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JOHNSON'S 
UNIVERSAL    CYCLOPEDIA 


TOL.  YH 


JOHNSON'S 


UNIVEESAL  CYCLOPAEDIA 


A  NEW  EDITION 

PREPAEED  BY  A  CORPS  OF  THIRTY-SIX  EDITORS,  ASSISTED   BY 
EMINENT  EUROPEAN  AND  AMERICAN  SPECIALISTS 


UKDEB  THS  DIRECnON  OF 

CHARLES   KENDALL    ADAMS,    LL.D. 

PBS8IDBNT   OF  THE    UNIVERSITY   OF   WISCONSIN 

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  MAPS,  PLANS,  AND  ENGRAVINGS 


COMPLETE  IN  EIGHT  VOLUMES 
VOL.    VII 


NEW  YORK 
D. APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 

A.    J.    JOHNSON     COMPANY 

1895 


I'HE  NEW  YORK" 
PUBLIC    LIBRARY  I 

596526 

won.  ttNoX  AW 
tILOWrOUHOATIONt. 


COPTRIOHT,  1876, 

By  a.  J.  JOHNSON. 

COPTBIOHT,  1877, 

Bt  ALVIN  J.  JOHNSON. 

CoPTRiQHT,  1886,  1889, 
By  a.  J.  JOHNSON  AND   COMPANY. 

COPYRIOBT,  1895, 

By  a.  J.  JOHNSON  COMPANY. 


ORGANIZATION    OF   THE    STAFF. 


EDITOR-IN-  CHIEF. 

CHARLES  KENDALL  ADAMS,  LL.  D., 

PRESIDENT  OP  THE   UNIVERSITY   OP   WISCONSIN, 

History,  Politics,  and  Kdueation. 


ASSOCIATE  EDITORS. 


LrBFBTT  H.  Bailey,  M.  S., 

Professor  of  Horticulture.  Cornell  University. 
Affriealtiire,  Hortlcnltare,  Forestry,  ete. 

Willis  J.  Beech er,  D.  D., 

Pr(>fe8S4^>r  of  Hebrew  Languafi^e  and  Literature, 
Auburn  TbeolojEdcal  Seminary. 
PresbyteriAii  Cboroh  History,  Doctrine,  etc 

IlrxRY  A-  Beers,  A.M., 

Prof fitsor  of  English  Literature,  Tale  University. 
EngUsh  Uteratnre,  etc 

f  [JARLES  R  Bessey,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Botany,  State  University  of  Nebraska. 
Botany,  Vegetable  Pbyslology,  etc 

I»"i»LEY  Buck, 

Composer  and  Organist,  Broolclyn,  N.  Y. 
Music,  Tbeory  of  Harmony,  Mnaioal  Terms,  etc 

FsAvris  M.  BiRDicK,  A.  M.,  LL.  B., 

Dwijrht  Professor  of   Law,  Columbia  College,  New 
York. 


«7F.. 


Xanlcipal,  Civil,  and  Constitutional  I«aw, 

.aoE  P.  Fisher.  D.  D..  LL,  D., 


Professor  of  Church  History,  Yale  University. 
Congregational  Cliarch  History,  Doctrine,  etc. 

OE'»rE  K.  Gilbert.  A.  M., 

tie«)U>gist,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 
Physical  Geography,  Geolc^^,  and  Pabeontology. 

P>A>IL    L.   GlLl>ER«!LEEVE,    LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Greek,  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
Grecian  and  Konuui  Uteratore. 

Arthur  T.  Hadley,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Political  Economy,  Yale  University. 
Political  Economy,  Finance,  and  Transi»ortation« 

Mark  W.  Harrinotox,  A.M.,  LL.  I).,  F.  L.  S., 
Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 
Geography,  Meteorology,  Clinxatology,  etc 

William  T.  Harris,  LL,  D., 

U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  and 

J.  Mark  Baldwin.  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Experimental   Psychology,  College  of 
New  Jersey. 
Philosophy,  Psychology,  Ethics,  etc 

'   'IN  F.  HcRST,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Bishop  (M.  E.), 

Chancellor  American  University,  Washington. 
Methodist  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc 

^vMLEL  Macauley  Jackson,  D. D.,  LL.D., 

Editor  of  A  Concise  Dictionary  of  Relierious  Knowl- 
edjre,  and  associate  editor  of  the  Schaft-Herzog  En- 
cyclopeedia.  New  York. 
General  Chorch  History  and  Biblical  Uterature. 

.rr.sRT  E.  Jacobs,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Prr»fes8or  of  Systematic  Theolog>',  Evangelical  Lu- 
theran Theological  Seminary.  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Lutheran  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc 

'•avid  S.  Jordax.  LL.  D., 

President  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University.    • 
Zoology,  Comparative  Anatomy,  and  Animal  Physi- 
ology. 


JoHX  J.  Keane,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Bishop  (R.  C), 

Rector  of  the  Catholic  University  of  America. 
Roman  Catholic  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc 

Chables  Kirch hoff.  M.  E., 

Editor  of  the  Iron  Age,  New  York. 
Mining  Engineering,  Mineralogy,  and  Metallurgy, 

Stephen  B.  Luce, 

Rear- Admiral,  U.  S.  Navy. 
Naral  Aflkirs,  Naval  Construction,  Navigation,  etc 

Arthur  R.  Marsh,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Comparative  Literature,  Harvard  Univ. 
Foreign  Uterature,  etc 

James  Mercur, 

Professor  of  Mil.  Engineering,  West  Point  Mil.  Acad. 
Military  Engineering,  Science  and  Munitions  of  War, 
etc 

Mansfield  Merriman,  C.  E.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Lehigh  University. 
Civil  Engineering,  etc 

Simon  Newcomb,  LL.D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Editor  of  the  U.  S.  Nautical  Almanaa 
Astronomy  and  Mathematics. 

Edward  L.  Nichols,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Physics.  Cornell  University. 
Physics,  Electricity  and  its  Applications. 

William  Pepper,  M.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Provost  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Medicine,  Surgery,  and  Collateral  Sciences. 

Wiluam  S.  Perry,  D.  D.  Oxon.,  LL.  D.,  Bishop  (P.  E.), 
Davenport,  Iowa. 
Episcopal  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc 

John  W.  Powell, 

Director  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 
American  Archseolc^^  and  Ethnology. 

Ira  Remsen,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Chemistry',  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
Chemistry  and  its  Applications,  etc 

AiNswoRTH  R.  Spofford,  LL.  D., 
Librarian  of  Congress. 
U.  S.  Geography,  Statistics,  etc 

Russell  Sturois,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  F.  A.  L  A., 

Ex-President  Architectural  League  of  New  York. 
ArchsBology  and  Art. 

Robert  H.  Thurston,  Doc.  Eng.,  LL.D., 

Director  of  Sibley  College,  Cornell  University. 
Mechanical  Science 

Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Greek  and  Com.  Philology,  Cornell  Univ. 
Comparative  Philology,  Unguistics,  etc 

William  II.  Whitsitt,  D.  D., 

Profes.sor  of   Ciiiirch    History,    Baptist  Theological 
Seminary,  Louisville,  Ky. 
Baptist  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc 

Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  International  Law,  Yale  University. 
Public  Law,  Intercourse  of  Nations. 


MANAGING   EDITOR, 
ROBERT  LILLEY,  M.R.A.S., 

ONE   OF  IHS   EDITORS   OF   THE   CENTURY   DICTIONARY. 


ASSISTANT  TO   THE  EDITOR-IN-CHIEF. 

CHARLES  II.  THURBER,   A.M., 
rRorxssoB  of  pvdaooot,  Colgate  university,  and  principal  of  coloatb  aoadeitt. 


JOHNSON'S  UNIVERSAL  CYCLOP JEDIA. 


VOL.  vn. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  REVISERS. 


♦Abbot,  Ezra,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Criticism  and  Interpreta- 
tion, Cambridge  Divinity  School,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Abbot,  Henry  Larcom,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Colonel  U.  S.  Engineers ;  brevet  brigadier-general  U.  S. 
army.  New  York. 

Adams,  Charles  Kendall,  A.  M.,  LL.  D., 

President  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

Adams,  Ctrus  C, 

Editorial  staff  of  The  Sun  (New  York) ;  President  of 
Department  of  Qeographj,  Brooklyn  Institute,  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y. 

Adams,  Henry  C,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Political  Economv  and  Finance,  University 


"^roiessor  or  Political  £iConomy  anti 
of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 


Alexander,  Joseph  H., 

Cashier,  Union  Savings-bank,  St  Charles,  Mo. 

Aloer,  Philip  R., 

Professor  of  Mathematics,  Bureau  of  Ordnance,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

Allen,  Charles  H., 

Formerly  principal  of  State  Normal  School,  San  Jos^,  Cal. 
Allen,  Frederic  Sturges,  A.  B.,  LL.  B., 

Member  of  the  New  York  Bar,  New  York ;  one  of  the 
editors  of  Webster's  International  Dictionary, 

Ames,  James  Bare,  A.  M., 

Bussev  Professor  of  Law,  Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 

Anderson,  Hon.  Rasmus  B., 

Formerly  Professor  of  Scandinavian  Languages,  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin ;  ex-U.  S.  minister  to  Denmark ; 
Madison,  Wis. 

Anthony,  Susan  B.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Armstrong,  Samuel  T.,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D., 

One  of  the' collaborators  of  Foster's  Eneydopcfdic  Med- 
ical Dictionary,  and  editor  of  an  American  Appendix 
to  Quain's  Dictionary  of  Medicine  \  New  York. 

Abhhurst,  John,  Jr.,  A.  M.,  M.  D., 

John  Rhea  Barton  Professor  of  Surgery  and  Professor 
of  Clinical  Surgery  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Department  of  Medicine,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Atterbury,  William  W.,  D.  D., 

SecreUry  of  the  New  York  Sabbath  Committee,  New 
York. 

Atwood,  Isaac  M.,  D.  D., 

President  of  the  Canton  Theological  School,  St  Law- 
rence University,  Canton,  N.  Y7 


Bailey,  Liberty  H.,  M.  S., 

Professor  of  General  and  Experimental  Horticoltare, 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Baker,  Ira  Osborn,  C.  E., 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of  Illinois, 
Champaign,  111. 

Baldwin,  J.  Mark,  Ph.  D., 

Stuart  Professor  of  Experimental  Psychology,  College 
of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  N.  J. 

Barton,  Clara, 

President  of  the  American  National  Red  Cross,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

Beach,  O.  B., 

With  R.  Hoe  &  Co.,  printing-press  manufacturers.  New 
York. 

Beadle,  William  H.  H.,  LL.  D., 

President  of  the  State  Normal  School,  Madison,  S.  D. 
Beaver,  W.  J.,  of  Roe  &  Beaver,  San  Bernardino,  Cal. 
Beecher,  Rev.  Willis  J.,  D.  D., 

Professor  of  Hebrew  Language  and  Literature,  Auburn 
Theological  Seminary,  Auburn,  N.  Y. 

Beers,  Henry  A.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  English  Literature,  Yale  University,  New 
Haven,  Conn. 

Belknap,  Lieut-Com.  Charles,  U.  S.  navy. 

Head  of  Department  of  Mechanics  and  Applied  Mathe- 
matics, U.  S.  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis,  Md. 

Benjamin,  Marcus,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S., 

Editorial  staff  of  the  Standard  Dictionary ^  and  of  T/ic 
Annual  Cyclopcedia^  New  York. 

Bessey,  Charles  E.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Botany  and  Horticulture,  University  of 
Nebraska,  Lincoln,  Neb. 

BioELOw,  Frank  H.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Meteorology,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

Birob;  Edward  Asahel,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Zofllogy  and  dean  of  the  College  of  Letters 
and  Science,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

Blake,  William  P.,  A.  M., 

Geologist  and  mining  engineer,  Shullsburg,  Wis. ;  foi^ 
merly  Professor  of  Mineralogy  and  Geology,  College 
of  California,  Oakland,  Cal. 

Bland,  Richard  P., 

Ex-Member  of  Congress  from  Missouri ;  Lebanon,  Mo. 
Blunt,  Capt.  Stanhope  E.,  U.  S.  army, 

Watervliet  Arsenal,  West  Troy,  N.  Y. 

(vi) 


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CONTRIBUTORS  AND  REVISERS 


George,  Henrt, 

Author  of  Progress  and  Poverty ,  etc..  New  York. 

OlDDINOS,  F&ANKLIN  H.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Sociology,  Columbia  College,  New  York. 
Gilbert,  Grove  Karl,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Geologist,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Gildersleeve,  Basil  L.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L., 

Professor  of  Greek,  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Balti- 
more, Md. 

Gill,  Theodore  N.,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 
Professor  of  Zodlogy,  Columbian  University,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 
GiLLETT,  Rev.  Charles  R., 

Librarian,  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York. 
Gilmore,  Joseph  Henrt,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Logic,  Rhetoric,  and  English,  University 
of  Rochester,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

GoDET,  Fr^d^ric  Louis,  D.  D., 

Minister  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Switzerland,  Neu- 
ch&tel,  Switzerland. 

(JoEBEL,  Julius,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Germanic  Literature  and  Philology,  Leland 
Stanford  Junior  University,  Santa  Clara  co.,  Cal. 

GoEssMAKK,  Charles  A.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Chemistry,  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, Amherst,  Mass. 

GooDE,  George  Brown,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Assistant  secretary  Smithsonian  Institution,  in  charge 
of  National  Museum,  Washington,  D.  C. 

GossE,  Edbcund,  M.  a., 

Author  of  From  Shakespeare  to  Pope^  History  of  Eigh- 
teenth Century  Literature,  etc.,  London,  England. 

GoTTHEiL,  Richard  J.  H.,  Ph.  D.  Leipzig, 

Professor  of  Rabbinical  Literature  and  the  Semitic 
Languages,  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Gould,  R  R.  L.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Statistics,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago, 
111.,  and  lecturer  on  Social  Economics  and  Statistics, 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Grosvenor,  Rev.  Edwin  A.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  French  Language  and  Literature,  Amherst 
College,  Amherst,  Mass. ;  formerly  Professor  of  His- 
tory, ilobert  College,  Constantinople,  Turkey. 

Groth,  p.,  a.  M., 

Author  of  a  Dano-Norwegian  Grammar  for  English- 
speaking  Students,  New  York. 

GuDEMAK,  Alfred,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Classical  Philology,  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Philadelphia,  Pa. 

GuMMERE,  Francis  Barton,  A.  B.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  English  and  German,  Haverford  College, 
Pennsylvania. 

Hadley,  Arthur  Twining,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Dean  of  Courses  of 
Graduate  Instruction,  Yale  University,  New  Haven, 
Conn. 

Haoar,  George  J., 

Member  New  Jersey  Historical  Society,  Newark,  N.  J. 
•Haldeman,  Samuel  S.,  LL.  D..  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Professor  of  Comparative  Philology,  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Halsted,  George  Bruce,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Pure  Mathematics,  University  of  Texas, 
Austin,  Tex. 

Hare,  Hobart  A.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Materia  Medica,  Therapeutics,  and  Hy- 
giene, Jefferson  Medical  College.  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


Harper,  John  M.,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  F.  E.  L  S., 

Inspector  of  Superior  Schools,  Province  of  Quebec,  Que- 
bec, Canada. 

Harrington,  Mark  W.,  A.  M.,  LL.  D.,  F.  L.  S., 

Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Harris,  Willlam  Torret,  A.  M.,  LL.  D., 

U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Hart,  Albert,  Acting  Secretary  of  State,  Sacramento,  Cal. 

Harvey,  Rev.  Moses,  S.T.  D.,  St.  John's,  Newfoundland. 

Haskins,  Charles  H.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Institutional  History,  University  of  Wis- 
consin, Madison,  Wis. 

Hates,  John  S., 

Librarian  of  the  Public  Library,  Somerville,  Mass. 
Hearn,  Thomas  A.,  Methodist  missionary,  Suchow,  China. 
Helbig,  Wolfgang, 

Formerly  secretary  of  the  Archaeological  Institute, 
Rome,  Italy. 

Hendrickson,  George  L.,  A.  B., 

Professor  of  Latin,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison, 
Wis. 

Hervet,  Daniel  E.,  organist,  Newark,  N.  J. 
HicHBORN,  Commodore  Philip, 

Chief  constructor  U.  S.  navy,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Hill,  David  J.,  LL.  D., 

President  of  the  University  of  Rochester,  Rochester, 
N.Y. 

Hirst,  Barton  C,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Obstetrics,  Department  of  Medicine,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Hitchcock,  Edward,  Jr.,  A.  B.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Hygiene  and  Physical  Culture,  and  direc- 
tor of  the  Gymnasium,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

HiTTELL,  John  S., 

Author  of  a  History  of  San  Francisco,  etc. ;  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. 

*HoDGE,  Archibald  A.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Exe^etical,  Didactic,  and  Polemic  Theol- 
ogy, College  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  N.  J. 

Hodge,  Frederick  Webb, 

Ethnologist  and  librarian  in  the  Bureau  of  Ethnolo^^, 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 

*HoLLET.  Alexander  Ltman,  C.  E.,  LL.  D., 

President  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engi- 
neers ;  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Holmes,  William  H., 

Professor  of  Archasologic  Geology,  University  of  Chica- 
go, Chicago,  111.,  and  honorary  curator  of  the  Na- 
tional Museum,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Hooker,  Henrietta  Edgecomb,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Botany,  Mt.  Holyoke  College,  South  Had- 
ley, Mass. 

HoTT,  Rev.  Charles  K,  A.  M., 

Formerly  Professor  of  English  Literature,  Wells  Col- 
lege, Aurora,  N.  Y. ;  now  pastor  of  First  Presbyterian 
church,  Brookfleld,  Mo. 

Hudson,  William  Henry, 

Assistant  Professor  of  English,  Leland  Stanford  Junior 
University,  Santa  Clara  co.,  Cal. 

Hughes,  Rev.  Thomas  P.,  D.  D., 

Rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  New  York  ; 
formerly  missionary  at  Peshawar,  India;  author  of 
Hie  Dictionary  of  Islam. 

HuMPHRETS,  Milton  Wylie,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Greek,  University  of  Virginia,  Charlottes- 
ville,  Va. 


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CONTRIBUTORS  AND  REVISERS 


MUNBO,  WiLFEBD  H.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  History,  and  Director  of  the  University 
Extension,  Brown  University,  Providence,  R.  I. 

MukbIe,  Chables  Edwabd,  S.  B.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Chemistry,  and  dean  of  the  Corcoran  Sci- 
entific School  and  of  the  School  of  Graduate  Studies, 
Columbian  University,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Newcomb,  Simon,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Superintendent  of  The  United  States  Nautical  Alma- 
nac, Washington,  D.  C;  formerly  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics and  Astronomy,  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
Baltimore,  Md. 
Nichols,  Edwabd  L.,  B.  S.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Physics,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
Nichols,  Stabb  Hoyt, 

Formerly  of  the  editorial  staff  of  The  Social  Economist^ 
New  York. 
NoBWooD,  Thomas  M., 

Attorney  and  counselor-at-law,  Savannah,  6a. 
NoYES,  Alexandeb  D., 

Editorial  staff  of  The  Evening  Poet,  New  York. 
Nutting,  Rev.  Wallace, 

Pastor     Plymouth     Congregational    church,    Seattle, 
Wash. 
Oates,  James  W.,  attomey-at-law,  Santa  Rosa,  Cal. 
OsBOBN,  Rev.  Albebt,  B.  D., 

Registrar,  American  University,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Packabd,  Alpheus  Spbino,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Professor  of  Geology  and  ZoOlogy,  Brown  University, 
Providence,  R.  I. 
Pabk,  RoswEL^  A.  M.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Surgery 
and  Clinical  Surgery,  Medical  Department,  Univer- 
sity of  Buflfalo,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Peppeb,  William,  M.D.,  LL.D., 

Ex-Provost  of  the  university  and  Professor  of  the  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Medicine"  in  the  Department  of  Medi- 
cine, University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Pebby,  Rt.  Rev.  William  Stevens,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  D.C.  L., 
Bishop  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  Davenport, 
la. 
Phelps,  Willlam  Lyon,  Ph.  D., 

Instructor  in  English  Literature,  Yale  University,  New 
Haven,  Conn. 
♦Phillips,  Hon.  Wendell,  Boston,  Mass. 
Piebsol,  Geobge  a.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Anatomy,  Department  of  Medicine,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Powell,  Maj.  John  W.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Washington,  D.  C, 
and  ex-Director  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 

E*YLE,  J.  G., 

Editorial  staff  of  The  Pioneer  Press,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

•Ralston,  William  R.  S., 

Assistant  librarian,  British  Museum,  London,  England. 
Ramsey.  Mabathon  Montbose, 

Professor  of  Spanish,  Corcoran  Scientific  School,  Colum- 
bian University,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Ravenstein,  Ebnest  G.,  P.  R.  G.  S., 

Member  of  councils  of  Royal  Geographical  Society  and 
Royal  Statistical  Society,  liondon,  England;  editor  of 
The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants. 

Reavis,  John  R., 

Secretary  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Spokane,  Wash. 
Rbddino,  C.  H.  E.,  editor  of  Harness,  New  York. 
Reichebt,  Edwabd  T.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Physiology,  Department  of  Medicine,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


Remsen,  Iba,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Professor  of  Chemistry  and  director  of  the  chemical 
laboratory,  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Reuck,  J.  M.,  journalist,  Stockton,  Cal. 

RiCHABDS,  C.  R., 

Director  of  the  Department  of  Science  and  Technology. 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

RicHABDSON,  S.  T.,  lawyer,  Salem,  Ore. 

♦Riley,  Rev  Isaac,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

RiOBDAN,  J.  E. 

Principal  of  the  Sheboygan  High  School,  Sheboygan, 
Wis. 
Robebts,  Isaac  P.,  M.  Agr., 

Director  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Professor  of  Ag- 
riculture, and  Director  of  the  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Robebts,  Ralph  A.,  A.  M., 

Author  of  a  TrecUise  on  the  Integral  Calculus,  etc.. 
New  York. 
Robinson,  John, 

Treasurer,  Peabody  Academy  of  Science,  Salem,  Mass. 

Rogebs,  William  Augustus,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 
Professor  of  Phvsics  and  Astronomy,  Colby  University, 
Waterville,  Me. 

Rolfe,  William  James,  Litt  D., 

Shakespearean  scholar  and  editor,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Rose,  Thbo.  C, 

dfiicial  stenographer  Sixth  Judicial  District  of  New 
York,  Elmira,  N.  Y. 

Russell,  Isbael  Cook,  M.  S.,  C.  E., 

Professor  of  Geology,  University  of  Michigan,  Ann 
Arbor,  Mich. 

Russell,  James  E.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Pedagogy,  University  of 
Colorado,  Boulder,  Col. 

Sansone,  Fbancisco, 

Editorial  staff  of  Dry  Goods  Economist,  New  York. 
Sabgent,  Chables  Spbague,  A.  B.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Editor  of  Garden  and  Forest,  New  York;  Arnold  Pn»- 
fessor  of  Arboriculture.  Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass. ;  Brookline,  Mass. 

Schmidt,  Nathaniel,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literature,  Theo- 
logical School  of  Colgate  University,  Hamilton,  N.  Y. 

Schmidt-Wabtenbebq,  H.,  Ph.  D., 

Assistant  Professor  of  German,  University  of  Chica^i>. 
Chicago,  III. 

SCHOENFELD,  HeBMANN,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  German  and  Continental  History,  Cohiin- 
bian  University,  Washington,  D.  C. 

ScHOTT,  Chables  Anthony,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Assistant,  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 

ScHUBZ,  Cabl,  LL.  D., 

Ex-Secretary  of  the  Interior ;  editorial  staff  of  Harper  ^ 
Weekly  \  Pocantico  Hills,  N.  Y. 

ScHWEiNiTZ,  Geobge  E.  de,  M.  D.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Scott,  Austin,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

President  of  Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 
Seddon,  Thomas,  librarian  of  the  public  library,  Sedalia,  Mmi 
Shaw,  Thomas, 

Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Minnesota  Ajsriiui 
tural  Kxperiment  Station,  St.  Anthony  Paric,  Minn. 

Sheldon,  Edwabd  S.,  A.  B., 

Professor  of  Romance  Philology,  Harvard  Universii\j 
Cambridge,  Mass. 


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MAPS    IN   VOL.    VII. 


POLITICAL. 


RHODE   ISLAND      . 

r:>MAX   EMPIRE     . 

Rl'S^IA 

nOTLAND     . 

N  I'TH   CAROLINA 

xCTU   DAKOTA    . 

<PAIN  AND   PORTUGAL 

SWITZERLAND 


90 
170 
213 
386 
630 
683 
640 
855 


CITIES. 


RlME  .  ^ 172 

<T.  LOUIS 255 

-VX   FRANCISCO V 292 


LIST  OF  FULL-PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


:ITISH  BATTLE-SHIP  BOYAL  SOVEREIGN 
S.   PROTECTED  CRUISER  COLUMBIA  . 

iSXrH   BATTLE-SHIP  HOCHE 

:wEXTINE  CRUISER  NUEVE  DE  JULIO) 
<    MONITOR  AMPHITRITE  ) 

:.AR   AND  OTHER  SPECTRA 

-TAG  E-ST  AMPS 


496 
497 
500 

501 

658 
694 


PECULIAR  PHONETIC  SYMBOLS 

USED  IN  THE  WRITING  OR  TRANSLITERATION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  LANGUAGES. 


&,  6,  etc. :  long  vowels ;  in  the  Scandinavian  languages  the 
accent  (d,  i^  etc.)  is  used  to  denote  length. 

% :  a  nasalized  a ;  so  used  in  the  transliteration  of  the  Ira- 
nian languages. 

A :    labialized  guttural  a  in  Swedish. 

m :    open  o  of  Eng.  ?iat,  used  chieflj  in  O.  Eng. 

af :  used  in  Oothic  to  denote  e  (open),  in  distinction  from 
dij  the  true  diphthong. 

au :  used  in  Gothic  to  denote  o  (open),  in  distinction  from 
du,  the  true  diphthong. 

bh:  in  Sanskrit  a  voiced  labial  aspirate  (cf.  eh), 

h:  voiced  bilabial  (or  labio-dental  f)  spirant,  used  in  dis- 
cussions of  Teutonic  dialects. 

9 :  voiceless  palatal  sibilant,  similar  to  Eng.  «A,  used  espe- 
cially in  transliteration  of  Sanskrit. 

6 :  frequently  used,  e.  g.  in  Slavonic  languages,  to  denote 
the  sound  of  Eng.  eh  in  cheek, 

c :  voiceless  palatal  explosive,  commonly  used  in  translit- 
eration of  Sanskrit  and  the  Iranian  languages. 

ch:  as  used  in  the  transliteration  of  Sanskrit,  a  voiceless 
palatal  aspirate,  an  aspirate  being  an  explosive  with 
excess  of  breath;  as  used  in  German  grammar,  the 
symbol  for  a  voiceless  palatal  or  guttural  spirant. 

dh:  voiced  dental  aspirate  (cf.  ch)  in  Sanskrit. 

d :  voiced  cerebral  explosive,  so  used  in  transliteration  of 
Sanskrit. 

dh :  v<ftced  cerebral  aspirate  (cf.  ch)  in  Sanskrit. 

d :  voiced  dental  (interdental)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Eng. 
th  in  then ;  so  used  in  the  Teutonic  and  Iranian  lan- 
guages and  in  phonetic  writing. 

§ :  a  short  open  e,  used  in  Teutonic  grammar,  particularly 
in  writing  O.  H.  G. 

d:  the  short  indefinite  or  "obscure"  vowel  of  Eng.  gar- 
dener ;  used  in  the  reconstruction  of  Indo-Eur.  forms, 
and  in  transliterating  the  Iranian  languages. 

gh :  in  Sanskrit  a  voiced  guttural  aspirate  (cf.  ch), 

q:  voiced  velar  (back-guttural)  explosive,  used  most  fre- 
quently in  Indo-Eur.  reconstructions. 

2 :  voiced  guttural  (or  palatal)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Mod. 
Greek  7,  and  used  in  transliteration  of  Iranian  lan- 
guages and  O.  Eng. 

h :    a  voiceless  breathing,  the  Sanskrit  visarga, 

hr:  a  labialized  A,  similar  to  wh  in  Eng.  wh€U\  used  in 
transliteration  of  Gothic  and  the  Iranian  languages. 

1^:  voiceless  guttural  (or  palatal)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Ger- 
man cA,  and  used  in  transliteration  of  the  Iranian 
languages. 

J :  the  semi-vowel  y,  or  consonant  fonn  of  t ;  used  in  pho- 
netic writing  and  reconstructions  of  Indo-Eur.  forms. 


n: 
fi: 
d: 

ft: 

5: 

0: 
ph 


r*- 


§: 


35: 


in  the  transliteration  of  Sanskrit  and  the  Iranian  lan- 
guages a  voiced  palatal  explosive;  in  the  Teiltonic 
languages  a  semi- vowel  (=  y),  for  which  in  Indo-Eur. 
reconstructions  %  is  generally  used. 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiced  palatal  aspirate  (cf.  ch\ 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  guttural  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

the  guttural  ("  thick  "  or  "  deep  ")  of  the  Slavonic  and 
some  of  the  Scandinavian  languages. 

vowel  /;  used  in  transliterating  Sanskrit,  in  reconstruct- 
ing Indo-Eur.  forms,  and  in  other  phonetic  writing. 

nasal  vowel ;  used  in  reconstruction  of  Indo-Eur.  forms 
and  in  phonetic  writing. 

in  Sanskrit  the  cerebral  nasaL 

in  Sanskrit  the  guttural  nasal  (see  following). 

the  guttural  nasal, equivalent  to  Eng.  n  in  longer;  used 
in  transliteration  of  Iranian  languages. 

palatal  nasal,  similar  to  gn  in  Fr.  regner ;  used  in  trans- 
literating Sanskrit  and  in  phonetic  writing. 

palatalized  o ;  used  in  German  and  in  phonetic  writing. 

short  open  0  in  Scandinavian. 

short  palatalized  0  (Q)  in  Scandinavian.  ^ 

in  Sanskrit,  voiceless  labial  aspirate  (cf.  eh), 

voiceless  velar  (back-guttural)  explosive ;  used  in  recon- 
structions of  Indo-Eur.  forms  and  in  other  phonetic 
writing. 

vowel  r;  used  in  transliterating  Sanskrit,  in  reconstruct 
tions  of  Indo-Eur.  forms,  and  in  other  phonetic  writ- 
ing. 

voiceless  cerebral  sibilant,  equivalent  to  Eng.  ah ;  use<l 
in  transliterating  the  Iranian  languages  and  in  pho- 
netic writing. 

voiceless  cerebral  spirant ;  used  in  transliterating  San- 
skrit. 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  dental  aspirate  (cf.  eh), 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  cerebral  aspirate  (cf.  ch), 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  cerebral  explosive. 

a  form  of  dental  spirant  used  in  transliterating  the 
Iranian  languages  (represented  in  Justi's  transliter- 
ation by  t). 

voiceless  dental  (interdental)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Bn|2:. 
th  in  thin;  used  in  Teutonic  dialects  and  in  phonetic- 
writing. 

consonant  form  of  u ;  used  in  phonetic  writing. 

voiced  cerebral  sibilant,  equivalent  to  «  in  Eng.  pleaa- 
ure^  and  toj  in  ¥r.jardin;  used  in  Iranian,  Slavonic, 
and  in  phonetic  writing. 

a  symbol  frequently  used  in  the  writing  of  O.  H.  O.  to 
indicate  a  voiced  dental  sibilant  (Eng.  z\  in  distinc- 
tion from  z  as  sign  of  the  affricata  (ta). 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE   SIGNS  AND   ABBREVIATIONS 
USED   IN  THE  ETYMOLOGIES. 


> ,  yielding  by  descent,  L  e.  under  the  operation  of  phonetic  ]aw. 

<,  descended  from. 

=,  borrowed  without  change  from. 

:  ,  cognate  with. 

+  ,  a  sign  joining  the  constituent  elements  of  a  compound. 

* ,  a  sign  appended  to  a  word  the  existence  of  which  is  inferred. 


ablat. 

ablative 

a.-ijus. 

accusative 

i-jjec. 

adjective 

diiv. 

adverb 

cf. 

compare 

"  njnnc. 

conjunction 

•l^riv.  of 

derivative  of 

'Ln:in. 

diminutive 

f-m. 

feminine 

C'TvX. 

genitive 

L-iifier 

imperative 

irupjf. 

imperfect 

\A\o. 

indicative 

.nr'.iL 

infinitive 

:::is« . 

masculine 

"  min. 

nominative 

r'"*r?ic 

participle 

■-Tt. 

perfect 

'■  --xT. 

plural 

r--fx 

preposition 

rrvs. 

present 

"'D. 

pronoun 

s,-. 

scilicet,  supply 

-".r.^. 

singular 

-  .rr^.. 

substantive 

•  •  -  Tit- 

vocative 

\-i:lr>Pr. 

Anglo-French 

>  -sh. 

Arabic 

* .  •  -t. 

Avestan 

Dan. 

Danish 

Eng. 

English 

Fr. 

French 

Germ. 

German 

Goth. 

Gothic 

Gr. 

Greek 

Heb. 

Hebrew 

Icel. 

Icelandic 

Ital. 

Italian 

Lat. 

Latin 

Lith. 

Lithuanian 

Mediffiv.  Lat. 

Mediaeval  Latin 

Mod.  Lat. 

Modern  Latin 

M.  Eng. 

Middle  English 

M.  H.  Germ. 

Middle  High  German 

0.  Bulg. 

Old  Bulgarian  (=  Church  Slavonic) 

0.  Eng. 

Old  English  (=  Anglo-Saxon) 

0.  Fr. 

Old  French 

0.  Fris. 

Old  Frisian 

0.  H.  Germ. 

Old  High  German 

O.N. 

Old  Norse 

0.  Sax. 

Old  Saxon 

Pers. 

Persian 

Portug. 

Portuguese 

Prov. 

Provencal 

Sanskr. 

Sanskrit 

So. 

Scotch 

Span. 

Spanish 

Swed. 

Swedish 

Teuton. 

Teutonic 

KEY  TO  THE  PRONUNCIATION. 


aa as  a  in  faiher,  and  in  the  second  syllable  of 

armada, 
ik same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  in  the  initial  syllable 

of  armada^  Arditi,  etc 

a as  final  a  in  armada,  peninsula,  etc. 

a as  a  in  fat,  and  %  in  French  fin, 

ay  or  &. .  as  ay  in  fMy,  or  as  a  in  fate, 
liy  or  a.,  same,  but  less  prolonged. 

S as  a  in  welfare. 

aw as  a  in  fall,  all, 

ee as  in  meet,  or  as  i  in  machine, 

ee same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  final  i  in  Arditi, 

e as  in  men,  pet, 

e obscure  e,  as  in  Bigdow,  and  final  e  in  Seine, 

6 as  in  lier,  and  eu  in  French  -eur, 

i as  in  it,  sin, 

I as  in  five,  sufine, 

\ same,  but  less  prolonged. 

6 as  in  mole,  sober, 

d same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  in  sobriety, 

o as  in  on,  not,  pot, 

oo as  in  fool,  or  as  u  in  rule, 

db as  in  book,  or  as  u  in  put,  pull, 

oi as  in  noise,  and  oy  in  boy,  or  as  eu  in  Oerman 

Beust, 

ow as  in  now,  and  as  au  in  German  haus. 


6 as  in  OUthe,  and  as  eu  in  French  neuf,  Chintreuil 

fi as  in  but,  hub, 

u obscure  o,  as  final  o  in  Compton, 

fi ^s  in  German  slid,  and  as  u  in  French  Buzan- 

ffais,  vu, 

y  otI see  /  or  y. 

yu asu  in  mule, 

yu same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  in  singular, 

eh as  in  German  ieh, 

g as  in  get,  give  (never  as  in  gist,  congest). 

hw as  u^A  in  whieh, 

kh as  eh  in  German  naeht,  g  in  German  tag,  eh  in 

Scotch  loch,  and/  in  Spanish  Badajos,  etc. 
n nasal  n,  as  in  French  fin,  Bwirbon,  and  nasal  m, 

as  in  French  nom,  Portuguese  Sam, 
fi  or  n-y..  Spanish  il,  as  in    eafton,  pifton,    French    and 

Italian  gn,  etc.,  as  in  Boulogne, 
I  oTj French  /,  liquid  or  mouill^,  as  (-i)ll-  in  French 

BaudrUlart,  and  (-♦)?  in  ChintreuiL 

th as  in  thin. 

th as  in  though,  them,  mother, 

v SB  win  German  zioei,  and  b  in  Spanish  Cordoba. 

sh as  in  shine, 

zh as  e  in  pleasure,  and  j  in  French  jour. 

All  other  letters  are  used  "with  their  ordinary  £ngli».b 
values. 


NOTE. 

The  values  of  most  of  the  signs  used  in  the  above  Key  are  plainly  shown  by  the  examples  given.  But  those  of 
0,  fi,  eh,  kh,  fi,  and  v,  which  have  no  equivalents  in  English,  can  not  be  sufficiently  indicated  without  a  brief  explanation, 
which  is  here  given. 

6.     The  sound  represented  by  this  symbol  is  approximately  that  of  -u-  in  hurt  or  -e-  in  her,  but  is  materially  different 

from  either.    It  is  properly  pronounced  with  the  tongue  in  the  position  it  has  when  A  is  uttered  and  with  the  lips  in 

the  position  assumed  in  uttering  o. 
tL    This  vowel  is  produced  with  the  lips  rounded  as  in  uttering  oo  and  with  the  tongue  in  the  position  required  in  att4>r- 

ing  ee,  into  which  sound  it  is  most  naturally  corrupted, 
ch  and  kh.    These  are  both  rough  breathings  or  spirants  made  with  considerable  force,  ch  being  made  between  the  flati 

of  the  tongue  and  the  hard  palate,  and  kh  between  the  tongue  and  the  soft  palate,    eh  approaches  in  sound  to  £n^^ 

lish  sh,  but  is  less  sibilant  and  is  made  further  back  in  the  mouth ;  A;h  is  a  guttural  and  has  a  hawking  sound. 
/  or  y.    These  are  both  used  to  represent  the  sound  of  French  1  mouilld,  in  (-i)ll-  and  (-i)l,  which  resembles  EnglisH    -t^ 

in  lawyer.    Final  I,  that  is,  (-i)l,  may  be  approximated  by  starting  to  pronounce  lawyer  and  stopping  abruptly  ^^ith 

the  -y-. 
ff  or  n-y.    The  consonants  represented  by  fi  (Spanish  fi,  French  and  Italian  gn,  etc.)  are  practically  equivalent  to  En^lisVi 

-ni-  or  -ny-  in  bunion,  bunyon,  onion,  etc.,  and,  except  when  final,  are  represented  by  n-y.    Final  iX,  as  French  -gTi(e>i 

may  be  produced  by  omitting  the  sound  of  -on  in  the  pronunciation  of  onion. 
V,    This  may  be  pronounced  by  attempting  to  utter  English  v  with  the  use  of  the  lips  alone. 

See  Preface  (vol.  L,  p.  xxiv.)  and  the  article  Fhonunciation  of  Foreign  Names. 


114  .Lv 


<    V<    I.Ul:iEL>I7 


[«T^tiili     ^11 1 


■r««M|M«    tr/ltt   ••Hit  i'tt^-r!  -  Srtn]  Sf*Hh*  TI'Mlitur  lii  t  -li 


llil 
lift 


RALLID^ 


RAMAYANA 


was  wounded,  Juno,  1596;  was  readmitted  at  court  May, 
1507;  sailed  with  the  Karl  of  Essex  to  the  Azores  in  the 
same  year  and  took  Fayal,  but  q^uarreled  with  his  com- 
mander and  contributed  to  the  rum  of  Essex;  obtained  a 
grant  of  the  fine  manor  of  Sherborne,  Dorsetshire ;  went  as 
aml)assador  to  the  Netherlands  1600;  became  governor  of 
Jersey  1601 ;  lost  favor  at  court  on  the  accession  of  James  I., 
was  accused  of  conspiring  to  raise  Lady  Arabella  Stuart  to 
the  throne,  committed  to  the  Tower  in  Julv,  and  condemned 
to  death  at  Winchester,  Nov.  17, 1603;  suftered  confiscation 
of  his  estates,  which  were  given  to  Carr,  the  new  favorite ; 
was  kept  thirteen  years  in  the  Tower,  during  which  time  lie 
wrote  and  published  his  principal  work,  The  History  of  the 
World  (1614) ;  recovered  his  liberty,  though  not  his  pardon, 
through  the  influence  of  Villiers,' Jan.  30,  1616;  obtained 
from  James  a  commission  as  admiral,  and  sailed  with  a  fleet 
of  fourteen  ships  for  the  discovery  of  his  promised  El  Do- 
rado in  Guiana  Mar.  28, 1617;  had  several  engagements  with 
the  Spaniards,  in  one  of  which  he  lost  his  oldest  son ;  lost 
several  vessels,  and  was  foiled  in  his  objects;  landed  at 
Plymouth  on  his  return  June,  1618;  was  imprisoned  on 
complaint  of  the  Spanish  ambassador,  Gondomar,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  conduct  in  Guiana,  and  it  having  been  decided 
by  the  judges  that  the  sentence  of  death  pronounced  in  1603 
was  still  valid,  he  was  executed  at  the  palace  yard,  West- 
minster, Oct.  20, 1618.  Raleigh  was  a  man  of  splendid  ge- 
nius and  extensive  attainments,  wrote  many  miscellaneous, 
literary,  and  political  essays,  anil  a  few  poems  of  high  order. 
His  Complete  Works  were  edited  at  Oxford  in  8  vols. 
(1829).  Biographies  have  been  written  bv  William  Oldys, 
Arthur  Cayley,  r.  P.  Tytler,  James  A.  St.  John,  and  Edward 
Edwards,  the  two  latter  having  api)eared  almost  simultane- 
ously in  1868.  Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

RariidflB  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Jtallue,  the  typical 
^enus,  from  the  Fr.  rdle^  rail.  See  Rail]  :  a  family  of  birds 
including  the  rails  and  gallinules.  The  neck  is  moderately 
elongated;  the  head  rather  small;  the  bill  more  or  less 
elongated,  compressed,  and  with  the  culmen  advancing  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  upon  the  forehead  and  decurved  to- 
ward the  apex ;  the  nostrils  are  lateral,  rather  inferior,  and 
in  a  membranous  groove ;  the  wings  moderate  and  rounded, 
rather  short;  the  tail  rather  short,  inclined  upward,  and 
rounded ;  the  tarsi  rather  long  and  slender,  and  in  front 
covered  with  transverse  scutella?;  the  toes  three  in  front, 
and  well  developed,  the  hinder  comparatively  short  and 
rather  elevated ;  the  claws  curved  and  sharp. 

Revised  by  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Ralph,  James  :  poet  and  pamphleteer;  b.  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  about  1698;  became  a  schoolmaster  in  his  native  city, 
where  he  made  some  pretensions  to  literarv  ability ;  was  an 
early  friend  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  with  whom  he  sailed  for 
England  1724,  abandoning  his  wife  and  child ;  published  in 
1728  a  poem  entitled  Niglit^  which  was  sufficiently  bad  to 
merit  notice  by  Pope  in  the  Dunciad ;  sought  favor  with  the 
Whig  politicians  by  writing  pamphlets  and  plays  ;  was  pa- 
tronized by  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  received  a  pen- 
sion on  the  accession  of  George  III.  D.  at  Chiswick,  Jan.  24, 
1762.  Author  of  Zeuma,  a  poem  (1729);  The  Use  and 
Abuse  of  Parliaments  (2  vols.,  1744);  History  of  England 
(2  vols,  folio,  1744-46);  and  The  Case  of  Authors  by  Profes- 
sion or  Trade  Stated  (1758).         Revised  by  11.  A.  Bkers. 

Rama:  See  Rama vana. 

Ramadan :  Arabian  form  for  Ramazan  {q,  v.). 

Ra'mah  [from  Ileb.  RCimdh,  liter.,  lofty  place] :  the  name 
of  several  {Haces  in  Palestine,  two  of  whicli  are  historically 
interesting  and  important.  One  of  these,  first  mentioned  iii 
Josh,  xviii.  25,  and  identified  by  Robinson  in  1838.  is  on  the 
top  of  a  high  hill  about  5  miles  ^J.  of  Jerusalem.  It  l>elonged 
to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  Tlie  other,  where  Samuel  was  born 
(1  Sam.  i.  1),  has  not  yet  been  identified  with  certainty. 

Rama'yana  fSanskr.  adjec.  rdmayana,  concerning  Rama, 
sc.  noun  dk hy ana,  siory] :  the  name  of  a  celebrated  |>oem  of 
ancient  India.  It  is  the  first  great  Indie  literary  or  personal 
epic,  as  distinguished  from  the  iM)nular  epic,  exemplified  in 
the  Mahdhhdrata,  Much  critical  work  is  yet  to  be  done 
ere  all  the  specific  problems  concerning  the  genesis  of  the 

{K>em  can  l>e  solved;  but  their  ultimate  stfhitions  are  sure  to 
)e  most  illuminating  for  tlie  student  of  the  genesis  of  epic 
f>oetry.  R<'specting  the  general  theory  of  the  origin  of  the 
i»oem,  see  Epic  J^oetry.  The  original  nucleus  of  the  lid- 
mdyana  differs  wholly  from  that  of  the  Maiiabiiarata  {q.  r.) 
in  two  most  important  respects:  First,  it  is  the  work  of 


one  man ;  and,  second,  it  is  of  unitary  design  and  charac- 
ter. The  man  is  called  Valmiki — a  fact  quite  bare  of  m;:- 
nific^nce,  as  compared  with  the  fact  that  he  is  namaMe  ; 
and  whereas  the  Bhdrata  is  inordinately  episodical,  and  i^ 
in  effect  a  grreat  cyclopaedia  of  Indie  legend,  the  Hdrndymnt 
concerns  itself  with  the  legends  clustering  about  the  one 
great  name  of  Rama. 

Valmiki's  material  (like  that  of  the  Bhdrata)  is  truly 
popular.  It  consists  of  the  legends  of  Rama  of  the  ra-*- 
of  Ikshvaku  in  the  land  of  Kosala.  These  were  the  sul»jc«t 
of  many  little  epic  songs  sung  by  the  bards  {sutat*)  at  th»' 
courts  of  the  Ikshvaku  princes.  A  Brahman,  Valmiki.  of 
pre-eminent  poetic  gifts,  made  himself  master  of  these  sonu'-, 
transfused  them  into  a  consistent  whole,  and  so  cn»ateii  an 
epos.  This  was  learned  by  the  professional  rhapscnlists,  and 
by  them  recited  in  public.  The  date  of  the  written  n^dnr- 
tion  we  do  not  know;  but  it  was  doubtless  ma<le  whih*  th-* 
institution  of  wandering  minstrels  or  professional  re<iters .  .f 
the  poem  was  still  in  full  vogue,  and  while  their  oral  tradi- 
tions of  the  poem  possessed  as  much  authority  as  the  then 
extant  written  copies.  It  is  probable  that  the  fixation  nf 
the  poem  in  writmg  took  place  independently  in  different 
localities,  and  that  each  of  the  now  extant  recensions  is  an 
independent  reflex  of  one  of  the  locally  or  otherwise  vary  in  tc 
oral  traditions. 

The  most  important  recensions  are  three :  One  is  the  l^^n- 
gal  recension,  edited  by  Gorresio;  and  another,  tlie  so-call»d 
"northern,"  which  has  the  widest  currency,  and  is  the  ba^i** 
of  the  Bombay  editions.  The  poem,  like  some  medi»*val 
cathedral,  has  suffered  additions  and  changes'at  the  hands  of 
successive  generations,  but  not  in  such  wise  as  greatly  t«> 
obscure  its  original  compass  and  design.  In  its  pres^^nt 
forms  the  Jidmdyana  consists  of  seven  books,  of  wliich. 
however,  the  first  and  last  are  doubtless  later  ailditioo'-. 
The  seven  books  contain  about  25,000  double  versi»s — «sa>- 
about  twice  as  much  as  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  together*: 
but  Jacobi  believes  that  a  reconstructed  text  would  contain, 
after  casting  out  all  provable  additions,  some  8,000  or  1U,U(HI 
double  verses. 

Story  of  the  Poem  (after  Monier-Williams). — To  Dayara- 
tha.  King  of  Ayodhya,  by  his  three  wives,  are  bom  fntir 
sons:  Rama,  the  eldest;  and,  bv  Kaikeyi,  BharatA.  Karnn 
is  taken  to  the  court  of  King  Jauaka,  knd  by  his  stren^'th. 
shown  in  bending  a  wonderful  bow,  wins  for  his  wife  Situ. 
He  returns,  and  preparations  are  made  to  install  him  a^ 
successor  to  his  father's  throne.  Kaikeyi  now  demands  *»f 
Da^aratha — by  way  of  fulfillment  of  an  old  promise  that  ]u' 
would  grant  ner  any  two  requests  she  might  make — tlmt 
Rama  be  banished,  and  her  own  son  Bharata  be  made  kini^. 
Rama  dutifully  goes  into  exile  with  Sita.  The  king  die>  m 
grief.  Bharata  goes  and  proffers  Rama  the  kingdom,  ami 
is  refused. 

Sita  is  carried  oflf  bv  Riivana,  the  demon-king  of  I^nkri. 
The  ape  Uanumant  seelcs  and  finds  her.  R&ma  makes  aiii- 
ance  with  Sugrlva,  king  of  the  apes,  and  with  his  aid,  ami 
that  of  Vibhishana,  brother  of  Ravaufi,  he  invades  Hava- 
na's capital,  slays  him,  and  recovers  Siti.  He  then  return^ 
to  Ayodhya  and  assumes  his  crown. 

Here  are  two  parts  fundamentally  different.  Vp  to  Ka- 
ma's refusal  of  the  kingdom  all  is  natural,  human,  aiui  }m  w- 
sible.  From  the  rape  of  Sita  on,  all  is  unnatural  and  fati- 
tastic  to  the  last  degree.  This  instructive  combination  i- 
an  instance  of  what  has  taken  place  also  among  other  i>im»- 

f)les — the  mingling  of  heroic-legendary  elements  with  my  t  h«  .- 
ogical  elements.  The  first  part  gives  us  the  story  of  Itain.., 
as  a  popular  hero;  the  second  blends  the  conceptions  i- 
Rama  the  hero  with  those  of  Rama  the  divinity.  As  earl*, 
as  the  Rig- Veda,  Sita  appears  as  the  j)ersonified  Furn>\%  ^ 
She  is  a  genius  of  the  corn-field  and  wife  of  the  rain-g*»<l. 
The  battles  of  Rama  and  Havana  are  only  another  ft>rni  « .*! 
the  battles  of  the  rain-god  Indra  with  the  demon  of  dn»uirl.  t  , 
What  to  the  nomad  herdsman  of  Vedic  times  was  a  iHMiniu  * 
up  of  the  heavenly  waters,  that  was  to  the  husbananuui  *  •  j 
enic  times  a  carrying  away  of  the  goddess  of  their  corn-fiel  • :  -, 
Iianumant,  son  of  the  wind-g(Ml,  is  a  rain-god,  the  genin?-  <  -j 
the  monsoon,  who  recovers  Sita,  i.  e.  brings  back  to  life  i)\,\ 
dead  and  j)arched  fields. 

Place  and  Date. — The  place  of  the  human  part  of  t  ^  ^ 
poem  is  Kosala,  the  region  about  Ayodhya  ((hulh).  Tli«»^ 
is  not  the  slightest  allusion  to  the  most  important  fart  m 
the  j)re-('hristian  political  history  of  Imlia.  the  cmpin*  « .| 
the  great  Mauryan  dynasty  of  the  neighboring  Magadl>;t  t 
founded  by  contemj)oraries  of  Buddha,  nor  to  its  capii  ,] 
l*ataliputra.     In  short,  the  whole  political  and  geograpl>u:i 


RAMSAY 


RAML^S 


Ramsay,  David,  M.  D.  :  physician  and  author ;  b.  in 
Lancaster  co.,  Pa.,  Apr.  2,  1749 ;  graduated  at  Princeton 
1765  ;  studied  medicine  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania ; 
settled  as  a  physician  at  Charleston,  8.  C.,  1773 ;  served  in 
the  war  of  the  Revolution  as  a  field-surgeon,  participating 
in  the  siege  of  Savannah ;  was  a  leading  member  of  the 
South  Carolina  Legislature  1776-83,  and  of  the  council  of 
safety  at  Charleston,  on  the  capture  of  which  city  he  was 
treated  by  the  British  as  a  hostage  and  kept  eleven  months 
in  close  confinement  in  St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  1780-^1  ;  was  a 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress  1782-84,  and  again 
1785-86 ;  was  acting  president  of  Congress  during  most  of 
the  latter  period,  on  account  of  the  sickness  of  llancock ; 
published  a  History  of  the  Revolution  of  South  Carolina 
(2  vols.,  Trenton,  1785),  History  of  the  American  Revolution 
(2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1789),  a  Life  of  Washington  (New 
York,  \S07),  A  History  of  South  Carolina  (Charleston,  1809), 
and  History  of  the  United  States  1607-1808  (3  vols.,  Phila- 
delphia, 1816-17),  besides  medical  and  other  essays.  Ilis  first 
wife  was  a  daughter  of  President  Witherspoon,  of  Prince- 
ton ;  his  second  was  Martha,  daughter  of  llenry  Laurens, 
and  of  her  he  published  a  memoir  m  1811.  During  the  last 
fourteen  years  of  his  life  Dr.  Ramsay  was  a  member  of  the 
South  Carolina  Legislature,  and  for  much  of  the  time  presi- 
dent of  the  Senate.  I),  at  Charleston,  May  8,  1815,  from  a 
wound  inflicted  by  a  lunatic  two  days  before. 

Ramsay,  William  Mitchell,  D.  C.  Tj.  :  scholar ;  b.  in 
Glasgow,  Scotland,  Mar.  15, 1851 ;  was  e<lucated  at  the  Tni- 
versities  of  Aberdeen,  Oxford,  Qottingen,  and  Berlin  ;  held 
the  traveling  studentship  of  Oxford  University  in  1879; 
was  fellow  of  Exeter  College  in  1882 ;  resided  and  traveled 
in  Asia  Minor  1880-84,  and  ma^le  frequent  excursions  to 
that  land  1885-91 ;  was  Lincoln  Professor  of  Classical  Art 
and  Archffiology  in  Oxford  1885 ;  and  since  1886  has  been 
Professor  of  Humanity  in  Aberdeen  University.  Dr.  Ram- 
say has  published  numerous  articles  in  magazines  of  Europe 
and  the  U.  S. :  Historical  Oeoaraphy  of  Asia  Minor  (1890) ; 
The  Church  in  the  Roman  Emmre  before  170  A.  D.  (1893) ; 
and  St.  PauVs  Travels:  the  ^arrative^  its  Author^  aiid 
Date;  Morgan  lectures  in  Theological  Seminary,  Auburn, 
N.  Y.  (London,  1895).  C.  K.  Uo\t. 

Ram'ses,  or  Ram'eses  (Egypt.  Rd-me^u) :  the  name  of 
thirteen  Kings  of  Egvpt  belonging  to  the  nineteenth  and 
twentieth  dynasties.  HAaisBS  I.,  the  first  king  of  the  nine- 
teenth dynasty,  ascended  the  throne  at  the  close  of  a  period 
of  confusion  consequent  upon  the  religious  reforms  at- 
tempted by  Khunatkn  (g.  v.),  during  which  the  Nubians 
and  the  Shasu  or  Eastern  nomads  had  thrown  off  the  yoke 
of  Egypt.  All  that  is  known  of  him  is  that  he  waged  war 
in  a  small  way  in  Nubia,  where  he  left  memorial  steUc ;  that 
he  made  a  treaty  with  the  Hittites ;  and  that  he  did  some 
building  at  Thebes,  where  he  commenced  the  great  hypostyle 
hall  at  Karnak.  His  chief  claim  to  distinction  is  that  he 
was  the  father  of  Seti  1.,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Egyptian 
warriors  and  conquerors,  who  claimed  to  have  extended  bis 
sway  till  it  included  all  that  Thothmes  ITI.  had  held.  Seti 
thus  handed  on  a  united  and  powerful  kingdom  to  Ramses 
II.,  whom  he  had  alrcadv  associated,  in  his  twelfth  year, 
with  himself  as  king.  Ramses  II.  niled  for  sixty-six  or 
sixty-seven  years,  lie  was  a  powerful  monarch,  a  great 
builder,  and  a  liberal  patron.  The  Oreek  writers  ascribed 
to  him  many  wonderful  deeds  under  the  name  of  Sesostris, 
but  this  name  was  a  sort  of  conglomerate  in  which  the  per- 
sonalities of  several  kings  were  combineil,  such,  e.  g.,  as 
Usertiisen  II.  of  the  twelfth,  Ramses  II.  of  the  nineteenth, 
and  Ramses  III.  of  the  twentieth  dynasty.  The  name  of 
Ramses  11.  is  found  on  monuments  or  buildings  from  Beirut 
to  Napata  and  from  one  end  of  Egypt  to  the  other,  as  well 
as  throughout  the  length  of  Nubia.  (See  Ipsambcl.)  In 
many  cases,  however,  his  name  was  inserted  in  the  inscrip- 
tions of  other  kings  by  a  process  of  usurpation  in  which  he 
was  the  worst  offender  in  Egyptian  history.  His  principal 
residence  appears  to  have  been  at  Tanis,  where  lie  erected  a 
granite  temple  which  he  adorned  with  a  coloss^il  statue  of 
himself.  At  Thebes  he  ere('te<l  the  Ramesseum,  besides  ex- 
tending the  buildintJfs  of  his  predecessors.  He  built  also  at 
Abydos  (see  Mkmnonh'M),  at  Memphis,  and  Heliopolis,  be- 
sides a  multitude  of  otlier  places.  The  UHmessoum,  a  large 
temple  on  the  W.  of  the  Nile  opposite  KHrnak,  was  devoted 
to  the  w<irship  of  the  manes  of  the  great  Ramses.  On  its 
walls  were  inscribed  the  accounts  r)f  his  wars,  especially  the 
account  of  the  expedition  a;,'ainst  tlie  Hitiites  which  is  com- 
memorated in  the  famous  poem  of  Peiitaur. 


His  warlike  operations  liegan  while  he  was  coregent  with 
Seti  I.,  when  he  led  expeditions  into  Nubia  and  Lil»\a. 
Near  Beirut  are  inscriptions  which  record  his  advance* to 
that  point  in  his  secona  and  fourth  vears.  In  his  fifth  year 
he  marched  against  the  Hittites,  whose  principal  seat'wii«> 
in  the  region  about  Carchemish.  With  them  were  allied  all 
the  neoples  of  the  entire  region.  At  Kadesh,  on  the  Oronte**. 
battle  was  jointed,  and  in  the  confiict  Ramses  was  successf  iil 
over  Mftutenure,  the  Hittite  king,  largely  by  reason  of  his  per- 
sonal daring  and  prowess,  if  we  may  credit  the  monument<tI 
record.  In  his  eighth  vear  another  expedition  was  under- 
taken against  certain  cities  in  Palestine,  Ascalon  being  the 
principal  place  capturetl.  In  his  twenty-first  year  RMmM'> 
entered  into  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Cheta- 
sar,  the  Hittite  king,  and  to  confirm  this  treaty,  which  re- 
mained in  force  during  the  rest  of  his  reign,  he  took  to  wift- 
the  daughter  of  the  Hittite.  In  consequence,  more  intimate 
relations  of  friendship  and  trade  were  established  betwe<Mi 
Egypt  and  the  East.  After  a  reign  of  sixty-seven  (Josephii^i. 
sixty-six)  years,  Ramses  died,  and  was  succecKled  by  his  s<m 
Meneptah  (Egypt.  Mer-en-Ptah,  beloved  of  PtahJ,  who  i> 
usually  regard ea  as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  under  whom 
the  kingdom  rapidly  lost  presti|2:e. 

Ramses  III.  was  the  second  king  of  the  twentieth  dynasty, 
and  ten  others  bearing  the  same  name  followed  in  immtnliate 
succession.  The  period  which  preceded  the  reign  of  RamM  s 
III.  was  almost  one  of  anarchy,  and  in  it  even  a  Syrian  a|»- 
pears  to  have  succeeded  in  gaining  t«mtx>rary  royal  power, 
buring  the  period  following  his  death  tne  power  exenisiMl 
by  the  priests  was  such  as  to  lead  to  a  speedy  deterioration 
of  the  Kingdom,  and  to  a  final  usurpation  of  the  throne  l>y 
Her-Hor  (^.  t'.),  the  priest-king.  Ramses  III.  waffe<l  war 
with  the  Libyans  and  with  his  neighbors  to  the  N.  E.,  th«- 
Hittites  and  their  allies,  while  Punt  and  Ethiopia  wen* 
forced  to  pay  tribute.  His  reign  was  brilliant>,  and  wa- 
commemorated  on  the  walls  of  Ramses*s  memnonium  at 
Medinet  Habu  {q.  v.\  at  Thebes,  which  in  its  various  exten- 
sions presented  the  annals  of  the  kincr.  For  ethnoU»gic-al 
purposes  its  mural  decorations,  giving  life-like  portrait.s  of 
prisoners  taken  in  war,  are  very  valuable.  See  Petrie's  Ra- 
cial Types  from  Egypt  (1887). 

The  most  notable  events  of  the  following  reigns  were  tlio 
thefts  practiced  in  the  necropolis  at  TheVies  and  elsewhen\ 
in  the  times  of  Ramses  IX.  and  X.,  which  were  made  the 
subject  of  investigations.  The  results  of  these  inquirit-^ 
have  come  down  to  us,  showing  the  extent  of  the  depreda- 
tions. 

The  mummies  of  the  first  three  Ramses  are  at  the  Gi/^h 
Museum,  having  been  among  those  found  in  1881  near  I>«ir 
el-Bahri,  W.  of  Thebes.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Ramses,  or  Raamses:  the  name  given  in  Ex.  i.  11  to 
one  of  the  "store-cities"  built  by  the  Israelites  for  lh»- 
Pharaoh  of  the  Oppression,  who  usually  has  been  identit1*-<l 
with  the  great  Ramses  II.  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty.  It^ 
Ux'ation  is  unknown,  but  it  was  probably  a  frontier  t«»\*  n 
like  PiTHOM  (g.  f'.).  By  some  it  is  supposed  to  have  Ih-»ii 
lot-ated  in  the  Wadi  Tumilat,  W.  of  rithom,  while  otln-rs 
identifv  it  with  Tanis,  which  in  some  inscriptions  Invars  tin- 
name  Pi-Ramses,  dwelling  or  house  of  Ramses.      C.  R.  G. 

Ranisgate:  town;  in  the  countv  of  Kent,  England  :  on 
the  southeast  coast  of  the  Isle  of  I'hanet;  72  miles  E.  by  >n. 
of  London  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  12-L).  It  is  an  iin|>or- 
tant  fishing-station,  with  a  harbor  of  refuge  51  acres  in  ex- 
tent inclosed  between  two  piers.  Among  its  features  aro 
an  iron  i)romenade-pier,  a  beautiful  Roman  Catholic  ehurt  ti 
designed  by  Pugin,  a  Benedictine  monastery,  and  a  Jewi*.»i 
college.  It  is  much  frequented  as  a  watering-place  bv  Li»ii- 
doners.    Pop.  (1891)  24,676. 

Ranins,  Petris  (Pr.  Pierre  de  la  Ramee):  humanist  an«\ 
mathematician ;  b.  at  Cuth,  department  of  Somme.  FraiK«». 
in  1515,  in  humble  circumstances;  studied  under  gn^it 
difficulties  at  the  University  of  Paris,  and  published  in  154;; 
his  Animadrersionum  in  Dialecticam  Arisfofelis  Libri  A'A 
and  Institutionum  Dialect icarum  Libri  II I.^  in  which  In 
attacked  Aristotle  and  the  scholastic  method  of  phih •^«  »- 
phizing  with  great  Iwldness.  The  university,  the  Chun  h^ 
the  Parliament,  took  great  offense;  the  books  were  i-oii^ 
demne<l.  and  the  author  forbidden  to  teach.  By  the  fa^«»< 
of  the  king  he  was  nevertheless  afterward  appointed  at  tl  i . 
university,  and  continued  till  his  death  his  onpositi. -i  i 
against  the  empty  subtleties  of  the  philosophy  of  iiis  ti-i..- 
Among  other  works  were  (hometria  (1569)  and  Srh»U  * 
Mathemaf ic(f  iloQ^J).    In  1561  he  embraced  ProtestHiiti-r  ?: 


6 


RANDOLPH 


RANSOM 


committee  of  vigilance  chosen  Mar.  10,  1773,  and  an  effi- 
cient worker  in  promoting  through  correspondence  a  con- 
cert of  action  with  the  other  colonies ;  presided  over  the 
Virginia  convention  at  Williamsburg,  Aug.,  1774;  was 
chosen  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress;  was  first 
president  of  that  body  upon  its  meeting  at  Carpenters*  Hull, 
Philadelphia,  Sept.  5,  1774,  though  from  ill-health  he  soon 
resigned  that  post ;  presided  over  the  second  Virgina  con- 
vention at  Richmond,  Mar.  20,  1775;  was  again  chosen 
president  of  the  Continental  Congress  when  it  reassembled 
at  Philadelphia,  May  10, 1775,  but  resigned  May  24,  return- 
ing to  Virgmia  to  preside  over  the  house  of  burg*?sses ;  re- 
sumed his  seat  in  Congress  a  few  months  later.  D.  in  Phila- 
delphia, Oct.  22,  1775. 

Randolph,  Thomas  :  poet ;  b.  near  Daventry,  England, 
in  1605;  d.  1635.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow. 
His  plays  include  Amyntas,  a  pastoral  comedy,  and  The 
Muses'  Jjooking-glass,  a  morality  in  defense  of  stage-plays. 
His  best-known  poem  is  his  Oae  to  Sir  Anthony  Stafford. 
He  was  a  friend  and  disciple  of  Ben  Jonson.         ll.  A.  B. 

Randolph-Macon  College:  an  educational  institution 
chartered  in  1830  and  opened  in  1832,  endowed  and  sus- 
tained by  the  Virginia  and  Baltimore  conferences  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South.  It  was  first  located  in 
Mecklenburg  co.,  Va. ;  suffered  severely  during  the  civil  war, 
and  was  removed  in  1866  to  Ashland,'Hanover  County,  and 
re-endowed. — Randolph-Macox  Woman's  College,  Lynch- 
burg, Va.,  is  an  endowed  institution  for  women  with  courses 
of  instruction  parallel  to  those  for  men  at  Ashland.  It 
was  founded  in  1891. — Raxdolph-Macon  Academy,  Bedford 
City,  Va.,  was  established  in  1889  as  a  fitting  school  for  the 
college;  and  Randolph-Macon  Academy,  at  Front  Royal, 
Va.,  practically  a  duplicate  of  the  one  at  Bedford  City,  was 
established  in  1891. — These  institutions  are  all  controlled 
by  the  board  of  trustees,  and  under  the  supervision  of  Presi- 
dent William  W.  Smith,  A.M.,  LL.D. 

Rang^oon' :  chief  city  of  Burma,  and  third  port  in  impor- 
tance in  British  India ;  on  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Irawadi 
delta,  20  miles  from  its  mouth  (see  map  of  S.  India,  ref.  4-L). 
It  is  in  unimpeded  connection  with  the  main  stream  and 
with  the  coast,  and  is  accessible  for  large  craft.  It  is  the 
center  of  a  system  of  canals,  and  the  terminus  for  two  rail- 
ways running  northwai*d,  one  to  Prome,  the  other  to  Man- 
dalay.  It  is  provided  with  street-cars,  fire  brigades,  and 
other  modern  improvements;  but  ^  badlv  built  and  unsani- 
tary, with  the  houses  often  on  bamboo  piles,  and  the  narrow 
streets  intersected  by  canals.  The  teak  forests  in  the  region 
about  it  and  the  excellent  character  of  the  port  early  caused 
the  development  of  a  considerable  ship-building  industry, 
which  has  latterly  declined.  The  principal  exports  are  rice, 
teak,  cotton,  spices,  and  skins.  Rangoon  is  tne  chief  port 
of  importation  for  the  trade  of  Upper  Burma  and  Yunnan. 
The  city  has  few  noteworthy  buildings  or  monuments,  but 
near  by  is  the  Shway-Dagou  Pagoda,  a  massive  and  imjjos- 
iiig  structure,  with  a*  tower  321  feet  high  capped  by  an  enor- 
mous gilded  crown  and  containing  a  bell  weighing  30  tons. 
Tlie  pagoda  is  the  repository  of  eight  hairs  from  the  head 
of  Gautama  Buddha,  and  is  a  favorite  object  of  pilgrimage 
and  seat  of  an  annual  fair. 

Rangoon  was  in  1753  selected  by  Alompra  as  capital  of 
Pegu,  and  given  its  present  name  Ran-kun,  or  "en(l  of  the 
war."  Before  that  it  was  named  after  the  pngoda.  which 
wiis  built,  according  to  tradition,  about  585  b.  c.  The  city 
was  occupied  by  the  British  in  1821,  but  soon  returned  to 
the  Burmese.  It  was  again  t^iken  in  1852,  and  has  since 
been  held  by  the  British.  It  has  prospered  under  their  rule, 
and  the  population  increased  from  25.000  in  1852  to  180,324 
in  1891.  Ihe  citv  forms  a  separate  administrative  district 
of  22  sq.  miles.    The  population  is  chiefly  Buddhist. 

Mark  \V.  Harrington. 

Rang'pnr' :  district  of  Bengal,  British  India;  between  25° 
16  and  26"  21'  N.,  and  bounded  K.  bv  the  Brahmaputra. 
Area,  3,486  sq.  miles.  Pop.  2.100.000.  'The  surface  is  very 
low,  and  in  the  wet  season  entirely  inundated.  Cotton  does 
not  succeed.  Indigo  is  the  principal  product;  fiftv  large 
fa<!tories  are  in  operation,  M.  \V.  H, 

RanMdflB  [Mod.  Lat.,  deriv.  of  Lat.  ra'na,  frog}:  the  fam- 
ily of  anurous  batrachians  which  contains  the  true  frogs. 

Ran'ke,  Johannes,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D. :  physiologist  and  an- 
thropologist:  b.  at  Thurnau,  Bavaria,  Aug.  2ii,  18:^6;  stud- 
ied at  the  Universities  of  Munich,  Tubingen,  Berlin,  and 


Paris,  graduating  M.  D.  in  1861  at  the  first  named,  fmm 
which  he  received  Ph.  D.  in  1882.  He  was  appointed  Kxtra*  -i  - 
dinary  Professor  of  Physiology  in  the  Tniversity  of  Mum.  h 
in  1869.  He  was  the  co-editof  of  the  Btitr&ge  zur  Anthn,- 
pologie  und  Urgeschtchte  Bayems  (1877);  and  has  be*ni «  li- 
tor  of  the  Archiv  fur  Anthropoiogie  since  1882.  His  prui- 
cipal  work  is  OrundzUge  der  Physiologie  des  Menschen. 

S.  T.  ARM>TRoNCi. 

Rank e, Leopold, von :  historian:  b. at Wiehe, Thuriuiria. 
Dec.  21,  1795;  studied  at  Halle  and  Berlin;  was  appoini.,! 
teacher  at  the  gymnasium  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  m  IMn, 
and  Professor  of  History  at  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1 VJ"). 
His  principal  writings  are  Oeschichte  der  romanischcn  uuti 
germanischen  Vdlker  von  1494-1^^5  (1824);  Fur»ien  nn»i 
Vdlker  von  Sudeuropa  im  16,  und  17  Jahrhundert  (l?*,*?); 
Die  serbische  Revolution  (1829),  one  of  his  most  bnlliai.r 
productions;  Ueber  die  Verschwdrung  gegen  Vtnedtq  mi 
Jahre  1688  (1^1);  The  Popes  of  Borne,  their  Church  nud 
State  (3  vols..  1834-87;  translated  into  English  bv  Mrs. 
Austin  in  1840,  by  Scott  in  1846,  and  by  E.  Poster  in*lH4S;  ■. 
History  of  Germany  in  the  Time  of' the  Reformation  (<> 
vols.,  1839-47;  translated  into  English  by  Mrs,  Au>(im; 
Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Brandenburg,  and  History  of 
Prussia  during  the  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Ceuturi*^ 
(3  vols.,  1847-48;  translated  into  English  by  Sir  A.  I»iitf 
Gordon);  Jahrbucher  des  deutschen  Reichs  unter  dem  Mtlrhs- 
ischen  Hause  (3  vols.,  1837-40);  Franzdsische  Gei^chirhff 
vomehmlich  im  16.  und  17.  Jahrhundert  (5  vols.,  l852-5.*ii; 
A  History  of  England  principally  in  the  Seventeenth  ^Vi*- 
/wry  (6  vols.,  1859-68 ;  English  translation  1875);  U^schicht*^ 
Wallensteins  (1869);  Weltgesehichte  (1881-88).  The  ctnii- 
plete  edition  of  his  works  comprises  forty-seven  voluin*-^. 
His  very  first  productions  immediately  attracted  great  at- 
tention, both  on  account  of  the  high  merit  of  their  st\  \v 
and  composition,  and  on  account  of  the  ingenuity  evinrirl 
in  gathering  and  sifting  the  materials.  It  is  also  to  thi^ 
latter  point  that  the  expression  "the  school  of  Ranko  *' 
principally  refers — to  the  method  of  studying  histor)-  railirr 
than  to  the  method  of  writing  it.  D.  in  Berlin,  Gerinaiiv, 
May  23,  1886. 

Rankine,  William  John  Macquorn:  physicist  and  enL'i- 
neer  ;  b.  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  July  5,  1820.  In  his  t-ai  1  > 
education  his  father,  a  retired  lieutenant  of  the  rifle  briiradt', 
was  his  chief  instructor.  He  early  displayed  fondne>s  fi  -r 
the  natural  sciences,  and  was  fortunate  in'having  the  emi- 
nent Prof.  J.  D.  Forbes  as  his  tutor  in  natural  philosoph\. 
To  him  he  dedicated  his  earliest  and  a  somewhat  remarkaM** 
j)aper,  advocating  the  use  of  cylindrical  wheels  for  railwav 
carriages.  Civil  engineering  naturally  attracted  his  attm- 
tion,  and  from  1841  to  1851  he  was  employed  on  the  rail- 
ways of  Scotland.  One  of  the  most  noticeable  of  his  pii\  >- 
ico-mathematical  researches  was  based  on  an  hyp<)tho>i< '«  f 
*' molecular  vortices,"  by  which  was  detluced'the  laws  ..l 
elasticity,  and  of  heat  as  connected  therewith;  fn»m  this  Ji.- 
took  at  once  prominent  rank  as  an  original  invest ii:ai  t  .»• 
His  theoretical  results,  conforming  closely  to  those  miI-^i-- 
quently  obtained  experimentallv  by  Hegnault  and  Dr.  Ur*  . 
were  in  their  ultimate  form  published  in  The  Philosojthirfi 
Magazine,  Dec.  1851  (^>/i  the  Centrifugal  Theory  of  Ehr.^- 
ficity  as  applied  to  Gases  and  Vapors).  Important  pajM-r-. 
on  kindreii  subjects  succeeded  this,  among  whicli  are  (hi  <> 
General  Law  of  the  Transformation  of  Energy  and  fh,  *. 
lines  of  the  Science  of  Energetics.  In  1855  Rankine  bwa n  j  • 
Regius  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  and  Mechanics  ^  i  j 
the  University  of  Glasgow.  Soon  after  taking  the  chair  h«- 
turned  his  attention  to  the  production  of  a  series  of  manti- 
als  for  engineering  students  and  practical  men.  D.  in  Cila<^- 
gow,  Dec.  24, 1872. 

Ransom,  Matthew  VVhitaker  :  U.  S.  Senator ;  b.  in  War ^ 
ren  co.,  N.  C,  Oct.  8, 1826;  graduated  at  the  University  <  •!' 
North  Carolina  1847;  mlmitted  to  the  bar  in  the  same  >*-nr  ^ 
l)ecame  a  planter  and  politician;  attorney-general  of  Xort  \  :| 
Carolina  1852-55 ;  member  of  the  Ijegislatiire  1858-00 ;  |knu  ••  i 
commissioner  to  the  Montgomery  convention  1861 ;  enteri*»  Ij 
the  Confederate  service  as  lieutenant-colonel;  rose  to  l«»i 
major-general,  serving  through  the  war;  surrendere<l  at  Ap^ 
pomattox  Court-house;  elected  as  a  Democrat  in  Jan..  lSTv.», 
to  the  U.  S.  Senate  for  the  terra  expiring  in  1877;  ^e-<?le<-•to^  i 
for  1877-83,  1883-89,  and  1889-95. 

Ransom,  Robert  :  officer ;  b.  in  North  Carolina, Feb.,  lS-2t » 
graduated  at  the  Military  Academy,  and  promoted  brcv«  -  i 
second  lieutenant  of  First  Dragoons  July  1,  1850;   hocarn  .| 
captain  First  Cavalry  Jan.,  1861,  resigned  May  24, 1861,  an  •  I 


ul '  tfi^   Ufwinf  iiM 


lUfllllllO.     H     ItAftllAtil 


8 


KAPHIDES 


RASKOLXIKS 


Raphides :  See  Rhaphides. 

Rapidan'  Rirer :  a  stream  of  Virginia  which  rises  by  sev- 
eral head-streams  at  the  base  of  the  Blue  Hidge,  and 'flows 
between  Green  and  Orange  Counties  on  its  right,  and  Madi- 
son and  Culpeper  on  its  left.  Ten  miles  above  Fredericks- 
burg it  joins  the  Rappahannock,  after  a  course  of  about  80 
miles. 

Rapid  City :  citv ;  capital  of  Pennington  co.,  S.  D. ;  on 
the  Rapid  river  and  the  Fremont,  Elkhoni,  and  Mo.  Valley 
Railroad ;  45  miles  S.  E.  of  Deadwood,  about  140  miles  W.  by 
8.  of  Pierre  (for  location,  see  map  of  South  Dakota,  ref .  7-B). 
It  is  in  the  famous  Black  Hills;  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
School  of  Mines,  created  by  act  of  the  territorial  legislature 
in  1885 :  and  contains  2  national  banks  with  combined  capi- 
tal of  $125,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  and  a 
daily  and  5  weekly  newspapers.   Pop.  (1880)  202 ;  (1890)  2,128. 

Rapid-fire  tinns :  See  Machine  and  Rapid-fihe  Guns. 

Rapp,  George  :  founder  of  the  sect  of  Harmonists  (q.  v.) ; 
b.  at  Iptingen,  WUrteraberg,  Germany,  Oct.,  1770;  founded 
in  early  manhood  a  communistic  religious  association  to  re- 
store the  practices  of  the  primitive  Christian  Church ;  came 
into  conflict  with  the  authorities ;  emigrated  to  the  U.  S. 
in  1808  with  a  number  of  his  associates ;  founded  the  town 
of  Harmony,  Butler  co.,  Pa.,  and  later  the  town  of  Economy, 
now  Harmony,  in  Beaver  co.    D.  at  Economy  Aug.  7, 1847. 

Rapjpahannock  Rirer:  a  stream  which  rises  in  the  foot- 
hills of  the  Blue  Ridge,  near  the  northwest  border  of  Fau- 
quier CO.,  Va.,  and  flows  southeast,  generally  parallel  to  the 
Potomac,  reaching  Chesuncake  Bay  through  abroad  estuary. 
Its  largest  branch  is  the  Rapidan.  At  its  rapids  at  Freder- 
icksburg a  fine  dam  affords  extensive  water-i>ower.  Below 
Fredericksburg  it  is  a  noble  tidal  stream,  the  navigation  of 
which  is  important.    It  is  about  250  miles  iu  total  length. 

Rapto'res,  sometimes  Raptatores  [Mod.  Lat.  pi.,  from 
Lat.  raptor,  a  robber] :  a  ^roup,  or  order,  of  birds  containing 
the  binls  of  prey,  comprising  the  hawks  (FalconuliF),  owls 
{Strigidcp),  secretary-bird  {(xypogeranidie\  and  American 
vultures  {Cat hart id(p).  These  last  differ  from  the  others  in 
many  important  particulars,  and  should,  very  likely,  be 
placed  apart.  The  Raptorea  are  birds  of  powerful  dight, 
characterized  by  a  hooked,  cered  beak,  and,  with  few  excep- 
tions, powerfulfeet  and  sharp,  curved  claws.  The  palate  is 
desmognathous,  there  ard  two  carotids,  the  oil-f  land  is  pres- 
ent, as  are  also  ca^ca,  except  in  Cath<trtidce,  The  feraide  is 
generally  larger  than  the  male ;  the  young  are  helpless  when 
hatched.  There  are  about  500  spcies,  distributed  through- 
out the  world.  Accipitees  (a.^v.)  is  by  many  authors  restricted 
to  the  hawks  or  diurnal  birds  of  prey.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Raritan  Rirer :  a  river  in  New  Jersey,  which  rises  in 
two  branches  in  Morris  co.,  flows  S.  E.  through  SonierstM 
and  Hunterdon  Counties,  and  falls  into  Raritan  Bav  at 
Perth  Am  boy.    It  is  navigable  as  far  as  New  Brunswick. 

Raschid :  See  Uaroun  al  RascuId. 

Rash :  a  popular  name  for  the  acute  exanthematous  or 
eniptive  diseases,  or  more  fremiently  for  the  eruption  itself 
which  attends  such  diseases.  r*'ettle-rash  or  urticaria,  scar- 
let rash  (roseola),  and  canker-rash  (scarlet  fever)  are  the 
diseases  generally  called  by  this  name,  which,  though  con- 
venient for  nursery  use,  is  of  no  scientific  value. 

Rashi  [a  combination  of  the  initial  letters  of  his  title  and 
name! :  the  celebrated  Jewish  commentator  Rabbi  Solomon 
Ben  Isaac ;  b.  at  Troves,  in  Champagne,  France,  in  1040. 
Little  is  known  about  his  life,  except  that  he  studied  at  the 
theological  schools  of  Mayence  ana  Worms.  He  died  July 
13,  1105.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  all  the  books  of  the 
Bible  except  Chronicles ;  which,  though  they  contain  much 
of  the  traditional  rabbinic  exegesis,  st»ek  to  determine  the 
Mim])le  meaning  (Peahat)  of  the  text.  They  have  been  held 
in  the  highest  esteem  not  only  by  Jewish  writers,  but  also 
by  Xicolaus  de  Lyra,  Luther,  S*«l)'astian  MOnster,  etc.  His 
commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  was  the  first  Hebrew  book 
printed  (1475).  He  also  wrote  a  commentary  on  twenty- 
three  of  the  treatises  of  tho  Babylnnian  Talmud,  which  is 
printed  in  every  edition  <if  tluit  work.  Among  his  other 
writings  may  he  mentione«l  a  commentary  to  Bereshith 
Habba\  Ilappardt's,  coni&ining  tlecisions  on  ritual  and  legal 
matters;  and  a  few  hymns.  In  his  commentaries  Rashi 
cites  a  large  number  of  Provenc;al  words  which  have  been 
collected  by  Arsene  Darmesteter.  and  which  are  of  value  in 
determining  the  pronunciati(m  of  the  particular  dialect  used 
by  the  Jews  in  that  part  of  Provence.   See  Zunz,  Ztitschrift 


fUr  die  Wiasenseh.  des  Judenthums  (Berlin,  1822,  iii.,  p. 
277);  Graetz,  History  of  the  Jews  (Philadelphia,  181M,  p. 
286);  Siegfried,  Rasehi^e  Einflt^ea  auf  Nieolaiie  i*on  Lira 
und  Luther  (in  Merx,  Archiv,  i.,  p.  428);  Maschkow.ski. 
Raechfa  Uinjfluaa  auf  Nikolaua  von  Lyra  (in  Zritschrtft 
far  altteet,  Wiaaenschaft,  xi.,  p.  268) ;  Clement-Mullet,  Docu- 
mentapour  aervir  d  Vhiatoire  de  Raaehi  (Troyes,  1855) ;  Ar- 
sene Darmesteter,  Gloaaea  et  Gloaaairea  Uibreux^Fran^aU 
du  Moyen  Age  (in  Romamaf  i.,  pp.  146,  aeq.), 

Richard  Gottbkiu 

Rask,  Rasmus  Kristiax:  scholar;  b.  at  Bnpndekilde. 
on  the  island  of  Fiinen,  Denmark,  Nov.  22,  1787;  studi<«i 
at  the  University  of  Copenhagen.  In  1808  he  published  hi^ 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Icelandic  Language,  whidi. 
with  his  edition  of  the  £adaa  (1818),  the  first  critical  and 
complete  one  published,  forms  the  foundation  for  the  study 
of  Icelandic  literature  and  language.  In  1818  he  b«*^uii 
his  extensive  travels.  He  spent  first  two  years  in  Iceland, 
the  result  of  which  was  his  celebrated  Reaearchea  concf  ru- 
ing the  Origin  of  the  Icelandic  Lanauage  (1818),  whicli 
received  the  gold  medal  of  the  Danish  Scientific  Society, 
and  in  which  the  first  oliservations  of  the  trans[>ositii'i'>N 
of  sounds  in  the  Teutonic  languages  were  published.  1  It- 
next  spent  two  years  in  Stockholm,  where  ne  publishc<i  a 
grammar  of  the'  Anelo-Saxon  language  (1817},  translattd 
into  English  by  B.  Thorpe  (1830),  and  studied  Finnish,  ami 
then,  in  1817,  fte  proceeded  by  St.  Petersburcr,  where  he  rv- 
mained  over  a  vear,  studying  the  Slavonic  aialects,  to  As- 
trakhan, through  Persia,  and  to  India,  which  he  traveriH-d 
in  its  whole  length  from  1820  to  1822,  returning  home.  l»y 
C-eylon,  in  1828.  He  brought  to  Copenhagen  a  great  niiiTi- 
l)er  of  rare  Oriental  manuscripts,  one  of  the  greatest  treas- 
ures of  the  Royal  Library ;  but  incomparably  greater  wius 
his  working  knowledge  of  most  of  the  languages  composinj^ 
the  Indo-European  family,  from  the  English  to  the  Mant- 
chu.  But  his  health  was  broken,  and  the  results  of  hi-i 
enormous  linguistic  acciuisitions  were  fragmentary.  He 
wrote  essays  on  the  Zend  language,  the  genuineness  of  th** 
Zend'Avetttn,  the  ancient  Egyptian  and  Hebrew  chronology, 
and  published  grammars  of  the  Spanish  (1824),  Fri>iaii 
(1825),  Italian  (1827),  and  English  (1832)  languages.  Hi- 
richest  and  most  original  work  is  liis  Introduction  to  a 
Scientilic  Orthography  of  the  Daniah  Language  (1826),  in 
which  he  gave  comparative  philology  a  new  and  T)owerfiiJ 
impulse,  and  foreshadowed  many  ideas  later  estab]ishe<l  a> 
truths.  He  undoubtedly  anticipated  Grimm  in  the  discovery 
of  the  law  of  the  permutation  of  consonants.  D.  in  Coinn- 
hagen,  Nov.  14,  1832.  Samlede  Afhandlinger  (vols.  iii„ 
1834^38).  Revised  by  D.  K.  DowiE. 

RaskdFnlks  [from  Russ.  raskolenik\  schismatic,  hero- 
ticl :  members  of  the  Raak6l\  or  schism,  which  dates  ofti- 
cially  from  the  year  1666.  During  the  long  period  of  ttie 
Mongol  yoke  numerous  errors  crept  into  the  ritual  and  lit- 
urgical books  of  the  Russian  Church.  In  the  seventeen!  h 
century,  during  the  reign  of  Alexis  Mikhailovich,  the  patri- 
arch >fikon  introduced  numerous  reforms,  which  were  me  t 
by  great  opposition.  Nikon  fell,  but  the  council  which  de- 
posed him  in  Maj,  1667,  confirmed  his  reforms.  From  that 
time  the  schism  m  the  Russian  Church  became  establishe<l. 
The  Raskolniks  objected  to  the  alterations  in  and  the  print- 
ing of  the  church-books,  to  the  form  of  the  cross,  and  t  <  > 
various  other  matters.  Thence  they  took  the  name  of 
Staroobryadtayy  or  Old  Ritualists  (from  atary,  old,  aiul 
obryad,  a  rite) ;  but,  as  they  professed  to  be  the  preservers 
of  old  faith,  as  well  as  of  old  rites,  they  called  tnems«dve?* 
also  Starovertav,  or  Old  Believers  (from  fern,  faith).  When 
Peter  I.  introduced  his  reforms  into  Russia  the  Ra>k«»l 
waxed  stronger,  its  old  religious  opposition  being  fom- 
fie<l  by  a  political  resistance  to  the  census,  to  military  con- 
scription, to  shaving,  to  giving  up  the  national  dress.  'Peter 
I.  vainly  endeavored  to  crush  tneir  opposition.  Since  his 
time  their  treatment  has  fluctuated.  Peter  III.  was  their 
avowe<l  protector.  Catherine  II.  treated  them  lenient ly 
for  a  time,  granting  them  the  official  designation  of  Edirtfl^ 
rerfsy,  or  Like- Believers,  and  allowing  them  to  retain  their 
old  ritual.  After  the  insurrection  of  Pugachef,  an  outbreak 
of  schismatic  and  rebellious  fury,  they  met  with  less  favor. 
Nicholas  I.  in  vain  tried  severe  measures.  Towanl  the  em  I 
of  his  reign  advances  were  made  to  them  by  the  Poles  an<l 
the  Russian  socialists,  but  the  only  result  was  the  installa- 
tion in  1846,  at  Belokrinitsa  in  Bukovina,  of  a  Rai^kolnik 
metropolitan,  Ambrose,  formerly  Metrojwlitan  of  Bosnin- 
Ills  successor,  Cyril,  visited  Moscow  in  1863,  and  there  held 


10 


RATAFIA 


Ratafl'a  [Pr. ;  Malay,  araq,  arrack  +  tafia,  a  spirit  distilled 
from  molasses] :  a  name  given  to  a  large  class  of  liqueurs,  or 
sweet  alcoholic  drinks  strongly  flavored  with  aromatics. 

Ratel :  any  one  of  three  carnivorous  mammals  of  the 
family  Muatdidie  and  genus  MilUvora,  found  in  Africa  and 
India,  and  sometimes  known  from  their  habits  as  honey- 
badgers.  The  typical  species,  M.  ratel  or  capensis,  a  native 
of  South  Africa,  has  a  stout,  batlger-like  body  and  short 
tail;  its  toUl  length  is  about  3  feet.  The  back  is  iron- 
gray,  with  a  white  crown  and  streak  down  each  side.  The 
other  si>ecios,  J?/,  indica  and  M.  leuconota,  differ  only  in  size 
and  amount  of  white  in  their  pelage.  F.  A.  L. 

Ratio  [=  Lat.  ratio,  reckoning,  account,  calculation,  rela- 
tion, deriv.of  re'ri,  ratiis,  reckon,  believe,  think,  judge] :  the 
numerical  measure  of  the  relation  which  one  quantity  bears 
to  another  of  the  same  kind.  The  only  way  in  which  two 
quantities  can  be  compared  is  bv  division.  The  operation 
of  dividing  one  quantity  by  another  of  the  same  kind  con- 
sists in  dividing  the  number  of  times  that  any  assumed  unit 
is  contained  in  the  former  by  the  number  of  times  the 
same  unit  is  containetl  in  the  latter.  The  operation  of 
finding  a  ratio  is  therefore  purely  numerical,  and  the  result- 
ing ratio  is  consequently  an  abstract  number.  If  the  terms 
of  the  ratio  are  commensurable,  their  ratio  is  exiiet ;  if  the 
terms  are  incommensurable,  the  expression  of  their  ratio  by 
quotient  of  two  abstract  numbers  is  only  approximate  ;  but 
it  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  approximation  to  the  true 
value  may  be  made  to  any  desirable  degree  of  exactness. 

Prime  and  ultimate  ratios  were  used  by  Newton  as  the 
method  of  analysis  in  his  Principia.  It  is  a  simplification 
of  the  method  of  exhaustion  as  used  by  ancient  geometers. 
To  conceive  an  idea  of  this  method,  let  us  suppose  two  vari- 
able quantities  whose  values  approach  each  other  so  that 
their  ratio  continually  approaches  a,  and  finally  differs  from 
a  by  less  than  any  assignable  quantity ;  then  is  a  the  ulti- 
mate ratio  of  the  two  quantities.  Again,  if  two  variable 
quantities  simultaneously  approach  two  other  quantities, 
which  on  the  same  hypothesis  remain  constant,  the  ultimate 
ratio  of  the  variable  jauantities  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
constant  quantities.  The  ratios  are  called  prime  or  ultimate, 
according  as  the  ratio  of  the  variable  quantities  is  rececling 
from  or  approaching  to  the  ratio  of  the  constant  quantities. 

Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 

Rationalism  [from  Lat.  rntiona'lis,  rational,  reasonable, 
deriv.  of  ratio,  rationis,  reckoning,  thinking,  ludgment, 
reason,  deriv.  of  re  ri,  ra'fus,  reckon,  think,  judge] :  that 
tendency  in  modern  thought  which  claims  for  the  unaided 
human  reason  the  right  of  deciding  in  matters  of  faith.  It 
asserts  the  prerogative  of  the  intellect  to  be  supreme  arbiter 
in  all  departments  of  revealed  truth.  It  requires  certainty 
as  the  condition  of  its  favor,  and  promptly  rejects  what  does 
not  come  before  it  with  all  the  exactness  and  clearness  of  a 
mathematical  demonstration.  Like  naturalism,  supernatu- 
ralism,  and  other  terms  expressive  of  the  relation  of  reason 
and  faith,  the  term  rationalism  was  first  used  in  its  present 
sense  by  the  philosopher  Kant.  The  scene  where  rationalism 
has  exerted  its  chief  sway  is  (iermany.  The  sources  were  vari- 
ous, not  only  embracing  difl'erent  countries,  but  likewise  dif- 
ferent departments  of  investigation.  The  deism  of  England, 
one  of  the  most  polished  and  powerful  of  all  forms  of  free 
thought,  was  industriously  propagated  in  Germany,  where  the 
works  of  Lord  Herbert,  1 1  obbes,  Shaftesbury,  Tindal,  Wools- 
ton  and  Wollaston  were  circulated  in  the  language  of  the 
peoi)le  and  read  by  wide  circles.  In  Holland  the  philosophy 
of  Descartes  and  Si»inoza  was  very  powerful,  and  its  influ- 
ence was  very  decided  east  of  the  fthine,  particularly  in  the 
univei-sities  of  Germany.  The  pantheism  of  Spinoza  was 
very  attractive  to  many  minds,  and  was  regarded  as  a  wel- 
come relief  from  the  cold  and  heartless  banishment  of  G(>d 
from  his  own  creation.  France,  however,  was  the  chief 
foreign  country  which  contributed  to  the  rise  and  sway  of 
German  rationalism.  The  influence  of  Voltaire  and  the 
KncyclopaHli>ts  was  very  great,  and  Rerlin  became  as  much 
a  home  to  these  men  as  Paris  had  ever  been.  The  domestic 
causes  were,  first  of  all,  the  i)hilosophy  of  Leibnitz,  popu- 
larized and  simplified  by  Wolf  at  Halle  University;  the 
destructive  theology  of  Sender ;  the  influence  of  the  skepti- 
cal court  of  Frederick  the  (Jreat,  with  its  French  surround- 
ings; the  Wolfenbuttel  Fragminia,  published  bv  Lessing ; 
and  the  Universal  German  Library,  issued  by  Nicolai. 
Rationalism  was  in  the  ascendant  in  Germany  from  1750  to 
1800,  but  with  the  beginning  of  the  new  century  it  began  to 
lose  its  hold  upon  the  best  minds.    Schleicrmacher  was  the 


RATRAMNUS 

transitional  theologian  from  the  old  rationalistic  to  the  xwv, 
evangelical  faith  of  Protestant  Germany.  His  Di»rourx,M 
on  Religion :  Speeches  to  its  Cultured  Despisers  (Eng,  irun^. 
London,  1893)  diverted  public  attention  from  the  rati.)iini- 
istic  criticism  to  the  necessity  of  feeling  and  a  sense  *)f  d*- 
pendence  on  God.  Jacobi  was  really  the  first  to  intro<lur». 
the  sense  of  dependence  into  the  domain  of  religious  phil<»-o. 
phy,  but  Schleicrmacher  was  the  first  to  apply  it  to  the  man 
of  general  culture.  Neander,  the  Church  historian,  was  t  lir 
first  positive  theologian  of  the  so-called  **  mediatory  "  scIkm.I. 
His  historical  works  breathe  a  fervent  and  devout  spirit,  at 
the  same  time  that  they  evince  the  profound  scholan^hip  <.f 
the  original  student.  In  1835  a  new  impulse  was  given  to 
rationalistic  criticism  by  Strauss's  Life  of  Jesus  (n.  e.,  Kni^. 
trans.  London,  1893)— a  work  proceeding  directly  from  thi- 
Hegelian  school.  It  advocated  the  mythical  origin  of  tlu* 
Gospels.  This  work  was  promptly  replied  to  by  Xeand*r. 
Ullmann,  Tholuck,and  many  other  representatives  of  cvun- 
gelical  thought.  The  most  recent  phase  of  rationalistic 
thought  is  materialistic.  The  views  of  BQchner,  Carl  Vuirt, 
Moleschott,  and  others  have  gained  a  wide  influent^'.  1 
Evangelical  theology  is,  however,  in  the  ascendant  again  in 
most  of  the  German  universities.  On  the  literature  of  ra- 
tionalism compare  Farrar,  Critical  Ilistory  of  Free  Tliought 
(Bampton  lectures,  1863) ;  hecky,  History  of  the  Bix^  and 
Influence  of  the  Spirit  of  Rationalism  in  Europe  (2  voi>.. 
London,  1865);  Hurst,  History  of  Rationalism  (New  York. 
1865 ;  9th  ed.,  rev.,  1875) ;  Fisher,  Faith  and  Rational tsm 
(New  York,  1879) ;  Pfieiderer,  The  Developnient  of  Thtolotpj 
in  Germany  since  Kant  (London,  1890).         J.  P.  HuR^T. 

RatMsbon,  or  Regensbai^:  town  of  Bavaria;  on  thf 
right  bank  of  the  Danube,  opfK)site  the  influx  of  the  Rcgvn  : 
82  miles  by  rail  N.  N.  E.  of  Munich  (see  map  of  German  Kn»- 
pire,  ref.  6-F).  It  is  surrounded  with  walls  pierced  by  »*!X 
gates,  and  has  a  Gothic  cathedral  begun  in  1275,  but  not 
finished  till  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century;  a  to^n- 
house,  in  which  the  imi)erial  diet  assembled  from  1662  ti. 
1806 ;  a  magnificent  stone  bridge  over  the  Danube,  1,100  I«»-t 
long,  connecting  the  town  with  the  suburb  of  Stadt-am-Hnf : 
and  a  monument  of  Kepler,  who  was  born  here.  Gohl.  ^\\- 
ver,  brass,  iron,  steel,  earthen  and  porcelain  ware,  lealh.i. 
tobacco,  and  glass  are  manufactured,  and  there  is  an  «i - 
tive  trade  in  wheat  and  salt.  Originally  a  Celtic  to>*ii 
(Radasbona),  it  was  made  a  frontier  fortress  by  the  Ronwm-. 
In  1245  it  was  matle  a  free  imi)erial  city.  It  wa.s  stonmtl  Ji> 
both  the  French  and  the  Austrians  in  1809,  and  was  cedcil 
to  Bavaria  in  1810.    Pop.  (1890)  37,635. 

RantiB  [Mod.  Lat.,  liter.,  fem.  plur.  of   Lat.  rati  tu.^^ 
marked  with  a  raft  (sc.  a'ves,  birds),  deriv.  of  ra'iis,  rafr  1  : 
an  order  or  sub-order  of  birds,  considered  by  many  authori- 
ties as  a  sub-class,  contrasting  with  all  tlio  other  livim; 
forms  of  the  class,  and  containing  the  ostriches,  cassowarit- ^, 
and  kiwis.    It  is  distinguished,  according  to  Huxley,  by  i  h»- 
sternum  being  devoid  of  a  crest,  and  ossifying  only  frtaii 
lateral  and  paired  centers,  the  parallelism  or  identity  of  t  h»- 
long  axes  of  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  scapula  and  cornc<»iU. 
and  the  non-development  of  an  acromial  process  tu   tho 
scapula,  and  of  a  clavicular  pn)cess  to  the  coraeoid ;   ih» 
vomer  has  a  broad  cleft;  the  hinder  and  i)osterior  end>  t.f 
the  palatines  and  the  anterior  ones  of  the  pterygoids  an- 
very  imperfectly  or  not  at  all  articulated  with  the  ba-i- 
splienoidal  rostrum.  It  may  be  further  added  that  in  all  t  h«- 
living  representatives  the  feathers  are  characteristic,  tht- 
barbs  being  disconnected.    The  group  embraces  the  InrLM-st 
of  birds,  all  of  which  are  incapable  of  flight,  and  pro^'n-^- 
by  running.    The  species,  though  comparatively  few.  n'prt- 
sent  several  well-defined  families— viz.,  Stntthionidfr,  vu>- 
bracing  the  African  ostriches;  i?/*ct</ff,  including  the  S<»ui  li 
American  ostriches  or  nandus;  Casuaridw,  with  the  ch'--.**- 
waries  and  emus  of  the  Papuan  Archipelago,  Australia,  ct<.-.  : 
and -4;>/rr^</ic/«',  including  the  kiwis  of  New  Zealand:  th.- 
order  was  also  well  represented  in  former  geological  eyMM  h-, 
especially  in  New  Zealand,  by  the  gigantic  7>iwor«i7/M(/*/  . 
which  seem  to  have  been  destitute  of  true  wings. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Iatas. 
Raton:  town;  Colfax  co.,  N.  M.;  on  the  Atch..  T.»|w'k** 
and  S.  Fe  Rail  mad ;  111  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Las  Vegas  (for  1»  -- 
cation,  see  map  of  New  Mexico,  ref.  8^T).  It  is  in  a  co,i :  - 
mining  region,  and  contains  the  machine-shops  of  the  rarl 
wav  company,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  aiit . 
three  weekly  newspapers.    Pop.  (1890)  1,255. 

Ratram'nns,  also  called  Bertramas  by  an  error  of  cop> 
ists:  a  learned  monk  of  the  famous  abbey  of  Corbie,  iio*n 


12 


RAVENNA 


RAWLINS 


It  continued  part  of  the  states  of  the  Church  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  intervals  during  1797-1815)  until  it  was  incor- 
porated in  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1860. 

No  Italian  city  seems  more  apart  from  the  currents  of 
modern  life.  Ravenna  is  not  so  much  a  city  as  a  museum. 
Here  better  than  at  Rome  may  be  studied  primitive  Chris- 
tian art  from  the  fifth  to  the  ninth  century.  In  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Sant'  Urso,  partly  of  the  fourth  century  but  recon- 
stnicted  in  the  eighteenth,  are  frescoes  by  Guido  Reni ;  the 
original  campanile  still  remains.  Close  by  is  the  octagonal- 
domed  baptistry  of  the  fourth  century,  containing  the  fa- 
mous fifth  century  mosaic,  representing  the  baptism  of  our 
Saviour  in  the  Jordan.  Near  the  Church  of  San  Francesco, 
built  on  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Neptune  about  450,  but 
completely  modernized,  is  the  mausoleum  of  Dante  Ali- 
OHIERI  (q.  f.),  who  died  at  Ravenna  in  1321.  In  SS.  Nazario 
e  Celso,  erected  (440)  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross  by  Placi- 
dia,  daughter  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  are  the  sarcophagi 
of  that  empress  (d.  450)  and  of  Plonorius  I.  and  Constantius 
III.  The  round  tower  of  St.  Giovanni  Battista  was  con- 
structed in  488.  Santo  Spirito  and  Sta.  Maria  in  Cosmedin, 
embellished  with  mosaics  of  the  sixth  century,  were  built  by 
Theodoric  for  the  Arian  bishops.  Sant'  Apollinare  Nuovo, 
erected  by  Theodoric  about  500  as  the  Arian  cathedral,  is 
resplendent  with  mosaics,  mostly  of  the  sixth  and  ninth 
centuries.  San  Vitale  (consecrated  in  547),  a  work  of  Justin- 
ian, is  a  partial  copy  of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople.  Its 
forgeous  mosaics,  admirably  preserved,  give  the  whole  New 
'estament  story;  especially  interesting  are  those  of  Justin- 
ian and  his  suite,  and  of  his  empress  Theodora  and  her 
retinue.  In  the  Carthusian  monastery  is  the  library  found- 
ed in  1714,  with  over  50,000  volumes  and  700  MSS.  Among 
the  latter  is  an  autograph  MS.  of  Dante  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  Half  a  mile  outside  the  Porta  Serrata  is  the  ro- 
tonda  or  mausoleum  of  Theodoric.  The  cupola,  36  feet  in 
diameter,  and  weighing  over  200  tons,  is  hollowed  from  a 
single  block  of  stone.  Also  outside  the  walls  is  the  impos- 
ing Sant'  Apollinare  in  Classe,  on  the  site  of  a  temple  of 
Apollo,  dedicated  in  549  and  restored  in  1779,  a  specimen 
or  the  purest  early  Christian  art.  Two  miles  from  the  city 
is  La  Ck)lonna  dei  Francesi,  the  square  pillar  raised  in  1557 
to  commemorate  the  battle  of  Ravenna  (1512),  in  which 
Pope  Julius  II.  was  defeated  by  Gaston  de  Foix.  S.  of 
Ravenna  toward  Rimini  extends  the  Pineta,  the  vastest  and 
most  ancient  pine  forest  in  It«ly.  It  begins  not  far  from 
Sant'  Apollinare  in  Classe,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  harbor, 
and  stretches  25  miles  along  the  Adriatic,  with  a  breadth  of 
from  1  to  2  miles.  Pop.  (1881)  of  city,  18,571 ;  of  commune, 
60,573.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Rarenna:  village  (settled  in  1799);  capital  of  Porta^ 
CO.,  O. ;  on  the  Penn.,  the  Erie,  and  the  Pitts,  and  W.  rail- 
ways ;  16  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Akron,  38  miles  S.  E.  of  Cleveland 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  3-1).  It  contains  6 
churches,  3  large  public  schools,  a  Roman  Catholic  school,  2 
national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $250,000,  gas  and 
electric  light  plants,  water-works  system  owned  by  the  vil- 
lage, and  a  semi-weekly  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  The 
manufactories  include  glass-works,  coach  ana  hearse  fac- 
tory, carbon- works,  flour  and  planing-mills,  foundry,  ma- 
chine-shop, novelty- works,  large  dyeing  establishment,  2 
brick  ana  tile  works,  2  shoe-factories,  and  basket,  chair, 
sad-iron,  and  spoke  and  hub  factories.  Pop.  (1880)  8,255 ; 
(1890)  3,417.  Editor  op  "  Repubucan." 

Rarenscroft,  John  Stark,  D.  D.  :  bishop ;  b.  near  Bland- 
ford,  Prince  George  co.,  Va.,  in  1772 ;  taken  to  Scotland  in 
infancy;  received  there  a  classical  education;  returned  to 
Virginia  1788;  studied  at  William  and  Mary  College;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  but  ultimately  studied  theology:  took 
orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church  1*817 ;  a  minister  in  Meck- 
lenburg CO.,  Va.,  1817-23,  and  pastor  of  churches  succes- 
sively at  Raleigh,  N.  C,  and  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  when  he 
became  Bishop  of  North  Carolina.  D.  at  Raloigh,  Mar.  5, 
1830.  Two  volumes  of  his  Sermons  were  edited  by  Dr. 
(afterward  Bishop)  J.  M.  Wainwright  in  1830,  preceded  bv 
a  memoir.  See  biographical  sketches  in  American  Church 
Review  and  in  Butterson's  Sketch-hook  of  the  American 
Episcopate,  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Rarensteln,  Ernest  Georok  :  geographer  and  statis- 
tician;  b.  at  Frankfort-oii-tlie-Main,  Germany,  Dec.  30. 
1834 ;  son  of  an  eminent  local  geographer  and  cartographer ; 
educated  chieflv  in  his  native  town ;  removed  to  London 
about  1852;  held  an  appointment  in  the  intelligence  de- 
partment of  the  War  Oflicc  1805-75 ;  member  of  the  coun- 


cils of  the  Royal  Geographical  and  Royal  Statistical  So<m»»- 
ties;  founded  the  German  Gymnastic  Society  1861,  and  f«>r 
ten  years  was  its  president ;  has  published  Tk€  Russians  on 
the  Amur  (London,  1861);  Oeogrciphte  und  Statistik  ti*M 
Briiisehen  Reiehes,  in  Wappftus^s  Handbueh  der  Oeograph  i* 
(Leipzig,  1862);  London^  one  of  Meyer's  Handbooks  fnr 
Travelers  (1872,  subsecjuent  editions);  Cyprus  (Londmi. 
1876) ;  The  Laws  of  Migration  and  other  papers  in  Tranji- 
actions  of  the  Royal  Geographical  and  Statistical  Socictir^  : 
A  Handbook  of  (gymnastics  and  Athletics  (London,  1HI>4) : 
also  a  map  of  Eastern  Equatorial  Africa  (twenty-five  sheets i, 
published  by  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  (188^-8;)) :  a 
Systematic  Atlas  for  private  study  and  superior  sch<M»N. 
fifty-two  sheets  (London,  1893);  a  topographical  map  of 
England  and  Wales  (1893). 

Rarlgnan,  raa'veen'yaan',  Gustave  Xavteb  Delacroix, 
de  :  pulpit  orator ;  b.  at  Bayonne,  France,  Dec.  2, 1795.  I  It- 
first  studied  and  practiced  law,  but  in  1822  entered  the 
Jesuit  seminary  at  Montrouge  and  was  ordained  priest  in 
1828.  After  some  years  of  teaching  his  talent  as  orator  re- 
vealed itself,  and  in  1836  he  succeeded  Pere  Lacordaire  at 
Notre  Dame,  Paris,  where  he  remained  till  1848.  He  wtm 
also  an  ardent  champion  of  the  Jesuits  in  pamphlets,  an<l 
active  in  charitable  works  and  foundations.  D.  Feb.  2r». 
1858.  See  his  Life,  by  Pere  de  Pontlevy  (2  vols..  Pari*, 
1860 ;  Eng.  trans..  New  York,  1873).         A.  G.  Canfieli>. 

Rawal  Plndi :  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the  NortlH-rn 
Punjaub.  It  lies  on  the  south  slopes  of  the  Western  Ihiua  la- 
yas ;  is  noted  for  its  fertility  and  salubrity ;  embraces  4,t>'^  \ 
sq.  miles,  and  since  the  extension  of  the  railway  has  carrii  «I 
on  considerable  trade  with  Afghanistan  (see  map  of  Nort  h 
India,  ref.  3-C).  Pop.  over  1,000,000.  Its  largest  town  i^ 
Rawal  Pindi;  pop.  (1891)  73,460;  best  known  in  rwent  tiinr^ 
for  the  great  durbar  held  there  (1885)  by  the  Vicen>y  oi 
India,  in  honor  of  the  Amir  of  Afghanistan. 

Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Rawdon-Hastlngs,  Francis,  Marquis  of  Hastings:  ^>]- 
dier  and  statesman  ;  b.  in  Ireland,  Dec.  7, 1754;  was  educaii^l 
at  Oxford ;  entered  the  army  1771 ;  was  sent  to  America  in 
1773;  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill ;  became  aiclt< 
de-camp  to  Sir  Henry  Clinton;  participated  in  the  battles  nf 
Long  Island  and  White  Plains  and  the  attacks  unon  Fort  < 
Washington  and  Clinton ;  soon  afterward  raised  in  New  V«  irk 
a  corps  called  the  Volunteers  of  Ireland,  of  which  he  toi-k 
command;  distinguished  himself  at  Monmouth ;  was  niaiit- 
general  and  sent  to  the  Southern  States  with  re-enforcement  > 
for  Cornwallis  1780 ;  took  a  prominent  mrt  at  the  battle  of 
Camden  Aug.  16 ;  remained  m  the  Carolinas  after  Comwal- 
lis's  return  northward  ;  attacked  and  defeated  Gen.  Grwn<» 
at  Hobkirk's  Hill  Apr.  25, 1781 ;  relieved  Fort  Ninety-six  ; 
fortified  himself  at  Orangeburg ;  incurred  much  obloquy  on 
account  of  the  execution  of  Col.  Isaac  Hayne  July  31 ;  8ail<M  \ 
for  England  Aug.,  1781 ;  was  captured  by  a  French  crui^t-r 
and  taken  to  Brest ;  was  made  Baron  Rawdon  and  ai<le-<i«'^ 
camp  to  the  king  1783;  succeeded  his  father  as  Earl   «»f 
Moira  in  1798;  was  given  command  of  a  force  of  10,000  ni*-ii 
sent  to  the  relief  of  the  Duke  of  York  in  Flanders  in  17iM  ; 
was  intrusted  with  the  direction  of  the  e3medition  to  Qni- 
beron  in  1795;  was  made  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  18iW  ; 
made  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  form  a  cabinet  on  the  assii^> 
sination  of  Mr.  Perceval  in  1812;  was  honored  with  thf 
order  of  the  Garter  and  appointed  Governor-General   *»f 
British  India  in  1813 ;  successfully  conducted  the  Nepau  I , 
Pindaree,  and  Mahratta  wars ;  was  created  Marquis  of  Hast- 
ings in  Dec,  1816;  retired  from  the  government  of  In«!  i^x 
after  a  successful  administration  of  nearly  ten  years  in  lH-^:5, 
and  became  Governor  of  Malta  in  1824.    D.  on  board  tin* 
Revenge  in  the  Bay  of  Baia,  near  Naples,  Nov.  28,  1826. 

RawHns :  citv ;  capital  of  Carbon  co.,  Wyo. ;  on  the  Unit  *t i 
Pac.  Railroad;  136  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  I^aramie,  710  niiU-^ 
W.  of  Omaha  (for  location,  see  map  of  Wyoming,  ref.  11-1  \. 
It  is  in  a  mining  and  stock-raising  region,  has  an  elevati«  .ti 
of  6,540  feet  above  sea-level,  and  contains  a  valuable  sul- 
phur spring,  quarries  of  limestone  and  building-stone,  a  iiii- 
tional  bank  with  capital  of  $75,000,  and  two  weekly  now  — 
papers.  The  city  has  large  trade,  especially  with  Norths  «-•  ^  t 
Colorado.    Pop.  (1880)  1,451 ;  (1890)  2,235. 

Rawlins,  John  Aaron:  soldier;  b.  at  East  Galena,  III,,, 
Feb.  13,  18i^l ;  the  son  of  a  farmer  and  charcoal-bum  •♦  r . 
He  had  but  limited  opportunities  for  obtaining  an  educatior  ^ . 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty  he  began  to  attend  schot^l ;  nx 
Nov.,  1854,  began  the  study  of  law,  and  in  1855  was  t^*i^ 


14 


RAYMOND 


READE 


special  attention  to  promoting  legislation  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  school  and  canal  systems;  retired  from  The 
Courier  and  Enauirer  1850;  on  Sept.  18,  1851,  issued  the 
first  number  of  The  New  York  Times,  Raymond  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Baltimore  Whig  convention  of  1852 ; 
elected  lieutenant-governor  of  New  York  1854 ;  prominent 
in  the  organization  of  the  Republican  party  1856,  having 
been  the  author  of  the  Address  to  the  People  issued  by  the 
Pittsburg  convention  ;  warmly  urged  Seward  for  the  presi- 
dential nomination  1860,  but  ^ave  efficient  support  to  Lin- 
coln when  nominated  and  during  his  administration,  though 
often  differing  from  him  on  Questions  of  war-policy ;  elected 
a  member  and  Sj>eaker  of  the  New  York  Assembly  1861 ;  pre- 
sitled  over  the  Union  convention  at  Syracuse  1862 ;  defeated 
by  Gov.  Morgan  in  his  candidacy  for  the  U.  S.  Senate  1863 ; 
chairman  of  the  New  York  delegation  in  the  national  Re- 
publican convention  1864 ;  elected  to  Congress  in  1864,  but 
separated  from  the  majority  of  his  party  in  that  body  by 
giving  a  partial  support  to  the  policy  of  Johnson;  took  part 
in  convoking  the  Pniladelphia  "  Loyalists'  convention  '  of 
1866,  and  wrote  its  Address  and  Declaration  of  Principles ; 
refused  to  be  a  candidate  for  re-election  to  Congrass  1866; 
declined  the  mission  to  Austria  offered  him  by  President 
Johnson  1867.  D.  in  New  York,  June  18,  1869.  He  pub- 
lished a  History  of  the  Administration  of  President  Lincoln 
(New  York,  1864),  which  in  a  revised  edifion  was  entitled  The 
Life  and  Public  Services  of  Abraham  Lincoln  (1865),  and  a 
few  other  works. 

Raymond,  John  T.  (original  name,  John  (XBrien) :  actor ; 
b.  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Apr.  5,  18^36.  He  was  educated  in  the 
common  schools ;  matle  his  first  appearance  at  the  Roches- 
ter (N,  Y.)  theater  as  Lopez  in  The  Honeymoon ;  afterward 
appeared  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  as  Asa  Trenchard  in  Our 
American  Cousin^  with  Edward  Sothem  as  Lord  Dun- 
dreary. On  July  1,  1867,  he  played  with  Sothem  the  same 
ohanicter  in  the  same  piece  at  the  Haymarket  theater,  Lon- 
«lon,  and  afterward  made  a  tour  of  the  British  pro\inces, 
lie  returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  the  autumn  of  1868,  and  ap- 
peared in  New  York  as  Toby  Twinkle  in  All  that  Glitters 
iM  not  Oold.  His  artistic  triumph  was  achieved  in  1874, 
when  he  brought  out  at  the  Park  theater.  New  York,  TVic 
(Hided  Aae^  founded  on  Mark  Twain's  novel.  As  (>ol.  Mul- 
berry Sellerj?,  he  acted  with  much  humor  and  originality. 
The  piece  did  not  prove  popular  in  England.  He  appeared 
on  the  stage  for  the  last  time  in  Hopkinsville,  Ky.  T).  at 
Evansville,  Ind.,  Apr.  10,  1887.  B.  B.  Vallentink. 

Raymond,  Miner,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.:  minister  and  educator; 
b.  in  New  York,  Aug.  29,  1811 ;  spent  childhood  and  vouth 
in  Kensselaerville,  N.  Y. ;  studied  1830-34,  and  taught  1834- 
41  at  Wilbraham  Academy,  Mass. ;  joined  the  New  Eng- 
land conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  1838. 
lie  was  principal  of  Wilbraham  Academy  from  1848  to 
1H64,  then  l)ecame  Professor  of  Systematic  Theology  in  the 
(larrett  Biblical  Institute  at  Evailston,  111. ;  published  Sys- 
tematic Theology  (3  vols.,  1877-79).   lievised  by  A.  Osborn. 

Raymnnd  Lully :  Sec  Luu  Raimon. 

Raynal,  ro'naal',  Guillaume  Thomas  Francois  :  histori- 
an ;  b.  at  St.-Geniez,  department  of  Aveyron,  France,  Apr. 
12,  1713;  studied  theology  at  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  at 
Toulouse :  entered  their  order  and  began  to  preach,  but 
went  in  1747  to  Paris,  and,  enjoWng  the  company  of  Dide- 
rot, Holbach,  Helvetius,  etc.,  he  entered  on  an  entirely  op- 
posite coui-se.  Of  his  numerous  historical  works,  Histoire 
dn  Divorce  de  Henri  VIII.  avec  Catherine  (1763)  attracted 
some  attention,  ahd  his  Ilistoire  philosophiqne  ef  politique 
dfii  EfablisHements  et  dn  Commerce  des  Europeens  dans  les 
DeuX'Indes  (first  published  anonymously  in  4  vols.,  1770, 
tlien  in  an  enlarged  edition  under  his  name,  5  vols.,  1780) 
was  condemned  by  the  parliament  of  Paris,  and  a  warrant 
of  arrest  issued  against  the  author.  lie  fled  to  Switzerland, 
lived  subso(]uently  at  the  court  of  Frederick  II.,  but  was  al- 
lowed to  return  to  France  in  1788;  received  several  marks 
of  distinction  from  the  authorities.  D.  at  Chaillot,  near 
Paris.  Mar.  6,  1766.  He  also  wrote  Tableau  et  Revolutions 
dr.s  Colonies  nmjlaiAt^s  dons  V Amn'ique  septentriouale  (2 
Vols.,  1781),  which  was  translated  into  English,  and  sharply 
criticised  by  Thomas  Paine. 

Raynonnrd.  ra  nooaar',  Franvois  Jtste  Marie:  poet 
and  philologist ;  b.  at  Brignolles,  Provence,  France,  Se|)t. 
IS,  1761.  He  was  bred  a  lawyor,  elected  to  the  Legislative 
Assoinbly  in  1791,  and  was  a  deputy  in  1806  and  1811.  His 
poem,  Socrate  dans  le  temple  d'Aylaure  (1803),  and  his  trage- 


dies. Cat  on  d'Vtiqye  (1794),  Les  Tempi  iers  (1805),  and  Les 
Etats  de  Blois  (1814),  gave  him  a  literary  reputation,  and  he 
was  chosen  to  the  Academy  in  1807.  He  is  best  remem- 
bered as  a  philologist.  He  did  much  to  revive  the  inten-^t 
in  the  older  literature  of  France,  and  contributed  to  a  belter 
knowledge  of  the  Provencal  language  by  his  important 
works,  Choix  de  Poisies  originates  des  lYoubadours  (6  vuls., 
1816-21) ;  Lexigue  roman^  ou  Dictionnaire  de  la  Langu*- 
des  Troubadours  (6  vols.,  1838-44) ;  Orammaire  romauf 
(1816);  Recherches  sur  Vancienneti  de  la  langue  romane 
(1816).    D.  at  Passy,  Paris,  Oct.  27, 1836.    A.  G.  Canfield. 

Razor-clam :  the  common  name  of  various  bivalvi-s  of 
the  genus  /So/e»,  given  in  allusion  to  the  shape  of  the 
shell. 

Razzlonere,  Pablo  de  :  See  Cespedes. 

R6,  ra  :  an  island  of  France,  department  of  Charente-ln- 
ferieure  ;  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  in  front  of  the  haibor  <»f  La 
Rochelle.  It  is  18  miles  long,  4  miles  broad,  treeless,  with 
steep  coasts;  is  strongly  fortified,  and  has  about  15,000  in- 
habitants, who  are  mostly  employed  in  fisheries,  oystor- 
f arming,  wine-cultivation,  and  the  manufacture  of  salt. 

Read,  George  :  jurist ;  b.  in  Cecil  co.,  Md.,  Sept.  18, 17:^3 ; 
became  a  lawyer  at  Newcastle,  Del.,  1754 ;  attorney-general 
of  Delaware  and  member  of  the  Delaware  Legislature  f<ir 
many  years ;  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  1774-77. 
and  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  : 
president  of  the  constitutional  convention  of  Delaware  1776 ; 
member  of  the  convention  that  framed  the  Federal  Const  it  u- 
tion ;  appointed  judge  of  appeals  1782;  U.  S.  Senator  17bl>- 
93  ;  ana  chief  justice  of  Delaware  from  1793  to  his  death,  at 
Newcastle,  Sept.  21, 1798. 

Read,  John  Meredith,  Jr. :  diplomatist;  b.  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  Feb.  21, 1887 ;  gnwluated  at  Brown  University  lK">s. 
and  at  the  Albany  law  school  1859  ;  adjutant-general  of  New 
York  during  the  civil  war ;  published  An  Historic^d  Inguirt/ 
concerning  Hendrick  Ihidson  (1866);  wrote  much  for  period- 
icals ;  appointed  consul-general  at  Paris  in  1868  ;  also  aclt-d 
as  consul-general  of  Germany  during  the  Franco-Ciemjan 
war,  and  afterward  for  nearlv  two  vears  directed  all  the  c*on- 
sular  affairs  of  that  empire,  including  the  protection  of  Cier- 
man  subjects  and  interests  during  the  first  and  second  sic;r«s 
of  Paris ;  appointed  U.  S.  minister  to  Greece  in  1873,  biit  i«'- 
turned  in  1879,  the  office  having  been  abolished  by  Congn*^*-. 
He  was  president  of  the  Social  Science  Congress  at  AUrniiy, 
N.  Y..  in  1868,  and  vice-president  of  the  one  at  Plymontlw 
England,  in  1872.  Revised  by  James  Mercir. 

Read,  Thomas  Buchanan  :  poet  and  painter ;  b.  in  Ches- 
ter co..  Pa.,  Mar.  12,  1822;  studied  sculpture  at  Cincinnati, 
but  soon  turned  his  attention  to  painting,  which  he  pra*-- 
ticed  at  New  York  (1841),  and  soon  afterward  at  B(>st<Mi  ; 
removed  to  Philadelphia  1846;  went  to  Florence,  Italy,  in 
1850,  and  resided  there  with  few  intermissions  until  1^72, 
when  he  returned  to  the  U.  S.  D.  in  New  York,  Mav  1 1 , 
1872.  Author  of  Poems  (1847) ;  The  New  Pastoral  (It^.V,)  : 
The  Wagoner  of  the  Alleghanies  (1862);  and  A  Sumwt  r 
Story,  Sheridan's  Ride  and  Other  Poems  (1867).  Aiuoult 
his  paintings  are  the  well-known  portraits  of  Mrs.  Brown- 
ing and  of  Longfellow's  children  ;  the  portraits  illustratinir 
his  compilation,  i^^wo/^ /V>p/«  of  America  (1848);  and  iLo 
painting  illustrating  his  Sheridan's  Ride, 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Reade,  Charles:  novelist;  b.  at  Ipsden,  Oxford^hirf, 
England,  in  1814;  educated  at  Magdalen  College,  Ox  for*  1, 
and  graduated  1835;  was  elected  toaVinerian  fellowship  tw 
Oxford  1842;  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  lS4:-$  : 
published  in  1852  Peg  Woffington,  a  novel  which  gave  him 
an  immediate  reputation,  and  afterward  issued  many  nov«-lj4 
and  tales,  among  which  are  Christie  Johnstone  (1853) ;  JSTi  r*  r- 
Too  Late  to  Mend  (1856);  Love  vie  Little,  Love  me  Lon^r 
(1859);   The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth  (1861);  Hard   ('<!,</, 
(1863);    Griffith  Gaunt  (1866);  Put  Yourself  in  his  Plat  ^^ 
(1870);   A   'Terrible    Temptation  (1871);   A  Woman  Ilof^  r- 
(1878);  and  The  Jilt  and  Other  Tales  (1884).    Reado  ili  — 
played  great  skill  in  plot  and  incident,  had  a  piotur»*jN<|n  ♦• 
style,  and  often  wrote  with  a  s(>cial  or  political  objoc-t    » 1 1 
view.     Most  of  his  novels  were  successfully  dramati/oil  I  .  \- 
himself  or  by  Boucicault,  and  he  wrote  several  indeiH^inU- 1  %  \ 
fdays.    He  gained  some  note  from  his  lawsuits  on  que^tioiY  -. 
connected  with  the  rights  of  authors  and  the  limits  of  ]►«   \--. 
missible  literary  criticism,  and  from  his  vigorous  ad v<ic*ary  •  .  r 
international  copyright  with  the  U.  S.     D.  at  Sheph»*n  i    >^ 
Hush,  London.  Apr.  11,  1884.       Reviso<l  by  H.  A.  Bekr>. 


16 


REALISM  IN  FINE  ART 


another,  its  successor.  Hence  each  individual  thing  is 
only  a  momentary  phase  of  some  process  which  has  many 
potentialities;  these  potentialities  it  realizes  in  the  series 
of  individual  things,  each  thing  realizing  some  of  them. 
Thus  the  process,  as  embracing  the  rise  and  dissolution  of 
many  individuals,  is  generic  or  a  universal ;  it  possesses  the 
potentiality  of  each  uiing,  and  at  the  same  time  possesses 
the  reality  of  each ;  the  reality  of  each  thing  is  the  reality 
of  the  universal  process  which  causes  it.  Inasmuch  as  it — 
the  process — annuls  individual  things,  and  likewise  origi- 
nates them,  it  includes  in  itself  the  total  of  reality,  and  is 
therefore  real  in  a  more  complete  sense  than  any  individual 
thing.  Again,  it  must  be  noted  that  what  we  call  indi- 
vidual things  are  arbitrarily  limited  phases  of  processes. 
Each  individual,  so  called,  is  identified  bv  nominalism  with 
only  a  portion  of  its  history,  as  it  were,  for  it  can  be  traced 
by  degrees  back  into  another  thing,  in  which  it  originated, 
and  forward  into  another,  in  which  it  finally  disappears. 
Moreover,  it  is  correlated  in  space  with  other  thin^,  and 
it  is  arbitrary  in  the  Nominalist  to  assume  that  he  nas  an 
individual  thinff  before  him  when  he  has  only  a  dependent 
part  of  the  whole  process  of  interrelated  things.  Thus  the 
word  process,  to  which  natural  science  in  our  day  has  ar- 
rived (Darwinism  teaching  that  things  are  to  be  studied  in 
their  history  and  development,  evolution  and  the  congela- 
tion of  forces  being  doctnnes  of  the  supreme  reality  of  uni- 
versals  in  the  shape  of  a  law  or  persistent  force),  interprets 
realism,  and  reinstates  it  as  a  more  advanced  stage  of 
thinking  than  nominalism.  Realism  may  be  (a)  psycholog- 
ical, holding  in  reganl  to  artificial  things — e.  ^.  table  or 
chair — ^that  the  general  notion  or  name  conventionally  sig- 
nifies the  purpose  or  design  which  creates  such  things,  and 
therefore  corresponds  to  what  reality  they  possess ;  {b)  nat- 
ural, a  realism  which  recognizes  the  natural  objective  proc- 
esses in  nature  and  mind.  Mind  is  considered  immortal  as 
individual  (not  as  a  thin^),  for  the  reason  that  it  is  a  total 
process  within  one  reality;  each  thinking  bein^  has  po- 
tentially in  his  mind  the  universal  reason,  and  is  able  to 
realize  the  same  by  his  own  activity.  In  thus  realizing 
his  possibilities  by  culture  and  education  he  does  not  annul 
his  individuality  (as  the  process  of  forces  annuls  things), 
but  rather  intensifies  his  consciousness  of  self,  and  deepens 
his  subjectivity  by  the  same  act  in  which  he  realizes  his 
universality.  This  doctrine  is  expressed  by  Aristotle's  "  en- 
telechies."  First  entelechy  (self-contained  being — **  End- 
in-itself  "^^ntire  process  in  one  reality)  has  all  the  possi- 
bilities and  the  power  to  develop  them,  but  has  not  ener- 
gized as  yet  (the  man  as  infant  or  savage);  second  entelechy 
has  developed  its  potentialities  through  self-activity  (the 
man  as  cultured,  civilized,  and  enlightened). — Realism,  as 
contrasted  with  idealism  in  the  school  of  common  sense,  is 
the  theory  that  we  cognize  external  objects  by  direct  per- 
ception instead  of  by  means  of  interposed  ideas. 

William  T.  Harris. 

ReaHsm  in  Fine  Art :  the  art  or  practice  of  expressing 
the  real  in  contradistinction  to  the  imagined,  the  ideal,  or 
the  traditional.  Thus,  in  the  choice  of  subject,  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  glory  of  angels  may  be  called  imaginative  or 
imaginary.  The  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  is  a  strongly  ideal- 
ized treatment  of  a  procession,  very  abstract  inoeed,  and 
not  at  all  a  complete  statement  of  the  facts.  The  picture  of 
a  saint  with  his  or  her  attributes  is  generally  very  traditional. 
In  opposition  to  these,  realism  would  choose  religious  en- 
thusiasm seen  among  living  and  humble  people,  or  a  faith- 
ful portrait  of  a  military  or  civic  parade,  or  a  sailor  risking 
his  life  in  the  way  of  duty.  That  is  to  say,  the  realist  paints 
what  he  has  seen  and  known,  and  whatever  ideas  of  dignity 
or  humility  he  may  wish  to  convey  will  be  given  to  the 
common  scenes  and  the  actual  persons  of  his  own  expe- 
rience. Apart  from  the  choice  of  subject,  realism  chooses 
a  manner  of  representing  men  #ind  things  which  will  give 
them  nearly  as  they  are  to  ordinary  human  observation.  A 
realistic  study  of  slaves  or  poverty-stricken  peasantry  would 
insist  on  their  dull  and  fatigued  expression,  their  stooping 
and  often  malformed  bodies,  and  their  hard  and  hopeless 
toil.  The  same  subject,  the  same  scene  and  incident,  might 
be  treated  so  as  to  insist  upon  the  close  communion  with 
nature,  the  healthful  out-of-<loor  life,  the  strength  of  body  of 
iKjth'men  and  women.  Also,  to  come  still  further  away 
from  the  mere  choice  of  subject,  the  peasants  or  the  slaves 
in  the  realistic  picture  will  he  shown  ugly  because  of  mo- 
notonous work  and  poor  foo<l,  ill-clothed  and  dirty,  un- 
pleasing  and  even  repulsive  to  look  at.    The  same  men  and 


REAL  PRESENCE,  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE 

women  may  be  invested  with  beauty  of  form  and  color,  and 
may  be  so  painted  and  so  grouped  as  to  give  a  ver\'  l»eau- 
tifiil  resultmg  composition,  without  obvious  and  admitted 
falsehood. 

Realism  in  art  is  generally  assumed  to  be  a  debabinir 
theory  and  practice.  The  term  is  more  often  used  in  re- 
proach, and  applied  to  artists  whose  work  is  not  approve<l. 
In  this  there  is  a  constant  though  unconscious  reference  t« » 
the  French  term  ricdisme^  which  is  commonly  used  in  thi^ 
evil  sense.  Some  years  ago  a  photograph  from  a  drawiti;: 
by  Couture  was  handed  about  the  studios ;  it  repre^sentt^d 
a  student  of  art  seated  on  a  cast  of  the  head  of  an  A]k>]1<> 
and  drawing  carefully  from  the  head  of  a  large  hog.  whih* 
cabbages  and  old  boots  lay  about  as  further  models  ftir 
study.  The  title  written  below  was  Un  HicUi&ie,  and  t  bt^ 
idea  was,  of  course,  that  realism  turned  away  from  the  high- 
est beauty  to  see  truth  in  the  ugly,  or  at  least  the  indifferent ; 
but  this  again  is  a  mere  satire  of  assumed  vulgarity  in  choice 
of  subject;  and  no  one  woiUd  have  been  quicker  than 
Thomas  Couture  to  state  that  choice  of  subject  has  little  t<i 
do  with  fine  art,  and  that  it  would  be  better  to  treat  a  gr<>up 
of  swine  ideally  than  a  group  of  men  of  heroic  stature  and 
beauty  realistically.  In  all  the  French  horror  of  le  realtime 
there  is  the  assumption  that  it  is  in  some  way  oppasc<i  Ut 
Vidial;  that  is  to  say,  that  realism  is  the  antagonist  of 
idealism.  As  all  artists  are  in  pursuit  of  the  ideal  in  one 
form  or  another,  this  antagonism  can  hanlly  exist  to  the 
degree  supposed.  Rembrandt  in  his  etchings  was  a  realist 
as  to  the  figures  of  men  and  women ;  he  took  them  as  he 
saw  them,  ill-grown,  ill-nourished,  clothed  in  hideous  gar- 
ments ;  but  in  light  and  shade  and  the  composition  of  light 
and  shade  he  was  an  idealist  in  the  highest  sense*  The 
student  who  compares  the  Adam  and  iTve  of  Rembrandt 
with  a  photograpn  or  a  cast  from  the  Parthenon  frieze  in 
free  to  say,  as  he  is  apt  to  feel,  that  the  one  is  vulgar  real- 
ism and  the  other  is  noble  idealism  ;  but  a  further  consid- 
eration brings  with  it  the  sense  that  one  is  as  idealistic  a> 
the  other — it  is  only  a  question  what  the  ideal  is. 

Again,  a  landscape  painting  may  show  the  rocky  struct  un* 
of  two  low  hills  on  tne  Newport  coast,  and  the  thin  bed  <»f 
morass  which  fills  the  hollow  between  them.  It  is  perfectly 
traceable  how  the  hills  are  built  up  and  how  they  are  wear- 
ing away ;  and  the  bit  of  swamp  which  separates  them  is  a< 
obviously  there  merely  because  the  rock  is  impervious  to 
water,  and  holds  vegetable  mould  and  pulverized  rock  t*  »- 
gether  in  a  soft,  spongy,  saturated  mass,  as  if  we  couM 
sound  it  and  take  up  a  shovelful  for  examination.  Thi^ 
treatment  of  the  natural  facts  with  a  strong  insistence  oti 
their  true  character  is  certainly  realistic ;  but  the  nieati> 
taken  to  show  it  are  probably  very  idealistic,  probal>ly  so 
because  it  is  unlikely  tnat  the  whole  story  would  be  at*  vlettr 
to  the  eye  of  the  observer  at  any  one  point  of  the  natural 
landsca[)e  as  it  is  made  to  the  student  of  the  picture.  Tlir 
picture  as  a  piece  of  coloring  and  line  composition  is  mi 
ideal  work,  of  course,  but  it  will  be  ideal  also  in  the  matter 
of  this  insistence  on  a  hi^h  and  important  truth,  which  trui  h 
could  only  be  shown  in  its  fullness  by  a  very  decided  aban- 
donment of  mere  copying. 

The  conclusion  is  that  in  fine  art  there  is  none  of  tliat 
clear  distinction  between  realism  and  idealism  that  is  main- 
tained in  metaphysics.  Idealism  is  merely  the  higher  real- 
ism, the  realism  of  very  intelligent  and  clear-seeing  men. 

Russell  Stcrois. 

Reality :  the  fundamental  truth,  underlying  all  thin^rs^ 

See  Metaphysics. 

Real  Presence  (sc.  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist),  The  l)oe- 
trine  of  the :  part  of  the  professed  belief  of  the  Roman  Cat  1 1> 
olic,  Greek  Catholic,  and  other  ancient  Churches.  Acconl- 
ing  to  it  "Christ  is  contained  whole  and  entire  under  eith4.-r 
species — i.  e.  that  his  body,  blood,  soul,  and  divinity  are  g"i  voti 
both  under  the  form  of  bread  and  under  that  of  wino  '* 
{Addis  and  Anwld),  In  the  Anglican  Church  the  n*/il 
presence  is  maintained,  but  so  defined  as  to  avoid  the  im- 
putation of  being  a  belief  in  the  corporal  presence — i.  e.  in 
"  the  presence  in  the  holy  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Sun|>«.r  > 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  C'hrist  in  a  corporeal  or  matermi  J  v 
substantive  manner"  {IIool).  On  the  contrary,  the  r«»*il  | 
presence  is  not  *'  to  be  sought  for  in  the  sacrament,  but  i  n 
the  worthy  receiver  of  the  sacrament**  (Hooker);  but  «»>;. 
"with  the  natural  bread  in  the  sacrament,  there  is  pn»sont 
the  spiritual  bread  which  is  Christ's  body,"  it  is  none  iU^ 
loss  real.    See  Eucharist  and  Transubstantiation'. 

Samuel  Macaulky  Jackson. 


18 


REAPING  AND  MOWING  MACHINES 


eral  use.  Several  forms  of  rake,  as  Wood's  chain-rake  and 
Miller's  table-rake,  have  been  introduced  into  the  U.  S. 
and  other  countries.  C.  W.  and  W.  W.  Marsh  invented  and 
patented  a  machine  in  1858  in  which  the  cut  grain  was  re- 


Fio.  7.— Harvester. 

ceived  on  an  endless  apron  and  carried  therebv  to  another 
apron,  which  elevated  the  grain  to  a  stand  on  tlie  machine, 
wnere  two  men,  while  riding  along,  bound  it  into  bundles. 
This  machine  (Fig.  7)  considerably  advanced  the  art  of 
cutting  grain.  The  automatic  wife  self-binder,  marking 
a  progressive  step  in  harvesting  machinery,  followed  the 
Marsh  harvester.  The  wire  bands  proved 
to  be  objectionable  in  both  wheat  and 
straw.  Magnets  were  required  in  the 
mills  to  remove  the  pieces  of  wire  from 
the  wheat,  and  cattle  were  injured  by  the 
wire  when  eating  the  straw.  Marquis  L. 
Gorham  invented  a  cord-binding  attach- 
ment which,  with  various  improvements 
by  J.  F.  Appleby,  has  been  generally 
aaopted  by  the  manufacturers  of  bind- 
ers, with  one  or  two  notable  exceptions. 
All  self-binding  machines  are  now  so 
perfected  that  they  give  universal  satis- 
faction. In  all  this  claiss  of  machines 
the  grain  is  delivered  by  the  elevating 
aprons  upon  a  slanting  table,  where  iron 
packers  work  continuously  through  slots 
m  the  table  and  rake  the  grain  down  to 
the  knotter  and  upon  a  trip-finger,  which  automatically  sets 
the  knotter  in  motion  when  enough  grain  has  accumulated 
for  a  bundle.  The  knot  is  tied  in  the  cord  by  a  single  revo- 
lution of  a  bill-shaped  hook  with  a  hinged  tongue  that  is 
moved  by  a  cam.  The  self-binder  (Fig.  8)  has  rapidly  re- 
placed the  self-rake  reaper  (Fig.  9).  Briggs  and  Carpenter, 
Feb.,  1886,  secured  patents  for  a  heading-machine;  since 
then  over  100  have  oeen  granted  on  these  machines,  which 
have  proved  to  be  well  adapted  to  cutting  large  harvests 
in  dry  climates.  The  essential  parts  are  a  cutting  device 
from  16  to  20  feet  long,  mounted  upon  wheels,  a  reel,  an 
endless  horizontal  apron,  which  carries  the  severed  heads  to 
a  second  apron,  extending  4  to  6  feet  at  an  upward  angle, 
whereby  the  heads  are  deposited  in  a  large  wagon-box,  the 
side  next  to  the  header  being  low,  the  opposite  side  high. 


on  steamboats.  Four  horses  abreast,  attached  to  the  toiiL' 
near  the  trucksjpush  the  machine.  The  cutting de vice  i ^ ; i ; 
that  shown  in  Fig.  10.  Six  men  and  t^n  horses  are  alh  i 
cut  and  stack  the  grain  from  15  to  30  acres  daily.    Tlie  ci: 


Fio.  9.-  A  modern  self -rake  reaper. 

bined  harvester  (Fig.  10)  unites  the  header,  the  thrcslirr  jii 
separator,  the  fanning-mill,  the  sacker,  and  straw-rMrrit-r :: 
one  machine.  The  large  machines  are  propelled  eiilitr  l.\ 
traction-engine  or  by  thirty  to  thirty-six  horses.  If  ^{«^i!l 
power  is  used,  seven  men  are  required  ;  if  horse-powiT.  f" 
Of  the  combined  harvesters  10  per  cent,  are  steam-j»ow.  r. ' 
per  cent,  horse-power.     Either  will  cut  from  60  to  li")  n<  i 


Fio.  8.— New  Osborne  harvester  and  binder  (the  self-binder). 

