ing, "The Archdeacon of Seville comes to baptize all
Jews," and tiied to force their way into the quarter.
The Jews hastily closed the gates, accidentally jjuII-
ing in some of tlie youths. In an instant nobles and
citizens, knights and clerg\-, strangers and the rab-
ble generally made a rush upon the Juderia. In
vain did the infante D. Martin, Duke of Mont-
blanch, try to force back the crowd. The Jews de-
fended themselves valiantly; and one of the youths
was killed in the struggle. As soon as this became
known the revengefid mob forced its way into the
Juderia from the walls and roofs of the surrounding

397

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

V«lencti

liouscs. A frightful inassacic ensued. Two liuii-
dred and thirty (aeeordiiig to anotlier source, sev-
eral hundred) Jews were killed, their
Massacre wives and daughters dishonored, and
of llieir liouses plundered. Many, to es-

the Jews, cape death, accepted baptism. Don
Samuel Abravailo, one of tlie richest
Jews of Valencia, had the Marquis de Lombay as
sponsor and took the name "Alfonso Fernandez de
Vilianova,'' from i)roi)ert}' belonging to him. Jo-
sepii Abarim, or Juan Perez de S. Jaime, as lie called
himself after baptism, declared in thecriminal court
(July ~1, 1391) that notes due to him amounting to
30.000 gold gulden had been destroyed, that force
had been used against his niece and against hisson's
nurse, and that liis brother had been wounded.

After the catastrophe the magistracy did its ut-
most to punish the rioters; and ninety were taken
prisoners. An order was issued to deliver up to
the city all goods taken from the Jews; and soon
the churches, the town-hall, and the neighboiing
houses were tilled with the mostcostly
Dissolution objects. The city council demanded
of the an exemplary punishment of the
Commu- guilty parties; but owing to the fact
nity. that the mostinduential familiesof the

city were im])licated, the suit dragged
along, and tinally King John I. granted an amnesty
to all concerned.

The Judcria was not reestablished. The commu-
nity was destroyed : the large synagogue became a
monastery (S. Cristobal); the smaller one was turned
into a chapel; and the eight slaughtering-pens in
the Juderia were sold (1393 and 1394). No Jew
might enter the city without the permi.ssion of tlie
baile; and even Avith this permit he might not stay
longer than eight days. Each Jew entering the rity
-without permission was lialile to a fine of 50 mara-
vedis. Only in places near Valencia, S. Thomas, S.
Andres, and S. Esteban, might Jews reside even
temporarily.

Several Jewish scholars lived in Valencia, among

them Solomon it)n Gai)irol. who also died there, and

Joseph Caspi. Isaac ben Sheshet was

Scholars rabbi in Valencia for several years;

and and Ainram ben Nathan Efrati occu-

Rabbis. pied the rabbinate for four decades.

The latter was widely respected for

his learning, but was not on good terms with Ilasdai

ben Solomon (a friend of Isaac ben Sheshet), called

from Tudela about 1380. Isaac Rocamora was horn

in Valencia. Several Jews adopted the name "Va-

lensi,"or " Alvalensi," after Valencia as the original

home of their families; e.g., Samuel ben Abraham

Valensi, a pupil of R. Isaac Campantons.

Bibmographt: Rios, HM. i. 404, 413 et seq.; II. 18 ft scq., 3«3
et mq.: iii. 40(), 411 : Jacobs. SnuiceK, Nos. 315, 477, 483. SK).
1123; Isaac 1). Sheshet. Respnusn, Nos. 371. 387, 48.5. A plan
of the .liideria is eiven in R. p]. J. xiv. 2(H ct i<rq. On the
massacre see the offlcial report piven in Rios, HM. iil. 5»4 ft
s>eq. and in V. Boin, Hi.sfon'a ilf la Ciudnd dc Valfiicia. I.
440 et xeq.: Dolrtin Acad. HiKt. viii. a58 et seq., xvl. 4a5;
R. E. J. xiii. 239 et seq.\ Gratz, Ge^ch. vlii. 66.
8. M. K.

VALENTIN, GABRIEL GUSTAV : German
physiologist; born at Breslau July. 1810; died at
Bern, Switzerland, May 24, 1883. lie was educated
at the University of Breslau (M.D. 1832), and estab-

lislied him.self as a ph\si( ian in

he received the- tJraud'prix ut lh< .,..,.

for his " Histiogeniii Compunita." which U un ,.1.1^
treatise on the evolution ■
In 1m:JG lie was elected profes
University of Bern, wiiirli chair Jus'r.

Valentin wastiieauthomf
on the blood and its circul i
of muscles and nerves, on digcBtion. on toxi
on liie physiology of tjio senses, vU: V
1843 he published the " Hepertoriiini f i.
und Physiologic," and coilabnmU-d on many pro-
fessional journals. Of his numerous ' ' ' ■
lowing may be mentioned ; " llundhu.
lungsgeschichte des Mensciien, mil V« i .|cr

Rlick.sicht der Entwieklung der 8flugi>m. i.- und
VOgel," Berlin and Paris. 183") (see nb(.ve); " UcU-r
den Verlauf und die Letzten Enden «Ut Nerven."
Bonn. 183G; " Ueber Meclianik des Blulumlaufs."
Leipsic, 1830; " De Functionilius N'ervnriim Ccrr-
bralium et Nervi Sympathiei." Bern. 1H39; " I.*lir
bueh der Plivsiologie des Menschen." Briir'-"'-!
1844, 2d cd. 1847-50; "Grundriss dor Ph\
des Menschen," i/>. 1HW, 4th ed. \Hry4 ; " Der I

der Vaguslilhmung auf die Lungen und II...;

dQnstung," Frankfort-on-the-Main. 18.'»7: "Die Un-
tersuchung der Ptlanzen- und Thii
larisierten Licht," Leipsic, 18<il ; _ . :

Anatomic und Physiologio des Nerven-un«l MuiikrN
systems," rt. 18G3; "Der Cebnim h .!■ -
skops," iV;. 1863; "Versucii einer Phv-
Pathologic der Xerven." ib. 18ft4; ** Vereuch elnrr
Physiologisehen Pathologic des Bluta und dor
Uebrigeii Korpersafte," ih. 1866-67.

Bini.ionRAPHV : Pajfel, Tiloii- Les.; Hlrerti, BUtg.Lej.: .V*^^

cr:< Konvcntatiniis-Lcxihou.
s F. T. H.

VALENTINOIS. Sep V.\i.KNrr

VALERIO, SAMUEL BEN JTJDAH : Pi,>
sician and author wiio lived in tin- (Jneiaii An hi
pelago in the second lialf of the sixteenth ccntur)-.
lie wrote the follf)winir works: ** Yad ' " ' k."
a commentary on the Book of Esther. « i Bl

Corfu on tlie 6th of Fcl)., 1579. ami publtshwl with
thetextat Venice, l.'Hfi; " Ila/on la-M<><il ." - ' '
sophical commentary on the Book of Daniel. ;
on the 7th of Feb.. 1580, in n village near i'ntni*.
in the Morea. and published, with the test of the
original, at Venice. 15,sr). There is an extrnrt from
the latter conunentary in tlic rHlibinieiil I
Amsterdam (1724-27). Valcrio wp-
ha-Baka." " Pi Hakam," und " Ik-l 1
in manuscript.

BiHi.inr.RArnT: FOrat, /
orifnts, vl. (IW-li. .V-
Schneider, Cat. Itixll. cv\. -«.•»

U. cv

VALI (VALLE), MOSES DAVID: IlAlian
rabbi and physiiian; b<<rn til I'mitiii dini ibcrr
1777. He was a caljalistic .schol'tr <>f r<p»t/» and
lectured before the Paduan av~ »«

"MebakesheAiloin»i."inromp8n\ <■...... !«1

scholars Israel Hezekiah Treves and J ^

These lectures were attended by

Luzzatto, who, becoming deeply int. ,. . . . . -

listic research, l)egaa the study of it under Vali both

VaUadoUd

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

398

■ n and in his own home, tbc acute

oexcct-'iliug that of his roufrcres.

At the age ot iwentv-tive Vuli wrote a polemical

„.ork i '■ '■ •••<t Christianity, divided into

g^.vi-u [ J - 1 Sette Giorni della Ve-

rili." iJe wrou' also, in Hebrew, seventy "tikkii
Dim " on Ueut. xxxiv. 12. Between 17'21 and 17G7
he wrote eit'lit lars^^e volumes in Hebrew (Almanzi
MSS. Nos. I il>e greater part of them con-

• - - of .. >.M.,,iientary upon the entire Bible,
iro etill unpublished. Ephraim Luzzatto
wi • (No. 50 in his collection of poems)

eniM.... li<.-ne haNe'mim " praising the lec-
turer of Vali and Treves.

Biblio«RaPHt: Kerem Itemed, ill. 119, 130, 131: Steinschnei-
der. He6r. B«W. vi. 49-30.

8. '-'• *^-

VALLADOLID : Former residence of the kings
of Castile and Spain : noteworthy for the numerous
• ' ; of the Cortes which were held there and
-ed anti- Jewish laws. The city had a
large Jewish community, which, together with the
f the neighboring towns of Zaratan, Portillo,
^. and Mucientes, paid 69,520 maravedis in
uxes in the year 1290. Ferdinand IV., in opposition
to •' ■ ' ■ "f the town council, granted the Jews
of pecial privileges; but in the civil war

between Pedro I. and Henry of Trastamara the in-
habitants of the town rebelled against the king and
8upi>orted D. Henry, taking advantage of this oc-
casion to plunder and destroy the liouses of the
Jews and their eight synagogues, robbing the latter
of their ornaments, and tearing the scrolls of the
Law. Toward the end of the year 1411 Vicente Fer-
rer re.sided at Valladolid, and, not content with the
reflults obtained from his sermons, induced the town
council to contine the Jews within their circum-
scrilx'd ghetto. In May. 1432, the great synod, com-
posed of representatives of the different communi-
ties and of other inlluential men, held its sessions
in the large synagogue in the Jewish quarter under
the presidency of the court rabbi Abraham Benve-
nisle. As in other places in Spain, during the year
1-173 and in the following year many Jews who had
renounced their religion were burned at the stake in
V ' The Jews of the city were so few that

lb' ^ iher with their coreligionists in the towns

mentioned above, paid only 5,500 maravedis in taxes.

At the time of Aslier ben Johiel, Moses ben Habib
WHS rabbi in Valladolid, which was also the birth-
place of the convert Abner of Burgos or Alfonso de
Valladolj.! ' ' b. Jehiel. Responsa, § 107, No. 6).
A few ni lore the expulsion, I). Abraham,

physician in ordinary to D. Pedro Gonzalez de Men-
doza. Primate of S[iain, accepted bajjlism, as did
also I). Alirahain Senior and his two sons.

Valladolid was the seat of a tribunal of the Inqui-
sition, which held many autos da fe there. See Bkn-
VENI8TK; In^lisition; Skniou. Aiju.miam.

BiBi.inr.RAPHv : Rlr*. HM. 11. .V.. «5, 429: 111. .594 : Shehe^ Te-

' ■ ■• — , . -. .. -, , jjj jjjj, ^j^,y authority for

uJoDfl. the Christian chronl-

" 'rodnctlon \(t the eleRy

•l.cipslc. 1H.>">). acorn-

■ n t). Zt.-uiah Duran. al-

luUt-s Ui tlie ttcUvity u( VlceuU; Ferrer.

8. M. K.

VALLENTINE, ISAAC: English journalist
and communal worker; born in Belgium 179^; died
in London 1868; son of the Rev. N. 1. Vallentiue.
He founded the earliest AngU)- Jewish periodical,
which at first was unsuccessful, but which after-
ward gave rise to the "Jewish Chronicle." He also
took a prominent part in the foundation of the Jews'
Orphan Asylum antl other charitable and literary
institutions in Loudon. In 1848 Vallentine pub-
lished "The Hebrew Almanack and Calendar," con-
taining a table of holy days and fasts lor the ensu-
ing twenty-live years. This has been continued
annually up to the present time, and has become the
communal pocket calendar.

Bibliography: Jew. Chmn. Sept. Irf, 1868; Jacobs and Wolf.
iiiW. -4 »i(/io-J«(/. No. 1321.
J. ^- ^•

VALIiS, RAPHAEL : Spanish Marano ; burned
at the stake by the Inquisition at Palnia, Majorca,
on May 6, 1691, as the "rabbi" of the Chuetas,
as 'jvere also his pupil, Baphael Terongi, and the
latter's sister, Cataliua Terongi, who adhered to
Judaism. The popular poets of Majorca commem-
orated the death of these Maianos in verses which
are still sung by the women of the island, one of
them running as follows:

" En Vails duya se bandera,
Y en Terongi 's iiano.
En SOS Xuetas derrera.
Qui feyan se processo."

Bibliography: a. de Castro. Histnria de Ins Judins en Es-
vann, pp. 214 et scq.; Kayserling, Gesch. dcr Juden in Spa-
nien, i. 183 ct scq. ,, ^^

s. M. K.

VALUATION : Estimate of the value of the
sacred gifts when a money substitute was re([uireil
for them. The chief Biblical passage in relation to
the subject of valuation is Lev. xxvii. 2 et seq.,
where ~]-iy is probably a noun of action, as in Ex. xl.
4 (comp. Konig, "Syntax," § 277c). The particle
T], which iu the cited passage often occurs suffixed
to -|ij;, refers to the people of Israel, who are ad-
dressed, and in consequence also to the priest, who
represents the people on every occasion. To assume
a substantive, "'arkok" (-|3iy), as does J. Halevy
("Journal Asiatique," 1899, \\ 548), is not necessary,
nor is it supported by tradition. This valuation
was to be made by the priest, and his estimation was
determined partly by fixed standards and partly by
his individual judgment.

It might happen that some one made a vow that
another person would become a Nazarite or would
do service in the Sanctuary (comp.
Particular Num. vi. 2 etseq.: I Sam. i. 22); and
Instances, in case such a vow were not kejjt out-
wardly, the jierson in question had to
be redeemed. For a male between twenty and .sixty
years of age, for instance, the sum to be paid was
fifty shekels of silver (Lev. xxvii. 3-8).

It doubtless occurred very often that, moved by
gratitude, some one would say, " I will consecrate
this animal to the Lord." But if the animal in ques-
tion did not reach the standard necessary in an ani-
mal destined for a sacrifice to the Lord, an eqtn'va-
lent in money was required. The value of the
animal was estimated by the priest, and the person

399

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

ValladoUd
V^mUry

wlio liad made the vow liad to pay tliat svuii and
oiR'-tiltli more (Lev. xxvii. 9-13).

(Jue miglit wish to give a house to Yhwh, but
siuee tliis could not be done literally, the donor
would be directed to present the money -equivalent
of the house. This, again, was to be estimated l>y
tlie jiriest, and if the donor wisiied to buy back his
house he was obliged to pay the estimated price and
one-fifth in addition (Lev. xxvii. 14 et seq.).

The case became more complicated where any one
■wished to give a part of his laud to Ynwii. In
such a case two possibilities had to be considered.
(1) The laud might have been inherited. In that ca.se
the jirice of the lield was to be estimated according
to the measure of seed it required; one homer of
seed necessitated a paymentof tifty shekels of silver.
In addition, only the number of j'ears which re-
mained until the next year of jubilee was to be reck-
oned, for in that year the field re-
valuation verted to its former po.sses.sor. If he

of Laud, who tlesircd to give the field to Ynwii
nevertheless sold it afterward to some
one, or leased it until the next year of jubilee, at the
expiration of that term the field did not revert to its
former owner, but belonged to Yiiwii forever (Lev.
xxvii. 16-21). (2) The piece of land might have
been purchased by the person wishing to make the
gift, or leased by him until the next jubilee year.
In such a case also, if he wished to redeem his field,
he had to pay a sum estimated according to the
amount of seed necessary for the field. This gift
held good only for the number of years which re-
mained until the next year of jubilee (Lev. xxvii.
22-25).

The first-born of unclean beasts (asses, for in-
stance) were to be valued b\' the priest, though in
Num. xviii. 16 five shekels of silver is mentioned as
the price for the redemption of such an animal as
soon as it should be one month old. The owner,
however, might redeem such firstlings by paying
the estimated price plus one-fifth (so in the case of
the first-born of men, according to Ex. xiii. 13,
xxxiv. 20; Num. xviii. 16), or else they were sold
by the priest at the price fixed by him (Lev. xxvii.
26 et seq.). In the case of tithes, also, the obligatory
fifth was added to the value if a part was to be re-
deemed by money (Lev. xxvii. 31). But such per-
sons or things as were dedicated to the Lord in the
form of the "herem " {i.e., the ban) could be neither
redeemed nor sold.

A comparison with other passages throws inter-
esting light on these estimations. In the so-called
Book of the Covenant the labor of a slave is valued
at thirty shekels of silver (Ex. xxi. 32), while in
Lev. xxvii. 3 the value of a strong man between
twenty and sixt}' years of age is reckoned at fifty
shekels of silver. Furthermore, in the Book of the
Covenant no diflference is made between a male and
a female slave (Ex. xxi. 32), but according to Lev.
xxvii. 3-8, a female is always reckoned at three-
fifths the value of a male of tlie same age; in one
case this three-fifths is reduced to one-half the value
of a male (Lev. xxvii. 5). Moreover, the sum to be
paid to the father of a dishonored virgin is fifty
shekels of silver (Deut. xxii. 29), whereas in Ex.
xxii. 15 no fixed sum is mentioned in such a case.

The numl)er fifty, or half a hundred. U bbown by
these instances of IIh URe to In- » - '
(a comparison of Www niimltrm u.
K()nig. "Siilisiik. Uli.-i..rik. I'<K-tik, |.

A certain devflopmint nmy b. •• ■ -
valuation. In more ancient ■
dedicated lo i' '

History they wereaclu.i..
of in the SiiDctuary.

Valuation. (lilicdiiiif'^ '

(I 8arM, i. .*
according to Ex. xxxviii. 8 and I Sam. ii
service at, the door of liic ThImti
interpretation of the fate of J. ;
Judges xi. 89), or tliey lived as Nuzhi
frained from wine and other int<
(Num. vi. 2etiii-q.; Judges xiii.
["They causi-d my Nazarites to drink
Hcbr.]). Later sucii persons were often rcUc«nuU
(Lev. xxvii. 3-8).

A similar evolution is to be seen in th tbe

first-born of unclean beasts. At first '

such an animal was broken (Ex. xiii.
later times, according to Lev. xxvii. 27 un<i .Sum.
xviii. 15, redemption became allowabh I'
of herem also came to be treated more i.
course of lime. This word (comp. the Ani
ram " = "to cut olT ") designated formerly .
tion, or a setting aside to be destroyed (Ex
etal.): but according to Num. xviii. 14 ni
xliv. 29, the tiling set aside belongs t" ''
Perhaps the passage Lev. xxvii. 28b .
transition period in this ideali/ation of ili.- !.• r. m
(comp. Simon Maudl, " Der Hann," IMIim, p ];) .

This valuation occurs once al-w in tin- liiHt<iry of
Israel. King Jehoash, in II Kint's .\ii
the money for the dedicated olijict><(
which is brought into the house of Yiiwii
kodashim are nothing else than p'
given to Yuwu and then red'cni'
according to Lev. xxvii. 2 rt taq. For iu It Kingn
xii. 5 the valuation (" "erek ") of tli.
tion (i.e., of the persons) is spokei,
is said of the half-shekel wiiich each male 1
according to a fixed rule, had to pay ant
Temple as atonement money (" kofer " ; i
16). . If the Chronicler in the paralhl (ii

Chron. xxiv. 5) intended that, he was n.

BiniJOORAPHY : Bertholet, r<>rnni<-Mf<in/"'i L* ■ K.

H. C. 1900; UBeatDcb. ib.
E. O. II. 1. 1>

VAMB±RY, ARMINIUS: Hunrarianlravflcr

and Orientalist; boni at Dunn

island of SchlMt, near Presburg. .N.

was apprenticed at the aec of twelve to .
dressmaker; but after I

the village innkeeper, he

toenter the gymnasium of 8t. G<'
In 1846 he went to Pr.
three years. Later ]»•
met, and Budapest.

Viimbery was e8pe< lally
ture and culture of Turkey
abled. through the assistance of Baron
vAs, to go to r ' -^ • - . „

private tutor, n; o^

Varus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

400

Anulnlus ViimlitTy.

Husain Da'im Pasha, later becomiug private secre-
tary to Fuud Pasha. About this time he was elected
a c'oi member of the llungariau Acad-
emy >-•. .-. .a recognitiou of his trauslatious of

Turkish historians. Returning to Budapest in 1861,
he received a stipend of a thousiind tlorius from the

academy, ami iu the
fall of the same year,
disgui.S('il as a Siiimile
dervish, and under the
name of Rashid Etleudi,
he set out from Cou-
. stantinople. His route
lay from Trebizond to
Teheran, via Erzerum,
Tabriz, Zen j an, and
^ Kazvin. He then went
to Shiraz, through Is-
pahan, and in June,
1863, he reached Khiva,
whence he went by
way of Bokhara and
Samarcand to Herat, re-
turning iiuough Meshed toTeiieran and Trebizond.
This was the lirst journey of its kind undertaken
by a European ; and since it was necessary to avoid
suspicion, Vambery could not take eveu fragmentary
Doles, e-xcept by stealth. He returned to Europe in
1864, and received in the next year tlie appointment
of professor of Oriental languages in the University
of Budapest, retiring therefrom in 1905. Vambery
became known also as a publicist, zealously de-
fending the English policy in the East as against
that of the Russians.

The publications of Vambery, aside from magazine
articles, are as follows : " Deutsch-Turkisches Tasch-
cnwOrterbuch " (Constantinople, 1858); "Abuska,"
H Turkish-Chagatai dictionary (Budapest, 1861);
-Reise iu Mitlelasien" (Leipsic, 1865, 2d ed. 1873);
"Cagataische Sprachstudicn " {ib. 1867); "Meine
Wanderungen und Erlebnisse in Persien " (? J. 1867);
"Skizzen aus Mittelasien " (ib. 1868); "Uigurische
Sprachmonumente und das Kudatku-Bilik " (Inns-
bruck. 1870); "UigurischTlirkische Wortvergleich-
ungen" (Budapest, 1870); "Geschichte Bocharas"
(2 vols.. Stuttgart. 1872); "Der Islam im Neun-
zehnten Jahrhuudert" (Leipsic, 1875); "Sittenbilder
aus dem Mnrgenlande" (Berlin. 1876); "Etymolo-
giscbes WOrterbuch der Turkolatarischen Sprachen "
(Leipsic. 1878); "Die Primitive Cultur dos Turko-
latarischen Volkes " (j6. 1879); "Der Ursprung der
Mapyaren " (ib. 1882) ; " Das TQrkenvolk " (ib. 1885) ;
** Die ScheTbaniade.ein OezbegischesHeldengedicht,"
text and tmuslation (Budapest, 1885); "Story of
Hungary" (London. 1887); "A Magyarsag Kelet-
kezesces Oyarapodasa" (Budapest. 1895); "Travels
and Adventures of the Turki.sh Admiral Sidi Aii
Reis in India. Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Persia
During tiie Years 1553-1556," a translation from the
Turkish {ib. 1899); and " Alt-Osmanische Sprach-
studien" (I.rf>yden, 1901).

On pfilitioal subjects Vambery has written : " Ru.ss-
lands Mufhlstellung in Asien " (Leipsic, 1871);
"Zentralasicn und die Engli.sch-Russische Grenz-
frage"(j6. 1873); and "The Coming Struggle for
India" (London, 1885). Many of his works have

been translated into other languages, especially
French. He has written his autobiography under
the titles " Arniinius Vambery, His Life and Adven-
tures" (iO. 1883) and "Struggles of My Life" (ib.
1904).

Biiu.ior.RAPMY : Mcjicrts Kfmversatiotis-Leziki»i ; Brock-
)utuf Kiiin'eisatii)ii.s-_L€xihii)i.
s. L. H. G.

VAN DEN ENDE, FRANZ. See Simnoz.^.

VAN OVEN, ABRAHAM: Physician, died
in England 1778; grandson of Samuel Basan, who,
tleeing from Spain at the beginning of the eighteenth
century, settled in Oven, Holland, whence the patro-
nymic was derived. Abraham Vau Oven received
his medical diploma at Leyden Dec. 14, 1759. After
residing for some time at Hamburg, he emigrated to
England, and, settling in London, acquired an ex-
tensive and remunerative practise among the Jewish
residents. He was a good Hebrew scholar, and
wrote a Hebrew translation of Cougreve s "Mourn-
ing Bride."

J. G. L.

VAN OVEN, BARNARD : English physician
antl communal worker; born in London 1796; died
there July 9, 1860; youngest son of Joshua Van
Oven. He was brought up for the medical profes-
sion, studying under Sir William Blizardand receiv-
ing the degree of L.R.C.S. in 1818. He practised
in London during his whole life, and had an exten-
sive clientele among the Jewish conuiiunity.

Van Oven was one of the pioneers in the move-
ment for the removal of the disabilities of the Jews
in England. In 1829heAvrote the lirstappeal which
directed public attention to the subject, and which
Avas entitled "An Appeal to the British Nation on
Behalf of the Jews." He followed this up by organ-
izing committees in support of the movement, and
by convening public meetings, at which he was an
indefatigable speaker. In 1847 he published the
pamphlet "Ought Baron Rothschild to Sit in Par-
liament?" He was subsequently appointed chair-
man of the committee which celebrated the success
of the agitation by the establishment of commemo-
ration scliolarsliii)s at several jiublic schools. Van
Oven served on the committees of most of the Jew-
ish institutions of his day, and was instrumental in
establishing the Jews' Infant Schools. In 1827 he
had been appointed physician to the poor of the
Great Synagogue, which position he filled for many
years.

Van Oven was the author of a work entitled
"The Decline of Life in Health and Disease" (Lon-
don, 1853).
Bibliographt: Jew. Chron. July 13, 1860; Brit. Mus.Cat.s.v.

J. G. L.

VAN OVEN, JOSHTJA: English surgeon and
communal worker; born in England 1766; died in
Liverpool 1838; son of Abraham Van Oven. He
was trained for the medical profession, being a pupil
of Sir William Blizard. On receiving the degree of
L.R.C.S. (1784) he established himself in London
as a surgeon and apothecary, acquiring an extensive
practise among the Jewish residents. Through un-
fortunate speculations be in 1830 found himself
in monetary difficulties, and then removed to Liver-
pool, where he continued to reside till his death.

401

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Vimt>6rj

Vurua

i^ "^^

Jof hua Van Oven.

Van Oven was one of the most prominent workers
in tlie Jewish comnumity of his dii)', and was chielly
instrunu'iital in eslabiisliing the Jews' Free Seliooi,
tlie presidency of wliieh lie held for many years.
His active participation was evinced in tlie weekly
sermons he delivered to the pupils. He will, liow-
ever, be chietly remembered for his zeal in establish-
ing the Jews' Hospital
in Mile End. There was
at that time no institu-
tion for teaching handi-
crafts to Jewisli lads;
and its want was keenly
felt and commented on.
Van Oven therefore con-
ceived the jjlan of erect-
ing houses of industry
and education, together
with liospitals for the
sick, whose maintenance
was to be provided for
by annual contributions
from the sum paid accord-
ing to the general poor-
rates by Jewish householders. Opposition being
shown to part of this plan, he "was induced to modify
it ; and instead of several hospitals the Jews' Hospital
in Mile End was erected from funds previously col-
lected from the community.

Van Oven acted as honorary medical officer to the
poor of the Great Synagogue, London, until his
removal to Liverpool. In the latter city he took
a prominent part in communal alTairs, established
schools and charitable organizations, and delivered
in the synagogue sermons in the vernacular — at that
time a novel proceeding.

Van Oven was a Hebrew scholar — perhaps one of
the best of his day — and a voluminous writer, con-
tributing articles on Jewish and medical subjects
to the "European Magazine" and the " Liverpool
Medical Gazette." He wrote also: "Letters on the
Present State of the Jewish Poor in the Metrop-
olis," London, 1802; a preface to "The Form of
Daily Prayers," ib. 1822; and "A Manual of Juda-
ism," ib. 1835.

BiRi.ioGRAPH Y : Picciotto. Skrtche!) of A naln-Jewish History,
passim ; European Magazine, 1815; Brit. Mus. Cat. s.v.
.1. G. L.

VAN PRAAGH, WILLIAM: Pioneer of lip-
reading for deaf-mutes in England; born in Rot-
terdam Jime 11, 1845. Having studied under Dr.
Hirscli, who luxd introduced into Holland from Ger-
many the purely oral system of teaching the deaf
and dund), and who became principal of the Hotter-
dam Institute, Van Praagh became active in spread-
ing his teacher's principles. When, in the early
sixties, a Jews' Deaf and Dtmib Home was estal)-
lished in London, Van Praagh was invited (1866) to
takeover the management of the institution. His ap-
plication of the purely oral system at once attracted
the notice of Miss Thackeray, daughter of the novel-
ist, and others in the pul)lic iiress. In 1871 he pub-
lished his •' Plan for the Establishment of Day-Schools
for the Deaf and Dumb." This pamphlet gave the
first impulse in England to theestal)lishment of day-
schools and the boarding-out system.
XII.— 20

The sucn-ss (j1 \ an 1':
Deaf and Dumb lloiue l. ; ;

the late Burone.ss .Mayer du HolUhchiUl of un uuaec-
tariau institution on ijmi sysleni. Ii v
"Tlie A.ssocitition lor Die ()ml Inhlrm ■
Deaf and Dumb." Lord Grunville iKtanie pnit|.
dent; Sir George Daseiit, chuiii; ■

bock (now Lord Avcburv), ti
Praagh, who severetl hi.s cuunectioo with ili.
Deaf and Dumb Home, wuh .r
(1870), which position he still (I'.i
the association opened a Norniul hch<n)l uml Truin-
ing College for Teachers, us Die lieud (tf w|,:
Praagh for a third of u century linn \tiu\ in
the training of the majority of English tcuclienila
the lip-reudmg system.

Van Praagh's publfcations include (in nddition to
the above-mentioned piimphlel): "Lip I: for

tlie Deaf" (6th ed. 1900); jiapers on ihc ...ca-
tion of the deaf and dumb (including one u-ml nt tbe
National Health E.xhibition in 1hh|); "! for

the Instruction of Deaf and Dumb ( in

Speaking, Lip-Reading, Reading, and WriliDif"
(two parts, 1884); " Defective Arliciilalion R.
from Cleft Palate"; and variouscontri!>iiiii • ..i,

medical and general i)re8s.

In consideration of Van Praagh's

deaf and dumb, M. A. Falliires, miu , .

instruction and fine arts in France, created him

"Officierd'Academie" inl884. Inl-"-' "

gave evidence before the Royal Com

Blind, the Deaf and Dumb, etc The many leaclieri

whom he has trained have made known bis »y»lem

in every English-speaking country.

DiBr.iotiRAPiiY : Chit of the Silfnce.\n Cnrnhilt ilnonxtne.
18ti8: Pntc. of Houal Comminninii on tbe lUtu<i.tU€ Ittai
and Diimh, etc., 1887; Jew. CImm. Jun. 13, I«Jr. : JtiraH
Year Booh. V.m.
J. I 1!

VAN STRAALEN, SAMUEL : i
braist and librarian; boin at (joudn. H<
died in London, England, 1VK)2. In 1873 be was ap-
pointed Heorew librarian at tiie British .Museum.
lie translated many Dutch. Gtrinan. an«l llrbrvw
books, and was the author of a catalogue of Ihc
Hebrew books in the British .Aluseuen (Ix>ni|on,
1894) supplementary to that by Zedner. willi mh index
to both volumes. He prejuire*! also a si: 'a-

logue of the Hebrew collection, bn* ■ :iol

(lublished.
BiBLiOGRAPiiT : Jacobs. In PmW. Am. Jfv. HtM. J-x-. «i.

.1. ^' P

VANCOUVER. See Canada.

VANITIES. See Idols.

VARNHAGEN, RAHEL. Sec Lkvix. Rahkl.

VARUS, aUINTILIUS : K ' of

Syria 0-4 n.c. : succes.>ior <>f S^itii: '"^

came prominent in Jewish lilsiory when \i< ■
Great placed his own
the tribunal over wh
condemned him. After Herod s death. I
two sons. AnniKi.Ais and Antipa? •■
to make their pleas for lite tlironc. f«-

maiued in Jerusalem and quickly s' re-

volt before he left for AntifK-b. W er,

Sabinis arrived at Jerusalem and '-d the

Vashti
VazBonyi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

402

people, rebellion again raged throughout Judea,
i>o that Varus was obliged to return with both his
hgions. Joine<l on the march by the Arabian king,
Aretas, he first traversed Galilee, where Judas,
whose father, Hezekiah. had been put to death by
ll.:.«d, was at the head of tlie insurreetionists.
> ■'■•s. the capital, was burned, and all its in-

1 ^ were sold as slaves, after which Varus

iniin hid on Enimaus in the west, and burned it
likewise, the inhabitants saving themselves by Hight.
Traversing the entire district of Samaria, wiiich he
li-ft undisturbed, he reached Jerusalem, where the
Hoinan legion was besieged in the royal palace by
the i-ebels. The news of his apjiroach, however, so
dispiriti'd the latter that he was able to enter the city
without resistance, whereupon the great majority of
the people were pardoned, although the country was
scoured by soldiers and about 2,000 of the insurgents
were crucified. After the .suppression of this revolt
Varus returned to Antioch.

In an enumeration of the various wars, the Se-
der "Olam Rabbah (end) alludes to this rebellion
and its suppression as the "polemos shel Varos."
According to Gratz, it exercised a great influence
on Judaism, its direct results being the following:
the rabbinical regulations (1) that emigration causes
ritual defilement, since the people flee for refuge to
foreign lands (Tosef., Mid. xviii. 3; Tosef., Kelim,
13. K. i. 1, 5; Git. 8a), and (2) that an agent delivering
a get must prove its authenticity through a messenger
(Git i. 1); (3) the reception into the canon of Ec-
clesiastes, the Song of Solomon, and the Hagiographa
(Yer. Shab. 3c); (4) the redaction of the Psalms (the
majority of the daily Psalms contained lamentations
and allusions to the Roman supremacy, and this was
felt most keenly in the post-IIerodian period); (5)
the introduction of regular Psalms into the service
of the Temple.

BiBi.iOfiRAPiir : Jospphus. Aitt. xvii. 5. 8§ 3-7; 10. g§ 7. 9-10;
I.1.-I11. li.J. I. It', ii \-r,; II. 4. « a: ,5. gg 1-3; Uerenbours. /Rs•^
|). IIM ; NVuhaucr. M. .1. ('. i. (j(J; Gratz. in Monatsxchiift,
J«6rt. p. m; Idem, drsrh. 4th e.l.. lil.. ;»-). 24i1, 25»', 714-720-
S<-l)Qrer. (Jcsch. 1. :t.-.>. 413. 4-1). 421. GOi) ; iii. 215.

•'• S. 0.

VASHTI.— Biblical Data: The first wife of
An.\si;Kuis; her disoijedience and subsequent pun-
ishment furnish the theme for the introduction to
" of EsTiiKU. The name is held to be that

<■: mite goddess.

BiBLiOGRAPiiv : Wlldeboer. Esther, p. 173, Freiburg, 1897

E. G. H.
In Rabbinical Literature : Among the wom-
en wlio ruled were: Jezebel and Athaliuh in Israel ;
ami Shemiramot (Semiramis), wife of Nebuchad-
nezzar (see Lev. R. xix., end), and Vashti in Gentile
kingdoms (Esther R. i. 9). Vashti prepared a feast
for women in the "royal house." where she served
them with swret meats and other delicacies palatable
to women ; and she selected as the place of the ban-
quet the royal chambf-r of Ahasuerus, where she
might exhibit the artistic paintings which, accord-
ing to R. Abin, women prefer to see to eating fat-
tened birds (Yalk., ii.. § 1049). Ahasuerus ordered
Vashti to appear nufle before him and his guests at
liie banquet with the queen's crown as her only or-
nament. R. Abbab. Kahana says Vashti was no nu.ro
mode.st than Ahasuerus. R. Papa quotes a [lojiular

proverb: "He between the old pumpkins, and she
between the young ones"; i.e., a faithless husband
makes a faithless wife. According to R. Jose b.
Hanina, Vashti declined the invitation because she
had become a leper (Meg. 12b; Yalk., I.e.). Ahas-
uerus was "very wroth, and his anger burned in
him " (Esth. i. 12) as the result of the insulting mes-
sfige which Vashti sent him: "Thou art the son of
my father's stableman. ISIy grandfather [Helshaz-
zar] could drink before the thousand [Dan. v. 1];
but that person [Ahasuerus] quickly becomes in-
toxicated " (Meg. I.e.). Vashti was justly punished
for enslaving young Jewish women and compelling
them to work nude on the Sabbath (ib.).

K. c. J. D. E.

VATICAN LIBRARY: Papal library; origi-
nally housed, with its archives, in the Lateran Pal-
ace, where it was enriched, in the cour.se of time,
by many rare manuscripts. Transferred to the
Torre Chartularia on the Palatine, it was taken to
Avignon; but on the return of the Apostolic See to
Rome it became known as the Biblioteca Avig-
nonese. According to a catalogue published by
P. Ehrle, this library contained 116 Hebrew manu-
cripts ("Ilistoria Bibliothecae Romanorum Pontifi-
eum," pp. 398, 754), and was probably the most
ancient collection of its kind in any European
library. The subsequent history of these manu-
scripts is uncertain, and they have been either
wholly or partly lost. Such vicissitudes of fortune
at length reduced the Vatican Library to a state of
insignificance, imtil i\Iartin V. (1417-31) and Nicho-
las V. (1447-55) endeavored to repair these losses,
and founded the Biblioteca Apostolica in the Palace
of the Vatican. This task was at length completed
through the efforts of Sixtus IV., and from that
time the Vatican Library has contained a large num-
ber of Hebrew codices. During the librarianship of
Girolamo Aleandro (1519-38), who understood He-
brew, and of Marcello Cervini, afterward Marcellus
II., the growth of this deiiartment was probably
rapid ; and it is clear that about 1550 Die library must
have contained a large number of Hebrew manu-
scripts, since after that date a special "scrittore "
or copyist was employed for works in the Hebi'ew
language. The actual number of manuscripts,
however, is unknown, tor the first catalogue, which
was compiled by Carlo Federigo Borromeo, and
which lists 173 books, is very imperfect, and is but
little anterior to the middle of the seventeenth
century.

Shortly afterward (1650) anotiier catalogue was
prepared by B.\utoi,occi, with the assistance of

Giovanni Battista Jonah, which con-
Early Cat- tains a list of 584 Hebrew manuscripts
alogues. and printed books. The manuscripts

then in the Vatican had been accjuired
from two sources, the ancient Vatican collection,
and the more modern Palatine foundation, wiiich
had formerly been in the library at Heidelberg, but
wl.ich was presented by Duke IMaxiniilian I. to
Gregory XV., and placed in the Vatican by Urban
VIII. in 1624. This Palatine collection contained
287 Hebrew manuscripts, which had originally be-
longed to Jews near the Rhineand the Neckar. from

403

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Vunhli
V4xMayl

•whom they had been takeu during the persecution
of 1391.

In 1G58 tlie Valinm Libniry was enriched by tiie
Urbino collection, whicii contained a nunil)er of
valuable Hebrew manuscripts, including two an-
cient codices of the entire Ril)le. The second of
these (not mentioned by Ginsbiirg in his "Introduc-
tion to the Massoretico-Critical Edition of Ihe Hebrew
Bible") was written, according to tiie coioijjion, in
976; this date is questionable; but the manuscript
is undoubtedly very old. After these acquisitions,
Bartolocci, assisted by Giulio ^Morosini, compiled a
new catalogue of manuscripts; l)ut all three lists are
still unpublished.

The first printed catalogue is that of Stefano
Evodio and Giuseppe Simone Assemani, issued in
1756, and in use at the present day. It contains nu-
merous errors and discrepancies, however, some of
them corrected by Berliner, Stein.schneider (comp.
"Die Hebriiischen Uebersetzungen," p. xi.), and
others. Thus, codex 133, which contains, accord-
ing to the catalogue, a work by Isaac b. Jacob Al-
fasi, actually comprises a collection of treatises of
Yerushalmi, and affords valuable material for the
textual criticism of this Talmud. In liis "Appen-
dix ad Catalogum Codicuni Hebraicorum Bibliothe-
cie Vaticamc," Cardinal Mai gave a list of seventy-
eight other manuscripts which were added to the
library after the publication of tlie Assemani
catalogue, thus raising the number of Hebrew
manuscripts in the entire collection to 590.

In recent years three small libraries of Hebrew
manuscripts have been added to the Vatican, these
accretions comprising thirty-nine manuscripts from
the Pia Casa dei Neotiti at Rome, deposited in the
Vatican in 1H93 and catalogued by Gustavo Sacer-
dotc ; eighteen manuscripts from the Museo Borgiauo
" De Propaganda Fide," added in 1902, together with
the other Borgian codices; twelve
Recent Ac- manuscripts from the Barberini collec-
cessions, tion, placed in the Vatican in 1903,
with the rest of the Barberini library.
Neither the Borgian nor the Barberini manuscripts
have as yet been accurately described and cata-
logued ; and therefore the above estimate of their
number is provisional. The Borgian collection con-
tains a Bible of considerable anticiuity; but the other
manuscripts seem to be of little value. Among the
Barberini codices is the famous tricolumnar Samari-
tan Pentateuch in Hebrew (Samaritan version),
Arabic, and Samaritan (Targum), as well as the Pen-
taglot Psalter in Armenian, Arabic, Coptic, Ara-
maic, and Ethiopic.

The Vatican Librarj' was formerly governed by a
cardinal librarian and a first and a second custo-
dian ; but in 1879 a sublibrarian was added to this
staff, and in 1895 the position of second custodian
was abolislied. "Scrittori," or copyists, are em-
ployed in the library to copy and catalogue the
manuscripts; but the statement- that Si.vtus IV. ap-
pointed a "scrittore" for Hebrew rests solely on a
passage from Panvinio, and seems to be incorrect
(comp. Miintzaiid Fabre, "La Bibliotheque du Va-
tican an Quinzieme Siede," p. 137. note 2), al-
though it is certain that the library contained a He-
brew copy ist about 1550, and thata second ".scrittore"

was ad.led by Paul V. (l.J(J.-.-2l). Tho rx-lehnitrd
Jiartolocci was a Hebrew ( (.pvisi. ,i« w.-n- ,- „.

verted Jews, including Carh. Ff<lerif.'o I
Ago.stino Grimani, and (;i<.vanni H„mI^u .i
the last of whom went to Home in HWH ,,. . ,

copyist at tlie Vatican until IiIh dw h In 1- „

he was succeeded by Giulio M..r..s,ni. who hc-M tbto
ofhce for the remainder i>{ Iun life.

The Vatican Lii)niry includcHulHo the Numlimiailr
Cabmet and the "Pagan" and "C
urns. The last-named contains a ,
ably taken from a Jewish caUconib undir tlio Vb
Labicana (see illustration. Jkw. I'
Tiiis gla.ss is especially valuable •
representation of the Temple of Jfruwlpiii; it
lias been published by De Rossi (-Bollfttlno <li
Archeologia Cristiana," 1882. p. 1H7'.

BiBLiocRAiMiY : 8. E. and C. S. AR.-».-riiiitil. /
lica' VntiiatKvCoiliciiiii Mtiinit.ii it.t,.,
lT.">ti; ^]ui. Scrii)tiir}iin Vitnuin \
cerdiiie, / Mawixcrilti ihiUi l-iti i
in Atti ihltn Ui'iiiti Aicdili mia ili t J.
Di: Oriiiiiic, HiMnrin. Iinlinhiii' Si i
Si'ilis ApiiKtoUra, Uome. Ihsti; ILUrW. ll..-,.., ,., /„;.,,..,,„ r,r
Hinnutioj-um Pontificum, Kuuie. l«eo.

•'• I n,

VATKE, JOHANN KARL WILHELM
Chri.slian Ilebrai.st; born .MareJj 14, 1W)«, m i
dorf. Saxony; died in Berlin April 19. 1mh2.
studying in Halle. GOttingen. unci B<Tlin I,.
came privat-docent in the University of IUtUu id
1830, and assistant profes.sor in 1H37. ' In iKiT, - !!• r
lin) appeared his first important work. "Die I
gion des Alten Testaments " (intended as pari i
"Biblische Theologie "; but no more was iiuLlJ-
After 1841 he published little; but Iiis leclur.
the Old Testament were edited after liis
H. Prei.ss under the title " KiidiitunL' in
Testament" (1886).

On the question of the origui >>i iiir i't •
Vatke look tlu; most ailvanced position, di :
Moses any share in the work, and regartling D< .'
ronomy as the earliest of the Peir .' ' ' '
He thus brought on himself the vi^
of Hengstenberg; but his teaching exorif*! a In-
iutlucnce on a wide ciicle of licjircrs; and !
garded as one of the predere««<>rs of Gnif
and Wellhausen.

BIBI.IOCJRAPMV : H.B«>n«ko, }\'iii,.,,., l,,.,...^.. .
Seine &"c/irf/(e»i, Bonn, 1883; AHy- I^utKhr Bi-

VAV. See W.\w.

VAZSONYI, WILHELM: II
cist and dipuly; liuin at .*^i.i;ii f;;. .^
He was educated at Budapest, when- I
ble eloijuence made him the leader of nil
movements during his university rarv^T. A:;
had conijiletcd his sHidies the moat TJtal torlal
(juestions found in him an « :•

aroused a nationid M-ntinv
.success being proved by the numcrons ant:
clubs in Hungary. r>ater In "
nalistic agitation in behalf'
of the Jewish religion, and kept the n
the public until the law granting recngniii«ii ».«■•
sanctioned (1S95).

In 1894 Vaz.sonyi fonndtni the
in Rudajiest. and became a cnnun 'ii ■ ■.■

19(10 he established the politicsil weekly - ' I'l "

▼aoohio, Del
'VeigBlnherg

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

404

(="TUe New Century") for the dissemiuation of
democratic ideas tbrougliout the country; and at
tl,, -. ■■ ' orgauized democratic clubs in all
tl. iau cities. In 1901 Vazsouyi was

el, puty tor the sixlli district of the capiUil,

oil • "ic platform, of which he is the only

p;, iitative in the Hungarian Parliament;

and at the electiun of Jan. 26. l'J05. he defeated

Uj. . , ••■Miister of commerce, as a candidate for

til ■< fmm his district.

•s of articles in the daily press,
\ ... .. ..;Leu the following works: " Oenkor-

oi ( 1890). on autonomy ; " A Viilasztasi el v a

K -ban" (1891), on the principle

of :. . .-;i governments; "ASzavazas

Deczentralizaczioja" (1893). on decentralization in
voting, and "A Kinilyi Plaoetum a Magyar Alkot-
mauybau" (1893), on the royal veto iu the Iluuga-
riau constitution.
Bi PaUa« Lex. xviii.; Sturm, Orszuffflij/tl/m Al-

L. V.

VECCHIO, DEL (N'P'I^SD, VP'I hn) : Italian
family. iniLing its descent from the period of the
destruction of the Second Temple. Some members
of Ibis family were called also D'jptno ("the old
ones"). Its most important members were the fol-
lowing:

Abraham ben Shabbethai del Vecchio :
Sclioiar of the scventeenlh century ; rabbi of Ven-
ice, Sassuolo, and Mantua. He was the author of
the ■* Perush 'al lia-Ketubah." a work on marriage
settlements. A commentary on this, entitled "Slie-
^ar IJi'urim," was in the possession of Joseph Al-
munzi. Abraham wrote also the "Sefer Zera' Abra-
ham," on riiuals. and a responsum included iu the
" I)el)ar Sliemuel " of Samuel Al)oal) (No. 19).

Samuel ben Mahalaleel del Vecchio : Kabbi
of Ferrara in tbe sixteenth century, lie was tbe
author of "Tikkunim " (or " Haggaliot ha-RIF"), on
Alfusi's conunentary on the Talmud, and of a re-
sponsum included in the collection of Jeliiel i)eii Az-
riel Trabut (No. 19).

Shabbethai Elhanan ben Elisha del Vec-
chio (SH;iHA). IJalibiof tbe seventeenth and eight-
cenlh centuries; otiiciated at Lago, Leghorn, An-
cona, and Casale. He was the author of all tho.sc
responsii in Liimpronti's "Pahad Yizbak " which
Ix-ar the .signature K3*j' 713^0: and he wrote also an
approbation of that work. His correspondence with
Mnrpurgo lia.s been ]>ublished in the hitter's collec-
tion of responsa enlilled "Sbeniesb Zcdakab "(i.,
Nos. 15, 16; jv.. No. 9), while his letters to Hayyini
Jos4.>ph D:ivid Azulai are included in the hitter's
" llayyim Slia'al " (i. 16). Shabbethai was also tbe
auliiorof the "Ir Miklat," responsa on the Biblical
command Mien ts, and of the " Da'at Zekenim," a work
on el flics. TIk^ latter work is mentioned in the
"P.-dia.l Vizhak"(iv. 61b).

Solomon David ben Moses del Vecchio :
Hal. Ill <.f Lugo; lioiirislie(l in the latter p;irt of the
sevenlcenlh and at tbe beginning of tbe eigbteentb
century. A responsum of his is printed in tbe
"Pahad Yizhalj " (i. 3;Ja) of Lampronti. with
wbom he was on terms of intimate friendsbip, al
though (he two were engaged in a literary contro-

versy concerning the question of damage to property
(ib. iii. 3Ta). Solomon was also tbe author of a re-
sponsum on phylacteries, which is inchuled in Sam-
son Morpurgo's "Shemesh Zedakah" (i., ^ 4), and
of a responsum iu Motalia Terni's "Sefat Emet"
(p. 19).

Solomon Moses del Vecchio : Rabbi at Siniga-
glia iu the eighteenth century.

Bibliography: Mortara. Indicc, p. 68: TursU Bilil. Jiul. iii.
41)947(1; Steiiisi-hneider, Hchr. Bibl. v. 21 \ Shc'clnt u-Tc-
shuhiit ''Afar I'rt'dfro/), No. 41: Nepi-(ihirondi, To/edof O'f-
((«/«■ i'tsrafh pp. 33.'>.:}21 32:}: Moxr, vi. 2ti.5, 338; Vogelstein
ami Rieper, G'fsc/i. dcr Jndoi in Rom, i. 25.
i:. c. S. O.

VECINHO (VIZINO), JOSEPH: Portuguese
court i)liysieiaii ami scientist at the end of the tif-
teenth century. He was a pupil of Abraham Zacuto,
under whom be studied niaiheinatics and cosmogra-
phy, on which latter subject he was regarded as an
eminent authority by John II. of Portugal. He
was sent by the king to the coast of Guinea, there
to measure the altitude of tbe sun, doubtless by
means of the astrolabe as improved by Jacob b.
Machir.

When, in 1484, Columbus laid before the king
his plan for a western route to the Indies, it was
submitted to a junta, or commission, consisting of
the IJishop of Ceuta, "Mestre Josepe" (Joseph Ve-
cinho), the court physician Rodrigo, a Jewish math-
ematician named Moses, and Martin Behaim. The
junta tiiially tlecided against Columbus' plans; and
when tbe matter came up before the council of state
Pedro de IVIenczes opposed them also, basing his ar-
guments upon Joseph Vecinbo's criticisms. Colum-
bus attributed the refusal of the Portuguese mon-
arch to adopt his plans chiefly to "the Jew Joseph."
Though Vecinho did not favor Columbus, the latter
had personal intercourse with him, and obtained
from him a translation of Zacuto's astronomical ta-
bles. Columbus carried this translation with him
on his voyage, and found it extremely useful; it
was found in his library after his death.

Josej)!! Vecinbo's translation of Zacuto's tables

wasi)ublished by the Jewish printer Samuel d'Ortas

in Leiria under the title "Almanach Perpetuum,"

1496.

Bini.iocjRAPiiY: Kavserlinff, Christopher Columbus, pp. 9, IZ-
l;(. 10-18, 47-48.
s. J.

VEGA, JOSEPH DE LA. See Penso, Jo-

STsl'll.

VEGA, JUDAH: H:il)l)i and author; flourished
in tin; sixteenth ami seventeenth centuries. Vega
was tbe lir.st rabbi of tbe second synagogue of
Amsterdam, Neweh Shalom, which was established
ill 160S. After a short time he resigned his ollice,
and in 1610 went to Coiistantinoijle, wbere he is said
to have written a work entitled "Jazania" (?),
which treated of the life of tbe Jewish peo])]e from
the time of tbe second (lestruction of Jerusalem.
Conforte confounds this Judah Ycga with anotlier
person of tbe same name (not Bi/.o), who lived at tbe
same time, and who went from Saloniea to Safed,
where he conducted a Talinudic school and where
be died. Judah Vega was a good preacher and
baggadist; bis small collection of sermons, entitled
"Malke Yehudah," appeared at Lublin in 1616.

405

THE JEWISH ENCYCUjl'hDiA

Bibliography: Isaac Tranl. Rcjiponsa. I. 139; De Barrios,

Vkla (le [shah Hi(Sie(, p. 42 ; Conforte. Jforc hn-ni,riit,p
48a: De Ufissi-Hamberger. Hint. WCntirh. p. 3i'>: (iratz
0'cj<(/i. ix. 52a.
K- c- ]\I. K.

VEGETARIANISM : Tlie theory according to
wliicii it is dusiiiible to sustain the body with vege-
tables and fruits, and abstain from eating uninml
food or any i)ioduct thereof. Kah said that Adam
was jH'oiiibited from eating meat. " Doniiniou " in
Gen. i. 28 is interpreted as the privilege of u.sing the
animals for labor only (Sanh. 5flb). But after flie
Flood, when the animals were saved in Noah's ark,
the right of consuming them was granted to man
"Every moving thing that liveth siiall be meat for
you; even as the green herb have I given you all
things "(Gon. ix. 3). The only restriction was in
the case of "flesh with tlu; life thereof"; that is,
flesli might not be taken for food from a living ani
mal. Mo.ses could with difficulty restrain the cra-
ving of tiie Israelites for the " flesh jjots" of Egyi't
(E.\. xvi. 3). The manna, as a lieavenly diet, could
not satisfy them, and therefore Moses appointed a
flesh meal for the evening (Yoma Tob). Again, the
rabble among them " fell a lusting" and demanded
more meat (Num. xi. 4). They were then supplied
plentifully with quails from the sea, which caused
an epidemic (Num. xi. 31-34; comp. Ps. Ixxviii. 25-
31). Moses limited the eating of flesh to certain
kinds of animals, prohibiting those that were un-
cle:ui(Lev. xi. 1-47). After the occupation of Pales-
tine permission was given those who were too far from
the Temple to eat the llesh of any clean animal that
had been properly slaughtered (Deut. xii. 21). This
is called "basar ta'awah " (= "meat of desire," or
"meat of luxury "), meat not being considered a nec-
essary of life. Daniel and his comrades weie given
pulse and water, and yet appeared in better health
than those who were nourished with the king's meat
and wine (Dan. i. 5-16 1. The prophet pictured a
future when "the lion shall eat straw like the ox "
(Isa. xi. 7). Isaac Abravanel, commenting on this
passage, says that cruelty and ferocit}^ are engen-
dered in the animal that eats meat.

The Kabbis objected to meat-eating rather from
an economic than from a moral standpoint. The ad-
vice of II. Judah ben Ilai was: "Sit in the shade and
eat onions; but do not eat geese and
Rabbinic chickens, though thy heart may crave

Views. them " (Pes. 114a). A popular prov-
erb in Palestine ran: "He who eats
fat tails ["alita"] will be compelled to liide [from
creditors] in the attic [" 'alita "] ; but he who eats veg-
etables ["kakule"] maj' rest quietly on the bank of
the river [" kikele "] " (ib. ). The Rabbis, referring to
Deut. xiv. 2(5, said, "The Torah teaches a lesson in
moral conduct, that man shall not eat meat unless
he has a special craving for it. and shall eat it only
occasionally and sparingly." K. Eleazar b. Aziiriah
thougiit that a man who is worth one maneh should
provide his table with a pound of vegetables; ten
manelis. willi a pound of fish; fifty nianehs, with a
pound of meat; if he is worth 100 manelis, he may
have a pot of meat every day Rab followed the
regulation of this tauna. R. Johanan, however,
remarked that Rab came from a healthy family,
but that people like himself must spend the last

peru^a to purchauo the Ix'sl nourisli; " • - -

Ikcuuse he did not eat ox mini ii

Nahman was not in a i • . ,. ^ f.,,.. .

decision to Ralm until ..... ^ ,H. |J. 7,.

On Sabbaths and lioly (Uiys rUh ami m.^i r ',
nished the daintiest morHilH ]{, ,\
Friday thirteen silver coinn ul li... . ..

butchers' ghopH in onlor to get Uic U-m i
honor of Queen Sabbaih (Slmli. 1 lU,,) !
ever, would proiijbii an -'m,, Ita-nrvi'
meat, quoting, "Thi» is the law of tlif?
that >nay be eaten," i-u ' -

studying the I,aw may
may not ( Pes. 4)>b).

The modern (|ue8lion <-i >■
first discu.ssed by I. IJ. L
the strictness of the ndes of " jt-refali " <ii)
count, and attributes the longevity ' •'
tions from Adam to Nouh tn tli<ir
The good morals and keen i
says, are largely due to ihi.. ....

("Zerubbabel.""lv.. ^ 51). Dr. .1. K
other hand, claims that the

the Jews is directly respoh :

peculiar to them; and he blames the vx
price of meat, due to the >■
("Seder Ivapjjarot le IJn'a
Warsaw, 1878).

The principal reji.sons inr upl, '

vegetarianism are sinnmed up
Rubin in connection witii the pmliibilion of
to animals (in Ze<lerbaum, " Meli^ El.m(l .Minnt LUI. '
St. Petersburg. 1S84).

An ardent advocate of vegelnHani)>ni wa« Aaron
II. Frankel (b. Dec. 6, 18«'-J. at S'; "" "
il. Oct. 31, 1904, Rrooklyn. N. Y.).
strict vegetarian diet and cndeavorisj lo .
vegetarian clubs. He cxpouncK-*! his ih •
English e.s.say, "Thou Shall Not Kill, c
of Vegetarianism" (p. 8rj, New York, l""
order to erou.se the interest of the ^■
and gain adherents he translated hi-
dish under the title "I^o Tiryah," .
from lime to time until he pro<lii,... . — . k-
pamphlets on the subji'ct. A.** a text for liin work
he took " He that killeth an OX Is as if lie slew a
man" (Isa. Ixvi. .'^i

.1 J. D E.

VEIGELSBERG. LEO: I'
born at Nagy-H'ilii<>g:tss/.oiiy .■
cated at Kis-KOrOs. Budapest, and Virnoa Kwra
short time he taught in "'
Kecskemet, where he wr
tides for several new8pap< :
tik" of Prague: in 1867 1.
the editorial statT of the " N'
.since 1872 he has liit-n eilitor in •
Lloyd." His political !- ' •
two asterisks, always
and his services as a p'

Francis Joseph I., win

decoration of the Ortler of the Iron (
on.Iidy 9. 10(^.

Veipclsberg's son Hugo, Iwm ■>! n i! iix*? \or.
2. 1809. and etincatitl at Kis i ict.

Eperjes, and Budapest. Is one of the iiua^i ;miHjri*iil

Veil
Veneziani

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

406

aii I the j-oungiT generation, being distin-

guisbeil for liie lyric individuality of his poems, sto-

rj. - ' , al works. He usually writes un

d. ..lonyms " Dixi." " Paic) Pal." "Tar

LOrincz."aud "Ignotus." He has published- "A

Slemil Keservei" (1891). "Versek" (18941. "Vallo-

niisok" (1900). and "Vegzet." a translation of a

novel by the Dutch author Couperus.

DiBLioGRxPHi Pallas L<T.
s Li. V.

VEIL: A cover for the face; a disguise. From
the earliest times it has been a sign of chastity and
decency in married women to cover their faces with
veils in the presence of strangei-s. This custom is
still in vogue in the Orient. The putting on of the
veil raaiked the transition from girlhood to woman-
hood. Hebekah. the bride, covered herself with a
veil on meeling Isjuic, the groom (Gen. x.xiv. 65).
A widow did not wear a veil {ih. .x.xxviii. 19). The
custom of dressing the virgin bride with a veil is
mentioned in the Mishnah; covered with a veil
("hinumu'') and seated on a litter, she was carried
iu the wedding-procession from her father's house
to the nuptial ceremony (Ket. ii. 1). In modern
times the bride is "covered " with a veil in her cham-
ber iu the presence of the groom, just before they
are led under the canopy. In some countries the
griHjm, and in nthers the rabbi, performs the cere-
mony of covering the bride.

Moses, when speaking to the people after he had
come down from Mouui Sinai, covered his face with
H veil as his skin shone so brightly that the people
fearc<l to come nigh him (Ex. xxxiv. 29-35).

The veil was used as a di.sguise by Tamar to mis-
Icail Judah (Gen. xxxviii. 14). The prophet "dis-
guised himself with his headband over his eves"
(i Kiriis XX. :!8, R. V).

A. J. I). E.

VEIT, JOHANNES: German painter; boin in
lii-iiin ITW; .jird at Kuiiie 1854. He studied at Vi-
enna and at Home, where he especially took Va-
nurci for his model. Together with his brother
Philipp V'kit he joined the neo-Germau .school, but
distinguished him.self by his superior coloring. He
painted an altar piece for the <atliedral at Liege an<l
au -Adoration of the Shephenls" for a Catholic
church at Berlin, as well as several famous portraits
ni the Madonna.

Bini.ioGRAPiiv: Hans Wolfpang Sinjrer. AlUicmehirg Kl'nixt-
Uil^.rtriiii, Frankfort-on-Uie-Main. IWIS; Bryan, Diction-
arum I'niiilerK fDul Hinjracers, London, 1904.
»• F. C.

VEIT, PHILIPP: German portrait- and genre
painter, born Feb i:(, 179:^ in Beilin, died Dec. 18,
1877, at Mayence. His father died while he was a
child; and his mother, who was a daughter of
Moses Mknoklswimn, married Friedrich von Schle-
g«-l. who had the boy baptized.

The early part of his youth Veil spent at his step-
father's home in Paris, but he was later sent to
Dresden, where he studied under Friednch Matthili.
He completed his education in Vienna, and in 1813
entered the army, taking part in the Napoleonic
wars. He fou-^ht at Dn-sden, Kiilm, and Leipsic,
and was decorated with tin- Iron Cross for bravery
in battle.

In 1815 he went to Rome, where he remained till
1830 and where he became identified with the neo-
German religious school, joining Cornelius, Von
Schadow, and Overbeck, together with whom he
painted many imi)ortant frescos, of these may be
mentioned "Joseph with Potiphar's Wife "and " The
Seven Fat Years " for the Casa Bartholdy, and " The
Triumph of Religion " in the Vatican gallery. In
Rome he painted also several subjects from Dante's
" Divina Commedia" for the Villa Massimi, and a
•' Mary in Glory " for Santa Trinita de Monti.

Returning to Germany in 1830, Veit became di-
rector of the Staedel Institute in Frankfort-on the-
,Main. For this institute he painted the following
large canvases: "The Triumph of Christianity,"
"The Introduction of Art into Germany by Christi-
anity," "Italia," and "Germania." The last-named,
which is an allegorical picture representing Ger-
many as a young matron, did more than any of his
other paintings toward establishing his reputation.

Veit resigned the directorate of the Staedel Insti-
tute in 1843, and settled in Sachsenhausen, where he
painted his "Assumption of the Virgin" for the
cathedral at Frankfort, and also several pictures for
King Frederick William IV. In 1853 he was elected
director of the Gallery of Art iu Mayence. Heiehe
designed for the cathedral a cycle of frescos, which
were executed by his pupils, being completed iu
1868.

Of Veit's other paintings the following may be
mentioned: "St. George" (for the church at Bens-
iicim); "The Marys at the Sepulch'er " (Berlin Na-
tional Gallery), "The Ascension of Christ" (1846,
cathedral, Frankfort - on - the - Main) ; " Madonna "
(Darmstadt Gallery of Art); "Christ" (cathedral of
Naumburg).

Veit painted also for the Romersaal in Frankfort-
on-the-]\Iain several portraits of emperors of the
INIiddle Ages, of wjiich may be mentioned : "Charle-
magne," "Otto IV.," and "Friedrich II."

To the " Vereinsschrift der Ginres-Gesellschaft " he
contributed "Zehn Vortriige liber Kuust" (Cologne,
1891).

Bini.iofiRAPiiY: Metiers Konvrrmtirmf^-Lrxihon; Bryan,
Divliininvfi nf I'niiiters and K)iu>'<ii'<>'x, vol. li., London,
IHSi); Hans AVolffranfT sintrcr. AlUjciiunnn KUtistle) -Le.ri-
cnn, vol. 111., Frankfort-oii-Ilic-Maiii. is<)8. Clement and HM-
Um. Aiiisis iif the Aiiieltcntli Ceutun/ and Their WUrkg,
Boston, 188<).
s. F C.

VEITEL, EPHRAIM. See Hkine, IIeinuicfi.

VELLUM : Skins of animals constituted the an-
cient Oriental writing-material (Herodotus, v. 58;
Strabo, xv. 1; Pauiy- Wissowa, " Real-Encyc." ii.
944). and the Jews employed them as early as the
Biblical period (Blau, " Das Althebrilische Buchwe-
sen," p]i. 12-15), attaining great proficiency in their
preparation (Letter of Aristeas, t-i^ 176-179). The
Talmud was acquainted with three varieties, leather,
parchment, and "doksostos," the last ajiparently
a parchment obtained by scraping both sides of the
skin (Blau. I.e. ]i. 28); in the case of leather the out-
side of the hide formed the writing-surface, in the
case of parchment, the insich; (Yer. Meg. 71a). The
skins of domestic and of wild animals alike were
used, althotigh only those which were ritually clean
might be chosen. The skins of fishes and birds were

407

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Veil
VBiiftiiHni

likewise prepared (Yer. Sliab. 14c; Kelim 10; Blau,
I.e. pp. 32 et seq.), but wore not used for booi<s. Tlie
most froquciit writiiig-iiuilciiiil was fonncd from the
liideof tliodeer, ultlioiigli (jiily liall'llic skin was used
(Biaii, I.e. pp. 17. 30). VViiile scrolls of tlie Law miglit
be written on parclmicnt (Yer. INIcg. 71a. d; 15. H.
14a. top), entire skins were the usual material, tliese
being consequently of leather and called "gewil"
(Blau, I.e. pp. 24-26). Parchment books are men-
tioned by Paul (II Tim. iv. 13), this phrase dcsig
Tiating Greek manuscripts of Biblical writings on
parchment ("Berliner Festscluift," p. 44). The
C^odex (Sinaitieus of the fourth century is written on
the skin of an antelope, and it is not impossible that
the " Ile.xapia '" of Origen was likewise inscribed on
leathei or parchment (Blau, I.e. pp. 45-47). The
scribes manufactured their vellum themselves, and
it formed an article of trade (Git, 60a. Sanli 28b).
Babylonians were iireeminent in the art of prci)ar-
ing leather (^leg. 17a, 19a), and doubtless displayed
e(]ual skill in tlie manufacture of leather and parch-
ment for writing.

The distinctive writing-material of the ancient
Hebrews was parchment, which alone may be used
for the scrolls of the Law even at the present day;
and i)archment manuscripts wliich still exist show
that this material continued to be employed after
paper had come into general use for other purpo.ses.
References to examples of parchment and manu-
script arc given in Jew. Encvc viii. 305, n.p. ]\I.\nu-
^^laPTS, where the fact is also noted that the finest
material came from Italy and Spain.

The statement is frecpieutly made that the German
Jews furnished parchment for the imiu-rial chan-
cery, and that when Charles IV. pawned the Jews of
P'rankfort to the citizens of that place, he reserved
for himself and his descendants the right of obtain
ing parchment for the ciiancery from them. In 1354
a certain Smogil Pcrminter (" parchment maker ") is
mentioned (Wattenbach, " Schriftwesen dcsMittelalt-
ers," 3d ed., p. 131), and in the sixteenth century Mo-
ses Lsserles declares that " our parchment is better for
the prejiaration of scrolls of the Law than the leather
("gewil "] of tiie ancients." Books were printed on
liarclunent. and ])hylacteriGsaud mezuzot were made
out of strips of parchment. Amulets were written
on the same material, and medieval and modern
cabalistic and magic writings contain directions for
writing on parchment, with such added statemeiits
as that "it must be virginal." Colored parchment
is not mentioned in the Talmud or Midrash, although
the statement is made that parchment becomes black
with age. See M.^nuschipts, Scuoi.i. of tiikL.\w.

r.ini.iocRAPiiY: Blau, Das AlDiebrai.fctie Tiuchircieii. Stras-
biiPK, 1902; Low, Graphische Req^iisitoi, Lelpslc, lt<70.
T L. B.

VENDOR AND PURCHASER. See Sale.

VENETIANER, LUDWIG : Hungarian rabbi

and writer, born May 11), 181)7, at Kecskemet. He
studied at the rabbinical seminary and the Univer-
sity of Budapest, and at tlie Jewish Tlieological
Seminary ainl the University of Breslau, 1888-8!)
(Ph.D. 1890, Budapest). Keceiving his dijiloma as
ral)bi from tlie seminary of Budapest in 1892. lie
officiated as rabbi at Somogy-Csurgo from that year
to 1895, holding at the same time the cliair of Hun

garian and tJerman litenitureH hI ih. ,

Reform Gymnasimii of that city. In .
called to the ralibinute of Lugos. uml in i|,
ing year to that of Ujp.sl lu-ar Bii.:

Venetianer is the author of -A i
nyve," on the Bources of 8ljfm-T<»b Ibn 1
(Szegedin, 1890); ".V l-VI.-buniti <
Ethikiiban," on charity in JfwJHli .
1H91); "Das Buch der Grade von Schemtob' ilin

Fahupiera" (Berlin. 1894). " I)i. '

terien im Jerusaleniis«lien Tn,
th.'-Main, 1897); "A Heber-Magvar ()<RHZ.-lm^. t,
lito Nyelveszet," a history of nVl.r.-w 1 1
philology (Budapest. 1898). "A Zmdowig S.
az Europ.ii Allamokban," a history of ih-
communal constitution in Europe (ift. !!> \

Magyar Zsidosag Szervezeierf.l." a work
of the organization of the Jews in Hui
1903); "A Z-sidasiig Eszmei es Tanai." »
on the conceptions and doclrincs ol Jud .
1904). lie has also contributed nunierous nt-
to periodical.s, including " EgyenlOseg." " Tiirua.;
Lapok," "Jahrbucii des Littenitnrvcn-InK," -i
Napio," "Magyar Zsi.16 Szende." "Or
Litteraturzeitung," " Ellmograpina." a;...
Festschrift" (supi)lement to the "Ocstcn.
Wochen.schrifi"), and he Ims publislicd some m.;-
mons in Hungarian.

BiBLiOfiRAPiiv : A.Csurjrnl. TnnitiVKtpzn Jntftet TOrlmeU,
p. 4.t: (ifsch. dcti jadUch-Thfohn/iitcheti Seminan iii tiff*

?<(((, p. IIIK.

VENEZIANI,EMMANUEL FELIX : '•
philanthropi.st, biirn at Leghorn in 1''-'.'j.
Paris Feb. 5, 1889. At an early age lie went lo «
stantinople, where he became the manager of
Ban(|Ue Camondoand president of the conmii"'
the Alliance Israelite Universellc, but nfu-r •
of the Franco-German war lie went to I'
became the associate of Baron .Maurioi- ih- I '
his philanthr()i)ic plans. In 1877 V'
through Turkey and Bulgaria lo rel.-
gard to creed, the distress ot the poor who wii
ing from the rigors of the Russo-Tiirki-

for his services he was rewanled with i

ship of the Order of the Nisiian i-.M In tlic

following year, with Cli
he went to the Berlin C' _

religious liberty, and in IHSO lie Hn<l Ncllcr niad- :»
similai plea for the Jews of Mo-
Congress. Two yeai"s later lie n
by the Alliance to Bnuly to assist the Huminn J' » -
and toaid thetn to emigmte, a million * '

.set aside by the s(K'i('ty, at his instanoi-. '
pose. On ids election to the central r
the Alliance in 18m:}, Voneziani ■ '
Jewish colonies of I'ahstine. a;
his reiire.sentation, to check the lU.
to tluU country. Ileniade n-peatiMi . ,-
also, where he devoted hiniM-lf to i
plans and laying the foundation of

stitution erected at the rxpensc of L. ;

Despite the sliock resulting from the denth of hit
.son in 1882. Veneziani continue. i
last, dying only a tew days -if'
journey to Vienna.

Venice

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

408

BiBLIOGKii-tn

Jan..

fi.ir.

VENICE

n<,n,(iH de I'Alliauce IitrailUe Uiiii'erxfVe.
ihQ. Souvtnirg et Rearets, pp. -TS-^Sl ;

J. Ka.

Italian city : formerly capital of a re-

irtbcustern Italy and some islands

lU. The tirst Venetian document,

so far as known, in which Jews are mentioned is a

' ■ <.nute, dated 945, prohibiting captains

- . ^' in Oriental waters from taking on

bourd Jews or other merchants — a protectionist

• which was hardly ever enforced. Accord-
i census of the city said to have been taken

in 1153 (Galliccioli, "Memoria Antiche Venete," ii.
■'"■ •'..• Jews then in Venice numbered 1,300, an

• which Galliccioli himself beJievcs to be ex-
cessive. An event which must have increased
the number of Jews in Venice was the conquest of
ConsUintinople by the allied Venetians and French
iu 12m, when the former took possession of several
islands in the Levant, including Eubaa, where the
Jews were numerous. At that time Jewish mer-
chants went to Venice for the transaction of business,
and some of them settled there permanently.

The lirst lasting settlement of Jews Avas not in
the city itself, but on the neighboring island of
Spinalunga, which was called "Giudeca" in a doc-
ument dated 1252. For some unknown reason this
island was afterward abandoned. For several cen-
turies the ruins of two ancient synagogues were to
be seen there (comp. Ravain "Educatore Israelita,"
lyTl, p. 47). At the beginning of the thirteenth
century many Jews went to Venice from Germany,
some seeking refuge from persecution, others at-
tnicted by the commercial advantages of this im-
portant seaport. A decree of the Senate, dated 1290,
imposed upon the Jews of Venice a
Early duty of 5 per cent on both imports
Jewish and exports (Galliccioli, I.e. ii. 280).
Settlement. R. Simeon Luzzatto (1580-1663)
speaks in his noteworthy " Discorso
Circa il Stato degli Hebrei di Venetia" (p. 18) of
the Jew who was instrumental in bringing the com-
merce of the Levant to Venice.

An ordinance of 1541, issued by the Senate on the
advice of the Board of Commerce, to provide Jewish
merchants with storehouses within the precincts of
the ghetto, observes thai " the greater parr, of the
commerce conn'ng from Upper and Lower Rumania
is contrf)lled by itinerant Jewisli Levantine mer-
chants" (Schiavi, "Gli Elirei in Venezia e nelle Sue
Colonic." p. 493). When the " Cattaveri " were com-
missioned in 1G88 to compile new laws for the Jews,
the Senate demanded that "the utmost encourage-
ment possible should be given to those nations [re-
ferring to the varioTis sections into which the whole
.JewiKh community was divided] for the sake of the
imp(jrtant advantages which will thus accrue to our
customs duties" (comp. Ravi, I.e. 1871, p. 334).

Besidesengagingin commerce, the Jews conducted
loan-banks; and in the ancient decrees of the Senate
in regard to them it is repeatedly declared that the
operation of these banks, which was prohilnted by
the canonical law, was the chief reason for admitting
Jews intfj Venice. Therefore, in deference to some
remnant of scruple, it was ordained, at least at first.

that contracts relative to these tiansactions should
not be drawn up in the city itself, but in the neigh-
l)oring Mestre (Galliccioli, I.e. ii. 281). The interest
on the loans was at first fixed by a decree of 1366 at
4 per cent, but it was raised afterward to 10 or 12 per
cent, according to whether the loans were made on
substantial security or on written obligations. The
original object of these banks was solely to help the
poor, but it soon became evident that it was neces-

Tlie Ghetto, Venice.

(From a photograph.)

sary to provide for greater loans, some of which
were made to the government itself. The.se banks,
as well as Jewish affairs in general, were placed
imder the surveillance of special magistrates whose
titles varied according to the times, as "con.soli,"
"sopraconsoli," " provveditori," "sopraprowedi-
tori," etc. (see Soave in "Corriere Israelitico," 1879,
p. 56).

Desjn'te all this, however, the right of the Jews to
reside in Venice always remained precarious. Their

V E "N 1 : T T A

",- f-

-k

PLAN OF VENICE IN 1640. STAR 8H..WS TOSlTmN OK TMt OHKno.
(From Mmrlin ii':''". " Um.t.rl. lull..' )

Venice

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

410

legal i>osJiiun was not regulated by law, but was
detenuincd. as iu the case of other foreign colonies.
by "coudolte" (safe-conducts) granted lor terms of
years, and the renewal of which was sometimes re-
fused (Lattes. in ** Venezia e le Sue Lagune," vol. i.,
p. ii.. Appemlix, p. 177). The Jews, indeed, were
twice tx|)tlletl and compelled to retire to Mestre.

The first "condotta" for the Jews seems to have
' • ^^(khI in 1373; as a ride the duration of the
• rangeil between live and ten years. At
one ot the renewals, made in 1385, an annual ta.x
of 4,000 ducats was imposed on them, but iu com-
pensation they were relieved from all other taxes
except customs duties. In 1394 the
First Senate, alleging that the Jews had not
"Condotta" t)bserved the legal regulations in their
for the loan transactions, and ti)at if thesecon-
Jews. tinued all the movable property in
Venice would pa.ss into their hands,
ordained liiatat tiiecxpiration of the current permit,
iu 139G, they should leave the city. AY hen tiiat date
arrived they actually retired to Mestre (Galliccioli,
I.e. ii. 28'2); but in the course of the same year, in
view of the damage which resulted from their ab-
sence, the Senate recalled them (Hava, I.e. 1871, p.
48). They were, however, not i)ermitted to remain
in Venice more than fifteen days at a time, and were
obligc<l to wear on their breasts a distinguishing
sign in the form of a round piece of yellow cloth,
for which a yellow cap was later substituted, and
still later a red cap. This odious regulation, al-
though the degree of its observance varied at difTer-
enl limes, and exceptions to it were pernutted, con-
tinued in force for about two centuries, until ad-
vancing civilization did away with it; Galliccioli,
writing at the end of the seventeenth century, says
that in his day all such distinctions had ceased.

The restriction to fifteen days' residence does not
seem to have been enforced long; being an isolated
measure, it soon came to be disregarded. A decree
of the year 1423 forbade all Jews of Venice to hold
real estate (" pro Dei revereutia et pro utilitate et
commodo locorum"; Galliccioli, i.^". ii. 291). Other
repressive measures followed in 1434. The order to
wear the badge, then little observed, was enforced
with severity. Schools for games, singing, dancing,
and other accomplishments ("di (^ualsiasi dottriiia")
were prohibited, and all association with Christian
women was still more sternly forbidden (Rava, I.e.
1871. p. 48). The practise of any of the higher pro-
fessions was also forbidden, excepting that of medi-
icine, whicii, notwithstanding various bulls prohib-
iting the treatment of Christians by Jews (Galliccioli,
I.e. ii. 290). was always followed by the latter with
credit. Other prohibitions followed; and in MGG
tiiloring w as specially iiichuled among the forbidden
trades, "in order that Christian artisans may not be
injured," For the sjime reason internal commerce
was prohil)ited to the Jews, with the exception of
tlic8o-cailed'*8tmzzaria,"the trade in ca-st-ofT clothes
(RavA, I r. 1)^71. p. 174).

It is noteworthy that despite all these restrictions
the economic condition of the Jews in Venice was
on thf whole prosp<Tous, wliieji proves that in gen-
eral the laws were by no means enforced to the let-
ter. In J386 Corfu submitted to Venice, and one of

the embassy charged with arranging the terms of
the surrender was a Jew, who obtained for his core-
ligionists on the island privileges which were always
faithfully observed; the Jews in their turn always
gave proofs of their sincere devotion to the repub-
lic, winning from the commanders of the Venetian
troops high praise for their valor in the frequent
wars against the Turks (Schiavi, I.e. p. 487).

In the second half of the tifteeuth century the
Jews of the entire republic were menaced by the
clerical agitation against Jewish money-lenders (see
Jiiw. Encvc. vii. 4, s.v. Itai.v; x. 88, s.i\ Pledges);
and some cities of the mainland, terrorized by this
agitation, requested permission of the Senate to ex-
pel the Jews. Cardinal Bessarioue, when questioned
on this subject by the Senate, replied that they
might be tolerated "if the proper caution were ob-
served," and tiie request was accordingly denied.
Nevertheless a few cities persisted in their demands
for the banishment of the Jews; and iu the course
of a few years some expulsions took place, as at
Brescia (1463), Vicenza (1476), and Bergamo and
Treviso (1479).

A much more serious fate befell the Jews of Trent
when the monk Behnardinus op' Feltre accused
them of the miu-der of a Christian child (1475). Al-
though t!ie Doge of Venice, Mocenigo, issued a
strong manifesto for the protection of the Jews, he
could not ])revent a similar trial for ritual murder
from taking jilace in Venice itself a few j-ears later,
attended by the same atrocious methods of proce-
dure. There was, however, oue note-
Blood worth j^ point of difference: the whole
Accusation, trial was conducted as if for an indi-
vidual crime, and the number of the
victims was confined to the accused (Ciscato, "Gli
Ebrei in Padova." p. 136).

The expidsion of the Jews from Spain (1492) and
Portugal (1 490) brought many exiles to Venice, and
among them came, after many peregrinations, the
celebrated Isaac Abravanel, who, during his resi-
dence in Venice, had occasion to use his diplomatic
skill in settling certain ditbculties between the re-
public and the King of Portugal (Griitz, "Gesch."
ix. 9).

Times of peril now followed for the republic. In
1508 the famous League of Cand)ray was formed
against it, in which nearly all the states of Europe,
including Austria, France, Spain, the Papal States,
and Naples, united. The common danger had the
effect of relaxing the enforcement of the anti-Jewish
laws and of drawing Jews and Christians together
in more friendly relations. But peace Avas hardly
concluded (1516) when the old policy was revived,
and the better to insure the separation of Jews and
Christians the institution of the ghetto was intro-
duced. Venice thus became the mother of this insti-
tution. The decree which the Senate issued in re-
gard to it referred to a decree of 1385; and this in
turn referred to a still earlier decree whicii had not
been carried out (Schiavi, I.e. p. 322). According
to Galliccioli (I.e. ii. 301), however, all the Jews
could not find homes in the ghetto, and many were
obliged to live outside. S\'nagogues, formerly scat-
tered throughout the city, were now pernutted only
in Mestre, but before long a new concession allowed

411

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

V«nlo«

them in Venice again, though only in the ghetto.
At the same time, while Venice acquired the unenvi-
able reputation of having introduced the ghetto, it
became a potent factor in the spiritual life of Juda-
ism througii the famous printing establishment of
Daniel lioMiiEHG, which published the most impor-
tant works of rabbinical literature. In the later years
of Bomborg's life other presses competed with'him,
as many as four existing in Venice at one time.

In 1553, however, the proscription of Hebrew lit-
erature by the In(iuisition began, and all copies of
the Talmud which could be found in Rome, Venice,
Padua, and other cities were confiscated and burned!

In 1527 another . \iMnsj.,i,
it probably allected only i|„
with.irew to Mestre. but were iK-rmJlUHl to rflurn

to Venice for the time necessary to s "

In 1584 they were recalled. m,d n,
organized themselves into u n •
"UniversitA." Since each nmn w;
his own nationality according to i
which he came, the I'niversilA v

national sections. Levantines, i ,. .,

dentals, the last name being applied lo'il
came from Spain and Portugal. Tl
of the whole rniversitil was in the J.

•tl into t

■ liii, lir ' '

ItlO K I'ONTE lit-LLE GUGLIE, SHOWl.NG HJUH UuU^^..-. uf Miii.t.h.S liilKilii.

(From a photof^iipb.)

Later the prohibition was somewhat relaxed, though
Leon of IMooena, in his " Historia dei Riti Ebraici "
(p. 38, Venice, 163S), declares: "To-day it [the Tal-
mud] remains prohibited; and in Italy particularly
it is neither seen nor read." In 1566 the Senate for-
bade the printing of Hebrew books; but either the

prohibition affected Jcavs only or the

The decree was soon revoked, for Hebrew

Inquisition printing in Venice continued uniiiter-

and Hebrew ruptedly or was resumed after a short

Literature, interval, and many new works were

published. Although these always
appeared under the names of Venetian nobles as
editors, the connection of the latter with such works
ended there.

cil of seven members, throe chosen fmm the Levant*

ines, three from the (fornians.
Occidentals. Many laws were p..
to regulate the whole internal admit.
community. Aci '' • "^ ' '
bunal was also »

and criminal suit.s; but later on the <
limited its powei-s to civil sui" ■ ' ■
act oidv when the parties a]
I.e. p. 329).

Tlie most powerful weapon of r
the community could avail thei:
exconununication. although It a;
at least the exerri.se of it was not ...
ish hands. Galliccioli records at length n

1. .1,.. 1

of lite
• rl
M
t Ten

.vl.

■X ■
Ml

"Venice

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

412

appeal presented to the Patriarch of Venice by the
beads of the Universitii. for permission to exconunu-
nicttte those living in the ghetto who neglected their
religious <luties; and the author adds that the right
to give this authority liad been in the hands of the
pjiiriurch until 11)71. when it passed to tlie"Catt!i-
veri" (Galliecioli. I.e. ii. 301). It does not. appear,
iiowever. from any subsequent documents that the
Jews held strictly to tliis dependence.

Schools for study were naturally among the most
important institutions of Jewish life in Venice at ail
times, in addition to Hebrew, secular branches cf
study were taught in them (Schiavi, I.e. p. 332). Al-
thougii uitminally restricted to the ghetto, the Jews
lived in general throughout the city, and in the six-
teenth century, when the vice of gambling raged
in Venice, tlie* ghetto also was infected, while Jews
and Christians often played together. Although the
government had already impo.sed penalties upon
gaml)ling. tiie heads of the Univcrsita saw that the
measure remained inelTective, and tliey therefore
pronounced excommunications in the synagogue
against those who played certain games. Exconi-
luuniculion failed in its turn; and Leon of Modena,
whose reputation was seriously stained because of
his addiction to this vice, wrote a long protest
against his own excommunication, which he de-
ciare«l illegal; the ban, he said, only drove people to
worse sins. In all his long discussion tliere is no
sign of the fact that the pronouncing
Prevalence of the excommunication was depend-
of cut on any but the Jews themselves.

Gambling. It appears from the disciuisition of
Leon of Modena that the number of
Jews then in Venice was little more than 2,000.
This agrees with other data of the time, so that it
seems necessary to reject the number 6.000 given
for that ]ieriod in Luzzatto's " Discorso Circa il
Stato degii Ilebrei di Venetia." In UlotJ, according
to an ollicial census, their number had increased to
4.800 (Schiavi, I.e. p. o07). The struggle against
gaining continued, and, in addition, regulations in-
tended to check unnecessary luxury in dress and
exces.sive dis|)lay in banquets and family festivals
were repeatedly published in the synagogue.

Among the various societies of the period there
was in Venice, as probably in the majority of Jew-
ish communities, one for the ransom of Jews who
had been enslaved. Venice and Amsterdam were
the two principal centers for the relief of such un-
fortunate's, and consetjuently the societies of other
conununities as a rule made their h('a(l(iuarters in
these twr) cities. Venice and Amsterdam, by mu-
tual consent, divided the field of their activities.
On tin; former devolved tlie task of efTccting the
ransom of those Jews who had sailed in Turkish
ships from Constantinople and other Oriental ports,
and Inul fallen into the hands of the Knights of St.
John, who wage<l a tierce and continual warfare
against such ships. The Jews taken captive in
these fre<iuent attacks were held in Malta in hope
of a heavy ransom, and were most barbarously
treated. The society at Venice had a permanent
Christian delegate on the island, with the recognized
title of consul, who.se duty it was to alleviate the
lot of the wretched captives as far as possible and

to conduct negotiations for their ransom (Soave,
" Malta egli Schiavi Ebrei,"in " Corrierelsraelitico,"
xvii. 54 et seq.).

In 1571, after the battle of Lepanto, in which the
Venetians and Spaniards conqueied the Turks in
the contest for tlie island of Cyprus, the danger
of exp'jlsion again threatened the Jews of Venice.
During this war nuich ill feeling had arisen in Venice
against the Jews because one of their coreligionists,
Joseph Nasi, was said to have suggested the war,
and many Venetians suspected that the Jews of the
city had sympathized with him It was in conse-
(luence of this ill feeling, doubtless, that tlie Senate,
in the first transports of its joy over the victory,
issued a harsh decree in which, to
Joseph show a proper gratitude to God for
Nasi. so great a victory, in which "they
had conquered the enemies of His
Holy Faith, as were the Jews also," it was ordained
that in two years, on the expiration of the "con-
dotta," all Jews should leave the city, never to re-
turn (Rava, I.e. 1871, p. 176). This decree, liow-
ever, was entirely revoked, either as a result of
reflection or in deference to some powerful inter-
vention.

In 1572 Sultan Salim II. sent the rabbi Solomon
Ashkenazi, who, both as a physician and as a states-
man, possessed great iutluence with the Divan, as a
special aniba.ssador to the Senate, charged with a
secret mission to conclude an offensive and defensive
alliance between the two states against Spain (Griitz,
"Gesch." ix., note 7). The Senate receivetl him
with all the honors due the ambassador of a great
power, and, although it did not accede to his jun-
posals, it sent him back with presents. Ashkenazi
availed himself of this opportunity to defend the
cause of his coreligionists, and he seems to have ob-
tained not only the revocation of the decree of ex-
pulsion, but also the promise that such expulsions
should never again be projiosed (Griitz, I.e. ix. 410).
An event, in itself of minor importance, yet note-
worthy as one of the results of the great agitation
aroused througluuit the Jewish world by the 3Ies-
sianic claims of Shabbethai Zebi, was the brief
stay in Venice of the visionary Nathan Gii.\zz.\Ti.
Even after the apostasy of Shabbethai Zebi had
opened the eyes of the majority and calmed the ex-
citement, Nathan continued to believe in him, or
pretended to do so. He claimed to have had ce-
lestial visions, and proclaimed himself the prophet
Elijah, the precursor of the jSlessiah, thus endeav-
oring to intlame the popular mind anew and revive
the old excitement. Driven from Salonica and
other cities, he went to Venice in 1668, where, in
view " the credulity of the times, his jiresence
might have been dangerous. Scarcely was his ar-
rival know-n to the rabbis and heads of the Univcr-
sita when the}- called him l)efore their tribunal and
made him sign a document confessing the falsity of
Ills claims to have had celestial visions, and denying
that Shabbethai was the Messiah. Tliis done, they
warned him to leave; at once and had him escorted
to the frontier (Hava, I.e. 1871, p. 307; Samuel
Aboab, "Debar Shemuel," respousum No. 375,
Venice, 170-J).

While the administration of the Venetian republic

Venice

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

414

was always under papal iulluence. a spirit of coin-
pamtivf tolerauce prevailed there, as is usual in
nmritiiue and commercial cities, and tlie Jews, like
all otLers, were free fmm nstrictious in their wor-
ship. Well organized and strong, the republic al
WHVS maintained order and fiiltilled its compacts
faithfully. The -condotte" were religiously ob-
served, and the lives and property of Jews were pro-
titted. I. !>riaks against the Jews were of

rare t>ccuri i wire quickly followed by exem-

plary punishments (Osimo, "Narrazionedella Strage
Com'pi- a gli Ebrei d' Asolo." Pmhia, 1875).

TUe 1: . u e.visted at Venice, although it

was not admitieil until 1279, after long opposition ;
but its juristliction e.xtcuded only over Christian
heretics, and even over them its power was much
restricted. In 1570 the inquisitors of Padua wished
to compel the Jews to attend sermons in their
churches. On this occasion the Senate recalled them
to their proper province, but it ai)peais that they
sueceetled at some later time, for the greater part of
a sermon which was preached to the Jews in one of
the churches in Padua in 1715 is still preserved
(Ciscato, I.e. pp. 140-141). At ail events, continual
contact in daily life often led naturally to friendly
reUitions between Jews and Christians, and the gov-
ernment was enlightened enough to encourage them.
In 1553 the council gmnled Kalonymus, a Jewish
physician, the means necessary to keep his son at
his studies, "so that he may become a man u.sefiil in
theserviceof thisillustriouscity "(liomanin, "Storia
Documentata di Venezia," v. 337, note 3).

In the great financial stnss in which the republic
was phiced during the long and expensive war with
the Turks the Jews were obliged to pay heavy taxes.
Nevertheless, their contributions, like those of the
other citizens, were often spontaneous; and the
names of the bankers Anselmo and Abramo, who
had voluntarily contributed 1,000 ducats, with those
of other contributors, were in.scribed in a book of
parchment "in everlasting remembrance" (Schiavi,
l.r. p. 320). Most important of all, however, wasthe
activity of the Jews in maritime commerce; in 1579,
in the interest of this conunerce, permission was ex-
tended to many Jews of Spanisii and Portuguese
extraction to remove from Dalmatia to Venice,
where the}' received privileges wliicli were obtained
fi)r them by their CDreiigionist Daniel Rodriguez,
wlio was then Venetian consul in Dalmatia, and who
was highly esteenn-d by tlie republic for his impor-
tant services in furthering its commerce in the Orient
(Ravft. I.e. 1871. p. 176).

Naturally, this maritime commerce continued to
Ik; favored by the guvernnient; and in KiHO the
Piirtuguese Aronnc Uziel was the Hrst to obtain a
pat«iit for free commerce under the Venetian Hag in
the Oiient and Occident. He was one of the Jirst
shipowners of the republic: he traded with Zante,
Cephalonia. Corf ii. and (Jonstantinople: and liis busi-
ness was so great that in twenty years he paid 451,-
<MX( ducats to Venice in «lulies (Schiavi, I.e. ]>. 514).
Among other Jewish shipowners one of the most
important was Abramo Franco, who.se duly it was
to pntvide for the loading of six merchantmen (</>.).
To come down to more recent times, special men-
tion should be made in this connection of the two

brothers Baron Giuseppe Treves dei Bonfil, the an-
cestor of the present barons of that name, and Isaaco
Treves, on account of the expedition wiiich they
undertook for the first time into the western hemi-
sphere. They sailed under the Venetian Hag with
a cargo of Hour and other goods, returning with
cotTee and sugar (Soave, in "11 Vessillo Israelitico,"
1878, p. 115). Giuseppe Treves received the title
of baron from Napoleon I. on account of his great
services to the city, both conunerciaily and other-
wise (.Maratli, " Venezia ed i Veneziani," iv. 25(5).

Domestic trade continued to be limited legally to
second-hand goods, but as a matter of fact this nom-
inal restriction counted for little, and with the
growth of the city liberty of trade gr(;w also. In
the shops of the ghetto wares of all sorts were
sohl, among them glass, decorated ciystal. gold orna-
ments, tapestries, embroideries, and books (Schiavi,

(j*!^ rwB7^.i..n.j8 • .v!f -Pi p>-a'^ -i^Ay

^IP*i Ttspf»'3?p ir?cr!» • ^cr>e pipfi
; P3VP srt'J * o'-'o" 7ICI o'jpi 0X03

pp tlpP3 • rStja OP

■Jlkrzi Ifii

IN V t N t r I A 1*80.
Nelia S:an-,paria X'cr.dramina"
,Con UccDza dc Superiori.

Title-Pape of a Uiiiial fsiHl by the Jewish Community of
Tripoli, Printed at Venice 1680.

(From ttie Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Seminary ot America.)

I.e. p. 506). A trade of special importance, against
which inelfectual prohibitions were several times
issued, was that in precious stones; the sovereigns
of Europe were the first to employ Jews for selling,
buying, and exchanging gems (i/).). Jews were
prominent also in engineering. In 1444 a decree of
the Senate called "a certain Solomon, a Hebrew by
race, to be present at conferences concerning the di-
version of the Brcnta, because he has great fame for
skill in matters concerning water" (Zendrini, " Me-
morie dello Stato Antico e Moderuo delle Lagune di
Venezia." i. 102, Padua, 1811).

In 1490 an engineer, wishing to associate himself
with some Jews in the mounting of a machine which

415

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

he liad invented, asked the Senate whetlier the laws
concerning the granting of privileges to inventors
were apijlicable to Jews as well us to others. To
tiiis the Senate replied that in such matters no dis-
tinction was made between Venetians and foreign-
ers, between JewsaMd('hristiiiiis(H()ni:iMiM, I.e. V.337,
note C). One Zarfati, in the second half of tiie six-
teenth century, invented certain improvements in
the metlHids of silk-weaving, and his studies were
published at Koine and obtained for him a privilege
from Pope Sixtus V. (Schiavi, I.e. p. 504). In 1630
a certain Nahman Judah obtained permission to
manufacture cinnabar, sublimate, and similar com-
pounds, on condition that the business sliouid be
carried on under the name of a Chrisliun (Schiavi,
I.e. p. 505). Ir. 1718 another Zarfati was permitted
to manufacture not only cinnabar and sublimate,
but also aqua fortis, wiiile lead, minium, etc. {ib.).

Under the restrictions placed upon them Jews
could not contribute much to general literature;
mention must be made nevertheless of the gramma-
rian Elijah Levita, who spent a great part of his
life in Venice (Kava, I.e. 1871, p. 335; Gratz, I.e. ix.
225). Noteworthy also were the two rabbis already
mentioned, Leon of Modena (1579-1649), at whose
sermons even nobles and ecclesiastics were present,
and Simeon (Simhah) Luzzatto (1590-1663), who,
besides the " Discorso," wrote "Socrate, Ossia dell'
Intendimento Humano," which he dedicated to the
doge and Senate. Heference should also be made to
the poetess Sara Copia Sullam (159'J-1641), who
■was regarded by several critics after her death as
one of the most illustrious writers of verse in Italy
(Soave. I.e. 1876, p. 198). Other authors of this
period who usually wrote only in Hebrew were:
David NiETO (1654-1728), author of the "Matteh
Dan"; Moses Gentili (d. 1711), author of "iMeleket
Mahshabot"; his son Gershon (d. 1717, at the age of
seventeen), author of the " Yad Ilaruzim " ; Habbi
Simeon Judah Perez; and Jacob SAXiAVAL (d. 1782).
Among the i)liysicians of the republican period the
most distinguished were Jacob Mantino (1490-1549),
a native of Tortosa, who was directed by circum-
stances to Venice, and who became chief physician
to Pope Paul III. ; and Giuseppe Tamari, who held
the olHce of city physician (Ravii, I.e. 1871, p. 334).

One of the conditions always imjjosed ujion the
Jews of Venice was that of keei)ing banks for
lending money; and to insure their continuance the
"condotta" of 1534 phucd this obligation upon the
Universita as a body. Although these banks at lirst
satisfied the requirements of the citizens and were
at the same time a source of gain to those who kept
them, they finally ended in a great linuncial disaster.
The conununity, which formerly had been very rich,
declined rapidly dming and after the war witli the
Turks over the island of C'an<lia (1645-55), the cau.>;i'
being the enormous burdens laid upon it by the ex-
penses of the war. Many emigrated to escape these
burdens; the plague of 16;J0, with the c<)nse(iuenl
stagnation of business, drove others out ; and bad
administration was responsible for other departures;
so that in order to fulfil its obligations the comnui-
nity was forced to sirdv deeper and deeper intodel)t.
which finally reached the sum of nearly a million
ducats. As soon as the government saw the peril

I'll •

, .1 /..

of an institution \s

to thf .slate, it cnO' , :

adopting more cany t«.'riiisof piiyim i

other arrangfinenls wit"

other met hods had pr.

pclled linally to pnxrhihii thi- Li

poratioii to enable it K

eucy. In 1735 the I'ni .

and a comproniiRo wu« cfToctiHl wUli

with the sni)p()rl and j,r • ' •

The banks continued :

the fall of tile republic, and until 1M06. wUfi

were closed by an imperial d«-<T<-e. '' '

the Jews gave the communi' all

property in tin- banks. Iiiiving a tnUil va

thicats, to be devoted wilely ■ - '

ipality publicly expressed r
("Gazetia di Vene/.iii," Oel. ti. l^m<i).

The Univci.sitAweiiiR 8<Jon to liav" '• •
its failure; for in 1776, on tlic vxy.
the "eondotte," certain commercial

proposed us a check upon the txi-

which the Jews hml acquitt^^I. ThcMC i

gave rise to many heutcd di- i

sided with the Jews, ami (a

that several Jewish familieH liad acqiiiri'd 1

times by their thrift and w. • "

dustry, besides giving emplo\ i

poor. The assistance they litid reiidercil ti> •

was also called to niin<I, s|ii .'

upon the noble conduct of i

the treasury wiilutut interest the nioii

for the execution of the treaty ' "

a long debate, however, the pii

of a few powerfid reactionarii*s p

proposals became law (IJniiiHMiii. /.<■ .m .!.■

Several years then pas.srd without inriili-ni, w|M>n
the republic, becoming involved in
Napoleon, n-i-uii'-"'"
The deniocnicy. In <

Republic zens were di ■
Becomes a of the law. aim ...
Democracy, against I lie Jews 1

Each strovf t
monstrating his fraleriiitj .
amid great popular rojoU-ing. the p
were torn down and its nan
dair L'iii()ne"(z:-Streetnf I
of lofty tone were made on tlii-
priests wcie pres«'iit at tin
example in evidencing tin* !
which they were pmis<'d by llie new n

The latter had bei-n quickl-. •••■'

Jews had at onfc tnken tli-
I.e. \. 222)

Yet even iiii-> !■ < •■■•■«i-
si)irit demanded by tlie tr
republic, which was powe!
armies of Fniiico. In tl"- ^
change of goveniniciit i
war on Veni<<'. ami
make an attempt at :
the vjirious religious ro*
tribute all the Ji
ship for the del.
ing attack. The Jew>

III iii(

ii^i.

Venice
Verblovekl

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

416

amoug tbe first, to this appeal; and again they re-
ceive«l from the Senate a gratifying letter of thanks
(St»ave, /.<•. 1876. p. 38). The attack, however, was
uevi-r delivered; for the Senate abandoned the re-
public on Oct. 17, 1797. and Austria and France
signed '' ■' ity of Campo Fornu<», by which the
city w.. id to Austria. The latter took pos-

session of it ai once (Jan. 15. 1798), and the Jews by
this change of government lost their civil equality.
They regained it. however, in 1805, when the city
became a part of Italy, but lost it once more in 1814,
when, on the fall of Napoleon, the city again came
under Austrian control.

When the newsof the revolution at Vienna reached
Venice in 1848 the city seized the opportunity to
revolt, and, almost without bloodshed, forced the
Austiian garrison tocapitulate (March 22, 1848). It
then proclaimed anew the republic of Saint Mark
and elected a provisional government, of which two

Jews formed a part — Isaaco Pesaro

Equality Maurogonato (appointed to the Minis-

of Jews and try of Finance) and Leone Pincherle.

Christians Austria, however, reconquered the

Estab- territory and held it until 1866, when

lished. it became part of the united kingdom

of Italy: from that time the complete
equality of Jews and Christians has been lirmly
established, as in all other parts of the country.

According to the last census, the Jewish commu-
nity of Venice numbers 2,000; and it now bears the
name of the Jewish Fraternity of Religion and Phi-
lanthropy. It possesses many institutions fcjr stud}^
and benevolence, and is one of the most cultured
Jewish communities in Italy. Among the Vene-
tians of most recent times who have become distin-
guished are: Samuel Homanin, the learned historian
of Venice, in whose honor a bust was placed in the
Pantheon of Venice; I. P. Maurogonato, already
mentioned, who for many years was vice-president
of the Chamber of Deputies; Luigi Luzzatti, wiio
was repeatedly minister of the treasury; the Treves
dei Honfili family, whose members still continue, as
in the time of the republic, to be distinguished
for their philanthropy and for their services to their
fellow citizens ; the poetess Eugenia Pavia Gcntilomo
Fortis; the physicians Namias and Asson ; and the
rabbi Abramo Lattes. In the industrial licld also
the Venetian Jews are well represented, being in-
terested in many of the numerous factories and
establishments on the islands around Venice, either
as proprietors or as managers.

Bini.iOfiRAriiY : Sanmel Roinanln. Stnrin Dncnmcntata di
Veuezui: Abruhuin l.att«'S, in Vrnczitx e Ir. Sue Laauiic, vol.
I., part (1.. Ai>|N-n«lJx: .s<bi:i\l, r,h' Klmi in Vritizinc iiclle
Sur Ciil'iiiir. In .Xiinrn Aiilnliniiii, *l s<'ri»'s, vol. xlvfi.: Vit-
^" •■ K'lnrat'tn- IromUUi, isTl. ISTii; CesarH Musalti.

(', .W'xV Siutir : M. Soav*'. Malta e tili Svliitiri

f./'i'i.in inrrlrrr hnnliiir,,. xvll.: ('iscuU>, r,7i KInr.i in
I'nil'irii; (slrrio. .\nii<iziniii ,l,llti Stnmn ('i>m)Hta Cmitia
Uli F.lirri ,ti A^'A,,; (ihilz. '...«(7(.p;isslin; (iiillictioll, .Uchio-
rin Aiihrlir Viiifli : Slliit-un Liizzallc. Ilixrnrsii Circa il
Slatiiihyh Hrhin. it<- : Ia"iu of \lo<l.tia, llii<l„tia dei liiti
Kin aid, Paris, ItSlT.

^ E. L.

VENTURA: Family of rablns and .scliolars
prominent in Italy and Greece in the sixteenth, sev-
<iiteeiith, ami liirhternlli fciiturics.

Eliezer ben Samuel Ventura: Italian scholar
of the sixteenth century ; born at Da Porta, prov-

ince of Perugia ; died in 1534 at Ferrara, where he
had otliciated as rabbi. One of his manuscripts has
been preserved in the collection of Marco ilortara
(see "Mose," vi. 134).

Elijah ben Abraham Ventura : Scholar of
the eighteenth century ; probably flourished in the
Levant. He was the author of a work iu three
parts, entitled: (1) " Kokeba di-Shebit," novelUe on
various Talmudic sayings; (2) " Kontrcs," novelise
on the works of Elijah iSIizrahi; and (3) " She'elot
u-Teshubot," respousa. The entire work appeared
at Salonica in 1799.

BiBi.iOGRAPnv: Steinschneider, Caf. Bod?, col. 952; Benjacob,
<iz(ir liit-Si fariiii. p. ~':i7.

Isaac Hananiah Ventura: Scholar of the sev-
enteenth century; rabbi of Pesaro. He wrote a re-
sponsum which is published in the "Sliclom lia-
Bayit " of Menahem Cazes, and another which has
been printed in Solomon Graziano's novellte (ii. 123)
on the Shulimn 'Aruk.

Isaac ben Moses Ventura : Talnuidist of the
si.xteenth and seventeenth centuries; rabbi at An-
cona and Pesaro. One of his responsa is e.xtant in
Terni's "SefatEmet" (p. 24), and another in Netha-
ueel Segre's "'Ezer Ya'akob " (No. 2).

Isaac Raphael Ventura : Rabbi of Pesaro in
the seventeenth century. According to Mortara
("Indice." s.T.), lie was a descendant of a family
bearing the name '"IIXOPX "lUDH : and he is men-
tioned in Graziano's novell.-e^ii. 141) on the Shulhan
'Aruk.

Jehiel Ventura : Rabbi of Romagna in the si.x-
teenth century, lie was related to MallaRaM of
Padua, who mentions him in his collection of re-
sponsa (ii., ^g 62, 83) as one of the foremost halakists
of his time.

BiBLiOGKAPii V : Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gednle Yinrael, p. 219,
No. 258.

Jehiel Ventura: Liturgical poet of the first half
of the seventeenth century ; probably a resident of
Ancona. He was the author of liturgical and ele-
giac poems, which Ghirondi of Padua possessed iu
manuscript (Zunz, " Literaturgesch." p. 440).

Moses ben Joseph Ventura (called also Ven-
tura of Tivoli and Ventura of Jerusalem): Rab-
bi of Silistria, Bulgaria, in the latter half of the six-
teenth century. He was educated at Jerusalem, but
later settled in Silistria. Ventura was the author of
"Yemin Mosheh " (Mantua, 1624; 2d ed., Amster-
dam, 171><; 3d ed.. The Hague, 1777), a commentary
on the Shulhan 'Aruk. Yoreh De'ali; and Aaron
Alfandari, in his commentary entitled " Yad Aha-
ron," ascribes to him the "Ilaggahot we-IIassagot
'al Ret Yosef," a commentary, as yet unpublished,
on the four parts of the " Bet Yosef."

l$iiu. infill A PiiY : SteinsclmcidiT. Cut. 7i'i(/?.riil. 2008: Benjacob,
(izar lid-Sifarini. p. 22t : Kiirst, ISihI. Jiid. iji. 4:}:J.

Shabbethai ben Abraham Ventura : Scholar
and ral)bi of Spalato during the eighteenth centui y;
one of the most prominent pupils of David Panlo.
He was the author of the "Nehar Shalom " (Amster-
dam, 1775), novella; and notesou theShulhan 'Aruk,
Orah Hayyiin.

BiiiiJooRAPiiY : Steinschneider. Cat. Bodl. col. 2248; Azulai,
Shcin ha-Gedi>Uin, 11. 90.
E. C. S. O.

417

THE JEWISH ENCVCLOPKDIA

^vmkl

VENTURA, RUBINO: Soldit-r; born at Fi-
naio, Modena, 179"); died at Toulouse, France, April
6, 1858. At tlie age of seventeen he was enrolled
as a volunteer in the militia of the kingdom of Italy.
On the downfall of Napoleon he returned to his
home; but in 1817, owing to a (lisi)ute l)etween In'm
and a local policeman, he was ol)liged to leave the
country. He went lirst to Triest, iind then to Con-
stantinople, where he was for a time a ship-broker.
Learning that Persia was seeking the services of
European soldiers, he obtained an oHicer's commis-
sion, and helped to instruct the forces of the shah in
European methods of warfare. He .soon attained
the rank of colonel. On the death of the .shall in
1823, Ventura oll'ered his services to his successor,
'Abbas Mirza. In the latter's service, however, were
a number of English oflicers who were decidedly
hostile to the French, with whom they classed Ven-
tura on account of his having fought under Kapo-
leon; and through their intrigues Ventura was dis-
missed. He then went to Lahore, India, accepting
service in the army of Ranjit Sinh. A rebellion
having arisen in Afghanistan, Ventura conducted
successfully several campaigns of a difficult nature,
and greatly enlarged the boundaries of the kingdom
of Lahore.

Ventura married an Indian princess, by whom lie
had a daughter; but he was always desirous of je-
turning to his native country. In 1837 lie went on
a diplomatic mission to Paris and London, but was
recalled to Lahore before he had time to visit his
family in Europe. On the death of Ranjit Sinh,
V^entura took i)art in the contest for the succession,
and remained in the service of the new raja, Dhulip
Sinh. During the reign of the latter, Ventura con-
tinued his career of conquest; but later, feeling the
approach of old age, he returned to Europe and
settled in Paris, whence from time to time he visited
his native country.

While in India, Ventura made numerous excava-
tions. He presented Louis Philippe with ir set of
ancient Greek coins which he had unearthed, and
which Avere evidences of the march through that
country of Alexander tlie Great. In his later years he
lost a part of his large fortune in unsuccessful com-
mercial enterprises. According to Flaminio Servi,
V^entura received baptism toward the end of his life.

Bibi.I()(;rapiiv: IVotizic Storiclie e Tiiournfichr dc (lenerale
liiiliitid Vnitum, f'uia/*'sc, Espi,stc da nn Sun (^I'ncitta-
(liiKi, Finale (Kmilia), IS&l; F. Servi, in Coiricrc Israditico,
X. 47 ct scq.; ideiri, in Vessillo Israeliticn, xxxi. 308 ct geq.

^ U. C.

VENTURE, MARDOCHEE: French sclioiar;
flourished at Avignon in the latter part of the eight-
eenth century. In collaboration with Isaiah Vidal
he composed the "Seder ha-Kontres" (Avignon,
170.')), a collection of liturgical chants for the use of
the Jews of the county of Venaissin. This comjii-
lation includes a piyyut (p. 47; comp. Zunz, "Z. G."
p. 473) composed by Venture, partly in Hebrew and
partly in Provencal, which was translated into
French by Sabatier in his "Ohan.sons HehraYco-
Proven^ales des JuifsComtadins" (Nimes. 1876) and
by Pedro II., of Alcantara, Emjierorof Brazil, in his
"Poesies Hebraico-Proveu^ales du Rituel Israi'lite
Comtadin " (Avignon. 1891).
XII.— 27

Venture Iiims( it
Joiirnalii^reM i\ il'., ,
Arnol.s"(Nicc. 1772): " IWre« Ut^
Haschana et du Jour .1. •
"Prieres lU-n Jounj du J, ,
"Priires des FOtcH <le Pi-HHacli,

Soill'i.l " I .'A |wm7 •• 1 ,1 . .Jj-

8. K.

VERA Y ALARCON. LOPE DE <:,.„,:.!,
martyr and kniglit (••niballero i mui cm
as he is designated liy a •

family; born al)oiii 1619 at -
died July 25, lfl.}4. at Vaila.:
study of the Heljrew hincmiK.
Salamanca he was drawn toward .1
read the Ps;ilms daily in the original text. W|..i,
only twenty years of ago In- il< ' • ' ■

he could not believe that the M
According to the account c
qui.sition at Valladolid in h... . ..

nished by De Vera's own brother. <

prison, when- he languished for six

this time he abstained from meal, i

self, and called liims<'If "Juda el C'

dah the Believer." The most •

endeavored in vain to lead him :

and the entreaties of his fathcT wci-

cessful. On July 2.5. 1044. 1

and, as Spinoza .s;iys, bre.i

Psalmist's words on Iiis lips. **Inlo tlih

Lord, I commit my spirit." Ii:-

versally adnn"red, the imiuisilcr ".J

tlie Countess dc Monterey tliiis: "Never Ims »\n\t

firnmess been witnessed as that di '

young man. He was well reari^l

otherwise blameless." The Murano ]*>

Enritpiez Gomez and Manml <!. P-

their poems the death of tlu- pr.

UiBLiocKAi'iiv : ('nrdi«i<i, L"
Manusscli li. Israi-i <.■• • /
Pellicer, in ilic .1
dc los JiKiiits di

eriui Piijiultir Jutliii^t.,, (.. 4.t; kii>Mrili<^, .^
a«tt M(f/.; (iratz. (Irsrh. x. KM.

■I- .M l\

VERBAND DER VEREINE FttR TCT-
DISCHE GESCHICHTE UND LITERATT'R
IN DEUTSCHLAND. .Set- Vkiikis

DIS( III: (il -( III! nil. I M> LiTKItVTI I!

T I." I"* X' -T* Y R,
..f

VERBLOVSKI, OREOO&I

VICH : Kussiaii jurist; Ihtu in ili

the nineteenth century . «lie<l at .M> He

.studied law at the University of "

from wliich he gniduatiHl in lH6fl

one of the first secretaries of th<

Petei-shurg; he tlu-n Iwcame a ;..

Voronezh, and laier of that of Mos<-ow.

Verlilovski's works
Sbornik PoKizheni i I/.\.
Ka.s<yitzionnykh HycshrnI na 1""
Voronezh. 1879). a ^
tions and e.xtnuts of

Cas-sjition for the period 1866-7ft. vol. i U :rtl

to civil law. and '
collections for 1^
1881). for 1880 (ib. 1882). and for IWS-W (SI lttcf»-

VareelU

Vereln fUr Cultur

T!!K .IKWISII EN'CYCLOPEDIA

418

i:
f>
H

tl.

o
d

•'
A

code,

hi-

code

,,f 1^

»); -Dvizhcnic Husskavo Om/.hdanskavo
. " (ib. 1888; 2*1 cd. 1889), on the procced-

' ' , • '• :' ' ' /hcnija

iK-hikli

' (Voronezh, ltj<vi), on laws

/henie o Sovyete pn Zhel-

. . 1 " (lA. 1886), the Btatutc of

iway alTairs; " Zukonopolozheniya

^'vfstnykh Krcstyanskikh i Su-

i" Ub. 1890): "Sudoiiroizvod-

lovnoe V Novykii Sudobno-

., ; /hdeniyakh" (ib. 1891).

• ski published in the Russian jurid-
- of articles of practirul interest,
1 e of the e«lit<iriiil commission in-
irpose of drawing up a new civil
1 into Russian the geneml civil

.. \ii.^frV(Ti t'liiMlri' ( I'J, 1S85).

V. H.

VERCELLI : City in the compartimcnto of Pied-
mont. Italy. The oldest document in existence con-
c ' i-i dated Feb. 10, 1440, and consists

o'. ...,; li by the city council to one Abramo

d' I and his son Angelo to open in Ver-

c I loan esta!)lisiiment, on condition

ot :.. .._ :;je city 1<X) llorins, when retjuired,

for A term of six months without intl?rest, and for a
longer period with interest. This is the first of a
series of pennits, gniuted for a set time only, but
renewable, which authorized the residence of He-
brows within the city, and regulated their rights as
well as their duties to the government. The Jews
at this time were governed according to the harsh
8' ' '' VIII. promulgated June 17,

14 'lier regulations, obliged them

to wear the customary badge, consisting of a piece
of ■ ' ■' • ■ ■ ■

the Piedmontese Jews
were twice threatened by decrees of expulsion from
the province. The first of the.se was promulgated
July 19. IWO; but through the inU'rces.sion of the
duehess Margherita the Jews obUiined a stay of
f' - ■ • ths. Then one of the duke's councilors
p' ! bim to renew the decree, fi.xing the time

of the expulsion within ten days; but fortunately,

til ' •' "^ "s of an assistant physician attached

t' .iial, a revocation of tlie edict was

obuiineil. Ijiteron (Oct., l.'i66)Emmanuel-Pliilibert
onlcred the inime!- '■'' nurture from hisdominions
of all the Jews, iicy consented to pay him

the Kuui of 4.000 gold Horins. They quitted the
country, l"" -i,...ii..- •,<■><•! war<l were allowed tr) re-
turn on (• iig down 2.000 fifirins and
iiig to a yearly Uix. On Kept.
Und«r Em- at the instance of one Vitale
manuel- j. Knnnanuel-Pliilibert pub-
Philibert. !.-ii. .1 it decree which .somewhat miti-
gated lliu severity of the laws of
Ama<leuR VIII. When, in 1597. the Jews were
'" • ' '* ,.«,. territories, a nujuber
"' - ill Vereelli, among wiiom
waa the ronlinuaUir of the "'Kmek ha-Haka" of
•^' " ■ ' ■ T' \ Minus historian relates
"' 'd in Vereelli for some
day§. hoping to establish their abode in the city ;

but. although Emmantiel-Philibert had promi.sed the
Jews but a short time before that they should remain
unmolesti-d in his dominions, his son, Charles Em-
manuel, Duke of Savoy, was unwilling to afford an
asylum in his t«'rritories to the Jewish e.xiles from
otiier provinces, and when he learned that there
were numerous Hebrew refugees in Vereelli, he is-
sueil a decree banishing tlu-ni from that city also.
Charles Enunanuel continued tlie privileges granted
by his father to his own subjects (see Tluin).

Until the year 1000 the Italian ritual was used
by the Jews of Vereelli. In that year one Abrain
Levi, having purchased the loan and banking es-
tal)lishment of Nor/.i and Sacerdote, settled in the
city; and, owing to his intluence and efforts, the

German ritual was adopted, and it
Italian has remained in use until the jiicsent
Ritual (lay. Hal)bi llayyim Segre, who in
Superseded 1053 came from Casale Monferrato to
by the reside in Vereelli, was sent with Sam-
German, son Bachi and Jacob Pugliese to the

East to investigate the theories and
writings of Sliabbefhai Zehi, the expenses of his
journey being defrayed by Jonah Clava (Ke/igin).

During the eighteenth century, notwithstanding
the general jirogre.ss of the times, the condition of
the Vereelli Jews did not improve. Imleed, it be-
came worse, owing to the preponderating influence
of the ]iapal court. Theconstitutional lawsofl7'23.
1729, and 1770 were almost as inimical to the inter-
ests of the Jews as the ancient ducal statutes had
been. Until the year 1724 the Jewish inhabitants
were permitli-d to live in any portion of the city;
but in that year they were restricted to a special
(juarter. Their concenlnition in the ghetto .soon
showed the need of a larger synagogue; and a new
edifice was opened on the eve of Rosh lia-8hanah,
1740. The financial status of the Jews of Vereelli
improved greatly after the death of Elijah Emman-
uel Foa(July 20, 1796). who betiueathed his large
fortune to the community for the aid and support
of chariUilile .societies and institutions, and particu-
larly for the establishment of a Hebrew college in
his own house. The Collegis Foa (Foa College) was
opened Sept., 1H29, and is still (I'.d)")) in existence.
It has given many noteworthy rabbis and professors
to the Italian .lewry.

With the outbreak of the French Revolution came
indicalionsof better times for the Jews of Piedmont;
but the Austro-Hussian juovisional government of

Piedmont at the restoration, in 1799,

EfTects of restored them to their former status.

the French Latr-r, by a patent of >Ianh 0, 1810,

Revolu- Victor Emiuanuel I. definitely freed the

tion. Jews from the obligiilion of wearing

a ba<lge, and conferred on them leave
to engage in merchandise, trade, and the fine arts.
They were, however, still excluded from the univer-
sities, from public offices, and from the ailminislra-
tion of charities. The law of Charles Albert , enacted
June 19. 1H4,S. comjileted the work of emancipation,
and established the Jews on the footing of citizen-
shij). In 1853 a Hel)rew journal, the "Educatore
IsraelitA," edited by Giuseppe Levi and E.mIiji Pon-
tremoli, was foimded in Vereelli. The "Vessillo
Israelitico" of Casale Monfermto, founded bv Fla-

419

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

nir Cvltwr

minin Servi in 1878, is the siicressor of this revir.\
In 1878 a new temple was dedicated.

The following is a list, of the principal savants
and rabhis of Vercelli: sixteenth century: I.sua<
Kohen ("R. E. J." xvi. 39 et »eq.); seventeenth cen-
tiir)^: Jacob Baclii, Hananeel ben Aaron Asher Nan
tova; eiijhteenth century: Benjamin Segre, Elisha
ben Hayyim Segre, Joshua Benzion ben Elisha
fiegrf, Joshua Benzion ben Benjamin Segre; ninf-
teenth century: Alessandro Foa, Giuseppe Levi
Gattinara, Sabato Graziadio Treves, Jedidiah Levi,
Michele Vita Treves, Isacco Sanguinetti, Felice
Tedeschi, Giuseppe HafTadle Levi.

In 1864 the city containe«l 600 Jews; shortly after-
warr! tlifir numbers began to dimini.sh ; in 1866 there
were but 500; and to-day they number only 369.

BiBLiooRAPHT: F. Servl, In Ednrntrrr^. JmrafUtA, xU.iW et
Mq., XV.. Vi ft nifi.: G. V'oiino. ' ' ' iegli

ItrrafAiti (ii Pif.mont.e Prima irin,

1«M: .M. Flnzl, In Rd'Wa /."ra... — , ,. ner.

in hl-M f'llUon of -F^mfJi Ua-Baha, pp. UK, 1()5. li«; F. -^^rM.
In Corritre. I.tratlUicti, pp. 17^ et aeq.; Mortara, Iridic/:,

T u. c.

VERDICT. See Judgment.

VERDUN (Hebrew, pmil) : Capital of the de-
pariiiKiit of Mouse, France. Jews resided there
from tlie twelfth century; and among the scholars
of the citv may be mentioned the tosatist Samuel b.
Hayyim (Tosef., Yeb. 6oa, 66b: Tosef., M. K. 23a;
'i'osef., B. K. 77a, 80a), Samuel b. Joseph the
Younger (Tosef., Niddah, 28a), and Jacob b. Joseph,
brotlier of Samuel.

In H'.iH Canon Guillaume Clianey made, on behalf
of the chapter and the city, a fruitless request to the
Council of Biisel to relieve the strained financial situ-
ation by authorizing expelled Jews to return to
Verdun; but until the annexation to France in 1559
of the three bishoprics of Toul, Metz, and Verdun,
all rights of residence in the town and even of tran-
sit through it were forbidden to the Jews. letters
patent from Henry IV., Louis XIII., Louis XIV.,
and Louis XV., Iiowever, permitted the Jews of
M('tz to sojourn for very brief periods in Verdun to
attend to business. In 1774 a Jew who had remained
in the city f<jr three days was expelled by order of
De W'atrouville, representative of the Marquis de
Creil, the intenrlant. In 1748 the Jewish community
of Metz addres.sed a petition to tiie inteudant, asking
tiiat its members be allowed to visit Verdun, but
thi-! re(juest was refused on account of the strong
opiiosition of the merchants, goldsmiths, tailors,
second-iiand dealers, and, above all, the gild-wardens
("echevins") of the city, who were united in their
hostility to the Jews. In 1752 and 1755 a number
of Jfw's settled in the vicinity of Verdun, but were
expelleil by the intendant at the urgent demand of
the gilds; and from that time until the Revolution
of 1789 there are no traces of Jews in the city.

The existing community, which was founde<l

in 179-2, now (1905) consi-sts of about forty -five

families.

BiBr lOfiRAPdY : Doourrifnt-s In the rnr-' ''"' "■'-'••-- '
(frilt-r. yiilf:f "ur U.^ Arcliivoitf I'll
Metz. KV); farmolv. In Hfviif. Ori'
lin Jiirlairn. pp. 2(15 21 C : R. K. J. x\. ia>: W
liriuile* lie In (Jnule lielQiqMt, U. 481. Paris,
G. pp. uO. 55.
D.

A>.-
z.Z.

VEREIN ZVTB. ABWh,iit

8EMITI6MU8 N ' •

i.ssued an ai

Jews of their r:
su<d in J;iri , I -
among the most
poets Fnytae. I ;

had been c

fenberg; and Protestant

Zittel— t:

desJud

30, 1901). Asii.

July 20, 1891 t

1891, p. 526). of

zers were Baron and Bar

fOMnt<»d rno«t|y ufw>n C\

fessrr V • ■

Tl.
support
The B<M
ing. No
uted in '.'

nent jur.-;. ..w . ...
1895) and the liberal
to !:• ; !

the h

ular literature i
Semitic :
the Berl...
spieeel.''ah .

aus dem Verein zur Abwelir dM A'

itm

of anti-Semitic charges, li

time to ;■ '

unjust I

been called by their

• • ■' (Jew r : " '

. . -d a-l;
for legal advice U) \

Tl.' ' ■ '•••• •'
— h.
Court C

i-lTf-'t ot
with
the .
Bince l<3W:i.

VEREIN FitR CULTUR UND WIS8EN-
SCHAFT DER JUDEN

S. K.

to Impro

vc the iocmi pown-* »< li^ Jt** ae^ t^

Verein fiir Cultur
Verae-Di vision

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

420

check tbe conversions to Christianity which at that
time had alarmingly increased in the Berlin commu-
nity. These aims were to be attained by spreading
general culture among the Jews and by furthering
the study of Jewish history and literature. About
r ■ -s of the Berlin community

g them the philologist Lud-
wig Mahkis. to whose character Heinrich Heine
paid a .' - trilmte. On Aug. 4, 1822. Heine

himsf^-lf J e society, and later some of the sur-

viving nienibcrs of Mendelssohn's circle, as David
Fkiedi.ander and Lazarus Bendavid, followed
suit. Outside of Berlin the society was joined by
about twenty members of the temple congregation
at Hamburg (sec Jew. Excyc. vi. 193a). and also by
individual Jews in other places.

The society, in spite of its very limited means,
planrutl to establish a complete system of educa-
ii.'nal institutions, from primary to academic, in-
cluding industrial schools. It actually opened a
school in which Polish bahurim, who came to Ber-
lin in large numbers, were instructed in secular
branches. At the same time the society prepared a
program for a normal course of instruction in the
Jewish religion. Heine proposed the founding of a
women's au.viliary society which should promote the
aims of the mother institution in the homes. How-
ever, on account of this manifold activitv, no tangi-
ble results were accomplished, and hence it was
decided to limit the work of the society to the fur-
thering of "Jewish science." With this aim in view
the society began in 1822 to publi.sh a "Zeitschrift
fnr die Wi.ssenschaft des Judenthums, " of which
Leopold Zunz was the editor. The first number was
headed by an article entitled " Ueber den Begriff
einer Wissenschaft des Judenthums." Gans wrote
on Talmudic law, and Zunz contributed an essay
euiiiled "Salomon ben Isak, Geiiannt Rasclii. " As
early as May, 1823, however, the editors felt obliged
to ask the public to show greater interest in the
perio«lica!: this request being unheeded, the soci-
ety harl to cease its activity, a ceremonious farewell-
meeting which had been suggested being tactfully
omitted. Eduard Gans, who had been among the
most active members of the society, was the first to
desert the cause; he became converted to Christianity
in order to obtain a professorship. Others followed
him. and on account of the general lack of interest
the rest despaired of attaining any measure of
success.

Bini iih.rapmv: (Jratz. OVjir^. xl. ;»? n nrn.\ Heinrich Heine

lAuiu m MiiikitM. I)> iikuorte ; (i. Karrw-les. Hiinrich Heine-

Atui Seinem Lcltni uitil (itm Seiner Zcit, Berlin, VMH ; Zeit-

Khrift far die Wimieuiichaft ilen JudenthuiuK, Berlin. 1823

" E. Co.

VEREIN FTJR JTJDISCHE GESCHICHTE

UND LITERATUR: Name of .societies founded in
niiiuy (icrnian cities since about 1890 for the spread of
the si udy of Jewish history and literature. Although
certain societies of the kind had exi.sted eariicr, the
first impetus was given to the i)0|>iilar study of these
subjects through the awakening of Jewish 8en.sibili-
ties by the growing anti-Semitic movement. It was
chiefly felt in Jewish .student circles. The growth
of the movement began when Gustav Karpeles, after
having founded such a society in Berlin (Jan. 2.

1892), organized the various societies into a union
known as Verband der "Vereine fiir Jiidische
Geschichte und Literatur in Deutschland (Dec.
20, 1S*J3). This association furnishes lists of speakers
to the constituent societies, issues pamphlets, and
has published .since 1898 the " Jahrbuch fur Jiidische
Geschichte und Literatur," of which up to the pres-
ent (1905) seven volumes have appeared. These
contain popular scientific essajs and some fiction;
and among the contributors are to be found the most
eminent representatives of Jewish literature.

There are about 200 societies, with about 15,000
members, in Germany. The Jewish Chautauqua
Society in the United States, the Jewish Study Cir-
cles in England, and the Uuiversite Juive in France
have followed somewhat similar courses. An older
organization of the same kind is the Afike Yehu-
dah of Prague.

Bibliography : Jahrbuch flir J ddijsche Geschichte und Lite-
ratur, Berlin, 1898 etseq.

D.
VERIT:6 ISRAilLITE, LA. See Period-
icals.

VERONA : Chief city of the Italian province of
the same name. As early as the tenth century it
numbered Jews among its inhabitants. They appear
to have been treated with great harshness by Arch-
bishop Raterio, and were later e.xpelled from the
city. Until 1408 they had apparently no recognized
status or right of residence in Verona, although
a few actually lived there and engaged in com-
merce. In that year (Dec. 31), short)}- after Verona
had passed under the government of the republic of
Venice, the Jews obtained permission to live in the
city and to lend money at interest. This concession
met with strenuous opposition from a large number
of the citizens; and all other professions were for-
bidden to the Jews. They lived among the Chris-
tians in the quarter of San Sebastiano, in the central
part of the city, and built a synagogue in the Vicolo
dei Crocioni, of which no traces now remain. In
1422 they were compelled to wear a badge, in the
form of a yellow wheel, on the breast, or to pay a
fine of 25 lire. The regulation, however, gradually
came to be disregarded, but the ordinance decreeing
the use of the badge was renewed. In 1443 the Jews
were again refused permission to engage in the pro-
fessions: and the shape of the badge was changed
from a circle to a star. The original form was,
however, restoieil in 1480.

By a resolution of the common council, dated
March 11, 1499, the Jews were banished from the
city and province of Verona, and their places were
filled by Christian usurers, who so greatly oppressed
the poor that the Jews were shortly afterward re-
called. It is probable that some Jews remained
in the city in spite of the decree of banishment; and
it is certain that there were some scattered through-
out the province, proof of their pres-
Fifteenth ence being afforded by a tombstone of
and this period, found in the neighboring

Sixteenth village of Lonato. But, whether they
Centuries, never really quitted the province, or
whether they gradually returned to it,
in 1520 the citizens of Verona petitioned the Venetian
rei)ublic to prohibit the Jews from lending money

421

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

■ar

at interest in the city and territory of Verona, This
request was granted, and the decree of prohibition
was ratified ou Dec. 4, 1548. In 1527 a yellow cap
(" berretto ") was substituted for the whecl-l)a(ige.
An old manuscript, dated 1539, now in the posses-
sion of the Hebrew community of Verona, contains
an account of the Jewish assemblies, of the amount
of tlu'ir taxes, of the fines levied on them, etc. In
1578 tlie Israelites were forbidden to pawn articles
at the monte di pietii (see Pledges, Histouicm,
View).

After their expulsion from tlie Milanese territory,
some of the refugees settled in Verona (1597). In
1599 Agostino Valieri, Bisiiop of Verona, resolved
to segregate tiie Jews in a ghetto; but, not finding a
suitable location, he contented liimself by enforcing
the obligation of wearing the yellow cap. In the
same year the Jews opened their cemetery, which
remained in use until 1755. In 1G04 the bishop car-
ried out his designs, and enclosed the Jews in a
ghetto, in a place called " Sotto 1 Tetti " (under the
roofs). At this time they numbered about 400 and
possessed twenty-five shops. All expenses for the
improvement of the ghetto were borne by tlie Jews
themselves ; and they were obliged to borrow in order
to build a synagogue. Finally they
The obtained a license, renewable every

Ghetto. five years, to live in the city, on con-
dition of tlie payment of a special tax.
When the plague broke out in Verona in 1630, the
Jews remained immune, which so enraged the Chris-
tians that they cast into the ghetto the garments
infected by the sick, and thus spread the pestilence
among its inhabitants.

At this epoch many Hebrew books were published
at Verona, among them being Midra.sh Tanhuma
(1595), tlie Book of Isaiah (1625), the Psalms (1644),
and "'En Yisrael " (1649). In 1645 the synagogue
was supplied with an Ark of the Law of red marble
and a beautiful and costly "tebali," also of marble.
In 1655 a large number of Maranos, headed by IMose
Gaon and Giovanni Navarra, obtained leave to settle
in Verona, for commercial purposes; and habitations
were assigned them in what was known as the
"Ghetto Nuovo" (iSIew Ghetto). These Jews
were called "Ponentini"; the others, "Levantines"
or " Greeks." In 1760 there were two Jewish physi-
cians in Verona; in 1790, four.

On the night of Oct. 30, 1786, a terrible conflagra-
tion accidentally broke out in the ghetto, and raged
fiercely for three days, notwithstanding the efforts of
Jews and Christians alike to extinguish it. During
the course of tlie fire five Jews were killed and a
great number injured. The painter Vita Greco has
commemorated this disaster in one of his pictures.

During the occupation of Verona by the French in

1797, the gates of the ghetto were torn

The French down and burned in the public square ;

Oc- and thenceforth the Hebrews were per-

cupation. mitted to resi<ie in any portion of the
city. On June 2 of that year a decree
was issued, ordering that the Jews be representeil in
the council of commerce. On the restoration of the
Austrian government a fanatical hatred of tlie Jews
was fomented among the Christian population by
the priests; and the Jews were so overwhelmed

with insulrs.affronls. and fnj:-'" "• •' •

governor of ilic province w ;

A proclamation wu-s (HKiied Jiiu Zi, 1. .d

ding, under heavy peiiultii-u. ihe !■ ' ■■ •

citizen, by word or act; hut the

Jews contiiMied ahnosi inmlMitcd ot

a second prochunaiiiMi (\ • i" ...jj

nilely forba<h-all furthei m Th«y

fared beltcronllie resiirn ,,a

in 1805. Verona was n j .•

the great Sanhedrin at Paris in 1

Tliecommiinity has now ( !'• '
In 1706 the Jews in Verona i

there were 905; in 1804 tliey hud iiic 1.200;

while at Ww present day I lien

.Many of iheiiiK lent Hel>r(\. Vcmna

still exist, the jirincipal ones iH-'ing: Iji MlmTir<inlI«
(Hebrew name. "(leniiiut II . ^ '
1599; the confraternity fortli.

dead (" Gomel Daliim "). founded ulMiut 1 so-

ciety for the aid of tlie sick pfMirC Uikkiii li ..mi-).
founded in 1610, witli which the u-siMKiaiiim fur tiic
I)roper attendance on llio dead C Llw-
Phil- yal Hen") wasalhlialed in I70.'i;-Sho-

anthropic merim la-H<iker" (ICIOi. ami "Mi^h
As- meret lia-Ho(iesh"(10Wb, ImiiIc

sociations. to the recitation of prayers; a . i

ternily for the recital of tlur "Tiklfun
Ilazot " (1655 ; .see Ziinz. " Hitus," p. l-V.'i ; and " Liin
mude Adonai " (1703), for the pursuit of rt- ligluu*
studies.

The following rabbis and scholars were nativr* or
residents of Verona:

Twelfth and tbirteentti centurios : Klonzar b. Ramupl ol V»>.

rona. Sixteentti century : Klltiii Behr. I! ' " '

.Jacob t)en Johanan Hellpron. M()s»-s .M.i
tiein !)en Jacob Porl", ami .Miralmm U-:.
teenth century : Juduli LiJb .A.-likeniurl. :
Samuel tlayyiin IJas-sanl. I»ra<-1 1'
ben Moriic'iil Has-sanl. .Mor<li'<-Jil ■
Mordecal Bus-sanl, Isjuio Car:
Jacob Melddla, Samuel ben 1:
Moses .\braliani bi-n .Moses !!
RIcbetli. .\bnihum Shallii. Is..:
bon Moses Fano, and .\linibaiii /•■:;, .i!i. I
Solomon ben Israel BHs.>iiinl. J»<-<'b tx-n "•
Manas.seh ben Jacob (Jentlll. i
IzzielJoel I'lmlierle. and S'-'
Nineteenth century: Mo-
David Samuel Pardo. .1
Samuel ben David Samu.
(Menaheni) Ue<-anutl, .\

Anpelo Carpi. -- «-

BIHLIOCUAIMIY : D. Forll)'. In Fffuf^yl^rt fwirtWM/t, «l. IB. XH

c( .vf'/., :Ry if »«•';.; xlt '

{'alabl. ih. xl. THr/ w-

;i(i-/{n/..i. ed. Win: '

l.'iil"-'. IxHik .\iv., PI'

I'aliiit'niiii, Ijitm

VERSE-DIVISION : 1

ui>the IJihlicil t«\l uilo v.rv

original and in the vcrsJona. to go hand r

its division into ■ "

chapter-division

ent origin. The di vision int'

first in the Vulgate, jm r'

Archbishojiof Canterbui

by Jewish wholars for pun^ws i.f

oillV bV ISA.\C N.\TIIAX nKN Kai

great concordance. " McTr Netih" JaW'-

but not long after ita introduction Into lU \ ulg«tc.

Verse-Division

Vesoul

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

422

by Solomon b. Ishmael (see "Tbeologisch Tijd-
scbrift." 1878, p. 1U4)— and was introduced into the

printed editions of tlu- Hebrew text,
Chapter- from the Romberg Bible of 1521 down-
Divisions ward. On the other hand, verse-
Christian, division, with the elaborate systems of

accentuation resting ui)on it, is in itself
essentially a part of the Masoretic tradition, although
notation by means of ligures in the text, or on
the margin, was employed tirst in the Latin Bibles
of 1528 and 1555. and somewhat later (1571) by
Arias Montanus in the Antwerp Bible: a figure
on the margin corresponded to a cross in the text
at the beginning of each vei-se. The Athias Bible
(1G59-61) was the first edition with verse-notation
that could be used by Jews.

In all the manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, ex-
cept the scrolls used for the public lessons (see be-
low), the end of a verse (" pasuk ") is marked by the
double point (:), which is called "sof pasuk." The
next higher unit in the Pentateuch is the hebdoma-
dal lesson ("parashuh "), which is thus ''treated as a
chapter for the purpose of numbering the verses."
At the end of each parashah the numljer of verses
contained in it is given, together with a mnemonic
sign. Thus at the end of the first pericope (Gen. i.
1-vi. 8) occurs I'op (i.e., 146), followed by n""'Vt3X
Vn'pfnv either of which words has tiie numerical
value 14G. Sometimes two pericopes which, in
certain years, are read on one Sabbath, are computed
together, in adilition to the se])arale computation
of the component parts (so -[^'i D^3V3. Dent. xxix.
9-xxx. 20, xxxi. 1-30, in one -MS.. Ginsburg, No.
84; for the detailed items see Ginsburg, "Intro-
duction." pp. 72-85; Blau, in "J. Q. R." 1897, pp.
47ft-482). Di.scropancies occur in the various Mas-
oretic sources avaiUilile; according to Ginsburg,
they point to different Masoretic schools, hence to a
lack of fixity concerning the method of verse-divi
sion, while Blau holds that they are " for the most
part errors in copying or in reading which are easily
recognized and explained" (see also Baer, "Die
Vcrs/.aiilungdes Pentateuch," in "Orient, Lit." IHol,
pp. 200 ct HCf/.). There is complete agreement in the
Masoretic sources as to the total number of verses
in the Pentateuch, given as 5,845. In the other

bo()ks of the Bible no subdivisions are

Number marked as in the Pentateuch; while

Fixed. the separate figures given for the

single books vary (see Ginsburg, I.e.
|)p. 87-105; Blau, I.e. pp. 486-487). The correct
U)tal figure for the verses in the prophetical books
is proved by Blau to be 9,294; in the Ilagiographa,
8,064. The total number of verses in the entire
Scriptures is thus 2:{.20.3. With this computation
agree the lists in a Yemen manuscriiit (Ginsl)urg,
l.r. pp. 1056r«c7.)andin"r)ik(lukehaTe'aniim"(ed.
Baer-Stnick, p. .55). Blau adduces a variety of
])roofs for the correctness of these totals. He proves
also from a sullieient number of tests obtained
from various Masoretic notes that the Masoretic
verses were identical with tho.se of the editions now
used; i.e., they Itegan and ended with the same
words (/.c. pp. 471-474).

While the helulomadal lessons are treated as "chap
ters" in the Masoretic computations of veise>;, the

"chapters" of the traditional text are really the
much shorter "open" and "closed" sections (Gins-
burg, I.e. ch. ii.), which are necessarily coterminal
with their concluding verses. The exceptions are the
so-called "breaks in the middle of verses" ("piska
be-'em/a' pasuk"; coinp. Buhl, "Canon and Text
of the Old Testament," 1892, p. 35, and the litera-
ture there noted). These exceptions, however, are
only apparent. In Gen. xxxv. 22, for example, the
portions before the break and after it are really
separate verses, but are joined in reading for the
purpose of slurring over the stor}' concerning the
misconduct of Reuben, or in order to suggest that,
in spite of bis misconduct, he was still counted
with the other sons of Jacob (see
Breaks in Raslii, ad loc., and sources). Tiie
Middle breaks are particularly numerous in
of Verses, the books of Samuel; in the major-
ity of cases in the place of the break
there seems to have been originally a reference to
the priest's manipulation of the ephod.

With the Masoretic computation as given above
that of an anonymous baraita in Kid. 30a is appar-
ently at variance, which assigns to the Pentateuch
5,888 verses, to the Psalter 5,896, and to Chronicles
5,880. The repetition of the figure 8 and the divisi-
bility of each niimber by 8 are not necessarily an
evidence of artificiality. The frequently quoted
statement of the amora Aha bar Ada (in the Tal-
mudic passage referred to), that the Palestinians di-
vided Ex. xix. 9 into three verses, and the avowal
of another amora, Rab Joseph, in a discussion with
Abaye, that "we are no experts in the counting oi
the verses," have been adduced by various scholais
as a proof of the existence of different systems of
verse-division in Talmudic times, and at all events
of the absence of fixity in the ]n'e-Masoietic period
(comp. Frankcl, " Vorstudien zu der Septuaginta,"
1848, p. 217: Griltz, "Monatsschrift," 1885. pp. 97-
100). It is true, of cour.se, that the Eastern and
Western schools varied from each other in the
verse-division as in otiier matters (comp. the geonic
statement, Blau, l.r. p. 141); such variation, how-
evei', it is contended by Blau, was only occasional,
and was confined to a small number of places, which
he enumerates. The contradiction between the Tal-
mud and the Masorah is harmonized in a geonic re-
spousiun (Ilarkavy, " Rcsponsa der Geonim," No. 3a)
by the assertion that " the baraita refers to a Bil)lc
found in Jerusalem, which differed from other Bibles
in respect to writing and number of verses." On the
basis of an exhaustive induction from theTalmudic-
Midrashic data tending to show that in the centu-
ries immediately preceding the JIasoretie period the
verses l)egan and ended practically in the same ]ilaces
as nowadays. Blau l)elieves him.self iustilied in min-
imizing the ditliculty and in harmonizing the contra-
dictory statements (/.^. pp. 471-474, 476, 483 ct ser/.).
According to the YalUnt, on the Penta-
Talmud teuch, section 855, the Pentateuch con-
Versus tains 5,842 verses. The Talmud is
Masorah. e(iually at variance with the IMasnrah
in counting Lev. xiii. 33, instead of
Lev. viii. 8, as the middle verse of the Pentateuch,
while Soferim ix. 3 gives Lev. viii. 23 as the middle
verse.

423

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

VerBH-DivialoB

The Talmud credits the work of the verse-divi-
siou to the scribes. This means that it antedates
the Talmud. In medieval times Judah liaLevi, Ihii
Ezra, and Protiat Duiau considered Ezra or the'men
of the Great Synagogue as the author or authors of
this division (Bacher, " Ibu Ezra als GrammatiUer,"
1881, p. 38); but although an element of ancifut tra-
dition, the verse-division was not permitted to enter
the scroll (Soferim iii. 7). It is clear that tlie verse-
division occupies in the history of the Hebrew text
a place posterior to the separation of words and the
introduction of vowel-letters; with the verse-divi-
sion there went hand in hand the accentuation which
l)rcsiipposes it; both antedated the vocalization.
Wiiile on the Phenician monuments there is found
continuous script, with no space to mark even the
division of words, the Moabite Stone makes use of a
single point for word-separation, and of a vertical
stroke for the purpose of marking tiieendof a sense-
unit corresponding somewliat to a Scriptural verse.
The beginnings of Scriptural verse-division must
be sought in the poetical books. As can be seen
from the Ecclcsiasticus fragments as well as from
certain poetical pa.ssages in the canon (<'.^., Deut.
xx.xii. ; see Harris in "J. Q. R." 1889, p. 225), it was
customary to write each metrical (?) unit on a short
line corresponding to what the Greeks called arlxog
(in Latin, "versus"). In Hebrew poetry, two met-
rical units, or stichs, usually go to make one com-
jilcte and rounded thought. The two stichs were
therefore written opposite each other on one line,
and together constituted a pasuk, a verse in
the accepted sense. From the poetic
Stichoi of passages the custom of verse-division
Verse. spread to tlie other parts of Scripture.
If Sievers may be believed ("Studien
zur Hebraischen Metrik," p. 382, Leipsic, 1901),
Gen. ii. 4-14 is metrical. Economy of space, of
course, prevented the employment of broken lines
even in the poetic passages. It was expensive to
write "per cola et commata " (on the meaning of
the phrase comp. Swete, "Introduction to the Old
Testament in Greek," 1900, pp. 345 ei seq. ; tlie whole
of cli. vi. will prove useful reading in connection
with the present subject). Even in the scrolls many
poetic pieces are written as prose. The manuscripts
from which the Masoretic archetype immediately
descends, as well as those from which the Greek
translation was made, appear not to have been writ-
ten in broken lines where one would expect such
writing — e.g., in the Psalter (note the error in Ps.
xlii. 6,7, \i^K : VJE3 for : \i^xi ""JQ), or in the alpha-
betical chapters of Lamentations (comp. Lam. i. 16,
LXX. , Frankel, I.e. p. 218).

Saadia is criticized by Ibn Ezra for disregarding
the traditional verse-division in ten Scriptural pas-
sages (Bacher, I.e. p. 39, note 14). More frequently
this expedient is resorted to by modern commenta-
tors and editors. Examples may be found on the
pages of Haupt's Bible, where a special sign ( | ) in-
dicates the transposition of the ^Masoretic sof pasuk.

Bibliography: C. n. Ginshiirp, hitmductio)) ti> the Ma.-^'io-
reticD-Critienl Edition of the Hehirw nil)h\ 1807, eh. vl.;
I.. Blau, ^[n.■<Kore1ic Stndies,m J. Q. R. 1897. pp. 1U*2-144.
471-490. Older literature and special articles are eniiiiicnited
by these two scholars.
T. M. L. M.

VER8ICLE THEMES. .S.c Ktuu.M.r. Skm
n.Mi.

VERVEER, ELCHANAN : Dutch painur and
vignette-riigniver; born ut 'llio Hiigue April I».
1826. Hu received inHlniciion from hiK Jm-
uel L. Vehveer, and from il K. ('. T«m i ,„

1845 lie went to Hruss»-lH. wh.rr li.- . j n,,

vignette illustrations for HuKt-ne Su. n ... Jujf
Errant," and on his return U) The Hh^ik- h- waa
engaged for somr time in drawing ill r

"De Briik-n van Ouzeii Tijd." which . -i

in " Nederiandsch Maguzijn " and Jatct . «

publication.

Of Verveer's paintings may Jw meiuiuncd "The
Fir.st Pipe" and "Winter," both in the muiwuiM at
Rotterdam, and "Tlie Widow " (III. = :,

Sea-Si(;kness," which bclonir to tli. ,

The Hague.

Verveer is a knight of tiic Liou ol .Nuiiaau. atid
an otlicer of the Order of Leopoltl.

BIBUOGRAPIIY : A. Winkler I'rlns.

jicedie, Airisterdam, 1>«7; Han.s \'. ... , ..., . ....^-

meines KUnatler-Lexicfm, Frankfort-oo-Uie-Muin. i»««

VERVEER, SAMUEL LE0NARDU8 :
Dutch landscape- and genre-painU.T. born at The
Hague Nov. 30, 1813; died there Jan. 5, IhTfl He
was a pupil of B. J. van den Hove. Verve< r irav-
eled a great deal, visiting especially the art giillerirti
of French cities; but the scenery of his nutivi land
was ever to his mind the most l>eantifiil in the
world, and he became a nui-ster in depicting views
of Dutch towns and hamlets.

Of Verveer's paintings may be mentioned;'* Afi'^r-
noon at Katwijk on the Sea " (now in th«- n.

Rotterdam); "Nordwijkon tiie Si*a"and '"."-

ingen " (both in the Amsterdam 3Iusfum of Aril.
The last-named painting was exiiibitrd ut I
phiain 1876 and was awarded asilvfrnii-<ial
on Fishers" and "Departure for the Market" are
two of the most representative of Vcr
paintings. His works were also awar;
Brussels in 1842 and 1851: and many of U\n part
ings W(.re bought by tiic art galleries of Ghent, The
Hague, Hamburg, etc.

BiBLlOfiRAPnv: Clement sttI Htm/^n. .Arii*l* fl ih* StmA.

teenth Ccntur\inud 1 t ■ ■

Prlns, Cieillu.tlrrerdi

Wolf(?anK Slnper. .iinr "" "" • n. .- ■. i.-.-.

fort-on-tlie-.Maln, \K>».

8. F C

VESOUL (Ilebr. m "r i))Cn» : Capiul of Xhe
department of HauteSaone. France. Jew« • •
settled there in the latter part > ' " " ■— - "'
tury, under the leadership of M .
was a correspondent of Hayyiin h
one of the first pupils of .Melr ■■■
The synagogue was situat<Hl wiihin »1
on asit« now occupied by tl

on the Place du Palai8-<le-.Ii.-

sion of the .lews in i:J21 il was sold for tli
of the public treasury.

In 1315 Heliot. a hanker of Vcjtoul. was on. . f t».'-
Jewish .syndics of the Ijineiio dOlI who.
with Ponrin d«' Bar. Jooe ■
Corbeil. and Morel d'Amb -

return of the Jews expclle<l from France by Pi

Vesoul
Vespasian

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

424

Uie Fair. Three years later Countess Jeanne of
Burgundy confiscated a house belonging to a Jew
named iltlirt-t, and presented it to the prior and
cure of Ve*.>ul. In 1321 Philip V.. the Tall, gave
his wife. Queen Jeanne, the estate of Heliot and of
his son Vivant as well as the property of other Jews
of the county of Burgundy ; and three years later
Marguerite de Lambrez, one of the queens ladies of
ti ".er. was allotted Heliots house. In

1. . u Jew of Vesoul, furnished the King

of France with a subsidy of 187 livres.

In 1348 eighty Jews of Vesoul were arrested by
order of Eudes' IV., Duke of Burgundy, on the
charge of well-poisoning. Reuaud Jounie de Cha-
ricz, provost of Ves<^)ul, superintended the confisca-
tion of their property, tiiese seizures enriching the
treasury to the amount of about 294 livres. Six of
the prisoners were secretly put to the torture, and
the twelve nobles appointed to pass judgment on
them, in order to save them from the fury of the
mob, sentenced them to banishment on the strength
of confessions wrung from them in this manner. In
1380, however, Mauecier or Menessier, a Jew of
Vesoul, enjoyed the special favor of Charles V.,
whom he induced to permit tlie Jews to return to
France. Twenty-four years later Pliilip the Bold
authorized fifty-two Jewish families to settle in
Burgundy, in consideration of the payment of an
entrance-fee, and an annual tax to the treasury.
They were, however, forbidden to loan money at a
higher rate of interest than 4 deniers per livre, but
their testimony was recognized in legal matters,
even against Christians. Gui de la Tremouille, Sire
dc Joinville, a courtier, was appointed guardian of
their rights and interests. From 1410 to 1419 Hac-
quin, a Jew of Vesoul, was physician to Duke John
the Fearless.

At present (1905) there are twenty -five or thirty
Jewish families in the city.

BtBLiOfjRAPHY: Dom Planrber. Huftoire de Bmirgogne, ill.;
(Ir'l^^^. <i(ilHa Jxulaica, pp. 19l>-191 ; GoUiit. Mhiiaires des
H'lurijuiuninii! de //i Franclie-Oimte, p. 761 ; R. E.J. vii. 1;
vili. Itil; ix.:il. 187: xlli. 1.344; Salpre, LesJuifsde Langue-
d/K. pp. 106, X».

D. S. K.

VESPASIAN : Emperor of Rome from 69 to 79 ;
founder of the Flavian dynasty. The defeat of
Ce.stius Gallus convinced Nero that the Jewish up-
rising was a serious matter, and he transferred the
cf)mmand of his army to the veteran Flavins Ves-
pasian us, who liad already fougiit courageously
against the Britons. In the winter of 67 Vespa-
sian made his preparations for war in Antioch, and
in the following spring marclied on Ptolemais.
AfU-r joining his son Titus, who had advanced with
an army from Alexandria, Vesjiasian found himself
in command of a powerful force, consisting of the
fifth, tenth, and fifK-enth legions, twenty-three aux-
iliary cohorts, and six squadrons of horse, in addi-
tion to the troops of the native vassals, of tlie Jewisii
King Agrippa II.. and of the kings of (Jommagene,
Emes-'i. and Arabia (Josephus, "B. J."iii. 7, tj; 1).
The entire Roman army must have mustered at least
60.0(M» men.

Tiicfirstaim was the conquest of Galilee, a wealthy
and populous district of Palestine, which was de-

fended by Josephus. Upon the approach of Vespa-
sian, however, the protecting army tied in confusion,
and the city of Gadara fell into the
Gadara and hands of the Romans. All its inhabit-

Jotapata ants were put to the sword by order
Surrender, of Vespasian, and Gadara and the
neighboring towns and villages were
burned (ib. iii. 7, g 1). These events were followed
by the reduction of Jotapata in a siege wliicli is de-
scribed in detail by Josephus, who found himself
compelled to surrender. Vespasian, like his son
Titus, treated the captive as a friend. The opera-
tions were now interrupted by a brief truce, while
the conqueror marched through Ptolemais to Ctesa-
rea, where he rested his troops {ib. iii. 9, § 1). Ves-
pasian himself went to Ca'sarea Pliilippi, Agrippa's
capital, where festivities in his honor were cele-
brated for twenty days. He then led his army
against Tiberias, which willingly surrendered, and
also against Tarichea-, which fell into his hands in
the beginning of the month of Elul.

A terrible punishment awaited the conquered.
Galilee was entirely depopulated; 6,000 youths
were sent to Nero to work on the isthmus of Cor-
inth; 1,200 old men were killed; and the remaining
Jews, more than 30,400 in number, were sold as
slaves, servitude being also the fate of those who
Avere given to Agrippa {ib. iii. 10, § 10). There now
remained oidy the fortress of Gamala, whose defend-
ers repulseil the Romans so disastrously that Vespa-
sian in person had to urge his soldiers on. The for-
tress was reduced at last, however, and tiie Romans
massacred 4,000 Jews, the rest preferring death by
their own hands. In the meantime the fort of Ita-
byrion at Tabor had surrendered, while the city of
Giscala was reduced bj' Titus, so that Galilee was
entirely subdued by Vespasian.

The simplest procedure would now have been an
attack upon Jerusalem, as was desired by the Roman
lieutenants, but Vespasian decided to leave the city
to itself, knowing that Jewish factional strife would
gradually weaken it (ib. iv. 6, ^§ 2, 3). Notwith-
standing the heavy rains, he advanced toward Perea,
and occupied the Hellenistic city of Gadara, while
Placidus, his second in command, was engaged in sub-
duing the remainder of the district. Once more Ves-
pasian marclied from Ca'sarea, and occupied in turn
the cities of Antipatris, Lydda, Jamnia, and Enunaus,
leaving the fifth legion in the last-named city, after
which he scoured Edom, returning to Emmaus, and
finally marching northward in the direction of Je-
rusalem through the district of Samaria. He met
with little resistance in any of these places, even
Jericho and Adida being easily taken by the Roman
soldiers. Gcrasa alone had to be conquered and des-
troyed by one of his generals (ib. iv. 9, fc^ 1); this,
however, can not have been the great Gerasa, which
was a Hellenistic city.

Vespasian doubtless desired to ]iro-

Prolongs long the campaign in Judea, since this
War for left him in command of a large army,

Political whicli was desirable in view of the im-

Reasons. perial succession. When he heard,

however, that Simeon bar Giora had

invaded and ravaged southern Palestine with his

Jewish hordes, he determined to restore order

425

THE JEWISH ENCVri.npKMiA

VMkOUl

there, and accordingly invaded and suhducd tlic
districts of Gojiinm and Acrohatu in tiie innnlli of
yiwaii, G9. He liiiLnvisecapturi'd lliccitirsuf Ik'lhei
and Epliraini, ^vhile Hebron was taken l)y Ids triijune
Cereaiis {ih. iv. 9, ^ 9). The Romans now liad free
access to Jerusalem from ail sides, allliougli .some
places, such as Emmaus, Herodium, Masada, and
Macluierus, still remained in the hands of the
Jews.

In the meantime the imperial throne of Home liad
been filled successively l)y Galba, Otho, and Vitel-
lius; and the Oriental legions, following the e.xani-
pie of the army of the Rhine, gave an emptror to
Home in the person of Vespasian. This event,
which was to prove important for tlu; history of the
world, was doubtless planned in Palestine, where,
according to Josephus, the proclamati(m was issued,
although Tacitus and Suetonius assert that the Egyp-
tian legions were the first to hail Vespasian emperor,
on July 1, 69. Two personages of Jewish descent
were particularly active in connection with tliis
event — Berenice, the mistress of Titus, and Tiberius
Julius Alexander, governor of Egypt. Josephus
boasts that he foretold Vespasian's election to Ves-
l)asian himself and received his freedom as well
as permission to accompany the emperor to Alex-
andria as a reward for his prophecy. According
toTalmudic sources, however, Johanan ben Zakkai
was the fiFSt to predict Vespasian's elevation to the
imperial throne. The statement that he was un-
able to draw on one of his shoes for joy (Git. 56b)
may be explained by the fact that the phrase "cal-
ceos mutare" (to change the shoes) was used also
to denote promotion to a higher rank (" Monats-
schrift." 1904, p. 277). The fact that the proclama-
tion of Vespasian was issued from Judea led Jose-
phus, followed herein by Tacitus ("Hist." v. 13)
and Suetonius (" V^espasianus," § 4), to interpret an
ancient oracle foretelling that a ruler from Judea
should acquire dominion over the entire world as an
allusion to Vespasian (Josephus, I.e. vi. 5, >5 4). The
new emperor left his son Titus in command of the
army, while he himself hurried to Rome to take pos-
session of the throne.

In the eyes of the Roman people Vespasian and
Titus shared in the glory of tlie subjugation of Pal-
estine, j'et neither of them assumed the title " Juda-
icus," probably because this term referred to the
religion as well as to the nationality of the Jews.
In addition to the honors bestowed on Titus by the
Senate, and the memorials erected to his praise, sev-
eral decrees and monuments refer to Vespasian. The
coins bearing the legend " victoria navalis" prot)a-
bly commemorate his pursuit of the Jews at Tari-
chaa on rafts, and the same circumstance doubtless
exjilains why Titus brought a larg(! number of sliips
with him when he entered Rome in triumph {ib. vii.
5, ^ 5). Together with his sons Titus and Doniitian,
Vespasian celebrated his own triumph in the year
71 {ih. vii. T), t< 7; Dio Cassius, Ixvi. 7). In addition
to the triun\phal arch erected in honor of Titus,
which still stands near the Roman Forum, another
arch of Titus existed, until the fifteenth century, in
the Circus Maxinuis, which bore an inscription ex-
pressly stating that Titus liad concpiered the Jewish
people at the command and counsel of his father,

and under ills uuKpieeuCO, I, L."tI., No. 944. "H
E. J ' i. 80). All three FliiviMD cmiK-rtirt Mnick
coins with •• ' '

The I it'/.uKXiar , " 1

Judean <aptji " (MiidUcn. " tolniiof the J.

Triumph j)p. 2l)7-221)). and num. -
and lions furnisii miit«riul f.

Medals. termination nf tl,

and ollicers that : .„. j a
such lists jiiivc been compiled by A:
steler and Joseph OlTord.

The sacred vus-sels from the Temple Rt J- - -
were deposited in the T« inple of the (;
Peace, erected by Vespasian in coin:

victory, but destroyed by (ire in I'j

phies were preserved in the ini{>erial piil i

phus. I.e. vii. 5, ^ 7; Jerome. "("•

xxix. 1). The Circus Ma.\imu8tii;

with the blood of Jewish martyrs. VespaKlan i ■

tuted also the Fiscrs Jii).\irtH, an' '

to claim all Judea as his property i .

6, § 6). A papyrus from the Egyptian pmvioc«or

Arsinoe, preserved partly in Loiidon a ' " n

Vienna, gives det;iiled infurmation . i

special impost levied on the Jews in addition \

customary poll-tax. This papyrus is ' .' '

fifth year of Vespiisian's reign, and sh

tax was payable by every Jew and Jeweasovir *

years of age. The annual amount of tli'

Jewish assessment was H drachma- 2 oIkjIi

dividual, and to this was added nn extra income tax

of 1 drachma. The poll-tax itself nnioiin'- ■' • '"

drachma, so that the Jews were heavily )

at least throughout Egypt. Chri •

ther state that Vespa.sian caus»'d

house of David to be executed, and thug i

a great persecution (Ensebius, " H

based on Hegesippus). He also c. . ...,

of Onias, in 73, and enlarged the pomorium of U»c

city of Rome, which might be tl

imperator who hail inert-used the '

empire.

Vespasian is freipu-ntly nuiiiii :.
literature, the war. with wlueli i. .

customs were assoclatMl. bt-i-
Talmudic " polemos sh- ' '
References. 14), and"Ve-i

{i.e., his sons) Iwing n
ing them.selves from the tr
Teh. xvii. 2). When Vt s| .
he encamped outside the waii and n
tions of jxace to the Jews widrh «■
According to Ab. H. N . HiTrnsit>n H
Jews in the city communicaio<l tr-
Vespasian by means of arnnvn.
ment confus<'S Vespasian with Titn» wl.
passages confound him with II
Nebuchadnezzar. "Oneoftlu
holy Temple, and that one ia Ibc mbrrrai
sian" (Midnish ha Oadol on •
Schechter; in Gen. H. Ixvji. ti
is substitute*!). Tlie imuwhrc-I liavc not
them " was intt-rpr.
spis<'d then) in the
44. Esth. H.. beginning), and C
ment of Jerome on Joel lii. Stnai v. ,.,., ..^.j.. .

Vessels
Vienna

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

426

passages were likewise regarded as allusions to Ves-
pasiau. Various legends concerning this emperor
appear iu rabbinical literature, the first one being
told by Josepbus ("Ant." viii. 2, § 5), who relates
how a Jewish exorcist displayed his skill to Ves-
pasian. The shiploads of captive Jews are gen-
erally, and correctly, associated with the name of

Brass Com ot Vespaslun, with Inscription " ludaea Capta."
Struck iu 72 c. t.

(From Madden, " HlMory of Jewish Coiosgc")

Titus; but according to a later legend (Buxtorf,
"Syuagoga Judaica," i.\. 231; "J. Q. R." xv. 664),
which apparuutiy sought to attribute to Vespasian
all the evils that befell the Jews, the future emperor
guided three vessels tilled with Hebrew prisoners to
Ijjvanda, Arlada, and Bardeli.

Vespasian collected his memoirs of the Jewish
war: and these were mentioned, and probably also
used, by Josepbus ("Vita." j^ 65; comp. "Contra
Ap." i., § 10).

BiBLio<iRAPHY : Gratz. Ga>ch. 4th ed.. ili. 494 et seq.; Schurer,
tjfxi-h. ad ed.. 1. tiio et »eq. (where further sources are Riven);
V..if.-M.-in and HleRer. (Jeach. der Jiideii in Rum, i. 23;
.M"ii.iii!>«-n, {{I'lmiifclie G't«c/i. vol. v.; Darmesteter, in R.E.J.
I. VIM; oti.jrd. In Froc. Snc. Bibl. Arch. 1902, xxiv.325;
Newton. The Epigrni)hnl Evidence for the Reign of Ves-
iKixtan and Ti/iw, Ithaca, New York. 1901; Wessely, Die
EpikriKin und da» 'lovSaidiv TtAfcr^a Untcr Vesi)a.^ian, in
Stxidicmur I'aleDQraphieund I'apyruskunde, Leipsic, 1901.
« S. Kk.

VESSELS, SACRED. See Temple, Admin-

I>Ti; VI ii>s 111

VESSILLO ISRAELITICO, IL ("Hebrew
Banner"): An Italian montiily; the continuation of
the"EducatoreIsraelita" (founded 1858), which, up-
on tiiedeathofitseditorGiuseppe Levi (July 10, 1874),
passed under the new title into the control of Flaminio
Servi, rabbi of Casalc Monferrato, who transferred its
headquarters from Vercelli to Ca.sale. During the
early years of its existence it contained essays from
the pens of such men as Berliner, Bciiedetti, Perreau,
Soave. and Stein.schneider; but later its importance
as a literary and scientific journal deteriorated. It
is noteworthy as containing valuable biographical
sketches of Italian Jews.

Flaminio Servi died Jan. 23, 1904, and was suc-
ceeded by his son Ferruccio, who has made consid-
erable changes in the publication, giving it a dis-
tinctly modern character. In February. 1905, the
"Lux." a review founded in Leghorn in 1904 under
the editorship of Arrigo Lattes and Alfredo Toafi",
was incorporatetl with the " Vessillo."

" r. C.

V±SZI, JOSEPH: Hungarian editor and dep-
uty; born at Arad Nov. 6, 1858. He was educated
at the gymnasium of his native town, and studied

philosophy, literature, and languages at Budapest.
In his early youth he was a poet, and iu the sev-
enties his lyrical productions were accepted by the
best literary periodicals, while two volumes of liis
verses were published at Budapest in 1880 under the
titles " A Banat Dalaibol " and " Traviata, Dalok Egy
Tevedt NiJhoz." Since 1877 he has devoted himself
to journalism, advocating liberal views. He was
for some time editor of the "Budapester Tagblatt,"
and contributed leaders and stories to the " Pester
Lloyd." In 1894 he became editor-in-chief of the
"Pesti Naplo," and in 1896 he founded the "Buda-
pest! Naplo."

Veszi is president of the journalistic club of Buda-
pest, and vice-president of the picture salon and of
the club of amateur musicians in that city. He is
also master of the masonic lodge " Reform. " In 1899
he was elected to the Hungarian Parliament from
the district of SzaszSebes; and in 1901, from the
third district of the capital. At present (1905) he
represents the third district of Budapest. He takes
an active interest in all Jewish affairs.

Bibliography: Sturm, Orszuggyiile^i Almanack, 1901-6;
Pallaft Lex.

s- L. V.

VICTORIA. See Austuam.\ : B.vm.arat ; Mel-
bourne.

VICTORIA. See Canada.

VIDAL B. BENVENISTE IBN LABI. See

La1!I, JuSEI'H I1!N,

VIDAL, MENAHEM B. SOLOMON ME-
IRI. See Me'iri, Menahem.

VIDAL OF TOLOSA : Spanish scholar of the
latter half of the fourteenth century. He resided in
Catalonia, where he prepared his most important
work, "Maggid Mishneh," a commentary on Mai-
monides' " Yad. " This work covered the entire con-
tents of the "Yad," but only those parts are extant
which cover the following books: iii., iv., v. (ch. i.-
ix. only), xi., xii. (ch. i.-iii. only), and xiii. The
commentary was never published separately, but
only together with the " Yad " (first at Constantino-
ple, 1509). Vidal's second work was a commentaiy
in Arabic on Al-Ghazali's "To'elet ha-lliggayon."
This commentary was translated into Hebrew by
Moses ben Joshua of Narbonue, and is extant in
manuscript in the Library of the Vatican. From
Joseph Caro's preface to his "Kesef Mishneh " it ap-
pears that Vidal was a personal friend of R. Nissim.

Vidal's son Isaac was also a prominent scholar;
he lived in Alcala and corresponded with Isaac ben
Sheshet (Responsa, No. 473).

BiBLioGKAPHV: Michael. Or ha-Hnmiim, pp. 3(50-36): Ihn
Vahya, Shal.Hlicht hn-Kahliahili, ed. Amsterdam, p. 4.5; Se-
fer l'i/?ia.su/, ed. Kilipow.ski, p. 22.")a : Conforte, A'orc ha-
Darat, ed. Ca-ssel, pp. :.'(ia, 27a: Rosin, Comix nd'iiini der
.fUdi.fchen Gesctzeslnnide. p. 11.'), Hreslau, 1S71 ; i)e Rossi.
Duiolifirio, p. 338; Steinschneider, Hrln-. Vrlierx. i. 315.
note ;i')3: idem. JlldiKclie IAteratur,p.Sm, note 17; Wolf,
liibl. JIflir. i. rm, iii. .502; Bartolocci, Kin/at Scfcr, ii. 804a-
wr}h; Henjacol). Ozai- ha-Sefarim, p. 384; Steinschneider,
Cat. liodl. cols. 2707 2708.

'■; <' s. ().

VIDAL-NAQUET, SAMUEL EMANUEL:

French financier; born at Paris Aug. 22, 1859. Edu-
cated in his native city, he graduated from the Law
Faculty and was admitted to tiie bar in 1882. In
1885 he entered the Banque des Fonds Publics et

427

THE JEWISH ENCVCLOPEOIA

Valeurs Industrielles, managed by liis fatlier, wliom
he succt'C'dcd as chief on the latter's death.

Since 1888 he lias edited with his brother Charles
the "Cote de la Bourse et de la Banque," for which
paper lie wrote many editorials. lie is recognized
as one of the leading French authorities on financial
law.

Bibliography ;

Curinler, Diet. Nat. 111. 34.

F. T. II.
MOSES. See Eu-

VIDAS, DE, ELIJAH B

JAH 15. ]M0SES UE ViDAS.

VIDAS, SAMTJEL BEN HABIB DE; Span-
ish scholar and Bible comnieutator of the fifteenth
century ; it is said, but not known with certainty, that
he was a physician also. He wrote a commentary
on Lamentations, entitled " Perush Megillat Ekah,"
which appeared in Salonica, 1595. He was the au-
thor of the following works also, which have been
preserved in manuscript: "Mebakkesh ha-Shem,"
sermons on the weekly Torah lessons, beginning with
Ki Tissa and continued to Nizzabini ; and a com-
mentary on Canticles, in which his name is given as
Samuel liibas ({^X33)-

Bibliography: Polak, in Orient, Lit. x. 276; Azulai, S/iem
ha-(Jediilim. i. 174; Carmoly, Histnire des Medecins Juifx,
pp. 121 ct seg.; Schorr, in He-Haluz. ii. 24; Dukes, in Oiiciit.
Lit. X. 707; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 2410-2411; Jacobs,
Sources, p. 195.

J- S. O.

VIENNA : Capital of Austria-Hungary. Legend
asserts that Jews settled in this city in the remotest
antiquity, and it is alleged that some M-ere among
the first colonists that Rome sent to the Danube.
In 905 decrees were issued fixing the loll to be paid
by Jewish merchants in Austria; this, however,
proves only that Jews traveled in that country.
Although the document, dated 1156, which granted
to Duke Leopold of Austria the privilege of admitting
Jews into his dominions is a forgery originating
two hundred years after its alleged date(0. Stobbe,
"Die Juden in Deutschland," p. 12), Jews were un-
doubtedly living at that time in Austria, though not
in great numbers. Under the protection of the
liberal princes of the house of Babenberg they fared
much better than the other German Jews of that
period.

As early as 1194 Duke Leopold VI. of Austria

placed a Jew of the name of Shlom (Solomon) at

the head of the mint ("super oflicium

Shlom the moncta) "), and Jewish ottlcers of that

Minter. mint had such influence as to give rise
to bitter complaints. Two years later,
when the Crusaders reached Vienna and heard that
Solomon had imprisoned for theft one of his servants
who was to join them, they rushed to the Jew's house,
murdered him and fifteen other Jews, and liberated
the imprisoned man. The duke was sufiiciently
just to execute two of the ringleaders (Josei)h ha-
Kohen, " 'Emek ha-Baka," ed. I^etteris, p. 46). The
influence of the Jewish ofiicials Jiad become so great
that after the expulsion of Duke Frederick the Bellig-
erent, ill 1237, the citizens of Vienna petitioned
Emjieror Frederick II. not to appoint any more
Jews to official jio.sitions. Nevertheless Jcwsappar-
ently continued to be emploj^ed as agents of the
treasury. In 1235 they dictated the entire commer-

aitd in

cial policy of Duke Frederick 11 ...,
forbid the export of gruin Intotho
(Pertz. "Monunienla S

1257 tlie Jews Lubliu

were treasury agents (" KanunerKnifeii "^

most illii.strious Duke of Austria"

"Ilebr. Bibl." X. 44 et kij.). In A .,

peror Frederick II. took the Jcwg of \

his protection ("servi .

them special privileges

AtsTuiA). Of still greater importance In 111.

that Duke Frederick II. grant. '

his territory July 1. 1244; ihi

the model by which the status of the Jews of IM,.

mia, Moravia, Hungary. Silesia, and Poland mu

regulated.

The Jews of Vienna, who had the right tn own
real estate and to buy houses, were c-n^- ; '
pally in lending money on security to ;

Gate Leadlnir i<« tUe Old " Ji!<«»'<-

<Froin *• old '

and also to the impecunious prince*. Frrdcrick II
permitted the Jews to charge a wwkly Intrrcrt of

eight heller on the p. ' ^- . ■ . . .,

father tiiey were i>er;

the rate on loans by Jc-ws w:.

Iielleron the pound. The rii h .!< ■.* 1

was in 1255 the lM)nd«in!in «'f I>iik<' I

a debt of 2.000 p.

Andrew of Hungary

'• MiLschlein Terhau

meut (Wiener, " Hegcslcu. j». Ho »•• proUi»l»I> •

Vienna

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

428

son of this otherwise unknown person. The favor-
able position of the Jews clianged when, in May,
12C7, the Council of Vienna revived
The Church the ancient ecclesiastical decrees con-
Council ceruing the Jews. These decrees fos-
of 1267. teretl hatred against the Jews, but
they could not be carried out to tlie
letter, since the princes in their monetary difficulties
could not get along without Jewish help. Emperor
Rudolph, the tirst of the house of Hapsburg, who
was indebted to a Jew by the name of Amschel
Oppt-nheiiner, confirmed in 1277 the Jews' statute
of Duke Frederick the Belligerent ; but a year later
he declared the Jews ineligible for public office, a
privilege which his successor, Duke Albert, coa-
finned to the
citizens of Vi-
enna in 1296.

The f o u r -
teenth century
in general
brought much
misery to the
Ji-ws of Vienna.
In 13157 outniges
were committed
agiiinsl them,
but Duke Alljcrt
and the nobles
interfered to
protect them
from further in-
justice. In rec-
ognition of tlie
good-will shown
by the citizens
of Vienna in
time of distress,
and in anticipa-
tion of its con-
tinuance, the
Jews declared,
in a document
written in He-
brew and dated
Vienna. June 19,
13:W, that they

would lend to the citizens of Vienna, rich as
well as poor, a pound of V^ienna iieller at a weekly
interest of three heller. (Jn the following day
appeared tlie "Jews' decree" of the dukes Albert
an<l (Jlto, and tiie endorsement of the Jewish docu-
ment (G. Wolf. "Gesch. der Juden in Wien," p.
11 ; iilem, "Sluiiien zur Jubelfeier der AViener Uni-
versitat." pp. 170 et »e'i. ; Wiener, I.e. p. 221).

The Jews of Vienna appear to have sulTered
during the persecutions consequent on the Black
Deatli (1369), and in 1370tiiey were seized, deprived
of their poss<'ssions, and e.vpelled from the city.
But in spite of these persecutions the Jews very soon
returned to Vienna and other places. Tiie didies
Albert and Leopold, who were continually in tinan
cial straits, needed the Jews, as did also their succes-
sors. At their pleasure they "killed the Jews' let-
ters," tiiat is. they canceled the debts of the buifrhers
totheJews ftflen those of ;iii entirecity. One of the

Plan ot the Old " Judenstadt " at Vienna.

richest Jews of Vienna, called in the documents in-
differently David the Steuzz, Von Steuzz, Steuzzel,
or Steuzzlein (the Jew ilennleiu von Neuenburg's
sou), who from 1850 to 1386 had business relations
with the nobles and the burghers, often lent large
sums to Duke Albert; and after his (Steuzz's) death
his son Jonah entered upon his rights ; only the duke
himself could bring an action against him (Wiener,
I.e. pp. 22A:et seq.\ according to Document No. 169
[p. 240] he should be called "Jonah the Steusseu "
instead of "Jonah the Russian ").

In 1421 Duke Albert issued a decree that in future
no Jew should be permitted to live in Austria; this
decree was renewed by Duke Ladislaus in 1453
("Monumenta Germauice," xi. 517; Wertheimer,

"Die Juden in
Oesterreich," i.
97; Wolf, Gesch.,
pp. 18 et seq. ;
Wiener, I.e. p.
239; Joseph ha-
Kohen, " "Einck
h a - B a k a , " p .
219; "Terumat
ha-Deshen," re-
sponsa. No. 241).
The houses of
the Jews who
had been burned
or expelled were
sold or given
a w a y b y t h e
duke, the syna-
gogue at Tulln
was i^resented to
the convent of
St. Dorothea in
Vienna, and the
synagogue at the
latter place was
torn down and
the stones used
for building a
university.
Notwithstand-
ing these perse-
cutions the spir-
itual activity of the Vienna Jews was consider-
able. One of the earliest rabbis of Vieiuia was
Isaac b. Moses (called also Lsaac "Or Zarua',"
after the title of his work, or simply Isaac of Vi-
enna). A ritual (juestion was addressed to him
in 1240 by Abigdor ha-Ivohen, the son-in-law of
the learned and rich Ilayyim b. jMoses of Wiener-
Neustadt, who, together with his brother Eliezer,
was at the head of the Viennese rab-
Early binate. Another rabbi of Vienna was
Rabbis. Meir ha-Levi ben Baruch, who re-
stored the rabbinical ordination. His
son probably was the " Judeuineister," Baruch of
Vienna, witli whom, together with Meir b. Baruch,
who died al)out 1400, the dukes Albert and Leo-
pold came to an agreement in regard to security
for 20,000 gulden (Wiener, I.e. p. 228, No. 82).
Abraham Klatisner filled the Vienna rabbinate;
the last-named collected the various synagogal

429

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Vic

naa

customs (•'iniuhagiin"), and was also a money-
broker.

In Rpit(! of tlio decree of banisliinent Jews still
remained in Vienna. In 1512. seven Jewisii families
were living there, the members of which interceded
for their unfortunate coreligionists in .Marchegg,
who were in danger of being burned, like those of
Basing ( Wolf, Gesch. pp. 23, 205). In 1528 Emperor
Ferdinand issued a decree " for tlie. Jewish residents of
Austria, who are the pro])erty of the royal chancel-
lery, "and ordered that every Jew whocame to Vienna
should immediately report to the government oHice,
where he would receive a " ticket "; he must wear
the Jews' badge, a ring of yellow cloth, on his outer
garment, "uncovered and unhidden"; and might
stop only at the two houses set apart for Jews, the
Jews of Vienna begged (liat tiieir coreligionists who

The "Judenturm" at Vienna.

(From iiri old print.)

had been driven out of Presburg in this year might
be allowed to settle in Lower Austria, but Ferdinand
refused their request. In 1542 Emperor Ferdinand
conceded to the Jew Moses the right to carry on in
the country a small business and "trade," in recog-
nition of his services at the mint; and in 1544 he
granted to the Jew Lazarus, physician to his chil-
dren, the privilege of living wherever he cho.se.

The decrees of banishment were renewed from
time to time. A mandate of Jan. 2. 1554, ordered
that the Jews should leave the territory of Lower
Austria at the end of six mouths; but the period was
several times i)rolonged. The same proceedings
took jilace when the decrees of banishment were re-
newed in 1507 and 1572. However, toward tiie end
of 1575 the Jews were really expelled ; but they did
not stay away very long, for the impecuniosity of the
emperors and the interests of the state often inclined
the monarchs to be favorably disposed toward them,
outweighing religious hatred and the still stronger
jealousy of the non-Jewish merchants. Yet tiie

condition of ii„. Jew.s wuN i

for they were vvjihout righu a;,,. ,„.,

liioso of Vienna, who nuinlKTi-d in

famdies, were not able, in i:m u, ,,ay i

norms den.anded of ihem. un order wl

^(•1). 5, 1600. that they Khould leuv,. Vi. i

Au.slna within fourU-e„ .lays. All nU-yeO ex..,.l

eleven fandlies and the physician Ella« ^ ' ,

(Halfon). the "Erztney doctor": bulull t

soon returned, with others, to Vienna (WoU. -mu-

dien," pp. 173 t<wy.).

The condition of the Jews improvwl under Km
peror Ferdinand II. He ren.wed V.r
thias' decree that they could In- dri\.
cities only with the conse-nt of the ruling emptTor-
he protected them against force and oj,; \

expressly maintained their rights, ho
„ ^ C'<^<^ "f general expulsion ilalcd Jan

Under Fer- 7, 1625. was not carried out (W..|f
dmand II. "Die Juden Uuter Ferdinand H " in
"Jahrbuch fUr Gesch. der Jud»'n."L
2l8etseq.). Those Jews whom the people < ' ' ' ,
desired to expel in 1623 were assigne*! to tl.
of the Lower Worth as a permanent place of ri-»U-
dence, with protection "forever." A wall enc I«hm-<1
this new Jews' town, and Jiero the wealthy n,,,^
among them acquired hou.ses and gardin.s: • |

their own shops, and .soon a beautiful sy:
was built. They paid 600 florins u year in
the city, and, apart from sevenil ini; i

llorins a year into the imperial treasur\ . ^

death of Ferdinand II. (1637). to whose widow, tlw
empress Eleonora. the Jewsof Vienna w !

to pay 2.500 gulden a year, fht- burgher i

a petition to his successor, Ferdinand III., asking
him " to drive out all of the Jews, lu
three miles beyond this city, if not
country" (Wolf, " Gesch.' der Juden in Wicn."
pp. 261 et .seq.). The emperor would n. •
this request, but satisfie<l the burghers by
ing the Jews of the right to trade in the inner
city, where the citizens had their shops Fn*
entrance into the city was henceforth deiiii-«l tl»r
Jews. Trendiling for their cxist<-nce. the Jens of
Vienna offered to assume a state debt of >■ "■■" -ul-
den and to present the emperor with 1 . ul-

den, and promised to trouble him no longer wjtli
their disputes.

In Vienna, where, in 1620. about fifty familiet
were living — among them .several court Jew?. — tl»e
community had two synagogues and a nin. ti ry
Its first rabbi, mcntione<l in 1600. wa-« Abraham
Flesch, who was follownl by Isaac IT of

Opatow (Sept.. 1623); Veil Munk ; i i ob

Lipmann Heller, of Nikol.sburg; Uic pb,v«iciaa
Leo Lucerna, or Judah L6b BCa'or |Caton i<l.
1()3.">; liiiilt a synagogue at his nw n <\jxiim and
Hayyini Menahem Mann. The Vienna mb-
bin.ite. wliicli su|»pi:' : ' i" ' ' ' ola

anil philanthropic ii. ne

distinguished incumln-nt-s R. Phobua,
grated to Piilcstiiie in lti."i"> Ipuh-
Shabbethai Sheftel Hurwitz. .\
Zacharias Levi, bnnher of Nathan t
1643), learned in rabbinical lorr. bull' •'■ ■
gogue. in connection with a richly

■ \

■i»e
.1.

. -.:ia

Vienna

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

430

niudic school, and Vienna became a center of Jewish
iearniug aiul cabalistic speculation. The last rabbi
of Vienna and of Lower Austria was Gershon Ash-
kenazi, wliose colleagues were M9rdecai Lob
Oettingen (the friend of the Christian divine Wa-
genseil) and the preachers XTri Lipmann Hirz
Koma and Enoch Frankel.

The Jewish community of Vienna iu 1660 num-
bered about 500 families, and in spite of the many
taxes, assessments, and war duties was in a flourish-
ing condition. But troublous times were in store for
it. The hatred of the burghers increased with their
intolerance, leading to dinicultios in which the gov-

against them. The riots turned into wholesale loot-
ing expeditions, and the students and the mob at-
tempted to fire the ghetto. The mili-
Riot tary guard had to be called out; but

of 1668. it was only on the third day of the riot
that the emperor gave orders that no
non-Jew was to set foot in the Jewry. In further evi-
dence of the desirability of banishing the Jews, they
were accused of being in secret communication with
the Swedes. It was finally decided, July 26, 1669,
to expel a number of Jews from Vienna and Lower
Austria; 1,346 persons were affected by this decree
of banishment. In their dire need the Jews of Vi-

K.XTERIOR OF THK LKOPOLDSTRASSE SYNAUOUUE, VIK.NNA.

(From a photograph.)

ernment had to interfere. When in May, 166o. the
Ixwiy of a woman was found in a pool in the Jewry,
the Jews were accused of having nuirdered her, and
their lives were in jeopardy. Unfortunately for
them. Emperor Leopold, who was entirely in the
liands of the Jesuits, marricil a Spanish infanta.
Whi-n th(; crown i)rinco died, in Jan., 16G8, three
months after his birth, the emperor and empress
formed tiie thought of dealing with the Jews in
Spanisii fashion. A fire happened to break out in
the newly built royal palace in February of the
same year, and the populace accused tlie Jews of
having kindled it. In April, 1668, delegates of the
city of Vienna appeared before the emperor, pray-
ing him to destroy the Jews "root and branch";
and before the end of the month outrages began

enna once more sent a memorial to the eniiieror; but
in vain, for the commission had attributed to them
all kinds of crimes. On Monday, Marcli 1, 1670, a
solenui proclamation was made in all pul)lic jilaces
that "for the glory of God'" all Jews sliould, on
penalty of imprisonment and death, leave Vienna
and Upper and Lower Austria before Corjius Christ!
Day, never to return. Ilirz Koma and llic physi-
cian of the conniiunity, Leo W'inkler. in the name
of the community made a last attempt to jiropitiate

the emiu'ior by offering him 100,000

Expulsion florins and, in addition, 10,000 florins a

of 1670. year. In the meantime the jjeriod

fixed for the exodus had been prolonged
at the intercession of influential persons. In July
the Jews began to leave, and by Aug. 1 not one Jew

LNTERIOR Oy TllK Lkopoldstrassk sy.\aoogl*k« Vik»a.

(From ft photof^aph.)

Vienna

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

432

was left in Vienna. The cemetery in the Rossau
was protectwi by the city in consideration of the sum
of 4.U00 florins; the houses of the Jews became the
property of the city ; the hirge new synagogue was
turned into a church, renamed the Leopoldskirche,
and solfiiiiily consecrated on Aug. 18; a Jew's house
was turned into the parsonage. In place of the old
synagogue, and out of its ruins, was built a little
church— that of St. Margaret, since demolished.
Many of the more prominent families settled in Ber-
lin (D. Kaufmann, "Die Letzle Vertreibuug der
Judi-n aus Wien und Niederosterreicli." Budapest,
1889; G. Wolf, " Die Juden in dor Leopoldstadt im
17. Jahrhundert in Wien," Vienna, 1864).

Vienna only too soon regretted the expulsion of
the Jews. The deficit in the state ta.\ amounted,
according to the report of the royal exchequer, to
40.000 florins a year ; the " Landslilndc " also reported
n loss of 20,000 florins owing to the departure of the
Jews. The citizens of Vienna, who had undertaken

ber of the imperial household, the second as liis as-
sistant. But the haired of the populace against the
Jfws was as bitter as it had been before the expul-
sion, leading to frequent riots, and, as in 1705 and
1710, to repeated demands for their banishment.
Gradually more families settled there : the Schlesing-
ers; 3Iarcus and Meyer Hirschel, who contributed
150,000 florins to the building fund of the Church of
St. Charles Borromco; the Arnsteins and Eskeles;
the Leidesdorfers ; Diego d'Aguilar; and many
others.

In 1753 there were 700 Jews in Vienna, who paid
a yearly toleration ta.x amounting to 14,000 gulden.

The plan, proposed repeatedly, to con-

" Jews' tine the Jews to a ghetto was not

Decree," carried out; but they were liuddled

1764. togetlier in houses in certain streets,

on)}' a few court Jews being permitted
to live among Christians. The precarious position
of tlie Jews was in a way improved by the "Jews'

Jkwish Orphan Asylum, Vienna.

(From a photograph.)

to pay the yearly Jews' tax of 14,000 florins, could
harfliv pay their own taxes. At a conference held
in Wischaw. Moravia, Sept. 26, 1673, between rep-
resentatives of the government and of the Jews it
was agreed that 2.10 Jewish families might return to
Vienna andoccujiy fifty business places in the iiuier
city on i)ayment of 300,000 florins and the former
yearly tax of 10,000 florins. In view of the hope-
lessly depleted treasury, the royal exchequer consid-
ered this offer a " remarkable piece of good fortune,"
and on Feb. 28, 1675, the agreement was ratified ;
soon thereafter several Jews returned to Vienna.
Samson Wcrtlieimcr, who, with iiis i)art,ner Samuel
OiM'K.NiiKiMKU, had rendered importantservices to the
state, returned to the city in 1684, the first as a mem-

decree" of May 5, 1764, which permitted any Jew
who could prove that he possessed a certain sum of
ready money and "acceptable" papers, or that he
had established a factory, etc., to live in Vienna.
According to this decree no Jew could buy a house;
a married Jew had to let his beard grow, that he
might be readily distinguished; and no synagogue
or other place for common worship was permitted.
The empress jVIaria Theresa, who in her unbounded
hatred of the Jews could conceive of "no greater
pest for the state than this nation," was always con-
sidering how to "(linunish the Jews; by no means
to increase them."

Emperor Jo.seph II. also did not wish to favor the
Jews or increase their numbeis in his dominions;

POLISli SVNAUOt.lfc. Al VIKNNA.
(Fruiii a pholo^aph.)

XII.— 28

Vienna

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

434

but he was at least the first Austrian ruler to recog-
nize the Jew as a human beiug. The much-praised
Edict of Toleration, published Jan. 3, 1782, per-
mitted the Jews to learn all kinds of trades (with-
out, however, granting the right to hold a master's
certificate) and to lend money on real estate, though

they were not permitted to acquire

Under any. The tolerated Jew— that is, the

Joseph II. one who paid protection or toleration

money — could live with his family
wherever he chose in Vienna. Foreign Jews could
sell their goods at the fairs, but could remain in Vi-
enna no louffer than was necessary to tiiiish their

Jews and Jewesses in Vienna who were held in high
esteem for their culture and wealth. The salons of
Fanny von Aiinsteik, wife of the banker Nathan
von Arnstein, and of her sister Cecilia von Eskcles,
wife of Bernhard von Eskeles, were at the time of
the Congress of Vienna attended by princes and
nobles, statesmen and high civic dignitaries, scholars
and artists. After several unsuccessful petitions, the
Jews of Vienna were allowed, in 1811, to fit up a
" Betstube " (room for prayers) in a house they hatl
bought on the old Dempfingerhof ; twelve years
later a synagogue was built, due to the efforts of M.
L. Bicdermiinn, I. L. von Iloffmannsthal, Joseph

" HoiiE Warte," the Jewish Institcte for the Blind, Vienna.

(From a photograph.)

business. All laws compelling differentiation in at-
tire, as well as the piohiljition against visiting public
places of amusement, were repealed. Thcsi.xty-five
families living in Vienna in 1784 were not allowed
to fonn a congregation or to have a synagogue. In
Vienna the re were established at that time a Jewish
physician (Samuel B. Oppenheimer), a Jewish law-
yer (A. Joel), and a Jewisii dramatist (David Bene-
dict Arnstfiiier). In 1788 Emperor Joseph decreed
that the Jews were liable to military service, except-
ing only those of Vienna who were " protected."

Under Leopold II. the status of the Jews re-
mained the same. He instituted the "Collecten-
ta.xe." a toll levied upon every Jew who went to
Vienna. In spite of the harsh conditions under which
they were compelled to live, there were even then

von Wertheimstein, and others, and Isaac N. i\I.\NN-
HEiMEU was called as preacher and teacher of relig-
ion, and Salomon Sit.zek as cantor. The .lews of
Vienna now possessed a synagogue, a hospital which
had been fitted up in the eighteenth century, and a
school of religion; the teachers in the last-named
were Mannheimer, J. L. SAALSCiaxz, Leopold Bieu-
er, and Gershon Wolf.

The number of tolerated families increased from

year to year; in 1820 there were 135
Statistics, families, and 197 in 1847; in 1848 tiiere

were 4,000 Jews in the city. The con-
gregation of Vienna built in 1855 a second syna-
gogue, calling Adolf Jellinek and later Moritz
GrnEM.WN as preachers.
The restrictions placed upon the Jews in Vienna

IMI Kinli OF THE "TrRKISH TKMPLE " AT VIENNA.
(From m phoJnjT'P'')

Vienna

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

436

continued under Emperor Ferdinand. In 1846, tlie
year in which the medieval Oath Moue Judaico was
repealed, the representatives of the community of
Vienna sent a petition to the emperor praying for a
betterment of tlieir condition; tliis petition was in-
dorsed by the magistracy and the government, but
it was not acted upon. Then came the Vienna rev-
olution of 3Iarch, 1848, during which the resolute
Adolf FiscuuoF distinguished himself. The consti-
tution of March 4, 1849, which recognized the equal
rightsof all citizens, regardless of creed, was repealed

ministered by a board of thirty-six members, elected
b}' ta.\ payers. Tlie expenses are defrayed by as-
sessments and fees. The assessments are levied on
each Jew according to his means, the lowest sum
being 10 kronen (.S2), and the highest, according
to statute, 12,000 kronen, although occasionally this
is voluntarily exceeded by individual members of
the community. In 1903 communal taxes to the
amount of 1,058,809 kronen Avere paid bj^ 16,735
members.
The total receipts of the communitv for 1903

Ji.Wi.>ii (jlKL.s- 0k1'11A.\AGE, VIENNA.
(From a photograph.)

Dec. 31, 1851. On Jan. 18, 1860, the Jews of Lower
Austria were permitted to acquire real estate.

BiBMonRAPiiv: .1. W.TttiHmPr. Die Judcn in Oesterrcich,
2 vols.. I>-lr*li\ 1M2; I). Kaufmann, Die Letztc Vertreihung
iterjudtu rmit H iVji inn/ yictlrrOfterrcich, Budapest, 1889;
G. \V<ilf, fjii Juflrn ill Orj'tineicb, in Die Vrdker Oester-
rych-Viui.n n>. vol. vli.. Vlf-nna. 188.3; idi-in. Dii Judcn in
<tcr I. 'II im n.Jnhiiiitndeft in TI'iVi), ib. 1864;

Idem. .//rn lu Oc^trrrriih, ib. 18(«: idem. Ge!<ch;

iter .J H, I. u ,;< Wien, Ib. 187ti; idem. HiMorixche Notizen,
Jn Allu. /.lit. drx Jnd. 1861. vol. xxiil.: idem. Zur Gewh.
(Itr hnuniriimtum dcr Juden in Ocxienrirli, In JlUlitiehes
Ltltntlurhlull. Ih77. vol. vll.; idem. Zwr Gexrh. der Juden
"■ II irn. \n Jahrh. flir hrrulitrn. pp. 73 et xcq.. Vienna,
id<-m. Dnx Ihindfiijaiirim Julntilnni dcr Ixrnrliti-
]8tu " '-"""■"!''' '""'"'^« •'" l''i«.'i. pp. 13:J ct 8cq., Vienna,

•J- M. K.

Present Conditions : The Jewi-sh population

of Vienna is organized, in accordance with the law
nf 1H90, in one community, which embraces in its
territory the municipal district of Vienna. It is ad-

amounted to 2,243,449 kronen, and the total ex-
penditures to 2, 147,506 kronen, the latter being item-
ized as follows:

Kronen.

Synagoprues and ritual institutions 419,900

Reliprious instruction and schools 260.23.5

Hospital 301,731

Almshouse 145,716

Charities 223,431

Cemetery and burials 332,364

Administration and miscellaneous 464,129

The records of Jewish births, marriages, and bur-
ials in Vienna are kept by the community. In 1900,
the date of the latest census, there were 146,926 Jews
in the city; and their increase in the course of the
nineteenth century, as well as their numerical rela-
tion to the total population, is shown in the follow-
ing table:

437

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Vienna

Year.

Total
Population.

Jewish Population.

Number.

Percentage
to Total.

1800

2,32,000
317,000
476.(KH)
6(J7,520
72;'),6tiO
],363,.548
1,674,957

1,200

1,040

1.5, 6(X)

4(),.30O

72,.590

118,495

146,926

0.5
0.5
3.30
t;.60
10.00
8.80
8.77

18.30

18.56

1869

1880

1890

1900

The most important growtli of the Jewisli ])opu.
lation, acconiingto this table, was between Ihe^eurs
ISaOand 1856, and between 1880 and 1890, tiie former
being explained by the repeal, in 1848, of tlie law
restricting Jewish residence in tiic city, and tiie lat-
ter by the annexation of suburban communities to
the city. While the lirst of tliese extraordinary in-
creases in number marks an actual ri.se in percentage,
the second is a decrease in this respect, since the
proportion of Jews in the nine incorporated suburbs
was far lower than in the ten old districts.

The following table gives the annual number of
births, marriages, and deaths among the Jews in
comparison Avitli those among the total population
of Vienna according to the average of recent years:

Total Population.

Jewish Population.

Number.

Per-
centage.

Number.

Per-
centage.

Births

5.5,000
16,000
33,000

3.43

1.00
2.06

3,300

8.50

1,900

2.36
n fin

Marriages

Deaths

1.36

It is clear from this table that the increase in the
Jewish population is relatively less than among the
otlier inhabitants, although a hopeful feature is the
small proportion of deaths, which may be due to
a more rational mode of life among the Jews. A
proof of their unfavorable political situation in
Austria is afforded by the large number of conver-
sions to Christianity, which amounted to 559 in
1900, and 617 in 1904. The comnumity provides
for daily public worship in five synagogues erected
and maintained by it. In addition to
Syna- these synagogues, Vienna contains a

gogues. large number of synagogal associations,
which have their own places of worship
and are subventioned in great part by the commu-
nity. On the high festivals temporary synagogues
are opened to meet the extra demands. The perma-
nent synagogues of Vienna provide accommodations
for about 7,000 men and 5,600 women.

The liturgy used in the synagogues of the com-
munity, and in the majority of those associations men-
tioned above, is that introduced by I. N. Manniiki-
MER and Salomon Sulzp;k; but in the Grosse Schiff-
gasse ('Adat Yisrael) synagogue, and in almost
all the smaller ones, the old ritual is followed, and
in the place of worship of the Turkish Jews (in the
second district, Zirkusgasse), who form a community
of their own, the Sephardic ritual is adhered to. The
shehitah and the sale of kasher meat are under the
supervision of the rabbinate of the ccminuuiity of
Vienna, and in some stalls the sales are made under

on tlic

■ y

.■1

the sjiecial control (,i
'Adat Visruel. There is i.

Ht.ligiou.s instructjou furiiiH ii purl of i
ulmn of the public s. ' ' ' -

mediate grades; the
entirely in the primary Hchooln,
nasiums and real -schools, wl
appointed and salaried by th.
by in.speclors commi.ssione*! by the coi
the primary schools the oxpeiisea of i
are borne by the community, witli ili.
contrihutcii by the state in accordance w|i
although this covers only a small r ■• '
disbursements; but in the secondii
tiie expcn.se of religions iDstrurtjon f»tU
state. Two hours weekly are nllfjtted t
struction in the curriculinn, but llie <•
maintains or subventions Hebrew schwls
who desire to acquire a more thorough 1.
of Bible and Talmud, wliile the laree nti.:
libraiy of the Jewish conumui'
material for students. Thept;: ..
are non-sectariau, but the ruling :
deavored, partly with success, to tiif..r( .■ ..
division by evading the existing law.s.

The chief institutions of Jewish learnine in Vi-
enna are as follows: (1) the Is^h.vki ►-
LOoiscHK Leiiu.\nstalt, founded in
society for the establishment and n>ai-

Jewish thcnldgical i- . ,

Educa- (2) "the Talmud T. -i

tional 1854, with an average attc!

Insti- 240; (3) the general A •

tutions. stitutefordeaf-niuti -

with an average of iri piipSIs and an

annual expenditure of about !'"■ ' '^ ' 'c

Jewish institute for the blind. : i

an average of 60 pupils, and an annual c.\;

of about 75,000 kronen; and (5) the J' ••

garten, founded in 1843, with nn i«\ i)

children, and an annual expendifii ^)

kronen. In 1900a Jewish atheneui

in which evening lectures on vai <r

given to large Jewish audiences, co:

of the pooler classes. Vienna is al.s- ,. «•

of the Baron de Hirsch fund for the

popular education in Ga'

the seat of the Zionist Acti .. ii*

The number of Jewish pu;
classes of schoolsas comjnind v
is given in the following ta
figures are cited partlj' according
of recent years, and partly oti the '
tics of the school-year 19*11-2 I
especially noteworthy when H
ish inhabitants to the total popiuan'ui
in mind.

Vienna's situation in th
Rumania, the i "
lias resulted in
eign Jews; and llie in'
tive Israelites, du'- *
ders it readily inte!
of their more wealiliy
existence of numcroii-
poverty is prevalent ani

f
liukuMiim and

Vienna

Vinegar

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

438

T<-

Total

Number

Students.

Jewish Students,

Class of Scbool.

NUU.bLl.

ceutage.

6,300

2.W0

5.9O0

5.200

820

24,0L»0

680

8,300

180.000

395

117

UK)

6,300

1,560

570

1.8<X)

1.200

:i80

1.100

280

1,800

16,000

1,000

24.74

-u scbuob

27.91
3(1.^)0

-.Is

2:3.07

46.31

4..5f<

- bools

.'S

.32.07
41.17

._. institutfs —

21.ti8

8.:w

24.83

.r Ihe blind

28.20

■r the feeble-minded . .
' r neglected children..

24.37
15.87

is intensified by an unfortunate division of forces
among individual associations.

throne; the cost of its maintenance is about 145,000
kronen annually.

The following arc devoted exclusively to the care
of the poor: the asylum f(;r orphan girls (60 inmates;
annual expenditure about 40,000 kronen); the Lea
,Mfrores asylum for orjihan girls (50 inmates; opened
in 1904) ; tlie Baron Springer asylum for orphan boys
(founded 1890; 50 inmates); the employment bureau
for girls (accommodations for 180) and the employ-
ujcnt bureau for boys (accommodations for 36), both
institutions maintained by the Theresien Kreuzer
Verein ; the employment bureau for female appren-
tices (accommodations for iJO), maintained by the
Leopoldstadt Ladies' Club ; the home for male appren-
tices, maintained l)y the Society for the Promotion
of Handicrafts Among the Native Jews. Various
forms of charitable work are also carried on by a
large number of Jewish societies, of which the most
important are given in the table on page 439.

Part of oi.p CtiiKTEKY at Vienna.

(From a {>hotograph.)

The commuiiuy maintains a number of charities.
A hospital was foundi.'d by the Vienna branch of
the house of Rothschild, with 170 beds
and an annual expenditure of about
300,000 kronen ; it has re(;ently been
endowed by Baron Nathaniel Roths-
child with '2,000,000 kronen to render
all its space available. A home for the aged and in-
firm, with 248 beds, was founded in honor of the fifti-
eth annivcrsiiry of the emperor's accession to the

Benevolent
Insti-
tutions.

Vienna is the seat of the following societies,
which deserve mention here, although their sphere
of activity is not restricted to this city, or else is
not confined to philanthropic objects : the Isuae-
MTisciiK Am.i.\nz (founded 1872); the Oester-
KEiciiiscn-IsRAELiTisciiE Union (founded 1885) ; the
AUgemeine Oesterreichisch-Israelitische Bund ; the
Association for^the Aid of the Needy Jewish Popu-
lation of Galicia; and the Baroness Hirsch Founda-
tion foi- the Assistance of Boys and Girls in Austria.

489

THE JEWISH ENCJYC'LOPEDIA

Vimntur

Name of Oririini/ation.