A  large,  long  tongue  extends  to  the  rear,  supported  by  a 
truck,  and  with  wheel-steering  device  similar  to  that  used 


Fio.  10.— Combined  harvester  (shown  as  at  work  in  the  field). 

and  thresh  from  1,700  to  3,000  bush,  daily.  The  avera-.  1  ' 
of  one  of  these  harvesters  is  about  eight  years  if  usvd  i^'i' 
to  fifty  days  each  season.  From  the  grain-cradle  t(»  t- 
steam-harvester  is  a  long  way,  yet  the  larger  part  of  » 
harvests  of  the  world  is  secured  by  the  aid  of  the  foiiip 
or  implements  still  more  primitive. 

The  corn-harvester  (Fig.  11)  is  the  greatest  improvem-  r 
in  the  late  inventions  of  harvesting  machinery.  It  i»«  ti 
binder  modified,  strengthened,  and  adapted  to  the  heavi. 
and  most  difficult  work — that  of  cutting,  elevntint:,  tm 
binding  com  8  to  14  feet  high,  weighing  from  15  to  20  t- 1 
per  acre. 

Simultaneously  with  the  reaper  came  the  mowinff-iTu 
chine.  At  first  it  was  practically  the  reaper  dismantlr«l  < 
its  platform  and  other  parts  not  needeti  for  cutting  ^r.a 
As  it  required  a  higher  speed  to  cut  ^ru\ 
than  grain,  no  satisfactory  coidImmi 
mower  was  made  until  a  device  was  ii 
vented  for  changing  the  knives  fr«'in 
low  to  a  high  speed.  Separate  mM<  In m 
for  mowing  are  now  the  rule :  they  ai 
without  reels  or  platforms..  The  cutt^^ 
bar  is  hinged  at  the  inner  end  to  all**w 
to  follow  the  inclinations  of  the  gn-im 
Levers  are  provided  for  elevating  t-r  cj 

f)ressing  the  cutter-bar  and  for  c«>iitn| 
ing  the  dip  or  angle  of  the  giirtrd>  ai| 
knives.     Cyrenus  Wheeler  pHnhufl 
successful    mower  in    1853,   whii  h   w 
s<K)n  followwl  by  the  Buckeye  ami 
ers,  which  were    modifications  of    H 
sey's  and  Wheeler's  machint^s.     K^ar- 
machines  were  most  common    |»rinr 
1880;  since  that  time  front-cuttim:  n 
chines  have  come  into  general  u>«r    F 
12).     In  1870  Rudolph  Eichemoy«r 
cillating  gear  mower  converted,  hy  in<>| 
of  cams  in  the  main  wheels,  their  r.  ti 

motion  into  reciprocating  motion  reouired  by  the  knife,  tt 

obviating  the  necessity  of  gear-wheels. 


20 


r£camier 


RECEIVER 


politiea ;  a  version  of  the  book  of  Job,  called  La  constancia 
victorioaa^  and  one  of  Jeremiah,  Trenos  de  Jeremias  (both 
Cologne,  1655).  He  wrote  also  a  poetical  version  of  the 
Psalms,  a  life  of  Christ  in  verse,  and  several  ballads  and 
epiRraras.  D.  in  Madrid  in  1676.  liis  works  were  printed 
in  three  volumes,  at  Madrid,  in  1778.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

R^camler,  ra'ka&'mi-ft',  Jeanne  Fran^oise  Julie  Ade- 
Uk^lDE  Bernard,  Madame :  b.  at  Lyons,  France,  Dec.  4, 
1777 ;  a  woman  of  great  charm  of  person  and  mind,  she 
married  in  1793  Jacques  Recamier,  a  Paris  banker,  three 
times  her  age,  and  made  her  house  the  gathering-place  of  a 
group  of  brilliant  personages,  among  wnom  Chateaubriand 
and  BalUnche  were  conspicuous.  The  reactionary  political 
and  religious  ideas  there  current  made  her  the  ooject  of 
Napoleon*s  displeasure,  and  in  1811  she  was  ordered  to  leave 
Paris.  At  the  restoration  she  returned  to  Paris  and  estab- 
lished herself  modestly  in  the  old  Abbaye-aux-Bois,  where 
she  a^in  became  the  center  of  a  brilliant  intellectual  circle. 
Her  beauty  and  intelligence  gained  her  many  worshipers 
and  suitors,  among  whom  Chateaubriand  and  Prince  Au- 
gust of  Prussia  are  famous.  D.  May  11, 1849.  See  Madame 
Lenormant,  Souvenirs  et  correttporidance  tires  dea  paptera  de 
Madame  Ricamier  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1860),  and  Madame  Re- 
camier, les  amis  de  aa  Jeunease  (Paris,  1872),  both  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Isaphene  M.  Luyster  (Boston,  1867 
and  1879) ;  also  Chateaubriand,  Memoir es  d  Outre  Tombey 
vols,  viii.-x.  A.  G.  Canfield. 

Recanatl,  ra-kaa-naa'u^e :  town ;  in  the  province  of  Mace- 
rata,  Italy ;  on  a  hill  about  900  feet  above  the  sea ;  15  miles 
S.  of  Ancona  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  4-E).  The  adjoining 
country  is  very  productive,  the  grapes  and  figs  being  of  the 
finest  quality.  The  town  has  a  Gothic  cathedral  dating 
from  the  fourteenth  century.  The  Palazzo  (Jomunale  has 
on  its  facade  a  bronze  representation  of  the  translation  of 
the  Holy  House  to  Loreto  (g.  v.).  Leopard i  was  bom  here, 
and  his  monument  adorns  the  principal  piazza.  Recanati 
was  sacked  by  the  French  in  1799.  Pop.  5,824.  Porto  Reca- 
nati, 6  miles  N.  £.  on  the  coast,  has  3,040  inhabitants. 

Recapture :  in  international  law,  the  recovery  of  a  cap- 
tured vessel  by  a  cruiser  of  the  same  nation  or  of  an  ally.  If 
retaken  before  an^  sentence  of  a  prize-court  of  the  captor's 
sovereign  has  decided  upon  the  validity  of  the  capture,  and 
thus  determined  the  ownership  of  the  captured  vessel,  it  goes 
to  the  owner ;  after  such  sentence,  if  retaken,  it  goes  to  the 
captor.  The  captor  in  the  first  of  these  two  cases  is  entitled 
to  a  reward,  (bee  Salvage.)  This  is  the  usage  in  the  courts 
of  the  U.  S.,  but  a  majority  of  the  maritime  states  of  Europe, 
including  (>reat  Britain,  restore  a  recaptured  ship  to  the  orig- 
inal owner,  even  after  she  has  been  condemnea  by  a  prize- 
court  and  adjudged  to  the  captor.  It  would  seem  tnat  a 
neutral  purchaser  for  value  from  the  captor  might  thus  lose 
his  property.  A  French  privateer  is  not  compelled  to  restore 
a  recaptured  ship  if  an  enemy  has  held  it  twenty-four  hours, 
while  a  man-of-war  must  do  so.  Spain  restores  a  recaptured 
ship  to  the  neutral  unless  she  is  loaded  with  enemy's  prop- 
erty. The  amount  of  salvage  payable  to  the  recaptor  by  an 
owner  differs.  In  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  the  usual  rate 
is  one-eighth  of  the  value  of  ship  and  cargo,  though  the  latter 
nation  observes  reciprocity  in  the  matter,  levying  the  same 
rate  that  would  he  applied  to  its  ships  by  the  state  to  which 
the  recaptured  vessel  belongs.  France  charges  one-tenth, 
but  if  recapture  has  taken  place  within  a  day  only  a  thir- 
tieth. Spain  and  Portugal  charge  one-eighth,  but  more  if 
the  recaptor  is  a  privateer.  Denmark  and  Sweden  allow 
one-third  and  one-naif  respectively.  The  rate  may  be  modi- 
fied by  treaty.  Revised  by  T,  S.  W  oolsey. 

Receipt  [from  0.  Fr.  recete  <  Lat.  recep'fum,  liter.,  some- 
thing ret^eived,  neut.  perf.  partic.  of  recipere,  receive]:  the 
transaction  by  which  property  is  delivered  by  one  to  another, 
or  a  writing  a<"knowle<lging  such  a  transaction.  It  is  used 
in  the  first  sense  in  the  Statute  of  Frauds.  (See  Frauds, 
Statute  ok.)  A  written  receipt  is  to  be  distinguished  from  a 
Release  {q.  v.)  in  that  it  does  not  destroy  a  subsisting  right, 
but  is  merely  evidence  of  a  fact,  and  therefore  may  be  ex- 
plained or  refuted.  As  it  is  merely  evidence  of  a  fact  it  is 
not  a  Contract  (q.  r.),  although  the  written  instniment  in 
which  it  appears  may  contain  a  contract  also.  A  familiar 
example  is  a  Bill  of  Lading  (q.  v.).  which  sets  forth  a  receipt 
of  certain  goods  by  a  carrier  and  a  contract  to  transport  them. 
It  is  at  times  difficult  to  decide  whether  a  particular  instru- 
ment is  a  simple  receipt  or  superadds  to  this  a  contract  ob- 
ligation. Even  in  the  latter  ciise  the  rocoint  is  open  to  ex- 
planation, except  in  cases  where  the  contraaiction  of  the  re- 


ceipt would  work  a  destruction  of  the  contract.  {Bosch  vs. 
Humboldt  Mutual  hisurance  Companyj  85  N.  J.  L.  429.) 
Whether  the  person  delivering  property  or  making  payment 
pursuant  to  a  legal  obligation  has  the  fight  to  a  simpk'  re- 
ceipt has  not  been  settled  by  the  courts,  but  statutes  ^i\e 
sucn  a  right  in  certain  cases.  Francis  Jl.  Bu&du  k. 

Receiver:  a  person  appointed  by  the  court  to  rec<*ive 
rents,  issues  or  profits  of  land,  or  other  property  which  is  in 
question  between  the  parties  to  a  litigation,  or  which  belongs 
to  one  who  is  legally  incompetent,  as  an  infant  The  ap- 
pointment of  receivers  was  resorteid  to  by  equity  tribunals 
for  the  purpose  of  doing  justice  in  cases  where  the  juris<lic- 
tion  and  remedies  of  the  common-law  courts  were  inade- 
quate. The  general  principles  upon  which  a  court  of  equity 
acts  in  appointing  and  controlling  receivers  are  stated  briefly 
by  the  L.  S.  Supreme  Court  as  follows :  "A  receiver  is  aj)- 
pointed  upon  a  principle  of  justice  for  the  benefit  of  all  con- 
cerned. Every  Kind  of  proi)erty  of  such  a  nature  that,  if 
legal,  it  might  Jbe  taken  in  execution,  mav,  if  equitable,  be 
put  into  his  possession.  Hence  the  appointment  has  W't-w 
said  to  be  an  equitable  execution.  He  is  virtually  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  court,  and  of  all  the  parties  in  interest  in 
the  litigation  wherein  he  is  appointea.  He  is  required  to 
take  possession  of  property  as  directed,  because  it  is  deemt-d 
more  for  the  interests  of  justice  that  he  should  do  so  than 
that  the  property  should  be  in  the  possession  of  either  of  t  he 
parties  in  the  litigation.  He  is  not  appointed  for  the  l>ene- 
nt  of  either  of  the  parties,  but  of  all  concerned.  Money  (»r 
property  in  his  hands  is  in  custodia  leais.  He  has  onlv  such 
power  and  authority  as  are  given  him  by  the  court,  and  must 
not  exceed  the  prescribed  limits.  The  court  will  not  allow 
him  to  be  sued  touching  the  property  in  his  charge,  nor  for 
any  malfeasance  as  to  the  parties  or  others  without  its  con- 
sent ;  nor  will  it  permit  his  possession  to  be  disturbed  by 
force  nor  violence  to  be  offered  to  his  person  while  in  the 
discharge  of  his  official  duties.  In  such  cases  the  court  wiU 
vindicate  its  authority,  and,  if  need  be,  will  punish  the  of- 
fender by  fine  and  imprisonment  for  contempt."  Davis  va. 
Gray,  16  Wallace  203. 

Whether  a  receiver  should  be  appointed  in  a  given  case  is 
a  matter  of  judicial  discretion,  which  is  exerciser  cautiously 
bv  the  courts,  especially  in  the  case  of  a  Corporation  (q.  t*.). 
Modem  legislation  has  given  to  law-courts  authority  to  em- 
ploy receivers,  and  has  increased  their  powers  and  usefulness. 
The  cases  in  which  receivers  are  appointed  fall  into  four 
classes  :  (1)  Where  there  is  no  legal  owner  of  the  pro|)ertv, 
as  in  the  case  of  an  intestate's  estate,  or  the  owner  is  legally 
incompetent  to  manage  it,  as  in  the  case  of  infants  and  lu- 
natics. In  the  U.  S.,  statutes  often  provide  for  a  tenifwrary 
administrator  and  give  to  guardians  and  committees  an  au- 
thority so  wide  as  to  render  receivers  unnecessary.  (2) 
Where  the  litigants  are  legallv  competent  to  manage  the 
property,  but  iustice  demands  tnat  neither  party  should  con- 
trol it,  as  in  the  case  of  winding  up  partnership  affairs  by 
judicial  proceedings,  or  of  the  partition  of  property.  (H) 
Where  the  legal  title  is  held  by  one  in  a  fiduciary  capacity 
who  is  abusing  his  trust,  as  in  the  case  of  a  suit  against  an 
executor,  or  a  mortgagor,  or  of  creditors'  suits.  (4)  Where 
the  proper  enforcement  of  a  judgment  requires  a  receiver. 

Receivers'  Certificates, — Courts  of  equity  are  accustomed, 
at  present,  to  authorize  the  receiver  of  a  railroad  com|>any 
to  borrow  money  for  the  operation  of  the  road,  and  to  issue 
therefor  certificates  which  are  made  a  first  lien  upon  the 
property  of  the  corporation.  This  extraordinarv  power  is 
exercised  because  of^the  quasi-public  character  of  railroads, 
and  has  been  denied  in  the  case  of  a  private  corporation, 
whose  chief  business  was  mining  and  selling  coal.  ^' A  rail- 
road corporation  ...  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  operating 
its  road  as  a  public  highway.  If  the  company  becomes  em- 
barrassed and  unable  to  perform  that  duty  the  courts,  pend- 
ing proceedings  for  the  sale  of  the  road,  'will  operate  it  by 
a  receiver,  and  make  the  expense  incident  thereto  a  first 
lien.  .  .  .  Private  corporations  owe  no  duty  to  the  public, 
and  their  continued  operation  is  not  a  matter  of  public  ct»n- 
cem."  (FarmerfC  Loan  and  Trust  Company  vs.  Grape  Crt-tk 
Coal  Company,  50  Federal  Reporter  481.)  Such  certificat**s 
are  non-negotiable  securities ;  they  do  not  pledge  the  general 
credit  of  the  maker,  but  are  payable  out  of  a  particular  fund. 
Their  validity  depends  upon  the  order  of  the  court,  and  even 
a  hona-fide  purcliaser  will  not  be  able  to  enforce  them  if  the 
order  has  not  been  strictly  followed  in  their  issue.  Their 
payment  is  not  compelled  by  a  suit  at  law,  but  by  an  order 
of  the  court.     One  who  assigns  or  indorses  them  does  not 


22 


RECLUS 


RECONNAISSANCE 


of  Bonn,  Wttrzburg,  and  Berlin,  gnuluatinp  M.  D.  from  the 
last  in  1855 ;  was  assistant  at  the  Berlin  Pathological  Insti- 
tute from  1858  to  1864 ;  in  1865  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Pathological  Anatomy  at  the  University  of  Konigsberg;  in 
1866  occupied  the  same  chair  at  Wflrzburg ;  and  in  1872  went 
to  the  Strassburg  university.  lie  has  contributed  many  val- 
uable papers  to  the  literature  of  pathology.  8.  T.  A. 

Rficlns,  re-klft',  fiusEK:  geographer;  b.  at  Ste.-Foy-la- 
Grande,  department  of  G iron de,  France,  Mar.  15, 1830 ;  was 
educated  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  studied  in  Berlin  under 
Karl  Ritter;  traveled  from  1852  to  1857  in  England  and 
America,  and  published  after  his  return  to  Paris  a  number 
of  valuable  geographical  works,  partly  in  the  Jtetfue  dea 
Deux  Mondfs^  partly  in  book-form,  of  which  the  most  prom- 
inent are  The  Earth  (2  vols.,  1867)  and  The  Ocean^  Atmo8- 
phere,  and  Life  (1872;  translated  into  English  bv  B.  B. 
Woodward,  New  York,  1871  and  1872).  His  Nouvelle  Gio- 
graphie  universelle^  regarded  as  the  most  complete  geo- 
graphical survey  of  the  world  ever  written,  occupied  him 
for  twenty  years  (1874-94),  and  consists  of  nineteen  volumes, 
of  from  7()0  to  1.000  pages  each.  Among  its  illustrations 
are  more  than  3,5(X)  maps.  Holding  extreme  democratic 
views,  when  the  revolution  of  Mar.  18,  1871,  broke  out  he 
sided  with  the  Commune,  and  later  was  sentenced  to  trans- 
|>ortation  for  life,  but  upon  the  appeal  of  leading  scientific 
men  his  sentence  was  commuted  to  banishment.  Pie  then 
resided  in  Italy,  the  U.  S.,  and  elsewhere.  Having  i-eturned 
to  Paris,  he  again  became  involved  in  communistic  plots  and 
fled  to  Switzerland.  Though  al)sent  he  was  sentenced  in 
1894  to  transportation  for  twenty  years. 

Revised  by  C.  C.  ADi.MS. 

Reclns,  Paul,  M.  D.  :  surgeon  ;  b.  at  Orthez,  Basses-Py- 
renees, Prance,  Mar.  17,  1847:  studied  medicine  in  Paris, 
graduating  M.  D.  in  1876 ;  in  1878  passed  the  concoura  for 
the  hospitals;  in  1880  was  appointed  associate  and  subse- 
quently full  professor  of  surgery.  Among  his  writings  are 
Clinique  et  critique  chirurgicaies  (Paris,  1884);  Cliniques 
chirurgicales  de  fUo/el'Dieu  (Paris,  1887).  S,  T.  A. 

Rednse  [from  O.  Fr.  reclua  <  Lat.  recln'sus,  shut  up  (in 
Mediiev.  Lat.,  a  recluse)] :  in  strict  language,  a  monk  or  mm 
wlio  from  choice  retired  from  communication  even  with  mem- 
bers of  the  same  order.  The  secluded  person  sometimes 
adopted  this  life  by  way  of  penance,  sometimes  as  a  means 
of  spiritual  progress.  No  one  could  be  thus  secluded  with- 
out permission.  The  door  was  sealed  in  the  presence  of  a 
superior  oflicer,  and  could  be  unlocked  only  by  the  command 
of  a  bishop.  The  name  '"  recluse  "  was  given  to  the  inmates 
of  Port-Royal,  the  famous  Jansenist  retreat  in  Paris. 

Recognition :  the  feeling  of  familiarity  with  which  an 
image  or  object  affects  us.  We  say  feeling,  since  the  recog- 
nition, in  itself,  accompanies  the  act  of  knowledge  in  which 
the  object  or  image  is  again  presented ;  that  is,  reproduction 
is  assumed  in  recognition.  This  feeling  of  familiarity  is 
vague  and  often  misplaced,  and  ordinarily  goes  unanalyzed. 
The  means  by  which  recognition  arises  vary  as  the  recog- 
nition is  of  an  object  or  of  an  image.  In  the  case  of  the 
second  perception  of  an  object  its  recognition  is  probably 
accomplished  by  means  of  an  image  which  is  already  recog- 
nized. We  have  a  comparison  between  the  percept  and  the 
image,  and  feel  them  the  same  or  similar.  This  is  seen  to 
be  the  case  in  frecjuent  instances  in  everyday  life.  If  we 
are  asked  whether  an  object  is  the  same  as  one  seen  before, 
we  often  say  we  do  not  know,  for  we  do  not  remember  how 
the  former  object  looked ;  which  means  that  we  are  unable 
to  call  up  and  recognize  anv  image  with  which  the  object 
present  may  be  compared,  in  the  case  of  the  recognition  of 
an  image  such  a  procedure  is  impossible.  It  would  pre- 
suppose another  image  still,  and  so  on  indefinitely.  The 
question,  therefore,  is  narrowed  down  to  the  means  by 
which  we  recognize  a  reproduced  image. 

The  recognition  of  an  image  depends  upon  the  degree  in 
which  its  apperceptive  relations  are  re-established.  The 
reproduction  of  an  image  consists  in  the  reinstatement  of 
the  conditions,  physical  or  mental,  of  the  original  percep- 
tion. Such  a  reinstatement  of  the  conditions  suflnces  to 
bring  an  image  back  into  consciousness ;  but  it  is  not  then 
necessarily  recognized.  It  is  only  when  some  of  the  mental 
connections — the  relations  established  among  the  perceptual 
elements  by  apperceptive  attention — are  again  more  or  less 
consciously  presente<l  that  the  sense  of  familiarity  is  felt. 
It  is  necessary  that  there  be  some  accompanying  conscious 
elements  to  which  the  recognized  elements  are  related. 
Often  when  an  image  arises  in  consciousness  we  do  not  rec- 


ognize it  till  we  bring  back  some  association  with  it.  Often, 
also,  we  see  a  face  and  in  so  far  recognize  it  as  to  feel  vague- 
ly familiar  with  it,  while  we  strive  to  bring  up  more  of  it^ 
apperceptive  connections  in  onler  fully  to  identify  it.  Tlu^ 
first  vague  recognition  is  probably  due  to  the  felt  beginninir^ 
of  the  revival  of  the  spatial  proportions  of  the  face.  TIim 
is  further  proved  by  tne  fact  that  percepts  which  are  nnt 
related  in  the  first  presentation — for  example,  single  i>M- 
lated  sensations,  as  the  stroke  of  a  bell — ^are  not  generally 
recognized.  We  say  of  such  presentations  that  there  is 
nothmg  distinguishing  or  characteristic  about  theoi  where- 
by they  should  be  recognized;  but  this  is  only  to  say  IIim» 
there  were  no  specific  points  of  connection  between  thi^ 
image  and  others,  or  between  the  parts  which  are  sepanite- 
1^  apperceived.  As  soon  as  some  sign  is  made  of  a  (K^culiur 
land  in  connection  with  the  image  it  is  recognized.  Ex- 
periments by  Lehmann  on  the  recognition  of  differences  of 
color  strikingly  confirm  this  view.  Different  shades  of  gray, 
which  could  not  be  recognized  when  seen  alone,  were  nn-d^'- 
nized  when  they  were  given  names  beforehand,  or  when  a 
number  was  attached  to  each  in  the  first  perception.  Of 
nine  shades  without  names  or  numbers  only  46  per  ceni. 
gave  true  recognitions ;  while  the  same  shades,  with  num- 
bers, gave  75  per  cent,  of  correct  identifications.  Here  the 
introduction  of  a  simple  local  relation  in  the  perception 
gave  the  necessary  clew.  Further  support  is  denved  from 
the  phenomenon  of  so-called  psychic  blindness,  deafuex. 
etc. — i.  e.  recognition  is  absent  in  animals  deprived  of  the 
higher  co-ordinating  brain-centers. 

This  view  of  the  case  also  enables  us  to  take  account  of 
the  subjective  element  of  recognition,  which  is  often  over- 
looked. There  is  more  in  recognition  than  the  sen.se  of 
familiarity  with  an  image.  There  is  the  feeling  of  ourselve«< 
as  in  familiar  circumstances.  This  feeling  of  self  develojis 
largely  in  connection  with  active  attention.  Attention, 
however,  is  the  organ  of  the  process  of  apperception.  Cun- 
sequentlv,  when  by  reinstatement  of  this  process  the  fact  of 
recognition  is  experienceil,  it  carries  with  it  essentially  the 
feeling  of  an  emphasized  self :  the  self  of  the  first  apper- 
ception is  again  evident  in  the  self  of  the  reapperception, 
and  the  sense  of  sameness  of  the  apperceptive  content  really 
arises  with  the  sense  of  the  sameness  of  the  individual  wiii* 
has  it.  Recognition  of  the  image,  therefore,  and  sense  of 
persona]  identity,  both  rest  ultimately  in  differences  in  t  he 
amount,  ease,  facility,  and  good  adjustment  of  the  attention. 

J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Recognizance  [from  0.  Fr.  recognoismnce  (>  Fr.  rerun- 
naismnce),  recognition,  deriv.  of  recognoistre  (>  Fr.  rfcitn- 
naif  re),  recognize  <  Lat.  recognoscere^  know  again,  reeog- 
nize] :  in  law,  an  obligation  of  record  which  a  man  enters 
into  before  some  court  of  record,  or  magistrate  duly  author- 
ized, with  condition  to  do  some  particular  act,  as  to  appear 
and  answer  in  criminal  proceedings,  to  prosecute  a  casu  or 
an  appeal,  to  keep  the  peace,  etc.  (2  Bl.  Coni^  341.)  The 
recognizance  is  an  acknowledgment  (recognizine)  of  the  ex- 
istence of  a  debt  or  obligation  appearing  upon  the  record  of 
the  court,  and  need  not  be.  like  a  bond,  sealed  and  signed 
by  the  party.  It  is  proceeded  upon  by  a  writ  of  scire  facum 
or  a  summons,  without  the  necessity  of  an  action  as  in  the 
case  of  a  common  bond.  At  common  law  it  is  a  preferred 
debt,  but  in  many  States  of  the  U.  S.  the  preference  ha.s 
been  abolished  or  modified.  See  Blackstone's  Commeu- 
taries,  and. the  American  and  English  En^yclopcedia  vf 
Law  (under  Recognizance),  F.  Sturges  Allks. 

Rec'ollet  Friars  and  Nnns :  a  name  usually  applied  to 
one  of  the  congregations  of  Franciscans  of  tHe  strict  ol>- 
servance,  but  sometimes  designating  reformed  bodies  of 
other  onlers.  A  congregation  of  Augustinian  Re<'oilets 
dates  from  1530.  The  Franciscans  who  bear  this  name  are 
especially  those  of  the  French  congregation,  founded  in 
1592  by  the  Duke  of  Nevers,  Louis  de  Gonzaga  (1539-95). 

Reconnaissance  [=  Fr.,  liter.,  recognition,  examination, 
deriv.  of  reconnattre,  earlier  reconnoitre,  recognize,  exam- 
ine, whence  Eng.  reconnoiter'l :  a  preliminary  or  rough  sur- 
vey of  a  portion  of  country.  A  civil  reconnaissance  may  U* 
undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  selecting  suitable  points*  f<»r 
trigonometrical  stations  preparatory  to  a  geodetic  survey  ; 
for  ascertaining  the  relative  advantages  and  disadvantasrt  s 
of  two  or  more  routes  preparatory  to  locating  a  line  of  rail- 
way, canal,  or  aqueduct ;  or  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  u 
general  idea  of  the  features  of  an  unexplored  count  rv.  A 
military  reconnaissance  may  be  undertaken  to  ascertafn  xVv 
military  resources  of  a  tract  of  country ;  for  determining 


24 


RECORDING  OP  CONVEYANCES 


RECOUPMENT 


ing  titles.  This  project  is  modeled  on  the  Prussian  law  of 
May  5f  1872,  which  will  therefore  be  taken  as  the  basis  of 
the  following  sketch  of  the  modern  German  system. 

The  recom  {Grtindbuch)  is  so  arranged  that  all  entries 
affecting  a  special  parcel  of  land  are  made  in  one  "  folio/' 
A  special  folio  is  regularly  assigned,  in  the  cities,  to  each 
lot,  and  in  the  rural  districts  to  each  farm  or  estate  (Out). 
In  the  latter  case  the  several  fields  belonging  to  the  es- 
tate are  enumerated.  The  tax-number  of  each  lot  or  field  is 
given,  with  its  area  and  its  assessed  rental  value.  (The  tax- 
rolls  and  maps  give  the  metes  and  bounds  of  the  property 
as  determined  by  governmental  survey.)  After  the  property 
has  thus  been  described,  the  remainder  of  the  folio  is  dividea 
into  thr^e  parts.  In  the  first  are  noted  all  changes  of  owner- 
ship ;  in  tne  second,  all  permanent  charees  UTK>n  the  land, 
except  taxes ;  all  limitations  of  the  owner  s  right  (see  Servi- 
tudes), and  all  restrictions  upon  the  owner's  power  of  alien- 
ation. In  the  third  part  are  entered  all  mortgages,  with  the 
amount,  the  rate  of  interest,  the  date  of  their  establishment, 
and  the  date  at  which  pMiyment  is  due.  In  parallel  columns 
are  entered  assignments  and  payments,  whether  partial  or 
in  full. 

The  record  is  kept  by  the  court  of  first  instance  in  each 
judicial  district.  Entries  are  made  only  by  order  of  the 
court,  and  on  certain  legally  specified  grounds,  of  which  the 
most  important  are  contract  and  judgment.  In  case  of  con- 
veyance, the  law  requires  a  formal  declaration  from  the  re- 
corded owner  that  he  transfers  the  property  to  the  conveyee 
and  a  demand  from  the  conveyee  that  he  be  recorded  as 
owner.  The  declaration  and  demand  may  be  made  in  per- 
son or  by  attorney  or  in  writing ;  but  if  by  attorney  or  in 
writing  the  documents  presented  to  the  recording  officers 
must  ha  certified.  Similar  rules  govern  other  entries  based 
on  the  contract  of  the  parties.  Ii  an  entry  is  demanded  on 
the  ground  of  judgment,  the  judgment  must  be  authenticated. 

The  recording  officers  determine  the  presence  or  absence 
of  the  grounds  on  which  entries  may  legally  be  made,  but 
they  do  not  decide  controversies.  He  who  impugns  the  cor- 
rectness of  an  entry  alreadv  made,  or  protests  against  an  en- 
try which  the  recording  oAcers  are  legally  bound  to  make, 
must  bring  action  in  the  proper  court ;  but  pending  the  ju- 
dicial determination  of  tne  controversy,  he  may  save  his 
rights  by  securing  the  insertion  of  a  "  note  "  ( Vormerkting). 
The  saine  course  is  open  to  the  person  who  demands  an 
entry  which  the  recording  officers  can  not  legally  make  until 
his  claim  is  affirmed  by  a  judgment.  The  '*  note  "  has  about 
the  same  effect  as  notice  of  Lis  pendens  {q.  v.)  in  the  U.  S. 
Where  this  safeguard  seems  insufficient,  the  court  before 
which  the  controversy  is  pending  may  prohibit  alienation, 
and  such  prohibition  is  then  placed  upon  the  record. 

Effect  of  the  Record, — The  record  enjoys  pnhlica  fides. 
It  is  presumed  to  be  accurate  and  complete.  Re  who  pur- 
chases from  the  reconleti  owner  is  therefore  owner,  unless  it 
can  be  shown  that  he  knew  the  record  to  be  erroneous.  In 
like  manner,  he  who  hiis  taken  a  mortgage  from  the  recorded 
owner,  or  an  assignment  of  mortgage  from  the  recorded 
mortgagee,  has  the  rights  of  a  mortgagee,  unless  it  can  he 
shown  that  he  knew  the  record  to  be  erroneous.  Against 
the  assignee  of  a  recorded  mortgage  no  defenses  are  admis- 
sible except  those  which  are  indicated  on  the  record  and 
those  of  which  he  can  be  proved  to  have  had  ktiowledge. 

Mistakes  in  the  record,  it  is  claimed,  are  rendered  ex- 
tremely improbable  by  the  rules  governing  entries.  When 
they  can  be  shown  to  exist,  the  record  may  of  course  be  cor- 
rected, but  no  such  correction  will  be  permitted  to  prejudice 
the  vested  rights  of  third  parties.  The  {)ersou  who  has  suf- 
fered damage  from  a  mistake  in  the  record  has  therefore 
t!ie  following  additional  remedies :  (1)  An  action,  based  on  un- 
just enrichment  (see  Quasi-Coxtract),  against  the  person 
primarily  benefited ;  (2)  a  subsidiary  claim  against  the  record- 
ing officers,  when  thev  are  chargeable  with  willful  wrong  or 
negligence ;  and  (3)  if  the  recording  officers  are  liable  but 
insolvent,  a  claim  against  the  State. 

Modifications  of  the  Law  of  Mortgage.— Thfi  German 
system  of  recording  has  led  to  importunt  changes  in  the 
whole  law  of  re«l  property,  some  of  which  have  already  been 
indicated.  Special  innovations  in  the  law  of  mortgage  are 
as  follows : 

(1)  Specialty. — No  lien  can  be  imposed  upon  the  entire 
estate  of  a  debtor,  nor  even  on  all  his  realty.  Judgment 
liens,  for  example,  can  be  made  effective  only  by  having 
special  mortgages  rect)rded  a;rainst  special  pieces  of  property. 

(2)  Owner's  Mortgage. — When  the  owner  of  property  pays 
off  a  mortgage  he  may  elect  to  have  the  mortgage  assigned 


to  himself.  In  such  case  no  Merger  {q.  v.)  takes  place ;  tb*' 
mortgage,  whether  it  remains  in  the  name  of  the  owner  or  \> 
assigned  by  him  to  a  third  person,  retains  its  validity  and 
its  priority. 

(3)  Land-debt. — A  lien  on  the  land  which  operates  like  a 
mortgage  may  be  created  without  any  accompanying  jiersoiml 
obligation  upon  the  part  of  the  mortgagor.  Such  a  lien  tlie 
Germans  call  a  "land-debt"  {Orundschuld).  No  such  «h- 
fenses  as  are  derived,  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary  mort^a<:*' 
(Ilgpothek)^  from  the  invalidity  of  the  personal  claim  can  U* 
pleaded  against  the  land-debt,  for  it  is  not  a  collateral  but 
an  independent  claim.  On  the  other  hand,  the  land-debt  is 
not  enforceable  against  the  person  who  created  it  except 
while  he  holds  the  land. 

(4)  Owner's  Land-debt. — The  land-debt  may  be  estublished 
in  favor  of  the  owner  himself.  This  rule  enables  the  own*  r 
of  realty  to  give  a  second  mortgage  and  at  the  same  time  u> 
reserve  a  first. 

(5)  A  letter  of  mortgage  (Hypothekenbrief)  is  an  authen- 
ticated extract  from  the  record,  issued  by  the  recording 
officers,  attesting  a  particular  mortgage,  and  showing  all  tlx^ 
facts  that  are  of  importance  to  the  holder.  In  the  ca^e  of 
the  ordinary  mortgage  such  an  extract  may  be  issued  with 
the  consent  of  the  mortgagor,  and  its  issue  is  noted  on  the 
record.  In  the  case  of  the  land-debt  such  an  extract  is  al- 
ways issued  ( Qrundschuldbrief).  The  purpose  of  the  ex- 
tract is  to  facilitate  assignment  by  avoiding  the  necessity  of 
entering  each  successive  assignment  upon  the  reconi.  Any 
person  who  presents  the  extract  and  shows  that  it  has  come 
into  his  hands  in  the  manner  provided  by  law  (certitle<l 
transfer)  is  entitled  to  receive  interest,  and,  in  case  of  default, 
to  foreclose.  The  original  creditor,  of  course,  can  exercise 
none  of  these  rights  unless  he  is  still  in  possession  of  the  ex- 
tract. The  extract  is  thus  practically  a  secondary  recH>nL 
separated  from  the  parent  record  but  enjoying  the  sanu* 
publica  fides.  The  lien  on  the  land  is  put  into  circulation 
after  the  fashion  of  a  negotiable  instrument.  In  the  caM>  of 
the  land-debt,  where  most  of  the  defenses  available  against 
the  ordinary  mortgage  are  excluded,  the  analogy  to  ciun- 
mercial  paper  is  particularly  obvious,  and  the  German  ju- 
rists describe  the  "  letter  of  Iclnd-debt  '*  as  "a  bill  of  exchange^ 
on  the  land." 

It  is  claimed,  and  with  apparent  justice,  that  the  German 
system  makes  the  ascertainment  of  title  simpler  and  th».» 
security  of  title  greater  than  any  other  system  yet  deviled  ; 
and  that  it  therefore  gives  a  safer  basis  to  credit  than  any 
other  system. 

See  (iide.  Le  Rigime  ffypothScaire  en  Pruase  (1873) :  and 
Achilles,  Grundei gent  hum  und  Uypothekenrecht  (ISHl). 

Munroe  Smith. 

Reconpnient  [from  Fr.  recouper,  cut  again,  cut  off] :  a 
species  oi  defense  in  actions  brought  to  recover  dainup^s 
for  the  non-performance  of  a  contract,  whereby  the  defend- 
ant alleges  that  he  has  himself  sustained  damages  by  t  he 
plaintiffs  breach  of  the  same  contract,  or  by  the  plaintiff's 
fraud  in  procuring  him  to  enter  into  it,  which  he  sc^eks  to 
cut  off  or  **  recoup  "  from  the  amount  that  would  otherwise 
be  recovered  against  him.  The  doctrine  of  recoupment  has 
become  established  by  judicial  decision  both  in  England 
and  in  the  several  States  of  the  U.  S.,  although  there  are  s<»me 
slight  differences  in  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been  carried 
by  the  various  courts.  Like  the  defense  of  set-off,  it  is  con- 
fined to  actions  upon  contract,  and  must  itself  arise  fri>n) 
contract,  but  here  all  resemblance  ends.  A  set-off  must  \>e 
for  a  debt,  a  certain  fixed  sum  ;  recoupment  is  of  damages 
often  entirely  unliquidated ;  a  set-off  is  necessarily  a  demand 
arising  upon  a  different  contract  from  the  one  in  suit :  n»- 
coupment  is  necessarily  of  damages  arising  from  a  breach 
of  the  very  same  contract  sued  upon  ;  in  set-off  the  defend- 
ant may  sometimes  recover  a  balance  from  the  plaint itT; 
in  recoupment  this  can  never  be  done.  Recoupment  (as  is  in- 
dicated oy  the  etymology)  can  strictly  be  useti  only  as  a  de- 
fense, and  can  do  no  more  at  most  than  defeat  the  pluin- 
tifTs  recovery  ;  even  if  the  defendant's  damages  should  ex- 
ceed those  of  the  plaintiff,  he  can  have  no  judgment  for 
such  excess.  In  this  last-mentioned  particular  the  dtK^trim* 
of  recoupment  has  been  greatly  enlarged  by  the  reformed 
system  of  procedure  prevailing  in  the  U.  S.  in  many  of  the 
States,  which  pennits  the  defendant  by  means  of  a  counier- 
claim  to  recover  an  affirmative  juagment  for  dainap'^ 
against  the  plaintiff  when  the  grouncis  for  such  rec(»\ery 
have  been  established  by  the  proofs.  See  Se<lgwick  on  tl..- 
Measure  of  Damages.         Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allln. 


26 


KED  CROSS 


REDPIKLD 


Red  Cross :  the  name  applied  to  the  international  treaty 
arranged  by  the  Geneva  convention  of  1864,  as  well  as  to  the 
various  societies  organized  to  carry  out  its  aims.  These 
center  in  the  cause  of  humane  and  merciful  treatment  of 
wounded,  sick,  and  dying  soldiers  in  time  of  war.  The  Red 
('ross  is  the  distinctive  flag  designated  in  the  treaty,  by  which 
all  hospitals  (field  or  permanent),  ambulances,  persons,  ma- 
terials, and  appliances  employed  in  the  relief  service  are 
known  as  such ;  and  whenever  the  flag  is  displayed  accom- 
panied by  the  national  flag  to  which  the  hospital,  etc.,  be- 
lonffs,  it  is  treated,  respected,  and  protected  as  neutral. 
Under  the  treaty  soldiers  disabled  by  wounds  or  sickness 
who  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  enemv  may  be  sent 
through  the  lines ;  if  healed  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy  and 
incapable  of  bearing  arms,  they  must  be  delivered  to  the  out- 
posts to  be  sent  to  their  homes,  upon  request ;  if  capable  of 
further  military  service,  they  may  be  sent  to  their  homes  on 
condition  of  not  aeain  bearing  arms  during  the  war.  Thus 
the  spirit  of  the  Red  Cross  treaty  makes  of  a  wounded  or 
sick  soldier  a  neutral,  a  non-combatant.  The  Red  Cross 
movement  is  civil  in  its  origin,  and  the  various  national  com- 
mittees, societies,  or  associations  organized  to  carry  into  ef- 
fect the  objects  of  the  treaty  are  purely  civil.  They  place 
themselves  in  communication  with  their  respective  govern- 
ments, and  in  time  of  military  activity  they  co-operate  with, 
and  become  auxiliaries  and  aids  to,  the  medical  and  surgi- 
cal departments  of  the  armies.  In  time  of  peace  they 
variously  employ  themselves  in  preparing  for  emerffencies. 

At  the  battle  of  Solferino,  Italy,  June  24,  1859,  the  terri- 
ble and  needless  suffering  and  loss  of  life  caused  by  days  of 
neglect  to  care  for  the  wounded  and  dying  were  witnessed 
by  a  philanthropic  Swiss  &;entleman,  Henri  Dunant,  of 
Geneva.  He  personally  aided  the  insufficient  medical  forces 
of  the  armies,  and  realizing  that  such  conditions  ought  not 
to  exist,  and  need  not,  if  the  humanitarian  impulse  and 
eflforts  of  the  people  could  prevail,  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
pledging  the  nations  of  the  earth  to  regard  and  protect  as 
neutral  all  sick  and  wounded  combatants,  and  all  persons 
and  means  engaged  in  giving  them  succor.  He  elaborated 
these  ideas  and  feelingly  described  the  scenes  on  the  battle- 
field in  a  book  which  he  wrote,  Un  Souvenir  de  Solferino, 
The  cause  was  warmly  espoused  by  La  Soci6t6  Genevoise 
d*Lrtilit6  Publique,  of  which  Dunant  was  a  member,  and 
through  the  co-operation  of  the  Swiss  Federal  Council  an  in- 
ternational conference  was  assembled  at  Geneva  in  Oct.,  1863. 
This  meeting  was  attended  by  delegates  from  sixteen  govern- 
ments, and  continued  in  session  four  days.  It  was  followed 
by  a  convention,  to  which  all  nations  were  invited  to  send 
representatives,  and  which  convened  in  Geneva,  Aug.  8, 1864. 
Twenty-five  delegates  representing  sixteen  governments  at- 
tended. The  session  continued  until  Aug.  22,  and  culmi- 
nated in  the  agreement  to  nine  '^  articles  of  the  convention 
for  the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  wounded  in  armies 
in  the  field."  These  articles  were  signed  by  twelve  govern- 
ments before  the  convention  adjourned,  and  the  treaty  was 
left  open  for  the  accession  of  others.  The  signatory  powers 
have  reached  forty  in  number. 

The  treaty  designates  "  a  red  cross  on  a  white  ground  "  as 
the  distinctive  and  uniform  flag  and  arm-badge  that  shall 
be  adopted  for  all  hospitals,  ambulances,  and  personnel ; 
and  provides  that  it  must  on  lUl  occasions  be  accompanied  by 
the  national  flag ;  also  that  the  delivery  thereof  (m  time  of 
action)  shall  be  left  to  the  military  authority.  The  red  cross 
on  a  white  ground  was  adopted  as  a  well-merited  compli- 
ment to  the  Swiss  confederation,  whose  national  flag  is  the 
reverse — a  white  cross  on  a  red  ground. 

The  Geneva  conference  stipulated  that  each  treaty  nation 
shall  have  one  national  committee  or  society,  civil  in  char- 
acter and  functions,  which  shall  be  the  medium  of  commu- 
nication with  its  government,  and  shall  alone  possess  the 
right  to  use  the  rtd  cross,  and  to  authorize  its  use  at  its 
discretion.  The  national  committees  are  usually  composed 
of  the  most  distinguished  philanthropic  persons  in  public 
and  private  life,  with  the  chief  magistrate  or  ruler  frequently 
at  the  head. 

To  prevent  desecration  of  the  insignia  by  unauthorized 
use,  severe  governmental  prohibitive  measures  have  very 
generally  been  adopted. 

A  committee  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  of  which  Gustave 
Moynier  is  president,  is  reco/2^nized  as  the  international  com- 
mittee, through  which  all  international  communication  is 
had.  An  international  bulh'tin  is  published  by  that  com- 
mittee, and  many  other  national  committees  publish  jour- 
nals or  other  literature  of  their  work,  whicli  are  inter- 


changed. Many  of  the  societies  have  been  permanently  en- 
dowed with  large  sums  of  money.  Others  receive  the  tlirivt 
patronage  of  their  royal  heads  or  members. 

Similar  articles  pertaining  to  naval  warfare  were  formu- 
lated at  Paris  in  1868,  but  have  not  been  generally  adopt  rd 
and  ratified. 

Upon  the  formation  of  the  American  National  Red  Cro^. 
its  president.  Miss  Clara  Barton,  perceiving  a  far  wider  use- 
fulness for  its  work  by  applying  it  to  the  relief  of  great  na- 
tional calamities  other  than  war,  such  as  famine,  pestilencr^. 
fires,  or  cyclones,  incorporated  such  a  feature  into  the  chjir- 
ter  of  the  association  which  she  formed.  The  innovation 
received  unanimous  sanction  by  the  international  and  other 
national  committees,  and  the  broader  scope  thus  inaut:- 
urated  was  denominated  the  "American  Amendment." 
Money,  food,  clothing,  buildings,  agricultural  implements 
seed,  and  other  means  aggregating  over  $1,000,000  in  value 
have  been  distributed  on  thirteen  fields  of  relief  by  thn 
American  National  R«d  Cross  under  the  "  American  Amen»l- 
ment";  notabljr  at  Johnstown,  Pa.,  after  the  flood,  in  Russia 
during  the  famine,  and  on  the  South  Carolina  Sea  islands 
devastated  by  cyclone  and  tidal  wave.  No  money  estiniat** 
can  be  made  of  the  practical  benefits  educationallv,  as  [mr- 
ticularly  exemplifiea  in  teaching  the  colored  suAerers  on 
the  Carolina  islands  the  advantages  of  frugality,  of  concen- 
trated action  in  reclamation  of  their  ruined  lands,  and  of 
self-reliance  generally.  Claba  Babtox. 

Redding :  city ;  capital  of  Shasta  co.,  Cal. ;  on  the  South- 
ern Pac.  lUilroad ;  170  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Sacramento  (for 
location,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  8-C).  It  is  in  an  agri- 
cultural, lumbering,  and  mining  region,  and  contain »  2 
State  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $175,500,  and  2  week- 
ly newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  600 ;  (1890)  1,821. 

Reddle,  Raddle,  or  Red  Chalk :  an  argillaceous  oxide 
of  iron  exported  from  Germany  and  England.  It  is  used 
for  carpenter*s  chalk,  for  marking  sheep,  for  drawing  on 
paper,  and  in  the  case  of  fine  grades  for  polishing  spectacle- 
lenses. 

Redemptionists,  called  also  Matharins,  Fathers  of 
Mercy,  and  Trinitarians  {Ordo  SanctisaimaTrinitatinw 
a  brotherhood  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  founded  by 
John  de  Matha  and  Felix  of  Valois  at  Cerfroi  in  France  for 
the  deliverance  of  Christian  captives  in  Barbary.  It  was  aji- 
proved  by  Innocent  III.  in  1199. 

Redemptorist  Fathers,  or  Lignorians  (Congrfgafw 
Sanctissimi  Hedemptoris) :  a  congregation  of  missionar}- 
priests  founded  in  l732  by  Alfonso  de'  Liguori  at  Snlii 
in  Italy.  They  are  most  numerous  in  Italy,  Austria-Hun- 
garv,  and  the  U.  S.  They  devote  themselves  chiefly  to  th.- 
holSing  of  "missions"  lor  the  increase  of  religious  activ- 
ity among  the  people.  The  original  rules  of  the  congrega- 
tion were  unusually  severe,  allowing  only  sacks  of  straw 
for  beds,  hard  bread  and  soup  at  table,  and  imposing  lom; 
seasons  of  worship  every  night,  self-flagellations  three  tinus 
a  week,  and  missionary  activity  among  the  very  iXH>rf^i 
classes.  In  addition  to  the  usual  vows  of  poverty,' chastity, 
and  obedience,  a  fourth  vow  was  enjoined,  by  wliich  the 
member  was  obliged  to  refuse  all  honors  and  bienefices  out- 
side of  the  order,  except  upon  the  express  command  of  iht- 
pope.  In  course  of  time,  however,  the  rules  have  much  n- 
laxed.  The  congi'egation  has  twenty  houses  in  the  proviiKo 
of  Baltimore,  and  seven  in  that  of  St.  Louis. 

Revised  by  J.  J.  Keaxe. 

Redfleld :  city ;  capital  of  Spink  co.,  S.  D. ;  on  the  Januw 
and  Turtle  rivers,  and  the  Chi.  and  N.  W.  and  the  Chi.,  Mil. 
and  St.  P.  railways;  41  miles  S.  of  Aberdeen,  87  miles  N. 
by  W.  of  Mitchell  (for  location,  see  map  of  South  Dakota, 
ref.  6-F).  It  is  in  a  wheat  and  stcxik-raising  region,  and  con- 
tains Redfleld  College  (Congregational,  chartered  in  18?<T),  h 
national  bank  with  capital  of  f  50,000,  and  a  monthly  aiul 
two  weekly  periodicals.     Pop.  (1890)  796. 

Redfleld,  William  C,  A.  M. :  meteorologist ;  b.  at  Si-»uth 
Farms,  near  Middletown,  Conn.,  Mar.  26,  1789;  was  in  early 
life  a  mechanic ;  conceived  the  fundamental  idea  of  his  fa- 
mous "law  of  storms"  as  early  as  1821 ;  soon  afterwanl  es- 
tablished a  line  of  steam  towboats  on  the  Hudson ;  is^iittl 
many  essays  and  pamnhlets  in  favor  of  steamboat  navii^n- 
tion;  was  subsequently  an  active  promoter  of  railways,  fa- 
cially such  as  would  connect  the  Hudson  with  the  Missis- 
sippi ;  published  at  different  times  forty  essays  upon  metc<»r- 
ology;  promulgated  his  Tlieory  of  Storms  in  1831,  and  hi^ 
views  upon  hurricanes  in  1833  ;  devoted  much  attention   U* 


2S 


RED  RIVER  OF  THE  NORTH 


RED  SEAWEEDS 


slowly  move  up  stream.  In  1854  the  lower  end  of  such  a 
raft  was  located  at  a  point  53  miles  above  Shreveport,  La., 
extended  13  miles  up-stream,  and  was  forming  at  the  rate 
of  H  to  2  miles  a  year.  It  is  stated  that  at  an  earlier  date 
this  raft  was  200  miles  lower  down  the  river.  Vegetation 
takes  root  on  the  older  portions  of  the  rafts,  and  what  are 
termed  "floating  forests"  are  formed.  In  1873,  when  a 
navigable  channel  was  opened  in  the  raft  above  Shreveport, 
it  was  32  miles  long.  This  great  raft,  before  it  was  dis- 
turbed, formed  a  dam,  which  checked  the  flow  of  the  river, 
and  produced  a  lake-like  expansion  from  20  to  30  miles  long 
above  it.  When  a  channel  was  opened  through  it  the  water 
above  was  lowered  15  feet.  In  recent  years  the  river  has 
been  patrolled  by  "snag-boats,"  and  thousands  of  trees, 
stumps,  and  other  obstructions  removed  annually. 

Owing  to  the  timber-dams  formed  naturally  in  Red  river, 
and  to  the  abundant  silt  deposits  left  on  its  immediate 
banks  during  high-water  stage,  natural  levees  are  formed 
along  its  borders  which  deflect  tributary  streams  and  fre- 
quently cause  them  to  form  lakes. 

Consult  Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  tJie  Mississippi  River ^ 
bv  Humphreys  and  Abbot  (1861),  and  the  Annual  Reports 
of  the  Chief  of  Engineers  U.  S.  army.   Israel  C.  Russell. 

Red  Rlrer  of  the  North :  a  river  which  rises  in  Western 
Minnesota,  near  the  source  of  the  Mississippi,  flows  north- 
ward for  250  miles  through  the  so-called  Red  river  valley, 
and  empties  into  Lake  Wmnipeg.  Its  source  is  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  1,600  feet,  where  it  enters  Canada  it  is  767  feet,  and 
at  its  mouth  710  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  drainage  area,  not 
including  that  of  the  Saskatchewan  with  which  it  unites,  is 
between  43,000  and  44,000  sq.  miles,  of  which  three-fourths 
are  S.  of  the  U.  S. -Canadian  boundary.  The  region  it  trav- 
erses is  a  nearly  level  plain,  once  the  bed  of  Lake  Agassiz, 
and  is  famed  for  the  abundance  and  excellence  of  its  wheat 
harvests.  The  river  has  cut  a  narrow  channel  from  20  to 
50  feet  deep  through  lacustral  deposits,  and  furnishes  a  typ- 
ical example  of  recent  drainage  on  a  nearly  horizontal,  new 
land  area.  The  river  is  navigable  from  its  mouth  to  near 
its  source.  During  high-water  stages  it  is  connected  by 
way  of  Lakes  Traverse  and  Big  Stone  with  the  Mississippi, 
ana  steamboats  can  occasionally  pass  from  the  Mississippi 
to  Lake  Winnipeg.  Israel  C.  Russell. 

Red  root :  See  Ceanothus  americanus. 

Red  Sea,  or  Arabian  ^JsXti  a  long,  narrow  inlet  of  the 
Indian  Ocean;  between  Arabia  on  the  E.  and  Abvssinia, 
Nubia,  and  Egypt  on  the  W. ;  separated  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  which  is  only  80  miles 
across,  and  communicating  with  the  Indian  Ocean  through 
the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  the  Strait  of  Bab-el- Mandeb,  which  is 
only  14  miles  broad.  The  entire  length  of  the  Red  Sea  is 
1,450  miles;  its  greatest  breadth  is  230  miles;  its  depth 
varies  from  1,054  fathoms  in  lat.  22°  30'  N.  to  3  fathoms  in 
the  harbor  of  Suez.  It  is  called  in  the  Old  Testament  "  the 
sea  of  suph"  a  seaweed  resembling  wool.  Why,  in  later 
times,  it  was  called  the  Red  Sea,  writers  are  not  agreed. 
Herodotus  {Hist.,  ii.,  11)  reports  "a  flow  and  ebb  of  the  tide 
every  day."  Recent  scientific  surveys  have  shown  a  tide  of 
5  to  7  feet  at  Suez,  but  much  less  to  the  southward.  Much, 
however,  depends  upon  the  strength  of  the  wind,  which 
blows  from  the  S.  S.  E.  from  October  to  May,  and  is  strong- 
est in  February ;  and  from  the  N.  W.  the  rest  of  the  year, 
and  is  strongest  in  June  and  July.  Near  its  northern  ex- 
tremity the  sea  forks  into  two  branches — one,  the  Gulf  of 
Akaba,  length  100  miles  and  breadth  15,  occupies  a  depres- 
sion which  is  the  continuation  southward  of  the  valley  of 
the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea;  the  other,  the  Gulf  of  Suez, 
length  200,  breailth  20  miles.  In  the  Sinaitic  isthmus,  ly- 
ing between  these  arms,  is  Mt.  Sinai.  The  Israelites  (see 
Exodus)  are  supposed  to  have  crotssed  in  April  the  Gulf  of 
Suez,  near  the  existing  town  of  that  name,  the  sea  at  that 
time  extending  with  small  depth  some  30  miles  farther  N. 
On  account  of  the  violence  of  its  winds,  and  the  great  num- 
l)er  of  islands,  shoals,  and  coral  reefs  which  lie  along  its 
shores,  the  navigation  of  the  Red  Sea  has  always  been  con- 
sidered very  difficult;  nevertheless,  from  the  very  earliest 
times  it  has  formed  one  of  the  commercial  highwavs  of  the 
world,  being  the  shorte^st  and  most  convenient  road  between 
Eurojje  and  India.  After  the  discovery  of  the  route  around 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  the  traflic  which  first  the  Ej^yptians 
and  Pna?nicittns,  and  then  the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  and  the 
Venetians,  had  carried  on  with  India  over  the  Red  Sea,  de- 
clined great Iv,  but  the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal  has 
once  more  led  this  commerce  back  into  its  old  channel. 


Red  Seaweeds:  the  Rhodophycecp ;  a  class  of  aquatic^ 
plants  (mostlv  marine)  notable  for  their  red  or  purple  c<»l<»r. 
The  many-celled  plant-body  is  of  various  forms,  from  a  sim- 
ple flat  thallus  to  a  branching,  leaf -bearing  axis.  Sexual 
reproduction  takes  place  by  the  fertilization  of  a  car|M)^'nTi.' 
(by  non-ciliated  antherozoids),  this  resulting  in  the  growth 
of*  carpospores,  and  sometimes  of  a  pericarp  (Fig.  1)  aU>. 
Asexual  reproduction  takes  place  by  the  germination  of  tet  ra- 
spores,  which  are  produced  in  various  places  on  the  plant- 
body  by  the  subdivision  of  cells  into  four  parts.  The  v\iis< 
is  equivalent  to  the  RhodospermecB  of  many  authors,  and  iu- 
cluaes  but  one  order  {Flortdecs), 


Fio.  1.— A  red  seaweed  {L^oli$ia) :  a,  antherid  ;  6,  carpogone  with 
Blender  trichogyne  ;  c,  gporocarp ;  d,  sporocarp  in  vertical  sec 
tion  ;  e,  an  escaped  carpospore.    Magnified  150  diameters. 

According  to  Agardh,  the  known  species  are  between  1,5<K> 
and  2,000,  widely  distributed  in  all  seas,  and  to  a  limit<  •! 
extent  in  fresh  water  (e.g.  species  ot Batrachospermum,  Jlil- 
denbrandtia,  Lemanea,  etc.).  The  plants  are  never  of  lari:»» 
size,  rarely  attaining  a  length  of  more  than  a  few  inclu-H. 
and  in  some  cases  they  are  minute.  They  are  frequently  "f 
delicate  texture  and  beautiful  outline.  The  red  or  purpl*' 
color  is  due  to  the  presence  in  the  cells  of  a  soluble  >ul»- 
stance,  phycoerythrin,  which  hides  the  chlorophyll.  r|H)n 
immersion  in  fresh  water  the  red  color  of  many  marine  ^^|M'- 
cies  is  discharged,  thus  disclosing  the  underlying  green. 

Agardh  has  arranged  the  many  families  in  six  groiij>« 
(which  he  terms  "series")  upon  characters  derived  from  tht* 
structure  and  development  of  the  spore-fniit  (cystocar].*. 
Here  only  a  few  general  characters  will  be  given,  to  which 
there  are  many  exceptions. 

Series  I.  GoNOYLosPERMEiE.  Sp(tre-fruits  external  or  im- 
mersed in  the  substance  of  the  thallus,  surrounded  by  a 
gelatinous  envelope;  spores  irregularly  arranged;  plant 
mostly  filamentous,  sometimes  solid  or  compressed. 

Two  families,  the  CeramiacecB  and  the  Cryptoneminc^'fT, 


FiQ.  2.—Ceramium  rtibrum  :  a.  portion  of  plant ;  6,  spore-fruit, 
maguifled. 


contain  many  beautiful  species — e.  g.  Ceramium  ruhrtn** 
(Fig.  2),  very  common  along  the  coasts  of  the  U.  S..  lithit.- 
f*€rrata,  and  species  of  Griffithsia  and  CaUitkamnion,  tlu» 
latter  often  minute  and  of  givat  delicacy. 


30 


RED  SNOW 


REED 


Red  Snow :  real  snow  tinted  by  the  presence  of  Hcemch 
toeoccus  lacustris  (or  Protococcua  nivalis)^  microscopic  algie 
of  the  order  ProtococcoidecB,  The  cells  are  sub-globose,  and 
about  50  microiniilimeters  (5^  inch)  in  diameter.  In  1819 
Ross  found  banks  of  red  snow  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Baffin 
Bay  extending  for  miles,  and  these  were  in  some  parts  12 
feet  deep.  Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Red  Salphar  Springs :  magisterial  district ;  Monroe  co., 
W.  Va.;  on  Indian  creek  and  a  turnpike  12  miles  from 
Lowell  Station  on  the  Ches.  and  0.  Railway ;  38  miles  S.  W. 
of  White  Sulphur  Springs  (for  location,  see  map  of  West 
Virginia,  ref.  11-G).  It  is  in  a  beautiful  valley  of  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains,  is  a  fashionable  watering-place,  and  is 
said  to  contain  the  only  springs  of  their  kind  in  the  country. 
The  water  contains  phosphorus  and  a  peculiar  sulphur  com- 
pound or  gelatinous  substance,  which  is  its  distinctive  fea- 
ture. The  curative  properties  of  the  water  have  been  known 
for  more  than  half  a  century.  Pop.  of  district  (1880)  2,557 ; 
(1890)  2,845. 

Rednetio  ad  Absnrdnm :  a  process  of  reasoning  by  which 
the  statement  in  dispute  is  made  one  premise  of  an  argument 
and  an  acknowledged  truth  the  other,  the  conclusion  drawn 
from  them  being  so  absurd  that  the  falsity  of  the  premise  in 
dispute  must  be  conceded. 

Reduplication :  the  repetition  or  doubling  of  a  syllable, 
a  root,  or  even  a  complete  word,  as  a  method  of  word-lorma- 
tion.  It  is  a  widcspre^id  phenomenon  of  language,  and 
serves  a  variety  of  purposes  in  expression  ;  thus  it  expresses 
plurality,  reciprocity,  repetition,  continuousness,  intensity, 
superlative  quality,  completion,  imitation  of  natural  sounds, 
etc.,  and  is  characteristic  of  nouns  as  well  as  verbs.  The 
Indo-European  languages  abound  in  traces  of  an  extensive 
use  of  this  method  m  the  primitive  stages  of  the  mother- 
speech,  and  cases  also  occur  of  its  use  within  the  separate 
history  of  the  languages.  (1)  The  reduplication  may  con- 
sist of  the  doubling  of  a  root ;  cf.  Lat,  murmur^  a  murmur- 
ing noise,  gi/€r^Men/«,  shivering  cold;  Gr.  /ucp^cpof,  marvel- 
ous, fidpfiapox,  unintelligible  in  speech,  AxoAo,  battle-cry, 
ydpyapa,  muddle.  (2)  The  doubling  appears  as  incomplete, 
or  one  syllable  of  the  reduplicated  form  is  weaker  than  the 
other;  cf.  Lat.  quisqnilim,  scraps,  memor,  mindful,  momordi, 
1  have  bitten ;  Gr.  8i8ax4«  doctrine,  9i8diric»,  teach,  S49opiUL,  I 
have  seen,  6wmwa,  I  have  seen,  vop^^pw,  be  in  movement,  7^ 
yvKos,  round,  iAA^Awy,  one  another,  yiypofuu,  become  (Lat. 
gigno),  (3)  A  word  is  doubled ;  as  Lat  qiiiaqina,  quidqtiidj 
guaqua^  jamjam,  quamquamy  qitotqtioty  meme,  sese ;  Gr.  wdfi- 
iray,  wp6woo,  wk4o¥  w\4w,  more  and  more ;  Sanskr.  dharahar, 
day  by  day,  pad4-pade,  step  by  step.  See  K.  Brugmann's 
Compar,  Grammar  of  the  Indo-Oermanic  Languages^  vol.  ii., 
^g  51-54,  465-476 ;  A.  P.  Pott,  Doppeluna,  als  eins  der  tvich- 
iigaten  Bildungsmittel  der  Spraehen^  beleuehtet  aus  Sprac?^ 
en  alter  Welttheite  (1862).  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Red  Water,  or  Biack  Water:  a  disease  of  cattle,  sheep, 
and  goats,  characterized  by  the  passage  of  reddish,  brown, 
or  black  urine.  This  disease  is  most  frequently  observed 
among  cattle  at  pasture  on  low  lands,  new  fields,  or  soils 
imperfectly  drained.  It  is  thought  to  be  caused  by  irritating 
plants  which  grow  in  such  localities ;  it  may  usually  be  pre- 
vented by  the  amelioration  of  the  soil.  L.  P. 

Red  Wing :  city  (founded  in  1853) ;  capital  of  Goodhue 
CO.,  Minn. ;  on  the  Mississippi  river  at  the  nead  of  Lake  Pe- 
pin, and  on  the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.,  the  Duluth,  Red  Wing 
and  Southern,  and  the  Minneapolis  and  St.  L.  railwavs ;  41 
miles  S.  by  B.  of  St.  Paul,  m  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Winona 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Minnesota,  ref.  10-F).  It  is  situ- 
ated on  a  plain  between  the  river  and  bluffs  that  rise  to  a 
height  of  over  300  feet  above  tide-water,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  important  wheat-shipping  points  in  the  U.  S.  It  is 
substantially  built;  has  water,  sewerage,  electric-light,  and 
street-railway  plants ;  and  contains  flour  and  saw  mills, 
boot  and  shoe  factories,  stoneware,  sewer-pipe,  and  lime 
works,  and  furniture-factories.  There  are  14  churches,  4 
collegiate  institutions,  Evantjelical  Lutheran  Seminary 
(chartered  in  187H),  State  Reform  School,  Library  of  the 
State  Board  of  Health  (founded  in  1873),  a  national  bank 
with  capital  of  $100,000,  2  State  banks  with  combined  ca[)i- 
tal  of  f  111,000,  a  savinirs-lnink,  and  a  dailv  and  5  weekly 
newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  5,876:  (1890)  6,294:  (1894)  esti- 
mated, 8,300.  Editor  of  " Replblu  an." 

Red-winged  Blackbird :  See  Blackbird. 
Redwitz-Sclinittlz,  Oskar,  Freiherr  von:   poet;   b.  at 
Lichtenau,  Bavaria,  June  28, 1823 ;  studied  law  at  Erlangen 


and  Munich,  and  later  on  German  philology  at  Bonn :  was 
for  a  short  time  Professor  of  Literature  at  the  University  of 
Vienna,  but  resigned  his  position  and  devoted  himself' en- 
tirely to  literature.  He  gained  a  wide  reputaticm  by  hi^ 
first  work,  Amaranth  (1849),  an  epic  poem  written  in  prui^r 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  ana  filled  with  sentimen- 
tality. His  later  works.  Das  Lied  vam  Neuen  iJtuhrhtn 
Reich  (1871),  Odilo  (1878),  and  his  novels  Hermann  Stnrk, 
deutaches  Lehen  (1869),  Haua  Wartenberg  (1884),  and  //*///<»  n 
(1887),  are  the  productions  of  a  genuine  poet.  He  die<i  July 
16, 1891.  Julius  Golbel.  * 

Redwood:  the  Sequoia  aempervirena,  a  noble  coniftTon^ 
timber  tree  of  California,  second  in  size  to  the  Sfipuna 

?iganteay  or  big  tree,  alone  among  North  American  tnt^. 
t  occurs  in  great  forests  upon  the  coast  mountains  of  Culi- 
fomia,  and  often  attains  a  neight  of  275  feet  and  a  diaincti  r 
of  15  feet.  It  is  extensively  sawn  for  building  puriMj'**^. 
When  fresh  its  wood  is  of  a  fine  red  color,  but  it  slowlv  fafU-N 
when  exposed  to  light.  (See  Sequoia.)  The  redwoo<!  sonic- 
times  used  by  dyers  is  from  Adenanthera  pavonina^  a  lar;:*- 
leguminous  Last  Indian  tree. 

Redwood  City:  town  (founded  in  1849);  capital  of  San 
Mateo  CO.,  Cal, ;  on  Redwood  creek,  navigable  for  vess^N  nf 
light  draught  to  this  point,  and  on  the  ^uthem  Pac.  Knii- 
road  ;  28  miles  S.  of  San  Francisco  (for  location,  see  mnp  ff 
California,  ref.  8-B).  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  lumbtrinir. 
and  grape-growing  region;  contains  4  churches,  a  pul»li<' 
school,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $102,800,  and  2  wctkiy 
newspapers;  and  is  an  important  shipping-point  f<»r  r»MU 
wood  lumber.  Pop.  (1880)  1,383  ;  (1890)  l|572  ;  (1894)  esti- 
mated, 3,000.  Editor  op  "Times-Gazette." 

Redwood  Falls:  city;  capital  of  Redwood  co.,  Minn.: 
on  the  Redwood  river,  and  the  ChL  and  N.  W.  and  tin* 
Minneapolis  and  St.  Louis  railways ;  26  miles  N.  N.  \V.  ot 
Sleepy  Eye  Lake,  110  miles  S.  W.  of  Minneapolis  (for  Un-tt- 
tion,  see  map  of  Minnesota,  ref.  10-C).  It  is  in  an  agri<'nl- 
tural  region,  and  contains  Methodist  Episcopal,  Protestant 
Episcopal,  Presbyterian,  Christian,  Roman  Catholic,  anil 
Adventist  churcHes,  a  handsome  graded  school  build  in  <:. 
county  court-house  that  cost  $30,(X)0,  3  State  banks  wit  h 
combined  capital  of  $100,000,  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  I  n 
the  vicinity  are  mines  of  coal,  gold,  and  mineral  paint. 
Pop.  (1880)  981 ;  (1890)  1,238 ;  (1894)  estimated.  2.200. 

Editor  of  **  Gazette." 

Reed  TO.  Eng.  hr^od  :  0.  H.  Germ,  riot  >  Mod.  Gtrni. 
ried,  reed] :  a  name  proper  to  certain  tall  woody  gra-^>»-^ 
smaller  than  canes  and  bamboos.  The  common  reiMl 
(Phragmitea  communia)  of  North  America,  Euro  fie,  an<l 
Asia  is  employed  on  the  Eastern  continent  as  thatch.  h>  a 
material  useful  in  clay  walls  and  floors,  etc.  The  more  ex- 
tensively grown  reed  of  Europe  is  Arundo  donax,  the  w<><Hly 
stems  of  which  are  used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes,  t-i- 
pecially  by  the  horticulturist  and  in  making  musical  in^t^l- 
ments,  fisnin^-rods,  canes,  etc.  The  smaller  cane  of  tlu* 
U.  S.  {Arundtnaria  tecta)  is  often  called  a  reed.  Its  chit  f 
use  is  in  making  stems  for  tobacco-pipes. — Reed  is  also  ilu- 
vibrating  tongue  or  spring,  fixed  in  a  narrow  slit,  whirh 
produces  musical  tones  in  many  wind  instruments,  siu-h  as 
the  melodeon.  It  was  once  made  of  the  reed  {Arundo  d*/- 
nax),  whence  the  name.    See  Reed  Instruments. 

Reed,  David  Boswell,  M.  D.  :  chemist ;  b.  in  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  in  1805 ;  educated  at  the  High  School  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  in  medicine  at  the  university  of  that  city,  whtre 
he  was  an  assistant  to  Prof.  Sir  John  Leslie;  was  elect  <d 
president  of  the  Royal  Medical  Society  and  member  of  tlM- 
Royal  College  of  Physicians  and  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh  :  became  instructor  in  chemistry  in  the  univer- 
sity, teaching  that  science  also  to  private  classes:  sunenn- 
tended  the  improvements  in  ventilation  made  in  the  llou^*- 
of  Commons  181^6,  in  the  House  of  Peers  1839,  and  hu! 
charge  of  the  ventilation  department  in  the  construction  i-: 
the  new  houses  of  Parliament  1840-45;  afterward  a|>plnit 
his  principles  to  public  buildings  in  Liverpool  and  oth»i- 
large  cities  ;  visited  Russia  for  a  similar  purpose  ;  settled  iti 
the  U.  S.  1856;  was  for  some  time  Profe^ssor  of  Applnd 
Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin ;  became  a  iv^i- 
dent  of  St.  Paul,  Minn.;  became  medical  insjxx.'tor  to  th^- 
U.  S.  Sanitary  Commission  1863.  I),  at  Washington,  I>.  i\. 
Apr.  5,  1864.  He  was  the  author  of  many  books  and  publi- 
cations upon  chemistry  and  ventilation. 

Reed.  Sir  Edward  James,  K.  C.  B.  :  chief  constructor  ••f 
the  British  navy;  b.  at  Sheerness,  Kent,  Sept  20,   INU)  :| 


32 


REEVES 


Beeres,  John  Sims  :  singer ;  b.  at  Shooter's  Hill,  in  Kent, 
England,  in  Oct.,  1822 ;  son  of  the  organist  of  the  village 
church.  At  eight  years  of  age  young  Reeves  could  read 
any  music  at  sight.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  himself  be- 
came the  organist  and  the  choir-master  of  the  village  church. 
Under  Calcott  and  Cramer  and  other  masters  he  became 
proficient  in  harmony  and  counterpoint  Under  the  name 
of  *'  Johnson,"  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  he  made  his  first  real 

Sublic  appearance  in  June,  1839,  singing  the  part  of  the 
ypsy  Boy  in  Ouy  Mannering,  Ilis  voice  at  this  time  was 
looked  upon  as  barytone,  and  it  was  not  until  1847  that  he 
sang  as  a  tenor.  After  studying  in  Paris  and  in  Milan  he 
made  his  Italian  debut  at  La  Scala  Opera-house,  Milan. 
He  ap^red,  Dec.  6,  1847,  at  Drury  Lane,  Ijondon,  as  Ed- 
gardo  in  Lueia  di  Lam?nermoor,  and  was  enthusiastically 
received.  In  1848  he  was  engaged  with  the  company  at 
her  Majesty's  theatre,  London,  but  owing  to  a  dispute  with 
the  management  appeared  but  once.  Ue  then  attempted 
sacred  music,  with  which  his  fame  and  memory  must  al- 
ways be  associated.  Singing  in  Judas  Maccalmus  at  Exe- 
ter* Hall  he  astonished  the  critics,  who  had  not  suspected 
his  versatility.  He  afterward  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
concerts,  sacred  and  secular.  In  July,  1802,  he  retired  from 
the  stage  and  accepted  a  professorship  in  the  Guildhall 
School  of  Music,  London.  B.  B.  Vallkntine. 

Re-exchange :  in  the  usual  application  of  the  term,  the 
loss  resulting  from  the  dishonor  of  a  bill  in  a  country  differ- 
ent to  that  in  which  it  was  drawn  or  indorse<l.  (Chalmers's 
Bills  of  Exchange^  4th  ed.  193.)  A  New  York  merchant 
wishes  to  pay  a  debt  in  London.  He  bu^s  a  bill  on  Lon- 
don; it  is  dishonored  at  maturity;  he  is  entitled  to  the 
amount  of  money  called  for  by  the  bill  in  London ;  he  would 
not  be  indemnified  by  recovering  in  New  York  the  amount 
of  the  bill  with  interest  and  protest  fees ;  he  has  a  right  to 
draw  in  London  a  re-draft  on  the  drawer  or  indorser  in 
New  York  for  an  amount  which  will  put  him  at  once  in 
possession  of  the  money  called  for  and  promised  to  him  by 
the  original  bill :  this  re-draft  is  called  re-exchange.  It  will 
include  not  only  the  sum  promised  by  the  original  bill,  but 
the  exchange  on  New  Yoric,  the  interest,  and  necessary  ex- 
penses of  the  transaction.  {Suse  vs.  P&mpe,  8  Common 
Bench,  N.  S.  538 ;  Bank  vs.  U.  S.,  2  Howard  737.)  Although 
this  re-exchange  bill  is  seldom  drawn,  the  right  to  draw  it 
fixes  the  damages  recoverable  by  the  holder  m  case  of  the 
dishonor  of  the  original  bill,  unless  the  terms  of  the  bill 
limit  the  damages,  or  a  statute  prescribes  them.  (See  N.  Y. 
Revised  Statutes,  8th  ed.,  p.  2501 ;  Mass.  Public  Statutes  of 
1882,  ch.  77.)  The  term  re-exchange  is  used  to  signify,  also, 
the  loss  on  a  particular  transaction  occasioned  oy  the  ex- 
change being  adverse,  and  the  course  of  exchange  itself. 
For  further  information,  see  Chalmers's  Bill  of  Exchange^ 
4th  ed.,  p.  194 ;  Daniels,  Negotiable  Instruments,  ch.  xlv. 

Francis  M.  Bubdick. 

Beferendnm  [Lat.,  neut  of  referendus,  ^rundive  of 
referre,  refer] :  the  practice  of  submitting  legislative  meas- 
ures to  the  voters  for  ratification.  It  is  observed  in  Switzer- 
land, and  favored  by  many  political  writers  in  the  U.  S., 
Oreat  Britain,  and  Belgium.  See  Law-making,  Methods  of 
(Switzerland), 

Reflecting  Circle:  an  astronomical  instrument  for 
measuring  angles  by  the  reflection  of  light  from  two  plane 
mirrors  which  it  carries.  It  differs  from  the  sextant  cniefly 
in  having  an  entire  circle.    See  Sextant. 

Reflection  [from  Lat.  reflec'tere,  reflect;  r«-,  back  -k-flec- 
tere,  bend,  turn) :  the  act  of  the  mind  whereby  it  examines 
itself  or  looks  upon  its  own  states  as  its  objects.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  unique  activities  of  the  mental  life.  It  is  dif- 
ferent from  simple  consciousness,  in  that  in  the  latter  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  self-examination,  and  no  act  of  setting 
up  a  conscious  relation  between  the  subject,  or  thinker,  and 
the  object,  or  what  he  thinks  about  Reflection  in  its  full 
}«ense  stHMns  to  characterize  man  alone  in  the  range  of  ani- 
mal life;  although  wherever  there  is  the  beginning  of  the 
notion  of  self,  there  is  also  probably  the  be^Mnning  of  this 
function  of  thinking  about  self  which  constitutes  refleclion. 

This  mental  act  is  the  great  resource  of  self-observation 
and  analysis,  ujKm  which  the  psvehologist  de[>ends  for  most 
of  his  information.  As  a  metfuxl,  its  use  is  called  "intro- 
sf)ection.'*  In  philosonhy.  reflection  has  always  been  the 
function  U|Hm  which  iaealistic  thought  has  ba-seil  itself  :  for 
there  is  in  nature  nowhere  else  than  in  consciousness  the 
fact  of  one  kind  of  event  setting  itself  over  against  another 


REFORMATION 

and  criticising  it.  The  inference  is  that  this  relation  can 
not  be  accounted  for  in  terms  of  the  play  of  objective  forcr^ 
in  nature,  and  so  must  be  an  ultimate  kind  of  activity  i»r 
reality.  The  theory  of  reflection  is  closely  allied  to  that  of 
Judgment  and  Knowledge  (qq.  v.),      J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Reflection  of  Light:  that  bending  which  occurs  in 
the  path  of  a  light  ray  when  it  is  turned  back  from  a  sur- 
face upon  which  it  falls.  When  a  light-ray  falls  u|H»n  an 
unpolished  surface,  it  is  irregularly  reflected  or  scattered 
in  consequence  of  the  different  inclinations  of  the  innu- 
merable facets  of  which  such  surfaces  are  com[>osed,  as 
may  be  seen  under  the  microscope.  Non-luminous  lKMlie> 
are  made  visible  by  the  scattering  of  light  from  their  sur- 
faces. When  a  ray  falls  uiion  a  perfectly  smooth  surface,  it 
is  regularly  reflected,  and  a  virtual  image  of  the  illuminat- 
ing body  is  seen  behind  the  reflecting  surface.  Most  sur- 
faces which  reflect  regularly  also  reflect  irreppularly  to  sotne 
extent.  The  two  portions  of  a  reflected  light-ray,  U- ft  ire 
and  after  bending,  are  called  respectively  the  incident  and 
reflected  ray.  If  a  perpendicular  or  normal  be  erecte<l  t«» 
the  reflecting  surface  at  the  pjoint  of  incidence,  the  angl<H 
made  with  this  normal  by  the  incident  and  reflected  ra\  are 
called  the  angles  of  incidence  and  reflection.  The  law  of  re- 
flection is :  The  angles  of  incidence  and  reflection  are  tfpiai, 
and  the  incident  and  reflected  rays  and  the  normal  lit  tu 
one  plane. 

From  the  law  of  reflection  it  is  evident  that  all  rays  di- 
verging from  a  point  and  reflected  from  a  plane  surfac»> 
appear  to  emanate  from  another  point  situated  at  the  oth«r 
side  of  the  surface,  and  at  an  equal  distance  from  it.  Heiu-e 
when  an  object  is  placed  in  front  of  a  plane  mirror  the  a{>- 
parent  image  is  of  the  same  form  and  magnitude  and  at  an 
equal  distance  from  the  other  side  of  the  miiTor;  but  all 
the  parts  are  reversed,  like  the  negative  of  a  phototrrapli. 
the  right  hand  of  the  object  appearing  on  the  left  in  the 
image  and  ince  versa.  For  parabolic  reflection,  see  Liout- 
HOUSE  (Lighthouse  Ulumination). 

The  intensity  of  reflected  light  varies  with  the  nature  anil 
the  position  of  the  reflecting  surface,  the  reflecting  lowers 
of  various  substances  being  greater  for  small  angles  of  in- 
cidence than  for  large  ones,  and  depending  uuon  the  iinli-x 
of  refraction  between  the  surface  and  the  medium  in  which 
the  light  is  traveling.    See  Refraction. 

The  phenomenon  of  reflection  takes  place  equally  wit  h 
ether  viorations  of  all  kinds,  such  as  those  of  nuliant  heat 
and  electro-magnetic  undulations,  and  its  laws  are  the  same 
as  in  the  case  of  light.  Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Reflex  Action  [reflex  is  from  Lat.  refle'xus,  perf.  i>artic. 
of  reflec'tere^  bend  or  turn  back ;  re-,  back  -^flec'tere,  turn] : 
direct  response  of  the  nervous  system  to  external  stimula- 
tion— for  example,  the  winking  of  the  eyes  when  an  objett 
approaches,  moving  when  tickled,  etc.  These  actions  an» 
contrasted  in  physiology  and  psychology  with  **  voluntary  a<»- 
tions,"  those  which  owe  part  of  their  stimulus  at  lea.st  to 
central  processes.  Reflex  actions  are  regular,  definite,  Ih^- 
yond  control,  inherited,  and  presided  over  by  the  lower  o«mi- 
ters  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  J.  M.  H. 

Reformation :  the  name  usually  given  to  the  i*eligious  n^  v- 
olution  of  the  sixteenth. century  which  divided  the  Western 
Church  into  the  two  sections  known  as  Protestant  and  H«  »- 
man  Catholic.    This  movement  was  not  an  isolated  event,  Itut 
was  closely  connected  with  the  intellectual  and  social  chantcis 
which  marked  the  transition  from  the  Middle  Ages  to  the 
modem  era  of  civilization.     It  was  also  long  in  preuara* 
tion.    The  disaffection  with  the  hierarchy  which  aisch»?i«Ml 
itself  in  the  rise  of  sects  like  the  Waldenses,  and  within 
the  Church  in  the  reforming  councils  of  the  fifteenth  i*on- 
tury  held  at  Pisa,  Constance,  and  Basel;  the  rise  of  nuln-iil 
reformers, "  forerunners  "  of  Protestantism,  as  Wickliffe  ami 
others;  the  spiritual  doctrine  of  the  Mystics;  political  o|>- 
position  to  the  Roman  see,  dating  from  the  ola  contests  of 
the  empire  with  the  pof)e;  and  especially  the  infiuence  «.f 
the  revival  of  learning  in  promoting  general  culture,    in 
hastening  the  downfall  of  scholastic  theology,  and  in  pr«»- 
ducing  a  diligent  study  of  the  Bible  and  of  Christian  nn- 
tiquity — these  are  antecedents  of  Protestantism  which   de- 
serve special  mention.     Under  this  last  head  the  work    .»f 
?]rasmus  is  very  important.    Protestantism,  as  a  n»ligi«Mi^ 
system,  had  two  main  principles — viz.,  the  exclusive  auth«  »r- 
ity  of  the  Bible  as  the  rule  of  faith,  as  opposed  to  the  norm.-i- 
tive  authority  of  the  pope  or  the  Church — a  principle  t  h:»' 
involves  the  right  of  private  judgment ;  and  tne  doctriri<*  » .f 
justitication  by  faith  alone,  in  contradistinction  to  salvati«>n 


34 


REFORMATION 


VII.  The  Reformation  in  France. — A  class  of  mystics,  of 
whom  Lefevre  was  the  roost  conspicuous,  and  among  whom 
were  Margaret,  sister  of  Francis  I.  and  Queen  of  Navarre, 
and  Bri^onnet,  Bishop  of  Meaux,  sympathized  with  the 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  though  they  were  not 
averse  to  the  traditional  doctrine  of  the  sacraments.  Hu- 
manism was  favorable  to  reform,  and  Francis  I.,  who  was 
proud  of  being  styled  the  "  father  of  letters,"  encouraged 
innovation  up  to  a  certain  degree,  when  his  interests  prompted 
him  to  lend  it  assistance.  On  other  occasions  he  was  a  cruel 
persecutor  of  Protestantism  at  home,  even  when,  out  of  hos- 
tility to  the  emperor,  he  was  giving  help  to  Lutheranism  in 
Germany.  His  vacillation  was  productive  of  great  mischief. 
Yet  Protestantism,  mainly  from  the  influence  of  Calvin  and 
of  Geneva,  gained  a  foothold  in  France  in  his  reign.  His 
successor,  Henry  II.,  was  inimical  to  the  Reformed  faith, 
especially  after  the  Treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis  with  Spain. 
Nevertheless,  Protestantism  in  his  reign  made  great  prog- 
ress. In  1558  it  was  estimated  that  there  were  2,000  places 
of  Reformed  worship  scattered  over  France,  and  congrega- 
tions numbering  400,000  organized  after  the  German  pat- 
tern. In  1559  they  ventured  to  hold  a  general  synoa  in 
Paris.  The  Huguenots,  as  they  were  called,  became,  bv  the 
force  of  circumstances,  a  political  PArty*  The  family  of 
Guise  gained  such  ascendency  in  tne  Government  during 
the  reign  of  the  young  Francis  II.,  and  eventually  under 
Charles  IX.,  as  to  come  into  inevitable  conflict  with  the 
great  houses  of  Bourbon  and  Chatillon,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  Guises  set  themselves  up  as  intolerant  champions 
of  the  old  religion.  The  consec^uence  was  that  the  political 
and  religious  elements  of  opposition  coalesced.  The  Protes- 
tants found  leaders  in  Conde  and  Coligny,  who  adopted 
their  faith,  and  the  latter  of  whom  honored  it  by  a  signally 
pure  and  elevated  career.    Anthony  of  Navarre  first  es- 

goused,  but  finally  deserted,  the  Protestant  cause.  His 
eroic  wife,  Jeanne  d'Albret,  the  mother  of  Henry  IV.,  was 
their  steadfast  defender.  The  history  of  the  Reformation 
in  France  would  include  a  full  narrative  of  the  civil  wars. 
The  edict  of  St.-Germain  in  1562  granted  a  measure  of  toler- 
ation to  the  Huguenots ;  but  the  massacre  of  Vassy  shortly 
after  opened  the  long  and  bloody  struggle  which  went  on, 
with  intervals  of  peace,  down  to  the  accession  of  Henry  IV. 
and  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1598).  The  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew in  1572,  when  Coligny  and  thousands  of  his  co- 
religionists were  slaughtered,  was  due  to  Catherine  de  Me- 
dicis  as  its  main  contriver,  and  sprang  out  of  the  mingled 
motives  of  political,  religious,  and  personal  hostilitv.  The 
Huguenots  were  always  a  minority  of  the  nation,  but,  be- 
sides the  nobles  who  were  attached  to  their  side,  they  com- 
prised a  multitude  of  the  sober  and  intelligent  middle 
classes  and  of  the  inhabitants  of  towns.  The  Edict  of 
Nantes,  following  upon  the  abjuration  of  Henry  IV.,  re- 
duced them  to  the  condition  of  a  stationary  or  declining 
party,  but  one  furnished  as  a  means  of  defense  with  polit- 
ical privileges  of  an  extraordinary  character,  which  they 
continued  to  hold  until  the  time  of  Richelieu.  There  were 
times  in  the  course  of  the  sixteenth  century  when  the  Prot- 
estant cause  seemed  likely  to  triumph  in  France.  Its  failure 
to  achieve  the  victory  in  that  country  was  the  tragic  event 
of  the  Reformation. 

VIII.  The  Reformation  in  the  Netherlands. — The  inhab- 
itants of  the  Low  Countries  were  highly  prosperous  and 
intelligent.  The  contiguity  of  the  country  to  Germany 
and  France  facilitated  the  incoming  of  Protestant  opinions. 
Merchants  and  emigrants  brought  them  over  from  England. 
In  1523  two  persons  were  put  to  death  at  Brussels  as  here- 
tics— an  event  that  called  forth  a  stirring  hvran  from  the 
pen  of  Luther.  The  |)ersec'uting  edicts  of  Charles  V.  led 
to  the  destruction  of  a  great  number  of  Protestants  in  the 
Netherlands.  Grotius  nuikos  the  whole  number  who  per- 
ished in  this  reign  100,000 — probably  an  exajrgerated  esti- 
mate. Philip  II.,  who  WHS  unpopular  in  this  part  of  his 
dominions,  set  about  the  strict  enforcement  of  the  laws 
against  heresy.  The  cruelties  of  the  Incjuisition,  in  con- 
nection with  the  evident  puri>(>se  to  destroy  the  liberties 
of  the  country  and  subject  it  to  Spanish  alisolutisin,  pro- 
voked armed  resistance.  The  horo  of  the  great  revolt, 
which  was  a  stru^r^le  for  politicnl  and  reli«riou8  freedom, 
was  William  of  Orange.  In  tlie  cours**  of  the  protracted 
conflict  a  Protestant  state  grew  up  in  the  north  under  the 
lead  of  Orange,  while  the  southern  i)rovinces  finally  sub- 
mitted to  Spam  and  retained  the  old  form  of  religion!  The 
Dutch  republic  confronted  the  whole  power  of  Spain  and 
achieved  its  independence.    At  first,  Lutheranism  had  been 


introduced  into  Holland,  but  the  Calvinistic  type  of  doc- 
trine and  polity  prevailed,  and  was  incorporated  in  the  ec- 
clesiastical institutions  of  the  country.  The  Confeiutio  Btl- 
giea  was  composed  in  1561,  and  was  revised  and  adopted  by 
a  synod  at  Antwerp  in  1566. 

fX.  The  Reformation  in  England  and  Scotland. — The 
Lollards,  a  remnant  of  the  followers  of  Wickliffe,  were  nu- 
merous in  England  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury among  the  lower  classes.    The  revival  of  learning  pre- 
pared the  ground  for  ecclesiastical  change.    The  friends  of 
the  *•  new  learning  "  had  a  spirited  contest  with  the  devi)ter«» 
of  scholasticism.    More,  Colet,  and  Erasmus  during  his  stay 
in  England,  exerted  themselves  in  behalf  of  letters  and 
against  superstition.    The  writings  of  Luther  found  readers, 
especially  among  young  men  at  the  universities.    Tyndale's 
translation  of  the  Bible  was  eagerly  perused,  notwithstand- 
ing the  efforts  of  the  authorities  to  suppress  it,  and  the 
martyrdom  of  its  author.    The  Reformation  in  Englaml 
had  two  distinct  sources,  which  at  times  worked  in  con- 
junction with  one  another.    The  first  was  the  moral  and 
religious  feeling,  which  was  enlisted  in  favor  of  the  Pn  it  ex- 
tant movement.    The  second  was  the  quasi  political  opiH>- 
sition  to  the  foreign  rule  of  the  papacy,  which  was  re-cn- 
forced  by  the  difficulties  encountered  by  Henry  VIII.  in 
attempting  to  procure  a  divorce  from  Catharine  of  Aragon. 
The  reluctance  of  Clement  VII.  to  comply  with  the  kinj^'s 
petition  moved  Henry  to  reduce  the  power  of  the  clergy  and 
to  oblige  them  to  declare  him  the  head  of  the  Church  of 
England.     Finally,  he  cut  the  knot  by  marrj'ing  Ann*- 
Boleyn  without  the  papal  i^ermission  in  1532.    This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  Act  of  Supremacy,  which  put  an  end  to  paj'al 
authority  in  England.    In  15*36  followed  the  act  for  abol- 
ishing the  monasteries  and    confiscating   their    prop^crly. 
The  king  still  professed  the  Catholic  dogmas.    There  was  a 
Protestant  and  a  Catholic  party  in  the  Church,  the  leader  of 
the  former  bein^  Cranmer,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  a  man 
of  pure  and  upnght  intentions,  but  of  a  timid  nature.    The 
Protestants  were  led  in  the  council  by  Thomas  Cromwell, 
the  king's  vicegerent  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.     The   Ti-n 
Articles  (1586)  were,  on  the  whole,  favorable  to  the  Prot»>- 
tant  side;  but  the  bitter  matrimonial  experiences  of  the 
king,  taken  in  connection  with  the  Catholic  rebellicm    in 
the   North,  led  to  the  issuing  of  the  Six  Articles  (15:^'.h, 
which  were  more  in  the  Roman  Catholic  interest ;  ami  tht* 
same   circumstances  caused  the  fall   of  Cromwell   (154(h. 
Cranmer  was  saved  from  the  vengeance  of  the  opiMi>iiig 
faction   by  the  king's  personal  favor.    Op  the  death   «»f 
Henry  VIII.  and  the  accession  of  young  Edward  VI.  (1547) 
the   Protestant  party  obtained  complete  control.    In   h\< 
brief  reign,  under  the  auspices  of  Cranmer  and  his  a>so- 
ciates,  the  Protestant  Church  of  England  received  its  con- 
stitution, liturgy,  and  creed.    Evangelical  theologians  from 
the  Continent  ftlletl  the  chairs  of  theology  in  the  univer- 
sities.    Under  Mary  (155S-58),  the  successor  of  Edward,  tlie 
old  order  of  things,  the  papal  supremacy  include<l,   was 
restored.     Her  matrimonial  connection  with  Philip  II.  and 
subservience  to  Spain,  and  the  popular  sympathy  excited 
by  the  martyrdom  of  Cranmer,  Ridley,  Latimer,  and  others^ 
prepared  the  nation  for  the  restoration  of  Protestantism 
under  the  auspices  of  Elizabeth,  in  1558.    During  her  loiit; 
reign  the  Protestant  religion  took  firm  root  in  English  soil. 
The  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  (1588)  rendered  it  cer- 
tain that  the  authonty  of  the  papacy  could  not  be  reinstattnl 
by  foreign   intervention.    The  conservatism  of  Elizabfih 
in  matters  of  religion  provoked  into  activity  the  Puritan 
sentiment,  which  was  anxious  to  assimilate  English  Pn>t- 
estantism  to  that  of  the  Continent,  where  numerous  Knar- 
lish  exiles  had  lived  during   the  preceding   reign.     The* 
Puritans  likewise  demanded  a  greater  independence    for 
the  (-hurch  in  relation  to  the  state  than  the  Tudor  love  <«f 
power  and  a  widespread  feeling  of  repugnance  to  e<'cleM- 
astical  control  would  allow.    The  result  was  the  division 
of  the  Church  of  England  into  two  great  parties  whose  con- 
tests fill  many  a  page  of  English  history  for  the  century 
that  followed  the  accession  of  Elizabeth. 

In  Scotland,  at  the  outbreaking  of  the  Reformation,  tfip- 
clergy  were  ignorant  and  vicious,  and  the  Church  was  m 
iK)ssession  of  a  great  portion  of  the  landed  property  of  il.t* 
Kingdom.  The  evangelical  doctrine,  of  which  John  Knnx 
was  the  most  effective  apostle,  gained  a  lodgment  in  tl.^- 
hearts  of  the  people,  and  the  co-operation  of  the  nobles  w«>^ 
founded  partly  in  religious  conviction  and  partly  in  th*- 
desire  to  appropriate  to  themselves  the  property  of  th«' 
Church.    Protestantism  in  the  Calvinistic  and  Presbyterian 


36 


REFORMED  CHURCH  OP  AMERICA 


REFORMED  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


The  Reformed  Church  in  the  U.  S.  publishes  29  periodi- 
cals, of  which  23  are  English  and  6  German.  It  is  actively 
engaged  in  the  work  of  missions,  and  has  been  especially  in- 
terested in  the  evaneelization  of  Japan.  In  the  U.  S.  it  has 
found  an  extensive  neid  for  missionary  labor  among  immi- 
grants from  Germany  and  Switzerland.  Several  Hungarian 
churches  have  recently  been  founded.  The  Church  sustains 
four  orphanages  and  a  home  for  deaconesses. 

The  following  are  the  statistics  for  1894:  Synods,  8; 
classes,  55 ;  ministers,  938 ;  congregations,  1,646 ;  communi- 
cant members,  221,473 ;  benevolent  contributions,  $257,947. 
See  Presbyterian  Church.  Joseph  Henry  Dubbs. 

Reformed  Church  of  America :  a  religious  denomina^ 
tion  known  prior  to  1867  as  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch 
Church  in  North  America,  a  name  which  exactly  described 
it,  as  Protestant  vs.  Roman  ;  Reformed — i.  e.  Calvinistic  in 
doctrine  and  non-prelatical  in  order;  Dutchy  as  descended 
from  Holland  and  inheriting  its  religious  type. 

1.  Origin  and  History.— The  first  settlers  m  New  Amster- 
dam brought  with  them  the  schoolmaster  and  the  visitor  of 
the  sick,  and  in  1628  a  church  organization  was  formed. 
The  emigration  from  Holland  followed  the  Raritan,  the 
Hudson,  and  the  Mohawk  rivers  and  their  affluents,  and  at 
first  was  considerable,  but  aft^r  the  English  conquest  in 
1664  fell  off  rapidly.  Still,  the  Hollanders  held  the  ground 
they  had  taken,  and  everywhere  multiplied  ministers  and 
churches.  Their  subsequent  growth  was  hinderctl  by  three 
great  causes — ^too  great  tardiness  in  relinquishing  the  Dutch 
languaee  in  public  worship;  a  bitter  controversy  among 
themselves  on  the  question  whether  they  should  act  inde- 
pendently of  the  mother-Church  in  supplying  their  pulpits ; 
and  the  waste  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  whose  chief  scenes 
of  conflict  in  the  Middle  States  lay  in  the  territory  occupied 
by  the  Dutch  ;  but  after  the  return  of  peace  the  (Icnoraina- 
tion  consolidated  its  institutions  and  set  to  work  repairing 
the  desolations  of  the  past.  It  increased  its  funds  for  edu- 
cational purposes,  enlarged  its  corps  of  theological  profes- 
sors, prosecuted  in  various  directions  missionary  enterprises 
at  home,  and  also  engaged  in  the  same  work  abroad — at 
first,  in  connection  with  other  denominations,  afterward  in- 
dependently. It  numbers  (1894)  612  churches,  614  minis- 
ters, and  over  100,000  communicants,  who  are  organized 
into  34  classes,  4  particular  synods,  and  1  general  synod. 
The  strength  of  the  denomination  lies  at  the  East,  but  seven 
classes  have  been  formed  among  the  many  thousands  of 
Hollanders  who  have  settled  in  various  Western  States  from 
Michigan  and  Illinois  to  the  Dakotas. 

2.  iJoctrine  and  Worship. — The  Church  is  eminently  con- 
fessional. It  owns  five  creeds — the  Apostles',  the  Nicene, 
the  (so-called)  Athanasian,  the  Belgic  Confession,  and  the 
('anons  of  Dordrecht.  It  requires  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism to  be  taught  in  families  and  schools,  and  also  to  be 
regularly  explained  from  the  pulpit  on  the  Lord's  Day.  A 
short  compendium  of  this  catechism  is  the  standard  oi  doc- 
trine for  all  who  seek  full  communion ;  and  ministers  are 
required  to  pledge  themselves  in  writing  not  to  promulgate 
any  change  of  views  they  may  make  witliout  previously  con- 
sulting the  classis  to  which  they  belong.  There  is  a  Litur- 
gy, which  is  mostly  optional,  but  the  forms  for  the  admin- 
istration of  the  sacraments,  of  ordination,  and  of  church 
discipline  are  of  imperative  obligation.  No  psalmody  mav 
be  used  unless  it  has  been  approved  by  the  Greneral  Synoa. 

3.  Polity. — The  affairs  of  each  congregation  are  managed 
by  a  consistory,  consisting  of  elders  and  deacons  chosen  for 
two  years,  but  in  such  a  way  that  only  half  go  out  of  office 
at  once.  The  elders,  with  the  pastor,  receive  and  dismiss 
members  and  exercise  discipline ;  the  deacons  have  charge 
of  the  alms.  Both  together  are  trustees  of  the  church,  hold 
its  property,  and  call  its  minister.  Ex-meinl)prs  of  this  bo<ly 
constitute  what  is  called  the  **  great  consistory,"  who  may 
be  summoned  to  give  advice  when  necessary.  The  minister 
and  one  elder  from  each  congregation  in  a  certain  district 
constitute  a  classis,  which  supervises  spiritual  matters  in 
that  district  Four  ministers  and  four  elders  from  each 
classis  in  a  larger  district  make  a  particular  synod,  with 
similar  powers,  and  representatives  from  each  classis,  pro- 
portioned in  numbers  to  the  size  of  the  classis,  constitute 
the  General  Synod,  which  has  sui)er vision  of  the  whole,  and 
is  a  court  of  the  last  resort  in  judicial  cases. 

Educational  and  other  Institutions. — Rutgers  College 
(1770),  New  Jersey,  Hope  College  (186,5),  Michigan,  North- 
western Academy,  Orange  City,  la.  (1883),  and  Pleasant 
Prairie  College,  German  Valley,*lll.  (1893),  are  controlled  by 


members  of  this  Church,  but  are  unsectarian  in  teaching 
and  influence.  The  chief  theological  seminary,  at  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  has  five  professors  and  a  library  of  over 
40,000  volumes.  There  are  two  others— one  at  Holland,  M ich., 
the  other  at  Palmaner,  India— each  with  three  profes.-tors 
and  a  respectable  library.  Foreign  missions  are  maintainfd 
in  Japan,  China  (Amoy),  India  (Madura),  and  Arabia. 
There  are  23  ordained  missionaries,  55  churcnes,  6,226  C(»in- 
municants,  and  an  annual  outlay  of  about  $112,000.  T)ie 
board  of  domestic  missions  aids  in  sustaining  over  1.'^) 
churches  and  expends  about  $65,000  yearly.  The  board  <  >f 
education  aids  over  100  students  in  preparing  for  the  mini>- 
try  and  expends  $30,000  yearlv.  A  board  of  publication, 
organized  m  1854,  besides  other  good  work,  issues  two 
monthly  journals.  The  salient  characteristics  of  the  Chunh 
are  zeal  for  doctrine,  order,  and  a  learned  ministry,  unyield- 
ing attachment  to  its  own  views  and  usages,  and  a  large 
charity  for  all  other  Christians. 

Literature. — Demarest,  History  and  Characteristics  of 
the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  (2d  ed.  1889);  Corwin,  Man- 
ual (3d  ed.  1879).  T.  W.  Chambers. 

Reformed  Church  of  Scotland:  See  Scotland,  Church 

OF. 

Reformed  Episcopal  Church :  a  religious  body  founded 
Dec.  2, 1873,  by  a  few  clergymen  and  laymen  who  left  the 
Protestant  Efiiscopal  Church  of  the  U.  S.  under  the  lead<»r- 
ship  of  the  Right  liev.  George  David  Cummins,  D.  D.  Un- 
willing longer  to  share  responsibility  for  what  he  l)elieve<l  to 
be  the  Romeward  tendencies  of  that  church,  he  resigned  his 
bishopric  in  it,  and  and  was  chosen  the  first  presiding  bislu^p 
of  the  new  Church  under  the  following  resolution :  •*  That  we, 
whose  names  are  appended  to  the  call  for  this  meeting  as 
presented  by  Bishop  Cummins,  do  here  and  now,  in  humbJt- 
reliance  upon  Almighty  God,  organize  ourselves  into  a 
Church,  to  oe  known  by  the  style  and  title  of  *  The  Refonned 
Episcopal  Church,'  in  conformity  with  the  following  declara- 
tion of  principles,  and  with  the  Right  Rev.  George  David 
Cummins,  D.  D.,  as  our  presiding  bishop : 

"I.  The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  holding  *  the  laith 
once  delivered  unto  the  saints,*  declares  its  belief  in  the 
Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  as  tlie 
Word  of  God,  and  the  sole  rule  of  faith  and  practice;  in 
the  creed  *  commonly  called  the  Apostles'  Creed';  in  the 
divine  institution  of  the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper;  and  in  the  doctrines  of  grace  substantially 
as  they  are  set  forth  in  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  Religion. 

"II.  This  Church  recognizes  and  adheres  to  episeof»a*'v, 
not  as  of  divine  right,  but  as  a  very  ancient  and  desirable 
form  of  Church  polity. 

"  III.  This  Church,  retaining  a  liturgy  which  shall  not  l>e 
imperative  or  repressive  of  freedom  in  prayer,  accepts  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  as  it  was  revised,  proposed,  anil 
recommended  for  use  by  the  General  Convention  of  tin* 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  a.  d.  1785,  reserving  full  lib- 
erty to  alter,  abridge,  enlarge,  and  amend  the  same,  as  may- 
seem  most  conducive  to  the  edification  of  the  people,  *  prc^- 
vided  that  the  substance  of  the  faith  be  kept  entire.' 

**IV.  This  Church  condemns  and  rejects  the  followin;^ 
erroneous  and  strange  doctrines  as  contrary  to  God's  Woni : 

'*(!)  That  the  Church  of  Christ  exists  only  in  one  order 
or  form  of  ecclesiastical  polity. 

"(2)  That  Christian  ministers  are  *  priests'  in  another 
sense  than  that  in  which  all  believers  are  ^a  royal  pnes^t- 
hood.' 

**  (3)  That  the  Lord's  Table  is  an  altar  on  which  the  ohla* 
tion  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  is  offered  anew  to  t)ie 
Father. 

**  (4)  That  the  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Lord's  Supper  is  m 
presence  in  the  elements  of  bread  and  wine. 

**(5)  That  regeneration  is  inseparably  connected  witH 
baptism." 

At  its  General  Council  in  New  York  in  May,  1874,  it  n>- 
vised  the  Prayer-book  of  1785  to  meet  the  needs  of  th^- 
changed  times*  but  without  making  any  variations  of  prin- 
ciples  or  doctrines.  The  use  of  the  Prayer-book  was  ma<l%>- 
obligatory  at  Sunday  morning  services  arid  optional  at  othi-  r- 
times.  At  the  same  time  it  adopted  its  first  constitutioTi 
and  canons.  At  its  thfrd  General  Council  at  Chicago  a  vei^i- 
later  it  adopted  its  Articles  of  Religion,  based  substantial!  v 
upon  the  Tnirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England. 

The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  is  governed  by  a  generic  I 
council,  its  president  being  the  presiding  bishop  for  thi^^ 
time  being,  meeting  annually,  biennially,  or  trienniAlly  ^^ 


38 


REFRACTION 


comes  more  striking  as  the  eye  recedes  from  the  glass,  the 
divergencies  being  more  noticeable  at  a  distance.  Most  opti- 
cal instruments  are  dependent  upon  refraction,  and  are  con- 
structed in  accordance  with  its  laws.  See  Aberration,  Lens, 
Microscope,  and  Telescope.  For  the  different  refrangi- 
bilities  of  each  colored  ray  in  the  spectnim,  see  Aberration, 
Interference,  Lens,  Liquids,  Spectrum.  For  the  history 
of  discovery,  see  Optics.  Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Double  Refraction, — That  particular  case  of  refraction 
in  which  a  ray  of  light  on  entering  a  medium  is  divided  into 
two  rays.  One  of  these,  called  the  ordinary  ray,  is  propa- 
gated m  accordance  with  SnelFs  law.  The  other,  called  the 
extraordinary  ray,  is  propagated  in  accordance  with  a  much 
more  complex  law,  wnicn  was  first  shown  by  Huyghens  in 
1690  to  be  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  assumption  that 
the  luminiferous  ether  in  the  medium  is  unequally  elastic  in 
two  directions,  each  perpendicular  to  the  otner.  The  phe- 
nomena of  double  refraction  are  seen  to  the  best  advantage 
in  the  mineral  calcite,  a  crystalline  variety  of  calcium  car- 
bonate. (See  Optics.)  In  other  double  refracting  bodies  the 
separation  of  the  two  rays  is  not  wide  enough  to  be  easily 
perceptible,  but  by  special  contrivances  (see  Polarization) 
they  may  be  made  to  interfere,  and  many  of  the  most  brill- 
iant color  effects  are  thus  attained.  Bv  such  means  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  the  property  of  double  refraction  is 
exceedingly  common  in  transparent  media,  bein^  absent 
only  from  those  homogeneous  bodies  which  are  uniform  in 
density,  non-crystalline,  or  isometrically  crystallized.  (See 
Crystallography  and  Mineralogy.)  The  two  beams  are 
always  polarized,  the  plane  of  polarization  of  one  being 
perpendicular  to  that  of  the  other,  except  in  the  case  when 
they  coincide  in  the  direction  of  the  principal  optical  axis  of 
the  crystal.  In  calcite  this  direction  is  equally  inclined  to 
the  three  faces  whose  intersection  forms  an  obtuse  triedral 
angle.  The  widest  separation  of  beams  is  in  a  plane  perpen- 
dicular to  this  axial  direction.  Under  this  special  condition 
each  ray  is  propagated  in  accordance  with  SnelFs  law,  the 
index  of  refraction  of  the  ordinary  ray  being  1*658  for  mono- 
chromatic yellow  light  (D  line),  while  that  of  the  extraordi- 
nary ray  is  1*486.  Since  the  velocity  of  propagation  varies 
inversely  as  the  index  of  refraction,  the  velocity  of  the  ordi- 
nary ray  is  not  quite  nine-tenths  of  that  of  the  extraordinary 
at  maximum  separation.  In  the  case  of  quartz  under  simi- 
lar conditions  the  velocity  of  the  ordinary  ray  slightly  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  extraorainary.  On  this  basis  double  re- 
fracting crystals  are  divided  into  two  classes,  negative  and 
positive,  calcite  being  a  typical  example  of  the  negative  and 
quartz  of  the  positive.  Calcite  and  quartz,  moreover,  have 
each  but  a  single  axis,  along  which  tnere  is  no  double  re- 
fraction, while  in  many  other  crystals,  such  as  niter,  there 
are  two  such  directions.  On  this  basis,  therefore,  crystals 
are  still  further  divided  into  two  classes — uniaxial  and  bi- 
axial. It  was  shown  by  Fresnel  that  in  transmission  through 
biaxial  crystals  both  rays  fail  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
Sneirs  law ;  each  therefore  may  be  properly  called  extraor- 
dinary. In  certain  varieties  of  mineral,  such  as  mica,  some 
specimens  are  found  to  be  uniaxial  and  others  biaxial. 

For  Huyghens's  determination  of  the  direction  of  either 
ray  in  a  double  refracting  medium,  see  Polarization. 

Index  of  Refraction, — The  constant  ratio  of  the  sine  of 
the  angle  of  incidence  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  refraction 
when  a  ray  of  homogeneous  light  passes  through  the  bound- 
ing surface  between  two  media.  Thus  if  a  ray  of  mono- 
chromatic yellow  light  (D  line)  at  a  temperature  of  15''C. 
pass  from  a  vacuum  into  water  at  an  incident  angle  of  60°, 
the  angle  of  refraction  will  be  found  to  be  40'  29'.  The  in- 
dex of  refraction,  n,  under  these  conditions  is 

n  =  «inj?5;00;=  1.3339. 
sin  40'  29' 

If  the  first  of  these  media  be  air  instead  of  a  vacuum,  since 
the  index  of  refraction  of  air  is  1*000294,  the  relative  index 
of  refraction  of  water  with  respect  to  air  is  found  by  dividing 
the  former  result  by  the  latter,  giving  1*3335.  Since  ordi- 
nary measurements  are  made  in  air  rather  than  in  a  vacuum 
the  refractive  index  referred  to  a  va<;uura  is  usually  called 
the  absolute  index  by  way  of  distinction. 

The  index  of  refraction  affords  a  convenient  means  of 
comparing  the  refracting  powers  of  different  media.  For 
the  indices  of  refraction  of  different  kimls  of  ^lass  and  sev- 
eral liquids,  see  Lkns  and  Liqitds.  For  a  full  table  of  re- 
fractive indices  for  various  media,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Landolt  and  B(5rnstein's  PhysikaJ iAch-Chemische  Tabellen 
2d  ed.,  pp.  384  to  447).  W.  Le  Conte  Stevens. 


Refraction  of  Sound. — The  change  in  direction  of  sound- 
waves on  passing  from  one  medium  into  another.  A  beam 
of  sound — regarded  as  any  very  small  segment  of  an  advanc- 
ing spherical  wave-front — moves  normally  in  a  radial  line, 
but  it  is  bent  from  its  rectilinear  course  whenever  it  under- 
|poes  an  unequal  acceleration  or  retardation,  necessarily  turn- 
ing toward  the  side  of  least  velocity  and  from  the  side  of 
^^reatest  velocity.  In  other  words,  the  direction  of  acoustic 
impulse  is  always  perpendicular  to  the  wave-front  of  sound, 
whether  it  continues  as  an  expanding  spherical  surface,  or, 
by  reason  of  unequal  velocity,  oecomes  in  any  way  deformed. 

There  are  four  ways  in  which  sound-waves  may  be  sub- 
jected to  an  uneaual  disturbance  of  velocity,  and  the  sound- 
beams  become  tnereby  refracted :  1.  By  variation  of  elastic- 
ity  in  the  medium.  If  the  density  be  unchanged,  the  veloc- 
ity of  sound  varies  directly  as  the  square  root  of  the  elastic- 
ity. 2.  By  variation  of  density  in  the  medium.  If  the 
elasticity  remain  unchanged,  the  velocity  varies  inversely  as 
the  square  root  of  the  density.  8.  By  variation  of  motion, 
or  current^  in  the  medium.  Sound  traveling  with  the  wind 
is  propagated  a  little  more  rapidly  than  against  the  wind. 
4.  By  variation  of  temperature  in  the  medium.  If  other 
elements  remain  unchanged,  the  velocity  of  sound  in  air 
varies  directly  as  the  square  root  of  the  absolute  tempera- 
ture. The  enect  of  heat  on  a  ^as  is  to  increase  its  elasticity 
if  confined,  and  to  diminish  its  density  if  unconfined ;  in 
either  case  equally  it  accelerates  the  velocity  of  propa- 
gation. 

(1)  Perhaps  the  only  practical  example  of  acoustic  refrac- 
tion by  differences  of  elaaticity  is  furnished  by  the  passage 
of  sound  from  water  into  air  or  from  air  into  water.    Sound 
moves   more  swiftly  through    liquids  (and  still  more   so 
through  solids),  not  in  consequence  of  their  greater  density, 
but  in  opposition  to  their  density,  and  by  virtue  of  their  far 
greater  energy  of  resilience  or  elasticity,  measured  in  inten- 
sity, not  in  quantity.    The  concentric  sound-waves  sent  up- 
ward bv  a  submarine  explosion  to  the  level  surface  of  the 
water  there  suffer  a  large  amount  of  internal  reflection,  with 
a  reverse  curvature,  giving  the  sound-beams  the  same  amount 
of  divergence  downward  that  they  previously  had  upward. 
A  portion  of  each  of  the  sound-waves,  however  (with  great  ly 
diminished  amplitude  of  vibration),  is  propagated  into  the 
air.     These  have  their  convex  fronts  very  much  flattened,  by 
reason  of  being  reduced  to  less  than  one-fourth  of  their 
previous  velocitv.  The  radii  of  these  deformed  surfaces,  rep- 
resenting  the  directions  of  the  sound-rays,  are  thus  bent  or 
refracted  upward  (or  toward  the  vertical)  at  the  surface  of 
the  air,  ana  have  a  focus  of  divergence  much  more  distant 
than  the  position  of  the  origin  of  the  sound-waves.    In  the 
case  of  an  aSrial  sound,  as  the  discharge  of  a  gun,  the  de- 
scending sound-waves  are  largely  reflected  upward  from  the 
surface  of  the  water ;  but  a  small  portion  of  the  impulse 
passing  this  plane,  the  convex  wave-fronts,  acquiring  sud- 
aenly  more  than  four  times  their  previous  velocity,  are 
hurried  into  greatly  increased  convexity,  and  the sound-ra \  s 
are  refracted  toward  the  horizon,  with  a  divergence  repre- 
senting a  much  lower  or  nearer  focus  than  the  origin  of  the 
sound.     Those  sound-rays  which  by  refraction  would  coin- 
cide with  the  horizontal  plane  or  water-surface  would  neces- 
sarily suffer  total  reflection. 

(2)  The  refraction  of  sound  resulting  from  differences  of 
density  was  first  demonstrated  by  Carl  Sondhauss  in  l^r>2 
by  means  of  a  convex  lens  of  carbonic-acid  gas  confined  in 
an  envelope  of  collodion  film.  The  ticking  of  a  watch  was 
heard,  with  the  lens  interposed,  most  distinctly  at  a  foc*a.I 
point  where  it  could  not  be  heard  on  the  removal  of  the  len^s. 
{Poggendorffs  Annalen,  1852,  Ixxxv.,  381.)  In  this  case  tlio 
wave-front  on  entering  the  convex  surface  of  the  lens  is  *>,  > 
far  retarded  by  the  denser  gas  (commencing  at  the  axis  •-*f 
the  lens)  as  to  have  a  concave  form  impressed  upon  it,  tiinl 
on  emerging  from  the  second  surface  of  the  lens  in  re- 
versed order  becomes  still  more  concave  by  being  acH'el or- 
ated first  at  the  outer  annulus.  The  normals  of  these  con- 
cave waves  converge  to  a  focal  point. 

(3)  The  refraction  of  sound  by  inequality  of  wind  was  fi  r--t 
suggested  by  Prof.  Stokes  in  1857.  Winds,  being  ordinari  I  v 
more  retarded  near  the  earth  than  aloft,  would  act  unequuPi  > 
upon  the  concentric  sound-waves  advancing  against  them  •  I  >  \ 
retanling  the  upper  portion  of  the  wave- fronts  more  than  t  h\- 
lower  portion.  Being  thus  tilted  backward  more  and  iiioro 
as  they  advanced  against  the  wind,  these  wave-fronts  w<-nil«i 
have  their  lines  of  impulse,  representing  the  acoustic  bcAm-^^ 
l>ent  gradually  upward  from  the  surface,  so  as  to  leav«^  t^ 
sound-shadow  at  no  great  distance  on  a  plane.    On  the  00  n~ 


ITS 


40 


REFRIGERATING  PROCESSES 


sion.  Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  ammonia  is  therefore  in  the 
liquid  state  when  it  has  attained  the  temperature  of  ebulli- 
tion corresponding  to  the  pressure  existing  in  the  cooler, 
and  if  no  heat  could  be  supplied  from  surrounding  bodies  it 
would  remain  lic^uid;  but  it  is  practically  in  direct  con- 
tact with  the  brine,  whose  temperature  is  so  much  higher 
than  that  of  the  ammonia  that  the  latter  must  receive  heat 
from  the  brine,  and,  as  the  compression-pump  by  its  suction 
prevents  the  pressure  in  the  cooler  from  increasing,  the 
effect  of  the  heat  received  will  be  to  evaporate  the  liquid 
ammonia  without  increasing  its  temperature.  The  brine 
may  therefore  be  cooled  by  an  amount  equivalent  to  the 
latent  heat  of  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  ammonia  introduced 
into  the  cooler.  All  of  the  ammonia  is  not,  however,  allowed 
to  vaporize  in  the  cooler  in  some  types  of  compression-ma- 
chines, while  in  other  systems  particular  care  is  taken  to 
insure  its  complete  vaporization.  This  difference  of  treat- 
ment gives  rise  to  two  classes  of  apparatus,  one  known  as 
the  wet  or  cold  compression  and  the  other  the  dry-com- 
pression type.  In  either  case  all  of  the  ammonia  is  drawn 
into  the  compressing-pump.  which  forces  it  into  the  con- 
denser, where  sufficient  ammonia  is  gradually  accumulated 
to  cause  the  pressure  to  equal  that  at  which  it  will  be  lique- 
fied, by  means  of  the  cooling  water  with  which  the  con- 
denscr'is  supplied.  When  a  sufficient  amount  has  liquefied 
to  fill  the  reservoir  A  to  the  desired  extent,  as  shown  by  a 
gauge-glass  attached  to  it,  the  charging  of  fresh  ammonia 
to  the  cooler  is  discontinued,  and  the  expansion-cock  B  is 
opened  so  that  liquid  ammonia  flows  into  the  cooler  from 
the  reservoir  A  at  the  same  rat«  as  the  latter  receives  am- 
monia from  the  condenser.  This  ammonia  undergoes  free 
expansion  and  evaporation  in  the  cooler,  and  the  opera- 
tions are  then  continuous,  the  temperature  of  the  brine 
gradually  approaching  that  corresponding  to  the  boiling- 

Coint  of* ammonia  at  the  pressure  maintained  in  the  cooler 
y  the  suction  of  the  pump.  When  the  desired  brine  tem- 
perature is  reached  its  circulation  throug[h  the  cold-ston^ 
rooms  is  commenced.  Generally  the  brine  returns  to  the 
tank,  after  passing  through  the  storage-rooms,  at  about  6^ 
higher  temperature  than  that  at  which  it  leaves  the  tank, 
and  its  mean  temperature  is  from  6"  to  16^  higher  than  the 
boiling-point  of  tne  ammonia  corresponding  to  the  suction- 
pressure,  according  to  the  efficiency  and  extent  of  the  pipe- 
surface  in  the  brine-tank.  The  mean  temperature  oi  the 
brine  is  about  6*  less  than  that  of  the  storage-space  required 
to  bo  cooled.  For  the  storage  of  beer  a  temperature  of 
about  36'  F.  is  required,  and  this  is  therefore  afforded  with 
a  pressure  of  about  28  lb.  above  the  atmosphere  in  the  cool- 
er. Slaughter-houses  require  about  25°  F.  in  their  storage- 
rooms,  which  may  be  afforded  by  about  24  lb.  suction  or 
cooler  pressure ;  while  for  the  storage  of  fish,  requiring  a 
temperature  of  about  0°  F.,  a  suction-pressure  of  aoout  5  lb. 
above  the  atmosphere  must  be  used. 

Air  and  Chloride  of  Calcium  Circulating  Systems. — In- 
stead of  brine  chloride  of  calcium  is  used  as  a  circulating 
medium,  first,  because  the  corrosion  of  iron  pipes  is  thought 
to  be  less  by  its  use  than  with  brine,  and,  second,  because  at 
temperatures  approaching  0^  F.  brine,  unless  made  from 
the  best  uualities  of  rock-salt,  is  liable  to  partly  congeal, 
whereas  chloride  of  calcium  is  perfectly  fluid  at  tempera- 
tures considerably  below  zero.  In  cold-storage  practice 
at  Boston  air  from  centrifugal  fans  is  blown  over  the 
surfaces  of  the  cooler,  and  by  a  system  of  wooden  conduits  is 
circulated  through  storage-chambers.  Pipes  in  the  storage- 
chambers  are  thus  avoided.  The  expenses  of  such  a  system 
are  possibly  a  little  greater  than  that  of  a  brine  system,  but 
by  Its  use'  a  storage-chamber  freshly  filled  with  material 
can  be  more  quickly  cooled  to  a  given  temperature  than  by 
either  a  brine  or  a  direct-expansion  system. 

Direct-expamion  Comprejision  Sydema. — If  instead  of 
using  cold  brine  in  the  pipes  in  the  storage-chambers  the 
liquid  ammonia  is  circulated  through  them,  we  have  what 
is  called  a  direct-expansion  system.  The  storage-chamber 
piping  then  constitutes  the  cooler.  If  it  is  desired  to  re- 
frigerate spaces  at  lung  distances  from  the  compressor,  this 
system  is  necessary,  as  the  liquid  ammonia  from  the  con- 
denser can  be  conveyed  to  an  expansion-cock  at  any  point 
without  the  expensive  insulation  necessary  on  conduits  for 
cold  brine.  In  St.  Louis  and  Denver,  for  example,  areas  of 
half  a  mile  radius  are  successfully  refrigerated  by  ammonia 
conveyed  in  underground  pipes.  Where,  however,  the  re- 
frigeration is  confined  to  a  })art  of  a  building  near  by  or 
containing  the  compressor,  the  use  of  brine  is  by  many  re- 
garded as  a  desirable  safeguard  against  damage  of  stored 


material  by  the  accidental  escape  of  ammonia  from  the  cir- 
culating pipes,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  cost  for 
piping  is  less  for  the  direct-expansion  system,  and  that  it 
saves  in  cost  of  operation  to  the  extent  of  most  of  the  p<)w«T 
consumed  by  the  brine-circulating  pump,  and  by  permitting 
the  suction-pressure  to  be  from  5  to  10  lb.  higher  to  sec  tin* 
a  ^iven  temperature  in  a  storage-spa<;e  than  is  possible  with 
brine  as  a  medium  of  transmission  between  the  ammonia 
and  the  material  to  be  cooled. 

"  Wet^*  versus  '^Dry  "  Compression  System. — In  the  wpt  pts- 
tem,  which  is  known  also  as  the  Linde  system,  the  presoiiee 
of  some  liquid  ammonia  in  the  compression-cylinder  limits 
the  highest  temperature  in  the  latter  to  about  the  boiling- 
point,  corresponding  to  the  highest  pressure  produced  by 
compression,  whereas  with  the  dry  system  the  maximum 
temperature  in  the  compressing-cylinder  is  upward  of  100 
F.  higher.  If  the  compressing-cylinder  was  absolutely  non- 
conducting, the  wet  process  should  be  more  economical  than 
the  dry  method,  but  the  influence  of  the  cylinder-walls  aj>- 
pears,  by  tests,  to  make  the  two  syst-ems  practically  equal 
m  economy.    See  the  table  near  the  end  of  this  article. 

Ammon%arab8orj)tiofi  System, — If  instead  of  being  drawn 
into  the  compressing-pump  the  ammonia  gas  leaving  tlu* 
cooler  is  led  into  contact  with  hydrate  oi  ammonia  sur- 
rounded by  a  bath  of  cooling  water,  it  may  be  dissolved  or 
absorbed  oy  the  hydrate  as  rapidly  as  it  would  enter  the 
cylinder  of  a  compressing-pump.  The  resulting  hydrate  of 
ammonia  being  then  withdrawn  by  an  ordinary  pump  from 
the  vessel,  called  the  absorber,  in  which  the  absorption  nas  oc- 
curred, and  forced  into  a  still  or  closed  vessel  containing  a 
steam-coil,  the  ammonia  absorbed  may  be  distilled  from  the 
hydrate  as  a  gas  at  the  same  pressure  which  could  be  given 
it  by  the  compressing-pump — that  is,  the  liquefying  pressure 
corresponding  to  the  temperature  of  the  cooling  water  avail- 
able for  the  condenser,  the  hydrate  resulting  from  the  dis- 
tillation being  meanwhile  returned  to  the  absorber  to  react 
upon  more  gas  from  the  cooler.  The  distilled  gas  being  led 
to  a  condenser  produces  liquefied  anhydrous  ammonia,  which 
can  be  used  through  an  expansion-cock  and  cooler  like  that 
coming  from  a  condenser  of  a  compression  system.  Such  a 
series  of  operations  constitutes  the  ammonia-absorption  sys- 
tem. In  other  words,  for  the  compressing-pump,  with  its 
steam-engine  in  a  compression  system,  there  is  substitutc<l 
a  vessel  called  an  absorber,  a  common  liouid-pump,  and  a 
steam-still.  All  the  other  elements,  namely,  the  condenser, 
liquid-ammonia  reservoir,  expansion-cock,  and  cooler.  Fig. 
1,  are  identical  for  the  two  systems, 

A  section  of  a  leading  absorption  refrigerating-machine 
is  given  in  Fig.  2.  G  is  the  still  or  generator  containing 
the  steam-coil  c,  which  is  supplied  with  steam  by  pip<*  c 
and  drained  by  a  steam-trap,  1.  The  distilled  gas  leaves  the 
generator  at  J  affer  passing  over  the  baffle,  or  separat  in  Ex- 
piates K,  to  be  freed  of  entrained  water.  It  then  pasi^t's  la 
the  condenser  E,  which  is  in  two  sections,  arranged  so  that 
water-vapor  condensed  in  the  part  L  can  be  drained  back  to 
the  generator.  The  hydrate  or  weak  liouor  resulting  fn»ni 
the  distillation  sinks  by  its  increase  of  specific  gravity  to 
the  bottom  of  the  generator,  and  thence  passes  by  the  pi)>c 
a  to  the  absorber  D  to  reunite  with  gas  entering  the  latter 
bv  the  pipe  d  from  the  cooler  C.  Simultaneously  the  re- 
charged hydrate  or  strong  liquor  from  the  absorber  is  de- 
livered to  the  generator  by  the  pump  P  and  pipe  e.  In  the 
vessel  called  the  interchanger  the  weak  liquor  at  about  270 
gives  up  heat  to  the  strong  liquor,  which  leaves  the  absorlK?r 
at  about  130^.  The  cooling  water  which  is  supplied  to  the 
condenser  E  acts  afterward  to  cool  the  absorber,  the  chem- 
ical union  of  the  gas  and  weak  liquor  being  accompanied 
with  generation  of  heat.  A  is  the  liou id-ammonia  reservoir* 
B  the  expansion-cock,  and  C  the  cooler  and  brine-tAnk. 

All  the  above  remarks  regarding  the  brine,  chloride  of 
calcium,  air,  or  the  direct-expansion  methods  of  circulation 
apply  as  well  to  the  absorption  as  to  the  compression  system. 

Ammonia  Compression  versus  Absorption  System' — If  a 
compression  system  is  driven  by  an  ordinary  non-condens- 
ing Corliss  engine  affording  an  indicated  horse-power  with 
3  lb.  of  fuel,  tests  of  performance  show  that  its  economy  of 
fuel  is  about  equal  to  the  best  absorption  systems  when*  the 
efficiency  of  the  boiler  is  equivalent  to  the  evaporation  <»f 
ll'l  lb.  of  water  per  pound  of  combustible  from  and  at  212 
F.,  and  the  suction-pressure  is  about  20  lb.  above  the  atmo«v- 
phere — that  is,  when  the  temperature  of  the  material  to  h< 
refrigerated  is  recjuired  to  be  about  20'  F.  For  higher  tem- 
peratures or  higher  suction-pressures  the  compression-ma- 
chine is  superior  in  economy  of  fuel,  but  for  lower  tempera- 


42 


REFRIGERATION  OP  THE  EARTH 


REGATTA 


The  abflorption  principle  described  above  can  be  applied 
with  water  or  brine  as  the  refrigerating  substance,  and  sul- 
phuric acid  as  the  absorbent.  The  water  or  brine  is  fed  into 
a  chamber  or  cooler  in  which  a  vacuum  of  about  '16  inch  of 
mercury,  or  less,  is  maintained  by  an  air-pump.  A  portion 
of  the  liquid  evaporates  by  free  expansion,  and  temperatures 


as  improbable,  and  making  use  only  of  Fourier's  mathe- 
matical theory  of  heat  has  arrived  at  some  im[>ortant  re- 
sults, lie  assumes  that  at  a  certain  critical  epoch  a  super- 
ficial layer  of  rocks  became  solidified,  at  a  temperature  of 
about  7,000°  F.,  and  shows  that  it  is  probable  that  the  amount 
of  heat  of  the  crust  went  on  diminishing  by  a  quantity  pro- 


ACTUAL   PERFORMANCE  OF  ICE-UAKINO   MACHINES. 


CLASS  or  MACmME. 


Ammonia  wet  compressor. 


Pictet  fluid  dry  compressor 


Air,  atmospheric  cycle 

Air,  clomd  cycle 

Ammonia  dry  compressor 

it  t»  *» 

tt  »t  »i 

Ammonia  ahsorption 


AoUMtUy. 


X. 


ScbrOter. 


I  Renwlck.  i 

I  Jacobus.   \ 

Denton. 


Abtoiut*  pf«M- 
UN,  is  lb.  par 


»  Q 
0*9 
9-9 
9-9 
9  9 
9-9 
99 
9-9 
9-9 
9-9 
U-8 

11  8 
11-3 

lis 

11-3 
11-8 
11-8 
11-3 
11-8 
11-8 
11-3 
28-0 

10-0 

180 
12-0 

12  0 
12-0 


,  16*5 

'  16-6 

16-5 

!  16  5 

I  16-S 

16-5 

I  16-5 

■  16-6 

,  16  5 

I  16-5 

24-4 

24-4 

24  4 

24-4 

24  4 

24-4 

24  4 

24  4 

24-4 

24-4 

24  4 

288 

18-0 

800 
300 
800 
80-0 


185-4 
131-4 
1280 
126-4 
199-5 
135-8 
1814 
185-61 
118-9 
130-0 ! 
66  7; 
65-6, 
54-6 
60  4 
90  9 
610 
59  3 
58-7 
54-3 
88-7 
62-1 
58-8 

175  0 

1660 
167  0 
162-0 

176  0 
152-3 


6. 

56-3 
41-9 
80-8 
222 
41-9 
60  0 
451 
28-7 
410 
60-8 
20-9 
14-9 
9-7 
6-7 

14  9 
22-3 
156 

6-7 
22-3 

15  6 
6-5 

14  7 

58-7 

42-7 
229 
27-7 
422 
40-4 


T«tcp«mtan 
eomrftpondiag  to 


duguM  Fahr. 


723 
70  5 
69-2 
68-6 
96-5 
72-4 
70-6 
68  2 
64-2 
700 
778 
76-2 
75  2 
80-6 

104  4 
81-2 
796 
791 
74-9 

102-9 

64  8* 

81-3* 

84  2 
84-6 
82-7 
87-7 
79- 1 


8. 

26-6 
14-8 
0-5 

-11-8 
14-4 
80-2 
17-8 
-94 
181 
80-7 
28-5 
14-4 
-25 

-159 
14-4 
31-5 
16-2 

-15-9 
81-8 
16  2 

-16  9 

-52-6* 

-40-2* 

150 
-10-8 
-3-2 
14-5 
12-6 


of  brino,  lo 
Fahr. 


9.    I    10. 

42  8  I  87  2 
28  4  !  23  0 
140  I    8-8 

-0-8  -5-5 
28-3  I  28-0 
48  7  I  87-2 
28-3     28-0 

-0-4  -5  8 
28  4  28-0 
42-8  I  37-3 
43-0  ,  37-5 


28-6 
14-1 

-0-8 
283 
43  5 
2H-4 

-0  4 
42  8 
28-3 

-01 


36-8 
6-3 
14  3 
36  4 
20-7 


0 
8-8 

-5-7 
280 
37  6 
28-0 

-5.6 
37-5 
23-1 

-5-3 


28-9 
20 
2  8 
286 
15-7 


Horn- 

iUvo- 

|ww«r 

lutiofu 

of 

pw 

•UWD- 

miaul*. 

eylto- 

dw. 

11. 

12. 

44  9 

17  9 

46- 1 

180 

45- 1 

16-8 

44-8 

16-6 

450 

24-1 

45  2 

17-9 

46- 1 

180 

44  7 

15  6 

45-0 

16-4 

81-7 

120 

570 

21-5 

668 

206 

57- 1 

185 

57-6 

157 

69-8 

272 

67-3 

216 

67  6 

20-5 

578 

16-9 

858 

12-4 

42-9 

19-9 

34-8 

99 

68-2 

88-2 

93-4 

381 

581 

860 

677 

72  6 

57-9 

73  ft 

58-9 

88-6 

oflodi- 


le»-ni«)tinic  cti'mr  ti  tr 
IbiMrlb.  of  roUt  . 
p«r  boar  |«r  horw-p  -  <  < 
of  ■train-C}llniltr  of  c-i  ■ 
pmriiig-oiKlkiD*,  ar.il  42 

—       «Tft|«rktloD  of  !'•'  It 

cmted  nolllof  watwpwlb.of  ci.u.hu.i 
powor  cauw-  ^l«fro<n  *iu1b<  •'•  *  i 
of        iJTto    ""  •J««n^'*^»''"»' 


Tboorttlcal.  DO 
cylladvr  htitinr 
during  Hplr»- 


cylto- 
dor  kot 

In 
Mctfoa. 


13. 


144 
167 
160 
19  6 
10-6 
10-7 
12-1 
180 
18-6 
14  8 
22  9 
22-9 
24-0 
26-7 
16-9 
14  0 
12-8 
21-1 
22-3 
14  7 
24-3 
21-9 

82-1 

22-7 
1H6 
19-3 
197 


No     '   Wiib 
Mcilim.  frktloo. 


14.   15.   16. 


262 

19-5 
18-8 

9-0 
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29-8 
21-6 

9-9 
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19-5 
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179 
11-6 

5-7 
167 
28-1 
19-8 

6-8 
170 
11  9 

85 
10  8 

4-9 

78-9 
87  9 
46-6 
74  4 
42  2 


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64  74 
48  40 
29-83 
50-63 
69  40 

65  01 
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22  28 
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22  72 
62  83 
26  78 
21  51 
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14-8 

35  91 
28  IH 
26  94 
83  54 

38-5 


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*  Temperature  of  air  at  entrance  and  exit  of  expansion-cylinder. 


as  low  as  82**  are  produced  with  water,  or  as  low  as  14''  with 
brine.  The  unevaporated  liquid  is  frozen  to  ice  if  it  is  water, 
or  circulated  throu|i^h  the  spaces  to  be  refrigerated  if  it  is 
brine.  The  vapor  is  drawn  into  a  vessel  or  acid-chamber, 
adjoining  the  cooler,  containing  anhydrous  sulphuric  acid, 
which  absorbs  it.  The  resulting  mixture,  or  dilute  acid,  is 
pumped  into  the  still  or  generator,  which  frees  it  of  water, 
and  it  is  then  returned  to  the  acid-chamber  to  reabsorb  the 
vapor.  Experiments  with  the  apparatus  on  a  small  scale  in- 
dicate that  the  economy  of  the  process  for  general  refrigerat- 
ing purposes  may  be  superior  to  that  in  which  ammonia  is 
used,  and  that  it  may  afford  a  means  of  making  ice  with  con- 
siderably less  expense  and  space  for  plant  than  by  the  use 
of  any  other  of  tne  refrigerating  substances.  This  method 
is  employed  in  one  of  the  oldest  forms  of  refrigerating-ina- 
ohines,  where,  by  means  of  a  hand-pump,  a  vacuum  is  pro- 
duced in  a  glass  bottle  or  caraffe  nlled  with  water,  and  ice 
is  formed  inside  the  bottle  for  table  use.  One-fourth  of  the 
water  is  vaporized  and  absorbed  by  sulphuric  acid  or  other 
substances  having  a  strong  affinity  for  water,  and  the  remain- 
ing three-fourths  is  converted  into  ice.         D.  S.  Jacobus. 

Refrigeration  of  the  Earth :  the  gradual  cooling  of  the 
earth  in  the  course  of  ages.  According  to  the  Nebular 
Hypothesis  {q,  v.)  the  earth  was  originally  a  mass  of  fiery 
liquid,  and  known  geological  facts  have  established  that  its 
surface  was  at  one  period  much  hotter  than  it  is  now.  The 
fact  that  the  temjjerature  increases  from  the  surface  inward 
implies  that  there  is  a  continual  loss  of  heat  from  the  inte- 
rior by  gradual  conduction  through  the  outer  crust  and  at- 
mosphere to  external  space.  (See  Energy,  Dissipation  of.) 
This  loss  is  very  small,  in  proportion,  compared  with  that  of 
the  sun— owing,  doubtless,  to  the  existence  of  the  crust.  It 
has  been  suggested,  however,  that  the  internal  heat  might 
be  kept  up  by  chemical  action — that  is,  by  the  transforma- 
tion of  chemical  energy  of  combination  into  heat,  or  by  the 
passage  of  the  earth  through  a  hotter  region  of  space,  a  hy- 
pothesis due  to  Poisson.    Lord  Kelvin  regards  these  views 


portional  to  the  s<juare  root  of  the  time  from  the  eporl 
Further,  his  analysis  would  lead  to  the  inference  that  du 
ing  the  last  96,000,000  years  the  rate  of  increase  of  the  t«n 
pcrature  from  the  surface  inward  has  diminished  fn»m  aU)i 
i^th  to  about  ^th  of  a  degree  P.  per  foot,  and  that  tl 
thickness  of  the  crust  through  whicn  any  degn»e  of  >tat^ 
cooling  has  been  experienced  nas  increased  up  to  its  pn»s<r 
thickness  from  a  fifth  of  that  thickness.  Lord  Kelvin  b 
lieves  also  that  the  earth  is  not,  as  is  commonly  supinwid, 
mass  of  fiery  liquid  covered  with  a  crust  of  from  80  i«>  h 
miles  thick,  but  on  the  whole  more  rigid  than  a  solid  gl«il 
of  glass,  or  even  of  steel  of  the  same  dimensions,  anti  ht»  i* 
serves  that  a  decided  negative  should  be  given  to  the  Mi»rg< 
tion  that  internal  heat  exerted  any  sensible  effect  on  cliiimi 
See  Earth  {Internal  Temperatures),  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Refuge,  Cities  of:  See  Cities  of  Rbfuob. 

Regal'di,  Giuseppe  :  poet ;  b.  at  No  vara,  Italy,  in  Xoi 
1809;  began  the  study  of  jurisprudence  in  theUniversi 
of  Turin,  but  failing  in  his  first  examinations,  and  havi 
heard  the  improvisatore  Giustiniani,  he  resolved  to  rii 
him.  From  1»38  to  1856  his  course  was  a  continual  triump 
he  improvised  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  Italy,  in  Franj 
in  Switzerland,  in  Germany;  visited  Greece,  Asia  Minj 
Mt.  Lebanon,  and  Egypt,  and  there  gathered  fresh  ins' 
rations.  In  1860  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  History 
the  Lyceum  of  Parma;  then  (1862)  in  the  University 
Cagliari;  and  finally,  in  1866,  in  the  University  of  l^>logi 
D.  at  Bologna,  Feb.,*  1883.  Among  his  volumes  of  ver-^4»J 
La  guerra  (18;32);  I^e»ie  estemporanee  e  pensate  (isa 
Canti  (1840);  Canti  nazionali  (2  vols.,  1841);  La  liiM 
(1852);  Canti  e  prose  (1861-65);  Poesie  scette  (1874);  L^t 
(1878).  We  have  also  a  volume  of  travels,  Dora  (2d  c«i.  1 
and  a  collection  of  essavs,  Storia  e  htteraiura  (1S7SM, 
F.  Orlando,  Giuseppe  Regaldi  (1880).  Many  ilhist 
French  and  Italian  poets  nave  written  verses  in  his  h« 
among  others  Lamartine.  Revised  by  A.  R.  Marsi 

Regatta :  See  Rowing  and  Yachting. 