Hebra Kaddisha

VVoiiicn's Benevolent Society (tli'st ilis-

trict)

Women's Benevolent ^o(•ietv (second

distiicti

Society for the Poor

Society for the I'romotion of Handicrafts

Orphans' Aid Society

Students" A id Society

Girls' Aid Society

Society for the Aid of Consumptives

Society for the Kstablishiuint of Public

Kitchens

Fresh-Air Society

Baroness Hirsch Benevolent Foundation.

Free Employment Bureau

Date of
Foun-
dation.

1764
1816

i8:ii

1841
18(50
18t>l
18()(>
1871

1874
1891

1898 ^
189!)

Appni.xiiiiate

Annual

E.\pendlluii's

in Kronen.

80,(X)0

4(),()(KJ

»'4.(XH)
14(1,01 Kl
■')r,,(X)0
64,(I(K)
l:i,0(K)

14,200

&">.n(H)

4(l.(H)0

200,(MX)

(in loans)

aUKHJ

(in donations)

27,1 K.MJ

An important fuctor in tlie care of tlic Jewish ]inor
in Vienna i.s formed by the foundations, controlled,
for the most part, by the community. The total
capital of this class of funds amounts in round num-
bers to 8,500,000 kronen, although these figures in-
clude a number of foundations which are not benev-
olent, such as bequests for the care of graves and
for memorial services.

The community provides for the maintenance of
a cemetery, as well as for the preservation of the
older cemeteries. In tlie Zentralfriedhof (communal
cemetery) a portion is reserved especially for the
Jews. Every Jew receives a separate giave,
whether it is paid for or not, although nearly 70 per
cent of all burials in Vienna are free. Two old
cemeteries, now disused, e.xist in Vienna, one in the
Seegasse, closed about 1783, and the Wahringer
graveyard, closed in 1879.

BmLiofiRAPHY : Hickmann, Wieu im Neunzelmten Jnhr-
liuuilert : the statistical annuals of the city of Vienna, and the
reports of the community and of individual societies.
D. T. L.

VIENNE: Town in the ancient province of
Dauphiue, France. Jews dwelt there as early as the
tenth century (Gross, "Gallia^ Judaica," p. 191).
They lived in a special quarter, still (1905) called
"the Jewry," and in the thirteenth century had a
beautiful synagogue (Carmoly, "Itineraires," p. 187).

The following were the most noted scholars of
Vienne: the tosafist Tobiah ben Elijah, author of
<a connnentary on the Pentateuch and of litingieal
poems (Zunz, "Z. G." pp. 56, 97; 2rfm,"Literatur-
geschichle," p. 303); Abraham ben Ephraim. a pupil
of Tobiah and author of a work on casuistics ; Yakar
of Vienne, called also "Yakar ben Moses" of Bur-
gundy (Vienne was for a time the capital of Bur-
gundy), who composed posekim (legal decisions),
fragments of which are still extant (Gross, I.e. p.
193).
Bibliography : Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 101-194.

VILIiEFRANCHE or ( VILLAFRANCA) :

Town in the mountain district of the deimrlmeiit of
Rousillon, France; belonged formerly to Aragon.
It was founded in 1095, and had a Jewish popula-
tion asearlv as the middle of the thirteenth century,
among the first settlers being Jews from Pro-

iii f..iin!i.

vence. In 1274 the Biiiiill con.,.,
permission to lay out a ccincUTy ;
allowed to rebuild ii
destroyed about seven , .
was presented in 13U2 to ti
Pachl.

Villcfranche, now called Villffnini h
ent, was the liirthplucc of Kkvi hi
should not !)(• conrdiiiided with Vi.
Panades in Cataloniii. nor wiili V:
Navarre, l)ntli «)f wiiicli towuB had Ji
nities, the latter until I4\i**

Ilini.uKfUAi'nv: YiiiiL'uiiM. f
Gross, (iiitliii .liiildiKi. |.
ii. 14, l(tt; Jacobs, .s'((ur(«j>, ;->in>. n.. »»;. .»•■. i.iu.

I M. K.

VINE. SecGuAi-E.

VINEGAR: In the Biblical p<Tio«| vino
prepared either from wine or frohi
variety being termed "home? yayii.
"homez shekar." It was used in nv
loaves of the harvesters, and

mi.\ed witii water, although ;

quenciied with it alone.

Since Jewish wine was not al!
being intended for the altar, ani! .
necessarily clean Levitically. vinejrar.
mudic times was called also "tiie ^
obtained from the lees or by the ;.
to the wine or cider. The alU-raiinn ii
quired only three days, and th"
the taste, although some wii
liable to change. Though vinegar couhl
wine only by a njiracle. the pri
equaled that of the latter, and a I i
the one depressed the rate for the other.

The chief varieties of vinegar w - -•
and cider- vinegar, vinegar of hit'
changed by barley, and .soureil
and meat were preserved in ■ ■
was dipped into it. while "Tl.
endives, the stronger must bo tl.
Palestinian proverb. Vinegar wi,-
ida, the favorite condiment of ai.
Middle Ages.

The elTect of vinegar was astrir
also used frequently bernuse of
cooling effects. Medicinally,
for dandruff, and even for dr
it was used as a gargle for tO'
sprinkled with viiitL'.ir t-' ■
it was useil also in dyiin-
In view of the liability of wine '
containing 10 per c< •
for inircha.se, but tin
limited period only, except In th
the Temple, for v " '
was used. The ii
whether wine and vinegar «.
one. and t
since it v . ,
question was raised whether
to vinegar hv<
touched bv a '
effect vinegar was forbidden on llic i>»y oS

rnr wM

r
r
.t
:i

y
beoomr

' •
c
f

,:» ].:A

and

■It
r
n

Alout

Vineyards
Virtue

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

440

mcnt: and the proliibitioa of viuegar in the case of
Nazarites was fully discussed in l!ie llalakah.

The passage in which itiith was bidden Id dip her
bread into vinegar (Uuth ii. 14) was interpreted by
Ujc Hugg5ulah as referriug to Manasseli, one of her
descendants, wiiose deeds were sharp as vinegar.
Anumg the proverbs coucenung vinegar, in addition
to Prov. X. 26 and xxv. 20. were the following:
"Mayesl thou have neither vinegar nor salt in
thy house! "'and "Much vinegar makes the wiue
cheap. "

K .:. !! I- LO.

VINEYARDS. Sec Grape.

VINNITSA (VINITZA) : Russian town in the
governuieut of Podolia ; situated on the banks of the
Bug. Vinnitsa was founded in tlie fourteenth cen-
tury on the left bank of the Bug, and was protected
by two castles. The town sulTered much in the six-
teenth and scventeentii centuries from the depreda-
tions of the Tatars and tiie Cossacks. Jews lived
probably in Vinnitsa in the fifteenth century, but
15;32 is the date of the first documentary mention of
them. In that year the local Jews carried on exten-
sive business operations as cattle-drovers, and one
of them, Michael of Vinnitsa, paid customs duties on
a single drove of 2,000 head of sheep and cattle.
Reference is also made to a Jew (name not given)
whw in 1552 held the lease of the local customs
duties. In 1610 there were only fifty Jews in Vin-
nitsa who paid taxes on their houses. During tlie
Coss.xcKs' I'lMasiNG the town was taken and pil-
laged by Chmielnicki's followers and its Jewish in-
habitants were massacred. It was retaken by the Po-
lish troops, and then fell again under the power of the
Cossjicks and Tatars, changing hands several times.
It suffered severely from the H.\id.\m.\cks in the
eighteenth century. The protecting castles had by
that time disappeared, and the iidiabitants, both
Catholics and Jews, sought refuge in the Jesuit col-
lege founded by Ladislaus in 1G49. In 1774 Vin-
nitsa was temporarih' occupied by the Turks, and
toward the end of the eighteenth century was al-
most entirely ruined.

Vinnitsji ha<l 2:i,591 inhabitants in 1878, of whom
13.750 were Jews. The town was then an indus-
trial center of some significance, possessing sixteen
factories and otiier industrial establishments. Nine
fairs were held tiiere annually, though Avith but a
limited volume of trade. The Jewish community
po8ses.sed thirteen synagogues and houses of praAer,
a Jewish two-class school, and a Jewish hospital.
.Most of the important distilleries (an ancient indus-
try, to which the town owes its name) were owned
l)y Jews. Ry 1H79 the i)opulation of Vinnitsa had
grown to 28.995, including mr)re than 15,000 Jews.
The town had in that year twenty-nine industrial
cstai)lisliments.and the Jewish community had added
a Talmud Torah to its other communal institutions.

On April 3 (Old Style 16). 1905, the Jewi.sh stores
in the market-place in Vinnitsa were demolished by a
drunken mob composed partly of reservists; several
Jews caught on the streets were severely beaten.
The conflict attracterl the attention of a numl)er of
Jews organized for self-defense, who successfully
repelled t!ic assailants. Five soldiers and five Jews

were injured. Order was restored by the police and
the nnlitary.

niiii.iiKiRAPnv : Eii(ziMopc(lic}icshi Slovar; Bolxhana Ent-
zihliniiiltn: Riis.'il.ii-yfvieMii Arkhiv; Ilcmtitij i yad-
uisi: y;^hlt()d. 1'JO.j. .\o. 16, p. -"S.

II. H. J. G. L.

VIOL (b3^ lit- "skin"): Musical instrument;
next li) tlie "kinnor," it was the one most used bj'
the Israelites. The Old Testament furnishes no de-
scription of it, and resort must therefore be had to
conjectures regarding it. The viol is commonly
identified with the santir (corresponding to the
"pesanter" [= ipa'/.r^piov] of Dan. iii. 5), an instru-
ment which is in use among the Arabs at the present
time. Tlie santir consists of a low, oblong box with a
fiat bottom and a somewhat convex sounding-board,
over which the strings are stretched. The jilayer
sits on the ground, or on a low stool, and holds the
viol in his lap.

A siniihxr instrument is represented in a picture
found in the palace of Kuj'unjik, whieii showsa band
of musicians, both men and women, who are fol-
lowed by other women singing or beating time with
tlieir hands as the}' go to greet the returning con-
(pieror, Assurbanipal. One of these musicians, with
a plectrum in his right hand, plays an instrument
consisting of a hollow box with strings stretched
over it. Whether the left hand likewise plucks the
strings (as is most probable), or presses them down
to gain the desired pitch, is not clear. The name
"nebel " would be very appropriate for si:ch an in-
strument, with reference either to tlie convex shape
of the sounding-board, or to the fact that the sound-
ing-board consisted of animal membrane. The term
" pi ha-uebel " in Amos vi. 5 would suggest the
opening in the sounding-board across which the
strings are stretched. Kiehm, however, prefers to
associate this term with the portable, many-stringed
liar}) which is represented, on the i)icture at Kiiyun-
jik, as having its sounding-box placed on the broad,
upward-slanting upper portion of the fiaine. Yet
liiehni himself points out that the shape of the
Jewish nebel must have been somewhat dilTerent;
for under any other hypothesis the name of this in-
strument becomes inexplicable. How many strings
("minnim") the instrument generally had is un-
known. The "nebel 'asor" mentionedin Ps. xxxiii.
2 was probably dilferent from the ordinary nebel;
otherwise the additional word "'asor "is superflu-
ous. The instrument of later times is known to
have had twelve strings (comp. Josephus, "Ant."
vii. 12, tj 3).

E. v.. II. W. N.

VIPER. See Skuprnt.

VIRGINIA : One of the Middle Atlantic states
and one of the tiiirteen original states of the L'nited
States of America; seceded from the Union April 17,
18G1 : reacbnitted 1870. As early as 1624 the names
of Elias Lagardo, Joseph ^loise, and Rebecca Isaacke
are found in the *' ]\Iusters of the Iiihal)itants of
Virginia." In 1658 one Seignor Moses Nehemiah is
mentioned as a party to a lawsuit ("Publ. Am. Jew.
Hist. Soe.," xi. 70). It is probable that a number
of Jews from Maryland removed to Richmond at an
early date.

441

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Vineynrda

Virtue

Nothing further is licurcl of Virginia Jews till
1754, \viu;n Michael Franks and Jacob Myer ac-
companied Washington in his expedition across the
Alleghany Mountains, and received a reward for
their gallant services in tiie campaign. In the list
of Virginians who served in the Hevolutionarv army
in the capacity of oHicers occurs the name nl" Isaac
Israel, a lieutenant in tiie Eighth Virginia Regiment.
The Congregation JJeth-Shalom of Hichmond, the
oldest congregation in the state, was in existence
prior to 1790, in wliicli year il joined with the con-
gregations of Philadelphia, New York, and Charles-
ton in addressing a letter to President Washington.
Sec PiciiMOM).

Virginia has the following Jewish communities:
Alexandria (Congregation Beth-El, founded June
3, 1878; a Hebrew Benevolent Society and a ceme-
tery). Berkley (a congregation and a religious
school). Charlottesville (Congregation Beth Israel,
Moses Leterman being prayer-leader; and a ceme-
tery)^ Clifton Forge (a congregation holding holy-
day services). Danville (Congregation Beth Slio-
lom). East Radford (congregation). Fredericks-
burg (Hebrew Aid Society, founded about 1880;
has twelve members). Hampton (congregation).
Harrisonburg (congregation). Lynchburg (con-
gregation). Newport News (congregations Adath
Y'eshurun and Hachnosath Orchim; and a Jewish
Sunday-school). Norfolk (with a large Jewish
community, supporting three congregations, a bur-
ial association, several charitable organizations, and
a number of social and literar}' clubs). Petersburg
(two congregations: the Orthodox congregation and
the Rodeph Shalem, the latter founded in 1865).
Pocahontas (has no organized congregation, but
the community holds special services on Saturda3's
and holy days). Radford (community holding holy-
day services). Richmond (see Jew. Excvc. x.
40G). Roanoke (Congregation Emanu-EI, founded
1890; and a cemetery). Staunton (a congregation
and a benevolent society).

Virginia contributed 113 Jewish soldiers to the
Civil war, and about thirty to the Spanish-Ameri-
can war. At present (1905) the number of irs Jew-
ish inhabitants is estimated at 15,000 in a total pop-
ulation of 1,655,980.

A. A. :\r. Ho.

VIRTUE, ORIGINAL (Hebr. Zekut Abot,
literally "merit of the Fathers"): A term inventi'd
by S. Levy as a contrast to the expression "original
sin," and designating the .specifically Jewish concept
of the influence of the virtue of ancestors upon
descendants. The doctrine asserts that God visits
the virtues of the fathers upon the children for
His name's sake and as a mark of grace; but it
would appear, on the other hand, that the principle
applies only when the children continue the piety
of their parents. The Biblical basis for the doctrine
is to be found in the seccnid commandment (Ex. xx.
5), which states that God shows mercy unto thou-
samls of generations that love Him and keep His
commandments, and in Ps. ciii. 17-18. "the mercy
of the Lord is from everlasting to everlasting upon
them that fear him, and his righteousness unto chil-
dren's children; to such as keep his covenant, and
to those that remember liis commandments to do

thoin." Th . 1 ,..4C WM-^ ■

cause Abrahniii Imd ,

(Gen. .\^

in tiie I,

wiiich i.stecliniculiv known .,

or "the Fulher>. •'" !

nected with tin- j., .

PATUIAUCII8. to whicli an

xxxii. 18; Lev. xxvl. I"

while an allusion to it

"his great name's sake" (I Sam.

E/.ek. XXX vi. 21. 23). V. ' • •

It thus forms purl of i.

pKorr.K.

If the covenant is still 1 •
though they be unworthy, i.
grace ("hesed "); and it is |M)<wihlf •
form of the expression wa-s " lieRed A
of the Fathers" Tiie Tiiigun».

"zekut" to translute the
Result of brew "zedakali" (n.tv ■
Grace. Dent. ix. 5. «>. Tli'

the s«'cond conunundnn-ni
by the Targum and the Talmud (^.i- i
principle that the sins of the futlicn,
the children f)nly when they i:
their parents (see Rashi and Ibn !
doctrine underlies the Jewish
drawing its insjiinition from an i
"Look unto Abraham your futi.
that bare you," I«i. li. 2), and la\
tradition and upon the ritual '
to keep traditiiin alive. It is
moreover, with the idea of an orgnnir or <:
soliilarity in Isnu-I as a body e.\i-
present, and future; and the |)rii;
are responsible one for another" is -
nected in the Talmud with the i ' .
tue(Sanh. 27b; Shah. 39a; R. II
The doctrine under ronsitlt-rat
concept of tiie reward of virtu.. ^^

to Jewish teaching.
Virtues to nity of jierforndnj; f
the acts. " The wages of .

Virtuous. (Ab. iv. 2>. and "whi

do the will of '
strength and power to perfor;..
righteousness" (Yalk.. iMin. 44). ."^
is given against (h-pending
that even one who is exceei:....
not cat from (that is. depend up
fathers (Sanh. 81a). T
am black, but < omely " :
Israel says: "lam bhick through my •
but comely throngii t'
(Cant. R. (nl lof.. Ex. R
supported by a prop, though n
.so Israel is -
though it 11
tue is thus only an «<
that the virtues of '
have acquintl a ri.
coulil l>e pit'en to ihcm.
was therefore due to *'
looked fur wan! to an i
cordingiy repmvcd. for if the i-Vi««

Visieoths
"Vital

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

442

so there would have been no store of original virtue
for their iksceudauts (Lev. R. xxxvi. . Ex. K. xliv.).
See Patkiauchs.

Like the Patriarchs, the later saints were regarded
as a source of original virtue for their descendants
or for Isn\el. and in addition to Moses, Joshua,
Uavid. Hezekiah, and Ezra. Ilillel, Johanan b. Zak-
kai. and Meir are especially UK-nlioued as storing up
works which shall speak for their descendants (Lev.
K. ii). On the other hand, the original virtue of
the Patriarchs was regarded by some as lasting only
till the time of llosea (Shab. 55a) or until the days
of He/ekiah (Lev. R. xxxvi.), though it was still op-
erative in keejiing exiled Israel in existence up to the
time of redemption (Gen. R. Ixx.); and in the Tar-
gum Yerushalmi to Deut. xxviii. 15 God assures
"the Fathei-s of the world" that their merit will
never cease to be efficacious.

The doctrine of original virtue is only the theo-
logical side of the principle of heredity, with the
consequences and responsibilities which this in-
volves. The community of interest between parents
and children is emphasized in a special Jewish man-
ner which at times leads to the diametrically opposite
concept of the influence of descendants upon ances-
tors; so that the penalty of death is said to have been
inflicted upon Adam because of the sins of Nebu-
chadnezzar and Hiram (Gen. R. ix.). The exten-
sion of the concept of God's grace even to un-
righteous children of righteous parents is, moreover,
an attribution to the Supreme Being of the ordinary
attitude of men toward the degenerate ciiildren of
distinguished or pious parents.. The influence of
a store of merit collected for the use of succeeding
generations is the theological aspect of the concept
of progress and civilization, which is jiractically a
store of ancestral merits.

BiBiJOr.RAPHT: S. Levy, The Doctrine nf Original Virtue,
\n 'Die Jeicixh LUernru Anxitnl. pp. 13-32, London, 1905;
W.-i^r, Jlidi.sclie TlteoJiffiie. 2d ed., pp. 293-297; Lazarus,
Kitties nf Judaism, i. 34, ii. 289; I. Abrahams, in J. Q. R.
xvl. 586.

VISIGOTHS. See Spaix.

VISONTAI, SOMA: Hungarian lawyer and
deputy; born at GyiJugyos Nov. 9, 1854; educated
at Budapest, where he became an attorney in 1883.
While still a student he attracted much attention
by his papers on political economy in the scientific
journals of Hungary, and he also edited the " Vasut. "
He became widely known as a pleader in 1890,
wiien he successfully defended the editor of the
"Zasztava," the leader of the radical wmg of the
Servians in Hungary, in a trial for political murder.
As a mark of gratitude, the people of Neusatz, being
Servian sympathizers, elected Visontai in 1892 to the
Hungarian Parliament as a supporter of Kossuth;
and since 1899 lie has represented his native town,
GyongyOs, in Parliament. He is an eminent author-
ity on criminal law and a member of the board of
examiners for admission to the bar; and he prepared
a large portion of the jireliminary drafts for the
criminal code.

^'""/'"•^^phy: Pallas Lex.; Sturm, OfragguUUsi Almanack,

L. V.

VITA. See IIayyi.m.

VITA BELLA VOLTA (SOLOMON HAY-
YIM) : Italian physician and Hebraist; Ijorn Sept.
24, 1772; died March 29, 1853; flourished in Mantua.
He was the owner of a large Hebrew library, which,
together Avith its 131 manuscripts, came into the
possession of Marco Mortara. Vita della Volta was
a contributor to the periodical " Kerem Hemed. " A
letter from I. S. Reggio to Delia Volta appeared in
"Ozar Nehmad" (iii. 25-27).

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 3709; Kerem
Hemed, passim.
s. S. O.

VITAL : Italian family, including several schol-
ars, of whom the best known are:

Hayyim Vital: Cabalist; son of Joseph Vital;
born at Sated in 1543 ; died at Damascus May 6,
1620. He was educated by Moses Alshech. His
biography is full of legends; at the age of twelve,
it is said, he was told by a chiromancer that when
he reached the age of twenty-four years he would
find himself standing before two roads, and would
rise or fall according to his choice. Joseph Caro is
said to have paid especial attention to Hayyim 's
talents by requesting Alshech in 1557 to take great
pains with the education of a pupil who was destined
to succeed his teacher in the world of learning. In
the same year Hayyim became acquainted with
Lapidot Ashkenazi, a cabalist, who was to influ-
ence him for the remainder of his life. The legend
runs that after Hayyim's unhappy marriage to
Hannah, the daughter of a certain Moses Saadia, the
prophet Elijah appeared to him in a dream and led
him to a beautiful garden, where he beheld the pious
of all ages in the form of birds flying through the
garden and studying the Mishnah. In the center of
the garden was God Himself, seated on a throne and
surrounded by the pious on rich tapestries.

This vision convinced the dreamer that he was
destined to become a cabalist. After devoting him-
self to the study of alchemy for two years and a
half, he had another vision of the prophet Elijah,
who told him that he would succeed in his studies
and would even write a commentary on the Zoliar.
In 1570 he became a pupil of Isaac Luria, and before
he had studied under him a year Hayyim had already
become known as one of the foremost cabalists, so
that when, in 1572, Luria died at the early age of
thirty-eight, in an epidemic which raged in Safed,
Hayjim became his successor. Luria had left noth-
ing in manuscript, and his pupil accordingly began
to commit to writing what he had learned from his
teacher. In 1576 he commenced to give cabalistic
lectures, declaring himself to be the Messiah ben
Joseph; and while wandering through Syria and
Egj'pt, he is said to have performed many miracles,
such as summoning spirits before him by the power
of magic formulas.

In 1577 Hayyim arrived in Egypt, but evidently
he met with a cool reception, since he soon returned
to Palestine, where he settled, first in the little town
of 'Ain Zaitun, and later in Jerusalem. There he
remained until the governor, Abu Saifia, requested
him to rediscover, by means of the Cabala, the aque-
duct, leading from the River Gihon, which had been

443

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOI'EIJIA

Vlnlk-oth*

built in the daysof Hezekiali. This request so ciu-
bainissed Iliiyviiu tliat lie lied by niglit to Dauiaseus,
wlit'iL" he eoiuinciiced his first eabalislic work on tlie
patriarch Abraham, of which extracts are contained
in the "Ozerot Hayyiui"(i). rAh). He submitted
this work to Josliua ben Nun, the wealthy i)rin(ipal
of the yeshibah at Safed. The greater part of tiic
book consists of au exposition of the conjuring of
clouds, and of a discourse ou the seveu fixed stars,
the seveu heavens, and their corresponding metals.
After this Ilayyim returned to Jerusalem, where his
former teacher, ]\Ioses Alshech, appointed him rabbi
in 1584. After a time, liowever, he left Jerusalem
for Safed, wlieie he fell sick and was obliged to
keej) his bed for an entire year.

During this illness Joshua, his closest follower,
who had accompanied him on nearly every journey,
succeeded in bribing Hayyim's younger brother,
Moses, with 500 gold gulden to lend him the wri-
tings of the cabalist, which were locked in a box.
Moses accordingly brought Joshua a large part of
the manuscripts, and 100 copyists were immediately
engaged, who, in the short space of three days, re-
produced more than 600 pages. Although Hayyim
maintained, when he learned of this, that the
papers which had been copied were not his own
writings, they were rapidly disseminated under the
title " 'Ez Hayyim." This work contains, in addi-
tion to a tribute to Isaac Luria, the bold assertion
that it is one of the greatest pleasures of God to be-
hold the promotion of the teaching of the Cabala,
since this alone can assure the coming of the Mes-
siah; that the old Cabala, however, covering the
period from David to Nahmanides, was valueless,
since it was based merely on human intellect, and
was not aided by the higher spirits. Hayyim as-
serted that he had received these teachings, like his
other mystic theories, from the lips of his teacher
Luria. His estimate of the value of the Cabala of
Moses Cordovero was equally low, although he
maintained that Moses had often appeared to him ir
dreams. One of the most prominent of Hayyim's
opponents was Menahem di Lonzauo, who publicly
denounced him in his "Sefer Imre Eniet." Ou the
20th of EIul, 1590, Hayyim was awarded the rab-
binical diploma by his teacher Moses Alshech, and
four years later he settled permanently in Damas-
cus, where he lectured every evening on the Cabala
and on the near advent of the Messiah. Despite the
large following which Hayyim hail in Damascus,
Jacob Abulatia succeeded, by threats of excommuni-
cation, in compelling him to discontinue his lectures.
In 1604 his sight began to fail; in 1G20 he had pre-
pared to return to Safed, when his death occurred.

Hayyim was the author of numerous works,
which'are collected under the title "Sefer 'Ezha-
Hayyim" (Zolkiev, 1772; Korzec, 1785; Shklov,
1800; Dobrowne, 1S04: Sudzilkov, 1818; Laszow,
1818). They are as follows:

Sefer ha-Kawwanot, in two parts, the first being on the sub-
ject of benedictions and rituals, and the second on the ritual for
Sabbaths and fe.stivals. Venice. 1624; Hanau, l(i~'4 : Rnit:adlnl,
n.d. There are live recensions of this worli : (1) by Moses Vital.
grandson of Havvim ; known especially in Epypt and Palestine;
(2) byZacuto, with glosses; (3) by Nathan Spira, with a com-
mentary entitled " Me'orot Natan " : (4) by Abraham Azulal of
Morocco, with glosses ; (5) by M. Popper, under the tiUe " Perl
*Ez Hayyim."

r|.on-lb«>-Maln. !*M : fH-

A plyyu{ U'giiinliiK "Dodi
"Shu'ure ?lyyi)ii." A]

tint 'V.x lliivyliii, 111..
kli'V. 1772. i77">.

Su(erliu-(illt;ulliii. oil tliK (rnnsiiilimtloii
on-the-.Muln. li^-*)

Sha'are KtiiuM .vanl* and p<inl»t!n!>-f)t>

future world mid on lu.liiH-a4. I uusiJinUnuiiM-
1758; ZolklfV. IHKI.

Llkku^e Tunili
the Bible acionli
Zolkiev. 177.'!.

Sha'ar Iiu-Ylhudim wo-TfVkim '.Awnnof. rm tbr !•
the Holy Kplili. mi

Sefer O/.eri.l l.l,.
siclan JtisM'ph Zeuiul.i.

tlou then' exist twu ,

Zacuto ["Codex Mich iij, auU ilw- utter wtUi ^

by Nathan SpIro [ ili. n

Likkutt! ha-Shas, cai
gadot according to tlj. ■
by the author. Leghorn. I.^'i.

Arba' Me'ot Shekel Kejwf. rabsllirtJrin-nilH. n tt.<' lf»> •
which Abraham paid for the cave of *<'

Joseph Vital: \Vrii< r of
born in Calaitria; llniiiihlnd in .
teenth centuries. On accouut of liiit ac<
work, which was exj)ciisivo, w . ■ • ■
and was known evcrywlierc u- L'.N~1~~ I
He was also tlie author of rc>8r>oiiiui on i
writing tefillin, wjiidi an- f n .
the responsa of Menahem A/ .
et punitim).

Moses Vital : I{abl)i ;ii -
of Hayyim Vital; died in
teentli ceutiny. Like Hayyim, he wa«a :
alist, and in addition to Icl'' ' ' "' i

his brother and the propi ,«

preserved wliich slates tliai lie |)rc'UicU"d liie famiiK
wliich raured in Safed in 1032.

Moses Vital : Son of Samuel bfii Hayyim \
rabbi in Egypt during the latter purl of ;
teenth and at thebeginuing of t!--' ■ '• ■ • •
Hewasa noted Talmudist and
portion of his works which liii>» been :
responsum containeil in Abrnhani ' ■.
tion entitled "Ginnnt Wemdiin "■

Samuel ben Hayyim Vital :
Damascus in tlie latter half of the.-.. ..
died in Egypt in the middle of llu-
While still young he marrifi *

Pinto, rabbi of Damascus. ]'■ i

to emigrate to EgyjU, where, through Wu
of prominent men. lie wa-
cabalistic society Tilsl>un'
brief residence there lie went
he in.structed the l'
Cabala. Later he ret n:
Samuel Vital was the author ■
rabbinical works,
the "Shemonah >
CaUila. later cmbo<llMl In the " ' I
kiev. 1772; Korzec, IT"*
writings mention ma\

Hayyim." a commentary on the Hihlr, ami liis
f a'alumot Hokmah." on the Calwla,

,' n

;...

Vital
Vizhainy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

444:

VITAL. DAVID B. SOLOMON VITAL
BLA-ROFE : Spanish schular; eiuigraled Ironi
Spaiu m ila- early part of llie sixteenth century;
died at Arta, or Narda. iu Greece, after 1536. He
w to Turkey, and then settled at Patras in

lliL :■: i. remaining tliere until the fall of the city
in 1532, when he lost almost liis entire library. He
then went to Arta, where he spent the remainder of
his life.

Vital was the author of the following works:
" Keler Torah "' (Constantinople, 1536), the 613 com-
mandmenis and prohibitions, and the seven regula-
tions concerning Ilanukkah, the Sabbath candle,
Hallel, Megillah, ablutions, 'Erubiu, and benedic-
tions, including also the "Birkot hu-Xeheuin" (the
initial letters of the Ten Commandments are em-
ployed in this poem, an original feature of which is
acomplete drawing of a lung to illustrate the mean-
ing); -Hilkot Bedikah " (1570, 1682), rules for ex-
aminations concerning the eating of a slaughtered
ox, with " Shir Haruz be-Mishkal " (1687, 1712), a po-
etic composition on the same theme from a Maimon-
idean pc^iut of view (published witii the responsa
of Jacob Weil. Mantua, 1740); "Mihtam le-Dawid "
(Venice, 1540), a versification of the thirteen articles
of faith of Mnimonides (one verse was published by
Dukes in "Orient, Lit." xi. 272, note 6), printed with
a poem entitled "Bakkashat ha-He'in," and con-
sisting of a thousand words beginning with n. He
wrote also a poem on the divisions of the year
(Zunz, "Ha-Palit," Berlin, 1850-51), and a number
of piyyutim.

BiBLioi-.RAPHV: Orient. Lit. vii. 198, 780; Ix. 272; De Itossi-
Hatnlienrer, IJiM. MTirtcrl).; Benjacob. Shem iia-Gediilim.
li. 70 : Idem. Ozar ha-Sefarim. pp. 13«, 2,52, 329, 575; Zunz, Z.
G. p. 2U1; idem, Literdlurgeach . pp. .533 ct sea.

J. s. o.

VITALE (COEN), BENJAMIN ALESSAN-
DRO. Se<- CoKN, Bk.njamin VnAi.i;.

VITEBSK: Prussian city; capital of the gov-
ernment of the same name; situated on both banks
of the Duna. It was probably founded before the
tenth century, and is mentioned in Russian chron-
icles as early as 1021. Being included in the terri-
tory known as White Ru.s.sia, it became a part of
Lithuania in 1320, and about 1435 came into the
possession of Casimir IV'. This king restored many
of its ancient privileges in 1441, particularly those
concerning freedom of religious worship. Vitebsk
Budered much in the wars between Lithuania, Po-
land, and Russia. Between 1502 and 1536 it was
repeaU'dly pillaged by the different armies, and its
commerce was greatly reduced. In 1654 after a
siege of fonvU-'-n weeks the city was occupied ])y the
Russian troops under Sheremetyev; it paid levies
to I{ussian. Polish, and Swedish troops from 1700 to
1708; and it was finally burned in 1708 at the order
of Peter the Great. In 1772 it became a part of
Russia, and in 1802 it was made the capital of the
govenunent of Vitebsk.

Jewish traders undoubtedly came to Vitebsk in
the fifteenth century and possibly much earlier, al-
though it is uncertain whether a community existed
there before the sixteenth century. Documentary
evidence shows that the inns and taverns of the city

were leased in 1522 to the Jew Michael Yesofovich
of Brest. In 1551 the Jews of Vitebsk are men-
tioned among those exempted from the
Jewish payment of the Sekebszczyzn.v, and
Prosperity, reference is made to individual Jews-
of Vitebsk in 1555 and again in 1594.
In the grant of the Magdeburg L.vw to Vitebsk by
King Sigismund III. in 1597 it was expressly stated
that, in accordance with the ancient law, Jews could
not become permanent residents of the town. As in
many other places, the burghers of Vitebsk, in order
to get rid of their formidable commercial competi-
tors, evidently sought the aid of laws that had be-
come ob.solete. It is not known how successful this
measure proved iu excluding the Jews from Vitebsk,
but from documents dated a few years later it ap-
pears that Jewish merchants continued to live in the
city. Thus in the customs records of Vitebsk for
1605 mention is made of Matys Germauovich and Sir
Jacob Iliuich, both local Jews, the latter evidently
being a man of some distinction. The same archives
also show that Jewish merchants from other locali-
ties resided in Vitebsk for more or less prolonged
periods.

In 1627 the waywode Simeon Sangusliko granted
the Jews of the city permission to build a synagogue
on their own land in the town or in its outskirts,
this being in accord with royal privileges and in
harmony with charters of former waywodes of
Vitebsk, where the Jews had had synagogues in
earlier times. This grant also provided for the ex-
emption of the land and buildings of the synagogue
from the payment of taxes. Formal entry of this
privilege was made in the city records of Vitebsk in
1630 at the instance of the Jewish leaseholder Judah
Yakubovich. It is clear, therefore, that, notwith-
standing the Magdeburg Law of 1597, Jews contin-
ued to live in Vitebsk, and that they possessed an
organized community there in the sixteenth and pos-
sibly also in the preceding century. The permanent
residence of the Jews iu the city was legalized in
1634 by an edict of Ladislaus IV., who issued it in
response to the solicitations of Samuel and Lazar
Moiseyevich, " the king's servants." It is expressly
stated in this edict that the rights granted by it
were only a confirmation of earlier privileges which
permitted the Jews to buy and own land and houses
in Vitebsk, and to have synagogues, cemeteries, and
the like in the city. General Sheremetyev, who en-
tered Vitebsk at the head of thft Russian army
in 1654, refers to the Jewish school
Siege of (synagogue) in his enumeration of the
the City. Catholicand Unitarian churches of the
city. The hardships of the siege which
preceded his occupation of Vitebsk bore heavily on
its Jewish inhabitants. They took an active part in
the defensive operations by supplying men, provi-
sions, ammunition, building materials, money, and
houses for the quartering of the soldiers. As a
l)unisliment for their loyalty, they, together with
the Shlyakhta, were imi)risoned b}' Sheremetyev,
and were later transported to Russia, where they
suffered severely from ill treatment, many of them
dying of hunger and cold. After a term of impris-
onment at Novgorod the survivors were sent to dif-
ferent towns, and finally to Kazan on the Volga,

445

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

VltAl

Vlxb&lny

whence tlicy gradually touml Iheir way buck to their
native town. The jjroperty of some of those wlio
died in cai)tivity was presented to the cliurehesof
Vitebsk; tiiere is a record, accordingly, of a liouse
ai'id parcel of ground which liad formerly belonged
lollieJew Mordecai who died in Moscow, and which
was given by King .John Casimir to a local chnrcli.
Those whorcturnetl from Muscovite captivity com-
plained in 1G70 that much valuable personal prop-
erty and many important documents had been left
in'the keeping of Christian cili/x'ns of Vitebsk, and
that these had all disappeared during their absence.
They were thus unable, in the absence of documen-
tary evidence, to regain possession of their property.
In 1897 Vitebsk had a Jewish population of 39,-
520»in a total of 65,871. The community possessed
several synagogues, many houses of prayer, sev-
eral schools for boys and girls, a rabbinical school,
a Talmud Torah, and a Jewish hospital. Extensive
trade was carried on by the Jewish merchants with
Riga and foreign countries, the chief articles of ex-
port being breadstuffs, f^ax, hemp, beet-sugar, and
timber. The Jews were also prominent in manufac-
turing industries. Hundreds of Jewish tailors were
employed in the making of clothing sold in the stores
of a number of large Russian cities. An important
contribution to the Jewish industries was made in
1897, when a Jewish machinist established a small
shop for the manufacture of plows.
Jewish By 1905 the annual output was be-
Industries. tween 25,000 and 35,000 plows, all
made by about 400 Jewish mechanics
in five factories. Vitebsk also contains fifteen Jew-
ish machine-shops, each employing from five to
twenty-five men, and Jewish workmen are exten-
sively engaged in the linen-mills operated by a Bel-
gian corporation, as well as in the manufacture of
eyeglasses, in cabinet-making, and similar occupa-
tions.

In 1905 the Jews of Vitebsk informed the city
council that their two representatives could not be
considered by them as delegates of the Jewish pop-
ulation, since the persons in question had not been
elected, but had been appointed by the government.
In the same year the Jews of the city, like those of
many other communities, issued an appeal to the
Russian people for more equitable legislation.

Vitebsk is the birthplace of B. I. Sobiesensky,

author of " Ahabat Zaddikim " (Warsaw, 1881-82),

and of the Talmudist David Epiih.A-TI.

Bidliography: Rrqcf^ty i Nadimj^U sv.; Bershadski Li-

tovskie Yevrci; ro.s/f/.od. 1901, xi o2: 190.., in, •^•]^^' ^':

khii\i.-u..s.v. T r< T

H. K. J- ^- ^•

VITORIA. See Basqit: Pkovincks.
VITRINGA, CAMPEGIUS (the Elder):

Dutch Christian Hebraist; born at Leeuwarden May
16, 1669 ; died at Franeker March 31, 17-J-2. !!<• was
educated at the universities of Franeker and Ley-
den, and became professor of Oriental languages at
the former in 1681. His two chief works are his
dissertation on the synagogue. " De Synagoga \ eterc
Libri Tres" (Franeker, 1685; 2d ed. 16^6), winch
still has value; and his "Commentary on Isaiah
(Leeuwarden. 1714-20), which was frequently re-
publislu.'d in the eighteenth century. The latter

WHS up to the lime of fJt"«>nitiM !l:
contribution to the « >
something of JcwikIi n
servutiomim Libri Sex " .

ltnii.ior,RAt'iiv : McCllnUick and h'

VITRY, SIMHAH B. SAMUEL. S

7.0H

VIZHAINY (VIZHUNY V ' ' • V V
ZANY) : Russian titwii in the
walki. On Jan. 29. 1723. Muwh \
elder of tiie Grodno l^ahnl, pnwi:' '
municipal records of the city of '
of jirivileges granted to llie Jowm of \
King John Hi. The docuinent wu* ■'
Feb. 3, 1070. and was a ronflrmBti'
leges grunted by King Michael uf
14, 1670. The king fitales in the lai. .
sideration of the privileges gmnlod to n
living in the grand diirliy of I

laus IV. at Warsaw Dec. 2, lb.-

by King John Casimir at the Cnicow ..
17, 1649, and in considenitinn nls<> <>f
of the king's jeweler in Grodno, th<
Faibishevich, acting in behalf of the Jews
hainy, he. King Mic'huel. pi
the rights of the ."uiid Jews i
houses, stores, and meat-markets, ocqulml '
in the past or to be acquired by tJH-ni i;
this applying also to their linust-s < f ; •
terics, and baths situated on land b<
and reserved fi>r their own use. T
accorded the right to sell licjuor in
sell merchandise by weight or nir:.
meat in their butcher-shops to cvcr\ ..■
provided they pay the proper tux < •
killed. Should the Jewish liousc«. ^

cogue, meat-markets, or Imth be desln... ,. •

Uie Jews retain tlic right to rehuUiI tlirm. Tli«-
Jewish artisiius arc given I lie right to ;
avocations in accordance with thep'- ■ •
"•ranted to the Jews of the pruml

I ania.

Further, tiie Jews of Vizhainy an- . v.-mt.'.^l T- tn

municipal jurisdiction, but arc 8»i

the local court, with the right o<

tril)unal. They may not be r;.

uidays or on other Jewish holy

be assessed in favor of tli-

they arc exempted from sn

not be made to do general wot

nor to supply convt

to pay the iisuul tax ;

tant mutters they niust

Law, and in less ir

ing to their I-aw. -

to be decided by their

ish Ijiw. The Jr

right to us<^ the to ■

cuttle, and arc pennlt!e<l \

boring woods on <

of the town In \- ■

numbered 2.274. most!

J
n. u

Vocalization

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

446

VOCALIZATION : All Semitic script, cx-
ccptiujj; EUiiupic and Ass\ ro-Habyh^iii.in, the
latter of which in its origin is hold by many to be
not Semitic, is purely consonantal, the reader being
left to supply the vowels. The sjune feature is
found Id the Egyptian and Berber languages,
not to speak of other tongues which have bor-
rowed the Anibic alphabet. This circumstance ren-
ders the reading of Semitic script in many cases
ambiguous even in a living language.

Semitic To obviate such ambiguity the Semitic

Skeleton languages have developed three metli-

Writing. ods. The oldest method is to denote
the vowels by the vowel-letters ' 1 N
(also n y). The employmentof vowel-letters shows
a gradual development. At first used but sparingly
to denote final vowels (Mesha Stone, Phenician in-
scriptions), they came to mark vowels long by nature
(Arabic, early Hebrew), then, occasionally, toue-
long vowels (Biblicjil Hebrew), and finally also short
vowels (Aramaic dialects, later Hebrew). This meth-
otl of vocalization has been retained in Mandean and
partly in Samaritan. But since the vowel-letters
were not sufficient to mark the e.xact shades of the
vowel-sounds, some of the Semitic languages {i.e.,
those which were in possession of sacred books in
whose recitation exactness was imperative) devel-
oped systems of vowel-signs. The employment of
such signs proceeded along two lines. The Ethio-
pic, whose vowel-system probably dates from the
fourth century c.e., lias attached its vowel-signs to
the body of the consonant, so that there are as many
modifications of the form of each letter as there are
vowels. Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic, on the other
band, have their vowel-signs written independently,
above, below, or within the letters.

It has hitherto been assumed that the Syriac sys-
tem was the basis for the Hebrew and the Arabic,
and that the Samaritan, which has no vowel-signs,
was based on the latter. It has, however, been
shown that such an assumption is groundless (Levi-
as, "The Names of the Hebrew Vowels," in " Hebrew
Union College Annual," 1894). All that is certain is
that the composite Babylonian vocalization is the
basis of all other systems. TJie exact interrelation,
however, among these latter still awaits a careful
examination.

The present Syriac and Arabic systems were pre-
ceded by a more primitive one consisting of dots. In
the oldest manuscripts of the Koran a dot above
a letter indicated n\ below, i-e\ at the side.
n. In Syriac, a dot above indicated a stronger
or fidler vocalization or pronunciation of a con-
sonant, but when placed beneath the letter it de-
noted a weaker or thinner voealiza-
Rudimen- tion, a softer pronunciation of a conso-
tary nant or its entire vowellessness. That

Systems, primitive device is referred to as early
as the fourth century c.e. by the
Syriac Church father Ephraem, and is met with
in Syriac manuscripts of the fifth century. The
And)ic dot-system is later, having been introduced
by Al)u al-.\swad (689 c.K.). The question presents
itself. Did Hebrew ever have such a system? Al-
though no manuscripts with such notation have been
handed down, it can be proved that such a notation

did exist. The older ^lasorah subsumes all vowels
under the two designations nns and ]'Dp, the
former denoting ti, it, e, i, the latter u, i>, <". The
former were evidently originally denoted by a dot
above, the latter by a dot below, the letter. More-
over, the ^lasorah designates with "below" (yi^D)
or " above " (7^y7D) the relative thinness or fidness
of vowel-sound. Thus, d is "below" when com-
pared with a, 0, u\ ^ is "below " as compared with
(<; similarly, I as compared with a, o, it ; <"> as com-
pared with (I, u; d as compared with o, u\ e as com-
pared with d, 0, u (comp. "Oklali we-Oklah," Ncs.
5, 11); "shewa" is " below " when compared with a
full vowel (comp. " Masorah Magna" to Isa. viii. 1).
The same terminology is found in respect to chanting-
notes and word-accent. The IMasoretic terminology
must have had a concrete basis, and that basis is dis-
coverable onl}^ in the rudimentary use of the dot.

Until 1839 only one .system of Hebrew vocaliza-
tion was known, the Tiberian. In that year manu-
scripts were discovered in the Crimea representing
a very different system. Since then a number of
manuscripts from Yemen have come to light which
show that sj-stem in dilTerent stages
Systems of of development. In 1894 a third sys-

Hebrew teni of vocalization was found, of

Vocaliza- wliieli also several types are now

tion. known. The manuscripts of the last

type, fragments, come from Syria and

Egypt. Each of the three systems of vocalization

has also a distinct system of accentuation. The

different systems (and types) vary not only in the

form and position of the vowel- and accent-signs,

but to a greater or lesser extent also in pronunciation

of the Hebrew. The greatest latitude of variation

in pronunciation is exhibited in the Berlin MS. or.

qu. 680, representing the (or a) Babjionian tradition.

The most markeil difl'erence between the usual
system of vocalization and the one discovered in
1839 is in the position of the vowel-signs. In the
former all but tw-o are written below the letters, in
the latter all a'-e placed above the letters. The
former was therefore called the "sublinear," the
latter the "superlinear." With the discoverj^of the
third system, which is also superlinear, this distinc-
tion has become impracticable, and more correct
designations are desirable. On the basis of two
passages in medieval literature, one a colophon to a
Targum manuscript in Parma (comp. Berliner,
"Targum Oukelos, " ii. 134), the otlier a passage in
the Vitry Mahzor(p. 462), the usual sj'stem is called
the Tiberian (= T), the one discovered in 1839 the
Babylonian (= B), and the third the Palestinian { —
P). These designations are understood to denote the
places where these systems were in vogue, imi)lying
nothing as to their place of origin. They may be
used, for convenience' sake, just as are the terms
" Semitic " and " Ilamitic " as ai)plying to languages.
The objection that Tiberian is also Palestinian is not
valid : the latter probably dates from a time when
the Til)erian was not yet in existence, a suppo-sition
borne out by internal evidence. The Arabic system
is designated by A, the Nestorian Syriac by Sy, the
Samaritan by Sa.

The Babylonian system shows in the various
manuscripts different stages of development, which

447

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Vocatlutlou

can, liowever, be reduced to tliree leadinj^ tyjxjs:
the composite type {IV), represented eliielly liy the
"Codex Petropolitanus," dated 916;
The Baby- the siinplilied typo (B-), found cliiefly
Ionian in Targuni manuscripts and Neo-He-
System. brew texts; and tiie type (B''), repre-
sented by tlie Berlin MS. or. qu. GHO.
The first two types show not infrequently Tiberian in-
fluence. The ^ in B' is Tiberian ; so is the "dagesh "-
point in B'^ B' denotes dagesh and vowellessness,
not, as do all other types and systems, by a sign
attached to the consonant, but by a modification of
the preceding vowel. Its phonetic theory is evident-
ly different from all the rest. One will not go far
astray in seeing here the influences of the Hindu
and the Greek grammatical system respectively.
B'' is a simplification of B' adai)ted to the needs of
Aramaic. B^ is a modification of B' Avith the liclp
of P, from which system it lias borrowed its "rafe"-
sign and the conception of dagesh.

The Palestinian sj'stem has come down in a few
fragments, not all of which have yet been published.
This system also shows a gradual development; the
classification into types, however, must remain ten-
tative until all the material shall have
The Pales- been made accessible. According to
tinian Dr. Kahle("Der Masoretische Text,"
System, p. 29, note 1), the fragments of the
Cairo genizah, still unpublished, pre-
sent the oldest type (P'); an intermediate tyjK! was
published by the writer in the "American Journal of
Semitic Languages and Literature," vol. xv. (P'');
the third type (P') is contained in the texts pub-
lished by Neubauer (in "J. Q. K." vii. JJGl) and
Kahle (Stade's "Zeitschrift," xxi. 273). This sys-
tem is based on B' and shows the tran.sition to B^,
T, Sa, Sy, and A. The position of the vowel-signs
in P is, as in B, above the letters and thrown to the
left, or, more correctly, over the space between the
letters when the spelling is defective, and over the
vowel-letters when the text is written "piene."
The cases of plene writing have evidently deter-
mined the position of the vowel-sign. It is not im-
possible that the inventors of these two systems, like
the later grammarians, supposed every vowel to be
followed actually or virtually by a vowel-letter, so
that the sign may always be intended for the latter.
"While the above is the rule, the vowels are at times
found within the letter (B^) or beneath it; some-
times both below and over the letter; at other times
the vowel-sign above the consonant is repeated over
the following vowel-letter (P-). The dagesh-, map-
pik-, and shewa-signs (see Notation Table, p. 448)
may be placed on the consonant to wiiich they be-
long or on the preceding consonant. P^ iliffers from P'
chiefly by havingdiffercntiatcd thee- vowel into <'andf.
The f ilierian system is based on B' (comp. Pra'-
torius in "Z. D. M. G." liii. 195) and P.
Like P'*, it has differentiated the c-

The Tibe-
rian and
Accentual
Systems.

vowel. All its signs, with the excep-

tion of two within and one above the
consonants, are written below the let-
ters. The accentual system seems to
have originated with P, since the vowel- and accent-
signs in that system seem to have been cast in one
mold. The accents were tlien transferred to W and

meciianicaliy
atcenls, whicii

rius lias siiown, lliesu conJiiiK '
on tile Greek nciiincs of '
Tiie disjunctive acctnts, i.
veloped from the Greek intfrpunction
Kaliie in "Z. I). M. C " '
Consolo in "Verhuii'.
Orientalistcn-Kongres
In trying to dctcrni;
was first iiilroduced
terminus ad quem must hi
Lkvita had alreaily ])ninl< .i .
and Midrasliim do not nienlion
names, in spite of lliere Imving I

portunity to doHo.
Date of In- concluded ilial vn<
troduction centuation are ;

of Vocal- earliest dated nit i

ization. is that of Saadia Gaon nm!

temponiries. IJ<'twei'n ■
and 900 the following chita are to 1
Even Aaron ben Moses ben Aslier, m :
in the sixth generation (lourislicd i;
half of the eighth century, was igi. ....
origin of the vowel-points. A still olili-r n .
ity than Ben Asher the Elder, H. T
liead of the academy, is quoted as .
T. If this B. Pii"ineha.s be Identical with
payyetan mentioned after Kalir b. ^
("Agron,"ed. Harkavy, p. 11-), lie m
early in the eight ii century, or must I
temporary with Klialil i!)n A' '
whom the introduction of tix
tributed. Assuming that A and T w.
about 7o0, these being ba.«<t'd on I'
for P must be about TOO. since the
tioned by the zero-sign it uses, and •
A\ith the system of .\nibic nun
belongs, was first introducwl In* ^'

NUMIJEKS AND Nr.MKUAI.i*). 1

therefore, be between nOOnno
impossible to give tlie exac •
manuscripts exist whicli go b:i
tury ( Harkavy 's note to the 11 .
Graetz's"nist."iii. 180). then th-
be about 000. The cont.

("Introduction to the IU\ .

the late "Mas.seket Soferim " did n

vowels is out of the rjue-^tion. ''

ignonuit of vowels wiien it knew •,

work is a compilation, and the ;

quotes to prove h' ' '

sources. The Ne-

doubt contemporary with A and i 'u

"Gram. Syr." tj 71).

Wiien in the course of t?mp fho oHH" **'
vowel- and accent-signs w

ut<d their i'

(i.ited it fn

while oi'

(Jre:/ -

the

inudic origin. I
hatl embodied his vi-- - - -
Latin by his pupil S. .V

II
<»

.li
II

r
I

r
I lie

r«l.

Controver-
sies About
Age of Vo-
calization.

"Vocalization
Volozhin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

448

did in the time of the Reformation, Levita's theory
was seizeil upon by the warring parties and led to
numerous coutrovei-sies. The most noted one was
tlial between Cappellus and the Buxtorfs. On the
Jewish side Levita was answered by Azariah dei
Rossi in his "Me'or 'Enayim." S. D. Luzzatto pub-
lished in 18o2 his " Dialogues sur la Kabbale et le
Zohar et sur I'Antiquite dc la Punctuation et de
TAcceuluatiou dans la Laugue Hebraique." placing
himself on the side of Levita. That work calh d forth
many answers, of winch the most scholarly was that
by Jacob Biichracii (" Ishtadalut im SliaDaL," War-
saw, 1896). Firkovich claimed to have discovered
tlocuraents proving the invention of vocalization
to be of Karaite origin; but tlicse have been
shown to be forgeries (comp. Harkavy's notes to

G. Iv.; M. M. Kalisb, Hchr. Gram. ii. ly ct scq.; M.
Lenonnant, i,'s*'ai »!<;■ /a Propay. de VAlpli. I'licn. i. 3(yr-
326; t'. Levias, in Helirew Union CoUciie Annual, 1904;
S. D. Luz/atto, DiaUnnicK snr la Kahhali' ct le Zuliar ct sut
VAntiquili' dc la I'linctuatiitn ct de rAcccntuatiun dans
la i^anijue Heliranjuc, diiritz, 185;.'; idem, in PolUik's Hall-
Uitt Kcilcm, pp. 2:i ct scq., Amsterdam, 18-41); iUeiii, in Ha-
Mani/id, iv.. So. 24; G. Margolioutli, in Froe. Sue liihl.
Arch. XV. 164-205; P. Mordel, in lla-Shiloah, v. 232 et
$eq.. X. 431 ct sciy. ; J. Olshausen, in Mi))iat.'<hcrieldc der
Berliner Altademic, July, 186.5; S. I'insker, Einleitiina in
da.^t Iialj!iliini>ich-Hchrdi.'<clie I'nnktatii)ns:ifiMcm, Vienna,
1863; K. PriBtoritis, I'cberdic Jlcrl-iinift dcr Hchr. Acccnte,
Berlin, UK)] ; idem. Die i'chcruahmc dcr Frith-Mdtctqrio-
(7ii«-/(t»i Xcumcn Ditrc}idicJ}tdc)t, Berlin, 1892; iitcm. inZ.
D. M. G. liii. 195; s. L. Rapoport, Hclirdi.sche Brief e, pp. 75,
94; Roediger, in /7a//. AlUjcm. Litcratiirzcit. 1848, No. 169.

Older literature on the subject is given in Wolf, Bihl. Hchr.
ii. 475, iv. 214; Carpzov, Critira Sacra, p. 242; (iesenius,
Gcscli.dcr Hchriiisclien Sin-aclte. i^ 4S-56. Modern period-
ical literature is given in Schwab, lirpeiiDire, Index.

On the controversv between Cappellus and Buxtorf comp.
Diestel, Gcscli. des Alt. Test. i)i dcr Chri.-itl. Kirche, s.v.
Vocalzeicheii; (j. Schnedermaun, Vie Contruversc des L.

Vowel Xotatton.

il[H](.)

V —

a. 3

1 V

'3. 3, 3, 3

a, f-

H[H](a)

2, 2

a, a

2[2]i2)

3, 3

3. 3

'3. 3, 3, 3

a[2](n)

3(P^3)

^- ^

H[H](a)

3. 3

.■

^- 2' ^

z[2](n)

?■ 2. 2

2[i]{=)

3. U

3, 3

-[3]( = )

3 (f i)

Vocal Shewa

3 (P- 3)

—

3, 3. 3

Silent Shewa

(P^ 3)

—

3. 3

Hatef

3=za, 2 = e. n = o

—

3 (P^ 3)

2. 2. 2

—

Rafe

—

(P'^ 2)

3. 3

Dagesli

—

(P-' 3)

- ■ ■^

3. 3. 3. 3

3. 3

Mappik

—

(P- 3)

—

3. 3

The bracketed forms In B' are used before dagesh ; the parenthetic forms before a vowelless consonant.

Graetz's "Hist." Ilebr. transl., iii. 160, 175, 485).

See rUNCTUATION.

BiBUOGRAPHV: A. Ackermann, 7)rts Hermeneuti.'^che Ele-
ment ilrr Bililischen Accentuation, pp. 1-30, Berlin, 1893;
W. Bachf-r, Die Anf/lntie dcr HclirUi-ichen Grnmmntik,
\nZ. D M.G.x\\\. \:WA)\ .1. Bachrach, Sefer ha-Ynhao,
Warsjiw, 1H.54; idem, Ixtdadalul 'im ShaDaL, 2 vols.,
Warvaw. 1S9I1; H. Barnstein, Tlie Targum of OnkeloH to
Gi IK •.!.■<, pp. 6 et wi'/-. l<eip»lc, 18%; S. Bernfeld, in Osar
ha-.Sifnit, Iv. 347-r(6<); A. Bu.'liler, in Sitzungshcrirhte
der metier Ahadcmie, 1891. IWl ; H. Ewald, in Jahr-
btUher dcr Bilil. U'lVweiixc/ifff/, i. lW-172; J. Fiirst
Owf/i. dcH Knrd.rt. 1. 19 et scq.. 134 ct ncq.: A. Geiger,
Crxchrift.np. 4^1 lliO; I. Guldl, UoUetinn, 1. 430; P. Haupt,
In Jnurnat Anuman firimtal Soc. vol. xxli.; Hupfeld,
In ncoL Stud, utid Kritik. I8:rr, pp. 57-l:JO; P. Kahle.
In Stade's Zeitachrift, xxl. 273 et 8cq.; Idem, in Z. D M

Cappellus mit den J?)/.rfor/f )i, l.eipsic, 1879 (comp. T. Deren-
bourg in Rente Crititiue, 1879, pp. 455 ct sc/.) ; Hersmann,
Ziir Ge.<tch. i/cs Streites liher die Entstelnniii dcr He-
hrdinclicn Pimhtatiini, Ruhrort, 1885. See also bibliographies
to the articles Acce.nts and Masorah.

T. C. L.

VOGEL, SIR JULIUS : Agent-general in Lon-
don for New /('Hlaiul; horn in London Feb. 25,
1835; died tliere iMarch 13, 1899. He was the son of
Albert Lee Vogel, and was educated at University
College School. Left an orphan, he emigrated to
Australia in 1852. Disappointed witli his progress
at tlie gold-diggings, he fell back upon liis liter-

449

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

ary ability and became editor and proprietor of sev-
eral Victorian newspapers. He stood for Parliament
in 1861, but was unsuccessful, and emigrated to
Duuedin, New Zealand, where lie bought a half
interest in the "Otago Witness" and started the
"Otago Daily Times," the first daily paper in New
Zealand. In 1863 Vogel was elected to the provin-
cial council of Otago, and four years later became
the head of the provincial government, a post which
lie held till 1869. In 1863 he was elected a member of
the New Zealand House of Representatives, and on
retiring from the provincial government in 1861), lie
joined the Fox ministry as colonial treasurer, after-
ward becoming successively postmaster-general,
commissioner of customs, and telegraph commis-
sioner. The Fox ministry having been forced to re-
sign, Vogel carried a vote of want of contidence in
their successors, and in Oct., 1872, leturncd to power
as leader in the Lower House, colonial treasurer, and
postmaster-general. In 1873 Vogel became iirime
minister of the colony. In 1875-76 he visited Eng-
land, and afterward resumed the premiership. From
1876 to 1881 he was agent-general for New Zealand
in London, and in 1884 was again a member of the
government of the colony. He finally gave up colo-
nial office in 1887, from which date he resided in Eng-
land. He was made C.M.G. in 1872, and K.C.M.G.
in 1875, and received special permission to retain
the colonial title of "Honorable" during his life.
He unsuccessfully contested Penryn in 1880 as an
Imperialist.

Sir Julius Vogel's principal achievement as a
colonial statesman was the discovery that the sa-
vings of the mother country could, with mutual
advantage, be obtained by the colonies and ap-
plied to the construction of railways and other
public works. That his system of finance was on
the whole successful was amply proved by the pros-
perous state of the Australasian colonies. Sir Julius
Vogel was the author of t^ie act by virtue of which
Colonial stock has been inscribed at the Bank of
England and has become a popular investment for
trustees. His project of law was accepted by the
imperial government to the equal benefit of all the
colonies. His scheme of public borrowing for the
colony of New Zealand was put into effect in 1870,
and within the next ten j'ears the colony borrowed
£22,500,000 at diminishing rates of interest, the pop-
ulation rose from 250,000 to 500,000, the extent of
land under cultivation increased from 1,000,000
to 4,000,000 acres, and the value of exports from
£500,000 to £1,500,000. It is al.so stated that in the
same ten years he introduced 100,000 immigrants
and caused 1,200 miles of railway to be constructed.
During a visit to England he established the ex-
isting mail service between New Zealand and San
Francisco. In his first premiership he set on foot
the government life-insurance system and organized
the New Zealand Public Trusteeship. He was one
of the first to advocate imperial federation.

Sir Julius Vogel wrote a novel entitled "Anno
Domini 2000, or Woman's Destiny"; it was pub-
lished in 1889, and passed through several editions.
One of his sons, Frank Leon Vogel, was killed on
Dec. 4, 1893, Avhile serving with Major Wilson's
force against the JVIatabele.
XIL— 29

BinuoGRAPHv: Jeu). (Viroii m..
')/ New Ztaiand; G. W. U
vols. II.. 111.

O L

VOGELSTEIN, HERMANN: (J.:
and iiislorian; bmn at iMs^ i,. i5,,lH-ii,j,i. J ,
His fniher was Heinemann VogeUtein.
Stettin. Vogelstein received hJH .ducat;
native town, the gymnuHiutn ui
the uni vers] tics and Jewish thLM,logu...
at Berlin and Bresluu (Ph.D. and rabbi
1895 he became rabbi in Opp.in, u,„l hjik,. ,
has been rabbi at Kiinigsberg, tliu^i I'rutwiu.

He is the author of " Die I^uidwjrlJicJmft iu
tina zur Zeit der Mi.schnah" (Hcrlin, '
gether with Hieger, of the first volume •
der Judcii in Honi." the second volume ;
by Kieger alone (Berlin, 1896). The
gained one of the prizes offered i
stiftung.

s- F.

VOICE OF HEAVEN. Sec Bat Koi.

mhbl
f

ami

• ■■•,-(1

f3i*7 lie

v
II

1 11.

VOICE OF ISRAEL. See Pehiouicalu.
VOICE OF JACOB. See Pekiodicaia
VOID AND VOIDABLE CONTRACTS

CONTK.ACT.

VOLOZHIN : Russian town in -'■• ."».'..
of Wilna; at the present time (!'.■
Prince Tishkewitz. As in most i.iiicr 1
towns, the Jews constitute the greal< r '
population. Jews settled there about
the sixteenth century. Volo/'
the rabbinical school which e.\i
This school, or yeshibah, which was fo
bj' Hayyim b. Solomon, a pupil of t
Elijah, Gaon of Wilna, was in direct ■
the Hasidic movement tiiat spread Um«K
ania in the second half of the eii' '
At the head of this con8crvaii\'
members of which were styled " Mitnn.
ponents), stood the Gaon of Wi'- ''
that, in order to combat suci
movement, the love of Talmudic study
aroused and strengtiiened. '>• "•■'
this was to establish a great
where the letter of the Ijiw wouid b<
tematically. Death, however, rem- ^•
his cherished plan could bt'carric*!
was left to liis pupil i.iayx ' -

Wilna already had two
no room for a tldrd: 8<'
where had lived a n
autiiorol
The man Volozhi;

Yeshibah. -■

|- .
should be admitted wIjo liad
selvesinTalmu'' '

of as.'^igniiig _v<
ent family, in which H
should be alM)lialie<l ;
self-supporting, or m..
Thus scholars, both rich and ixK.r. Ih*.

r)t

Voltaire
Vows

THE .JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

460

zhiu from all parts of Russia aud the rest of Europe.
For nearly a century it held its reputiition as a place
of the highest Talinudic learning, until liually, in
1892. to theregretof all loversof Judaism, the door.s
ot the school were shut by order of the Russian gov-
ernment.

The very spirit in which the institution was
founded was the cause of its downfall. It was, as
stated before, ultraconservative, tolerating nothing
that looKed like an innovation, aud strongly op-
posing all exoteric studies. For a long lime it
withstood the great wave of progress that swept
over Ru.ssia in the middle of the nineteenth century.
In 1887 Count Pahlen, who devoted a great deal of his
time to the Jewish question, called together thirteen
representative Jewish scholars of Russia in order to
confer with them about the ycshibot. The confer-
ence drew up a set of regulations for the mauage-
nieut of such institutions, the most important of
which were: that each day not less thau three liours
should be devoted to the teaching of the Russian
language and literature and toother secular studies;
that the teachers in these branches should be ap-
pointed with the sanction of the goverrmient; that
not more than twelve hours each day should be con-
sumed in study; and that the chief rabbi should be
responsible for the conduct of his pupils.

The chiefs of the ycshibot, fearing that secular
studies would "'poison the minds of the students and
turn them away from the study of the Talmud,"
stubbornly refu.sed to introduce these innovations;
they feared also that Orthodox Jews would with-
hold their contributions from the school. In 1891
Count Delianov, then minister of education, sub-
mitted a similar plan to the authorities of the school
in Volozhin; but, seeing that his instructions were
not carried out, he closed its doors on Jan. 23, 1892.

BiBLUiURAPHY: Ha-Kerem and Ha-Meliz, 1892; Entziklo-
tjcdicficuhi Slovar, vol. vil.
II. H. J. Go.

VOLTAIRE : French poet, historian, and essay-
ist; burn ul Paris Nov. 21, 1694; died there May 30,
1778. His name was originally Frangois Marie
Arouet : but about 1718 he assumed the name of Vol-
taire. He is known to the world as one of the most
active and popular champions of free thought and
as an ardent advocate of religious as well as political
lilK-rly. It is the more surprising that he who, in
liis "Traitesur la Tolerance" (1766), vindicated Jean
C'alas, the victim of Catholic fanaticism, and who,
in his " Lettres Chinoises," bitterly attacked religious
bigotry, should have fostered anti-Jewish senti-
ments. His personal experiences with Jews would
hardly sutfice to explain such inconsistency. He
alleges that, while an exile in London (1726), he had
a letter of credit drawn on a Jewish bunker, whom
lie refers to once as "Medina" and another time as
** Acosta, " and through whose bankruptcy lie lost
the greater part of 20,000 francs. In Potsdam,
where he was the guest of Frederick the Great, he
bad a disagreeable experience with a Jew named
Abraham Hirsch. In his treaty of peace with Sax-
ony (1745) Frederick had .stipulated that Saxon
bonds C'Steuerscheine") held by his subjects should
be redeemed at their face value, although they were
then listed at 35 per cent below par. At the same time

it was ordered that no Prussian subject might pur-
chase any of these bonds after the declaration of
peace. Voltaire nevertheless ordered Hirsch to buy
such bonds for him, giving him notes for the amount,
while Hirsch deposited with Voltaire jewelry as se-
curity. Subsecjuently VeitelHeine Eimik.m.m olfered
Voltaire more favorable conditions, aud he therefore
withdrew his order from Hirsch. The last-named,
who had already discounted Voltaire's notes, was
arrested ; but the enemies of the poet used the whole
unsavory transaction as a means of attacking him.
The king himself wrote a satire against Voltaire in
the form of a drama entitled " Tautale en Proees " ;
and Hirsch was discharged after having paid a com-
paratively small tine. Voltaire himself refers to
this incident in his humorous way, naturally pre-
.senting himself as having been duped. While it
hardly had the effect of tilling him with anti-Jewish
sentiments, it inspired him, in his *' Dictionnaire
Pliilosopliiciue Portatif " (1764), to make some un-
favorable remarks about the Jews. He charges
them with greed and seltishuess, saying that their
only ideals are children and money.

It seems that, aside from his desire to select any
subject apt to furnish an opportunity to display his
humorous satire and give him a chance to attack
the Bible, Voltaire had no intention of antagonizing
the Jews. In his reply to Isaac de Pinto, who
wrote an apology for the Jews entitled "Apologie
pour la Nation Juive," Voltaire admitted as much.
He recognized the fact that there were respectable
Jews, and he did not wish to wound the feelings of
his opponent by references to the people of Israel
as represented in the Bible. Antoiue Gcene, who
defended the Bible against the attacks of Voltaire,
embodied in his "Lettres de Quelques Juifs" De
Pinto's apology together with the correspondence to
which it gave rise. Voltaire replied in a pamphlet,
"Un Chretien Contre Six Juifs" (1776), withotit ta-
king up the Jewish question.

BiBLiOfJRAPnv : Griitz, Vnltaire und die Ji(dc)i, in MiDutts-
schrift, 18ti8. pp. 161-174, -'()!, ^'-'3; idem. Gesch. xi. 48-54;
Becker, Voltaire et les Juifs, in AirJiivcs, xliii. 8.t et seq.;
Mathias Kahn, ib. xxxviii. 4;i») et sei/.: Lazanl, Voltaiir et le»
Jtiifs, in U)iiv. Isr. xli. 1, 126; Bliieinner, Voltaire iin Prn-
zeuxe mit Abraham Himcli, in Dcutsches Museum, 1863.
No. 43.

VOLTERRA, AARON HAI : Liturgical poet
of the first half of the eighteenth century; labbi of
the Italian communities in Massa e Carrara. He was
tlieauthfjrof a prayer entitled "Bakkashah," or "Elef
Shin." The latter name, however, is misleading;
for in the entire prayer, in which each word begins
with the letter "shin," this letter occurs only 700
times, aud not, as this title would indicate, 1.000
times. In his preface; the author states that numer-
ous dirtlculties obliged him to resort to artiticial word-
formations, in which he felt that the license of
poetry justified him. The poem, which begins with
the words "Sliaddai shoken shehakim," is accompa-
nied by a commentary containing a glossary' of the
Talniudic ti-rms occurring in it. A second poem by
Volterra, forming an eightfold acrostic of the au-
thor's name, commences " 'Alekem isliim ekra," and
is written after the stvle of the poems of Jcdaiah Ix
Abraham Bedersi. These two works were published

451

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

VoltAirs
Vow*

together under the title "Bakkashah Hadaslmh"

(Leghorn, 1740).

BntLiociKAPHY : Zunz, Z. G. Index, s. v. ; Nepl-Ghlrondl, Tolc-
(lot (iediile I'i-srrtel, p. 3(): Fiieiin, fiTencstt I'i.snicf, p. 77;
Beiijacob, Ozar ha-SefaJim, p. 82; Mortani, Indive, p. 69.

K. C.

8. O.

VOLTERRA, MESHULLAM BEN MENA-

HEM : Ualiaii jeweler of the liflec'Uth century. He
lived in Florence, where he and his father, Menahem
ben Aaron Volterra (wiio in 14(50 was worth 100,000
ducats), ca'iicd on a business in precious stones.
According to Abraham Portaleone, Volterra wrote a
book on jewelry. In 1481 he undertook a journey
to the Orient, going by way of Rhodes to Alexandria,
where there were at that time only sixty Jewish
families. Here he saw a beautiful manuscript of
the Hebrew Bible, which the natives claimed had
been written by Ezra. In Cairo, where he bought
gems, great honor was shown him by the nagid of
the city, the wealthy Solomon ben Jo.scph, who.se
father also had been nagid, as well as body-physi-
cian to the sultan.

On July 29 Volterra reached Jerusalem, where at
that time there were 250 Jewish families. Here both
he and his companion became dangerously ill. He
then passed through Jaffa and Damascus to Crete,
where he was shipwrecked, lost his precious stones,
and again became very ill. His life was saved only
by the self-sacrificing care of a German Jewish phy-
sician. Volterra finally reached Venice in October.
His account of the journey, which has been pre-
served in mr.nuscript in the Laurentiana (cod. xi. 3,
p. 128), was first i)ublished by Luncz in his "Jeru-
salem" (i. 166-219).

Volterra had a brother Raphael, who was en-
gaged in the book-trade.

Bibliography : Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Oedole Yisrael, p.
224; Portaleone, Shilte ha-Gihhorim.p. 29a; Steinschneider,
Hebr. Bihl. xxi. 76; Berliner, Magazin, vil. 119; Luncz, Je-
rusalem, ill. 50. ^, ^_
D. M. K.

VOORSANGER, JACOB: American rabbi;
born at Amsterdam, Holland, Nov. 13, 1852. He
was educated at the Jewish Theological Seminary
of Amsterdam, and received the degree of D.D.
from the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, O. He
has ofiiciated as rabbi at Philadelphia (1873-76),
Washington, D. C. (1876-77), Providence, R. I.
(1877-78), Houston, Tex. (1878-86), and, since 188G,
at the Temple Emanu-El, San Francisco, Cal. In

1894 he was appointed professor of Semitic languages
and literature at the University of California, which
office he still holds (1905) ; he officiates also as chap-
lain and special lecturer at the Leland Stanford, Jr.,
University.

From 1881 to 1883 Voorsanger was editor of "The
Jewish South" (Houston, Tex.), and from 1883 to
1886 of the "Sabbath Visitor" (Cincinnati, O.). In

1895 he founded "Emanu-El," of which paper he
is still editor. He is the author of " Moses Mendels-
sohn's Life and Works."

Bini.iociRAPHY : The American Jewish Tear Book, 5664. p.

'I': F. T. H.

VORARLBERG: Extreme western district of
the Austrian empire. In the Middle Ages it was
called " Vor dem Arlberg," and was divided into the

estates of Bru^'ouz, loldkiicu. ...,., ii.uii,-jiz. i ..

the.se was added in l.VKJ ihi- iiii|..rini <.>iinn ..f

Hohenems. Tiic lirsi ihr.

tlie counts of .Monlfurl Wi :... .

came under Austrian control.

berg as early as the fourtt-enlli ■

for the most part exiles from .■- . .

German and Austrian counlriefl btr

of Constance, and they vtnlun

immediale mighborliood of lb. ...

or his bailids. The "Sladinclil" of I

(printed and di.seus.s<'d in ' " Uc*

Oberrheins," xxi. 129-171) ( ^ •.ioni

referring to Jews (folios 8b, 18b. Mia). The n- .■.•

mcnts made by modern 111--'

cutions at Feldkireli in i:;;

Black Death, and iu 1448-44 bi-cauae of an an .

tion of ritual murder, Jiave been ahowr, •

neous and due to tlie confusion of I

Vorarlberg with Waldkirch in Baden, boihof which

were formerly called "Veltkileh" " ' ' ^'

tyrologium," p. 69. Berlin, 1898) ,

tlie Black Death did not break mn in \

1348-49; and the epi.swle of the rilua.

1443-44 took place in Baden, [>rineipally ul C-'ii

stance.

When Feldkirch became an Austrian dep' •■'■'" '

at the end of the fourteenth century, the .'

this district entirely. The account of •

settlements later found in varictus vi

part of the history of the Jews of Hoiiknkmi*.

founded in 1617, under Count <

which still exists. Thus thtr

from 1676 to 1744 in the village of 8ulz, near 1

kirch, the place whence the f . '

mon Sulzer originally came. .1

and territory of Bregenz in the Middle Ap«-«. bul

Avere all expelled from tli-

1559. Since 1617 Hoheneii. • •

muuity, to which all the Jews of Tyml ami V. .

berg were assigned by the law of '"■'•' 'I '

of Vorarlberg have frecjuently di^;

selves in the history of the country, as, for

iu the war with Napoleon in 1809. a:- ' '

tributed much to tiie promotion of < ■

industry.

BiBMOGRAiMiv: Tilnzer. 'i''
arlliciv, vol. I.; Iilcin. <ii
dem Ucbrioen Vorarllxru. i •" •••

V0R8PIEL. See M.\kkiaok.

VOSKHOD. See Rubsia— Periodical*.

VOSSIUS, ISAAC. S • MANA(y*Kii BKK Ir*-

RAF.I..

VOWS (Hebr. "nedarim"): Proi:
religions sanction. In Talmudic law
niaeie between two pri
voluntary promise to b:. j
makes the vow is not oilierwisc In duiy
bring; or a promise to
poses of common chari' .
are called "nidre hekdcsh " (="•■
of these there an-
he who promises i - • i

intends to give, and says, "liiw J

Vows

Vulture

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

452

and such a liol>' or charitable cause," then he is not
bound to replace the thing if it is lost. (6) If, on
the other hand, he says, "I promise such and such
an object, or such and such a sum of money, to be
devoted to that purpose," then he is bound to replace
it if it • - lost. The former kind of vows arc

called :--..iir' (= "gift"); the latter kind "ne-
der" (=- promise"). (2) The second chief kind of
vows consists in promises made to abstain from the
enjoyment of certain things, he who promises say-
ing- "Ideny myself the enjoyment of this thing, as
of a thing sanctified." Such vows are called "uidre
issar " ( — ■' promises of prohibition or deprivation ").
Such a vow is valid even if a second party imposes
it upon the votary, he answering with an "Amen"
and thereby accepting it.

A vow is valid only if made voluntarily, with-
out any compulsion from without; and the votary
must also be conscious of the scope or character of
his vow. A promise made by mistake, or one ex-
acted by compulsory measures, is invalid. The age
of discretion with reference to promises is for men
the beginning of the thirteenth year, for women the
beginning of the twelfth, at which
Validity of ages the votaries are supposed to un-
Vows. derstand the importance of a vow
(Maimonides, "Yad," Nedarim, xi. 1).
A father may annul the vows made by his daughter;
and a husband may annul those of his wife, if they
be of such a nature that the keeping of them would
cause distress to the wife. The father or the hus-
band may, however, annul such vows only on the
very day when he is informed of their having been
given (Num. xxx.S-17; Ned. x. 8; Maimonides, Z.c.
xii. 1 et seq.).

Any vow, be it a dedication ("neder hekdesh"),
or a promise of prohibition or deprivation (''neder
is.sar"), can, in case the promisor regrets it, be de-
clared void by an ordained teacher, or by three un-
ordained teachers (Maimonides, "Yad," Shebu'ot,
vi. ; Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 228, where the
conditions are specified on which a vow can be an-
nulled). To impose vows on oneself was discouraged
by the sages of the Mishnah and the Talmud: " Do
not form a habit of making vows," says an old
baraita (Ned. 20a). Samuel said: "He who makes
a vow, even though he fulfil it, commits a sin"
{ib. 22a). The making of vows was tolerated only
when it was done in order to rid oneself of bad habits,
or in order to encourage oneself to do good ; but even
in such cases one should strive for the desired end
without the aid of vows (Yoreh De'ah, 203, 207).
More specific rules regarding vows are contained
in Maimonides' "Yad," Ne<larim, and in Shulhan
'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah. 203-235. See also Nedarim.

w B. J. z. L

Vulgate : Latin version of the Bible author-
ized l)y tlie Council of Trent in 1546 as the Bible of
the Roman Catholic Church. It was the product
of tiie work of Jerome, one of the most learned and
scholarly of the Church leaders of the early Chris-
tian centuries. The earliest I^atin version of the
Scriptures seems to have originated not in Rome,
but in one of Rome's provinces in North Africa.
An Old Latin version of the New Testament was

extant in North Africa in the second century c.e..
and it is thought that a translation of the Old Testa-
ment into Latin was made in the
Earlier same century. Indeed, TcrtuUian (c.
Latin 160-240) seems to have known a Latin
Transla- Bible. There were at least two earl}'
tions. Latin translations, one called the Af-
rican and the other the European.
These, based not on the Hebrew, but on the Greek,
are thought to have been made before the text-work
of such scholars as Origen, Lucian, and Hesychius,
and hence would be valuable for the discovery of
the Greek text with which Origen worked. But the
remains of these early versions are scanty. Jerome
did not translate or revise several books found in the
Latin Bible, and consequently the Old Latin versions
were put in their places in the later Latin Bible.
These Old Latin versions are represented in the
books of Esdras, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch.
and Maccabees, and in the additions to Daniel and
Esther. The Psalter also exists in a revised form,
and the books of Job and Esther, of the Old Latin,
are found in some ancient manuscripts. Only three
other fragmentary manuscripts of the Old Testament
in Old LatiH are now known to be in existence.

Jerome was born of Christian parents about 340-
342, at Stridou, i« the province of Dalmatia. He
received a good education, and carried on his studies
at Rome, being especially fascinated by Vergil, Ter-
ence, and Cicero. Rhetoric and Greek also claimed
part of his attention. At Trier in Gaul he took up
theological studies for several years. In 374 he
traveled in the Orient. In a severe illness he was so
impressed by a dream that he dropped secular stud-
ies. But his time had not been lost. He turned his
brilliant mind, trained in the best schools of the
day, to sacred things. Like Moses and Paul, he
retired to a desert, that of Chalcis, near Antioch,
where he spent almost five years in profound study
of the Scriptures and of himself. At this period he
sealed a friendship with Pope Damasus, who later
opened the door to him for the great work of his
life. In 379 Jerome was ordained presbyter at An-
tioch. Thence he went to Constantinople, where he
was inspired by the expositions of Gregory Nazian-
zen. In 382 he reached Rome, where he lived about
three years in close friendship with Damasus.

For a long time the Church had felt the need of
a good, uniform Latin Bible. Pope Damasus at first
asked his learned friend Jerome to
Jerome's prepare a revised Latin version of the
Bible- New Testament. In 383 the Four Gos-
Revision pels appeared in a revised form, and
Work. at short intervals thereafter the Acts
and the remaining books of the New
Testament. These latter were very slightly altered
by Jerome. Soon afterward he revised the Old
Latin Psalter simply by the use of the Septuagint.
The name given this revision was the "Roman Psal-
ter," in distinction from the "Psalterium Vetus."
The former was used in Rome and Italy down to
Pius V. (l.')66-72), when it was displaced by the
"Galilean Psalter " (so called because first adopted
in Gaul), another of Jerome's revisions (made about
387), based on many corrections of the Greek text
by reference to other Greek versions. About the

453

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Vowa

V -.i . '. u r .

end of 384 Pope Damasus died, and Jerome left
Rome to travel jiiid study in Bible lands. In a«'J Jie
settled at, Betiileheni, assumed charge of a monas-
tery, and prosecuted liis studies with great zeal
He secured a learned Jew to teach him Hebrew for
still better work than that lie had been doing
His revision work had not yet ceased, for his Hor.k
of Job appeared as the result of the same kind of
study as iiad produced tlie "Gallicau Psalter." He
revised some other books, as Proverbs, Ecclesiastes
Song of Songs, and Chronicles, of which his revisions
are lost, though their i)refaces .still e.xist.

But Jerome soon recognized the poor and un.S!itis-
factory state of the Greek texts that he was obliged
to use. Tills turned his mind and thought to the
original Hebrew. Friends, too, urged
Jerome's him to translate certain books from
Bible- the original text. As a resultant of
Transla- long thought, and in answer to many
tion Work, requests. Jerome spent fifteen years,
S'JO to 405, on a new translation of the
Old Testament from the original Hebrew text. He
began with the books of Samuel and Kings, for
which he wrote a remarkable preface, really an in-
troduction to tlie entire Old Testament. He next
translated tlie Psalms, and then the Prophets and
Job. In 394-396 he prepared a translation of Esdras
and Chronicles. After an interval of two years,
during which he pas.sed through a severe illness, he
took up his arduous labors, and produced transla-
tions of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs.
The Pentateuch followed next, and the last canonical
books, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and Esther, were com-
pleted by 404. Tlie Apocryphal parts of Daniel and
Esther, and Tobitand Judith, all translated from the
Aramaic, completed Jerome's great task. The re-
mainder of the Apocryphal books he left without
revision or translation, as they were not found in the
Hebrew Bible.

Jerome happily has left prefaces to most of liis
translations, and these documents relate how he did
his work and liow some of the earlier
Jerome's books were received. Evidently he
Transla- was bitterly criticized by some of his
tion former best friends. His replies show

in Later that he was supersensitive to criti-
Times. cisra, and often hot-tempered and
stormy. His irritability and his sharp
retorts to his critics rather retarded than aided the
reception of his translation. But the superiority of
the translation gradually won the day for most of
his work. The Council of Trent in 1546 authorized
the Latin Bible, which was by that time a strange
composite. The Old Testament was Jerome's trans-
lation from the Hebrew, except the Psalter, whicli
was his Gallican revision; of the Apocryphal books,
Judith and Tobit were his translations, while the
remainder were of the Old Latin version. The New

T M

'T
P.

T) iTTjr

Te.stament wa^ .;
Iranslalion. T)i.
translations, and old f.ri>jinal imri
the VulgaU'. Sc- -.■ '

Biri.io(;ka|'HV: (Jr
in<il>hii>i hr Stuilt,
il' III \'\ilu<ilr I'm.'
I'arls. IMM: II. J \\
Vliic'-. In Shulta I:
IWKI: K. N,-t!,, r
t)lnci'n, I ■
yiilU'iiii.

VULTURE : The Hebrew u-nnn r.

or the iither of tjie English v.

are:"da'ah"(Lev. xi. 14) and .: l

(Deut. xiv. 13 and Isa. xxxiv. 1.', [H V
"ayyah" (I^-v. xi. 14; Drut xiv. 18; J
7 [R. V. "kite" and "fukon''J). aad
"rahamah " (I^v. xi. 18; Deut. xiv. 17 (A

eagle"]); all refer to unrl.-im I. •

is identified with the Egyptian • ;

ture {yeophron percnopieruM), called aU

" raham " ; it is a migratory l)it ' '

and Arabia, returning from tl..

The Hebrew " neslier " (always reudemi h:

in the A. and R. V.) al- ' '

prey in general, and in .•^

ticularly to tlie vulture, or griftln-vultur

belongs to the Vullnrida family. <

16 and Job xxxix. 27-80. when- •

scribed as making its nest in the hi.

is characteristic of the vulture; .

where the bald-headedness of the :

to (this can only refer to the vulture, whirh :

void of true featherson the liea<l an' • ■ '

it is used as an image of an invml

Deut. xxviii. 49; Jer. xlviii. 40; I!

i. 8). The Romans also did not di>;, ..»;..,-.. ...

between the eagle and the vulture fPHriT. *• "

Hist." x. 3. xiii. 26). Tii ' .

abundant in Palestine, wh' ;

while the kite is represented by four *\

Besides all the Hihliral t-
Talmud uses the name - r

keenness of the vulture's for il can. *

in Babvlon, siglit carrion mi

B. M. 24b [Rashil). In the y.

said that there are a liundre<i kinds of uDclr^n '

in the Orient, all bel( • • ' '

(•'min ayyah "). The ;

pipit?; it is called raham I iu ap

pearance merry, that is. min - "

world, while the name pip^r i-

krek " (Hul. 6:ia). In Hul 2.M. m i;

of whose claws vessels were nmi-

explains to be a grifflnvulturr

BiRMocRAPHT : Trislram. SaL Httt. p. 1<<: LtmfmitM. Z. J.

p. lt(7.

E. o. n. I M r

Wa'ad Arba' Ara^ot
Wabb ibn Munabbih

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

454

WAAD AREA- ARAZOT. See Council of

WA-ANI TEFILLATI (Ps. Ixix. 14 [A. V.
13)): Tlif introductiou to tlie reading of the lesson
before ilic aftt-rnoon prayer on the Sabbath. Among
the Ashkeuazim it is chanted by the hazzan to the
prayei -motive of the service (see Music, Svnagogal)
like U-IJ.v i.K-ZiYYON, which it follows in the Ger-

a shabua' ha-ben (B. K. 80a): and the author of the
Vitry Mahzor mentions a festal gatheriiiir on tiic
eve of tlic day of cireumcision as an ancient tradi-
tional custom (p. 627).

In Germany the pressure of business during the
week finally ti.xod the gathering for tlie night of the
Friday before the circumcision. The feast was tiien
called "zakar" (male ; comp. Isserlein, "Terumat

Moderato

^i4ri» -g

Wa - a

WA-ANI TEFILLATI

le - ka, A - do - nai, 'el ra - zon;

-^^-X

:^^^^

-\ f-

^=tic±

E - lo

him,.

be - rob has - de

ka. 'a - ne - ni be - e - met yish - 'e

ka.

man ritual. In the later ritual tradition of the Seph-
anlim, who sing it also in other portions of the
liturgy, it is chanted by tlie congregation to the
modern melody here transcribed.

A " F. L. C.

WACHNACHT: The JudiEO-German term for
the niglii |)receding the day of circumcision, spent
in feasting and the recitation of hymns and prayers
by the mohel. sandik, and members of the family.
The ostensible object of the watcli is to ward off the
"evil spirit" and to drive away tlie "devils," espe-
cially LiLiTH, who is supposed to be inimical to the
child about to enter into the covenant of Abraham.
The cabali-sts deduce tiie peril of this time from
the circumstances attending the circumcision of the
8f)n of Zipporah (Ex. iv. 24-26; Zohar, Lek Leka,
93b): but the real purpose was to inquin; after the
health anil needs of the mother, for the Rabbis ad-
vised a similar procedure in the case of the sick(Ber.
54b), aixl preparations were also made for tiie cere-
mony and feasting accompanying the circumcision.
Other plausible reasons for the watch were the re-
peated edicts of the Gentile governments in the early
periods against circumcision and the jjersecutions by
Hadrian, so that those who took part in the ceremony
were oblig<-d to adopt all prccautionsand toas.sem])le
on the night before it to prevent publicity. Since
circumcision co<ild be performed only by day, the
8a.!.e need of caution requireil tiiat all doors and
windows be chjsed and the daylight excluded, so
that the ceremony was carried out by the light of
lamps an<l candles. Ditferent communities had secret
signs and signals to announce the " Wachnacht,"
such as the grinding of a millstone or the lighting of
a lamp. The eve of circumcision itself was disguised
under the term "shabua' ha-ben" (week of the
son : Saidi. 32b, and Rashi ad loc). Even after the
persecutions had cea.sefl, the lights were still lit
( Ycr. Ket. i. 5). Rab, Samuel, and Rab As.si met at

ha-Deshen," responsum No. 269), and in modern times
it is termed "shalom zakar," "shalom" meaning
"peace," and both indicating the birth of a male
child and also implying an inquiry after the health
of the mother as well as safety from i)ersecution.
The festival is considered a feast of merit ("'se'ud-
dat mizwah"; Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 265,
12, note by Isserles).

In eastern Europe the small boys of the neighbor-
hood are accustomed to assemble every night of the
week before the circumcision and recite the " Sliema' "
and a few verses of the Bible, ending with " The Angel
which redeemed " (Gen. xlviii. 16), for which t hey are
given nuts and sweetmeats. The ceremony is more
elaborate in the Orient, especiallj' in Jerusalem,
where, even at the birth of a girl, two women act as

nurses of the mother during the entire

In Modern week, while two men in another room

Times. recite and study the Scriptures and tik-

kunim. The chief ceremony, however,
is on the eve of the eighth daj% when all who actu-
ally take part in the circumcision assemble together
with the friends of the parents at the liou.se of the
latter and pass the entire night in celebration of the
event, each guest bringing wine and cake as well as
a lamp with olive-oil for illumination. The Sephar-
dim decorate their lamps with wreaths of llowers,
and march in the street to the beating of a drum
until lliey reach the house, where the hakam deliv-
ers an address. The reading in the house consists
of selections from the Bible, a few chapters of mish-
nayot, including the Mislmali Bekorot if tiiecliiid is
a first-boiii, and .selections Irom the Zoliar (Enideii,
"Siddur Bet Ya'akob," i. 991)-l02a, Warsaw. 1881).
In his "Hein<iat Yamim " (i. 8, Leghorn, 1762) Na-
than Benjiuuin Ghazzati transmits a rabbinical tra-
dition that if the watch was observed with full
ceremony throughout the eight days, or at least dur-
ing the four preceding the circumcision*, the child

455

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Wa'ad Arh«'

Ara^ot

would he (li'stinod to rpnuiiii fiiitliful to God; while

Aaron Beiechiuh of Modeua iccoin mended the reci

tatiou of the "Pittuni ha-Ketoret " ("Ma'abar Yab-

bok," vi. 8, 5).

Bini.iOGRAPHY : L(>\vinsolin. .Vtfrn/c .Vi)i;/(ii;i/»i, p. tiT) : Aiitr-
Imcli, lirrit AlmilKUii. 2d ed.'. pp. '.i.'i-.iH, Knmkforl-oii-Uic-
Main. IH.so; (ilasslici^r, Zi/inin licrit hi-Uishdiiini, Appfiidlx,
pp. ir>l-17:i. Cracow, IH92: hunvz, Jin usiilrm.i.'^; Abnihuiiis,
Jciiish Life in tlie Mi<idli- ^-li/cs. p. 14:i. luitc.

A. J n. E.

WAGENSEIL, JOHANN CHRISTOPH :

Geriiiaii C'liri.stiuii Hebraist; born at Niirfinberfr
Nov. 26, 1633; died at Altdorf Oct. 9. 1705. In
1667 lie was made professor of history at Altdorf,
and was professor of Oriental languages at the same
university from 1674 to 1097, after which he occu-
pied the chair of ecclesiastical law until his death.
For his knowledge of Hebrew he was chiefly in-
debted to Enoch Levi, who had come from Vienna
to Fiirth about 1670. Wagenseil devoted his learn-
ing to publishing anti-Christian works of Jewish
authors, and undertook long journeys to gather his
material. The fruit of this work is the collection
entitled "Tela Iguea Satana\ slve Arcani et Horri-
bilesJuda'orum Adversus Christum, Deum, et Chris-
tianam Religionem Libri" (Altdorf, 1681), which in-
cludes the apologetic "Hizzuk Emunah" of the
Karaite Isaac b. Abraham of Troki. Becoming con-
vinced by the "Toledot Yeshu" that the Jews were
guilty of blaspheming Jesus, Wagenseil addressed
to all liigli potentates his "Denunciatio Christiana
de Blasiihcmiis Judaiorumin Jesuin Christum " (Alt-
dorf, 1703), in wliich he implored them to restrain
the Jews from mocking at Jesus, Mary, the cross,
the mass, and Cliristian teachings. Although he
would have been pleased to see the Protestant princes
show greater zeal in the conversion of the Jews,
Wagenseil was opposed to forcible baptism and simi-
lar measures, and devoted a special treatise to the
refutation of the charge of ritual murder.

Wagenseil wrote, besides the above - mentioned
books, "Hoffnung der ErlOsung Israels" (Leipsic,
1705), which appeared in a second edition (Altdorf,
1707), augmented by a number of smaller works under
the general title "Benachrichtigungen Wegen Eini-
ger die Gemeine Jl'uliscliheit Betreffonden Sachen."
This collection contains the following treatises: (1)
"Quomodo cum Judaeo in Colloquio, Forte Fortune
Nato, Agendum"; (2) "Juda'os non Uti Sanguine
Christiano " ; (3) " Quomodo Usura Judaorum Averti
Possit " ; (4) " De Precatione Judaica Olenu " ; (5)
"Denunciatio Christiana de Blasphemiis Juda?orum
in Jesum Christum"; (6) "Apologia"; (7) "Denun-
ciatio ad Magistratus Christianos de Juribus Eorum
a Judieis Violatis"; (8) "An Christianus Salva Re-
ligione Judao Die Sabbati Inservire Possit." He
wrote also: "Exercitationes Sex Varii Argumenti "
(Altdorf, IfiOS): "Belehrung der Jlidiscii-Deutschen
Red- uml Schreibart" (2d ed., KiJnigsberg, 1699);
"Disputatio Circularis de Judreis" (Altdorf, 1705);
"Rabbi Moses Stendal's nach Judischer Reile-Art
Vorliingst in Reimen Gebrachte Psalmen David's"
(Leipsic, 1700); as well as an edition and Latin trans-
lation of the Talmudic treatise Sotah (Altdorf, 1674).

Bibi.iograpiiy: Wolf, Bihl. Hehr. il. 1W6: Grutz. GchcU.M
ed., X. 274-276; Fiirst, Bihl. Jud. ill. 489 ; StelDSchnelder.
Cat. Bodl. cols. 2711-2713.

WAGER. See Ahmakta. Hkttiso

WAGES, s, . .M^-.,, n ^.,1, -,, ,.,, ,., ,

WAGNER. WILHK! CHARD

ally know n ;i> Rn haul .

poser of niiiHi'

at Venice Feb. i.;

of music at the I ^ - «

struggling exihlc-nce till 1889. wl

ac(juuiiitnncc of .>f ,

attempts to Imve 1, _ip

came in coniact altio with Ht-iDc. wh ; Uitn

with the libretto of "D> "

After much wandering lir

and tliere wrote an urliclc. " l>as Ju<lcnllium io der

Musik." which appeared ir •' • "^ '

over the pen-name "K. I r

did not at tirst attract much aitt-nt

test from eleven mastcre of tlie L.

rium to Brendel, the editor of ;

Wagner protested against the tendency of y

Jewish compo.sers like MendelHsohn a- ' ^' r

to be sweet and tinkling wjtjiout i! :«

"Oper und Drama" (1852) be nia;

test against Meyerbeer. When tli- i

denthum in der Musik " was rc] v

forth numerous replies, among w!

tioned: Joseph Engel, "Richard V, .. .i

denthum in der Musik; eineAbwehr"; E. M Dcliln-

ger, "Offenes Billetdoux an Ri

Dresden, 1809; and A. Truharl. ' ■ ,

Richard Wagner," St. Pelersburg. 1869.

standing his public utterance-

ence in music, Wagner had i

and his favorite choirmaster in lat«r lif- n

Levi. See Jkw. Encvc. i. 0-13 b. ».r ' i

BiBi.iOGRAPllv: (irovp. Dictiouaru «<
Glassenapp and Stein, Wagner LtTiktm, ^.\. Ji..l*hii.i.m,
Leipsic. 18H3.
s. J

WAHB IBN MUNABBIH (A> •; A>.d An.»h
al-Sana'ani al-Dhimari): .M'
tionistof Dhimar (two da\ i

Yemen; died at the age i;
ously given by Arabic authorities as
aud737c.E. On his father's -' "
from Persian knights, while h;-
yarite. His father, whose name WM >I
had been converted to T '
Prophet, altiiouph a ^ ,
al-Masluk " (ed. 1806 a.ii.. p. 41).
himself had tir ' '
ism. His oth> :
Nawawi and Ibn Hallikni
a Jew eith'
was well <•
wrote much, probably rhvo i

that lie was a Jew. n'*' '

quired liis knowledge :
Wahb is said lo have r
on the prophets, and '
narrator ("niwi"> nf
and Biblical !>-

ans regarded hi -

counts, many of them, such M Ibn 1
Glared that in hi
(com p. "Notices i: :.

Wahl
Wahrmann

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

456

part 1. p 461; De Slane, Ibn Hallikaii. iii. 073, uott'
2). Among Wabbs many writings may be mentioned
his "Kisas al-Aubiva "" and "Kitab al-Isra'iliyat "
(-Hajji ■ Khalfa," iv. 518. v. 40). The former,
which is believed to be his earliest literary work, is,
as its title indicates, a collection of narratives con-
cerning Biblical personages, the accounts being
drawn from Jewish folk-lore though presented in
Islamitic guise. Thus, like Ibn 'Abbas and Ka'b
al-Ahbar, he was an authority for many legends
narrated by Al-Tabari. Masudi, and others. The
" Kitab al-israiliyat," or " Book of Jewish Matters,"
is lost, but was apparently a collection of Jewisli
stories, many of them incorporated by a Jewish
compiler into the "Arabian Nights." In the latter
collection there are indeed many stories that bear
the Jewish stamp, and some of them, such as the
"Angel of Death," are ascribed to Wahb by the au-
thor of " Al-Tibr al-Masluk."" There are also other
stories which are attributed to Wahb, and many
more which, from their Jewish character, ihay be
(raced to him. His Jewish learning may be illus-
trated by his opinion of the Shekinah (Arabic, "Sa-
kinaii ") as stated by different Arabic authors. Ac-
cording to Al-Bagliawi in his^Ma'alim al-Tanzil"
(Goldziher, " Abliandlungen zur Arabischen Philo-
logie."i. 182. Leyden, 1896), Wahb believed that the
Shekinah was the spirit of God. On the other hand,
Al-Tabari ("Annals," i. 544). in recording tlie fact
that the Israelites sometimes took the Ark of the
Covenant into battle wiien they were at war with
their enemies (comp. I Sam. iv. 4 et seq.), quotes
Wahb as saying in the name of a certain Jewish au-
thority that the Shekinah which rested in the Ark
was a being in tlie shape of a cat, and that when the
Israelites heard the mewing of cats coming from the
interior of the Ark, they were sure of a victory. See
also Ah.vbian' Nights.

Bibliography: v. Chaiivin. La Recenmni Eaj/pfifune des
MilU (t I'ne Xuits. pp. ai-32, 50 et seq., Brussels, 1899; Ibn
Halllkan. Frenrh translation by De Slane, Iii. 671 et seq.;
Hanimer-Purjrstall. Literaturgesch. der Araher, ii. 177 et
«<;.: BrfK-kelraann. Geach. der Arahiachen Litterntur, i. 64 ;
Slelnsfhnelder, Die ArabUiche Literalur der Jiulcn, § 14.

I M. Sel.

WAHL, ABRASKI. See W.uir,, Saul.

WAHL, MORITZ CALLMANN : German
writer; born Marcli li8, 1829, at Sondershausen ;
died Oct. 15, 1887. lie studied Oriental languages at
Ix'ipsic under Julius Fiirst and H. L. FleLscher. La-
ter he taught for a time at an English school, and
subsequently held the position of correspondent in
a large business house at Lyons, Fiance. Finally
he settled at Erfurt, where he founded a business
academy. Aside from Ins pedagogic activity Wahl
pursued scientific studies. The following arethe more
important of his works: "BeitrSge zur Vergleich-
c-nden Paroniiologie " ; "Das Sprichwort in der Ile-
briliscli-Aramiiischen Literatur" ; "The Book of Mer-
ry liiddles" ; " Das Sprichwort der Neueren Sprach-
en"; "Die Englische Paromiologie vor Shake-
speare"; "Das Paiumiologische Sprachgut bei
Shakespeare. "

^ W. Sa.

WAHL, SAUL : A remarkable personage who,
according to tradition, occupied for a short time the
throne of Poland. The story connected with his reign

is as follows: Prince Nicholas Radziwill, surnanicd
the Black, who lived in the si.xteentli century, de-
siring to do penance for the many atrocities he had
committed while ayoung man. undertook a pilgrim-
ag'e to Kt)me in order to consult the pope as to the
best means for expiating his sins. The pope ad-
vised him to dismiss all his servants and to lead for
a few years the life of a wandering beggar. After
the expiration of the period prescribed, Radziwill
found himself destitute and penniless in the city of
Padua, Italy. His appeals for help were heeded by
nobody, and his story of being a prince was re-
ceived with scorn and ridicule. He finally decided
to appeal to Samuel Judali Katzenelleiibogen, the
rabbi of Padua. The latter received him with marked
respect, treated him ver}' kindh", and furnished him
with ample means for returning to his native country
in a manner befitting his high rank. When the time
for departure came the prince »skcd the rabbi how
he could r^pay him for his kindness. The rabbi then
gave him a picture of his son Saul, who j-ears before
had left for Poland, and asked the prince to try and
find the boy in one of the many yeshibot of that coun-
try. The prince did not forget the request. Upon
his return to Poland he visited every yeshibah in the
laud, until finally he discovered Saul in that of Brest-
Litovsk. He was so captivated by the brilliancy
and depth of Saul's intellect that he took him to his
own castle, provided for all his wants, and supplied
him with all possible means for study and investiga-
tion. The noblemen who visited Radziwill's court
marveled at the wisdom and learning of the young
Jew, and thus the fame of Saul spread throughout
Poland.

When King Bathori died (1586) the people of Po-
land were divided into two factions: the Zamaikis
and the Zborowskis. There were quite a number of
candidates for the throne, but the contending par-
ties could agree upon no one. There existed at that
time in Poland a law which stipulated that the
throne might not remain unoccupied for any length
of time, and that in case the electors could not agree
upon a candidate an outsider should be appointed
" rex pro tempore" (temporary king). This honor was
then offered to Radziwill ; but he refused, saying that
there was a man who belonged to neither party, and
who in wisdom and goodness was far superior to
any one else he knew. That man possessed only
one very slight shortcoming, and if the Diet would
make his election unanimous, he (Radziwill) would
acfjuaint it with his name. Accordingly, Saul's
name was solemnly propo.sed ; and amid great (enthu-
siasm, and shouts of " Long live King Saul ! " Wahl
was elected to this high ofiice. The name " Wahl "
was given him from the German word "wahl" ( =
"election "). Traditions disagree as to the length of
his reign. Some state that he ruled one night only ;
others make it a few days. All, however, are
agreed that Saul succeeded in passing a number of
very wise laws, and among them .some that tended
to ameliorate the condition of the Jews in Poland.
Although this story can not be supported by any
historical data, it gained a firm place in rhe belief
of the people.

Bini.iOGRAPHv: Hirsch EiJelm;in. GiduUat Sa'iil. Lon^ion.
1844; S. A. Bersliadskl, Saul Wald, in Voskhod, 1889; M. A.

457

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

W«brt&&an

Getzelten, Pd Pnvodu Lcgendi o Yevereie, KornUe Pols-
Jcoin, in Razavnct. IHKI), No. 41 ; Elsenstadt. Da'al h'rdiiHliiin
p. 84; St. PetersburK, 1897-9K; Kurpcles, ./cirM/i Literature
and Other Essays, pp. 272-292, I'hlladelplilii, 18<J.').

8- J. Go.

WAHLTUCH, ADOLPHUS: Engli.sli pliysi-
ciau; born in Odessa, Russia, 1837. He studied
medicine at Kiev, Pra.sjue, and London (M.I).,
L.R.C.P., 1863), and llien .settled in Manelies-
ter as a practising physician. lie is known as a
successful practitioner and as a prolific writer of
professional works, among which may be men-
tioned : " A Dictionary of Materia iMedica and Thera-
peutics," Loudon, 1868; "On Catalepsy," zi. 1869;
"Asthma Nervosum," Manchester, 1877; "Electro-
Therapeutics," London, 1883; "Massage," 1889;
"The Dead and the Living," 1891; "Treatment of
Diseases by Energy," Manchester, 1900.

VVahltuch is consulting physician to the Victoria
Jewish Hospital, and to the Hulme Dispensary,
Manchester, and past president of the Clinical Soci-
ety and of the Manchester Medico-Ethical Associa-
tion. To the last-named association he has rendered
valuable services as ciiairman of the Parliamentary
Committee (1890-9o). He was one of the founders
of the Manchester Cremation Society, and is a fre-
quent lecturer on hygiene and on scientific and his-
torical subjects. He is an enthusiastic chess-player,
edits the chess column in the " Manchester Weekly
Times," and has founded several chess-clubs in the
city of Manchester.

Bibliography: De Gubernatis, Diz. BUm. Florence, 1879;
Manchester' Faces and Places, WM.
J H. L. R.

WAHLTUCH, MARK: Rus.sian philosopher
and author; born at Odessa 1830; died at Pisa Jan.
27, 1901. He resided for many years in Ancona, Na-
ples, Florence, Leghorn, and Pisa. He translated into
Italian the works of A. Pushkin ("Poesie di
A. Puschkin," Odessa, 1855), and wrote in Italian
the following tragedies founded on Biblical subjects:
"Assalonne," Odessa, 1857; "Sansone," ib. 1859;
"Jefte," Milan, 1862; and "Giobbe," ih. 1872. He
devoted himself to philosophical studies, and during
liis latter years to the investigation. of spiritualism,
the following works being the results of these activi-
ties; "Psicografia, Ossia Descrizione dell' Anima
conSegni Sensibili, Preceduta da una NuovaVeduta
Sopra Alcuni Punti Cardinali della Filosofia Obiet-
tiva". (with illustrations), Naples, 1870; "L' Anima
Umana nel Suo StadioOriundo, Terrestre e Future "
(illustrated), :Milan, 1875; " AntropobioticaGenerale,
Ossia hx Vita dell' Anima e del Corpo nella Condizi-
one Sana, Inferma, e Convalescente," Florence, 1879;
and " Prove Incontestabili delle Pazzie d'un P.seudo-
Alienista Appalesate " (against Cesare Lombroso),

Leghorn, 1887.
s U. C.

WAHRHEIT, DIE. See Periodicals.

WAHRMANN, ISRAEL B. SOLOMON:

Hungarian rabbi and Talmudist; born at Altofeu,
Hungary ; died at Budapest June 24, 1824. He was
called to the rabbinate of Pesthiu 1799, and was the
first officially recognized rabbi of the community,
which developed rapidly under his leadership, its
first statutes being drafted at liis instance. Tiie
most important institution connected with his name

is ilie NuiionalMliulf. an clemcoury ndiool .

caledonSept. 8. 1H14. V. ' ■ r

in raising the i ii le licet .

itscurriculum including H

and Hebrew. Wahnniinn |.

in German and eiitith-d "A:

tcnderKnniglieh.-n Frcistadt I'.htii "

his dealii found c,\pr»K.si(jn in Pliili; "

and German poem "Evel Yi«rafl,

BlBLIOfiRAPHv: lU-lch, IlfthKH. \Zi rt tta ■ BOrhlrf A Zm
dok TOrti-nctc UwUiptMcn. pp. dmuJtq' '"^'""- -* ^

8- E. N

WAHRMANN, JUDAH : Hunpariiui r.

sou of Israel W.miuma.n.n; tioru 17'" •

Nov. 14, 1868. He wus appointed 11 :

teacher of religion at the gymnasium of i

on Feb. 9. 1851, and was the autlinr of - >

halla'atakot" (Ofen, 1831) and "Dal \

Mosaische Religionslehre" (ib. 1861; tided

BIBMOGRAPHY : FOrsl, mill. Juil. til. 4W).

1 >**>■■
E N

Bu-

1 1..

WAHRMANN, MORITZ : llu:.-,'
clan; gmndson of I.srael W.\iihma.s.s
dapest Feb. 28, 1832; died there Nov. ...
was educated at the Protestant gymnaAJm
imiversity of his native city, and enU-p
mercantile establishment in lb47, bccon... ,
after iiis father's deatli.

Wahrmann was closely a.<woriatod w:-
opmeut of Hungarian commerce ai. :
the consolidation of the
Hungarian finances, the
growth of the education-
al and philanthropic in-
stitutions of Budapest,
and preeminently with
the progress of its Jewish
community. Aiming to
nationalize Hungarian
commerce and to render
Ins country independent
of Austria, i)oth finan-
cially and economically,
he established large in-
dustrial and conuncrrial
enterprises.

In 1869 Wahrmann
was elected to the Hungarian PHrliamcnl M the
representative of ihc electoral di;-'

poldstadt (at present the fifth

dapest). being the first Jew to be chosen n

of the Hungarian delegation, in wl

ally promoted the intere.stj» of

was reelected six times, boldinp

his death. He spoke c<ii!

was an active member of <

financial training frequently r

the most impoi'

of the Chamber : '

pest, and of the Lloyd Company.

Wahrmann wa.s •
fairs, and was one ■
coreligionists. He wa* n most «r..
the Magyar I/r^
and pen for Iht

ModU w-

VI. In 1888

Wakrulkar
Waley

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

458

he was vice-presideni of the General Jewish Con-
gress, and iu this capacity headed a deputation to
the king. As president of the community of Buda-
pest he exercised a profound iutluence on itsadmiu-
istration and institutions, and labored to establish
unity of interest among the various political bodies.
He also contributed generously from his ample
means to scientitic, educational, and philanthropic
institutions.

His brother, Alexander Wahrmann (born 1839;
died at Budapest iu l«yy), contributed much, to-
gether with Mux Wirth, the Viennese political econ-
omist, toward the economic elevation of Hungary.
He was especially noteworthy as a philantliropist,
bequeathing 200,000 crowns to the benevolent socie-
ties of the capital, and 600.000 crowns for the erec-
tion of a Jewish gymnasium.

BiBLiOGR.\PHV: Vamriiapi UJxag, 1892, pp. 82.5 et seq.; Mag-
uar ZfitU'i Szemle. 1892, pp. 687 ct xeq.: 1893, pp. 7 et seq.\
Palla* Lex. xvi. 973.
S. E. N.— L. V.

WAKRULKAR, SOLOMON ELIJAH : Beni-

Isracl soldier; enlisted iu the Nineteenth Uegiment
Native (Indian) Infantry Sept. 25, 1838. He was
promoted jemidar Jan. 1, ISoS; subahdar, Jan. 23,
1858; subahdar-major, Jan. 1, 1872. In 1877 he was
decorated with the first and second class Order of
British India, with the titles of bahadur and sirdar-
bahadur, the highest mark of approbation which the
Indian government bestows on native officers. He
fought in the Afghanistan campaign of 1839, in-
cluding the capture of Gliazni and occupation of
Kabul (medal) ; in the Punjab campaign, taking part
in the siege of Multan, the battle of Gujarat, and
the march to the mouth of the KhaibarPass; and in
the Central India campaign of 1858. In his various
campaigns he marched up and down both banks of
the Indus from Kurrachee to Kabul and Attock.
Wakrulkar retired from active service Dec. 23, 1878.
.1. J. Hy.

WALDEN, AARON BEN ISAIAH NA-
THAN : Polish Talmudist, editor, and author; born
at Warsaw about 1835. Walden, who is an ardent
adiierent of Hasidism, is known especially for his
"Sheni ha-Qedolim he-Hadash" (Warsaw, 1864),
a work of the same nature as Azulai's "Shem ha-
Gedolim." Like the latter, it consists of two parts:
(1) "Ma'areket GedoJim," being an alphabetical list
of the names of authors and rabbis, mostly those
that lived after Azulai, but including also inany of
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries who were
omitted by Azulai; and (2) "Ma'areket Sefarim,"an
alphabetical list of book-titles. Walden himself
says in his preface that he took Azulai's "Shem ha-
Gedolim " as a model ; and it is evident that he refers
to Benjacol)*s edition of that work. It must be
said that the alphabetical list in the first part is
arranged only according to the first names of the
persons mentioned. In many instances the names
are accompanied by biograpliical sketches, especially
of Hasidic rabbis, whose biograpiiies contain records
of the mirac-los wrought by them and in behalf of
them. To tiie third edition of the work, pul)lished
in 1882 by Walden 's .son Joseph Aryeh LOI), the
latter added an appendix entitled " 'En Zoker," con-

taining names and book-titles omitted in the two
previous editions.

Another work by Walden, in which he has dis-
played great erudition, is the " Mikdash Melek " (War-
saw, 1890), an edition of the Psalms iu five volumes.
In it are printed around the text: (1) "Bet ha-
Midrash," a kind ofyalkut after the model of the
"Yalkut Shim'oni," Walden having gathered all the
haggadot referring to the Psalms which were scat-
tered in Mie Talinudim, in the midrashic literature,
and iu tlie Targum, as well as iu the Zoharand other
cabalistic works; (2) "Bet ha-Keneset," a fourfold
commentary ("PaRDeS") consisting of material
taken from tiie most prominent ancient commen-
tators; and (3) "Bet Aharon," a reference index to
the "Bet lia-Midrash," giving also variants and an
explanaticm of difficult passages.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Bcbr. Bibl.viii. 108; Zeitlin,
Bihl. Post-Mendels. p. 403.
E. C. M. Sel.

WALDENBTJRG, LOUIS : German physician ;
born at Filehne, Poseu, July 31, 1837; died at Ber-
lin April 14, 1881; educated at the University of
Berlin (M.D. 1860). After a po.stgraduate course at
Heidelberg he established himself in Berlin as a
specialist iu diseases of the chest and throat. From
1864 to 1868 he was joint editor with H. Rosenthal
of the " Allgemeine Medizinische Ceutral-Zeitung."
In 1865 he became piivat-docent at the Berlin Uni-
versity, and from 1868 until his death he edited the
"Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift." In 1871 he
was appointed assistant professor, and in 1877 de-
partment phj'sician, at the Charite.

Among Waldenburg's many works may be men-
tioned: "De Origine et Structura Membrananmi,
Quae in Tuberculis Capsulisque Verminosis Involu-
crum Praebent," a prize essay at the University of
Berlin, 1859; "Ueber Blutaustritt und Aneurysmen-
bildung, Durch Parasiten Bedingt," in "Archiv fiir
Anatomic und Physiologic," 1860; "Ueber Structur
und Ursprung der Wurmhaltigen Cysten," in "Ar-
chiv fiir Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie
und fiir Klinische Medizin," 1862; "Lehrbuch der
Respiratorischen Therapie," Berlin, 1864 (2d ed.
1872); " Die Tuberkulose, die Lungenschwindsucht
und Scrofulose," i6. 1869; and "Die Pneumatische
Behandlung der Respirations- und Circulations-
Krankheiten," ib. 1875 (2d ed. 1880).

Bibliography : Paget, Biog. Lex.

8. F. T. 11.

WALDOW, B. See Bi.och, Bianca.

WALDSTEIN, CHARLES: Anglo-American
archeologist ; born in New York March 30, 1856.
He was educated at Columbia College, New York
city (A.M. 1873), and studied also at Heidelberg
(Ph.D. 1875) and finally at Cambridge, England
(M.A. and Litt.D. 1878)." In 1880 he became uni-
versity lecturer on classical archeology at Cambridge
University, and two years later university reader.
From 1883 to 1889 he \vas director of the Fitzwilliam
Museum ; and in 1883 he was made a fellow of King's
College. In 1889 he was called to Athens, Greece, as
director of the American School of Classical Studies,
which office he held until 1893, when he became

459

THE JEWISH EXrvcfoPEDiA

Wkkrulkar

professor at the same institution. In 1895 he re-
turned to England as Slade professor of ijiic arts at
the University of Cambridge; and he held this ehair
until 1901. During his stay in Athens he direeted
the excavations of the American Arciieoiogical Insti-
tute at the site of ancient Plata'a, Eretria, where, lie
declared, he unearthed the tomb of Aristotle, the
HercTuni of Argos, etc. He has formed an interna-
tional committee to promote the excavation of Her-
culiiueum.

Waidstein is the author of: "Balance of Emotion
and Intellect" (1878); "Essays on the Art of Phid-
ias" (1885); "The Jewish Question and the Mission
of the Jews " (1889, anon. ; 2d ed. 1900) ; " The Work
of John Ruskin " (1894) ; " The Study of Art in Uni-
versities " (1895) ; " The Expansion of Western Ideals
and the AVorld's Peace" (1899); "The Argive He-
ra?um" (1902); "Art in the Nineteenth Century"
(1903). He has written also in several journals
numerous reports on his excavations, and has pub-
lisiied, under the pseudonym "Gordon Seymour,"
three short stories wiiich later appeared, under hia
own name, as "The Surface of Things" (1899).
Bibliography: Americari Jewish Year Book, 5665.
•T. p. T. H.

WALDTEUFEL, EMILE : French composer;
born at Strasburg Dec. 9, 1837. He conunenced the
study of music under the tuition of his father, a
professional musician; later he became the pupil of
Joseph Heyberger; and lie completed his musical
education at the Conservatoire in Paris. Here
he pursued his studies on tlie piano in com-
pany with Massenet, a fellow pupil, who soon be-
came his firm friend. About 1860, being obliged to
discontinue his studies owing to lack of means, he
turned his attention to dance-music. "Manolo,"a
waltz performed under his direction at a soiree
given by the Prince of Sagan, was a great success;
and it so deliglited the Prince of Wales (now Ed-
ward VII.), who was present, that he requested the
dedication of the piece to liimself, and had it pub-
lished in England. In a short time Waldteufel re-
ceived brilliant offers from the English publishers of
music; and his fame and fortune were thenceforth
assured. His triumphs in London were soon fol-
lowed by similar ones in Paris. In 1865 he was ap-
pointed pianist to the empress Eugenie. He became
director of the court balls of the emperor Napoleon
III., and organizer of the famous soirees al Com-
piegne and Biarritz. At the latter place he met Bis-
marck.

During the Franco-Prussian war (1870-71) Wald-
teufel enlisted as a volunteer in the legion of the
Basses-Pyrenees. Upon the defeat of the French
cause he returned to Paris and devoted himself with
renewed ardor to his art. Of his most celebrated
works may be mentioned: "Amour et Printemps,"
a waltz so universally popular that, after fourteen
years of repeated publication by two firms, it was
purchased by a third for the sum of 8,000 francs;
"AToi, Dolores"; "Dans les Nuages"; "Dansun
Songe"; "Je T'Aime"; "Myosotis"; "Pour une
Bose " ; " Retour du Printemps " ; " Scntiers Fleuris " ;
" Soir d'Amour " ; " Les Sourires " ; " Toujours on Ja-
mais " ; "Doux Poi^me"; "Les Violcttes " ; " L'Es-
pace " ; and the polka " Bella Bocca. "

In 1885 W;i .
direct tlie perfurniauce of liis
he met with a Iriuin: '
peated four year.s lai.
for a similar object. For three ai.
three great com|M •" ' ■

teufel personalis

respective waltzes. Waldtcufd Iian won rwiV.w'o
also as an orchestra !■ '
del'Opera." He is ,i
of Isabella the Catholic.

BlBLlOfiKAPIIV: 1^ PfUt /'ouc«-( N., I-

^ ' J K^

WALEY, JACOB: English Uwyeran ,r

of poiiiical economy; Jxirn in Jyindon
1819; died there June, 1878. He waB th
of Solomon Jacob Levy (who adopted ll ,f

Waley), and was educated at Neumer ■
Ilighgatc and at University Clollege. I.
he was the first pupil to obtain the Flahc
matical Scholarship. In 1839 he wn»

(B.A.) from the University of lyoodon. •

first place in both mathematics and clu ic

was entered as a student at Lincoln'.s li

3, 1837, and was called to tlie bar Nov. 21

ing the fourth Jew to be thus railed.

Waley became one of the most emi"' fit ,

ancers of his day. His first studies in jj

were conducted in the chambers of I ' ..

wasalsoapupilof Holt, afterward lor:

Waley practised as an equity draftsi .|

as conveyancing counsel for th« '"

and was named by the queen in : f

the royal commission appointed to consid'

on the transfer of real property. In "

he had a large share in fniming the r* ; li

was based the lord chancellor's bill pasaed in 1874.

He was associate editor with Davii! ' . ' n

conveyancing precedent.^, and at;

tion of becoming (1870) one of the con\ ;

coun.sel of the Court of Chancery.

Waley was president of the Jews* Orr

lum, and on the formation of the .' ii

Association he was elected its first pr

numerous engagements, however. <

early retirement from the latter position. Ue prrv

moted the Hebrew Literary Sooicly. was f ' •■ ' "K

period a memt)er of the counril of Jews

and aided materially in the or- ^

ish Board of Guardians. But i..

the Jewish community was his i

junction with Lionel Louis < 1

Synagogue, to which objiTt h

sional skill, eloquence, and rarefnl j\. !••

took much interest a'- *

abroad ; and in 1872 he , ■

Davis* "Jews in Rumania," In which I

stmted against the per-
In 1853 Waley was

ical economy at Univi

office he held until

engagements comi"

active member of the i

sity. and ^\

Club, as ai-

ignation he was named r^

Waley
Walton

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

460

council of University College. Waley also acted as
examiner for the University of London.

Biblioc.raPHT: Time* (London). June 23. 1873; Jeu'. Oiron.
and Jfif. H'oWd, June 27 and July 4, 1673; Dictwnaru of
y at tonal Bi'>orap)ty. p ,

•It

WALEY, SIMON "WALEY: English mer-
chant, musician, ami communal worker; born in
London Aug. 23, 1827; died there Dec. 30, 1875;
younger son of Solomon Jacob Levy. He studied
at University College, London, but left without ta-
king a degree. At the age of seventeen he wrote a
series of articles for the "Times" on the question of
international traffic, and in 1858 he contributed to
the " Daily News " a series of letters on " A Tour in
Auvergne," afterward included in Murray's "Hand-
book to France. " Waley entered the stock exchange
and acquired an influential position, being elected a
member of its committee. For nearly a quarter of
a century he was honorary secretary of the Jews'
Free School, and conducted the entire correspond-
ence between the school and the government Board
of Education. From 1843 he was the official corre-
spondent for England of the chamber of commerce
of Boulogne, in which city he took great interest.

Waley received instruction in piano from Mosch-
ele.s, Sir William Sterndale Bennett, and G. Alex-
ander Osborne, and in theory and composition from
William Horsley and Molique. The first musical
work published by Waley was "L' Arpeggio," a
pianoforte study, which appeared in 1848. His other
compositions include a pianoforte concerto, two
pianoforte trios, many piano pieces and songs, and
some orchestral pieces. He composed also hymns
for Sabbaths and festivals, several of which were
chanted for many years at the West London Sjma-
gogue. His songs include "Sing on. Ye Little
Birds," "The Home of Early Love," and "Alpine
Shepherds' Song."

BiBLionRAPHT : Jeiv. Chron. Jan. 7, 14, and 21, 1876; Impar-
tial (Boulogne). Jan. 21, 1876; Diet. National Biography;
Gross, Did. of Music and Mvsicians.
J. G. L.

WALLACHIA. See Rumania.

WALLERSTEIN, ABRAHAM BEN
ASHER : German scholar and rabbi of the eight-
eeiuh century; officiated in Schnaittach, Bavaria.
He was the author of the following works: "Ma'a-
mar Abraham" (Filrth, 1757), Hebrew sermons on
the weekly les.sons of the entire Pentateuch; "Zera'
Abraham" (ib. 1761), an ethical work in eighteen
chapters, written according to Biblical as well as rab-
binical principles; and "Mahazeh Abraham" (ib.
1761), an index to the four ritual codices, arranged
alpliabetically. Tiie last-named work was pub-
lished in connection with the "Zera' Abraham."

BiBLiooRAPHY : Stelnfichneidcr, Cat. Bodl. col. 711 ; Benjacob,
Ozar ha^Sefarim, p. 279.
K. C. S. O.

WALLICH : German family which probably
derived its name from tiie Hebrew transcription of
"Falk" (p^l). The earliest known members of it
are Josepli b. MeYr Wallich, a physician, and Moses
Joshua Wallich, both of whom lived at Worms in
the sixteenth century. A document relating to the
purchase by Joseph b. Meir Wallich of a Rashi and

Rashbam manuscript (Worms, 1615) is signed by
Joseph and by his two sons Eliezer and Solomon, all
physicians and all suruamed Weibush (Phoebus?),
and by thirteen other members of the Wallich family,
among them the physicians Moses b. Lezer and
Moses b. Moses Joshua (surnamed Weibelin). Many
physicians of the Wallich family were prominent in
Germany in the eighteenth century.
Subjoined is an abbreviated pedigree;

Moses Joshua Wallich
(Worms)

Isaac Wallich

(Metz; M.D. 1620)

Abraham Wallich

(Frankfort-on-the-Main ;

M.D. 1655)

David (Tewie) Wallich
(Treves ; M.D. ; d. 1691)

Mamele

= Simon Roste (Coblenz)

(Issue)

Judah Lob Isaac Meyer Wallich Solomon Wallich

Wallich Wallich I (Fraiikfort-on-

(M.D.;d. 1735) (Metz; Jacob Wallich „Vf "^h^'^^.q.

I M.D. 1683) (Metz; M.D. ; d. 1(49)

I 1 M.D. c. 1750) I

I I Lob

Abraham Isaac ((j. 1782)

Abraham Wallich

(M.D.;(1. 1799)

= Liische

Solomon Wallich Michel Wallich Lob Wallich Feifer Wallich
(d. 1808) (d. 1809) (d. 1810)

Bibliography : H. Schultze, Gesch. der Familie Wallich ;
Monatsschrift, 1905, passim.

The following are the more important members;

Abraham ben Isaac Wallich : Physician ; born
at Metz; flourished at Frankfort-on-the-Main in the
second half of the seventeenth century. He went to
Padua to study medicine, obtaining his diploma,
"maxima cum laude," in 1655; and in 1657 he went
to Frankfort to practise as a physician. He was the
author of a Hebrew treatise on medicine entitled
"Sefer Refu'ot," or, as he called it in Latin, " Har-
monia Wallichis Medica" (published posthumously,
Frankfort-ou-the-Main, 1700). He tried to prove
that the ailments of the soul correspond to those of
the body and that they must be treated in the same
way. In this work he speaks alternately as a physi-
cian and as a preacher of morals.

Immanuel Wallich : Rabbi and physician of
Coblenz in the eia:lite('iitli century.

Joseph b. Meir Wallich : Physician ; the ear-
liest known member of the family; flourished at
Worms in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
He is known to have written in 1597, on a manu-
script of Isaac Israeli's translation of Ibnal-Yazzar's
"Zad al-Musafir," a bibliographical note in which
he confounded the translator with Isaac ben Joseph
Israeli. From this and from what has been said
above it may be concluded that Joseph b. Mei'r was
a collector of medical and rabbinical manuscripts.
He had in his possession also a copy of Bernard de
Gordon's "Sefer ha-Gebulim " (see Neubauer, "Cat.
Bodl. Ilebr. MSS." No. 2125, 4), the first leaf of
which was supplied in his own handwriting.

461

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Walton

Judah ben Abraham Wallich : Physician ;
lived ill Frankfort on-tlic-Main in the seventeenth'
and eighteenth centuries. He was theauthorof : (1)
" Dimyon iia-Kefu'ot " or " Harniouia WallicliisI^Ied-
ica AniniiC et Corporis" (Frankfort-ontiie-Main,
1700), a Jud.eo-Germau conipeudiuin of Ids father's
"Sefer Refu'ot," supplemented by a treatise on fever
in cldldren. (2) "Zori lia-Shamayemali " (Latin title,
" Tlieriaca Cd'lestis Wallichiana " ; German, " Himm'-
lischer Theriak"; ib. 1713). Of this work only the
German preface and the first Hebrew section are
extant; the remainder, winch was destroyed by fire,
was not published. (3) "Dankfest" {ib. 1716), a
thanksgiving memorial in pure German with Hebrew
characters; written on the occasion of the birth of
Archduke Leojiold of Austria (April 13, 1716).

Moses b. Eliezer Wallich: Scholar; lived at
Worms in tiie seventeenth century. He was the
author of " Sefer Meshalim " or " KuhBuch" (Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, 1687), a German collection of fables
adapted from Berechiah lia-Nakdan's " Mi.shle Shu'a-
lim " and Isaac ibn Sahulah's " JVIashal ha-Kadraoni."
This book is not to be confounded with a similar
work by Abuah.\m u. M..\tt.\thi.\s which bears the
same title.

Naphtali Hirz b. Abraham Wallich : Physi-
cian ; lived at Metz in the seventeenth century;
brother of Judah ben Abraham Wallich. He is
known as iiaving been the competitor of Solomon b.
Baruch of Lippstadt, who was appointed physician
to the Jewisli community of Metz. Solomon delayed
his arrival, and consequently the community ap-
pointed Naphtali Hirz in his stead. When Solomon
reached ]\Ietz a quarrel arose between the two phy-
sicians, Solomon urging his letter of appointment,
and Naphtali Hirz his priority. They continued
quarreling until 1695, when they were reconciled by
R. Gabriel Eskeles of Metz.

Solomon Wallich : Physician of Mayence, where
he died May 11, 1780: son of Immanuel Wallich.
Like his father, Solomon received a rabbinical edu-
cation in addition to his medical training.

Bibliography: A. Berliner, in Hebr. Bihl. vii. 83-83; Car-
inoly, Histoire des Mnlccins Juifs. pp. 300, 207; Furat, Bihl.
Jud. iii. 493; Steinschneider, ('at. Binll. cols. 1377-1378, 2008;
idem, Hebr. Uehers. pp. 704, 959: Horovltz, JUdische Ae.rzte.
pp. 30-32; Landau, Gesch. der JUdischen Aerzte, p. 116.

I>. M. Sel.

WALLIS (VALAIS). See Switzekland.

WALLS (non, ~i"'p, fj^n): The walls erected by
the Canaanites for the jMotection of their farmyards
consisted of great unhewn blocks of stone, and rem-
nants of them still exist, especially in the east-Jor-
dan district. Walls of fortifications and towns were
similar in structure, although many large cities may
have had ramparts of hewn stone. Unburned bricks
were also used for walls, and the excavations at
Tell al-Hasi (Lachish) have brought to light brick
walls between nine and ten feet thick. Less thick
are the walls at Tell el-Mutasallim (.Megiddo),
whicli show a combination of both materials, the
base being of unhewn stone, on which layers of
brick are laid. The dimensions of the bricks at
Megiddo are about 50 y 33 X 13 cm., and tlie size of
tlie Canaanite walls filled the Israelites with alarm
(Num. xiii. 28; Deut. i. 28). 1

The construction of walls (..
long retained by the IsraelUes. s ']

Solomon l)uilt tlie outtT wall of h,
stone (I Kings xii. 12). ihc .k
structure (ih. verses 9-11) gl.owa thai ,

the usual style of archiU-ctnn-
innovation which aroused ilie :;
temporaries. Herein, moreover, is u-co i
ence of the Tyrians, wlio de«|pju-<| • <

Solomon, for Phenician areliJtiTture in ■ j

by its partiality for large blocks of hewn slooe
The choice of material wub doubtless m- • i

primarily by the locnlity. since in the i, ,

there was no lack of stone, while in the pl«ins
bricks were used for liouscs and even for the
walls.

The walls were generally broad, for the •
stood on them (comp. Isa. xxxvi. H; Neh. xu .n.
I Mace. xiii. 45), and engines of war w»<r»' nlwi
placed thereon (II Chron. xxvj. 18). lin
(mJD, nM^\^ [Isa. liv. 12] probably lias .. -
meaning) were likewise built to protect the p
(II Chron. I.e.). Strong towers were (
the corners and gates, as well as on the .. ..
intervals. The entrance was built in an
may still be seen at Jerusalem ; and the : i

outer gates were closed with doors covt :
iron plates and fitted with iron bolts. A
wark (fj-TI; Isa. xxvi. ; Ps. xlviii. 14 [A. V
a protective glacis was frequently const r
some distance before the main wall. See a
TRESS ; House ; Tower.

E. G. H. I. Bt.

WALOZIN. See Volozhin.

WALTON, BRYAN : Chri.stian Hebrai.st ; iK.rti
in 1600 at Hilton, Yorkshire. England: died in l^n
don Nov. 29, 1661; educated at Magduhn. miuI
Peterhouse colleges, Cambridge. He I- i

London clergyman and was involved in ;... j
tion of tithes raised by John Seldcn, but wa* ;i;
pointed king's chaplain, and, aft<T !
by the Parliamentarians, went to 0.\; ; . .
king. There he formed the project of i i

polyglot Bible, better and cheaper tlian th»
had appeared at Paris as late as the year 1'
1652 he issued a circular on the subject, and
scriptions were obtained undir tl'
Seldeu and Ussher. The work, w
volumes, was publislied between 1654 and 1657 in
nine languages, thougii no s ' ' '
with more than eight versions
was done by Castell, who compile*! the H
Lexicon as a supjdement totlie T' ' ' "
prolegomena were printinl as u
in Germany (Leipsic, 1777) and in fcngiaod (« an-
terburv, 1828).

The '• Biblia Sacra Polyelotta " wawonoof
liest books printed by -
price being £10 for the
cated his work to the I' .
II. came to the throne, the
to one in honor of the king. — -, ,
Bishop of Chester in 1660. Walton's I
been the standard work up to the pre»ci>', '

Wandering Jew
War

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

462

its texts scarcely meet the requirements of modern

scholarship.

Bibliography : Diet. National Biography.

T. [

■WANDERING JEW : Imaginary figure of a |
Jerusaium shuemaker who. taunting Jesus on the
way to crucifixion, was told by him to "go on for-
ever till I return." The legend first appeared in a
pamphlet of four leaves entitled " Kurtze Beschrei-
bung und Erzahlung von einem Juden mit Namen
Ahasverus." This professes to have been printed
at Leyden in 1602 by ChristolT Crutzer, but no
printer of that name has been discovered, and the
real place and printer can not be ascertained. The
legend spread quickly throughout Germany, no less
than eight different editions appearing in 1602;
altogether forty appeared in Germany before the
end of the eighteenth century. Eight editions in
Dutch and Flemish are known ; and the story soon
passed to France, the first French edition appearing
in Bordeaux, 1609, and to England, where it ap-
peared in the form of a parody in 1625 (Jacobs and
Wolf, "Bibliotheca Anglo- Judaica," p. 44, No. 221).
The pamphlet was translated also into Danish and
Swedish; and the expression "eternal Jew" is cur-
rent in Czech. The pretended existence of the Wan-
dering Jew, who is stated to be met with from time
to time in all of these countries, was eagerly seized
upon amidst the religious disturbances caused by
the Reformation, as furnishing an eye-witness of
the crucifixion. The various appearances claimed
for him were at Hamburg in 1547; in Spain in
1575; at Vienna, 1599; Liibeck, 1601 ; Prague, 1602;
Liibcck, 1603; Bavaria, 1604; Ypres, 1623; Brussels,
1640; Leipsic, 1642; Paris, 1644; Stamford, 1658;
Astrakhan, 1672; Frankenstein, 1676; Munich, 1721 ;
Allbach, 1766; Brussels, 1774; and Newcastle, 1790.
The last appearance mentioned appears to have
been in America in the year 1868, when he was re-
ported to have visited a Mormon named 0 'Grady
(see " Desert News," Sept. 23, 1868).

The figure of the doomed sinner, forced to wan-
der without the hope of rest in death till the millen-
nium, impressed itself upon the popular imagina-
tion, and passed thence into literary art, mainly with
reference to the seeming immortality

Influence of the wandering Jewish race. These
of Legend two aspects of the legend are repre-
on sented in the different names given to

Literature, the central figure. In German-speak-
ing countries he is referred to as " Der
EwigeJude" (the immortal, or eternal, Jew), while
in Romance-speaking countries he is known as "Le
Juif Errant" and "L'Ebreo Errante"; the English
form, probably because derived from the French,
has followed the Romance. The Spanish name is
"Juan Espera en Dios." The legend has been the
subject of poems by Schubart, Schreiber (1807), W.
Mliller, Lenau, Chamisso, Schlegel, Julius Mosen
(an epic, 1838), and Koehler ; of novels by Franz-
horn (1818), Oeklers, and Schucking; and of trage-
dies by Klinemann (" Ahasuerus," 1827) and Zedlitz
(1844). Hans Andersen made his " Ahasuerus " the
Angel of Doubt, and was imitated by Heller in a
poem on "The Wandering of Ahasuerus," which he
afterward developed into three cantos. Robert

Hamerling, in his " AhasverinRom" (Vienna, 1866),
identifies Nero with the Wandering Jew. Goethe had
designed a poem on the subject, the plot of which
he sketched in his "Dichtung und Wahrheit."

In France, E. Quinet published his prose epic on
the legend in 1833, making the subject the judg-
ment of the world ; and Eugene Sue wrote his "Juif
Errant "in 1844. From the latter work, in which
the author connects the story of Ahasuerus with that
of Herodias, most people derive their knowledge of
the legend. Grenier's poem on the subject (1857)
may have been inspired by Gustav Dore's designs
published in the preceding year, perhaps the most
striking of Dore's imaginative works. In England
— besides the ballad given in Percy's " Reliques " and
reprinted in Child's "English and Scotch Ballads"
(1st ed., viii. 77) — there is a drama entitled "The
Wandering Jew, or Love's Masquerade," written bj'
Andrew Franklin (1797). William Godwin's novel
"St. Leon" (1799) has the motive of the immortal
man, and Shelley introduced Ahasuerus into his
"Queen Mab." George Croly's "Salathicl," which
appeared anonymously in 1828, treated the subject
in an imaginative form; it has been recently re-
printed under the title "Tarry Thou Till I Come"
(New York, 1901).

According to L. Neubaur, the legend is founded
on the words given in Matt. xvi. 28, which are in-
deed quoted in the earliest German pamphlet of
1602. So, too, from John xxi. 20 et seq. a legend
arose in the Church that St. John would not die
before the second coming of Jesus;
Origin of while another legend declares that the

Legend, attendant Malchus, whose ear St.
Peter cu*^ J in the garden of Geth-
semane (John xviii. 10), was condemned to wander
till the second coming. His action is associated in
some way with the scoflfing at Jesus, and is so rep-
resented in a broadsheet which appeared in 1584.
An actual predecessor of the Wandering Jew is
recorded in the " Flores Historiarum " by Roger of
Wendover in the year 1228. An Armenian arch-
bishop, then visiting England, was asked by the
monks of St. Albans about the celebrated Joseph of
Arimathea, who had spoken to Jesus, and was
still alive. The archbishop answered that he had
himself seen him in Armenia, and that his name was
{^artaphilus; on passing Jesus carrying the cross he
had said: "Go on quicker," Jesus thereupon an-
swering: "I go; but thou shalt wait till I come."
Matthew Paris included this passage from Roger of
Wendover in his own history; and other Armenians
appeared in 1252 at the Abbey of St. Albans, repeat-
ing the same story, which was regarded there as
a great proof of the Christian religion (Matthew
Paris, "Chron. Majora," ed. Luard, London, 1880,
v. 340-341). The same archbishop is said to have
appeared at Tournai in 1243, telling the same story,
which is given in the "Chronicles of Phillip
Mouskes," ii. 491, Brussels, 1839. According to
Guido Bonnati, the astrologer known to Dante, this
living witness of the crucifixion was known as Jo-
hannes Buttadaeus because of his having struck
Jesus. Under this name he appears at Mugello in
1413 and in Florence in 1415 (S. Morpurgo,
"L'Ebreo Errante in Italia," Florence, 1891).

463

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA

Wander inif Jaw
War

It is difficult, however, to connect this Carta-
philus, Buttadseus, or Buttadeo with the later
Aliasiierus of the pamphlet of 1602, no trace being
found either in popular legend or in literature dur-
ing the intervening two centuries. Graetz supposes
that the somewhat different picture given of the
Wandering Jew in a book called "The Turkish
Spy " (1044), in which work the Wandering Jew is
called "Sieur Paule Marrana," and is said to have
passed through the tortures of the Inquisition in
Spain, Portugal, and Rome, was derived from a
>Iarauo author (see, however, Boswell's "Life of
Johnson," under date April 10, 1783, and Malone's
note). Moncure D. Conway attempts to connect
the legend with others of immortal beings, as those
of King Arthur, Frederick Barbarossa, and Tiiomas
the Rhymer, not to speak of Rip Van Winkle. These
again he connects with immortals visiting the earth ;
as Yima in Parsism, and the "ancient of days" in
the books of Daniel and Enoch. Yima and Enoch,
as well as Elijah, are also credited with immortality ;
but there is no evidence of any connection of those
names with the legend of the Wandering Jew which,
as stated above, was put into currency in 1602 in
Germany, by some one who was acquainted with
the earlier form of the story known only in literary
sources from Matthew Paris.

Bibliography: G. Paris, LeJuif Errant, Paris, 1881; M. D.
Conway, The Wandering Jew. London, 1881 ; H. Graetz, in
Papers of the Anglo-Jewish Historical Exhihition, pp. 1-t ;
Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, v. 1834-1836, Rotterdam, 1707;
Graesze, Der Tannhduser und der Eivige Jude, Dresden,
1861 ; .lacob Bibliophile, in Curiosites des Croyance^ Popu-
laires, pp. 105-141, Paris, 1859; Neubaur. Die Sa^e vom
Ewigen Juden, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1893.

«J.

"WANDSBECK: Town in Sleswick-Holstein,
near Hamburg. About the year 1600 Count Breido
Rantzau, owner of the estate of Wandsbeck, al-
lowed Jews to settle there in consideration of a
small yearly payment for protection. Many Jews
availed themselves of this permission, attracted by
the town's proximity to Hamburg, where Jews were
not allowed to settle at that time. According to a
document of Nov. 10, 1637, Berend of Hagen, called
Geist, feudal tenant of the Danish crown estate of
Wandsbeck, ceded to the Jews a plot for a cemetery
and permitted them "to perform their prayers and
other rituals according to their customs."

In 1674 the community of Wandsbeck formed to-
gether with those of Altona and Hamburg the
"union of the three communities," acknowledging
as its spiritual head the chief rabbi of Altona, the
first being R. Hillel ben Naphtali. The three com-
munities continued united until 1811 (see Ai.tona;
Hamburg). Wandsbeck had to pay one-eighth of
the chief rabbi's salary, Altona paying five-eighths,
and Hamburg one-fourth. In 1688 the Jews of
Wandsbeck obtained the right to receive into their
congregation Jews living elsewhere, a payment
being exacted for their protection. They made use
of this privilege by forming a branch community in
Hamburg, which soon became larger than the origi-
nal community at Wandsbeck. Since 1710, when
German Jews received unrestricted permission to
settle in Hamburg, the community of Wand.sbeck
has diminished rapidly. Its relations witii the com-
munities of Altona and Hamburg were not always

the best. In 1773 the WandBt

put under bun for having c'\ .

share of tiie cfxniiiuiui! i

the poor. Riibbi JuouIj i.:.... .

settle this dispute.

For a list of the niM
union of the (iirt'c vu\. :,

Mireis Neumark (d. 1706) lo U. JJt-hi II /

(d. 1H07), see Ai.To.NA. AT'
union in 1811, WandHbock
binate of Altona until the community in
gaged Dr. Hanover (d. 1901) n
succeeded by S. BumbergiT, tir

An official list of the niernl)cn! of the \V .
community compiled in 1784 ' ' ^

of 123 lainilics(ex(lusivcof un: I

widows). At present (1905)lijere are almut sixiy
Jewish families in the town.

Bibliography: Narhrich'- <• '■■" ''- > n^.^h..i.t, ,.,
fassung dis A<llirlini '■ :

Haarbleicher, Zwei Ejjik i-
Israelitis>chen Gemciiule Jluihln,

Iwwah le-Momhali. Crm-ow, IWO; ' ■

Deutsche Juden bis zur Au/I6sunu •/< r ur tvja
1903.
D. .\ r

WANDSWORTH, LORD SIDNEY
STERN : English banker and peer: boru in I^tmlon

1845; son of Viscount de Stern, senior j . f

the firm of Stern Brothers. He wu-s e<! ii

Magdalene College, Cambridge, and was o

time a member of the firm estahlivi

He has, however, retired from bu-

(1905) a justice of the peace for Sum-y aii'; \.

an honorary colonel of the Fourth V

talion of the East-Surrey Itegiment. u

dent of the Lfudon and Counties Radical

After several attempts to enter T'

Surrey, 1880, 1884; Tiverton, 1>-

1886) he was elected in May. 1891. by the- ~

ket division of Suffolk, which he rci :

his elevation to the peerage (July 19.

also a Portuguese viscount by hereditary

Chron. Auk.5. IKC; Jew(»h iftt ll-—k.

n I

Union.
■■ I-

■it

BIRLIOGRAPHY : JcW.

.5665.
J.

WANEFRIEDEN, ELIAK^
LIK: Dayyan and prcacluT in
the end of the eighteenth century, i :
pamphlet entitled " "^^
1790), containing soiii'
R. Saul LOwenstamm. chict niblii ot A
His familyname points to Wii-'-
birthplace, but lie is not idiii;
Getschlik Wancfrieden who
Moravia, about 1760 ("!'•
70-71). The latter was p;
niiah ben Eliakim Getschiik >

Rausnitz, Moravia, at'

Jonatlian EvnKsruri

("Luhot *F:dut." p. 2»8. Ailoua. 1

BIBLIOORAPHY : Fflrgt, B<W. Jud. m. 4tti.

WAR. -Biblical Data : Tl
corded in the Olil

king Cliedorlaoni'

kings of Sodom and its adjacent

/-. f-^ ry* ^ /-*

■f

>•
;n

.<ui. xiv. 1

"War

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

464

et teq.). The result of the couflict was the destruc-
tion of tbe vanquished army in the field and the
captivity of all the noucuuibatants, whose posses-
sions became spoils of war. lu the battle the troops
were arranged in order (Gen. xiv. 8, K. V.), and the
King of Sodom and his four allies displayed a cer-
tain degree of strategy by tightiug in a valley, al-
though their plan proved unsuccessful. Some mod-
ern seliolars infer from the obscure passage II Sam.
xi. 1 that wars were regularly begun in the spring.
In many instances negotiations were
Details, carried on through messengers or am-
bassadors to avert bloodshed (Judges
xi. 12-28; I Sam. xi. 1-10; I Kings xx. 2-11); and
the Hebrews were expressly forbidden to make an
attack without lirst demanding the surrender of the
enemy (Deut. xx. \Q et seq.). The only instance in
which war was declared without previous negotia-
tions was that of the war between Amaziah, King of
Judah. and Jehoash, King of Israel (II Kings xiv. 8).
In addition to the various modes of Divination
employed by all the nations before setting out for
war (comp. Ezek. xxi. 26 et seq.), the Israelites
consulted Ynwii, who was not only their divin-
ity, but also the war-god par excellence (comp.
Ex. XV. 3. and the frequent phrase niN3V niH"'),
deciding whether they should begin the war and
whether they would be successful (Judges i. 1 ;
XX. 18, 23). In these passages the manner of con-
sultation is not indicated, but from other sec-
tions and from the Septuagint it may be inferred
that the priest put on the ephod and stood before
tiie Ark to consult the Urim and Thummim (Judges
XX. 27-28; I Sam. xiv. 18, xxviii. 6, xxx. 7). Oc-
casionally the divinities were consulted through
dreams or prophets, or even through familiar spirits
evoked by a witch (Judges vii. 13; I Sam. xxviii. 6
etseq.; I Kings xxii. 15). Troops were generally
summoned. by the blowing of a trumpet or the war-
horn, which was likewise the signal that warned the
people of an enemy's approach (Judges iii. 27; II
Sam. XX. 1; comp. Ezek. xxxiii. 2-11), although
sometimes banners were placed on the tops of high
mountains or messengers were sent through the dif-
ferent tribes of Israel (Judges vii. 24; I Sam. xi. 7;
Isa. xiii. 2). Occasionally extraordinary means were
used to arouse a popular feeling of indignation which
would ultimately impel the nation to make war, as
in the case of the Levite who cut the body of his
concubine into twelve parts and sent them to the
other tribes of Israel, thus kindling between them
and the Benjamites the war which resulted in the
destruction of the latter tribt (Judges xix. 29 et seq. ;
comp. also I Sam. xi. 7).

The army of the Israelites was always accom-
panied to the field by a priest, Phinehas liaving this
post in the battle with the Midianites
The War- (Num. xxxi. 6). It was the duty of
Priest. the priest to care for the spiritual wel-
fare of the soldiers and, before the at-
tack, to encourage them and to inspire martial en-
thusiasm in them (Deut. xx. 2-4). Sometimes,
however, the high priest himself went upon the field,
where he attenderl the Ark, which was carried into
action quite as idols and images were borne into
battle by the Philistines (I Sam. iv. 3-4; II Sam. v.

21, xi. 11). Like other Semites, the Israelites began
a war with burnt offerings and fasting (Judges vi.
20, 26; XX. 26; I Sam. vii. 9, xiii. 10), this explain-
ing the frequency of the phrase "to sanctify war,"
and the epithet "sauctilied" as applied to warriors
(Micah iii. 5; Isa. xiii. 3; Jer. vi. 4, xxii. 7). A sin-
gle instance is recorded, though in obscure terms, of
a human sacrifice as a burnt offering in a time of
extreme danger (II Kings iii. 27). According to a
passage of D, furthermore, the officers of the He-
brew troops were required to proclaim before a battle
that whosoever had betrothed a Avife and had not
taken her, or had built a house and had not dedicated
it, or had planted a vineyard and had not eaten of it,
or was fearful and faint-hearted, should return home
(Deut. XX. 5-9). This regulation was actually car-
ried out under the Maccabees (I Mace. iii. 56), which
shows that the document is of a post-exilic date.

From the geographical condition of Palestine,
the raid was the favorite mode of warfare both
among the Hebrews and among the other Semites
(Gen. xlix. 19; I Sam. xiii. 17, xxvii. 8; II Sam. iii.
22; II Kings xiii. 20), although in the
Raids. course of time regular battles were
fought, and in certain cases tactics of
modern warfare were employed. The first instance
recorded was in the battle of Gibeah between the
tribes of Israel and the Benjamites (Judges xx. 30
et seq.). After laying an ambush behind the city,
the Israelites pretended to flee from the Benjamites,
thus enticing the latter from their fortified positions.
Suddenly the Israelites wheeled, and the Benjamites
found themselves outflanked on all sides. It is also
probable that in the battle of Gilboa between the
Philistines and the army of Saul, the Philistines re-
sorted to strategy by striking northward at the plain
of Esdraelon instead of attacking the Israelites by
the shorter route from the southwest. By this de-
vice, which proved completely successful, the Phi-
listines lured Saul's army from the valleys, where a
stout defense could be offered, to the open plain,
where the Israelites might be overwhelmed by sheer
forceof numbers (I Sam. xxviii. 1-xxxi. 7). A strong
army was sometimes divided so that the enemy
might be attacked from different directions (Gen.
xiv. 15; II Sam. xviii. 2), and ambuscades were
often used with success (Josh. xiii. 10-28; Judges
XX. 30-44; II Kings vi. 8-9). Night marches were
particularly in favor with the Hebrews ; thus Joshua
marched at night, Gideon assailed the Midianites
about midnight, and Saul attacked the Ammonites
before dawn (Josh. x. 9; .ludges vii. 19; I Sam. xi.
11). It may be noted that night marches were made
by other Semites as well, for Nebo was captured
from the Israelites by Mesha, King of Moab, after
such a march (Moabite Inscription, line 1.5). An in-
stance is likewise recorded in which the Philistines
chose a champion who challenged one of the oppo-
sing army to a duel to decide the fate of both forces
(I Sam. xvii. 4 et seq.). Such proceedings were
afterward much in vogue among the Arabs in their
pre-Islamic tribal conflicts.

Fortresses played an important part in war, espe-
cially in defense. In early times the Israelites
were unable to reduce the fortified cities of the in-
habitants of the land, and consequently had no means

465

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

W»r

of defense except to hide themselves in caves or
mountains (Judges vi. 2; I Sam. xiii. 6; conip. Isa.
ii. 21); ])Ut in the regal period they
Fortresses, became so proficient in the art of war-
fare that they not only reduced the
fortressesof the eueniy, beginning with Jerusalem (II
Sam. V. 7 et seq.), but also built many fortified cities.
The chief method of reducing one of these towns
seems to have been lo throw up around the walls
a bank, from which the archers might shoot their
arrows into tlie place; while an instance is recorded
from an earlier period in which the gates of a city
were set on fire (Judges ix. 48 et seq.). According
to a marginal note on I Kings xx. 12, R. V., the
Syrians used engines in their ctTort to reduce Samaria,
while similar machines were frequently employed in
addition to the battering-nun for breaching walls in
the time of Ezekiel (Ezek. iv. 2, xxvi. 8-9). The
strength of the walls and the etticiency of the be-
leaguering army naturally conditioned the length of
a siege. Thus Jericho, which fell in consequence
of a miracle, was taken after a continuous onslaught
of seven days (Josh. vi. 'd et seq.), but the Syrian
sieges in Samaria were doubtless lengthy since they
entailed terrible famines, and Jerusalem was cap-
tured by the Babylonians only after a siege of two
years, despite the systematic operations of Nebu-
chadnezzar (II Kings xxv. 1-4). In their sieges the
Hebrews were forbidden to fell fruit-trees for use in
building bulwarks against the fortified city (Deut.
XX. 19-20).

The accounts of wars in the patriarchal period
show that the conquered peoples were reduced to
captivity and their property was taken as spoils of
war. In the case of the Shechemites, all the males
were massacred by the sons of Jacob, while the
women and children and all their possessions were
carried off as booty (Gen. xxxiv. 25-29). Later, ac-
cording to a document belonging to D (Deut. xx.
10-17), the Hebrews were commanded to make a
wide distinction between the inhabitants of the land
whom they were to replace and the Gentiles out-
side the land. Mildness was to be showm the latter
in case they surrendered without fighting and sub-
mitted to pay tribute. If they were subdued by
force of arms, however, every man was to be slain,
while the women, children, cattle, and
Treatment all else should belong to the victors,
of Far different was to be the treatment

Captives, of the inhabitants of the land, wlio
were to be slaughtered without excep-
tion, not even the cattle being left alive. If this
passage is of early date, it is evident that the com-
mand with regard to the inhabitants of the land was
only partially executed, since, excepting the thirty-
one kings enumerated in Josh. xii. 9-24, the greater
part remained unconquered, and the Israelites were
obliged to live with the very Gentiles whom they
had been bidden to exterminate (comp. Josh, xviii.
2-3; Judges i. 21-35). Even when the Israelites
proved victorious, they often granted the inhabit-
ants their lives, and subjected them only to tribute
(Judges i. 28, 30, 33, 35). At a later period, how-
ever, gross cruelty was practised both by the He-
brews and by the other nations. After having de-
feated the Moabites, David cast them down to the
XII.— 30

ground and measunfd

death two lines and keepii

2), while he put the Ami

rows, and a.xes of iron mid ,

the brick-kiln {ih. xii. 31). Mcnaliem. K

the Syrians, and the Anitnniiit«'h arc- .

the mas.sacre of pregnant woincn (U K

XV. IG; Amo.H i. IS); and Ania/.iidi ih

causing ten thousand Edoniitef ■■ • •

from a cliff (II Chron. xxv. ].

stances children were dashed ngainm roclw

cxxxvii. 9).

Tiicre are instances of treatic>8 of p<iice In w
conditions were imposed by tlic virtoru on
feated foes. Tlie first treaty recorded ik th
Nahash, King of Ammon, projMisetl to the ;

Jabcsii-gilead, and w
Conditions by the savagery oi

of Peace, king, the terni.s Ix-inc that •
eye of every in'
should be put out (I Sam. xi.
might almost have been made in dukI.
the other hand, was drawn up \h'
and Ahab; by it the cities pre
from Israel were to be restored, while Alia'
right of making streets in Damascus, i'
ditions having been previously imp.
father of Ahab by Bcn-hadad's father (1 K
31). Sennacherib, in the treaty with !'
which he withdrew liis army from Ji.
a heavy indemnity from the Jewish king (11 h
xviii. 14). The victors generally retur* ' '
triumphal processions and celebrated i
with songs and festivals (Judges v. 1 -
xvi. 23; comp. Prism Inscription, col. 1. .m. .»
Schrader, " K. B.," ii. 141 et »tq.).

The wars in the earlier period wen
character and tiius had the sanction of •
Deborah herself urged Barak to make
and accompanied him into the field (.1
seq.), while Elisha exhorted Joash. Kin;,
prosecute the war with Syria and advi

kings toavail tin ■
Attitude of against the Moui .:

the iv. \^etstq.,x\\\. 14-19).

Prophets, ymous prophet ■
battle with Ben
13-14). Naturally the Propheta were oj
war among the tribes of T
boam wished to resort tc
sovereignty over the ten trilx-s. he was
the prophet Shemaiah (ih. xii. 21-24). 1
the Prophets considered war from n t
of view, and Jeremiah, .seeing t
the Babylonians woulii ' •
Israelites, always advi-
stronger people and live ;
xxvii. 12<'//)'7jwiwi). Wari
by the I^ter Prophets onl>
many of them, pr
time when there ^^.....
weapons should be tr
implements (Isa. ii. 4; .Miiah iv. 3. ai.
See Ahmv: Fortkkss.

In Rabbinical Literature: Tl

special stress on the distinclio;

hkli

Warranty of Title

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

466

war (-niilhemet mizwab." or '^milhemet hobah")
and voluntary war ("milhemet ha-reshut"). The
former category comprised the campaigns against
the seven nations who inhabited the hind, the battles
against Amalek, and the repulse of an enemy attack-
ing an Israelitish city; while the latter classdenoted
any war waged for the extension of Jewish territory.
Obligatory war had the priority, nor was it neces-
sary for the king to ask the permission of the San-
hetirin to levy troops, since he could compel the
people to take the field. Voluntary war. on the
other hand, could be declared only by the Great San-
betlrin of seventy -one members. Although certain
persons were permitted by Deut. xx. 5 et seq. to
leave the field before a battle began, this was al-
lowed, according to rabbinical opinion, only in case
of a voluntary war. No such leave of withdrawal was
grantL'il in an obligatory war, but, on the contrary,
even a bridegroom and bride were obliged to leave
their nuptial chamber and join the army (Sotah 44b ;
Sanh. '2a. 20b; ^ilaimonides, "Yad," Melakim, v.
1-2). The Rabbis dillered greatly regarding the
terms of peace to be offered the inhabitants of a be-
leaguered city (Deut. xx. \0 et seq.). According to
Sifre, Deut. 199, which was followed by Kashi (on
Deut. I.e.), peace might be proposed only in a volun-
tary war, while in an obligatory war no terms should
be allowed. It would appear, however, from Lev.
R. xvii. 6 and Deut. R. v. 13 that peace might be
offered even in an obligatory war, and this was es-
tablished as a law by Maimonides (I.e. vi. 1; comp.
Nahmauideson Deut. I.e.). According to both Mai-
monides and Xahmanides, the command of exter-
mination which was imposed regarding the seven
nations (Deut. xx. 16-17) was applied only in case
the beleaguered people refused to surrender. The
submission in consideration of w liich the conquered
were granted their lives had to be complete, since
they were required to accept the seven command-
ments of the Noachidte, and were obliged to pay
tribute and to recognize their condition pf servitude
(Maimonides, I.e.).

In direct opposition to the obvious interpretation
of Deut. xx. 5-9, the Rabbis declared that all the
proclamations contained in that passage were made
by the priest anointed as the chaplain of the army
Cmcshuah milhamah"), and the verses were inter-
preted as meaning that the priest made the proclama-
tions and the officers repeated them to the troops,
who could n(jt hear the priest (Sotah 43a; Maimon-
ides. I.e. vii. 1, 4; comp. Sifre, Deut. 193). A
Jewish army was forbidden to begin the siege of
a Gentile city less than three days before the Sab-
bath, but it might continue its operations on that day
even in a voluntary war. The army was permitted
to enaimp in any place, and tiie slain soldiers were
to be buried in the place where they had fallen,
since the combat had made it their own.

The Jewish soldiers enjoyed four privileges: they
miglit take wood anywiiere without incurring the
charge of robbery; they were permitted to eat fruit
even though it was not certain that it had been
properly tithed ("demai"); and they were exempt
from washing their hands and from " 'erubehazerot "
(Shab. 19a: 'Er. 17a;Tosef., *Er. iv. [iii.] 7; ' see also
'Ekub). In besieging a Gentile city, the troops

Wen- ((Minnanded to invest it on three sides and
to leave one side free so that any one who wished
might escape from the town (Maimonides, I.e. vi.
7). During the seven years consumed by Joshua's
conquest of Palestine tiic Israelitish soldiers were
allowed to eat any food which they found in the
houses of the Gentiles, even though sucii pr<)vi.sions
were forbidden under all other circumstances (Hul.
17a; Maimonides, I.e. viii. 1).

E. c. M. Sel.

WARBURG : Family whose members are widely
spread throughout Germany, Denmark, Sweden,
Enelaud, and America. There is a tradition that
the family was originally settled at Bologna, but
emigrated to the Westphalian town of Warburg,
whence it removed to Allona, near Hamburg.

The earliest known bearer of the name is Levi
Joseph Warburg, whose son Jacob Samuel died
in 1G()7 at Altona. From him are descended two
branches, one through Samuel Moses Warburg-
(died 1759), known also as *• Fruukt'urter," and the
other through Samuel Reuben Warburg (ilied
1756), whose grandson R. D. Warburg (177W-1847)
founded the firm of Warburg in Hamburg. Samuel
]\Ioses Warburg had four sons: from tlie eldest,
Moses (died 1752), are descended the present branch
at Altona and the Copenhagen family of Delbanco,
which adopted that surname. The second, Gum-
prich (died 1801), was the father of Moses Marcus
Warburg (died 1830), who founded the firm of Closes
Marcus Warburg & Co., of Hamburg. The third,
Elia Samuel Warburg, said to have been a
teacher of mathematics in Altona, took part in the
Emden-Eybeschiitz quarrel. He was the founder
of two large branches of the Warburg famih*. Sam-
uel Ellas Warburg (died 1826) was the ancestor
of most of the Hamburg and American Warburgs
of to-day. The youngest son of Elia, Simon Elias
Warburg (1700-1828), settled in Goteborg as a
merchant, founding there a branch of his brother
Samuel's firm at Hamburg. He was one of the
founders of the Goteborg synagogue, and his two
sons, Samuel (1800-81) and Michael, were the
first Jews permitted to enter the public service
in Sweden. The former married Emma Gluck-
stadt, his cousin, and was a writer on economic sub-
jects, and a member of the Board of National Debt
Department from 1867 to 1879. He was decorated
with the Order of the North Star in 1860 ("Nordisk
Familjebok," xvii.).

The following members of the family have distin-
guished themselves: Moritz Gumprecht War-
burg, who settled at Manchester as a merchant, but
showed literary ta.3te, and ]nib!islied Shakespeare's
sonnets in German; Carl Simon Warburg, third
son of Samuel Warburg (1835-65); he was the editor
of "Svensk Monadsskrift," in which Mill's and Dar-
win's works were first presented to the Swedish
public; Frederick Elias Warburg, second son of
Samuel Warburg (born at Stockholm in 1833; died
in London in 1899); as a director of the Electric
Traction Company he was one of the t'oundcrs of
the Central London Electric Railway ; Moritz War-
burg (born in 1810 at Altona; died there in 1886),
who was educated for the law, and ultimately be-
came "Justizrat" and represented Altona in the

467

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPKDJA

V,-

Reichstag; Moritz's second son, Jacob (horn i«4,S).
who was killeci in battle during the Frunco-Pnissiaii
war; and Moritz's eldest sou, Albert (born 184;]),
who has been appointed " Coninierzienrat,"

Of the London branch, founded by Mendel Mar-
tin Warburg- (boru 1789; died 1877), the younger
son, James, has settled at ^Maiulicster, where lie
is known as a musician. Moses Delbanco (born
1784; died 1S48) attained the distinguished i)osilion
of " Cancelliraad " at Copenhagen. Aby Warburg-
(born 1860) is known as an art critic and historian.
Karl Johann Warburg (born in 1852 at Stock-
holm) is a historical and biographical writer of im-
portance, has been appointed librarian of the Nobel
Institute, and is a member of the Upper House of
Sweden. Otto Warburg- studied at Berlin, where
he is now professor of natural history, and is promi-
nent in the Zionist movement. Emil Warburg is
a professor at Freiburg and ('lKirlotten!)urg. One
of the daughters of Marcus Warburg married H.
Lassen, and her son was the composer and musical
director, Eduard Lassen.

Felix M, Warburg- (born in 1871 at Hamburg)
settled in New York, where he joined the firm of
Kuhn, Loeb & Co. He is at present (1905) commis-
sioner of education in the citj' of New York, and is
also one of the trustees of the Jewish Theological
Seminar}' of America.

One of the striking features of the family history
of the Warburgs is the practically world-wide ex-
tent of their wanderings and ultimate distribution,
the following places being mentioned in their pedi-
gree:

Altona

Melbourne

Stockholm

(iliiokstadt

Goteborg

Cassel

GriiKiel

Copenhagen

South America

Hiunliurg

Wandsbeck

Havana

London

Philadelphia

Leeds

India

Tokyo

GotUngen

Holstein

Shanghai

Hanau

Berlin

LiJneburg

Paris

Hanover

Manchester

New York

Freiburg

Equally remarkable is the variety of occupations
which the various members of this family have
taken up or married into. Among those mentioned
may be enumerated :

Saddlemaker

" Cancelliraad "

Merchant

Banker

Bookseller

Horsehair-dealer

Clock manufacturer

Book censor

Art critic

Wool dyer

Author

Consul

Paper manufac-
turer

Stationer

Ribbon merchant

Joiner (wholesale)

Shohet

Shawl manufac-
turer

Tobacconist

Lieutenant, R. N.

Musician

" Com merzlenrat "

"Justlzrat"

Soldier

Photographer

Company director

Doctor

Librarian

Editor

Naturalist

Professor

Conip<«er

Moritz Warburg : German jurist; born at Al-
tona June 8, 1810; died there April 15, 1886. He
studied at the colleges of Wolfenbl'ittel and Altona,
and at the universities of Heidelberg and Kiel. His
stiulics completed, he settled in Altona, where he
practised law for over fort}' years; in 1879 he was
appointed a counselor of justice. Warburg's name
is connected with the stirring events of 1848. in
which year he was elected to the Sleswic-klb'Ntiin

ei)nsliliu'nt ii.s.'M'inbly,

boily for twenty two nMi-i.u!

BUll.IOOM il'xv • /. .. I I.

' ;irtl Si, 1 '^..

L R

Otto Warburg- : <;iriii.', l
Haniliurg July 'J'-
studii-d ut tlieuniv.
burg. Having graduuU'd from th
versily, he continued ' '
Tliiiingen; and from 1
through soutiiern and euKtcrn
Herlin and bi-camc pri • '
imiversily in IHUl. Iii
pointed teai-licr of tropical
the Oriental Seminary , • ■
fessor in 1897. A few
interest him.self in Jew
for wliich purjiose he \.-.
and 190;i; and lie founded ti
in Asia Minor. He worked as
tive member of the Esra. an
agricultural movement anion^ t
in councftion thercwitli foundctl in i
Neiihof Agricultural Society.

Warburg is tlie author of: ** Mon-
risticaceen," in " Xfivu Acta I
(1897)— the De (.'andollc prize . .. .
nuss, Hire Gescliichte, Botanik. Kultur. i
wertung" (Leipsic. lH97h "I'ai '
"Pllanzenreich " (//*. 11)(M(). - I)i. :.
und Ihre Kultur" (BcHin, 1901); -M-
trilge zur Kenntni- ' '.'
Ostasiati.schen Mt:

"Die KuDene-Sambesi K.\p<diti«n." IV"
by the Colonial Agricultural ('■ • '"'

From 1897 to 19()a Warburg v.
editor of " Der Tropenpflanzi-r,
agriculture and the or ■■•• ' ■
tiiral Conimitt(-e. He i
collabonitors on the Zioir
tina" and " Altneuland." U ...
of the Palestine Commi.sslon of
and a member of llie smaller Acliuao i •

WARNING. See II.vtra'au.

WARRANTY OF TITLE : I
for warniuty of title X

.same word denoting' ti
which served as u r
the debtor at tlie inn- ■■!
lands or slaves wen» w>ld b\
to in.sert a clause by w '
to reimburse the buye;
bad or d(-fectivo tltU-.
very ancient ; !
quently (piite
oldest deeds of
Babylonians
ever, in every ^-. .
tcls (Maimonides. " Y:i
lian 'Aruk. ]}■
with the Talim
sion of llip warran'
sJL'lit of the d-
courts. The )

dcr Mr.

Warrens
Warsaw

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

468

n-iiuircd to make a special agreement to exempt the
seller from all respousibility, such a documeut re-
leasing him from every claim against liim, even if
i:<.(Hls°hail been sold him which were later claimed
bv the true owner, who had been deprived of them
by robbery. The most dangerous flaw in the title
-. . iiis to have been an outstanding bond against the
^. irr. or against his gmntor or ancestor, thus alTord-
iugau opportunity to levy for debt on the thing sold.
The warnmty secured the buyer not only against
the loss of his lands or slaves, but also against the
payment of mesne prolits (ntTD n^'SN). which he
niiglit otherwise have had to give the true owner
for wiihholding possession; but the covenant of
warranty, as far as it covered this uncertain and un-
liquidated liability, could be levied only on "free
property," not on "subjected property " (see Deed).
Tiie Mishnah refers incidentally to mesne profits and
to their inclusion in a warranty (Git. v. 3), and thus
limits the remedy (see Tout). The codes held that
the ordinary and the implied warranty of title could
be broken and give rise to a suit against the -svar-
rantor only in case the buyer was evicted or com-
pelled to pay a bond debt by a Jewish court, al-
though eitlier the decision of a Gentile court or an
adverse title appearing on the records kept by the
Gentiles was to be deemed an overpowering force.
Such a force might, however, have a special pro-
tective warranty, just as the seller might warrant
against the loss of his field through the action of a

neighboring river.
E. c.

L. N. D.

WARRENS, ROSA : Swedish poet and trans-
lator; born at Kailskrona Feb. 24, 1821; died at
Copenhagen Nov. H, 1878. At the age of five she
went with her parents to Hamburg, where she re-
mained until her father's death in 1861. She then
moved to Berlin with her mother, and after the lat-
ter's death in the summer of 1878, she settled at
Copenhagen. She devoted herself chiefly to Swe-
dish literature and Norse mythology, translating into
German the northern folk-songs in the original
meters. The fruits of these studies were the follow-
ing volumes: "Swedische Volkslieder der Vorzeit"
(1856) ; " Danische Volkslieder " (1858) ; " Schottische
Volkslieder" (1861): "Zwei Lieder der Edden"
(1863); "Norwegische Volkslieder," "Islilndische
Volkslieder." and "Finnische Volkslieder" (1868).
A volume of her original poems appeared in 1873.

Bibliography: AUo- Deutnche Bingraphie; Franz Brtimmer,
Drutncfie Didder und PromiMen dru yeunzchiiten Jahr-
)i It niltrtei ; Una Morgenstern, Die Frauen dea Neumeh}iten
Jn)irhunderti.

p R. N.

WARS OF THE LORD, BOOK OF THE

(mrr non^O IDD) : A work mentioned in a single
passjigc of liie Old Testament (Num. x.\i. 14) in
connection with the geographical position of Arnon.
The title suggests that the book contained songs
celebrating the victories of the Israelites led by
Yuwu, and it seems, therefore, to have been .similar
to the Book of Jasher or possibly even identical
with it, though there is no evidence to support the
latter hypothesis. Modern scholars regard Num.
xxi. 17-18, 27 et neq. as extracts from the same book
(comp. i^ahmanides on Num. xxi. 14); and since

some of the facts there mentioned refer to an epoch
far subsequent to the Mosaic period, the last citation
being supposed by Stade(" Gesch. desVolkes Israel,"
i. 50) to refer to the time of Omri'sdj^nasty, the date
of its composition is variously placed in the ninth
century B.C. or in the reigns of David and Solomon
(Keuss, "Gesch. der Heiligen Schrift," p. 172). It
must be noted, however, that the Septuagint, read-
ing T\'\7\'' nDni?D> renders the title of the book Ho/.f/xof
Tov Kvplov, and refers its contents to one particular
war of Yiiwir. The verse which is said to be ex-
tracted from the bonk is extremel}' obscure, and the
words nSID^ 3ni ON in particular are variously but
unsatisfactorily interpreted. The Septuagint ren-
ders them Tt/v Zwo/3 k(l>Myiae, apparently reading
^"^U 2nT nX, which is unintelligible in meaning,
though it evidently contains some allusion to Diza-
hab. Jerome, following Onkelos, translated 3ni HN
"ho did," although it rather means "he gave."
Among Jewish commentators only Ibn Ezra and
Nahmanides postulated the existence of a "Book of
the Wars of Yuwn"; according to the former the
work had been written before the time of Abraham.
They also advanced the theory that Walieb was the
name of a place where the Israelites had waged wars
against their enemies. The Targumim understood
"the book" to denote the "Pentateuch" and inter-
preted the passage as meaning : " Therefore it is said
in the Book, the wars which Yiiwii," etc., while
Rashi and RaSHBaM translated 1203 "in the act of
narrating." Sayce ("The Academy," Oct. 22, 1892)
follows the Targumim in the general translation of
the passage, except that he adopts the Septuagint
reading anT instead of ani, and he accordingly dis-
poses of the theory that such a book ever existed.
s. M. Sel.

WARSAW: Capital of the Russo-Polish gov-
ernment of the same name, and former capital of the
kingdom of Poland ; situated on the left bank of the
Vistula. According to Polish writers, the earliest
settlement of Jews in \Yarsaw dates from the thir-
teenth century, and their influence at that time is
indicated by a number of documents in Hebrew
script preserved in the local archives. They at
first resided on the Jewish street near the present
Dunai street, whence they spread to other quarters
of the city, acquiring houses and lands, possessing a
cemetery, and owning a synagogue near St. John's
Church.

As in other cities, their growing influence awa-
kened commercial and social antagonism among the
citizens. The Christian merchants endeavored to
rid themselves of their Jewish competitors by in-
sisting on the strict application of the Magdeburg
Law, and continued their propaganda with varying
success until 1525, when Prince Janush of Mazovia
issued a decree which forbade the Jews to reside in
Warsaw or to pursue mercantile or industrial occupa-
tions in the city. This measure was not strictly en-
forced, however, for two years later Sigismund I.
was obliged to issue a similar decree with an addi-
tional clause which debarred the Jews from residence
even in the suburbs of Warsaw. This decree likewise
proved ineffective, since the Jews who were driven
from the city itself settled just beyond the walls,

469

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

W»rr«Da

waiting for more favorable legislation whicji would
permit tliem to leturu. By tliis expedient t liey were
still enabled to secure an iinjiortant portion of the
city trade, but in 1570 Si.t!:isnHiud Augustus issued
a more drastic decree couiainiug the loilowing pro-
visions:

(1) No Jew, Jewess, Jowisli child or servant (be the latter

Jewish or Christian) shall tJwell with property or wares on any

lands, municipal, royal, or clerical, wlihin

Provisions the limits of old Warsaw or New Warsaw, nor
of may he or she remain there even durin^r royal

Sigismund sojourns, excepting only at the time of the

Augustus. Diets, when Jews shall be permitted to visit
Warsaw for business purposes. („') The Jews
who have business connections in Warsaw shall be allowed to
sojourn there with the written consent of the magistrate: but
they shall not have the right to engajre in any trade or handi-
craft which may in any way interfere with the daily pursuits of
the citizens. Ci) The Jews shall have no riRlit to reside on any
grounds, or to trade or ply their handicrafts, within a radius of
two miles from Warsaw on either bank of the Vistula, imder
penalty of condscation. (4) It shall be the duty of the majr-
istrates and their successors at Warsaw to enforce the removal
of the Jews from the city and its environs without regard to any
extenuating circumstances or even to letters of exemption from
the king or his successors.

The commercial importance of the Jews as agents
of the king and higher nobility, as well as tlie an-
nual sessions of the Diets in Warsaw, rendered it im-
practicable to execute this ordinance, and the re-
peated protests and machinations of the Christian
gikls were unavailing, at least so far as a large
number of Jewish merchants Avas concerned. Peti-
tions for the exclusion of the Jews from Warsaw
and its suburbs were very frequent; and in 1580
King Stephen Bathori issued an edict forbidding the
Jews to reside in Warsaw or to lease city taxes or
property. Those Jews who were obliged to come to
Warsaw on business had to secure a special permit
from the city magistrates. It is evident that these
laws were enforced under Ladislaus IV., for on July
16, 1646, Marcus Neckel obtained the title of "gen-
eral Jewish delegate " in Warsaw. lu 1648 Ladislaus
reaffirmed the earlier restrictive decrees, although he
made an exception in favor of Neckel, ordering that
"Marcus, the Jewish delegate and royal agent, shall
not be molested or ridiculed." The subsequent royal
decrees of 1663, 1676, 1737, 1740, 1761, 1763, and 1770
confirmed the provisions of the earlier edicts. It is
evident, therefore, that the exclusion of the Jews
from Warsaw, like their expulsion from Riga and
other cities, was never wholly eflective. Deprived
of the right of permanent residence, they secured im-
munity and exemption by purchasing
Royal the good-will of the city magistrates.
Decrees, while, on the other hand, the Chiis-
tian merchants frequently paid bribes
to the city magistrates for the exclusion of tjieir
Jewish competitors. Thus in 1691, when i)repara-
tions were being made for the wedding of the crown
prince Jacob Sobieski, which was to be attended by
many guests, the merchants of Warsaw paid ten
silver thalers to the great crown marshal, and gave
lemons and oranges to the value of 54 Polish gulden,
in order that intercession might be made with the
king to withhold protection from the Jews.

In the reign of August III., Crown ^Marshal
Francisek Bieiiuski enforced the restrictive measures
against the Jews, and during his incumbency they

the
• r
.1

r«

M»
11
II

were penuitied to enUT W.irmiw only durios

sessions of tlio Diet. After I,

of things wuH restored. Tti-

LuhomirsUi issued sp.

silver groseheii eiicli. a,,.. ■ ,.

in Wur.Huw wiw onni|)ellc(| |.,

under penalty of inipriw»nni<ni, u

good for live days ouly. Tl

tickets reached ihc sum of

annually. I^irge Jewish cnlon„-s w

tile outskirts of tiiecityon Ian'- ■ •

of the Polish nobility. Then

tienwnis was " New .J.

present Jeru.salein g,i- . ......

lutiou of tiie city council whicli i v,

reside in New Jenisjderu, ^'

cessively eonihatcd the 1. _

tlen)eut. On Jan. 22. ;
Destruc- shal's L'liard ins '
tion of cunlisi :iie<l tin- ..j

"New Je- there, and demoliKluHl all tin- Jrwbh
rusalem,'' liouses. Tl. |,

1775. whicli was\ . j,

.sands of gulden, was aloml in the
arsenal and was later sold at piihlicauciion, Uie pro-
ceeds being returned to the Jews.

In the following year the Jcwss' n

to rebuild their houses, but had i .1

in large numbers in the ritv i«- '.,

1784. iiowever, Marshal M: o

expelling the Jews from \', ,.,^.... ,.

though it should be noted that th f

Polish society con<iemned the ill o

Warsaw Jews by the Christian ni< • .n

gilds. This is clear from the foil
for example, in the Warsjiw ;
Historyezo-Politiczny " (17s3, i ; .....
spectacles must we witness in the capital < a

holidays! Students and <
persecute the Jews and S' :..
sticks. We ourselves have seen a rehk »

Jew, stop his liorses. ami give him ,;

that he fell from the wagon. H ;

with indifference on such a survival of I
rism ? "

An agreement was then made w!th P^trr Tr^^r.
the banker of King Stanislaus \ i

the Jews to reside in 1*
suburbs of Warsjiw.

to both. Rasin became a »

a large volinne of trade :. ^'

magistrates were alnrme*! at tl
however, and att<

of the colony by tii..

finally forced to n-peal thi I

gave prrmis.sion to th-

iricts. The new Jew. .. , . '

located on the squart^ known a* Mn

theater sqtnire. S

erecteil tin re .n. <^

district.

The Jeu
ka, and D;i:

Trinity Church, at the comer
streets, Ii' " ' "- ■
tailors" gil'

Warsaw

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

470

Miasto, and in their fear of competition requested the
magistrates to expel the Jews from the city. They
demanded that their request be present-
Action of ed to the Diet, threatening, in case of
the Gilds, refusal, to take the matter into their
own hands. John Deckert, president
of the city council, referred the matter to the Diet,
and the latter appointed a commission to investigate
the grievances of the Christian gilds. The commis-
sion was informed that Jewish competition had forced
the petitioners to resolve either to destroy them-
selves or to annihilate their competitors. The Diet
accedetl to the demand of the Christian craftsmen
and ordered the expulsion of all Jewish traders and
craftsmen, allowing only those merchants and manu-
facturers to remain who kept important establish-
ments. As on former occasions, tiie Jews who had
been expelled gradually returned in the course of a
few weeks, and the Christian craftsmen, driven to
desperation, organized an anti-Jewish riot.

A Christian tailor. Fox, meeting a Jewish tailor
on the street, attempted to take from him some
clothing which he was carrying. He pursued the
Jew, who finally rallied around him some of his co-
religionists and had Fox imprisoned, wliereupon
Fox's workmen raised the cry that the Jews liad
killed their master. This was the signal for a riot.
A mob attacked the Jewish houses and stores, burn-
ing and pillaging everything in their way until
forced to desist by the troops. The Polish authori-
ties, fearing the outbreak of a revolution like the
one which was then raging in Paris, forcibly re-
stored order, arrested Fox and other leaders of the
outbreak, enforced the old restrictive regulations
against the Jews, and subjected the Jews transgress-
ing these laws to corporal puni.shment. During the
reign of Poniatowski the Jewish question received
increased attention among liberal Poles; and at the
sessions of the Four Years' Diet some reformers, in-
cluding Butrymovicz, Czacki, and Kollontai, pre-
sented projects for its settlement.

The occupation of Warsaw by the Prussians
brought about a beneficial change in the position of
the Jews. The Prussian government.
Under not recognizing the old city charters,
Prussian allowed them to live in Warsaw, per-
Rule. mitted tliem to organize a kahal for
the regulation of local Jewish alTairs,
aboli.shed rabbinical tribunals, and prohibited rab-
binical anathemas under penalty of fifty thalers' fine
anrl bani.shment for rabbis guilty of repeating
this offense. The new administration led to an in-
flux of Jews to Warsaw, thus giving rise to renewed
complaints from the Christian merchants. A census
of the Jewish population, ordered by the Prussian
authorities in 1793, was largely evaded by the Jews,
and the census returns of 6,997 were evidently much
below the actual figures.

When the Russians invaded Poland in 1794 the
Jews dill their share in defending their Polish father-
land. Joselovich Berek formed a light horse reg-
iment of 500 Jews of Warsaw, which was almost
annihilated during the siege of Praga (a suburb of
Warsiiw) l)y Suvarov.

Among the wealthy Jewish merchants of Warsaw
at the end of the eighteenth century may be men-

tioned Hershka and Itzik, David and Nutka of
Karolevetz, Hershko Markevich, losek and Hershko
Salamonovich of Posen, Ivosan and Hayyim of
Lutsk, Xaftal of Sokhachov, ShmulScheidazh and
Abraham of Cracow, Josel Jankel and Schmul of
Piotrkow. One of the most prominent Jews of the
time was Samuel Zbitkover, who was also called
Schmul Jacobovich. His name figures largely in
oflScial documents and in the correspondence of
King Stanislaus Augustus, whose favorite he was;
and a quarter of the suburb Praga was even called
Schmulevizna in his honor. During the first parti-
tion of Poland he was the chief contractor in the
Russian army, and traveled with an honorary con-
voy of Cossacks by permission of General Romanus.
Zbitkover was evidently a very influ-

Samuel ential man, and Stanislaus Augustus,
Zbitkover. in a memoir Avhich he presented to
Catherine II., mentions 7,000 ducats
which the Russian army owed the contractor. The
king also presented him with some lots in the suburb
of Praga for a Jewish cemetery and synagogue.
After the second partition of Poland, Zbitkover still
continued to be the contractor of the Russian army,
but after the Polish uprising imder Kosciusko in
April, 1794, the Polish party ("Rada Zastepeza")
confiscated his money, which amounted to 757 duc-
ats, and his leather factory. On Nov. 4, 1794, during
the siege of Praga, Zbitkover, in his sympathy for
the many victims of the war, issued a notice that
any soldier or citizen who should bring him an in-
habitant of Praga, whether Jew or Christian, would
receive a ducat in gold, and whoever should bring
him a dead citizen of Praga for burial, would be
paid a ruble in silver. Two barrels, one filled with
gold and the other with silver, stood before him,
and both were emptied in a day. He died Sept. 3,
1800.

In 1797 an order was issued directing all the Jews
of Warsaw to adopt family names selected by
themselves or assigned them bj' local officials, and
this ordinance accounts for the frequency of Ger-
man names among the Polish Jews.

Family The increase of the Jewish population

Names led the Prussian authorities to check
Adopted, the influx of Jews into Warsaw, and
1797. in March, 1798, a certain portion of the
Jewish population was expelled from
the city, and the remainder had to submit to in-
creased taxation. All Jews who should arrive in
Warsaw after that date were to pay a poll-tax of
one gulden daily, while the "Nahrungssteuer," or
tax collected from the permanent Jewish popula-
tion, amounted to 210,000 Polish gulden annually.
In addition to this, the Jews Mere obliged to pay a
"Toleranzsteuer " amounting to 50 per cent of the
total tax collected from the city population. Two
years later the tax on kasher meat was again levied
by the government, and in March, 1809. this tax,
which formerly amotinted to two grosclien per
pound, was raised to .six grosclien. The burdensome
taxes did not, however, check the increase of the
Jewish population. In May, 1804, another anti-
Jewi.sh riot broke out in Senatorski street, but was
(juelled by troops.

In 1826 a rabbinical school was established in

471

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Warsaw under the direction of Anton Eisenbniim
some of the chief teachers being Aaron Mosos Cyl-
kow, fatlier of the Jiuhuo-Polish iiroachcr of War-
saw, Jacob Cylkow (wlio translated tlie Psahns
into Polish; Warsaw, 1883), A. Buchner (author of
"Dcr Talmud unrt Seine Nicliti-rkoit "), and Isaac
Kramsztyk. Eisenbaum, wlio was born at Warsaw
in 1791 and died there in 1852, was educated under

inann. " "\'
alsi) " Ail^ ..
No. 48). "
The U.
fee ted th<
1mm Meyer
prcat I
isli .s. .

B4, Witna. 180. we
' ">>K 'i»-» JmlrnUiums." l«ai.

t/i

EXTKRIOR OF THE GREAT SYNAGOGCK AT WARSAW, Rt'SSU.
(From ft photofTAph.)

The

Rabbinical

School.

the supervision of his father, who instructed him in
the Bible and Hebrew grammar in addition to his
Talmudlc studies. In the latter part
of 1823 he founded a Jewish weekly in
Yiddish and Polish with the title " Dor
Beobachter an der Weichsel " (Polish
title, "Dostrzegacz Nadwisianski ''
A copy— the only one in existence— of this, the lir-
Judaeo-Polish periodical, is pieserved in the library
of the great synagogue of Warsaw. The school,
however, did not produce many rabbis, .since its
real object was to impart secular knowledge ratlicr
than rabbinical learning, and it gradually becann' a
Jewisli high school (" Keneset Yisrael," i' 138: Heif-

the younger Jc
Count I'varov, ;,,.
struciiou, visitrd tli
1S43. he wn
tion of the J
bcr «>f pupils \\

suspected by llic H
with tin- V
niy. ftlihoti,
tlie following year.

In 1861 Jcwtah ultatii* wrro

Warsa'w

Washing-ton

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

472

"Jutrzenka'' (Dawn), was founded by Danie> Neu-
ffld. In 1878 Kabbi Jacob Gescndheit, author
of the "Tif'eret Ya'akob." died; and a new Jewish
hospital was established l)yM. liersohn, A. Kraushar,
and others, and the great (reformed) synagogue
was opened on Tlomacka street. In the following
year a Hebrew technieal school was established by
L. Xalhansohn, Lesser Levi. II. Reiclnnann, and
others, and in 1881 a library, still in charge of Ignacy
Bernstein, was organized in connection with the
great synagogue. In 1882 Jews were permitted to
live in the streets which were formerly forbidden to
them, and in 1889 a Jewish trade-school was founded
by Ludwig Nathauson and others. In 1890 some
foreign Jews were expelled from Warsaw.

In 18G2 the Jews were accorded equal rights with

the Christian inhabitants of Poland, largely owing

to the efforts of M:u-(iuis Vyelepolski,

Equal and the taxes on meat, baskets, and

Rights, candles were then discontinued in
1862. Warsaw. The kahal was abolished in
1881, and in its place a committee was
appointed to control Jewish religious affairs.

Serious anti-Jewish riots, instigated by the agents
of Ignatiev, broke out in Warsaw on Dec. 25, 1881,
and lasted for three days, during which time much
property was destroyed, and twenty-four Christians
and twenty-two Jews were injured. The sympa-
thies of tlie soldiers sent to check the disorder were
evidently with the rioters, for some of those arrested
were allowed to escape, as was the case in other
riots of the early eighties. A spirited protest
against the indifference of the local administration
was made by the Jews of Warsaw, iucluding Ma-
thias Bersohn, Ivan Blioch, Stanislas Brunn, ^Mec-
zislav Epstein, Alexander Goldstand, Stanislas Kro-
nenberg, Michael Landau, Stanislas Lesser, Ludwig
Nathauson, and Julius Wienyavski.

The growth and proportion of the Jewish popu-
lation of War.saw since 1882 are shown by the fol-
lowing table:

IKTr...

IHK.'.,

IMC.
19UI.

Jewish Population.

1»J1.

9»,t)9«
127,917
V.ii\,'£U
1.58,1.54
231.678
2.54,713

JewLsh Births.
4.744

Total Population.

;507.451
382.464
40fi,9fi5
4.55,a52
038,208
711,988

Total Births.

ll.iKtl
1.5,4 Hi

Bliti.iiiMtAPiiY: auirnzititf, Pulskic.W.M: Sobicspzanslii, /?)/«
Hifhoit it]i III W'msz'iiiji. \t. 'M; Przyboniwski, Z I'rzcxzhi-
i>ri \\'ni»z(iirfi. i.24<i. Warsaw, 189".); Nussbaiiiii. Szkirc His-
liiriiczne z Zycia Zudoxv iv iraJMaii'ic, ib. 1881 ; Dcu, 1870-
1871.
H. U. J. G. L.

Following are lists of rabbis, dayyanim, and schol-
ars of Wursiiw and of its suburb Praga:

Rabbis and Dayyanim: Dob Bcni.sh l)Pn Rpiibpn (d.
Feb. 27, IM9). r.ilibl of Pra^'a; Simhah lion AlexandtT Siisskliid
(«l. on. 3. I'-rJ). (layyan; Soloiimn U-n .Imlali I.iib (d. Kt'b. 24,
1K{2(, dayman, ami author of "ShcblU^ Torah " (Warsaw IV],
1804): Ahnihain Abclc (d. April 14, IKL',. dayyan for forty years ;
Arycb I.i'.li l>. Moses Zunz id. April 22, IKCli. dayyan. anri autlior
of " Ya'alat IJen " (Praiifa, 17!H) and "(iet Mekushshar" (War-

saw, 1811); Mordecai b. Phinehas (d. May 7, 1837). rabbi of
Praga; Solomon Zaiuiau b. Isaac of Posen (d. March 2t), 1839),
first district rabbi of Warsaw and vicinity, and author of " Hem-
dat Shelomoh" (Warsaw, 1830); David Jedidiah b. Israel (d.
April 14. 1842). dayyan for forty years; Hayyini Davidsohn b.
David Tebele (d. March 17, 18.54), rabbi lor fifteen years (eulogy
by Benjamin David Rabinowicz in " Ruah Hayyim." Warsaw,
1854); .Mordecai b. Neliemiah (d. July 1. 18,55), dayyan, and au-
thor of " Mor Deror," a commentary on the Haggadah ; Samuel
b. Dob Bersolin (d. Feb. 27, 1850), dayyan for eighteen years;
Meir b. Eliezer (d. March 10, 1803), rabbi of Pniga for thirty
years; Israel Muschkat (d. Feb. 28, 1808). rabbi of Praga for
twenty-eight years, and author of " Hare Besamim," a commen-
tary on the prayei-s, and " Raslie Besamim," a commentary on
the Bil)le and on the Talmudic Haggadah ; Judah Aryeh Lobush,
known as " the Holy " (d. Sept. 1, 1808), dayyan for thirty-three
years; Dob Berush Meisels (d. Feb. 10, 1870). rabbi for fourteen
years; Judali Heschel b. (iabriel Goldstadt (d. May 4. 1872),
dayyan ; Nathan b. Dob of Siemjaticz (d. July 22, 1873), dayyan
for forty-three years: Solomon Hillel (d. May 2,5, 1874), dayyan.
and author of " 'Ateret Shelomoh," on Eben ha-'Ezer and Mas-
seket Kiddushin; Jacob b. Isaac Gesundheit (b. 1S14 ; d. 1878),
rabbi, and author of "Tif'eret Ya'akob," on Hoshen Mishpat
(Warsaw, 1842); Samuel S. Kleppiscli (b. 1820;'d. 1901). chief
dayyan for forty years (" Ha-Zeflrah," 1902, Nos. 225-227).

TJie li.st of rabbis of the modernized congregation, known
as the "German" or "Choir" congregation, is as follows;
Abrahain Meir Goldschmidt (b. 1812; d. Feb. 8, 1889), officiated
until 1858, when he replaced A. Jellinek at Leipsic ; Isaac Krain-
sztyk (b. 1814; d. Sept. 25. 1889); J. Cylkow, Polish translator of
the Psalms, with notes (Warsaw, 1883); and Samuel Poznanski.

Scholars: Joseph b. Israel Lob (d. Aug. 25. 1794); Joseph
Sair.uel b. Abigdor (d. in Praga Oct. 14, ISOO). parnas of the
Council of Four Lands; Benjamin Zeeb Wolf Cohen (d. April
23, 1808; first recorded burial in the Jewish cemetery in AVar-
saw, which was opened in 181)7); Moses Solomon Zalinan (d.
Jan. 7, 1810), formerly ralibi of Cracow, and gabbai of the Holy
Land Halukkah Fund; Baer Berksohn (d. March 12. 1831), left
a legacy, the interest on which is to be distributed among the
poor on his Jaurzeit; Abraham Jacob Stern (d. Feb. 3, 1842),
astronomer and mathematician, father-in-law of Hayyim Selig
Slonimski ; Jacob Moses b. Solomon Zalman Jerislawer (d. March
19, 1842), pulilisher of the works of 11. Low of Prague; Solomon
ben Judah Blumberg (d. Oct. 2. 18.50). parnas and philanthro-
pist (left fund for a synagogue); Anton Eiscnbaum (b. 1791 : d.
1852), editor and publislier (1823-24) of " Der Beobachter an der
Weichsel," the first Yiddish newspaper in Poland; Abraham
Buchner, instructor in the Rabbinerschule, and author of " Do-
reshTob" ( Warsaw, IKiO) and " Der Talmud" (2 vols., i^. 1848);
Isaac Li)b Peretz (born at Samoscz, May, 1851), the poet;
Eleazar Thalgriin (d. April 2, 18.57), German translator of the
Psalms, with bi'ur "Tokahat Musar" (Warsaw. 18.54): Hayyim
Gershon b. Hillel Cohen Halle (d. Oct. 1. 1857), communal worker,
and founder of the synagogue at the Iron (iate : Jacob David
Schapiro (d. .\ug. 5, 18()3>, formerly rabbi of Wiszagrod, and
author of annotations on "Torat Kohanim"; Samuel b. Abra-
ham Fliederbaum (d. April 0, 1807), gabbai of the biuial society;
Hillel (ileitstein (d. 18()7). editor of the "Warschauer Jiidische
Zeitiing"; Ziisze b. Wolf Ulrich (d. April :«, 1808). founder
and leader of a synagogue; Solomon Baer (d. Dec. 1, 18t)8),
formerly rabbi of Naszelsk, and author of " Dibre Shelomoh,"
Taliiuidic novelUe; Moses b. Eliezer Lippman Feinkind (d. May
17, 1809), galibai of the Jewish hospital ; Moses b. Enoch Zundel
Endelinan (b. 1808; d. Dec. 16, 1809), communal worker and
gabiiai ; Jacob Tugendhold (b. 1791 ; d. Afirll 20, 1.871). author,
translator, andcensorof Hebrew books (see " Maggid Mishneh,"
i..59); Joshua b. Solomon Lob of Ostrowa (d. April 2.5, 1873),
author of " Toledot A<lam": Menahem Mendel b. Zeeb (d. May
13, 1873). rosh yeshibah; Buneui Wolf Zeeb Mendelssohn (d.
Nov. 28. 1875). rosh yeshibah, and author of "Terumat Zaliab";
Menahem Mendel Oettinger (d. July 0, 1878). be(|ueathed 10,000
rubles to the Jewish community ; Jacob Joseph b. Mattithiah
Hayyim (d. Aug. 3, 1878), publisher of Hebrew bonks, and author
of "Sefer ha-Mizwot " ; Simhah b. Mordecai Posner (d. Oct. 17.
1878). author of "Ha-Zofeh i)e-Ere/, Nod" ("The Wandering
Jew"); Judah b. Ziuiel Epstein (d. Oct. 7, 1879). author of
" Minliat Yehudah"; Moses b. Mordecai Lipschitz (d. Apiil .5.
1.881). left legacy of 15,000 rubles to the community; Abraham
b. Sussman Jabez (d. Feb. 28. 18.82), author and publisher;
Jacol) Natbanson (b. 1.S32; d. Sept. 14, 1884), professor of chem-
istry; (Jabrlel Judah Lichtenfeld (b. 1811; d. March 22. 1887),
author and mathematician: Isaac (ioldmann (b. 1812: d. Jan.
13, 1.H88), Hebraist and author; Abraham Ziickerman (b. 1843;
d. April 21, I89;>). Hebrew publisher: Moses Cohen (b. 1820: d.
Aug. 31. 1892). communal worker, and author of a Polish work

473

THE JhUj.siI E.N'CYCLOPEDIA

JTJDISCHE ZEITUNG.

1«~0, d. !«);.), Polish tiistormn; Samuel llirsch ivitln (b 1k;)1 •
d. Sept. 30, IWHi), author; A hiahaiii Shalom Krledherif (b'lKW-
d. March ;tl, IW-'), author and editor ; Hayylm Seliir sionhnski
(b. Lsio; d May 15, 1904,,author and scientist; Moses F,^;.,;;
(1). 1M4), calendarist and author (see "Sefer Zikkanm")- sum

wH"n'^7.'.''''''^ '"• !'^"- '"""''"i^t: »""' l'in.M.s llahlno-
v\il/(b. 184.,,, editor of ■ Ken.'set Yisrael," an lllusiraied He-
bn-w magazine, an<l translator of (iriitz's " (ieschl.'hle d.-r
Jiulcn ; Mordecai Speclor (1). IK.V.I). editor of the " Haus-
fiyund 'andthe"I-'amilienfreund"; Nahum Sokolow (b \mt)

?.,"«c-f /" "","■''"'""■" ^"*'"'''' Hebrew .lally; Hcn-Avlgdo;
b.lhO.) founder of the two publishing-houses named resne<-t-
Ively Ahiasaf " and " Tushiyyah."

Bib^uograpuy: Samuel Jewnin, Nahalat 'Olamim, Warsaw.

"■ ^^- J. D. E.

WARSCHATJER

See Pi:ui()i)i( Ai.s.

WARSHAWSKI, MARK SAMOILOVICH :

Russiiin writer; born at Kliersou iu 1853. lie re-
ceived hi.s early education at a gymuasium in St.
Petersburg, and then studied engineering at tlie
ministerial Institute for Engineers. Later he took
up the study of law at the University of St. Peters-
burg, from which he was graduated in iurisnru-
deneeiniy79.

Since 1874 Warshawski has been a contributor to
the St. Petersburg daily "Novosti," in which he has
publislied a series of humoristic poems. In 1878
he wrote feuilletons for " Kusski Mir," and he has
been a contributor also to the humoristic weeklies
"Pchela" and "Strekoza." He was one of tlie
founders, and for sometime associate editor, of the
Russo-Jewish periodical "Razsvyet" (1879-81), to
wliich he contributed various essays, as well as
sketches of Jewish life. He lias contributed also to
the "Voskhod," and has published a collection of
poems entitled "U Morya" (St. Petersburg, 1884).

!'• «■ M. R.

WASHING : As compared with the Greeks and
Romans, the Hebrews paid little attention to the
care of the body ; and tiie batii was a rarity in a
land where water was relatively scarce. It was im-
portant, therefore, that personal cleanliness should
have a religious basis, and that the cult should or-
dain frequent ablutions. Thus, for example, tlie
ancient custom of washing before meals may liave
had its origin in ritualistic retiuirements; and water
was an important factor in the Hebrew cult as in lUl
other Semitic religions. A partial explanation of
this phenomenon lies in the fact that springs and
rivers were often worshiped by tlie Semites either
as gods or as the dwelling-places of divinities. To
bathe or w-a.sh in such waters was, tlierefore, in itself
a ritualistic act, although tliis should not be taken
to imply that all water was holy, and it must also
be borne in mind that one who wished to take part
in a ritualistic act had first to be in a condition ap-
propriate to it, or, in other words, had to be ritualiy
clean.

The original meaning of this concept can not be
discussed here; for many things conditioned "pu-
rity," just as there were many things wiiich made
one ritualiy defiled. First of all, liowever, bodily
cleanliness was requisite; for one could no more
come unclean into the presence of God tlian be-
fore the king. Consequently a man washed not

I. Bk.

only JiiniHeii

but also liJH . I

eainp of iKrucI, wlilcU w„

on account of tlie pi.

I)y any pf.jhitlon (1).

I)e(()ine8 plain hnw uhlm|„un ,li. •

boliHiic purillcati

delilenuMilH. It j-

allude totluTitiiiil uncU'imm

tain pliysical poll:-

a leper, or Iiih I,

From this slandi)oint or nyiiiboik- pur

tions were pieKcrilM.-(l. in f

nient of iliu I^iw. forn nn

since tliey could easily Ik.- ;

were characterized jls •■'• ' •

those graver states of . .

rifiec! and tlie like. '1 1,,,

(Lev. .xiii 6. yLM-.-iH). ont ...

h()u.se (Lev. xiv. 47). and the I

52) were to be whili- n

the pollution i. _,- f mm ^.

the like. See also Ablution.

K. O. 11.

WASHINGTON: The cxtni... ...r.i.v

state on tiie Pacific coiust. lnit««l .-

originally a part of ( .

Union in 1889. The li

went to Washington altoiit I8«10,

toria, H. C, wliieli tie

settlement, or from P.

luominent American settlement north of Snn

Cisco, or from Wallu Wall , ■' '

frontier trail from the };

coast during the Civil war

Seattle, which early I"
the state, was first visited I
the wholesale grocery Iiou-m- <
was opened in Wallu Wulln I
resentatives of tlie firm fr.
and they started a bni:
regular congregation, i... . ■ .
organized in 1887. undu plot for a «•
chased two years later. A -
dediciited in b'^lM. but w;i
Congregation Temple de HiriM-li vr.i
29. 1S!(». <|ii.fly tir
The foundation aie.
Avere finished an<l d«N;
Brown (now in San Fi
(now in Portlaml* wc.
gregation Ohc\
been the mit •
since its «>:
Reform coi
tion. Mickoi i
HrooksistI
worslii|>siii a s\ •

oleiit .Society o.. ,,

where menilHTs of the Hef<»nii
tern-d. while Of
Cemetery, the ]•: ,
tion. Tlif following .

Acre Society, Temple Auxflior)-. C'x»uocll of Jewtati

18. 1901. R.

Washington
Water

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

474

Wonieu, and Sous of Zion. The Independent Order
of H'uai Brith is represented by two lodges, Seattle
Lodge No. 342 (organized in 1883) and Hildesheimer
Lotlge No. 503 (organized in 1900). The Concordia
Club, founded in 1903, is a flourishing social organ-
ization.

Ne.xt in size to the Jewish community of Seattle
is that of Spokane, where the congregation Emanu-
El. organized Sept. 28, 1890. now (1905) has a mem-
bership of about sixty. Rabbis E. Schreiber, A.
Farber, and Jacob Bloch have otticiated as ministers,
and the present incumbent is Rabbi D. Levine. The
communal societies are the Judith Montefiore Society
(an au.viliary of the temple), the Ladies' Benevolent
Society, and the Daughters of Israel (au.xiliary of
tlie seraiorganized Orthodox community). Abraham
Geiger Lodge No. 423, 1. 0.B.B., chartered in March,
1893, has about tifty members.