44 


REGGIO  NELL'  EMILIA 


REGNAULT 


fifth  centary  b.  c.  it  lost  its  republican  organization  ;  after 
an  obstinate  resistance  it  was  captured  by  Dionysius  the 
Elder,  tyi*ant  of  Syracuse  (387  B.  c).  Under  the  I^bmans  it 
became  again  wealthy  and  magnificent.  The  Castor  and 
Pollux  with  St.  Paul  on  board  entered  the  harbor  (63),  and, 
according  to  tradition,  St.  Paul  landed  and  founded  a 
church.  The  ecclesiastical  history  of  Reggio  is  interesting 
and  somewhat  important.  The  city  shared  all  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  Southern  Italy  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was 
burned  by  Alaric  (410),  captured  by  Totila,  £ing  of  the 
Goths  (549),  by  the  Saracens  (918),  by  the  Pisans  (1005),  by 
Robert  Guiscard  (1060),  and  by  the  Ottomans  (1552  and 
1597).  Nevertheless,  it  was  nourishing  and  opulent  when  in 
1783  it  was  utterlv  overthrown  by  earthquake.  Though 
suffering  from  earthquakes  often  since,  it  has  been  partially 
rebuilt  and  presents  a  modem  appearance  with  handsome 
and  spacious  streets.  The  city  now  rises  in  amphitheatrical 
form  upon  a  gently  sloping  hill ;  its  suburbs  are  attractive 
and  it  enjoys  splendid  sunset  views  over  the  strait,  with  Etna 
and  Sicily  in  tne  foreground.  It  has  a  few  manufactories 
and  an  inconsiderable  maritime  trade.  Pop.,  with  the  sub- 
urban villages  (1893),  43,000.  E.  A.  Gbosvenob. 

Regvio  neir  Emilia,  red'jo-nel-Io-mee'lee-ak  (anc.  Bhe- 
gium  jbepidi):  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  the  same 
name ;  on  the  railway  between  Parma  and  Modena  (see  map 
of  Italy,  ref.  3-C).  It  is  a  walled  town,  with  broad  streets, 
many  of  which  are  lined  with  arcades.  Some  of  the  churches 
are  imposing  and  contain  precious  objects  of  art.  Over  the 
altar  of  St.  Prospero  once  stood  the  Nativity  of  Correggio, 
known  as  La  Notte,  now  in  the  Dresden  Gallery.  Reggio 
contains  a  fine  cathedral,  partly  of  the  twelfth*  century,  a 
spacious  theater,  a  library  with  56,000  volumes,  an  academy 
of  fine  arts,  and  a  museum  with  the  natural  historical  col- 
lection of  Spallanzani,  born  here  in  1729.  The  small  house 
in  which  Ariosto  was  bom  (1474)  is  still  seen.  The  Asylum 
for  the  Insane,  outside  the  town,  is  one  of  the  best-man- 
aged philanthropic  establishments  in  Italy.  The  origin  of 
the  town  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  often  mentioned  by  Latin 
writers.  It  was  cantured  by  the  Goths  in  409,  was  oppressed 
by  the  Exarchs  of  Ravenna,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Charlemagne 
in  the  ninth  century.  It  suffered  severely  during  the  Guelph 
and  Ghibelline  wars.  An  independent  commonwealth  in  tne 
twelfth  century,  during  the  thirteenth  it  was  prominent  in 
mediieval  learning.  For  several  hundred  years  it  was  gen- 
erally ruled  by  the  Este  and  Austro-Este  family,  and  joined 
the  modern  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1859.  Now  it  is  the  com- 
mercial center  of  a  fertile  province,  carries  on  a  large  trade 
in  country  products,  and  has  some  industries  of  its  own,  as 
manufactures  of  carriages,  brooms,  and  sailcloth.  Pop. 
18,634.  E.  A.  Grosvenob. 

Regiment  ffrom  0.  Fr.  regiment,  government,  later  a 
regiment  of  soldiers  <  Lat.  reginien  turn,  government,  rule, 
deriv.  of  re'gere,  rule] :  a  military  organization  made  up  of 
one  or  more  battalions  of  infantry,  squadrons  of  cavalry,  or 
batteries  of  artillery.  The  organization  being  permanent, 
its  history,  records,  and  traditions  become  matters  of  regi- 
mental pride  and  a  potent  factor  in  preserving  its  esprit  dt 
corps.  Regiments  are  generally  designated  by  numbers ;  but 
they  frequently  have  special  names,  derived  from  the  local- 
ity of  their  enlistment  or  from  some  marked  service  ren- 
dered by  them. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  infantry  regiment  is  made  up  of  ten  com- 
panies and  varies  in  strength  from  about  500  men  on  a  peace 
looting  to  about  1,000  men  on  a  war  footing.  In  the  more 
modern  organization  of  the  European  armies  it  consists  of 
three,  or  sometimes  four,  battalions,  of  about  1,000  men  each 
on  a  war  footing,  reduced  to  about  600  on  a  peace  footing. 
The  cavalry  regiment  of  the  U.  S.  contains  12  troops,  or  6 
squadrons, and  the  artillery  regiment  12  batteries.  In  Euro- 
pean armies  these  numbers  vary  somewhat  widely. 

The  regiment  is  commanded  by  a  colonel,  or  in  his  absence 
by  its  lieutenant-colonel.  Each  battalion  is  commanded  by 
a  major,  and  each  company  by  a  captain.  The  regimental 
staff  usually  consists  of  an  adjutant,  quartermaster,  com- 
missary, and  surgeon.  Some  regiments  have  also  a  chap- 
lain. 

The  regiment  is  the  administrative  unit  of  the  army,  the 
battalion  the  tactical  unit,  and  the  company  the  unit  of 
combat.    See  Army.  James  Mer(  ur. 

Regi'na  [Lat.,  Queen] :  town  of  Assiniboia,  Canada,  and 
capital  of  the  Northwest  Territories;  station  on  the  (Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway,  857  miles  W.  of  Winnipeg  (see  map  of 
Canada,  ref.  9-G).    It  contains  fine  public  buildings,  and  is 


the  headquarters  of  the  Northwest  mounted  police.  It  is 
well  provided  with  churches  and  schools,  and  has  the  nucleus 
of  a  parliamentary  library.    Pop.  2,500. 

Regionionta'nns,  Johann  MOller:  astronomer  ail 
mathematician;  b.  at  K5nigsberg  in  Franconia,  June  t). 
1436;  studied  mathematics  under  Purbach  at  Vienna,  an*  1 
astronomy  at  Padua;  lived  for  some  time  at  the  court  <'f 
Matthias  Corvinus  of  Hungary,  afterward  at  Nurembor>:. 
and  was  invited  to  Rome  in  1474  by  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  in  or<l»  r 
to  reform  the  calendar.  D.  in  Rome,  July  6, 1476— some  "ay 
by  the  plague,  others  by  assassination  at  the  hands  of  i  hy- 
sons of  George  of  Trebizond,  in  whose  writings  be  had 
pointed  out  some  glaring  errors.  His  Ephemerides  ah  A n  n o 
1475-1606  (continued  by  Bernhard  Walther)  made  him  vcrv 
famous  among  astronomers.  Among  his  numerous  oth<  r 
works  are  Detteformatione  Calendarii  (1489^  and  De  Tn- 
angulis  Omnimodia  (1533).  See  Alexander  Ziegler,  Rtgm- 
montanus  (Langensalza,  1874). 

Registration  (of  conveyances) :  See  Recording. 

Regnard,  ran-yaar',  Jean  Francois  :  dramatist ;  b.  in  Pan  -, 
France,  Feb.,  1655.  Of  a  wealthy  family,  he  was  well  edu- 
cated, and  traveled  extensively  in  Italy,  Algiers,  whither  li- 
was  taken  as  captive  by  pirates  in  1678,  Scandinavia,  Laplam  . 
Germany,  Poland,  and  Hungary.  He  settled  in  Paris  in 
1684,  and  began  first  to  write  for  the  Theatre  Italien,  but 
after  1696  wrote  entirely  for  the  Theatre  Fran^ais.  He  fol- 
lowed Moliere,  but  at  a  long  distance,  naturalness  and  deline- 
ation of  character  being  sacrificed  to  the  comic  effect,  f'  r 
which  his  talent  was  great.  Le  Joueur  (1696),  Les  JUenech  m  >  .v 
(1705),  imitated  from  Plautus,  and  Le  Ligataire  uniitr/-"' 
(1708)  are  his  best-known  comedies.  D.  Sept.  4, 1709.  Hti 
also  wrote  an  account  of  his  Voycures  and  a  partly  autobio- 
graphical story.  La  Provengale,  Editions  of  nis  works  hn\  m 
been  given  by  Michiels  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1854-55)  and  Mr»lan<l 
(Paris,  1875).  A.  G.  Canfielh. 

Regnanlt,  re-no',  Alexandre  Georges  Henri:  historic, 
al,  genre,  and  portrait  painter;  b.  in  Paris,  France,  Oct.  :^n, 
1843.  Pupil  of  Montfort,  Lamothe,  and  Cabanel ;  grand 
prix  de  Rome  1866;  painted  in  Italy  and  Spain  1866-6^t| 
and  in  Africa  in  1870.  He  returned  to  France  and  enli-ti«l 
in  the  Sixty-ninth  Battalion  of  the  National  Guard  at  ih^ 
outbreak  of  the  war  with  Germany,  and  was  killed  in  i 
skirmish  at  Buzenval,  Jan.  19,  1871.  His  works  are  ver^ 
fine  in  color  and  possess  qualities  of  the  highest  onl.  r 
Though  only  twenty-eight  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  hit 
death,  he  had  already  painted  a  number  of  important  <  om 
positions,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  which  is  his  equestrini 
FOrtrait  of  General  Prim,  now  in  the  Louvre.  In  the  L*  »u\  r 
also  is  his  Execution  without  Judgment — Granada.  In  t  h 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  is  a  picture  entitled  Autam 
edon  with  the  Horses  of  Achilles,  which,  though  not  r»ne  <i 
his  most  successful  works,  gives  a  fair  idea  of  nis  power  n^ 
draughtsman  and  his  ability  to  handle  a  large  canvas  wit 
unity  of  effect.  William  A.  Cof fix. 

Regnanlt,  Henri  Victor:  physicist  and  chemist ;  b.  n 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  Germany,  July  21,  1810;  studied  at  tli 
Ecole  Polytechnique  of  Paris ;  was  appointed  ProfoK*ior  < 
Chemistry  at  that  school  in  1840,  in  Physics  at  the  CNlL^ij 
de  France  in  1841 ;  chief  engineer  of  mines  in  1847.  an<l  .i 
rector  of  the  porcelain- works  of  Sevres  in  1854.  Tho  ti  n 
work  of  his  which  attracted  attention  was  his  Action  d 
ChJore  sur  rather  chlorhydrique  (1840),  but  his  physiojil  r 
searches,  especially  concerning  heat,  gained  for  him  his  trr»-i 
reputation.  In  1848  he  received  the  Rumford  medal  fn> 
the  Roval  Society  of  London  for  his  Experiments  to  d*  t-\ 
mine  the  Laws  and  the  Numerical  Data  which  enter  in  to  f\ 
Calculation  of  Steam-engines.  His  investigations  in  v«'i 
fication  of  the  law  of  Mariotte  and  Boyle  were  cominiinitat* 
in  vols.  xxi.  and  xxvi.  of  the  Memoires  de  V Acad*' fa  i*  J 
Sciences.  His  Premiers  Elements  de  Chimie  (18r)0>.  i 
abridgment  of  his  Cours  ilementaire  de  Chimie  (1H47-4I 
has  been  translated  into  several  languages.  His  work  on  t 
practical  treatment  of  steam-engines  forms  vol.  xxi.  ot  t 
Mimoires  de  VAcadimie  des  Sciences.    D.  Jan.  19,  187H. 

Regnanlt,  Jean  Baitiste,  Baron:  painter;  b.  in  Vt\\ 
France,  Oct.  19,  1754;  led  for  some  time  a  roving  lif«»  «i 
sailor,  and  visited  Africa  and  America;  entered  in  1771  i 
studio  of  the  painter  Bardin,  whom  he  acconipanitil 
Rome;  gained  in  1774  the  great  medal  for  his  Aleuat.' 
and  Diogenes;  l)ecanie  a  member  of  the  Academy  in  I  71 
subsequently  professor  in  the  School  of  Art,  and  sttHni 
the  side  of  l)avid  at  the  head  of  the  French  school  of  pa  i 


46 


REID 


REIN 


Reid,  Thomas  :  philosopher ;  b.  at  Strachan,  Kincardine- 
shire, Scotland,  Apr.  26,  1710.  His  father  was  a  minister. 
He  received  his  first  instruction  at  home  and  in  the  parish 
school  of  Kincardine.  In  1722  he  was  sent  to  Marischal 
College  in  Aberdeen,  where  he  graduated  in  1726,  and  occu- 
pied a  position  as  college  librarian  and  in  studying  mathe- 
matics and  ohilosophv  until  1737,  when  he  was  appointed 
minister  at  New  Machar  in  Aberdeenshire.  His  parishion- 
ers are  said  to  hayo  opposed  his  appointment  very  strenu- 
ously, and  he  had  so  little  confidence  in  his  own  powers  that 
he  never  himself  composed  the  sermons  which  he  preached, 
but  used  such  as  were  published  bv  English  divines,  espe- 
cially Tillotson  and  Evans.  Nevertheless,  his  life  as  a  min- 
ister at  New  Machar  turned  out  to  the  satisfaction  of  all. 
In  1740  he  married,  and  in  1748  he  published  his  first  philo- 
sophical essay,  On  Quantity,  in  the  Trafisactiotis  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London.  It  was  a  criticism  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  mathematical  terminology  was  used  at  that 
time  in  metaphysics  and  morals,  especially  by  Hutcheson. 
In  1752  he  accepted  the  position  of  Professor  of  Philosophy 
at  King*8  College,  Aberdeen,  where  he  had  to  teach  mathe- 
matics, natural  philosophy,  and  moral  philosophy ;  but  in 
1763  he  moved  to  Qlas^w  as  the  successor  of  Adam  Smith 
in  the  chair  of  Moral  Philosophy.  Here  he  published  his 
Inquirff  into  the  Human  Mind  on  the  Principle  of  Common 
Sense,  in  1764,  and  read  at  the  meetings  of  a  philosophical 
society  several  papers,  such  as  Examination  of  Dr.  Priest- 
ley's Opinion  concerning  Matter  and  Mind  and  Physiolog- 
ical Reflections  on  Muscular  Motion.  In  1781,  however,  he 
resigned  his  office  in  order  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to 
philosophical  studies,  and  published  Essays  on  the  Intellec- 
tual Powers  of  Man,  in  1785,  and  Essays  on  the  Active  Pow- 
ers of  Man,  in  1788.  D.  Oct.  7,  1796.  Originally,  he  was  a 
disciple  of  Berkeley,  but  David  Hume's  Treatise  upon  Hu- 
man Nature,  published  in  1740,  showed  him  at  once  to  what 
consequences  idealism  might  lead,  and  roused  him  to  inde- 

Eendent  speculation.  In  opposition  to,  Hume's  skepticism 
e  tried  in  his  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind  on  the  Prin- 
ciple of  Common  Sense  to  establish  a  series  of  fundamental 
truths  independent  of  experience  and  indisputable  as  primi- 
tive facts  of  the  consciousness.  On  the  Scottish  school  of 
philosophy,  and  more  especially  on  the  study  of  psychology, 
he  exercised  a  powerful  influence.  This  influence  has  ex- 
tended to  Prance  (Royer-Collard  and  Victor  Cousin);  and 
to  America  and  the  British  colonies,  nearly  all  professors  of 
philosophy  in  colleges  for  thirty  years  (1830  to  1860)  being 
loUowers  of  Reid  in  all  important  respects.  See  English 
Literature  {Philosophy).         Revised  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Beid,  WnrrELAW :  journalist ;  b.  near  Xenia,  0.,  Oct.  27, 
1837  ;  graduated  at  Miami  University  in  1856 ;  after  acting 
for  a  year  or  more  as  superintendent  of  the  graded  schools 
at  South  Charleston,  O.,  bought  and  edited  the  Xenia  Xews ; 
joined  the  Republican  party  at  its  birth  and  made  political 
speeches  in  support  of  Fremont  in  1856 ;  advocated  in  the 
News  the  nomination  of  Abraham  Lincoln  in  1860 ;  became 
city  editor  of  the  Cincinnati  Gazette ;  during  the  civil  war 
served  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Morris  in  West  Virginia  and 
later  on  that  of  Gen.  Rosecrans,  and  was  war  correspondent 
of  the  Gazette,  writing  over  the  signature  of  "  Agate  " ;  in 
1863  was  ap|>ointed  librarian  to  the  House  of  liepresenta- 
tives ;  in  1865  accompanied  Chief  Justice  Salmon  P.  Chase 
on  a  tour  of  the  South,  undertaken  by  the  latter  at  the  re- 
quest of  President  Johnson  for  the  secret  purpose  of  study- 
ing the  condition  and  interests  of  the  white  and  black  race's, 
and  published  After  the  War,  a  Southern  Tour  (Cincin- 
nati, 1866) ;  durin|»  the  next  two  years  engaged  in  cotton- 
planting  in  Louisiana  and  Alabama,  and  published  Ohio 
«n  the  War  (2  vols.,  Cincinnati,  1868) ;  in  1868  became  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  Cincinnati  Oazette;  at  the  invitation 
of  Horace  Greeley  joined  the  editorial  staff  of  The  New 
York  Tribune  in  1868,  and  in  1869  became  managing  edi- 
tor. Upon  the  nomination  of  Greeley  for  the  presidency 
in  1872  Mr.  Reid  became  editor-in-chief,  and  when  the 
former  died  in  the  fall  of  that  year  he  became  chief  pro- 

Srietor  as  well  as  editor  of  the' lyihune.  In  1878  Presi- 
ent  Hayes  offered  him  the  U.  S.  mission  to  Berlin,  which 
he  declined.  The  offer  was  renewed  under  the  administra- 
tion of  President  Garfield,  and  again  declined.  In  1878  he 
was  elected  b^  the  New  York  Ijogislature  regent  of  the 
State  University,  to  succeed  Gov.  Dix.  In  Mar.,  18H9,  Mr. 
Reid  accepted  from  President  Harrison  the  appointment  of 
minister  to  France,  and  resigned  the  editorship  of  the 
Tribune.    After  securing  the  repeal  of  the  French  decree 


prohibiting  the  importation  of  U.  S.  meats,  and  negotiat- 
ing extradition  and  reciprocity  treaties,  he  resigned  offir*<» 
and  returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  Apr.,  1892.  In  June,  1892,  he 
was  nominated  for  the  vice-presidencv  of  the  U.  S.  by  the 
Republican  national  convention,  but  failed  of  election.  His 
time  since  then  has  been  divided  between  foreign  travel 
and  the  direction  of  the  Tribune.  Among  his  occAsirmail 
addresses,  afterward  published  in  book  form,  are  Schools  4»f 
Journalism  (New  York,  1871) ;  The  Scholar  in  Politico 
(1878) ;  Some  Newspaper  Tendeficies  (1879) ;  Toum-hall  Sug- 
gestions (1881).  Revised  by  W.  F.  Johnsi>n. 

Reid,  William,  D.  D.  :  minister  and  editor;  b.  in  the 
parish  of  Kildrummy,  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  Dec  10, 
1816;  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen;  went 
to  Canada  as  missionary  of  the  Established  Church  of  Scot- 
land ;  was  pastor  at  Graton  and  Colbome,  Upper  Cana4ln, 
1840-43;  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Canada  1843 ;  was  pastor  at  Picton  184fi^3 ;  editor  r if 
77ie  Ecclesiastical  ana  Missionary  Record  1853-75;  since 
1853  has  been  clerk  of  synod  and  treasurer  of  the  schemes  of 
the  Church.  Dr.  Reid  was  moderator  of  the  Synod  in  1850 
and  1878,  and  of  the  General  Assembly  in  1879. 

C.  K.  HOYT. 

Reid,  William  James,  D.  D.  :  clergyman ;  b.  at  South 
Argyle,  N.  Y..  Aug.  17,  1834 ;  was  educated  at  Union  Col- 
lege and  Allegheny  Seminary;  corresponding  secretary  of 
the  United  Presbyterian  boam  of  home  missions  1868^72  ; 
principal  clerk  of  the  United  Presbyterian  General  Asst^m- 
oly  since  1875;  and  since  1889  pastor  of  the  First  United 
Presbyterian  church,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  editor  of  The 
United  Presbyterian.  Dr.  Reid  has  published  numerrms 
sermons  and  pamphlets:  Lectures  on  the  Revelation  (Pitts- 
burg, 1878);  and  United  Presbyterianism  (1881;  2<1  e<K 
1883).  C.  K.  HoYT. 

Reidsvllle:  town  (founded  in  1865);  Rockingham  co.. 
N.  C. ;  on  the  Southern  Railway ;  24  miles  N.  of  Qreerif*- 
boro,  and  24  miles  S.  W.  of  Danville,  Va.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  North  Carolina,  ref.  2-F).  It  is  in  the  heart  of  the 
**  bright "  tobacco  belt,  and  is  a  large  leaf-tobacco  market. 
selling  about  8,000,000  lb.  per  year.  There  are  4  large  ware- 
houses for  the  sale  of  the  leaf ,  tobacco,  cigar,  and  cotton 
factories,  flour  and  lumber  mills,  8  churches,  high  school 
for  boys,  graded  public  schools,  a  female  seminary,  a  State 
bank  with  capital  of  f 50,000,  an  incorporated  bank  with 
capital  of  $50,000,  and  3  weekly  newsjiapers.  Pop.  (18^h 
1,316  ;  (1890)  2,969 ;  (1894)  estimated,  3.500. 

Editor  op  "  Review/* 

Reigate :  town ;  in  the  county  of  Surrey,  England  ;  21 
miles  S.  of  London  (see  map  of  England,  fef.  13-J).     Tli«» 

Parish  church  of  St.  Mary  (mixed  Transition  Norman  ainl 
•erpendicular)  dates  from  the  reign  of  Henry  VIL  It  e<)Ti- 
tains  a  library  with  MSS.  and  rare  books.  Reigate  carrie-^ 
on  a  considerable  trade  in  fuller's  earth  and  sand  used,  in 
the  manufacture  of  glass.    Pop.  (1891)  22,646. 

Reign  of  Terror :  the  name  given  to  that  period  of  t  he 
French  Revolution  which  lasted  from  Jan.  21, 1793,  the  dav 
of  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI.,  till  July  27  (9  Thermidor), 
1794,  when  Robespierre  was  guillotined  and  the  committee 
of  safety  broken  up.    See  France,  History  or. 

Reims :  a  city  of  France.    See  Rheims. 

Rein,  rin,  Johannes  Justus  :  scholar  and  compiler :  b.  at 
Rauenheim,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  18Ji5 ;  studied  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Giessen,  and  taught  for  several  years.  In  1878  he 
undertook  a  mission  to  Japan  on  behalf  of  the  Prussian 
Government  for  the  purpose  of  studying  Japanese  industries 
and  commerce,  and  spent  two  vears  in  that  country,  i^n 
his  return  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Geography  at 
Marburg,  and  in  1883  was  transferred  to  a  similar  j>ost  at 
Bonn,  where  he  succeeded  Baron  von  Richthofen.  In  ISIKJ 
Dr.  Rein  served  as  a  judge  of  art  industry  at  the  Columbian 
Exposition  in  Chicago.  The  results  of  his  Japanese  re- 
searches were  embodied  in  his  valuable  Japan  nach  ReiMtn 
und  Studien  dargestellt  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1881. 1886), of  which 
an  English  translation  has  appeared  under  the  titles  Jap^tn, 
Travels  and  Researches  (London,  1884)  and  The  IndusiritM 
of  Japan  (London,  1889).  A  later  work  treats  of  Colum- 
bus and  Spanish  subjects — Oeographische  und  uaturtci^4vn- 
schaftliche  Abhandlungen  (Leipzig,  1892).      J.  M.  Dixox. 

Rein,  Wilhelm,  Ph.D.:  professor  of  pedagogy;  b.    at 
Eisenach,  Germanv,  Aug.  10.  1847 ;  studied  at  Gymnasitiin 
Eisenach,   1857-66,  Jena  University   1866-68,   Ueidelbt»r^ 
1808-69,  Leipzig  1870-71 ;  teacher  in  Realschule,  Barmen, 


nsrv; 


u^^rijii^t^U.     :riC€  oImi  AJiu 


48 


REISKE 


RELIEF 


highly  gifted  of  the  pupils  of  Qottfried  Hermann,  and  an  in- 
spiring teacher  of  ereat  learning  and  critical  talent.  He  died, 
after  occupying  the  chair  of  Classical  Languages  at  Halle 
for  a  few  years,  at  Venice,  Jan.  17, 1820.  His  principal 
works,  which  have  not  yet  lost  their  value,  are  Vorlesungen 
<fi6er  Lateinische  Sprcichwissenschaft  (3d  revised  and  en- 
larged ed.  in  8  vols.,  1888) ;  Coniectanea  in  AristopJianem ; 
critical  and  exegetical  edition  of  Sophocles's  (Edipus  Colo- 
neus  (2  vols.,  1823).  Cf.  Pr.  Ritschl,  Opusc,  (v.,  pp.  95  fl.) ; 
0.  Ribbeck,  F.  W,  Ritachl  (i.,  pp.  34  fl.). 

Alfred  Gudeman. 

Relske,  rls'k^,  Johann  Jacob  :  Greek  scholar ;  b.  in  Zdr- 
big.  Saxony,  Dec.  25,  1716;  matriculated  in  1733  at  the 
University  of  Leipzig;,  where  he  devoted  himself  especially 
to  the  study  of  Arabic.  In  1738  he  went  to  Leyden  to  study 
the  Arabic  MSS.  in  the  university  library,  and  eked  out  a 
spare  living  by  correcting  proof-sheets  and  by  giving  pri- 
vate lessons.  Amid  such  nardships  he  still  found  time  for 
the  study  of  medicine,  graduating  in  1746.  Soon  afterward 
he  returned  to  Leipzig,  and  here  also  he  lived  in  abject 
poverty  for  twelve  years,  when  he  secured  the  rectorate 
of  the  famous  Nicolai  Gymnasium.  This  position  he  re- 
tained till  his  death  Aug.  14,  1774.  Reiske  is  one  of  the 
greatest  Greek  scholars  that  Germany  has  |)roduced,  and  his 
genius,  though  depreciated  in  his  lifetime,  is  now  becoming 
ever  more  generally  recognized.  His  productivity  is  as- 
tounding ;  his  most  celebrated  works  are  editions,  commen- 
taries, and  translations  of  Plutarch  (12  vols.,  1782) ;  Dio- 
nysius  of  Halicarnassus  (6  vols.,  1777) ;  Oratores  Giwci  (12 
vols.,  1770-75) ;  Dion  Chrysostomos  (2  vols.) ;  Libanius  (4 
vols.) ;  Theocritus  (2  vols.) ;  Maximus  Tyrius  (2  vols.J ;  and 
many  other  minor  editions.  To  these  must  be  added  a 
collection  of  Animadveraionea  in  Grcpcoa  aucforea  (5  vols., 
1757-66).  Many  of  his  works  were  published  posthumously 
by  his  wife,  Ernestine  Christine  (1735-98 ;  married  1764). 
See  his  Autobiography,  pp.  818  (1783);  M.  Haupt,  Opt/«- 
eula  (iii.,  pp.  137  If.) ;  Bursian,  Oesch,  der  claaaiachen  Phi- 
lologie  in  Deutachland  (pp.  407-416).    Alfred  Gudeman. 

Relsuer-work :  See  Buhl-work. 

Reiss,  WiLHELM :  traveler,  ethnologist,  and  naturalist ;  b. 
at  Mannheim,  Germany,  in  1838.  He  graduated  at  Heidel- 
berg 1864;  visited  Greece  1866;  and  from  1868  to  1876 
traveled  in  South  America,  generally  in  company  with  A. 
StQbel.  Their  most  extended  explorations  were  m  Colom- 
bia, Ecuador,  and  Peru,  where  they  ascended  and  measured 
many  peaks  of  the  Andes,  and  maue  valuable  archaeological 
and  geological  studies.  Their  most  important  joint  publi- 
cation was  Daa  Totenfeld  von  Ancon  in  Peru  (3  vols,  folio, 
1880-67),  a  magnificently  illustrated  work  on  the  Indian 
burial-grounds  of  Ancon,  near  Lima.  They  also  published, 
*y  or  separately,  many  papers  in  Spanish  at  Quito;  and 


eiss  is  the  author  of  several  works  m  German  on  South 
American  geology  and  topography.  H.  H.  Smith. 

Relapsing  FeTer,  also  known  as  Famine  FeTer,  and, 
technical Iv,  as  FebriB  Recurrens  [relapaing  is  from  Lat. 
relabi,  relap'aua,  fall  back,  relapse ;  re-,  back,  again  +  la'bi^ 
slide,  fall]:  a  specific  infectious  and  contagious  disease  due 
to  the  action  of  a  micro-organism,  the  Spirochceta  obermeieri, 
which  flourishes  in  the  blood.  It  occurs  onlv  at  intervals  of 
some  years,  and  generally  during  seasons  of  privation  and 
insalubrity,  attacking  chiefly  the  lower  classes,  ill  fed  and 
housed.  The  idea  was  formerly  held  that  relapsing  fever 
is  a  dietetic  disease  pure  and  simple.  This  is  not  the  case, 
though  famine  makes  large  masses  of  people  susceptible  to 
the  specific  germ.  Its  formative  or  incubating  stage  is  from 
four  to  ten  days.  Its  onset  is  sudden ;  the  patient,  having 
been  perfectly  well  at  the  time,  is  able  to  fix  the  exact  time 
of  the  attack.  It  begins  with  an  abrupt  and  severe  rigor,  or 
chill  with  nervous  tremor,  and  immediate  sense  of  extreme 
weakness.  There  is  sharp  frontal  headache,  pain  in  the 
back  and  limbs ;  then  follow  flushed  face,  thirst,  dry 
tongue,  high  pulse,  and  a  steady  ascent  of  body  heat.  The 
facial  expression  and  temperature  are  characteristic.  The 
mind  is  unaffected,  and  the  face,  with  the  sunken  but  clear 
and  full  eyes,  wears  a  pitiable,  helpless,  appealing  look. 
The  complexion  has  a  bronzed  hue,  and  may  be  slightly 
jaundiced.  The  temperature  rapidly  ascends'  and  during 
four  or  five  days  remains  105*,  106%  107\  108'  F.— an  un- 
usual fever  heat  unaccompanied  by  brain  symptoms  or 
danger  of  death.  Physical  examination  may  detect  en- 
largement of  the  liver*  and  spleen ;  the  urine  may  contain 
not  only  albumin  and  urea  in  excess,  but  blood  and  casts 
indicative  of  acute  congestion  of  the  kidneys.    The  fever 


and  extreme  depression  last  from  five  to  seven  days,  when, 
with  some  critical  evacuation,  as  profuse  perspiration,  diar- 
rhoea, or  urination,  a  sudden  abatement  and  rapid  con- 
valescence set  in.  Appetite  and  strength  are  slowly  re- 
turning, and  the  invahu  is  about,  when,  on  the  fourteenth 
day  from  the  first  attack,  he  is  seized  by  a  second  or  relap?^* 
resembling  the  first.  Very  rarely,  a  third,  fourth,  and  even 
a  fifth  relapse,  occurs.  Tne  mortality  is  not  as  high  as  in 
typhus  fever,  nor  as  great  as  the  severe  symptoms  would  in- 
dicate. The  treatment  during  the  active  penod  is  essent  i  a  1 1  y 
anti phlogistic  and  expectant — cooling  arinks,  gentle  salinV 
laxatives,  sponging,  light  diet;  during  convalescence,  fre*' 
use  of  concentrated  liquid  diet,  tonics,  especially  liberal  use 
of  quinine  and  brandy.  Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

RelatlTity:  the  principle  in  psychology  accordin/;  to 
which  all  mental  states  are  influenceid  by  preceding  an<l  ac- 
companying conditions  of  consciousness.  The  principle  wa*s 
formerly  a  theoretical  doctrine  of  philosophy,  and  was  dis- 
cussed in  all  early  English  philosophy  under  the  phrase 
"  relativity  of  knowledge."  According  to  this  thcorv,  no 
knowledge  was  of  an  object  as  it  realh^  existed  outside  of 
the  mind,  but  was  only  of  an  "  idea  "  of  this  object  in  con- 
sciousness, subject  to  all  the  modifying  influences,  bot  h  uf 
the  nervous  system  and  of  the  come  and  go  of  other  iiu- 

Sressions  and  ideas.  The  historical  development  of  tl^ie 
octrine  is  due  mainly  to  Stuart  Mill  ana  Sir  William 
Hamilton.  The  Kantian  theory  of  knowledge,  which  made  the 
mind's  object  a  construction  in  certain  forms  native  to  tlie 
mind,  was  a  further  and  important  development  of  i  he 
doctrine  of  relativity  toward  subjective  idealism.  In  cur- 
rent thought  the  law  of  relativity  has  become  an  estal»- 
lished  psychological  doctrine.  It  gets  its  first  application 
in  the  theory  of  Sensation  {q.  v.).  It  is  found  that  none 
of  the  attributes  of  sensation  is  constant,  but  that  they  all 
vary  with  the  condition  in  which  consciousness  alreacfy  is 
when  the  sensation  comes  to  it.  Particular  applications 
are  found  in  the  theory  of  "color-contrast,"  in  the  ni<Hlify- 
ing  influence  of  attention  on  all  sensations,  in  the  workinr? 
of  Weber's  law  (see  Psycho-physics)  upon  the  intensities  t.f 
sensation-states,  and  in  the  influence  of  muscular  states  and 
strains  at  the  time  that  the  sensation  in  question  makes  us 
advent  in  the  mind.  See  the  Paychologiea  of  James,  Hoff- 
ding,  Baldwin,  under  the  heading  Relativity \  Hamilton, 
Lecturea  on  JUefaphyaica ;  }Ai\l,  Examination  of  the  I^hi- 
loaophy  of  Hamilton  ;  and  Lotze,  Metajohyaic, 

J.  MARK  BAIJ>WrN. 

Release:  in  law,  the  extinguishment  of  a  pre-exist int; 
right.  It  may  consist  in  an  agreement  upon  a  legal  con^iii- 
eration,  or  in  a  sealed  contract,  or  it  may  result  from  t  kit- 
acts  of  the  parties  or  from  the  operation  of  law.  W  hi  It- 
there  is  much  authority  for  the  statement  that  an  oblig^at  it  »ii 
under  seal  can  be  released  only  by  a  contract  under  seal,  the 
better  modern  view  is  that  a  release  upon  a  legal  considi-i  j*- 
tion  is  equally  effective  in  extinguishing  an  obligation  wit  h 
the  common-law  release  under  seal.  The  voluntary  destruc- 
tion of  an  obligation,  or  its  surrender  by  the  obligee  to  t  h*^ 
obligor,  with  the  intention  of  discharging  the  latter,  wili 
operate  as  a  release.  The  law  often  works  the  disehar^^  *  *f 
an  obligor  in  cases  where  the  parties  intended  no  siioh  re- 
sult. A  contract  for  personal  services  is  terminated  by  t  ht.* 
death  of  either  party.  At  common  law  the  death  of  a  joint 
contractor  extinguished  the  obligation  so  far  as  he  or  hi^ 
estate  was  concerned.  Likewise  the  release  of  one  ii»iiit 
obligor  workeil  the  legal  release  of  his  co-obligors,  and  Hie 
release  by  one  joint  obligee  was  binding  on  his  co-ohlipet-s. 
The  language  of  a  release  is  to  be  dealt  with  according  t,> 
the  general  rules  of  Interpretation  (q,  i\). 

The  right  which  is  extinguished  by  a  release  may  be  a 
title  to  real  property ;  hence  a  release  may  be  a  form  of  et>ii- 
veyance.  Here  it  is  classed  as  secondary  or  derivative  >^e- 
cause  it  presupposes  a  preceding  conveyance.  It  passes  t  >n^ 
releaser's  right  in  land  to  one  who  has  a  former  estate  m 
possession  therein.  It  is  said  to  inure  by  way  of  enlarj^riiiLr 
an  estate,  or  by  way  of  passing  an  estate,  or  by  way  t»f 
passing  a  right,  or  by  way  of  extinguishment,  or  by  wa  v  «.»f 
entry  and  feoffment!  (2' Blackstone*s  Commentaries^  f5i>-4~ 
325 ;  Miller  vs.  Emana,  19  N.  Y.  384.)  See  Bargain  an  o 
Sale,  Dower,  Joint  Ownership,  Jointure,  and  LLANi>ix>R.t> 
AND  Tenant.    For  Roman  law  rules,  see  Obligation. 

Francis  M.  Burdick, 

Relief:  in  sculpture  and  some  decorative  arts,  the  projeo- 
tion  of  figures  from  a  background ;  also  a  work  of  sculpt  nr*«. 
in  which  the  figures  stand  out  from  a  background,  insteA^l  of 


60 


RELIGION.  COMPARATIVE 


shall  now  endeavor  to  classify  the  religions  of  the  world  first 
after  the  line  or  tendency,  then  after  the  degree  of  their 
development.  To  determine  the  line  or  tendency  of  devel- 
opment which  a  family  of  religions  has  followed  in  the 
course  of  history,  the  principal  characteristics  of  such  a 
family  must  be  found  out.  That  which  really  character- 
izes a  religion  or  a  group  of  religions  is  the  notion  thev 
have  formed  of  the  relation  between  Qod  and  the  world, 
God  and  man,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Deity  chooses 
to  be  worshiped.  By  applying  this  method  to  the  religions 
with  which  we  are  best  acquainted,  some  distinct  families 
can  be  marked  out  with  certainty  even  now,  and  by  apply- 
ing it  to  those  which  are  not  so  well  known,  the  documents 
and  information  from  which  they  must  be  studie<l  being 
less  abundant,  less  clear,  or  less  accessible,  some  probable 
hypotheses  about  their  mutual  relationship  may  be  drawn. 

Just  as  there  are  an  Aryan  and  a  Semitic  familv  of 
speech,  there  are  two  corresponding  great  families  oi  re- 
ligions, which  provisorily  and  only  for  convenience'  sake 
may  be  called  tne  Aryan  and  the  Semitic  religions.  Study- 
ing these  two  groups  we  find  that  each  of  them  develops, 
with  marked  and  growing  oneside^iness,  one  of  the  funda- 
mental ideas  of  religion  without  totally  denving  the  other — 
viz.,  the  Aryans  the  kinship  between  God  and  man,  the 
Semites  the  eminence  of  G(xi  above  man ;  the  former  re- 
garding the  Deity  as  the  father  of  gods  and  men,  the  divine 
protector  of  the  human  race  and  of  the  same  nature  with 
It,  though  higher  and  mightier ;  the  latter  venerating  their 
gods  as  lords,  masters,  and  kings,  whose  obedient  servants, 
nay,  whose  slaves,  they  are ;  the  former  laving  the  greatest 
stress  on  that  which  is  dogmatically  called  the  immanence, 
the  latter  on  that  which  is  dogmatically  called  the  tran- 
scendency of  the  Godhead.  The  former  or  Aryan  religions 
mav  be  called  thcanthropic ;  the  latter  or  Semitic  may  be 
called  theocratic. 

Theanthropic  JieligwtM. — The  principal  thcanthropic  re- 
ligions are — (1)  the  Vaidic  religion  in  India  and  its  off- 
shoots; (2)  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Iranians,  Medes,  Per- 
sians, and  Bactrians,  of  which  the  Zarathustric  Mazdeism  was 
a  reform,  protected  by  the  Achaemenids  and  re-established 
under  the  latter  A rsacids  and  the  Sassanids,  though  |)erhajis 
partly  altered  under  foreign  influences.  These  two  are 
Dranches  of  the  same  stem,  as  is  proved  by  the  many  divin- 
ities, religious  ideas  and  rites,  especially  the  Soma-IIaoma 
worship,  which  they  have  in  common,  but  they  have  devel- 
oped quite  independently,  and  have  really  evolved  into  de- 
cided antagonists,  the  one  led  by  uncontrolled  theosophic 
speculation  to  the  utmost  limits  of  monistic  pantheism,  and 
even  atheism,  the  other  founding  on  a  rather  superficial 
dualism  a  practical  system  of  religious  observances  and 
sober  morality.  Originally  not  less  closely  related  are  the 
religions  of  (3)  the  ancient  Greeks  and  of  (4)  the  Romans ; 
but  the  Greek  or  Hellenic  religion,  under  the  high  pressure 
of  various  Eastern  creeds  and  cults,  grew  into  that  most  at- 
tractive, but  from  a  moral  standpoint  dangerous,  humane 
polytheism,  the  worship  of  beauty  and  genius,  while  the  Ro- 
man religion  was  organized  to  a  cold  and  formalistic  ritual- 
ism, till  it  was  totally  reformed  bv  a  gradual  infiltration  of 
Hellenic  gods,  ideas,  and  rites.  Next  come  (5)  the  nearly 
allied  Germanic  religions,  including  the  Scandinavian  and 
the  Teutonic,  which,  if  the  moral  dualism  of  the  Edda  can 
be  considered  as  old  and  original,  show  a  great  resemblance 
to  the  Iranian  religious  system ;  (6)  the  rather  primitive  but 
vaguely  p>etical  W indie  or  Slavonic,  and  (7)  the  Keltic  relig- 
ions, which  are  still  imi)erfectly  known,  but  as  far  as  they 
are  known  seem  to  represent  the  most  ancient  form  of  the- 
anthropic religion,  dissiuuilating  its  barbarous  myths  and 
bloody  rites  under  a  veil  of  magical  mysticism. 

Theocratic  RcliyionA. — The  theocratic  religions  of  West- 
ern Asia  are  much  more  closely  related  than  are  the  thean- 
thropic religions,  the  former  covering  a  limited  area,  while 
the  latter  are  spread  from  the  (fanges  to  Iceland.  The  more 
primitive  forms  of  woi-ship  belonging  to  this  family 'must 
l)e  sought  among  the  Arabians  and  among  other  nomadic 
tribes  of  the  desert.  A  marked  theocratic  character  is 
shown  by  the  Hahylonian  religious  system,  of  wliich  the 
Assyrian  is  an  olTshoot,  only  slightly  differing  from  it  in 
detail,  though  grafted  on  the  really  heterogeneous  religion 
of  the  older  inhabitants  of  the  country,  the  so-called  Sume- 
rians  (Acca<lians),  and  having  borrowed  from  it  not  a  few 
gods  and  rites.  The  sjiine  may  be  said  of  the  religions  of 
the  Aramirans,  the  Canaan ites  and  Phtpnicians,  and  the  lie- 
brews.  In  the  religion  of  Israel  the  same  fundamental  idea, 
combined  with  the  conception  of  God's  holiness — by  which 


originally  is  meant  that  the  heavenly  Sovereign  is  inac-ce-- 
sible — has  been  developed  by  the  Mosaic  reform  aii<l  the 
preaching  of  the  propnets  into  that  ethical  monotbei>iii 
which  stands  unequaled  among  the  religions  of  antiquiiv. 
Even  Islam,  the  religion  founded  by  Mohammed  under  t  he 
influence  of  imperfectly  understood  Judaism  and  Christi- 
anity, though  semi-universalistic,  must  be  regarded  not  only 
as  a  theocratic  religion  but  a^  the  one  in  which  the  concr;^ 
tion  of  the  Deity  as  an  absolute  sovereign  has  been  workcil 
out  to  its  utmost  consequences.  In  Christianity,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  two  currents  meet ;  it  is  constantly  struggling  lo 
maintain  a  kind  of  balance  between  the  two  principles,  or 
even  to  combine  them  in  a  higher  unity.  It  is  only  fair  to 
say  that  the  younger  Judaism,  which  preceded  it,  had  al- 
readv  prepared  the  way,  as  it  had  weakened  the  old.  one- 
sidecl  theocratic  doctrine  by  its  moral  dualism  and  its  belief 
in  personal  immortality. 

The  Egyptian  Religion, — It  might  be  expecte<l,  as  the 
Egyptian  language  contains  so  many  Semitic  elements,  that 
the  religion  would  likewise  be  theocratic ;  but,  thoug^h  de- 
cidedly theocratic,  it  is  theanthropic  as  well,  and  so  repn^- 
sents  a  stage  of  development  at  which  the  two  princinh's 
were  still  equally  acknowledged.  Perha^  the  pre-Baby Ion- 
ian religions  of  Western  Asia  were  more  or  less  closely  n»- 
lated  to  the  Egyptian  religion ;  certain  it  is  that  some  of  tlie 
oldest  Egyptian  gods  and  myths  show  a  great  resemblan<*t* 
to  gotls  aria  myths  probably  borrowed  by  the  Babylonia n< 
and  other  Western  Asia  nations  from  their  predecessor^. 
All  this,  however,  is  hypothetical. 

Some  other  Families  of  Religions. — It  would  be  imp<>*»- 
sible  to  give  a  complete  classiflcation  of  all  religions  with 
the  present  data.  However,  mention 'may  be  made  of  th«' 
patriarchal  religions,  in  which  the  divine*  beings,  worsliii  kmI 
as  ''elders,  old  ones,  grandparents,"  are  mutually  related  in 
the  same  wav  as  the  heads  of  different  tribes  or  families,  of 
whom  one  Is  superior  to  the  other  inasmuch  as  be  )<% 
mightier,  but  each  of  whom  exercises  authority  indepernl- 
ently  and  in  his  own  sphere.  To  these  belong  the  religion** 
of  the  Ural-Altaic  peoples  (Finns,  Lapps,  Esthonians,  an* I 
their  relatives,  though  tne  first  named  nave  borrowed  mmli 
from  the  Germans),  and  perhaps  aLso  some  religions  of  Nort  U 
American  nations.  The  Chinese  religions  that  are  kn«»\M) 
are  of  another  kind.  They  might  be  called  anthroporert- 
trie,  as  the  human  spirits  (shin)  constitute  the  middle  class 
between  the  two  other  classes,  viz.,  the  heavenly  and  tlit» 
earthly,  strictly  distinguished  from  both  of  them,  but  ju-t 
as  well  venerated  by  the  living.  Probably  also  these  have 
formed  a  group  or  family  with  the  religions  of  some  kiii> 
dred  jieoples,  but  of  the  latter  little  is  known. 

As  to  the  remaining  religions  only  the  classification  whit-h 
coiTesponds  to  the  ethnological  and  the  glottological  one 
can  be  given. 

Classification  after  the  Degree  of  Development. — To  olat- 
sify  the  religions  acconling  to  the  degree  of  their  devel*»|>- 
ment,  which  is  usually,  but  not  quite  correctly,  called  the 
morphological  classification,  one  must  observe  them  at  the 
highest  standpoint  they  have  reached — not  in  their  growili 
nor  in  their  aecline.  It  is  true  that  of  some  religions  v^  e 
must  assume  that,  having  had  their  development  check tM.1 
by  adverse  causes,  they  have  remained  stationary  on  a  low»>r 
level  than  was  possible  for  them  to  attain,  and  that  of  othor 
religions  we  may  suppose  that  they  have  fallen  into  dccav 
through  isolation,  oppression,  general  degeneration  of  a 
people ;  but  as  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  gather  information 
concerning  their  better  state  otherwise  than  by  puestsin^ 
from  some  vague  traces,  we  are  compelled  to  classify  them 
only  by  what  we  know  of  them  with  certainty.  Accortlintr 
to  this  standard  of  comparison  religions  are  divide<l  into  thv 
two  great  categories  of  nature-religions  and  ethical  relig^ioits. 

Nature-religions. — By  nature- religions  we  mean  thor^^^ 
whose  highest  divinities,  be  they  spirits,  fetishes,  or  inati> 
like  beings,  are  mighty  powers  oi  nature,  connected  in  some 
way  with  a  definite  natural  objector  phenomenon.  Krom 
these  religions  the  ethical  element  is  by  no  means  excliidi^i. 
On  the  contrary,  from  the  remotest  times  moral  qualitic?^ 
have  be€»n  attributed  to  the  gods  or  have  been  deifie<i  thciit- 
selves,  and  this  has  been  done  more  and  more  acconling  n^ 
the  deities  have  become  more  anthropomorphized.  The  ct  h- 
ical  element,  however,  remains  subjected  to  the  nature-gt>*  1 5., 
and  the  latter  are  by  no  means  lK)und  by  it. 

Different  Degrees  of  yature-worship. — Among  the  nature- 
religions  there  is  a  great  difference  as  to  developmoiir^ 
though  all  of  them,  even  the  highest,  are  still  dominatcxl  l»v 
the  same  principle.    On  the  lowest  plane  stands  what  h«»\ 


52 


RELIGIOUS  LIBERTY 


REMBRANDT 


Ugions  of  India  (P.  Max  MQller,  1878) ;  The  Religion  of 
Ancient  Egypt  (Renouf,  1879);  Indian  Btiddhism  (Rhys 
Davids,  1881);  The  Native  Religions  of  Mexico  and  Peru 
(Reville,  1884);  Celtic  Heathendom  (J.  Rhys,  1886) ;  The  Re- 
ligion of  Ancient  Assyria  and  Babylonia  (Sayce,  1887) ;  The 
Religion  of  the  Par  sis  (Darmesteter,  1890) ;  The  Religion  of 
the  Ancient  Hebrews  (1892).  Genei-al  works  in  this  depart- 
ment are :  C.  Uardwick,  Christ  and  oth^r  Masters  (3a  ed., 
London,  1874) ;  A.  Kuenen,  Natiofuil  Reliaions  arid  Uni- 
versal Religions  (London,  1882) ;  Tiele,  Outlines  of  ths  His- 
tory of  Religion  (London,  1884;  2d  ed.  1888);  A.  Reville, 
Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Religion  (Eng.  trans.,  Lon- 
don, 1885) ;  Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  Lehrbuch  der  Relig- 
ionsgeschichte  (Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  2  vols.,  1887-89,  trans, 
of  vol.  L  Manual  of  the  Science  of  Religion^  London,  1891). 
Readable  are  J.  F.  Clarke,  The  Ten  Great  Religions  (2  vols., 
Boston,  1870-83 ;  n.  e.  1886) ;  G.  T.  Bettany,  The  World's  Re- 
ligions (Ix)ndon,  1890) ;  F.  F.  Ellinwood,  Oriental  Religions 
and  Christianity  (New  York,  1892) ;  Religious  Systems  of 
the  World,  by  various  authors  (London,  1889 ;  3d  ed.  1898). 
Samuel  Macauley  Jackson. 

Religions  Liberty:  See  Liberty,  Religious. 

Religious  Orders :  See  Monachism. 

Remainder  [from  O.  Fr.  remaindre^  deriv.  of  remaindre, 
remain  <  Lat.  remane're  ;  re,  back  +  mane're,  stay,  re- 
main] :  in  law,  a  future  estate  in  land  to  take  effect  imme- 
diately upon  the  termination  of  a  prior,  limited  estate  upon 
which  it  depends,  and  with  which  it  was  created.  As  is  ex- 
plained in  the  articles  Estate  and  Property,  the  estate 
m  fee  simple  is  conceived  of  at  common  law  as  being  sus- 
ceptible of  infinite  subdivision.  When  a  tenant  in  fee  sim- 
ple grants  a  present,  limited  estate,  as  an  estate  for  years, 
for  life,  or  in  tail,  the  residual  interest  not  thus  disposed  of 
is  itself  an  estate  capable  of  being  separately  dealt  with.  If 
by  the  same  conveyance  the  grantor  parts  with  this  residual 
estate  or  anv  part  of  it  to  a  third  (>erson,  it  is  called  a  re- 
mainder ;  it  he  does  not  part  with  it,  it  "  reverts ''  to  him, 
and  is  known  as  a  reversion.  (See  Landlord  and  Tenant.) 
The  present  or  '*  particular  "  estate,  as  it  is  called,  may  be 
followed  by  any  number  of  future  estates  in  remainder  un- 
til the  whole  fee  simple  has  been  taken  up.  Thus  if  a  ten- 
ant in  fee  simple  gives  lands,  by  deed  or  will,  to  A  for  ten 
years  or  for  life,  then  to  B  for  lijfe,  then  to  C  in  fee  tail,  then 
to  D  and  his  heirs,  A  is  the  particular  tenant,  and  B,  G,  and 
D  are  remaindermen.  If  tne  last  limitation  (to  D  and  his 
heirs)  had  been  omitted  the  remaining  estate  in  fee  simple 
would  have,  after  the  termination  of  the  last  remainder  (to 
C),  reverted  to  the  grantor  and  his  heirs. 

It  was  a  peculiarity  of  the  remainder  at  common  law, 
which  was  inflexibly  maintained  by  the  courts,  that  it  could 
be  created  only  as  a  true  remnant  of  a  fee  simple  to  follow 
a  prior  estate  which  was  less  than  the  whole  estate  of  the 
grantor.  In  other  words,  a  remainder  could  not  take  effect 
m  derogation  of  or  in  substitution  for  a  preceding  estate. 
Thus  if  a  tenant  in  fee  simple  should  make  a  conveyance  of 
his  land  to  A  in  fee,  but  with  the  proviso  that  if  A  should 
die  without  surviving  issue  then  the  estate  should  go  to  B 
in  fee,  the  limitation  to  B  would  be  void  and  the  estate  be- 
long absolutely  to  A.  The  whole  estate  of  the  grantor  had 
become  vested  in  A,  and  it  could  not  be  divested  and  trans- 
ferred to  any  one  else  by  the  creation  of  a  remainder.  The 
result  aimed  at  could,  it  is  true,  be  secured  by  the  creation 
of  a  shifting  use  (see  Uses),  or  by  executory  devise  (see 
Will),  but  it  could  not  be  accomplished  by  any  form  of 
limitation  known  to  the  common  law.  By  legislation  in  many 
of  the  U.  S.  remainders  have  lost  this  artificial  character. 
In  the  State  of  New  York,  for  example,  it  is  expressly  pro- 
vided by  statute  that  any  future  estate  which  is  depenaent 
on  a  precedent  estate  may  be  called  a  remainder,  and  that 
a  remainder  may  be  limited  up^m  a  contingency  which  will 
operate  to  abridge  or  determine  the  precedent  estate.  1  R. 
S.  723  (sec.  11),  725  (27). 

In  tlie  remainder  proper,  as  above  described,  the  interest 
of  the  remainderman  was  said  to  be  "  vested  " — that  is,  the 
remainder,  althou&rh  its  enjoyment  was  postponed  to  a  fu- 
ture time,  and  altnough  it  was  described  as  a  future  estate, 
was  really  regarded  as  a  present  interest  in  the  lands  affect- 
ed by  it,  and  was  accordingly  real  j»r()|>erty,  capable  of  alien- 
ation, or,  if  a  remainder  m*  fee,  of  transmission  by  will  or 
descents  Like  reversions,  reniuiiulors  were  regarded  as  in- 
corporeal interests,  and  were,  like  easements  and  other  "in- 
corporeal" rights  in  land,  alienable  only  by  grant.  See 
Hereditaments  {Incorporeal}. 


Originally  this  **  vested  "  remainder  was  the  only  form  of 
future  or  "expectant"  estate  which  could  be  create*!   at 
common  law.  but  in  the  course  of  time  a  gift  to  take  effect        ' 
in  the  future  in  favor  of  a  person  not  now  existing,  or  uot 
vet  ascertained,  or  upon  an  event  which  might  or  might  nut 
happen,  acquired  recognition  under  the  description  of  a        ' 
** contingent"  remainder.    Such  a  remainder  was  not,  prop- 
erly speaking,  an  estate,  inasmuch  as  it  could  not  be  alien- 
ated or  devised,  and  would  not  descend  to  the  heir  of  the 
contingent  remainderman.    It  was,  moreover,  an  interot  of 
a  most  precarious  character,  as  it  was  liable  to  destruction 
by  any  one  of  a  variety  of  accidental  or  intentional  circum- 
stances.   If  the  event  upon  which  the  contingent  estate  wast 
limited  to  depend  had  not  happened  at  the  time  when  the 
preceding  estate  came  to  an  end,  the  contingent  remainder 
was  destroyed.    So  also  a  release  of  the  reversion  to  the 
particular  tenant  or  the  surrender  of  the  estate  of  the  latter 
to  the  revereioner,  wherebv  the  reversion  and  the  particulHr 
estate  were  mer^d  (see  Landlord  and  Tenant),  had  t  he 
effect  of  destroying  the  intervening  contingent  remainder. 
This  process  may  be  illustrated  by  supposing  A  to  have   a 
life-estate,  with  remainder  to  the  (unborn)  son  of  B  for  his 
life,  with  remainder  to  C  in  fee.    If  B's  son  has  not  come 
into  being  when  A's  life-estate  comes  to  an  end,  the  contingent 
remainder  of  the  former  is  destroyed  forever,  and  the  estate* 
vests  at  once  in  C.    So  if,  before  the  birth  of  B's  son.  A 
should  convey  his  life-estate  to  C,  or  0  his  vested  remainder 
to  A,  the  estate  would  be  lost  to  the  contingent  remain d^-r- 
man  forever.    If,  however,  B's  son  should  be  bom  before 
any  of  the  events  above  suggested  have  happened,  his  inter- 
est would  at  once  become  vested,  and  woula  from  that  time 
on  be  wholly  unaffected  by  such  contingencies.    By  legisla- 
tion, whereby  contingent  remainders  are  preserved  from 
destruction  by  the  events  above  enumerated,  and  whereby 
they  may  be  alienated  or  may  descend  to  the  heir  of   t  he 
contingent  remainderman,  these  interests  have  been  very 
general  I V  assimilated  to  vested  remainders  both  in  England 
and  in  the  U.  S.,  and  have  thus  in  a  greater  or  less  de^n*e 
acquired  the  character  of  true  estates. 

For  further  information,  consult  Digby,  History  of  the 
Law  of  Real  Property;  Fearne  on  Remainders;  Lea.ke*H 
Law  of  Property  in  the  Land;  the  Commentaries  of  BltM.-k- 
stone  and  Kent,  and  the  statutes  of  the  several  States. 

George  W.  Kirch  we  v. 

Remarqne  Proofs :  See  Engraving. 

Rembang^ :  a  Dutch  residencv  of  Java.  East  Indies,  oom- 
prising  2,600  so.  miles,  with  (1888)  1,241,093  inhabitants.  <»f 
whom  about  18,000  are  Chinese  and  700  Europeans.  The 
capital,  Kembang,  on  the  flat,  hot,  northern  shore  of  Juvh 
(see  map  of  East  Indies,  ref.  8-E),  has  25,000  inhabitants  and 
some  ship-building.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Rembrandt  (full  name,  Rembrandt  Harmenszoon    \'nn 
Ryn) :  painter  and  engraver ;  b.  at  Leyden,  Holland,  July  1  .">, 
1606.   He  first  studied  painting  with  Jacob  von  Swanenbun-h! 
and  then  under  Peter  Lastman,  at  Amsterdam.   He  retiirTK-ti 
to  Leyden  in  1623  and  gave  himself  up  to  studying    fr<»iii 
nature  and  painting  portraits.    About  1629  he  settled    m 
Amsterdam,  where  he  remained  till  his  death.     His  fame 
was  great,  his  studio  crowded  with  scholars,  and  his  'vcf  trks 
in  great  demand,  yet  in  1656  he  became  insolvent.      It   i** 
supposed  this  may  have  been  owing  to  the  impoverish^! 
state  of  the  republic,  and  to  his  reckless  extrava^anoo    in 
collecting  works  of  art.    Sufficient  data  exist  contradict  intj 
the  oft-repeated  tales  of  his  miserly  habits.    Renibro.n«U 
was  the  greatest  genius  among  Dutch  painters,  and  his  in- 
fluence in  the  art  of  his  country  is  paramount.     He    wn^i 
married  twice,  and  had  in  all  four  children.    His  son  Tit  i is 
by  his  first  wife  became  a  painter,  but  did  not  distinc^nish 
himself,  and  died  in  his  father's  lifetime.     Amon^    Himh- 
brandt's  best -known  works  are    The  Presentation    #"»«     //.^ 
Temple^  at  The  Hague;  a  portrait  of  a  young  man  in  t  hf 
royal  collection  at  Windsor ;  the  portrait  of  Coppenol  nt  ."^t. 
Petersburg;  The  Anatomical  Lecture  painted  in    16C{-2,   j4T 
The  Hague  ;  The  Night  Watchy  at  Amsterdam,  a  proniiiu.iit 
example  of  his  niaturer  work,  dated  1642;  the  portraits    ^^f 
the  Syndics,  also  at  Amsterdam,  dated  1661,  whicn  show  <  l,  i^ 
later  manner.    He  is  supposed  to  have  been  paintiui*^    on 
The  Betrothed  Jewess^  Tiow  in  the  Riiks  Museum,  Am^t«'r- 
dam,  the  year  of  his  death,  1669.     lie  was  burieil    in    t  h«- 
Wester  Kirk,  Oct.  8  of  that  year.    Of  his  engravinjr^   tho 
most  fam()us  are  Jesus  Christ  Healing  the  Sick^  six    iH»*r- 
traits  of  himself  done  between  1630  and  1654,  Burf/fitp*n.sf,  - 
Six,  Adam  and  Eve  in  the  Garden  of  Eden^  Tfie    I'^inf/ff 


i*  Hevhfv 


■  n9%nffmfs'*i^^ 


54 


EENAISSANCE 


sculptor.  In  the  same  year  Giotto  was  thirty-four  years 
old,  and  had  oainted  the  Arena  chapel  at  PaAua  and  the 
chapel  of  the  Florence  Bargello,  in  which  works  are  still  to 
be  seen  the  plain  evidences  of  a  combined  realism  and  skill 
— a  desire  to  think  for  himself,  and  a  power  to  express 
thoughts  in  painting — which  are  at  the  bottom  of  later  prog- 
ress in  painting.  These  early  dates  show  that  the  Kenais- 
sance  in  fine  art  was  well  under  way  before  any  influence 
from  the  humanists  or  the  restorers  of  classical  learning  had 
reached  the  painters  and  the  sculptors.  Those  artists  were 
thinking  out  for  themselves  the  great  question  why  the  an- 
tique sarcophagi  and  the  Gnpco-lloman  engraved  gems 
showed  an  art  so  much  more  leanied  and  complete  than 
theirs.  Before  Petrarch  died,  leaving  the  literary  and  phil- 
osophic Renaissance  alive  and  in  progress,  if  not  vet  as- 
sured, Andrea  Pisano  had  completed  the  present  south  doors 
of  the  baptistery  at  Florence,  Balduccio  had  put  up  his 
three  or  four  important  tombs  at  Milan,  and  Orcagna  had 
adorned  the  Or  San  Alichele  at  Florence  with  his  marvelous 
work,  ahead  of  its  time  and  reaching  on  towaixl  another  cen- 
tury, the  shrine  of  the  Madonna.  Then  indeed  there  seemed 
to  come  a  pause,  and  it  is  hard  to  understand  why  so  little 
important  art  was  produced  between  1860  and  the  year  1420 
or  thereabouts,  when  Giacomo  della  (juercia  and  Lorenzo 
Ghiberti  had  come  to  the  front,  and  Donatello  was  a  prom- 
ising young  sculptor — when,  in  painting,  Fra  Angelico  and 
Gentile  da  Fabnano  were  gradually  leaving  missal  books 
and  bridal  chests  for  wall-pictures,  and  the  great  innovator 
Masaccio  was  fairly  at  work.  The  year  1425  may  be  taken 
as  a  good  date  for  the  triumphant  establishment  of  the  new 
wisdom  and  power  in  fine  art.  Then  Masaccio^s  frescoes  in 
the  Brancacci  chapel  at  Florence  were  well  advanced.  Then 
Oiacomo  della  yuercia,  who  had  completed  the  lovely  re- 
cumbent figure  of  Ilaria  del  Carretto  a  year  or  two  before, 
began  his  sculptured  work  at  San  Petronio  at  Bologna — 
sculptures  associated  with  a  mediipval-seeming  doorway, 
but  as  far  as  need  be  from  mediaeval  in  character :  indeed 
modern  in  conception  and  in  modeling.  Then,  too,  Lorenzo 
Ghiberti,  who  had  just  completed  the  present  north  doors 
of  the  Florence  baptistery,  nad  begun  the  more  elaborate 
east  doors — not  necessarily  superior  to  the  earlier  ones  in 
real  merit,  but  immensely  in  ailvance  of  them  and  of  other 
previous  sculpture  in  power  over  material,  and  in  boldness 
and  grasp  of  subject.  And  at  that  time  Donatello,  whose 
work  is  often  less  easy  to  date,  ha<i  certainly  completed  the 
noble  statues  of  the  exterior  of  Or  San  Michele  at  Florence, 
the  St.  Peter  and  St.  Mark,  and  the  admirable  St.  George. 
Little  had  the  Renaissance  artists  learned  from  the  classical 
scholars  up  to  this  time,  and  yet  mcxiern  sculpture  and 
modern  painting  were  begun,  their  possibilities)  shown,  and 
their  future  course  well  ifidicated. 

The  Fully  developed  HeiMismnee. — The  year  1475  is  the 
central  point  in  the  century  of  greatest  artistic  achievement 
of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  excluding  the  Venetian  paintei-s. 
The  one  noticeable  effect  of  the  revival  of  letters  ujjon  fine 
art,  the  suggestion  of  subjects  from  classical  antirpiit y,  was 
then  as  noticeable  as  it  was  to  l)ecome.  This  is  not  of  great 
irajwrtance,  for  the  great  artists  of  that  time,  as  of  all  times, 
cared  little  what  stories  their  work  was  to  tell  to  non-artistic 
beholders,  and  painted  an  allegorv  of  the  Garden  of  Cupid 
as  cheerfully  as  a  martyrdom.  The  important  thing  is  the 
extraordinary  variety  of  artistic  j)ower  possessed  by  the 
men  who  were  then  at  the  head  of  the  fine-art  movement. 
In  Florence  Fra  Filipf>o  Lippi  had  been  <lead  seven  years, 
leaving  behind  him  a  large  numl)er  of  somewhat  prosaic  but 
vigorous  and  animated  pictures.  Berozzo  (Jozzoli  was  about 
fifty  years  old,  and  had  {tainted  his  remarkable  frescoi's  in 
the  Pisan  Campo  Santo.  S*indro  Botticelli  was  twenty- 
eight  years  old ;  he  had  painted  those  wonderful  roun<i  Ma- 
donna picturt»s  which  are  now  seen  in  the  l^ouvre  and  the 
Uffizi ;  and  either  had  painted  or  was  on  the  j)oint  of  under- 
taking that  Triumph  of  Spring  or  Flora^  the  famous  al- 
legorical j)icture  of  the  Florence  Academy  of  Arts.  The 
great  Ghirlandajo  was  of  about  the  same  a^e.  and  had  not 
quite  reached  his  mature  power.  The  two  brothers  Polla- 
juolo  were  at  the  hei^'ht  of  their  joint  career.  Luca  della 
liobbia  had  done  all  his  best  work,  lK)th  in  marble  and  in 
glazed  terra-cot  t a,  and  was  an  old  man.  Mino  da  Fiesole 
bad  finished  the  tomb  and  the  altar  of  Fies<ile  cathedral 
and  the  noble  com i>osit ions  of  the  Florence  Badia.  Veroc- 
chio,  painter  and  s<.'ulptor,  forty  years  old,  was  at  work  upon 
the  David  of  the  Florence  Xaticmal  Museum.  His  great 
pupil,  licrmanlo  da  Vinci,  was  twenty-three  years  old  and 
at  work,  but  destined  to  so  long  a  career  that  he  belongs 


rather  to  a  later  epoch  than  this.  In  the  north,  where  U 
nardo  was  to  labor  the  most,  Mantegna  was  fortv-tivc  ) 
old,  and  had  finished  his  work  at  the  Eremitani  at  1V| 
and  the  castle  at  Mantua,  besides  a  host  of  separate  pi(  tiu 
and  his  jirincipal  engravings.  Of  the  Venetian  j)hii.;:4 
even,  later  to  reach  greatness  and  destined  to  hold  it  i<  i 
er,  the  founder  of  the  school,  Giovanni  Bellini,  wh> 
years  old.  He  had  painted  the  splendid  altarpiece  «•!  t 
Church  of  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo.  Venice,  which  wai>  bunu  1 
1867,  and  the  gigantic  altarpiece  at  Pesaro,  which  btiii 
mains,  and  had  perhaps  i-eache<l  his  greatest  Mreii 
though  he  was  to  retain  it  long.  These  pictures  are  wi-ri 
to  rank  with  those  of  Central  Italy ;  it  w  not  becauv  i 
unmatched  achievements  of  the  later  Venetians  surj 
them  that  they  should  be  depreciated.  The  Renais>Hii(f;( 
fine  art  in  its  purest  and  loveliest  form  is  in  the  bt-st  \i 
tures  of  Giovanni  Bellini.  Still  more  powerful  work  \(ti>i< 
come  than  any  of  these  mid-Renaissance  paintinp^  4 
sculptures  could  offer — more  powerful,  but  witn  not  a  grt;t| 
charm. 

The  Late  Ifenaissance. — Italian  writers  are   extnii 
careful  to  mark  the  close  as  well  as  the  beginning  of  t; 
Bina^tcimento  or  Risorgimenio,      Jilost  of  them    end  li 
e])och  with  the  early  years  of  the  sixteenth  century,  t 
Cinque  Cento,  and  call  the  art  of  that  century  the  ('/«• 
eisnw,  because  it  is  all,  but  especiallv  architecture,  slroi.j 
influenced  by  the  study  of  ancient  koman  reniain>,  or  t 
art  of  the  Decadenza,  as  having  lost  the  charm  of  spont.iii^ 
ity  and  unaffected  grace,  or  simply  the  art  of  the  <  ir^ 
Cento,    The  pre-Raimaelites  had  somewhat  the  sanie  f«-t-:iii 
when  they  t<x>k  RaphaePs  work  in  Rome  (1508  and  foIl««ii]{ 
years)  as  the  tuming-|x)int,  with  growth  before,  and  ilm^ 
after.     Michelangelo  s  long  career  begins  with  oureenm 
year  1475,  lasts  through  the  s])lendid  years  of  highe-t  .ifi 
purest  achievement  in  Central  Italy,  anci  outlasts  ever}tli:i  | 
that  wa«  precious  and  hofieful  in  Italian  art  anywhere   ;; 
of  Venice. 

By  1525  the  artists  who  were  great  in  1475  were  all  iL-.i 
but  this  half  century  was  filled  with  the  labors  and  with  '. 
fame  of  most  of  the  men  name<l  under  the  earlier  date,  ni  I 
iKJsides  them,  of  the  following:  Filippino  Lippi.  who  ili-i 
in  1505,  Fra  Bartolomeo,  who  died  in  1517,  and  Lon-nz-  i 
Cre<li — all  three  men  of  the  Florentine  Henaissance  pri-p  • 
Andrea  del  Sarto,  modestly  keeping  up  the  older  tnuliti. » 
except  when  the  overwheliiiing  force  oi  scune  one  of  his  ( .  -i 
te m I )oraries swayed  him, capableof  anything,  but  oriK^inuI  -ri 
in  that  he  gave  to  his  canvases  an  unwonted  glow  of  to.  i 
Among  the  Umbrians  and  so-called  Roman  sch<H)L  there  w . : 
Perugino.  who  hail  died  in  1524,  and  Francia  (KailHiln 
who  had  died  in  1517 — great  workmen,  whose  art  !.»•  mmi  ■ 
what  lost  in  the  splendor  of  Raphael's  glory  ;  RapliHei.  \»  ■ 
had  died  in  1520,  having  made  the  dee))est  mark  u(>4>n  ; 
artistic  thought  of  his  time,  and  gaintnl  a  celebrit}-  hmi: 
recognition  far  beyond  what  other  artists  had  reached  ;  m 
Luca  Signorelli,  of  Venice  and  Central  Italy,  most  |K>wi-n' 
and  aceomplished  of  all  the  men  who  misseil  supreme  nvx  a 
ness;  finally  (still  excepting  the  great  Venetians),  Miiri. 
ungelo  in  1525  hail  painted  the  Sistine  vault  and  bud  mm:  ; 
tured  the  Mones^  the  Florence  JMetd,  the  bronze  J^pe  Juit>. 
and  the  ChriM  of  Sta.  Maria  sopra  Minerva. 

After  1525  decay  was  rapiu.  Pont(»rmo  and  Hitl*  '! 
Ghirlandajo,  with  such  nuH!hanicians  as  Vasari  and  Vt-nu^t 
were  in  the  field,  and  in  the  north  Bernardo  Luini  \\j 
still  alive  and  painting.  Andrea  Sansovino,  be.>t  kiitw 
by  the  splendid  tombs  in  Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo  at  K.  n. 
was  still  alive  in  1525,  but  near  his  end.  Jacono  Sj4nM.\  a 
rather  architii-t  than  sculptor,  had  still  the  uivitie  gin  . 
form  in  sculpture.  Michelangelo  was  still  to  comph-t*-  i! 
Medici  tombs  at  San  Lorenzo,  lienedettoda  Rovezz^mi'  t.. 
taken  his  splendi<l  talent  to  England  ;  and  both  there  and 
Florence  has  left  l>eautiful  worlc  lK?hind  him. 

The  Venetian  Painters, — In  1525  Giorgione  wa^s  d» . 
Titian  was  nearly  fifty  years  old  and  in  the  fullness  of  i, 
strength.  Of  the  other  giants  Tintoi-etto  was  a  lH»y,  ;i) 
Paolo  Veronese  unborn  ;  but  in  Venice  the  conditions  wl.- 
obtained  elsewhere  were  of  no  force.  Venice  was  ban  11  \  j 
Italian  city,  but  a  little  world  by  itself,  poiscil  iKilween  • 
East  and  the  West.  Decay  did  not  set  in  there  till  nn.' 
later  than  in  the  center.  See  the  notice^s  of  the  paint, 
named  al)ove ;  also  Bellini  and  Tikfolo. 

In  other  Countries. — The  descriptive  term  Renai^va]. 
hardly  applies  to  the  work  of  the  painters  and  8cnl|*'< 
elsewhere  than  in  Italy.  The  art  work  in  Franco,  sp.n; 
Belgium,  Germany,  Holland,  and  England  is  rather  a  n 


56 


RENAISSANCE 


Italy,  partly  because  of  war  and  political  decline,  but  partly 
also  because  of  the  substitution  of  a  style  of  architecture 
made  up  of  rules  and  fixed  measurements  for  the  fresh  in- 
spiration of  the  earlier  time.  Thus  in  the  year  1535  the 
full  classical  style  is  embodied  in  perhaps  its  loveliest  cre- 
ation, the  Library  of  St.  Mark  in  Venice,  and  the  Renais- 
sance makes  its  farewell  in  the  front  of  the  Scuola  di  San 
Rocco.  In  that  same  year  Francis  I.  was  surrounded  by 
his  Italian  and  French  artists  and  artisans,  and  thev  were 
still  feeling  their  wav  with  hesitating  steps.  The  Ch&teau 
of  Chambord  was  well  advanced  but  far  from  completion, 
and  so  with  Francis's  own  wine  of  the  Chateau  of  Blois,  but 
the  new  Louvre  had  not  been  oegun.  In  Germany  and  in 
England  the  introduction  of  classical  details  had  hardly 
begun,  and  not  the  least  impression  had  been  made  upon 
the  general  character  of  the  over-picturesque,  gabled,  and 
turreted  character  of  the  continental  art,  or  of  the  prosaic 
Tudor  style  of  England. 

The  full  charm  of  the  Renaissance  continued  in  France 
through  the  reigns  of  Francis  I.  and  Henry  II.,  1515-59. 
Then  with  the  religious  wars  of  succeeding  reigns  compara- 
tively little  was  done.  The  style  of  Henry  IV.  succeeds, 
and  the  French  writers  are  careful  not  to  include  that  epoch 
in  the  Renaissance.  If,  however,  we  take  the  years  1600- 
10  as  the  reign,  which  it  is,  for  our  purpose,  we  find  still 
the  most  marked  difference  in  the  character  of  the  build- 
ings in  Italy  and  in  the  north.  The  very  **  orders,"  as  un- 
derstood by  Henry's  architects  in  Paris,  are  plastic,  modified 
almost  at  will ;  and  in  Germany,  where  Ionic  or  Corinthian 
columns  are  seen  at  all,  they  are  generally  small  colonnettes, 
decorating  the  bold  bay  windows  and  stepped  gables  of  a 
style  as  picturesque  and  diversified  as  that  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Meantime,  in  Italy,  St.  Peter^s  was  being  pushed  to- 
ward completion ;  in  fact,  the  great  colonnade  of  the  front 
was  nearly  complete  in  1610.  Palladio,  chief  of  all  clas- 
sicists, had  died  in  1580,  and  all  his  designs  which  remain 
to  us  had  been  completed  as  we  have  them  before  1600. 
The  reign  of  formality  was  complete  in  Italy  for  nearly  a 
century  before  it  had  much  hold  upon  the  north. 

Buildings  in  the  true  classical  spirit  were  built  under 
Louis  XIII.,  such  as  the  wing  of  Gaston  of  Orleans  at  the 
Chateau  of  Blois.  It  was  not,  however,  until  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century  that  the  grandiose  and  formal  style 
of  Louis  XIV.  finally  replaced  the  French  Renaissance. 
The  colonnade  of  the  Louvre  was  begun  in  1664.  Before 
that  time  the  country  chateaux  and  the  buildings  in  provin- 
cial cities  kept  much  of  the  movement  and  variety  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  colonnade  of  the  Louvre,  the 
Church  of  the  Invalides,  with  its  noble  dome,  and  the  colossal 
Chateau  of  Versailles,  in  which  everything,  even  the  chapel, 
was  of  a  grandiose,  pseudo-Roman  type,  finished  the  strug- 
gle. From  that  time  the  Roman  style  prevailed,  even  in 
Eastern  Germany  and  in  England.  St.  Paul's  in  London 
was  begun  in  its  present  form  about  1675. 

The  architectural  style  of  the  seventeenth  century  toward 
its  close  certainly  sins'on  the  side  of  coldness  and  formality. 
A  singular  result  of  this  was  the  Barocco  style  which  was 
so  soon  to  follow — perhaps  a  natural  and  inevitable  reac- 
tion. Germany,  whose  princes  had  tried  to  follow  Louis 
XIV.  and  to  build  small  imitations  of  Versailles,  found  the 
chilly  grandeur  of  that  style  insupportable,  and  eagerly 
t(x>k  up  the  novel  variety  and  play  of  fancy,  however  insub- 
ordinate. The  Zwinger"  Palace  at  Dresden  is  one  of  the 
earlier  instances  of  this  new  taste ;  but  that  seems  to  have 
been  thought  extravagant.  So  fantastic  a  style  in  cut  stone 
and  out-of-doors  was  too  much  even  for  that  period  of 
doubtful  tAste.  A  better  type,  and  one  of  the  best  instances 
of  the  developed  Barocco  style,  is  the  Schloss  of  BrQhl, 
near  Bonn  on  the  Rhine,  begun  about  1725.  Hero  the  ex- 
terior is  stately  and  grave,  with  a  "  colossal  order  "  of  pilas- 
ters— that  is,  an  order  occupying  the  whole  height  of  the 
main  wall  and  including  several  stories.  The  smaller  de- 
tails indeed  may  be  rather  riotous,  and  the  roof  intemperate 
in  curvature,  but  the  full  fancy  of  the  designers  is  kept  for 
the  interior,  where  scroU-workand  rocaille  flourish  in  their 
fullest  development.  The  Schloss  at  Bruchsal.  near  Heidel- 
berg, is  another  such  building,  built  about  1741,  while  the 
BrQhl  building  was  still  incomplete.  To  find  in  France  in- 
stances so  characteristic  of  the  Bartx?co  style,  it  seems  neces- 
sary to  examine,  for  interiors,  the  Hotel  de  Soubise  (now 
the  Archives  Nationalcs)  and  the  Hotel  do  Toulouse  (now 
the  Bank  of  Franco).  Something  of  the  original  exterior 
remains  also  in  these  buildings,  but  perhaps  the  great  bar- 
rack called  still  the  ^lilitary  School,  fronting  on  the  Champ 


de  Mars,  and  the  Chateau  of  Corapiegne,  N.  E.  of  Paris,  arc* 
the  best  exteriors  of  the  time.  These  are  both  the  work  of 
an  architect  of  exceptional  ability  and  good  taste,  Jaquu< 
Ange  Gabriel  (1699-1782).  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  in  such 
an  epoch  of  careful  reference  to  authority  and  submission  to 
generally  admitted  rules  stately  buildings  will  be  erected  iii 
the  spirit  of  a  previous  epoch  in  spite  of  a  more  corrupt  taste 
prevailing  in  minor  arts.  Thus  m  England  the  Cambridire 
University  senate  house,  built  in  1730,  and  the  RatclitTe 
Library  at  Oxford  a  little  later,  each  by  James  Gibbs  (1674— 
1754),  are  wholly  admirable  as  pieces  of  design  in  a  style 
which  admits  of  but  little  originality.  They  are  worthy'  t*> 
be  compared,  as  to  their  exterior,  with  the  French  buildings 
of  Gabriel,  above  named.  It  is  in  the  interior  fittings  that 
the  style  alternates  between  unrestrained  license  and  col*  I 
monotony.  In  the  minor  buildings  of  the  time  the  saiii*^ 
bad  influence  is  at  work,  the  only  architectural  fcatun* 
recognized  as  noble  being  the  colonnade  or  the  order  ttf 
pilasters,  with  their  high  plain  basement  beneath.  Build- 
ings which  could  not  have  these  costly  decorations  were  left 
with  flat  walls  and  square  openings*  evenly  spaced.  Th#* 
often  complained  of  monotony  of  Baker  Street  and  Recent 
Street  in  London  came,  not  from  the  Renaissance  pro|K»r» 
but  from  its  unhappy  successor,  the  grandiose  Roman  re- 
vival, begun  in  Italy  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Some  attempt  at  a  reaction  was  made  under  Louis  XVI. 
Jaques  Germain  Soufflot  (1714  or  1709-«0)  built  the  Chii  re h 
of  St.  Genevieve,  or  Pantheon,  all  but  the  cupola.  Pierrtr 
Rousseau  (b.  1750)  built  in  17S6,  for  a  private  residence,  t!ie 
Hotel  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  on  the  (^uai  d'Orsay.  In 
these  and  in  other  structures  of  tlie  time  an  originality  of 
conception  is  shown  foreign  to  the  previous  epoch  of  a  hun- 
dred years  or  more.  As  under  Louis  XVI.  a  new  spirit  i»f 
refined  and  delicate  design  is  seen  in  furniture  and  orna- 
ment, so  in  the  most  important  buildings  of  the  time  were 
the  evidences  of  perhaps  a  new  Renaissance,  a  return  x<> 
reason  and  thought  as  a  substitute  for  obedience  to  author- 
ity.   The  great  French  Revolution  put  an  end  to  this. 

Modem  Architecture. — In  all  the  previous  sketch  it  hiis 
been  possible  to  speak  of  the  style  prevalent  at  any  given 
time  as  universally  and  in  all  cases  the  same.  At  do  time 
does  any  one  builder  deviate  from  the  style  used  by  others 
except  as  he  makes  slight  modifications,  which,  at  once 
adopted  by  others,  who  in  their  turn  add  and  alter  a  litt  ie 
at  a  time,  end  in  the  slow  development  of  the  style  of  the 
succeeding  epoch.  In  the  present  era,  beginning  with  t  he 
end  of  the  Napoleonic  wars  in  1815,  we  face  a  wholly  new- 
condition  of  things,  a  condition  which  had  never  exi>te<l 
before  in  all  history.  From  1815  until  1894  architects  have 
built  classical  buildings  with  huge  rows  of  columns,  as  their 
fathers  or  grandfathers  had  done;  Renaissance  biiildin^^H 
with  delicate  details  like  those  of  the  fifteenth  or  sixteen t  h 
century;  Gothic  buildings  copied  from  those  of  the  thir- 
teenth or  of  the  fifteenth  century;  Romanesnue  biiiUIin«rs 
studied  after  models  of  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century  ; 
buildings  supposed  to  l)e  Greek,  and  copied  from  the  Parthe- 
non ;  and  even  Egyptian  or  Moorish  attempts  at  novelty.  1 1 
is  important  to  understand  how  completely  this  chaos  of 
styles,  existing  in  the  absence  of  any  reigning  style,  difft^n* 
from  all  previous  experience.  Probably  no  architect  ur«\  I 
progress  can  be  made  under  these  conditions.  Larger  nn^i 
more  elegant  buildings  may  be  built,  and  now  and  then  a. 
pleasing  result  may  follow  in  the  way  of  an  archRH>loj^i*«tl 
study  of  some  ancient  structure  or  group  of  structures^  but 
that  can  not  be  the  beginning  of  a  fine  art  of  architecture. 

BiBLiooRAPHY. — There  are  few  works  on  this  subject  in 
English.  Fergusson's  History  of  Modem  Arehitfcturf^  i^ 
of  very  little  value  in  this  resjiect.  Walter  Pater's  T'h^ 
Renaisaatiee  (3d  ed.  1888,  a  series*  of  essays)  is  very  valuable 
for  its  truthful  insight,  and  is  a  su^^estive  book.  J.  a. 
Symonds's  Renaissance  in  Italy  (vol.  lii.)  is  devote<l  to  th«* 
fine  arts  and  gives  much  general  information,  but  the  fKiint 
of  view  is  that  of  a  literary  man  having  little  sense  of  the* 
true  nature  of  the  graphic  and  plastic  arts.  The  work  cT 
Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  on  painting  in  Italy  (9  vols.,  iimlfr 
different  titles),  is  wholly  confined  to  the  i»eriotl  of  th«- 
Renaissance,  although  not  so  announced.  This  is  true  al's4, 
of  Cliarles  Perkin's  Tuscan  Sculptors  and  Italian  Sculfttt^n*^ 
and  his  smaller  and  comprehensive  work,  Hintorical  I/tMntfl 
book  of  Italian  Sculpture;  but  these  works  do  not  grive  the 
results  of  late  researches,  and  their  statements  as  to  uiiii«>r 
matters  of  fact  are  not  always  trustworthy.  The  s^nie  au- 
thor wrote  a  sketch  of  Sejmlchral  Monuments  in  Italt/  f«»r  j^ 
publication  of  the  Arundel  Society.     3Iark  Pattisoii's    77, ,► 


58 


RENNET 


RENT 


IHe-et-Viiaine,  France ;  at  the  confluence  of  the  I  He  and 
Vilaine,  234  miles  W,  S.  W.  of  Paris  (see  map  of  France, 
ref.  4-C-).  It  consists  of  two  parts — an  upper  or  new  town 
of  an  elegant  and  moilem  appearance,  and  a  lower  or  old 
I  tart,  mostly  built  of  wood,  with  narrow  and  winding  streets ; 
these  are  connected  hj  four  bridges.  Among  the  public 
buildings  are  the  cathedral  (Italian),  completed  in  1844; 
Notre  Dame,  with  a  dome  surmounted  by  an  image  of  the 
Virgin;  the  university  (1855),  with  a  picture  gallery;  the 
hotel  de  ville,  with  a  public  library ;  and  the  Palace  of  Jus- 
tice (1618-54).  It  has  manufactures  of  sailcloth,  linen,  lace, 
and  embroideries,  and  an  active  trade  in  honey,  wax,  but- 
ter, and  poultry.  Pop.  (1891)  69,232. 
Rennet:  See  Cheese  {Coagulating  the  Curd), 

Rennie,  Sir  Johk,  F.  R.  S.  :  engineer:  b.  in  London,  Aug. 
30,  1794.  His  father,  a  distinguished  civil  engineer  (1761- 
1821),  early  introduced  him  to  that  profession  as  assistant 
in  the  construction  of  Southwark  and  Waterloo  bridges. 
In  1821  he  succeeded  his  father  as  engineer  to  the  admiral- 
ty. The  new  London  bridge  was  completed  by  him,  from 
designs  of  his  father,  in  l^Sl,  when  he  was  knighted.  The 
important  works  of  Sheerness  dockyard,  Ramsgate  harbor, 
ana  Plymouth  breakwater,  commenced  by  his  father,  were 
completed  bv  him,  as  well  as  the  gi*eat  svstem  of  drainage 
and  land  reclamation  in  Lincolnshire.  Of  the  more  impor- 
tant works  designed  and  executed  by  himself  are  the  White- 
haven and  the  Cardiff  docks.  With  his  brother  George 
(1791-1866)  the  machinery  for  the  mints  of  Bombay,  Cal- 
cutta, and  Mexico  was  designed  and  erected;  also  the 
Royal  Clarence  victuaiing-yard  at  Plymouth.  Sir  John  was 
considered  the  highest  authority  on  all  subjects  connected 
with  hydraulic  engineering,  harfrars,  canals,  irrigation,  stor- 
age of  water,  and  the  manairement  of  rivers.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  1845-49;  author 
of  The  Theory^  Formation^  and  Contttniction  of  British 
atul  Foreign  Harbors^  and  many  valuable  professional 
papers.     D.  Sept.  3,  1874. 

Reno :  city ;  capital  of  Washoe  co.,  Nev. ;  on  the  Truckee 
river,  and  the  Nev.,  Cal.  and  Or.,  the  S.  Pac.,  and  the  Vir- 
ginia and  Truckee  railways;  11  miles  E.  of  the  base  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  and  51  miles  N.  W.  of  Virginia 
City  (for  location,  see  map  of  Nevada,  ref.  5-E).  It  is  in  an 
agricultural  and  mining  region,  and  has  large  trade  inter- 
ests. The  city  contains  the  State  University  of  Nevatia,  the 
State  prison,  the  Bishop  Whitaker  School  for  Girls  (Protes- 
tant Episcopal,  opene<l  in  1876),  a  high  school,  2  libraries 
(State  t niversitv  and  Whitaker  Hall),  a  national  bank  with 
capital  of  4;2(X),000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  |;150.000, 
and  2  daily,  a  semi-monthly,  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1880)  1,3()2 ;  (1890)  3.563. 

Reno,  Jesse  Lee:  soldier;  b.  at  Wheeling,  West  Va., 
June  20, 1823;  graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Military  Aca<lemy, 
and  entered  the  army  as  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  ord- 
nance July,  1846;  captain  1860.  In  the  war  with  Mexico  he 
was  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz  and  in  the  battles  of 
Cerro  Gordo,  Contreras,  Churubusco,  and  Chapultepec,  and 
breveted  first  lieutenant  and  captain  for  gallantry ;  subse- 
uently  served  on  duty  with  his  corps,  l)eing  in  command  of 
It.  Vernon  Arsenal,  Alabama,  at  the  time  of  its  capture  Jan., 
1861 ;   apiK)inte(l  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  Nov., 

1861,  he  accompanied  Burnside's  expeditiim  to  North  Caro- 
lina; was  promoted  to  be  major-general  of  volunteers  July, 

1862,  and  in  August  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  Ninth 
Armv-corf>s,  which  he  le<l  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run 
and  at  Chantilly,  Aug.  29-Sept.  1.  At  the  battle  of  South 
Mountain,  while  at  the  head  of  his  command,  he  was  killed 
Sept.  14,  1862.  Revised  by  James  Mercub. 

Renonf,  r«-noof ,  ^mile:  genre,  marine,  and  landscape 
paint<»r ;  b.  in  Paris,  June  23, 1845;  pupil  of  Carolus  Duran, 
of  Boulanger,  and  of  liefebvre;  second-class  medal.  Salon, 
1KS();  first -chvw,  Paris  ?]xposition,  1SH9;  first-class,  Munich 
KxhTiiitiou,.lHH:J;  Legion  of  Honor  1K89.  He  spent  several 
years  in  the  V.  S.,  and  had  a  studio  in  New  York  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  time.  A  large  picture  by  him  of  the 
East  river  bridge,  taken  from  the  Brooklyn  side  at  sunset, 
was  painted  in  New  York  in  1887-88.  arid  attracted  much 
attention  when  exhibited  there.  His  Helping  Hand,  a  rep- 
resentative work,  and  one  possessing  many  excellent  quali- 
ties, is  in  the  Corcoran  Gallery,  Washington.         W.  A.  C. 

Renoaf,  Peter  Le  Page  :  Egyf)tologist  and  Orientalist ; 
b.  in  the  island  of  Guernsey  in  1H24;  stu<lied  at  Peinbroke 
College,  Oxford ;  became  a  member  of  the  Roman  Catholic 


I 


Church  in  1842,  and  in  1855  was  appointed  Professor  of  An- 
cient History  and  Oriental  Languages  in  the  Catholic  Uni- 
versity of  Ireland  at  its  first  opening.  While  professor  he  v<  us 
one  of  the  editors  of  Atlantis  and  of  The  Home  and  Foreujn 
Review,    From  1864  till  1885  he  was  an  inspector  of  .scho^iiN, 
and  from  1885  till  1892  Keeper  of  the  Egyptian  and  Assy  riHn 
antiquities  in  the  British  Museum.    Since  1887  be  has'ixi'n 
president  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archeology.    liea^iiK^s 
some  early  works  oh  questions  concerning  the  Roman  (  hun  h 
in  England  he  wrote  The  Condemnation  of  Fope  Honor ittn 
(1868),  and  The  Case  of  Pope  Honortus  Jieconsidered  with 
Reference  to  Recent  Apologies  (1869).    The  former  work  nut 
with  strong  ultramontane  criticism,  and  was  placed  on  t  he 
Index.    His  principal  Egyptological  works  are  as  follows  -. 
I^^otes  on  some  Negative  Particles  of  the  Egyptian  Languagf 
(1862);   A  Prayer  from  the  Egyptian  Ritual,  TramUai'td 
from  the  Hieroglyphic  Text  (1862);  Sir  O,  C,  Lewis  on  //if 
Decipherment  and  Interpretation  of  Dead  Languages  (l^(>i). 
occasioned   by  an  attack  upon  ChampoUion   and  othen^; 
Miscellaneous  Aoteson  Egyptian  Philology  (1866);  ^^ofe  *»n 
Egyptian  Prepositions  (1874);  An  Elementary  Manual  of 
the  Egyptiati  Language  (1875);  Lectures  oti  the  Origin  and 
Growth  of  Religion,  as  Illustrated  by  the  Religion  of  An- 
cient  Egypt   (llibbert  lectures,  1879):  and  The  Egyptian 
Book  of  the  Dead:    Translation  a  fid  Commentary,  first 
printed  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archae- 
ology (Mar.,  1892,  ff.),  and  afterward  sejiarately  (I>on<lon. 
1893,  ff.).    He  edited  for  the  trustees  of  the  British  Must*uin 
Ancient  Egyptian  Texts  from  the  Coffin  of  Amamu  (lfc^6h 
and  Facsimile  of  the  Papyrus  of  Ani,  with  an  intro<Iucti<>ii 
to  the  contents  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  (1890).     lie  alsc. 
contribute<l  to  the  Chronicle,  77ie  North  British  Herteir, 
The  Academy,  and  the  Aegyptische  Zeitschrift, 

Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Reno^TO:  Iwrougji  (founded  in  1862,  incorporated  in 
1866);  Clinton  co..  Pa.;  on  the  west  branch  of  the  Sus<|ue- 
hanna  river,  and  on  the  Phila.  and  Erie  division  of  the  IVnn. 
Railroad;  28  miles  N,  W.  of  Lock  Haven,  the  couiity-M*Ht 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  ^E).  It  'v^a.<4 
founded  by  the  Philadelphia  and  Erie  Railroad  Company, 
which  established  here  a  large  foundry  and  extensive  U til- 
er-works and  car  and  repair  shops.  It  is  in  an  oval-sha[>*<l 
valley  with  mountain-sides  over  l.OOO  feet  high,  and  is  t  In- 
center  of  a  great  tract  of  pine  forest.  The  princijial  iiidu<- 
tries  are  coal-mining  and  luml)ering.  The  l)orougn  con tu i  1 1  ^ 
7  churches,  14  public  and  5  parochial  schools,  a  rnilwav 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  national  bank  witn  capital  of  $50,000,  private 
bank,  and  a  daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers,  and  is  a  |M)pii  Inr 
summer  and  autumn  resort  for  tourists  and  sjK)rtsmen-  1 N  .i ». 
(1880)  3,708 ;  (1890)  4,154.      P^ditor  of  "Evening  News/* 

Rensselaer,  ren'se-lfr :  town ;  capital  of  Jasper  co.,  Iml. ; 
on  the  Irocjuois  river,  and  the  Louis.,  New  Albany  and  C'ln. 
Railway;  46  miles  N.  W.  of  Logansport,  72  miles  S.  K.  ot 
Chicago  (for  location,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  8-<.').  It  is  in 
an  agricultural,  dairying,  ana  stock-raising  repon;  contmn^ 
a  public  high  s<^'hool,  St.  Joseph's  Indian  Normal  S<-|!«m.I 
(Roman  Catholic),  a  State  bant  with  capital  of  t^80.(MH).  :\ 
private  banks,  and  3  weekly  newspapers,  and  has  manufac- 
tories of  flour  and  cigars.     Pop.  (1880)  968 ;  (1890)  1,455. 

Rent  [from  O.  Fr.  rente  :  Ital.  rendita  :  Span,  renfn  -- 
Lat.  ^rendita,  re-formed  on  analogy  of  vendita{vendere)  f  n  »im 
red'dita  (sc.  peeunia\  money  paid,  perf.  partic.  of  rrd  r/»  rr, 
pav  back]:  a  payment  for  the  use  or  land.  In  feudal  t  inn-^ 
thfs  payment  was  made  in  labor.  Toward  the  closi*  of  ih>> 
Middle  Ages  labor  rents  were  generally  commuted,  citlior 
for  a  share  of  the  pro<luce  (see  Metayee)  or  for  a  fixed  ^i,ni 
of  money  per  vear.  For  some  centuries  these  money  rt  nj^ 
were  chiefly  Axed  by  custom;  in  modem  times  they  iir,> 
usually  fixed  by  competition.  Kent,  as  ordinarily  rtH'k*« ^in  « 1. 
involves  compensation  for  the  improvements  as  well  as  f,,r 
the  laud.  If  we  deduct  interest  on  these  improvements,  vi». 
have  the  amount  of  rent  in  its  economic  sense.  Thus  if  .i 
man  invests  $10,000  in  improving  a  piece  of  land,  and  t»i,n 
rents  the  proi)erty  for  f  1,200  a  year,  part  of  this  f:i/2l»«>  i^ 
due  not  to  tlie  land,  but  to  the  capital  invested;  aiid  v^,> 
must  deduct  something  like  $500  in  order  to  find  tJie  «i«.- 
nomic  rent.  Kent  is  partly  due  to  pnxluctiveness,  esiH.Hi:i;- 
ly  in  the  case  of  mines  and  water-power,  but  chiefly  to  .i-l- 
vantages  of  location.  Improvetl  means  of  traDS|H>rtat  :«'tt. 
by  lessening  the  effect  of  differences  in  location,  tend  l«»  r*-- 
dlice  rent — witness  the  fall  in  agricultural  rents  in  iin  ji* 
Britain,  due  to  the  fiujt  that  the  lower  trans{K>rtatiiin  m».  ^ 
enable  the  farmers  of  other  countries  to  compete   i»n    nti-rc 


60 


REPORTS,  LAW 


REPRESENTATION 


and  their  delivery  into  his  own  possession.  The  plaintiff 
when  successful,  if  the  goods  have  remained  in  the  defend- 
ant's custody,  recovers  their  possession,  or  in  default  thereof 
their  value  (assessed  by  the  jurv),  together  with  damages  for 
the  unlawful  detention  or  taking.  If  he  has  taken  them 
into  his  own  custody  his  title  is  confirmed,  and  he  recovers 
the  damages  alone,  while  a  judgment  in  such  case  for  the 
defendant  restores  the  possession,  or  the  value,  and  lays  the 
foundation  for  a  suit  for  damages  hj  him  against  the  plain- 
tiff. The  title  to  the  goods  is  not  tried  unless  it  is  necessary 
to  the  decision  of  the  (][uestion  as  to  who  has  the  right  of 
possession,  nor  can  the  title  to  the  land  be  directly  brought 
into  question.  Sir  Henry  Maine,  in  his  Early  History  ofln- 
siitutiona,  traces  the  origin  of  this  remedy  to  the  right  of  a 
tenant  to  recover  goods  unlawfully  distrained  by  his  landlord 
— ^a  right  that  can  be  traced  among  the  Saxons  prior  to  the 
Conquest,  and  in  some  of  the  primitive  Germanic  codes. 
See  Wells's  Laie  of  Replevin  as  administered  in  the  Courts 
of  the  United  States  and  England,  and  Sedgwick  on  the 
Measure  of  Damages,  F.  Stueoes  Allen. 

Reports,  Law :  See  Law  Reports. 

Reposia'nns :  a  Latin  poet,  perhaps  of  the  early  fifth  cen- 
tury, although  commonly  assigned  to  the  reigu  of  Diocletian. 
(See  Eskuche,  Jiheinisc/ies  Museum,  45, 256.)  His  hexameter 
poem  De  concuhitu  Martis  et  Veneris  may  be  found  in 
Baehrens's  Foet,  Lat,  Miiwres,  vol.  iv.,  p.  348.  M.  W. 

ReponsB^,  r«-pt)b'sa'  [Fr.,  liter.,  thrust  back,  perf.  partic. 
of  repoxisser ;  re-,  back  -f  pousser,  push  <  Lat^  pulsare]  :  a 
French  term  for  the  art  of  producing  reliefs,  and  even  round- 
ed forms,  in  metal  by  beating  thin  plates  from  behind  (Germ. 
das  treiben ;  Eng.  embossing).  The  metals  employed  are 
those  that  by  their  malleability  lend  themselves  most  easily 
to  the  work — gold  and  silver,  brass,  copper,  tin,  and  lead. 
This  is  a  very  ancient  art ;  the  Egyptians,  Cypriotes,  and 
Etruscans  practiced  it,  and  specimens  of  their  skill  in  the 
art  are  preserved.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  widely  em- 
ployed both  in  Europe  and  in  the  East,  and  it  has  continued 
m  use  down  to  our  own  times.  Some  splendid  pieces  of  re- 
poussd  work  were  produced  in  Italy  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
These  were  chiefiy  for  the  decoration  of  altars  and  shrines 
and  for  use  in  the  ceremonies  of  the  Church.  The  art  was 
in  a  flourishing  state  in  Europe  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  but  the  design  was  artistically  inferior 
to  that  of  an  earlier  time.  The  art  then  fell  into  disuse  for 
a  time,  but  it  has  shared  in  the  general  revival  of  the  arts, 
and  is  much  in  fashion.  In  Italy,  France,  Great  Britain, 
and  the  IT.  S.  much  repousse  work  is  now  produced,  and, 
so  far  as  mechanical  excellence  is  concerned,  American 
smiths  are  not  behind  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  results 
produced  by  this  process  are  superficially  similar  to  those 
attained  by  casting,  but  the  effects  are  more  artistic  and 
free,  and  in  the  best  work,  whether  of  semi-barbarous  or  of 
civilized  peoples,  there  is  more  individuality  expressed  than 
any  casting  could  give.  In  the  old  repousse  work,  the 
coarse  as  well  as  the  fine,  the  relief  is  distinguished  by  soft- 
ness of  outline  and  the  design  has  a  look  of  spontaneitv. 
The  workman  has  used  his  toK^ls  as  if  they  were  the  pencils 
of  a  painter  or  the  dab-sticks  of  a  modeler  in  clav.  In  the 
C'astellani  collection  of  antique  jewelry  exhibited  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1876  were  specimens  of  Etruscan  repousse  work 
which,  though  small  in  size  and  minute  in  execution,  had 
all  the  largeness  of  antique  sculpture.  These  were  extraor- 
dinary pieces,  but  much  of  the  Japanese,  Indian,  Arabic, 
Persian,  and  Moorish  work  of  modern  times  has  the  same 
quality,  though  more  rudely  manifested.  The  repousse 
work  of  modern  French,  British,  and  American  smiths  is 
chiefly  applied  to  gold  and  silver,  and  is  distinguished  by 
great  sharpness  and  decision  of  line,  so  that  the  work  is 
scarcely  to  be  told  from  casting.    See  Metal-work. 

Representation  :  in  the  political  sense  of  the  term,  the 
method  of  transmitting  the  will  of  the  people  into  law  or  ac- 
tion by  means  of  a  few  persons  chosen  oy  the  people. 

In  the  ancient  city  democracies  the  people  made  their  own 
laws.  When  different  states  took  part  in  government,  as  in 
the  Achaean  League,  any  citizen  had,  as  a  general  rule,  the 
right  to  appear,  and  representatives  in  the  modern  sense 
were  nut  chosen,  though  of  course  the  persons  present  from 
any  state  had  authority  to  bind  their  constituents. 

There  seem  to  have  been,  however,  certain  instances  of 
real  representation  in  ancient  times,  as  in  provincial  councils 
summoned  by  Augustus  and  in  city  leagues  in  Asia  Minor. 
From  very  early  times  the  Church  employed  the  principle, 
and  probably  this  had  influence  in  determining  its  use  among 


western  nations.  It  first  came  into  general  political  ii>e 
among  the  Germanic  nations,  and  has  had  its  fullest  devel- 
opment in  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  Representative  iio> 
mocracy,  the  system  of  government  that  relies  solely  u|M»n 
representation,  as  Bluntschli  says,  developed  in  the  Nortli 
American  colonies  and  the  U.  S.,  where  the  causes  of  iu 
development  are  to  be  found  especially  in  the  character  of 
the  people  and  in  the  extent  of  the  territory  that  necf>Ni- 
tated  representation  if  free  government  were  to  exist.  Thi> 
representative  system,  however,  is  found  fully  devfloj)e«l 
in  nearly  all  civilized  modem  states,  whether  republics  as 
France  and  Switzerland,  or  monarchies,  as  Germany,  Austria, 
Italy.  In  the  monarchies  usuallv  some  check  is  placed  u{Min 
the  representative  bodv  by  an  hereditary  or  appointed  up- 
per house,  as  in  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  ana  sometini<'> 
the  monarch  even  is  able  to  exert  much  power  in  this  direi-- 
tion.    See  Legislatures  and  Law-making,  Methods  op. 

Nature  of  Constituencies. — Generally  speaking,  in  the 
U.  S.,  in  Prance,  in  the  German  empire,  and  in  some  other 
countries,  the  constituencies  are  divided  territorially,  eac-h 
representative  being  voted  for  by  all  classes  of  voters  r€»>i- 
dent  in  his  district.  A  system  of  class  constituencies  is  in 
vogue,  however,  in  some  countries;  for  the  classification  of 
electors  in  Prussia,  see  Legislatures  (Compositiofi),  In 
local  representative  bodies  in  Austria  members  are  t'lof^tcd 
by  the  great  landed  estates,  by  the  most  highly  taxed  indus- 
tries and  trades,  by  the  towns  and  markets,  bv  the  rural  com- 
munes, by  boards  of  commerce,  or  trade-guilds.  Somewhat 
similar  constituencies  are  found  in  rural  local  government 
in  Prussia.  Even  in  England  constituencies  have  been  i^> 
divided  as  to  separate  cities  from  the  rural  districts,  and 
economic  conditions  have  divided  constituencies  in  pnicti<M* 
even  more  accuratelv  than  that. 

Relation  of  the  Representative  to  his  Constituency. — <">f 
grave  import,  both  theoretically  and  practically,  is  the  qtio?- 
tion  whether  a  representative  is  to  act  merely  as  the  mouth- 
piece of  his  constituency,  blindly  preferring  its  intpn»>l  a< 
its  members  see  that  interest,  or  whether  he  is  to  act  witii 
independent  judgment,  preferring  the  interests  of  the  whol»» 
country  to  that  of  his  constituency  in  case  of  conflict.    M««st 
writers  adopt  the  latter  theory  as  the  right  one  from  t  Uv 
standpoint  of  political  science.    In  practice,  however,  repre- 
sentatives as  a  rule  wish  a  re-election;  and  in  con8eqiu>n«-»' 
the  expressed  or  understood  wishes  of  their  const ituenci**^ 
are  likely  to  determine  their  votes.  Indeed,  some  reprfsenia- 
tives  have  openly  confessed  that  they  were  voting  contrary 
to  their  own  opinion  of  what  was  best  for  the  country-  in  <h'f- 
erence  to  the  wishes  of  their  constituencies.    This  is  a(>t  t«> 
be  of tener  the  case  when  the  member  represents  a  certain 
economic  or  social  class  than  when  hisconstituencv  indud*-^ 
all  voters  within  a  certain  geographical  district.    If  in  p'li- 
eral,  however,  the  constituency  determines  the  vote.   1 1  it- 
special  advantage  of  the  representative  system — acticm  hy 
traine<l  men  after  careful  detiate  and  consideration — wtMilTl 
be  lost,  and  the  system  might  as  well  be  abolished  and  tin- 
compulsory  referendum  introduced  instead.    On  the  <>th«r 
hand,  it  may  be  argued  that  the  people's  interests  will   In- 
best  guarded  if  the  people  instruct  the  representatives  li<  >w 
to  vot«,  as  each  penwrn  cares  most  for  nis  own  intort-it  --. 
Nevertheless,  the  desire  for  re-election  will  usually  give  t  li«» 
representative  sufficient  interest  in  conforming  to  the  wish<  ^ 
of  his  constituents.    The  superior  educational  effect  uf^in 
the  constituencies  of  carefully  deliberating  upon  siKtit-t' 
measures  so  as  either  to  vot«  themselves  or  to  instruct  th<M  r 
representative,  instead  of  simply  making  a  choice  botw«^«Mi 
two  or  three  candidates,  can  not  be  doubted,  but  is  prol>al>ly 
too  small  to  outweigh  the  disadvantages  mentioned. 

Majority  vermis  Minoritu  or  Proportional  Representati\»n 
— In  most  countries  members  of  representative  bodies  ntM 
elected  each  in  a  single  territorial  aistrict,  or  when  eltH-t*-*' 
in  larger  districts,  as  earlier  in  France  by  the  serutin  de  li^/r 
all  members  of  each  party  are  put  on  the  same  ticket,  so  t  h  ji 
the  majority  of  voters  are  likely  to  secure  all  the  represent  ?% 
tives  and  toleave  the  minority  unrepresented.    For  exam  i » . . 
in  1892,  the  Congressional  vote  of  Iowa  stood  as  follows  :  i  i 
publican,  210,215 ;  Democratic,  201,923;  Prohibition,  6,(>4  i-j 
People's,  13,6:^3.    These  votes  elected  ten  Republicans  n  i 
one  Democrat,  whereas  a  fair  division,  according  to  the  i-v^ 
tive  strength  of  the  parties,  would  have  elected  six  Repu  i  • 
cans  and  five  Democrats.     liikewise,  in  Kentuckv,  in  1  ^' » 
122,308  Republican  votes,  170,3o9  Democratic,  1,559  Pnd . .    , 
tion,  and  2ii,735  People's  elected  one  Republican  an«i     • 
Democrats,  instead  oi  four  Republicans  and  six  I>em<««'^      i 
as  would  have  been  just.    In  Maine,  1894,  with  65,6:ir    l^ 


62 


REPRODUCTION 


in  the  bulblets  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  of  some  lilies,  and 
in  the  inflorescences  of  some  onions,  the  runners  of  straw- 
berries, the  trailing  runner-like  steins  of  buffalo-grass,  the 
tubers  of  many  plants,  as  the  potato,  and  perhaps  the  spon- 
taneously deciduous  twigs  of  cotton  woods  and  some  willows. 
In  all  these  cases  the  essential  feature  is  the  separation  from 
the  parent  plant  of  one  or  more  living  cells,  wnich  continue 
to  grow,  eventually  producing  a  plant  like  the  parent.  We 
go  but  a  step  further  when  we  purposely  cut  on  portions  of 
plants,  which  are  then  grown  as  cuttings  by  being  placed 
in  moist  earth.  Even  the  familiar  operations  of  grafting  and 
budding  are  essentially  those  of  asexual  reproduction  (Figs. 
1  and  2). 


cases  the  fusion  appears  to  involve  the  whole  of  each  cell, 
in  the  higher  plants  it  is  confined  to  the  nuclei. 

Upon  a  close  examination  of  sexual  reproduction  it 
is  found  that 
in  the  classes 
C  htorophyc-ecB 
and  PkcRophy- 
cecB  the  two 
uniting  cells 
may  be  alike  in 
size  and  other 
obvious  char- 
acters   (isoga- 


Fio.  1.— Asexual  reproduction  :  a.  division  of  Glcrocapaa  :  b.  formation  of  zoospores 
otClothrix;  c,  conldlA  ot  Podonphcera  ;  d,  brood-masses  of  a  moss ;  e,  bulblets 
of  UJy. 


Fio.  S.— Sexual  reproduction  (isoframous) :  a.  fu- 
sion of  zo^^spores  of  Pondorina  ;  b,  fmJun  of 
cells  of  Me»ocai-pus  (highly  magnified). 


In  marked  contrast  to  the  foregoing  are  the  various  modi- 
fications of  the  sexual  reproductive  process,  in  which  the  es- 
sential feature  is  the  union  of  two  cells  in  the  formation  of 
the  first  cell  of  the  new  plant.  In  the  simplest  cases  two 
apparently  similar  cells  fuse  into  one  (Fig.  3),  but  as  we 


Fio.  2.— A.sexual  reproduction  :  n.  bulbs  In  place  of  flowers  in  the  on 
ing  new  plants  by  its  ''  runner '' ;  c  d,  cuttings  set  in  the  ground 

pass  to  higher  plants  there  is  an  increasing  difference  be- 
tween the  cells  concerned ;  moreover,  while  in  the  simpler 


mous),  or  they  may  be  unlike  in  size  and  otherwise  quite 
different  also  (o^a mous).  Thus  all  except  the  highest  /Vr>- 
tococcoidecp,  all  of  the  Conjugates,  all  but  the  higher  Sipho- 
nem  and  CofifervoidecB  of  the  first-mentioned  class,  ati«l 
nearly  all  of  the  second  class,  are  isogamous.  In  the  family 
VolvocacecB  (of  the  order  Proiornr- 
coidea)  some  genera  are  isogamous, 
while  othera  are  o5gamous.  The 
families  Vaucheriaceo?^  Saprohipn- 
ciceift  and  Peronosporacea  (of  tht* 
order  Siph<yne€(i)^  and  Sphtpropha- 
cerp,  CylindrocapsaeefP,  and  ffiV/oe/r/- 
neacecp  (of  the  order  Confert^idnf), 
are  oogamous.  Among  the  Phtr-- 
ophyceie  the  FueoidetB  alone  arc 
o5gamous.  In  all  classes  above  tho 
ChlorophyeecB  and  Phcfophycem 
o<)gamy  is  the  invariable  rule. 

As  we  pass  from  the  lower  plant.s 
to  the  higher  there  is  an  increasiDi;- 
complexity  in  the  results  of  the  cell- 
union.  In  the  Chlorophyctcp  an<l 
Ph<Pophyce(P  the  result  is  a  sin;:lo 
egg-li]{e  cell  (odspore),  which  s<w  hut 
or  later  develops  into  one  or  more 
new  plants  (Figs.  3  and  4).  The 
plants  of  these  two  cla.«tses  are  htMico 
sometimes  very  properly  called  e^^ir- 
spore  plants.  In  passing  to  the 
Coleochcetacem  and  Florxdetr  vse 
find  that  in  the  former  the  single 
spore  soon  becomes  invested  with  a 
cellular  layer  of  protective  tissue, 
and  the  sjwre  it.<elf  ut)on  geniiinH- 
tion  becomes  several-celled,  thux 
forming  a  simple  kind  of  s|>on»  fruii. 
•In  the  Fhn'ae(F  the  fertiliziHl  ctll 
not  only  divides  early,  but  each  sei:- 
ment  emits  a  branch  whose  end  s<\::- 
ment  becomes  detached  asas]H>iv. 
and  in  the  meantime  the  whole  has 
become  invested  by  a  layer  of  pro- 
tective tissue.  In  the  Charapht/mr 
the  growth  of  the  protective  tissue 
precetles  fertilization,  so  that  fn»in 
a  protective  device  which  only  f<>/- 
loirs  fertilization  we  have  now  the  same  device  develoiiinc 
much  earlier  and  serving  as  a  protection  to  the  unfertiliziti 


ion  ;  fe,  strawberry  produc 
e,  graft  set  in  a  root. 


64 


REPUBLIC 


which  varies  considerably  in  form,  usually  has  the  bones 
distinct.  Among  the  peculiarities  separating  these  from 
other  groups  are  the  union  of  maxillary  and  preniaxillary 
bones  with  the  skull,  the  ossification  and  more  or  less  com- 
plete union  of  palatine  and  quadrate  with  the  cranial  bones, 
the  presence  of  a  single  occipital  condyle  on  the  basioccipi- 
tal,  and  the  distinctness  of  the  bones  (dentary,  angulare,  ar- 
ticulare,  etc.)  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  quadrate  bone,  hj 
means  of  wliich  the  lower  jaw  is  connecteid  with  the  crani- 
um, is  movable  in  some  forms,  firmly  fixed  in  others. 

The  appendicular  skeleton  varies  with  the  development 
of  the  limbs.  A  shoulder-girdle  is  present  in  all  except  the 
footless  forms,  while  the  pelvic  girdle  occurs  even  in  some 
of  these.  The  limbs  vary  greatly  in  character.  Usually 
present  and  fitted  for  running  or  walking,  they  are  modi- 
fled  into  paddles  in  the  ichthyosaurs  and  most  Sauropter- 
ygii^  while  in  the  Pterosauria  the  anterior  limbs  are  modi- 
fied into  organs  of  flight.  In  some  lizards  and  all  snakes 
tlie  limbs  are  not  developed,  while  in  other  lizards  one 
(either)  or  both  pairs  are  present.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in 
pythons  and  boas  rudiments  of  the  hind  limbs  exist.  For 
the  classification  of  Reptilia,  see  Herpetolooy. 

Besides  the  literature  cited  under  Herpetology,  see  espe- 
cially Hoffmann,  RepHlien^  }sx  Bronn*s  Classen  und  Ord- 
nunaen  des  Thierreich^s ;  Leydig,  Die  in  Deuischland  le- 
benaen  Arten  dtr  Saurier  (1872);  Rathke,  Entwickelung 
der  Natter  (1839);  Schildkrdien  (1848);  Crocodile  (1866); 
Agassiz,  EmbryoU  of  Turtle  (1857) ;  QUnther,  Anatomy  of 
Ilatteria,  Phil.  Trans.  (1867).  J.  S.  Kinqslby. 

Republic  [from  Ijat.  resnub'lica,  commonwealth ;  res,  af- 
fair+fem.  of  publieus,  of  the  people,  public,  deriv.  of  po'jou- 
lus,  people] :  a  political  community  in  which  the  sovereign 
power  is  lodged  in  the  whole  body  of  the  people  or  in  a  por- 
tion of  them,  and  exercised  through  representatives  or 
agents  directly  or  indirectly  elected  by  them  for  that  pur- 
pose. It  is  called  an  aristocratic  republic  when  the  exer- 
cise of  the  soverei^  power  is  confined  to  a  privileged  class 
of  whatever  description,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others ;  a 
democratic  republic  when  all  classes  of  the  people  partici- 
pate in  the  exercise  of  that  power  alike.  The  purest  form 
of  the  democratic  republic  exists  where  all  the  people  peri- 
odically assemble  in  general  meeting  to  make  their  own 
laws  and  to  appoint  their  agents  for  the  execution  and  en- 
forcement of  those  laws — a  system  which  has  been  found 
practicable  only  in  small  or  at  least  very  compact  commu- 
nities, while  in  larger  states  the  sovereignty  of  the  people 
can  act  only  through  the  instrumentality  of  representation, 
atjpresent  generally  adopted. 

Of  the  republics  of  ancient  Greece,  Sparta  had  a  strictly 
aristocratic  government,  while  Athens  might  have  been 
called  a  democratic  republic  but  for  the  circumstance  that 
a  majority  of  its  population  were  slaves,  and  as  such  ex- 
cluded from  all  political  rights,  at  the  time  of  its  greatest 
prosperity  the  number  of  its  free  citizens  being  only  135,000, 
while  that  of  the  slaves  rose  to  365,000.  The  republic  of 
Rome  was,  during  the  first  centuries  of  its  existence,  aristo- 
cratic in  its  political  organization,  but  in  the  course  of  time 
the  patrician  aristocracy  found  itself  compelled  to  vield  to 
the  lower  orders  of  the  people,  the  plebs,  access  to  the  high 
offices  of  the  government,  which  thereby  acquired  a  more 
democratic  character ;  all  the  while,  however,  as  in  all  re- 
publics of  antiquity,  a  large  part  of  thepopulation  remained 
slaves  and  without  political  rights.  The  Italian  republics 
which  became  the  most  flourishing  and  powerful  commer- 
cial communities  of  the  Middle  Ages — notably  Venice  and 
Genoa — were  strictly  aristocratic;  a  number  of  patrician 
families,  who  chose  from  among  themselves  the  head  of 
the  government,  called  the  doge,  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of 
political  power.  The  first  important  republic  of  the  mod- 
em era,  the  Uniteti  Netherlands — formed,  after  their  sepa- 
ration from  Spain,  out  of  seven  confe<lerate  provinces  (1580), 
and  recognized  by  Spain  as  an  independent  republic  (1609) 
— was  of  a  more  democratic  tendency,  as  was  also  the  re- 
public or  ** Commonwealth"  sprung  from  the  English  revo- 
lution, which,  however,  after  an  existence  of  only  eleven 
years  (1649-60),  wits  overthrown  by  the  restoration  of  the 
Stuart  (lynasty.  Of  a  similar  character  were  most  of  the 
free  cities  and  Hansc  towns  of  (Jennany,  only  three  of 
which— Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Lubeek — have  to  this  time 
preserved  their  republican  institutions  as  meml>ers  of  the 
German  empire.  Two  miniature  re|)ublics  in  the  south  of 
Europe  have  survived  to  our  day — Sun  Marino,  in  Italy,  and 
Andorra,  in  the  Pyrenees — remarkable  mainly  for  their  in- 


significance as  independent  states.  Spain  had,  imroediatc^ly 
after  the  abdication  of  King  Amadeus  (1873),  a  short  |ie- 
riod  of  democratic  republican  government,  which,  however, 
appeared  only  as  a  mere  episode  in  a  series  of  revolutions 
and  reactions.  At  present  there  are  only  two  republics  t)f 
importance  in  Europe — Switzerland  and  France.  (For  the 
historv  of  the  Swiss  republic,  see  Switzerland,  History  of.^ 
The  third  French  republic  was  proclaimed  Sept,  4,  1870, 
when  Napoleon  III.  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Ger- 
man forces  after  the  battle  of  Sedan.  The  National  Assem- 
bly, organized  in  1871,  ultimately  frame<l  a  constitution 
which  went  into  effect  in  1876,  and  has  been  in  successful 
operation  ever  since.  It  is  not  unlike  the  English  const  it  u> 
tion,  with  the  substitution  of  an  elective  president  for  th<- 
hereditary  sovereign  and  an  elective  senate  for  the  Uoum^ 
of  Lords.    See  France,  History  of. 

In  America  all  states  except  the  colonial  possessions  of 
European  powers  have  republican  governments  with  demo- 
cratic institutions.  The  largest  and  most  powerful  of  them, 
the  republic  of  the  U.  S.,  presents  the  realization  of  the 
democratic  republican  idea  on  the  greatest  scale. 

The  distinction  between  aristocratic  and  democratic  re- 
publics has  now  scarcely  more  than  historical  importance, 
inasmuch  as  there  is  at  present  not  a  single  state  with  a  re- 
publican form  of  government  in  existence  in  which  a  nobil- 
ity or  a  privileged  class  of  any  description  enjoys  a  moni^fH 
oly  of  power;  and  since  the  abolition  of  slavery  and  the 
enfranchisement  of  the  colored  race  in  the  U.  S.  there  is 
none  in  which  any  considerable  class  of  people  is  exclude*! 
from  the  exercise  of  political  righta.  But  while  all  re  pu  li- 
lies, with  a  uniform  tendency,  have  drifted  toward  democ- 
racy, as  far  as  the  equality  of  political  rights  among  citizens 
is  concerned,  we  fina  an  essential  difference  between  them 
as  to  the  character  of  their  political  institutions  in  another 
resi)ect.  (1)  The  constitution  of  a  republic  may  be  such  as 
to  make  the  general  government  in  its  legislative  and  execu- 
tive capacity  the  depository  of  the  whole  sovereignty  of  the 
people,  so  as  to  give  it  control  not  only  of  national  afrain», 
out  also  of  local  administration ;  or  (2)  the  general  govern- 
ment of  a  republic  may  be  one  of  strictly  limited  powers, 
being  confined  in  its  constitutional  sphere  of  action  to  a 
certain  class  of  things  which  concern  tne  nation  as  a  whole, 
while  the  administration  of  affairs  of  a  local  nature  is  left 
to  the  **  self-government"  of  the  people  in  their  local  organ- 
izations respectively,  with  entire  independence  of  the  cen- 
tral authonty ;  or  (3)  these  two  systems  may  be  so  mixed  as 
to  leave  to  the  local  self-government  of  the  people  only  a 
limited  range,  subject  to  supervision  and  interference  *l>y 
the  central  government.  A  government  of  the  first  de:?crii^- 
tion  would  be  called  a  centralized,  of  the  second  a  dertri- 
tralized  government,  and  of  the  third  either  one  or  the 
other  as  it  more  nearly  approaches  the  first  or  the  secoinl 
standard.  The  French  republic  presents  an  illustration  i>f 
the  centralized  system  in  a  but  slightly  modified  sense, 
while  the  so-called /edferaZ  republics — and  among  them  m«i>t 
conspicuously  and  on  the  greatest  scale  the  republic  of  the 
U.  S. — exemplify  that  which  combines  the  independent  a«l- 
ministration  of  local  interests  by  the  people  in  their  ]oi*h1 
organizations  with  a  central  government  controlling  affairs 
of  national  concern.  For  the  system  of  centralization  the 
advantage  is  claimed  that  it  imparts  to  the  government 
great  power,  energy,  and  rapidity  of  action  by  enabling  it 
to  employ  the  whole  machinery  of  general  and'local  admin- 
istration for  its  purposes.  It  is  therefore  by  many  th<»ught 
preferable  in  a  country  whose  surroundings  and  interna- 
tional relations  are  such  as  to  render  the  possibility  of  an 
instantaneous  employment  of  all  its  resources  desirable,  or 
whose  internal  peace  is  threatened  by  a  lawless  and  turbu- 
lent spirit,  so  as  to  require  prompt  and  vigorous  measur«»s 
for  the  maintenance  oi  order  and  security.  But  while  tho 
centralized  system  thus  creates,  in  the  common  acceptatit»n 
of  the  term,  a  "  strong  government "  which  may  be  usc*d  for 
good  ends,  it  produces  at  the  same  time  an  accumulation  4>f 
power  which  may  become,  and  sometimes  has  shown  itself  „ 
very  dangerous  to  popular  lil>erty  and  to  the  permanciicv 
of  republican  institutions.  The*  centralized  system  hi»hi-s 
out  a  tempting  prize  to  popular  insurrection  at  the  seat  v»f 
government,  as  well  as  to  the  coup  d'Hat  on  the  part  c»f 
those  in  power;  and  what  appears  as  an  element  of 
strength  and  energy  in  the  government  becomes  thereby  in 
reality  an  element  of  instability.  This  tendency  is  t  ho 
more  dangerous  as  the  centralized  system  fosters  among  tli»» 
peoi)le  the  habit  of  looking  for  all'that  is  to  be  done  for 
their  interests  not  to  themselves,  but  to  the  su|)erior  wis<k»iu 


66 


REPUBLICAX  PARTY 


rights  of  the  States  as  to  their  domestic  institutions,  but 
proceeded  along  the  line  of  least  resiistance.  It  did  not  set 
out  to  abolish  slavery,  but  merely  to  prevent  its  further  ex- 
tension. The  first  expressions  of  this  anti-slavery  move- 
ment, in  a  national  way,  were  in  the  Free-soil  and  Liberty 
parties,  both  outside  the  two  great  parties  and  polling  only 
a  small  vote.  They  had  the  effect  that  a  balance  of  power 
vote  sometimes  attains  in  closely  divided  States,  of  defeat- 
ing one  of  the  great  parties  with  the  other,  but  they  achieved 
little  of  their  direct  purpose  beyond  showing  that  the  Demo- 
cratic party  would  stand  firm  for  slavery,  and  that  the  Whig 
party  as  an  organization  was  useless  against  it.  The  anti- 
slaverv  vote  defeated  Clay  in  1844,  and  gave  New  York  to 
the  Whigs  in  1848.  Even  after  this  the  Whigs,  accepting 
the  compromise  of  1850,  still  refused  to  take  up  opposition 
to  slavery,  and  the  elections  of  1852  were  disastrous  to  them. 
The  canvass  of  the  Frec-soilers,  small  as  their  vote  was, 
joined  with  the  general  discontent  of  the  Northern  Whigs, 
together  with  the  helplessness  of  their  party  against  the 
slave  power,  wrecked  that  great  organization  in  nearly  every 
Northern  State.  Thus  the  ground  was  cleared  for  the  de- 
velopment of  a  party  which  should  take  the  place  and  as- 
sume the  traditions  of  the  Whigs  unencumbered  by  their 
obligations  to  slavery. 

The  Formation  of  the  Reptihlican  Party, — As  always  hap- 
pens in  such  periods  of  political  change,  the  dissolution  of 
the  Whig  organization  gave  rise  to  various  side  movements, 
of  which  the  most  conspicuous  was  the  Knownothing  or 
Native  American  party.  This  outbreak  had  a  brief  and  in 
some  places  an  overwhelming  success,  but  its  career  was 
short,  for  it  had  no  firm  resting-place  of  principle,  and  did 
not  recognize  the  great  question  which  was  tne  one  then 
really  in  the  public  mind.  It  served,  however,  as  the  recent 
elections  had,  to  clear  the  field  for  the  new  party  organiza- 
tion which  the  times  demanded,  and  it  was  in  this  situation 
of  politics  that  the  Republican  party  came  into  existence. 
It  is  generally  admitted  now  that  the  first  formal  adoption 
of  the  name  Republican  was  made  by  the  Michigan  State 
convention  early  in  June,  1854,  and  that  it  was  due  to  a  sug- 
gestion in  a  letter  from  Horace  Greeley.  Certain  it  is  that 
the  name  spread  rapidly  and  was  adopted  by  State  conven- 
tions in  Maine,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa. 
The  new  party  principle  prevailed  in  the  Northern  States, 
and  wherever  tne  Republicans  ran  a  straight  ticket  they 
carried  everything  before  them.  It  had  looked  in  1852,  after 
the  Democrats  had  swept  the  country  without  cflfective  re- 
sistance from  the  perishing  Whigs,  as  if  resistance  to  the 
Democratic  party  was  hopeless,  and  as  if  the  compromises 
of  1850  were  really  built  on  the  rocks  and  not  upon  the 
sands.  Yet  only  two  years  later  this  new  party,  because  it 
gave  the  first  o])portunitj  for  an  expression  of  a  deep  popu- 
lar feeling  and  because  m  the  midst  of  negations  it  meant 
something  real,  carried  the  Northern  States.  In  spite  of  its 
lack  of  national  organization,  it  elected  enough  members  of 
('ongress  to  control  the  House  and  to  choose  Nathaniel  Banks 
Speaker  after  a  long  and  bitter  contest.  Such  sudden  suc- 
cess showed  how  greatly  a  new  means  of  expression  for 
popular  feeling  was  needed. 

Stimulated  alike  by  their  victories  at  the  polls  and  by  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  and  other  measures,  which  proved'  that 
to  the  South  compromises  were  merely  stepping-stones  to 
further  aggression,  the  new  party  went  quickly  forward  to 
a  national  organization.  The  first  convention  met  at  Pitts- 
burg on  Feb.  22,  1856.  A  national  organization  was  there 
formed,  and  a  call  issued  for  another  convention  to  nominate 
candidates  for  President  and  Vice-President  This  second 
convention  met  in  Philadelphia  on  June  17. 

The  serious  character  and  the  importance  of  the  new 
movement  were  strikingly  shown  by  the  quality  of  the  dele- 
gates who  assembled  in  tnis  convention.  There  were  to  l)e 
seen  not  only  those  who  had  been  leaders  of  the  Free-soil 
movement  in  the  days  when  it  was  a  forlorn  hope,  but  many 
men  who  had  been' conspicuous  in  the  Whig  party,  while 
delegations  of  Democrats  were  also  present.  Edwin  I).  Mor- 
gan, afterward  Governor  of  New  York,  called  the  conven- 
titm  to  order,  Robert  Emmett  was  made  its  temporary  chair- 
man, and  Henry  S.  Lane,  of  Indiana,  its  permanent  presi- 
dent. The  platfonn  was  reported  by  David  Wilraot,  the 
author  of  the  famous  proviso,  and  was  practically  confined 
to  the  single  issue  which  had  (?alled  the  new  party  in  to  exist- 
ence. It  declared  against  the  establishment  of  slavery  in 
the  Territories,  and  tlie  third  resolution,  which  has  become 
in  political  literature  a  familiar  quotation,  ran  as  follows: 
"Resolved,  That  the  Constitution  confers  up<m  Congress 


sovereign  power  over  the  Territories  of  the  Unitetl  States 
for  their  government ;  and  that  in  the  exercise  of  thi^  {x^^er 
it  is  both  the  right  and  the  imperative  duty  of  Congre'^s  to 
prohibit  in  the  Territories  those  twin  relics  of  barban>ni. 
polygamy  and  slavery."  The  fourth  resolution  discusxnl  at 
length  the  condition' of  Kansas  and  denounced  the  Di'Iikm 
cratic  administration  for  their  policy  in  that  Territory.  1'lie 
fifth  resolution  demanded  the  admission  of  Kansa-s;  the 
sixth  assailed  the  doctrines  of  the  Ostend  circular.  The  »«'>  - 
enth  and  eighth  comprised  the  only  portion  of  the  platfonn 
which  went  outside  the  slavery  issue.  These  two  res<>luti<>n> 
declared  in  favor  of  national  aid  for  a  railway  to  the  Pa- 
cific coast,  and  also  for  liberal  appropriations  for  rivers  and 
harbors.  Like  all  new  organizations  which  are  engager!  in 
mustering  their  forces  from  different  elements  of  the  <'(»in- 
m unity,  the  Republican  convention  of  1856  had  a  great  d^^ul 
to  say  about  the  issue  on  which  all  were  agreed  and  whi«  h 
was  the  vital  question  of  the  day,  and  very  Tittle  about  i»th«'r 
questions  of  longer  standing  ana  upon  which  there  hatl  U*fu 
earlier  party  divisions.  Nevertheless,  these  two  eoiuj»ani- 
tivelv  unimportant  resolutions  about  railways  and  rivtr-i 
and  harbors  marked  at  the  start  the  political  ancestry  of 
the  Republicans,  for  they  commit  the  party  to  the  doctrin** 
of  internal  improvement,  which  was  one  of  the  doctrine> 
growing  out  of  the  liberal  construction  of  the  Constitution, 
and  which  had  formed  the  fundamental  principle  of  Fe<ler- 
alists  and  Whigs  alike  in  opposition  to  the  strict  construc- 
tion of  the  Democrats. 

Upon  this  platform  the  Republican  convention  plaee«l  as 
its  candidates  John  C.  Fremont,  of  California,  and  Will iam 
L.  Dayton,  of  New  Jersey.  There  was  no  serious  coiiitM 
over  either  nomination,  but  it  is  interesting  to  notice  that 
the  leading  candidate  against  Dayton  for  the  vice-pn*>i- 
dency  was  Abraham  Lincoln,  of  Illinois.    Fremont  ha<I  n<» 

Colitical  record,  but  had  been  for  some  little  time  a  iH>i»nlar 
ero,  owing  to  his  exploring  expeditions  and  his  brilliaiit 
services  in  California.  The  event  proved  that  he  was  a  will- 
chosen  candidate  for  the  purpose  of  getting  votes,  and  tl»»* 
Republican  campaign  was  full  of  enthusiasm  and  energ\ . 
The  Democratic  candidate  was  James  Buchanan,  who  \»as 
elected,  but  the  Republicans  carried  every  Northern  Stati- 
except  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Indiana,'lllinois.  and  (  uli- 
fomia,  and  gave  their  ticket  114  electoral  votes.  Of  ih»* 
popular  vote  the  Republicans  polled  1.341,264.  When  it  i^ 
considered  that  only  four  years  before  all  effective  opjK»*it  iiMi 
to  the  compromise  measures  and  to  the  Democratic  |k«rt\ 
had  appeared  to  be  extinct,  the  results  achieved  by  the  Re- 
publicans in  the  elections  of  1856  were  most  impressive. 

During  the  next  four  y^are  events  steadily  strength  taut  I 
the  Republican  cause.  The  subserviency  of  Buchanan  ti* 
the  South,  the  publication  of  the  Dred  bcott  decision,  the 
continuance  of  the  atrocious  Democratic  policy  toward  Kan- 
sas, and  finally  John  Brown's  raid  intensified  the  hostility 
of  the  North  to  slavery,  and  day  by  day  added  votes  to  the 
Republican  partv. 

The  Election  'of  1860,--The  War.— When  the  national 
Republican  convention  assembled  in  Chicago  on  Ma\  U>, 
1860,  they  faced  a  situation  very  different  from  that  which 
had  confronted  them  in  1856,  and  they  now  saw  success  well 
within  their  grasp.  The  Democratic  party  bad  met  in  «^ in- 
vention on  Apr.  23  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  had  thert»  >\A\\ 
hopelessly  on  the  slavery  c|uestion.  They  had  atljuunied 
without  action  and  the  wamng  factions  hatl  called  two  con- 
ventions, one  of  which  nominated  John  C.  Breckinridgi^  hiuI 
Joseph  Lane  on  an  extreme  pro-slavery  platform,  while  th«' 
other,  adopting  the  squatter-sovereignty  theory,  noniinnted 
Stephen  A.  Douglas  and  Herschel  V.  Johnson.'  With  tht-ir 
enemies  thus  divided  and  with  so  sure  a  promise  of  vict«»ry 
the  contest  for  the  Republican  nomination  was  both  ^ha^j» 
and  determined.  The  first  choice  of  a  majority  of  Repul  li- 
cans  was  William  H.  Seward,  of  New  York,  to  whom  the  Kn^t  - 
em  States  were  especially  devoted.  It  was  very  natural  l  hui 
this  should  be  the  case,  for  Seward  had  been  for  years  km.*> 
of  the  boldest  and  most  effective  opf)onents  of  slavery,  Ih.i  u 
as  Governor  of  New  York  and  in  the  Senate  of  the  l\  ?^, 
He  had,  however,  many  active  enemies,  which  a  career  likn 
his  was  sure  to  produce.  These  men,  led  by  Ilora(*e  Gn^t-I*-  \ , 
united  with  the  Western  candidate  and  thus  defeated  S-wani 
and  secured  the  nomination  of  Lincoln.  It  was  the  ni«  r^t 
fortunate  choice  ever  made  by  a  political  convention.  'I'l  ■ 
often  repeated  statement  that  Lincoln  was  an  unknown  n\z\\\ . 
selected  merely  on  account  of  his  availabilitv,  is  a  mi<ti»W»  . 
lie  had  long  been  distinguished  in  the  pu\)lic  life  of  tl»»- 
West.     He  had  been  voted  for  as  a  candidate  for  Vi*  ..  - 


68 


REPUBLICAN   PARTY 


publicans  swept  the  counlrv.  Lincoln  had  the  electoral 
vote  of  every  State  not  in  the  rebellion,  excent  Kentucky, 
I)elaware,  and  New  Jersey.  He  receive<l  212  electoral  votes 
against  21  for  McClellan.  Ilis  popular  vote  was  2,213,665 
against  1,802,237.  This  sweeping  victory  at  the  polls  con- 
firmed the  victories  of  the  armies  in  the  field.  Early  in  the 
following  spring  Richmond  fell  and  Lee  surrendered  at  Ap- 
pomattox. In  the  midst  of  the  popular  rejoicing  at  the  end 
of  the  great  struggle,  which  resulted  in  the  preservation  of 
the  nation,  Lincoln  was  assassinated  by  Wilkes  Booth  on 
Apr.  21, 1865. 

Bficofistniciion.-'The  death  of  Lincoln  was  not  only  a 
terrible  calamity  to  the  nation,  but  a  great  misfortune  to 
the  Republican  party,  for  the  work  of  reconstruction  which 
confrontefl  the  victorious  North  demanded  both  from  Presi- 
dent and  Congress  the  exercise  of  the  highest  wisdom  as 
well  as  great  firmness  and  moderation.  These  Qualities  pos- 
sessed in  an  unequaled  ilegree  by  Lincoln  were  almost  wholly 
lacking  in  Andrew  Johnson,  who  succeeded  him  in  the 
presidency.  Johns<^n  was  a  hot-headed  man  of  unbalanced 
judgment'.  He  began  by  taking  an  extreme  petition  against 
the  South,  uniting  witlf  the  most  radical  wing  of  the  Re- 
publican party,  whence  opposition  to  Lincoln  had  always 
proceeded,  lie  then  suddenly  changed  his  attitude  and 
swung  to  the  opposite  extreme,  entering  upon  a  policy  of 
ardent  opposition  to  the  Republican  measures  of  recon- 
struction. The  effect  of  this  course  was  to  place  the  party 
in  antagonism  to  the  President,  and  by  alienating  all  mod- 
erate men  from  the  administration,  to'  throw  the  guidance 
of  the  party  into  the  hands  of  its  more  extreme  members. 
Such  a  situation  was  most  unfortunate  for  the  country,  and 
could  not  fail  to  damage  the  work  of  reorganization.  5fever- 
theless,  the  party  succeeded  in  passing  its  reconstruction 
laws,  which  gave  a  vote  to  all  men  in  the  South,  black  and 
white,  except  those  who  had  partici[)ated  in  the  rebellion. 
The  Republicans  also  passed  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  to 
the  Constitution,  whicfi  established  the  freedom  of  the  Negro 
and  provideti  that  no  debts  contracted  in  aid  of  the  rel)ellion 
should  be  paid  by  the  U.  S.  or  any  State.  All  these  great 
measures  were  forced  through  over  the  President's  veto,  and 
the  bitterness  between  the  President  and  the  Republican 
party  reached  such  a  point  that  in  Feb.,  1868,  the  Itouse  of 
Representatives  impeached  him,  resting  their  charges  on 
his  illegal  removal  of  Stanton,  his  attacks  ujwn  Congress, 
and  his  stopping  the  execution  of  some  of  the  acts  of  Con- 
gress. The  President  was  acquitted,  the  vote  standing 
guilty  35,  not  guilty  19 — not  a  two-thirds  majority,  as  re- 
quired by  the  Constitution. 

In  that  same  year  a  new  presidential  election  came  on. 
President  Johnson's  efforts  to  build  up  a  personal  party 
failed  as  completely  as  those  of  Tyler  under  like  circum- 
stances. No  one  followed  him  and  neither  of  the  great  par- 
ties would  have  anything  to  do  with  him.  The  Republican 
party  met  in  Chicago  on  May  20  and  nominated  Gen.  Grant 
for  the  presidency  by  acclamation.  Schuyler  Colfax,  of  In- 
diana, was  nominated  for  Vice-President  on  the  fifth  ballot. 
The  Democratic  national  convention  met  in  New  York  on 
July  4,  and  nominated  Horatio  Sevmour  for  President  and 
Francis  P.  Blair,  of  Missouri,  for  Vice-President.  The  Re- 
publican platform  sustained  the  Constitutional  amendment, 
which  recognized  the  results  of  the  war,  and  the  freedom  of 
the  slave,  and  which  guaranteed  protection  to  the  Negro  in 
his  rights.  They  also  sustained  the  reconstruction  acts  of 
Congress,  pledged  themselves  to  maintain  the  national  credit 
and  to  provide  for  the  soldiers,  and  denounced  all  forms  of 
repudiation  which  had  been  much  advocated  by  the  Demo- 
cratic leaders. 

The  Democrats  took  ground  against  this  platform,  and 
showed  by  their  attitude  and  their  nominations  alike  their 
hostility  to  the  Republican  policv.  The  people,  however, 
wearie<l  by  four  years  of  war  and  by  the  angry  struggles 
with  Johnson,  were  anxious  above  all*  things  for  a  final  set- 
tlement of  these  war  issues.  Gen.  Grant  tersely  summed  up 
the  situaticm  in  his  famous  phrase :  "  Let  us  have  peace. 
This  became  the  watchword  of  the  contest,  and  the  Demo- 
cratic campaign  really  broke  down  before  the  polls  were 
reached.  Gen.  Grant'  was  elected  by  a  popular  vote  of 
3,012,S:i8  against  2.70J^24SK  receiving  in  the  electoral  college 
214  votes  against  80  for  Seyniour.  This  election  was  de- 
cisive in  favor  of  the  accejjfance  of  the  results  of  the  war, 
and  drove  the  Democrats  fnun  any  further  attempt  to  take 
ground  against  them.  It  also  sustained  tlie  Republican 
policy  of  equal  suffrage  and  the  rights  of  citizenship  to  all 
citizens  without  regard  to  color,  and  this  policy  was  finally 


secured  by  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  C<mstitutioii, 
which  soon  after  passed  Congress,  and,  after  ratification  Itv 
the  States,  was  proclaimed  on  Mar.  20,  18T0. 

Under  the  administration  of  Gen.  Grant  the  leading  qiit's- 
tion  was  the  condition  of  the  Southern  States  under  the  Re- 
construction acts.  The  State  goveniment^  which  were  th<-n 
set  up.  resting  on  the  black  vote,  were  generally  feeble  and 
gave  rise  to  many  scandals.  On  the  other  hand,  the  mur- 
derous outrages  committed  by  the  Southern  whites  against 
all  Republican  voters  angered  the  North  and  kept  all  the 
States  lately  in  rebellion  in  a  condition  of  disorcler  whif  h 
invited  the  constant  interference  of  the  national  authoriiv 
From  every  point  of  view  the  situation  in  the  Southern 
States  was  depressing,  and  the  dissatisfaction  which  it  caust-d 
was  directed  very  naturally  against  the  party  in  jK>wer. 
This  period  also  was  one  of  general  demoralization,  the  in- 
evitable outcome  of  four  years  of  fierce  civil  war,  and  the 
demoralization  extended  not  only  to  politics  but  to  business 
and  society.  It  gave  birth  to  wild  stm'k  S()eculations  an<l 
to  manv  scandals  and  comiptions,  and  the  ourden  of  tb»-H- 
also  fell,  as  it  was  sure  to  fall,  on  the  partv  in  power. 

The  Liberal  Republiean  Moi^ement— The  discontent  tlnis 
engendered  took  snape  in  an  independent  movement  in  the 
Republican  partv  headed  by  a  number  of  Republican  lead- 
ers who  had  broken  with  tlie  administration  on  account  of 
the  San  Domingo  policy  of  Gen.  Grant,  and  who  were  als<i 
desirious  of  attackinj^  the  abuses  and  corruptions  to  which 
the  war  period  had  given  rise.    These  dissatisfied  or  Liberal 
Republicans,  as  they  called  themselves,  held  a  national  con- 
vention in  Cincinnati  in  May,  1872.    The  plan  was  to  nomi- 
nate Charles  Francis  Adams  for  the  presidency,  a  seleition 
which  would  have  made  the  movement  a  formidable  one.  but 
the  convention  broke  away  from  the  leaders  and  nominatril 
Horace  Greeley  for  President  and  B.  Gratz  Brown  for  Vi«'.-- 
President.    Th'ey  declared  in  their  platform  that  sectional 
issues  should  be  buried,  that  all  the  settlements  of  the  war 
should  l)e  accepted,  that  civil-service  reform  should  be  lie^ruu, 
and  that  sj)ecie  payments  should  be  immediately  nstunil. 
They  left  the  tariff' an  open  question  and  opposetl'all  furtlicr 
grants  of  land  to  railroads.    The  regular  Republicans  n»et 
in  Phila<lelphia  in  June  and  renominated  Gen.  Grant   bv 
acclamation,  placing  with  him  on  the  ticket  Henry  WilM»ri, 
of  Massachusetts,  for  Vice-President.    Their  platform  \Mt> 
more  elaborate  and  touched  upon  more  questions  than  tbnt 
of  the  Liberals,  but  on  those  subjects  in  regard  to  whi<h 
both  platforms  spoke  the  declarations  were  in  principle  the 
same.    The  regular  Reimblicans  reviewed  the  historj'   of 
their  partv,  demanded  the  acceptance  of  the  results  of  the 
war  and  the  protection  of  the  coloretl  voter,  opposed  grants 
to  the  railroads,  and  favored  the  reform  of  the  civil  s««rvi<'e. 
They  denounced  the  repudiation  of  the  public  debt   an«l 
supported  specie  payments.    The  Liberals  had  left  the  tariff 
an  open  question,  but  had  nominate<i  a  high  protectioni>t  as 
President.     The  regular  Republicans  declared  sqiiarely  f<»r 
protection,  which  had  always  been  one  of  the  cardinal  prin- 
ciples of  the  party. 

The  Democrats  met  in  July  at  Baltimore,  ratified  the  nom- 
inatiim  of  the  Liberal  Repuljlicans  and  adopted  their  j>lHt- 
form.  Thus  they  accepted  as  their  candidate  for  the  pro>i- 
dency  a  lifelong  opponent,  who  had  been  an  extreme  al«»h- 
tionist  and  was  always  a  zealous  pi-otectionist,  while  thev 
adopted  as  their  platform  a  set  of  Republican  principles  in 
no  one  of  which  tney  l)elieved.  The  result  of  such  a  |>«»r- 
formance  it  was  not  difficult  to  foresee.  On  the  one  hainl 
it  demoralized  the  Democratic  party,  while  on  the  other  the 
absurdity  of  the  whole  i)osition' prevented  any  SM'ri<»us 
break  in  the  ranks  of  the  Republicans.  A  strai>rht-i»ut 
Democratic  ticket,  nominated  at  Ixiuisville  in  SeptemlN^r, 
came  to  nothing  and  played  no  part  in  the  election,  (imnt 
carried  every  State,  except  Georgia,  Kentucky.  Maryland, 
Missouri,  Tennessee,  and  Texas.  His  popular  vote  wh^ 
8,597,070  against  2.834.070  for  Greeley.  In  the  eltMtorul 
colleges  Grant  receivwl  286  votes  against  80  thrown  for  va- 
rious candidates,  Greeley  having  died  betwwn  the  election 
and  the  meeting  of  the  colleges. 

Although  the  Liberal  movement  broke  down  so  compU'to- 
ly  in  the  presidential  campaign,  it  made  itself  felt  v»•^^ 
strongly  two  years  later,  stimulated  as  it  was  by  siai\fl:i:< 
which  were  connected  with  appointees  and  friends' of  the  ?•■  J- 
ministration.  During  the  preceding  years,  moreover.  o>%-  u .  i^ 
to  the  business  disasters  which  followed  the  panic  of  1S7*^  _ 
?.},  a  strong  movement  for  "cheap  money  — that  is.  f*ir 
the  unlimited  issue  of  greenbacks— had  grown  up  in  citImmi 
States.    Gen.  Grant's  veto  of  the  infiation  act  of  1874.  ft  .1- 


70 


REPUBLICAN  PARTY 


REQUISITIONS 


tion  of  lapsed  land  grants.  It  favored  also  liberal  pensions 
and  the  building  up  of  the  navy,  and  declared  against  Chi- 
nese immigration,  and  fraud  and  violence  in  the  South.  The 
leading  rojjolution,  however,  concerned  the  tariff,  which  of 
late  years  had  been  coming  more  and  more  steadily  to  the 
front,  and  upon  this  the  Republican  party  took,  as  it  had 
always  taken,  bold  and  advanced  ground  in  favor  of  protec- 
tion to  American  industries.  The  Democrats  met  on  July 
8,  at  Chicago,  and  nominated  Grover  Cleveland  for  presi- 
dent and  Thomas  A.  Hendricks  for  Vice-President.  The 
platform  declared  in  favor  of  reform  in  general  after  the 
manner  of  opposition  platforms,  but  most  particularly  for 
tariff  reform. 

Platforms,  however,  played  but  little  part  in  the  exciting 
and  bitter  campaign  which  followed.  There  was  a  great 
deal  of  Republican  opposition  to  Blaine,  especially  in  the 
Eastern  States,  where  it  took  the  form  of  an  open  revolt  of 
a  most  serious  character  against  the  Republican  party.  Al- 
though the  Republicans  tried  to  fight  their  battle  on  the  tariff 
issue,  this  revolt  made  the  campaign  a  purely  personal  one, 
and  it  had  all  the  oilious  features  of  savage  abuse  of  the 
candidates,  which  such  contests  are  sure  to  engender.  Issues 
were  lost  sight  of,  and  the  struggle  finally  turned  solely  on 
the  question  whether  Blaine  should  or  should  not  be  Presi- 
dent of  the  U.  S.  Despite  the  great  schism,  Blaine's  personal 
popularity  was  so  great  that  he  attracted  large  bodies  of 
Democratic  voters  and  made  up  the  Republican  losses.  New 
York,  which  decided  the  election,  gave  Cleveland,  instead  of 
the  192,000  plurality,  which  he  had  received  in  1882,  less 
than  1,200,  and  it  was  by  many  persons  believed  that  even 
this  narrow  margin  was  obtained  only  by  counting  in  New 
York  city  for  Cleveland  the  vote  cast  there  for  Gen.  Butler, 
who  ran  as  an  independent  candidate  for  the  presiileney.  In 
the  electoral  colleges  Cleveland  and  Hendricks  received  219 
votes  against  182  for  Blaine  and  Logan.  During  the  first 
two  years  of  Cleveland's  term  the  general  talk  in  favor  of 
reform  went  ori,  but  very  little  was  accomplished  of  a  sf)e- 
cific  kind,  and  the  fact  that  the  Senate  remained  Republican 
prevented  any  violent  legislation,  if  such  had  been  desired. 
The  elections  of  1886  went  against  the  Democrats,  but  they 
still  retained  control  in  the  House  by  a  narrow  majority. 
The  failure  thus  far  to  accomplish  anything  le<^l,  however, 
to  a  new  departure.  President  Cleveland  sent  in  to  the  Fif- 
tieth Congress  a  message  devoted  to  the  single  subject  of  the 
tariff  and  demanding  instant  and  radical  reductions.  This 
message  resultetl  in  tlie  introduction  of  the  Mills  Bill,  which 
the  House  del)ated  at  great  length  for  three  or  four  months. 
It  passed  the  House  on  July  13,  1888,  and  on  the  issue  thus 
raised  the  two  great  parties  appealed  to  the  country. 

The  Administration  of  Harrison. — The  Republicans  met 
on  June  19  at  Chicago.  Blaine  withdrew  his  name,  and  on 
the  eighth  ballot  Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Indiana,  was  nomi- 
nated for  Pressident,  and  this  was  followed  by  the  nomina- 
tion of  Levi  P.  Morton,  of  New  York,  for  Vice-President. 
The  Republican  platform  favored  bimetallism,  the  building 
up  of  tlie  merchant  marine,  the  admission  of  new  States, 
and  the  reform  of  the  civil  service.  It  attacked  the  Demo- 
crats for  their  failure  to  settle  the  fishery  question  and  for 
their  feeble  foreign  policy,  but,  as  in  1884,  it  mmlc  the  tariff 
the  leading  issue,  and  declared  more  uncompromisingly  than 
ever  in  favor  of  protection. 

The  Democrats  met  in  July  at  St.  Louis  and  nominated 
Grover  Cleveland  for  President  and  Allen  G.  Thurman.  of 
Ohio,  for  Vice-President.  They  too  raatle  the  tariff  the  lead- 
ing issue,  and,  although  they  did  not  declare  for  absolute  free 
trade,  they  demanded  such  heavy  red  iictions  tliat  the  practical 
result  would  have  been  the  same.  The  campaign  turned  on 
the  issue  of  protection  or  free  tratle,  and  the  Republicans 
were  victorious  throughout  the  Northern  States,  except  in 
Connecticut  and  New  Jersey.  They  also  carrie<l  the  House 
and  kept  their  hold  upon  the  Senate.  They  were  therefore 
in  control  of  eveiT  branch  of  the  (Jovernment,  and  the  Fifty- 
first  C-ongress,  which  followed,  was  a  remarkable  and  mein- 
orable  one. 

The  first  great  contest  was  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, where  the  Democratic  minority  undertook  by  the  use 
of  the  rules  to  prevent  the  transaction  of  business.  *  Thomas 
B.  Reed,  of  Maine,  was  elected  Speaker,  and  under  his  lead 
a  reform  of  the  rules  was  accomplished,  which  gave  the  ma- 
jority power  to  act.  Ree<rs  policy  and  rulings  were  the 
subject  of  bitter  attack,  but  every  one  of  his  principles  has 
since  been  adopted  by  the  Democrats  themselves  and  sus- 
tained by  the  Supreme  ('ourt,  thus  completely  vindicating 
his  action.    The  Republicans  were  in  this  way  enabled  to 


pass  a  large  amount  of  most  important  legislation.  To  this 
Congress  is  due  the  international  copyright  law,  a  longnh*- 
layed  measure  of  justice  and  good  sense.  To  it  are  also  due 
the  ins()ection  laws  which  opened  the  markets  of  Kurofie  io 
the  meat  proilucts  of  the  U.  S.,  generous  appropriations  for 
building  up  the  navy,  and  mail  subsidies  to  develop  stt^mi- 
ship lines.  Manv  other  valuable  measures  of  a  nou-{)oliti(ul 
character  were  also  carried  through.  The  two  erreat  f lart  y 
measures  were  the  bill  to  regulate  national  elections,  which 
passed  the  House  and  failed  in  the  Senate,  and  the  new  pro- 
tective tariff,  which  became  law  on  Oct.  1.  1890.  In  tht- 
elections  which  followed  for  the  House  of  Representative>, 
the  Republicans  were  very  badly  beaten.  The  amount  of 
legislation  which  they  had  secured  brought,  as  it  aIwn>H 
does,  reaction  and  opposition,  but  the  chief  cause  of  their 
defeat  was  the  outcry  raised  against  the  McKinley  Act  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  too  extreme  and  that  it  would  rai^^ 
prices.  During  the  remaining  years  of  President  Harrisons 
administration  the  fact  that  tne  two  Houses  were  control le<l 
by  different  parties  prevented  action. 

The  Campaign  of  189^.— In  1892  the  Republican  party 
met  in  convention  at  Minneapolis,  and  after  a  contest  c^m-^-d 
by  the  hostility  to  the  admmistration  among  manv  party 
leaders.  President  Harrison  was  renominated  and  W'hitelaw 
Reid,  of  New  York,  was  put  on  the  ticket  with  him  as 
Vice-President.  The  Democrats  renominated  Grover  Clev<^ 
land,  who  was  bitterly  but  unavailingly  opposed  by  the  flele- 
gates  from  his  own  State,  and  nominated  with  him  for  Vice- 
President  Adlai  E.  Stevenson,  of  Illinois. 

This  campaign,  like  the  preceding  one,  turned  upon  t  ht* 
question  of  the  tariff,  the  McKinley  Act  furnishing  the  text 
as  the  Mills  Bill  had  done  in  1888.  The  Renuhlicans  nia<lt> 
a  partial  recovery  from  the  disasters  of  1890,  but  were  never- 
theless decisively  beaten,  several  Northern  States  givintr 
their  votes  to  the*  Democrats  for  the  first  time.  In  the  e  let - 
toral  colleges  C'levcland  and  Stevenson  received  277  vote^  tci 
145  votes  for  Harrison  and  Reid,  and  22  votes  for  Wravi^r 
and  Field,  the  Populist  candidates.  The  Democrats  al^) 
carried  both  the  Senate  and  the  House,  and  on  Mar.  4^  is!>:<. 
came  for  the  first  time  in  thirty-five  years  into  full  control 
of  all  branches  of  the  Government.  In  April  a  bu>ine>- 
panic  began,  which  reached  in  the  following  summer  grrai 
mtensity.  The  Democrats  declared  that  this  was  due  to  t  ho 
existence  of  the  Sherman  Act  passed  by  a  Republican  Con- 
gress as  a  compromise  measure,  pro\idi'ng  for  the  puix»ljh»ie. 
by  the  Treasury,  of  $4,000,000  of  silver  bullion  every  uu)iit  h. 
President  Cleveland  called  Congress  in  extra  session  on  Ani;. 
7,  and  after  an  obstinate  struggle  of  three  months  the  ptir- 
chasing  clauses  of  the  Sherman  Act  were  finally  r«*jH-uI«ii 
by  a  combination  of  Republican  and  Democratic* vote**,  but 
the  repeal,  which  was  a  wise  measure,  did  not  relieve  or  im- 
prove business.  The  business  depression  still  eontintiod 
while  the  Democrats  were  engaged  in  a  revision  of  tli»- 
tariff,  which  bore  no  resemblance  to  the  promises  of  th«*ir 
platform,  and  the  Republican  party  made  large  gains  at  all 
the  bv-elections.  At  last  in  August  the  Democrats  pHs<«Ml 
their  tariff  Bill  just  as  it  came  from  the  Senate,  where  the 
House  bill  received  over  600  amendmentji  of  a  protfctixe 
character.  The  President  refused  to  sign  the  bill,  and,  aft»T 
denouncing  it  in  the  severest  terms  in  public  letters  to  two 
members  of  the  House,  permitted  it  to  uecome  law  witlioui 
his  signature.  In  the  general  elections  of  Nov.,  1SJ>4,  tlie 
Republicans  appealed  t-o  the  pieople  against  the  Demixratie 
failure  in  the  matters  of  tariff  and  finance,  the  busin«'s< 
disasters  they  had  caused,  and  also  against  their  feeble  arxi 
blundering  foreign  policy.  The  Republicans  carrieil  tlu* 
elections  overwhelmingly,  gaining  over  100  seats  in  the 
House  and  seven  seats  in  the  Senate.  H,  C.  IjOImje. 

Repndiation  [from  Lat,  repudia're,  divorce,  reject,  scorn, 
reputfiate,  deriv.  of  repu'diutn,  a  casting  off:  re-,  back  ■+■  /*»/- 
def,  it  shames] :  an  act  by  which  an  administration  declin«-< 
to  he  bound  by  the  debts  contracted  by  the  goveniuit-nt^ 
which  have  preceded  it.  In  European  history  there  are 
numerous  instances  of  a  government  annihilating  a  portion 
of  its  debt  by  converting  it  into  a  lower  denomination,  ari«l 
similar  instances  have  occurred  in  Mississippi  and  Penus>  l- 
vania. 

Reqnisitions  [from  Lat,  reqttisi'tio,  a  search  for,  reouir^»- 
ment,  deriv.  of  requi'rere^  search  for,  require;  rp-,  W<'k. 
again  4-  qtup'rere,  qumai'ium,  seek,  ask] :  (1)  formal  deman«i> 
by  one  government  on  another  for  the  extradition  of  crimi- 
nals (for  treatment,  see  Kxtradition)  ;  (2)  in  the  internatioti- 
al  laws  of  war,  demands  for  necessaries  by  an  invader  on  an 


72 


RESERVOIR 


RESERVOIR  DAMS 


for  their  original  purpose  of  making  agriculture  possible  in 
regions  where  the  seasons  of  rainfall  and  of  the  growing 
crops  are  separated  by  a  considerable  interval  of  time,  while 
of  many  others  traces  alone  remain.  It  is  claimed  that  in 
Egypt  the  building  of  such  reservoirs  may  in  all  probability 
be  traced  back  to  the  days  of  the  patriarch  Joseph.  In 
India  there  remain  traces  of  the  Poonairy  reservoir,  which 
by  the  construction  of  30  miles  of  dams  flooded  40,0()0  acres 
of  land,  and  the  Veeranum  reservoir,  which  flooded  22,000 
acres.  The  great  Mudduk  Masoor  reservoir  in  India,  con- 
stnicted  in  the  fifteenth  century,  was  108  feet  deep,  flooded 
26,000  acres,  and  held  280,000  million  gal.  In  the  island  of 
Ceylon  there  is  an  ancient  reservoir  covering  an  area  of  10,- 
000  acres. 

No  reservoirs  of  such  magnitude  as  these  have  been  con- 
structed for  several  hundred  years,  but  there  are  many  thou- 
sand smaller  ones.  In  Madras  alone  there  are  50,000.  In 
the  nineteenth  century  the  largest  have  been  built  by  the 
British  in  India  for  storing  water  for  irrigation,  and  several 
of  considerable  size  have  been  constructed  in  California  and 
New  Mexico  for  the  same  purpose.  A  number  of  large  res- 
ervoirs have  been  built  in  Spain,  also  for  irrigation.  In  the 
rest  of  Europe  and  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  U.  S.  the 
principal  purpa««e  for  which  storage  reservoirs  have  been 
constructea  is  the  supply  of  water  to  cities,  and  a  large 
number  of  such  have  been  built. 

The  (question  of  the  capacity  necessary  to  insure  the  most 
economical  results  in  reservoirs  fed  by  sti-eanis  which  are 
subject  to  great  variations  of  flow  and  the  water  of  which 
is  to  be  used  for  supplying  the  demands  of  a  population 
which  is  constantly  increasing  and  which  at  the  same  time 
is  irregular  in  its  requirements,  has  received  careful  study 
from  civil  en^neers.  The  determination  of  this  ouesticm 
involves  considerations  of  climatic  peculiarities,  tne  rela- 
tion between  different  topographical  and  geological  condi- 
tiorfs  and  the  amount  of  water  which  a  watershed  will  an- 
nually yield  to  a  stream,  and  the  rate  at  which  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year  a  given  population  will  consume  water. 
The  general  conclusions  reached  by  hydraulic  engineers 
with  reference  to  the  economical  dimensions  of  storage 
reservoirs  for  city  water-supply  in  the  temperate  zone  are 
that  such  reservoii-s  shoultl  contain  a  quantity  of  water 
equivalent  to  one-half  of  the  total  annual  consumption 
anticipated  in  the  city,  and  that  the  greatest  efficiency  can 
be  obtained  from  any  reservoir  when  its  capacity  is  about 
100  million  gal.  for  each  scjuare  mile  of  territory  from  which 
its  sup|)ly  is  derived. 

Among  the  largest  storage  reservoirs  for  water-supply  to 
cities  are  the  Vvrnwy  for  Liverpool,  containing  11,900  mil- 
lion gal.;  the  Vehar  for  Bombay,  containing  10,800  million 
gal. ;  the  San  Mateo  for  San  Francisco,  holding  31,000  million 
gal. ;  the  Yan  Yean  for  Melbourne,  Australia,  6,400  million 

fal. ;  on  the  Croton  river.  New  York,  the  Boyd's  Corners, 
^,727  million  gal.;  the  Middle  Branch,  4,004  million  gal.; 
the  East  Branch,  9,028  million  gal. ;  the  Titicus,  7,000  million 
gal. ;  the  Carmel,  9,000  million  ^al. ;  and  the  new  Croton, 
begun  in  1894,  to  hold  32,000  million  gal.  There  are  numer- 
ous storage  reservoirs  for  other  cities  in  both  Europe  and 
America  holding  from  500  to  1,000  million  gal.  See  the 
article  Reservoir  Dams. 

For  the  immediate  daily  demands  of  cities  service  reser- 
t'oirs  are  required,  and  their  capacity  need  not  be  much  in 
excess  of  a  single  day's  supply,  their  function  being  merely 
to  keep  the  supply  constant  during  the  varying  draughts  at 
different  times  of  day  and  different  seasons  of  the  year. 
They  are  generallv  located  as  near  tlie  center  of  distribu- 
tion as  practicable,  and  the  water  furnished  to  them  by 
gravity  from  storage  reservoirs  or  by  pumping  from  the 
source  of  supply.  Wherever  possible,  they  are  constructed 
on  a  summit  by  excavating  sufficient  material  to  make  an 
embankment  around  the  pit,  and  thus  give  the  greatest  ca- 
pacity at  the  highest  elevation.  The  largest  reservoir  of 
this  typ>e  is  in  Central  Park,  New  York  city,  and  covers  96 
acres  and  contiiins  1,200  million  gal.  A  goo<l  example  of  a 
service  reservoir  constructed  entirely  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground  with  masonry  walls  is  the  Murray  Hill  reservoir 
in  New  York  city,  which  is  400  feet  s(iuare  and  holds  24 
million  gal.  In  many  cases  of  small  supply  in  flat  regions 
service  reservoirs  are  iron  tanks  or  staiul  pi|)cs  from  5  to  40 
feet  in  diameter  and  50  to  250  feet  in  height.  A  fine  exam- 
ple of  such  a  reservoir  is  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  where  a  tank 
20  feet  in  diameter  and  60  feet  high  is  placed  on  an  iron 
trestle  60  feet  high.  On  top  of  the  tank  is  a  meteorological 
observatory,  J.  James  ii.  Croes. 


Reserroir  Dams:  artificial  structures  built  across  valley<; 
through  which  streams  flow,  for  the  purpose  of  obstniclin:: 
the  natural  flow  of  the  water,  raising  its  level,  and  theri'l.y 
forming  lakes  or  reservoirs.  The  simplest  dam  is  one  formal 
by  filling  a  narrow  gorge  between  high  banks  with  loose  nxk 
and  stones  and  gravel  and  then  permitting  the  interstioe>  to 
become  clogged  by  the  sediment  brought  down  by  the  strcHui 
in  freshets  or  by  earth  thrown  in  above  the  dam  for  the  f uir- 
pose.  This  method  has  been  adopted  even  in  works  of  r<»- 
cent  construction  in  the  western  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  but  Mich 
dams  have  in  several  instances  been  destroyed  by  fre^sbet*.. 

Where  this  crude  method  seems  impracticable  or  injudi- 
cious and  yet  small  expenditure  is  essential,  dams  are  built 
of  a  cribwork  of  timber  filled  in  with  stones  and  sometimts 
faced  with  plank  with  close  joints  and  frequently  ba<'k»Ml 
up  with  earth.  There  is  a  dam  of  this  type,  1,017  feet  l<nii: 
and  28  to  82  feet  high,  across  the  Connecticut  river  at  Sunt  ii 
Hadley  Falls,  Mass.  In  such  dams  as  those  above  nanitd 
the  water  of  freshets  in  the  stream  may  be  allowed  to  flo« 
over  the  top  of  the  dam.  In  cases  where  the  water  of  fn^sli- 
ets  can  be  carried  off  by  an  indej^endent  channel,  the  U-^t 
form  of  construction  of  a  dam  not  exceeding  40  to  50  fict 
in  height  is  usually  an  earth  embankment,  the  width  at  the 
bottom  being  from  three  to  four  times  the  height  of  tho 
dam.  It  is  essential  to  the  safety  of  a  dam  of  this  kind  that 
its  foundations  should  be  made  secure  against  the  {>er<(»la- 
tion  of  water  through  the  bank,  that  the  bank  should  l>o 
built  of  selected  material  put  on  in  thin  lavers  and  thor- 
oughly moistened,  rammed,  and  rolled,  and  that  the  fa<-e  of 
the  dam  on  the  water  side  should  be  protected  with  a  stone 
paving.  Owing  to  the  difficultv  of  making  an  earthen  dam 
under  heavy  pressure  absolutely  tight,  it  is  customary  to 
build  in  the  center  of  the  embankment  a  wall  either  of  pud- 
dled clay  or  of  masonry.  The  neglect  of  proper  precautious 
to  prevent  the  percolation  of  water  through  high  earthen 
dams,  either  with  or  without  masonry  heart  wfdLs,  has  re- 
sulted in  severe  disasters,  such  as  the  failure  of  the  I)«lr 
dyke  at  Sheffield,  England,  in  1864,  the  Mill  river  dam  in 
Connecticut  in  1875,  the  Worcester  dam  in  MassachuM'tt> 
in  1876,  the  South  Fork  dam  at  Johnstown,  Pa.,  on  Mav  21. 
1889,  the  Pottsville  dam  in  1892,  and  the  Portland,  Me..'  rt^s- 
ervoir  dam  in  1893.  There  are  in  the  U.  S.  ten  earthen  daiits 
more  than  60  feet  high  for  waterworks,  two  of  which — thr 
dam  at  Pilarcitos.  Cal.,  95. feet  high,  and  that  at  San  An- 
dreas, Cal.,  98  feet  high — have  no  central  wall  either  of  pud- 
dle or  masonry.  The  highest  is  that  at  Druid  Lake  at  Bait  i- 
more,  which  is  119  feet  high  and  has  a  puddle  heart  w^all. 

A  structure  of  water-tight  stone  masonry  is  the  type  of 
dam  which  is  most  susceptible  of  being  built  on  sciVutiti<- 
principles,  so  that  the  minimum  amount  of  material  may  be 
used  with  the  maximum  beneficial  effect.  The  earliest  ap- 
plication of  masonry  to  the  construction  of  large  dams  i> 
believed  to  have  been  made  by  Spanish  engineers  about  tin- 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  dam  of  Almanza,  O'.f 
feet  high  with  a  thickness  of  10  feet  at  top  and  34  feet  at 
bottom,  has  stood  for  over  300  years,  and  sustains  a  greater 
pressure  per  square  foot  than  any  other  reservoir  dam  •  •r 
than  is  considered  prudent  in  construction  at  present.  Tljt» 
Alicante  dam,  141  feet  high,  is  still  in  use,  creating  a  rcM-r- 
voir  for  irrigation  which  holds  975  million  gal. 

In  France  the  earliest  high  masonry  dam  was  built  at 
Lampy  about  1776.  Several  others  were  constructed  dur- 
ing the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  All  the  mas*  »n- 
ry  dams  over  50  feet  in  height  built  prior  to  1850  are  be- 
lieved to  be  as  follows ; 


Alinan/a,  Spain 

Alicante,  Spain 

Elche,  Spain 

Hiiesca,  Spain 

Lampy,  France 

Puenl^s.  Spain  ♦ 

Val  de  Inflerno,  Spain 

Grois  Bois,  France 

OhaziUy,  France. 

Niiar,  Spain 

Zola,  France , 

Lozoya,  Spain 


DM*. 

Height. 

1660-65 

69 

1579-94 

141 

1590 

76 

1600 

66 

l776-«2 

68 

1785-91 

165 

17S5-91 

116 

1830-88 

08 

1W(M5 

74 

iKia-w 

101 

lK4*-60 

120 

1850 

la-s 

THICKNETM 


Top. 

10 
66 
30 
86 
16 
86 
41 
21 
18 
94 
19 


34 
lit 
40 

r>* 

'AT 
i:>t 

4C> 

.V5 

l:i^ 


•  Failed. 

It  will  l)e  observed  that  there  is  a  great  difference  in  tho 
proportions  of  these  dams,  displaying  great  diversity  of  opiii> 
ion  among  the  engineers  who  designed  them.    It  was  ii«  *t 


74 


RESILIENCE 


RESPIRATORY  SOUNDS 


Reslllenee  [from  Lat.  resili're,  sprin|r  back ;  re-,  back  + 
scUi're^  leap]:  the  capacity  of  a  material  to  resist  shcK^ks 
or  repeated  strevsses,  the  measure  of  which  is  one-half  the 
product  of  the  force  by  the  linear  elongation  or  compres- 
sion produced,  provided  the  material  is  not  strained  beyond 
the  elastic  limit.  Thus  if  two  bars  of  metal  stretch  0*03  and 
.0*06  inches  under  tensile  stresses  of  1,000  and  2,000  lb.  re- 
spectively, their  relative  resiliences  are  as  0*03  by  1,000  to 
0*06  by  2,000,  or  as  1  to  4.  The  modulus  of  resilience  is  the 
resilience  for  a  bar  1  inch  in  length  and  1  sq.  inch  in  cross- 
section  when  the  stress  is  equal  to  the  elastic  limit  of  the 
material.  Approximate  average  values  of  the  modulus  of 
resilience  for  timber,  cast  iron,  and  wrought  iron  are  8,  1, 
and  12  inch  pounds  respectively.  The  total  work  done  in 
rupture  of  a  beam  or  bar  is  called  its  ultimate  resilience. 
See  Strength  op  Materials.  Mansfield  Mereiman. 

ResPna:  town  of  Italy;  province  of  Naples;  5  miles 
S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Naples";  at  the  foot  of  Vesuvius  between 
Portici  and  Torre  del  fcrrcco  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  7-F).  It 
is  built  on  masses  of  lava  which  cover  a  large  part  of  an- 
cient Retina  and  Herculaneum.  The  sinking  of  a  shaft 
here  in  1709  led  to  the  discovery  of  remains  of  the  theater 
of  Herculaneum  90  feet  below.  In  the  vicinity  are  many  at- 
tractive villas,  the  most  frequented  being  La  Favorita,  the 
principal  hall  of  which  is  inlaid  with  marbles  from  the  pal- 
ace of  Tiberius  at  Capri.    Pop.  13,626.    E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Resins  [via  O.  Fr.  frf)m  Lat.  reai'na,  from  Gr.  Afrrity, 
resin,  pitch] :  a  class  of  bodies  that  occur  very  widely  dis- 
tributed in  plants  mostly  together  with  volatile  oils,  dis- 
solved in  which  they  frequently  flow  from  trees  accidentally 
or  intentionally  cut.  Crude  resins  are  never  crystallized, 
but  have  the  form  of  drops,  like  gum.  They  are  generally 
colored  yellow.  Most  resins  consist  of  several  simple  com- 
pounds which,  however,  as  a  rule,  can  not  be  separated  from 
one  another.  The  number  of  resins  is  very  large.  They  are 
used  for  preparing  Varnishes  {q.  t\),  sealing-wax,  soap,  for 
stiffeniiig  hat-bodies,  etc.  The  most  important  are  Amber, 
('OPAI-,  Dammar,  Dragon's  Blood,  Mastic,  Lac,  Rosin  (or 
colophony),  and  Sandarach  (qq.  v.).    See  also  Gum-resins. 

Ira  Remsex. 

Resolntion  of  Forces:  the  mathematical  separation  of 
forces  into  component  parts ;  the  converse  of  Composition 
OP  Forces  (y.  v.). 

Resolntion  of  Rotations :  See  ^Iotion. 

Resoi^cin  [resin  +  orcin],  or  Resoreinol :  CeH4(0n)a,  a 
diatomic  phenol  prepiared  on  the  large  scale  by  the  action  of 
caustic  soda  on  oenzene-disulphonic  acid.  It  i^i  soluble  in 
water,  alcohol,  and  ether,  and  is  uned  for  preparing  fluores- 
cein, eosin,  and  other  phthalic  acid  colors.  See  Phthalic 
Acid. 

Respiration  [from  Lat.  rettpira'tio,  breathing,  deriv.  of 
respira're,  breathe,  inspire  and  expire  ;  re-,  again  -f-  spira're, 
breathe] :  the  special  function  of  the  lungs,  the  prcxxjss 
which  has  for  its  ultimate  object  the  supplying  of  red  blood- 
globules  with  oxygen  for  transmission  to  the  various  parts 
of  the  body.  To  accomplish  this  result,  atmospheric  air 
must  be  introduced  frequently  and  continuously,  an  exten- 
sive surface  of  c<mtact  for  air  and  bloo<l  must  exist,  and 
the  effete  products  of  the  chemico- vital  interchange  must 
be  exhaled. 

The  physical  act  of  respiration  or  breathing  embraces 
two  parts,  inspiration  and  expiration,  and  there  are  two  dis- 
tinct methcxls  of  breathing,  the  abdominal  and  the  thoracic. 
In  abdominal  breathing  the  muscles  of  the  abdomen  by 
contraction  force  the  viscera  upward  against  the  diaphragm, 
which  becomes  arched  into  the  thoracic  cavity  and  forces 
the  air  out  of  the  lungs.  Then  the  diaphragm,  contracting, 
pushes  the  abdominal  viscera  dowiiwanl,  and  thereby  makes 
room  for  entrance  of  inspiratory  air.  In  the  thoracic  tyi)e 
of  breathing  various  external  muscles  elevate  the  ribs  and 
sternum,  and  thus  materially  increase  the  chest  ca|)a<'ity, 
causing  inspiration.  This  completed,  the  weight  of  the 
chest  walls,  with  the  assistance  of  certain  muscles,  causes 
descent  of  the  sternum  and  ribs,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
the  natural  contractility  of  the  lung  siibstantie,  forces  the 
air  out.  The  abdominal  type  of  breathing  is  predominant 
in  men,  the  thoracic  in  women. 

Respiratory  action  of  the  lungs  is  involuntary,  although 
it  may  be  voluntarily  modified.  The  hesoin  de  refijnrer,  or 
involuntary  incentive  to  breathe,  is  the  result  of  impres- 
sions received  by  the  medulla  oblongata  from  the  several 
regions  of  the  body,  which  constantly  demand  oxygen,  and 


transmitted  to  the  respiratory  muscles  of  the  thorax  and 
abdomen.  From  eighteen  to  twenty  respiratory  acts  take 
place  per  minute,  at  each  of  which  an  average  of  aU>ut  26 
cubic  inches  of  air  is  inspired  and  expired.  This  definite 
volume  of  air  which  ebbs  and  flows  is  termed  tidal  air.  hi 
addition,  fully  100  cubic  inches  of  air,  unaffected  by  n»sj»irtt- 
tory  movement,  remains  in  the  smaller  bronchi  and  air->H<>, 
and  is  termed  residual  air.  Tidal  inspiratory  air  is  fn-^h 
and  pure;  it  enters  aa  far  as  the  fourth  divisions  of  the 
bronchi,  and  becomes  a  part  of  the  relatively  impure  n- 
sidual  air.  Tidal  expiratory  air  contains  carbonic-acid  p»>, 
which  is  exhaled  and  removed  from  the  body.  Each  inspi- 
ratory act,  therefore,  adds  an  increment  of  oxygen  to  the 
bulk  of  air  in  the  lungs;  this  oxygen,  by  the  law  of  diffu- 
sion of  gases,  permeates  the  residual  air  and  reaches  the  air- 
sacs.  The  air-sacs  are  thin-walled ;  indeed,  their  wall^  an* 
essentially  a  network  of  capillary  vessels  held  together  by  a 
film  of  elastic  tissue.  In  tne  aggregate,  the  walls  of  th*'  in- 
numerable air-sacs  constitute  a  surface  of  many  hundn^d 
square  feet,  upon  which  the  reie  mirabile  or  delicate  nt^t- 
work  of  capillary  blood-vessels  is  spread.  The  pulmonary 
artery  brings  impure  or  venous  blood  to  this  extensive  sur- 
face, carbonic-acid  gas  is  exchanged  for  oxygen,  and  tin' 
purified,  reddened,  oxygenated  blood  is  returned  by  the  pul- 
monary vein  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  thence  to  l>e  pro- 
pelled through  the  entire  circulation.  The  red  blood-glob- 
ules are  the  carriers  of  oxygen,  and  the  full  object  of  the 
preliminary  respiratory  efforts  and  the  intermediate  chcm- 
ico-vital  interchange  is  really  attained  as  the.se  red  globules 
yield  their  quota  of  oxygen  to  the  cells  and  tissues  which 
constitute  the  Inxly.  For  a  description  of  the  re^pinitor)' 
organs  see  Histology;  for  artificial  respiration  see  Kems- 
ciTATioN ;  and  for  respiration  in  animals  see  Anatomy,  Com- 
parative.   See  also  Respiratory  Sounds. 

Revised  by  W.  Peppkr. 

Respiration  (in  plants):  See  Physiology,  Yegetablk. 

Respirators  [from  Lat.  ^respirator,  one  who  breatlM-s, 
deriv.  of  respira're,  breathe] :  mouth-pieces  of  fine  gau/c 
and  cloth,  to  be  worn  by  persons  with  diseased  or  wt-nk 
lungs  to  prevent  the  ingress  of  cold  and  damp  air  or  foniirn 
matter,  as  smoke,  dust,  or  the  grit  of  stone.  They  are  lit t  It- 
used  in  the  U.  S,,  but  are  much  employed  in  Great  Britain, 
especially  by  grinders  and  stone-carvers,  and  wherever  the 
air  is  permeated  by  impalpable  particles. 

Respiratory  Sounds  [respiratory  is  from  I^t.  r^^pt- 
rare,  oreathe] :  the  sounds  produced  by  inspiration  and  ex- 
piration, as  heard  by  the  method  termed  auscultation,  tin- 
anplication  of  the  ear  to  the  chest  directly,  or  iiulirecilx 
through  the  medium  of  the  stethoscope.  If  the  entirt* 
period  of  a  respiratory  act  be  represented  by  ten,  inspirath  'ii 
will  occupy  five-tenths  of  this  period;  expiration  imm«'di- 
ately  follows  during  the  succeeding  four-tenths ;  and  finally 
a  period  of  silence  and  rest  from  breathing  during  the  su]»- 
plementary  period  of  one-tenth.  During  the  entire  i>erii  *\ 
of  the  inspiratory  act  the  ear  applied  to  a  healthy  cheM  d«-- 
tccts  a  clear,  full,  breezv,  or  blowing  sound,  gentle  at  it^ 
commencement,  full  and  well  defined  at  its  middle,  aiul 
graduated  and  faint  as  it  is  terminating.  The  inspirator\ 
sound  is  soft  and  low-pitched  in  adults;  in  children  is  ruder 
and  exaggerated,  possessing  tubular  or  friction  quality. 
Expiratory  sound  is  comparatively  faint,  occupying  but  \\ 
small  part  of  the  period  of  the  expiratory  act.  It  alM»  i^ 
soft  and  low-pitched,  but  more  feeble  and  distant  than  in- 
spiratory sound,  since  the  recedence  of  expired  air  from  tlio 
cnest-walls  conducts  the  sound-waves  away  from  the  t»ar  i»f 
the  listener.  Expiratory  sound  is  loudest  at  its  comnu-iKi-- 
ment,  just  as  the  transition  from  inspiration  has  takiii 
place,  and  gently  graduates  until  it  ceases.  Insjuratory 
sound  is  the  result  of  air-friction  with  the  syst-em  of  bmn- 
chial  tubes  through  which  it  passes.  Hence  inspiration  i^  u 
compound  sound,  jjossessing  an  element  of  laryngeal  origin, 
elements  of  sound  developed  in  the  trachea,  the  large  urn i 
small  bronchial  tubes,  and  especially  where  the  tubes  l»ifur- 
cate;  and  finally  an  important  element  developed  hj  the  en- 
trance of  air  into  the  numberless  air-sacs  or  pulmonary  v«*^i- 
cles.  This  vesicular  element  of  inspiratory-  sound  is  a  t<^t 
of  the  healthy  lung.  Departures  from  the  normal  respira- 
tory sounds  are  eviiiences  of  bronchial,  pleural,  or  pulmonary 
disease.  The  sounds  are  harsh  in  early  bronchitis,  repla<iHi 
or  accompanied  by  rale  or  musical  sounds  in  advanctxi 
bronchitis;  they  are  masked  or  completely  oliacured  by  pleu- 
risy ;  their  inspiratory  and  expiratory  periods  have  cfiange«l 
relations  and  qualities  in  asthma  and  emphysema ;  and  iu. 


76 


RESURRECTION  PLANT 


RETAINING  WALL 


united  in  sin  and  redemption,  will  be  united  in  judgment 
and  glory  or  shame.  It  confirms  the  divinity  of  Christ  and 
his  atonement,  and  is  intimately  related  to  justification, 
faith,  repentance,  sanctification,  and  the  whole  Christian 
system.  It  is  the  foundation  of  the  Christian  week  and 
year. 

The  resurrection  implies  the  continued  identity  of  the  body 
— ^that  the  future  body  is  in  essence  identical  with  the  present 
body,  one  being  the  veiled  germ,  the  other  the  glorious  de- 
velopment. Concerning  identity,  it  has  been  taught  that 
(1)  ail  the  particles  of  matter  that  have  ever  been  in  the 
body  are  brought  together  again ;  (2)  only  the  particles 
present  at  death ;  (8)  certain  more  enduring  parts  are  pre- 
served, as  an  indestructible  corporeal  germ  from  whicn  is 
made  by  divine  power  an  organ  of  the  soul  adapted  to  its 
higher  condition ;  (4)  some  of  the  particles  remain,  however 
few ;  (5)  there  is  a  "  vital  germ  " ;  (6)  a  spiritual,  **  ethereal, 
luminous  "  body  is  evolved  at  the  moment  of  death ;  (7)  that 
the  plastic  formative  principle  of  lite  {anima, psyclu)  is  con- 
tinually gathering  and  casting  off  the  matter  it  needs  for  a 
body  wherever  it  may  be.  The  continuance  of  the  vital 
principle  constitutes  identity,  however  the  particles  of  mat- 
ter may  change,  as  in  a  flowing  stream.  In  the  case  of 
Christ  and  those  alive  at  his  coming,  the  body  then  present 
supplies  the  material ;  in  the  case  of  the  dead,  the  anima  or 
psyche  gathers  in  matter  as  it  needs  and  makes  the  psychical 
Dody.  The  fundamental  "form"  or  principle  of  bodily 
organism,  which  here  appropriates  earthly  materials,  shall 
in  the  resurrection  appropriate  higher  materials.  (8)  That 
identity  is  in  the  spirit  (wwj),  the  rational,  immortal  principle 
which  shows  itselt  in  the  body  which  it  occupies  and  stamps 
with  its  own  personality.  Identity  in  an  inorganic  body — 
e.  g.  a  stone — is  in  its  substance  and  form ;  in  an  organic 
body,  in  the  whole  organism ;  in  a  person  it  rests  in  the 
consciousness. 

The  resurrection  body  is  (1)  spiritual  (soma  pneumatikanV 
as  opposed  to  the  "  natural "  {soma  psych  ikon) ;  (2)  like  Christ  s 
body ;  (3)  glorious,  powerful,  incorruptible,  immortal. 

The  doctrine,  held  by  some,  of  two  resurrections  at  dif- 
ferent times— one  of  the  righteous,  to  which  the  New  Testa- 
ment specially  refers,  and  the  other  of  the  wicked — rests  on 
(1)  the  declaration,  Rev.  xx.  5,  6 ;  (2)  the  use  of  the  phrase 
"resurrection  from  the  dead,"  used  fifty  times,  and  always 
referring  to  the  good ;  the  phrase  "  of  the  dead,"  referring 
to  the  bad  ;  (3)  on  the  New  Testament  distinctions  concern- 
ing the  resurrection  of  the  just  and  unjust,  the  resurrection 
to  life  or  condemnation ;  (4)  the  longing  of  the  apostle  to 
attain  the  first;  and  (5)  on  the  order  given,  1  Cor.  xv.  23. 
Isaac  Riley.    Revised  by  F.  H.  Foster, 

Resarrection  Plant :  a  popular  name  of  several  plants 
which,  after  drying,  on  the  application  of  moisture  expand 
again.  One  of  these  is  the  Rose  of  Jericho  (see  Jebicho, 
Rose  of)  of  the  east  Mediterranean  region.  Another  com- 
mon one  is  Selaginella  lepidophylla^  a  Lycopod  of  the  fami- 
ly Selaginellace(e,  a  native  of  >lexico  and  Central  America. 
It  is  a  vivid  green,  rosulate,  branching  plant,  covering  a 
space  on  the  ground  from  5  to  8  inches  in  diameter.  When 
dry  it  rolls  up  into  a  dull-grayish  ball,  but  upon  the  return 
of  moisture  it  expands  again  into  a  beautiful  green  rosette. 
These  plants  are  imported  into  the  U.  S.  in  considerable 
numbers,  and  sold  as  curiosities.         Charles  E.  Bessey. 

BesDScitation,  or  Artificial  Respiration  [re^iscitation 
is  from  Lat.  resuscita'fio,  deriv.  of  resuscita're,  stir,  rouse  up 
a^in ;  re-,  again  +  »ubs,  from  under,  up  +  cita're,  ur^e,  ex- 
cite, rouse] :  motion  of  the  ribs  and  exchange  of  air  pro- 
duced by  external  instead  of  internal  and  vital  force.  The 
natural  exchange  of  air  in  respiration  is  effected  by  a  me- 
chanical process;  and  when  the  muscles  which  conduct  it 
are  deprived  of  their  nervous  stimulus  by  poisoning  of  the 
nerve-centers,  that  mechanical  process  can  be  kept  going  or 
be  recommenced  by  mechanical  means,  and  thus  life  be  re- 
kindled from  apparent  death.  By  compression  of  the  ribs 
the  chest-cavities  are  diminished,  and  a  proportionate  quan- 
tity of  foul  air  is  forced  out  by  the  mouth.  On  relinquish- 
ing that  compression,  the  ribs  by  their  own  ehisticity  bound 
back  to  their  former  poj^ition,  the  chest-cavities  are  enlarged, 
and  the  air  (if  that  be  the  surrounding  medium)  is  sucked  in 
to  prevent  a  vacuum.  Whatever  the  method,  it  is  upon  this 
principle  alone,  with  the  observance  of  proper  alternation 
and  rhythm,  that  siich  an  exchange  of  air  can  be  effected  as 
to  be  a  substitute  for  natural  breathing.     Its  use  is  in  sus- 

E ended  animation  from  sufftK'ation,  as  in  drowning  and 
anging,  also  from  vaj>or  of  chloroform  or  other  noxious 


gases,  in  which,  death  occurring  from  exclusion  of  air,  a 
supply  of  air  to  the  lungs  is  the  one  remedy. 

Tne  following  is  known  as  the  "direct  method  "  for  arti- 
ficial respiration : 

Bule  i.  To  drain  off  Wafer  from  Chest  and  Stomach  {in 
cases  of  Drouming). — instantly  strip  the  patient  to  the  whim. 
Place  him  face  downward,  the  pit  of  the  stomach  Inin^' 
raised  above  the  level  of  the  mouth  by  a  large,  hard  rt^ll  of 
clothing  placed  transvei-sely  beneath  the  boay.  Throw  ymir 
weight  forcibly  two  or  three  times,  for  a  moment  or  tuu, 
upon  the  patient's  back,  over  the  roll  of  clothing,  so  a.s  to 
press  all  fluids  in  the  stomach  out  of  the  mouth. 

Rule  2,  To  perform  Artificial  Breathing.— (^mcVXy  turn 
the  patient  upon  his  back,  the  roll  of  clothing  being  so 
placed  beneath  as  to  make  the  breast-bone  the  highest  iK>iiit 
of  the  body.  Kneel  beside  or  astride  patient's  hips.  Gni'^p 
front  part  of  the  chest  on  either  side  of  the  pit  of  the  stom- 
ach, resting  your  fingers  along  the  spaces  l)etween  the  ^^liort 
ribs.  Brace  your  elbows  against  your  sides,  and,  stead ilv 
grasping  and  pressing  forward  and  upward,  throw  your 
whole  weight  upon  the  chest,  gradually  increasing  the  pn-s- 
sure  while  you  can  count  one — two — three.  Then  sudclfnly 
let  fo  with  a  final  push,  which  springs  you  back  to  your  lir-^t 
position.  Rest  erect  upon  your  knee  while  you  can  count 
one — two;  then  make  pressure  again  as  before,' repeating  thi- 
entire  motions  at  first  about  four  or  five  times  a  niinuti>. 
gradually  increasing  to  about  ten  or  twelve  times.  V>e  the 
same  regularity  as  m  blowing  bellows  and  as  is  seen  in  nat- 
ural breathing,  which  you  are  imitating.  If  another  i»ersniv 
he  present,  let  him  with  one  hand,  by  means  of  a  dry  nirc- 
of  Inien,  hold  the  tip  of  the  tongue  out  of  one  comer  of  iho 
mouth,  and  with  the  other  hand  grasp  both  wrists  and  pin 
them  to  the  ground  above  the  patient's  head. 

Sylvester's  method  is  the  most  generally  applicable.  Tho 
body  being  placed  upon  the  back,  with  the  head  slightly  cU- 
vated,  the  flexed  arms,  grasped  just  above  the  elbow's,  a i»^ 
carried  outward  and  upwani  from  the  chest  almost  j>er|K*n- 
dicularly,  and  retained  in  their  position  for  about  two  m  »•- 
onds.  I'hey  are  then  lowered  and  brought  closely  to  tl.. 
sides  of  the' chest,  against  which  they  are  firmly  pressed  f-.r 
the  same  length  of  time,  in  order  to  expel  the  air  ai>  <Iuriiii: 
the  act  of  expiration.  These  alternate  movements  of  elevM- 
tion  and  depression  are  repeated  from  twelve  to  fourttMii 
times  a  minute,  and  are  performed  with  all  possible  gent  U  - 
ness.  I^eWs  method  of  direct  artificial  respiration  is  aj)ph- 
cable  especially  to  opium-poisoning  or  other  forms  of  nar- 
cosis. A  tube  is  inserted  into  the  larynx  and  trachea  aii<l 
warmed  air  forced  in  by  a  bellows.  By  this  method  pers«  ^ij^ 
apparently  dead  have  been  resuscitated.  Mouth-t<>-nn)Ui  fi 
insufflation,  in  children  especially,  is  easily  practicable  ami 
very  useful. 

The  length  of  time  persons  have  been  underwater,  «»r 
have  remained  apparently  dead  after  leaving  the  water.  at)«I 
yet  been  resuscitated,  is  uncertain.  The  reported  time  is  ^« . 
remarkably  long  in  some  cases  as  to  justify  efforts  for  resu.— 
citation  for  at  least  an  hour,  the  patient  having  breat In  ^i 
within  half  an  hour  or  perhaps  an  hour.  In  experiments  1  •  v 
a  committee  of  the  Royal  Medico-Chirurgical  Society  t  t 
London  in  1862,  dogs  after  complete  submersion  a  minute 
and  a  half  never  recovered.  After  respiratory  acts  hit*  I 
ceased,  the  heart  continued  to  act  never  more  than  four 
minutes.  In  the  human  subject  these  periods  doubtles.<  mn  \ 
be  much  longer,  governed  largely  by  tne  continuousnevs  « . f 
submersion,  the  rate  of  the  circulation  at  the  last  moment  <.« ' 
consciousness,  the  temperature  of  the  water,  the  amount  *.*{ 
it  which  enters  the  lungs,  etc.         Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Retaining  lYall :  a  wall  of  stone  built  to  sustain  Imi  i  k  s 
of  earth  in  position.  The  lateral  pressure  of  the  earth  «i'  - 
pends  upon  its  nature  and  upon  the  inclination  of  the  v^iil 
(See  Earthwork.)  The  thickness  of  the  wall  at  the  top  w  i  . 
be  usually  2  feet  or  more,  and  its  thickness  at  the  Ims^^  is  t  •< 
be  so  determined  that  ample  security  against  sliding.  r*»iiii  ^ 
ing,  and  crushing  will  be  secured.  *rhe  last  of  these  is  M  ^ 
able  to  occur  only  in  very  high  walls,  and  the  first  can  k  ••! 
always  avoided  by  inclining  the  joints  backward.  The  ii--  i 
of  formulas  for  computing  the  thickness  is  hence  mail .  i  m 
confined  to  the  case  of  rotation  for  ordinary  walls, and  tb«--.! 
are  deduced  so  that  under  the  most  unfavorable  cireu  t  n . 
stances  the  line  of  direction  of  the  resultant  of  the  eart  i 
pressure  and  the  weight  of  the  wall  shall  cut  the  base  w  it  h  *  i 
its  middle  third.  The  cross-section  of  the  wall  is  usuh  .  ^ 
trapezoidal,  but  walls  with  curved  front  surfaces  are  «  ..  , 
casionally  built.    If  the  back  of  a  trapezoidal  wall  be  vi-x" 


78 


RETZ 


REUTER 


Betz,  Jean  Francois  Paul  de  Gondi,  Cardinal  de:  b.  at 
Montmirail-en-Brie,  France,  Oct.,  1614.  Ilia  family  held 
high  ecclesiastical  dienities^  and  forced  hira  against  his  will 
into  the  Church.  He  led,  nevertheless,  an  irregidar  life, 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  service  of  a  restless  political  ambi- 
tion. He  was  active  in  intrigues  against  liichelieu,  after 
whose  death  he  was,  in  1643,  appointed  by  the  queen-regent 
coadjutor  to  his  uncle,  the  Archbishop  of  Paris.  The  power 
he  acquired  as  a  pulpit  orator  he  turned  to  political  ends 
and  tried  to  supplant  Mazarin,  taking  advantage  of  the 
troubles  of  the  Fronde.  He  acquired  a  cardinaVs  hat  in 
1651  by  his  intrigues,  but  was  outgeneraled  by  Mazarin,  ar- 
rested in  1652,  and  imprisoned,  first  at  Vincennes,  then  at 
Nantes.  While  in  prison  he  became  Archbishop  of  Paris. 
He  escaped,  fled  to  Spain,  and  remained  a  fugitive  there  and 
in  lUly  and  Holland  till  after  Mazarin's  death,  when,  in 
1662,  he  made  his  peace  with  Louis  XIV.,  exchanged  his 
archbishopric  for  the  abbac}^  of  St.  Denis,  in  Paris,  and 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  dignified  and  sumptuous  quiet, 
employed  in  some  delicate  diplomatic  missions  to  Rome,  in 
writing  his  Mimoires,  and  in  paying  his  debts.  I),  in  Paris, 
Aug.  24,  1679.  His  Memoir es  cover  the  years  1643-55,  are 
very  frank,  not  always  truthful,  but  brilliantlv  written. 
They  were  first  published  in  1717;  the  best  recent  edition  is 
that  in  the  series  of  (jhrantU  JBcrivains  de  la  France  (first  9 
voK,  Paris,  1872-87).  A.  G.  Canfield. 

Retziius,  Maonits  Gustaf:  histologist;  b.  in  Stockholm, 
Sweden,  Oct.  27, 1842 ;  widely  known  and  quoted  as  an  au- 
thority in  anthropology.  His  work  Finska  Kranier  (Fin- 
nish Skulls),  published  in  1878,  is  standard.  In  1884  he 
compiled  his  German  work  Daa  Gehdrorgan  der  Wirbel- 
thiere.  Since  1872  he  has  edited  the  volumes  of  Ur  ivlr  tida 
Furskning,  and  in  1881-82  he  edited  Biologische  Unter- 
suchungen,  mainly  written  by  himself.  R.  B.  A. 

Reochlin,  roich-Ieen'  (Hellenized  Capnio),  Johann:  clas- 
sical and  Hebrew  scholar  and  humanist ;  b.  at  Pforzheim, 
Baden,  Germany,  Feb.  22,  1455.  He  was  educated  in  the 
chapel  of  the  Margrave  of  Baden,  and  followed  in  1473  the 


Dictionarium,  nngtdas  Voces  lAitinag  breviler  explicans; 
and  during  a  second  visit  to  France  in  1478  he  studied  law 
at  Orleans.  In  1481  he  lectured  on  jurisprudence  and 
belles-lettres  at  the  University  of  TQbingen,  received  the 
title  of  imperial  councilor  from  the  emperor,  and  lived  sub- 
sequently for  several  years  at  the  court  of  the  elector  pala- 
tine, Philip,  at  Heidelberg  (1492-96).  To  this  period  belong 
his  first  studies  of  the  Hebrew  language  and  his  coraetly, 
Sergiits,  8i've  Capitis  Caput,  whose  satire  against  the  clergy 
was  heartily  enjoyed.  In  1498  he  went  to  Rome,  his  patron, 
the  elector  palatine,  having  fallen  under  the  papal  ban,  and 
he  succeeded  in  procuring  his  absolution.  After  his  return 
he  was  appointed  president  of  the  Suabian  confederate  tri- 
bunal, but  he  found  time  to  continue  his  studies  of  Hebrew, 
the  results  of  which  were  his  Rudimenta  Ilehraica  (1506), 
De  Arte  Cabbalistica  Libri  III.,  and  De  Ac^ntibus  et  Or- 
tho^raphia  Hebrcpor^im  Libri  IlL  (1518).  By  these  works 
he  inaugurated  the  study  of  the  Hebrew  language  in  West- 
em  Europe.  He  exercised  a  similar  stimulating  influence 
bv  his  handbooks,  editions  (e.  ff.  Xenophon's  Agesilaus, 
JJiero.  and  the  two  speeches  of  Aschines  and  Demosthenes 
on  The  Crown),  and  personal  exertions  in  the  study  in  Ger- 
many of  Latin  and  Greek.  The  pronunciation  of  the  Greek 
language  known  as  lotacism  originated  with  him.  He  was 
t4Mi  liberal  to  escape  clashing  against  the  prejudices  of  his 
age.  A  converted  Jew,  Johann  Pfefferkoni,  protK>sed  in 
1510  that  all  Hebrew  books,  with  the  exception  of  the  Bible, 
should  be  burned.  The  Dominicans  were  in  raptures  over 
the  p»ro[K)?;ition ;  the  Inquisition  immediately  recognized  it 
as  H  new  weapon  of  persecution ;  the  emperor  ac^iuieseed. 
Meanwiiile  Keiichlin  remonstrated,  the  emperor  withilrew 
his  consent,  and  the  Inquisition  and  the  monks  flew  into  a 
fury.  Keiichlin  published  his  Specuhim  Oculart  (Augt^n- 
spiegel)  {UiVZ)  and  Deftnuio  contra  Cat  until  iatorea  (15i:^), 
while  ririch  von  Hutten  and  Franz  von  Sickingen  kept 
guard  over  his  personal  safety.  In  1515  appeared  the  first 
part  of  the  Epintolie  (ibHcnrornm  Virorum,  most  of  which 
were  written  by  a  friend  of  Kouchlin,  Crotus  Kubianus, 
others  by  L'lrich  von  Hutten.  The  success  of  this  famous 
satire  was  instantaneous,  and  did  not  a  little  in  paving  the 
way  for  the  lit*  format  ion.  With  Luther  himself  Reuchlin 
felt  a  deep  sympathy,  but  he  declined  an  invitation  to  come 


to  Wittenberg,  sending  in  his  stead  his  nephew  Melanch- 
thon,  and  maintained  his  connection  with  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  to  the  last.  In  1520  he  was  appointai  professor 
at  Ingolstadt,  but  when  the  plague  broke  out  in  that  city  h*- 
determined  to  retire  to  Tttbingen,  but  died  at  Liehenzi'll, 
June  30,  1522.  His  Life  was  written  by  Gehres  (IHir))! 
Meyerhoff  (1830),  Geiger  (1871),  and  Horawitz  (1877).  (leiger 
also  edited  his  Letters  (1876).       Revised  by  A.  Gudema.n. 

R6nnlon,  r5'a'ni-on',  called  Bourbon  prior  to  1848;  also 
lie  Bonaparte ;  an  island  and  French  colony  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  ;  belonging  to  the  Mascarene  group;  about  lOO  mih-s 
S.  W.  of  Mauritius ;  lat.  20'  51'  43"  S.,  Ion.  55  30  16*  E.  h 
is  38  miles  long,  28  miles  wide;  area,  965  s<|.  miles.  It  is 
volcanic,  and  is  traversed  by  a  mountain-chain  thetliroction 
of  which  is  N.  and  S.  This  mountain-range,  of  which  r.iM- 
peak  rises  10,000  feet  al)ove  the  sea,  divides  the  island  int<» 
two  portions,  differing  in  climate  and  productions.  TIk* 
Piton  de  la  Fournaise,  7,200  feet  high,  is  an  active  volcan«», 
the  eruptions  of  which  occur  on  an  average  at  least  twice  a 
year.  The  soil  in  some  parts  is  verv  fertile, and  the st^nirv 
IS  generally  extremely  beautiful,  the  climate  was  fornuTlV 
healthful,  but  Europeans  now  suffer  much  from  typhoid  fi-vi»r 
and  dysentery.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  about  77  F. 
The  island  is  often  visited  by  terrific  hurricanes,  which  de- 
molish houses  and  tear  up  trees  by  the  roots.  The  chi^f 
articles  of  export  are  sugar,  coffee,  and  dyewowis.  Mai/.*-, 
rice,  and  tobacco  are  also  cultivated.  Reunion  has  no  ^'<mh1 
harbors,  and  the  coast  is  consequently  dangerous.  Cai«it«l, 
St.  Denis.  The  chief  port  is  Fointe-ile-Galeta,  from  which 
extends  a  railway  78  miles  long.  This  island  was  di.s<M>v- 
ered  in  1545  by  the  Portuguese,  and  was  occupied  bv  the 
French  in  1649.  Pop.  (1889)  165,915.  of  whom  25.000  are 
Hindus.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Hakrisotox. 

Benss,  rois :  the  name  of  two  small  princijialities  of  (ier- 
many  belonging  to  an  elder  and  younger  line  of  the  famil  v 
of  Reuss,  and  consisting  of  several  separate  territories  situ- 
ated between  Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Bavaria.  The  domin- 
ion of  the  elder  line,  Reuss-Greiz,  ha*  an  area  of  122  ^\. 
miles.  Pop.  (1890)  62,754.  Capital,  Greiz.  That  of  i\u^ 
younger  line,  Reuss-Schleiz  Gera,  has  an  area  of  319  S4i 
miles.  Pop.  (1890)  119,811.  Capital,  Schleiz.  The  surfacn- 
of  bothrjrincipalities  is  hillv,  reaching  over  2.000  feet  hiirli 
in  the  Thttringer  Wald.  W'ore  than  a  third  is  covered  w  it  h 
forests,  and  there  are  extensive  meadows  on  which  cattle  are 
fattened.    Woolen,  cotton,  and  silk  goods  are  woven. 

Benss :  a  river  of  Switzerland.  It  rises  in  the  canton  i  .f 
Uri,  near  St.  Gothard,  descends  in  its  upper  course  4..*><«> 
feet  in  a  series  of  wild  cataracts  and  magnificent  cascadt-v, 
enters  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Lucerne,  issues  from  th** 
northern  end  as  a  clear,  deeji-green,  navigable  stream,  aii<l 
joins  the  Aar  in  the  canton  of  Aargau  at  Windisch  after  tt 
course  of  about  100  miles. 

Benss,  fioouARo  Gl'illaume  EuotxE,  D.  I). :  theolc»gian  : 
b.  at  Strassburg  (then  a  part  of  P>ance).' July  1».  1N04  ; 
educated  at  the  seminary  of  his  native  city;  studied  the- 
ology at  GSttingen  under  Eichhorn,  Oriental  philology  at 
Halle  under  Gesenius,  and  pursued  the  latter  braucii  at 
Paris  under  Silvestre  de  Sacv ;  taught  biblical  criticism  and 
Oriental  languages  in  the  theological  school  of  Strassburic 
1829-34 ;  became  extraordinary  professor  there  1834,  and  or- 
dinary (regidar)  professor  1836;  retired  on  a  pension  IJ^hh  ; 
declined  a  call  to  the  University  of  Jena;  published  (in  Ger- 
man) a  Bistory  of  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament  (Ilallv. 
1842;  6th  ed.  Brunswick,  1887;  Eng.  trans,  from  5th  e«l. 
1874,  by  E.  L.  Honghton,  2  vols..  Boston,  18H4),  and  (it  - 
Schick te  der  heiligen  Schriften  Alten  Testaments  (1881 ;  t}d 
ed.  1890) ;  Histoire  de  la  Thiol  ogie  chritienne  au  si  tele  fifHn<- 
foliqm  (2  vols.,  Strassburg,  1852;  3d  etl.  1864;  Eng.  tran^^, 
Edinburgh,  1872);  Histoire  du  Canon  des  Saintes  J^m- 
fures  dans  TEglise  chritienne  (1863;  Ene.  trans.  Kdii»^ 
burgh,  1884);  and  prepared  an  annotated  French  trans-la- 
tion  of  the  entire  Bible  (19  vols.,  Paris,  1874-81),  ami  th«- 
same  in  German  (Brunswick.  1892,  seq.).  He  edited  for  man  v 
years  a  German  review  which  appears  at  Jena  {Beitraat  . 
etc.),  contributed  largely  to  C'oiani  s  Revue  de  Theologif^  an»  i 
was  one  of  the  most  learned  and  liberal  theologians  of  tit.- 
French  I*rotestant  Church.  With  Baum  and  Cunitz.  itm  1 
after  their  death  alone,  he  edited  the  monumental  edit  ion  «♦  • 
Calvin's  Opera,  not  yet  finished  (vol.  1.,  1894).  I),  in  Stni>--- 
burg,  Apr.  15,  1891."  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Benter,  roi't/»r,  Paul  JrLirs,  Baron:  promoter  of  tin- 
telegraphic  system  on  the  continent  of  Eurofie;  b.  at  CasM-l^ 


80 


REVELATION 


ties  working  upon  natural  data  and  that  obtained  in  a  su- 
pernatural mode  as  well  as  from  a  supernatural  source. 
Again,  in  the  knowledppe  of  God,  communicated  by  the  ob- 
jective activities  of  his  Spirit  upon  the  minds  of  special 
organs  of  revelation— supernaturally,  thus,  as  to  immediate 
origin  as  well  as  to  ultimate  source — ^some  may  emerge  into 
consciousness  along  the  lines  of  the  ordinary  action  of  the 
human  faculties.  Such  knowledge  would  form  a  still  higher 
intermediate  class — between  that  obtained  by  the  natural 
faculties  working  according  to  their  native  powers  on  super- 
natural data  and  that  obtained  in  a  purely  supernatural 
mode,  as  well  as  from  a  supernatural  source  and  by  a  super- 
natural agencv.  These  moiles  of  revelation  are  not  to  be 
overlooked,  but  neither  is  it  to  be  overlooked  that  among 
the  ways  in  which  God  has  revealed  himself  is  also  thw  way 
— that  he  has  spoken  to  man  as  Spirit  to  spirit,  mouth  to 
mouth,  and  has  made  himself  anu  his  gracious  purposes 
known  to  him  in  an  immediate  and  direct  word  of  God, 
which  is  simply  received  and  not  in  any  sense  attained  by 
man.  In  these  revelations  we  reach  the  culminating  cate- 
gory of  special  revelation,  in  which  its  peculiar  charact^er  is 
most  clearly  seen.  And  it  is  these  direct  revelations  which 
modern  thought  finds  most  difiicult  to  allow  to  be  real,  and 
which  Christian  apologists  must  es|)ecially  vindicate. 

Theories  of  Revelation, — In  the  state  of  the  case  which 
has  just  been  pointed  out,  it  is  a  matter  of  course  that  recent 
theories  of  revelation  should  very  frequently  leave  no  or  but 
little  place  for  the  highest  form  of  revelation,  that  by  the 
direct  word  of  God.  The  lowest  class  of  theories  represent 
revelation  as  taking  place  only  through  the  purely  natural  ac- 
tivities of  the  human  mind,  and  deny  the  reality  of  an^  spe- 
cial action  of  the  Divine  Spirit  directly  on  the  mind  m  the 
communication  of  revealea  truth.  Those  who  share  this 
general  position  may  differ  very  greatly  in  their  presuppo- 
sitions. They  may,  from  a  fundamentally  deistic  stand- 
point, jealously  guard  the  processes  of  human  thought  from 
all  intrusion  on  the  part  of  God ;  or  they  may,  from  a  fun- 
damentally pantheistic  standpoint,  look  upon  all  human 
thought  as  only  the  unfolding  of  the  divine  thought.  They 
may  differ  also  very  greatly  as  to  the  nature  and  source  of 
the  objective  data  on  which  the  mind  is  supposed  to  work 
in  obtaining  its  knowledge  of  God.  But  they  are  at  one  in 
conceiving  that  which  from  the  divine  side  is  spoken  of  as 
revelation,  as  on  the  human  side,  simply  the  natural  devel- 
opment of  the  moral  and  religious  consciousness.  The  ex- 
treme deistic  theory  allows  the  possibility  of  no  knowledge 
of  God  except  what  is  obtained  by  the  human  mind  working 
upon  the  data  supplied  by  creation  to  the  exclusion  of  provi- 
dential government.  Modem  speculative  theists  correct 
the  deistic  conception  by  postulating  an  immanent  divine 
activity,  both  in  external  providence  and  in  mental  action. 
The  data  on  which  the  mind  works  are  supplied,  accord- 
ing to  them,  not  only  by  creation,  but  also  by  Goil's  moral 
government ;  and  the  theory  grades  upward  in  proportion 
as  something  like  a  special  providence  is  admitted  in  the 
peculiar  function  ascribed  to  Israel  in  developing  the  idea  of 
uod,  and  the  significance  of  Jesus  Christ  as  tne  emboiliment 
of  the  perfect  relation  between  God  and  man  is  recognized. 
(Biedermann,  ChriniL  Dogmatik,  i..  264 ;  Lipsius,  Dogmatik, 
41 ;  Pfleiderer,  ReligionsphiloHophie^  iv.,  46.)  The  school  of 
Kitschl,  though  tht^y  speak  of  a  "positive  revelation"  in 
Jesus  Christ,  make  no  real  advance  upon  this.  Denving  not 
only  all  mvstical  ccmnectioh  of  the  soul  with  God,  \)ut  also 
all  rational  knowledge  of  divine  things,  they  confine  the 
data  of  revelation  to  the  historical  manifestation  of  Christ, 
which  makes  an  impression  on  the  minds  of  men  such  as 
justifies  us  in  speaking  of  him  as  revealing  God  to  us. 
(Uerrmann,  Der  Begriff  der  Offenharung,  and  Der  Verkehr 
des  Christen  mit  Uott\  Kaftan,  Das  Wesen^  etc.) 

We  are  on  higher  ground,  however,  although  still  moving 
in  essentially  the  same  circle  of  conceptions  as  to  the  nature 
of  revelation,  when  we  rise  to  the  tneory  which  identifies 
revelation  strictlv  with  the  scries  of  redemptive  acts  (Koeh- 
ler.  Stud,  und  Jiritiken,  18.")2,  p.  875).  From  this  point  of 
view,  as  truly  as  from  that  of  the  deist  or  speculative  theist, 
revelation  is  confined  to  the  purely  external  manifestation 
of  God  in  a  series  of  acts.  It  is  ditferentiated  from  the  con- 
ceptions of  the  deist  and  speculative  thoist  only  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  works  of  God,  which  are  sup|)oso^  to  supply 
the  data  which  are  observed  and  worked  into  knowledge  by 
the  unaided  activities  of  the  human  mind.  In  emjibjusiz- 
ing  here  those  acts  of  a  special  pr(ivid«*nce  which  constitute 
the  redemptive  activity  of  God,  this  theory  for  the  Ur-st  time 
lays  the  foundation  for  a  distinction  between  gi-neral  and 


special  revelation;  and  it  grades  upward  in  proporti(»n  as 
the  truly  miraculous  character  of  God's  redemptive  work  i«» 
recognized,  and  acts  of  a  truly  miraculous  nature  are  in- 
cluded in  it.     And  it  rises  above  itself  in  proportion  «**, 
along  with  the  supernatural  character  of  the  series  of  ob- 
jective acts  with  which  it  formally  identifies  revelation, 
it  recognizes  an  immediate  action  of  God's  Spirit  on  tlie 
mind  of  man,  preparing,  fitting,  and  enabling  him  to  appre- 
hend and  interpret  aright  the  revelation  made  objectively 
in  the  redemptive  acts.    J.  Chr.  K.  Hofmann  in  his  earlier 
work.  Prophecy  and  Fulfillment,  announces  this  theory  in 
a  lower  form,  but  corrects  it  in  his  later  SchriftheweiH, 
Richard  Rothe  {Zur  Dogmatik^  p.  64)  is  an  outstanding  ex- 
am pie  of  one  of  its  higher  forms.    To  him  revelation  c<ni- 
sists  fundamentally  in  the  "manifestation"  of  God  in  tho 
series  of  redemptive  acts,  by  which  God  enters  into  natural 
history  by  means  of  an  unambiguously  supernatural  and  pe- 
culiarly divine  history,  and  which  man  is  enabled  to  under- 
stand and  rightly  to  mterpret  by  virtue  of  an  inward  work 
of  the  Divine  Spirit  that  Rothe  calls '*  inspiration."    But 
this  internal  action  of  the  Spirit  does  not  communicate  new 
truth ;  it  only  enables  the  subject  to  combine  the  elements 
of  knowledge  naturally  received  into  a  new  combination, 
from  which  springs  an  essentially  new  thought  which  he  is 
clearly  conscious  that  he  did  not  produce.    The  theory  pro- 
pounded by  Prof.  A.  B.  Bruce  in  nis  well-known  lectu're>  on 
The  Chief  End  of  Revelation  stands  possibly  one  stairc 
higher  than  Rothe's,  to  which  it  bears  a  very  express  relation. 
Dr.  Bruce  speaks  with  great  circumspection.    He  represent  s 
revelation  as  consisting  in  the  "  self-manifestation  of  G(k1  in 
human  history  as  the  God  of  a  gracious  purpose — ^the  mani- 
festation being  made  not  merely  or  chiefly  by  words,  but 
very  specially Tby  deeds"  (p.  155);  while  he  looks  \i\nm  "in- 
spiration "  as  **  not  enabling  the  prophets  to  originate  a  new 
idea  of  God,"  but  "rather  as  assisting  them  to  read  aright 
the  divine  name  and  nature."   Dr.  Bruce  transcends  the  \h>- 
sition  of  the  class  of  theorists  here  under  consideration  in 
proportion  as  he  magnifies  the  oflRce  of  inner  "inspiration.*' 
and,  above  all,  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  meaning  whi<-h 
he  attaches  to  the  saving  clause  that  revelation  is  not  meruit/ 
by  word,  but  also  by  deed.    The  theory  commended  l)y  the 
great  name  of  Bishop  B.  F.  Westcott  (The  Oospel  of  Life) 
is  quite  similar  to  Dr.  Bruce's. 

By  these  transitional   theories  we  are  already  carrioil 
well  into  a  second  class  of  theories,  which  recognize  that 
revelation  is  fundamentally  the  work  of  the  Spirit  of  G<mI 
in  direct  communication  with  the  human  mind.     At   it^ 
lowest  level  this  conception  need  not  rise  above  the  pan- 
theistic postulate  of  the  unfolding  of  the  life  and  thought 
of  God  within  the  world.    The  Divine  Spirit  stirs  mcn'^ 
hearts,  and  feelings  and  ideas  spring  up,  which  are  n(»  li^.-^ 
revelations  of  God  than  movements  of  tlie  human  soul.     A 
higher  level  is  attained  when  the  action  of  God  is  conccivt'il 
as  working  in  the  heart  of  man  an  inward  certainty  of  oli- 
vine life — as,  for  example,  bv  Schultz  {Old  Testament  Th*  - 
ology);  revelation  being  confined  as  much  as  possible  to  th*- 
inner  life  of  man  apparently  to  avoid  the  recognition  of 
objective  miracle.    A  still  higher  level  is  reached  where  thf 
action  of  the  Spirit  is  thought  of — after  the  fashion  of 
Rothe,  for  example — as  a  necessary  aid  granted  to  certain 
men  to  enable  them  to  apprehend  and  interpret  aright  t)»f 
objective  manifestation  of  God.    The  theory  rises  in  char- 
acter in  proportion  as  the  necessity  of  this  action  of  tli*- 
Spirit,  its  relative  importance,  and  the  nature  of  the  effiHt 
produced  by  it  are  magnified.    So  long,  however,  as  it  c<-ii- 
ceives  of  this  work  of  the  Spirit  as  secondary,  and  onlinanly 
if  not  invariably  successive  to  the  series  of  redemptive  a«t  -^ 
of  God,  which  are  thought  to  constitute  the  real  core  of  tht- 
revelation,  it  falls  short,  of  the  biblical  idea.    Accortling  i* » 
the  biblical   representations,  the  fundamental  element    in 
revelation  is  not  the  objective  process  of  redemptive  M<^t^. 
but  the  revealing  operations  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  which  run 
through  the  whole  series  of  modes  of  communication  j»ro|.fr 
to  Spirit,  culminating  in  communications  bv  the  objo<'ti\  ♦- 
worn.    The  characteristic  element  in  the  Bible  idea  of  nMi-- 
lati(m  in  its  highest  sense  is  that  the  organs  of  revelatn»ti 
are  not  creatively  concerned  in  the  revelations  mmlo  thn»UL'-  \  -. 
them,  but  (K*cupy  a  recef»tive  attitude.   The  contents  of  tin'  i  t* 
messages  are  not  something  thought  out.  inferred,  ho|KMh  ^^\ 
feared  by  them,  but  something  conveyed  to  them,   ofti-i. 
forced  ufmn  them  by  the  irresistible  might  of  tlie  reveahn^ 
Spirit.     No  conception  can  do  justice  to  the  Bible  iilca  «  'ij 
revelation  which  neglects  these  facts.     Nor  is  justice  doii.i 
even  to  the  rational  idea  of  revelation  when  thev  arc   ne-    ^ 


82 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OP 


a  fourth,  the  introduction  of  monachism,  etc.  Such  a  di- 
versity rises  simply  from  the  imagination  having  been  set 
free  and  working  without  any  fixed  rule.  It  is,  moreover, 
inadmissible  that  it  should  be  necessary  to  possess  the  whole 
treasury  of  learning  belonging  to  a  professor  of  history  in 
order  to  understand  a  book  which  God  has  given  to  his  peo- 
ple for  the  purpose  of  edification.  The  modem  rationalists 
nave  broken  with  this  method  of  interpretation  for  many 
reasons,  good  and  bad  ;  first,  no  doubt,  because  it  presup- 
poses divine  inspiration,  but  also  because  their  whole  sys- 
tem leads  them  to  seek  the  key  to  the  interpretation  of  a 
book  in  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was  written. 
Hence  the  interpretation  of  the  beast  as  the  Roman  em- 
pire, and  of  the  head  wounded  to  death,  but  reappearing  as 
Antichrist,  as  the  Emperor  Xero.  Insurmountable  difficul- 
ties are,  however,  involved  in  this  method  of  explanation ; 
and  it  seems  very  singular  that  a  book  so  holily  conceived 
and  so  severely  planned  should  be  a  mere  tissue  of  fancies 
and  hallucinations. 

There  remains  the  method  which  recognizes  in  the  Reve- 
lation a  picture  of  the  general  progress  of  the  Church,  to 
whose  understanding  no  other  premises  are  necessary  than 
such  as  may  be  drawn  from  the  Scriptures  themselves. 
There  is  still  room  for  individual  views.  Thus  Bossuet  sees 
in  the  destruction  of  the  beast  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire ; 
Hengstenberg  considers  the  reign  of  a  thousand  years  as 
the  predominance  of  Christianity  from  Charlemagne  to  our 
days ;  John  Nelson  Darby,  the  principal  founder  of  the  Plym- 
outh Brethren,  holds  that  the  whole  history  of  the  Church 
from  the  apostolic  age  up  to  that  preceding  the  return  of 
Christ  is  omitted  in  the  picture,  and  must  be  placed  in  the 
interval  between  the  thira  and  fourth  chapters,  so  that  the 
whole  vision  (iv.-xix.)  relates  exclusively  to  the  future,  to 
that  which  precedes  immediately  the  coming  of  the  Lord. 
It  is  impossible  to  enter  here  into  a  discussion  of  these  in- 
dividual points  of  view,  but  it  is  hoped  that  the  reader,  fol- 
lowing the  outline  which  has  been  given,  will  find  in  the 
Revelation  points  sufficiently  precise  to  indicate  the  course 
of  the  religious  progress  of  humanity,  and  at  the  same  time 
sufficiently  elevated  to  enlighten  and  fortifv  his  heart  under 
all  the  various  events  of  his  life.  There  is  the  same  power  in 
this  vision  as  in  that  through  which  God  revealed  to  Moses 
in  six  successive  pictures  the  origin  of  the  world.  At  every 
moment  of  a  person's  life  he  finds  himself  in  contact  with 
the  religious  bearing  of  this  vision  in  Genesis.  At  every 
moment,  too,  but  especially  when  he  is  under  the  cross,  his 
soul  gathers  new  life  from  the  spirit  of  the  apocalyptic 
expectations.  It  is  solelv  for  this  purpose  of  edification, 
and  not  in  order  to  satisfy  our  curiositv,  that  God  has  per- 
mitted us  to  see,  on  the  one  hand,  through  the  eyes  of 
Moses,  the  stream  of  the  times  issuing  forth  from  eternity, 
and  on  the  other,  through  the  eyes  of  John,  the  times  re- 
turning to  the  sea  of  eternity.  Christ  is  coming  (the  Old 
Testament) ;  Christ  has  come  (the  ^spel) ;  Christ  shall  come 
again  (the  Revelation) — such  is  the  sum  of  the  history  of 
mankind. 

One  of  the  chief  problems  of  the  book  relates  to  Anti- 
christ. There  are  two  leading  opinions  respecting  his  per- 
son. Some  consider  hiin  merely  as  a  poetical  personinca- 
tion  of  a  principle,  of  the  spirit  of  reoellion  against  God 
and  Christ,  which  shall  go  on  increasing  till  the  final  tri- 
umph of  the  gospel.  Others  recognize  in  him  a  real  man, 
who  shall  concentrate  in  his  own  person  to  the  utmost  ex- 
tent the  spirit  of  apostasy.  The  second  chapter  of  the 
Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  in  which  his  apparition 
is  described,  speaks  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  second  ex- 
planation. Antichrist  is  here  designated  as  the  man  of  sin, 
who  shall  place  himself  as  a  god  in  the  temple  of  God  ;  he 
is  called  the  wicked  man  whom  the  Lord  shall  destroy  by 
the  breath  of  his  mouth.  Uis  theological  system  may  be 
summed  up  in  the  three  following  theses :  (1)  There  is  no 
personal  God  without  and  above  the  universe;  (2)  man 
IS  himself  his  own  god — he  is  the  god  of  this  world ;  (3) 
'*I  am  the  true  representative  of  humanity;  bv  worship- 
iuji^  me  mankind  worships  itself."  Even  from  this  general 
point  of  view  there  still  remain  certain  differences  of  opin- 
ion. According  to  some  this  person  has  already  appeared 
on  the  stage ;  he  is  the  pope.  It  is  evident,  however,  that 
the  pope  has  never  actually  substituted  himself  for  God  or 
Christ ;  on  the  contrary,  he  rests  his  authority  on  that  of 
Christ  and  God.  The  pone  may  be  said  to  be  on  the  way 
which  ends  with  the  arrival  of  Antichrist,  but  he  is  not  yet 
Antichrist  himself.  Others  hold  that  the  Antichrist  an- 
nounced in  the  Revelation  is  only  an  empty  supposition, 


which  has  never  been  revealed.    The  author  of  the  proph- 
ecy, they  say,  thought  of  the  Emperor  Nero,  that  matcliIesEk 
monster,  the  first  persecutor  of  the  Church,  whose  death  the 
world  could  not  believe  in,  and  whom  the  terrified  Church 
feared  to  see  return  suddenly  and  assume  the  part  of  t  he 
man  of  sin  and  the  universal  suppressor.    The  number  666. 
which,  according  to  xiii.  18,  is  the  number  of  the  beast,  wa> 
explained  in  accordance  with  this  view.    The  letters  of  the 
two  words  KAISAR  NERON,  when  taken  as  ciphe^!^ 
and  counted  in  Hebrew,  give  indeed  the  sum  of  666.    Thi< 
fear  was  never  realized,  nowever,  and  thus  the  Revelati(»ti 
became  an  unfulfilled  prophecy  on  this  capital  point.     It  i> 
difficult  to  understiina  how  under  such  circumstances  the 
book  can  have  survived  in  spite  of  the  discredit  which  fell 
on  it  immediately  after  its  appearance,  and  how  the  au- 
thor, if  he  was  a  serious  man,  could  suffer  it  to  circulate 
without  retraction.    It  must  also  be  noticed  that  in  order  to 
obtain  the  sum  of  666  from  this  name  it  must  be  written 
Keaar^  and  not  Kaisar,  which  is  against  custom  and  ortho- 
graphical rules.    Finally,  it  would  be  somewhat  strange  if 
the  name  which  was  to  be  figured  out  of  the  number  ha<l 
been  put  down  in  Hebrew,  while  all  the  rest  of  the  work  is 
in  Greek.    In  speaking  of  the  man  of  sin,  St.  Paul,  far  f rt>xii 
identifying  this  person  with  the  Roman  emperor,  hints  that« 
on  the  contrary,  it  was  the  imperial  power  which  prevented 
Antichrist  from  appearing.    **  Ye  know,"  he  says  (2  The«.««. 
ii.  6),  ^  what  withholdeth  that  he  might  be  revealed  in  his 
time."    The  apostle  considers  Antichrist  as  the  realization 
of  the  false  Messiah,  the  terrestrial  king,  the  new  Solomon, 
whom  the  carnal  Israel  expects.    What  was  it  that   pre- 
vented the  Jews  of  that  time  from  putting  forth  this  false 
Messiah,  the  object  of  their  hearts*  longings  f    It  was  the 
Roman  legions,  which  on  the  mere  nod  of  the  emperor 
would  have  invaded  the  Holy  Land  and  put  down  any  at- 
tempt at  insurrection.    It  is  the  powers  instituted  by  and 
inherited  from  the  Roman  empire  which  up  to  this  very 
day  have  prevented  Antichrist,  the  false  Messiah  of  the 
Jews,  from  appearing;  but  he  will  not  fail  to  come  forth 
as  soon  as  these  powers  fall;  the  Jewish  people  will  then 
have  acquired  that  preponderance  in  all  civiuzed  states  which 
is  necessary  before  it  can  give  its  insatiable  ambiticm  the 
reins.    With  respect  to  the  number  666  numerous  solutions 
of  this  enigma  nave  been  given,  but  none  which  is  thor- 
oughly satisfactory.    A  peculiar  fact  has  lately  attractcnl 
attention.    The  Greeks  do  not  designate  numbers  by  par- 
ticular signs  called  ciphers,  but  by  the  letters  of  the  alf>ha- 
bet,  to  which  a  numerical  value  is  assigned.    Thus  600  is 
expressed  by  the  letter  X  {ch\  60  by  ^  (x),  and  6  by  f  (^>. 
The  name  of  Christ  (Christos)  is  represented  by  the  first 
and  last  letters,  x^  cu^d  these  two  letters  represent  the  two 
numbers  600  and  6.    If  between  these  two  letters  the  letter 
(,  which  signifies  60,  is  introduced,  the  sum  of  666  is  ob- 
tained ;  and  the  three  letters,  x^^  represent  the  abrid^e<l 
form  of  the  name  of  Christ,  but  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
first  and  third  letters  are  separated  by  the  (,  the  emblem  of 
the  serpent.    Thus  in  Greek  666  is  the  emblem  of  the  Mes- 
siah, of  Satan,  or  of  Antichrist.    It  may  also  be  notiee<i 
that,  according  to  the  symbolism  of  numbers  employe^l   in 
the  Revelation,  the  number  7  always  expresses  tne  divine 
plenitude,  and  that  God,  as  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the 
Holy  Spirit,  must  consequently  be  represented  in  ciphers  by 
777.    Thus  the  number  666  would  signify  the  creature*^ 
highest  though  still  impotent  effort  at  attaining  divine 
glory  and  power,  and  the  representation  would  comprise 
the  three  persons  which  form  the  diabolical  trinity — namely. 
Satan,  or  the  dragon,  the  beast,  or  Antichrist,  and  the  ^4^^'- 
ond  beast,  or  the  false  prophet.    Satan  can  not  become 
God,  nor  can  Antichrist  attain  the  dignity  of  the  Son-Mes- 
siah, nor  the  false  prophet  equal  the  Holy  Ghost.     Never- 
theless it  is  no  doubt  wise  to  apply  to  our  age  that  which  in 
the  second  century  the  pious  Irenwus  said  to  his:  "If  the 
author  of  the  prophecy  would  have  made  the  name  known 
to  this  time,  ne  would  have  designated  it  more  plain  It/* 
Irenn?us  mentions  several  explanations  propoundend  in   his 
time,  of  which  the  least  improbable  is  the  word  Latein*^ — 
that  is,  Latin,  Roman,  the   Roman   emperor.    The  Greek 
letters  of  which  this  word  is  composed  give,  indeed,  wheu 
added  together  as  ciphers,  the  exact  sum  666. 

Fr£d£ric  Godet. 
The  author  calls  himself  '*  John  "  in  i.  1,  4,  9,  xxii.  K  an<I 
traditionally  the  Revelation  has  been  assigned  to  the  a  pits- 
tie  John.  Bishop  Boyd  Carpenter,  in  Elliott's  Commenfttft/ 
on  Revelation,  thus  sums  up  the  case  on  the  orthodox  siiU* : 
'  The  author  represents  himself  as  John  in  a  way  and  at   a 


'     '                           ^^^^^^1 

^^Kf'* 

J 

R4«TUt«iOtinWOH»i 

RrrUtil  of  T      r-  l- 

1 

1.      . 

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84 


RETEB 


REYNOLDS 


settled  in  1830  in  Paris,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature, 
writing  for  many  liberal  journals ;  edited  Histoir^  acienti- 
'aue  et  militaire  de  VExpidiHon  frangaiae  en  EgypU  (10 
.  18d0>d6) ;  published  from  1836  to  1840,  in  the  RewiB 


des  Deux  Mondes,  his  Eludes  sur  lea  Riformaleura,  ou  So- 
eialialea  modemea^  which  in  1841  received  the  Montyon  prize 
from  the  Academy  and  has  since  passed  through  several  edi- 
tions; published  in  1843  JSrome  Balurol  d  la  Recherche 
d^une  Position  aociale,  his  most  popular  work,  which  was 
followed  in  1848  by  Jir6me  Paturot  d  la  Recherche  de  la 
meilleure  dea  ripubliouea  (1848).  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Academy  in  1850,  and  continued  to  write  romances, 
economical  essays,  political  pamphlets,  and  literary  and  so- 
cial criticisms.  '  He  was  several  times  elected  to  the  legisla- 
ture, and  after  t^e  coup  d'itat  of  1851  was  a  member  of  the 
consultative  commission.    D.  in  Paris,  Oct.  28, 1879. 

Revised  by  P.  M.  Colby. 

Beyer,  rd'i-&',  Louis  £tienne  Ernest  (real  name  Bey) : 
composer ;  b.  at  Marseilles,  France,  Dec.  1, 1823 ;  began  to 
study  music  there ;  when  sixteen  years  of  i^e  went  to  Al- 
giers, in  the  service  of  the  Government.  In  1848  he  re- 
turned to  France  and  continued  to  study  in  Paris.  His  first 
important  composition  was  Le  Selam,  an  Oriental  symphony 
with  choruses,  produced  Apr.  5.  1850.  Since  then  he  has 
composed  several  operas  with  more  or  less  success,  promi- 
nent among  which  are  Sacountala  (1858) ;  La  Statue  (1861) ; 
-&ro«^ra/«  (Baden,  1862 ;  Paris,  1871);  and  ^i^wrfi  (Brussels, 
1884).  His  latest  work  is  Salammho  (1893).  He  is  also  an 
accomplished  feuilletonist.  He  was  decorated  with  the  Le- 
gion of  Honor  in  1862  and  raised  to  the  rank  of  commander 
m  1891.    He  is  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

D.  E.  Heevby. 

Beykjarlk,  ilk'yaa-vik:  the  capital  of  Iceland,  on  the 
southwestern  coast  of  the  island,  in  lat.  64°  8'  N.,  Ion.  21*  5' 
W.,  at  the  head  of  Paxafjord.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment, has  a  college  with  a  library  of  10,000  volumes,  medi- 
cal and  divinity  schools,  an  observatory  and  a  museum,  an 
important  annual  fair,  and  regular  communication  bv  steam- 
ships with  Leith  and  Copenhagen.  It  was  foundea  in  874. 
Pop.  1,400.  Revised  by  P.  Gboth. 

Bej^nard  the  Fox :  a  popular  epic  of  European  oriein. 
Despite  the  efforts  of  Jacob  Grimm  {Reinhart  Fueha,  1§34) 
to  establish  the  existence  of  a  native  and  purely  popular 
Germanic  beast-epos,  of  which  Reynard  the  Fox  formed  the 
most  conspicuous  example,  scholars  now  agree  in  regarding 
this  beast-epos  in  general,  and  Reynard  in  particular,  as  an 
outgrowth  of  the  old  fables  which  were  worlced  into  this  or 
that  shape  for  prevailingly  satirical  purposes.  To  be  sure, 
we  must  admit  a  certain  admixture  of  native  material,  and 
not  ascribe  every  shred  of  these  fables  to  the  Orient.  Yet  in 
any  case,  whatever  the  material,  monks,  not  popular  fancy, 
were  responsible  for  the  development  of  the  fables  into  later 
forms ;  they  used  the  stories  which  came  mainly  from  the 
East  and  drifted,  by  way  of  Greece  and  Italy,  over  Western 
Europe.  A  fable  of  uEsop  got  footing  in  German  literature 
as  early  as  the  seventh  century ;  another,  the  story  of  the  sick 
lion  and  the  fox,  soon  followed,  and  was  treated  as  inde- 
pendent or  purely  local  tradition.  In  the  tenth  century  this 
Table  was  used  as  a  convenient  allegory  for  the  fortunes  of 
a  monk ;  and  a  few  years  later,  probably  in  Flanders,  names 
were  given  to  the  principal  beasts :  Isengrim  (iron-masked) 
to  the  wolf ;  Noble  to  the  lion ;  and  Reynard  (originally  the 
Germanic  word  meaning  good  or  firm  m  counsel ;  the  Low 
German  form  is  Reineke  or  Reinke,  while  French  Renard, 
as  a  generic  name,  has  actually  supplanted  the  Old  French 
goidpil^  from  Latin  vulpesS  to  the  fox.  Bruin  for  bear  is  al- 
most as  common  in  Englisn.  The  earlier  literature  had  been 
in  Latin  and  was  didactic  or  satirical ;  but  now,  like  the 
medieval  legend,  this  popular  material  found  voice  in  the 
vernacular.  It  grew  into  a  sort  of  epos ;  and  indeed  the 
Latin  laengrimua  (about  1150)  had  already  assumed  epic 
proportions.  The  first  German  epos  of  Reynard  was  com- 
posed about  1180.  French  jongleurs  worked  the  material 
into  a  sort  of  romance,  the  Roman  de  Renart,  with  many 
so-called  branches.  About  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury one  of  these  French  versions  was  used  by  a  Fleming 
named  Willem  as  basis  for  the  admirable  Roman  van  den 
Voa  Reinaerde.  This,  again,  was  worked  over  and  furnished 
with  sundry  additions  by  an  unknown  Fleming  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  under  the  name  of  ReincerVa  JTistorie ;  this,  in 
turn,  toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  enlarged  by 
explanations  in  prose :  and  flnallv  it  was  translated  into  Low 
German  as  the  famous  Reinke  de  Voa,  or  Reineke  VoSf  appear- 


ing about  1500.  Enormously  popular,  these  versions  made 
their  way  into  the  various  toneues  of  Europe.  Caxton  tran.s- 
lated  one  of  them  and  printed  it,  June,  1481,  as  TA«  Hiatory 
of  Reynard  the  Fox,  (See  Arber's  reprint  in  the  Englmh 
Scholar' a  Library,)  In  modem  times  Goethe  has  told  us  t  his 
familiar  stoiy,  the  Unheilige  Weltbibel,  as  he  called  it — in 
hexameters  which  hold  a  nice  balance  between  epic  and 
satire — Reineke  Fue?^;  an  English  translation  was  mad** 
by  T.  J.  Arnold,  and  was  published  with  Kaulbach's  and 
Wolfe's  illustrations. 

It  was  Willem  who  gave  Reynard  his  commanding  pla<*<* 
as  hero  of  the  little  epic  and  representative  of  des^rat*^ 
craftiness.  Willem,  however,  takes  sides  against  his  hero ; 
while  later  versions  make  the  fox  a  thoroughly  triumphant 
rascal.  The  ethical  problem  involved  is  discussed  half 
humorously,  half  seriously,  by  Froude  in  his  Short  Stud  if  if 
on  Oreat  Subieeta,  The  student  must  be  referred  for  detail:* 
of  bibliography  to  E.  Martin,  Le  Roman  de  Renart  (Stra>s- 
burg,  1882  d.),  and  Reinaert  (Paderbom,  1874) ;  also  to  the 

Ereface  of  Arber's  reprint  of  Caxton,  and  the  introducti'm 
y  W.  J.  Thoms  to  The  Hiatory  of  Reynard  the  Fox  (Perc  y 
Society,  1844).  Francis  B.  Gcmmere. 

Bevnolds,  Henry  Robert,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  and  author  : 
b.  at  Romsey,  Hampshire,  England,  Feb.  26, 1825 ;  educat<Ml 
at  University  College,  London;  became  minister  of  a  Ci»ii- 

fregational  church  at  Halstead,  Essex,  England,  in  1846;  <>f 
ast  Parade  Congregational  church,  Leeds,  in  1849  ;  presi- 
dent of  Countess  of  Huntingdon's  College,  at  Cheshunt,  in 

1860,  and  also  Professor  of  Theology  and  Exegesis;  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  The  Britiah  (^arterly  Review  1865-74  ; 
author  of  Beginninga  of  the  Divine  Life  (1858);  John  1?te 
Baptiat,  a  Contribution  to  Chriatian  Evidencea  (1874) ; 
Tl%e  Philoaophy  of  Prayer,  and  other  Eaaaya  (1881);  com- 
mentaries on  Hosea  and  Amos,  on  the  Gospel  of  John,  Athn^ 
naaiua,  hia  Life  and  Work  (1889),  and  of  important  contri- 
butions to  theological  cyclopa»dias  and  reviews. 

Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisher. 

Beynoldg,  Ignatius  Aloysius,  D.  D. :  bishop;  b.  n€:-»ir 
Bardstown,  Ky.,  Aug.  22,  1798 ;  educated  at  St.  Mary's  C*  .i- 
lege,  Baltimore,  Md.;  ordain^  a  Roman  Catholic  priest 
1823  ;  was  successively  vicar-^eneral  of  Kentucky,  rector  of 
St.  Joseph's  College,  and  president  of  the  Nazareth  Female 
Institute  of  Kentuckv,  and  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Charieston,  Mar.  19, 1844    D.  at  Charleston,  Mar.  9,  185.5. 

Beynolds,  or  Bainolds,  John,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  and  au- 
thor; b.  at  Pinhoe,  Devonshire,  England,  in  1549;  stuili«-d 
at  Merton  College,  Oxford,  1562;  became  fellow  of  Corpus 
Christi  1566;  lectured  on  Aristotle;  was  appointed  reader 
of  the  theological  lecture  founded  by  Sir  Francis  Walbiiij;- 
ham  1586;  was  dean  of  Lincoln  1598;  refused  a  bishoi»ri<> 
in  order  to  accept  the  presidency  of  Corpus  Christi  College 
1598;  was  eminently  distinguished  as  a  Hebraist,  re^rarUt'd 
as  the  leader  of  the  Puritan  party,  and  was  said  by  HallMni 
to  have  been  "the  most  eminently  learned  man  of  Quovn 
Elizabeth's  reign  ";  rook  a  prominent  part  in  the  Hampton 
Court  conferences  of  1603,  where  he  mamtained  the  neces*.it  v 
of  a  new  version  of  the  Bible;  executed  a  small  portion   r.'f 
King  James's  version,  and  revised  much  more  in  the  wee  k  1  y 
meetings  of  the  translators  held  at  his  chambers.      I>.    at 
Oxford,  May  21, 1607.    His  works  consist  chiefly  of  sor>arat«.« 
sermons,  controversial  treatises  against  the  Church  of  liom*', 
academical  discourses,  and  some  writings  upon  biblical  crit  i> 
cism,  the  most  elaborate  being  one  successfully  dire^-t^'^i 
against  the  admission  of  the  A]x>crypha  as  part  of  the  CM«i 
Testament  canon — Cenaura  Librorum  Apocryphorum  Vet*'ri  s 
Teatamenti,  posthumously  printed  (Oppenheim,  2  vols.,  1  t>l  i  v. 
— His  brother,  William  Reynolds,  b.  at  Pinhoe  about  li>4o! 
was  educated  at  Oxford;  became  a  Roman  Catholic  ;    Mas 
Professor  of  Divinity  and  Hebrew  at  Douay  and  Hhoims  ; 
took  an  important  part  in  the  translation  of  the  Kheims 
Testament;  translated  from  English  into  Latin   all    tlio 
works  of  Thomas  Harding;  wrote  several  theological    a.ii(i 
controversial  treatises,  and  became  chaplain  to  the  Be^uin 
nunnery  at  Antwerp,  where  he  died  Aug.  24, 1594. 

Beynolds,  John  Fulton  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Lancaster,  1>|^ 
Sept  20, 1820;  graduated  at  the  U.S.  Military  Aca^^lomy' 
and  appointed  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  artillery,  Julv 
1841;  captain  1855;  served  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  'wii^^ 
ning  the  orevets  of  captain  and  major ;  in  Sept.,  I860,  ^  h^h 
selected  as  commandant  of  cadets  at  West  Pomt ;  iri    >lav 

1861,  was  transferred  to  the  infantry  with  rank  of  lieuten^ 
ant-colonel  (colonel,  June,  1863),  and  in  August  Appointed 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  assigned  to  oommux^^  ol 


86 


RH^TIA 


RHAPSODISTS 


out  of  Crete  by  Minos  and  fled  to  Boeotia,  where,  after  the 
death  of  Amphitryon,  he  married  Alcmene.  As  a  special 
favor  Zeus  translated  him  to  the  Elysian  Fields,  where  later 
on  he  became  a  judge.  J.  R.  S.  S. 

Rhn'tia:  an  ancient  province  of  the  Roman  einpire; 
bounded  N.  by  Vindelicia,  E.  by  Noricum,  S.  by  Grallia 
Cisalpina,  and  W.  by  Helvetia.  It  corresponded  to  the 
modem  Tyrol  and  the  Swiss  canton  of  Orisons.  Its  inhab- 
itants, the  Rhaeti,  who'  lived  as  shepherds,  were  said  by  Livy 
and  Pliny  to  be  of  Etruscan  descent,  and  were  subdued  by 
the  Romans  15  b.  c.  During  the  last  days  of  the  Roman 
empire,  when  the  barbarian  hordes  swarmed  around  its 
frontiers  and  devastated  its  provinces,  Rh»tia  became  near- 
ly depopulated. 

Bhnto-Bomance,  or  Rhnto-Bomanic  Dialeetg :  a^oup 
of  Romance  dialects  on  the  border  between  Qerman  and  Ital- 
ian speech.  The  region  in  which  they  are  spoken  embraces 
most  of  the  canton  GraubQnden  (Orisons),  including  the 
Engadine,  in  Switzerland,  two  or  three  strips  of  territoir  in 
Tyrol,  and  the  whole  of  Friuli  in  the  comer  of  Italy  N.  E. 
of  Venice  and  extending  as  far  as  the  Isonzo.  The  Swiss 
part  of  the  territory  has  a  population  of  about  40,000,  the 
Tyrolese  about  11,000,  and  the  Friulan  about  464,000,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  about  515,000,  according  to  Gartner  in  his 
^ammar  of  these  dialects  (1 883).  The  name  Rhaeto-Romance 
IS  given  from  the  Roman  province  Rhietia  (or  Rastia) ;  other 
names,  not  generally  applied  to  all  the  dialects,  are  Romansch, 
Romaunsch,  Rumonsch,  etc.  (from  a  Latin  adverbial  form 
^omanice),  and  Ladin  (i.  e.  Latin).  These  dialects  vary 
considerably  in  vocabulary,  phonology,  and  inflections,  ana 
they  have  not  many  distmctive  features  common  even  to 
most  of  them,  which  at  the  same  time  distinguish  them  from 
the  adjoining  Lombard  and  Venetian  dialects  of  Italy,  nor 
is  it  possible  to  draw  a  sharp  line  of  division  from  these 
latter.  Some  generally  convenient  tests  are,  for  example, 
the  words  for  head,  brother,  sister,  son,  daughter,  sun, 
which  in  these  dialects  usually  are  descended  from  Latin 
(or  Low  Latin),  caputs  frater,  soror^  filinSy  filia^  aoliculus  (a 
diminutive  of  «o/),  while  the  Italian  dialects  here  concerned 
have  forms  corresponding  to  the  literary  Italian  testa,  fra^ 
tello,  sorella,  fialiuoloy  Jigliuola,  sole.  The  treatment  of 
Latin  vowels  after  the  accent  is  not  dissimilar  to  that  in 
French  or  Proven9al ;  Latin  initial  bl,  pi,  fl,  cl,  gl  are  gen- 
erally retained  and  not  changed  as  in  Italian;  the  treat- 
ment of  original  ca  and  ga  shows  a  resemblance  to  that  seen 
in  French ;  Latin  final  s  is  retained  in  certain  inflectional 
endings ;  the  imperfect  subjunctive  is  much  used  as  a  con- 
ditional also,  and  perhaps  this  use  was  formerly  regular  in 
regions  where  now  another  conditional  form  is  found.  There 
are  interesting  features  of  certain  dialects,  and  not  all  those 
which  may  serve  to  distinguish  Rhasto-Romance  from  Italian 
are  here  mentioned.  In  the  phonology  occur  vowels  like 
those  written  u  and  eu  in  French,  alsoa  vowel  resembling 
the  French  so-called  "  mute  «."  Latin  au  is  in  some  regions 
retained  without  change.  Some  dialects  have  also  peculiar 
inflectional  formations  in  verbs,  for  instance,  the  conditional., 
The  future  indicative  in  the  western  region  is  formed  by 
using  an  auxiliary  from  Latin  venire ;  in  Tvrol  and  Friuli 
the  common  Romance  formation  is  found,  the  descendant 
of  the  Ijatin  perfect  indicative  is  nearly  or  quite  lost  in  the 
spoken  dialects.  Both  Gennan  and  Italian  nave  exerted  a 
considerable  influence  on  these  dialects. 

In  literary  production  only  Graubttnden  and  Friuli  need 
be  considered,  and  in  Friuli,  though  documents  are  pre- 
served from  the  fourteenth  century  on,  yet  the  strong  Vene- 
tian influence  has  prevented  the  development  of  an  inde- 
pendent literature,  and  the  productions  are  comparatively 
unimoortant,  serving  for  temporary  amusement  only — as 
comeaies,  or  otherwise  having  little  value,  as  newspapers.  (See 
the  Archivio  glotfologico  italiano.  iv.,  185  IT.)  In  Graubttn- 
den, however,  in  the  dialects  along  the  Rhine  (Oberlfindisch, 
including  Obwaldisch,  or  Sursclvisch,  and  Niedwaldisch)  and 
in  the  Engadine  (Upper  and  Lower  are  here  to  be  distin- 
guished) a  stronger  literary  movement  has  produced  more 
ambitious  works,  the  main  caus<>  being  the  religious  feeling 
due  to  the  Reformation.  Noteworthy  especially  are  Bifrun's 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  (1560)  in  the* Upper  Enga- 
dine, Chiampel's  translation  of  the  Psalms  (1562)  in  the 
Lower  Engadine,  Bonifaci's  Cater htsmus  (a  translation  from 
German,  1601)  in  an  Oberland  dialect,  L.  (iabriel,  Ilg  yief 
Testament  (The  New  Testament,  1648),  also  some  epic  or 
historical  verse,  as  Tobia  (probably  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury; see  Homanische  Studten,  i.,  336  ff.),  Travers's  Chan- 


zun  datta  guerra  dalg  ChiastS  (VMHseh  (sometimes  referred 
to  as  the  Miisserkrieg,  sixteenth  century),  and  Gioerin 
Wietzel's  poem,  commonly  referred  to  as  tlie  Veltlinerkrieg 
(seventeenth  century).  Tnere  are  some  dramatic  works  be- 
longing to  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries ;  those 
of  the  sixteenth  at  least  are  nearly  if  not  quite  all  trans- 
lations. To  the  sixteenth  century  belong  a  Susanna,  Jo- 
seph, and  some  others  (see  Zeitsehrift  fur  romaniaehe  Phi- 
lologie,  ii.,  515  ff.,  v.,  461  ff.,  and  Romanische  Siudxen,  vi., 
239  ff.).  To  the  seventeenth  century  belong  some  by  Fadri 
Wietzel  and  others  (see  Zeitsehrift  fur  romanische  Philolo- 
gie,  iv.,  1  ff.,  Le  Sacrifice  d* Abraham  in  Eomania,  viii.,  374 
ff.,  Susanna  in  Archivio  glottolo^eo  italiano,  viii.,  263  ff.. 
Revue  des  langues  romanes,  xxvii.,  121  ff.,  162  ff.).  Some 
early  Oberland  texts  of  interest  under  the  general  title  Quat- 
tro  testi  soprasilvani,  among  them  a  Barlaam  and  Josaphai 
( Vita  de  Soing  Giosaphat,  etc.),  were  published  by  Decur- 
tins  in  Archivio  glottologico  italiano,  vii.,  149  ff.  The  later 
literary  production  comprises  (besides  religious  composi- 
tions) lyric  poems,  tales,  translations,  schoolbooks,  etc.  A 
fairly  adequate  view  of  the  literature  can  be  obtained  from 
J.  Ulrich's  Rhdtoromanische  Chrestomathie  (2  vols.,  with 
glossaries,  1882-83),  supplemented  by  reference  to  texts  and 
articles  in  the  periodicals  mentioned  above,  particularly  the 
bibliographical  lists  of  B5hmer  entitled  Verzeiehnies  Adto- 
romaniseher  Litteratur  in  Romanische  Studien,  vi,  109- 
238.  The  Catalogue  of  the  Rhceto-Romanic  Collection  pre- 
sented to  the  Cornell  University  Library  by  Willard  Fiske 
(1894)  contains  some  other  titles ;  see  also  the  bibliographies 
in  the  Zeitschr,  fUr  roman,  PhiloL  For  the  ^mmatioal 
and  historical  study  of  the  dialects,  see  especially  Ascoli, 
Saggi  ladini  in  Archivio  glottoloaico  italiano,  i. ;  Gartner, 
Rcetoromanische  Grammatik  (1883);  id,,  in  Gr5ber*8  (irun- 
driss  der  romanischen  Philologie,  i.,  461  ff.  (1888),  etc.  See 
also  Romance  Languages.  E.  S.  Sheldon. 

Rhamnns :  See  Buckthorn. 

Rhamphas'tldn  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Rhamphas'tus, 
the  typical  genus,  from  Gr.  ^dft^s^  a  crooked  beak  of  birds]  : 
a  family  of  carinate  birds,  including  the  toucans.  They  are 
distinguished  by  their  bills,  which  are  long,  high,  and  com- 
pressed, decurved  at  the  tip,  and  with  the  latenil  margins 
serrated;  the  nostrils  are  in- 
conspicuous, superior,  and  at 
the  oase  of  the  upper  mandi- 
ble ;  no  bristles  are  developed ; 
the  wings  are  rather  short  and 
rounded;  the  tail  is  moderate 
and  more  or  less  convex ;  the 
tarsi  are  rather  robust  and  cov- 
ered with  broad  scales ;  the  toes 
in  pairs,  two  being  directed 
forward  and  two  backward ; 
the  inner  toes  anteriorly  and 
posteriorly,  shorter  than  the 
outer  ;  the  claws  strong  and 
curved.  They  are  somewhat 
related  to  the  cuckoos.  The 
species  are  peculiar  to  America, 
especially  tne  tropical  regions ; 
a  few,  however,  extend  north- 
ward into  Mexico,  but  none  is 
found  within  the  limits  of  the  U.  S.  They  are  generally 
combined  under  two  genera — Rhamphastus,  in  which  tho 
nostrils  are  concealed,  including  seventeen  species:  and 
Pterogloseus,  with  the  nostrils  exposed,  comprising  forty- 
five  species.  They  frequent  lofty  trees,  feeding  upon  vari- 
ous fruits,  especially  the  banana,  but  also  live  partly  upon 
insects,  and  even  reptiles,  as  well  as  young  birds  and  e#rsrx. 
The  female  makes  her  nast  in  holes  in  the  trunks  of  treos, 
and  generally  deposits  therein  two  eggs.    See  Aracari. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas, 

BhaphMdes,  or  Raphides  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  ^mpis^ 
plur.  ^c^Scf.  needle] :  the  crystals,  often  needle-shapetl,  of 
salts  found  within  certain  plant-cells.  The  oxalates^  car- 
bonates, and  sulphates,  and  other  salts  of  lime  are  thivse 
most  commonly  found.    See  Histology,  Vbgetablk. 

Rhapsodists  [from  Gr.  ^i^s,  a  rhapsotlist;  /k(v-r«&y, 
^ai,  sew.  stitch,  natch  together  +  i^,  song] :  a  clas-*  of 
wandering  minstrels  in  ancient  Greece  whose  occupation 
WHS  the  recital  of  the  Homeric  and  other  poetr}*.  Aft«T 
these  poems  were  reduced  to  writing  these  rhansodivt^; 
ceased  to  be  the  honored  singers  of  the  early  uays  <.f 
Greece. 


The  ariel  toacan. 


88 


RHETORIC 


with  the  praotice  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers.  The 
precepts  of  rhetoric  are  not  the  arbitrary  enactment  of  any 
man  or  any  body  of  men,  but  simply  deductions  from  the 
generalized  experience  and  observation  of  generations  of 
writers  and  speakers,  with  which  all  who  propose  to  write  or 
speak  will  do  well  to  familiarize  themselves. 
Rhetoric  recognizes  three  forms  of  discourse: 

1.  Representative  discourse,  in  which  the  matter  is  pre- 
sented for  its  own  sake,  without  especial  purpose  or  espe- 
cial regard  to  form.  Under  this  head  are  treated  (1)  things 
— description ;  (2)  facts — narration ;  (8)  truths— exposition. 
Clearness,  accurac^r,  and  completeness  are  the  prime  essen- 
tials of  representative  discourse. 

2.  Poetry^  in  which  the  matter  and  the  purpose  are  sub- 
ordinate to  the  form.  Under  poetry  the  lollowing  classi- 
fication may  be  recognized :  (1)  The  poetry  of  thought,  or 
didactic  poetry;  (2)  the  poetry  of  feeling,  or  lyric  poetry;  (3) 
the  poetry  of  action,  or  epic  poetry,  and  dramatic  poetry. 
The  prime  essentials  to  poetry  are,  first,  a  poetic  thought ; 
second,  poetic  diction — to  characterize  either  of  which  would 
fall  under  the  province  of  a  special  discussion. 

3.  Oratory,  which  proposes  an  end  to  be  attained,  to 
which  the  matter  ana  form  of  discourse  are  merely  ancil- 
lary. The  ancients  recognized  three  kinds  of  oratory — 
demonstrative,  judicial,  and  deliberative.  Blair  proposes  to 
recognize,  instead,  the  eloquence  of  popular  assemblies,  the 
eloquence  of  the  bar,  and  the  eloquence  of  the  pulpit.  If  a 
classification  of  oratory  be  attempted  at  all,  it  is  better  to 
make  the  basis  of  classification  the  purpose,  rather  than  the 
occasion,  of  its  exercise.  Oratory  is  commonly  regarded  by 
rhetoricians  as  the  normal  type  of  discourse,  embc^ying  the 
fullest  and  loftiest  ideal  of  the  art.  The  orator  generally 
seeks  to  bring  something  to  pass ;  hence  he  appeals  not  to 
the  intellect  or  to  the  feelings  alone,  but  to  the  will.  He 
must  sway  the  whole  man,  or  he  must  fail  in  the  object 
he  has  in  view.  It  is  especially  necessary  for  him  to  study 
adaptation,  and  his  discourse,  while  not  deficient  in  clear- 
ness and  not  offensive  to  the  taste  of  his  hearers,  must  ex- 
cel in  energy. 

Inventive  rhetoric  has  to  do  with  the  choice  of  themes, 
the  accumulation  of  material,  and  the  disposition  of  mate- 
rial. It  was  much  more  fully  treated  bv  the  ancient  rhet- 
oricians than  by  those  of  the  present  day,  many  of  whom 
ignore  it  altogether,  regarding  it  as  a  mere  department  of 
ethical  rhetoric,  which  does,  in  fact,  greatly  limit  it. 

Ethical  rhetoric  has  especially  reference  to  the  purpose 
contemplated  in  discourse.  This  purpose  may  be  either  (1) 
enlightenment — i.  e.  to  develop  in  tne  mind  a  new  cognition ; 
(2)  conviction — i.  e.  to  lead  the  mind  to  adopt  a  given 
opinion;  (3)  excitation — i.  e.  to  move  the  feelings;  or  (4) 
persuasion — i.  e.  to  determine  the  will  to  action.  Excitation 
IS  not  regarded  as  a  distinct  end  of  discourse  by  many  rhet- 
oricians, since,  ordinarily,  we  seek  to  excite  emotion  only 
that  through  emotion  we  may  influence  the  will.  But  the 
distinct  recognition  of  excitation  is  essential  to  a  complete 
analysis  of  ethical  rhetoric ;  the  methods  of  excitation  may 
be  separately  studied ;  and  excitation  is  sometimes  (as  in 
demonstrative  oratory  and  in  certain  kinds  of  poetry  and 
fiction)  an  end  in  itself.  In  all  discourse — but  especially  in 
oratory — some  one  of  the  purposes  mentioned  above  domi- 
nates. It  is  the  function  of  rhetoric  to  show  how  discourse 
may,  in  matter  and  manner,  be  made  subservient  to  that 
purpose. 

AsJsthetie  rhetoric  has  reference  to  style,  or  the  art  of  ex- 
pressing clearly,  energetically,  and  elegantly,  the  products 
of  inventive  rhetoric  in  adaptation  to  the  ends  of  ethical 
rhetoric.  Under  the  head  of  style  the  things  of  prime  im- 
portance are  (1)  naturalness ;  (2)  adaptation ;  (3)  clearness ; 
(4)  energy ;  (5)  elegance.  These  characteristics  of  style  are 
discussed,  with  greater  or  less  fullness,  in  all  rhetorical  trea- 
tises. Clearness,  the  most  important  attribute  of  a  good 
style,  is  admirably  treated  in  j/ow  to  Write  Clearly,  by  Prof. 
K.  A.  Abbott,  of  the  City  of  London  School. 

Figurative  language  (or  language  which  deviates  from 
the  plain  and  ordinary  method  of  describing  an  object  or 
stating  a  fact)  may  be  included  under  the  head  of  style, 
since  it  tends  to  promote  clearness  by  asvsociating  the  ob- 
ject or  fact  under  discussion  with  more  familiar  objects  or 
events;  energy,  by  associating  the  object  or  fwt  under 
discussion  with  more  exciting  objects  or  facts;  elegance,  by 
associating  the  object  or  fact  under  discussion  with  more 
pleasing  objects  or  facts.  Fitrurative  language  embraces 
figures  of  speech,  which  consist  in  a  mere  modification  of 
the  form  of  expression,  and  figures  of  thought,  which  in- 


volve an  essential  modification  of  the  conception.  Theso 
figures  depend  on  three  principles — (1)  the  principle  of  simi- 
larity; (2)  the  principle  of  dissimilarity;  (3)  the  principle 
of  association.    Under  the  head  of  figures  of  speech  come 

(1)  alliteration,  or  the  repetition  of  similar  sounas  at  the  be- 
ginning of  successive  words ;  c.  g. 

Apt  alliteration 'b  artful  aid.— Churchill, 

(2)  Paronomasia,  or  the  use  of  words  in  the  same  connecticm 
which  are  similar  in  sound,  but  dissimilar  in  sense ;  e.  g. 

Not  OD  thy  aoU ;  but  on  thy  mouI,  harsh  Jew. Shakapeare. 

(3)  Meiosis  or  litotes,  in  which  an  affirmative  is  represi'nttMl 
bjr  the  negative  of  its  contrary ;  e.  g.  "  A  citizen  of  no  mean 
city"  (Paul),  (4)  Pleonasm,  which  consists  in  the  use  <*f 
more  words  to  express  one's  meaning  than  are  strictly  neces- 
sary, and  which  should  be  sharply  discriminated  from  tau- 
tology, or  the  meaningless  reiteration  of  thought  (5)  Hy- 
perbole, which  consists  in  representing  an  object  as  larger 
than  it  really  is,  or  stating  a  fact  more  strongly  than  is  con- 
sistent with  literal  truth;  e.  g.  "The  English  gain  tM-o  hours 
a  day  by  clipping  their  words"  (Voltaire).  (6)  Climax, 
which  consists  in  gradually  rising,  by  more  and  more  ein- 
phatio  statements,  to  the  fullest  and  most  expressive  utt4*r- 
ance  of  thought;  e.  g.  "Jesus  of  Nazareth  pours  forth  a 
doctrine  beautiful  as  light,  sublime  as  heaven,  and  true  a> 
God  "  (Theodore  Parker),  Figures  of  speech  comprise  al>o 
ellipsis,  asyndeton,  polysyndeton,  aposiopesis,  epizeuxis,  ej>- 
analepsis,  and  interrogation,  for  the  careful  discriminatii>ii 
of  which  references  must  be  made  to  s|)ecial  treatises. 

Under  the  head  of  figures  of  thought  that  are  founded  ftn 
the  principle  of  similarity  there  are-— (1)  The  simile.  whi<h 
is  an  expressed  comparison  ;  e.  g.  **  Like  as  a  father  pitiet  h 
his  children,  so  the  Lord  pitieth  them  that  fear  him."  (2> 
The  metaphor,  which  is  an  implied  comparison  ;  e.  g.  "  I  aiu 
the  Good  Shepherd,  and  know  my  sheep."  Similes  are  mc»re 
conducive  to  clearness,  metaphors  to  energy.  Either  may 
be  made  conducive  to  elegance.  The  metaphor  may  W> 
tested  by  reducing  it  to  an  equation  of  ratios ;  e.  g.  "The 
ship  plows  the  sea"  equals  "Tne  ship  is  to  the  sea  as  the 
plow  IS  to  the  land."  Any  metaphor  which  will  not  submit 
to  this  test  is  radically  defective,  introducing  more  than 
four  terms  or  suggesting  an  unreal  similarity.  Under  tliis 
head  are  recognized  aSo  (8)  the  allegory,  which  is  an  ex- 
tended metaphor.  BxinjhcC^  Pilgrim's  Proaress  is  the  Xn^^x 
example.  (4)  The  fable,  which  is  essentially  similar  to  the 
allegory,  altnough  briefer,  more  obviously  didactic,  an. I 
characterized  by  the  free  endowment  of  the  brute  (and  even 
the  inanimate)  creation  with  the  attributes  of  reason  an<J 
speech.  The  fables  of  -^^sop  will  at  once  suggest  tht-iii- 
selves.  (5)  The  parable,  which  is  a  religious  allegory.  <«> 
Personification,  which  regards  things  inanimate  as  it  t  hi-y 
were  animate ;  e.  g.  "  The  pyramids,  doting  with  age,  hav«- 
forgotten  the  names  of  their  founders  ''(Fuller).  Under  t  h  i-^ 
head,  too,  are  included  prosopopoeia,  vision,  and  apostrophe-. 

Under  the  head  of  figures  of  thought  that  are  foumitii 
upon  the  principle  of  dissimilarity  there  ^re  contrast,  ant  it  It- 
esis,  irony,  which  hardly  require  to  be  characterized  or  ex- 
emplified. 

Founded  on  the  principle  of  association  is  metonymy,  or 
a  transference  of  names  (Gr.  $t»Td  and  tfyofw),  involving  t  h*- 
substitution  of — (1)  The  cause  for  the  effect  and  vice  vt  r.'*t't  ; 
e.  g.  "The  Lord  is  my  song.  He  is  become  my  salvation,'* 
(2)  The  container  for  the  thin^  contained ;  e.  g.  "  He  i«^  a 
slave  to  the  bottle.''  (8)  The  sign  for  the  thing  signili»^«l  ; 
e.  g.  "  The  scepter  shall  not  depart  from  Judah."  (4)  Th*- 
instrument  for  the  agent :  e.  g.  "  The  pen  is  mightier  t)i»ii 
the  sword  "  (Bulwer).  (6)  The  author  for  his  works ;  e.  tr. 
"  They  have  Moses  and  the  prophets''  (6)  The  plac-t*  « .f 
manufacture  for  the  thing  made ;  e.  g.  "  I  prefer  Axmin^tt^  r 
to  Brussels." 

Synecdoche  must  be  classed  under  the  head  of  simibirtt  y 
and*  dissimilarity  combined;  it  is  concerned  with  obj^M-tV 
that  are  similar  in  kind,  but  disvsimilar  in  extent  or  (hg-r*-**. 
By  synecdoche  one  puts  a  part  for  the  whole,  as  a  sail  f«  >r  a 
ship,  or  a  blade  for  a  sword,  etc.  More  sjiecifically,  syn<M»- 
doche  consists  in  the  substitution  of — (1)  the  concrete  f.»r 
the  abstract;  (2)  the  species  for  the  genus;  (3)  the  indivui- 
ual  for  the  species;  (4)  the  member  for  the  individual  ;  *,"»» 
the  material  for  the  thing  made.  Its  employment  is  hi^hU 
conducive  to  energy. 

It  falls  within  the  province  of  rhetoric  accurately  to  *lisc. 
criminate  between  the  figures  of  speech  which  have  Ih"**!! 
mentioned,  and  to  give  rules  which  shall  facilitate  lii<.'.r 
effective  use. 


.,4^f«ffU*- 


mr 


09 


ifti 


Ofi^^H  (*W:  flw 


:*I.i 


90 


RHINEBECK 


RHODE  ISLAND 


from  5  to  28  feet ;  its  elevation  is  814  feet  at  Basel,  121  feet 
at  Cologne.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the  Aar  in  Switzer- 
land, the  Neckar  and  Main  in  the  Rheinthal,  and  the  Lahn 
and  Moselle  in  the  highlands  of  the  lower  Rhine. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 
Rhinebeck :  village ;  Rhinebeck  town,  Dutchess  co., 
N.  Y. ;  on  the  N.  Y.  Cent,  and  Hudson  River  (station  name, 
RhineclifO  and  the  Phila.,  Reading  and  New  Eng.  rail- 
ways ;  2  miles  E.  of  the  Hudson  river,  opposite  Kingston, 
15  miles  N.  of  Poughkeepsie  (for  location,  see  map  of  New 
York,  ref.  7-J).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  stock-raising 
region,  and  is  the  chief  shipping-point  for  the  surrounding 
country.  There  are  five  cnurcnes,  union  free  school  with 
academic  department,  Starr  Institute  (founded  in  1860),  a 
national  bank  with  capital  of  $125,000,  a  savings-bank,  and 
a  weekly  newspaper.  A  part  of  the  town  was  laid  out  for 
settlers  from  the  Rhine  palatinate  in  1714,  a  precinct  was 
organized  in  1737,  a  hamlet  named  Rhinebeck  Flats  was 
laid  out  in  1792,  and  the  hamlet  was  incorporated  as  a  vil- 
lage iu  1834.    Pop.  (1880)  1,569 ;  (1890)  1,649. 

EorroR  of  "  Gazette.** 

Bhlnelander:  village;  capital  of  Oneida  co..  Wis.;  on 
the  Wisconsin  river,  and  the  Chicago  and  N.  W.  and  the 
Minn.,  St.  P.  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  railways ;  65  miles  N.  of 
Wausau,  255  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Milwaukee  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  3-D).  It  is  in  a  lumbering  region, 
has  considerable  milling  and  manufacturing  interests,  and 
contains  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  a  State 
bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  and  three  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1890)  2,658. 

Rhinoceros :  See  Rhinocerotid.£. 

Rhinocerot'ldn  [^Iod.  Lat.,  named  from  Rhino' ceros^  the 
typical  genus,  from  Gr.  pu^Mpws,  pwoK^ptrros^  rhinoceros ;  ^/r, 
/iiSrfs,  nose  +  Kipca,  horn] :  a  family  of  ungulate  mammals 
embracing  the  various  species  combined  under  the  popular 
name  rhinoceros.  They  are  distinguished  by  their  massive 
form ;  short  neck ;  long  head :  the  presence  in  all  the  living 
forms  of  one  or  two  horns  on  the  middle  of  the  nasal  region, 
and  the  broad  clavate  feet,  each  of  which  has  three  toes. 
The  teeth  are  M.  },  P.  M.  f  C.  g,  I.  variable— i.  e.  entirely 
wanting,  },  or,  in  extinct  forms,  | ;  the  upper  molars  have  a 
continuous  outer  wall,  are  without  complete  transverse 
crests;  the  lower  molars  (P.  M.  2,  M.  8)  have  two  curved 
transverse  crests.  The  family  embraces  few  recent  species, 
which  have  been  variously  grouped,  but  appear  to  repre- 
sent only  two  ^nera— <1)  Rhinoceros^  including  the  Asi- 
atic species,  which  are  distinguished  by  the  elongate  and 
free  intermaxillary  bones,  the  long  upper  incisor  teeth,  the 
produced  nasal  bones,  and  the  skin  corrugated  by  well- 
marked  folds.    To  this  genus  belongs  the  Indian  rhinoceros 


Indian  rhinoceros. 


(R.  Hniconiifi),  the  largest  of  the  group,  having  a  single  horn 
and  the  folds  of  skin  unusually  well  developed.  It  is  now 
restricted  to  a  part  of  Nepal.  Bhutan,  and  Assam,  in  North- 
eastern India.  The  genus  also  includes  the  sinnllest  species, 
the  Sumatran  rhin(H-eros  {R.  ^urnafrenMifi),  which  has  two 
horns.  It  ranges  from  Northea'^tern  India  to  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo.  (2)  Tf/iuj^z/i^/r,  embracing 
the  African  species,  in  which  the  intermaxillary  bones  are 
very  small  and  free,  the  upper  incisor  teeth  wanting,  the 
nasal  bones  broad  and  rounded,  and  the  skin  smooth  and 
not  corrugated.     There  are  but  two  species,  each  having 


two  horns.  One  of  these,  R,  aimus,  improperlv  known  as 
the  white  rhinoceros,  is  almost  extinct,  and  tfie  other.  R. 
bicomis,  is  rapidly  disappearing.  In  geological  epochs  <  >i  Imt 
forms  flourished,  and  one  of  the.<«e  (Ccelodonta)  sur vivid 
long  after  the  appearance  of  man  on  the  globe;  this  form 
was  distinguishea  by  the  union  of  the  nasal  and  intermaxil- 
lary bones  into  one  mass,  and  the  ossification  of  the  iia>al 
septum.  The  existing  species  of  the  family  are  peon  liar  t<> 
Asia  and  Africa,  but  formerly  the  range  of  the  family  ex- 
tended far  northward  into  Europe  and  Siberia,  and  at  a 
still  earlier  period  the  group  was  represented  in  North 
America.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lrc  as. 

Rhinthon  of  Tarentnm  :  Greek  poet;  originator  of  the 
so-called  Bilarotragoedia  {Ixapcrpay^ia),  a  serio-comic  t  reat- 
ment  of  tragic  themes,  drawn  from  Greek  mythology.  See 
Veiker,  Rhtnthonis  fragtnenta  (1887).  B.  L.  G. 

RhipsB'an  Mountains  (in  Gr.  r&  'Piwam  J(pf):  in  Grty 
cian  m}'thology,  mountains  lying  in  the  extreme  north  (or 
west^.  Servius  derived  the  word  from  ^Jwrciy,  because  l  he 
north  wind  came  from  these  mountains.  Ancient  geograj.h- 
ers  identified  them  now  with  the  Alps  and  now  with  the 
western  outliers  of  the  Ural  range.  See  IlYPERBOKKASr^, 
IIesperides,  and  GrjE^e.  J.  R.  S.  S. 

Rhinidoglos'sa  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  Paris,  fan  +  yKinnra, 
tonguej :  a  term  sometimes  employed  for  the  abalonei*.  kt  y- 
hole  limpets,  and  allied  molluscs,'  usually  called  Zygobran- 
chici.    See  Gasteropoda. 

Rhlzocarps :  See  Plants,  Fossil. 

Rhlzoceph'ala :  See  Cirripedia. 

Rhizome :  See  Morphology,  Vegetable. 

Rhizop'oda  [Gr.  ^ffa,  a  root  +  iro^i,  irMs,  foot]  :  a  cla*^  of 
E*ROTOzoA  {q.  V.)  characterized  by  the  ability  of  the  individ- 
uals to  extend  temporary  protoplasmic  processes  of  the  l>.-iv 
by  means  of  which  locomotion  is  effected  and  food  obtaiiud 
(psetidopodia).  There  is  no  cell- wall,  but  the  animals  n)hv 
secrete  internal  or  external  calcareous  or  siliceous  skel(t<»i!s 
or  they  may  form  protective  cases  of  homy  matter  or  by  (•»- 
menting  together  solid  particles  found  in  the  water  in  w'hu  h 
they  dwell.  The  Rhizopods  (which  live  in  the  o<»ean,  m 
fresh  water,  and  in  moist  earth)  are  usually  divided  into  th«' 
Lobosa^  Reticularia  (Foraminifera),  Hehozoa,  and  Rnfft*y- 
laria;  while  the  Monera  of  Haeckel  differ  from  the  Loh^-^n 
only  in  the  fact  that  in  them  a  nucleus  has  not  yet  l)oon  iii--- 
covered.  Here,  too,  may  possibly  belong  those  forms  t  lav>,  ,1 
sometimes  as  Mycetozoa  in  the  animal  kingdom,  sonietiin.s 
as  Myxomycetes  or  slime  moulds  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
Reference  should  be  made  to  the  different  divisions  ftir  .1%- 
scriptions  of  the  forms  included.  J.  S.  Kingslly. 

Rhode  Island  :  one  of  the  U.  S.  of  North  America  (N.  .rt  h 
Atlantic  group) ;  the  last  of  the  thirteen  original  States  t  hat 
ratified  the  Federal  Constitution;  the  smallest  State  in  tht- 
Union,  and  the  thirty-fifth  in  population  in  1890. 

Location  and  ^rm.— It  lies  between  lat.  41°  18'  and  42' 
3'  N.,  and  Ion.  71"  8  and  71"  53  W. ;  is  Iwunded  on  tho  N. 
and  E.  by  Massachusetts,  on  the  S.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
and  on  the  W. 
by  Connecticut; 
extreme  length 
from  N.  to  S..  48 
miles  ;  extreme 
width  from  E. 
to  W.  about  87 
miles;  area,  1,- 
250  sq.  miles 
(800,000  acres), 
of  which  165  sq. 
miles  is  water 
surface. 

Physical  Fea- 
tures. —  Narra- 
gansett  Bay,  ex- 
tending inland 
about  30  miles, 
divides  Rhode 
Island  into  two 
une(|ual  parts. 
The  surface  of 
the  State  is  for  the  most  part  hilly,  though  the  hills  nevf»r 
rise  to  any  great  height.  Woonsocket  Hill,  the  highest  j><>iT.t 
of  land,  rising  only  570  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Extendi  \  ,. 
salt-marshes  Iwrder  the  ocean.  In  Narragansett  Bay  a  to 
many  islands.     Of  these  the  most  widely  known  is  Kh-ui,. 


Rhode  Island  seal. 


THE  NEW  YORKl 
PUBLIC     LIBRARY 


AS^O",  LFNOX  AND 
Til   D     N    FOUNDATIONS. 


92 


RHODE  ISLAND 


894*11  miles  of  railways  and  107*66  miles  of  horse,  electric, 
and  cable  traraWavs.  Of  the  railways  226*70  miles  were  con- 
trolled by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad, 
The  total  mileage  of  track  was  501-78 ;  passengers  carried, 
85,529,028;  tons  of  merchandise  carried,  14,536,469;  and  the 
net  earnings  were  $5,556,559.  Various  steamship  lines  con- 
nect Providence  with  the  other  towns  upon  the  bay,  and 
with  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Norfolk,  and  Baltimore. 

Churches,— The  census  of  1890  gave  the  following  statis- 
tics of  the  religious  bodies  having  a  membership  of  600  and 
upward  each  jn  the  State : 


DENOMINATIONS. 


Roman  Catholic 

Baptist,  Regular 

Protestant  Episcopal 

Congregatlonttl 

Methodut  Episcopal 

Baptist,  Free-will 

Unitarian 

Baptist,  Seventh-day 

Univsrsolist 

Christian < 

Advent  Christian 

Jews 

Friends,  Orthodox 

Presb.  in  the  U.  S.  of  America. 
African  Methodist  Episcopal . . 


Or|».te. 

ChvAm 

Mmibcn.' 

Uou. 

UdlMUl. 

1 

51 

53 

96,755 

68 

75 

12,055 

60 

68 

9,45H 

84 

42 

7.192 

89 

40 

6,0M 

2& 

28 

3.252 

6 

7 

>,505 

7 

7 

1,271 

10 

10 

996 

8 

8 

972 

12 

12 

950 

6 

5 

910 

11 

11 

617 

4 

4 

608 

4 

4 

595 

Vkluef 
efaarch 
profMrty. 


$2,295,700 

1,151,960 

1,189,700 

905,800 

495,000 

226,757 

898,600 

65,700 

801,500 

48,800 

27,460 

46,000 

68.800 

61,000 

96,000 


Schools. — The  principal  educational  institution  of  the 
State  is  Brown  University  {q.  v.).  Other  suoerior  institu- 
tions are  the  Rhode  Island  College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts,  with  large  agricultural  experiment  farm,  in 
Kingston ;  the  Rhode  Island  School  of  Design  and  the  State 
Normal  School,  in  Providence ;  10  high  schools  and  5  acad- 
emies. In  the  year  ending  Apr.  80, 1893,  the  public  schools 
had  47,031  pupils,  the  parochial  schools  10,532,  and  other 
private  schools  2,201.  The  expenditures  on  account  of  the 
public  schools  aggregated  $l,lo5,058. 

Libraries, — According  to  a  U.  S.  Government  report  on 
public  libraries  of  1,000  volumes  and  upward  each  in  1801, 
Rhode  Island  had  73  libraries,  which  contained  481,729 
bound  volumes  and  85,141  pamphlets.  The  libraries  were 
classified  as  follows:  General,  54;  school, 5;  college,!;  law, 
1 ;  medical,  1 ;  public  institution,  3 ;  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  2 ;  histor- 
ical, 2;  garrison,  2;  society,  1 ;  and  unreported,  1.  In  the 
year  ending  June  30, 1893,  42  public  libraries  received  aid 
from  the  State  board  of  education. 