The Beth Israel congregation in Tacoma was
organized in 1892 and completed its temple in 1893.
The congregation, conservative in chaiacter, num-
bers about sixty-five members. There are several
auxiliary societies, comprising the Lady Judith
Montefiore Society, a section of the Council of Jew-
ish Women, and the Hebrew Benevolent Society,
which owns a large cemetery. AB'nai B'rith lodge
formerly existed in the city, but the removal of
many members resulted in the return of the charter
to the grand lodge. ]\Iontague N. A. Cohen (now
of Sacramento) was the minister of the congregation
during the year 1903-4.

A few Jewish families that are not regularly or-
ganized into congregations live in Walla Walla,
Olympia (a cemetery plot was bought in 1872), El-
lensburg, Aberdeen, Hoquiam, South Bend, Everett,
and Beliingham.

Among the eminent Jews of Washington have been
Gen. Edward S. Solomon, who was sent by President
Grant to ])e governor of the territory of Washington
from 1870 to 1872, and Bailey Gatzert, who was one
of the pioneers of Seattle, and for several years one
of the most prominent men of the Pacific coast, be-
ing presi(l<iitof the firm of Schwabacher& Co. from
1888 to 1893, the year of his death, and also the pre-
siding ofiicer of the Gatzert-Schwabacher Land Co.

In a total population of about 750,000 (according
to the most accurate estimate for the year 1905),
tiie Jews of Washington number approximately
3.500.

^ T. F. J.

WASHINGTON, D. C. : Capital of the United
States; situated in the District of Columbia, on the
Potomac River. In 1849 there were in Washington
six Jews, who were engaged in business on Penn.syl-
vania avenue, and who went to Baltimore for the
im|)ortant holy-day .services. On April 25, 1852, the
First Washington Hebrew Congregation was organ-
ized ; it numbered twenty-one members, and Solomon
Pribram was elected its first president. Two years
later the membership had increased to forty-two;
and on Dec. 13, 1855, at the thirty-fourth session of
Congress, a special act was passed, "that all the
rights, privileges, and immunities heretofore granted
by the law to the Christian churches in the city of
Washington be and thf same hereby are extended to
the Hebrew Congregation of said city."

This marks the incorporation of the first Jewish
institution in the District of Columbia. The con-
gregation grew steadily in membership and in influ-
ence ; and in 1863 it acquired for a place of worship
the old Methodist church, which had been utilized
by the government for hospital purposes during the
Civil war. In 1898 the congregation moved into its
present stately edifice, the corner-stone of which was
laid by President ^McKinley in the presence of Ins
entire cabinet, on Sept. 16, 1897. The First Wash-
ington Hebrew Congregation is the only Reform
congregation in the District of Columbia. Its pres-
ent (1905) membership is 350, and its religious school
is attended by 200 children. The following readers
and rabbis have officiated since 1854: S. M. Lans-
burgh, S. Weil, J. L. Jacobson, Herman Baar, Isaac
Stampel, M. Goldberg, Louis Stern, and Abram
Simon. Rabbis Simon and Stern are officiating
conjointly.

In 1870 thirty-five members left the parent body
to form an independent congregation, with Isaac
Stampel as hazzan. This congregation, which was
called Adath Israel, was organized as a protest
against the Reform tendencies of the old congrega-
tion. In 1873 Adath Israel moved into its present
home on the corner of Sixth and G streets, its syna-
gogue being dedicated in the presence of President
(Jraut and his cabinet. Its present membership in-
cludes 150 families, ministered to by Rabbi Julius
T. Loeb; and its religious school is attended by
sixty-five pupils.

The Ahabai Shalom congregation was organized
in 1902 as a result of the union of two smaller heb-
rot, the Chayai Odom (founded 1890) and the Agoo-
dath Achim (1898). It has a membership of 125
families, and its present hazzan is Robert Graif-
man, who conducts a day-school at 607 H street for
twenty -five pupils. The Talmud Torah congrega-
tion (present hazzan, M. R. Joelson) was founded in
1890, and meets on 4^ street, southwest. It has a
membership of seventy persons, but no religious
school. AH four congregations maintain cemeteries
on the same plot of ground on IIari'i.son road.

The leading charitable, religious, and literary soci-
eties are: (1) The United Hebrew Charities (found-
ed 1882; incorporated 1893; annual iucome about
S3,000; president, I. L. Blout, appointed 1894); (2)
The Hebrew Free Inn, for the temporary care of the
indigent; controlled by the executive board of the
United Hebrew Charities; (3) The Hebrew Relief
Society (founded 1905); (4) The Ladies' Auxiliary
Society of Adath Israel; (5) The Old B'nai Zion ; (6)
The Rebecca Lodge (1863); (7) The Deborah Lodge
(1875); (8) The Liberty Lodge No. 19, I.O.S.B.
(1894); (9) The Friendship Circle (1897); (10) The
Senior and Junior Councils of Jewish Women; (11)
The Elijah, Grace Aguilar, and Argo lodges,
LO.B.B. ; (12) The B'rith Abraham and the Inde-
pendent B'rith Abraham; (13) The Sons of Judah ;
(14) The Mercantile Club; (15) The Hebrew Liter-
ary Society ; (16) The Free Sons of Benjamin; (17)
The Young People's Union of Zion.

While most of the Jews of Washington are en-
gaged in commerce, the legal and medical profes-
sions are also creditably represented. Among the
most prominent Jews may be mentioned : Commodore

475

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

- ton

Uriah P. Levy, Simon Woif (publicist an.l aiiilm,^

Max Weyl (artist), Eniilt- Berliner (inventor), Adol-

phus S. Solomons, Cyrus Adicr (assistant sccretarv,

Smitlisonian Institution), and Dr. Milton J. Hoscnaii

(director, IIyi,rit.nic Laboratory, Marine Hospital

Service). The Jewish population of the District of

Columbia may be placed at 4,000.

^- A. S.

WASKER, SILLEMAN ABAJEE (SOLO-

MON ABRAHAM): lleni-lsrael soldier; died

about 1850. He enlisted in the Third Regiment

Native (Indian) Light Infantry, Jan. 1, 1809, and

was present at the battles of Puna, Kusood, Kiiur,

Multan, Kittoor, and Gujarat, rising ultimately to

tlie highest rank open to a native soldier, that of

sirdar bahadur; lie was also decorated with the first

class Order of the Star of British India. He retired

from the army in March, 1846, after a service of

thirty seven years, during twenty-tive of which he

was native commander of the Beni-Israel regiment.

Bibliography : H. Samuel. Sketch of Beni-Israel, pp. 24-05

J.
WASSERTRILLING, HERMANN (ZEBI
HIRSCH BEN NATHAN) : Austrian HebVaist;
tiourished in the nineteenth century; born at Bosko-
witz, Moravia. He officiated as teacher in the Jewish
school of Hotzenplotz, Silesia, about 1850, and later
as rabbi of Bojanowo, Posen. The following is a
list of liis work.s, all published at Breslau: "Hadrat
Elisha' " (1857), an epic poem in nine cantos, de-
scribing the life of the prophet Elisha, and giving
also a brief history of contemporary kings; "Nezer
Kamudot " (1860), an epic poem in eight cantos, being
a iiistory of Daniel and his contemporaries under
the reign of the Babylonian, Median, and Persian
kings until the return of tlie Israelites to Jerusalem,
and the building of the Second Temple; "Mattenat
Nahali'el " (part i., I860: part ii., 1868), a collection
of legends from the Talmud, IMidrash, and tlie mid-
rashic commentaries, arranged in verse in the order
of the weekly lessons; "Torat ha-Berit " (1869), a
treatise in reply to a question on circumcision ad-
dressed to the synod of Leipsic by Max Engel
(July, 1869).

Bibliography: Fiirst. Bihl. Jnd. iii. 495; Lippe. DihUoam-
))}iisches Lexicon, i. 518; Zeltlln, Bibl Pnst-MendclK. pp.
404-405.

s. M. Sel.

WASSERZUG, HAIM : English hazzaa and
composer; born at Sheritz, Prussian Poland, 1822;
died at Brighton, England, Aug. 24, 1882. As a
child he was endowed with a remarkably sweet
voice, and at eighteen he was elected hazzan at
Konin. His renown soon spread among the Jewish
communities of Poland, and lie received a call as
hazzan to Novy-Dvor, where his introduction of
choral singing and singing in harmony, instead of
the then prevalent "hazzanut," aroused con,siderable
opposition against him on the part of the Hasidim.
Tiiirteen years later he was appointed to a post at
Lonisa, near the Lithuanian frontier. Here lie re-
mained for five years, when he was elected cantor
of the Wilna congregation. In 1867, on the opening
of the North London Synagogue, he was elected its
first reader, which office he held until his dealii in
1882.

pre I

During his I
wrote some sik

title "Scfer Shire .MlkdimU," wcr
London, 1878. TU<
comniendmion; uiKl
th.' European continent und of An.
bend among ids disciples, jj j

zug, waseducated at J<ws (
officiated as rabbi at Cardill in \N «i. s .,
burg in South Africa, and. nince IWO.'i.ai lUi. l>:U»:ou
Synagogue, London.

BiBLioiiRAPHV : Jfw. Chron and Jew. WorUL SqM. L

WATCH-NIGHT. See Wa. h>a. „t

WATER: Water won lr>ok'-<l •< ». .

as extremely important and i
thing placed before a guest wiu, wuicr to v
feet (Gen. xviii. 4. xxiv. 3'J). and i' -^ - ,.
hospitality to give water lo sti
tliehou.se. ore\
Water for 17, 43). The
Guests. duty often resulted in net
ties. T' •

marching toward I'l

from pa.ssing tlirough E<iom. Amnion, and Mf«b
because the inhabitants refused i
of water, even for money. 'J
later this resulted in bitter warfare (ae« AuHnn;
Jei'iitmaii). During the wand. ' "

ness the lack of water caused ti.
mur against their Icatior (Ex. xv. 2U-a5. xtJI. 1-7;
Num. XX. 1-13). On the ot!: - >-■•'> *

King David's guard won d;

water for tlie king at the risk of tlicir livct (11 tiun.
xxiii. 16; I Chron. xi. 17-18).

Water was of great importance in piiHnrntino.
being used in cleansing tlie leper, in - in

washing utensils, and i" »i
For of one who had Ixvn <!•

Ritual ing an uii'

Purposes. 27). The i; , . .;

to defilement was incn-a»e<l bv cno-
tact with water (Lev. .\' "-
formed a topic of mucli
period, and became the subject of the tr>
sniRtN.

The offering of water as a libaCinn •
cient institution, and even liefore tli' m waa

established tlie I~ '• ' •- ' '■ if-

fered repeated di : ■■«,

gathered together at .Mizpeh at i lie

prophet Samuel, and pourwl wai. . '

before Ynwii (I .Sam. vij. 5-^^ An
loguc to this is found in «t

feast of Baal the prophet 1,.,... , ... ;i^

trench which 8urroiinde<l tlu- altar (I Kinr« iriil
35), possibly to enh:in«e the

at the Feast "f i .
Libations. Iiiirli |irie'»t sprinkhtl «.it« r \i\^>n tlw*
altar n- ■ 1

opment of the anrii ;. _ 'f

the ritual until the destruction of ! ~ «.

and the disr> " ' ' g

entailed terrii
The word "water" wa« oflen uicd by tbc Jewi

Water
Way

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

476

symbolicallv. especially iu expressing grief, i.e.,
tcai-s (Jer. "i.\. 1. 18; Ps. cxix. 136). A misfortune
of greut magnitude, the full extent of which it
seemed impossible to fathom, was likened to water
(Lam. iii. 54; Ps. Ixix. 3, cxxiv. 4-5), while the con-
stant flow and unrest of water were symbolic of
numerous descendants (Num. x.\iv. 7). The for-
giveness of sins and their complete remission were
tyi>itied by sprinkling with clean water (Ezek.
xxxvi. 25); and in Jer. ii. 13 God is compared to a
fountain of living waters. It was customary in the
Talmudic period, moreover, to use "water" sym-
bolically for the divine teachings (see Mek., Beshal-
lah, Wayassa", 1) ; so that in several passages the term
"water" is used without any amplification whatever
(comp. Hag. 3a; B. M. 84b; Hor. 14u; Ab. i. 2).

Water prepared with the ashes of the Red Heifer
was especially important, since, even though un-
clean, it had the power of cleansing men and things
infected with detilement. Still more important,
however, was the " water of bitterness," the so-called
"me ha-marlm ha-me'arerim," which

"Water was prepared in the following man-
of Bitter- ner: Into an earthen vessel the priest
ness." poured water which had stood iu the
Temple, and with this water he mixed
dust taken from the Temple floor. If a woman was
suspected of unfaithfulness toward her husband, the
priest pronounced certain maledicti(ms, which he
afterward wrote on a little scroll. This was then
dissolved in the water, wiiich the accused woman
was obliged to drink (Num. v. 17-24; see also the ar-
ticle SOT.Ml).

Water was an important factor during the first
three days of Creation. On the first day "the Spirit
of God moved upon the face of the waters" (Gen.
i. 2); on the second day the nether waters were di-
vided from the upper, and the latter were trans-
formed into the "rakia'," or "firmament" {ib. verse
7): and on the third day the nether waters were
a.ssigned to their allotted place, which received the
name of ".sea" {ib. ver.se 10).

Through the influence of the Greeks, and espe-
cially of the Gnostics, who regarded water as the
original element, similar beliefs gained currency
among the Jews, so that Judah ben Pazi transmitted
the following saying in the name of K. Ishmael
(Yer. Hag. ii., beginning): "In the beginning the
world consisted of water within water (Gen. i. 2) ;
the water was then chruiged into ice (Ps. cxlvii. 17),
and again transformed by God into earth (Job xxxvii.
6). The earth itself, however, rests upon the waters,
and the w.-iters on the mountains" {i.e., the clouds;
Ps. civ. Oi. This teacinng, however, was rejected
by Ii. Akiba, who warned those scholars who de-
voted themselves to the study of cosmogony not
to be led astray by Gnosticism, and not to cry
"Water! " whenever they saw in their visions a sea
of erystul around the throne of God (Hag. 14b). In
the later Talmudic period the word "water" was
userl as a designation for mucus, which was called
"water from the nose" (Tf)sef., Shab. viii. ; Niddali
55(1). wliile burtermiJk was termed "water of milk,"
and unferminted grape-juice was called " water of
the grape-vine" ('Orlali i. 7).

E. f; n. S. O.

WATER-DRAWING, FEAST OF (nn^t'
n3S1L"n n'2) : At the morning service on each of
the seven days of the Feast of Tabernacles (Sukkot)
a libation of water was made together with the
pouring out of wine (Suk. iv. 1 ; Yoma 26b), the
water being drawn from the Pool of Siloam in a
golden ewer of the capacity of three logs. It was
borne in solemn procession to the water-gate of the
Temple, where the train halted while on the Shof.vij
was blown " teki'ah, teru'ah, teki'ah." The proces-
.siou then ascended the "kebesh," or slanting bridge
to the altar, toward the left, where stood on the
east side of the altar a silver bowl for the water and
on the west another for the wine, both having snout-
like openings, that in the vessel for the wine being
somewhat the larger. Both libations were poured
out simultaiieou.sly (Suk. iv. 9).

Although there was no direct Mosaic law for the
libation of water, it was claimed by R. Nehunya
of Betli-horon that the ordinance was
A a -Mosaic tradition (Zeb. llUa), while

Mosaic R. Akiba deduced a Mosaic intimation
Tradition. (" remez ") of the tradition from the
plural form " u-nesakeha " ("drink-
offerings"; Num. xxix. 31). R. Judah b. Batliyra
drew a similar inference from the spellings Dn^3DJ
and n'3DJ as compared with the usual DilDDJ, and
DD^t^'DD as compared with tDDC'Oa (Num. xxix. 30,
31, 33), the superfluous letters forming D'D (" '^vater" ;
Shab. 103b); and R. 'Ena confirmed the tradition by
quoting Lsa. xii. 3: "Therefore with joy shall ye
draw water out of the wells of salvation" (Suk.
48b). The treatise Sukkah also explains the offering
as made in order that the rainy season, which begins
at that time of the year, may be abundant (comp.
R. H. i. 2, 16a; Ta'an. 2b).

Why the Rabbis laid such stress on the water-li-
bation is not clear, unless there were weighty rea-
sons which have not been recorded. It may have
been emphasized to counteract the Gentile practise
of offering wine only ; or it may even have been in-
tended as a temperance lesson. At all events, the
Sadducees were strongl}' opposed to this interpreta-
tion of the Law, so that on one occasion Alexander
J.VNN.EUS poured the water on his feet instead of on
the altar, thus affronting the Pharisaic sj'mpathies of
the people so bitterly that they threw at him the
etrogim which they carried in celebration and nearly
killed him, and the priest was accordingly reciuired
thenceforth to raise his hand when he i)oure(l out
the water at the libation that his offering might be
seen by all (Suk. 48b). To express their contemj)!
of the Sadducees on the one hand and to stiengtlien
their own position on the other, the Rabbis embel-
lished the libation of water with so much ceremony
tiiat it became a favorite and distinctive rite on
these occasions. On the nightof the first da}' of the
Feast of Tabernacles the outer court of the Temple
was brilliantly ilhuninatcd with four golden lamps,
each containing 120 logs of oil, in wiiich were
burning the old girdles and garments of the jiriests
(Sliab. 21a; Yoma 23a). These lamps were placed
on high pedestals which were reached by ladders;
and special galleries were erected in the court for
th(! acconunodation of women, while the men below
held torches in their hands, sang hymns, and danced.

477

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

W»t«r
Way

On tlie fifteen steps of the Gate of Nicauor stood tlic
Levites, cliantiug the lifteeu "songs of degrees "(Ps.
cxx.-cxxxiv.) to the aceonipuniinent
Becomes of their instruments, of wliich tlie most
a Favorite important was the "halil," or Hule,
Rite. although it was used neitlicr on the
Sabbath nor on the first day of the
feast (Suk. v. 1). The illumination, wliich was like
a sea of tire, lit up every nook and corner of Jeru-
salem, and was so bright that in any part of the
city a woman could pick wlieat from the chalT.
Wliosoever did not see this celebration never saw a
real one (Suk. 53a). Hillel the Elder encouraged
general rejoicing and participated in the celebration
that all might follow his examjile, while R. Simeon
b. Gamaliel juggled with eight torches, throwing
them in the air and catching them again, thus show-
ing liis joy at the feast. R. Joshua b. Ilananiah
states that the festival was celebrated throughout
the night with songs, music, shouting, clapping of
hands, jumping, and dancing.

After the destruction of the Temple the libation of
water, l)eing a portion of the sacrifice, was discon-
tinued ; but the custom of rejoicing was retained for
some one day of the Feast of Sukkot other than the
Sabbath or a full holy day. No " 'am ha-arez " was
permitted to join the celebration, although he was
allowed to look on. Probably the ceremony origi-
nally included a symbolic form of prayer for rain in
the winter season (see Zeeh. xiv. 1(5-19).

The feast of water-drawing is now celebrated in
the bet ha-midrash on any night other than Friday
in the middle of Sukkot. At Jerusalem each night
of the semiholy days is observed in the bet ha-midiash
or in ihe synagogue by chanting the fifteen "shire
ha-ma'alot " and appropriate Bible verses, while the
Sephardim have special piyyutim. After the serv-
ice small parties are formed, and engage in feasting,
singing, and dancing till midnight (Lunez, "Jeru-
salem," i. 40). In his "Die Eleusinischen Mysterien
im Tempel von Jerusalem" (in Hungarian, in
" Magyar-Zsido Szemle," xii. 213; idem, in "Popu-
lar-Wisseusehaftliche Monatsbliitter," xvii. 121) L.
Venetianer endeavors to prove that the feast of
water-drawing bears traces of Greek influence.
E. c. J- D- E.

WATER-RIGHTS. See Riparian Owneiis.
WAVE-OFFERING. See Sacrifice.
WAW (1) : Sixth letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
The name possibly means "nail" or "hook," and the
shape of the letter in tlie Phenician alphabet bears
some resemblance to a hook. " Waw" is ii labial spi-
rant, identical in sound with the English "w."
When preceded by the labial vowel "u," it blends
with it("uw"), the result being a long u-sound:
and when an a-vowel precedes it, the two form tiie
diphthong "au," which in Hebrew has passed into
"o." At the beginning of a word (a position it rarely
has in Hebrew) "waw " retains its consonantal value,
except when followed by Q, 3. O. or a letter with
simple "shewa." As the first letter of verb-stems it
has been replaced in Hebrew almost everywiieie by
"yod." As a numeral (in the later period) "waw "

has the value of 6.

I. Bu.

WAWELBERG, Hll'i'OLTTE HENRICH-

OVICH : Kushiaii bunU.-i . I.., in :ii \\;,i , -Ji.

died at St. IVlerHburg Oct. 20, 1901. A lu-

ating from tlie real f.'yini ' '".

ied at the university of

Agricultural College of Nova .Ay

completing his Ktudies in '!

turn to St. Petersburg h

of his father's banking eHlnl • «

very successful financier. ll. .

in the communal alTairs of St i

Warsaw, and cfintrihuted roi

toward the foundation und

trial schools. He devoted \n

provcment of the condition nl '

The Mu.sium of Arts and Indu-

School of Wawelbergaml Roth v.

lodginghdiises of Warsaw .,t«

largely to his support.

Wawelberg contributed lilRTHlly to the publica-
tion in the Polisii language nf p
ajiplied sciences. It was his ar
the general economic and »ncial conditioi .:«|,

but also to elevati' his ■ ' '
them with a spirit of pai :
of the Jewish community of ISl. 1'
from 1880, a member r)f the Society i r
tiori of Culture Among the Jrws df R'
the Society of Friends of Jewish An
CIS. After 1891 he was also nn artiv.
Jewish Colonization .\s.sociation. ^^
one of the trustees of the Industr;

Dubrovna, which endeavored to pi....... ,.

the poor JewLsh artisjins of that place.

BilU.KXiRAPilv : roWfJiofl, 1901, No. 57.

II. K. J- *• '

WAX (Ilebr. "donng"): In the Old Tt
wax is referred to only as a simile for •»-;
easily dissolved or evau' - ''

])liance and submission
Ps. xcvii. 5) ; or for fear and
xxii. 15). In theTalmudm ■
of wax ("sha'awah") for 1;
ably in the form of candles (>
At jire-sent wax candles are :
the Feast of I.Iam kkaii in ,
not easily obtainable. On the vw ••<

Atonement and at the anniversary of X\v

relative (Jaiiuzkit) it is eustunmry t'> Hcht in Ihr
synagogue large wax candles tl
twentyfovir hourn. A cantlli- .. -
wax tapers is used alst) for the Habi>.\LA :

E. o. n.

WAY. S( ( Hi' UT OK \Va\.

WAY, LEWIS: En>:llsli clcrgyin*r. I- n> nl
Deiiham. HueUs. England. Feb. U. 1"
London Jan. 26. 1.H40. lie
College, Oxford, and was t.>
but entered the Cliunli ami de\
poses a large legaiy left lu
John Way. He was tlie !
London Society for Promoting '
the Jews, under tip

father nf Queen \"v ^. , , ,

Prof. Simeon of Cambridge. Dr. .Marsii of i

1 M

Wayehi 'Ereb
We-°al Kullom

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

478

ham. the convert J. F. Fry. aud the prcailur Leigh
Uichmoud. Couviiiced that the Jewish iiatiou would
again arise, return to its ancestral home, embrace
Christianity, and convert the Gentiles, Way trav-
eled at his "own expense throxigh Holland, Germany,
and Russia, iu order to study the condition of the

such as the "Song by the Sea" (Ex. xv. ; comp.
AsHiUAii) or the " Journeys of the Standards " (Num.
X. 14-16, 18-20, 22-24, 25-28: xxxiii. 11-13, lo-36,
41-47), the present chant is founded on a vocal imi-
tation of a herald's trumpet-call. The accompany-
ing transcription, based on that of Baer, shows the

Con brio.

WAYEHI *EREB (Gen. i. 5)

Keadeb: We

/~>

CoNGBEGATlOKlWa - VS - hi

ad lib.

•e

reb, wa - ye - hi bo - ker, yom e

Lad.

^^i^i=3

Header. Wn-ve-bi 'e

reb, wa- ye- hi bo

ker, yom e

had.

Jews, ameliorate their social and political status, and
urge the Christians to missionary work among them.
In 1817 Way induced Czar Alexander L to issue
two ukases assuring all baptized Jews of imperial
protection and promising them land for farming.
Further, he wrote a work entitled "Memoires sur
I'pJat des Isri'.elites Dedies et Present^s a Leurs
Majestes Imperiales et Koyales, Reunies au Congres
d'Aix-la-Chapelle " (Paris, 1819), in which he empha-
sized the Messianic importance of the Jews, consid-
ered their relation to tlie Biblical promises and the
ultimate fulfilment thereof, and pleaded for their
emancipation in Europe. This was presented at the
Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (Oct., 1818) to the czar,
who gave the memorandum to his plenipotentiaries,
Nesselrode and Capodistrias, ordering them to bring
it before the congress, together with the (juestion of
the emancipation of the Jews. It was accordingly
entered on the minutes, but produced no further
effect. In liis own hou.se Way used to entertain con-
verted Jews, who sometimes ill repaid his hospital-
ity, giving rise to a satirical epigram by Macaulay.

BlBLiooRAPllY : Herzofr-Hauck, ReaJ-Encijc. xill. 179; Mn-
uiitsKchrifl. IWJ, xvlll. 2U et xeq.. 3;J4 ct seq., 477 et seq., 5.51
ct Kfi/.: firStz. (ie»elt. xi. 353 et seq.\ Diet. Nat. Diog.; Tre-
velyan. Life of Mnrfudan, ch. 1.
.1. E. N.

WAYEHI 'EREB (-'And it was evening"):
Oiii' of the " ncdaiiiu," or special declairiatory varia-
tions from the strict C.xntillation of the Penta-
teuch, according to the Northern use. This chant
is introdueed into the reading which reojiens the
yearly cycle of periropes on the Rejoicing of the
Law (see Simii.\t Touah); and it marks the verses
which conclude tiie recital of the work of each of
the six days of Creation (Gen. i. S, 8, 13, 19, 23, 31).
The reader jiauses at the end of eacli verse; and
after tlie congregation has loudly chanted the
" Wayehi 'ereb," he repeats the intonation with florid
amplificatifni of the melody. Like other nedaiim,

method of its rendering (comp. also "The Voice of
Prayer and Praise," No. 168b, London, 1899).

A. F. L. C.

WAYEKULLXJ ("Thus were finished"; Gen.
ii. 1-3) : The concluding verses of the story of Crea-
tion, deemed from Talmudic times an essential por-
tion of the prayers for Friday night, as the eve of
the Sabbath (Shab. 119b). While the whole con-
gregation remained standing (Shulhau 'Aruk, Orah
Hayyim, 268, 7), the " Wayekullu " was recited aloud
in the synagogue after the silent reading of the
'"Amidah." In the homes it was recited before
the domestic KiDDUsn. Thus the precentors were
tempted to dwell upon it when reciting it; and in
the course of time they developed for it, out of
the simple Cantillation of the Law, an elaborately
melismatic intonation in their most florid stj'le, for
an example of which see Jkw. Encyc. vi. 290.

A. F. L. C.

WAYIKRA KABBAH (called also Hag-ga-
dat Wayikra) : Ilaggadic miilnish to Leviticus.
Under the name "Wayikni Rabbah " this midrash is
first referred to by Nathan, in his "' 'Aruk," s.r. 2^,
non. and in several other passages, as well as by
Rashi iu his commentaries on Gen. xlvi. 26, Ex.
xxxii. 5, Lev. ix. 24, etc. According to Zunz, how-
ever, Ilai Gaou and Nissim knew and made use of
this midrash; and Zunz dates its origin back to the
middle of the seventh century. It originated in Pal-
estine, and is composed largely of older works, its
redactor having made use of Genesis Raljbah, Pesikta
de-Rab Kahana, and the Jerusalem Talmud, in ad-
dition to other ancient sources. He ai)i)eais to have
referred also to the Babylonian Talmud, several ex-
pressions in the midrash l)eing used in the sense in
which only that work employs them (comp. Weiss,
"Dor," iii. 261).

The Wayikra is not a continuous, explanatory
midrash to Leviticus, but a collection of exclusive

479

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Wuyr.J.1 Ereb

sermons or lectures on the themes or texts of that
book; and it consists altogether of thirty-seven such
homilies, each of which constitutes a separate chap-
ter, or •' parashah." The Scriptural passafi:eson wliioli
the homilies are based are often referred to in liie
midrash as "parashiyyot," and are further designa-
ted according to their contents; as, for example, ch.
i., " Parashat ha-Mishkan," on Lev. i. et serj. ; cii. ix.,
"Parasliah Korbanot," on Lev. vii. l\ et seg.; cli.
XV., "Parashat Nega'ini," on Lev. xiii. 1 et neq.;
etc. Of the thirty-seven homilies, eight (1, 3, 8, 11,
13, 20, 26, 30) are introduced with the
Contents, formula " Patah K." ("The teacher
has conuneneed "); eight (2, 4-7, 9, 10,
19), with "Hada hu di-ketib" (lit., "As it is writ-
ten"); and twenty -one (12, 14-18, 21-25, 27-29, 31-
37), with"Zehshe-amarlia-katub"(lit.,"Thisiswl)at
the Holy Scriptures say "). The fact that the redac-
tor of the midrash selected only these thirty-seven
texts for his exposition, is explained by Weiss {I.e.)
as the existence of the Sifra, thehalakic midrash to Le-
viticus: "The redactor of the Wayikra Rabbah had
nothing to add to the halakic midrash ; he collected
tlieref ore only those haggadic exjilanations wliieh he
found on various texts and passages." This surmise
by Weiss is, however, refuted by the circumstance
that nearly all the parashiyyot of the Wayikra Rab-
bah (with the exception of chapters 11, 24, 32, 35,
and 36) refer to halakic passages. Thus, the redac-
tor of the mid rash collected haggadic ex positions also
of such texts as were treated in the Sifra. The con-
jecture of Theodor that in the older cycle of weekly
lessons the passages on which the homilies of the
Wayikra Rabbah were based consisted in certain par-
agrsiiths, or in lessons for certain festivals, seems
therefore to be correct (comp. Theodor, "DieMidra-
schim 7.um Pentateuch und der Dreijiihrige Pales-
tinensische Cyclus," in "Monatsschrift," 1886, pp.
307-313, 406-415; see also Jew. Encyc. viii. 560).

In its plan, as well as in the form of the several
parashiyyot, the midrash bears great resemblance
to the Pesikta de-Rab Kahana (see Jew. Encyc.
viii. 559). Like the lectures in the Pesikta, the hom-

•r of II
I till- ii

, ,,r 1,

lung piccfs, in oiIuth hri

adduced in (■■■■••■•'

seemingly ill
actor's disposal, li
ilies in tlie Way Ik t
ics beyond the huIi
itself, the explaniilion-. ■
often replaced l)y •■, i!,
whicli refer to the i
(comp. ell. 8. 12-15, 1-

t his the W . ... .
Relation tlie Pesiljta, for In

to the iiulivi<iuul v\'
Pesikta. Licking. An"

the two workii in. tlint while
sikta rarely (pKitcH 1 '
tile proems, the Wu

the conclusion of a pro«.'in, in tbc courM '
parashah, and even toward "' ' '

these excerpts liuve often ■

the context. But olherwiw ihi- \N

follows the form of tlie Pisiljta i

parashah in the former wnrk, in »:

usage followed in th*- Pi-siktn, ronsi«U of ■ :

containing a Mes.sianie prophecy.

The extent of the present niidnwh l« the ■imc as

that of the edition qiiot«-d by H

" 'Aruk," since he refers to (> '-^ • •• -

{x.r. THN) and xxxvii. (».r. 2"~

from some transpositions. <

the printed text of tlie nii>.

containing, at the end of the first \\.

annotations from Tanna i\< ' ^Licl* ^ :

not contained in the older n ,

Bibliography: 7,<i"/ '•"
■Ibk-fxior, '/Air (
MoiiatsHchrift. 1-
8.

1. 1.. 181-im : WvlMk Zinr. Ul 9» :
r AuadUciun IhimllUn. la

WE-ADAR. See Adah Siie.m.

WE-'AL KULLOM: Tl

interrupts and dividt^ iiit>>ilir<*
confession of sins enumcratctl in nl;

WE-'AL KULLOM

Lento dolente.

:^=

:«^

P'"

We
And

'al
for

kul -

lom,

E -

lo -

se -

li -

hot,

them

all.

for -

q\v

t)i!7

God,

'-^-

^^eUs^t^

la
us, .

uu, me

hul.
par

don

btt.

ilies in the Wavikra Rabbah begin with a larger or
smaller number of proems on passages mostly taken
from the Ilagiosriapha. Thereupon follows the ex-
position proper of the passage to which the homily re-
fers The explanation often covers only a tew verses,
or even a few words of the first verse, of the pas-
sage on which the parashah is based. In some cases

(see *Ai. l.lET) •" «'«? pniypf* of ti

incnt. Tlie tr

ants hesid'-^ '

German r.

lah." No. 1

tivepli^t"'

Weasel
Week

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

480

WEASEL (-\bn): Unclean animal (Lov. xi. 29).
Saadia, B .Lliait, and others rendei I^H l»y "mole,"
referring lo the Anibic "huld" and the Aramaic
'•huldah." The family of the Mustdithe, to which
Ihe wtasel belongs, is represented in Palestine and
Syria by several species.

In the Talmud the common weasel, MuMela rul-
;;<ins. is meutioueil under the names mpin and
KnL'1313 (Pes. 9a: Sauh. 105a). In Gen. II. .xxiv.
I- rs the term K^i- The weasel lives on

- and in holes and chinks of walls,
and it burrows in the ground (Pes. 8b, 118b; Nid-
dah I'jb: Suk. 20b). It kills animals larger than
itself (T"li- i^'- 3), and even attacks corpses (Shab.
151b). It is especially dangerous to domestic fowl
(Hul. 52b ttnl.): its bent and pointed teeth pierce
the skulls of hens {ib. 56a; comp. Rashi on Deut.
xxxii 5).

It is above all dangerous to the cat. Hence the
proverb "Weasel and cat wed," applied to simu-
lated friendship (Sauii. 105a). Like all small beasts
of prey, the weasel carries off glittering objects to
its hole (Lev. R. clxxi. 4). The weasel alone of all
land animals has no counterpart in the sea (Hul.
127a). It was employed in clearing the house of
mice (B. K. 80a). On the use of the weasel in divi-
nation see Sanh. 6Ga; and for the prett}' story of the
weasel and the well which, as witnesses of a be-
trothal, avenged its breach, see Rashi on Ta'an. 8a.

BiBLiooRAPHV : Tristram, Nat. Hist. p. 151 ; Lewysohn, Z. T.
pp. 91, »;»■».
K. G. II I. M. C.

WEATHER-LORE : Popular prognostications
reganiiiig ilie WL-atlier. A certain number of these
occur in the Talmud (B. B. 147a). If the weather
atShabu'ot is clear, sow wheat. If the smoke of the
altar turns to the north on the last days of Taber-
nacles, there will be much rain in the following year.
This was true for Jerusalem ; the opposite, for Baby-
lonia. If New-Year's day is warm, the whole year
will be warm (comp. Yoma 21b).

Much importance was attributed to the "tekufot,"
or changes of seasons. If the tekufah of Tebet falls
on a Wednesday or a Saturday, there will be famine.
If the tekufah of Nisan is on a Sunday, there will
be war and death and snow. Some of these prog-
nostications of later times were adapted from the
Greeks. Thus, if the new moon of Tebet fell on a
Sunday, it was taken to portend that the winter
would be a good one. Moses ha-Darshan declared
that if the tekufah of Tebet fell within the first ten
days of the month, grain would be dear. This is
quoted by Issacliar ibn Susan in his "'Ihbur Sha-
nim" (pp. 123b. 124a. Venice, 1579), which contains
other weather-lore. In some weather-signs the posi-
tif)n of the planets is taken into account. Thus, if a
new moon occurs in the mansion of Mars, the month
will be warm anil rainy ; if in the mansion of Mercury,
windy and dusty. If the tekufaii happens when the
sun is in tiie zenith, the year will be a warm one;
when Venus is in tiie ascendancy, a rainy one; etc.

Many of the larger Mahzoriin contain items of this
kind; as, for example, the Roman Mahzor edited by
Luzzatto and tiie Vitry Mahzor. So, too, in the " Se-
fer Yerahme'el " therr- is an elaborate treatise on me-
teorology, containing prognostications bused on the

occurrence of rain on certain days, or of thunder on
such days. Thus, if it rains on the new moon of
Nisan, there will be death among the cattle.

BiHi.ior.RAPHV: M. Gaster. Jewish Wcathcr-Lorc, in Jew.
Cliron. Nov. 13, 1891. pp. 7-8.
s. J.

WEAVING : As early as the nomadic period
the Israelites understood the art of spinning the
hair of camels and goats, and the wool of sheep,
and of weaving therefrom rough stuffs for tents
and clothing. Their method of weaving was prob-
ably quite as primitive as that of the Bedouins of
Jabal Mu.sa observed by E. H. Palmer, who describes
the process, as carried on by a woman, thus: "Her
loom was a primitive one, consisting only of a
few upright sticks, upon which the threads were
stretched ; the transverse threads were inserted la-
])oriously by the fingers without the assistance of a
shuttle, and the whole fabric was pressed close to-
gether with a piece of wood" (" The Desert of the
Exodus," i. 125).

In Palestine the Israelites became acquainted with
somewhat better methods of weaving, although these
must have reinuined very simple until a later period.
This is shown by the fact that the Egyptian looms,
although the Egyptian methods of weaving, like
the Bab}'lonian and Syrian, are spoken of as highly
developed, were nevertheless exceedingly primitive.
Herodotus narrates that tiie Egyptians wove at an
upright loom. The threads were fastened below,
and the weavers commenced their work at the bot-
tom, unlike other peoples, who, according to the
same authority, began at the top. This method of
weaving was probably the one which was customary
at the time of Herodotus, although the monuments
prove tiiat the Egyptians were acquainted also with
horizontal looms. The well-known representation
in one of the tombs at Beni Hasan (Wilkinson, "An-
cient Egj'ptians," i. 317) shows a horizontal loom
at which two women are seated. (The usual view
that this is an upright loom has been refuted by
Kennedy in Cheyne and Black, "Eucyc. Bibl." iv.
5279.) The warp was stretched over
Warp and two sticks fastened to the ground by
Woof. wooden pegs. Other representations
sliow upright looms on which the
warp runs from top to bottom, being held firm
above and below by a cross-bar. Both kinds of
loom may have been in use among the Hebrews
also.

The Greeks and Romans used most commonly the
upright loom, as described above, although at an
earlier period both the upright and the horizontal
loom may have been used side by side. Kennedy
(I.e.) finds an indication of the existence of the hori-
zontal loom in the story of Samson, where it is
related that Delilah wove Samson's locks into the
web of her loom while he was asleep (Judges xvi.
13 et seq.). In modern times only the horizontal
loom is used in Palestine. Still another ujnight
loom, differing from that described above, seems to
have been in use. This corresponded to the old
Grecian loom, having but one cross-bar at the top to
fasten the web, while the threads were kept stretched
apart at the bottom by weights instead of l)y a sec-
ond cross-bar. With this kind of a loom it wasncc-

481

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

essary to begin at the top. Bliss claims to have

found such looms in Tell al-Hasi ("A Mound of

Many Cities," p. 113). The primitive

Looms. fashions of olden times made it possi-
ble to weave a whole garment in one
piece, and the looms were adapted to the sizes of
the products required. It was not customary to
weave long strips of cloth from which the clothing
was cut out later, although tliis was possible when
the rods upon which the warp was stretched could
be turned, as seems to have been sometimes the case
with the Egyptian looms.

One of the most important problems of ancient
weaving methods was the separation of the odd from
the even threads of the warp, so that the woof could
pass between them easily, and their interchange of
positions(i.e., respectively over and under the woof)
after each stroke of the shuttle. This the ancient
Egyptians effected by means of two slicks: one was
pushed between the two layers of threads, keep-
ing them separate, while the other, to which the
threads of tiie lowei- layer were fastened by loops,
made it possible to pull them up simultaneously,
and thus to produce the interchange of positions.
The insertion of tiie transverse thread was effected
b}-^ means of a shuttle (JiN). There are no data
bj- means of which the histor\' of the development
and perfection of this important discovery can be
pursued an}' further.

Egyptian representations show that from the ear-
liest times the S^-riaus delighted in variegated and
gorgeous garments. The Hebrews must soon have
learned how to manufacture many-colored stuffs,
in adiiition to the most simple single-colored weaves.
For example, the coarsest mantles of the modern
peasiints are striped black (or brown) and white,
and they were probably the same in antiquity. The
inweaving of gold was fashionable for elegant gar-
ments (Ex. xxviii. 5 et seq., xxxix. 2 et seq.\ Ps.
xlv. 10), but it is not certain whether the stuff called
HDpl. often mentioned in the description of the Tab-
ernacle, was of variegated weave or an embroidery.
It is doubtful whether the Hebrews understood how
to weave figured textures.

The weaving of clothing, etc., for household use
was originally a task which devolved upon the
housewives; it is not known when weaving was first
developed as a separate trade. In later times weav-
ers held a position of high esteem among the people
(comp. Delitzsch, " JUdisches Handwerksleben,"pp.
45 et Heq. ).

BiBi.iofiRAPHY : Rieger. Vtrfxich einer Technnlogie uud Ter-
minnhiyic dcr Hanilwei'ke in der Mi^iclt^iah. s.v. Spiunen,
Weboi. etc.. Berlin, 1894; Cheyne and Black, Encuc. Bihl.
E. G. II. I. Be.

WECHSELMANN, IGNAZ : Hungarian archi-
tect and philanthropist ; born at Nikolai, Prussian
Silesia, in 1828; died at Budapest Jan. 17, 1903. He
was educated at Berlin, and then went to Vienna,
where he became the friend and assistant of the
architect Ludwig Forster. In 1856 he removed to
Budaix'st. where he. as FOrster's representative,
superintended the building of the great synagogue.
Most of the monumental buildings erected in the
Hungarian capital between 1870 and 1890 were de-
signed by him, his work including palaces, mills,
XII.— 31

factories, <l
In 1n,m; 1„. |, ,

the third class, and shortly uftt-rwanl I

seph I. I ' • ' • ■■

Failin.
from active life in 18»6, wh
time to philantlirf)pi<'
greatest act i,{ charity u
in his will, by which he I
kronen to the Institute for •
lions for the support of rnei
public .schools. Half of tli.
be Jews and the other half (
of directors of the Jewish c<.;
with the administration of the IjequesU

WECKER, DER. .S... pKHM.|,r. m -

WEDDING and WEDDING-GIFTS. S.-*-
M.\Kui.\GE Ceremonies

WEEK (Hebr. "shabua." phinil •

"shabu'ot"; Aramaic, " v|.ai,t,. i, " "^. ,.

T. Greek, aaff^nTov, a&,^ .,n of time

comprising seven dii

name. There are in

system of reckoning time, in which the ni*.

divided into three parts . '

being designated in H>

(Gen. xxiv. 55; comp. the commentaries of Dill

mann and Holzinger <ul h^ ; K* '

29, xxiii. 27, XXV. 9). This api

one-third of the solar month, while the » . .en

days was connected with the lunar v

it is, approximately, a fourth. Tl.

division of the month was evidently in u*

the Hebrews and other ancient • ■ '

not clear whether .
Connection the former. It is un:
with sume. however, that .
Lunar from the Babyloiiiiir)*; f.>r

Phases. jh --i!)!e that ■
phages of the
nomads spontaneously and :
the system of dividing the inu-r-
cessive new moons into four gi, .,
each. There is ground, on the other L
assumption that both ii
among the Hebrews tht :
of the month was always reckoned as ct^;
with the fir>^'
on the reqi.

of Pextecost should be -com;
suggests tin'
way as to \

case as long as the first day <»f i
month was made \" '

At the end of four •
days might intervene Iwfon- «:
beirin. At an early date. Iiow. ..
connection bftwetn the w«H-k nnrt •
have been diss«tlved. tl
week of se%'en days Ix,... ...

predominance of tlu' srvcnth •
(but see Meinhohi. -

GOttingen, 1905, an -

inallv onlv the full-moou «liiy and Ibc t^

Weekblad voor Israelieten
Weights and Measures

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

482

independent of each other). The week thus became
a useful stiiudard iu the measurement of intervals
of time (one week. Gen. xxi.x. 27 et seq. ; two weeks,
Lev. xii. 5; three weeks. Dan. x. 2; seven weeks,
Deut. xvi. 9; Lev. xxiii. 15).

With the exception of the seventh day, which was
called the S.\buatu, the days of the week were des-
ignated bv ordinal numerals, not by names. In
post-Biblical and later Hebrew literature Friday is
known as "'Ereb Shabbat" (Greek, -apaaKEvii or
jrpooa J Jarov ; Judith viii. 6; Mark xv. 42; Matt.
xxvii. 62; Josephus, "Ant." xvi. 6, § 2). The Bib-
lical writings contain no trace of any custom of
naming the days of the week after the seven planets;
nor had this custom, found among the Babylonians
and the Sabeans, any bearing origi-
Week- nally on the division of the week into
Days Not seven days, since it was a mere numer-

Named. ical coincidence that seven planets
were assumed in these primitive astro-
logical conceits. In the Babylonian nomenclature
the lirst day of the week was under the tutelage of
Shamash. the sun ; the second under that of Sin, the
moon; the third under Nergal, Mars; the fourth
under Nabu, Mercury; the fifth under Marduk
(Bel). Jupiter; the sixth under Ishtar (Beltis), Ve-
nus; and the seventh under Ninib, Saturn (see, how-
ever, Sihrud.r, "K. A. T." 3d ed., pp. 622 et seq.).

E. G. H.

WEEKBLAD VOOR ISRAELIETEN. See
Pl-.i;!"i>l. SI-.

WEEKS, FEAST OF. See Pentecost.
WE-HIZHIR. See Midkash Haggadah.

WEHU RAHUM (Dini XIHI = "But He, being
full (jt comiKissiou '"j: A prayer, beginning with
Ps. Ixxviii. 38, recited on Mondays and Thursdays
before Taiiancn. It is composed chiefly of Biblical
verses, and is divided into seven parts: (1) " Weliu
Itahum " ; (2) " Hatteh Elo'a Oziieka " ; (3) " Hai)bct
Na" ;(4) ** Anna Melek " ; (5) " El Hahuni we-IIannun" ;
(«) "En Kamoka": and (7) "Ila-Potcah Yad."
From the repetitions in it, it may be inferred that
the prayer is the work of more than one author.
It was known in its present form to the compiler of
the V'itry Mal.izor, who qiiotes it in full; while in
the Siddur of H. Amram it is given in three versions,
one beginning with " Im 'Awonenu " (the seventh
verse of the jiresent form) and followed by the con-
fession of sins (AsriA.MNu; see Tur Orah Hayyim,
tj 13-1). another commencing with " VVe-Attah
Adonai." and the third opening with "Wehu
Kahuin." but in much shortened form. In the Seder
Tefill(jt of Maimonides (at the end of the second
book of the " Yad ") the prayer before " Tahanun " is
given ill a very difTercnt version and is to be recited
every day, not merely on Mondays and Thursdays.

According to a legend, the " VVeliu Hahum " was
composi-d on the following occasion : After the de-
struction of the Temple many Jews were placed by
Vespasian on three vessels and were abandoned by
their captains in the open sea. Among those thus
left ifjjierisli were Beniamin Yerushalmi, his brother
Joseph, and tln-ir cousin Samuel. By a miracle the
vessel bearing them ami their companions reached
BordeauA in safety. They were kindly received

by the ruler of the countrj', but at his death Ijecame
the object of enmity. They accordingly instituted
fasts for the cessation of the persecution, and during
this peiiod they recited the " Wehu Hahum," wiiieh
had been composed by Benjamin, Joseph, and Sam-
uel. Later, when the persecutions had ceased, the
authors sent the prayer to their coreligionists of
other countries.

Another legend of the origin of this prayer is
given in the Vitry Mahzor, though it fails to men-
tion the names of the authors. A prince is said to
have notified three refugees from Jerusalem that he
would throw them into a burning furnace to deter-
mine whether they were Jews. At the expiration
of the respite which they requested, a pious old
man told them he had heard in a dream a Bil)lieal
passage containing the word ^3 twice and the word
s!? thrice. One of them immediately recognized Isa.
xliii. 2, from which they inferred that they would
be saved. At the command of the prince a fire was
kindled in the street, but the flames, as soon as the
old man entered them, divided in three directions.
and the Jews passed through uninjured. In com-
memoration of this miracle they composed the
"Wehu Rahum," to which each of them contributed
a portion.

Bibliography: Zunz, Liter alurgesch. p. 17; Gross, Gallia
Judaica, p. 75.
J. I. Bu.

WEIBERDEUTSCH. See Jud^o-Geuman.

WEICHSELBAUM, ANTON: Austrian phy-
sician; bom at Schiltern, Lower Austria, Feb. 8,
1845. Educated at the Josefs-Akadeinie and the
University of Vienna (M.D. 1869), he joined the
army as surgeon and remained in service until 1878,
when he resigned and became privat-docent at the
University of Vienna. In 1885 he was appointed
assistant professor and in 1894 professor of patho-
logical anatomy. In 1892 he was elected member of
the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna.

Weichselbaum has contributed more than a hun-
dred essays to the professional journals, and is the
author of "Gruiidriss der Pathologischen Histolo-
gic," Leipsic and Vienna, 1892.

Bibliography : Eisenberg, Das Geistige Wieiu vol. ii., Vienna,
1893.
s. F. T. H.

WEIGERT, KARL: German pathologist;
born at Munslerberg in Silesia March 19, 1845; died
at Frankfort-on-the-Main Aug. 5, 1904. He received
his education at the universities of Berlin, Vienna,
and Breslau, graduating in 1868. After having
taken part in the Franco-Prussian war as assistant
surgeon he settled in Breslau. and for the following
two years was assistant to Wuldeyer; from 1870 to
1874 to Lebert, and then to Cohuheim, whom he fol-
lowed to Leip.sic in 1878. There he became assistant
professor of p.-iMiology at the university in 1^79. In
1H84 he was appointed professor of patliological
anatr)my at the Senkenbergsche Sriftung in Fraiik-
fort on-tlicMaiM, and leceived the title of "'Geheimer
Medizinal Hat" in 1899.

Weigert assisted Cohnheim in many of his re-
searches, and wrote much on the staining of bac-
teria in microscopy. He contributed many essays

483

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

WB<-k>ilncl voor larnrllelen
Wi-iKhtH iti.tl Mrnaurca

to the medical journals. Among his works may be
mentioned: "Zur Anatomie der Pocken " (Breslaii,
1874): "Filrbung der Bacterien niit Aiiiliiifarlicii "
{ib. 1875); "Nephritis" (Leipsic, 1879); "Fibrin-
farbuug " (1886) ; " BeitrJlge zur Kenntniss der Nor-
malen Menschlichen Neuroglia" (Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1895); "Elastische Fasern " (/i. 1898).

Bibliography : PaRel, BioQ. Lex. s.v.. Vienna, 1901 ; Oe>itcr-
reichische Wochenschrift. 1904. pp. 533, .5;!4.
s. F. T. H.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. — Biblical
Data: Wliile tlie lefereiices in the Old 'restaincnt
are suthciciit for a general knowledge of tlu' ancient
HebrcAv system of weights and measures, and of the
mutual relations of the several units, they are not
adequate for an exact determination of the absolute
standard of measurement. The rabbinical state-
ments that a fingerbreadth equals seven barleycorns
laid side by side, and that a log is equivalent to six
medium-sized eggs, are as indefinite as the statement
on the Siloam inscription that the Siloam canal (537.6
meters as measured by Conder) was

Derived 1,200 ells long — evidently around num-
from Baby- ber. Since, however, the entire system
Ionia. of measures corresponds a! most exactly
with the Babylonian, from which the
Hebrew measures were in all probability derived, it
may be assumed that the Hebrew system corre-
sponded •with the Babylonian with regard to the
absolute standard as well. It is true that the Egyp-
tian system may have exerted some influence here
and there, as will be shown later, but it is now gen-
erally recognized that the culture of ancient Syria,
even before the Israelites iiad migrated there, was
almost wholly under Babylonian influence.

I. Measures of Length : The original meas-
ures of length were derived from the human body:
the finger, hand, arm, span, foot, and pace. As
these measures differ with each individual, they
must be reduced to a certain definite standard for
general use. The Hebrew system, therefore, had
such a standard: the ell ("ammali") contained 2
spans ("zeret"), while each span was made up of 3
handbreadths ("tefah") of 4 fingers ("i-zba'")
each. This division of the ell into 6 handbreadihs
was the one customarily employed in antiquity, but
it was supplanted in Babylonia by the sexagesimal
system. The Old Testament mentions two ells of
different size. Ezekiel implies that in his measure-
ment of the Temple the ell was equal to a "cubit
and a handbreadth" (xl. 5, xliii. 13) — that is, one
handbreadth larger than the ell commonly used in
his time. Since among all peoples the ell measured
6 handbreadths, the proportion of Ezekiel 's ell to
the others was as 7 to 6. The fact that Ezekiel
measured the Temple by a special ell
The Cubit, is comprehensible and significant only
on the assumption that this ell was
the standard of measurement of the old Temple of
Solomon as well. This is contirmed by the state-
ment of the Chronicler that the Temjile of Solomon
was built according to "cubits after the first meas-
ure " (II Chron. iii. 3), implying that a larger ell was
used at first, and that this was supplanted in tlie
course of time by a smaller one.

The Egyptians in like manner used two kinds of

<'lls III cMiiiij tlic Millie !,•

namely, tiie smullir .11 (.f •

larger " royjil " dl. wlilch wa« u Imiulbr.

The latter mensur' 'T '■

former 450 niilliiii. I

75 inillinirtrrH. Il wouUl M*emal li:

Egypiiun system of mensur'

Hebrew, and tlie tWd Heb;

be considered identicul with th'

This assumption is. howev«r.

the other measures were dcriv'

all probiibilily tiie ancient Helirew • ;

there also. The length of tlic UO

given on the famous stulue of Kii

ning of 3d millennium lie), •

southern Babylonia. A scule ...

statue, according to which the ell m

495 millimeters. H meiiHurement •

certain Babylonian lablel,s. Tli' ,

ing to the Babylonian scale, I ell, or, .

the metric system. SJiO miir ■ '

side. The ell of 495 millim.

used also in Pheuicia in measuring the iiokls of

ships, but these computations ■ ... j

in detail here. The letifith of

ell can not be determined exactly %Mih the- «iuiii ; .*

controlled by science; but it w;. ••' - '" : ,

millimeters, and this slight din

two figures is scarcely a|ipreciable in an estimate of

the size of Helirew edifires, etc.

II. Measures of Capacity : The H'-brrw «y«trm
here corresponds exactly with tlie ! In

contradistinction to the Egyptiii!' •
shows the regular geometric pt
40, 80, 160— the Hel)rew and the Hal

are based on the sexagesimal sy. stem, i

Babylonian system was the "maris." a ciii:i

watere(jualinweightto(i light ;

tained, therefore, about 30.3 lit

divided into 60 parts, probably called " n.

liter). All the other measures liiis

mina: 12. 24. 60. 72(»iO + 12). 1.

In the Hebrew system the log (Lev. »It
responds to the mina. Sim' ' "
e(|uate the log with the ' -

whatever tlieso writer* ■■)• on
The Log. tion of the sextarluR t •• -

applies al.*o to the i
measures to the log. The log and ti
however, are not equal in r- • •• 1
is estimated at .547 liter, wi
regard the log as larger than i;
especially as other references o! ...
gists sujiport the assumption that t)
to the mina. The fact that ii:
tlie log is mentionwl only as a t'.
merely accidental, for the dry r
distinguislie<i in all ■
ures, also have tht
sponding dry measure may. I.
known under a liiff'
ity must be borne i;.
next larger measure, containing foi
tinned only as a ili^
the dry and liquid i
leins. as follows;

Weights and Measures

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

484

Dry Measukes.

lt>oiner= 10ephali8 = 30 8e'alin= 180 cabs = 730 log8= 364.4 lit.

(cor) lepbab =38e'alin= 18 cabs = 7- logs = 36.44 lit.

Ise'ab = tjcabs- -'41ors= 1-M4islit.

Icab = 4 logs = 2.1134 lit.

Hog = O.SOtilit.

Liquid Measures.

1 cor = 10 bubs = 60 bins = 180 cabs = 730 logs = 364.4 lit.

1 batli = 6 bins = 18 cabs = 73 logs = 36.44 lit.

1 bin = 3 cabs = 13 logs = 6.074 lit.

1 cab = 4 logs = 2.034 lit.

1 log = 0.506 lit.

In these tables that homer has been omitted wliich
is. according to Ex. .\vi. 36. oue-tenth of an cphah,
and which is. therefore, identical with the " 'issaron "
(Num. .wviii. 5 t( al. ). The tenth part of a bath, for
fluids, which is int-ntioued in Ezek. xlv. 14 without
a special name, corresponds in content to the homer,
or "issaron, among the dry measures. The homer and
its liquid equivalent do not belong to the original
system, as may be seen by the proportion the homer
bears to the other measures: 3i homers = 1 se'ah, Ij
homers = 1 hin, 1 homer = li cabs = 7i logs. The

Babylonian Weight in the Form of a Lion with Inscription
I'^c njc (=^ "royal maneh").

(From Mftddeo, ** History of Jewish Coinage.")

t«nth part of a bath is, fiirthermore, mentioned
only in Ezekiel and in the Priestly Code. The old
division of the ephah and the bath was into three
parts; Ezekiel mentions also the sixth part of an
cphah. At a later period the se'ah and the cab dis-
appear as dry measures, so that the Priestly Code
refers simply to the tenth part of the ephah This
new division into tenths may be connected with the
appearance of the decimal system, which can be
traced elsewhere, especially in weights and coins.

Only one measure in addition to those enumerated
above is mentioned in the Old Testament. This is
the "letek," which occurs but once (Hosea iii. 2).
It is a dry measure, and is uniformly designated in
tradition as equal to i homer, although it is doubt-
ful whetlier a definite measure is implied by this
term. The Septuagint translates "letek" in its
sinp!r> offiirrfncc as ri^i'/. mvov = "a skin of wine."

III. Measures of Weight : It is evident from
in.ecriptions tiiat the IJiihylonian system of weight
was us<;d in Syria anrl Palestine even before the en-
trance of the Israelites into the country. The Egv))-
tian inscription f)f Karnak records the tribute which
the kings of Egypt exacted from their Syrian vas-
sals. Although the sums are given according to
Egyptian weight, the odd numbers clearly indicate
that the figures were computed originally by .some

other system, which may easily be shown to have
been the Babylonian.

The Babylonians reckoned weight in talents,
mime, and shekels. Layard found in the ruins of
Nineveh several Babylonian units of weight, some
in the form of a crouching lion and others in that
of a duck, the former being twice as heavy as the
latter. This proves that a heavy and
The Mina. a light talent were used in Babylon,
the latter one-half the weight of the
former. A heavy talent = 6(1,600 grams ; 1 mina (jV
talent) =: 1,010 grams; 1 shekel = 16.83 grams; 1
light talent = 30,300 grams; 1 light mina = 505
grams; 1 light shekel = 8.41 grams. There was, in
addition to this " royal " weight, another "common "
weight which was somewhat lighter (compare the
large "royal" ell and the "common" ell, mentioned
above). According to thiscoininon weight the heavy
talent weighed 58,944 grams; its mina 982.4 grams;
its shekel 16.37 giams; and the light talent, mina,
and sliekel just one-half as much. The comiuon
heavy talent and its subdivisions were the weights
current in Syria and Palestine, as Josephus expressly
states ("Ant." xiv. 106, cd. Niese). According to
him, 1 Jewish mina (of 50 shekels) was equal to 2-^
Roman pounds, or 818.62 grams; hence 1 shekel
was equivalent to 16.37 grams, and 1 old mina of
60 shekels to 982.2 grams. There were also the half-
shekel or bekah (" beka' ").

In the course of time the sexagesimal system was
superseded in Babylonia also, perhaps under Egyp-
tian inrtueuce. The mina of 60 shekels was replaced
throughout Asia jSIinor by the mina of 50 shekels.
The shekel remained the same, forming the unit of
weight, while the mina and talent were reduced,
containing respectively 50 shekels = 818.6 grams and
3,000 shekels - 49,110 grams.

The period of these changes is unknown. In the
Old Testament the first reference occurs in Ezekiel;
if the Septuagint is cori-ect in its translation of Ezek.
xlv. 12, that passage reads, "You sliall count the
manhe [mina] as fifty shekels." There is other evi-
dence in Ex. xxxviii. 25 (Priestly Code), where the
tax levied upon 603,550 men at \ shekel each was
computed to belOO talents and 1,775 shekels, whence
1 talent equaled 3,000 shekels, and 1 mina was equiv-
alent to 850 shekels. These measures were further
changed in the currency, which was also reckoned
in talents, minas, and shekels. In Jewish silver 1
shekel = 14.55 grams, 1 mina = 50 shekels = 727.5
grams, 1 talent = 3,000 shekels = 43,-

Money. 659 grams. Whatbearing this change
— which was confined to silver — had
upon the relative values of gold and silver, and how
far it was conditioned by the demands of exchange
day by day, can not be discussed in detail here
(comp. Benzinger, "Arch." pj). 192 ct srq.). With
this silver shekel the shekel of weight must not be
confounded. In the Pentateuch tiie heavy shekel of
weight is called, in contradistinction to the silver
sliekel, the "holy shekel, the shekel of 20 geraiis"
(Ex. XXX. 13; Lev. xxvii. 25; Num. iii. 47). Tin's
refers to the tax payable to the Sanctuary, which, it
is expressly stated, must not be ]iaid in silver shek-
els, but according to weight, conforming with an-
cient custom.

485

THE JEWlbll ENCYCLOPEDIA

Welvhts and Bf»*aur»«

Tlie division of the shekel into 20 geriihs is men-
tioned only in the passages just quoted and in Ezek.
xlv. 13(LXX.). Otherwise tlie Old Testament re-
fers only to quarters and halves of slickels. Sec
Money ; Numismatics.

Bini.iOGRAPHV: Brandis, Drts ^flnlz-. .Vn.xx- ruul GcwichtH-
vrmii in V<>i\tcraMcii hia aitf AUwdiiilcr ilm (irossrn,
Berlin, 186(5; Hiiltsi'h. GriVc/ii,sr/)f U)i<l Rfiiuixrhr Mrtriiln.
(lie. 2d ed., Berlin, 1883; Lehmann, Ditx AUIi<il,)il,,ui.srhi-
MasK- ^(nll OcwichisjiKtcm nls (Inuiilhifif ilcr Aiitilau Oc-
U'ivht-, MU)u-. nnd Mnsssi/stiwr, in Aflesilu Hi'mc ('(mgr.
liiternat. den Orient. va\. i.. part 2, pp. Ui't ct kc<i.; BcnzinRcr,
Arcli. pp. 178 cf >>cq., Leipsio, 18iH; ^ycii|flts and MeiUsurex.
in Cheyne and Blark, Encyc. Dihl.

E. G. II. I. Be.

In Rabbinical Literature: The weights and

measures of Talmudie literature are a combination
of those of the ancient Hebrew system with for-
eign elements; and it was especially Greek and Ro-
man metrology which became current among the
Jews in the post-Biblical period. These two ele-
ments, the domestic and the foreign, were, liowever,

so intimately fused that it is often

Domestic difficult to distinguLsli between them.

and In the course of time the Bililieal

Foreign weights and measures underwent vari-

Elements, ous changes which are recorded in the

Talmud, where an endeavor is made to
determine the original values. The Talmudie sys-
tem of metrology is especially important since it af-
fords an evaluation of the Biblical units. Talmudie
sources deduce the value of Biblical weights and
measures by comparing them with those which were
current in the period of the Talmud, and the units
of this system may often be determined by a com-
parison with their Greek and Roman ecjuivalents.
Talmudie metrology is therefore of importance for
the history of civilization, since it bears upon con-
ditions prevailing among the classic peoples of an-
cient times. The weights and measures mentioned
in Talmudie sources are as follows:

Gerah (mj) or Ma'ah (nyQ): In the Talmud the
gerah is mentioned as a unit of weight only with
reference to the Bible. Raba makes it the equiva-
lent of a ma'ah, and names as an authority for
this equation Onkelos, the translator of the Pen-
tateuch, who rendered the term "twenty gerahs"
(Ex. XXX. 13) by "twenty ma'ot " (Bek. 50a). This
ma'ah must be the Tyrian obol or ma'ah ; for Bek.
50a says: "Six silver ma'ot are equal to a dena-
rius." Inasmuch as four denarii are equivalent to

one sela', it follows that twenty-four
Units of ma'ot are also equal to one sela' ; and
Weight, this equation was used for the Tyriau

sela' (comp. Boeckh, " Metrologische
Untersuchungen Qber Gewichte, MUnzfUsse, und
Maasse des Alterthums in Ihrem Zusammenhange,"
p. 59, Berlin, 1838). The Talmud does not indicate
the actual weight of the ma'ah, but from Tyrian
silver coins still e.xtant its value may be determined.
The heaviest Tyrian silver coin in existence weighs
14.34 grams, and ..^joi this, or 0.5975 gram, is tliere-
fore the weight of a ma'ah. Tiiis deduction has
been based upon the weight of the heaviest Tyrian
silver coin because in those that are ligliter the loss
in weight is evidently due to handling and use.

Shekel (^p:^*: Greek, aUM, aiyM): Tiiis is the
next highest unit of weight. The Bible designates

thcvalui i>i i lie >.iiiMi a>5 " I

13); wljence. aecoiding to I

for the perali or innuh. the -

'iO X 0.5975 gram, or 110.',

Talmud, liowever (Shel^.

weiglit for the sh.kcl, Ktatin>; that Iwlf a

e(jual to six poDIJ ; und tt

Tan.. Ki Ti8.sa. ed. Bul«r

designates a scruple (

..'r ounce (conii). MiiBs^iini .;

DD"lJ). Inasmuch as the Hoi

twelve ounces, a lmlf-slu-k«-l |j<<om.^

lent of ^u Roman |»oiiii(|. and u v^,,..- .,,,,..,

= 5^- According to B(Mrkh. the Hon.nn [wsf!-!

weighed 327.43 J grams, und n Hlivkel w

iiigly wcigli 13.043 graniB. In on-'i.-

tiie Talmud the weight of a shekel

grams, or tlie e(iuival<i)t of tin- 1

already mentioned. Tlie Tulniud .'••.. ; .. .

ver coin recorded in the Pentateuch «m

with the Tyrian mintage (R. ■ '

likewi.se dcclaies tliat llic

was identical with tlint of Tyro (To«cf.. Kf

A shekel was therefore identinil • "

sela' (Rashi on Bek. I.e.). and ii.s w< :

ingly 14.34 grams. The difTercDCc between the

weight given by the Jerusalem T ' ' •'■:'!

grams) and that de<hiced by ideni;

with the Tyrian sela' (14.34 grams) amounlH to 0.7

gram only; and it may be explnincfi ! • • .'

that the statement in the Jeru.salem Tu

makes a lialfshekel equal to six pct^'^i. i^ "mv <\u-

proximate. On the other hand, the dillir' • '

tween the weigiit of the shekel given in i

(11.95 grams), and that of the Tyr

grams, with wliicii the Biblical hU< ... .

in the Mishnah (Bek. viii. 7) and the Bii

Talmud ((7'. 50a), as well as in Y'

is too large to beuttribulctl to i:... ....

iug. The divergence finds its explanation. howe»ef.

in the Talmudie statement that tl.'

larged, the Biblical .shekel being < :

lent to 3i denarii, and being later in^

tlius becoming equal to fourde;

of itsoriginal value of twenty g'

equivalent to twenty-four. The BSbliail shekel

weighed 11.95 grams, and "' ^■•

(2.39 grams) gives 14 M

of the later coin, which then '

Tyrian sela'. In addition to thi- 'i.- .%• -

called "the shekel of the «ancturtry "dnd «

equal to a sela'. the Mishnah

Talmud (B. M. 52a) mention ai.. ;.-. .

was the equivalent of half a sela'. or luilf a "»hekel
of the sanctuary." and which wiw prf>hal'
tlie common shekel. Thi« indi' •»!. h tl..! :
of the shekel varied at dilTercnf ■
for these chan. the pr-

took place .see 1 . in " .^1

pp. 15M et aeq.: Zuckermann. "l'el»er Tain
Gewi< hte und Mfln/en." p. 13)

Manehor MinB(nTO <Jretk. ^»m): In f»w MUh-
nah, as well as in the Talmud, the m
mentioned a** a unit of v.
meat, und the like (KetN
Ker. 6a; et pa$rim) In the Miniinah it w wttrt-

Weights and Measures

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

486

times called 'p^D'S nj^ or " Italian mina " (Sheb. i.
3, 3), the desiguatiuu "lialki" lielpiug to determine
its weight. The Italian mina contained 100 denarii,
while the Roman pound contained only ninety-six.
A n)iua was therefore equivalent to l,'^^ Roman
pounds, and since the Roman pound equaled 327.434
grams, the Italian maneh was equal to 341.077
grams, the weight assigned it in the Talmud. From
a passage in Ber. 5a it appears that a mina equaled
twenty-five shekels; and since, according to the
passage already cited from the Jerusalem Talmud
(Shek. 46(1), a shekel was equal to twelve scruples, a
mina was equivalent to 25 X 12, or 300 scruples.
The Roman pound contained only 288 scruples, and
the mina was therefore equal to l^\ Roman pounds.
Besides this mina of twenty -five shekels, the Talmud
(Hul. 137b-138a) mentions another, which was equal
to forty shekels or sela'im.

Litra (X"it3'^; Greek, /(Vpn); The litra, which
originally corresponded to the Italian "libra," is
mentioned in the Mishnah (Shebu. vi. 3; Bek. v. 1;
Tem. iii. 5) and in the Talmud (Er. 29a; Ket. 67b;
ft pas»im) as a unit of weight for figs, vegetables,
meat, fish, gold, and silver. The Jerusalem Talmud
(Ter. 47b) defines the litra as equal to 100 zinin,
the zin (p) being the same as the zuz (TIT), since
the Mishnah (Ter. x. 8) uses the term "zuz " in the
passage parallel to that in which tlie Tosefta (Ter.
ix.) employs the word "zin." A litra was there-
fore equal to 100 zuzim. From tliis it follows
that a litra was equivalent to a mina, since the Tal-
mud also calls a denarius a zuz, which makes a litra
= 100 zuzim = 100 denarii. As has been stated
above, a mina equaled twenty-five shekels, and a
>^liekel was equivalent to four denarii, thus making
tlie mina = 100 denarii = 1 litra. In addition to the
whole litra, pieces of weight of the value of a half,
third, and quarter of a litra are also mentioned
(Tosef., Kelim, B. M. ii.; B. B. 89a; Sifre, Deut.
294 ff'd. Friedmann, p. 126b]).

Kikkar (132): The term " kikkar," generally ren-
dered " t^ilent " (Greek, ra'/.avTov), usually denotes in
Talmudic sources a weight for gold and silver (Suk.
51b; 'Ab. Zarah 44a et passim). It is evident from
the Talmud (Bek. oa) that a kikkar contained sixty
minfle. In the Jerusalem Talmud (Sanh. 19d) the
value of the kikkar is given as sixty litras, which is
the e<iuivalent of sixty mina ; and the same passage
refers to a kikkar as being equal to 100 mins, al-
though this statement must allude to the Attic mina,
which was equal to ? Hebrew mina, rather than to
the Hebrr-w wciglit itself.

Other "Weights : Smaller weights also are in-
dicaiod by coins, as, for example, the denarius
(Tos^'f., Men. xii. ; Shab. ix.) and the zuz (Shab.
nOiii In the Jerusalem Talmud (Ta'an. 68a), as
Will as in Gen. H. (Ixxix. 9) and other midrashic
pas.sage9, the ounce (N'DJIN) occurs. In the Mi.sh-
niih rS;iiih. viii. 2) iiicntion is likewise made of the
tartimar nO'Din). whicii, according to tlie Talmud
(Sanh. 70a). was equivalent to half a mina. The
term is a corruption of Iho (iiQck Tptrrifidpinv (= "one-
third"), and probably indicated \ Alexandrian
mina. which contained 150 dcnaiii (comp. Boeckh,
l.r. pp. 1.55 et seq.). One-third of tliis mina, or fifty
denarii, was equal to half of fli'' Hrl.rcw mina, wiiicli

contained only 100 denarii (comp. Zuckermann, I.e.
p. 8). A minute unit of weight, designated as one-
sixteenth of a weight in Pumbedita, is also men-
tioned in the Talmud (Shab. 79a; Git. 22a; B. M.
105b). Another small weight, the ritel (i)t3'"l), is
mentioned in the Jerusalem Talmud (Yoma 41d).
This was probably a small copper coin which derived
its name from the red color (Latin, "rutilus") of the
metal of which it was composed.

It must be borne in mind that the values of the
weights often varied in different parts of the coun-
try. The Mishnah (Ter. x. 8; Ket. v. 9; etc.) ac-
cordingly states that the weights used in Judea had
but half the value they possessed in Galilee, so that
ten Judean sela'im were equal to five Galilean; and
the same assertion is made by Sifre, Deut. 166, and
by the Talmud (Hul. 137b; comp. Zuckermann, I.e.
pp. 11-12).

Ezba' (yaVK = "fingerbreadth"): The smallest
measure of length; it is mentioned as a unit even
in the Biblical period (Jer. Iii. 21 ; see Weights and
^Ie.\8Uues, Biblical Data). The Mishnah often
alludes to the ezba' as a measure (Kil.
Measures vii. 1; Yoma v. 2; Men. xi. 4; Oh.
of Length, iv. 3; Mik. vi. 7), although no value
is assigned it. Its length may, how-
ever, be deduced from a Talmudic passage; and
Zuckermann has found b}' calculation that the Tal-
mudic ezba' was equal to 2.33411 cm. In the Tal-
mud the term "ezba' " refers to the thumb as well
as to the middle and little fingers. The Talmud
therefore draws a distinction between the breadth of
the thumb and that of the middle and little fingers,
by stating (Men. 41b): "The handbreadth [" tefah "]
mentioned in the Talmud is equal to four thun)b-
breadths, or six little-finger breadths, or five middle-
finger breadths.'' The size of an ezba' as given
above (2.33411 cm.) refers to the breadth of a thumb.
From the proportionate dimensions of the thumb,
middle finger, and little finger, according to the
Talmudic passage already cited, the breadth of the
middle finger would be 1.867288 cm., and that of
the little finger 1.556 cm.

Tefat (= "handbreadth "): The measure next in
size to the ezba' ; it was used as a measure of length
in the Bible. The size of the handbreadth is de-
scribed in the Talmud (Bek. 39b) as equal to four
thumbbreadths; and in the passage previously
quoted (Men. 41b) this statement is amplified by
making it the equivalent of four thumbbreadths,
or six little-finger breadths, or five middle-finger
breadths. From this proportion of the tefah to the
breadth of the fingers, its size, according to tlie
measurements given above, appears to have been
9.336443 cm. In addition to the normal hand-
breadth the Talmud mentions two others (Suk. 7a):
one formed by holding the fingers loosely ("tefah
sohek"), and the other produced by pressing the
fingers firmly together ("tefah 'azeb"), although
the divergence between these handbreadths and
the normal is not determined.

Ell: In addition to the Mosaic ell, which was
equal to the mean ell ("ammat benonit")and con-
sisted of six handbreadths (comp. Zuckermann, I.e.
p. 17), the Mi.shnah (Kelim xvii. 9) mentions two
others, one of which was half a fingerbreadth and

487

THE JEWISH ENCYCLDPEDIA

Welffbta and KeaaurM

the other a whole fingerbreadth longer than the
mean ell. The standards used for measuring both
tliese ells were said to have been kept in a special
place in the Second Temple. The Talniiid explains
the introduction of t])ese two ells in addition to the
mean or Mosaic ell (see Pes. Hlia; Men. !)8a). and
mentions also an ell which contained only live hand-
breadths (Er. 3b). The mean ell, equivalent to six
handbreadths, was, according to the measurement of
the handl)readth given above, etjual to 5(5. 018658 cm.
The ell which was half a fingerbreadth longer was,
therefore, 57.185375 cm. in length, and that whieji
was a whole fingerbreadth longer was 58.352 cm.
The Mishnah (Tamid iii. 6) mentions still another
ell, callcil 'nti' nox. which was measured from the
tip of the middle finger to the ainipit. Inasmuch
as the ell which measuied six handbreadths was
equal to the length of the forearm, and the length
of the latter is to the arm as 6 is to 10, it follows
that the "ammatshehi " measured ten handbreadths,
or 93.36443 cm. In the Midrash (Gen. R. xxxvii.)
an ell is mentioned under the name riDX pp'lD. by
which the Theban ell {&Ti^^aiK6v) is probably meant.
For another meaning of the term |'p'3n see Zuck-
ermann. I.e. p. 21.

Garmida (NT?3"IJ): Repeatedly mentioned in the
Talmud (Shab. 110a; 'Er. 50b; Pes. \nh\et passim),
without any indication of its size. It is noteworthy,
however* that the Talmud (B. B. 27a) uses this term
to indicate a square ell, without designating it as a
square measure, while in 'Er. 14b "garmida" indi-
cates a cubic ell, although the customary term de-
noting " cubic " is omitted.

Zeret (mt = "span "): This measure, mentioned
in the Hibie (Ex. xxviii. 16) without any indication
of its size, is described in the Tosefta (Kelim, B. M.
vi. 12) as "half an ell of six handbreadths." Its
measure was, accordingly, 28.009329 cm.

Hasit (t:"'Dn 3m"l, O'DH n!^D -~ "content and
width of the hasit"): This term occurs as a meas-
ure of length in the Mishnah ('Orlah iii. 2, 3; Shab.
xiii. 4), in the Tosefta (Shab. ix.), and in the Talmud
(Shab. 79a, 106a), without any indication of its size
and without being compared with any other meas-
ure. According to Maimonides ("Yad," Shab-
bat, ix. 7-10), the breadth of the hasit equals the
opening between the thumb and the index-finger,
which is about the equivalent of s zeret, or two
handbreadths. This appears to be correct, since a
Greek measure called "dichas" ((5^;t"f) <^q"aled two
handbreadths, and was called two-thirds of a span.
Tlie hasit was identical with this dichas (comp.
Zuckermann, I.e. p. 24), and its size was accordingly
18.672880 cm.

Hebel (^nn = "cord "): A measure described in
the Mishnah CEr. v. 4) as a cord of fifty ells in
length, and in the Talmud ("Er. 581)) as one of four
ells.

Tehum Shabbat (n3L" Dinn - "Sabbath-way ");
Tlie extreme distance which a Jew miglit g() in any
one direction from his home on the Sal)lmth. It is
defined in the ]\Iishnah ('Er. iv. 3) and in tiie Talmud
(ICr. 51a) as 2.000 Hebrew ells, and it was there-
fore equal to 112,037.316 cm. This was also tiie
length of the mile (f)''0). ^vith which the Mi.simah
(Yon)a vi. 18) and both Talmudim (Pes. 93b, 94a:

Yer. Yoma 40b) indirn' -i -n- ' .,

mud (Yomu«7u) it Ih . ,.

is ecpiai to tin- tfliuiii .'jlmljUi. tiie llii .,.

was therefore shorter than 'i- F? ••■:• •■..,, „ ,.„h
it must not be confustHl.

Pesi'ah (ny'DD
a measure of jengili i:.
its value is dellned as one <

Ris (D'1 = "Htudium "

term "tis" to indicate .; ,. . ^

leugtli as ,^ mile. The Talmud (U. M. VM) alao

states that its leti>;th wiw ,^

According to Frankcl (in - M

p. 383). tlie term "rig" is Peralao. «i U alao the

term riDID f" panisanp "), uw<J ifi ' T '

measure of length (coujp Ton H. ■, .

and defined as equal to tour miles, or H.OOOelU

93b-94a).

Day's Journey (nv TiT): The Talmud drfloe*
a day's journey for a man of medium gait aa ten
parasangs, or 80,0<X) ells.

Measurements of fields are jfeot-rally indiratinl In

the Talmud by the amount of tn

The term nXD n'3. for example, i

which one w'ali can !

Superficial DTIKD n'3. "ue wi.

Measures, se'aini. 'I'lie lati' r

the Talmud (Er "»

Hebrew 9(iuareell8, or to 1 I

this can be u.sed as a has i : f

other superficial measures given in tlicTab

The Talmud mentions
measures for dry and forli ^
some units were used for both. The MiiUinab -
that the measures were enlarged nt ~
other. In addition to the Bil>li(iil tn-
is called "desert measure" (n''^2'^D mt:' ui In)-
mudic sources, tl
Solid 1) ni<ntii)ns a "
Measures. in"D^L*nV .TTD). whiclt ■■
1^ 'des^-rt m- . - " ■

('Er. 82a) tea "Sepphori. : :. --

which was equal to \\ "Jerus.i

se'ah "desert measure" was ii.. .-i-. ■ ; ...

se'ah "Sepphoric measure." and one »'ah "J.

lem measure" ecjualed j? se'ah '^

With regard to the names of ;.. ..

noted that the hollow vessels us«-<l ft^ :

served as ordinary utensils;

vessel likewise desigimleil the 1

log is defined by the Talmud i) Mrqutl !o

theNDDpf- Gn-ek i''

alenl to 549.33S184 ru.

pp. 6-10): this aids inllic evaluation of ac vera!

Talinudic mensiires.

Bezah (nV3 "egg "): Tl.r rrr i' '>f?'^ '»*^ »«
the Talmud as a standani of "

the Mishnah (Kelim v ' *'

which to determine i
mud (Ter. 48c) defines lb'
and the s:ime \ " '

Ionian Talmii';
as the oquivalcnl of six
much as a ■
anepgeri'.
pressioii n^pn'L" Z"i"I

'> utfur»

Weights and measures

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

488

i> a term for eggs of larger size ("Er. 83a), altliough
le difference between these and ordinary eggs is
uoi stated.

Cab (3p; Greek. xa3<K): The cab is often men-
tioned as u measure in Talmudic sources (Kil. ii. 1 ;
Ket. V. 8; Naz. 52b; Sotah 8b et pum'm), and its
halves, quarters, and eighths are frcuiucutly recorded
romp. HaSHBaM on B. B. 89b. ».i: pin)- The size
.if the cab is given in the Jerusalem Talmud (Ter.
47b), where it is said that a se'ah is equal to twenty-
four logs. Since a se'ah is equal to si.\ cabs, a cab
is equivalent to four logs, or 2,197.406683 cu. cm.
The Talmud (Pes. 48a) records also a large cab, con-
taining li "Sepphoric cabs," and a "Nehardean
cab" is likewise mentioned (Ket. 54a), although no
indication of its size is given. The expression " ter-
kab" (3pin; Greek, r/j(\rt,iof = "three cabs") also
occurs frequently in the Talmud (Hag. 23b; Ta'an.
10a; G\\. 30a; et passim).

Kapiza (XT'Dp) : A small vessel often used as a
niL-usun- and mentioned in several Talmudic pas-
sages (Shab. 10b; Pes. 48b; Git. 70a; et passim).
That tiie kapiza was smaller than the cab is clear
both from Hui. 2oa and from Shab. 103a, as well as
from the discussion in B. B. 90b. The commentaries
disagree as to its size, one defining it as a quarter,
and another as three-quarters, of a cab, while in one
passage in Menahot (78a) Rashi makes it equivalent
to i cab. In that case it would be identical with the
Persian "kawiz" (Greek, aa-iftr/), which was equal
to a choeni.v = 2 xestes = 2 logs = i cab. The Tal-
mud relates that a new measure which contained
three kapizot was introduced by R. Papa b. Samuel
into Patonya, where it was called i<2C Til ("Papa's
serr.t"; B. B. 90b).

Se'ah (HKD; Greek, adTov): The Biblical se'ah re-
curs as a measure in the Mishnah, from which it ap-
pears (Parah i. 1 ; Ter. iv. 7; Men. vii. 1) that it was
equal to six cabs, or 13,184.44 cu. cm. Another
se'ah. whicli was used in Arbela and called an " Arbe-
lian se'ah " (n'^31K HXD), is mentioned in the Jeru-
salem Talmud (I\-'ah 20a; Sotah 171j), although no
comparison is drawn between it and the ordinary
se'ah.

Modius (xniO) : A measure mentioned in the
Talmud, althougii its value is not designated (Git.
57a; Yer. Shab. 13c; Pes. 30a). In one passage,
however ('Er. 83a). the term is taken as a synonym
of -s.'ali " (fimip. Zuckermann, I.e. pp. 40-41).

Tuman (pm = "an eigiith"): Mentioned in the
Talmud as a dry measure (B. B. 89b), its value being
(litiiicd as one-cightli of a cab.

'XJkla (N^3iy): A dry measure mentioned in the
Talmud, its value being given by RaSHBaM as ^V
«ib =: i Icig. According to anotiier interpretation,
the 'ukla was equal to ,', cab, or i; log, as stated by
Hashi ('Er. 29a, «.r. - 'U'kla "). The first interpreta-
tion, however, is tlie correct one; and an 'ukla was
therefore equal to I log = 109.8743 cu. cm. (comp.
Zuckermann. l.r. p. 42).

Ephah (HE'N) : Th.- Biblical epliah is mentioned
in tlic .Mi-liiiah ( Men. vii. 1). wliere its value is de-
finfrj as three se'aim.

Cor (-113) : Tlie Biblical cor is d(;fined in the Tal
mud (H. B. HOb. 105a; comp. Men. 77a) as equal to
thirty se'aim.

Letek ("jn^) : Although the letek is mentioned in
the Bible as a measure, no value is assigned it.
From examples given in the Mishnah (Sheb. vi. 3)
and in the Talmud (Sheb. 43a; B. M. 80a, b), how-
ever, it appears that it was equal to i cor = 15
se'aim (comp. Hos iii. 2 in the Greek versions).

Pesikta ("inSDD; Greek, ^vKTtffj) -. A measure men-
tioned ill the Mishnah (Tamid v. 5) as the equiva-
lent of a letek.

Ardaba (3"nX, 3"nx) : Among its measures the
Talmud ulluiles to the DITX. wliieli is the 2~nX of
the Shulhan 'Aruk, and consequently the ardaba
used by the Egyptians and Persians (or Medes).
The conte.xt in the Talmudic passage (B. 31. 80b)
does not show which ardaba was equivalent to the
aiTX there mentioned, but it is at least clear that
the latter was not the ancient Egyptian measure
(comp. Zuckermann, I.e. pp. 46-47).

Komez (|*Dp) or Kuna (XJ13) : In tlie Talmud
the handful is often mentioned as a measure, espe-
cially for medical purposes. The term varies, how-
ever, in the different passages. In Shab. 110b, 'Er,
29b, and Git. 69b-70a it is called "buna," but in
Git, 69a, Ket. 99b, and 'Ar. 21b. "kuna." The hol-
low form of the hand was called "kuna," from p
(= "basin"), and this term designated tiie quantity
which one could hold in the palm of his hand. The
komez mentioned in the Bible (Lev. ii. 2, v. 12) con-
notes, according to the Talmud, the ijuantity one
can grasp between the palm of the hand and the
three middle fingers.

Geriwa (XV"iJ) : A weight fretiueutly mentioned
in the Talmud as a measure for solids (Er. 29b;
Pes. 32a; Ned. 50b; B. K. 96a; et jmssim), but with-
out any indication of its value. A single pas-sagc,
however (Er. 14b), states that 2,000 baths, which
were equal to 6,000 se'aim, were equivalent to 6,000
geriwot. It would follow, therefore, that a geriwa
was identical with a se'ah.

Gerib (3nj) : This measure, which in name re-
sembles the geriwa, is mentioned in the Talmud
(Git. 69b) as a measure for solids (comp. Rashi ml
loc, where he identifies it with the geriwa). A cask
or a jar serving as a large measure for fiuidsalso was
called "gerib" (Sliab. ISh), and the Mi.shnali (Ter.
X. 8) mentions a n"l3 ("garab") containing two
se'aim.

Besiiies the log, the Talmud mentions also half-
logs and quarter-logs, as well as eighths, sixteenths,
and sixtj'-fourths of a log. The quarter-log was
often called simply "(]uarter" ("rebi'it"; comp.
RaSHBaM on B. B. 89b), and was likr'-
Liquid wise designated by the term poiOtO
Measures, (rt-aprnv, Yer. Pes. 37c, wiiere "te-
tarton " or " rebia' " must be under-
stood ; comp. Zuckermann, I.e. pp. 48-49),

An^el (^DJX; Greek, avT?.TjTt/c) : A ineasvire fre-
(piently mentioned in the Talmud as containing
i log (B, B. 58b). Hul. 107a alludes to a "natia"
(=antel), which had the same capacity. "Antel"
is the name of a utensil, which was also used as a
measure.

Ambiga (pEJX, J3:X, or XJ3:): In tiie Talmud
the aiiimk and anbag are compared witli the antel
(B. B. 58b), whence it may be inferred that, like it,
they were equivalent to i log.

489

THE JEWISH EN('YrLf)PEI)I.\

;MK,\sruE8 OF WEKiirr.

WelcbU SAd aUMurM

Talent.

37 J

120

1,500

3.000

6,000

36,000

21, .510

Mi nil.

12
3i
40
80
160
960
573.0

Kalluii
.Mina.

■s,

.50

imi

600
a58..5

Tor|lmar.

hhfkcl ij(
ibi-

Villi, f. It. rv

Talent

Mina

Italian Mina

Tartiniar

Shekel of the Sanctuary

Common Shekel

ll'J 1

a5 2 1

50 \ :: 1
»)0 , 24 K' ', 1
171)2.5 11 ru - i- 1 •^: 'at:

Zuz

Gerah

Grams

Me.xsures of Lknotii.

Day's
Journey.

Ris
(Parasanp).

Sabbath

Day's

Journey.

Ris
'Stadium).

Aiiimah
(I'l-srah).

3
12

Day's .ioumey

Ris (Parasang)

Sabbath Day's Journey
Ris (Stadium)

300

80,000

320,000

480,000

960,000

3,840,0(K)

8,000

32,000

48,000

9(),000

384,000

448,149.264

2,000

8,000

12,000

24,000

96,000

112.037.316

2661
533J
800
1,600
6.400
14.«58..'inft,>-

1
«

Ammah (Pesi'ah)

Zeret

Hasit

Tefah

Ezba'

Centimeters

4,481,492.64

Dry Mk.xsures.

Cor

Letek (Pesikta)

Ephah

Se'ah (Geriwa)

Cab

Kapiza

Log

Tuman

'Ukla

Bezali

Cubic Centimeters

Cor.

180

360

720

1,440

3,000

4,320

39.5,.5:J3.2|

Lett'k (Pe-
sikta).

180

360

720

1,800

2,160

197,766.6

Ephah.

Sf'ali
(Geriwa).

Cab.

144

360

120

433

144

39,5.53.32

13,184.44

2.I9T.4086S

Kuplzu.

I.-*-.

Tuaian.

llTfl

.I* 2:4 'WWI' I'T* '^*'' *' V*i2i'

Weiebta and Measures
Weil

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

490

Liquid Me.

^SCRES.

j Metarta.

Kuzu.

Lop (Kaisa,
Xestes).

Antel (Naila.

Anpak. Anbag.

Kuza).

Barziua.

^ortab.

M.'..: - 1

Ku^ 12

Lotr (Kalsa. Xestes). . T2
Antel (Natia, Aopak. Anbag, Kuza) 288

Barzlna -.^04

^ortab . 4,008
Cubic Cenumeieni 39.553.32

192
384

3.296.11

1
4

32
64

549.391.^38

8
16

137.347834

1
2
17.168479

1
8.584239

Tamnita (xn'JDn = "eighth"): In the Talmud
(Pes. lO'Ja) H. .Jiiliunan mentions tlie old "eiglitli"
of Tibi'rias, which was about i log larger than the
new "eighth"; and the Jerusalem Talmud (Pes.
3Tc) likewise alludes to an old "eighth" of Sep-
phoris, which was equal to half the "eighth" of
Tiberias.

Kor^ab (DCIIp) : A small measure mentioned in
the Mishnali and in the Talmud (Men. xii. 4; Mik.
iii. 1 ; R. II. I3a; B. B. 90a), its capacity being de-
tiix-d as :-V log (Toscf.. B. B. v. 10).

Kutit (n'DIp) and Zir (Ti) : In the Sifra, Kid-
iu.shiu, alarge measure is mentioned under the name
f TT. while a smaller one is designated as Jl't^lp-
Tlie Hoiuans had a large oblong cask, called "seria,"
which they used for wine and oil ; while a small tub
for the same purpose was termed "guttus." Both
these vessels are mentioned in the Sifra as equiva-
lents of the Bil)lical "mesurah."

Kaisa (XD"p) : A measure mentioned in the Tal-
mud (Hit. 44b}, tliough without any indication of
its value. According to Rashi ad loc, it was the
efjuivali-nt of ji log.

Hemina (xyon; Greek, ij/z/va) : A measure men-
tioned in Targum Sheni to Esther i. 8. It was prob-
ably identical with the Roman "termina," which was
used for both li<}uids and solids (comp. Boeckh, I.e.
V\K 201. 2(m).

Metarta (xmDD: Greek, //trp^r^yf): A measure
mentioned in the Talmud ('Ab. Zarah 10b), and cor-
responding to the Attic metretes=72 xestes. Al-
tiiough the metretes is a liquid measure, the metarta
is mentioned in the Talmud (I.e.) as being used for
flry substances, no strict distinction being drawn be-
tween dry ami liquid measures.

Barzina (xmD): Mentioned in the Talmud
(Siiab. 109b) as a small measure, no value being in-
dicated. The Shulhan 'Aruk (s.r.) regards it as
equal to ^ log.

Kuza (XT13; Orf-ek, x^i)- A measure mentioned
boll, in the .Mishnah (Tamid iii. 6) and in the Talmud
(Shab. 33b; B. M. 40a: B. B. 96b), and prohablv
equal to the Attic x'Xf. The Talmud records an-
other kuza, which was introduced by R. Aslii in
nii:fa. and was equivalent to i log (Hul. 107a).
There were accordingly two kuzot, one the equiva-
lent of the ;ro.-r = 0 xestes = 3,296.11 cu. cm., and
ihe other equal to i log = i xestes = 137.337917
cu. cm.

Kesustaban (jat^DIDp; Greek, |^£(TTiov) : A meas-
ure mentioned in the Jerusalem Talmud (B. M. 10c),
the context indicating that it was of small size. Its
name is probably a diminutive of ^earriq.

Tarwad (inn) : A measure mentioned several
times in the Talmud, its size being indicated in Naz.
50b. According to one opinion it was the equivalent
of a heaping handful, while according to another it
equaled an ordinary handful.

Shorgash. {^T\^) ' A measure mentioned in the
Talmud ('P>. 29b). According to the 'Aruk it was
well known in Pumbedita.

Kizba (N2r3) : A measure mentioned in the Tal-
mud (Men. 69b), and, according to Rashi {ad loc.)
and the Shulhan 'Aruk {s. v.), equal to a handbreadth.

In addition to the units enumerated in this article,
the Talmud employs several indefinite measures,
such as the sizes of various fruits (olives, pomegran-
ates, and the like), to indicate certain quantities.

The foregoing tables sum up the results reached
in the present investigation.

Bibliography: B. Zuckermann, Ueher Talmudmhe Ge-
\ric)ite und Mlinzeu, Breslau, lSti2; idem. Das Jlldische
Mans.'^ystem und Seine ]ieziclnt}igcn zum Oriechischen
und HdmUchen, in Iirei<Jauer JahresherichtAb. 1867: Schef-
tel. 'Erek Millin, Berdychev. 1905.
J. J. Z. L.

WEIL, ADOLF : German physician ; born at
Heidelberg Feb. 7, 1848. Educated at the universi-
ties of Heidelberg, Berlin, and Vienna (M.D. 1871),
he settled in Heidelberg, where, in 1872, he became
privat-docent in special pathology and therapy, and
in 1876 a.ssistant professor of syphilology. In 1886
he was called to Dorpat as professor of special
pathology and therapy, from which position lie re-
signed the following j'car on account of sickness.
Since 1893 he has practised in Wiesbaden.

In 1886 he published in "Dorpater Archiv fUr
Klinisrhe Medizin," vol. xxxix., the essay " Ueber
eine p]igenthiimliche niit Milztumor, Icterus und
Nephritis Einhergehende Acute Infectionskrank-
heit," treating of a di.sease which has since become
known as Weil's di.sease.

Among his works the following may be men-
tioned ; " Die Auscultation der Arterien und Venen "
(Leipsic, 1875): "Ilandbuch und Atlas der Topo-
graphischen Percussion" {ib. 1877, 2d ed. 1880);
"Zur Lehre vom Pneumothorax" (ib. 1882): "Zur
Puthologie und Therapie des Tj'phus Abdominalis
mit Besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Recidive,

491

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

1 >t«*«or«a

Gustav Weil.

Sowie der Renalen und Abortiven Formen " (ib.
1885). He furtliL'imore contributed to Viichow's
"Archiv" (1884) tlie article " Uober die Hen-ditare
Form des Diabetes Insipidus" and to Gerhardt's
"Handbudi der KinderkranJilieiten " an essay on
" Die Kraukbeiten der Broncineu."

Bibliography : Papel, Bingrapltiiiches LcriliDu.

s- F. T. H.

WEIL, GUSTAV: German Orientalist ; born in
Sulzbuig, Baden, April 2o, 1808; died at Freiburg-
im-IJieisgau Aug. 29, 1889. IJeing destined for the
rabbinate, lie was taught Hebrew, as well 4is Ger-
man and French; and he received instruction in

Latin from the minister
of his native town. At
the age of twelve he
went to Metz, where his
grandfather was rabbi,
to study the Talmud.
For this, however, he
developed very little
taste, and he abandoned
his original intention of
entering upon a theo-
logical career. In 1828
he entered the Uni-
versity of Heidelberg,
devoting himself to the
study of philology and
history ; at the same time
he studied Arabic under Unibreit. Thotsgh without
means, he nevertheless went to study under De
Sacy in Paris in 1830, and thence followed the
French military expedition to Algiers, acting as
correspondent at Algiers for the Augsburger "All-
gemeiue Zeitung." This position he resigned in
Jan., 1831, and journeyed to Cairo, where he was
appointed instructor of French at the Egyjilian
Medical School of Abu-Zabel. He utilized the op-
portunity to study with the Arabic philologists Mo-
hammed Ayyad al-Tantawi and Ahmad al-Tunsi.
Here also he acquired Neo-Persian and Turkish,
and, save for a short interruption occasioned by a
visit to Europe, he remained in Egypt till March,
1835.

Weil returned to Europe by way of Constanti-
nople, where he remained for some time pursuing
Turkish studies. In Germany he sought permissiou
to establish himself as privat-docent in the Univer-
sity of Heidelberg, receiving it, however, only after
great difficulties. Weil had attacked Jo.seph von
Hammer-Purgstall in a translation of Zamakhshari's
"Golden Necklaces" (Stuttgart, 1836), and the fac-
ulty of Heidelberg, being unable to judge the mat-
ter, hesitated to appoint him docent because of
Hammer-Purgstall's high reputation. De Sacy's
reconuncndation opened the way to him, which,
however, was destined to remain rough and rugged.
He gained his livelihood as assistant librarian, and
was appointed librarian in 1838, winch position he
retained till 1861 ; in that year he became professor.
At Stuttgart in 1837 Weil published "Die Poe-
tische Literatur der Araber," and later issued a
translation of the "Thousand and One Nights," the
first complete translation from the original text

into German (4 vois .
ed. 1871-72), whirl, «
proci'Ks of

a philologn

i)een iiighly (!•
Stutlgiirt I
change ina:.,
made of it a p.
version ■

great v .. v

gait. l«48). a life of M<

of which III

aeecssibie i-

nature, however, to alU;mpt a ,

struction of tli.

later by Spren^

in his •' Life of Mohaaime<] " iiimhI \".

source of information. iin<l ackooHJoljjtd l.i* •«.

debtedness to tlait author

While pursuing thes. , Well i hi*

"Historisch-Kritisehe I
(Bielefeld and I.^ipsif.
ment to U'llnian's ti . of tlic Koran.

translation of one of ill. '

raphy of Mohammed.
Muhammed ihn Ishak. Ii<-urLKMU'l v.
ibn Hischam" (Stuttgart. 2 v '
ditional essays reiirain to be
hanuned 's epilepsy ("Journii
the second an investigation ■; ..
Mohammed " (lA. May. 1849): and ih
sion of the (luestion wlifth* - "
and write ("Proceedings of ;..
talists at Florence." \. 857). To t
"Biblisehe Legenden d"
fort, 1845), iu which W. _
rabbinic legends upon the religion i '

The mo.st <
schichtederi

gart, 1846-61). which ia virtually u:
the original worksof ^' '
he in large part stn
also of the Egyptian a.'
was followed by the " <
Viilker von ]^Iohamiiuil
Selim" (Stuttgart. 18f>6i. an intn
medieval history of the Orient. A
confined his literary artivity to il><
reviews in the" 1!
" Jenaische Litti :.. .. .
received honors from var
and Pn: 'wing to cttuliuued

pensions. ... . —.

Weil's collection of Arabic m • waa pir

sented to the Unlvcrxi- by liis

children.
BiBLioGRAPUT : Von W.

WEIL, }I'^'"'
fort-on the-.^i
versities of Uonn. I*

ii
"agrege"iu

Weil
Weill

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

492

Henri Well.

literature at the University of Besan^on, he was in
1873 elected ilean of the faculty. In 1876 he was
calleil to Paris to till a vacancy as instructor in the
normal high school and to assume cliaige of the

Ecole Pratique des
Ilautes Etudes, both
of which positions he
resigned in 1891. In
1866 he was elected
corresponding mem-
ber of the Academic
des Inscriptions et
Belles -Lettres, be-

.j^SMBf '^^^^rffei-Ts v^ coming full member

^J^WV ^^SSwflR^-;- iu 1882 as the succes-
sor of Dulaurier. In
1887 he received the
cross of the Legion
of Honor.

Weil has edited
the poems of ^Eschy-
lus, eight tragedies of
Euripides, and the
orations of Demos-
thenes. Among his works may be mentioned : " De
I'Drdre des Mots dans les Langues Anciennes Com-
pareesau.x Langues ^lodernes" (Paris, 1844; 3(1 ed.
1879); " De Trag.ediarum Groecarum cum Rebus
Publicis Conjunctions "(with L. Beuloew, Paris and
Berlin, 1845); "Theorie Generale de 1 'Accentuation
Latine"' (ib. 1855) ; and "Etudes sur le Drame An-
tique" (ib. 1897).

Bibliography: Curtnler, IMcf . J\rat. i. 142; La Grande Eii-
cyclopidie.
8. F. T. H.

WEIL, JACOB: German rabbi and Talmudist;
flourished during the first half of the fifteenth cen-
tury. Of his life no details are known, but, accord-
ing to Griitz, he died before 1456. He was one of
the foremost pupilsof Jacob ilulln (MaHaHIL), who
ordained him in the rabbinate, and authorized him
to oftlciate in Nuremberg. Weil, however, did not
avail himself of this permission lest he should offend
an older scholar, Solomon Cohen, who had been ap-
pointed rabl)i of that city long before.

Weil was later called to the rabbinate of Erfurt;
and congregations far and near, recognizing him as
an authority, addressed their problems to him. He
approved of the pilpulistic method only as an aid
to study, but rendered legal decisions purely on the
basis of logic (Responsa, No. 144).

Wf'il was especially severe on contemporary
rabbis who regarded themselves as having peculiar
privileges transcending the rights of the laity, de-
claring in a responsum (No. 163) that no rabbis of
his time luul any such prerogatives, and that, more-
over, no man could be regarded as a scholar (T.\i.-
Mii) H,\KAM) in the Talmudic sense. Of Weil's
works only a collection of opinions and decisions,
"She'elot uTeshubot" (Venice, 1549), has been pre-
served. To this work was added an apiicndix enti-
tled ''Shehitot u-B(-(likot," containing regulations
for slaughtering and for the examination of slaugh-
tered cattle. These rules have been regarded as au-
thoriUitive by later rabbis, have run through seventy-

one editions, and have been the subjects of various
commentaries and additions.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 1258-1265;
Benjacob, Ozar }ia-Sefarim. No. 99, p. 558; No. 38.5. p. .570;
Kiienii, Kcuiset Yisrael ; Michael, Or ha-IJayuim, No. 1061 ;
(Initz, Gesch. viii. 309 ft scy., 313 ct scq.

K. c. J. Z. L.

WEIL, JACOB : German educationist and wri-
ter; born at Fniukfort-on-the-Main 1792; died there
Nov. 18, 1864. His first work was "Fragmcnte aus
Talmud und Rabbiuen," Fraukfort-on-the-Main (sec-
ond edition of part i. ai)peared in 1809, of part ii.
in 1811). He was an instructor at the Jewish school
(Philantiiropin) of Frankfort, and from 1818 until
1845 he conducted an educational institute.

In an address which lie delivered, Oct 18, 1816,
in the chapel of the school, he expressed the hope
that the new era would bring the emancipation of
his coreligionists. He had, however, to defend the
Jews against the attacks of Riihs and Fries, and
refuted them in his pamphlet "Bemerkungen zu
den Schriften der Ilerien Professoren Riihs und
Fries iiber die Juden und Dcreu Anspriiche auf das
Deutsche Blirgerrecht " (Frankfort-on-the-Main,
1816). Weil was one of the founders (1823) and
for many years a member of the board of the Verein
zur Beforderung der Handwcrke I'nter den Juden.

Various articles and numerous addresses on polit-
ical, religious, and historical subjects written by him
appeared in the Frankfort daily press. He supported
Gabriel Riesser enthusiastically, and wrote his biog-
rajihy in DuUer's "Milnncrdes Volks " (vol. ii.). In
addition Weil was theauthorof the following: "Das
Junge Deutschland und die Juden " (Frankfort-on-
tlie Main, 1836), refuting the accusation that most
of the young writers who agitated Germany were of
the Jewish race; " Die Erste Kammer und die Juden
in Saclisen " (Hanau, 1837); " f eber die Idee des
Christlichen Staats." in Karl Weil's " Konstitutio-
nelle Jahrbiicher" (i. 821 et seq., Stuttgart, 1843).
Other essays written by him iu this periodical were:
" Ueber die Verbinduug des Staatcs niit der Kirche " ;
" Lamartine, iiber Konununismus und Sozialismus " ;
•'Gervinus, die Deutschkatholiken und die Glau-
bensfreiheit " ; " Ueber die Stellung der Konstitutio-
nellen Flirsten im Staate." Against the reactionary
movement in Prussia Weil wrote " Wagener, Stahl,
die Juden und die Protestautischen Dissidenten," in
Stein's " Israelitischer Volkslehrer" (1857, pp. 209 et
seq. ; also printed separately, Frankfort-on-the-Main,
1857). Weil devoted himself to historic studies, and
contributed a number of articles and essays to the
"Magazin fur die Literatur des Auslandes" (1843-
1846) and to the " Biiitter fQr Literarische Unterhalt-
ung " (1850, 1851, 1854). His last production. " Die
Alten Propheten und Schriftgelehrten und das
Leben Jesu von David Strauss," criticized Strauss
for his prejudices against Judaism.

A son of Jacob Weil, Henri Weil, is professor at
the University of Besanc;on.

Bibliography: Achawa, il. &3 et seq.; Gratz, Oesch. xi. 306;
Jost, Ncuere Geschichtc, i. -"jT.

s. S. Man.

WEIL, KARL : Austrian physician ; born at
Altsattc], Bohemia, March 19, 1844. He studied
medicine at the universities of Prague and Vienna

493

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

(M.D. 1867). From 1871 until 1873 he was assistant
at the surgical liospital of Vienna University, and
from 1873 to 1879 at tlic Prague German university.
In 1877 he beeame privatdocent, and in 1879 assist-
ant professor, of surgery at the latter university.

Weil is the author of "Heitrilge zur Kenntniss
(les Genu Valgum" (1879) and of " Uutersuchungen
iiher die Schilddriise " (1889). For Maschka's " Hand-
huch dcr Gerichtlicben ]Medi/in " he wrote "Beur-
theilung der Verletzuug und Narbeu."

Bnti.uxJK.vPMV : Papel, Diouraphiaches Lexihoii .
s. F. T. II.

WEIL, KARL, RITTER VON : Austrian
journalist; born in Wurttembcrg, Germany; died
at Vienna Jan. 7, 1878. He studied law at the Uni-
versity of Freiburg (LL.D. 1827), and afterward
joined the staff of the " Allgemeine Zeitung," then
]ui])iished in Aug.sbui'g, now in Munich; from 1830
to 1832 he was its Paris correspondent. In 1832 he
became editor of the " Wiirttembergische Zeitung "
in Stuttgart, iiokling that position until 1848, when
he went to Berlin as associate editor of the "Consti-
tutionelle Zeitung." During the following two years
he resided in Stuttgart; and in 1851 he removed to
Vienna, entering, as a journalist, the services of the
Austrian government. In 1873 he was retired with
the title of " :MinislcrialKath."

Weil to»)k an active interest in Jewish affairs, and
was a member of the executive board of the Israe-
iitische Allianz from its foundation.

Bnu.iixiK.vi'HY : Allg. Zcit. ties Jud. 1878, pp. 57-58.
s. F. T. II.

WEIL, NETHANEEL : Babbi and Talmudist;
born at Stuhliugen in 1687; died at Rostadt May 7,
1769; son of Naphtali Ilirsch Weil. His mother took
him to Furth when he was ten years old, and soon
afterward to Prague, where his father's brother,
Lippmau Weil, adopted him. Although so young,
Netluineel was granted permission to attend the
lectures of R. Abraham Brod, head of the yeshibah
of Prague ; and he soon won the favor of his teacher
to such a degree that the latter proffered him the hand
of his niece, Vogele. The wedding was celebrated
in 1708 ; and when R. Abraham was called to the rab-
binate of Mayence, his son-in-law accompanied him
thither, remaining there until 1713, when he returned
to Prague. Here he occupied himself with Taliiiud-
ic studies and with teaching, his pupils being num-
bered by thousands. His only source of income was
the scanty salary attached to his position as assistant
rabbi.

Weil remained in Prague until the issue of the
edict of Maria Theresa of Dec. 18, 1744, ordering the
expulsion of all Jews from Bohemia. This proved
to b(! the means of releasing Nethaneel from a bur-
densome existence ; for he was then offered the rab-
binate of the Black Forest, with headtiuarters in
Muhringen. He assumed oflice in 174r), and lield it
for five years, writing the greater part of liis com-
mentary on Ashcr b. Jehiel during that time In
1750 he was called as rabbi to Carlsrulie; and there
lie completed the commentary in the spring of 1754.
It was published at Carlsrulie in 1755 under the title
'■ Korban Netan'el," and was later printed together

Well

U'-i:l

wrntv

w-ith Asiicn 111 (
emitrac IS only l)i.

Neiiiuncel ofllciaU*d in (
years. In addition to the • h
was puhlisiied by iiiniH^lf, h.
works publislied poHibiioiousIy by i
Ilirsch ■ (l)"N,.tib IJ
ing critical notes on

yim. and it.s coinnicntarics. U»e "Ture / .:»d

" Mageu Abraham " ; und '• V v
in two parts, tiie first c

ills responsa. and the weoud couhijillng of :
derashot ou the p. • • • ;, b.

RinuoBRAPiiv: 1,. i ■•.Tt.i'tn.j,

(Ini ill IhulHrlilniKl. i,
Schneider. Cut. ]liuU. <

'- C- J /. i.

WEIL, SIMEON HIRSCH: (, .,.

son of Nethaiir.l \Vi.ii , ii\i,l u, ( . ,.,!

eighteenth century Hepublijibcdbis !
Hayyim," "Torat Nelnti'el." .,
wrote "Sefer Eldud ha-Dani " (w
lation; 1769).

BiBLior.RAPii Y : Kfirsl, /?i7.J. Jtul. ill. SOI ; Zcdocr. lal. HtUr

UmiliH lirit. .\}iiy. pp. -IT. TTO.
E. C.

WEIL, TIAH (JEDIDIAH): ' ,j.

born at Prague Ori. -J. 17J1 . di.<l ui < •. t

10, 1805. lie was the sod of Nclliaoeel Wdl aod

received his early instruction from I. ' ' lo

1744 he married Gilel, daughter of n

well-to do resident of Prague; but tlie i\

the Jews from Prague ordered by ^'

drove him to Metz in 1745, wju-re In

1748, continuing his studies under J

schlUz. Returning to Prague, lie

difficulties until, in 1754 In- liintuu-

titz, in Bohemia. In '.

which he left in 1770 ;

binate of Carlsrulie. Of bis works • :

tary on the Pas.sover ll.i U

(Carlsrulie, 1791, publisi.' >

sponsa of his are found in the c<. fj

Landau and in his father's " N li,

1779). Numerous novclht' a

served in manuscript Hi.s will .'>

been a man of gei

Cabala. Among i,

rabbis: his gnmdson R Jacob Wkil wa« il

tlior of a compeiid'

bat,'" Carlsrulie. 1

thaneel Wkii, wjuj Kluus-nibbl i. iMajr

1, 1892).

Bini.io{iR.\riiY . LOwenirt^ln. tieitmoe xur tinrh. drr JmtUn
I a DeuUchlaml, vol. II.. Fnuiltfort-oo-Uie-ltoin.
K. C. '*

WEILL. ALEXANDRE .ABRAHAM
French writer; born at S '.

1811; died at I'liris Oct.
Abraham Kelliriin ist< r i
cuts for a rabbinical •
fort to pursue bi.n p
At the same time be -
lish. Italian. Ijiti: *

he abandoned his :

fort for i'aris with a letter of r >

WeiU
Weias

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

494

Heiunch Hciue which procured him speedy admis-
sion inlo the salons and journalistic circles of the
French capital. He became a contributor to the
-Revue du Progres " (edited by Louis Blanc), the
" Democratic Pacitique," the "Presse," tlie " Gazette
de France." -L'Opinion Nationale," the "Figaro,"
and the "Temps," to various journals of Frankfort,
Stuttgart, and Hamburg, and to the "Archives
Israelites." tl>e " Univers Israelite," etc. The publi
cjition of his - Histoiresde Village " (1847), to which
Heine wrote a preface, and of his "L'Aini Fritz"
and "La Petite Fadette " marked his entrance into
the field of romance. He was perhaps the first
French writer to conceive the idea of depicting vil
lage scenes and writing rustic idyls. Among his
numerous admirers may be mentioned Giacomo
Meyerbeer and Victor Hugo.

VVeill was a born polemic, and he wrote a number
of brochures on some of the leading questions of the
day; among these may be mentioned: " R^publique
et Monarchic," 1848; "Le Genie dc la Monarchic,"
1849: "Que Deviendront Nos Filles?" 1863; "Mes
Bataiiles," 1867; and" Lettre de Vengeance d'un
Alsacien," 1871. In the "Corsaire" of March 2,
1848, he addressed a remarkable letter to Hippolyte
Carnot, the mini.stcr of public in.struction and father
of the late president of the French republic, Sadi
Carnot. In this letter, which bore the heading " Une
Revolution & Faire," he strongly urged a more gen-
eral instruction in foreign languages in the public
schools.

Weill was the author also of the following works:
"Mes Contemporains " (1864; 2d ed., with an ap-
pendi.x. 1890); " Dix Mois de Revolution," 1868;
" La Guerre des Paysans et des Anabaptistes," 1874;
"Ludovic Boerne," 1878; "Souvenirs Intimes de
Henri Heine," 1883; "Histoire Veridique et Vecue
de la Revolution de 1848," 1887; "Le Centenaire de
lEmancipation des Juifs," 1888; "Mes Romans";
" Mon Theatre " ; " Fables et Legendes d'Or " ; " La-
martine et Victor Hugo " ; " La France Catholique "
(in reply to Drumont's " La France Juive ") ; "Les
Cinq Livres de Molse" (translated from Hebrew,
and supplied with etymological notes); "Moise, le
Talmud et I'Evangile"; "La Parole Nouvelle";
" Hommes Noirs, Qui Etes Vous? " ; " L'Art Est une
Religion " ; " Lois et Mystfircs de la Creation " ;
"Ktude Comparative de la Langue Franc;aise avec
I'Hcbreu, le Grec, le Latin, I'AUemand, et I'An-
glais " ; " Rabbin et Nonne, Poesie et Realite " ; " Le
Nou vel IsaYe " ; and a volume of poems entitled " Les
GrandesJuives" (1882).

BiBLiOGRAPHT : Alexandre Weill, MaJeune»8e, 1888 ; Maurice
Blocb. Alexandre WeiU, Sa Vie et Ses CEuvren, 1905.

s J. Ka.

WEILL, ANSELME : French physician ; born
at Hisciilif.im, Alsace, Aug. 24, 1842. He received
his education at the lyceum of Strasburg and the
universities at Strasburg and Paris. Settling in tlie
French capital, he took part, as assistant surgeon
atUiched to the Lariboisiere Hospital, during the
defense of Paris in 1870-71. From 1871 to 1874 he
was assistant pliysician at the Rothsciiild Hospital,
and graduated as M.D. in 1874. He became chief
physician of that institution in 1889; in the same

year lie was made "Officier d'Academie"; and in
1894 he received the cross of the Legion of Honor.

Weill has published many essays, especially on
the treatment of tuberculosis.

Bibliography: Curlnier, Diet. Nat. lii. 195.

s. F. T. H.

WEILL, EMANUEL : French rabbi ; born at
Ensisheiin, Alsuce, Oct. 21, 1841 ; educated at the
bet ha-midrash of Colmar and the Seminaire Israe-
lite de France in Paris (rabbi, 1861). In 1865 he was
appointed rabbi at Versailles, and in 1876 he was
called to Paris as as.sistant to the chief rabbi of that
city. Since 1882 he has officiated as rabbi of the
Portuguese synagogue in Rue Bufi'ault, Paris. lie
is the author of " La Femme Juive Selon la Bible et
le Talmud" (Paris; 2d ed. 1881) and "Judah Mac-
cabee Suivi de Rabbi Akiba " {ib. 1888).

s. F. T. II.

WEILL, MATHIEU : French mathematician ;
born at Ilageuau, Alsace, May 24, 1851 ; educated in
the lyceums of Burg and Strasburg, at the Poly-
technique in Paris, and at the military school in
Fontainebleau. He attained the rank of lieutenant
of artillery, but resigned in 1877. In 1881 he be-
came teacher of mathematics in the College Chaptal
at Paris, and in 1898 its principal.

Weill has published several essays in the mathe-
matical journals of his country, and is tiie autlior
of " Cours de Geometric Analytique " and of " Pre-
cis d'Arithmetique, de Geometric, d'Algebre, de Tri-
gonometric," in four volumes.

Bibliography : Curlnier, Diet. Nat. lii. 72.
s. F. T. H.

WEILL, MICHEL AARON : French rabbi ;
born at Strasburg July 19, 1814; died at Paris Jan.
6, 1889. He was educated at the Ecole Centrale
Rabbinique at Metz, where he received the rabbin-
ical diploma, and at the Sorbonne at Paris. After
acting as a professor at the Ecole Consistoriale at
Nancy, Weill was in 1845 appointed instructor at
Algiers, where he became the first French chief
rabbi (1846-64). His earnest efforts to inculcate
French civilization in the Algerian Jews met, how-
ever, with little success, and he retired into private
life until 1876, when he accepted the rabbinate of
Toul. Nine years later he resigned this office and
settled in Paris, devoting himself to literary pur-
suits.

Weill was the author of the following works : " Le
Judai'sme, Ses Dogmes et Sa Mission " (Paris, 1866);
"Theodicee" (ib. 1867); "La Revelation" {ib. 1868);
"Providence et Remuneration" {ib. 1869); "La
Morale du Judai'sme" (2 vols., ib. 1875-77); "La
Parole de Dieu, ou la Chaire Israelite Ancienne et
Moderne" {ib. 1880); and "Oraison Funebie de M.
Lazare I.sidor, Grand-Rai)l)in " {ib. 1888).

WeiH's.son, Georges Weill (l)orn at Algicis July
6, 1865), was educated at the Ecole Normale Supeii-
eurc, and at present (1905) occupies the cliuir of his-
tory at the Lycee Louis-le-Grand of Paris. lie is
the author of "Les Theories sur le Pouvoir Royal
en France Pendant les Guerres de Religion " (Paris,
1892); "Saint-Simon et Son ffiuvre" {ib. 1894);
" L'Ecole Saint-Simonienne " {ib. 1896) ; " Histoire du
Parti Republicain en France, 1814-1870" {ib. 1900);

495

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

"La France sous la Monarchic ConstitutioncUe " {ih.
1902); and " liistoiic du Mouvement Social en
France, 1852-1902 " {ib. 1904).
s. J. Ka.

WEILIiER, LAZABE JEAN : Frencii manu-
factuier and author; born at Schlettstadt, Alsace,
July 20, 1858; educated at tlie Lyc^e Saint-Louis of
Paris and at the University of Oxford. Devoting
liimself to electric metallurgy, he induced the French
government to employ the various copper alloys
which render the long-distance telephone possible;
and in 1883 he was made a chevalier of the Legion
of Honor in recognition of his treatise " Conducteurs
Electriques." In 1889 he was the Republican can-
didate for deputy of the department of the Charente;
he defeated the Boulangist Paul Deroulede, but the
election went by a slight majority to the Bonapartist
candidate. Weiller has been successively a member
of the consulting committee of the railways of
France, censor of tiie Bank of France, vice-president
of the jury on electricity at the International Expo-
sition at Paris (1900), and member of the superior
colonial council.

In 1902 he was sent to the United States on an im-
portant diplomatic mission, and on his return pub-
lished his impressions under the title "Les Grandes
Idees d'un Grand Peuple," which ran through more
than fifty editions in a few months. He has written
also a number of scientific works, which are re-
garded as classics, notably his "Traite General des
Lignes et Transmissions Electriques " ; and he has
likewise been a contributor for many years to the
"Revue des Deux Mondes." He is an enthusiastic
art-collector.

Weiller took an active part in the Dreyfus case,
and vainly endeavored, together with his old friend
Scheurer-Kestner, to induce his uncle General Gonse,
deputy chief-of -staff, to rehabilitate Dreyfus on his
own responsibility. Weiller by marriage allied
himself to a family of orthodox Catholics.

s. J. Ka.

"WEILLER, PAULINE (nee EICHBERG) :
American pianist; born in Stuttgart April 22, 1839;
died in Baltimore, Md., Dec. 28, 1874; eldest daugh-
ter of Moritz Eichberg, cantor in Stuttgart. The
Eichberg daughters, of whom there were five, in-
herited musical talent from both parents. Under
the tuition of Mathilde Ries, Pauline's gift for music
developed so rapidly that she played in public before
the age of ten. When she was thirteen Rubinstein
heard her play, and introduced her to Meyerbeer,
through whose infiuence she completed her musical
education at tlie LeipsicConservatorium, then under
the direction of Moscheles. Later she played for
a season with Rubinstein at Baden. Her greatest
triumphs were won as a Chopin performer. Her
technique was faultless and elegant, and her mu.sical
memory aroused the astonishment of critics. In
1859 she went to New York as a teacher of music,
and two years later married Alexander Weiller of
Baltimore.

BiBLioc.RAi'H V : M. KavserlinfC, Die Jadischcn ^(JMe"*" ''*;'■
Geschichte, Literatur tind Kniist, 1879, p. 326; Nabtila
Remy, Das JlUUsche Wcih, pp. :.'.')9-2(J0.
A. "• '^•

WEIMAR. See Saxon DucniES.

WEINBERG, PAUL:

Odessa ahuiu l«iU. ! i

adopted ChriBtiunit\

Weinberg, ii pi . ,„.

berg, a judgL-. I..

of learning, and thJH huk of

siiown in Ills litenir\

he devoted liis lime i

lives, customs, and habito 1^

ing of tliem only (hr

caricattircs were piil .

iz Yevreiskavo Byta" (St. I

"NovyyaStzen\ ' • ' '

anskavo, Grecli.

Byta" (ih. 1880); and, "Polny Sboruik V

ticlieskikii Stzen iz Yevrci^'

Byta" (Moscow, 1HH8), Tl:

humoristic.

Bini.ior,RAPHY: .si. ■
riyakh, St. PeUr-

s. ,,

WEINBERGE. See Kftsifii.iriiK Wkiv
WEINGAERTNER, FELIX ALPH0N8E:

P>onch musician and coinposir , '

5,1844. The son of a musician, !■

education at home, later entering th<'

Beaux-Arts at Paris, wlicre '

Alard and of Vieuxteinps. i.

city, he established himself as a teacher of niugic.

and gave several very si; ' '

he was appointed priim,

Nantes, which position be held until 1894. whro he

moved to Paris. There he s '

tiou as a violinist, appearini.'

traveled through France, giving cooccruin ttie more

important cities.

Bibliograput: Curlnler. DUt. Sat. II. 23!.

8. T II

WEISEL, HIRZ. St. \V. . , .

WEISS, ADOLPHE: Fr. nrh i>ftlntfr: Iw^m
at Budapest May 11, l^<88. He
School of Fine Arts in Vienna, ti.... . . .

Paris to complete his studii"«. Hi« rtr~
the Salon (1869) was a por-

Becoming a French citizen ,.. .

Paris, and has since then bwn u irfrular r^
at the Salons. Among :

include also portraits of

mentioned : " La Corbeille de M Ia

Fiancee Slave" (1877: now in

sieux); "En 1815" (1878): "I-

(1883); "Tournc8ol"aiui "Nymplic D« '. la

TCted'Orph<V'(lH8fi): " '

!iux PlVIk-s" (1891); - ■<

(1896; now in the Museum of Aogcra): and "Wou-

vdle Captive" {I90n.

Bl.,l!'"-iMPiiv : Ciirlnl.r. />i.-f. .VrtMM. !*>>. o f tt

WEISS. ISAAC ■■• • H
ist ami liislorian 'I
itsch. Moravia. Feb. 9. 1815; dJ.
1905. After li .
tinn in Hebrew
his native town, he cntr nnj
veshibnh of
.Mfscritsch

Weiss

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

496

Isaac Hirsch Weiss.

five years, lie then studied at home under a tutor,
and later in tlie yeshibah of Trebitsch, Moravia,
under Hayyim Joseph Pollak. and in that
of Eiseustadt uuder Isaac Moses Perles, returning
to his home in 1837. From the tender age at which
Weiss l)egaa to study Tahuud and rabbinics it may

be deduced that he
was endowed with re-
markable ability. He
felt a keen desire for
the pursuit of the sec-
ular sciences also, of
which he was deprived
in his youth, although
he had been instructed
in German by his pri-
vate tutor. In some of
the yeshibot which he
attended instruction
was given also in the
Hebrew language and
grammar ; but that did
not satisfy Weiss. It
was for this reason
that he changed from
one yeshibah to another, hoping that lie would ulti-
mately find one in which his desire for learning would
be satisfied. Influenced by Nachman Krochmal, by
Rapoport, and by Zunz's " Gottesdienstliche Vor-
trage," Weiss devoted part of his time
to the study of religious philosophy.
Talmudic studies, however, occupied
the greater part of his time, and dur-
ing the years that he spent in his
parents' home he wrote several pamphlets contain-
ing novella; on Talmudic treatises, as well as on the
Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah and Hoshen Mishpat.
He also kept up a correspondence with many dis-
tinguished rabbis, particularly Joseph Saul Nathan-
60X, an(i contributed to Stern's " Kokebe Yizhak"and
to Kobak's " Jeschurun." To the former he contrib-
uted articles on general subjects, as well as verses
and a number of biographies, among which that of
Rab (Abba Arika) deserves special notice. In the
"Jeschurun" he published several articles on the
origin of prayer.

In 1858 Weiss settled in Vienna, where he became
corrector for the press in the printing establishment
of Samarski and Dittmarsch. Six years later (1864)
he was appointed lecturer in the bet ha-midrash
founded by Jellinek, holding that position until his
death. In Vienna, where Jellinek and other promi-
nent Jewish scholars were congregated, Weiss found
greater scope for his literary activity. He imme-
diately turned his attention to a Vienna edition of
the Talmud ; and the notes with which he provided
most of the treati.ses give evidence of his vast erudi-
tion. Then, at the request of Jacob Schlnssberg, he
wrote a compendium of the laws and observances
relating to the ritual; this work, which was entitled
"Orah la-Zaddik," was publislied by Schlo.ssl)erg at
the beginning of the " Seder Tofillat Ya'akob " (Vien-
na, 1801). In the following year Wei.ss edited the
Sifra with the commentary of Abraham b. David of
Posfiuieres; to this work he added a historical and
linguistic introduction in nine chapters, and he provi-

His

Early

Ability.

ded the text with critical and exegetical notes entitled
"Masoret ha- Talmud, "givingthevariauisofdilferent
manuscripts as well as an index show-
Activity ing the parallel passages in both Tal-
at mudim. Inl864Weisstookaprominent

Vienna, part in the Kompert trial, publishing a
pamphlet entitled " Nezah Yisrael " in
support of the testimony of Horowitz and Maunheimer
with regard to the belief in the ^lessiah. This work
called forth a reply by Nissan Schidhoff, entitled
"Neshek Bar" (Flirth, 1864). In the same year
Weiss edited the mishnayot of the treatise Berakot,
giving a list of variants in both Talmudim and a
brief synopsis of the contents. A year later (1865)
he founded a monthly magazine, "Bet ha-Midrash,"
of which, however, only five numbers appeared. In
the same year he edited the Mekilta, to which he
added an introduction dealing with the historical de-
velopment of both Halakah and llaggadah, and a
critical commentary entitled "Middot Soferim."

After the publication of his "Mishpat Leshon ha-
Mishnah " (1867), an essay on the mishnaic language,
Weiss began to prepare his stupendous Avork, the
" Dor Dor we-Dorshaw " (1871-91 ; see below). Al-
though Weiss had not been successful with his " Bet
ha-Midrash," he was more fortunate with the Bet
Talmud, a monthly magazine which he founded
in 1881 with Meir Friedmann. In this periodical
Weiss published numerous articles of his own,
most of them treating of the Talmud in general
and of Talmudic subjects. No less important are his
biographical sketches, among which are those of
Maimonides, Rashi, and Jacob Tarn ("Bet Talmud,"
i., ii., and iii., and reprinted in book form under the
title " Toledot Gedole Yisrael "). In 1891, on the com-
pletion of his "Dor," Weiss reedited Isaac Campan-
ton's "Darke ha-Gemara," a methodology of the
Talmud. His last work in book form was his "Zi-
kronotai " (Warsaw, 1895), a collection of his remi-
niscences from his childhood to his eightieth year.
He continued to contribute to various Hebrew
periodicals, writing mostly biographies, of which
may be mentioned that of Saadia Gaon (in " Ha-Asif , "
ii. 275-293), published before Weiss had attained his
thirtieth year, and that of Mannheimer (in "3Ii-
Mizrah umi-Ma'arab," iii. 17 et seq.). In his lectures
Weiss was rather free with regard to the text of the
Talmud and the Midrashim. He did not hesitate to
declare the text faulty when it seemed so to him ; but,
on the other hand, he was very careful in making
corrections. He held also that the words of the
ancient rabbis should not be interpreted according to
modern conception, such interpretation being liable
to result in error.

Weiss's most important production, through
which he acquired great renown, is his "Dor Dor
we-Dorshaw," a work in five volumes. As its Ger-
man title, " Zur Geschichte der Jlidischen Tradition,"
shows, it is a history of the Halakah,
His or oral law, from Biblical times until
"Dor Dor theexpulsion of the Jews from Spain
we-Dor- ut tlie end of the fifteenth century,
shaw." The first volume (1871) covers the his-
tory from the inception of the oral
law to the destruction of the Second Temple; vol.
ii. (1876) treats of the tannaitic period until the con-

497

THE JEWISH ENCYC:L0PEI)IA

Wet»«

elusion of the Mislinah; vol. iii. (1883), of the am-
omic i)C'iiod till the completion of the Baltylonijin
Talnuul; vol. iv. (1887), of the geonic period until
the end of the lifth millenuium (= the middle of
the thirteenth century); and vol. v., of the period
of the casuists ("posekim") till the composition of
the tSliulhan 'Aruk. As the oral law is in reality
the interpretation of the Pentateuch, Weiss thinks
that it originated innnediately after the redaction
of the latter by ISIoses. The apparent divergencies
in the Pentateuch and the various books of the
Prophets (as the well-known dilYerences between tlie
books of Ezekiel and Leviticus, and many others)
are due only to different interpretations of the Pen-
tateuch in diilVrent epochs. It will be sei-n that
Weiss defended the unity of the Pentateuch and vin-
dicated the authorship'of Moses. But he believed
that Moses himself followed certain traditions cur-
rent in his time, as it is said that Abraham observed
God's commandments and laws (Gen. xxvi. 5). He
asserted also that while the Pentateuch contains no
simple repetitions of the laws, it contains additions
which amplify or limit the commandinents laid down
in the earlier books. In the second volume Weiss
gives the history of the Mekilta, Sifra, Sifre, and
Mishnah. This volume contains also monographs on
the Tainiaim which are invaluable to the Talmudic
student; without concealing the failingsof some, lie
defends them, especially the patriarchs, against the
charges of Schorr and others. In the third volume
much space is devoted to the Haggadah and the hag-
gadists; and the author does not endeavor to find
apologies for t hose seemingly strange passages in this
part of tiie Talmud which serve as pretexts for those
who seek to detract from its value. But he points
out the many edifying sentences that are scattered
throughout the Haggadah, and quotes a great num-
ber of them.

As was to be expected, this work, adopted by the
majority of Talmudic scholars as tlie standard his-
tory of the oral law, called forth replies from some
malcontents. Isaac Halevy is known to have written
his "Dorot ha-Rishonim " mainly against Weiss's
"Dor"; and Eleazar Zarkes published a criticism of
the work in " Keneset ha-Gedolah " (iv., part 2, pp.
Qo et seq.). Simhah Edelmann issued a small pam-
phlet entitled "Ma'amar Doreshe Reshumot" (War-
saw, 1893), in which he endeavored to make evident
Weiss's mistakes; and Simhah Weissrnaun. in his
pamphlet "Teshuhot u-Ma'anot Nimra?ot," did not
even abstain from personalities.

Bibliography: Cliales, in RivMa Israelitica, i\. 128-128;
Ehrenpreis. in Hfi-3/o(7(;iVf. xl.. Nos. 5-7: Elhogen. In Oxf loirt
West. v.499-.5n3 JeivUli Comment, xxl.. No. 11 : Louis Glnz-
berg, ih. XX.. Nos. 18-20; N. Sokolow, In Ha-Astf. iv. 4. ;
idem. Srfer Zihkarnn, pp. 38-39; Weiss, Ziln»ni>tai. y,Hr-
saw, 189.5. For the Dor Dor ur-Dornhaw : Brull. Jnlirli. Iv.
59 et yrq.. vii. 124 ct !<eQ.. ix. 115 <■< xcq.: (irUtz. In Motints-
Kchrift. xxvi. 9:i ct seq., 133 c^ .s«(/.: SoliechtHr. in J. U. li. Iv.
445 cf xeq.\ P. Smolenskin, in Ha-Shahar. iii. IKi IM
s. M. Sei-

WEISS, JOSEPH HIRSCH: Hungarian
rabbi; born at Podola, Conntat Neutra. 1800; died
at Erlau 1881. He was a descendant of a long line
of rabbis resident in Moravia in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries; the family name was
oriLMnallv Weissfeld. He officiated for some time as
rabbi (^f "the congregation of Sook-Szelocze. and in
XII.— 32

•0

1840 was ttpp

remained uni.

ers of tlie ultni-()rtliu<l<

one of the chief ■

Reform ihovciihm,

siith niovemeut id 1»4«, he u

uge for a time in ■'

protfclinn of tlie ;

arraigned before tlie royiil ii .

a charge of Kedition, hut wiin <ii

A considerable portlnn '>f lil«

mainly of resijonmi. ■'

Stephen S. Wiac to L .,.,,. ,

York.
s.

WEISS, LEOPOLD W. ; (■

ogist; born at (iiessen 1H4M II

the universities of (i

and Vienna; and fn-;.. ... . .

sistant at the ophtiiulmoloeiral ii

versity of Heidelberg, wl

legendi " in 1870. Since l".-

physician in Heidelberg and in M

his works may be mentioned

der Drehpunkte des Auges" (in " .

xxi.) ; " Beitrttge zur Entwicklung «lcr M

xxii.); " L'eher die Tul'

xxiii.); " Ueber die Abll:.

FU'issigkciten " {ib. xxv.); and "Ucber er

Innenseite der PupiUe SicbtbarcD Uc(lex:>iri:it ii4.

xxxi.).

Bibliography: Hlrsch. BUhj- l^i-
s. V T n

WEISS, MARKUS NIBS A (called -.x - VLkt-
dokai Ungvar): ilungurijin adviK-ato -n.

In 1792 he had a small busin- •" "
he leased an estate near M

pression.s gave rise to comp I'l

cian Jews. In 1802 he pul
titled "Der Jude wie Er W
with the Jews to accept tiie
work caused him to be '■
Hungarian Jews; and in
and ideas he issued (Vieunn. i-
phlet. which was en*'''' ■^">' '
Nissa Weiss an die .^: «"'•

that he could notov^
of his coreligionists. ... .•■ •

After his convcraion WcIm |o

Neuerfundenen Ta'
Vortheileder Reclm.-.-

Missverstandene Text und d««en O

ib. 1806. He has fi.'
Betrachtungen nbcr
zu Paris " {ib. 1807).
niBLiO(iRAPiiY : Ak'Xtndor BOchlT tc ^

xvll.

WEISS. MAX: 11'. 'iiin rh. - ^^-ttj

July 21. \X'u. at Szerwl
Vienna, he stndii-*!
university, and aft'
Having, however. Icamcd to ;
year. Ids in' ■
older, and 1
tions.

Weiss
Well

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

498

Weiss has invariably acquitted himself well in
tournaments, at which his chief successes have
been:
18fS. Vienna, won 2 Riunes from Zukertort, and drew wiih

1- ., tied with Enjrllsch and Tarrasch for second

1887. Prrui«cf'>rt-rtn-ihe-Maln. divided second and third prizes

ime.
is>?a, > ith Blackburne for sixth prize.

] - I Tchigorin for first prize.

1--
IfcKu. ViifUba. Ursi pr'i'e.

Weiss is now (1905) employed in Baron Roths-
child's banking-house at Vienna.

Bibliography: C. T. Blanshard, Examples of Che^n Master-
Plau. 1st series (transl. from the German of Jean Dufresne).
Index. New Barnel, ItWJ.
s. A. P.

"WEISS, WILHELM : Austrian mathematician ;
born at Hidka, Bohemia, Feb. 3, 1859; died at
Prague June 18, 1904. He received his early educa-
tion from his father, who was a teacher at Ridka ;
and from 1881 to 1887 he studied successively at the
universities of Prague, Leipsic, and Erlangen (Ph.D.
1887). From 1887 to 1894 he was instructor in
mathematics at the Deutsche TechnischeHochschule
at Prague, becoming lecturer in 1894, deputy pro-
fessor in 1896, assistant professor in 1897, and pro-
fessor in 1900. From 1901 to 1903 he was dean of the
school of engineers at the same institution.

Bibliouraput: Prager Tageblatt and Bohemia, June 19,
law.
s. A. Ki.

WEISSBERG, ISAAC JACOB: Russo-He-
brcw writer and pedagogue; born at Polonki, gov-
ernment of Minsk, 1841 ; died at Kiev 1904. He re-
ceived his preliminary training in various hadarim,
and then attended the yeshibah of Slonim, where he
came to be regarded as one of the best Talmudic
students. Later he went to Minsk, where he be-
came acquainted with various Hebrew scholars of the
younger generation, especially with Joseph Brill,
known also as Job of Minsk. While in Minsk, Weiss-
berg devoted himself particularly to the study of
Hebrew literature. In 1873 he established himself
as a teacher of Hebrew in Kiev; many of his pupils
have become prominent Hebrew writers.

In 1879 Weissberg began contributing articles to
various Hebrew periodicals, and his literary activ-
ity was very extensive. The following is a list of his
more important works: "Ga'on we-Sliibro," a schol-
arly criticism of medieval and modern literature;
"Slie'elat ha-Nashim 'al Pi ha-Talmud," a work
written in Yiddish and treating of the status of
women according to the Talmud, as well as of the
prevailing opinion regarding the authority of the
Talmud: "Peshuto sliel Mikra 'al Pi Da'at" (St.
Petersburg. 1898), Talmudic explanations of Bili-
lical passages; aud"MishIe Katlmonim" (Nezhin,
1901), a collection of ancient proverbs. lie was the
author also of e.xegetic notes on the Pentateuch (pub-
lished by Ezekiel Mandelstamm) ; and he collected
and p<iblished letters by the poet J. L. Cfordon (2
vols.), Isaac Bar Lcvin.sohn, and Isaiah Tugendhold
("Dibre Yesha'yah "). Weissberg contributed nu-
merous articles to "Ha-Meliz," "Ha-Maggid," "Ha-

Zefirah," "Ha-Shahar." "Ha-Boker Or," "Ozarha
Sifrut." "Ahiasaf," " Ila - Shiloah," "Ha-Goren,"
"IlaPisgah," and "Ha-Tikwah."

II. K. IT. Ma.

WEISSENBERG, SAMUEL ABRAMO-
WITCH : Russian physician and anthmpologist;
born in Yelizavetgrad, South Russia, Dec. 16. 1867.
He attended the public school and the real-school of
his native town ; entered the Poly techuicum in Carls-
ruhe, Baden, in 1884; and received his medical de-
gree in Heidelberg in 1890. His chief work has
consisted of anthropological researches among the
Jews of South Russia, the results of which he pub-
lished in 1895 ("Die Sudrussischen Juden," in
"Archiv flir Anthropologic," x.xiii.). He has also
published researches on the anthropology of the
Karaites ("Die KaiHer der Krini, " in "Globus,"
l.x.x.xiv., and in "Russki Anlropologitcheski Zhur-
nal," 1904). Several other contributions were pub-
lished in the "Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic" and the
"Mitteiiungen der Anthropologischen Ge-sellschaft"
of Vienna. Weissenberg has been a fre(iuent con-
tributor to the "Globus "on Jewish folk-lore, his
articles on Jewish proverbs (vol. l.xxvii.) and folk-
songs (vol. 1.x vii.) being particularly noteworthy.
He has written also papers for the " ^litteiluiigen der
Gesellschaft fiir Jlidische Volkskunde" on the
"Purimspiel" (part xiii.), "Weddings" (part .xv.),
and kindred subjects.

J. M. Fi.

WEISSMANN, ASHER (ARTHUR) SIM-
HAH: Austrian scholar and publicist; born at
Zelynia, Galicia, April 21, 1840; died at Vienna May
14, 1892. He received a rabbinical training in his
native town and in the yeshibah of Rzeszow, where-
upon he (1871) took up the study of foreign lan-
guages and secular sciences. After officiating for
some time as director of the Jewish school of Galatz,
Rumania, he went to Tysmeuitz, Galicia, and tinally
settled in Vienna.

Weissmann's literary activity in Hebrew and Ger-
man was considerable. In 1872 he edited the "Jli-
dische FrciePresse," a Judieo-German monthly with
a Hebrew supplement entitled " Ha-Kohelet " ; but
only three numbers of it appeared. He contributed
essays and novels to various Hebrew and Judajo-
Gcrman periodicals, among which may be mentioned
"Ila-Mabbit," the "Israelit" of Mayence, the " Isra-
elitische Wochenschrift," and the " Lsraelit " of Lem-
berg. Especially noteworthy were his novels " Ila-
Neder" (in "Ha-Mabbit," 1878, No. 15), treating of
the moral status of the Jews; "Chajim Prostak"
(in Rahmer's "Wochenschrift," 1880), dealing with
Jewish life in Galicia; and "Folgen Verfehlter Er-
ziehung " (in the " Israelit " of Lemberg). His " Cha-
jim Prostak " was later translated into English.

lu 1889 Weissniann founded in Vienna a German
periodical, " Monatsschrift fiir die Litteratur und
Wissenscliaft des Judenthum," which was issued
with a Hebrew supplement. To this publication,
which existed for two years, he contributed numer-
ous articles, among which may be mentioned essays
on the redaction of the Psalms, and critical essaj'S
on the books of Esther and of Judith, the last-named
being reprinted in book form. In the Hebrew sup-

499

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

WoiM

pleineut Weissmann published a work on the history
of the formation of Jewish sects prior to the deatli
of Simeon the Just. He was the author also of
"Kontres 'al Debar Serefat ha-Metim " (Lemberg,
1878), a critical essay on cremation according to the
Bible and Talmud, and " Kedushshat iia-Tenak "
(Vienna, 1887), on the canonization of the books of
the Old Testament. In 1891 he published at Vienna
Jonathan EybeschlUz's"Shem '01am," together with
notes of his own and an introduction by S. Rubin.

Bibliography: Lippe, nihlioQrnphischrx Lerirou, I., s.w;
Sokolow, Scfer Zihhnron. pp. Hit-40; idem. In Hn-Axify vl.
1, 152; Zeltlla, Bibl. Post-Mendch. p. 412.

E. c. M. Sel.

WEISSMANN-CHAJES, MARCUS : Austri-
an scholar; born at Tarnow, Galicia, 1830. He was
destined for a rabbinical career, and began early to
receive instruc-
tion in the Tal-
mud and in rab-
binics, among
his tutors being
Israel Rapoport,
then rabbi of
Tarnow. When
only ten years of
age he com-
menced writing
versified He-
brew letters, and
five years later
he wrote his
"Mappalat ha-
M i t k a s h s h e -
rim," a metrical
composition
treating of the
failure of the
Polish revolt.
Part of this work
appeared in the
" Maggid Mish-
neh" (1872) un-
der the title
"AharitMered."

In 1872 he
founded in Lemberg

tan Bercshit wc-Hutan Torali "

from "Ha I

by means i.:

word of tlio Pcntut«uch: and

(j7>. 1-' ; • '

In 1-

appeared uiulcr Iho lillu " I»
tain" (il). 1««8); in !'
erbs are supplied w .
s<ik<>l<iw

rrprinl

jiiuv-

BlIlI,IO«iHAPMV : S<.koloW. .S\

UiU. l'-''\t '- ... 4'

WEISZ, BERTHOLI)

born al 15u(1u|m-,i 1M.'>. 1'
gymnasium and romnuTfi
city, devoting hinisclf
l)i>liti(al ecoiKimy. In . .

'rr y.Uikarrm, pp. ISO

■ 111

th;

much towftrd

lod in-

>r itu

lories fur

Village Wells In Use In PnU'stlni'.

(From a pholoRraph by thB American Coluny at J.ru»l.oi.)

thp "Maggid Mishnch," a
semimonthly periodical devoted to Jewish history
and to Hebrew literature; of this publication, how-
ever, only four numbers appeared. In the fol-
lowing year he settled in Vienna, where he edited tlie
thirty-seventh number of the " Kokebc Yizhak,"
founded by Stern, its previous editor. During tlie
years 1874 to 1876 be edited the "Wiener jQdische
Zeitung," a Judaeo-German weekly.

Weissmann-Chajes is the author of: " Mashal u-
Melizah" (vol. i., Tarnow, 1860; vols, ii.-iii., Vien-
na, 1861-62; iv.-vi., Lemberg, 1863-64), an alpha-
betically arranged collection of Talmudic proverbs
rendered into metrical rimes; " Allon Bakut" (Lem-
berg 1863), elegies on the deaths of Mordecai Zeeb
Ettinger and Jacob Gutwirth ; " Mar'ch Makom we
Haggahot" (Krotoschin, 1866), inde.v and glosses to
the Jerusalem Talmud, appended to the Krotoschin
edition; " Hokmah u-Musar" (Vienna, 1875), para-
bles and legends rendered into metrical verse ; " Ha-

The natinoa) p«-i

Budapest and Berlin, as well m textile
in Waitzen, Srliim
He was tlie origin-
yards in Bmiapest.
for employees in v.
hypothecary tie par
banks owed their cxiHtcnco chlrUy lo I

Since \^W W '

Nagy Ajta in t

he received the tllle of court count i
niiii.H)i;KAfnv: f'<iU<u L«r. ztUL: P'

7/1(1 'M<''l. l'"l ''■
S.

WELL: T' " '^"'

twceii two kii
constructed liollow in
or unil' ' " ' '

in whi'

were probably
water" '■ ■'

Well
Weltsch

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

500

tlie foot of Gorizim, whicli in the time of Jesus was
calltnl -Jacob's Well,"' ami is uudoubteilly very old
(conip. John iv. 2). It is 23 meters deep and 2i me-
ters in diameter. The shape of the cisterns for col-
li-c water of course dilTered. A number of

sue ..;it cisterns are still well preserved. Those

shap<Hl like a bottle, round, broad at the bottom, and
narrowing at the top, seem to have been tiie oldest.
They were usually like chambers hewn out of rock,
or built up with walls; and in their construction nat-
ural cavities wt-re preferred. Sometimes they were
of ver}' considerable size. For instance, the largest
of tlie celebrated cisterns on the Temple area, called
i" or the "king's cistern," had a circumfcr-
224 meters and a depth of 13 meters. These
Temple cisterns were fed not onl}' by rain-water
but also, through large conduits, l)y spring-water.
In distinctitm from open pools, cisterns and wells
were wholly covered. Even the hole through whicli
the water was drawn in leather buckets (E.v. ii. 16;
Isa. xl. 15) was tightly closed with a large stone (Gen.
xxix. 3 et seq.; comp. Ex. xxi. 33), in order to pre-
vent any one from using the well without permis-
sion.

In a land so poor in springs and water, a well was
always a valuable possession. In Jerusalem every
house of the better sort had its own cistern. King
Mesha of Moab in his inscription (line 23) boasts
that by his command every house in the city of
Karhah was provided with a cistern (comp. also II
Sam. xvii. 18; Prov. v. 15). The wells outside of
settlements formed the stations for caravans. To-
day, as of old, strife among tlie wandering herds-
men, the Bedouins, arises chiefly from disputes over
wells (comp. Gen. xxi. 25 ct seq. ; xxvi. 15, 19 et seq.).
The imjiortance of good wells is shown also by the
situation of many cities near wells, after which they
were named.

E. G. n. I. Be.

Some of these wells and cisterns had their origin in
the time of the Patriarchs. Abraham dug a well in
Beer-sheba (Gen. xxi. 30), and Isaac restored the
wells dug by his father, which had been filled up by
the Philistines. Ordered by the king of the Philis-
tines to leave the country, Isaac dug three wells in
succession elsewhere; the first he called "Esek," the
second "Situah," and the third " Rehoboth " (Gen.
xxvi. 16-22).

Near ilosera, where Aaron died, were the wells
"of the children of Jaakan " (Deut. x. 6 [R. V.,
margin]), and at the ford over the Arnon the Israel-
ites foiuid a very ancient well, which they celebrated
in song as the work of princes and nobles (see Well,
Song op tiik). The King of Edom refused to allow
the Israelites to drink from his wells, even though
they offered to recompen.se him for the privilege
(Num. XX. 19). Eliezer, sent by Abraham to find a
wife for Isaac, stopped at a well to rest and to await
the course of events (Gen. xxiv. 11, 13).

In early times cisterns were used as dungeons, and
even in later times, when prisons were built, they
were .still constructed for this purpose. Reuben
counseled his brethren to throw Joseph into a cis-
tern (Gen. xxxvii. 22); when Jeremiah was accused
of having incited the people against the king, he was
thrown into a miry dungeon in the court of the guard

(Jer. xxxviii. 6-13) ; and when a later prophet wished
to picture a real deliverance, he described a libera-
tion from a waterless cistern (Zech. ix. 11).

The well, or spring, was also used symbolically,
as in Cant. iv. 12, where virginity is conijiared to
a sealed fountain; but such symbolical interpreta-
tions are chiefly found in the Talmud and ^lidrash.
Commenting on Prov. xx. 5 ("Counsel in the heart
of man is like deep water"), the Midrash observes:
" Only a man of understanding, who can join rope
to rope, can draw from a deep well [the Law] full of
water " (Cant. R. xciii.). When Johanan ben Zakkai
wished to describe the ability of his pupils, he com-
pared R. Eliezer b. Ilyrcanusto "a cemented cistern
that loses not a drop," and R. Eleazar b. 'Arak to
"arising well" (Ab. ii. 9, 10).

The cistern figured al.so in Biblical and Talnuidic
law. In case one opened a cistern and failed to cover
it again, and a neighbor's animal fell into it, the owner
of the cistern was required to make good the loss
(Ex. xxi. 33-34). The Rabbis regarded a cistern in
a public place as one of the four chief sources of
danger, and determined upon various punishments
for breaches of the regulations connected with it
(B. K. i. 1).

BlBLiOfiRAPHV: Herzoff-Plitt, Rcal-Enc\ir. iv. 783: vi. .')63;
xiv. 290, 299; HainbuiRer. R. Ii. T 1. 198; Tobler. Drittt
WandcruHQ nach Paliestina, pp. 206-217 ; Benzinger, .4 rch.
E. G. If. S. O.

WELL, SONG OF THE : A poem which is

(luoteil in Num. xxi. 17, 18. It is introduced in a
list of the encampments made by Israel while cross-
ing the wilderness. One of these camping-places
was Beer. After this it is explained that Beer was
the name of the well referred to when Yiiwii said to
Moses, "Gather the people together, and I will give
them water" (R. V.). "Then Israel sang:

" Spring up, O well.
Sing ye to it:

Thou well, dug by princes,
Sunk by the nobles of the people.
With the scepter, with their staves " iib. Hebr.).

Budde ("New World," iv. 144 et seq.) points out
that the word "midbar" (wilderness), which imme-
diately follows, is never used as a proper name, and
that in the present text it occurs awkwanliy in the
midst of a list of proper names. One would expect
"from Beer" (they journej'ed), arul not "from the
wilderness. " He points out also that in an important
group of manuscripts of the Septuagint the words
"and from ]\Iattanah," in vense 19, are omitted. He
accordingly believes that " midbar " and " mattanah"
were not intended as a part of the itinerary, but that
they formed a part of the poem, which read ;

" Spring up. O well.
Sing ye to it :

Thou well, dug by princes.
Sunk by the nobles of the people.
With the scepter, with their staves.
Out of the desert a gift ! "

Cheyne concurs in this view of the text (Cheyne
and Black, "Encyc. Bibl." s.z\ "Beer"). The song
belongs to a class of ancient popular poetry of which,
unfortunately, only fragments survive. This po-
etry consisted of short snatches sung in honor of
the vine in time of vintage, and of wells and springs.
Ewald thought that tliey were popular songs
accompanying the alternate strokes of hard labor

601

THE JEWItiil ENCYCLOI»KI)IA

Wall
W«UMh

("Hist, of Israel" [English cd.), ii. 20:!). No C(im-
plcte vintage song survives, though prohably a line
from one is quoted in Isa. Ixv. 8, and in iIk; titles of
Ps. Ivii., Iviii., and lix., and there are imitations of
sucli songs in Isa. v. 1-7 and x.wii. 'i-.l.

The "song of the well" seems to be a conjplete
popular song, addressed to a well. Budde and
Cheyne, as is natural from their emended text, trae(!
its origin to the Negeb, where wells were higlily
prized (comp. Gen. xxi. 25 et seq. and xxvi. 2Qet seq.),
and where indeed they were necessary to life (romp.
Josh. XV. 19 antlJudges 1. 15). Budde believes that
the song alludes to a custom by which, when a well
or spring was found, it was lightly covered over, and
then opened by the sheikhs in the presence of the clan
and to the accompaniment of a song. In this way,
by the fiction of having dug it, the well was regarded
as the property of the clan. He thinks that a pas-
sage in Nilus (Migne, "Patrologia Gracca," Ixxix.,
col. 648) to which Goldziher had called attention con-
firms this view. Nilus says that when the nomadic
Arabs found a well they danced by it and sang songs
to it.

According to W. R. Smith, the use of the song
was different: "The Hebrew women, as they stand
around the fountain waiting their turn to draw, coax
forth the water, which wells up all too slowly for
their impatience" ("Brit. Quar. Rev." Ixv. 45 et
seq.). This would imply a Palestinian origin for the
song, and suggests a use for it more in accord with
Ewald 's idea of the accompaniment to labor. Some-
what parallel to this conception of the purpose of
the song is the statement of the Arabic writer Kaz-
wini (i. 189), that when the water of the wells of
Ilabistan failed, a feast was held at the source, with
music and dancing, to induce it to flow again. The
writer is inclined to accept Budde's view.

BiBLiOGRAPUY : W. R. Smith, ReA. of Sem. 1894, pp. 169, laS;
Budde, in New World, 1894, iv. 180-144; Gray. Numbers, in
International Critical Commcntar]j, 1903, pp. 288 ct seq.
E. G. H. G. A. B.

WELL-POISONING. See Black Death.

WELLHATJSEN, JULIUS: German Biblical
critic and Semitist; born at Hameln May 17, 1844;
educated in theology and Semitics at GOttingen
(Ph.D. 1870), where he became privat-docent in the
theological faculty in 1870. Two years later he was
called as professor to the theological faculty of
Greifswald, and in 1874 received the degree of D.D.
" honoris causa" from GOttingeu. He was compelled
to resign from the theological faculty, however, in
1883 in consequence of his views on the Bible,
whereupon he entered the philosophical faculty of
Halle as assistant professor of Semitics. Three
years later he went as professor of Semitics to Mar-
burg, and was called to Gottingen in 1892.

Weilhausen has written.extensively on subjects of
vital interest to the student of the Bible and of Juda-
ism and other religions. Among his earliest publica-
tions was a dissertation on the tribal organization of
ancient Israel ("DeGentibus ct Familiis Juda'isQua'
I Chron. ii. 4 Enumerantur," Gottingen, 1870). This
was followed by a work on the text of Samuel (ib.
1871) and by an elaborate treatise on the Pharisees
and Sudducees (Greifswald. 1874), in which he at-
tempted, though without success, to weaken the dis-

ritll on

coverlcB of Oeip'T

more especially ■

sis, and on tlijs

teiinili/ed tlie tL

and (Jeorg. und later Uy (iruJ. I,

which asKigriHu jiohl •

and mtikcH tliu P< :

canon, i)().merior to ■

consequently, tli<- '

ligion of the p.

the Israelites uuil !!■

a crude lril)al Sem

minuted in a Ijenm

against wliieli thi- l'i.

ethical righteousness, (>:: .

critical views were ex|)oiind«-4l I

" Composition d«s ]]■

Bhcher des Alten T<

" Prolegomena zur Gexchic-hU- Innu-U

1899); "Israelitische un.! .' ■• ' ■•:

cd., //'. 1901); and in hi-- .

Brit." 9th ed., xiii. 400-441. II

und Vorarbeiton," whi( !i ' ' '

the Minor Prophets. -

("Reste Arabischen Heiilcnitiiii

elucidate and elabonitr ' ■

tive Arabic paganism tin

inal Hebrew religion and tiiecui'

mcdan Arabs. With tlieex'- •

Psalms" (in "S. B. O. T." x

searches of Weilhausen lla^

Islam and in the ex<' ■-'-''

latest contril)utions

jiels. Although his works are

velous scholarship, they may b<

by an unmistakable anti-.U'wiKb biiw and • cootr
quent ignoring of the labors of JewUli ^

WELT, DIE : Zionist p^Hodlni! f
weekly at Vienna (it is •■.
headquarters to Berlin in !'.•'■" .
appeared June 4, 1S97. since which
ical has been is.sued regidurly. At
dish edition was publishe*!. There h.. ■
editors— Uprimy. Feiwcl. S. Werner. .
for some years a private ventur
who simk much money in It.
odicial organ of the Zionist movcn.
the world, and i
in its various ph..
ature. and Jewish <
publishes also Judao n..
enconmge Jewish art. A
it became tlie ofllrlal organ of the Zl

■I.

WELTSCH. SAMUEL
at I'raicue ^ ■ ' -. ISl-"..
5 1901. B to « family of b
early enten-d ti
the MeifU'l ayna_ _
man. He rweive<l his musical e
Conservatory c
ccived a call f'
tion in New York, and r«
1880. wbcu be I ' '

Werber
Wertheimer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

602

turn to his native city. During his stay in New
York he was active in improving the musical serv-
ice of the American synagogue, and was one of the
collaborators on the first three volumes of the
"Zimrat Yah," a fourth volume of which was later
addwl by Alois Kaiser of IJaltimore. This work
contains the music for all the seasons of the year
and is still extensively used. In addition Weltsch
published Ps. xciii. with German words for solo and
chorus, and "Todtenfeier," two hymns for the
memorial service. He was a very prominent mem-
ber of the order B'nai B'rith and took great interest
in communal affairs in Prague, being the leading
spirit in various charitable and educational organi-
zations,
s. A. K.\i.

WERBER, BARUCH: Austrian Hebraist ; born
at Hrody, Galicia, in liio beginning of the uiiictcenth
century; died there July 31. 1876. Werber, who
was a follower of Isaac Erter and Nachman Kroch-
mal, founded a Hebrew weekly, which was pub
lished in Brody from 1865 to 1890 under the names
of"Ha-'Ibri" and "'Ibri Anoki." In addition to
nimierous articles which appeared in this magazine,
Werber wrote: "Megillat Kohelet" (Lemberg,
1862; 2d ed., Warsaw, 1876), consisting of explana-
tory notes on Ecclesiastes, together with a long in-
troduction; and "Toledot Adam" (Brody, 1870), a
biography of Albert Cohn of Paris.

Bibliography: Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mtndels. p. 413.

s S. O.

WERBER, JACOB: Austrian Hebraist; born at
Brody, Galicia, Feb. 4, 1859; died there Aug. 20,
1890; son of Baruch Wekber. When only fifteen
j'earsof age Jacob could write and speak Hebrew flu-
ently; and in 1874 he publislied in "Ha-'Ibri" a
novelette of rare beauty, entitled "Galgal ha-Hozer
ba-Olam." In addition to several contributions to
his father's magazine, he wrote articles on natural
science for " Ha-Maggid " (1875, 1876) and for "Ha-
Zefirali " (1876). Upon the death of his father in
1876. he became the editor of "Ha-'Ibri." and was
active in this capacity until his death, when the pa-
per ceased to appear. In 1890 Werber was attacked
by a severe illness; and when he heard that his phy-
sician had given up hope of his recovery he wrote
his own necrology, which appeared in the last
number of "Ha-'Ibri," three days before his
death.

BiBi.ior.RAPiiT: Ha-Asif, 1898, vl.140; Sefer Zikkarou, p.
40. Warsaw. 1890.
P. S. O.

WERNER, ABRAHAM : Polish rabbi ; born
at Tels, Kovno, 1837. He received his early educa-
tion in varioiis hadarim, and at thirteen was well
versed in Talmudic literature, whereupon he con-
tinued his studies under his father, who was govern-
ment rabbi of Tels. In 1856 Werner received the
Hattaiiat Hoka'aii from several eminent rabbis,
and shortly after was appointed rabbi of Weger;
later he succeeded his fatiier as dayyan at Tels,
subsequently becoming chief rabbi. He then ac-
cepted a call to Helsingfors as chief rabbi of the
entire province of Finland, and finally, in 1891.
was elected rabbi of the newly founded Mahazike

Hadath congregation in London. Here he remained
imtil July, 1901, when he settled in the Holy Land.

BinLiOGRAPHY : Young Israel, June, 1899; Jew. Oiron. July
26, I9H1.

.1. G. L.

WERNIKOVSKI, JUDAH : Russian Talmud-
ical educator; born in Slouini, government of
Grodno, 1823; died in Jerusalem Feb. 20, 1901. In
his childhood he was known as an " 'illui, " or prodigy
in Talmudical learning. He was married at the
age of eleven ; he was afterward sent to the yeshibah
of Volozhin ; and in 1840 he went to Wilna and
studied under H. Israel Lipkin. Though ordained
rabbi, he preferred to teach ; and, settling in his na-
tive town, he gathered around him a number of men
who studied Talmud under him. In 1861 he became
"rosh yeshibah" in Slonim, and continued in that
position until 1900, when he went to the Holy Land
to spend his last days. He was the author of " Pene
Yehudah," on the tractates Shabbat and Ketubot
(Wilna, 1871-72); " Leket Yehudah," sermons (iJ.
1872); and "Pene Yehudah," on Baba liamma and
Keritot (Warsaw, 1890).

Bibliography : Ahiasaf, 5662, pp. 428-429.
K. c.

P. Wl.

"WERTHEIMER, JOHN: English printer;
born in London at the close of the eighteenth cen-
tury; died there Dec. 18, 1883; senior member of the
firm of Wertheimer, Lea«&Co. From 1820 until his
death he was actively engaged as a printer in Lon-
don; and many important educational, medical, and
philological works were issued from his press. His
firm printed most of the works needing Hebrew type,
also commercial reports and the "Jewish Chronicle."

Bibliography : Jew. Chrnn. Dec. 21, 1883.
J.

G. L.

WERTHEIMER, JOSEPH, RITTER VON :

Austrian philanthropi.stand author; born at Vienna
March 15, 1800; died there March 15, 1887. He
was the descendant of an old and prominent Jewish
family; and his father was an intimate friend of
Joseph von Sonnenfels.
At the age of fifteen
young Wertheimer en-
tered the business of
Freiherr von Stifft, and
five years later that of
his father, whose part-
ner he became in 1821.
During his leisure hours
he devoted himself es-
pecially to the study of
pedagogic works. In
1824,' 1826, and 1828 he
traveled through Ger-
many, Italy, France, and
England; and during a
protracted sojourn in
London made a special
study of the kindergartens organized in that city
in 1824. On his return he translated into Ger-
man a work by the director of the London Central
Infant School, publisliing it under the title " Ucber
Friihe Geistige Erziehung und Englische Klein-

Joseph Wertheimer

503

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

rt r I I r t

kinderschulen " (Vieiiim. 1820; 2cl ed. 1828). At
the same time lie iuldressed to tlie government of
Austria a letter advocating tiie establishment of sim-
ilar institutions iu that country. With the coopera-
tion of .Toliann Lindner, a Catholic priest, Wert-
heimer ojiened in 1830 the first kindergarten in the
Austrian capital. The success of this institution,
and of others founded in the same year, led to the
organization of a central society for the estaljlish-
nient of infant asylums, under tlie patronage of the
empress Carolina Augusta, and with tlie active co-
operation of the Catholic clergy. Wertiieimer was
one of the founders also of the Allgemeine Hettungs-
anstalt of Vienna, a society for the care of released
criminals and neglected children.

VVerlheimer began his labors in behalf of his co-
religionists by founding in 1840 the Verein zur
Forderung der Ilandwerke Unter den Israeliten, a
society whose aim it was to afford Jewish children
an opportunity of learning trades, and thereby to dis
pel the common belief in the Jews' dislike for man-
ual work; this object was fully realized, thousands
of apprentices being trained by the society. In 1843
Wertiieimer founded a Jewish infant school in the
Leopoldstadt, Vienna, to which a non-sectarian kin-
dergarten was added in 1868. During the thirty-two
yeais (1835-67) in which he was actively connected
witli the management of the Jewish community of
Vienna, first as trustee and subsequently as presi-
dent, he rendered signal services to Austrian Juda-
ism by raising the social and political status of his
coreligionists, and by advocating religious and educa-
tional reforms. Among other institutions founded
by Wertiieimer may be mentioned the Verein zur
Versorgung Hilfsbedlirftiger Waisen der Israeli-
tischen Cultusgemeinde (1860), which led to the es-
tablishment of a girls' orpiian asylum; and the
Israelitische Allianz zu Wien (1872), of which Jie
remained president for a number of years. In rec-
ognition of his labors the emperor conferred upon
him the Order of the Iron Crown with the accom-
panying patent of nobility, and he was made an
honorary citizen of Vienna. He took active part in
the conferences of the second Jewish synod of Augs
burg July 11-17, 1871.

Wertheimer's interest in the emancipation of his
coreligionists led him to publish his work " Die
Juden in Oesterreich vom Standpunkte der Ge-
schichte, des Rechtes und des Staatsvortheiles" (2
vols., Leipsic, 1842), which is still considered a stand-
ard work. As such a work could not be issued in
Austria at that time, and as Austrian subjects were
forbidden to print interdicted works eLsewhere, the
writer's name had to be concealed from the authori-
ties. Of other works by Wertheimcr the following
maybe mentioned: "Therese. Ein Ilandbuch fllr
Mutter und Kinderwarterinnen " (1835); "Drama-
tische Beitriige" (1838), consisting partly of trans-
lations from the English; "Die Stellung der Juden
in Oesterreich" (Vienna, 1853); "Die Regclung
der Staatsbiirgerlichen Stellung der Juden in Oes-
terreich " {ib. 1859); "Jahrbuch far Israeliten " (11
vols., ib. 1854-64); "Die Emancipation Unscrcr
Glaubensgenossen " {ib. 1882); and " JUdische Lehrc
und Judisches Leben " {ib. 1883). From 1848 until
his death he edited the " Wiener Geschaftsbericht " :

and he contributed niu _ j

historical oksuvs U) various {wt.

UllU.lOliRAl-IIV : /
Li .r.,1, r ItfKtri
Z\ 18H7.

WERTHEIMER, SAMSON

Jew, liimiK i( I, und nibbi .

1658; died at Vienna A'l ■ •

of Josepii Jo.sel Werlli

age of ■ ■

the yes;

He went to Vienna I)e<

self with Samuel d'

privilege of reside: j

penheimer, Wertiieimer n i

actions with the An '

soon gained llie cni,

who presented a jiorlrait of liiiniieir l<.

and his son Wolf, ami on '.' " ■

this gift with another of 1 '

cicr's success in obtaining for the r of ibe

King of Poland a dowry of 1 ' '

her father upon her marriage i
in-law Duke Charles Philip. In i
of Succession Wertiieimer united ■
penheimer to procure the money i
equipment of the in.

Supplied for the supply of jn.,,,
the Oppenheimer's failun- h;

Imperial death in 1703, Wi •

Army. the credit of the .s;

sources of income. On A
the emperor appointed him r-
tended for twenty years his pri-. ...
ious worship, denizcnship. and immunity f :
ation. Josepli I., who -
5, 1705, confirmed Werth

Under Emperor Joseph I., Wertiieimer mn
his position as a fir " ' '

He was in personal
Savoy, to whom he paid 800.000 flo;
Jo.seph I, Charles VI. aildii!
During the Turkish war \'.
loans to the govcrDment. The title of - Im
biner," which the Jews of Hungary ' ' '
Wertiieimer, was made efTeetiv.'
(Aug. 26, 1711). Wertheimcr.
temporary account of one of hi-
Levi, was called the ".Iiidt-n K .
soldiers stood as sen !
sessed many of tin-
and numerous estati
Frankfortou-the-Muin. Ui

established schools, and dl^:

of money in Europe and in the Holy I

Jews were not allowed t' »"

Vienna without a written }•■

Wertiieimer did not discontinuf lii« n.

studies I
Rabbinical left u nun.
Knowl- dellvertrd io Ihc prlva
edg:e. hi-
T.
many funeral scnnons on tli'
rabbis, as Sim^ali Cohen

Wertheimer
We-Sbameru

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

504

rabbi of Trebitsch and son-iu-law of Menahem
Krocliiiial. Fruni far and near questions of itligion,
particularly of ritual, were submitted to him aud to
tlie rubbimeal court over which he presided; and to
the latter he called such great authorities as Jacob
Eliezer Buacnsciiweio, Simeon ben Judah Lob
Jalles of Cracow, and Alexander ben Menahem ha-
Levi of Prossnitz.

Moses Meir Perls, for many years Wertheimer's
secretary and almoner, mentions hhii in his "Megil-
lat Sefer " (1709) as " a rabhi of great congregations in
Israel." In scmie works Wertheimer is called " rabbi
of Prague and Bohemia " : but he did not accept this
title, as may be seen in an edition of Alfasi (Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, 1699-1700). His reputationspread

Ti^^. .i.^.4.. ~A Samson Wertheimer at V^ienna.

(Froni a photof^ftph.)

even to the Orient, where he was described as a
"prince of Die Holy Land " and given the title of
"nibbi of Hebron and Safed." His native city also
honored him with the title of rabbi. Many authors
sought his "approbation," but only in a few cases
did he give it, e.g.. in Moses ben Menahem 's " Wa-
Yakhel .Mosheh," and Jair Bacharach's "Hawwot
YaVr." He contributed liberally toward tiie publi-
cation of such works as "Hawwot YaYr" (in which
his name appears with that of Samuel Oppen-

heiincr). Judah ben Nisan's " Bet Yehu-

As dah," Gershon Ashkenazi's "'Abodat

Maecenas. Iia-Oersiiuni" and "Tif'eret ha-Ger-

slnini" (in which David Oppenhcimer
also is mentioned). He and his son-in-law Moses
Kann bore the greater part of the expense of

l)rinting the Babylonian Talmud at Frankfort-on-
the-Main in 1712-'23; this excellent edition was con-
tiscated ami lor thirty years kept under lock aud
key (see K.\nn, Moses).

When Eiseninenger's "Entdecktcs Judenthum"
appeared at Frankfort in 17UU, Wertheimer addressed
to Emperor Leopold a petition in which he exposed
the grave dangers which tiie malirimis and slander-
ous attack of the unscrupulous author would bring
upon the Jews. Accordingly the 2,000 copies of the
book were confiscated, and for years its sale was
forbidden.

When, in consequence of Kakoczy's insurrection
(1708), the Jewish congregation of Eisenstadt had
been dispersed and the wealthier members had
taken refuge in Vienna, Wertheimer persuaded
tlu in to return or to help their poorer brethren re-
build the congregation. He himself built for them
in Eisenstadt a house and a beautiful synagogue,
still called "Samson's Schule." He lent his aid also
in establishing about forty congregations in Hun-
gary. In Frankfort-on -the-Main he founded aud
richly endowed a Talmudical school, at whose head
was his son-inlaw Moses Kann.

By the marriages of his children Wertheimer be-
came connected with the most prominent families of
Austria and Germany. His stepson Isaac Nathan
Oppenheimer married a daughter of the wealthy
purveyor Posing; his eldest son. Wolf, married a
daughter of Emanuel Oppenheimer. AVolf was an
active agent in his father's financial transactions,
and shared his dignity as court factor. He later
experienced great reverses of fortune, however.
Having invested a large part of Lis wealth in loans
to the Bavarian government, the stipulated terms
of repayment were not kept, and bankruptcy stared
him in the face. For a time he was able to pay
only half of the interest on the 150,000 florins
which Samson Wertheimer had donated to charity,
and of which Wolf was trustee. On his father's
donation of 22,000 florins in favor of the German
Jews in Palestine he did not pay any interest after
1733. His embarrassment was ended by Elector
Maximilian, who liquidated his debts. In his will
(1762) Wolf declared that, although entailing a great
loss upon him, he accepted this liquidation in order
to do justice to his creditors. Further, he enjoined
his children to pay in full his father's donation of
22,000 florins, although in 1759 he (Wolf) had re-
turned to the Frankfort congregation 10,000 florins
which it had contributed to this fund. In 1769 the
grandchi'dren of Sam.son Wertheimer secured the
donation of 150,000 florins, and Wolf's heirs added
thereto 40,000 florins, in compensation for unpaid
interest. These two foundations at Vienna and
Jerusalem still keep alive the name of Wertheimer.

Samson's second son, Lob, married a daughter
of Issachar ha-Levi Bkumann of Halberstadt, a rela-
tive of Leffman Behrens, court Jew of Hanover;
thus the three great "shetadlanin " were closely con-
nected. Samson's sons-in-law were: R. Moses Kann
of Frankfort-on-the-Main ; Issachar Berush Eskelks,
father of the Vienna banker Bernhard Eskei.es;
Joseph, son of R. David Oppenheimer; and Selig-
mann Bercnd Kohn, called Solomon of Hamburg.
His youngest son, JoseptL Josel (b. 1718), married

505

THE JEWISH F\,

a (luughtor of liis stepbrotlier Wolf. Josfpl. ,li,..,l i„
Vionuu (1761), wlicrc he- was greatly estfenicd for
his charity aud Talniudic learning, s^.e Couut
Jkws.

Bibliography: David Knufmnnn. f^nmson }yntluimcr VI
enna IHKH; |,ie>n, rrhiunlluh.s an. den /.,/„."■«
I^nX!mctm. ^"" ' = '^'"'•^''"'^''< mbUoi,rapl,(.chc. Lei.
^- ' S Man.

WERTHEIMER, SOLOMON AARON :
Hungarian rabbi and scholar; born al IJusing Nov.
18, 1866. In 1871 he went with hi.s parents to Jeru-
salem, where he was educated; aud in 1890 he re-
sided at Cairo, Egypt, where lie collected ancient
Jewish manuscripts. He is the author of the fol-
lowing works: " EbelMosheh " (1885), sermon deliv-
ered on the death of Sir Moses Montetiore; "Hid-
dushe Rabbi Nissim" (1888); "Pirke H<kalot"and
"Zawwa'at Naftali " (1889); "Darke .shel Torah "
(1891), guide to the theory of the Talmud and to the
fundamental principles of the HalaUah and Hagga-
dah ; " Hatam Sofer " (1891), Talmudic studies, with
notes; "Batte Midrashot" (4 parts, 1893-97), a col-
lection of short midrashim from manuscripts, with
glosses, notes, and introduction; "Giuze Yerusha-
layim " (3 parts, 1896-1902), a collection of scientific,
literary, and poetic treatises, from rare manuscripts,
witii notes and introduction; "Midrash Haserot
wi-Yeterot " (1898), from the Parma manuscript, col-
lated with three Egyptian manuscripts; "Leshon
Hasidim" (1898), notes and introduction to the
"Sefer Hasidim"; "Kohelet Shelomoh" (1899), a
collection of geonic responsa, with notes and intro-
duction, aud with Hebrew translations of the Arabic
responsa; and " 'Abodat Haleb " (1902), a commen-
tary on the Jewish prayers. S.

WESEL, BARUCH BENDET BEN REU-
BEN (culled also Benedict Reuben Gompertz) :
German rabbi and scholar; born at Wesel in the
latter half of the seventeenth century ; died at Bre.s-
lau in the latter part of 1753 or the beginning of
1754. He was a descendant of a prominent family
which had ramifications in Germany, Austria, and
Holland. His grandfather, Elijah Emmerich, was
a confidential adviserof the Great Elector, aud knew
how to use his influence in behalf of his German
coreligionists. Baruch's father, Reuben, was a rich
merchant of Berlin, and was clo.sely related to
wealthy families in Breslau. In 1724 Baruch was
one of the three members of the Breslau rabbinical
court, and in that year he approved Solomon ITanau's
"Sha'are Tefillah." On Jan. 30, 1728, the Council
of Four Lands appointed him rabbi (i.e., advocate)

of the Polialj coi.

father he hud liihtrln-d n forlum

linunciaily ind. : '
of a money br
Tlirough p(»(»r Itu
Hoon lost hiH fortuii. ,
to call a tnci'tinf^ of V
c" -n, will

afti ; ...... lie p- ■■•

his name from
and to enroll him um.
the second cIiihh of tu
rejected; lie was iinpi
arrears «>f first .

of rabbi. Aflc: :.. ,

sion by Maria Tliercsii rJulv
lowed to remain in •

only. When Fred...

wrote in his honor a eulojfv. in
tic(Bre.slau, 1741). of which uuly iwv
been preserved.

On the issuance of the new «!•
which permitted (Hi '
in addition to the ;
remain in Breslau. WescI wm »\
desrabbiner ' withd "
cree the Jews, who
in Dyhernfurtli, were ordered to pur

cemetery, but the cf ,-

comply. Wesel th'

munity that the nmney nen-ssjirv '

of the cemetery, as well an fur t! ■

be procured from a meatlax 1

of these deliberations, and w .

at Dyhernfurtli. His work >;• -x . .

tion of ten responsa. appeared in .

17')5 (2d ed., published bv his son Mom-s. Am-

1771).

Bini.iofiRAPiiT: n<»njaroh. Oy/rr hn-^
Knteuft Yiitrail, p.
Mus. pp. TTH-TTT ; .\ .
srlirx'ltltT. Cal. liu'll. > .
rnlihiiiiits ill Sclil(j<i€it. 1:
Bn^sliiti. J.'^'^T.

n s n

WE-SHAMERXJ (- And tl,
shall keeji the ."^.ibLulh " ; K\ ^
tion from the Pentateuch, n
dali " in the Sabbath «-\
in the domestic K'i^"i""'-
service. Nowadays H is ubi
setting, or r«

it wasdeclai: . ,

on other melodies in the soi^'icc. ■

WE-SHAMERU (Ex. xxxi. l'

Recit. ad lib.

OS*- 1 >-n-

Tnf We - sha - me - ru be - ne

^''^

tx u» - .>tuib>

cres.

> s

N I

V s

bat,

hi - 'a - sot

et ba - Slwb • bat

!• - do • fo

We-Sbameru
West

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

506

l5.'

A in tempo, dolce.

m- — i? — 1^

:£z=«:

:s==3v:

u - ben be - ne Yis - ra - el

ot hi.

le - 'o

lam, / ki she-Hhet ya - mim 'a - sah A - do - nai.

:s:

-^s>-

et ha - sha- ma - yim we - et ha - a

rez,

u - ba - yom ha - she

js:t:

-1--

shab

^^r-:

i^:

Z^ZZl

bat

fash,

ym - na

fash.

for the " Kaddish " as rendered after the reading of
the Law on Sabbath, which is usually the one em-
ployed also before the " 'Amidah " on Friday eve-
ning, immediately following " We-Shameru." The
strains between A, B, C, and D in the accompanying
recitative, due to Naumbourg of Paris, may be com-
pared with the corresponding passages in the Jew.
Encvc. vii. 404, s.v. Kaddish (Afteb the Penta-
TECCHAL Lesson — Sabbath).
A. F. L. C.

WESSELY, HARTWIG.
Napihaii Hiuz.

See Wessely,

WESSELY, MORITZ AUGUST: German
piiysiciuij ; born at Bieiciierode, near Erfurt, Oct.
Vt, lyOO: diedatNordhausenMarchT, 1850; nephew
of Naphtali Hirz Wessely. He was educated at the
universities of Halle and G5ttingen (M.D. 1823) ; from
iy23 to 1828 he studied at Paris; and in the latter
ytar, returning to Germany, settled in Nordhausen,
where he practi.sed medicine until his death. Wes-
sely received the title of " Geheimer Hofrath " from
tiie Duke of Nassau, and that of " SanitUtsrath " from
the King of Prussia. In 1849 he founded, together
with L. Bli><lan, the "' Neue Zeitung fUr Medizin " and
the "Medicinal Ik-forin," both of which journals he
edited until his death.

Bibliography : Ulrecb. Bum. Lcs.

F. T. H.

WESSELY, NAPHTALI HIRZ (HART-
WIG): German Hebraist and educationist; born
at Hamburg 1725; died there Feb. 28, 1805. One
of his ancestors, Joseph Reis, fled from Podolia
in 1648 on account of the Ch.mielnicki persecu-
tions, during which his whole family had perished.
After a brief sojourn in Cracow, Reis settled in Am-

sterdam, where he acquired great wealth, and where
he, in 1671, was one of the signers of a petition to the
Dutch government requesting permission to erect a
synagogue. Together with his younger sou, Moses,
Reis later settled in Wesel on the Rhine, whence the
family name " Wessely " originated. In the syna-
gogue at Wesel are still preserved some ritual para-
phernalia presented to it by Moses Reis Wessely, who,
upon the advice of the Prince of Holstein, whose
purveyor he was, removed to Gliickstadt, then the
capital of Sleswick. He established there a factory
of arms. King Frederick VI. of Denmark later sent
Moses to Hamburg as his agent; and while there he
transacted important business for Peter the Great
also. Moses' son, Issachar Ber, was the father of
Naphtali Hirz.

Naphtali Hirz Wessely passed his childhood at
Copenhagen, where his father was purveyor to the
king. In addition to rabbinical studies under Jona-
than Eybeschiitz, he studied modern languages. As
the representative of the banker Feitel, he later vis-
ited Amsterdam, where he published (1765-66) his
"Lebanon," or "Gan Na'ul," a philological investi-
gation of Hebrew roots and synonyms. Although
proli.x in style, and lacking scientific method, this
work established his reputation. After his marriage
at Copenhagen, he represented Feitel at Berlin, and
there became associated with ^lendelssohn. Wessely
encouraged the latter in his labors by publishing
" 'Aliin li-Terufah," a work advocating the "bi'ur"
and the translation of the Bible into German. To tliis
work Wessely himself contributed a commentary on
Leviticus (Berlin, 1782), having published, two years
previously, a Hebrew edition of the Book of Wis-
dom, together with a commentary.

Wessely was an ardent advocate of the educa-
tional and social reforms outlined in Emperor Joseph

507

THE JEWISH ENCYCLUI'EDIA

II.'s "Toleranzedict." He even risked his reputa-
tion for piety by puhiisiiini^ a niaiiifesto in eiijlit
cliapters, entitled "Dibre Slialuni we-Emet," in
wliieli lie emphasized the necessity for secular in-
struction, as well as for other reforms, even from the
points of view of the Mosaic law and the Talmud.
This work has been translated into Frencli as " In-
structions Sahilaires Adrcssoes a<ix
His Works. Communautt's Julvesde I'Empire dc
Joseph II."(I'aris, 1792); into Italian
by FAia, Morpurgo (Goer/,, 1793); and into German
by David Friedlilnder under the title " Worte dcr
Wahrheit und des Friedens" (BerHn, 1798). By
thus espousing the cause of reform, as well as by
his support of Mendelssohn, Wessely incurred the
displeasure of the rabbinical authorities of Germany
and Poland, who threatened him with excommuni-
cation. His enemies, however, were linally paci-
fied through the energetic intervention of the Ital-
ian rabbis, as well as by Wessely's pamiihlets
"Mekor Hen," in which he
gave evidence of his sincere
piety. Iul788 Wessely pub-
lished in Berlin his ethical
treatise "Sefer ha-Middot,"
a work of great moral
worth. He published also
several odes, elegies, and
other poems; but his mas-
terwork is his "Shire Tif'e-
ret" (5 vols.; i.-iv., Ber-
lin, 1782-1802; v., Prague,
1829), describing in rhetor-
ical style the e.\odus from
Egypt. This work, through
which he earned the admira-
tion of his contemporaries,
was translated into German
(by G. F. Hufnagel and
Spalding; 1789-1805), and
partly into French (by Mi-
chel Berr; Paris, 1815). His
commentaries on the Bible
were published by the so-
ciety Mekize Nirdamim
(Lyck, 1868-75) under the
tit'le "Imre Shefer."

Wessely influenced his contemporaries in various
directions. As a scholar he contributed, by his pro-
found philological researches, to the reconstruction
of the language of the Bible, though his work is
marred by prolixity and by his refusal to admit
shades of meaning in synonyms. As a poet he
possessed perfection of style, but lacked feeling and
artistic imagination. No one exerted a greater
influence than he on the dissemination of modern
Hebrew ; and no one, on the other hand, did more
to retard the development of pure art and of poetic
intuition. Because of the courageous battle which
he fought in behalf of Jewish emancipation, Wessely
may be regarded as a leader of the Maskilim.

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Abraham Meldola, KoIJin-Zinm, Al''o°«;.)^;'
M. Mendelssolni. Pcne Tebel Amsterdam, 18.-: i/n-.Y"^^^^

iqucch. il., Paris, 190:3; David Frledrlchs eld ^;J^''\.]X']^
dik, Amsterdam. 180it: 'VV. A. Melsel. LebeM «"'/,," 'U^
des Nauhtali Hirz Wes.-ichi, Breslau. 1841: Zeltlin. Wbi.

Hrhr.: A. Il<-n«wni. \n(>

aw.

WESSELY, WOLFGANG

and tli('(j|ii;,'iiiii . ImMi ui 1
1801; dii;d at Vienna Ap;
fourteen he wan «:iil to I
for the ral)bii
asLL.l). in \^.. .
of religion at the gs
Jcwisli < .

permissji : ....

erature at the L'niversily of 1
time h(.' ha<l n
to juristic iii

jury was intnxiuced into A
justice sent him <iii h :
ish Prus.^ia. Hullaiid, .
methods employed in these cou:
lowing year he was appi ' '

8ity of r

was I'
or; i\

in ado
;ion8 to i
gelv was thi
f
n.;. .. .. .

Oeatorrei

zur

dlHch'.

(Prague. 1^

KiniiiKili "'
1>C;J). a ■ .
hit Ylsnu-1."
\'. ' ' '
li

2d cd.. with
actor*, i'
dir G-

Naplilall Hlrz Wessely.

und

nisse des Nothstands
Oesterreichis<^hem H' '• '
ologian h«' inul strong
he explains Bat I\oi, as »x
science (Isidor Busch. " Jahrl.

BlDLIOORAPHY: Wir' '
18T'). pp. ur:-M-** : I

WEST: One of the
12; Ezek. vii. 2; Job
"four corners,*' kno\\
xlix. 86) or "four w
viii. 8. xi. 4)
Assyrian an.i
the East w
west was d«
11; Job xxiii ><■ >■
west of Palestine, ll.

»»,...

7^ it.

'fourtiklrt*"<mc.'-
xxxviL 8. 1XX^

intn which ll'

(=-i«r'

.f tb«

ib
I.
I-

-4

it
■r-

Umch

4t* J^tA.

I -a tI

• t.

West Indies

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

508

favoriU- term to denote the west (Ex. x. 19, xxvii.
12. xxxviii. 12; Gen. xii. 8. xxviii. 14; Isa. xlix. 12;
Ps. cvii. 3). another word beinjr "maarab " (= "the
point where the sun sets"; Ps. Ixxv. 7 [A. V. 6],
ciii. 12. cvii. 3; Isa. xliii. 5, xlv. 6).

In later Hebrew "ma"arab" is the common term
for - west " (B. B. 25a). It may have been in oppo-
sition to the Babylonian belief that the entrance to the
reahn of death was situated in the west that K. Ab-
bahu advanced the opinion that the Siiekinaii was in
the west {il>.). The contrary assumption, attributed
U) the heretics (- minim '"), who were said to maintain
the doctrine that the Shekinah resided in the east,
seems, therefore, to be a reminiscence of Babylonian
influence. Since Palestine lay to the west of Baby-
lon, it came to be designated as Ma'araba (Ber. 2b

obtained the assistance of Jewish residents, who
were always antagonistic to the Spanish government.
The Portuguese were no less intolerant toward tlie
Jews; and on their capture of Brazil from the
Dutch in 1G54 they exiled numbers of Jews. These
sought refuge in the Dutch colonies, especially
in Curasao, to whose prosperity they have notably
contributed until the present time. It was the toler-
ance .shcnvn by the Dutch and British governments
which helped to build up the supremacy of those
powers in the West Indies. France was nearly as
intolerant as Spain; but prior to the promulgation
of the "Code Noir" (1685) Jews were allowed,
mainly through the policy of Colbert, to reside and
trade in the French West Indies, despite the hostil-
ity of the Jesuits. In the eighteenth century laws

View of the "Joode Savaane," Surinam, Dutch Guiana.

(From a Beventeenth-ceDtiiry priot.)

et seq. ; Yeb. 17a et pamm), and its inhabitants were
called the "sons of the West" (Xiddah 5lb).

E. G. H.
WEST INDIES : Group of islands in the North
Atlantic adjniiijug the Gulf of Mexico; so named
because supposed by Columbus, who discovered
them, to be India reached by the western route. For
convenience the Dutch possessions in South Amer-
ica are known as the Dutch West Indies, and are
treateil here. Kayserling asserts that the Jew
Luis de Torres, who accompanied Columbus in 1492,
settled in Cuba and died there. Jewesses who had
been forcibly baptized are known to have been sent
to the West Indies by the Spanish government.
Thus the Jews have been identified with these is-
lands fromtiie time of their discovery ; but although
families of Crypto-Jews are known to have lived in
Cuba during four centuries, it was not until 1881
that they were legally admitted into the Spanish
colonies; nor did they obtain full rights until the
Spanish-American war. As late as the year 1783
the Inquisition claimed its victims from among the
Cuban Maranos. It is probable that the buccaneers

were passed permitting some Jews to live in the
West Indies; and in 1722 David Gradis established
a business at St. Pierre, IVIartinique, and two years
later a branch oflice in Santo Domingo. He sent
out merchantmen from Bordeaux, carrying cargoes
of alcohol, meal, and pickled meat; and his family
gradually grew so wealthy and powerful that the
efforts of the colonial authorities to expel it were
unavailing. Abraham Gradis, son of David, traded
between Bordeaux, the French West Indies, and
Canada, and was granted exceptional privileges,
such as the right of acquiring real estate.

Jewish activity in the West Indies commenced in
the middle of the seventeenth century, at a time
when tlie exiled Spanish Jews had already made
their inliuence felt in Amsterdam and in tiie Levant
trade. Jews sent out by the govern-
Cura9ao ment of tiie Netherlands had colonized
and Surinam and Curasao, in which latter

Surinam, island there were twelve Jewish fam-
ilies in the year 1650. Governor
Matthias Beck was directed to grant them land and
to supply them with slaves, horses, cattle, and agri-

609

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA

Weal Indtea

culiuiiil implements. Their settlement was siHmtcd
on the northern outskirts of the present district of
Wiilemslad, anil is still known as the Joilenwyk.
lu IGol there was ji large inlhix of Jews into Ciiia-
(;iio, under tlu; Icadcrsiiip of Jan de Ulan, who had
the rigiits of i)atroon, and the eontraelfir Joseph
Nunez de Fonseca, known also as David Nassi.
The settlement was successful; and l)y reason of the
tolerant attitude of tiie goveriunent large numhers
of Jews went thitiier from Brazil after the Portu-
guese con(iuest of that country in l()o4. The settle-
ment became increasingly prosperous. A congre-
gation Avas established in 16r)(i, and a new synagogue
built in 1692. In 1750 there were 2,0t)0 Jewish in-
habitants in the island, and at the present time ( 1905)
the trade is almost entirely in the hands of Jews.

Jews had settled in Surinam prior to the occu-
pation of that colony by tlie Hrilish (1005), when
they were coutirmed in all the privileges previously
enjoyed by them, including full religious liberty.
Summonses served on the Sabbath were declared to
be invalid; and civil suits for less than the value of
teu thousand pounds of sugar were to be decided by
the Jewish elders, magistrates being obliged to en-
force their judgments. Jews were pernu'tted to be-
queath their property according to their own laws
of inheritance. In order to induce Jews to settle in
Surinam it was declared that all who came thither
for that purpose shoultl be regarded as British-born
subjects. In Feb., 1667, Surinam surrendered to
the Dutch fleet, and in the treaty of IJreda, which
continued the Dutch in their possession, it was stip-
ulated that all British subjects who desired to do so
should be allowed to leave the countr}'. In 1675
Charles II. despatched two commissioners with three
ships to bring off those wishing to leave. The gov-
ernor of Surinam, fearing that tlx; emigration of the
Jews would injure the prosperity of the country,
refused to let them depart. According to a list
which has been preserved, ten Jews, with 322 slaves,
wished to go to Jamaica. The governor at first
claimed that Jews could not be British subjects,
and, being compelled to yield this contention, took
advantage of the arrival of a frigate in the harbor
to pretend that he had received fresh instructions
from tlie Netherlands forbidding the migration of
the Jews. Finally the British conunissioners sailed
away without having accomplished their purpose.
The number of Jews in Surinam continued to in-
crease, and a splendid synagogue was erected there
in 1685; David Pardo of London, who officiated as
its rabbi, died in Surinam in 1713. Maps still exist
showing the position of the "Joodsche Dorp" and
"Joode Savaane" in Surinam (see R. Gottheil in
"Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc." i.\.). In 1785 the cen-
tennial of the synagogue was celebrated.

Jews were probably among the first colonizers of
Barbados. In 1656 they were granted the enjoy-
ment of the laws and statutes of the conunonwealtii
of England relating to foreigners and
Barbados, strangers. Schomburgk relates that
Jews settled at Barbados in 1628
("History of the Barbadoes"). In 1661 Benjamin
de Casercs, Henry de Caseres, and Jacob Fraso peti-
tioned the King of England for permission to live
and trade in Barbados and Surinam. The petition.

supported !»y the Kln?^ of
to the Coin!:
reviewc-d tht- »
allowing JewH i
Colonies, a niiiticr wliuh ii,
and often delmted." Tl
was grantt'<l, but the ]•:
About the time thai tic

cil. Jacob J«)KUii f?

been for two y.

the king for pcMiii^Mun i.

that island. Therenult - f •

In 1064 one Henjiunin I

letters of dinization and i<

of the Navigation Act. but

obtained when lie. with Iw

Jews, was banished frcf '

a promised gold-iiiiiic. ii

ercd in New York. In 1671 <•

Jamaica \\i '

jii-titioii n .,

ThenceforwanI their position bfranu' :

Despite special taxation in 16!'"

from employing indentured •

(1703), the Jews' privileges wcro ni>i uf Iq.

fringed. In 1H02 an : " ' ■' •• • ■ . ,. gi^i^mre

removed all the dis.i:

There were Jewish colnni •• L««ward

Islands. A special nrr ' . . . t

from monopolizing imp
of H>!t4. This was repeale<i in ITol mi
of the Jews, with the proviso timt '•■
they should assist in the dcfeniip of •
utmost of their power, ami • Uirtn*

selves fairly iind hr)nestly fi . . .

Spain and Pnrtueal'H hiw* wim L'nin for Ibe
Dutch and British W
a few years the Fren(

1035 she found tlu-ren
Dutch liad brought w
traders. For more than I"
left unmoh - til lliiir

envy of the -, :ii:d ■

who caused various
issued from time to
the year 1050 a Jew
troduced into Mariinii|ue the
sugar-cane. Thislwiietit wan n
itude; for when the v\uwU of i
gave way to new |

HI- ■■'

Mar- ]•-

tinique. Iw ex ;

slons i;. .\....
of IGS."), refprrwl to nl>ovp. »
In spite of i .

enter the i.'-...; -

They remainwl Biibiert to •
nial governors
eriiniuationa ag;i.

There exists a Jewish
islanil of St. ThomM. A
Eustatius by H-HJii.y in T
emigrate*! thence and »cUU-cl tn
thev in 1796 built x -' '"■ ti~ •-

West Virg^inia
Wetzlar

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

510

tion "Blessing and Peace." In 1803 the congre-
gation numbered twenty-two families, luiving been

augmented by arrivals from Eng-

St. land. St. Eustatius, and Cura(;ao. In

Thomas. 1804 the synagogue was destroyed

by lire. It was replaced by a small
building erected in 1812; and in 1823 this was su-
perseded by a larger one. Ten years later a still
larger synagogue was erected, the community hav-
ing in the meiiutime increased to sixty-four families.
In 1850 King Christian VIll. sanctioned a code of
laws for the government of the congregation. There
were at that time about 500 Jewish inhabitants in
the island, many of whom held civil offices. Among
the ministers were B. C. Carillon of Amsterdam and
M. N. Nathan and Mayer Myers of England. Of
recent years, however, the Jewish community of
St. Thomas has greatly declined, numbering at the
present time (1905) little more than fifty members.
See also Barbados; Cuba; Cukaqao; Jamaica;

3IAUTIXIQLE.

Bibliography: L. 'WolB, American Elementi* in the Reset-
Ueinetit, In Tran^actiotts nf the Jewish Historical Society
of Eiiglaml; Abraham Cahen. Les Juifs datis les Colonies
Frtinc<ii*fsau ISc Siicle, in li. E. J. Iv., v.; G. A. Kohut,
WhoiVasthe Fir^t Kalihi of Surinam? in Puhl. Am. Jew.
Hiiit. Soc. No. 5. 1S92; Dr. U. Friedenwald, Material for the
Hiiitoru of the Jeu'i< in the British West Indies^ ib. No. 5,
1897; B. Felsenthal. The Jcm.-<h Conoregation in Surinam,
lb. No. 2, 11(94 ; B. Felsenthal and R. Gottheil. Chronological
Sketch of the History of the Jews in Suriyianu lb. No. 4,
1896; Herbert Cone. The Jews in Cura^o, lb. No. 10, 1902.

V. E.

WEST VIRGINIA: One of the east-central
states of the Ainerican Union; formerly part of Vir-
ginia; made a separate state on June 19, 1863.
While individual Jews went farther West as early as
1825, there seem to have been no communities before
1840 in the territory now constituting the state. On
April 20, 1849, a Jewish Cemetery Association was
incorporated in Wheeling by Samuel Kline, Meyer
Heyman, Alexander Heyman, Julius Ballenberg,
Isaac Horkheiiner, Meyer Stein, Simon Stein, Selig-
man Oppenheimer, and Marx Graf. In the follow-
ing month of the same year the Congregation Leshem
Siioniayim was organized, with Myer Mannheim as
its rabbi. Since then nine ministers have occupied
its pulpit, the present incumbent (1905) being Harry
Levi, who was installed in 1897. The congregation
DOW has 110 members, a Ladies' Hebrew Benevo-
lent Society (founded 1875), a Relief Society (1891),
and a Rabbi Wise Personal Aid Gild (1899). The
Mercantile Club, Wheeling's Jewish social organiza
tion, has a membership of forty-five.

Charleston, the capital of the state, contains the
Congregation Bene Yeshurun, which was organized
in 1873. and which is now compo.sed of forty-four
members, the present rabbi being LeonVolmer; the
city likewise has a small Orthodox congregation, a
benevolent society, and a social club, the Germania,
founded in 1874.

Parkersburg, the third largest city of the state,
has a Ladies' Sewing Society, a Hebrew Aid Soci-
ety, and the Progress Club, but no congregation.
At different times, however, services have been held
on the fall holidays.

Hvintington is one of the younger cities; but in
1887 the Congregation Ohev Shalom was organized

with eighteen members. Its charities are now in
charge of the Ladies' Hebrew Benevolent Society.

Few in number as the}' are, the Jews of West
Virginia have their fair share of prominent citizens,
though they are not conspicuous in high public po-
sitions. Joseph Shields, now residing in Cincin-
nati, was collector of internal revenue at Charles-
ton during the Civil war, and Daniel Mayer was a
commissioner of immigration under Governor Jacobs,
prosecuting attorney twice in Logan and once in
Boone count j% a director of the hospital for the in
sane (1887), a member of the state legislature (1889),
and for the past eight years consul to Buenos Ayres
Charleston is represented in the army by Lieut.
Samuel Fraukenberger, and in the navy by his
brother, Lieut. Hugo Fraukenberger, who took
high honors at Annapolis. Morris Ilorklieimer of
Wheeling was a member of Governor Atkinson's
staff, and commissary-general of the state under
Governor White. Samuel Gideon of Huntington
has run the whole gamut of public office in the south-
western part of the state, being president of the
Cabell County Court for six years, and Mike Broh is
also a prominent citizen of Huntington, being the
president of the Merchants' Association and a di-
rector of the Chamber of Commerce. For some years
Albert Zilinzinger was a member of the Weston
Asylum board.

Grafton, Fairmont, and Sistersville contain
few Jews, but for some time have held annual serv-
ices on New-Year and the Day of Atonement.

Wheeling has 450 Jews, all affiliated with the con-
gregation ; Charleston about 300; Parkersburg 150;
and Huntington 100. In the entire state there are
about 1,500 Jews in a total population of 958,000.

A. H. L.

WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBE-
RECHT DE: Christian Biblical critic and theo-
logian; born at Ulla, near Weimar, Jan. 12, 1780;
died in Basel June 16, 1849. He took his doctorate
in Jena, where he became privat-docent in 1806.
The following year he was appointed professor of
theology at Heidelberg, and in 1810 was called to
the new University of Berlin, where he worked in
harmony with Schleiermacher. A public expres-
sion of sympathy for Sand, the murderer of Kotze-
bue, occa.sione(l his dismissal from the university
(1819). After remaining three years in Weimar he
was called (1822) as professor of theology to Basel,
where he passed the rest of his life.

De Wette ranks among the foremost Old Testa-
ment scholars of the nineteenth centuiy. His dis-
sertation on Deuteronomy (1805) and his " Beitrilge
zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament " (1806-7) may
be said to have laid the foundation (in conjunction
with Vater's works) for the subsequent develop-
ment of Old Testament criticism. In his commen-
tary on the Psalms (1811) he called in question a
number of the Davidic titles and the Messianic
character of certain of the Psalms. His translation
of the Old Testament (1809-11) had a wide circula-
tion in Germany and elsewhere. In 1814 he pub-
lished his "Lehrbuch der Hebraisch-Jiidi,schen
Archilologie," which went through a number of edi-
tions. De Wette 's critical work on the Old Testa-

611

THE JEWItiU ENCYCLOPEDIA

We»t VUKlziU
W«t»Ur

ment was summed up in his "Lehrbuch der Histo
riscli-Kritisclicu Eiuleitung in die Kuiionisehen und
Apokrypliischcn Bi'iclier des Allen 'I'cstaineuls "
(1817), which was translated into Englisli by Theo-
dore Parker (1843), and was edited in revised form
by Schrader (18G9). Tliougli later critics have de-
parted in some points from his positions, his funda-
mental i)rinciple of historical development in tlie Old
Testament has been the basis of all succeeding work.
Besides the books mentioned above he wrote much
on the New Testament, and on theology and ethics.

Bibliography: HerzoK, Rcal-Encuc; Allgemcine Deutsche
Biographic.

J- T.

WETZLAB : Prussian city in the district of
Cobleuz; formerly a free city. Jews lived there
probably as early as the twelfth century, since a
young Jew of " Writschlar " is mentioned in connec-
tion with the murder of Alexander of Audernach
(Aronius, " Kegesten," No. 345, pp. 154 et seq.). The
name of Wetzlar occurs also in a document of the
year 1241, which contains the "taxes of the Jews"
("Monatsschrift," 1904, p. 71). On May 15,1265,
Archbishop Werner of Mayence entered into a com-
pact of public peace with several counts and cities,
including Wetzlar, to protect the Jews against all
violence (Aronius, ib. No. 706, p. 291), and on July
9, 1277, Rudolph I. granted Siegfried von Runkel
an income of ten marks from the 100 marks which
the community of Wetzlar was required to pay as
a yearly tax to the emperor (Wiener, "Regesten,"
No. 59, p. 10). In the beginning of the fourteenth
century Emperor Louis the Bavarian transferred to
Siegfried's son, Dietrich von Runkel, the entire
yearly tax which the Jews of AVetzlar were required
to pay the sovereign, while, in recognition of the
services of Gerhard, of the house of Solms-Kdnigs-
berg, Henry VIL granted him 300 marks in silver
from the money paid by the Jews for protection.
Finally, in a document dated Mayence, June 5, 1349,
Charles IV., as a reward for faithful services on the
part of Count John of .Nassau, called " Von Meren-
berg," made to him a conditional transfer of the
Jews of Wetzlar, with the taxes they paid into the
imperial exchequer.