Charitable,  Reformatory,  and  Penal  Institutions. — The 
charitable  institutions  comprise  the  Butler  Asylum  for  the 
Insane,  opened  1847;  the  Rhode  Island  Hospital,  1868;  the 
State  Home  and  School  for  Children,  1885 ;  the  Rhode  Isl- 
and Institute  for  the  Deaf,  1893 — all  in  Providence;  and 
the  State  Soldiers'  Home,  1891,  in  Bristol.  The  reformatory 
and  penal  institutions  are  located  on  the  State  farm  of  about 
538  acres,  in  Cranston,  and  comprise  the  State  Workhouse 
and  House  of  Correction,  the  State  Asylum  for  the  Incurable 
Insane,  the  State  Almshouse,  the  State  Prison  and  Provi- 
dence County  Jail,  the  Sockanosset  School  for  Boys,  and  the 
Oaklawn  School  for  Girls,  the  two  last  being  departments  of 
the  State  Reform  School. 

Political  Organization. — The  Governor,  general  State 
offlcei"s,  and  members  of  the  Legislature  are  elected  annual- 
ly. The  Governor  has  no  veto  power.  He  exercises  the 
pardoning  power  only  **  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate."  The  Lieutenant-Governor  is  a  member-at- 
large  of  the  State  Senate,  which  numbers,  besides  thirty-six 
members,  one  from  each  of  the  thirty-two  towns  and  four 
cities.  The  representation  in  the  lower  house  is  unequal. 
Its  membership  is  limited  to  seventy-two.  Each  town  and 
city  must  have  one  representative,  but  no  town  or  city  may 
have  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  whole  number.  Thus  the 
city  of  Providence,  with  its  papulation  of  almost  150,000 
(1894),  had  but  twelve  representatives.  This  principle  of 
representation  accounts  for  the  peculiar  existence  of  the 
district  of  Narragansett.  In  1888  this  district  was  taken 
from  South  Kingstown  and  given  all  the  pfjwers  of  a  town 
except  representation  in  the  General  Assembly.  Every  male 
citizen  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  who  has  been  a  resi- 
dent of  the  State  two  years  and  of  the  town  or  city  six 
months,  is  entitled  to  vote  in  town  and  ward  meetings  and 
in  the  election  of  all  civil  officers,  if  registered  on  the  last 
day  of  the  prece<ling  December.  No  person  may  vote  in 
the  election  of  city  councils,  or  on  any  pro{)ositi()*n  involv- 
ing the  expenditure  of  money,  unless  he  has  paid  a  tax  in  the 


year  preceding  on  property  valued  at  least  at  $134.    Every 
male  citizen  of  the  age  of  twenty-one,  who  has  been  a  resi- 
dent of  the  State  one  year  and  of  the  town  or  city  six 
months,  may  vote  on  all  questions  and  in  all  elections  if  ho 
possesses  in  his  own  right  real  estate  valued  at  $134.    Until 
1894  a  majority  of  votes  was  necessary  to  an  election  by  tht* 
people,  but  in  that  year  a  plurality  amendment  was  adopt  tti. 
History. — The  founder  of  the  colony  was  Rooer  Williams 
(g,  v.).    In  the  winter  of  1635-86  he  was  ordered  to  leave  t  he 
colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  within  six  weeks,  nnder  penalty 
of  being  sent  back  to  England.    He  fled  to  the  Narraganj^^t  t 
country,  and  in  1636  settled  near  the  mouth  of  the  "  M<x  »s- 
hausick"  river  and  gave  his  place  of  abode  the  name  Provi- 
dence, **  because  of  God's  merciful  providence  to  hira    in 
his  distress.'*    The  first  written  compact  that  has  come 
down  to  us  from  the  settlers  of  Providence  set*  forth  t  he 
ideas  which  ever  after  ^joverned  the  colony.    In  it  the  sub- 
scribers promise  to  subject  themselves  "  in  active  or  passive* 
obedience  to  all  such  orders  or  agreements  as  shall  be  maile 
for  the  public  good  .  .  .  only  in  civil  thin^.'*    The  utnu'st 
liberty  was  allowed  in  matters  of  religion.    It  was  by  request 
of  the  colonists  that  the  patent  obtained  b^  Williams  limit  oil 
the  authority  to  be  exercised  under  it  to  civil  matters.     Tlio 
colony  originally  consisted  of  four  towns — Providence  (16:^B), 
Portsmouth  (1638),  Newport  (1639),  and  Warwick  (1642). 
The  executive  heads  of  Portsmouth  and  Newport  were  calU-<i 
judges  until  1640,  when  on  the  union  of  the  towns  the  ex- 
ecutive was  called  governor.    Providence  and  Warwick  had 
no  executive  head  until  1647,  when  the  four  towns  were 
united  under  a  patent  granted  by  Parliament  in  1643.    Thi> 
was  too  feeble  an  instrument  to  answer  the  purposes  of  a  char- 
ter.   It  produced  a  confederacy,  not  a  union,  and  allowed  the 
magistrates  of  the  various  towns  to  usurp  dictatorial  power**. 
In  1651  the  two  island  towns  separatea  from  those  on  the 
mainland,  and  in  1654  they  were  reunited.    In  1663  a  char- 
ter was  obtained  from  Charles  II.    This  instrument  was   re- 
markably liberal.    In  its  provision  that  no  person  sht>ul«l 
be  "  in  anywise  molested,  punished,  disquieted,  or  called   in 
Question  for  any  differences  in  opinion  that  do  not  actuall> 
aisturb  the  civil  peace,"  it  used  almost  the  exact  words  i  .f 
Charles's  famous  Declaration  from  Breda,  which  in   Itk^u 
had  done  so  much  to  secure  to  him  the  throne  of  Eii^lan<i.   ' 
Under  this  charter  the  colony  and  State  of  Rhode  Islan<i  aiui 
Providence  Plantations  were  governed  for  179  years,    Rh<  •*  it- 
Island  ofjoosed  the  policy  of  the  other  colonies  which  ie<l  i<» 
King  Philip's  war,  and  yet  suffered  most  severely  from  thai 
war.    King  Philip  was  killed  in  what  is  now  the  town  of  Bris- 
tol.    In  the  Narragansett  country,  in  1675,  was  fought  the 
*'  great  swamp  fight,"  when  more  than  a  thousand  Indians  }<  st 
their  lives.     In  1686-87  Sir  Edmund  Andros  suspende<l   ihr 
charter,  though  he  was  not  able  to  get  possession  of  ihe 
document.    On  his  deposition  in  1690  the  government  wa^ 
reorganized  under  it.    Early  in  the  nineteenth  century   it 
was  seen  that  the  charter  had  become  too  antiquated  for  the 
needs  of  the  State,  and  repeated  efforts  were  made  to   n^ 
place  it  with  a  constitution ;  but  the  General  Assembly  v  :ts 
supreme.    It  was  dominated  by  the  county-towns,  which  did 
not  propose  to  surrender  their  power  to  the  large  seaport  s«t- 
tleraents.    In  1841  a  people's  convention,  not  ordered  by  the 
General  Assembly,  met  and  framed  a  constitution.    'This 
illegal  action  precipitated  a  crisis.    (See  Dorr  Rebellion.) 
A  new  convention  was  soon  called.    The  present  constitu- 
tion was  prepared  in  Nov.,  1842,  ratified  by  the  people.  an«i 
put  in  operation  1843.     The  defect  of  the  charter  was   its 
provision  for  a  limited  suffrage.    In  1840,  out  of  a  ]M»|»ula- 
tion  of  108.830,  about  9,500  men  composed  the  elec"t orate. 
Not  until  1888  were  the  present  suffrage  laws  adopted. 

With  its  privateers  Rhode  Island  took  a  conspicuous  part 
in  all  the  wars  waged  upon  the  ocean  in  which  Great  liritatn 
was  engaged.  When  the  news  of  the  declaration  of  tht- 
war  with  Spain  reached  the  colony  in  1740  six  vesji^^U  tf 
war  were  at  once  placed  in  commission.  In  1756  there  \\  er« 
upon  the  ocean  fifty  Rhode  Island  privateers  manned  by  1  ,.%^  h  > 
sailors.  Privateering  was  ever  a  favorite  pursuit,  an«i  m 
the  Revolutionary  war  great  wealth  came  mto  the  c*oi«>i)\ 
from  this  source.  In  the  war  of  1812  the  privateer  Yank* 
of  Bristol  took  more  prizes  than  any  other  privateer  hailit  i. 
from  the.U.  S.,  and  sent  into  Bristol  more  than  $l,fK.MMMM» 
as  the  profit  from  her  six  cruises.  Commodore  Oliver  Ila/.a  r .  i 
Perry,  of  Rhode  Island,  and  his  sailors  made  the  naval  r«  - 
nown  of  the  State  immortal  in  the  battle  of  Lake  Eri#». 

The  colony  first  suggested  to  Congress  the  establish rn«'i>'; 
of  a  navy.  This  was  natural,  as  naval  hostilities  l^e^an  ui, 
Rhode  Island.    In  June,  1772,  his  Majesty's  armed  sc>h<.H»ni  r 


Hi* ;    ftiti*«ri^  |t. 


iSi 


l^f^ 


RI»«kV 


wtiliir  in  tiia 


nk*>iNiim.  Oil  nf-  n  imlfHTrfr 


94 


RHODODENDROX 


RHUS 


Rhododen'dron  [Mod.  Lst.,  from  Gr.  poM^vipWy  olean- 
der ;  ^^8oy,  rose  +  94if9^,  tree] :  a  lar^  genus  of  plants  of 
the  heath  family  {Ericacece\  comprismg  trees,  shrubs,  and 
rootlet-climbing  epiphytes,  with  entire,  alternate  evergreen, 
or  rarely  deciduous  leaves,  and  showy  flowers  in  terminal 
clusters ;  these  with  funnel-form  five-lobed  corollas  and  usu- 
ally ten  declining  stamens.  Passing  S.  of  the  equator  only 
into  Java  and  the  neighboring  islands,  the  rhododendron  is 
found  throughout  the  mountainous  districts  of  the  northern 
hemisphere.  The  i^reatest  number  of  species  occurs  in  the 
high  mountain  regions  extending  from  Java  and  Borneo  on 
the  S.  to  Yun-nan  and  the  Sikkim  Himalaya  in  the  N.  Sev- 
eral are  found  in  China  and  Japan,  two  reach  Kamtchatka, 
and  one  Alaska.  The  arctic  R.  lapponicum  of  Lapland  and 
Greenland  occurs  in  the  alpine  region  of  the  White  Mountains 
of  New  Hampshire.  The  only  two  other  European  species 
are  R.  ferrugineum  and  R.  hirsutum^  the  Alpenrosen  of  the 
Swiss  Alps.  The  species  peculiar  to  North  America  are,  on 
the  Atlantic  side,  R.  maximum,  which  occurs  sparinglv  as 
far  N.  as  Canada,  and  abundantly  throughout  the  wnole 
length  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains ;  R,  catawlnense,  a  lower 
and  earlier-flowered  species  on  the  higher  mountains  from 
Virginia  southward ;  and  R,  pttnctatum,  a  graceful  but  less 
showy  species  of  the  middle  country  of  the  Southern  States 
E.  of  the  mountains.  In  the  higher  Northern  Rocky  Moun- 
tains there  is  a  peculiar  deciduous-leaved  species,  R,  albi- 
florum ;  in  Oregon,  R,  macrophyllum,  apparently  near  R, 
maximum ;  in  California,  R,  califomicumy  nearer  R,  cataw- 
biense^  but  taller,  and  with  more  showy  blossoms.  The  con- 
trast in  the  size  attained  by  the  different  species  of  this 
genus  is  as  remarkable  as  its  geojgraphical  ran^i^e  is  exten- 
sive. The  arctic  R.  lapponicum  is  but  a  few  mches  high, 
while  R,  rolliasonii  of  Ceylon  attains  a  height  of  30  feet, 
with  a  stem  over  a  foot  in  diameter.  The  useful  properties 
of  this  genus  are  few  and  unimportant ;  the  Siberian  R, 
chrysanthumt  however,  supplies  a  narcotic  sometimes  used 
meaicinally.  Horticulturatly,  rhododendrons  play  a  more 
important  part.  Several  of  the  South  Asiatic  species  are 
conspicuous  inhabitants  of  conservatories,  the  best  suited 
for  such  cultivation  being  R,  arboreum,  R,  dalhousicB,  R, 
argentium,  R.  hodgsoni,  R.  javanicum,  and  R,  jasmini- 
florum.  Of  hardy  species,  the  most  so  in  the  nbrthern  parts 
of  the  U.  S.  is  the  Siberian  R,  daurieum,  with  small  decidu- 
ous leaves  and  rose-colored  flowers,  appearing  very  early  in 
the  spring ;  but  to  the  patient  skill  of  tne  hybridizer  we  owe 
a  race  of  hardy  rhododendrons  with  showy  flowers  and  foli- 
age, and  of  greater  horticultural  value  than  any  of  the  orig- 
inal types.  These  hybrids,  the  result  of  crossing  the  Alle- 
ghany R.  eaiawbiense  with  the  Eastern  R.pontinum  or  with 
the  Indian  R.  arboreum,  are  deservedly  more  generally 
planted  than  any  other  rhododendrons.  Loving  moisture 
and  unable  to  withstand  the  severe  summer  droughts  so 
common  in  many  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  and  not  thriving  m  soils 
strongly  impregnated  with  lime,  the  rhododendron  as  a  gar- 
den-plant can  be  successfully  cultivated  onlv  in  the  Atlantic 
States  from  Massachusetts  to  Virginia.  To  develop  its  great- 
est beauty  the  rhododendron  should  be  planted  in  well- 
drained  peat  or  in  soil  largely  composed  of  decaying  leaf- 
mould,  and  situations  should  be  selected  for  it  somewhat 
protected  from  the  winter  sun,  the  greatest  enemy,  with  the 
summer  droughts,  to  all  evergreens  in  the  U.  S. 

C.  S.  Sargent. 

Rhodope,  rod'd-pee  (in  Gr.  *Vo9Swfi) :  a  lofty  mountain  range 
in  Thrace,  noted  in  poetry  as  the  scene  of  the  revels  of  the 
Bacchantes,  or  female  followers  of  Dionysus. 

Rhdne,  rdn :  a  department  of  France,  bonlering  E.  on 
the  Saone  and  Rhone,  and  comprising  an  area  of  1,077  sq. 
miles.  It  is  mountainous,  covered  with  offshoots  of  the 
C^vennes,  but  with  the  exception  of  some  fertile  valleys  the 
soil  is  mediocre.  Copper,  iron,  and  lead  are  found  ;  excel- 
lent wine  is  produced,  and  the  manufactures  of  silk  and 
muslin  are  of  great  importance.    Pop.  (1891)  806,737. 

Rhdne  (anc.  Rhodanus) :  a  river  of  France  which  rises 
in  Switzerland,  in  the  Aljw,  on  the  western  side  of  the  St. 
Gothard,  flows  through  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  crosses  the 
Jura  Mountains,  turns  at  Lyons,  where  it  receives  the 
Saone,  to  the  S..  and  falls.  644  miles  distant,  into  the  Medi- 
terranean, through  two  branches  which  form  the  island  of 
Camargue.  Its  lower  course  is  through  swampy  and  un- 
healthiul  districts,  but  its  whole  middle  course  leads  through 
beautiful  and  fertile  regions  producing  st)ine  of  the  finest 
wines  of  France.  It  is  everywhere  very  rapid,  and  the  dif- 
ficulty of  navigation  caused  by  the  rapidity  of  the  current 


18  increased  by  the  suddenly  shifting  sandbanka  and  other 
obstructions,  especially  near  the  mouth.  An  extensive  sys- 
tem of  canals  connects  the  river  with  the  Mediterranean, 
and  with  the  Seine,  Loire,  Garonne,  and  (by  the  Saone;  the 
Rhine. 

Rhopaloc'era  [from  Gr.  ^^ira^or,  club  +  x^pof.  horn]:  thu 
group  of  butterflies,  the  name  being  given  in  allusion  tu  the 
club-shaped  antenn®.    See  Lepidopteba. 

Rhotacism  :  the  change  of  an  «  (2)  to  r ;  a  technical  terni 
in  historical  grammar.  The  voiced  form  of  «,  i.  e.  z,  shows 
a  tendency  in  many  different  languages  to  become  r.  The 
sound  of  r  as  it  appears,  for  instance,  in  English  differs 
from  z  only  in  a  slight  retraction  and  elevation  of  the  tip  of 
the  tongue.  Rhotacism  appears,  e.  ^.,  in  the  Teutonic  lan- 
guages (except  Gothic)  where  a  medial  s  is  preserved,  but  a 
medial  z  becomes  r;  thus  Eng.  u^aaiwere;  lose:  forlorn 
(Germ,  verloren) ;  also  in  Lat.  between  vowels ;  thus  ^entris 
for  *gen€9i8t  cf .  genua ;  dirimo  for  ^dia-imo,  cf .  disstlio  ;  in 
certain  Greek  dialects  as  Laconian  and  Elean  ;  cf .  Laconian, 
trUp  =  ^€6st  Elean,  rip  =  ris,  Benj.  Idk  Wheele&. 

Rhubarb  [vifi  0.  Fr.  from  Late  Lat.  rheubar'barum,  from 
Gr.  ^fjoif  $dpfiapw;  ^ir,  rhubarb,  liter.,  the  plant  from  the 
Rha  or  Volga  (Gr.  'Po)  +  neut.  of  fidpfiapos^  foreign] :  a  plani 
of  the  genus  Rheum^  or  its  root  employed  in  pharmacy.  The 
botanical  source  of  the  drug  is  not  definitely  knoVm,  the 
United  States  Pharmaeopaia  defining  it  as  the  root  uf 
Rheum  ojficinale  and  other  undetermined  species  of  Rheum  ^ 
the  British  as  the  sliced  and  dried  root  of  Rneum  palmatum^ 
R,  officinaie,  and  probably  other  species  collected  ami  pre- 
served in  China  and  Tibet.  A  specimen  of  Rheum  was 
obtained  through  French  missionaries  in  1867  and  sent  to 
France,  where  it  fiowered  at  Montmorenci  in  1871.  It  seemed 
to  correspond  in  all  respects  with  the  descriptions  of  the  true 
rhubarb-plant,  such  as  they  are,  and  the  root  was  appar- 
ently identical  with  the  Asiatic  rhubarb  of  commerce.  This 
species  has  been  described  by  Baillon  under  the  name  of 
R.  officinale.  Rhubarb  has  been  known  as  a  drug  from  a 
remote  period.  It  was  first  brought  to  Europe  bv  lantl 
from  China  to  the  Levant  ports,  whence  the  name  l^urkey 
rhubarb,  or  was  shipped  airectly  from  China  or  by  w«y 
of  India,  whence  the  variety  called  China,  Canton,  or  Ea*i*t 
India  rhubarb.  Later,  a  direct  trade  between  Russia  an<i 
China  was  established,  and  under  supervision  of  the  Rus- 
sian Government  rhubarb  was  transported  overland  throujrh 
Central  Asia  to  Russia.  For  a  lonjg;  time,  owing  to  the  rigid 
inspection  of  Russian  officials,  this  Russian  or  Turkey  rhu- 
bare  was  of  unvarying  good  quality.  Chinese  rhubarb  ij?. 
now  shipped  direct  from  China.  Chinese  rhubarb  is  a  rusty 
brown  m  color,  and  the  texture  is  finely  veined  and  mar- 
bled. Rhubarb  has  a  peculiar  smell,  a  disagreeable,  bitter, 
and  astringent  taste,  and  a  complex  composition.  A  bit  of 
the  root  if  chewed  feels  gritty,  from  the  presence  of  cr>s- 
tals  of  calcium  oxalate.  In  small  dose  rhubarb  behaves' a< 
a  stomachic  bitter,  but  in  larger  quantities  is  an  active 
purge,  producing  liquid  mucous  evacuations.  Bj  reason  of 
the  tannin  it  contains  it  is  also  secondarily  astringent.  It 
is  used  in  medicine  as  a  stomachic  and  a  laxative  or  purg(\ 
and  is  especially  useful  in  summer  diarrhceas  from  relaxa- 
tion of  the  bowels  or  improper  diet.  The  pharmaceuticnl 
preparations  are  very  numerous.  Among  the  most  com- 
monly used  is  the  spiced  or  aromatic  sirup,  which  is  a  tinc- 
ture of  rhubarb,  cloves,  cinnamon,  and  nutmeg  diluted  wit  h 
six  times  it-s  measure  of  sirup.  The  prof>ortion  of  rhubarb 
is  small,  the  preparation  being  intended  as  an  aromatic  as- 
tringent stomachic  in  the  bowel  complaints  of  children.  R, 
rhaponticum,  R.  undulatum^  and  R.  paJmafum,  or  hybrids 
between  them,  are  cultivated  for  their  leaf-stalks,  and  to 
some  extent  for  their  roots.  Revised  by  U.  A.  Hare. 

Rhnmb  [from  0.  Fr.  rumb,  from  Span,  rumbo,  appar, 
from  Gr.  ^dfifiot,  magic  wheel,  whirling  motion,  derir.  of 
P4fi0tiv,  turn] :  in  navigation,  the  track  of  a  ship  sailing  on 
a  certain  course.  A  rhumb-line  cuts  all  the  meridians  at  the 
same  angle,  and  when  this  angle  is  acute  the  rhnmb  is  a 
species  of  spherical  spiral,  continually  approaching  the  pole, 
but  reaching  it  only  after  an  in  finite  number  of  turns.  The 
angle  under  which  a  rhumb-line  cuts  any  meridian  is  callcMi 
the  angle  of  the  rhumb,  and  the  angle  that  it  makes  with  the 
prime  vertical  at  any  point  is  called  the  complement  of  tho 
rhumb.  The  projection  of  a  rhumb  on  the  plane  of  the 
equator  is  a  logarithmic  spiral. 

Rhns  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  rhua  =  Gr.  povs,  sumachi :  a 
genus  of  shrubs  or  trees  of  the  Anacardtaeam  or  cashew 


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96 


RHYS 


RHYTHM 


lent  to  the  less  acid  ffranites.  The  groundmass  may  be  lith- 
oidal  or  porcelain-like,  earthy,  porous,  or  cavernous ;  or  it 
ma^  be  dense  glass  or  pumiceous  elass.  Its  color  varies  from 
white  and  shuSes  of  gray  to  black.  The  lithoidal  forms  gen- 
erally exhibit  lighter  colors,  the  glassy  ones  the  darker  colors, 
except  in  the  case  of  pumice.  The  colors  are  white,  blue- 
gray,  greenish  and  purplish  gray,  pink  to  red,  yellow,  orange, 
brown,  and  black.  The  color  mav  be  uniform  through  the 
mass,  or  variegated  in  patches  ana  streaks  (eutcucitic),  or  in 
bands  and  layers  (flow-structure).  The  rock  may  be  massive 
and  compact^  or  split  into  layers  or  laminae  parallel  to  planes 
of  flow.  It  may  be  cracked  into  prisms  or  columns  like  those 
often  seen  in  basalt.  It  may  carry  soheroidal  stony  bodies 
(apherulites)  of  various  sizes',  and  hollow  ones  called  lith- 
ophtfsa.  These  spheroidal  bodies  are  special  forms  of  crys- 
tallization of  the  magma. 

Varieties  of  rhyolites  based  on  textural  features  are  ne- 
vadite,  having  relatively  many  phenocrysts;  liparite,  rela- 
tively few ;  lithoidal  rhyolite ;  hyaline  rhyolite,  when  glassy. 
The  most  glassy  forms  are  perlite,  pitchstone,  obsidian, 
and  pumice.  When  the  groundmass  is  more  crystalline,  it 
grades  into  porphyry.  With  increasing  calcium,  magiie- 
sium,  and  iron,  it  grades  through  dacite  into  andesite. 
With  increasing  alkalies  and  decreasing  silica,  it  grades  into 
quartz-trachyte  and  trachyte. 

The  name  rhyolite  was  introduced  by  von  Richthofen  in 
1860.  Liparite  (Lipari  islands)  was  introduced  by  J.  Roth 
in  1861  for  essentially  the  same  rocks,  and  is  in  quite  gen- 
eral use  in  Germany  for  the  whole  rock-group.  Rhyolite 
forms  lava-sheets  of  great  size  and  extent  throughout  the 
western  part  of  the  XL  S.,  where  it  was  erupted  during  Ter- 
tiary times.  Its  most  notable  occurrence  is  in  the  lellow- 
stone  National  Park.  It  is  well  known  in  Wyoming,  Idaho, 
Nevada,  Utah,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona.  It  also 
occurs  in  Mexico,  Iceland,  Hungary,  Lipari,  and  elsewhere. 
As  a  building-stone  its  delicate  color  adds  greatly  to  its 
value.  J.  P.  Iddinos. 

Rhys,  rees,  John  :  Celtic  philologist ;  b.  at  Abercaero,  Car- 
diganshire, Wales,  June  21, 1840 ;  educated  at  Jesus  College, 
Oxford;  studied  at  the  Sorbonne  and  at  Heidelberg  and 
Leipzig  1868-71.  Professor  of  Celtic  in  Oxford  since  1877. 
He  IS  the  author  of  Lectures  on  Welsh  Philology  (1877 ;  2d. 
ed.  1879);  Celtic  Britain  {IS82;  2d  ed.  1884);  Hibbert 
Lectures  on  Celtic  Heathendom  (1888);  Studies  in  the  Ar- 
thurian Legends  (1891);  Rhind  Lectures  on  the  Early 
Ethnoloay  of  the  British  Isles  (1890-91) ;  joint  editor  of 
various  Welsh  texts.  B.  I.  W. 

Rhythm  [vifi  O.  Pr.  from  Lat.  ryth'mus  =  Gr.  fvBfJs,  flow, 
measured  motion,  rhythm,  deriv.  of  fti¥  (f ut.  ^vfiaofiw),  flow] : 
the  division  of  time  into  small  approximately  equal  units 
by  corresponding  units  of  sound,  or  less  sensibly  by  muscu- 
lar movement  or  visible  motion.  Rhythm  bears  the  same 
relation  to  time  that  symmetry  bears  to  space.  The  arts  of 
space  and  rest,  or  completion — statuary,  architecture,  and 
painting — are  based  on  symmetry,  while'the  arts  of  time  and 
motion,  or  execution — dance,  music,  and  poetry — are  based 
on  rhythm.  Symmetry  and  rhythm  are  often  confounded, 
as  when  it  is  stated  that  the  windings  of  a  valley  form  an  in- 
stance of  rhythm.  One  of  the  most  common  perversions  of 
the  term  is  its  application  to  accentual  as  distinguished 
from  quantitative  verse.  In  English  the  accent,  which 
is  chiefly  stress,  marks  the  rhythmical  unit,  while  in  Latin 
and  Greek,  where  the  accent  was  chiefly  pitch,  the  unit  was 
marked,  not  by  the  accent,  but  by  stress,  usually  that  of 
long  syllables  as  compared  with  short ;  but  in  both  kinds  of 
verse,  if  there  is  rhythm,  the  units,  whether  marked  by  ac- 
cent or  by  stress,  must  be  virtually  equal.  The  fact  that  the 
quantity  of  syllables  is  more  unsettled  in  English  than  in 
the  ancient  classics  does  not  prevent  us  from  making  the 
feet  equivalent. 

Rhythm  mav  be  felt  in  movements  of  the  body,  as  in 
marcninp  or  tiancing  (for  even  the  deaf  enjoy  the  dance), 
but  it  will  be  sufficient  to  treat  of  the  rhythm  whose  sub- 
stance (iiqwyuoy  or  ^v6fu(6fi9i^¥)  is  sound. 

Just  as  a  vast  expanse  of  uniform  color,  however  pleasant 
to  the  eye,  does  not  show  symmetry,  so  one  continuous  uni- 
form sound,  however  agreeable  to  the  ear,  does  not  present 
rhythm.  Any  kind  of  sound  may  be  made  rhythmical,  but 
here  only  music  and  speech  need  be  recognized.  Again, 
poor  music  and  bad  poetry  may  have  faultless  rhythm,  so 
that  rhythm  may  be  treated  independently  of  the  other 
characteristics  of  music  and  poetry. 

The  quantitative  relation  of  syllables  to  each  other  is 


much  more  delicately  perceived  in  singing  than  in  reciting. 
Rhythm  of  the  former  kind  is  indicated  by  musical  nutf  ?<, 
of  the  latter  by  metrical  marks.  Recited  poetry  may  be 
rendered  more  exact  by  the  accompaniment  of  some  time- 
measuring  device,  such  as  the  metronome  or  icXc^i^i^of :  but 
even  that  often  regulates  the  feet  rather  than  the  individual 
syllables. 

The  ancient  musical  notes  did  not  indicate  quantity,  but 
when  the  latter  had  to  be  marked,  as  in  instrumental  niu^ic, 
it  was  done  by  writing  metrical  marks  (the  same  that  ^  e 
use)  over  the  notes.  Even  the  modem  system  of  notaiion 
is  faulty,  being  based  on  the  flction  of  the  "  whole  not  e." 
The  whole  note  has  no  flxed  length,  and  is  not  the  unit  nf 
rhythm  (though  it  may  happen  to  be).  The  true  unit  is  tin' 
bar  or  measure;  hence  in  |--time,  for  instance,  the  so-called 
i-note  is  really  one-third  of  the  unit  The  tempo  or  time- 
rate  of  performance  is,  in  any  case,  flxed  by  the  composer, 
and  approximately  indicated  by  the  words  andante,  alle- 
gro, etc.,  or  more  exactly  by  indicating  how  the  metronome 
18  to  be  set. 

Each  unit  of  rhythm  contains  a  loud  or  strong  part  and  a 
weak  part.  In  beating  time  the  hand  or  baton  descends  and 
remains  down  during  the  strong  part,  then  rises  and  remains 
up  during  the  weak  part  (except  when  the  bar  calls  for  more 
than  two  movements).  The  foot,  in  marching,  perfurin^ 
analogous  functions.  Hence  the  strong  part  is  called  the- 
sis (M<rtf,  putting  down ;  also  fidtruy  step,  and  6  iccirw  x/^^or. 
the  down  time),  and  the  weak  part  arsis  (Itpo'if,  lifting  up; 
also  6  &rw  xp^vm^  the  up  time);  but  in  meter  many  follow  t  h*^ 
Roman  grammarians  and  interchange  the  terms  arsis  aii<l 
thesis.  Each  movement  of  the  hand  was  called  let  iis 
(beat)  by  the  Romans,  but  we  apply  this  term  only  to  the 
down  beat  or  the  accompanying  stress. 

Bare  or  measures  are  to  music  what  feet  or  measures  are 
to  verse  ;  but  bars  always  begin  with  the  stress  or  musical 
accent,  whereas  feet  may  begin  with  the  weak  part.  Th»» 
anapffistic  dimeter  (tetrapody),  for  instance,  has  the  metri<al 
form  |ws-.-^|v^s-.-^|ww-^|ww^-^|;  but  if  sung  in 
f-time  it  becomes  f  f  \f  f  f\f  f  f|#  f  •!• 
the  flrst  and  last  1^  ^  N  U  U  11  >  •  I  I  U  •  .  t  » 
bars  being  supplementary.  In  verse  of  this  kind  the  weak 
part  or  arsis  of  the  flrst  foot  is  sometimes  called  anacrusi«q 
[kifdKpcvcis,  up  beat — a  modem  use  of  the  word),  and  th» 
scheme  written  v-^wl-^wwl— s^s^|,  etc. 

The  ancient  rhythmists  recognized  a  great  variety  of  ct»ni^ 
pound  bars,  some  of  them  containingseveral  simple  bars  or  fett^ 
so  that  a  rhythmical  bar  (vo^s  ^vBiuk6s)  was  often  really  a  cc  >1<  >ij 
or  musical  sentence.    In  modern  music  the  bars  or  nie^is^ 

J  n.ijr  rj.i 
2  1  i  r  I.  J I  r  r  r  I. 
l\rtn  n\,-%\:t 

analogously  J,  f,  and  V^.  In  J-time  the  third  note  reoeivt-i 
secondary  stress,  and  in  all  the  bars  consisting  of  multipU^j 
of  three  the  flrst  note  of  each  triplet  receives  stress.  II 
really  makes  no  difference  what  note  is  taken  as  the  unil 
of  the  measure,  so  that  J-time  and  f-time,  for  instance,  an 
practically  the  same.  There  are  other  bars  (for  instaiit^e 
the  very  rare  f),  but  a  full  discussion  of  this  subject  k»e 
longs  to  technical  works  on  music.  For  the  application  o; 
rhythm  to  speech  and  for  the  metrical  feet  of  poetry,  s<r^ 
Metres,  Peosody,  and  Quantity. 

The  equalization  of  seemingly  different  bars  or  feet  in  ani 
cient  poetry  is  the  subject  of  endless  controversy,  some  deny 
ing  that  they  were  in  any  way  modified  from  their  appan*  x\ 
form,  others  maintaining  that  an  approximation  to  et^uali  1 1 
was  made,  while  still  others  assert  tnat  absolute  equality  wtij 
established.  It  is  certain  that  in  trochaic  and  iambic  mctt- 
the  seeming  spondee,  by  a  partial  shortening  of  one  syllal  »li 
so  that  it  became  irrational  {$Xoyot)  with  respect  to  th 
other,  the  foot  was  made  to  approximate  a  pure  foot,  ati^ 
there  is  no  proof  that  it  was  not  by  change  of  tempo  niatii 
virtually  equal  to  such  foot — that  is,  the  trochaic  moaMir 

—  w is  really  — w—  >,  in  which  >   is  irrational  vlxm, 

—  >  is  equivalent  to  —  w.    So  the  light  dactyl,  -v^  w,  ami] 

ogous  to  I  5  *  U    C  L  *nd  the  cyclic  anapjpst  were  probal  »1 

made  respectively  equivalent  to  the  trochee  and  ianibti^ 
(See  Prosody.)  It  must  be  granted,  however,  that  Ih^^r 
were  changes  of  the  rhythm  in  the  same  composition ;  t.ij 
that  a  change  could  taKe  place  in  the  same  colon  seems  1 1; 
credible.  Milton  W.  Humphreys^. 


ures  most  ^ 
used  are:  2 

3     I  ^     <9 


ir  • 

-3.  If 

8  \^ 


r  r 


: 


98 


RIBP]RA 


RICASOLI 


little  precise  information  about  him,  and  the  difficulty  in 
this  regard  has  increased  by  the  appearance  at  the  same  pe- 
riod 01  several  persons  of  the  same  name.  At  the  age  of 
twenty -one  he  had  to  leave  his  home  for  the  court,  because 
of  a  plague  that  was  devastating  his  native  province.  He 
became  the  friend  of  the  best  poets  in  Lisbon,  FaleSo,  S&  de 
Miranda,  and  Mont«mayor.  He  had  also  a  tragic  love- 
adventure,  the  object  of  his  passion  being  possibly  a  certain 
Donha  Joana  de  Vilhena,  cousin  of  the  King,  Dom  Manuel, 
and  wife  after  1516  of  Dom  Francisco  de  Portugal.  Count  of 
Vimioso.  After  the  failure  of  his  suit  he  seems  to  have 
gone  to  Spain,  and  probablv  to  Italy.  D.  about  1550.  He 
IS  a  noteworthy  figure  in  Portuguese  literature,  as  having 
been  one  of  the  introducers  of  the  Italian  pastoral  style  that 
has  ever  since  held  such  sway  in  Portugal.  There  are  ex- 
tant five  idyls,  or  eglogas,  in  which  experiences  of  his  own 
and  of  his  poet  friends  are  idealized ;  and  also  a  pastoral  ro- 
mance in  prose,  interspersed  with  verse,  in  which  the  main 
theme  is  nis  own  love,  under  the  name  Bimnarder,  for  a 
ladv  disguised  as  "Aonia."  This  romance  is  commonly 
called  3fen(na  e  Mo^a^  but  the  author  probably  knew  it  as 
Tristezas,  or  Saudadea.  Two  parts  of  it  have  come  down 
to  us,  but  it  is  uncertain  what  share,  if  any,  Ribeiro  had  in 
the  second.  The  work's  chief  defect  is  that  so  many  mat- 
ters besides  the  main  theme  are  interwoven  as  to  make  the 
whole  extremely  confused ;  yet  it  had  a  very  great  influence 
in  both  Portugal  and  Spain,  and  to  some  extent  outside  the 
Peninsula.  I&sides  the  above  Ribeiro  wrote  a  number  of 
lyrics  in  the  style  of  the  older  Portuguese  poets,  some  of 
which  are  printed  in  the  so-called  Cancioneiro  de  Resende. 
The  first  edition  of  the  Jlenina  e  Mo  fa  was  published  at 
Ferrara  in  1554 ;  the  second,  better  known,  at  Evora  in 
1557.  In  1559  it  was  aarain  printed  with  the  addition  of  the 
lyrics.  The  Obras  de  Bernardim  Ribeiro  appeared  in  1645, 
1785,  1853.  An  excellent  edition  of  the  Menina  e  Mo^a  is 
that  of  D.  Jose  Pessanha  (with  PrefaciOy  1891). 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Ribera,  ree-ba'nia,  Josk,  called  Lo  Spognoletto  (the  lit- 
tle Spaniard):  painter:  b.  at  Jativa,  near  \alencia,  Jan.  12, 
1588.  He  studied  art  with  Ribalta.  and  then  went  to  Italy, 
where  in  extreme  poverty  he  worked  at  painting,  depending 
on  the  charity  of  his  fellow  students  in  Rome.  Later  he 
went  to  Naples,  where  he  married  the  daughter  of  a  rich 
picture-dealer,  and  was  emploved  by  the  Spanish  viceroy, 
the  Count  de  Monterev,  for  Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  In  1630 
the  Academy  of  St.  Luke  at  Rome  elected  him  as  one  of  its 
members,  "f  he  pope  decorated  him  with  the  insignia  of  the 
Abito  di  Cristo  in  1644.  Some  biographers  assert  that  he 
died  in  Naples,  rich  and  honored,  in  1656,  while  Dominici, 
the  Italian  historian,  says  that  Lo  Spagnoletto  disapj)eared 
in  1648,  and  was  no  more  heard  of.  Luca  Giordano  and 
Salvator  Rosa  were  his  most  eminent  pupils. 

W.  J.  Stillman. 

Ribot,  ree'bo',  Alexander  F£lix  Joseph:  statesman;  b. 
at  St.-Omer,  France,  Feb.  7, 1842;  was  etlucated  for  the  bar; 
received  an  official  appointment  in  1870,  but  afterward  re- 
turned to  the  practice  of  his  profession  in  Paris,  and  in  1878 
was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  as  a  representative 
of  the  moderate  republican  party.  In  1890  he  became 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  was  Prime  Minister  from 
Dec,  1892,  to  Mar.,  1893.  In  Jan.,  1895,  he  again  became 
Prime  Minister  after  the  election  of  Faure  as  president  of 
the  republic.  Ribot  is  the  author  of  several  works,  includ- 
ing a  tiography  of  Lord  Erskine  (Paris,  1866).      R.  A,  R. 

Ribot,  AuousTiN  TniSoDULE :  genre  and  portrait  painter ; 
b.  at  Breteuil,  Eure,  France,  Aug.  8,  1823;  punil  of  Glaize; 
medals.  Salons,  1864  and  1865;  thinl-class  medal,  Paris  Ex- 
position, 1878 ;  Legion  of  Honor  1H78.  His  work  is  robust  in 
style  and  notable  for  strong  modeling.  His  charcoal  draw- 
ings are  exceedingly  good.  St,  Sfbastinn  (1865),  Christ 
and  the  Doctors  (1866),  and  The  (rood  Samaritan  (1870)  are 
in  the  Luxembourg  (iallery,  Paris.  D.  at  Colombes,  Seine, 
Sept.  12,  1891.  W.  A.  C. 

Ribot,  Theodule  Armand:  psycholoirist ;  b.  at  Gningainp, 
France,  Dec.  18,  1839;  educated  "at  the  Lycco  de  St.-HricMic 
and  at  the  ftcole  Normale  in  Paris ;  was  p'rofessor  in  ditfer- 
ent  lycdos  1869-71 ;  engaged  in  laboratories  and  clinics  in 
Paris  until  1876;  founder  and  editor  of  La  Rente  Philo- 
sophique  1876-94;  lecturer  at  the  Sorbonne  1K85-88 ;  pro- 
fessor in  the  College  de  France  since  1888.  His  princijml 
works  are  La  I^yehologie  anglaise  contfwporaine  (1870); 
VlUrfditl  psychologique  (1873;  4th  e<l.  1892) ;  La  PMi/nholo- 
gie  allemande  contemporaine  (1879;  Eng.  trans.  188(5);  Les 


Maladies  de  la  JlSmoire  (1881 ;  9th  ed.  1894) :  Les  Malawi i  *  ^ 
de  la  Volonte  (1883 ;  10th  ed.  1894) ;  Les  Maladies  tU-  In 
Personnalite  (1885);  and  La  Psychologie  de  VAtttrnt\^»n 
(1889).  J.  Mark  Bali^imn. 

Ribs  [0.  Eng.  rib :  O.  H.  Ger.  rippa  (>  Mod.  Ger.  ripp*  : 
Icel.  rif  <  Indo-Europ.  rebhyo- ;  cf.  O.  Bulg.  rebro,  rib] :  i  !.• 
curved  bones  which  form  the  lateral  framework  of  the  tliorax 
or  chest.  They  serve  as  substantial  points  of  attachment  f  ♦  r 
the  thoracic  muscles,  which  perform  the  respiratory  mo- 
tions, and  by  their  resistance  and  elasticity  protect  the  liin  u"-, 
heart,  and  great  vessels  from  external  violence  and  iiijur\. 
The  ribs,  in  man,  are  usually  twenty-four  in  number,  \^A\  »■ 
on  each  side,  but  may  be  one  or  two  more  or  less  in  ex«»*j - 
tional  cases.  They  are  articulated  to  the  spine  behinii,  I  mi 
in  front  only  the  upper  seven  are  connected  with  the  st«Tiiii  m 
or  breast-bone  by  intervening  costal  cartilages.  Of  tlie  n*- 
maining  five,  three  connect  with  the  cartilage  of  the  S4'v<n!  fj. 
while  the  lower  two  are  unattached  and  terme<l  free  or  floH»  - 
ing  ribs.  The  ribs  are  elastic,  and  being  articulated  in  fn  »nt 
and  behind  move  freely  upward  and  outward  in  insi»initi«  .r,, 
and  reversely  downward  and  inward  in  expiration.  The  ti\>^, 
like  other  bones,  may  be  infiamed  and  thickened  from  <<'ii- 
tusion  or  from  blooil-disease ;  they  are  often  dislort***!  I.v 
collapse  of  a  part  or  whole  of  a  lung  and  external  atni«»^- 
pheric  pressure.  The  chief  injuries  to  the  ribs  are  s<-|.h ra- 
tion from  their  attachments  to  the  spine  or  sternum,  aini 
fracture.  The  fractured  rib  is  detected  by  local  crepital  i«  -li 
of  the  fragments  in  respiratory  movement,  and  by  the  ><.*v»'i. 
local  stitch  or  pain  it  gives  the  patient.  The  treat iihiiv 
consists  in  application  of  a  firm  bandage  or  broad  a4ihe-i\ « 
band  around  the  body  to  suspend  thoracic  movement  nut  i- 
the  rib  is  united ;  respiration  meanwhile  is  conducted  chirtr* 
by  motion  of  the  diaphragm.  Revised  by  W.  Pei'Fer. 

Ricar'do.  David:  political  economist;  b.  in  Lonil..ii, 
Apr.  19, 1772.  His  father,  who  was  a  Jew  and  a  native  .  f 
Holland,  settled  in  London,  and  as  a  member  of  the  Sio<k 
Exchange  gained  a  fortune.  David  Ricardo  was  a  part  n.  r 
with  his  father  till  in  1793  he  embraced  the  Christian  fni:  h 
and  fonned  a  marriage  connection  contrary  to  his  futh«r  h 
wishes,  which  caused  the  partnei-ship  to  be  di<M)lvtM', 
Through  the  aid  of  other  members  of  the  Stock  Exihni);:*! 
the  younger  Ricardo  started  in  business  by  himself,  ami 
succeeded  in  a  few  years  in  securing  a  fortune.  He  tlo  ii 
gave  his  time  to  the  study  of  mathematics,  chemistry,  iiuii^ 
eralogy,  and  geologv,  and  wtis  active  in  securing  the  or^'^un^ 
ization  of  the  London  Geological  Society,  In  1809  he  jtuL 
lished  a  tract  entitled  Tlte  High  Price  of  Bullion,  a  Pvi,-,  r 
of  the  Depreciation  of  Bank-notes;  in  1817  pnblishe«l  h.i 
most  important  work  on  The  I^nnciples  of  Political  Kcf^f 
omy  and  Taxation,  Its  leading  feature  was  a  theory  <-! 
rent,  which,  though  embodying  ideas  before  announce<l  J.^ 
others,  was  received  by  the  public  as  a  new  and  importMisI 
theory,  especiallv  in  connection  with  the  theory  of  Malthui 
on  population,  tlien  much  discussed.  He  subsequently  1« 
came  a  member  of  Parliament,  where  he  took  a  proiuiiui. 
part  in  the  discussion  of  economic  questions.  I),  at  G»it^ 
comb  Park,  Gloucestershire,  Sept.  11,  1823.  Ricardo  stan. 
next  to  Adam  Smith  in  the  British  free-trade  sehcud  «. 
political  economists,  and  his  writings  have  exerted  a  \h*\\ 
erful  influence  upon  subsequent  students  of  the  scien<-e.  J 
collection  of  his  works,  edited  by  J.  R.  McCulloch,  wa«<  |.uli 
lished  in  1846,  and  his  Letters  to  Malthus  api>eanHl  in  ls>^  1 

Revised  by  F.  M.  Ci»lb\  . 

Ricas^H,  ret'-kaa's5-le>,  Betting,  Baron:  statcMnaii  ;  \ 
in  Florence,  Mar.  9,  1809,  of  an  old  noble  Florentine  fann  1  -^ 
In  1848  he  was  a  prominent  advocate  of  the  unity  of  Ita  .  \ 
was  elected  to  the  Tuscan  narliament,  and  was  offer«Ml 
place  in  the  ministry,  which  he  declined,  as  the  grand  tliiK 
had  turned  against  the  democratic  movement.  After  i  ^i 
defeat  of  Novara,  hoping  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  1  »  i 
Austrians  into  Tuscany,  he  took  the  initiative  in  reialln 
the  grand  duke,  but  retired  from  the  court  when  the  l;it  r»! 
with<lrew  the  constitution.  In  1859  he  again  put  hini.<»  i  f  :| 
the  head  of  the  Tuscan  liberal  movement,  and  aidetl  in  tli 
expulsion  of  the  grand  duke,  and.  as  provisional  dictator,  i 
the  union  of  Tuscany  with  Piedmont.  This  being  a***-,  mii 
plished,  he  was  appointed  governor-general  of  Tuseanv,  m 
office  which  he  held  till  Mar.,  1861.  The  city  of  Floroi.. 
elected  him  deputy  to  the  Italian  parliament,  and  after  i  \\ 
death  of  Cavour  he  lx»came  president  of  the  council  in  i^i 
new  ministrv  which  was  afterward  overthrown  by  the  ••!  •!  »i 
sition  of  Rattazzi.  In  June,  1866,  Baron  Ricasoli  return. i 
to  power  and  resumed  the  din^ction  of  public  affairs,  ln| 


100 


RICE 


RICHARD  I. 


^ain.  The  primitive  method  of  removing  the  hull  was  by 
hand,  using  a  pestle  and  mortar.  The  mortar  was  a  lar^ 
block  of  wood  set  on  end ;  the  pestle  was  about  24  inches  m 
diameter,  and  2  feet  long.  By  light  pounding  and  then 
winnowing  the  hull  and  the  cuticle  were  removed  and  the 
grain  was  fitted  for  use. 

In  a  modem  rice-mill  the  rice  is  emptied  from  a  sack  into 
a  hopper  at  the  storehouse;  it  passes  from  the  hopper  into  a 
large  fanning-mill  or  separator,  where  it  is  freed  from  all 
foreign  substances ;  it  is  then  transferred  to  the  mill  by  a 
belt-conveyor;  the  hull  is  removed  by  passing  the  grain 
between  heavy  millstones  (about  5  feet  in  diameter)  which 
revolve  rapidly,  but  are  not  close  enough  toother  to  break 
the  kernel ;  it  then  goes  to  the  mortar  and  is  pounded  for 
two  hours,  or  in  some  mills  the  Engleburg  huller  is  used  in 
place  of  the  pounding  process ;  by  these  processes  the  hull 
and  cuticle  are  removed  and  the  grain  is  scoured.  The  hulls 
are  disposed  of  as  worthless  refuse ;  the  cuticle  and  undercoat- 
ing  scoured  off  are  the  rice-bran.  The  rice  then  passes 
through  an  inclined  cylindrical  wire  revolving  screen,  with 
the  meshes  becoming  coarser  toward  the  lower  end,  thus 
assorting  the  rice  into  three  or  four  grades;  the  finest  is 
the  brewers*  rice,  the  second — a  middling  rice — includes  the 
larger  broken  rice,  and  the  third  is  the  whole  rice  or  head 
rice ;  the  head  rice  passes  from  the  screen  into  the  polisher, 
where  it  is  brushed  and  finished.  Rice-bran  and  rice-polish 
are  excellent  food  for  cattle  and  hogs,  rating  higher  than 
wheat-bran  and  wheat-middlings;  brewers*  rice  is  used  for 
the  production  of  light  beer,  and  usually  brings  about  one- 
half  the  price  of  head  rice ;  middling  rice  sells  for  nearly 
one  cent  per  pound  less  than  head  rice. 

Rice  as  a  food  (see  Food)  is  deficient  in  the  flesh-forming 
principles,  but  its  almost  perfect  digestibility  increases  its 
food- value  20  or  25  per  cent.,  and  makes  it  exceetiinglv  val- 
uable for  the  sick  or  people  inclined  to  dyspepsia,  l^hysi- 
cians  quite  generally  prescribe  a  rice  diet  in  some  form 
where  there  is  any  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane, 
whether  of  the  lungs,  stomach,  or  bowels.  Two  precautions 
should  be  observed:  the  rice  should  be  more  than  three 
months  old,  and  should  be  thoroughly  cooked.  With  beef, 
fish,  milk,  cheese,  or  beans  it  makes  a  well-balanced  nutri- 
tive ration.  In  warm  countries  rice  is  extensively  used  in 
meat  souns  and  as  a  substitute  for  the  potato.  No  meal  is 
considered  complete  without  it  in  some  form.  It  is  made 
into  bread,  puddings,  biscuits,  griddle-cakes,  and  other  foo<l. 
It  makes  an  effective  paste,  and  in  Oriental  countries  it  is 
use<i  in  the  production  of  a  spirituous  liquor  known  as  arrack. 

Rice-straw  is  more  palatable  to  animals  than  oat-straw, 
and  preferred  as  a  coarse  fodder;  it  is  largely  used  for  win- 
tering stock.    It  makes  an  excellent  (quality  of  paper. 

Rice  production  in  the  U.  S.  attained  considerable  pro- 
portion m  the  colonial  times.  In  1707  seventeen  ships  left 
South  Carolina  with  cargoes  of  rice.  In  1730  the  product 
was  21,153,054  lb. ;  in  1755  it  reache<i  50,747,090  lb.;  and  in 
1770,  75,264,500  lb.  This  was  raised  with  slave-labor,  and 
mostly  exported  to  Europe  and  the  West  Indies.  For  the 
next  seventy  vears  there  was  practically  no  increase.  The 
product  of  1^  was  84.145,800  lb.  In  1860  it  was  117,- 
885,000  lb.  During  the  civil  war  little  rice  was  raised,  and 
in  1865  the  total  amount  was  only  4,740,580  lb.  In  1880  it 
had  increased  to  85,596,800 lb. ;  in  1890  to  131,722,000  lb.; 
and  in  1893  to  237,546,900  lb.,  of  which  amount  Jjouisiana 
produced  182,400,000  lb..  North  Carolina  6,818,400  lb..  South 
Carolina  33,250,500  lb.,  and  Georgia  15,078,000  lb.  This 
marvelous  increase  in  Louisiana  was  due  to  the  introduction 
and  adaptation  of  the  most  improved  agricultural  ma- 
chinery. The  crop  in  1894  fell  off  nearly  one-half ;  this  was 
due  to  drought  in  Louisiana  and  floods  in  the  other  States. 

S.  A.  Knapp. 

Rice,  James  :  novelist ;  b.  in  Northampton,  England,  in 
1844 ;  was  educated  at  Queen's  Collejre.  (Jambridge ;  called 
to  the  bar  in  1871;  edited  Once  a  Week  186H-?2;  and  for 
eight  years  was  Loudon  correspondent  of  the  Toronto  Globe. 
I),  in  London,  Apr.  25,  1882.  lie  was  joint  author  with 
Walter  Besant  of  many  novels.    See  Besant,  Walter. 

n.  A.  Beers. 

Rice-bird,  or  Rice-banting :  the  Bobolink  {q.  v.) ;  the 
Java  Sparrow  {q.  v.)  is  also  called  rice-bird. 

Rice,  Indian,  Water-rice,  or  Water-oats:  an  annual 
a(^iiatic  grass  (Zizania  aquaticn)  helon«;ing  to  the  true  rice 
tril)e,  though  of  inferior  value,  from  5  t(»  10  feet  hif»h,  which 
abounds  in  marshy  regions  of  the  U.  S.,  e*?])coially  in  Min- 
nesota.   }ts  grain  was  formerly  much  used  by  the  Dakota 


and  Chippewa  Indians,  and  forms  an  important  nortion  <> 
the  fooa  of  the  game-birds  of  the  Northwest.  Us  stem  i.- 
employed  as  a  paper-stock. 

Rice  Lalce:  city;  Barron  co.,  Wis.;  on  the  Red  Ce4l:it 
river,  Rice  Lake,  and  the  Chi.,  St.  P.,  Minn.,  and  Oinalu 
Railway;  48  miles  N.  of  Menomonie,  56  miles  N.  of  Ka' 
Claire  (for  location,  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  3-B).  Ii  i 
in  an  agricultural  and  lumbering  region,  is  engHged  ii 
manufacturing,  and  has  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  !^.%n. 
000,  a  private  bank,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  Pop.  (is^u 
862;  (1890)2,130. 

Rice-paper :  See  Paper. 

Ricli,  Edmund  {Saint  Edmund):  Archbishop  of  Cant*'r 
bury;  b.  at  Abingdon,  England,  about  1170;  educatetl  ti 
Oxford,  where  he  "wedded  the  Virgin  Mary,"  as  he  call.  . 
his  vow  of  special  service,  and  at  Paris;  became  an  in^trtic 
tor  at  Oxford,  where  the  university  was  then  develofiii^  i 
revival  of  scholarship;  was  prebendary  of  Calne  and  tn-a^ 
urer  of  Salisbury  Cathedral  1219-22 ;  was  a  famous  preaclnT 
at  the  pope*8  command  preached  the  crusade  over  a  c<>n*^i<} 
erable  part  of  England,  probably  in  1227;  was  ap{M>intt4 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  1233,  and  was  consecrated  Apr 
2,  1234 ;  exhibited  energy  as  a  reformer  in  the  face  of  oj»i  ^ » 
sition  from  the  clergy  and  from  the  Roman  hierarchy  ;  y^^'U 
to  Rome  in  1238  and  again  in  1240  to  settle  various  difTim; 
ties  with  his  monks,  but  finding  that  the  pope  demandiM 
more  and  more  unreasonable  concessions  he  resigned  his  m  « 
and  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Pontig^y,  in  France,  in  th. 
summer  of  1240;  thence  a  little  later  he  went  for  his  heah  I 
to  the  priory  of  Soissy,  where  he  died,  Nov.  16, 1240.  1 1 1 
remains  were  taken  to  Ponti^ny,  and  having  been  canon iz«. 
by  Innocent  IV.  in  1247,  his  shrine  (known  in  Franco  a 
that  of  St.  Edme)  became  a  place  of  pilgrimage.  Cariliit:t 
(then  Archbishop)  Manning  and  Lord  Edmund  Howar-] 
with  500  British  pilgrims,  went  thither  to  invoke  his  itiu  i 
cession  in  behalf  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  Sopt.  :'. 
1874  He  wrote  a  volume  of  Constitutions  in  thirty-^i> 
canons  (1236),  Speculum  Ecclesicp,  and  left  MS.  troati>4s 
now  in  the  Bodleian  Library.  There  is  a  MS.  biography  h^ 
his  brother  Robert  in  the  Cottonian  collection.  AiH»tlnr 
written  by  Bertrand,  prior  of  Pontigny,  was  published  ii 
Martene's  Thesaurus  Anecdotorum,  lii.,  17*4-1826;  <f 
Hook's  Litvs  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,  s,  v. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackshn. 

Ricliard  I.  (Plantaoenet),  surnamed  Cceur  i>k  Lioi 
(lion-hearted):  Kin^  of  England;  third  son  of  Ilt^nrv  11 
and  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine ;  b.  at  Oxford,  Sept.  13, 1157  :  ^^  a 
noted  from  youth  lor  i-ash  valor  and  a  turbulent  disi>os it  ion 
received  the  duchv  of  Aquitaine  by  the  treaty  of  Moutinirai: 
(Jan.  6,  1169),  under  the  feudal  supremacy  of  Kinc:  I^oui 
VII.  of  France,  to  whose  youngest  daughter,  Adelaiile.  li 
was  at  the  same  time  betrothed ;  joined  his  mother  and  hi 
two  brothers  in  rebellion  against  his  father  1173 ;  was  mon 
ciled  to  him  Sept.,  1174;  l^came  involved  in  wars  with  hi 
brothers,  but  was  reconciled  to  them  in  London  in  11  s4 
lie  also  made  war  upon  the  Count  of  Toulouse,  aided  hi 
father  against  Philip  Augustus,  and  later,  in  alliance  witj 
Philip  Augustus,  waged  successful  war  on  his  father.  Suo 
ceeding  to  the  throne  in  July,  1189,  he  spent  a  few  nmnth 
in  arranging  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom,  and  then  st*t  out  «)i 
the  third  crusade,  Julv,  1190,  with  the  King  of  France.  (>i 
his  way  to  the  Holy  Land  he  captured  Messina  and  eon 
quered  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Arnving  before  Acre  Jurit*  < 
he  took  part  in  the  capture  of  the  city,  but  soon  quarreled 
with  the  French  king,  who  returned  to  France.  Riihan 
advanced  immediately  toward  Jerusalem ;  defeated  the  Sara 
cens  at  Arsuf  in  September;  took  and  fortified  Jaffa;  ad 
vanced  on  Askalon,  which  he  took  Jan.,  1192;  set  out  twici 
for  Jerusalem,  but  was  called  hack  each  time  by  host i lit  i<^ 
in  his  rear;  lost  and  regained  Jaffa;  performed  many  hritl 
iant  exploits  of  personal  valor,  but,  iMjing  obligiKi  liy  i  h 
state  of  affairs  in  England  to  return,  made  a  truce  witti  Su| 
tan  Saladin,  and  sailed  from  Acre  in  October.  On  his  wd 
home  he  was  shipwrecked  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  :  ed 
deavored  to  make  his  way  by  land  through  Austria;  w| 
seized  and  imprisoned  by  Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria,  \^il 
whom  he  had  quarreled  in  the  Holy  Land ;  was  hancltnl  on 
to  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  by  whom  he  was  detained  ihm 
than  a  year;  was  liberated  on  pledge  of  a  heavy  rans«a 
Feb.,  li94;  found  his  brother  John  assuming  tlie  funrtioi 
of  king,  but  soon  forgave  him ;  engaged  in  a  war  with  F*hil! 
Augustus  of  France,  whom  he  defeated  and  forced  to  siirn 
disadvantageous  truce,  and  renewed  the  war  three  >i-ai 


Rtrli«ril» 


llifF.M.r^iLm 


m 


102 


RICHARDSON 


RICHELIEU 


He  has  bt'cii  since  1854  an  earnest  advocate  of  advance  in 
national  sanitation,  and  a  zealous  partisan  of  the  temperance 
movement.  Since  1884  he  has  been  the  author  and  editor 
of  a  quarterly  journal.  The  Asclepiad.  Among  his  works 
are  T/ie  Uealth  of  Sationa  (London,  1887) ;  National  Uealth 
(London,  18iH)).  Revised  by  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Richardson,  Charles:  philologist:  b.  in  England  in 
July,  1775;  studied  but  never  practiced  law:  devoted  him- 
self to  literature  in  I^ndon ;  published  IHu»traiiof%s  of 
English  Philology  (1H15);  undertook  the  lexicographical 
articles  in  The  Eticyclopcedia  MetropoUtana,  for  which  he 
also  prepared  his  great  work,  a  New  Dictioiuiry  of  the  Eng- 
lish Language,  which  (the  first  part  appearing  in  1818)  was 
suspended  soon  afterwanl  by  the  failure  of  the  proprietors, 
ana  completed  (as  a  separate  work)  in  1837.  The  complete 
work  appeared  in  new  editions  in  1837,  1838,  and  1839. 
Richardson  also  published  a  Supplement  to  his  dictionary 
(1855).  a  work  On  tlie  Study  of  Language  (1854),  and  an 
Historical  Essay  on  English  Grammar  and  English  Gram- 
marians, several  philological  papers  in  the  Gentleman'' s 
Magazine,  and  some  comments  on  Shaksoeare:  was  a  con- 
tributor to  Notes  and  Queries;  received  a  pension  from 
1852  until  his  death  at  Peltham,  Middlesex,  Oct.  6,  1805. 

Richardson,  Charles  Francis  :  scholar ;  b.  at  Hallowell, 
Me.,  May  29,  1851.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College 
1871,  was  connected  with  the  New  York  Independent  1872- 
78,  and  in  1882  was  appointed  Professor  of  English  at  Dart- 
mouth. He  has  published  A  Primer  of  American  Litera- 
ture {1S7Q);  The  Cross,  a  volume  of  poems  (1879);  The 
Choice  of  Books  (ISSl) ;  &i\d  American  Literature  (2  vols., 
1887-89).*  II.  A.  B. 

Richardson,  Samuel:  novelist;  b.  in  Derbyshire,  Eng- 
land, about  1689;  learned  the  printing-tratle ;  became  a 
publisher  in  London,  printer  of  the  journals  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  master  of  the  Stationers'  Company,  and  pur- 
chased in  1760  a  half-interest  in  the  office  of  king's  printer. 
I),  in  London,  July  4,  1761.  His  novels  Pamela  (1740,  with 
a  continuation  in  1741),  Clarissa  Harlowe  (1748),  Sir 
Charles  Grandison  (1754)  enjoyed  an  unboundeil  success, 
and  had  numerous  imitators  not  only  in  England,  but  in 
(jermanv  and  France,  where  they  profoundly  influenced 
the  whole  development  of  prose  fiction,  Richardson  is  the 
first  English  novelist.  His  novels  are  all  in  the  form  of 
letters,  and  are  long  and  sentimental.  They  show  little  ujc- 
quaintance  with  men  on  the  part  of  their  author,  but  an  in- 
tense and  sympathetic  absorption  in  the  feelings  of  the 
female  heart,  and  they  had  their  strongest  popularity 
among  wom(>n.    See  Enulish  Literature. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Richardson,  William  Adams,  LL.  D.  :  jurist  and  finan- 
cier; b.  at  Tyngsb6rough,  Mass.,  Nov.  2,  1821;  graduated 
at  Harvard  1843;  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Boston  1846;  prac- 
ticed law  at  Lowell;  was  one  of  the  revisers  of  the  General 
Statutes  of  MaMMfirhusftts  (1860),  and  of  the  Supplement  to 
the  same  (1863-64) ;  Ijecame  judge  of  j)robate  1856,  Assist- 
ant Secretary  of  the  Treasury  1869-73.  and  was  secretary 
1873-74;  Judge  of  C  S.  court  of  clniins  since  1874,  and 
chief  justice  of  same  since  Jan.  20,  1H85 ;  published  The 
Banking  Laws  of  Mamarhusetts  (Lowell.  1855);  Practical 
Information  concerning  the  Public  Debt  of  the  United 
States,  with  the  National  Banking  Laws  (1872);  History 
of  the  Court  of  Claims  (1882-85),  and  otlier  works. 

Riehardt,  Christian  Ernst:  poet;  b.  in  Copenhagen, 
Denmark,  May  25,  1831.  After  studying  theology  he  ac- 
(•epU»d  a  call  to  a  countrv  church,  and  continued  to  Ih»  a 
parish  priest  until  his  death.  During  the  last  years  of  his 
life  he  was  chaplain  of  Vemmetofte  Cloister  in  Zealand. 
His  first  work  w»ls  a  comedy,  Deklarationen  (1851),  which 
was  later  produce«l  at  the  Ko'yal  theater.  In  1861  appeared 
Smaadigfe,  consisting  of  a  numl)er  of  delicate  lyrics;  in 
1874  Billedpr  og  Santje  (Pictures  and  Songs);  *in  1878 
Halvhundrede  Digte  {\^'\t{\  Poems);  in  1884  Vaar  og  Host 
(Spring  and  Autumn);  and  in  1891  Blandcde  Digt'f  (Mis- 
cellaneous Pot-ms).  His  tnigic  musicHlraina  Drnt  og  JIarsk 
(King  and  Constable,  187H),  with  music  by  P.  Hei^e.  is  one 
of  the  most  popular  pieces  in  tlie  repertory  of  tlie  Royal 
theater.  In  his  religums  depth,  his  |>Htriotic  entlnisiasm. 
and  his  sincere  love  of  nature,  he  stands  first  in  later  Dani>h 
lyrical  poetry.  D.  1893.  His  collected  poems  were  pub- 
lished in  Cojienhagen  in  1894.  1).  K.  Doimje. 

Richelieu,  ree-shf-loo'.  also  called  Sorel,  or  Chambly: 

an  historic  and  beautiful  river  of  (jueU'c,  (*ana(la ;  right- 


hand  affluent  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  discharging  Lake  CMiuin- 
plain;  length,  80  miles.  Its  course  is  northerly  and  \«r> 
straight;  the  width,  at  first  1  or  2  miles,  becomes  gradualjy 
contracted  to  1,000  or  1,200  feet.  It  is  navigable,  except  !  •  -r 
rapids  between  St.  John  and  Chambly,  and  this  gaj>  i*»  >\i\>- 
1)1  led  by  a  canal.  Navigation  closes  between  Nov.  16  ami 
Dec.  13,  and  o{)ens  between  Mar.  20  and  May  1.  The  valb  \ 
is  fertile  and  attractive,  and  in  it  were  made  some  of  Mi»- 
earliest  settlements  in  the  province.  It  also  starved  h-»  a 
battle-ground  for  over  two  centuries,  beginning  with  i'liain- 
plain*s  Iroquois  campaign  in  1609.  M.  W.  li. 

RicheHen  (Fr. pron.  n^-shli-o),  Armand Jean DrpLK*-^!**. 
de,  Duke  and  Cardinal :  statesman  ;  b.  in  Paris.  France,  s*- j  )l . 
5, 1585;  was  educated  for  the  military  profession  in  the  (  <  d- 
lege  de  Navarre,  but,  having  a  prospect  of  succeeding  to  tin- 
bishopric  of  Lu9on,  did  not  enter  the  armv,  but  studied  IIm— 
ology,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  Apr.  16,1607.  Elect t-d  « 
deputy  of  the  clergy  to  the  States-General  in  1614,  he  alliiMl 
himself  with  the  queen-mother  and  regent,  Marie  de  Mc<n<  i-^ ; 
was  appointed  her  almoner,  and  became  a  meml)er  of  tht- 
council  of  state.  When,  shortly  after,  dissensions  broke  out 
between  the  king  (Louis  XIII.)  and  his  mother,  Richelieu  ac- 
companied the  latter  to  Blois,  and  retired  subsequently  to 
his  diocese,  but  succeeded,  nevertheless,  in  bringing  aboiit  n 
reconciliation  between  mother  and  son ;  was  rewardetl  "wit  h 
the  cardinal's  hat  in  1622;  re-entered  the  council  of  .•-tat*-, 
and  was  soon  after  made  prime  minister,  which  oflSce  he  fill. m1 
uninterniptedly  to  his  death,  exercising  a  most  decisive  in- 
fluence on  the  history  of  France,  externally  and  internally. 
Ilis  foreign  policy  centered  in  the  idea  of  humiliatiiig  Aust  rm. 
For  this  purjjose  he  encouraged  the  rising  of  the  Prote^tiint 

Srinces  in  Germany,  the  revolution  of  the  provinces  in  the 
.  etherlands,  and  even  the  revolt  in  Catalonia.  Ho  sul-^i- 
dized  Gustavus  Adolphus,and  after  the  death  of  the  latter  li»- 
took  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar  and  his  army  into  the  FreiM  )i 
service,  and  carried  on  the  war  against  the  emperor  with 
great  vigor.  He  also  declared  war  against  Spain,  and  al- 
though his  plans  in  the  Netherlands  failed,  he  su<-eeeiied 
in  separating  Portugal  from  Spain  in  1640,  and  conqu«'n<l 
Perpignan  in  1642.  The  final  results  of  these  wars  he  ihd 
not  live  to  see,  but  by  the  Peace  of  Westj)halia  (16-4HI  tin- 
progress  of  the  house  of  Austria  was  effectually  chcckeil  ni.ii 
its  dream  of  establishing  a  world-empire  was  (!estn>yed.  Ii> 
his  internal  policy  he  finished  what  Louis  XI.  had  beiiuii— 
the  overthrow  of  the  feudal  power  of  the  nobility.  Ili^  jr*  'V- 
eniment  was  marked  by  an  almost  uninterrupted  series  «.f 
conspiracies  among  the  feudal  nobility  of  the  realm,  hea<l«  d 
by  the  queen-mother  (whose  favor  had  turned  into  a  d(aiii> 
hatred),  by  the  queen  herself,  Anne  of  Austria,  by  (laMon  «.i' 
Orleans,  tfie  brother  of  the  king,  and  by  the  royal  priij««v 
A  master  in  intrigue  and  the  very  genius  of  detective  jh.,i.  .- 
su[)erintendence,  he  was  always  well  informed  and  fully  {.r*- 
pared,  and  punished  the  conspirators  with  merciless  bev^rit  y. 
The  king  felt  a  deep  antipathy  against  him,  and  on  thi>  <iV- 
cumstance  the  first  conspirators  based  their  hoj>e  of  ov«'p- 
throwing  him.  With  the  king,  however,  this  alin(»st  phys- 
ical avei-sion  was  wholly  overawed  by  a  mixture  of  admira- 
tion and  fear  of  the  towering  spirit  of  his  minister,  and  i»i\ 
Nov.  11,  1630  {la  jovniee  des  dupes),  when  the  king  had 
consented  to  his  dismissal  and  the  whole  court  exulleil. 
Richelieu  forced  himself  into  the  presence  of  Louis.  turTit<l 
him  around  in  a  moment,  and  reappeared  with  great  dra- 
matic effect  among  his  enemies,  stronger  than  ever.  After- 
ward the  conspirators  sought  and  found  support  in  foni^:!! 
countries,  especial  I  v  in  Spain,  and  Richelieu  needed  arnn*  ^ 
to  maintain  hiniself,  but  he  j)roved  unconquerable.  Mjin«- 
de  M^dicis  fled  from  place  to  place  in  foreign  count  ri«N  ; 
Gaston  of  Orleans  was  made  utterly  contemptible  bv  hi^ 
cowanlly  submission:  Montmorency,  Marillac,  Cinq-Liar's, 
and  many  others  were  beheaded.  The  scaffold,  the  dun- 
geon, an({  exile  were  the  end  of  all  resistance  to  him  ^  ho 
wielded  the  royal  jwwer.  Resides  the  feudal  nobility,  th»T»' 
was  another  iKilitical  power  in  France  at  the  time  wht-n 
Richelieu  took  the  reins — namely,  the  Huguenots — and  t.i 
crush  this  young  but  steadily  increasing  influence  wj4>  oi.f 
of  the  three  great  objects  of  his  iMilicy.  He  laid  si»'ce  to 
their  principal  stronghold.  La  R<H'helle,  and  this^iege  i.»»  fi.t- 
of  the  most  memorHlile  events  in  the  history  of  France.  <  iii 
Oct.  28,  1628,  the  city  surrendered,  four-fifths  of  its  \uhn\  i- 
tants  having  perished  by  the  sword  and  by  famine.  Hy  t).f 
fall  of  La  Hoehelle  the  political  ix)wer  of  the  Huguenots  \n  .i> 
wholly  broken,  but  Richelieu's  further  measures  concerning: 
them  were  moderate  and  even  magnanimous.    The  cardinal 


104 


RICHMOND 


Richmond :  city  of  Victoria,  Australia :  2  miles  £.  of 
Melbourne  (see  map  of  Australia,  ref.  8-H).  Pop.  (1889) 
37,550.  It  has  a  distinct  municipality  and  the  rank  of  a  city, 
but  is  really  only  a  suburb  of  Melbourne. 

Richmond :  chef-lieu  of  the  counties  of  Richmond  and 
Wolfe,  Canada;  on  the  St.  Francis,  a  tributary  of  the  St. 
Lawrence ;  76  miles  E.  of  Montreal  (see  map  of  Quebec,  ref. 
5-C).  It  is  an  important  center  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Rail- 
way, the  Portland  section  extending  from  it  221  miles,  the 
Montreal  section  76  miles,  and  the  Quebec  branch  96  miles. 
The  river  is  spanned  by  a  passenger-bridee  connecting  the 
picturesque  village  of  Melbourne  with  Richmond.  St.  Fran- 
cis College,  an  institution  aflaiiated  to  McGill  University,  is 
situated  on  a  commanding  site  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
town.  Two  newspapers  are  published  in  tne  place.  The 
chief  industry  is  connected  with  the  railwav-works  and  ma- 
chine-shops.   Pop.  (1890)  2,056.  J.  M.  IIaeper, 

Richmond :  city ;  capital  of  Wayne  co.,  Ind. ;  on  the 
Whitewater  river,  and  the  Grand  Rapids  and  Ind.  and  the 
Pitts.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L.  railways ;  68  miles  E.  of  Indian- 
apolis, 92  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Fort  Wayne  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Indiana,  ref.  6-G).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region, 
has  an  elevation  of  700  feet  above  tide-water,  and  is  en- 
caged in  manufacturing  and  in  general  trade.  The  city 
has  gas  and  electnc-light  plants,  an  abundant  supply  of 
natural  gas  for  fuel,  excellent  water  and  drainage  sys- 
tems, and  electric  street-railways.  There  are  21  churches, 
9  public-school  buildings,  a  high  school,  public-school 
property  valued  at  about  $300,000,  Earlham  College  (Or- 
thodox Friends,  opened  in  1847),  5  libraries  (Earlham  Col- 
lege 3,  Morrison  Public,  and  County  Law)  containing  over 
27.000  volumes,  3  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of 
$450,000,  4  building  and  loan  associations,  and  a  semi- 
monthly, a  quarterly,  4  daily,  7  weekly,  and  3  monthly  pe- 
riodicals. In  1890  there  were  293  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, which  had  a  combined  capital  of  f4,0SO.OOO,  em- 
ployed about  3,000  persons,  and  had  products  valued  at 
about  $6,000,000.  The  public  buildings  include  a  new 
county  court-house,  a  new  State  asylum  for  the  insane,  two 
orphans'  homes,  a  Iloine  for  Friendless  Women,  and  a  city 
hospital.    Pop.  (1880)  12,742 ;  (1890)  16,608. 

Richmond :  town :  capital  of  Madison  co.,  Ky. :  on  the 
Louis,  and  Nash,  and  the  Rich.,  Nicholasville,  Irvine  and 
Beattyrille  railways :  25  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Lexington,  54  miles 
S.  E.  of  Frankfort,  the  State  capital  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Kentucky,  ref.  3-1).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region ;  is  noted 
for  breeding  horses,  mules,  and  cattle ;  and  contains  the  Cen- 
tral University  (Southern  Presbyterian,  chartered  in  1873), 
4  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $750,000,  and  a 
monthly  and  2  weekly  periodicals.  Pop.  (1880)  1,424 ;  (1890) 
6,073. 

Richmond :  town ;  Sagadahoc  co..  Me. ;  on  the  Kenne- 
bec river,  and  the  Maine  Central  Railroad ;  17  miles  S.  of  Au- 
gusta, and  44  miles  N.  E.  of  Portland  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Maine,  ref.  10-C).  It  is  principally  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  boots  and  shoes,  has  sawmills  and  planing-raills, 
and  contains  a  public  high  school,  public  library  (founded  in 
1868),  two  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $170,- 
000,  and  a  weeklv  and  a  monthly  periodical.  Pop.  (1880) 
2,658 ;  (1890)  3,082. 

Richmond  :  city ;  capital  of  Rav  co.,  Mo. ;  on  the  Atch., 
Top.  and  S.  Fe  Railroad;  40  miles  E.  of  Kansas  Qty,  68 
miles  S.  E.  of  St,  Louis  (for  location,  see  map  of  Missouri, 
ref.  3-E).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  coal-mining  region, 
and  contains  several  flour-mills,  foundry,  public  high  scnool, 
Woodson  Institute,  new  water-works  plant,  electric  lights, 
8  State  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $200,000,  and  a  daily 
and  3  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  1,424;  (1890)2,895; 
(1894)  estimated,  3,500.  Editor  of  "  Democrat." 

Richmond  :  city  (named  after  Richmond,  Surrey,  Eng- 
land); port  of  entry;  capital  of  Virginia  and  of  Henrico 
County;  on  the  north  branch  of  the  James  river,  and  the 
Ches.  and  Ohio,  the  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  the  Rich., 
Fredericksburg  and  Potomac,  and  the  Southern  railwavs; 
100  miles  S.  bv  E.  of  Washington,  I).  C,  127  miles  N.  W.'of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  (for  location,  st»e  map  of  Virginia,  ref. 
6-II).  It  has  an  area  within  incorporated  limits  of  4*85  scj. 
miles,  and  with  suburbs  of  about  16  s(j.  miles;  is  built  on  a 
series  of  hills,  and  ranges  in  altitude  above  soa-level  from 
172  to  249  feet.  The  river  is  here  crosse<l  by  five  l)ri<lges, 
connecting  the  city  with  Manchc*«tcr,  Spring  Hill,  and  otlier 
suburban  places.    There  are  106  miles  of  streets,  generally 


wide,  of  which  36  miles  are  sewered  and  23  miles  paved  ; 
sidewalks  are  chiefly  of  brick.  Main  Street  is  the  pnncij>al 
business  thoroughfare;  Broad  Street  is  the  widest;  W  t-t 
Franklin  and  Grace  contain  the  most  fashionable  residences. 
The  streets  are  lighted  by  gas  and  electricity,  and  the  |»riii- 
cipal  ones  are  traversed  by  electric  and  hgrse  railways.  T  h«* 
supply  of  water  for  domestic  and  fire  purposes  is  obtaiix*! 
from  two  points  on  the  river  above  the  city,  where  it  i^ 
pumped  into  two  large  reservoirs  for  distribution.  Both  th*^ 
gas  and  water-works  plants  are  owned  by  the  city. 


State  Capitol,  Richmond,  Va. 

Parks  and  Public  Buildings.— The  most  noted  of  tlir* 
parks  and  squares,  which  comprise  857  acres  in  all,  is  C'anit « •! 
Square,  a  tract  of  12  acres  on  the  summit  of  Shock«x^  Hill. 
It  contains  the  State  Capitol,  a  Grseco-composite  build  in  ir 
with  a  portico  of  Ionic  columns,  erected  in  1796  aft*»r  tlx* 
plans  of  the  Maison  Carrie  of  Nimes,  France.  The  buihlini:^ 
contains  Houdon's  marble  statue  of  Washington,  and  many 
portraits  of  governors,  military  officers,  and  otlier  distin- 
guished Virginians ;  the  two  legislative  halls;  and  the  ^t«t«» 
Library,  in  which  are  preserved  the  parole  signed  by  Lonl 
Cornwallis  at  Yorktown,  the  original  Virginia  bill  of  ri^rhts, 
and  the  Virginia  ordinance  of  secession.  The  park  siirrou  nd- 
ing  the  Capitol  has  three  fountains  ;  Crawford's  equestrian 
statue  of  Washington  surrounded  by  bronze  statues  of  Pat- 
rick Henry,  John  Marshall,  Andrew  Lewis,  George  Ma>on. 
Thomas  Jefferson,  and  Thomas  Nelson,  bv  Crawford  ai.<i 
Rogers ;  Foley's  bronze  statue  of  "  Stonewall "  Jackson  ;  n n«l 
Hart's  marble  statue  of  Henry  Clay.  Other  public  bui  ly- 
ings on  the  square  are  the  Governor's  mansion,  the  new 
Public  Library,  and  the  old  bell-house.  The  largest  park, 
of  300  acres,  contains  the  new  reservoir,  a  beautiful  ]nk*\ 
and  a  fine  boulevard,  and  is  a  favorite  resort.  Libby  Park, 
on  Libbj^  Hill,  is  terraced  from  the  summit  to  Main  Street, 
and  on  its  highest  point  has  a  Confederate  Soldiers'  ami 
Sailors'  Monument.  Monroe  Park  contains  a  statue  of  Gen. 
W.  C.  Wickham.  Chimborazo  Hill  Park  has  an  area  of  8rt 
acres,  and  an  elevation  of  200  feet.  Howitzer  Place  ha^s  a 
monument  in  memory  of  the  Richmond  Howitzer  battalion. 
Gamble's  Hill  Park  is  on  the  James  river  and  Kana^%})a 
Canal,  and  Jefferson  Park  is  between  Marshall  and  Pleasant 
Streets.  Lee  Circle,  in  the  west  of  the  city,  contains  a  brc»n  ze 
equestrian  statue  of  Gen.  Robert  E.  I^ee.  In  Holly wo«kI 
Cemetery,  where  12,000  Confederate  soldiers  lie,  is  a' mem- 
orial of  rough  blocks  of  granite,  forming  a  pyramid  90  feet 
high,  erected  by  the  women  of  Richmond.  Other  n«»tal-ie 
buildings  are  St.  John's  Protestant  Episcopal  church,  r.n 
Church  Hill,  in  which  Patrick  Henry  made  his  famous  de<-- 
laration  for  liberty  or  death ;  the  Colonial  Stone  House  <.n 
Main  Street,  believed  to  have  been  occupied  by  Washington  ; 
the  "  White  House  of  the  Confederacy,"  the  home  of  JefTors*  .n 
Davis  during  the  civil  war,  and  now  a  museum  for  Conf.  »1- 
erate  relics;  the  Masonic  Temple,  the  first  erected  in  t  !;♦» 
U.  S.  (corner-stone  laid  1785);  Alonumental  church  (Prot*-^ 
tant  Episcopal),  erected  on  the  site  of  the  theater  buni«M|  m 
IHll,  when  sixty  lives  were  lost;  two  armories;  St.  Luki  < 
Hospital ;  Retreat  for  the  Sick  ;  Lee  Camp  Soldiers'  H<»ni.  ; 
the  Male  and  Female  Orphan  asylums;  the  Virginia  M«'.l- 
ieal  College;  the  Colored  Baptist  church,  in  which  the  ifii- 
stitutional  convention  of  1850-51  wjis  held;  and  the  peni- 
tentiary, to  which  a  farm  is  now  attached. 


106 


RICHTHOPEN 


RICO 


tempts  were  not  successful.  His  Or&nldndiaehe  Proe^^sse 
(lawsuits  in  Greenland,  2  vols.,  1784)  and  Atiswahl  aus  dea 
Teufels  Papieren  (Selections  from  the  Papers  of  the  Devil, 
1789)  were  not  read;  their  satire  is  narrow,  their  humor 
forced,  their  form  unripe.  In  1793  his  romance,  Die  Un- 
sichthare  Loge  (The  Invisible  Lodge,  2  vols.),  turned  the  scales 
of  fortune,  and  now  followed  in  rapid  succession,  and  with 
decided  success,  Hesperus  (4  vols.,  1795),  Biographiache  Be- 
luatigungen  unfer  der  Gehimaehale  einer  Rieain  (Biograph- 
ical Recreations  under  the  Cranium  of  a  Giantess,  1796), 
Lehen  dea  Quintua  Fixlein  (1796),  Blumen-,  Frucht-  und 
Dornenstucke,  oder  Eheatand,  Tod  und  Hochzeit  dea  Annen- 
adifocalen  Siebenkda  (Flower,  Fruit,  and  Thorn  Pieces,  or 
Marriage,  Death,  and  Wedding  of  Lawyer  SiebeiikS.s.  4  vols., 
1797),  Der  Jubelaenior  (1797),  Das  Kampamr  Thai  (1797). 
These  writings  made  Richter  the  literary  favorite  of  Ger- 
many. In  1794  he  gave  up  his  position  as  a  schoolmaster, 
and  began  a  life  of  visits  to  the  different  literary  centers — 
Leipzig,  Weimar,  Dresden,  and  Berlin.  He  was  everywhere 
well  received,  and  made  many  intimate  friends,  among  whom, 
however,  Goethe  and  Schiller  were  not.  It  was  especially  the 
fair  sex  which  was  enthusiastic  about  him.  In  1801  he  mar- 
ried in  Berlin  the  beautiful  and  spirited  Caroline  Mayer,  and 
removed  first  to  Meiningen,  then  to  Bayreuth.    From  the 

Srince-primate  Dalberg  he  received  an  annual  pension  of  1,000 
orins,  which  was  continued  afterward  by  the  King  of  Bavaria, 
and  the  University  of  Heidelberg  made  him  a  doctor.  In 
1803  he  published  his  IHtan,  and  in  1804  Die  Flegeljahre 
(Wild  Oats,  4  vols.),  which  two  romances,  together  with  his 
first  philosophical  attempt,  Vorachule  der  ^athetik  (Intro- 
duction to  Aesthetics,  8  vols.,  1805),  may  be  considered  as 
indicating  the  culmination  of  his  talent.  In  1807  he  wrote 
another  ptiUosophical  book  on  education,  Levana  oder  Er- 
ziehnngalehre^  and  in  the  following  years  he  published  a  great 
number  of  political  and  satirical  uamphlets,  sermons,  hu- 
morous sketches,  etc.  D.  at  Bayreutn,  Nov.  14, 1825.  Richter 
is  without  doubt  the  greatest  humorist  of  modern  German 
literature,  but  his  utter  disregard  for  literary  form,  the  lack 
of  artistic  composition,  and  his  barbarous  style  make  it  a 
laborious  tiusk  to  read  and  enjoy  him.  Having,  however, 
penetrated  the  hard  shell  of  the  imperfect  form  of  his 
writings,  one  finds  him  a  poet  of  divine  inspirations,  lofty 
sentiments,  and  irresistible  humor.  In  onler  to  do  him 
justice  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  consider  him  in  his  literary 
relations  to  the  earlier  English  and  German  humorists,  like 
Swift,  Sterne,  Hippel,  Lichtenberg,  and  others,  but  also  to 
keep  in  mind  the  miserable  political  and  social  conditions  of 
Germany  in  his  time  and  the  strong  current  of  sentimental- 
ity which  had  not  lH?en  checked  by  the  classic  productions 
of  Goethe  and  Schiller.  While  these  latter  poets  and  their 
followers  had  created  in  their  works  an  ideal  poetic  world 
unconcerned  about  the  miserable  conditions  around  them 
in  which  they  really  lived,  Richter  makes  the  very  con- 
trast between  the  German  idealism  and  the  prosaic  reality 
of  his  time  the  subject-matter  of  his  humorous  representa- 
tions. With  a  loving  spirit  he  embraces  the  lowest  and 
most  humble  in  this  prosaic  reality,  and  thus  he  produces 
idyls  like  (Quintua  Fixlein,  Lehen  Fihela^  etc.,  in  which  his 
contemporaries  found  a  picture  of  their  own  life,  and  which 
we  could  call  classic  but  for  their  poor  literary  form.  He  is 
especially  great  in  his  descripti<ms  of  nature,  while  in  the 
delineation  of  human  charactei-s  he  is  frequently  less  suc- 
cessful. As  defective  as  his  style  was,  it  found  a  great 
many  imitators.  The  tendency  whieh  prompts  authors  like 
Borne,  Heine,  and  their  literary  offspring  to  parade  their 
vain  subjectivity  is  due  to  the  exami)le  of  Richter,  to  whom 
Heine  es[)ecially  owes  more  than  he  might  have  been  willing 
to  acknowledge. 

See  R.  O.  Spazier,  Jean  Paul  Fr.  Richter,  ein  hinqraph- 
ischer  Commentar  zu  dennf-n  Werken  (1833);  E.  P^oi*stor, 
Denkwurdigkeitt-n  ana  dem  Lehen  J.  P.  F.  Richfera  (1863) ; 
Fr.  Th.  Viseher,  Krifische  Gauge ;  G.  Xerrlieh,  Jean  Paul 
und  aeine  Zeitgenosaen  (1889);  Carlylo,  EMsags, 

Revised  by  Julius  Goe^el. 

Rlchthofen,  rirht'ho-ffn,  Baron  Fkrdixand,  von.  Ph.  D. : 
geologist  and  geographer;  member  of  a  distinirnished  Sile- 
sian  family ;  b.  at  Carlsruhe,  Germany,  Mav  5, 1H33 ;  studied 
at  Breslau  and  Berlin  1800-06.  During  1856-60  he  was  in 
Austria  studying  the  geology  of  the  Tyrol,  SiebenbUrgen, 
and  Northeastern  Hungary.  He  then  accompanied,  as  ge- 
ologist. Count  Eulenberg  on  the  Prussian  expedition  to  the 
far  East,  and  remained  twelve  years  in  Cliifia,  Indo-China, 
Java,  Celebes,  the  Philippine  islands,  Formosa,  Japan,  Cali- 


fornia, and  Nevada,  returning  to  Europe  in  1872.  .Siii<-«i 
this  time  he  has  remained  in  Europe,  engaged  in  workini^ 
up  the  results  of  his  journeys  and  in  professional  and  t4h»- 1 
geographic  and  geologic  pursuits.  His  publications  havti 
been  numerous,  among  them  the  following  in  English :  7'A» 
Comatock  [Nev.]  Lode  (1865);  Prineiplea  of  the  yaturtt/ 
Syatem  of  Volcanic  Rocka  {\ii&7)  \  Letters  to  the  Shungf**t  • 
Chamber  of  Commerce  {1HQ9-72),  The  most  noteworthy  «•• 
his  works  is  China,  Ergehniaae  eigner  Reisen  und  dnntu  1 
gegrundeter  Studien  (vol.  i.,  1877;  vol.  ii.,  1882;  vol.  i\  ., 
1883).  For  the  family,  consult  Oeschichte  der  Familie  J***7- 
tortus  von  Richthofen  (1884).         Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Richwood:  village;  Union  co.,0.;  on  the  Erie  Railnwul  : 
15  miles  S.  W.  of  Marion  (for  location,  see  map  of  Ohio,  nf , 
4-E).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and  has  2  large  ffou  r- 
mills,  2  steam  tile-mills,  several  large  grain  elevators,  a  plai  1^ 
ing-mill,  2  private  banks,  and  2  weelcly  newspapers.  l*«»j», 
(1880)  1,817 ;  (1890)  1,415.  Pubusher  of  *•  Gazette.^ 

Bic'inas :  See  Castor-oil  Plant. 

Rickets:  a  disease  characterizetl  by  deformities  of  tlfi 
bones  and  various  visceral  disturbances.  It  occurs  a»*  :n 
rule  in  infants  from  twelve  to  eighteen  months  of  ago.  T)i»i 
predis{X)sing  causes  are  the  influence  of  bad  hygienic  sur- 
roundings, and  improoer  food  and  clothing.  The  synij»t*»itiH 
develop  gradually  and  almost  imjierceptibly.  The  little  i»u- 
tient  seems  to  lose  spirit,  and  indigestion  sets  in,  ac('<»iii- 
panied  by  swelling  of  the  abdomen  and  colic.  There  is 
early  a  tejidency  to  sweating  about  the  head  and  rc>tU"-'-- 
ness  during  sleep.  The  muscles  become  soft  and  flabby,  t  l)»i 
face  sallow,  and  the  skin  dry,  and  there  is  scanty  and  turl»t«l 
urine  and  thin  fetid  evacuations.  The  fontanelles  and  su- 
tures remain  open  until  a  late  period.  The  teeth  are  vt-rv 
late  in  making  their  appearance,  and  decay  rapidly  aft*'r 
doing  so.  As  the  disease  advances  the  hemes  grow 'soft  *t, 
and  oecome' distorted  bv  the  superincumbent  weight  ana 
muscular  contraction.  Various  deformities  of  the  h<'M»l, 
limbs,  chest,  and  pelvis  are  brought  alwut.  (See  ()RTHoi».t  - 
Die  Surgery^  As  a  disease  of  the  bones,  rickets  i^  nt-vi  r 
dangerous.  It  is  from  the  deformities  resulting.  an<l  tluir 
interference  with  the  action  of  the  lungs  and  other  viM-t-rji, 
that  the  danger  arises.  The  treatment  can  be  sumnu-d  \i\^ 
in  a  few  words — fresh  air,  sunlight,  good  food,  bathing,  an.: 
cod-liver  oil.    It  is  remarkable  that  rachitic  childn-n   fi*- 

?[uentlv  develop  and*  become  unusually  strong,  though   lU-- 
ormed,  in  adult  years.     Many,  too,  are  brilliant  mental  1\, 
as  the  records  of  great  names  in  literature  and  scien<*i«  vlu»vv , 

Revised  by  W.  Peppkr. 

Ricketts,  James  Brewerton:  soldier;  b.  in  New  Y<»rk, 
June  21,  1817;  grathmted  at  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  au*! 
entered  the  artillery  July,  1839  ;  served  in  the  Mexican  unr 
and  on  frontier  duty  up  to  1861,  when  ascaj>tain  he  connnaii«i- 
ed  a  battery  in  the  capture  of  Alexandria  May  24,  as  in  t  [}*-, 
battle  of  Bull  Rim  July  21,  1861,  where  he  was  sevi'r»'l\ 
wounded,  and  from  which  date  he  was  breveted  lientt'iumt 
colonel  and  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  v\iiH 
engaged  in  the  battle  of  Cedar  Mountain, at  the  second  l>Mt  t  i»i 
of  Bull  Run,  and  at  Chantilly  commanded  a  division,  a-,  ai 
South  Mountain  and  Antietam  ;  major  First  U.  S.  Artili»r> 
June,  1863;  participated  in  the  flnal  Richmond  canipaJLin 
in  command  of  a  division  from  the  battles  of  the  Wihh-rnt  ^s 
to  the  investment  of  Petersburg;  recalled  to  Wa^hintrl.  n 
July,  1864,  to  aid  in  the  defense  against  Early's  thn^ai*  ii»  «i 
attack,  and  engaged  in  the  subsecjuent  pursuit  of  Ear]\'s 
army,  participating  in  the  battles  of  Monocacy,  ()jH'«pi;o., 
Fishers  Hill,  and  Cedar  Creek,  where  he  was  sov«rt  ly 
wounded;  breveted  major-general  for  gallantry;  in  Jan., 
1867,  was  retired  on  the  full  rank  of  major-general.  I>.  at 
Washington,  I).  C,  Sept.  22,  1887.  James  MERriR. 

Ricketts,  Palmer  Chamberlaine,  C.  E.  :  civil  engiiu  «  r 
and  educator;  b.  at  Elkton,  Md..  Jan.  17, 1856;  educ-uti  «1  .-i! 
the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy.  N.  Y.,  wIuto  h. 
graduated  in  1875.  During  1875-84  he  was  Assistant  Tr..* 
fessor  of  Mathematics;  since  1884  has  been  Professor  of  M.  - 
chanics,  and  since  1802  director  of  the  Rensselaer  Pol\t«-<h- 
nic  Institute.  He  has  been  consulting  bridge-en gin«*vr  |.»r 
two  railways,  and  since  1891  engineer  of  the  i>ublio  im- 
provement commission  of  Troy,  N.  Y.  In  1891  ne  wa-*  h|.- 
I)ointed  brigadier-general  and  chief  of  engineers  of  the  St. it. 
of  Now  York.  He  is  the  author  of  rejH)rts  and  tecbiii*  a 
'discussions  in  engineering  periodicals. 

Rico,  ree'ko:  town;  capital  of  Dolores  co..  Col. ;  on   t]i» 
Dolores  river,  and  the  Rio  Grande  Southern  Railroad  ;   ♦'»«. 


li)))i«fivii.i 


"j      ,«fiai        l'i|^     '11^'iin^     |i'»ll, 


...  ^ii-;-. 


uiiij 


108 


RIDGWAY 


RIENZI 


Bidg^way :  borough ;  capital  of  Elk  co..  Pa. ;  on  the  Clar- 1 
ion  river  and  the  Penn.  and  the  Buffalo,  Rochester  and 
Pitts,  railways:  118  miles  S.  E.  of  Erie,  and  156  miles  N.  E. 
of  Pittsburg  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref. 
3-D).  It  is  in  a  lumbering  region,  and  contains  tanneries, 
foundrv,  machine-shop,  a  private  bank,  and  two  weekly 
newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  1,100 ;  (1890)  1,903. 

Ridgwaj,  Robert  :  ornithologist ;  b.  at  Mt.  Carmel,  111., 
July  2, 1850;  educated  in  the  common  schools  of  that  place. 
He  was  appointed  zoologist  to  the  U.  S.  geological  explora- 
tion of  the  40th  parallel,  under  Clarence  King  (1867-69), 
and  was  curator  of  the  (lei)artment  of  birds  of  the  U.  S. 
National  Museum.  He  assisted  Prof.  Baird  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  technical  portion  of  the  History  of  North 
American  Birds  (1871-74),  The  three  volumes  were  upon 
land-birds,  and  in  1884  two  more  volumes,  upon  water-birds, 
were  issued.  Although  published  as  the  works  of  Baird, 
Brewer,  and  Ridgway,  tne  technical  parts  were  entirely 
written  by  Ridgway,  lie  is  also  author  of  Report  on  Orm- 
thology  of  the  40tn  Parallel^  an  elaborate  treatise  on  262 
species,  and  a  work  of  367  Government  quarto  pages;  A 
Jyomet^lature  of  Colors  for  Naturalists  (Boston.  1886);  and 
A  Manual  of  North  American  Birds  (Philadelphia,  1887). 
Besides  this,  he  is  author  of  about  200  separate  papers,  some 
of  considerable  extent.  Revised,  by  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Ridlej,  Nicholas,  D.  D.  :  bishop  and  martyr ;  b.  at  Un- 
thank,  ^orthumberland,  England,  about  1500;  educated  in 
^the  grammar  school  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  ;  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  1522;  obtained  a  fellowship  at  Pembroke  Col- 
lege and  was  ordained  priest  1524 ;  studied  theology  at  the 
Sorbonne,  Paris,  and  at  the  University  of  Louvain  1527-29 ; 
became  on  his  return  to  Cambridge  under-treasurer  to  the 
university,  and  soon  afterward  senior  proctor  (1533)  and 
public  orator,  in  which  capacities  he  protested  against  the 
usurpations  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  by  the  papacy,  pro- 
curing a  decree  of  the  univer>sity  to  the  same  effect;  was 
appointed  domestic  chaplain  to  Archbishop  Cranmer  1537, 
vicar  of  Ilerne,  Kent,  1538,  master  of  Pembroke  College  and 
chaplain  to  the  king  1540 ;  was  accused  of  heresy,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  Bishop  Gardiner,  on  account  of  having  preached 
against  the  Six  Articles,  but  acquitted  by  Cranmer  1541 ; 
became  prebendary  of  Westminster  1545,  Bishop  of  Roches- 
ter Aug.  14,  1547;  bore  an  important  part  in  all  the  ecclesi- 
astical measures  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. ;  assisted  Cranmer 
in  compiling  the  Liturgv  (1548)  and  framing  the  forty-one 
Articles  of  Religion;  induced  the  king  to  change  Greyiriars 
and  St.  Bartholomew's  priories  into  charitable  institutions; 
converted  his  own  house  at  Bridewell  into  a  workhouse;  was 
instrumental  in  founding  Christ's,  St.  Thomas's,  and  Bethle- 
hem Hospitals  in  Ijondon :  was  a  member  of  the  commission 
which  deposed  Bonner,  and  was  his  successor  as  Bishop  of 
London  Apr.,  1550;  aided  in  the  deposition  of  Gardiner, 
Bishoi)  of  Winchester;  visited  the  Princess  Mary  at  Huns- 
don,  desiring  to  gain  her  acquiescence  in  his  views  of  Church 
reform,  but  was  unsuccessful,  1552 ;  concurred  in  the  proc- 
lamation of  Lady  Jane  Grey  as  (jueen,  and  was  induced  bv 
the  Duke  of  Northumberland  to  preach  a  sermon  at  Paul  s 
Cross  in  defense  of  her  title  July  16,  1553 ;  was  committed 
to  the  Tower  on  the  accession  of  Mary  a  few  days  later ; 
was  taken  to  Oxford  Apr.,  1554,  to  participate  in  a  discus- 
sion with  the  court  theologians  on  the  Real  Presence ;  was 
formally  tried  for  heresy  with  Cranmer  and  Latimer  by  a 
commission  named  by  Cardinal  Pole,  and  condemned  to 
death  as  an  obstinate  heretic  Oct.  1,  1555,  and,  having  re- 
fused to  recant,  was  burned  at  the  stake  with  I^atimer  in 
front  of  Baliol  College,  Oxford,  Oct.  16,  1555.  His  Life  was 
published  by  his  descendant.  Dr.  Gloucester  Ridley  (1763), 
and  his  Works,  chiefly  tracts  in  favor  of  the  Reformation, 
were  edited,  with  a  Life,  by  Rev.  Henry  Christmas  for  the 
Parker  Society  (London,  1841).    Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Ridolfo,  Zexo  :  See  Schadow,  Rudolph. 

Ridpath,  John  Clark,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. :  historian  and  edu- 
cator; b.  in  Putnam  co.,  Ind.,  Ai»r.  26,  1840;  educated  at 
Indiana  Asbury  (now  De  Pauw)  University;  has  served  as 
principal  of  Thorntown  Academy,  superintendent  of  Law- 
renceburg  s<-h(K)ls,  Professor  of  Knglish  Literature,  Pro- 
fessor of  Belles-lettres  and  History,  and  vice-president  of 
De  Pauw  University.  He  has  published  Amdcmic  Hiatori/ 
of  the  Vnitnl  States  (1875):  (iramtnnr  School  History  of 
the  rnifnl  States  (1H76) ;  Popular  liiston/  of  the  United 
SfaffM  (1H77);  Inductive  (h-annnar  of  the  Kfiffh'sh  Lan- 
guage (1879);  Life  and  W(frk  of  (iarficfd,  in  Knjjlish  an<l 
German  (1881) ;  'Jlistory  of  t/it    World  (3  vols.,  1885 ;   rev. 


ed.  4  vols.,  1889);  Life  of  Washington  Charles  De  Pauw 
(1887);  Christopher  Columbus:  the  Epochs  the  Man,  ajni 
tlte  Work  (1890);  Columbia:  a  Quadricentennial  Storu 
(1891);  Great  Races  of  Mankind  (3  vols.,  1892);  Kpic  oj 
Life,  a  poem  (1894) ;  and  many  monographs.    A.  Osbobn. 

Rie'desel,  Friedrich  Adolph,  Baron  von :  soldier ;  b.  at 
Lauterbach,  Hesse,  June  3,  1738;  studied  at  the  Cnlh  l'*- 
of  Marburg;  was  an  officer  of  a  Hessian  regiment  in  th*- 
British  service  during  the  Seven  Tears*  war,  distinguisliin;: 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Minden.  In  1776  he  was  s^nt  to 
America  in  command  of  the  division  of  4,000  Brunswi(k»T^ 
hired  by  Great  Britain.  Arriving  at  Quebec,  he  spent  a  yiar 
in  Canada  exercising  his  troops  in  the  Indian  metlnHls  ^f 
warfare ;  joined  Bur^oyne  in  nis  campaign  against  AH  winy 
1777;  surrendered  with  Burgoyne  Oct.  17,  and  was  h*'l«i  ii 
prisoner  for  over  two  years.  After  his  exchange  he  wa- 
placed  by  Sir  Henry  Chnton  in  command  of  Long  Island  ; 
was  transferred  to  Canada,  and  returned  to  Germany,  Atiir.. 
1783.  D.  at  Brunswick,  Jan.  6, 1800.  His  Memoi'rs,  Let- 
ters, and  JoumcUSf  edited  by  Max  von  Eelking,  were  trnii— 
lated  by  William  L.  Stone  (2  vols.,  Albany,  1868).— His  wif. . 
Friedrike  Charlotte  Luise  (1746-1808),  w^rote  an  intrn>t- 
ing  series  of  letters  descriptive  of  life  in  Canada,  of  tlu*  in- 
cidents of  Burgoyne's  camj>aign,  and  of  her  residence  a^  a 
prisoner  at  Cambridge  and  elsewhere.  They  were  traii>l.it»  > : 
by  William  L.  Stone,  and  published  under  the  title  of  Lt*- 
ters  and  Journals  relating  to  the  War  of  the  American  Jit  i  »/- 
lution  (Albany,  1867). 

Riehl,  Alois:  philosopher;  b.  at  Bozen,  Tyrol,  Ayir.  *27. 
1844;  educated  in  Vienna,  Munich,  and  Gratz  univer-iti*--. 
became  Professor  of  Philosophy  at  Gratz  1873,  and  at  Kr»i- 
burg  in  1883.  He  has  published  Der philosophisrhe  Knf,- 
cismus  und  seine  Bedeutung  fur  die  positive  Wissfn^rhft  *  * 
(Leipzig  and  Tubingen,  1876-87:  Veber  trissensehajf/i*  h- 
UTul  nicht  toissenschaftliche  Philosophie  (Freiburg  im'  Br.  i— 
gau,  1883) ;  Beitrdge  zur  Logik  (Leipzig,  1892).     J.  M.  H. 

Riehl,  Wilhelm  Heinrich:  historian  and  noveli>t ;  b.  h' 
Biberich  on  the  Rhine,  May  6,  1823;  studied  theuh»i:v  u- 
Marburg,  GSttingen,  and  Giessen;  was  for  a  numUr  *  ' 
years  editor  of  various  newspapers,  and  was  finally  apjH>iiit.  ii 
Professor  of  Kulturgeschichte  at  the  University  of  Munuh. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  excellent  historical  uu-i 
ethnological  works,  the  most  prominent  of  which  are  Nnfur- 
geschichfe  des  Volksals  Grundlage  einer  deutsehen  Natttoi- 
alpolitik  (ISol-QO);  Die  Pfdlzer  (1857);  Culturstudi^n  a.-* 
drei  Jahrhunderten  (1859).  His  historical  and  ethnol* 'irh  a . 
studies  also  form  the  basis  of  a  series  of  well-written  st..i  it> 
and  novels,  of  which  he  is  the  author.        Julius  Goebkl. 

Rienzi,  or  Rieiize,  Cola,  di:  political  reformer;  h.  in 
Rome  about  1313;  the  son  of  a  tavem-keei)er :  was  an  »ii- 
thusiastic  student  of  the  old  Latin  poets  ana  historians,  ai.<i 
early  conceived  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  ancient  grea*- 
ness  of  Rome.  The  city  was  in  a  condition  of  anarchy,  dis- 
tracted by  the  feuds  among  the  lonls  and  violeniv  an<l 
cruelties  against  the  people.  One  of  the  nobles  assa>>inat'  ■> 
Rienzi 's  brother,  and  the  impossibility  of  bringing  the  rnui  - 
derer  to  punishment  gave  his  visions  at  once  a  pra<-ti(<ij 
bearing;  from  a  dreamer  he  became  a  reformer.  After  h 
vain  attempt  to  induce  the  pope  at  Avignon  to  return  t^ 
Rome  and  protect  the  people  against  the  oppression  <^f  tli. 
nobles,  Rienzi  beean  the  work  of  reform  himself,  well  knn\^  • 
ing  that  he  could  not  carry  it  through  without  a  revohiti«»n, 
On  May  19,  1347,  he  proixJsed  the  establishment  of  a  Wdtr 
form  of  government,  recalling  to  the  minds  of  his  hearers  1 1.. 
greatness  of  the  ancient  republic.  Proclaimeti  tribune  i>f  t  In; 
"holy  Roman  republic,"  he  straightway  force*!  the  noMcs  i. 
render  him  allegiance,  and  restored  order  in  the  city,  s 
successful  were  his  reforms  that  not  only  other  Italiar 
cities,  but  foreign  monarchs,  sent  deputations  and  eiDba^ 
sies  to  congratulate  the  tribune;  but  not  content  with  n* 
storing  order  and  peace  to  Rome,  he  now  seemed  to  aim  a1 
universal  empire.  The  foreign  princes  were  disgusted  mu 
offended  at  his  arrogance.  The  Roman  populace  grew  tire* 
of  his  magnificent  processions  and  of  his  taxes.  Tlie  i».Mjia 
legates  declared  him  a  traitor  and  a  heretic,  and  the  not  ii-s 
taking  advantage  of  the  general  discontent,  attacked  hi  id  ir 
Dec,  1347,  and  drove  him  from  the  city  seven  nionth'<  uU*-\ 
his  accession  to  power.  After  two  years  of  retiivtu.n 
among  the  Franciscan  monks  in  Southern  Italy,  be  a^aii 
appeared  in  the  role  of  a  political  reformer  at  the  c<»urt  o: 
the  Emperor  Charles  IV.,  who  sent  him  as  a  prisoner  to  \\h 
pope  at  Avignon.  Innm-ent  VI.,  however,  the  suec»es*:«»r  oi 
Clement  IV.,  thought  that  Rienzi  ctmld  be  used  to  re^t<*r 


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110 


RIGA,  GULP  OP 


RILEY 


latter  are  laid  out  in  broad  streets  with  mo<1ern  buildings. 
Among  the  public  buildings  the  most  notable  are  St.  Peter's 
church,  built  in  1406,  with  a  t^wer  460  feet  high ;  the  gov- 
ernor's residence,  formerly  the  palace  of  the  grand-master  of 
the  order  of  the  Knights  of  the  Sword,  built  1494-1515 ;  the 
city-hall,  and  the  new  exchange.  There  are  manufactories 
of  cotton,  woolen,  linen,  and  iron  goods,  cigars,  corks,  spirits, 
oil,  glass,  paper,  jute,  etc.,  and  the  ship-building  industry  is 
very  flourishing.  Riga  derives  its  greatest  importance,  how- 
ever, from  its  commence.  An  average  of  2,400  vessels,  of  over 
1,000.000  tons,  enter  its  harbor  annually.  The  value  of  its 
annual  imports — comprising  coal,  salt,  iron,  steel,  dyewoods, 
fish  and  wine,  etc. — averages  about  22,000,000  rubles,  and 
that  of  its  exix)rts^omprising  flax,  hemp,  timber,  grain, 
hides,  oilcake,  camel  and  norse  hair,  and  mineral  oil — ^aver- 
ages about  55,000,000  rubles.  The  city  was  founded  in  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  by  Albert  von  Apeldern, 
Bishop  of  Livonia.  lie  established  the  order  of  the  Knights 
of  the  Sword,  which  within  a  few  years  was  united  to  the 
order  of  the  Teutonic  Knights.  The  prosperity  of  Riga  be- 
gan when  it  became  a  member  of  the  Uanseatic  League  un- 
der the  protectorate  of  Poland.  It  was  taken  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus  in  1621,  and  incorporated  with  Russia  in  1710. 
Nearly  half  the  inhabitants  are  Germans  and  German-speak- 
ing Jews,  the  remainder  being  about  equally  divided  between 
Russians  and  Letts.    Pop.  (1890)  180,278.    R.  A.  Roberts. 

Riga,  Gulf  of :  an  inlet  of  the  Baltic,  100  miles  long.  80 
miles  broad,  boundeil  by  the  Russian  governments  of  Kur- 
land,  Livonia,  ami  Esthonia.  It  receives  the  Dwina,  Oesel 
is  a  large  island  at  its  entrance. 

Rigdon,  Sidney  :  Mormon  elder ;  b.  in  St.  Clair  township, 
Allegheny  co..  Pa.,  Feb.  19,  1793;  received  a  fair  English 
education,  and  was  working  as  a  printer  at  Pittsburg  when 
about  1812  a  manuscript  was  offered  for  publication  by  an 
eccentric  preacher  named  Solomon  Spaulding.  It  was  en- 
titled The  Jfanuscnpf  Found,  or  The  Book  of  Mormon,  and 
pleased  Rigdon  so  much  that  he  made  a  copy  before  it  was 
returned  to  Snaulding,  who  died  soon  after.  In  1819  Rig- 
don became  a  Baptist  oreacher ;  about  1821  a  Disciple  min- 
ister ;  and  though  at  nrst  professing  orthodoxy,  soon  began 
to  propagate  singular  doctrines  connected  with  the  manu- 
script in  question.  In  1829  he  became  acquainted  with  Jo- 
seph Smith,  and  with  him  devised  the  publication  of  The 
Book  of  Monnon  as  the  basis  of  a  new  sect.  He  accom- 
panied Smith  to  Kirtland,  O.,  to  Missouri,  and  to  Nauvoo, 
where  he  was  one  of  the  presidents  of  the  Church ;  was  one 
of  the  originators  of  the  •*  new  revelation  "  permitting  po- 
lygamy ;  was  twice  tarred  and  feathered,  several  times  im- 
{irisoned,  and  was  a  candidate  for  the  succession  to  the 
eadership  on  the  death  of  Smith.  On  the  election  of  Brig- 
ham  Young  (1844)  Rigdon  refused  to  acknowledge  his  au- 
thority, was  excommunicated,  returned  to  Pittsburg,  Pa., 
and  lived  in  obscurity  ;  later  removed  to  Friendship,  N.  Y., 
where  he  died  July  14,  1876. 

Rigg,  James  Harrison,  D.  D.  :  minister  and  educator;  b. 
at  Newcastle-on-Tvne,  England,  Jan.  16,  1821 ;  educated  at 
the  Old  Kingswood  School ;  entered  the  Wesleyan  Methodist 
ministry  in  1845  ;  appointed  principal  of  West  minster  Train- 
ing College  for  Schoohuasters  1868:  president  of  the  Wes- 
leyan Methodist  Conference  1878-79,  and  for  the  second 
time  in  1892-93 ;  member  of  royal  commissi{m  of  national 
education  in  England  1886-88 :  on  the  staff  of  77ie  Quar- 
terly Review  from  the  first  (1853) ;  one  of  the  editors  for 
many  years,  and  solo  editor  since  1885.  He  has  published 
Princtpies  of  WeMict/an  Methodism  (London,  1850);  Con- 
gregntionaiism  and  Conner iona Ham  Contracted  (1852)  ; 
Modern  Anglican  Theolngy  (1857;  3d  ed.  enlarged,  with 
Memoir  of  Kingslev,  1879);  Es.sai/s  for  the  Times  an  Social 
and  EccleHiastical'  Subjects  (1866);  The  Sabbath  and  the 
Sabbath  Law  before  and  after  Christ  (1869);  The  Living 
Wesley  (1875;  new  e<l.,  enlarged  as  Centenary  Life  of 
We«/e^,  1891) ;  Churchmanship  of  John  UV.s^y  (1878) ;  The 
Connexional  Economy  of  Wesleyan  Methodism  (1879) ;  and 
important  pamphlets  on  ecclesiastical  and  educational  topics. 

A.  OSBORN. 

Riggs,  Elias,  D.  D.,  LL.  D  :  missionary  and  linguist;  b. 
at  New  Providence,  N.  J.,  Nov.  10.  1810 ;  gruduatinl  at 
Amherst  College  1829  and  at  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
narv  18ii2.  He  was  in  Athens,  Greece,  1832-^34,  in  Argos 
18:34-38,  in  Smyrna  18:^8-53,  and  from  1853  in  Constanti- 
nople, except  in  1857-58,  when  he  taught  Hebrew  and  the 
cognate  languages  in  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New 
York.    He  translated  the  Bible  into  Bulgarian,  Armenian, 


and  Turkish,  and  published  A  Manual  of  the  Chaldee  Lan- 
guage (1832;  2d  ed.  1858);  Grammar  of  the  Moder^i  Ar- 
menian Language  (1847);  Vocabulary  of  Words  used  i/i 
Modern  Armenian,  but  not  found  in  the  Ancient  Artnenian 
Lexicons  (1847);  Notes  on  the  Grammar  of  the  Bujgarutn 
Language  (1847);  Otitline  of  a  Grammar  of  the  Turkish 
Laf^guage  as  written  in  the  Armenian  Character  (IKlH); 
Suggested  Emetuiations  of  the  Authorized  English  Vvrsion 
(1873);  Notes  on  Difficult  Passages  of  the  New  Testament 
(1889),  and  other  writings.    Revised  by  Benj.  I.  Wheelkr. 

Riggs,  James  Stevenson,  D.  D.  :  minister  and  Xew  Tfsta- 
inent  scholar ;  b.  in  New  York,  July  16, 1853 ;  graduatt<l  «i 
the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1874  ;  spent  two  years  at  L<'i|»- 
zig  and  Tubingen;  graduated >it  Auburn  Theological  Si-ini- 
narv  in  1880.  After  a  pastorate  of  four  years  in  Fult<ni. 
N.  v.,  he  became  Professor  of  Biblical  Greek  in  Aul)urn 
Theological  Seminary  1884-92 ;  from  1892  has  been  Profes-^.r 
of  Biblical  Criticism  and  the  New  Testament.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of  many  articles  and  i)amphlets,  and  of  The  Bible  in 
^rt  (1895).  W.  J.  B. 

Right  Ascension :  in  astronomy,  the  angular  distance 
between  the  first  point  of  Aries  {q.  v.)  and  the  jK)int  iii 
which  the  circle,  passing  through  a  heavenly  body  and  Ihf 
poles  of  the  heavens,  intersects  the  celestial  equator.  It  i> 
always  measurefl  from  W.  to  E.,  and  coiTesponds  to  longi- 
tude on  the  earth,  as  Declination  (o.  v.)  corresponds  to  lati- 
tude. The  right  ascension  of  a  heavenly  bodv  is  aM-^r- 
tained  by  a  transit  instrument  and  a  clock.  These  dt»tfr- 
mine  the  meridian  passage  and  the  time  at  which  it  tak»s 
place,  respectively.  Right  ascension  is  usually  expre5*e<l  in 
time,  one  hour  corresponding  to  15^  on  the  celestial  sphere. 

R.  A.  Roberts. 

Rights :  See  Jurisprudence,  Political  Science,  and  Jr>- 

TICE. 

Rights,  Bill  of:  See  Bill  of  Rights. 

Rigi,  or  Righi,  ree'gee :  a  mountain  of  Switzerland,  in 
the  canton  of  Schwytz.  It  is  isolated  between  the  lakes  i.f 
Zug  and  Lucerne,  and  rises  5,902  feet  above  the  sea,  4.ryM) 
feet  above  the  lake.  Several  carriage-roads  and  two  niil- 
ways  lead  from  the  base  of  the  mountain  to  the  top,  whuh 
offers  a  very  extensive  view. 

Rigor  Mor'tis  [Lat.,  rigor  or  stiffness  of  death;  cf. 
rige're,  be  stiff]  :  the  condition  of  muscular  rigidity  develo|>- 
ing  shortly  after  the  death  of  the  bcxly.  It  is  due  to  >U''- 
pended  nutrition  of  the  tissues,  and  begins  when  their  re- 
sponse to  artificial  irritation  and  elect ricitv  ceases.  Ki;:or 
mortis  develops  at  a  variable  periotl  after  death,  and  wlnii 
established  lasts  a  variable  time.  In  persons  who  die  sud- 
denly, as  by  accident  or  by  heart  disease,  and  in  whom  th«* 
muscles  are  well  developed  and  nourished,  rigor  niorti> 
may  be  postponed  for  many  hours — twelve  or  twenty-four — 
and  may  then  persist  for  two  or  three  days.  Revers«'ly, 
when  death  is  the  result  of  exhaustive  disease,  the  blrxwl 
is  impoverished  and  the  muscles  are  wasted  and  flabby, 
rigor  mortis  develops  speedily — within  an  hour,  or  even  a 
few  minutes — and  is  incomplete  and  of  brief  duration.  As 
soon  as  rigor  mortis  passes  off,  the  relaxed  body  begins  to 
decompose.  Rigor  mortis  was  formerly  explained  ai»a  stntr 
of  contraction,  the  death-act  of  the  muscular  filx»r.  It  i> 
now  believed  to  be  due  to  the  separation  and  coagulation  of 
the  albuminoid  substance  in  the  fluid  of  the  muscle,  follow- 
ing the  cessation  of  nutrition.         Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

RigTeda :  See  Veda. 

Riley,  Charles  Valentine,  M.  A.,  Ph.  D. :  entomoloijist : 
b.  in  London,  England,  Sept.  18,  1843 ;  studied  at  coIk'L:«\ 
Dieppe,  France,  1854-57,  and  Bonn,  Pnissia,  1857-5JI ;  r»»- 
moved  to  U.  S.  1800  ;  studied  practical  agriculture  1860-6:^ : 
connected  with  Tlie  Evening  Journal  and  Prairie  Fanner 
at  Chicago  186J3-68 ;  appointed  State  entomologist  of  Mi--- 
souri  1868,  in  which  year  he  began,  with  Benjamin  I>. 
Walsh,  State  entomologist  of  Illinois,  the  publication  of  Th*- 
American  Entomologist ;  president  of  the  Acwlemy  of  Si- 
ence  of  St.  Louis  187G-77 ;  appointed  chief  of  the  U*  S.  ent.^- 
mological  commission  (with  Dr.  Alpheus  S.  Packanl,  Jr..  aii«l 
Prof.  Cyrus  Thomas)  under  the  Interior  Department  ISTT : 
U.  S.  entomologist  under  the  Department  of  AgricuUnn" 
1878 ;  curator  of  insects  U.  S.  National  Museum  1881 :  jr»ii- 
eral  secretary  American  Association  for  the  Advancenieur 
of  Science  1881.  He  has  published  nine  annual  rejM^rts  « ii 
tlie  insects  of  Missouri  (1868-77)  and  three  annual  report.'^  a- 
U.  S.  entomologist.  He  is  also  the  author  of  The  Lorus* 
Plague  in  the  United  States  and  of  Potato  Pests,  and  of 


;••'>     mw( 


mmM 


in 


112 


RINK 


RIO  GRANDE  DO  NORTE 


find  a  nidus  in  the  hair-follicles  and  excite  secondary  in- 
fiainmation  of  the  skin.  Ringworm  is  contagious,  not  only 
from  person  to  person  by  close  contact,  but  in  the  uncleanly 
is  transplanted  from  spot  to  spot  on  the  head  and  hands  or 
wrists.  The  treatment  is  by  parasiticides,  or  remedies  de- 
stnictive  to  parasitic  life;  local  application  of  tincture  of 
iodine,  iodine  and  ammonia,  sulphurous  acid,  sulphur  dry 
or  in  ointment,  carbolic  acid,  creosote,  oil  of  cade,  mercurial 
ointment,  oleate  of  mercury,  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate, 
and  cantharidal  collodion.'  Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Rink,  Henrich  Johann:  naturalist;  b.  at  Copenhagen, 
Denmark,  Aug.  26,  1B19.  He  took  part  in  the  Galatea 
expedition  around  the  world  1845-47,  and  as  a  result  pub- 
lisned  Die  nikobarischen  Jnseln  (1847).  He  held  many  po- 
sitions in  connection  with  Greenland,  and  made  extensive 
researches  in  that  country.  In  1852  he  published  Dengeo- 
grafUke  Beakaffenhed  afaedanske  Ilandeladistrikter  i  Nord- 
grSnland ;  in  1866-71  he  published  his  Eskimoiske  Eveniyr 
og  Sagn;  in  1875  Om  Ordfilands  Indland  og  Muligheden  af 
at  bereiae  samme.  In  1877  he  published  in  London  Danish 
Greenlaiidy  and  in  1887,  in  Copenhagen,  The  Eskimo  Tribes^ 
with  a  comparative  vocabulary.  D.  Christiania  in  1894. 
Revised  by  Rasmus  B.  Anderson. 

Biobamba.  ree-o-baam'b^ :  a  town  of  Ek^uador ;  103  miles 
S.  S.  W.  of  Quito  ;  on  a  plain  between  the  Chimborazo  and 
Altar  Mountains,  9,100  feet  above  the  sea  (see  map  of  South 
America,  ref.  8-B).  It  was  an  ancient  Indian  town,  and 
important  during  the  conquest.  On  Feb.  4,  1797,  it  was 
completely  destroyed  by  an  earthouake  in  which  over  20,000 

Cersons  are  said  to  have  perishea.  The  new  town  is  badly 
uilt  and  has  little  importance  except  as  a  st-ation  on  the 
road  from  Quito  to  Guayaquil.    Pop.  12,000.         H.  H.  S. 

Rio  Branco :  See  Rio  Neoro. 

Rio  BraTO :  the  Rio  Grande  {q.  v.). 

Bio  Coarto,  ree'5-kwaar'td  (formerly  Cotieepcion) :  a  town 
of  the  province  of  Cordoba,  Argentine  Republic ;  on  the  Rio 
Cuarto,  112  miles  S.  of  Cordoba  (see  map  of  South  America, 
ref.  8-D).  Until  1874  it  was  a  frontier  post,  exposed  to  Indian 
attacks ;  it  is  growing  rapidly,  and  is  the  second  town  of 
the  province  in  population,  an  important  railway  center, 
and  the  emporium  of  a  rich  grazing  district.  Pop.  (1892) 
14,000.  H.  H.S. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  Portug.  pron.  ree'd-da-^haa-na'i-rd  [Por- 
tug.,  river  of  January,  a  name  given  to  the  bay,  then  sup- 
posed to  be  a  river's  mouth,  because  it  was  discovered  on 
Jan.  1] :  a  maritime  state  of  Brazil,  bordering  on  SAo  l*aulo, 
Minas  Geraes,  and  Espirito  Santo,  and  inclosing  the  Muni- 
cipio  Neutro  or  federal  district.  Area  (excluding  the  Muni- 
cipio  Neutro),  26,634  so.  miles.  It  includes  the  mountainous 
districts  of  the  Coast  Range  and  part  of  the  valley  of  the 
Parahyba  river,  with  lowlands  near  the  mouth  of  the  latter 
containing  the  Lagoa  Feia  (see  Feia)  ;  there  are  also  low- 
lands and  lagoons  along  the  coast.  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  one 
of  the  great  coffee-producing  states,  and  sugar-cane  and  rice 
are  raised  on  the  lowlands.  Most  of  the  trade  is  through 
the  port  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  manufactures  are  consid- 
erable. Up  to  1894  the  capital  was  Nictheroy;  it  is  now 
Petropolis.    Pop.  (1894)  estimated,  1,390,398.        H.  H.  S. 

Bio  de  Janeiro:  capital  and  most  important  port  of  Bra- 
zil, and  the  largest  city  of  South  America ;  on  the  west  side 
of  the  bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  ;  lat.  (of  the  observatory)  22'  54' 
24"  S.,  Ion.  43'  10'  21'  W.  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  7-G). 
The  bay  is  perhaps  the  most  magnificent  harbor  in  the  world. 
The  entrance,  between  high  rocks,  is  about  a  mile  wide  and 
perfectly  clear ;  within,  it  expands  into  a  broad  sheet  with 
many  bays,  stretching  inlana  for  17  miles,  the  whole  sur- 
rounded by  strangely  formed  mountains  and  hills,  with  the 
needle-like  pinnacles  of  the  Serra  dos  Orgitos  at  the  north- 
ern end.  Most  ships  can  be  loaded  directly  at  the  fine  docks. 
The  city  occupies  flat  land  and  hills  partly  surrounding  a 
grx)up  of  wooded  mountains.  The  older  streets  are  narrow 
and  often  crooked,  with  few  pretentious  buildings;  the 
newer  ones,  farther  back  from  the  bay,  are  wide  and  lined 
with  substantial  houses.  The  business  center,  from  which 
street-Ciirs  run  to  the  outskirts,  is  tlie  narrow  Rua  do  Ouvi- 
dor ;  it  is  lined  with  retail  shops,  rafe.%  etc.,  and  is  a  favorite 
afternoon  nromena^ie  ;  no  carrinj^es  are  allowed  on  it.  The 
finest  dwellings,  surrounded  by  gardt-ns,  are  in  the  out- 
skirts and  on  the  hills;  the  beauty  of  the  scenery  in  these 
outskirts  elicits  the  mlmiration  of  every  tourist ;  Botofogo, 
for  example,  lies  between  the  mountains  and  a  placid  arm 
of  the  bay,  with  the  Sugar  Loaf  rock,  1,200  feet  high,  be- 


fore it.  There  are  several  public  parks,  including  theWain 
tiful  Passeo  Publico,  and  tne  Botanical  Garden  in  the  sul>- 
urbs.  The  handsomest  church  and  the  most  richly  deco- 
rated building  in  South  America  is  the  Candelaria.  llw 
old  monasteries  are  now  used  for  public  buildings,  and  have 
been  supplemented  by  handsome  modern  structures,  such  hs 
those  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  national  print- 
ing-office, and  tne  mint.  There  are  several  hospitals,  and 
that  called  Mizericordia  is  said  to  be  the  largest  and  nio^t 
richly  endowed  in  the  world.  There  is  a  well-appointed  t'b- 
servatory  ;  a  national  library,  the  largest  and  most  valuable 
in  South  America,  besides  several  other  libraries ;  polytechnic 
school,  national  college,  schools  of  medicine,  fine  arts.  et<'., 
and  a  naval  school.  The  museum  occupies  the  old  imperiul 
palace,  an  unpretentious  building,  but  surrounded  by  a  lieau- 
tiful  park  ;  the  collections  in  some  branches  are  very  valu- 
able. The  bay  is  defended  by  several  forts,  and  there  is  an 
extensive  navy-yard.  The  Corcovado  Mountain,  about  2JtiK) 
feet  high, has  precipitous  sides  looking  down  on  the  stn^t- : 
a  mountain-radway  runs  to  a  hotel  on  the  summit.  Other 
beautiful  resorts  are  the  high  valley  of  Tijuca,  and  Nicthen/v, 
on  the  other  side  of  the  bay. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  has  a  large  foreign  element,  and  much  of 
the  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  foreign  merchants.  The  com- 
merce is  very  important.  Rio  exports  more  than  half  of 
the  total  coffee  product  of  the  world,  or  some  400,000,000  It), 
annually ;  the  crop  is  brought  in  by  railways.  Tlie  large*.t 
exports,  especially  of  coflFee,  are  to  tHe  U.  S. ;  most  of  the  ini- 

gjrts  are  from  Europe.  Regular  steamers  run  to  the  V.  S., 
urope,  the  western  coast  of  South  America,  New  Zealand, 
etc.  The  climate  is  warm  from  May  to  October,  temi>erate 
during  the  rest  of  the  year,  and  always  damp  and  somewhat 
changeable ;  lung  diseases  are  consequently  prevalent.  Not- 
withstanding good  drainage  and  modern  sanitary  impr<>v(>» 
ments,  yellow  fever  is  generally  prevalent  during  the  warm 
months,  and  at  intervals  there  are  severe  epidemics.  A  gf  mhI 
but  somewhat  inadeauate  water-supply  is  obtained  by  fine 
aqueducts  from  the  Corcovado  ana  Tijuca.  The  bay  wais 
discovered  (probably)  by  Joio  Manoel  and  Amerigo  Vespur- 
ci  Jan.  1, 1502.  French  Protestants  tried  to  form  a  si*ttle- 
ment  on  it,  but  were  driven  out  in  1567  by  the  Portu^ue^<», 
who  then  founded  Sfto  Sebastiao,  or  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  U- 
came  the  capital  of  Southern  Brazil  in  1762,  and  of  t}ie 
whole  of  Brazil  in  1774.  From  1808  to  1821  it  was  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Portuguese  court,  and  hence  the  capital  <»f 
Portugal.  The  revolution  of  1889  broke  out  here ;  durinir  t  he 
naval  rebellion  of  1893-94  the  city  was  bombarded,  but  n<»t 
seriously  injured.  Population  of  the  city  proper  (1893)  aU>ut 
300,000.  The  Municipio  Neutro,  which  includes  the  city,  in 
a  federal  reservation,  similar  in  character  and  government  tc» 
the  District  of  Columbia  in  the  U.  S. ;  area,  538  sq.  miles ;  e^. 
t im at ed  population,  with  the  city  (1893),  471,775.  See  VhIK- 
Cabral,  Uuta  do  Viajante  no  Rio  de  Janeiro  (1884) ;  Agassiz, 
A  Journey  in  Brazil  (1868).  Herbbrt  H.  S.mitb. 

Rio  de  la  Plata :  See  Plata,  Rio  de  la. 

Rio  de  Oro :  a  bay  (mistaken  by  an  early  explorer  for 
a  river)  l}[ing  between  the  African*  mainland  ana  the  Ed- 
Dajla  peninsula,  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  N.  of  the  Tropic  i)f 
Cancer.  It  is  in  Spanish  territory,  and  the  Spaniards  have 
establishments  there  devoted  chiefly  to  fishing.  The  Span- 
ish possessions  on  this  Saharan  coast  extend  (since  1Kh4) 
from  Cape  Bojador  to  Cape  Blanco,  and  part  of  the  regit  >ii 
inland  consists  of  the  oases  of  Adrar,  where  grain  is  rai^*d 
to  some  extent,  and  many  sheep,  goats,  camels,  horses,  and 
cattle  graze.  The  chief  town  of  Adrar  is  Shingeti,  and 
30,000  people  live  there.  C.  C.  Adams. 

Rio  Grande,  or  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  ree'a-graan  dri- 
d#^/-n6r'td  [Span.,  great  river  of  the  north!:  a  large  river 
which  rises  in  Southwestern  Colorado,  flows  nrst  E.  and  ihi^n 
S.  through  New  Mexico,  flows  thence  S.  E.,  forming  for  sev- 
eral hundred  miles  the  boundary  between  the  U.  S.  ami 
Mexico,  and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  after  a  course  ..f 
about  1.800  miles.  It  is  navigable  for  small  boats  only  ft» r 
about  450  miles,  or  to  Kingsbury  Rapids;  is  generally  shal- 
low, frequently  interrupted  by  rocks  and  cataracts,  and  is 
subject  to  periodical  inundations  near  its  mouth.  Its  prin- 
cipal tributary  is  the  Rio  Pe<'os.  Brownsville,  Tex.,  ainl 
Matamoras,  Mexico,  are  situated  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  35  miles  above  its  mouth. 

Rio  Grande  do  Belnionte :  See  JEQurriKHONHA. 

Bio  Grande  do  Norte:  an  eastern  maritime  state  of 
Brazil,  between  Ceara  and  Parahyba,  with  a  coast  inchulintr 


lU 


RIOUW-LIXGGA 


RIPOX  COLLEGE 


their  assembling  to  do  any  unlawful  act.  For  example,  if  hav- 
ing gathered  in  front  of  a  theater  without  preconcerted  de- 
sign to  commit  a  breach  of  the  peace,  they  attempt  to  force 
their  way  into  the  building  and  attack  the  police  who  are 
guarding  the  doors  and  rescue  those  who  are  arrested,  they 
are  rioters.  {People  va.  Judwn,  11  Daly  1.)  Nor  is  it  nec- 
essary that  they  intend  to  terrify  others.  They  may  intend 
to  engage  in  a  mere  frolic,  as  in  a  charivari  or  **  horning  " 
of  a  householder,  or  in  entering  the  stable  of  another  and 
shaving  his  horse's  tail ;  vet  if  this  is  done  in  a  tumultuous 
and  terrifying  manner  the  enterprise  is  a  riot.  State  vs. 
Aiexander,  7  Richardson  (S.  C),  5. 

An  unlawful  assembly  is  the  meeting  of  three  or  more 
persons  with  a  riotous  purpose.  If  thev  enter  upon  the  exe- 
cution of  that  purpose,  yet  fall  short  of  an  act  amounting  to 
a  riot,  their  offense  is  a  rout.  Modern  legislation  has  modi- 
fied the  common-law  rules  governing  these  three  offenses. 

Francis  M.  Burdick. 

Riouw-Lingga,  re^b-owlinggak :  an  archipelago  of  the 
China  Sea,  making  an  extension  of  the  Malay  Peninsula; 
belonging  to  the  Dutch  and  forming  part  of*  the  residency 
of  Riouw.  It  is  formed  of  two  groups  of  islands,  that  of 
Riouw  being  the  northern  and  adjacent  to  Singapore,  and 
Lingga  the  southern.  The  Riouw  ^roup  consists  of  about 
thirty  islands,  the  largest  of  which  is  Bintang  with  an  area 
of  about  400  sq.  miles.  The  Lingga  group  is  separated  from 
the  preceding  oy  the  Strait  of  Dempo,  10  miles  broad.  It 
consists  of  two  large  islands — Lingga  (area,  820  sq.  miles) 
and  Singkep  (area,  20-4  sq.  miles)— and  many  smaller  ones. 
The  area  of  the  whole  archipelago  is  estimated  at  1,823  sq. 
miles.  The  islands  are  rocky,  like  the  peninsula  rather  than 
the  adjacent  alluvial  shores  of  Sumatra.  The  highest  peak 
is  that  of  Lingga,  3,711  feet  high.  The  islands  are  covered 
with  thick  and  valuable  forests.  Among  the  productions 
are  sago,  rice,  pepper,  and  garabir.the  last  forming  the  prin- 
cipal export.  Tin  has  long  been  mine<l.  The  aborigines 
are  Indonesian  and  negrito,  an<l  have  nearly  disapf)eared. 
The  inhabitants  are  now  mainly  Malays,  Chinese,  Klings,  and 
Javanese,  with  a  few  Europeans.     Pop.  about  80,000. 

Mark  W.  Harrixotov. 

Riparian  Riglits  [riparian  is  from  Lat.  riparius,  deriv. 
of  ripa,  the  bank  of  a  stream] :  strictly  8|)eaking,  such  rights 
as  appertain  to  the  ownership  of  land  upon  the  banks  of 
rivers  and  other  natural  water-courses.  Thus  defined,  the 
expression  would  inclmle  the  rights  enjoyed  by  riparian  pro- 
prietors over  the  public  streams  by  which  their  lands  are 
bounded  (such  as  the  right  of  access,  of  wharfage,  of  fer- 
riage, etc.),  as  well  as  those  mutually  exclusive  rights  of  user 
in  the  private  streams,  whose  beds  are  the  property  of  the 
adjoining  owners. 

The  expression  is  sometimes,  however,  more  loosely  and 
with  less  propriety  used  to  descrilxs  all  of  the  rights,  whether 
of  the  puolic  or  of  adjoining  owners,  which  the  law  recog- 
nizes in  any  public  or  private  waters.  As  thus  employed  it 
would  comprehend  the  public  right  of  navigation  on  tne  sea 
or  on  navigable  streams,  as  well  as  the  mutual  rights  of  the 
abutting  ** littoral"  proprietor  and  the  public  in  the  sea- 
shore. 

For  these  several  classes  of  rights,  see  Lakes,  Rivers,  and 
Seashore.  See  also  Filum  Aqu^e  and  Watercourses,  and 
consult  the  following  authorities :  Angell  on  Tidewaters  and 
on  Watercourses;  Hall  on  The  Seashore;  Gould  on  Waters; 
and  Poraeroy  on  Riparian  Bights,         Q.  W.  Kirchwey. 

Ripley :  village ;  Brown  co.,  O. ;  on  the  Ohio  river  and 
the  Cncsapcake  and  Ohio  Railway  ;  50  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Cin- 
cinnati (for  location,  see  map  or  Ohio,  ref.  8-D).  It  occu- 
pies a  site  iKjtween  the  river  and  a  steep  bluff,  is  in  a  noted 
**  white  burley**  tobacco-growing  region,  has  a  large  river 
commerce,  and  contains  flour  and  saw  mills,  piano  and  shoe 
factories,  leaf-tobacco  packing-houses,  2  national  banks  with 
corabine«l  capital  of  |200,000,  and  2  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1880)  2,546;  (1890)  2,48;J;  (1894)  estimated,  5,(KK). 

Editor  of  "  Bee." 

Ripley,  Eleazkr  Wheelock:  soldier;  b.  at  Hanover, 
N.  H.,  Apr.  15, 1782;  a  nephew  of  President  John  Wheehx-k 
and  a  son  of  Sylvanus  Riplev,  I).  D.,  Professor  of  Divinity 
at  Dartmouth  (d.  Feb.  5,  1787):  erraduHted  at  Dartmouth 
College  1800;  practiced  law  in  Maine,  residing  chiefly  at 
Portland;  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature 
1810-11 ;  Speaker  and  elected  State  Senator  18 12  :  was  ap- 
pointed colonel  of  the  Twenty-tirst  Infantry  1813;  was  wound- 
ed in  the  attack  upon  York  (now  Toronto),  Canada,  Apr.  24. 
1813;  became  brigadier-general  Apr.  14,  1814;  commanded 


the  Second  Brigade  under  Gen.  Brown  on  the  Niagara  fron- 
tier; took  part  in  the  battles  of  Chi|)i)ewa  anil  Nihi^ura, 
being  severely  wounded  in  the  latter,  in  which  he  won  tin- 
brevet  rank  of  major-general ;  was  conspicuous  for  gallant  j  \ 
in  the  defense  of  Fort  Erie  Aug.  15,  and  in  the  sortie  of  S<  j  « . 
17 ;  received  a  gold  medal  from  Congress ;  resigne<l  from  I  !«•• 
army  1820;  settled  in  Louisiana,  where  he  practi(e<l  law  ; 
served  in  the  State  Senate,  and  was  a  member  of  Congn--? 
1835-a9.    D.  at  West  Feliciana,  La.,  Mar.  2,  1839. 

Ripley,  George:  critic  and  journalist;  b.  at  Greenfic!-!, 
Mass.,  Oct.  3,  1802;  graduated  at  Harvard  1823,  and  tit 
Cambridge  Divinity  School  1826;  was  pastor  of  a  Unitarian 
church  in  Boston  1*82^-41;  resided  several  years  in  Kurn|.«-. 
where  he  made  a  careful  study  of  French  and  German  lit- 
erature; wrote  Discourses  on  the  Philosophy  of  Jifliffiou 
(1839);  Letters  to  Andrews  Norton  on  the  Latest  Form  of 
Infidelity  (ISiO);  and  edited  Specimens  of  Foreign  StnnJ- 
ard  Literature  (14  vols.,  Boston,  1838^-42);  was  assoi'iattii 
with  Emerson  and  Margaret  Fuller  in  conducting  The  Jhnf 
1840-41 ;  contributed  to  The  Christian  Examiner  And  othrr 
magazines;  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  celebrated  so<'i:tl- 
istic  experiment  at  Brook  Farm,  Roxbury,  Mass.,  1S41-47 : 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  The  Harbinger^  a  Fourierite  organ, 
1844-48;  removed  to  New  York  1847;  became  literary  edi- 
tor of  The  New  York  Tribune  1849,  and  remained  so' until 
his  death;  published  (with  Bayard  Taylor)  A  Jfandbtjok  nt 
Literature  and  the  Fine  Arts  (1852),  and  edited  (with 
Charles  A.  Dana)  The  American  Cyclopedia  (New  York.  10 
vols..  1858-63),  which  was  revised  (Dr.  Kiplev,editor-in-chirf», 
and  appeared  1873-76.  D.  in  New  York,  July  4,  1880.  .Ve 
his  Life,  by  0.  B.  Frothingham  (Boston,  1882). 

Revised  by  U.  A.  Bekrs. 

Ripon ;  town ;  in  Yorkshire,  England ;  on  the  Ure :  2^ 
miles  N.  W.  of  York  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  6-1).  Th- 
cathedral  was  originally  founded  on  the  ruins  of  St.  Wil- 
frid's Abbey  about  680,  but  of  this  building  the  crypt  rmiy 
remains.  I'he  present  structure  was  begun  in  the  twrlfi'i 
century,  and  was  entirely  restored  b^  Sir  Gilbert  S<iitt 
(1862-76).  Its  chief  interest  is  from  its  various  styh--  «.f 
architecture.  Ripon  has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishoprie  >inr.- 
1836.  There  are  several  tanneries  and  foundries.  Pnp. 
(1891)  7,512. 

Ripon:  city;  Fond  du  Lac  co..  Wis,;  on  the  inlet  <»f 
Green  Lake,  and  the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.  and  the  Chi.  and 
X.  W.  railways ;  20  miles  W.  by  X.  of  Fond  du  La*-,  "^^ 
miles  N.  W.  oi  Milwaukee  (for  location,  see  map  of  \Vl-^- 
consin,  ref.  6-E).  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  dairying,  and 
stm^'k-raising  region ;  has  good  water-power  and  water  and 
sewerage  systems;  and  contains  Ripon  Colle^.  9  church.-^, 
a  public  library,  2  national  banks  with  combined  capitiil  of 
|llO,000,  a  monthly  and  2  weekly  periodicals,  2  flour  and 
feed  mills,  several  creameries,  knitting- factory,  pickle-w<.rk-. 
and  box  and  crate  factory.  Pop.  (1880)  3,117;  (1890)  3.:i5*- : 
1894)  estimated,  5,000.        Editor  of  "Commoxwealtii.'* 

Ripon,  George  Frederick  Samuel  Robinsox,  Mnn^ui-* 
of:  statesman;  b.  in  London.  England,  Oct.  24,  1H27 ;  U- 
came  attach^  to  the  British  legation  at  Brussels  1H49 :  s^i' 
in  Parliament  from  1852  until  he  succeeded  his  fatlier  a- 
Earl  of  Ripon  and  Viscount  Godeiich,  Jan.  28.  1S59 ;  in- 
herited the  earldom  of  I)e  Grey  on  the  death  of  an  unr.»- 
Nov.  14, 1859  :  became  in  the  same  year  Under-Secretary  f..r 
War,  and  in  Feb.,  1861,  Under-Secretary  for  India;  beetimo 
Secretary  for  War,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  Apr.,  isr»:? , 
was  made  Secretary  of  State  for  India  Feb..  1866,  and  Inni 
president  of  the  council  Dec,  1868;  was  chairman  of  th.- 
high  joint  commission  which  negotiated  the  Treaty  of  Wh-^I.- 
ington  1871 ;  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  marquis  on  h> 
return  June  23;  was  installed  grand-master  of  the  Fte. - 
masons  of  England  Apr.  23, 1870,  but  resigned  that  jHwiti..Ti 
Aug.,  1874.  ami  was  received  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Chun  h 
at  Brompton  Sept.  4,  1874.  On  the  return  of  Glatlstone  t.^ 
power  the  Marouis  of  Uipon  was  apjwinted  Viceroy  of  Indi.i, 
which  office  he  held  until  1884.  His  attempts  to  extend  1 1  v 
rights  of  the  natives  and  to  curtail  in  some  res|>»'ots  1 1  . 
priviletjes  of  the  Europeans  made  him  most  unpopular  wj-  i 
the  latter,  lie  was  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  1***^»*.. 
and  was  appointed  Colonial  Secretary  in  1892. 

Revist^d  by  F.  M.  Coluy. 

Ripon  College :  an  institution  at  Ri|>on,  Wis.,in  a^au' j  •■> 
of  10  acres.  It  was  organized  in  1854.  and  is  priva^  ^ 
endowed  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  to  young  men  a!  i 
women  opportunities  for  obtaining  an  education  of  tht-  hi>:-. 


116 


RITSCUL 


RITTER 


of  what  the  original  Christianity  was,  he  adopts  no  strict 
doctrine  of  inspiration ;  and  he  and  his  school  entertain  very 
free  views  as  to  the  prerogatives  of  biblical  criticism,  hold- 
ing that  the  essential  thing  is  faith  in  the  person  of  Christ 
rather  than  in  his  deeds  or  words  or  in  dogmatic  statements 
about  him. 

The  theology  of  Ritschl  is  original  only  m  the  sense  of 
being  a  peculiar  composite.  Like  Schleierraacher,  he  holds 
that  the  religious  sense  is  something  immediate  and  ulti- 
mate, and  that  theology  is  independent  of  all  secular  science. 
With  ordinary  orthodox  Christians  he  holds  that  Christianity 
came  by  a  divine  revelation.  With  the  rationalists  he  is  in- 
clined to  reject  the  mysterious  and  the  supernatural,  and  to 
hold  loose  views  of  the  inspiration  and  authenticity  of  the 
Scriptures;  and  in  spite  of  Kitschl's  denunciation  of  mysti- 
cism, the  difficulty  of  combining  this  latter  feature  with 
perfect  assurance  of  faith  leads  nim  (and  more  especially 
some  of  his  followers,  as  Herrmann  and  Kaftan)  to  a  sort  of 
mysticism  in  the  exposition  of  the  relation  of  the  Christian 
to*  Christ. 

Notwithstanding  some  marked  divergences  of  doctrinal 
views  among  Ritschl's  adherents  (some  of  them,  e.  g.,  dis- 
agreeing with  him  respecting  the  pre-existence  of  Christ), 
there  is  among  them  a  strong  esprit  de  eorpa^  and  they  work 
together  zealously  in  propagating  their  views  and  in  secur- 
ing the  appointment  of  men  of  their  school  for  the  vacant 
places  in  tne  theological  faculties.  Among  the  more  promi- 
nent representatives  of  the  Ritschl  school  are  W.  Herrmann, 
of  Marburg,  Th.  Haring,  of  Gdttingen,  Julius  Kaftan,  of 
Berlin,  and  H.  Wendt,  of  Jena  (dogmaticians) ;  A.  Harnack, 
of  Berlin,  and  P.  Loofs,  of  Halle  (historians) ;  E.  Schtlrer,  of 
Kiel,  and  H.  Schultz,  of  GOttingen  (exegetes). 

C.  M.  Mead. 

BItsohl,  Friedbich  Wilhelm:  classical  scholar;  b.  at 
Grossvargula,  Thuringia,  Apr.  6,  1806;  studied  under  R«i- 
sig  at  Halle ;  privat  docent  there  1829 ;  professor  1882 ;  at 
Breslau  1833;  at  Bonn  from  1839-65,  when  he  resigned  in 
consequence  of  pettv  intrigues,  accepting  a  call  to  Leipzig, 
where  he  died  Nov.  8, 1876.  Ritschl  s  magnetic  influence  as 
a  teacher  can  only  be  compared  to  that  of  Gottfried  Her- 
mann ;  he  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  founder  of  a  philo- 
logical school,  and  many  of  his  pupils  have  been  called  to 
occupy  chairs  in  German  universities.  His  lasting  fame  as 
a  scholar  rests  upon  his  work  on  Plautus^  and  the  epigraph- 
ical  and  linguistic  studies  of  early  Latin  to  which  it  gave 
rise.  The  complete  edition  of  the  comic  poet  was  begun  in 
1871  with  the  Trinummua,  to  which  are  added  exhaustive 
and  justly  celebrated  Prolegomena,  and  was  completed  in 
1894  by  some  of  his  pupils.  Of  his  other  contributions,  many 
of  which  are  of  an  epoch-making  character,  only  a  few  can 
be  here  cited :  Ptireraa  Plauhna  et  Terentiana  (1845)  con- 
tain, among  other  valuable  treatises,  the  famous  dissertation 
on  the  FabulcB  VarroniancB ;  in  the  PHsccb  Laiinitatis  Monu- 
menta  Epigraphica  the  author  collected  in  100  large  folio 
plates  artistic  facsimiles  of  Latin  inscriptions  of  the  republi- 
can period,  to  which  ho  added  an  exhaustive  commentary. 
His  minor  writings,  among  which  the  various  articles  on  the 
Alexandrian  Library  and  on  the  Literary  Activity  of  Varro 
are  perhaps  the  most  noteworthy,  have  been  republished  in 
five  volumes  of  Opuscula,  See  L.  Mllller,  Friedrich  W.  Ritschl 
(1877) ;  Bursian,  Qesch.  der  doss.  Philol,  in  Deutachland, 
pp.  812-840 ;  and  especially  O.  Ribbeck,  J^.  W.  Ritschl,  Ein 
Beitrag  zur  Gesch.  der  Fhilologie,  2  vols.,  pp.  848, 591  (1879- 
81).  Alfred  Gudeman. 

Bitson,  Joseph:  scholar;  b.  at  Stockton-on-Tees,  Eng- 
land, Oct.  2,  1752;  studied  law;  became  a  conveyancer  in 
London  and  deputy  high  bailiff  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster; 
devoted  most  of  his  time  for  many  years  to  antiauarian  re- 
searches ;  edited  a  vast  number  of  reprints  of  old  and  rare 
books.  D.  at  Hoxton,  Sept.  3, 1803.  Among  his  works  were 
Observations  on  Wartons  History  of  English  Poetry  (1782) ; 
Ancient  Songs  from  the  Time  of  King  Henry  IIL  to  the 
Remlution  {1790);  A  Collection  of  Scottish  Songs  (1794); 
Robin  Hood  Ballads  (1795) ;  Bihliographia  Poetica  (1802) ; 
and  Ancient  Emjlish  Metrical  Romances,  with  Dissertation 
and  Glossary  (3  vols.,  1802).  See  his  Letters,  edited  with  a 
memoir,  by  Sir  X.  Harris  Nicolas  (2  vols.,  1833). 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Rittenhoase,  Benjamin:  instrument  and  clock  maker; 
b.  in  Xorriton  township,  (now)  Montgomery  co.,  Pa.,  1740 
or  1741  ;  brother  and  assistant  to  David  Rittenhouse.  Prom 
Fob.  26.  1776,  to  Dec,  1778,  the  State  of  Pennsylvania 
maintained  a  gun-factory,  of  which  he  was  sui)erintendent. 


He  was  representative  in  the  Ninth,  Tenth,  and  Twelfth  Gi^n- 
eral  Assemblies  of  Pennsylvania  (1784-88);  commis>i(>ti*'r 
to  survey  the  Schuylkill  river  Oct.  20, 1789;  associate  judi^r 
of  the  court  of  common  pleas  of  Montgomery  co..  Pa.,  Mar. 
28, 1792,  for  ten  or  fifteen  years,  when  he  moved  to  Phila- 
delphia. In  1796-97  he  made  a  surveyor's  chain,  by  onhT 
of  Congress,  which  has  been  the  standard  of  the  U.  S*  I^ml- 
office  ever  since.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Americnn 
Philosophical  Society  Jan.  16,  1789.  D.  in  Philadelpliia, 
Aug.  31, 1825.  Anita  N.  McGee. 

Rittenhoase,  David,  F.  R.  S.,  LL.  D.  :  astronomer  and 
mathematician ;  b.  Apr.  8,  1782,  at  Paper-mill  Run,  Hox- 
borough  township,  near  Germantown,  Pa.,  where  about  16i>0 
his  great-grandfather,  William  Rittinghuysen,  a  Hollander, 
established  the  first  paper-mill  in  America.  In  boybo<Hi 
he  worked  on  his  fatner*s  farm  at  Norriton,  during  whi<.'h 
time  he  came  into  possession  of  some  mathematical  bcH>ks: 
made  himself  master  of  Newton's  iVinct^'a ;  discovere<l  for 
himself  the  method  of  fluxions  when  in  his  nineteenth  year  ; 
made  a  clock  at  a  still  earlier  age.  and  undertook  ckxk- 
making  as  a  profession  in  1751.  He  afterward  made  an 
orrery,  which  was  purchased  by  Princeton  College  1770.  and 
later  a  larger  one  for  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  In 
connection  with  Mason  and  Dixon  he  was  employed  in  176^t. 
to  determine  the  initial  point  of  their  survey,  which  he  did 
with  instruments  of  his  own  construction  ;  fixed  the  north- 
ern, southern,  and  western  boundaries  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
performed  similar  tasks  for  other  States;  was  appointed  hy 
the  American  Philosophical  Society  to  observe  the  t^an^it 
of  Venus  June  3, 1769,  which  he  did  successfully  in  his  pri- 
vate observatory  at  Norriton;  calculated  the  elements  of 
the  (future)  transit  of  Dec.  8, 1874;  and  observed  the  tran- 
sits of  Mercury  of  1769  and  1782.  In  1770  he  settled  at 
Philadelphia,  where  he  continued  the  manufacture  of  chxks 
and  mathematical  instruments.  He  was  elected  to  the  pr<K 
vincial  Legislature  in  1776 ;  was  a  member  of  the  convent  inn 
which  formed  the  State  constitution  of  Pennsylvania  1776  ; 
held  various  oflScial  ix)sitions  during  the  Revolution :  wa» 
StAte  treasurer  1777-89;  director  of  the  U.  S.  mint  179!J-1>.k 
In  the  latter  year,  after  the  death  of  Franklin,  he  became 
president  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  and  was 
chosen  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  D.  in  Philadeiiihia. 
June  26,  1796.  His  papers  on  astronomical,  physical,  and 
mathematical  subjects  are  found  in  the  first  four  volunK-s 
of  the  TraTisactiona  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society. 
A  Eulogium  upon  him  was  delivered  by  Dr.  Benjamin  Hu^h 
1796;  his  Life  was  written  by  his  nephew,  William  Barton 
(1818),  and  by  Prof.  James  Renwick  in  Sparks^s  American 
Biography,  1st  series,  voL  vii.  (1834^. 

Revised  by  Anita  N.  McGee. 

Rltter,  Carl  :  geographer ;  b.  at  Quedlinburg,  Prussian 
Saxony,  Aug.  7, 1779 ;  studied  at  Halle ;  traveled  much,  and 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Geography  at  the  University  nt 
Berlin  in  1820.  By  his  lectures,  as  well  as  by  his  works',  he 
exercised  a  decisive  influence  on  the  study  of  geoCTaphy, 
remodeling  the  whole  science  and  attracting  general  at  t»*n- 
tion  to  its  problems  and  results.  D.  in  Berlin,  Sept.  29, 1K)9. 
His  principal  works  are  Die  Erdkunde  im  Verhdltniss  lur 
Natur  una  zur  Gesehiehte  des  Mensehen  (1st  ed.  2  vnls.. 
1817-18 ;  2d  ed.  19  vols.,  1822-^9,  comprising  only  Africa  (i.) 
and  Asia  (ii.-xix.));  Europa,  ein  geographisch-histtprittrh- 
statistisches  Gemdlde  (2  vols.,  1807);  Dte  Stupas  {\^\Xm 
Einleitung  zur  allgemeinen  vergleiehenden  Geographit  und 
Abhandlungen  zu  einer  mehr  wisstnschaftlichsn  £fhan<I- 
lung  der  Erdkunde  (1862).  After  his  death  were  publishetl 
Gesehiehte  der  Erdkunde  (1861);  Allpemeine  Erdkunde 
(1862);  and  Europa  (1863).  Parts  of  his  works  have  bttn 
translated  into  English  by  W.  L.  Gage:  Comparative  Grog- 
raphy  (1865)  and  The  Comparative  Geography  of  I^ale/ifine 
and  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula  (4  vols.,  1866).  His  lAfe  was 
written  by  W.  L.  Gage  (Edinburgh,  1867). 

Revised  by  M.  W.  HARRUfOTox. 

Ritter,  Heinrich:  philosopher;  b.  at  Zerbst,  Germany. 
Nov.  21,  1791 ;  studied  theology  and  philosophy  at  Hallo. 
Gottingen,  and  Berlin,  and  was  appointed  Professor  of  Phi- 
losophy at  Berlin  in  1824,  at  Kiel  in  1838,  at  Gottingen  in  1  Si7, 
where  he  died  Feb.  3, 1869.  His  principal  work  is  his  fir- 
schichte  der  Philosophie  (Hamburg,  12  vols.,  1829-55),  endinir 
with  Kant ;  the  most  prominent  of  his  works,  all  relating  to 
the  history  of  philosophy,  are  Vers^tch  zur  Verstdndiqung  iih*  r 
die  Jieuste  deutsche  Philosophie  (1853) ;  Die  HalbXaniinutr 
und  der  Pantheismus  (1827);  and  Ueber  Vnsterblichkttt 
(several  times  reprinted). 


'.vnm 


:U'$  IL  S. 


'»). 


T    r  ■,,.,    ,^i'o.    nun  •  .    4    y>' 


L.  «M..v  .-.  ^  V -I,  .Jm.i' ,  i^-   i^nt.^  ../♦!..  ^:L 


118 


RIVERA 


RIVER  HYDRAULICS 


Canal,  and  on  the  railway  from  Lyons  to  St.-fitienne  (see 
map  of  France,  ref.  6-G).  It  is  a  center  of  iron  luanufuc- 
tunng  and  has  important  coal  mines  in  its  neighborhood. 
It  has  also  glass-factories,  tanneries,  and  factories  of  articles 
in  leather.    Pop.  (1891)  13,070.  M.  W.  H. 

Rl  vera,  reb-va'raa,  Jos^  Frcctuoso  :  soldier  and  politician ; 
b.  at  Paysandu,  Uruguay,  about  1790.  He  was  a  partisan 
leader  in  the  civil  wars,  and  after  Uruguay  became  inde- 
nendent  was  the  first  regularly  elected  president  1830-35. 
In  1836  he  revolted  against  his  successor,  Oribe,  heading  the 
Coldrados  party,  whose  long  struggle  with  the  Blancos  marks 
the  subsequent  history  of  Uruguay.  Oribe  was  driven  out, 
and  Rivera  was  again  president  1838-42.  Then  Rosas,  dic- 
tator of  Buenos  Ayres,  aided  Oribe,  who  began  the  "  nine 
years*  siege."  Rivera  acted  against  him  in  the  field,  but  on 
Mar.  28,  1845,  was  defeated  at  India  Muerta  by  Urquiza, 
Oribe's  ally.  In  1853  Rivera  aided  in  the  deposition  of  Giro 
at  Montevideo,  and  became  a  member  of  the  executive  tri- 
umvirate.   D.  at  Montevideo,  Jan.  13, 1854.  H.  H.  S. 

RiTer-buUhead  :  See  Miller's  Thumb. 

River  FaHs:  city  (settled  in  1851,  incorporated  in  1885) ; 
Pierce  and  St.  Croix  cos.,  Wis. ;  on  the  Kinnickinnick  river, 
and  the  Chi.,  St.  P.,  Minn,  and  Omaha  Railway ;  12  miles 
S.  E.  of  Hudson,  16  miles  N.  E.  of  Hastings,  Minn,  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  4--A).  It  is  in  an  agricul- 
tural region  ;  has  abundant  power  for  manufacturing  from 
the  river ;  and  contains  6  churches,  2  public-school  build- 
ings, a  high  school,  the  Fourth  Normal  School  of  the  State, 
gas  and  water- works,  2  State  banks  with  combined  capital 
of  $64,000,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  The  principal  manu- 
factures are  flour  and  starch.  Pop.  (1880)  1,499;  (1890) 
1,783 ;  (1894)  estimated,  2,000.        Editor  op  "Journal." 

RiTerhead  :  town ;  capital  of  Suffolk  co.,  X.  Y. ;  on  the 
Peconic  river,  at  the  west  end  of  Great  Peconic  Bay,  and 
the  L«)ng  Island  Railroad ;  4  miles  S.  of  Long  Island  Sound, 
75  miles  E.  bv  X.  of  Brooklyn  (for  location,  see  map  of  New 
York,  ref.  8-P).  It  contains  a  national  bank  witn  capital 
of  $50,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $5,000,  a  savmgs- 
bank,  a  weekly  newspaper,  grist,  woolen,  paper,  planing, 
and  moulding  mills,  and  carriage,  chocolate,  organ,  and  soap 
works.     Pop.  (1880)  1,757 ;  (1893)  2,017. 

River  l^drauHcs:  that  branch  of  hydraulic*s  which  deals 
with  the  flow  of  water  in  rivers.  The  principles  are  also 
applicable  in  a  simplified  form  to  canals  and  otiier  artificial 
conduits.  In  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  Cas- 
telli  and  Torricelli,  pupils  of  Galileo,  applied  the  principles 
of  that  master  to  hydraulics.  The  latter  discovere<l  the  law 
governing  the  issue  of  fluid-veins  from  small  orifices  in  the 
sides  of  a  reservoir,  and  suggested  this  law  as  applicable  to 
the  flow  of  rivers.  Near  the  close  of  the  century  Gugliel- 
mini  elaborated  this  theory,  which  was  generally  adopted 
by  the  scientific  world  because  no  one  attempted  to  verify 
its  consequences  by  actual  experiment.  In  1732  Pitot,  by 
observing  sub-surface  changes  of  velocity  with  the  tube 
which  bears  his  name,  overturned  this  school  of  hydraulics. 
Attention  being  thus  called  to  the  importance  of  a  practical 
treatment  of  the  problem,  experiment  was  multiplied  ;  and 
finallv,  in  1786,  Dubuat  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern 
school  by  announcing  his  great  principle  that  the  flow  is 
due  to  gravity  acting  through  the  slope  of  the  surface,  and 
that  the  true  method  of  enunciating  in  mathematical  lan- 
guage the  law  of  motion  is  to  equate  expressions  for  the  ac- 
celerating and  i*etarding  forces.  During  the  nineteenth 
century  many  investigators  have  attacked  the  problem  upon 
this  general  basis,  and  the  general  la\*^s  of  cfistribution  of 
velocities  in  a  cross-section  of  a  stream  have  become  fairly 
known,  while  many  formulas  for  mean  ocity  have  been 
prop<jsed. 

Ihe  elaborate  hydraulic  survey  of  the  Mississippi  river, 
made  from  1850  to"l860  by  Humphreys  and  Abbot,  resulted 
in  a  system  of  river  hydraulics  of  which  the  following  is 
a  brief  outline :  The  law  of  distribution  of  vekx'ity  in  both 
vertical  and  horizontal  planes  was  shown  to  be  parabolic. 
The  ratio  between  the  mid  depth  and  mean  velocity  is  sensi- 
bly constant,  being  alK)ut  0*96,  and  it  is  independent  of 
wind  effect.  This  last  discovery  has  been  (»f  particular 
value  in  reducing  the  labor  of  gauging  streams.  In  alge- 
braic language,  the  most  important  of  these  laws  for  sub- 
surface velocity  are  expressed  as  follows,  with  I),  rf,,  and  d 
denoting,  respectively,  the  total  depth,  the  depth  of  the  axis, 
and  the  depth  of  any  particular  point;  and  r,  T,  Tp.  F», 
VJd,  Trf,,  F»  denoting,  respectively,  the  mean  velocity  of  the 


river,  the  velocity  at  any  depth  d,  the  surface  vehKity. »! 
velocity  at  the  bottom  of  the  river  (the  depth  being  7v .  u 
velocity  at  half  the  depth,  the  maximum  velocity,  auti  t 
mean  of  the  whole  vertical  curve  : 


(1) 


(2) 


(3) 


[-69 


v=,v-Vt(^--<)". 


r.  =  |T>  +  iF„f^(iro 


■iK.). 


(4)  v\^=v^^.^^/bv. 

The  formula  for  the  mean  velocity  deduce<l  is  the  f«.II' 
ing,  in  English  feet:  v  denotes  the  mean  velocity  jur  v. 
ond  ;  a,  the  area  of  cross-section  :  p,  the  wetted  i)enmt  {. 
W,  the  width ;  6,  the  value  given  in  eq.  (1) ;  «,  the  mh- 
the  slope  corrected  for  bends — its  numerical  value  i>  ' 
quotient  of  the  total  fall  in  water-surface  between  thr  u 
niinal  stations,  less  the  value  of  h  in  the  bend  formula. 
the  total  distance  between  them  measured  on  the  nii<l' 
line  of  the  channel;  N  represents  the  number  of  aia'.; 
changes  each  30"  of  the  latter  line.  The  value  of  v  m  i 
bend  formula  is  found  by  successive  approximations. 

(5)  .  =  (/o.0081i-f('^^y-0.09v^)' 


(6) 


A  = 


536 


(bend  formula). 


Among  other  formulas  for  mean  velocity  that  of  Kui«i 
(see  Hydraulics)  has  received  the  widest  acceptanei'.  nnl 
as  it  contains  a  coefficient  of  roughness,  it  can  be  adapt* «!  'I 
different  classes  of  streams  as  well  as  to  artificial  cIimih  •  -i 

Oauging  of  Rivera. — For  practically  gauging  the  i.-i 
charge  of  a  large  river  the  following  plan  is  recoinineml*': 
Select  a  locality  in  a  straight  portion  where  the  currrnt  .| 
regular.  Lay  out  a  base-line  200  feet  long  parallel  i'*  t^ 
direction  of  the  flow,  and  determine  accumtely  the  cr-^i 
section  in  front.  Establish  two  theodolites,  and,'  for  mn..-  n 
ous  floats  well  distributed  between  the  banks,  note  th*- »»:. 
gular  distance  from,  and  the  time  of  transit  past,  eaeh  t  .,.| 
of  the  base.  These  floats  should  be  made  double,  the  "Uii 
face  float  being  a  tin  ellipsoid  or  other  light  botly  Iwarinj  I 
little  flajET.  The  lower  float  may  be  a  large  o|K'*n  k^-i:,  I .' 
lasted  with  lead  so  as  to  hang  vertically.  The  cuiine<MN 
cord  should  be  as  small  as  practicable.  The  rate  of  iiicni 
ment  of  the  whole  will  thus  be  essentially  that  of  tlie  1»  «■  1 
keg.  The  center  of  this  keg  should  be  placed  at  six-t.  i;i'  I 
of  the  depth  below  the  surface,  because  in  the  al»s«nri'  .  | 
wind  the  velocity  at  that  point  very  nearly  repre>emv  i-^ 
mean  of  the  velocities  in  the  vertical.  The  level  I'f  \U 
water  on  a  gauge  should  be  read  at  regular  intervals  I-l 
reduce  the  observations  draw  upon  a  sheet  of  sectioii-{':»p  ] 
the  base-line  and  two  perpenaiculars  to  mark  the  Iii.»l 
across  which  the  times  of  transit  were  noted.  From  \U 
reconled  angles  and  a  table  of  natural  tangents  the  \n\\.\\^  •  J 
each  float  are  plotted,  and  upon  each  is  written  the  s*imi  .ii 
of  its  transit  past  the  base.  The  total  width  of  the  hmf  H 
next  divided  into  as  manv  equal  divisions  as  show  -«iim^ 
bly  unvarying  velocity,  the  mean  of  all  the  se<-nn<U  « i 
transit  in  each  division  is  then  reduced  to  feet  per  seoi  .1, 
and  adopted  as  the  velocity  in  that  division.  A  mean  of  all 
these  velocities,  interpolations  l)eing  made  if  any  are  ml--- 
ing,  closely  approximates  to  the  mean  velocity  of  the  riM-r- 

Where  the  depth  will  permit,  rods  or  tul)es,  loaded  to  tl.-i:i 
vertically,  and  extending  from  the  surface  nearly  to  n-i 
bottom,  are  often  used,  thus  integrating  mechanically  tl-i 
vehx?ities  in  a  vertical.  For  small  streams  various  form>  >  i 
meters  are  often  employed,  which  consist  essentially  of  a 
submerged  wheel,  with  apparatus  designed  to  reconl  {'*.*i 
number  of  its  revolutions  ;  and  the  accuracy  of  the  n'^i.l'i 
of  course,  defends  entirely  upon  the  precision  with  vh  <  i 
these  revolutions  can  be  translated  into  feet  p<»r  s**'-*  '-'^ 
Electricity  has  been  skillfully  applied  to  record  the  numl'f 
of  revolutions  of  the  wheel,  and  thus  the  registering  ajjani- 
tus  can  be  observed  on  land  or  in  a  boat. 

Oscillationa, — As  the  volume  of  water  in  the  channel  irj 
creases,  the  surface-level  of  the  river  rises.  The  amount  A 
this  rise  varies  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  courH',  t^^ 
pecially  when  the  stream  discharges  into  the  sea  or  a  ia^s:»i 
lake.    In  such  cases  the  oscillation  is  insignificant  near  \U 


120 


RIVERS 


original  constructional  troughs  of  the  country  are  called 
consequent  valleys.  All  but  the  deepest  of  the  construc- 
tional lakes  are  in  this  way  drained,  and  the  flow  of  the 
streams  becomes  more  continuous.  The  river  now  enters 
well  on  its  life-work  of  carrying  along  the  waste  of  the  land 
on  its  way  to  the  sea,  the  waste  being  received  partly  from 
the  cutting  of  the  stream  channels,  partly  from  the  creeping 
and  washing  of  the  soil  from  the  steep  sides  of  the  young 
consequent  valleys,  and  partly  from  the  broad  constructional 
slopes  of  the  region.  Whenever,  during  the  process  of  chan- 
nel cutting,  the  streams  pass  from  a  resistant  to  a  weak  rock 
structure,  an  increase  of  slope  is  developed  at  the  point  of 
contrast,  forming  rapids ;  wnere  the  contrast  of  resistance 
is  well  marked,  the  increase  of  slope  may  be  abrupt,  and 
thus  many  waterfalls  may  come  to  characterize  youthful 
streams.    See  Cataracts, 

Adolescent  Rivera, — A  river  of  good  size  soon  cuts  down 
its  valley  close  to  sea-level,  or  base-level,  as  it  is  now  gener- 
ally called,  and  on  thus  assuming  a  gently  sloping  course  it 
enters  its  adolescence ;  but  its  small  side-streams  may  still 
retain  youthful  features.  Adolescence  of  the  trunk  stream 
is  therefore  characterizes!  not  only  by  the  disappearance  of 
the  initial  constructional  lakes,  but  also  by  the  wearing  away 
or  recession  of  the  youthful  waterfalls,  ana  the  attainment  of 
a  slope  on  which  the  ability  of  the  river  to  do  work  is  just 
equal  to  the  work  that  it  "has  to  do.  The  river  course  is 
then  said  to  be  graded.  Large  streams  may  attain  a  graded 
course  on  weak  rocks  during  the  youth  of  their  system; 
small  branches  on  resistant  rocks  will  not  grade  their  courses 
until  after  adolescence.  The  depth  of  an  adolescent  valley 
depends  on  several  factors :  First,  the  height  of  the  land  in 
which  the  valley  is  cut ;  the  rivers  of  low-lying  Florida  are 
unable  to  cut  deep  valleys,  because  their  drainage  area  is 
hardly  above  base-level ;  while  the  Colorado  Riveb  {q,  v.) 
is  cutting  down  a  vast  caQon,  because  the  plateaus  across 
which  its  course  is  laid  have  been  lifted  so  high  ;  it  still  has 
rapids  and  falls,  and  is  only  entering  adolescence.  Second, 
the  depth  depends  on  how  close  the  channel  may  approach 
base-level ;  this  depends  on  the  grade  that  the'  river  may 
assume,  and  this  in  turn  depends  on  the  volume  and  load 
of  the  stream — for  example,  in  a  region  of  given  height  a 
large  river  will  cut  down  a  deeper  consequent  valley  and 
assume  a  gentler  grade  than  a  small  river;  for  the  large 
one  can  carry  its  load  on  a  faint  slope,  while  the  small  one 
will  need  a  steeper  slope  on  which  to  gain  velocity  with 
which  to  do  its  work ;  for  this  reason  a  graded  river  de- 
scends more  rapidly  in  its  upper  course,  where  the  volume 
is  small,  than  in  its  lower  course,  where  its  volume  is 
greater.  Again,  in  two  river  basins  of  similar  area  and 
structure,  but  one  in  a  dry  and  the  other  in  a  wet  clinaate, 
the  river  in  the  first  can  not  in  its  adolescence  cut  down  so 
deep  a  valley  as  the  river  in  the  second ;  for  the  volumes  of  the 
two  rivers  must  differ.  Still  again,  of  two  rivers  of  equal  size, 
one  trenching  a  region  of  hard  rocks,  the  other  at  work  in  a 
region  of  similar  form  and  height  but  of  weak  rocks,  the 
former  will  cut  a  deeper  adolescent  valley  than  the  latter, 
because  the  former  will  have  but  a  moderate  load  of  land- 
waste,  while  the  latter  will  be  surcharged  with  detritus  from 
the  easily  weathered  rocks  of  its  basin,  and  will  need  a  com- 
paratively steep  grade  on  which  to  do  its  work.  It  is  for 
two  of  these  reasons,  the  dryness  of  the  climate  and  the 
weakness  of  the  rocks,  that  the  rivers  of  the  U.  S.  which 
cross  the  elevated  western  plains  from  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains eastward  have  not  cut  deeply  intrenched  valleys; 
they  are  characteristic  adolescent  rivers  with  well-graded 
courses,  but  the  land-waste  from  the  weak  rocks  of  the 
plains  is  shed  into  them  so  rapidly,  and  their  volume  is  so 
reduced  by  the  small  rainfall,  that  they  have  practically 
ceased  deepening  their  valleys,  while  their  slope  is  still  com- 
paratively steep  and  their  channels  are  still  high  above  base- 
level  Other  illustrations  of  the  control  of  grade  by  load 
are  found  in  those  rivers  which  nin  from  the  Alps  out  upon 
the  plains  of  Lombardy.  Some  of  them  pass  through  lakes 
on  the  way,  and  are  there  filtered  of  their  load  from  the 
mountains;  then  below  the  lakes  they  cut  down  the  plain 
that  they  traverse,  while  others  emerge  from  the  moun- 
tains well  charged  with  detritus  and  are  unable  to  trench 
the  plain ;  they  may  even  build  it  up  by  depositing  some  of 
their  load  upon  it. 

Subsequent  Bikers. — While  the  trunk  river  is  grading  its 
valley  and  the  consequent  lateral  streains  are  advancing  to- 
ward the  graded  condition  as  fast  as  they  can,  certain  new 
branches,  not  represented  in  the  original  constructional 
river  system,  make  their  ai)j>earance.    These  are  developed 


at  various  points,  but  especially  wherever  the  walls  of  a  con- 
sequent valley  expose  a  weak  stratum  or  rock-mass ;  for  us 
the  consequent  valley  widens  by  the'  wasting  of  its  e'ul*.'- 
slopes,  the  widening  wiU  be  fastest  where  the  slopes  conyi>t 
of  weak  rocks;  and  thus  in  time  numerous  lateral  ravim-^ 
will  be  developed,  lengthening  headwards  into  valleys  alontr 
the  lead  of  the  weak  rocks  by  which  they  are  guided.  Siuh 
valleys  and  the  streams  that  drain  them  are  called  siiliec^- 
quent.  As  the  subsequent  streams  increase  their  draina^** 
area,  the  original  basins  of  the  consequent  branch  streams 
are  split  up ;  thus  the  whole  drainage  area  is  more  minutely 
subdivided  and  the  rainfall  is  more  promptly  deli verc<l  to 
the  water-courses.  Commensurate  witn  this  change,  the  an^a 
of  wasting  slopes  is  increased,  and  thus  the  load  washtMl 
down  to  the  streams,  and  by  them  to  the  main  river,  is  also 
increased.  It  may  happen  that  the  grade  assumed  by  tlio 
main  stream  at  the  beginning  of  its  adolescence  is  tbeii 
found  to  be  too  faint,  and  hence  some  of  the  load  is  laid 
down,  buildine  a  Flood-plain  (y.  v.),  and  thus  steepenini^^ 
the  grade  of  the  river  and  giving  it  a  velocity  that  enahlt  s 
it  to  carry  the  remaining  load.  The  deep  alluvium  with 
which  the  trench  of  the  Missouri  river  is  partially  filltMl 
may  have  been  accumulated  in  this  manner,  for  the  upjMT 
branches  of  this  river  are  actively  gnawing  into  the  plain  <, 
and  rapidly  increasing  the  area  of  wasting  slopes  from  whirh 
the  load  of  the  trunk  river  is  chiefiy  derived. 

Migration  of  Divider. — During  the  adolescent  sta^re  of 
river  life  it  frequently  happens  that  a  stream  may  ^naw 
its  way  headward  into  the  valley  of  another  stream  of  the 
same  river  system  or  of  an  adjacent  system,  whose  channel 
is  at  a  higher  level  on  account  of  greater  distance  to  the 
sea,  or  of  resistant  rocks  which  have  retarded  its  deejwninj; 
somewhere  farther  down  its  course.  Then  the  growinjr 
stream,  working  to  advantage  on  the  steeper  slope  or  on 
the  weaker  rocks  which  guide  its  growth,  may  tap  the 
other,  thus  abstracting  its  upper  part  and  diverting  it  tti 
the  growing  stream  and  leaving  its  diminished  and  beheadeti 
lower  part  to  follow  ita  former  valley.  Subsequent  stn^anw 
are  particularly  active  in  making  captures  of  this  kin<i. 
Thus  one  river  system  may  grow  at  the  expense  of  another, 
as  the  divide  between  them  is  forced  to  migrate  away  fmm 
the  steeper  streams  at  the  heads  of  the  deeper  valleys. 
Changes  of  this  kind  are  going  on  in  the  Alps,  where  the 
Italian  streams  are  frequently  gaining  at  the  expense  of 
those  discharging  north  ward—as,  for  example,  in  tne  upp^r 
Engadine  valley,  where  the  Maira  is  capturing  the  head- 
waters of  the  Inn. 

Deltas, — During  all  this  time  of  river  growth  mos^t  of 
the  land-waste  that  has  been  carried  down  to  the  riviT 
mouth  accumulates  there,  forming  a  Delta  (^.f.),  while  the 
finest  waste  is  carried  out  to  deeper  water.  Rivers  that  enter 
the  sea  from  steep  mountain-slopes  build  stony  deltas :  hut 
ordinarily  the  delta  is  composed  of  silt,  reduced  to  fine  tex- 
ture during  its  long  travel  from  its  source  down  the  valley 
to  the  sea.  Under  a  fitting  climate  deltas  are  therefore 
fertile,  and  may  support  a  large  population,  although  ex- 
posed to  the  danger  of  sudden  changes  in  the  course  of  the 
river  branches  that  traverse  them  and  of  Floods  {q.  t\)  bot  h 
from  the  rivers  and  the  sea,  the  latter  being  caused  by  the 
high  water  of  on-shore  storm-winds.  The  outline  taken  by 
the  growing  delta  varies  according  to  the  ratio  of  the  power 
and  load  of  the  river  to  the  activity  of  the  shore-waves  and 
currents.  When  the  former  are  in  excess,  as  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi,  the  delta  grows  rapidly  forward  with 
branching  fingers  wherever  the  distributary  streams  enter 
the  sea;  but  where  the  waves  and  currents  have  the  up|vi*r 
hand,  the  front  of  the  delta  is  rounded,  as  in  the  case  <if 
the  Rio  Grande,  where  there  is  a  smooth  curve,  convex  sea- 
ward. The  delta  of  the  Po  is  of  intermediate  form.  Acutely 
pointed  deltas,  like  that  of  the  Tiber,  are  probably  caused 
by  the  combined  action  of  river  and  shore  currenta. 

Flood-plains, — As  the  delta  grows  forward  there  is  nec- 
essarily a  slight  building  up  all  along  the  flood-plain  in 
order  to  maintain  the  needed  grade  of  the  river;  and  this 
entails  an  extension  of  the  flood-plain  up  the  valley,  parti<- 
ularly  at  that  stage  of  river  life  when  the  load  is  increasinir. 
Hence  with  advancing  adolescence  this  extremely  valuahh- 
portion  of  the  river  valley  increases  its  area,  tempting  tKcu- 
pation  from  its  fertility,  but,  like  the  delta,  subject  to  danirer 
from  floods.  The  Ohio  valley  offers  an  excellent  illustra- 
tion of  this  phase  of  river  growth.  The  flood-plain  and 
delta  are  somewhat  higher  along  the  river  banks,  where  the 
silt  is  deposited  at  time  of  overflow;  the  plain  slopes  gentlj 
to  either  margin  as  well  as  down  the  valley.    Conse«iuently', 


122 


Rn^RS 


cence  or  maturity  of  the  cycle  thus  introduced.  For  exam- 
ple, the  slantinff  upland  of  Xew  England  in  dissected  by  the 
Connecticut,  whose  valley  deepens  inland  in  consequence  of 
the  greater  elevation  that  the  old  lowland  has  received  in 
Nortnem  Massachusetts  than  at  the  coast.  The  valleys  of 
the  Hudson,  Delaware,  Susquehanna,  Potomac,  and  others 
are  similarly  accounted  fur. 

Inequality  of  slope  in  adjacent  river  systems  introduced 
by  gentle  warping  is  an  effective  means  of  promoting  the 
migration  of  divides,  the  steepened  streams  gaining  area  at 
the  expense  of  those  whose  slope  is  decreased.  Thus  it  is 
believed  that  the  present  northwest  course  of  the  Tennessee, 
near  Chattanooga,  is  a  diversion  from  a  former  southwest 
course,  in  consequence  of  slight  deformation  of  the  region. 

More  decided  deformation  is  detected  alon^  the  northern 
margin  of  the  AliJS,  where  the  mountain-making  forces  seem 
to  fcS  invading  the  Piedmont  districts  and  crushing  them 
into  incipient  folds.  When  a  land-surface  is  thus  more  or 
less  warped  the  graded  courses  of  its  rivers  are  deformed ; 
thus  lakes  may  be  formed  where  the  river  trough  is  de- 
pressed, and  more  active  valley  cutting  may  be  induced 
where  it  is  elevated,  and  in  this  way  the  marginal  lakes  of 
the  Alps  are  explained,  although  glacial  action  has  also  un- 
doubtedly contributed  to  their  origin.  The  deformation  of 
the  Limmat,  producing  Lake  Zurich,  has  been  minutely 
studied. 

Similar  changes  have  progressed  to  a  more  advanced  stage 
in  the  southern  marginal  ranges  of  the  Himalaya;  but  while 
ephemeral  lakes  may  have  been  fonned  on  various  outflow- 
ing rivers  up-stream  from  the  line  of  uplift,  this  stage  is 
now  past,  and  the  rivers  escape  across  the  new  ranges  with 
unobstructed  flow  and  essentially  along  their  former  courses; 
for  the  upturned  strata  of  the  foot-hilfi  are  the  delta  deposits 
of  the  earlier  stage  of  river  history.  Rivers  like  these,  of 
which  the  Sutlej  may  be  taken  as  the  type,  maintained  their 
flow  in  spite  of  uplifts  across  their  course,  and  are  called 
antecedent.  The  Green  river  of  Wyoming,  a  chief  head- 
stream  of  the  Colorado,  is  by  some  regarded  as  antecedent, 
being  thought  to  have  kept  its  course  tlirough  the  great  up- 
lirt  of  the  Uinta  Mountains;  but  the  argument  to  this  con- 
clusion does  not  seem  to  be  decisive. 

Volcanic  Accidents. — The  lava-flows  poured  forth  by  vol- 
canic or  fissure  eruptions  run  to  the  lowest  ground  that  they 
can  reach,  and  gradually  congeal.  In  this  way  the  rivers  of 
the  lava-buried  areas  are  displaced  and  take  new  courses 
alongside  of  or  across  the  lava  surface.  Thus  the  Snake 
river,  gathering  mature  head  waters  among  the  mountains  of 
Western  Wyoming,  crosses  the  lava-plains  of  Idaho  in  a 
young  cafion;  its  upper  and  lower  parts  are  as  dissimilar 
as  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  an  extended  river  that 
comes  from  older  inland  uplands  to  a  newer  coastal  plain. 
If  the  region  possessing  displaced  rivers  of  this  kind  is  ele- 
vated the  revived  streams  cut  down  new  vallevs  to  one  side 
of  their  buried  valleys,  such  being  the  relation  of  several 
older  and  newer  rivet*  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  in  California,  where  the  old  river-gravels  buried  un- 
der the  lava-flows  are  much  sought  for  as  a  source  of  gold, 
while  the  new  rivers  flow  in  deep  caflons. 

Climatic  Accidents — Desiccation. — When  the  climate  of 
a  region  turns  from  humid  to  arid  the  supply  of  a  river 
system  weakens,  the  head  waters  shorten,  and  the  volume 
diminishes.  In  crossing  lowlands  the  river  is  further  less- 
ened by  evaporation,  so  that  it  may  at  last  disappear,  though 
its  course  to  the  sea  remains  open.  Withered  rivers  of  this 
kind  may  be  found  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  where  they 
fail  to  reach  the  ocean,  although  the  country  slopes  forwarS 
from  their  lower  en<ls.  Manv  witheretl  rivers  are  found  in 
the  Great  Basin  of  the  U.  i^.,  where  the  side-streams,  de- 
scending from  the  mountains,  are  unable  to  reach  their 
former  trunk  stream,  while  the  dwindling  trunk  stream 
fades  away  on  the  desert  plains.  During  winter  rains 
the  withered  system  is  somewhat  invigorated;  in  summer 
droughts  it  is  reduced  to  dissevered  remnants.  In  the  Sa- 
hara the  withering  of  the  rivers  is  often  complete;  the  val- 
leys or  wadies  remain,  but  they  lead  no  water,  unless  beneath 
the  sands  of  their  trough. 

Climatic  Accidents — Glacintion. — The  effects  of  glaciation 
(see  Glaciers)  are  among  the  most  interesting  accidents 
that  can  hapf)en  to  rivers;  and  they  are  of  great  impor- 
tance to  civilized  nations,  inasmuch  as  they  prevail  over 
parts  of  Northeastern  America  and  North  west t^rn  Europe. 
During  the  occupation  of  a  country  by  an  ice-sheet  there  is 
a  peculiar  drainage  system  upon  and  under  the  ice,  as  is  ob- 
served in  Greenland  and  Alavska.    Streams  fed  by  rains  and 


surface-melting  in  summer  flow  for  a  time  on  the  surfn<-«% 
and  then  disappear  by  plunging  down  crevasses:  th*'> 
emerge  from  tunnels  at  the  ice  margin,  sometimes  burMiul: 
out  with  much  energy,  and  bearing  a  heav^  load  of  cojipM- 
and  fine  detritus,  wliich  they  spread  out  in  their  fiirthrr 
course,  often  building  up  stony  flood-plains  in  their  vh1U'\  h 
or  deltas  in  the  sea. 

During  the  retreat  of  an  ice-sheet  it  sometimes  evacuat*-^ 
a  district  that  slopes  toward  its  front.  A  marginal  lak»> 
then  accumulates  in  the  depression  and  overflows  at  th«: 
lowest  point  in  the  rim,  scouring  down  a  valley  treiii-h  «>f 
considerable  size;  but  when  a  still  further  retreat  of  the 
ice  allows  a  lower  discharge  of  the  lake,  this  trench  is  aban- 
doned except  by  such  hxjal  drainage  as  it  may  receive  f  r«  *n\ 
either  side.  In  this  way  explanation  is  given  of  cert  am 
small  rivers  in  broad  valleys  in  the  northern  part  «>f  the 
U.  S.;  the  upper  Minnesota,* the  Desplainesby  Chicntro.  I-it- 
tle  river  between  the  heads  of  the  Maumee  and  the  >^'al)a>h 
in  Ohio,  the  Mohawk  by  Rome,  N.  Y.,  all  bein^  exaiiiplv^^  uf 
this  curious  kind  {Popular  Science  Monthly^  Nov.,  1894). 

The  most  striking  glacial  accidents  in  river  hi»tor>'  are 
found  after  the  retreat  of  the  ice  from  the  glaciated  country, 
when  the  surface  streams  again  take  unconstrained  p<>^M's-«i<  in 
of  it.  Supposing  that  the  region  had  had  a  matunnl  drain- 
age system  before  the  ice  invasion,  then  the  ice  roumN  t»ir 
the  peaks  and  ridges,  deepens  and  widens  the  valleys,  often 
eroding  basins  in  their  troughs,  or  clogging  them  with  th»* 
drift  tnat  is  left  irregularly  distributed  over  the  count  r>. 
The  preglacial  stream  lines  are  therefore  more  or  I««ss  olV 
structed,  and  hence  the  post-glacial  streams  often  lose  tht-ir 
way,  being  here  detainea  in  an  eroded  basin  or  in  a  holiow 
behind  a  drift  barrier,  and  there  turning  across  an  oM 
divide  or  spur  along  a  new  line  of  flow.  Streams  thus  af- 
fected are  as  a  rule  characterized  by  frequent  lake's  ai.<l 
long  reaches  alternating  with  rapids  or  gorges  aloii^  thiir 
new  courses.  (See  Lakes,  Cataeacts,  and  Gorge.)  Tho  <  K- 1 1- 
cacy  of  adjustment  to  structural  lines  that  prevailtMl  in 
the  preglacial  drainage  system  is  confused  or  lost.  Then* 
are  little  streams  in  large  valleys;  large  streams  in  lit r It- 
valleys  ;  falls  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  river  courses  ;  and 
lakes  everywhere.  The  rivers  of  Canada,  Maine,  Sean<lina- 
via,  and  other  glaciated  regions  exhibit  all  these  featnro  in 
profusion.  They  are  rapidly  establishing  better  jfhi«hd 
channels;  filling  lakes,  wnich  appear  as  meadows;  nushiiig 
back  falls  and  cutting  down  gorges  (see  Niagara  Fali.^.  ; 
terracing  valleys  that  were  clogged  with  drift.  The  eco- 
nomic value  of  the  rapids  and  falls  thus  produced  is  ver> 
great ;  nearly  all  the  manufacturing  cities  of  New  Kn^'land 
are  located  at  water-powers  of  this  accidental  oriprin  ;  Ot- 
tawa, Rochester,  and  Minneapolis  are  similarlv  deternuiitil. 

Complicated  History  of  Large  Rivers. — While  the  aeveml 
phases  in  the  life  and  develoj)inent  of  rivers  here  outline<l  are 
easily  apprehended  when  considered  separately,  8U<-h  is  not 
the  case  with  the  development  of  actual  rivers  of  lar^e  >i/f. 
such  as  the  Mississippi,  Amazon,  Rhine,  or  Danube.  The  sn<-- 
cessive  uplifts  by  which  the  present  drainage  area  has  btt>n 
constructed  ;  the  various  cycles  or  partial  cycles  of  tieniula- 
tion  through  which  one  part  or  another  of  the  river  has  ad- 
vanced ;  the  accidents  that  its  different  branches  have  Mif- 
fered — all  combine  to  accumulate  a  history  so  complex  timt 
geographical  studv  in  its  present  state  does  not  suflUe  t<» 
apprehend  it  clearlv.  Yet  the  real  significance  of  ea<li  jmrt 
is  so  closely  de})enaent  on  its  plan  of  development,  and  th^ 
relations  of  the  various  parts  of  a  river  system  follow  so 
distinctly  from  the  history  that  they  have'  been  throuirh, 
that  nothing  less  than  an  analysis  of  their  origin  sufficvs  t<» 
bring  them  clearly  before  the  understanding.  A  full  ac- 
count of  the  Mississippi  system  would  require  an  extended 
monograph.  Its  oldest  parts  are  probably  to  be  found  in 
the  upper  branches  of  the  Tennessee  and  New  rivers,  whieh 
descend  from  the  mountains  of  Carolina  and  Virginia. 
Similar  ancient  head  waters  in  Pennsylvania  have  N>en 
turned  by  diversion  or  deformation  into  the  Atlantic  risers. 
Along  the  northern  watershed  the  dcfwsits  of  glacial  tlrift 
are  at  many  points  sufficient  to  alter  the  direction  of  j.rf»- 
glacial  drainage ;  the  so-<'alled  head  of  the  Mississippi  is  i  t-r- 
tainlv  one  of  its  youngest  parts.  The  great  western  Dran<>hes, 
the  ilissouri,  Arkansas,  and  others,  are  young  comj>an^<l  to 
the  Ohio.  The  lower  course  of  the  trunlt  stream  is  a  reetui 
addition  to  the  upfHjr  branches. 

Kconomic  Jielafi(m<s  of  Bivers. — In  the  economies  of  na- 
ture rivers  are  the  great  avenues  of  transportation  alnrig 
which  the  waste  of  the  land,  gathered  by  the  creep  *»f  tho 
soil  and  the  wash  of  the  wet-weather  streams,  is  carried  to 


121 


RIVERS 


ROACH 


the  name  of  *'  accretion/*  as  a  valid  means  of  acquiring  title 
to  land.  The  legal  consequences  of  accretion  are  the  same 
whether  it  goes  on  in  public  or  private  streams  or  on  the 
seashore ;  but  if  the  process  of  change  be  a  sudden  or  vio- 
lent one,  it  will  have  no  leeal  consequences  whatever.  Thus 
if  a  watercourse  should  suddenly  desert  its  ancient  bed  and 
form  for  itself  a  new  channel,  the  original  boundary-line 
between  the  opposite  owners,  ninning  through  the  middle 
of  the  old  bed,  will  be  preserved  unchanged. 

The  rights  of  the  public,  so  extensive,  and  important  in 
the  case  of  public  waters,  are  greatly  narrowed  in  the  case 
of  private  streams.  There  is  in  general  no  common  right 
of  navigation  or  fishing  or  any  other  user  in  such  waters. 
Nevertheless,  a  stream  which  is  strictly  private  so  far  as  the 
title  to  its  shores  and  bed  is  concemea,  may  become  sub- 
ject to  a  public  easement  of  navigation  or  of  floating  logs. 
The  public  right  in  such  cases  is  presumably  acquired  from 
the  riparian  owners,  a  grant  or  dedication  by  the  latter  be- 
ing presumed  from  the  long  and  general  use  of  the  stream 
for  such  purpose  by  the  pubuc.  It  is,  however,  highly  prob- 
able that  considerations  of  public  policy  will,  in  the  newer 
parts  of  the  U.  S.  at  least,  lead  to  a  general  recognition  of 
common  rights  of  navigation  in  suitable  privat-e  streams, 
even  where  there  has  been  no  general  use  of  the  stream  from 
which  to  infer  a  dedication. 

For  the  distinction  between  riparian  rights  proper  and 
such  as  pertain  to  waters  percolating  through  the  soil  or 
flowing  m  undefined  channels,  see  the  article  on  Water- 
courses. For  other  similar  and  related  rights,  see  Lakes, 
Riparian  Rights,  Seashore,  and  authorities  there  cited. 

George  W.  Kirchwey. 

Rivers,  Richard  Hexdersok,  D.  D.  :  educator  and  minis- 
ter of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South ;  b.  in  Mont- 
gomery  co.,  Tenn.,  Sept.  11,  1814 ;  graduated  at  La  Grange 
ollege,  Alabama,  in  1835 ;  electea  Assistant  Professor  of 
Languages,  and  in  1836  Professor  of  Languages,  in  that 
institution ;  was  president  of  the  conference  school  at  Athens, 
Ala,,  in  1843 ;  vice-president  and  Professor  of  Moral  Science 
in  Centenary  College,  Louisiana,  in  1848,  and  president  in 
1849 ;  was  called  to  the  presidency  of  La  Grange  College  in 
1854,  and  remained  in  that  position  after  the  removal  of  the 
institution  to  Florence,  Ala.,  and  the  change  of  the  name  to 
Wesleyan  University,  until  it  was  broken  up  bv  the  civil 
war ;  was  subsequently  president  of  Somerville  Female  Col- 
lege, Tennessee,  Centenarv  Institute,  Summerfleld,  Ala,,  and 
Logan  Female  College,  Kentucky ;  was  president  of  Martin 
Female  College,  Pulaski,  Tenn.,  1874-78 ;  was  pastor  in  Au- 
burn and  Eufaula,  Ala.,  1878-83  ;  took  charge  of  Broadway 
church,  Louisville,  Ky.,  1883-87 ;  was  a  member  of  the  Ten- 
nessee Conference ;  published  Menial  Philosophy^  Moral 
Philosophy,  Our  Young  /^op/«  (1880) ;  The  Life  of  Robert 
Paine  (1884);  and  Arrows  from  Two  Quivers  (1890).  D.  at 
Louisville,  June  21, 1894.  Revised  by  A.  Osborn. 

Riverside :  city  (founded  in  1870) ;  capital  of  Riverside 
CO.  (created  from  the  southwest  part  of  San  Bernardino 
County  in  1893),  Cal. ;  on  the  Santa  Ana  river,  and  the  South- 
ern Cal.  Railway  ;  118  miles  N.  W.-of  San  Diego  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  California,  ref.  12-G).  It  was  founded  by 
colonists  from  New  England,  who  constructed  two  irrigating 
canals,  one  of  which  cost  $50,000,  and  engaged  extensively 
in  the  cultivation  of  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  and  grapes,  the 
manufacture  of  potterv  and  cabinet  furniture,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  raisins.  There  are  several  churches,  public  and 
private  schools,  high  school,  two  libraries  (Library  Associa- 
tion, founded  in  1879,  and  Public,  founded  in  lS89),  2  na- 
tional banks  with  combined  capital  of  $200,000,  3  State 
banks,  a  savings-bank,  and  2  daily  and  3  weekly  newspa- 
pers.   Pop.  (1880)  precinct,  1,358 ;  (1890)  city,  4,683. 

Rives,  Am£lie  :  See  Chanler,  Am^lie. 

Rives,  William  Cabell  :  Senator ;  b.  in  Nelson  co.,  Va., 
May  4, 1793 ;  educated  at  Ilampden-Sidney  and  William  and 
Mary  Colleges ;  studied  law  under  Jefferson ;  served  as  a  vol- 
unteer in  the  war  with  England  1812-15 ;  became  prominent 
in  Virginia  politics;  was  a  member  of  Congress  1823-27; 
minister  to  France  1829-32,  and  again  1849-53 ;  Senator  from 
1832  to  1845,  with  a  brief  interruption ;  a  meml)er  of  the 
peace  conference  of  1861,  and  of  the  Confederate  Congress 
at  Montgomery.  D.  near  Charlottesville,  Va.,  Apr.  26,  1H6H. 
lie  was  the  author  of  The  Life  and  Timps  of  James  Madison 
(Boston,  3  vols.,  1859-69)  and  otiier  works. 

Riviera,  nH?-vee-a'raa  (i.  e.  the  shore) :  name  given  to  the 
coast  of  Liguria,  Italy,  from  the  French  frontier  to  the  Cape 


of  Porto  Venere,  near  Spezia  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  4-P.i. 
It  is  celebrated  for  its  natural  beauty  and  the  salubrity  <  ' 
its  climate.  Its  winter  climate  is  one  of  the  most  mild  aini 
genial  known,  and  this,  with  its  readv  accessibilitv,  ttllraii- 
to  it  each  winter  a  very  large  number  of  invalids.  It  i- 
customary  to  divide  it  into  the  Eastern  Riviera  (Rivifra  Mi 
Levante)  and  the  Western  (Riviera  di  Ponente),  the  tu<. 
meeting  at  Genoa.  See  Black,  The  Riviera,  or  (hr  (^t>*i^*i 
from  Marseilles  to  Leghorn  (1890);  Murray,  A  JI*tndbtu,K 
for  Travellers  on  the  Riviera  (1S90) ;  Macmillan,  The  Ki- 
viera  (1892).  Mark  W,  Harrixoton. 

Riviere,  ree'vi-Sr',  BRrrox :  figure  and  animal  jnai  nter :  \k 
in  London,  Aug.  14, 1840;  punil  of  his  father,  WilliHiu  Hi- 
viere  (1806-76);  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1867;  Roval  Ar««l— 
mician  1881;  medal,  Centennial  Exposition,  Phil»«i«*lplita. 
1876;  third-class  medals,  Paris  Expositions,  1878  afi<i  1h»-!i. 
Two  of  his  most  celebrated  works  are  Let  Sleepina  Dttcfff  Lf 
and  The  Astrologer.    Studio  in  London.  W.  A.  C. 

Riviere  da  Lonp  (en  Bas),  -da-loo':  post-vilJag^e  (calh.; 
also  Fraserville)  ;  Temiscouata  Countv,  Quebec,  Canatia: 
on  the  southeastern  shore  of  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  125  nnh- 
below  Quebec,  and  terminus  of  the  Temiscouata  Railway,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  picturesque  stream  of  the  same  naine\<^«  »• 
map  of  Quebec,  ref.  8-E).  It  is  the  seat  of  Fraserville  In- 
stitute, a  convent,  and  an  academy,  and  has  a  good  tnttlr. 
It  is  a  place  of  summer  resort.  Pop.  (1891;  4,175,  nearly  all 
French. 

Rividre  da  Loop  (en  Haut).  now  Looiseville :  po>t-\  il- 
lage;  capital  of  Alaskinong^  County,  (Quebec,  Canada;  ni) 
the  north  shore  of  Lake  St.  Peter,  66  miles  l)elow  Montn-»i! 
(see  map  of  Quebec,  ref.  4-B).  It  has  a  gooil  trade  an-l 
manufactures  of  leather.    Pop.  about  2,000. 

Rix-dollar  [from  Swed.  riksdaler  :  Germ,  reirhsfhaltr: 
reich  (Swed.  riA),  kingdom,  realm  +  thaler  (Swe<l.  d<tUi  •. 
thaler,  dollar] :  a  silver  coin  formerly  used  in  the  Standi fia- 
vian  countries  and  Germany.  Its  value  varied  in  the  d li- 
ferent countries  from  a  little  less  than  40  cents  to  a  littl>- 
more  than  a  dollar. 

Rizzio,  rit'see-5,  or  Riccio,  rit'chee-o,  David  :  miuivter  of 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots ;  b. at  Turin,  Itidv,  in  1540  ;  the  sK»n  t.f 
a  dancing-master ;  was  brought  up  in  France ;  became  an  m- 
complished  musician;  obtained  favor  at  the  court  of  Savoy, 
where  he  was  selected  on  account  of  his  skill  in  langiih;.'<'^ 
to  accompany  an  embassy  sent  to  Scotland  about  !.■><»:]. 
Having  attracted  the  attention  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  l»\ 
his  musical  talent,  she  appointed  him  one  of  the  pages  of 
her  chamber,  and  soon  afterward  (Dec,  1564)  made  hini  lu  r 
secretary  for  foreign  languages.  He  acquired  great  influ- 
ence over  her,  and  was  accordingly  hated  by  less  fortunat** 
courtiers;  was  an  advocate  of  the  marriage  to  Damloy,  aft.r 
which  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  *the  privy  purse  to  tin- 
king  and  queen ;  was  bitterly  denounced  by  Knox  and  tht- 
Reformers  on  account  of  his  Koman  Catholicism  ;  has  o\tii 
been  regarded  by  some  writers  as  a  secret  papal  leg^Hte.  anu 
was  regarded  by  many  as  the  queen's  paramour  and  fat  hi  r 
of  Prince  James.  Several  of  tne  most  powerful  nobles,  es- 
pecially Morton,  Ruthven,  Lindsay,  and  Maitland,  forniecl  n 
conspiracy  to  assassinate  him,  and  obtained  the  written  eun- 
currence  of  the  weak  Darnley  bv  working  upon  his  jealou-^y 
and  by  promising  him  the  title  of  king.  Introduce<i  hv 
Darnley  into  the  queen's  chamber,  Ruthven  and  (leor::*..- 
Douglass  struck  down  Rizzio  in  her  presence,  dragpetl  hirn 
into  the  adjoining  room,  and  killed  him  Mar.  9,  1566.  Ir 
has  been  charged  that  Knox  and  other  Reformers  were  {>ri\  v 
to  this  murder.  This  is  improbable,  but  Knox  wrt»te  of  ii 
in  his  History  of  Scotland  as  "  a  just  act,  and  most  worth} 
of  all  praise.  F.  M.  Colby. 

Roach  [M.  Eng.  roehe,  connected  with  0.  Eng.  renhhn^ 
Germ,  rocne,  roach.  The  Eng.  ray,  name  of  same  li^li  < 
Fr.  raie  <  Lat.  rdja^ :  a  kind  of  fish,  the  Rutilus  rutilun,  of 
the  family  CyprinicCcg,  It  is  placed  with  its  associates  in  n 
group  distinguished  by  the  pharyngeal  teeth  being  in  sinel"* 
series  of  five  or  six  each,  with  crenate  ridges  and  slight  1\ 
hooked  tips,  the  presence  of  twelve  to  fourteen  anal  n\><. 
and  the  position  of  the  dorsal  fin  opposite  to  the  ventraU  ; 
the  body  is  silvery,  and  the  lower  fins  tinged  with  red.  .hi 
least  in  the  adult;  the  mouth  is  terminal.  The  roach  m-n- 
erally  attains  a  length  of  about  8  inches,  and  S4>nietini< - 
reaches  as  much  as  10  or  12,  and  is  under  a  pound  ir 
weij;ht.  It  is  distribute*!  throughout  Euroi»e  N.  nf  ilu- 
Alps,  and,  though  insignificant  as  a  game-fish,  it  is  jjen«*r- 
ally  included  in  Euro[>ean  works  on  angling.    In  the  L\  S. 


iTTvm^^^^B 

h 

^ 

Ik 

^^^^^^^H* 

^^^^K 

^H 

^^^^^^^^^B  t 

1 

•    ,    -iL  i    IM 

**^)  nmft^f  trifl  nnti  r^tt^          ^^^H 

126 


ROADS 


lages  and  small  towns,  often  called  common  roads  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  paved  city  streets  and  from  railways. 
The  number  of  roads  in  a  civilized  community  involves  a 
large  outlay  for  construction,  and  a  heavy  annual  expendi- 
ture for  repairs,  so  that  the  question  of  economy  in  road- 
making  ana  maintenance  is  an  important  one.  Good  roads 
promote  traffic  and  industry,  while  poor  ones  are  a  constant 
bar  to  the  development  of  the  towns  which  they  connect. 
The  location,  construction,  and  maintenance  of  roads  form 
a  branch  of  civil  engineering,  and  it  is  only  the  engineer  who 
can  conduct  these  operations  so  as  to  secure  the  greatest 
public  convenience  with  the  least  expenditui-e. 

The  Romans  built  many  roads  extending  to  all  parts  of 
the  empire,  and  portions  of  some  of  these  are  found  at  the 
present  day  in  fair  condition.  Twenty-nine  military  roads 
centered  at  Rome,  which  with  their  numerous  branches  had, 
according  to  Antoninus,  a  total  length  of  52,964  Roman 
miles.  The  most  important  of  these  had  a  paved  width  of 
16  feet,  with  curbs  and  unpaved  sidewalks,  but  the  prevail- 
ing width  was  8  feet.  There  were  also  roads  for  single  car- 
riages, and  for  horsemen,  of  lesser  width.  The  military 
roads  were  essentially  pavements  of  dressed  stone  blocks, 
laid  with  very  close  joints  on  a  foundation  of  concrete  which 
rested  on  a  sub-foundation  of  large  flat  stones,  the  entire 
thickness  being  about  3  feet.  The  road  surface  was  c^uite 
smooth,  and  level  transversely.  Grade  was  usually  disre- 
garded, and  the  course  of  the'  road  laid  out  in  a  straight 
line  over  hills  and  valleys.  Milestones  marked  the  distances 
from  all  parts  of  the  empire  to  a  gilt  column  in  the  Forum 
at  Rome.  In  respect  to  durability,  these  roads  were  probably 
superior  to  any  since  constructed,  but  they  were  very  ex- 
pensive and  the  steep  grades  often  rendered  portions  ill 
adapted  to  traffic.  Macadam  has  said  that  their  construc- 
tion *'  was  a  kind  of  desperate  remedy  t^  which  ignorance 
has  had  recourse,"  and  from  the  point  of  view  of  engineer- 
ing economy  and  the  proper  adaptation  of  means  to  ends 
Roman  roads  can  not  be  recommended. 

A  number  of  Roman  roads  were  built  in  England  in  the 
second  and  third  centuries,  and  later  some  of  these  were 
widened  and  made  public  highways.  The  roads  in  England 
and  throughout  Europe  were,  however,  in  a  deplorable  con- 
dition during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  indeed  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  nineteenth  century  no  systematic  methotl  of 
construction  and  repair  was  known.  '  About  1350  certain 
roads  in  England  were  given  to  private  companies  to  repair, 
and  toll  was  allowed  to  be  collected.  In  1553  the  parishes 
were  made  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  the  roads,  but 
the  burden  proved  to  be  too  heavy,  and  the  results  were  un- 
satisfactory. 

The  early  explorers  of  Mexico  and  Peru  found  excellent 
roads  between  tne  principal  towns.  One  of  the  military  roads 
of  Peru  is  said  to  have  been  nearly  2,000  miles  long,  with  tun- 
nels through  mountains  and  bridges  or  ferries  over  streams ; 
this  was  20  feet  wide  and  paved  with  flagstones  covered  with 
bitumen.  In  India  and  Persia  there  were  also  a  few  good 
roads  in  earlv  times.  In  the  latter  country  royal  roads  for 
the  use  of  the  ruler  were  built  by  the  side  of  the  common 
roads  and  kept  in  better  condition,  from  which  originated 
the  phrase  "  There  is  no  royal  road  to  learning." 

Tne  earliest  roads  in  the  U.  S.  were  mere  Indian  trails 
along  watercourses  and  through  gaps  in  mountain  ranges. 
In  New  England  the  towns  had  control  of  roads,  and  there 
are  records  of  some  '*  eight  and  ten  rods  wide  "  which  were 
authorized  to  be  laid  out,  but  only  about  one  or  two  rods  were 
devoted  to  traffic,  the  remainder  being  left  uncleared.  The 
prevailing  method  of  construction  and  repair,  when  any 
method  at  all  was  used,  was  to  plow  two  parallel  furrows 
about  20  feet  apart  and  scrajw  the  loosened  earth  upon  the 
space  between  them  to  form  the  road-bed. 

Turnpikes  were  maintained  in  the  IT.  S.  during  the  eigh- 
teenth century  by  pnvate  companies  which  were  allowed  to 
collect  toll,  and  the  surface  of  these  was  often  of  gravel  or 
broken  stone.  In  1796  an  act  of  Congress  authorized  a  na- 
tional roa«l  from  Baltimore  westward,  which  was  built  for  650 
miles  through  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, and  Illinois;  its  width  is 
80  feet,  of  which  30  feet  is  of  liroken  stone,  sometimes  on  a 
foundation  of  large  stonos.  Althmigli  not  properly  kept  up 
since  the  introduction  of  railways,  it  is  still  known'as  a  good 
road. 

The  roads  of  Europe  are  in  a  far  bettor  oomlition  than 
those  of  the  U.  S.  This  is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  they 
are  older,  but  mainly  to  In^tter  and  more  efTeetive  methods 
of  construction  and  maintenance.  (Jravel  or  broken  stcme 
is  employed  for  a  road  surface,  proper  drainage  is  provided, 


and  systematic  repairs  are  made  at  stated  inter>'a1s.  T\if 
dirt  fix)m  the  gutters  is  carted  away  instead  of  bein^?  sfm  a-i 
on  the  road-bed,  while  this  is  kept  in  good  condition  by  tiiv 
frequent  addition  of  broken  stone  properly  compactcii*  hihI 
rolled.  Among  the  famous  roads  of  Europe  may  be  iiitn- 
tioned  that  from  Geneva,  over  the  Simplon  Pass  of  tlie  Al|»>. 
to  Milan,  which  was  built  by  Napoleon  as  a  military  nmit-. 
and  which  cost  the  French  Government  about  $3.25<\(KKK  or 
nearly  $15,000  per  mile;  this  is  more  than  double  the  co^t 
of  construction  of  good  roads  under  ordinary  condit  ions. 

About  1885  public  opinion  in  the  U.  S.  began  U*  >>*' 
aroused,  mainly  through  the  influence  of  bicvcle  riilcrs  aij<i 
manufacturers,' as  to  the  deplorable  conditfon  of  c*anitry 
roads  and  the  great  atl vantage  of  better  meth<xls  of  rt.ii'- 
struction  and  repair.  This  movement  has  been  prtxiuctJXH 
of  excellent  results,  vet  very  much  remains  to  l>e  done  ii: 
order  that  these  roaus  may  be  in  a  condition  coropaniMe  i-- 
those  of  Europe.  Methods  of  locating,  building,  anti  n- 
pairing  roads  are  well  known  to  civil  engineers,  and  can  he 
as  easily  carried  out  as  those  for  the  construction  ami  nuun- 
tenance  of  railways,  but  the  public  refuses  or  ne^lo<'is  t.. 
intrust  the  work  to  them.  County  commissioners,  township 
supervisors,  selectmen,  and  borough  committees  are  the  au- 
thorities who  control  the  building  and  repair  of  roads,  and 
these  generally  decide  nearly  all  questions  relating  theret.-. 
irrespective  of  the  experience  of  other  localities  or  of  thr 
rules  of  engineering.  The  method,  so  extensively  jirevail- 
ing,  whereby  fanners  are  allowed  to  work  out  their  mad- 
tax  instead  of  paying  it  in  money,  is  perhaps  the  ^reatt>>r 
evil  of  the  present  system,  and  wherever  it  prevails  giwni 
roads  can  never  be  secured.  Under  this  method  the  inu<l  'ti 
the  gutters  is  annually  loosened  by  the  plow,  tran>fem.  •  i 
by  the  scraper  to  the  middle  of  the  street,  and  s|irfuil  to  a 
rounded  surface  without  any  attempt  at  compacting  or  roil- 
ing, so  that  the  rains  wash  it  quickly  back  again  to  tit* 
sides  and  the  condition  of  the  road  during  a  large  part  «»t 
the  year  is  very  poor.  It  is  safe  to  sajr  that  in  the  majority 
of  cases  the  money  spent  in  such  repairs  is  entirely  waste«i.' 

The  cost  of  road  improvements  in  flftv  counties  of  th.. 
State  of  New  York  during  1892  was  12,716,000,  aii«l  this 
does  not  include  that  8|)ent  in  cities,  towns,  and  villairt-. 
This  annual  sum,  if  expended  in  acconlance  with  engiii«-tr- 
ing  princinles,  is  sufficient  to  produce  in  a  few  years  row. is 
comparable  in  every  respect  with  those  of  Euro{»e. 

It  is  one  of  the  gratifying  features  of  the  road  a^itatiini 
that  State  Legislatures  are  urged  to  make  such  laws  a?*  >\iil 
insure  that  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  comnion 
roads  shall  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  civil  engineers,  Evi*ry 
effort  spent  in  securing  the  passage  of  such  laws  tends  t.i 
the  improvement  of  roads.  The  building  of  a  coiihihij 
road  is  easy  compared  to  that  of  a  railway:  the  prinriplri 
and  methods  are  given  in  great  detail  in  engineering  lit«in' 
ture,  and  it  is  by  the  scientific  application  of  these  that  th*! 
roads  of  Europe  have  been  brought  to  such  a  high  de^ii*  t»i 
perfection. 

Location, — A  road  should  be  so  laid  out  that  its  li-ntrth 
between  the  points  to  be  connected  is  as  short  as  (Ki?ssioU', 
the  grades  at  the  same  time  being  such  as  to  allow  ea^\i 
ti-action  for  vehicles  and  also  thorough  drainage,  A  slitrli! 
grade  will  provide  for  drainage  if  proper  ditches  are  vmu- 
stiiicted.  The  maximum  grade  for  earth  roads  should  Im 
about  10  j>er  cent. — that  is,  10  feet  of  vertical  rise  to  ItHj 
feet  of  horizontal  distance,  while  gravel  roads  may  bt»  lim- 
ited to  7  per  cent,,  and  macadam  roads  to  alK>ut  4  or  5  |h-« 
cent.  On  these  grades  a  horse  exerts  twice  as  much  force  in 
pulling  up  the  load  as  on  a  level. 

The  width  of  roads  in  the  U.  S.  has  usually  lK?en  to<i 
great.  Sixteen  feet  is  sufficient  for  the  easy  passapt^  <»f  tun 
vehicles,  and  it  is  better  that  this  width  should  be  kcf>t  in 
good  condition  than  that  30  or  40  feet  should  be  maintaint  <] 
in  poor  onler  at  gi-eater  cost.  In  the  neighborhood  of  t-it  ..h 
widths  of  24  or  30  feet  are  sometimes  required.  To  theMi 
widths  are  to  be  added  those  necessary  for  gutters  or  dilclu>, 
and  for  sidewalks  when  such  are  necessary. 

The  best  transverse  form  is  that  of  two  planes  <»f  sli^rl.t 
inclination  connected  by  a  short  curved  surface  nf»ir  ii«i 
middle.  It  is  a  common  error  to  make  the  s*»oiion  t.  i 
rounding  and  the  inclination  of  the  sides  too  steep.  Mai»v 
good  roa<ls  show  to  the  eye  but  little  elevation  in  tht*  miiji 
<lle.  and  the  harder  and  smoother  the  road-covering  llu»  K^vi 
is  the  elevati(m  required. 

Consfruction. — In  order  to  render  the  road  free  frt>ni  tlii^j 
and  mud  and  the  trncti<m  easy  to  animals  some  kiml  ..j 
roa<l  covering  other  than  the  natural  soil  is  usually  n^x  i-^^ 


128 


ROANOKE  RIVER 


ROBERT  II. 


from  eighteen  States  and  Territories  and  four  foreign  coun- 
tries in  1894-95.  The  college  offers  a  four  years*  course,  with 
electives.  The  grounds  embrace  about  20  acres.  There  are 
four  brick  buildmffs  for  college  purposes.  One  of  these  is 
set  apart  for  the  library,  which  contains  17,000  Yolumes. 
An  annex  to  this  building  was  erected  in  1894  for  a  refer- 
ence library  and  reading-room.  The  mineralogical  and  geo- 
logical cabinets  contain  about  14,000  specimens,  and  there  is 
also  a  valuable  numismatic  collection.  Two  literary  socie- 
ties and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  are  maintained.   Julius  D.  Dreher. 

Rdanoke  Rlrer :  a  stream  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Dan 
and  Staunton  rivers  at  Clarkesville,  Va,  It  flows  250  miles 
in  an  E.  S.  E.  course  into  Albemarle  Sound  near  Plymouth, 
N.  C.  It  is  a  tidal  stream  to  Halifax  Falls,  N.  C,  *75  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  is  navigable  75  miles  farther  to  Weldon 
by  steamboats,  and  throughout  its  course  by  bateaux.  Its 
valley  is  picturesque  and  fertile. 

Roaring.:  the  noise  made  by  some  horses  while  drawing 
in  the  breath,  especially  while  traveling  fast.  It  is  caused 
by  a  kind  of  wasting  oisease  of  the  muscles  of  the  larynx, 
and  is  incurable.  Nevertheless,  some  of  the  best  horses,  like 
the  great  Eclipse,  have  been  confirmed  roarers.  In  England 
tracffeotomy  and  the  continued  use  of  the  tracheotomy-tube 
have  been  successfully  employed  for  its  relief. 

Roasting :  See  Cookebt  ;  also  Metallubot. 

Roatan :  See  Ruatan. 

Robbery  [from  0.  Pr.  roherte^  deriv.  of  rober,  rob  :  Ital, 
rubare,  from  0.  H.  Germ,  roubon  >  Mod.  Germ,  rauben, 

{)lunder,  rob] :  larceny  from  the  pei-son  of  another  by  vio- 
ence  or  putting  him  in  fear.  The  force  or  fear  must  pre- 
cede or  accompany  the  larceny.  Hence  it  is  not  robbery  to 
snatch  from  tne  hand  of  another  and  carry  away  his  purse, 
or  stealthily  to  take  it  from  his  pocket  and  then  frighten 
him  from  retaking  it.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  article 
taken  is  so  attached  to  the  person  that  violence  is  necessary 
to  detach  it,  as  where  a  watch-cord  is  broken  in  taking  a 
watch,  or  where  an  earring  is  torn  from  the  ear,  or  if  the 
owner  surrenders  the  property  because  put  in  fear  by  the 
taker,  robbery  is  committed.  The  fear  need  not  be  of  injury 
to  the  body  of  the  person  robbed.  Fear  of  injury  to  that 
which  he  has  a  right  to  defend  by  force,  as  his  child  or  his 
property,  will  suffice.    It  has  been  held  that  a  threat  to  in- 

iure  another's  character  in  order  to  induce  him  to  surrender 
lis  property  is  a  sufficient  putting  in  fear.  Other  decisions 
hold  that  the  threat  of  injury  to  character  must  consist  in 
charging  the  victim  with  unnatural  crime.  Britt  vs.  67a/e, 
7  Humpnrey  (Tenn.)  45. 

The  courts  have  given  to  "  the  person  "  an  extended  mean- 
ing in  the  definition  of  robbery.  Whenever  the  stolen 
property  is  so  in  the  possession  or  under  the  control  of  an 
individual  that  violence  or  putting  in  fear  is  the  means  used 
by  the  thief  to  secure  it,  the  taking  is  from  the  person.  Ac- 
cordingly, a  thief  commits  robbery  when  he  binds  the  owner 
in  one  room  of  his  house  and  frightens  him  into  telling 
where  property  is  to  be  found  in  another  part  of  the  build- 
ing.    6taie  vs.  Calhoun,  73  Iowa  432. 

Robbery  was  a  capital  felony  at  common  law.  It  is  pun- 
ishable in  Great  Britain  by  jJenal  servitude.  In  many  of 
the  U.  S.  it  has  been  defined  by  statute  and  divided  into 
degrees,  punishable  by  imprisonment  for  periods  of  varying 
length.    See  Labceny.  Francis  M.  Burdick. 

RoVbIa,  LucA,  della:  sculptor;  b.  in  Florence,  Italy, 
about  1399 ;  at  first  a  goldsmith,  he  soon  devoted  himself  to 
larger  work  in  bronze  and  marble.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he 
went  to  Rimini,  where  he  sculptured  some  fine  bas-reliefs 
for  the  tomb  of  the  wife  of  Sigismund  Malatesta.  Being 
recalled  to  Florence  by  an  order  to  do  work  for  Santa  Maria 
del  Fiore,  he  executed  six  compositions  for  the  campanile. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  was  further  commissioned  to  de- 
sign the  marble  ornament  of  one  of  the  organs  of  the  cathe- 
dral, having  Donatello  in  competition  with  him.  Luca's  de- 
sign was  considered  the  finer,  although  neither  was  executed ; 
but  the  bronze  door  of  the  sacristy  beneath  this  organ  was 
intrusted  to  him,  for  which  he  modeled  ten  figures  and 
many  lovely  heads  and  other  ornaments.  After  these  works 
he  gave  up  bronze  and  modeled  in  clay,  having  discovered  a 
glaze  that  protected  his  work  from  atmospheric  injury.  The 
first  of  his  decorations  in  this  medium  are  in  Santa  Maria 
del  Fiore,  in  the  arch  over  his  own  bronze  door,  as  well  as 
over  the  arch  of  the  sacristy,  as  also  a  Resurrection  of  mar- 
velous lieauty,  now  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Florence. 
Luca  afterward  found  out  how  to  give  color  to  his  ware.    His 


first  experiment  in  the  colored  glaze  was  in  Or  San  Mi(*h<  I«\ 
and  this  reminds  one  of  maiolica  in  its  brilliancy.  TIh- 
fame  of  this  new  decorative  work  soon  spread  through  Itaiv 
and  over  Europe,  and  his  orders  were  innumerable — b<>t  h  i*  >r 
large  panels  for  the  inner  decoration  of  churches  as  wt*Il  a> 
for  outer  walls  above  doorways,  etc.  His  works  aboinul  in 
Tuscany.  His  brothers  Ottaviano  and  Agostino,  who  wrn- 
his  pupils,  helped  him  in  the  production  of  these  works,  and 
continued  them  after  his  death  (in  1482).  A2n>REA  dli.la 
RoBBiA,  nephew  of  the  famous  Luca  and  son  of  his  brother 
Mark,  was  bom  in  Florence  about  1436.  He  showed  jrn-at 
artistic  capabilities  from  an  early  age.  After  havings  »h«>wn 
his  skill  in  the  marble  decorations  of  the  chapel  of  Santn 
Maria  delle  Grazie,  outside  Arezzo,  he  devotea  himself  to 
producing  colored  reliefs  in  terra-cotta  for  Santa  Maria  <lcll«' 
Grazie,  for  the  Cathedral  of  Arezzo,  and  for  the  In^^ia  of 
the  Hospital  of  the  Innocents  in  Florence,  besides  inn<h 
other  work.  He  died  in  1525. — His  sons,  Giovanni,  Lit  a, 
and  GiROLAMO,  also  worked  in  their  father^s  manner.  Al- 
thoujgh  the  elder  Luca,  as  the  founder  of  the  art,  enjoys  a 
special  prestige  among  the  Robbias,  Andrea  undoubtedly 
was  the  most  talented.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Robbins,  Chandler,  D.  D.  :  clergyman ;  b.  at  Lvnn.  Mas*?.. 
Feb.  14, 1810;  graduated  at  Harvard  1829,  and  became  }m^- 
tor  of  the  Second  church  (Unitarian)  at  Boston  1833,  whi<  h 
position  he  long  retained.  He  was  the  author  of  many  ad- 
dresses, sermons,  and  occasional  publications:  of  a  Hi'^fonf 
of  the  Second  Church  (1852) ;  of  idemoirs  of  Maria  E.  CMupi» 
(1858)  and  William  Appleton  (1863);  and  one  of  the  editor^ 
of  i\i^ Proceedings  of  tne  Massachusetts  Historical  Sotieiy. 
of  which  he  was  an  active  member.  D.  at  Weston,  Ma*»<.. 
Sept.  11,  1882.  For  biographical  sketch,  see  Rev.  O.  B. 
Frothingham's  Boston  Unitarianism  (1890). 

Revised  by  J.  W.  Chadwhtc. 

Robert  I.  (King  of  Scotland) :  See  Bruck,  Robert. 

Robert  II. :  King  of  Scotland;  founder  of  the  Stuart 
dynasty ;  b.  in  Scotland,  Mar.  2, 1816;  son  of  Lord  Walter 
Stewart,  by  Marjory,  daughter  of  Robert  Bruce ;  fought  at 
the  battle  of  Halidon  Hill  (1338);  became  joint  regent  with 
the  Eari  of  Murray  1334,  and  sole  regent  1338-41,  duriim 
the  minority  and  absence  in  France  of  his  uncle.  King 
David  II.;  was  again  regent  with  the  Earl  of  March  from 
the  capture  of  the  king  at  the  battle  of  Nevill's  Cross  Oct., 
1346-57 ;  opposed  a  successful  resistance  to  the  project  of 
imposing  Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  upon  Scotlana  as  kintr. 
ana  renewed  his  oath  of  fealty  to  David  II.  1363 ;  wa.s  im- 
prisoned 1363-69;  declared  king  after  the  death  of  Daviil 
Feb.,  1371 ;  was  crowned  at  Scone  Mar.  26, 1371 ;  conduct «m1 
two  wars  with  Richard  II.  of  England,  in  the  second  of 
which  the  successful  forays  of  Richard  II.  and  the  Duke  of 
Lancaster  into  Scotland  took  place.  These  were  avengvd 
in  1388  by  a  successful  invasion  of  England  by  two  arnii»'<. 
one  of  which,  commanded  by  James,  Earl  of  Douglas,  fought 
and  won  the  celebrated  battle  of  Otterburn  (or  Chevy  Cha*-!) 
July  21,  1388,  but  lost  its  leader.  The  kin^om  suffen-d 
much  from  the  border  wars  and  from  the  disorders  of  the 
turbulent  barons.    D.  at  Dundonald  Castle,  Mav  13,  1890. 

Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Robert  III.:  King  of  Scotland;  son  of  Robert  11.  liv 
his  first  wife,  Elizabeth  Mure  of  Rowallan  ;  b.  in  Scotlaitd 
about  1340 ;  was  first  known  as  John  Stuart,  Earl  of  Car- 
rick  ;  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1390 ;  renewed  the  war 
with  England  1399;  was  an  imbecile  ruler  and  left  the  a<l- 
ministration  in  the  hands  of  his  ambitious  and  unscnipuluus 
brother,  Robert  Stuart,  Earl  of  Menteith,  by  whom  th<»  hnr 
to  the  throne,  David,  Duke  of  Rothesay,  was' imprisonetl  and 
starved  to  death  in  Falkland  Castle  1402.  In  1400  occurrtMi 
the  invasion  of  Scotland  bv  Henry  IV.  of  England  an<l  ihr 
retaliatory  expedition  of  the  Scots  resulted  in  their  terriMr 
defeat  at  Homildon  Hill  1402.  Robert  sent  his  surviviiiL' 
son.  Prince  James,  to  France  for  safety  against  the  desijfiis  of 
Menteith,  and  became  the  victim  of  incurable  melancholy  on 
learning  the  imprisonment  of  his  son  by  the  English,  Mav, 
1405.    D.  at  Rothesay,  Bute,  in  1406. 

Robert  II.,  sumamed  The  Devil  :  Duke  of  Normandy :  ««<>n 
of  Richard  the  Good  ;  succeeded  his  brother  Richard  in  U>-Js. 
He  humiliated  his  vassals  and  kept  order  in  his  realm  ;  con- 
quered districts  from  his  neighbors  and  regulated  his  fron- 
tiei-s;  supported  Count  Baldwin  IV.  of  Flanders  against  h'^i 
sons,  King  Henry  1.  of  France  against  his  mother,  an*!  hi-  \ 
nephews,  Alfred  and  Edwnrtl  of  England. against  Canuto  of 
Denmark;   made  Normandy  the  most  powerful  state    in 


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130 


ROBERTS 


ROBESPIERRE 


sylvania,  he  was  appointed  to  important  churches  in  Balti- 
more, Philadelphia,  etc.,  and  in  1816  was  elected  bishop.  Ue 
immediately  returned  to  Western  Pennsylvania  and  thence 
removed  to  Indiana,  then  the  far  West.  Ue  did  much  for 
Western  missions,  and  the  Indians  called  him  "  the  grand- 
father of  all  the  missionaries."  D.  in  Lawrence  co.,  Ind., 
Mar.  26,  1843.  Revised  by  A.  Osbork. 

Roberts,  Sir  William,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  :  clinician ;  b.  in 
Anglesea,  Wales.  Mar.  18,  1830 ;  graduated  M.  D.  London 
University  1854 :  was  physician  to  the  Manchester  Royal  In- 
firmary 1855  to  1886,  and  Professor  of  Clinical  Medicine  at 
the  Victoria  University  from  1876  to  1886.  He  practiced  his 
profession  in  Manchester  from  1885  to  1889,  removing  to 
London  in  the  latter  year.  His  more  important  publica- 
tions are  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Urifiary  and  Renal  Dis- 
eases (London,  1865 ;  4th  ed.  1885) ;  Lectures  on  Dietetics 
and  Dyspepsia  (London,  1885 ;  2d  ed.  1886) ;  On  the  Chem- 
istry and  Therapeutics  of  Uric  Acid,  Oravel,  atid  Gout 
(London,  1892).  S.  T.  Aemstrono. 

Roberts,  Willum  Charles,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  minister, 
educator,  and  secretarv ;  b.  at  Galltmai,  Canliganshire, 
South  Wales,  Sept.  23,  1832  ;  educated  at  Princeton  College 
and  Theological  Seminary  ;  was  pastor  of  the  First  Presby- 
t-erian  church,  Wilmington,  Del.,  1858-61 ;  of  the  First 
Presbvterian  church,  Columbus,  0.,  1861-64;  copastor  in 
the  Second  church,  Elizabeth,  X.  J.,  1864-66 ;  pastor  of  the 
Westminster  church,  organized  from  the  Second  church 
under  his  leadership,  1866-80 ;  corresponding  secretary  of 
the  board  of  home  missions  1880-86;  president  of  Lake  Forest 
University  1886^92 ;  and  was  reappointed  corresponding  sec- 
retary of  the  board  of  home  missions  in  1802.  Dr.  Roberts 
was  chairman  of  the  committee  that  established  Wooster 
University,  Ohio;  member  of  the  first  Pan- Presbvterian 
council,  Edinburgh,  1877,  and  of  the  third,  Belfast,  188i 
where  he  read  a  paper  on  American  colleges ;  moderator  of  the 
General  Assemoly,  New  York,  1889,  and  a  member  of  the 
committee  for  the  revision  of  the  Confession  of  Faith.  He 
is  the  author  of  a  series  of  letters  on  the  great  preachers  of 
Wales,  the  translator  of  the  Shorter  Catechism  into  Welsh, 
and  has  published  occasional  sermons.  C.  K.  Hoyt. 

Roberts,  William  Henry,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. :  minister  and 
professor ;  b.  at  Holyhead,  Wales,  Jan.  8, 1844 ;  was  educated 
at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  and  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary;  statistical  clerk  in  the  U.  S.  Treasury 
Department  1863-65 ;  assistant  librarian  of  Congress  1866- 
72 ;  pastor  at  Cranford,  N.  J.,  1873-77 ;  librarian  of  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  1877-86 ;  Professor  of  Practical  The- 
ology in  Lane  Seminary  1886-93 ;  permanent  clerk  of  the 
General  Assembly  1880-^4,  and  since  1884  has  been  statod 
clerk  of  the  same  body.  Dr.  Roberts  was  elected  American 
secretary  of  the  Pan-Presbyterian  council,  London,  1888. 
He  helped  prepare  the  general  catalogue  of  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  1881,  and  the  catalogue  of  the  library  in 
the  same  institution  18i86.  He  has  published  Inaugural  Ad- 
dress, Lane  Seminary  (1886);  History  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America  (1888) ;  Ecclesias- 
tical Status  of  Theological  Seminaries  (1892) ;  sermons  and 
magazine  articles.  C.  K.  Hoyt. 

Roberts  of  Kandahar,  Frederick  Sleigh  Roberts, 
Baron:  British  general;  b.  in  Cawnpur,  India,  Sept.  80, 
1832  ;  educated  at  Eton,  Sandhurst,  and  Addiscombe ;  en- 
tered the  Bengal  artillery  1851 ;  promoted  through  various 
grades  to  that  of  lieutenant-general  1883 ;  served  with  great 
distinction  in  the  Indian  mutiny  campaign,  the  Abyssinian 
campaign,  and  the  Afghan  campaigns:  commander- in -chiof 
in  India  1885-93.  His  most  noted  exploit  is  the  relief  of 
Kandahar  in  the  summer  of  1880.  He  was  created  a  baronet 
in  1881,  and  Baron  Roberts  of  Kandahar,  Jan.,  1892.  The 
soldiers  nicknamed  him  Bobs  Bahadur,  the  latter  word  mean- 
ing hero  or  champion.  C.  H.  T. 

Robertson,  Frederick  William  :  clergyman ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, England,  Feb.  3,  1816 ;  abnndouod  the  plan  he  had 
formed  of  entering  the  anny:  entered  Bra'?<»n(>se  Colloire, 
Oxford,  IKH.aiid  grwluatod  1840;  was  sett  KmI  in  Winchester 
1840-42,  in  Cheltenham  1H42-47.  in  Oxford  1847,  going  that 
y«'ar  to  Brighton,  where  he  diiMl  An;:.  15,  1853.  Of  his  works, 
there  have  been  fmiilished  SermonA  prenched  at  Trinity 
C/inpe/,  lirifjhtim  (tive  series,  Iit)nd<»n,  1K55-64):  Lfctures 
and  AddiPAteH  on  Litcrnn/  ami  Social  Tapirs  {\Hr^)i  AV- 
jHtsifort/  Lvrtures  on  St.  PaufH  Kpistlvf^  to  the  Corinthinns 
(|M."iJ>) :  and  ^otes  on  Genesis  (1H77).  11  is  fai!io  was  posthu- 
nums,  but  it  is  {>ennaniMit.  His  writings  and  biography 
were  reprinted  in  the  U.  S.  and  widely  read.     He  was  one  of 


the  greatest  and  most  inspiring  of  modem  preachers*.  ait<] 
has  exerted  great  influence  in  liberalizing  religions  thought 
He  was,  however,  more  a  preacher  than  a  theologian,  and  h« 
left  little  in  systematic  form.  He  is  usually,  although  {tr- 
haps  erroneously,  classed  with  Maurice  and  Stanley  as  a 
founder  of  the  modem  Broad  Church  party  in  the  Chun-h 
of  England.  See  his  Life  and  Letters,  edited  by  Stopfonl 
A.  Brooke  (2  vols.,  1865). 

Robertson,  Georqe  Croom:  educator  and  metaphy-vi- 
cian  ;  b.  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  Mar.  10, 1842 ;  educattvl*  at 
Aberdeen,  Berlin,  and  Gottingen  Universities;  becanif  As- 
sistant Professor  in  Greek  at  Aberdeen  in  1864;  Pn)f«"-v.,r 
of  Philosophy  in  University  College,  London,  1866-92  ;  vi  Jis 
editor  of  Mind  1876-91.  D.  in  London,  Sept.  21,  1H1«„>. 
His  principal  writings  are  Hobbes,  in  Blackwood's  Philfh- 
sophxcal  Classics  (1886),  and  several  articles  in  Encyrlop<rihfi 
Britannica  (9th  ed.)  and  in  the  Dictiofiary  of  National 
Biography,  He  aided  Alexander  Bain  in  editing  Grotr^ 
posthumous  work  on  Aristotle  (1872).  See  Philosophical 
Kemaiihs  of  George  Croom  Robertsofi,  with  a  brief  memoir, 
edited  by  Alexander  Bain.  J.  Mark  Bai^uwin. 

Robertson,  James  :  royal  governor  of  New  York ;  b.  in 
Fifeshire,  Scotland,  about  1710 ;  served  as  deputy  quarter- 
mtister-general  in  the  campaigns  against  Louibburg  and 
Ticonderoga  1758-59 ;  was  api)ointed  lieutenant-colonel  (»f 
the  Fifty-fifth  Re^fiment ;  exchanged  into  the  Sixteenth; 
was  stationed  at  New  York  as  barrack-master  176ii-75  ;  Ih?- 
came  notorious  for  his  extortions  and  peculations ;  was  m[>- 
pointed  colonel  1772 ;  went  to  Boston  July,  1775 ;  was  mi.- 
pointed  major-general  Jan.  1, 1776;  commanded  a  briga.h- 
m  the  battle  of  Long  Island ;  went  to  England  1777 ;  wa> 
appointed  royal  governor  of  New  York  1779 ;  took  the  c»arh 
of  office  Mar.  23, 1780;  exerted  himself  with  Gen.  (m>vn. 
to  procure  the  exchange  of  Mai.  Andre ;  became  lieuten- 
ant-general Nov.  20,  1782;  d.  in  England  Mar.  4, 1788. 

Robertson,  James,  D.  D.  :  minister  and  professor ;  b.  at 
Alyth,  Perthshire,  Scotland,  Mar.  2,  1840;  educated  at  the 
Universities  of  Aberdeen  and  St.  Andrews ;  missionary  in 
Hasskeni,  Constantinople,  1862-64;  in  Beyrout.  Syria.  1M*>4- 
75;  minister  of  Mavfield  church,  Edinburgh,  1876^77;  sim-e 
1877  Professor  of  Oriental  Languages  in  the  University  nf 
Glasgow.  Dr.  Robertson  has  published  many  articles'  un 
Eastern  topics  in  various  magazines ;  translated  an<l  editiMi 
Mailers  Outline  of  Hebrew  Syntax  (Glasgow,  1882;  thr»-f 
subsequent  editions^;  published  Introduction  to  the  I*tnta^ 
teuch  in  Virtue's  New  Illustrated  Bible,  republisheil  in 
Boole  by  Book  (London,  1892) ;  T?ie  Early  Religion  of  Jh- 
rael,  Baird  lectures,  1889  (Edinburgh,  1892;  three  latt-r 
editions);  The  Old  Testament  and  its  Contents,  in  iiutld 
and  Bible  Class  Text-books  (Edinburgh,  1893) ;  and  Hie 
Psalms  :  their  Place  in  the  History  and  Religion  of  IsrtuL 
Croall  lectures,  1894  (Edinburgh,  1895).  C.  K.  IIoyt, 

Robertson,  Thomas  William  :  actor  and  dramatist :  b. 
in  England,  Jan.  9,  1829;  became  an  actor  in  a  tra\flinL' 
company  of  which  his  father  was  manager;  i)ro<luc<-<l  a 
play,  A  Night^s  Adventure,  in  1851 ;  settl^  at  London  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature  1860,  and  wrote  several  \«ry 
successful  dramas,  including  David  6^am>Jfc  (1864);  Sari^'v 
(1865) ;  Ours  (1866) ;  Caste  and  Play  (1868) ;  Scliool  (1S61M  : 
M.  P,  (1870) ;  and  Dreams  (1869).  D.  in  London,  Feb.  3. 
1871.  See  his  Principal  Dramatic  Works  (2  vols.,  Lon<h>n. 
1889). 

Robertson,  William,  D. D. :  historian ;  b.  at  Borthwiik, 
near  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  Sept.  19,  1721 ;  graduati'd  at 
the  Universitv  of  Edinburgh  1741 ;  became  a  minist«»r  <»f 
the  Scottish  Church  at  Gladsmuir  1743;  joint  minister  of 
Greyfriars  church,  Minburgh,  1759;  principal  of  the  Uni- 
versity  of  P^inburgh  1762,  and  was  appointe<l  histi>rit.c- 
rapher  of  Scotland  1764.  D.  at  Grange  lloiiso,  near  Kdin- 
burgh.  J]me  11,  1793.  Author  of  b,  History  of  Scotland  dur- 
ing the  Reigns  of  Mary  and  James  VI,  (2  vols.,  17.>S-.">!««; 
History  of  the  Jieign  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  {'A  v«'!-.. 
1769);  a  Hist  on/  of  America  (2  vols.,  1777);  and  an  Hi^f'"-- 
ical  Disquisition  concerning  the  Knowledge  which  the  An- 
cients had  of  /n</i'a  (1791).  During  his  lifetime  and  hi-j 
afterward  his  name  was  ranked  with  those  of  Gibbon  ntil 
Hume,  and  his  c<miplete  Works  have  been  often  reprint*  <!. 
but  are  now  little  read.  His  Life  was  written  by  DuumI'I 
Stewart  (1801)  and  by  Lord  Brougham,  who  was  a  fafu;i\ 
connection. 

Robespierre,  ro'b^s-pi-fir',  Maximilien  Marie  Isidorf 
revolutionist ;  b.  at  Arras,  France,  May  6,  1758.    Losing  hi> 


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182 


KOBINSON 


BoblnBon,  Charles  Setmoub,  D.  D.,  LL.D.:  clergyman 
and  hymnologist ;  b.  at  Bennington,  Vt,  Mar.  81,  1829; 
educated  at  Williams  College  and  Union  and  Princeton 
Seminaries ;  {Histor  of  the  Presbyterian  churches — Park,  in 
Troy,  N.  Y.,  1855-60;  First,  in  Brooklyn,  1860-68;  of  the 
American  chapel  in  Paris  1868-70 ;  Madison  Avenue  Pres- 
byterian church.  New  York,  1870-87;  Thirteenth  Street 
1890-92 ;  since  1892  of  the  New  York  Presbyterian  church, 
New  York.  Dr.  Robinson  has  published  Songs  of  the  Church 
(New  York.  1862};  Sat^gs  of  the  Sanctuary  (1865);  Songe 
f&r  Christian  Worship  (1S69)  \  Short  Studies  for  Sunday- 
school  Teachers  (1868) ;  Chapel  Songs  (1872) ;  Bethel  and 
Pknuel  (1878) ;  Church  Work  (1878) ;  Calvary  Songs  for 
Sunday-schools  {1S75);  Psalms  and  Hymns  (IblS) ;  Spirit- 
ual Songs  (1878) ;  Studies  in  the  New  Testament  (1880) ; 
Spiritual  Songs  for  Social  Worship  (1881] ;  Smritucd  Songs 
for  Sunday-schools  (1881);  Studies  of  Neglected  Texts 
(1883);  Laudes  Domini  (1884);  Sermons  in  Songs  (1885); 
Sabbath  Evening  Sermons  (1886) ;  Simon  Peter :  Early  Life 
and  Times  (1887) ;  The  Pharaohs  of  the  Bondage  and  JEx- 
odus  (1887);  Studies  in  Mark's  Gospel  (1888);  Laudes 
Domini  for  the  Sunday-school  (1888) ;  Laudes  Domini  for 
the  Prayer  Meetina  (1889);  From  Samuel  to  Solomon  (1889); 
Studies  in  Luke^s  Gospel  (2  vols.,  1889);  New  Laudes 
Domini  (1892);  Annotations  upon  Popular  Hymns  (1893); 
Simon  Peter:  Later  Life  and  Labors  (1894),  C.  K.  Hoyt. 

Bobinson,  Edward,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  biblical  scholar ;  b. 
at  Southington,  Conn.,  Apr.  10, 1794 ;  graduated  at  Hamil- 
ton College  1816;  was  tutor  there  1817-18;  remained  in 
Clinton,  engaged  in  classical  studies,  till  the  autumn  of  1821, 
when  he  went  to  Andover,  Mass.,  to  publish  an  edition  of 
eleven  books  of  the  Iliad  (the  first  nine,  the  18th,  and  the 
22d) ;  was  instructor  in  Hebrew  in  Andover  Seminary  1823- 
26,  under  Prof.  Stuart,  whom  he  assisted  in  preparing  the 
second  edition  (1823)  of  his  Hebrew  Grammar,  publishing 
meanwhile  (1825)  his  translation  of  Wahl's  Clauis  Philo- 
logica  Novi  Testamenti ;  studied  in  Europe,  mostly  at  Halle 
and  Berlin,  1826-30;  in  1828  married,  as  his  second  wife, 
Therese  Albertine  Luise  von  Jakob,  daughter  of  a  distin- 
guished professor  at  Halle  (see  Kobinson,  Therese)  ;  returned 
to  the  U.  S.,  and  was  professor  extraordinary  at  Andover 
18^^0-33 ;  broke  down  in  health,  and  resided  in  Boston  1833- 
87;  was  professor  in  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New 
York,  from  1837  till  his  death  Jan.  27,  1863.  In  1838, 
and  again  in  1852,  he  traveled  in  Palestine  with  Rev.  Eli 
Smith,  the  learned  missi<mary.  Besides  the  works  already 
mentioned,  he  published  Taylor's  Calmet  (1832) ;  A  Diction- 
ary of  the  Bible  for  the  use  of  Schools  cmd  Young  Perso'ns 
(lfe3) ;  Buttman'*s  Greek  Grammar  (1833 ;  2d  ed.  1839 ;  3d 
ed.  1851);  Gesenius's  Hebrew  Lexicon  (1836:  5th  ed.  1854) ; 
Greek  and  English  Lexicon  of  the  New  Testament  (1836 ; 
2rl  ed.  1847);  Greek  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  (1845;  2d  ed. 
1851);  English  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  (1846);  Memoir  of 
the  Rev.  William  Bobinson  (1859).  In  1831  he  founded  The 
Biblical  Repository,  which  he  edited  for  four  years,  and  in 
1843  the  Bibliotheca  Sa^ra,  for  which  he  continued  to  write 
till  1855.  His  greatest  work  was  Biblical  Researches  (1841, 
8  vol8. ;  compressed  into  two,  and  a  third  added  1856),  for 
which,  in  1842,  he  received  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society.  He  also  received  the  degree  of  D.  JD., 
previously  (1831)  conferred  by  Dartmouth  College,  from  the 
University  of  Halle  in  1842,  and  that  of  LL.  D.  from  Yale 
College  in  1844.  His  Physical  Geography  of  the  Holt/  Land 
was  edited  by  Mrs.  Robinson  in  1864,  and  published  m  1865. 
See  The  Life,  Writ ings,  and  Character  of  Edward  Robinson, 
by  R.  D.  Hitchcock  (New  York,  1863). 

Robinson,  Sir  Frederick  Phillipse  :  soldier;  son  of  Col. 
Beverley  Robinson ;  b.  on  the  Phillipse  Manor,  New  York,  in 
Sept.,  1763 ;  became  an  ensign  in  his  father's  Loyal  Ameri- 
can Regiment  Feb.,  1777 ;  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner 
at  Stony  Point ;  served  in  the  West  Indies,  and  with  ^reat 
distinction  under  Wellington  in  the  Peninsular  war,  rising 
to  be  general ;  was  commander-in-c!iief  of  the  British  forces 
in  Canada  1812;  participated  in  the  campaign  on  Lake 
Champlain  Sept.,  1814;  was  knighted  1815;  was  governor 
of  Upper  Canada  1815-16;  removed  to  the  West  Indies, 
where  ne  commanded  the  forces ;  became  full  general  1841. 
D.  at  Brighton,  England,  Jan.  1,  1852. 

Robinson,  Henry  Crabb  :  -lawver  and  man  of  letters ;  b. 
at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  England,  May  13, 1775;  was  articled 
to  a  lawyer  at  Colchester,  and  afterward  in  London ;  studied 
several  years  (1800-05)  at  Jena  and  other  German  universi- 
ties, where  he  acquired  a  very  thorough  knowledge  of  mod- 


em German  literature  and  philosophr ;  enjoyed  the  intimate 
friendship  of  Goethe,  Wieland,  Schiller,  the  Schlegel»,  and 
other  emment  people ;  furnished  data  to  Madame  de  Sta*'-! 
for  her  work  on  Germany ;  was  correspondent  of  774«  Timm 
in  Spain  at  the  beginning  of  the  Peninsular  war  lb08-(/J ; 
was  engaged  on  his  return  to  London  as  a  regular  writtT 
for  that  journal ;  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Middle  IVm- 
ple  1818 ;  became  a  highly  successful  and  prosperous  lawyer 
on  the  Norfolk  circuit,  from  which  he  retired  with  a  fortune 
in  1828,  and  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  devoted  hims<.^If  to 
society  and  literary  leisure,  being  prominently  known  as  the 
intimate  friend  of  Wordsworth,  Blake,  Clarkson,  Flax  man. 
Lamb,  Coleridge,  Southey,  and  their  compeers.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  members  of  the  Athenaeum  Cluo,  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  University  College,  London,  and  of  the  Flaxman  (ial- 
lery,  to  which  latter  institution  he  left  liberal  beauesta.  1). 
in  London,  Feb.  5, 1867.  He  published  little,  but  left  a  oopi- 
otis  Diary  and  Correspondence,  from  which  interesting  st»K-c- 
tions  were  published  m  1860.        Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Bobinson,  John  :  clergyman ;  b.  in  England,  probably  in 
Lincolnshire,  1575;  entered  Cambridge  University  15»2; 
pursued  his  studies  in  Corpus  Christi  College,  and  there  \h^ 
came  attached  to  Puritan  doctrines ;  took  preliminary  onit  p* 
in  the  Church  of  England;  obtained  a  bKsnefice  near  GrtHt 
Yarmouth,  Norfolk  ;  was  suspended  by  thebishop  for  nmj- 
conformity  in  ecclesiastical  ceremonies  1602;  grathered  an 
Independent  congregation  at  Norwich;  formally  separate •<! 
from  the  Church  of  England  1604;  resigned  his  felJowhlnp 
at  Cambridge ;  became  assistant,  and  soon  after  sole,  pa>i<  r 
of  a  Dissenting  congregation  (1604)  gathered  at  S('rrK>l>\, 
Nottinghamshire  (near  the  borders  of  Yorkshire  and  Lin- 
colnshire), where  the  Brewsters,  Bradfords,  and  Mort<.Ms 
were  among  his  flock ;  suffered  a  persecution  which  )<•<! 
many  of  his  congregation  to  emigrate  with  him  to  Am^t^'^- 
dam,  Holland,  1608;  removed  to  Leyden  1609;  gathtred 
there  a  numerous  church,  constantly  re-enforced  by  arrivals 
from  England ;  attended  lectures  at  the  university,  of  win*  h 
he  afterward  became  a  member;  held  a  public  discn»i«»i«»n 
with  the  Dutch  professor  Episcopius,  the  successor  of  A  r- 
minius,  upon  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  predestination,  161:? : 
entered  into  the  plans  for  colonization  in  New  England 
about  1617;  was  active  in  promoting  the  negotiations 
through  Cushman,  Carver,  and  Brewster,  with  the  Plynmut  [i 
Company  of  capitalists;  dismissed  a  portion  of  his'c«»ni:p- 
gation  with  a  memorable  sermon  on  their  embarkation  f<>r 
America  July  22, 1620,  intending  to  follow  them  the  mxt 
year;  but  before  the  negotiations  were  completed  he  difd  «t 
Leyden  about  Mar.  1, 1625.  He  was  buried  in  St.  P^•t<T*^ 
church,  the  members  of  the  university  and  the  ministfrv  of 
the  city  attending  his  funeral.  Among  his  numeroii'* « i»r.- 
troversial  publications  were  A  Justification  of  Sepunttum 
(1610) ;  Of  Religious  Communiofi  (1614) ;  Apologia  Jutifa  1 1 
N ecessaria  {IQld);  A  Defense  of  the  Doctrine  propffumitd 
by  the  Synod  of  Dort  (1624);  Essays  or  Ohseriyttiofm,  Di- 
vine or  Moral  (1628);  A  Treatise  of  the  Lawfulness  of  I  fear- 
ing of  the  Ministers  in  the  Church  of  England  {l^U):  and 
A7i  Apology  for  Certain  Christians  no  less  contumfHou^/y 
than  commonly  called  Brownists  or  Barrottists.  nis<-<.ni- 
plete  Works,  with  a  memoir,  appeared  in  London  and  !>«  >^ 
ton  in  8  vols.,  1851.  In  1891  a  bronze  tablet  to  his  m«'rn- 
ory,  placed  on  an  outer  wall  of  St.  Peter's,  was  dedicatct)  l«y 
representatives  of  the  National  Council  of  the  Congregatinnal 
Churches  of  the  U.  S.  Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisher, 

Robinson,  John  Cleveland :  soldier:  b.at  Binghamton, 
N.  Y.,  Apr.  10,  1817 ;  entered  the  U.  S.  Military  At-adrmy 
1885,  but  without  graduating  began  the  study  of  law  in 
1838.  In  1839,  however,  he  accepted  a  second  lientenaiu  y 
in  the  Fifth  Infantry,  and  served  in  the  war  with  Mexi<  o 
and  in  Florida  against  the  Indians.  In  Sept.,  1861,  he  \*hs» 
api)ointed  colonel  of  the  First  Michigan  Volunteers,  and  m 
Apr.,  1862,  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  serving  in  com- 
mand of  a  brigatie  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  t  ho 
Virginia  peninsular  campaign  of  1862,  at  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run,  Chantilly,  and  Fredericksburg.  At  Geliv«4-  j 
burg  and  in  the  Richmond  campaign  of  1864  he  commainhd  j 
a  division  with  great  bravery,  losing  a  leg  on  the  fourth  diiy 
of  fighting  in  the  latter  campaign,  near  Spottsylvania  C<»urt- 
house,  while  leading  the  advance  of  the  army;  was  mi*-, 
iwinted  brevet  brigtSier-general  and  major-general  for  gnl- 
lantry.  In  1866  he  attained  the  colonelcy  of  the  Forty-tlnrd 
Infantry,  and  in  1869  was  retired  from  active  service'i>n  ili* 
full  rank  of  major-general.  In  1872  he  was  elected  Litu- 
tenant-Governor  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  in  lbl4 


134 


ROBY 


ROCHEFORT 


we  should  know  more  than  we  do  of  what  graphic  art 
18  capable.  The  best  and  best-preserved  specimen  of  his 
historical  or  descriptive  work  is  the  Miracle  of  St,  Mark^ 
in  the  Academy  at  Venice,  which  is  splendid  and  deeply 
satisfying  in  color,  while  full  of  strenuous  action ;  and  if 
its  composition  in  line  and  mass  is  not  altogether  of  the 
highest  order,  it  only  misses  this  excellence  by  a  little. 
Still,  for  many  art  lovers,  such  smaller  and  more  simple 
pictures,  as  the  Death  of  Ahel,  mentioned  above,  or  the  Bac- 
chus and  Ariadne,  or  the  Pallas  defending  Peace  and 
Abundance,  in  the  Anticollegio  of  the  ducal  palace,  or  even 
the  not  uncommon  portraits  of  robed  senators,  are  more 
precious  than  the  lar^e  pictures  of  action. 

Little  is  known  of  the  details  of  this  artist's  life,  for  it 
was  filled  with  hard  work  in  Venice,  which  city  he  seldom 
left.  The  work  in  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco  was  be^n  in 
1660,  and  soon  after  this  time  his  first  paintings  m  the 
ducal  palace  were  undertaken.  After  the  fire  which  de- 
stroyea  half  the  palace  in  1577  he  undertook  other  works 
there,  and  the  San  Rocco  work  was  also  continued  during 
all  those  years.  The  great  Paradise  was  painted  about 
1586.    D.  at  Venice,  May  31,  1594. 

Of  his  numerous  pictures  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned :  In  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco,  eight  large  pictures  on 
the  walls  of  the  lower  hall,  thirteen  on  the  walls  of  the  up- 
per hall,  and  thirteen  on  the  ceiling  of  the  same,  all  of  bib- 
lical subject  except  two  or  three,  which  deal  with  the  legend 
of  St.  Koch  (S.  Rocco);  also,  in  the  Albergo,  The  Cruci- 
fixion and  another  large  picture.  In  the  ducal  palace,  ten 
historical  pictures,  besides  the  great  Parcidise,  on  the  wall  of 
the  Greater  Council,  and,  in  the  smaller  halls  of  the  upper 
story,  fifteen  large  pictures,  mostly  of  Venetian  historical 
and  emblematic  subject  with  several  mythological  subject 
and  two  of  the  Bible  history,  besides  many  portraits.  In 
tlie  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  besides  the  three  already  named, 
there  are  a  Crucifixion  with  the  Three  Marys,  a  Descent 
from  the  Cross,  a  Virgin  and  Child,  each  of  these  having 
portraits  of  Venetian  nobles  introduced,  an  Assitmption  of 
the  \irgin  and  Mary,  and  portraits  of  extraordinary  value. 
In  the  Church  of  Madonna  del  Salute  is  The  Marriage  of 
Cana,  a  noble  work.  In  the  Madonna  dell*  Orto  are  the 
pictures  descril^ed  above  and  three  others,  of  which  the  Last 
Judgment  has  been  much  described  and  commented  on.  In 
the  Carmini,  or  Church  of  the  Carmelite  friars,  is  a  Presenta- 
tion in  the  Temple.  In  S.  Giorgio  Maggiore  are  the  Letst 
Supper,  The  Israelites  gathering  the  Manna,  and  several 
other  important  pictures.  Perhaps  a  dozen  other  churches 
in  Venice  have  works  which  should  be  studied.  Pictures 
of  his  hang  in  the  galleries  of  the  Ufiizi  and  the  Pitti 
Palace  at  Florence,  in  the  British  Museum,  in  the  Old  Pina- 
kothek  at  Munich,  in  the  Louvre,  and  in  the  National  Gal- 
lerv  of  Ijondon. 

Little  has  been  published  about  Robusti  except  the  no- 
tices in  biographical  dictionaries  and  guide-books,  probablv 
because  the  interest  of  his  career  lies  in  his  art  alone.  A 
biography  by  W.  R.  Osier  in  the  Great  Artist  Series  was 
published  in  1879.    See  Janitschek,  Kunsi  und  Kunstler. 

Russell  Stl'rgis. 

Roby,  Henry  John  :  educator:  b.  at  Tam worth,  England, 
Aug.  12, 1830;  graduated  at  Cambridge  1853;  became  fellow 
of  St.  John's  College  1854 ;  was  assistant  tutor  1855-56,  and 
reai)pointed  1860 ;  was  university  examiner  in  law,  classics, 
and  moral  sciences  1859-61 ;  member  of,  and  secretary  to, 
the  local  examination  syndicate  1858-59;  took  a  prominent 

girt  in  urging  university  reform :  was  assistant  master  of 
ulwich  College  1861-65;  Professor  of  Jurisprudence  at 
University  (-ollege,  London,  1866-68;  was  appointed  bv  the 
crown  secretary  to  the  schools  inquiry  commission  bee, 
1864,  to  the  endowed  schools  commission  Aug.,  1869,  and 
was  a  member  of  that  bodv  1H72-75.  He  was  elected  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  for  Ec(  les  Oct.,  1890.  He  edited  the  lie- 
port  of  the  school  commissioners  an<l  the  numerous  volumes 
of  documents  thereto  appended  (Mar.,  1868);  author  of  an 
Elementary  Latin  Grammar  (1862;  2d  ed.  1882);  and  a 
valuable  Grammar  of  the  Latin  Language,  from  Plautns  to 
Suetonius  (2  vols.,  1871-74;  5th  ed.  1887);  Introduction  to 
Study  of  Justinian's  Digest  (1H84). 

Revised  by  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Boca,  Julio  A. :  general  and  stntesuian;  b.  at  Tuciiman, 
Argentine  Republic.  Julv,  1843.  He  sUuUimI  in  tlie  military 
school  at  Parand,  joined  the  army,  and  hiH'Jime  general  in 
1874.  He  was  Minister  of  War  iimlor  President  Avcllanefla 
1878-80,  and  in  this  capacity  hemlod  the  expedition  by  which 


the  Indians  of  Patagonia  were  finally  reduced  to  pubjeotion. 
Succeeding  Avellaneda,  he  was  president  Oct  12,  18^0,  to 
Oct.  12,  1886.  Specie  payments  were  suspended  in  1Kn\ 
marking  the  beginning  of  the  ^reat  Argentine  crisis  which 
soon  after  convulsed  the  financial  world.  U.  H.  S. 

Rocafuerte,  rd-kiQi-fwfir'td,  Vicente:  statesman;  b.  at 
Guayaquil,  Ecuador,  May  3,  1783.  He  wa«  educated  in 
France  and  England,  where  he  derived  republican  U\vii% 
from  Miranda,  £)livar,  and  their  associates.  In  1812  he  wns 
elected  deputy  for  Guayaquil  to  the  Spanish  Cortes.  After 
his  country  became  a  part  of  Colombia  he  held  diplomatic 
positions  m  North  America  and  Europe,  and  he  resided 
several  years  in  Mexico,  where  he  was  a  prominent  joiimali>t. 
Returning  to  Guayaquil  in  1833  he  was  elected  to  congress, 
but  his  liberal  opinions  caused  him  to  be  exiled.  The  sainu 
year  the  liberals  revolted  at  Guayaquil  and  proclaime<l  him 
supreme  chief,  but  he  was  defeated  and  captured  by  Floret. 
The  latter  magnanimously  offered  to  co-operate  with  him  in 
the  reorganization  of  the  republic,  and  under  this  arran^ri'- 
ment  Rocafuerte  was  president  from  1835  to  1839.  Tit  is 
period  was  the  most  prosperous  in  the  history  of  Ecuador, 
and  the  president  won  universal  respect.  Subsequently  he 
held  various  civil  and  diplomatic  positions.  He  published 
many  works  on  political  subjects.  Rocafuerte  was  unriut*^ 
tionably  the  greatest  statesman  of  Ecuador.  D.  at  Lima, 
Peru,  May  16, 1847.  Herbebt  H.  Smith. 

Roc'ambole  [=  Fr.,  from  Germ.  rockenboUe,  rocambole, 
liter.,  rye-bulb ;  so  called  because  it  grows  among  rye] :  I  he 
Allium  scorodoprasum,  a  plant  of  the  garlic  family,  nnuh 
resembling  garlic,  but  larger  and  milder.  It  is  cultivated 
in  European  kitchen-gardens,  and  is  a  native  of  northern 
regions. 

Bochambean,  rd'shiiaii'bo',  Jean  Baftiste  Doxatifn  de 
ViMEUE,  Count  de:  marshal  of  France;  b.  at  Vendorue. 
France,  July  1,  1725;  entered  the  army  1742;  was  (ii-<- 
tinguished  m  the  campaigns  of  the  Seven  Years'  war; 
was  made  lieutenant-general  Mar.  1, 1780;  commanded  the 
French  forces  in  the  U.  S.  during  the  war  of  independence 
1780-82  ;  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  campaign  of  York- 
town  1781 ;  became  governor  of  Picardy  1783 ;  was  nuule 
marshal  1791 ;  commanded  the  Army  of  the  North  fri»m 
Mar.  to  June,  1792;  was  imprisoned  during  the  Reign  of 
Terror,  and  escaped  the  guillotine  only  through  the  deaMi 
of  Robespierre :  was  appointed  by  Napoleon,  when  Fir-t 
Consul,  grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  (1804).  D.  at 
Thore,  May  10, 1807.  His  MSmoires  were  published  in  1N09, 
and  translated  into  English  in  1838. 

Roeha  Pitta,  SebastiIo,  da:  author;  b.  at  Bahia,  Bm.^il, 
May  3, 1660;  educated  at  Bahia  and  at  Coimbra,  in  Por- 
tugal, he  married  early  and  settled  on  his  property,  living  a 
life  of  studious  leisure.  He  wrote  there  some'  nie<li(KTe 
verse  and  a  now  forgotten  romance.  Late  in  life  ho  d»^ 
termined  to  write  a  history  of  Brazil,  and  undertook  the 
most  extensive  preparations  for  the  task.  He  even  went  to 
Lisbon  in  searcn  of  documents.  In  1728  he  completed  the 
work,  calling  it  Historia  da  America  portugueza  desde  o 
seu  descobrimento  at4  o  anno  1724.  (Lisbon,  1730).  His  suc- 
cess was  great,  and  brought  him  many  honors.  His  lu<^t 
vears  were  spent  in  retirement  on  his  estates  near  Caehoeira, 
brazil.  D.  Nov.  3, 1738.  His  book  was  the  first  real  history 
of  Brazil,  and  though  he  was  often  over-credulous  in  his  use 
of  documents,  he  gathered  a  ya.st  mass  of  material  for  his 
successors.  A,  R.  Marsh. 

Rochdale:  town;  in  Lancashire, England ;  on  both  sidc^ 
of  the  Roch  :  11  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Manchester  (see  map  ««f 
England,  ref.  7-G).    St.  Chad's  parish  church  (twelfth  cen- 
tury, restored  1885)  is  a  Peri)endicular  building,  approacluul 
by  a  flight  of  122  steps.    The  town-hall  (186^-71)  is  a  tine 
example  of  the  Gothic  style.    Rochdale  has  larsre  manufac- 
tures of  woolen  goods,  such  as  baize,  flannels,  blankets,  and 
kerseys,  cotton  goods,  especially  calicoes,  and  iron  ami  st#  A    i 
ware.    It  is  distinguished  as  having  made  the  first  sucres^ 
ful  attempt  at  Co-operation  {q,  f.).    It  returns  one  mom-    i 
her  to  parliament.    Pop.  of  parliamentary  borough  (l^t^)    i 
71,401. 

Rochefort  rosh'for',  or  Roohefort-snr-Mer,  -sQr-mAr' 

(anc.  Rupifnrtium) :  town  ;  in  the  department  of  ChnnTiU.- 
Inforiourc,  Fratico;  on  the  right  l>ank  of  the  Charentf.  l»    : 
niilos  from  its  nu)uth.     It  has  a  port  and  a  naval  arsenjil,  k 
surrounded  by  walls  and  ramimrts  planted  with  tre«'S.  ami  i<    | 
(loftMided  by  forts  at  the  entrance  into  the  river  (see  map  of    j 
France,  ref!  6-D).    Outside  is  a  roadstead  protected  by  the   , 


136 


ROCHESTER 


ROCKET 


(see  Rochester,  Unitersitt  of)  has  taken  high  rank  among 
the  colleges  of  the  U.  S.  There  is  also  a  flourishing  Baotist 
Theological  Seminary  which  maintains  a  German  as  well  as 
an  English  department.  The  Western  New  York  Institute 
for  Deaf  Mutes  has  achieved  a  worldwide  reputation  by 
its  improved  methods  of  instruction;  and  the  Mechanics' 
Institute  is  placing  technical  instruction  and  familiarity 
with  the  homelier  arts  of  life  within  reach  of  the  masses. 
There  is  a  young  but  vigorous  Historical  Society,  and  an 
Academy  of  Science.  There  are  38  public  schools,  7  schools 
connected  with  orphan  asylums  but  supported  and  super- 
vised by  the  city,  and  a  Free  Academv,  in  all  of  which  19,- 
250  pupils  are  instructed  by  631  teachers,  at  an  expense  of 
f  29.d3  per  annum  for  each  pupil.  It  is  estimated  that  8,000 
pupils  attend  the  parochial  and  other  private  schools.  In 
the  Free  Academy  building  there  is  a  public  library  of 
22,000  volumes ;  in  the  court-house  there  is  a  valuable  law 
library  of  15,000  volumes;  the  Reynolds  Free  Library  con- 
tains 30,000  volumes,  and  is  especially  complete  in  books  of 
reference ;  the  library  of  the  university  contains  28,000  vol- 
umes, and  that  of  the  Theological  Seminary  28,000  volumes. 
Public  Institutions. — There  are  four  hospitals  (City,  St 
Mary*s,  Homoeopathic,  and  Hahnemannian)  with  spacious 
buildings,  capable  of  providing  for  700  patients.  The  State 
Industrial  School  is  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
city,  and  occupies  an  inclosure  of  42  acres,  on  which  there 
are  nine  large  buildings.  Juvenile  offenders  are  received 
from  ail  parts  of  the  state  except  New  York  and  Kings 
County,  and  the  school  numbers  about  650  bovs  and  150 
girls.  The  Monroe  County  penitentiary,  almshouse,  and 
asylum  for  the  insane  are  situated  just  S.  of  the  city.  Mt. 
Hope  Cemetery,  one  of  the  oldest  of  its  kind  in  the  U.  S., 
was  established  1838,  has  a  naturally  beautiful  site,  and  has 
been  laid  out  with  much  care  and  taste.  The  Catholic  Ceme- 
tery of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  established  1872,  is  located  on  a 
fine  site  of  140  acres  upon  the  river  bank  N.  of  the  citv. 
A  gas  and  electric  company,  with  a  capital  of  $4,300,000 
and  200  miles  of  mains,  supplies  the  city  with  light.  The 
Rochester  Street-railway  Company,  with  a  capital  of  $5,000,- 
000,  maintains  12  lines  of  electric  cars,  with  a  trackage  of 
85  miles.  A  magnificent  system  of  water-works  was  con- 
structed in  1874,  with  two  sources  of  supply— one  from  the 
river,  the  water  being  forced  through  10  miles  of  mains  in 
the  business  center  by  the  Holly  patent,  and  used  for  sup- 

Sressing  fires  and  running  light  machinery ;  the  other  from 
[emlock  Lake,  29  miles  S.  and  400  feet  abiove  the  city.  The 
water  from  this  source  is  distributed  through  252  miles  of 
mains,  which  can  furnish  22,000,000  gal.  daily.  The  total 
cost  of  the  system  to  1895  was  $7,000,000. 

Business  Interests. — There  are  in  Rochester  10  banks  of 
discount,  with  a  capital  and  surplus  of  $4,500,000  and  de- 
posits of  over  $15,000,000 ;  4  savings-banks  and  2  trust  com- 
panies, with  deposits  of  over  $30,000,000  and  a  surplus  of 
over  $3,500,000.  Owine  to  the  surpassing  fertility  of  the 
Genesee  valley  and  its  fine  water-power,  fiour  was  formerly 
the  chief  product  of  Rochester.  There  are  still  17  flouring- 
mills  in  operation,  with  an  aggregate  capacity  of  5,000  bar- 
rels a  day.  The  nursery  business  has,  nowever,  become  of 
far  more  importance,  and  in  this  line  Rochester  outranks 
every*  other  city.  In  the  manufacture  of  clothing  Roches- 
ter ranks  third  among  the  cities  of  the  U.  S.,  with  an  annual 
output  of  $13,000,000.  In  the  manufacture  of  shoes  it  ranks 
fourth.  Thirteen  breweries  send  out  700,000  barrels  of 
beer  per  annum.  A  single  tobacco-factory  employs  450 
hands,  and  the  value  of  the  city's  output  in  that  line  of 
business  is  $4,500,000.  The  largest  carriage-factory  in  the 
U.  S.,  employing  800  hands,  is  situated  here.  The  kodak 
camera  business  originated  here,  and  there  is  $5,000,000  in- 
vested in  it.  Several  large  establishments  are  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  perfumery.  Rochester  looks,  micro- 
scopes, and  vacuum  oil-protlucts  have  a  worldwide  celeb- 
rity, and  contribute  much  to  the  prosperity  of  the  city.  Ac- 
cording to  the  U.  S.  census  of  1890  Rochester  had  1,892 
manufactories,  employing  37,720  persons,  and  yielding  prod- 
ucts valued  at  $65,091,156.  From  its  proximity  to  the  coal- 
fields of  Pennsylvania,  it  has  become  a  great'  distributing 
center  for  coal,  which, is  loaded  from  railways  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  into  vessels  that  convey  it  to  all  points  on  the 
lakes.  In  1890  Rochester  ranked  sixth  in  exports  and  fourth 
in  imports  of  the  lake  ports  of  the  U.  S. 

History,  etc, — The  first  house  was  erected  in  1812,  and  the 

?lace  was  incorporated  as  the  village  of  Rochesterville  in 
817  and  as  a  city  in  1834.    From  the  first  there  has  been 
a  steady  growth  in  wealth  and  population,  which  lately, 


through  the  influence  of  an  energetic  chamber  of  commerce, 
have  increased  with  phenomenal  rapidity.  There  are  36,U0<J 
dwellings  within  the  twenty  wards  of  the  city.  The  as- 
sessed valuation  is  $100,000,000.  From  the  **  Rochester  rap- 
pings  "  (1848-49)  the  city  may  be  regarded  as  the  birthplace 
of  modern  Spiritualism ;  it  was  also  the  center  of  the  anti- 
Masonic  excitement  (1827-29). 

Pop.  (1820)  1,500;  (1880)  89,366;  (1890)  183,896;  (iHlri) 
144,834.  J.  H.  GiLMO&E. 

Rochester :  borough  ;  Beaver  co.,  Pa. ;  at  the  confluenc*- 
of  the  Ohio  and  Beaver  rivers,  and  on  the  Pitts.,  Ft  Wayn** 
and  Chi.  and  the  Cleve,  and  Pitts,  railways ;  26  miles  N.*\V. 
of  Pittsburg  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref. 
4- A).  It  is  in  a  fire-clay,  coal,  oil,  and  building-stone  re- 
gion, and  is  connected  by  electric  street-railway  with  N«'w 
Brighton,  Beaver,  and  Beaver  Falls,  and  by  a  bridge  aom^v 
the  Beaver  river  with  Bridge  water.  There  are  11  churche'<, 
2  graded  public  schools,  2  hotels,  22  societies  and  lo<l>:cs. 
Masonic  temple,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $50,o6(i,  a 
private  bank,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  The  manufactures 
include  tumblers,  bottles,  stoves,  brick,  flour,  and  luni  ber. 
Pop.  (1880)  2,552 ;  (1890)  3,649 ;  (1894)  estimated,  4,000. 

Editoe  op  Beave&  "  Argus  jlnd  Radical." 

Rochester,  John  Wilmot,  Earl  of :  b.  at  Ditchley,  Ox- 
fordshire, England,  Apr.  10, 1648 ;  succeeded  to  the  title 
1659.  He  became  a  favorite  at  the  court  of  Charles  II.; 
wrote  poems  in  accordance  with  the  prevailing  taste ;  was 
famous  for  his  wit  and  infamous  for  his  vices.  He  had 
Dryden  beaten  by  a  gang  of  hired  bullies  in  1679  in  re- 
venge for  a  passage  lampooning  Rochester  in  Dryden  *s  al- 
leged Essay  on  Satire,  jQis  death-bed  repentance  was  de- 
scribed by  Bishop  Burnet  in  a  pamphlet  which  had  an  ex- 
traordinary sale.  D.  July  26,  1680.  His  Poems  and  Famil- 
iar Letters  were  posthumously  published.  See  his  Lift,  by 
Dr.  Johnson.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers.  ' 

Rochester,  Uniyersity  of:  a  college  e8tablishe<t  at 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in  1850.  At  that  time  the  whole  of  West- 
ern New  York  was  without  any  important  institution  of  this 
kind.  The  founders  were  principally  Baptists,  idthough  Ww 
charter  contains  no  denominational  restriction.  The  uni- 
versity has  had  two  presidents,  Martin  B.  Anderson,  LIj.  I).. 
L.  H.  D.,  who  served  from  1853  to  1888,  and  David  J,  Hill, 
LL.  D.,  who  was  elected  in  1888.  Among  the  local  benefac- 
tors have  been  Hiram  Sibley,  who  gave  $100,000  for  the 
erection  of  Sibley  Hall,  a  fire-proof  building  containing  the 
library  and  museum ;  Mortimer  F.  Reynolds,  who  built  a 
chemical  laboratory ;  and  Don  Alonzo  Watson,  who  esUib- 
lished  a  professorship  in  history  and  political  science  with 
an  endowment  of  $50,000.  The  original  campus,  afterwanl 
enlarged  to  24  acres,  was  the  gift  of  the  Hon.  Azariah  BotMlv. 
The  assets  of  the  university  in  1894  were  $1,203,077.44,  of 
which  $689,842.84  was  invested  in  productive  funds  yield ini? 
an  annual  income  of  $35,179.37,  and  the  remainder,  $51:1- 
234.60,  in  buildings,  books,  and  appliances.  In  1894  the 
faculty  was  composed  of  17  professors  and  instructors,  and 
the  students  numbered  212,  There  are  four  courses  of  study 
leading  to  a  degree,  embracing  100  courses  of  instructi^-ii. 
The  library  contains  nearly  30,000  bound  volumes,  and  >fv- 
eral  thousand  pamphlets.  The  reputation  of  the  institution 
has  rested  chiefiy  upon  the  character  of  its  work  as  a  c-Ih-^- 
ical  college,  but  within  recent  years  the  natural  siMon«  ts 
have  occupied  a  larger  place  in  the  curriculum,  and  lalH>- 
ratories  have  been  openea  in  chemistry,  biology,  physics,  and 

rlogv.    The  geological  museum  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
S.,  being  the  origmal  Ward  collection  amplified. 

David  J.  Hill. 

Rochet,  ro'sha',  Louis:  scidptor;  b.  in  Paris,  Au^.  24, 
1813;  studied  under  Pierre  Jean  David,  called  David  d' An- 
gers, and  be^an  to  exhibit  in  1835,  his  first  statue  beini:  a 
Boy  extracting  a  Thorn  from  his  Foot.  Among  his  ni«>st 
prominent  works  are  the  Statue  of  Marshal  Drouet,  at  i\w 
Versailles  Museum ;  William  the  Conqueror^  a  statue  at 
Falaise  in  Normandy ;  a  life-size  statue  of  Napole(m,  and 
another  Napoleon  as  a  Scholar  at  Brienne  (1853) ;  Madnmt- 
de  Sen'gn^^&t  Grignan  (1857);  a  colossal  equestrian  statue 
of  Pedro  I.,  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  (1861);  and  a  similar  statue  uf 
Charlemagne  (1867).     I),  in  Paris,  Jan.  21, 1878. 

Rock-butter :  See  Butter. 

Rock-crystal :  See  Quartz. 

Rocker:  an  instrument  used  in  mezzotint  engraving. 
See  Engraving  {Mezzotint). 

Rocket :  See  Dyers*  Weed. 


-r..!!..  riii.MH.«lAi..1 


uiWKnita* 


r^k   fM»r.. 


>€a  liiDtsoiiiit;  • 


jy.  ^^iii. 


UuiticiLi 


138 


ROCKPORT 


BOCKS 


Ann,  known  as  Pieeon  Cove,  is  a  popular  somroer  resort. 
The  town  has  a  public  high  school,  public  library,  national 
bank  with  capital  of  $100,000,  a  savings-bank,  a  weekly 
newspaper,  and  manufactories  of  cotton  goods,  isinglass, 
shoes,  and  organs.  The  new  post-offlce  in  Boston  was  Duilt 
of  Rockport  granite.    Pop.  (1880)  3,912 ;  (1890)  4,087. 

Bock  port:  town;  capital  of  Aransas  co.,  Tex.;  on  Live 
Oak  Point  peninsula  in  Aransas  Bay,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
on  the  San  Ant.  and  Aran.  Pass  Railway ;  10  miles  N.  E.  of 
Aransas  Pass  (for  location,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  7-1).  It 
is  in  an  a^cultural,  fruit-growing,  and  stock-raising  region ; 
has  considerable  oyster,  nsh,  and  turtle  interests,  exports 
large  quantities  of  cattle  and  hides,  and  is  a  popular  sum- 
mer and  winter  health  resort.  There  are  several  large 
hotels,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  f  60,000,  and  two 
weekly  newspapers.  The  vicinity  abounds  in  wild  game  of 
many  varieties.  Pop.  (1880)  not  separately  returned ;  (1890) 
1,069;  (1893)  estimated,  1,500. 

Bock  Bapids :  town  (founded  in  1872) ;  capital  of  Lyon 
CO.,  la. ;  on  the  Rock  river,  and  the  Chi.,  St.  r.,  Minn,  and 
Omaha,  the  Burl.,  Cedar  Rap.  and  N.,  and  the  111.  Cent, 
railways ;  22  miles  W.  of  Sibley,  60  mile^  N.  of  Sioux  Citj 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  2-C).  It  is  in  an  agri- 
cultural and  stock-raising  region,  has  gcfod  water-power  for 
manufacturing,  and  contains  5  churches,  several  graded 
public  schools,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  a 
privat-e  bank,  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1890)  1,394 ; 
(1894)  estimated,  2,500.  Editoe  of  "  Review." 

Bock-roses :  See  Cistus. 

Bocks  [M.  Eng.  rokke,  prob.  blending  0.  Pr.  roke  ( >  Fr. 
roche^  rocK)  and  O.  Eng.  *rocc  in  ston-rocc,  stone-rock]: 
natural  masses  of  solid  mineral  matter.  The  term  is  used 
in  various  ways.  Popularly  and  in  general  literature  a  rock 
is  characterized  as  hard  and  unyielding,  and  is  placed  in 
antithesis  to  sand,  clay,  or  mud,  and  in  almost  all  instances 
where  it  is  used  in  a  figurative  sense  this  is  the  prominent 
idea.  Modern  geological  usage  extends  the  term  so  as  to 
embrace  any  natural  mass  of  solid  mineral  matter,  whether 
compact  or  incoherent.  Thus  granite,  limestone,  sandstone, 
chalk,  and  deposits  of  sand,  clay,  and  soil  are  all  considered 
under  the  general  head  of  rooks.  A  third  usage  arises  from 
the  closer  discriminations  of  petrography,  which  has  in  effect 
defined  a  rock  as  any  natural  mass  of  solid  mineral  matter 
that  possesses  nearly  uniform  structure,  texture,  and  compo- 
sition. Thus  masses  which  may  have  like  composition  but 
different  structure  and  texture  are  called  different  rocks,  viz., 
granite,  gneiss,  porphyry,  rhyolite,  etc. ;  and  rocks  with  simi- 
lar textures  but  with  Different  compositions  are  different 
rocks,  as  granite,  diorite,  gabbro.  A  fourth  usage  springs 
from  the  petrological  idea  of  the  individual  it  v  of  a  rock- 
mass  as  a  geological  body  which  has  been  brought  into  place 
by  one  act,  as  a  continuous  lava-stream,  or  which  is  the  re- 
sult of  the  continued  action  of  any  set  of  forces  upon  a  given 
kind  of  material,  as  a  continuous  bed  of  sand  and  gravel. 
One  rock-body  may  consist  of  several  kinds  of  nxiks,  as  a 
stratum  whose  basal  portion  is  conglomerate  and  upper  por- 
tion sandstone ;  a  lava-stream  which  is  partly  rhyolite,  ob- 
sidian, and  pumice.  The  language  has  not  yet  discriminated 
between  these  ideas,  hence  the  uses  of  the  term  rocks  are 
confusing. 