The community of Wetzlar was among those that
suffered at the time of the Black Death in 1349 (Sal-
feld, "Martyrologium," pp. 78, 83 [German part, pp.
268, 284]); and in the same year, by a letter dated at
Speyer on the Tuesday after Palm Sunday, Charles
IV. confirmed all the privileges of the city of Wetz-
lar, adding that it should continue to levy the cus-
tomary taxes on the Jews as servants of the royal
treasury. Charles likewise confirmed the claim of
Count John of Nassau-Weilburg to the Jewish taxes
in a document dated March 17, 1362, but promised
to impose no further burdens upon the Jews of that
city. In 1382 King Wenzel granted Wetzlar the

privilege of admitting Jews in order
Allowed to enable the city to pay its debts,
to Admit stipulating that they should be sub-
Jews, ject to the orders of the municipal

council only. When the emperor, in
1491, levied a conscription upon the imperial cities,
a valuation of 30 gulden was put upon the Jews of
Wetzlar (" Blatter flir Judische Geschichte und Li-

teratur."Kuppl. i

Se|.t. 10, ir)93. the munici|Mil .

within thn

(including i .

against CliriHtiun ciii/cds xhuidd r

erwise the aullioriti

ing such notcB. (

enacted that tlie Jews Hhoiild pr

within H month ul| ■'

zens. On Aug, 30,

to take a.s inU-reHl :

thaler a week ; and

hibited from in)pt.i

the acces.si()n of KMi|M'ti>r '

the imperial conunissioner. (

Hohenlohe. sent Hpeeial envovH lo
of allegiance of tlie Jcwh

hall, in the presmre of llie i

was taken on the acceKxion of JotM'ph I., in
Joseph II., in 17(56, and nf f

About 1755 the Jews of V,
to build a synagogue, which wu
and a special tax of 10 '
paid to the mei-sengeroi
of judicature at Wetzlar whenever he \
business (" Sulaniith, " ]^~ ' ~

the JlDKNSTATriOKKIT

ish families to live in Wetzlar, t

mitted a larger number,! I ■ •'

themselves the 20 or 30 I.

for permission to reside in the cif.

forth by the citizens in aeon-- ' .•• •

1707. An "agreement" w.i

July 18, 1712, that thenumberol nsniint

again be reduced to twelve <••.'- !

were 680 Jews living at Wi-

corponitcd with the kin

in 1904 only a little ovu ... .

connuunity, which supports a j

and a hebra kaddislia, Ii .

binate of Dr. Mimk at M

buch des Deutsch-Isnn

1903, p. 78).

Jews by the name of Wetzlar Hv«l at Ollc. in tbc
province of Hanover (Ncubauer. "Cat. Bodl. Ilrbr
MSS." pp. 529. 114." * ■ •'

morbuch "). at Fi
"Die Inschriften des Alton Kt
tisehen Gem. ' ' T

at Altoua ((i

1904. p. 305). at Prague (H«mk. - 1-
p. 120). and ■ ' ' re. R. .' ' ' '

Minden. W i. in I' »»

Simeon Wetzlar of Fdrth

entitled " Hakirof lm-I/-b " ( A

Schneider, "Cat IW-H " N

Wolf Wetzlar .\

("Zur G '■

195, St i

Bini

At'

<ti<

We-Yeetayu
Widdin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

512

WE-YE'ETAYTJ: A piyyut by Eleazar Kai.iu
(Zunz. ~LiU'raturgesch."p. 2i). cimntcd by thel.iaz-
zan (luring the Mu&if service on the days of New-
\ifiiT uuil Atonement, according to tlie northern rit-
ual; but omitted by many German congregations.
The only music recognized as traditional is an eight-
eenth-century air. of distinct inferiority to the other

Washington, D. C, where he is a member of the
Society of AVashingtDn Artists and of the Wasiiing-
ton Water Color Club. Weyl's special!}' is land-
scape-painting, and his work shows sympathy with
the moods nf nature. He was awarded tlie first prize
at the e.xliibition of the Society of Washington Art-
ists in 1891, has exhibited at the National Academy

WE-YE'ETAYU

AUegrfitin moderato.

izt:

cres.

-^^^^^

-f^- — ■*-

Si==5:

3^^

^E3t

ia^E^^^

-? I

132^

^ ^

-=1— ♦—

=£^-w=^

-I 1-

i^iL^z*:

lO*:

rit.

z^=iir.

:=t-

T).C.

~-^-

inherited melodies of the Penitential season, but none
the less firmly established in the tradition of many
congregations, and prized for its quaiutness.
" F. L. C.

WEYL, MAX: American painter; horn at
Miiliic II. Wlirttemberg, in 1840. At the age of fif-
teen lie went to the United States, but returned to
Europe to study art. His home is now (1905) in

of Design in New York, and is represented in the
Corcoran Gallerj^ of Washington by a landscape en-
titled " Approaching Night." He was a protege of
Salvador de Mendonca, formerly Brazilian minister
at Washington, and four of his paintings were in
the Mendonca collection.

BiBUor.RAPnY. American Art Annual, New York, 1905.
A. F. N. L.

613

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

We>T*'0t«yti

Wuldiu

WEYL, MEIR B. SIMHAH : German rabbi ;
born ill Lissa 1744; diril al IJciliii 1826. lit; was a
I)ui)il(){'llirsch Jauow. In 1771 lie became associatt^
rabbi at Lissa, and in 1784 was called as asso-
ciate rabbi to Berlin, wliere lie was elected ciiicf
rabbi in 1800, receiving the title of acting chief dis-
trict rabbi in 1809. He published no separate works,
bnt his numerous opinions on questions of the Law,
whicli prove the depth of his scholarship and judg-
ment, are included iu the collections of contempo-
rary rabbis, as in those of Akiba Eger, Jacob Lissa,
Salmon Cohen, Solomon Posner, Aryeh LbbBreslau,
Zel)i lliisch Samoscz, Noah of Lubraniez, and Ben-
<li.\ Barueh Gompertz. A series of approbations,
including those referring to the Jewish calendar,
published with the sanction of the Berlin Academy
of Sciences, show the importance attached to his
opinion iu learned circles. While he was opposed
to innovations in ritual, he was the first advocate
and in part the actual founder of seminaries for
rabbis and teachers in Prussia.

BiBLioGRAPiiv : Lewin, Gesch. der Juden in I,i,ssa, pp. 338-
346, Berlin, 1904.

s. L. Lew.

WEYL, WALTER EDWARD : American
economist; born at Philadelphia, Pa., March 11,
1874. He was educated in the public schools of his
native city and the University of Pennsylvania
<Ph.B. 1892; Ph.D. 1897), and took postgraduate
courses at the universities of Halle, Berlin, and Paris.
Weyl has published several articles on railway labor,
t lie passenger trattic of railways, etc. He is greatly
interested in organized labor, and has been connected
with the United States bureaus of labor and sta-
tistics.
Bibliography : American Jewish Year Book, 5665 (19(M-5).

A. F. T. H.

WHALE : A cetaceous mammal. Several
species of cetacea are found in the Mediterranean as
well as in the Red Sea. In the Authorized Version
of the Bible the Hebrew " tannin " is often rendered
"whale"; while the Revised Version has "sea-mon-
ster" (Gen. 1.21; Job vii. 12), "dragon" (Ezck.
xxxii. 12), and "jackal" (Lam. iv. 3).

The name "leviathan," which usually designates
the fabulously great fish preserved for the future
world, seems in certain passages of the Talmud to re-
fer to some kind of whale; so, for instance, in Hul.
C7b, where leviathan is said to be a clean fish, having
tins and scales, and in B. B. 73b, where a fabulous
description of its enormous size is given. In Sliab.
7b the rr'a^S (meaning perhaps the porcupine) is
said to be the vexer of the leviathan. See also Le-
vi.\TiiAN AND Behemoth.

Bibliography: Tristram, JVafura? History of the Bible, p.
151 ; Lewysohn, Zoolugie des Talmuds, pp. 155, SH.
E. G. H. I- ^1- C-

WHEAT (Hebr. "hittah"; Dcut. viii. 8 ^.■' seq.):
The chief breadstuff of Palestine in botii ancient
and modern times. It has been observed that the
cultivation of wheat indicates a higher stage of civ-
ilization than the cultivation of barley alone. Bar-
ley bread is, therefore, mentioned comparatively sel-
dom (Judges vii. 13; II Kings iv. 42). and was
probably the food of the common people only.
* XII.— 33

Among the Grcekii an<l Hmimtu. at In iLv Urioni ia.

day. burl'

was tluT" : ,

of bread used for «l ]y

mailc dill'. '

In I'al.
tuniD, when llic early .nl

liicparcd il f<ir pi
what later than I.

the heavy ruins huv< i im

harvest sca.son v;i '
tween the end of ..
On liarvesting, thrashing, ui:
see AouKii.TriiK; I*--

Wheal was an aril"
Tyre (according ; ml

from Judaii (coiuj.
cording to Joscpluis,
At present tlie pluins ol I'l.
duce chielly wheat, but tin-
the great granary of Syria ; n
in large quantities b}

Grains of wheal v.

vival from the perital wlu-n iri.
were not understood. V..

to have been very popiii..: , :

brews (I Sam. xvii. 17. xxv. 18; II Sum. %•■
especially during 1 v.

xxiii. 14). as is still •

E. G. II. • i-'

WHEEL (jDK. Kx. xiv

In the Bible wlui-ls are m"'-
ordinary wagons, as well
lion is made also of the '
26; Isa. x.wiii. 27). and t : •■
(Jer. xviii. 3; see PoTTERY).

E. G. II ' '

WHEELING. - .

WIDAL, FERNAND GEOR' h

physifiaii; born al Paris March •■

to 1H88 he devoted h:

of the researdies of i;

omy. and during the two >

charge of a course in bu'

of Profes-sor Coruil. In i

ing physician to the hospilaU of I*ii

became an ■

He is now (i • . .

anil is in charge of the medical ■

institution.

Widal is Die author of a r»»m«»rV

on infectious disoasfs.

heart, liver, nerv '

litic contributor
cyclopedias.

BlBl

»;.

WIDDIN: P-i •■"■'■" f..r!!'^.,1 !
the conllu'iK-e i

The I'

din wpri >■■' •

Iters being some Bvziintine and II'

settlers. At ll>
territorv ■•' ''■•

■ WK

\X*

Widdin
Wiener

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

514

to several clironiclers, two celebrated rabbis went to
Widdia in 1376 — Moses Yewaui (" the Greek ") and
R. Shalom of Xeustudi. R. Shalom is said to have
fouuded the first rabbiuical school in Bulgaria, and
to have been the first rabbi of the community ; he
was succeeded by R. Dusa Yewaui, the son of Moses
Yewani.

After the taking of Constantinople in 1453, during
the campaigns of Mohammed the Conqueror in Ana-
tolia, the waywodeof Wallachia, Vladimir V., levied
on every Jew of consequence a tribute of 1,000 silver
aspers per head, fixing the loss of the right eye or the
right ear as the penalty for failure in payment. The
Jews of Constantinople appealed, in the name of their
coreligionists, to the sultan Mohammed, who, accord-
ing to the statement of Elijah Capsali, revoked the
barbarous edict on his return from Anatolia. This
was prior to his e.xpedition into Transylvania in 1474.
In spite of its final conquest by the Turks, Widdin
remained under the immediate government of the ru-
lers of the province of Wallachia, then tributaries or
vassjils of the Ottoman empire. In the seventeenth
century the city passed for a time into the hands of
the Hungarians, but was again surrendered to the
Turks (1690).

In the interval Jews of different nationalities set-
tled in the city. Among the principal families of
Greek origin were the Pyzantes (or Byzantes), Pap-
pos, and Polychrons ; among those of German extrac-
tion were the Ashkenazis and Grilnbergs ; of Spanish
origin (after the year 1492), the Peiiaroya, Duefias,
Nirio, and Rosanes families. There were also Portu-
guese Jews, as the Namias; Italian, as the Farhis
of Florence and Lecce; French, as the Yarhis of
Lunel and the Kimhis of Provence; and even some
natives of Barbary, e. g., the Al-Kala'is, the Al-
Ajams, and others. A responsum of Samuel of
Medina, dated 1558, reveals the fact that the Jews of
Widdin were extensive cheese-makers, the principal
manufacturers of that time being Joseph Tchilkk
and Solomon Uriel.

In the year 1784 the "Ventura family removed from
Spalatro, in Dalmatia, and settled in Widdin, where
it founded a dynasty of spiritual rulers. The fol-
lowing members of this family were successively rab-
bis of Widdin : Shabbethai b. Abraham
The Ventura, David Shabbethai Ventura

Venturas. (1784-1H06), Rahamim Abraham Ven-
tura (1806-10). Gedaliah Shabbethai
Ventura, and Joseph Ix-n David Ventura. Other rab-
bis later on wore Benziyyon b. Shabbethai, Abraham
Cohen. Bekor Eliakim, David Cohen, and Solomon
Behar David.

Among the notable events in the history of the
community of Widdin was the incident of the Jewish
physician Cohen, falsely accused of poisoning his pa-
tron, Passvanoglu, the governor of the city, in 1807.
This event, wliich came near being the cause of a
wholesjile slaughter of the entire community, occa-
sioned the institution of an ann\ial feast-day (4th—
somesay 9tii— of Heshwan), known as the Plktm ok
Widdin, in thanksgiving for its escape. About 18:^0
one Conforte I). Eliakim, a native of Salonica, was
the "hakim-bashi," or physician, to the governor.
During the war between Servia and Bulgaria in 1885,
when Widdin was being bombarded, the Jews of that

town took refuge in Kalafat, Rumania. This oc-
curred in midwinter; and the Jews, without means
and wholly unprepared for flight, had no other refuge
than the ancient synagogue.

Widdin was the first Bulgarian community to
produce a Jewish writer of note; this was R. Dosa Ye-
wani, author of "Perush-we-Tosafot," written about
1430 and still (1905) preserved at Wilna (Michael,
"Or ha-Hayyim"; Ben Jacob, "Ozar ha-Sefarim,"
8.V.). Two other writers who were
Literature, natives of Widdin may be mentioned:
Shabbethai b. Abraham Ventura, au-
thor of "Nehar Shalom" (Amsterdam, 1775), and
David Shabbethai Ventura (brother of the former),
author of " Kokba di-Shebit," Salonica, 1799.

One of the relics of antiquity preserved in the local
synagogue is a silver plate inscribed with the date
1658, given by the little Jewish community of the
island of Adda-Kalessi, in the Danube, near Widdin.

At the present day Widdin contains about 2,000
Jews in a total population of 14,772. They include
merchants and dealers in grain and cotton goods, to-
gether with tailors, shoemakers, tinsmiths, and ma-
kers of the " tcharik, " or shoes worn by the peasantry.
At the close of the Russo-Turki.sh war the commu-
nity of Widdin built a magnificent synagogue, the
finest in Bulgaria. Connected with the synagogue
is a school containing 225 pupils (175 boys, 50 girls),
and a number of charitable organizations and socie-
ties, among which are the Rohezim (for the inter-
ment of the poor), the Bikkur Holim (for the assist-
ance of the sick), a Women's Society, and a Zionist
Society.

Bibliography: Griinwald, Dihre MnrdeUai, Sofia, 1894: Eli-
jah Capsali. Seder EUuahu Zuta, or Debe Eh'j/a/iu (MS. in
Bodleian Library); Ihdletin ds'V Alliance Israelite, 1885-86,
p. 21: Amiarai Pentru Im-aelitzi. Bucharest, 1889; Dezo-
bry, Dictinnnaire de Biographie et d'Histoire.
s. M. Fr.

WIDDTJI. See Confession of Sin.

"WIDOW : The law of Israel treats the widow as
a privileged person, and seeks to indemnify her in
some degree for the loss of her natural protector.
Thus the movable property of a widow can not be
attached for debt (Deut. xxiv. 17), whether she be
rich or poor, though the text speaks only of her
garment (see Exfxution). To meet the monition
of Isaiah (i. 17), "Judge the fatherless, plead for the
widow," it became the rule, in arranging the order
of cases in a court, to take up the complaints of
widows next after those of the fatherless (sec Pko-
CEDURE IN Civil Causes). The duty

Preroga- of judges to do full justice to the
tives of a complaining widow is emphasized by

"Widow. the assertion that God Himself "doth
execute the judgment of the father-
less and widow " (Deut. x. 18), and that "a father of
the fatherless, and a judge of the widows, is God in
his holy habitation" (Ps. Ixviii. 6). Widowhood
"after marriage " gives to a daughter complete in-
dependence of her father; she becomes, in legal lan-
guage, "an orphan during the father's lifetime."'
This principle is thus broadly laid down (Ket. iv.
2) : " After he has given her in marriage the father
has no power over her," though it is different where
the husband dies after betrothal, but before marriage.

Under the sacerdotal law (Lev. xxi. 14) a widow

515

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Widdla

Wl0n«r

is not a suitable wife for tlie high priest, but she
may marry an ordinary priest ("kohen liedyot ").
Yet, according to the Kabbis, where the latter has
married a Avidow, ami is thereafter appointed high
priest, he may retain her as his wife (Yeb. 77a).
Ezekiel (xliv. 22), in his scheme of a hierarchy, for-
bade to the ordinary priest marriage with a widow,
unless her first husband had been a priest; but his
scheme was never accepted as law.

In marrying again, a widow naturally is not fa-
vored as highly as a maiden. The smallest jointure
for the latter is 200 zuzim; for the former, only a
mina, or 100 zuzim (Ket. i. 2). Marriage with a
maiden is generally celebrated on Wednesday ; with a
widow, on Thursday (Ket. i. 1). The rights of the
widow in the hu.sband's estate have, in the main,
been set forth under Ketubah, and are secured by the
contract. The question of priority in
Re- payment between the widow's dues

marriage, and the bond creditors of the lius-
band, or between several widows of a
polygamous husband, has been treated under Pui-
ORiTY. In the opinion of R. Akiba, prevailing over
that of K. Tarfon, there is no " marshaling of assets"
from outstanding deposits or demands in favor of
the widow or of creditors; but the heirs are allowed
to collect them, or to take possession (Ket. ix. 2, 3).
The reason given is that no one can collect a demand
against the decedent's estate without an oath (if
such is required by the heirs) that he has not re-
ceived it before, either iu whole or in part.

Notwithstanding the dillerence between the cus-
toms of Jerusalem and Galilee on the one hand, and
of Judea on the other, mentioned in Ket. iv. 12, the
rule was recognized at an early day that the widow
may dwell in her late husband's house, and receive
her support from his estate, as long as she remains
liis widow and until she judicially demands pay-
ment of her dowry and jointure, or accepts such
payment (see Bertinoro ad loc).

The husband can not, at the time of entering upon
the contract, confine the wife to any one fund out
of which she may as a widow collect her ketubah;
nor can he say to her, " Here, laid out on this table,
is thy [due under the] ketubah " ; for the whole of
his estate is bound for it, including what he acquires
by inheritance from his brothers after marriage.

Where the widow is, under the husband's ap-
pointment, guardian of his infant children, an oath
can be demanded by the heirs as to her management,
unless the husband has in writing freed her from
rendering such an oath (Ket. ix. 5);
As but if from her husband's grave she

Executrix, goes back to her father's house, or to
the house of her father-in-law, and is
not appointed guardian afterward, she owes an oath
only as to the future, not as to her previous receipts
(Ket. ix. 6). A widow who lessens her ketubah
(recollects a part thereof) can not thereafter de-
mand further payments, except upon an oath as to
the amount received ; she must take the oath also,
if one witness testifies that she has been paid. So
where land, sold or encumbered to third parties, is
needed to satisfy the ketubah, the oath recjuired in
all these cases is taken in the most solemn form
(Ket. ix. 7, 8).

Where the widow clainu support from Uie Mtaui

in the liandH <*f ih<- If
them. The ImnbaJidii .. .
cxpcnsc-sof hnr burial: U>
inherit ! r

Tiie 1 tUnI »fler b<-

trothal. but before ntnrriuee. iiuiy. witliout llic akl
of a court, sell <
lier ketul)ah; u

arc not sufflcieat, alio may aril more uoUl Um full
amount is realized. S' '

to secure her HUpport. ii
this method of golf help fu.-cit)ii not to bu
ju-actised in later time* (St " ■ ' ' '
Ezer.Oe, f)). However, if -
a known value?) for lew* th .
void ; for in doi- - ' ' • ■
the sale would :

a decree of court (Ket. xi. 4, 6, wbcnj ■muc Uim< : i
ing views arc recorded).
K. c. L. N. D.

WIENER, ADOLF. <i-inan T»bbl; born lo

MuroW!lhil-(riislill, I'c- ' ' '

Prussian Silesia, Aug ■

his diploma as Ph.D.. he went as rabbt t

where he introduced a modem ny

with German sermons. H<- met. .

opposition, headed by Solomon Egcr. and

ices could take place ,•'-'-• ' ■

In 1845 Wiener was cai .

he officiated until his dealii. He waa m

most progrcs-sive rabbis (if his time. an.. -

synods of Cas.sel (1844). U\\>s\r nH««>, and A . -

burg (1870) he advocated the '

Judaism: revision of the p"' ■

of the organ in divine Bor

on Sabbaths; and the alHjii'i..ii --f

of festivals. His chief anibitinn. ..

release the Jews from what he railed the aull

of the Talmud.

Wiener was the author of the followiDC ■» -
"Die Opfer- und Ake<la-(;elHl«- Ein IJ-
Orientierung in der (
" Worte Gesprocheu an
Rosalie VerwitwcteCobn " (Oppcln. It-'
jndischen 8|>
radical critici.-i .

Bini.iooRAPH V : A ftO-/^}f- **"
1H96. p. 3D8: Llppe, fl<W(«V'"j"-- •'■ ' ' . '"

WIENER. ALOYS. See SoxxwrEL*. Pi

LlI'MANN

WIENER ISRAELIT. DER -

ICAI S.

WIENER. JACQUES:
born at II
Brussels N

he was sent to Aixi '
drawing, mo! ' ■ •
Baruch, who \
1885 Wiener went to i

lS39h' "' '•• "'" /

work > ee of J

reputation a.s a m- ^

notably Germany

Wiener Jahrbuch
Wiesbaden

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

516

for his fidelity to the minutest details. The first
Belgiiiii pojitage-stamps were designed by Wiener,
who also arranged fur their manufacture, for which
purpose he visifed England in 1849. In 1872 he lost
his • ' t through overwork, and was compelled

to I ■ his art. wliich. however, he had taught

to his brothers Karl Wiener (d. 1867) and Leopold
Wiener.

Wiener was decorated with the Order of the
Knights of Leopold and with that of the Prussian
Eagle. Upon his death the King of Belgium sent
his family an autograph letter of condolence and also
offered military honors at the funeral ; these, how-
ever, the family declined.
BiBUOGRAPHT: JfU'. C/iron. Nov. 10. 1899.

- F. C.

WIENER JAHRBUCH. See Periopic.a.i.s.

WIENER JtJDISCHE ILLUSTRIRTE
PRESSE. See Periodicals.

WIENER JiJDISCHE PRESSE, See Peri-

WIENER JTJDISCHE ZEITUNG. See Pe-

KIODIC.\L6.

"WIENER, LEO: American philologist; born
at Byelustuk, Grodno, Russia, July 27, 1862; stud-
ied in the gymnasia of Minsk and Warsaw, in the
University of Warsaw, and in the Polytechnic of
Berlin. Emigrating to the United States, he had
for several years a varied career in New Orleans
and in Kansas City, being obliged to work as a day-
laborer and to peddle fruit in order to gain a liveli-
hood. At length he was appointed teacher in
Odessa, Mo., and later professor in the University of
Kansas, where he remained until he was called to an
assistant professorship in Slavic languages at Har-
vard University, which office he still (1905) holds.

Wiener is a prolitic writer on philology, having
contributed numerous articles to philological jour-
nals in America, England, Germany, Russia, and
Austria. He has published also several articles on
Jewish questions in the Jewish press of the United
States, and lias devoted especial attention to the
study of Jud;eo-German in its plnlological aspects,
having published several monographs on this sub-
ject in scientific journals. He is the author of "The
History of Yiddish Literature in the Nineteenth
Century "(New York, 1899), and has compiled an
"Anthology of Russian Literature." He has trans-
lated numerous works from the Russian and from
the Yiddish, including "Songs from the Ghetto" by
Morris Rosenfeld, and the complete works of Leo
Tolstoy.

A. ' J. Leb.

WIENER, LEOPOLD : Belgian engraver and
sculptor; born in Holland 1823; died at Brussels
Jan. 24, 1891. He was a resident of Boitsfort, a
small town near Brus.sels, of which he was several
times elected mayor. In this place he devoted his
undivided attention to engraving and sculpture; and
several pieces of statuary sculptured by him are
displayed in public squares throughout Belgium.
In 18G4 he was appointed engraver to the govern-
ment, and soon after royal engraver, various titles
of distinction being conferred upon him.

Wiener enjoyed a high reputation in musical circles

also, and was at one time vice-president of the Con-
servatoire at Brussels. Many schools and institu-
tions, notably a school of design for the working
classes, owe their origin to his activity and energy.

Bibliography: Jew. Chron. Jau. 30, 1891, p. S.
s.

L. R.

WIENER, MEIR: German teacher; born at
Gloguu June 3, 1819; died at Hanover March 31,
1880; head master of the religious school at Han-
over. He made a German translation of the " Shebet
Yehudah"of Solomon ibu Verga (Hanover, 1855;
2d ed. 1856; reprinted, Konigsberg, 1858; Warsaw,
1882). He made also a German version of the
"'Emek ha-Baka " of Joseph ha-Kohen, adding a
sketch of the life and works of the author (Leipsic,
1858).

Further, Wiener was the author of "Regesten zur
Geschichte der Juden in Deutschiand Wilhrend des
Mittelalters" (,ib. 1862), in which he compiled all the
data relating to the Jews; but his lack of independ-
ent study and his failure to make careful researches
concerning the reliability of his sources seriously
diminished the value of his work. He contributed
numerous historical articles to the " Monatsschrift "
(vols, ii.-xvii.), among which those treating of the
Jews of Speyerand of Hanover deserve special men-
tion. He likewise wrote for the "Ben Chauanja"
(iv.-viii.) and for the " Allgemeine Zeitung des Ju-
denthums."

BiBLiOGR.\Pny : Monatsschrift. xi. 153; Stobbe, Die Juden in
Deut!<c)iland Wiilirend den MitteMter!!. pp. 8-9, Brunswick,
18t)6; St€inschnelder, Cat. Bodl. col. 2726; AUg. Zeit. des
Jud. 1880, p. 231 ; Zeltlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 419.
S. S. O.

WIENER MITTHEILUNGEN. See Period-
icals.

WIENER MONATSBLATTER FtJR
KXJNST UND LITTERATUR. See Period-
icals.

WIENER-NEUSTADT : City of Austria ; sit-
uated thirteen miles south of Vienna. Jews settled
in this city probably shortly after its foundation in
the twelfth century, records showing that Duke
Frederick II., on June 9, 1239, issued an order ex-
cluding them from holding those offices " in which
they might cause incon venience to Christians. " Also
in the spurious charter of the city, alleged to have
been granted by Duke Leopold IV., the Jews are
mentioned, their rights being based largely on the
Austrian laws of 1244 and 1277 pertaining to Jews.
The earliest tombstone discovered at Wiener-Neu-
stadt bears date of 1285, and marks the grave of
Guta, first wife of a certain Shalom. Tombstones
from the years 1286, 1353, 1359, and 1370 have also
been preserved.

During the time of the Black Death the Jews of
Wiener-Neustadt were fully protected; but during
the reign of Emperor Ma.ximilian they were expelled
from the city, their synagogue being transformed
into a Catholic church (1497). Joseph I. permitted
the city to admit the Jews who had fled from Ilun-
gaiy during the Kuruz rebellion; but these left the
city again as soon as the uprising had been quelled.
In 1848, Jews settled anew in Wiener-Neustadt; but
at that time they were not allowed to bury their

517

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

dead in the city, and had to take them to the cemc-
terics of the nciuhboring Ilunguriiiu or Austrian
coniniunitifs. They did not obtain a ccnietiTy cjf
tlicir own until 1889.

Amonj:^ the earlier ral)l)is of the Wienor-Neustadt
congregation may be mentioned: Tiiirtcenili cen-
tury: Hayyim ben Moses, teacher of Hayyjm ben
Isaac, and autlior of "OrZarua' ha-Katon"; Moses
Taku, autlior of the philosophical work " Ki-tab
Tainini"; and I.Iayyim, son of Isaac of Vienna.
Fourteenth century: Shalom (the teacher of Jacob
MoUn), Isaac of Tyrnau, and Dossa of Widdjn, the
last-named of whom wrote a superconimentary on
Rashi's work. Fifteenth century: Aaron Rlum-
lein, one of the martyrs who were burned at Eniis
(1420) on a charge of desecrating the host; Israel
Isserlcin (d. 1460); and Josmaun Cohen.

BiBi.iOGRAPHY : Max Pollak, A Zsidok Decs-Uiheluen, Buda-
pest, 1892.

E. c. A. Bu.

WIENER VIERTELJAHRSSCHRIFT. See

PEKrODTCALS.

WIENIAWSKI, HENRI: Russian violinist
and composer; born at Lublin, Russian Poland,
July 10, 1835; died at Moscow April 1, 1880;
brother of Joseph Wieniawski. He early showed
himself in possession of great musical talent, and
when only eight years of age he went to Paris,
where he became a pupil of Claval and Massart at
the Paris Conservatoire. At the age of eleven he
was awarded the first prize for violin-playing.
After one year's absence, during which he gave
concerts at St. Petersburg and Moscow, he returned
to Paris, where he studied harmony under Colet.

In 1850 Wieniawski toured with great success the
principal cities of Poland, Russia, Germany, France,
England, Belgium, and Holland. Ten years later
he was appointed first violin to the Czar of Rus-
sia, and remained in St. Petersburg until 1872,
"when, together with Anton Rubinstein, he started
on a prolonged tour through the United States.
Upon his return to Europe in 1874 he accepted the
post of professor of violin at the Conservatoire in
Brussels as successor to Vieuxtemps. After a few
years, however, he resigned this position and, in
company with his brother Joseph, resumed his
travels. A serious disease which he contracted
forced him to abandon his journey and to hasten
back to Russia. At Odessa he suffered a relapse ;
he was conveyed to Moscow, and died there.

Wieniawski was one of the greatest of modern vio-
lin-players, and possessed a striking individuality.
His playing evinced an impetuous temperament
mixed with a Avarmth and tenderness pecidiar to him-
self. His compositions include two concertos for vio-
lin and orchestra; several polonaises, legends, and
duets for pianoforte and violin ; a fantasia on Rus-
sian airs; a " Fantaisie sur le ProphOte"; and a set
of studies.

Bibi.I()(;kaphy : Champlin and Aplhorp, Cyrlnpedia nf Muttic
and Musicians; Grove, Dictionary of Music and Muki-
cia7is. , ^

s. J- Go.

WIENIAWSKI, JOSEPH: Ru.ssian pianist
and composer; born at Lublin, Poland, May 23.
1837; brother of Henri Wieniawski. He studied
music under Zimmerman, Alkan, and Marmontel.

•ar-

and liarniony undtr b < ,

valoire. After hi« ifturn i

(piently acconii > ' ' •

eert toum. In i

Weimar, nnd laii-r theory ud«!

In lH«m lie wtt!. ' '■■ "

professor in th

opening a jirivii'

cow he went lo \'. „:

concertg. Among .

fioned: two nvi-rtun-H !

tel; a conrerto for pi,,,,.

"Grand Duo Polonais" for ;

"Valsed.' Concert"; fantoaiM; iclyUi.

concert pieces.

niBLioriRAPMT: ChampIlD and Aptborn. rv^'Prdbi of VtM««
and MugUianii.

«• J r,o

WIERNIK, PETER: U .^..-At .. ::■ v. .r
nalist i lii.rii ui Wilim. I; " ' • •

received the cuslonmr.

1878 to 1882 he was in Riga; in iswa he llvc«l tt
Kovno; and in tlie follow ■•■• • - • • > ,

parents at Hyelost<jk, wh«T<-
Hisfatlier, a rnaggid. ii : hiin in

and rabbinica, but oth<... .. ■• -

In 1885 lie emigrated to the L'n;
settled in Ciiieago. Two \

compositor on the" Jewisi, (

rose to be its editor. Ii left for

where he has since resiii

connected with tlie "Jl . . i .^

is at present (1905) on the BlafT of "Dm
Journal."

In addition to his collaboratioD o;
can and Yiddish Journals and his ' « to

The Jewish Escvcloi-kdia. W
of "History of tlu- Jews," Nt-w i

Bibliography : Ameritan Jtwish Ytar Uo-'*.

A. r ■

WIESBADEN: «.;•■. in the :

of Hessc-Nas.sau; capital of the f
Nassau. Schenk (' ' ■
thinks that Jews li\
tury ; but he gives no documrntory •
port tliis view. Therein
the Jews in Nassjiu. ej-
(1838) or during the Black l>«ith (I
public peace (" f . "- ' ■ ■ ■
l)y Archbisliop \'.
the lords of Epstein. 1
allusion is f ■ ' • "
who liave a:
command." and who are to I

of the peace. It !•> - i

disturbances nctnuK ••d In u

duchy. A"Jn: ,Un»:u^*A;w

the «-arlv preseii. •

During the Thirtv Yoini* war •cTrml Jrwltb
families from tlie s
and proi>orly were ;;.
diery, were recelvc<l a;
ami will •
by thee ;■ ;.. .
able numlMT of the clli
tected the Jews. Indeed, a incu' .. -^-^

Wiesner
Wild Abb

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

518

the Jews seems to have found its w&y among the pop-
ulation. In 1700 a citizen of Wiesbaden— Heinrich
TiUmaun KiJnig— took such a liking to the Jewish
religion that he faithfully observed its ceremonies,
although he had to endure much at the hands of the
clergy for so doing. It is strange that about the same
time.' as Schenk asserts, Eisenmenger composed
part of his " Entdecktes Judcnthum " in Wiesbaden.

For a long time the Jews of Wiesbaden formed
only a small community and had no prominent
rabbis, although now and again one is mentioned in
collections of responsa. In 1832 Abraliam Geiger was
appointed to the rabbinate. He did good work in
school and synagogue, and introduced confirmation
and similar reforms. It was there that he published
his " Wisscnschaftliehe Zeitschrift f iir Judische The-
ologie,'' and called together a meeting of rabbis (see
CoNFEREXCES, R.\BniNic.\L). Geiger resigned (1838)
on account of some dissension in tl)e community ; and
aftcra short interval, during whicli Benjamin Hoch-
STADTER, at that time teacher in Wiesbaden, was in
charge of the rabbinate, he was succeeded by Solo-
mon Si\sskind, district rabbi in Weilburg, wlio Avas
transferred to Wiesbaden in 1844 and remained in
office until 1884, when he retired on a pension. The
present (1905) incumbent is Michael Silberstein, for-
merly district rabbi in Wiirttemberg.

The congregation, which has greatly increased
since 1866, now (1905) numbers about 1,800. Besides
the main community there is the Altisraelitische Cul-
tusgemeinde, an Orthodox congregation, with a
membership of 300.

Wiesbaden has a total population of 86,086.
Bibliography: Schenk, Gesch. der Stadt Wiesbaden.

D. M. Si.

WIESNER, ADOLF : Austrian journalist and
author ; born in Prague 1807 ; died in New York Sept.
23, 1867. His name was originally Wiener, but, be-
ing desirous of pursuing a juridical career, wliich was
not tlien possible for a Jew in Austria, he embraced
Catliolicism, assuming the name Wiesner. After
practising law in the criminal court of Vienna for a
short time, he devoted his endeavors to literary pur-
suits; and by the aid of Count Kolowrat, then home
secretary, his historical drama " Inez de Castro " was
staged at the Vienna Burgtheater in 1842. A second
play, entitled "Die Geiseln und der Negerskiave,"
and based on Emperor Charles V. 's expedition against
Tuni.s. failed, however, of acceptance. He was the
author of two more dramas: " Der Feind " and " Der
Arzt und Seine Tochter."

In reply to the Russian privy councilor L. von
Tengoborsky "s work " Die Finanzen, der Oelfentliche
Credit, die Siaatschuid und das Besteuerungssystem
des Oesterreiciiischen Kaiserstaates " (2 vols., Paris,
1843), which attracted considerable attention, Wies-
ner wrote liis " Rus.sisch-Politische Arithmetik " (2
vols., Lcipsic, 1844). In 1846, the political situation
in Vienna becoming intolerable, he went to Frank-
fort, and shortly after his valuable historical work
"Denkwlirdigkeiten der Oesterreichischen Censur
vom Zeitalter rler Reformation bis auf die Gegen-
wart" (Stuttgart, 1847) appeared. In 1848 he was
elected to the Frankfort Parliament, siding with the
extreme Left; and during its .session he edited the
** Frankfurter OberpostamtsZeitung. "

Seeing no future for himself in Germany, and
being still unable to return home, Wiesuer emigrated
in 1852 to the United States. He settled in New
York, and for some years was employed by railroad
aiid steamship companies, besides doing literary
work. It was due to his activity that the Schiller
monument was erected in New York in 1859. In
1860 he edited the periodical "Geist der Weltlitera-
tur,"' which enjoj'ed but a brief existence. He after-
ward moved to Baltimore, where he edited a "Turn-
Zeitung." During the Civil war he devoted himself
to the care of disabled Union soldiers; and at the
close of the war the federal government acknowl-
edged his good ofiloes by aiipoiutiug him to a post
in the- Baltimore custom-house, Avhere he rendered
himself helpful to the many German immigrants
with whom he came in contact. Early in 1806 he
became editor of the "lUinois-Staatszeituug." On
learning of the imperial amnesty of June 8, 1867,
Wiesner, though ver^' ill, started for Germany. He
reached New York exhausted, and sulleredan attack
of typhoid fever, from which he died.

Bibliooraphy: Wurzbach, Jiiog. Lex.; Prf.sse (Vienna). 1867,
Nos. 64, 184; Fremden-Blatt, 1867, No. 282; Der Wanderer
(Vienna), 1867, No. 280; Neues Wiener Tagehlatt, 1867. No.
213; Neue Freie Presse, 1867, No. 1118; Heinrich Laube, Das
Erste Deutsche Parlament, 1. 66, 283 ; li. 99. 175, Leipsic, 1849.

s. N. D.

WIFE. See Husband and Wife.

WIG (Judseo-German, sheitel ; peruk [from
the French " perruque "]) : A covering for the head,
consisting of false hair interwoven with or united to
a kind of cap or netting. Wearing false hair on
the head to supplement a scanty natural supply,
or as an adornment, appears to have been a com-
mon custom among women in the Talmudic pe-
riod. The Mishnah calls false hair "pe'ah nokrit"
(a strange lock), and declares that on Sabbath
a woman may wear a wig in the courtyard but not
in the street, the apprehension in the latter case
being that she might remove the wig and carry it
from private to public premises, which is fori)idden
(Shab. vi. 5, 64b). The husband may object to a
wife's vow if it involves shaving off her hair. One
tanna thought she might wear a wig, but R. Meir
said the husband might object to the wig on the
ground of unclcanliness (Naz. 28b). The question
is discussed whether or not a wig may be consid-
ered as a part of the body of the wearer (Sanh. 112a;
'Ar. 7b).

The wearing of the hair loose and exposed in the
street was forbidden to women as di.sorderly and
immoral. A married woman who disobeyed this
Jewish ordinance (" dat Yisra'el ") established a legal
cause for divorce and forfeited her dowry (Ket. vii.
6, 72a). This ordinance came to be scrupulously
observed, and a married woman could be dis-
tinguished by her hair being entirely covered ; if one
went with uncovorcul head it was taken as evidence
that she was a virgin (Sifre 11). For a woman, dur-
ing the reading of the "Shema'," to leave visible hair
which usually is covered is considered an impropriety
(Ber. 24a). In the Middle Ages married women
scrupulously cut or shaved off their hair, covering
their heads with kerchiefs. Some women wore on
the forehead a silk band resembling in color that of

519

THE JEWISH EXrvr-T OPEDIA

Wt*«n«r
W; 1 A*s

the hair. During the sixteenth century R. Judah
Katzenellenbotron and R. David luiKolicn of Corfu
IKrmitted a wig to be used under a cover (David
lia-Kohen, Rcsponsa, No. 90). Moses Ahislikar per-
mitted tlie side hair to be i)artly exposed (lU'sponsa,
Iso. 35). During tliceiglileentli and nineteenlii cen-
turies ricli women wore wigs in various styles, more
or less exposed. Tlie " pe'ah nokrit " in Ihe IMishnah
was pointed out to prove tiie early custom, but tiie
opponents of the innovation explained that the wig
was covered, not exposed. R. Moses Sofer and his
disciple Akibu Joseph were decidedly opposed to the
wig ("Leb ha-'Ibri." pp. 129. 189, Lemberg. 1«73).
In modern times Orthodox Jewesses in eastern
Europe wear wigs, while in tlie Orient they still don
the kerchief that covers all the hair. In America
some of the women immigrants wear the wig; but
the newly married women have all discarded it and
wear their natural hair in the prevailing style.
There is nothing in rabbinical literature to show that
wigs were ever worn by men, aside, perhaps, from
the statements that the Roman legions carried scalps
Avith Ihem ("karkefet "). and that Ishmael's scalp
adorned the heads of the kings (Hid. 123a). The
scalps appear to have been used in battle to insure
good fortune and victory; and it is possible they
were used as wigs. See IIaik in R.\hbinical Lit-
erature.

Bibliography : Briiirs Jahrh. vlli. 51-52. Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1^87; Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p.

1': J. D. E.

WIGA, JTTDAH : Polish preacher of the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries. The name so
written is given by Sternberg ("Gesch. der Juden
in Polen," p. 183), apparently taken from Polish
sources, and ascribed to a famous preacher of Lub-
lin. Basnage (" Ilistoire des Juifs," ix. 993, The
Hague, 1716), however, calls him Judah Vega, say-
ing he must not be confounded with the Spanish
rabbi of Amsterdam (see Vega, Judah); and he re-
fers to him as having published a collection of ser-
mons toward the end of the sixteenth century dur-
ing the reign of Sigismund. Wolf ("Bibl. Hcl)r."
i.. No. 709), though using the Hebrew form xrv
agrees with Basnage, adding that the work was en-
titled "Derashot." On the other liand, this Judah
AViga may be identical with one Judah ben Moses
nrn (transliterated " Biga " by Wolf, I.e. iii.. No. 7o4 ;
and " Bigo " by Zunz, " G. V." p. 430), the author of
"Malke Yehudah " (Lublin. 1616), a collection of
fifteen sermons.
BiBi-iOGRAPHV : Steinschnelder, Cat. Bodl. col. 1376.

E. C. M. Skl.

WIHL, LTJDWIG: German poet and philolo-
gist; born at Wevelingen, Prussia, Oct. 24, 1807;
died at Brussels Jan. 16, 1882; educated at Krefeld,
Cologne, Bonn, and Munich (Ph.D. 1830). In his
"Anfilnge der Kunst Unter den Griechen in Ver-
bindung mit derErklarung einer PhOnicischen In-
schrift," read before a learned society (1831). he ad-
vanced the theory that Phenician was a linguistic
derivative of Hebrew, and that Phenicia had exer-
cised a profound influence on the art of early Greece.
Despite the elTorts of his patron, the Archbishop of
Cologne, and of others, Wihl's hopes for a university

career were drwincU lo fnUim-.
to be baptized.

Wihl tliiu en*'- ■■' • ■
Frankfort-ou-ll.
his first voliinii
ing a trip to I
" Englisciicr N'
Heine, wriltrii ni i

graph," broii)4l)t up

In 1840 he returned lo Fm
help of fundH iidvft:

SeutTerheld, lie esi..

boys; tliis Bcliool, however, vx

ecn UKMiths, liii

admit C"ullioli< j ,

Wihl lived at Amstcnlutn and at L'l

and journalist, unti'

an editor. A reek.

published in a local paiKT duriog tbo li

1848, however, broii ■ ■

imprisonment in a '

where he became pi

Grenoble. On liie i>>iiiir< ik ■ .

war he retired, from patriotic :

where he resided for the remainder of hu life oo s

pension.

Wihl was the author of the fnlln'.v •k%

"Geschichle der Deutsrhcn N
Iliren Ersten Anfflngen bi.s auf I ..
" West-Oestliche Scliwalbeu " (>1
French translation, "llin.;
Mercier. Paris, 186U). a '■ :

" Le Mendiant pour la 1 ' (Pari*

lection of French and ('••
Pavs Bleu " (t6. 1865). Ik ;

of "Portraits Poctiiiucs." in, whicb he gmvc frpe
rein to his caustic sarc-a.sm.

BIBLIOGRAPIIV: Wlnt.T iir.« "„„,.»,.. nu JL^
tur. 111. f<.M : Friliikfl. Iti i MUthe li-

xxil. 4(Jtf-4T:J; UM und M .

K *

WILCZTNSKI. ERNEST "" TT'P

can matlnnuilieiau. burn i" i
Nov. 13. 1876. He wcul with h\>
to America, where he

school. Returning t

astronomy and matUenmlirii :r

Berlin (Ph.D. 1897; th.

tersuchungen mil Anvs

Sonnenrotiition "). In

the Nautical .\ '

and then instrw

Columbian Univei

the University of <

ant profes-sor at th'

1908 to 1906 he wii

search assi ■ ■

iugton. ]'•■

inatical and as'

" Projective Dii:' . ■■

Ruled Surface-^." I^ ipM" . ' '

WILD ASS :
(R V.i. Job vi :>. ^
11. Isa. xxxli. 14. Jrr. xiv 6. mk
the Hebrew "pore." and In '-- "

w! 14

wild Bull
WUenkin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

620

In Job xxxix. 5 for the Hebrew " arud " ; and in Dan.
V. 21 for the Aramaic " "arad." In all these passages
the animal is depicted as extremely wild, shy,
wary, and swift. At present it is rarely met with
in Svria.

The wild ass, though it resembles in appearance
the tame animal, is classed in the Talmud, in a ritual
aspect, among the wild animals (Kil. i. 6, viii. 6).
It is the only animal whose tlesh underneath the
muscles can be torn either way (Hul. 59a). It
turned the mill in which grain was ground ('Ab.
Zarah 16b), while its flesh was fed to the lions in
the king's menagerie (Men. 103b). See also Ass.
Bibliography : Tristram, Nat. Hist. p. 41; Lewysohn, Z. T.

E on. I- M. C.

WILD BULL. See Unicorn.

WILD GOAT. See Goat.

WILD OX. Sec Antelope; Unicorn,

WILDA, WILHELM EDUARD : German
jurist; born at Altoua Aug. 17, IbOO; died at Kiel
Aug. 9, 1856; educated at the Johanneum of Ham-
burg and the universities of Gbttingen, Heidelberg,
Kiel, and Copenhagen. The year 1826 was passed
partly in Berlin and partly in travel through Ger-
many, France, and Switzerland. After practising
as an attorney at Hamburg from 1826 to 1830, he
was appointed assistant professor at Halle, where
he remained until 1842, wlien he was called to Bres-
lau as full professor. In 1854 he was transferred to
Kiel. Wilda, who was the founder of comparative
jurisprudence, was the author of the following
works: "Das Gildewesen im Mittelalter" (Halle,
1831 ; 2d ed., Berlin, 1838); and " Das Strafrecht der
Germanen " (Halle, 1842), a volume forming the
second part of his "Geschichte des Deutschen
Rechtes." In 1838 he founded, in collaboration
•with Keysclier, the "Zeitschrift flir Deutsches
Recht." wliich was published first at Tubingen and
later at Leipsic, and was discontinued in 1861.

Bibliography: JUdiAches Athencenm. pp. 244-245; Meiiers
KnnvenatUnis-Lexikon ; Urockhaus Konversalions- Lex-
ikon.

S.
WILDERNESS (Hebr. "horbah" [Jer. vii. 34;
Isa. xlviii. 21 J, "yeshimon" [Isa. xlviii. 19; Deut.
xxxii. 10; Ps. Ixxviii. 40], "midbar" [very fre-
quenily], " 'arabah " [generally in poetic speech and
as a parallel to "midbar"], "ziyyah" [Ps. Ixxviii.
17], "tohu" [Ps. cvii. 40; Job xii." 24; Deut. xxxii.
10), "siiammah," "shemamah" [Isa. v. 9; Jer. xlii.
18; Ezek. XXXV. 7], "sharab" [Isa. xxxv. 7; R. V.,
"glowing sand"]): An examination of the Hebrew
terms rendered " wilderness " or " desert " in the Eng-
lish versions shows tliat tiiese translations arc inade-
quate and misleading. "Horbah" implies violent
destruction; and it is more exactly rendered by
" waste places" (Ps. cii. 7 [A. V. 6] ) or "desolation"
(Jer. xliv. 2). The latter term also expresses more
accurately the connotation of "3'eshimon" and
"siiammah" or "shemamah," while "tnlm" conveys
the idea of chaotic confusion (Jer. iv. 23; Job xxvi.
7). " "Arabah " comes nearer to the meaning of the
English " desert " (Isji. xxxv. 1; Jer. li. 43); "ziy-
yah " implies the aljsence or dearth of water (Ps.
Ixiii. 2 [A. V. 1]); while the more probable render-

ing of "sharab" is "mirage" (see Isa. xxxv. 7, R.
v., marginal reading). In so far as the Hebrew
terms do not imply artificial desolation and destruc-
tion, they connote a stretch of uncultivated land
suitable for grazing and occupied by nomads (Num.
xiv. 33), as is clear both from the etymology of the
word "midbar," and from the fact that it and its
synonyms usually denote the wilderness of the wan-
dering or Exodus. Such a midbar occasionally
existed in the very midst of land under tillage
(Gen. xxxvii. 22), and again was found at the bor-
ders as a transition from cultivated to uncultivated
districts (Deut. iv. 43; 1 Sam. xvii. 28).

This "wilderness" is described as without ani-
mate occupants (Deut. xxxii. 10). or as a district
where no man is found (Jer. ii. 6; ix. 1, 11; Job
xxxviii. 26) and where sowing is not carried on (Jer.
ii. 2). It is an abandoned stretch (Isa. xxvii.
10; comp. vi. 12, vii. 16) without protection (Ps. Iv.
8 [A. V. 7]), and a thirsty land (Ezek. xix. 13; Job
XXX. 3, R. V.) devoid of vegetation (Hos. ii. 3;
Isa. xli. 19). These terrors play upon the fancy of
the people (Isa. xxx. 6; comp. "Z. D. P. V." iii. 114
et seq.). Some parts of the wilderness are character-
ized as "ne'ot"(Jer. xxiii. 10), or pastures, and
others as " 'arabot," or dry, barren stretches (II Sam.
XV. 28), or as "harerim," or stony table-lands (Jer.
xii. 12, xvii. 6). The wilderness is the home of wild
animals ("ziyyim"; Isa. xiii. 21, xxxiv. 14), inclu-
ding wild asses (Jer. ii. 24), and thorns grow there
(Judges viii. 7, 16) as well as the heather (Jer.
xvii. 6, xlviii. 6).

The term " midbar " is applied to the district of
the Hebrews' wanderings between the Exodus and
the conquest of Palestine. This region stretched
south of Palestine in or on the border of the Negeb;
separate parts of it are called the wildernesses of
Sin, Shur, Kadesh, and the like. The wilder-
ness between Canaan and the Euphrates is repeat-
edly mentioned in prophetic Avritings (Ezek. xx. 35;
Isa. xl. 3), and some portions of it are named in
Num. xxi. 11, 13 and Judges xi. 22. The wilderness
referred to in Josh. xv. 61 is that of Judah, which
comprised the eastern declivity of the mountainous
region toward the Dead Sea. The character of this
district illustrates most strikingly the great variety
of localities designated in Biblical usage as wilder-
nesses; for in it were pastures (II Chron. xxvi. 10),
caves (I Sam. xxiv. 3), and cities (Josli. xv. 61),
though it contained also barren rocks and precipices.
This wildernessof Judah included the wildernesses of
Maon (I Sam. xxiii. 24) and Ziph (//;. xxiii. 14).
Connected with it to the north were the wildernesses
of Gibeah (Judges xx. 42), Michmash (I Sam.
xiii. 18), Ai (Josh. viii. 15), and Beth-aven (ib.
xviii. 12). E. G. H.

WILDERNESS, WANDERINGS IN THE.
—Biblical Data: Next to tiie Exodus, the remem-
brance of the wanderings in the desert for a period
corresponding to the life of a generation (see Forty) is
central to the historic consciousness of Israel.
Hence the scene of these migrations is often called
" the " wilderness (" ha-midbar ") par excellence (Ex.
iii. 18. xiv. 11; Num. xxxii. 13; Deut. i. 31; comp.
Judges xi. 16, 18; Amos ii. 10; et al.). This wil-

621

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

WiM Bull

derness corresponds to tluit dcsigiiuti'd us Arahia
Petrjra by tlie Greco-Roman geograpliers. Tlic
story of the Hebrews' wanderings is related in. (1)
Ex. xiv.-xix. 24, 32, comprising il,e stations from
the time Israel left Egypt to the promulgation of
the Law on Sinai; and Num. x. 11-
Stag-es of xxii. 1, giving those from the revela-
Wan- tion to the arrival of the people oppo-
derings. .site Jericho; (2) Deut. i. 2, 19 et se(/. ;
ii. ; iii. 6 ct mj. (comp. xxxiv.), whicli
are without chronological order, but begin with tlie
desert of Sinai (Horeb) and extend to the incursion
into tlie land ot the Amorites-, (3) Num. xxxiii. T)-
50, cataloguing the camping stations on the march
from Rameses to Jericho. The last-mentioned list
differs from the data in Exodus and Numltcrs in .so
far as it inserts eighteen stations between Ha/.erolh
(Num. xi. 35) and Kadesh or Sin (Num. xii. 10; xiii.
2, 21 ; XX. 1) that are not mentioned in the liistorical
narratives, while the stations enumerated in Num.
xi. 1 et seq. ; xxi. 16, 19 are omitted. Other, smaller
divergences appear between Num xxxiii. 'iQ et seq.
and Deut. x. 6, and between Num. xx. 22 et seq.
and the same jiassage of Deuteronomy.

Critical View : The discrepancies just referred

to have been noticed by all commentators, and vari
ous theories have been advanced to account for them.
The favorite explanation of the precritical scholars
was that the historical narratives contain only the
names of the localities at which .something occurred
worth chronicling, while tlie fuller list includes all
the points touched on the march. But this assump-
tion was recognized as insufficient, especially by
Goethe (" Westoestl. Divan"), who urged tlie opin-
ion that the eighteen stations were fie
Forty titious and were inserted merely to
Stations carry out the theory that Israel wan-
in Forty dered about in the wilderness forty
Years. years and had one station for every
year. Most of the names of the sta-
tions can not be located topographically, and com-
parison of the data .shows that the order of the sta-
tions varies as well as the events connected with
them.

In P a clearly chronological .scheme is carried out,
the duration of the wanderings being calculated ac-
curately by days, months, and years. On the fif
teenth of the first month the Israelites started out
from Rameses(Num. xxxiii. 3); on the fifteenth of
the second month they reached tlie wilderness of
Sin (Ex. xvi. 1); in the third month they arrived at
that of Sinai (Ex. xix. 1), the exact day having been
expunged by a later hand (see Dillmann. Commen-
tary, ed. Ryssel, p. 209); on the first of the first
month of the second year the Tabernacle was erected
(Ex. xl. 1, 17); etc. But these chronological data
conflict with Num. xiv. 34 (comp. Num. i. 1. x. 11.
xiii. 25, XX. 1, xxxiii. 38; and P.\r.\n; Sin). The
forty years correspond to the forty days of the spies,
and they are reckoned at one time from the Exodus,
and again from the return of the spies. Still, P did
not invent the number forty; it must have been
based on an old tradition that the generation of the
Exodus perislied in the wilderness (Deut. i. 3: ii. 7;
viii. 2, 4; xxix. 4; Josh. xiv. 7, 10; Amos ii. 10, v.
25; Neh. ix. 21; Ps. xcv 10).

But III ihu back <.f Uitn •
fii<l that hef.
many of tin- i

Historical
Foun-
dation, to iho •

Many/)f the i .

even in historic days the

camp, beii,

names ga\'

and Tabcrah (Num. xi

variously, erj., .Miissai, a;

7; Num. XX. 13. Dint, v

K.\DKsu; comp. Num. xii:

Deut. i. 19, Josh, xiv r

46, Num. xiv. 25. und

ties in the way of hurt

ments of the sources ( V, <

iv. 349]). The religious <

ligiousanti .Mnstsand ami Viiwiirih'

in the wilderness (Ex. xxxil. , Nu-

XXV.) lertects the ronditinn* of ,

period Many of the.

the natunil tendency ti. ,,.

cles to the lieroic geDcratic:

20; Num. ix \riet gfq., xx b. Ix-ul. vm 4. sr^

M.\NN.\; Qlaii.; comp. Hosea U. 18, 17. li

Deut. xxxii. 10; Ezek. xvl. 8; Jcr. II. 2. .\

V. 25). g Q ^^

WILENKIN. .Soe Minkki. Nicolai Maksim

OVK II.

WILENKIN. GREGORY: Hu^
ment olhcial -. born at l"sarsku\ c-Sclo. tmr Si Fnrts
burg. Russia, Feb. 22. li<fH. I! '

ancient Ru.ssian Jcwisli laniily ■•
estates for the last two < - and lie c«

among Ids ancestors many v^i.- ;:-

selves for their charitable work I
of his female anci-stors. Hlcnm V.

remembered in tin- ' •• • '

wlience the family
the eighteenth century
in existence) at Minsk I.. . ■
she left another house for
Russian Jews at Ji •

After completing ;.. . ;<-« !n t»i. i-vt.,r... .. f
liis native town. Wilmkin
University of !•
of St. Petersbi, _.
heentered thcKovemmcnt scm
Public I
sion to 1 .
versilies of Oxford and '
Paris to in\
His rejiort
French government Ih-hIowp*! od blm s of

"Olllricr d'.Xradrndf ■• •

On liis return to St. IN;

minister of finnnrc. tn\

Ministry of Pii' '■

Finance, and n]

of the Russian

served in tlint P' A>-i.

il
I
l

Wllkesbarre
Will

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

522

wasappoiutetl tiQancial agent of the Russian govern-
iiKiit at Wasliingiou, D. C. being attached to the
Hussiau einljassy there.

Wilenkeu's works include "Monometalism and Bi-

' -ii " and "The Financial and Political Orgaui-

I Contemporary England and tiie Commercial

and Political Organization of Contemporary Russia."

WILKESBARRE; County-seat and principal
city of Luzerne county. Pa. Evidence points to 1838
as the date of arrival of the first Jewish settlers,
among whom Martin Long, a Bavarian, was the most
promiDcnt. Two years later a society was organized
for occasional worship, and until 1849 the incipient
congregation held its services in various rooms. In
August of that year it dedicated its first synagogue
under the auspices of Moses Strasser, Isaac Leeser of
Philadelphia, and Samuel Isaacs of New York. In
1857 the community was incorporated as the Con-
gregation B'nai B'rith. Its earlier pulpit history is
practically the record of the service of Herman Ru-
bin, reader and teacher from 1853 to 1883. His suc-
cessors have been David Stern, Victor Rundbacken,
Israel Joseph, and the present incumbent, i\Iarcus
Salzman (1905).

The rise of the younger generation gave a decided
impetus to the growing tendenc}^ toward Reform,
whicii resulted in the adoption of the Einhoru rit-
ual. This yielded, in its turn, to the Union Prayer-
Book. B'nai B'rith, the largest congregation in the
city, is the only Reform organization.

L'ntil 1871 B'nai B'rith was the only congregation
in Wilkesban-e, but in that year the first efforts were
made to unite the Orthodox Jews. The organization,
little more than a minyan, became the parent of the
congregations B'nai Jacob and Holche Yosher, which
were formed in 1881, although their synagogues were
not built until 1886 and 1887 respectively. In 1902
a fourth synagogue was dedicated to the use of the
youngest congregation, OhebZedek (Anshe Uugarn).

TIk; Jewish educational, iihilanthropic, and social
activities of the city are entrusted to the following
institutions, the religious and Hebrew schools, the
Synagogue Industrial School, branch lodges of the
leading Jewish orders, the Young Men's Hebrew As-
Sfi(iati(in, the social and literary clubs, four aid soci-
ciies, a free loan association, and the Executive Com-
mittee of Jewish Congregations (which aids the work
of the Industrial Removal Office).

With this e()uipinent the community is an impor-
tant center of Jewish activity in northeastern Penn-
sylvania, reaching out to Hazletou, Plymouth, Pitts-
ton, and the smaller towns in the vicinity. The Jews
of Wilkesbarre now (1905) number about 1,800, or
about 3 per cent of the total population.

A. M. Sal.

"WILL or TESTAMENT (Latin, "testamen-
tuni" , Greek, <i«i>'//A//, which latter word is often
found in the Mishuah and the Baraila [^p'ri^H; see
B. B. 152b: "One diatheke annuls another"]): The
legal instrument by which a person dispo.scs of his
property, or of a part thereof, and which takes effect
after his death, but the provisions of wjiich may be
changed or revoked at any time before death.

The ordinary substitute for the last will and tes-
tament in Jewish law answers to the " gift by reason

of death, " something like the " donatio causa mortis "
of the Roman law. called in the Mishuah "gift of
one lying sick" ("mattcnat shekib mera" "), which
has been brielly mentioned under Gifts in Rabbin-
ical Law.

The notices of wills in the Mishnah (B. B. viii. 5,
6; ix. 6, 7) are scanty, and in the discussion upon
them there are very few baraitot. The discrepancies
as todetailsamong laterauthorities are wide, and run
back to the fundamental questions "How far can
an owner of property, by his declaration, set aside
or change the rules of succession laid down in Num.
xxvii. ?" and, more particularl}-. "Can he abridge
the rights of the first-born declared in Dent. xxi. 17?"
This verse speaks of "the day when he gives their
heritage to his sons," and only restrains the father
from robbing the first-born of his double share;
which implies that the father may

Biblical make, otherwise, an unequal division

Founda- among his sons or, when he has no sons,
tions. an unequal division among his daugh-
ters. AsR Jolianan benBaroka putsit
in the Mishnah, " If the ancestor says, ' Such a jierson
shall be my heir,' and such a person is capable (>f in-
heriting, his words are valid ; if the person is not fit to
inherit, his words are void " (B. B. viii. 5). The later
Babylonian authorities (see B. B. 130a) follow R. Jo-
hanan's opinion, though he was in the minority.

But the Talmud nowhere defines how the choice
among heirs of the same class may be made, whether
in writing or by word of mouth ; it is intimated (B.
B. 113a) only that it should be done in daytime, not
by night. The later authorities, while declaring
that R. Johanan's opinion is the law, deprive it of
almost all its force by restricting to persons dan-
gerously sick this power of choosing an heir, that
is, to those who can dispose of their property by
gift "causa mortis." On the contrary, they require
no written instrument for the purpose of giving to
one son what belongs to all the sons; they here give
greater weight to an oral command, holding that
where a man " writes over " his estate to one son
among several, he only makes him a trustee for all
the sons (B. B. 130b) ; and if he makes a deed ("she-
tar") with a view to i*s taking effect only after his
death, the effect may be nil, since a man's deed can
not be delivered after his death. Thus particular
preca>itions are necessary to avoid making the wri-
ting down of a testamentary disposition destructive
of its purposes.

The Hebrew word corresponding to 6iaHr/Kti,
whether written or spoken, is "zawwa'ah" (="a
command ") ; but it is hardly ever used in legal dis-
cus.sions, either in the Talmud or In the codes.
Where the testator was the father of the beneficia-
ries, the will had, in addition to its legal effect, a great
moral weight, it being deemed the duty of children
to respect the desires of their deceased father, or
even of more distant ancestors. That this jninci-
ple originated in Biblical times is evi-
The " Zaw- denced by the faithful obedience of

wa'ah." the Rechabites to the rules laid down
for them by their ancestor Rechab
(Jer. XXXV. 6-19). In this sense the written "zaw-
wa'ah " became an important element in the Jewish
literature of the Middle Ages, down even to the sev-

523

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

'.'.

enteentb century. But such an instrument, if writ-
ten (luring good iicalth, liad only a inorul sunc-tion,
oven as to tlie dispiisa) of property, which the civil
judge could not enforce.

An owner of property can make a revocable dis
position, taking ell'ect after death, only in the form of
a "gift of him -who lies sick " . in otiicr words, sucli
a disposition can be made only when death is a|)-
parently very near; and if the danger present at the
time of the gift passes away, the gift is ipso facto
revoked. But this Icind of gift differs very broadly
from the "donatio causa mortis," which has been
adopted by the probate and equity courts from the
Koman law into the laws of England and America;
for the latter gift is valid only when followed by de-
livery or such other formalities as the nature of the
thing given demands in gifts "inter vivos," wliile
the Talmudic gift "causa mortis " requires no for-
mality whatever, not even an appeal to the bystand-
ers, as, "You are my witnesses that I give this to
NN."

There is this difference between the "gift of one
lying sick" and a true testament: while the latter
disposes of all that the testator owns at the moment
of death, the other takes effect only on the prop-
erty which the donor has at the time of the gift.
Thus, if a man sa5'S, "My wife shall take a son's
share," though the share may be increased or may
be lessened by the subsequent death or birth of sons,
it will be only a share in the property which the
donor owned when he spoke the words (B. B. 128b).
Says the Mishnah (B. B. viii. 5): "If one says, 'A,
my first-born, shall not have a double share,' or,
' My son B shall not inherit among his brethren,' it
is without effect; for he declares against what is
written in the Torah. But if he divides his estate
among his sons by his words, giving more to one
than to another, or making the first-born equal to
the others, his Avords are valid ; only he must not
speak of it as 'inheritance,' but must call it 'gift'
somewhere in his spoken or written words."

The technical formula "gift of one lying sick"

("shekib mera' " ; this Aramaic phrase is used in

the Mishnah) really denotes the revocable gift; and

as the removal of the danger revokes

Gift ' ' Causa the gift, it was usual for the witnesses

Mortis." to it to draw up a minute containing

the following or equivalent words:

"This gift was made when he was sick and lay on

his bed : and from this sickness he departed for his

eternal home."

R. Eliezer, who represents in the Mishnah the
position that the gift "causa mortis" is not effective
without "kinyan," cites the well-known incident of
a man of Meron (Galicia) at Jerusalem who wished
to make a gift of movable property to an absent
friend, and found no legal way except to buy a
piece of land and then to make a deed conveying the
land and the movable property together to his friend ;
he is told in answer that the man proposing to make
the gift was evidently in good health (B. B. 156b;
comp. Yer. Pe'ah 17d).

The gift of one who is sick is, as stated above,
valid witliout the specific acts which ordinarily are
necessary to pass a title; €..(/., in the case of land or
slaves, without deed, payment of price, or occupa-

tion; in the ta
"pulling"; in the
"meetiug of thr. "
denian<i tliut li .
according to tli.
position tliat
yan and wi:
contrary opinion, th ,
with on wc.i " •
tlie Talmud
must be d<Hiiii-d ju
written, scmicd, und ........

Mishnah citcB Iho cnm- r.f :
sons," who told her
to her daughter, tl-
death.

Where the sick i:
with tjiose formalit!'
yan). the act is ncvcrthcl
as taking effect
he sets aside foi
cording to tlie Mishnah) or "ony
whatever " (acco: ' '

is valid and iu'

provides that the part rcservctl muni be
enable him to earn 1,' ....

are encouraged to i
title to the donees wlienex'er lie •
the ground that it will tern! •
they may do this even on i;.
can then be lawfully <lone; bui r

been the intent of Ih-- " • • •

action v.hieh would
case he should recf)ver.

The most effective method of maV
acknowledge the proj>crty ritflil ■
donee as already in f.

that one owes A a liu .

or such a slave; or that a certain 8i.
of a named ;

to A. If till

idolater, he can do it only in tl

gift would not be «•' '

Marc, the son of 1>-

"not in holiness" (i.e., he was t

father's com -• '

to leave him

debtor, which money rc|

tate, he was told tli '

tlie Law to permit ;

"causa mortis" to a h«)i.

(see Dkrki.icts). A -

then shown him; t:

the witnesses that the

longed to W. Marc T

estopped by thr »« '.-

and can not

A dispute i.. .. .. " '

to resume hi."* gift iif'

Resump- j i

tion s* ■

of Gift. a;

m. : .
nee says. ** You were in good In
is irrevocal"

.!.

William of Auvergne
"Wilna

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

524

tween the donor's heirs and the donee, in the case of
a gift not completed by kinyan, the former saying,
" He recovered from the sickness iu which he made
the gift, and afterward died from another cause."
The mastersof the Mishnah differed as totlie burden
of proof; but finally the old rule of the Hillelites
prevailed : " The estate remains according to its oc-
cupation," or, it might be said, "its presumption."
That is, if the things given away remain iu the pos-
session of the donor or his heirs, the burden of proof
is on the donee; if they are in the possession of the
donee, the burden of proof is on the donor or his
heirs. Where a testament in writing is found on
the person of a dead man, in the absence of other
evidence it amounts to nothing; for though the
"gift of one lyiug sick " is good without delivery of
the deed, the testator may have intended a delivery,
and such delivery is impossible after his death.

The thing given "causa mortis" is as much sub-
ject to the donor's debts, or to his widow's jointure,
as property that has descended to the heirs. If sev-
eral sums are gi ven in such words (spoken or written)
as. "So much to A, afterward so much to B," etc.,
the last-named donee must first yield his gift to the
testator's creditors; but in the absence of words of
postponement, the several donees lose proportiou-
atel}' if, through the decedent's debts, or for any
cause, the estate falls short of the necessary value.

Should a sick man send money or valuables to a
percon at a distance, and the messenger find such
person dead, the gift is valid and goes to the heirs
of the latter, if at the time of the deliver}' to tlie
messenger the donee was alive; but if he was then
dead, the gift is void, and the thing goes back to
the donor's heirs.

Bibliography : Maimonides, Yad, Zehiyyah. viii.-xii.; Caro,
Shnlhan "Ai~uk, Hoghen Mishpat, 246, 250-258, 281 et sf(/.
E. c. L. N. D.

WILLIAM OF A'tJVERGNE. See GuiL-

L.MMI. OK AlVKKGNE.

WILLIAM OF NORWICH: Alleged victim
of ritual murder by Jews at Norwich in 1144. He
may therefore claim to be the protomartyr of this
class of pseudo-martyrdom. According to the boy 's
own family, he was enticed away on Monday, March
21, 1144, to become a scullion of the Archdeacon of
Norwich, and was not heard of again till Saturday,
March 26, when his uncle, cousin, and brother found
his body, covered with sand, in Thorpe Wood, near
Norwich, with tlie head shaven and with marks of
puncture by thorns. Although there were signs of
life in the body, it was reburied iu the same place;
and Godwin Sturt, the boy's uncle, at the ne.xt
synod, accused the Jews of having murdered Will-
iam, whereupon the prior of Lewis Priory claimed
the body as tiiat of a martyr, and the canons of Nor-
wich Cathedral seized it for themselves. The boy's
brother Robert and his uncle Godwin were ap-
pointed officials in the monastery on the strength of
their relationship to the martyr; and his mother was
buried in the graveyard of the monastery, some-
what to the scandal of the monks. No action was
taken against the accused Jews, thougli it was as-
serted that the boy William had been seen entering
the house of a Jew named Deusaie or Eleazar, and

a report was brought froni Theobald, a converted
Jew of Cambridge, that it was the custom of Jews
to sacrifice a boy at Passover at some place chosen
bj lot, and that the lot for that year had fallen on
Norwich. This is the first historical occurrence of
the myth of the Blood Accusation. The royal
sheriff, in whose jurisdiction the Jews were, refused
to take notice of the accusation, although he was
himself indebted to the Jews, and would have been
benefited personally if they had been proved guilty.
It has been suggested that the boy's relatives in a
tit of religious exaltation attempted to gain increased
sanctity for themselves and for the lad by making
him undergo the form of crucifixion on Good Fri-
day, March 25; that, during the process, the boy
had fallen into a fit, which had alarmed his relatives,
who thereupon buried hiin in Thorpe Wood, near
their residence ; and that, to divert suspicion, they ac-
cused the Jews, although the process of crucifixion
would be quite unfamiliar to them, and obtained
some sort of confirmation from the convert Theobald.
Later, the legend of the martyr was considerably de-
veloped b}' Thomas of Capgrade (d. 1494). It was
claimed that the Jews had been met as they were
carrying the body in a bag to Thorpe Wood, on the
opposite side from the Jewry outside the cit}% which
they would have had to traverse. The person who
thus encountered them kept silence, it was alleged, at
the order of the sheriff, who had been bribed by the
Jews. On his refusal to testify, a fierce light from
heaven pointed out the place of martyrdom to a man,
who found the lad's bodj^ disfigured with stigmata
and hanging from a tree. Nothing of all this is
found in the earliest form of the legend as related
by Thomas of Monmouth, although|the supernatural
light appeared in Germany (Pertz, "Scriptores,"
vi. 472), whither the story was carried and where it
had numerous repetitions. See Blood Accusation.

Bibliography : .Jacobs, Jewi^nf Angevin Enylaiid. pp. 19-21,
2.5*5-258: ir(c)/i,in J. Q. R. ix. 748-7.55; Jes.sop and James. T/i6
Life and Miracles of ^ViUiam of Norwich by Thomas of
Monmouth, Cambridge, 1897.

WILLOW : Any tree or shrub of the genus Sa-
lix. Willows and poplars are numerous in Pales-
tine. In all regions the white willow (Salix alba)
and the Euphrates poplar {Popnlus Euphratica) oc-
cur with great frequency, while the crack-willow
{Salix frayilis) and the white poplar (Popvli/s alba)
are also common. On the banks of the Jordan and
in the valleys of the Dead Sea grow the Salix aafsaf
and its variety, the Salix hierochuntica. The fol-
lowing species also occur, although less frequently:
black willow {Salix nifjricans) at Amanus, near Bei-
rut; French willow (6'ato triandra) at Al-Zib ; Salix
alba, var. latifolia, near Beirut and the Dead Sea;
var. integrifolia near 'Aintab; goat-willow {Sfdix
raprea) on Lebanon; Salix alba, var. Libanotiea\
Salix pedicellata near Damascus and in Cojle-Syria;
black poplar {Popidus nif/ra); weeping willow {Sa-
lix Babylonica) ; and Lombardy poplar {Popnlus
pyramidaliH). The "willows" of the Bible (c^iy,
Isa. XV. 7, xliv. 4, and Ps. cxxxvii. 2; fsriJ '3~iy,
Lev. xxiii. 40 and Job xl. 22) were the Euphrates
poplars, although the Mishnah interprets D'3"iy as
"willows," despite the Talmudic traces that the wil-
low had previously been termed riD^V (corap.

525

THE JEWISH ENCYfLoPEDiA

William of AuTarrn*

Ezek xvii. 5). nj3^ (Gen. xxx. 37; Hos. iv. 13;

the \27 of tlie Tnrgimi) is not the oHifinal storax
{t^tynu officinalis), but the white poplur (Papulus
alba). See Plants.

The Feast of Tabernacles requires, according to
the Bible, "willows of the brook," the Karaites and
recent exegetes regarding this as applying to the
booths themselves, while rabbinical tradition refers
it to the accessory decorations for tlie festival. One
tanuaitic tradition seems to show that the Biblical
"willow of the brook" had leaves serrate like a
sickle, while the variety with leaves dentate like a
saw was rejected. Another tannaitic tradition,
liowever, states that D'3iy niay be used only when
they have red twigs and lanceolate leaves, tliey be-
ing unavailable if they have white twigs and round
leaves. Babli combines these traditions, and identi-
fies the former of the two varieties of willow with
the D^aiy, while the useless willow is the ncVDV
(Euphrates poplar). The tannaitic description of the
D'2"IV corresponds to the trembling poplar, or aspen
(Popvlus tremvla), and even more closely to the
Salix safsaf, or the French willow {Salix tviandra).
Still another variety is the NS^'n, a willow with
red twigs and an oblong, sickle-shaped leaf, proba-
bly the white willow {Salix alba), and which an-
swers to the tannaitic requirements.

The ruling of Babli concerning the available varie-
ties of the willow was naturally adopted by the codi-
fiers, such as Maimonides. Joseph Caro, however,
followed by Mordecai JafTe, dissented, claiming that
the usage was at variance with the phraseology of
the llalakah, since all willow twigs are green, al-
though they become red after sufficient exposure to
the sun, so that it is inadmissible to reject twigs be-
cause they are green, and not red.

In addition to the species of willow unavailable
in themselves, twigs were forbidden which had been
placed under the ban, or which had been stolen or
cut, or had become dry, though twigs whose leaves
had partly fallen or withered might be used. "Wil-
lows were also used independently on the Feast of
Tabernacles as a shield for the altar, and were car-
ried in the processions which took place daily, or,
after the destruction of the Temple, on the seventh
day, the "willow of the brook" receiving the name
of "hosanna" from the processional shout.

Willow twigs were used for weaving baskets and
similar utensils, peeled twigs being employed for
the finer grades; while the wood of the willow and
poplar was made into troughs, etc. The galls on
the leaves of the willow served to dye veils, and the
cotton of the seeds of the female willow and poplar
was made into an inferior grade of lamp-wick.

The Haggadah is concerned with the willow only
so far as it forms part of the festal bush, in whicli
the "willow of the brook" symbolizes: (1) God;
(2) the impious and the ignorant of Israel, who have
neither righteousness nor knowledge, as the willow
has neither taste nor smell; (3) Joseph and Rachel,
who, like the willow, faded before the rest; (4) tlic
Sanhedrin, the pair of twigs typifying the two sec-
retaries; (5) the mouth, on account of the labiate
leaves. All four trees symbolize the beneficence of
the rain which they cause; they fulfil their purpose
"When two fragrant and two scentless varieties of

trees are combined '! ,

frequently in Hyua.

eralure. with illtlt- chuugu ur utiUiUon. crcu In i

ern times.

K. O. .,. , ,^

wilmersdOrffer. max rittkr

VON: Bavarian !;■

at Bay rent h April

15)03. At an i-urly a^r lie .

ing firm of his iincle. J V, ■

daughter he nmrriwl. H#. w >

general of Sa.xony and

cross of St. Miciiacl ■„:..

Saxon Order of Mtrii and tho Or
while in IHKH hi- whs nmdr

the Bavarian Crown, lie

privy commercial coi'ncilor from i
Bavaria. Anmn of iij^'ji .

German classics, In- xvus an a

as well as a patron of art and of ma

institutions. As a strict J.

interest in the alTairs <.f t||,

Munich, whose presidcDt he \\m io IW ;

BlULIOGRAPHY : DfUl
burg, IIKM, No. 1 ; .-C

i>.

WILMINGTON. See NouTn Cakolixa.

WILNA : .Vncient Lithuanian rfly, mftltnl *>f \hf

district of I lie simic name; si'
Vilia and Vileika. about 200 i
Libau on the Baltic, and 43(1 n
St. Petersburg. A .Fewish

in the fourteenth century. 1 ...

his history of Wilua, states that as early a« ■.

of the Lithuanian chief <i

was a large .Jewish connn .. . .. .

that the space occupied by the stn
Jews

Earliest of tin

Set- data accessible to bim. Narbutl(^<:.

tlement. sp " '

ill
linsky writes that under the n
1377) the Jewish comnv;
able. This opinion is .
Krashcwsky, Kraushaar. .*'>
upon the Jewish n i - '
Va.s.silievsky. Tin
at the end of the si.\teenth century

munity of Wilna p'!" ' - ' '

Bershadski, in his 1.
1881) of the Ji-wish coll.
the records pre8crve<l
existence of a Jewish C'
second half of t

He states aulhu!.

any trace in offlcJal sourttm of tie

recognized Jewish

From scattereil inii. .

brew writings the conclu<iion mHV be dr»

Bershadski's opinion, '

Jewish community n-p-

able only to ihc second lialf of ih

tury. i'^

SpOUSJl '

of Ifith cent.) there is found llic iollowinir:

WUna

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

526

" w«», »!»» underslirned, hereby certify and witness with our

5j^.. have been chosen as juUpres to decide

,);, > taken place at Wilna between R.

jj^ - . In the matter of the taxa-

tj, ■ -putant parties appeared be-

ff,^ has piven to tlie aforesaid

jj ; urn b. Jacob and his brother

R • ....

- . .1 Uie city of Wllna, on the flrst day of the week, the
TUi of Sljeba^ In the year 5316 [loJH] :

"Mpnahotn b. Ellakim Triseash.

" xt b. Jehiel.

"M . b. Juuah."

in ij. iic of the rabbinical writingjs is mention made
of these rabbis; but the litigants. 1?. Jonah b. Isaac,
R. Abrahatn b. Jacob and his brother Menahem (or
Mendel), are mentioned in the ofiicial records, and
are cited by BershadskiC'Kussko-YevreiskiArkhiv,"
No. 69) as the tax-farmers for certain localities, ap-
pointed by the Polish king in 1556. In tlse responsa of
Joel ha-Levi Sirkes (BaH), second collection (Koretz
1785), the closing paragraph of section 75 has the
following: "The above is the testimony given
before us by Jacob b. R. Menahem Kaz. Signed
in the city of Wilna, on the fourth day of the
week, twenty-third day of Tammuz, in the year
5323 [1563]. " Jonathan b. R. Samuel, Eliezer b. R.
Joel, Menahem b. R. Samuel Margolis." In the ex-
change of correspondence on legal questions of Ma-
HaRaM of Lublin (Metz, 1769), the clcsing paragraph
of section 7 reads: "By this means the murderer
was caught as set forth in full in the testimony
taken at the city of Wilna, on the third day of the
week, on the twentieth of Tammuz, in the year 5558
[1593]." The fact, therefore, that the Jewish commu-
nity of Wilna was represented by several rabbis,
and not by one, as small communities are, is con-
clusive proof that the community was at that time
considerable.

There is evidence also that Jews resided in Wilna
in still earlier periods. It is known that in 1490 the
plenipotentiary of the Grand Duke of Moscow, in a
letter to King Casimir, complained of the excessive

tax imposed upon merchants traveling

Early to and from ^loscow through Wilna

Becords. by the Jewish lessee of taxes Michael

Danilow (" Regesty i Nadpisi," i.. No.
208, St. Petersburg, 1899). In 1495 the grand duke
presented to the city of Wilna some property which
formerly had been owned by a Jew named Janischev-
sky {ib. No. 215). In 1507 King Sigismund wrote
that he had bought various goods from the Jewish
merchant Michael Rebinkowitz (Yesofovich; ih. No.
231). Under the date of 1-508 there are statements
of accounts of Jewish lessees of taxes in Wilna and
Brest-Litovsk (ib. No. 2-34). In 1532 the Jew Joshua
Paskowitz was appointed by King Sigismund as
chief collector of taxes on wax in the market of
Wilna (Bershadski, " Russko-Yevreiski Arkhiv,"
No. 140). In 15.50 a certain Jewess, Fanna Kaspa-
rova, who resided at Wilna, refused to surrender to
the Jewish court the Jew Chatzka Issakowitz, de-
fying the Jewish court messenger sent to take him,
although she had previously given bond for the ap-
pearance of the said I.ssakowitz (ib. No. 167). In
1555 King Sigismund granted to a certain Jew of
Wilna a lease for three years of the privilege of
stamping coins (ib. No. 45). The lessees, in 1560, of

the privilege of stamping coins in Wilua were the
Jews Felix and Borodavka (ib. No. 125). In Sept.,
1563, a Gentile brought before a magistrate a
charge of assault against a Jew by the name of
Israel, the defendant being described in the complaint
as a physician (ib. No. 167). In 1.568 King Sigis-
mund issued an order commanding the Jewish com-
munitj' of Wilna to pay the taxes due to the treasury
("Regesty i Nadpisi." No. 557). In 1583 the Jew
Judah Salamonowitz of Wilua paid taxes on goods
brought by him from Lublin to Wilna. consisting of
a truckload of wine, licorice, and linen ("Archeo-
graphicheski Sboruik," part iii., p. 289). The name
of the Jew Moses Tomchamowitz of Wilua, secre-
tary of the mint, is mentioned in the records of 1587
(" Regesty i Nadpisi," No. 660). In 1592 the citizens
of Wilna attacked and destroyed the bet ha-midrash
of Wilna ("Records of the Community of Wilna,"
part xxviii., p. 52, Wilna, 1901). In 1.598 King Sigis-
mund III. granted to the Jews of Wilna the privi-
lege of buying real estate from the noblemen of
that city ; at the same time he made many other
concessions to them, including permission to rebuild
the bet ha-midrash (Bershadski, in " Voskhod," 1887).
From the above data it is evident that there was a
large Jewish communitj' in Wilna in the middle of
the sixteenth centurj^ but that until then it was
insignificant. The Jews' street in Wilna, the one
formerly called by the name of St. Nicholas, which
terminates at the Hospital of St. Mar}', was known
as the "Jews' street" in 1592 (Bershadski, "Istoria
Yevreiskoi Obshchiny v Wilnye," in "Voskhod,"
1887, p. 84), and is still so called.

In the seventeenth century the Jews in Wilna and
in Lithuania generally enjoyed peace and prosper-
ity. At the beginning of their settle-
In the Sev- ment in that country their relations

enteenth. with the non-Jewish population were

Century, very friendly. Even from the orders
given by Bogdan Chmielnicki to the
Polish and Lithuanian magnates it is evident that up
to that time the Lithuanian Jews lived in happiness
and peace, and that only the Cossacks subjected
them to oppression and maltreatment. But from that
time on they gradually sank into misfortune. The
conclusion to be drawn, therefore, from the study
of the history of the Jews of Wilna during that
period is that the kings and rulers of Poland and
Lithuania were considerate toward them, but that
the non-Jewish population was extremely hostile.
In 1636 King Ladislaus IV. granted certain impor-
tant concessions to the Jews of Wilna. In 1669
King Michael confirmed six privileges previously
enjoyed by them. King John III., in 1682, per-
mitted them to conduct their own census-taking.
Five years later (1687) the same king wrote to the
commander of his army and to the governor of
Wilna warning them to see that the Jews of Wilna
were not molested by the non-Jewish population,
and telling them that they would be held personally
responsible and punished severely for any violation
of this order.

From the seventeenth century on the Wilna Jews
passed from tragedy to tragedy, the differences being
only in degree and extent, as may be seen from the
series of restrictions and limitations imposed upon

Interior of the Old Stnagogck at wil5a*

(From ft pboCofTBpli.)

Wilna

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

528

them, leading at times to riots and consequent de-
struction of property. In 1635 the populace, in a
mood of frenzy, destroyed the newly erected and
elaborately appointed Jewish prayer-house at Wilna,
tearing to pieces eighteen scrolls of the Law, appro-
priating their golden handles and everything else of
value, and not leaving a stone of the prayer-house
unturned (Bershadski, in "Voskhod," May, 1887).
In 1653 King John Casimir was induced to issue a
circular prohibiting the Jews from engaging in cer-
tain businesses and from accepting employment as
servants in the houses of Gentiles ("Regesty i
Nadpisi," No. 940). In 1663 the trade- union of
Wilna passed an ordinance prohibiting Jewish gla-
ziers from enter-
ing that union.
and forbidding
glaziers to re-
ceive Jewish ap-
prentices or to
employ Jews in
any other capac-
itv(t6. No.1019).
In 1664 the fish-
ermen's union of
Wilna excluded
the Jews from
the fishing trade
(ib. ). In the
same year the
king yielded to
the request of
the citizens of
Wilna and pro-
hibited the Jews
from engaging
in the occupa-
tions of silver-
smiths and gold-
smiths {ib. No.
1022). It seems
also that two
years later (1666)
the Jews were
excluded from
the grain busi-
ness {ib. No.
1041). in 1667
from tanning
{ib. No. 1056),

and in 1669 from the bristle manufacturing business
{ib. No. 1078). But as long as Wilna remained under
Polish and Lithuanian rulers all those restrictions
and limitations were tolerable; the real add acute
sulfering began with the conquest of Wilna by the
Hus.siaiis in 1654, when the savage hordes of Cos-
sacks, led by their barbaric chieftain Chmielnicki,
destroyed everything destructible in the city, and
killed every Jew they met (see " Entziklopedicheski
Slovar." vol. vi., p. 384). The Jews that remained
were banished from Wilna by order of the Russian
king Alexis Mikhailovich ("Regesty," No. 971).

To this wholesale expulsion from Wilna reference
is made in the preface of "Be'er ha-Golah " by R.
Moses Ribkes; "And on the fourth day of the week,
on the 23d of Tammuz, in 5415 [1655]. the whole con-

Calamity
of 1655.

Part of the Uld Cemetery at Wilna. star SUows Tombstone of Elijah Gaoa

(From a pbotopraj.h.)

gregation fled for its life from the city of Wilna, as
one man. Those who had provided themselves
with conveyances carried their wives,
children, and their small belongings
in them; but those who had no con-
veyances traveled on foot and carried
their children on their backs. " Further reference to
that catastrophe is made in the " Bet Hillel " on To-
rch De'ah (section 21), and in the responsa collec-
tion " Zemah Zedek " (No. 101). Among the exiles
from Wilna in that year were the following promi-
nent rabbis: Aaron Samuel b. Israel Kaidanover
(who afterward became rabbi of Cracow, and who
used to supplement his signature with the words,

"the exile from
the city of Wil-
na" ; see the pref-
ace to his "Bir-
kat ha-Zebah");
Shabbethai b.
i\Icir ha-Kohen
(author of "Me-
gillah'Afah,"in
which the Wilna
catastrophe of
that year is de-
scribed); and
E p li r a i m b .
Aaron (author of
"Sha'ar Efra-
yini"). Wilna
lemainod in the
hands of the
Russians for
about six years,
when it again
came under the
rule of the kings
of Poland; the
lot of the Jews,
however, r e -
mained as bad
as ever.

The vernacu-
lar of the Jews
of Wilna at that
time seems to
have been Rus-
sian. This con-
clusion is drawn
from the following statement in the volume of
responsa "Geburot Anashim " (p. 26): "It hap-
pened in the city of Wilna that a man, at the wed-
ding ceremonies, used the Russian language in be-
trothing his bride, 'Ya tebja estum mekaddesh.'"
The date following this is Dec. 26, 1636.

Nothing important of a favorable nature happened
to the Jewish community of Wilna during the eight-
eenth century. In 1708, when Wilna was taken by
Charles XII. of Sweden, more than 20,-
The 000 died there from famine and pesti-

Eig-hteenth. lence in a comparatively short time; a
Century, great number of Jews being among
these, the community became poverty-
stricken, and many were compelled to leave the city
("Entziklopedicheski Slovar"). The author of the

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PAGE FROM SHDLHAN 'ARUK, PKINTSD AT W1L5A, 188a

XII.— 34

Wilna
Windows

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

530

- Rosh Yosef,"in bis memoirs (Preface), says: "The
wrath of the oppressor compelled me to leave my
place of residence, for his arm was stronger than
ours, and the wo and terror wliich entered our local-
ity deprived us of our resting-place in the country
of Poland." The Jews now fell into such depths of
poverty that ihey were unable to save their princi-
pal pmyer-house from being sealed by creditors.
In the "pinkes " of the Zedakah Gedolah (tlie princi-
pal charitable society), under date of the 2d of Elul,
5466(Aug. 30, 1707). the following entry occurs: " In
those days the synagogue was closed and sealed for
almost a whole year. The cemetery also was closed. "
On the return to the throne of King August of Sax-
ony in tiie year 1720, the populace of Wilna, mindful
of its hatred toward the Jews, requested him to re-
duce the privileges heretofore granted to the latter
in connection with the grain business. The king
did not yield to the request at that time ; but in 1742
the citizens secured the support of the magistrate,
who compelled the representatives of the Jewish
community to sign and execute an agreement in
which they surrendered their former rights and
privileges. Thus the Jewish community of Wilna
continued to dwindle down to the time of the per-
manent occupation of Wilna by the Russians, Avhen
the position of the Jews improved somewhat — when,
in fact, they lived under conditions much more fa-
vorable than those of the present day.

Following is a list of the more important known
rabbis of Wilna: Abraham Segal (first rabbi of
Wilna; mentioned by the autiior of "Sefer Toleclot
Yizhak," Prague, 1623); Menahem Manus Hajes
(mentioned in "Etan ha-Ezrahi," Koretz, 1636);
Feibush Ashkenazi (mentioned in the " 'Abodat
ha Gersliuiii," No. 67, and in other works); Moses
b. Isaac Judah Lim^a (author of "Helkat Meho-
ki'k"); Isaac b. Abraham of Posen ; Na^manb.
Solomon Naphtali of Vladimir; Moses b. David
(known also as R. Moses Kremer); R,

Rabbis. Simson (in his old age settled in Pal-
estine); Hillel b. Jonah ha-Levi ;
Baruch Kahana Rapoport ; Joshua Heshel ;
Samuel (tlie last head of the bet din). From R.
Samuel's time the title "rosh bet din" was discarded,
no rabbi subsequently elected being authorized to as-
sume that title; since then the rabbi has been called
" moreh zedek." Tne reason for the abolition of the
title was a quarrel in which R. Samuel was involved
asa result of his having treated the community with
disrespect. The rabbinic school or yeshibah, found-
ed in 1847, but closed in 1873, was one of the most
prominent in eastern Europe. Wilna is distinguished
not only by its rabbis but also by the large number of
eminent Hebrew scholars who have been born or have
resided there. Among these may be mentioned : Ju-
dah Lob GoHDON, Lebenboun, Reichenson, etc.

In 1875 the Jews of Wilna numbered 37,909 in a
total population of 82,688. The census of 1902
showed about 80,000 Jews in a total population of
162.033. The explanation of this rapid increase,
which is out of all proportion to the ordinary growth
of urban populations, lies in the " May laws " of 1882,
I. iiich prohibited Jews from living in rural districts,
and thus brought a large number to Wilna, as to
other cities. In Hebrew literature Wilna is described

as the "mother city in Israel," or the "Lithuanian
Jerusalem": the latter t(M-m originated, probably,
with Napoleon I., when he was in Wilna in 1812.

Wilna contains a teachers' institute (Jewish), the
only one of the kind in the whole of Russia. To it
four subordinate elementary schools for Jewish chil-
dren are attached. After graduating from the higher
school the students receive diplomas
Communal as teachers; the number of such grad-
In- uates is about twelve or thirteen annu-

stitutions. ally. The money for the support of
the institute, about 30,000 rubles per
annum, is appropriated by the government from the
municipal meat-tax of Wilna, the burden of which
falls mainly upon the poor class of the Jewish popu-
lation, since members of the liberal professions and
college graduates are exempt from that tax, and the
well-to-do class, not being strictly Orthodox as a rule,
are more or less indifferent to the use of kasher meat.
There are about twenty elementary schools for Jew-
ish children, called " people's schools." But neither
in these schools nor in the teachers' institute and its
subordinate schools is instruction given in even one
specifically Jewish subject.

A soup-kitchen for Jews is maintained in Wilna,
in which a substantial meal, consisting of bread,
soup, and meat, can be had for 4 copecks (2 cents).
The kitchen is much used by Jewish soldiers stationed
in the city; the extremely poor receive their meals
free. It is supported by voluntary subscriptions, ex-
clusively from Jews, and- by the proceeds from cer-
tain Jewish balls and lectures. About 30,000 persons
annually receive meals from it, one-half being non-
Jews. About 112 soldiers are annually recruited,
under the general conscription laws, from the Jewish
community of Wilna. The Jews are mostly engaged
in the export of lumber and grain, and in shopk-ep-
ing. Poverty, prevalent throughout Russian Jewry,
is especially maiked in Wilna. It may safely be main-
tained,although noactualstatisticsareavailable, that
full}' 80 per cent of the Jewish population of Wilna
do not know in the evening where they will obtain
food the next morning. In former days a consider-
able number of people made their living by the liquor
trade, keeping saloons and inns ; but a few years ago
the Jews were excluded from that trade by govern-
mental ordinances. Recently model tenement-houses
have been erected for the Jewish workmen of Wilna
by the Jewish Colonization Association.

The district of Wilna contains 1,706,357 inhabit-
ants, of whom 245,771 are Jews. Of the latter 3.921
are occupied in agriculture.

Bibliography : Regextu i Nadpisi, St. Petersburg, 1899; Her-
.shttdskl. liuKskn-Yevreiski Ai-khiv; idem. Oclicrh H'l/cd-
KhinVcvreiskniOhsthchinu; Vos/f/iod, 1881-87 ; Aktu Wilcn-
i<kiii Kommissi, 1901-2.
... u. B. R.

—Typography : A Hebrew printing-press was es-
tablished in Wilna in 1799 by Baruch Romm, as a
bi'anch of his establishment at Grodno. Through
the action of the Russian censorship this press had
practically a monopoly of the Russian and Polish
markets from 1845 onward, when the printing of
Hebrew books was restricted to Wilna and Slavuta.
Between 1847 and 1857 the Wilna press produced no
less than 460 different works (enumerated by Ben-
jacob in Steinschneider, "Hebr. Bibl." iv-v.). This

631

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

yearly average of 41 works was raised to 63 in 1871
(E. Reclus, "Nouvollc Goograpliie," p. 436). Espe-
cially noteworthy were the Tahiiuds of 1835 and
1880, which have proved the standard editions for
the east of Europe, a specimen page of the latter is
given in illustration of the article Talmud. IJesides
the many books printed by the Romms, the i)erio(l-
ical " Ila-Karmel " is published at Wilna.

J.
WILNA, ABRAHAM. See Abraham uen
Ei.i.iAii OK ^VII,.^A.

WILNA GAON. See Elijaii ben Solomon.

WINAWER, SIMON: Russian chess-player;
born in Warsaw 1839. In 1867 lie was in Paris; and
while watching some games at the Cafe dc la Re
gence in that city he decided to enter a tournament
to be held there. To the surprise of every one he
gained the second prize, defeating, among several
noted players, Samuel Rosenthal. He now apidied
himself to the game so assiduously that in 1878 he
gained the second prize at the international tourney
held at Paris, Zukertort being first and Blaekburue
third. In 1881 at Berlin he divided the third and
fourth prizes with Tchigorin; and in 1882 at Vienna
he divided the first and second prizes with Steinitz.
In 1883, playing in the international tourney held in
London, he, for the first time in his career, was not
placed ; but at Nuremberg (19 entries) in the same
year he gained the first prize, defeating Blaekburue,
who gained second place.

From this time Winawer seems gradually to have
declined as a tournament player. At Dresden in
1892 and again at Budapest in 1896 he succeeded in
gaining sixth place only, while at Monte Carlo in
1901 he was unable to gain a prize.

Bibliography : Knci/c. Brit, supplementary vols., s.v. Chens ;
Examplex of Chess Mnster-Phm (transl. from the Gerinan
of Jeau Dufresne by C. T. Blancijard), New Barnet, 1893.

s. A. P.

WINCHESTER : Ancient capital of England ;
county town of Hampshire. Jews appear to have
settled there at an early date, one of the first entries
in the pipe-rolls referring to a fine paid in 1160 by
Gentill, a Jewess of Winchester, for the privilege of
not marrying a certain Jew. The Jewry seems to
have been located in Shorten street, afterward called
Jewry street, leading to the North Gate. The syn-
agogue was in Trussil, now Jail, street. The Jewry
must have been a center of some importance, as
Isaac of Chernigov was found there in 1182 (Jacobs,
"Jews of Angevin England," p. 73). It has been
conjectured that Moses b. Yom-Tob, who wrote the
"Darke Nikkud " now found in the rabbinic Bibles,
lived at Winchester (ib. p. 124).

When the massacres occurred in England (1189-
1190), Winchester spared its Jews, though a couple
of years later the blood accusation was raised against
a Winchester Jew (see Richard of Devizes, " Chn mi-
con," cd. Howlett, p. 435). A similar accusation
was brought against the Winchester Jews in 1232
(Rigg, "Select Pleas," p. xiv.). In a description of
the alleged murder of 1192 Winchester is called " the
Jerusalem of the Jews " in those parts, and is stated
to have had relations with Jews of France (probably
Rouen). The most prominent Jew of Winchester in
the eleventh century was probably Deulacresse or I

Cresselin, who wa
and who oblaine.l
landsaftor Jii-

Several .lev. ,.,. m, i,t,

lending money at Wli
twelfth century, u
pp. 19-27). An .

tween the lutterandTl
shows that Jev
iiolding land n
orice agreed to pjiy ti.
ceeding to the estate .,i

< ii

Plan of Winchester. Knirlimd. in tin- : ,
Ing the I>usm«nu( tiie J<

ford, in 1244 (ib. p. 27, note). »»

AnCHA up to the time of the ex;

therefore, a licensed place of r^

while they remained in E- ■

the expulsion a numlxT o(

debts fell into the hands of ilie kh

of Winchester ("Trans. Jew. H;-' -

The position of the Jews must

ally favorable in Winclie.ster. :

was even received into tlie nit: „.,. .,

unusual case, none other bcine kDowo io

Anglo-Jewish history.

BiBi.iofiRArnv : ,1... ■•■- '■
14tt-l.->:.'. :iNi; .Ml,
Wi)icht.-ti r. 1 1. .

WINDOWS r'tiallo.'" "..rnt,
mate of Palestine and t
the moilern Orient

portant than it is ii. ...

a sleeping apartment than a place for v

for occupancy d

Many large wind"'

since they would ndtnit heat in nun.

cold in winter. In'

Ionian and tiie El-. .

(comp. Perrol and ChJplcz. "Art »i

et nfi/.: Wilkinson, " M

Ancient Egyptians." i

the houses of modem !

those of tlie anriont i

which look on the «»

placc<i high in the •

windows of t)u' T'

narrow and liigh (I

dows were reserved, like j»«iitli» of ctUar ^

Winds

Wine

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

532

mural paintings, for the luxurious palaces of the
great (Jer. xxii. 14).

Although excavations show that Glass was known
to the Assyrians and Babylonians, as well as to the
Egyptians, at a very early time, it was never used
for" windows in the ancient East. Openings for
light and air were either lett entirely free, as was
oftt-n the case in the simple peasiints' huts, or
they had a shutter or wooden lattice; even the win-
dows of the Temple had immovable gratings of
wood (I Kings vi. 4, U. V.). Usually, however,
these lattices were so constructed that they could be
removed, or thrown apart like doors. The windows
could be opened (II Kings xiii. 17), for Ahaziah fell
through an open window (II Kings i. 2). Such
means of closure were naturally very unsafe, and
thieves could easily enter the house by means of the
window (Joel ii. 9; comp. Jer. ix. 21).

E. o. 11. I. Be.

WINDS : Ancient Hebrew literature recognizes
only fi'ur winds — north, south, east, and west, hav-
ing no names for those from intermediate points, so
that such a designation as "north " has a wide range
of application. The dwelling-places of the winds
■were in the four corners of the earth ("kezot ha-
arez"); there they were confined in storehouses,
from which Ynwn sent them forth (Jer. x. 13, xlix.
36, li. 16; B. B. vi. 7). According to Rev. vii. 1,
these storehouses were guarded by four angels, who
restrained the winds, as they continually strove to
break loose (comp. Enoch, Ixxvi. 1 et seq. : "At the
ends of the earth I saw twelve doors opened toward
all the quarters of heaven, and the winds came forth
from them, and blew over the earth "). The an-
cient Hebrews had no conception of the nature and
causes of winds; for them, as for every ancient peo-
ple, the wind was a mysterious creation, whose
paths were always unknown (Eccl. xi. 5 [R. V.];
John iii. 8). Indeed, in their action, as in their ori-
gin, the winds were phenomena wholly without the
sphere of human knowledge (Ps. cvii. 25-27; Mark
iv. 41), and Yiiwh's power appeared the greater in
that it was He who created them (Amos iv. 13),
causing them to come from out His treasuries (Ps.
cxxxv. 7; Jer. x. 13, li. 16), and controlling tlieir
power and "weight" (Job xxviii. 25). He likewise
made them His messengers and servants (Ps. civ. 4
[R. v.], cxlviii. 8), and u.sed the "stormy winds" as
instruments in the execution of His judgments (Isa.
xxix. 6; Amos i. 14; Wisdom v. 23; Ecclus. [Si-
rach] xxxix. 28).

The Hebrews, as was natural, carefully distin-
guished the characteristics of tiie individual winds.
Tlie north win<l was icy cold (Ecclus. [Sirach] xliii.
.'0; comp. LXX., Prov. xxvii. 16; Job xxxvii. 9),
-'I that Jerome called it "veiitus durissinius."
When it came from tlie north it brought rain (Prov.
\xv. 23), and, according to Josephus, the sailors on
the coast called the stormy wind from the nortli.
\\ hich scourges the waves, "the black north wind "
r-B. J."iii. d,% 3). The east wind, which came
from llie Syrian desert (Jer. iv. 11, xiii. 24; Job i.
19), was tiie hot wind, which parched the crops and
blighted the trees (Gen. xli. 6, 23, 27; Ezek. xvii.
10, xix. 12; Hos. xiii. 15; Jonah iv. 8). Hence the
Septuagjnt usually calls it Kuiaow ("the burner").

When it developed into a storm it was especially
dangerous because of the violence of its blasts (Job
i. 19, xxvii. 21; Isa. xxvii. 8; Jer. xviii. 17; Ezek.
xxvii. 26; Ps. xlviii. 8 [A. V. 7J). The south wind
also was a hot wind (Job xxxvii. 17; Luke xii. 55);
although the due south wind blows but seldom in
Palestine. From the west came the refreshing eve-
ning breeze which brought rain (Gen. iii. 8; Cant,
ii. 17; I Kings xviii. 43 et seq. ; Luke xii. 54; also
Cant. iv. 16, where northwest and southwest winds
are probably meant).

K. c. II. I. Be.

WINE.— Biblical Data: The juice of the
grape is the subject of special praise in the Scrip-
tures. The " vine tree " is distinguished from the other
trees in the forest (Ezek. x v. 2). The fig-tree is next
in rank to the vine (Deut. viii. 8), though as food the
fig is of greater importance (comp. Num. xx. 5) than
the " wine which cheereth God and man" (Judges ix.
13; comp. Ps. civ. 15; Eccl. x. 19). Wine is a good
stimulant for "such as be faint in the wilderness" (II
Sam. xvi. 2), and for " those that be of heavy hearts "
(Prov. xxxi. 6).

The goodness of Avine is reflected in the figure in
which Israel is likened to a vine brought from Egypt
and planted in the Holy Land, where it took deep
root, spread out, and prospered (Ps. Ixxx. 9-11). The
blessed wife is like "a fruitful vine by the sides of thy
house " (Ps. cxxviii. 3). When peace reigns every
man rests "under his vine and under his fig-tree " (I
Kings V. 5 [A. V. iv. 25]). An abundance of wine
indicates prosperity. Jacob blessed Juduh that "he
washed his garments in wine and his clothes in the
blood of grapes" (Gen. xlix. 11).

Bread as an indispensable food and wine as a lux-
ury represent two extremes; they were used as
signs of welcome and good-will to Abraham (Gen.
xiv. 18). A libation of wine was part of the cere-
monial sacrifices, varying in quantity from one-half
to one-fourth of a hin measure (Num. xxviii. 14).

Wine-drinking was generally accompanied by
singing (Isa. xxiv. 9). A regular wine-room ("bet
ha-yayin ") was used (Cant. ii. 4), and wine-cellars
("ozerot yayiu " ; I Chron. xxvii. 27) are mentioned.
The wine was bottled in vessels termed " nebel " and
" nod " (I Sam. i. 24, xvi. 20), made in various shapes
from the skins of goats and sheep, and was sold in
bath measures. The wine was drunk from a "niiz-
rak," or "gabia' " (bowl; Jer. xxxv. 5), or a "kos"
(cup). The wine-press was called "gat " and "pu-
rah " ; while the "j-ekeb" was probably the vat into
which the wine flowed from the press. The " vine of
Sodom" (Deut. xxxii. 32), wiiich probabl\' grew by
the Dead Sea, was the poorest kind. The " vine of
the fields" (II Kings iv. 39) was a wild, uncultivated
sort, and the "sorek" (Isa. v. 2) was the choicest
vine, producing dark-colored grapes ; in Arabic it is
called "surik."

There were different kinds of wine. " Yayin" was
the ordinary matured, fermented wine, " tirosh " Avas
a new wine, and " shekar " Avas an old, powerful wine
("strong drink "). The red wine was the better and
stronger (Ps. Ixxv. 9 [A. V.,8]; Prov. xxiii. 31).
Perhaps the wine of Ilelbon (Ezek. xxvii. 18) and
the wine of Lebanon (Hos. xiv. 7) were white Avines.
The vines of Hebron were noted for their large clus-

533

THE .TKWlMl 1.M VC LOPEDIA

ters of grapes (Num. xiii. 23). Saiimiia was the
ceuter of vineyards (Jer. xxxi. 5; Micah i. 0), and
the Ephraiinites were heavy Avinc-diinkers (Isii.
xxviii. 1). There were also "yayiuha-ifkah "(spiced
wine; Cant. viii. 2), "ashisliah " (hardened sirup of
grapes), "sliemarini" (wine-dregs), and "home/, ya-
yin " (vinegar). Borne wines were ini.xed witii poi-
sonous substances (" yayiu tar'elali " ; Ps. Ix. 5 ; coinp.
Ixxv. 9, "mesek " [mixture]). Tiie " wine of the con-
demned " ("yen 'anusinm ") is wine paid as a forfeit
(Amos ii. 8)^ and " wine of violence " (Prov. i v. 17) is
wine obtained by illegal means.

E. G. II. J. ]). E

In Rabbinical Literature : Wine is called

"yayin" because it brings lamentation and wailing
("yelalah " and " wai ") into the world, and " lirosh "
because one that drinks it habitually is certain to
become poor (tJ'nTl = :;n N\-in). \i. Kahana .said the
latter terra is written sometimes K'll^n, and some-
times t'lTl; that means, if drunk in moderation it
gives leadership (tTNl = " head ") ; if drunk in ex-
cess it leads to poverty (Yoma 76b). "Tirosh " in-
cludes all kinds of sweet juices and must, and does
not include fermented wine (Tosef., Ned. iv. 3).
"Yayin" is to be distinguished from "shekar"; the
former is diluted with water ("mazug ") ; the latter
is undiluted ("yayin hai " ; Num. li. x. 8; comp.
Sifre, Num. 23). In Talmudio usage "shekar"
means "mead," or "beer," and according to K.
V<i\rd, it denotes drinking to satiety and intoxication
(Suk. 49b).

In metaphorical usage, wine represents the es-
sence of goodness. The Torah, Jerusalem, Israel,
the Messiah, the righteous — all are compared to
wine. The wicked are likened unto vinegar, and
the good man who turns to wickedness is compared
to sour wine. Eleazar b. Simeon was called " Vine-
gar, the son of Wine " (B. ]\1. 83b). The wine which
is kept for the righteous in the world to come has
been preserved in the grape ever since the six days
of creation (Ber. 34b).

The process of making wine began with gather-
ing the grapes into a vat (" gat "). There were vats
hewn out of stone, cemented or potter-made vats,
and wooden vats ('Ab. Zarah v. 11). Next to the
vat was a cistern ("bor"), into which the juice ran
through a connecting trough or pipe ("zinnor").
Two vats were sometimes connected with one cistern
(B. K. ii. 2). The building containing or adjoiuing
the wine-presses was called "bet ha-gat" (Tosef.,
Ter. iii. 7). The newly pressed Avine was strained
through a filter, sometimes in the shape of a funnel
(" meshammeret " ; Yer. Ter. viii. 3), or

Presses through a linen cloth ("sndar"), in

and Recep- order to remove husks, stalks, etc. A

tacles. wooden roller or beam, fixed into a

socket in the wall, was lowered to

press the grapes down into the vat (Shab. i. 9; Toll.

X. 8).

Tlie cistern was emptied by a ladle or dipper called
the "mahaz" (T<Jh. x. 7), the wine being transferrrd
to large receptacles known variously as "kad," "kjui-
kan," "garab," "danna." and "habit." Two styles
of habit, the Lydian and the Rethlehcmile (Niddah
vi. C), were u.sed, the former being a smaller barrel
or cask. All these receptacles were rounded earthen

vessels, tiglitly
of Abuye is m,
meusuie cask |
eiglii-niea.'-v'
New wine
aduiissilil).- tu, u ili
97a). When tl^. -
drawn oil into !
and "zarziir." iJu- luu.r I..
rim and stniiner, u kind <
earthen pitcher. "Jjuzub,"
7). Tliedri'

wine was k' ; .

to storeroonjs nilled " livfick." or "

a i)antry or '

from this p .

front of the counter ('Ab. ZanUi ii.

The quality of a
by the locality fron.
better than while wine. J;t( r
Coreic of Jo.sephu.s) in Pul'
wine (.Men. viii. 0). after u

of p|irygiu(Pcrii.
Varieties, light-red wii
and "yayin 1.
B. B. 97b). There were speriiil ii>
Among these were: (!*>•■ i- • • •
with a mixture of vrrv .
especially after ball
rah 30a); (2)"l>afri-... ....

Kashi, Cyprus wine), an iin
cense (Ker. 6a) ; (3) " \<
(4) "inomilin " {onofn'/u.. ....

pepper (Shab. xx. 2; 'Ab. '/.
(♦////ticrrfoi), a sweet v '■
grapes dried in the sun i ;
ercd and trodden in the miii
B. 97b);(6)"ni.
or fumigated s\'
batioD ; (7) "enogeron ''
garum to which wi;
((j~oA07"n,}<sf" ), a w
(Shab. 12a); (9) "JfumlJJou " (".
wine ("Ah. Zarah ii " • • -
alum '■), a bitter w .
"yen tappuhini," made :
teniarim,"date-wiiie. \\ .h.
on isolated vines (" Mt'lit *
that made of tlie l

branches or tniineil

latter was until for libttlion

During I:

alTected win

Fe'ah ii., end), aorl \vU<
me? " (vinegar). (}(kkI
barley in the wine. 1:
never hecunR' wtur ^
aft-

tic 1

cgar wa-i callwl the "K

Fnsli wi'
mi-gat " (wr
wine was of llio chitpiH

pr^^

Th.

(very old wine)

nl-

Wine
Winnipeg

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

534

ine to Raba. must be strong enough to take one-
tliirtl water, otherwise it is not to be regarded as
wine (Shab. 77a). R. Joseph, who was blind, could
tell bv taste whether a wine was up to the standard
of Raba (Er. 5^\).

Wine taken in moderation was considered a
healthful stinudant, possessing many curative cle-
meuts. The Jewish sages were wont to say, " Wine
is the greatest of all medicines; where wine is lack-
ing, there drugs are necessarj' " (B. B. 58b). R.
Huna said. "Wine helps to open the heart to reason-
ing" (B. B. 12b). R. Papa thought that when one
could substitute beer for wine, it should be done for
the sake of economy. But his view is
Medicinal opposed on the ground that the preser-
Value. ration of one's health is paramount
to considerations of economy (Shab.
140b). Three things, wine, white bread, and fat
meat, reduce the feces, lend erectness to one's bear-
ing, and strengthen the sight. Very old wine benefits
tlie whole body (Pes. 42b). Ordinary wine is harm-
ful to the intestines, but old wine is beneficial (Ber.
51a). Rabbi was cured of a severe disorder of
the bowels by drinking apple-wine seventy years
old. a Gentile having stored away 300 casks of it
('Ab. Zarah 40b). "The good tilings of Egypt"
(Gen. xlv. 23) which Joseph sent to his father are
supposed by R. Eleazar tohave included "old wine,"
which satisfies the elderly person (Meg. 16b). At
the great banquet given by King Ahasuerus the
wine put before each guest was from the province
whence became and of the vintage of the 3'earof his
birth (Meg. 12a). Until the age of forty liberal eat-
ing is beneficial ; but after forty it is better to drink
more and eat less (Shab. 152a). R. Papa said wine
is more nourishing when taken in large mouthfuls.
Raba advised students who were provided with lit-
tle wine to take it in liberal drafts (Suk. 49b) in
order to secure the greatest possible benefit from it.
Wine gives an appetite, cheers the body, and satis-
fies the stomach (Ber. 35b). After bleeding, accord-
ing to Rab, a substantial meal of meat is necessary ;
according to Samuel, wine should be taken freely,
in order that the red of the wine may replace the red
of the blood that has been lost (Shab. 129a).

The benefit derived from wine depends upon its
being drunk in moderation, as overindulgence is in-
jurious. Abba Saul, who was a grave-digger, made
careful observations upon bones, and found that the
bones of tho.se who had drunk natural (unmi.\ed)
wine were " scorched " ; of those who
Wine- had used mixed wine were dry and

Bibbing, transparent; of those who had taken
wine in moderation were "oiled," that
is. they had retained the marrow (Niddah 24b).
Some of tiie rabbis were light drinkers. R. Joseph
and Mar 'Ukba, after bathing, were given cups of
inomilin wine (see above). R. Joseph felt it going
through his body from the top of his head to his
toes, and feared anotlier cup would endanger his life;
yet Mar 'Ukba drank it every day and was not un-
plea.santly afFectcfl by it, having taken it habitually
(Siiab. 140a). K. Judah did not take wine, except
at religious ceremonies, such as "Kiddush," "Hab-
dalah," and the Sedrr of Passover (foiir oips). The
Seder wine affected liini so seriously that he was

compelled to keep his head swathed till the follow-
ing feast-day — Pentecost (Ned. 49b).

The best remedy for drunkenness is sleep. " Wine
is strong, but sleep breaks its force " (B. B. 10a).
Walking throws off the fumes of wine, the neces-
sary amount of exercise being in the proportion of
about three miles to a quarter-measure of Italian
wine ('Er. G4b). Rubbing the palms and knees with
oil and salt was a measure favored by some scholars
who had indulged overmuch (Shab. 66b).

For religious ceremonies wine is preferable to
otlier beverages. Wine "cheereth God" (Judges
ix. 13); hence no religious ceremony should be per-
formed with other beverages than wine (Ber. 35a)-
Over all fruit the benediction used is that for "the
fruits of the tree," but over wine a special benedic-
tion for " the fruits of the vine " is pronounced (Ber.
vi. 1). This latter benediction is, according to R.
Eliezer, pronounced only when the wine has been
properly mixed with water. Over natural wine the
benediction is the same as that used for the " fruits
of the tree " (Ber. 50b). The drinking of natural
wine on the night of Passover is not "in the man-
ner of free men" (Pes. 108b). "Kiddush" and
" Habdalah " should be recited over a cup of wine.
Beer maj' be used in countries where that is the
national beverage (Pes. 106a, 107a). According to
Raba, one may squeeze the juice of a bunch of
grapes into a cup and say the " Kiddush " (B. B.
97b). The cup is filled with natural wine during
grace, in memory of the Holy Land, where the best
wine is produced ; but after grace the wine is mixed.

The words introducing the grace, " Let us praise
Him whose food we have eaten, and by whose good-
ness we live," are said over a cup of wine, part of
which is passed to the hostess (Ber. 50a). Ulla,
when the guest of R. Nahman, was invited to pro-
nounce the grace over wine, and the latter suggested
the propriety of sending part of the wine to his
guest's wife, Yalta; but Ulla demurred, declaring
that the host is the principal channel of blessing,
and passed it to R. Nahman. When Yalta heard
this she was enraged, and expressed her indignation
by going to the wine-room ("be hamra") and break-
ing up 400 casks of wine (Ber. 51b). R. Akiba,
when he made a feast in honor of his son, proposed,
" Wine and long life to the Rabbis and their disci-
ples!" (Shab. 67b).

Following the Scriptural precept, "Give strong
drink unto him that is ready to perish, and wine
unto those that be of heavy hearts " (Prov. xxxi. 6),
the Rabbis ordered ten cups of wine to be served
with the "meal of consolation " at the
In mourner's house: three cups before

Mourning, the meal, "to open the bowels," three
cups between courses, to help diges-
tion, and four cups after the grace. Later four
cups were added in honor of the hazzanim, the par-
na.sim, the Temple, and the nasi Gamaliel. So many
cups producing drunkenness, the last four were
afterward discontinued (Kct. 8b). Apparently this
custom was in force when the Temple was in ex-
istence, and persisted in Talmudic times; it dis-
appeared in the geonic period. R. Hanan declared
that wine was created for the sole purpose of con-
soling the bereaved and rewarding the wicked for

535

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

U-l:.o

whatever good they may do in this world, in order
that they may have no claim upon the world to
come (Sanh. 70a). After the destruction of tin,'
Temple many Pharisees, as a sign of mourning,
vowed to abstain from eating meat and driidiing
wiue, but were dissuaded from issuing a decree
which tile public could not observe (B. B GOb). R.
Judah b. Bathyra said, "Meat was the principal ac-
companiment of joy in the time of the Temple, wine
in ]>()st-exilic times " (Pes. 109a).

Kab said that for three days after purchase the
seller is rcsponsil)le if the wine turns sour; but after
that his responsibility ceases. 11. Samuel declared
that responsibility falls upon the purchaser imme-
diately upon the delivery of the wine, the rule being
"Wine rests (m the owner's shoulders." B. Hiyya
b. Joseph said, " Wine must share the owner's luck "
(B. B. 96a, b, 98a). If one sells a cellarful of wine,
the purchaser must accept ten casks of sour wine in
every hundred (Tosef., B. B. vi. G). Whoever sells
spiced wine is responsible for sourness until the fol-
lowing Pentecost (i.e., until the hot weather sets in).
If he sells "old wine," it must be of the second
year's vintage ; if " very old wine " (" meyushshan "),
it must be of the third year's vintage (B. B. vi. 2).

The question of responsibility on the part of car-
riers of wine ("shekulai") is discussed. When
Rabbah bar Hana's hired carriers broke a cask he
seized their overgarments; thereupon the carriers
appealed to Rab, who ordered Rabbah to return
their garments. "Is this the law?" asked Rabbah
in astonishment. "It is the moral law," answered
Rab, citing, " That thou mayest walk in the way of
good men " (Prov. ii. 20). When the garmentshad
been returned the carriers appealed again : " We are
poor men ; we have worked all day ; and now we are
hungry, and have nothing." Rab then ordered
Rabbah to pay them their wages. "Is this the
law?" inquired Rabbah. "It is the higher law,"
replied Rab, completing the verse previously ci-
ted—"and keep the paths of the righteous" (B.
M. 83a).

As a commodity, wine has an important place in
the business world. A large proportion of tlie trade
in wine for the Feast of Passover is controlled by
Jews. The agricultural activity of Palestine is di-
rected mainly to viticulture. The Rothschild cellars
at Rishon le-Ziyyon receive almost the entire produce
of the Jewish colonists, which, through the Carmel
Wine Company, is distributed throughout Russia,
Austria, Holland, Switzerland, France, England,
and the United States. The vintage of 1904 in the
Rothschild cellars exceeded 7,000,000 bottles, of
which 200,000 were sold in Warsaw. See AouicuL-
Tui{.\L Colonies in Palestine.

Regarding the interdiction of wine prepared or
handled by Gentiles see Nesek.

Bibliography: C. H. Fowler, The Wine of the Bihle, New

York. 18TH: W. EbstPln. Die Mflizhi im iVci/fti Tc«lamcnt
mid iiii Talmud, i. I^, 107 ; ii. 250, Stuttgart, VMi.

E. c. J. D. E.

WINKLER, MAX: American philologist;
born at Cracow, Austria, Sept. 4, 1866; educated at
the gymnasium of Cracow, Hughes High School
(Cincinnati, Ohio), Harvard University (A.B. 1889),
and the University of 3Iichigan (Ph.D. 1892). He

took a pr ■
Berlin, aim

appointed instructor in (Jcrina:

iVIiciiigan : ; •-' ■ > •

inl90apr..:

Winkler liiw edited tli.

" Emilia Galotti." will,

Goethe's "Eginont."!^

1901; and Goethe's "1|

BiiiMocRAPnY : AmerUan JewUh Vtar

WINNIPEG: Capital... ,
toba. Canada; situakil m tin- j
iboin and Rcii rivers. Avw
nipeg when it was merely :.
but the first permanent J(\.
about 1878. The !;
1881 and 1882 cans. : .
settle there in the latter year, n
upon the Can ' '\c\f\c H
course of con- ; und

tions of the Jews in eastern I
waves of Jewish in; '
ital. In 1898 and

Rumaida. and from 1»U8 to 1»0.5 Hierc wan a fn-
considerable accession of sff
census of 1891 placed lb.
1,156, and at i)resent (lOOo) the commu:
between 2,000 and 3.000 in n • • '
about 80,000. In profrssjdnai
dustrial jnirsuits the Jews of ^^
their full share toward the 'i ■
and they are extensive htiM
1904 one of their number. ,Mi
elected alderman for the mom i;..,
lous ward of the city, roccivine u
In 1892 and 1M9:5. ihVou.ch tli-

Charles, and .Michael I'ierce, u :

Jews established a colony in Oxbow wi'
for outside aid. The--

joined by others from ...... ' ..

Africa, and the colony is to-day io a fl<
condition.

Winnipeg now po- iX Jewish r.

The earliest was the B'nai Isnw •'.
and then came C< •
1885; in 18N9 thes*-
under the name "Shaary /(Hick." :.
gogue in Kinu street. Con.' '
organized in isild, with u
street, Congregation B'nai Israel, in
synagogue on ]^Iartli ■' ' • '< • -
Jacob, in 1902, witi
In 1904 the Holy i:
existence, and wa.<<
under the name " >
gregalion Adas Ye^

The Jews of U i.
of coninuinnl -
Benevolent ^

lent Society -

the Rosh Pina I^ndirs" Al<i

Hebrew Tjlemry ^

Talmud Torah. Ti

spacious building for educational pu

Winter
Wisdom

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

636

the first Winnipeg Zionist society was established,
and at present there are in the city three large and
active branches of the movement.

J. C. I. DE S.

WINTER, SOLOMON : Hungarian philan-
thropist ; born iu the county of Zips, Hungary, in
1778; died at Hunsdorf, in the same county, Feb. 24,
1859, after laboring for sixty years for the advance-
ment of the Jewish race iu his locality. The erec-
tion of the synagogue in Hunsdorf about 1820, and
the construction of the school in 1840, were due
to him; and he was a representative of the col-
lective communities of the county in the Budapest
congress of Jewish notables.

BiBLiOG.iAPHT : Wurzbach. Biographisches Lexicon, IvU. 81 ;
Rosenberg, Jahrbuch fUr die Ixraditischen CnUusaemein-

T''"^- K D.

WINTERNITZ, MORIZ : Austrian Oriental-
ist; born at Horn Dec. 23, 1863. He received his
earliest education in the gymnasium of his native
town, and in 1880 entered the University of Vienna,
receiving the degree of doctor of philosophy in
1886. In 1888 he went to Oxford, where until 1892
he assisted Max Miiller in the preparation of the
second edition of the Rig- Veda (4 vols., Oxford,
1890-92), collating manuscripts and deciding on the
adoption of many new readings. Winternitz re-
mained in Oxford until 1898, acting in various edu-
cational capacities, such as German lecturer to the
Association for Promoting the Higher Education of
Women (1891-98), librarian of the Indian Institute
at Oxford (1895), and frequently as examiner in
German and Sanskrit both for the university and for
the Indian Civil Service. In 1899 he Aveut to Prague
as privat-docent for ludology and general ethnology,
and in 1902 was appointed to the professorship of
Sanskrit (made vacant by the retirement of Ludwig)
and of etlinology in the German University of
Prague. In addition to valuable contributions on
Sanskrit and ethnology to various scientific journals,
Winternitz edited the " Apastambiya Grihyasutra"
(Vienna, 1887) and the "Mantrapatha, or the Prayer-
Book of the Apastambins" (part i., Oxford, 1897);
translated Miiller's "Anthropological Religion"
and his "Theo.sophy, or Psychological Religion"
into German (Leipsic, 1894-9.'»); and published "Das
Altindische Hochzeitsrituell" (Vienna, 1892), which
contains also valuable ethnological material; "A
Catalogue of Soutli Indian Manuscripts Belonging
to the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and
Ireland" (London. 1902); and "Geschichte der In-
dischen Literatur" (part i., Leipsic, 1905).

•J. L. H. G.

WINTERNITZ, WILHELM : Austrian phy-
sician and liydropalhist; born at Josefstadt, Bohe-
mia, March 1, 1835; educated at Vienna and at
Prague (M.D. 1857), where he .settled and became an
assistant at the institute fr)r the insane. In 1858 he
entered the Austrian navy, but resigned his position as
surgeon in IMOland establisiied a practise in Vienna.
There he became interested in hydropathy, and was
soon regarded as one of the leading authorities. Ad-
mitted to the medical faculty of the University of
Vienna as privat-docent for hydropathy in 1805. he
■was one of the founders of the General Vienna Dis-

pensary, where he is now (1905) departmental chief.
In the same year he opened a private hospital near
Vienna. In 1874 he became privat-docent in medi-
cine, and was appointed assistant professor seven
years later, becoming a full professor in 1899.

Winternitz is a collaborator for hydropathj' on
Von Ziemssen's " Ilaudbuch der Allgenieineu The-
rapie " (ed. 1881), Eulenburg's " Realencyclopiidie
der Gesammten Heilkunde " (ed. 1897), and Eulen-
burg's " Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Therapie und
der Therapeutischen Methodik" (Berlin, 1898-99).
In 1890 he founded the " Blatter fiir Klinische Hy-
drotherapie," of which he is still the editor.

In addition to several essays and monographs in
medical journals, Winternitz is the author of the
following works: " Kalleuleutgebeu und Meine Was-
serheilanstalt " (Vienna, 1869); "Die Hydropathie
auf Physiologischer und Klinischer Grundlage" {ib.
1877-80; 2d ed. 1890-92; translated into English,
French, Italian, Spanish, and Russian); and "Cho-
lera, LungenphthiseundFieber: Klinische Studien "
(ib. 1887-88).

Bibi.iooraphy: Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexicon; PageU
Biog. Lex.; Hlrsch, Biog. Lex.
s. F. T. H.

WINTERSTEIN, SIMON, FREIHERR

VON : Austrian railroad magnate; born at Prague
1819; died at Voslau June 11, 1883. The son of
poor parents, he had to learn early to support him-
self. He chose a commercial career, and worked as
a clerk in Prague and iu Vienna, later establishing
a business of his own in the latter city. After act-
ing for some time as shipping agent for the Nord-
bahn, he entered the executive board of this rail-
road, and finally became its president. Through
business connection witli the house of Rothschild he
became a member also of the boards of directors of
the Siidbaiin and of the Creditanstalt. Winterstein
was for a number of years president of the Jewish
community of Vienna. He was a member of the
Austrian House of Lords.

Bibliography : Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1883, p. 425.

s. F. T. H.

WINTERTHUR. See Switzerland.

WISCONSIN : State in the Upper Lake region
of the United States of America ; admitted to the
Union in 1848. In 1792 a Jew named Jacob Franks-
went to Green Bay, and in 1805 he erected the first
grist- and saw-mill in that section of the countrj\
There were doubtless otiier Jews possessing busi-
ness and other interests in the region which later
became the state; but the early records arc very
scanty. The oldest congregation in the state is B'ne
Jeshurun, iu Milwaukee, organized in 1852 by Lobl
Rind.skopf, Leopold Newbauer, Solomon Adler,
Emanuel Silverman, and others, all of whom were
among the first Jewish settlers in tiiat city.

Wisconsin contains the following Jewish commu-
nities: Appleton, with a congregation (Zion) com-
prising 31 nicinl)ersaiui founded in 1873, and a ladies'
aid society having a membership of 32 and founded
in 1878; Ashland, which has a congregation or-
ganized in IXHI, an auxiliary society, a ladies' benev-
olent association, and a cemetery: Duluth, with a
congregation, Adas Israel ; Eau Claire, with a con-

537

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

grcgation, a religious scliool. and anaiil society com-
prising 50 members; Fond du Lac, containing a
conimiinity that holds lioly-day services; Gilette
and Green Bay, eacli witli a congregation ; Hurley
and Iron-wood, wliicli form a congregation jointly ;
Kenosha, with the Congregation R'nai Zcdck, in-'
corporated in 11)04 and liaving 27 members; La
Crosse, which has two cougregationa (Ansche
Cheset, founded in ISoG, and Sliearitli Israel, in
1899), a benevolent society, and a cemetery ; Madi-
son, possessing a congregation, Ahawatli Acliim,
and a cemetery ; Manitowoc, whose contrregalioni
Anshe Polia Sadek, was founded in 1900; Mari-
nette, which has a congregation (founded in 1888
and having 3'3 members), a religious school, and a
cemetery; Milwaukee (see Jkw. Encvc. viii. 594);
Monroe, Oshkosh, Racine, and Sheboygan,
each with a congregation; and Superior, which
has three congregations, all organized wiihin the
last ten years.

The state has a Jewish population of 15,000 in a
total of 2,069,043 (1904).

J- A. M. Ho.

WISDOM (Ilebr. n03n; Greek, mcpia): Practi-
cal intelligence; the mental grasp which ob.serves
and penetrates into the nature of things, and also
the ability skilfully to perform ditlicult tasks. The
former faculty is intuitive, the latter creative.
Hence the word connotes both deep understanding
and artistic skill. Wisdom is at once a human and
a divine property.

All human wisdom and skill come from God.
The spirit of God made Joseph discreet and wise
(Gen. xli. 38-39), inspired and prepared Bezaleel
and other artists for the work of the Tabernacle
(E.\. x.xxi. 8-6), and was also the source of the
wisdom of Joshua (Dent, xxxiv. 9) and Solomon
(I Kings iii. 12, 28). "The Lord giveth wisdom"
(Prov. ii. 6; comp. Job xxxviii. 36; Ps. li. 8 [A. V.
6]; Dan. ii. 21), and He annuls the wisdom of the
wise (Isa. xxix. 14). Great blame, therefore, at-
taches to those who disregard the di-
Wisdom in vine source of their wisdom and be-
the Bible, come conceited and .sinful (Isa. v. 21,
xxix. 14; Jer. iv. 22, viii. 8-9, ix. 22).
Wisdom is acquired, moreover, by the observa-
tion of nature (Prov. vi. 6; Job xxxv. 11) and of
history (Deut. xxxii. 29; IIos. xiv. 10 [A. V. 9];
Prov. viii. 33, xix. 20), as well as by study and by
association with the wise (Prov. ix. 9, xiii. 20; Job
xxxii. 7).

The wise were sought out for their counsel (Deut.
i. 13, 15; II Sam. xiv. 20, xvi. 23; Prov. xii. 18, xiii.
14), so that, like the priest with his Torah and the
prophet with his revealed word of God, they formed
a special class (Jer. xviii. 18). In more primitive
times " wise women" were consulted (11 Sam. xiv.
2; XX. 16, 22), and at a later period females who wen
skilled in the art of music and song wen- called
"wise women" (Jer. ix. 17).

As contrasted with the Law and the Prophets,
which were intended for the people of Israel exclu-
sively, wisdom was less restricted. "The ciiiliiren
of the east country," as well as of Egypt ami the
south, were regarded as the possessors of wisdom
from of old (comp. I Kings v. 10-11 [A. V. iv. 30-

Wii.tcr

■>'i. J'T. .xiix. : ,,

reseutittive <jf ih-
of universal wimloin v.
inon (1 Kinj/K V. '.i ■

i. 13, If.). „t).l t :

entire Wi

proverbs.

Sophie tlioi.

of Solomon. Ah Mil, n

tablislied as u r^ '■

The
Hokmah . , . . .
Literature. in\iU\ \..

and
had been ii(i>,sii,i, •
was done
and else \v Ian ,. l,^
and V. 8, by the m,
Job (XX viii. und •
mo.stauthoritaiiv.
i.-x. W'i.sdom, wi,
Ionian cosmology, in tlie il
tlie crciitivc deity '
allencnmpas.sing ii _ ■

the Creator, tlie fniimlutiuo of t.
Jeremias. " Das Alte T.
Orients," 1904, pp. 29,
Israel's God was believed lo be the G<-
ver.se, wisdom wii- ■ •

God's master Wdil.

His works (//!». viii. 22). and I i'-

civ. 24), while at th- • •
law of life and tin
Virtue, or the fear of ciod
evil, was developwl in? '
the Proverbs and J ., , . :
xxi.x. 15-16. xxxi. : Prov. x. Iv

The IJook of E. ■
ducean pessimist ii!
cureanism and skepticiBm. irl!
made by a wm' '
the spirit of IIj' >
dom. which had lost rIkIiI
mocked and shown to I.e a

In the niain. \\is«i.>m \ 'It t«I«»#"I •twi

eagerly sought during the -^
wise became the ?i ' ■
models of llw old
of which 1.1
up incontii.'> •

Wisdom in ~

the Apo'-

rypha.

■J
research has r- •
also be classed no
cerninL'
OK. T:
the court of K '

l>t in Uht Le'.l' r

Wisdom

Wisdom of Solomon

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

538

,,r \ • 5§ 187-300. as well as the answer of

Z.-i . the page of King Darius (I Esdrasii.-

iii.). indicates the Jewish longing to appear as wise
nun like Daniel and Joseph before the kings of the
world.

In all these books wisdom is extolled and invested
with divine attributes (Ecclus. [Sirach] i. 1-26, iv.
11-*J'J, li. 13-30. and especially xxiv. 1-29, where it
is identified with the law of Mosc-S; Test. Patr..
Levi, 13; Enoch, xlii. 1-2). The book on astronomy
and cosmography in the writings of Enoch is de-
scribed as celestial wisdom (Enoch, xxxvii. 2, xlix.
1-3, Ixxxii. 2-3; comp. Book of Jubilees, iv. 17, xxi.
10), and Noah's book on healing (Book of Jubilees,
X. 13) belongs to the same class.

Under the influence of Greek philosophy wisdom
became a divine agency of a personal character
(Wisdom vii. 22-30), so that Philo terms it the
daughter of God, "the mother of the creative
"Word " (" De Profugis," §§ 9, 20), while as the crea-
tive principle of the world, wisdom
Traces in occurs in Targ. Yer. to Gen. i. 1
Post- (comp. Hag. lib; Gen. R. i., where

Biblical the Torah lakes the place of wisdom ;
Literature, see also the midrash on Prov. iii. 19
in Jellinek, "B. H." ii. 23-39, v. 63-
69). In Christian and Gentile Gnosticism, wisdom
became the center of speculation (see Gnosticism).
The so-called Fourth Book of Maccabees, a philo-
sophical sermon on self-control with reference to the
seven martyred sons of the Maccabean heroine, is
another contribution to the Hellenistic Wisdom-lit-
erature.

"The wise man " was the title of the early master
of the Law (Ab. 1. 4, ii. 15), but at a later period the
masters bore the epithet of "rabbi," and only those
who had died retained the name of "the wise,"
while the learned were called " disciples of the wise "
(see Levy, "Neuhebr. Worterb." s.r. D3n). In gen-
eral, "wisdom" ("'hokmah ") connotes universal or
worldly wisdom, and is thus contrasted with the
Torah "(Kid. 49b; Xiddah 69b Sanh. 104b; Yer.
Mak. ii. 31d). There are records of disputations be-
tween Jewish masters and Gentile sages, such as the
one between R. Joshua b. Hananiah and tlie men of
Athens (Bek. 8-9; Lam. R. i. 4 et seq. [comp.
Athksi.vnsJ ; Tamid 32a, b). In Pes. 94b (comp.
R. H. 12a) tlie opinion of the wise men of the Gen-
tiles is preferred to that of the Jewish sages. At
the sight of Gentile sages one should recite the
benediction: "Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God,
King of the Universe, who hast imparted of Thy
wisdom to flesh and blood" (Ber. 58b). "Ten meas-
ures of wisflom came down from heaven, and nine
of them fell to the lot of the Holy Land " (Kid.
49b). "Since the destruction of the Temple the
wise have taken tiie place of the Prophets" (B. B.
12a). "Who is wise? He who learncth from every
one"(Ab. iv. 1). "The Shekinah rests only upon
the wise, the strong, the rich,- and the tall " (Shab.
92b); but the members of the Sanhedrin must pos-
sess universal wisdom (Sanh. 17a). Among the mas-
ters of the Mishnah, R. Johanan b. Zakkai and R.
Akiba were considered the paragons of universal
wisdom (Sotali ix. 15. 49b). "Greek wisdom" was
fostered.in the house of Gamaliel, but was forbidden

elscAvhere after the Hasmonean war (B. K. 82b-
83a; Sotah 49b). The sciences of music (R. H. 29b)
and astronomy (Shab. 75a) are called "wisdom, "and
the midwife is termed the '" wise woman " (Shab.
xviii. 3), while the fourth benediction in the " She-
moneh 'Esreh" is called the "Benediction of Wis-
dom " (Ber. 33a).

In rabbinical and philosophical literature the vari-
ous sciences are termed " hokmot " ; and as the seven
sciences of the medieval university ("trivia" and
"quadrivia") were based on Prov. ix. 1, "Wisdom
hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven
pillars," so Jewish writers allude to the seven
branchcsof wisdom (see Joseph Kimhi on Prov. ix. 1;
Steinschneider, " Jiidische Literatur." in Ersch and
Gruber, "Encyc." section ii., part 27, pp. 424, 434-
435, where the various " hokmot " are enumerated).

WISDOM OF SOLOMON, BOOK OF THE
(LXX. 2o^(a 2o/o/iwvoc ; Vulgate, " Liber Sapientioe ") :
Apocryphal book written in Alexandria about the
middle of the tirst century B.C. That it was com-
posed in Greek by an Alexandrian Jew has been
conclusively shown by Freudenthal ("J. Q. R."
iii. 722-753). The book has neither an introductory
verse nor a regular conclusion. In fact, it consists
of three independent parts which have no real con-
nection, and which treat of subjects altogether dif-
ferent, a fact clearly recognized by Bretschneider,
Eichhorn, and others, but disputed by Grimm
(" Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Ilandbuch zu den
Apocryphen des Alten Testaments," vi. 9-24, Leip-
sic, 1860) and his followers.

The first six chapters of Wisdom form an address
to the rulers of the earth (i. 1 ; comp. iii. 8 ; vi. 1-2, 9,
21). They accentuate the necessity of wisdom as in-
dispensable to rulers (i. 6, vi. 9-25), although they are
chiefly directed against the Epicureans, the ungodly
who deny immortality, indulge in lust and incest,
and mock the righteous and the learned, who in their
turn upbraid them for their lawlessness and licen-
tiousness (ii. 1-16). In contrast with them the
"saints" (Hasidim) whom they expose
Contents of to torture (ii. 19, iii. 1) and to a mar-
tlie Book, tyr's death (iii. 2) are called "sons of
God," initiated into His mystery,
promised an inheritance in eternal life (i. 14; ii. 13,
21,23; iii. 4, 15; iv. 1 ; v. 15) like Enoch (iv. 10-16),
and assured of a crown of glory in the world to
come (v. 16). Finally, wisdom is introduced in vi.
9-25 as the speaker, and as the one who bestows the
divine kingdom and confers immortality (vi. 20-21);
whereas sin brings death, since "through envy of
the devil came death into the world " (ii. 24). The
second part (ch. vii.-ix, 17) contains an address of
King Solomon, relating how his life was guided solely
by wisdom, and closing with a prayer offered by
him to God that he might obtain her. Here wisdom
is represented as a mystic power which imparts not
only knowledge of all mysteries and the spirit of
prophecy (vii. 17-21, 27), but even immortality (viii.
13), while it is also a cosmic force invested with
twenty-one divine attributes, this number being
either a triple multiple of seven, or, if originally
twenty-two instead of twenty-one, corresponding to
the twenty-two letters of the Greek alphabet (vii.

539

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

22-23). At the same time, wisdom, as in tlie Pla-
tonic system, is believed to teach the four carttinal
virtues of temperance, prudence, justice, and forti-
tude (viii. 7). The prayer of Soionion refers to the
heavenly tabernacle prepared from the beginning,
and to liis own predestination (i.\. 7-S; see Pukkx-
ISTENCE). Wisdom is (ieseribed as a cosmic i)riuci-
pie dwelling on the throne of glory next to God, and
as knowing and designing all things (ix. 1, 4, 10),
being idenlical with the creative Word (ix! 1) und
the Holy Spirit (ix. 17).

While these two portions of the book form a unity
to some extent, and probably gave the entire work
its title of " Wistlom of Solomon," the last section
(ix. 18-xix. 22) is devoid of all connection with what
lirecedes. Tlie speaker is no longer Solomon, but
the author or the saints (xvi. 28, xviii. U et passim),
who recite the history of Israel's redemption from
Egyjitand other enemies. In like manner, the words
are not addressed to the kings of the earth (ix. 18; x.
20; xi. 4, 9, 17, 21 ; et passim), but to God, the deliv-
erer from the Red Sea. The whole appears on close
observation to be part of a Passover Haggudah re-
cited in Egypt with reference to Gentile surround-
ings, and it accordingly abounds in genuine hag-
gadic iiassages of an ancient character. The tenth
chapter serves as a connecting-link between the Sol-
omonic Wisdom-book and this Passover-IIaggadah
fragment, and must, therefore, be taken with tlie last
verse of the ninth chapter and the ti'rst of the elev-
enth, in both of which wisdom forms the theme.
Here, however, it has nothing in common with the
Solomonic wisdom, which, enabling the king to pen-
etrate into all the mysteries of heaven and earth, to
study the world of the spirits, and to learn the vir-
tues of stones and roots, thus came
Hellenistic very close to the Platonic wisdom (vii.
Passover 17-26). The wisdom of the liaggadist
Haggadah. is exclusive and hostile to the Gen-
tile world, rather than cosmopolitan
and broad, saving onl\' the righteous and bringing
ruin upon the wicked (ix. 18, x. 1-21). From this
point of view the lives of the Patriarchs are re-
counted to lead lip to the story of the Exodus.
Wisdom taught Adam to rise from his fall by re-
pentance (comp. "Vita Ad;e et Eva?," viii.; Pirke
K. El. XX.); but it caused Cain and his generation
to perish (x. 1-3). It saved Noah, Abraham, and
Lot, but brought lasting doom upon the offenders
(x. 4-9). It showed Jacob the kingdom of God in
the vision of the ladder (comp. Gen. K. Ixviii. 16;
Targ. Yer. to Gen. xxviii. 12) and gave him victory
over all his pursuers (x. 10-12). It preserved Jo-
seph the righteous from sin, went witli him into the
jiit and the prison, and raised him to the throne and
to glory, but covered liis detractors with shame (x.
13-15). It delivered Israel from its heathen oppress-
ors, entered into the soul of Moses, enabling liim to
work all his miracles before Pharaoii, and, in the
sliai)e of a protecting i)illar of clouii by day and of
an illuminating tire by night, guided the people
through the wilderness and through the Hed Sea,
while it drowned the Egyptians and cast them up
again from the deep to enrich the Israelites with the
spoils that tloated upon the water (x. 15-20; comp.
Mek., Beshallah, 6; Targ. Yer. to Ex. xiii. 21; xv.

12. 20; JoRcpi,,,

the mouths of \i

K'Jiig of the people in pruiw of <

(X. 21 ; < M

and it |
ness (xi. 1-4).
Tin's ^, ■>■''■ •■
padu- (11

giving (.11 iliu K
connected with i,,. ,
on the eve of tljc P..
plius, ''Ant." ii. 10, r 4; Iknik of

2-6). The fiindamcntn! ■ - '

Ilaggadaii is tlial Cod n

expressed by tlr '

neged middnli " i

the book declares: " \\ '

by the same also Rhnii li.-

This was apjiiicd to tin- V

to Ex. xviii. 11 (sfo Ta

Here, however, the Im.

maintain that the very ;

strument of vengeance to i:

means of .saft-fy for Isr ^ "

which the Isnu-litisli eln

was turned to l)|oo«l for the pnrrbcd 1

while it flowed fortli fr. •'

thirst of the children of 1

7). In like manner, the animnis wonliiprd by

Egyptians ) . •'
Wonders of and harm ■

the 27); "for thrw (tije 1

Exodus, didst admonish nn' •
but the otiuT (lb.'
as a severe king, thou didst ■
(xi. 10). even thougli Gfnl 1>... , ,.,.
and waits for the rei)ontancc of the
He is the lover of souls (x:
cause of the d(K)m of such i. .
Canaanites wa.s their commiiwion of •.
of idolatry and rnuri
i. 15U, 17H: iii. 80-4i'.
Yet even tiiey were given Hme for !■
wherefore God Bent tlic ^ ' '

troy the Canaanites gru .
them all at once (xii. 8-11: comp. Kx. x%
Sotah 36rt); for C. ' " ' --•

teach " that tiie j .
19; comp. i. 6). and «n;
severely punished until hlii .i. .m
she had denied (xii. 27 >

Egyptian (and Gf'
1-10) to be far less < -
worship, and it is tl.
terms borrowed from
first introduced by ll. .
from the fallen nmrels. 1'
and foriii

kind to tl. •

14-21 ; comp. Book of .'
The Folly •'

of
Idolatry, perjury (xir. 2.

immortality,

the Greeks of Alexandria, m

•It.

the

•HI

n»

«;

■' '•.K'"'' ''"' '

if-

'.a
%»
<i

Wisdom of Solomon
Wise

THE JEWISH E^XYCLOPEDIA

540

who hold Israel in subjection are termed foolish
Image-worshipers (XV. 1-15; comp. Ps. cxv., recited
on the eve of the Passover). The Egyptian animal-
worship again suggests to the haggadist the idea
that while the beasts became a torment to Egypt,
the quail became nourishing food for tlie people of
God (xvi. 1-4); and though the serpents bit the
Israelites in the wilderness, they were in the end a
sign of salvation for them, admonishing them to look
to God as the savior whose word heals all (xvi. 5-
12; comp. R. H. iii. 8c). The fire which fell with
both the hail and the rain (Ex. ix. 24; Tan., "Way era.
eil. BuLer, p. 22/, as well as in the sea (Ex. xiv. 24;
Targ. Yer. adU.; Josephus, "Ant." ii. 16, § 3),
like the fire which would not destroy the frogs in
the oven (xix. 21; Pes. 53b), manifested the won-
drous power of God (xvi. 16-19). On the other
hand, the manna, which fell like hoar frost and was
flavored to suit every wish and taste, did not melt in
the heat of the wilderness, but disappeared under the
first rays of the sun that the people might offer their
praise early in the morning (comp. Yoma75a; Targ.
Yer. to Ex. xvi. 21 ; Mek., Wayassa', 4 [ed. Weiss, p.
58a]; for the Essene prayer at sunrise see Josephus,
"B. J"ii. 8, § 5; Ber. 9b; and comp. Essenes).
The Egyptian plague of darkness, in striking con-
trast to the light in the houses of the children of
Israel (Ex. x. 21-23), is declared to have been a
punishment for their imprisonment of the Israelites,
the future bearers of the light of the Law, and for
their pride in their intellectuality, besides being a
token of their future doom (xvii. l-.wiii. 4). The
last plague, the death of the first-born, was the
punishment for the intended murder

Plagues of the Israelitish children (xviii. 5).
upon This same night of watching proved

Egypt. to be the doom of the Egyptians and
the election of Israel, so that on the
one side resounded cries of lamentation, and on the
other were heard songs of thanksgiving (xviii. 7-17).
The almighty " Word " carried the sword of death
throughout Egj-pt, and by this same power Aaron,
with his robe, his breastplate, and his diadem decked
with divine mysteries, subdued the angel of death
(xviii. 20-25). Finally, the destruction of the Egyp-
tians in the Red Sea is described as a renewal of the
miracle of Creation (xix. 1-6), since out of the sea
rose a green field (comp. Targ. Yer. to Ex. xv. 19).
The Egyptians had been more brutal in their treat-
ment of the strangers than had the inhospitable
Sodomites, thus accounting for the severity of their
punislnuent (xix. 13-22). Here the Haggadah breaks
off abruptly.

It is evident that these three parts, or at least the
first two (i.-ix., x.-xix.), can not have emanated
from the .same autiior, for neither the style nor the
views can be ascribed to one and the same person.
Tliis leads to the sujiposition that the original Wis-
dom of Solomon and the Passover-IIaggadah frag-
ment were jirobably joined together and then treated
as one book. Gratz ("Gcsch." 4lh ed.,
Authorship iii. :582-3H5, Gll-613) finds in the work
and Date, allusions to the apotheosis of Caligula
(38-40 C.E.), but the deification of
the Ptolemies goes back to Egyptian custom. Ch.
ii. and iii. refer to Jewish converts, not to Greeks in

Alexandria. The character of the book as regards
the creative Wisdom, Word, and Spirit indicates a
stage prior to the Philonic system, and the Biblical
story shows a haggadic form still fresh and not yet
compressed into a rigid system, as in Philo (see Sieg-
fried, "Philo von Alexandria," pp. 22-24, Jena,
1875). The apostle Paul (see Grafe, "Das Verhalt-
niss der Paulinischen Schriften zur Sapientia Salo-
monis, " Freibvu-g-im-Breisgau, 1892 ; comp. also S.\UL.
OF Taissls), the author of the Epistle to the He-
brews (Heb. i. 3. iv. 12; comp. Wisdom vii. 22, 26),
and others have drawn from the Book of Wisdom.
This places the dale of the book, or at least that of
the first part, with certainty in the first century B.C.
A Hebrew translation of the Wisdom of Solomon
is mentioned b}^ Isahmanides in the preface to his
commentary on the Pentateuch. A Hebrew version
with a coiinneiitary was published by Hartwig Wes-
sely (Berlin, 178U), and a German translation with
notes, valuable for the references to rabbinical
literature, was made by M. Gutmann (Altona,
1841).

BiBLiooRAPHv: For the extensive literature see Schiirer,
Gf«/i. M ed.. iii. :i77-;^83. The chief editions. beside.s that
containeii in Fritzsche's ApocrutJlii (V/nci, are : Keusch,
Liljcr SaiJioiticv Unrce, Freiburg-im-Breisfrau, liS'>8; Deane,
Book of Wisdom. O.xford, lf<81. On the question of the orig-
inal language see Margoliouth, Was the Hook of Wisdom
Wriltcii i)i Hehrfir ? in J. R. A. S. 1890, pp. 26:! et seq.\ an-
swered bv Freudenthal, What Is the Ori{]iual Languaoe of
Vic Wisdom uf Solomoii't In J. Q. R. iii. 72-.J-753.

WISDOM OF GOD. See God.

WISE, AARON: American rabbi; born at
Erhiu, Hungary, May 2, 1844; died in New York
March 30, 1896; son of Chief Rabbi Joseph Hirsch
Weiss. He was educated in the Talmudic schools
of Hungary, including the seiuinary at Eisenstadt,
where he studied under Dr. Hildesheimer. Later
he attended the universities of Leipsic and Halle,
receiving his doctorate at the latter institution. He
assisted Bernard Fischer in revising the Buxtorf
lexicon, and was for several years a director of
schools in his native town. He was for a time iden-
tified with the ultra-Orthodox party in Hungary,
acting as secretary to the organization Shomere
ha-Datt, and editing a Juda?o-Gcrinan weekly in
its support. In 1874 Wise emigrated to the United
States, and became rabbi of Congregation Beth Elo-
hiin in Brooklyn ; two years later he was appointed
rabbi of Temple Rodeph Shalom in New York,
which office he held until his death.

Wise was the author of "Beth Aharon," a relig-
ious school handbook; and he compiled a prayer-
book for the use of his congregation. He was for ^
some time editor of the "Jewish Herald " of New
York, and of the "Boston Hebrew Observer"; and
he contributed to the year-books of the Jewish Min-
isters' Association of Anu'rica, as well as to other
periodical publications. He was one of the founders
of the Jewish Tlieological Seminary, and the first
vice-president of its advisory board of ministers.
Wise founded the Rodeph Shalom Sisterhood of
Personal Service, which established the Aaron Wise
Industrial Scho(d in his memory.

nrnr.iooRAPnY: An}cricnn Jewess, Mav, 1890, pp. 482-487;
Markens. Hebrews in America, pp. 305-306.

A. s. s. w.

641

THE JEWISH ENCYCLCJPEDIA

Wi»<tom of Soli

WISE, ISAAC MAYER : American Rfform
rabbi, editor, and author; boru at Steingnil) 15.,l,e-
inia, March 29, 1819; died at Ciiuiiniati, Ohio, March
26, 1900. He was tiie sou of Lto Wise, a school-
teaclier, and received liis early Hebrew education
from hisfatiicraiid t^Maiidfallicr, hiter continuing liis
Hebrew and secular studies in Prague. He received
the liattarat iiora'aii from tiie Prague bet din, com-
posed of Rabbis Kapopoit, Samuel Freiind, and E.
L. Tewelcs. In 184:3 he was appointed ral)bi ut
Radnitz, Bohemia, where lie remained for about
two years, emigrating to the United States in 184(5
He arrived iu New York on July 23 of the .same
year, and in the following October was a|ipoinfed
rabbi of the Congregation Beth-El of Albany, New
York. He soon began
agitating lor reforms in
tlie service, and his was
the first Jewish congrega-
tion in the United Slates
to introduce family pews
in the synagogue. Ser-
mons in the vernacular,
a mixed choir, and con-
firmation were also among
the innovations in trod ucetl
by Wise, who even went so
far as to count women in
forming a minyan or re-
ligious quorum.

In 1850 some unfortu-
nate events caused a split
in the Albany community,
and the consequent forma-
tion of a new congrega-
tion, the Anshe Emeth, by
the friends and support-
ers of the rabbi. Wise re-
mained with this congi-e-
gation until April, 1854,
"wlien he became rabbi of
the Bene Yeshurun con-
gregation of Cincinnati,
Oliio, where he officiated
for the remaining forty-
six years of Ins life. Wise
"Was active in so many di-
rections, and was so great
a power in tlie liistory
of Judaism in the United

States, that it is necessary to treat under distinct
headings the various achievements of his long and
successful career. He was above all an organizer,
and the numerous institutions that he called into
being attest to the great influence lie wielded during
his life.

In 1847, at the suggestion of Max Lilienthal. wlio

was at that time stationed in New York, a bet din

was formed, which was to act in the cajiacity of an

advisory committee to the congregations of the

country, without, however, exercising

Prayer- hierarchic powers. As meml)eis of

Book. this bet din. Lilienthal named Wise

and two others, besides liimself. At

a meeting held in the spring of 1847 Wise submitted

to the bet din the manuscript of a ]irayer-booU, to

<»vi«r%" f»

l)e eiilitifd the " M

hy all the congn

had noticfti that nt-arlv
Europe, and, later, in
own prayt-r-boi.k, and ...
nali.Htic lido he advc>oate<I t
prayer-book. *
ter, however, ii

when a oonunilt«o con

and Kalisch « ,

bonk. Thi.s I..

Ainerini."an(l was pniclicnily Wl-

adopted by most of thi-.

and Southern slates. ,'^

sire for union, thut when in 1W4 tie

A::.. '
iililn:
hap

l>e uted

:~lethnn<l

f Iho . ,,...i
rffing them i<,
union wli
<nd to lU ,... .
iirious anarrbv.

bv iu rtll

lor, ivun J,

«lir.*eHU-d til .

d in 11

fontllry.

did not

the or
never

it. !••!

IHMk

Isaac Mayer Wise. '"

(From A bust by Mosea Eicklrl Id the pomaloo ol A. S. Oek*.) VI'

reward when in 1878. twen;
first broached the idea, tlie I

UUK.W C<t.\()UK<i.\Tlo.NV« \\

Earnest as he wjis Im ;
luiion among the r<
fiefulieable in i:
a theologicii! sen

Anu-r:

Hebrew

err

Union

11.

College.

w ;

Ct'i.s.

of hi» residenrc in

scarce! v arrivoi in <

acteristic energy, lit .^ ; . •

lege in whic

1 young meo conUl r

Wise

Witchcraft

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

542

education. He enlisted the interest and support of
a number of iutluential Jews of Cincinnati and adja-
cent towns, and in 1855 founded the Ziou Collegiate
Association. The venture, however, proved a fail-
ure, and the society did not succeed in opening a
college. Nothing daunted. Wise entered upon a
literary campaign, and year in and year out he pre-
sented the subject in the columns of "The Israelite."
His indomitable perseverance was crowned with suc-
cess when, on October 3. 1875, the Hebrew Union
College opened its doors for the reception of stu-
dents, four of whom were ordained eight years later.

The lirst outcome of Wise's agitation for union
among the Jews was the Cleveland Conference held
in 1855, and convened at his initiative. This con-
ference was unfortunate, for, instead of uniting the
rabbis of all parts of the country in a
Rabbinical bond of fellowship, it gave rise to
Con- strained relations between Wise and

ferences. his followers on one side, and promi-
nent rabbis in the eastern i)art of the
country on the other side. These dillereuces were
partly removed during the rabbinical conference of
Philadelphia (1869), which Wise attended. The
New York conference of 1870, and the Cincinnati
conference of 1871 were efforts in the same direction ;
but a controversy ensuing from the latter served
only to widen the breach. Yet was the great " union-
ist " not discouraged. He continued agitating for a
synod which was to be the central bod}' of authority
for American Judaism. In 1881 he suljinitted to the
meeting of the Rabbinical Literary Association a re-
port urging the formation of a s^'nod; but the mat-
ter never passed beyond the stage of discussion.
However, he lived to see the establishment of the
Central Conference of American Rabbis in 1889,
which was the third enduring offspring of his tire-
less energy and unfailing perseverance. During
the last eleven years of his life he served as presi-
dent of the conference which he had called into ex-
istence (see Conferences, Rabbinical).

Besides the arduous labors that the organization
of these national institutions entailed, Wise was act-
ive in many other ways. In 1857, when a new treaty
was to be concluded between the United States and
Switzerland, he visited Washington as chairman of
a delegation to protest against the ratification of this
treaty unless Switzerland should cease its discrimina-
tions against American Jews. In his own city, be-
sides officiating as rabbi of the Bene Yeshurun con-
gregation and as jiresident of the Hebrew Union
College, he edited the "American Israelite" and the
"Deborah," served as an examiner of teachers ap-
plying for positions in public schools, and was also a
member of the board of directors of the University
of Cincinnati. He traveled tliroughout the United
States, lecturing, dedicating synagogues, and enlist-
ing the interest of the Jewish communities in his
plans and projects.

Wise was the author of the following works:
"The History of the Israelitish Nation from Abra-
ham to the Present Time," Albany, 1854; "The
Essence of Judaism," Cincinnati, 1861 ; " The Origin
of Christianity, and a Commentary on the Acts of
the Apostles," 1868; ".Judaism, Its Doctrines and
Duties." 1872; "The Martyrdom of Jesus of Naza-

reth: a Historico-Critical Treatise on the Last Chap-
ter of the Gospel," 1874; "The Cosmic God," 1876;
" History of the Hebrews' Second Conunonwealth,"
1880; "Judaism and Christianity, Their Agreements
and Disagreements," 1883; "A Defense of Judaism

vs. Proselytizing Christianity," 1889;
His Works, and " Prouaos to Holy Writ," 1891.

In his early years he wrote a number
of novels, which appeared lirst as serials in the
"Israelite," and later in book form; these were:
"The Convert," 1854; "The Catastrophe of Eger,"
"The Shoemaker's Family," "Resignation and
Fidelit}% or Life and Romance," and "Romance,
Philosophy, and Cabalah, or the Conflagration in
Frankfort-on-the-Main," 1855; "The Last Struggle
of the Nation," 1856; "The Combat of the People,
or Hillel and Herod," 1858; and "The First of
the Maccabees." He wrote also a number of
German novels, which appeared as serials in the
" Deborah " ; among these may be mentioned : " Die
Juden von Landsliuth " ; " Der Rothkopf, oder des
Schulmeisters Tochter " ; and " Baruch und Sein
Ideal." In addition to all these works Wise pub-
lished in the editorial columns of the "Israelite"
numerous studies ou various subjects of Jewish
interest. He even wrote a couple of plays, " Der
Maskirte Liebhaber" and "Das Gliick Reich zu
Sein."

During liis lifetime Isaac M. Wise was regarded
as the most prominent Jew of his time in the United
States. His genius for organization Avas of a very
high order; and he was masterful, rich in resources,
and possessed of an inflexible will. More than of
any of his contemporaries, it may be said of him
that he left the impress of his personality upon the
development of Judaism in the United States.

BinLiOGRAPHY : I. M. Wi.se, Rcminiiicences, transl. from the
German and ed. by Davi(i Philipsori, Cincinnati, 1901 ; .Se-
lected irrif idf/"* "/ hnnc M. irisc. with a biography by David
Philipson and Louis (irossmann, ih. 19()(); The American la-
raeUte, 185-t-ltM)0, pcussim, and the Jubilee number, June 30,
1904.
A. D. p.

WISE, LEO : American journalist and publisher;
born at Albanj- Oct. 28, 1849; son of Isaac ]\Iayer
Wise. He was educated at St. Xavier College and
Farmers College, Cincinnati; College Hill, Ohio;
Trinity College, Hartford; and the University of
Michigan (A. B., Farmers College, 1867; L.B., Uni-
versity of Michigan, 1869). In 1863 he served a brief
term in the river flotilla of the United States navy,
and in 1872 was one of the original prospectors in the
diamond fields in South Africa, whereat Dutoit's Pan
he opened a new digging which was at first called
" New Rush " and afterward became the famous
"Colcsburg Kopje," now in the Kimberlcy district.

From 1875 to 1890 AVise published " Die Deborah,"
and from 1884 to 1892 he owned the "Jewish An-
nual." In 1885 he established the "Chicago Israel-
ite " at Chicago, and is still its publisher, in addition
to being the managing editor and publisher of the
"American Isi-aelite" of Cincinnati, Ohio. Wise
has also published most of the books written by his
father.

BiDLioGRAPHV: American Jewish Year Book, 5665 (19(M-5).
A. F. T. H.

543

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA

»«n

WISE, STEPHEN SAMUEL: American

rabbi; born at Budapest March 17, 1862; son of
Aaron Wisk. He studied at the College of tJie City
of New York (1887-91), Columbia College (IJ.A.
1892), and Columbia University (Ph.D. 1001). and
later pursued rabbinical studies under Gottlieil, Ko-
hut, Gersoni, JolTe, and JIargolis. In 18'J3 he was
appointed assistant to Rabbi Henry S. Jacobs of the
Congregation B'nai Jeshurun, New York city, and
later in the same year, minister to tlie same congre-
gation. In 1900 he was called to the rabbinate of
the Congregation Beth Israel, Portland, Ore.

Wise was the tirst (honorary) secretary of the Amer-
ican Federation of Zionists; and at the Second Zion-
ist Congress (Basel, 1898) he Avas a delegate, and sec-
retary for the English language. He was a member
also of the International Zionist ExccutiveCommittee
in 1899. In 1902 he olhciated as first vice-president
of the Oregon State Conference of Charities and Cor-
rection; and in 1903 he was appointed Commissioner
of Child Labor for the state of Oregon. He is the
founder of the People's Forum of Portland. Wise is
the editor of the Arabic original of " The Improve-
ment of the Moral Qualities," an ethical treatise of
the eleventh century by Solomon ibn Gabirol (New
York, 1902), and of the "Beth Israel Pulpit."

WISMAR. See Mecklenburg.

WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZEITSCHRIFT
FtJR jtJDISCHE THEOLOGIE. See Peuiod-

ICALS.

WISSOTZKY, KALONYMOS ZEEB
WOLF: Russian jihilanthropist; born in Zhagory,
government of Kovuo, July 8, 1824; died at 3Ios-
cow May 24, 1904. Wissotzk}-, whose father was a
merchant of moderate means, received the usual
Jewish education. He married at eighteen, and si.\
months later left for the yeshibah atVoIozhin, where
he studied for a short period, settling afterward in
Yanishki. At about this time the government organ-
ized a Jewish agricultural colony at Dubno, near
Dvinsk, and Wissotzky became one of the colonists.
The soil proving unproductive, he was obliged to re-
turn to Yanishki, where he
engaged in biisiness. Ilis
love of study, however,
soon led him to Kovno,
where he became a pirpil of
Israel Lii'kin. At the end
of 1854 he returned to Ya-
nishki, and in 1858 went to
]\Ioseow, where lie engaged
in the tea trade: this, how-
ever, did not prevent him
from taking an active in-
terest in the aflfai'-s of the local Jewish conununity.
He organized a Sabbath-school antl Sal)bath readings
for the cantonists of the district, and had si)ecial meals
prepared for the soldiers during Passover. IIe„was
instrumental also in restoring many a cantonist to
Judaism and to liis long-lost relatives. Willi his
increasing wealth Wissotzky devoted constantly
growing amounts of money to charity. He contrib-
uted loToOO rubles to the Alliance Israelite at Paris,
on condition that this sum be allowed to accumulate

Kalonymos Wissotzky.

Et COni|>>>uMii
amount to 1(Mi

The
Wissotzky
Fund. iM.w
fntn<
known uh the ** Wi'

Wissotzky ^'
ism. and one ni . , ..
in the eigliticH of the :
of Jew"
ized, W
elTecting the ■
He journ<\
tiiere the |.

letters from Palestine, together witb ot
were published in ' ' ' '"

contributiniis to ll
furnished practically all the i

the establishment r '

school in Jalla. \''
encyclopedia was sug:.
lia-Ani, he ofTerotl to gi..
purpose. When told thu'
small portion of the atnouir
work, he decided to let ''■•
however, to take back
the money to bo !:

Promotion of Cult; ...

At the instance of his sou-in-law. J
gave 6.000 rui)les t<-
monthly magazine, "li
ship of Al.iad Im-'Am.

Aside from his gi'
cstiuian allairs, Wi
money in couiributions to ycuJilbut
Torahs. On i"
sou, David Wi-
mbles for the estoblislunenl i:
stok of a Talnuiil Tonih with t< . »
institution was opentd in lOtH
sotzky bequeathed the sum < '

for Jewisli national pt:' "

the manner in which tl
he left it in chari.
Maze of Moscow, a

ir. li.

WITCHCRAFT:
are ihf tt riiis UM-d in u.^
tise of the arts of diviuutiun. wi
orthodox r
tinient wa.s ;.
at one time wci
relegati-d to ti
These praclis. -
several different Mtbrrw v

One of the oldi-st < ' '
consulting the <le«<!
called "ob." and •

W:i

a ■

and most famous r

of King Saul < •

of (Jilboa. in

xxvili. 3. let •ey). li al'P*^* '•"»" ^'■

• V.(

"Witchcraft
Wodianer

THE JEWISH E^XYCLOPEDIA

544

that this method of gaining information was under

the ban even at that early date. The " mistress of

theob" whom Saul found at En-dor

The Ob is said to have been able to summon

and the Samuel's spirit from the under world
Yidde'oni. and to talk with it. The narrative
represents her as able to call up any
" ob " desired. Wherever " obot " are mentioned there
also is found the term "yidde'oni" (H. V., incor-
rectly. " wizard "). It is, apparently, a synonym of
"ob" as a designation of a departed spirit (comp.
Lev. xix. 31: xx. 6, 27: Deut. xviii. 11; I Sam.
xxviii. 3. 9: II Kings xxi. G. xxiii. 24; Isa. viii. 19,
xix. 3; II Chron. xxxiii. 6). "Ob" designated a
subterranean spirit, but perliaps "yidde'oni" was a
more general term. It is probable that the wiz-
ards who consulted the dead were ventriloquists,
for Isjiiah (comp. viii. 19) describes them as those
that "chirp and . . . mutter." Probably the ven-
triloquist impersonated the dead as speaking in a
faint voice from the ground, whence this description.
Deut. xviii. 11 adds to consulting an ob or a yid-
de'oni, "inquiring of the dead," as though there
were still another means of consulting them. If
this be so, no information as to the method of con-
sultation has been preserved.

Another class of diviners is called "me'oncnim"
(comp. Judges ix. 37; II Kings xxi. 6; Isa. ii. 6:
3Iic. V. 12). This class also was verj-^ ancient. It
appears from Judges ix. 26 that a sacred tree at
Shechem was named from it. As this tree is
probably identical with the "oak of Moreh " (Gen.
xii. 6, R. v.). it is probable that the method of
divination alluded to was also employed by the
Canaanites. Isaiah (ii. 6) also alludes to the "me'o-
nenim " as existing among the Philistines. It is evi-
dent, therefore, that this method of divination was
common to Palestinian heathendom. W. R. Smith
(in "Journal of Philologj'," xiv. 116 ft seQ.), who is
followed l)y Driver, derives the word from Jjy (comp.
the Arabic "ghanna" = "to emit a hoarse, nasal
sound "). and thinks that it denoted the " murmurer "
or "hoarsely humming soothsayer": he remarks
that the characteristic utterances of an Arabic
sootlisayer are a monotonous croon called "saj'"
and a low murmur, "zamzamah,"or whisper, " was-
wasah."

An obscure class of soothsayers was called " me-

kaslisliefim " (comp. the "nomen abstractum " "ke-

sha"; see Deut. xviii. 11; II Kings ix. 22; Mic. v.

12; Xah. iii. 4). W. R. Smith (I.e.

Drugs and p. 12.")) argues that the root "kasliaf "

Charms, means " to use magical appliances, or
drugs"; and many interpreters follow
him. Those who doubt the correctness of this ex-
planation are unable to suirgest an alternative.
This interpretation receives some support from the
facts that the Septuagint in Nah. iii. 4 gives
<^af>nnKn, and that the beliff in the u.se of drugs or
herbs is very old. as is shown by the mention of
mandrakes in Gen. xxx. 14-19. In the oldest code
capital punislunent is ordained for this class of
sorcerers (comp. Ex. xxii. 18).

A further branch of witchcraft was "laha.sh," or
charming (comp. Isa. iii. 3). In Jer, viii. 17 and
Ecd. X.. 11 the word is used of snake-charming.

Kindred in function to the "lahash" was the
"hober" (comp. Deut. xviii. 11), which Ps. Iviii. 5
makes parallel to "lahash." " Lahash," curiously,
does not appear in De\it. xviii. 10-11, a passage
which Ewald and W. R. Smith regard as an ex-
haustive list of forbidden enchantments. In its place
there is " nahash " (" menahesh "). As 7 and j are
both liquids, possibly the two roots are connected.
In reality, however, "nahash" seems to have had a
different meaning. Gen. xliv. 5 says that Joseph
divined ("yenahesh") by means of a cup, perhaps
by watching the play of light in a cup of liquid. Ba-
laam (Nimi. xxiv. 1) is said to have occupied him-
self with enchantments ("nehashim "). Since Ba-
laam observed omens on the hilltops, his oracles
must have been deduced from some other natural
phenomena. As the equivalent term in Syriac,
"nrd.isha," is one which covers portents from the
flight of birds as well as other natural occurrences,
" lahash " probably refers, as W. R. Smith concludes,
to divination by natural omens and presages. If so,
it was not always tabooed by the best men in Israel,
for David once received an omen for a successful
military attack from the sounds in the tops of cer-
tain trees (II Sam. v. 24).

Another term often used to describe sorcery is
"kesem" (Num. xxiii. 23; Deut. xviii. 10; I Sam.
XV. 23; II Kings xvii. 17; Lsa. iii. 2; Ezek. xxi. 21).
This method of divination is elucidated in Ezek. xxi.,
R. v., where the King of Babylon is represented as
standing at the parting of the ways, and using
divination to determine whether to proceed first
against Rabbah of Ammon or against Jerusalem.
"He shook the arrows to and fro, he consulted the
teraphim, he looked in the liver." In verse 22 (Hebr.)
it is declared that in "his right hand was the kesem
for Jerusalem." It would appear, therefore, that
"kesem" was a method of divination by arrows.
Arabian analogy here throws much light upon the
practise, as this system of drawing lots by means of
arrows, and thus obtaining an oracle, was pra(;tised
by the Arabs, and the details are quite well known
(comp. W. R. Smith in "Journal of Philolog}-," xiii.
277 ei seq.). The lots were drawn with headless ar-
rows in the presence of an idol, and were accom-
panied by a sacritice. The method was thoroughly
analogous to that which Ezekiel describes. The
"kesem" was accordingly a method of casting lots.
Among the Arabs judicial sentences were obtained
in this way, so that it became a kind of ordeal. Such,
probabh", was the case in Israel, for Prov. xvi. 10
declares that "A divine sentence ["kesem"] is in the
lips of the king; His mouth shall not transgress in
judgment" (R. V.).

Indeed, all through the earlier period of Israel's

history important matters were decided by lot. The

land was a.ssigned to the tribes by lot (Josh. xiv. 2);

Saul is said to have been chosen king by lot (I Sam.

X. 10) ; Jonathan, when he had violated

Ordeals a taboo, was detected by lot (I Sam.
and Lots. xiv. 41 etseq.)\ in fact, some form of
casting lots was the one way of ob-
taining a divine decision (comp. Prov. xvi. 33).
The Ephod was probably an instrument for casting
lots.

Ewald and W. R. Smith have both observed that

545

THE JEWISH ENCYCL.

'I'i.UlA

Deut. xvui. 10-11 contains a formal list ..f all the
important kinds of witchcraft or .iivinuiion known
at the time the passage was written. 'I'ht-se various
modes of ohtainin- oracles really diverted popular
attention from spiritual prophecy. The Dcuteron
omist banished them from the realm of legitimaU-
practise and promised in lieu of them a perennial
succession of prophets. Among tju'se various kinds
of divination, "kesem" (by sacred lots in the pres-
ence of an idol) held a foremost place. It stands
next in the li.st to making one's son or dan -liter
^' pass through the lire." This was a part of iM.doch-
worship. and was proi)ably a means of obtaining an
oracle: hence it was clas.sed with witchcraft.

If the date of the Deuteronomic code given by
modern critics is accepted (about 650 b.c ) the
prominence given to " ke.sem " is easily understood
The Prophets were raising jiopular practises to
a higher level ; and arts which had before been es-
teemed innocent, or regarded as the handmaids of
religion, were now condemned as witchcraft. It is
probable that other forms of sorcery in the list had
passed through a similar history. Isaiah (viii. 19) in-
dicates that in the eighth century ij.c. necromancy
(con.sulting the dead i)y either an ob or ayidde-oni)
was the most popular competitor of prophecy for
popular favor. It can not be supposed, as Stade and
others hold, that ancestor worship in a pronounced
form ever existed among the Semites (comp. Frey,
*'yeelenglaube und Beelenkult im Alten Israel"
Leipsic, 1898, and Gruneisen, " Der Ahnenkuitus
und die Urreligion Israels," Halle,
Relation to 1900); yet, when it is borne in mind
Ancestor how easily an ancestor or a departed
Worship, sheik becomes a "wall" among the
modern Arabs, it is not difflcult to be-
lieve that the necromancy of ancient Israel had a
semi-religious origin. Tlie movement against nec-
romancy was much older tJian that against "ke-
sem," for it began as early as the reign of Saul
<comp. I Sam. xxviii. 3): but old customs are jier-
sisteut, and "seeking unto the dead" was still a
popular practise in the time of Lsaiah.

The denunciations of Isaiah and the Deutcrono-
mist did not, liowever, annihilate witchcraft. It
still existed in thetimeof the authorof the Ethiopic
Book of Enoch, although it was then in bad odor.
This writer ascribes all kinds of sorcery and divina-
tion to the angels, who, in Gen. vi. 2-4, are said to
have come down to earth and taken human wives
(comp. Ethiopic Enoch, vii. 1, viii. 1, ix. 7, and xvi.
3). In this writer's view sin came into the world
through these angels, and not through the eating of
the fruit in paradise (viii. 1 et seq.). His idea of
witchcraft as consisting of nefarious knowledge is
expressed in cIi. xvi. 3, where he says that" f lie
angels had been in heaven, and so knew "illegiti-
mate mysteries."

The Book of Tobit represents even the pious To-
bias as using a charm against evil spirits (vi 4-S,
viii. 2, xi. 11). This charm consisted of the -^innkf
of the gall of a fish.

The Apocalypse of Barucli (Ix. 1) regards the re-
ligion of the Amorites as "spells and incantations,"
but its author also remembers that Israel in the
days of the Judges was jiolluted by similar sins. |
XIL— 3.^)

*^ f

'^rlbutnl lu xuc Am

Any foreign nli^rlon || b«-"
and u wicked invMUTy. i

','," v. \u Um

•^''- . ... I. i

niOMiies. 8..C- Mahic

llllll.KK.i

lit I'llll...

limy. In /.

'■' urii; (,ti ^ ,, , „ , , .

WITEBSK
WITNESS

WITTELSHOFER. LEOPOLD
]iliyhi< inn ; burn ..
14. IHIH; died at \
tlie I'niversity of Vii-nna (M I»
tising medicine f.)r •
moved to Vienna
the " Wiener Me<ji/
I)eriof ileal lie (diuri,.i,
the author also of - W
anstalten." Vienna. iKTiH

nK-b. ith^. I Jit

Y T n

BiBi.iOfiRApiiY: Paifpl. Hu..r

WITTMANN. FRANZ:
clan and physic i.si . 1h)|„ at li
Jan. Ifi. 1,S6U. He wiw mIiicm-
of Hudapest. and continued lii-
Herlin. Paris, Fnr ' '
and Hanover. In 1- .
of physics at the ixilytcclinic in Bu
years later lie liecaine a
patent-bureau and se< relarx
iuers for teachers in intermeiliai'

Wittmann'sworks. \\I,
ing Hungarian uuthorit .
the following: "Az Itidi.
inductive repulsion): "I' -
Vi/.sgiilata" (optical t< -
" Hudape.st Villanivi
Budapest); "A/. Ei.., ; ,,, .
(technics of stronir eliTtrir
Batteriak es Inil

es Objektiv Eh , . ^,

currents from Leydm v.w^
densatorok Ann;
liti'i.sa" (test and
from condenser-
(acoustic experii:
Wiltinanii Iim^

the technical

s. .

WOCHENBLATT FUR DIE KAMILIE
See Pkuiophai s
WODIANER. PHILIP

work«'r. Ili>i)ti>ii< il • - ■

pari of the oii:lnc<'ii

ninet'

ish «< ..

senttMl tl inn wiii

s . . ;iUd «Uh silver llol^ Vi:utl» lul llJ^

k ,

Ili.s son Costnan (b. V
SzigetAii jaciin-K?'

Wog^ue
Wolf, Gerson

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

546

C. Urody and Lebusc)i Harif in Szegedin, under R.
Moses Sofer in Mattersdorf, and under R. Moses Minz
iu Alt-Ofen. In Gyor-Szigct, where he settled after
his marriage, he maintained a yeshibah of his own,
■which was usually frequented by forty to fifty
pupils; and he enjoyed a high reputation as a Tal-
mudist. His writings, left in manuscript, were
published by his sou Arnold (born iu Raab 1817)
under the editorship of Prt.f. \V. Bacher. They
appeared in 1890 in two volumes entitled "Sefer
Nahalat Yehoshua', Liber Hereditatis Josuae, Com-
mentationes in Plerosque Talmudi Babylonii Trac-
tatus AdditisCommentationibus in Pentateuchum,"
and consisted of Talmudic uovellae and of explana-
tions of passages in the Torah.

Wodianer's son Samuel, who, after the death of
Lis father, kept a large warehouse in Szegedin for
tobacco, wool, and corn, was president of the com-
nuinity from 1812 to 1821. Later he settled iu Pestli,
where he and his children were baptized. His
sou Albert (born at Szegedin Aug. 13, 1818; died
in Budapest July 17, 1898) studied technology in
Pesth and Vienna, and was in 1867 appointed royal
commissary of the Hungarian Northern Railroad.
In 1869 he received the Iron Cross of the second
class, and in 1870 the cross of the papal Order of St.
George; and in 1886 he was elevated to the Hun-
garian nobility.

BiBLiofJRAPHY : Kulinyi-L6w, A Szegedi Zsiduk; Sturm, Or-
»za(ja!iUIi'«i Almanach, 1897.
s L. V.

WOGUE, JULES: French author; son of
Lazare WoGUE; born in Paris Dec. 4, 1863; edu-
cated at the Ecole Normale Superieure in his native
city ("agrege es lettres," 1885). After successive
professorships at the lyceums of Saint Quentin and
Reims, as well as at the Lycee Michelet and the Col-
lege Rollin in Paris, he was appointed professor at
the Lycee Buffon, which position he still holds (1905).

Wogue is the author of the following works: " Le
Poete Gresset " (Paris, 1894) ; " Contes et Recits des
Di.\-Septieme et Dix-HuitiSme Siecles" ; "Les Por-
traits de LaBruyere"; and "Le Theatre Comique
aux Dix-Septieme et Dix-Huitieme Siecles" (Paris,
1905). He has published also editions of Racine's
"Esther" and "Athalie," Avith historical introduc-
tions and commentaries, including copious Biblical
notes. He is a contributor to the "Revue Bleue,"
the "Grande Revue," and "Le Temps."

s J. Ka.

WOGUE, LAZARE ELIEZER : French
rabbi: born at Fontainebleau, Seine-et-Marne, July
22, 1817; died at Paris April 14, 1897; educated at
the Lycee Charlemagne at Paris, and at the College
Royal and the Ecole Centrale Rabbinique at Metz.
Receiving his rabbinical diploma in 1843, he re-
ttirncd to Paris, and became assistant preacher un-
der Marchand Enncry, chief rabbi of Paris. Eight
years later Salomon Munk and Adolplie Franck
established a chair of Jewish theology at the Ecole
Centralf l{al)hini(|ue at Metz, to which Wogue was
appointed, remaining in this position until his retire-
ment, with the title of professor emeritus, in 1894.
Upon the transfer of the college from Metz to Paris
(1859)as the Seminaire Tsraelite'de France, his duties
were extended to embrace instruction in Hebrew

grammar. Biblical exegesis, and German. From
1879 to 1895 he was the director and editor-in-chief
of the "Univers Israelite," being at the same time a
member of the Imperial Academy of Metz, and of
the Society of Archeology and History of the Mo-
selle. Ou Jan. 11, 1885, he was made a chevalier
of the Legion of Honor.

Wogue, who was a prolific writer, is best known
for Ids translation of the Pentateuch, with notes
which include the chief rabbinical interpretations,
and for his history of Bible exegesis. His works
are as follows: "Sermon sur la Tolerance" (Metz,
1841); "Le Rabbinat Fran(;ais an Dix-Neuvieme
Si^cle " (Paris, 1843) ; " L'Aveuir dans le Judaisme "
(ib. 1844); " Shomer Eraunim, Le Guide du Croyant
Israelite" (Metz, 1857; 2d ed., with a preface by
Zadoc Kalin, Paris, 1898), a collection of prayers,
hymns, and meditations in prose and verse; "Le
Pentateuque" (Paris, 1860-69), a new translation,
with Hebrew text and notes, and a version of the
Haftarot ; " L' Anthropomorphisme et les Miracles Sc-
ion le Judaisme " {ib. 1867) ; a translation of the " Kol
Kore " of Elijah Soloweyczyk (3 parts, ib. 1870-75),
a harmony of the Bible, the Talmud, and the Gospels ;
a translation of Schleiden's "Bedeutung der Juden
fiir Erhaltung und Wiederbelebung der Wissen-
schaften im Mittelalter " {ib. 1877); a revised and an-
notated edition of the " Sefer Sekiyyot ha-Hemdah"
by D. Cahen (Mayence, 1877); a translation of Ga-
briel b. Joshua's " Petah Teshubah," which appeared
originally at Amsterdam in 1651 (Paris, 1879); a
revised edition of letters A-C of Leon Hollacnder-
ski's " Dictionnaire Universel Frangais-Hebreu " {ib.
1879) ; " Histoire de la Bible et de I'Exegese Biblique
Jusqu'a Nos Jours" {ib. 1881); a translation of the
first two volumes of Gratz's "Geschichte der Ju-
den" {ib. 1882-84); "Esqiiisse d'une Theologie
Juive" {ib. 1887); and "La Predication Israelite en
France" {ib. 1890). In addition to these works,
Wogue translated and annotated Lipmann Sofer's
"Gan Raweh." and revised the "Semaine Israelite"
of Baruch Crehange, the "Sentier d 'Israel" and the
"Rituel des Prieres" of Elcan Durlacher (10 vols.,
with Hebrew text and French translation), and
Ullmann's "Catechisme."

BiBLiOGRAPny : Ozar ha-Sifrnt, v.; Archives Israelites and
Univerx IsraeiiU, April, 1897.
s. J. Ka.

WOHLLERNER, JETTY: Galician Hebrew
writer; born at Lembergin 1813; died there in 1891.
When a little girl of eight. Jetty, after having
passed her examination in primary instruction, was
taken by her father, Michael Kehlmann, into his
office as an accountant. She was so devoted lo the
study of Hebrew, however, that shealwaj'S attended
the Hebrew lessons given her brothers, and in her
spare moments she used to read the Bible in Hebrew.
The Hebrew letters of the Christian Anna Maria
Scliurmann stimulated her still more, and she in-
duced her father to engage a teacher for her. The
physician Golilschmied, then a student at Lemberg,
was entrusted with her Hebrew education, ift the
age of fourteen she was betrothed to L. Rosanes of
Brody, and carried on a correspondence with him
whicli was styled by Rapoport "the echo of the
Song of Songs." Her fiance died, however; and she

647

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Worue
Wolf, 0«rM>n

was married several years later to Samson Wohl-
leriicr. She continued to write her Hebrew letters
notwithstanding; and the greater portion of her cor-
respondence, which is noteworthy for its style and
purity of language, was published in " Kokebe Yi/-
hak " and "Ha-Boker Or," wliile two letters, one to
Kayserling and one to Goldschmied, are found in
"0:.'.ar ha-Sifrut" (i. 60-62).

Bibliography: Kaysorlinp. Die JML'ichrn Frnueti.pp .Kfl-
311; AUg. Zeit. des Jtat. lf<9], p. 538; Welnbfrjf, Zi;n/«nm
me-Haum 'Ammemc, Wllna, 1891; JeivUsh Cliroiiiclc, Nov.

s- ' M. Ski..

WOLF (Hebr. "ze'eb"; for the rendering of
"iyyim," Isa. xiii. 22, and "tannim," Lam. iv. 3,
see Fox): The wolf {Cants lupus) is still found in
Palestine, where the animals prowl in pairs or droves
about sheepfolds at night. As a type of boldness,
ferocity, and bloodthirstiness, it is mentioned in Gen.
xlix. 27; Isa. xi. 6, Ixv. 25; Jer. v. 6; £zek. xxii.
27; Hab. i. 3; and Zeph. iii. 3.

According to the Talmud, the wolf (3NT, 6<3'T,
and Dip"!? [= Greek ?.i'TOf]) resembles in external
appearance the dog, with which it can copulate (Ber.
9b; Gen. R. xxxi. 6); and its period of gestation is
three years (Bek. 8a). It is the enemy of flocks,
and directs its attacks especially against the he-
goats (B. K. 15b ; Shab. 53b). The wound caused
by the ■v^olf's bite is oblong and ragged (Zeb. 74b).
Although when pressed by hunger the wolf attacks
even man (Ta'an. 19a), it can be tamed (Sanh. 15b).
For a comparison of the otter with the wolf see Suk.
56b and Gen. R. cxii. 3; and for fables of which the
wolf is the subject see Rashi on Sanh. 39a and 105a.

Bibliography: Tristram, Nat. Hist. p. 152; Lewysohn, Z. T.

p. 81.

E. G. H. I. M. C.

WOLF, AARON BENJAMIN. See Aaron

B. Bkn.iamix Wolk.

WOLF, ABRAHAM NATHAN: German
scholar; born at Dessau in 1751; died there in 1784.
On account of his liberal views he was highly es-
teemed by Moses Mendelssohn, but when he en-
deavored to harmonize the usual Jewisii system of
training with modern European culture, lie was
persecuted hy the conservative element among the
Jewish scholars, and even his friends nicknamed
him "the backslider." Wolf was the author of the
"Pesher Dabar " (Berlin, 1777), a comprehensive
commentary on the Book of Job, which was higlily
praised by Moses Mendelssohn on account of the
tiiorough rabbinical scholarship which it evidenced
("Der Sammler," 1785, p. 43). He also wrote
"Grundzlige der Ji'dischen Religion" {ih. 1782). in
which he expounded the teachings of Judaism in
simple language without reduring the moral and
religious contents of Jewisii law to arbitrary articles
of faith. The latter work has been lost for the last
fifty years. Wolf was likewise a contributor to
"Ha-Meassef " and to the hrst three volumes of the
"Bikkureha-'Ittim."

BinLinr.RAPiiv: P. Pliiljppson, nUmrnphiache Sikizzen. \>T>-
l'):Vl.")4, Leipsic, 1S&5 ; Dclitzscb. Zur Gesch. tier H'l>rilisciini
Poexic. p. 1(17: Alia. Zeit. des Jud. 1837, p. 448; St«;inschnet-
der. Cat. Dodl. col. 2578.
B. S. O.

he
t

iUtun of

WOLF, ADOLPU GRANT ..
bornut W „n. D. C. Jan. 11. ;

at Johns I i ' ■ ••

George W

sitynf \\ n. U.C.(LL.B.1W3; Ll

Ho was a<i.nii i. .i to the • - • ■ ■

a postgraduate courMr nt

Upon his ret urn to the I

came tinunctnl si • •

Charities ul Wa-
pointed ansociate jualtcc ot tbe ^
Porto Rico.

HinMOORAiMir : Amrrirau Jr^rUtt )'mr /|r>r>^ V*tt -tVi« &)
^ II

' WOLF, EMMA: A rt,

June I.'i, IMC,.",, ill .Sim Fra: ,tr

Iter parents liad niigraU*<i fntni I iml wlirfv

she received her edur ■ • .^

short stories, which ., . ,o

magazines, slie is tiie auilior of th' «;

•'Other Tilings Being Equal." Sii
"A Prodigal in Love," lA. 1H»4.
ib. 1896; and "Heirs of Y<«t4nlay,
Jewish novels attracted parliculn- ••
K\ttUO<iRA?nr : American J(uHth IV

A r T. H.

WOLF, GEORGE GARCIA : >a

nii'iiiiiiiil, ami ini-inln-r i.f ;in- i ,»j ;.i,

born at Great Yarmouth IKSH; dinl io Loodoo

March 18. 1899. He com ; |>-

prentice in Manchester, b. n-
treal, where lie became a general mi-rrluioi. Id IMO

he went to Kimberley, w' ' ' . ,l

store. He then lucame ji ^

men of the diamond fields, and r d

representative for Kimberley in «•

ment. He was pre»ent«-d l>y lii^ U

a gold C4isket conlai: i».

panied by an illuminu;- ^ ..

eral other i)ublicoftl<es in Kimlxrliy :
until his return to England.
BiBLiOGRAPiir : Jew. Chron. Murti ... .-'-•

J. O. L,

WOLF, GERSON : Auslrinn '
ediiciili'r; Ix'iii ui II '' > • ^' •
1823; died in Vienna
study of Hebrew at a vr:
ceived in.struction in Gern. ...
Egenter, then Btj»tiiine<I hi I!

surgeon. Ini '.

he went in ""....
where he ■ in Tutr

the .same linu- lii
(1839) he went !• *
university, his smdi'
losnphy. and ;
article. "Das i
Lustspiel I'nsi-rer Zoi'
morist." ■
" Son n tag-
his only attcmpl In the n<

Wolf was
struggles of .
Socialismus " app'
count of several jikiujh nin-

..^^1

Wolf, Gerson
Wolf, Max

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

548

Oesterreichische Zeitung " and iu " Die Zeit," he was
ordered to leave Vienna; but owing to the interven-
tion of influential friends the order was revoked.
He then decided to abandon journalism, and pres-
ently accepted a position in a school for Jewish
girls. In 1850 he was appointed religious instructor
iu the state industrial high school in the Leopold-
stadt. one of the districts of Vienna, which position
he held till 1876. In 1851, in response to a request
from the mayor of Vienna for suggestions as to school
reforms, he "published his "Ueber die Volksschulen
in Oesterreich," in which he advocated the elimina-
tion of religious instruction from all public schools.
Toward the end of 1852, on account of a secret de-
nunciation, his home was searched bj' the autiiori-
ties, and Gui-
zot's "La De-
mocratic en
France," a work
which had been
placed under the
ban, was found
in his library.
He was court-
martialed, held
in custody for
seventeen days
during trial, and
finally sentenced
to four weeks'
confinement in a
fortress. In the
same year he re-
ceived his degree
of Pii.D., and
two years later
was appointed
religious in-
structor to the
Jewish commu-
nity of Vienna.
Wolf was active
in various pub-
lic underta-
kings. In 1859 lie
founded a li-
brary for tlie
young; and in
1861, togetlier
with Noah
M a n n h e i m e r ,
Baron Konigswarter, and Julius von Goldschmidt, he
orgiinizcda.society for theaid of poor Jewish students
in Vienna. This .society, which is still (1905) in ex-
istence, has assisted more than 200 students annually
since its foundation. Until 1872 Wolf ofliciated as
pastor to the Jewish inmates of the houses of cor-
rection of Vienna and Stein-on-the-Danube; and
from 1884 to 1H92, as inspector of all the Jewish
relitrious schools of Vienna.

Wolf is the author of the following works:
"Gcsfliichte Israels fiir die IsraelitLsche Jugend"
(Vienna, 1856), introduced as a te.\t-book in various
Jewish schoolsof tlie United States; "Ferdinand II.
und die Juden" (ib. 1859; 2d ed., Leipsic, 1800);
" Vom Ersten bis zura Zweiten Tempel. G(!schichte

Johann Christoph Wolf.

(From Wolf, " Bibliotheca Hebrwa," HamburK, 1115.)

der Israeli tischen Cultusgemeinde in Wien, 1820-60"
(Vienna, 1860); "Zur Geschichte der Juden in
Worms unddes Deutschen Stadtewesens " (Breslau,
1862) ; " Judentaufen in Oesterreich " (Vienna, 1863) ;
"Isaak Noah ]\raiiiilieiiiier. Eine Biographisclie
Skizze " (ib. 1863) ; " Die Juden in der Leopoldstailt "
{ib. 1863) ; '• Zur Geschichte der Jiidi-schen Aerzte in
Oesterreich" (1864); "Zur Geschichte Jt\disclier
TartlilTe" (pseudonymously ; Leipsic, 1864); "Das
Ilundertjahrige Jubilaum der Israeliti.schen Cultus-
gemeinde" (Vienna, 1864); "Zwei Geschichten der
Israelitischen Cultusgemeinde in Wien "(/A. 1865);
"Zur Lage der Juden in Galizieu " (1867); "Joseph
Wertheimer, ein Lebens- und Zeitbild " (Vienna,
1868); "Die Vertreibung der Juden aus Bohmen im

Jahre 1744, und
dercn Rllckkehr
iiu Jahre 1748"
(Leipsic, 1869);
" Kurzgefasste
Religious- und
Sittcnilehre" (Vi-
enna, 1870; 2d
ed., ib. 1877),
used as a text-
book in Jewish
schoolsof North
America ; " Ge-
schichte der Ju-
den in Wien von
1156-1876" (ib.
1876); "Joseph
II." (ih. 1878);
"Die Jiidischen
Friedhofe und
die Clievrah Ka-
d i s c h a h in
Wien" (i7>. 1879);
"Die Alten Sta-
tutcn der Jii-
dischen Gcmein-
ilen in ]\Ialiren,
nebst den Dar-
auf f olgeiiden
S y n o d a 1 b e -
sc'hlussen " (ib.
1880); "DasUn-
terrichtswesen
in Oesterreich
Unter Kaiser Jo-
seph II." (ih.
1880); "Aus der Zeit der Kaiserin ]\Iaria Tlieresia"
{ib. 1888); "Josefina"(rt. 1890); and"Klcine Histo-
ri.sclie Schriften " (ib. 1892).

Bini.ioouAPiiY : Wiirztiach, TiUxj. Lrx.: AUqcmeine Dnit-
sclic liuntraiihir ; Mflhretts Mihiuer iJcr Otueinrart, s.v.
For Wolf's autohioRraphy see Xotizcuhlatt der HiKturixcli-
Stati.sti.tcheyi SectiDii der- OcfieU.tclinft zttr Befonlrnnio (lis
Ackcrbnues, ed. by Christian Ritter d'Elvert, 1875, Nos. :i and 4.
R. N. I).

WOLF, HIRSCH W. : German physician;
born at Lot)seiis, Poseii, 1738; died at Hamburg
April 14, 1820; studied at the University of Giessen
(M.I). 1779). After ])ractising for .some time in .\1-
tona, he removed to Hamburg, wliure from 17.^6 to
1788 he acted as physician at the poorhouse. lie
was the author of the following works: "Abhand-

649

THE JP:\VISH ENCV( i.'Hi

1)1 A

Wo:f 0«r«

lung iiber das Spanische Fliegenpttaster," Altoim,
17H5; " Verthcidigung dcr Frlihun Beerdigung dcr
.Tiidcn," Ilamhuig, 1788; " licnicrkungcn lUier dif
IJlattern," ih. 1795; " Idoeu lihtT J.clifiiskriift, m-ljst
EinigenKrankcngfschiclitcn iindBcinerkiingon," Al-
tona, 1806; " Praktischc Bciiu'ikuiigon iicbst Krank-
lieitsgeschichtcn," Hauihuig, 1811; " Urhcrdiis W'c-
scn des Fiebcis, nebst I'inem Beit rag zuin Tbierisclicii
IMagiR'tismus," ib. 1815, 2d ed. 1818.

BiBLiofjRAPiiY: Hirscli, TiioQ. Lex.

s. F. T. H.

WOLF, JOHANN CHRISTOPH : Clirlstiim
Hebraist and poiyliistor; born at. Wernigerode Feb.
21, 1683; died at Hamburg July 25, 1739. He stud-
ied at Wittenberg, and traveled in Holland and Eng-
land iu tbo interest of science, coming in contact
with Vitringa, Surenluiis, Reland, Basnage. and
others. He especially occupied himself with tjie
study of Oriental languages and literature, of which
he became professor at the Hamburg gymnasium in
1712. At this time the Oppenheimer Collection was
lioused at Hamburg, and Wolf determined to devote
himself to a description of Jewish literature based
upon this collection. His researches resulted in
"Bibliotheca IIebra>a" (4 vols.. Hamburg, 1715-3:5),
the first volume of which contains a list of Jewish
authors, while the second deals with the sul)ject
matter under the headings "Bible," "Talmud,"
"Cabala,"*' etc. The knowledge of Christendom
about the Talmud was for nearly a century and a
half derived from Wolf's statements. Vol. iii. is a
supplement to vol. i. ; vol. iv. to vol. ii. Wolfs
work forms the basis of Steinschneider's catalogue
of the Bodleian Library, which has references to it
on nearly every page. Besides this work he issued
a history of Hebrew lexicons (for his doctor's disser-
tation ; Wittenberg, 1705), and "Notitia Karojorum "
(Hamburg, 1721).

Bibliography: Pt«inschneidcr, BihJinornphisrhes Hnii'l-
huch, 18.59, pp. xviii. et arq.; idem. Cat. Bodl. co\. ;r7.«i;
■ Furst, BU,l. Jud. iii. 528; McClintock and Strom?, Cyc.
T. •'■

WOLF BEN JOSEPH OF DESSAU : Ger-
man scholar and author; born at Dessau in 1762;
died there March 16, 1826. Left an orphan at an
early age, he was e<lucated by his father-in-law, Reb
Gumpel ; and in 1775 he lived with his uncle, Jacob
Benscher, at Berlin, where he attended the com-
munal school. He ofhciated as a teacher in Frcien-
waldeon-the-Oder from 1780 to 1782, was in Wriezen
from 1782 to 1789, and lived iu Sandersleben from
1789 to 1796, when he settled in Dessau, having
been appointed tutor in the Herzog Franz Schule.
At the same time he discharged the duties of secre-
tary to the Jewish community of Dessau, and also
ofliciated as preacher. Wolf was tiie author of the
following works: "Minhaii Tehorah " (2 vols., Des-
sau, 1805), the Hebrew text of the Minor Propliets.
with a German translation, and a Hebrew preface en-
titled "Solet la-Minhah"; "Daniel" (ib. 1808). with
the original text, a Hebrew commentjiry. and a Ger-
man translation; acollectionof sermons delivered m
the synagogue, with a Hebrew translation {ib. 1812);
"Shir" (ib. 1812), a eulogy on the Book of Esther,
to which it was appended; a collection ..f sermons
{ib. 1813); " Charaktcr des Judentums" (Leipsic,

1817), Hti nil' , '. rilliii ii
hold Solonmii; uiul " V'

1819), KM ,.l(ll|.

glossary. He " .

and tenth voIuiiimi of " Iln '^

Ml II I
l.<

til-
of

iht i(» . I

tin- n,
IhiitL .
K. C.

WOLF, LUCIEN : K: .•.;-!,
Aiii^lo-.lcwish liisiotiiiii , Imhii III I
1857. Hi! began IiIn Joiirnullitir
early age on "The Jewihh Wor
in 1874, and wii« priii' ■• .' '
journal until 1H93. \\
daily " Public Leader" in
after other joiirnaliHtic exj. ..
subeditor and leader- wriUT of \
in 1H90, a position whirh lie h'

is a fellow of the Institute of ,

held honorary positlonH in connection \^

four years(lH93-97) he wan l.-

of " Le Journal " of Purin. \V.

informed English writers on fc:

many years his ar'' "

that subject in the i

of the characteristic featurfH of the n.

1905 some coin ' '

"Times" on Uu

comment, and cvokctl llic unique

disclaimer by tlie Rus^^i ■ >!•■••-

Wolf has shown a st:
history. He was intiinat
Anglo-Jewish Historical Y.
otlicial catalogue and the '^ i
ica," a bibliography of At;.
iu collaboration with Jc)R4-p:. .
the Jewisli Historical SK-icty
came its first president, in
the volume devoted to ** .M .
sion to Oliver Cromwell"
devoted considiral'
grces, of which h<
wrote "Sir Moses Moi
phy (1><H5). He also <
on " Ami Semitisin " »:
clopirdia BriUinnica," and on llic U'
adversely in eontn
whom, however, )■ ,
Jewish Territorial OrganlMUoo.

WOLF. MAX : AuMrian

Weisskircliiii. .M"' ■
Marcir23. 1HS(V H
desired liim to pnr-
early evinrnl i •
began studyii.
later continuing i
Berlin and Of ^
General von M
ductions playi'*! n;
artist to compow' n ;.. ^ -
mav pet into the boy^"

In his earlier comporitJou* SS

A II

v. U

at hai-

Wolf, Simon
Wolff, Abraham

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

550

tated tlje style of Offenbach ; but later he ac(iuired
more originality and inveutive talent. Among his
works may be mentioned: "Die Schule der Liebe"
(1868). a one-act operetta, which passed tlirough
thirty four consecutive performances in Berlin under
the title "Die BlaueDanie"; "Im xsamen des Ko-
nigs," au operetta, prrformed in Berlin and on vari
ous other German stages; " Die Portriildame," staged
at Gratz and in Vienna ; " Die Pilger '' (Vienna, 1872),
a three-act opera ; "Cesarine"; and "Kafaela."

Bibliography: Scrihtter's Cuclnpedia of Music ami Muxi-
ciaiig; Wurzbach. Biiiy. Li\v.\ AUuemelnc Zcitung, ISSti, p.
HSi: Atue l-Yeie Pressc, ISiW, No. 7750.

S N. D.