Formation  of  Rocks. — Conclusions  regarding  the  forma- 
tion of  rocks  are  partly  a  matter  of  observation,  partly  a 
matter  of  inference.  1.  Lavas  flow  out  from  craters  and 
crevices  in  the  earth  in  a  highly  liquid  condition  and,  upon 
cooling,  solidify  into  rocks.  Similar  material  is  thrown  into 
the  air  in  dust-like  particles  and  larger  fragments,  and  ac- 
cumulates upon  the  surface  in  more  or  less  compacted  masses, 
as  tuffs,  breccias,  etc. ;  or  the  lavas  may  remain  within  fis- 
sures and  openings  in  the  earth's  crust  where  their  solidifi- 
cation can  not  be  observed.  Similarity  in  composition  and 
analogies  in  texture  and  in  mineralogical  characteristics  be- 
tween surface  lavas  and  intratellural  rock-lxxlies,  as  well  as 
their  disposition  toward  surrounding  rocks,  permit  logical  in- 
ferences to  be  drawn  regarding  the  original  nature  of  intra- 
tellural bodies  as  molten  lavas  or  magmas.  All  such  rocks  are 
classed  as  igneous  or  eruptive.  2.  Sand,  silt,  and  soil  are 
washed  down  slopes  by  water  and  carried  along  by  streams, 
or  as  sand  and  dust  are  blown  about  by  win»ls  to  be  deposited 
when  the  force  of  the  current  lessens.  They  accumulate  in 
layers  or  beds,  horizontal  or  inclined,  and  by  drying  or  ce- 
mentation may  become  more  or  less  coherent  masses.  Min- 
eral springs  deposit  layers  of  calcium-carbonate,  silica,  etc., 
sometimes  acquiring  great  thickness.    These  observed  proc- 


esses result  in  the  formation  of  rocks  similar  in  cnrnpo^i. 
tion,  texture,  and  structure  to  others  whose  formation  mtiy 
be  inferred  to  have  been  occasioned  by  similar  agiiKcs. 
All  such  deposits  are  known  sls  sedimentary  rocks.  3.  Al- 
terations in  rocks  of  the  two  first  categories  may  atTxt 
their  composition,  texture,  or  structure.  Changes  that  cau^' 
the  rock  to  disintegrate  are  classed  as  weathering  or  liocotn* 
position.  Changes  that  convert  it  into  a  mass  still  jK>S'ii'->. 
mg  great  durability  are  classed  as  metamorphism.  Such 
metamorphism  may  be  occasioned  by  heat,  by  solution^,  or 
by  dynamic  forces,  and  the  results  may  be  recrysiaUi7a- 
tion,  the  production  of  new  minerals,  fracturing,  and  rear- 
rangement of  the  fragments.  All  rocks  resulting  from  thf> 
metamorphism  of  igneous  or  sedimentary  rocks,  and  thos« 
resembling  them  whose  original  nature  may  not  be  deter- 
minable, are  called  metamorphic  rocks.    See  Metamorpui.hm. 

Igneous  or  eruptive  rocks  which  solidified  on  or  near  the 
surface  of  the  earth  are  called  volcanic,  if  considerably  lie- 
low  the  surface  plutonic  or  abyssal.  If  lavas  reached  the 
surface  they  are  extrusive  or  surface  lavas,  if  not  thev  an* 
intrusive.  The  latter  often  metamorphose  adjacent  tocV^  by 
heating  or  by  impregnation  with  hot  solutions  and  vap(r>. 
and  in  turn  often  exhibit  modifications  in  structure,  i«  x- 
ture,  and  composition  resulting  from  cooling  produced  hs 
surroimding  rocks.  Intrusive  igneous  rocks  form  dike-*, 
sheets,  laccolites,  batholites,  stocks,  or  necks.  Extrusive 
rocks  form  lava  streams  and  sheets,  domes,  breccias,  &;:- 
glomerates,  and  tuffs.  The  last  may  be  stratified  and  b(<i- 
ded,  and  if  deposited  in  water  are  not  distinct  from  sedi- 
mentary rocks. 

Chemical  and  Physical  Characters. — All  i^eous  ^)cks 
consist  of  oxygen,  silicon,  aluminium,  with  sodium  and  (h> 
tassium,  or  calcium,  magnesium,  and  iron  in  variable  pr<>« 
portions.  Usually  all  eight  are  present.  Besides  theite  ele- 
ments are  small  amounts  of  titanmm,  phosphorus,  hydrop-u,, 
and  often  traces  of  manganese,  nickel,  cobalt,  lithium,  bu* 
rium,  strontium,  chlorine,  sulphur.  These  are  usually  e\^ 
pressed  in  analyses  as  oxides,  but  are  mostly  combined  io 
silicate  minerals,  together  with  some  that  are  oxides.  TIki 
molten  magmas  must  be  considered  as  solutions  of  com^ 
pounds  of  these  elements  at  high  temperatur^  their  exart 
molecular  character  being  unknown.  Those  with  more  than 
65  per  cent,  silica  are  called  acid  magmas;  those  between  tVI 
and  55  per  cent,  silica,  intermediate ;  and  those  with  K -i 
than  55  per  cent,  silica,  basic.  The  extreme  limita  are  alx'ut 
80  and  35  per  cent,  silica.  Molten  magmas  are  often  vcr^ 
liquid  at  the  time  of  eruption,  especially  those  with  l<-^i 
than  60  per  cent,  silica.  The  more  siliceous  ones  are  in4*r<3 
viscous  at  like  temperatures.  As  the  temperature  falls  \\  i 
magmas  become  more  viscous,  and  crystallization  usual i^ 
sets  in.  If  cooling  is  very  sudden,  the  magma  forms  an 
amorphous  mass  (glass)  without  crystals.  With  slower  covi 
ing  crystals  form  more  or  less  perfectly,  their  shaj>o  am! 
chemical  composition  depending  upon  the  physical  as  wcii 
as  the  chemical  condition  of  the  magma,  molecular  shift  in.j| 
and  arrangement  being  more  easily  accomplished  in  ni<>i> 
liquid  magmas,  which,  nowever,  must  be  below  the  fiisioti 
point  of  the  minerals  crystallizing.  Slowest  cooling-  jw-r 
mits  most  perfect  molecular  adjustment,  resulting  in  frwti 
but  larger  crystals.  Other  agencies  affecting  crystalli/.»i 
tion  are  absorbed  vapors,  and  possibly  pressure.  Tho  si.i 
and  arrangement  of  tne  crystals  control  the  texture  of  ti.i 
rock,  which  may  be  glassy  or  vitreous,  stony  or  lithitfini 
and  crystalline.  When  the  grains  are  visible'  to  the  nak.-.| 
eye  the  texture  is phanerocrystalline ;  if  not,  then  aphan ifi-\ 
Rocks  are  porph y r it ic  when  they  consist  of  a  ground  tiuiH 
of  any  texture  bearing  larger,  prominent  crystals  {ph^ft\ 
erysts).  Particular  textures  have  special  names,  as  (/rantti'i 
poikilitic,  ophitic,  trachytic,  rhyolitic,  etc.  Structures  i\\\ 
to  the  physical  continuity  of  the  mass  are  compact,  />f#r/>»/ 1 
vesicular,  pumiceous,  jointed,  columnar,  laminated,  it.j 
The  commonest  minerals  that  crystallize  from  moltt^n  iiinj 
mas  (pyrogenetic)  are  quartz,  potash -feldspar  or  ort!i«»<iji-.^ 
lime-soda-feldspai-s,  the  feldspathic  minerals  (nephciiti-  t| 
eleolite,  leucite,  and  sodalite),  and  certain  ferroma^i»"Hi.« 
minerals  (amphiboles,  pyroxenes,  micas,  and  oliviiiri 
among  others  are  titanite,  magnetite,  ilmenite,  apatit(>,  .  :i 
con,  and  less  often  garnet,  tourmaline,  allanite,  and  spin,  .i 
Minerals  prominent  in  the  most  acid  rocks  (granitt**-)  ;.] 
quartz,  alkali  (potash,  soda)  feldspars;  less  abundant  Xmu 
soda-feldspars,  with  muscovite,  biotite,  and  hornblende.  i 
we  pass  to  less  acid  rocks  quartz  diminishes;  feld*«par«s  t\ 
cretivSe  to  a  certain  point,  and  then  diminish  and  disapi  M'.nr  j 
the  most  basic  rocks  (peridotitcs).    Alkali-feldspars  iinr.  ..| 


uo 


ROCKS 


ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  GOAT 


between  layers  of  schist,  and  have  so  nearly  identical  min- 
eralogical  composition  and  characters  that  they  are  gener- 
ally considered  together,  and  the  whole  series  is  classified 
on  a  basis  of  mineral  composition — that  is,  rocks  having 
similar  mineral  constituents  are  grouped  together  with  little 
or  no  regard  to  the  relative  proportions  of  these  minerals. 
At  present  this  seems  justifiable  because  of  the  lack  of  con- 
stancy in  the  composition  of  any  considerable  body  of  meta- 
morphic  rock,  and  because  of  the  abrupt  and  frequent 
changes  in  the  proportions  in  which  the  minerals  occur 
together.    The  principal  kinds  of  metamorphic  rocks  are — 

I.  Feldspar-quartz  Rocks  are  those  rocks  whose  predom- 
inant minerals  are  feldspar  and  quartz.    They  include : 

Oiieiss,  a  crystalline  rock  composed  of  potash-soda-feldsjjar 
and  lime-soda-feldspar  with  quartz,  and  one  or  more  min- 
erals of  the  mica,  amphibole,  pyroxene  groups,  besides  other 
minerals,  and  having  a  banded  or  laminated  structure,  pro- 
duced by  the  parallel  arrangement  of  some  of  the  mineral 
constituents.  It  varies  from  quite  massive  forms  to  finely 
schistose  ones.  It  bears  a  close  analogy  to  granite  in  texture 
and  composition,  in  some  cases  being  scarcely  distinguishable 
from  it.  When  lime-soda-feldspars  predominate  over  alkali- 
feldspars,  the  rock  corresponds  closely  to  quartz-diorite.  Ac- 
cording to  the  ferro-magnesian  mineral  prevalent,  gneisses 
are  subdivided  into  mica-gneiss  (biotite,  muscovite,  or  both), 
hornblende  gneiss,  augite  eneiss,  sericite-gneiss,  etc. 

QrantUite,  schistose  rock  consisting  of  feldspar,  quartz, 
and  s^arnet,  with  other  minerals  subordinate,  according  to 
which  the  rock  is  subdivided  into  cyanite-granulite,  tour- 
maline-granulite,  etc. 

H&lleflinta  and  Adinole,  dense,  aphanitic  or  felsitic  rocks, 
composed  of  minute  particles  of  leldspar  and  quartz,  and 
sometimes  mica. 

II.  Mica-rockSf  ehlonte-rockSf  or  talc-rocks  are : 

Mica  schist,  laminated  rock  consisting  of  mica  and  (^[uartz 
in  variable  proportions.  According  to  the  kind  of  mica,  or 
of  the  other  prominent  constituents,  they  are  muscovite- 
schist,  biotite-schist,  sericite-schist,  paragonite-schist,  and 
numerous  other  mica-schists  depenaing  on  the  accessory 
mineral,  as  staurolite,  andalusite,  epidote,  etc.  With  in- 
crease of  quartz  it  passes  into  micaceous  (juartzite;  with 
more  feldspar,  into  gneiss;  with  calcite,  into  micaceous 
limestone. 

Chlorite-schist,  laminated  rock  composed  of  chlorite  and 
quartz,  with  other  minerals  subordinate. 

Phyllite,  Argillaceous  Schist,  Argillite,  micaceous,  argil- 
laceous, schistose  or  slaty  rock  intermediate  between  clay- 
slate  and  mica-schist.  Subdivisions  are  chiastolite-slate, 
staurolite-slate,  ottrelite-slate,  sericite-phyllite,  etc. 

Talc-schist,  laminated  rock  composed  of  talc,  with  quartz 
or  feldspar  and  other  minerals. 

III.  Amphibole-rocks. — Rocks  whose  predominant  mineral 
is  amphibole,  either  schistose  or  massive ;  the  former  is  am- 
phiboie-schist,  the  latter  amphibolite.  With  amphibole 
may  be  associated  feldspar,  quartz,  garnet,  etc.  According 
to  the  variety  of  amphibole  present  the  rock  is  hornblende- 
schist,  or  homblendite,  actinolite-schist,  glaucophane-schist. 
Nephrite,  a  variety  of  jade,  is  a  compact  microfibrous  va- 
riety. Subdivisions  are  also  established  upon  the  character 
of  the  accessory  mineral,  as  epidote-araphibolite,  etc.  When 
lime-soda-feldspar  becomes  prominent,  the  rock  grades  into 
diorite-schist ;  by  increase  of  quartz  and  feldspar,  into  gneiss. 

IV.  Pyroxene-rocks  are  au^jite-schist,  when  laminated; 
augitite,  when  massive ;  eustatite-rock,  jadite  (jade).  As 
lime-soda-feldspar  increases,  and  the  augite  becomes  more 
like  diallage,  the  rock  passes  into  schistose  gabbro. 

V.  Other  rocks  are  eclogite,  crystalline  massive  rock,  sel- 
dom schistose,  composed  of  omphacite  (light-green  pyrox- 
ene), and  garnet,  with  other  minerals  subordinate.  OiiVine- 
rocks  are  essentially  olivine,  with  pyroxenes,  hornblende,  or 
mica  in  varying  amounts,  corresponding  closely  in  mineral 
composition  to  the  peridotites. 

Epidote-schist  and  tourmaline-schist  are  schists  in  which 
epidote  and  tourmaline  are  prominent  minerals,  in  combina- 
tion with  others  less  characteristic.  Greenstone-schists  are 
schistose  and  green,  and  generally  very  fine-^jrained.  The 
color  is  due  to  fibrous  amf)hibolite  (actinolite),  chlorite,  or 
serpentine  with  epidote,  combined  with  other  minerals. 

^Mar/-2-rocA«arechieflyconiposedof  quartz, quart zite  when 
massive,  quartz-schist  whon  schistose,  usually  with  mica. 

Calcite'rorks  are  crystalline  limestone  and  Marble  {q,  v.). 

Bibliography. — (foneral  works  on  rocks  are:  Rut  lev.  The 
Study  of  Rocks  (London,  1879);  Roth,  AUgeintine  chemische 
Geologic  (Berlin,  1879,  et  seq.);  Jannetaz,  Les  rochen  (Paris, 


1884) ;  von  Lasaulx,  Einfuhrung  in  die  Oesteinslehre  <  Bre^- 
lau,  1886) ;  Kalkowsky,  Elernente  der  Lithologie  (Heidell>er^' 
1886);  Zirkel,  Lehrbuch  der  Petroqraphie  (2d  ed..  3  voN 
Leipzig,  1884) ;  also  Dana,  Manual  of  Geology  (latest  t-oi 
tion);  Dana,  Manual  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrography  (4in 
ed.;  New  York,  1887);  and  Geikie,  Text-hook  of  O^oh^.  | 
(8d  ed.;  London  and  New  York,  1803).  Works  treatmi:  I 
the  microscopical  characters  of  rocks  and  of  the  rock-muk 
ing  minerals  include  a  part  of  those  just  noted,  and  il)>! 
following:  Ro^QiihwscYi,  Mikroskopische  Phusioaraphit  d^t 
Minerahen  und  Gesteine  (2  vols.:  vol.  i.,  3d  ed.  1892 :  v..) 
ii.,  2d  ed.  1887,  Stuttgart;  vol.  i.,  translated  by  J.  P.  Idilinirs 
Microscopical  Physiography  of  the  Rock-making  Mtnf'rai-i 
New  York,  3d  ed.  1898);  Fouqu6  and  Michel  L^vy.  Mm^' 
ralogie  micrographique  des  roches  iruptives  frati^aiscs  rj 
vols.,  Paris,  1879) ;  Teall,  British  Petrography  (London,  1  ^^^ 
Zirkel,  Microscopical  Petrography  (vol.  vi.  of  GeoL  Exj^lnf 
of  40th  Parallel,  Washington,  1876) ;  Hawes, Mimralogj/  uuA 
Lithology  of  New  Hampshire  (part  iv.  of  Geology  of  X»\i 
Hampshire, Concord,  1878);  Wadsworth,2^7Ao/o^tc«/  Studu  i 
(part  i.,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1884);  Lehmann,  Enstehung  d,\ 
altkrystallinischen  Schieferaesteine  (Bonn,  1884) ;  W  il  1  i  a  it  h 
Greenstone  Schist  Areas  of  the  Menominee  and  Marqutt!\ 
Region  of  Michigan  (BulL  62,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Washint: 
ton,  1890).  Joseph  P.  Iddixos. 

Boek-salt :  See  Salt. 

Bock-snake :  See  Bongar. 

Bock  Springs:  town;  Sweetwater  co.,  Wyo. ;  on  tlij 
Bitter  creek,  and  the  Union  Pac.  Railway;  258  miles  W 
of  Laramie  (for  location,  see  map  of  Wyoming,  ref.  12-ii| 
It  is  in  an  extensive  coal-mining  region,  and  has  2  natiuna 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  fllO.OOO,  and  2  wtjckij 
newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  763 ;  (1890)  3,406. 

Bockrille :  city  (set  off  from  the  town  of  Vernon  an; 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1889);  Tolland  co..  Conn.;  on  tiii 
Hockanune  river,  and  the  N.  Y.  and  N.  Eng.  Railroad:  II 
miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Hartford  (for  location,  see  map  of  Conn»  «i 
ticut,  ref.  7-1).  The  river,  which  is  the  outlet  of  Lake  Shim 
sic,  has  here  a  series  of  falls  aggregating280  f  eet,  and  affcrli 
abundant  power  for  manufacturing.  The  principal  Indus 
try  is  the  manufacture  of  envelopes  ;  other  important  art  i«  1. 1 
made  here  are  woolen  goods,  silk  goods,  satinets,  gin gh aim 
and  warps.  There  are  8  churches,  a  public  library,  2  n.* 
tional  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $500,(X)0,  2  savin u-s 
banks  with  aggregate  deposits  of  over  $1,750,000,  an<i  I 
weekly  newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  5,902 ;  (1890)  7,772. 

Rockweeds :  the  popular  name  of  the  brown  seawoe<.ls  o 
the  genera  Fucus  and  Ascophyllum,  common  on  nxks  hti 
tween  tide-marks  along  the  U.  S.  coasts.    See  FuroiDs. 

Rockwood :  town ;  Roane  co.,  Tenn. ;  on  the  Queen  an< 
Cresc.  Route  and  the  Rockw.  and  Tenn.  Rivers  rail  why  - 
6  miles  N.  of  the  Tennessee  river,  45  miles  W.  S.  W.'  u 
Knoxville  (for  location,  see  map  of  Tennessee,  ref.  6-11 ).  1 
is  in  a  coal  and  iron  mining  region,  and  contains  severe 
blast  furnaces,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000.  hih 
two  weekly  newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  1,011 ;  (1890)  2,42i*. 

Rocky  Mountain  Goat  [so  called  on  account  of  its  rrouti 
like  appearance] :  a  species  of  antelope  {Mazama  moniaiu^ 


Rocky  Mountain  ^oat. 


with  short  legs,  round,  black,  decurved  horns,  long,  whi'«i 
woolly  hair,  and  a  short  beard  on  the  chin.    It  is  ver>*  nun  t 


i 

1 

^^^^B 

^^^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B 

1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^■r 

1 

1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^wa  •  1; 

H 

'( a      ^^^^ 

1                                         ^^^1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Hi 

U2 


ftOCKY  MOUNTAINS 


the  ranges  coalesce.  Of  the  age  of  the  dry  land  there  is  no 
certain  knowledge,  but  the  mountain  forms  due  to  upheaval 
and  atmospheric  degradation,  and  also  the  mountain  forms 
due  to  extravasation,  are  of  very  late  geological  origin. 

There  are  about  100  ranges  in  this  group.  The  highest, 
broadest,  and  most  massive  is  the  Wasatch.  In  this  are 
found  the  principal  geological  formations  of  the  other 
ranges  of  the  system,  and  also  some  of  the  sedimentary  beds 
of  the  Plateau  System.  The  escarpment  faces  the  W.,  and 
the  highest  peak,  Mt.  Nebo,  is  found  at  the  southern  ex- 
tremity. The  streams  which  are  used  to  fertilize  the  Great 
Salt  Lake  and  Utah  valleys  have  their  sources  in  these 
lofty  mountains. 

PRINCIPAL  SUMMITS  OF  THE   DESERT   RANGE  SYSTEM. 


NAME. 

RMgaorgmp. 

FmI. 

Authority,  Klug. 
Clayton  Peak 

Wasatch 

11,889 

Twin  Peaks 

1],5(X) 

Lone  Peak 

tt 

11.206 

Lewiston  Peak 

Oquirrh 

10,023 

Tooele  Peak     

10,396 

Mt  Bonneville  .. 

Aqui 

11,050 
10,900 

Pilot  Peak 

Ourbe 

Gosiute  Peak     ... 

Eean               

10  491 

8pruc«  Mountain 

Peoquap 

10,411 

Tenabo  Peak 

Ck)rtez 

9240 

Dalton  Peak 

9,232 

Shoshoni  Peak 

Shoshoni 

9,760 

Mt.  Poston 

Toyabe 

12,143 

Bunker  Hill 

11,735 
11,287 

Globe  Peak 

•i 

Mt.  Moses 

Fish  Creek 

8,725 

Slj^nal  Peak 

Havallah 

9,387 

Mt.  Bonpland 

East  Humboldt 

11,:$81 

Star  Peak 

West  Humboldt   

9,925 
8,217 

11,680 
8,100 

Peavine  Mountain 

Authority,  Thompson. 
Mt.  Nebo 

Wasatch 

Beaver  Dam  Mountains 

Virgin 

Virifin  Peak 

8,000 
7,950 

Mt.  Bauf^s 

»t 

Pine  Valley  Mountain 

Pine  Valley 

10,250 

CraBTiry  Head 

9,750 

Mt,  ni»in.no-      

Tuahar 

12,240 
12,200 

11,414 
10,000 

Mt.  Belknap 

Midget  Crest 

ii 

Mt.  Katherlne 

Pnvnnf 

The  Park  System  extends  from  Southern  Wyoming 
through  Central  Colorado  into  New  Mexico;  bounded  on 
the  K.  by  the  Laramie  Plains,  on  the  E.  by  the  Great 
Plains,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  plateaus ;  the  southern  limits 
can  not  yet  be  defined.  There  are  a  great  number  of  ranges 
in  New  Mexico,  on  either  side  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte, 
having  a  N.  and  S.  trend,  the  general  structure  and  geolog- 
ical relations  of  which  are  unknown.  They  may  constitute 
a  system  or  sub-system  by  themselves,  or  they  may  be  con- 
siflered  as  a  part  of  the*  Park  System,  probably  the  latter. 
The  general  trend  of  the  Park  Ranges  is  a  few  degrees  W. 
of  >r.,  but  there  are  exceptions.  These  mountains  are 
drained  by  the  Platte  and  Arkansas,  which  flow  into  the 
Mississippi;  by  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  which  flows  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  and  by  the  Colorado  river  of  the  West, 
which  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  California.  The  axial  ridges 
of  the  system — i.  e.  those  which  separate  the  Atlantic  from 
the  Pacific  drainage — constitute  a  part  of  the  continental 
divide.  The  system  is  composed  of  ranges  and  irregular 
groui>s  which  stand  as  walls  about  the  great  parks.  In 
North  Park  heads  the  North  Platte ;  in  Middle  Park  heads 
the  Grand,  a  tributary  of  the  Colorado;  in  South  Park 
heads  the  South  Platte;  and  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte 
drains  the  San  Luis  Park.  These  parks  are  elevated  val- 
leys, nearly  or  completely  surrounded  by  mountains.  Be- 
sides the  larger  parks  mentioned,  there  are  many  of  smaller 
extent — mountam-valleys  of  great  beauty  in  midsummer, 
but  mantled  with  snow  during  many  months  of  the  year. 
Most  of  the  ranges  are  known  to  be  of  the  Uinta  type — i.  e. 
broad,  plateau-like  masses  carved  from  blocks  upheaved  in 
part  as  integers  and  in  part  as  bodies  of  man>  parts — a 
structure  more  fullv  described  below.  Many  of*  the  park- 
spaces  are  zones  of  (diverse  displacement.  These  nioimtains 
are  composed  of  granites,  schists,  Pala»ozoic,  Mesozoic,  and 
Tertiary  sediments,  and  the  sedimentary  groups  are  sepa- 
rated by  many  and  well-define<l  unconformities,  giving  evi- 
dence of  alternating  periods  of  dry-land  condition  and 
oceanic  sway;  but  the  last  great  orographic  movement 
which  upheaved  the  great  masses  from  wliirh  the  moun- 
tains have  been  carved  began  in  Tertian'  time.  These 
ranges  are  arranged  eti  echelon,  the  eastern  mountain- 
front  running  N.  and  S.,  while  the  ranges  trend  somewhat 


E.  of  S.  Hence,  proceeding  southward,  one  finds  the  front 
range  dropping  aown  and  disappearing,  while  its  place  i^ 
taken  by  that  behind,  which  in  turn  comes  to  the  front. 
The  following  are  the  principal  ranges  and  groups  of  th.s 
system  in  succession  from  K  to  w. :  Rising  from  tit*- 
plains  in  full  view  of  Denver  is  the  Front  B^nge,  which 
on  the  N.  is  nearly  continuous  with  the  Medicine  Bow 
Range,  the  latter  being  the  eastern  wall  of  North  Park.  T«> 
the  S.  it  becomes  broken  and  spreads  out  into  a  mass  of 
short  ranges  and  hills,  through  which  the  South  Platti- 
makes  its  way  to  the  plains.  Just  N.  of  Pueblo,  on  the  Ar- 
kansas, it  gathers  itself  and  rises  suddenly  into  the  gr«'at 
mass  of  Puce's  Peak,  and  then  drops  down  to  the  level  r.f 
the  plains.  Between  North  and  Middle  Parks  is  the  Park 
View  Mountain,  an  eruptive  mass  which,  with  its  spurs  and 
outliers,  separates  the  two  parks.  Next  in  order  to  th^* 
westward  is  the  Park  Range,  which  extends  from  Butlalo 
Peaks  northward  nearly  to  the  junction  of  the  Sweet watt-r 
with  the  North  Platte  fiver.  Tnis  range  forms  the  western 
wall  of  South,  Middle,  and  North  Parks.  The  South  and 
Middle  Parks  are  separated  by  a  series  of  eruptive  moun- 
tains, among  them  Silverheels  and  Mt.  Guyot.  From  the 
north  end  of  this  range,  W.  of  North  Park  and  the  north 
end  of  Middle  Park,  long  spurs  and  irregular  mountains  ex> 
tend  westward  to  the  plateaus.  W.  of  the  south  end  of  t  h»»' 
Park  Ranpj  is  the  valley  of  the  Arkansas,  and  W.  of  th*- 
valley  is  the  Sa watch  Range,  with  the  Mount  of  the  \hA\ 
Cross  at  its  northern  extremity.  This  range  trends  30  \V. 
of  N.  Still  farther  W.  is  the  Elk  Mountain  Group,  which 
consists  of  a  series  of  short,  parallel  ranges  closely  ma.««cHl« 
trending  in  the  same  direction  as  the  Sawatch  Range. 

Returning  to  the  border  of  the  plains,  the  first  range  S. 
of  the  Arkansas  is  the  Wet  Mountain,  a  short  range,  front- 
ing the  plains  for  a  few  miles  only.  Its  trend  is  the  s^tme 
as  the  last.  To  the  W.,  and  parallel  with  this  range,  is  f  he- 
Sangre  de  Cristo,  called  in  one  portion  of  its  course  th»» 
Sierra  Blanca.  This  is  a  long,  nigh  range,  fronting  XUv 
plains  for  hundreds  of  miles,  and  breaks  up  near  Santa  Vv, 
To  the  W.  of  it  lies  San  Luis  Park,  and  beyond  the  park  i> 
the  enormous  irregular  rugged  mass  known  as  the  San  Juan 
Mountains,  and  beyond  are  the  plateaus. 

PRINCIPAL  MOUNTAINS  OF  THE  PARK  RANGE  SYSTEM. 
Authority,  Gannett,  U.  S.  G.  Q,  8. 


NAME. 


Gray's  Peak 

Torrey  Peak 

Mt.  Evans 

Long  Peak 

Mt.  Guyot 

Cheyenne  Mountain ... 

Platte  Mountain 

Park  View  Mountain  . . 

Mt.  Lincoln 

Buffalo  Peak 

Mt.  Powell 

Pike's  Peak 

Mt.  Harvard 

Mt.  Elbert 

La  Plata  Mountain  — 

Massive  Mountain 

Mt.  Autoro 

Mt.  Princeton 

Mt.  Yale 

Holy  Cross  Mountain. . 

Mt.  Shavano 

Mt.  Ouray 

Grizzly  Peak 

Castle  Peak 

Maroon  Mountain 

Capitol  Mountain 

SnowmasR  Mountain  . . 

Pyramid  Peak 

White  Rock  Mountain. 


Hn««  ©r  groap. 


Front  Range 


Park  Range . 


Pike's  Peak  Group . 
Sawatch  Range  — 


Elk  Mountain  Range . 


Italian  Peak . . 
Treasury  Mountain. 

Mt.  Day 

LopusPeak 

Gothic  Mountain 

Crested  Butt»» 

Greenhorn  Mountain Wet  Mountain  — 

Blnnca  Peak Sangre  de  Cristo  . 

Garland  Peak I        

Crestoue |        " 

Mt.  Rito  Alto "        '*        "      . 

Hunt  Peak  .  i        «        »»        » 


F«ri. 


Mt.  Wilsf.n.. 

Uncomnahjfre 

Mf.  Knf-fTels 

Mt .  Eohm 

Hnndif*  Peak 

Rio  (irande  I'yramid  . 
Mt.  Osa 


San  Juan  Mountains  . 


I 


14.H41 

H.:i:iO 
14.i?7l 
13..V'.."i 

14.'J«»7 
1H..^4I 

H.ur 

14.«r5 
14.S51 

H.aii 

14/-»<.«H 
14.V45 
14.196 
14.1K7 
14.176 
14.1)03 
14.043 
13,956 
14.  n  5 
14,<«»V1 
18,  W7 
1H/.C0 

13.KN5 

IS.-V? 
13.a:4l 
13.a<iO 
13,U»3 

ie,r>;t> 

12.v*:'o 
]4.4»;4 

IS.'.'^"* 
l?.r  ,n 
11,l-*> 

14.J.i.-> 

14,  ir^ 

14.0M 

i3.o«,i: 

13.773 
13.»V4il 


144 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


Tiding  them  into  two  sab-srstems,  the  Northern  and  South- 
em  Coast  Ranges.  To  the  N.,  beyond  the  head-waters  of  the 
Sacramento,  the  Coast  Ranges  topographically  coalesce  with 
the  Cascade  Mountains,  and  to  the  S.,  beyond  the  head- 
waters  of  the  San  Joaquin,  with  the  Sierra  Nevada ;  but 
here  the  geological  separation  is  plain,  as  shown  by  Whit- 
ney. The  general  trend  of  these  ranges  is  30°  W.  of  N. 
The  Coast  Ranges  are  composed  of  more  or  less  closely 
oppressed  folds  of  strata  degraded  by  rains  and  rivers — i.  e. 
they  have  the  Appalachian  structure,  but  complicated  and 
more  or  less  masked  by  extravasated  matter.  The  summits 
or  axial  planes  are  in  general  tipped  westward  or  toward 
the  Pacinc.  The  Appalachian  type  is  not  known  to  occur 
elsewhere  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  The  upheaval  of 
these  mountains  began  in  the  late  Tertiary  times,  and  may 
yet  be  in  progress. 

PRINCIPAL   MOUNTAIXS  OF  THE  COAST  RANGE   SYSTEM. 


NAME. 

Ftot. 

Aalhority. 

San  Carlos  Peak 

4,9?7 
4,440 
8.8M 
8,700 

Whitney. 

Mt.  Hamilton 

Mt.  Diablo 

n 

Mariposa  Peak 

t. 

The  Cascade  Mountains  stretch  from  Southern  Oregon 
northward  far  into  British  America.  On  the  E.  they  are 
bounded  by  the  great  valley  of  the  Columbia  river,  and  on 
the  W.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Columbia  river,  where  it 
bursts  through  this  zone  of  mountains,  plunges  to  the  level 
of  the  sea  in  a  series  of  great  cascades,  and  from  these  the 
mountains  take  their  name.  They  consist  of  an  irregular 
volcanic  plateau,  upon  which  stand  many  volcanic  peaks. 
They  can  not  be  separated  topographically,  nor  is  there  yet 
sufficient  data  to  separate  them  geologically  from  the  north- 
ern extremity  of  the  Coast  Ranges  and  Sierra  Nevada.  Lit- 
tle is  known  of  their  general  topography  and  geology,  ex- 
cept that  the  p*oup  is  characterized  by  many  lofty  vol- 
canoes now  extmct.  The  trend  of  this  zone  of  mountains  is 
a  little  W.  of  N. 

PRINCIPAL  MOUNTAINS  OP  THE  CASCADE  SYSTEM. 


NAME. 

HdfbC 

Anthority. 

Mt.St.  Elias 

18,101 
14,444 
18,2fi8 
11,225 

CJoast  Survey. 

Mt.  Rainier 

Mt.  Adams 

Vansant 

Mt.Hood 

Williamson. 

In  Northern  California  and  Southern  Oregon  the  Coast 
and  Cascade  Ranges  are  united  by  a  mass  of  mountains 
having  little  apparent  system,  in  which  heads  the  Klamath 
river,  and  from  which  the  group  receives  its  name.  These 
form  apparently  no  part  either  of  the  Coast  or  Cascade  Sys- 
tem, but  are  too  little  known  to  enable  one  to  speak  defi- 
nitely concerning  their  relationship. 

N.  of  the  Front  and  Park  Ranges  there  is  a  bi^ak  in  the 
mountain  system  in  Central  Wyoming.  The  Union  Pacific 
Railway  traverses  this  region,  a  great  stretch  of  barren,  ele- 
vated plateaus.  On  the  N.  the  mountains  rise  again  in  a 
complex  system  which  extends  into  Canada.  These  ranges 
will  be  called  provisionally  the  Gevser  Ranges.  The  eastern- 
most of  them,  known  as  the  Bighorn  Range,  separates  the 
head-waters  of  Tongue  river  from  those  of  Bighorn  river, 
both  being  tributaries  of  the  Yellowstone.  W.  of  this  is  a 
broad,  high  range,  known  as  the  Wind  River  Range,  in 
which  heads  Wind  river,  the  upper  waters  of  the  Big  Horn, 
and  Green  -river,  one  of  the  two  forks  of  the  Colorado. 
The  northward  extension  of  this  range,  known  as  the  Absa- 
roka,  separates  the  head-waters  of  the  Yellowstone  from  its 
main  affluent,  Bighorn  river.  W.  of  this  range  follows  a  suc- 
cession of  short,  broken  ranges,  the  Tetons,  the  Gallatin, 
Madison,  Ruby,  and  others. 

In  Northern  Montana  the  Front  Range,  which  faces  the 
plains,  bears  the  continental  divide,  senaratin^the  waters  of 
the  Missouri  from  those  of  the  Columbia.  This  range  ter- 
minates in  latitude  46%  where  the  divide  swings  to  the 
westward,  following  a  succession  of  low  passes  until  it 
reaches  the  Bitter  Iloot  Range.  So  far  as  the  limited  geo- 
^aphical  knowledge  concerning  this  range  informs  us,  this 
IS  a  long,  continuous  range  forming  most  of  the  western 
boundary  of  Montana,  and  bearing  for  a  long  distance  the 
continental  divide  upon  its  crest,  separating  the  head-waters 
of  the  Missouri  from  those  of  the  Salmon  river,  a  tributary 
of  the  Columbia.    W.  of  this  range  in  Central  Idaho  is  a 


section  of  ranges  separating  branches  of  the  Salmon  river, 
a  region  whicn  is  probably  as  little  known  as  any  part  uf 
the  U.  S. 

An  outlying  range  to  the  E.,  known  as  the  BUck  Hills  of 
Dakota,  is  of  the  Uinta  structure,  as  shown  by  Newton« 

PRINCIPAL   MOUNTAINS  OF  THE  0ET8EB  STSTEX. 
Authority,  Hajrden  Survey. 


NAME. 


Arrow  Peak 

Mt.  Blackmore 

BridgerPeak 

Mt.  Cowan 

Crazy  Peak 

Mt.  Delano 

Electric  Peak 

Mt.  Ellis 

Emijsrant  Peak 

Ubert y  Peak 

Ward  Peak 

Mt.  Chauvenet 

Mt.  Chittenden  . . . . 

Mt.  Dome 

Dunraven  Peak. .  . 

Fremont  Peak 

GroB  Ventre  Peak . 

Mt.  Hayden 

Mt.  Holmes 

Index  Peak 

Mt.  Leidy 

Mt.  Sheridan 

Mt.  Washburn 


Montana  . 


Wyoming 

Yellowstone  National  Park. 


Wyoming. . 


Yellowfitone  National  Park. 
Wyoming 


Yellowstone  National  Park. 


FmtL. 

7,420 
10.134 

9.106 
10,3M 
11,178 

lo.aiio 

11.155 

11. aM 

9,163 
10,371 
13,(ii*> 
10,  KK^ 
10,713 

9,9f«4 
1S,7W 
ll.f.TO 
13.691 
10,&;W 
11.7inj 
11,177 
10.3HR 
10,^46 


In  Canada  the  Rocky  Mountain  System  is  much  narrowf»r 
than  in  the  U.  S.,  and  the  platform  upon  which  the  ranL'»-^ 
stand  is  much  lower.  From  the  boundary  as  far  N.  as  Vem  e 
river  three  members  are  distinguished :  a  front  range,  com- 
parativelv  simple,  known  to  Canadian  geographers  as  tJie 
Rocky  Mountains  proper,  and  bearing  the  continental  <li- 
yide;  a  broken  volcanic  plateau;  and,  bordering  the  Paoitli- 
coast,  a  northward  extension  of  the  Cascade  Range,  al^<>  of 
volcanic  origin  and  capped  with  enormous  extinct  vol- 
canoes. 

Still  farther  northward  the  Rocky  Mountains  contirju*' 
their  northwesterly  trend,  greatly  diminishing  in  importanr*' 
as  they  near  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  finally  (usanpearin^  »►<»- 
tween  the  Mackenzie  and  Yukon  rivers.  The  Cas«<a.l«- 
Range  continues  through  British  Columbia  and  Soutbiu^^t 
Alaska,  following  the  coast  closely  and  rising  in  the  latt«T 
territory  until  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mt,  St.  Elias  it  attaiii-. 
a  ^at  altitude,  having  many  peaks  exceeding  14,000  fett  lu 
height  and  culminating  in  the  great  mass  of  Mt.  I^o^hd. 
19,500  feet  above  the  sea.  The  valleys  and  ^oi^s  aiii..ni: 
these  mountains  are  filled  with  numerous  glaciers  which  <-\- 
tend  very  neariy  to  sea-level.  Thence  westward,  follow  in  j^ 
the  coast-line,  this  range  diminishes  in  altitude,  and  final. \ 
drops  into  the  sea,  appearing  above  its  surface  in  the  chain 
of  tne  Aleutian  islands. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  Rocky  Mountains,  with  the  Great  Plains 
that  stretch  eastward,  constitute  the  great  arid  region  vrhm 
irrigation  is  necessary  to  agriculture.  In  Northern  lali- 
fornia  and  Western  Oregon  and  Washington  the  pnx- imi- 
tation of  moisture  from  the  Pacific  currents  is  very  crtnt. 
and  hence  this  region  is  not  embraced  in  the  arid  cii^- 
trict.  The  arid  region  is  about  two-fifths  of  the  area  ♦in- 
braced  in  the  U.  S.,  excluding  Alaska.  From  surveys  hw: 
careful  comparative  estimates  it  is  shown  that  it  Will  nt  t 
be  possible  to  redeem  4  per  cent,  of  the  entire  rej^on  \>\ 
irrigation  when  every  broot,  creek,  and  river  is  utilized.  I.t-N 
than  10  per  cent,  of' the  region  is  forest-clad.  These  f«>n  ^tv 
are  on  the  sides  of  the  high  mountains,  and  extend  over  x\.*- 
more  elevated  plateaus.  This  does  not  include  large  d  ist  ri«  t  - 
of  country  covered  with  a  scant  growth  of  dwarf  cedars  ud.  ' 
pines  which  can  be  used  for  fuel,  but  are  of  no  value  m 
mechanical  industries.  Some  portions  of  this  forest  re^).  u 
are  capable  of  being  cultivated  without  irrigation,  but  oii,\ 
such  crops  can  be  raised  as  will  mature  in  the  short  suniiii*-rs 
of  a  sub-arctic  climate.  Of  the  remaining  lands,  a  Ian:' 
portion  is  covered  with  grasses  and  other  plants  which  inav 
oe  utilized  to  some  extent  for  pasturage.  The  land  nn  >» 
suitable  for  cultivation  lies  along  the  streams,  and  is  c^n- 
fined  principally  to  the  little  valleys  nestling  amon^  t^i«< 
mountains.  The  mountains,  hills,  and  plains  can  furni^^ 
nutritious  but  scAnt  pasturage  for  herds  and  flocks,  l.ut; 
altogether  the  agricultural  resources  of  the  reg-ion  at<i 
limited.  Gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  lead,  salt,  coal,  and  mm  v 
other  minerals  are  found  in  abundance,  and  the  reg^ion  li 
chiefly  valuable  for  its  mines.  J.  W,  Powell. 


itniti 


RnilVii 


'  »TU4M* 


J   (i        I 


'(littrtUjivAi'ie  ill  iliti  ^ai 


/mttf*  Ji)amtHjiirL  MiU  JWti#  lAii^ihJ,  lUi' 


146 


KODMAX 


ROEBUXG 


Rodman,  Thomas  Jefferson  :  soUlier ;  b.  at  Salem,  Ind., 
July  80,  1815;  graduated  at  the  U.S.  Military  Academy 
and  commissioned  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  ordnance 
July,  1841 ;  promoted  through  consecutive  grades  up  to  lieu- 
tenant-colonel Mar.,  1865.  Uis  whole  life  wtis devoted  to  the 
interests  of  his  profession.  To  him  is  due  the  honor  of  in- 
venting the  method  of  hollow  casting  and,  from  the  results 
of  his  exi)eriinents  upon  metal  for  cannon  and  cannon 
powder,  the  design  and  construction  of  the  15  and  20  inch 
cast-iron  cannon,  with  their  projectiles  and  suitable  powder. 
The  principles  involved  in  giving  to  the  gun  its  correct  ex- 
terior form,  tlie  proper  distribution  of  strains  in  the  metal, 
and  the  regulation  of  the  interior  pressure  by  the  progres- 
sive burning  of  the  powder  were  developed  by  him  largely 
through  the  use  of  his  pressure-gauge.  The  path  he  markeil 
out  has  been  followed  by  other  investigators,  and  has  resulted 
in  the  development  of  modem  guns,  lie  was  the  author  of 
a  valuable  Report  of  ExperimetitH  on  Mefala  for  (Mnnon  and 
Cannon  Powder  (1861).    D.  at  Rock  Island.  111.,  June  7, 1871. 

Revised  by  James  Mekcur. 

Rodney,  Caesar  :  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence ;  b.  at  Dover,  Del.,  Oct.  7, 1728 ;  inherited  a  large  landed 
property;  was  sheriff  of  Kent  County  1755-58;  member  of 
the  Legislature  many  years,  and  its  Speaker  1769-73 ;  delegate 
to  the  Stamp  Act  congress  at  New  York  1765 ;  was  chair- 
man of  the  Delaware  popular  convention  1774;  elected  to 
the  Continental  Congress  Mar.,  1775;  was  soon  afterwanl 
elected  brigadier-general ;  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
]>endence;  served  under  Washington  in  the  New  Jei-sey 
campaign  1776-77;  appointed  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
but  refused  the  office ;  defended  Delaware  from  British  in- 
vasion ;  was  made  major-general  of  Delaware  militia ;  was 
president  or  executive  officer  of  Delaware  177tM^2,  and  was 
again  elected  to  Congress,  but  did  not  take  a  seat  in  that' 
body.    D.  at  Dover,  June  29,  1784. 

Rodney,  C^sar  ArorsTus :  jurist ;  nephew  of  Cajsar 
Rodney;  b,  at  Dover,  Del.,  Jan.  4,  1772;  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania;  studied  law;  was  a  prominent 
member  of  Congress  1808-07;  Attorney-Geneml  of  the  U.  S. 
1807-11;  comman<led  an  artillery  company  1813;  went  to 
South  America  1817  as  member  of  a  commission  to  report 
upon  the  insurrection  against  Spain ;  was  member  of  Con- 
gress 1821-22,  U.  S.  Senator  1822-23,  and  in  the  latter  year 
became  first  minister  to  the  x\jgentine  provinces.  Author, 
with  J.  Graham,  of  Reports  on  the  Present  State  of  the 
United  Provinces  of  South  America  (London,  1819).  D.  in 
Buenos  Ayres,  June  10, 1824. 

Rodney,  George  Brydges  Rodney,  Lord:  admiral ;  b.  at 
Walton-upon-Thames,  Surrey,  England,  Feb.  19,  1718;  en- 
tered the  British  navy  in  his  twelfth  year;  was  governor  of 
Newfoundland  1748  ;  re-entered  the  navy  1752,  rear-admiral 
1759;  in  1762  he  captured  Martinique,  St.  Lucia,  and  Gren- 
ada: vice-admiral  1762,  baronet  17o4,  master  of  Greenwich 
Hospital  1765,  commander-in-chief  in  Jamaica  1771,  ad- 
miral and  commander-in-chief  at  Barbados  in  Dec,  1779, 
when  he  sailed  from  Englaml  with  a  fleet  of  30  vessels ;  (le- 
feated  a  Spanish  s<]uadron  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  Jan.  16, 1780, 
and  broke  through  the  Frenchfleet  near  Martinique  Apr,  17, 
1780,  for  which  achievement  he  n»ceivetl  the  thanks  oi  both 
hf)Usos  of  Parliament  and  a  |)ension  of  £2.000.  In  the  war 
against  Holland  (1781)  ho  captured  Dutch  Guiana;  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  West  India  squadron  engaged  the 
Fn»nch  fleet  under  Count  de  Gi*asse  Ajir.  9,  and  again  Apr.  12, 
1782,  ctti)turing  seven  ships  of  the  lino  and  two  frigates  :  was 
thanko<I  and  f)ensionod  by  Parliament,  and  created  Baton 
Rodney  of  RtMhiey  Stoke.  Somersetshire,  1782.  D.  in  Lon- 
don, Mav  23,  1792.  See  liannay's  Rodney  (>Icn  of  Action 
Si»ries,  1891). 

Rodos'to  (anc.  Rh(pdtstn.%  Turk.  Tekirdagh):  town  of 
European  Turkey;  in  the  vilayet  of  Adrianonle,  on  the  Sea 
of  Marmora;  77  miles  frcMU  Constantinople  (see  map  of 
Turkey,  ref.  4-1)).  Rising  upon  hills  and  surroim<le(l  by 
thriving  gartlens  and  onihanls,  it  pres<«nts  an  enchanting 
spectacle  as  seen  from  the  walor.  It  exports  grain,  cotton, 
sdk  cocoons,  wool,  skins,  and  wine,  and  largely  supplies  the 
capital  with  vegetahlos,  fruit,  and  fish.  Pop.  estimated  at 
25,000,  of  whom  14.(XK)  are  Ultomaus.  5,500  Armenians,  4.000 
Greeks,  and  1,000  Jews.  E.  A.  Grosve.nor. 

Rodriguez  Lobo,  Francisco  :  See  Lobo,  Francisco  Ro- 

DRIUUES. 

Rodrlgnea,  ro-dree'ges :  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean ; 
the  easternmost  of  the  Mascarene  group  and  of  the  African 


islands,  lat.  19'  41'  S.,  Ion.  BT  23'  K;  3fi5  miles  K.  N.  E.  .f 
Mauritius,  of  which  it  is  administratively  a  depeuden<-\. 
Area,  42*5  sq.  miles.  It  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  consist ^  <  .f 
a  mountain  ridge  running  K  and  W.,  with  consi4]eral»li- 
plains  N.  and  S.  The  highest  point  (Le  Piton)  is  1,1(50  fif 
nigh.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  coral  reef  through  which  tht- r.- 
are  only  two  passages,  each  leading  to  one  of  tlie  two  pirT^. 
It  is  relatively  arid,  with  a  maritime  tropical  climate,  and  i- 
subject  to  hurricanes  during  the  northwest,  or  winter,  mou- 
soons.  It  is  devoted  to  agriculture  and  fishing.  The  turt  1.  - 
which  once  formed  an  important  article  of  export  !ia%e  «li  — 
appeared.  Kodriguez  was  not  permanently  inhabited  unt  il 
1691,  when  it  was  occupied  by  a  Protestant  retugt-v.  In 
time  it  ha<l  a  considerable  population,  mostly  slaves,  but,  <.ii 
their  emancipaticm,  they  emigrated,  leaving  in  1843  a  jm.j. il- 
lation of  only  250.  In  1893  it  was  2,068,  mostly  bla<!k>  ..r 
of  mixed  Negro  blood.  The  island  is  of  strategic  Hnp<»rtttn«  •• 
and  belongs  to  Great  Britain.    The  language  is  French. 

Mark  W.  Uarrinutun. 

Roe,  Edward  Payson:  novelist;  b.  at  Mooilna,  OraiiL''- 
CO.,  N. Y.,  Mar.  7,  18:^8.  He  studied  at  Williams  ColKirr. 
and  one  year  at  Auburn  and  part  of  a  year  in  Union  TIh"- 
logical  Seminary;  in  1862  became  chaplain  of  Second  Nvw 
York  Volunteers ;  was  subsequently  a  hospital  chaplain  at 
Fortress  Monroe;  at  the  close  of  the  civil  warliei'anu*  pii>tt.r 
of  a  Presbyterian  church  at  Highland  Falls,  X.  Y. ;  in  l.**74 
removed  to  Cornwall,  X.  Y.,  and  began  the  cultivati«*n  of 
small  fruits,  publishing  Success  with  Small  PntitM  i\i<iMi\ 
Ue  was  widely  known  as  the  author  of  many  succe^lu 
novels,  including  Barriers  Bunwd  A  way  (1872) ;  Opru  t  mj  t,  t 
a  Chestnut  iB«rr(1874);  A  Knight  of  the  SineteMith  (  t-ntm  \ 
(1877) ;  and  Jliss  Lou  (1888).    I),  at  Cornwall  July  20.  !♦»-•*. 

Revised  by  11.  A*  liKkUs. 

Roe,  Sir  Thomas:  diplomat,  traveler,  and  author;  h.  Ht 
Low  Leyt<m,  Essex,  England,  about  156H;  educated  at  Mni:- 
dalen  College,  Oxford;  was  knighted  1604:  exjjlorod  tli. 
river  Amazon  in  Brazil  1609;  was  sent  as  envoy  t<»  tin- 
Great  Mogul,  Jahangir.  and  jienetrated  to  I>elhi  1614- is : 
was  ambassador  to  Constantinople  1621-28.  to  Poland  ami 
Sweden,  charged  with  negotiating  a  pence  l)etw«H'n  iho-.- 
kingdoms,  1629 ;  sat  in  Parliament  for  ()xf<ird  Univei^itv 
1640;  was  sent  to  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  1641.  He  bn>tii:tjt 
from  Constantinople  a  valuable  collection  of  Oriental  M>S., 
which  he  presented  to  the  Bo<lleian  Library,  aD< I  pnK-un-ii 
the  Alexandrian  MS.  of  the  Greek  Hible,  now  in  the  liriii^u 
Museum.    D.  in  England,  Xov.,  1644. 

Roebling,  W)'l>ling,  John  Aioistus :  civil  engineer :  h.  ai 
Mulhausen,  Prussia,  June  12,  1806;  graduated  at  the  l{o\ai 
Polytechnic  School  in  Berlin,  the  subject  of  his  thesis  Leiii;: 
suspension  bridges.  In  1881  he  emigrated  to  the  V.  S..  U»- 
catmg  near  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  began  the  practice  of  his  pn^- 
ferssion  on  the  slack-water  improvement  of  the  Beaver  rivir. 
and  later  ma<Ie  surveys  for  a  railroad  route  across  the  Ail»'- 
ghany  Mountains  fn)m  Ilarrisburg  to  Pittsburg,  llavm^' 
begun  the  manufacture  of  wire  rope  at  Pittsburg.  h«»  ol»- 
taine<l  the  contrac^t  for  replacing  the  wooden  aquetliK-t  i»f 
the  Pennsylvania  Canal  across  Allegheny  river  by  a  mi>|km)- 
sion  aqueduct,  which  was  opened  in  May,  1845.  This  mijih^ 
duct  consisted  of  seven  spans,  each  162  feet  in  lenirth,  iUv 
woollen  tnmk  which  held  the  water  being  supported  by  t^«i 
continuous  wire  cables  7  inches  in  diameter.  The  ct>nst ruc- 
tion of  the  Mon<mgahela  susjiension  bridge  next  fi>lbiw4M  I, 
and  in  1848-50  four  suspension  aqueducts  were  ctunplotcfl  on 
the  line  of  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal.  In  lt<r>l  tb" 
great  susfiension  bridge  at  Xiagara  river  was  begun,  and  in 
Mar.,  1855,  the  first  locomotive  crossed.  This  structure  \m»v 
erected  in  the  face  of  most  critical  opposition  by  Briti*«li  rut:]- 
neers,  who  then  regarded  the  suspension  system  as  inapitli- 
cable  to  heavy  traffic.  (See  Bridoes.)  Tlie  elegant  Lruti.'. 
over  the  Allegheny  at  Pittsburg  and  that  over  the  *»)in.  nt 
Cincinnati  were  his  next  works.  His  hist  and  greate«.t  iitH{t>r- 
taking  was  the  bridge  across  the  Flast  river.  f«>niu'i-t  iiit: 
BnMiklyn  and  Xew  York,  which  at  the  time  of  its  t*nM-t  j..n 
was  the  longest  bridge  in  the  world.  (See  Brooklyn.)  '1  h* 
reports,  plans,  and  s])eciticati(ms  for  this  work  were  all  omn. 
pletcd  and  operations  begun  when  he  was  severely  iiijtiT«<i 
in  the  f(K>t;  loc^kjaw  succeeded  amputation,  and  he  «livd  in 
Brooklyn,  July  22, 1869.  His  Long  and  Short  Span  Urithjt  ^ 
in  press  at  the  time  of  his  death,  treats  of  the  advantai;«'s  ..t 
combined  sus})ension  and  arehed  bridges. — His  son «  \Va-*i!. 
iN(}TON  A.  RoKHLiNO,  succcetlcd  him  as  engineer  of  the  K;i-' 
river  bridge,  and  under  his  direction  it  was  completril  iii 
188^3.  lie  vised  by  Mansfield  Meb&iman. 


us 


ROGERS 


ROHLPS 


Rogers,  Randolph  :  sculptor;  b.  at  Waterloo,  N.  Y.,  July 
0, 18^ ;  was  in  early  life  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits  at 
Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  and  in  New  York ;  became  a  sculptor  in 
Rome ;  returned  to  New  York  after  a  few  years  with  the 
statues  of  Nydia,  A  Boy  and  Doa,  and  others,  which  pro- 
cured him  reputation ;  designed  ana  modeled  the  bronze  doors 
representing  scenes  in  the  life  of  Columbus,  for  the  eastern 
entrance  to  the  Capitol  extension  at  Washington  (1858) ;  was 
several  years  engaged  in  finishing  the  designs  for  the  Wash- 
ington Monument  at  Richmond,  Va.,  including  statues  of 
Mason,  Nelson,  and  the  two  Marshalls ;  executed  a  statue  of 
John  Adams,  now  in  Mt.  Auburn  Cemetery ;  llie  Angel  of 
the  Resurrection^  for  Col.  Colt's  monument  at  Hartford, 
Conn. ;  a  colossal  memorial  monument,  50  feet  high,  for  the 
State  of  Rhode  Island,  erected  at  Providence  1871,  and  one 
still  larger  for  Michigan,  erected  at  Detroit  1873,  surmount- 
ed respectively  by  statues  representing  America  and  Michi- 
gan. He  designed,  among  other  works,  the  colossal  bronze 
statue  of  Lincoln  unveiled  at  Philadelphia  1871,  and  a 
Oeniua  of  ConnectictU  for  the  State  Capitol  at  Hartford, 
Conn.  He  presented  the  entire  collection  of  casts  taken 
from  his  clay  models  to  the  University  of  Michigan.  D.  in 
Rome,  Italy,  Jan.  15, 1892.    Revised  by  Russell  Stubois. 

Rogers,  Richard:  clergyman;  b.  in  England  about  1550; 
became  a  Puritan  minister  1575.  His  Seven  Treatises  (Lon- 
don, folio,  1605 ;  also  1610, 1616. 1627,  and  1630)  constituted 
a  kind  of  theological  manual  much  used  by  the  Brownists, 
and  highly  esteemed  by  Wilson,  Hooker,  and  the  early  divines 
of  New  England.    D.  at  Weathersfield,  Essex,  Apr.  21, 1618. 

Rogers,  Robert  :  soldier  and  author ;  b.  at  Dunbarton, 
N.  H.,  in  1727;  commanded  during  the  "old  French  war" 
(1755-63)  the  celebrated  corps  of  frontiersmen  known  as 
Rogers'  Rangers,  distin^ishing  himself  in  the  campaigns 
on  Lake  George,  and  taking  a  prominent  part  in  the  defense 
of  Detroit  against  Pontiac ;  went  to  England  and  published 
A  Concise  Account  of  North  America  (London,  1765)  and 
Journals  of  Major  liohert  Rogers  (1765 ;  new  ed.  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  1888) ;  was  appointed  governor  of  Mackinaw,  Mich., 
but  was  soon  accused  of  plotting  to  deliver  that  post  to  the 
French,  and  was  sent  in  irons  to  Montreal  and  tried  by  court 
martial.  On  a  visit  to  England  in  1769  he  was  presented  to 
the  king;  after  imprisonment  for  debt  went  to  North  Africa, 
where  he  fought  two  battles  in  Algiers  under  the  dey ; 
was  in  Philadelphia  1775,  and  on  suspicion  of  being  a  spy 
was  imprisoned  by  order  of  Congress;  was  paroled,  but 
again  arrested  by  Washington,  Jan.,  1776 ;  was  sent  to  New 
Hampshire,  where  he  took  sides  for  the  crown,  and  raised 
a  company  of  loyalists  known  as  the  Queen's  Rangers,  of 
which  ne  became  colonel.  He  went  to  England  about  1777  ; 
was  proscribed  and  banished  in  1778 ;  returned  to  England, 
where  he  died  in  1800.  Besides  the  works  already  men- 
tioned, Rogers  wrote  Ponteach^  or  the  Savages  of  America^  a 
tragedy  in  blank  verse  (1766),  now  extremely  rare,  and  left 
in  MS.  a  Diary  of  the  Siege  of  Detroit  in  the  War  with 
Pontiac  (Albany,  1860;  new  ed.'l883). 

Rogers,  Robert  William,  M.  A.,  Ph.  D.,  D.  D. :  educator; 
b.  in  Philadelphia,  Feb.  14,  1864 ;  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  Johns  Hopkins  University,  and  at  the 
Universities  of  Leipzig  and  Berlin;  was  Professor  in  Haver- 
ford  College  1887-90 ;  Professor  of  English  Bible,  Dickin- 
son College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  1890-93 ;  Professor  of  Hebrew 
and  Old  Testament  Exegesis  in  Drew  Theological  Seminary, 
Madison,  N.  J.,  since  1893.  He  has  published  Two  Texts 
of  Esarhaddon  (('ambridge,  England.  1889) ;  Catalogue  of 
Manuscripts  {ch  iefly  Oriental)  in  the  Library  of  Haver  ford 
( 'ollege  (Cambridge,  England,  1890) ;  Unpublished  luscrip- 
tions  of  Emrhaddon  (Cambridge,  England,  1891):  The  tn- 
seriptions  of  Sennacherib  (London,  1892).         A.  Osborn. 

Borers,  Sami'el:  poet;  b.  at  Newington  Green,  Lon- 
don, July  30,  176;J;  son  of  a  London  banker,  whose  count- 
ing-house he  entered  in  boyhood ;  published  some  poetical 
trifles  in  The  Gentleman's  Magazine  about  1780,  ana  issued 
a  small  volume  of  verse  1780,  but  attracted  no  attention 
until  the  appearance  of  his  best  poem.  The  Pleamires  of 
Memory,  in  1792.  Succeeding  to  his  father's  large  estate 
1793,  he  soon  retired  from  aciive  business,  published  another 
volume  of  verse  1798,  and  in  1H03  established  himself  in  the 
house  No.  22  .St.  James's  Place.  London,  which  he  made  for 
half  a  century  a  kind  of  hoadi^uarters  of  literary  societv. 
He  was  the  intimate  (and  often  tlie  useful)  friend  of  nearly 
all  the  noted  literarv  men  in  (Jreat  Britain,  and  his  wealth, 
liberality,  and  social  qualiti»»s  gave  his  productions  a  vogue 
to  which  they  intrinsically  haid  no  clanu.     He  issued  edi- 


tions of  his  own  works  which  are  much  prized  for  their 
artistic  illustrations.  Among  them  were  The  Voyage  of 
Columbus  {IS12);  Jacqueline  {ISIS)  \  Human  Life  {ISlif):  mill 
Italy  (1822).  D.  in  London,  Dec.  18,  1855.  See  his  Tabh- 
talk  (1856),  by  Rev.  A.  Dyce,  and  Recollections  of  li**u*'rA 
(1859),  by  William  Sharpe.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beer.s. 

Rogers,  William  Bartox:  geologist  and  physi^iNt ; 
brother  of  Henry  Darwin  Rogers ;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Dec.  7, 1804 ;  gave  scientific  lectures  at  the  Maryland  In>ti- 
tute  1827 ;  succeeded  his  father.  Dr.  Patrick  K.  Rogers,  us 
Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  and  Chemistry  at  William 
and  Mary  College,  Virginia.,  1829:  filled  a  similar  posit  it  >n  in 
the  University  of  Virginia  1835-53;  organized  the  Virginia 
geological  survey  1835.  and  conducted  it  until  its  discont  inu- 
ance  in  1842 ;  removed  to  Boston,  Mass.,  1858;  lectured  be- 
fore the  Lowell  Institute  on  the  application  of  science  to  thf 
arts;  aided  in  founding  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  and  was  its  first  president  1862-68;  was  |»n>'- 
dent  of  t!no  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  1876,  and  of  the  National  Academy  of  Science  fmni 
1878.  Among  his  physical  papers  are  Strength  of  Mattria.'x 
(Charlottesville,  \a.,  1838)  and  Elements  of  Mechanical 
Philosophy  (Boston,  1852).  In  conjunction  with  his  brot  htr, 
he  published  an  essay  On  the  Physical  Structure  of  the  A  p- 
palachian  Chain,  as  Exemplifying  the  Laws  which  hove 
Regulated  the  Elevation  of  Oreat  Mountain  Chains  (it  n- 
erally  (in  Transactions  oi  the  Association  of  Ameritan 
Geologists  and  Naturalists,  1842).  His  geological  writings 
are  reprinted  in  Oeology  of  the  Virginians  (1884).  D.  in  Bos- 
ton, May  30, 1882.  Revised  by  G.  K  Gilbkrt. 

Rogersrille:  village;  capital  of  Hawkins  co.,  Tenn. ;  on 
the  Tenn.  and  Ohio  Branch  of  the  Southern  Railwav ;  3 
miles  N.  W.  of  the  Holston  river,  50  miles  E.  N.  K  of  Kin >\- 
ville  (for  location,  see  map  of  Tennessee,  ref.  5-J).  It  is  in 
an  agricultural  region,  and  contains  McMinn  Aca<li*ni>. 
Synodical  Female  College  (Presbyterian,  chartered  in  1H4S', 
several  quarries  of  variegated  marble,  a  roller  flr)iir-iinU, 
furniture-factory,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $75,0(K).  a 
private  bank,  and  three  weekly  newspai)ers.  Pop.  (isvo, 
740 ;  (1890)  1,153.  Editor  of  "Herald.'* 

Roget,  ro-zha',  Peter  Mark,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.:  physician  : 
b.  in  London,  England,  Jan.  18, 1779;  graduated  in  intnlic-ine 
at  Edinburgh  1798 ;  became  physician  to  the  infirmary  at. 
Manchester  1804;  settled  in  London  1808;  was  an  estri'intil 
lecturer  in  several  scientific  institutions,  and  the  first  Ful- 
lerian  Professor  of  Physiology  at  the  Royal  Institution;  for 
twenty  vears  secretary  of  the  Royal  Society  1827-47 ;  b«.*t*4inH- 
a  member  of  the  senate  of  London  University  1826 :  was 
president  of  the  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Societv  1?^*29-4U». 
and  became  examiner  in  physiology  to  London  Cniver>itv 
1839.  D.  at  Malvern,  Sept.  17, 1869.  He  published  A  n  hn  *ii 
and  Vegetable  Physiology  (Bridge water  Treatises,  No.  v., 
1SS4);  Physiology  and  Phrenology  (\mS);  and  A  The«auru,^ 
of  English  Words  and  Phrases  (1852 ;  12th  ed.  1881). 

Rogae  BiTer  Indians:  See  Athapascan  Indians  ;  aI>o 
Takilman  Indians. 

Bohilkhand':  a  division  of  the  Northwestern  Provin<-»-^, 
British  India;  bounded  E.  by  Oude,  W.  by  the  GaniJ^♦-^. 
Area,  10,884  sq.  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  railway  from 
Saharanpur  to  Lucknow.  It  received  its  name  from  the  U«  »- 
hillas,  an  Afghan  tribe,  which  settled  here  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century.    Pop.  (1891)  5,345.740.    M*  W,  J  I. 

Bohlfis,  Anna  Katharine  (Oreen) :  novelist ;  b.  in  Bro«  »k- 
Ivn,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  1 1, 1846.  She  was  marrieil  in  1884  to  Churl.  - 
Rohlfs,  and  afterward  removed  to  Buflfalo,  N.  Y.  Her  tiT-.t 
novel,  The  Leavenworth  Case  '(1878),  was  a  very  succvs.*-!  u. 
"detective"  story,  somewhat  after  the  school  of  Galx^riuu. 
This  was  followed  by  others  of  the  same  sensational  c»h;ir- 
acter,  including  A  Strange  Disappearance  (IHTO);  7  /,r 
Sword  of  Damocles  (1881);  Hand  and  Ring  (18^J):  7>i/ 
Mill  MyHtery  (1886) ;  besides  a  volume  of  verse.  The  Dtf»  /,,s# 
of  the  Bride  (1882),  and  a  drama,  Risifis  Daughter  (l?v*S7). 

H.  A.  BEtus. 

Bohlfs.  Gkrhard:  explorer ;  b.  at  Vegesack,  near  Bn^rnt ^n . 
Apr.  14.  1831;  studied  medicine  at  Heidelberg,  WOryUtir:^- 
and  Gottingen  ;  served  in  the  foreign  legion  of  the  Frtn«~i 
army  in  Algeria;  went  in  1860  to  Morot^co,  where  he  li\  ,  ,^ 
for  some  time  at  Fez,  and  traveled  widely  in  Mohainiiio«i.'iti| 
attire.  In  1862  he  exj)lore<l  the  oases  of  Tafllet.  lit*  ^v^ 
plored  (1863)  t  he  eastern  part  of  the  Greater  Atlas,  and  i>ii  >  h  ♦  \ 
south  to  Tuat  in  the  desert.  In  1865  he  startetl  on  lii^  f ;,, 
mous  journey  from  Tripoli  to  Lake  Tchad,  crossed  the  Nu^i  -i'  i 


150 


KOLLIX 


ROLLING-MILL 


Bollin«  ro  lan',  (Charles  :  historian  :  b.  in  Paris,  France. 
Jan.  30,  1661 ;  studied  theolo*^'  at  the  Sorbonne,  but  di<l 
not  take  orders;  was  appointed  professor  in  the  Collefje  de 
Fralice  in  1688 :  became  the  rector  of  tliat  university  in  1694, 
and  two  years  later  was  appointotl  coa<ljutor  at  the  College 
de  Beauvais.  He  lost  his  position  in  1712  because  he  was 
believed  to  hold  Jansenist  opinions,  but  was  reinstated  in 
1720.  I),  in  Paris,  Sept.  14,  1741.  His  Ijest-known  work  is 
Histoire  ancientie  (13  vols.,  1730-38),  which  has  often  been 
reprinted  bi»th  in  French  and  in  English.  His  other  works 
include  Histoire  romaine  (9  vols.,  17:38-48).  continued  by 
Crevier,  Lebeau,  and  Aineilhon,  and  Trnite  des  ettides, 

Kevised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

RolHn,  Ledru  :  See  Ledru-Rollin. 

Rolling-mills:  establishments  provided  with  machinery 
for  rolling  metal  (generally  in  a  neated  state)  into  sheets, 
bars,  rails,  rods,  or  wire,  'f  ho  most  important  are  for  iron 
and  steel,  and  it  is  these  that  are  described  in  this  article ; 
but  in  general  the  processes  are  the  same  for  other  metals. 
In  such  astablishments  the  typical  machine,  also  called  roll- 
ing-mill, is  an  apparatus  consisting  of  two  or  more  cylin- 
drical rolls,  with  smooth,  rough,  or  grooved  surfaces,  so  con- 
structed and  operated  as  to  reduce  a  billet  or  pile  of  heatetl 
iron  from  an  initial  form  as  received  from  the  heating  fur- 
nace to  an  intermediate  or  a  final  shape  called  for  by  the 
market  or  by  the  o^Mirations  to  which  the  metal  is  to  be 
submitted. 

This  reduction  of  a  mass  to  forms  of  smaller  cross-sec- 
tion is  performed  with  great  ease  and  raj)idity,  and  at  com- 
paratively small  cost  where  the  alternative  is  hammering 
or  the  use  of  tlie  hydraulic  press.  The  introduction  of  the 
rolling-mill  by  Henry  Cort  in  1783  was  the  most  effective 
step  in  the  production  of  cheap  wrought  iron  and  malleable 
steel,  with  tne  exception  of  the  IVssemer  process,  which  has 
signalized  the  pn)gress  of  invention  in  that  imi)ortant  field. 
The  first  operation  preparatory  to  th«  manufacture  of  wrought 
iron  is  that  of  puddlmg  (see  Iron),  or  the  removal  of  the 
carbon  and  silicon  from  the  cast  iron,  and  the  production  of 
a  puddle-ball,  or  a  bloom,  which  is  then  sometimes  given  a 
preliminary  shaping  under  the  hammer,  but  is  more  often 
taken  directly  to  the  rolls.  In  steel-making,  preliminarily  to 
the  use  of  the  rolling-mill,  the  oxidizable  constituents  of  the 
cast  iron  are  removed  by  burning  out,  in  the  Bessemer  con- 
verter or  in  the  Siemens-Martin  furnacie  (open-hearth  fur- 
nace), and  the  resulting  ingot  or  bloom  is  treated  as  is  wrought 
iron. 

The  first  milling  o|>pration  is  that  of  roughing  down,  in 
the  nmghing-mill  (a  |>air  of  rolls  with  rougheneil  surfaces) ; 
the  second  reduces  the  slabs  thus  formed  to  muck-bars,  be- 
tween smooth-surfaced  rolls,  and  these  bars  are  then  rolled 
into  the  forms  required  for  the  market  by  a  third  set  of 
rolls.  The  sjKJed  of  rotation  of  the  rolls  is  the  greater  as 
the  size  of  bar,  nni,  or  wire  is  less,  or  as  the  sheet  is  thinner. 
In  making  heavy  armor-plate  rolls  3  feet  or  more  in  diame- 
ter, turning  at  the  mte  or  fifty  rt»volutions  per  minute,  are 
used;  thin  plates  and  small  r(>ds  are  often  rolled  at  s))eeds 
several  times  as  great,  in  mills  having  rolls  8  or  10  inches 
in  liiameter.  In  merchant  mills  a  number  of  stands  of 
rolls  are  arranged  in  such  manner  as  to  j)ermit  the  con- 
venient passing  j>f  the  metal  from  the  larger  to  the  small- 
er, the  ingot  being  gra<lually  reduced  to  the  finished  nxl. 
sheet,  or  wire.  Tires  of  iron  are  rolle<l  from  a  ring,  which 
is  made  by  first  forging  a  disk  of  ]»ro]MT  dimensions  and 
punching  out  its  center  by  a  heavy  press  or  hammer,  and 
then  rolling  the  rim  thus  left  in  a  mill  made  especially  ft>r 
the  purpose.  If  made  of  sled,  the  ingot  is  ciist  in  the  de- 
sired form  for  introduction  into  the  mill. 

Mills  for  cold-n»lling  are  given  exceptional  strength,  and 
reduce  rods  and  bars  very  slightly,  in  tliccoNl  state,  thus 
greatly  increasing  their  strength  and  still  more  their  elas- 
ticity. The  etfert  of  this  process  wjis  found  by  Fairbairn, 
Whipjile,  and  Thurston,  who  maile  a  loiitr  and  complete 
study  of  the  siibjt'ct,  to  raise  the  tenacity  of  the  metal  50  to 
100  percent.,  to  elevate  the  elastic  limit  in  still  higher  pro- 
|)ortion,  and  greatly  to  reduce  the  ductility  and  malleabil- 
ity of  the  iron  and'  steel.  (Hmjitift^riiKj,  1878,  p.  347.)  A 
slitting-mill  consists  of  a  s<»t  of  rolls  with  dc«'}>  collars  and 
grooves  alternating,  the  upper  collars  fitting  tlie  gnK>ves  in 
the  lower  roll.  Between  the>e  n)lls  slicets  of  thin  metal  are 
(>assed,  and  by  them  dividcnl,  by  slitting,  intj)  a  number  of 
rods  of  rectangular  section,  the  collars  and  g^(K>vt•^  acting 
as  shears. 

Nearly  all  the  members  of  machines  and  structures  for 


which  iron  and  steel  are  suitable — shi|w,  roofs,  b< tilers, 
bridges,  railways  and  their  rolling  stock,  and  those  adapt<<l 
to  the  puriJoses'of  g«meral  engintMjring — are  so  desigiMHi  t  hat 
they  can  oe  rolle<l  or  compounded  of  rolled  forms,  for  tl.i^ 
method  of  manufacture  is  essential  to  their  uniformity  and 
cheapness,  and  this  condition  does  not  seriously  emLarra-* 
designers,  because  the  great  majority  of  desirable  forms  can 
be  rolled.  If  the  direct  prwliicts  of  the  rolling-mill,  tl  .- 
leading  types  of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  1,  are  of  unsuitabif 


■•^-X--^^ 


Fio.  2.— Two-higb 
mill. 


Fio.  1. 

figure  or  size,  endless  modifications  may  be  produced  by  com- 
pounding them.  It  is  only  necessary  in  any  rolled  bar  that 
the  cross-section  shall  be  uniform  throughout  its  length,  and 
that  none  of  the  grooves  required  in  the  rolling  shall  l»e 
wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.  The  chair-bar  Y  and 
the  form  X  (Fig.  1)  coidd  not  be  rolled  directly ;  the  flanges 
must  be  folded  down  by  a  subsequent  operation. 

The  leading  features  of  improvement  have  been  (1)  in- 
creased capacity,  due  to  larger    size,  better  proportiona, 
stronger  materials,  and  notably  to  better 
workmanship.    (2)  The  arrangement  of  the 
rolls  so  as  to  work  both  ways.     In  a  simple 
two-high  mill  (Fig.  2),  running  constantly 
in  one  direction,  the  bar,  after  piussiiig  be- 
tween the  rolls,  must  be  drawn  back  by 
hand  over  the  top  roll,  and  entered  again 
for  another  compression;    thus  half   the 
time  and  a  considerable  amount  of  heat  are 
wasted,  and    unproductive    labor   is  per- 
formed.    The  first  remedy  w»is  to  reverse  the  motion   t^i 
the  n)lls  after  the  bar  had  pa.sse<l  through,  so  that    tlit-y 
would  draw  the  liar  back  again,  and  in  so  doing  com presv^  ii. 
The  reversing  is  usually  effectetl 
by  gearing    and    clutches,  and 
sometimes  by  reversing  suddenly 
a  double  engine  running  without 
a  fly-wheel.      In  any  case    the 
reversing  machinery  is  costly  to 
construct,  wastes  power,  and  re- 
quires   many    repaii*s.      In    the 
three-high  mill  (Fig.  3)  the  bar 
is  entered  at   the   front  of  the 
train,  between  the  middle  and 
bottom  rolls,  and  at  the  n»ar  of 
the  train  between  the  middle  and 
toj>  rolls.     The  engine  runs  con- 
stantly   in   one    direction,  thus 
avoiding  the  shock  and  delay  of 
reversing ;    and    the    additional 
labor,  as  compared  with  the  reversing  mill,  is  the   liftiii,: 
of  the  bar  on  the  back  of  the  train  through  the  heiirhi    « - 
the  middle  roll.     In  light  work,  such  as  rails,  which   ur»> 
in  any  case  pjussed  to  and  fro  by  the  workmen  <m  hor»k-s  .  t 
swinging  levers,  this  additional*  lal)or  is  very  small,  wLii, 
heavy  work  is  raised  by  tables  moved  by  steam-power. 

The  other  notable  nieans  of  |)erforming  work  on  tht*  \ 
at  both  passes  is  Brown's  double  mill  (Fig.  4),  inlriMluctMi 
EnglaiHl.  It  consists  of  two  com- 
plete anil  distinct  sets  of  two-high 
rolls  in  double  housings,  the  two  sets 
njoving  in  opposite  din*cti<»ns.  The 
bar  Ix'ing  enten*<i  at  II,  passes  be- 
tween the  rolls  A  A  without  touch- 
ing them,  deep  gn>oves  being  cut  in 
the  rolls  for  the  nuriMise.  The  bar 
is  caught  an<l  nMiueiKl  by  the  r(»lls 
B  B.    Before  the  return  pass  the  bar  is  moved  laterally 


Fig.  8.— Three-hiifh  mill. 


1  2] 


.v^.!/^' 


r^ 


Fio.  4.- 


Brown*>i»at»>tit 
miU. 


«Tj. 


then  it  is  entered  in  another  groove  and  {lasses  between    i  \ , 


152 


ROLLO 


ROMAN  ARCHJEOLOGY 


must  be  kept  at  work  in  order  to  be  profitable ;  and  this 
can  be  done  only  in  extensive  works. 

Later  improvements  have  included  the  extensive  employ- 
ment of  automatic  devices  in  all  departments  and  of  hy- 
draulic transmission  of  power,  and  the  use  of  often  enormous 
hydraulic  presses  in  place  of  the  steam-hammer  for  reducing 
ingots  and  shaping  heavy  plates,  as  well  as  in  forcnng  large 
masses  of  all  descriptions.  Alexander  L.  Holley. 

Revised  by  R.  H.  Thurston. 

Bollo :  the  celebrated  conqueror  of  Normandy.  Accord- 
ing to  the  saga  of  Uarald  llaarfager  he  was  a  son  of  Ragn- 
vald,  jarl  of  More,  and  was  called  Ganger  Rolf — that  is, 
Walking  Rolf — because  he  was  so  large  and  heavv  that  no 
horse  could  carry  him.  Harald  Pairhair  drove  him  into 
exile,  and  this  led  to  his  crossing  the  seas  and'  founding  Nor- 
mandy. According  to  Dudo,  of  St.  yuentin,  who  wrote  the 
history  of  Normandy  in  the  eleventh  century,  Rollo  was 
the  son  of  a  Danish  chief,  and  on  account  of  trouble  with 
the  Danish  king  fled  from  his  native  country,  fought  for 
many  years  in  France,  and  finally  ^ot  possession  of  Nor- 
mandy. The  Icelandic  version  making  nim  a  Norwegian 
is  that  most  generally  accepted.  In  012  Rollo  made  peace 
with  Charles  the  Simple  in  St.  Clair.  He  received  for  him- 
self and  his  followers  the  country  along  the  banks  of  the 
Seine  river,  between  the  little  rivers  Epte  and  Kure.  lie 
and  his  men  accepted  the  Christian  religion,  and  Rollo  was 
baptized  at  Rouen  and  took  the  name  and  title  Duke  Robert. 
He  is  thought  to  have  been  over  eighty  years  of  age  at  the 
time  of  his  death  in  930.  William  the  Conqueror  was  his 
great-grandson.    See  Normans.        Rasmus  B.  Anderson. 

Rolls,  Master  of  the :  See  Master. 

Romagnosi,  rd-maan-yo  s(H),  Gian  Domenico  :  jurist  and 
philosopher;  b.  at  Salso  Maggiore,  near  Piacenza,  Italy, 
I)ec.  13,  1761 ;  in  1786  took  his  legal  degree  at  Pavia ;  at 
thirty  years  of  age  published  his  La  Oetiesi  del  Diritto 
Penate,  which  was  highly  esteemed  both  in  Germany  and  in 
Italy.  In  1791  he  occupied  important  civil  offices  in  Trent, 
where  he  continued  to  pra(?tice  as  an  advocate  ;  in  1803  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Law  at  Parma,  a  position  which  he 
retained  till  1806,  when  he  was  called  to  Milan  to  assist  in 
digesting  a  code  of  penal  procedure,  which  was  afterward 
adopted.  Later  a  chair  was  created  expressly  for  him  in 
Milan.  Upon  the  fall  of  the  Bonapartist  kingdom  of  Italy 
he  had  to  endure  poverty  and  imprisonment.  Being  set  at 
liberty,  he  continued  his  labors  under  great  privations,  sup- 
porting himself  by  private  lessons.  I),  in  C'orfu,  June  8, 
18i}5.  An  edition  of  his  works  in  19  vols,  was  published  in 
Florence  (1832-35)  and  in  Milan  (15  vols.,  18:i6^')).  The 
most  noted  of  his  philosophical  writings  are  Che  eosa  e  la 
vienfe  sana  f,  La  auprema  economia  dell'  umano  sapere^  and 
Vedute  fotvdamenlcui  suW  arte  logicn, 

Romaic :  the  name  applied  to  the  vernacular  language  of 
the  modern  Greeks.    See  Greek  Language. 

Romalne,  William  :  clergyman ;  b.  at  HartleiM>ol,  Dur- 
ham, England,  Sept.  25,  1714;  studied  in  Oxfonl;  was  or- 
dained a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England  in  1786, 
and  was  appointed  Professor  of  Astronomy  in  Grcsham  Col- 
lege, and  rector  of  St.  Ann's.  Blackfriars,  London,  where  he 
died  July  26,  1795.  His  sermon  on  The  Lord  our  Bight- 
eousness,  published  early  in  his  career,  was  so  strongly  Cal- 
vinistic  that  immediately  after  its  delivery  he  was  i)racti- 
cally  excluded  from  the  pulpit  in  Oxfonl,  but  in  London  his 
preaching  was  much  appreciated.  He  became  an  acknowl- 
edged leader  in  the  evangelical  party  in  the  English  Church, 
and  his  writings  have  a  reputation  among  the  adherents  of 
this  school  of  theological  tnought. 

Roman  Archeology:  the  history  of  ancient  Home,  as 
illustrated  by  the  remains  of  its  architecture  and  works  of 
art. 

Development  ok  Art  in  Rome. 

The  Period  of  IleUenie.  and  Etruscan  Inflnenre. — Be- 
fore the  establishment  of  Greek  colonies  in  Southern  Italy 
the  site  of  Rome  was  occupied  by  liatins  of  a  low  civiliza- 
tion. Roman  culture  first  received  a  higher  impulse  whon 
the  colonies  from  Magna  Gnecia  began  to  extend  their  civil- 
izing influence  toward  Latium  and  Etruria.  This  was  felt 
by  Rome,  partly  in  a  direct  and  partlv.in  an  indirect  wav, 
through  the  coast  towns  of  Southern  IiJtruria,  where  in  earfy 
times  a  rich  industrial  art,  inspired  by  (Jreek  models,  had 
been  developed.  The  Etruscan  temple,  th(»  tempi  urn  Thm- 
ranirum,  followed,  as  far  as  our  kiiowledi^e  extends,  the 
Grecian  Doric  type.    The  ground  plan,  however,  aj)proached 


more  to  a  square,  the  pediments  were  higher,  the  intera< 
lumniations  wider,  and  the  building  rested  upon  a  high.  lA 
long  terrace,  up  to  the  front  of  which  led  an  orieii  fliulit  < 
steps.  The  olaest  temple  in  Rome,  the  temple  of  Jujut^ 
upon  the  Capitol,  built  bv  Tarquinius  Priscus,  was  in  \h 
Tuscan  style.  Also,  the  clay  image  of  the  gotl  plactMl  in  tli* 
temple,  and  the  quadriga  of  the  same  material  over  the  pi-<!il 
ment,  were  works  by  an  Etruscan  artist.  The  statue  l.i .! 
the  thunderbolt  in  ita  right  hand,  and  in  its  left  probably  t 
scepter.  The  flesh  was  painted  red,  and  the  color  wa>  re 
newed  from  time  to  time.  The  costume  of  the  figure  vim^ 
sisted  of  a  removable  wreath,  probably  of  gold,  and  of  tf.^ 
toaa  palmata,  a  garment  decorated  with  Asiatic  designs,  iii 
which  the  statue  was  draped  on  festal  occasions.  On  rh<j 
other  hand,  the  wooden  image  of  Diana  placed  in  the  ti'rn- 
pie  dedicated  to  this  goddess  by  Servius  Tullius,  on  ifj.j 
Aventine  Hill,  appears  to  have  been  a  Greek  work,  or  ai 
least  a  copy  of  one,  for  it  exactly  resembled  an  idol  that  t{.  < 
Phocieans  had  brought  with  them  to  Massilia  (the  uuMltrn^ 
Marseilles). 

Only  a  few  examples  of  building  in  stone  remain  ti>  .i 
from  this  ancient  period.  First  among  these  is  the  Ser\i.t. 
city  wall,  built  of  colossal  blocks  of  tufa,  without  cemri.i : 
then  the  reservoir  (Tullianum),  at  the  foot  of  the  C«|)ii. .. 
the  covering  of  which  is  formed  with  layers  of  stone  pl:u  •  •: 
over  each  other,  gradually  projecting  inward  as  they  n-' 
and  finally  the  vaulted  Cloaca  Maxima,  built  by  Tarquiui..^ 
Priscus  in  onler  to  collect  the  subterranean  springs  ti.u: 
percolated  through  the  Roman  soil,  as  well  as  to  drain  ari.. 
dry  the  morasses  of  the  Velabnim  and  Forum.  The  ori-- 
nal  form  of  this  gigantic  work  has  been  greatly  nuMlif..  i 
by  later  restorations.  Other  sewers  have  been  "dis<-over»-: 
which  almost  surpassetl  the  Cloaca  Maxima  in  size  anil 
length  of  channel  and  drained  almost  as  vast  an  area. 

Of  the  first  centuries  of  the  republic  evidences  reniniri. 
showing  an  increase  of  the  direct  Greek  influence.  \VI»tt, 
it  was  decided  to  decorate  the  temple  of  Ceres  (dedieaT.-i 
485  B.  r.)  near  the  Circus  Maximus,  two  Greeks,  Damophi- 
lus  and  Gorgasus,  distinguished  both  as  modelers  in  vlw 
(pla«t(e)  and  as  }>ainters,  were  called  to  Rome.  The  types  • : 
trie  Roman  copper  coinage  (which  begins  under  the  Dw*  m- 
vii-s,  451-449  B.  r.)  are  formed  after  Greek  patterns.  Tl  .• 
statue  erected  upon  the  Comitium  to  the  interpreter  of  il)-- 
Decemvirs,  the  Ephesian  Ilermodorus,  appears  also  to  hav.- 
been  the  work  of  a  Greek  hand.  Still  we  must  not  In*  bliii'l 
to  the  fact  that  the  earliest  protlucers  of  works  in  bn»n/.' 
were  called  by  the  Romans  ^  olkani  (hence  Vulcanus),  fn»ni 
Vulci  their  place  of  origin  and  center  of  activity. 

Especially  indicative  of  the  physiognomy  of  Rome,  a-  it 
appeared  in  the  fifth,  fourth,  and  in  some  quarters  of  tl-. 
city  also  during  the  two  following  centuries,  is  the  known 
fact  of  the  employment  of  Damophiliis  and  Gorga>u>  tL> 
architects.  The  manner  of  ornamentation  em  ploy  wl  \'\ 
these  artists  was  that  of  a  polychmme,  terra-cot ta  styl»-. 
early  abandoned  in  Greece,  but  long  in  vogue  in  Latium  bii«1 
Etruria.  The  walls,  whether  of  brick  or  of  timWr,  wer»*  in- 
crusted  with  plates  of  terra-cot  ta,  upon  which  were  paiiitid 
ornamental,  and  sometimes  also  figurative,  represenlatinn^. 
Polychrome  figures  in  terra-cotta  adorned  the  pediment ^  ^'f 
the  temples.  Fragments  of  stucco  decorations  made  in  tlii> 
manner  have  been  found  as  well  in  the  Etruscan  cities  as  in 
Rome  upon  the  Esijuiline.  They  show  the  vast  exten>ion, 
and,  since  they  represent  a  succession  of  different  stape>  i«f 
style  following  each  other,  the  long  duration  as  well,  uf  ihi> 
method  of  ornamentation. 

A  contrast  to  this  gay  variety  was  offered  by  the  dark-gray 
blocks  of  peperino,  of  which  the  substructions  of  the  urn- 
pies  and  of  tne  public  buildings  generally  were  formetl,  al- 
though it  is  prooable  that  even  of  these  tfie  most  proniineTii 
architectural  members  were  rendered  more  conspicuou^  l»y 
the  addition  of  color  or  of  metallic  incrustations. 

A  fact  of  much  significance,  in  reference  to  the  diffu^i"n 
of  Hellenic  views  of  art  among  the  Romans,  occurs  at  tin- 
end  of  this  perifxl.  In  the  year  301  B.  c.  a  Roman  patrician. 
(\  Pabius.  executed  with  his  own  hand  paintings  in  the  tt*n»- 
ple  of  Salus ;  and  the  branch  of  this  distinguishe<l  fannly 
that  descended  from  him  received  the  surname  of  "t!.«' 
painters  "  {Pictoren).  The  forms  of  the  designs,  howevt-r. 
nssunieil  in  many  respects  a  peculiarly  Italic  character—u 
different  stamp  from  tne  true  Greek  art.'  This  fact  is  jinvnl 
by  the  di^icovery  of  a  copy  from  one  of  the  original  paint- 
ings by  Fabius'Pictor.  This  is  illustrated  by  Viscoiiti  in 
vol.  xvii.  (IHSO)  of  tlie  Bulhttino  areheologieo  Comunal*,  p. 
'MO.    This  copy,  dating  from  the  seventh  century  of  Rome, 


154 


ROMAN  ARCHEOLOGY 


ruins  of  which  bear  witness  to  the  simple  grandeur  of  the 
work. 

Meanwhile  the  terrible  conflagration  under  Nero  (a.  d.  64) 
had  occurred.  Of  the  fourteen  city  wards  {regiones)  three 
were  entirely,  and  seven  well-nigh  entirely,  destroyed.  A 
countless  number  of  Roman  monuments  venerable  for  age, 
as  well  as  many  masterpieces  of  Greek  art,  were  sacrificed. 
Yet  this  misfortune  was  not  without  its  advantage  to  the 
city,  for  the  government,  in  rebuilding  the  city  after  the 
conflagration  in  Nero*s  time,  took  measures  to  make  the 
streets  wider  and  straighter.  In  consequence  of  the  de- 
struction of  entire  Quarters  of  the  city,  room  was  obtained 
for  the  erection  of  large  public  buildings.  Nero's  Golden 
House,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Esnuiline  Hill,  with  its  sur- 
rounding houses  and  parks  extending  into  the  valley  be- 
tween the  Rsquiline  and  Cjplian  Hills,  requires  only  a  pass- 
ing notice ;  for  immediately  after  the  emperor's  death  (a.  d. 
68),  the  whole  establishment,  with  all  its  luxurious  appoint- 
ments, fell  into  decay.  On  the  site  of  the  artificial  lake, 
within  the  gartiens  of  the  Golden  House.  Vespasian  began 
to  build  the  Colosseum.  The  palace  itself  was  utilized  by 
Titus,  in  part,  as  a  foundation  for  his  baths. 

Architecture  received  a  new  impulse  under  Trajan,  who 
employed  an  excellent  Greek  architet^t,  Apollodorus  of 
Damascus.  Under  the  direction  of  this  artist  the  Porum 
of  Trajan  was  erected  to  the  N.  of  that  of  Augustus.  The 
constructive  activity  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian  is  exempli- 
fied in  the  double  temple  of  Venus  and  Roma  on  the  Velia, 
the  plan  of  which  the  emperor  designed  with  his  own  hand 
(a.  d.  135).  It  was  composed  of  two  temples,  having  a 
single  roof  covered  with  tiles  of  gilded  bronze.  The  cellie 
of  the  two  temples  adjoined  each  other,  and  the  whole  was 
surrounded  by  a  double  |)ortico  of  granite  columns.  The 
Mausoleum  of  Hadrian  (Castle  of  St.  Angelo),  begun  by 
that  emperor  and  completed  (a.  d.  140)  by  Antoninus  Pius, 
consisted  of  a  sc^uare  substructure,  upon  which  stood  a  ter- 
race-like superstructure  covered  with  marble  and  adorned 
with  statues.  From  the  time  of  the  Antonines,  besides 
the  column  in  honor  of  M.  Aurelius,  we  have  remaining 
only  the  temple  of  the  elder  Faustina,  erected  a.  d.  141,  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Forum,  and  afterward  likewise  dedi- 
cated to  the  memory  of  Antoninus  Pius.  The  portico,  with 
its  ten  columns  of  costly  Eulxpan  (cipollino)  marble,  left 
un fluted,  is  still  standing,  besides  a  portion  of  the  cella, 
which  is,  however,  well-nigh  robbetl  of  its  marble  facing. 
The  back  part  of  the  cella  has  l>een  turned  into  the  Church 
of  S.  Lorenzo  in  Miranda.  After  the  Antonines  many  sump- 
tuous buildings  were  erected  in  Rome.  Caracalla  strove 
to  surpass  all  his  predecessors  in  the  colossal  baths,  capable 
of  holaing  1,600  blithers,  which  he  commenced  on  the  south- 
east side  of  the  Aventine  Hill,  near  the  Via  Appia,  but 
which  were  not  completed  until  the  time  of  Alexander 
Severus.  Onlv  the  bnck-faced  m^isonry  walls  which  formed 
the  main  bo<{y  of  the  building  remain.  The  city  wall  of 
Aurelian  was  constructed  in  view  of  the  constantly  increas- 
ing danger  from  the  encroachments  of  the  barbarians.  The 
Imths  of  Diocletian,  on  the  Viminal,  were  still  more  exten- 
sive than  those  of  Caracalla.  Two  large  halls,  which  once 
formed  a  portion  of  the  baths  of  Diocletian,  are  now  in- 
cluded in  tlie  churches  of  S.  Bernardo  and  Sta.  Maria  degli 
Angcli.  The  basilica  on  the  Velia,  with  its  three  aisles,  was 
built  by  Maxentius,  and  remodeled  by  his  successful  rival, 
Constantino.  Throe  of  the  arches  still  stand,  though  robbetl 
of  their  oricrinal  ornamentation.  They  are  of  an  enormous 
span,  and  have  sorve<l  as  models  to  many  architects  of  mod- 
em times.  Constantine  presented  the'citv  of  Rome  with 
baths  which  were  situated  on  the  yuirinal ;  but  the  archi- 
tectural energy  of  that  emperor  was  mainly  expended  ui)on 
his  new  capital  in  the  East. 

Interior  Decoration. — In  interior  decoration  much  was 
done  with  rare  and  l>eautiful  colored  niarl»les.  and  this 
manner  of  ornament  ing  wall -surf  a^-es  was  maintained  to 
the  very  end  of  the  imperial  e|MH*h.  Inlaying  of  one  mar- 
ble or  other  fiiie-veincMl  st4»ne  with  another  wjis  freely  used. 
Glass  also,  either  colored  in  its  b4>jly  or  with  the  surface 
moulded  in  ornamental  reliefs,  wrs  u^^ed  for  wall-tiles.  In 
the  earlier  stages  of  the  Siiine  period  the  decoration  (»f  in- 
teriors was  chiefly  fresco,  ancl  in  private  hous^-s  the  (4 reek 
manner  of  the  time  of  Alexan«ler's  successors  w«s.  for  the 
most  part,  foUowni.  During  this  fHM-iod  the  s|H>liation  of 
the  Grecian  republics,  partly  by  plunder  and  fmrtly  by  pur- 
chase, brought  into  the  |)ossessi(iTi  of  the  con<pier<»rs  a  con- 
siderable collection  of  punel-jjaintinirs,  and  the  cu«;tnm  wjis 
then  intrmhiced  (»f  using  these  pi<*tures  as  the  central  orna- 


ment of  the  wall.  Not  every  one,  however,  was  able  to  (»l»- 
tain  a  sufticient  number  even  to  meet  the  demands  nf  .i 
moderately  sized  dwelling.  It  was  necessar>',  then,  to  call  \u 
the  aid  of  the  fresco-painter,  who  supplied'  the  lack  of  tl.. 
actual  panels  by  imitations  executed  on  the  stucco  of  th. 
walls.  This  m(xle  of  decoration,  originating  on  the  eastt-m 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  was  imitated  by  the  Romun^ 
even  in  the  the  third  century  before  Christ,  and  ctmtinueil 
among  the  less  opulent  down  to  the  period  of  the  tle<'line  of 
classical  culture.  In  Rome  and  Pompeii,  the  pictures  ^hidi 
occupy  the  center  of  the  walls  are  clearly  imitations  of  panrl- 
paintings,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  simulated  frames  which 
surround  them.  Where  more  extensive  compositions  mere 
to  be  represented,  the  imitation  of  panel-pamtings  would 
have  given  a  heavy,  cumbersome  effect;  to  avoid  thi^  tlje 
artists  resorted  to  the  device  of  representing  the  walls  with 
imaginar}'  openings,  the  pictures  appearing  as  if  seen  thn>ut:li 
these  openings.  In  this  manner,  for  instance,  the  pictunn 
of  lo  and  Galatea  on  the  Palatine  Hill  were  treated.  More 
extensive  spaces,  such  as  corridors,  courts,  and  garden-iN>r- 
ticoes,  were  sometimes  decorated  in  fresco  with  imaginar> 
outlooks  upon  parks,  grounds,  and  sea^iorts.  The  best  tU^ 
covery  in  this  line  is  that  of  the  ''painted  house'*  in  thr 
Trastevere.  It  came  to  light  in  18H0,  near  the  Imnks  of 
the  Tiber,  at  I^a  Famesina.  Its  magnificent  set  of  frcM-^ws. 
dating  from  the  age  of  Augustus,  is  now  exhibited  in  Michel- 
angelo's cloisters  at  La  Certosa. 

ikulpture. — In  the  Roman  sculpture  of  tlds  period  two 
tendencies,  the  idealistic  and  the  realistic,  may  be  distin- 
guished. The  first  occupies  itself  si)ecially  with  mvtholojrv. 
but  also  sometimes  takes  to  the  portrait  and  to  the  repri^ 
sentation  of  scenes  from  daily  life.  It  work  is  not  original, 
in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word,  but  is  limited,  in  a  grc^trr 
or  less  degree,  to  models  from  the  preceding  Greek  deve]o|»- 
ment.     This  already  shows  itself  among  the  artists  ein- 

Sloyed  in  the  service  of  Metellus  Macedonicus.  Several  eM- 
ences  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  these  artists  s<mietini«^ 
re-treated  archaic  Greek  types  in  the  spirit  of  free  art. 
Through  a  series  of  works  tliat  have  l»een  preserve<l  we  an- 
made  acquainted  with  a  group  of  Athenian  artists  who  lived 
in  the  last  century  before  Christ.  The  most  distinguisheil 
among  these  are  Apollonius,  son  of  Nestor,  the  sculptor  of  t  he 
Hercules  torso  in  the  Vatican  (probably  identical  with  that 
Apollonius  who,  after  the  bunting  of  the  (*apitoline  Jnpit«>r 
in  the  time  of  Sulla,  executed  the  statue  of  the  god  dcsi^m-d 
for  the  new  building);  Cleomenes,  son  of  Apollodorus.  ihf 
artist  of  the  Medicean  Venus:  Cleomenes,  son  of  CMeomen«>. 
author  of  the  fine  portrait-statue  in  the  Ijouvre  mistaken l> 
called  Oermanicus.  This  last  statue  re()eat8  the  motive  i>( 
an  archaic  type  of  Hermes.  The  Medicean  Venus  beltmirs  i*> 
those  figures  which  through  a  series  of  interme<Uate  staiT'-^ 
are  gradually  derived  from  the  Cnidian  Aphrodite  of  Pnix- 
iteles.  Glykon,  one  of  the  latest  artists  of  tne  group  referred 
to,  in  the  execution  of  his  statue  of  Herakles  (ramcsian 
Hercules,  Naples),  followed  a  type  probably  designed  by  tin- 
second  Attic  school  in  the  fourth  century  b.  c.  The  iiaiu- 
ralistic  treatment  and  the  exaggerate<l  expression  of  physical 
strength  belong  only  to  the  artists  of  the  imperial  tin»es. 
We  may  with  entire  certainty  formulate  our  judgment  <M.n- 
cerning  these  artists,  that  for  the  conception  they  were  >ul»- 
stantially  dependent  upon  ancient  works,  but  that  in  th** 
execution  they  showed  independence,  and  thus  lent  a  ne\% 
charm  to  the  motives  repriKluced. 

A  peculiar  direction  was  taken  by  the  school  of  Pa>^it«lc'H. 
himstdf  a  versatile  artist  of  the  last  century  before  Clirivr. 
There  is  extant  the  statue  of  an  Kphebus,  with  an  instilla- 
tion (Villa  A Ibani),  executed  by  a  scholar  of  Pasiteles.  Sie- 
phanus;  also  a  marble  group  (Villa  Ludovisi),  generally  con- 
sidered to  represent  the  meeting  of  Orestes  and  Elect ra.  iimi 
shown  by  the  inscTiption  to  be  the  work  of  Menelaus,  a  j  n- 
pil  of  Stephanus.  P^clecticism,  which  presupjxises,  in  aW 
cases,  a  def>endence  upon  earlier  works,  must  be  con^idm  d 
the  essential  characteristic  of  the  school  of  Pasiteles.  \%lii!i- 
the  kind  and  degree  of  that  dej»endence  may  in  some  in- 
stances l)e  disputable.  The  manner  of  treatment,  howextT. 
'  rtMuains  as  an  unquesticmed  merit  of  these  artists.  The  mi  no- 
is  claimed  f(»r  Arcesilaus.  who  wrought  the  statue  of  l)»e 
goddess  fc»r  the  temple  of  Venus  Genet rix,  deilicatt^l  l»> 
Cnsar  in  46  B.  v. 

in  other  works  of  sculpture  also,  belonging  to  the  ej^^xdi 

under  c<»nsideration.  the  authors  of  which  are  unknown,  n*- 

<'ent  iTivestiiraticHis  have  shown  the  same  def>enflen<'o  upon 

I  ancient  unKlels.    The  well-known  group  representine  Venn^ 

I  and  Mars,  probably  connectetl  with  a  work  placed  in  iK«' 


156 


ROMAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 


so  much  to  the  execution,  of  which  there  was  no  reason  to 
complain,  as  to  the  conception ;  and  this  supposition  is 
strikingly  confirmed  bv  an  investigation  of  the  originals  re- 
produced by  the  mural  painters.  The  compositions  occur- 
ring in  these  frescoes,  representing  scenes  from  Grecian 
mythology  and  from  ancient  daily  life  ideally  depicted,  are 
by  no  means  conceptions  of  the  imperial  period,  out  rather 
creations  of  true  Greek  art,  reproduced  here  with  more  or 
less  freedom.  Some  of  these  compositions  have  been  traced 
back  with  certainty,  or  at  least  probability,  to  known  Greek 
masters.  We  can  easily  understand  that  the  selection  of 
the  compositions  to  be  reproduced  in  fresco  should  fall  es- 
pecially upon  those  of  the  Alexandrian  period  ;  for  this  de- 
velopment lay  nearest  the  Romans  in  respect  to  time,  and 
exercised  also  in  other  directions  a  manifold  influence  upon 
their  civilization.  Very  few  wall-paintings  can,  with  any 
probability,  be  traced  to  originals  earlier  than  the  time  of 
Alexander.  Among  the  examples  found  in  Rome  we  may 
reckon  as  properly  belonging  to  these  only  the  Nozze  Aldo- 
brandini  (Vatican  Library),  the  composition  and  forms  of 
which  do  not  show  the  artistic  principle  which  was  brought 
to  full  development  in  the  time  of  the  Macedonian  hero. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  art  of  the  Alexandrian  and  Diadochi 
age  occupied  itself  less  with  grand  subjects  of  a  monu- 
mental character  (megalographia)  than  with  those  suited 
for  cabinet  pictures  intendea  for  private  enjoyment.  As 
these  cabinet  pictures  were  not  rich  in  figures,  and  were 
of  proportionally  small  dimensions,  and  as  they  did  not  so 
much  attempt  powerfully  to  strike  the  spectator  by  the 
grandeur  of  the  subject  as  to  impress  him  agreeably  by 
graceful  representations  of  situations  easily  understood, 
they  were  well  adapted  for  reproduction  in  Roman  mural 
painting.  In  Roman  dwellings  these  pictures,  being  placed 
m  the  centers  of  walls  generally  very  limited  as  to  space,  sat- 
isfied all  the  demands  which  could  reasonably  be  made  upon 
such  a  style  of  decoration,  and  afforded  an  agreeable  rest- 
ing-point  for  the  eye,  without  absorbing  the  attention.  The 
subject  of  the  scenes  represented,  and  the  sentiments  asso- 
ciated with  them,  were  as  perfectly  comprehensible  to  the 
Roman  even  if  he  did  not  understand  the  Greek  language,  as 
to  the  Greek  of  the  Diadochi  period  ;  for  the  Latin  poetry  of 
the  Augustan  age  had  borrowed  many  of  its  themes  from  the 
Alexandrian  poetry  which  had  inspired  these  very  pictorial 
compositions,  and  they  treated  the  same  subjects  as  their 
predecessors  had  done,  and  in  the  same  spirit. 

In  Roman  fresco-painting  an  important  place  is  occupied 
by  the  landscape,  a  province  of  art  which  also  came  into 
independent  development  during  the  age  of  the  successors 
of  Alexander.  The  most  beautiful  extant  paintings  of  this 
kind  are  the  landscapes  discovered  on  the  Esquiline,  with 
scenes  from  the  Odyssey  (Vatican  Library).  The  essential 
merit  of  the  artist  who  originated  the  Odyssean  pictures 
lies  in  the  plastic  development  of  the  landscape,  in  the 
clear  arrangement  of  the  planes,  the  harmony  of  the  pro- 
portions, and  the  nobility  of  form  in  the  figures  introduced. 

An  exclusively  realistic  tendencv  manifests  itself  only  in 
the  mural  painting  of  a  very  inferior  kind.  In  Pompeii 
this  class  of  pictures  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  houses  of 
a  very  poor  character.  After  the  year  79  a.  d.,  in  which  the 
Campanian  towns  were  buried  by  the  unexpected  eruption 
of  Vesuvius,  we  can  no  longer  follow  with  any  certainty  the 
history  of  this  art ;  however,  the  few  frescoes  of  later  'date 
which  are  preserved  to  us  show  that  then,  as  before,  they  re- 
peated the  traditional  mythological  motives  transmitted 
from  the  eariier  antiquity,  but  that  at  the  same  time  the 
execution  deteriorated  from  generation  to  generation.  The 
paintings  of  a  tomb  on  the  Via  Latina,  belonging  to  the 
Hadrian  period,  show  already  a  considerable  decline,  as  far 
as  the  freshness  and  energy  of  the  work  are  concerned, 
when  we  compare  them  with  the  average  of  the  mytholog- 
ical pictures  of  Pompeii.  The  rise  of  Christianitvdid  not 
tend  to  arrest  this  decline,  but  rather  hastened  its  down- 
ward course.  Unlike  paganism,  which  in  all  times  hatl 
permitted  a  high  degree  of  independence  in  the  treatment 
of  the  forms  of  the  gods  and  of  all  mythological  subjects, 
the  Church  kept  art  closely  haiiipere<r  by  the  bands  of  an 
orthodox  discipline  which  could  not  but  be  detrimental  to 
it.  The  programme  of  the  Christian  faith  was  especially 
announced  by  means  of  pictures  in  mosiiic,  a  species  of  art 
which  makes  any  individual  rendering  of  the  outlines  diffi- 
cult, but  which  answered  admirably  the  purpose  of  the 
Church,  to  bring  before  the  eye  sacred  forms  ancl  histories 
under  orthodox  ty])es  and  clothed  with  great  brilliancy. 

W.  IIelbio. 


Results  of  Recent  Excavations. 

The  works  for  the  extension  and  embellishment  of  Rome 
executed  since  1870  have  l)een  the  occasion  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  archaeological  discoveries,  which  will  be  descriUtl 
briefly  in  order  to  show  what  immense  progress  knowled^^ 
of  the  history  and  topography  of  the  ancient  metropolis  t.f 
the  world  has  recently  made.  Properly,  this  description 
should  classify  the  new  monuments  according  as  they  belong 
to  architecture,  to  painting,  to  sculpture,  to  epigraphy,  but 
as  most  of  the  discoveries  relating  to  the  three  latter  c'lasx^ 
must  necessarily  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  edifi*  e 
to  which  they  belong,  it  will  be  simpler  to  give  a  topographic 
description  of  the  architectural  monuments. 

Fortificatiovha, — Rome  has  been  defended  at  three  dif- 
ferent periods  by  three  different  walls — that  attributed  to 
Romulus,  which  surrounds  the  Palatine;  that  of  Servius 
TuUius,  which  encircles  the  Seven  Hills;  that  of  Aureli;iu, 
which  forms  the  inclosure  of  the  city  at  present.  Four  frau- 
ments  of  the  wall  of  the  Palatine  have  been  discovereti,  as 
well  as  the  sites  of  the  gates  Mugonia  and  Romanula. 

A  third  ascent  to  the  primitive  city  has  lately  Xx'vu 
traced  on  the  side  facing  the  Circus  Maximus.  It  is'  cut  in 
steps  and  gradients,  and  well  deserves  its  classic  name  of 
Scalm  Cad,  The  prehistoric  walls  of  the  Palatine  an* 
built  with  tufa  quarried  on  the  spot,  the  quarries  hcinir 
afterward  turned  into  reservoirs  for  rain-water  in  cas<*  «'f 
siege.  As  to  the  walls  of  Servius  Tullius,  they  can  be  tra^tMl 
to-day  at  fifty-six  different  points.  They  start  fnun  Jfj.* 
left  bank  of  the  Tiber  near  the  Portal  Flumentana,  skirt  tin- 
northern  cliffs  of  the  Capitoline  (discovered  1715, 1878,  isir2> 
and  yuii'inal  Hills  (discovered  in  the  Via  di  Marforio  in 
1865,  in  the  Piazza  di  Magnanapoli  1875,  in  the  Colonnn 
gardens,  in  the  Via  delle  Quattro  Fontane  1873,  in  the  Bar- 
berini  gardens  1627,  etc.).  Near  the  Collina  gate  (Via  20 
Settembre)  the  system  of  defense  and  fortification  of  t  la- 
city  suddenly  changes.  From  a  simple  wall,  built  on  a  led;:*- 
of  the  craggy  slopes,  half  way  between  the  bottom  of  th«- 
valleys  ana  the  plateau  above,  it  becomes  an  agger  or  bul- 
wark composed  of  a  ditch  100  feet  wide,  30  deep,  of  a  wall 
40  feet  high,  and  of  an  embankment  inside  the  wall  1CM» 
feet  wide,  irom  30  to  40  feet  high.  The  agger  runs  south- 
ward to  the  Porta  Esquilina  (transformed  in  262  a.  d.  intt* 
a  triumphal  arch  of  the  Emperor  Gallienus).  It  has  Kh-u 
discovered  since  1870  in  its  entire  length.  From  the  Porta 
Esquilina  to  the  banks  of  the  Tiber  the  Servian  walls  follow 
the  slopes  of  the  Esquiline  (discovered  in  the  Via  Buonarn»ii 
1887),  of  the  Cielian  (discovered  in  the  Via  della  NavicelU 
1890,  in  the  villa  Mattel  1582),  and  of  the  Aventine  (dis<-ov- 
ered  at  Santa  Balbina  1884,  at  San  Saba  1858,  in  the  \'illa 
Torlonia  1854  and  1867,  at  Santa  Sabina  1857),  and  fall  in!.» 
the  river  near  the  modern  Arco  della  Salara.  The  riv«r 
front  inside  the  city  was  likewise  fortified  with  a  powerlul 
embankment,  the  remains  of  which  were  destroyed  in  tin* 
nineteenth  century  in  widening  the  bed  of  the  river  its«'lf. 
The  Transtiberine  region  was  not  protected  by  walls,  but  by 
a  detached  fort  on  the  top  of  the  Janiculum  (the  pn'i»t-ii't 
villa  Savorelli-I  ley  land). 

Of  the  nineteen  gates  of  Servius,  seven  have  been  found, 
and  three  are  left  standing.  The  Ratumena  was  f<»und 
in  1865  in  the  Via  di  Marforio;  the  Fontinalis  in  Nov., 
1875,  under  the  Palazzo  Antonelli ;  the  San^ualis  in  lH(;t> 
under  the  Piazza  del  Quirinale;  the  Salutaris  in  Sept.,  1N»„\ 
under  the  Palazzo  Crawshey,  Via  delle  Quattro  Fontane;  the 
Collina  in  1872  under  the  Treasury  building.  Via  20  Settem- 
bre; the  Viminalis  in  1877  near  the  railway  station;  the 
Capena  in  1865  near  the  Church  of  St.  Gregory  on  the 
Ctelian. 

In  Dec,  1875,  were  discovered  some  vestiges  of  the  citadi-L 
or  arxj  which  occupied  the  northeast  summit  of  the  Capito- 
line, and  which  seems  to  have  been  defended  by  a  double 
inclosure,  the  one  contemporary  with  the  wall  of  Romulus, 
the  other  with  that  of  Servius. 

Temples, — The  number  of  temples,  either  standing  or  un- 
covered, which  in  1870  was  twenty-one,  was  thirty  in  18JM. 
Among  those  recently  unearthetl  are  the  temple  of  CyU-l.\ 
discovered  in  1870  on  the  Palatine,  with  the  statue  of  \\u- 
goddess;  the  temple  of  the  Dea  Dia  (Ceres),  discoverotl  iti 
1868  outside  the  Porta  Portose,  at  the  station  of  the  Magliuna, 
with  1,750  lines  of  i\\e  Acta  Fnttrum  Arvalium  engraxid 
on  marble:  the  temple  of  the  Fortuna  Priinigenia,  di-M-ox- 
ered  in  1873  between  the  Imths  of  Diocletian  and  the  I*n-- 
torian  Camp,  with  many  inscriptions  and  a  statue  repros*»nt- 
ing  the  Roman  lady  claudia  Justa,  with  the  attribute.^  i.if 


158 


ROMAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 


plates  of  bronze  ornamented  with  hiittorioal  reliefs.  Amon^ 
the  ruins  of  the  temples  of  Isis  and  Serapis,  which  stood 
near  the  Church  Delia  Minerva,  had  already  been  found  the 
obelisks  erected  afterward  in  the  open  squares  of  the  Pan- 
theon; of  the  Minerva,  and  in  the  grounds  of  the  Villa 
Mattei.  Recent  excavations  in  the  same  place  have  given  a 
fourth  obelisk,  entirely  covered  with  hieroglyphics,  with  the 
cartouches  of  Ramses'the  Great. 

Military  Establiahmenta  (Castra). — The  military  barracks 
were  sumptuous  edifices,  built,  or  rather  rebuilt,  by'Septimius 
Severus,  except  that  of  the  pretorians,  which  dates  from 
the  reign  of  Tiberius,  and  which  was  restored  under  the 
Gordians.  Of  this  latter  it  was  already  known  that  three 
Bides  were  incorporated  into  the  city  walls  bv  Aurelian. 
The  fourth — that  is,  the  west  side — has  been  discovered  in 
consequence  of  the  works  in  the  new  quarter  of  the  Viminal 
{Castro  Pretoria),  It  contains  seventy-eight  small  cham- 
bers, each  capable  of  lodging  six  or  eight  soldiers.  A  little 
beyond  was  found  a  small  apartment,  reserved  {jerhaps  for 
the  superior  officers,  the  pavement  of  which  was  in  mosaic, 
representing  scenes  of  combat,  the  names  of  the  warriors  or 
the  gladiators  being  marked  by  the  side  of  each  figure.  The 
site  of  the  Castra  Kquitum  Singulariuin — that  is,  of  the  bar- 
racks of  the  imperial  horse-guards — has  been  made  known 
by  the  discovery  of  thirty-two  magnificent  monuments,dedi- 
cated  to  their  gmls  by  the  men  who  had  honorably  finished 
their  service  (miasi  honesta  misaione).  Hundreds  of  names 
are  engraved  upon  them,  with  indications  of  paternity,  place 
of  birth,  dates  and  duration  of  service,  etc.  The  men  are 
grouped  by  squadrons,  which  are  indicated  bv  the  name  of 
their  commanders,  such  as  the  squadron  of  Marcellus,  the 
squadron  of  Tranquillinus,  etc.  These  monuments  were 
found  in  the  Lateran  district  crossed  by  the  Via  Tasso.  The 
seven  battalions  of  the  vigiles,  or  policemen,  were  distrib- 
uted through  the  city  in  such  a  way  that  each  one  occu- 
pied the  boundary-line  between  two  regiories.  Recent  dis- 
coveries established  the  fact  that  the  barrack  of  the  first 
cohort  (or  battalion)  was  situated  below  the  Palace  Savorelli, 
on  the  boundary  between  the  VII.  (Via  Lata)  and  IX.  (Circus 
Flaminius)  rtgiones.  That  of  the  second  has  been  found  on 
the  Esquiline,  very  near  the  Arch  of  Gallienus ;  that  of  the 
third  at  the  southeast  angle  of  the  baths  of  Diocletian  ;  that 
of  the  fifth  in  the  Villa  Mattei,  by  the  Church  of  the  Navi- 
cella ;  that  of  fourth  near  the  Church  of  San  Saba  (Aventine). 
The  sites  of  the  sixth  ami  seventh  are  unknown.  Besides 
the  main  barracks  there  were  fourteen  outposts  called  excu- 
bitoria.  One  of  these,  belonging  to  the  men  of  the  seventh 
cohort,  has  been  discovered  in  the  Piazza  di  Monte  de* 
Fiori,  near  the  Church  of  San  Crisogono.  Its  preservation 
is  surprising. 

Palaces  and  Houses. — The  palace  of  the  Caesars  on  the 
Palatine  has  no  unity  of  plan  or  of  decoration,  but  is  com- 
posed of  a  suite  of  palaces,  differing  one  from  another, 
built  at  different  epochs,  and  separated  sometimes  by 
streets  and  squares  accessible  to  the  public.  The  most  an- 
cient portion  is  the  house  of  Augustus,  situated  on  the  side 
of  the  Circus  Maximus.  Then  follow  the  house  of  Tiberius, 
at  the  northwest  angle  of  the  hill,  on  the  Velabnim ;  the 
house  of  Caligula,  at  the  northeast  angle  upon  the  Forum ; 
the  house  of  Nero,  at  the  southeast  corner,  toward  the  Col- 
osseum :  the  house  of  Vespasian,  which  occupies  the  very 
center  of  the  hill ;  and,  finally,  the  house  of  Septimius 
Severus,  at  the  southwest  angle',  toward  the  Porta  fcapena. 
Although  the  condition  of  these  remains  is  in  general  very 
ruinous,  yet  many  aj)artments  preserve  sufficient  traces  to 
render  possible  a  decision  as  to  their  decoration  and  primi- 
tive destination ;  and  the  whole  plan  of  the  entire  group 
has  been  reconstructed  with  as  much  precision  as  can*  be 
obtained  in  a  house  of  Pompeii.  Among  the  palaces  and 
private  houses  of  which  the  position  or  new  details  have 
been  discovered  should  he  mentioned  the  palace  of  the  Lat- 
erans,  considerable  [»ortions  of  which  have  been  explored, 
especially  in  the  garden  of  the  hospital  of  St.  John,  where 
fragments  of  an  imperial  statue  in  iwrphyry  and  several 
mosaic  pavements  liave  been  found ;  the  house  of  Germani- 
cus,  on  the  Palatine,  in  perfect  preservation,  the  pictures 
which  decorate  the  walls  being  considered  as  the  liest  among 
those  thus  far  found  at  Koine;  the  house  of  Asinius  Pollio, 
discovered  in  the  Vigna  Guidi,  at  the  southeast  angle  of  the 
baths  of  Caracalla;  the  house  of  (^.  Fabius  Cilo,  the  site  of 
which  is  occupieil  by  the  church  antl  convent  of  Santa  Bal- 
bina,  and  where  have  been  fotmd  two  superb  busts  of  Caius 
and  Lucius,  nephews  of  Augustus;  the  house  of  the  Cornelii, 
discovered  in  1873  under  the  new  ministry  of  finance.    In 


the  house  of  Avidius  Quietus,  governor  of  Galatia  undrr 
Domitian,  discovered  Mar.,  1876,  near  Sant*  Antonio  all'  K— 
quilino,  bronze  tablets  have  been  found  on  which  are  en- 
graved the  decrees  in  honor  of  Quietus  awarded  by  the  ciJ  i«s 
of  the  province  which  he  had  administered.  On  one  of  the 
walls  of  the  vestibule  of  the  house  of  Memmius  Vitrasiu> 
Orfitus,  a  consul  of  the  fourth  century,  inscriptions  wero 
found  dedicated  to  their  master  by  the  officers  of  the  houM-- 
hold.  Similar  inscriptions  preserved  on  the  spot  have  d*- 
terrained  the  position  of  the  palace  of  Neratius  Cerialis. 
prefect  of  the  city  in  the  fourth  century,  on  the  piaz/a  nf 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore ;  of  Numicius  Pica  Ca'sianus.  qun*'»t(»r 
under  Trajan,  on  the  Via  Strozzi ;  of  the  senator  Q.  Octaviu'v 
Felix,  near  the  Church  of  Santa  Bibiana;  of  Nummius  Al- 
binus  and  of  Martial,  the  poet,  under  the  new  War  ofiire^. 
Via  20  Settembre;  of  Vettius  Agorius  Pnetextatus,  in  th«' 
Via  Merulana,  etc.  The  number  of  private  mansions  tin- 
ownership  of  which  has  been  established  by  late  excavatii^n^ 
mav  be  estimated  as  175. 

Villas  and  Oardens. — The  gardens  of  Mavenas,  on  thn 
Esquiline.  have  been  in  a  great  measure  excavated,  from  \h*' 
Church  of  Sant'  Eusebio  as  far  as  the  Via  Merulana.  Tlie 
most  interesting  monument  as  yet  found  is  a  magnifircnt 
conservatory  in  the  form  of  a  small  oblong  theater,  the  whII^ 
of  which  are  decorated  with  beautiful  landscapes.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  this  conservatorv  have  been  found  six  Cary- 
atides of  Pentelic  marble,  as  well  as  three  Hermes  of  fauns, 
which  were  generally  placed  at  the  intersections  of  gunh'n 
avenues;  two  fountains,  one  of  which  is  in  the  form  <>f  a 
rhyton,  or  drinking-horn,  marvelously  sculptured  by  P«m- 
tios  of  Athens;  three  busts  of  philosophers;  and  several 
other  fragments  of  sculpture  worthy  of  the  age  of  Augu>tiis 
and  of  the  artistic  taste  of  Mtpcena's.  Still  more  imfMtrtant 
are  the  discoveries  made  on  the  site  of  the  Horti  Lam  inn  i. 
which  adjoined  those  of  Maecenas,  occupying  the  whole  nl  the 
rectangle  comprised  between  Via  Labicana,  Via  Merulnnu. 
Santa  Croce,  and  San  Matteo.  In  the  very  center  of  the*-, 
gardens  the  remains  of  a  palace  have  been  found,  the  ea<«»t  and 
west  sides  of  which. were  adorned  by  porticoes  with  coluiiiiis 
of  giallo  antico.  On  the  two  other  sides — that  is,  on  the 
N.  and  S.  of  the  rectangle — were  found  bath-rooms  of  ex- 
traordinary splendor.  The  floors  were  paved  with  slabs  of 
precious  marble,  such  as  occhio  di  painmey  fleece-alaba^te^ 
(a  pecorelle),  jasper,  agate,  etc.  Some  of  the  walls  Here 
covered  with  slate  ornamented  with  arabestpies  in  gf»l<l ; 
others  were  incnisted  with  op^is  sectile  mamioreum,  or  what 
is  called  "  Florentine  mosaic."  It  was  in  one  of  these  nn^nis 
that  on  Dec.  24,  1874,  there  was  discovered  the  group  of 
sculptures  which  forms  the  principal  ornament  of  the  new 
museum  of  the  Capitol.  This  group  includes  a  statue  of 
Venus,  a  Greek  work  anterior  to  the  type  of  that  gotldes*. 
created  by  Praxiteles ;  statues  of  the  muses  Terpsichon*  and 
Polymnia ;  a  bust  of  Commodus,  represented  as  the  Ronmn 
Hercules,  perhaps  the  most  perfect  work  of  the  kind  wliit-h 
antiquity  nas  bequeathed ;  and  a  head  of  the  young  Coin- 
modus.  In  the  same  room  was  found  an  inscription  relat- 
ing to  the  improvement  of  the  gardens  and  the  reconsl ruc- 
tion of  the  palace  by  the  Emperor  Alexander  Severus — that 
is,  by  the  same  who  restored  the  gardens  of  Sallust.  as  i*. 
proved  bv  another  inscription  found  Apr.  2,  1876,  in  tlie 
villa  SpitiiSver  on  the  Quirinal. 

Recent  researches  also  show  that  almost  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  Esquiline  was  occupied  by  gardens,  which,  laid 
out  at  first  for  private  use,  had  fallen  by  degrees  into  the 
hands  of  the  emperors,  who  opened  them  to  the  public;  s<» 
that  Rome  became  perhaps  as  rich  in  parks  and  deliirhtful 
promenades  as  is  London  or  Paris.  Among  the  gardens  re- 
cently discovered  mav  be  mentioned  those  of  Vettius  A^'nn- 
us  F*ra^textatus,  the  site  of  which  is  very  near  the  Porta  San 
Lorenzo.  Nearly  all  the  foundations  of  the  buildings  tH>- 
longing  to  these  gardens  are  composed  of  fragments  of  stat- 
ues. A  single  one  of  these  walls,  scarcely  100  feet  in  lengt  h. 
has  yielded  2.500  pieces  of  sculpture,  which,  united  with  in- 
finite patience,  have  already  furnished  the  museum  of  tl»- 
Capitol  with  seventeen  statues  and  two  sculptured  vases.  It 
is  enough  to  say  that  the  single  statue  of  a  Hercules  carrv- 
ing  off  the  mares  of  Diomed  has  l)een  recomposcd  out  of 
nearly  250  fragments.  Foundation-walls  built  with  frair- 
ments  of  statuary  are  the  work  of  the  semi-barbaric  R*»m»n«^ 
of  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  century  of  our  era.  They  are  di-*- 
covered  by  hundreds.  One,  found  in  1890  on  the  banks  of 
the  Til)er  by  San  Giovanni  de'  Fiorentini,  contained  tie- 
now  famous  account  of  the  Ludi  Sibculares  celebratinl  1  y 
Augustus  in  17  b.  c.  and  by  Septimius  Sevenis  in  a.  d.  2tM. 


160 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


ROMANCE  LANGUAGES 


«xplicit  form  to  beliefs  that  are  implicitly  contained  either 
in  Scripture  or  in  tradition.  The  sources  of  tradition  are  in 
c^eneral  whatever  makes  known  to  us  the  belief  held  by  the 
Church  at  any  time  on  any  subject.  The  documentary 
sources  are  the  writings  of  the  early  apologists,  the  acts  and 
epistles  of  the  apostolic  churches,  the  works  of  the  Fathers, 
doctors,  and  theologians.  Moreover,  the  articles  of  faith 
have  at  various  times  been  summarized  in  creeds  or  sym- 
bols. Such  are  the  Apostles*  Creed ;  the  Nicene,  promul- 
gated by  the  Council  of  Nice  (325) ;  the  Athanasian,  by  St. 
Athanasius,  Bishop  of  Alexandria  (d.  378) ;  and  that  pub- 
lished by  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (381). 

2.  The  Means  of  Sanetification. — These  consist  in  the  ap- 
plication to  each  soul  of  Christ*s  merits.  The  sacraments, 
the  ordinary  channels  of  grace,  are  seven  in  number :  Bap- 
tism, confirmation.  Holy  Eucharist,  penance,  extreme  unc- 
tion, orders,  and  matrimony.  These  are  administered  with 
ceremonies  peculiar  to  each  prescribed  by  the  ritual  of  the 
Church.  The  Eucharist  is  not  only  a  sacrament,  but  also  a 
sacrifice,  and  as  such  is  offered  in  the  M^ss.  This  is  the 
principal  act  of  •  worship  in  the  Church  and  the  center  of  her 
liturgy.  The  Office,  or  public  prayer  of  the  Church,  is  a  col- 
lection of  psalms,  extracts  from  both  Testaments,  commen- 
taries of  the  Fathers,  and  short  lives  of  the  saints.  It  is  di- 
vided to  suit  the  different  hours  of  the  day,  and  is  either 
•chanted  in  common,  as  is  the  case  in  monastic  orders  and 
canonries,  or  is  recited  in  private,  its  recitation  being  obli- 
gatory on  all  who  have  received  the  subdiaconate.  Both  in 
the  Mass  and  Office  there  are  certain  portions  which  vary 
according  to  the  liturgical  season  and  the  festival  which  is 
observed  on  a  given  day.  Ecclesiastical  feasts  are  days  set 
apart  for  honoring  in  a  special  way  some  event  in  the  life 
of  Christ,  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary, or  of  the  other  saints. 
The  greater  of  these  feasts  are  preceded  by  seasons  of  a 
penitential  character — such  as  Advent  before  Christmas, 
Lent  before  Easter,  and  the  vigil  of  many  other  festivals. 
The  chief  practices  enjoined  for  this  preparation  are  fasting, 
abstinence,  and  prayer.  Beside  the  administration  of  the 
■sacraments,  the  Church  attaches  a  sacred  and  symbolical 
character  to  various  objects,  the  use  of  which  is  destined  to 
inspire  reverence  and  devotion.  Hence  the  blessing  of 
ashes,  water,  palms,  candles,  etc.,  in  virtue  of  which  these 
^acramentals  profit  those  who  employ  them  according  to  the 
intention  of  the  Church  and  with  proper  dispositions.  The 
language  of  the  Liturgy  in  the  Western  Church  is  Ijatin, 
while  in  the  churches  of  the  East  the  vernacular,  mostly  in 
its  archaic  form,  is  employed.  There  exist  also  differences 
in  the  form  of  the  Liturgy  itself,  and  consequently  a  variety 
of  rites,  such  as  the  Coptic,  the  Armenian,  and  the  Greek. 
Along  with  these  general  means  of  sanetification  for  all  the 
faithful,  the  Church  has  encouraged  the  founding  of  religious 
orders,  i.e.  of  associations  whose  members  are  bound  by  spe- 
•cial  vows,  live  under  particular  rules,  and  labor  for  some  pe- 
culiar purpose,  such  as  caring  for  the  poor  and  sick,  spread- 
ing the  Gospel,  and  carrving  on  the  work  of  education. 

3.  Ths  Oovemment  of  the  Church. — To  fulfill  her  mission 
of  t-eaching  and  sanctifying  men  the  Church  must  enact 
laws  to  be  obeyed  both  by  clergy  and  laity.  While  her  doc- 
trines are  unchangeable,  her  discipline  varies  according  to 
circumstances  of  time  and  place.  Ecclesiastical  legislation 
is  incorporated  in  the  canon  law.  It  is  either  general — de- 
crees of  the  pope  and  of  general  councils,  or  particular — 
statutes  of  national,  provincial,  and  diocesan  synods.  As 
rcganls  its  subject,  it  is  either  public  {jus  ecclesiasiicum  pub- 
lieum)  or  private  {jus  ecclestasticum  privatum).  The  for- 
mer is  for  the  government  of  the  clergy ;  the  latter  for  that 
of  the  laity.  The  penalties  infiicte<l  for  violation  of  ecclesi- 
astical law  are  of  two  sorts:  the p<xn<F  communes— excotn- 
imuncation  and  interdict — which  may  be  incurretl  by  clerical 
and  lay  offenders,  and  the  pcena^  particulnres — suspension 
and  deposition — to  which  clerics  only  are  liable.  The  penal 
law  of  the  early  Church  was  severe;  but  this  rigor  has  been 
mitigated  in  the  course  of  time.  (See  Penanck.)  Finally, 
as  the  members  of  the  Cluirch  are  at  the  same  time  subjects 
of  the  civil  power,  it  has  often  been  found  necessary  for 
Church  and  state  to  define  their  relations  and  settle  upon  a 
modus  Vivendi.  These  agreements  regarding  the  external 
relations  of  the  Churcli  are  termed  conconluts. 

Statistics. — 1.  General:  The  number  of  Roman  Catholics 
in  the  world  is  about  280,000.000.  There  are  04  cardinals 
and  12  patriarchs.  In  the  Latin  rite  there  are  820  archbi«»h- 
ops  ana  bishops,  and  in  the  Oriental  riles  56;  while  the 
titulars,  i.  e.  those  who  have  no  diocese,  number  322.  2.  In 
the  United  States:  The  Catholic  population  is  about  10,000,- 


000.    The  Church  has  1  cardinal,  1  apostolic  delegate,  14 
archbishoprics,  72  bishoprics,  and  9,700  priests.  i 

See  also  the  articles  Papal  States,  Jesuits,  Gallic  an 
Church,  Trent,  Council  of,  and  Vatican  Council. 

Statistical  Literature. — For  the  statistics  of  the  medi- 
eval Church,  the  works  of  Carolus  a  Sancto  Paulo,  Miiu-iis. 
Holstein,  Clericus,  Schelstrate,  and  Weidenbach  may  he 
consulted  with  profit.  In  the  nineteenth  century  Stiiu'dliu, 
Wiggers,  Neher,  Silbernagl,  Carolus  a  Sancto  Al()ysi<i,  , 
Wiltsch,  Petri,  and  others  have  treated  the  subject  with 
more  or  less  accuracy.  The  episcopal  catalogues  of  the  H«»- 
man  Catholic  Church  have  been  edited  or  compiled  down  lo 
modern  times  by  the  Benedictine  Gaius :  Series  Episcopth- 
rum  Ecdesios  Catholics  ...  a  Beato  Petro  Apostolo  { Itat- 
isbon,  1873).  Diocesan,  provincial,  or  national  religious  al- 
manacs and  directories  are  published  in  most  places,  to 
which  may  be  added  the  reports  of  the  various  missionarv 
bodies  made  known  from  time  to  time.  The  actual  state  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  is  made  known  yearly  in  La 
Oerarchia  Cattolica,  a  quasi-official  Roman  nublication ; 
Les  Missions  Catholiques,  and  the  Annates  de  la  proimga- 
tion  de  la  fox  furnish  details  of  great  value.  The  Propa- 
ganda issues  an  official  yearly  bulletin  entitled  MisKiunfi 
CatholiccB.    The  best  and  newest  general  summary  of  thf 

Sublic  administration  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  hy 
».  Werner,  S.  J.,  Orbis  terrarum  Catholicus,  etc.  (Freibun:. 
1890),  and  for  the  Catholic  missions,  the  same,  Atlas  dm 
Missions  Catholiques  {ibid.,  1886),  and  Kaiholtscher  Kirch- 
enatlas  {ibid.,  1888).  Official  reports  of  all  dioceses,  vicari- 
ates, prefectures,  etc.,  are  made  to  the  projier  Roman  au- 
thorities at  stated  intervals,  and  are  preserved  in  the  s{»t'cial 
archives  of  the  respective  Roman  congregations.  For  the 
actual  working  of  the  latter  bodies,  cf.  Bangen  (Catholic). 
Die  ROmische  Curie  (MUnster,  1854),  and  0.  Meyer  (Pna- 
estant).  Die  Propaganda  (Gottingen,  1852),  and  the  sixth 
volume  of  Phillips's  Kirchenrecht  (Regensburg.  1864).  The 
latest  statistics  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  U.  S. 
are  found  in  Satllier's  Catholic  Directory  (New  York)  and 
Hoffman's  Catholic  Directory  and  Clergy  List  (Milwaukee). 
Special  Catholic  directories  are  annually  oublished  fur 
Canadii,  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.       j.  J.  Keank. 

Romance  Langnages,  or  Romanic  Lan;na«re8  [Ro- 
manic is  from  Lat.  Roma'nicus,  Roman,  deriv.  of  Roma  nun. 
Roman,  deriv.  of  Roma,  Rome] :  those  modem  languages 
which,  as  the  result  of  continuous  oral  transmission,  are  the 
current  forms  of  spoken  Latin.  The  languages  grou!)e<l  u>- 
pther  under  this  name  are  French,  Provencal  and  Cata- 
lan (the  latter  is  hardly  more  than  a  dialect  of  Provenvah, 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  Italian,  Roumanian,  and  the  Kha^tn- 
Itomance  dialects.  The  territory  is  in  general  that  of  the 
Roman  empire,  excepting  those  parts  which  by  later  popular 
migrations  or  conquest  were  afterw^ard  removed  from  th«» 
sway  of  the  Latin  language,  and  those  regions  which  were 
never  completely  Romanized. 

The  Latin  spread  in  the  conouered  provinces  was  nat- 
urally the  vulgar  speech  of  the  soldiers  and  colonists,  not  the 
Ijatin  of  the  classic  writers.  Though  in  the  beginning  dif- 
fering from  the  latter  only  as  careless  conversational  ^p♦'t't•h 
always  differs  from  the  more  elaborate  usage  of  literary 
works,  it  was  more  subject  to  local  variations,  and  ohangrV 
were  more  rapid  than  in  the  literary  language.  The  luttor 
was  also  studied,  however,  in  the  provinces,  and  there  wt're 
writers  of  a  certain  eminence  in  bjiain  and  Gaul  long  after 
those  countries  had  become  Roman  provinces.  Borrowing'-, 
from  the  Latin  of  literature  became  later  verv  considerable  ; 
they  are  numerous  in  medi;pval  times  after  tfie  modern  lan- 
guages began  to  be  used  in  literature,  and  they  have  eonl  in- 
ued  up  to  modern  times.  In  general,  the  old  popular  wuni^ 
can  l>e  distinguished  by  their  strict  observance  of  the  law*-  «»i 

Chonetic  change,  while  learned  or  semi-learned  wor<l>  hiive 
een  less  altered.  Compare  Fr.  pen.  from  paufum^  with 
paucile,  pere  with  patemiti,  chose  with  cause  (both  fr<un 
causa). 

The  vulgar  Latin  of  post-classic  times  was  in  the  Iwi^in- 
ning  very  similar  over  the  whole  territory.  In  its  v<K'al Hi- 
lary it  differed  somewhat  from  the  literary  Latin,  nion»  <i 
less  vnlgar  words  or  meanings  being  useti,  as  for  '•  ln'i^^^o.' 
cabnllus^  a  nag,  for  "fire,"  focus,  for  *' to  strike,"  hat*i*rt 
for  "  to  turn,''  toniare,  etc.,  and  derivative  words,  esj>oc-iul!  > 
diminutives,  were  use»l  sometimes  instead  of  thesimplo  r.n»  - 
Some  words  from  foreign  languages  were  atlded  to  tbo  \4« 
cabulary.  The  oldest  l»orrowings  from  Greek  show  tiriM  '. 
sounds  to  have  been  imitated  as  heard  in  Italy.    Many  <»f  1 1.- 


162 


ROMANCE  LANGUAGES 


were  at  the  stage  of  voiced  (except  when  unvoiced  at  the 
end  of  the  word)  spirants ;  compare  chantee  from  cantata{m)y 
nmur  from  nodare.  The  doubled  consonants  of  Latin  were 
simplified  except  in  Italian,  which  language  has  by  assimila- 
tion produced  a  number  of  new  doublings,  as  in  fatto  from 
fctctum,  freddo  from  frig{i)dum.  The  Roumanian  treat- 
ment of  some  consonant  groups  is  remarkable ;  compare  opt 
from  oetOf  demn  from  dignnm.  The  phencnnena  of  palatal- 
ization can  not  be  discussed  here. 

The  most  important  final  consonants  in  Latin  are  m,  «,  t 
Of  these,  final  m  early  disappeared  entirely  except  in  a  few 
cases  where  it  followed  an  accented  vowel;  compare  Fr. 
Hen  from  rem.  Final  a  and  /  were  lost  in  Italian  and  Rou- 
manian, but  elsewhere  a  was  retained,  and  final  t,  which  was 
for  the  most  part  lost,  was  in  French,  under  certain  condi- 
tions, retained.  Tlie  retention  of  old  final  a  and  i  in  mod- 
em French  is  to  a  great  extent  only  for  the  eye. 