WOLF, SIMON : American jurist, publicist,
and philautliropisl; born at Hinzweiler, Bavaria,
Oct. 28, 1836; emigrated to tlis United States in

1848 and settled as a
merchant at Ulrichs-
vilie, Ohio. lie stud-
ied law at the Ohio
Law College, Cleve-
land, and was ad-
mitted to the bar at
Mount Vernon, Ohio,
in 1861. He practised
law at Xew Philadel-
phia, in the same
state, for a year, and
then moved to Wash-
ington , where he
opened an office.
From 1869 to 1878 he
was recorder of the
District of Columbia.
President Hayes ap-
pointed him one of
the civil judges at Washington, but he resigned in
1881 to accept the appointment of consul-general of
the United States to Egypt, from which office he re-
tired the following year. He was appointed and re-
appointed member of the Board of Charities for the
District of Columbia, and at present practises law
in Washington.

Wolf lias l)een for many years chairman of the
Board of Delegates of Civil and Religious Rights,
and in tliat capacity lias had many occasions for sub-
mitting to the federal government grave questions
of Jewish interest. He has been very active in the
Independent Order B'nai B'rith, of which he was
president from 1903 to 190."). He was the founder
and president of the Hebrew Orphans' Home at
Atlanta, Ga., and is president of the Board of Chil-
dren's Guardians, Washington.

He is H i)rominent freemason, an able lecturer, and
a recognized orator who has devoted much time to
philanthropic work among all classes.

Wolf is the author of "The American Jew as Pa-
triot. Soldier, and Citizen" (Philadelphia, 1895) and
of biographies of M. M. Noah and Com. U. P. Levy.

BiBMooRAPiiY : American Jewish Year BooJu 19*5, p. 208.
•'• F. T. II.

WOLFENBUTTEL : German city, particularly
noted for it- Samson-Schule, a school, originally
at Brunswick, founded by Herz Samson, on a legacy

Miii'jn \\n;f.

by his father. On June 4, 1786, Philip, the brother
of Herz, opened a Talmud school at Wolfenbiittel
for boys. The funds of these schools were increased
by subsequent gifts of the founders and their de-
scendants. In 1805 the two foundations Avere com-
bined as the "Samson Free School," and were trans-
formed into a German seminary and school in charge
of four teachers. Instruction was given in German,
French, arithmetic, geography, history, and callig-
raphy, and the school consisted of one class with
eight free scholars. In 1813 the Brunswick school
was incorporated with the free school, and the funds
were combined, with the condition that live addi-
tional free .scholars should be admitted. As paying
boarding jjupils had also been received at the re
quest of many parents, a second class was organized.
Instruction in the Talmud was subsequently discon-
tinued. In 1843 the institution was changed to a
grammar-school with three classes, and was named
"Samson-Schule." After 1871 it was gradually en-
larged to a high school, and by 1903 it had gained
the status of a real-school with si.\ classes. It was
under the direction and supervision of the ducal
school-board of Brunswick, and was empowered to
give certificates for one yeai's military service.
Since 1881 Christian boys have been adnntted as \m-
pils and receive special religious instruction. In
1903 the faculty included the director, Ludwig
Tacliau, five teachers with university training, and
three elementary teachers, one of whom also acts
as resident teacher. The trustees are Counselor of
Justice Magnus of Brunswick, Gustav Cohen of
Hanover, and L. Samson of Wolfenbiittel. Among
the former pupils of the institution may be men-
tioned M. I. Jost, Leopold Zunz, and Samuel Meyer
Ehrenberg (1807-46), who was later its director.
Although the institution was frequently enlarged,
in 1895-96 a new and larger building with all mod-
ern improvements was erected to accommodate the
constantly increasing attendance. In 1903 there
were 148 boarders and 11 day pupils. There are
twenty-five full and between eighteen and twenty
partial scholarships, in addition to numerous foun-
dations for the assistance of pupils, even after they
have left tiie institution.

f*. L. K.

WOLFENSTEIN, MARTHA: American au-
thoress; born at Insterburg, Prussia, Aug. 5, 1869.
During her infancy her parents emigrated to the
United States, settling in Cleveland, Ohio, in the jiub-
lic schools of which cit}' she received her education.

]\Iartliii Wolt'enslein has contributed short stories
to nearly all the leading Jewish journals, and to vari-
ous other magazines. Among her writings may be
mentioned- "A Priest from the Ghetto" and "A
Sinner in Israel " (in " Lippincotfs IMagazine ") ; and
"The Renegade " (in the "Outlook"). In 1901 the
Jewish Publication Society of America published a
book from her pen entitled "Idyls of the Gass"
(German transl. in " Die Zeit " of Vienna).

Unn,iOGRAPiiY : American Jewixh Year Book. liX);').
A. F. T. H.

WOLFF: American family which derives its
origin from the Robles family of Surinam, Dutch
Guiana. The following is the family tree:

551

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOI'hlJlA

DaDicI ItobliN III' KciOMva
= Sttrali Ia-\ V

Jacob Robles Levy
- Raihi'l ill' la Moita

- IVi

Hattie

Katie

JutUL

Moses Miriam

= (ITni) Aaron Capp^ von Honlg

Rachel Cappe
(b. 1793)

Daniel

!ii;irr!'"l l«l 4

Juaali

•'. M ;•.!>

Jacob W. Mosei^W. Charlotte Miriam Daniel W. Ellas W R..»«.,v«

-Josephine = Jac.ib Mendez = Miriam luppo =j.~.„p i--.

tia Costa
(issue)

aitetn

lA'\\

II I I I

David W. Rachel Aanm W. Charles (i. W. Auk'iisti.

- Henry A. Tobias (b. 1M3) = Kanny Levy ^

I = (1867) Agnes Hendricks

I \ I .-I : . I ,

AiifTUsta Florence Ethel

= Cha*. = H. Mim- Lilian

.'!tan

I I Emily John B. Arthur Frum raniiT Ja«t>lil<>» olktn

Agnes Alma W. W. <.....

R. teflore Schloss = L. Napoleon (d. 1901) (d. 1876)

Keyser (issue) Levy

(issue)

' I. N Li

Wolff pEuuiUKt.

WOLFF, AARON: Danish merchant; born in
the Island of Saint Christopher on Aug. 6, 1795; died
in London, England, Jan. 13, 1872. He was a de-
scendant of Daniel Robles de Fonseca. Soon after
1814 he removed to the Island of St. Thomas, Danish
West Indies, where he was appointed to the olfite of
" Stadthovidsmand " (mayor), which ranked him next
to the governor of the islant,!. He received from tlie
King of Denmark the decoration of the Order of Dan-
nebrog; and lie was a member of the Royal Conneil;
president of tlic Bank of St. Thomas, which he man-
aged for thirt3'-two years; chairman of the Marine
Slip; president of the St. Thomas Marine Insurance
Company; and for many years presidentof tlie syn-
agogue. Wolir anticipated the action of the King of
Denmark by emancipating all his slaves previous to
the Emancipation Proclamation of 1843.

J. L. N. Le.

WOLFF, ABRAHAM ALEXANDER : Ger-
man rabbi; born at Darmstadt Apiil 'J!t, bsoi ; died
at Copenhagen Dec. S, 1891. Ilis first tcaciier was
liis father, Alexander Wolff, a merchant, who was
well versed in the Talmud and who destined Ids son
for a rabbinical career. At the age of six the hoy
astonished the scholars of Darmstadt by his knowl-
edge of Hebrew. He continued his studies under
Rabbi C. Meklenburg, and at the.same timeattcnded
the gj'mnasium of his native city. In 1817 he went
to IMayence, where he studied under Herz Scheyer
and ]\Iichael Creizenacli, the latter teaching him
mathematics. He then pursued his education under

Abraham Bing in WQrzburg. ttnA »>fH»'fi«H tli«i uni-
versity there. Thne yean* nf'
Giesscu (Ph.D. 1821). '],• • -
1826 was appoint<-d T

incc of Oberlu'ssen with u r in

1828 he received a call f^' "
hagen ; and heassunx':
mark on May 16. 182H

The .synagogtie of Copt iihac ;
in no.") anil was still in ruin«. no
munity — botli ^^^
split intosever.i _ „

energy, inducetJ the Jew* I
which wa^
same year N'>

tlie synagngiil liturpy. H«
proving th' ' '

tians <if I)t I
the organization o(
lie wa.H created n km.
(Oct. 6. IHMi, nn«l « •>« ti
profes-Hor.

WolfT wi.> ill- I ■
during Id" l'<«iu' rut
hcdeli\

in Oeriii....

lished. His wi.rk* wr M '
Habakkuk

kuk with li;

critical commmtary. and an In"
ecy : "Toral Yisnicl ' (Ocrinan in

Ti.

1. I.

• •>f

Wolff, Jo«eph
Wolff, Ulla

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

652

Israelitischeu Religion " ; Mayeuce, 18'25), a text-book
fur iustructioa iu Judaism iu schools (an abridged
Danisli editiou was publislu-d by Paul Martin Moller
in •■ Bibliotheca Tlieuiogica," xvii. 67-81, ami tlic en-
tire work wiis translateil into Swedish by M. Hen-
rikes. Stockholm, 1844); "Einige Worte an das
Publicum fiber Mein Israelitisclies Heiigionsbucli "
{lb. 1826); "Abhaudlung Uber deu Eid " (iu Weiss,
"Archiv fur Kirelienrecht," 1830); " Drci Vorlc-
sungcn als Eiideitung zu VortrJigen uberdas Juden
Ihum" (Copenhagen, 1838); " Agende for del Mosti-
jske Trossamfunds Synagoge" (Leipsic, 1839);
"Ateret Shalom weEniet' (tirst published under
the pseudonym of " Aniam ben Schmida " in " Orient,
Lit." ii., Nos. 23-26. and tlien, in enlarged form, as a
book. Leipsic, 18")"), a compilation of the opinions
of ancient rabbis with regard to the piyyutim ; "Te-
tillat Yisrael," the jirayers with a Danish translation
{ib. 1856); " Aufgefundener Brief wech.sei Zwisclien
einem Hochgestellten Protestantischen Geistlichen
und einem Rabl)iner" (first in "Ben Cliananja,"
1860, and then in l>ook form with addiiions und
corrections, Leipsic, 1861); " Lserebog i den Israelitis-
ke Religion" (ib. 1861 );"Bibeliiistorie for den Israeli-
tiske Ungdom" {ib. 1862); " Bibelhistorie for Skole
og Hjem" (ib. 1867); and "Talmudf.iendor " (ib.
1878). He also made a Danish translation of tlie
Pentateuch, which svas published on his ninetieth
birthda}'.

BiBLittGRAPHV : I. S. (iraher, in Ozar /in-Si/rKf, v. 331-3;*J;
Kayserlinc, BihUoDnk JlUliaclii)' Ka)izih-P(l)itr. i. 329 ct
nfij.: idfin, GcdenkNiitter, p. K"); Tin' Rrfurmer, x., >;o. .'57,
p. 1 ; X. Sokolow. Sefcr Zihlsarou, pp. 3t)-3~; idem, in Ha-
A^if. vi., pan 1, pp. UT-148.
S. M. Sel.

WOLFF, JOSEPH : :\Iissionary and Oriental
traveler; burn at Weilersbach, near Bamberg, Ger-
many, in 1795; died at He Brewers, Somerset, Eng-
land. May 2. 1862. His father, who was rabbi at
Wilrttemberg, sent him to the Protestant Lyceum
at Stuttgart, and while still a youth he learned
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Leaving home on ac-
count of his inclination toward Christianily, he was
converted after many wanderings, and was bajitized
on Sept. 13. 1812, by Leopold Zolda, abbot of the
Benedictine monastery of Emmaus, near Prague. In
1813 he commenced to study Arabic, Syriac, and
Aramaic, arnl in the following year attended theo-
logical lectures in Vienna. In 1815 he entered the
University of Tiibingen, and by the liberality of
Prince Dalberg was enabled to study theology for
nearly two years, as well as Arabic and Persian,
Biblical exegesis, and ecclesiastical history. In 1816
he arrived in Rome, where he was introduced to
Pope Pius VII. by tiie I'lussian amba.ssador. He
was soon afterward admitted as a pupil of the Col-
legio Romano, and later of the Collegio di I'rojja-
ganda; but in 181H, having publicly attacked tlu;
doctrine of infallibility, lie was ex-
Friend- pelled from the papal dominions on ac-
ship with cr)unt of erroneous opinions. After a
Henry brief slay at tiie Monastery of the Re-
Drum- dcmptorists at Val Salute, near Frei-
mond. burg, he went to p:ni:laii(l tf) visit the
eccentric Henry Drummond, >rP.,
•whose acquaintance he harl made at Home. lie soon
declared himself a member of the Chun h of Entrland.

At Cambridge he resumed the study of Oriental lan-
guages, with the purpose of visiting Eastern lands
to prepare the way for missionary enterprises. Be-
tween 1821 and 1826 he traveled as a missionary in
Egypt anil the Levant, and was the first modern
missionary to preach to the Jews near Jerusalem.
He sent Christian boys from Cyprus to England for
education, and then continued his travels through
Persia, Mesopotamia, Titlis. and the Crimea.

About 1828 Woltl commenced an expedition iu
search of the Lost Ten Tribes. After suffering ship-
wreck at Cephalonia and being rescued by Sir
Charles Napier, wlio.se friendship he retained
through life, he passed through Anatolia, Armenia,
and Kliorassan, where he was made a slave, but
ultimately set free. Undaunted, he traversed Bo-
khara and Balkli, and reached Cabul in a state of
nudity, having walked six hundred miles through
Central Asia without elotiiiug. In 1836 he went to
Abyssinia, and afterward to Sana in Yemen, where
he preached to the Wahabites. His next journey
was to the Uniteil States. He preached before Con-
gress and received the degree of D.I), at Annapolis,
Md., in 1836. He was ordained deacon by the
Bishop of New Jersey, and in 1838 priest by the
Bishop of Dromore. In 1843 he made another
journey to Bokhara to ascertain the fate of Lieut. -
Col. Charles Stoddart and Captain Connolly, a com-
mittee formed in London having raised the sum of
£500 for his expenses. The men for whom he
searched had been executed, and the same fate
threatened Wolff. According to his own story he
confronted the sovereigns of Central Asia with im-
perturbable audacity, refusing to conform to their
court eti(}uette or to observe an)' ceremony in his
speech ; on being asked to become a Moslem he re-
turned a defiant reply. The threat of execution
was, however, a pretense, and he was ultimately
rescued tliiough the efforts of the Persian ambas.sa-
dor. In 1845 he was ])re.scnted with the vicarage of
He Brewers in Somerset, where he resided until his
death.

Before joining the Church of England, Wolff had
entertained all sorts of religious ojunions. He was
a member of the little baud which met in Henry
Drummond's liou.se at Advent, 1826, for a six days'
study of the Scriptures, which resulted in the orig-
ination of the Catholic Apostolic Church under the
leadership of Irving. In his missionary travels he
went fearlessly among the most fanatical peoples, and
he may be said to have been one of the pioneers of
modern missionary enterprise. His greatest opposi-
tion came from the Jews, and to overcome this he
made use of extraordinaiy methods, as when, iu
Bombay, he wished to inspect the synagogue of the
Benilsrael. In spite of his education and his ex-
tensive travels. WolIT was posses.se(l of many erratic
ideas. In India he was considered a fanatic; in
England he was at one time ostraci/ed by the clergy ;
and he bent ail facts to suit his theories of the lost
tribes, lie believed the Kast India ('ompany to be
the "kings of the east "' (Kev. xvi. 12).

In 1827 Wolff married the sixth daughter of the
Earl of Orford. Georgiaiia Mary Walpole, by whom
he had a son, Sir Henry Drummond Wolff, the
politician and diploiiiatist, Ali<'r her death he mar-

553

THE JEWISH ENCYCLDl'hDlA

ried (1861) Louisa Decima, daughter of James Kiug,
rector of St. PeterlePoer, Loudon. VVollT signed
liiiuself "Apostle of Our Lord Jesus Christ for Pales
tine, Persia, Hoklmra, and Halkh." He whs thcaulhor
of the followin.!^ works: "Missionary Journal"
(Loudon, 1824; 2(1 ed. 1827-29); "Sketch of the Life
and Journal of Joseph WoUf" (Norwich, 1«27);
"Journal of Josepli WnitT for 1831 " (London, \H'S2);
" Kesearches and Missionary Labors Among the Jews,
Mohammedans, and Otlier Sects Between 1831 and
1834" (Malta, 1835; 2(1 (■<1., London, 1835); "Journal
of the Kev. Joseph WoUT Continued, An Account of
His Missionary Labors for 1827-31 and froni 1835 to
1838" (London, 183!)); "\\ Narrative of a Mission to
Bokhara to Ascertain the Fate of Colonel Stoddart
and Captain Connolly " (London and New York ; 7th
ed. 1852); "Travels and Adventures of Joseph
Wolll" (London, 1860; 2d ed. 1861; translated into
German, 1863).

Bibi.iocrapiiy: Travels and Adve)tturc:< of Joseph }yolff,
London, 1801; Dirt. Xat. liioij.

J. V. E.

WOLFF, JOSEPH : Uu.ssian historian ; born at
St. Petersburg; died at Heidelberg 19U0. The .son
of a book-dealer, he early developed a passion for
reading historical works. After completing a course
of study at the gymnasium of his native city, he
entered the Univer.sity of Leipsic, where he devoted
himself *o the study of history, especially of Polish
and Lithuanian alTairs. Among his works tiie fol-
lowing may be mentioned: "Senatorowiei Dignitarze
"W'ielkiego Ksiestwa Litewskiego, 1386-1795" (Cra-
cow, 1885); "Syd Ministrem Krola Zygmunta" (ib.
1885), a historical sketch; " K(h1 Gedymina" {ib.
1886) ; and " Kniziowic Litewsko-Kusey od Konca
xiv w." (Warsaw, 1895). AVolff was a corresponding
member of the Academy of Cracow.

Bibliography: EiiriiklopeAJa Fowszechua, xv. 471 ; SiXc-
inatichcskL Uhazatd Litcraturu o Yevrei/akh, 1X93.
s. J. Go.

WOLFF, JULIUS : German surgeon ; born at
Markisch Friedlaud, West Prussia, March 21. 1836;
died at Berlin Feb. 18, 1902. He received his edu-
cation at the Grauekloster Gymnasium, and at the
University of Berlin, graduating in 1860, whereupon
he established himself as surgeon in the Prussian
capital. He took part in the wars of 1864, 1866. and
1870-71. receiving the Iron Cross for non-combatants.
In 1868 lie was appointed ])rivat-docent. and in 1884
assistant professor of surgery, at the University of
Berlin. In 1890 he became chief surgeon of the
newly founded orthopedic dispensary at the uni-
versity. In 1899 he received the title of "Geiieimer
Medizinalrat."

Wolff contributed more than a hundred es.says to
medical journals, treating of orthopedics, osteop-
athy, and laryngology. He was the author al.so of
" Das Gesetz der Transformation der Knochen " (Ber-
lin. 1892), published by the Koyal Prussian Academy
of Sciences.

Bibliography: Papel, Uioi;. I.(.-r.

s. r . 1 11

WOLFF, MAURICE: Swedish rablu; born in
1824 at Meseritz, Prussia, where Ids father omciatid
as rabbi. He studied at the universities of Berlin
and Leipsic, and was in 1849 apjiointed rabbi in

li.

Cuhn. Pi

the rahbliiute of < .

tlior . -^

entW).

bekeniiteu

"Pidl.

borg, M

I.rfipHie. INW. •• Muhniiiii

ib. 1872; " BeinerK

not we-I)eot," ib ;

Gilteborg. 1879, "Uttlrtixc tur pl

lorie," Stn<kl: ' ■

der Bibelexf^.

BlULIiMiKAI'IIV : A.d<
(itvi t^cnvoitu tiu J
Jew. Clirtm, Oct, U». U»'

WOLFF, OSKAR LUDWIG lil.H.NlIA
Germuii improviHulor unil no-
July 26. 1799; di. .! " '
manifested an un .

guages, and whiiu still in college be
Shakespeare's " MaclM-th " • ': -
1817 lie entered the L'niv'
devoted himstlf to the Htiidy u(
and literature, afterward mttlinj; i:
lie pursued a litemry earor 'I
Italian improvisators Gianni .

in him a desire tn embruc*- u .-

1825 he slatte«l on his rirst loiir. vl-

Hanover, Hrunswick. W'

sic, and Dresden, and ii.> ^ .

marked success. Amonff his .

and Grand Duke Karl .\':

appointed him to a prof-

this period of hiseartvr Wolff finl>r

and in 1S29 he was ap

modern literature at ■

promoted to a full pmfeMorslilp to IW7.

AnK)np Wolff's Work . '
lung llistoriM-her \
Deutschen" (IKUl); "Alltran.

1-
■ »-

RD :

I
K

(1831); " Poetis«her lln .

Volkes"(lM39. l.'.lli.d m;

death); "Die Ge~

rrsprunp bis auf o •

%■

S( hat/. derDeut.si hen 1

Deul-scher IkTe<|v.

his novels and stm .- j-

1842.

BlBLIOORAPHT: O. U B.

v,..ri.. 1..,,,, iMI-ii; .^'

\ ■

WOLFF, ULLA ;."».!,

.11 \ in Ulri

h Frur.k i ;
.1

German aulhore-vs. 1

2, IS-W; duughler

her education at l.

In 18X0 she took up her :

•

she .still lives (UK'

"Der Vampyr." ...

Breslau. ami wh« well r-

<•

follow*"*! by ' '

■■ »•

tionalt heater

ce«8. She llMTPupon .

'"•

and devoUtl her li'

Wolffson
Wolowski

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

554

els, among which may be mentioned: "DasWald-
geheimuiss," Bremen, 1879; "Das Wuuderkind,"
Berlin. 1884; "Frau Ottilie" and ^ Bettiors Heim,"
rfj 1886; "Weltliche Beichte." ib. 1887; " Der
Kampf ums Glttck." ib. 1888; " Rcchtsanwalt
Ariiau," ib. 1891; "Der Kompagnon," ib. 1895;
• Adelig." ib. 1896; "Gestern und Heute." ib. 1897;
"Margarcthc Eilert."i6. 1898; "Die Lene," ib. 1902;
" Die Eiusiedlerin " ; " Die Gesciiichte Zwcier Sab-
iiathnachinittage " (appeared in English translation
in "The New Era Illustrated Magazine," New York,
Nov. and Dec. 1904); "Beim Patriarchen"; "Die
Toten '' ; " KOnnen Damen Allein Heisen ? " ; and " Die
FrQhlingsgnade."

BiHLiDfiRAPHY : Gustav Karpeles. in Xord und Slid, part 327;
Ketrin** N(eisser), in Lkut.'<che Hausfraiieri-Zcitiuiu, Sept.
11. l»>^.
s. F. T. II.

WOLFFSON. ISAAC: German jurist and poli-
tician; boiM Jan. ly, 1817; died at Hamburg Oct.
12. 1895. He was prominent in German politics,
and prior to 1871 was a member of the North Ger-
man Reichstiig, being afterward elected to the Ger-
man Reichstag. In the Jewish community he was a
councilman for many years, and was known for his
philanthropic deeds.

Bibliography : Jew. Chron. Oct. 16, 18ft5, p. 9.

s. F. S. W.

WOLFKAN OF RATISBON : Jewish convert
to Christianity and traducer of tiie Jews; lived in
the second half of the lifteenth century. He was
prominent in the Simon of Trent affair (1475), on
which occasion he, in order to vent his spite against
his f(jrmer coreligionists, asserted that the Jews had
very likely killed the child, since they needed Chris-
tian blood for the Passover festival. This affair,
and particularly Wolfkau's testimony, a few months
later afforded Bishop Henry a pretext for making a
similar accusation against the Jews of Ratisbon,
whom he charged with having eight years previously
bought a Christian child, which they then murdered
for ritual purposes.

Bibliography : Grfitz, Gesch. viii. a59, 267.

s- M. Sel.

WOLFLEIN OF LOCHAMEN (LOCH-
HEIM>: Medieval Bavarian litterateur; known for
his compilation of the so-called *' Lochlieimer Lieder-
buch " (about 1450), a collection of medieval German
folk-songs, numerically arranged. Under No. 15
apjjears the following dedication in Hebrew charac-
ters: "Der Allerliebsten Barbara Meinem Treuen
Liebsten Gemaken." which seems to indicate that
U'oKlein was a Jew; as does also the expression
" Vil guter Jar," which appears under No. 5, and
which was used only by Jews. On the other hand,
it is noteworthy that "Barbara "is not a current
name among Jewish women, and that a Christian
grace after meals appears under song No. 36.

Bibliography: AmoUi, in Chry8ancler's.7fi/;W(i/r/i /(ir 3i"iwi-
knlUiche Wi^ennchaft, 11. 12 et seq.; GQdemann. Gesch. Hi.

^ M. Sei-.

WdLFLER, BERNARD: Austrian physi-
cian: born :it PiasclnKjaugezd, Bohemia, Dec. 8,
1816. After having studied philosophy at the gym-

nasiimi of Prague, he attended the University of
Vienna (1836-42), where he devoted himself to the
study of medicine. From 1843 to 1845 he acted as
assistant physician at the communal hospital of Vi-
enna; from 1845 to 1849 he was a private practi-
tioner in Prague; and in 1849 he was appointed di-
rector of the Jewish hospital of Vienna. When
Baron Anselni von Roth.scliild, impressed by the
efficiency of the hospital in si)ite of its limitations,
erected a better building and presented it to the con-
gregation, AVoltler devoted his whole energy to the
new institution, and visited several hospitals of west-
ern Europe in order to study their methods.

Woltler founded (1872) a society for the gratuitous
care of consumptives, without distinction of creed.
Two country houses at Kieiling, near Ivit>sterneu-
burg, were secured; and every summer a number of
patients have enjoyed a stay there with proper pro-
fessional attendance. Woltler has been a curator,
and for many years president, of the institute for
the blind founded at the Hohe Warte b}' Dr. Ludwig
August Frankl. In 1866 the government conferred
upon him the Order of Francis Joseph, and in 1873
he received the title of imperial councilor. On tJie
occasion of his eightieth birthdaj' (1896) the com-
mittee of the Jewish coinnumitj' of Vienna hung his
portrait, painted in oil by the Countess Adrienne
Potting, on the wall of the committee-room in the
hospital, among the portraits of its benefactors.
Bibliography: Wurzbach, Bioq. Lex. vol. Ivli., s.v.

s. N. D.

WOLFNER, THEODORE : Hungarian dep-
uty; born at Uj-Pest June 18, 1864; educated at the
gymnasium and at the school of technology at Buda-
pest. After spending some time in his father's tan-
nery in order to acquire a practical knowledge of
the manufacture of leather, he undertook an exten-
sive journey, visiting Germany, Egypt, Palestine,
and Turkey.

Wolfner is an alderman of Uj-Pest, a member of
the county council of Pesth, president of the national
association of leather manufacturers, director of the
technological industrial nuiseum, and a member of
the chamber of commerce and industry in Buda-
pest. Since 1896 he has represented Godollo in the
Hungarian Parliament, a fact which is the more
noteworthy because of the circumstance that this
district is the favorite residence of Francis Joseph I.,
and is under the intliienceof court officials. In 1904
Wolfner was the recipient of a rare honor, when the
king appointed him a captain of hussars in the re-
serves and elevated him to the Hungarian nobility.

Bibliography: Sturm, OrsziUnivUl^si Almanach, 1901.
s. L. V.

WOLFSOHN, AARON. See Halle, Aaron

REN Woi.K.

WOLFSOHN, WILHELM : German poet and
essayist ; born at Odessa Oct. 20, 1820; died at Dres-
den Aug. 13, 1805; studied medicine and piiilosopliy
at Leip.sic. He began his literary career witii trans-
lations from Latin into Geniiau under the pseudonym
Carl Maier. In 1843 he traveled in Russia, lecturing
on German literature with such success that he was
offered a iirofessor.shipon condition that he would em-
brace Christianitv; this, iiowever, he declined. Re-

565

THE JEWISH K\CY( U)riA)i\

Wol

oUhoa
elewiikl

turning to Germany, he became assistant editor of

the "isiiltter fiir Literarische Unterhaltuug," and

later edited, in connection Avith I{ol)ert I'nitz, "Das

Deutsclie Museum." In 1852 lie moved to Dresden,

where he continued Ins literary activity.

In addition to several volumes of poems, Woif-

sohn was the author of the following works: "Je-

sciiurun " (1841), a Jewi.sli almanac; " DieSciiOnwis-

seiischaftliche Literatur der Itussen " (Leipsic, 1848);

"Kussliinds Novellendichler" (3 vols., 1848-51),

with an introduction ; "Neues Laienbrcvier " (1851),

an anthology of German poetry; and "Schauspide "

(IH.-jT-")!]). Of his plays, "Nur eine Scele " became

very popular, while "Die Osternacht," the plot of

which was based on the blood accusation, was less

successful. Besides contributing literary essays to

the "Leipziger Zeitung," he. edited a magazine of

liis own which from 1862 to 1864 appeared under tiie

title "Kussische Revue," and afterward under the

title "Nordische Revue." His "Russische Ge-

.schichten " were published after Ids death by liis

son (Leipsic, 1884). Wolfsohn married otitside of

his faith, and his children were brought up as

Christians.

BiBi-iofiRAPHY: Unsere Zeit. 1865, p. 713; Georg Ebers, In
Ueher Land nnd Meer. 1865, No. 50; Alia. Zeit. des Jud.
1865, pp. 537, 554, 602; AUgemeine DcuUche Bw{jraph\e.

6. D.

WOLLEMBORG, LEONE: Italian economist;
born at Padua 1859 ; graduated from the university of
Lis native city (1878). He made a special .study of
political economy, and his most noteworthy achieve-
ment was the establishment of rural savings-banks
for the peasantry and small farmers of Italy. He
represented the city of Padua in the legislative as-
sembly during several consecutive terms, and froin
1900 to 1903 he held the portfolio of finance in Za-
nardelli's cabinet.

Wollemborg is the author of the following works:
"Alcune Lettere Inedite" (Padua, 1880); "II Costo
di Produzione Come Norma per la Determinazione
del Valore" (Bologna, 1882); "La Prima Cassa
Cooperativa di Prestiti in Italia " (Padua, 1883) ;
"L'Ordinamento delle Casse di Prestito " (Verona,
1884); "Le Casse Cooperative di Prestito "(i6. 1884);
"Suir Ordinainento Economico Giuridico delle Lat-
terie Sociali Cooperative" (Bologna, 1887); "Sid
Dazio Compensatore pel Cereali" (Padua, 1887);
"Suir Istituzione di un Consorzio fra gli Agn-
coltori del Friuli " (Udine, 1887); "Sull" Assicura-
zione in Generale e in Particolare sull' Assicurazi-
one Contro i Danni della Mortalita del Bestianu' (i'>.
1887); "S(dl' Assicurazione Contro 1 Danni della
Mortalita del Bestiame e sni Modi di Ordinaria" (ih.
1887); "LaTeoria della Cooperazione " (Bolognii,
1887) ; " Les Caisses Rurales Italiennes, Rapport pour
TExposition Universelle dc Paris en 1889" (Rome.
1889) ; and " Che Cosa e una Cassa RuraleV " (Cunco.
1895).

S. «J. v..

WOLLHEIM, ANTON EDUARD W. DA
FONSECA: German iilaywriglit and journjilist ,
born in Hamburg Feb. 12, 1810; died in Berlin Oct.
24, 1884; studied at the University of Berlin (Ph.D.
1831) Shortly after the compieticm of his studies
he removed to Paris, where he became infatuated

with the
lived til'

listed ill

during n:

the iiifaiitiii

and iipoi.

Imgen, \

vabiuble I'uli ma

later api'

llie priv :

where he priMhu-iMl hin flnil ;

represented the adv. ■

Andrea MiiJ^senu 1

Sanzio" wuHHtnged hi \

Xorden." or -Dob Teu

with e(pittl favor lioih

In 1849 he u

modern langwiL < - .>

at the same tinw en

ent of tiie I.onil

From 1854 to 1 .

diplomatic Bcrviee of the An
during the folli

hurg a weekly j

the promotion of AuHtrian ini<

established his own

suburb of Hainliur^: .

Berlin, wliere he became cilitomf lln*

ciel du Gou\ ■ ' '

he was altd^

Among his works may b«

Literatur der Skandi' .

Seehandel und die 1

" Indiscretionen " ( 18»3) ; and " .N

(1884), containing many ;■•••'•■

died in poverty in St !!•

BniLIOCRAPHV: /'
Ltricitn du H :
Lex.; (illtt^.
zehnttti Jill.
da FoiiMca.
s.

WOLOWSKI (llehr Shor): PolUh
eral members of whieli '
lianity. It Ihmrished
seventeenth and eightt'cnlli
rectly dc8<'en<lt'<l fi'
not until the fundi \
it adopted the Polish form o'
.lewish mei:
Twiaschor, :.
Wolowski arc still llvi
The fo!ln\sinir »!<• l^

Elisha Shor: M
the middle of Ihc •

of the Kninkis-
nlic Church. \^ "■
FnuikistH M t" !•

(June 11. r

leader r.f "

The pr.

case against thi- 1-

Rolmtyn. U|>on tl-

of lycmlKjrp. which took

■»,.-

Franki.^ts loat a Manch pr

Wolper
Woman

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

556

lawed, and the Polish rabble began murdering and
pillaging among them, Elisha being one of the first
viciims (Nov.. IT")?'.

Hayyah. Wolowski : Daughter of Elisha. She
played a conspicuous part among the Shubbethaiaus,
and later among the Frankisls. She had an excellent
knowledge of the ZoUar, and whenever she fell into
one of her trances she would cite it from memory.

Nathan ben EHsha ; after baptism, Michael
Wolowski: Brother of Solomon, and like him
prominently identified with the Frankists, although
in a ksscr degree.

Solomon ben Elisha ; after baptism, Lucas
Franciszek Wolowski : A son ot Elisha, and a
prominent tigure in ihe Frankist movement in Po-
land, and later in Offenbach. Together with Judah
Koysa, he was one of the chief delegates of the
Frankists at the disputation held at Kamenetz-
Podolsk (June 20, 1757) at the suggestion of Bishop
Dembowski. Two years later (May 16, 1759) he
went to Lemberg at Frank s request, in order to
seek official recognition for the sect from Wratislav
Lubienski, later primate of Gnesen. As a condition
of the baptisna of all Frankists, he asked that the
newly appointed Archbishop Mikolsky should ar-
range a disputation between them and the rabbis,
which request was granted (as to the time and result
of this disputation see Fuank, Jacob, and the
Frankists). On Sept. 19, 1759, Solomon, together
with 1,000 followers of Frank, embraced the Catholic
faith in Lemberg, whereupon he assumed the name
of Wolowski. Even after the death of Frank he
was active as a mediator between Eve, Frank's
daughter, and the Polish Jews. He died in Poland
at the close of the eighteenth century, prior to the
final division of Poland.

Bibliography : Kleczewski, Dissertacya Alho Mnwa o Pis-
mtich Zydnwukich, Lemberg, 17.59; Fikalski, Zio.sc Zydow-
eka, lb. 176(J; J. Calmanson, Easni sur VEtat Actuel dcs
Juifx de PoUnjne, Warsaw, 179C ; Skimborowicz, Zyicot Zkon
in Xaukn Jakolta Jnsefa Franka, ib. IStiO; Griitz, Frank
uiid die Frankisten, Breslau, 1868.
s. S. O.

WOLPER, MICHAEL : Russian educator and
author; burn in Wilna 1852; educated in the rab-
binical school of his native city. He was graduated
in 1872, since when he has been active as a teacher
in JewLsh elementary schools. At present (1905) he
officiates also as inspector of the Jewish seminary in
Wilna, and as censor of Hebrew publications.

Wolper is the author of: "Pervaya Uchebnaya
Knizhka po Zakonu Yevreiskoi Religii" (Wilna,
1S80: 8(1 cmI. 1882); "Mesillah Hadashah " (ib. 1888).
a method for the study of Hebrew; and, in collabo-
ration witli Nemser, a catechism of Judaism. He
lias published also various other Russo- Jewish
school-books.
BIBI.IOORAPJIY: SigUmaticheski Ukazatel, St. Petersburg,

IHnO.

"• «• J. Go.

WOMAN, CREATION OF. See Eve.

WOMAN, RIGHTS OF : The problem of the
rights ot woman iu Jewisii law and custom is i)re-
sented mainly in five phases: (1) tiie power of tiie
father over his daughter; (2) woman's right of in-
heritance; (3) the powers and dutiesof the husband;
(4) woman's opportunities for self-improvement and

for following various occupations; and (5) the posi-
tion of the mother.

(1) An early intimation of woman's freedom to
choose her mate in life is found in Gen. x.xiv. 58,
where Kebekah, when her hand is sought for Isaac

by the steward of Abraham, is asked:

Paternal " Wilt thou go with this man?" Ap-
Power. parently, however, Isaac was not con-
sulted at all as to whether he preferred
a wife from Mesopotamia or a Canaauite or Hittite
damsel. Although the story of Kebekah proves a
deep-seated sentiment that a girl should not be
coerced into marriage, the civil law gave no force
to this sentiment, but recognized (Ex. xxi. 7) the
power of the father to sell his daughter into bondage
with the evident intention that slie should become
the wife of her master or of her master's son. The
limitations to the rights of the father, as established
by tradition, have been discussed under Sl.wes
and Slaveuv. The daughter must be under the
age of puberty, and the sale is justitied oidj- by ex-
treme poverty, although the principle that the father
can dispose of the daughter's hand remains intact,
as is attested by cxpres.sions found elsewhere in the
Torah, such as Deut. xxii. 16: "I gave my daugh-
ter to this man to wife." Tradition teaches (Kid. ii.
1), however, that a mature girl (JTIjI), i.e., one more
than twelve and a half years of age, had the right to
give herself in marriage, and the same privilege was
allowed to a " widow from marriage," even incase
she was immature. On the other hand, the father
had the power to take a wife for his infant son with-
out the son's consent (Ket. ix. 9).

Although marriages are celebrated between very
young grooms and brides in Europe, it has for cen-
turies been unusual, even iu the eastern part of the
Continent, to give immature girls in marriage. The
form of the ketul)ali, as found in the "Nahalat
Shib'ah," i)ublished in 1G66, speaks only of the bride
as personally accepting the groom's proposal, and
has no alternative form by which the father might
accept for her.

The father is entitled to the work of his daughter's
hands, and to what she finds (Ket. iv. 4), mitil she
attains the age of maturity, Avhich is reached very
early; and he has the same rights over his infant
soti, the term here lasting six months longer.

Tiie father was empowered to release his daugh-
ter from her vows (Num. xxx.), although, according
to the Misiinah (Ned. x. 2), this power ceased when
she attained her majority-. This power of loosing
vows was a great step iu the progress of woman's
freedom, marking an advance over both Babylo-
nian and Konian law, under which the father could
impose vows on his daughter even against her will.

(2) While in some systems of ancient law daugh-
ters or sisters were excluded from all rights of in-
heritance, and while in other systems thej' were put
on an equality with sons or brothers, the ]\Iosaic law
gave the inheritance to the daugiiter or daughters

when there were no sons, and, by

Female In- analogy, to .sisters or paternal aunts

heritance. when there were no brothers (see

Agnates). In no case, however,
either under ]\Iosaic or under rabbinic law, did an
inheritance go to the mother (B. P.. viii. 1). The

667

THE JEWISH E.NLVCLUI'EDIA

institution of maintenance for minor daughters, and
the rule tliat the father's estate must provide a dowry
for the younger daughters which shouhl l{\uh\ tlie
portion received by their ehior sisters (unless the
father had become impoverished, when the mini-
mum dowry should be fifty zuzim), show that in
the great majority of cases the daughters fared bet-
ter than the sons (see B. B. ix. 1 ; Ket. iv. 11 ; and
the clause concerning "benan nukban." or " female
children," in the ketubah). No such favor was
shown, on the other hand, to sisters or other kins-
women of the decedent, and traditional law sought
merely to soften the hardships of agnatic succession
in accordance with the natural feelings of a dying
father, instead of setting the inheritance aside, as
was done by the one hundred and eighteenth novel
in the Konian Code and by American statutes en-
acted since the Revolution.

The position of the daughter or sister in regard
to the right of inheritance was at least no worse
than it is now under the law of England in case of
landed estates.

(3) The position of married women in Israel was
naturally improved when the wife brought a dow-
ry to her husband instead of being purchased.
CniT'K', the word for "dowry," appears for the
first time in the arrangements for the
Relations wedding between King Solomon and
to Pharaoh's daughter (I Kings ix. 16).

Husband. The literal meaning of the term is
"disinissal," since it was the father's
present to his daughter when she left his house.
The use of the word in this place proves the exist-
ence of a custom of bestowing on the daughter
such gifts as would inure to the husband's benefit.
In later times the Babylonian word "nedunya"
was substituted for the Hebrew term. The "mohar,"
or "price," which the groom had to weigh out ac-
cording to the Pentateuch, was originally the sum
paid for the bride, like the "tirhatu " of Babylonian
law; but in Israel, as in Babyhm, it early became
customary for the bride's father to restore this price
to the husband at the wedding, whereupon it was
secured by contract (the ketubah) to the wife as a
jointure, payable upon the death of the husband or
in case of divorce. Thus the mohar was no
longer incompatible, either in Babylonia or in Ca-
naan, with the dowry bestowed upon the bride
from her father's house. The obligation to return
the dowry and to pay the jointure (ketubah) served
as a good security against divorce on insufficient
grounds.

Polygamy must have been very rare during the
period of the Mishnuh and Gemara; for though the
wives of many rabbis are mentioned, there are no
allusions to plural marriages. Among the person-
ages named by Josephus, King Herod is almost the
only polygamist. Concubinage, or the taking of
an inferior wife (see Pii.egesii), was no longer
practised in mishnaic times.

The husband's duties to the wife are .set forth in
detail under Ketubah. In the body of that instru-
ment he binds himself to work for lier, and to honor,
support, and maintain her. The wife, if she brings
no dowry, is bound to do such housework for the
husband as grinding, baking, washing, cooking.

suckling her child, upr-,'
in wtKji (gpinulnj.' ki>
hrings one n\n

she need not g; „.

bIic need not cuolc. unr ti
she need iu>l Hpn-nd t
four, Hhe may "nit hI.
She must, howovrr. d<'
husband which it -

wife to perform, hi,

(comp. the Tttlmiiil a«/ /»-<.) 1;

however, that ■' ' ' '

the liuslmnd i>

le.st idlenesH Hhouid lead lier i:

Simeon ben (I i ' ' ' j

not allow idlcii. ,.

into melancholiu. It ta notcwortliy tiuit • marrird

woman was never iMiund t •

Asshown under .\.-hAi r,
band must not strike Ids wife; if he dtw*. Ii' r

for "damage. i)ain, at; ' ' ' ,

stranger. The legal r.
protection to the wife, however, ttuui
warning (B. M fifti). widrh ran : " '
ways he careful lest he vex hid
tears come easily, liie vexation put u;
near [to God) ; since, tiiougb all other , .
the gate of tears is never rloiw<l "

(4) The fear that an ;
intrigues or into mela:.. .. .... .. .. .

reading wasDotucomniciu divention of
Talmud {ad l<>c.) ?••

cheerfiilncsH by p.i. ...

the other hand. It Wi

Woman a pa- " r'

and that ; . _

Culture, which of courac inraot to
Bible, though
highly improper to instruct th'

The tone which pervades the B
mud, however, is not v. ' •
runs through the V\U-x ^
ing that woman was held of i< -
Leah boa.st3 of the iir- -.
Jacob; Hannah pniys
and the Mishnah speaks of hin.
wife may bring forth a — '
In Hebrew law wt)nien
either in civil or in ct
gnice to ft warrior t«. . ,
woman, while a woman «
nnirry h«r was held in •

won, however, by wm »

Debonih in Israel "h licrnir «;

Huldah in tlw

and U. Melr s v..

nine years" reiKii v\ ' ;

in Jewish

could not i- .

despis<Hl its x\

.store ("bunul").

guanlians for their li

ness V * " ^

4-5.) 1

the Jews, and not e*cn w< » ^

Wood Festival
Worm

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

558

merce, has been carried on by women, while their
husbands have been poring over the Bible or Tal-
mud, either at home or in the bet ha-midrash.

(5) The position of the mother is higher under the
Mosaic law than under any other system of antiq-
uity. By the fifth commandment the mother is to
be honored equally with the father, while in the
moral law (Lev. xix. 3) the command to "fear" the
mother, that is. to treat her with re-
Woman as spect, is placed even before the duty of

Mother . ' fearing " the father. Death is threat-
ened him who strikes or who curses
his mother, as well as him who tl)us offends
against his father. The Talmud, in showing under
what extreme provocation the righteous man will
maintain an outward regard for his parents (Kid.
30b-3'2a), gives stories of outrageous mothers who
were treated with tbe utmost respect. This senti-
ment was not shown by the Greeks toward even the
best of mothers; for in the first book of the" Odyssey "
Telemachus reproves Penelope, and imperiously
sends her away to her own apartment to mind
her own womanly business. In the so-called Su-
merian family laws, the Babylonian code goes far-
ther than Mosaic legislation, for the son must leave
the parental house at his mother's bidding. The
Book of Proverbs is full of expressions of reverence
for the mother, who is the teacher of all virtues.
It states that King Lemuel was taught wisdom by
his mother. A curse is foretold for the man who
forgets to reverence his mother.
The Baraita teaches the influence of the motlier
on her offspring through simple heredity when
it says: "Most sons follow the nature of the
mother's brothers" (B. B. 110a). This very belief
that the mother gave her child a legacy of good or
evil qualities which, though hidden in her, appeared
in her brothers, must have raised the standing of
mothers and of womankind in general.

See also Daughter in Jewish Law; Husband
AND Wike; MAJoniTY; Marriage; Mother;
Widow.

E. c. L. N. D.

WOOD FESTIVAL, THE. See Ab, Fif-
tef.niii Day of.

WOODBINE: Borough in Cape May county.
New Jersey; established as an industrial village
Aug. 28, 1891; incorporated as a borough in April,
1903. It is situated on a tract of land which origi-
nally comprised 5,300 acres, and was purchased by
the trustees of the Baron de Hirsch Fund as a site
for an agricultural and industrial colony. The pri-
mary intention of the founders of Woodbine was
the establislmient of an agricultural colony for Jew-
ish immigrants from eastern Europe. Farming was
to he tlic chief occupation, but, to make it more re-
munerative, it was decided at the same time to re-
.serve a certain portion of the tract as
Early De- a site for the future village of Wood-
velopment. bine, which should contain a local
market for farm produce as well as
factories to give employment to members of the
farmers' families.

By the summer of 1892 about fifty farmhouses
were completed, and all were occupied in tiie fall of

that year. In the same year the firm of Meyer
Jonasson & Co. opened a cloak-factory which gave
employment to more than one hundred persons.
Almost all of these employees lived on farms, some
of them residing at a distance of three miles from
the village. Unfortunately, the economic depres-
sion of 1893 affected the cloak industry uufavoral)ly,
and the decreased demand led to a partial suspen-
sion of Avork in the Woodbine factory. The discon-
tent among the operatives and the strikes which
followed caused the factory to shut down; and the
firm finally removed from the village. In addition
to this, many of the farmers, unable to earn a living
either from the land or in the factory, left for New
York or Philadelphia. A large number of those who
remained were employed to cut cord-wood; and
others were engaged in clearing the town lots of
stumps, while the young people picked huckleber-
ries, or sought work in the tomato-canning factory
in Ocean View near Sea Isle City.

In 1894 and 1895 the outlook became much
brighter. A clothing-factory was established in the

village by Daniel & Blumenthal of

Factories Philadelphia; and the population be-

Es- gan to increase. This was followed

tablished. by the establishment of several other

manufactories in Woodbine; and these
additions, though gradual, were accompanied by
an almost uninterrupted growth of population.
While the early settlers were mostly from southern
Russia, later arrivals increased the proportion of
Lithuanians and added to the number from the gov-
ernment of Kherson, the latter immigrants being
chieHy from Odessa. A small group of Kumauians
also went to Woodbine.

The early plans of the founders of Woodbine have
not been realized. Instead of becoming an agricul-
tural colony with an industrial adjunct, it is an in-
dustrial village with a few farmers. In 1905 there
were probably only twenty farmers who derived
a part or all of their income from the soil; and, al-
though many of the villagers cultivated small gar-
dens, a number of the more distant farms were en-
tirely unoccui)ied. Considerable farming skill and
capital are required to bring about much improve-
ment in the .soil; and the Woodbine farmers possess

but a limited amount of either. Not-

Failure of withstanding all these drawbacks,

Farms. however, the farmers of Woodbine

have made real progress within recent
years. Those who supply the local demand for milk
have learned something of balanced rations and of
economy in feeding, while the truck-gardeners and
the fruit-growers have acquainted themselves with
market conditions and have increased the fertility of
their soil. Grapes, which were once sold in Wood-
bine itself, now find a market at Vineland; and
garden-truck, which formerly could not be disposed
of at a profit, is sold to advantage at Ocean City
and Sea Isle City.

The farmers of Woodbine liave profited unmi.s-
takably from the Baron de Hir.sch Agricultural
School, which was established in 1895 and has grad-
ually extended the cultivated area of the school
farms. It has a model poultry-plant and an ajiiary,
as well as orchards, vineyards, and greenhouses.

559

TtlE JEWISH ENCYCLOPKDIA

Agricul-
tural
School.

Schools
and Syna-
gogues.

and covers in all about 300 acres of land. The es-
tablishmeut of the school was largely diie to ilie
efforts of H. L. Sabsovich. Itscurrio-
ulum is chiefly practical, attention be-
ing given primarily to various branches
of applied husbandry and to farm me-
chanics, while the theoretical instruc-
tion is mainly directed toward familiarizing the
pupils with the principles underlying modern farm-
ing. A considerable number of the alumni of the
school are devoting themselves to practical agricul-
ture. One of them is the successful manager of the
Allivine farm near Vineland, N. J. ; three ave farm-
ing for themselves in Connecticut, two in Colorado
one in northern New Jersey, one in New York state'
and two in Woodbine. A much larger number art-
working for other farmers. The alumni include
four college graduates, two graduates of a medical
school, one lawyer, twelve college students, three
members of the United States navy, one of the
United States army, and a number of "machinists.

The four local public schools had in 1905 an enrol-
ment of over 500, and the average attendance in
1904 was450. At tirst iucludeil in the school district
of Dennis township, the Woodbine schools were or-
ganized into a separate district in April, 1903, and
temporary trustees were appointed until the spring
of 1904. Woodbine has also a kindergarten and a
Talmud Torah. The public buildings include two
synagogues, a bath-house, a hospital
(formerly a hotel), and an engine-house
and meeting-hall for the volunteer fire-
company. The local industries are
housed in five brick buildings, while
waterand electric lighting aresupplied to most of the
houses in the borough from the central pumping-
station.

In 1901 the average individual income was 87.30
per week, and the average earnings per family were
S675 per annum. There were in that year 175 single
and double cottages in Woodbine, of which 14 were
owned by the Baron de Hirsch Fund and 161 by the
people; of the latter only 23 were rented. Seventy
per cent of the cottages varied in cost of construc-
tion between $575 and $1,000, the remainder being
erected at a co.st of over 81,000 each. Their esti-
mated total cost was §157,450, of which §58,200 had
been paid in 1901. In 1905 the borough proper
had 223 private houses, these and the outlying
farmhouses being inhabited by 325 families. Jacob
Kotinsky. entomologist for the territory of Hawaii,
Joseph W. Pincus, agriculturist of the Baron de
Hirsch School, and Jacob G. Lipn)an, soil chemist
and bacteriologist of the New Jersey State E.\peri-
ment Station, were among the early settlers in
Woodbine. The jiopulation is now (1905) 1,900, of
whom 94 per cent are Jews. See also Jew. Encyc.
i. 262, s.v. Agkiccltur.xl Colonies.
A. J. G. L.

WOOLF, ALBERT EDWARD : American
chemist and inventor; born in New York Sept. 26,
1846; educated in the public schools of that city
and at the College of the City of New York.
Among Woolf's achievements may be mentioneil:
the introduction of peroxid of hydrogen for
bleaching ostrich-feathers and for use as an anti

septic (1870 1 ..

septic pro I
trolvH!

in the ;

sewugo. and um-«I I
suppre.ssii,t,r y.llow Jcver in I
Woolf is u inemlMT i.' " •
Electricul KnuinetTN,
London, England.

IJMU.iofutAfKY : IVho't Wh; lii Am'
A.

WOOLF, EDWARD

in)V(ii>i , burn in I

<lied in New York -i .

a nuisical conductor in liiit

(1H39) to New Yot!

recognized, and wi,.

leader, musical instructor. ai<

contributed many II ' • "

during the early pi

odical; auKtng thi-M- rnn

Jewess of Toledo." "T' '

"Judith of Holii-miH."

Woolf s.sonsall attained mor.- <.r
Solomon, as a pr"f- — > t . ..
forty years in the (
Benjamin E. (horn in
Boston, Ma.ss.. Feb. 0, U' . ... ,
poser ("The Mighty Dollar":,
Alcantara"): Michael Anpclo
1837; died in New V.ik .M.i:. 1; J -
his street caricatures; Philip
Fel). 7. 1H-1«; died in !
anil novelist ; and Albt: . ^^....._
Bini.lOGttAPHV: iMwrS. latMc*, EUuxtitl 11

Jiw. JiiKt. soc. mn.

WOOLF. SIDNEY : I

London 1.S44; dii-d .Nliin li

Neiimegen's Rch(M)l and at 1

don. After pa.ssing llie c.\ .

porated Law SiM-jety. I:

partner in a firm of sol.

been a pupil of Murjili

called to the bar by the ^:

began to practise in m< •

and later became tin- leu

bankruptcy matters, d

pointed (|ueen's«()uns(l

Woolf's first
adultenition of I
collaboration witli Mldd
ti.se of ( ■
of busini

communal worker, waa oD'
porters of tii "'
served a.s w
Berkeley St •
also of thecoui;'

BlBI.I'"i'> AI'IIV /. ■

.1.

WORM: li
most frtquentiv
not only the eai
ing creuture, siicli un iIk- itta^gui. c»

He u .\

"Worm
Worins

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

560

of au insect, and the like. Thus, in the account of
the'' worms ' which appeared in the mauna (Ex. xvi.
20, 24) the terms evidently refer to caterpillars
which feed on putrefying matter, while the
** worms " described as destroying vineyards and tlie
gourd (Deut. xxviii. 39; Jonah iv. 7) were some
variety of beetle or insect larva, and the " worms" in
Isa. xiv. 11, Job xvii. 14, xxi. 26, and similar pas-
sages were maggots or larvne which feed on dead
bodies. For the meaning of "zohale erez " (Mic.
vii. 17) see Sekpekt.

Metaphorically, the worm symbolizes lowliness
and helplessness (Isa. xli. 14; Ps. xxii. 7 [A. V. 6];
Job XXV. 6), but in Isa. Ixvi. 24 the worm and fire
together connote eternal pain.

There are several species of earthworm {Lumbri-
cu«) in Palestine, and Myriapoda abound.

In the Talmud also " rimmah " and " tole'ah " are
found as general terms for "worm," while the ge-
neric denomination for all crawlers is "shekazim
u-remasim" (see Reptiles). Several species are
mentioned under special names, such as K^ni, a
kind of water-worm (yais tulifei; Zeb. 22a);
^i:;6't;*. rainworm (Hul. 67b); NJIIO, the worm
which lives in the trachete of sheep and causes them
to cough {Strongulus filaria ; ib. 49a) ; and 'JNplp.
worms found in the intestines of fishes {Litiyula
eingulum ; ib. 67b). Since the raven is heartless to-
ward its young, Providence, according to B. B. 8a,
takes care of them by causing maggots to arise from
their excrement, thus furnishing them with food
(comp. Rashi on 'Er. 22a). With the worms which
arose from rotten bran Noah fed the chameleon in
the ark (Sanh. 108b). A host of worms infest the
human body, both living and dead (Tern. 31a; Ab.
iii. 1). Thereare worms in the liver (KnpIN; Shab.
109b) and in the belly (XV^'3), a remedy for tiie latter
being the milk of an ass mixed with the leaves of
the bay, or bread and salt taken with fresh water
before breakfast (Git. 69b; B. M. 107b). Garlic is
a cure for worms in tlie great intestine (Bek. 82b),
while the tapeworm is driven out by the raw meal of
barley or by hyssop (Ber. 36a; Shab. 109b). ^r\\o is
the name of a worm which finds lodgment between
the prepuce and glans penis and is removed by cir-
cumcision, so that even Gentiles submitted to the
operation ('Ab. Zarali 26b). From the moutiis of the
false spies whom Moses sent to Canaan came forth
worms (Sotah 35a), and Yer. Yoma 39a records sim-
ilar phenomena proceeding from the nose of a heretic
(comp. also Yoma 19b; B. M. 84b).

BlBi.inr;RAPHv: Tristram. Natural HMoru nf the Bihle, p.
300; l.ewysohn, Znulf>yie des TcUmuds, p. SJ4.
E. a. II. I. M. C.

WORMS : Town in Rhein-IIesse, grand duchy of
He.sse. Germany. Like Mayence and Cologne, it has
one of the oldest Jewisli communities in Germany.
A legend relates that the Jews of Worms were de-
scended from tlie Benjamites wliohad migrated from
Pah'Stine to Germany (Bruii's " Jalirhucher," 1879,
iv. 34 e^ fier/.). It is possible tliat tliere was a congre-
gation tliere in tlie time of the Romans, but the first
historical reference is the statement that Jews from
this city visited the fair at Cologne about the year
1000 (Aronius, " Refresten," No. 149; Kober, "Stu-
dien zur Mittelalterlichen Geschidite der Juden in

KOln am Rhein." p. 9, note 3, Breslau, 1903). The
earliest authentic information regarding the commu-
nity, however, dates back only to 1034.
Early On Jan. 18, 1074, Emperor Ilenry IV.
History, granted the " Jews and other citizens of
Worms " exemption from customs du-
ties in the royal-customs ports of Fiankfort, Bop-
pard, Dortmund, Goslar, etc., as a reward for tlieir
fidelity. Already at this time the Jews lived in a
special quarter of the city. About 1090 Henry IV.
granted the community, which was represented by
the Jew-bishop Solomon, the privileges of free com-
merce and exemption from taxation; he designated

A%''/*-^i-^-'

Exterior of the Old Synagogue at Worms.

(From a drawing by C. Gross Mayer.)

the Jews as "subjects of his treasury," and placed
them under his immediate protection, so tlial neither
royal nor episcopal functionaries could exercise any
jurisdiction over them, their only authority being the
Bishop of the Jews, appointed by themselves, and
confirmed in his office by the emperor. These priv-
ileges were renewed by the emperors Frederick I.,
Barbarossa (April 6, 1157), and Frederick II. (about
1236).

On May 18 and 25, 1096, the Crusaders murdered all
the Jews of Worms — about 800 in number — with the
exception of some who committed suicide and a few
who were forcibly baptized. Later a new commu-
nity was formed in Worms; and this suffered during
the Second Crusade (1146), and again in 1196, when
the victims included Dulcina, wife of R. Eleazar, his
daughters Belat and Hannah, and his son Jacob.
During the division of the kingdom at the close of the
twelfth century Worms was besieged by King Otto,
and the Jews, who si(le<l with Philip of Swahia, took
part in the defense. On July 8, 1230, Pope Honorlus
III. issued from San Rietian order directing the Arch-
bishop of Mayence to compel the community to pay
the sum of 1,620 marks before the following Easter,

llireatcning it with exclusion fi'om all
Taxation, dealings with CUuistians if it failed to

raise the amount. In 1241 the state
taxes of the Jews of Worms amounted to 130 marks
in silver, and on Feb. 28, 1255, Bishop Richard of

561

Tin-: .TKwisii l:>v .1 i..M n^iA

Worms transferred to the chapter of the local cullio-
dial, amon.i? oilier revenues from tlie city, the sum of
40 pounds holier ■\vliicli the congregation was obliged
to pay annually on St. Martin's Day (Nov. 11). Be-
tween 1254 and 1271 the Jews of AVornis were ta.xed
2,870 pounds heller and 250 marks in silver for tiie
public peace insured by the lihenisli Alliance; and
from 1269 to 1275 they were comjielled lo jniy 200
marks annually to King Richard of Cornwall. In
1294 orders wi're issued by King Adolpluis and by
the bishoji, forbidding the Jews to acciuire real es-
tate in the parish of !St. ^Marlin. By an edict dated
I^Iarch 9, 131G, Louis the Bavarian granted«tlie city
of Worms the
privilege of lev-
ying on the Jew-
ish community a
yearly tax of 100
pounds heller in
addition to the
300 pounds it
had thitherto
paid; a n d o n
May 1, 1338, he
informed the
council of
Worms that the
Jews of that
city -were bound
by agreement to
pay the sum of
2,»)00 gulden to-
ward the king's
con tern plated
expedition
against France,
and that, if nec-
essary, force
might be em-
ployed in col-
lecting this sum.
By an edict
dated at Speyer
Jan. 4, 1348, the
emper(Tr Charles
IV. surrendered
the Jews of
Worms to the
city govern-
ment, but on
March 1, 1349,
at the time of

the Black Death, the community was ]iiactically

annihilated, the Jews selling lire to their hou.ses.

and more than 400 persons perishing in tiic

flames. The women's wing of the synagogue. adiK-d

in 1213 through the muniticence of Meir and his

wife, Judith, was also destroyed. An edict of

Charles IV., dated :March 29, 1349.

rourteenth gave to the citizens of Worms the prop-

and erty left by the Jewish ccmnninily;

Fifteenth but a few years later (1353) the ciiy

Centuries, desired to again admit Jews, and on

IS^ov. 20, 1355. Charles IV. allowed

it to grant them the right of residence. In May.

1377, the Jewish community of Worms, uumbermg

XII.— 36

tliirty-Blx 1
luneiit addrcsseil i
nntary " ta.veH ihe
following year (A
the right of e\
Jirivilege wiis !■ m> v ■ ..
5. MOO. after lie hud
edict dated Apiil 22,
Ins " KamnterUm-ciiie
March 17. VMH, ihe • ;
Jew or JeweH.4 over •

tournois in LEtuzui.i ..

On Oct. 31. 1400. Klnir Iln;

be tried

i.ii:

Exterior of the Old

(From a

SynaROfrue at Worms.

quilted i)Vthemiinrn.althoiiir1.t
property." In 1422tliproi

ccunieil. refn- ■

tiiereforeoui

the margrave of B««ien. i^

houses vacated by t'"' •'*'

King Sigisinnnd uH«uri-<l tl

all cilict.s annulling t!

would be dechireil :

each Jew of an iiuhi

among the i

(inelled. the :

laterd-lSSili

the sum of 20 lUuun u

U I I 1 1»*«»» .

Worms

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

562

promised to pay an additional 100 florins in the mid-
dle of the following Lent. On Nov. 6, 1441, regula-
tions referring to the Jews were enacted by the gilds
ot the bakers, butchers, and niarketnicn. About 1470
the Jews of Worms occupied thirty -two houses, for
which they paid the city a ground rent of 960 gulden.
In 1484 the citizens of Worms wished to e.xpel the
Jews, but this was prevented by the emperor, and ten
years later (June 14, 1494) Maximilian confirmed the
Jews in all their privileges, while on April 4, 1500, he
forbade the city to encroach upon the imperial pre-
rogative concerning them. In 1495, and again in

1496, the i)alsgrave Philij) and his sou.
Sixteenth. Duke Ludwig, visited the "Juden-
Century. schul" at Worms (Boos, "Urkunden-

buch der Stadt Worms," iii. 395, 401).
In 1509 complaint was lodged against the Jews
of Worms charging them with violence against mes-

pecially Dr. Chemnitz, advocated the expulsion of
the Jews from Woinis, whereupon the elector Fred-
erick took the congregation under his protection ; the
opposition of the gilds, however, forced the Jews to
emigrate (April 20, 1615), after -which their syna-
gogue was demolished, the cemetery laid waste, and
the tombstones destroyed. After the suppression of
the uprising by the troops of Frederick, an imperial
decree was promulgated (Jan. 19 or 20, 1616) order-
ing both the pal.sgrave and the Bishop of Spoyer to
readmit the Jews; in commemoration of this event
the eve of the Feast of Shebat was designated as a
fast-day for the community of Worms. Duiiug the
Thirty Years' war the Jews of the city were com-
pelled to pawn even the silver of the synagogue in
order to raise the manifold contributions exacted
from them. At tliesanietinu'tiiey sulfercd from apes-
lileiice which raged in the Jewish quarter in 1632 and

Cemetery at Worms.

(From a photograph.)

sengers of the imperial court. In the following
year (1510) Emperor Maximilian gave theconunu-
nity permission to hold a public meeting in Worms
("Sulamith," 1811, iii. 416 et »eq.\ Hormayr's "Ar-
chiv," 1H12. iii., Nos. 11, 12). On Nov. '22, 1559,
Ferdinand I. i.ssued from Vienna an order to the
city council of Worms, directing it, under penalty
of lieavy punishment, to protect the Jews in all their
privileges during tlie quarrel between the city and
Bishop Dietrich, and forbidding the levying of any
special taxes. Ordinances regulating Jewish affairs
were issued by the council of Worms on Dec. 6,
1570: Nov. 1, 1584; Dec. 28, 1605; as well as in later
years.

In 1615 .some members of the city magi.stracy, es-

1635: and Emperor Ferdinand II. therefore issued

an edict (Vienna, May 16, 1630) directing the council

of Worms to be lenient in levying

During- the taxes upon the Jews, and ordering

Thirty the release of Jews who liad been im-

Years' prisoned on account of inability to

War. pay. Three years later Ferdinand

III. gave his nejjhew Ansel m ("asi-

mir, Elector of Mayence, full authority to ajqioint a

comnnttee consisting of the Bishop of Worms, the

Prince of Dalberg, and tlu; council and Jews of

Worms, or their representatives, for the ))urpose of

framing new Jewisii regulations. On ]SIay81, 1689,

the city of Worms was invaded by the French under

Melac, and at the same time a terrible catastrophe

563

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

visited the Jews. The entire Jewry, which dis-
phiyed tlie imperial arms on botli ^ates, was burned,
together witli tiie interior of the synagogue, and tlio
so-called Rashi Chapel. Theniinsof the synagogue
were used as a stable and storehouse. In 109K n
committee was formed for the purpose of re.storing
the Jewish community of Worms, winch hud been
broiven up by the French invasion. By an agreement
dated June 7, U)99, the council of Worms i)ledged
itself to grant the Jews certain concessions, and this
arrangement was confirmed by Joseph I. (April 19,
1707) in order to protect the Jews against any in-
fringements of their rights on the part of the coun-
cil ; it was later approved
also by Emperor Charles
VI. (Oct. 26, 1714).

In 1751 one-fifth of
thewevcnucs of the city
of Worms was furnished
by the Jewish taxes.
The treaty of 1699 was
again contirmed by a de-
cree dated at Vienna
MarchlO, 1766("Jeschu-
l•un," iv. 99 et scq.). In
1872 a Jew named Edin-
ger represented Worms
in the Hessian Diet,
while Levy was second
mayor. In 1874, prior to
the enactment of the
new liberal school law,
S. Rothschild was ap-
pointed teacher in the
non-sectarian school.

The Jewish commu-
nity of Worms, whicii in
1875 numbered 1,000
members, consists now
(1905) of about 1,200. In
addition to a large num-
ber of other institutions,
the city has a Jewish
hospital, a hebra kaddi-
slia, a society for the
support of .sick women,
an endowment society,
a society for the distri-
bution of fuel, and an
association for the support

During the Middle Alien tiio Jews. m» citium* of

Worms, w< '

might even

belunginfc '

Na^

JewH niiglit u<

were «'

rated fi

gates liud vnriouH

tioned "Porta Jinin < •

" Juden Hurgelor." '1 .

center of the Jewish quarter. It

(III-

wall. I

Ml N< :in

Micbael Gernshelm, a Jua.-nbls<l.of of Worms. SfVfiii'-«-ntti
Century.

(From a .IrawluK In po«««l<.D of M. GfTMhrim. S,m Y«k.)

_^ ^^ of school children.

Tlierris also the Dalberg' Lodge of the Order B'nai

jj A. Lew.

Until the close of the twelfth century the Jews of

Worms engaged in extensive and remunerative bu.si-

ness enterprises, but through restrictive measures

these were gradually rendered unprofitable, and at

length only trading in money was left open to

them. In 1165 even this brand) of

Social business was denied them, and during

Condition, the thirteentli century more and more

of them engaged in usury. In r-''>

orders were issued regulating the interest on loans.

and tlie Jews were tiiereby prohibited, under pam

of severe punishment, from charging more tliau 6.H

per cent per annum.

Tiie fact tliat
Worms, wlict

Raidii li^

Rashi
Chapel.

in tl»c I'

tion is made of a '

green •■

tiie b

Ahmhiini

of tlie !

the nich'

synagogue anci n

in which iht"
an<i purpo9«'

pr.

Worms
Worms, Asher

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

564

mined. From the chapel a path inside the courtyard
led to the Juik-nlmder, wliieh avctc located under-
ground. In 1S95 the work of excavating them was
begun, but they are not yet accessible.

The cemetery dates from the first half of the elev-
enth century, and is located on the left side of the
present Audrcasstrasse, near the old Andreas gate.
The oldest tombstone bears date of 1077, and is that
of one Jacob Bahur. Of other tomb-
Cemetery, stones may be mentioned a monument
erected in honor of twelve ciders of
wliom a legend reports that, during the Cru&xde of
1096. they asked the town councilors for protec-
tion, and, on being refu.sed, murdered the coun-
cilors, whereupon they all committed suicide in the
cemetery. Tliere are also the tombstones of Jeku-
thiel ben Jacob
(1261); Baruch
ben Meir. father
of Meir of Ro-
thenburg(1275);
and Meir of
R o t h e n b u r i:
(1307); a tomb-
stone of four sis-
ters, with in-
scriptions ar-
ranged in four
rows (1419); and
also those of Ja-
cob Molln (1427)
and Jus pa
Sliammes(1678).
Mention may be
made also of
thirteen inscrip-
tions relating to
members of the
Bacharach fami-
ly (seventeenth
and eighteenth
centuries). The
Jewish congre-
gation of Worms
had its own pub-
lic park, for the
care of which
each member
had to contrib-
ute a yearly sum fixed by the Jewish council. The
guarding and keeping of the park devolved upon
the communal servant, who officiated as "schul-
klopfer" and sexton also.

The internal affairs of the community were ar-
ranged by a Jewish council of twelve members
headed by the Bishop of the Jews. This institu-
tion dated back to the eleventh century. The Jew-
ish bishop was elected by the council,
Organiza- and his appointment oiiginally had to
tion. be sanctioned by the emperor. On
July 25, 1312, however, Bishop Em-
erich ordered that the Jew-bishop should no longer
be confirmed in his office by the emperor, but by the
bishop of the diocese; and also that a Jew-bishop
once appointed should retain his title until his
death, although his official duties should each year

Interior of the Old Synagogue at Worms.

(From an old lithograph.)

devolve on another member of the council. On the
death of a Jew-bishop the new appointee was to
pay to the bislioj) 60 pounds Worms pfennigs; this
stipulation, however, was changed by Bishop Fred-
erick (Feb. 8, 1439), who ordered that the Jewish
community should pay 20 florins each j'ear on St.
Martin's Day, in lieu of the former payment.

Next to the communities of Mayence and Speyer,
that of Worms occupied the most jirominent place
in the fields of science and literature, and many of
the foremost Lorrainese savants were born in
Worms; it was from that city also that the most
famous " takkanot Shum " were issued. Among the
most prominent rabbis and scholars of Worms may
be mentioned:

Isaac ben Eleazar ha-Levi, Rashi's teacher (11th cent.); Isaac

ben Judah, a con-
temporary of Rashi ;
Eleazar beu Judah
Rokeah (K^thcent.);
Moses ben Aaron,
teacher of the lusi-
naraed (d. 12-)0);
Baruch ben Meir,
father of Meir of
Rothenburg (d.
1275); Nathan ben
Isaac (d. 1333); Ja-
cob Molln (d. 1427);
Meir ben Isaac
(1511); Abraham
Samuel Bachar.ich
(d. 1615); Elijah
Loanz (d. 16:W);
Simson Bacharach
(d. 1670); Aaron
Teomiin (rabbi un-
til 1&S7; d. Cracow,
1690); Jair Hayyim
Bacharach (rabW,
1689-1702); Naph-
tali Hirsch Spitz (d.
1712); Menahem
Mendel Rothschild
(d. 17:^2); Moses
Broda of I'ngarisch-
Brod (d. 1742) ;
Hirsch Auerbach of
Brody (1743-78).

W o r m s had
the distinction
of having the
first Jewish
mayor in Ger-
many in the
person of Ferdi-
nand Eberstadt (born there Oct., 1808; died at Mann-
heim ]\Iarch 10, 1888). He was elected to the mayor-
alty in 1848, having proved himself a leader in the
liberal movement of the time. He held office till
1851, when, owing to the reaction, lie resigned, and
later removed to Mannheim. He represented the
same district, Alzey-Worms-Oppenheim, in the up-
per house of the Hessian Landtag.

A man of considerable importance in the history of

the Jews of W^orms was the sexton and "schulklop-

fer " Jephthah Juspa ben Naphtali, known also by

tlie name Juspa Shammes. He was

Juspa born in Fulda in tlie beginning of

Shammes. the seventeenth century, and studied

tmtil 1623 under R. Phinehas Horwitz

in his native town. In that year he went to

Worms, where he remained until his death in 1678.

565

THE JEWISH KVrV( T'.pKi.lA

Worm«

Wo< ii.m, Aaher

lie was the author of tlie following works: (1)
"Shir Musar " (Amsterduni, IfiOO), u pofiii on inonils;
printed on one folio sheet. (2) " Ma'use Nissini"
(Fraiikfort-on-the-Otler, 1702), a Hebrew work in
which history and fiction are intermingled, and of
which only one copy is extant (in Oxford). ' Ii was
translated into .Inda-oGernian (.Vmstordam, 1723 •
Ilomburg, 1725; Flirth, 1707). (8) A "Tehinnah"

Interior View of Women's Pection in the Old Synagogue
at Worms.

(From au old litbogrxph.)

for the eve of the first day of the month of Adar;
still recited in Worms on that day. His work on
tlie internal organization of the Jewish community
of Worms, written in Hebrew and in Judao-Ger-
man, is in the possession of A. Epstein of Vienna.

Bibliography: Zunz, Z. G. pp. 29-60, 304 459; Lewvsolin.
Knfshot Zaddihim, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 18.5.'); Roiliscliilil.
Die Judeniicmiuiden zii Mainz, Npcyer loid H'om/ls, Ber-
lin. 1904; Carlebach, Die Keclitli.'licn und Sozialen Vcr-
haltnisxe der Jildischeii Getyieiiulen Spci/cr, Wormf, und
Mainz, Leipsic, 1901; Jellinek, Wnims und Wicu, Vienna,
1880; Epstein, J !u/i.sc/i(' Altrrtliliinerin Trorm.s und >S;it )/cr.

pp. I

,1.

1!:.

No. 10:
.1

lU'THwr. A I

WORMS: FmiiWf.
its descoDt from A
Main in t'
Auron's^ii

baron of ih«' AiiKfrian pmpirv .\

laterd. ' - '"

lothe I:

below;.

WORMS, AARON

:>. o.

.n.i. «.

Vaiiox WullM*

WORMS, ASHER A."

siii:iii, mallniiialKi.iii, nuH .

fort-on-tbcMaln towiml II

century; <iii<l there in 17fl!i \',

as Ph. I), and .M.I), in 172.'J, u:

was appointed physician at lb

his native town. b<." '

forty-live years, j.

lislied ills " .Maftcal; lia- Algebra ha

fenbacli, 1722). a niani) ' '

and their solutions. 1"

in Frank fort-on-lbc-MuIn a r<

"Ma'adannc Melek." '

ascribed to Jedaiah I{4'd'

a German poem. Aft* ;

self with mallionmticw, a-

philo.sophy, and music, lli<- •

a number of unpubli-

which are eiujnu-rated i.. ...-

176(5). a Ma.soretic coMimcntary .

lowed by a comniei

on the numberof hi;

lication this work circulate:

Baron George de Worms

(b. Feb. 16, 1829)

= Louisa de Samuel

Aaron Worms
(tlourished about 17

Mever Worms

("d. ITTti)

50)

Moses Worms
(d. 1791)

Benedict Worms

(d. 18211

= Jeannette vou Itotbscblld

Baron Salomon B('ne<ll<'t ile Worms

(b. Fei). 8. IHol : d. ()<•!. ai. 18«2)

= Henrietta Satmiel

Baron .\nthony Meyer

(Ic Woriiis

(1). Oct. 12. l.s:«»:

d. Nov. 2. IWH)

= Emma von Sc-hey

Nina de Worms

= Baron (Jeorge Levi

(b.

Banni Jl'
Ort

Allc««
= (I) John W
(2) David U<-

Anthony George

de Worms

(b. Jan. 4. 18159)

= Lulu (ioldschmidt

I
Percy George

de Worms
(b. Nov. ;?. 1873)
= Nora Samuel

Henrietta

= George Landauer

(Issue)

WoU.MS I'tUIOHLt..

Worms, i^ixLile
Wormser

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

566

•Hebrew scholars, who plagiarized much of its con-
teuts; and Wolf Heideuheiiu discovered that Joseph
Heilbroun's "Mebiii Hidot." althougli printed be-
fore the "Seyag la-Torah." contaiued much material
taken from the latter, several passages being not
even jiaraphrased.

BiBr.iocRAPiiY : BerliiuT, in liis Mamziii, xiii. t£J; Curmoly,
//i>(<<itr (/<>■ Mtdtciiix Juifn, pp. L'ld 211; Kufiin. Ktiicset
l'i>i(i«(, p. 157; M. HoruvlLz, tYauhfuitci KuhhiutH. iii.
Si: idem, JUiluxhe Aerzte in Fraitkfttrt-aw-Main, p. 35.

s M. Ski,.

WORMS, EMILE: French jurist; born at
Frisituge. Lii.vemljoiirg, May 23, 1838; educated at
the University of Heidelberg and at Paris (LL.D.
1864). In \Sii'6 he received a prize from the lustitut
de France for an essay on the commercial history of
the llanseatic League; and in 1867 he was again
awarded a prize. In that year he was appointed
as.«isUint jirofessor of law at the Universitjof Paris;
and later in the same year he received a call as pro-
fesiior of law at the University of Kenues, which posi-
tion he held until 1898, when he removed to Paris.

Worms represented the French government at the
statistical congresses of Florence (18G7), The Hague
(1869), St. Petersburg (1872). and Budapest (1876).
He is the author of the following works: "Histoire
Commerciale de la Liguc Hanseatique." 1864; "So-
cietes par Actions et Operations de Bourse," 1867;
"Theorie et Pratique de la Circulation Monetaire et
Fiduciaire," 1869; "Lcs Rapports du Droit Penal
avec I'Economie Politique," 1870; "L'Allemagne
Ec-nnomique, ou Histoire du Zollverein AUemand,"
1874; "Societes Humaiues et Privees," 1875; "Ex-
pose Elementaire de I'Economie Politique," 1880;
" Nouveau Catechisme d'Economie Politique," 1881 ;
" De I'Etat au Regard desErreurs Judiciaires," 1884;
"Lcs Ecarts Legislatifs," 1886; " De la Liberte
d'Association au Point de Vue du Droit Public a
TraverslesAges," 1887; "DelaPropricteConsolidee,
ou Tableau Historique et Critique de Tons les Sys-
t^mes les Plus Propres a la Sauvegarde de la Pro-
priete Fonciere et de Son Demcmbrement," 1888;
" Une Association Douaniere Franco- A llemande, avec
Restitution de rAlsjice-Lorraine," 1888; "Les At-
tentats d I'Honneur," 1890; "Doctrine, Histoire,
Pratique et Reforme Financidre, ou Expose Elemen-
taire et Critique de la Science des Finances," 1891 ;
"Ix-s Condamnations Conditionelles Suivant la Lol
Franvaise et Etrangf-re," 1891; "Essai de Legisla-
tion Financiere; le Budget de la France dans le
Passe et le Present," 1894; "La Politique Commer-
ciale de I'Allemagne," 1895.

8- F. T. II.

WORMS, GTJSTAVE-HIPPOLYTE : French
actor; born in I'iiris March 21, ln:'u. He was gradu-
ated from the Conservatoire in 1857, winning t!ic
first prize for tragedy and the second for comedy.
Soon afterward he was engaged at the Theat'n;
Francais, where lie made his debut in 1859 as Achille
in " Due Jr.b." In 1802 Leon Laya, appreciating the
clever comedy work of Worms, engaged him to
create the part of Ilontre in "Loi du Cteur," and his
success was so marked that he secured a contract
with the Theatre-Michel. St. Petersburg, where he
repeated his French successes. In 1875 be returned

to Paris, making his reappearance at the Gymuase
as Ai'inaiul Duval in " La I)ame aux Camelias " with
great success. After a short sojourn in Russia
Worms was called to the Comedie-Frau{;aise, Paris,
in 1877, and elected a "socielaire" in the following
year. He retired from the stage in 1901.

Worms's original creations are: Elie Mareau in
"Anne de Kerviller, " (Jeorges in "Les Rantzau,"
hsarts in "Service en Campagne," Lude in "Por-
traits et la Marquise," Henri in "Les Maucroix,"
Andre de Bdrdnnneniu " Denise," Capitain Olirier in
"Antoinette Rigaud," 6Yrt«<«iM« de Grand-Redon in
"Francillon," Marquis de Simie7-s in "La Souris,"
Jacquemiu in " Le Flibu.stier," Sam in "La BCiche-
ronne," and Fran(;ois in "Margot."

Bibliography: Vapereau, Diet, des Contemporains, p. 1606;
Noxivcau l/orowsse lllnslrt, s.v.
S. E. Ms.

WORMS, BARON HENRY DE. See PiR-

BKKiUT. Hk.NKY I)K WoU.MS, BaKON.

WORMS, JULES : French physician ; born in
Paris Jan. 24, 1830; died there April 15, 1898; edu-
cated at the University of Strasburg (M.D. 1852).
From 1853 to 1854 he acted as au assistant at the
military medical school in Paris, and from 1854 to
1858 as first assistant surgeon of an infantry regi-
ment. He took part in the Crimean war as a sur-
geon ; was from 1858 to 1864 assistant physician at
the Gros-Caillou Hospital in Paris; and from 1865 to
1875 was surgeon at the Rothschild Hospital. From
1870 to 1880 he officiated as statistician of the board
of health of Paris, and in 1875 was appointed chief
physician to the Northern Railroad (Chemin du
Fer du Nord). Of his works may be mentioned
"De I'Extirpation des Cystes de I'Ovaire," Paris,
1860.

Bibliography: Pagel, Bioq. Lex.

F. T. H.

WORMS, JULES: French genre painter; born
in Paris Dec. 16, 1832. He studied under Philippon
and Lafosse, and made his debut at the Salon of 1859,
his first painting, " Dragoon Making Love to a Nurse
on a Bench in the Place Royale," auguring his suc-
cess in the humorous vein. In 1861 he exhibited the
painting " Arrest for Debt," and thereafter visited
various countries, sojourning for some time in Spain,
where he made several sketches of the manners and
costumes of the people.

Worms was awarded medals for his exhibits at
the Salons of 1867, 1868, 1869, and 1878, and was in
1876 created a chevalier of the Legion of Honor.
Following is a list of his paintings, several of which
were purchased at high prices by American collect-
ors: "Fountain in Burgos" (1863; Laval Museum) ;
"Tavern in the Asturias" and "Departure of Smug-
glers" (1865); "Kitchen in Valencia "(1866); "Scene
in Old Castile " (1867) ; " Romance a la Mode " (1868 ;
Luxembourg Museum); "Welcome Visitor" and
"Precocious Talent" (1869); "Sale of a Mule "and
"A Letter Box" (1870); "Sheep-Shearing in Gra-
nada" (1872); "An Aunt-in-Law " (1873); "The Lit-
tle Cabinet-Maker" (1874); " A Sensational Novel "
and "One's Vocation" (1875); "The Dance of the
Vito at Granada" and "Going to the Review"
(1876); "The Bull Fountain in Granada" (1877);
"Distracted Barber" and "Every Age Its Pleas-

667

THE JhUlMl ENCVCI.OI'KDIA

AUt

ures" (1878); "Pastoral Toiiruument " (1879); " Bo-
fore the Alcalde" (1880); "Public Writer" (1882);
ami "Politicians" (1883).

Bibliography: riminiiUniind PvrkimJ'yclnpcdinof I'niritftH
o»i(( 1^(11 lit I'/iyx. New York. lHlf.i; singer, .-W/i/ciii. iii.n A' (l(i«f.
ler-Lerici>)i, Krankfort-on-lhc-Maiii, llKJl ; ilciiifiii uiid Uui-
toD, Art ixlH of the, JS'.inetcenlh Cciituru and Tlietr W'tirku
Boston, 1880.

s. F. ('.

WORMS, MAURICE BENEDICT DE : En^

lisli liiiaiicier auil agriculturist; born in FranUfoii-
on-thc Alain 1805; dietl in London 1807; grand.s(in of
Meyer Ausolni de Kolhsciiild, and son of Ik-ncdict
de Worms, a distinguished inember of tlu- Jewish
communit}' of Frankfort. On a visit to the Far East
in 1841, Maurice and his brother Gabriel de Worms
purchased a large estate in Ceylon, which bccanie
known as the Rothschild Estate. Acre by acre was
added to this estate, which was among the besl-cul-
tivated tracts of laud in the island; and when the
Worms brothers in I860 disposed of their holdings,
they had no less than 2,000 acres under cultivation,
and more than 6,000 acres of forest land to be re-
claimed. The brothers were among the pioneer .set-
tlers in Ceylon, and contributed largely to its pros-
perity, lu his will Maurice de Worms bequeathed
large sums of money to various Jewish charitable
institutions.

Bibliography : Jew. Chron. June 14, 1867.

J. G. L.

WORMS, RENE : French auditor of the coun-
cil of state; son of Emile Worms; born at Rennes
Dec. 8, 1869; educated at the lyceum of his native
city and at the Lycee Charlemagne and the Ecole
Normale Superieure in Paris ("docteur en droit,"
1891 ; "docteur es lettres," and "docteur es sciences
politiques et economiqucs," 1896). Worms, who is
a laureate of the French Institute (Academic des
Sciences Morales et Politiques), became a member of
the higher statistical board in 1897 and of Ihe con-
sulting committee for agricultural statistics in 1903,
besides being a member of many learned societies.
He began his legal career as an advocate at the
Court of Appeals in Paris in 1891, and was ap-
pointed auditor of the council of state three years
later. lie has been on the examining board for
commercial high schools since 1897. In 1904 he was
the secretary of the extra-iiarliamenUiry board of
marine investigation, and in the following year was
appointed recording secretary of the French colo-
nial congress. His talents found university recog-
nition in 1895, when he was appointed lecturer on
political economy in the faculty of law of the Uni-
versity of Paris. He held this position until 1897,
when he was chosen associate proles.sor in the same
faculty at Caen, remaining there until 1902; he was
instructor in the faculty of law, section of economic
sciences, and in the Ecole Normale Superieure in
1897, and was appointed in 1902 honorary professor
of political economy at the Commercial Institute,
Paris, which position he still (1905) holds.

In 1893 Worms established the " Revue Interna-
tionale de Sociologie," of which he became the c.litor.
and later founded the " Bibliotheque Sociologique
Internationale," besides organizing the I"st>'»t
International de Sociologie and the Societe de
Sociologie de Paris. He is, furthermore, a prolitic

wnt<-
lu \

(;jd
ti()ii

turaet Meil

et S ■ ■

bui

tiqile" (Purix, 1

St).-.' ••

colli

Worms is a dwoU-d ad:
was eh' • '

where I,

gurding the Jew8 of AlKi-ria n^-
who demmil ' ■ ^ "

lier of tiic 1

cUc\«<

WORMS. BARON SOLOMON nENEDICT

DE : Kn-lis|, •

Miiin F.h. :>. 1-

20. 1882; son of 1 ||e

was taken f !

ally went i '

persevemnce, he conirii

ment of the colony. H> "i"-!!

to various Jewish rhnriil<'«, w

the council of the I'nii

a trustee of several m

1871 he was creatt-d 11 I

in recognition of ser

in consideration of •...

brothers in developinc '

Victoria granted hi'

of 1874, the right t ! . ^

Bibliographt: Jevc. Chron. uid Jett. H

.1.

WORMS, VICTOR : !

brotJKi of Einil. \\

10, 1858; educati'<l
droit," 1878). In 1-
de prefecture" for :..
and at Henne.s made tli
Rouss'Miu, whc

when he enten u ' >

the interif»r. On the t

seau, ^^

his pat:

Ferry, Worms was mndo pt

prefecture" f<"

On the full of i

adndnistnitive nmv

Al" ■ ■

18^' .

capacity !<>

ident of the tiuiuiim i>j .i 'k-i <■

WORMSER. ANDRK ALPH0N8E : K-
conipoHcr: born in '

18:-

ercat number of cunwrl ovt-rUin-*. {•<«&<<

Worship, Idol-
Wreath

THE JEWISH ENCYCL(iPEniA

568

tions, operottjis, farcos. and billets, lie lias written
twci openis. " Adi'U- <le Pontliiiie" (Aix la-Cliapello,
1887) and " Hivoli " (Paris, ISDO).

BiDLlOGRAPilv: Riemann, Mufih-Lirihut, I'M).

WORSHIP. IDOL-: All idolatnnis rults are

«'<iii>.L ii.;.i.a :y \uv liiltlieal insistence on \v()rslii[) of

Yiiwn only. Tlie Dcealogiie betrins with lliecoin-

nuind to reverence tlie one true God and to ncoii-

nize no otlicrcieities. On this theme the Pentateuch

dilates from every point of view, and theetTorisof tlie

Prophets were ehietly direried airainst idolatry and

aeuinsl the innnoralitv connected with it. 'I'o recou-

nize the true God meant also toi'ct ac-

Historical cording to His will, and consciiuenily

Outlines, to live a moral life. The thunderings

of the Pro|ihets against idolatr}- show,
however, that the cults of other deities were deeply
rooted in the lieart of the Israelitish people, and they
do not appear to liavc been thoroughly su|)pressed
initil after the return from the Babylonian exile.
There is, therefore, no doubt thatJewisii monotheism
was preceded by a period of idolatry ; the only i)rob-
leni is that which concerns the nature of the cults
(coinp. the articles Auu.\mmki,ech ; Anammelech;
Amieu.\ii ; Ass-Woi{sniP ; Ast.\ute Woijsiiip Amonc

TIIEHEimEWS; AtaKG.XTIS; B.\'AT, .\ND B.\'.\I.-W()U-

siiif; Baai.-peoii; Baai.-zebiij; BAAi.-ZEPirox ; Ba-
MAH; Cai-f, Goi.uen; Cai.f-Woksiiip; Ciie.mosh;
Dac;ox; High Place; ^loi.ocii; Stau-Wokship;
Stone and Stone-Wouship; Ta-Mmtz; Tehapiii.m;

and \VlT( HCKAKT).

I. Biblical Data: The narratives in Genesis
presuppose monotheism as the original religion.
After its decline Abraham was called to spread the
true knowledge of God (Gen. xii. ;
Origin, Josh, xxiv.), but the prophetical books
Extent, still reflect the struggle against idols
Name. and idolatry. Even Jeremiah, who
lived to see the end of the Jewish state,
complains: "According to the number of thj' cities
are thy gods, O Judah " (ii. 28). The various terms,
Sf)metimes expressive of scorn and disdain, which
were applied to idols and idolatry are indicative of
the wide dilTusion of polytheistic cults and of the
liorror with which they filled the Biblical writers.
Thus idols are stigmatized "non-God" (Dent.
xxxii. 17, 21; Jer. ii. 11), "things of naught"
(1.^'v. xix. 4 et paftsiin), "vanity" (73n. Deut. xxxii.
21 et pi(s»i)ii; frequently in Jer.), "iniquity" 'px. I
Sam. XV. 2S et jmfiniin), "wind and confusion " (I.sa.
xli. 29), "the dead" (Ps. cvi. 28), "carcasses" (Lev.
xxvi. 30: Jer. xvi. IH), "a lie" (Lsa. xliv. 20 et pm-
isiin), and similar epithets. The}' are made of gold,
silver, wood, and stone, and are graven images, un-
shapen clods, and, being the work of men's hands,
unable to speak, see, hear, smell, eat. grasp, or feel,
and powerless either to injure or to l)enefit (Scholz,
" Gotzendienst luid Zauberwesen," pp. 45 ct neq.).

Idols were either designated in Hebrew by a term
of general significance, or were named according to
their material or (lie manner in which they were made.
They were placed upon jiedestals, and fastened with
chains of silver or nails of iron lest they should fall
over or be carried olT risa. xl. 19, xli. 7; Jer. x. 14;
Wisdom xiii. l.jj, and they were also clothed and

colored (Jer. X. 9; Ezek. xvi. IS; Wisdom xv. 4).
At first the gods and their images were conceived of
as iilcntical ; but in later times a distinction was drawn
between the god and the image. Nevertheless it was
customary to take away the gods of the vanquished
(lsa. X. lOdsrq., xxxvi. 19. xlvi. 1; Jer. xlviii. 7,
xiix. 3; llosea x. o ; Dan. xi. S). and a similar cus-
tom is fn'quently meiitioi'cd in the cuneiform texts.
Teniiilis, altars, and statues were erected to the
gods, and figures of oxen and of other animals are
also mentioned (Ezek. viii. \0 et aeq.). In Israel the

worship of high ]ilaces was a favorite

Forms of form of ])olytl:eisiic cult, as is shown

Idol- l»y the Book of Kings, where the reign

Worship, of t-acli monarch is judged chiefly from

the standpoint of his parlici|)ation in
liie worship of idols, so that the words "but the
high places were not removed" form a stereotyped
lihrase. Prayer was offered to the gods (E\. xx. 5,
xxiii. 24, ct ptisKi/ii), the hands were stretched out to
them (Ps. xliv. 21 [A. V. 20J), they were invoked by
name (I Kings xviii. tt neq.. xxiv.), their names were
praised (Josh, xxiii. 7), knees were bent before them
(I Kings xix. 18), incense was burned in their honor
(I Kings xi. 8 et pttsxiui), they were invoki'd in the
taking of oaths, and sacrifices were immolated to
them (Jer. vii. 18; Ex. xxxiv. 15), the victims inclu-
ding even human beings, such as the offerings made
to Moloch. The custom of worshiping stars and idols
by throwing kisses to them is mentioned in Job
xxxi. \'.i. The exchange of clothes, by which men
put on Avomen's clothes and women donned men's
garments, was an idolatrous custom, and was conse-
quently forbidden (I)eut. xxii. 5). Human hair also
served as a sacrifice, and the prohibition against sha-
ving the head or having writing burned into one's
V)ody(Lev. xix. 18,27; xxi. 5; comp. Jer. ix. 26, xxv.
23, xlix. 32) was recognized by the Talmud (.Mak. iii.
6) and by Maimonides(" .Moreh," iii. 37; " Yad," 'Ab.
Zarah xii. 5) as connected with idol-worship. There
were, moreover, many other forms of worship, and
numerous commandments of the Pentateuch, even
though they omit the term "'abomination" asasyno-
nym of idolatry, refer to polytheistic worship: for idol-
atry was(leepl\' rooted in the national character, as is
shown by the many pro))er names comiiounded with
names of idols, so that it became necessary to make
cverv etfoit for its eradication.

II. Post-Biblical Period : It is generally sup-
posed that idolatry was completely crushed in Israel
after the return from the Exile. This assertion is
somewhat exaggerated, however, as is evident from
the continual warnings against idols and idolatry
both in the Ai)ociyplia (Kautzsch, " Apokryphen,"

Index, s.v. "GOtzen") and in Jewish

Survivals tradition. The Talmud has a special

in treatise on idolatry (see 'Auou.vii

Talmudic Zauaii), and also discusses the subject

Times. elsewhere in many pa.ssages, so that

its data concerning this matter would
111] a volume. The gods of the Greco-Roman epoch,
especially those of the Oriental world, appear in its
pages in variegated profusion. "If one wished to
write all the names of idols, all the skins [parch-
ment scrolls] would be insuflicient " (Sifre, Deut.
43). Tlie monotheism of the masses, it is true, was

569

THK JEWlMi i^:a VCLOPEDIA

not euda.>g|.ml, for wl,,.,, i, was tlnvntoncHl by the

IHTMut Ko.im.i tnx.p.s t,. enter .lu.jr u.vy\u,vv will,
Ha.!is; they evc-n .l.toflod i.lols i„ tl... po,„aiis „f
tiR.Ca'sars stain,,,.,! .,n r,.ins, an,l this was ,,,.1 um-
justitiahl,.. HI VK'U. ,.!• the divine woisl.ip paid tli.-
emperors (see Zkai.ots). I)es,,ite this fear of i.h.js
and in.a-cs. the danger of inroa,ls anmni: Ihe.leu-H
by Kinlatrous customs an,! usag,.s. w!.i.lip,,-n„.,u..d
the wliole ancient work! aroun,! them, was so .rrenl
thnt th,3 sd,o!ars eonl,l not invent to,, „„„„•
fences." They ae,.„r,ling!y ain,,.,! at malting i„-
timat,. association with the heathen impossible and
thereby succeecied in prot,.eting th,. Jewish people
troin t!ie evi! wliicli t!ii-,Ml,-ned tiiem.

Tlie ancient wor!d regarded the Jews as ath.-isfs
because of ti.eir refusal to worship visible gods
"Uhosoever denies i,!,,ls is caihMJ a Jew " (Meg'
13a. b). To statements sucli as tins tlie Jew re-
spoiuied: " Wlio.soever recognizes i,|,,!s lias ,I,.nied
the entire Torah; and who.so,-v,.r deni,.s i,|.,ls has
reeogmz,.,! the eutire Torah" (Sifre, Deut. ry-l and
parallel passages). "As soon as one d,.parts fn.ni
th,. words of tlic Torali. it is as though he attached
huusclf to tlie woishii, of idols" (Sifre. Num. 43).

Although the Jews were forbi,!,!en in ireiieral to
mock at anything holy, it was a merit to,leride i,|,,ls
(^•''M'- 251)), an,l A Id ba decreed lliat the
Attitude of names of the gods bechant,^ed into de-
Jews rogatory names (Sifre, Deut. f,l. end.
Toward itpaMi>,i). Thus, Raal-zebiilx II Kiii.r.s
Idolatry, i. 2, 0) is called Beel-zebul ,fji2T ^V2
= "d(,minns stercoris") in .Abitt. .\ii.
24. 27. and elsewlu're, and the won! witli which the
Talmud designates sacrilice to idols (fj^^; Yer. Ber.
131,) literally means "to manure." 'I'he Hellenistic
Jews also observed this custom, .so that they applied
the term f^Woi^i^ri/f to what the Gentiles called 'n/x,-
li^cro^- (Deissinann. "Die Ilellcnisierung des Semi-
tischen Monotheismus," p. 5, Leipsic. 1003). It
was forbi,l,leii to look upon images (Tosef., Siiab.
-wii. 1 [ed. Zuckermandel, p. 13G] and parallels),
and even thinking of idolatr,,us w,,rsliip was pro-
liiiiitcl (Ber. 12b); if one saw a ],Iace where an idol
had once stood, lie was commanded to titter a spe-
cial prayer (Ber. fila). Sacrifice to an id,.! or any-
thing which it, any way might be ass,,ciated with
idolatry was forbidden. It was even insulTicient to
reduce an idol to iu»wd,'r and scatter it t„ th,- win'ls.
since it wouhl fall to earth and become a fertilizer:
but the image must be sunk in the Dead Sea, whence
it could never emerge ('Ab. Zarali iii. 3): nor might
the wood of the "asherah" be used f,>r ])iirposes ,>f
healing (Pes. 2oa; see M.\Gic). Among the three
cardinal sins for which the penalty was death, iiiol-
atry stood first (Pes. 2r)a and parallels). "Dust of
idolatry" is a technical exjiression for the pnthibi-
tion of anything related to idol-worship (" 'abodah
zarali '").

To i)reventany po.ssible inducement to idolatry, all
association of Jews with Gentiles was rend,r,'d dilli-
cult. For three days before a Gentile feast-day no
Jew might have any commercial dealings with the
idolaters ('Ab. Zarah i. 1), and it was forltiddeii In
attend the fairs connected with such festivals, or even
to goon a road which led to the image of a deity, c;

Idol.

ii. 1,.

pjiiiii

Hi '

III. Pout -Till mud J. J
between the i. ■ ■ •■
tioii of ||,e R,

Ol.

.m,;

SurvivaU
of Idol-

Worahip.

102b). Thefi^

worship of IIIiii w:,

phirs, while II

for purity of

united liv .Mainii.:

"Moivh N •

lla/akah

thoroughly e\

'Aruk, Yorcli in- mi, iiiv> lus

idolatry.

nini.iocRM-

unit I':
llaiKl:
I. II.. :

I/" . II

miick. '

-tiio 4ii'i; il

ti'iislXfMl.
T.: ,/.
,/i( „.•'
luiiV. 1',,
-M »nl.. Kr

LM ..I
/. ./. I

|!l'll«M

/.I lllll

;,.

I. I

JutltiiHi

L ii

WREATH: i;
token <>t liiiimr. 'I .
on the day of tlu-ii
crowns of ]■■
adorned lii< :..
my riles, niul ol
wreaths ni;i

corn (All. Z

.siege<l the Uabltiii '
but peiiiiilt<d
H. Jcreiiiiaii a- _
h-aves, while .Simufl i
includiii
the lies'
When I{abinn d
of twislinf; u w i
that woiin-n w-
((Jil. 7u
The I
and ilt<
saer

nun..- ;

Willi tt wrmlli

The " vine " n icf ii^l ;*/ ;u Ot;i. x'.

I« .

Wreschen
Wurttember?

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

670

bolic of Israel, and the " three branches," or wreatlis,
represent the Temple, the king, and the high
priest (Hul. 92a). See Crown.
BiBLiOtiRAPHY : Ahrabams, Jf in^/i Life in Oic Middle Ages,

"k'^: h j. d. e.

WKESCHEN: A town in Posen, Germany,
three miles from the Russian frontier. Its Jewisli
community formerly ranked among the largest of
a>uthern Prussia, and is mentioned asoneof the con-
gregations which suffered severely during the per-
secutions of the yeais 1648-31. Unluckily, how-
ever, all the early documents were destroyed in the
conflagration of 1873, in which the synagogue, a
beautifid old wooden building, also was burned.
The gmvestones of the ancient cemetery, which has
been closed for about forty years, afford no histor-
ical data, since the great majority of the older in-
scriptions have been obliterated.

Among the members of the community special
mention may be made of Kabbi Zebi llirsch b. Aaron
Mirels, Rabbi Aaron Mirels (Kaufmaun, "Die
LetzteVertreibung der Juden aus Wien und Nieder-
Osterreich," pp. 79 et seq., Vienna, 1889), and the
Bible commentator Rabbi Meir Lob Malbini. Zebi
Mirels, who was called also Hirsch Aaron London,
was the author of the"Mispar Zeba'am," and pre-
sented a Hebrew hymn to General Mollendorf when
the latter was sent by the Prussian king Frederick
"William II. to receive the allegiance of the new prov-
ince of southern Prussia (" Das.Tahr 1793," p. 16, note,
Posen, 1895). Rabbi Aaron Mirels, the author of
the "Bet Aharon," is buried in the cemetery at
Hirschberg in Silesia. In Wreschen, ]\Ialbim wrote
his first work, the collection of annotations on the
first chapters of the Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim.
which laid the foundation of his renown as a scholar.
In Wreschen, moreover, the musical director Louis
Lewandowski was born April 3, 1821.

The poptdation of Wreschen now (1905) numbers
5,435, of whom 490 are Jews. The present rabbi
is Dr. M. Lewin. The community has a religious
school and a public school, the former having an
attendance of forty and the latter of thirty-five.

n M. Lw.

WRITING. See Alphabet; M.\nusckipts;

SCRIBKS; SCUOLL OF THE LaW.

WRITTEN INSTRUMENTS. See Dked;

Sum \i:

WTJNDERBAR, REUBEN JOSEPH: Rus-
sian pedagogue and author; born at Mitau Sept.
12. 1812; died there Aug. 16, 1868. lie received
the usual Jewish education under a private teacher,
and at the age of eighteen entered his father's busi-
ness. In 1834 he married, and, having lo.st his for-
tune, supported himself as a private tutor. At the
beginning of the colonization movement inaugurated
by Czar Nicholas (see Jew. Encyc. i. 252), Wunder-
bar wrote an address to the colonists who went from
Courland to Kherson ("Betrachtungen ilber die aus
Kurland nach dem Cherson'schen Gou vernment Aus-
wanderiiden Israelitischen Kolonisten-Familien,"
Mitau, 1840); this address attracted the attention of
Max LiME.NTiiAL, who appointed him teacher at the
Riga school under his management. After Lilien-

thal had been called to St. Petersburg, Wunderbar
acted temporarily as principal of the school and as
rabbi. In 1848 he was called to Mitau as teacher of
religion and as Hebrew interpreter to the govern-
ment, acting occasionally as rabbi also : this position
he held until his death.

In aiidition to various pamphlets and sermons, as
well as articles contributed to the "Orient " and to
the " AUgemeine Zeitung des Judentums," Wunder-
bar was the author of the following works: " Bi-
blisch-Talmudi.scheMcdizin " (3 vols., Riga and Leip
sic, 1850-60) : "Geschichte der Juden in der Provin/.
Liv- und Kurland" (Mitau, 1853); and "Immer-
wiihreuder Kalend<'r der Juden " (Dessau, 1854). A
bibliography of his earlier writings is given in his
history of the Jews in Livonia and Courland.
Bibliography: Allg. Zeit. desJud. 1869. pp. 19-20. 37-38.

II. H. D.

WUNSCHE, AUGUST: German Christian
Hebraist; born at Hainewalde July 22, 1839. He
has devoted his attention almost exclusively to rab-
binic literature. After completing his commentaries
on Hosea (1808) and Joel (1872), he wrote "Neue
BeitrUge zur Erliiuterung der Evangelien aus Tal-
mud und Midrasch " (1878), the most complete col-
lection of the parallel passages of the Talmud and
the New Testament since the works of Light foot
and SchSttgen. In his "Bibliotlieca Rabbinica"
(Leipsic, 1880-85) he made a German translation of
the whole of the Midrasli Rabbah and the Midrash
to the Five Megillot, and he has also translated hag-
gadic portions of the Jerusalem Talmud (1880) and
of the Babylonian Talmud (1886-89), as well as the
Pesikta (1885) and the Midrash to the Psalms (1891).
Smaller works of his are: "Die Ratselweisheit bei
den Hebraern " (1883); "Die Freude im Alten Tes-
tament" (1896); "Naturbildersprachedes Alten Tes-
taments" (1897); and "Die SchOnheit der Bibel"
(Leipsic, 1905). Together with Winter he compiled
the "Geschichte der Jiidischeu Litteratur " (3 vols.,
Leipsic, 1892-95), the best existing anthology of Jew-
ish literature in a modern language.
Bibliography : Kursohner. Deutscher Litteratur-Kalender.

s. J.

WURTTEMBERG : Kingdom of southwestern
Germany. The earliest traces of Jews in this coun-
try are found in Bopfingen (1241), Ulm (1243), Ess-
lingen (1253), Oehringen (1253), Calw (1284), and
Weil (1289); and their numbers, as well as the places
where they lived, may be ascertained b}' investiga-
ting the persecutions to which they were subjected
by Rindrteisch and his followers (1298). Albrechtl.
of Austria had been chosen King of Germany, and
Ulrich I. and Eberhard I. were ruling
Distribu- in Wurttembeig, when Rixdki-eiscii

tion and and his wild hordes attacked the Jews
Per- in Creglingen, Ellwaugen, Forchten-

secution. I)erg, Gartach, Goglingen, Ingelfin-
gen, Kiliizelsau, Leonberg, Mockmuhl,
Mergentheim, Stetten, Sindiingen, Sontheim, Wal-
denburg, Weinsberg, Widdern, and Weikersheim.
In the large community of Heilbronn alone there
were 200 martyrs, a'nong them Johanan ben Elia-
kim, the rabbi, and R. Asher, the president of the
community. There was at that time a large com-
munity also in Ulm, which had its own cemetery,

671

THE JEWIbll ENCYCLOPEDIA

w
w

or*

au(l whicli enjoyed ccitain privileges granted it by
;t iniiiiieipal law of 1274, this law heing in f„ice in
liavensl)iirg ulso. In tiie fouileenth century tliere
were Jews also in Buldern, Geislingen, GOppingen,
Sc'liwiihisch Hall. Holirhacli, Holienburg, Horb,'
Reiitlingeii, KotI well, Simtgiirt, Sulni, Tlibiiigen!
Vaihiugen, and Wollegg. The counts of Wlirt'-
teinbcrg owed money to tlie Jews of ("oinmr and
.Scjilt'ttstiidt, but I.ouis IV. canceled tlieir indebted-
ness (1340). !is had also Henry VH. and Louis the
Bavarian (1 1311 and 181(5) in the case of the citizens
vf I'^sslingen.

During the night of April 19. 1:310, the Havarian
parly of Ulni succeedeii in introducing Havariiin
troojis into the city, aided, as alleged, liy a Jew. In
the same night, however, the Austrian party, wliich
was in the majority, appeared and drove out the
Bavarians. In commemoration of tliis event a mass
was instituted to recall the treachery of the Jews;
but this was abolished in 1822, when the Bavarians
gained possession of Ulm. New persecutions soon
broke out, however, the Jews being charged with be-
ing enemies of the Christians, and with stealing and
desecrating the host. The conununiiy of Esslingen
was almost annihilated in 1334; and two years later
the Jews in Holienburg, Landenbach, Mergentheim,
Weikersheim, and Widdern were persecuted. The
situation became still worse toward the end of 1348,
when the plague and fanaticism combined brought
destruction upon the Jewish communities of Bal-
dern. Boptingen, Ellwangen. Esslingen, Goppiugen,
Geislingen, Schwabiscli Hall, Heiilhonn, Hohebach,
Horb, Krailsheim, ]\Iengcu, JVIergeutheim, Nagold,
Oeliringen, Kavensburg, Keutlingen, Bottweil,
Stuttgart, Sulgen, Sulm, Ulm. V'aihingen, Waldeu-
burg, Weilderstadt, and Widdern.

For the protection afforded them the Jews of Ulm
had to pay large sums to the municipal council, to
the citizens, and to the counts of Helfenstein. The
plunder taken from the Jews became a Ijoue of con-
tention among the cities, the emperor, and the
counts; and tiieir disputes led to renewed despolia-
tions of the Jews. As the latter still
Ulm. found advocates, some counts and
rulers united against them; and when
the emperor's demand for a share of the plunder was
unheeded, he made war against the cities, coutiscated
tiieir possessions, and compelled them to pay higli
taxes. The city of Ulm being unable to raise the
exorbitant sums demanded, the Jews came forward
to aid it in its distress (1374), chief among them
being Silcklin, son-in-law of Moses of Ehiingen, who
was a citizen of Ulm. In order to e.xact money
from tiie few wealtliy Jews still residing in thecity,
the emperor declared them to be under the ban, and
they had to ]iay large sums to have the edict revoked.
In 1385 the federation of cities declared void all jirom-
issory notes held by the Jews within its juii.sdiction ;
and in some cases it released the Christian debtors
from paying interest on their loans, while in other
cases it annulled part of the debt. Two years later
the federation issued a decree that no German or
Italian merchant might thenceforth have money
transactions with the Jews. Emperor Wenceslaiis,
following the example of the federation, canceled
in 1390 all the debts owing to the Jews, demanding.

however, ih .
urea were <
that tli< T
tile ein|"
and tliul lh<
hie. In Hpi
periuilted i
Kirchheim (U3.'i). 1
G(i|ipiiigen ' ' ' ■
and on payn

Ulrich (l-ja;j -^o) was ( <iniMi
to protect liu- Jews, an.! •
to suppress tiieir UKury . •
sent to the iiii|)<rial tr. .
into the coiTerH of the c<
Count Eberliard ini I
nounced enemy of the .Iiw» H<-
from Tubingen in 1477; and in 1 !'•
tlicy .siiould be e.xpclied from I,

order was i nn-
Expulsion, 14. 14«8; and :...
1498. were weallliy and

to leave tluM i'

The exiles were deprived of : ,

emperor demanded that the pooph- of I

mention him in iheir prayers !)ocauM? he lui.JiJri»«rrT^|
them of the Jews.

The tifteeutli century was ominous
Jews of Havensburg. A bl
against them indueeil Eiii|).
some of the Jews of tlmt city, and •
The Jews were expelled fr '"
but ten years later they wei
to be expelled a second lime in Ml*

bronn, where Jews had s^ ••' '

ber of them were cxpell.

later thecity council insisted on .

notwithstanding tiie iiii|>eri,i'

Jews. The Jews e.xpelled (

among the villages; but in n.

to the urban communities.

in GmUnd and Heiitlingeu h.

1434; in Nersheim. 1454. in .

Lauterburg. Ptlaumloih, uiui i

Between tiie end of the fifteenlh <

Jewssettledin Ulm; i

to enter the ciiy (inl_\

were warnctl against bu ■

tions with them. ^^

dukedom, the treat in

whole the same; all

were forbidd' '

renewed and

the great advoi-ato of tiie J

travel tiir ■ ' ■'

issued r> .

of tlie Jewstl.'MW). J'

try were ^ i • <■ \ <

tent ion \v

their prolet Hon.

regulating by a <

cling Jews; but 1 '

obtaineti •

that in tli< !■

catA'd thfir v\

(1503-1608) IrjcU lu liit Uv^ ui ;.

Wurttemberg
Wysber

THE JEWISH EXCYt'LOPEDIA

572

position to establish a Jewisli mcicantile association
under the direftion of Maggiuo Gabrieli and a Jewish
niajrician, Ahraliani C'alorno: tlie attempt, however,
was an absolute failure.

Durinir the reign of Eberhard Ludwig (1G77-
1733) a favorable change of attitude toward the
Jews took place: and tiie\- were now permitted to
frecnient the fairs (1706) and to trade in horses
(1707). The Countess of Wiirben procured the privi-
lege of free trade for the Jews of Freudeiithal (1728)
and for those of Gochsheira (1729). Under Carl Al-
exander (1733-37). Jo.seph Sliss Oppenheimkk was
appointed privy factor, and subsc(iuently tinancial
councilor, to the duke: and through

Joseph his intluencc several Jews were per-
Suss Op- milted to settle at Stuttgart and Lud-
penheimer. wigsburg. Oppenheimer's subserv-
iency to the duke brought upon him
the enmity of the people, and after his master's
<leath (1737) he fell into disgrace. He was executed
in 1738, and in the following year all the Jews were
mereilessl}' expelled. They were soon permitted to
return, but the)- were severely restricted in the ex-
ercise of their religion, as well as in their business;
antl the people were Avarned against having any
dealings with them in monetary affairs. Court fac-
tors were treated more leniently, and important
government contracts were given to them (17.')9,
1761, 1704) in spite of the objections of the populace.
Karl Eugen, as also his successors, Ludwig (1793-
1795) and Friedricli (1795-97), treated the Jews con-
siderately. These rulers were the last of the line of
Catholic dukes; and under the succeeding Protes-
tant regime a new era dawned for the Jews of AViirt-
temberg.

With the nineteenth century the whole country re-
ceived an entirely new political constitution. It was
not only made a kingdom, but considerable territory
was added to it(180G); and its Jewish population
increased until in 1828 it numbered 8,918 souls. King
Frederick I. (1797-1816) took the IJrst ste|)s toward
the emancipation of the Jews. lie annulled the body-
ta.v and admitted the Jews into the army (1807); in-
stituted family registers; included the Jews in the
general taxation (1808); opened up to them all trades;
and regulated the organization and
Emancipa- governmentof their communities. The
tion. Jews so treated showed themselves loy-
al citizens during the Napoleonic wars.

The work of ameliorating the condition of the Jews
was continued by "William I. (1816-64). and com-
pleted under Charles I. in 1869. King William insti-
tuted the Israelitische Oberkirchenbeliorde; and, by
a law enacted in 1828, he regulated the constitution
of the Jewish communities, and made it obligatory
upon Jewish parents to let their children receive a
common-school education as provided by the general
school-law of 1825. In the work of purifying the
worship from the neglect and irregularities that had
crept ill. Dr. Maier, as theological member of tlie
OberkirchenbehOrde, was most active. His aim Avas
to eliminate completely all non-German elements,
and to approach as closely as possible to the culture
of the time, maintaining the idea of Jewisli unity and
morality, while abandoning the sjiecifically Jewish
laws of exclusion. Similar ideas actuated his succes-

sor. Church Councilor Dr. von AVassermann (1872-
1893). Alost of thecommunilies in tlu; northern part
of the country clung, however, to the Ili'hrew lan-
ixuage and to the Dibiit al and Talmudic rules of life ;
and at present the majority of the Jewish children
are instructed in Hebrew, while the form of Avorsliip
has ren'.:ii!.ed almost unchangetl.

According to the census of 1900, the Jews in the

kingdom of "Wurttemberg numbered 11,C16 in a

total population of 2,169,480. They thus constitute

0.54 per cent of the population, dis-

Present tributed among the four districts of

Status. the country as follows: (1) Neckar,
5.544, or 0.73 per cent; (2) Black
Forest, 1,296, or 0.25 per cent; Jagst, 2,990, or
0.74 per cent; and Danube, 2,086, or 0.40 percent,
of the total population. The Neckar district is di-
vided into tive rabbinates, the seat of wiiich is in
Stuttgart; the Black Forest district constitutes one
rabbinate, the seat of which is in Mliliringen; the
Jagst district embraces the rabbinates of Ileilbronn,
Oberdorf, Mergentheim, Braunsbach, and Weikers-
heim; and the Danube district, the rabbinates of
Goppingen, Lauj)heim, Buchau, and Ulm, making
a total of fifteen rabbinates for the kingdom.
Laws and decrees regulating the communal affairs
were issued as follows: April 25, 1828; Oct. 27,
1831; Jan. 31, 1834 (rabbinical examinations);
1838 (rituals); 1841 (duties of rabbis and choir-lead-
ers); March 25, 1851 ; .Alarch 26, 1873; Feb. 22, 1875;
and Feb. 18 and April 24, 1876 (taxation); Aug. 5,
1875; and April 23, 1900 (jiensiouing of rabbis);
and July 8, 1878; and March 25, 1900 ((lualifications
of choir-leaders).

According to the school statistics of 1900-1, the
thirteen rabbinates had under their care 61 school
districts, with 1,757 Jewish pupils, of whom 1,523
(736 l)oys and 787 girls) were under
Statistics, fourteen, and 234 (93 boys and 142
girls) more than fourteen, years of age.
The}' are instructed in part in twenty -seven Jewish
parochial schools, receiving their specifically relig-
ious instruction in thirty-one religious schools. In
some places the religious instruction is given also
in evening-schools and Sundaj'-schools. All but 140
children receive religious Instruction. According
to tiie statistics of the penal institutions of the coun-
try for 1900-1, fourteen Jews were sentenced in the
course of the year, ten of whom Avere of Wiirttem-
berg. The criminal status of the entire population
of 2.169,480 is 0.089 per cent; that of the Jews,
0.083 percent.

There arc in AVurttemberg the following Jewish
philauthro])ic institutions: the orphan asylum Wil-
helmspflege at Esslingen ; the Society for the Re-
lief of Teachers, AVidows, and Oiphans; and the
District Asylum and Belief Society. Since 1896
the rabbis of the country, as well as the Jewish
teachers and choir-leaders, have been holding yeaily
conventions in Stuttgart. Among the most note-
wort iiy synagogues are those at Stuttgart, Ileil-
bronn, Ulm, Buchau, and Unterdeufstetten. There
are very old cemeteries at Aufliausen, Oberdorf,
Esslingen, Affaltrach, Untcrbalbaeh, Neckarsulm,
AVankheini, and Laibacli. The Israelitische Ober-
kiichenbehorde, which is under the inunediate su-

573

Tllh .IhWJMi EXCVCLoPEniA

«rjr

pcrvisioii (,f tlic ministry forecclcsiusiical and cdiicn-
tional iiirairs, rcguliitos tlio ulTairs of all tlic- Jcwisli
roniiininiticsdf tlu' country. This body iscunposnl
of ii.Irwish tlicologiiin, a. Jewish lawyer, ami four
Jewish associules, witli a Christian ministerial eonii-
selorat their head. In all ronimuniiics there arc in-
stitutions for tjie inslnietion of adults, m well as
burial societies, dispensaries, and societies for Ihe
relief of the resident and traveling jxior. Sluttgarl
and Hall have- societies for the promotion of a
knowledge of lahbiiucal liti'iviture. 'I'he ancient rit-
ual is observed in most of tJie commuidties, though
some innovations have been introduced in Stiitt-riirt,
Heiibronn, Vim, and (Jbppingen. See also IIkm,-
i;iu)Nn; Stuttgaut; L'i..\i.

^- T. K.

WURZBUIiG : Capital of Lower Franconia. IJa-
varia, Cieiniany. It, ranked as a city in 741, and had
ii Jewish commuiutyas early as tiie elev-nlh ceii-
tuiy, allliougii the liist documentary evidence of
the existence of Jews in the town is d.ated in ni!).
The Crusade of 1147 brought much sulfering on the
Jews, and they were also ]iersccnted in 12:iS, and
again in 1349, when in their synagogue the men.
together with their wives and chiklren, met a volun-
tary death in tiie tlaines. Bisho]) Julius continued
the work begun by Bishop Friedrich, who had ex-
pelled the Jews of Wiir/burg in loih), and banished
the community from the city. The cemetery was.
accordingly, no longer u.sed, and Bishoj) Julius con-
fiscated it by illegal means, even ignoring the emper-
or's admonition to treat the Jews with justice.

After the exjiulsion from Wlirzburg the Jewish
community of the neighboring town of Jleidingsfeld
nourished greatly, and to it were transferred the
rabbinate of Wlirzburg and the Jewish court. The
ral)biincal office of Wiir/burg has always been held
by }irominent men, including Eliezer ben Nathan,
Isaac Or Zarua', Meir of Kothenburg, Israel Koppel
Friinkelandliis son Samson P'rilnkel, Jacob of Keck-
cndorf, Aryeh Lot) I{a|)oport, and Levin Fahren-
baeli. Under Falirenbach's successor the Jews were
again permitted to settle in Wlirzburg; and Kabbi
Abraham Bing, who was appointed chief rabbi of
Franconia iu 17'J8, took up his residence in the city.
When Bing retired from active service iu 1839 the
chief rabbinate was abolished, and a district rab-
l)inate was created in its place. Tlie first district
rabbi of Wlirzburg was SeligmannBaer B.vmberc-
7:i{, who died in 1878 and was succeeded by Ins son
Nathan Bamberger, beligmaun Baer Band)crger
founded various important institutions, including a
Jewish school, a teachers' .seminary, and a yeshibah.
lie also originated the movement for the estiiblish-
meut of a Jewish hospital.

Wu..
all for.
uss'

T()i...i i
of u total I

of tllC IIIOHt illl]

lltni

ii. >
ji'
J'

HI ■

N.-

W II II •l/itt loi ,t.

uUiiliohritiii, ;
luinjrlt.

I).

WURZBURGER. JULIUS: \
ixl ; boin in Bayrciiih, (,
York city Sept. 14, i.s,.
sity of Eriangcn. In l-
tioii, lie was editor of
Removing to .Munich, h.. ..
attracted the attention of ;
184!) lie was lianiKlied '.
Italy and FraiKc, wliei. ..
and finally <'niigrute(l to Ai
connected with the " N
(185()-7r»), editing its
marked ability and sue

WYSBER, LUDWIG

antl autiior; boin I'^IT. « •

in IV.sth. he obtained en

in the German theater >>i i

held minor positions on m

At the outbreak of llie Marc h .M

obtained luriidssion to j.^ ' >

Julian Cliowmtz, or (

been active as a rev.

to publish "Die Op;

represented Kossulli

able iidluencc. U-

appeals to have b<

tioiis among tlic me;

exteiKiing Ids o]

jdoyeil various a

nas FOldvary." ami " W\

issued for hi-

bilder aiis I

"GeschicliteOcstiTr'

October Aufstantles : -

p. i;r>. note 311).

BlHI.I00R»l»llv • W tmtmrK Itintt

Stti
VI.
X. ;
S.

Xabillo
Xystus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

574

XABILLO. See Habillo.

XANTEN : Town of lilieuish Prussia, in the
district of Diisselilorf. Like most Rhenish towns,
Xanten had a Jewish coniinunity in early medieval
times. Two massacres of Jews occurred during
the First Crusade (June 1 and 27, 1096). On the lat-
ter occasion some Jews committed suicide in order
to escape tlie fury of the Crusaders (Aronius, " Re-
gesten," p. 89, No. 188; p. 92, No. 195).^ In 1187 the
martvrs of Neuss were brought to Xanten to be
buried by the side of those martyred in 1096 {ib. p.
144. No. 322).

In the latter part of the nineteenth century the
attention of the Jewish world was attracted to the
small congregation of Xanten by a blood accusation.
On June 29, 1891, John Ilegemann, the five-year-
old son of a local cabinetmaker, was found dead in
a neighbor's barn, with his throat cut from ear to
car. Anti-Semitic agitation connected
Blood Ac- the Jewish butcher and former shohet

cusation. Adolf Buschoff with this crime ; and
the local priest Bresser lent support
to this rumor by publishing articles on ritual mur-
der in the "Bote fiir Stadt und Land," of which he
was the editor. The agitation in tlie anti-Semitic
press, as well as at anti-Semitic meetings, where it
was insinuated that the Jews had bribed or intimi-
dated the authorities in order to prevent the discov-
ery of the truth, compelled the government to arrest
Buschoff and his family (Oct. 14, 1891). The evi-
dence against the man. who had always borne a
good reputation, was so flimsy, however, that he
was discharged (Dec. 20). This action aroused the
anti-Semites to still stronger agitation, which cul-
minated in a heated debate in the Prussian Diet; in
the course of this argument Stoecker. the ex-court
chaplain, cleverly repeated the accusation of ritual
murder, and hinted at Jewish influence as the cause
of the failure to find the murderer (Feb. 7, 1892).
Under pressure of this agitation Buschoff was rear-
rested (Feb. 8), and tried before a jury at Cleve
(July 4-14, 1892). During this trial it was found
tliat the accusations were based on mere hearsay,
and cf)ntained absolutely impossible assertions.
The prosecuting attorney himself moved for the
dismiss;il of the ciiarge, and the jury rendered its
verdict accordingly. The real murderer was never
discovere<l, and the possibility that the death of
the child was due to an accident was not entirely
disproved. The agitation had the effect of reducing
the Jewish population of the city, and Buschoff
himsf'lf had to leave. At present (1905) Xanten has
about thirty Jews in a total population of 3,770.

BiBi.iooRAPHY: Mittheilnnocn nu» dem Vereimur Ahwehr
ilfn AulUemitiyrnuK IHiri, Index, s.v. Xanten and liui<c)i-
off; Allfi. Zfit. des Jud. W.rZ, Nos. 29-31; T)er Prozcun
JinndiiiH. I>-lpslc. 1892; Nathan, Der Priizess Bmchnff, Ber-
lin. IW'2; Dcr Prrtzem Xanten-Cleve, ib. 1892; Der Xan-
tcner Kualieumard vor dcrn Schwuryericht zu Cleve, U-1 It
JidU W9S. Berlin, 1893 (a complete stenographic record).
J. D.

XERES (JEREZ) DE LA FRONTERA :

City in the Spanish province of Cailiz. It had a
Jewish conununity with a separate Juderia as early
as the time of the Moors. When Alfonso X., the
Wise, coniiuered the city in Oct., 1264, he assigned
houses and lands to the Jews. The Juderia, which
was located near S. Cristobal street and extended
along the city wall, included ninety -six houses,
large and small, and had two synagogues and two
"casas de la merced," institutions for aiding and
housing the poor. Near one synagogue were the
•' casas del reab " (houses of the rabbi) ; Don Todros,
father of Don Yu(;atT, is mentioned as being the
occupant in 1264. Near the other synagogue was
the house of Rabbi Yu(;aff. Upon the conquest of
the city the following persons received houses by
command of the king: Don Yehuda Mosca (as he is
several times expressly called in the list drawn up
in 1338), Avho made translations from Arabic into
Spanish for the king; the "ahnoxarife " Don Mayr,
or rather ]\lL"irde Malhea, and his son (^ag (Isaac);
(^imha (Simhah) Xtaru9i, whose father lost his life
and the whole of his large fortune during the rebel-
lion of the city ; Don Vellocid (Vellecid), " ballestero
del rey a caballo " ; Solomon Ballestero ; and Axu-
curi Ballestero — the last three being in the king's
army.

Among the richest and most influential Jews in
Jerez were the following: (,'ag aben A<;ot, who was
the representative of the community at the reparti-
tion of the taxes in 1290, and his relatives Judah
aben Agot, Bonet aben Acot, Abraham aben Ayot;
likewise Samuel de Cadiz. Jacob Casteliano, (^ag
aben Colmiel or Calamiel, Samuel Barrach, Levi de
Faro, Abraham Saltos, Vellido de Castro, and
Abraham de Carrion. The Jews of Jerez engaged
in business. One Yugaff Alcagabi, who had laid in
large quantities of salt pork in his houses and lost
everything he possessed, because he had favored the
Moors, did not receive the house which had first
been assigned him. The Jews engaged in viticul-
ture also, Jerez wine being the most valued wine of
Spain. There were also tailors (Cedillo Alfayate is
mentioned), rope-makers (Qag el Cordonnero), and
shoemakers among them. The Jerez Jews, who in
1294 paid King D. Sancho IV. 5,000 maravedis in
taxes, were freed by the king from the payment of
tolls throughout the kingdom, and were assured of
the same favor as was enjoyed by Christians and
other inhabitants of the city — a privilege which was
confirmed ])y Kings Fernando IV. and Alfon.so XI.
(Dec. 30, 1332).

In the second half of the fifteenth century the
Jews of Jerez suffered from the enmity of the Chris-
tian population. In 1459 the city council gave a
portion of the Jewish cemetery to a Christian inhab-
itant; and in spite of the protests of Joseph de Pare-
des and Samuel Corcos, who represented the Israel-
ite community, and regardless of their appeal to a
decree of .May 25, 1455, issued by King Henry IV.,

575

TllK JEWlbli ENCYCLOI"

according lo wliich the synagogues piiil Jewisli ci-in-
eteiic'SAvere not in any way lo be violulnl, ihe foiiii-
cil in March, 14G(), granted another portion of the
reinetery to a Ciiristian who desireii to build a liousc
u]>()n it. At the same time tlie following incident,
lelated bj' Abraham Arama, took jilace in Jerez. ;
(.'ertain inonUs who appealed to a rich Jew for alms
and received blow.s instead, desired to avenge them
selves on the whole community. They accordingly
e.vhumcd the body of a baptized Jew that had berii
buried in the Christian cemetery, and took it to the
Jewish biuial-ground, hoping to create the impres-
sion that the act had been committed by the Jews.
The alViiir cune before the duke or the governor,
who Avishcd to have the king's opinion on the sid)-
ject and to keep all the Jews in the city under ar-
rest until the king's decision should arrive. The
inlluential Judah ibn Verga of Seville exerted him-
self in behalf of the terrified Jews; and as the
innoceu(;e of those who had been slandered was soon
proved, two of the nionks were burned at the stake,
while the others, at the intercession of the people,
were banished for life. See Spain.

Bini.iocRAPHY: BoUthi Acad. Hist. x. 465 ct .sa;., xii. r>.i rt
■sri/.; li. K. J. XV. 12.') ct scq., xvii. 138 et seq.; Shebet I'c/iu-
dali.pp.ijiict seq.
a. -'I- ^'^

XERXES : Son of Darius, King of Persia (IH.")-
40.') y,.c.). His name, which is Khshayarsha in Per-
sian, Ikhshiyarshu (with variants) in Babylonian,
andHtpiw in Greek, frequently occurs in the Old
Testament. It is often Avritten with 1 instead of \
as in the Masoretic text, where it is sjielled cnit'HK
(Ahashwerosh) instead of C^n'^-nN (Ayhasliyarsh),
with the protlielic vowel indispensable in Semitic
before initial double consonants. Xerxes is men-
tioned in the Book of Ezra (iv. 6) in connection with
a complaint lodged against the Jews by the Samari-
tans (comp. Mever, "Entstehuug des Judcnthums,"
pp. IG ei SCI/.). "lie is the "king" of the Esther ro-
mance, and in the Book of Daniel (ix. 1) he is men-
tioned as the father of Darius, "of the seed of the

K. (i. H. ^- '*'■••

XIMENES DE CISNEROS : Spanish priest,
statesman, regent, and grand inquisitor; born 148G;
died 1517. He studied in Rome, and upon his re-
turn to Spain ^vas appointed confessor to Queen
Isabella of Castile. In lo()7 the pope invested him
Avilh the dignity of a cardinal, and at the same tune
he was appointed grand inquisitor, being the third
to hold that ollice in Spain. Two years later he ac-
coutered an army at liis own expense, and mvaded
North Africa in order to forcibly introduce Chris-
tianity. It is said that lie succeeded in coikhk nng
the citv of Oran by employing some Jewish spies.
Upon ins return to Spain lie founded the University
of Alcala de Ilenares, with the establishment of
Avhich is connected the publication of the lirst poly-
glot Bible. Ximenes was dismissed Jrom the gov-
ernment service by Charles V. in 1517.

During the beginning of his incumbency as granrt
iniiuisitor. De (^i^sneros was less severe than his pred-
ecessors. Torquemada and Diaz. When, however.
Charles V., in accordance with the advice of Ins
Flemish councilors, began negotiating with the Ma-

rtuio't, olT

hJH iii(|iii

Wlwn I,,.
foiindiil, Xii
liiigtl
and p...
bniicft, ('
this woi
"IntnMli,
from Hei.

" Lcxit nil li<

to the la-^t \>

BlDI.KIKIUPilV

1;:.:.

.1.

XIMENES, SIR MORI

at Ltiiidiiii aliiiul 1 'AiZ .

was a member of the L<

made u lari^e f

warden of the Hi

to accept; and on

the commuiii

ity. He iipi

tary career, and wan kii

he was knigiitcd. and Imhtih

county of Ivciii,

His son. Sir David X

with the Jewisii

nuii.H)<;n.\i'iiv: I'l.
i)|>. ;ii«-:io4.

XYSTUS : A biiildii

is shown by th
probably under i
denotes a covereil coloiinndc ii.
tlmugli the Ro!
lo designate op'
their coiintry-lioUM'S. 1
lem was an
is clear fnn:!
his negotiations with m
they stood in t!
woulil scarctly 1
ered building. '
roncous. It ^^
on the wrsteni
supported by |
cally level will. ..
Xystus. Similiirb.
found in a num
The site of t.
pro.xiinately. th.'U;:li ^
The first wall
call-' '■'^^' '■ '^

Site.

ti.

§2). Rotli the Xy
tiiorefore. -

lying l'» "
When Titunn-
their surrrndcr, ik-

Xystus
Ya'aleh

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

576

outer Temple, facing the upper city, taking this
position on account of the gates upon the Xystus,
anil also being influenced in his choice by the bridge
wliich connected the upper city with the Temple and
which lay between the Jewish leaders and himself
{ib. vi. 6, ;i 2). Tlie Xystus was, moreover, the scene
of an assembly of the people before the outbreak of
the rebellion, when Agrippa II. addressed them
while his sister Berenice remained in sight of the
populace in the house of the llasmoneans, which
overlooked the Xystus (/Vj. ii. 16, i^iJ). luhisaccount
of this conference, Josephus states, curiously euougli,
that the bridge connected the Temple with the Xys-
tus and not with the upper city. This can be ex-
plained only on the assumption that the Xystus, as
was natural, lay below Mount Moriah itself, and
was, perhaps, separated from the hill by a ravine.
A bridge running from the upper city would, tliere-
fore, connect the Xystus with Mount Moriah, and
this agrees with the assumption tiiat the bridge,
lilie the gates, was constructed "above the X^ystus."
During the factional strife between Simeon bar
(jiora and John of Giscala a fortified tower was built
<m the Xystus {ib. iv. 9, ^ 12), and this edifice later
njarked the limit set by Titus for the burning of the
Temple cloister {ib. vi. 3, § 2).

It thus becomes evident that the Xystus formed a
portion of the western cloister of the Temple, while
the council-house lay to the soutii, but in the same
direction and probably built into the cloister. The
Hasmonean palace, raised still higher by Agrippa
II. (Josephus, "Ant." XX. 8, § 11), stood opposite,
on the western heights of the upper cit)% which was
at that point connected with the Xystus by a bridge.
Many investigators regard " Robinson's Arch," which

is still preserved, as an anchorage for this bridge,
but the absence of any corresj)ondiug structure on

the western hill opposite inclines

Connection others to identify "Robinson's Arch"

with witli the remains of the stair-tower

"Robin- mentioned by Josephus (ib. xv. 11,

son's §5). An additional argument against

Arch." any ideutilication of "Robinson's

Arch " with the Xystus is found in the
fact that it lies in the lowest portion of the wall and
almost in the bottom of the valk-y, wliilethe Xystus
evidently equaled Mount ]Moriali in height. It
must have been situated, moreover, where the first
wall joined the cloister of the Temple and turned
toward the south. Momniert's hypothesis that the
lower city, which was called Akra and which was
leveled and graded l)y the Maccabees, included the
open space of tiie Xystus, is disproved by the fact
that the Temple, on which the Xystus bordered,
did not extend to the lower city.

Equally erroneous is the theor}' of Schiirer, sup-
ported by Buhl, that the so-called hall of hewn
stone ("lishkat ha-gazit"), in which the Sanhedrin
held its sessions, was built on the Xystus and tliat
n''T3 is identical with ^varog ; because, according to the
Mishuah, this body deliberated within the precincts
of the Temple, and not in the buildings which sur-
rounded it, so that this hj'polhesis is rightly rejected
by Bacher and Biichler.

Bibliography: Schiirer. Gesch. 3d ed., ii. 211 (opposed by
Bacher, in Hastings, Diet. liihlc. iv. 399): Biichler, Das Sjjue-
driim ill Jerusalem, p. 15, Vienna, 1902: Bulil, Genfpaphie
des Alien PaUMina, pp. 135, 144, 14t>, Freiburg-lm-Breisgau,
1896; Z. D. P. V. x. 243; Baedeker, PaUMina und Siirien,
6th ed., pp. 28, .59, Leipsic. 1904; Mommert, Tvpographie des
Allen JeruMlcm, i. 67, ib. 190U.

G. S. Kb.

[Note : For topics beginning with TT not found in alphabetical place see under J.]

YA'ABEZ. See Emden, Jacob Israel ben
Zebi A>mkk.vazi.

YA'ALEH: The introductory hymn prefixed to
the selihot wiiicli follow the evening service proper
of the Day of Atonement (comp. Kol Nidre) in the
northern rituals. The author of the hynm has not
been identified with certainty. It consists of eight
strophes in reverse alphabetical order, each com-
posed of three lines, with the twenty -second Hebrew
letter thrice repeated to complete the twenty-four
lines. The scheme of construction is as follows:

" Let our Z a.srend from eventide.
And our y approach from morning.
And our X appear till eventide."

The verbs are drawn from the prayer "Ya'aleh we-
yabo we-yerdeh," etc., specially inserted before the
three concluding benedictions of the " 'Amidah " (see
SnE.MONKH 'EsKEFi), and in the grace after meals,
on all festal days (comp. Shab. 24a), including the
Day of Atonement. The thought, if not the form,
la the basis of G. Gottheil's hymn "To Thee we
give ourselves . . . from eventide to eventide"
("Union Hymnal," No. 103), for which, how{.'ver, a

tune from another section of the penitential services
(see Keiwbot — Kaliric strophic hymn) was selected.

A fine eighteenth-century melody for "Ya'aleh"
has been preserved as a general setting through its
adaptation by Isaac Nathan in 1815 to Lord Byron's
verses "The Harp the ]\Ionarch ^Minstrel Swept,"
which was published, M-ith pianoforte accompani-
ment, in tiie "Hebrew Melodies," issued in that
year. The melody as now usually sung is somewhat
less elaborate than in Nathan's version. It has been
traditional in the Great Synagogue, London, since
n.jOat least, and is well known on tlie Continent also.
Its expressive swing hfid made it widely known and
treasured in connection with the Atonement hynm
even l)efore it receiveda further appreciation from the
fascination with which it appealed to Louis Lewan-
dovvski, tlie premier synagogue musician of his gener-
ation. In his " Todah u-Zimrah " (Berlin, 187G) he not
only includes it with its original text for the service
of tiie Day of Atonement (vol. ii.. No. 94), but he has
set it also to the chief hymn chanted by the hazzan in
the "dew " and "rain" supplications on the Passover
and Tabernacle festivals (see Geshem).

The melody is here transcribed with Byron 'sEng-

677

THE JEWISH ENTYfLOPEDIA

Xy«tu«

Hazzan.

Andantt maestoso

mf
1. i'a - 'a

1. Vie

3. It

leb..
luu-p.
told.

YA'ALEH

.^^^

(he inon - arcU mi'
the tri ■ umpLi of

A~i

ta -
mon
tri

ha - nu

iTH

arch mia - strel swfpf. The
umphs of our Klmj; It

Df - Ijl.

KiiKj of men, Ih'
xcdfl - ed glo - ry

ya - bo sbiiw

Which mu - sic hal - lowed ichile she varpt Off

It vtade our glad - dened val • leys ring, Thf

1 ., , ..

dim

izqiiz
— I —

===^

mi - bo - ker .
hearts had ijiven, .
maun - tains nod, . .

:izzzMz

— \-

^ m— 9 ^ '

Weye -ra - 'eh.... rin - nn - ne • du '•d

Re - doub - led be her ff'in, iU '

Its sound as - pired to hraien and

■5,, -1

2. Ya - 'a
2. It....
4. Since

biz*E*=i^==M=*

leh

sof - tened,
then, since

.iif
then,

tened
though

h- -
men
heard

llM

gave,
vo

bo..

them,
lion,

it
de

zid
gave

vo ■

Meshobebim.
dim.

them
tioti

fir

nxd

nu lui - b'
tues nei

ye - ra -'eh, ah !.

ear so dull, no

bid the soul, the

XII.— 37

ear s" dull,
burst - ing soid.

fth '
no .
^iU. .

bid tX*

k.r
trr L^f.

# *^# t«^ J

*^A m

vV^

Ya'aleh
Tad

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

678

dim.

Meshorekim.

ne - nn,
fired. . .
seem ....

ah !

not to the bone, .

as from a - bove . .

We - ye - ra - 'eh, we

Till Da - vid's lyre, till
In dreams, vi dreams, in

-ft g r*

cres.

i f*

~15 fc ,

IIazzan.

■

# * # J

■* —

t^^^=3E

1 1 1 1 1 H ( ( P

^ * ^ V ^-^ ^ - J- * •

ye - ra - 'eh,

we -

ye - ra - 'eh,

Da - vid's lyre

grew

might • i - er

dreams (hat day's,

that

day's broad light

Meshokerim.

pid
than,
can. .

not

his

re -

nu, pid - yo - ne - nu, ah! 'ad - 'e - reb.

throne, till Da - vid's lyre grew might -i - er, grew might -i - er than his throne.

move, that day's. . . . broad. . . . light can not re- move.

lish verses, as presented in 1815. It extends to two
stanzas of the Hebrew hymn. This application and
the manner in which the old-time vocal accompanists
rather than choristers, the "meshorerim," otherwise
known as " siuger and bass " (see Music, Synagogal),
would alternate with and imitate the solo of the pre-
centor, are further shown in the transcription by the
addition of the Hebrew text of the opening strophes.

Bibliography : A. Baer, Baal TeMlah. No. 1306, Frankfort-
on-the-Main, 1883; Israel ii. 183, London, 1898.

A. F. L. C.

YAD (lit. "hand"; Judaeo-German, teitel) : A
pointer to guide the reading in public of tlie text of
the Sefer Torah. During the reading of the Law in
the synagogue the reader stands on the right side,
the one "called up " being in the center, and the "se-
gau," or deputy representing the congregation, on
the left. The aegan points out with the "yad " the
text for the reader to follow.

From the remotest times the Hebrew teacher used
a pointer somewhat similar to the tapering stick em-
ployed by the professional lecturer in modern times
to point out places, figures, or words on a map or
blackboard. Tlie earliest reference to

Origin its use is in connection with the schools
from the of Bethau before the destruction of

School. that place in the war of Bar Kokba
(132-135). Bethar liad a larger num-
ber of schools and scholars than any other town in
Judea ; wlien an enemy forced liimself into one of the
schools the teachers stabbed him with tlioir pointers
(Git. 58a). The use of the " teitel " by the teacher of
primary classes in the heder or Talmud Torah is still
common in the eastern countries of Europe.

Tlie use of the yad by the segan for guiding the

reader of the Sefer Torah is not obligatorj^ as the
reader may guide himself with it, or it may be dis-
pensed with entirel3^ It is for the convenience of the
reader only, and it is handled by a second person, the
segan, perhaps in order to impress the ceremony upon
the reader, and to prevent errors in the reading. It
serves also to keep the reader from touching the text
with his fingers in a desire to guide liis reading; for
touching the bare Sefer Torah with the hands with-
out a" mappali " rendered them impure for handling
"terumah," the priests' share of the heave-offering
(Yad. iii. 2). This is one of the eighteen enactments
or " gezerot " (Shab. 14a) ; and the motive of the edict
was doubtless to compel the priests, who had easy ac-
cess to the Sefer Torah, to handle it with special care.
There are various styles of yad for the Sefer
Torah. The usual size is about 12 inches long. It
is made in the fashion of a staff or scepter, narrowed
down at the end, which is in the shape of a closed
hand with the index-finger extended. Most fre-
quently the staff is made of silver, ornamented some-
times with a gold hand and sometimes even with
jewels; but hard wood also is used, preferably the
olive-wood of the Holy Land, with an ivory hand.
Often the yad is inscribed with an appropriate Bib-
lical verse, such as "The law of the Lord is perfect,
converting the soul " (Ps. xix. 7), or with the name
of the donor. There is a ring attached to the top of
the staff, with a chain by which to hang it to tlie
rollers (= " 'ez hayyim ") of the scroll after the latter
has been rolled up. The yad is one of the " kele ko-
desh '■ (="holy vessels") ornamenting the Torah.
See Scroll of the Law.

Bibliography : Jacobs, Year Book, 5659, p. 314.

J. J. D. E.

Various p " v^" of thi Tap

(In the Victoria and Albert MuMom, London ; Cluny MuMum. Parto , " j-B, >*•" T»»*

Sir Samuel Montagu, London ; E. A. fiAut.,,1,, Loedes .Mi

Yadayim
Yahyfi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

580

YADAYIM (•• Hands '■) : Treatise of the Mishnah
and ilic Tosefta, dealing with the uncleanncss of the
bands and their ablution. It stands eleventh in
the order Tohorot in most editions of the Mishnah,
and is divided into four chapters, containing twenty-
two paragraphs in all.

Ch. i.: The quantity of water necessary to cleanse
the bauds by pouring it over them (§ 1); the ves-
sels from wbicb the water may be poured over the
bands (g 2); kinds of water which may not be used
to cleanse the hands, and persons who may perform
tbe act of manual ablution (^§ 3-5).

Ch. ii. : How the water should be poured over the
hands, and the first and second ablutions (^§ 1-3);
tbe bauds are regarded as clean in all cases where
doubt exists as to whether the ablution was properly
performed (§ 4).

Ch. ili. : Things which render the hands unclean ;
the canonical books make tiie hands unclean. The
holy writings were kept together with the equally
sacred heave-offering (" terumah ") of the priests, and
were injured by mice; to prevent this it was enacted
that the holy writings defiled the hands as well as the
heave-offering, tJius leading to a discontinuance of
the custom of keeping them together; discussion of
the question whether the Song of Solomon and Ec-
clesiastes are canonical, and thus render the hands
unclean; on the day of the election of Eleazar b.
Azariah as nasi .these books were declared canonical.

Cli. iv. : Other verdicts rendered on the same day
in which the Song of Solomon and Ecclesiastes were
declared canonical, these rulings being corollaries of
that decision (§§ 1-4); the Aramaic language in

Ezra and Daniel, the ancient Hebrew writing (" ke-
tab 'Ibri"), and dissensions between Pharisees and
Sadducees (^^5 5-8).

The Tosefta to this treatise is divided into two
chapters, and contains, in addition to amplifications
oi the mishnaic sayings, various interesting maxims,
of which the following may be mentioned: "The
book of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus [Sirach]) and all
books of later date are no longer canonical " (ii. 13).
The "Tobele Shaharit" (^"Morning Baptists"; see
Jew. Encvc. v. 230) said to the Pharisees: "We re-
proach you for uttering the H0I3' Name before your
bodies have been cleansed of their impurities " (ii. 20),

.1. J. Z. L.

YAH SHIMEKA : Hymn of five long stanzas
which forms the introduction to the Kaddish be-
fore " Bareku " in the morning service of the second
day of New-Year in the ritual of the Sephardim; it
is signed with the acrostic " Yehudali," and is at-
tributed to Judah ha-Levi (Zunz, "Literaturgesch."
p. 413). The refrain, " Yishtabbah,"etc., is quoted
from the Kaddish mentioned, and suggested by its
rhythm the shaping of the whole hymn in one of the
favorite rhythmic figures of Arab music. As with
so many other melodies of the Sephardic tradition,
and particularly with those for the penitential sea-
son, its ancient Oriental tune is also utilized for other
hymns. Such are the verses " Shinannim " by Solo-
mon ibn Gabirol, occupying a similar position in the
Atonement services, and Judah ha-Levi's other
hymn, " Yede rashim," which takes its place on the
first day of New-Year, as well as the following Kad-
dish itself and the more familiar hymns En Kelo-

A llegretto.

YAH SHIMEKA

Yah shim - eka a - ro - mi - me - ka,

zid - ka - te - ka.

_i 1 s_

H-

J£as

seh; He - 'e - zan - ti we- be

We - ek yo - mer ye - zir. .

De - rash - ti - hu, pe - gash

Ha - ba - hir,

e - man

ho •

ti ■
we - or mas - hir.

Last time. 1^

ti,

mer, e -

hu, le -

be-

=5=t^

:t5=^r

-t-

esh -

'al....

yo -

zero. . .

mig

- dal

'oz. . . .

ma -

sak

lo a - nas - seh;
ma ta - 'a - seh;
zur mah - seh;
en mik - seh;

Yish - tab

bah,.

at=^

piu lento.

rit.

=t-^

ZZSl

yit

ar.

we - yit - ro

mam, we

yit

nas - se.

681

THE JEWISH ENC\cLui-i.i;iA

V.J.y.

HENU and Adon 'Olam at the close of the devotions

on the siunc solciiin diiys. The melody thus becomes
in the Spanish and Portuguese rituurn "representa-
tive theme " I'orthe New-Year festival. The quaint
tune i)resents several anti(iue and Oriental features.
One is the repetition of tiie nuddle phrase as many
times as the varying length of the texts to whieli
it is chanted may render necessary. The i)re.senee
in the same melody of a note sometimes natural
and sometimes flat is explained by the fact that the
scale is that of the "immutable system" of tlie
ancients (.see Gevaert, "Ilistoire et Theorie de la
Musique de lAntiquite," i. 105 et serj.). A very
similar peculiarity in melodies from Asia Minor is
exhibited and discu.ssed in IJourgault-Dueandrav,
"Trente Melodies Populaires de Greco et d 'Orient "
No. 10.

A. F. L. C.

YAHBI'ENU. See Ne'ilah (IIvMN Tunes, 1).

YAHYA: Portuguese family of the Middle
Ages, members of which were prominent in Portu-
gal, Spain, Italy, and Turkey. Certain individuals
of the faniilv bore theatlditional cognomen "Neirro "
with reference to the Moors, from whom several of
their estates had been obtained. The more promi-
nent mend)ers of the family are as follows:

1. Yahya ibn Ya'ish (L'^y) : Flourished in
Lisbon in the eleventh century; died about 1150.
He was held in Jiigh esteem among the Jews, and
King Alfonso I. honored him for his courage. After
the conquest of Santarem the king presented him
with two country houses that had belonged to the
Moors, wherefore he ass\uned the name "Negro."

2. Joseph ibn Yahya ha-Zaken: Grandson
of Yahya ibn Ya'ish (No. 1); lived in Lisbon in the
middle of the thirteenth century, and was so wealthy
that he built a synagogue at his own expense. Ik-
was the author of a Talmudie commentary that is
no longer extant.

3. Solomon ibn Yahya ha-Zaken: Son of
Joseph ibn Yahya (Xo. 2); died before 13U0. Ik-
endeavored to check the growing love of luxury
among his coreligionists, in order that they might
not incur the hatred and envy of the Christians.

4. Gedaliah ibn Yahya ha-Zaken ben Solo-
mon : IJody-physician to King Ferdinand until 1370.
when he lost the favor of his master. He thereupon
entered the service of Henry of Castile, who made
him the head of the Jewish communities of his
realm ; and he enjoyed a yearly income of 5,000 gold
ducats, which sum was levied as a tax. He died at
a ripe age in Toledo.

5. Joseph ibn Yahya ben Solomon: Brotlier
of Gedaliah (Xo. 4); famous for his jihysical beauty
and also for his i)oetic ability. He left Portugal wiili
his brother and settled in Castile. He was the autlior
of some liturgical poems, but they were destroyed in
a conllagralion. Joseph was a pupil of Solomon ben
Adret, at whose death he wrote an elegy in so-called
echo rime that has often been reprinted. He de-
frayed the cost of repairing a synagogue built in
Calatayud by one of his ancestors, Aaron ibn
Yahya.

e! David ibn Yahya Negro ben Gedaliah
(ha-Rab shel Sefar'ad) : A prominent figure dur-

ing;

tU;.

trii'

Sdli

nihlil of (':,

p«)s«-d of III

IiIh deiiih. ..

he held tiic* ]uml of "a

nand nf ('uk!!!. |l

7. Judah ibn Y
in Tolido in lhi< m
Togetlier with I ■
Portugul iu th
enipl(iyi-d for u loi
Pliiiippa. thec«--
sideraiiie inllm
Ferrer asked |
against the Jew . ... . .

gation.of Juduli. infori^
quest Would be
red-hot crown i.,

most prominent |>o<

elegies dep"

bretliren. .\

(1) an elegy beginning with

and written in conlinn.

wiih the words j<13 ".:

on the persecutions of 131 '

Castile, Provence, mid '

hulh's "'Annnuiie ha

poems that have been pnntitt t

ha-Yamim lilUne V '

theXinthof Ab. I!

and of sevenil piyyutini:

hymn to be recited ' ' ■

and another whicli a;

pp. 07, Vi'^.

8. Gedaliah ibn Yahya bon Solom'
tre Guedelha Fysiro e A»trolotfo)
|)liilosoi)her an<l as'

1400. Ik-fore he w;;- :

pointed court astrolocer to .'

of that king (II

for his eoronali' : .

it; and when tbc prince ii.

crown th(-a^' "

be brief and

he attributed hisilhi-

oppres-i .>iirfs agam-

still inn:

9. Solomon ibn Ya'
son of proiiii'
Portugal. li<

court. He
forbade his . i......

property iM-rHUUi- li
lions. His

10. Soloiww;. .. '
uent scholar who w
He was tiif '
mudim" '

shown.

1 1. Joaeph '
142.'»; wiuj an ;
calle<l him "the wi»p
king for not di-

«rr •

Tahya

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

582

their love of luxury. When some of the exiled
Spanish Jews settled in Portugal, they were re-
garded with disfavor by the Portuguese Jews, and
Joseph did his best to remove this animosity. King
Joao at the beginning of his reigu allowed the Jews
to settle in the kingdom, and when he endeavored
later to convert them to Christianity he chose Joseph
as the first to receive baptism (1495). Joseph
thereupon tied, together with his sons David Mei'r
and Solomon, taking with him 100,000 crusados.
He cruised in the Mediterranean for some time, and
finally landed in Castile, where he was sentenced to
be burned at the stake. Through the intervention
of Duke Alvarez de Bragan^a he was permitted to
continue his journey ; and after a five months' voy-
age he landed in Pisa, Italy, where he and his fam-
ily were put in irons by the troops of Charles VIII.,
•who was about to invest that city. By sacrificing
enormous sums of money he obtained his liberty,
and placed himself under the protection of the Duke
of Ferrara. In the beginning ho was well treated,
but later he was accused of endeavoring to induce
the Maranos to return to Judaism and was tortured.
He freed himself from this charge by paying 7,000
gold pieces, but he died as a result of the tortures he
had endured (1498). A legend relates that his tomb
was located near that of the prophet Hosea. It is
said that a copy of Maimonides' "Yad" was made
for him in 1472 by Solomon ben Alsark, or Alsarkou.

12. Dinah Yahya : AVife of David ibn Yahya
ben Joseph (No. 15). Disguised in masculine attire
she fled from Portugal togetlier with her father-in-
law and her husband ; and during the flight she ab-
stained from meat, subsisting on bread and water
only. Arriving in Pisa, she sought refuge from the
French troops on top of a tower twenty meters high ;
and when discovered she is said to have leaped to
the ground without suffering injury. She tied to
Florence, where she gave birth to her son Joseph.

13. Gedaliah, ibn Yahya ben David: Phi-
losopher; born in Lisbon 1437; died at Constanti-
nople in Oct., 1487. He was the author of "Shib'ah
'Enayim,"on the seven cardinal virtues of the Jews,
which appeared in Constantinople in 1543, and later
in Venice. During a sojourn in Constantinople he
advocated a union of the Karaites and Rabbinites.

14. David ibn Yahya ben Solomon : Born
1455; died 1528. He was rabbi of the Lisbon com-
munity in 1476. Accused of inducing the 3Iarauos
to relapse into Judaism, he was sentenced by King
Joao II. to be burned at the stake. He fled to Naples
with his family, but was captured ; and he was
compelled to sell his library in order to secure suffi-
cient money to purchase his liberty. On his release
he fled to Corfu, and later went to Larta, where he
died in extreme poverty. He was the author of a
Hebrew grammar entitled "Leshon Limmudim,"
which was published in Constantinople (1506, 1528)
and in Venice (1542). While at Larta he wrote to
the wealthy Jew Isaiah Messene, asking his aid ; and
this letter was copied by Joseph David Sinzheim, and
later published by GrJltz ("Gesch." viii. 482-483).
According to Carmoly, David was the author of the
following works also: " Kabwe-Naki " (Lisbon, n.d.),
a commentary on the Mishnah ; a selection of the best
explanations by various commentators on the Bible

(2d ed., Venice, 1518; 4th ed., Salonica, 1522);
"Shekel ha-Kodesh" (Constantinople, 1520), on the
rules for Hebrew poetry; "Tehillah le-Dawid," an
uncompleted commentary on the Psalms; "Hilkot
Terefot" {ib. 1520); and a commentary on 3Iaimon-
ides' "Moreh," appended to his above-mentioned
letter of supi)lication to Messene.

15. David ibn Yahya ben Joseph. See Jew.
Encyc. vi. 553.

16. Solomon ibn Yahya ben Joseph : A
Portuguese exile who fled with his family to Pisa.
He left his relatives and went to Rhodes, where he
died in 1533.

17. Meir ibn Yahya ben Joseph: Author of
a poetic inUxnluction to tin; " Cuzari " (Fano, 1506).
He lived at Pisa, and later settled in Oulina (KJvIN),
Italy, where lie died in 1530.

18. Joseph ibn Yahya ben David. See Jew.
Excyc. vi. 553.

19. Judah ibn Yahya ben Joseph : Physi-
cian; born in Imola, Italy, 1529; died in Bologna
1560. He studied medicine at Padua, and was at the
same time a pupil of Mei'r Katzenellenbogen. Re-
ceiving his medical degree in 1557, he settled as a
practitioner in Bologna.

20. David ibn Yahya ben Joseph : President
of the Jewish communit}- of Naples; died in 1565.
He was a cousin of David ibn Yahya (No. 14), the
author of "Leshon Limmudim," iinder niiom he
studied, and was the author of a eulogy which ap-
peared in that work.

21. Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Joseph: Tal-
mudist; born at Imola, Italy, 1515; died, probably
in Alexandria, about 1587. He studied in the yeshi-
bah at Ferrara under Jacob Finzi and Abraham and
Israel Rovigo. In 1549 he settled in Rovigo, where
he remained until 1562, in which year the burning
of the Talmud took place in Italy. He then went to
Codiniola, and three years later to Salonica, whence
he returned in 1567 to his native town. Expelled
with other Jews by Pope Pius V., and suffering a
loss of 10,000 gold pieces, he went to Pesaro, and
thence to Ferrara, where he remained till 1575.
During the ensuing eight years he led a wandering
life, and finally settled in Alexandria. His chief work
was the "Sefer Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah," called also
"Sefer Yahya," on which he labored for more than
forty years. This work is not without defects, hav-
ing suffered either by reason of the author's itiner-
ant mode of life or through faulty copying of the
original manuscript. Its contents are as follows:
(1) history and genealogy of the Jews from the time
of Moses until that of Moses Norzi (1587); (2) ac-
count of the heavenly bodies. Creation, the soul,
magic, and evil spirits; (3) history of the peoples
among which the .Jews have dwelt, and a descrip-
tion of the unhappy fate of the author's coreligionists
up to his time. The value of this work is, however,
lessened considerably by the facts that the writer has
included many oral narratives which he gathered
partly in his home, partly in Salonica and Alexan-
dria, and that he often lacks the ability to distin-
guisii truth from fiction. For these reasons the book
has been called " The Chain of Lies " ; but Loeb has
proved that it is more accurate than many have sup-
posed it to be. The " Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah " was

683

THE JEWISH ENCYCU3PEDIA

T»hy»

Yahva Itin Ya'Uh
(uboui 1Q6S)

Judah Ibn Va^ya

Joseph ibn Yatfvti hn-Zak. li
(8bout 1200)

Solomon Ibn Ynliva ha-Znken
(died before lUOO) "

?Vt<>ym

Gedallah ibn Yahya ha-Zaken
(about iaao)

David ibn Yahva
(died Oct., 1385)

Jofti'ijh |ja >•■
Ubuut i

T»

Solomon Ibn Yahya
(died 14aO) "

David ibn Yahya,
(about 1450)

v««n

Solomon ibn Yahya
(died 14'.)0) '

David ibn Yahya

(1455-1528)

Jacob Tarn ibn Yahya

(about 1475-15-12')

Gedaliah ibn Yahya
(1437-87) ■

Abijrail
= Joseph ibn Yahya

Joseph Itn \^t>^m

Gedaliah ibn Yahya
(died 1575)

Joseph ha-Rofe ibn Yahya
(died 1573)

David Ibn Yalivahu-ln.
(lidV-'lMS)
= Dinah

Joseph Ibn Yahya
(14»4-1539) = Ablirail

Jacob Tam Moses ibn Moses ibn Jacob Tarn
/i'"y??J,'^ , Yahya Yahya ibn Yahva

(diedlo%) (about 1595) (about 1595) (about 1595)

David Ibn Yahya
(d. 1565)

Ahlkam Ibn Yahya

(about 161(1)

Gedallah Ibn Ta4r»

(15I5-«C)

'•J>

Gedaliah Ibn

Yahva
(about 1630)

Gedaliah ibn Yahva
(about ItUO) ■■

Moses Ibn >
(about I

Judah ibn Yahya
(about 1610)

Moses ibn Yahya Solomon Ibn Yahya David Ibn Ya^ya

(about 1615) (about ItWi ' !■.•„,,, t i.,--. ,

«%t«r

Moses Gedaliah ibn Yahya
(about 1650)

Noah ibn Yahya

(about 1650)

David ibn Va^r*
(about lOSUl

IUt

Yahya Pediokee.

published at Venice, 1587; Cracow, 1596: Amster-
dam, 1697; Zolkiev, 1802, 1804; Polonuoye, 1814;
and Lemberg, 1862.

Gedaliali was the alleged author of twenty-one
other works, which he enumerates at the end of liis
"Shalshelet," and which are mentioned also in Bcn-
jacob's "Ozar ha-Sefarim " (pp. 590-591).

22. Jacob Tam ibn Yahya ben David :
Turkish rabbi; lived from about 1475 to l.>12. He
"was probably rabbi of Salonica, and was a Talmud-
ist of repute. Benjamin ben Abraham Mutal. in the
preface to his "Tummat Yesharira," mentions Jacob

Tam lis the u
commentary on .\
rondis hahikot ■
mcntary on !'
Ni.s.'^im " ; ri
Talmudic <!•

All tliesc woffv-

noplc. Jnrn)) Thi" •

"Sefer V

Abraham . -

(1512). He •

encc which couvcue*! lu Ha\ . l'

ya
ut

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

584

ban placed on Shaltiel, "kaliijalik" ("praefectus
aulae") to Sultan Sulaiman. on account of which
Slialtifl had been discliartred from his office.

23. Joseph ibn Yahya bar Jacob Tarn :
Born in Constantinople ; body-physician to Sultan
Sulaiman. Joseph was obliged to be in constant at-
tendance during the sultan's travels and in time of
war; and be met his death in battle (1573). The
poet Saadia Lougo wrote an elegy in Josepli's honor
which was printed in the "Seder Zcmanuim." Jo
sephdefra3-ed the cost of publishing the"Shib'ah
"Enayim," the"Leshon Limmudim," and the "Shek-
el ha-Kodesh," all written by liis ancestors.

24. Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Jacob Tarn :
Physician and scholar; born in Constantmople; died
there 1575. He officiated as rabbi and teacher in
Salonica and Adrianople until 1548, in which year
he went to Constantinople and devoted liimself to
Hebrew literature. He left numerous manuscripts,
several of which are still e.xtant in tlie Orient.

25. Tarn ibn Yahya ben Gedaliah: Born in
Constantinople in the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury. He inherited a large fortune from his father,
and used his wealth to promote Jewish literature.
Upon the death of his father he settled in the neigh-
borhood of Salonica, where he was intimate with
several well-known poets, among them Abraham
Reuben and Saadia Lougo. His own literarj' efforts
consisted in comjiiling the commentaries left by his
forefathers on the writings of Alfasi, K. Nissim, and
Moses ben Nahman. He completed this task in
1595, but died before the work was pul)lished.
Eliezer Shoslian and Meir Yizhaki were called to his
deathbed and entrusted with the task of publishing
the work, which appeared at Venice in 1622, under
the title "She'elot u-Tesliubot Oliole Shem."

26. Moses ibn Yahya ben Gedaliah: Turk-
ish physician of the latter lialf of the si.xteeuth cen-
tury. He resided in Constantinople, and duriug an
epidemic of the plague he not only devoted a large
part of his fortune to aiding the sufferers, hut also
rendered medical assistance at the risk of his life.
He was known throughout Turkey for his generous
hospitality.

27. Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Moses : Born
at Salonica in the latter half of the si.xteenth cen-
tury; son of Moses ibn Yahya (Xo. 26). He was a
liberal patron of letters, and gathered about him no
less tlian thirty-two litterateurs in order to culti-
vate Hebrew poetry. Among the most i)ri>niiiient
members of this circle were Judah Zarka and Israel
Najara. The names of these poets and some of the
verses written by them in Gedaliali's honor have
been printed in Carmoly's "Dibre lia-Yamim."

Other members of the Yahya family who.se rela-
tionship to the persons mentioned above has not
been estatilished are as ff)ll<)ws:

28. Bonsenior ibn Yahya (called also Maestro
ibn Yahya) : Author of a po(;m on chess. It ap-
peared first at Mantua (1549) and later in a Latin
translation at Oxford (1702), Frankfort-on-tlie-Main
(1707i, and Presburg.

29. Judah ibn Yahya ben Gedaliah: Italian
scholar of the eighteenth century; lived in Padua
and in Venice. He sought the advice of Meir Katzen-
ellenbogen with regard to intimate family affairs,

the incident being mentioned in Meir's responsa
(No. 53).

30. Reuben ibn Yahya ben Solomon Hez-
ekiah : Born in Lugo, Italy, at the close of the
seventeenth centur}'. He was a pupil of Isaac Fano,
and was appointed rabbi of Lugo during the lifetime
of his teacher. He was the author of a liasUamah
which appears in the preface to Lampronti's " Pahad
Yizhak."

31. Samuel ibn Yahya : Rabbi in Amsterdam
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; author
of "Trinta Discursos" (Amsterdam, 1629), thirty
sermons in Spanish.

32. Solomon ibn Yahya: A Portuguese exile
who settled in Aneona, where he was burned at the
stake by order of Pope Paul IV.

33. Zerahiah ibn Yahya: Scholar of Lugo,
Italy; flourished about 1730. In his latter years
he held the office of ab bet din in his native town.
He is mentioned in Lampronti's "Pahad Yizhak"
(iii. 20a).

Bibliography : Zunz, Z.. O. pp. 223, 233, 381, 394. 409, 461. 465.
4!"9. 5;il ; idem, G. V. p. 4;}4; De Rossi, Dizionario; Luzzatto,
ProhuiitiietKi, p. 35; (ieiger, Mclo C/o/xdju/i. p. 72; t'on-
forte. Kore ha-Dnrtit, ed.Cassel ; .\zulai, Slicin )ia-Gitl(iUni,
i. 92; ii. 11, 15. 33, 46; Orient. Lit. vii. 542, ,561; .\ii. 4.5,5;
Jost's Aiuinkii. ii. 26; Carmnly, Ilistoir-e (trs Mt'drcilix
Juifs, pp. 12!, IfU, Brussels, 1844; Ersch and (irulier. Hiiciic.
ii.; x.xxi. 6(J, 80; Nepi-(iliirondi, Tultdot (JchtU I'inhk /, pp.
132, 14S, 149; Dukes, j\'(i7irt( Kciiumim,xi.iy.i\ (iedaliali ilm
Vahya, Slial^ftclet lia-Kdtil)al(t!i ; Delitzscli, Zur (icscli. der
JiKlitichcn 2^>c.-(ie, pp. 3, 67, 70, 76, 77, 158, 174; Bass. Siftc
Yeshc)iim,ed. Zolkiev. 1800, p. 18d ; J. L(»eb, in Ii. t:.J.\\i\.
93-95; Fraukel, in Zt'itsvlirift fl'ir die li<litii(">se)i Tiitrre!<seti
den Judetilhums, ii. 78; l{eifin:inn, in }ln-M(umid. 1804, viii.
litO-191 ; Uehr. llUtl. ii. 11(1, vi. 458-459, xvi.'4(l; Mati.isseh
ben Israel, A'i.</m/i((? lh\ii]iiin.\\\.'Z\; Landstnith, 'Aimnuiic
}ia-'Abiida)i, XXX.; Cannnly. Dilnc lia-Yainitii U-Iktie i'<ih-
ya, Frankfort-on-ttic-Main, 1850; Kayserlintr, (iescli. ilerJii-
den in I'i)rtuu<d: idem, Bilil. Ksp.-I'nrt.-.Jiul. p. .53a; Stein-
srlmeider. Cat. lindl. cols. N)4, 8tJ4-86t), 1002, 1475-1476, 2426-
2467, 2t)65; itiein, Schacli hei den Jiiden.
J. S. O.

YA'ISH, DAVID B. ABRAHAM IBN : R<p-
resenlative of the comnuiuity of Seville and contem-
porary of Asher b. Jehiel. He was probably a
brother of Solomon b. Abraham ibn Ya'ish and the
father of the Solomon b. David ibn Ya'ish mentioned
by Judah b. Asher ("Zikroii Yeluulali," \k 12a).

BlBLIor.R.UMlY : Ilm Verjra, .'OirJief Vrliuilali, pp. 18, :J1 ; (iriitz,
(Irscli. vii. 541 it sri/.: SleinschiieiiltT, Uel)V. I'rliirs. jip. ijSH,
!*:i9; Ililir. liilil. vi. 115 <on the identity), xvii. 119, xix. 93 ct
.vcr/.; Jost's -4 innden, i. 231, 302 ; Aslier b. JeUiel, iicspodsa,
Nos. 13.2; 18, 1.
D. M. K.

YAKIM. See Ai.cntrs.

YAKINI, ABRAHAM. See Abbati.\m ii \-

Y .\ Iv I M .

YAKKAR BEN SAMUEL HA-LEVI I. :

German scholar of the eleventh century; lived for a
short time in Speyer. He was a pupil of Kalony-
mus of Rome, and (juestions addres.sed by him to
Kalonymus have been preserved C'Shibbole ha-
Lcket," viii.); sever.d of these referred to a custom
observed among the Jews of Speyer only. The
same subject is treated by Mordecai ("B. >I." ix.).

BiBi.KXJKAPiiY : Kobn. ^fl^>•l^el.ai hen HiUel, pp. J26, 127, and
notes. Breslau, l.s78; Fuenn. /vc;icsct Yi^racl, pp. 669-670;
(Jross, (Jidlia Judaien, p. 5()7.
K. c. S. O.

YAKKAR BEN SAMUEL HA-LEVI II. :

German seholar and liturgical poet of the second
lialf of the tliirteentli century ; flourished in Cologne

585

TITK .TKWTRTT FV<\. i,.i..-.,.

iuid in Mayence. lie was related to ^leVrof Hoilicn-
buI\l,^ in whose rcspousa lie is several tinu's iiwu-
tioneil; and lie was a pupil of 1{. Jdiiel of Paris.
His marginal .i,d()sses to Abot arc still preserved in
UKUiuscript. lie was, besides, the author of the
following iiluigieal jioeins: a "yo/er" for a Sab-
bath festival; an "ofan"; a "zulat," poem to be
sung before the recital of the " Siienionch 'Esn-li ";
a "Kedushshali," to be sung at the repetition of tliu
"Shemoueh 'Esreh"; a zulat, poem beginning
with the words " K/.kerah Elohini " and nicanl for
the Sabbath following the 20th of Tanmuiz, in
memory of the martyrs of Pforzheim, 1267; a
Kedushshali, poem in eleven lines, with continu-
ous rime; a "Ge'ullah" of tliree cantos, each con-
sisting of two stanzas of five lines; and an elegy
on Zion, in which the author's name is twice men-
tioned. As Yakkar and his fulher, Samuel ben Aiira-
ham, fell victims in the butchery of 1271, the zulat
in memory of the Pforzheim martyrs must have
been written shortly before his death.

BiBMOiJRAPiiY: Zunz, S. P. i>. ;2; r<icni, Litnalinor'^ch.pp.
48r-4SH; i(li;iii, Z. <i. i)p. 1(10, lui, loj, I'.Ki ; Landshutl), 'Am-
miiiie lia-'Alinilali, p. Hi:.'; (iroiiii, (iallia Jia/aicd. pp. .'iOft-
508; Kolin, Monlchai hen IJiUel, pp. V-17-IM\ Fuenn, Kcttc-
scl Yittracl, p. 670.
K. c. S. O.

YALKUT (" Compilation ") ; called also Yalkut
Shim'oni ("The Comjiihition of Simeon"): A liag-
gadic compilation on the books of the Old Testa-
ment. From such older haggadot as were accessible
to him, the author collected various interpretations
and explanations of Biblical passages, and arranged
these according to the sequence of those portions of
the Bible to wdiich they referred. The individual
elucidations form an organic whole only in so far as
they refer to the same Biblical passage.
Contents. Length}^ citations from ancient works
are often abridged or are only partially
quoted, the remainder being cited elsewliere. Since
the interpretations of the ancient e.xegetes usually
referred to several passages, and since the Yalku^
endeavored to quote all such explanations, repeti-
tions were inevitable, and haggadic sayings relating
to two or more sections of the Bible were often
duplicated. In many instances, liowcver, only tJie
beginning of such an explanation is given, the
reader being referred to the passage in which it is
recorded in its entirety.

The work is divided into sections, which are num-
bered from Genesis to the end of Deuteronomy, and
are numbered anew from the beginning of Joshua,
the first non-Pentateuchal book, so that the Yalkut
falls into two parts. The first division treats of the
Pentateuch and contains 963 sections, of which
^g 1-1G2 relate to Genesis; S§ 1G3-427 to Exodus;
§i^42S-G82 to Leviticus; §§ 683-788 to Numbers;
and ^^ 789-963 to Deuteronomy. The second part
deals with the non-Pcntateuchal books (the Prophets
and the Ilagiographa), and contains 1.085 sections.
In this part the redactor followed the Talmudic
order of the prophetic books (B. B. 14b), t;^ 1-252
being devoted to the first prophets (Joshua.
Samuel, and Kings); §^5 253-335 to Jeremiah; ^^
336-384 to Ezekiel; §§385-514 to Isaiali ; t;§ 515-595
to the twelve minor propltfts; $;§ 590-609 to Ruth :
§§ 610-890 to Psalms; §§ 891-928 to Job; §§ 929-

9(;i

994 ii. I
tjitiun-'
Daniel

In til. „<
ilevialfs fi
placing Ksilii I
is followed in 1... ,
lions i.surbilniry, 1.
in length ; 1 '
tion i'i)iii:i

Order and •
Arrang^e- i .: .
ment. M)urtTti trmu

arc ''
they are given at •■
ing liiblicui )>
they were pjiunl in
stances, i'lwever, tlic -
venient place or are eir
references are even iml
for exanii)le. J<jIj 921. ••
later addition, the original r
qvniinted witli Exn<luH ]'. '
"Ralibi Hhirneon Kara w-
"Ha-Hoker."i. 137). 1
the major portion of hn
during tlu- ancient and
haggadic liteniture ax
Tlie author made u.se >
such as Seder 'Oiam. ^
kilta. theBamita on tli'

raila on '.
Sources, tiie narnitnon Ih'

he availed Jiini

mudim, and Semabot, K

drew from tic

such as Ai)ot d. : .

(Ilabbah and Zulu). Den k i

•Eden, Midrash ^\■

and iheMidriL'ihiiM

chief source, however. wn» t.

rashim. such as the ni' ' ' -

exception of Exo«1uh I:

bali, Yelanune«lenu. 1

msh Abba Oorioii, h-;... . •

Babbi Eli'ezer. nml llie ml

P.salms. Provi ' '

often citeil sinij . . ..

detiniteidenlilication. In 1

which trealH r •

Proverbs. I he ■-

rash on llie resix-ctivr )

is us<d also to \

which brionjr to '

tiiesc few inslancoa llic aul

uncertain of h^

lection known

did not bttvo bcccm to

ni'i

to '.

Ten Command'

Aaron, and thui n- "•»• "•- ^

Yalkut
Yarmouth

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

586

and -writings relating to esoteric doctrines, Avitli the
exception of the "Otiyyot de-R. Akiba," to which
he alludes in Gen. 1., § 1.

The author of the Yalkut can not be determined
with certainty. The title-page of the Venice edition
ascribes the composition of the work to R. Simeon
of Frankfort, "the chief of exegetes" C'rosh ha-
darshauim "), and this was accepted by Conforte and
Azulai, who called him Simeon Ash-
Author kenazi of Frankfort. Rapoporl (in
and Date. " Kcrcm Hemed," vii. 7 et seq.), on the
other hand, maintained that R. Simeon
(the father of R. Joseph Kara), who flourished in the
eleventh century, was its author; but this assertion
is untenable since the compiler of the Yalkut used
midrashim of a later date. If the Yalkut was so
old, moreover, it would be difficult to explain why
no mention of it is made by R. Nathan b. Jehiel, the
author of the " 'Aruk," or by Rashi. All the proofs
advanced by Rapoport have been refuted by Ep-
stein, who inclines to agree with Zunz that the au-
thor of the Yalkut flourished in the early part of the
thirteenth century. According to Zunz, the work
was written by R. Simeon Kara, who lived in south-
ern Germany at that period, and the title "ha-Dar-
shan " was bestowed upon him probably at a later
date. It is certain that a manuscript of the Yalkut,
mentioned by Azariah dei Rossi, existed in 1310
(comp. Zunz", "G. V." pp. 295-303); but despite
this, there is scarcely any allusion to the work dur-
ing the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. This
may be ascribed, however, to the unhappy position
of the German Jews and to the repeated persecu-
tions of the period ; for peace and prosperity were
necessary for the copj'ing of so extensive a work, and
the Jews of Germany had neither. After the begin-
ning of the fifteenth century, on the other hand, the
work must have been disseminated in foreign coun-
tries, for it was used by Spanish scholars of the latter
half of that century, Isaac Abravanel being the first
to mention it (corap. Epstein, I.e. p. 134).

The editio princeps of the Yalkut was printed in
Salonica in 1521, the latter part of the work, rela-
ting to the Prophets and the Hagiographa, ap-
pearing first. The part treating of the Penta-
teuch appeared between 1526 and 1527, and the
entire work was later published in Venice (1566)
with certain emendations and deviations from the
Salonica edition. All later texts are
Editions, merely reprints of the Venetian edi-
tion, with the exception of one i)ub-
lished at Leghorn (1650-59), which contained addi-
tions and corrections as well as a commentary by R.
Abraham Gedaliah. The latest text ( Wilna. 1898) is
basedon the editions of Lublin, Venice, and Leghorn,
and contains foot-notes giving the sources, a glos-
sary of difficult words, and an index of the chapters
and verses of Biblical passages. To this edition is
appended a brief commentary by Abraham Abele
Gumbiner of Kalisz entitled "Zayit Ra'anan."

BiBLior.RAPHY : Zunz, G. V. pp. 29,>-303; Rapoport, in Kercm
Hemed, vil. 4 et xeq.; Abraham Epstein, Rahhi i^himenn
tfara weha-Ynlku^ .S/iirn'oro'. in Ha-Hoker, 1. 85-93, 120-
137 • SchQrer, Gekh. 3d ed., 1. 146.
J. J. Z. L.

YANNAI : Palestinian amora of the third cen-
tury ; father-in-law of Ammi. According to his

own statement, he had a grandson of the same name
(Hul. Ilia). lie is known as having taken jiart in a
controversy regarding the succession of the writings
of King Solomon, he himself maintaining that the
book Kohelet is the last one written by him (Cant.
R. i. 1).

Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 145a, iii. 573-574 ;
Heilprln, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 116d.
J. S. O.

YANNAI : First payyetan to employ rime and
introduce his name in acrostics; flourished, proba-
bly in Palestine, in the first half of the seventh cen-
tur3^ He was apparently a very prolific poet, for
reference is made to " the liturgical poems of
Yannai"; he is also said to have composed "ke-
robot " for the " orders of the year " (periiaps for the
weekly lessons). Most of his poems are lost ; some
are perhaps still extant, but they can not be rec-
ognized with certainty as Yannai's work. The fol-
lowing fragments alone remain to show his st3'le:

1. D^nom nOD "•JIK: A"kerobah" for Sal)bath
ha-Gadol. It is said to include also D^DJ 31"l TX
rh''^! nx!?Dn, found in the Pesah Ilaggadah.

2. nn"'!? NJ m"'£i'K D"'Ttrn ■T'K': a "shib'ata"
for the seventh day of Pesah. The middle portion
is missing. It is designated as riE^IDIT (this reading
must be substituted for the senseless nj^lJDip in the
superscription), i.e., "bolt "or "beam " {i^po/iog, other-
wise called LDM"l), and forms a sort of textual varia-
tion of Canticles, following the conception and in-
terpretation of that book in the IMidrash.

3. Dinnsn TX lyn: a "siUuk" for Sabbath
Shim'u, i.e., the .second Sabbath before the Ninth
of Ab.

Yannai, like his predecessor .Jose b. Jose, is not
as obscure in his vocabulary and in his metaphors as
is Kalir, who is said to have been Yannai's pupil and
to have been killed by his master out of jealousy.
The extant examples of Yannai's work do not indi-
cate any great poetic talent.

Bibliooraphy: Rapoport, in Bihluire ha-'Ittim, 1S29, p. Ill ;
idem, in Kcrem Hemed, 1841, vi. 25; liUzzatto, Melm, p. lu;
Zmvz, Literaturg'esch. p.28; Landshuth, "Ammude lia-'Aho-
dah, p. 102; Harkavy, Studien and MittheUungcn, v. 106;
S. A. Wertheimer, Ginze Yerushalayim, ii. 18b.
D. II. B.

YANNAI (known also as Yannai Rabbah =
"the Great"): Palestinian amora of the first genera-
tion (2d and 3d cent.). A genealogical chart found
at Jerusalem traced his descent from Eli (Yer.
Ta'an. iv. 2; Gen. R. xcviii. 13). Yannai was very
wealthy ; he is said to have planted four hundred
vineyards (B. B. 14a) and to have given an orchard
to the pul)lic (M. K. 12b). His first residence was
at Sepphoris (Yer. Ber. iv. 6 et nl.), where he seems
to have held a public office, since at the death of R.
Judah ha-Nasi I. (Rabbi) he gave an order that
even priests might attend the funeral of the great
teacher {ib. iii. 1). Halevy, however, has concluded
that Yannai ahvaj's lived at 'Akbarah, or 'Akbari,
where he estalilished a school (see below).

Yannai was prominent both as halakist and hag-
gadist. He was a pupil of Rabbi, in whose name he
transmitted several halakic sayings (Yer. Hag. iii. 2;
Yer. Kid. iii. 14; et al.). The best known of his se-
nior fellow pupils was Hiyya Rabbah, who, as an as-
sistant teacher in Rabbi's school, sometimes acted as

587

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Y«! 1 ..,J«»,

. IV. i), Him iKUJii passim) sliow tlio real rclution-
). Their I'liendsliip was aftciwara ccinoiitecl by
maiTiajiie of Yaiinai's dau.i,rhtei- to Hiyya's son
all ( Ycr. Bik. iii. 3 ; Ket. G2b). Yannai transmil-

Yanuai's tutor (Yer. Dem. vii. 1; Yeb. 93a). But
several discussions between Hiyya and Yauuai (Yer.
Ber. iv.^5, and Babli p/mim) show the real relation
shii).
the
Jud

ted also some halaUot iu the name of the council (" ha-
burah ") of the last tannaini (Mak. 2lb). He cslab-
lislied an ini])ortant school at 'Akbarah (Ycr. 'Er.
viii. 4), often mentioned in both Talmuds and in Ihit
Midrash as t he " dcbc H. Yannai " or the " bet R. Yan-
nai," and which continuedafterhis death. His school
differed from others iu that the pupils were tieated
as belonging to the master's family ; they worked on
Yannai 's estate, took their share of the
His revenue, and lived under his roof

School. (comp. Yer. Sheb. viii. 6). His chief
pupil, of whom he thought highly, was
R. Johanan, who transmitted most of his halakot
(Yer. Kil. viii. 1; Sotah 18b; Kid. 641)). Others of
his many pupils were Simeon b. Lakisli (Yer. Yoma
iii. 10 ; Ta'au. ii. 6 ; Hul. 82a), R, Aibu (Kid. 19), and
R. Hoshaiah (Ket. 79a).

Iu regard to the Mishnah of Rabbi he shared the
opinion of Hiyya. In fact, Yannai ascribed no
greater authority to the Mishnah than to the collec-
tions of halakot or baraitot compiled by Hiyya and
other disciples of Rabbi (comp. Yer. Pes. 1.5; Yer.
Yoma iv. 2). When his pupil R. Johanan remarked
that the Mishnah rendered a decision diilerent from
his, lie answered, " The Mishnah gives only the de-
cision of a single tanna, while I decide conformably
to the Rabbis as a whole " (Shab. 140a). He was in-
dependent in his decisions, and sometimes had all his
contemporaries against him (Yer. Niddah iii. 4 ; Slial).
65a). His decisions were generally rigid as regards
private persons (Yer. Ber. ii.6; Yer. Ket. 1. 10; Shab.
14a), but liberal when the whole community was con-
cerned. Yannai's disregard of R. Judali Nesi'ah (Ju-
dahll.). Rabbi's grandson, was notorious (B. B. Ilia,
b), and so was his attitude toward R. Hanina, an
ardent believer in Rabbi's Mishnah (Yer. Kil. i.\. 7;
Ber. 30a; et al.). Referring to Hanina, Yannai said,
" He who studies the Law under only one teacher sees
no sign of blessing " ('Ab. Zarah 19a).

Yannai is conspicuous in both Talmud and Mid-
rash as a prolific haggadist, and he occupies an im-
portant place among the Biblical e.\e-
His getes of his time. In reference to a

Haggadah. man who studied much but did not
fear God, he said : " Wo to the man
who, before he gets a hou.se, makes the door " (Shab.
31b). He recommended submission to the govern-
ment (Zeb. 102a; I\Ien. 98a). When old age had im-
paired his sight he requested Mar 'Ukba to .send him
some collyrium prepared by Samuel (Shab. lOSb).
He enjoined his children to bury him neither in
white nor in black clothes, as they would not know
whether his place would be in paradise or in hell
(Shab. 114a; Yer. Kil. ix. 4).

BlBUOGRAPHY : Baoher, Ao- Pal. Amn?: I. a")-47: Fmnkel,
3/e;w, p. 103a, b, Breslau, 1870; Gratz. Oesch.M ed.. Iv.; Ha-
levy. Dorot hn-Rii^honim, ii. 273-282; Hellprln, Seder ha-
Dorot, ii.; Weiss, Dor, iii.-SO, 51.
G. M. Sei,.

YANNAI BEN ISHMAEL : Palestinian
amora of the third century; a contemporary of

Ze'cra and ■ ' '

halakot fnii
ferritin' •
A qut's!,..,,
•Esreh," h .
R. Nahuin >
lakuh iu tin ;
cision of bL:
of V

i<e 111 : ,,

the angels (B. .M
on t"

an i . i

Kahana (Yer. Ter. i
engaged in a conlrovtrby u-. ,
tations.

BiHLiooiuPHy: lUirh<T, Ao. PaL Amnr w

ed. Flllr>ow»kl. \>. 15b.
.1.

YANNAI THE YOTTN'GFT?
amora of the fourth
er" ("zc'era") ;
b. Ishmael. \\

nai was exempl<'d from the pi
purity in order that he '
ment of the dead (Yer.
sentence treating of the Ini;
how it is to be made hn- '
vi. It appears that at "i
did not follow current
they were reproved by I ;

BiBLIOORAPHY : Bai'hiT, Au

448. l\£i; Frankel. AfeAo, pit. laM>-;i*i*. ii
Dorut, p. llGd.
J.

YARHI, ABRAHAM -

Nathan.

YARMOUTH :
Jews iiiu.st liuvi' I.
date. In the L .
mention is n
and in " Helj; . .
D. Davis, there is an ul:
mouth wlio I
known tradii
in 1847 a synagoffuo which 1

was '

cong:

older one which bad bt'

the - '

deer'

eut used as a parish '

after its ■' , -

Michael

Rabbi 1. Cohen; th-

who died in 1><70.

A plot of land for a cpmotrrr was
town council on '
Simon Hnrl. !i •^'
mouth for f
interred •

is in the .\ .

and one headstone, all '
brew or V

Amoni; -.jHr« of fnrmrr r»«r«

pari.sh church are an III

Yarmuk
Year-Book

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

588

Esther, said to date back to the end of the fifteenth
century; a copy of the Yosippon in pointed charac-
ters and printed at Basel in 1541 ; and a Hebrew and
Latin Bible printed at Antwerp in 1584.

J. y. E.

YARMUK (modern Shari'at al-Manadirah) :
liivLT ul Palestine; its various sources rise in the
mountains of Hauran and Jaulan ; it flows generally
west and empties into the Jordan four English
miles south of the Lake of Gennesaret. Although
it is narrow and shallow throughout its course, at
its mouth it is nearly as wide as the Jordan, meas-
uring thirty feet in breadth and five in depth. The
^latihew Bridge, which crosses the Yarmuk at its
continence with the Jordan, and which is built of
volcanic stones, is celebrated. According to K. Jo-
hanan, the Y'armuk was the second largest river in
Palestine (B. B. 74b), but its water Avas not to be
used for the water of atonement with the ashes of
the red heifer (Parah viii. 10).

Bini.iofiRAPHV: Sepp. Jcnimlem rind dan HeiUac Land, ii.
r-NT ct srq.. Repensbiirp, ISTC; Schwartz, PnlcMinc, p. "vj,
Philadelphia, ISV); Neubauer, G. T. p. 31 ; Ritter, CoHipaca-
tivc Gcoonipliy of Palestine, ii. 299 et seq.
K. G. II. S. O.

YAROSLAV (JAROSLAW) : Town in Gali-
cia, known as one of the principal scats of the
CofNtTL OF Foun L.\XDs. The fair of Y'aroslav,
at which the Council decided matters regarding the
various communities, and at which also the heads of
yeshibot used to discuss Talnuidic themes ('' shit-
tot") with their pupils, was held toward the end of
tJie summer. It is known that in the second half
of the seventeenth century Y'aroslav began to
supplant the other towns with regard to the Coun-
cil nf Four Lands ; so that ]Moses I.Iagiz, in his " .Mish-
nat HaUamim," Xo. 3-19, mentions only the Yaroslav
fair, whore the rabbis used to as.semble once every
three years. In 1G71 the Council decided to meet
in a place a few miles from Y'aroslav, as the town
was deemed unsafe; but the decision was soon re-
voked. It Avas at the fair of Yaroslav that the
Council gave judgment in the eigiiteenth century in
ihedispute between Jonathan Eybeschiitz and Jacob
Kmden. Among other important acts of the Coun-
< il was the giving of approbations of literary works,
and many of liicse wcie issued at Yaroslav. Thus!
in the autumn of 1677, under the presidency of
Lssiichar Biirusch b. Iloschel, at this town, iiermis-
sion was granted to luint Jekuthicl Blitz's German
translation f.f the Bible; and on the eighth of Tislui,
5452 (= Oct. 1. 1091;, under the presidency of Lob
Hasid, a similar approbation was granted for the
Midrash Haltbaii.

Bini.ior.KAPiiv: FriPdherp. L}ihot Zihharnn, pp. 17, 30 0.->

" rl'r'^','" \i''^\^- n''f '',• ^ *''"•' '^- note 9; X. 51; Schudt!
Jlidixilic M<.nkirUrili{il(eitc>i, i. :i09.

"■ »• M. Sel.

YASHAR, SEFER HA- : One of the latest
works of lli-i midrasliic Haggadah ; known also
under the titles "Tole<lot Adam " and "Dibre ha-
Yamim he-'Aruk." It is written in correct and
fluent Helire'v, and treats of the history of the Jews
from the time of Adam to that of the Judges. Three-
fourths of the work is devoted to the pre-Mosaic
period, one-fifth tf) Die Mosaic period, and only three
pages to later liistory. In his endeavors to explain

all Biblical subjects tlie author invented entire nar-
ratives, interweaving tliem with certain iiassages
of the Bible.

Among such narratives and additions originating
with the author may be especially mentioned an ex-
planation of the murder of Abel by
Contents. Cain, and also an extended and ingen-
ious genealogy of the descendants of
Shcm, Ilam, and Japlicth. In this genealogy the
origin of Seir, whieh Ibn Ezra states to be sinouded
in obscurity, is explained by the assertion tiiat fScir
was the son of Ilur, the grandson of Ilori. and the
great-grandson of Cainan. The life of Abiaham is
described at great lengtii, the account beginning
with Ids birth and the appeaiance of the star (viii.
1-85), and including the smallest details, such as,
for example, his two journeys to his S(m Ishinael
(xxi. 22-48). Similar minuteness is displayed with
regard to the last days of Sarah and her funeral,
which, according to the author, was attended not
only by Shem, Eber, Aner, Eshkol, and Manue, but
also by Canaanitisii kings with tiicir retinues (xxii.
41-44). The enumeration of the doctrines which the
three Patriarchs received through Shem and Eber
also occupies considerable sjiace; and tlie life of Jo-
.seph is depicted in an especially impressive manner
(.\xxvii.-xli.).

In connection with tlie different " bles.sings '' which
Jacob before liis death gave to his sons, the author
depicts the bloody warfare waged between the
kings of Canaan and the sons of Israel on account of
the violation of Dinah, the war ending with tiie vic-
tory of Israel (xxxiv.-xxxv.). In the history of the
sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt and of tiicir exo-
dus from that country are also interwoven several
legends, though these lack the completeness that
marks the narratives of the pre-Mo.saic history (part
ii.). The author, moreover, gives an entire song of
Joshua, which is merely indicated in the book of
that prophet (\. 13): but this consists only of Bib-
lical passages artistically put together.

In the compiling of the work tlie following sources

were made use of, namely: the Babylonian Talmud;

Beresiiit Kabbah; Pirke K. p:iiezer;

Sources. the Yalkut; the Chronicle of Moses;

Yosippon; Midrash Alikir; and various

Arabic legends. As to the place and time of the

work's origin various legendaiy accounts are given

in the preface of the first edition (Naples, 1552).

In 1750 the London printer Thomas Hive issued
an English translation of the Avork, asserting that he
had i)ublislicd the real "Book of Ya.shar" mentioned
in the Bible; and in 1828 the Loiulon "Courier"
(Nov. 8) reported that a man from Gazan in Persia,
by name Alcurin (Noah has "Alcuin"), had discov-
ered the book named after Joshua, and brought it
with liim to London. Eleven days later (Nov. 19)
a Jew of Liverpool named Samuel reported in the
same paper that he was woiking on a translation of
this work, whieh he had obtained in
Modern North Africa. Zunz thereupon found
Transla- himself comi)ellcd to assert, in the
tions. "lierliner Nachiichten " of Nov. 29,
1828, that the work mentioned was the
same as that pul)lislied in Naples in 1552 or 1613;
and in his "Gottcsdienstliehe Vortrage," 1832, the

589

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

same autlior declared that the book originated in
Spain in the twelfth century. That Italy, however,
was tiie land of its origin seems evi(h'nt from the
nulhor's knowledge of Italian names, as Tiiseany,
Lonibardy. and the Tiber (x. 7-30), and also from
the description of the rajie of the Sabines (xvii.
1-14). Tlie appeaiaiice of Arabic names, such as
Said, Allah, Abdallah, and Khalif, only tends to
show that the book w;is written in sontiiern llidv.
Avhere Arabic intUience was strongly felt even in tin
eleventh cenluiy.

Tlie " Yasliar " has appeared in the following eiii
tions: Naples, 15r)2; Venice, 1(5'23; Cracow, 1(V,'M;

Prague, 10(58; Frankfort-on-the-Main,
Editions. 170(5; Amsterdam, 1707; Conslanli-

noi)ie, 172S: Fiirth, 1768; Koretz,
1785; Frankfort-ou-the-Oder, 1789; Grodno, 1795;
Lemberg, 1810 and 1840; Warsaw, 1840; Wiina,
1848; Lemberg, 1850; Wilna, 1852; War.saw, 1858.
It was translated into Judieo-Gerniau by Jacob iia-
Levi, and published with various annotations and
Arabic glosses (Frankfort-on-tUe-Main, 1074; Sulz-
bach, 1783). A Latin version by Johanu G. Abiclit
appeared in Leipsic in the middle of the eighteentii
century under the title " Disscrtatiode Libro Uecti."
The work was first translated into English liy Thomas
Hive, as mentioned above, and later by ^I. M. Noah
under the title "The Book of Yashar" (New York,
1840).

BiBi.iofiRAPnT: Tfie passages mentioned in this article refer to
ttie New York edition, since the Helirew editions are not di-
vided into eitlier chapters or paragraphs. See also Zunz,
G. V. 2d ed., pp. 102 Itw and notes; Cannolv, in Jost's Aii-
iialcn, is:i',t, i.. No. 19, pp. ]49-l")0; M. M. Nirali, in preface to
Tlic Book III' Vaxliar. New Yorlv, 1840; Benjacol). (K(xr hd-
Sefa)un,y).Zi^; Furst, JBi'iiL Jiid. ii. Ill; Israel Levi, L'nc
Anecdote sur Pliaraon, in R. E. J. xviii. 130.

J. s. o.

YATES PEDIGREE. See Samuel and Y'ates

PEDIGltKK.

YATES, BENJAMIN ELIAKIM. First min-
ister of tliecongiegationat Liverjxx)!, England ; died
there 1798. He was the elder son of Eh'akim Gctz
(Goetz) of Strelitz, and he himself also appears to
have been a native of Strelitz. On going to Eng-
land he became an itinerant seal-engiaver, and prob-
ably settled in one of the southwestern counties.
Subsequently he located in Liverpool, where he be-
came an engraver and working jeweler; and with
this calling lie combined that of minister or rabbi of
the infant Liverpool congregation, acting also as
hazzan, sholiet, and mohel. His residence, at 109
Frederick street, is believed to have been the first
regular synagogue of the Liverpool Jews. Its small
garden was used as a burial-ground, and Benjamin
Y'ates was the last person interred in it.

After Benjamin's death his younger brother.
Samuel, settled in Liverpool, probably in order to
manage the engraving and jewelry bu.siness left by
liis brother, anil to look after the hitter's young and
helpless family. Samuel Yates became, by his mar-
riage with Martha Abiahams, of Siiaftesbury, Som-
■ersetshire, a progenitor of the leading families of the
Liverpool community (see Samuel and "i atks).

BiBUOGRAPnT: Lucien Wolf, History mu\ Oeurohwi nf tl
Jewish Families of i'ates and Samnd "^ -LLV^.n""''- «^'"
don, 1901; Gore, Liverpool Direetoni. 1 < 90. 1 , i«>, nnd IN".
MargoUouth, Jews of Great Britain, ill. 110-112 u.. beror-

I...

YAWAN
YEAR-BOOK

Jabrb

IMIul pi;'

and a rr .

inietc -^t. and eoi,

iingiii>lii-d f' •

linetion ciin

est work of •

lleinemiui (I'.- , ,,... .

die Israelilis< he .In

oidy a enuple o!

Isidore IJijseh w

(1842-47). with .

guished .Ie\\

Hapoport, P

pert, and L Lo

Werthcinier'sd-^

piiblisiii'd in Hi

For two or llin-e years tl

Jl^disehen W

ish iiistory, .

produced an " .\nniiaire

lablishment (1h«<0-H4).

A somewhat di!T<T«-nt vnH««tvof <'
lications w:.
Year Book '
ofcomnuina

ties, a glossjiry, and a " ^''
can Jewish Year lif<-^
et Heq. ; later with lli
features, together
Almanac). It may ..,
H. Myer'9 "Calendar a
in London i ~
his earliest
oness von S

The Hebrew
as in a measun
volumes of " Bikkiire h
lished in V' '

ited ehielly I
cics by Hapoport tli
of supplement was ;
two volumei f>f " !
Keller in tl
eentlv t
Asif" .
" .Vhiasat. '

Hebrew and .'

duecd liy O p.. I Ink nl .\
peared

Berlin i»

Almanacli" th:>
litemlure. u
live " '"'• '

njattir.
book ca' _
i somcwlml •

Jews of Hungary: ii

Yedaya
Yekaterinoslaf

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

590

appeared for. one year only. A still earlier Hunga-
rian example was the "Jahrbucu fl\i die Israeliti-
schen Cultusgemeinden in Ungarn," edited by
Leopold Rosenberg and published at Budapest in
1860. The Israelitisch-Ungarische Literaturgesell-
schaft, since its foundation in 1895, has published a
year-book of literary contents. In Rumania, Julius
Barasch produced a historical year-book at Bucha-
rest, and this is still continued under the title
"Anuarul Pentru Israelitzi."

BiBLiooRAPHV: A. S. Freidiis, In Bulletin of the New York
Ptihlic Librani, vii. 263-ai5. New York. 1903.

YEDAYA. See Bedersi or Bedaresi, Jedaiah

BEX AUKAHVNf.

YEHTJDAI BEN NAHMAN (usually cited as
Yehudai Gaon) : Gaon of Sura from 760 to 764.
After the otlice of the gaonate was left vacant by
the death of Mar Aha, the exilarch Solomon, depart-
ing from the usual custom, decided to appoint a
scholar of the Pumbedita Academy, Yehudai ben
Nahman, as gaon of Sura. Shortly afterward Yehu-
dai's brother Dodai was appointed gaon of Pumbe-
dita (761-767). Yehudai was blind, and was perhaps
so afflicted, as I. H. Weiss suggests, at the time when
he was appointed gaon. If this was the case his
appointment was contrary to Sanh. 49a, according
to which a man blind in both eyes is incapable of
acting as a judge or as president of a court. It is
interesting, however, that it was Yehudai Gaon
who decided that blindness should not act as a bar
to tiie appointment as hazzan of a man otherwise
irreproachable ("Or Zarua'," i. 116). As far as is
known, Yehudai had one son, Joseph (see "Halakot
Pesukot," ed. Scblossberg, p. 132); Mar Ahinai is
mentioned as his pupil.

Yehudai was highly respected as a halakic author-
ity, and later geonim as well as rabbis hesitated to
decide against his opinion (comp. "Teshubot ha-
Geonim," ed. Lyck, No. 43, end; Jacob Emden,
"She'elat Ya'bez," i., No. 145). His responsa, gen-
erally written in Aramaic, are precise and usually
very short ; they sometimes consist of only one or
two words, giving merely the decision. But when
he was asked to explain Talmudical passages his
responsa naturally went more into detail ; and there
are also some long responsa dealing with property
rights. Some Hebrew responsa are supposed to
have been translated by his pupils or by the com-
piler. The majority of Yehudai's responsa deal
with the order of the prayers and the readings from
the Scriptures; with traveling on board a vessel and
disembarking on the Sabbath, and various laws con-
cerning the observance of the Sabbath and of holy
days; with the tcfiUin (see Hayyim M. Horowitz,
"Halachische Schriften der Geonim," i. 45 €< set?.);
and with dietary laws, divorce, and halizah cases of
Jews who had embraced Islam and returned to
Judaism (comp. especially "Teshubot ha-Geonim,"
ed. Lyck, No. 45; Millhr, "Mafteah le-Teshubot
ha-Gconim," pp. 66 et seq.).

Alfasi in his " Halakot " (Nedarim, end) asserts
that it was Yehudai Gaon who did away with abso-
lution from vows (" hattarat nedarim "), which was
so carelessly granted by the rabbis of his time that
it gave occasion for Karaite attacks. He even went

so far as to abolish the study of the Talmudical
treatise Nedarim ("Vows"), and his successors were
anxious to adhere to tiiis reform (see L. L5w, "Ge-
sammclte Schriften." iii. 363).

Yehudai Gaon, however, is best known as the au-
thor of halakot, which are quoted under the titles
of: "Halakot de-R. Yehudai Gaon," " Halakot Pesu-
kot" or "Hilkot Re'u," "Halakot Ketu'ot," and
" Halakot Kezubot " or " Halakot Ketannot " (as dis-
tinguished from the " Halakot Gedolot " of Simeon
Kayyara). The relation to one another of these
several versions, which are obviously adaptations
from one and the same original work, is not yet
quite clear, and indeed forms a very difficult prob-
lem in literary criticism. According to A. Epstein,
who devoted an important study to the problem,
this work was a collection of legal decisions (hala-
kot), mainly in Aramaic, which first appeared in
Yehudai's short responsa or were taken down fiom
his lectures by his pupils and probably arranged by
them later. Owing to the fact that the responsa are
so short and confine themselves to a mere statement
of the decision in question they were called " Deci-
sive Laws " (" Halakot Pesukot " or, according to a
more Arabic mode of speech, "Halakot Ketu'ot").
Of the numerous evidences brought forward by Ep-
stein to prove that the responsa were
His actually called thus, onlj' one may be

Responsa. indicated here. At the end of a col-
lection of Mei'r of Kothenburg's" She-
'elot u-Teshubot " (MS. Prague) some " Halakot Ke-
zubot de-R. Yehudai " are given. Soon after this
heading occurs the stereotyped form for "responsa,"
Dn^NK'K'l or DmONtJ'l. etc. These halakot have
been published according to this manuscript by Joel
Muller under the title '" Handschriftliche, Jehudai
Gaon Zugewiesene Lehrstitze." Besides, t]icre must
have been incorporated into these "Halakot Pesu-
kot" or "Halakot Ketu'ot "a collection of "dinim,"
airanged according to the order of the Talmud or
according to subject-matter; for such dinim are
quoted by geonim and later rabbis as "Halakot
Pesukot "and "Halakot Ketu'ot," sometimes with
and sometimes without a mention of the authorship
of Yehudai Gaon or his pupils (for the reference see
Epstein, "Ma'amar 'al Sefer Halakot Gedolot," in
"Ha-Goren," iii. 57 et seq.).

Simeon Kayyara, authorof the "Halakot Gedolot,"
as well as R. Amram, author of the well-known
"Siddur," borrowed largely from these halakot of
Yehudai Gaon, for which, as Epstein points out, the
two terms "Halakot Pesukot" and "Halakot Ke-
tu'ot " were used promiscuously in tlie geonic period ;
only later, when the varying recensions of them in-
creased in number, were the titles distinguished as
designating two different recensions.

Yehudai's halakot were translated from Aramaic
into Hebrew, including even the Aramaic quota-
tions from the Talmud. This translation has been
preserved in an Oxford manuscript
His under the original title "Halakot Pe-

Halakot. sukot," being also known, according
to the first word of the text, as "Hil-
kot Re'u"; and it was published by A. L. Schlosa-
berg, Versailles, 1886. It was probably made in
a Greek-speaking countr}', as Halberstam showed

691

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEOiA

The
"Halakot
Kezubot."

in liis introductory letter to Schlossberg's edition,
and was broii^lit thence to Biibyloiiju. A vrry
great part of it, however, is taken from the " lla-
lakot Qedolot" in an abridged form, so tliat Ep-
stein did not recognize it as being a translation of
the " Halakot Pesukot," but ratiierdccmcd it a com-
pilation of the "Halakot Gedolot," containing at the
same time Hebrew quotations from the Aramaic
"Halakot Pesukot."

The " Halakot Kezubot " seem to be a compilation
from tlic "Halakot Pesukot" and the "Halakot
Gedolot." They are preserved in a Parma manu-
script that has been published by Hayyim M. Horo-
witz in "Halachische Schriftcn derOeonim," first
part, pp. 14etse(j., Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1881. Ac-
cording to the beginning of the text, however, these
"Halakot Kezubot "are ascribed to Yehudai Gaon.
Since the term " Kezubot, " a synonym of " Pesukot, "
seems to have been prevalent in West-
ern countries (see "Sefer we-Hizhir,"
ed. Freimann.ii., Introduction; "Ha-
lakot Gedolot,"' ed. Hildesheimer, p.
469; "She'elotu-TeshubotSha'are Ze-
dek,"p. 29a; Zunz, inSteinschneider, "Ilebr. Bibl."
viii. 20), and as the "Halakot Kezubot"are not quo-
ted in geonic literature, Epstein supposes Palestine or
Italy to have been the birthplace of this compilation,
which afterward was widely known in Germany and
France, and w.as often copied and enlarged by addi-
tions. It is quoted especially in the "Sefer ha-
Pardes," in the Vitry Mahzor, in the "Sefer Issur
we-Hetter" (Merzbacher MS. No. 6), and others.

Much has been written about the relation between
the " Halakot Pesukot" and the "Halakot Gedolot"
and their respective authors. The note in Abraham
ibn Baud's "Sefer ha-Kabbalah" ("M. J. C." i. 63)
that Yehudai Gaon gathered his " Halakot Pesukot "
from the " Halakot Gedolot " of Simeon Kayyara,
and the supposition of the medieval Jewish scholars
of Germany and northern France that Yehudai Gaon
was tlie author of the "Halakot Gedolot," caused
great confusion regarding the authorship, and also
regarding the dates of these two authors. Recently,
however, the disputed points have gradually been
cleared up.

The writing of halakic compendiums was alwaj's
censured l)y those who were afraid that such works
might displace the study of the Talmud itself, the
mass of tlie people being perfectly satisfied to know
the final halakic decision without caring for its de-
velopment in the Talmud. It is interesting to ob-
serve that as old a compendium as tlie "Halakot
Pesukot" of Yehudai Gaon met with tlie disap-
proval of Paltoi, gaon of Pumbedita (842-858), for
the very same reason (see Epstein, I.e. p. 57).

Bibliography : Briill, in Jahi-bVcherfl}rJn(li.<>che Grschichtc
It/id Litteratur. li. et sea., v. 158 et nc<i.: Griitz, Gcach. v. Iti'i,
174; idem, in Mnnatsschrift , vil. 217 ct xcq.; A. Hiirkavy,
ResiJOHften dcr Geonim, Index ; A. Neiibauer. in Hn-Mnu-
aid, 187;), pp. 125 et scq.; idem, in LcUcrhude, Iv. 55 it ^^■l;•;
NaliaJat Shedal. in Ozar Toh, 1878. p. 17 ; S. Snctis, In H<i-
Mdgfjiil, 1878, Nos. 31-34; I. Halevv, Dorn( ha-RMiouim, ill.
194, 2a); Weiss, Dor, iv. 31-40; Winter and AViinsrhe, Die
JUdisclie Litteratitr, li. 16 et seq.: Epstein, in IIa-init, 111.
55 et seq.; Schorr, in He-Haliiz, xil. 81 rt sc(i.; Hayyim M.
Horowitz, HnJnchinche Sc/iriYfcn der Geoiiiw. Trefaee.
FranI{fort-on-the-Main, 1881; Stelnschneider, Jf ifwft Lttern-
txire, pp. 26. 67 ; Zunz, G. V. p. 60 ; Buber, Sefer ha-Orah,
pp. 20, 75, 82, 114, Lemberg, 1905. ,, „

8 M. Sc.

YEKATERINOST.AT-
SLAV): iJiissiaii ,

'''''^'' ■ ' ' uc 11..
ufii, „ I, ,

commercial and

sia. till' ( .

of 121.21 •

tcr are actively i

Iric.Hof f!- • ■ - •■

popuiati

riving iu* in.

otiier third >

ticca) Jieing <

city has moru llimi ti

grist-mills, lumber n.,,.-

and tol)acc()-factorics.

lisiiinents are o •

Jewish factory •

although in one

tobacco-faotorv t

847 Jewish day-la

On account of its l
life, Yek ' ' '
for the p ;

concentration in this city c
number of Jews, fm "
was stimulated by a -
enacted during the last twee
the sphere of J. ' '
these were the8(<-
tlie exclusion of the I
and Taganrog from i
establishment of a
manufacture of
these measure- '
of a Jewish ;
ment, became di;
1,830 families, rep;. . ....

aid for Passover. In th-
supported th

hospital, a m.i

association ( " gemilut h .

("haknawit c

ety. Tiiee-xi' .

ing to about 74,000 ruJ

from the 1 "

tary conti

(1905) the most in

the A ■ ■ •

town I .

rubles, and its <

main? '

Y.
tional instimtions: ;
Torat. '"" ■' '

Studi :

Zionist ic :

city, t' ■■

socic I

The :

Jews

provi

tion. foil

order '■'

ontbr

tioD of iLc J*. wisU q--

Yelammedenu
Temen

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

592

of regulations limitiug the lights of the Jews in com-
luerce, iu the aLquisitiou of rt-al estate, in the partic-
ipation in local government, etc. The anti-Jewish
outbreaks did not spare Yekaterinoslaf. On July
20, 1883, a mob invaded the Jewish liouses and
wrought great destruction. ^Many ruined families
were compelled to seek safety iu flight.

BlBi.locRAPHY: Razsvfit't. ISSl, No. 4-">: Riisi'ki Yfvrci, 1883,
No. a2: Otchnt Pravltiiiiin nhmluM va I'lisuhiua Bi/ccf/ij/'"
Yivreimm za 1SS9 Gwi, Yekaterinoslaf, ISKX); ib., za I'JOO
GtKl. 1901.
II. i;. S. J.

YELAMMEDENU. See T.\Nnu.M.A. MiDR.\sn.

YELISAVETGRAD(ELIZABETHGRAD) :
Town iu the governnicut of Kherson, Russia. It
was founded in 1754. and soon became one of the
most important cities of southern Russia. The name
of Yelisiivetgrad recalls sad memories to the Rus-
sian Jews; for from that town issued the signal for
the riots which brought upon them incalculable
affliction and misery. As soon as Alexander III.
had ascended the throne rumors of a rising
against the Jews reached Yelisavetgrad, which
caused the leaders of the Jewish community to
apply to the governor for special protection. No
notice was taken of the appeal, and on Wednesday,
April 27, 1881, the dreaded outbreak took place.

A religious dispute in an inn concerning the use
of Christian blood by the Jews served as a pretext
for the rioters, who proceeded to the Jewish quarter
and commenced a systematic destruction of Jewish
shops and warehouses. At first the Jews at tempted
to protect their property; but, seeing that this only
served to increase the violence of the mob, and that
the soldiers, who were called to protect them, took
part in the pillage, they barricaded themselves in
their houses. For two days the rioters i)erpetrated,
under the very eyes of the ofKcials, and with the
cooperation of the soldiers, the most barbarous and
hideous deeds. Synagogues were Avrecked and
Jewesses outraged. Two young girls, in dread of
violation, threw themselves from windows. An
old man named Pelikov, who attempted to save his
daughter, was thrown from the roof by the enraged
soldiery. Many persons were killed ; 500 houses and
100 shops were demolished; and 2,000,000 rubles'
worth of property was stolen or destroj'cd.

In the revolutionary uprisings of 1905 the town
was biirned, and the mob killed the Jews and plun-
dered their quarter.

BiBLiOGRAPnY : Jacobs, Pernecutinn of Jfw>> in liuivda, 1881,
p. 4 ; liuKxhaun Muxl, June, 1881. pp. %-9i) : Svohewskl, I'ro-
tivo Yevreiahiua Bez^ibraziya ; H. Rosenthal, in Jkw. Kncvc.
1.347, s.v. Aleraiider ]If.\ Semenov, Giniirnplncnl-Stfitis-
tical DictUiitary of the RuKsiaii Km])irc (in Russian), s.v.

H. R. 1. Br.

According to the census of 1897, Yelisavetgrad
had a population of 61,841, including 24,340 Jews.
The latter are prominent in Ihe city's commerce,
trade, and industries, and three-fourths of its fac-
tories are controlled by them. The nimiber of fac-
tories exceeds eighty, among them being grist-mills,
machine- and tool-factories, fotindries, .soap-farto-
ries, brick-yards, vinegar-distilleries, and tobacco-
factories. Only tobacco manufacture, however, en-
gages any considerable number of Jewish workers.
There are in all 522 Jewish factory-laborers, 363
day -laborers, and 3,164 artisans.

The Jewish community supports a number of
charitable institutions, among which may be men-
tioned a society for the aid of the poor

Institu- (founded 1899), a loan society which
tions. lends money to the poor at a low rate
of interest, and a Jewish dispen.sary
with infirmary attached. ^lore than 1,000 Jewish
families have recourse to charity. In the winter of
1898, 1.100 families received fuel from charitable
organizations, while 1,300 families applied for aid
for Passover.

The Jewish children are sent either to the general
or to the Jewish schools, although Jewish boys are
not freely admitted to the former. The Jewish schools
include a Talmud Torali with industrial classes, two
government schools (one with industrial classes),
several private schools, a school founded by the
local Zionists, and 122 hadarim, including a free
heder with sixtj- pupils. Early in 1881 there was
organized among the Jews of Yelisavetgrad a P>il)le
Eiotherhood (see Bibleitzy).

II. II. S. J.

YEMEN : Province comprising tiie southwestern
part of Arabia. Various traditions trace the earliest
settlement of Jews in this region back to the time of
Solomon, and the Sanaite Jews have a legend to
the elTect that their forefathers settled there forly-
two years before the destruction of the First Tem-
ple. Under the prophet Jeremiah 75,000 Jews, in-
cluding priests and Levites, are said to have gone to
Yemen; and Avhen Ezra coinmandedthe Jews to re-
turn to Jerusalem they disobeyed, Avhereupon he
pronounced an everlasting ban upon them. Tradi-
tion states, however, that as a punishment for this
hasty action Ezra was denieil burial in Palestine.
As a result of this tradition, which is devoid of his-
toricity, no Jew of Yemen gives the name of Ezra to
a cliihl, although all other Biblical appellatives are
found there.

The actual immigration of Jews into Yemen ap-
pears to have taken place about the beginning of
the second century c.k., although the province is
mentioned neither by Josephus nor by the INIishnah

or Talmud. According to Winckler,
First Set- the Jews of Yemen enjoyed prosper-
tlements. ity until the sixth century c.k., and

the fourth sovereign before Dhu Nu-
was was a convert to Judaism. The kingdoms of
Sheba, Raidan, Hadramaut, and Yamanat (Yemen)
were united under tiie hegemony of the Yemenite
kings, who were as follows:

Yahamln (c. 325 c.K.)

Abu Karib

I
Shurahbil YaTur (c. 448)

I
Shurahbil Yakkuf (f. 467)

I I I

As'ad Wara 'Aiiir Ainln

Ma'dlKarlb Yun'iin

Luhai'athah Yanuf

Dhu Nuwas (d. 52.5)

Until recently Dhu Nuwas was regarded as the
first king who was zealous for Judaism, but a chron-
icle of saints in the British Museum gives the name

593

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDU

of tlie martyr Arkir, who was condemuetl to deatli
by Shurahbil Yakkuf at tlie instillation of lij.s rouii-
selors, tiiu rabbis. Although all these legends are
extremely biased and are chiefly devoted to the por-
trayal of the persecution of Cliristians l)y the Jews,
it is evident that Judaism had in the fourth century
taken a firm hold upon ti)e royal house. In this
legend, as in others, the city of Najran is impor-
tant. Two Jewish youths are said to have been
killed there, whereupon Dhu Nuwas conquered the
city and executed the king after olfering liin> liis
choice between Judaism and death. The elTect of
these traditions was a bitter oppression of the Jews,
first by the Christians and later by the Arabs.

The average Jewish population of Yemen for the
first five centuries c.e. is said to have been about
3,000. The Jews were scattered throughout the coun-
try, but carried on an extensive commerce and thus
succeeded in getting possession of many Jewish
books. When Saladin became sultan in the last quar-
ter of the twelfth century and the Shiites revolted
against him, the trials of the Yemenite Jews began.
There were few scholars among them at that time,
and a false prophetarose, proclaiming theamalgama-
tion of Judaism and Mohammedanism, and pretend-
ing to be able to prove the truth of his teachings from
the Bible. In this hour of need the greatest Jewish

scholar of Yemen, Jacob ben Nathan-
Yemen and ael al-Fayyumi, wrote for counsel to
Mai- Maimonides, who replied in a consola-
monides. tory epistle entitled " IggeretTeman."

This letter made such an impression on
the Jews of Yemen that, according to Saphir, they
included the name of jVIaimonides in the Kaddish
prayer. The false prophet was condemned to dealli
and died in his illusion. Although Benjamin of Tu-
dela did not personally visit Yemen, he gives certain
data concerning the Yemenite Jews. Their capital
was Teima and they called themselves Recbabites,
while at their liead stood the nasi Hanan. They
were in constant strife with their Ismaelitic neigh-
bors, from whom they won many victories and took
much boot}'.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the
condition of the Jews of Yemen was miserable.
They were under the jurisdiction of the Imam, and
were forbidden to Avear new or good clothes, nor
might they ride an ass or a mule, being conipelled to
make the longest journeys on foot when occasion re-
quired it. They were prohibited, moreover, from
engaging in money transactions, and were all me-
chanics, being employed cliieflj' as carpenters, ma-
sons, and smiths. At the beginning of the nineteenth
century they are said to have numbered 30,000, and
to have lived iirinci pally in Aden (200). Sana (10,000),
Sada (1,000), Dhamar (1,000), and the desert of Beda
(2,000). In recent times there have been no Jews in
the Tahama (the low coast-land) nor in Ilodeida, but
they now reside in the interior of the plateau. Set-
tlements of considerable size arc found in the vicinity
of Sana, and are divided between Manakhah, with
3,000 Jews, and Sana, which has a separate quarter
containing about 8,000. The Jews have also sjiceinl
sections of the city in Kaukaban, Weilan, and Dha-
mar. Special mention should likewise be made of the
Jewish village of Al-Gharaba, two kilometers from
XII.— 08

[•UwWBBtt

luda". The
the making of |>
settlements nnd uiiiLii i
Ihrougliout tlie Kn*' 'I
eotnincrce. An
Yemenite Jews it. u.
century wan Aur<>ti (
King." H<- .
murderouHly
Accoitling
is no longer

Literature, hroiiirht «

dah, which ni- . . .

Talmud, or at leant a

in Yemen • -

tributed i ^

poverty of the pcopU-, w ,o

buy mor< '

been in (1

oned time according t<» th ,|

chronology is found on '.

ninth century. All lix .

Yemen, moreover, show the iiu|'

Ionian, .system of pnnrttintinn. I r

"Iggeret Teman " timt though t

were not Tahnudists, they w

decisions of Hah Ash! in tr .

after they had rome under tie

ides. The " Yad," wliidi !

and the Shulhan 'Aruk • '

gardcd by them as the hi. -it

law.

The oldest Yemenite manuiw^^H!
Bible, which the Yemenite
"crown"). Tliey da! ■
each of them has a
while many contain Arabic co:
Masorah was hii' ' ' ' '
men, and a spei

Salih, was c«lle<l by ti (

Teman." They • - ».

Rasid, ^imhi, N..

sides pnHlucing a nut ^

themselves. In the f..... " "1

b. Isaiah wrnii> nn Ai ''

Bible, full of <•

of any real 1'. •

ond half of the fi : Sundl* b. David

al- .

Writers, me: I

I (ciitiriinoi: -^

omon wi- 'f

theTalni'. ^

to exi.st in manun

tan. \' ■ *■

b. K.
ill Hebrew on the "'I

a: ' ' '

<■'' .

Among the n ^

shouM t>p ni I •

David bar Amram al-'Adn:.

ter. M'O'J. H. I w.^ n

Yahya Zechariah

h. b

Yemen
Teshibah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

594

tion entitled " Mid rash ha-Hcfez," which included
the Pentateuch, Lamentations, Esther, and the haf-
tarot. while' between 1484 and 1493 David al-
Lawani composed his "Midrash al-Wajiz al-
Mughni." In the tiiirteeuth and fourteenth centu-
ries supercomnientarit's on tlie " Yad " were written
by Salilji Musa al-Hadhari, Isaac b. Abraham,
and David b. Solomon.

The Cabala was auii is very popular among the
Yemenite Jews, who are familiar with the Zoharand
with the work of all the European cabalists. One
of them, Solomon b. Dawid ha-Kohen, has written
a cabalistic treatise in thirteen chapters, entitled
"Lehem Shelomoh."

Among the Yemenite poets who wrote Hebrew

Manuscripts of the Yemen Siddur are in the Brit-
ish Museum. The prayers agree in part with the
Sephardic and in part with the Ashkenazic liturgy,
and their language is partly Hebrew and partly
Aramaic and Arabic, while the daily so-called " Ma-
'amadot " prayers are written in Aramaic. The
Yemenite Siddur appeared in Jerusalem 1892 (2d cd.
1898), and in Vienna 1896.

BiBLioGRAPHV : Benjamin of Tudela, ed. Asher, p. TO, Ix)ndon,
1840; Burc'hard, In Uxt utul Trc.xf, ii. $57-341; Deinard, Or
yiei)\ pp. 20-28, New York, 1896; Greenburp, I'lic Haijadah
Accordiiio ti>the Rite of Yemen, i.-iv., London, 1896 ; (iratz,
Gesch. Iv.-vi. (Index); Harkavy, Studieu mid Mittlicduiioen,
pp. 202, 217, Berlin, 188"; Neubauer. in J. Q. R. iil. 22; idem.
In R. E. J. xxiii. 122 et scq.\ Idem, in Moiiatsschrift, iii. 42-
44; Saphir, Ehen Safir, i. 99-116; Steinschneider, Ver-
zcic/infos der Hehraischen Handschriften der Koniulichen

Group of Ykmkn Jkws.

(From a photogr&ph by Elkan N. Adler.)

and Arabic hymns modeled after the Spanish school,
mention may be made of Yabya al-Dhahri and
the members of the Al-Shabbezi family. A single
non-religious work, inspired by Hariri, was written
in 1573 by Zechariah b. Saadia (identical with the
Yahya al-Diialni mentioned above), under the title
"Sefer ha-Musar." The pliilo.sophical writers in-
clude: Saadia b. Jabe? and Saadia b. Mas'ud,
both at the beginning of the fourteenth centiirj-;
Ibn al-Hawas, the author of a treatise in the form
of a dialogue written in rimed prose, and termed by
its author the "Flower of Yemen"; Hasan al-
Dhamari ; and Joseph ha-Iievi b. Jefes, who
wrote the phllosopiiical treatises "Ner Yisrael"
(1420) and "Kitab al-Masahah."

Bihliothek zu RcrUn, ii. 71 et scq.: idem, in T!<raelitii<che
Monntsschrift, 1891, No. 2; idem. In Mottatssrhrift. 1894,
pp. 79 ct seq.; Winckler, Altorieutalischc Fnrschiumeu, Iv.
329-337; W. Barber, Der Slld-Arabische Siddur, in J. Q. R.
xiv. 581-621 ; idem, Ein Het)r{iisch-Arabisches Liederhtich
am Jemeu, in Berliiier-Feittschrift, 19(0. pp. 10-32 ; S. Poz-
nanski, Znm Schrifthxim der Sild-Ai-abischen Juden, in
./. Q. It. xiv. 7.52-7.')7; P. Heinrich. Fragment eines Gehets-
huclifs auK Jemen, Vienna, 1902; idem, in J. Q. R. xv.
330-333.
J. S. O.

YERUSHALMI, SOLOMON B. MENAHEM
(called also Solomon Isaac [Sekel] Ashke-
nazi) : Scholar of the early part of the sixteenth
century. He wrote a commentary on the Cook of
Ruth which he entitled "Perush 'al Rut" (Salonica,
1551; 2(1 ed. [together with the "Pardes Rimmo-
nim"], Sabbionetta, 1554).

695

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bibliography : Ersch and Gruber, Encuc. section 2. xxviii u) ■
Benjacob, 0?ar ha-Sefariin, p. 474. ■••• i".

E. C.

S. O.

YESHIBAH: A high school; a rabbinical col-
lege. It is the oldest iustitutiou of Jewish learning,
and ranks higher than the Hedeu or the Talmud
ToRAH. The term "yeshibah" and the Aramaic
equivalent "nietibta" (both found in the Talnuid)
originally meant a session, a council, or a meeting
of scholars, over which presided tlie "elder." The
Patriarchs were all elders of a yeshibah (Yoma 28b).
R. Pappa was elected " rosh yeshibah " (or " resli
metibta "), i.e., president of the yeshibah, and it was
his duty to deliver a lecture and discussion brfore
the yeshibah of a large and mixed assembly (Ber.
57a and Rashi ad loc. ; B. K. 117a). At first the bet
ha-midrash was the place where the yeshibah as-
sembled, one or two (morning and afternoon) ses-
sions being held daily. Later, when the number of
students increased, it became necessary to hold the
sessions in a separate large liall adjoining the bet
ha-midrash, and this hall was known by the name
of "yeshibah." The general term for the lecture
was probably "pesikta" or "mekilta," which, like
the modern term "shi'ur," means "measure," indi-
cating the fixed and limited time occupied by the
rosh yeshibah in delivering the discourse— from two
to three hours.

During the Talmudic period the principal Pales-
tinian yeshibot were at Sepphoris, Tiberias, and
Caisarea, while the leading Babylonian ones were at
Mahuza, Nehardea, Sura, and Pumbedita. Those
at the last two towns were maintained in the geonic
period (see Academies). The principal seat of the
Rabbis after the days of the Second Temple was
Pumbedita ("Iggeret Rab Shcrira Gaon," ed.
Goldberg, p. 33, Mayence, 1873). The attend-
ance at the Babylonian yeshibot gradually de-
creased. Rab had 1,200 students at his yeshibah;
R. Huna had 800 students, with 13 amoraim as
interpreters ; Rabbah and R. Joseph each had 400 ;
and R. Ashi had only 200 (Ket. 106a). The sessions
of the Babylonian yeshibot were interrupted on sev-
eral occasions, and were finally suspended by the
Persian persecutions, the last being held at Bagdad.
Benjamin of Tudela (1160-73) found ten yeshibot
there, and he enumerates the names of every rosh
yeshibah, the principal one being R. Samuel b.
Eli. The " rosh ha-golah " (president of the Cap
tivity) bestowed "semikah" (ordination) upon the
graduates of the yeshibah (Benjamin
In of Tudela, "Itinerary," ed. Asiicr, p.

Babylon. 60, London, 1840). Pethahiah of Rc-
gensburg. in his "Sibbub" (travels),
written in the same century, describes the Bagdad
yeshibah as follows: "The rosh yeshibah [R. Sam-
uel ha- Levi b. Eli] has about 2,000 students at a
time, and there are over 500 around him who are
well informed. The students receive lessons from
other teachers before they are admitted to the ye-
shibah. The rosh ha-golah is R. Eliezer, and under
him is the rosh yeshibah. The latter occupies a
large house covered with tapestry. lie is dressed
in a gold-trimmed garment and sits on high, while
the students sit on the ground. He discourses
through an interpreter or explainer [" meturgc-

man"J. whi

dentg, and if 1..

yeshibah.

(ed. Fi4 .

of ihe .

Bagdad wag under

ami ' ■
wl.

communication
The. V •

lowed I ;

even tlie Ku

"rosh ycHh:

on Jacob ha I

(d. 958; Bfc PniKkiT. " i

pendix, p. 86; the ' ■

"Ila-Shal.iar," viii •)

Jews in Europr .

entirely upon tl ,-

yeshibot of Rihylon. u

ally. It was la

Charlemagne lli..; :.

grated and later csr

Germany. During id.

shibot Were founded : tl

nan at Mi/.r (Cairo), 1

shiel at Kairwim in N

by Mdsc'S I). Enorh (il

ibn Daud, "Scfer ha-Ival>bulidr
Theyc.'ihihiili. ' "■ '

mousof its time, ■ .
of Vva
In til. •

France. D:i

whence llic Btu«ly
over all niuntri' ^ • • • •

who attend the \

raiment at the put)iic exiH-nw

is a gnind yeshilmh ' - "

ham ibn Daud, an i :
and Talmud, wiio .

countries. an<i who j

vate means, which am ci
seilles. in the upper
yesiiibah which hu.;
headed by It. Simon A;
[autiior of the "iHur "
an<l descendants of i
Troves and Rnmcnip"
learned men w!
anywhere upon -
The yesiiibah of Par
Philip A
pagne, ^\
flourished, Jui did «l

guided u

ing for I

and all '

rotation

Intri' '•

wa.s

tecnth century by li. Jt-ltni. »l.

vela

If-

Yeshibah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

596

Holy I^nd. Mattitbiah b. Joseph of Provence rees-
tablished a yeshibah at Paris in the fourteenth cen-
tury, and Jacob of Orleans (d. 1189), a pupil of R.
Tani, crossed the Channel and opened a yeshibah in
London.

The lirst yeshibah in Spain was established at Cor-
dova, and attracted the scholars of the Levant.
Later were founded the yeshibah of Granada and
that of Lucena, the latter being sue-
In Spain, cessively conducted by Isaac Alfasi
Germany, (1090) and his pupil Ibn Migash.
Italy, and These examples were followed by Je-

Holland. hiel ben Asher at Toledo, where he
changed the whole tone of Spanish
Judaism; by Solomon ben Adret at Barcelona in
1305; and by R. Nissim at the same city in 1372.
R. Gei-shom (960-1028) emigrated from France to
Mayence, where he founded a yesliibah and gath-
ered many students from Germany and Italy. This
j'eshibah flourished for more than eighty years and
became a center of Talmudic activity. Joseph
Colon (1420-80), the author of a collection of re-
sponsa, had a yeshibah at Pavia, Italy ; and Judah
Minz of Mayence founded a yeshibah at Padua
(1504-26). Joseph Ottolenghi opened a yeshibah in
Cremona, northern Italy, prior to the public burning
of the Talmud in 1559. The yeshibah 'Ez Hayyim
in Amsterdam flourished during the eighteenth cen-
tury, and its publications of responsa under the
title "Peri'Ez Hayyim" extended from 1733 to
1792. In the same century there were celebrated
yeshibot at Altona-Hamburg, Frankfort-on-the-
ilain, Filrth, and Metz. At Nikolsburg Morde-
cai Benet had a yeshibah with from 300 to 400
students.

Jacob Pollak (1460-1541), ti)e founder of "hillu-
kim" (the sophistic method of Talmudic discus-
sions), was the first to transfer the rabbinical science
from Germany to Poland ; he opened a yeshibah at
Cracow, which later was presided over by Moses Is-
serlesand became the most celebrated school through-
out the whole European Jewry. All who sought
sound learning betook themselves
In Poland, thitlier; and the fact that a man had
been educated in the yeshibah of Po-
land was of itself a high recommendation if he
sought to obtain a position as rabbi. Other German
scholars settled in Lithuania, Rutlienia, and Voihynia
and founded new centers of rabbinic stud3^

Tlie tliree documents mentioned below describe
the ye-shibah at various times and in various coun-
tries, and illustrate the life, methods, regulations,
and course of studies in the old yeshibah. A docu-
ment called " Hukke ha-Torah " (= " the laws of the
Torah," i.e., rules or bylaws regulating the teaching
of the Torah), and apiiended to the "Semak" of
Isaac Corbeil under date of 1309, throws light on
the attitude and conditions of the yeshibah in north-
ern France in the thirteenth century. There were
two schools, one called "midrash ga-

Curricu- do!" and the other " midrash katon,"
lum, 13th corres])on{ling respectively to the

Century. Christian catiiedral school and parochi-
al sciiool at tliat time ; the lower schools
were known also as "petites ecoles," and in some
paragraphs the " higher midrash " is referred to as

"yeshibah." The "Hukke ha-Torah" is composed
of three difTcrcnt collections, and may have been
added to from time to time, as the occasion required,
to complete and perfect the regulations. The rules
for the higher and lower schools are mixed indis-
criminately. The students of the higher midrash
were called "perushim" (= "Pharisees"), a title
still retained by married students in the yeshibah.
The length of the term was seven years, during
which time the pupils dwelt in the midrash, food
and lodging being provided for them. The head
teacher, called "rosh yeshibah," also lodged there
during the week, but returned to his home on Fri-
day night. Interpreters were employed, one for
every ten students, to explain the lecture of the rosh
yeshibah (Giideraann, "Gesch. des Erziehungs-
wesens," etc., i., note 3; Jacobs, "Jews of Angevin
England," pp. 343 et seq.).

The following is a summary of the chief provi-
sions of this important code of education. The sep-
arate sections sometimes occur in more than one of
the three recensions, here indicated by the letters
A, B, C. Jacobs ("Jews of Angevin England")
is of the opinion that A was composed in England
in the thirteenth century, on account of therefei-
ences to the capital and to the long winter nights;

(i.) Every flrst-born male is to be set apart ("separated ") foi
the stutiv of the Law from the eighth day after circumcision
(Al, B5).

(ii.) At Ave years of age every Jewish boy is to be brought in
the month Nisan to the small school of the province, and taught
to read ; then put to Leviticus, then to read the weekly portion
in Hebrew, then in the vernacular, and then in the Targutn
(A 7,8; B6: CI).

(iii.) At ten years he studies the Mishnah, beginning with the
tractate Berakot of the Talmud, and going through the smaller
tractates of the order Mo'ed in the next three yeais (B 6, C 2).

(iv.) At thirteen years the education of the ordinary boy is
completed ; that of the separated continues in tlie same school
till the lad is sixteen, when he decides for himself whether he
will devote his life to the Law, and, if so, goes up to the great
school of the separated in the capital for another seven years
(A 2, 3; C3).

(v.) The small school of the province is to be held in a two-
story house, capable of holding 100 pupils. 10 teachers, and a
rector to supervise. No teaching is to be done at home, and the
rector must not reside at the school with his family, but must
go home every Sabbath (B 6, A 5, B 3).

(vi.) The rector gives two lectures— one In the morning, one
in the afternoon. The teachers go over each lesson twice with
their classes [this probably refers to the great school of the
capital]. At the end of each week there is repeliti(m of the
week's work ; similarly at the end of the month, and at the
end of the sunnner and of the winter session. No teacher Uiay
take more than ten luipils. nor may he have any other calling
than teaching (B 7; A ti. 10, l:i).

(vii.) The laiis are encouraged to examine one another every
evening in the day's lessons. Dull scholars are to be sentaway,
so as not to keep back the more forward. 'I'eaching is to be by
book, not from memory. In winter the evening lessons are to
be short, on account of the light (A 5, 7, !), 11).

(viii.) Every member of the comriuinity jiays twelve pence
yearly as school-fees, instead of the half-shekel of old. The
great school is to be bought, and then let out to the .separated.
The separated pay for their lodging, and a share of the teachers'
salaries. The rector gets 20 marks yearly, a teacher 8 (A 4;
Bl,6).

Nathan Hannover, in " Yewcn Mezulah " (inl. Ven-
ice, 1653, end), relates the history of the Cliinieliiicki
massacres and describes the yeshibah at that period:
"Nearly all communities in Poland supported a ye-
shibali. They maintained the students and gave them
out of the public funds fixed sums weekly for ordi-
nary expenses. The bahurim taught the smaller

597

THE JEWISH KVf '

PEDIA

Yeshibah
Culture,
17th Cen-
tury.

boys. A community consisting of lifty ' ha'iilu Imt-
tim ' [= •'lioust'lioldcrs"] supportod about tliirly
students. In addition to receiving
fixed stipends the students were in-
vited as guests to tlie tallies of (he
community, every household liaving
invariably one or more such guests
from the yeshibah. Conseciuenlly the
number of hakamim increased to such an extent
tliat very often there were found twenty hakamim
bearing the title of ' morenu ' or ' haber ' in a cdin-
numity of hfty householders. Tlie rosh yeshibali
was above all in rank. The terms of study were as
follows: in sunnner from the 1st of lyyar in th>
loth of Ab, and in winter from the 1st of Heshwaii
to the l.'jth of Tebet, the intervals being devoted to
private studies. In the first part of each season,
namely, from the 1st of lyyar to Pentecost, and from
the 1st of Heshwan to Hanukkah, the studies in the
yeshibah consisted of Gemara with Rashi and tosa-
fot, one page daily. This was called one halakah.
The rosh yeshibah sat on a chair, and the students
stood around him. The students jirepared them-
selves beforehand by carefully studying the halakah
of the day, and then asked the rosh yeshibah to ex-
plain the diflncult i)assages. After he had answered,
all kept silence, and he then discussed a ' hilhik,' a
pilpulistic review of the halakah in detail. This
lasted till noon or a little later. The second half of
the term was devoted to the study of Alfasi and the
posekim [decisions and codes], particularly the four
volumes of the Turim Avith commentaries. A few
weeks before the term expired the rosh yeshibah per-
mitted the best students to deliver a discourse, in
order to familiuri/.e them Avith the art of delivering
a hilluk. The Talmud was studied in the order of
the sedarim. Every rosh yeshibah had a 'sham-
mash ' [= "attendant"], whose business was to sec
that the students in every class attended strictly to
their studies. Every Thursday the students were
ushered into the presence of the gabbai, who ex-
amined them. For failure in the examination tlie
student was sometimes chastised with a rod by tlie
shammash and sometimes admonished in the pres-
ence of the other students. In the last days of the
term the pupils reviewed what they had learned
during the term. When the session ended tlie
students traveled with tlie rosh yeshibah to the
fairs on market-days ["'yerid "] : in summer to the
fairs of Zaslav and Yaroslav, and in winter to the
fairs of Lemberg and Lublin. The students were
allowed to choose any yeshibah in those places dur-
ing the fairs. The gathering of so many students
at the fairs, where merchants congregated to sell or
purchase goods, was the occasion of making hun-
dreds of marriage engagements; the best students
were selected on the recommendation of the rosh
yeshibah, and the amount of dowry offered varied
kccording to the student's knowledge of the lal-
mud ami his skill in delivering a hilluk. n-'th the
students and the rosh yeshibah were held I'l hig i
esteem by rich and poor alike. The rosh yeshibah
received many presents in money and p"''s; it
neither a Kohen nor a Levite, he was entitled to the
third portion ["shelishi"! in the order of persons
called up to read the sidra.

foliowiMJ
he \v .
conn
V.
in tl '
Car.

In
Palostine.

jjruiuii.ti.t u.

-I Utc

in.:
tl.;

'I'v

In leaving the syna-

supporled iIm ^ •
enleenlii cci

■d l)y 11

• iiloinoli ,
of the yoHhilMit i:
that a niiijor ■
ciiarity. Tir
management and Un
eenth century umoii^ Uic fttpuaiaim,
follows:

Y»t!tlll>«t jBrtill PlTi'ln>

liiml ; ■

.M.M.

hahunii,.
nilfly ■•!!•
K.-Ui.

of C •

.MciM -

im-liiiiiiiliiii.

the llftlTII'"'!!

Tur wllh '• »< •

' Ycsiiiiiiit y. •

Kninio I'f
liiiiii Itri '
of M

y.-

pla.stcrs :
stuily : III
lioiirs Tur.

Yf.sli'll.iit T>.inii'«->: VM.Tr-r: "^tT
Incoiiif t

(Ifllt-X. II

liDiirs: till- n-
Wi-<lii. -I.I-. I' . .
tlie I

Y, -.-.• Y !•'-"..-•■ nrv

iinil -

nisli ;.■

lukah.
V.-Mliut M.T.I.-. .il Ttt'iHr

i-mi ■ '
ii.-...:

stiH»h. Mt'lr SonuMHu < '
dailv.
Mlilnwli lMi-H«»t<Um : Kort yr»:

Among the r .
wlio iK'ver let
wiio studiwl a'
Three other \
("baal'- i-i'ii"
and M
now ra
lists wh
The oilier \
sill'
ofi-.
latter part of t!

The ' '
from t:
secular ki
gradual de« n:

Teshibah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

598

partly replaced by the rabbinical and theological
seminaries. There is now no trace of the great yeshi-

bot in France or elsewhere in western

Decline of Europe. When civil rights were

the granted to the Jews by France in 1831

Yeshibah. there remained only the yeshibah in

Metz, officially named "College Rab-
biiiique," which, like all other religious institutions,
was supported out of the public budget. The ye-
shibah still existed in Bohemia and Moravia, but
had lost many of its former characteristics.

The Reform movement on one side and the en-
snaring Hasidic tendencies on the other caused the
pupils of the Wilna Gaon to deliberate how they
might preserve the true Jewish learning and perpet-
uate the method and style of study inaugurated by
the Gaon, who was rather opposed to pilpul and the
hillukim as practised in the yeshibot of Poland.
With this aim, R. Hayyim, the chief disciple of the
Gaon, organized in 1803 the celebrated yeshibah of

Volozhin, a small town in the govern-

Volozhin ment of Wilna, and his own birth-

Yeshibah. place. His chief object was to make

the stvidents independent of private
charit}' ; and, being a merchant and possessing con-
siderable wealth, he provided at first for the comfort
of the students out of his own means, maintaining
some at his table and paying for the board and
lodging of others. He started with ten students,
and when the number became too large for his
means, he issued appeals for assistance to the neigh-
boring communities, which were promptly re-
sponded to. At the time of his death in 1828 the
number of students was about 100. The yeshibah
was continued under the leadership of his son R.
Isaac and his son-in-law R. Hillel; and in 1854
Naphtali Zebi Berlin, a son-in-law of R. Isaac, suc-
ceeded to the position of rosh yeshibah of Volozhin.
The Maskilim advocated the introduction into the
yeshibah of secular sciences and modern methods of
pedagogy; and the attention of the government
having been drawn to the matter, it decided to close
the yeshibah in 1879. Two years later Berlin suc-
ceeded in inducing the government to revoke the
edict, and reopened the yeshibah, which he con-
ducted with renewed energy till 1891 ; it was then
closed again by the government, which accused
some of the students of having joined the revolu-
tionary movement. After Berlin's death in 1893
the yesliii)ah was reopened under the management
of Joseph Baer Soloveichik. At present (1905)
there are about 200 students, and the rosh yeshibah
is Raphael Schapiro.

Under the leadership of Berlin the Volozhin ye-
8hil)ah attained its highest efficiency, having nearly
400 students, among whom were about 60 perushim.
The cost of its mainteniiiice was about 40,000 rubles
ann>ially, wliifh sum was collected by meshuUahim
in Russia and America. Poor and rich students alike
flocked to tliisj'fsliiljah from all parts of Europe and
even from America. The rich students simply fol-
lowed tiie advice of the Mishnah : " Wander forth to
a home of the Torah " (Ab. iv. 18). Those students
who received a regular allowance from home and
paid their own expenses were known as "kiistnikers"
(="easy boarders"), while the poor students who

depended on the weekly allowance of the halukkah
from the yeshibah fund were called '' wochernikers"
(= " weeklies "). The amount ranged from 60 to 75
copecks per week for the bahurim, and from 2 to
3 rubles per week for the perushim, who sent about
two-thirds of the allowance home to support their
families. A special fund created by Brodsky draws
an income which provides 20 perushim with 4
rubles each per week. Books were furnished free by
the yeshibah. The small stipend was not sufficient
to provide food, lodging, and clothing for the indi-
gent students, and the majority of them were obliged
to lodge in the class-rooms of the yeshibah or its an-
nex, sleeping on the floor, on the seats, or on the
tables in both summer and winter, and having as
bedding sacks of straw seldom furnished with linen.
They endured great privation, as described in the
injunction: "Eat a morsel of bread with salt,
drink water by measure, sleep upon the ground, and
live a life of tribulation whilst thou toilest in the
Torah " (Ab. vi. 4). Some students were invited to
board free one day in the week in the bouses of the
charitably disposed. In fact, the charitable spirit
of the town was remarkable ; the poorest washer-
woman deemed it her duty to give board to one or
two students S3'Stematically during one or two days
a week, and there was hardly a Jewish family in
the town that did not shelter in its house one or
more students every night, these lodgers taking
regular turns one night a week. The days for free
lodging were called in the yeshibah vernacular
"eating days."

The students in the j'-eshibah were grouped ac-
cording to the cities whence they came. Thus one
would be known as "Itzel der Kovner" (Isaac
of Kovno) and another as"Getzil der Warsawer."
Some received the title " 'illui " {= "the excel-
lent ") or " matmid " (= " diligent student "), such a
one being known, for example, as " Der Kovner
'Illui "or "Der Lomzer Matmid," as-
Organiza- suming that only one from a town
tion. was so designated. The title was

given by the general consent of the
students. They studied singly or in pairs, there be-
ing no classes in the general sense of the term ; the
single pupils or pairs studied according to their
grade of learning, asking explanations of difficult
passages from those of a higher grade or from the
rosh yeshibah. Nearly all studied the Talmud and
poskim, and more especially the laws relating to
civil and religious matters in common practise.
The Haggadah of the Talmud was excluded from
their studies. The only occasion on which the stu-
dents were together was when the rosh yeshibah
delivered his lecture, called "shi'ur," for a certain
"sugya" (lesson) on a halakic subject, which lasted
about two hours; after this the students discussed
the subject among themselves and with the rosh
yeshibah. This generally took place in the after-
noon session, but sometimes the as.sistant rosh yeshi-
I)ah delivered a similar lecture in the forenoon. The
rest of the session was spent in studying the subject
of the shi'ur beforehand, or in private study.

Sometimes the rosh j-eshibah would call in to see
if the students attended to their studies. Besides
there were "mashgihim" (supervisors), whose duty

599

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

was to watch the class-rooms as monitors uihI kLip
the students from idling. They served also in tin.
capacity of censors or inquisitors, especially to Bee
that no student smuggled into the yeshihah Nco-
Hebrew books or modern literature, "such as novels
or works that developed " liberal " views on relig-
ion. Such books were characterized by the "mash-
giah " as "terefah " and "pasul," i.e., not lit to be
read. Wiien a student was detected reading such a
book he was reprimanded, fined, or suspended by
the rosh yeshibah. The Volozhiu mashgihim, how-
ever, did not go beyond the enclosure of the school,
and the student was not interfered with outside of
the yeshibah when reading "sefarim hizonim "
(books outside of the Jewish sphere). These su-
pervisors even encouraged the students to acquire
secular knowledge in private, but those hi other
yeshibot were more strict in this respect.

The official hours of study extended from sunrise
to sunset, time being allowed for prayers and meals;
but the enthusiasm of some students knew no
bounds, and they often studied till midnight. The
yeshibah was open all night, and the cost of candles
was a large item in its expenditure. Usually, how-
ever, the night sessions Avere suspended between the
15th of lyyar and the 15th of Ab (three summer
months) in compliance with the advice of R. Judah
he-Hasid ("Sefer Hasidim," § 565, old ed.). Vaca-
tion time was in the holiday months of Nisan and
Tishri, when the perushim went home to their fam-
ilies and the bahurim to their parents to enjoy the
holidays. Those who remained in Volozhin visited
the house of the rosh yeshibah and entertained them-
selves by singing "zemirot" and drinking "le-hay-
vim," i.e., toasting long life to the rosh yeshibah.
"At the conclusion of every ' zemer ' [song] a stu-
dent knocks with his fist on the table and cries,
' Hurrah for the rabbi! ' and all answer, ' Hurrah,
hurrah, hurrah!'" (" Ha-Shahar," viii. 166, note).
Another enjoyable occasion was at the completion
of a "masseket" or "seder" (Siyyum), when all stu-
dents and invited guests participated in an elaborate
meal.

In almost every Russian town with a large Jew-
ish population there are yeshibot under the imme-
diate supervision of the local rabbis, but account is
taken here only of those which established a wide
reputation and attracted studeuts from the neigh-
boring towns and foreign countries.
Other The yeshibah of Min.sk, presided over
Yeshibot first b}' Aryeh Loeb, author of " Sha'a-
in Russia, gat Aryeh" (d. 1785), and later by
Joshua Eisik Harif, preceded the ye-
shibah of Volozhin. In 1831 a yeshibah was founded
at Wiina by a band of forty young scholars, and
was known as the "Ferziglach "(=" party of
forty "). The rosh yeshibah was David Cohen, the
"Kosover." In the same year a yeshibah named
after R. ]\Iaila was organized there under the presi-
dency of R. Mordecai and R. Eliezer Teitz. The
Maila yeshibah still (1905) exists; and its cost of
maintenance is about 5,000 rubles annually ("Oznr
ha-Sifrut," iv. 532; "Ha-Asif," 1885, p. 149). Two
other yeshibot, one founded by INIordecai Melzer
(Klatzki) and the other by Israel Salantcr, were
opposed to each other in the mode of learning, the

former
tliat of j

Other

y ■

1^' : .. 1

wasopencfl iti 1-

letii) un ■

being n:

banker of Ik-rlin nBiiiwI I..

riil)leH i:

shibah

yeshibah lit .

later nibbi

method by \\

every halaknh in Ti.

intlieci' -

(goveriii

yesiiibaii wiili a »>

(about IHKO). It: •-

to meet thedetii..

ing a yesljjbuli with .

the student was t ■.

neccssjiry for ori ;

time secure the Kccular •

eminent, rabbi. The |

however, and after hh iv

yeshibah was (

opened at Lida ......

lines of that at Kovno.

The Hasidim

yeshibah for sj)!. :

of in "devotion," recently

spirit and < '

worth of tin

their "rebbe" and "^^hUlf." >t

Lul)avitz, til' '

Temimim, \\

They are located at L

(government of M' '

of Vitebsk), ami .

dents, with an expenditure of t

per annum.

Hungary is noted for lis y>
nent of wiiich in that of I'
Moses Sofer, aufi- ' ' •■ " ■
at
In Papii.

Hungary. S/i"- '

v..

other places. T

so higii a reputH'

Ruben Bniinin •

yeshibah ImJ^iir v

opinion that "ti

nallv fin ndndl and the UtU '

("Hi ■ • •: -■■

An ^
'E? Hayyim. ori-
son-i'
Tills .

nectcd with a T:i

^. . . . .. , .

of JeruRalem. ban «*
\ . • •• •: is Rab' • -

• i ncr. "

Yeshibah
Yezer ha-K,a'

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

600

studfuts, and Jacob Urustcin is its rusli ycsliibali.
It was fuuuded by H. Diskiu. Tlie principal yeshi-
bah is tlie Torat Hayyim, with about 150 students,
and Isaac Wiuegrad as rosh yeshibah. The Sephar-
dim maintain the Tiferet Yerushalayini and other
private yeshibot.

Tlie yeshibah system was transplanted in Amer-

ioi bvthe Russian immigrants. The lirst yeshibah,

•Ez HayyTm (Taimudical academy),

In was organized in 18S6 in New York,

America, and owns its school property at 85
Henry street. Its general expense is
§5,000 per annum, and the average attendance about
175 students, with G melanunedim teaching as many
classes; namely, 2 for Humesh (Pentateuch) and 4
for Talmud, consisting of the three Babot(B. K., B.
M., B. B.) with Rashi. The hours of study are from
9 A.M. to 12 M. and from 1 to 4 r.M. for Hebrew,
and from 4 to 6 p.m. for English secular subjects.
Saturday is review day for the Hebrew studies of
the week. The course of study requires from three
to four years.

Yeshibat Rabbenu Jacob Joseph, located at 197
Heury street, New York, was organized in 1902.
The president and general superintendent is Samuel
Isaac Andron, and the principal R. Meir Hecht.
There are about 250 students, with 8 teachers and as
many classes, including 2 in English and 2 in Tal-
mud". Hebrew studies last from 8.30 a.m. to 12 m.
and from 1 to 3.30 1'..m. ; English studies from 4 to
7r..M. The course occupies three years. The Eng-
lish students are prepared for entrance examinations
for public grammar-school and college.

The most important yeshibah in New York is
Yeshibat Rabbi Isaac Elhanan (Theological Sem-
inary Association), organized in 1897 and located at
156 Henry street. It has about eighty students,
ranging in age from thirteen to tw-enty-three. Dr.
Philip (Hillc-i) Klein is president, and Nahuni Dan
Barhon is mashgiah, with Moses Lob Schapiro as
ro.sh yeshibah andSolaband Hirschbergas liis assist-
ants. Each student receives a stipend of S3 per
week and clothing; expenditure about §15,000 per
annum. The Talmud and posekimare the onlv sub-
jects taught there, chief attention being given the
treatises of the three Babot, Gittin, Ketubot, and
Kiddushin. Of the Shulhan 'Aruk only Yoreh
Deah, Ho.shen Mishpat, and Eben ha-'Ezer are
studied. After a course of three or four years the
graduates receive semikah. One of the graduates,
S'aphtali Rosenberg, was elected ral)bi of Syracuse,
N. Y. This j'eshibah is planned on the model of
tiiatof Volozhin. Other yeshibot of less importance
are in Boston, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, and Chicago.

The advocates of the yeshibah system contend
that it is still necessary to produce a true rabbinical
training. Thus Isixac Hirsch Weiss says that it re-
quires at least ten years of diligent study, and
scrupulous and strict examination, before the hat-
larat hora'aii is issued to a candidate. Weiss ad-
mits, however, the need for a modern rabbi to be
familiar with modern knowledge and literature
("Zikronoiai," pp. 73-83). Isaac Raljbinowitz, the
Hebrew poet, remarks that experiments with the
Rabbinerschule in Wilna and Jitomir have proved
the impossibility of producing in the modern schools

of learning acceptable rabbis for the old-fashioned
Russian congregations (" Ha-Kerem," p. 33, War-
saw, 1887). "See Tal.mud Touau.

BiBi.ioGR.^PHV : Moses Reines. Ahsaniiint shcl Torah, Cracow,
1890; SiiiDleiiskin, lla-To'ch In-Daihe }in-Haii>ii)n, ii. 2<>-
68 (a sketi-ln: Hd-Shahar, viii. 112, 119, Itll. Fur tUe Vo-
lozhin yeshibah : .M. Hurwitz, Derek 'Kz li(t-lja!iuiin, Cracow.
188.5; Schechler, SMa/i'f.v in Judtiistu, \>\>. 9-1-97 : Kiseiistadt
and Zevin, in Jcirisli Cinnmctit. I'.Ki:?, N((s.2+-2t); Hn-Zvtiialt,
1901, No. 247; Barclit<-he\vski, in }la-Asif. 1S8T, p. 242; Ha-
Kenm, pp. 33-82. Kor Xew York yeshiluit : S. I-eUerhiindler.
in yew Era III. M(njazi)tc, March and April, 19(>.').

J. J. D. E.

YESHU'AH (JESHUAH) BEN ELIJAH
HA-LEVI ; African scholar and, perhaps, litur-
gical poet; of unknown date. He collected the
poems of JuDAH iia-Levi into a diwan, provi-
ding the volume with an Arabic introduction and
heading most of the poems with superscriptions in
which both the contents and the occasion of each
poem are indicated. In the introduction, which
was translated into German by GeigerC'Nachgelas-
sene Scliriften," iii. 154), Yeshu'ah says that he
utilized three collections of his preilecessors, Hi\'ya
al-Ma'arabi, David b. Maimon, and Abu Sa'id ibn
Alkash ; but he added many more poems, for which
he does not guarantee Judah's authorship. Sachs
("Religiose Poesie," p. 290, note 2) identifies the
subject of this article with the author of the two
poems found in the Tripolitan Mahzor, one a "piz-
mon" beginning "Ye'erab sihi lifne kadosh"and
signed "Yeshu'ah," and the other a "mustajab"
beginning "Emune lebab habinu" and signed
"Yeshu'ah Hazzan." Both are to be recited on
Yom Kippur night.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Keneset Fu-^raeZ, p. 671 ; Landshuth,
'Ainmiule lia-'At>odah, p. 132; Zunz. LiteraiurgcMh. pp.
567-r)68.
E. C. 31. SkL.

YESHU'AH (JESHTJAH) BEN JOSEPH
HA-LEVI : .Vlgeriau Taliuudist of the tifteenlh cen-
tury ; born at Tlemven. In 1467, owing to the massa-
cres of the Jews of Tlemgen committed by the
Spaniards at that time, Yeshu'ah, still a young man,
fled from his native town, with the intention of re-
turning thither when the troubles should be over.
He arrived at Toledo about 1469, and there received
the hosjiitality of Don Vidal ibn Labi, the head of a
flourishing school in that city. Perceiving that the
young Algerian possessed a profound knowledge of
the Talmud, Don Vidal requested him to write a
methodology of the Talmud, which he would estab-
lish as the standard manual for the yeshibot.
Yeshu'ah accordingly wrote the " Halikot 'Olam"
(Lisbon or Spain, c. 1490), a methodology of the
Talmud in five "gates" ("she'arim ") or parts, each
divided into chapters. The first gate treats of the
order of the Mishnah and the manner of its compo-
sition; the second, of the method of the Gemara;
the third, of the mc1Iio<lof tlic Mishnah; the fourth,
of the hermeneutic rules ; and tlie fifth, of the method
of the halakic decisions. In his preface Yeshu'ah
praises his principal teacher, .Jacob ha-Kohen Ash-
kenazi, and his benefactor, Don Vidal, whom he
also eulogizes in a metrical poem at the end of the
])reface. This work was republished several times;
and in 1634 an edition was issued in Leyden with a
Latin translation made by L'Empereur. Later,
Henry Jacob Bashuysen reedited it with L'Em-

601

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPKDIA

pereur's Latin translation and witli notes df his

own(Hanau, 1714). Finally, an adai.tation from it

was made liy J. J. Stiuvc undtT the title " Logica-

Hebniicte lludinionta" (Jena, 1G97).

Bibliocjraphy: Fuenn, Keiicset I'/smc/, p. C72- Fflrst nihl
Jud. ii. 04 Go; Slfiuscliuelder, Cat. limll. cols. V.m l,m

K- ^- ' yi. .S|..i..

YEVREISKAYA BIBLIOTEKA. Sec Uvs-

SIA, I'KKIODK Al.S.

YEZER HA-RA' : Evil inclination or impulse,
popularly identified with the lusts of the llesh!
The idea is derived from Gen. viii. 21: "the imag-
ination of the heart of man is evil from his youth."
Yet from the use of the two "yods"iuGen. ii. 7, tlie
l^abbis deduced thai there are in man two Ye/.arim:
the good (Yezer Tob) and the evil (Her. (Jhi).
Cain defended himself before God for having slain
Abel by ariruing that God had implanted in him the
Yezer ha-Ka' (Tan., ]5ereshit, 2o [ed. liuher. p. 10]).
"It lies at the door of the heart like a fly" (IJer. CIu;
comp. I3i-:i.;i,7,Emi!). Yet in a way the Yezer ha-Ka'.'
like all things wliich God made (Gen. i. 31), is good.
Without it, for example, a man woidd never marry,
beget, build a house, or trade (Gen. K. ix. 9). Theie-
fore, man is enjoined to love God with Ijoth the
Yezarini implied in "with all thy heart" of the
Shema' (Sifre, Deut. 32 [ed. Fr^edmann, p. 73a]).
It would ai)pear that the Y'ezer Tob eomes with
reflection, and at the age of bar mizwah or confir-
mation, because it is said to be thirteen years younger
than the Yezer lia-Ra', which is an inl)orn imi)ulse
(Eccl. K. ix. 14). The Yezer Tob delivers tlie cita-
del of the body from the Yezer ha-Ka' by means of
temperance and good works (Ned. 32b). The " little
city " of Eccl. ix. 14, 15 is interpreted by the Targum
and Eccl. R. {adloc.) as the kingdom of the heart,
and the "great king" who comes against it as the
Y'ezer ha-Ra'.

According to the Rabbis, the Yezer ha-Ra' has
seven different epithets in the Bible: evil (Gen. viii.
21); uncircumcised (Deut. x. 16); unclean (Ps. Ii.
12); the enemy (Prov. xxv. 21); stumbling-block
(Isa. Ivii. 14); stone (Ezek. xxxvi. 26); and hidden
(Joel ii. 20).

The greater the man the greater In's Yezer ha-Ra' ;
and it is among the four things which God regretted
to have created (Suk. 52a, b). It is identified with
Satan and with the angel of death (I>. R. 16a;
comp. Maimonides, " Moreh," ii. 12, iii. 22). Against
the Yezer ha-Ra' the Torah is the great antidote
(Suk. 52b; Kid. 30b; Ab. R.N. 16); The Yezer
ha-Ra' grows with a man, as is deduced from the
parable in II Sam. xii. 4. At first it is a mere trav-
eler; then it becomesa guest; and at last it is tlie man
liimself (Suk. 52b). Yet the heart of man contains
both the Yezer ha-Ra' and the Yezer Tob, as is de-
duced by Midrash Tehillim from Ps. i.\.

"Yezer ha-Ra'" does not refer exclusively to tlie
body; this can be inferred from its close as.sociatiiiii
with the Yezer Tob. It undoul)tedly leads to sen-
sual sins with great priwer: henrc

Charac- both Akiba and Meir were saveil frnm

teristics. its intluence only by heavenly inter-
cession (Kid. 81a). It was to avoid the
temptations of the Yezer ha-Ra' that women were
ordered to take separate seats In the galleries of

a'lh ..
Deul :
other <

isinterp:

cijce ouf should n*.
being, '
•HI.). I
mighty who en
Vanity '
Ra<ii"-1

man it says: ** lie i
Yezer lia-Ha' b
not exist in iiuy
xxvi.). It Is for II.
or drinking, jir
in the world to
and syiio|iiic panili>
In a diseiiRsi. - ■
Antoninus, the .
eomes to man at bjrtli. nn
agrees (Sanli. 91h). A!'
young children Ih ntti
(Eccl. R. iv. 18). The '.
man, hut to Go-! ■■> 'i-
responsible for
lu.s been seen nhn ■

Hence the Yezer h

the woman and the child:

jeet it. while the i'

47a; Sanh. 107l>).

Yezer ha-Iia' contii

the Wf.rld. The R

ferring t<> the call < ■

Yezer ha-Ra*. He dextmytti ;

the righteoi.

and still ila:

us"? Only that we •

ing him." Th- I

got rid of the ^

forms of iinelmstity. hiil f-

serve the Ye/.er ' V ' •

an end (Yonm '

conjectured by Tax

Prayer. " Deliver ub :

us from the evil Ye7.iT " i
Fathers." pp. 1.

There is ti lei... .
rate activity to lie
angel of di-atli and «•.'

indiH-^l. i'
Personifi- ( >bje« ti .mh Ui ibr !.««'
cation. Wlii «'

in Y
Acronlinp lo H. J'
misleads mnn In "
ill the world !■
prayer* one iwks In I"
and from evil u ' '
paninn. from v\
16h). Here, however, tlie "'
giiishe.I ' - • • "• -

exaelly

the pnmhie of i\ •-
though elwwhere
above). Siniihirly, «

!«.

Ye^er ha-Ka*
Yezirah, Sefer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

602

applying to sin, while Rab Ashi applies it to the
Yezer (Suk. 52a). "At the beginning they are
like the thread of the spinning web, at the end like
a cart rope." The connection of the Yezer with
habit is exactly parallel to the growth of sin through
habit. Man's Yezer overpowers him every day
(Kid. 30b). At tirst it befools him; then it dwells
in him (comp. Hos. iv. 13, v. 4). So too Ps.
XXX vi. 2, ''sin speaks to the wicked," is applied to
the Yezer ha-Ra' (Ab. R. N. 32). In the same pas-
sage all men are divided into three classes: the
righteous, under the rule of the Yezer Tob; the
wicked, under the rule of the Yezer ha-Ra'; and
the middle class, ruled now by one, now by the
other. According to others, there are only two
classes: the righteous with the good Yezer; and the
wicked, who submit to the evil Yezer (Eccl. R. iv.
15, 16). The tirst part of Eccl. xi. 9 is said to re-
late to the joy of youth derived from the Yezer
ha-Ra' ; the latter part indicates that God will bring
all transgressors under judgment to the Yezer Tob
(Shab. 63a).

Just as iron can be made into all sorts of vessels
if cast into the fire, so one can make the Yezer ha-
Ra' useful by words of the Law ; for it is learned
from Prov. xxv. 21 that "if thine enemy be hungry
[that is, " when the Yezer ha-Ra' prompts thee "]
give him bread to eat" {i.e., bread of

The Law the Law ; Pesik., ed. Ruber, 80b). Both
the Yezarim are to be utilized ; similarly

Antidote, a man having two oxen, one meant
for plowing and the other not, puts the
yoke upon both. Tiie promise of Gen. i v. 7 is applied
to the Yezer ha-Ra' (Kid. 30b). There is a contrast of
strength between the two Yezarim ; hence, " Blessed
is hethatconsidereth the poor " (Ps. xli. 2) is applied
to him who makes the poor and weak Yezer Tob
rule over the Yezer ha-Ra' (Lev. R. xxxiv.).
Though the latter is seemingly so powerful, resistance
easily overcomes it, as Abraham found after it had
brought about the Flood and the dispersion of the na-
tions (Gen. xxii. 12). If a man find that the Yezer
ha-Ra' is too strong for him, he should go to a place
where he is not known, and not profane the name
of heaven openly (Hag. 16a). The Law is like a
plaster to the wound made by the Yezer ha-Ra' ; if
the plaster is taken away, an evil ulcer will come
forth (Kid . 30b). Or, again, the Law will wear away
tiie Yezer as water wears away stone (Suk. 52b).
As the Law is called a stone (Ex. xxiv. 12), and the
Yezer ha-Ra' also is called a stone {ib. xxxvi. 26),
let one stone guard the other stone (Cant. R. vi. 11).
The stone of Gen. xxix. 2 is also compared to the
Yezer ha-Ra' : as the stone is rolled away from the
mouth of the well, so the Yezer ha-Ra' departs
when men go into the synagogue to drink of the
Law (Gen. R. Ixx. 8); hence, the night prayer said
in connection with the "Shema'" includes the
clause "let not the Yezer ha-Ra' rule in me"
(Ber. 60b).

God will finally destroy the Yezer ha-Ra', as is
promised in Ezek. xxxvi. 26. Yet to the righteous
who have struggled against it, it will appear like a
high mountain; but to the wicked, like a hair (Suk.
62a). It is because the Yezer ha-Ra' anticipates
this final punishment that it. l)rings man to destruc-

tion (Ab. R. N. 16). Meanwhile, like a stone (see
above), it gradually crumbles away until it no longer
forms a stumbling-block.

While the expression " yezer " is used both in Deut.
xxxi. 21 and in Isa. xxvi. 3 for the disposition or
mind, " heart " or " evil heart " usually takes its place

in Biblical theology as the seat and

Rise of the power of temptation and sin in man.

Idea. The tirst definitive passage in which

the term occurs is in the lately recov-
ered Hebrew text of Ecclus. (Sirach) xv. 14: "God
created man from the beginning . . . and gave him
into the hand of his Yezer." Audin vi. 22(Heb.)man
is compared to the fruit of a tree, while his thoughts
are according to his Yezer. So, too, the "wicked
heart " referred to in Ezra iv. 18 is analogous to the
Yezer ha-Ra' in being offset by the Law and in not
having power to overcome the Law, and also be-
cause God will ultimately remove it. This is an
approach to the dualism of Paul (Rom. vii. 7-24),
but the contrast between the flesh and the spirit
nowhere exists in Jewish theology, and is probably
derived from Plato.

Bibliography : F. C. Porter, The Yeqer Hara, in Yale Bib-
lical andSemitic Studies, pp. 91-156, New York, 1901 ; Taylor,
Sayings of the Jewi.^h Fathers, 2d ed., pp. 37, 63 et seq., 70,
77, 82, 98, "128-130, 140, 147-152, 186-192; Lazarus, Ethics of
Judaism, § 238.
E. C. J.

YEZIRAH, SEFER (ni'T 1DD = "Book of
Creation ") : The title of two esoteric books. Of
these the older is also called " Hilkot Yezirah " (Rules
of Creation), and is a thaumaturgical work that was
popular in the Talmudic period. "On the eve of
every Sabbath, Judah ha-Nasi's pupils, Rab Hanina
andRabHoshaiah, whodevotedthemselvesespecially
to cosmogony, used to create a three-year-old calf by
means of the ' Sefer Yezirah,' and ate it on the Sab-
bath " (Sanh. 65b, 67b). According to the tradition
given by Rashi on both passages, this miracle was ac-
complished by the letters of the Holy Name (" zeruf
otiyyot "), and not by witchcraft. In like manner,
according to Rab, Bezaleel, the architect of the Tab-
ernacle in the wilderness, worked by the permuta-
tions of the letters with which God created heaven
and earth (Ber. 55a). All the miraculous creations
attributed to other amoiaim in Sanh. 65b and Yer.
Sanh. 52d are ascribed by the commentators to the use
of the same thaumaturgical book. Such a work, en-
titled KodfioTroiia (" Creation of the World"), circulated
in many forms among the Gnostics of the second
century B.C., and was a combination, as Dieterich
("Abraxas," pp. 3-31) has shown, of many Jewish,

Greek, and Egyptian names and ele-

The Power ments. It formed also part of magic

of papyri. Its basal ideals that the same

the Name, mystic powers that were at work in the

creation of the world should also aid
the magician in performing his miraculous feats {ib.
pp. 136 et seq.). While in the cosmogony of Abrax-
as, however, the seven worlds were created by the
emis.sion of seven sounds followed by three others, the
older cosmogonies, which were nearer their Egyptian
sources, make the twenty-eight letters correspondmg
to the twenty -eight days of the astrological calendar
the creative elements constituting both the names and
the essence of the Deity (Reizenstein, "Poimandres,"

603

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

?!!?r

t tl

'or

pp. 256-291). Both the macrocosm (the uiumi^i.;
and the microcosm (man) are viewed in lliis sy.stcm
as products of the combination and ixTnuiUition of
tliese mystic cliaracters {iO. pp. 2G1, 207), and sucli a
use of the letters by the Jews for the fornialion of
the Holy Name for tiiaumaturgical purposes is at-
tested by magic papyri tiuit quote an "Angelic
Book of Moses," which was full of allusions to Bib-
lical names (Reizenstein, I.e. pp. 14, .')(j).

While the mystic use of letters and numbers un-
doubtedly points to a Babylonian origin, the idea of
the creative power of the various sounds is Egyp-
tian, as well as the division of the letters into the
three classes of vowels, mutes, and sonants is Hel-
lenic, although this classification necessarily under-
went certain changes when applied to
Origin. the Hebrew letters. Tlie origin of the
" Sefer Yezirah " is accordingly placed
by Reizenstein {I.e. p. 291) in the second century
B.C. Some data regarding the age of tliis sj'stem
may also be derived from the work of Philo of
Byblos on the Phenician letters, in which they are
explained as symbols of the (Egyptian) gods and at
the same time as cosmic "elements" (see Baudissiu;
"Studien zur Semitischen Religionsgeschichte." i.
18, 270). How far these mystic uses of the alphabet
iniluenced the rabbis of the Talmudic period is still
a problem. Rab of Babylonia combined the ten crea-
tive potencies with the Forty-two-Lettcred Name and
the twelve letters which constitute tlie Holy Name
(see Bacher, "Ag. Bab. Amor." pp. 17-20),' and R.
Akiba in particular was credited with a knowledge
of the mystic significance of the letters (Bacher, " Ag.
Tan." i. 347-348). When, therefore, the rational-
istic "Sefer Yezirah" was developed from the tiiau-
maturgical work of the same name, which was known
only to a few, the authorship was ascribed to Akiba.
The closing mishuah (vi. 15), however, expressly de-
clares that Abraham was the recipient of the divine
revelation of mystic lore ; so that the oldest geonim
(see Hai Gaon in the respousum cited in " Kerem Ile-
med," viii. 57) and such philosophers as Saadia, Don-
nolo, and Judah lia-Levi ("Cuzari," iv. 25) never
doubted that Abraham was the author of the book.
It is noteworthy that in a manuscript (see Margo-
liouth, "Catalogue of the Hebrew and Samaritan
Manuscriptsof the British Museum," part II., p. 190)
the " Sefer Yezirah " is called " Hilkot Yezirah " and
declared to be treated as esoteric lore not accessible to
any but the really pious (comp. ib. p. 255, where it is
mentioned as being used by Nahmanides for cat)a-
listic purpo.ses). K.

The later "Sefer Yezirah" is devoted to specula-
tions concerning God and tlie angels. The ascription
of its authorship to R. Akiba, and even to Abraham,
shows the high esteem which it enjoyed for centuries.
It may even be said that this work had a greater in-
fluence on the development of the Jewish mind than
almost any other book after the corn-
Influence, jiletion of the Talmud. The Aristote-
lian Saadia, the Neoplatonist Ibn
Gabirol, the speculative cabalists of France, and the
mystics of Germany deemed themselves justified in
deriving their doctrines from this remarkable work,
although it often suffered the same treatment as other
sacred books, since its commentators read into it far

Tiii

obucure. half

,|, ^ ■ - •■

I-

allfreU. Hiij

E-HMiic, .Mi«|iii„ic,

Aa the b<Mik
brew, and ut :
on the Hebrew la
be.
The f..r

Phonetic

System.

ari' '
the position of thi- \
sounds, and with -■
contrast to tiie Ji
special mtnle of
groups of sounds. :..
sound can be prtMluced wi-
the other orp
Hence the fm

follows: ynnx with Ibe lip of V.
throat; ci'on Im-Iv.
tongue; p'3'J in li
tongue ; D ji'DT by the Up of 1 1,
by the tongue, whicli li<
by the teeth (ii. 3). The
moreover, by the intonsity of t
produce them, and a-
mutes. wliich are nn .
as 0, wiiieh the b ~ Tn r:

as t'. which is ih. i. ,

ing shin "; and aspira
position between the i
ignated as the "airy N
the middle "(i v. 1; in -
three letters (C*'CK'. ^''
distinction is also dni« :. :
letters (mD^^33) and the t»'

nit:iL"Q>. thr I

The linguist;
Yezirah " are an inteprul >
ophy, its other
cosmogony. I
the three ** motherB " from
thealphiil)et ur. ' r ' '
figures for tli.
stances which ur
O is the symlx)] of
live; the hi<-<iiu; L"'
and tiie airy K rtj
occupies a mi ! '"
reaches upwn:
ward, so the K
!.

Cos- ^

mogony.

turn, formed the k-

ning, 1^

potcnti.x.

by means of the three Ict**r» p CK

lo U

Yezirah, Sefer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

604

tliL- |iriiiciiial jiarts of speech, so those three sub-
stances are the elemeuts from which the cosmos has
bccu formed. The cosmos consists of three parts,
the world, the year (or time), and man, which are com-
bined in such a way that the three primordial ele-
ments are contained in each of the tinee categories.
The water formed the earth; heaven was produced
from the tire; and the nn produced the air between
Leaven and eartli. The three seasons of the year, win-
ter, summer, and the rainy season (n'll), correspond
to water, fire, and nil in the same way as man con-
sists of a head (corresjionding to fire), torso (rep-
resented by rrn). aud the other parts of tiie body
(equivalent to water). The seven double letters
produced the seven planets, the "seven days," and
the seven apertures in man (two e^es, two ears,
two nostrils, and one mouth). Again, as the seven
double letters vary, being pronounced eitlier hard
or soft, so the seven planets are in continuous
movement, approaching or receding from the earth.
The "seven days," in like manner, were created
by the seven double letters because tliey change
in time according to their relation to the planets.
The seven apertures in man conned him with tlie
outer world as the seven planets join heaven aud
earth. Hence these organs are subject to the in-
fluence of the planets, the rigiit eye being under
Saturn, the left eye under Jupiter, and the like.
The twelve "simple" letters created the twelve
signs of the zodiac, whose relation to the eartii
is always simple or stable; and to them belong
the twelve months in time, and the twelve " leaders "
(D'3'njD) in man. The latter are those organs which
perform functions in the body independent of tlie
outsiile world, being the hands, feet, kidneys, gall,
intestines, stomach, liver, pancreas, and spleen; and
they are, accordingly, subject to the twelve signs of
the zodiac. In its relation to the construction of the
cosmos, matter consists of the three primordial ele-
ments, which, however, are not chemically connected
with one another, but modif}' one another only phys-
ically. Power ((Uvfifiic) emanates from the seven
and the twelve heavenly bodies, or, in other woids,
from the planets and the signs of the zodiac. The
"<lragon " ('pri» rules over the world (matter and the
heavenly bodies); the sphere (7J7J) rules time; and
the heart rules over the human body. The author
sums up tiiis explanation inasingle sentence: "The
dragon is like to a king on his throne, the sphere
like a king traveling in his country, ami the heart
like a king at war."

Whil<; the astrological cosmogony of the book
contains few Jewish elements, an attempt is made,
in tiie account of the creation, to give a Jewish col-
oring to the Gnostic standpoint. To harmonize the
IJiblical statement of the creation "ex nihilo" with
the doctrine of the primordial elements, the "Sefer
Yeziraii " assumes a double creation, one ideal and

the otiier real. The first postulate is
The the spirit of God, from which the pro-

Creation, totypes of matter emanated, the world

being produced, in its turn, by the
prototypes of the three i)rimf)rdial substances when
they became realities. Simultaneously with the pro-
totypes, or at lea'it before the real world, space was
produced, and it is here conceived as the three di-

mensions with their opposite directions. The spirit
of God, the three primordial elements, and the six
dimensions of space form the "ten Sefirot," which,
like the spirit of God, exist only ideally, being "ten
Sefirot without reality " as the text designates them.
Tiieir name is possibly derived from the fact that as
numbers exjjress only the relations of two objects
to each othei', so the ten Sefirot are only abstractions
and not realities. Again, as the numbers from two
to ten are derived from the number one, so tiie ten
Sefirot are derived from one, the spirit of God. The
spirit of God, however, is not only the conunence-
meut but also the conclusion of the Sefirot, "their
end being in their beginning and their beginning in
their end, even as the fiame is connected with the
coal " (i. 7). Hence the Sefirot must not be conceived
as emanations in the ordinary sense of the word,
but rather as modifications of the spirit of God,
which first changes to ni"l, then becomes water, and
finally fire, the last being no further removed from
God than tiie first. Besides these abstract ten Se-
firot, which are conceived only ideally, tiie twenty-
two letters of the alphabet produced the material
world, for they are real, and are the formative
powers of all existence and development. B}- means
of these elements the actual creation of the world took
place, and the ten Sefirot, which before this had only
an ideal existence, became realities. This is, then,
a modified form of the Talmudic doctrine that God
created heaven and eartli liy means of letters (Ber.
58a). The explanation on this point is ver}^ obscure,
however, since the relation of the twenty-two letters
to the ten Sefirot is not clearly defined. The first
sentence of the book reads: "Thirtj'-two ])aths,
marvels of wisdom, hath God engraved . . . ."these
paths being then explained as the ten Sefirot and the
twenty-two letters. While the Sefirot are expressly
designated as "abstracts" (no v3). it is said of the
letters: "Twenty-tw^o letters: Hedrewthem, hewed
them, combined them, weighed them, interchanged
them, and through them produced the whole crea-
tion and everything that is destined to come into
being" (ii. 2). The basal theory of the letters ap-
parently regards them neitiier as independent sub-
stances nor yet as mere forms, so that they are,
as it were, the connecting-link between essence and
form. They are designated, therefore, as the in.stru-
ments by which the real world, which consists of
essence and form, was produced from the Sefirot,
which are merely formless essences.

In addition to the doctrine of the Sefirot and the
letters, the theory of contrasts in nature, or of the
syzygies ("pairs"), as they are called by the Gnos-
tics, occupies a prominent place in the "Sefer Yezi-
raii." This doctrine is based on the
Syzygies. assumption that the physical as well
as the moral world consists of a series
of contrasts mutuallj'at war, yet pacified and equal-
ized by the unity, God. Thus in the three proto-
types of creation the contrasting elements fire and
water are ecpialized by nil; corresponding to this
are the three "mothers" among the letters, the mute
Jj contrasting with the his.sing {^f, and both being
e(jualized by X- Seven pairs of contrasts are enu-
merated in the life of man: life and death, peace
and strife, wisdom and folly, wealth and poverty.

605

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

r..i«'.. Hvtet

beauty and Ugliness, fertility mul surilitv lunkj.i,,
and servitude (iv. 3). Fr„n. th.'sr prcn.isc-s il...
Sefer ^ezimh" draws the important conclusin,
that "good and evil" have no real exisL-nce for
since everything in nature can exist oidy by means
of Its contrast, a thing may be called good or evil
according to its intiuence over man l.v the nulund
course of the contrast. The Jewish h.wit of th<- an-
thors mind comes out, however, in the concession
that as man is a free moral agent, he is rcwanh-d or
punished for his actions. It must be not<(l, (.n i|„.
otiierhand, that, the conceptions of heaven and liell
are foreign to the book, the virtuous man licing re-
warded by a favorable attitude of nature, while the
wicked liiids it hostile to him. Notwithstanding
the scciniiig unity of tiie book, its svstem is com-
posed of divergent elements, and the'dilTerences of
opinion regarding it can never be harmonized so
long aseuiphasis is laid on any one component rather
than on the book as a whole. The doctrine of the
tliree priinordiul substances is doubtless an element
of ancient Semitic theosophy, and was proi)ul)ly
adopted by the Greeks from the Semites. In the
seventh ciiapter of the "Timanis" Plato has the fol-
lowing statement, which is very similar to the views
expressed in the " Sefer Yezirah " (iii.8): "And thus
God placed water between fiie and earth, and air in
the middle; . . . and connected and thus joined
heaven .so that it became sensil)le to touch and
.sight." Even the exi)ression "mother" (Qx) is
found in Plato {I.e. xix.), who speaks of the "nurse"
of creative force. Tiie idea of the three substjuices
is likcwi.se found in mythological form in tlic Mid-
rasii (Kx. R. xv. 22) and in otiier nddrashim of
the geouie period (Midr. Konen, in Jellinek, "15. H '
ii. 2:5).

P'ar more important is the similarity of the "Sefer
Yezirali " to various Gnostic systems, to which Griltz
has called special attention. As the "Sefer Y<-zi-
rah ■' divides tJie Hebrew alphabet into three groups.
so tla; Gnostic Marcus divided the Greek letters into
three classes, regarded by him as the symbolie ema-
nations of the three jiowers wiiich include the whole
number of the ujipcr elements. Hoth S3'stems at-
tach great importance to the jiower of the coml)ina-
tions and permutations of the letters
Gnostic in explaining the gcne.sisan<l develo|>-
Elements. ment of multiplicity from unity (comp.
Irena'us, ".Vdversus H;ircses,"i. 10).
The Clementine writings present another form of
gnosis which agrees in manj' |iointswitli the "."^efer
Yezirah." As in tlie latter, God is not only tin- be-
ginning but also the end of all things, .so in the
former He is the <'/',V'/ and 7// or- of all tliat exists;
and I he Clementine writings furtherniori' teach that
the spirit of God is transformed into -tii/m (= nil).
anil tills into water, which becomes tire and rocks.
thus agiceiim- with the "Sefer Yezirah." when- the
siiirit nf God, nil ( = -ve'vitu), water, and lire are the
first fiuir Selirot (L'ldhorn, "Homilien und Kecogiii-
tioiien," pi>. 1S1_182; the rocks in the Clementine wri-
tiiii:'^ correspond to the D'J3Nin the"Sefer Yi'zirah."
i. in. The remaining six Setirot, or the limitations
of space by the three dimensions in a twofold direc-
tion, ai'e also found in the Clementin;i. where God is
described as the boundary of the universe auil as the

source of ilif siv

"Sefer Ve/iriili

Hieiii in "H !

.Mistere hti

which p!

of the b..,,K iH

at ull evciiiK im •

hitherto

liabylom..., ... ,;, ., , ,.,

ri-|)rinled from " H.r, \.
The es.senliiil .

tic of the third .-1 ; ,.,

nature. compoM-d in ih-

Jews had be

learning, cou,

Jewish gncmig. whirl.

fourlli century. If hid...;
extinct. 'I
Date. gurds im |e
th. • '

for the contents u
sources. It must bo Imii;
theTalmudie : •

show how ,1
treated in Hebrew; ami -

Yezirjdi " conlairi-
Qot found in tin
to disprove that He
sixth century. It ui.i\
certainly live<l l»ef<ir» 1! .
oidy the "S<-fer '1
Samuel, whi<li w..-
Siuidia advaiice<l the
commentary on the "."xfc r \
was circulated ondly f •' t '
reduced to writing. I
more than an cxcusu (»r Idh
text.

As already sUiU-tl, llie dnle
can not he de!

History of ccps 0\
the Text. > ■ '

early n.s the niidill<
shorter version 1 ^I
uash ibn Tamim <
and Donnojo wmU' <-'

cension (M "

used bv

Judali b
therefore. ; -t'
longer re<
the form
Yezirah "
in Diinnol
principal
tain a nu
yet \}*•^•n •
tiou of the t'-
longer forni <
nnt fnuiHl in
rr
it:_

iiiir/Miai a

.:,.!,. .1 .

Yezirah, Sefer
Yig-dal

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

606

doubtless contains additions and interpolations which
did not form part of the original text, it has many
valuable readings which seem older and better than
the corresponding passages in the shorter version, so
that a critical edition of the text must consider both
recensions.

The history of the study of the " Sefer Yezirah '"
is one of the most interesting in the records of Jew-
ish literature. With the exception of the Bible,
scarcely any other book has been the subject of so
much annotation. Aristotelians, Neoplatonists, Tal-
mudists, and cabalists have used the book as a
source, or at least thought they did so. Two points
must be taken into consideration in judging the im-
portance of the work: the influence which it exerted
on the development of Jewish philosophy, especially
on its mystic side, and the reputation

Jewish which it enjoyed for more than a thou-
Study of sand years in most Jewish circles.
the Book. This may best be illustrated by the
following chronological list of authors
who have interpreted the book or tried to do so:
Saadia; Isaac Israeli; Dunash ibn Tamim (Jacob b.
Nissim); Donnolo; Judah b. Barzillai; Judah ha-
Levi; Abraham ibn Ezra; Eleazar of Worms;
pseudo-Saadia (time and school of Eleazar); Abra-
ham Abulafia; (pseudo-?) Abraham b. David;
Nahmanides (although the work may be ascribed to
him incorrectly); Judah b. Nissim of Fez; Moses
Botarel ; Moses b. Jacob ha-Goleh ; Moses b. Jacob
Cordovero; Isaac Luria; Elijah b. Solomon of
Wilna; Isaac Haber; and Gershon Enoch b. Jacob.
To these twenty commentators, who represent the
period from the beginning of the tenth to the end of
the nineteenth century and include scholars of the
highest rank, must be added men like Hai Gaon,
Raslii, and others who diligentl}- studied the book.

If Botarel's statement may be credited, many com-
mentaries were written on the " Sefer Yezirah " in
the geonic period. It is far more difficult, however,
to decide how many of the opinions and doctrines
contained in the book influenced the views of later
Jewish thinkers. The fact that scholars of so many
different views quoted it in support of their theo-
ries justifies the assumption that none of them
really based his hypotheses on it, and this view is
adopted by most modern scholars. It must be
borne in mind, however, that an intimate relation
exists between the " Sefer Yezirah " and the later
mystics, and that, although there is a marked dif-
ference between the Cabala and the "Sefer Yezirah "
as regards the theory of emanations, yet the .system
laid down in the latter is the first visible link in the
development of cabalistic ideas. Instead of the im-
mediate creation "ex nihilo," both works postulate a
series of emanations of mediums between God and
the universe ; and both consider God as the first cause
only, and not as the immediate efficient cause of the
world. Although the Sefirot of the cabalists do not
correspond to those of the "Sefer Yezirah," yet the
underlying problem is identical in both. The im-
portance of the " Sefer Yezirah " for mysticism,
finally, lies in the fact that the speculation about
God and man had lost its sectarian character. This
book, which does not even mention such words as
"Israel" and "revelation," taught the cabalists to

reflect on "God," and not merely on the "Ruler of
Israel."

A book of the same name, which, however, had
nothing else in common with the "Sefer Yezirah,"
was circulated among German mystics between the
eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Judging from
the examples collected by Epstein in "IIu-Hoker,"
ii. 1-5, it was a mystic and haggadic work on the
six days of creation, and corresponded in part to the
small Midrash Seder Habbah de-Bereshit which was
edited by Wertheimer ("Batte Midrashot," i. 1-31).

Bibliography: Editions and translations: Editio princeps,
Mantua, 1.502; other important editions: Amsterdam. 1(>42;
Zolkiev, 174,5: Korzec, 1779; Constantinople, 17ltl : (irodno,
1806 (Ave commentaries); Warsaw, 1884 (nine commentaries);
Goldschmidt, Da.s Buck licr ScliOpfiuig . . . Kridsch
Redifjirtcr Text, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 18ii4 (the edition,
however, by no means represents a critical text). Transla-
tions: Latin: Tostell, .4bra?iani Patiiarcluc Liher Iczirah,
Paris, 15.52; Pistor, Liher lezii-ali, in Ars CabolMica,
Basel, 1557; Rittangel in the Amsterdam edition of 1642;
German: Johann F. von Meyer. Das Buch Yezifa, Leipsic,
1830; Englisli : I. Kalisch, A Sketch of the TahmnU New
York, 1877 ; W. W. Westcott, Sepher Yezirah, London, 1893;
French: Karppe, Etude sur les OrUiines . . . dii Znhar,
pp. 139-158, Paris, 1901. Literature : Ca.'itelll, II Conimeiito
di Satjbatai Donnolo, Florence, 1880; Epstein, Studien
zum Jezira-Iiuchf, in Monatsaclirift, xxxvii.; idem,
Pseudo-Saadia, lb.; idem, Rechcrchcs sxir le Sefer Yeqira,
in Ii. E. J. xxvili.-xxlx. (both articles also published sepa-
rately); idem. In Monatsschrift, xxxlx. 46-48, 134-136; Gratz,
Gnosticisrmiii rind Judentlntm. pp. 102-132, Breslau, 1846;
Franck, I/rt Kabhale, pp. 53-66. 102-118, Paris. 184:} (German
translation by Jellinek, pp. 57-65. Leipsic, 1H44); Hamburper,
R. B. T. Supplement, iii. 98-102; Jellinek, Beitra<ie, i. 3-16;
Rosenthal, in Kenesct Yixraei, Ii. 29-68; Steinschneider, in
Berliner's Magazin, xix. 79-85; idem. Cat. Bodl. cols. 5.52-
5,54 ; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 13 ; Furst, Bibl.
Jud. 1. 27-28 : Bacher, Die Avfdnge der Hebrdischen Oram-
matik, pp. 20-23, Leipsic, 1895.
K. L. G.

YIBBTJM. See Levirate Marriage.

YIGDAL : The hymn which in the various rit-
uals shares with Adon 'Olam the place of honor at
the opening of the morning and the close of the
evening service. It is based on the thirteen Arti-
cles OF Faith (usually called the Thirteen Creeds)
formulated by Moses ben Mainion, and was written
by Daniel ben Judah Dayyau (Zunz, "Literatur-
gesch." p. 507), who spent eight years in improving
it, completing it in 1404 (S. D. Luzzatto, "Mebo,"
p. 18). This is not the only metrical presentment
of the Creeds; but it has outlived all others, whether
in Hebrew or in the vernacular. A translation is
to be found in the Daily Prayer-Book.

With the Ashkenazimonly thirteen lines are sung,
one for each creed; and Ihe last, dealing with the
resurrection of the dead, is solemnly repeated to
complete the antiphony when the h3'mn is responso-
rially sung by hazzan and congregation. The
Sephardim, who sing the hymn in congregational
unison throughout, use the following line as the
fourteenth: "These be the thirteen bases of the
Rule of Moses and the tenets of his Law."

"Yigdal" far surpasses "Adon 'Olam" in the
number of its traditional tunes and the length of
time during which they have been traditional. In
the Spanish ritual, in its Dutch- and English-speak-
ing tradition, the hymn is often sung, according to the
general Sephardic custom (conip. e.g.,
Sephardic Yah Shimeka), to some "represent-

Tunes. ative" melody of the particular day.

Thus, for example, it is chanted at the

close of evening service on New-Year to the tune of

'Et Siia'are Razok. On Friday evening the Sab-

607

THE JEWISH i:..NuiULUl'i:i)lA

Sa:

Allegretto.

^z=a!:

YIGDAL A (Sephardic Festival

Yig - dal E - lo - him hay,

wo - yuh

-! 1-

-i- 1^

Nim - za we - en *et el.

Uitj • ei

^fe

Andante,

YIGDAL-B '"Leoni")

-<&-

Hazzan: Yig - dal E - lo - him hay, we - yish - tab - LuL,

0 i
Niui -

-^— f^

;5r:

-<S'-=-

* «

el.

me - zi - 'u - to. Congregation: E - had, wo • en y* • ^»<* li«

y^^i,^::p^=v

-f^-T — 1—

1 — 1 —

-^ —

—at — ♦—

1^ I i 1 -H

-^^

— •• —

t—

yi . hu - do, Ne' - lam, we - gam en sof.

le - a:

YIGDAL-C (Penitential, "Polish"^

PP Lentn.

m^i

—I K-b"

— I — — — I— Si

-^—. — 0^

PN==JE

'G>-

3C^

-%^'-'^\

Hazzan: Me - tim ye - hay -y eh El be

rob

has - lio: l>-k - r'!^

rfo.

dim.

-I 1-

StiQid

-^-

shem te

hil

la - to. Congregation: Mo - tim

l.av.v.h rj

1. 1

. — ^ dim.

If*— 1^

:*=§;

^L^ :.

rob has - do: Ba - ruk "a - de 'ad shcm t,- - Lil

U - u>

Yigdal

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

608

YIGDAL-D iPenitential, "South German")

-^^=iC

qK==:^

:Cz=g:

i^^

Hazzan: Yig - dal E - lo - him hay, we - yish - tab - bah, Nim - za we- en...

-V

:i^=ir

-tS>-

0 ' ft-

-^a *

^¥^^=^

-I-

:^=

:ta-i=fe^

'et el me - zi - 'u - to. Congregation : E - had, we- en ya - hid.

:S=^

f * . ^

-^> — «-

-■^ — -•-

121

hu - do, Ne' - lam we -gam en sof le - ah - du - to. Hazzan: En

^=1^

-IV

i«:

:^:

^=^

-c^ !

152=^:

lo de - mat ha - guf , .

we - e

no giif, Lo na - 'a - rok e

3G=^

:t2=!J:

:22:

:^=^

-^ii=Xf^

s>-

law.... ke - dush - Bha - to. CoNGEEGATioN:Kad-mon le - kol da - bar a - sher nib

-« — -^

:f5=3^:

• s

:t2=^:

:t;

122:

ra.

Ei - shon we - en re - shit ... le - re

shi - to.

YIGDAL— E (Passover)

Allegretto.

zii:

-g?-

-•-<*-

:±:

!^at

Hazzan: Yig - dal E - lo - him hay, we - yifeh - tab - bah,. .. Nim- za we - en

-=^^*^i«-

--S"-

-±=:^:

jg~m^

-^-*-

'et el me - zi - 'u - to. . . . Congregation: E - had,.... we - en ya - hid ke

\ -m — <r ^ — .,

12=^:

:=]:=:

i^zzr*:

_.__! H

:t=

yi - - liu - do Ne' - lam... we - gam en 6of lo - ah - du - to.

Laal verses. Lento.

-^^^^

■* »-

:^=^

tempo primo.

:3S2:

12^

-^— *-

Hazzan: Me - tim ye- hay - yeh El, be - rob has - do: Ba - ruk 'a

609

THE JEWISH F.NCYCLOPEDIA

Ti«tUl

^t=^

de.

. 'ad.

Bhem te - hil - lu

t=^^-

to (•», i

. / Uakheh

l^it

TtTTf

■J^-t

El..

^® - 'ob has - do (litt - ruk ■» . d«.

II. lu

if=il:

lat:^:

-<s>-

-t?-»>-^ ig

# 0
^9-'^

ruk 'a-de.,. 'ad, Ba - ruk 'a - de 'ad shcm l.. - hil - U - u

YIGDAL-F (Pentecost;

Andantino,

^3=^-,

-K IV-

:4:

-^ — <p-

■f^ ^

j*^

Yig - dal E - lo - bim liay, ^e - yibh Ub - Lai,

Si-..

bi:

-V V

s>-

— -* 1-

za.

we - en. . . . 'et.

el me

-9:

-<s> m-

-^ >>-

-* — m.~-

-^ — k-

:k- I :^-

* «
-^ y

Lfc

had,.... we - en ya - hid ke - yi

K*'

lam.

we - gam.

Bof le - ah

a a • I.

YIGDAL— G (Tabernacles)

mf Con. spirito.

. T

^ ; ' ' ' '^ '^1

to. CoNonEOATi.s i: - chad. wr - n, v» - h.:d

Tigd&l

Tisbai ben Hezekiah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

610

-f— -i^

-i&-

do,

:SP=^

-j^zz:^

Ne' - lam we - gam en 8o£ le - ah - du - to.

-s — Is K

Hazzan: £d lo de - mat ba - gnf, .

--i^^-

^fe^="r^r=

we - e - no gnf, Lo na.

;t— — n— »-^^| — h ^ — h.^=^F=-^ 1 ^ I T. g ^ ^ I- I ^ ~

Kt T>L ' 4^ Td- ' I-* I — ^— I "^ ^ 1^ ;^H— *^^^^

rok.

e - law ke - dash - sha - to. Cono.: Kad-mon le - kol da - bar,

^=tH

sher nib - ra, Ri - shon we - en

sbit

le - re - ehi - to.

bath "Yigdal" is customarily sung to the same mel-
ody as are "Aden 'Olam" (see Jew. Encyc. i. 206,
melody A) and En Kelohenu. On the three fes-
tivals the melody here transcribed under A is the
tune favored. Its old Spanish character is evident.
In the Ashkenazic ritual "Yigdal," though al-
ways commencing the morning prayer, is not invari-
ably sung at the close of the evening service on
Sabbaths and festivals, being often, especially in
Germany, replaced by "Adon 'Olam." In Po-
lish use, however, it is more regularly employed as
the closing hymn, while in the synagogues of north-
western Germany, Holland, and England, where the
influence of the Sephardic ritual has been felt by
that of the Ashkenazim, "Yigdal" is considered an
integral portion of the Sabbath and
Ashkena- festal evening prayer; and in London
zic Tunes, for fully two centuries there has been
allotted to the hymn, according to the
occasion, a definite tradition of tunes, all of which
are antiphonal between hazzan and congregation.
The most familiar of these tunes is the Friday eve-
ning "Yigdal," transcribed here under B. It has
passed into tlie repertory of the Anglican and non-
conformist churches under the title of "Leoni " (see
Jew. Encyc. viii. 229). It is utilized also in Ger-
many and in some parts of Poland and Bohemia as a
festival " Yigdal." The melody may date from the
sixteenth century or perhaps earlier. Next in im-
portance comes tiie beautiful and plaintive air re-
served for the solemn evenings of New-Year and
Atonement, and introduced, in the spirit of Ps.
exxxvii. 6, into the .service of the Rejoicing of the
Law. This melody, here transcribed under C, is
constructed in the Oriental chromatic .scale (EFG %
ABCD t E) with its two augmented seconds (sec
Mlsic, SY.NAfJOGAi,), iind is the inspiration of some
Polish precentor, dating perhaps from the early six-
teenth century, and certainly having spread west-

ward from the Slavonic region. In the German use
of Bavaria and the Khineland the old tradition has
preserved a contrasting " Yigdal " for New -Year and
Atonement that is of equally antique character, but
built on a diatonic scale and reminiscent of the morn-
ing service of the day. This interesting melody is
here transcribed under D.

For the evenings of the three festivals the old
London tradition has preserved, from at least the
early eighteenth centurj", three characteristic melo-
dies, probably brought from north Germany or Bo-
hemia. That for the Passover, here transcribed
under E, illustrates the old custom according to
which the precentor solemnly dwells on the last
creed, that on the resurrection of the dead (in this
case to a "representative" theme common to Pass-
over and to Purim), and is answered by the choris-
ters with an expression of confident assurance. The
choral response here given received its final sha-
ping from Mombach. The " Yigdal " for Pentecost,
transcribed under F, is of a solemn tone, thus stri-
kingly contrasting with those for the other festivals.

The tune for Tabernacles, here transcribed under
G, displays a gaiety quite rare in synagogal melody.
It was employed by Isaac Nathan, in 1815, as the
air for one of Lord Byron's "Hebrew Melodies,"
being set by him to the verses "The Wild Gazelle"
in such a manner as to utilize the contrasting theme
then chanted by the hazzan to the last line as in the
Passover " Yigdal." Other old tunes for the hymn,
such as the melody of Alsatian origin used on the
" Great Sabbath " before Passover, are preserved in
local or family tradition (comp. Zemirot).

BiniiOfJRAPiiY : A. Biier, Jia'al Tefillah. Nos. 2, 432-1.3.3, 760-
762, 774, 088-993. Frankfort-on-the-Maln, 1883; Cohen and
Davis. Voire of Prayer and Praise, Nos. 28-29, 139-142, 195,
London, 1899.

A. F. L. C.

YIMLOK ADONAI : The tenth and final verse
of Ps. cxlvi., which opens the series of Halleluiah

611

THE JEWISH KNCYCLOPEDIA

Ylabal b«B II«*«kUkb

Psalms that conclude the Psalter. Tlie verse Is em-
ployed as a response at proiniiieiit points in the lit-
urgy, and is always the coneliiding response in the
Kedusiisiiaii. In the rite of the Ashkcna/.ini it also
introduces (in association with Pa. xxii. 4 (!{)) tiie
responsory hymns in the Kkkohot. In the ritual of
the Sephardini it is chanted four times, hy ofllciant
and congregation alternately, before the scroll is re-
turned to the Ark during the singing of the proces-
sional MiZMon le-Dawid. The melody to which
it is thus chanted is a (juaint strain long preserved
by tradition and doubtless of Peninsular origin.

also a ptij
nientary on Chr'
were uni' ' *
eoninien'
whole li'
"Kin K<-iiii:
luindert"(Fi
extant only :
Uiry : the fir-
the second Ih .
and tiie tliinl
tcr, as to wli.t ..

YIMLOK ADONAI

(A)— OF THE SEPHARDIM (Before the Scroll Is Roturnod to tho Ark
Maestoso. _____

-G>-

Yim . lok

nai

^
K

•o

-t-

i^=^^| .

ha - yik Zi

yon

dor.

dor:

liu - lo - la • j*ii!

(B)— OF THE ASHKENAZIM (as Closing Response on Festivals)

Maestoso.

Yim - lok

A - do - nai

y»k

-^?-T-

=j:

ist

yon

dor

wa - dor:

m .
Ha

s
0

l«

Among the Ashkenazim the tradition, handed dmvn
from the Middle Ages, was to recite " Yimlok " in a
monotone, closing with the cadence of the prayer-
motive to which the remainder of the benedictions m
the Standing Prayer were intoned by the precentor
(comp. Music, Synagogal, Prayer-Motives). But
on the festive days on which the Hai.lel is chanted
this monotone has long since developed into a tunr-
ful phrase shaped on the melody-type of the festival
intonation. The two strains alluded to are given

herewith. c^ t r«

A. *• ^- '■

YIR'AM OF MAGDIEL : ItJilian Riblical com-
mentator; lived at Home in the tenth century. Yi-
r'am was styled "of Magdiel" in conformity wi(h
the rabbinical interpretation which refers the name
"Magdiel" (Gen. xxxvi. 43) to Rome (comp. Rivshi
adloc). He wasa junior contemporary and perhaps

with not luivui
nieauing of the ;

BlBUOORAPHV: VogrUU-ln
Hum, t. l»t.
T.

yiSHAI (JESSE) BEN Vr '
larch <>I Uu
century, li
the wrilinK* "'
the anti ^'
of thf I.

the "MoreU.'^ he wn
till- ban. tn ;-
Pi'tit paid I.
latter convok*-<l w •
of Safcd. «:•'••■''■
a formal e^'
and bJ9 follower* (i»«.« - htrcu 1,1.

Yishar Koheka
Yiyhak b. £leazar

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

612

uq., where Yisbai's letter is published ; Halberstam,
in Kobak's "Jeschurun," vi. 66, however, declares
that the year was 1291). The letter of excommuni-
cation was stamped with the seal of the exilarch,
representing a crouching lion with a hand raised
over its head, and was signed by Yishai and twelve
rabbis. It declared that whoever was in possession
of any writing hostile to Maimonides should deliver
it immediately to David Maimuui or to his son.

Bibliography: Besides the sources mentioned by F. Lazarus,
in Brull's Jahrh. x. 51; Kuenn. Kencsct Yisrael, p. 681;
Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., vll. 158. 16«>-167, note 8.
J. M. Sel.

YISHAR KOHEKA ("May thy strength be
firm"): A frequent exclamation and expression of
thanks. The lirst part of the formula is derived by
Levy and Kohut from " yasliar " = " to be lirm or
healthy." The phrase occurs in the Talmud in the

Hebrew form " j'ishar koheka " (Shab. 87a) and in the
Aramaic form" yishar heylak"(Shab. 53a, 62b; Lam.
R. 52b; Gen. R. 54), and is now used, for example, asa
response to the preacher after the sermon, to the haz-
zan after the prayer, and to the priest after the priestly
blessing, while it serves as a formula of thanks also.
A. S. O.

YISRAEL NOSHA' : A hymn composed by
an early medieval writer named Shephatiah (Zunz,
"Literaturgesch." p. 235), and forming the pizmon,
or chief responsory verses, in the selihot of one of
the mornings in the week preceding the New-Year
festival. It is chanted on the Monday in the Polish
use and on the Tuesday in the German. The initial
verse is employed also in the Nk'il.\u service of the
former ritual. , The melody is of particular interest
as one of the few metrical airs of medieval German

YISRAEL NOSHA'

B. Qcnrnn.

Polish.

8, BoifiAn.

Moderato.

Yis - ra - el

-^-

no - sba'. . . .

ba - do

nai, .

Te - shu

Is - ra

^i*:

IS sa

ved by

God,.

With a.

*—§:;•:

-iS'-

K. O.

2=2:

^:^

* — ^ w — i^i — w-

mim; Gam ha - yom yiw - wa - she - 'u mi

'at

;---!]-

1^2:

help.

ter

8. B.

12^

nal;

n— ^—

77us day to pro-nounce for them sal •

:^==^:

ores.

N. O.

:e:

-^-

ka.

Sho - ken
ores.

8. B.

me - ro

:Ji=l^:

-y— fe^

tion. From Thy throne sn - per
cres.

-A— t^-

-22;

mim:

nal:

1S=

at-

■> h=

As Thou

613

/ ^^/

N. O,

THE JEWISH ENC\Li.ui-i,uiA
P

Yl.

Yi,

•km

•^-^^-

-Ir.

hot,

tall rab Be - li

Ea ^ ^ ^ ! ^—\~^'t^' '

art might - y, for - give

U - ba - al ha

lit;

B. B.

origin which were constructed in scales of an East-
ern character. Such were more familiar to those
Jews resident in the region of the Greek Churcli,
who came under tlie influence of the Byzantine
rather than of the Roman plain-song. The melody
exists in four parallel variants. In the Englisli
tradition the singing of tlie first verse in the closing
service of the Day of Atonement has led to the
modification of the concluding plirases of the tune
by attraction into the melody employed for several
other hymns similarly used in that service (comp.
Ne'ilaii [Hymn Tunes] and see "The Voice of
Prayer and Praise," No. 286, London, 1899). Of the
other traditional forms of the air, that used in north-
ern Germany appears nearest to the original. It
falls in the key of the dominant of the minor scale,
recalling the fourth Byzantine mode (in the vari-
ety entitled Xtyeroc; comp. BourgauU-Ducoudray,
" Etudes sur la Musique Ecclesiastique Grecque").
In tlie Polish and South-Russian traditions the con-
sistent sharpening of the leading note of the minor,
so familiar in Hungarian Gypsy melody, brings
the tonality into a form of the Oriental chromatic
mode (see Music, Synagogal) and lends the air the
wailing plaintiveness favored by the Jews of north-
eastern Europe.
A. F. L. C.

* YIZHAK (ISAAC) : Tanna of the early post-
Hadriauic period (2d cent. C.E.); a lialakic exegete
whose Biblical exegesis mostly belongs to the Me-
kilta and the Sifre. In the Tosefta he transmits say-
ings in the name of Eliezer ben Hyrcanus (Ter. i. 1,
15; ii. 5). He was a disciple of Ishmael, but as.so-
ciated also with the pupils of Akiba, with one of
whom, named Nathan, he originated ahalakah (Mek. ,
Ex. xii. 2). He was also intimate with Jonathan
and with the proselyte sons of Judah in the yeshi-
bali of Simeon ben Yol.iai (Gen. R. xxxv. ; M. K. 9a;
Pesik. 87b). Of his non-halakic exegeses may be
mentioned: on Ex. xii. 7: "The blood upon t In-
doors at Passover shall serve the Egyptians as tor-
tures for theirsouls" (.Mek.); on Ex. xx. 9: "Count
the days of the week after the Sabbath " (/.<-.); on
Deut. xiv. 11: "Unclean birds are called C)iy. while
clean are called eitlier C]iy or IISV " (Sifre) ; on EzeJ<.
i. : "The paragraph treating of tlie chariot of God

• ThrouRh a misunderstanding a number of Talmudtc nu-
thorities named "Isaac" were not treated under that heading:
they are here entered under the transliterated Hebresv form oi

the name.

II
II

extends to the word ^t j -
of his sjiyings Is: **'!
all occasions " (1{ II -.

BinLKKiRAPM^
(toii; zur M'
in Miirltnaiii. j. jn, >

■I 8. O.

YIZHAK BAR ADDA I of

unccriJiin pcriuU. lie .
meaning that even a» >.

extend^ far uud wide, so shall tbc rr«r«ni of th«
pious extend to the f * .... . . ..

xeii. ; Geo. H. xl.. 1 •

Pa. Ivii. 9, he said thai iJnvJd ;

harp in order thai It.s tone* ml).-

midnight pruyi-r (Ik-r. 4a).

BiBLiOGRAriiY : UacbcT, Ag. I'aL Amor. Ut TC aod

J. "• ♦'

YIZHAK HA-BABLI: . HU

period is unknown. Two 1.
tant. Tlie ;

Abraham, w

he was perfect; that U. he bad • lo

cireuiiuision (Gen. R. xliii T)

Jiicob's promise, the amofii it

"Which my lips have utti-rwl. and my t

spoken when I ' ' ■ »•

saying that one i •

to keep the comman»lnu-ni« of the Torah lOcn. H.

Ixx. 1; Midra.'sh Sliemut 1 ■

BiBLIOGKAi-IIV : Hi ' -r -«
J.

YIZHAK OF CARTHAGE: :
the I'eMkiii Ual'l'iiH :.,.'■ ■

word »p't2->p written
MTadlnri (" \y

ever, in his \'i ,

with thenameof one Virhak "f ' ♦^

in Her. '2^.i: btit

never oxisteil. 1 -■

the fact that Ycr. Iter. 8a n

;in Aliba of Carthage who Imi.iiu:-.

of H. Yi?.hul>.

Dini.ioflRArHT: BarlxT. yitf. A»i- ^*^- *-***•**• ^ ^^

.1.

YIZHAK B. ELEAZAR OF CJF.8ARF.Ar
Piileslini.iii amora of the (■
a teacher of law In '.
where be wa« so lovtv. ... , _, . -

Tizhak b. Eleazar
'Yi^sLk Nappaha

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

614

Jacob of Kefar Nibburaya placed bimasbigh in tbis
synagogue as is Go<l Himself in the Temple of Zion
<Yer liik. 65<i. Midrusb Sbemuel vii. G). The fol-
lowing balakic decisions of bis may be mentioned:
one concerning sale and imrcliase, rendered to bis
pnpil Hosbaiab b. Sbamniai (Yer. ^M. K. 81b);
another on religious law in a case referred to bim by
Samuel bar Abdimi (Yer. Sbab. 16d); a ruling con-
cerning fraud (Suk. 35b); instruction in regard to
the writing of a letter of divorce (B. B. 163a); bala-
kic deduction to the effect that, although a tithe of
dates need not be rendered, honey made from them
must be tithed (Yer. Bik. 63d); decision concerning
marital law (Yer. Kid. 63b); regarding signs for de-
tecting murder upon finding a corpse (Yer. Naz.
67d) ; and a balakab concerning the lifting of the
terumah (Yer. Dcm. 26b). He appears as a tradi-
tionist of Jeremiah (Lev. R. .\xxiii. 2) and of Nah-
man bar Jacob (Yer. Sbab. 9a), and was famed for
his gastronomical art (Lam. R. to iii. 17; Yer. Ber.
61c; Yer. Hag. 78a). He gives examples of the
ban from the Mishnah (Yer. M. K. 81a), and a pre-
scription in accordance with them (Yer. Ta'an.
69b).

In the vicinity of Ctesarea is a cliff extending into
the sea. One day as Yizhak was walking along this
cliff be saw a large bone on the ground, and tried
several times to cover it with earth, so that no one
should stumble over it; but his efforts were unsuc-
cessful, as the bone became uncovered as fast as lie
heaped the earth upon it. He accordingly consid-
€re(I the bone to be an instrument of God, and waited
patiently to see what would happen. Soon after-
ward an imperial messenger named Vercdarius came
that way, stumbled on the bone, and died as a re-
sult of his fall ; this messenger had been sent to
Caesarea bearing malicious edicts against the Jews
(Gen. R. X. 7; I^ev. R. xxii. 4; Num. R. xviii. ; Eccl.
R. to V. 8). In answer to a question as to how it
came about that two great prophets like Jeremiah
and Daniel should suppress attributes of God which
had been given Him by Moses himself, he saitl that
these prophets knew tliat God was a lover of truth,
and that any dissimulation on their part would have
been punishable (Yer. Ber. 13c; Meg. 74c). He
made a comparison between wisdom and bumilit}'
(Yer. Sbab. 3c); and he explained the expression
^JD'y^^n in Gen. xxv. 30 by a comparison witli the
insatiability of Rome, saying that Esau sat like a
camr-l with jaws wide open and that Jacob had to
fill his mouth witji food (Pesik. R. xvi. ; Pesik. oQa).
Yizhak, moreover, connected the expression Dt3C1
in Gen. xxvii. 41 with the word "senator," iti order
more clearly to express Rome's hatred of Judab
(Yer. 'Ab. Zarab 39c).

Yizhak must be •li'Jtingnished from an amora of
the same name who lived h;ilf a century earlier, and
in whose liouse Hiyya bar Abba, Amini, and Yizhak
Nappaha used to assemble to study (Hag. 26a; 'Ab.
Zarah 24a; M. K. 20a). This earlier amora deliv-
ered a funeral address at the death of Johanan (M.
K. 2Jb; but see Bacher ["Ag. Pal. Amor." iii. 718,
note 4] for different version).

BinuoGRAPHV: Frankel, Mehn, p. lOTa; Hellprln. Seder ha-
Dornl. II. 238: Bacher. .If/. Pal. Amor. 111. 717-719.
J. S. O.

YIZHAK BEN HAKOLA : Palestinian amora
of the third century. He was a contemporary of
Joshua ben Levi and Johanan, and belonged to the
school of Eleazar ben Pedat. He transmitted bala-
kot in the names of Abba ben Zabda, Judab II.
(Yer. 'Er. 24d), Hezekiah ('Orlab i. 2), and Simeon
(Yer. Suk. i., end; Ket. ii. 8). There has been pre
served a baggadah by bim dealing with the quarrel
between the shepherds of Abimelech and those of
Abraham, and with the settlement of the dispute
(Gen. R. liv., end).

BiBLior.RAPHY : Bacher. Ag. Pal. Amor. 1. 109. 11. 306. ill. 588-
589; Frankel, Mcbo. 107a; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dornt, 11. 238.
J. S. O.

YIZHAK BEN HIYYA THE SCRIBE:

Palestinian amora of the fourth century; contem-
porary of Mani. He was well known as a scribe,
and was the author of a halakah in which he asserted
that Torah scrolls might be written on various
parchments, but that this rule did not apply in the
case of tetillin and mezuzot (Yer. Meg. p. 71c). In
the name of Johanan he transmitted a halakah rela-
ting to the marriage law (Yer. Yeb. 14a). Three
other baggadot by bim have been preserved: (1) on
the future fate of the good and the wicked (Gen.
R. Ixiv. 4); (2) explaining why Saul did not consult
the Urim and Thummim instead of the witch of
En-dor (Lev. R. xxvi. 7; Midr. Sbemuel xxiv. 6);
and (3) setting forth that the Torali is compared to
the tree of life (Prov. iii. 18) because it is equal
in value to all living men (Midr. Shoher Tob to
Ps. 1. 19).

Bibliography : Bacher. Ao. Pal. Amor. Iii. 449 (note 8), 716-
717 ; Hellprln, Seder ha-Dornt, 11. 241.
J. S. O.

YIZHAK BAR JOSEPH: Palestinian amora
of the third and fourth centuries. He was a pupil
of Abbahu and of Johanan. and transmitted almost
entirely in the name of the latter. It is related that
he was once about to be killed b}' a spirit to which
be was speaking, when a cedar-tree saved him
(Sanh. 101a; Rashi on the passage). It was said to
be due to him that the Samaritans were declaretl to
be a heathen people, the following narrative beflig
told in this connection: "Yizhak was once sent into
the Samaritan district to purchase wine, and met
there an old man who told him that no one in that
region observed the laws. The amora returned with
this report to Abbahu, and the latter, together with
Ammi and Assi, declared the Samaritans to be
heathens" (Hul. (Ja; comp. also Rashi and the To.sa-
fot on the passage).

In his teacher's company Yizhak often visited
Usha, by whom the takkanot were enacted; and he
attended lectures in ayeshibah in that city (Kid. 50a;
Pes. 72:i)- It was be who brought most of these
takkanot to the knowledge of the Babylonians; he
was in fact one of the most prominent intermediaries
between Palestine and Babylonia in matters pertain-
ing to religious decisions, and was great!}' respected
in the latter country, being on terms of intimate
friendship with Abaye (Ber. 42b).

Thirteen balakic decisions transmitted by Yizhak
in the name of Johanan have been preserved: re-
garding circumei.sion on Yom Kippur (Yeb. 041));
on an undecided question (Sbab. 45b); on the differ-

615

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

b El<

ence between Palestine aud Babylonia with referii.. .•
to 'erub('Er. 22a); on the haiizali (Yeb. 1()4h); on
the testimony of two witnesses before a court of law
(Sanh. 4a); live sentences regarding terefah (Hid.
43a); on sexual intercourse (Niddah G.Ob); on sacri-
fices (Tern. 26a) ; and on the gall and liver of shuigh-
tered animals (HuJ. 48a). lie transmitted also three
balakic maxims in the name of Yannai: two on the
custom of washing the hands (Hul. 105b) aud one
on Nazir (Naz. 42b).

In addition to his occasional journeys in Palestine
in the company of Abbahu.Yi/.huk is once mentioned
as undertaking a journey to Babylonia, wliere he
associated with Abaye, as well as witii Rabin and
Pappa, the sons-in-law of Yi/.hak Nappaha (Hul.
110a). Yizhak relates that Judali I. had a private
entrance to his yeshibah in order to spare his pu-
pils the inconvenience of rising when he entered
(Men.. 33a).

BiBLiOGR.APUT: Baoher, ^(7. Paf. u4mor. 1. 420 ; 11.96,211; 111.
99, 402. 520 ; Ueilprln, Seder ha-Dorot, II. 340.

J. s. o.

YIZHAK BAR JUDAH : Babylonian amora
of the fourth century; a junior contemporary of
Ulla. He was educated at his father's house in
Punibedita; and once when Ulla visited there the
latter expressed displeasure at the fact that Yizhak
was not yet married (Kid. 71b). Yizhak was once
told by his father to go to Nehardea in order to see
how Ulla pronounced the Habdalali benediction at
the close of the Sabbath; but Yizhak sent Abaye
in his place, and for so doing was severely repri-
manded by his father (Pes. 104b). Yizhak was a
pupil of various scholars. First he attended the
lectures of Kabbah (Sheb. 36b), and later those of
Rami bar Hama, whom he soon left in order to
study under R. Sheshet, Rami bitterly reproacliing
him for the slight. Among Yizhak 's nearest
friends and companions may be mentioned Aha bar
Hana; Samuel, sou of Kabbah bar bar Hana (Sheb.
36b) ; and Rami bar Samuel.

BiDUor.RAPHY: Bacher, Ao- Pal. Amor. II. 299; Hellprln,
Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 242b.

J. s. o.

YIZHAK OF MAGDALA: Palestinian amora
of the third century. He engaged in various mid-
rashic controversies. Among them was one willi
Levi concerning I Kings vii. 50 (Cant. R. on iii.
10), and another with Kahana concerning Joseph's
abstention from wine after his imprisonment by his
brothers (Shab. 139a; Gen. R. xcii., xcviii.). With
reference to the saying that the cvuse inflicted upon
the world consists in tiie bringing forth of gnats,
flies, and other insects. Yizhak states that even these
creatures are of tise in the world (Gen. R. v. 9).

BiBLiofiUAPHY: Bacher. Ap. Pnl. ■^"'"''; \;**p- ''/, 11^" ,!''■
58S; A. Perles. in Bet Talmud, i. l.)3; Hellprln. Seder ha-
Dorot, p. 241a.
J.

s. o.

YIZHAK BEN MARYON : Palestinian amora
of the tliird century; contemporary of Eleazur lH.'n
Pedat (Yer. Suk. 53a). He transmitted some liag-
gadic maxims in the names of Hanina (Eccl. R.
ix. 12) and Jose ben Hanina (Pesik. 99a). ^yith
reference to Gen. ii. 4 aud 8 he remarked that since

God :

linil : , V ^

ing uu 11 Ham xx 81. lie

fen.! . ■

Ihr ,

giidic mitxim* of 111* It .

lows: on <;. ' ••'

Ixxiv. 10);

Ixxviii. 19). on Job ii. 4 (Keel I(

on Ruth ii. 14 (I^-v. H. xxxiv. t>

Bini.lO(lRAt-MT : Itarhrr, AQ. pat A

til. U»-m\ : Uellprlo. Stdtr ha-1
J.

YI?HAK BAR NAHMAN
amora of the (hinj centur}-: • (rlrnd of Jacob Iwr
Idi. ! - •' r with w' . -. - .
conn, r (Ver

often cnguged in ha »b.

14(1). Yi^.hulj; tv^
ben I^vi on 1 1
Ze'era liaviii ^wl n •)

point (Yer. ^ H- '

dima of Hiii!
law (Yer. N;

troversy wiii. .

cob bar Al.ia lran.sniits .. .f.

Yeb. 12a).

BIBI.IOORAPHT: B«'ti<r. .iy

Saler ha-lJumt, II. UU.

.1.

1 . IIVU

YIZHAK NAPPA^A : Pn'— :• -- of

the thin! and fourth centtini-s I! •!»•

name "Najipaha" only in tin- B.
not in the I'ale.'itiDiaD. .\- * ' '
the foremost rank of 1.
Babylonian Tab
other Yi7.halss (1' . . . -.
to the arbitrary action of a later amoni. ibe rral
name of his fat'
As regards the l . .

had been an older Yi^(^ak of U« *,

who was rirh and w ! ■ • > ^i^

courts in U»iia; it In *•

ever, to asceriain any rt ' «.

and if t! ' '
the lalt* I

out ever having ptJi
mi<Irnshir llttmturr
wiureas the oUii-r «

AUhougli he wn« i
tious with the hitlrr
sage(B. M. 24b). wi
before Johanan. A-

nf r>

Relations B. '**

with ^^ 1

Johanan. I'l

1im:h:; . aod «

the 1

Slic-i

Raba (|ii 'ti.l in i

som' '

Addit tt'iao «.li«-* '" '■^^ ^ ■*'

Yizhak Nappaha
YizHaki

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

616

home was originally in Cipsarea, but lie afterward
went to Tiberias to live. He associated intimately
witli Animi. with whom he often discussed halukic
questions (Sotah 34a: Men. lib; Hag. 26a; Bor. 41a;
Yoma 42b) ; and together they sometimes rendered
decisionsin matters pertaining to religious law(Hul.
48b; Ned. 57b; Ber. 2Ta). Yizhak, Abbahu, and
Hauina bar Pappai constituted a board of judges
(Ket. 84b; "Ab. Zarah ?.9b: Ber. 38a. b; B. K.
117b; Git. 29b). Helbo referred to Yizhak two
liturgical questions addressed to him from Galilee:
the tirst question he answered immediately; the sec-
ond he e.xpouuded publicly in the seminary (Git.
60a). A thesis on the creation of light, formulated
anonymously, was made public by K. Yizhak (Gen.
R. iii., beginning). He also engaged in haggadic dis-
cussions with the celebrated Levi (Gen. H. .\ix. 14;
Pesik. R. x.xiii., beginning: Ber. 4a : Yer. Ta'an.6ob) ;
with Abba b. Kahana (Gen. R. xliii. 7; Lev. R. ii.
1; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xlix. 1); with Aha (Pesik. R.
XV. ; Gen. R. v. 7; Yer. Pe'ah lod); and with Hiyya
bar Abba (Lev. R. xx. 7; Pesik. R. xxii.). Among
those who transmitted in the name of Yizhak were
the famous halakist Haggai, the latter's sons Jon-
athan and Azariah (Gen. R. xxii. 18, xl. 6; Midr.
Shemuel xxii., end), and Luliani ben Tabrin (Gen.
R. passitn ; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxiv. 4; Yer. Meg.
75c).

That Yizhak was a great authority on the Hala-
kah, as well as on the Haggadah, is shown by an
anecdote which is told and according to which Ammi
and Assi would not let him speak, because the one
wished to hear Halakah and the other Haggadah
(B. K. 60b). So after telling them the celebrateil story
of the man who had two wives, one of whom pulled
out all his white hairs because she was young,
whereas the other extracted his black hairs because
she was old, li. Yizhak presented to them a hagga-
dah with a halakic background, in order to satisfy
both at the same time. Yizhak, however, devoted
himself to the Haggadah with more zeal, because
he regarded it as a necessity in the adverse circum-
stances of the Jews. Tlie poverty of the Palestin-
ians had increased to such an extent that people no
longer waited for the harvest, but ate the green ears
of wlieat (Gen. R. xx. 24); consequently they were
in need of comfort and refreshment of soul (Pes.
101b). Yizhak tried to make his lectures as effect-
ive as po.ssible, and they show him to Tiave been an
unusually forceful rhetorician and a skilful excgete.

Yizhak 's haggadic material may be divided ac-
cording to contents into the following four groujis:
I. Proverbs and dicta: concerning sins (Suk. 52a,
b; Hag. lOa; Kid. 31a; Ber. 25a; R. H. 16b; Yoma
87a; B. B. 9b; Pes. 190b); concerning the relation
of man to God (Ned. 32a; Sotah 48b;
His Ruth R. i. 2); on the relation of man to

Sayings, his fellow beings (B. M. 42a; Meg.
28a; B. K. 93a); concerning piaver
(Pes. 181a; Lev. R. xxx. 3; Midr. Shemuel i. 7;"r.
H. 16b; Yer. Kid. 61b; Yer. Ned. 41b); concerning
study and the Law (Pes. 193a, b; Meg. 61); Lev. R.
ii. 1; Sanh. 21b, 24a; Hul. 91a; Yoma 77a); con-
cerning Israel (Pes. 165a: Gen. R. Ixiii. 8); concern-
ing the nations (Esther R. i. 10; Lev. R. i. 14; Ex.
R. xxxviii. 3); concerning Jerusalem (Pesik. R. xli.

1; Pes. 6a). II. Exegesis: general (Sanh. 82a, 89a,
95b: Tern. 16a; Yer. R. H. 57c; Gen. R. liii. 20;
Hul. !)lb: Sotah 48b: B. B. 16a): halakic (Ber. 13b;
Git. 59b ; Pes. 31b ; Yoma 77a ; Yer. Sotah 17a) ; Bib-
lical personages (Gen. R. xxxiv. 11, xxxix. 7, Iviii.
7; Yeb. 64a); Bililical narratives (Sotah 34a; Dent.
R. xi. 2; B. B. 91a; Midr. Teh. to Ps.' vii. 13; Sanh.
106b; Men. 53b; Esther R. iii. 9; Pesik. R. xxx v. 1).
III. Homiletics (Gen. R. xix. 6, xxxviii. 7; Sanh.
9()a; B. M. 87a; Yer. Sotah 17b; Ex. R. xliii. 4; Sanh.
102a; Ber. 63b; Eccl. R. iii. 19; Tem. 16a; Yer.
Ta'an.65b; Hor. lOb). IV. Proems (Gen. R. iii. 1,
lix. 2, Ixv. 7; Pes. 101b; Ex. R. xxxii. 5; Lev. R.
xii. 2); maxims (Gen. R. Ivi. 1; Deut. R. ii. 27;
Lev. R. xxxiv. 8); similes (Yer. R. II. 57b; Lev.
R. V. 6: Ex. R. xv. 16; Yer. Ber. 13a; B. B. 74b);
Messianic subjects (Eccl. R. i. 11; Deut. R. i. 19;
'Ab. Zarah 3b); esehatology (Lev. R. xiii. 3; Midr.
Teh. to Ps. xlix. 1; Shab." i52a; B. M. b3b).

According to the unanimous testimony of several
writers of the tenth century, the gaon Hai b. David
ascribed to Yizhak Nappaha the calculation of the
Rabbinite calendar. The only fact known concern-
ing Yizhak 's family is that his daughter married the
Babylonian amora Pappa (Hul. 110a).

Bibliography : Baoher, Aq. Pal. Amnr. ii. 20.5-29.5 ; Frankel,
Mchi). pp. 106l)-107a ; Hei\prin. Scd( r lin-Dorot, ii.. .s.r.; S.
Pinsker, Likkute KaiUnoiiinjint. ii. ]4H-1.')1 ; Al-Kirkisanl,
efi. Harkavy, in I'uhl. Kai^rtiiclie A' i (, •>•.>• i.sr/ic Arxfiaolo-
{jiscJie GcsdlscJtaft, 1894, vii. 293 ; Weiss, Dor, iii. 98 ct seq.

.1. S. ().

YIZHAK BEN PARNAK : Palestinian amora
of uncertain period. He is named as the author of an
apocryphal work entitled Qjn':^ "(Jia \2 pH^*' 'l P"lD,
which describes the events that take place at the
death of a human being. When a man is dying
three angels come to his bedside — the angel of death,
the recording angel, and the guardian angel; and
these three review his entire life. If he has been a
l)ious man, three more angels ajjpear; and while the
struggle with death is going on one of these angels
recites Isa. Ivii. 1, the second ib. Ivii. 2, and the
third if>. Iviii. 8. At last four more angels descend
to the bedside; and when the dying man cries out
to the earth to help him, the first angel answers him
with the words of Ps. xxiv. 1; when he implores
the aid of his relatives, the second angel recites Ps.
xlix. 8 (A. V. 7); when he turns to his money for
solace, the third angel answers him with Ps. xlix. 9
(A. V. 8) ; and when he appeals to his good deeds, the
fourth angel recites Lsa. Iviii. 8. There is clearly
some influence lieix' of the Buddhist legend of "The
Three Friends " (comj). " Burlaaiu and Josaj)hat," ed.
Jacobs, Appendix). Vizliak's father, Parnak, trans-
mitted in the name of Johanan (Gen. R. liii., end;
M. K. 9a; Shab. 14a; B. M. 85a).

BiHi.iofiRAPiiv : Rarlier, Aij. I'al. Ainnr. i. 210. note 3; iii.
7(;7-7i)S: Jcllinek, Iht lia-Miilratth, v. 48-49, Vienna. 187:j.
.1. S. O.

YIZHAK BARREDIFA: Palestinian amora
of the fourth century; the transmitter of the hag-
gadah of R. Anuni (Lev. R. xii., beginning; Ex. R.
xlii., end; Yer. Shek.48a; Ex. R. iii. to Ex. iii. 14).
He once recjuested the amora Jeremiah to decide a
question, but received only an evasive reply (Yer.
Sheb. 39a). He was the author of several explana-
tions of the stories concerning Samson (Sotah 9b).

617

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

*«»p

Especial meution sliovild be made of liis interpri-in
tion of the word n^DDyn in Isa. iii. 16, wliicli he
derives from tlie Groek tAfff ("serpent "), saying:
"The women used to place myrrh and balsam in
their shoes, and when meeting young men in tlie
streets they stamped tlieir fuet so that a strong odor
arose which awakened evil impulses in the youllts,
as though they were under the inlluence of a ser-
pent's poison" (Shab. 62b).

Yizhak transmitted dissertations on tlie salvation
of the tribe of Benjamin, with reference to Judges
xxi. 7 (B. B. 116a); on the list of idolatrous priests
referred to in liosea xiii. 3 (Sanli. (i2a); on the jtro-
nunciation of the words "Praised be the name of His
glorious kingdom" (l"^D"3"t;'"3) after the "Siiema'"
(Pes. 56a); on the act of rising wlien llie name of
God is uttered, as deduced from Judges iii. 20 (Sauh.
60a); and on the assumption of tiie sex of an ex-
pected child, with reference to Lev. xii. 2 (Ber. 60a;
Niddah 25b, iUa).

Bibliography : Bncher, .4(7. Pal. A mnr. 1. 518, note 1 ; 11. 151,
noteti; iii. 71i)-7aO; Itat)biiK)vicz, Dil^ilukc Sofnim, i.x. ItJt);
Heilprin, Scdi:r lia-D(>n)t, ii. 241 ; Kran'kel, Mebo, pp. 90a,
lOTb.

J. s. o.

YIZHAK BEN SAMUEL BEN MARTA :

Babylonian amora of the tiiird and fourtli centuries.
He was a pupil of R. Nahman, to whoin he directed
questions relating to sacrifice (Men. 81a) and to dif-
ferentiation between sanctified and unsanctified
things (Hul. 35a). In the name of Rab he trans-
mitted sayings relating to the presentation of letters
of divorce (Git. 13a, 03b), and to Rab's method of
pronouncing the Sabbatical benediction (Pes. 166a).
Rabbah transmitted sayingsof Yizhak's (Meg. 16b);
Ze'era addressed him as " Rabbenu " (Hul. 30b); and
Rami bar Hama directed a question to him (ib. 35a).
Yizhak once met Simlai in Nisibis, where he heard
the latter denounce the free use of oil among tlie
Jews; and he later furni.shed a report of this denunci-
ation ('Ab. Zarah 36a; comp. Yer. 'Ab. Zarah 41d).

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. i. 569; Heilprin,
Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 239-240.

S. O.

YIZHAK BEN TABLAI : Palestinian amora
of the* fourth century ; a contemporary of Jacob ben
Zabdai and Helbo, together witli both of wiiom he
was called upon to decide a question of religious law
(Y^er. Niddah 50a). When asked whether the law
of Demai applied to the Syrian leek, he was unable
to decide the question by himself, and had to seek
the advice of R. Jose (Yer. Dem. 22d) ; and oa anotlicr
occasion, when a question relating to the divorce law
was addressed to him, he had to refer it to Eleazar
(Yer. Kid. 63c). A tradition handed down froin the
above-mentioned Eleazar was dilTerently transmitted
by the amoraim Jonah and Jose (Yer. Slieb. 33d).

In the Babylonian Talmud (Pes. 1131.) Yizhak has
been identified with five other amoraim of similar
name, but this has been refuted by Bacher. wlio dis-
proved also the allegation of S. Krauss that the names

ahpn and ahll^ are identical. Tlie Babylonian Tal-
mud (Ned. 811.) mentions Yizhak as the transmitter
of an interpretation of Mai. iii. 20. To liim is ascribed
also the haggadic explanation identifying tlie name
]):2^ with Vhe Temple, with reference to the paro-

Iiiiiii:im;i i mi pi2'

ing -to make
the Temple iui;
author, nioifosii ..i i,
JoHh. X 4 Oli.lr Tftn •
gadali '

Bllii.iO(:R.4PMr ■ nnrhrr. .iy ;•
.!(;. 7'iiii.
Kniiiki-l. .);

YIZHAK BEN ZE'ERA

the louilh nMu!\. Ill ijiU:; - ■ "

in Ps. xix. 0. in connection »

signifying thu'

(.f blood n(.l , . _

xxxi. 9). He is CI

of a verse of tip ■-■

confusion exi-' f

Bar Na/.ini occurring hiHtcad of bU In lofDc pu

sages (Yeb. 97u; B<k. 3 lb*.

BlMLioriRAfiiv : BnchiT. Ao- l*nL Amnr. I. Ul.
T£i ; Hellprlu. Seder ha-Dunit. p. Ut.

YIZHAKI. See Ha-»ii
YIZHAKI. ABRAHAM

lived :il .'^^iliMiifii tiiwiitii llic ■

century. He was diiyyan under |{

Levi, after whom Yi?l. '

cision issued in 1597, a

1.598. Yizl.iakii was the author oi

Ke^annali," winch Isquot' ' ■ '

"•Edul bi-Yehosef" (i .

Peral.iya's "Tomt !

the end of Jacob I

which is erroneou

ha-Dorot," iii., *.r.) to Muihk 1 l>

It is a work in four pur'- • '" ■ ' >

"get " of a minor.

BlliLlo(iiiAfllv: r

Kut'nn. KcitC" ' ■'

No. Ul. ^.

.1.

YIZHAKI. ABRAHAM BEN DAVi:
estiiiiai) ral.tii aiiii .ki.:; .•^.•.iiji-'- ■•^-•: >!j .
died at Jerusalem June 10. 1729; on
side a grandson ■
pupil of Moses S4S II
opposition to !'
exhorted the i . ;
writings of Migml CanW. H.
of cxcoinmuir
Huyynn hy '
Later, Yijhnki wm wnl «
tributi«n>
preface to

he arrive«l at Leghorn, w
against U
dam in tie
kenazi. On his w
liaki I'

till" oil

Of Yifhaki s v

oi.

ii..on Eben i»a ttcr (Mi«i l^'-ti**^

Yizidro

Yoma

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

618

tinople. 1732). His other works are : '* Iggeret Sbib-
bukin " and "Ketobet Ka'akea'," both on Hayyuu's
heresies: a work on Maimonides' "Yad"; and no-
velUc on the Shulhan "Aruk.
Bibliography: Fuenn. Keue:<€t YisracUp.30; Gratz. Gesc/t.

3d ed., X. 311. 317. 3:.1i ; Kurst, Bill. Jud. li. 78 ; Micbael. Or

1m-ljauyim, No. SI.
I M. oEL.

YIZIDRO (YSIDRO), ABRAHAM GAB-
BAI. See Gauuai.

YOD ('): Tenth letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
The u;iine seenis to be connected with "yad," mean-
ing •* hand" ; the Pheniciau " yod" remotely resembles
a hand in form. The letter is a palatal semivowel,
identical in souud with the English "y." Preceded
by the cognate vowel "i" (= Eng. "ee"), it blends
witli it, the resulting combination being long "i."
"Willi a preceding a-vowel it forms the diphthong
"ai." which in Hebrew (that language having pre-
served no diphthongal sounds) has become "e" ( =
Eng. "ay"). As a radical, "yod" sometimes inter-
changes with " waw. " As a numeral, it has in the later
usage the. value 10. The Tetragrammaton is some-
times represented by "vod," its tirst letter.

T I. Br.

YOKE. See Agriculture.

YOM, HA-. See Periodicals.

YOM KIPPUR. See Atonement, Day of.

YOM KIPPUR KATAN : The "Minor Day of
Atwuemcnt " ; observed on the day preceding each
Rosh Hodesh or New-Moon Day, the observance con-
sisting of fasting and supplication, but being much
less rigorous than that of Yom Kippur proper. The
custom is of comparatively recent origin and is not
mentioned in the Sliuihan 'Aruk. It appears to
have been inaugurated in the si.xteeuth century at
Safed by the cabalist Moses Cordovero (Da S'lva.
"Peri Hadash," Rosh Hodesh, § 417), who called
the fast "Yom Kippur Katan"; and it was in-
cluded by Isaac Luria in his "Seder ha-Tetillah."
K. Isaiah Horowitz refers to it by that name, and
says it sliould be observed by fasting and repentance :
"Following the custom of the very pious, one must
repent of his ways and make restitutions l)oth in
money and in personal acts, in order that he may
enter the new month as pure as a new-born infant "
("Shelah." ed. Amsterdam, 1698, pp. 120b, 140a,
179a). When Rosh Hodesh occurs on a Sabl)atli or
Sunday. Yom Kippur Katan is observed on the pre-
ceding Thursday. The fasting is not obligator}', and
only Ihe very pious observe that act of .self-denial.

The liturgy of the day, which consists of selihot, is
rerit-.'d at the Minliah prayer in tlieaflernoon. Tallit
and lefiilin are adjusted, and if there are among the
congregation ten persons who have fasted, they read
from tTic .scroll " Wa-Yel.ial " (E.x. .x.\.\ii. 11 et seq.).
The selihotare taken partly from the collection used
on the general fast-da3s and Yom KipiMir, with the
" Widdui lia-Gadfil" (tiic great confession of sin by
Rabl)enu Nissim) and ",\siiamnu," and also a beau-
tiful poem written for the occasion by Leon of Mo-
deiia and beginning with " Yom zeh." Some congre-
gations add "Abinu Malkenu." The fast .ends with
tlic Minhah prayer. For the text see Baer, " 'Abo-
dat Yisrael." pp. 317-319; Eiuilcn's Siddur "Bet
Ya'aljob," ed. Warsaw, pp. 212a-216b.

Bibliography: Moses Brack, Phari»ai»cht VnlkssUten und
RHuaUen, pp- i:i-44, Franklort-ou-ilie-Main, 1840.
J. J. D. E.

YOM-TOB BEN ABRAHAM ISHBILI

(called also RITBA, lioin the initials of his name,
N3t3'l): Famous Talmudic commentator of the tirst
half of the fourteenth century. He received his name
from the city of Seville ; but was living at Alcolea de
Cinca in 1342. He was gifted with a clear, acute
mind, and was a pupil of Aaron ha-Levi and Solo-
mon Adret at Barcelona, although it is doubtful
whether he studied under Meir ha-Levi Abulafia
also, as some scholars think (Perles, "R. Salomo b.
Abraham b. Adret," p. 59, Breslau, 1863). He was
engaged in a controversy with Rabbi Dan Ashke-
uazi, who had emigrated to Spain. Yom-Tob's vo-
luminous works include valuable novellJE on many
of the Talmudic treatises, and commentaries on the
writings of Alfasi and certain works of Nahmani-
des. His published novellic include those on 'Eru-
bin, Ta'anit, Mo'ed Katan, Ketubot, and Baba
Mezi'a (Amsterdam. 1729; Prague, 1810), Ta'anit
and Mo'ed Katan (Prague, 1811), HuHin {ib. 1734),
Gittiu (Salonica, 1758), Yebamot (Leghorn, 1787),
Shabbat (Salonica, 1806), Yoma (Constantinople,
1754: Beilin. 1860), 'Abodah Zarah (Ofen, 1824),
and Rosh ha-Shanah (Kouigsberg, 1858). Most of
the novellas have been collected under the title
"Hiddu.she ha-Ritba" (Lemberg, 1860-61), Avhile
extracts from his commentaries on haggadic pas-
sages are quoted by the aulhor of the "'En
Ya'akob" (Berlin, 1709; Furtli, 1766; etc.). The
" 3Iigdal ' Oz " of Shem-Tob ibn Gaon and the
" Maggid Mishneh " of Viilal of Tolosa have been
erroneously ascribed to him.

Bibliography : Malaclii b. Jacob ha-Kohen, Yad MaVaki,
ed. Berlin, p. 131 ; Azulai, Shem lia-GednliPU 1. 72 et sen.;
Steinschneider. Cat. liodl. col. 1400; Cassel, Lehrbuch der
Jlldischcn Gesch. und Litcratin: p. 302; Fiirst, JhhL Jud.
1. 248; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. pp. 784 ct seq.

E. c. M. K.

YOM-TOB BEN ISAAC OF JOIGNY (called
also ha-Kodesh) : Tosatist and liturgical poet who
suft'ered martyrdom at York, England, in March,
1190, as has been proved by Gratz ("Gesch." vi.
455). The Jews of York sought refuge in the for-
tress from the fury of the populace; and after offer-
ing a vain resistance for several days the most of
them, on the advice of Yom-Tob ben Isaac, joined
him in voluntary death.

Yom-Tob was a pupil of R. Tarn, and was promi-
nent as a tosafist, being frequently mentioned with
the epithet "ha-Kodesh " (= " the Holy" or "the
Martyr"). He also was a Biblical exegete and a
liturgical poet. His best-known productions are
O.MNAM Ken, a hymn sung on the eve of the Day
of Atonement, and a penitential prayer in fourteen
stanzas. He wrote also an elegy beginning with
the words "Yah tishpok"and lamenting the death
of the Jews of Blois who perished in 1071.

bibliography: Ziinz. Z. O. pp. .52. 100; idem. Literntur-
iiesch. pp. 2W5 .( sn/.: (iriitz, Orsrh.vi. 2t).T : Gross, (inUia
Judaica. p. 2.52; li. K. J. iii. 5; Tr. Jew. HM. Sor F.ik.i.
ill. 9 et Keii.: Jiicohs, Jews of Angevin England, pp. 109-11-,
12.5, 421 (hlbllofrraphy).
.1. M. K.

YOMA : A treatise in the Mishnah, in the To-
sefta, and in both Talmudim, treating of the divine

619

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA

service on the Day of Atonement, of the fustiu- . i-n-
niouy on that day, and of otlier regiihitious ptTiuiii-
ing to the occasion. lu llic Tosella this tieuliht- is
entitled " Yom lia-Kippurim " (Day of AtoncnuMii).
while in the Mishuah (ed. Lowe), as well as by
Slierira Gaon, it is called simply "Kipimriin"
(Atonement). The Day of Alouement was known
also as " Yoma Rabba" (The Great Day), often
shortened to " Yoina " (The Day); hence this treatise
was given the name of "Yoma" in the Misimah as
well as in the Talmudim. In most Mislmaii editions
the treatise is the fifth in the order of Mo'ed. It is
divided into eight chapters, containing a total of
sixty -one paragraphs.

Ch. i. : On the high priest's seven days of prepa-
ration for his service on the Day of Atonement ;
how the stipulated order of the sacrificial ceremony
was read to him, and how the elders impresse<l upon
him that he should proceed only according to the
prescribed order, and not in harmony

Contents : with Sadducean customs (Jig 1-5); re-
Ch. i.-viii. garding the night of the Day of Atone-
ment; if the high priest was a wise
man and a scholar, he preached a sermon; if not,
the sages present delivered a lecture or reatl from
Holy Script, choosing only passages from the Ha-
giographa; how the young priests watched to see
that the high priest did not fall asleep (ijj; 6-7); on
the removal of the ashes from the altar upon the Day
of Atonement and upon other days (>^ 8).

Ch. ii. : In connection with the rules regarding
the removal of the ashes (i. 8), it is said that this
duty originally devolved on all priests without any
specific allotment, such distinction being introduced
only in the course of time (^5^5 1-2); other allotments
made in order to distribute the Temple duties among
the priests (§§ 3-4); wlien the daily sacrifice
(" tamid ") was offered, and regulations concerning
other sacrifices (§§ 5-7).

Ch. iii. : Furtlier regulations regarding the divine
service in the Temple on the Day of Atonement ;
how the high priest was to bathe five times and
wash himself ten times on that day ; 'regarding the
various dresses he should wear for the different serv-
ices (^§ 1-7); the presentation to the high priest
of a bullock, and the confession of sin he was to
speak while holding his hands on the bullock's liead
(§ 8); the casting of lots for the two he-goats; Ben
Gamla had made two golden dice for this purpose,
and was therefore mentioned with words of praise
(^ 9), as were also Ben Kattina, King Monobaz,
Queen Helene, and Nicanor, who had all introduced
improvements or embellisliments in the sanctuary
(^ 10); words of blan)e directed against tlie family
of Garmu for being unwilling to teach others how
to prepare tbc showbrcad; similar comment on tiie
family of Abtinas for refusing to teach tiie method
of compounding the incense ("ketoret"), and on
Hugros (orllugdos)ben Levi and Ben Kamzar. who
refused to give instruction in singing and writing
respective!}' (§ 11).

Ch. iv. : How lots were cast by the high pri«st
over the two he-goats, one of which was slaugh-
tered, while the other was sent to Azazel; how the
high priest marked the he-goats by placing a red
ribbon upon the head of one and around the neck of

tl, •
h,,

lurs of the Ji
ment
and 1,.
Ch. V. : What wm

tl,

prayer hj
stone ("(■!
Temple, 1.,
of the Ark of
placed the iii
altar; and oii.
service on tiie Da

Ch. vi. : Wl ■•
Azazel; the <
high priest for a
upon the head of
the animal to Azii'
present in JeruKaliiii
zel's goat; how the
companied the goat 1
garding t!'
lein to til.

thrown down ; bow it wm) -
were us<'d tor
Temple tiiat .\ .

ness; how to the door of llic Hc'
ribi)on, which ttn '
rived in the wildt i

Ch. vii. : Tliccert'Oi
reading from t' '
and what he 1
by him; the remainder of
clcs of dress which he had
the service and when o
Thummim ; on what ■
mim were con^-' ''■ '

Ch. viii. : I{
Day of Alonenieiil . ii
abstain ; the means b;.
through sin-ofTorinc.
Atonement, a:
ment takes p .
througli tlie Day of A
one's fell"
doncd by ■
form of this
bourg, ill ' '■

The To-
chapters, and
tions of til' V
elliicai Mi.i\
mentione<l: ~ i
toyoufi.** "

Tosefla

and
Oemara.

10 liim'^'"' ''"•■

8). " i

liv

liic Lnin mad i

oil.

worhl while thow laugh', by

Yoma [tion

Young' Men's Hebrew Associa-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

620

On the other hand, lie who leads others to sin is
prevented from doing penance, that he may not
partake of the eternal life from wliieh tliuse seduced
by him are excluded" (v. 10-11). Tlie Tosefta
defends those who in the Mishuah are blamed lor
refusing to give instruction, sjiying tliey did so
because they feared tliat, if they imparted their
knowledge, those whom tiiey taught might use their
attainments in the service of a temple of idolatry
(ii. 5-y;. Other items of interest in the Tosefta are
an account of the miraculous saving of the Gate of
Nicauor (ii. 4), and R. Jose's assertion that he had
seen in Home the curtain from the sanctuary of the
Temple in Jerusalem, and that it still had upon it
stains caused by the sprinkling of blood by the high
priests on the Day of Atonement (iii. 8).

Botli the Babylonian and the Palestinian Qemara
discuss and explain the various mishiiiuc maxims,
and contain in addition a wealth of liaggadic ex-
planations and proverbs, as well as many interesting
parables and narratives. The following passages
from the Babylonian Gemara may be quoted liere:
"If one is told anything by another, he must keep
it secret even though not explicitly reiiuested to do
so; only when he has received express permission
may he relate it further" (4b). "The First Tem-
l)le stood for 410 years, during which time 18 high
priests otliciated successively; the Second Temple
stood 420 years, and during that lime more than 800
high priests officiated" (9a). "During the time of
the Second Temple the people stiulied the Law, ob-
served the commandments, and did deeds of char-
ity; onh' the causeless hatred between the factions
brought about the destruction of the Temple and
the fall of the state" (9b). It is told liow Ilillel
endeavored to study the Law in spite of his pov-
erty, and how he, with danger to his life, attempted
to attend the lectures of Shemaiah and Abtalion.
It is likewise related of Eleazar ben Harsum that, in
spite of his wealth, lie led a life of self-denial in
order that he might study the Law (35b). Another
interesting passage narrates how the Jews, on their
return from Babylonia, succeeded in rooting out
from among themselves the existing tendency to
idolatry (G9b). A description is given (73b) of the
mode of questioning the Urim and Thummim, and
of the manner in which their replies became visi-
ble upon the stones; the passage g§ 7.5a-76b tells
how the manna fell, how thick it lay upon the
ground, and how it tasted. It is related in § 83b
that once when R. Meir, R. Judali, and K. Jose vis-
ited an inn the first-named formed a correct estimate
of the innkeeper's character.

■' J. Z. L.

YORK : Capital town of Yorkshire, England, and
scat of a metropolitan see. In the Angevin period it
was the second city in the kingdom, and Jews flocked
thither in considerable numbers. It is recorded
that at the coronation of Richard I. two "noble"
Jews of York, Joce and Benedict, went up to Lon-
don, probably as a deputation from the York com-
munity. During a riot whirh fnllowod the festivi-
ties Benedict was forced to submit to baptism, but
was permitted by Richard to revert on tlie following
day (Ilowdon. "Chronica," f(l. Stubbs, iii. 14); he
died shortly afterward at Northampton. Joce es-

caj^ed and returned to his home in Y'ork, which was
looked upon as a royal residence on account of its
strength and inagnilieence. He had been one of the
agents of Aaron of Lincoln, among whose debtors
was one Richard de Malbis, who in 1182 had paid
i'4 out of the great debt which he owed to Aaron.

De Malbis and others of the York nobles wlio were
contemplating joining Richard in the Third Crusade
took advantage of a tire that broke out in the city
to raise a tumult against the Jews. The houses of
Benedict and Joce were attacked, and the latter ob-
tained the permission of tlie warden of York Castle
to remove his wife and children and the rest of the
Jews into the castle, where they were probably
placed in Cliirord's Tower. This was surrounded
by tiie mob, and when the warden left the castle the
Jews in fear would not readmit him. He appealed
to the sherilT, who called out the county militia;
and Cliirord's Tower was surrounded for several
days. A certain Piemonstratensian monk paced the
walls each morning and took the sacrament, as if
the work of bounding on the mob was a holy office.
He was crushed by a stone thrown by the be-
sieged Jews; this changed the wrath of the mob to
a frenzied madness. When the Jews in Clifford's
Tower found that they had no alternative but to sub-
mit to baptism or perish at the hands of the mob,
YoM-ToiJ OF JoioNY, who had become their chief
ral)l)i some time before, recalled the practise of
their ancestors, and urged that they should kill
themselves rather than surrender to the cruelty
of llicir enemies. Those who disagreed were per-
mitted to withdraw; and the remainder, having set
tire to their garments and goods that these might
not fall into the hands of the mob, found refuge in
death. Joce with his own hand cut the throat of
his wife, Hannah, with the knife used
The in shehitah ; and finally Joce was killed

Massacre, by Yom-Tob, who then stabbed him-
self, being the onh' person of the
number to take upon himself the crime of suicide.
In the morning the few who had withdrawn sum-
moned the besiegers, who killed most of them, send-
ing the remainder to London in the liandsof the sher-
iff'. The mob searched the castle for the Jews' deeds
of indebtedness, and, not finding them, hastened to
the minster and took the deeds from tlie cathedral
treasury, thus showing the real motive of their
acts.

William de Longchamp, the ruler of the kingdom
in Richard'sabsence, wasmuch incensedat thisinsult
to the royal dignity, the Jews being under the king's
protection. He accordingly marched to York, im-
posed heavy fines on fifty-two of the chief citizens,
and banished Richard de Malbis and various mem-
bers of the Perc3% Faulcoubridge, and Darrcl fami-
lies, who had clearly been the leaders of the riot,
and each of whom, according to unimpeachable
evidence, was ind'ebted to the Jews. Richard de
^Malbis returned from Scotland ten years later, when
he "obtained warren " for his landat Acaster Malbis,
five miles south of York, the name of which still
recalls the arch vi'lain of the York tragedy.

For some time after this there is no record of
Jews at York. Among the contributions to the
Northampton donum of 1194 none are mentioned as

621

TIU: JEWISH ENCYCLOPKDI

comiug from York, altliough it was Ih. „ , ,,,,,1 Htv
111 the kingdom; hut in ilic- early part of tl,e tliir-
tcentii (x-ntury Jens began again to
Later settle there, lu 12U8a Jewessof York
History, was murdered, three Christians being
suspeeted of the crime; a rharge of
murder was brought against tiiem by Mil,, her hus-
band, while lier brotiier Benedict brought a similar
charge against Milo himself ("Select Pleas of the
Crown." Selden Society, i., Nos. 59, 103) Joee's
son. Aauon of Youk, became the chief Jew of the
kingdom in the reign of Ilenrv III., bein- presl)vter
or cliief rabbi, of England for a short time in mi'
The widow of Aaron of York claimed dower from
Thomas Kyme of Northampton, and in 1-2T0 at-
tempted to re-
cover a consider-
able number of
debts due to her
deceased hus-
band ( K i g g ,
" Select Pleas of
the Jewish E.\-
checjuer, " pp.
52-53, London,
1902). When
the regulation
was issued per-
mitting Jews to
reside only in
certain towns
where arch a;
were kept for
the preservation
of Jewish deeds,
York was in-
cluded in the
list, showing
that it was still
an important
center of Jewi.sli
c 0 m m e r c e i n
1272. Among
the eminent
Jews of London
mentioned at the
time of the ex-
pulsion was Bo-
namy of York.
Oiitliee.ximlsidn

of the Jews from England the lands and chattels of
those living in York fell into the king's liauds. The
Jewish burial-ground at York was between St. Morris
and the l^iver Fosse, and the .synagogue Avas on tlie
north side of the Jubbergate, in close pro.ximity to
the castle, under the waidcn of which the Jews of
the city were placed by the king's authority.

Since the return of the Jews to England there lias
been no congregation at York, but a few Jewish
tailors have settled there in recent years (E. S.
Rowntree, "Poverty, a Study of Town Life." p. 11.
London, 1903), and for their lienefit a synagogue was
erected in the Aldwark in 1892.

M
I'

YOSIPPON. >,. •'•

YOUNG MEN'S HEHREW ASSOCIATION

('oniMii

the I'm:

pliysical ill,

first • .'

or^..

eon ,N. jx-o, Tlie b.

May a, 1 ^ ;

Sanger, '

first I)re8ideui wjis U-w|ii JI,>

Clifford's Tim--

(From ft

which w:
Public Li

f... .....

that the i|
down'

of Wli.

In 18»5. h

Binr.iooRAriiY: Dralce, Etmrnrum, pp. .IT. fl-l-9<>. 22S, 2.V)-2r>4.
2><'y. 27~, ;i2'2: naiiics. Yiirh, London. lsy2. Index : Ilarunivc.
York, ii. ;!8(»-;iSS, ,-)r>8: Twvford and (irilllths. H-i^ni- ■■(
York Castle, pp. 2.">-3o; 11. Davies, The Miilinnl Jt}i.< ■■'

avi-nii
by t
secoii.
tiirc.

wiiicli

Young Uen'B Hebrew Asaocia-
Yudan [tion

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

622

volumes for reference), a gj'mnasiuin, and rooms for
recr&ition. In addition to evening classes in a
large number of subjects, the association holds re-
ligious services on Friday evenings, and has estab-
lisiied a vacation camp. For the year ending April
30, 1905, the total attendance was no less than 166,-
289: the income was $39,423.21; and the disburse-
ments amounted to §38,673.32. Percival S. Menken
has been president of the association since 1895.

The Young Men's Hebrew Association of New
York city is the parent institution of similar organi-
zations that have been established throughout the
United States. In 1875 there was founded in the
city of Philadelphia, Pa., a Young Men's Hebrew
Association, which has continued in existence to the
present time. It is located in a rented building;
and its activities consist principally in the delivery
of public lectures during the winter season, an an-
nual ball, and tlie encouragement of literature and
of debating societies, besides numerous classes, a
gymnasium, and entertainments. It also awards
prizes for essays; and several periodicals have been
issued under its auspices. Joint public debates
have been held at various times between the Phila-
delphia association and that of New York. The
former has a small library for the use of members.

The Young Men's Hebrew Association of New
Orleans, La., has been established for a number of
years. It is largely devoted to social purjjoses, and
therefore performs for the most part the functions
of a club. The handsome building occupied by the
association for a number of years was recently des-
troyed by fire; it contained a ballroom, a billiard-
room, parlors, meeting-rooms, and a library. This is
one of the principal Jewish organizations of the city.

In St. Louis, Mo., there is a Young Men's Hebrew
Association of considerable size and importance. It
attempts to combine the features of both the New
Orleans and the New York organization ; social pur-
poses, however, predominate, and in its functions
and activities it is a club rather than a philanthropic
association like the New York branch.

San Francisco, Cal., has a Young Men's Hebrew
Association with a considerable membership. It is
conducted practically on the lines of the organiza-
tion in New Orleans, being confined lai'gely if not
exclusively to club features.

In Louisville, Ky., there is a Young Men's He-
brew Association; but it is not in a flourishing con-
dition, and it seems to be very difficult to arouse in-
terest in its welfare.

In Washington, D. C, there was for a number of
years a Young Men's Hebrew Association; but for
causes similar to those which affect the organization
in Louisville, Ky , it was .some time ago abandoned,
and has not since been revived.

Chicago, 111., has never had a Young Men's He-
brew Association of any significance.

In addition to those mentioned above, there are
numerous other Young Men's Hebrew

Smaller Associations of more or less impor-
Institu- tance throughout the United States.
tions. In Springfield, Mass., there is an a.sso-
ciation which was established a few
years ago and v.-hich is principally a social and liter-
ary organization. Memphis, Tenn., has for a num-

ber of years supported a Young Men's Hebrew
Association, which follows closely in its methods the
branch in New Orleans. It is one of the principal
Jewish organizations in Memphis, and performs to
a large extent the functions of a social club, dra-
matic performances being among the entertainments
provided by its members.

The Young Men's Hebrew Association of Boston,
Mass., is now located in a home of its own, the gift
of a public-spirited -lewish citizen, and has recently
been reorganized, being devoted chiefly to philan-
thropic and benevolent work. It maintains public
classes, debating and literary societies, religious
work, a library, reading-rooms, and other features,
in all of whicn it follows closely the lead of the
New York organization.

In the following cities Young Men's Hebrew As-
sociations have been established on a small scale,
confining themselves principally to social activities,
and serving as small social clubs: Nashville, Tenn. ;
Mobile, Ala. ; Savannah, Ga. ; Stamford, Conn. ;
Chelsea, ^lass. ; Wilkesbarre, Pa. ; Salem, Mass. ;
Milwaukee, Wis. ; Baltimore, Md. ; Newport News,
Va. ; Fort Worth, Tex.; and Newark, N. J.

J. P. S. M.

YOZEROT : The collective name for the piyyu-
tim introduced in the recitation of the morning serv-
ice on the festivals and on special Sabbaths through-
out the year in the Northern rituals (see Zunz, " S.
F." pasnin). These hymns are termed Kkuobot if
intercalated in the repetition of the 'Amiu.\h, but
are called in turn " Yozer " (creator), " Ofan " (angel),
"Me'orah" (light), "Aliabah" (love), "Zulat" (be-
sides), and "Ge'ullah " (redemption) if introduced in
the blessings which precede and follow the Shkm.\'
at the points where these respective words or sub-
jects occur in the ordinary liturg}-. The benedic-
tion " Yozer " coming first, its title has been extended
to cover the whole class of introduced hymns, and,
even further, the section of the service itself that
centers around the "Shema'" as a whole. The
modern tendency is to omit the " Yozcrot" because
their recitation results in excessive prolongation of
the services (comp. H.\zzan and Litukgy).

Owing to the comparative lateness of their adop-
tion into the ritual, there is much less uniformity in
the traditional melodies for these piyyutim than for
any other section of the synagogal melody which
dates from before the modern period. The scheme
discussed under KEUonor is sometimes followed ;
but more generallv the hazzan founds his intona-
tion, with much freedom of treatment, on the prayer-
motive or model musical interpretation of the par-
ticular service in which he is engaged (see Misic,
Svx.\oo(J.\L). When he departs from it, his florid mel-
ody is conceived in the spirit of modern instrumental
virtuosity (comp. "Al ii.\-KrsiiONi.M)or closely repro-
duces the old-world folksong of northeiii Europe
(comp. M.\'oz ZuK). But while following the local
tradition, he draws a sharp distinction not merely be-
tween the jubilant praise of the three festivals and
the pleading supplication of the Day of Penitence,
but also between the historical reminiscence of the
Sabbaths preceding Passover, with their proud ref-
erence to the glories of the Temple ritual, and the
agonized lament of those coming between Passover

623

THE JEWISH ENl U l.ui'Llii.

1
Y

'■u'm Hebrew

tion

and Pentecost, with their distressful memory of the
barbarity of tiie Crusaders uud otiier perseeutora of
the dark Middle Ages. Tiiis latter sentiment often
makesitself felt even amid the joyous melody of the
festival days (comp. Bekai.i Doni).

Whatever may have been the melodies to whieh
such piyyutim were chanted when tirst introduced,
the great number of them in the Northern liturgies
produced so much inconvenience by lengthening the
service that the tunes were soon ignored, and tjic
verses themselves were quickly read through in an
undertone, only the concluding stanza being intoned
by the hazzau (comp. Kkhobot). In tlie Sepluirdic
ritual, however, tliemimber of " YozL-rot " is so small
that the originally chosen musical settings, also usu-
ally of a folk-song character, have been retained in
living tradition till the present (coin]i. Adon.m Be-
KOL SnoFAii; 'EtSu.\auk Razo.n; Yah Siii.meka).

A. F. L. C.

YSIDRO,

Gauuai.

ABRAHAM GABBAI. See

YXJDAN : Palestinian amora of the fourth cen-
tury. His name does not occur in the Babylonian
Talmud, whereas it is often mentioned in the older
Palestinian midrashim, as well as in the Jerusalem
Talmud, where he is repeatedly referied to as a hala-
kist (Pe'ah 16b; Dem. 25d; kil. 29b; Ma'as. Sli.
52c; 'Er. 20d ; etc.). He was a pupil of Al)ba(Yer.
Sotali 16c), and became a colleague of Jo.se, the
principal of the .school at Tiberias, with whom he
often engaged in halakic controversies (Yer. Pe'ah
16c; Sheb. 36d ; Side. 52a; etc.). He appears to
have held the office of judge simultaneously Avith
Jose, it being stated (Yer. Ket. 34ij) that the latter
once rendered alone a decision on a question of civil
hnv at a time when Y'"udan had fled to Nawe. This
statement concerning Yudan's flight from Tiberias
to Nawe, in Pera?a, is the only biographical datum
known with regard to his career, no mention being
made of his family relations, of his native place, or
even of the name of his father. His own references to
older contemporaries throw but little light upon his
persoualit}'. Mention is made of an objection rela-
ting to a halakic thesis wliich Yudan
personally brought to the attention of
Ze'era (Yer. Sanh. 24d); and several
comments which Yudan made upon
Ze'cra's halakic ma.xims have been
preserved (Y'er. Suk. r)4a; Yer. R. H. 57d: Yer. Ber.
61b). Of his pupils, Mana, the son of Jonah, is the
only one known (Yer. Pes. 33a; Ta'an. 66a). On a
certain da}' Yudan did not visit the school, and
Mana referred to liim the halakic questions whicii
had been brought up during the session (Yer.
Git. 47a).

This amora is one of tlie best-known transmitters
of haggadic literature, lie having handed down max-
ims of many of the older amoraim, as Hanina, Joiia-
nan, Hama ben Hanina, Simeon b. Lakish, and Josliua
ben Levi. He often transmitted also tannaitic max-
ims. In many instances maxims originating with
older amoraim have been ascribed to hm (comp.
Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor. "p. 242, note 8): and he often
places transmitted maxims side by side witli his own
(Yer. Ber. 18a; Gen. R. ix. 1). Together with his own

Relations

with

Ze'era.

(I.

hi.

tl' ,

chialj. Phinehaf*. ..

His in

dah. u

of Biblical pa

s: . ,

say in.

Soiiii 1
tioned Ik I

sulTcring. lie remnrkH llia-
cause of ])nin • •' • ■
body (Ex. xxi
in tiie world (

Hagg-adic ((;. t, i;
Maxims.

even as it rested ■
preached tln-Tunilt. u
books of Provcrh*. ]'■
omou (Cant. R., Ii
law of the Lord " in l^i. v .

whiie "the word of the H' ..

means the oral law (Penilj. i"2lli). To

— by whieh t<

the Sabbath h .

ber" (Ex. xx. «). Xh-ca

that day, tin y '

en with tlie u

xxiii. 115b). Tlic visit i

(Gen. xxxiii. 14) i- '

"saviors shall ci'i
verse 2 1 ; Yer. 'Ab. /mi
became a living ["ha_\
plained by Yudan as
nally created with a i
semliied an anima! ■ "
removed this app'
should not sn''
dah " oceurs i: . .
Yudan often int
to tiieir c
their vow.

and he also used tlic n
as a 1 ■
He in I .

instance, that tlir fart tin.'
curs live li
to the rtvr

supports the pious w
Barzillai -^ " ' "
gariled as
books (Gen. H

" I saw '. •

her 111-
as one pill
then tl—
"Abr,
were t
Isaac,
niel w
7; Gen. 1^

Ju-

Yudan ben Ishmael
Tusuf ibn Teshufin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

624

Many of Yudan'sexegetic interpretations give the
correct and simple meanings of the words or passages
to which they refer. Thus he explains, with regard
to Ps. ix. 18, that the word nf? in the first part of the

verse refers to the word T3Xn in the

Exeg^tic second part: "For even as the needv

Inter- shall not always be forgotten, so shall

pretations. not the expectation of the poor perish

forever" (Midr. Teh. to Ps. ix.). In I
Sana, xxiii. 27 the word IX7D denotes a messenger,
and not an angel (Midr. Shemuel x vii. 2) ; and the word
D'KDV in Ps. civ. 12 is to be interpreted "leaves" in
analogy with the word n'Sy in Dan. iv. 9 (Midr.
Teh. to Ps. civ. 9). Yudan also frequently employs
parables, the following being a representative exam-
ple: "Every one has a patron; and when he is in
need he may not suddenly enter into the presence of
his benefactor to ask for aid, but must wait at the
door while a slave or an inmate of the house carries
his request before the master. God, however, is not
such a patron; when man is in need he shall call
neither upon Gabriel nor upon Michael, but upon
God direct, who will hear him without any media-
tors" (Yer. Ber. 13a).

Bibliography : Bacher, Ao- Pal. Amor. ill. 237-272.
J. J. Z. L.

YUDAN BEN ISHMAEL : Palestinian amora
of the third century; probably a brother of Yannai
ben Ishmael. He solved the question whether in-
structors in the Law should be paid for their services,
by declaring that they ought to be remunerated for
the time during which they might have earned some-
thing by other work (Yer. Ned. 38c). The words " he
■weighetli the waters by measure "(Job xxviii. 25) were
interpreted by him as implying the law of God,
which is compared to water. The words of the Law
are given to each individual by measure; one is ac-
corded a knowledge of the Bible, another of the
Mishnah, a third of the Ilalakah, and a fourth of
the Haggadah, while many are learned in all (Lev.
R. XV. 2, where "ben Ishmael" should be read in-
stead of " ben Samuel ").

Bibliography: Frankel, Mebo, p. 95a; Bacher, A(i. Pal.
Amor. iii. 603-604.
J. J. Z. L.

YUDAN BEN MANASSEH : Palestinian
amora of the third centuiy. One of his halakic
maxims has been preserved in the Jerusalem Talmud
(Kil. 27a), and the Babylonian Talmud contains two
haggadic sayings by him, both based on the inter-
pretation of a Biblical word with varied vocaliza-
tion, and both referring to I Sam. ii. 2 (Meg. 14a;
Ber. 10a ; see " Dikduke Soferim " on both passages).
In emphasizing the decorous mode of expression
adopted in the Bible, Yudan declared tliat "even
tho.se passages which enumerate the characteristics
of the unclean animals first give the marks of their-
cleanness" (comp. Lev. xi. 4-7); and this aphorism
is frequently quoted in midrashic literature (Lev.
R. xxvi. 1; Pesik. iv. [ed. Buber, p. 31a]; Nuni: R.
six. 1).

Bibliography : Bacher. Ag. Pal. Amor. 111. 604.

J. J. Z. L.

YUDAN BEN SIMEON (called Judah ben
Simeon in the Babylonian Talmud): Palestinian

amora of the third centurj' ; a contemporary of Jo-
hanan, who in his name transmits a ruling relating
to the law of inheritance, as well as a discussion
which took place between them (B. B. 114b-115a).
Reference is often made to a controversy between
Johanan and Yudan ben Simeon concerning written
and oral law (Yer. Pe'ah 17a; Meg. 74d ; Hag. 76d).
Several iiaggadic interpretations of Yudan 's have
been preserved; and of these many are of cosmo-
gonic and cosmological content, while others refer
to questions of natural histor}-. Among the latter
may be mentioned the following explanation of
Job xxix. 18: "The phenix lives a thousand years;
and at the end of that period its body shrinks, its
feathers fall off, and only a kind of egg remains.
From this egg new members grow, and the phe-
nix returns to life " (Gen. R. xix. 5). The giant
animals behemoth and leviathan, according to him,
were created in order to serve as quarries for the
pious in the future world. Those who have not
seen the hunts and animal contests among the
heathen peoples in this world will be found worthy
to view the chase in the world to come (Lev. R.
xiii. 3). In his haggadic interpretations Yudan em-
ploys parables also, explaining, for example, Hosea
xii. 4 by a beautiful allegory (Lev. R. xxvii. 6;
Num. R. X. 1). Moreover, he made use of the s\'stem
of NoT.\RiKox, interpreting the first word of the
Decalogue, x?. by decomposing the letters, so that
it read P^x lu?, i.e., "learn thousands," that is,
"study the numberless words of the Law " (Pesik.
xxii.).

Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ill. 604-607.
J. J. Z. L.

YUDGHANITES : Members of the Jewish sect
called " Al-Yudgliauiyyali," after the name of its
founder, Yudghan or Judah of Hamadan, a disciple
of Abu 'Isa al-Isfahani. Shortly after the defeat
of Abu 'Isa and his followers, the 'Isawutes, at Rai
(the ancient Rliaga?) earl}' in the eighth centuiy,
Yudghan conceived the project of forming a new
sect from the scattered followers of his master.
More prudent than the founder of the "Isawite sect,
Yudghan did not pretend to have been entrusted by
God with the mission of delivering the Jews from
the rule of the Gentiles and of making them politic-
ally independent, but confined himself to the role of
a prophet and teaciier, assuming the surname of
"al-Ra'i" (="the Shepherd"; not "al-Da'i," as
given erroneously by Shahrastani in his "Kitab al-
Milal walNihal," ed. Cuieton, p. 168).

Intlueuced by the doctrines of Sufism, which at

that time began to spread among the Mohammedans

in the land of the Magi, Yudghan set aside the literal

meaning of tlie words of the Torah in

Influence favor of a mystic or spiritual inter-

of Sufism. prctatif)n. Like the Sutis, he taught

that all religious beliefs, such as those

relating to paradise, hell, etc., are allegories; but,

on the other hand, he op]iosed the Sufic doctrine of

predestination, and declared that man is absolutely

free in the choice of good and evil and is therefore

responsible for his actions. From among the tenets

of the 'Isawites Yudghan retained the prohibition

of wine and animal food, and probably also the in-

625

THE JEWISH ENCYfl.nPFniA

Tu<J«« ber. ItfcmA*!

stitution of seven daily prayers instead of the three
rabbinical ones. In opposition to the ancient tra-
ditional view, according to which tlie Biblical ac-
counts of God's deeds and thoughts must be taken
literally, he asserted, probably under the inlluence
of the Motazilites, that one is not allowed to repre-
sent God -with material attributes, i.e., anthropo-
raorphically. Yudghan attached more importance
to praying and fasting than to the observance of the
ceremonial laws. He held that the laws concerning
the Sabbath and the festivals were not binding in
the Diaspora, but were observed merely as a remem-
brance.

Like Abu 'Isa, Yudghan declared that Jesus and
Mohammed were prophets, and that each was sent
as a missionary to his nation. According to Kirki-
sani, both Abu 'Isa and Y'udghan took this attitude
for diplomatic reasons; for had they not recognized
the post-Biblical prophets, their own claim to pro-
phetic inspiration would very likely have been chal-
lenged. Y'udghan gained many followers, who
maintained their beliefs long after the death of their
master. Their faith in him was so great that they
declared he had not died, but would appear again
in order to bring a new doctrine with him. Shahras-
taui relates that after the death of Yudghan a fol-
lower of his named Mushka founded
' ' Al- a new sect called " Al-Mushkaniyyah. "
Mushka- The tenets of the new sect were the
niyyah." same as those of the Y'udghanites, with
the single addition of an injunction
to forcibly impose the doctrines of Yudghan upon
all Jews. Mushka marched out of Hamadan with
a troop of followers, but they were all killed in the
vicinity of Koom (east of Hamadan and southwest
of Teheran).

According to some scholars, Saadia, in criticizing
in his "Emunot we-De'ot" (vi.) the belief in met-
empsychosis of "the so-called Yehudim" CDD
Dnin' D'NIpJK'), liad reference to the Yudghanites,
who were still in existence in his time. Although
this is not impossible, as maintained by Rapoport
(introduction to the "Hegyon ha-Nefesh " of Abra-
ham bar Hiyya, p. Hi.), it is highly improbable,
since no mention is made by either Shahrastam or
Kirkisani of such a belief among the tenets of tl>e
Yudghanites. It is more probable that Saadia re-
ferred not to a special Jewish sect, but to all those,
among either the Karaites Or the Rabbinites. who
held to the doctrine of Pythagoras.

BinLioGRAPHY: Shahrastani. Kitah al-Milal wfl'-^''?,"': ^^■
("ireton p. 168, London. IWti; Judnti Hada->«< . M/ W ' «-
Knfer. § 79; Kirkisani. in Harkavy. Le-hnro '" " ) '"'^ .V.
Yiiraeh in Graetz, //i«f. Hebr ed.. lil. Mi; J.-llln.K, iJu
trUge, p. 53 ; Gratz, Gesch. v. 191. j j^^^

YUHASIN, SEFER HA-. See Zacuto,

Abraham.

YULEE, DAVID LEVY: American politi-
cian; born in St. Thomas, West Indies, in 1811 ; died

in New York city Ocl. 10

uiond, Vii.. where he

HtudieH and the Inw L.

and Ixrcaiuc a planter. H<

from Florida '

DeiiKKriit. at I

He was later known m D

der til'

Htituli

elected United Btattiiiwnator from

ocral. ' ■" • :-

from 1

served also In the C<

a prisoner of • ■

the Civil war

Gulf RjiilrcMid of I

llimiu'ial and roniin' n 1 1 t" "

Cedar Keys, Fla.

BlBLlooRAPHT: AmeriMn Jtieiah War h

p. riS^ ; UvujrniihUiU Cuifj^ ' '

Wa«hlnffU)ii. D. ( ., '.»0

YUXY (YTJLEE). SAMT-t"
to England; born in M-igii'l'
of the eighteenth century; diedat i
in Jan.. 1872. IT
family, agents fdr
the wealthiest merchant flrm» In >'
Yuly went t<' V '
tive of the S
British government. He afi*rw»rd r

nently in England, V' " ' "

tion with Mogador. .

YUSUF IBN NUH. ABU
J(i(ii.rii 11. Noah ha Ha.hhi.

YTJSUF IBN TESHTJTIN
of Spain ill the eleventh ami ■-
was the only Almoravld ruler bo«UI« U
and he once endeav< -
Passing through Lu
flourishing Jewish rommunllr I!
itsrcpres«'nt:»
granted the.)

that the Jewish M<i»ifth «l
hundred
had agr'
half-millcnnluni the S\

He - ■ - ' ■

then ,

his protection and
(lid not aei '
Prol>het. 1
however, by pi
'A»k1 Allah ibn .»■

YA KUB. 8m

BlBLU>GR»!-">
J.

i.r&U

XII.— 40

Zabara
Zacuto

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

626

ZABARA, JOSEPH. See Joseph Zabara.

ZABDAI BEN LEVI : Palestinian amora of
the first geucratiuu (tliiul century). Pie belonged
to the scbolarly group of wbich Iloshaiab Rabbab
was tbe cbief (Yer. Deni. vii. 26a), and bis balakot
were transmitted by R. Jobanan (Zeb. 28b; Ker.
5a). Zabdai was particularly prominent in the
Haggadah and in Biblical exegesis, in both of which
be disputed with Rab, Joshua b. Levi, and Jose b.
Petrus. Thus the words "le-ruah liayom" (Gen.
iii. 8; A. V., "in the cool of tbe day ") are explained
by Zabdai to mean "the side of the setting of the
ma," in opposition to Rub's interpretation, "the
side of the rising of the sun " (Gen. R. xi.x. 8). The
phrase "Ka-'et hayyah " (Gen. xviii. 14; A. V., "At
the time appointed ") is explained by Zabdai as
meaning "in a year from hence." God made a
scratch on the wall, saying that when a year later
the sun should arrive at that mark Sarah would
bearason(Fesik. R. 6[ed. Friedmann, p. 24b] ; Tan.,
Wayera, 36; see also Pesik. xxv. 158a; Gen. R.
Ixxiv. 11; Lev. R. vii. 2).

Two proems to Lam. R. (Nos. 29 and 30) are by
Zabdai ; in the second of them he contrasts tbe dif-
ferent prayers of four kings with regard to their
enemies. David prayed to God that he might over-
take his foes and defeat them (Ps. xviii. 38) ; and his
prayer was granted (1 Sam. xxx. 8). Asa prayed to
God that he might pursue the enemy, but that God
would smite him; and it was so (II Chron. xiv. 12).
Jehosbaphat said that be was too feeble to pursue the
enemy, and prayed God to exterminate the foe while
he would sing the praises of bis divine helper; and
his prayer was satisfied {ib. xx. 22). Finally, Hezc-
kiah said that he had no strength even to sing the
praises of God, but be prayed that his enemy might
be routed while he himself would lie in his bed ; and
it so liappened (II Kings xix. 85). It is related that
Zabdai, having survived Joshua b. Levi, wished to
see him in a dream. Joshua accordingly appeared
to him, and showed him people with faces raised
and people with faces cast down. When Zabdai
asked the reason for tbe difference in posture, Joshua
answered that tho.se who arrived there with the
stud}' of the Law in their memories had their faces
raised, while those who bad forgotten it had their
faces cast down (Eccl. R. ix. 10).

Bibliography: Barher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ill. 640-642; Hell-
prln. Seder ha-D<jrot, 11.
.J. M. Sel.

ZABIM ("Sufferers from Discharges"); Ninth
tractate in the Mishnah and Tosefta of the sixth
Talmudic order Tohorot. It deals with the unclean-
ness caused by discharges from either man or
woman, the regulations concerning which form the
subject of l.,(.-v. XV. According to the Pentateuchal
law, when a man has a running issue out of his
flesh, or when a woman has a discharge of her blood
beyond tbe time of her menstruation, such per.son is
unclean. Anything upon which the sufferer sits, lies,
or rides is unclean ; so that any person sitting in the

same seat, lying in tbe same couch, or riding in the
same vehicle with one thus afflicted, or carrying any
vessel which the sufferer has used, is unclean until
the evening and must wash himself and his clothes
in water. If a person having a discharge touches
any one without having previously washed his or
her bauds, the individual so touched is unclean until
the evening. An earthen vessel that has been
touched by tbe suifercr must be broken ; a wooden
one that has been similarly defiled must be rinsed
with water. After the discharge has ceased tbe
afflicted one must count seven days, and at tlie end
of that term must wash his or her clothes and must
take a bath in running water; and on the eighth
day an offering of two doves must be brought, one
for a sin-offering and one for a burnt offering.

The treatise consists of five chapters, divided
respectively into six, four, three, seven, and twelve
paragraphs or mishnayot. It gives in detail all par-
ticulars of uncleaunessand purification, specifies the
degrees of the discharges which render an individ-
ual subject to the laws stated above, and mentions
what persons are subject to those laws and in
what way they cause vessels or other people to be-
come unclean. The contents of the respective chap-
ters may be summarized as follovvs:

Ch. i. : In order to be liable to all the laws men-
tioned above, a "zab " must have his discharge three
times, either all on one day or on two or three con-
secutive days; consideration of the length of the in-
tervals between the discharges.

Ch. ii. : All are subject to the laws of Zabim, in-
cluding proselytes, slaves, minors, deaf-mutes, and
eunuchs; description of the different methods by
which the zab is examined, and an explanation of
the manner in which he makes people and things
unclean by his touch.

Ch. iii. andiv. : Specification of the different ways
in which a man or a woman suffering from a discharge
makes unclean another person. For instance, if a
zab and a clean person sit together in a small boat or
ride together on a beast, even though their garments
do not come in contact the clean person becomes
unclean by the pressure ; but, according to R. Judah,
if both of them sit on a tottering bench, the clean
person does not become unclean.

Ch. v. : The ways in which a person becomes un-
clean by touching a zab, and also in which things
become unclean through the touch of the zab and
by touching other unclean things.

J. M. Set,.

ZABLUDOWSKI, ISRAEL (ISIDOR) :

Russian physician ; born at Byelostok, in the govern-
ment of Grodno, July 30, 1850. At the age of twelve
he wrote a Hebrew novel entitled "Ha-Yaldut we-
ha-Shaharut" (Wilna, 1863). In 1869 he was ad-
mitted to the military academy of medicine at St.
Petersburg (M.D. 1874), and seven years later was
appointed physician in one of the military hospitals
of southern Russia. During the Russo-Turkish
war he served as chief physician of a Cossack regi-
ment near Plevna, and so distinguished himself by

627

THE JEWISH ENCYCLUl'tUIA

■ J

his work that Alexander II. awarded liiin tlic second I
rank of the Order of Saint ytauislas.

In tlio field-hospital Zabiudowski's aiiemion was
attracted to the massage treatment praclisfd by u
Bulgarian monk named Makari, and, adopting this
as his si)ecialty, he was sent abroad by tiie Russian
government at the close of the war to perfe(!t liim-
self in the theory of massage. After visiting Vienna,
Munich, Paris, Amsterdam, and Berlin, he returned
to St. Petersburg in 1881, and was soon appointed
cliief piiysiciau in the hospital of the Preobrazhenski
regiment of the imperial guards. He tiien began to
make experiments in massage on persons in sound
health, and published a voluminous treati.se on this
subject in the " Voyenuo-Meditzinski Zhurnal " (St.
Petersburg, 1882). In the same year Zabludowski
settled in Berlin at the recjuest of Bergmann, wiiose
clinical assistant he became. There he published
several essays on massage, and in 1884 lectured on
this subject before the medical congress of Copen-
hagen. He is also the author of a long series of arti-
cles on his specialty, including a description of a
machine invented by him for the cure of writers'
cramp ("'Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift," 188G,
Nos. 26 (t seq.). In 189G he was appointed titular
professor of massage in the University of Berlin, a
position which he still (1905) holds.

BiBi.iofiRAPHY: Liebermann, in Ha-Mdiz, xxviil., Nos. 213-
214 ; Wohlener, ib. No. 02; Wrede, Dai< UeUUue Berlin, 111.,
s.v.
J. :\I. Skl.

ZABLUDOWSKI, JEHIEL MICHAEL
BEN HAYYIM : Russian Hebrew scholar and
author; born at Byelostok, government of Grodno,
in 1803; died there Nov. 14, 1869. He devoted him-
self especially to the study of theHaggadah; and in
addition to a long series of exegetical notes which
he published in various periodicals, such as " lla-Mag-
gid," "Ha-Meliz," and "Ila-Karmel," he wrote two
books: "Mish'an Mayim" (Wilna, 1861), a guide to
the true meaning of the haggadic passages in the
Talmud and Midrashim; and "Me Mikal" (ib. 1872),
a commentary and critical notes on diflicult passages
in the iVIidrash Rabbot.

Bibliography: Ha-Melif, Ix. 320; ZeltUn, Bibl. Post-Men.
dels. p. 325.
J. M. Sel.

ZACHARIAH OF KIEV. See Jud.mzinq
Heresy.

ZACXJTO, ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL:

Spanish astronomer mathematician, and historian;
born at Salamanca about 1450: died in Turkey after
1510. An astronomer of wide-spread reputation,
he was appointed professor at the university of ids
native city, and later at that of Saragossa. After
the Spanish exile, Zacuto settled at Lisbon, where
he was soon appointed court astronomer and his-
toriographer to John II. He retained his ollice un-
der D. Manuel, and in this capacity he was consulted
by the king regarding the practicability of the pro-
jected expedition of Vasco da Gania, which he ap-
proved and encouraged. The ships fitted out for
the expedition were provided with Zacuto's newly-
perfected astrolabe, which was the first to be made
of iron instead of wood. The great services ren-
dered by Zacuto did not protect him, however, from

tlie pi

>liLMli'.ri

son >

After

tukeu i)riHuncr. /

lived unti'

Turkey, i

In 1504. dun

cliroii '

to l.Vi

lure, and entitliiiK '

In lids w ■ '

law as ti ,

I)rophets. miK«-fl, and

acts and ni(iDum< ' "

as of suinu c)f ti.

manner Hpacc is given lo

,)„. ,...-. ..

His "Yu- p.,

hasin." .kI'

(d li.. ^ ..,
academics of Sum and p
author was fur fr'
and thus fell into
value to the stud.

The "Sefer Ini^ i.i
Shalom with many i :..
own (Constanliniiple, I'l'
Cracow in loNl. a' >
berg in 1^57, win ■
by Filipowski in London In
st"illatS;il
which w a-

title " Alnmnach Pi-i :
(Lciria, 1490). wl,
ajipended it tohis
wise tlie author of tlr
nat Zakkut."an n ••
to be still extant ;
No. 12): "Arbaini i
ogy ; and "n;is«f(it
Aramaic lexicon, of
A. Geiger Ju"Z. D. ^
Bini.iooRAPiiv ■ '^- '■ -'

(if (/)<• JltlK

ll.i;

ZACUTO. MOSES HEN MORDECAl
viateil T 01 R»bbi Mo».(i Z^
writer and poet
Oct. 1. 1C97. 1
birthplace whs Amu"
sK-rdam
lived in ^

Neheminh. Hcw«««p
' death ho cf
mann in " H
also a fellow stiitii'iit of i

inclin<-d to n •• ••" '

lime fasted '

Latin which

coidtl nn" '

continui

sierdam to Posi-n or I'.UjwI

Zacuto
Zadok

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

628

tcr of recommcndatiou wliich lie gave at Venice iu
1672 to the delegates who had come to Italy to col-
lect money for the oppressed Polish communities.
It was his intention to make a pilgrimage to Pales-
tine, but on the way he was persuaded to remain as
rabbi in Venice, where he stayed, with the excep-
tion of a short residence iu Padua, from 1645 until
the summer of 1673. He was then called to Mantua
at a fixed salary of 300 ducats, and remained there
until his death, twenty-four years later. His epi-
taph is given by Wolf'("Bibl."Hebr." iv. 1200) and
by LandshuthC'Ammude ha-'Abodah," p. 215).

Zacuto applied himself wiiii great diligence to the
study of the Cabala under Hayyim Vital's pupil
Benjamin ha-Levi, who had come to Italy from
Safed : and this remained the chief occupation of his
life. He established a seminary for the study of the
Cabala: and his favorite pupils, Benjamin ha-Kohen
and Abraham Rovigo, ofteu visited him for months
at a time at Venice or Mantua, to investigate caba-
listic mysteries. Zacuto was not without poetic tal-
ent, but his verses seldom rise above mediocrit}'.
He composed forty-seven liturgical poems, chietlj'
cabalistic, enumerated bj' Landshuth (I.e. pp. 216 et
seq.). Some of them have been printed in the festal
hymns "Heu Kol Hadash," edited by Moses Otto-
lenghi (Amsterdam, 1712), and others have been in-
corporated indifferent prayer-books. He wrote also
penitential poems ("Tikkuu Shobabim," Venice,
1712; Leghorn, 1740) for the service on the evening
before the day of New i\Ioon, as well as prayers
for Hosha'na Kabbah and similar occasions, all iu
the spirit of the Cabala. Zacuto was, moreover,
the author of a poem containing a thousand words,
each beginning with the letter "alef" ("Elef Al-
pin"; printed with a commentary at the end of the
"Iggerot ha-ReMeZ," pp. 43 et seq.); a long poem,
"Tofteh 'Aruk," or "L'Inferno Figurato" (Venice,
1715, 1744), in which he depicts the punishments of
hell; and the oldest dramatic poem in the Hebrew
language, which A. Berliner first edited under the
title " Yesod Olam" (Berlin, 1874).

Other published works of Zacuto's are "Shudda
de-Dayyane," a guide for decisions on commercial
law (Mantua, 1678; reprinted in "Ha-Goren," iii.
181 ei seq.); "Kol ha-HoMeZ" (published posthu-
mously), a commentary on the ^Mislmah (which he
knew by heart), with elucidations of the commen-
taries of Bertinoro and others (Amsterdam, 1719); a
collection of responsa with the decisions of contem-
poraries (Venice, 1760); and "Iggerot ha-ReMeZ,"
containing letters of cabalistic content written by
himself and others (Leghorn, 1780). He edited and
emended also the Zohar (Venice, 1663) and other
writings. A considerable number of his works,
such as a commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud,
homilies, and cabalistic writings, arc still unpub-
lished.

BiBLiofjRAPHV: Azulal, Shem ha-Gc<loUm. 1. 153: Dp Rarriog.
Arliol lie. Ian Viilan, p. 78; Dn\\i7.»i-\\. Znr (irachivhtc der
.JiUliifchcn Poexie. pp. 72 et scq.\ Hn-dtivru, iii. 1") it Kcq.:
Griitz, Oe)ich. Ix. 2fJl et Ken., x. 170; Nepl.(iliiroiKii. Tulnlot
Oeilole Yisrael, ]).22o; Steln.schnelder, (.'<((. limll. col.s. litH9-
li«i; Zunz, Liternturgesih . pp.440 et feif.: Fiirst, 7?i;)L
Jml. 111. 201 et seq.; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Duiik.t Brit. Mua.
pp. 588 et 8e<j.

J. M. K.

ZADDIK. See H.\sidim.

ZADDUKIM. See Saddccees.

ZADOK: 1. A priest, perhaps the high priest
during the reign of David. He was the son of Ahi-
tub (II Sam. viii. 17), but the attempt to trace his
genealogy back to Eleazar, the third son of Aaron,
as opposed to Abiathar, his contemporary and col-
league, who was regarded as a descendant of Eli
and considered a member of the house of Ithamar,
was first made by the Chronicler (I Chron. v. 30-34
[A. V. vi. 4-8]; comp. vi. 35-38 [A- V. vi. 50-53]),
thus assuring the preeminence of the Zadokites
over the descendants of Eli. In the beginning of
his career he was associated with Abiathar (II Sam.
XX. 25) and with his son {ib. viii. 17; I Chron. xxiv.
3, 6, 31). The hypothesis has accordingly been ad-
vanced that Zadok otticiated in the Tabernacle at
Gibeon (I Chron. xvi. 39; comp. I Kings iii. 4),
while the sons of Eli were stationed as high priests
at Jerusalem or, more probably, at Shiloh (comp.
Keil on I Kings i. 8). Such a division of functions
is very doubtful, however; and it is more plausible
to suppose that Zadok gradually won eqtiality of
rank with the sons of Eli by his good fortune in
gaining the favor of David.

According to the somewhat improbable statement
of the Chronicler, a certain Zadok, as a young man,
had been one of those who joined David at Hebron
and helped him Avin the crown of all Israel, his
hou.se then including twenty-two captains (I Chron.
xii. 29) ; and Josephus expressly identifies this Zadok
Avitli the high priest of the same name ("Ant." vii.
2, §2).

During the rebellion of Absalom, Zadok gained
still greater prominence. He and the Levites
wished to accompany the fleeing David with the
Ark of the Covenant, but the king begged them to
remain at Jerusalem, where thej' could do him bet-
ter service (II Sam. xv. 24-29; comp. 35), so that it
actually happened that Ahimaaz, the son of Zadok,
and Jonathan, the son of Abiathar, brought the king
an important message {ib. xvii. 21). In all these
passages Zadok is mentioned before Abiathar. Ac-
cording to the Hebrew text of II Sam. xv. 27,
David addressed the priest with the words "ha-ro'eh
attah," and the Vulgate consequently regards Zadok
as a seer, although this interpretation is incorrect.
These two dillicult words are emended by Well-
hausen to nriN t,"N"in |n3n, thus implying the prom-
ise of tlie high-priesthood to him. On the suppression
of the rebellion, the king sent Zadok and Abiathar
to the elders of Judah, urging them to hasten to bring
the monarch back {ib. xix. 12). Zadok again mani-
fested his loyalty to the king when he espoused the
cause of Solomon against Adonijah (I Kings i. 8 et
seq.), and in his gratitude the new king appointed
him sole high priest {ib. ii. 35). In his account of
this event Josephus states ("Ant." viii. 1, § 3) that
Za<lok was a scion of the house of Phinehas, and
eonsc([U('ntly a descendant of Eleazar.

Reliable historical data show that the high-priest-
hood remained in the hands of the Zadokites from
this time luitil the rise of the Maccabees. The de-
scendants of Zadok increased in '•ank and influence,
so that his son Azariah was one of the princes of
Solomon (I Kings iv. 2), and the Ahimaaz who mar-

629

THE JEWISH ENTYCLOPEDIA

ftTJf

riedu daughter of Solomon was probably anotlii-r of
Zadok's children {ib. iv. 15). Eitiier Zadnk liimscl;
or his grandson was the ruler of the Aaroiiites
(I Cliron. xxvii. 17), and Jerusha, the mother of Jo-
tham, is apparently termed the daughter of ZadoU
to emphasi/.e her noble lineage, since her father niav
have been a descendant of tlie lirst Zadok (II Kings
XV. 33; n Chron. xxvii. 1). A Zadok is also men-
tioned in the genealogy of Joseph, the father of
Jesus (]Matt. i. 14).

G- S. Ku.

2. Sadducean leader. The only data eoncerning
the origin of the Sadducees are based on certain
deductions drawn from their name, for a late rab-
binical source alone appears to be founded on actual
knowledge. Two i)U]iiIs of Antigonis ok Soko
are said to have misinterpreted their teacher's state-
ment that God should be worshiped without hope of
reward as meaning that there is no recompense, either
for good or for evil, in the world to ceme. These
two scholars, Zadok and Boethus, are accordingly
regarded as the founders of the iieresies of the Sad-
ducep:s and the Bokthusians (Ab. R. N. recension
A, 5; recension B, 10). This statement is devoid of
hi.storicity, however, since it incorrectly postulates
denial of the future life as the cardinal doctrine of
the Sadducees, while it betrays also its lack of au-
thenticity b}' making the origin of the Boethu.sians
synchronous with the ri.se of Sadduceeism, altiiough
the former sect derived its name from the high
priest Boethus, who flourished during the reign of
Herod.

The only historical portion of this legend is the
part which connects the origin of each of the.se
heresies with a personal name, for tiie Hebrew
D'pnV is derived from pn^* just as are D'Din'3 from
Dirrn and D''D"np''QN' fi'om DITip'DK. while Herod
was the eponyni of the party of the Hekouians.

Geiger's theory of the derivation of the name of
the Sadducean party from the Biblical appellative
"Zadok " is, therefore, the most probable one. This
name p)'])i, which occurs ten times in Ezekiel, Ezra,
and Nehemiah, is transliterated laMoiK throughout
by the Septuagint in these books, as well as in other
passages in Lucian's version of the Septuagint.
The same form appears in Josephus; and even
a manuscript of the ]\Iishnah (Codex De Rossi No.
138) vocalizes the name of the rabbi Zadok p^iy
(= "Zadduk ")• The only moot point is the prob-
lem whether the appellation of the sect is to be de-
lived from a Zadok who is no longer known or
from the priestly family of the Zadokites. An un-
known Zadok was assumed to be the ftnuider of the
Sadducees by Kuenen (though he later adopted the
opposing theory), Graetz, 3Ioutet, and Lagarde,
while the second hypothesis, which is the more prob
able, was maintained by Geiger and Schiirer, and
is now confirmed by the Hebrew Ben Sira (see
Schechter's note in "The Wisdom of Ben Sira."
1899, p. 35). A third conjecture, deriving the word
from the adjective pnV, which was advocated in
ancient times by Jerome and Epiphauius. and was
defended more recently by Josei)h Derenhourg and
Hamburger, is untenable both on linguistic and on
historical grounds.

From the days of Solomon the descendants of the

UTonoin

saleni. in i

Zaddk " are ..

disdiargo tlielr holy of!

xliv. l.-l. xlviii '•

Temple cirtain i

of Ithamur. tho /

aristocracy, no i.

many prie-iliy di

of Klcazara^

Eedesiastici:

alone rcceivi

fact that

adopIi<l ; ..

gave ll>e teac

bore their nana-,

scions of the pi

itcs, were preemini-ntiy .
See Saddi-ckkh.

Bini.Kxwuriiv
J. (1. ilU til .
tint.'. T, i-.:i

3. Tannn of priestly ci
He llourisiied in tlic '
the beginning of t;
to an account which mu«t n ■
of life, he was taken :.
was sold to an ari.si
tempted to force him to •
slaves, but Zadok n'
did he belong to one
of Jerusalem, but that I.
whereupon his niistp —
R. N.,ed. Scherhter
A historical account
Temple vouches f<ir
During a sucriflcc a
priests, perhaps '
precedence of till
was stabbed. There vrnn g'
the cong'
stejis of ;

accustomed to give tbc l*-
calmed tlio people !•
x.\i. 1 et ffij. Since. :
that only priests were «:
Zadok must have Ik- •
Voma. i. 12; Y.r V

Togetlicr with '
b. Hananiah. '
of the son I'f '
sion OumaUcI H

hill,.
Zadok and !■< l- m •

Gamaliel.

worsliipof OikI. ^*

and V.
cher. 1.
dinir. butata;

i ..
of the dissolution of Ibe JewMli «•!•, *

8 Kr

Zadok Gaon
Zalinski

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

630

clared that be liad fasted forty years in his endeavor
to prevent the destruction of the Temple. When
this took place, however, Zadok had become so weak
that Johanau b. Zakkai was obliged to appeal for
him to Titus, wlio had liim treated by a physician
(Git. 56b; Lam. K. i. 5). Zadok moved to Jabueh
together with Johanau b. Zakkai and other scliolars,
and his few halakot, found in "Eduy. vii. 1-5, date
from this period. He was the most influential per-
sonality in Gamaliel's tribunal, and always sat at
the right of the latter (Ycr. Sauh. 19c), while on one
occasion he was present at the eating of the sacrifi-
cial lamb in Gamaliels house (Pes. 74a). Together
with Juhauan b. Zakkai and Gamaliel, he rendered a
decision on the conditions under which food might
be eaten outside the Tabernacle during the Feast of
Weeks (Suk. 26b). Although he was theoretically
an adherent of the principles of the Bet Shammai,
in practise he always made his rulings in accordance
with the Bet Hillel(Yeb. lob). His motto in etliical
matters was, "Do not make learning a crown to
make thyself great thereby, nor a spade to dig with
it" (Ab. iv. 5). The thirtieth chapter of the Tanna
debe Eliyahu Rabbah relates that Zadok once came
to the place where the Temple had formerly stood.
In his grief at the desolation he reproached God
Himself, whereupon he fell into a sleep in which he
saw God and the angels mourning over the destruc-
tion of Zion. The Pirke de-Rabbi Eli'ezer ascribes
to Zadok liaggadic sayings concerning the descend-
ants of the giants (ch. xxii.), the sacrifices of Cain and
Abel (ch. xxi.), the Flood (ch. xxii!.), and Noah's
prayer in the ark (ib.).

Bibliography: Bacher. Aa- Tan. i. 43-46; Derenbourg, Hist.
pp. *42-:iU; Zaciito, Sefer Yiihatiiti hd-Shahtm, ed. Filipow-
ski. pp. 32a, T6a, b; Frankel. IJnrkf hd-Mislmnli. pp. 70-71;
Heilprln, Seder ha-Di>r()t. ii. 319-32(J; Burhler, Die Prie,Hter
und (ier Cultus, p. 126, note 1, Vienna, 189.5; Neubauer, G. T.
p. 37.5.

J. S. O.

ZADOK GAON (called also Isaac b. Ashi) :
Gaon ol .Suia from 820 to 821. On the basis of a re-
sponsum quoted in the "Sha'areZedek "(iv. 311, No.
2), Weiss refers to him as follows iu his " Dor " : " If
a case was brought before him and he found the de-
fendant guilty, but was unable to inflict an adequate
punishment, he would to say to him: ' I charge thee
to go to the man thou hast injured and implore his
pardon or give him an indemnity.' If the accused
did not obey this injunction, he was excommuni-
cated." Zadok was one of the first geonim to take
exception to many of the Talmudic regulations,
although he inclined toward rigor rather than
leniency in their application.

Bibliography: Gratz, Gesc/i. 3d ed., v. 196; Weiss, Doc, iv.
27, 43-4.5.

s. S. O.

ZADOK 'IMANI or 'AMANI (^JX^DV) : Afri-
can liturgical poet, who wrote the following eight
poems that are found in the Tripolitan ^lahzor:
(1) "El hekal kodsho"; (2) "Le-bet el banu"; (3)
"La-Adonai et yom ha-shebi'i berak"; (4) "Meholel
kol be-kaw yashar"; (5) "Ezri yabi el mc-'ayin ";
(6) "'Al rob 'awoni"; (7) " 'Ainmeka le-shahareka
kamu"; (8) " Ki bo Elohim dibber be-kodsho." No.
3 consists of thirteen strophes, and each of the others
consists of five strophes. Nos. 3, 4, 7, and 8 are to

be recited on the Sabbaths of the month of Elul.
Only No. 3 bears the complete signature pnv
'JNOy; No. 7 is signed 'JXJ^y, while all the others
show only the name \y\''\'^. Nos. 3 and 8 are both
"mustajabs"; in the former every strophe begins
with "la-Adonai" and terminates with "Adonai,"
while in the latter the strophes begin with "ki bo"
and rime in "to."

Bibliography : Zunz, Liter aixirgesch. pp. 598-.599.
J. M. Sel.

ZAG. See Benveniste, Isa.\c; >I.\lea, MeIr
DE; Isaac ibn Sid; Alfonsine Tables.

ZAHALON {\hr\'i) ■• A family of Spanish ori-
gin ; represented by members who, after the exile
from Spain, settled in Italy and the Orient, where
the}' distinguished themselves as rabbis and scholars.

Abraham ben Isaac Zahalon : Talmudist
and cabalist of the second half of the sixteenth
century. He was the author of: "Yad Ha-
ruzim," on the Jewish and Mohammedan calendars
(Venice, 1594-95); "Yesha' Elohim," interpretations
of Estlier compiled from earlier commentators (ib.
1595); and "Marpe la-Nefesh," a cabalistic disserta-
tion on ethics, especially on penitence, according
to the system of Isaac Luria (ib. 1595).

Bibliography: Furct, Bih. Jud. iii. 541 : Steinschneider, Cat.
Dodl. col. 711 ; Fuenn, Kcneset Yisrael, p. 58.

Jacob ben Isaac Zahalon : Italian rabbi and
jiliysician; born at Rome 1630; died at Ferrara
1693. Acquiring early a high leputation botli as
physician and Talmudist, he was called to the rab-
binate of Ferrara and held this position until his
death. He was the author of the " Ozar ha-IIayyim,"
a medical work in thirteen jjarts, the last of which
remained unpublished for lack of funds (Venice,
1683), and of the "Margaliyyot Tobot," an abridg-
ment of the " Hobot ha-Lebabot " of Bahya b. Jo.seph
ibn Pakuda, divided into thirty chapters correspond-
ing to the number of days of the month, each chap-
ter being followed by prayers for various occasions
(i/j. 1665). In his preface Jacob enumerates the fol-
lowing works which he left in manuscript; " Mora-
shah Kehillat Ya'akob," on jMaimonides; "Yeshu'ot
Ya'akob," a commentary on Isaiah; "Titten Emet
le- Ya'akob," homilies on the Pentateuch; "Kol
Ya'akob," an index to the Yalkut, called also "Or
ha-Darshanim " ("Ozrot Hayyim," No. 30); "Zaha-
lah u-Rinnah," on the Song of Solomon; "Kohelet
Ya'akob," on Ecclesiastes ; " Derushim 'al-Daniel,"
on Daniel; " Milhemet Ya'akob," subject unknown;
"Ozar ha-Shamayim," on theology and philo.sophy;
antl "Shubu Elai," on tlie Siiema' and the benedic-
tions which accompany it.

Jacob was much consulted on halakic questions
by his contemporaries. His decisions and responsa
are found in the "Teshubot ha-Remez " of Moses
Zacuto (§ 36), in the "Paliad Yizhal^" (s.v. yp
Tnx DVT nJC) of Isaac Lamprouti, and in the
"'Afar Ya'akob" of Nathanael Segre; the last-
named declares that Jacob was one of the three most
learned men of his generation.

Bibliography : Nepi-Ghirondi, Tnledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 130;
sicinscliiK'idor. Cdt. liodl. col. 1265; Fuenn, Keneset YUsrael,
p. .5(19; lurst, Bilil. Jud. iii. 541.

631

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Mordecai ben Jacob Zahalon : I'liysiciun and
nihbi of FtTiara; died tluTc Nov. m, 1748. He
wrote tJie foUovviug \voik.s: "Mi'gillat Nalmrot,"
desciibinir tlu; miraculous rescue of tlic .Icwisli com
munity of Fcriara from tlic iiiuiidation I liat occurred
in 17(17 (Venice. 1707); "Slie'elot we-Te.siiubol Meziz
u-Meliz," a lecture delivered at the Talmud Torah
of Feirara on tiie modulation of the priestly lilesKJii),'
(//'. 171.-)); and halakie decision.s (luotedhy Lam-
pronti in the " Pahad Yizhak," by Samson Mori)urgo
in his "Sliemesli Zedakali " (" Yoreh Dfah," ^ Gl).
and by Kaidiael Meldola in his ".Mayim Hab'bim "
(" Yoreh De'ali," § 7). Mordecai was "a talented He-
brew poet, and several of his religious verses on
local events are still recited in the synagogue of
Ferrara, while one of liis sonnets is also found at the
head of the poem " 'Eden 'Aruk."

Bini.ionRAPHY : Nepi-GhiroiKii. Tolciint Gcdiile YiftracU pp
22.H. 235; Cannoly. Ilixtoire des Medecim, p. 239; Sleln-
schneiUer, Cat. Ilndl. col. 1(17.").

Yom-Tob ben Akiba Zahalon: Talmudic
scholar of Constantinople in the second half of the
seventeenth century; grandson of Yom-Tob lien
Moses. He was the author of "She'elot u-Tcshu-
bot," containing 296 responsa and novellic on the
fifth and sixth chapters of the treatise Eaba ^lezi'a
(Venice, 1694). This collection includes many deci-
sions made by his grandfather, to whom the author
ascribes also a commentary on the Abot de-liabbi
Natan which is probably identical with that given by
Azulai under the title "Magen Abot."

Bini.iofiUAPHY: Conforte. Kmr ha-Dnrnt, p. 42a: .'\zula),

Slifin )in-(reiinlim, i. 7-t : St+'inscMneider, Cat. liodl. col.
1414 ; Fiieiin, Kcnccct Yisrad, p. 444.
.1. I. Bn.

Yom-Tob ben Moses Zahalon: Palestinian
Talmudist; rabbi at Safed ; born in loo7; died
about 1638. At the early age of twenty-five he was
requested by Samuel Yafeh, a rabbi of Constantino-
ple, to decide a difficult and complicated jiroblem
Avhich had been referred to himself (Zahalon, Re-
sponsa, No. 40); and he corresponded with most of
the autliorities of his time, one of his chief antago-
nists being the elder Moses Galante. Although a
Sephardi, Zahalon rendered a decision in favor of an
Ashkeuazic congregation in a controver.s}' wliich
arose between the Sephardim and Ashkenazim at
Jerusalem, and in his love of truth he did not spare
even his teacher, Joseph Caro {ib. No. 238), declaring
that theShulliau 'Aruk was written for cliiidren ami
laymen (ib. No. 76). Zahalon was the authorof a com-
mentary ou Esther, entitled "Lekal.i Tob " (Safed,
l.')77). He was the author of responsa and novelhe
which were published with a preface by his grandson
Yom-Tob (Venice, 1694), and he mentions also a
second part (ib. No. 102), of whicii nothing more is
known. He likewise wrote a commentary on the
Abot de-Rabbi Natan, entitled " 3Iageu Abot," whicli
is still extant in manuscript. In his preface lo this
latter work Zaiiulou terms himself Yom-Tob b. Mosos
ha-Sefardi, whence it is clear that the family came
originally from Spain, although it is not known when
it emigrated or where Zahalon was born.

BiDLiOGRAPHY : De Ross), Dizinnarin, s.v.; Nepi-Ghlrondl.
Tiilediit fiedolf YisrncU p. 20(5; Uiikes, in Onciif. Li(. Ix.
310: Steinsclineider. Cat. Dodl. col. 1414. , ^ ,.

E. c. L. GkI.

ZAKKAI
century ; coi

and one of
Sliab. 7!!'
Simron
foruKT lielni-
of Judah '
in the II ,
l)ali" (Zakkni Uv
•*we :■■'■■ '
the 1

once llirown inii
but were fuivr ' •
II. xcvji. !i: <
Zakkai ntljiined tu a
l>upils asked him Hi
long, lie said that h<
nirknatne and le
Kiddush of the -
once sold her en;
when she di.
he himself L. , . .
(Meg. 27b).
2. nnbyh..
i emigrated to j
turer in U. Jolianun
Saidi. 02a; and else
Yer. Shab. vii. 2. H
Ionian." The pi • iKiT^yy:

Babylon was the :
49a;"B. B. 4','b). 1
the e.xilarch .Mar "l klta (K«t
a haggailahi f 7 ' ' < ■ -
to lijive been

mons he gives an inter;
(Yer. Suk. 54c).

IJini.IOfiRAPIIY '■
prln, Sfdcr h

.1.

ZALINSKI, EDMUND LOT
Anieriean .vnldici iU: !
Prussian Poland. IH"<
emigrated to the 1
Falls. N. Y. He
there and at tlicSyrrK
tered the
lieutenatr -
gallantry at the I
till II. '
lieuti
the follo\^
II
el.

In lf<>*iih
Schor ' ■
of So:
becamr •

d; .

from t Ill-
sided in N

Zalinski inN
gun, an i-

KK\

1 » i'"^

Zalinski
Zan^will

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

632

scopic sight for artillery, and a system of range- and
position-finding for seacoast and artillery firing.

BinLlOGRAPHY: n'/io's Tf'hn in America, 19CV>; Kipling.
The Captire, In Traffics and Discovcri4\<, London, littH.
A F. T. H.

ZALINSKI, MOSES G. : American soldier;
born iu Nlw Vurk city Jan. 23, 1863; educated in the
public schools. He joined the regular army as a pri-
vate in 1885, and was appointed second lieutenant,
Second Artiller}', in 1889. Graduating from the Ar-
tillery School in 1894, he became first lieutenant.
Fourth Artillery, in 1895, and was transferred to the
Second Artillery in the same year. In 1898 he was
promoted captain and quartermaster, and since 1903
has been stationed at Washington, D. C, as major-
quartermaster.

Bibliography: American Jewish Year Book, 566.3, p. 2.
A. F. T. II.

ZALMUJJNA : Midianite king defeated and
slain by Gideon (Judges viii. 5-7, 10, 12, 15, 18, 21 ;
Ps. l.xxxiii. 12 [A. V. 11]). Zalmunna is ahva3's
mentioned together with Zebah, who was also a
Midianite king.

E. G. H. B. P.

ZAMENHOF, LAZARUS LUDWIG: Found-
er of the universal language "Esperanto "; born at
Byelostok in Dec, 1859. His father, Markus Za-
menhof, and his grandfather, Fabian Zameuhof,
were teachers of French and German, the latter being
the pioneer of general culture among the Jews of
Byelostok. In 1873 Markus Zamenhof removed
to Warsaw, where he became professor of German,
first at the Veterinary Institute, and subsequently at
the real-gymnasium. He was one of the three Jews
of his time who held such an official appointment,
and he became a state councilor. He compiled many
text-books, and was the author of a rabbinical phrase-
book in Hebrew (i., Warsaw, 1905) and a polyglot
phrase-book (i., ib. 1905).

Zamenhof pursued general medical studies at War-
saw and Moscow (M.D. 1884), and settled in Warsaw
as an oculist. He later practised at Kherson and Grod-
no, but in 1897 returned to Warsaw, where he now
(1905) practises among the poorer Jews.

Zamenhof 's reputation is due to the fact that he is
the founder of Esperanto, the new universal lan-
guage which has taken the place of Volapuk. The
idea of an international form of speech
Espe- was suggested to him by the polyglot
ranto. character of his native town ; four dif-
ferent languages were spoken there,
and to this fact he attributed the constant dissen-
sions and misunderstandings which disturbed the
city. In the gymnasium and at the urMver.sity he
threw himself heart and soul into the study of lan-
guages while pursuing his medical work ; but the
idea of Esperanto did not dawn on him at once. At
one time he entertained the idea of mathematical
con.struction, and later the claim of the dead lan-
guages, especially Hebrew, appealed to him. For
three years he worked at Yiddish and compiled a
grammar which is still unpublished, hoping that,
since Jud.'to-German was a modern tongue in use
among millions of his coreligionists, it 'might be
universalized. Discarding this idea in its turn, he

finally reached the conclusion that no language
could ever become a universal medium of commu-
nication if it identitied itself with any individual
nationality or country; it must be neutral. In 1878
he succeeded in building up such a language on the
basis of the Romance and Teutonic roots of modern
European tongues, but it was not until 1887 that, after
several unsuccessful attempts to find a publisher,
he gave to the world liis first brochure, published
anonymously under the pen-name of " Doktoro Espe-
ranto" (Dr. IIoi)eful).

The success of his pamphlet was immediate, and
from that time to the present Esperanto has steadily
increased in poi)ularity. In the following year the
Volapiik Society at Nuremberg ceased to exist, and
its place was taken by the first Esperanto club. In
1891 a second club was founded at Upsala, in
Sweden, St. Petersburg followed, with branches at
Odessa and in Siberia; France and Denmark joined
the movement in 1897; and Brussels and Stockholm
were included in the following year. The first Es-
perantist group in Paris was started in 1900, and the
next year Esperanto made its first ofii-
Spread of cial appearance on American soil in
the the city of Montreal. Since then as-

Movement. sociations for its study have been
founded in all parts of the world.
There are now about 120 societies in existence, and
the language is spoken by at least 200,000 persons.
At the St. Louis Exposition it was accorded official
recognition by the French sectional committee.
There is a large and constantly increasing literature
in Esperanto, and more than twenty journals are in
circulation, including a braille monthly magazine for
the blind, a Roman Catholic organ, a Socialist paper,
and an "International Scientific Review." Two
plays of Shakespeare, " Hamlet " and " The Tem-
pest," have been rendered into Esperanto, the former
by Zamenhof himself; and the language is also com-
ing into commercial use.

In compiling his universal language Zamenhof ap-
pears to have regarded primarily the needs of his
Yiddish-speaking coreligionists, whom he has de-
scribed as "speechless, and therefore without hope
of culture, scattered over the world, and hence un-
able to understand one another, obliged to take their
culture from strange and hostile sources."

In other writings and labors, unconnected with
Esperanto, Zamenhof has manifested great interest
in Jewish affairs. At one time he was an ardent
Zionist, and established at Warsaw the first Zionist
association (Friends of Zion). More mature refiec-
tion, liowever, caused him to abandon the idea of
a Jewish political nationality, and in 1901 he pub-
lished a Russian pamphlet on Ilillelism as a pro-
ject for solving the Jewish (juestion. The main
contention of this work is that the troubles of the
Jewish i)eople are due to "the pseudo-Palestin-
ian character of their religion " ; Judaism should
reform itself and become Hillelism, or, in other
words, a pure monotheism with no other law than
that of love of one's neighbor. The new Jewish
sect should, however, retain its ancient manners
and customs, but as traditions, not as laws. It
should also acquire .some simple medium of inter-
communication, which must not be Hebrew; and

633

THE JEWISH ExVCYCLOPEDiA

it should obtain a geographical center, which
would be the scat of a Jewish synod.

Bihliograpiiy: Esperanto and Its Oriuinntnr d, v„, ^
Illustrated Magazine, Jan.. 1905 "'"""«'"'' '" '^> »' ^ra

"^- I. H.

ZAMOSZ, ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC HA-
KOHEN : Polish rabbi and auti-Shabbelhaiaii of
the eighteenth century; rabbi of Tarlv. He was
very prominent in persecuting the Shabbethaians
who had established themselves in Podolia, and on
this subject he corresponded with Jacob Emden in
1759 and 1760. In the quarrel between Jacob Em-
den and Jonathan Eybeschiitz, Zamosz, as is evi-
dent from his letters reproduced in Eniden's "Shot
la-Sus," sided with Emden. Zamosz was the author
of "Bet Abraham "(Berlin, 1753), a work containing
two responsa followed by novella; on the Talmud.
Bibliography: Fuenn, Kcnesct Yisracl, p 22
•^- >[. Sel.

ZAMOSZ, ISRAEL BEN MOSES HA-
LEVI : Polish Talmudist and luathematiciun ; born
at Buberki about 1700 ; died at Brody April 20. 1772.
He was appointed one of the lecturers in the yeshi-
bah of Zamosz, but at the same time he occupied
himself with the study of secular sciences, particu-
larly with mathematics, and while there wrote many
notes on the " Yesod '01am " of Isaac Israeli and on
the "Elim " of Joseph Delmedigo. During his resi-
dence at Zamosz he also wrote liis"Arubbot ha-
Shamayim " (still unpublished), a work on descrip-
tive geometry and astronomy, in which many
haggadot relating to cosmogony are explained, witii
a vindication of their accuracy. About 1742, after
he had published his"Nezah Yisrael," Zamosz went
to Berlin, where he remained several years. There
he instructed Moses Mendelssohn in mathematics
and logic, and his scholarship was much appreciated
by Lessing (see Levinsohn, "Zerubbabel," i. 68).

Zamosz was a versatile writer, his knowledge
comprising rabbinics, religious philosophy, and sec-
ular sciences. The only works of liis published
during his lifetime were the "Nezah Yisrael"
(Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1741) and his edition of the
"Ruah Hen" of Ibn Tibbon or Jacob Anatolio. to
which he appended a commentary of his own (Jess-
nitz, 1744). After his death appeared the " Nezer
ha-Dema' " (Dyhernfurth, 1773), a work in poetical
prose on man's desire for lu.xury; the"OzarNeh-
mad " (Vienna, 1796), a commentary on the "Sefer
ha-Kuzari" of Judah ha-Levi; and the "Tub Jia-
Lebanon" (ib. 1809), a commentary on the " Hobot
ha-Lebabot " of Bahya b. Joseph. Like the " Arub-
bot ha-Shamayim," his "El)en Yisrael." a collection
of responsa, is still unpublished (comp. Levinsohn,
"Te'uddah be-Y'israel," ch. xlv.).

Bibliography: rarmoly. in 7?em*c One»fa/c. II. 333-,W ; n.
Cassel, introduction to his edition of the Cuzari, p. x.xxlll.:
Fuenn, Kenesct Yisrafl. pp. (>"() et seq.: Stelnschnelder. Cat.
Bndl. col. 1160; Zunz, iu Llebermann's Deutachcs I'oJAMd-
lender, 1853, p. 69.

J. M. Set,.

ZAMOSZ, JOSEPH BEN JACOB ISAAC:
Polish rabbi of the eighteenth century; rablii of
Zamosz. He was the author of "]\Ii.slinat Haka-
mim " (Lemberg, 1792), an analytical work on the
commandments, based on the ancient authorities and

showing wli

t«uch (" ml-illbre Toruh

the 8cril)eH Cmi

I wo parts: " "» ,

words of the uruicniH. a
istic novellii'. 'I"
di.x entitled ",M,.

notes on lliu -Beftr lm-.M
this book Z;r
wliicli cont:i
responsa. concoroing lh<

BnlLln(iHAI•||^

ZAMOSZ, ?EBI HIRSCH BE.V BENJA-

MIN : Ih iinun i.iblpj. L" n. "i ■ . .

in 1807. He wmt rubbi of k
eluding Brody and (V
<Ieatii lie held the n.

tiesof Altona. Hamburg, and W.

the author of s< v

most part of n-

Taln)ud, and casuists (-p<,

publication was a col' ■

Shidhan 'Aruk. Oru

entitled "Tiferet ;febi

his responsa are hI.so in. : ,

man's "Bipde Kehnniiah " u:

" Keter Kehunnah." No. 9.

BinLior.RAPHV : Fm-nn. KViirwf I'uriuJ •
Schneider. Cat. IUhU. rol. :.';jI,
.1.

ZAMZAM: A vr •■ ' •• • ^'
Mecca; identitied by I
from whieli Hagar and .
14; see Abraliam ibu Ezr.. ^

HaGAU in AllAHIC LlTKHAl

niedan Arabist.s i ^

of "zanun " (= '• :

Ishmael to fill tJie jar na -
Sale (quoted l>y H

s.r.) interpreted it

niology wa.s Egyptian and nH-ant

Hagar had bidchn I-'

when slie found the w. i

garded as niiraculnuii. and tlir wii:

high esteem, i- ....

e.\i)orted to ci

break their fasts with It . ;

to brighten thesicht, "

to the bevenige uf t

many Jews moisten ib

bath. The water of /

aid .students In the p-

Arabic count rips.

o
r.

BiBMOOIUrilT

HukIk-a, OUti'iiuir^

N| ?»iri

ZANGWILL. ISRAEL: K
tcrs; born in ''
young his p:i:
"tended the Ueil t •
to Ix)n(i'<n he

l>econiing a U

B.A. at Jyondon I

with the directors o( Uic *l1ka/1

;ii U( re-

Zang-will
Zaphnatb-Paaneah

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

634

Israel ZanjfAvill.

sign liis position, and he then devoted himself to lit-
erature. He had already shown considerable taste
in this direction, having edited and partly written
as early as 1880 an annual called "Purim"; and
shortly after leaving the Free School he published,
under the pseudonym "J. Freeman Bell," an elab-
orate novel written in collaboration with Lewis
Cowen and entitled "The Premier and the Painter"

(1888), a work some-
what in the style of
Lord Beaconsfield,
but with passages
of Dickensian humor
and with an entirely
original plot. He
had been appointed
editor of " Ariel, " and
for a time was asso-
ciated with a number
of young literati like
Jerome K. Jerome
and Robert Barr, who
represented what was
known as the " new
humor." This phase
of his work was rep-
resented by his
"Bachelors' Club,"
issued in 1891, and by "The Old Maids' Club," pro-
duced in the following year, each of these books be-
ing a series of fantastic sketches replete with the
wit and humor of topsyturvydom.

Meanwhile Zangwill iiad been contributing to the
"Jewish Standard " (edited by H. S. Lewis) a weekly
causerie under the pseudon3'm "Marshalik," com-
menting with freakish Jiumor on communal incidents.
He gave evidence also of higher powers and touched
a deeper note in two sketches, " Satan
His Jewish Mekatrig " and "The Diary of a Me-
Novels. shumad," contributed to M. H. Myers'
" Diary " (1888-89) under the pseudo-
nym " Baroness von S.," and afterward reprinted in
his " Ghetto Tragedies." These and his other works
(including a remarkable analysis of modern English
Judaism in "J. Q. R." i.) drew to him the attention
of the Jewish Publication Society of America, and il
requested him to write a novel on modern Jewish life,
which commi.ssion he executed in the well-known
"Children of the Ghetto, Being Pictures of a Peculiar
People" (Philadelphia and London, 1892), a work
that at once made him famous. The author's pro-
found knowledge of tiie life and problems of the
ghetto, his command alike of pathos and of humor
(especially in the first part of the book), his scintil-
lating style, and the evidence of the application of a
keenly logical intellect to the perplexities of modern
Judaism place this book of Zangwill's at the head
of artistic presentations of the ghetto. It attracted
very general attention, and was translated into Ger-
man, Russian, Hebrew (in part), and Yiddish. This
work was followed by "The King of Schnorrers"
(London, 1894), which also was translated into Yid-
dish, and by "The Dreamers of the Ghetto" (1898);
the former work applying to the London ghetto life
of the eighteenth century the bizarreries of the " new
humor," the latter work dealing with a series of his-

toric scenes ranging from the times of Shabbethai
Zebi and Spinoza to those of Lassalle and Disraeli.
In " The Dreamers of the Ghetto " Zangwill is not al-
together successful in reproducing the. past, but he
showsakeen insight into the characters of such men
as Solomon Maimon, Heine, and Beaconsfield.

In general literature also Zangwill has achieved
considerable success. His novels "The Master"
(1895), dealing with art life, and "The Mantle of Eli-
jah" (1901), treating of imperialism and the political
problemsconnected therewith, have been widely' read ;
and various shorter sketches, published by him in
volumes entitled "They That Walk in
In General Darkness" (1899) and "Gray Wig"
Literature. (19U3), show remarkable versatility
and brilliance. He contributed to
" The Pall Mall Gazette " a series of critical cause-
ries, part of which were republished under the title
"Without Prejudice" (London, 1896); and these
perhaps show Zangwill's ])owers in their most char-
acteristic form. He has also published many poems
and verses, including some striking translations from
the medieval Jewish poets that are now being in-
cluded in the authorized festival prayers of the Eng-
lish Jewish congregations. Most of these poems
have been collected under the title "Blind Children"
(Loudon, 1903).

Zangwill has written several dramatic sketches
which have been produced with more or less suc-
cess, among them curtain-raisers like "Six Persons,"
"Three Penny Bits," "The Revolting Daughter,"
and "The Moment of Death," a striking and origi-
nal melodramatic study produced at Wallack's
Theater, Xew York, 1901. In addition he drama-
tized his "Children of the Ghetto," which was pro-
duced with success in the United States, where it ran
for nearly a year. It was likewise produced at the
Adelphi in London (1899) ; but the Boer war diverted
public attention, and the play was withdrawn.
Zangwill's dramatization of his Christmas story
"Merely Mary Ann," written in 1893, was very well
received both in England and in America (1904-5),
and was followed by "Jinny the Carrier," in the
United States (1905).

Zangwill has been a successful lecturer, traveling
in that capacity in the United States (1898), through
Great Britain, Ireland, and Holland, and to Jerusa-
lem, which he visited in 1897. He has taken great
interest in Zionism, and has attended
As most of the congresses at Basel, at first

Lecturer merely as a critic and onlooker, but
and later being drawn into the movement,

Zionist. of which he has become one of the
leading spirits. He has written and
lectured much on the subject, advocating in the
United States (1904) and elsewhere the acceptance
of the British government's offer of an autonomous
settlement in British East Africa. On the refusal of
the Seventh Zionist Congress to consider any further j
offer of the kind, Zangwill formed a separate body, ^
the Jewish Territorial Organization, intended
to obtain, preferentially from the British govern-
ment, an adequate tract of country in which per-
secuted Jews can live their own life under Jewish
conditions. Among those whom he has attracted
to his views is Lucien Wolf, with whom he had

635

THE JEWISH E\rYr-I,ni'KI>lA

7-, -^,

-P«A&«^

previously had a somewhat sharp controversy on
Ziouism in the "Jewish Quarterly Review. "

Zangwill was one of the " Waiulcniiir Jews" who
met at the house of Asher I. Myers, aud was one of
the founders of the Maccaba-aus.

Bibliography: TTftoV THio, 19a-); .Vt-,/' Intfrnati' ' '

cycloiHtlia : Brainin, in >/(i-.V</u. ISKT, p :£«• j i
In Mennrah. 19(>t, pp. ijiJ-iVs : (;.' B. Biimn i"n Ti

SSdS'T9(^"'= ^- '''"'^""- ^'" ''"■' "• ^•"•'"^

ZANGWILL, LOUIS: English novelist ; born
at Bristol, England, July 25. 1«69; brotlier of Israel
Z.\XGwiLL. He waseducated at Jews' Free School,
and for a time acted as teacher there, but ktt to-
gether with his brother, and set up a printing estab-
lishment. Afterward, however, he turned to litera-
ture, and produced, under the pseudonym "Z. Z.,"
" A Drama in Dutch '" (London, 1895). which attracted
some attention for its local color. It was follow<-d
by "The World and a Man " (1896), "The Beautiful
Miss Brook" (1897), and "Cleo the MagnitJcent"
(1899), all distinguished by a certain realistic vivid-
ness and somewhat cynical humor. More recently
he has produced a more sympathetic study, "One's
Womenkind" (London, 1903).

Zangwill is a chess-player of high rank.
Bibliography: Who's Wlio. 1905.

ZANTE : Island in the ^gean Sea. According
to a study, as yet unpublished, by Leonidas ZoC. a
lawyer of Zante. Jews did not settle there as a com-
munity until 1498, and this statement is confirmed
by the silence of Benjamin of Tudela. In that year,
however, the republic of Venice offered si)ecial'i>riv-
ileges to those who wished to reside in the island,
which had become depopulated asa result of the fre-
quent Turkish invasions; and many Jews of Corfu,
Patras, Le panto, and other parts of Greece welcomed
the opportunity. The Jewish families mentioned in
the earliest ])ublishe(i documents are those of Abdela
(1499) and Mila (1510). In 1527 the Jewish popula-
tion of the island was 240, but by 1555 it had dwin-
dled to 140, although it had risento 300 in 1809. Al-
though the Jewish names of Zante are Romance in
type, the Jews have always spoken Greek ; and their
features, like those of their coreligionists of Chalcis,
are so purely Hellenic that Carres asserts that they
"are genuine Greeks."

At present the community of Zante has no spiri-
tual head, and the people in tiieir poverty are con-
stantly emigrating, so that there are almost as many
Zantiots in Corfu as in their native island. In both
places the Zante Jews are usually tinsmiths. The
Zante community possessed two synagogues, one
Zantiot and the other Candiot, but the latter was des-
troyed bj'an earthquake some years ago. The Z&a-
tiot synagogue was built in the latter part of the sev-
enteenth century by Cretan Jews who had sought
refuge in Zante from a revolution. Abraham Coen
<b. 1670; d. 1729) is the only well-known rubbininil
author of the island. He was a Cretan by ancestry,
but was born in Zante, and graduated as a physician
at the University of Padua. In 1700 lie pu'
his "Derashot 'al ha-Torah." which was fui.
by his "Kehunnat Abraham." a paraphrase of the
Psalms in various meters (Venice. 1719). In 1879

M. Ventuntof f%.f(i| •

il:

<.r ■•
\\

Ingo

of ■

». .

(1815-64) imi

w. ■ " '

(>i

however, when tl.

Jews of Zunte were j;'-*iiU*i aU u%ti m>'.
rightH.

In
seriot,
Znnt<

P' The

ci:... ...,,1....

left t)

casion ul ih<- Pm

Sept. 23, 1893. t..

calumny, and he

give his proU-sl JU ullKimi

ZANTE, ABRAHAM - ,.....^

Sit.vBnKTiiAi CoiiEX OK Z.%y:

ZAPATEIRO. JOSEPH 9ArAT'

Jii-( I'll

ZAPHN ATH-PAAN E A H
Pharaoh to J)>s4^-ph (Gen \
Egyp-

is not ;

licst explanations of Hebrew •>

Targum o ' '

" the man '

Jonathan, "one who n.>rcaLi i

("Ant." ii. 0. • •

other old writ'

the A. V. has in the n.

wl.

no Egyptian etyn;
be supportetl. Ji ;
"savior of tli«' w.
[lossibly the r-
lowed bv !'
-eDeh""= :
seems to
later meai....^ .
" ajfo " : laUT. " w.
thc"ayin." !
which '« ■■• ■ •
trays :

un: :.
but hn

nation (in "^Z-

xxvii

7th Or

is "s«-<dVp-DUf

he lives " Tl<

Zappert
Zarfati

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

636

logically possible; however, it does not convey tiie
allusion to Josephs office or merits whicii we should
expect. " P-'onh" {= " the life ") would still answer
better in this respect; only "Zaphnath " does not
admit a quite convincing explanation. The Septu-
agint (i'oi[or ■i^ofi]6of2<pavr/x) and the Hexaplaric ver-
sions, however, differ so widely from the Hebrew
in tlie first half of the name that it may have been
disfigured by copyists.

Bibliography: Marouardt, Philologus. vii. 676; Cheyne and
Black, Enciic. I(il>). col. 5379 (where a distlpured Hebrew
oricinal is susiiefteil i ; Zcitschrift fl'iv Atiitll'tische
Sijrachc. 1883. p .iU : Pnu-. S<>t\ Bih\. Arch. xx. Ut(8 (where
the other theories have been collected).

E. G. H. W. M. M.

ZAPPERT, BRUNO : Austrian dramatist and
jouiiKilist ; born in N'icunu Jan. 28, 1845; died tliere
Jan. 31. 1892. The Zappert family, many members
of which have gained prominence as merchants,
originally settled in Bohemia, and spread thence to
Hungary and lower Austria. Bruno, who was the
son of August Zappert, a manufacturer, received
his early education at the gymnasium; and, though
desiring a university training, he entered the Vienna
commercial academy in 1862 with a view to fitting
himself to continue the business of his father. Tlie
latter's untimely death, however, caused him to
change his plans, and he engaged in the publishing
business in Vienna, beginning with "Wallisiiauser,
and in 1869 assuming the sole management of
Hilgers house, which he conducted till 1877. ITe
then took up dramatic literature, becoming secretary
and artistic director of the Presburg theater, and
later dramatist of tlie Carltheater in Vienna, wiicre
he worked for tsvo years under Director Steiuer,
antl for three years under Tatarczy.

Zappert edited the "Wiener Leben " (from 1879),
Langer's "Hans Jorgel" (1885-86), and the illus-
trated "Wiener Wespen" (1886-87); and he collal)o-
rated on other Vienna journals as feuilletonist. He
also frequently collaborated for the theater, work-
ing with Robert Genee, Costa, Jul. Rosen, Manii-
stadt, Oeribaner, and others; and he wrote many
comic and topical songs for the stage, as well as
celebration plays and prologues.

His principal plays were: "Zwischen Zwei Ue-
beln," musical farce in one act, with music b}' Franz
Roth (1870; acted and published under the pseudo-
nym "Zeno Brunner"); "DieCzarin," operetta in
three acts, with music by Max Wolf (1872); "Ein
Hochgeborener," popular piece in three acts, with
music by H. Delin (1877); "Ein Junger Drahrer,"
musical farce in three acts, with music by Paul
Mestrozi (1878); "Rinicherl," parody in one act,
with music by Gothov-Griineke (1878); "Cri-cri,"
musical picture from life in one act (1879); "Die
Ghjckerln am Kornfeld," parody on Robert Plan-
quette's " Les Cloches de Corneville," with music
by Gothov-Grunx.'ke (1879); "Eine Parforcejagd
Durch Europa," extravaganza in three tableaux,
with music by Jul. Hopp (1879); "Ein BOhm in
Amerika," musical burlesque in six tableaux, with
music by Gothov-Grlineke (1880); " Moderne Wei-
ber," musical farce in three tableaux, with music by
Gothov-Grlineke (1880); "Pressburirer Luft," mu-
sical local farce in five tableaux (1882) ; " Der Para-

graphenritter," musical farce in four acts (1883;
published as "Doctor Schinmiel"); "Pamperl's
Abenteuer," musical farce in three acts (1883);
"Theaterblut," musical farce in three acts (1883);
"Papa Palugyay," farce in one act (1884); Resch-
fesch," musical farce in one act (1884) ; "SeiuSpezi,"
musical farce in five acts, with music by Franz
Roth (1884); " Beini Sacher." musical farce in one
act, with music by Paul Mestrozi (1887); (with
Genee and i\lannst;idt) "Der Gliicksritter," operetta
in three acts, with music by Alf. Czibulka (1887) ;
(with Genee) "Der Freibcuter," operetta in three
acts from the French, with music by Planquette
(1888) ; (with Genee) " Ein Deulschmeister," operetta
in three acts, with music by C. M. Ziehrer (1888-89) ;
"Johann Nestroy," musical popular piece in six
tableaux (1888); (with Genee) "Die Jagd nach dem
Glucke," operetta in three acts and an introduction,
with music by Franz von Supjie (1888; printed as a
text-hook and translated into five languages); "Das
Lachende Wien," farce in six tableaux, with intro-
duction; (with Genee) "Die Herzogin von New-
foundland," operetta in three acts, with music by
Ludwig Englander; (with Genee) "Prinz Eugen,"
operetta in three acts, with nui.sic by I. R. Kial;
"Im FJug um die Welt," fairy extravaganza (1891);
etc.

BiBi.iOiiRAPnv : VAnenhere, Das Gcistiqe H'ioi, i. &")7; Wurz-
bach, Bio{iraijliisclics Lexihon, vol. 59 ; Allij. Zeit. dc8 Jud.
Nov. 2, 188«, No. 3(J5, p. 4493.

R. N. D.

ZAPPERT, GEORGE : Hungarian historian
and archeologist; born in Alt-Ofen Dec. 7, 1806;
died in Vienna Nov. 23, 1859. The son of well-to-
do parents, Zappert was educated at the Pesth gym-
nasium and at the University of Vienna. He began
the stu'lj' of medicine, but relinquished it after re-
nouncing Judaism for Roman Catholicism in 1829,
then taking up theology. This too he was forced
to abandon in the second year, owing to deafness
caused by a severe illness; and after this disappoint-
ment, which he felt keenly, he devoted himself to
what became his life-work, namely, the study of the
Middle Ages. He led a retired life in Vienna; and
it is noteworthy that he foretold the time of liis
death to the minute three days before it occurred,
and that tliere have been in his family several cases
of similar premonition. The Imperial Academy of
Sciences elected him corresponding member on July
28, 1851.

Zappert published: "Gravure en Bois du XII.
Siicle" (Vienna, 1837 et seq.); "Vita B. Petri Aco-
tanti " {ib. 1839); and the following memoirs:
" Ueber Antiquitiltenf unde im Mittelalter " (in " Sitz-
ungsberichteder Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissen-
schaften," Nov., 1850); " p]pipliania, ein Beitrag zur
Chrisllichen Kunstarchilologie " (ib. xxi. 291-372);
"Ueber Badewesen in Mittclalterlicher nnd Spaterer
Zeit " (in " Archiv fur Kunde Oesterreiehischer Ge-
schichtsquellen," xxi. 5); "Ueber Sogenannte Ver-
bri'iderungsbiicher in Nekrologien im Mittelalter"
(in "Sitzungsberichteder Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften," x. 417-463, xi. 5-183); "Ueber
ein fur den Jugendunterricht dcs Kaisers ^Max I.
Abgefasstes Lateini.sches Gesprilchsbiichlein " {ib.
xxviii. 193-280); etc.

€37

THE JEWISH ENCYCL01'i..M

?•!

BiBi.iOfiRAPHY: Wurzbacli, Biinimphisches Liuihini, vol. ."iO;
Liiroussc, Diet.; Aiti iter Kdisciiiclicn Akaileniit (nuto-
bidR.)-, ^yie>^er Zeitxehrift, IBo'J, No. 299 ; Frenitlai-Ulatt
(Vienna), 1807, No. lid.

s. N. I).

ZAPPERT, ISRAEL L. : Aiislriiiii pliilmitliro-
pist ; chirr brolln r (if Guorgt- ami gnui(lf:itli( r of
Bruno Zuppert; born at Prague in 1751'); died tlicre
in 18(55. lie was a grandson ot'Wolf Zappert, who
was the founder of liie family, and uiio was twice
court jeweler, the second time to Emperor Josepli II.
(1705-90). Wolf, who was distinguished for both
iipria:htnessaiid busiue.ss ability, made two fortunes,
the first of which he expended to secure the revoca-
tion of an order expelling the Jews from Trebitscli;
and when his coreligionists were driven out of
Prague he alone was allowed to remain. In his will
be founded twenty-two charitable institutions en-
dowed with considerable funds, which were ailmiii-
istered by his sou and, after him, by his grandson,
the subject of this article. I. L. Zappert was al.so a
director of many Jewish benevolent institutions in
Prague, and himself founded several more, among
them one for providing poor girls with dowries and
trousseaux, and another for the care of the sick.
Bibliography: Wurzbach, Bingraphisches Lexikun, vol. 59.

s. N. D.

ZARA'AT. See Leprosy.

ZARFATI, ZAREFATI (-'French"): Epithet
fre(pieutly applied in rabbinical literature to Jews
of French birth or descent. Among those so called
may be mentioned: Meir Zarfati, whom Carmoly
sought to identify with the Meir ha-Kohen of Nar-
bonne who emigrated to Toledo, dying there in
1263 ("Ila-Karmel," vii. 58); Abraham Zarfati,
author of the "Tamid ha-Sliahar," copied by Abra-
ham of Chinou about 1370; Perez OUID, called
"IJxijOp TlDIVn, which probably indicates that he
emigrated from his native country, France, to Cata-
lonia; the physician Jacob b. Solomon Zarfati;
and the mathematician Joseph b. Moses Zarfati.
By far the most important Zarfati family, however,
was that of Tkabot (Trabotti), which seems to
have originated in Trevoux in the department of the
Aiu, ami to have settled in Italy in the second half
of the fifteenth century.

Bibliography: Azulai, Shem ha-GeilnUm, ed. Loijhorn.pp.
8a, aOh. 41a; Berliner's Mcmazin, II. 16, % ; Conforte. h''rc
ha-Dnrot. p. ;W) >t iiassiii> ; (iross, Gatlin Ji(f(<Ji"(. pp.— «>-
2l'2 .>'?8, .5Tti; Renan-Nciibauer, Les Ecrirai/i," Jin/x t-rnii-
<;iin pp. Tin. Mdl : II. K. J. iv. 114, 208: Stelnschneider. Cat.
Bddl. col. 2052 ; Ziinz, Z. O. p. 106. „

E. C. ^- '^•

Jacob ben Solomon Zarfati : Physician who
lived, probably at Avignon, in the second lialf of
the fourteenth century. He was a native of nortli-
ern France, and is believed to have settled at Avi-
gnon after the banishment of tiie Jews. He was the
author of a work entitled "]\lishkenot Ya'akob,"
which is still extant in manuscript (Bibliotheque
Nationals Paris, MS. No. 137). This work is di-
vided into three books, which bear separate titles, as
follows: (1) "Bet Ya'akob," containing allegorical
interpretations of certain passages of the Penta-
teuch- (2) "Yeshu'ot Ya'akob," a treatise on the
ten placues of Egypt : (3) " Kehillat Ya'al>ob a
theologrcal treatise on the laws, other tlian the 1 en
Coramandmeuts, which are believed to have been

given ou M«»»im Siiml
lt4il)bali.'
children ..
months d>.
author uf

icul \vorki>

2ri88. 2).
Hi

««IM41IV4 .

V ai 4><Ait

-r. Lia Kfttpotrnt .

J08e])h ben Sn
writers JoBiphoij,
Italian phyttician; livitj at
si.xteenthcemi: ■
reputation in ;
had been gmnmi (I 'KM) r
lius II. were cMei: ' ' ■
ill 1524 by Len X.
Jewish phyKicinn in t:
was the ni- ' •• • •• •

these priv;

and no lest nkiltui in hb prufcvuuo lima «i

father.

Joseph was well vcnwd in Hcbrrw. Anu
Arabic, and w .
lenist ; he \wy~

ematies and i ly. He w..

Teseo Ambrn_
languages at t.

terpart of hi8lifeJt)«'pl. met with <
An unfaithful -
his savings. .'

accused by the iliief a* a npy of i
to seek safety in !' ' <^ -
in 1527 Jo.seph w
succeeded in ■ - ; bul •

reach Vicovarn ii> •"• ' •

fused entrance to :
in the open field.

BiBLIOCRAPHV: '
tnlf Liliri Uu

Samuel Zarfati. S«'Jrw. K*

ZARFATI : < '
the bibliu^'iaphi r
descended from H.'
Tain.

Elijah ?arfati : M'
ral)l>i of Fc7. about 1770; gra-
fati.

Joseph ^arfiiti: Tl-
lived at Adrianoplc In Ue
teentl:
of .ser:

Samuel ^arfnti : '

eenth

II. II

in which lie dcdndid

Vidal ?arf-" T
:it Fez in "■
known n

Vidal /
son <if Vi

the author ul i^uf I'
Talmud.

r
i

Zarifa
Zealots

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

638

Zemah Zarfati : Talmudic author and chief
rabbi of Tunis in the early part of the eighteenth
century; remarkable for the number of liis pupils.
In the latter pan of his life he dwelt for several
years at Damascus; but his last days were passed at
Jerusalem. Some of his manuscript notes Averc pub-
lished in the latter part of the eighteenth century
by Joseph Cohen Tanugi in his " Bene Yosef."

Bibliography: Azulai, Slicin ha-GedoUm, s.v.

D. M. Fr.

ZARIFA : Name of a goddess mentioned in a
siuglc jni-ssiige of the Talmud (Ab. Zarah V2a) as
having been worshiped at Ashkclon. Kohut, Levy,
and other Jewish le.xicograplRis identify her with
Serapis; but the Hebrew spelling would seem to im-
ply that the deity was the goddess Sarapia or Sera-
pia, another name of Isis Pliaria, whose festival Avas
celebrated in April (Preller, " Romische Mythologie,"
3d ed., ii. 382, Berlin, 1883). It is pos.sible, how-
ever, since Zarifa is mentioned in connection with
Ashkelon, that she is to be identified with Derceto,
who was worshiped in that city (Diodorus Siculus,
i 4; Ovid, "Metamorphoses," iv. 3), the term "za-
rifa" {= "composite") being especially fitting for a
goddess represented with a human head and the
body of a lish. Joseph Halevy, on the other Jiand,
suggests ("Revue Semitique," vi. 177) that Zarifa
represents the Babylonian divinity Zarpanit, wife of
Marduk. For a variant view see Ashkelon.

Bibliography : Krauss, Lehnvcorter, ii., s.i\; Neubauer, G. T.
p. 69.

s. M. Sel.

ZARKA. See Accents in IIp:bkew.

ZARKO, JUDAH BEN ABRAHAM: He-
brew poet distinguished for the elegance of his style;
flourished at Rhodes in the si.x'teenth century. Dur-
ing a residence at Constantinople he wrote his
" Lehem Yeliudah " (Constantinople, 1560), which
contains an allegory on the soul, metrical and non-
metrical poems, and epigrams directed against vari-
ous celebrities, including Maimonides and Judah
Sahara. A letter written by him to congratulate
Joseph Hamon on his marriage is given at the be-
ginning of the anonymous Hebrew style-book " Ye-
feh Xof," and some of his shorter poems have been
published by Edelmann in his "Dibre Hefez " (Lon-
don, 1853).

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 1371 ct seq.;
Gratz, Gesch. Ix. 395 ; Fuenn, Kcneset Yisrael, p. 395.

.1. I. Br.

ZARZA, SAMUEL IBN SENEH : Spanish
philosopher; lived at Valencia in the second half of
the fourteenth century. According to Zunz, his
surname is derived from the Spanish town Zarza
(= "thorn-bush "), and is accordingly synonymous
with the Hebrew "seneh." Of his life no details
are known; for while in his notes on the "Sefer ha-
Yuhasin " (ed. Filipowski. p. 226) Samuel Shalom
states that Zarza was burned at the stake by the
tribunal of Valencia on the denunciation of Isaac
C.wirANTON, who accused him of denying the crea-
tion of the world, historians have proved this asser-
tion a mere legend. Although a comparatively un-
important writer, if his two works may serve as a
criterion, Zarza ranked high in the estimation of Jiis
contemporaries, so that the poet Solomon Reubeni

of Barceh.na anil the astronomer Isaac ibn Al-Hadib

composed poems in his honor.

Zarza was the author of the "Mekor Hayyim," a

philosophical commentary on the Pentateuch (^lau-

tua, 1559) : and of the "Miklol Yofi,"a philosophical

commentarj' devoted to the haggadot found in both

Talmudim and divided into 151 chapters and seven

parts (Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. ]\ISS." No.

1296). In the introduction to the latter work Zarza

draws a melancholy picture of the state of the Jews

of Castile in his time, stating that in Toledo alone

10,000 i)erished in the course of the war between Don

Pedro and his brother Henry. In his "Mekor Haj'-

yim, " Zarza mentions four other writings of his which

are no longer in existence: "Taharat ha-Kodesh,"

on the principles of religion; "'Ezem ha-Dat";

"Zeior ha-Mor "; and "Magcn Abraham."

Bibliography: Steinschneifier. Caf.Cod?. cols. 2496-98; Gratz,
Gesch. 3d ed., viii. 16, 23, 2.V-26.
K. I. Br.

ZARZAL, ABRAHAM IBN (called Zarzar
by Arabic chroniclers): Spanish phj'sician and as-
tronomer; flourished in the first half of the four-
teenth century at the court of the Nasserites in Gra-
nada, where a certain Pharez ben Abraham ibn Zar-
zal, who may have been his father, was physician in
ordinary ("^louatsschrifl," xx.xiii. 479; Steinschnei-
der, " Hebr. Uebers. " p. 272) ; died after 1369. Fear-
ing that he might become involved in the murder
of the minister Reduan, he retired to Castile, where
his medical and astrological fame, as well as the
recommendation of ^lohammed IV. of Granada, who
was in friendly relations with the King of Castile,
won him the appointment of astrologer and physi-
cian in ordinary- to Pedro the Cruel. Abraham, who
gained the favor of the king and was constantly
near him, took every opportunity of smoothing over
the difficulties between Castile and Granada. It is
said that he, like other astrologers, prophesied to
Pedro that the horoscope of his nativity destined
him to become the mightiest king of Castile, to con-
quer the Moors everywhere, and to cai)ture Jerusa-
lem. At Seville, a few weeks before his death,
Pedro summoned Zarzal and said: "Abraham, why
have the events of my life been opposite to all that
you and other astrologers have prophesied to me ? I
bid you tell me the entire truth of all that I ask,
concealing nothing." Abraham replied: "Your
Majesty, if I tell the whole truth, may I be certain
that you will not be offended thereby?" Having
been reassured on tliis point, he continued: "Will
one perspire who takes a very hot bath on a very
cold day in January?" "Certainly." replied the
king. " Such a result would be contrary to the gov-
erning constellation," said Abraham; "and it is the
same with the horoscope of your nativity : j'oursins
and your government have brought about the direct
opposite."

Abraham was actively interested in the religious
and philosophic movements of the time ; and he en-
deavored to gain recognition for Judaism.

Bibliography : Juan Rodriguez de ruenra. Sumai-in dc \o»
liryen (Ic Expaua. p. 7.5, Madrid, 1781; Kios, Hist. ii. 232 et
seq., 2.55 it sc'/.: Griiiz, Gfsch. 3d ed., vii. :i")6 ; Gedaliah ibn
Yahya, ShaUhclct )ia-Knhf)(dah, 83b (ed. Amsterdam) : Je-
irhuruu, ed. Kobak, vl. 201 et seq.; Munatsschrift, xxxiil.
477 ct neq.

s. M. K.

639

THE JEWISH EN'CYCUJI'EDIA

ZARZAL, MOSES IBN : Spanisl, pl.ysician
and poet; physiciun in ordinary to Henry HI of
Castile; flourished in tiie hilter luiif of tJie four-
teeutli and the first part of the lifleenth centurv •
son of Abraham ibn Zarzal. On Mareh 0, UO.j ii,i
was at Toro, where lie celebrated tlie birth of John J 1
in a poem which is given in the "Cancionero <ie
Baena " (p. 232); and in 1389, 1400, and 14()!» he re-
sided in the Calle de Rehoyo at Segovia. The date
of his death can not be determined; the epitaph
found at Carinona stating that he died in 1432 is a
forgery.

Bibliouraphy: Juan Uodripuez de nienra, Sumnri.i ik /.,«
Ilcucs dc E,^pnna p. 75. Madrid, 17«1 : Kavs.MliiiR .svXw*

p. 4 9; Idem. Hist, ii.423: Kavserlinp. liihi. f'-^/Vrh; r j ?
p. Ill: Fulel Fita. Ilishnin Ihhrca i. 213 ^Vw< • ;V,,i; u
Acad. Hist. ix. 31C, 3t<J ; xvji. 172 ct scq. '" """""

^- M. K.

ZAUSMER, JACOB DAVID BEN ISAAC :

Polish Musorite of ilie sixteenth and scveni-'enil'i
centuries; rabbi of Zausmer, near Cracow; died be-
fore 1644. Ho Avas the author of the "Pcrush Jia-
Massorah " and of the " Ta'ame ha-Massorah " (Lu-
blin, 1616); the former work elucidating Ma.soretic
problems and forming a sujiplement to the "Sha'ar
Shibre Luhot" of Elijah Levita's "Massoret ha-
Massoret," wliile the "Ta'ame ha-Massorah" Avas a
commentary on the Masorah. A revised and aug-
mented edition was published by his son Judah
Isaac Darshan (ib. 1644), who speaks of his father
as having died.

Bibliograpmy: Fuenn, Kcncset Ym-acl, p. .=)70: Furst, Dibl
Jud. ui. o4o ; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 12t)6-«8

•J- M. Sel.

ZAUSMER, JACOB BEN SAMUEL : Polish
rabbi ami preacher; flourished at Zausmer in the
seventeenth century. He Avas the author of the
"Bet Ya'akob " (Dyhernfurth, 1696), a work cont^iin-
ing 174 responsa. In the preface he says that lie
Avrote also "Toledot Ya'akob, "homilies on the Pen-
tateuch arranged in the order of the parashiyyot.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Kcneset l'i'.«rari, p. .570 : Furst, BiW.
Jud. iii. 545 ; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 12(58.

J- M. Ski..

ZAYIN (r): Seventh letter of the Hebrew alpha-
bet. The meaning of the name is uncertain. In
sound the letter is a sonant sibilant, its phonetic
value corresponding to the English "z." It inter-
changes Avith the surd sibilant ("s"), and occurs
only as a radical, never as a formative element. In
the later period it has the numerical value 7.

T. I. Bh.

ZBARAZER, See Eiirenkranz, Ben.i.\.mi.n

Wolf.

ZBITKOVER, SAMUEL. See Wars.vav.

ZEALOTS (HebreAv, Kanna'im) : Zealous de-
fenders of the La Av and of the national life of the
Jewish people; name of a party opposing Avith re-
lentless rigor any attempt to bring Judea under tiic
dominion of idolatrous Rome, and especially of the
aggressive and fanatical Avar party from tiie time of
Herod until the fall of Jerusalem and Masada. Tiie
members of this party bore also the name SiCARii.
from their custom of going about with daggers
("sicaL") hidden beneath their cloaks, Avith Avhich
they Avould stab any one found committing a sac-

^ ucl ur nuyliiliig

Following Ju«c|ilitu rn J ■ H

xviii • ■

OlH ■.

the Uttlileuii (h.

Origin and

Meaning'

the Name.

i/. .

iiiadv \
("IJ. J.-i. 10 • •

the fact ilmi
practised by tJic ,
reign of HenMl. it u
name " l.vunna"liii " (CW.-
in Her/ogMauck, - .
ten ") occurs twice i:
and in Ab. 11. N. vi
V^\>:i ["Sicarii"); k, -
and 32j. The form-
evideullv of the M .
"Whosoev.r
curses one \\ . , :..
x.viv. 16. Sifru) or Iiax ^
Syrian [Ii. '
na'im or /. . i .

(Sanh. H2a. b: Ycr. Sanli.
the acts inenf'
cedure, liny I

crime of Zimri the son of 8alu, «
cau.se " he Avas zi .'
delicto (Num. .\x
a pattern, being nilli-*! -
Zealot, the .son of -a '.' '
the example of L.
the crime perjH-l rated upon \
nienof Siiecliein(Sifn-. V- —
Book of Juliiler.H, x.\\
liave been ciiost-n for ■
zealous in execiitit' • ■
Lsniel, and Judith
of Juditli ■

Tliis ui.: ....

standard of piety in lii<

Strug:'

tiiat w J u

sacriflcing to an Idol, *"li

hiAV «if G" ' • • V

Salu "; ail'

clias implies thiit, likp Ihr b

his llii:; ' ' '

(I .Ma,
ever is zen
nant. let h
43-4.')). wl,
recognition oi
matter when <•
t

Phinohns
the Model
Zoalot. i
i
jab to have boi
vi. 18: PirlK? H y

That I

Zealots

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

640

was regarded during the Maccabeau reign as the
type of true (priestlj-) piety, in contradistinction to
the Hellenizing Sadducces typified by Zimri, may be
learned from the warning said to have been addressed
by King Janna?us on his deathbed to liis wife : " Fear
not tlie Pharisees nor the Sadducees [non-Pharisees],
but tlie hypocrites who conduct tiiemseives like
Zimri and expect the reward of Phinehas " (So-
tah 22b).

Originally the name "Kanna'im" or "Zealots"
signified religious fanatics; and as the Talmudic
traditions ascribe the rigorous laws concerning mar-
riage with a non-Jewess (Sanh. 82a) to the Hasida^an
bet din of the Hasmoneans, so probably to the Zeal-
ots of the Maccabean time are due the rabbinical
laws governing the relations of Jews to idolaters,
as well as those concerning idols, such as the pro-
hibition of all kinds of images (Mek., Yitro, 6) and
even the mere looking upon them, or of the use of
theshadowof anidol(Tosef., Shab. xvii. ; 'Ab. Zarah
iii. 8), or of the imitation of heathen (Amorite) cus-
toms (Shab. vi. 10; Tosef., Shab. vi.). The divine
attribute "El kanna " (rz; "a jealous God " ; Ex. xx.
5; Mek., Yitro, ^.c.) is significantly explained as
denoting that, while God is merciful and forgiving
in regard to every other transgression, He exacts
vengeance in the case of idolatry: "As long as there
is idolatry in the world, there is divine wrath"
(Sifre, Deut. 96; Sanh. x. 6; comp. I ]Macc. iii. 8).

Regarding the original Zealots or Kanna'im, the
source from which Josephus derived his description
of the Essenes, and which has been preserved in more
complete form in Hippolytus, "Origenis Philoso-
phumena sive Omnium IIa?resium Refutatio," ix.
26 (ed. Dunker, 18.j9, p. 482; comp. Jew. Encyc.
V. 228-230), has the following :

" Some of these [Essenes] observe a still more rigid practise
In not handling or looking at a coin bearing an image, saying
that one should neither carry nor look at nor fashion any image ;
nor will they enter a city at the gate of which statues are
erected, since they consider It unlawful to walk under an
image [comp. Sifra, Kedoshim, 1.; Shab. 149a ; Yer. 'Ab. Zarah
lil. 42b-43b]. Others threaten to slay any uncircumcised Gentile
who listens to a discourse on God and His laws, unless he under-
goes the rite of circumcision [comp. Sanh. ")9a ; Sifre, Deut.
345] ; should he refuse to do so, they kill him instantly. From
this practi.se they have received the name of "Zealots' or ' Si-
carii.' Others again call no one Lord except God, even though
one should torture or kill them."

It is only this last point which Josephus singles
out as the doctrine of the Zealots of his day ("B.J."
ii. 8, § 1; "Ant." xviii. 1, §§ 1-6) in order to give
them the character of political extremists; the rest
he omits. But even here he misstates the facts. The
principle that God alone is King is essentially a re-
ligious one. It found expression in the older liturgy
(comp. "Beside Thee we have no King," in "Emet
we-Yazzib"; "Rule Thou alone over us," in the
eleventh benediction of the "Shemoneh 'Esreh";
"And be Thou alone King over us," in "U-Beken
Ten Pahdeka"; "We have no King besides Thee,"
in " Abinu Malkenu " and in " Yir'u 'Enonu "). Ex-
pressed in I Sam. viii. 7, and deemed by the Rabbis
to be expressed also in Xum. xxiii. 21 and Deut.
xxxiii. 5 (see Targ. to Sifre, Deut. 346; Musaf of
Ro.sh ha-Shanah; comp. also III Sibyllines, ii. ; III
Marc. ii. 4), it was to be pronoimoed in the " Shema' "
twice a day (Ber. ii. 1; Friedmaun in his edition of

Sifre, p. 72b, note, erroneously ascribes the institu-
tion to the time of the Roman oppression). As early
as 63 B.C. the Pharisaic elders in the name of the na-
tion declared to Pompey that it was not betittiugfor
them to be ruled by a king, because the form of gov-
ernment received from their forefathers was that of
sulijecliou to the priests of the God they worshiped,
whereas the present descendants of the priests
(Hyrcanus and Aristo1)ulus) sought to introduce an-
other form of government which would make slaves
of them (Josephus, "Ant." xiii. 3, § 2). The king-
ship of God is indeed especially accentuated in the
Psalms of Solomon, composed at that lime (ii. 36;
V. 22; vii. 8; xvii. 1, 32, 38, 51). "Either God is
your king or Nebuchadnezzar" (Sifra, Kedoshim,
at the close); " Whoso takes upon himself the yoke
of the Torah will have the yoke of the worldly
power removed from him," says R. Nehunya ben
ha-Kanah (" the Zealot " ; see Geiger's "Zeitschrift,"
ii. 38; comp. Ab. R. N. xx. [ed. Schechter, p. 72]);
" My mother's sons were incensed against me " (Cant,
i. 6); "These are Sanhedrin" ["Boulai"] of Judea
who cast off the yoke of the Holy One and set over
them.selves a human king. " See also Philo's descrip-
tion of the Essenes in " Quod Probus Liber Est,"
§§ 12-13: "They condemn masters; even their most
cruel and treacherous oppressor J^Herod] could not
but look upon them as free men."

The reign of the Idumean Herod gave the impetus
for the organization of the Zealots as a political
party. Shemaiah and Abtaliou (PtoUion), as mem-
bers of the Sanhedrin, at first opposed Herod, but
seem to have preferred a passive resignation in the end
(Josephus, "Ant." xiv. 9, §4; xv. 1, §
Organiza- 1 ; xv. 7, i^ 10; x v. 10, §4); though there
tion as a were those who " could by no torments
Political be force<l to call him [Herod] king,"
Party. and who persisted in opposing liis gov-
ernment. Hezekiah and his so-called
"band of robbers," who were the first to fall as vic-
tims under Herod's bloodthirsty rule ("B. J." i. 10,
§ 5 ; " Ant. " xiv. 9, §§ 2-3), were by no means common
robbers. Josephus, following his sources, bestows
the name of "robbers" upon all the ardent patriots
who would not endure the reign of the usurper and
wliolk'd with their wives and children to the caves and
fortresses of Galilee to fight and to die for their con-
viction and their freedom ("Ant." xiv. 15, ^§ 4-6;
XV. 8, g§3-4; xvii. 10, §§.5-8; xx. 8, §§5-6; "B. J."
i. 18, § 1; ii. 13, §§ 2-4; iv. 4, § 3; and elsewhere).
All these "robbers" were in reality Zealots. Jose-
]ihus relates of one of them that lie slew his wife and
his seven sons rather than allow them to be slaves to
the Idumean Herod ("Ant." xiv. 15, § 5; " B. J." i.
16, § 4); this man is possibly identical with Taxo,
the Levite mentioned in the "Assumptio Mosis,"
ix. 1-7, as undergoing a martyr's death in a cave
with his seven sons, saying: "Let us die rather than
transgress the commands of the Lord of Lords, the
God of our fathers; for if we do this our blood will
be avenged before the Lord" (comp. Charles, "The
A.ssumption of Moses," 1897, p. 36, who suggests
the oriirinal reading H^i^r] ["the Zealot"] in place
of NDpn, which he considers a corruption of the
copyist: see also Schiircr, "Gesch." 1st ed., iii. 3,
217, and Charles, I.e. pp. Iv.-lviii.). Sepphoris in

641

THE JEWISH ENTVCLOPEDIA

Galilee seems to Lave been the main fortress in which
tiie Zealots concentrated their forces ("Ant " xiv
15, §4; xvii. 10, § 5).

It was for the sake of punishing the erinn-s of
idolatry and bloodshed conimitteil by Herod that
the Zealots of Jerusalem first appeared witii daggers
C'sicie ") hidden underneath their cloalis, bent upon
slaying the Idumcan despot. Josephus relates
("Ant." XV. 8, i;§ 1-4) that it was the introduction

of Roman institutions entirely autag-

The onistic to the spirit of Judaism, such

Sicarii. as tlie gymnasium, the arena, and,

above all, the trophies (that is, images
to which homage was to be paid), which provoked
the indignation of the people. Ten citizens of Jeru-
salem swore vengeance against Herod as an enemy
of the nation, and, with concealed daggers, went
into the theater, where Herod was supi)osed to be,
in order to slay him there. Owing, however, to his
system of espionage, Herod was informed of the con-
spiracy in time, and so escaped, while the conspira-
tors suffered death with great torture, but gloried in
their martyrdom. The people sympathized with
them, and in their wrath tore to pieces the spy who
had discovered the plot. Another outburst of in-
dignation on the part of the Zealots occurred when
Herod, toward the end of his life, placed a large
golden eagle over the great gate of the Temple. Two
masters of the Law, Judah ben Sarifai and ]\Iatta-
thiasben Margalot, exhorted their disciples to sacri-
fice their lives rather than allow this violation of the
Mosaic law, which forbids as idolatry the use of
such images; and forty young men with these two
teacheis at their head pulled down the golden eagle,
for which act the entire company suffered the cruel
penaltv of death bv fire inflicted bv order of Herod
("B. J>' i. 33, § 2;'" Ant." xvii. G,'tJ^ 2-4).

The spirit of this Zealot movement, however, was
not crushed. No sooner had Herod died (4 c.e.) than
the people cried out for revenge ("'xVnt." xvii. 9,
§ 1 ) and gave Archelaus no peace. J udea was full of
robber bands, says Josephus {I.e. 10, J; 8), the lead-
ers of which each desired to be a king. It was then

that Judas, the son of Ilczekiah, the

Judas, above-mentioned robber-captain, or-

the Zealot ganized his forces for revolt, first, it

Leader. .seems, against tlie Ilerodian dynasty,

and then, when Quirinus introduced
the census, against submission to the rule of Rome
and its taxation. Little reliance, however, can l)e
placed upon Josephus regarding the character of
Judas : at one point t his author describes him as a lead-
er "desirous only of the royal title " and bent upon
" pillaging aod destroying people's property " with
the aid of "a multitude of men of profligate char-
acter"; elsewhere ("B. J." ii. 8. § 1 ; "Ant."
xviii. 1, §§ 1, 6; comp. "B. J." ii. 17. g 8) lie
mentions Judas as "the foimder of the fourth sect
of Jewish philosophy, who taught that God is the
only Ruler and Lord, and neither death nor any
dread should make them call any man Lortl";
and at the same time he says, "The nation was
infected with their doctrine to an incredible de-
gree, which became the cause of its many misfor-
tunes, the robberies and murders committed."
Judas the Galilean, the son of Hezekiah, is spo- |
XII.— 41

kill nf II, i:, ( 1. 1( ,

dim til whom in m..
u band uf th'

It was uniliT ihc

brook no cumpniini»>'
Home. 'I"

kii

"by lorce und

.4.
}t

"the

God.

Judas' tir

to llu-ir I .

bcriu-s Alexander (" Anl." xx

Mennliem, wuh t! • ' '

and was slain on .

his own party u Inn, sm

he went up to tin- T'

ii. 17, t;^ S-9; <'oiiip
binical Iradiiion
when sUitinR th.^.
the son of Hczekiali
Geiger ("Z<Mts<jirift,' \ n i.
who went up witii lir'' ^ ■
Ljiw e(iui)>ped with
"Write upon the iioiii <.f
Pharisees] have i • -li ir.- '
(Yer. Hag. ii. 77
Masada "
J." ii. 17, . ,

to him he declares that it Is
die for the p' ' ' ' '
Ruler of nia

Rome, winch is slavcrj*. nwtt
and children ' •' '

live forever
the language ami
"robbers, "a-; '
In their opp.
inspired by i
V. 26Hftsri.. 1.;
As stattni by •
boastfully called tin :
ua'im" (Zealot-s) ■•"
The right of th>
•Tew will'

Temiile

scribed uixm the T>

Clermont Gil!

1st cd.. ii. ;i. . ■

i;4; both DerenlKJiiri:

inisinide!

name fm

the I*aw as well a» of t

leatlcrs. pnrtiruhiriy

S' / '• •■

li' .

desir

t'--,- ■

i'.

that •!«» ^<-i'^- ■■* -

loviui: i .

When, in tho year 6. Jticfau of

•I

Ii-
.1

Zealots
Zebahim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

642

started his organized opposition to Rome, lie was
joined by one of the leaders of the Pharisees, K.
Zadok, a disciple of Shanimai and one of the tieiy
patriots and popular heroes who lived to witness
the tragic end of Jerusalem ("Ant." xviii. 11; Git.
56a: Gratz, "Gcsch." iii. 4, 259, 796, and I. H.
Weiss, "Dor Dor we-Dorshaw," i. 177, against
Geiger. "Zeitschrilt," v. 268). Tlie
Their taking of the census by Quiriuus, the

History. Koniau procurator, for the purpose
of ta.xation was regarded as a sign
of Roman enslavement ; and the Zealots' call for
stubborn resistance to the oppressor was responded
to enthusiastically. The anti-Roman spirit of the
Zealots, as Gratz has shown (I.e.), found its echo
chietiy in the school of Shammai, whose members
did not shrink from resorting to the sword as the
ultimate authoritj- in matters of the Law when anti-
heathen measures were to be adopted (Shab. 17a;
Weiss, I.e. p. 186). A great man}' of the laws that
are so strikingly hostile to idols and idolaters ('Ab.
Zarah 20a. Tosef., 'Ab. Zarah, iii. 3; Sauh. 63b;
and elsewhere) appear to have emanated from these
times of warfare against Rome (Gratz, "Gesch."
iii. 4, 471), though such views were expressed as
early as the time of John Hyrcanus (see Jubilees,
Book of).

The call for political activity was renewed with
greater force when, after the death of Agrippa I.
in the year 44, Judea became more emphatically a
province of Rome and the Sanhedrin at Jerusalem
was again deprived of its jurisdiction. Numerous
bands of Zealots under the leadership of Tholomy,
Amram, Hanibas (Tahina ?), and Eleazar(see below)
roamed through the land, fanning local strifes into
wars of rebellion; but in every case they were ulti-
mately defeated, and their leaders were either be-
headed or banished for a time ("Ant." xx. 1, § 1).
Soon afterward Jacob and Simon, sons of Judas the
Galilean, as mentioned above, organized a revolt
against Tiberius Alexander, and paid the penalty
of crucifixion (47). But matters reached a climax
under the procurators Cumanus, Felix, and Florus
(49-64), who vied with one another in bloodthirsty
cruelty and tyranny when the Zealot leaders, in their
desperate struggle against the overwhelming power
of an implacable enemy, resorted to extreme meas-
ures in order to force the people to action.

Three men are singled out by Josephus and in
rabbinical tradition as having shown boundless feroc-
ity in their warfare against Rome and Romanizers:
Er.EAZAH B. DiNAi, Amram ("Ant." xx. 1, § 1; 8,
§ 5), and Tahina (Josephus has "Hanibas," not
"Hannibal" as GriUz reads, and in "B. J." ii. 13,
§ 4, " Alexander " ; comp. Sotah ix. 9 : Cant. R. iii. 5 ;
Gratz, "Gesch." iii. 4, 431). Of Eleazar ben Dinai
and Amram it is said in the last-cited passage that
"they desired to urge the Messianic deliverance of
Israel, but fell in the attempt." Regarding I^leazar
ben Dinai (comp. Kil. v. 10) and Tahina (called also
the " Pharisaic saint "), R. Johanan b. Zakkai relates
in Sotah I.e. that, on account of the frequent mur-
ders committed by them and which won them the
epithet of "murderers," the Mosaic law concerning
expiation for unknown slain ones (" 'eglah 'arufah ")
was set in abeyance. Obviously Josephus misrep-

resents these Zealot leaders, who, while tyrannical
and cruel, were certainly no "robbers." However,
theirdealingswith property, especially
Misrepre- that belonging to those suspected of
sented by Irieudliness to Rome, created anarchy
Josephus. throughout the land, as may be learned
from the rabbinical legislation con-
cerning the "sikarikou" (Git. v. 6, 55b; Yer. Git.
v. 47b). One of these, named Doras and mentioned
by Josephus (/.c), has become, like Eleazar ben Dinai,
proverbial in rabbinical literature (Men. 57a; Yer.
Shab. 14a, where he is menlione<i as a type of a vo-
racious eater).

As the oppression of the Roman procurators in-
creased, so also the passion and violence of the Zeal-
ots grew in intensity, afl'ecting all the discontented,
while one pseudo-Messiah after another appeared
arousing the hope of the people for deliverance
from the Roman yoke ("Ant." xx. 5, § 1 ; 9, § 10;
"B. J." ii. 13, $5 5). It was quite natural that under
the name of Sicarii all kinds of corrupt elements,
men eager for pillage and murder, should join the
part}', spreading terror through the land. Finally
the barbarities of Albinus and, above all, of Gessius
Florus precipitated the crisis and played into the
hands of the terrorists ("Ant." xx. 9-11; "B. J." ii.
14-15). The issue was between the peace party,
which was willing to yield to cruel Rome, and the
war party, which, while relying on God's help, de-
manded bold action ; and under the leadership of the
priestly governor of the Temple, Eleazar ben Ana-
nia, who refused to receive gifts from or offer sac-
rifice on behalf of Rome, the latter party prevailed
("B. J." ii. 17, § 2), another priest belonging to the
Shammaite party, Zachariah b. Amphicalos, having
decided in favor of Eleazar (Tosef., Shab. xvii. 6; Git.
56a; Gratz, "Gesch." iii. 4, 453-458, 818). At this
opportune time Menahem, the son of Judas the Gali-
lean, seized the fortress Masada in Galilee, killed the
Roman garrison, and then drove the Romans out of
other fortresses; and finally his kinsman and succes-
sor as master of Masada, Eleazar ben Jair, took up
the war of rebellion against Rome and carried it to
the very end ("B. J." ii. 17, §^ 2, 7, 10). True to the
Shammaite principle that warfare against the hea-
then possessors of Palestine is permitted even on the
Sabbath (Shab. 19a; Griltz, I.e. pp. 796-797),the war
was carried on by the Zealots on that day ("B. J."
ii. 19, § 2), and the Romans were everywhere over-
powered and annihilated, Simon bar Giora being one
of the heroic leaders whom none could resist. The
whole army of Cestius, who had brought twelve
legions from Antioch to retrieve the defeat of the
Roman garrison, was annihilated by
Zealots the Zealots under the leadership of Bar
Annihilate Giora and Eleazar ben Simon the priest.
Cestius' The Maccabean days seemed to have
Army. returned ; and the patriots of Jerusa-
lem celebrated the year 66 as the year
of Israel's deliverance from Rome, and commemo-
rated it with coins bearing the names of Eleazar
the priest and Simon the prince (Bar Giora [?],
or Simon ben Gamaliel as Gratz has it; "B. J." ii.
19, pg 1 et seg., 20, §§ 1-5; Gratz, I.e. pp. 469-470,
509, 818-841).
The news of the victory of the Zealots in Jerusa-

643

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

lem set tlio whole province of Galilee abki/.r Al-
ways a liotbed of revolution, it at once hcKun an in-
surrection, and its lliousands soon rallied round tiie
fiery Zealot leailcrs John hen Levi of (JisealaC'Chisli.
halab "), Justus the son of Pistus, Joshua ben Saplda
of Tiberias, and Joscjih of Gamala ("H J " ij oj
t^ 1; iv. 4. ^ IP.; •' Vita." i;j; 12. 27. :3r,-aG). Only
Sepphoris. aci^y full of aliens, obstinately refused to
join the revolution. Josephus was sent by the J.-ni-
saleni tSanhedrin, composed chielly of Zealots, for
the purpose of prevailing upon the Sepphorites to
abandon the cause of Agrippa II. and Home, and to
help Galilee work hand in band with the authorities
at Jerusalem in the liberation of Judea; but he de-
ceived the Zealots and played into the hands first of
Agrippa and then of Home. His " l)e Bello Juda-
ico" and his "Vita," written for the purpose of
pleasing his Roman masters, are full of asper-
sions upon the character of the Zealots and their
leaders.

The year G7 saw the beginning of the great war
with the Roman legions, first under Vespasian and
then under Titus; and Galilee was at
The Final the outset cho.sen as the seat of war.
Stage. The Zealots fought with almost super-
human powers against warriors trained
in countless battles waged in all parts of the known
world, and when they succumbed to superior mili-
tary skill and overwbelnung numbers, often only
after some act of treachery within the Jewi.sh camp,
they died with a fortitude and a spirit of heroic
martyrdom which amazed and overawed their vic-
tors. Jo.sephus' own description of the tragic end
of the last great Zealot leader. Eleazar ben Jair, and
his men after the siege and final captvn-e of Ma.sada
("B. J." vii. 8-9) is the best refutation of his mali-
cious charges against them.

At the siege of Jerusalem the Zealots Avere not
deterred even by the defeat in Galilee and the terri-
ble massacre of their compatriots; their faith in the
final victory of the Holy City and its massive walls
remained unshaken. But there were too much
enmity and strife between them and the ruling body,
the Sanhedrin, which they distrusted ; and their own
leaders were also divided. Instead of working after
the clearly mapped-out plan of one powerful leader,
they had their forces split up into .sections, one under
Simon bar Giora, another under Eleazar ben Simon
and Simon b. Jair (Ezron). a third under John of
Giscala. and a fourth, consisting chiefly of semi-
barbarous Idumeans, under Jacob ben So.sas and
Simon ben Kathla ("B. J." v. 6, §§ 2-3; vi. 1). In
order to force the wealthy and more jieaceably in-
clined citizens to action, the Zealots in their fury set
fire to the storehouses containing the corn needed
for the support of the people during the .siege (" B.
J." V. 1. § 4). This tragic event is recorded in Ab.
R. N. vi. (ed. Schechter, p. 32). the oidy Talmud-
ical passage that mentions the Kanna'im as a political
party. The second version (ed. Schechter. p. 31)
has "Sicarii " instead, and agrees with Git. 56, Lam.
R. i. 5, and Eccl. R. vii. 11 in mentioning three rich
men of Jerusalem who, being inclined to make
peace with the Romans, had their storehouses
burned by the Zealots: namely, Ben Kalba Shabua*.
Ben Zizit ha-Kassat. and Nicodemus (Nikomcdes ben

Goi i

!>• •-■ ,.

burning of tUc

of t' ;- '
Am.

Simon bar Gi<
full of .'

KoMle i> ,

rope around IiIk Imul. w
casidown fr. ' •
.Most of the /
strumenlsof (h'uth and
Romans, and siirli a- "'
roused by tJieir md
fippo.sition of tl.
finally met the -am.-
§;il-5; 10. 55^1-4). llw..
of di'tianee wiucii aniiiiaU'<l ■
prefer horrible torture -r '
tude. History Jias dec .
Phari.sees, who deemed ih>
ii.\.N.\N UEX Zakkai) of ni
the Jews than stale and 'I
too. deserves due n
of steadfastness, as 1 ,
" Impressions of TheopL

Among the disciples «.( .1
a Simon the Zealot (Luke vi. .
same person Matt. x. 4 and .Mark i
Canaanite." obviously a corruptiun
Kanna'i " = " the Zealot ").

BiBi.ior.RAPiir : llnmburKiT, R. B. 1
Ucuch. III. 4 und IriUf x.

ZEBAHIM CA:
the .Mislinah, tiie To-. i.,i. .1
mud, dealing mainly with li
to be observed in um

Toseftathistn'atisei.->» — .... .

while its older name. umiI in ihr 1
M. l()9b), is"Shehit:it K

Consecrated Animalsi. i

the order Kodashirn, and contdHtii of
ters divided into 101

Ch. i. : Setting for'
bringing of a sacriflcr; the I
be slaughter'

Mishnah. the 8a<
Contents: Ch :;
i.-vii. ;;• ;•: \ •■•■'■

wiicn I III' I'lie « Mi> 11
or to olTor a jmrt ti.
scribed by law.

Ch. iii.': Erv -•

the sacriflo."
tions that cni

tion."* ' '■ "'

or in .i
over
wlieii ..
making i

Ch. iv
of distinc
heathen aod odc

"k:--

Zebabim
Zechariah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

644

tioDof the correct intentions necessary in the bring-
ing of a siicritice.

Ch. v.: Wherethe various animals are slaughtered
according to their ditferent degrees of holiness;
where and how their blood must be sprinkled;
where and for how long their flesh may be eaten.

Ch. vi. : Continuation of ch. v. ; on the prepara-
tion and delivering of a sin-offering consisting of
birds.

Ch. vii. : Further regulations concerning the sac-
ritice of birds.

Ch. viii. : Rules governing cases in which differ-
ent animals or parts of different animals have been
mingled, or in wliicli the blood of one
Contents : sacrifice has been mixed with that of
viii.-xiv, another.

Ch. i.\. : In which cases that which
has been placed on the altar may not be removed ;
things which in some instances the altar, the ladder,
and the sanctified vessels render boh', and the cases
in which they have no sanctifying powers.

Ch. X.: The order of the various sacrifices; which
sacrifices precede others with regard to time, and
also in degree of holiness; thus, the dail}' burnt of-
fering (" tamid ") precedes the additional offering
("musaf ") brought on Sabbaths and festivals; how
the priests partake of the sacrificial meat.

Ch. xi. : Cases in which a garment or utensil
stained by the blood of a sacrificed animal may be
washed, and when it may not be washed; on the
cleansing of the vessels according to the flesh of dif-
ferent sacrifices which has been prepared in them.

Ch. xii. : Priests who do not partake of the flesh
of the sacrifices; in which cases the skins belong to
those who bring the sacrifices, and in which to the
priests; exceptions among the latter cases; where
the bullocks and he-goats are burned, and under
what conditions the garments of those who attend to
the burning are rendered unclean.

Ch. xiii. : Various offenses that may occur in con-
nection with sacrifices.

Ch. xiv. : Regulations concerning the bringing of
a sacrifice out.side of the Temple in Jerusalem ; be-
fore the erection of the Tabernacle it was permitted
to sacrifice on the high places ("bamot "), and the
first-born officiated as priests; but after the erecting
of the Tabernacle this was forbidden, and the priests
of the family of Aaron officiated ; the sacrificing on
high places was again permitted in Gilgal, but was
anew prohibited in Shiloh ; in Nob and in Gibeon
permission was once more granted, ])ut the practise
was finally forbidden when the Temple was built in
Jerusalem; description of the sanctuary in Shiloh.

The Toseftato this treatise is divided into thirteen
chapters, and contains not only elucidating amplifi-
cations of the Mishnah, but also several interesting
maxims. Mention may be made of
The R. Tarfon's acknowledgment of the

Tosefta. wisdom of R. Akiba (i. 8), to whom
he says; "I have heard, but did not
know how to explain; you, however, explain, and
your interpretation is in accord with the tradi-
tional Halakah. Therefore, he who disagrees with
you is as though he liad parted with life." Ch. vi.
11 contains a description of the altar; and xi. 1 in-
terprets the name of the meal-offering ("shelamim ")

as being derived from "shalom" (peace), explaining
that at this sacrifice the altar, the priests, and the
offerer of the sacrifice all I'eceive a part thereof, so
that all are satisfied. Ch. xiii. 6 sets forth the
length of the various periods during which the sanc-
tuary was in the wilderness, in Gilgal, in Shiloh, in
Nob and Gibeon, and in Jerusalem.

The Gemara of the Babylonian Talmud discusses
and explains the several mishnayot, and contains
besides some interesting haggadic interpretations
and maxims. A description is given of the manner
in which David decided upon the place where the
Temple should be built (^ o4b). When the Jews
returned from the Babylonian exile there were among
them three prophets: one pointed out to the people
the place where the altar had formerly stood and
where it should again be erected ; the second told
them that they might sacrifice, although the Temple
had not yet been built; and the third instructed
them that the Torah should be written in square
characters (§ 62a). A description is also given of
how, during the revelation on Mt. Sinai, the voice
of God was heard by all the nations, and how they
became frightened and went to Balaam, who ex-
plained to them the import of the noise (§ 116a).

J. J. Z. L.

ZEBA'OT ADONAI. See Adonai.

ZEBEDEE {ZcSfdauK; apparently from the He-
brew nmr = "the gift of Ynwii"): Father of the
apostles James and John, and husband of Salome;
a native of Galilee and a fisherman by calling (Matt.
iv. 21, xxvii. 56; Mark xv. 40). It seems from the
mention of his boat and hired servants (ib. i. 20) that
Zebedee was a man of some means, although lie had
to work himself.

J. M. Sel.

See Kaidanovek, Zebi
See AsiiKENAZi, Zebi

ZEBI BEN AARON.

HiKSCH.

ZEBI ASHKENAZI.

HiRscH BEN Jacob.
ZEBI HIRSCH BEN HAYYIM : Dayyan

and hazzan at Posen toward the end of the seven-
teenth century. Under the title " Sefer Or Yasliar "
he edited (Amsterdam, 1709) an Ashkeuazic ritual,
to which he appended notes of his own, various
commentaries collected from ancient authorities, the
annotations of Isaac Luria, the dinim that are in
daily use, and ethical dissertations taken from the
"Hobot ha-Lebabot," "Reshit Hokmah," and "To-
ze 'ot Hayyim." Zebi Ilirscli is not to be confounded
with a printer of Wilmersdorf of similar name.

Bibliography: Nepi-fihironrii, Tohdot Gcdole Yisi-aeU p.
2i)8 ; Steinsclineider, Cat. lindl. col. 2751.

.J. I. Br.

ZEBI HIRSCH BEN ISAAC JACOB : Slio-
het at Cracow in the .sixteentii century; a pupil of
Moses Isserles. He was the author of " Ilaggahot
le-Sefer Shehitah u-Bedikah " (Cracow, 1631; n.p.
1723; Amsterdam. \1A'): Zolkiev, 1793), annotations
appended to Jacob Weil's work on the laws govern-
ing the slaughtering of animals and the examination
of the lungs.

Bini.TOfJRAPHY: Nepi-Ghlrondi. Tnledot Gedole Ym-acl p.
2ftH ; Furst, Bibl. Jud. i. 390; Steiuschnelder, Cat. Bodl. col.
2753.

J. I. Br.

645

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

E«*!*b!ii:

ZEBI HIRSCH BEN JOSEPH BEN ZEBI
HA-KOHEN: Polish Tuhumlis. of .l.e s..v,.ni;.,.,Mi,
cciitiiry; studied for some time at Cracow under
lom-Tob Lipmaiui Heller. He was the author of
"Nahulat Ze])i" (Venice. 16(11). a commentary on
Joseph Caro's Shull.ian 'Aruk. Ehen iia-Ezer, and
of "'Ateret Zebi," a commentary on Onih Huyyim
Zebi left several works in manuscript, anion^ whirll
are commentaries on the two remaining parts of the
Slnilhan 'Aruk.

^'il!;!Hr'eoir!^5.i^"'"''' ^'''''- •^'"^- '• ^^^= ^"■ins.lmeider. Cat.
•'■ I. Bii.

ZEBI HIRSCH B. SIMON : Lithuanian Tal-

mudist; lived in the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury. He was dayyan and preaclier in the commu-
nity of Vitebsk during the rabbinates of K. Isaiaii
and R. Lob, and was known as one of the first
Talmudic autliorities in that part of Lithuania. He
corresponded with many rabbis who consulted him
on ditlicult ritual questions. Of his numerous
writings only one has been printed- "Hadrat Ze-
kcnim" (Dubrovna, 1802), edited by liis grandsons
Josliua and Abraham b. 3Ieir. This work, in-
tended as a codification of the lialakot enacted dur-
ing the period following the compilation of tlie
Shulhan 'Aruk, does not treat the subject fullv,
the printed part developing inadequatelv the sub-
jects contained in the first 200 paragraplis of the
Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah. Tlie unpublished
part of the "Hadrat Zekenim" contains novelhe
on Berakot and on all treatises of tlie order
Mo'ed.

BiBMOGRAPHY : Hadrat Zekenim, Introduction and notes of
approbation.

E. C.

L. G.

ZEBID : 1. Babylonian amoraof the fourth cen-
tury ; a contemporary of Abaye, whose lialakot he
transmitted, and of whom lie was perhaps a pupil
(Ber. 46b ; Sotah 32b ; et passim). Zebid also trans-
mitted tlie halakot of Raba and R. Xahmau (B. K.
84a; B. M. 17a), but he particularly preferred the
decisions of Abaye, and it is narrated ('Al). Zaiali 38b)
that his adherence to Abaye caused his death. Wlien
the people of the exilarch once questioned R. Hiyya
Parwa'ali regarding a certain halakali, he answeied
that Ilczekiah and Bar Kappara had interpreted it,
while R. Johanan had decided to tlie contrary, and
that as the authorities thus stood two to one, the law
would have to be interpreted according to tiie ma-
jority. Zebid said, however, " Do not listen to
him, for Abaye decided according to R. Jolianan ";
whereupon the people of the exilarch forced Zebid
to drink a cup of vinegar, which caused his deatii.
]?. Hinena b. R. Ika is recorded as iiis opponent in
iialakic decisions (3Ie'i. 19a). Zebid jiarticularly
explained to his pupils the baraitot of R. Iloshaiah
or Osliaya ("bi-debe R. Osha'ya": 'Ab. Zarah 6b.
56a; B. Si. 92b; et passim).

2. Contemporary of the preceding, and generally
called Zebid of Nehardea (Kid. 72b: comp. Raslii
ad loc). He was for eight years head of tlie yeslii-
bah of Pumbedita; and among his pupils were
Amemar. Huna b. Nathan, and R. ICahann (Kid.
l.c.\ B. M 73b; Yeb. 18b; and elsewhere). At liis

'liiith l< Kaliiiim ■
Puin Nahiiru (M '

BlHI.|04ilUI-||Y |i
.1.

ZEBU-IM, -., II. I .,:;.,

ZEBULUN; J I,
30), and lune«- thf >
liim (Num. i. H
27]). In th- .
signed disn
west an •
Asiier i( .

x.\xiil. IH et tt-i
po.ssessed n'

indeed. lli<-

unintelligible. Z«bulun» i

I'jnsive, but w.-n- f < -

tant road.s fmni iji-

This fuel fxpinios Ibc r

merce wjtli oIIht rl ,

brews (" aniiniin " .

"Ant." V. J. ^ 22). will.

Zebuluu eotcTt'd ■ •

(Deut. I.e.) — •*,

author of the \

nance in tlie naiin ,

ported as mtlicr p< :

(Num. i. 30, xxvi. ,'i

had witliin it.H bordci^ i.

i. 30; I.sa. viii. 241) Its ;

song of Dcboruh (Judp-n v

10; vi. 3.5). One of th- •

have been «»f Uie tribe ( '

able that Zebulin

incorporated in . .

Zeliulun in I Kings iv

The ferritorv w , , \,XMi A

in 731-733 hv ]; .

ZECHARIAH: <•;•.■ , ' •«:, \\ ■
whom is nttriliutc<i t
apocalyptic visi •
his name. He u . .
.son of Iddo (Zoch. i. I).
son of Iddo (Kzm v. 1. \
biy iiientical with th*« |il
in Nell. xii. 4. w
self the liigh pri< -:
riah wa."* prolmlily !■
w;is '

P'"l'" • ■■

IIysta.'«pc». a littlo 1 .

Hag. i. 1>. hi-

the Temple. \

of the book which *

sr.- Zi ■■

riah !■
medium nf ^

\\ ■ ' '

1'
monitions !>•

on I lie part of .i

>Ies,sinnir pH

BEL (Iv. 9)

Ills fufinml Of.

<!•

Zechariah. Book of
Zechariah ha-Kohen

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

646

prophet names au augcl of Yhwh, called sometimes
" the " augel. aud it is lie who iutroduces also " the "
Satan in the role of a mischief-maker contirming the
people's hesitation and discouraged mood (iii. 1, 2).
His method thus borders on the apocalyptic. His
style is not lacking in directness in some passages,
but in others it leans toward involved obscurity.
Zechariah, however, proves himself to be an uncom-
promising critic of the ritual substitutes for true
piety, such as fasting and mourning (vii. 5); and he
reiterates the admonitions for mercy and righteous-
ness, which according to the Proplicts constitute the
essence of the service of Yhwu (vii. 8, 9). For neg-
lect of this service Israel was visited with the suf-
ferings that befell it (vii. 13. 14). Jerusalem is to be
called the city of truth (viii. 3), and shall dwell in
peace, so that old men and old women shall be
found in its streets (verse 4), together with boys aud
gH-ls (verse 5), aud prosperity shall abound in the
land (verses 7 et seq.).

While Zechariah lacks originality, he is distin-
guished from his contemporaries by the "gift of
plain speech " (G. A. Smith). But while some of
the obscurities and repetitions which mark his vis-
ions are probably due to other hands, there remain
enough of these defects that come from him to indi-
cate that the visions were not the spontaneous out-
flow of ecstasy, but the labored effort of a strained
and artificial imagination. He was a prophet, but
of a period when prophecy was rapidly running to
its own e.^tiuction. E. G. H.

ZECHARIAH, BOOK OF.— Biblical Data :

Prophetical book composed of fourteen chapters;
the eleventh in the order of the Minor Prophets, fol-
lowing Haggai and preceding Malachi. Ch. i.-viii.
comprise three prophecies: (1) an introduction (i.
1-6); (2) a complex of visions (i. 7-vi.); and (3) the
seed of Peace (vii. -viii.).

(1) The introduction, dated in the eighth month
of the second year of King Darius, is an admonition
to repentance addres.sed to the people and rendered
impressive by reference to the consequences of dis-
obedience, of which the experience of the fathers is
a witness.

(2) This introductory exhortation is followed on
the twenty-fourth day of the month of Shebat by
eight symbolic visions: {(i) augel-honsemen (i. 7-17);

{h) the four horns and the four smiths
Contents, (i. 18-21 [English], ii. 1-4 [Hebrew]);

(c)the city of peace (ii. 1-5 [English]);
(rf) the high priest and the Satan (iii.); (t) the Tem-
ple candlestick and the olive-trees (iv.); (/) the
winged .scroll (v. 1-4); {{/) the woman in the barrel
(v. 5-11); (A) the chariots of the four winds (vi. 1-8).
To these is added a historical appendix, in which
the propiiet speaks of the divine command to turn
the gold and silver offered by .some of the exiles into
a crown for Joshua (or Zerubbabel ?), and reiterates
the promise of the Messiah (vi. 9-15).

(3) The next two chapters (vii. -viii.) are devoted
to censuring fasting and mourning (vii.) when obe-
dience to God's moral law is essential, and to descri-
bing the Messianic future.

Ch. ix.-xiv. contain:

(Ij A prophec}' concerning the judgment about to

fall upon Damascus, Hamath, T3Te, Zidon, and the
cities of the Philistines (ix.).

(2) E.xhortation of the jieople to seek help not
from Tt:i{.\i'Hi.M aud diviners but from Yhwh.

(3) Announcement of war upon unworthy tyrants,
followed b)' an allegory in which the faithless peo-
ple is censureil and the brotherhood between Israel
and Judah is declared to be at an end ; fate of the
unworthy shepherd (xi.). To this chapter xiii. 7-9
seems to belong, as descriptive of a process qi puri-
fication by the sword and tire, two-thirds of the peo-
ple being consumed.

(4) Judah versus Jerusalem (xii. 1-7).

(5) Results, four in number, of Jerusalem's deliv-
erance (xii. 8-xiii. 6).

(8) The judgment of the heathen and the sancti-
fication of Jerusalem (xiv.).

Critical View : Inspection of its contents

shows immediately that the book readily divides
into two parts; namely, i.-viii. and ix.-xiv., each
of which is distinguished from the other by its
method of presenting the subject and b}' the range
of the subject presented. In the first part Israel
is the object of solicitude; and to encourage it to
proceed with the rearing of the Temple and to secure
the recognition of Zerubbabel and Joshua are the
purposes of the prophecj'. Visions, which are de-
scribed and construed so as to indicate Yhwh's
approval of the prophet's anxiety, predominate as
the mediums of the prophetic message, and the lesson
is fortified by appeals to Israel's past history, while
stress is laid on righteousness versus ritualism. The
date is definitely assigned to the second year of King
Darius Hystaspes. The historical background is the
condition which confronted the Jews who first re-
turned from the Exile (see, however, Koster's " Her-
stel von Israel," 1894). Some event — according to
Stade, the revolt of Smerdis; but more probably the
second conquest of Babj'lon imder Darius — seems to
have inspired buo3'ant hopes in the otiierwise de-
spondent congregation in Jerusalem, thus raising
their Messianic expectations (Zech. ii. 10 [A. V. 6] et
seq. vi. 8) to a firm belief in the reestablishing of Da-
vid's throne and the universal acknowledgment of
the supremacy of Yhwh. Angels and Satan are
intermediaries and actors.

In the second part the method is radically differ-
ent. Apocalyptic visions are altogether lacking,
aud historical data and chronological
The Second material are absent. The style is fan-
Zechariah. tastic and contains manj^ obscure allu-
sions. That the two parts are widely
divergent in date and authorship is admitted bj'^ all
modern critics, but while there is general agreement
that tlie first part is by the prophet Zechariah, no
harmony has yet been attained concerning the iden-
tity or the date of the second part.

Many recent commentators regard the second part
as ohlcr than the first, and as preexilic in date. They M
would divide it, furthermore, into at least two parts, "
ix.-xi. and xii. -xiv., the former by an author con-
temporary with Amos and Hosea. This assignment
is based on the facts that both Israel and Judah are
mentioned, and that the names of Assyria, Egypt,
and the contiguous nations are juxtaposed, much as
they are in Amos. The sins censured are false

647

THE JEWISH ENi n i.Mri.mA

prophecy and idolatry (xiii. 1-6). This group of
chapters (xii.-xiv.), containing the denunoiiition*
familiar in all prcexilic prophets, is regnrdt-das later
than the other division, since only Judah is men-
tioned. It is therefore assigned to tlic period after
the fall of the Northern Kingdon), and nioresjieeilie-
ally, on account of xii. 11, to the last days of the
Southern Kingdom after the battle of Megiddo and
the death of King Josiah.

Other scholars have argued with much ])lausibil-
ity for the liypothesis that the second i)art belongs
to a very late period of Jewish history.
Date of the In the tir.st place, the theology (sec
Second Esch.\toi,ogy) of these chapters .shows
Zechariah. tendencies which are not found in
Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, or Jeremiah, but
are due to Ezekiel's influence, such as the war on
Jerusalem preceding the Messianic triumph. Again,
the Temple service (xiv.) is focal even in the Mes-
sianic age, and this suggests the religious atmos-
phere of the Sadducean and Maccabeau theocracy
■with Zion as its technical designation. A mixture
of races is also mentioned, a reminiscence of condi-
tions described by Nehemiah (Neh. xiii. 2'.i et seq.).
while deliverance from Babylonian exile underlies
such promises as occur in ix; 12. The advent of a
king is expected, though as yet only a Davidic fam-
ily is known in Jerusalem (xii. 7, 12).

The second part of the book may thus be recog-
nized to be a compilation rather than a unit, all its
components being post-exilic in character. Two
grovips, ix.-xi. and xii.-xiv., are clearly indicated.
The second group (xii.-xiv.) is cschatological and
has no individual coloring, although from the con-
trast between Jerusalem and the country of Judah a
situation may be inferred which recalls the conditions
of the early stages of the Maccabean rebellion. The
first group may likewise be subdivided into two sec-
tions, ix. 1-xi. 3 and xi. 4-17 and xiii. 7-9. The Greeks
(see Javan) arc described in ix. 13 as enemies of
Judea, and the Ai5syrians and Egyptians are similarly
mentioned iu x., these names denoting the Syrians
(Seleucid^) and the Ptolemies. In ix. 1-2 Damas-
cus, Hamath, and Hadrach are seats of the Seleucid
kings, a situation which is known to have existed
in 200-165 B.C. The internal conditions of tiie Jew-
ish community immediately before the Maccabean
uprising appear in the second subdivision, where
the shepherds are the tax-farmers (see T.mu»ds;
Menelaus). In xi. 13 there seems to be an allusion
to HvKCANXJS, son of Tobias, who was an exception
among the rapacious shepherds.

BiBMOGRArnv: Wripht, Zahariah ami His J^"Vj'ff':^'J;}
exU London. 1879, wl.icl. pives earl er ' '/ "^ 'r, • „Vh L
Drutcrozacharioh, in Zcitsvhrift fllr -,1 ''';;''' '"•'''7
}yixxcmchnfL 1881-82 ; tbe cominenUiries by Marl. N; «'•' w.

and Wellhausen ; G. A. Smith, TicWr. I'r'>)><>l>'-]- "

kainp. Dcr Prophet Sachania, 18,9: Sellln. >'
EuMchungszeit dcr Jlldisrhcu Oemeimc, '•'^ •• ,^,,; ^,,,
tersuchu)nien iU>n- die Knmptmtinn utid ^Wnwion/«*«f
von Zachariah, 1891. ix.-xiv. ., ^^

ZECHARIAH BEN ABKILUS (Amphika-
los) : Palestinian scholar and one of thr leaders of
the Zeu.ots; lived in Jerusalem at the time of t he
destruction of the Second Temple. According to the
Talmud, the authority which he enjoyed am..ng the
rabbis of Jerusalem was the cause of the downfall

ofih.
(umoiu for t;

et.

;u, he Ui<i

Kanii^a, Imd i

tl, ' • '

(

thus renilen-«l ii.

wJHhed to kil! "

able to tell tl>

otiee mot .

sign. H

to nuotlii :

of Zeehariuli !

caused the il^ .

Toser.ShHb. ivl. (xvll 16. I
corded as fnl'
Shanwnai wii;. ; ^ .
Sabliath (Shub. 148; i
ably referred to by J'

BlRi-ionRAPiiY: (ir-
bounr. Hint. p. 2.17.
K. ( .

ZECHARIAH BEN JEHOIAPA
Data: .V refoiinini.' iirirst •
Joiish of Juduh. il
nouucing Go<l'8 ]■'•'
spirary was forn
being stomal
maud of the i..:._.
ness which Jeiioiada '
C'hron. xxiv, iJi. Z
" Yiiwii h'i'k liiM.u
20-22).

K. O II

In R".>'^""ical Litorrxtvir.-

Habbis. / > was t

anil, l)ei:

dared c'< !

jiriesls'

which w

when Ni

Zechariah s 1

the. I

they ; .

proved the faUily of lli'

told

app' .

Great ai

.1 of Um Temple

upon >•

hlo«Hl «■

lAin. H

K c.

ZECHARIAH HA KOI

huilK't Li.

Zechariah 'Mendel
Zedekiab

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

648

("kontres") in which he refutes Nahmanides' stric-
tures on Ibn Ezra's commentary on the Pentateuch,
citations from which relating to the weekly lesson
"Wayiggash are made by Menahem in his commen-
tary on Ruth. Hebrew MS. No. 249. 1 of the Vati-
can Library is a work by a certain Zechariah lia-
Kohen refuting Nahmaniiles' strictures (" liassagot ")
on Maimouides' "Sefer ha-Miz\vot," and its author
is probably identical with the subject of tliis article.
In this work, written in 1451, Zechariah is styled " the
philosopher." He wrote two " tahanunim" beginning
respectively "Anauadon 'olain"aud "Zebah u-min-
hah ne'edaru," both to be recited on Roshha-Shanah
before the blowing of the shofar: and lie produced
also a metrical poem beginning "Be-ikkarim yeka-
rim la-bekarim," on the thirteen Articles of Faith, all
the words riming in D'l- Moreover, a manuscript
formerly in the possession of Osias Schorr contains
several poems by Zechariah ha-Koheu. One poem
beginning "Torat emet amun " and iniblished by
Schorr (in "He-Haluz,"ii. 16'2) and by Geiger (in his
" JiidischeDichter," p. 28, Hebr.) isalso Zechariah's,
although both scholars, misled by a difference in
handwriting, ascribed it to another poet.

BiDi.ior.RAPHT : Fuenn. Koiesrt Yisracl. p. m : Stcinschnel-
der. Cat. Lei/iku. p. IW, note 1, Leyden, 1858; Zunz, Litera-
turge^ch. pp. 378-3T9, 650.
J. M. Sel.

ZECHARIAH MENDEL BEN ARYEH
LOB : Polish Talmudisl of the eighteenth century ;
a native of Cracow, and in later life chief rabbi and
head of the yeshibah at Belz, Galicia. He was the
author of "Be'er Heteb," a well-known commentary
on the Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, and Hoshen
Mishpat (first edition of the first part, Amsterdam,
17o4: of the second, i/j. 1764); tlie work is prin-
cipally a compendium of the "Sifte Koheu"and
"TureZahab."

BiBLiOfiRAPnv: Azulai. Shem ha-Gedolim, ii., s.v. Be'er
Heteh ; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrad, p. 318.
.1.' M. Sf.l.

ZECHARIAH MENDEL BEN ARYEH

LOB : (laliciun and German preacher and scholar;
born at Podhaice in the early part of the eighteenth
century: died at Frankfort-on-the-Oder Dec. 20,
1791. He was of the same family as Solomon Luria
and Moses Isserles, who traced their genealogy to
Rashi. Zechariah Mendel's principal teacher was
Jacob Joshua, author of "Pene Yehoshua'." Zech-
ariah Mendel was preacher in the Talmud Torah at
Frankfort-on-the-()der. He left manj' writings, of
which only the following three have been published
(at Frankfort-on the Oder): " Menorat Zekaryah "
(1776j, a work containing novelliE on the treatise
Shabbat and homilies for the Sabbath and holy days ;
"Zekaryah ]\Iesliullam " (1779), a seciuel to the pre-
ceding work, and containing novella; on the Tal-
mud; "Zekaryah ha-Mebin " (1791), a guide to re-
ligious philosophy and to the knowledge of the true
Cabala.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 315; Furst, Bihl.
Jud. ill. 305.

J. M. Skl.

ZECHARIAH IBN SA'ID AL-YAMANI :

Author of iui Arabic version of the " Y(jsippoii " ;
flourished in the tenth or eleventh century. His ver-
sion exists in three recensions: (1) in several manu-

scripts which yet await thorough examination; (2)
an abbreviated text printed in the Paris and London
polyglots (1645. 1657) as II Maccabees ("Kitab al-
Makabiyyin "), the term '' Maccabees " here connoting
the entire Hasmonean dynasty, since the book be-
gins with the death of Alexander the Greatand ends
with the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus; and (3)
an abstract printed under the title" Ta'rikh Yo.sippus
al-Yahudi" (Beirut, 1873). According to a manu-
script at Leyden (No. 1982), Ibn Hazm (d. 1063) was
acquainted with the Arabic translation from the
Hebrew. From an investigation of the Arabic ver-
sion as contained in two Parisian manuscripts (No.
1906; De Slane, No. 287). Wellhausen has reached
the conclusion ("Der Arabisciie Josippus," in "Ab-
handlungen der Kouiglichen Gesellschuft d&r Wis-
senschaften zu Gottingen," new series, i. 1-50. Ber-
lin, 1897) that the translator was an Egyptian Jew
who made his Arabic version from the Hebrew.
Wellhau.sen believes, furthermore, that the Arabic
and existing Hebrew texts have a common origin,
and that the Arabic of the manuscripts is nearer to
II Maccabees than to the Hebrew version ; while all
three are to be considered independent recensions
and valueless as historical documents. Despite Well-
hausen's researclies, however, the relation of the
Arabic " Yosippon " to the Hebrew text is a problem
still unsolved. The Arabic recension was probably'
the source of the Ethiopic "Ziena Ailiud " (comp.
Goldschmidt, " Die Aethiopischen Ilandschriften der
Stadtbibliothek zu Frankfurt-am-Main," pp. 5etseg.,
Berlin. 1897 ; Wright. " Catalogue of Ethiopic Manu-
scripts in the British Museum," No. ccclxxviii.).

Bibliography: Steinsctineider, Die Arnhii^che Litci-atJtr der
Judcii, § 71, Frankfurt-on-the-Main, liHCJ ; Vogelstein and
Rieper. Gesch. der Juden in Rom, i. 483. See also Joseph

BEN (iORION.

s. M. Sc.

ZECHARIAH BEN SOLOMON ZEBSIL

(="Sluibl)etliui") ASHKENAZI: German Tal-
mudist of the sixteenth century; rabbi of the Ash-
kenazic community at Jerusalem, where he died.
He was the father-in-law of Joseph Caro, who
speaks of him as of one well versed in rabbinics
(Joseph Caro, " Abkat Rokel," No. 29). His .signa-
ture has been found with that of David b. Zimra
under a halakic decision (ih. No. 115). In 1565 a
case of halizah was the occasion of a controversy
between Zechariah and his companions on the one
side and David b. Zimra on the other. The brother
of the deceased, an Ashkenazic Jew who lived in
Palestine and who already had a wife, married the
widow instead of performing the rite of halizah,
which was contrary to the Ashkenazic custom ; and
Zechariah and his companions put him under the
ban. David b. Zimra, on the contrary, argued that
as the man lived in a country where polygamy was
not forbidden, the Ashkenazic rabbis had no right
to excommunicate him. The other Sephardic rabbis,
however, declared that Zechariah and his compan-
ions were right ("Bet Yosef," Hilkot "Yibbum wa-
Halizah ").

Bibliography : Azulai, Shorn ha-Gedolim, 1.; S. Frumkin,
Eben ShemueU p. GO; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, P- 314.
.1. M. Sel.

ZEDAKAH BOX : A receptacle in which vol-
untary charitable contributions are deposited. The

649

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ma&dei

^.i7^eKlBi4

earliest iiicntiou of sucli a device is in coiinectioii
with Jeiioiada the priest, who iireparcd a chest
wilii a hole in tlie lid and placed it liuside the altar
opposite the i^encnil entrance at the south side ttf

the Temple, in thiscliesl
all contributions were
deposited to form a fund
for rcpairiu!,' the sacred
edifice (II Kings xii. 10).
According to the Misli-
nah, there were in the
Second Temple tliirtecn
boxes sha])<Ml like a horn
("shofar"), being broad
at the bottom and nar-
row at the top, where
tile coins were dropped
in. The money i^laced
in them was used for
dilTerent sacrifices in the
Temple and for chari-
table purposes. In later
times the charity bo.\
was called " kuppah shel
zedakah," i.e., charity
basket, or receptacle for
the communal fund con-
tributed to provide sus-
tenance for the poor
every Friday (Pe'ah viii.
7 ; B. B. 8b).

From time immemo-
rial the synagogue and
bet ha - midrash were
provided with sets of charity bo.\es, each bear-
ing au inscription designating the purpose for
which the money was collected. Among these
boxes were one foV "bedek ha-bayit" (repairs of the
synagogue), one for candles in the bet ha-midrash. a
third for the Talmud Torah, a fourth for •'nialbi.sh

Wooden Zedakah Box
Synagogue at Lutomiersk,
Kussia.

(From Bersohn, ' Kilka Slow.")

Zedakah Box.

(DesiKned by Leo HoroviU.)

'arummim " (= " to clothe the naked." t.^.. to provide
clothing for the poor), and a fifth for "gem.lat hasn
dim " (loans without interest to the poor). One spe-
cial box was marked " mattan ba-setcr " (= a gitl in
secret"; corap. Prov. xxi. 14), in which large sums
were often placed by anonymous donors, who some-

.,.,...

J. D. K.

tiinefi

Tlie < li.ii

iioardof t:

is curried in froiu «

(bead!- - ' ■■ •

(="l;

Pnjv. X. 2;. t
vulelioutwH fci ,,,.
orphan uHvluniH, ric. of

bfitic <■"'
ins' it n! ii i'

ZEDEK. JOSEPH KOHEN

rabliinical mIumii:

1827; died in U

trace its ancestry \»uk \<> ■

omon Luriu -r i ^'

structed by .1

Lemberg, and af

Yekeles. nibbi of i... ...

produced a number of Ilebn-

cliaracter. and edile<l o

honor of Sir M'"-.^ M •:

Tehillaii" (U-mb ' . He

Lemberg tin- Ilel

(lH.j,j-.')7). "Ozar :

hudi ha-Ni?hi" ( !

in Hebrew, and •»

Cracow and Alt': "•

Main, where lie issiicil the fl- 'T

Hebrew periodical, -OrT

London in IHT'i, and in '

following works: "Mussur ii

tion of his sermons: -<'•>:

Toraii weha-Mi/.wuh" (I-

sponsa entitled " I'rim w<

edited Joseph Cohen's "i.

Kalonymus' " Ebi-n llohan " '

count of abln(Ml .i

the title "OhoK .-.

his later years this at

rial for a biogra;

lish ralibis. and ;

ical Sketches of Eminent Jew

ninMOCiRAPIIV
Thf .liut.'h )

ZEDEKIAH : 1. One n* thf It-nr hvMrm4

propluis (1 Kings xxll. 11. 2i

nioneil to i^

whetlier lie ~

Uamotli u'il<-ad. ZcdekUth ;.

Mi<M ^. . ■-.

this

okiah struck him on •

by ::

prop

reply was ihni I

the H ■

2.
whose lnls<» ut;
, V !i Neburlmdi' . - ••

, , li of wrath that he
in the Are (Jer. >

3 T; llcwMt

Zedekiah
Ze'era

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

650

son of Josiah and full brother of Jelioabuz(II Kings
xxiii. 31, xxiv. 18), the first son of Josiah to reign,
who was carried captive to Egypt by Pharaoh-
Necho in 608 B.C. {ib. xxiii. 33). Zedekiah 's real
name was " Mattaniah " {ib. xxiv. 17), but Nebuchad-
rezzar, who enthroned him (in 597) in the place of
the rebellious and captive Jehoiachin, his nephew,
changed it to "Zedekiah" (= "righteousness of
Jab"). The new king assumed the throne under
the sovereignty of Nebuchadrezzar; and an abun-
dance of material descriptive of the events of his
reign is furnished in II Kings (.\xiv. 17-xxv. 7), in
II Chronicles (xxxvi. 10-21), and in more than a
dozen chapters of Jeremiah. The eleven years of
Zedekiah 's reign were notable for a steady decline
in Judah's power and for the desperate efforts of
Jeremiah to avert the coming disaster. As a ruler
he was pliant in the hands of his princes and of Jer-
emiah, yielding readily to the influence of any ad-
viser, whether prince or prophet. Ho made a jour-
ney to Babylon in the fourth year of his reign to
assure Nebuchadrezzar that he would stand by his
oath (Jer. li. 59); but the undying ambitions of the
Egyptian kings kept turning toward Asia, and Zed-
ekiah, with his usual wavering polic3% could no
longer resist the persuasionsof Hophra(Apries), King
of Egypt (589-569 B.C.), and in 588 B.C. broke off
his allegiance to Nebuchadrezzar. This brought the
Babylonian army against Jerusalem; but it had no
sooner settled down to a siege than Judah's Egyp-
tian ally appeared from the southwest. The Baby-
lonians hastily raised the siege and gave Hophra's
army such a blow that it retired to the land of the
Nile. The siege of Jerusalem was then resumed,
and after an investment of one and one-half years
the walls yielded. Zedekiah and his retinue escaped
through some hidden gate and fled toward the Jor-
dan ; but the Babylonians overtook him on the plains
of Jericho, and carried him captive to the King of
Babylon, whose headquarters were at Riblah. Here
Zedekiah's sons, heirs to the throne, were slain in
his presence, his own eyes were put out, and he was
bound with fetters and taken to Babylon as an ig-
nominious rebel prisoner. As a result of his conspir-
acies Jerusalem was taken, plundered, and burned;
its best population was deported to Babylon as cap-
tives: the Jewish kingdom perished; and Israel
ceased to exist as an independent nation. Zedekiah
passed the remainder of his days in a Babylonian
dungeon.

K- (■ H- I. M. P.

ZEDEKIAH BEN ABRAHAM. See Anaw,

ZkDIKIAH r.KN AlJKAIlAM.

ZEDEKIAH BEN BENJAMIN: Italian
Talmudist and liturgist; lived in Rome in the thir-
teenth century; died after 1280; elder cou.sin of Zed-
ekiah b. Abraham Anaw, by whom he is often
quoted in the"Shibbole ha-Leket." Zedekiah b.
Benjamin was a pupil of MeTr 1). Moses at Rome;
and lie later went to Germany and studied under the
tosatist Abigdor b. Elijah ha-Kohen, whom he
often consulted afterward ("Shibbole ha-Leket," i.
266, ii. 40). Abraham of Pesarosi)eaks of Zedekiah
as his companion (ib. ii. 6). As Abraham Abulafia
mentions one Zedekiah among his disciples and fol-

lowers, certain scholars suppo.se that this was Zede-
kiah b. Benjamin. He was the author of several
selihot found in MS. No. 43 of the Foa collection.

Ejbi.iography : Vogelst«n and Rieger, Ge~-ich. der Juden in
Rom. i. 249, 207. -*;3, 376, 378 ; Zunz, Lileraturaesch. p. 357.

.1. :M. Ski..

ZEDERBAUM, ALEXANDER OSSYPO-
VITCH : Russian Hebrew journalist ; born in Sam-
ostye, Lublin, 1816; died in St. Petersburg 1893;
founder and editor of "Ha-Meliz," and other pe-
riodicals published in the Russian and Yiddish
languages. A son of poor parents, he was in his
early youth apprenticed to a tailor, but through
energy and assiduity he succeeded in acquiring a
knowledge of Hebrew literature, and of the Russian,
Polish, and German languages. He married in Lu-
blin, and in 1840 left his native town for Odessa, then
the "Mecca" of the IL\8KALAn movement. He ob-
tained there a commercial position, made the ac-
quaintance of the Maskilim of the city, and in his
leisure hours continued to work for his self-educa-
tion. Later he opened a clothing-store, and was
himself cutter in his tailoring-shop.

In 1860 Zederbaum succeeded in obtaining the
government's permission to publish "Ha-Meliz,"
the first Hebrew periodical issued in Russia ; and
three years later he began publishing the pioneer
Yiddish journal "Kol Mebasser." After an exist-
ence of eight years the latter paper was suppressed
b}' the government, whereupon Zederbaum went to
St. Petersburg, obtaining permission to transfer the
headquarters of " Ha-Meliz " to that city. He
was also granted permission to do his own printing,
and to publish, besides "Ha-Meliz," a Russian
weekly (" Vyestnik Ruskich Yedreed "), which, how-
ever, enjoyed only a short existence, as did also the
" Razsvyet," which he started a few years later. In
1881 he founded the " Volksblatt," a daily Yiddi-sh
journal which existed for eight years, although Ze-
derbaum was its editor for only a few years.

Zederbaum was the author of " Keter Kehunnah "
and "Ben ha-Mezarim," but neither of these works
met with any success. His chief significance lies
in the fact that he was a champion of the Haskalah.
His Yiddish periodical " Kol Mebasser " offered an
opportunity for many of the best jargon-writers to
develop their talents; and among these may be men-
tioned Linetzky, Abramowitch, Spector, and Sho-
lem Aleicliem.

Zederbaum exercised con.siderable influence in
government circles, and it was due to his interces-
sion that an imjjartial judgment was obtained for
man}^ Jewish families accused of ritual murder in
Kutais; he disclosf?d also the ignorance of the Rus-
sian anti-Semite Lutostanskj', whose pamphlets
threatened to become dangerous for the Russian
Jews. The Palestine Association of Odessa, which
aids the Jewish colonists in Syria and Palestine,
owes its existence to Zederbaum's activity.

BiBi.iofjRAPiiY: Klirrmihn rox/f/iorfri. 1S9.1. Nos. .35-30; Soko-
low, Scferlia-Zikharon. ]K9(); Wiener, Histor'ji af Yiddish
Litirnturc; IJrainln, Zihroyiot. 1«99; JYie'ibeig,' in Sefer
hn-Shanah, 1900.

J. S. Hu.

ZEDNER, JOSEPH: German bibliographer
and librarian; born at Gross-Glogau Feb. 10, 1804;
died at Berlin Oct. 10, 1871. After completing his

651

THE JEWISH L.NLVCL(JPEI)IA

education, he acted as teacher in tiieJewisi, ,

in Strciitz(:\Icckienbiirg), wliere the famous Oermuii
lexicographer Daniel Sunders was his puj)il. In
1832 he became a tutor lu the family of the- hook
seller A. Asher in Berlin, and later engaged in tlio
book-trade himself; but being unsuccessful lio ac-
cepted in 1845 a position as librarian of Hi,. H,.i,re\v
departmentof the IJritisli Mus.'umin Lon(h)n. where
he remained till 18G9, Avhen ill heailii compelled Inm
to resign and to retire to Berlin, where he spent the
last two years of his life. Shortly after Ids appoint-
ment, the British Museum ac(|uired the library of
the bibliophile Heimann J. Michael of Hamburg.
which Zedner catalogued.

Ze<lnerwas the author of the following works:
"Auswahl Historischer StQcke aus Hebraischcn
Schriftstellern vnm Zweiten Jahrhundert bis in die
Gegenwart, mit Vocalisiertem Texte, Deutscher Uc-
bersetzung! und Anmerkungen" (Berlin, 1840);
"Catalogue of the Hebrew Books in the Library of
the British Museum" (London, 18G7); and "Eiu
Fragment aus dem Letzten Gesange von Reineke
Fuchs" (Berlin, 1871), a poetical satire on Napoleon
III. He contributed to Asher's edition of the Trav-
els of Benjamin of Tudela (London, 1840), and wrote
poems on two collections of portraits (" Ehret die
Frauen," and " Edelsteinc und Perlen," Berlin, 1836-
45). While in London, he published a second edition
of Ibn Ezra's commentary on the Book of Esther,
to which he wrote an introduction entitled " \Va-
Yosef Abraham."

BiBLiofJRAi'HY: Steinschneider, in Ma{imin fllr die Litrrn-
tur (les A iislandcs. 1871, No. 44, ahstnicts of whicti are jrlvcn
in AUii. Zeit. drx Jud. 1871, pp. 110-118, and in Gi)icialaii-
zeUjer flir dii' (icsammten Iiitcrcsstn dcs Judcntumi<, Ber-
lin, Feb. 22, 1904.

s. D.

ZEEBI, ISRAEL: Prominent Talmudist; son
of Benjamin Zeel)i, and on his mother's side a grand-
son of Abraham Azulai; born at Hebron in IGSl ;
died in 1731. Benjamin dying when Israel was but
four years old, the latter was educated by his
mother; and at the age of eighteen he married a
daughter of Abraiiam Cuenqui (see Griltz, "Gesch."
X. 4G3, note 6). For about thirty years he ofliciated
as chief rabbi of Hebron. It is saul that he was a
partizan of Nehemiah Hiyya Hayyun. He cor-
responded with Abraham Yizhaki, Moses Hayyun,
Ephraim Nabon, Jeshua Shababo, and other au-
thorities. Zeebi's full name was Abraham Isnie! ;
the first pnenomen he seems to have assumed in
later j-ears, probably after an illness. At his death
he left one son, Isaac, who published at Smyrna
in 1758 " Urim Ge(lolim,"a volumeof responsu. and
"Or la-Yesharim," a collection of homilies, both
works being by his father.

Bibliockaphy : Azulai, Shcm ha-GedoUm, s.v. Ahrahain,
Azulai, and Israel Zecbi.
F.. c. L. Gur.

ZE'ENAH U-RE'ENAH or TEUTSCH HU-
MESH : Judajo-German paraphra.se of the Penta-
teuch, tlic Ilaftarot, and the Five Megillot. written
by Jacob b. Isaac of Janow, who flourished in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The work
is enriched with many haggadot taken either directly
from the IMidrash or from such iiomiletic commen-
taries as the "Toledot Yizhak," "Zeror ha-Mor."

midrtiHldu) u

liut nn tl.

ii. "
I.

Zion "), aod aa tbe I

for i; '

two ,

kind hud been <

Samson ha-K

Heenah " of .

ularily, and ii li;.

the most fuv ■ '

Neither tfi«> .

can be di

('racow, l!,,.^. ,. ,

two years lnt»T

which shows •

Since then it :...,

later editions rfi

ward) there •

Shirim in Jiii;

Kolien. and Tar.

Simeon ben '•'

into bilin lb-

1660; reproduceil b>

e( fe(] ' ■ '

"Lu .--

derne." etc. (I'aris, 1M6).

author. Stein '

1216) that h<

Jacob b. Isaac w

(Pnigue, 1576). u »

"Ze'enah u H'-'iOHh

and the II

icles; "Si -.. ,

ence index for t'
'Aruk. Vr)reh I>f»ii.
1622). JudaoH. r,,,,., i,.
beine a supp!'
n

ZE'ERA:

atinn; born i

youth. He was a pupil of

the BabyloDino hcIh^iI. bn

Her. s ' ' ' '

shet.

•Er. 06a). Hi

deride up ■

ting lo I'l

secret from In

him as a valu
41a; Ket. I

Ze'era
Zeitlin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

652

was told that his sjns had been forgiven, encouraged
hira to undertake the journey to the Holy Land
(Ber. 57a); and before starting he spent a hundred
days in fasting, in order to forget the dialectic
method of instruction of the Babylonian schools,
that this might not handicap him in Palestine (B.
M. 85a). His journey took him through Akrokonia,
where he met Hiyya b. Ashi ("Ab. Zarah 16b), and
through Sura (ib.). When he reached the River
Jordan he could not control his impatience, but
passed through the water without removing his
clothes. When Jeered at by an unbeliever who stood
by, he answered, " Why should not I be impatient
when I pursue a blessing which was denied even to
Moses and Aaron?" (Yer. Shcb. 35c).

Ze'era's arrival in Palestine and his first expe-
riences there have been recorded in various anec-
dotes. He was small of stature and of dark com-
plexion, for which reason Assi called him " Black
Pot " ('Ab. Zarah 16b), according to an expression
current In Babylonia (comp. Meg. l-lb; Pes. 88a;
Ber. 50a); this name probably also contained an al-
lusion to his sputtering manner of speech. With
reference to a malformation of his legs, he was
called "the little one with shrunken
Arrival in legs." or "the dark, burned one with
Palestine, the stubby legs " (comp. Baclier, " Ag.
Pal. Amor." iii. 7, note 2). With these
nicknames is connected a legend which throws light
upon Ze'era's ascetic piety (B. JL 85a). In Palestine
he associated with all the prominent scholars. Elea-
zar b. Pedatwas still living at the time (Niddah 48),
and from hira Ze'era received valuable instruction
(Yer. Ter. 47d). His most intimate friends were
Assi and Hiyya b. Abba. In his intercourse with
Assi he was generally the one who asked questions;
and on one occasion Assi made known his approval
of one of Ze'era's questions by saying: "Right you
are, Babylonian ; you have understood it correctly "
(Yer. Shab. 7c). Ze'era especially acknowledged
the authority of Ammi, the principal of the school
at Tiberias; and it is related that he asked Ammi to
decide questions pertaining to religious law that had
been addressed to himself (Yer. Dem. 25b; Yer.
Shab. 8a; Yer. Yeb. 72d). Ze'era was highly es-
teemed by Abbahu, the rector at Csesarea, of
whom he con.sidered himself a pupil. He was or-
dained rabbi, a distinction usually denied to mem-
bers of the Babylonian school ; and though in the
beginning he refused this honor (Yer. Bik. 65c), he
later accepted it on learning of the atoning powers
connected with the dignity (Sanh. 14a). His insig-
nificant appearance was humorously referred to
when at his ordination he was greeted with the words
of a wedding-song: "Without rouge and without
ornament, but withal a lovable gazel" (Ket. 17a).
With regard to Ze'era's private vocation, the
only facts known are that he once traded
Social Con- in linen, and that he asked Abbahu
dition and how far he might go in improving the
Family outward ap pearancc of his goods with-
Life. out rendering himself liable in the
slightest degree to a charge of fraud
(Yer. B. M. 9d). Information regarding his family
relations is also very .scanty ; it is asserted that he be-
came an orphan at an early age (Yer. Pe'ah 15c), and

that his wedding was celebrated during the Feast of
Tabernacles (Suk. 25b) ; and he had one sou, Aliabahor
Ahava, who has become well known through various
haggadic maxims (comp. Bacher, I.e. iii. 651-659).

Ze'era occupies a prominent place in the Halakah
as well as in the Haggadah ; with regard to the
former lie is especially distinguished for the correct-
ness and knowledge with which he transmits older
maxims. Among his haggadic sayings tiie follow-
ing may be mentioned as throwing light upon his
high moral standpoint: "He who has never sinned
is worthy of reward only if he has withstood tempta-
tion to do so" (Yer. Kid. 61d); "One should never
promise a child anything which one does not intend
to give it, because this would accustom the child to
untruthfulness " (Suk. 46b). On account of his lofty
morals and piety Ze'era was honored with the name
"the i)ious Babylonian." Among his neighbors were
several people known for their wickedness, but Ze'era
treated them with kindness in order to lead them to
moral reformation. When he died, these people
said, "Hitherto Ze'era has prayed for us, but who
will pray for us now'?" This reflection so moved
their hearts that they really were led to do penance
(Sanh. 37a). That Ze'era enjoyed the respect of his
contemporaries is evidenced by the comment upon
his death written by an elegist: "Babylonia gave
him birth ; Palestine had the pleasure of rearing
him ; ' Wo is me, ' says Tiberias, for she has lost her
precious jewel" (M. K. 75b).

BiBLiOGRAPnv : Bacher, Ag. Pal. .4 /nor. iii. 1-.34 ; Heilprin,
Scdei- ha-Dorot, ii. 117-l;iO.
J. ■ J. Z. L.

ZEFIRAH, HA-. See Periodicals.

ZE'IBI: Amora of the third century; born in
Babylonia. He sojourned for a long time in Alex-
andria, and later went to Palestine, where he became
a pupil of Rabbi Johanan. In the name of Hanina
b. Hama he transmitted the maxim that he who in
the presence of a teacher ventures to decide a legal
question, is a trespasser ('Er. 3a). He also trans-
mitted a saying by Hanina to the effect that the
Messiah would not arrive until all the arrogant ones
had disappeared (Sanh. 98a). During his sojourn in
Alexandria he purcliascd a mule which, when he led
it to water, was transformed into a bridge-board,
the water having lifted the spell wjiich rested on
the animal. The purchase-money was refunded to
Ze'iri, and he was advised to apply the water-test
thenceforth to everything he purchased, in order to
ascertain whether it had been charmed (ih. 67b).
When Eleazar arrived in Palestine he sought infor-
mation from Ze'iri concerning men known in ancient
traditions (B. B. 87a). Ze'iri was praised by Kaba
as an exegete of the Mishnah (Zeb. 43b). He was
proffered the daughter of Rabbi Johanan for a wife,
but refused because he was a Babylonian and she a
Palestinian (Kid. 71b). Among those who trans-
mitted in his name niav be mentioned Rabbi Hisda
(Ber. 43a), R. Judah ('Ab. Zarah 61b; Men. 21a),
R. Joseph (Ned. 46h), R. Nahman ('Ab. Zarah 61b),
and Rabbah (Ned. 46a).

Bini.ior.RAPHT : Bacher. ,4(7. Pal. Amnr, iii. 644; Heilprin,
Seder ha-Di)rot. ii. 12:5a; Blau, Altjadi)<chcs Zauherwefen,
p. 158, note 5, Strasburg, 1898 ; Yuhasin, ed. Filipowskl, p.

r- s. o.

653

THE JEWlail ESCWuvi-LUlx

ZEISEL, SIMON: Austrian chemist: born at
Loinuitz, .MoruviH, April 11. 1804; uliicatcU at tlie
German gyniiiasiuni ofBruunamI alliie University of
Vienna (Pli.i). 1879). lie estublisiied liiniselt us
privaldocent lor eliemistry at tlie same university
in lbS7, and in 1892 wasappoinled assistant i)rofessor
of general and agricidtural cluinistry at tlie agricul-
tural liigh sehool of Vienna, wiiere lie became full
lirofessor seven years later (1899). lu addition to
monographs in technical periodicals, Zeisel is the
author of "Die Chemie in Gemeiuversttiudlicher
Darslellung" (Vienna, 1890).
BiHiiOGRAiMiv : Eisenberg, Dan Geistige Wien,ll. 574, Vienna,

^- V. T. H.

ZEISLER, SIGMUND: American jurist; born
at Bieiitz, Austria, Ajiril 11, I860; educated at the
University of Vienna and at the Northwestern Uni-
versity, Chicago. He was admitted to the Chicago
bar, and was associate counsel for the defense in the
anarchist cases of 1886 and 1887. In 1893 he was
elected chief assistant corporation coun.sel for Chi-
cago, but resigned liis position in 1894 on account
of ill health. After traveling for several months
in Europe, he retinned to Chicago, where he has
since been engaged in private practise. Zeisler is a
prominent Democrat, and took an active part in
the presidential campaigns of 1896 and 1900. He
has contributed to reviews and law journals.
BiBLiofiKAPiiY : America)i Jewish Year Booh, 5(50,'). p. 211

A. F. T. II.

ZEISSL, HERMANN VON: Austrian derma-
tologist; liorn at Vier/.igliuhcn near Zwittau, Mora-
via, Sept. 23, 1817; died at Vienna Sept. 23, 1884;
educated at the University of Vienna (M.I). 1846).
In 1846 he was appointed assistant in the ophthal-
mological, surgical, and dermatological hospitals of
the Univensily of Vienna, and four j'ears later he es-
tablished a practise and was admitted to the med-
ical faculty of the university as privat-docent. He
soon became an authority on skin-diseases and syph-
ilis. In 18G1 he was appointed assistant professor,
and in 1869 he became professor and chief iihysician,
of the second department for syphilis at the general
hospital. These positions he held until his resigna-
tion in 1883. He was knighted by the Austrian
emperor.

Zeissl wrote many essays for the medical jour-
nals, and was the author of the following works.
"Compendiiuu der Pathologic unil Therapie der
Tertiiiren Syphilis und Einfacheu Venerischcn
Krankheitcn "(Vienna, 1850); "LehrbuchderConsti-
tutionellen Syphilis fur Aerzte und llorer der Medi-
zin " (Erlangen, 1864); "Lehrbuch der Syphilis und
der mit Dieser Verwandten Oertlichcn Venerischcn
Krankheileu " (Stuttgart, 1875) ; and " Grundriss der
Pathologic und Therapie der Syphilis" (ib. 1876).
The last two works have been translated into Rus-
sian, Dutch, English, and Italian.

Bibliography : liirsch, Biog. Lex. s.v.

F. T. H.

ZEIT, DIE. See Periodicals.
ZEITGEIST, DER. See Periodicals.
ZEITLIN, JOSHUA: Russian rabbinical schol-
ar and philanthropist; born at Shklov in 1742: ilitMl

at Ki.

casuiHl Aryeh Loth.' Vuo
Aryeh"; ,
he HtuiMl
the luvoritvi '
siun V - '
vurii. ,
erly ihui i
councilor
On leti:
estate L'stziu, \vji.
witii re^'jf 1 •
pecuniar\

ars, und Kiipported a
wliich many Jew; '
the necesHurieHof .
vocations without irumn.
writers who benefited |.,
mentioned: R. Nuhmn.
kurim"; Mendel I.« ;
Nefesh"; und Ihephv
was the uulhor of am.
Katan." printed with a,-
supplemented by .souk- (,I ;.. .

BiiiuouRAPUV: Fuenn. J^'lr|/uA .\
Kiucuct i'inratl. p. 431.

ZEITLIN. JOSHUA B. AARON
sciiolar and |
1823 ; died at I

still young liisiiurentsn-iiiovwl u» <
he associated with ■' "
self to the study o!

brew languuge and liieniturr. He was ti
Slutsk, where lie studied f ^
uel Simchowii/. wi'h m!
business. Li-a
years in St. It..
Moscow, wiiere In
of Talmudic stuti

Russo-Tnrkish wai

siau army, and on Aue. I
awarded him a nn

In 18«3Zeillin h :. ..
where he collectetl a I .
at tlic disposjd of 'I
niiig of 1887 lie \)-
I^and, where lie Cf!
Jerusii
liie Je'.

colonies of e. lo wh

fri' .iiuitiuij to V .

in-'

BlHUOIiRAPIIV: I.Grtbpr.

'S9 :N' •■ ' ■■•

i/d-.V
.1.

ZEITLIN. WILLIAM
bibliogniplnT. Ihth iU II<
philef.

He is

Scfcr." or - Hi

irti:

of 1.. -

Meiidelssnim'S'

this work occuj'i'.u £^:)..iii i"' i-."«;

Zeitschrift

Zemah ben Hayyim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

654

made extensive use of Bcnjacob's " Ozar ha-Sefarim "
and of Fttrst's "Bibliotlieca Judaica," and visiti-d
Wilna and Warsaw, the centers of the Hebrew book
market, as well as many university cities — as KO-
nigsberg, Berlin, Geneva, anil Paris — from tlie libra-
ries of which he gathered additional material for his
work. The " Kiryat Sefer " indexes not only works
in book form, but also important periodical articles,
biographical sketches, and scientific essays, in addi-
tion to giving biographical notes on several authors.
Zeitlin had previously prepared an index of works
written on the Jewish calendar, in whicli he enumer-
ates seventy-seven Hebrew works; this index Avas
publislied by Hayyim Jonah Garland in " Yevreiski
Kalendar " (St. Petersburg, 1882). In the " Zeit. f iir
Hebr. Bibl." (ix. 3-4) Zeitlin has recently published
an alphabetical list of anagrams and pseudonyms
of modern Hebrew writers; and he is a contributor
to several Hebrew periodicals, writing mostly bio-
graphical articles.
J. M. Sel.

ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DIE GESCHICHTE
DER JUDEN IN DEUTSCHLAND. See

Periodica IS.

ZEITSCHRIFT FtJR DIE RELIGlOSEN
INTERESSEN DES JUDENTHUMS. See

Peiuoukals.

ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DIE WISSEN-
SCHAFT DES JUDENTHUMS. See Period-
icals.

ZEITUNG. Sec Periodicals.

ZEKOR BERIT: A poem by GEUsnoM ben
Jldaii (9G0-1U4U), the "Light of the Exile" (Zunz,
"Literaturgesch." p. 239); it is chanted in the Seli-
HOT of the Northern rituals as the central hymn of
the early penitential prayers on the eve of New-
Year, to which day the hymn has given its name in
familiar Jewish parlance. Other hymns with the
same commencement, which bases an appeal for the
redemption of the remnant of Israel on the remem-

brance of the merits of the Patriarchs, were after-
ward written by Kalonymus ben Judali and Samuel
ben Majo (Zunz, I.e. pp. 255, 263), and were also
adopted into some rituals. Tlie hymn of Gershom
is specially honored in the Polish ritual bv being
placed at the head of the extracts from the hynms
in the selihot quoted in the course of the Ne'ilaii
service. It is there always chanted to an old air
which obviously originated in western Europe, and
which presents points of resemblance to some of the
minnelieder of the twelfth century. The connnence-
ment of the second verse, on which the others are
modeled, should be compared with the melodies
transcribed under Siiofet Kol ha-Arez.
s. F. L. C.

ZELAZOWSKA, CATHERINE : Polish con-
vert to Judaism; born in 1460; martyred at Cracow
in 1540. She was the widow of an alderman of
Cracow; and at the time when, intiueuced by the
Bible, Polish Christendom was divided into differ-
ent sects, she followed the example of the daughter
of Nicholas Radzi will and embraced Judaism. Peter
Gamrat, Bishop of Cracow, condemned her to be
burned, and, though eighty years old, she went
gladly to meet a martyr's death.

Bibliography: Gratz, Gench. 3d ed., ix. 454; Sternberg,
Ge!<ch. iter Juden in Polcn, p. 56.
J. M. Sel.

ZELMAN, SAMUELE VITA : Austro-Italian
poet; born at Triest in 1808; died there in 1885. He
was educated at the rabbinical college of Padua,
where he was the favorite pupil of Samuel David
Luzzatto. He was the author of the following
works: " Kina per la Morte de S. D. Luzzatto"
(Padua, 1865); "Primi Discorsi di Rab Melza"
(Triest, 1854) ; " Lc Parole di un Ignorante ai Dotti,"
directed against demagogic writers {i/j. 1855); Ila-
Nizzanim," a collection of Hebrew poems (ib. n.d.).
A complete edition of his Hebrew essays, hymns,
letters, elegiac poems, etc., was published by Vit-
torio Castiglione under the title "Ne'im Zemirot

ZEKOR BERIT

P AUegretto modernlo.

rit A - bra - ham, wa - 'a - ke -
A - bra - ham's covenant, and how I -

Bheb

she

- but

- ho

- le

Ya -

store

the

tents.

Ja -

cob

kob.

iled .

we - ho
And save

shi
us

r.^

~ ■*■

rit.

mf In tempo.

y *+

A ^

« 1

/i Ik.

' ^ ; ;'

^ T

i* 1

f I) ' ' ^

;

—

4- ^

t ' ! 1^ 1

'e - nu le - ma - 'an she - me - ka. 2. Go - 'el ha - zak, le

sure - ly for Thy great Name' s sake. Tliou might - y Help, for

655

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEHIA

ma - 'an - ka fe - de - uii; He -'eh.
Thine own sake re- lease us; Be - hold

9»rrtm

liote tetak

SHur.

See

ki a

koto now

nn; Maf - »d

And

ba
help.

-^.-

'a - de
should ease

-H

=t-

nu:

us :

We
Then

sbob
turn

be -
in

m ■
mo-

rn
ha

BDim

•y Kb'

rit.

^ ■

rit Yis - ra - el, We - ho - sbi - 'e
rem - nant for - lorn, And do Thou save

Shemu'el o Yelid Kinnor" {ih. 186C). Some of liis

Hebrew poems are contained in the periodicals

"Bikkure ha-'Ittim " (vol. xi.) and "Mose " (vols. v.

and viii.).

Bibliography: Corrierc Israelii icn. xxlv. 188; FQrst, lithJ.

Jud. iil. 748; Mnsf, viii. 415; Ozar Kthmad, 1. &; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Bodi. col. 2760. ^

s. L. C.

ZELOPHEHAD (inS^V)-— Biblical Data : A

Manassite who in one passage is called the son of
Hepher, the sou of Gilead, the grandson of Manas-
seh (Num. xxvi. 29-33), and in another is set down
as the second son of Manasseh (I Chron. vii. 15).
The etymology of the name is very doubtful ; some
scholars thiuk that the root is Syriac and means
"first rupture," indicating that he was a firstborn
son (comp. ZELOPnEii.\D in R.\15Hinical Liteh.\-
TUUE). But the Septuagint Sa/TrnnJ or la/.<->a6d (B
in Chron., larr^ad^) shows that the Hebrew was
vocalized THQ^V (= " the shadow [or " proieciiou *']
of terror "). Zelophehad died in the wilderness and
left five daughters, who sul)se([uently claimed the
inheritance of their father. Knowing that those
who took part in the revolt of Korah were exceed-
ingly objectionable to Moses, Zelophehad's daugh-
ters argued that their father was not of Korali's as
sembly, but that he "died in his own sin." Moses
consulted Yiiwh about the matter, and was ordered
to satisfy the daughters' demand. Thus after the
conquest of the land under Joshua, Zclopiiehad's
daughters obtained their father's lot (Num. xxvii.

1-7, xxxvi. 2-12; Josh. xvii. 3).
J M. Sei..

In Rabbinical Literature : Zelophehad and

his father, Hepher, were among those who went out

from Egypt, and consequently each of them had

his part in the land. Zelophehad, as the first-born

DU le - ma - 'an i>be - u>«
U-v for Thy.... yrto' \ ••---

son, had two parts in liis fat!
daughters iiiherititl "t!
Num. 133: B. H. 11'
Itiibbis interpret Nui:
Zelophehad whs not aiii' :
against Ci()<l (.Ninn. xl. 1 ••
who revolted against lliin ai i

{ih. xiv. 1 el aft/.), nor < ' •'

none of thes*- lliree i
(Sifre. l.r. ; B. B. IHIi). 1
not agree as to wliether /
good man; for whilr hi>
to tlio anonymous

concludes that lif

case, the words "dittl in lite own

xxvii. 8) are i-

did not indu*'

wliicli he was pii;

Zeloplieliad was ili. i

for gatliering sticks • ,

XV. 32-36). while acc«»nlinK •

he was on<' of

the liillto|> " >

ites and <

113, in

the s< .

Zeloplieliad s daiighu-rt ■■.

their fntlicr'.s i ' - • ■

old. They ^^

xxxvi. 6. 11; 1

suitable to bo in-

ZEMAH BEN HAYYIM

from "

rcssor ■ > • •
known espcciuHv

V! »au

Semah
'emirot

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

656

to the inquiry of the Kairwanites regarding Eldad
ha-Dani. This responsum, which appeared in part
in the first edition of the " Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah "
(Venice, 1480), was republished as completely as
possible by A. Epstein in Vienna in his "Eldad ha-
Dani." It embraces nine points and concludes with
an apology for Eldad 's forgetfulness. According
to Epstein, only one other responsum by Zemah has
been published ; it is given in the Constantinople
edition of the "Pardes,"and ends with the same
words as does the first-mentioned responsum:
fjNO'J'l I'D' nitOJ^- Weiss, how^ever, ascribes to this
gaou also the authorship of responsa in " Sha'are
Zedek " (i v. , No. 14) and in the compilation " Hemdah
Genuzah " (Nos. 58-61, 111-131). Nothing is known
of the gaon's personal career.

Bibliography: a. Epstein, Eldad ha-Dani, PP- 6-10. Pres-
burg. 1891 ; Relfmann. in Ha-Karmel, viii.. No. 32: Mrinat»-
schrift. 1874, p. 553: Fraukel. ih. 1878, p. 433; Gratz, G&scTi.
V. 343-245; Weiss, Dor, iv. 124, 364.
J. S. O.

ZEMAH, JACOB BEN HAYYIM : Portu-
guese cabalist and physician ; died at Jerusalem in
the second half of tlie seventeenth century. He re-
ceived a medical training in his native country as a
Marano, but fled about 1619 to Safed and devoted
himself to the Talmud and the casuists ("' posekim ")
until 1625; then he went to Damascus, where for
eighteen years he studied the Cabala from the Zohar
and the writings of Isaac Luria and Hayyim Vital.
He finally settled at Jerusalem and opened a yeshi-
bah for the study of the Zohar and other cabalistic
works, David Conforte being for some time one of
his pupils ("Kore ha-Dorot," pp. 36a, 49a). Jacob
Zemah was one of the greatest cabalists ot his period
and was a prolific author, his works including trea-
tises of his own as well as compilations of the wri-
tings of Hayyim Vital. He produced twenty
works, of which only two have been published.
The first of these is the "Kol ba-Ramah " (Korez,
1785), a commentary on the "Idra," which he
began in 1643, and for which he utilized the com-
mentary of Hayyim Vital. In the preface to this
work he maintained that the coming of the Messiah
depended on repentance ("teshubah") and on the
study of the Cabala from the Zohar and the writings
of Isaac Luria, the delay in the advent of the Mes-
siah being due to the fact that schools for such
study had not been established in every town.
His second published work is the "Nagid u-Mezaw-
weh " (Amsterdam, 1712), on the mystical meaning
of the prayers, this being an abridgment of a com-
pendium which Zemah conipo.sed on the basis of a
more comprehensive treatise. Among his unpub-
lished works, special mention may be made of the
"Konnu le Yaakob,"in which he calls himself "the

proselyte" ("ger zedek"; "Cat. Oppenheimer,"
No. 1062 Q). This treatise consists of notes recorded
while studying under Samuel Vital and supplemented
by his own additions. In his compilation of Hayyim
Vital 's writings, Zemah pretended to have discov-
ered many works of Vital which were unknown to
the latter's son Samuel.

Bibliography : Azulai, Shem ha-GedoUm, i., ii. s.v. GilouUm,
et passim ; Carnioly, in Revue Orientale, ii. 287 ; Fuenn,
Kenesct Yisrael, p. 570; Steinschneider, Cat. Badl. co\. 1268.

E. c. M. Sel.

ZEMAH BEN KAFNAI : Gaonof Pumbedita
from 936 to 938, at the time when Saadia had been
reinstated in the gaonate of Sura after his excom-
munication. Nothing is known concerning his life
or his works.

Bibliography: Letter of Sherira, in Neubauer's Anecdota
Bronicusa, i. 40 ; Gratz, Gesch. v. 276-277 ; Weiss, Dor, iv. 160.

J. s. o.

ZEMATUS, MAGISTER. See Michael b.
Shabbetiiai.

ZEMIROT ("songs"): A term applied by the
Sephardim to the Psalms in the earlier sections of
the morning service. The Ashkenazim, on the
other hand, style them "pesuke de-zimra" ( =
" verses of song "), and the term " zemirot " more
especially designates the Hebrew hymns chanted in
the domestic circle, particularly those which precede
or follow the grace after the chief meal on the eve
and the afternoon of the Sabbath. Music at table
was a regular feature in ancient Jewish life, and
the Mishnah expressly states (Sotah ix. 11) that it
was discontinued only as a mark of mourning for the
abolition of the Sanhedrin. Even then

Sabbath tiie later Rabbis found it necessary to

Hymns, insist emphatically on abstention from
such domestic melodies (comp. Sotah
48a), although there were never serious objections
to them when they were devotional in character
(comp. Music, Synagogal). The singing of hymns
at the table (probably selected psalms like Ps.
cxxvi. and cxxxvii., which are now used on Sab-
baths and on week-days respectively) seems to have
been known in the days of the later Midrash, but the
ancient custom afterward received a powerful im-
petus from the spread of the Cabala and the belief
in the visits of celestial guests on the Sabbath (comp.
Zohar, pp. 252b, 272b, et passim). In the sixteenth
century many compilations of such liymns were
published, especially at Amsterdam and Constanti-
nople. Gradually, however, two favorite collections
were formed, one for the Sabbath evening meal and
the other for the Sabbath, afternoon. A third group
was selected for chanting at the close of the Sabbath
in order that the " sacred season " might be prolonged
at the expense of the "profane" (Shab. 118b; Shul-

ZEM I ROT— Melodies at Grace

GRACE AFTER MEALS

A AUegretto.

• « r ^

=1*^

^l-^ ! — s-

_l \ M 1

(a>^-4- J-*^^-*- - J-

*—

1 UJ '^ ^

— 1

H —

— t '

-^t

— * •— ^ « —

Ps. cxxvi: 1. When Zi - en's
4. Turn now our

bond ■
bond

age
age,

God back was
Lord, and re -

turn - ing,
store us,

We
As

were
the

like
tor

to
rents

657

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

!»

••»•

men that do dream. 2. Then, till'd with luuRh - t.-r, our Iodkuo n - uli
in the south plain. 5. They that in Becd-tim.,

in If-

:3t

# # # # * ^^ - s ]

And our eyes with glad smiles did gleu.u: Then did they d. - cUr« ..o<.u« IL»
Joy in reap - ing - time yet may gain. C. Wh.n ho ^o - "' ' "^ • - ► - --

fcr

3r=^

na - tions: "Great things hath the Lord for thest. men wrDii^jUi: (,.-. «; t..i:,»-4 UW» ll»«
weep-eth, In his hands a store of pre-cious seed; When Lo '■■•• "k:

t#^=:^t=zs=^

-t2=:;

i? t?

Lord wrought for His peo - pie, Joy to faith -ful onen by them i*

back, he shall be sing - ing, Good - ly sheaves bo bear-iug for h n

B Moderato.

^^^'

i^^^

--* — y

-x^

Shobt Vebsicles : Bo

neb

be - ra - ha - maw Ye - ru - Hha - U - v.:;.

C Moderato.

*— ^ ^^=^

^^^=^

Long Vebsicles
(II Sam. xxn. 5

.Es: I -.r-

:E=P

dol

ye - shu

'ot mal - ki

' ' • 1

=]=i:

3t=5

lime - sbi - ho, le - Da - wid

-^ . • 1
I

le - zar - "o

'b1

r^=*^

seh sha - lom bime - ro - maw.

* J

le - nu we

- 'al kol Yis

el, wo - im

ra:

XII.— 42

Zemirot

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

658

SABBATH REST

Lento.

->-ns-

>-Ts

1. This day is to our race

2. The lives torn with dis - tress,

3. This day, more than all else.

Of all sea-soQS the best, Re - plate with ev - 'ry
With sweet sol -ace it heals, With fresh spir-it doth
Did God ho - ly de - clare, When He whose love it

-Kir^—fLz.-.

1*=^

:««:

grace, The day that brings us rest;

bless The soul that an - guish feels;

tells. Com - pleted His work so fair.

O come, most wel-come guest. Re -
A - way sor - row it steals From
The hearts full of de - spair In

:^— V-

:t?=t

^=t^

:nt #-

S^ZJKl

--t^

fresh eachwea-ry breast! A light and a joy to us

hearts sad - ly op - pressed: A light and a joy to us

its qui-et are blessed: A light and a joy to us

is Sab-bath rest,
is Sab-bath rest,
ia Sab-bath rest.

AIRS OF THE HASIDIM

A Allegretto con moto.

r5t#

^iz*;

-g*-^— i. h-

*=^_-^

— I r-

Ai! di - di - dy did-dy did-dy di!

-i^—0-

Ife^tt

-*—•>-

-I —

:^^=*:

>— p— J— ^

Ai! did-dy did-dy did-dy did-dy di!

:^=t^:

Ai! di - di - dy did-dy did-dy di!
B Andantino.

Ai! did-dy did-dy did-dy did-dy di!

:22=

i^=t2:

Ai, ai.

ai!

ai, ai, ai, ai, ai!

ai, ai, ai!

ai, ai, ai, ai, ai!

ztz^

rit

i^:

:^2:

:^i:

-<s>-

Ai, ai,

ai!

ai, ai, ai, ai, ai!

ai, ai,

ai!

ai, ai, ai, ai, ai!

P Andante,

Kl ESHMERAH SHABBAT

^Az

'tr

iRefbain. If the Sab -bath I shall keep, God will then my guardian be: An e - ter - nal

659

THE .lEWISJl ENCYCLOPEDIA

cov - e - nant and

Bign. TwixtUimand me. Th«o.oo ODeo...-.

dolce.

go.

on.

jour . ney, Nor talk on mat - tern of ih.- nuu

» i

sea, Nor of one's own af
dolce.

fairs, }\i>t

ot.

ob«s

p»y

fee. So

me speak of God's great Law.

ban 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 293, 1), and that the de-
parting Queen Sabbath miglit be escorted on her
way with protracted .song (conip. Zohar, p. 208a).
These collections of hymns are still published in
such old-fashioned prayer-books as the one contain-
ing the "Derek ha-IIayyim" of Jacois isen J.\cob
Moses ok Lissa. The authors are among the latest
of the payyetanim, and the only early medieval
hj'uin in the collections is the "Baruk Adonai Yom
Yom " of Si.MEON B. Isaac b. Abun.

Even later in origin than the hymns are the melo-
dies. Indeed, the ordinary head of a household
could scarcely be expected to do more than repeat
in the domestic circle the folk-songs which he
heard in the workaday world outside. With the
growing elaboration of the tlorid chant of the haz-
zan, it would be difficult for the children at the table
even toappro.xiniate the intricate ornamental vocali-
zation heard in the synagogue; nor
Melodies, would they be able to analyze the in-
tonations and detect the basis on which
they were constructed. Jewish characteristics are
manifested chiefly in occasional phrases of .synagogal
character in which tiie traditional melody diverges
from its folk-song model (conip. En Keloiient).
It was the introduction of these occasional Hebraic
phrases into the popular melodies of Gentile neigli-
bors which Chopin deplored Avhen he wrote (F.
Niecks, "Chopin," i. 188): "Poor Polisii airs! you
do not in the least suspect how you will be inter-
larded with Majufes" (the Juda-o-Poli.sh pronuncia-
tion of "Mah Yafit," the opening words of a hymn
by Mordecai ben Isaac for the eve of the 8iibl)ath.
one of the most popular zemirot). The most
wide-spread melodies for the zemirot are those short
phrases introduced into the chanting of the grace
after meals when three or more adult males are pres-
ent (comp. 'Ai. Het). They are South-CJermnn in
origin, and recall many of tiie snatches of tune built
into the fabric of the Passover home-service. Even I

where other zeniiroi are !'■'• ■""
ceding the gnice Is at 1'
best known melodies for ;
instrumental model may ;
violin composition of the ■

When tilt' whole I

they are not chanted

read in a sort of caaliJl.i

where a selection i

German melody • :

Zeh le-Yisrael " of Isaac Likia or wim U

mous "Zur mi-Shello A' ' "

A favorite mehnly, • • «1 «l'l« " M

may he added a-s au exuniph-of lli'

popular among the llAcir ■•■ '

and Galici.i. Together w •

lows it. it was Ibsi i

(comp. his "Ilebrttis* i

18H'2) as typical of il-t ■
The Hasidim a:'

and of "s<iiigH wi:.. ..

meaningless sounds: nor •'•

restricted to i

expressing the j ,

Two such airs, one from I;

Jerusji"

vonif '

The Sephanlic •
a more Hoi ' '
or even I'
airs, of which
|ioem often in
EziiAl m>v >"■

Sfpl
for tli<
been c:
tlie air In HhMu*.^ ..*i*jU *ta

presentation.

Some of the oriirlnal :
well have bct-n ■

Zend-Avesta
Zerffi

THE JEWISH E^'CYCLOPEDIA

660

of the verses, especially iu the case of Israel ben
Moses Najara. whom Delitzsch culls the founder
of the Jerusalem rite, and who wrote no less
than 650 hymns after selecting from the folk-
songs of the lievant the melodies for his verses. In
his compilations, first published at Sufed in 1587,
the zemirot are arranged according to the order of the
Perso-Arabic modes iu which fall the melodies to
which they were set, while the original Arabic,
Turkish. Greek, Rumanian, Spanish, and Italian
titles are prefixed to his Hebrew verses. His hymns
"Yah Ribbon 'Olam " and " Yiggaleh KebodMalku-
teka " are frequently chanted as zemirot, especially
among the Hasidim, but are set to melodies of much
later date. Indeed, for the reasons stated at the be-
ginning of this article, there are few zemirot which
retain the same melody for more than two genera-
tions.

BiBi.iOf;RAPUY : Zunz, LiteraturueHch. pp. 306, ;S64. 419,484-
im. 490. 511, SKI, 54ti, iio. 56.5, 579, 583, 584, 591, 59.5, 597.

J. F. L. C.

ZEND-AVESTA. See Avesta.

ZENOBIA SEPTIMIA: Empress of Palmyra ;
regent (from 267 to 273) for her minor sou Vollaba-
thus, who had been appointed imperator by the
emperor Aurelian. Zenobia appears to have been
friendly to the Jews ; and according to some accounts,
which, however, lack authentication, she was herself
of Jewish descent. Tliat she came into close rela-
tions with the Jews is shown by Yer. Ta'an. viii. 46b
(see also Pai.myr.\). Within a brief space of time
she so extended her dominion over the whole of
Egypt and Syria that Aurelian feared lest she should
renounce her allegiance to Home, and he accordingly
made war on her in 272, conquered her, and led her
and her son in golden chains in triumph through
Rome, although he treated her witli leniency and
gave her a villa on the Tiber.

Bibliography: liratz. Ge.sc7i.3ded., Iv. 27;}-276; Hamburger,
li. B. T. i., s.v. riuulmnr.
6. S. O.

ZEPHANI AH : One of the twelve Minor Proph-
ets wIkj de.scrilje.s himself as "the son of Cushi, the
son of Gedaliah, the son of Amariah, the son of
Hezekiah, in the da}'s of Josiah, the son of Anion,
King of Judah " (Zeph. i. 1). He seems, therefore,
to have been a descendant of Hezekiali, King of
Judah, since otherwise only the name of his father
would have been given (comp. Isa. i. 1; Ezek. i. 'S;
Joel i. 1). If he was of royal descent, lie probably
lived in Jerusalem; and evidence of this is seen in
liis prophecies, where he describes various jiarts of
the city. According to the first verse of the book
which bears his name, he nourished during the reign
of Josiah, and on the basis of his utterances the ma-
jority of modern scholars date his activit)' prior to
the reforms so rigorously inaugurated and promul-
gated after 621, the jiictiires of corruption and
the approaching foe being most appropriately re-
ferred to the situation in Judah during the early
years of Josiah and the Scythian invasion.

The contents of the book of this pn)phet fall into
two parts: i. 1-iii. 8, the coming judgment on the
world, including Israel and the nations: and iii. 9-
20, a promise of universal salvation. Zephauiah's

special denunciations are directed against false v.or-
sliip and irreligion. The calamity will find ever}' one,
even iu the hiding-places of Jerusalem; Philistia,
Moab, Ammon, Cush, and Assyria shall be over-
whelmed by punishment and disaster; Jerusalem in
particular, being rebellious, corrupt, and disobedient
to the word of Yiiwh, shall fall under the divine
wrath. Yet, on the other hand, God's promise is
made known to the nations, that He will so purify
them that they may call on Him, and all sliall bring
Him oiTeriugs. After the storm of judgment Israel
shall be humble, and shall trust in Yiiwh alone.
New social conditions shall arise, and justice and
righteousness shall prevail, so that the redeemed
shall rejoice in the Lord.

Zephaniah is a forceful book. Its language is
vigorous and picturesque, and betrays an accjuaint-
ance with the Earlier Prophets. The ideas most em-
phasized are the providential control of the nations
of the world, the necessity of purity and justice as
oppo.sed to the prevalent corruption and injustice of
the day, and the refining value of judgment and
suffering.

Bibliography : Davidson, Xnhum, Hnhakkitk, tiwl Zepha-
uialt.m The CamlnUlge BilAe for ScIkuAs, 1896; Nowack,
Die Kit inen I'i-iipliete)i. In Handkoinmeiitar zttm AUen
Tcslnmejit. 1S97; Sniitli. Tlie linnk of the Twelve Pr()i)liet!<,
ii., in The Espositor's Bible, 1898.

E. C. H. I. M. P.

ZEPHANIAH BEN MORDECAI TROKI :

Karaite sciiolar and author; tlourislied during tiie
latter part of the sixteenth century; brother of Jo-
seph b. ^lordecai Troki. He was the author of
"Kiddush ha-Hodesh we-Sod ha-'Ibbur," a work on
the calendar, and of responsa on the laws govern-
ing SiiKi.iiTAii. Both works are mentioned by Sim-
hah Luzki in his "Orah Zaddikim."

Bibi.io(;raphv : Furst, Gcsclt. de" Kariicrthumn, iii. 39; idem,
/>(/)(. Juil. iii. 448; Gottlober, Bikkoret Ic-Tnledot ha-Iyara-
'u/i, p. 209.

.T. M. Sel.

ZERAHIAH BEN ISAAC HA-LEVI GE-
RONDI (known us ZeRaH and ReZBI) : Tal-
mudic author and liturgical poet of the twelfth cen-
tury; disciple of Moses ben Joseph of Narbonne.
Azuiaiand many otliers, influenced by the statement
of Zacuto ("Sefer lia-Yuhasin," ed. Filopowski, p.
218) that Zerahiah completed in ILIO his "Sefer iia-
jNIa'or," which he is known to have begun at the age
of nineteen, give 1131 as the year of his birth. This
date can scarcely be correct, however, since the
"Sefer ha-]\hi'or " mentitnis the commentaries of Ja-
cob Tam and Samuel ben Meir, which could not have
been known so early in Provence. It is equally im-
probable that he died in 1186, as is a.sserted by Judah
ibn Veiga ("Shebet Yehudah,"ed. Hanover, p. 112).
Zerahiah belonged to a prominent Spanish family
called Yizliari of Gerona, but early in life he left
his native place, where he seems to have had many
enemies, and settled at Lunel. There he ajipears to
have devoted himself to teaching, his pupils inclu-
ding Samuel ilni Tibbon, son of Judah ibn Tib-
bon, who, in his ethical will, freely recognized Zera-
hiah as a greater scholar than himself. Zerahiah was
not only a thorough Talmudist of great erudition,
with an analytic and synthetic mind, but he was
also deeply versed in Arabic literature, in philoso-

661

THE JE^VISII ENCYCLOPKDIA

pliy, and in astronomy, and was, above all, a Rifii d
poot, combining elegance of style with elevation of
sentiment.

Zeruhiah's chief work was the "Sefer ha-Ma'or,"
which he began at the age of nineteen and completed
late in life. It contains a critique of Alfasi as wr-il
as additions to his Ilalakol, and is di-
The " Sefer vided into two parts, the first, entitled
ha-Ma'or," " IIu-Ma'or ha-Katan," comprising the
Seder Mo'ed and tiie treatises Hcrakol
and Hiillin, and the second, calletl "Ha-Ma'or ha-
Gailol," enilnacing tlieScdaiim Nasliimand Nf/.ikin.
In this work the auliior liisplays grcaterudition and
a fine critical sense which recognizes no other au-
thority than logical reasoning. His independence
displeased the conservatives, however, and refnta-
lions of his criticisms were written by Nahmanides
under the title "Milhamot Adonai," and by Abra-
ham ben David of Posquieres(RABaD). who alluded
in his harsh fashion to Zerahiah as an immature
youth who had had the audacity to criticize his
master, and even accused him of having appropriated
some of his (RABaD's) own interpretiitions without
mentioning the author. A justitication of Zerahiah's
critique was written by Ezra Malki under the title
"Shemen la-]\Ia'or," aud since lor)2 the "Sefer ha-
Ma'or" has always been printed together with Alfasi.
As a sequel to his "Sefer ha-Ma'or" Zerahiah
composed the "Sefer ha-Zaba," in which he ex-
pounded the methodology of the Talmud, and at the
same time endeavored to show that Alfasi had not
observed the principles laid down in the Talmud for
halakic interpretation. This work, like its prede-
cessor, was criticized by Nahmanides,
Other who justitied Alfasi. Both the " Sefer
Works. ha-Zaba" and the criticism of Nah-
manides were inserted in the "Sefer
Temim De'im " (gS2'25, 226, Venice, 1022), and were
also ])ublished separately at Shklov in lb03. Zera-
hiah was likewise the author of the following works :
"Ililkot Shehitali u-P.edikah," mentioned in the
"Sefer ha-Ma'or" at the end of the tirst chapter on
tlie treatise Hidlin ; " Hassagot 'al Ba'aleha-Nefesh,"
a critiepie of RABaD's treatise on the laws relating
to women, published in part with the " Ba'ale ha-Ne-
fesh " (Venice, 1741; Berlin, 1762); "Dibre Ribot."
a controversy with RABaD on civil jurisprudence,
mentioned in the "Sefer ha-Ma'or" on Baba Mczi'a
and cited in part by Bezaleel Ashkenaziin his "Shi'y-
tah>[<kubbezet" on Baba Mezi'a, p. 98a; "Sela' lia-
Slahalokot," mentioned in the "Sefer ha-Ma'or "at
the end of the first chapter of Shebu'ot; "Pitl.ie
Niddah," quoted by the author's grandson in his
"Bedek ha-Bayit" (vii. 3); a dissertation on the
Misimah Kinim, published at Constantinople in
1795; and responsa, mentioned in the "Sefer ha-
]Vra"or" at the end of the second chapter of GiU.in
and (pioted in the "Sefer ha-Terumot " (xlv. 1). Ze-
rahiah was the author of numerous liturgical po.-ms,
eighteen of which are found in theSephardic Mahzor.

Jw\. iii. ti7!t ; Sachs. «./.!;/.W i'-i-su'. p. i.. : ' >'*' •=^: "
Reiftiiann. Tnlniot II. Z,ra)>!inhliir-Lru-,rni:u<^.\>^^^
molv. /..( France IsrnrliK.v- '"' • ^"''•""•"-"J; '.'''VJ <
JuduUa. pp. A>-), 2S:i ; Mkbael. Or ha-lhiUll"»- 1'- ■*'■ ■ ;,

ZERATTT •

zaiiiiiiee;
century, oi

that ho M'n- ■
"8«'f..rhu
Tam'H hii
ously • '•
error
his p.
e.xpn- .
iK'lonf^ed
hiiwever
aiithnr, f< '
Zeraiduh l\n-\
hiali lia-Iy<-vi <

"SefiMlia-.Mu

uted by tumw h\\<.

The "Sefer '
short ciiaptei
which luiderlie the i
an imitation of Hahyii ■•
Zerahiah a(kiinwled>;<« \
studied, nltiiougii lie '
found for the avenin< ■■ i .• . •
tiie "Sefer ha-Vasluir " t<. ihr "11
is especially evident In ■
"SodBerial "Ohim." »'
mary of the chapters
"Sha'ar ha-Behinah "
ha-Yashar" was first ;
1520. and since then I
editions.

Bnil.lOfiKAPIIY • !►■ ' ...iV Tl« /■I-'

iniiM Kroliiii:.
,l;i;i<i/< II. I. 1 ■

.1.

ZERA'IM
Mi.shnali. i'
Pe'ah, Denial. K
rot. Ma'.i ^'
With the

is implied by the name ■
laws povemii " "' ''

K. c.

ZERED. BROOK
the stati'
cated as

dering (Num. .\xl. 18; I'
gum of
"valley ^<
etymologizes it '

i«
l«
I

VALLEY OY

the iKinIrr !►•

es the Hi"

ding Di'.

deep and nurn»w ra^iiM: iu!i;..t.

Dead Sm
.1.
ZERFFI. OUSTAV

llun;;:iiiaii
Hnit/trv <\

_::i.'«i»-!

I. Bk.

I)«r Uncar" In
attacks upon lla* 0<

Zerlka
Zhitomir

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

662

With Essernatoni, Stancits, Zanetti, Steinitz, and
others he set the tone for the revolutionists, and in
1848 he was Schweigel's captain and adjutant in
the honved army. On the failure of the revolution
he fled to Belgrade (1849), where he entered the
service of the French consul. In 1850 he tran.slated
Kossuth's complete works into German for the
"Europaische Bibliothek der Neuen Belletrislischen
Litteratur" (eccxxii., cccxlvii., ccc.xlix.), and two
years later he visited Paris, going in 1853 to Lon-
don, where he became a member of the Royal Med-
ical College, and afterward secretary of the Ger-
man National Association. He resigned this post
under suspicion, however, although he was still in
London in 1^63.

BiBLiOGR.APH Y : Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexiknn, lix., s.v.;
Die Presxe, .No. i55, feuilleton (Vienna, 18tt3) ; Die Geissel,
So. 155 (Vienna, July 3, 1849).

s N. D.

ZERIKA : Palestinian amora of the fourth cen-
tury ; a pupil of Eleuzar, whose halakic maxims he
transmitted (Sotah 4b ; Zeb. 93b ; Men. 7b, 86b), and
of Ammi (see Hul. 46a). He was a colleague of
Abba, witli whom he decided the controversy of
Judah I. and Nathan on the problem whetlicr the
night .should be divided into three or four watches
(Yer. Ber. 2d), and by whom he was informed of a
correction in a halakic tradition given by Ammi (B.
B. 130b). He was also acquainted with Ze'era (Yer.
Bezali 60c), and especially with Jeremiah (Men. 88b;
Suk. 37b). In Babylonia it was said that he had
called Safra's attention to the difference between the
modesty of "pious Palestine" and the audacity of
"bold Babylonia" on the occasion of the prayer for
rain (Ta'an. 23b). No haggadic maxims of Zerika's
have been preserved, the only saying ascribed to him
being one belonging reallj' to Hidka, whose name
was incorrectly transliterated " Zerika " (comp. Hag.
16a, where the correct name, "Hidka, "is given).
Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ill. 754-755.

E. c. J. Z. L.

ZEROR, RAPHAEL JEDIDIAH SOLO-
MON BEN JESHUA : Algerian rabbi ; born at
Algiers .Sept. 8, 1681; died there Dec. 21, 1737. He
was a descendant of a family of distinguished Tal-
mudists, and his grandfather, Solomon Zeror,
was, like himself, chief rabbi of Algiers. Together
with the other rabbis of his city he signed the ban
against Nehemiaii IlAYYtrN (comp. Nepi-Ghirondi,
"Toledot Gcdole Yisrael," p. 280). Zeror studied
secular sciences, devoting himself especially to
logic, physics, and geography, and he likewise oc-
cupied him.self much with poetry in addition to ac-
quiring a reputation as a skilful physician and carrj^-
ing on an extensive commerce by both sea and land.
Some of his responsa and novelhe were collected b}-
his pupil Judah 'Aj'vashi, and were published under
the title "Peri Zaddik " (Leghorn, 1748), tiie edition
being preceded l)y a preface written by Zeror's pui)ils
and contemporaries.

Hini.ior.RAPiiY : Blooh. Tnxrriptitnix Tinintlnirrn. pp. 45 ct
Htq.. Paris, IK8H; Steinsclincjder, fVl/. /Jo'H.col. lil-'O.

.1 M. Ski,.

ZERUBBABEL : Son of Sliealtiel (Ezia iii. 2.
8 ; Hag. i. 1 ; " Pedaiah " in I Chron. iii. 19 is probably
a scrilial erroi) and grandson of Jehoiacliin. Tiie
name iseither tiie Hebrew ^532 ynT (= "begotten of

[in] Babylon "), altliough compounds with the pas-
sive participle, frequent in Assj'rian, are rarely, if
ever, found in Hebrew; or, more probably, it is
the Assyro-Bubylonian "Zeru-Babel" (="seed or
offspring of Babylon "). It is a moot question
whether or not he was identical with Siii:(fin5.\zz.\B,
"the prince of Judah " and leader of the first great
band of exiles returning to Jerusalem from Bab}'-
lon under Cyrus (Ezra i. 8). On tiie one hand, it is
urged that he is regarded as the head of the commu-
nity of returned exiles (Ezra iv. 2), that he is asso-
ciated in this capacity with the high priest Jeshua
in the general adniinistraticm (Ezra iii. 2, 8; iv. 3;
v. 2; Hag. i. 1; Zech. iii.-iv.), and that tlie same
title of governor (" jiehali ") of Judah is given him
by the prophet liaggai (i. 1; ii. 2, 21) as is attrib-
uted to Sheshbazzar by Ezra (v. 14) ; while it is sup-
posed that he, like Daniel, bore a double name, the
Hebrew "Zerubbabel " and the Babylonian "Shesh-
bazzar. " In opposition to this vieAV it is pointed out
that " Zerubbabel " is in all probability a Babylonian
name, and that no hint of this identity is given in
those portions of Ezra in which both names occur. It
has been suggested that " Sheshbazzar " may be iden-
tical with "Shenazar" (I Chron. iii. 18), one of tlie
sons of Jehoiacliin and an uncle of Zerubbabel. In
that case it might be supposed that the nephew took
a prominent part in the reorganization of the com-
munity and shortly afterward succeeded to the gov-
ernorship. At all events, Zerubbabel was governor
of Judali in the second year of Darius Hystaspis
(520 B.C.; Hag. i. 1, 14; ii. 2). According to the
story of tlie chronicler in Ezra iii.-iv. 5, Zerubbabel,
together with the high priest Je.shua and others,
erected an altar for burnt offerings in the seventh
month, offered morning and evening sacrifices, and
kept the Feastof Tabernacles. In the second month
of the second year of the return they laid the founda-
tion of the Temple, but the opposition of " the adver-
saries of Judah and Benjamin " (either descendants
of Jews who had not gone into exile or interlopers
who showed hostility to the returning exiles) cau.sed
a delay of seventeen j'ears. Roused to fresh activity
by the propiiets Haggai and Zechariah, work was
resumed in the second j'ear of Darius (520 B.C.),
but fresh obstacles were encountered in the suspi-
cions of Tatnai, "governor beyond the river" (R.
v.), and an appeal was made to Darius, who promul-
gated a decree authorizing the completion of the
Avork. The Temple was finished and dedicated four
years later (Ezra v.-vi.). Nothing further is cer-
tainly known of Zerubbabel, although a Jewish tra-
dition says that he returned to Babylon and died
there. His sons are named in I Chron. iii. 19,
and in Eechis. (Sirach) xlix. 11 his name appears in
the list of the famous men of Israel.

In I Esdras iv. 13-63, followed by Josephus
(" Ant." xi. 3, ^§ 5-9), a story, which appears to lack
historicity, is told to the effect tiiat Zerubbal)el was
a soldier in tlie body-guard of Darius Hystaspis and
commended Jiimself to the king's notice by his ready
wit, receiving as his reward permission to go to
Jeru.salem and reliuild the Temple. In recent times
interest has been aroused by the ingenious hypothe-
sis of Selliii ("Serulibabel; ein Beitrag zur Ge-
schichte der Messianischen Erwartung," 1898), who

663

THE JEWISH EN-CYCLOPEDIA

Z*Mk«

endeavors to show that Zcnihliahol wus aciuallv

made King of Judah, but was ovfiilirowii and put

to deatli by the Persians. This Ivingdoni. ho be-

lieves, was regarded as Messianic, and in Isa. iiii. )i<-

sees an allusion to Zerubbabel's niailyrdoiu.

Bim.iofiRAPHY : Uyle, Ezra a)id Krheminh, In The rnmtiriilui-
Jiihlc for Sc)ii)til>i, CainbridKe. im:i; Van Hoonackc. /.omh't-
lid ct to Second Temple, Paris, 1892; Sayoe, lliiilier Criti-
cism and the Verdict of the Monuments, pp. ;.:«i et «,-.;
Londim, 1894; Welltiausen, T..J. (i. Ikl i-.l.; .SchnidtT Ijic
Done riles Zweiteu Temiielhaues, In Studicn uml Kril'ikfn
180, , pp. m>-:AH ; Roster's Het lUrslcl van Israel in hct I'er-
zischc liidvak, 1894.

K- <=■ "• J. F. McL.

ZEVAST. See Will.

ZHIDOVSTVUYTJSHCHAYA TERES. See

JlDAiziNd IIkkiosv.

ZHITOMIR (JITOMIR) : Russian city ; capital
of the government of Volhynia. It is one of tlie
oldest towns in European Russia, having become
part of Lithuania in 1320 and being one of its promi-
nent towns in the middle of the fifteenth century.
As late as the middle of the seventeenth century,
however, there were probably no Jews there, or else
their number was very small, for the destruction of
the city during the uprising under Ciimiklnicki in
1648 is not mentioned in the records of the Vol-
hynian mas.sacres of that year. When Zhitomir
became part of Russia in 1778, it had a large
Jewish community, and was a center of the Hasidic
movement. In 1861 it had 18,299 Jews in a total
population of 40,564, and owned one large syna-
gogue and twenty-six small ones. In 1891 the Jews
numbered 24,062 out of a total population of 69,785,
while the number of large synagogues had increased
to three and the small batte ha-midrashot to forty-six.

The Russian government regards Zhitomir as
the central point of the Jewish population of
southwestern Russia, as Wilna is considered the
Jewish center of the northwestern part of the coun-
try. The printing of Hebrew books was permitted
only in these two cities during the monopoly of
Hebrew printing from 1845 to 1862, and both of
them were also chosen as the seats of the two rab-
binical schools which were establisiied by the gov-
ernment in 1848 in pursuance of its plans to force
secular education on the Jews of Russia in accord-
ance with the program of the Teutonized Russian
Hask.m.ah movement. The rabbinical school of
Zhitomir was considered the more Jewish, or
rather the less Ru.ssianized, of the two (see " Ha-
Meli/," 1868, No. 40). Its first head master was
Jacob EiCHENBAUM, who was succeeded by llayyim
Selig Slonimski in 1862. The latter remained at
the head of the school until it was closed (Ingctlier
with tiie one at Wilna) in 1873 because of its failure
to provide rabbis with a secular education wiio
should be acceptable to the Jewish communities.
Suchastovcr, Gottlober, Lerner, and Zweifel were
among the best-known teachers of the rabl)inical
school at Zhitomir, wiiile Goldfadcn, Maiidelkeni.
and Pajierna were among the students win) later be-
came famous in the Jewish world.

The teachers' institutes which were sul)slituted
for the rabbinical schools were scarcely more satis-
factory, and the one in Zhitomir, which was proba-
bly the worst managed Jewish institution in Russia
of which there is any record (see Prelooker. " L'n-

lU Ik

<I<T tin- ( /ur ai.
don, iH'.t',
fipuclor I

prrsitil ,

niiinity i

school •• for Jj<.y«
inir.r

sidered to nu

Wolf(d. 1^
relz. ITUrj). a ,
llie leadeni of •
iMavru< li, "r.
in the first h;i
of the "Hat *A) ;
few notewor' "
indeed, the t
binieal kMtrning.
have been L< !'
(1905) incuii,
tins position fori
man Hialik (h. in H lii. n
sidered the ablest of thi- >,
was educated in Zhit

About twenty Jew -
ber were wounded .;
occurred in Zhitomir nn Mny 7

the section of tlie city k:

astated. Among tlio <l.

a Christian student.

Jews, and thus acted ;.,.. .. ,.

iu Cbirikcv's drama " Ycvn-I." «

played as an amateur i •

Jews wh(^ started from a

the Jews of Zhitomir wer

Troyanov, ii'

Zhitomir a <

money for the famili(*«

killed: it

.si a, 9,5011

6,000 from llie L :

The district <>i /.
tains 2'2.iY,W Jews in ..

Typog^raphy : Tlio

printed in Zlii" - ' • ''

misfortune \\ .

(conip. Hillel Noali ^

pp. 21-27. NV '■■■

tlie RuRKJan

onices in HiLviiii. e\

years pasMtl bef"-

Aryeh IxM-h. and .

the nd>bi

Hebrew j

vival of I

tvpe '

In th.

the finest o<mion of i

1, • "

duclwl prlnJlng >

ran mi

II. It.

ZidoiL
Zionides

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

664

ZIDON (SIDON): 1. Eldest son of Canaau
(Gen. X. l.j, I Cliion. i. 13).

2. According to Strabo (.wi. 2), the oldest city
of Canmiu; situated twenty miles south of Beirut.
Its territory extended from the slopes of the Lebanon
to the CDUst, and was bounded ou the south by
Asher and Zebuluu (Gen. xlix. 13; Josh. xix. 25).
la its flourishing period the city had a winter and a
summer harbor, which are now filled with sand.
The cit}' is said to have been called after the eldest
son of Canaan (Gen. x. 19; Josephus, "Ant." i. 10,
t^ 2); but the name may also have been derived from
the extensive tisheries (niV) in which the inhabitants
engaged. It was ruled by independent kings (Jer.
xxvii. 3), and liad its own cult (Judges x. 6; II
Kings \xiii. 13). It had this advantage over Tyre,
tiiat it entered into relations with the Israelites when
its king. Ethbaal, married his daughter Jezebel to
Ahab (I Kings xvi. 31).

The prophets of Israel were continually referring
to the great importance of Zidon as a conunercial
city (Isa. xxiii. 2,4, 12; Joel iv. [A. V. iii.] 4-7).
It lost this position when Nebuchadnezzar con-
quered Palestine and part of Phenicia. Ezekiel's
prophec)' referring to it (Ezek. xxviii. 20-24) dates
from a later time. Isaiah (xxiii. 1-14, according to
Duhm; xxiv. 10, according to Cheyue) refers to the
destruction of the city by Artaxerxes Ochus in 351
B.C. There are also various references in the Tal-
nnul to the city. Ze'era says (Meg. 6a): "The trii)e
of Zebulun, which borders upon Sidon, complains of
its mountainous country, with its superabundance
of streams and seacoast, and is answered by reference
to Deut. xxxiii. 19, pointing out the advantages of
this region": "sefune" is said to mean the murex
fnmi which the purple dye pT/TI is obtained; "tc-
mune" is said to be an allusion to the abundance
of fish; and "hoi" is said to refer to the Phenician
glass which is made from the sands. In the sevcntli
century Zidon was identified with Zeboud in Galilee
or with Bagdal of Yo (VT ^nj3; Gen. R. xcviii. 16).

Down to the middle of the nineteenth century
the population did not exceed 8,000 inhabitants, but
this number has increased to 15,000 within the last
fifty years ; of this number about 10,000 are Mn-
hammedans, and 800 Jews. Tlie latter are very
poor, and are dependent almost entirely ujion the
H.\LrKK.\ir. Zidon is still considered to be outside
the Pale of Palestine; and pious Jews direct their
bodies to be taken after death to a more southerly
city.

Bini.IOGRAPllT : Sppp. .7rn(.«r(?rm vur1 rtax TTriliiir Ln})tl.U.
4'.<t-4<l»i. KatisVKin. iHTii : NcubaiKT. d. T. vp. ti'M-'^Xt ; Sclnvarz,
The Hnlji Liiidl, p. 174. For data on the lialukkah .see /Jie
Jliilinchc Prame (Mayence), 1897, pcwsim.
.1. S. O.

ZIEGLER, IGNAZ: Austrian rabbi; born at
Also-Kubin, Hungary, Sept. 29, 1861; educated at
tiic Rabbinical Seminary and at the University of
Budapest (Pii.I). 1888). Immediately after his
graduation he was called to the rabbinate of Carls-
bad, a position wliich lie still (1905) holds. Through
his efforts the Kaiser Franz Josef Rcgierungs-Ju])i-
lilum Hospiz was erected at Carlsbad, at a cost of
500,000 Austrian crowns, to provide food, shelter,
and medical treatment for iudiL'cnt Jews who come

to that city in large numbers in search of health.
This institution was opened May 1, 1903. Ziegler's
works are as follows: a Hungarian dissertation on
the prophet Malaehi (Budapest, 1888); "Religiose
Disputationen im Mittelalter" (Frankfort-on-the-
3Iain, 1894); " Geschichtedes Judentums " (Prague,
1900); and "Die Konigsgleichuisse im Midrasch"
(Breslau, 1903).

s. H. M.

ZIKliAG : Simeonitic town which, after the
union of the tribes of Simeon and Judah, became
Judean; first mentioned in the account of the terri-
tory and borders of the individual tribes (Josh. xv.
31, xix. 5). In the early part of the regal period
Ziklag came into the possession of the Phihstines,
who retained it until King Achish gave it to his
vassal David as a place of residence (I Sam. xxvii.
6; II Sam. i. 1, iv. 10; I Chron. xii. 1, 20). It was
invaded and burned by the Amalekitcs when David
joined tlie Philistine king in war (I Sam. xxx. 1-26),
and after the return from the first Exile it was one
of the towns assigned to the Judeans (Neh. xi. 28).
The town has not yet been identified, although Con-
der and Kitchener believe that its ruins are repre-
sented by the remains called Zuhailika, discovered
by them in 1877, and lying ou three low hills east-
southeast of Gaza and four miles north of Wadi
al-Shari'ah.

Bibliography: Riehtn, HaudirOrtcrhjich, 2(1 ed., p. 1866b;
Buhl, Gcinjraphic des Alien Paliustina, Berlin, 1896.

J. S. O.

ZILZER, ANTAL (ANTON): Hungarian
painter; born at Budajjest in 1861. He was a pupil
of Rau.scher, Gregusz, and Szekely at the national
model school of design, and later studied at the
Munich Academy under Raupp, Hackl, Seitz, and
Herterich, completing his education at Berlin, Paris,
and London. He devoted himself especially to por-
traits, and received the Munich gold medal in 1887.
His paintings include: "Alone in the Woods";
" Lud wig II. on His Funeral Bier " ; " Forest Idyls " ;
and "Sunset on the Lake of Constance."

Bibliocjrapiiy: Sinjrer, All(jcinci)icg Kiuisller-Lciicnn,v.,s.v.
s. N. D.

ZIMMER, NATHAN LOB DAVID: Eng-
lish pietist and sclioiur; boni at Flulli, Bavaria, in
i\Iarch, 1831 ; died at London Jan. 10, 1895. He was
noted in London for his intense piety, which he
probably inherited from his father, who was a fer-
vent zaddik. Zimmer went to England about 1850
and entered business. He was primarily engrossed
with the study of the Law, however, and especially
with the jnore occult commentaries, every moment
not absolutely needed for worldly objects being
devoted to contempliition and to study of tlie higher
life as revealed in the Cal)ala. His knowledge of
the Cabala, and especially of geniatria, was pro-
found, and astronouiical calculations also had a
strong attraction for liiin. He compiled an elabo-
rate genealogical table of tlie chief rabbis of Eng-
land and was a fre((uent contributor to tiie Jewish
jieriodical press on t|uestions of astronomical calcida-
tionandof ritual. He was one of the original fotmd-
ers of the London Federation of Synagogues, and is

665

TFIi: JEWISH ENCYCLOPKDIA

supposed to be tlie original of Knrlk.nn,,.,;- i„ / ,„ ,
will's "Cliildit-n of the Ghetto "

T m^ •"''■ ■■ ''^"'- ^"'•'"'- ^""- 1^- '^"'^ ■' •^' -. H'or,./, Jan

r,. L.

ZIMMERN, HELEN: Crnwu, autho.vss; l.nn,
a Jla.nburg March 25, 1840. She went to England
at an early age, and resided there till 1HH7 when she
removed to Flon.nce. She has written lives of Seho-
penhaner (1H73). Maria Edgeworth (18«;3). a,,,! Sj,

Wl'-T /^'?'"''''',''"f ^'"^'')- '^'"1 Jms also trans-
kted Tales from the Eddas " (1882). " The Epic of
Kings" (1882), "Comedies of Goldoui " (1892) and
the Pentamerone " (1893). She likewise (-..ntrihute.!
a volume on the Hansa towns to "The Story of the
Nations " series (1899).

^^;x:^^;)i:;:iv"'""'^ "'''''' '^^= ^«- /»t.n.«.^,.„ ku.

ZIMRAT HA-AREZ. See Pkui,.dicai,.s.

ZIMRI : 1. Son of Zerah and grandson of .Tudah
(I ( liroii. 11. G).

2. Son of Sahi, a prince of the Simeonites In
the wilderness the Israelites were smitten at Shittim
for worshiping Baal-peor, and while they were
weeping before the door of the Tabernacle. Zimri
took a Midianite woman named Cozbi, tiie daugh-
ter of Zur, in the presence of Moses and all tJie peo-
ple. Thereui)on Pliinehas, the grandson of Aaron
seized a javelin, went into Zimri 's tent, and slew
the guilty pair (Num. x.w. G-14).

3. Son of Jehoadah or Jarah (I Chron. viii. 36, i.v.
42). He was a Benjamiteand a descendant of Saul.

4. King of Israel for seven days; originally the
captain of half the chariots of King Eiah." He
gained the throne by the murder of liis master as Elah
was reveling in the house of Arza, liis sleward, at
Tirzah. In the midst of the festivity Zimri killed
the king and all the house of Baasha, the predeces-
sor of Elah; but when the army, then engaged in
the siege of the Philistine town of Gibbethon,^l)eard
of the assassination, it immediately proclaimed its
general Omiu king. He marched at once against
Tirzah and took the city, wiiereupon Zimri retreated
to tlie royal palace, set it on fire, and perished in the
flames (I Kings xvi. 9-20).

5. In ,Jer. x.w. 25 "kings of Zimri" are men-
tioned together with Elamitic and ]^Iedian sover-
eigns. This Zimri may be identical with Zimrun, a
son of Abraham by Keturah (Gen. x.w. 2).

E. G. II. 15 i>

ZIN (jv) : Frontier post of .ludaii on thesonlh,
mentioned in the description (Num. .\x.\iv. 4; Josh.
XV. 3) of the frontier between the "ascent of
AKHAiuiiM " and Kadesh-barnea. The desert of Zin
derived its name from tliis place. Kadesh-barnea
was situated in this desert (Num. xiii. 2. x.xxiii.
36; Deut. xxxii. 51; Josh. xv. 1. 3; comp. Num.
XX. 1, xxvii. 14; Deut. xxxii. 51); and one pas-
sage (Num. xxxiii. 36) reads, "the wiiderne.s-S of
Zin whicli is Kadesh." The phrase "the wilderness
of Kadesh," which occurs only once (Ps. xxi.x. Hi,
refers possibly not to any definite geographical
locality, but to the region arf)und Kadesli. The
statement found in Num. .\iii. 20, that Kadesh is
situated in the wilderness of Paran, is due to the

I' I, ....,■ ,[•

wllderneiut >

vet (Hit '
jiiii,,,!

Iience it miial |>.

KoUlll of •■

or on th.

"niouni 1

ins now J., 0 1, Uinr :.
K. o. n.

ZINC. Sot. niuKK.

ZION. Bet- Jkiumijim.

•ZION. .Sec Pick.

ZI0NIDE8. r 80W08 OF /:

Ziyyon): i i„-..,i^-- < / ■

wiu<h expnwj the 1.

see the hill of Zi

again in all tin

time immediately afUT lb

Temple. Since t' •

Israel have dcvf

the most bri! ,r« Ihe i;

By far the gi. . , , , - •

voicing a heartfelt d.

of Jerusjilcin. .Mount Zion. n:

to their former Hplen-' - '

in Jewish liteniturc v

it.c. , and i.s a \\v

Israel to live on 1...

Ps. ex xxvii. 1-8. A

period is Ps cxxvi. ; n,

sings of the day when i

and the joyfidly TvUr

song of Zion. T'

delivenince, wliii

I..iimentation5i. dn: . from

Christian century.

During llu' Middle Ag. v .
of the prculpst pop|« ftinneil ■
consolation of tli< >
Ihn •.
Ibn Wert- li

Gabirol. ; -•'•

Among til

sung on tilt .\.

eially nferrtnl in;

lion of •' ' ■■•

whicli

*Jiy. arid ill w:

c«'l each other ...

whicli liiis fallen U|

with the rcfrui'

, — ij-i p'Y '-K

nnva ~rx •-;

(" Zion «nd hot

Ill ■ .

tint iiuiy be ineoltoDcil '

»!»•

■y

Zionides
Zionism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

666

nhb'2 y!DL"j noia ^ip

and several strophes of the song "Lckah Dodi,"
composed by Solomon ha-Lcvi and incorporated in
tiie Sabbath eve service.

The most important of Ibn Gabirol's Zionides are
the poem beginning with the words:

pi p

(" Send a prince to the condemned people which is
scattered hither and thither") and that beginning;

-i-yc' DJ1

^" Turn thy face, O God, to the conquered, who is
delivered up into the hand of Babel and of Seir ").

Judah ha Levi (1140) was the author of the Zion-
ide beginning:

" Zion, wilt thou not send a greeting to thy captives.
Who greet thee as the remnant of thy flocks?
From West to East, from North to South, a greeting,
From far and near, take thou on all sides.
A greeting sends the captive of desire, who sheds his tears
Like dew on Hermon ; would they might fall on thy hills."

Besides this song, which has been translated into
nearly all European languages in prose and in verse,
Judah wrote several shorter songs, chief of which
are myD C11D2 "'3JN1 mTOa "3^ ("My heart is in the
East, although I am at the end of the West") and
**DDn P'V nVDII ••njxn D'^t^n-I"' ("Sigh, O Jerusa-
lem, and shed thy tears, O Zion").

Among other medieval writers of this cla.ss may
be mentioned Abraham ibn Ezra, who composed the
Zionide n^^H n:V 3311?''' njiyjD mp -n^K C'O God,
who art enthroned in the East, appease the mourn-
ing dove"): Judah al-Harizi (13th cent.), author of
the song ch^ "I'V^ DI^K' (" Peace be

Various to the city of Salem [Jerusalem]");

Authors, and Israel Najara (16th cent.), who

wrote the song y^'^ pv lODD mS^

("May the flower of salvation bloom like a palm ").

In more modern times Samuel David Luzzatto wrote ;

"31X30 31

'3vy njn

("My heart, my heart is full of pain; see, my
grief is an ancient one"): and equally well known
is Joseph Almanzi's

310 "3 ha ba

("From all corners comes rejoicing on the day of
celel)ration to God, who is good ").

Tiie most piominent Hebrew poets have written
Zionides, among the number being M. S. Rabener,

Micah Levisohn, Judah Loeb Gordon, S. Mandel-
kern, M. M. Dolitzky, and N. II. Imber. Countless
songs have been produced under the influence of
Zionism: of these may be mentioned the song
adopted by all the Zionists of the world as their
national song, and beginning with the words
"There, wliere a slender cedar kisses the clouds";
the song of tlie academic society Kadimah in Aus-
tria, " Knowest thou whence freedom comes?"; the
song of the united Zionists, "Sluchajcie bracia
guesni tij " ; and " Ha-Tikwah " (Hope), composed
by N. H. Imber, Avhich has the refrain:

u^nipn n-i3N ith my

njc'i^n nipn

ij^nux Y^ah 3i:;'S

n:n nn n3 i^y

("Our hope has not yet gone, the old hope to return

to the laud of our fathers, to the city where David

lived ").

Bibliography : KinnnrZimiou, Warsaw, 1900 (collection of all
the Zionides from the oldest times to the present day IHebr.]);
Yevi-eixkyie Mot ivy, (Jrodno, 1900; Heinrich Loewe, Liedtr-
huch fllr JUdisclie Vereiue, Cologne, 1898; Jacobs, Jcu-fe/i
Ideals, p. 131.
J. S. O.

ZIONISM : ]\Iovement looking toward the segre-
gation of the Jewish people upon a national basis
and in a particular home of its own ; specifically, the
modern form of the movement that .seeks for the
Jews "a publicly and legally assured home in Pal-
estine," as initiated by Theodor Herzl in 1896, and
since then dominating Jewish history. It seems
that the designation, to distingui.sh the movement
from the activity of the Chovevei Zion, was first used
by Matthias Acher (Hirnbaum) in his paper "Selbst-
emancipation," 1886 (see "Ost und West," 1902, p.
576; Ahad ha-'Am, " 'Al Parashat Derakim," p. 93,
Berlin, 1903).

The idea of a return of the Jews to Palestine has
its roots in many passages of Holy Writ. It is an
integral part of the doctrine that deals witli the
Messianic time, as is seen in the con-
Biblical stantly recurring expression, "shub
Basis. shebut " or " heshib shebut," used both
of Israel and of Judah (Jer. xxx. 7, 1 ;
Ezek. xxxix. 25; Lam. ii. 14; Hos. vi. 11; Joel
iv. 1 et al.). The Disper.sion was deemed merely
temporal: "The days come . . . that ... I will
bring again the captivity of mj- people of Israel, and
the}' shall build the waste cities and inhabit them;
and they shall plant vineyards, and drink the wine
thereof . . . and I will plant them upon their land,
and they shall no more be pulled up out of their
land " (Amos ix. 14 ; comp. Zeph. iii. 20); and " 1 will
bring them again also out of tiie land of Egypt, and
gather them out of Assyria; and I will bring them
into the land of Gilead and Lebanon" (Zech. x. 10;
comp. Isa. xi. 11). In like strain tiie Psalmist sings,
"Othat the salvation of Israel were come out of Zion!
When the Lord bringeth back the captivity of his
people, Jacob shall rejoice, and Israel shall be glad "
(Ps. xiv. 7; comp. cvii. 2, 3). According to Isaiah
(ii. 1-4) and Micah (iv. 1-4), Jeru.salem was to be a
religious center from which the Law and the word of
the Law were to go forth. In a dogmatic form this
doctrine is more precisely stated In Deut. xxx. 1-5.

(

667

THE JEWTSIT ENCY(L()I>KI>IA

The belief tl)at the Messiah will collect the scattered

hosts (^Ni:;" ^L" rnrSj) is ofteu expressed iu Tal-

iiuulie and luidrashic writings; even though more

miiversalistic tendencies made themselves felt, espe-

cially in parts of the Apocryjjhal literature (see Jkw.

Encyc. viii. 507, .s.v. JMessiaii). Among Jewish

philosophers the theory held that tin-

Relation to Messiah b. Joseph "will gather the

Mas- chililrcn of Israel around him. march to

sianism. Jerusalem, and there, aften.vcrcnming

thehostile powers, reestablish the Tem-
ple-worship and set up his own dominicm " (t'i. p.
511b). This has remained tlie doctrine of Orthodox
Judaism; as Friedlander expresses it in his "Jewish
Religion "(p. 161): "There are some theologians who
assume the Messianic period to be the most perfect
state of civilization, l)utdonot believe in the restora-
tion of the kingdom of David, the rebuilding of the
Temple, or the repossession of Palestine by the
Jews. They altogether reject the national hope of
the Jews. These theologians either misinterpret or
wholly ignore the teachiugs of the Bible and the di-
vine promises made through the men of God."

The lieform wing (.f the Synagogue, liowever, re-
jects this doctrine ; and the Conference of Rabbis that
sat in Frankfort-on-tlic-Main July 15-28, 1W45, de-
cided to eliminate from the ritual " the prayers for the
return to the laud of our forefathers and for the res-
toration of the Jewish state." The Philadelphia
Conference, Nov. 3-6, 1869, adopted as the first sec-
tion of its statement of principles the following:
"The Messianic aim of Israel is not the restoration
of the old Jewish state undera descendant of David,
involving a second separation from the nations of
the earth, but the union of all the children of God
in the confession of the unity of God, .so as to real-
ize the unity of all rational creatures, and their call
to moral sanctitication." Thiswasre-
Rejected affirmed at the Pittsburg Conference,
by Reform Nov. 16-18, 1885, in the following
Judaism, words: "We consider ourselves no
longer a nation, but a religious com-
munity ; and we therefore expect neither a return to
Palestine, nor a sacrificial worship under the .sons of
Aaron, nor the restoration of any of the laws con-
cerning a Jewish state."

Historically, the hope of a restoration, of a renewed
national existence, and of a return to Palestine has
existed among the Jewish people from olden times.
After the first Exile, the Jews in Babylonia looked
forward continually to the reestablishment of their
ancient kingdom. However much the Jews spread
from land to land, and however wide the dispersion
and consequent Diaspora became, this hope con-
tinued to burn brightly : and from time to time at-
tempts were made to realize it. The destruction of
the Temple by Titus and Vespasian (TOc.E.) was per-
ha))S tlie most powerful factnr in driving the Jews
east, south, and west. Nevertheless, in a short lime
tlie hope of a restoration was kindled anew. Tlicri-
singsunder Akihaund P.ar KokhaH istsooti f'nllowed;
and the Jews drenched tiiesoilof Palestine with their
blofxl in the vain attempt to regain their national
freedom against the heavy hand of the Roman
power. Desinte these checks, the idea of the restora-
tion persisted and became a matter of dogmatic be-

fi 111 ttrnt'

Ik I. .
botii I
vviiole, w I

lual circiii,.-,
bused upon i
order of •
laws and . ..
hopes found <

Talmudie

Times.

in liie eleventh .

Zunz. "Ki'

nunski in i

given a piiilotuiphir ImuIm b\

Jewish theiilogy.

agogue uiid the li .

for tlie glory thai wm past »

the dignity tiial \n
But the outwuiti

so many centuries made it in

think of realizing in '

and |)raycd for. The ~

winch theology hud clothed

ration also palsied anv < " -•

made. The Deity wu

and the hand of nmn m

to time, it is true, indivjdi.

journeyed to Puk'Stine. th. :

in sacred soil or to await

siah (see Piuikimauk). u.... .

riods fur distant from one anoihrr

made to anticipate Pr^

a restoration on a pni( I;

cases it was not alwavH Pakiitinr

for the first attempt. !■
cullies \\ :
Joseph any such riie.

Nasi. tids k
the I
both in his endeavor lo gntn -
Venice an island to u ' '
might emigntte and in ;
of the Roman Cainpagnn a*KU)^ ■
to Palestine.

By the side of such pnii
a more fanta.stir ( )
Jew nti- •""■'■ •! '" '
.sianic I

scums, '■ ISU. I
sianic spectdati .
most important \\
(1026 7(1). wiio
that he would
How ardent and I rue tlir
was in the '
fact liiat II
low the impostor*
believed in "
the pn>j<Ti

ertMl. tlielH'llcf inliie in
for mat' - -

Th.- i
the philanthropic point of ^

Zionism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

668

tlie Jews in many pails of Europe occasioned well-
meaning and charitiible persons to seek some means
of settling them under such conditions as would in-
sure to them repose and freedom from persecjLitiou.
Of such a kind was the project elaboraleci in England
about 1654, an account of which is contained in the
Egerton collection of manuscripts in the British Mu-
seum. This account is entitled "Privileges Granted
to the People of the Hebrew Nation
Colonizing That Are to Goe to the Wilde Cust,"

Attempts and, according to Lucieu AVolf, has
Outside reference to a Jewish settlement in

Palestine. Surinam. Such colonies as these with
far-reaching administrative rights hud
been established in Curasao in 1652 under the au-
thority of the Dutch West India Company, and in 1659
in Cavenne bv the French West India Company
("Tr."jew. Hist. Soc. Eng." iii. 82). In 1749
Maurice de Sa.\e, a natural son of August II. of Po-
land, had in mind a project to make himself king of
a Jewish state which was to be founded in South
America (M. Kohler, in ".Menorah," June, 1892).
The invitation of Xapoleon to tiie Jews of Asia and
Africa to settle again in Jerusalem under his cgis
(see "Moniteur Universelle," No. 243) was a polit-
ical document and not meant to be taken seriously.
Even Mendelssohn was approached with a proposal
of a similar nature made by an unknown friend in
the year 1770. He refused to entertain the project
on the ground that the oppression under which
the Jews had been living for so many centuries had
robbed their spirit of all "vigueur," tiiat they were
too scattered to work in common, that the project
would cost too much money, and that it would
need a general consent of the great powers of
Europe ("Gesammelte Schriften," v. 493, Leipsic,
1844). A like measure was elaborated in 1819 by
W. D. Robinson, who proposed the formation of a
Jewish settlement in the upper ]\Iississippi and
Mis.souri territorj-; and in 1850 the American consul
in Jerusalem, Warder Cresson, a convert to Juda-
ism under the name of Michael C. Boaz Israel, es-
tablished a Jewish agricultural colony near Jerusa-^
lem, eidisting in its support the Rev. Isaac Leeser
of Philadelphia, and L. Piiilip]is()n of ^lagdeburg
(M. Kohler, in "Puld. Am. .Jew. Hist. Soc." No. viii.,
p. 80). The most persistent advocate, however, of
such schemes was Mordecai M. Noah (see also
Akaisat). As early as the j'ear 1818 he actively
propagated the idea of tiu; necessary restoration
of the Jews to Palestine. In a " Discourse on the
Restorati(m of the Jews," delivered in 1845 before
a Christian audience in the city of New York, he
showed the wide range of his jiolitical
Mordecai views, and laid down the chief prin-
Noah. ripies ujion which a return of the
Jews to Palestine coidd be efTccted.
In developing this idea, lie conceived a ])lan for a
preliminary settlement named "Ararat" on Grand
Island in tlie Niagara River, near IJulTalo. On Jan.
19, 1820, Noah's memorial to the New York legis-
lature, praying for the sale to him of Grand Islaml,
was presented. Tiiis project aroused much interest
in Europe also. Of course nothing definite came of it
(//;. No. viii.. pp. ^AttKcq. ; No. X., p. 172; No. xi., p.

132) ; though in 187:j the London " Jewi.sh Chronicle "

editorially suggested a Jewish colony in the United
States upon a plan similar to that of Noah (July 4,
p. 233).

All these projects of the preliminary stage were
bound to fail because the Jewish peoj)le had not been
educated to understand their true jjosition in the
modern world, nor had they been sufficiently stimu-
lated l)y the great waves of feeling that had swept
through Europe. The two intiueuces that made
themselves felt in such manner as to form the first
stage in the development of modern Zionism were
the rise of a strong nationalistic sentiment and the
development of anti Semitism. The last part of the
eighteenth century and the first half of the nine-
teenth are characterized in Europe by a strong sen-
timent of cosmopolitanism which even exceeded the
bounds of rational development. It was a natural
reaction against the arbitrary grou]iing of national-
ities which ignored all racial atliliations and was
based siinjily upon political necessities. The swing
of the pendulum went too far; and the counter-reac-
tion in favor of personal freedom made

Rise of itself felt throughout the whole of the
Nationalist first half of the nineteenth century.
Sentiment. The idea of personal freedom brouglit
in its wake the desire for racial free-
dom. The action of Switzerland, Hungary, and the
various Balkan states, the attempt of Ireland to free
itself from British rule, the unification of Italy and
Germany upon racial lines, were bound to react upon
the Jews. Upon the continent of Europe many of
them had been in tlie front ranks of those who had
fought for this racial freedom. The Jews little
thought that the weapons which tiiey had used
against others would be turned against themselves,
and would create within their own ranks a longing
for racial unity and a communal life.

Under these infiuences there arose gradually, es-
pecially among the younger generation in eastern
Europe, a sentiment in favor of Jewish national ex-
istence, which carried in its wake many of the
brightest and most advanced Jews of the day. And
the opening up of the Eastern question brought the
needs of certain parts of the Ottoman empire promi-
nently before Europe. The iiistorian Joseph Sal-
vador as early as 1830 believed in the possibility
that a congress of Eurojiean powers nught restore
Palestine to the Jews; and the founders of the Alli-
ance Israelite Univer.selle had a similar idea in their
minds when, under Albert Cohn and Charles Nkt-
TKi{, the work of colonizing Jews in Palestine was
taken up, and the agricultural school Mikweh Yis-
rael was founded near Jaffa.

Ill 18.52 llollingsworth, an Englishman, urged the
establishment of a Jewish state, because of the ne-
cessity of safeguarding the overland route to India;
and in 1804 there api>eared in Geneva a pamphlet
entitled "Devoir des Nations de Rendre au Peuple
Juif Sa Nationalite." which occasioned a lengthy
discussion in the " Arcliives Israelites."

French It was ascribed to Abraham Petavel, a
An- Christian clergyman and professor in

ticipations. Neuchatel. Petavel wasa nu-mber of
the Alliance Israelite Universelle. al-
though he was openl}'' and honestly interested in
the conversion of the Jews. Though he denied the

669

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

authorship of the pamphlcl. it Avas pcni-rnlly be-
lieved to li:ive been iiis work, espi-cially as lic"pul,.
lished at tlie same time a lon.u; poem, "J.a FHU. J^
Sion on la Hetablissement d'IsraOl" (Paris, 1H04).
The "Archives" declared itself strongly opposed
to the project; but Lazar Levy-Biri^r, u"i,a„k(.r of
Nancy and later a member of the legislature (July
2, 1871), wrote warmly in favor of Jewish national-
ism, with no thou.uht of the economic conditicm of
the Jews of his day. Jerusalem, lie hoped, might
become the ideal center of the world. Undoubtedly
intlueticed l)y P6tavel, a Jew, J. Frankel, publisiied
in Strasburir in 1868 a pamphlet with Die title " Du
Hetablissement de la Nationalite J uive." The author,
impressed on the one hand by the national move-
ments of his time and on the other by the insecure
t'onditions under which the Jews of eastern Europe
lived, pleaded boldly and openly for the recoiistilu-
tion of a Jewish state in Palestine by the purchase
of the country from Turkey. "Should Palestine
I)rove to be impossible," he adds, "we must seek
<'lsewhere in any part of the globe some tlxed home
for the Jews; for the essential point is that they be
at home and independent of other nations," thus
approaching in a measure the nuHleru territorialists
(see below).

Various schemes with a similar end in view were
elaborated. Between 1835 and 1840 Moritz Stein-
schueider was among those who founded in Prague

a student society for the ])urpose of

In propagating the idea of a Jewish state

Austria. in Palestine; and in the latter year

an anonymous writer in the "Orient"
(No. x.wi., p. 2U0) published an apjieal to his breth-
ren to make an attempt to procure Syria for the Jews
uniler Turkish sovereignty while the blood persecu-
tion in Damascus was still fresh in memory; and in
1847 P.arlhelemy published in "Le Siecle " a lengthy
poem inviting the Kothschilds to restore the kingdom
of Judah to its former glory. Judah ben Solomon Al-
kalai, rabbi in Semlin. Croatia, i)ublished his "Goral
Ladonai," Vienna, IN.")" (2d etl., Amsterdam, 18.j8). in
which hciidvocated the formation of a joint-stock
com])any for the puri)ose of inducing the sultan to
cede Palestine to the Jews as a liibutary state. In
similar manner Luzzatto, in Padua, wrote in 1854
to Albert Colin, "Palestine must be colonized and
worked by the Jews in order that it may live again
commercially and agriculturall}'." The journeys of
Sir Moses Mo.n rKFiouii and Adolphe Cukmiki'x to
Palestine increased the interest of the Jews in llieir
ancient home, and brought tin; matter prominently
befoic the ]Hil)lic. The founder of the Geneva Con-
vention, Ileiny Dunant, worked incessantly with a
similar oliject in view. lie tried to interest in sucli
jirojects the Alliance Israelite Universelle (1808), the
Anglo-Jewish Association in London, and the Jews
of IJerlin (1806), even founding twosocieties for that
juirpose, the International Palestine Society and.
in 1876. the Syrian and Palestine Colonization Soci-
<ty. All his elTorts failed to evoke a response. A
like fate befell both the project of Sir Moses Monte-
liore, who in 1840 laid before Mohaunued Ali a jdan
to colonize Jews in Palestine, and that of Lord
Shaftesbury, associated with the Society for the Ue-
liet of Persecuted Jews. In the year 1870 Benedetto

.M
\\ .
of U.I

V;i

Vttiu liL* triwi to .

I{ " • Mh in tl..

n. , ,. 0 ii 1

lished ("TlicM,,.
I^iurence "' '
and pulii;.
iug vainly alleinp
conceH.siou of Ihe 1
.sides of which h.
Jews, lie conerivi ■
J'lilesline, in i'
be formed win

1.0(IO.(M)() to ]

Poland, Lilliii ,.

were to be coloni/eil :,
found<-d. Oi
toobtain the \r. . ...
Among the cuii

Moses
Hess.

Hess, and th'
movement in course of li:

ClIOVKVKI ZiO.N. C

lectual leaders, th'
in his paper **Ha•^l
the coloni/atii>n fi I
future regeneration < :
" Kont und Jeru.salerii " in

niuined one of the f ' •

ture; thougii ii la;

bv his family. innnU-r ■

dar'C'Die W.i' " <'

hoped for the

of such colonies, i

was perliaps the lii ; ;

shat Ziyynn " (Lyrk. 1

and III'

the ct'i

there, and tlicfoiin

of a J'

vatiori i

gruduallv nnd

Hetn. ■ '

the tii-

Frankforl on-i

encein the woik ,i

Many Or»li<M|o\ r

e.ff., J "
Habbi (. .i..-. .
Zeit. ties .Iinl
Holy I

such < u

were foiintbtl :
brew I

Two .ficrtlic an

und Jorusnieni." ami \.
(iv

Jndiscbcu ^

Zionism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

670

torically that the Jewish nation was its own Messiah,
and should bring about its own rejuvenescence and

redemption, without waiting for the

Heinrich coming of a single person as redeeni-

Graetz. er. The violent conflict engendered

by this essay reechoed even in tlie
courts of law (see T. Zlocisti in "Jiidischer V'olks-
kaiender," pp. 9 et seq., Briuin, 1903-4, where
Gnietz's essay has been reproduced).

Toward the end of the seventies in the nineteenth
century the national movement commenced to gain
ground still further among the Jews. This was due
to a recrudescence of national sentiment in Europe,
as a result of which the Servians, the Bulgarians,
and the Rumanians had gained complete liberty.
Pinsker had not looked specifically to Palestine as a
possible home for the Jews; but Jewish sentiment
quickly led others in that direction. Ben Yehudah
published in " Ha-Shahar " (1879) a series of articles
proposing the colonization of the Holy Land and
the gradual centralization of the Jews there as the
only means to save both Jews and Judaism ; and
Isaac Kt'LF in 1883 wrote his standard work " Aru-
hat Bat 'Ammi " on the same lines. Christian writers
also became affected with the idea, which was thus
brought prominently before the world. The rise of
this national sentiment in Russia is closely connected
with the names of Moses Lob Limenblum and Perez
Smolenskin. The riots of 1880 and 1881 turned the
attention of these authors to the Jewish question.
The first in his " Derek la-"Abor Golim " and the sec-
ond in his " 'Am '01am," and in his journal " Ila-Sha-
har" (even before 1880), gave literar^^ expression to
the national hopes. To these names must be added
that of Lev Osipovitch Levanda. In England Dis-
raeli had already declared that "race is the key of
history," and George Eliot wrote her "Daniel Dc-
ronda " in 1876, and in 1879 her " Impressions of
Theophrastus Such," the last chapter of which is
entitled "The Modern Hep! Hep! Hep!" (repub-
lished by the Federation of American Zionists,
1899). In this she makes the Jew say, "The effect
of our separatencss will not be completed and have

its highest transformation unless our

George race takes on again the character of a

Eliot's nationality. Tiiat is the fulfilment of

"Daniel the religious trust that molded them

Deronda." into a people." "Daniel Deronda"

was enthusiastically reviewed in the
"Monat.sschrift" (1877, pp. 172 et seq.) by David
Kaufmann, who added, "Who will dare to say
what may not result from this rising flood of
feelings in the heart of the Jews, who will dare to
insist that the imponderable mass of indefinite feel-
ings and vague impulses whicli in the march of cen-
turies has rather increased than decreased in the
soul of the Jewish people, will pass off without
leaving any trace? " In like manner Joseph Jacobs
reviewed the work, adding, "And .Monlecai's views
of the resumption of the soil of tiie Holy Land by
the lioly people are the only logical position of a
Jew who desires that the long travail of the ages
shall not end in the total disappearance of the race "
("Jewish Ideals," p. 80). Influenced by "Daniel
Deronda," Gustav Cohen of Haiuburg juivately
printed .his "Die Judenfrage uud die Zukunft"

(1891, 1896), in which he developed the theory there
expounded to its logical Zionistic conclusion. In
the United States, a Jewess, Emma Laz.vuus, moved
by the immigration of large numbers of Russian
Jews to America, wrote a stirring series of articles
in the "American Hebrew" (1882, 1883) pleading
for an independent Jewish nationality and a Jew-
ish home in Palestine ( " An Epistle to the He-
brews " ; republished by the Federation of American
Zionists, 1900).

The result of all this agitation was the founding
of various colonization societies, not only in Russia
(under the leadership of S. P. Rabinowitz, Pinsker,
H. Schapira, Lilienblum, Max Mandelstamm, and
Kalonymus Wissotzky), but also in Germany, France,
England, and America; e.g., the Central Committee
at Galatz, the Esra at Berlin, the Chovevei Zion in
London, the Sliawe Zion in the United
The States, and the Yishshub Erez Yis-

Chovevei rael in Paris. The first Palestinian
Zion. colony was founded in 1874; but the
work did not commence in earnest till
1879. At the conference of the Chovevei Zion and
of other societies, held at Kattowitz on Nov. 6.
1884, to regulate the help sent to the colonists, no
less than fifty bodies were represented. A second
conference was held in Drusgeuik on June 15, 1887;
and a third in Wiina, in 1889, at which thirty-five
societies were represented and thirty-eight delegates
were present. In 1891-92 Paul Friedmanii made an
unsuccessful attempt to establish a Jewish colony
in Midian (see Jew. Encyc. v. 519, s.v. Fkiedm.\nn,
P.\i'l). The growth of the colonization movement
upon philanthropic principles reached its lieigiit in
1894, when it was arrested largely by the fact that
the Turkish authorities made it difficult for Jews to
enter Palestine (see Ji;w. Encyc. iv. 47, s.v. Chove-
vei Zion). Even Baron de Hirsch was not in prin-
ciple opposed to colonization in the Holy Land,
as he told a deputation on July 22, 1891 ; he desired
that a searching inquirj' should first be made into its
feasibility. He promised to aid any negotiations
that should be undertaken in Constantinople if the
report of a commis.sion proved favorable ("The
Maccabjcan," p. 118, New York, -1904).

The second influence working to produce the
modern Zionist movement was the rise and exten-
sion of Anti-Semitism. The Jews had imagined
that with their political emancipation.
Influence and, with the destruction of the walla
of Anti- of the ancient ghettos, their entrance
Semitism. into the comity of nations, the com-
plete subsidence of the ancient " odium
Judaicum" would result. In this they were sadlj'
disappointed. Political liberty did not give them
social equality; and the newly arisen nationalistic
sentiment turned fiercely against them. At the
very moment when their own dormant national
feeling had been aroused, and when the Avork of
colonization in Palestine had sent a thrill of fervor
through the Jewish masses, the anti-Semitic move-
ment grew in intensity. From 1881 it pursued its
victorious march through Europe. The strength of
the movement in eastern Europe was at first under-
rated in the hope that it would give way before the
advance of culture and education in those countries.

671

THE JEWISH EMCYCLOPKDIA

This liope was doomed to failure; uiid when stiitcs
like Germany, Austria, and Franee joined in it act-
ively, witii the more or less overt cooperation of
tlie governments of the day, a reaction amon^ Jews
was bound to take place. Most of tlu; latter, it is
true, continued to hope that the phenomenon was
but a passing one; but a small Imnd in western
Europe and in America sought its cause in sources
that were deeper than a passing whim. They
thought to find it in the impossibility felt by vari-
ous peoples to assimilate the Jews and at llie
same time to allow them that measure of individual
and collective freedom which the Jews considered
necessary for tlie preservati(jn of their individual
character. In addition, tliey had witnessed the re-
sults of the attempt made by many of their brethren
to meet fully the demands of the outside world.
The consequence had been the almost complete con-
version to Christianity of many of the leading fam-
ilies in the Mendelssolm epoch, and the loosening of
the bonds that held the Jews together, wliich meant,
if continued, the absorption of the Jews in the gen-
eral population and the disappearance of Judaism
as a distinctive faith. To meet anti-Semitism tlie
great Jewish communities, contenting themselves
with an attempt to ward off the blows as tiiey fell
successively, offered in general a passive resistance,
to which many noble-minded Christians contributed
in the German and Austrian societies for repelling
anti-Semitism (see Vekein zur AnwKiiu nrs
Axti-Semitismxjs). On the other hand, the small
baud referred to above took up a more positive atti-
tude, and found the answer to militant anti-Semitism
in a recurrence to what they considered the basis of
Jewish life— the idea of the continued national e.vist-
ence of the Jews as a people. Tliis current among
the Jews of modern Western culture combined with
the two other currents, that of the national Jewislj
revival and that of the philanthrnpic colonization
of Palestine, to form the modern Zionist movement.
It was at this time that Theodor Heuzl, brooding
over the strong rise of anti-Semitism in his own
Austrian home and in Paris, in which city he was
then living, wrote his " Judenstaat." According
to his own statement, it was conceived and written
during the last two months of his stay in Paris in
the year 1895, as a private expression
Herzl's of his opinion, and to be shown only
" Juden- to a small circle of his friends. One
staat." of these friends, after reading the
pamphlet, declared its author to be of
unsound mind. Any active agitation or discussion
of the principles laid down in the book was far
from Herzl's purpose. It was only in the spring
of 1S9G that the "Judenstaat" was publislied in
Vienna. Translations of it were soon made into
French, English, and Hebrew; and the original
German has" now (190o) gone through tive editions
(see also "Theodor Herzl's Zionistisrhe Schrirten."
Berlin, 1905). The theories here laid down and the
propositions made for their realization may be
summed up in the following statement:

Starting with the fact that anti Seinitism is a ron
tinualiy growing menace both to the Jews and to
the world at large and is ineradicable, tliat the Jews
are a people that are not permitted to merge into

ih'

p.> ..
to llie .
if '

'>'''•' , -

to foregatlivr i

Forth.

tlie f.ii

take tip the pt'

and <if a '

English hi

tul of iT»(i '

tli.

niuniiy. Asiiix.

ering Iler/'

tlie iiicom

flltratiun, Imt Ity or.

Palestine wag to \«- ■ '

religious faiths wi

will be seen tlinl tlir

been the muioHprinK •

in the rest4>ration. was

lem was attn(k<!

political bides. 1

came into closer >

than he hud I"

value of the r- _

tion of the Jewish

that the Jew iv'

dis.sohibly t<> i

however, of churrli and ^'

fundamental i ' ' '

Ix'tween tin- ( '

to be in the form of n

upon a jnirely • "'■

It was lar.
Israel Zangwill that i
his project p;! '■ '• •
received by tlji
In a preliminary
(London. Jan. 17
fen!
Herzl's

Reception . ,
in London. ilii'ti;;li hi-

English, and ■

appeaninceinL<»t

theo! ' ■

e.xpri-

liowcver, Rucli men n

MarmiT) 1 ■'

Prof. M
other intellcc-

H.
puni.

journalist, "
1. • • ■ ' '
ii
lif ilio J'

.staat

11^ a
. \k..
I to an

Zionism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

672

Scbuirer and Oser Kokescli calling for the forma-
tion of a "Society of Jews" to be founded in July,
1896, in Loudon ; aud a letter of adhesion to Herzl's
principles was forwarded in the month of May to
Herzi by the above-named as representing their so-
ciety. According to Lucicn Wolf (•' P>ncyc. Brit."
s.r. "Zionism ") the Sultan of Turkey, having heard
of Herzl's publication, sent a private messenger, the
Chevalier de Xewlinsky, iu >hiy, 1896. with the offer
of a charter of Palestine for the Jews if they would
use their influence to stop the agitation consequent
upon the Armenian mas.sacres. The offer was re-
fused.

Herzl's call for the First Zionist Congress, which
was to have been held in Munich in 1898. brought
the whole subject prominently and forcibly before
the Jewish public. In some quarters it was sup-
posed that the gathering was to deal with general
Jewish question.s, and nut specifically with Zionism
(Bambus, in " Allg. Zeit. dcs Jud." April 23, 1897)—
a misconception which could not possibly be due to
those who had issued the call. But misconceptions
were apt to occur, since feeling ran higli on the part
of both those who favored and those w-ho opposed the
Zionist proposition. It may be said at the outset
that the Jewish people did not answer to the call of
Dr. Herzl as he and his followers had expected.
Only in certain quarters did there gather around him
Jews who had been in a measure prei)ared for his
coming. Those who had been affected by the Jew-
ish national idea naturally looked to him as their
standard-bearer. The Jewish masses, groaning un-
der oppression in eastern Europe, saw in him their
possible savior; and those of them who had escaped
to western Europe and America were not slow to
follow the lead of their brethren left behind. In
addition to these a comparatively small number
of intellectuals came to Herzl's aid. Some were
moved thereto either by the results of the aca-
demic discussion of the questions involved, or by a
reawakened feeling of attachment to old scenes and
thoughts from whicli they had become estranged.
Others in their own persons or in their immediate
surroundings had felt the sting of anti-Semitism ;
while a large number were attracted to the new
movement from a feeling of benevolent compas-
sion for the sufferings of their more unfortunate
brethren.

Opposition to Zionism arose from many (piarters;
and even as the movement embraced within its fold
Jews of various religious convictions, so did the op-
position emanate from different points of the horizon.
Orthodox Judaism in Europe at lirst held severely
aloof, believing that becau.se some of the leaders weie
non-observantsof Jewish ceremonial, the whole movc-
mentsetratheraway from than toward i)ositive Juda-
ism. It was supposed to be forcing the
Opposition, liand of Providence and to be contrary
to the positive t('aciiini,'s of Oithodox
Judaism in legard to the coming of the .Messiali and
the providential work of God in bringing about tiie
restoration. In Russia the extreme Orthodox syna-
gogue, not content with a simple luntest, organized
an active opposition which had for its center the Pol-
tava rabbi Akiba Rabinowitzand the mairazine " Ha-
Peles"in Wilna. A library opened there by the

Zionists on April 14, 1902, had to be closed for a time.
In common parlance this opposition was spoken of
as the "Black Cabinet '" (Lishkah ha-Sliehorah).

A more theological aspect was given to the oppo-
sition by some of the European rabbis. Dr. Giide-
mann, chief rabbi of Vienna, in his " National-Juden-
thum " (Leipsic and Vienna, 1897) says that Israel has
been since the Dispersion a purely religious commu-
nity, a leader of jieojiles; that its historical task has
consisted in ojiposing the idea of nationalism; aud
that if Judaism should reawaken in all its adherents
the endeavor again to become a nation, it would be
committing suicide. According to Glidemann, the
vocation of Israel liesiu tlie spiritual impress that it
has been able to put upon humanity and in its en-
deavor to further the Messianic time which shall
conciliate nations to one another. He holds that
Judaism has acclimatized it.self every wliere; that
Zion is only a symbol of its own and mankind's
future; that in this sense the word is used in the
prayer-book of the Synagogue, and that true Zion-
ism can not be separated from the future of hu-
manit}^ In a similar spirit K. Kohler formulates
his opposition to Zionism. He does not call himself
an anti-Zionist; but believes that in a positive way
Judaism has another future before it. For him
Judaism is a religious truth entrusted to a nation
destined to interlink all nations aud sects, classes
and races of men; its duty is to be a cosmo-
politan factor of humanity, basing itself upon the
Biblical passage, "Ye shall be unto Me a kingdom
of priests and a holy nation." "Tiie mission of the
Jew is not only sjiiritual or religious in character;
it is social and intellectual as well, and the true
Zionism demands of the Jews to be martyrs in the
cau.se of truth and justice and peace until the Lord
is one and the woild one." He repudiates the idea
that Judea is the home of the Jew — an idea which
"unhomes" the Jew all over the wide earth — and
hokls the entire proi)aganda a Utoi)ian dream because
even if Turkey were willing, none of the great powers
of Christendom would concede the Holy Land to the
Jew; that the high temperature of Palestine would
no longer afford him a congenial and healthful soil;
that Palestine has poor ])rospects of ever becoming
a leading state and of attracting Jewish capital : that
the incongruous elements of which a Jewish state
would be composed would militate against a har-
monious blending into one great commonwealth;
and that so petty a connnonwealth would be unable
to cope successfully with the liostile forces arrayed
against it. However, he looks Avith favor upon the
colonization of Palestine by the Jews, and sees the
"possibility of Zionism leading to a united Judaism
and a pan-Judean congress" (.see "The Judirans,"
pp. 68 ct neq.. New York, 1899). Claude .Montetiore
l)roclaimed himself a convinced and tlctcrmined an-
tagonist of the jilan on the ground that Zionism is
calculated to beget and foster anti-Semitic feelings,
more especiall}' when it is looked upon as a glorious
ideal instead of a mournful necessity. The Jews, he
thinks, are to fiu-lit the good fight, not to despair, but
with self-purilieation and bi'ave endurance to await
the better time that civilization will shortly bring,
when their fellow citizens will claim them as their
own {ih. jip. 86 el seq.).

673

THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA

Strong (lomiiiciatioiis of Zionism were liniitl, cspt'-
ciail}' in Geiinany. The apiJeiirauce ol tlic ]iiiriy
organ " Die Wi'it " was declared to be a misforliine
("Allg. Zcit. dos Jud." June 11, ISStT); G. Kiir-
jic'lt'S maintaining even tliat Judaism was no relig-
ion, but a "sittliche Weltanschauung und gescliiehi-
lirhe Tiiatsarhe " (" Die Welt." 1005. No. viii.) In
the name of tlie Association of Jewish Rabbis of (.iei -
many, S. Maybauin (Berlin) and II. VogeLslein
(Stettin) issued a protest against the Zionists, win.
were declared tobe " fanatics from Uu.ssiaand youth
ful, liot-headed students." Jn a iireliminary com-
inunication the protesters laid down the following
principles: that tiie Jews are nothing more than a
religious body, and those in Germany national Ger-
mans, though as such faithful to the divine religion
of Sinai. They demanded a united protest of all the
German congregations against political Zionism:
anti-agitation to counteract that of the Zionists; and
a public declaration of all societies composed of
rabbis and teachers against the movement. Dr.
LeimdSrfer (Hamburg) associated himself with tiiis
protest (i/i. June 11 and July 2, 1897). In Hanover
the advocate Dr. Meyer proposed in adiiition an
anti-Zionist meeting in Berlin at which the Jews
should proclaim their German patriotic sentiments
and in this way disarm the Zionists (;/>.). No such
action, however, seems to have been taken; though,
in England, several rabbis were inhibited by the
chief rabbi from preaching on Zionism, and tiie lia-
ham M. Gaster was prevented by the Mahamad of the
Spanish and Portuguese congregation from toucln'ng
on the subject in his otticial capacity (1*^00). The
formal protest appeared in the "All-
Protest genieine Zeitung des Judenthunis,"
of German July 16, 1897, signed by the Board of
Rabbis. Ministers. It states, first, that the al-
temiits of the Zionists to found a Jew-
ish national state in Palestine are contrary to the
Messianic promises of Judaism as laid down in Holy
Writ and in the later religious authorities; secondly,
that Judaism demands of its adherents to serve the
state in which they live and in every way to further
its national interests: thirdly, that no oppo.sition
thereto can be seen in the noble plan to colonize Pales-
tine with Jewish agriculturists, because that plan
has no connection with the founding of a national
state. In the same spirit the Conference of Ameri-
can Rabbis, wiiich met at Richmond, Va., on Dec. 31,
1898, declared itself as opposed to the whole Zioni--
movement on the ground (as one of the member>
stated) "that Ameiica was the Jews' Jerusalem and
Washington their Zion."

A like uncomi-rondsing attitude against Zionism
has been taken in England by Lucien Wolf. Start-
ing witii a bias not indistinctly favorable to tli.- i>la!
as><M-mulale<l bv Her/1, he has come to hold not onlv
the impraclicabilitv of the scheme, but the nnteim
bleness of its premises. He believes that the ^v^y s
are of Arvanori-in and that they are not anthropo-
logical Iv a separate race (a view held also by N.l,
mon Beinach; see " R. E. J." xlvii. 1). and that at
a later time onlv a centrietal anthropological
movement -set in; "that there is peril in Zionism. In
that it is the natural and abiding ally of anti-Senn-
tism and its most powerful justification: that it is
XII.— 43

uii Hlleiiipt t
i.sli liihiory . ;,,.
iniiiileiJ vii'W of

fuiimlH u

\ -

1 • . .
ReiiHuiini

jiroved uml**Hiii

Lucien
Wolf and

Laurie i.:
Magnus, li

hut it ;
cipality but the li '
("The 'Zionist i'. .

From (he point < '
status of JeWH in
Zionism has In-en Hit

nuK. ThiH crttiriHin iimv In- nuintuvO uj
lowing cxtriK •

"A niBii' •

tl(m-^ln^

Ull'llll I if t..

pli'tim- iif

Wclcillllf lUI'l '

.luilitisiii. Itui

anil llKisM" wli'i

Jews, \vlil<-li I!

wives par'

sliiy. Fi'i

post" to '•

why kIu>ii

ll<in of tli<

iito' Ilii-lr

visitors" '! " v" A*; ■

UHn.'i.

This is also prwii.
Ludwig G< i

Berlin, tlmu^

particular cniiiitry iu wl

■7,\r.ri

! hi'ii ■ 1.

I of the full"'

icnt of

tUrr»l lo •«; »"»'

Ucigira'Ui-

Zionism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

674:

While criticisms such as these touched upon the

basal principles ot Zionism, other criticisms dealt in

charges "vvhich are evidence of the

Minor strong feeling raised on all sides in

Objections. Jewry by the successive progress of

the Zionist movement. The " Univers

Israelite '" summed up the matter in saying:

*■ The long and shorr of it is, Zionists and anti-Semites are one
and the s:ime." Tlie " Reform Advoi-ate " of Chii-ago spoke of
the "Anli-Semites. his [Hfrzl's] friends" (March 12. 1898). A
rabbi in .Marburg classed Zionism as " Messiasschwiiruierei " ;
and tht traveler Edward Glaser believed that Zionism was put
forward by the British government in order to break up Turkey
and form a buffer state. The hakam bashi in Constantinople
posted a notice in the synagogue putting the Hebrew paper
'■ Ha-Zeriruh " under the ban; and Dr. Bloch, editor of the Vienna
" Wochenschrift," first endeavored to procure a subvention from
the Zionists, offering to give up eight pages of his newspaper to
the cause, if " Die Welt " ceased to appear (" Die Welt," ii.. No.
48); failing which, he became a most determined opponent. S.
Bernfeld"s "Am Ende des Jahrhunderts " (1899) has a bare
mention of Zionism and the congresses; while that portion of
the year's review by Martin Philippsohn in the " Jahrbuch fiir
Judische Geschichte," 1898, mentioning the Basel Congress of
1897, was stricken out hy the editor, G. Karpeles. When the
■■ Trust " was founded, the report v\-as spread that each of the di-
rectors was to have a bonus of 100,000 marks for passing the stat-
utes, and that the sole object of the corporation was to combat
Orthodoxy. The London "Financial News" (April 28, 1899, p.
872) spoke of the " harebrained and irresponsible promoters of
the ridiculous Trust."

In the United States, too, the opposition grew
apace.

The " Reform Advocate " in Chicago suggested editorially
that the real object of Herzl and Nordau was to possess them-
selves of the savings of their poorer brethren. Isaac M. Wise,
president of the Hebrew Union College, tliouijht that the Zion-
ists were " traitors, hypocrites, or fantastic fools whose thoughts,
sentiments, and actions are in constant contradiction to one an-
other" 1" Hebrew Union College Journal," Dec, 1899, p. 47i;
while Ilabbi Samdeld wrote in the " Jewish Spectator " that " Zi-
onism is an abnormal eruption of perverted .sentiment." Prof.
Louis Grossman held that the "Zionistic agitation contradicts
everything that is typical of Jews and Judaism," and that the
" Zionistic movement is a mark of ingenuity, and does not come
out of the heart of Judaism, either ancient or contemporary"
i" Hebrew Union College Journal," Dec, 1899, p. 72).

On the other hand, the attitude of the Christian
world toward Zionism has been in nearly every case
one of cordial attention ; in some quartei-s, even one

of active furtherance. While those of
Christian the more important daily papers that
Attitude, were in Jewish hands cither accorded

the mf)vement scanty attention or
were absolutely silent (the Vienna "Neue Fieie
Presse," of which Herzl was feiiilleton editor, never
mentioned the word "Zionism" as long as Herzl
lived), the other great dailies of the world freely
opened their columns to news of the movement, as
did also the great monthlies and quarterlies in Eng-
land and the United States {.e.g., "Contemporary
Review," "Nineteenth CVntuiy," "Fonmi," " Foit-
nighlly Review," "North American lieview," "In-
ternational Review," and "Century"). In Oct.,
1H97, the London "Daily Chronicle" and the "Pall
Mall Gazette" publicly accepted the Zionist pro-
giain and advocated the calling of a general Euro-
pean Congiess. ]\Iany Christians, it is true, were
led to such a course by religions hopes of a Mes-
sianic return of the Jews to Palestine and their
possible conversion there; although the German
"Allgemeine ^lissions Conferenz" declared that

"Zionism will not hasten the conversion of Israel,
but rather delay it" ("Nathaniel," 1901). Others,
however, had a sincere desire to advance this at-
tempt at Jewish self-help.

In addition to those mentioned above who bad
been actively' engaged in one project or another,
there area large number who by their voice and oth-
erwise have encouraged Zionism. As early as lyyS
Prof. K. Furrer of Zurich University spinred on the
Russian Jewish students to work for the colonization
of Palestine by the Jews; and in 1904Secretaiy John
Hay of the United States declared in an interview that
Zionism was in his opinion quite consistent with
American patriotism. The Grand Duke of Haden on
Aug. 4, 1899, uttered these woidstoDr. A. Berliner:
" The movement is an important one and deserves vig-
orous assistance." The Preraphaelite painter Hol-
man Hunt was one of the first to greet Herzl's pro-
po.sal in London (1896) with friendly assistance. He
has done the same (1905) to Israel Zangwill and the
Territorialists. The Rev. W. H. Hechler of Vienna
has been a constant attendant at the congresses, and
has been of actual assistance in other directions.
Prof. F. Heman of Basel, the author of "Das Auf-
wachen der Jiidischen Nation " (Basel, 1899), also de-
serves mention, as he sees in Zionism a conciliatory
force, bringing Jews and Christians nearer to each
other. Among those who have publicly pronoimced
themselves in favor of Zionism may be mentioneil
Leon Bourgois, the Rumanian premier Stourdza,
Baion Ma.xim Manteuffel, Bertha von Suttner, Feli.x
Dahn, Karl Peters, Piof. T. A. Masaryk, BjOrnst-
jerne Bjorusen, Rider Haggard, Hall Caine, Maxim
Gorki, and Prof. Thomas Davidson. The philoso-
pher Edward von Ilartmann, however, is of opinion
that Zionism plays into the hands of the anti Sem-
ites, and August Rohling in his "Auf nach Zion "
(1901) did indeed give color to this idea; but the con-
ference of political anti-Semites in Hamburg in the
year 1899 declared it necessaiy to oppose the move-
ment, as it awakened sympathy for the Jews among
the Christian population. The theological faculty
of the University of Geneva set as the subject for
the prize essay of the year 1905 the theme " Le Si-
onisme et Ses Aspirations Actuelles." A collection of
opinions has been published by Emil Kronberger,
"Zionisten und Christen," Leipsic, 1900, and by
Hugo Hoppe, " Herrvorragende Nichtjuden iiber
den Zionismus," Konigsbeig, 1904.

Though the number of shekel-paying Zionists has
increased largely year by year, the opposition
sketched above has hardly diminished, except in the
case of those whose spokesman has been Lucien
Wolf (see below). A large section of Orthodox
Jewry still sees in Zionism or rather in its promoters
a danger to established custom and time-honored
riles, despite the fact thata specific resolution of the
Second Basel Congress declared that Zionism would
do nothing to militate against such customs and
such rites. The Orthodox rabbis at Grodno in 1903
declared themselves opposed to the movement, as
did a number of Hungarian rabbis in 1904. On the
other hand, ti)e Haside Ziyyon of Lodz is nuide up
of Hasidim; and such men as Samuel Mohilewer,
Chief Rabbi J H. Diinner in Holland, the haham
M. Gaster in England, and H. Pereira Mendes in

675

Tin. Jhwisn ENCYCLOPKDIA

The

"Kultur-

Frage."

New York have joiued the Zionisl ranks. The Htutii
bling-block has been the " Kiiltur-Fnijte." the tines
tion of the relatidii (if Zionism to mm!
eru education and to the modern poiiu
of view. The iiseof ilu; word " Kull ur "
in this connection was nnfortiinali',
as the east-European .lew had been
led to regard this term as connoting certain distinct,
ive and anti-religious tendencies of modern socictv
The doubt has remained, despite all altem[)ts tociilir
up the dilliculty by delinition. The question was
mooted at the First Ba.sel Congress (on the pn-posi
tion of Birnbaum), but was really taken up at tht-
Third, Fourth, and Fifth Congresses, at the lust of
which it was maile part of the party's program
The advocacy of physical and mental advunccnui,;
upon modern lines, lias i)rovoked the opposition of
a large body of Orthodox Jews, who otherwi.se
migiit have joiued the Zionist body, as the idea of
the restoration still forms a part of their theolog-
ical equipment. The Jews connected with Heform
synagogues, and those outside any distinctively
Jewish organization, in most cases still look upon
Zionism as a reaction, not only from a theological
point of view, but from the standpoint of general
culture as well ; and this last, despite the reiterated
pronouncements made at various congresses. In his
opening address at the First Congress Ilerzl said
" We have no thought of giving up even one foot of
the culture that we have acquired ; on the contrary,
we wish to broaden that culture," and at the Third
Congress he added, " We desire to lift ourselves up
to a higher moral plane, to open up new means of
communication between nations and prepare the
way for social justice. Just as the poet weaves
songs out of his own pain, so siiall we prepare fron)
out of our own suftering the advancement of man-
kind in whose service we are." In fact, a formal
resolution was adopted at theiSecond Congress to this
elTect: "Zionism seeks not onl}' the economic and
political but also the spiritual rebirth of the Jewish
people and must ever remain upon the stand of
modern culture, whose achievements it highly
values."

To a still larger number of Jews, who might
perhaps sympathize with Zionism, the seeming
impracticability of carrying out the platform and
the supposed insuperable didiculties in finding a
home for the Jews in and around Palestine, conpk-d
with the peculiar political circumstances which ren-
der those countries the bone of contention among the
European powers, stand in the way; though .some
of those who now stand aloof have shown a n-adi
ness to join the Zionist ranks if another, and to their
eyes more practical, policy sliould be evolved—^.// .
tiiat connected with the oiler of territoiv in East
Africa (see below).

In spite of all opposition Ilerzl contuiunl liic

elaboration of the policy set forth in the "Juden-

staat." The first part of his program

The Basel was tlie calling of a congress of such

Congress. Jews and such Jewish organizations

as sympathized with the new niovc-

ineiit. This congress was to have been held in

Munich; but the Kultusvorstand of the Munich

Congregation memorialized the committee that had

1' itt f(r

2<i-t

were
H rr

the i
repi

unie of " Di.

tjiut part of the

M.llrd J. •

■ I'e. All.
ativeH of lliu varioiiit Jev
most of the I
Tiicgreal J< >.
and America were entlr-
and. with one or •
selves rntircly fr
ism. However, a uutnbtr of

whose inten ■' - ;

theological,

kindly inlere.si wlnrh iar.

ish world brought t" "

such were Dunant. ti

ciety; the H.v. .M M

chaplain Ui the lit it: ..

ManteulTel; Col. Count I:

Lipsius. the viV

This First Conjk'r

though the ori;unization

menced llier-

wldeh were « .

the promotion of the atudj <

anil literature, ii. '

for a propo.m-d J.

salein wu.s brought (<>r\»nni t

general Hebrew ' '

lit«'rature comini

Hidgaria); the T

(1'rofes.sor Shnpit.i

the lhis«'l I'roLTuiu \\

ohject of Zi'

Jewish peop

in Palestine

He view." I "'.<;.

" Der IJasekr C'l-.

Betwct'U the Kln»l ami -
ti '

berof punipli

Propa-

.-.'liuill

Alter the

Fir«t
Cong^reaa.

ComniitUT-. iinjvilKr

»a

Zionism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

676

various countries, was luKl in Vif'nna in April, 1898;
and the Second Congress met in Basel Aug. 28-31
of that year. The spread of the niovement may bo
gaged by the number of Zionist societies and groups
that had come into being since the First Congress:

Country.

Russia 350

Austria. 176

HuDRarv :{2

Rutnania 1 100

Euffland

Oermany

Italy

Bulgaria

Switzerland .

12
25
12
15
6

Country.

23 373

42 I 21S
228 260
127

26
25
21
16
6

France

Bels'iuin

Turkey

Denmark

Servia

(ireece

Epypt

Tlie Transvaal
•America

•d

°l

3
2
2

T
1
1

0
60"

• New York, 26; Chicago, 8.

A Russian preliminary conference had been held
in Warsaw at which about 140 delegates took part,
and a second one was held at Basel, those attending
being Orthodox rabbis, presided over by Haham ]\I.
Gaster of London. More than forty telegrams of
adhesion were received from Orthodox rabbis; and
besides a number of crown rabbis of Russia, there
were also present representatives of the Hasidim.
A special colonization committee was appointed
with a view to furthering colonization on the basis
of the consent of the Turkish government; and an
agreement was reached as to the formation of the
Jewish Colonial Trust, a committee of nine being
appointed for that purpo.se, with D. Wolfssohn
of Cologne at the head. The founding of a general
Hebrew-speaking nation was proposed by Chief
Rablii Eiirenpreis of Bidgaria; and the resolution
on "Kullur," proposed by Haham Gaster, to which
reference has been made above, was accepted.

The Third Congress likewise met in Basel, Aug.

15-18, 1899. It Avashere tliatllerzl announced that

liis endeavors were centered upon re-

The Third ccivinga chaiter from the sultan. The

and Fourth report of the Actions Committee

Con- showed that the number of societies in

grasses. Russia (877) had increased by 30 per
cent and in other countries by 2') per
cent. The shekel-payers numbered more than 100,-
000, which meant that probably a quaiter of a million
Jews were actively identified with the Zionist move-
ment. All the Chovevei Zionists in Rumania had be-
come members of the congress. A new scheme of or-
ganization wassubmitted, which had foritsobject the
building up of the inner structure of the movement.
Tiie" Kultur"f]uestion was further discussed, in the
attempt to make it clear tliat "Kultur" in noway
militated against Judaism in any form. The question
of colonization in Cyprus was brought u]^ ])\ Davis
Trietsch, wiio had lu-ld a pieliminary conference to
consider the proposal ; but he was not allowed to
proceed with the question in open congress, the great
majority of tiie members being decidedly avense to
even a consideration of the proposal.

The Fourth Congress was transferred to I^ondon.
where it met in Queen's Hall Aug. 13-10, 1900.
The transfer was made with a view to influencing
British public opinion still further, as in no crtintry
had the Zionist propaganda been received by the

general public with more nnderslanding or with
greater sympathy. During the year that had elapsed
the Russian societies had increased to 1.034, those of
England to 38, and those of tiie United States to
135; while in a small country like Bulgaria there
were no less than 42 such siujeties.

The hopes of the Zionist body in regard to Pales-
tine and the good intentions of the sovereign power
there were somewhat dampened by the instructions
sent by the Porte in Nov., 1900, making it impossi-
ble for Jewish visitors to Palestine to remain there
for a period longer tiiaii three months. The Italian
government immediately protested that it made no
difference between its Jewish and its Christian sub-
jects; and the matter having been brought to the
attention of Secretary Hay, the American ambassa-
dor in Constantinople was on Feb. 28, 1901, in-
structed to make a .similar ])iotest in the name of
the United States government. This action by the
Porte, which was merely the revival of a regulation
that had been issued about fifteen or twenty years
previously, was in many quarters said to have been
due to the renewed Zionist activity ; but on May 17,
1901, the sultan himself received Herzl in audience,
the latter being accompanied by two other mem-
bers of the Actions Committee, Da-
Herzl's vid Wolfssohn and Oscar IVIarmorck.
Interview Herzl was received on two further
with occasions; and upon leaving, the sul-
the Sultan, tan conferred tipon him the grand cor-
don of the Order of the ]\Iejidie. From
Constantinople Herzl went to London, where on
June 11, 1901, he was again received by the Macca-
ba^ans, on which occasion he spoke with much confi-
dence of the success of his mission to the sultan and
asked the Jewish people for £1,500,000 in addition
to the money in the bank for the purpose of obtain-
ing the charter. But the Jewish jK'ople kept silent;
and the negotiations which had proceeded so far
were for the moment in abeyance.

The Fifth Congress was held at Basel in 1901, this
time during the winter, Dec. 2C-30. The new or-
ganization statutes were here finally accepted. Tlie\'
called for a meeting of the congress once every two
3'ears; and in the interval between the congresses a
meeting of the Larger Actions ('ommittee and the
leaders in the various countries was to be held. *It
was also decided that a new territorial organization
could be ■founded in any land if 5,000 shekel-payers
demanded the same. All arrangements for opening
the bank had been made; resolutions were pa.ssed to
give a subvention to the National Library in Jerusa-
lem, and as to the necessity of a Hebrew encyclope-
dia and the founding of a statistical bureau. A se-
vere criticism of the Baron de Hirsch Trust was made
by I. Zangwill, but his motion was not put before the
congress. There was again a long " Kultur " debate,
which ended in the following pronouncement: "The
congress declares spiritual amelioration
[•'kultureile Hebiing"], i.e., the edu-
cation of the Jewish people along na-
ti(nial lines, to be one of the chief ele-
ments of the Zionist program, and lays
it as a duty upon every Zionist to
work toward that end." During this eoncrresstliirty-
seven delegates, comprising the Democratic Fraction,

Zang-will

at the

Fourth

Congress.

677

THE JKWISII EN-CYCLOPEDIA

h.'a(l..l by },.rtl..,l,l Fdwc-I, being dissal,,;,..,, „,:,.

tlRMulingof the presid.-nt, left tlK.c..„;,nc.ssinal.,Klv
but .rtmncl aft.T the ,l..m„nslratinn l.a.l l,.-,.„ nnulV

Imnugrauou Commission, sittin.ir in Lon.lon l..,|.iVr.

mine what n:casures, if any. slioiil.l he lalvcn 1 •,.

vent the lar^-e inlinx of a foreign prol-iariat inio
LnKhuul. I hizl s plea was for u icguialion of im-
migration, as far as
tlie Jews were ((ni
cerned, latlicr at ils
source in eastern
Europe tliaii at its
outlet in -western Eu-
rope and America.
In tile summer of the
same year a deputa-
tion of tlie German
Zionist bod}' was re-
ceived in audience
at Carlsrulie by tiie
Grand Duke of 15a-
den, who has on sev-
eral occasions testified
to his deep interest
in the movement.

In tlic autumn of
18tKS and after pre-
liminary audiences in
Put.sdam and Con-
stantinople, Emperor
William II. of Ger-
many publicly' re-
ceived a Zionist depu-
tation in Palestine.
The delegation con-
sisted of Dr. Theodor
Ilcrzl, Dr. M. T.
Schnirer, D. Wolfs
sohii, Dr. M. Boden-
hcimer, and Engineer
Seidener, president of
the Zionist groups in
Germany; and, after
an introductory
greeting on Oct. 28 at
the Colony Mikweh
Yisrael near JalTa, it
w-as received on Nov.
2 in the imperial tent
in Jerusalem, State
Secretary von iU'ilow
being present. In an-
swer to the atldre.ss
presented, tiie em-
peror said tliat "all such endeavors, as aimin^f at
the promotion of Palestinian agricidturc lo tlie
weal of the Turkish empire, and having due re-
spect to the sovereignty of the sultan, nu'glit be
sure of his good-will and interest."

<WU »MI|

Aiiiall t

Jr.

ti'iouH. law
coil II I ry.
wore to b<

fc^Ji^^" ■

Ik:

Interview Between Wllllum II. of (■

OuUnlde of J<-nimlem,

ivkc

Botli at this time and subsecjuently Ilerzl had
interviews with the sultan. His original progmni
meant an understanding with that ruler upon the
basis of a regulation of the Turkish finances (** r)ie
Welt, "i.. No. 1). He tried also to impre.s.s upon the , i\
sultan the perfect loyalty of the Zionist lj<Mly. as ' E

p. M).

,.. .,

erniiii

.411 III.

I. J (;

Zionisin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

678

Dr. Hillel Jofife, and Mr. Humphreys, representing
the Egyptian governniont, left Egypt at the be-
ginning of 1903 lo nialie an exhaustive study of tlie
territory under consideration ; and it returned toward
the end of March. The Egyptian government,
although in part agreeing to the demands for a
Jewish administration and extended municipal pow-
ers in the proposed settlement at Al 'Arish, felt it-
self not warranted in agreeing to the concession
on account of the lack of water, which would neces-
sitate the use of a certain portion of the Nile. It
may be added that the Jewish Colonization Associ-
ation had shown itself not unwilling to lend its as-
sistance, had the concession been granted ("'Die
Welt," 1904. No. 1).

Russia having furnished the greatest number of
Zionists, the trend of sentiment in that country may
briefly be indicated. At the ]\Iiiisk
Zionism in Congress held in Sept., 1902, 500 dele-
Russia, gatesattended, representing the Ortho-
dox Party, the Democratic Fraction,
a so-called Center Party, and the socialistic Bund.
At this meeting the relation of orthodoxy to radical-
ism, the *' Kultur " question, and especially coloniza-
tion in Palestine were discussed. The congress was
not indisposed to unite with non-Zionist coloniza-
tion societies for the immediate purchase of land in
Palestine, thus making the first break in the rigidity
of the Basel Platform. Resolutions were passed lo the
effect that all moneys belonging to the National
Fund should be used oidy for the purchasing of land
in Palestine, and that tiie paragraphs of tlie National
Fund statutes should be .so changed as to preclude
the collection of capital to which restrictions were
attached (see M. Nurock, " Der i. Allrussische
Zionisten-Congress in Minsk," Riga, 1902).

The j'ear 1903 is memorable in the aiuials of Zion-
ism. On June 24, Von Plehve, tlie Russian minister
of the interior, issued a .secret circular to the gov-
ernors, city prefects, and chiefs of police, putting a
ban upon all Zionist meetings and forbidding all
collections for Zionist purposes. The moneys belong-
ing to the Trust and to the Jewish National Fund,
and the shekel collections were to be turned over to
tiie Odessa society for assisting Jewish agriculturists
in Palestine. The reason given for this action was
the supposed impossibility of realizing the Zionist
program except in the distant future; but the real
motive was the fear that Jewish Socialists might
make use of the Zionist platform for the propagation
of their theories (" The Times," London, Sept. 2 and
11). This, together with the distressing condition of
the Jewsin general in that coimtry, induced Herzl to
visit Rus.sia early in Aug., 1908. He there hud inter-
views with Witte and Von Plehve, and was joy-
full}' acclaimed by the Jewish prole-
Herzl's tariat of the cities through which he
Interview jjassed. The result of his interview
with Von with Von Plehve is given in a letter
Plehve. to Herzl dated Aug. 12, and published
at the Sixth Zionist Congress. In it
Von Plehve promises that if the Zionislic movement
confines its agitation to the creation of an independ-
ent state in Palestine and to the organized emigra-
tion from Russia of a certain number of Jewish in-
habitants, the Russian government will give its

moral and material support to Zionist negotiations at
Constantinople, and will facilitate the work of the
emigratitm societies with certain moneys contrib-
uted by the Jews of Russia ("'Die Welt," Aug. 25,
1903).

Ever since the negotiations in regard to Al 'Arish,
Herzl and his agents had kept in contact with the
English government. The project to effect a Jew-
ish colonization in the East-African Protectorate
seems not to have been an entire surprise. In the
"Jewish Chronicle" of July, 1903, it was mooted
by Robert T. Yates. It was, however, in no way
sought by the Zionist leaders, but was spontaneously
offered to Dr. Herzl by Joseph Chamberlain, after
the hitter's visit to South Africa upon the close of
the Boer war. In an official letter dated from the
Foreign Oflice, Aug. 14, 1903, Clement Hill wrote
to L. J. Greenberg in regard to " the form of an agree-
ment which Dr. Herzl proposes should be entered into
between His Majesty's government and the Jewish
Colonial Trust, Ltd., for the estaidishmentof a Jew-
ish settlement in East Africa." Hill was directed by
the Marquis of Lansdowne to say :

"That he has studied the question with the interest which
His Majesty's Kovernuient must always take in any well consid-
ered scheme for the amelioration of the position of the Jewish
race ... If a site can be found which the Trust and His Maj-
esty's Commissioner consider suitable and
The East- which commends itself to his Kovernment,
African Lord Lansdowne will be prepared to entertain
Project and favorably proposals for the establishment of
the Sixth a Jewish colony or settlement on conditions
Congress, which will enable the members to observe
their national customs . . . the details of the
scheme comprising as its main features the grant of a consider-
able area of land, the appointment of a Jewish ofUcial as the
chief of the local administration, and permission to the colony
to have a free hand in regard to municipal legislation as to the
management of religious and purely domestic matters, such
local autonomy being conditional upon the right of His Maj-
esty's government to exercise general control."

The Sixth Congress drew near without a shadow
to presage the storms that were coming. It was
held in Basel Aug. 23-28, 1903. It is true that on
Aug. 22 a preliminary meeting was convened, in
which the Government Party was severely criticized
by Alfred Nossig, who pleaded for "national educa-
tion " as being more important and of move imme-
diate necessity than the acquisition of territory; but
such criticism on the part of the opposition was ex-
pected. Although the basis of representation had
been raised to 200 shekel-payers, no less than 592 dele-
gates and more than 2,000 spectators were present.
The announcement by Herzl of his interview with
Von Plehve created a sensation among the Russian
delegates, especially among those of Socialistic pro-
clivitities; while the offer made by the British gov-
ernment was received with very varied feelings. In
his address Herzl distinctly said: "East Africa is
indeed not Zion and can never become it"; and
in an eloquent oration Max Nordau spoke of such
a possible settlement simply as a " Nachtasyl." The
Democratic Fraction as a whole was against the propo-
sition, as were the majority of the Russian delegates.
Feeling ran very high, and at one time threatened
even to disrupt the meeting. The propo.sition before
the congress was that a commission should be .sent
out to examine the territory in East Africa, and that
before a final vote w as taken on the merits of the

679

Tin: J K WISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

question a special congress should be called for tlmi
purpose. After several days of argument a vole
WHS taken wliicli showed 2!)."") amrniativc and 178
negative, 90 wiihholding their votes entire!}-. This
vote represented the view of the C(ingres.s not
as to the advisability of accepting the olTer of tlie
Britisli government, but merely as to the proper
spirit in which so generous an offer ouglit to be re-
ceived and upon the political necessilics of the mo-
ment. Nevertlieliss, it was tai;en to have a nuich
wider meaning; and although a rider was attached
to the resolution prohibiting flic use of any shekel
moneys or any property of the Trust for tiieYuirpose
of the expedition, the Russian members of the Ac-
ti(ms Committee and a number of Russian delegates
persisted in misunderstanding the jjurport cif tiie
vote and created a demonstration by publicly leaving
the congress.

The East-African proposal acted like a firebrand
in the Zionist camp. It threatened to divide the
party into two opposed halves, and meetings of pro-
test and discussion were everywhere
The East- held. The misunderstanding would
African not down. On the one hand, some
Com- grou])s in Riunania went so far as to
mission, commence preparations to leave for
East Africa; and a special warning
had to be issued by the Actions Committee. On
the other hand, the inhibition placed upon Zionist
moneys for the purposes of the commission caused
a long delay in the formation and despatch of that
body. In Sept., 1903, the Jewish Colonization Asso-
ciation was asked to bear one-half of the expense
of the commission; and it consented to do so on the
understanding that any settlement made in East
Africa should be only in the way of .simple colo-
nization, and shoidd have no political character what-
soever. This necessitated the withdrawal of the
request, the greater part of the expense of the com
nii.ssion being at a later time borne by Christian
friends of the movement. It was also noted that a
strong oppo.sition manifested itself in East Africa.
Lord Delamere, the high commissioner, sent a cable
protest ("'Times," London, Aug. 28), which jtrotest
was endorsed by Lord Ilindlip and Sir Harry II.
Johnston {ib. Sept. 2) ; the latter, however, changed
his position later on (" Die Welt," 1004, p. 42). Pop-
ular feeling had been so roused among the Jews that
on Dec. 19, 1903, a Russian student of unsound
mind, Ilaim Selik Loubau, made an attempt upon
the life of Max Noidau at the Zionis;t ball given in
the Salle Cbarras in Paris.

Simultaneously with the Sixth General Congre.'vS
the first Jewish congress was held in Palestine. It
was organized and led by Usishkin. Seventy del-
egates and sixty teachers met in the colony Zikron
Ya'akob. It was intended to be a Basel congress in
miniature.

Annrgiinization was founded, to whirli all Jews in Piilfstim-
were to belong who were above eipht«'en years of iiirc nml wlio
paid one franc a year. Ttie delegates were to iiiffi uncc n
year, ehoseti l)y proup.s of Bfty. for which purpose Palest I tifwa.-"
divided into six sections :

1. Jerusalem, Hebron, Mozah, and Artuf.

2. The colonies around Ramleh.

3. Jaffa and Petah Tikwah.

4. Nazareth, Tiberias, and the colonies in the nelghtwrhood.

5. Hudairivah, Zikron Va'akoh, and Haifa.

Tl,.

tMTI<

lilt I .

tin- \
U 1-
eliJiiT a

Th.'

when II.

Oct.. 19oa. MK.siof •

Kharkof. nt whi '

tee to Vi<'nnn »..

to relincj

vening i ; ,,,, .

as a leader of tl

tiTiiloriiil I

also to take i.,. :

sition of land tie

the National Fniid A'

sian Actions Conindtu

order to give ii greater

erations. If He'
isi-
Rise of refrain

Territorial- ti.
ism. Ml ■

incnl Pnrty. It \»

that invented tli^ " "'

doubted reviiliit

members of the l.jir

Russia was reec iv •

fiom Zionist or.

some of which ainie U'

Warsaw, and Ha' ■ T

kof Conference. •

J. Ro.senbautn. and W

and met ases.si()n of ll • T

April 11, 1904. Ev.

the Russian mem

positi(»n they hau ..

ness of their fciirs th . 1

Committee had -

Platform: and ti

ference were bIIowciI

They ^•
upon tin

silion to the propos«Hl mI'
meiit in nil
against the \
tcrly attackeil. i
Lonilon . and he '
which he lind i" ■
cares of i

to till' task,
the great w
wnuhi have

esUl of Zloiiitni. .

Death of
Herzl

.tuly3. 1904, .
Jewish cause. I

Zionism

THE JE^yISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

680

and misrepresentations consequent upon tlje East-
African proposal aggravated the disease tliat was
slowly mastering his body. Perhaps the only Jew-
isii statesman of modern times who had devoted him-
self to the service of his people, he had done more
than any single person or group of persons to give
the cause dignity and standing. He had been able
to unite upon a common ground factors of varying
opinions and divergent interests. His fascinating
personality and his diplomatic tact had made him
the spokesman of his brethren. He had found the
Jewish question a philanthropic and at best an agri-
cultural one. He left it an economic and diplo-
matic one. 'Whatever his merit as a German lit-
terateur may have been (and this was testified to mogt
bountifully at his death), as an upholder of Jewish
ideals and a liberator of his people from mental and
moral serfdom he stands almost unique in Jewish
annals.

The death of Herzl naturally created consterna-
tion within the Zionist body. He had united so
much in his own person that he took upon himself
alone many of the burdens that others should
have borne with him. The question of his succes-
sor as chairman of the Actions Committee and as
president of the congress naturally preoccupied all
minds. On Aug. 16, 1904, a meeting of the Larger
Actions Committee was called to take over the alTairs
of the organization, ami on the ITih the aniuial con-
ference was held. An additional commission to the
Smaller Actions Committee was elected, consisting
of Nordau, AVolfssohn, Katzenelonsohn, "Warburg,
Tschlenow, Usishkin, Alexander ilarmorek, Boden-
heimer, and Greenberg, although no provision for
such a commi-ssion was contained iii the constitution.
On Nov. 18, 1904, a Zionist deputation, consisting
of N. Katzenelensohn, J. Jasinovvsky, Tschlenow,
and Belkowsky, had an interview with Sviatopolk-
Mirsky, the new liussian Minister of the Interior;
and on Dec. 4 and 5 Dr. N. Bodcnheimer and others,
representing tiie Actions Committee, attended a
meeting in Frankfort-on-the-Main for the purpose
of regulating the emigration of Jews from Russia.
In Jan., 190o, the Larger Actions Committee again
sat in Vienna, and it was resolved to legalize the
National Fund in London under the control of the
Jewish Colonial Trust. The Russian Zionists mean-
while commenced to arm themselves for the strug-
gle which it was foreseen would arise at the Seventh
Congress. On Jan. 14, 1905, a conference of fort\'-
seven persons was held in Wilna, at which it was
resolved that "as regards the view which con-
siders it possible to realize the ultimate aim of
Zionism in a country other than Palestine, it is agreed
that such a view is opposed to both the historic ideal
of Zionism and the Basel Platform."

The East-African Commission of Inquiry which
had beensentouton Dec. 25, 1902, after the committee
of nine members appointed by the congress of that
year had examined th(; project in Europe, was com-
posedofMajorA.St. H. Gibbons, Prof. Alfred Kaiser,
and Engineer M. Wilbusch. The British govein-
ment had proposed to leave the delimitation of the
proposed Jewish settlement to the commission and
to 'the authorities in British East Africa. Herzl,
however, preferred that the government should

offer a definite territory, which it did after com-

nuuiicating witli the high commissioner. This

territory is known as the (JuasNgishu

Question of Plateau, covering "an area of about

the Guas G.OOO square miles, bouudeil in the

Ngishu north by a line ruinung i>arallel to

Plateau, the equator, and the starting-point of
which is the Keremkie, a western
tributary of the Kerio River, which tlows into Lake
Rudolf. In the west it is boundiil by llic line of
the meridian, which is to be counted from the Kis-
simchunga Mountain to the equator, and which ter-
minates at the Maragolia Hills. In the south the
boundary-line as far as the main slope of the so-
called Rift Valley, the great East-.Vfrican depres-
sion, is formeil by llie eijuator, from uliich ])oint
the eastern boimdary-line is drawn almost due
north along the Elgeyo escarpment as far as the
above-mentioned Keremkie liiver." The rejiort of
the commission was presented to the Actions Com-
mittee May 16, 1908. and has been printed as a
Zionist Blue Book in English and German (London,
1905). The opinions of the members of the commis-
sion were divided; but in general the territory
olTered was found to be insufficient for a large num-
ber of Jewish settlers, and to be tit rather for grazing
than for agriculture.

The Seventh Congress met in Basel on July 27,
1905. the first anniversary of the funeral of Theo-
dor Herzl. Over 800 delegates had i)een elected, of
whom more than 600 attended. As had been antic-
ipated, the sessions were jiarticularly
The exciting; indeed, at times they became

Seventh turbulent. The various parties had
Congress, previously made jiieparations, the
ZiyyoiK! Zi(mists having iield a prelim-
inary conference in Freiburg. Dr. 3Iax Nordau was
elected president. Perhaps the most interesting re-
port presented to the congriss was that (jf the Pal-
estine Conunission. It told of the publication of its
organ " Altneuland," of a geological expedition, of
meteorological observation stations established, of
the mission of Dr. 8. Soskin to Palestine and Syria
in the interests of the culture of cotton there, and of
tlie lecture courses on colonization held at K(')then
(March 27-April 8, 1905) in connection with tiie
local technical institute. The real interest of
the congress lay. however, in tlie vote that was to
be taken on the repoit of the East-African Commis-
sion. Several days were sjient in its discussion, and
on July 80 tl'C special congress was held provided
for in tlie resolution of the Sixth Congress. The
conclusion was foregone. The Actions Committee
had, upon receipt of the conunission's report,
given its opinion that the proffered land was not
sufficient in extent and resources for colonization on
a large .scale ; and the (Joveriunent Party, together
with the Ziyyone Zionists and the Mizrahi faction,
was known to be largely in the majority. Various
resolutions dealing with the subject were offered;
and the following compronnse was finally i)ro-
posed by Alexander Marmorek in the name of the
Actions Committee:

" The Seventh Zionist Cot)Kres.s declares : The Zionist organi-
zation stands (Iriiily t>.v the fiindaiiifntal principle of the Hasel
I'rotrrain, naniely, 'The estal)li.sljnienl of :i legally secured.

681

THE .ii;\vi<n r.NT'V'

publicly recognized Imme fur the Jewish people In I'iiU-stlne."
ana it rejects, either iis an end or as u ineuiw of fol.uil/.injj
activity outside Palestine and its adjacent lands. The O.nt're^s
resolves to thank the British Koverniiient for lis offer of a terri-
tory in British East Africa, for the purpose of esuihllshlnjf there
a Jewish settlement with autonomous rights. A loinuil.shlon
having been sent out to examine the t«'rrilory, and havhiK re-
ported thereon, the Congress resolves that the'zionlst oicanizu-
tion shall not engage itself further with the pro|Misul. The ton-
gress records with satisfaction the recognition accorded ity the
British government to the Zionist organization In its desire to
bring about a solution of the Jewish prnbicm, and expn's.Nestt
sincere hope that it may be accorded the furlher good oillces of
the British government where available in any matter li may
undeitake in accordance with the Basel Program. The Sev-
enth Zionist Congress recalls and emphasizes ihe fact that, ac-
cording to article I. of the statutes of the Zionist organization,
the Zionist organization includes those Jews who declare them-
selves to be in agreement with the Basel Program."

In tiie final tiial of strciiglh on tliis motion the
Territorialists abstained from voting, wliile Dr.
Syikin, in the name of twenty-ciglil delegates be-
longing to tlie Poale Zion, pi-esented ti protest against
the decision, and togellier with his party left the
hall, refusing to take further part in the congress.

The future work of the Zionist body in Palestine
was also the subject of long discussinn between the
Government Party and the Ziyyone Zionists. A com-
promise resolution was likewise effected in this
regard, to wit:

" The Seventh Zionist Congress resolves that, concurrently

with political and diplomatic activity, and with the object of

strengthening it, the systematic promotion of

Proposed the aims of the movement in Palestine shall be

Work in accomplished by the following methods : 1.

Palestine. Exploration. 2. Promotion of agriculture. In-
dustry, etc., on the most democratic principle
possible. 3. Cultural and economic improvement and organiza-
tion of Palestine Jews through the accpiisitinri of new intellec-
tual forces. 4. Acquisition of concessions. The Seventh Zionist
Congress rejects every aimless, unsympathetic, and philan-
thropic colonization on a small scale which does not conform to
the first point in the Basel Program."

It was further voted that no laud in Palestine
was to be bought with the moneys of the National
Fund until this could be done in a judicial way.

It is difficult to estimate the number of Zionist
societies at present (1905) in existence. They run
up into many thousands, and the work tiny do is
of varying comidexions accoiding to the needs of
Jews living under ditTerent conditions. Some are
purely national Jewish gatherings, others are liter-
ary, while others again aie devoted to a develr)p-
mcnt of social intercourse among their membeis.
Many have libraries attached to their placesof meet-
ing, and do a certain amount of settlement work.
All have one object in view: to fos-

Present ter tiie national Jewish sentiment,
Condition and to i)and their members together in
of the the further development of Jewish
Movement, character. The payment of the siiekcl
(2~) cents) confers tiie right t<> vote for
delegates to the congress. Yearly or half-yearly
meetings are held by all the societies within a cer-
tain district, and federations are gradually being
formed in the various countries. The lirst such or-
gani/ation was the FEnicuATiON of Amkhican
ZioNisTs, founded in 1898 for the purpose of gather
ing into one body the societies in and arotnid New
York, but craduallv including within its scope all
the societies in the United States and the Philippine
Islands. In 1905 this federation comprised '238 socie-

ties, with .

llieKi/

with i„i- :

tion, into .

Hocielies Were nu rcc.l u(\

(.'lerkenwell 'I" " *■

in Feb., IMlrtJ, ..

•iiun and Souili Atrimn '

Sion Isliliir »li ; I'

giing fUr Dent

bund, and th<

is divided into ;.,,

i.s preHitlMl over by .

C'oniniilteo.

The constitullnn of lb- « i--'- 7'
i.s deniocrutie in it« vtr
ity resi ■
the dii

all of
Constitu-
tion. .\

time pr<
the Seventli ('m
and it was m .

Actions C'oniiiiilt4^^> lu Im- an •
congress. Tiie -

cediire, wjiieh 1.
Representation at the '
one delegate for c\ - ■ •
Up to the Seventh <
the alFairs of the <
hers living in »!■•• -
the Smaller Ac
there was a I>i»rgir A'
of the leaders of liie vat.
countries, propomnl by
i/.ations and el'

of members in t. _

grown; in IKW it wiui 87. :

190.") it re.p

Actions C'oi

the congress, while iIm

consisting <>f Daviil ",

Jacobus Kaiin, K'

J. Gri-enberg. and

ply a eoinii ■'

at pres4Mit

Committee. whi« li i

iiual budcels < ' ■

present time ai

Vew.

IS'.'
lS!r\»-|lKNi

lOlHJ I'ilil

r«M

The founding of llir J>

b • '

Jewish 1
Colonial
Truat.

tion. The
pn«e to ' ■

Zionism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

682

tlie opinion of the advisory council the interests of
the Jewish people should dt'inaiid it, in any other
manner (than specified) and in any olh(.T part of the
world. Fear was soon felt that this latitude was
too great and opened the door to a jiossible nnsuse
of the funds. Tiie bank's activity was therefore cir-
cumscribed. At the Third Congress (Aug. 17, 1899)
the clause was changed so as to read "to promote,
develop, work, and carry on colonization schemes
in the East, by preference in Palestine and Syria ; fur-
ther, to promote, develop, and carry on industries and
undertakings in Palestine, in Syria, or in any other
part of the world." At the Seventh Congress (Aug.
1, 1905), under the influence of the anti-territorial
majority present, the action of the Trust was further
<irciimscribed, and the clause amended so as to read
"in Palestine, Syria, any other part of Asiatic Tur-
key, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Islai)d of Cyprus " ;
but at the second special meeting called in London,
Aug. '61, 1905, the proper voting power was not
present and the necessjiry resolution could not be
passed. The shares of the Trust are largely held in
very small numbers, the shareholders numbering in
the neighborhood of 300,000. Various means have
been employed to make their purchase possible in
this manner; e.g., the Joint Sliare Clubs which
were founded in London in 1901. The funds in the
Trust amounted in Dec, 1903, to £296,887, and
in Dec, 1904. to £321,345. Dividends of 2 per cent
in 1903 and 2} per cent in 1904 have been paid. In
order to prosecute the work of the Trust in Pales-
tine, and to give stability to Jewish interests there,
it was proposed at the Fifth Congress to open up a
branch at Jaffa. This was done in 1903, a new cor-
poration, the Anglo-Palestine Company, being estab-
lislied,all the sharesof which are held by the Jewish
Colonial Trust. In Aug., 1904, a branch of the
Anglo-Palestine Company was founded in Jeru-
salem, which is to be followed by one in Haifa.
The Anglo-Palestine Company paid in 1904 a divi-
dend of 4 per cent. The Jewish Colonial Trust has
also joined in the foundation of the Paliistina
Handels Gesellschaft (1903, 22,500 M.) and the
Deutsch Levant Baumwoll Gesellschaft (1903, 25,-
000 M.). At one time an attempt was made to ruin
the Trust, the "Israelite" of Mayence (March 20,
1902) and a correspondent in the "Jewi.sh Chronicle "
of London (March 21, 1902) charging it with making
false entries. The accusation was reproduced bj' Dr.
Bloch in his "Wochenschrift"( Vienna). The "Jew-
ish Chronicle," upon receipt of better information,
of its own accord withdrew tiie charges; the other
two journals were forced to do so by process of
law (•' Woclienschrift," Feb. 10, 1903). In 1905 the
Bezalel society was formed in German}' for tlie pur-
l)ose of introducing a more arlistic development into
Palestinian industries. Together witli the Anglo-
Palestine Company and the Paliistina Ilandels Ge-
sellschaft, many Jews not afliliated witli Zionism
have joined hands witii them in this attempt to
elevate Jewisli workniansliip in Palestine. Boris
Schatz and E. M. Lilien have gone there in order to
introduce a " Kunstgewerbeschule."

At the First Congress, in 1897, the idea of a Jewish
National Fund (Territorial Fund) was mooted by
Prof. Herman Shapira. At the Fourtli (1900) it was

accepted in principle. The purpose of the Fund is to
produce a permanent capital which shall be the prop-
erty of the Jewish people for the ex-
Jewish elusive purpose of buying land in
National Palestine. It is not to be touched until
Fund. it reaches f?l,O00,000, half of which
sum is always to remain on hand. The
statutes as laid down by the National Fund Com-
mission were accepted by the Fifth Congress (1901);
and in 1904 the Fund ("Keren Kayyemet") was
legally domiciled in London, its moneys being placed
in possession of the Jewish Colonial Trust. The
Fund is derived from the use of stamps placed on
Zionist letters, invitations, and the like, from free-will
olTerings, and from payments made to inscribe per-
sons and societies in the "Golden Book " ("Sefer ha-
Zahab "). Since June 1, 1902, these collections have
produced a little over §205,000. The re.S(jlution to
refrain from using the Fund until it has reached a
certain point was violently opposed by the Ziyyone
Zionists, and a resolution against the statute was
adopted by the Minsk Convention; but the Jews in
Palestine themselves pleaded (1903) for the original
form.

In its intellectual and spiritual influence upon the
Jewish people Zionism has specifically and in many
various ways influenced Jewish life. Education has
been one of the principal objects in view. Thus,
in the district around Yelisavetgrad it has founded
about forty-eight model hadarim; and it has estab-
lished reading-rooms, evening cour-ses, and the like.
In 1903 Zionists founded a school in Temir Khan
Shusain Daghestan, and the national school for girls
(Bet ha-Sefer) in Jaffa receives an an-
Education- nual subvention from the society.
al Work. The same is true of the Jewi.sh Central
Library (Abarbancl Librar}' ; see Jew.
Encvc. i. 27) founded b\' an ardent Zionist, Joseph
Chazanowicz of Bj^elostok. A complete program for
a Jewish university was elaborated by Buber and
Weizman and publi.shed by the Jiidischer Verlag
(Berlin, 1901). In Paris the Universite Populaire
Juive owes its existence to the Zionist societies there,
headed by Alexander ]\Iarmorek; and the Jewish
Toynbee halls in Vienna (opened Dec. 2, 1900),
Brunn, Hamburg, Lemberg, Amsterdam, and Tar-
nopol have had a similar origin.

In attempting to estimate the effect of the Zionist
upheaval it must not be forgotten that, thoiigli it
tended to consolidate previous efforts in various di-
rections, and to create new efforts along similar lines,
the movement itself was merely the culminating
point of a previous development. It brought to a
head the Jewish Renaissance and provided a channel
into which the various activities of this renaissance
might How and find a concerted expression. Tliis is
seen, for instance, in the student organizations in
Austria and partly in Germany.

Even Ijefore the rise of nnti-Sernltism in the former country,

as early as 1882, Jewish students in Vienna, from Russia, (ia-

licia, and Rumania, liad banded t«Kether for

Jewish the purpose of eonserviufr Jewish feeling and

Students' of cherishing Jewish literature. Perez Smo-

Societies. lenskin gave this society its name, " Kadi-

mati," which, nieanlnf? both "Forward"

and "Eastward," inilicated the direction of its activity. Pin-

sker's " Autoemancipation " became its IJible, and its practical

683

TIIK JhWLSli ENTYCLOF'KDIA

Interest was enlisted in tlie colonization of Palestine Ita Onit
annouufeiueiil in H.-hicw and (Jenimn u|M.ri iik, bim'kU.arU of
ttie university created lonstenmiioii. U was strongly oniH.wd
by tlie (Treat mass of Vi. una Jews, but In spii.- ,,f thh It .uutin
ued to further the physical and mental advaiue of lis ineinl»-n.
The ordinary "Burschensclmften," "Corps." and " KaiidMium-

schaften "Kradually became "J udenrein." under strong pn-Hsiir.-
from without, even goinp so far as to declare the J.-wihh stu-
dents unworthy of satisfaction by duel. The answer on the imrt
of the Jewish students was the formation of further wMli-tics •
in J8!)2 the "Unitas" for studentscoinint,' from Moruvlii, un<l
the "Ivria" for students from northern Moravia and SlleMu
(reorganized l,s94); in It^HS the " I.ibanonia," at flrst for veter-
inary students, and later on for students at lar»,'e; In 1k07 the
"Har Kochba" for those coudng from (Jalicla. In which He-
brew courses of instruction were esuiblislied; and In IWWihe
" Maccabaea " for technical students, and the " Bar (ii..ru " for
students from the south-Slavic countries. The " Kede- und
Leselialle .liidischer Hochschiiler" and the " VerelnlfrunR der
Zionistischen Kinkenschaft an der Wiener Uidversitut " are
open to all comers. At other universities and hieh schools
similar societies were founded, c.y., the " Fcrlalverblndunjf-
en": the " Emunah " in Bielitz, the " Astm" In Kanltz,
the "Massada" in Vienna, the " Severitas " in Loschltz. To
these must also be added the " V'erltas " In Brunn. the " fhurl-
tas" in Graz, the "KolUo Akademickie" in Koloinea, the
" Hasinonea " and " Zephirah " in Czernowitz, the " Bar Koch-
ba" in Pragtie, the " Przedsnt " (" Ha-Shahar ") in Cracow, the
" Akademische Verbindung " in Yaroslaw, the " Makkabaea " in
Breslau, the " Hasmonae " in Berlin, the "Ilerzl" in Knnijrs-
berg, the " Zionist Society " at Columbia University, New York,
and the "Judische Studentenverbindung Zionah"at (ilessen.
At various times general meetings of delegates of these soclt'ties
have been held, c.tj., the " Zionistischen Studententag" In l.em-
berg on .July 2.5, 18!)9, and the " Studententag" in Vienna. June
30, 1903, and in June, 190,5. In general, see "Ost und West,"
1901, p. 415; Albert M. Friedenberg, "Zionist Studies," p. 25,
New York, 1904.

Along similar lines were founded a large number of "Tum-
vereine" (gymnastic societies), wliicli had astheirobject the de-
velopment of Jewish muscle and the strengthening of Jewish
conscience in the rising generation. The movement In this
direction commenced even before the First Zionist Congress,

Jewish Gymnastic Societies.

Date of
Foun-
dation.

1894.

1898.

1899.

1900.

1901.
1902.

Constantinople.

Berlin (Oct. 22)

Philippopolis

Vienna

Biala

Bucharest

Soda

Halberstadt

Vienna

Privitz

Mahrisch-tJstrau

Ungarisch-Hradisch . .

oluiiitz

Rustchuk (Bulg.)

Kustendil (Bulg.)

Troppau

Cologne

Hamburg

Mannheim

Frankfort -on-the-Oder

Freiburg

Posen

Leipsic

Muni<'h

Breslau

Name of Society.

Bar Kochba.

Makabi.

Wiener Jiid. Turnvereln.

Bialiier Jiid. Turnvereln.

Aurora.

Samson.

Turnklub Junger Jiid. Kauf-

leute.
Zl.m.

.lii<l. Turnvereln.
Jiid. Tutnverein.
Moravia.
Jiid. Turnklub.
Makabi.
Samson.
Jiid. Turnklub.
Jiid. Turnvereln.
Jiid. Turnerschaft.
Jiid. Turnvcrein.
Jung-Juda.
Jiid. Turnvereln.
Neuen I'osener Turnvereln
Jiid. Turnvereln.
Ezra.
Jud. Turn- und Sjwrt-Veirln.

till' il.-.r

part

rnoV'

the

nil/,

"Tu:
"Bur
("V.
monUil) • Ju>l4»ci»t Jon

In ntMitiun tli<
foiiiulalioij iir»- I
(tn-tlie-MainCJ'
IJa/iinljik. T'

In ucconi ,

orgunizatiun. women ha

mitt. ■

lias ' .

iif women's societies, v

" Bt-notli :' ■ ■

(Vieiiim.

"Morin" (Vienna). "Zlon" (I>

Natioiiulo Fi :

Miiin). Til.

odiicationiil. un<t

Tlic inspini'-
tlicraiice of i
various dircrtionn. i
of tho.se stunly ••"
and sculptors w
the m<Hlcrn ar

Jewish life (sec II

Congres-s." pp. 151 ft t*r)
vatiou of the !I
til.

Influence
on Litera-
ture and
Art.

Alfred -N
bron7.e. In
nulHT, F^
Verla;: i-
artiji'

a nil

tip

.^t-

]W)| A

such a society having been founded In Constantinople In the Vfar

1894. It received a great moral support from the national dpiiii

engendered by the Zionist ipnipagandii. and

Gymnastic the outward impulse to the foriimtli.i" • f - !■ '•

Societies, separate societies wa.« given by the ■

of Jewish studentafrom the " Bu^dt■^^: .

schaft" of gymnasts in Austria and from the academic "Tiirn-

vereine" in Germany. It was in the latter country that these

Jewish societies were most sharply attacked, noubly by a Jew.

One o(

tlie "J«.w>»ii «unu ui X,

Zionism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

684

Israelitico" in Italy, the "Jewish Expouent" in
Philadelphia, and the "Jewish Conuneut" in Balti-
more. The "Jewish Chronicle" of
Zionistic Loudon, though editorially un favor
Press. able, has always given the widest
publicity to Zionist news and to cor-
respondence anent the movement.

On the other hand, the majority of Jewish weeklies have
shown themselves more or less violently inimical, espei-ially the
•• VuskhoU" in St. Petersburjr, the " AllgeiiieineZeitungdesJu-
denthunis" in Berlin, " Bloi-h's Wochenschrift" in Vienna, and
"The American Israelite" in Cincinnati. It therefore became
necessary for the society to create a press of its own. In 1898
Theodor Herzl founded " Die Welt," wbich he carried on at his
own expense until the Fifth Basel Congress olllcially accepted
it as the organ of the party. Simultaneously Ibere grew up a
great number of Zionist i.>eriodicals in Hebrew, Yiddish. J udieo-
Spanish, (ierman, French, English, Italian, Russian. Itutnanian,
Bulgarian, Arabic, etc. Many of these are oDlcial publications
of Zionist Territorial and other organizations, c.(/., the " Mac-
cabiean," of the Federation of American Zionists; "L'Echo
Sioniste," of the French Federation ; " Israeliiisehe Kuudschau "
( Berlin i , of the (ierman Zionist Union ; " Israel's Messenger,"
of the Shanghai Zionists. Of the others only a few can be
mentioned: " Der Jiidische Arbeiter" (Vienna); "Jiidische
Zukuiift" (London); " Zionistische Monatshefte" ((ieneva);
"Judische Post" (Pittsburg); "Ha-Mizpah" (Cracow); " Ha-
Shahar" (Sofia): "Ha-Shiloah" (Berlin); " Degel Mahaneh
Yehudah" (Jassy); " Buduschnost " (.^t. Petersburg); "EI
Dia" (Philippopolis); ■' Idea Sionista" (Ferrara); " El-Mis-
rayim " (Cairo). "Ost und West" (Jiidischer Verlag, Berlin)
is the first attempt at an artistic Jewish .iournal ; and in the
"Schlemiel" the Jew— perhaps for the first time— refuses totiike
himself seriously. "Uusere Hoffnung" (Vienna) is a Zionist
Juvenile publication.

The extent to which the Zionist idea has spread
among the Jewish people may be seen not only in
the number of Jews affiliated willi the Zionist organ-
ization and congress, but also in the fact that there
is hardly a nook or corner of the Jewish world in
which Zionistic societies are not to be found.
Even wheie no such organizations exist expressions
of approval and adhesion have come from bodies of
Jews who have lived practically cut oIT from all

connection with the course of Jewish

Wide life. Notable were communications,

Spread of together with subscriptions for the

Zionism, fund, from a band of descendants of

Portuguese Jews in Manecore in Ama-
zonas, Bi'azil (March 12, 1901), fi-om Jews settled
in Chile, and from the Jadid al-Islam in Khorasan
(1901); while societies exist in Tsliita (Siberia, on
the Manchurian border), Tashkent, Bokhara,
Rangoon (Burma), Nagasaki, Tokyo, Hongkong,
Singapore, and among the American soldiers in the
Philippines. Tiie Slianghai Zionist Association was
founded in 1903; the Dr. Herzl East Africa Zion-
ist Association in Nairobi (East-African Pi-otccto-
rate) in 1904. In Australia there are four Zionist
federations: New South Wales, Victoria, South Aus-
tralia, and West Australia. Queensland has its own
federation with its center in Brisbane, and New Zea-
land has several societies. Even among the Russian
Jews settled by the Jewish Colonization Association
in Argentina, there is a federation comprising four so-
cieties. A Zionist congress was held there May 16,
1904, comprising delegates of Ll'iO shekel-paying
members. In every country of Europe, in the
United States, along the North-African coast, and in
Palestine similar societies are to be found. At the
St. Louis Exposition, 1904, the Zionist Hag (blue

and white stripes, with a "Magen Dawid" in the

center) floated fi-om one of the buildings together
with those of other nationalities.

This topographical diversity runs parallel with
the variety of Jews to whcjm the Zionist movement
has appealed; and it is thei'efore natural thata great
divergence of opinion is manifest within its own
ranks. This could not be otherwise, considering
that the movement is a national one. Several i)ar-
ties and factious have accoidingly gi-own up
within the body, and have made tliem-
Parties in selves felt during some of the con-
Zionism, gresses. In fact, the discu.ssions, very
violent at times because they are based
on radical dilTerences of principle both in tlie con-
gress and outside, are the natural concomitants of
this as of all world-movements. Of tiie parties or
groups wiliiin the Zionist body the following may
be specifically enumerated:

The group composed of the immediate follower.^
of Theodor Herzl and of those tiiat stood by him
during his seven years of work may be called the
Government Party. Their program is that enun-
ciated by the i)resi(lent of the congress at its various
sittings. They desire a legally assured home for the
Jewish people in Palestine and neighboring coun-
tries, and take their stand upon the Basel Platform
pure and simple. They are politico-diplomatic
Zionists, thougii not opposed to strengthening the
position of the Jews in Palestine by bettering their
condition and by conducting experiments in farm-
ing and industrial enterprises.

The second group is that of the 3Iizrahi, an al-
liance of the Orthodox Jews within the Zionist body.
The Mi/.rahi was formed at the time of tlie Fifth Con-
giX'SS as un olTset \.<) tlie Radical Fiaetion. Its head
is Rabbi Isaac Jacob Reiues of Lida, Russia, where
its liist yearly meeting was held Feb. 23, 1903. It
ciaiiiied then a membership of 11.000, but has largely
gained since that time, hi 1903 it had founded
125 societies, not only in Kussia, but in German}',
England, Galieia, and Palestine. A world confer-
ence of Mizrahists was held in Presburg Aug. 21-
24, 1904, and a si)ecial conference of the English
societies in London July 19, 1904. The grouji has
spi'ead also to the United States, where it has held two
meetings, Jan. fi-T, 1905, in New York, and Jime 17,
1905, in Philadelphia. The American bianeh main-
tains an organ, "The Sabbath Journal." The Miz-
rahists, forming the Jewish Center Party, were
stanch adherents of Theodor Herzl, and since his
death have remained true to his principles. To these
they have added, as a special feature, the conserva-
tion of Orthodox Jewish jjiaetises. At the congress
they usually vote with the Government Party. Ac-
cording to their program, they are "an organiza-
tion of Orthodox Zionists who, on the basis of the
Basel I'rogram, believe a faithful adherence to the
Torah and the tradition in all matters pertaining to
Jewish life, and a longing for the land of the
fathers, to constitute the task of the Jewish people
and the conditions favorable to its preservation."

The Po'ale Zion.or the Democratic " Fraction, " rep-
resents the Jewish Left. Its nieinliers claim to speak
for the proletariat in eastern Europe, and have a num-
ber of pronounced Socialists in their ranks. Though

685

THK .IhUlMi

KN CYCLOPEDIA

Sl««l«M

comparatively a small body, they mmie llu-msflvea

felt at the Secoiul Congress, when the nn.liuu of
Professor IMandelstumm to exclude iheiii was lost
They are organized in Austria and in Switzerland"
and one faction calls itself openly "TheZionistie So.'
cialist Workingmen's Party, London-Paris." They
organized in America in VMi, and held tlieir Jirsi
convention April 29, l'J()4, twelve societies being
represented and maintaining an organ, " Die Neue
Stimme." In tlic United Slates they are ullilialed
with the Federation of Anu'ricau Zionists, 'i'he
Poale Zion holds that the Jewish proletariat will
be driven into its ranks as the pressing, practical
need for emigration from eastern Eiiroi)e becomes
greater. The members are tiicrefore largely Territo-
rialists, and claim to be forced in a measure to be
ojiposed to Paiestiiniui colonization on whatever
scale, because of its apparent impossibility. On the
other hand, they are believed iu sonie qmirters to
have their Socialist itrojiaganda more at heart than
their Zionist work, and to threaten to compromise the
movement with certain European governments.
The Bund in Russia was at tirst ojijiosed to Zionism,
accusing the latter society of refusing to aid the
Rumanian Jews in 1897. Since then it has made
sensible a]iproachcs to Zionism, its mend)ers becom-
ing rsationalist Jews and working for national Jew-
ish autonomy.

A very large j^arty within the general body con-
sists of the so-called Ziyyoue Zionists, a prodiict of
the discussions raised by the Si.\th Congress. They
are practically led by Usishkin ofYekaterinoslav. At
the time of the Sixth Congress lie was
Ziyyone presiding over a congress in Palestine,
Zionists, and declared him.self not only against
the East-Afiicau project, but also
against the binding character of the vote taken at
the congress. In a pamphlet, " Unser Progrannn "
(Vienna, 1905), he has laid down the principles of
the new group. Holding that the diplomatic actions
of Ilerzl have proven a failure, it demands inune-
diate work in Palestine, without wailing for the
granting of a charter. Land there should be bnught
at once with a certain portion of the National Fimd;
and whatever diplomatic actions are to accompany
Zionist work should be carried out by a collegium.
For the pnrposes of colonization a special society.
Geullah, has been formed ; and the assistance
of the ICA and other colonization societies is to
l)e souglit. A Palestine Zionist Association was
founded in London in -May, 1905, with Ilaham 3L
Gaster as its president, to work along sinn"lar lines.
Since the Sixth Congress, Usishkin has been cease-
lessly active in gathering his forces togctlier. Before
the Seventh Congress a preliminary conference was
held in Freiburg, audatthecongrcssitself theZiyyonc
Zionists polled a vote of 360, practically controlling
the voting power. There can be no dnubt that tlie
Ziyyone Zionists are made up largely of the old (ho
vevei Zion groups; and though they have protested
strongly against the imputation, the Political Zion-
ists see in tlieir rise a danger of the movement full-
ing back into the rut of the old beneticeut coloniza
tion.

Diametrically opposed to the Ziyyone Zionists nro
the Territorialists. The new organization was

u Very Bliort

Terri-
torialiata ;

Isriiul
Zan^will.

ill I:

reully forini
tion diirinir '

I, ■

!■

bow to the m.
that I'
seijui ,

than poliijculZioi
to Zangwill, f
for Territoriii.
mucii as a large ninjorit v
aMiriiiativo on tli r
sending of the ro;
of the proposition as a wl.
the Vote taken at the ^
hini.seir at the luiid of i
ganization. and. j
• lit itself ofT from .... ,.,
" r who, like himself, r>
they l)elieved it i

the English govei I

ization iu Uasv]. In ihe

don, Aug. 2.'). im'i. !,.

he Slated that the Je\s ... *

" mnkes as a Ixxly n'> nr'po«mnn i
hclntr U'fl fn*"' I
iiHivcmfnt. Nut
optTuUuuji, pruviiipd ll Iw :

The object of the ■

" I. To pniciirt' u i. •
Jews Willi rariin'
ni pn-w-iit U. •■
I !<»«><•» : til 11 r
to rnliT iiil

lllStilll'

uiiU otL'

The large ntn"" of
/at ion a !•
praclif ■■'

Isra
LiK-ien \\
cept til' i
omoti^
Ilerzl Iu
|iroclaims
he cvur w
will ill ■
lion lu
8. lOai). n

live, sluttitf;

air ' '

m
(•
U>\\ •> >■

THtf lb

Zionism
Znalm

THE JEWISU ENCYCLOPEDIA

686

up of lale years. The so-called Political Zion-
ists held their own conference at Warsaw in June,
1905, Prof M. Mandelstamm presiding:. These are
on some points opposed to the Territorialists, who
are in a sense anti-Palestiuian ; but they are willing
to make certain concessions in their desire to con-
serve the large mass of Jews emigrating out iif east-
ern Europe from complete assimilation
Other and demoralization. They are willing
Groups. to cooperate with other bodies in
concentrating this emigration in an
autonomou-i national territory other than Palestine.
They desire, however, that the work in and for Pal-
estine shall continue; and they agree that no Zion-
ist moneys are to be employed for other than Pal-
estinian purposes. They claim to have had forty-tive
delegates at the Fifth Congress, and at the Seventli
they formed a special group, their spokesman being
Prof. N. Slouschz of Paris. They are opponents
of the Ziyyone Zionists and gravitate naturally to-
ward the Territorialists.

A second minor group is that of the Practical
Political Party ("Heal Politische Partei"), led by
Nossig and Trietsch, with some of whose views
Professor Warburg, Dr. Franz Oppenheimer. and
others of the Palestine Conmiission coincide. They
are opposed to both the Ziyyone Zionists and the Ter-
ritorialists. They hold that the importance of au-
tonomy in a Jewish ingatliering is exaggerated;
and they demand that the Zionists further a legal
colonization in Palestine and the neighboring coun-
tries, a systematic economic advance in the near East,
the purchase of land in and around Palestine, the
investigation of both its agricultural and commercial
possibilities, the founding of experimental farming
and other stations, and diplomatic measures only
in so far as their ends are attainable. They also lay
great stress upon the organization of the Jews and
upon Jewish culture (see Nossig in "Die Stimme
der Wahrheit," pp. 11 et seq.). The leaders of this
small group have been severe critics of the diplo-
matic activity of Theodor Ilerzl. They favor col-
onization in Cyprus and have done successful work
in furthering the intellectual side of the Jewish
Renaissance.

Very different from those above mentioned are the
followers of Ahad ha-' Am (Asher Ginsberg). This
leader of what is called "Moral Zionism," tho\igh
now opposed both to Chovevei Zionism and to
Political Zionism, was one f)f the moving forces in
the early days of the former. In 1889
Moral he formed in Odessa the Bene Mo-
Zionism of -;heh, a secret organization, lodges of
Ahad ha- which are to be f'f)und in many Rus-
' Am sian cities, and which has ramifications

(Asher in Palestine, Great Britain, Paris, and
Ginsberg). Berlin. For three or four years this
society supplied the material and the
enthusiasm that established the colony Rehobf)t, the
Carmel Wine Company, the Ahiasaf Publication
So(!iety. the monthly " Ha-Shiloah," and the Bet ha-
Sefer in Jaffa. According to Ahad ha-'Am, Juda-
ism is in greater need than are the Jews, and a na-
tional spiritual center is necessary in Palestine to act
as a centrifugid force against the disintegrating
tendencies within the Jewish ranks. A " Renais

sance of the heart" must come, and gradually,
through a process of development. Only when the
spirit of the people has been centralized can the
work of centralizing the people themselves be be-
gun. Ahad ha-'Am is the philosopher of the Jewish
Renaissance: and as he has severely attacked Polit-
ical Zionists, he has been as severely attacked by
them in return. Many Zionist leaders and workers,
subscribe to Ahad ha-'Am's principle as a theory,
while furthering the practical works of the organi-
zation ; and many theoretic Zionists look to him aa
their leader, as such adhesion leaves them luicom-
promised in their affiliations. Nor must it be for-
gotten that much of his program is that of all Zion-
ists. At the opening of the Second Congress, Herzl
proclaimed that Zionism meant "a return to Juda-
ism as preparatory to a return to a Jewish land "
(see Henrietta Szold in "Jewish Comment," Mav 12,
1905; Matthias Acher, "Ahad ha-'Am," Berlin,
1903).

It can not be denied that these various currents
have had an effect upon the general trend of Zion-
ism as officially expressed in the discussions and
resolutions of succeeding congres.ses. While any
violation of the fundamental principles of the Basel
Platform is sternly rejected, there has been manifest
a greater readiness to undertake work in Palestine
upon a practical basis without first waiting for the
final results of diplomatic and political action, the
while careful l\' pursuing these actions and prevent-
ing a recurrence of the older and worthless Cho-
vevei Zionism.

Binr.infiRAPMY : The bibliopraphv on Zionism, whirh Is p.t-
treniely hirfre. has been collerted in a Riis,sian publifation,
Ukazatel I^itcraturi/ <> SHiniizrne^ St. Petersburp. 1H(I.3. Only
a few works can be mentioneil liere. A bistury nf Zidnisiii
bas been atteinpleii by .Sapir, Drr Zionismiix. Briinner .lii-
discher Verlag, I'.HO. The flies of D'r Welt and Uie steno-
Krapliic PrniiikiiH of the seven fonpres.ses furnlsli the most
reliable material ; an index to them has been drawn up by
Hupo Schachtel, Rei/ist'r zu dot I'lntDhnlleti dtr Zimiislcii-
7{(>7i(/rf,v.se, i.-vi., Berlin, I'jffi. See also R. (iottheil. The Aimg
of ZionUm. in Puhl. Am. Fed. of Zionixts. New York, IWW:
C. Levias. T}ie Justiticntimt of Ziotiisrii, in Ifrhrew L'tiinn
CiiUcue JoKDKf/, CincinnaU, April, 1899; K. (iottheil, T)u' Zi-
nnM Mnvrnuitt, in ymtli Aniriicnti lirrieir, ]902; J. de
Haas. ZioiiistiK London, ItlOl ; Max Nordau, in the Dtteriin-
tional (juarter-bi. V.KT2. No. 1 : Israel Zam^rwill, in IJppin-
cntt's Ma{iaz\nc Oct.. IRSW; Tlirodor Ilcrzl's Zionist i.-rlie
Scfirifteu. ed. Leon Kellner, Berlin, I'.Ki."); Heinrich Sachse
(L()we), Zioiii.-itciihnfuiress rind Zi'ini.-;;/ii/.<, Eitie Gefniir?
Berlin, IWtT ; Ephraini Deinard, Dihre hn-Vamim Jc-Ziinioit
he-Huasia. Kearny. N. J.. ]iK)4 ; F. Heinan, Das Eruarlien
der Jlidisrin II yatioji. Basel, IHttT; Max .laITt?. Die yatio-
iiale M'ieilrrnelnirt der Jnden. UcrWn. IHitT; D. Farbstein.
Der Zioiiisnuixitnd dieJudetifraoe, Bern, 1K98; Ben F.liezer,
Die Jiideiifrage uiid der Sovialrr Jndnistant. Bern, 189S;
Aron Sandler, Anihropologie mid Zioniswus. Brilnn. 1904;
H'n.s iri7/ der Zioiiixinuft'! Berlin iZion. Verein. f. Deiitsch-
land). 19(13. A collection of essays will be found in Die
Stimmr der Wahrheit, ed. K. Nossig. Berlin. VXi'i. and in
the PubUcativna uf the Federation of American Zionists.

G.
ZIONIST, DER. See Periodicals.

ZIPPOR: Father of Balak, King of Moab, who
hired Balaam to curse Israel. All the passages which
mention Zippor name him together with his son
Balak (Num. xxii. 2, 4, 10, 16: xxiii. 18; Josh. xxiv.
9: Judges xi. 25). An allusion to him may be con-
tained in "the former king of Moab " in Num. xxi.
2G.

E. G. u. B. P.

ZIPPORAH. — Biblical Data: Daughter of
Jethro and wife of .Moses. Accoiding to the Bible,

687

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Moses met the daughters of Jethro whpn they ^\,■^,■
being driven away from a well by shepherds; lie
assisted tliem, and was invited iiiiu ilie house of
Jetluo, who gave liim Zipporali to be his wife (Kx.
ii. 21). On his return to Egypt, Moses was accotnpu-
nied by liis wife, wiio saved him from great danger
during their journey (il>. iv. 24-20). She appears to
have returned witli her children to her father's
house; for after the e.xodiis from KgVFit, .letiiro
brougiit Zipporali and her chihlren out to Moses in
tlie wilderness (<6. xviii. 2-5). Zipporah is mentioned
only once more in tlie Bible; namely, in Numbers
xii. 1, wliere she is referred to as "tlie Etiiiopiau
woman," for having married whom Moses is up-
braided by Miriam and Aaron.
In Rabbinical Literature : Zipporali is men-
tioned by the Habbis alternately witJi praise and
with blame. Her name ( — "'bird ") is explained as
having been given her because, when questioned by
her fatiier as to the man who had rescued her, she
flew out of the house like a bird and returned with
Moses (Yalk., Shim'oni, i. 169). R. Joshua was of
the opinion that Zipporali and Moses were always
estranged, and that tlie latter did not love his wife
{ib. 26H). The name "Cusliite" was given to her, it
is said, because she was distinguisiied from other
women by her beauty, even as tlie Ethiopians dif-
fered from other people in their complexions. The
circumstance that she is twice referred to in one
verse as " the Ethiopian " (Num. xii. 1) is explained
as indicating that her actions were as distinctive as
her beauty, and tliat she conducted herself no less
royally while in her father's house than when she
became the wife of Moses (Yalk., Shim'oni, 1238;
comp. also M. K. 16b; Yer. Sanh. x. 28d).

J. S. O.

ZIPSER, MAIER : Hungarian rabbi ; born at
Balassa-Gyarmath Aug. 14, 1815; died at Rechnitz
Dec. 10, 1869. He studied in various yeshibot,
among his teachers being Wolf Boskowitz and
Maier Eisenstadt ; and he acquired a secular edu-
cation partly through the assistance of L'6w
Schwab and partly through his own endeavors.
In 1844 he was chosen rabbi at Stuldwcissenburg,
where, however, he became involved in a con-
troversy with the Orthodox members of the com-
munity on account of a divorce wiiicli he had
granted without a precedent. In his defense he
wrote a pamphlet entitled "Me haShiloah. Kab-
binisclies Gutachten liber Jiidi.sclie Ehcscheidnng "
(Budapest, 1858). About 1850 he went to England,
where he published a pamphlet entitled "The Ser-
mon on the Mount," defending Judaism against the
parliamentary sjieechesof Inglis (London, 1852i. In
1858 Zii)ser was elected rabbi of Rechnitz, and he held
this position until his death. In addition to the two
pamplilets already mentioned, he published various
sermons and made numerous contributions to the
Jewish ju-ess, especially to the "Orient." the "Allege-
incine Zeitungdes Judenthums," and the " Neuzeit."
winning the reputation of being one of the most
scholarly Hungarian rabbis of his day.

BiBLior.RAPHT : Athi. Zfit. (ff.s ^i"'- 'f^J"; P- 8= yetueit. IW.
pp. GO;3-605 ; Fiirst, DihL Jiul. hi. 552-551.

German poet and

nilililni .'

1M2»

cat4.'<l

coniMK

ployeil

Hludieii of <

to con tin I.

lie went t'

HJuni until iKVi. iii-

remained there ui!"'

chiefly devoted to ;

was written .!

tragedy in Jlvi ..

1856. 'in 1M7 he

Lipto S/c!

moved to 1 .

personal acquuintancc of ]

whose reii

"Isjuik- Ma

nati, 18HU). In 1800 I.

poems al Lelp-'

accepted an ii< •

tutor. There he livwl (or tl

and teaching. nn<l • - ' • ■

the capital. In 1 -

rector of the Hebrew 1

and three years Inter u

of the Cong regal i< in

1884 he became pr

Union College ut

Detroit by Ix)ui8 < i

Street Temple and pi

College. Aboul this : ...

tribute to the " DelM)nih,"of v
became a.ssociate editor. In
rabbi and preacher of the .\1
gation in Cincinnati, and I
death. In 1^!^
sketches conn
PhilaclelphiauDilcrlhe lili>

Bini.iocRAPiiY:
/•Veil II (If, pp.
ll'/im/'ii. p. vl., P:
DicUUr-l^jikiiu. I

ZIZIT. S«-<' V

ZNAIM: < •• '. ...itl^n

ravia. .lews
twelfth century ; ;
dated 1*225 n Jt-w ^
During the AuMi
the Black Death
were among the ^
the butclKTS ill II
Jews '
isinuiii:.

liorrowod from ih'
in the
sum ti

of BrDnn only
tl,. ■
ti<
nioncN

ZIRNDORF, HEINRICH

I 4 pfenniir. in liW ''

Zoan
Zohar

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

688

John of Capistrano aroused the population against
the Jews, and on July 25 of the same year they
•were expelled. From that time until 1848 Jews
■were not permitted to reside in Znaim; and those
who went tliitlier on business had to pay a Leih-
ZOLL, which in 1708 was fixed at 18 or 7 kreuzer,
according to certain conilitions. In 1785 Jacob
Frank spent some time in the city.

After the constitution of 1848 had declared free-
dom of residence, Jews began to settle in the cit}-,
but the}' did not liold religious services until 1858.
A Jewish society for worship was formed in 186C,
and two j'ears later a cemetery was acquired, where
were deposited the remains of those buried in the
old cemetery (confiscated in 1454), and also three
tombstones from the same ancient burial-ground.
In 1870 the society received the rights of a corpora-
tion ("Cultusgemeinde"), and in 1888 a new .syna-
gogue was dedicated. Tlie congregation numbers
160 families, of which 120 live in the city and the
remainder in the outlying district. The commu-
nity was originally under the spiritual direction of
teachers only, and not until 1894 was it ]U'rmitted
to appoint a rabbi. The following ministers have
officiated in Znaim: II. Barth, Joseph Pasclikes
(1869), Samuel .Mlilisani (1870-72), Jacob Witten-
berg (1872-77), Samuel Grlin (1878-82), Ignaz Hol-
zer (1884^99), and the present (1905) incumbent,
Isidor Kalian.

The community supports three charitable socie-
ties: a hebra kaddisha, a women's benevolent soci
ety, and a Talmud Torah society which provides
poor school-children with text-books. The Jews of
Znaim are mostly commission -merchants, but there
are among tliem also physicians, lawyers, civil en-
gineers, and .some industrial workers. The annual
expenditure of the congregation is about §2,800.

u. I. K.

ZOAN : An important Egj-ptian city of great an-
tiquity, almost as old as Hebron (Num. xiii. 22).
The " princes of Zoan " are ranked in Isa. xix. 11, 13
•with those of Xoph (Memphis), and the citv itself
is mentioned in E/.ck. xxx. 14 togetlier with No
(Thebes). The Israelitish embassies to it (Isa. xxx.
4) may impl}' that it was the residence of Pliaraoli,
and a similar alluHJon niay possibly be traced in
Ps. Ixxviii. 12, 43, uidess "the field of Zoan" is a
poetic designatifiii of Egypt in general.

Zoan (Ilebr. |j;>iV; the Egyptian "Za'ne" [older
form, "Za'nef'J; the Coptic "Ja[a]nc," "Jani";
and the "Tanis" of tlio Greeks) was situated in tlie
Delta on the Tanitie branch of the Nile, not far from
llie modern lake of iMenzalah and the northeastern
frontier of Egypt. The ruins, excavated by IMari-
ette in 1800 and, more thoroughlv, by Petrie in 1883,
have yielded monuments ranging from the sixth d}-
nasty to the Roman period, when the city, once a
royal residence, especially of the tweidy first or " Ta-
nitie" dynasty, began to degenerate into the fishing-
village represented by the modern San al-Hajar.

BIBLIOGRAPHV: Petrie, TaJiw, London, 188.5-87.

E. G. H. W. M. M.

ZODIAC : An imaginary zone of the heavens
containing the twelve signs within which lie the
paths of the principal planets, and through which

the sun passes in its annual course. The signs,
mostly representing symbols of animals, extend for
thirty degrees each, and the entire zodiac is divided
into twelve equal parts, six north and six south of
the equator. When Hipparchus observed the con-
stellations at Rhodes, those which bore the same
names coincided approximately in position with the
divisions of the sun's path which they designated and
winch agree with the signs according to the Tal-
mudie tradition. The precession of the equinoxes,
however, gradually shifted the series, and the di.s-
crepaney now amounts to an entire sign. The signs
are used by astronomers, Avhile the constellations are
employed by astrologers. Menahem ibn Zerah (four-
teenth century) says that the zodiac moves very
slowly from east to west, one degree in 100 j'cars,
making 3(5, 000 years for the cycle, and that some
authorities believe the movement to be eccentric
("Zedah la-Derek," p. 21b, Ferrara, 1554).

The duodecimal division of the zodiac is first men-
tioned in the "Seier Yezirah," which is of unknown
antiiiuit}', and in which the constellations ("mazza-
lot ") are named in the following order : ''raleh, Shor,

Te'omim, Sartan, Aryeh, Betulah,

The ]\Iozna}'im, 'Akrab, Keshet, Gedi,

Twelve Deli, and Dagim, corresponding to

Sig-ns. Aries, Taurus, etc., and to the twelve

months beginning with Nisan. The
constellationsarealsosaid tocorrespond to tlietwelve
organs of the boily : two hands, two feet, two kidneys,
the gall, intestines, liver, throat, stomadi, and pancre-
as ("Sefer Yezirah," V. 4). Thisorder of the constel-
lations harmonizes with the theory of the Assyrian
astronomers, who supposed that at the moment of
crossing the equator toward the north the sun was
at the first point of Aries, and that about thirty
days later it entered Taurus, and so on. They also
designated the signs according to the organs of the
body, which they arranged in the sequence of head,
neck, arms, breast, heart, bowels, kidneys, loins,
thighs, knees, legs, and feet.

The twelve constellations represent the twelve
tribes, while each station of the zodiac has thirty
jiatlis, and each path has thirty legions (of stars)
(Her. 321)). The standards of tlie tribes corresponded
to the zodiacal signs of the constellations, so that in
the east was the standard of Judali, with Issachar
and Zebulun beside it, these three being oppo.site
Aries, Taurus, and Gemini; in the south was the
standard of Reuben, with Simeon and Gad, op]io-
site Cancer, Leo, and Virgo; in the west was the
standard of Ephraim, with Manasseh and Benjamin,
opjiosite Libra, Scorjiio, and Sagittarius; and in the
north Avas the standard of Dan, with Asher and
Naphtali, opposite Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pis-
ces (Ya Ik., Num. 418).

The motives underlying the choice of the symbolic
signs are obvious in the case of some and only con-
jectural in the case of others. All may be traced to
Assyrian mythology and influence. The Jewsduring

the Babylonian exile adopted Hebrai-

Sym- cized forms of the Assyrian names of

bolism. the months and constellations. In

some instances the Rabbis endeavored
to explain the origin of these names. Thus they
said that the Temple could not be destroyed in the

689

THE JEWISH ENCYCI^PEDIA

first montli (Nisan) since the sign Aries is a remiud.-r
»; "'^;;^'>^';^";if"c/epresentiug li.e sacrilicial
'taloh" (= "lamb"). In tJ.e second nu.ntl. dwu,-,
the sign Taurus or Shor (= "ox ") recalls the '•Valf
tender and good " (Gen. xviii. 7) which Abraham
provided for the angels; and in the third nionlh (Si-
wan) the sign Gemiid {= "twins") re|.re.scnts Esaw
and Jacob. 1,1 tiie fourth month (Taminuz) the sign
Cancer (= "crab"), which lives in water, represents
JMoses, who was saved from water, while in the fifth
month (Ah), wjiich is designatetl by the sign of Leo
"the lion IS come up from his thicket" (Jer iv 7)*
the Temple named "Ariel" (= "the lion of God")
was destroyed (Isa. xxix. 1; Pesik. R. 27-28 [ed
Friedmann, p. ly^bj). The constellations repn-sent
the Creation : Aries is light and Taurus is darkness •
Gemini represents the two sexes; Cancer symbolizes

rnarr'

ti(.ii

''t«ll.in..m i„ given in

Menaluin It,: •

"■Abl.JHh H

Jew ),„,„,>
and ncfd m(>
leacliiiif; i)i<
heavrn. fur t
X. 2) is freqi.
Jewish relif^mti :
ogers or to dcjH i
The dates ul w

■ /car arv •;

Sun Enters

Aries

Taurus

(ieiuini

Cancer

Leo

Virpo

Libra

Scorpio

Sagittarius...
Capricornus .

Aquarius

Pisces

Hebrew
Name.

Taleh

Shor

Te'omim

Sartan

Aryeh

Betulah

Moznayim

'Akrab

Keshet

Gedi

Dell

Dagim

Approximate
Date.

Marclj 21
April 21
May 22
June 22

July 23
Aug. 24

Sept. 24

Oct. 24

Nov. 23

Dec. 22

Jan. 20

Feb. 19

First of
Ili-bri'w Montb.

Msau

lyyur

PI wan

Tummuz

EUil

Tishrl

Flesh wan

Klslew

Tebet

Sbeba{

Adar

Ap|>mxlniat«
Uebn • ■

Mar.li .•:

April as

May 2.'.

June 24

July 23

Auff. 23

St-pl. Si

(Kt.22

Nov. 19

I)«c 18

Jan. 10

r>h \r,

man, who first retreats to nooks and corners like
the crab, but eventually becomes as brave as a lion
(="Leo"); Virgo is a symbol of marriage; Libra
weighs all the deeds of man, who, if found guilty,
is i)unished by Scorpio, a symbol of Geliinnom;
after purification in Mercy, however, he is cast forth
as ciuickl}' as an arrow from a bow, reprcsenled by
Sagittarius, and becomes as innocent as a kid and
is purified as by water poured by Aquarius (Pesik.
R. 20 [ed. Friedmann, p. 97b]).

Since each of the planets was supposed to rule a
certain liour of the day, while every constellation
governed a certain month of the year, the fate of an
infant was predicted according to the heavenly bod-
ies that presided over the hour and the month of its
birth. The conjunction of the planets and con-
stellations was accordingly manipulated to deter-
mine the fortunes of the person whose lioroseope
was thus drawn. A "good " planet might synchro-
nize with a "bad" constellation to some extent.
Both ])hinets and constellations indi-
Astrologic cated certain characteristics in the
Use. person born at tiiat time, and care

had likewise to be taken to marry
only such a mate as had been born under a harmo-
nizing planet and constellation, since otherwise the
XIL— 14

ZOHAR
Midrash hn /
Shim'on ben Yo^ai)
which pn •
nicated tin
select disciples. I
on tlie p, • • • •■
partly in I!
Iheosopiiy, lr<
niogony and ■
sin, rctlempti'
in Spain in ihv i
known ihr-^n -ti '■
Moses In-n
the luirucie w.

Source.

that ll refoni i
tnudical poiinti,

work I
death >
A Vila. •

aiuMd tbe

copy ; and aiie

Zohar

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

690

self was the author of the work. She had asked
him several times, she said, why he had chosen to
credit his own teachings to another, and he had
always answered that doctrines put into the mouth
of the miracle-working Simeon ben Yoliai would be
a rich source of profit (see "Sefer ha-Yuhasin," ed.
F'lipowski, p. 89). Incredible as this story seems
— for it is inconceivable that a woman should own
that her deceased husband had committed forgery
for tlie sake of lucre — it at least proves that shortly
after its appearance the work was believed by some
to have been Avrittcn entirely by Moses de Leon.
This seems to have been the opinion of the cabalis-
tic writer Josepli ibn Wakar, and he cautioned the
public against the work, which he asserted to be
full of errors.

The general opinion, however, was in favor of its
authenticity, this view being held not only by the
cabalists, for whom the book opened new paths in
the field of mysticism, but also b}' eminent Talmud-
ists. It was ciuoted by Todros Abulafia, by Men-
ahem Recanati, and even by Isaac of Acco, in whose
name the stor}' of the confession of Closes de Leon's
widow is related. Isaac evidently ignored the wom-
an's alleged confession in favor of the testimony of
Joseph ben Todros and of Jacob, a pupil of Moses
de Leon, both of whom assured him on oath that
the work was not written by Moses (" Sefer ha-Yu-
hasin," ^c). The only objection Avorthy of consid-
eration by the believers in the authenticity of the
Zohar was the lack of references to the work in
Jewish literature ; and to this they answered that
Simeon ben Yohai did not commit his teachings to
writing, but transmitted them orally to his disci-
ples, who in turn confided them to their disciples,
and these to their successors, until finally the doc-
trines were embodied in the Zohar. As to the ref-
erences in the book to historical events
Authen- of the post-Talmudic period, it was
ticity. not deemed surprising that Simeon
ben Yohai should have foretold future
happenings. The first attack upon the accepted
authorship of tlie Zohar was made by Elijah Del-
medigo. Without expressing any opinion as to the
real author of the work, he endeavored to show, in
his " Behinat ha-Dat," that it could not be attributed
to Simeon ben Yohai. The objections advanced by
him were as follows: (1) were the Zohar the work
of Simeon ben Yohai, it would have been mentioned
by the Talmud, as has been the case with the Sifre
and other works of the Talmudic period ; (2) the
Zohar contains names of Talmudists who lived at a
later period than that of Simeon ; (3) were Simeon
ben Yohai the father of the Cabala, knowing by di-
vine revelation the hidden meaning of the precepts,
his halakic decisions would have been adopted by
the Talmud; but this lias not been done; (4) were
the Cabala a revealed doctrine, there would have
been no divergence of opinion among the cabalists
concerning the mystic interpretation of the precepts
("Behinat ha-Dat," ed. Vienna. IHJJS, p. 43).

The.se arguments and others of the same kind
were used by Leon of Modena in his " Ari Nohem "
(pp. 49 et fieq., Leipsic, 1840). A work exclusively
devoted to the criticism of the Zohar was written,
under the title "Mitpahat Sefarim," by Jacob Em-

den, who, waging war against the remaining adhe-
rents of the Shabbethai Zebi movement, endeavored
to show that the book on which the pseudo-Mes-
siah based his doctrines was a forgerj'. Emden de-
monstrates that the Zohar nnsquotes passages of
Scripture; misunderstands the Talnuul; contain.'^
some ritual observances which were ordaine<l b\-
later rabbinical authorities; mentions the crusadts
against the Mohannuedans(ii. 32a); uses the expres-
sion "esnoga" (iii. 232b), which is a Portuguese
corruption of "synagogue," and explains it in a
cabalistic manner as a compound of the Hebrew
words tJ'N and plJIJ; gives a mystical explanation
of the Hebrew vowel-points, which were introduced
long after the Talmudic period (i. 24b, ii. 116a,
iii. 6oa).

These and ether objections of Emden's, which
were largely borrowed from tiie French eccle-
siastic Jean Morin (" Exercitationes Biblica?," pp.
359 (t fieg., Paris, 1669), were refuted by .Moses ben
Meuahem Kunitz, who, in a work entitled "Ben
Yohai" (Budapest, 1815), endeavors to show the
following characteristics: that the vowel -points were
known in Talmudic times; that the rites which Em-
ilen claimed to have been ordained by later rabbinical
authorities were already known to tlie Tiilmud ; and
that Simeon ben Yohai, who before taking refuge
in the cave was designated only by the name of Sim-
eon, is credited in the Talmud Avith many miracles
and mystic sayings. Another work in favor of the
antiquity of the Zohar was published by David
Luria under the title "Kadmut ha-Zohar" (KOnigs-
berg, 1855 [?]). It is divided into five chapters, in
which the author gives proofs that Moses de Leon
did not compile the Zohar; that the Goonim in Bab-
ylonia cite cabalistic doctrines from a certain "Mid-
rasli Yerushalmi," the language of which strongly
resembles that of the Zohar; that the work was
compiled before the completion of the Talmud;
that a great part of it was written in the period of
Simeon ben Yohai; and, finally, that the Aramaic
language was used in Talmudic times as well as in
the geonic period. Of these proofs only tiiose show-
ing the inadmissibility of the authorshi]) of Moses

de Leon deserve con.sideration, the

Moses de olliers being mere quibbles; for even

Leon Not if it be conceded that the Talmud

the knew of the vowel-points and that

Author, the Aramaic was commonly used,

there is no evidence whatever that
Simeon ben Yohai or his immediate disciples were
connected with the Zohar. As to the identification
of the Zohar with the so-called " Midrash Yerushal-
mi," the single fact that most of tlie passages (juoted
are not found in tlie Zohar, as Luria himself admits,
is a sufficient proof that the two works can not be
identical. However, Luria has quite as much war-
rant for asserting, on the ground of his proofs, that
a great part of the Zohar was written by Simeon
lien Yohai as have Jellinek, Gratz, Gin.sburg, and
many others for niaintaining that it was wholly com-
posed by Moses de Leon on the ground that in the
works of the last-named there are passages which are
found verbatim in the Zoliar. These scholars seem
to shrink from the idea that Moses de Leon should
have been guilty of plagiarism, but they are not

691

THE JEWISH ENX'Yri.()I»ri)I\

afraid to cliarge liim witli forgery, and tluit of so
clumsy a nature as to arouse at once tlie suspicions
of tlie reader. For Moses de Leon could not Imvu
supposed for a moment that tlie insertion in the
middle of an Aramaic sentence of two verses from
Ibn Gabirol's " Keter Malkut " (which, being recited
in the synagogues, were known to every Jew) could
have escaped detection ; nor could he have thought
that a quotation from the Cuzari, which was so
mucli read and commented upon at that time, would
pass un perceived by his contemporaries.

Had Moses de Leon, who was a talented writer
and an able scholar, wished for mercenary i)urpoHes
to forge a work in the name of Simeon ben Yohai,
he would liave been more careful in his statements
and would certainly have employed the Hebrew
language, first, because the tanna would have writ-
ten in that language, and, second, because a work in
Hebrew, being easier to understand, would have
gained a far wider circle of readers, and conse-
quently a larger number of purchasers, than would
one written in a peculiar Aramaic dialect that was
accessible to only a few. Were the pseudepigraphic
"Sefer Yezirah," " Pirke de-Rabbi Eli'ezer," "Sefer
Hekalot," "Sefer ha-Bahir," etc., any the less be-
lieved to be the works of those to whom they were
attributed simply because they were written in
plain Hebrew and not in Aramaic? But apart from
all these considerations, the contents of the Zohar
clearly indicate that the work is the production not
of a single author or of a single period, but of many
authors, periods, and civilizations; for

Not the it combines the most puzzling incon-
Work of a gruities and irreconcilable contradic-

Single tions witli lofty ideas and conceptions
Author or which would do honor to a genius of

Period. modern times, and also mystic teach-
ings of the Talnuidic period with
those of the Geonim and later Cabala. To deter-
mine the country in which the work originated and
the time at which its teachings began to develop, it
is necessary to ascertain where and when the Jews
became intimatelj' acquainted Avith the Hindu phi-
losophy, which more than any other exercised an in-
fluence on the Zohar. As an instance of Hindu teach-
ings in theZohar may be quoted the following passage :

"In the book of Hamnuna the Elder we learn throuph some
extended explanations that the earth turns upon Itself In the
form of a eircle ; that some are on top, the others below ; that
all creatures change in aspect, following the manner of each
placa, but keeping in the same position. But there are sf»me
countries on the earth which are lighted while others are In
darkness; and there are countries in which there is constantly
day or in which at least the night continues only some Instiinis.
. . . These secrets were made known to the men of the secret
science, but not to the geographers " (Zohar, iil. 9b).

The theory that the earth is a sphere revolving
on its own axis, which immortalized Copernicus,
was previously known only to the Hindus, wiio
were instructed in the truth of it by Aryabhatta in
the first century before the common em. As far as
is known, the Vedanta school of the Hindu philoso-
phers found nowhere, outside of its place of origin,
so many admirers as in Persia in the eighth century.
Under its influence the Mohammedans of Persia
founded many mystic sects, among them being tliat
of the Sufis, who for many centuries were very nu-

nicrouH. Thin iiuBtirmov.

ci>-.

at'

il<

fill

li..

ICHS tl.

th. '■

liv.

supposed myif

cmpgychtwis. ■

The Germ :
Probably

in Persia, i.

the
pretation of tl- '
tures. In lt.s
the Zolmr |;rol
terpolations, u
ous nunu's of i
the all'

The/. .,.,

addition of certain
either to tlie same .
diate disciples. '1
printed as part of
in scparatr ed
di-Zeni'utu," (

are chii-ll

Appen-
dixes.

multifaricnism -
matter, etc. ; " i
ingsof the precctlinjj p
developed; antl " I '
the two pre<( (iiiii;
tures of these portiuna arc
trine of tlie E.n Sor • ' '
"Zaddil>" for the
these writings are of an

larger app' ■ '•" • '

ments: " l\

nomy of tL

with the I

seven heii'

Mehemnii,

the propln : i

alleporieal imp

prohib:

tions; ■ ..

"Midrash ha-No'cIam

Scripture n

inatria; "S •

the propliet Elijah

d(i("

poi ■

similar 8Ubj<TiJ», « •

Hamnuna ;>4il«n, wl

"To.seflri" ;«;;•! " ^'

the do.

prb '

th<

rest'iii'u.iiii ■

Zohar

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

692

The Zoliar repeatedly eudeavors to impress upon
the mind of the reader that the Biblical narratives
and ordinances contain higher truths in addition to
the literal meaning.

'* Wo unto the man," says Simeon ben Tohal, " who asserts

that this Torah intends to relate only commonplace thinjrs and

secular narratives ; for if this were so, then in

Mysticism the present times likewise a Torah miKbt be
of written with more attnictive narratives. In

the Zohar. truth, however, the matter is thus : The upper
world and the lower are established upon one
and the same principle ; in the lower world is Israel, in the upper
world are the anfrels. When the angels wish to descend to the
lower world, they have to don earthly garments. If this be true
of the angels, how much more so of the Torah, for whose sake.
Indeed, the world and the angels were alike created and exist.
The world could simply not have endured to look upon it. Now
the narratives of the Torah are its garments. He who thinks
that these garments are the Torah itself deserves to perish and
have uo share in the world to come. Wo unto the fools who
look no further when they see an elegant robe ! More valuable
than the garment is the body which carries it, and more valuable
even than that is the soul which animates the body. Fools see
only the garment of the Torah, the more Intelligent see the
IxKly, the wise see the soul. Its proper being ; and in the Mes-
sianic time the ' upper soul ' of the Torah will stand revealed "
(Zohar, iii. 152).

"The man." it Is said in the "Sifra di Zeni'uta," "who is not
acquainted with this book is like the savage barbarian who was
a stranger to the usages of civilized life. He sowed wheat, but
was accustomed to partsike of it only in its natural condition. One
day this barbarian came into a city, and good bread was placed
before him. Finding it very palatable, he Inquired of what ma-
terial it was made, and was informed that it was made of wheat.
Afterward one offered to him a fine cake kneaded in oil. He
tasted it, and again asked : ' And this, of what is it made?' and
he received the same answer, of wheat. Finally, one placed
before him the royal pastry, kneaded with oil and honey. He
again asked the same question, to which he obtained a like re-
ply. Then he said : ' At my house I am in possession of all these
things. I partake daily of them in root, and cultivate the wheat
from which they are made.' In this crudeness he remained a
stranger to the delights one draws from the wheat, and the
pleasures were lost to him. It is the same with those who stop
at the general principles of knowledge because they are igno-
rant of the delights which one may derive from the further in-
vestigation and application of these principles."

The Zohar assumes four kinds of Biblical exege-
sis : " Peshat " (literal meaning), " Remez " (allusion),
" Derash " (anagogical), and " Sod " (mystic). The
initial letters of the words "Peshat," "Remez,"
"Derash," and "Sod" form together the word
"PaRDeS " (Paradise), which became the designa-
tion for the fourfold meaning of which the mystical
sense is the highest part. The mystic allegorism is
based by the Zohar on the principle
*' PaR- that all visible things, the phenomena
DeS." of nature included, have besides their
exoteric reality an esoteric reality also,
destined to instruct man in that which is invisible.
This principle is the necessary corollary of the
fundamental doctrine of the Zohar. TJic universe
being, according to tiiat doctrine, a gradation of
emanations, it follows that the human mind may rec-
ognize in each effect the supreme mark, and thus
ascend to the cause of all causes. This ascension,
however, can only be made gradually, after the
mind has attained four various stages of knowledge ;
namel}'; (1) the knowledge of the exterior aspect of
things, or, as the Zohar calls it (ii. 36b), "the vi.sion
through the mirror that projects an indirect light " ;
(2) the knowledge of the essence of things, or " the
vision through the mirror that projects a direct
light"; (3) the knowledge through intuitive repre-
sentation ; and (4) the knowledge through love,

since the Law reveals its secrets to those only who
love it (ii. 99b).

After the knowledge through love comes the ec-
static state which is applied to the most holy visions.
To enter the state of ecstasy one had to remain mo-
tionless, with the hand between the knees, absorbed
in contemplation and murmuring prayers and
hymns. There were seven ecstatic stages, each of
which was marked by a vision of a different color.
At each new stage the contemplative entered a
heavenly hall (" hekal ") of a different hue, until he
reached the seventh, which was colorless, and the
appearance of which marked both the end of his
contemplation and his lapse into unconsciousness.
The Zohar gives the following illustration of an
ecstatic state :

" Once," says R. Simeon ben Yohal, " I was plunged In a con-
templative ecsta.sy, and I beheld a sublime ray of a brilliant light
which illumined 335 circles, and amid which something dark
was bathing. Then the dark point, becoming bright, began to
float toward the deep and sublime sea, where all the splendors
were gathering. I then asked the meaning of this vision, and
I was answered that it represented the forgiveness of sins."

The Zohar spread among the Jews with remarka-
ble celerity. Scarcely fifty years had passed since
its appearance in Spain before it was quoted by
many cabalists, among whom was the Italian mys-
tical writer Menahem Recanati. Its
Spread of authority was so well established in
the Zohar. Spain in the fifteenth century that Jo-
seph ibn Shem-Tob drew from it ar-
guments in his attacks against Maimonides. It ex-
ercised so great a charm upon the cabalists that they
could not believe for an instant that such a book
could have been written by any mortal unless he
had been inspired from above ; and this being the ■
case, it was to be placed on the same level with the
Bible. Even representatives of Talmudic Judaism
began to regard it as a sacred book and to invoke its
authority in the decision of some ritual questions.
They were attracted by its glorification of man, its
doctrine of immortality, and its ethical principles,
which are more in keeping with the spirit of Tal-
mudical Judaism than are those taught by the phi-
losophers. While Maimonides and his followers re-
garded man as a fragment of the universe whose
immortality is dependent upon the degree of devel-
opment of his active intellect, the Zohar declared
him to be the lord of the Creation, whose immortal-
ity is solely dependent upon his morality. Indeed,
according to the Zohar, tlie moral perfection of man
influences the ideal world of the Sefirot; for al-
though the Sefirot expect everything from the En
Sof, the En Sof itself is dependent upon man: he
alone can bring about the divine effusion. The dew
that vivifies the universe flows from the just. By
the practise of virtue and by moral perfection man
maj' increase the outpouring of heavenly grace.
Even ph3-sical life is subservient to virtue. This,
says the Zohar, is indicated in the words "for the
Lord God had not caused it to rain " (Gen. ii. 5),
which mean that there had not yet been beneficent
action in heaven because man had not yet given the
impulsion.

These and similar teachings appealed to the Tal-
mudists and made them overlook the Zohar's dis-

693

THE JEWISH F.NLVrU)l'KI)lA

sin

parities and contrasts and its veiled liostiiily to tlie

Talmud. The inthiunccs of the Zoliar on jiidai

were both heni'liciul and dfletcrioiis. On tlu

hand, the Zoliar was piaisewortliy because it op

posed formalism, stimulated llie iinag-

Ethical ination and feelings, and restored

System. prayer (wliieli had gradually become

a mere extrrnal religious exercise) to
the position it had occupied for centuries among the
Jews as a means of transcending earthly alTairs for
a time and idacing oneself in union wjtii CJod : and
on the other hand, it was to be censureii liecau.sc it
propagated many sui)erstitious beliefs, and pro-
duced a liost of mystical dreamers, whose over-
heated imaginations peopled the world with spirits,
demons, and all kinds of good nnd ImiI inllueuces.
Its mystic mode of explaining some commandmenis
was applied by its commentators to all religious ob-
servances, and jModuced a strong tendency to sub-
stitute a mystic Judaism for the rabbinical cidt.
Thus the Sabbath, with all its ceremonies, began to
be looked upon as the embodiment of the Divinitv
in temporal life, and every ceremony performed on
that day was considered to have an intltience upon
the superior world. Zoharic elements even crept
into the liturgy of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, and the religious poets not only used in
their compositions the allegorism and symbolism of
the ZohaV, but even adopted its style, the character-
istic features of which were the representation of
the highest thoughts by human emblen\s and hu-
man passions, and the use of erotic terminology to
illustrate the relations between man and God, relig-
ion being identical with love. Thus, in the lan-
guage of many Jewish poets the beloved one's curls
indicate the mysteries of the Deity; sensuous pleas-
ures, and especially intoxication, typify the highest
degree of divine love as ecstatic contemplation;
while the wine-room represents merely the stale
through which the human qualities merge or are ex-
alted into those of the Deity.

The enthusiasm felt for the Zohar was shared by
many Christian scholars, such as Pico de .Miramlola.
Keuchlin. ^Egidius of Viterbo, etc., all of whom be
lieved that the book contained proofsof the truth of
Christianity. Tiiey were led to this belief by the

analogies existing between some of

Influence the teachings of the Zohar and rer-

on Chris- tain of the Christian dogmas, as for

tian Mysti- instance the fall and redemi)tion of

cisni. man, and the dogma of the Trinity,

which is expressed in the Zohar in the
following terms: "The Ancient of Da_\ s has three
heads. He reveals liimself in three arciielypes, nil
three forming but one. He is thus symbolized by
the number Three. They are revealed in one an-
other. [These are:] first, secret, hidden 'Wisdom ';
above that the Holy Ancient One; and above Him the
Unknowable One. None knows what He contains ;
He is above all conception. He is therefore calleil
for man ' Non-Existing ' [" "Ayin"]" (Zohar, iii. 'Jb&b).
This and also the other doctrines of Christian tend
ency that arc found in the Zohar are now known
to be much older than Christianity; but the Chris-
tian scholars who were dehnled by the sinnlarity of
these teachings to certain Chnstian dogmas dcenicil

it Ih ...
ilic? pull

otliers. niiioi
roth, wl
"Sifra .
" Idiii Zutu I • K

T!
mo\ .

no.xioiiH inlbieiK
siasm ih • ' '
sentati\<
it with

WJK'll tie

into reli.

TalniiMlic Hi^TUiru-H n

ites."iinil wjio. !!■ '

tinisiied l)y embi

Zohar is still Id .

thotlox Jew- .

its intluence

<logma and rittml, l<ul lu iIh: -

tion of faith.

AmonK the nntnprouscntnn
Zohar the m
lainini: corn .

Coninien- A'
taries. *■ "i

Petaliiuii, \\ nil 1'

" Imre Hinah." ■

(Prague, 1610. 1611); " Vraiw \ ..

the foreign words in •' ' ' '

ben Elit/er llayyini .

'Ammuile Shebu'." lijr .\

cow, lG3(i); "AiDarut

ditliculi weirds of iIip /

(Lublin. HM.'j); "E:

on viiriou.s .secliuus «

ben Jacob Klluiimo (.\

Shamiiyim."

cabalistic x\ -

rem {ib. ItkVi): " }.Icar(l !• A

the Zohar, by

Mosheh," b\

"Or Yismcl."by i

1711). For f

Ai>.\M K*"^'

Cvbala; Ck»;atioj!: Ema^atiox. t"

IIMilinr.Ri
" , : ^

»r-

Zola
Zoroastrianism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

694

ZOLA. EMILE : French novelist; born in Paris
April '2, 1!S4U; dicil there Sept. 29. 1902. It was
only in his last years, when anti-Semitism had
reached an acute sta.^c in France, that he took up
the cause of the Jewish community against its
assailants; but several Jewish charac-
His ters. almost invariably connected

Novels. with the French financial world, had
appeared in some of his novels. Thus,
in his "Son Excellence Eugene Rcmgon," be deline-
ated a certain Kalin. an unscrupulous deputy, rail-
way <'ontmctor, and ironmaster, son of a Jewish
banker at Bordeaux ; in " Nana " he portrayed a Ger-
man Jew named Sieiner, whom he represented as
amassing millions by his acumen and as squander-
ing them in gross dissipation until he was at last
completely ruined by the woman whose name fur-
nishes the title of the book; and in "L'Argent"
(1890-91) he introduced various Jewish characters,
such as bankers, stock-jobbers, and speculators.
But it should be said that if Zola placed various bit-
ter diatribes in the mouths of some of the Jew-
haters figuring in the last-named novel, this was
simply because his subject required it, the diatribes
in question being in no sense representative of the
author's personal sentiments.

It is curious to observe that liis book "Paris," in
■which he presents in a not quite favorable light a
great number of Jewish characters, and which was
publislied in volume form in ^larcli, 1898 (that is,
immediately after the author's trial in Paris in con-
nection with the DuKYKis Case),
Attitude gives no indication whatever of his
on Jewish intervention in that famous affair, or
Question, ot the various attempts he had made,
while writing the volume, to stem the
progress of anti-Semitism in France. In the early
part of 189G he contributed to the pages of the
Paris "Figaro" a very vigorous and much-noticed
article entitled "Pour les Juifs," the key-note of
which was sounded in the opening paragraph:

" For some vears I h.ive be^n followinpr with Increasintr sur-
prbe and discust the campaipn which some people are trying
lo carry on in France aeainst the Jews. This scein-s to mo mon-
strous, liy which I mean something forelpn to all comiiioii sense,
truth, and justice, sometTiing blind and foolish, which would
carry u.s back .>i<'veral centuries, and which would end in the
worst of abominations, rellRious i)ersecutlon. . . ."

In this article Zola dealt with anti Semitism from a
general point of view, making no mention f)f Cap-
tain Dreyfus, the agitation for whose release had
not yet begtm. At a later date, when Zola had es-
poused the cause of the unfortunate pri.soncr, he
freqiiently referred to the general question of anti-
Semitism, which lie denounced as odious and fool-
ish, Ijotli in his articles "M. Scheurer-Kestncr,"
"I^ Syndicat," and "Proces Verbal," published
in " Le Figaro" in the autumn of 1^97. and in his
subsequent pamphlets " Lettre aiix Jeunes Homines "
and "I^ttre i la France." His adversaries there-
upon accused him of venality, asserting that he had
been Ixjiiglit by the Jews.

Wlien his active participation in the Dreyfus case
had cea.sed. lie chose the affair as the subject nf
what was destined to be his last novel. "Verite."
largely transferring the action, however, from mili-

tary spheres to the teaching world, in such wise
that in his pages Captain Alfred Dreyfus became a
French provincial sciioolmaster called
His Last Simon, with a brother named Datid
Work. (M. 3Iatliieu Dreyfus), while the no-
torious Major Esterhazy was trans-
formed into a certain Brother Gorgias. Other Jew-
ish characters figured in the volume; for instance.
Simon's wife, Rnchel (Mine. Alfred Dreyfus): their
children Joseph and Stirnh ; the I^hmanns, a family
of penurious Jewish tailors; and Baron Nathan and
his daughter Lin, who became a Catholic, like Ere
in "Paris," and married a violent anti-Semite, the
Count de Sanylebauf. Snthan is not described as
having formally renounced the Jewish faith, but
Zola treats him as a renegade, one of those who. hav-
ing risen to affluence and rank, not only cast oil the
ancestral traditions, but even join the persecutors of
their race. From first to last " Verite " is a vigorous
denunciation of anti-Semitism in its various forms,
its growth and diffusion in France being chiefly at-
tributed by Zola to the action of the Roman Catholic
priesthood. The writing ot the book was only just
finished when Zola died by accidental suffocation.
Sincere regret for his death was expressed by Jew-
ish communities all over the world, for they recog-
nized that they had lost an able and perfectly
disinterested friend in the deceased writer. A con-
siderable part of the large siun of money subse-
quently raised for the erection of a monument to
him in Paris was contributed by Jewish subscribers,
several of whom had previously given lilierally
when a superb gold medal was struck in his honor.

BiniiOGRAPiiY : Zola. Son ExcfVrncc Evghie 7?oi((7"", Paris,
ISTii; idem. .Ynnn. ib. 18.s(J: idem. L'AnjoitAh. isiU ; idem,
Vhitt', il). 191)3: idem, ynurillc ('niniianiie, ib. ls!)7: idem.
La Viritr en Marclit, ib. I'.Kil (in the last-named volume
will be found the various articles, letters, and addresses writ-
ten by Zola in connei-tion with the Dreyfus case: of some of
thesethereisan English tninslation.Zo/n'.s Lrttcrstn h'nturi:,
with introduction, by L. V. Austin. New York ami London,
n. d.). On Zola's attitude toward the Jews: Kriiest Vizetelly,
Km He Zola.yuveliM and iicfornicr. New York and Loudon,
1904.
S. E. A. V.

ZOMBER, BERNHARD (BAR) : Polisii
scholar; born at Lusk in Ib-'l; died at Berlin in
1884. Having ac<|uired a fair knowledge of rabbin-
ical literature in his native country, he went to Ger-
many, where he studied successively under Joseph
Shapiro and Jacob Ettinger. Later he attended the
universities C)f Wlirzhurg and Berlin, and in 1^71 he
was appointed principal teacher ot the Bet ha-Mid-
rasli of Berlin, a position which he held until his
death. His works are as follows: "Hilkot Pe.s;i-
him,"on Passover laws compiled by Isaac ibn Gliay-
vat, supplemented bv a commentary of jii.s ov. n en
titled "Debar Halaksih " (Beriin. 18(54); "Ma'aniar,"
a disserlation on Itashi's commentary on Nedarim
and Jlo'ed Kat:ui (/A. 1867); " Moreh Derek," the
commentaries of Gershou Me'or ha-Golah and of
Rashi on Mo'ed Katau {ih. 1870); and "Shittah Me-
kubbe/.et." Bezalel Ashkenazi'snovelhcon Nedarim.
In addition to these works. Zoniber contriliuted sev-
eral valuable articles to .Fewisli scientilic periodicals,
including a study on Jud;di ben Vakar. the com-
mentator of the ^'erusliiilnii. which w.is translated
fnun Germ:in info Hebrew bv Abraham Abele Ehr-
lich("Ha-Karmel,"iii. 294)."

695

TIfK JKWIMii r.^AuiLUJl'tiJlA

Bib

iBLiOf;KAi'j|y : FdnU BOA. Jwl.iU. !H:i; ZeUner (at //#•/»•
Fueno, KtiiMci Yigrcul, p. 187. '^' •

•'• I. Uu

ZOR. Sf-e Tyre.

ZOREF, SAMUEL HA-LEVI : Habbi at Po-
seu; died between 1710 and ITIC. He was llie au-
tliorof ":Mazref la-Kesef " (Frankfort-oi, . r.

1681), coutainiug extracts from and an ii,.. ,,e

"Shene Luhot ha-Berit " rSIIeLall") of laaUb
Horowitz, with two appendixes, one entitled
" Kur la-Zahab " and giving extracts from Gabirol's
"3Iibliar Jia-Peninim," and the other entitled **Te-
fihubot bhib'iin Zcijenira " and containing maxims.
A separate edition of the " Kur la ZaJiab " wan jiub-
lished at Offenbach in 1710, and in 1716 it was
printed with the "Teshubot Bhibim Zel^enim."

BiBUOGRAPHY^FursL. UUA.Jud. lii.ooH; StelnarhnHdfr Cat
Bt/dl. col. .iiVJ.

J- I. Bn.

ZOROASTRIANISM : Tiie religion of anciej
Persia as founded by Zoroaster; one of the world's
great faiths that bears the closest resemblance to Ju-
daism and Christianity. According to the tradition
in the Parsee books, Zoroaster was born in 660 u.c.
and died id 583; but many scholars claim that he
must have flourished at a much earlier time. All
investigators, however, are agreed thatliis teachingH
were generally in force throughout Iran Ix-fore the
time of the Jewish Captivity. His name in its an-
cient form in the Avesta is "Zarathustra," and i;
later Persian. "Zardusht"; the form "Zoroaster,
which is now common, has been adopted from the
Greek and Latin "Zoroastres." The native country
of the prophet is now believed to have been Media,
iu western Iran, and there are reasons for claiming
that his birthplace was in the province of Atropa
tene, the modern Azerbaijan ; but much of his min-
istry, or rather most of his prophetic career, was
jiassed in eastern Iran, especially in the region of
Bactiia, where he won a powerful patron for his
religion. This defender of the faith was a king
uamed Vishtaspa, or Gushtafep, a name ' "

with that of Hystaspes, the father of I> .
though the two personages are not to be confounded,
as lias sometimes been done.

Zoroaster was originally a Magian priest, but he
appears to have reformed or purified the cree<l of
the 3Iagi. His religious teachings are preserve<i ir:

the AvKSTA. The character of the Pei
Tenets of sian religion before Zoroaster's time
the Faith, is not known, butacompari- • ■ •"'

that of India shows that it n.
ha<l much in common with the early religion o:
Hindus. It may be presumed that it was a mo.
nature-worshijt, with polytheistic features and
traces of demonistic beliefs. Herodotus ( !

131 et «e//.) states that the Persians from th<.

times worshiped the sun. mwn, stars, and cartli.
and the waters and wiixl, and he intit

else words that they had borrowed cerl

elements from the Assyrians. One or two ~
tious practises which he descrilx'S, suf '
pitiation of the powers of evil (id». iii. .
show survivals of demoniacal rites, against which
Zoroaster so strongly inveighed, and the account

uc<

vtn
at

(-1

Th.-
Kin((doms I.
of Good i
and Evil.

In •

All

ya r\\
("Iram

are mon; pr

vine CI '
earth,
(allied " fni

I atui truth. 'I

initi. is ill nr -■ -

Alirimaii li'
name ^\

T- ' • ■

six .
den
T.
liglll Ulid d;i

Millennial
Doctrine! .

Ahrimai

ty|>r«of lh>

nail

to •» loJ u> u {-

Zoroastrianism
Zuckerkandl

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

696

Oiinuzd ; and it is optimistic in its pbilosophj-, inas-
much as it looks for a complete regeneration of the
world.

In all this struggle man is the important ligure ;
for the ultimate triumph of right depends upon
him. He is a free agent according to Zoroaster
C Yasna," XXX. 20, xxxi. 11), but he must ever be on
his guard against the misguidance of evil. The
purpose of Zoroaster's coming into the world and the
aim of his teaching are to guide man to choose aright,
to lead him in the path of righteousness, in order that
the world may attain to ultimate perfection. This
perfection will come with the establishment of the
Good Kingdom (Avesta, "Vohu Khshathi-a"), the
Wi.^hed-for Kiugdom(Avesla, " Kiishaihra Vairya"),
or the Kingdom of Desire (Avesta, " Khshathra Ish-
toish "). When this shall come to pass the world
will become regenerate (Avesta, "Ahum Frashem
Kar"; or " Frashukereti ") ; a final battle between
the powers of good and evil will take place; Ahri-
inan and his hosts will be routed: and good shall
reign supreme (" Yasht," xix. 89-93; IJundahis. xxx.
1-33). The advent of the Messiah (Saoshyaut) will
be accompanied by the resurrection of the dead
and the general judgment of the world, which
thenceforth will be free from evil and free from
harm.

The motto of the Zoroastrian religion is " Good
thoughts, good words, good deeds " (Avesta, " Hu-
mata, hukhta, hvarshta"). Man in his daily life is
enjoined to preserve purity of bod\' and soul alike.

He is to exercise scrupulous care in

Ethical keeping the elements earth, lire, and

Teachings water free from defilement of an\'

and kind. Truth-speaking and honest

Relig'ious dealing are made the basis of every

Practises, action ; kindliness and generosit}' are

virtues to be cultivated; and agricul-
ture and cattle raising are prescribed as religious
duties. Marriage within the community of the
faithful, even to wedlock with blood relatives, is
lauded; and according to the Avesta ("Vendldad,"
iv. 47), "he who has a wife is to be accounted far
above him who has none; and he who has children
is far above the childless man."

In disposing of the dead, it is unlawful to burn
or bury the body f)r to throw it into water, as any
of these modes of disposal would defile one of the
sacred elements; the dead must therefore be ex-
posed in high places to be devoured by birds and
dogs, a custom which is still observed by the Parsees
and Gal)ars in their "Towers of Silence."

In religious matters the priestiiood was supreine in
authority, and the sacerdotal order was liereditary.

The Mobeds and ilerlx.'ds were the
Priesthood Levites and K<iliauim of Zoroastrian
and ism. The name for priest, "athaur-

Ritual. van," in the Ave.^ta corres|)onds to

"atharvan" in India; the .NIagi were
a sacerdotal tribe of Mediap origin. In acts of wor-
ship (Avesta, " Yasna ") animal sacrifices were some-
times oftered, especially in more ancient times, but
these immolations were subordinate and gave place
more and more to offerings of praise and thanks-
giving accompanied b\' oblations of consecrated
milk, bread, and water. The i^erforiuance of these

rites was attended by the recitation of long litanies,
especially in connection with the preparation of the
sacred drink "haoma," made from a plant resem-
bling the Indian "soma," from which an exhilara-
ting juice was extracted. It has been thought that
the twigs (Avesta, "baresman"; modern Persian,
" barsom ") employed by the Zoroastrian priests in
their ritual are alluded to as the "branch" held to
the nose by the sun-worshipers in the vision of
Ezekiel (viii. 16-17); and the consecrated cake
(Avesta, "draonah"; modern Persian, "daruu")
has been compared with the Helirew showbread.

The points of resemlilance between Zoroastrian-
ism and Judaism, and hence also between the former
and Christianity, are many and striking. Ahura-
ma/da, the supreme lord of Iran, om-
Resem- niscient, omnipresent, and eternal, en-
blances dowed with creative power, which he
Between exercises especially through the me-
Zoroastri- diuin of his Spenta Mainyu ("Holy
anism and Sjtirit"); and governing the universe
Judaism, through the instrumentality of angels
and archangels, presents the nearest
parallel to Yfiwii that is found in antitjuity. But
Ormuzd's power is hampered by his adversary,
Ahriman, whose dominion, however, like Satan's,
shall be destroved at the end of the Avorld. Zoroas-
trianism and Judaism present a number of resem-
blances to each other in their general systems of
angelology and deinonology, points of similarity
which have been especially emphasized by the Jew-
ish rabbinical scholars Schorr and Kohut and the
Christian theologian Stave. There are striking
parallels between the two faiths and Christianity in
their eschatological tcicliings — the doctrines of a
regenerate world, a perfect kingdom, the coming of
a Mes.siah, the resurrection of the dead, and the life
everlasting. Both Zoroastrianism and Judaism are
revealed religions: in the one Ahuramazda imparts
his revelation and ])n)nnunces his commandments to
Zarathustra on "the Mountain of the Two Holy
Communing Ones"; in the other Ynwii holds a sim-
ilar communion with Moses on Sinai. The .Magian
laws of purification, moreover, more particularly
those practised to remove pollution incurred through
contact with dead or unclean matter, are given in
the Avestan Vendldad quite as elaborately as in the
Levilical code, with which the Zoroastrian book has
been compared (see Avi-:st.\). The two religions
agree in certain respects with regard to their cosmo-
logical ideas. The six days of Creation in Genesis
find a parallel in the six periodsof Creation described
in the Zoroastrian scriptures. Mankind, according
to each religion, is descended from a single couple,
and Mashya (man) and .Mashyana are the Iranian
Adam (man) and Eve. In the Bible a deluge des-
troys all people except asingle righteous individual
and his family; in the Avesta a winter depopulates
the earth e.\cejit in the Vara ("encl</sure ") of the
blessed Yima. In each ca.se the enith is ])eopled
anew with the best tw) of every kind, and is after-
ward divided into three realms The three sons of
Yima's successor Thraetaona. named Erij (Avesta,
"Airya"), Selm (.\ vesta, "Sairima"), and Tur
(Avesta. "Tura"), are the inheritors in the Persian
account; Shem, ilain and .lapheth, in the Semitic

697

THE JEWISH E.NLiuUJl'LI)IA

J"" "1,1/, iifui,!. -.Li-;*/.
K.

ZOX. EPHRAIM I.AMKN

ir i.f .M

(lied <)<

lie nrrivitl in n:

BJVfly It^ ' ■

illK bll^

liiianriL-r. /
«'very ciiar;
.Ic'wisii ((Hi,
IcadiT Hf wii
and trii-(tcc '■' ■
tliif .IcwiHJi ;
the Mclltniiriic I
tioii; uiid t<M)k .
Prisoners' Aid -^

till- most [11 ;
nic-Miber of i..
May, 1877. as a
and retainii'
one years. I i
Hies Commi-

niBLiooRiiPMr: Jtw.Vhron. Dte^ IVi

.J.

zsid6 hirado. -

ALFRED

story. Likenesses in minor matters, in certain dcUiiU
of ceremony and ritual, ideas of unclennnesH. and
tlie like.are to bo noted, as well as parallels between
Zoroaster and I\Ioses as sacred lawgivers; and many
of these resemblances are treated in the works re-
ferred to at the em! of this article.

It is difficult to account for these analogies. It is
known, of course, as a historic fact that the Jews
and the Persians came in contact with each other at
an early period in antiqtiity and re-
Causes of niained in more or less close relation
Analogies tJuoiighout their history (see Avkst.k ;
Uncertain. ]\Ikdi.\; Pichsia). Most scholars, Jew-
ish as well as non Jewish, are of tlie
opinion tliat Judaism was strongly iniliienced by
Zoroastrianism in views relating to nngelology and
demonology, and probably also in the doctrine of
the resiirrection, as well as in eschatological ideas in
general, and also that the monotheistic conception
of Yiiwii may have been (iiiickened and strength
ened by being opposed to the dualism or quasi-mon-
otheism of the Persians. But, on t he other iiand, the
late James D.au.hestetek advocated exactly the
opposite view, maintaining that early Persian
thought was strongly influenced by Jewish ideas.
He insisted that the Avesta, as we have it. is of late
origin and is much tinctured by foreign elements,
especially those derived from Judaism, and also
those taken from 'Neoplatonism through the wri-
tings of Philo Juda-us. These views, put forward
shortly before tlie French scholar's death in ISJM.
have been violently combated by specialists since
that time, and can not be said to have met with
decided favor on any side. At the present time it
is impossible to settle the question; the truth lies
probably somewhere between the radical extremes,
and it is possible that when knowledge of the .\s-
syriau and Babylonian religion is more precise in
certain details, additional light may be thrown
on the problem of the source of these analogies,
and may show the likelihood of a common influ-
ence at work upon both the Persian and Jewish
cults.

Bibliography: For peneral works on the siibjet-t consult hlb-
llopraptiies under articles Avksta. Mkdia, and Pkksu.
Special works on Zoroaster and the religion : Jackson, Xoioax-
ter the Pi-ophct of Aiicietit Irnii, .\p\v York. IWXt; Idem.
Die h-anixche Helifjioti, in (ieiger and Kiihn, (IrumlrisMfUr
Irnnisclieii Phihthmic. Leipsic, 1904; Justi. I)ic AiUeMf
Iraoisrlie Re1){iinu u)ul Ilir Sliflrr Ziiiiitlni.ilrd.in rrru.i.
Riifche Johrliliclicr, lx.\.\viii. .VvSti, Zi\-2V<2. Berlin. JxHT ; I,Hi-
mann. Dit: Parsen, iu Chantepie de la Saussave. Liluiiurh
der Hi'lii)ii>t{sgrsL)iiclite.'M ed.. Tiil>lnpen, l'J(i">; UU'm. /.iint-
tliustrn. en Boq <>m Perservfs (Jamie Trn. pp. 1-2. Coix-n-
hapen, IS99. 1!)02; Tiele, Gcxcliirhtc (Ur Heliiiioii : ItU Re-
Union hri lien lrnnische)i \'6llieni. vol. it., wn-tion 1, iniiis-
lated by (iPtirich, (iotha, 1H98 (Enpllsh iransl. by Nariiunn In
Indian Antii/uaru. vols. .\.\.\ii. et .sci/., itotiiliay. IJlitti. I'nr
tieular treatises on the analoiries lietween Zoroastrianism an'!
Judaism: Schorr.in Hr-IJnlnz, U.v.; KohiU. I 'tin r di- ii
dixche Anfirlolofiic und Ddmonohmiv in Iliur Aliln'i
keit roni /'aj-.si.soin.s, Leipsic. IStitJ: idi'tii. ir(j.i Hat dn
mudi.''clie Ksrhatolofiie nnsdmi Pnrsismun A ufiieiioni
In Z. D. M. G. x.\i. 5.')2-.")9i : De Harloz. .-lir.s'd. IntnMlu
pp. ccv.-ccvi., ccix., raris. IK'^I ; Spieuel. K/itiiix /.<■ .1
ttmmslanide, ii. 17, ill, U'li. 34. 10. •'iO rl sni.. fii C.".. 7.'.. 117. ' ^iHlerrl i.
e< sc(/.. irat-171, Leipsic, ISTS; Dannesleier. /^i X'c' ' •■

til.. Introduction, pp. Ivi.-l.\li.. I'aris, ISi«: .s'. H. I
Iv.. Introduction, pp. Ivil.-ll.v.: Chcync. Origin
UUKUi.s ConeeptH of lln /Vo/Zcr. London. isii| ; Aiki-n. V" p ^
Awxtnnnd the Bihhwn <(dholic fninrxilu H'dhh».i\i '
243 :.'91. Washinpton. 1S97: Stave. Koirf"*" ■' ZUCK'^

ant daii Judt nllnim. Haarlem. IsiW; Sc'mIi' , ,

F}ttni-r d'Apns h Maz'lei<mi. Parts. HIM: !•■ -
^ra)ids(linft der Jlidtscli-ClinMlirhm mil drr /'

Eschatologie. GoUinnen. liHl-J; MouIUm. In h, ^.m.- i,r- vi- .i.x . n-

Times, ix ;j51-359. xi. 257-260. and in J„iirtial <! theniiv I IxC'^'"'- I'f-^-" '-^•-^'-°

(i I

•ftl*

ZUCKER,
tunr of Dr.

L'lTenheiiu. i

cliemistry at the un
lanpen . and
teniberg gti\
WUr/burg prof
jdared him ■
structive vii;
reeled to a siiccrwful
app,^ ■ • ' ■ -

fori'

holding that |Misitiun I

phannarr •■ ' •- •

tion of

" Beitnig /.ur I)i-

Diirch die Kupft i • .

and " Hepertoriuin «1

sic. and Bi:

"Fingers I

Kncyclnpnd;

Apotheker, eti.. " ;il< tU . L*^i(i*K mmI Ik

ZUCKER. MARCU.'=;

I wide a s

Zuckermandel
Zunz

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

698

of Utrecht, and he was appointed assistant professor
at the Univereity of Vienna in 1879, being made
professor at Gruz in 1882. Since 1888 he lias been
professor of descriptive and topographical anatomy
at the University of Vienna.

Zuckerkandl has contributed many monographs
to medical journals. Among his works the follow-
ing may be mentioned: "Zur Morphologic dcs Ge-
siciitschiidels" (Stuttgart, 1877); " Uebereine Bisher
noch Nicht Beschriebene DrQse der Regio Supra-
hyoidea" (rt. 1879); "Ueber das Hiechcentrum " {ib.
1887); and "Normale und Pathologische Anatomic
der NasenhOhle und Hirer Pneumatiscljen Anhange "
(Vienna, 1892).

BiBMOGRAPHY : Pagcl, Biog. Lex. s.v.
s. F. T. H.

ZUCKERMANDEL, MOSES SAMUEL :

German rabbi and Talmudi.st; born at Uiigaiiscli-
Brod, Moravia, April 24, 1836. He became a rabbi
in Plcschcn, Prussia, and was appointed lecturer on
the Mora-Leipziger foundation at Breslau April 1,
1898. He has published: " Die Erfurter Ilaudschrift
der Tosefta " (1876) ; " Die Tosefta nach den Erfurter
und Wiener Handschriften " (1880-82); "Spruch-
buch Enthaltend Biblische Sprliche aus dem Gebet-
buche " (1889); and " Vokabularium und Gram-
matik zu den Hebraischen Versen des Spruchbuches
I." (1890).

BiBMOORAPHY : Kurschner, Literatur-Knlender, 1898, s.r. :
Frankl-Griin, Gfxch. der juden ui Uiigarisch Brad, Vien-
na, 1905, pp. 56-57.
8. N. D.

ZUCKERMANN, BENEDICT : German scien-
tist; born at Breslau Oct. 9, 1818; died there Dec. 17,
1891. He received a thorough Hebrew and secular
education at the institutions of his native city, and
devoted himself at the university to the study of
mathematics and astronomy. In 1845 he joined
Graetz in agitating for an address to Zacharias Fran-
kel to congratulate him on the conservative stand
which he had taken against the Frankfort Confer-
ence; and when Frankel a,ssumed the management
of the Breslau seminary he appointed Zuckermann
on the teaching stair. He gave instruction in mathe-
matics to those of the students who had not had a
regular school training, and taught calendric science
in the academic department, at the same time acting
as librarian and administrator of the stipendiary
funtl. He wrote: "Ueber Sabbath jahrcyclus und
Jubelperiode," Breslau, 18.")9 (translated into Eng-
lish by A. Loewy, London, 1866); "Ueber Talmu
discheMllnzen und Gewichte," Breslau, 1862; "Kata-
log der Seminarl)il)liothek," part i., ih. 1870 (2(1 ed.,
ifi. 1876); "Das Mathematische im Tahnud," rt.
1878; "Tabelle zur Ben-chnung des Eintrittes der
X'acht." i7>. 1892; "Anleitung und Tabellcn zur
Vergleichung Jiidischer und Christliciier Zcitan-
gaben." I'/i. 1898. He also contributed occasionally
to the "Monatsschrift fi"ir Ge.schichte luid Wissen-
schaft des Judenthums."

Zuckermann 's religious attittide was .strict ly Ort ho-
dox. Regularly twice a day he attended the .syna
gogue maintained by him in the house which lie had
inherited from his father, although lie lived in the
seminary buihling, where daily services wore held in
the chapel. He never married; and while genial

and kindly in nature, he was strongly opposed to
anything savoring of ostentation. On his seventieth
birthday he tied from Breslau to escape all ovations,
and in his will he forbade the delivering of a funeral
address.

Bihi-IOGRAphy: Alia. Zcit. dc.-< Jiid. 1892, Nos. 1 ami 2; Die
J khniali. Ft'b.i. lm^^■. JahrcK})crU}it ffcs Jlhlifuh-Tlicnlo-
llinchcn Seminars Frilnckelschtr Stiftuiig, Breslau, 1S92.

s. D.

ZUENZ, ARYEH LOEB HARIF B. MO-
SES : Poiisli rabbi: born at Pinczow about 1773;
died at Warsaw 1833. He was a thorough Tal-
mudic scholar, and was also well versed in the
Cabala. Holding first the rabbinate of Plock and
then that of Prague, he later settled at Warsaw,
where he died. The author of "Shem ha-Gedolira
he-Hadasli " narrates that Aryeh Loeb promised on
his deathbed *o be a good advocate in heaven for
those who should publish his writings, and that this
promise was engraved upon his tombstone. The
rabbi was the author of many works, most of which
are still in manuscript, only the following two hav-
ing been published: " Ya'alat Hen " (Prague, 1793),
responsa; and "Tib Gittin" (Warsaw, 1812), discus-
sions on the " Get Mekushshar " of R. M. Bala. The
" Tib Gittin " was written when the author was eight-
een years of age, and its decisions have been ac-
cepted in many places.

BiBi.ioGUAPHY : Walden. Shem ha-GcdoUm he-Hndnsh, 1. 80,
ii. 17, Warsaw, 1882; Kohn. Kine'at Suferim,'v>- 102a, Lem-
hersr, 1892; Fiirst, liihl. Jud. iii. 102; Steinsctineider, Cat.
Bodl. rol. "45; Zudner, Cat. Hehr. Bonks Brit. Mna.
H. K. A. S. W.

ZUG. See Switzerland.

ZUGOT (lit. "pairs"): Name given to the lead-
ing teachers of the Law in the time preceding the
Tanuaim. The period of the Zugot begins with
Jose b. Joezer and ends with Ilillel. The name
"Zugot" (comp. Latin "duumviri ") was given to
these teachers because, according to the tradition in
Hagigah, two of them always stood at the same time
at the head of the Saidiedrin, one as jircsident
("nasi ") and the other as vice-president or father of
the court ("ab bet din'"; see Sanhedrin). There
were five pairs of these teachers: (1) Jose b. Joezer
and Jose b. Johanan, who flourished at the time of
the Maccabean wars of independence; (2) Joshua
b. Perahyah and Nittai of Arbela, at the time of
John Hyrcanus; (3) Judah b. Tabbai and Simeon b.
Slietah, at the time of Alexander Janna'usand Queen
Salome: (4) Shemaiah and Abialion, at the time of
Hyrcanus II. ; (O) Hillel and Shannnai, at the time of
King Herod.

.1. J. Z. L.

ZUKERTORT, JOHANNES HERMANN:

Che.ss-playerand ])hysician; born at Lublin, Russian
Poland, Sept, 7, 1842; died in London June 20, 18S8:
son of a Jewish convert to Christianity who was a
clergyman at r>iililiii. He was educated at the
gymnasium of Breslau and at the university of that
city, whence he graduated in medicine in 1866. As
a member of the medical corps of the German army
he saw service in 1M66. and again in the Franco-
Pru.ssian war of 1870-71.
Zukertort, who was destined to be one of the most

699

THE JEWlbU ENCYCLOPEDIA

eminent exponents of the game, learned l.. j.Ihv
cliess m iJresliiu wlien lie was about nineteen. Eii
terinfr u toiiiuament in that eity. and receiving the
odds of the queen, he lost every game, whereupon
he took up the study of Hili^Mier's " Handbueh." with
the result that in 1862 he won games from Anders-
sen at the odds of a knight. Witiiin a very few-
years he became one of Die strongest j)layers in Ger-
many; and in 1871 he defeated Anderssen in a set
match.

In 1872 Zukertort went to London and w.m iiurd
prize in the tourney there, Steinitz and HIackburnc
gaining first and second respectively. His recei)lion
in England was so cordial that he decided to make that
country his home; and he accordingly became natu
ralized.und tiienceforth played as an English repre-
sentative in international competitions, p'rom this
time forward his career was one of unprecedented
success. In 1878 he gained the first prize at the
Paris Exhibition tournament; in 1880 he beat Rosen-
thal in a match ; in 1881 he took second prize at
Berlin (Blackburne first); the same year he beat
Blackburne in a match; in 1882 he was fifth at
Vienna (Steinitz first); and in 1883 at the London
international tournament he gained the first prize
of £300 (;?l,oOO), Steinitz being second, and Black-
burne third. In this last competition he won twenty-
two games and lost otdy one. Of a highly nervous
temperament, Zukertort unfortunately had re-
course to drugs to brace himself for his contests, and
their ill effects became manifest toward the close
of the tournament. He never fully recovered:
and lie very unwisely persisted in challenging
Steinitz to a match, of which seven games
were to be played in New York, seven in St. Louis,
and seven in New Orleans. Zukertort took four
games out of five in the first set (March. 1886), but
Avns altogether outplayed in the remaining ones;
and he returned to England a mere wreck of hi-
former self. On June 19, 1888, while taking part in
a game at Simpson's Divan in London, he was
seized with apoplexy. He was removed to the Char-
ing Cross Hosi)ital, where he died on the followini;
day.

Periiaps Zukertort's greatest achievements were
in blindfold play, in which he has been surpasseil
only by Pillsbuiy.

Zukertort. at tir.st with Anderssen and afterward
alone, edited the "Neue Berliner Schachzeitung "
(18()7-71); and he collaborated with Jean Dufresne
on the "Grosses Schach-Han(ll)ueh " ('2d. ed., Herlin,
1873). He was the author of " Leitfaden desSchaeh
spiels" (Berlin, 1S69; 5th ed. 1897) and "Sammlung
der Auserlesensten Schachaufgaben, Studien und
Partiestellungen " {ih. 18G9). From 1873 to 1876 he
was one of the principal contributors to the " West-
minster PaiK'iT," theofiicial oiiran of the St. George's
Chess Club, London; atul in 1^79, together with L.
Holler, he founded "The Chess Monthly," which
for seventeen years was the leading chess magazine
in England.

Bini.iofjRAPnY : Dictioiwr}/ <>f I\'ntinnal Tii'igrnphii: Tlir
r/x'.ss Mnntlilji, Jii]\, IHSS; I,. Holier. In The Fiild (U'n-
dnti). June Zi. isss ; lirorhhaus KoiivcrsatiouH-Lexlhoti :
Mciic)'!' Ki»tvr)S(tti(ini<-LcJ'ihi)H.
S. -^ '

ZXJKtrNFT, DIE. See PEnromcAi.s

ZUNDER, MAIilt

ZVN8ER. KLIAKIM

|i<'. t , I,

lie hiid - ..

setlloK hl»
for ■
uikI
wiiVH IIIktu

as hi:.!, ... ;
.ii,.l 1,,..:.
I guests; urn:

• >liie «f

wliieh in not alwaya rigUl ii
I Zunwr V • ■
I der the ;

! and reeiiing ins n\
j New York a- . - -•

Most <if '/.
^ while the remainder ar
j civilization, tiiin cv ■
I halm," "Liciit." "I'

"Colundiiis )ind W

Land." He Iuih 111.

stage, for whieli Ii.

the "Sale of Jnmpli \'

iteeu published in the ' ,,,

the "Volkmidvokai." while an
j number of Iii<) -
I pea red (New Y'

was the occasioii

Bini.ior.RAPin •
Wit-niT. Ji'.'

Ziiiwer. iVI/WLi-jiu, /lu, .Nc« i
J.

ZUNTZ. NATHAN

bnin at Hon! ' •
sity of his !

'ant nt the ;
.. i-ity. ho w;:- ;
thri'p years 1 .

r of anatiimy

: )• of ani!"'' '•'■

liehc n<N-h.<;(
cont

and ^ , .

PinLiociiiAriiv: P»»

ZUNZ. LEOPOLD '!
Lippmnnn): I
(if .lu(iai>ni "
liteiufur. r
s\'n:i
liiTJm .M
run Ite

(enmp Kaufnitinii in
jind '
the .1
the '
"Zons. tM. ;

Hio

Family

■ ic l»et I

■ u Hebrew „,

Alii

Zunz

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

700

compelled him to relinquish this occupation almost
entirely and tocoyducta small grocery. His mother,
Hendel Behrens (b. 1773; d. Nov. 9. 1809). was
also delicate, and died at the age of thirty-six in
Hamburg, whither she and her husband had re-
moved the year after Lippmann's birth. Although
his constitution was extremely delicate in boyhood.
Lippmann outlived not only his twin sister, who died
in infancy, but also liis other sisters and brotliers.
His early youth was spent under the clouds of
physical discomfort and material poverty. His first
teacher was Jiis father, who began to instruct liis
son in Hebrew verbs. Kashi, and the ^lishnah as
early as 1799. The father's sudden death was a
great blow to the struggling family, and obliged
Lippmann toaccejU a free scholarship in the Samson
school at Wolfenbl'ittel, wliich he entered just aj'ear
after liis father died. At this school he attracted
the notice of his instruct-
ors by his remarkable apti-
tude for mathematics,
though at first he seems to
have been little amenable
todiscipline. The appoint-
ment of S. ^I. Ehrenberg
as the director of the school
in 1807 marked an epocii
in the mental and moral de-
velopment of the lad. As
early as 1805 Zunz liad
tried his hand at making
a key to an elementary
te.xt-book on arithmetic,
while in 1806 a Hebrew
satire from his pen, in
which he spared neither
teachers nor fellow pupils,
was consigned to the
flames to atone for the
wickedness of its author.
Ehrenberg, however, took
care that this gifted pu-
l)il should pursue his
studies methodi(;ally. and
such was his success that
in July, 1810, fifteen
months after Zunz had

been admitted to the highest grade of the Wolf-
enbiittel gymnasium (which he was the first Jew
to enter), Ehrenberg entrusted to him the tem-
porary supervision of the Samson school. His
mother had died in the previous year, and Zunz was
thus left without a near relative. His fre(; scholar
ship was about to expire, moreover, and in order to
remain at WolfenbiUtcl he began to act as an in-
structor at the Samson school in retuin for board
and lodging. He was particularly inteiested in alge-
bra and optics, and perfected his mastery of Hebrew
by translating various historical essays from the
German and other languages.

The summer of 1811 is noteworthy

Early as the time when Zunz made his first

Training, acquaintance with Wolf's "Biblio-

theca Heliraa," which, together with

David Gans's "Zemah Dawid," gave him liis

first introduction to Jewish literature and the

first impulse to think of the "science of Judaism."
In the same year (1811) he proceeded to write a
book which lie intended to be for Palestine what
the "Anacharsis" of Klotz had been for Greece.
Though lie finished the curriculum of the gynma-
sium in 1811, his intention of taking up university
studies could not be carried out until more than
four years had elapsed. He remained at Wolfcn-
biittel until Sept. 25, 1815, when he set out for Ber-
lin, arriving there Oct. 12, and accepting a tutorship
iu the Hertz family. At the university, where he
matiiculated while Schleiermacher was rector, he
took up mathematical, philosophical, historical, and
pliilological studies, among his professors being
Boeckh, Fr. A. Wolf, Savigny, De Wette, and
Wilken. the last two inducting him into Semilicsaud
Biblical branches. In Aug.. 1817, he wrote his first
sermon. Of far greater inqjortance, as showing the

bent of his mind, is the
fact that during this period
he copied the manuscript
of Siiem-Tob ibn Fala-
((ueia's "Sefer ha-3Ia'a-
lot " and occupied him-
self with tiie study of
Hebrew manuscripts from
Palestine and Turkey
shown him by a Polish
Jew named David ben
Aaron. In Dec, 1817, he
wrote an essay entitled
"Etwas i'lber die Kab-
binische liittt'ratur ; Nebst
Nachrichten fiber cin Al-
tes bis Jetzt Ungcdruck-
tes Hebraischcs Werk."
It was published in 1818
("Gesammelte Schriiten,"
i. 1-31, Berlin, 1875).
This little book marks an
epoch in the history of
modern Jewish scholar-
ship. It is a jilea for
the recognition of Juda-
ism and its literature in
Leopold Zunz. university research and

teaching. It exposed the
ignorance which marked the books written by non-
Jewish scholars on Judaism and the Jews, show-
ing at the same time that Judaism
The liad made valuable contributions to

Foundation many sciences and therefore had a
of Jewish place in their history. This booklet
Science, may be said to have lieen liie first to

trace tin; outlines of Jewish science.
Shortly after writing the book, but before its
publication, Zunz resigned his po.silion with Hertz
(March 28, 1818) and revisited his home. During
this time he was invited to become a candidate for
the position of preacher in t he Hamburg Temple,
and would have obtained it had he not withdrawn
upon learning that Bi'ischenthal was willing to ac-
cept the call. In June, Ziuiz returned to Berlin and
resume<l his university studies, which he completed
in IHlO, though it was not till Jan. 2, 1821, that he
took his degree of Ph.D. at the University of Halle.

701

THE JEWISH ENt-i

' i-"l ■]-])! A

In the interval, wl.ile privately conlin.iing IHr
studies and .■king „iit a livelili,),„| l.y tutoring in
German, Latin, and niatlieniaties. lie" founded to-
gether with Eduard Gans and Moses Mojkt "the
Verein flir Cuitur und Wis.^.-ns.haft der Juden
(Nov. 17, 1819),asoeiety intended "through culture
and education to bring the Jews into harmonious re-
lations Mith the age and tlie ^lation.s in whiehth.-y
live." Thisassoeiation, of which Zunz was the leading
spirit, from the very first attracted the best and
briglitest among the Jews of Gernmnv. including
Heinrieh Heine, Ludwig Markus, DavidFriedlilnder.
Israel Jaoohson, and Lazarus IJendavid. In 1822 the
•"Zeitschrift flir die Wissen.sehaft des Jndcnthums."
edited by Zunz, appearcfd under the
The auspices of this society. Accoiding

Verein to the program written by AVoldwill.
fur Cuitur the new ".science " comprised a study
der Juden. of tlie historical develojiment and the
philosophical essence of Judaism, al-
though these two methods must be based on a critical
understanding of Jewish literature. Zunz's contri-
butions justified this program. In addition to his
articleon "Hispanische Ortsnamen," mention should
be made of his biography of Hashi, which is a verita-
ble classic, illustrating the method which should be
pursued, and serving as a brilliant example of wliat
tliercsuk must be when all the modern principlesof
historical and literary research are devoted to a crit-
ical study of the data buried in Jewish literature.
Another remarkable essay which he puhiislierl in the
"Zeitschrift" was his "Grundlinieu zueiner Klinfli-
gen Statistik der Juden." The ideas which he there
enunciated are by no means antiquated even at this
day. The hopes aroused by the Verein were doomed
to disappointment, however, and the "Zeitschrift "
ceased to appear after tiie first volume. "Young
Palestine," as Heine called the members, lacked re-
ligious enthusiasm; Gans became a Christian, and
the Verein died. But the "science of Judaism"
which it had founded did not share the fate of its
first foster-parents, for it lived, thanks to Zunz. " A
man of word and deed, he had created and stimu-
lated and brought to pass, while others dreamed
and then sank down despondent." As characteristic
of him Heine coined the ])lirase which Karpeles
deems so ]iregnantly descrii>tive of Zunz's disjiosi
tionthat he repeats it: '' he remained true to the great
eaprice of his soul," believing in the regcnenitiv:
power of the " Wissen.schaft,'' wliiie the weaker a**
sociates of those enthusiastic days deserted, and
found iireferment by way of liapiism.

Other grievous disappointments awaited him at
this same period. He preached in the so-called
"Beer's Temple" (the new synagogue) from May.
1820, to thespringof 1822, receiving toward the end
of this epoch a small stipend from the Berlin congre-
gation. He married Adelheid Beermann .Ah»y 9, 1^22.
the union remaining childless, .'^oon
Marriage after his marriage his position as preach
and Jour- er became distasteful to him, Bnd.
nalistic feeling'that preaching in the face of olli
Career, cial arrogance and communal apathy
was incompatible with his honor. In-
resigned his office on Sept. 13, 1822 The nirtsterly
sermons he bad preached, and w hich were publisiied

In IHJ-J 2

in .\.

mutterM

the

ner

llio nfU'riioon h

irknoine "

upon I,

niu:

of I... -

wan noi

he I

liie ..:, ,

but slight i.
timi to I
Talmud
d(K)med

ZeitUIIL'. ' j' .

<i Tpts and !
In 1881 a
mail

frau. .

tins step may bo aai

Jewish li
a work )

JudenthuinH." On Aug
visit tot I •■
hurg bi.'
even begun to <
IIS concerning l
1*-
The "Got- on July SI. r
tesdienst- li( ! V

liche ill
Vortrage." iaJi work |
century 1
no less remnrkalilf thnn i
thorities wet

Jews the ju.

reluctance to accord
rights anri p;
citizens of (i
longer to bci
but should h .
opment. In
once more to r<
been
the 1
growth of th

self wusaniM
aii«l ' ' ■

the y.

It wo-H the tir
the reluti- •
m«MM» I

the -

proVid. '

force, no; ..

the iMMik liie: ■

wliUh the Jjuriir

Zunz

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

702

must follow to a certain degree, even though the
merely lormal criterion of the mention of a liter-
ary document is urged too strongly as decisive in
assigning to it its date and place. With this book
Zunz rose at once to the pinnacle of recognized lead-
ership. His discriminating insight, liis power of
combination, his sound scholarship, his classic re-
serve, anil his dignity of presentation proclaimed
him master. Xo second edition of the "Gottes-
dienstliche Vortriige" was prepared by the author,
but it was reprinted after liis death (Fraukfort-oii-
lhe--Main, 1892; comp. E. G. Hirsch, "DieJubiliieu
Zweier \\\-vke," in " i)cr Zeitgeist," 1883).

While Zunz's reputation as a pioneer was read-
ily spread abroad by the "Gottesdienstliche Vor-
triige," no material benefits accrued to liim from its
publication. In Sept., 1832, he went to Hamburg,
where he met H. I. Micliael, the owner of rare man-
uscripts. The old struggle for bread awaited him
upon his return to Berlin. He did not receive the
appointment as head master of the Veitel-Heine
Epliraini foundation as some friends had hoped he
would, and he was even unsuccessful in his efforts
to obtain employment as a bookkeeper, although
willing to accept such a position. He advertised
for pupils in Hebiew, rabbinics, and mathematics
ihrougli the medium of tlie University Bulletin
Board, but again with slight results. His friends
proposed him for the vacant post of rabbi at Darm-
stadt, Aaron Chorin having conferred on him the
hattarat hora'ah: but though Gabriel Riesser had
recommended him (Oct. 9, 1833) as the lirst scholar
of the day in Jewish literature, he was not elected.
In consequence of this he could not be induced to
be a candidate for Cassel and other places, tliough
suggestions to apply came to him from various
• juarters, among them, it is interesting to note, one
from New York. He continued to meet his friends
on Sabbaths at Gumpertz's, and in 1835 he deliv-
ered a course of lectures on the Psalms, attended
by Gans, Bellermann (the latter eighty years of age),
M. Sachs, Zedner, Moser, and Gumpertz. In the
same year he was called to Prague as preacher to
tlie Society for Improving the IVIode of Worship, a
call which at last promi.sed to deliver Jnni from the

drudgery for mere bread. When he
In Prague, arrived at Prague, however (Sept. IG,

1835), it di<l not reciuire many days
to convince him that he iiad found no compensation
for his sacrifice in leaving Berlin. In Prague he met
scarcely one thatunderstoodhim. Ilethought himself
lost "in China." He missed "books, periodicals,
men, lilierty." He regretted his " VVissenschaft."
Before fifty days had elapsed lie resolved to leave
this city of ]ietrified irresponsiveness. The pco])lc
misjudged him, and called his firmness stubborn-
ness and hisprincipleseccentricities. Ilisdiscontent
did not help to improve the situation, and on Jan.
1. 1830, he gave notice that he wished to resign. He
rejoiced like one delivered from juison when on July
8 he again arrived in Berlin. Soon after his return
he foundanotheropportuiiity of utilizing his. scholar-
ship in behalf of his German coreligif)nists. A royal
edict forbade the Jews to a.ssume Christian names.
In this predicament the administration of the con-
gregation bethought itself of Zunz, and on Aug. 5

he was commissioned to write a scientific treatise
on the names of the Jews based upon original inves-
tigations. On Dec. 7, 183G, his " Die Namen der
Juden" ("G. S." ii. 1-82) was published. It de-
monstrated that the names which had been classed
as non-Jewish were an ancient inheritance of Juda-
ism, and this proof, which reste<l on indisputable
evidence and which was presented with the calm
dignity of the scholar, made a deep impression.
Tributes of admiration and gratitude were offered
the author from all sides, Alexander von Humboldt
being among those who felt impelled to thank
Zunz. Ti\e congregation it.self informed him soon
afterward (July, 1837) of its intention of found
ing a " Lehrerseminar " to be directed by him.
This seminary was opened Nov. 16, 1840, after pro-
tracted negotiations with Zunz, who became its
first director. Even while the preparations for the
founiling of the normal school were in

Director progress, Zunz had organized a staff
of the of scholars for the translation of the

"Lehrer- Bible which has since borne his name,
seminar." he himself acting as editor-in-chief and
translating the Book of Chronicles
(comp. Jew. En'cyc. iii. 193). With this entrance
upon a secure position, Zunz at last found himself
freed from the struggle for existence. Thenceforth
he had the leisure to concentrate his energies; his
pen was busy enriching periodicals and the works
of others with his contributions. Noteworthy
among these was a stud}' on the geographical litera-
ture of the Jews from tlie remotest times to the
}'ear 1841, which appeared in an English transla-
tion in Asher's edition of Benjamin of Tudela (ii.
230 ct scq.). He also gave expert opinions on prob-
lems arising from the agitation for Reform, such as
"Gutachteu liber die Beschneidung " (Frankfort-on-
thc-Main, 1844).

Although his " Gottesdienstliche Vortriige " was
the very rampart behind which Reform could .se-
curely and cahnly beat back the attacks of its ojipo-
nents, Zunz showed little s^-mpathy with the move-
ment, because he suspected its leaders of ecclesiastic
ambitions, and feared that rabbinical autocracy
would result from the Reform crusade.
Attitude He regarded much of the i)rofessi()nal

Toward life of the rabbis as a "wasteof time,"

Reform. and in a very late letter (see " Jahrbuch
fiirJiidischeGeschichte," 1902, p. 171)
he classed rabbis with soothsa3'ersand <]uacks. The
point of his ])rotest against Reform was directed
against Hoi.ninci.Nf and the position maintained by
this leader as an autonomous rabbi, as is evident
from Geiger's answer to Zunz's strictures (Geiger,
" Nachgelassene Schriften," v. 184-185). The vio-
lent outcry I'aised against the Talnuid by some of
the principal s])irits of the Reform part}' was repug-
nant to Zunz's historic sense, wliih; he himself was
tem]K'ramentally inclined to assign a determinative
potency to sentiment, this explaining his tender
reverence for ceremonial usages. His position was by
no means Orthodox in the usual sense, however, even
in regard to the ritual ))ractises, which he called sym-
bols (see among others his meditation on tefillin, re-
]irintedin"Gesammelte Schriften," ii. 172-17f)), deny-
ing them the validity of divine ordinances which the

703

THE JEWISH

Ti-UIA

faitliful are bound to obsorve without iiKjuiry into
tlioiruR'auing. His ijositiouacroniingly appiouched
that of tlie symbolists among tiic rcforiMLTs wlio in
sisted that symbols had their funelion. provide i
their suggestive significance was spontiMieou.six
comprehensible. He emphasized most strongly Hi",
need of a moral regeneration of tlie Jews.

Zuuz's sympathies with the science of Judaisn
were too dominant to allow liim to lay aside his rt
serve and taive a part in the active endeavors to re-
cast the framework of the Synagogue, but in liis
chosen field, during this very period of agitation
and unrest, he garnered a new liarvest. In 1845
lie published in Berlin another volume, "Ziir (Jc
schichte und Literatui," which comprises stiulies in
all the departments of Jewish literature and life.
The introductory chapter is a i)liilos()i)hical presen-
tation of the essence of Jewish literal in-e and its
right to existence, its connection with the culture of
the peoples among which the Jews have lived, and
its bearing upon the civilizations amid which it de-
veloped Zunz makes an earnest protest against the
neglect of this literature, and caustically exposes its
underlying motives— indolence, arrogance, and prej
udice. A rapid survey of the treatment accorded
Hebrew books serves as a prelude to the unsparing
castigation administered to the conceit of the Chris-
tian scholars of the nineteenth century, and as a pro-
test against the outrage perpetrated by the exclusion
of Jewish studies from the universities. The volume
itself was a proof that Jewish science had a right to
citizenship in the academic republic of letters. Ap-
parently disjointed, the various subjects treated in
this volume found their unity in the methodical grasp
of the author, who made it clear that underlying all
these diverse interests was a distinct unity of jiur-
pose, the pulse-beat of a life striving for ex)iression
and realization. Bibliography, ethics, and culture
were among the departments into which the book
ushered the student, while long jieri-
"Zur ods of time, of which little had been
Geschichte known or understood, were there set
und Li- forth in all their bearings and and)i-
teratur." tions. Zunz had, indeed, earned the
title of the Jewish Boeckh. Under
his touch every detached fact appeared as sym|>lo-
matic of the life of a vitalized organism. Sujier-
ficially examined, the book seemed to be a collection
of incoherent names, dates, and details, but wlier;
rightly taken as a whole, it won distinction as the
result of studies undertaken to reveal the unifying
thought manifest in all the various fragmentsof in-
formation, ■whether old or new. Once more Zun/
had proved his supreme niastershi]) in the wide field
of Jewish literature; and that he had also the rare art
of popular presentation was shown liy the Icrftirf";
which he delivered in 1842.

The year 1848 brought Zun/. an (i|>i">i i iiiiii_> i"
utilize his rare gifts of mind, tongue, ami heart in
the political arena. His oration in honor of the vic-
tims of the March uprising in Berlin attracted uni-
veivsal attention to him ; and he was chosen clcclnr
in the 110th precinct both for the deputy lo the
Prussian legislature and for therepres<'ntativein the
German Diet. He addressed many a niecting of ids
fellow citizens, his lucidity of diction, clarity of

thill;
liiiiniuuli J„i

Oh Kolxrt Hi

..o f.

lih<Tiil I.
and pri^ .
oring to , .,;
JewH: for in

The oflke of

seemed to I.

and he sev.

tulion on F< '

him by the ■

erty he crav .

Iiadcometafruii:

liche V. •

•Iiidaism

terial for this pill ,

sil)lemai

ready gi.:

his visit had conflnncU liim Jn

history of Jewish liyn

as incorporated in tli<

gogne. He soon ri>ali7.ecl,

work would fill Boveml v '

resolved to write lir>it ti

then that of the poets, li
desMittelaltor-
The 2. 1H.V5. and

" Syna- Uin<N ^f ]
gogale Jcwi.sh -^ '
Poesie," their i:

feringsthat h.i

mcnt of tiie Hebrew
of the Jewish sp
tions of Zunz. w
ductory chapter. •
Jewish iiyini' '
mastershij) < .
while hix Oerniun (r
and \ " '
has, 1

its phmsfS worlliy of
ronda." Und - ''
Sir vices nt p
attacked '
of the i;
these li>
and V

hiH Iii...^ -

of fidth liiy !

th. ,.

tidniil nil

Hon of thr id
Ids liUUirv

Zunz
Zurita

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

704

26, ISoo, he set out on his journey of exploration,
spendiug twelve days in the British Museum,
twenty in the Bodleian at Oxford, and three in Paris,
and inspecting 280 manuscripts ami 100 rare books.
After paying a visit to lleiurich Heine (June 26-
2S), he returned on July 4, 1855. In the following
year lie inspected and excerpted eighty manuscripts
in the Hamburg Library (June 18-July 27, 1856),
and after his return he resumed his lectures on Jew-
ish literature. In 1856, moreover, he wrote his
" L'eber die Eidesleislungen der Juden." a defense of
the Jews against the charge of perjury and a pro-
test against the Oath Moiu-; Jtuaico,
Scientific which ajipeared in the same year as his
Journeys. "DieHitus des Synagogalen Gottes
dienstes Geschichtlich Entwickelt"
(1859). In conciseness of presentation and wealth of
content this volume has scarcely a peer. He brought
order out of chaos by grouping the several compo-
nents of the liturgy according to various countries,
exiiibiting the growth of a liturgical literature devel-
oping through two millennia from small begin-
nings to the tinal compilations of tixed cycles (" mah-
zorim ") and rites.

During Iiis studies preparatory to the concluding
volume of his monumental work, Zunz continued
his activity in public affairs, being entrusted with
the presidency of the electoral assembly of his dis-
trict (April 25, 1862). His main energy, however,
was devoted to his scholarly pursuits, and, becoming
daily more deeply impressed with the necessity of
inspecting the Hebrew collections in Italy, he went
to Parma (May 20, 1863), where he examined about
120 codices in the De Rossi Library; but lie was not
allowed to visit the Vatican. One of the fruits of
this Italian trip was his " Hebriiische Handschriften
in Italien, ein Mahnruf des Rechts." He crownvd
the labors to which he had consecrated his life by
his volume on the " Literaturgeschichte der Syna-
gogalen Poesie," the preface of which is dated Se])t.
26. 1865. This was his thanks to the friends who
had remembered his seventieth birthday (Aug. 10,
1864) by the founding of the Zunzstiftimg, the ini-
tiative having been tiiken by Salomon Neumann.
This concluding volume was of the greatest impor-
tance not only lor the history of .Jewish poetry,
but also for that of the Jews, revealing the intellec-
tual life of the Jews in Italy, Spain, and Germany.
Once more an ejiormous mass of material was made
intelligible as to conditions of time and ]ilace, and
amorphous detail again assumed shape and function
within the circle of correlated circumstance, thus
becoming ])art of a living and growing organism.
In 1867 a supplement appeared, adding to the 1,500
poets anil their numerous productions, 80 new ver-
sifiers and 500 new ])ocms.

The Germany of 1870 found in Zunz as an
elector a loyal coopcrator in its destiny. In 1H72
lie raised his voice in his " Deutsche Briefe" in de-
fense of the purity of the German language, menaced
by the journalism and vulgarism then ramiiant.
The same year he wrf)te his " Moiiatstage des Kalcn-
derjaliies," a memorial calendar recording the days !
on which Israel's great sons and martyrs had died,
and giving fliaracteristic details concerning their
labors and lives.

A new field now began to attract his attention,
that of Bible criticism ; and in his studies on Deu-
teronomy, Ezekiel, Leviticus, and Esther ("'Z. D. M.
G." xxvii. 669-689) he reached conclusions diametric-
ally opposed to those deduced by the traditionistsand
even by the conservatives, proving the untenability
of the dogma of the Mosaic author-
Attitude ship of the Pentateuch. In his "Ge-
Toward sammelte Schriften " these essays have
Hig-her been reproduced, and others on Exo-
Criticism. diis. Numbers, and Genesis have been
added ("G. S."i. 217-270), proof sufii-
cient that Zunz did not discredit his own studies
in spite of the outcry rai.se<l against them. In his
letters addressed to David Kaufinann he took occa-
sion to declare his indifference toward "babblers
and hypocrites." "It is not my business to defend
religion, but to defend human rights." "Opinions
on books are not subject to the authority of relig-
ion." "Why do they not inquire whether it be
true or false? Miserable men they who desire not
to be disturbed." "My first critical studies go back
to 1811, long before Hengstenberg's day and the
splendor of other ' critic-astra. ' "

The light of his life was now to fail him. On
Aug. 18, 1874, his Adelheid, known to their friends
as "DieZunzin" ( = " female Zunz"), passed away.
From this blow Zunz never recovered. His entire
literary activity was limited to superintending
the publication of his "Gesammelte Schriften."
Though the ninetieth anniversary of his birthday
was celebrated throughout the world and brought to
him messages of love from the four quarters of the
globe, even being marked by the publication of a
"Zunz Jubelschrift," he felt that few remembered
his existence. David Kaufmann alone seems to
have siK'ceeded in arousing in him the old interest
for Jewish studies; and Steinschneider was perhaps
the only one with Avhom lie maintained personal
intercourse. His thoughts dwelt with her who had
been his companion.

While all parties in Judaism have claimed Ztmz for
their own, his Bible-critical epilogue to his labors (in
a letter to David Kaufmann) justifies the assumption
that, if he is to be classified at all, he must be assigned
a place with Geiger, with whom he was on terms of
closest intimac}-, and to whose " Zeitschrifl " he was
a regular contributor. The end, superinduced by a
fall, came on March 18, 1886. To the last he was clear
in mind and in the full possession of his faculties.

Bini.iocRAi'HV : Letters and manuscripts in f ho possession of
the Leliranstalt fiirdie Wissenschaft des Judenthuiiis, Berlin;
J)as liiiili Ziniz, a iiianiiscript aiitoliiopraphy in tln' pusses-
si(in of the Zunzstiftimg ; Kaufnianii, Zi/)i2, in Alhjnneiiie
Dental III' Uidipdiilii ' \ idem, in ^fllll(ltss(•ln•ift, xxxvill.;
i^trodtniann. ]l. Jfeiuc'n Lchni iiikI Wnkr. i.; Maytiaum,
Ans<li:in Lilicn von Leopald Ziniz. Berlin, 181)4; Jalnlmch
fUrJlhlisclic Ocschichtc. l'JO;i-:i; Zunz, G. .s". i.-iii.

s. E. G. H.

ZUPH : 1. A Levite, and one of the ancestors of
the prophet Samuel (I Sam. i. 1) ; in the iiarallel jias-
sage, I Chron. vi. 11 (A. V. 26), he is called Zophai.

2. A country, perhaps so called because it was in-
habited by the family of Zupli (I Sam. ix. 5). It
seems to have been connected with Ramatliaim-zo-
phim (I Sam. i. 1), since both places are mentioned
together with Mount Ephraim (comp. ib. ix. 4-5).

E. c. M. Sel.

705

TlIK .lEWISII ENcVeUJl'KDlA

ZUPNIK, AARON HIRSCH : (lalidun H,-.
brcvvaud .J lulao-GL'nnaii writer; born at DmlKjltycy.
c. 1850. In addition lo editing,' tin; " Drolioltyc/i-r '
Zcitiing," a JudjLo-iJL'inian wci-iily Itpgun in IHMi,
and tiie "Ziyyon," u periodical wiucli was ut liihi
devoted to llel)iew lileraMire (iircunlarly from I--".
to ISys) and later became a nionlldy sciiMitilic \'
liciilinn (l8%-97), Ziipnik publislu'd the followitiK
works: '' Kedusiisliat lia-Sliem " (IJrody, 1SG7). u
IMstorical novel depicting: Jewisli lifo in Spain and
adapted IroinLudwij,' I'lulippson's" Jacob Tirado";
"Toledoi Abruliani " (Leniberg, lH(i!)), liiograjWiy of
Abraham Colin, n preacher of Lemberj,'; " Einel u-
Mishpat " (Droliobye/., isyii), a Hebrew traiislalion
of Joseph von Werllieimer's '• JiliHsclie Lehrc und
Jlidisehes Leben " (also pnblishcd in Polish under
the title "Nauka Zydowska"); " Voin Ileder znr
Wcrksliitte " {ib. 1884), a Jiid:eo-German novel deal-
ing wilii Jewisii life in Galicia; "Zur Liisung dcr
Judenfrage Durch die Juden " (Berlin, ISbo).

Biiii.KXiii xriiv : I.ippo, Bililhiijvniihiscliex Lexicon, new sc-
ries, i ; Zfitlln, Liibl. l'iiM-M(.inUi-<. p. 431,
.1. M. SlU..

ZURICH: Capital of the Swiss canton of the
same name, .lews first .settled there in llic cirly
part of tlie fourteenth century, and soon ae(pnrcd
considerable wealth by lending money. They paid
liigh ta.\es for toleration, but Avere allowed to buy
and own houses, including the castle of ^binegg on
the Utliberg and au estate in the Beckenhuf. On
the whole, they were treated .instly by the govern-
ment, altliougb they were subject to medieval re-
strictions, being oblig(,'d to wear the Jldkmut, and
probably also the Badge. Of Talmudic authors
only Moses of Zuricli, the annotator of the "Se-
mak " of Isaac ben Joskpii ok Cokhkil, is knowu
(Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. llebr. MSS." p|.. 183-184).
In 1348 the Black Death brought about a change
in the condition of the Jews, who were accused of
having poisoned the wells. At the same time
they were charged witii the murder
The Black of a boy, and in i;)4'J a nund)er
Death. of Jews were burned in conse(iuciice
of these two calumnies. Soon after-
ward, however, Jews again settled in Zurich, and in
1401, when thot^e of Schalfhausen and AVinlrr-
thur were burned on account of the murderof a thris-
tian boy at Diessenhofen, their colleagues of Zurich
were protected by the city council against the ci'.i
zens and gilds, although, for their own .security,
they were kept in confinement until all danger was
over. The hostility of the peoi)le and of the gilds
made it imi)ossible, however, for the council to k. cp
the Jews in the town any longer, and in the years
14-24, 143"), and 1436 decrees of expulsion were issued
asaiiist them. Two centuries later a Frankfort Jew
named Samuel Eiron made a remark derogatory t.
the founder of Christianity, and was belieade.l,
whereupon it was solemnly proclaimed through.. nt
the town that no Jew should again be allowed to
settle within it, uidess he had first received sivcial
permission.

From that date, 1634, until the middle of the nuu-

tecnth century no Jews lived in Zurich: nor wius il

until the emancipation of their coreligionists of

Aargan in 1863 that the gates of the city were

XI I. -45

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ally, bu'

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and JiWevMs, tK|N-ri»ll>

several Jewish p

two faculties. 1

isli leuchcr, anil tW'

the Cantonal f '

lier of the III

The Zurich J

the Polish and b

lers. The clii» :

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ZURISHADDAI

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ZURITA: I •

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tf. .•..•)•>•' hrt

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Zutra
Zweifel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

706

VIII. in 1180, no distinctions were drawn between
Jews and Christians, and on Dec. 20, 1215, the al-
jama in Zurita was exempted from all taxation by
Henry I. of Castile in view of the pecuniary sacri-
fices made by its members during the war, and in
recognition of its faithful defense and improvement
of the fort entrusted to it. In 1474 this same al-
jania, which was so wealthy that it gave the king a
thousand doubloons (" mille aureos "), paid, together
with the aljamas of Pastrana and Almequera, two
thousand maravedis in taxes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bolctin Acad. Hist. x\.\6Setxeq.; llios,HiM.
i. aV), lii. 599. ^

J. M. K.

ZUTRA, MAB, I. : Exilarch from 401 to 409.
He \va.s tiiL- successor of Mar Kahana and a contem-
porary of R. Ashi, whose enactments he had to fol-
low in spite of his exalted position. He wasobligeil
to leave Nehardeaand take up his residence in Sura,
where he held an annual reception at the opening of
the harvest season for the delegates of all Babylo-
nian communities, the receptions being called " rigli "
(Knn^VJ^""n X^J^I). In addition Mar Zutra received
various other delegations at Sura. Nothing further
is known about his career.

Bibliography : Gratz. Gesch. Iv. 351, note 3; Neubauer, An-
ecduta, 1. 3:2-33 ; Heilprln, Seder lia-Dornt, 1. 167a.
J. S. 0.

ZUTRA, MAR, II.: Exilarch; born about 496:
died about 520; ruled from 512 to 520. He was the
son of Huna, who was appointed exilarch under
Firuz; and he was born at the time when Mazdak
endeavored to introduce communism in all Persia.
The opposition against Mar Zutra, his imprison-
ment, and his early death have given rise to a num-
ber of legends. The following anecdote is told
about his birth and the events preceding it: Mar
Zutia's father was engaged in constant strife with
his father-in-law, the school principal Mar Hanina,
because the latter refused to obey the orders issued
by the exilarch. Hanina was accordingly punished
for his disobedience; and, being embittered and hu-
miliated, lie went into the prayer-house at night,
and there shed a dishful of tears, whereupon he fell
asleep. He <lieamed that he was in a cedar forest,
engaged in felling the trees; and when he came to
the last cedar-tree King David appeared and forbade
him to fell it. On awakening, Hanina learned that
the entire house of the exilarch had perished, excei)t
his daughter, who was pregnant and had been
spared. Soon afterward she gave birth to a son.
whom the grandfather named 3!ar Zutra, at the
same time assuming personal charge of his training.
Duiing Mar Zutra's infancy tlie exilarchate was
administered by his brother-in-law Mar Pahra,
or Pahda. The latter bribed King Kobad in order
that he might remain in oflice; but when Mar Zutra
had reached the age of rtfleen, his grandfather pre-
sented him to the kingasthe legitimate ruler, where-
upon the monarch installed him as exilarch. ]\Iar
Pahda opposed this, but was killed by a Hy wliirli
entered his nostril; and after that event the exi-
larchs had a Hy on their seal.

Mar Zutra took up arms against the Persians, and
organized an uprising to oppose the introduction of

communism, although the king himself was in favor
thereof. The immediate cause of the uprising, how-
ever, was the assassination of the school principal
Isaac, regarding which no accurate information ex-
ists. From the fact that Mar Hanina took part in
the struggle, it may be deduced that it was of a re-
ligious character. At the head of a company of 400
Jewish warriors Mar Zutra advanced against the op-
posing Persian forces; and the battles fought by
him have furnished material for various legends.
It is told that a pillar of fire always preceded his
army; and it is further staled that Mar Zutra
founded an independent Jewish state, with Mahoza
as his residence. He ruled as an independent king,
and imposed heavy taxes on all non-Jews. In spite
of his able government, however, immorality spread
among his people, whereupon the pillar of fire dis-
appeared. In a subsequent battle between Mar
Zutra and the Persians the former was defeated;
and both be and his grandfather Hanina were taken
prisoners and decapitated, their bodies being sus-
pended from crosses on the bridge at Mahoza.

The account of Mar Zutra's life is based on a mix-
ture of historic facts and legendary narratives.
Th^IS, the description of the uprising of the Jews
against Persian reforms, the statement regarding the
prominent position held by Mar Zutra, and the ac-
count of his death are all based on historical data,
whereas the stories of the extinction of the exilarchal
house are legendarj', as are also the dream of Hanina
(which corresponds with that of Bostanai) and the
account of the pillar of fire. All those legends,
however, which tend to prove that the later rulers
of Babylonia were usurpers have a basis of truth, in-
asmuch as Mar Zutra's only son emigrated to Jeru-
salem.

Bibliography : Gratz, Gexch. v. i-(\ note 1 ; Neubauer, A nec-
ciota, 11. TO ; Heilprln, Seder ha-DoroU !• 167.

.J. S. O.

ZUTRA, MAR, BAR MAR ZUTRA: Pal-
estinian scholar. On the day of his birth his father
was crucified, and his mother fled with him to Pal-
estine, where he was later appointed arcliipherecite
(.see AiicniPiiERKCiTEs). According to Brlill, he was
active in causing the scientific material collected in
Palestine to be gathered together and examined;
and the Palestinian Talmud is said to have been
completed in his lifetime. During his term of office
the order of Justinian in relation to reading from
Holy ScKipture was promulgated; and the first op-
posing utterance is said to have been made by Mar
Zutra. His place of residence was probably Tibe-
rias, and by virtue of his title he was the official
leader of the Palestinian Jews.

Bibliography: BrulTs Jd/ir?). v. 94-96; Heilprln, Seder ha-
Dtiriit. 1. 1";^; YuhnxUh. ed. FllipowskI, p. 9:3 ; Weiss, Df^r, Iv.
2, 304 ; Gratz, Geich. 111. 386.
J. S. O.

ZUZIM : Name of an ancient people mentioned
in Gen. xiv. 5 as residing in Ham, the territory east
of the Jordan, and as having been smitten by Chedor-
laomer. The narrator must have supposed that the
Zuzim were well known, for he prefixes the definite
article to their name, though its use maj' also
imply that even to him the nation was somewhat neb-
ulous. This prefix induced the Septuagint and the

707

THE JKWIMl K.NXYCLOI'EDIA

Peshitta (or the scribe of the copy uiulcrlvlng tbelr
version) to read tlie name ua an appi-llutive They
therefore translate it as "the slionL'" (="lm.
'izzuzim ") or " the mighty " (= " lui-'ezuzin. -). and
thus identity the leopk- with the Hepiiaim. the gianu
who occupied tlie district and who are said to havr
been called "Zam/ummiiu" by tl;eAmmonitf8(I),iii.
ii. 20). The rendering of Synimacims results from
a combination of tiie two names Zu/.im and Zam
zummim {loa::ofifieiv), and thus anticiputes thuM-
modern sciiolars wlio maintain that the names are
identical, the variance being due to scrilial errors.
Sayce ("Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the
Monuments," pp. WO rt itrrj. ■ "E.xpository Times,"
viii. 463), proceeding on tiie theory that Gen. xiv. is
a translation of a Babylonian document, advances
the hypothesis that tlie double spelling of the name
arose from the ideirtity of the characters " m " and
" w " in Babylonian. It has also been proposed to
connect the name with Ziza, a military po.st of the
Roman period (Uillnmun, "Genesis," ad lac).

E. G. II.
ZWEIFEL, LAZAR (ELIEZER ZEBI B.
DAVID HA-KOHEN) : Hussian iipol.'.gi.st and
critical compiler from rabbinical works; bornatiMo-
ghilef April 15, 1815; died at Gluchof Feb. 18. IHHH.
He was a lecturer in the rabbinical seminary of Jito-
mir from 1853 until the institution was closed in 1874.
Zweifel was a collector of e.vcerpts and (juotations
from rabbinical literature, which he used in all his
works to such an extent that they comprise about
three-quarters of the text. One large "yalkut " of
his compilation was burned, and only about a tenth
of the original work was Siived from the tire that
once destroyed his house. Zweifel acted as a medi-
ator and peace-maker between the various Jewish
sects, and was especially prominent as a protector of
the H.ASiDi.M. He also defended the Karaitesagainst
the attack of Deinard, and even had a good word
for Reform ("Sanegor," pp. 38-41, 43). He en-
deavored also to give a Jewish coloring to Spinoza's
philosophy, and quoted tifty opLnions, mostof which,
including that of Besht (B.\'.\l Siik.m-Tou), were in
harmony with the philosopher, while he him.self con-
tended that the only difference lay in ihe fact that
Spinoza used words without careful discrinu'nation
to explain his .S3'stem ("Shalom 'al-Yisrael," iii. 43,
ed. Wilna, 1873).

Zweifel was a prolific writer and one of the first
to use Talmudicand idiomatic Hebrew for the mod-
ern poetry which he fretiuently compo.sed, stanzas
being interspersed throughout his works. He was
also a talented and epigrammatic Yiildish author,
and some of his productions in that field were pub-
lished in Spector's " Hausfreund."

Zweifel is best known through his apologetic "Sha-
lom 'al-Yisrael," a work in four volumes, two of
which are marked " part true." He based his defense
on the ground that "Beshtism"' (niJCfV^) is thede-
velopmentof the views expressed in the " Moreh Ne-
bukim"of Maimonides. the" Hol)ot ha-
Defense of Lebabot " of Bahya, and tlie " .Mesillat
Hasidism. Yesharim " of Moses Luzzatto. Ho
showed also that similar idea-s were
found in Luria's cabalistic. system, and demonstratetl
that the Hasidic minhagim were mere repetitions of

what h
and in '

driuii ,
cliiiii.. ■'
Ha-
lo .
unj .
vi. ftU).

dism n<f loi .

Isiiii

of Hazun, and H. M

their th. ' '

among :

and appeals to Uio >.••

rels, like -

innovati

Zweifel was b\

hisapolr ••

yiin Sel:

Replies to < ; ;•

Zweifel. hh

triihtvtl ii
on the students ("Hm m
also Nos. 42-15, 47). ~
Zweifel (=: "don'
and unbalanci-d <
take Zweifel w:
while Isjiac Hi:
liarmoni/e (he fa
of false accusations
superlbii
good ini'
as a whole (" Ibi-Anif." HI

The works ' ' ' '
we ■ I' gab."

whirli •

Works. tir •

Bible ami Tiilim

ings . ■•'i'l- ■' •• '■

na, 1-^

admoiiiiKMi

Abraham, tin <

his S41II Samuel. '

tions, and l'>'

Rimmnnini,'

the Talmud, by -

bionettjk.

marks (J

tion of remark* on tl.'

ems, '

(<■' •

!■

gical hymn~ Ki ti

Kippur. \^ ••' •

jxiport. a

lorn 'al ^
p..,, < u

-B,i Mid.l..;

Zweifel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

708

Jacob Lftb Margolioth, with notes (Jitoniir, 1870);
(9) "Heslibon shel "Olam," on theodicy (Warsaw,
1878); (10) "Nezah Yisiael," tiie vitality of the
Jewish nation explained by the teachings of Juda-
ism (St. Petersburg, 1884; reprint from Zederbaum's
"Meliz Ehad Miuni Elef); (11) "Sauegor," a de-
fense against the accusation of materialism and Tal-
nuidic Judaism, divided into live sections and giv-
ing historical explanations (Warsaw, 188"); 2d cd.,
Wilna, 1894; cnmp. J. L. Freidkin in "Keneset Yis-
rael." i. 242; Berdyczeuski, in "Bet lia-MIKrash," i.
87): and (12) "'Olam Kataii," or "Klein Weltel,"
a Y'iddish poem reprinted from "Ila-Zofeh" (Lon-
don, 1894). Zweifel wrote also numerous articles
for the Hebrew, weeklies and mairazines.

Zweifel's granddaughter Pauline Zweifel is an
opera-singer of international reputation. She grad-
uated from the Warsav,- Conservatorium, made her
debut at Milan, and sang at the opera house in Kio
de Janeiro in 1905.

BntLioGR.\PHV : lln-MmiqiO, .\xxii., Nos. 41-45; Ha-Mdiz,
iK'^s. N.). :>8; He-A'^if. v. 214 ; (iznr /in-Si'/nii, iv. 273-276 ;
Papenia, in .<( ri r ha-Shniiali, I'JOU, pp. 03 et seq.; Zeitlin,
BihL Post-Mciukl". p. 431.

II. R. J. D. E.

ZWEIFEL, PAUL : German gynecologist ;
born at Hungg, near Zurich, Switzerland. June 30,
1848; educated at the University of Zurich (^I.D.
1871). In 1871 he received the"venia legendi " at
the University of Strasburg, where lie had already
become assistant in the gynecological institute. In
1876 he was appointed professor of gynecology at
the University of Erlangen, and in 1887 he was
transferred to Leipsic. He has the title "Geheimer
Mediziual-Rat.''

Zweifel has contributed over one hundred mono-
graphs to medical journals. Among his many works
may be mentioned : " Ueber den Verdauungsapparat
der Neugeborenen " (Strasburg, 1874); " Lehrbuch
der Operativen Geburtshlilfe " (Stuttgart, 1881; ap-
peared as "Lehrbuch der Gebuitshiilfe," ib. 1887,
nth ed. 1901); " Der Eintlu.'^s der Aerztlichen Thiitig-
keit auf die Bevolkeiungsbewegung " (ib. 1887);
"Die Symphyseotomie" (ib. 1893); and "Aetio-
logie. Prophylaxis uiid Therajiie der Rachitis" {ib.
1900).

BiBi.ior.RAPHV : Paffel, nUig. Lt.r.: Meyers Konverxatinnn-
Le.rikon ; Bruckliaus KonversatUms-LeJ^ilion .

s. F. T. H

THE END

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Full text of "The Jewish encyclopedia : a descriptive record of the history, religion, literature, and customs of the Jewish people from the earliest times to the present day"

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