The  Latin  inflections  of  nouns  and  adjectives  have  suffered 
considerable  change.  The  fourth  and  fifth  declensions  dis- 
appeared, the  former  being  absorbed  in  the  second  declen- 
sion, the  latter  in  the  first  and  third,  so  that  only  three  of 
the  old  classes  remain  at  all.  The  neuter  gender  is  no  longer 
distinguished  in  nouns,  but  neuter  uses  of  adjective  words 
(as  in  Spanish)  and  pronouns  are  not  wholly  lost.  The  old 
neuters  became  for  the  most  part  masculine,  but  there  are 
many  traces  of  Latin  neuter  forms.  The  Latin  cases  were 
reduced  in  number,  partly  by  the  results  of  phonetic  change, 
partly  by  the  substitution  of  prepositions  with  the  accusative. 
The  Roumanian  still  has,  in  the  singular  of  feminine  nouns, 
a  case  corresponding  in  use  to  the  Ijatin  genitive  and  dative, 
and  the  same  language  has  a  vocative  which  may  be  in  part 
descended  from  the  Latin  vocative,  but  it  has  no  distinction 
in  form  between  nominative  and  accusative  in  nouns.  In 
the  other  languages  of  the  family  the  dative  in  nouns  was 
soon  lost,  as  were  also  the  genitive  and  the  ablative,  except 
in  a  few  instances.  In  Old  French  and  Provencal  a  declen- 
sion with  two  cases,  representing  the  Latin  nominative  and 
accusative,  existed ;  thus  in  Old  Fr.  nom.  sing,  mura  (from 
munta),  obj.  sing,  mur,  nom.  plur.  mur,  obj.  pi.  mura.  Fem- 
inine nouns,  however,  from  the  Latin  first  declension  were 
generallv  alike  in  both  cases,  as  in  modern  French.  Traces 
of  a  similar  declension  exist  in  Rhaeto- Romance  dialects  still ; 
but  the  modem  forms  of  the  languages  which  had  this  de- 
clension have,  with  some  exceptions,  lost  the  old  nominatives, 
and  it  can  be  said  that,  with  the  exception  of  Roumanian, 
nouns  in  the  liomance  languages  no  longer  have  any  cases, 
the  inflection  being  reduced  to  a  distinction  of  plural  and  sin- 
giilar  forms,  and  even  this  distinction  is  largely  lost  in  spoken 
French.  The  modern  fonns  as  a  rule  represent  the  Latin  ac- 
cusati  ve,  but  in  Italian  and  Roumanian  the  single  form  of  the 
plural  is  from  the  Ijatin  nominative  in  nouns  coming  from 
the  Latin  first  and  second  declensions:  Ital.  roae,  Roum.  rotiae 
from  roa(ta,  ItaL  annt,  Roum.  ant  from  anni ;  but  Fr.  roaea, 
ana.  Span,  roaaa,  affoa,  from  roaas,  annoa.  The  declension 
of  adjectives  is  very  similar  to  that  of  nouns*  Some  com- 
parative forms  of  Latin  are  witieljr  retained ;  compare  Fr. 
meilleur,  Ital.  migliore.  Span.  mejQr  with  Lat,  meiiorem; 
but  commonly  the  comparative  is  expressed  by  the  aid  of  an 
adverb  meaning  **  more  "  (modem  forms  of  plua  or  magis), 
and  for  a  superlative  the  comparative  with  tne  definite  arti- 
cle is  regularly  used,  there  being  no  true  superlative. 

Among  pronouns  occur  some  forms  which  go  back  to 
Latin  nominatives,  accusatives,  genitives,  and  datives,  and 
these  four  cases  are  still  more  or  less  living,  partly  through 
the  aid  of  new  formations,  as  Fr.  en,  Ital.  ««,  from  the  a«l- 
verb  inde,  Ital.  loro,  Fr.  leur  are  from  illorum,  though  they 
are  now  used  as  datives  (Ital.  loro  can  also  be  used  as  an 
accusative  or  even  as  a  nominative^  or  as  possessives.  Ital. 
lui,  colui,  etc.,  Fr.  /we,  celui  go  back  to  vulgar  Latin  datives 
(as  iUui\  compare  \j&im  cui,  huic).  It  is  true  that  these 
forms  are  no  longer  confined  to  use  as  object  cases.  Nomi- 
native forms  from  ego,  tu,  and  vulvar  Latin  illi  or  ille  are 
also  preserved ;  as  from  ego,  Ital.  to,  Roum,  eh,  Fr.je  (Old 
Fr.  Also  jo,  joH\  Prov.  #»m,  tea.  Span,  yo.  Port,  en,  while  the 
accusative  is  shown,  for  example,  in  Ital.  me,  Fr.  moi,  etc. 
Among  the  descendants  of  Latin  pronouns  is  to  be  especially 
noted  the  definite  article  which  comes  from  ifle  (in  some 
dialects  from  ipse)  in  an  unstressed  form.  Fr.  le,  /n, 
ItaL  lo,  la  represent  respectively  ilium,  illa{m),  iust  as  the 
same  forms  are  also  used  as  unstressed  personal  pronouns 
in  the  accusative,  while  the  sti-esscd  form  ilia  gave  Fr.  elle, 
Ital.  ella.    The  indefinite  article  goes  hack  to  fjat.  unun. 

In  verb  inflexion  the  passive  voU-e  is  entirely  lost,  except 
the  past  participle,  which  is  used  to  form  the  passive  (over 


most  of  the  territory)  and  tenses  for  completed  action  in  tlir* 
active  voice;  furtKer  are  lost  the  future  indicative,  thr 
future  or  emphatic  imperative,  the  perfect  infinitive,  the 
gerundive  (not  the  gerund),  the  future  participle,  the  supiu«> 
(in  Konmanian  the  form  of  the  past  participle  is  used  als) 
with  prepositions  in  a  sense  like  that  of  the  Latin  supine^i, 
the  imperfect  subjunctive  (retained  in  Sardinia),  and  perhaj^i 
also  the  perfect  subjunctive  (see  below).  But  of  the  remain- 
ing forms  not  all  are  found  in  every  one  of  the  Romance  lan- 
giiages.  The  pluperfect  indicative  was  retained  in  Spanish, 
Portuguese,  Provengal,  and  the  oldest  French  among  the  rei  • 
ognized  literary  languages,  and  in  these  its  sense  has  general)  v 
been  changed  to  that  of  a  conditional  or  (as  in  Old  PVenclj) 
to  that  of  a  simple  preterite.  The  future  perfect  remains  in 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  the  older  Roumanian  (but  the  })er- 
feet  subjunctive  may  be  in  part  the  source  of  these  formal. 
The  present  participle  (lost  in  Roumanian)  is  mostly  fouiul 
only  as  a  vernal  adjective,  its  place  being  largely  taken  1>> 
the  gerund.  The  old  pluperfect  subjunctive  is  now  m<>H)|> 
an  imperfect  subjunctive ;  in  Roumanian  it  has  becomt*  ii 
plupenect  indicative.  The  perfect  indicative  where  retaim-ii 
has  become  simply  a  preterite.  By  the  aid  of  auxiliaries,  how- 
ever, and  of  new  fomiations  all  deficiencies  are  well  sufiplitij. 
New  fomiations  are  those  for  the  future  indicative  and  th»' 
so-called  conditional  mood.  The  former  is  the  result  of  an 
old  combination  of  the  infinitive  with  the  present  indicative 
of  habere,  the  latter  of  a  similar  combination  of  the  infini- 
tive with  the  imperfect  or  perfect  indicative  of  the  same 
auxiliary.  *•!  shall  sing"  was  expressed  by  "I  have  t«i 
sing,"  cantare  haheo,  and  "I  should  sing  "by**  I  had  \n 
sing,"  cantare  habebam  or  cantare  habtti  (the  latter  is  the 
basis  for  the  usual  Italian  form).  As  such  phrases  coali's<-od 
into  single  words  contraction  somewhat  disguised  the  origi- 
nal forms,  but  the  terminations  still  show  the  connet-tinn 
with  the  verb  **  to  have."  This  method  of  formation  is  n<  a 
the  only  one  in  use.  Roumanian  uses  an  auxiliarv  corre- 
sponding to  Latin  volo  to  form  the  future,  and  in  the  wt^t- 
em  part  of  the  Rhieto-Romance  territory  is  found  a  forma- 
tion for  the  future  corresponding  to  venio  ad  cantare.  T«« 
the  Romance  formations  are  to  be  added,  besides  the  futiir'. 
and  the  conditional,  man  v  new  past  participles,  nee<  let  I  t«> 
form  compound  tenses  for  intransitive  verbs,  and  sunic 
others  of  less  importance. 

The  four  Latin  conjugations  are  still  more  or  less  vct-V 
preserved  in  much  of  the  Romance  territory,  but  the  sc<*nrHi 
and  third  are  to  a  great  extent  confused,  and  the  greatv-*' 
vitality  is  shown  by  the  first  and  fourth  conjugations.  In 
personal  endings  and  in  tense  formation  the  influence  i>f 
analogy  has  been  strong,  no  conjugational  type  having  «>v. 
caped  it.  Remarkable  are  the  variations  in  the  form  <if  tin 
stem,  due  to  diflferent  positions  of  the  accent;  compare  Kr. 
tient  and  tenir,  Ital.  tiene  and  tenere,  Fr.  meurt  and  mourtr, 
ItaL  mnore  and  morire.  Old  Fr.  aime  and  amer  (now  aimt-r ., 
etc.  In  most  verbs  of  the  fourth  conjugation  an  inclioat i  \  v 
ending,  originally  -tsc-,  was  added  to  the  stem,  apjiearinjir  m 
only  some  forms  of  the  present  tenses,  in  Italian  and  Kon- 
manian, spreading  in  French  somewhat  more,  and  in  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  appearing  in  all  the  forms  of  the  verb,  so  t  hav 
the  inflnitive  in  these  last  ends  in  -ecer  instead  of  ir,  and  tht':^«i 
verbs  cease  to  belong  to  the  fourth  conjugation.  C'onipHni 
Fr.  fima  (pres.  indic^,  iiniaaaia, ^niaaant,  with  the  infiniti  vti 
finir,  lia,hfiniaco  with  finire.  The  formation  of  the  pret rri 1 1 1 
indicative  and  the  past  participle  is  somewhat  complicattMl, 
especially  in  the  so-called  irregular  verbs.  The  ocea>i«.>iial 
Latin  reduplication,  as  in  eucnrri,  is  lost  and  other  fortune 
tions  substituted,  especially  with  a  and  u  (cf.  Ital.  eorsi,  l*r, 
eovnia)',  but  the  perfects  dedi  and  ateti  (or  vulgar  at f  tut  \ 
extended  their  endings  to  other  verbs  considerably  in  vul  trni! 
Latin.  The  past  participle  also  shows  influences  of  anal<  »t;  y  ^ 
notablv  for  the  many  forms  going  back  to  the  ending  -ut  u  z^*, 
as  in  I^^r.  eu  (formerly  «i,  mi),  ItaL  aimto. 

The  Romance  languages  are  well  supplied  with  deriviit  ivri 
endings  or  suffixes  forming  nouns,  ailjectives,  and  v«Tt"-, 
One  of  the  most  interesting  sufllxes  is  the  descendant  .  \ 
Latin  men^,  mentis,  mind,  now  widely  used  as  an  advcrl»;;.| 
suffix:  Fr.  -ment,  ItaL,  Span.,  and  Port,  -mente.  The.se  ^i.f, 
fixes  are  mostly  of  Latin  origin,  but  some  are  from  Gri-.  k, 
as  Fr.  -e-sae,  ItaL  -m-n^,  forming  feminines,  from  Greek  -co-ir^ 
Fr.  'Oyer^  ItaL  -egginre,  Span,  -ear^  and.  in  less  po|»«4  .,i 
form,  Fr.  -iaer,  ItaL  -izzare.  Si)an.  -izar,  from  -<C«(y :  «»t  h.  -  \ 
are  from  the  Germanic,  as  Fr.  -flrrf,  ItaL  -ardo;  anil  i  ^ 
origin  of  yet  others  is  not  quite  certain,  as  of  the  dimin\it  j  •  i 
-ei  in  Fr., -etfo  in  ItaL  Slavic  and  other  languages  ha^  ^ 
supplied  some  suffixes  to  Roumanian. 


164 


ROMANES 


ROMAN  LAW 


numerous  family  to  which  Cervantes  paid  his  respects.  It 
is  impossible,  however,  to  follow  all  the  later  and  divergent 
paths  of  the  romance,  which  lead  not  to  distinct  persons  so 
much  as  to  special  subjects.  Such  are  romances  of  the  in- 
nocent wife,  like  Griseldis ;  romance  interwoven  with  alle- 
gory, like  the  Roman  dt  la  Rose ;  romance  with  satiric  lean- 
ing* as  in  Reynard  the  Fox,  which  lays  the  beast-epic  under 
contribution ;  pastoral  romances,  like  Sidney's  oeautiful 
Arcadia ;  and  long  romances  of  later  date,  such  as  those  of 
Mile,  de  Scudery. 

The  literature  of  the  romances  is  enormous,  but  two  works 
contain  ample  bibliographical  as  well  as  direct  information : 
Ward,  Catalogue  of  Romances  in  .  ,  ,  the  British  Museum, 
(i.,  1883),  and  Dunlop,  History  of  Prose  Fiction  (revised  ed. 
London,  1888).  For  English  romances,  see  G.  Ellis,  Speci- 
metis  of  Early  English  Metrical  Romances  (1848),  and  the 
various  editions  in  the  nublications  of  the  Early  English 
Text  Society.  For  the  French,  see  Nyrop,  Den  oldfranske 
Heltedigtning,  and  G-.  Paris,  Ilisloire  Poetioue  de  Charle- 
magne, Francis  B.  Gummebe. 

Romanes,  rd-manz',  George  John,  F.  R.  S.,  LL.  D.  :  bi- 
ologist ;  b.  at  Kingston,  Canada,  May  20,  1848 ;  graduated 
with  honors  at  Cambridge,  England,  1870  ;  fellow  of  Royal 
Society  1879  ;  became  an  intimate  friend  of  Charles  Darwin 
while  in  Cambridge ;  was  Fullerian  Professor  of  Physiology 
in  the  Royal  Institution  of  London,  and  Rosebery  Lecturer 
on  Natural  Historjr  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He 
devoted  himself  principally  to  extending  evolutionary  doc- 
trines in  the  field  of  psychology  ;  published  Animal  Intelli- 
gence (1881) ;  Mental  Simlution  in  Animals  (1883) ;  Mental 
Evolutiofi  in  Math  (1888) ;  Origin  of  Human  Faculty  and 
Philosophy  of  Natural  History  before  and  after  Darwin, 
and  numerous  scientific  essays.    D.  at  Oxford,  May  23, 1894. 

C.  n.  Thurber. 

Romanesque :  See  Architecture. 

Romanic  Languages :  See  Romance  Languages. 

Roman  Law :  primarily,  the  body  of  rules  which  gov- 
erned the  city  of  Rome  and  its  citizens.  As  the  power  of 
Rome  grew,  this  system  of  law  was  extended  over  a  large 
part  of  Italy,  but  it  was  not  generally  introduced  into  other 
territories  nor  made  applicable  to  Rome's  subjects  as  dis- 
tinguished from  her  citizens.  For  the  conquered  provinces 
and  their  inhabitants  a  different  body  of  rules  was  worked 
out.  This  new  law  was  only  in  small*  part  a  further  devel- 
opment of  the  law  of  the  city ;  in  the  main  it  was  a  distinct 
and  superior  system.  It  was  based  on  the  customs  of  the 
various  Mediterranean  peoples,  and  representatives  of  nearly 
all  those  peoples  ultimately  played  some  part  in  its  devel- 
opment. During  the  imperial  period  these  two  systems 
were  gradually  fused  into  one,  and  in  the  codification  of 
Justinian  they  are  presented  as  a  single  and  substantially 
homogeneous*  body  of  law. 

Much  of  the  Roman  law  has  only  an  historical  interest. 
This  is  the  case  with  the  older  law  of  the  city  as  a  whole  ; 
this  is  the  case  also  with  the  public  law  of  the  empire.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  principles  governing  private  relations, 
which  were  worked  out  in  the  later  republic  and  the  early 
empire  and  which  were  incorporated  with  little  change  in 
the  law-books  of  Justinian,  have  more  than  an  historical 
significance — they  are  to-day  a  living  force.  It  was  in  large 
part  on  the  basis  of  the  lioman  law  that  the  mediaeval 
Church  worked  out  for  all  Christendom  its  law  of  family 
and  of  testament.  Toward  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages 
the  law-books  of  Justinian,  as  modified  by  the  Roman  canon 
law,  became  the  chief  basis  of  adjudication  in  the  secular 
courts  of  continental  Europe,  and  in  the  so-called  "  modern 
Roman  law  "  Europe  obtamed  a  body  of  substantially  uni- 
form rules  for  property  and  obligations.  The  principles  of 
the  Roman  law  have  not  exercised  a  controlhng  innuence 
upon  the  English  common  law ;  but  in  all  modem  states, 
excent  those  founded  by  Englishmen,  the  existing  law  is 
based  on  Roman  conceptions  of  private  right,  reveals  in  its 
form  the  influence  of  Roman  legal  science,  and  expresses 
itself  in  Roman  terras.  The  modern  civil  codes  of  Europe  and 
of  Central  and  South  America  are  Roman  in  much  the  same 
sense  in  which  the  existing  law  of  the  self-governing  British 
colonies  and  of  the  U.  S.  is  English ;  and  in  this  sense  the 
Roman  law  and  the  English  law  are  the  two  great  systems 
that  rule  the  modern  civilized  world. 

1.  The  Law  of  the  City  {Jhs  (^irile). — According  to  one 
tradition  the  city  was  governed  during  the  first  three  cen- 
turies of  its  existence  (i.  e.  «luring  the  royal  period  and  the 
first  half -century  of  the  republic)   by  unwritten  custom. 


According  to  another  tradition  the  earliest  laws  were  royal 
enactments.  A  considerable  body  of  ancient  rules.  descrilK'd 
as  royal  laws  {leges  regi<f),  existed  and  were  collected  in 
the  republican  period.  Many  of  these  have  come  down  in 
us,  and  it  is  evident  that  they  are  simply  rules  of  early 
custom,  similar  to  those  which  prevailed  among  other  Aryan 
peoples.  Precepts  of  a  religious  or  moral  nature  are  bleiuUd 
with  rules  of  a  legal  character.  Their  formulation  sugge>t>  & 
strong  sacerdotal  influence — an  assumption  which  is  cor- 
roborated by  other  Roman  traditions. 

The  Twelve  Tables. — Early  in  the  republican  peritxi  the 
plebeians  complained  that  the  ancient  customs  of  the  city 
were  misinterpreted  by  the  patrician  priests  and  misapjilittl 
by  the  patrician  magistrates.  They  therefore  demanded 
that  the  law  be  reduced  to  writing  and  enacted  in  statutory 
form.  In  compliance  with  this  demand  the  law  of  the  Twdvt 
Tables  was  drafted  by  a  commission  of  ten  elected  for  \\w 
purpose,  and  was  approved  by  the  popular  assembly  (4r)l 
and  450  b.  c).  Mucn  of  this  early  code  has  come  down  to 
us.  It  is  clearly  nothing  but  a  compilation  of  the  older 
customary  law.  It  differs  from  the  so-called  royal  laws  in 
that  it  contains  fewer  religious  precepts  and  gives  a  churer 
formulation  of  personal  and  property  rights.  It  was  regarded 
by  the  Romans  as  the  great  charter  of  their  liberties.  As 
late  as  Cicero's  time  Roman  schoolboys  learned  its  text  by 
heart ;  and  during  the  greater  part  of  the  republican  |K?ri<xi 
it  was  practically  impossible  to  secure  the  adoption  of  any 
law  which  directly  and  overtly  abrogated  or  changed  the 
provisions  of  the  Tables. 

The  Republican  Jurists. — Under  these  circumstances  the 
development  of  the  law  was  accomplished  mainly  by  inter- 
pretation. The  scanty  and  rude  provisions  of  theTwtdve 
Tables  were  supplemented  and  modified  by  a  free  use  of  an- 
alogy and  of  nction.  For  nearly  two  centuries  after  tln« 
enactment  of  the  Twelve  Tables  the  priests  of  the  pontifical 
college  controlled  the  fonns  of  pleading  and  retained  a 
practically  exclusive  power  of  interpreting  the  law;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  plebeians  had  forced  their  way  into  this 
last  stronghold  of  the  conservative  party  (300-254  b.  c.)  that 
Roman  jurispnidence  was  secularized.  Thenceforward  Iht* 
Roman  who  wished  to  studv  the  great  body  of  rules  that 
had  grown  up  around  the  twelve  Tables  was  no  lo!is:»r 
forced  to  seek  an  election  as  pontifex ;  he  placed  hiniM.'lf 
under  the  instruction  of  some  older  jurist.  The  knowh'rli;..' 
of  the  law  was  not  treated  as  a  means  of  gaining  a  livt-li- 
hood ;  legal  advice  was  given  gratuitously.  Kext  to  or.n- 
spicuous  service  in  war  the  knowledge  of  the  law  furnished 
tne  ambitious  Roman  with  the  best  opportunity  of  recom- 
mending himself  to  the  favor  and  the  suffrages  of  his  fel- 
low citizens.  The  jurists  did  not  plead  cases;  thU  was  the 
business  of  the  orators.  They  did  not  directly  decitle  c-a-^N 
unless  they  happened  to  be  elected  judges  or  appointed  ref- 
erees {judices) ;  but  in  a  doubtful  case  the  opinion  of  some 
eminent  jurist  was  brought  to  the  referee  or  was  s*>lifitetl 
by  him,  and  such  an  opinion  was  regularly  conclusive. 

Character  of  the  Jus  Civile. — The  civil  law  of  the  republic 

I)resents  many  intei*esting  analogies  to  the  older  conunnn 
aw  of  England.  It  was  essentially  a  body  of  case  lu\%, 
shaped  by  decisions.  It  was  very  strict  and  very  f<»rninl. 
certainty  of  law  being  held  in  higher  regard  than  equity,  it 
was  very  technical,  but  nearly  all  its  technical  distinct i4»jH 
were  based  upon  sound  principles.  The  great  advance  which 
the  Roman  civil  law  represents  in  universal  history  is  ft»un«i 
(1)  in  the  unprecedented  clearness  with  which  private  ritrliH 
were  markea  out  and  the  extent  to  which  tne  indiviilunl 
was  permitted  to  shape  his  own  legal  relations;  and  ("2)  in 
the  separation  of  law  and  religion.  This  last  step  was  nn<i 
which  no  Asiatic  or  European  people  had  previously  taken, 
2,  Toe  Law  or  the  Ancient  World  (Jus  Oeniium).^ 
With  the  extension  of  Roman  rule  over  the  MeiliterrainaTi 
basin,  legal  problems  were  presented  which  could  iu*i  btj 
solved  by  the  law  of  the  city.  The  protection  of  the  civil 
law  could  be  accorded  to  aliens  only  through  inti'r»-tni«i 
treaties,  and  the  conquered  provincials  (as  distiiigui^h*n| 
from  the  favored  allies  of  Rome)  were  not  merely  aliens— 
they  were  stateless  aliens.  The  states  of  which  they  ha-l 
been  citizens  had  been  destroyed  by  war.  They  theni^clvt-i 
wore  simply  subjects  of  Rome.  In  theory  they  wvr«'  th< 
slaves  of  the  Roman  people,  and  their  property  belontri'd  t^ 
the  republic.  In  fact,  they  were  treated  as  freemen,  and  il 
was  necessary  to  administer  justice  to  them. 

A  more  serious  difficulty  lay  in  the  inade<juacv  of  the «  it  ] 
law  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  new  empire.  1  he  {{onian  <m\  3 
law  had  been  worked  out  by  and  for  a  people  whor-e  chi.i 


166 


ROMAN  LAW 


The  Edict  of  Caracnlla. — Durinp  the  first  two  centuries  of 
the  C'hristiHn  era  lioinan  citizenship  had  Ijeen  conferred 
upon  great  numbers  of  provincials.  Early  in  the  third  cen- 
tury Caracalla  declared  all  free  inhabitants  of  the  empire 
to  lie  Roman  citizens.  This  etlict  swept  away  the  last  re- 
maining differences  between  civil  and  provincial  law. 
Technically  speaking,  the  empire  was  henceforth  governed 
by  the  law  of  the  city ;  but  as  the  civil  law  had  been  com- 
pletely reino<leIod  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  the 
Jus  gentium^  the  substantial  triumph  rested  with  the  latter 
system. 

The  Later  Empire  atid  the  Codification  of  Justinian. — 
The  list  of  the  great  jurists  is  abruptly  closed  about  the 
middle  of  the  third  century.  After  Paul  but  one  name  of 
note  occurs,  that  of  Minlestine.  The  development  of  the 
law  was  henceforth  carried  (»n  by  imperial  decrees  or  "con- 
stitutions." The  breach  with  the  old  order,  however,  was 
less  complete  than  it  aptiears  to  be.  Most  of  the  constitu- 
tions issued  during  the  last  half  of  the  third  century  were 
"  rescripts."  These  were  responses  rendered  in  the  name 
of  the  emperor  to  petitions  recjuosting  imperial  decision  of 
concrete  cases.  Such  applications  had  been  made  through- 
out the  early  empire.  In  some  cases  the  emperor  decided 
these  cases  in  council ;  more  frequently  he  assigned  their 
decision  to  the  ordinarv  judges,  with  instructions,  how- 
ever, touching  the  principles  which  should  be  applied.  In 
substance,  therefore,  these  rescripts  were  decisions  rather 
than  statutes.  The  rescripts  issued  in  the  reigns  of  Gordian 
and  of  Diocletian  are  similar  in  form,  and  not  inferior  in 
the  quality  of  their  legal  reasoning,  to  the  average  re- 
sponses of  Uloian  and  Paul.  Jurisprudence  had  not  yet 
sensibly  waneu,  as  it  did  in  the  fourth  and  following  cen- 
turies, out  the  jurists  had  disappeared  behind  the  throne, 
and  spioke  only  with  the  voice  of  the  emperor. 

Technically,  however,  the  rescripts,  as  well  as  the  general 
decrees  of  the  later  emi)erors,  were  imperial  *'  laws  "  (leges)^ 
and  were  distinguished  from  the  older  law  {jus)  very  much 
as  we  distinguish  statutes  from  common  law. 

The  first  attempts  at  codification  were  confined  to  the  im- 
perial constitutions.  A  private  collection  of  rescripts  was 
made  at  the  end  of  the  third  century  {codex  Greaorianus)^ 
and  a  supplement  was  issued  late  in  the  fourth  century 
{codex  Ilermogenianus),  In  the  year  429  the  East  Roman 
emperor  Theodosius  appointed  a  committee  of  codification. 
It  wasclearly  his  intention  to  have  the  entire  law,  both  the 
Jus  and  the  leges,  brought  into  manageable  com()ass ;  but 
nothing  came  of  his  initiative  except  an  official  revision  of 
the  imperial  constitutions  {codex  Theodosianus).  This  code 
was  transmitted  to  the  Empemr  Valentinian  III.,  and  was 
published  in  both  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  empire  in 
the  vears  438  and  4;i^, 

The  Emperor  Justinian  (527-565)  and  his  minister  Tribo- 
nian  took  up  the  wider  plan  of  Theodosius.  A  new  collec- 
tion of  imperial  constitutions  was  published  in  the  year 
529.  A  committee  was  then  appointed  to  dig&st  the  juris- 
tic literature,  omitting  all  that  was  antiuuateil  and  avoid- 
ing contradictions.  The  result  of  their  labors  was  the  Di- 
gfst  or  Pandects,  which  consisted  of  more  than  9,000  excerpts 
from  the  writings  of  thirty-nine  jurists,  arranged  under  429 
titles  and  grouped  into  fifty  books.  Each  excerpt  or  frag- 
ment is  precetied  by  the  name  of  the  writer  and  the  title  of 
his  work.  As  a  rule,  the  excerpts  were  literally  reproduced, 
without  condensation  or  other  change.  During  the  prog- 
ress of  this  work  an  ofiicial  text-book  was  drafted,  intended 
primarilv  for  use  in  the  imperial  law  schools.  It  was  based 
on  the  Institutes  of  Gains,  and  bore  the  same  title.  The 
Institutes  and  the  Digest  of  Justinian  were  published  Nov. 
21  and  Dec.  16,  5;W.  In  the  meantime  the  codex  of  529  had 
become  antiquated.  A  number  of  controversies  had  been 
discovered  in  the  juristic  literature,  and  no  less  than  fifty 
new  constitutions  had  been  issued  for  their  tlecision.  A 
i'odex  "of  the  secoml  reailing*'  {reftetitte  pnelertionis)  was 
therefore  published  Dec.  29,  5ii4.  It  contains  more  than 
4.600  constitutions  (more  than  half  of  them  "rescripts"), 
arranged  in  twelve  books.  The  Institutes,  Digest,  and  Co- 
dex were  declared  to  be  henceforth  the  sole  sources  of  the 
law,  and  to  forestall  further  controversy  it  was  made  a 
penal  offense  to  write  commentaries  upon  these  books. 
During  the  remaining  years  of  his  reign  Justinian  issued 
many  new  constitutions.  Of  these  yocels  {noveU(B  leges) 
only  private  compilations  were  made. 

The  value  of  Justinian's  work  lies  mainly  in  the  fact  that 
the  Roman  law  was  not  codified  in  the  nKxlern  sense  of  the 
word ;  i.  e.  no  attempt  was  made  to  set  forth  the  entire  law 


as  a  body  of  positive  rules.  In  the  excerpts  from  the  juris- 
tic literature  w^hich  make  up  the  Digest  and  in  the  rci^rif^i^ 
contained  in  the  Codex  we  have  a  great  body  of  rules  stnt..! 
only  by  implication,  and  therefore  capable  of  Peformulation, 
This  gives  the  Roman  law  that  elasticity  which  is  inhfnni 
in  all  case  law.  This  made  it  possible  to  apply  the  under- 
lying principles  of  the  Roman  law  to  the  new  and  difTrniit 
social  conditions  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  this  makes  rln- 
law-books  of  Justinian  of  value  to-day  to  the  student  of 
legal  science. 

4.  KoMAN  Law  in  MEDiiKVAL  and  Modern  Europe. — In 
the  East, — The  collections  made  by  Justinian  continutnl  to 
l)e  employed  in  the  East  Roman  or  Byzantine  empire  until 
the  close  of  the  ninth  century,  when  tney  were  displaced  hv 
a  less  bulky  compilation,  known  as  the  Basilica  (sc.  uowl- 
ma),  royallaws.  This  book  remained  nominally  in  fon  t- 
until  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (1453),  but  it  was  superset (>il 
in  practice  by  a  series  of  pnvate  digests  and  comi)endium% 
eacn  briefer  than  its  predecessor.  One  of  these,  the  HexabiUo*, 
compiled  in  the  fourteenth  century,  was  extensively  \x>^*\ 
among  the  Christian  subjects  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  an'l 
was  in  force  in  the  kingdom  of  Greece  as  late  as  the  nii«l- 
die  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  is  said  that  the  Roman 
law  in  its  later  Byzantine  form  exercised  a  consi<ierable  in- 
fluence upon  the  development  of  the  Turkish  law. 

In  the  Teutonic  Kingdoms, — Half  a  century  before  Jus- 
tinian ascended  the  throne  at  Constantinople  the  West  H«>- 
man  empire  had  fallen.  In  most  of  the  Teutonic  kingdiims 
established  in  Western  and  Southern  Europe  the  coiU|iirrtd 
provincials  were  permitted  to  live  by  the  Roman  law  <th«' 
so-calle<i  system  of  the  "personal  statute "),  and  several  of 
the  kings  had  handbooks  of  Roman  law  compiled  for  the  u-«* 
of  their  Roman  subjects.  The  most  important  of  these  vk*. 
the  so-called  Breviary  of  Alaric  II.,  King  of  the  ViMpitli's 
(a.  d.  506).  It  included  a  condensation  of  the  Instituf*A  of 
Gains,  a  portion  of  the  Opinions  ot  Paul  and  a  ccm^ider- 
able  numV>er  of  constitutions  from  the  older  codices,  {Mirtiiu- 
larly  the  Theodosian. 

Local  Law, — As  the  Romanic  and  Teutonic  elements  in 
Western  and  Southern  Europe  were  gradually  fuse<l  int<» 
new  nations,  the  system  of  the  "  personal  statute  "  was  ne«-- 
essarily  abandoned,  and  the  Roman  law  became  the  i'Kal 
law  of*  those  districts  in  which  the  Romanic  element  wn^s 
preponderant.  In  France,  for  example,  the  southern  pn^v- 
inces,  where  it  was  regularly  applied,  were  known  as  tiie 
"lands  of  written  law  {pays  de  droit  icrit),  in  distinction 
from  the  "lands  of  custom"  {pays  coutumiers),  wh<  rr 
Prankish  usages  prevailed.  Until  the  latter  j>art  of  th«- 
Middle  Ages,  however,  the  economic  conditions  prevail ini: 
throughout  Europe  were  so  simple  that  the  Roman  law 
which  was  required  and  applied  was  but  a  slight  part  of  th*- 
jurisprudence  which  had  grown  up  in  the  second  and  third 
centuries.  Until  the  twelfth  century  the  BreHary  was  nl- 
ma«4t  the  only  source  of  Roman  law  employed  in  We>terii 
KuTope. 

The  Canon  Law, — Of  greater  importance  was  the  sur- 
vival and  development  of  Roman  law  in  the  mtNlia»vHl 
Church.  It  was  an  unquestioned  maxim  that  the  Chureh 
lived  by  the  Roman  law.  Its  entire  sacenlotal  |»erst»nni*l 
stood  outside  of  the  tribal  and  local  laws  which  governeil 
the  laity,  and  in  many  matters  which  are  to-day  regarde<i 
as  secular  (marriage  and  the  family  relations,  testainentarj 
succession,  etc.)  it  claimed  and  obtained  a  practically  ex<'lii'- 
sive  jurisdiction  over  all  Christians,  From  the  court  of  thf 
bishop  (see  Ordinary)  appeals  ran  to  Rome  and  by  the  th*- 
cisions  of  the  popes  a  great  body  of  new  law  was  grndually 
built  uj) — the  Jus  canonicum.    See  Canon  Law  and  Mar- 

RIAOK. 

Study  and  Reception  of  the  Lair-books  of  Justinian  (11<^>- 
1600).— Toward  the  close  of  the  eleventh  centun*  the  law- 
yers of  Ijombardy  began  to  have  recourse  to  the  Digent  of 
Justinian  for  the*  solution  of  questions  U{Km  which  their 
local  law  was  silent.  In  the  twelfth  century  flouri-^hiu;: 
law  sch(K)ls  exi'^ted  at  Bologna  and  other  Italian  university 
centers  in  which  the  Roman  law,  both  civil  and  canon,  wa^ 
systematical! v  taught,  and  to  which  students  from  We^te^l 
and  Central  ICurone  {ultramontani)  thronged  by  thousamU. 
In  the  course  of  the  same  century  Roman  law  was  reatl  at 
Montpellier,  at  Paris,  and  at  Oxfonl.  In  the  following  ivn- 
turics  it  iKJcame  a  regular  branch  of  instruction  in  the  new 
universities  established  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  (iennan\. 
In  those  countries  where  Koman  law  was  alreailv  in  f*»ree 
the  law-books  of  Justinian  began  to  be  cited  in  the  cH>urt^. 
and   in  countries   where  the  Roman   law  had  previou>l> 


Ilimiiiii' 


tiT  !h»    tt»nT(»ii    \ 


mvH^wni 


nrr  mtinr  tif  l^r  »l^f^riH^r»?•* 


168 


ROMANTICISM 


ROME 


ticism,  so  many  times  badly  defined,  is  simply  liberalism  in 
literature." 

Essential  Qtialities,^ AW  these  definitions  have  something 
in  common.  There  are  evidently  three  essential  qualities  in 
romanticism :  Subjectivity,  love  of  the  picturesoue,  and  a  re- 
actionary spirit.  By  the  first  is  meant  that  tne  iispiration 
and  vague  longing  of  the  writer  will  be  manifest  in  his  lit- 
erary production ;  by  the  second,  that  element  of  strangeness 
added  to  beautv,  which  Pater  declares  is  fundamental ;  this 
may  appear  mildly,  as  where  the  writer  is  fond  of  ivy-man- 
tled towers  and  moonlit  water,  or  may  turn  into  a  passion 
for  the  unnatural  and  the  horrible,  as  in  tales  of  ghosts  and 
of  deeds  of  blood.  By  the  third  is  meant  that  the  romantic 
movement  in  any  country  will  always  be  reactionary  to  what 
has  immediately  preceded ;  it  may  be  gently  and  unconscious- 
ly reactionary,  as  in  England,  or  proudly  and  fiercely  rebel- 
lious, as  in  France. 

ifeeiMBt'a/t«m.— Taking  these  three  elements,  subjectiv- 
ity, picturesqueness,  and  reaction,  it  is  easy  to  see  why  the 
romantic  movement  in  Great  Britain,  in  Germanv,  and  in 
France,  went  for  its  inspiration  back  to  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  lay  just  the  material  for  which  the  ro- 
mantic spirit  vearned.  '  Its  religious,  military,  and  social  life 
can  hardly  be' better  characterized  than  by  the  word  mctur- 
esqiie;  and  souls  weary  of  form  and  finish,  and  of  the  mo- 
notony of  rules,  naturally  sought  the  opposite  of  all  this  in 
the  literature  and  thought  of  the  Middle  Ages.  And  as  the 
classicists  had  neglected  this  period  above  all  others,  and 
treated  it  with  contempt,  the  reactionists  began  with  an 
attempt  to  revivify  and  brighten  this  mediroval  life. 

English  Romanticism,— -fh^  most  striking  difference  be- 
tween the  romantic  movement  in  France  and  in  Great  Brit- 
ain is  that  in  the  former  the  movement  was  conscious, 
while  in  the  latter  it  was  only  instinctive.  French  roman- 
ticism had  a  definite  programme,  backed  almost  from  the 
start  by  a  critical  school,  and  headed  by  one  supreme  cre- 
ative genius.  English  romanticism  was  a  totally  different 
thing.  Its  beginnings  are  so  faint  and  so  far  below  the  sur- 
face that  many  writers  seem  to  believe  that  English  roman- 
ticism began  with  the  nineteenth  century,  and  that  in  the 
**  age  of  prose  and  reason  "  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a  ro- 
mantic movement  at  all.  It  is  certainly  impossible  to  name 
any  author  as  the  chief  pioneer ;  for  even  at  the  height  of 
Augustan  taste  there  were  feeble  signs  of  reaction  shown  by 
such  writers  as  Pamell,  Croxall,  Latly  Winchelsea,  William 
Hamilton  of  Bangour,  and  Allan  Ramsay.  The  reaction  in 
form,  which  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  the  heroic  couplet, 
was  brought  about  by  Thomson.  Blair,  Dyer,  Young,  Aken- 
side,  and  others,  who  cultivated  blank  verse.  The  sonnet  was 
revived  by  Thomas  Edwards,  Thomas  Warton,  Stillingfleet. 
and  Mason.  Perhaps  the  most  marked  change,  both  in 
thought  and  style,  is  indicated  by  the  Spenserian  revival — 
the  renewed  study  of  his  poetry  and  the  metrical  imitations 
of  his  stanza.  The  latter  oegan  as  early  as  1706,  with  an  ode 
by  Prior,  and  the  fad  reached  its  highest  popularity  in  the 
years  1735-55,  when  about  forty  poems  by  various  writers 
appeared  in  Spenserian  form.  The  influence  of  Milton's 
poems — especially  his  II  Penseroso — was  very  effective  after 
1750,  giving  to  literature  a  dreamy,  melancholy  cast,  which 
aided  in  developing  the  churchyard  school.  The  Warton 
brothers,  happily  re-enforced  by  the  lyrical  genius  of  Collins, 
were  the  leaoers  of  the  Miltonic  group,  and  became  promi- 
nently identified  with  the  romantic  movement.  Joseph  War- 
ton  wrote  blank  verse  and  odes,  but  his  most  important  con- 
tribution was  his  Essay  on  Pope  (1756),  in  which  he  main- 
tained that  Pope,  being  deficient  in  the  higher  qualities  of 
poetry,  imagination,  and  passion,  could  not  be  classed  in  the 
first  rank  of  British  poets.  Thomas  Warton  wrote  sonnets 
and  poems  on  romantic  themes,  and  aided  the  Spenserian 
school  bv  his  Observations  on  the  Faery  Queen  (1754).  Fol- 
lowing tiie  influences  just  mentioned  came  the  rage  for  medi- 
levalism,  shown  in  the  revival  of  Gothic  architecture,  begun 
by  the  dilettante  Horace  Walpole.  He  did  pioneer  work  by 
building  a  fantastic  structure  at  StrawlK?rry  Hill  (1750),  and 
by  writing  the  extravagant  Gothic  romance,  Ttie  Castle  of 
Otranto  (1764).  The  love  and  study  of  chivalry,  for  which 
Thomas  Warton  made  a  strong  plea  in  his  Observations^  was 
greatly  aided  bv  liurd's  Letters  on  (Vn'valry  and  Bomanc^ 
(1762).  Meanwhile  a  ta.«<te  for  old  balluds.  which  was  created 
in  1723  by  a  very  popular  collection  of  old  ballads  (anony- 
mous) and  in  1724  by  Ramsay's  Evergreen^  reci'ived  a  tremen- 
dous impetus  by  the  publication  of  Percy's  Reiitfues  (1765). 
The  love  of  medi«?valism  showed  itself  also  in  the  opening 
of  a  new  romantic  storehouse — the  Northern  mythology,    in 


1755  Paul  H.  Mallet  published  the  first  part  of  his  Ifistotrf 
de  Dannemarck,  whicn  treated  of  the  religion,  laws,  and  cu<>- 
toms  of  the  ancient  Danes,  and  which  gave  a  translation  of 
a  large  portion  of  the  Eddaic  mythology.  Percy  and  tf  ra> 
became  enthusiastic  students  of  this,  and  made  Odin  neari> 
as  familiar  to  readers  as  Jupiter.  Old  Welsh  poetry  wa^ 
also  cultivated ;  and  everything  old  or  wild  or  sentimental 
leaped  into  popularity  by  the  publication  of  Macpher>on\ 
Ossianic  poetry  (1760-63),  which  ultimately  was  tnkni 
more  seriously  on  the  Continent  than  in  Great  Britain,  it 
was  fortunate  for  the  movement  that  the  greatest  fnu't  of 
the  time.  Gray,  finally  threw  his  whole  influence  in  its  f«- 
vor.  Beginning  as  a  classicist  and  disciple  of  Dryden,  (J my 
came  strongly  under  the  influence  of  the  11  Penseroso  gr«»ii|', 
and  finally  ended  in  downright  romanticism.  Gray  ^u^ 
also  the  first  man  of  note  in  the  eighteenth  century  to  a|^ 
preciate  natural  scenery,  and  his  Journal  in  tfie'  IxUfM, 
written  1769,  published  1775,  is  full  of  the  Wonisworthian 
spirit.  By  1770  the  romantic  movement  was  in  full  swing: 
Chatterton's  poems  were  an  important  contribution,  and  t  >*«► 
great  sides  of  the  movement — the  taste  for  ballads  and  f <  r 
chivalry — culminated  in  the  poetry  and  prose  of  Walter 
Scott.  Byron  belongs  to  sentiraentalism  more  strictly  thhti 
to  romanticism,  but  his  influence  on  the  romantic  sk-Ikm.n 
in  France  and  Germanv  was  enormous.  Coleridge  and 
Keats  are  identified  with  romanticism,  and  Wordsworth*^ 
methods  and  theories  would  certainly  give  him  a  plure 
in  the  history  of  the  movement.  After  1830  roroaini- 
cism  in  Great  Britain  became  less  pronounced,  l>efHU-«' 
everything  in  a  sense  was  romantic;  there  was  nothinAf  to 
fight. 

jPr^jicA.— Speaking  generallv  of  the  literary  historj'  of  t  hf 
two  countries.  Great  Britain  has  almost  consistently  m«hmI 
for  romanticism ;  France  for  classicism.  The  romantic  ni«  "X  »- 
nient  in  Great  Britain  in  the  eight-eenth  century  was  n»all> 
the  heart  of  the  people  asserting  itself,  timidly  and  inMinc'- 
tively  at  first,  against  the  domination  of  a  critic^  sclirMU ; 
while  the  romantic  movement  of  1830  in  France  was  a  bit- 
ter, desperate  fight  between  a  band  of  young  reformers  and 
the  national  literary  instinct.  The  beginnings  of  Fn  nch 
romanticism  may  be  seen  in  the  writings  of  HiateaubriHnd 
and  Madame  de  Stael,  but  it  was  with  \ictor  Hugo  that  tin-' 
school  definitely  began  (and  ended)  its  work.  In  the  prt'fa(  »• 
to  CVotwi/W/ (1828)  he  laid  down  plainly  and  defiantly  th** 
romantic  programme,  which  was  fought  for  by  the  prest-nta- 
tion  of  his  Hernani  in  1830,  and  the  publication  of  his  pn-at 
romance  Notre  Dame  de  Paris  (1881).  A  group  of  youn:: 
writers  followed  enthusiastically  in  Hugo's  wake;  they  and 
the  movement  are  well  set  forth  in  Gautier's  Histoi're  dn 
Romantisme.  The  school  directed  its  sharpest  at t ark* 
against  the  classic  French  drama,  and  this  reform  was  the 
most  important  literary  result  they  accomplished.  Tho 
emancipation  proclaimed,  and  at  last  established,  the  move- 
ment naturally  spent  its  force. 

German, — The  German  romantic  movement  is  not  so  ea-«v 
to  follow.  Between  the  years  1770  and  1832  it  flouri>h<Mf. 
drooped,  and  flourished  again,  Herder's  enthusiastic  inter- 
est in  the  past  kindled  a  flame  of  mediievalism,  which  ^as 
re-enforced  by  Ossianic  sentimentalism  from  Grejit  Britain, 
Ossian's  influence  on  Goethe's  Wert  her  is  well  known,  and 
Odtz  von  Berlichingen (1773)  came  from  the  heart  of  Goethe's 
youthful  romanticism.  Twenty  years  later,  however,  the  in- 
terest in  Greek  antiquity  put  meditpvalism  in  the  shade, 
and  classicism  became  supreme.  Then  in  the  early  year> 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  romantic  school  asserte4i  it- 
self with  renewed  force,  and  a  younger  generation  of  jxHts 
took  up  eagerly  the  cultivation  of  old  patriotic  Gennan  lit- 
erature. The  Schlegel  brothers,  Tieck  and  Novalis,  were 
the  leaders  of  the  romantic  school  proper;  the  younger,  or 
new  romantics,  were  represented  ny  Uhland,  Brent ano, 
the  Grimm  brothers,  Amim,  and  others. 

Wm.  Lyon  Pdelps. 

Romany  Languafre:  the  language  of  the  Gti>sies  {q.  vx 

Borne  [from  Lat.  Roma  (whence  Gr.  Tai/iij)  >  Ital.  Rama  : 
Fr.  i?omc  :  Span.  Roma]:  the  chief  city  of  ancient  Italy, 
giving  its  name  also  to  a  great  rc^public  and  empire  ;  tl.o 
capital  of  the  motlern  kingdom  of  Italy. 

I.  Rome  from  753  b.  c.  to  476  a.  d. 

The  Epoch  of  the  Kiyos  {Legendary  Dates,  r."^.?-,:' .' 
B.C.)' — According  to  the  legends  current  during  the  I.hiit 
republic,  the  city  was  founded  in  753  b.  c.  by  a  s<»ltienietu 
from  Alba  Longa  led  by  Uomulis  {g,  i'.).    Tte  earliest  Kit- 


170 


ROME 


functions  passed  to  the  comitia  centuriata^  reorganized  on  a 
democratic  basis  at  some  time  in  the  third  century,  and  to 
the  comitia  tributa^  in  which  the  whole  people  met  in  their 
tribal  divisions.  **  As  a  righteous  retribution  for  their  per- 
verse and  stubborn  resistance,"  the  patricians  saw  **  their  for- 
mer privileges  converted  into  so  many  disabilities,"  since 
thev  were  forced  to  share  these  privileges  with  the  plebeians, 
and  were  excluded  from  election  to  the  tribunate  and  from 
membership  in  the  special  plebeian  assembly. 

While  the  popular  assemblies  thus  "acquired  the  sem- 
blance, the  senate  acquired  the  substance  of  power.**  The 
assemblies  were  unwieldy,  the  |x>wer  of  the  magistrates  was 
weakened  by  division  and  by  the  shortness  of  their  terms ; 
the  senate  alone  had  a  continuous  policy,  and  it  drew  to  it- 
self the  control  of  elections  and  legislation  and  the  general 
direction  of  the  policy  of  the  state.  On  the  ruins  of  the  old 
nobility  of  birth  arose  a  new  patricianism  based  upon  wealth 
and  possession  of  office. 

The  Conquesl  of  Italy  {509-276  B  c.).— The  same  gen- 
eration that  saw  the  formal  completion  of  plebeian  rights  by 
the  Uortensian  law  witnessed  tne  establishment  of  lioman 
supremacy  in  Italy.  The  wars  that  followed  the  expulsion 
of  Tarqumius  Superbus  deprived  Rome  of  her  hegemony 
over  Latitmi  and  reduced  her  almost  to  her  original  limits, 
so  that  for  a  time  the  very  existence  of  the  state  was  threat- 
ened. The  chief  enemies*  of  Rome  in  this  period  were  the 
Volscians,  situated  to  the  southeast,  the  Sabine  and  .£quian 
mountaineers  to  the  east  and  northeast,  and  the  powerful 
EtruscflJi  confederacy  across  the  Tiber.  Against  these,  in 
493,  an  alliance  was  formed  between  Rome  and  the  towns 
of  the  Latin  confederacy,  and  in  486  this  league  was  joined 
by  the  neighboring  Hernicans.  The  long  and  doubtful 
wars  which  follow^  embellished  by  Roman  annalists  with 
poetic  details  and  the  faalf-fabuloiis  stories  of  Coriolanus 
and  Cincinnatus,  brought  little  advantage  to  Rome.  The 
state  was  weakened  by  civil  dissensions,  and  only  after  these 
were  temporarily  healed  by  the  decem viral  legislation  and 
the  reforms  which  immediately  followed  it,  did  the  Romans 
begin  the  steady  advance  which  brought  them  in  406  before 
the  gates  of  the  important  Etruscan  city  of  VeiL  The  cap- 
ture of  Veil,  aft«r  a  ten  years'  siege,  was  an  event  of  ^reut 
importance  in  the  territorial  growth  of  Rome,  siiice  it  re-, 
moved  the  most  serious  obstacle  to  tW  prance  of  Rom'ftn 
power.  In  the  year  990  Rome  wais  taken  ahd  bucn^  Jt)y. the 
Gauls,  a  Celtic  people  from  the  north  of  Italy.  In  i^nte  of 
the  immediate  loss,  the  Gallic  invasion.,  seems  in  the  end  to 
have  favored  tlie  growth  of  the  Roman  pdwec.  by  weak- 
ening Rome's  great  rival,  the  Etruscans,'  and^pu^ting  Rome 
into  the  position  of  a  defender  of  the  rest  of  Italy  against 
the  foreigner.  A  war  with  the  Latins  ended  in  838'm-the 
dissolution  of  the  Latin  league  and  the  incorporation  of 
most  of  its  members  into  the  Roman  state.  In  306  the 
Hernican  confederacy  met  a  similar  fate.  The  overthrow 
of  the  powerful  tribe  of  the  Samnites  in  290,  after  a  struggle 
which  had  lasted  with  little  intermission  for  more  than 
fifty  years,  led  to  the  subjection  of  their  Etruscan  and  Um- 
brian  allies,  and  the  defeat  of  Pyrrhus  at  Bene  vent  um  hi 
275  put  an  end  to  the  independence  of  the  Greek  cities  in 
the  south,  and  left  Rome  mistress  of  Italy.  The  Roman 
territory  {ager  Romanns)  received  considerable  additions, 
but  Roman  supremacy  was  most  effectively  secured  by  the 
founding  of  colonies,  by  the  building  of  military  roads,  and 
by  the  grant  of  municipal  rights  and  tlie  establishment  of 
treaties  of  alliance  with  the  conquered  cities. 

The  Efitahli»hment  of  lioman  Snpremo^cy  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean  {JUJ^-ISS  B.  C). — Rome's  attempt  to  extend  her  do- 
minion beyond  Italy  brought  her  at  once  into  conflict  with 
Carthage,  the  leading  power  in  the  western  Mediterranean. 
The  immediate  occasion  of  the  first  Punic  war  was  the  inter- 
ference of  Rome  in  the  affairs  of  Sicily,  which  was  then  in 
dispute  between  the  Carthaginians  and  the  city  of  Syracuse, 
The  war  lasted  from  264  to  241,  and  resulted  in  the' victory 
of  Rome  only  after  she  had  created  a  navy  and  leanied  to 
compete  with  the  Carthaginians  on  the  sea.  Shortly  after 
the  conclusion  of  peace,  Rome  took  advantage  of  the  mutiny 
of  the  Carthaginian  mentenaries  to  annex  the  possessions  of 
Carthage  in  Sardinia  and  Corsica.  While  Rome  was  engaged 
in  subduing  the  Gallic  tribes  in  the  %'alley  of  the  Po,  Ilaniil- 
car  Barca  conquered  Spain  for  Carthage.  His  son  Hannibal 
began  the  second  Punic  war  in  218  by  leading  his  army  over 
the  Alps  into  Italy.  Important  victories  on  the  Trebia,  at 
Lake  Trasimenus,  and  at  Cannae,  gave  him  control  of  the  Po 
vallev  and  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  but  he  was 
unable  to  attack  successfully  the  city  of  Rome  or  to  shake 


the  loyalty  of  the  peoples  of  Central  Italy.  The  defeat  of 
his  brother  Uasdrultal  on  the  Metaurus  destroyed  Hanni teal's 
hope  of  re -enforcements,  and  he  was  compelled  to  return  to 
Africa,  where  the  victory  of  the  Roman  general  S<*if»io  at  j 
the  battle  of  Zama  put  an  end  to  the  war.  Sjwiin  was  cmmIimI  ' 
to  Rome,  and  the  political  and  commercial  suprema<*y  <'f 
Carthage  was  at  an  end.  '  ; 

The  alliance  of  Philip  of  Macedon  with  Hannibal  gHv«»       ' 
Rome  a  pretext  for  interference  in  the  Ktist,  and  the  M^c-oiul       I 
Macedonian  war  result-ed  (197)  in  the  destruction  of  Iht- 
Macedonian  supremacy  in  Greece  and  the  independence  »>f 
the  Greek  states.    In  190  Antiochus  of  Svria  was  defetittHl       | 
at  Magnesia  and  compelled  to  surrender  Asia  Minor,  whi<'h 
went  to  increase  the  territories  of  Rome's  allies.    Illyricuni 
became  a  Roman  province  in  167.    The  third  MaceHdonian 
war  ended  in  168  in  the  division  of  the  Macedonian  kingcb  »in       j 
into  four  republics  under  Roman  supremacy.    In  146  the<<' 
republics  became  the  Roman  province  of  Achaia,  and  in  thv 
same  year  a  desperate  revolt  led  to  the  destruction  ot  <  'ar- 
thage  and  the  fonnation  of  the  Roman  province  of  Afri<M. 
In  133  Attains,  King  of  Pergamus,  bequeathed  his  doniini<  ►ns 
in  Asia  Minor  to  Rome. 

This  rapid  extension  of  territory  was  accompanied  by  far- 
reaching  changes  in  Roman  society.  The  increase  of  slavery 
and  the  growth  of  large  estates  in  Italy  hastened  the  dwliiir 
of  the  class  of  small  proprietors,  who  formed  the  backbone  <  »f 
the  old  Roman  state.  Foreigners  -and  dispossessed  farin«»rs 
flocked  to  the  capital,  where  they  formed  an  idle  and  dan- 
gerous proletariat.  In  spite  of  the  efforts  of  such  men  as 
Cato,  the  simple  and  austere  life  of  earlier  times  gave  way 
before  the  spread  of  a  cosmopolitan  Hellenism.  Politic-nl 
institutions  nad  not  adjusted  themselves  to  the  chan^***! 
conditions;  Rome  was  trving  to  p^overn  an  empire  with  the 
constitution  of  a  city.  The  piovmces  had  no  share  in  tlu* 
government,  and  were  considered  a  legitimate  source  4»f 
plunder  by  the  governors  and  tax-gatherers.  The  s**iiate 
sank  "from  its  original  high  position,  as  the  aggregate  <>f 
those  in  the  community  who  were  most  experienced  in 
counsel  and  action,  into  an  order  of  lords  filling  up  its  rank^ 
by  hereditary  succession,  and  exercising  collegiate  misruk-.*' 
Sieform  was  imperativelv  needed. 

TJie  Decline  of  the  'Rep^iblic  {b.  C.  13S-S7).—The  la-t 
century  of  the  republic  is  a  period  of  civil  struggles,  untier 
the  strain  of  which  the  republican  constitution  bJoke  d<iwn  , 
and  gave  way  to  the  empire.  "  It  is  a  sign  of  the  decay  ui 
genuine  republicanism  at  Rome,  and  the  approach  of  aiito- 
cratic  government,  that  from  this  time  on  its  history  centers 
about  the  names  of  individuals."  Controversy  first  an-^« 
over  the  efforts  of  Tiberius  Gracchus  to  remedy  the  cviN 
growing  out  of  the  Roman  land  system.  Elected  tribune  of 
the  people  in  133,  Gracchus  at  once  proposed  an  agruriHii 
law  which  provided  for  the  enforcement  of  the  act  of  I-ici- 
nius,  limiting  the  amount  of  public  land  which  any  oitiz^'ii 
could  possess.  LaiMl  thus  held  in  excess  of  the  legal  amount 
was  to  be  parceled  out  among  the  citizens  and  Italians  in 
inalienable  holdings  of  thirty ^t^^era.  The  measure  was  <  .n  1  y 
carried  after  the  deposition  of  a  tribune  who  int*riK»se«l  his 
veto ;  and  in  seeking  re-election  the  following  year  Gra<.-t'hu'> 
was  killed  by  his  |X)litical  opponents.  In  123 Gaius  Gnw-c-Jni'^ 
brought  forward  a  more  Ci)mprehensive  scheme  of  reform. 
Besides  re-enacting  the  agrarian  law  of  his  brother,  the  exe- 
cution of  which  had  been  suspende<l  after  fanns  had  Ik^-ii 
given  to  80,000  citizens,  he  struck  directly  at  the  power  of 
the  senate  by  restricting  its  control  over  the  government  «»f 
the  provinces.  As  a  counterpoise  to  the  senate,  he  sought  t « » 
strengthen  the  influence  of  the  e<piestrian  onler,  a  ciji>.s  <«f 
wealthy  capitalists  to  whom  the  collection  of  the  proviiuial 
taxes  was  let.  The  people  were  won  over  by  pubhc  sale?^  of 
grain  at  a  re<luced  price.  Gracchus  hoped  to  direct  the  {h»1  i<-y 
of  the  state  bv  securing  his  regular  re-election  to  the  tribnnat*'. 
but  he  was  defeated  in  122  and  wwn  afterward  niurtierfd. 
After  the  death  of  Gracchus  the  selfish  policy  of  the  nolth-s 
ruled  supreme.  The  occupied  public  land  was  granted  to 
the  possessors  as  absolute  private  property,  and  the  condi- 
tion of  Italy  and  the  provinces  grew  8tea<lily  worse.  The 
crowning  example  of  aristocratic  misrule  is  seen  in  the  war 
with  Jugurtha,  King  of  Numidia,  who  bribed  one  after  an- 
other of  the  inefficient  generals  sent  against  him.  The  war 
was  finally  brought  to  an  end  by  Gaius  Marius,  a  man  f>f 
humble  origin,  whose  further  success  in  rej>elling  the  inva- 
sion of  the  (Mmbri  and  Teutones  made  him  the  leadini^  man 
at  Rome.  Marius  was  the  first  of  the  line  of  military  liercH>s 
under  whom  the  republic  went  out  and  the  empire  came  in.  ' 
He  lengthened  the  term  of  enlistment  and  auolisiieU   the    i 


^■"-s* 


-.  O'" ' 


172 


ROME 


Rhone.  With  scarcely  an  exception  the  emperors  of  this 
period  were  weak  and  incompetent;  control  passed  more 
and  more  into  the  hands  of  German  leaders,  until  in  476 
Odoacer  deposed  the  Emperor  Romulus  Augustulus  and 
ruled  Italy  as  a  German  king.  The  sovereignty  of  the  em- 
peror at  Constantinople  was  nominally  recognized  in  the 
West,  but  the  real  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  kings  of 
the  German  tribes. 

Authorities. — The  best  general  history  of  the  Roman 
republic  is  that  of  Mommsen.  Use  should  be  made  of 
Ihne's  History  of  Rome  and  Nitzsch's  Oeschichte  der  r5m- 
ischen  Repubiik,  For  modern  views  on  early  Roman  his- 
tory, Niebuhr*s  History  of  Rome,  Schwegler's  Rdmische 
Oeschichte,  and  Lewis's  Credibility  of  Eany  Roman  His- 
tory should  be  consulted.  Arnold  s  History  of  Rome  fol- 
lows Niebuhr  on  the  earlier  period ;  it  is  most  useful  for  the 
Punic  wars  (to  206).  Long's  Decline  of  the  Roman  Repub- 
lic is  a  careful  narrative  of  the  last  century  of  the  repuolic. 
Drumann*s  Geschichte  Roms  treats  thg  same  period  bio- 
graphically. 

There  is  no  work  on  the  empire  equal  to  Mommsen's  on 
the  republic.  Merivale's  History  of  the  Romans  under  the 
Empire  extends  to  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  where  the 
narrative  of  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire begins.  Schiller's  Oeschichte  der  rdmischen  Kaiser- 
zeit  covers  the  period  to  the  death  of  Theodosius.  Duruy's 
History  of  Rome  contains  a  fairly  complete  account  of  the 
empire.  The  work  is  particularly  useful  because  of  its  il- 
lustrations. Bury's  History  of  the  Roman  Empire  covers 
briefly  the  same  period  as  Merivale.  Clinton's  Fasti  Ro- 
mani'  is  of  value  to  the  student  of  the  chronology  of  the 
empire.  Hertzberg's  Oeschichte  des  rdmischen  Kaiser- 
reichs  is  valuable,  as  are  also  the  volumes  of  Ranke*s  Welt- 
geschichte  which  treat  of  the  empire.  Mommsen's  Prov- 
inces of  the  Roman  Empire  describes  an  important  phase  of 
imperial  history.  For  the  years  after  the  death  of  Theodo- 
sius, see  Kuhn's  Stddtische  und  burgerliche  Verfassung  des 
rdmischen  Reichs,  Bury's  History  of  the  Later  Roman  Em- 
pire, and  Hodgkin's  Italy  and  her  Invaders.  Among  the 
accounts  of  particular  periods,  Gardthausen's  Augustus  und 
seine  Zeit  and  Burckhardt's  Die  Zeit  Constantin^s  des  Oros- 
sen  should  be  mentioned.  Representative  works  on  the  so- 
cial history  of  the  period  are  Friedlilnder's  Siftengeschichte 
Roms  and  Schultze's  Geschichte  des  Urhtergangs  des  griech- 
isch-romischen  Heidenthums. 

Roman  institutions  are  most  completely  presented  in  the 
great  work  of  Marquardt  and  Mommsen,  Die  rGmischeih 
Staatsalterthumer,  Good  briefer  works  are  Mommsen's 
Abriss  des  rdmischen  Staatsrechts,  Schiller's  Rdmische 
Staats-  und  RechtscUterthUmer  (in  MUller's  Handbuch  der 
klassischefi  Alterthumswissenschaft),  Madvig's  Verfassung 
und  Verwaltung  des  rdmischen  Staates,  Willem's  Droit 
Public  Romain,  and  Bouche-Leclercq's  Manuel  des  Institu- 
tions Romaines.  Herzog's  Oeschichte  und  System  der  rdm- 
ischen StaxUsverfassung  is  a  valuable  work  which  treats  the 
Roman  constitution  historically  as  well  as  descriptively. 

For  a  study  of  the  original  sources  of  Roman  history, 
Schafer's  Abriss  der  Quellenkufide  der  rdmischen  Oeschichte 
gives  useful  material.  Charles  H.  Raskins. 

n.    Rome  from  476  to  1870. 

Upon  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Roman  empire,  which  fell 
in  476,  there  arose  gradually  a  new  empire,  which  soon  be- 
came all  the  more  powerful  as  it  claimed  control  over  the 
souls  of  men  as  well  as  over  their  bodies.  Rome  became, 
after  a  short  interregnum,  once  more  the  seat  of  the  central 
power  in  Europe,  and  thus  earned  its  historic  name  of  the 
Eternal  City.  It  owed  this  supremacy  to  the  gradual  de- 
velopment of  Christianity.  The  full  supremacy  of  Rome 
as  the  capital  of  the  new  Church-empire  may  be  referred  to 
the  time  of  Pope  Gregory  I.  (590-604),  through  whose  en- 
ergy and  political  wisdom  the  authority  of  the  Church  was 
everywhere  established. 

Rome  itself — and  with  Rome  the  whole  of  Italy — ^had  in 
the  meantime  been  the  easy  prey  of  the  new  races  which 
at  that  time  broke  forth  from  their  unknown  home  in 
the  East,  overran  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  gradually  ob- 
tained the  supreme  power.  Under  various  names,  as  Goths 
and  Germans,  as  Lombards,  Franks,  and  Avares,  they  con- 
quered one  province  after  another.  Large  i)ortions  of  Italy 
were  laid  waste,  cities  were  sacked  and  razed  to  the  ground, 
and  whole  populations  butchered  or  carried  into  captivity. 
The  surviving  inhabitants  remained  in  possession  of  the 
land,  which  they  were  forced  to  cultivate  for  the  benefit  of 


the  conquerors.  The  ancient  laws  of  Rome  ceased  to  \»> 
enforced,  the  municipalities  became  extinct,  the  c«murr> 
was  divided  into  duchies  and  governed  by  foreign  ma««i<  r>. 
Although  the  Lombards  at  no  time  were  masters  of  tin- 
whole  of  Italy,  their  influence  was  powerful  enough  to  iri^  •• 
a  new  Gennan  character  to  the  whole  peninsula,  ReiH-.Hi'-.; 
efforts  made  by  the  Roman  emperors  at  Constantinoplt  '-. 
recover  possession  of  Italy  led  to  bloody  wars,  but  remaiiK  .1 
unsuccessful.  A  greater  danger  threatened  Rome  when  t  h. 
Church  was  violently  agitated  by  a  great  schism  between  t  Ji- 
followers  of  Arius,  who  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ,  m  <! 
the  Roman  Catholics,  who  condemned  Arianism.  Thanks 
to  the  skillful  management  of  Gregory  the  Great  and  Ki> 
influence  over  Theodelinda,  the  Queen  of  the  Ix)niliar<i>, 
the  latter  were  won  over  to  his  side,  Rome  was  saved  f r«  *\n 
destruction,  and  Roman  Catholicism  became  supreme  ti. 
Italy.  This  great  triumph  not  only  relieved  the  Church  ir. 
Rome,  but  enabled  it  to  increase  its  strength  at  home  ar.<{ 
to  extend  its  power  abroad,  untrammeled  by  the  irks/iu- 
authority  of  Greek  emperors  or  the  barbarous  interferu.« •^' 
of  German  invaders.  About  the  same  time  that  the  law^  .  f 
the  Lombards  were  collected  (644)  the  decrees  of  ouuin  ki^ 
and  the  canons  of  the  Church  also  were  codified. 

The  influence  of  Rome  grew  with  the  power  of  the  i:">p«-». 
The  Germans  were  converted  by  St.  Boniface,  and  even  tl.. 
Eastern  nations  of  the  Slavonic  race  began  to  acknowl»Mi  j. 
the  authority  of  the  Church,  but  the  appeal  of  the  Frank. --ii 
king,  Pepin,  flrst  established  the  claim  of  the  popes  to  jmlp- 
in  secular  matters  as  well  as  in  matters  of  faith.  Pepin  r-  - 
warded  the  pope's  assistance  by  a  grant  of  land  in  Italy,  uno 
thus  the  founaation  of  the  secular  power  of  the  |xifH*-.  w:»^ 
firmly  laid.  Pepin's  successor,  Charlemagne,  relievefi  tl*. 
pope  of  great  danger,  defeated  his  enemies  the  Lombard-, 
and  after  several  bloody  campaigns  entered  Rome,  wliort-  tit- 
accepted  at  the  hands  of  Pope  Leo  III.  the  dignity  of  Kii:- 
peror  of  Rome  and  protector  of  Christendom  (800).  It  wa^ 
little  more  than  a  restoration  in  name  of  the  old  R'ri.ini 
empire;  Charlemagne; acquired  no  new  provinces  an«l  i»o 
new  powers,  but"  the  deep-rooted  reverence  felt  all  over  t^  •• 
world  for  ancient  Rome  was  silently  transferred  to  the  nt  v* 
Ca»sar.  Thus  the  emperors  gained  much  by  this  constcrn- 
tion  of  their  power,  while  Rome  resumed  its  sway  over  U* 
world. 

Italy  was,  however,  not  long  to  enjoy  this  newly  won 
greatness  in  peace.  '  New  enemies _arose  on  all  sides,  ai.l 
m  846  the  Saracens  invaded  the  country  and  threaten..! 
Rome.  Leo  IV.,  a  Roman  by  birth  and  a  man  of  extrnoi- 
dinary  vigor,  inclosed  that  part  of  the  city  which  ha*  e\«  r 
since  been  known  as  the  Leonine  City  with  strong  w^aliv, 
and  made  it  for  a  time  impregnable.  After  a  peritxl  if 
turbulent  warfare  an  appeal  was  made  by  John  XII.  t<* 
Otho,  the  German  emperor,  and  the  journey  of  the  latter  !•► 
Rome  inaugurated  a  series  of  expeditions  made  by  the  em- 
perors of  Germany  into  Italy.  Otho  was,  like  Charlemagu*', 
crowned  in  Rome  (962),  and  confirmed  and  enlarged  tl.- 
donations  made  by  his  predecessors,  but  reserved  to  hinis*  f 
and  his  successors  the  sovereignty  of  Rome.  Unfortunately, 
this  divided  authority  led  to  the  commission  of  atr<K*i<>u^ 
political  crimes  by  the  popes  and  the  three  Othos,  and  x\\i^ 
period  of  Roman  history  is  full  of  shame  and  disgrace.  Tlie 
papal  party  and  the  imperial  party — later  known  as  ihr 
Guelphs  and  the  Ghibellines — were  in  constant  eonfiict,  an«i 
Italy  was  the  blood-stained  battle-field  on  which  the  war  wu«- 
waged.  At  times  the  popes  triumphed,  as  when  the  cvN- 
brated  Hildebrand  (Gregory  VII.)  compelled  the  EmjM»ror 
Henry  to  do  penance  at  Canossa,  a  fortress  in  Ijombanlv, 
and,  kissing  tne  pope's  foot,  to  swear  a  formal  <iath  »<f 
submission.  Hildebrand  was  deposed,  Rome  devastated  bv 
Norman  troops  under  Guiscard,  the  city  burned,  the  inhab- 
itants slaughtered  or  sold  into  slavery,  and  he  hirn>4.jf 
driven  to  seek  refuge  at  Salerno,  where  he  died  (lOvTi. 
Crusaders,  German  armies,  and  lawless  bands  of  sohiiir^ 
ravaged  Rome  by  turns,  and  in  the  thirteenth  century,  a 
period  of  unbroken  faction  and  fighting,  the  city  sufTt'nii 
fearfully.  Ancient  tombs  and  monuments  were  tmn^- 
formedinto  fortresses,  towers  were  built  everywhere,  an-! 
the  housi's  of  the  tyrannical  nobles  were  so  many  impn  i:- 
nable  strongholds.  Within  the  walls  vast  districts  wt-i.- 
lying  waste,  gardens  were  planted  where  once  st<M^i  ti., 
proudest  temples  and  h)ftiest  palaces,  and  the  inhabit et 
portions  of  the  city  were  filled  with  perpetual  tumult.  Ttn- 
popes  were  confnied  to  their  castle,  and  yet  their  p<iuir 
abroad  was  greater  than  ever.  Emperors,  kings,  and  priii«-t  ^ 
bowed  before  InncK'cut  III.,  who  claimed  the  government  if 


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174 


ROME 


Angelo.  The  last  structure  {Moles  lladnani),  commenced  by 
Hadrian  and  finished  in  140  by  Antoninus  Pius,  was  in- 
tended for  a  mausoleum  for  Hadrian  and  his  family,  and 
connected  with  the  Monte  Pincio  by  the  Pons  ^lius.  When 
the  Goths  conquered  Rome  under  Vitiees,  it  was  used  as  a 
fortress,  and  during  the  feuds  of  the  early  Middle  Ages  con- 
stantly formed  a  stronghold  in  the  hands  of  the  ruling  fac- 
tion. Urban  V.  constructed  the  outworks ;  in  1500  the  cov- 
ered passage  which  connects  it  with  the  Vatican  palace  was 
built ;  and  in  1527  Clement  VII.  sustained  here  a  long  siege, 
in  which  Benvenuto  Cellini  was  engaged  and  the  constable 
of  Bourbon  was  killed.  The  later  popes  used  the  structure 
principally  as  a  dungeon.  The  southern  portion  of  the  city 
on  the  right  bank,  Trasterere,  occupies  the  ancient  Mon's 
Janiculus.  Here  was  in  the  oldest  time  a  fortified  outpost 
against  the  Etruscans,  and  in  the  time  of  Augustus  a  popu- 
lous suburb.  The  Trastevcrc  is  mostly  inhabited  by  working- 
men,  who  claim  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Romans. 
The  most  remarkable  points  here  are  the  Church  of  S.  Pietro 
in  Montorio,  erected  m  1500  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of 
Spain  on  the  spot  where  St.  Peter  is  said  to  have  suffered 
martyrdom,  and  the  magnificent  fountain  Acqua  Paola, 
built  in  1611,  under  Paul  V.,  by  Fontana  and  Maderno, 
after  the  restoration  of  the  ancient  Aqua  Trajana,  an  aque- 
duct erected  by  Trajan  for  the  purpose  o1  carrying  the  waters 
of  the  Lago  di  Bracciano  (Locus  Sabatinus)i  over  80  miles 
distant,  into  the  city.  These  two  portions  of  the  western 
part  of  the  city  are  connected  by  the  Via  della  Lungara,  three 
quarters  of  a  mile  long,  constructed  by  Sixtus  V.  It  contains 
the  Villa  Farnesina,  which  was  built  in  1506  by  Baldassare 
Peruzzi,  and  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Farnese  family 
in  1580,  and  the  Palazzo  Corsini,  in  which  Queen  C-hristina 
of  Sweden  died  Apr.  19, 1689.  The  Villa  Farnesina  contains 
a  celebrated  series  of  frescoes  representir^  the  myth  of 
Psyche,  after  designs  by  Raphael,  and  the  Palazzo  Corsini, 
which  has  been  assigned  by  the  Government  to  the  R. 
Accadenna  dci  Lincci,  contains  a  picture-gallery,  one  of  the 
largest  collections  of  engravings  in  the  world,  and  a  val- 
uable library. 

The  larger,  eastern  part  of  the  city,  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Tiber,  occupies  the  famous  seven  hills.  Farther 
to  the  N.,  near  the  Porta  del  Popolo,  rises  Monte  Pincio 
{Colfis  Hortorum),  175  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  which 
in  ancient  times  was  covered  with  gardens  and  not  reckoned 
a  part  of  the  city;  the  famous  gardens  of  Lucullus  were 
situated  here.  Here  are  the  Pincian  gardens,  a  fashionable 
drive  and  promenade,  which  command  a  fine  view  of  the 
city.  Separated  from  Monte  Pincio  by  the  Piazza  Barberini 
extend  the  Esquiline  hill,  the  Quirinal.  and  the  Viminal. 
Farther  to  the  S.  rises  the  Cielian.  and  between  this  and  the 
river  the  Aventine.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  plain,  be- 
tween this  range  of  hills  and  the  Tiber,  rise,  isolated,  two 
other  hills — the  Palatine  and  the  Capitoline.  The  latter 
formed  the  most  prominent  point  of  ancient  republican  and 
imf>erial  Rome,  the  principal  [lart  of  which  extended  over 
the  Capitoline,  Aventine,  CaBlian,  and  the  southern  part  of 
the  Esquiline.  On  the  Capitoline  hill  are  the  Church  of 
Sta.  Maria  in  Araeeli,  which  was  erecte<l  Iwjfore  the  tenth 
century  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Juno  Moneta;  the 
Piazza  del  Campidoglio.  designeu  by  Michelangelo,  and  be- 
gun in  1536  by  Paul  III.,  with  a  bronze  equestrian  statue 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  in  its  center;  the  Palazzo  del  Senatore, 
enacted  by  Boniface  IX.,  with  steps  by  Michelangelo — it 
contains  a  hall  for  the  meetings  of  the  municipal  coun- 
cil, offices,  etc.;  the  Palazzo  dei  Conservatori,  containing 
the  Protonioteca,  a  collect i(m  of  busts  of  celebratecl  Ital- 
ians, the  new  Capitoline  Museum,  in  which  are  antiquities 
chiefly  found  during  the  construction  of  the  new  streets  in 
the  east  quarter  of  the  city,  and  a  picture-gallery  founded 
by  Benedict  XIV.;  and  the  Capitoline  Museum',  founded 
by  Innocent  X.,  which  is  rich  in  atlmirable  specimens  of 
ancient  scul|)tures  and  other  antiquities.  P>om  the  Cap- 
itoline, toward  the  Palatine,  extends  the  ancient  Forum 
Homanum.  The  Palatine  contains  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
inq)erial  palaces.  Between  the  Palatine  and  the  Aventine 
lay  the  Cncus  Maximns;  to  the  S.  K.  of  the  Aventine  the 
l»aths  of  ('aracalla.  In  the  depression  l>etween  the  Pala- 
tine, Hsquiline,  and  Cvlian  stands  the  Coliseum.  (See  Amphi- 
THKATER,)  lietwccu  the  Cwlian  and  the  Esquiline  stand  San 
Giovanni  in  Laterano,  the  oldest  church  of  Christendom, 
and  the  Museum  Grejrorianum  Lateranense.  (See  Latkra.n.) 
The  latter  contains  statues  and  mosaics,  and  a  lar^e  collc<*ti<m 
of  sculptures  and  inscriptions  from  the  Catacombs.  Near  the 
Lateran  is  the  buihling  containing  the  Scala  Santa,  a  flight  of 


twenty-eight  marble  steps  brought  from  the  palnoc  «)f  Pil 
at  Jerusalem  by  the  Empre.<is  Helena  in  32o.  J^yond 
southern  slope  of  the  Esquiline  the  ruins  of  ancient  U 
become  scarcer  and  the  monuments  of  mediaeval  an<l  nif*ii 
Rome  more  frequent.  Ueve  are  the  Church  of  Sxn,  M; 
Maggiore,  also  called  the  Basilica  Liberiana,  erected  bv  1' 
LiU>rius  852-366,  altered  in  4;f2  by  Sixtus  III.,  enlar-t  • 
1292  by  Nicholas  IV.,  and  restorer!  in  1575  by  Gregory  \  1  ^ 
the  Palazzo  Rospigliosi,  founded  in  1608  by  Canlinal  r>  ii 
Borghese,  and  the  Casino  Rospigliosi,  containing  mnuy  tl 
frescoes  and  pictures;  the  Palazzo  Barberini,  be^r^-i;  1 
Maderno,  finished  by  Bernini,  with  a  librarv  <-<»ntait 
7,000  MSS.  of  Latin  and  Greek  authors;  the  Villa  AW' 
built  in  1760  by  Cardinal  Albani,  with  admirable  work-  i 
art  collected  with  the  co-oj^eration  of  Winckelmann;  " 
railway  station,  opposite  the  Therma?  Diocletiani;  iind  ' 
Porta  Pia,  designed  by  Michelangelo  in  1564,  and  u<' 
by  Pius  IX.  1861-69.  Through  the  Porta  Pia  the  ha. 
armv  entered  Rome  Sept.  20,  1870. 

The  modem  city,  occupying  the  space  between  the  r 
and  the  hills,  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Corso,  «  i. 
running  in  a  straight  line  for  a  distance  of  nearly  a  i.  j] 
from  the  Piazza  del  Popolo  to  the  Piazza  di  Veiuv.i.i,  i 
the  finest  and  gayest  street  of  the  city.    Among  the  n. 
elegant  buildings' which  line  it  on  both  sides  are  th<r 
lazzo  Doha,  one  of  the  most  extensive  and  most  nm>: 
cent  palaces  of  Rome,  containing  the  Doria  Gallery,  a  L 
collection  of  pictures  of  different  schools,  and  UiePala 
Colonna  with  rooms  beautifully  decorated  and  a  c*»llc«-: 
of  pictures.    The  portion  of  the  city  siluateil  betww n  ibm 
river  and  the  Corso  contains  many  admirable  nionunu  v.\\ 
among  which  is  the  mausoleum  of  Augustus,  erectt'^l  •  * 
that  emperor  as  a  burial-place  *  for  himself  and  his  fHtm'^  J 
it  consists  of  an  immense  substructure  containing  the  tmr'  • 
chamljers,  and  covered  with  a  terraced  mound   of   car 
adorned  with  cypresses  and  a  statue  of  the  emiien.»r.     1: 
was  used  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  a  fortress  by  the  Cuh«i  na-. 
and  is  fitted  up  as  a  theater.     Here  is  the  Palazzo  lUtr-^i «— . 
built  in  1590  by  the  elder  Longhi ;   the  Church  of   >*.. 
Maria  Rotonda,  or  the  Pantheon  (q.  r.),  the  only  ancient  <    - 
fice  in  Rome  which  has  been  preserved  entire.     Near  tt.- 
Panthe(m  is  the  chun-h  of  Sta.  Mariasoi)ra  Minerva,  t-ni  •«'. 
about  1285  on  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Minerva;  it  ctiniai*  - 
Michelangelo's  Christ  trith  (he   Cross.     Here  is  al?^)  !  •• 
Palazzo  Farnese,  one  of  the  finest  palaces  of  Rome,  \u  .\ 
under  Paul  III.  after  the  designs  of  da  Sangallo,  contii  . 
under  the  direction   of  Michelangelo,  and  completea  ■ 
della  Porta.     It  afterward  came  into  the  possession  (^f  t 
Kings  of  Naples,  and  many  of  the  sculptures  and  aiiti ;  ••- 
ties  which  it  contained  were  removeil  to  Naples.     It  is  i!  * 
the  home  of  the  French  embassy  to  the  papal  court.     It 
contains  a  series  of  fine  fresc(x»s  by  Annibale  Caracci  hi.  I 
Agostino.     Here  are  the  Palazzo  di*  Venezia  (now  the  Aus- 
trian embassy),  the  Palazzo  Massimi  alle  Colonne.  content- 
ing the  chapel  of  S.  Filippo  Neri,  and  many  other  pala«  ♦•> 
of  the  paf>al  nobility.    The  splendid  new  streets  Corso  \  i*- 
torio  Kmanuele  and  Via  Nazionale  connect  the  head  of  th. 
Corso  with  the  Ponte  Sant'  Angelo  and  with  the  cent  nil 
railway  station  resf^ectively.     Im|M)rtant  streets  too  aiv  !l.. 
Via  20'  Settembre  from  the  Porta  Pia  to  the  Quirinal.  ai  d 
the  Via  Cavour,  which  lea<ls  from  the  railway  station  to  ui. 
Forum.     From  the  Piazza  del  Popolo  the  Via  di  Ri|»»t*.i 
diverges  from  the  Corso  on  the  right,  and  on  the  left  the  \  ;.. 
del  Babiuno  leails  to  the  Piazza  di  Spagna. 

Among  churches  not  already  mentioned  is  S.  Paolo  fuorj 
le  Mura,  originally  founded  in  'l\HH,  burnt  in  1828  and  rehu'i* 
in  a  magnificent  style.  S.  Ix)renzo  fuori  le  Mura,  rebuilt  m 
578  on  the  site  of  a  church  founded  by  Constant ine,  and  n-- 
mocleled  afterwanl,  still  retains  its  ancient  columns;  St.u 
Agnese  fuori  le  Mura,  founded  by  Const antine  and  rebuilt  in 
the  seventh  century,  has  many  early  inscriptions;  Sta.  (  hn  .♦ 
is  a  basilica  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  tJm press  liclcTm . 
S.  Clemente  is  remarkable  in  that  it  consists  of  thre*'  st ma- 
tures— the  upper  one  is  a  twelfth-century  chun-h,  nn.i.  r- 
ground  is  a  church  of  the  fourth  century,  and  below  thi^  ntr* 
remains  dating  from  the  iinf>erial  and  republicim  pen.il>: 
Sta.  Maria  in  Cosniedin  retains  ten  of  the  columns  of  tlic  tem- 
ple of  Ceres,  out  of  which  it  was  partly  built.  Outi^itle  the 
Porta  Pia  is  St^i.  Constanza,  founded  by  Cimstantine.  w:ih 
mosaics  of  the  fourth  century.  On  the'  CiPlian  is  S.S.  (i-.- 
vanni  e  Paolo,  foinnled  in  the  fifth  century  and  rebuilt  in  u  «• 
twelfth;  also  S.  (iregorio.  founded  in  575  on  the  site  of  tli«- 
house  of  the  father  of  (iregory  the  Great.  On  the  Rs«niil.rie 
is  Sta.  Pudeiiziaim,  with  mosaics  of  glass  cubes  dating  fp  i:i 


176 


ROMESCOT 


RONSARD 


Romescot :  See  Peter*s  Pence. 

Rom'lllT,  John.  Baron  Romilly  of  Barry:  lawyer;  son  of 
Sir  Samuel  Romilly;  b.  in  London  in  1802;  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  1826;  callefl  to  the  bar  at  Gray's  Inn  1827 ;  sat 
in  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  1832-35  and  1846-^52 ;  knighted 
and  made  solicitor-general  1848,  attorney-general  and  privy 
councilor  1850,  and  was  master  of  the  rolls  1851-72,  in 
which  capacity  he  was  instrumental  in  causing  the  publi- 
cation of  the  very  valuable  Rolls  Series  of  Calendars  of 
State  Papers  and  other  documents  illustrating  the  earlier 
history  of  England;  was  made  Baron  Romilly  of  Barry, 
Glamorganshire,  Jan.  3, 1866.  D.  in  London,  Dec.  23,  1874. 
Revised  by  P.  Sturges  Allen. 

Romilly.  Sir  Samuel  :  statesman  and  jurist ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, England,  Mar.  1, 1 757 ;  entered  Gray's  Inn  May  11, 1778 ; 
was  called  to  the  bar  1783 ;  became  eminent  as  a  chancery 
lawver,  and  was  appointed  king's  counsel  in  1800 ;  chancellor 
of  the  county  palatine  of  Durham  1805 ;  knighted,  and  made 
solicitor-general  and  elected  M.  P.  1806 ;  enjoyed  the  friend- 
ship of  Mirabeau,  and  through  him  ac(juired  the  friendship 
and  patronage  of  Lord  Lansaowne.  His  great  work  was  his 
attempt  to  reform  English  criminal  law,  which  he  began  in 
1807,  and  urged  in  Parliament  with  great  elooucnce  and 
persistence ;  besides  which  he  advocated  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-trade.  Catholic  emancipation,  and  electoral  reform. 
The  number  of  capital  offenses  without  benefit  of  clergy  in 
1707  was  160,  and  it  rose  to  222,  when  the  efforts  of  Sir 
Samuel  Romilly  for  reform  succeeded  only  so  far  as  to  have 
pocket-picking,  which  was  capital  if  above  five  shillings, 
taken  out  of  the  list.  Althougn  his  bills  reducing  the  num- 
ber of  capital  offenses  re{)eatedly  failed  to  pass,  being  op- 
posed by  the  Government  of  the  day,  by  the  bishops,  and 
even  by  the  most  eminent  judges,  as  Lord  Ellenborough,  as 
dangerous  innovations,  his  perseverance,  his  continual  pro- 
testing against  the  severity  of  the  criminal  law,  and  the  bar- 
barous f requencjr  of  capital  punishment  (which  was  the  cause 
of  the  laxity  in  its  enforcement),  led  to  the  final  reformation 
of  the  criminal  law  of  England.  D.  Nov.  2,  1818.  His 
speeches  were  published  in  1820,  and  his  biographical  me- 
moirs in  1840,  with  notes  bv  his  sons.  He  wrote  Tfioughta 
on  the  Probable  Influence  of  the  Late  Revolution  in  Frafice 
upon  Oreat  Britain;  Observations  oyi  the  Criminal  Law 
of  England  as  it  relates  to  Capital  Punishments^  and  on 
thf  Mode  in  which  it  is  administered  (London,  1810),  an 
able  pamphlet.  Revised  by  F.  Sturues  Allen. 

Rommany  Race  and  Langaage :  See  Gypsies. 

Romner,  George:  portrait-painter;  b.  at  Dalton,  Lanca- 
shire, England,  Dec.  26, 1734.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  Cum- 
berland painter  named  Steel.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he 
married.  For  some  years  he  wandered  about  the  north  of 
England  painting  iwrtraits — heads  for  two  guineas,  as  is  re- 
lated— and  at  last  went  to  Ix)ndon,  leaving  his  wife  and  two 
children  in  Lancashire.  From  1762  to  1798  ho  was  either 
traveling  on  the  Continent  or  residing  and  painting  in  Lon- 
don, lie  gained  fame  and  popularity  as  a  portrait-painter, 
and  was  able  to  secure  prices  as  high  as  those  paid  to  Rey- 
nolds, especially  after  Reynolds's  abandonment  of  his  aft, 
alx)ut  17H8.  Ho  was  far  less  skillful  and  accomplished  than 
either  Reynolds  or  (tainsborough,  and  his  pictures,  other 
than  portraits,  have  but  little  \^lue.  In  1798,  broken  in 
health,  he  joined  his  wife  at  Kendal,  Lancashire ;  soon  after- 
ward he  sold  his  studio  and  his  colleotion  of  works  of  art, 
and  settled  in  the  north.  D.  at  Kendal,  Nov.  5, 1802.  Among 
his  best  pictures  are  a  number  of  portraits  of  the  celebrated 
Ladv  Hamilton.  The  National  (lallery  in  London  has  one 
of  these  in  the  character  of  a  Bacchante,  and  a  fancy  por- 
trait, The  Parson's  Daughter,  In  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery  at  South  Kensington  is  another  Lady  Hamilton  and 
a  Portrait  of  Fiaxman,  the  scidptor.  Uoinney's  portraits 
are  mostly  in  private  hands.  Russell  Stukuis. 

Rom'nln.s :  mythical  founder  of  the  city  of  Rome;  the 
twin-brother  of  Remus  antl  a  son  of  Mars  by  Rhea  Silvia, 
who  was  a  descendant  of  the  Trojan  ^-^^neas.  and  had  been 
made  a  priestess  of  Vesta  when  her  futlier,  Numitr)r,  King 
of  Alba  Longa,  was  dethroned  by  his  brother,  Amulius.  The 
two  infants  were  thrown  into' the  Tiber  by  the  onler  of 
Amulius,  but  the  river  lantled  them  safely  at  the  foot  of 
the  Palatine  Hill;  a  she-wolf  carried  them  t<>  her  den  and 
suckled  them,  and  a  she])herd  afterwjird  found  them  and 
educated  thein  together  with  his  own  chihlren.  The  legend 
goes  on  narrating  how  the  two  brethren  discovered  their 
descent,  reinstated  Numitor,  emigrated  from  Alba  Longa, 


determined  to  build  a  city  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  but  then  fell 
out  with  each  other;  how  Romulus  killed  Remus,  built  th« 
city,  procured  wives  for  the  citizens,  carried  on  many  war^. 
and  was  finally  translated  and  worshiped  as  a  god  under  tin- 
name  of  Quirinus.  It  is  impossible  to  distinguish  the  a'ti<»- 
logical  and  mythical  from  tne  tnily  traditional  element  in 
these  stories,  though  there  can  bo  no  doubt  that  the  latter 
is  present    See  Rome.        Revised  by  G.  L.  Hendricksox. 

Roncesralles,  ron-thes-vaal'yes  (Fr.  Boneetxtux) :  a  small 
Spanish  village,  province  of  Navarre  ;  in  a  narrow  valley  on 
the  southern  side  of  the  Pyrenees.  It  is  famous  as  the  plare 
where  Charlemagne,  on  his  retreat  from  his  campaign  against 
the  Mohammedans  in  778,  was  attacked  and  his  whole  rear- 
guard destroyed.  Among  those  slain  in  this  battle  was  tlje 
half-mythical  hero  Roland,  whose  name  became  the  center 
of  the  romantic  poetry  which  sung  of  Charlemagne  and  hi*» 
paladins.  In  the  French-Spanish  wars  several  bloody  en- 
counters (in  1793, 1794,  and  1818)  occurred  in  the  same  val- 
ley, and  in  1833  Don  Carlos  was  first  proclaimed  king  here. 

Ron'da :  town  of  Southern  Spain,  42  miles  W.  of  Malatra : 
at  an  elevation  of  2,300  feet  above  the  sea,  on  a  precii>it<»ua 
promontory  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  on  the  Guadiaro,  whi<-h 
nere  is  crossed  by  lofty  bridges  built  by  the  Moors  (>»-♦- 
map  of  Spain,  ref.  19-D).  A  large  annual  fair  is  held  hen* 
in  May,  attended  by  a  great  number  of  merchants,  and  en- 
livened bv  bull-fights.  Elegant  arms,  fine  woolen  fabrio, 
and  saddlery  are  the  principal  manufactures  of  the  citv. 
Pop.  19,181. 

Rondo  [from  Ital.  rondo,  from  Fr.  rondeau  <  O.  Fr. 
rondel,  (Umin.  of  rond,  round,  a  round] :  in  music,  a  com f  po- 
sition, in  which  the  theme,  as  it  is  given  in  the  first  strain, 
returns  upon  itself  in  the  last,  after  passing  through  various 
expansions  and  elaborations. 

Ronge,  rong'e,  Johannes  :  religious  leader ;  b.  at  Bischof n- 
walde,  Prussian  Silesia,  Oct.  16,  1813 ;  studied  theology  nt 
Breslau;  appointed  a  chaplain  at  Grottkau  in  1840,  but 
was  opposed  by  the  ultramontane  clergy  on  account  of  his 
liberal  views,  and  was  suspended  in  1843  because  of  an  ar- 
ticle, Bom  and  das  hrestauer  Domkapifel,  which  he  pub- 
lished in  the  Sdchsische  Vaterlandsbldtter.  In  1844  he  w:us 
excommunicated  on  account  of  a  letter  to  Bishop  Arnoldi, 
denouncing  as  idolatrous  the  exhibition  at  Treves  of  thtr 
holy  coat.  Through  a  number  of  pamphlets,  and  by  trav- 
eling from  town  to  town  preaching  and  lecturing,  he  ex- 
horted people  to  secede  from  the  Roman  Catholic  Churcli, 
and,  supported  by  the  general  irritation  against  the  ultra- 
montane hierarchy  he  succeeded  in  forming  several  congre- 
gations of  the  so-called  German  Catholic  denomination.  Hv 
uegrees  he  was  himself  attracted  by  the  political  fenuenta- 
tion,  sided  in  1848  with  the  radicals,  and  fled  in  1849  i.» 
England.  Returning  in  1861,  he  lived  at  Breslau  and  Fran k- 
fort-on-the-Main,  w^here  he  founded  a  reform  association  in 
1863  ;  after  1873  at  Darmstadt.    D.  in  Vienna,  Oct.  26, 1?^7. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Ro'nins  [Jap.,  liter.,  wave-men] :  Jaimnese  warriors  not  in 
the  service  of  any  lord.  As  the  ordinary  Samurai  (q,  t\)  n.- 
ceived  regular  pay,  the  ronin  was  without  resources  and  usu- 
ally lived  by  highway  robbery;  he  would  offer  hinist^lf  f«»r 
any  reckless  deed  of"  daring.  The  story  of  the  Fortf/seri  n 
Bon  ins  is  the  most  tragic  in  Japanese  history,  and  has  Wt-n 
well  told  by  Mitford  in  Tales  of  Old  Japan,  It  is  the  st4.ry 
of  certain  samurai,  who,  havinc  been  turned  adrift  by  the 
death  and  disgrace  of  their  lord,  finally  avenged  his  death, 
and  then  committed  suicide  by  hara-kiri  at  his  ^rave. 

J.  M,  Dixon. 

Ronsard,  roiVsaar',  Pierre,  de:  {x)et;  b.  at  the  Chateau 
de  la  Poissonniere,  Vendomois,  France,  Sept.  11,  1524;  wa.** 
educated  at  the  French  court  as  page  to  the  Duke  of  Orlean«< ; 
followed  James  V.  to  Scotland  and  lived  nearly  three  Vfjii^ 
at  his  court  (1538-41) ;  returned  to  the  Duke  of 'Orleans,  and 
was  sent  on  various  embassies  to  Flanders,  Holland,  and  Eiivr- 
land;  ruined  his  health  and  lost  his  hearing,  and  retinal  ti» 
the  College  de  Coqueret,  where  he  spent  seven  years  stutU- 
ing  the  I^atin  and  Greek  languages  and  literatures.  Amoiii: 
his  companions  here  were  Baif,  Belleau,  Muret,  Jodelle.  aiul 
Du  Bellay,  and  among  them  sprang  up  that  new  liternry 
i<leal  whose  first  representative  Ronsard  became,  and  whi*  ii 
for  centuries  reigned  not  only  in  France,  but  in  all  Kur»- 
f»ean  literatures.  It  broke  comj)letely  with  the  ideals  ni.-l 
traditions  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  older  native  lileratuT-'. 
and  substituted  the  clussical  models  of  the  Latin  and  (in*  k 
literatures.     Ronsard  and  his  eager  followers,  styling  tlu-in- 


178 


ROOK 


ROOT 


The  trainshed  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  at  Jersey  City, 
N.  J.,  has  roof -trusses  with  a  span  of  252  feet,  while  its  total 
length  is  650^  feet.    The  roof  of  the  St.  Pancras  Station  in 

London  is  690  feet  long,  with 

yKj^^  "^---^C?^      mensions  of    the    building 

^^^^^  ^""^\   ^^^  ^^®  exhibition  of  manu- 

factures at  the  Columbian 
Exposition  of  1893  in  Chi- 
cago were  787  feet  by  1,687 
feet,  and   the    main    roof- 
trusses  had  a  span  of  368 
feet. 
Fig.  14  shows  the    iron 
These  roofs  (which  have  since 
a  feature  of  French 


Fio.  11. 


Fio.  12. 


framing  of  a  mansard  roof, 
their  invention  formed  so  common 
architecture)  of  different  styles,  slopes,  and  coverings  have 

been  very  generally  adopted 
for  many  classes  of  build- 
ings both  in  the  city  and  in 
the  country.  They  were  at 
first  built  almost  exclusively 
of  wood  and  covered  with 
slate,  but  the  great  liability 
Fia.  18.  to  take  and  communicate 

fire  has  caused  the  use  of 
iron  and  steel  for  framing  purposes. 

The  coverings  for  roofs  are  made  of  various  materials, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  following :  Thatch  of 
straw,  reeds,  and  heath,  used  probably  in  primitive  times, 

and  even  in  the  present  age, 
in  rude  dwellings;  tiles  of 
various  shapes,  which  have 
been  used  from  the  Roman 
period  to  the  present,  and 
which  probably  covered  the 
Saxon  buildings ;  thin  slabs 
of  stone  or  flag ;  slate ;  lead, 
which  was  always  used  on 
mediseval  roofs ;  tin,  iron, 
zinc,  copper;  asphalted  felt 
coated  with  a  hot  prepara- 
tion of  tar  on  which  gravel 
is  spread;  shingles;  canvas 
covered  with  cement  and 
glass. 

The  principles  governing 
the  design  of  roof -trusses  are 
similar  to  those  for  bridge- 
trusses,  the  main  differences 
being  in  the  data  regarding  snow  and  wind  loads.  The 
snow  load  is  taken  at  various  values,  depending  on  climate, 
up  to  15  or  20  lb.  per  square  foot  of  horizontal  area.  The 
wind  pressure  on  a  vertical  plane  is  taken  at  from  30  to  50 
lb.  per  square  foot.  See  the  articles  Arch,  Bridges,  and 
Stresses  ;  also  Greene's  Graphical  Analysis  of  Roof  Trusses 
(1876) ;  and  Kicker's  Construction  of  Trussed  Roofs  (1885). 
Revised  by  Mansfield  Merriman. 

Rook  [0.  Eng.  hroc  :  O.  H.  Germ,  hrtwh  :  Icel.  hrohr ;  cf. 
Goth,  hrukjan,  to  crow :  Sanakr.  krug-,  cry  out,  croak] :  a 
bird  (Corvus  frugilegus)  of  the  family  Corvidm,  closely  re- 
lated to  the  common  crow,  which  it  also  resembles  nearly  in 
size  (it  is  a  little  smaller),  as  well  as  black  color;  but  dis- 
tinguished therefrom  by  the  bill  being  little  longer  than 
the  head,  and  in  the  adult  naked  at  the  b^e ;  the  first  pri- 
mary is  shorter  than  the  eighth,  the  second  shorter  than  the 
fifth,  and  the  third  and  fourth  are  the  longest.  It  is  gen- 
erally distributed  throughout  Europe  and  Eastern  Asia. 
It  lives  in  communities  known  as  rookeries ;  these  some- 
times are  very  populous,  occasionally  containing  from  2,000 
to  3,000  nests,  and  a  corresponding  numl)er  of  birds  of  differ- 
ent ages  and  sizes.  In  Great  Britain  they  are  considered  by 
many  an  attractive  feature  in  the  landscape,  and  are  there- 
fore protected.  The  nests  are  generally  made  in  tall  trees. 
The  female  lays,  early  in  the  spring,  about  four  or  five 
greenish-blue  and  spotted  eggs.  The  sneoics  is  omnivorous, 
but  does  not  trouble  the  farmer,  like  tlie  crow.  It  is  capa- 
ble, like  its  congeners,  of  mimicking  the  soimds  of  otner 
animals.  The  young  are  to  some  extent  used  as  food  in 
Great  Britain  and  on  the  Continent. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Rooke,  Sir  George:  naval  officer;  b.  near  Canterbury, 
England,    in  1650;    entered  the   navy;    was  made  vice- 


admiral  1692 ;  headed  a  daring  and  successful  night  attack 
in  boats  upon  the  French  squadron  off  Cape  La  Iloguc. 
burning  six  vessels.  May  19,  1692,  for  which  exploit  he  was 
knighted  and  received  a  pension  of  £1,000;  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  navy  at  the  beginning  of  the  uar 
in  Spain  1702 ;  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  ufion  Cadi/. : 
destroyed  the  Spanish  plate  fleet  of  seventeen  vessels  in  th*- 
harbor  of  Vigo  1702  ;  participated  in  the  capture  of  Gibral- 
tar Aug.  3,  1704,  and  engaged  the  French  fleet  off  Malatrn 
Aug.  24,  1704,  but  that  fleet  having  escaped  in  the  night.  h»* 
was  severely  blamed,  and  he  retired  from  the  service  Feb.. 
1705.    D.  near  Canterbury,  Jan.  24,  1709. 

Roon,  ron,  Albrecht  Theodor  Emil,  Count  von :  soldier : 
b.  near  Kollierg,  Prussia,  Apr.  30,  1803;  entered  the  anny 
in  1821 ;  attended  the  military  school  of  Berlin  1824-27 ;  ap- 
pointed teacher  to  the  cadets  in  1828,  member  of  the  tn|»<^ 
graphical  survey  of  the  staff  in  1833,  teacher  in  the  militarv 
school  in  1835,  and  captain  on  the  staff  in  1836.  In  ]h42 
he  was  made  a  major,  and  subsequently'  took  charge  of  the 
military  instruction  of  Prince  Frederick  Charles.  Duriiit; 
the  campaign  in  Baden  he  was  chief  of  the  staff  of  the 
Eighth  Army-corps  ;  was  made  a  colonel  in  1851,  com- 
mander of  the  Twentieth  Brigade  of  infantry  in  1856.  and 
commander  of  the  Fourteenth  Division  at  DQsseldorf  in 
1858.  On  Dec.  5, 1859,  the  prince-regent  called  him  to  take 
charge  of  the  ministry  of  War,  and  (Apr.  16,  1861)  als<i  f»f 
the  ministry  of  the  Marine.  After  the  war  of  1866,  whirh 
eave  evidence  of  his  talent  for  organization,  he  receiveci 
from  the  king  the  cross  of  the  Black  Eagle  and  a  dotation, 
and  after  the  war  with  France  (1870-71)  he  was  made  a 
count  and  received  a  new  dotation.  The  office  of  Minister 
of  the  Marine  he  resigned  Dec.  31,  1871.  In  the  Prussian 
Government  he  represented  a  specific  Prussian  tendency  in 
opposition  to  the  (ierman  and  progressive  policy  of  Prince 
Bismarck,  and  (Dec.  21, 1872)  having  handed  in  his  n\<iena- 
tion,  he  was  made  president  of  the  cabinet,  and  a  few  day> 
afterward  field-marshal,  but  resigned  in  1873  and  retirwi  u* 
his  estate.  D.  in  Berlin,  Feb.  23,  1879.  See  von  Gossler, 
Graf  Albrecht  von  Roon  (Berlin,  1879). 

Rooserelt,  Robert  Barnwell  :  Congressman  and  author ; 
b.  in  New  York,  Aug.  7, 1829 ;  studied  law,  and  was  engaged 
in  active  practice  for  many  years,  but  finally  devoted  him- 
self to  literature,  rural  sports,  and  politics,  and  in  1870  wh> 
elected  to  Congress;  became  president  of  the  New  York 
Sportsmen's  Club;  was  one  of  the  State  commissioners  of 
fisheries  for  manyyears ;  U.  S.  minister  to  the  NetherlaIl<i^s 
1888-89;  edited  T%e  Citizen,  a  weekly  journal  devoted  t«> 
literature  and  politics;  published  The  Game  Fish  of  Sorih 
America  (New  York.  1860).  The  Game  Birds  of  the  Coaj^t 
and  Lakes  of  the  Northern  States  (1866),  and  similar  works  ; 
and  edited,  with  a  biographical  sketch,  The  JPbeiical  Works 
of  Charles  G.  Halpifie  (1869). 

Rooserelt,  Theodore:  politician  and  author;  b.  in  New 
York,  Oct.  27, 1858  ;  graduated  at  Harvard  Colle^  in  IHso ; 
member  of  New  York  State  Legislature  1882-84 ;  intnHiuot.l 
and  secured  the  passage  of  the  State  Civil  Service  Reform 
law  and  other  laws  establishing  great  refonns  in  the  govern- 
ment of  New  York  city;  member  of  national  Republican  con- 
vention 1884 ;  was  Republican  candidate  in  1886  for  mayor 
of  New  York;  member  National  Civil  Service  Commission 
1889-;  published  Hunting  Trips  of  a  Ranchman  (1883) ;  //f^- 
tory  of  the  Naval  War  of  1812  (New  York,  1885) ;  Lifr  r.f 
Thomas  Hart  Benton  (Boston,  1887);  Ranch  Life  arid  th^ 
Hunting  Trail  (New  York,  1888) ;  Winning  of  the  Wr.^t 
(vols.  i.  and  ii.,  1889;  voL  iii.,  1894;  vol.  iv.,  1895);  Uistot  y- 
of  New  York  City  (1891);  The  Wilderness  Hunter  (1893). 

Root  [spec,  use  of  root,  origin ;  cf.  radicle,  from  Lat, 
radix,  root] :  in  algebra,  a  root  of  an  eouation  is  any  quan- 
tity, whether  real  or  imaginary,  whicn  being  substitutt^l 
for  the  unknown  quantity  will  "satisfy  it ;  that  is,  make  the 
two  members  equal.  Every  equation  which  contains  but  ont* 
unknown  quantity,  and  whose  exponents  are  whole  num- 
bers, can  be  reduced  to  the  form 

iT"  -h  px*-^  -H  qx""-*  +  etc.,  -h  f*  =  0,  (1) 

in  which  n  is  a  positive  whole  number. 

The  root  of  a  quantity  is  another  quantity  which,  taken  a 
certain  number  of  times  as  a  factor,  will  pnxluce  the  givou 
quantity.  If  a  quantity  is  resolved  into  two  equal  factor?, 
one  of  these  is  the  square  root;  if  into  three  equal  factor^, 
one  of  these  is  its  cuoe  root ;  and  so  on.  Every  quantity  ha> 
two  square  roots,  three  cube  roots,  four  fourth  roots,  and  so  on. 
If  the  quantity  is  positive,  both  of  its  square  roots  are  real ; 


180 


ROPES  AND  ROPE-MAKING 


ROSA 


est,  thouffh  when  exposed  to  the  weather  not  the  most  dura- 
ble, of  all  in  common  use. 

In  the  manufacture  of  manila  rope  the  first  step  in  the 
foregoing  description,  hackling  by  hand,  is  omittea,  as  un- 
necessary ;  the  manila  is  oiled  to  enable  the  harsher  fiber  to 
pass  the  more  readilv  through  the  preparation  machines, 


rio.  2.— Wire  rope :  A,  heart ;  B,  draw-off  drum  ;  C,  friction-drum ; 
D,  driyiog-pulley  ;  F,  bobbins ;  T,  top  ;  V,  tube  ;  8,  driving-shaft. 

and  the  yarns  are  not  tarred ;  the  remainder  of  the  process 
is  the  same  in  both  cases.  The  size  of  rope  is  designated  by 
its  circumference ;  when  smaller  than  IJ  inch  it  goes  under 
the  general  name  of  small  stuff.  Three  roi)es  laid  up  to- 
gether form  a  cable  or  hawser  of  nine  strands. 

Wire  rope  may  be  made  either  of  49  coarse  wires  or  133 
fine  wires,  put  in  6  strands,  and  7  or  14  hearts,  and  laid  up 
right-handed ;  strands  are  laid  left-handed.  To  make  a  7- 
inch  fine  wire  rope,  as  in  the  annexed  diagram,  fill  the  bob- 
bins of  a  6-flyer  machine,  similar  to  Fig.  1,  with  No.  8  wire, 
Birmingham*  gauge,  and  for  the  heart  lead  a  sinj^le  wire 
from  its  bobbin  up  through  the  vertical  shaft.    This  will 


Fio.  8.— Cross-section  of  wire  rope  of  183  wires  (full  size). 

form  a  7-wire  heart  for  the  strands.  Next  fill  the  bobbins 
of  a  12-fiyer  machine  (Fig.  1)  with  the  same  size  wire,  plac- 
ing the  heart  just  made  as  in  the  figure.  Pass  all  the  wires 
up  through  holes  past  the  top,  arrange  the  wires  through 
the  grooves  of  the  top,  twist  them  together  by  hand,  splice 
in  a  piece  of  rope,  ana  pass  it  five  or  six  times  around  the 
draw-off  drum.  Friction-straps  attached  to  the  bobbins  pre- 
serve an  equal  tension  on  the  wires.  Putting  the  machine 
in  motion,  the  7-wire  heart  is  drawn  up  the  shaft,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  12  single  wires  are  wrar>ped  about  it  as  the 
disk  revolves,  each  separate  bobbin  turning  on  its  own  cen- 
ter in  an  opposite  direction,  so  as  to  avoid  twisting  the  wire. 
As  the  strand  is  formed  it  is  reeled  upon  a  bol)bin.  Having 
filled  7  bobbins,  6  are  placed  in  a  machine  similar  to  Fig.  2, 
ami  1  in  the  rear  for  a  heart.  The  heart, 
on  motion  being  given  to  the  machinerv, 
is  drawn  through,  and  the  6  strands 
wrapped  about  it,  giving  1  central  and  6 
outer  strands  of  19  wires  each.  In  mak- 
ing strands  for  wire  ri^r^ing  it  is  the  prac- 
tice to  suV)stitute  hemp  for  the  single 
wire  of  the  heart,  and  to  make  a  hemp 
heart  for  the  rope.  It  is  plain  from  the 
^8°rand"of\45-'^^S  5»receding  diagram  that  the  diameter  of 
rope.  the    retjuired    rope,  divided  by  15,  will 

give  the  diameter  of  the  single  wire,  from 
which,  by  tables  in  common  use,  the  proper  gauge  may  be 
found. 
Fig.  4  shows  the  cross-section  of  a  single  strand  of  a 


^ 


49-wire  rope,  the  6  strands  and  the  heart  all  bein^  of  the 
same  size.  The  size  of  the  required  rope  being  given,  di- 
vide the  diameter  by  9  to  find  the  diameter,  and  fn>m 
the  tables  the  gauge  of  the  wire  to  be  used.  Knowing 
by  the  old  rules  the  proper  size  to  make  a  given  piece  uf 
hemp  rigging  for  a  ship,  tne  corresponding  size  of  wire  n»i>e 
may  be  found  from  tables  giving  tne  comparative  strengi  h 
of  ropes  of  the  two  materials.  When  fiexibility  is  require.!, 
annealed  wire  is  used  and  hemp  hearts  supplant  the  win- 
ones,  as  indicated  by  the  deeply  shaded  centers  of  the  6 
strands  in  Fig.  8,  ana  a  hemp  neart  takes  the  place  of  the 
central  strand  or  wire  heart  (Fig.  3).  In  this  case  there  i»  i li 
be  18  wires  to  each  of  the  6  strandfs,  making  a  total  of  lU** 
wires  in  all,  instead  of  183  as  before.  So,  in  Fi^.  4,  if  a 
twine  heart  in  each  strand  be  substituted  for  the  wire,  ther*- 
would  be  a  wire  heart  in  the  rope  of  6  wires,  laid  up  in  6 
strands  of  6  wires  each ;  total,  ^  wires,  instead  of  49.  as 
above  stated.  The  size  of  the  wire,  it  is  evident,  determiu»v> 
the  size  of  the  rope.  Steel  wire  is  about  56  per  cent,  stron^'er 
than  iron  wire  and  65  per  cent,  stronger  than  annealed  ir<»n 
wire.  Both  steel  and  iron  wire  may  be  galvanized  without 
detracting  from  its  strength.  S.  B.  Lltl. 

Roquefort,  Fr.  pron.,  rok'for' :  a  small  town  in  the  tie- 
partment  of  Aveyron,  France ;  on  a  mountain  4,H<K)  ft  tt 
nigh,  10  miles  S.  W.  of  Millau  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  H-F>. 
It  is  famous  for  its  cheese  made  iroin  ewe-milk.  <s«i- 
Cheese.)  The  limestone  mountain  is  honevcombed  with 
caverns,  in  which  the  cheeses  are  kept  through  the  sumnier. 
Pop.  about  1,000. 

Roqueulan,  rok'plaan',  Joseph  £tienneCamille:  painter ; 
b.  at  Mallemort,  deimrtment  of  Bouches-du-Kh6ne,  Fraiu  •-, 
Feb.  18,  1802;  studied  painting  at  Paris  under  Gros  niwi 
Pujol;  began  to  exhibit  in  1822;  attracted  great  attentiin 
in  1827  bv  two  pictures  for  which  he  had  chosen  the  suhj»Mt 
from  Walter  Scott's  romances,  and  became  soon  one  of  t  h*- 
leaders  of  the  modern  French  school  of  painting.  The  nif  •-! 
remarkable  of  his  pictures* are  The  Amateur  Antiquary,  in 
which  there  is  very  skillful  painting  of  rich  and  varie<l  c»l^- 
jects  of  decorative  art,  and  his  genre  pieces  and  landM-aj  «*-« 
from  the  Pyrenees,  among  which  is  The  Well  near  the  Ttill 
Fig-tree,  For  several  years  during  the  latter  part  of  hi-^ 
life  he  suffered  much  from  ill-health.  D.  in  Paris,  Oct.  ir>. 
1855. 

Rorqual :  same  as  Fin-back  {q.  r.). 

Rosa,  EupHROSYNE  (Parepa):  singer;  b.  in  Edinburc>i. 
Scotland,  May  7,  1836;  daughter  of  Demetrius  Partj  n. 
Baron  de  Boyescu,  a  Wallachian  nobleman,  and  ElizaKtn 
Seguin,  a  professional  singer ;  was  carefully  traineii  by  h.  r 
mother ;  made  her  debut  on  the  operatic  stage  at  Malta  as  a 
soprano  singer;  appeared  with  success  at  London  ls,%7; 
married  Captain  Carvell  of  the  East  India  service  186:^  ;  U*- 
came  a  widow  1865;  sang  in  the  U.  S.  with  the  Bateiiian 
troupe  1865,  and  again  1866-67;  enioyed  great  popularity, 
especially  in  oratorios ;  married  the  violinist  C^rl  H.  .^^i 
1867;  organized  with  her  husband  an  English  opera-trotij^ . 
with  which  they  sang  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  I'.  >. 
1869-72;  was  at  the  khedive's  court  in  Egypt  during  il«o 
winter  of  1872-73,  and  afterward  made  another  tour  in  the 
U.  S.  (1873).     D.  in  London,  England,  Jan.  21,  1874. 

Revised  by  B.  B.  Vallentink. 

Rosa.  Francisco  Martinez,  de  la :  See  Martinez  de  ijl 
Rosa,  Francisco. 

Rosa,  PiETRo:  archa?ologist ;  b.  in  Rome,  Italy, about  IHi 5. 
He  was  educated  as  an  architect,  but  as  early  as  184*<  he 
became  almost  exclusively  interested  in  archaH)logital  re- 
searches in  Rome  and  its  vicinity.  One  of  his  early  under- 
takings was  a  large-scale  map  of  Latium,  with  the  aneimt 
sites  determined,  but  the  constant  succession  of  new  disco\- 
eries,  overturning  old  theories,  has  kept  this  work  in  harvl 
and  unfinished  for  many  years.  Meantime  he  was  bu^it-.! 
upon  the  tombs  of  the  Appian  Way  and  their  theoreti.  al 
restoration.  In  1861  the  French  Government  charged  hirn 
with  the  study  of  the  camp  of  the  Pretorian  Guard  at  .A  ;- 
bano,  and  of  the  buildings  on  the  Palatine  Hill.  In  INT2 
and  later  he  conducted  important  researches  in  the  Rom.-in 
Forum,  and  was  director  of  these  at  the  time  of  the  disc-o  vry 
of  the  Basilica  Julia.  His  publications  are  chiefly  paf>erN  in 
the  archaeological  journals  and  monographs  of  no  great  ex- 
tent, but  his  services  as  a  discoverer  and  organizer  are  s^n- 
erally  recognized.  He  was  senator  of  the  kingdom  of  It.ily 
and  a  member  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  D.  in  Rome.  Aug. 
15, 1891.  Russell  Stirois. 


182 


ROSCHER 


ROSE 


tion  of  Roscelin,  and  laid  it  before  the  synod.  Roscelin  was 
condemned  and  recanted,  but  continued,  nevertheless,  after 
his  return  to  Compiegne,  to  propagate  his  tritheistic  doc- 
trines. He  afterward  settled  as  a  teacher  at  Tours,  and  later 
at  Loc-menaoh,  near  Vannes,  in  Brittany,  and  to  this  last 
period  of  his  life  belongs  his  controversy  with  Abelard. 
Abelard  was  a  pupil  of  his,  but  in  his  De  Trinitate  (Intro- 
ductio  in  Theologiam)  he  found  it  expedient,  evidently  with 
an  eye  to  the  decisions  of  the  Svnod  of  Soissons,  to  empha- 
size the  unity  of  the  Trinity  with  great  strength.  Enraged, 
Roscelin  denounced  him  to  Gisbert,  Bishop  of  Paris,  for  vari- 
ous other  heresies,  and  Abelard  answered  by  a  direct  and 
violent  attack  (Ep.  xxi.).  After  that  time  (1121)  Roscelin 
disappears  from  history.  The  only  writing  of  his  extant  is 
a  letter  supposed  to  be  addressed  by  him  to  Abelard.  It  is 
probable  that  he  wrote  little.  His  importance  in  the  history 
of  nominalism  has  led  to  the  close  study  of  such  represen- 
tations of  his  teachings  as  are  to  be  found  in  the  writings 
of  his  opponents.  See  the  histories  of  philosophy  by  Ueber- 
weg  ana  Brdmann.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Boscher,  Wilhelm  Georo  Priedrich,  Ph.D.:  political 
economist ;  b.  in  Hanover,  Germany,  Oct.  21,  1817 ;  educated 
in  Hanover  and  at  the  Universities  of  GSttingen  and  Berlin ; 
professor  at  Gottingen  University  1844-48;  became  profes- 
sor at  Leipzig  University  1848 ;  was  Doctor  Honorariusof  Law 
in  the  Universities  of  Kftnigsberg,  Edinburgh,  and  Bologna ; 
Doctor  Honorarius  of  Political  Economy  in  the  University 
of  Tubingen ;  member  honorarius  of  the  Universities  of 
Kasan  and  Kiev,  and  Ehrenhurger  of  Leipzig  University. 
His  principal  works  are  De  hiatoriccB  doctritUB  apud  sophia- 
ttM-  mafores  vMtiaiia  (GSttingen,  1838) ;  Leben,  Werk  und 
ZeitcUterdea  Thulcydides  {lSi2);  Orundriss  zu  Vorleaungen 
aber  die  Staatswirthschaft  (1843) ;  System  der  Volkswirth- 
sehaft  (4  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1854^6;  vol.  i.,  20th  ed.  1892;  vol. 
ii.,  12th  ed.  1888 ;  vol.  iii.,  6th  ed.  1892 ;  voL  iv.,  3d  ed.  1889) ; 
Kolonien,  KolonicUpolitik  mid  Anawanderung  (1847 ;  3d  ed. 
1885);  Ueber  Kornhandel  uiid  Theuerungspolitik  (Stuttgart, 
1847 ;  3d  ed.  1852) ;  Zur  Grundungsgeschicnte  des  Zollvereiiva 
(Berlin,  1870) ;  Oeachichte  der Nationaldkonomik  in  Deuiaeh- 
land  (2  vols.,  Munich,  1874) ;  Andichten  der  Volkawirthe  aua 
dem  geachichtlichen  Standpunkte  (2  vols.,  Munich,  1861 ;  3d 
ed.  1878) ;  Umriaae  zur  Naturlehre  des  Cdaariamtia  (1888) ; 
Umriaae  zur  Naturlehre  der  Demokratie  (1890) ;  and  Politik„ 
geachichtliche  Naturlehre  der  Monarchies  Aristokratie  und 
Demokratie  (1892).    D.  in  Leipzig,  Saxony,  June  4,  1894. 

Rosoias,  QuiNTUs:  a  celebrated  Roman  actor,  a  con- 
temporary of  Sulla  and  Cicero,  who  in  his  youth  received 
instruction  from  him,  and  subsequently  defended  him  in 
a  civil  lawsuit  in  an  oration  which  is  still  extant.  He  was 
especially  great  in  comedy,  and  carried  his  art  to  the  highest 
degree  of  perfection  which  the  Roman  stage  ever  witnessed, 
accumulating  an  immense  fortune.  Cicero  speaks  often  of 
him,  and  always  with  enthusiasm  for  his  art  and  respect  for 
his  character.    D.  62  b.  c.  Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Roscoe,  Sir  Henry  Enfield,  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L.  :  chemist ; 
grandson  of  William  Roscoe ;  b.  in  London,  Jan.  7, 1833.  He 
was  educated  at  University  College,  London,  and  at  Heidel- 
berg; graduated  at  London  University  in  1852;  appointed 
Professor  of  Chemistry  at  Owens  College,  Manchester,  in 
1858,  and  resigned  in  1885.  He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1863,  and  received  the  royal  medal  of  the 
society  in  1873  for  his  chemical  researches.  In  1884  he  was 
knighted  for  his  services  as  a  member  of  the  royal  commis- 
sion on  technical  instruction ;  was  elected  Liberal  M.  P.  for 
South  Manchester  in  1885, 1889,  and  1892.  He  was  jiresident 
of  the  British  Association  in  1887,  and  in  1889  received  the 
decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  recognition  of  his 
services  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  that  year.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  Prof.  Bunsen  he  has  published  several  investiga- 
tions on  the  measurement  of  the  chemical  action  of  light, 
and  is  the  author  of  numerous  papers  in  scientific  journals. 
His  Leasona  in  Elementary  Chemistry  has  been  translated 
into  several  European  and  Eastern  languages.  He  is  the 
author  of  Lectures  on  Spectrum  Analysis  (1869;  5th  ed. 
1888),  and  conjointly  with  Prof.  Schorlemmer  of  a  Treatise 
on  Chemistry  (8  vols.,  1877-90).  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Roscoe,  William:  historian  and  biographer;  b.  near 
Liverpool,  England.  Mar.  8,  1753;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
1774;  began  practice  at  Liverpool:  wrote  several  pamphlets 
against  the  slave-trade;  published  in  1796  The  Life  of  Lo- 
renzo de'  Medici^  and  in  1805  a  History  of  the  Life  and 
Pontificate  of  Leo  X.\  sat  in  Parliament  1806-07;  edited 
Pope's  works  (10  vols.,  1824),  and  was  author  of  many  polit- 


ical and  miscellaneous  treatises.  He  was  distinguished  for 
his  labors  in  the  cause  of  philanthropy  and  his  encourage- 
ment of  younger  literary  aspirants.  D.  at  Toxteth  Park, 
Liverpool,  June  27,  1831.  His  Life  (2  vols.,  1833)  was  writ- 
ten by  his  youngest  son,  Henry  (1799-1836),- who  was  dis- 
tinguished at  the  bar,  wrote  numerous  legal  works,  and  wa> 
author  of  the  Lives  of  Eminent  British  Lawyers  (IXW; 
often  reprinted).  Revised  by  H.  A.  Bekrs. 

RoBCom'mon :  an  inland  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Connaught,  bordering  E.  on  the  Shannon..  An*a. 
949  sq.  miles  (see  map  of  Ireland,  ref.  8-F).  The  surfacv  i^ 
level,  with  the  exception  of  the  northern  parts,  where  ranj:»i 
of  low  hills  are  found;  the  soil  is  light  but  fertile,  affording 
excellent  pasturage  in  many  places.  Agriculture  and  tl.o 
rearing  of  sheep  are  the  principal  occupations.  Pop.  (IMJl) 
114,397.  Chief  town,  Roscommon,  which  contains  remains  of 
a  castle  and  a  fine  abbey  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  ha> 
an  important  cattle-market. 

Roscommon,  Went  worth  Dillon,  Earl  of :  poet ;  nephew 
of  Wentworth,  Earl  of  Strafford ;  b.  in  Irelana  about  \^\^\ ; 
educated  at  Caen  under  Bochart ;  spent  a  large  part  of  hi.^  I  if^:- 
in  France ;  obtained  several  offices  about  the  court  of  Chari.  s 
II. ;  went  to  Ireland  as  captain  in  the  Guards ;  squauderivJ 
his  estate  by  gaming;  returned  to  England;  reformeti  }n•^ 
habits ;  married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Burleigh  ;  devotiMi 
himself  to  literature  in  conjunction  with  Dryden,  and  pn)- 
duced  some  poems,  the  best  being  the  Essay  on  TranaloUd 
Verse  (1660);  a  blank-verse  paraphrase  of  Horaces  Ar^ 
Poetica  (1684) ;  and  a  revision  of  Viea  Ira,  D.  in  London. 
Jan.  17,  1684,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abljey. 

Revised  by  II.  A.  Beers. 

Rose  [conjointly  from  0.  Fr.  roae  (<  Lat.  roaa)  and  <  i>. 
Eng.  roae,  from  Lat.  ro'aa^  rose ;  cf.  Gr.  ^6^^  rose] :  a  fli  ^^- 
ering  plant  of  the  genus  Rosa  and  family  Rosacece,  wbif  h 
consists  of  shrubs,  usually  prickly,  natives  of  the  n(»rthiTu 
hemisphere  from  the  Arctic  zone  to  Mexico  in  the  N»n* 
World,  and  to  Abyssinia  and  the  Indian  Peninsula  in  t  h*- 
Old.  The  genus  is  characterized  by  unequally  piunnt»' 
leaves  with  serrate  leaflets,  or  rarely  simple  leaves,  iihi«  h 
in  one  species  (72.  berberifolia)  are  entirely  wanting,  a.i- 
nately  stipulate  petioles,  and  single  or  corymbose  terminf.l 
flowers,  with  five  foliaceous  sepals  imbricated  in  ipstivatiin. 
five  petals  readily  multiplying  under  cultivation,  indefiniie 
stamens,  and  numerous  one-seeded  carpels  inclosed  in  t  he 
receptacular  calyx-cup,  which  becomes  fleshy  when  ni.*'. 
The  most  widely  distributed  North  American  species  mv 
the  Michigan  pfairie-rose  {R.  setigera),  with  high-climb im; 
branches,  armed  with  stout,  straight  prickles,  showy  oorj'ni- 
bose  pink  flowers,  and  globular  fruit — ^a  native  of  th.» 
Western  and  Southern  States  from  Michigan  to  Louisiau.! 
and  Georgia;  the  swamp-rose  {R,  Carolina),  with  stem*- 
4  to  8  feet  high,  armed  with  stout  hooked  prickles,  corj  m- 
bose  pink  flowers,  and  bristly,  depressed  globular  fruit — a 
frequent  inhabitant  of  low  swampy  ground  from  Cana<la  t.- 
Florida  and  westward  to  the  Mississippi;  the  dwarf  wil«i 
rose  (72.  lucida),  with  stems  1  or  2  feet  high,  armed  witti 
unequal  bristly  prickles,  mostly  deciduous  flowers,  s<»litarT 
or  in  clusters  of  two  or  three,  and  smooth  globular  fruit— 
common  through  Canada  and  the  U.  S.,  E.  of  the  Rotky 
Mountains. 

The  sweet-brier  (R.  rubiginosa),  a  native  of  Euro^ie,  luis 
escaped  from  cultivation,  and  become  widely  naturalized  in 
the  Atlantic  States.  The  Cherokee  rose  {R.  sinica),  a  nat  i  vt> 
of  China,  with  high-climbing  branches,  armed  with  stt.ut 
hooked  prickles,  coriaceous  evergreen  leaves,  and  lar^'e 
white  flowers,  has  been  naturalized  in  'the  Southern  St«t«- 
for  over  100  years,  where  it  is  also  extensively  cultivate*!  a^ 
a  hedge-plant.  Where  sufficient  room  can  be  given  it,  fiw 
plants  equal  the  Cherokee  rose  for  winter  blooming  in 
Northern  conservatories.  R.hracteata,  a  native  of  China 
and  Northern  India,  with  erect  branches,  armed  with  stout 
recurved  prickles  and  large,  white,  solitary  flowers  Mir- 
rounded  bv  conspicuous  bracts,  has  also  become  natural!/,  u 
in  some  of  the  Gulf  States,  where  it  is  successfully  emplo)  t-d 
as  a  hedge-plant,  especially  in  deep  rich  soils. 

From  the  dried  petals  of /?.  oa//ira,  an  Old  World  sj^*- 
cies  of  doubtful  geographical  limits,  an  infusion  is  mao.* 
which  is  employed  as  an  agreeable  vehicle  for  t<»nic  anl 
astringent  medicines.  From  the  jwtals  of  R,  centifolin.  i\ 
native  of  the  Caucasus,  and  R,  damascena,  whose  n«ti\t' 
country  is  unknown,  rose-water,  the  principal  ingre<lirnt  in 
astringent  collyria,  is  distilled.  (See  Attar  of  Ho*ii^.^ 
In  the  south  of  France,  Egypt,  and  other  Mediterrant^an 


184 


ROSE-ACACIA 


ROSEMARY 


of  The  Theological  Library,  and  projected  Hose's  New  Gen- 
eral Biograpnieal  Dictionary,  a  desi^i  carried  into  effect 
after  his  death  by  his  brother,  Henry  John,  and  other  writ- 
ers. He  was  one  of  the  principal  foundere  of  the  Tractarian 
movement.  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Rose-acacla :  an  ornamental  shrub,  the  Rohinia  hispida, 
of  the  order  Leguminoece,  growing  wild  in  the  mountains 
of  the  southern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  It  has  large,  very  showy, 
inodorous  flowers  of  a  deep  rose-color  in  drooping  loose 
racemes.    It  is  common  in  cultivation. 

Rose-apples :  See  Eugenia. 

Rosebery,  Archibald  Philip  Primrose,  LL.  D.,  Earl  of : 
statesman ;  b.  in  London,  1B47 ;  educated  at  Eton  and  Ox- 
ford ;  succeeded  to  his  title  on  the  death  of  his  grandfather, 
the  fourth  Earl  of  Roseberv,  1868 ;  seconded  an  address  in 
reply  to  a  speech  from  the  tlirone  in  Parliament  1871 ;  presi- 
dent of  the  social  science  congress  Glasgow,  1874;  elected 
lord  rector  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen  Nov.  16, 1878 ;  lord 
rector  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  Nov.,  1880;  Under- 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department  1881 ;  first  com- 
missioner of  works  1884 ;  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Af- 
fairs in  Mr.  Gladstone's  government  Jan.  to  June,  1886,  and 
in  this  position  won  general  approval  for  the  firmness  with 
which  he  conducted  the  difficult  questions  devolving  upon 
him.  He  was  appointed  to  the  same  post  in  1892,  and  be- 
came Prime  Minister  on  Mr.  Gladstone  s  retirement  in  1894 

C.  H.  Thurber. 

Rose-bag:  a  very  common  beetle,  Macrodaciylua  sub- 
spinosus,  of  North  America,  belonging  to  the  family  Sea- 
rabceidcB,  It  is  small  and  dusky  yellow,  and  is  very  de- 
structive, not  only  to  the  rose,  but  to  other  vegetation.  In 
warm  weather  it  will  suddenly  appear  in  swarms  and  then 
suddenly  disappear  again,  having  completed  its  devasta- 
tions, against  which  there  seems  to  be  no  effectual  remedy. 
In  some  caises  air-slacked  lime  scattered  over  the  bushes 
and  under  them  seems  to  have  the  desired  effect,  but  in 
other  cases  it  has  proved  a  complete  failure.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  syrmging  the  bushes  with  a  decoction  of 
whale-oil  soap  or  of  ailanthus  leaves. 

Rosebarg :  city ;  capital  of  Douglas  co.,  Ore. ;  on  the 
Umpqua  river,  and  the  S.  Pac.  Railroad ;  76  miles  S.  of 
Eugene  City,  197  miles  S.  of  Portland  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Oregon, 'ref.  6-B).  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  stock-raising, 
fruit-growing,  and  mining  region ;  is  an  important  market 
for  the  fertile  Umpqua  valley;  and  contams  flour-mills, 
breweries,  wagon-shops,  the  Oregon  State  Soldiers'  Home,  a 
national  bank  with  capital  of  150,000,  a  private  bank,  and 
a  semi-weekly  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  Pop.  (1880)  822 ; 
(1890)  1,4?2 ;  (1894)  estimated,  2,500. 

Manager  of  "  Review." 

Rose'crans,  William  Starke:  soldier;  b.  at  Kingston, 
0.,  Sept.  6, 1819  ;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  ; 
promoted  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  engineers  July  1, 
1842.  With  the  exception  of  four  years  (1843-47),  when  he 
was  at  West  Point  as  Assistant  Professor  of  Engineering  and 
of  Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy,  he  was  engaged  in 
the  construction  of  fortifications  until  Apr.  1, 18M,  when 
he  resigned  from  the  army  and  establishea  himself  in  Cin- 
cinnati, O.,  as  civil  engineer  and  architect ;  was  president 
of  a  coal  company  in  Virginia  1855-57,  and  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  kerosene  in  Cincinnati  1857-61.  As 
volunteer  aide  to  Gen.  McClellan  he  served  in  organizing 
Ohio  State  troops ;  was  appointed  colonel  and  chief  engi- 
neer of  Ohio  June  9,  and  colonel  Twenty-third  Ohio  Volun- 
teers June  10,  1861.  He  was  commissioned  brigadier-gen- 
eral in  the  regular  army,  and  in  the  West  Virginia  cam- 
paign commanded  a  brigade  at  Rich  Mountain,  July  11; 
succeeded  to  command  of  the  department  of  the  Ohio  on 
July  21,  and  of  the  department  of  West  Virginia  in  Sept., 
1861 ;  appointed  major-general  of  volunteers  Mar.,  1862 ; 
in  May  ne  commanded  a  division  of  the  Anny  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi at  the  siege  of  Corinth:  succeeding  to  command  of 
that  army  in  June,  he  fought  the  battles  of  luka  (Sept.  19) 
and  Corinth  (Oct.  3-4) ;  w»is  transferred  to  the  command  of 
the  Army  of  the  CumWrland  Oct.  27.  His  exertions  did 
much  to  win  the  battle  of  Murfrkeshoro  {q.  r.),  fought 
Dec.  31,  1862-Jan.  8,  186:3,  after  tem[M»niry  reverse  on  the 
first  day.  Advancing  on  Tullahoma  June  24,  he  occunied 
Bridgeport  and  Stevenson  July  24;  crossed  the  Cunioer- 
land  Mountains,  and  Sept.  19-20  fought  the  battle  of  Chick- 
amauoa  {q.  t'.),  where,  defeated  and  falling  back  on  Chat- 
tanooga, he  was  relieved  Oct.  30,  1863  (see  Cuattanoooa, 


Siege  and  Battle  of)  :  was  placed  in  command  of  the  de- 
partment of  the  Missouri  Jan.,  1864 ;  repelled  the  invasion 
of  Missouri  by  Price ;  was  mustered  out  of  the  vol u nice: 
service  in  1866 ;  again  resigned  from  the  army  1867 :  wa^ 
for  a  short  time  (1868-69)  U.  S.  minister  to  Mexico,  aft»'r 
which  he  became  a  resident  of  San  Kafael,  Cal..  and  wa>  iii 
Alexico  1871-73,  engaged  in  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  ne^'^i^- 
tiate  the  construction  of  a  vast  system  of  narrow-gau;?«- 
railways.  He  was  member  of  Congress  from  Calif <»r ma 
1881-a5,  and  register  of  the  Treasury  1885-93.  On  Mar.  ^, 
1889,  he  was  restored  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  and 
retired.  Revised  by  James  Mercub. 

Rose-gaH  :  See  Gall  Insects. 

Ros'egrger,  Petri  Kettenfeier  :  poet  and  novelist ;  h.  at 
Alpl,  a  small  village  in  the  Styrian  Alps,  July  31.  1K4:5 ; 
passed  his  youth  in  great  poverty  and  was  apprenticed  t<>  a 
tailor  at  the  age  of  seventeen.  Through  the  aid  of  a  num- 
ber of  patrons,  whose  attention  he  attracted  by  his  excep- 
tional poetic  talent,  he  was  enabled  to  make  up  for  his  de- 
fective education  and  devote  himself  entirely  to  literature. 
In  1869  he  published  his  first  book.  Zither  und  Hackhrt-tt.  a. 
collection  of  poems  in  the  Styrian  dialect,  which  met  with 
success.  Since  then  he  has  produced  a  p^at  number  td 
stories,  sketches,  and  novels,  most  of  which  describe  tin- 
peasant  life  of  his  native  country  with  great  originality  aiifl 
power  of  characterization.  The  best  known  of  his  st«»rie- 
are  Aua  dem  Walde  (1874);  Oeschichten  aus  den  Alpm 
(1873) ;  Der  Gottsucher  (1883) ;  Jacob  der  Letzte  (1888) ;  JJoch 
vom  Dachstein  (1892) ;  Peter  Mayr  (1894).  Julius  Goebel. 

Ro8ellliil,ros-el-lee'nee,  Ippolito:  Orientalist;  b.  at  Pisa, 
Italv,  Aug.  13,  1800.  After  graduating  at  Pisa  in  1821.  lii^ 
studied  Oriental  languages  at  Bologna,  and  in  1824  w&s 
made  Professor  of  (oriental  Philology  in  the  University  i)f 
Pisa.  Having  been  commissioned  by  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany  to  examine  the  antiquities  of  I^Q'Pt,  he  visit oti 
that  country  and  spent  fifteen  months  (1827-S8)  with  Cham- 
pollion,  who  was  under  appointment  by  the  French  Guv- 
emment,  in  careful  exploration.  After  the  death  of  Charu- 
poUion,  Rosellini  became  to  some  extent  his  literarv  extn*- 
utor.  The  remainder  of  his  life,  after  his  return  from  ^g>  |  -t . 
was  spent  in  editing  and  publishing  his  monumental  v«  fl- 
umes, /  Monumentt  delV  Egitto  e  della  Nubia  (9  vols.  <»c- 
tavo,  and  3  vols,  folio,  containing  394  plates,  Pisa,  IKii- 
44).  Ungarelli's  Elementa  linguce  ^gypt\ac4E  vulgo  Copt ir(r 
(Pisa,  1837)  contained  the  material  delivered  by  Rosellini, 
who  in  turn  depended  upon  Champollion's  Gramma  ire 
Copte,  D.  at  Pisa,  June  4, 1843.  Biographies  of  him  were 
written  soon  after  his  death  by  Bardelli  (1848),  Dei  (1H4:1), 
and  Cavedoni  (1845).  ^        Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Roselly  de  Lorgues.  rd'ze'lee'de-ldrg',  Antoike  Frax- 
Qois  Felix  :  religious  writer;  b.  at  Grasse,  Alpes-Maritimt-s, 
France,  Aug.  11,  1805;  studied  law,  but  soon  left  the  l>Mr 
and  devoted  himself  to  religious  writing  and  to  researcht.*- 
in  philosophy:  became  a  member  of  the  Legion  of  Hont.r 
in  1837,  and  ofilcer  in  1855.  His  best-known  work^  ar<* 
those  in  defense  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  es[)e<iallv 
Le  Christ  devant  le  si^le  (1835;  16th  ed.  1847),  translal*  a 
into  several  languages,  and  La  Croix  dans  les  deux  momfr,^ 
(1844;  3d  ed.  1852).  He  also  wrote  several  works  with  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  the  beatification  of  Columbus,  anion  c 
them  Christophe  Colomb  (1856:  8d  ed.  1886)  and  IliMvirt 
posthume  de  Christophe  Colomb  (1885). 

Rose-maHow :  See  Hibiscus. 

Rosemary  [by  analogy  of  rose  and  Mary  <  M.  Eng.  ms- 
marine,  via  O.  Fr.  from  Lat.  rosmari'nus,  liter.,  sea-<iow  ; 
ros,  dew -h  man"nu«,  of  the  sea,  marine,  deriv.  of  mg  r&^ 
sea] :  a  labiate  evergreen  shrub,  Rosmarinus  officinalis,  .  »f 
Europe  and  Asia,  having  fragrant  aromatic  leaves  whiih 
yield  a  pungent  volatile  oil,  valued  as  a  stimulant  nu'iii- 
cine  and  sometimes  used  as  an  ingredient  in  perfumery,  m 
hair-dressings,  and  in  liniments.  Oil  of  rosemary  is  a  prin- 
cipal ingredient  of  the  perfume  called  Hunpiry  watt-r  or 
queen  of  Hungary  water.  The  shrub,  which '  n»ach«-s  a 
height  of  from  4  to  8  feet,  has  linear  leaves  which  an*  t'i>v- 
ered  beneath  with  a  short  whitish-gray  down  and  t-nut  a 
penetrating  camphor-like  odor;  the  flower  is  pale  biui-h. 
It  grows  in  sunny  places,  on  rocks,  old  walls,  etc.,  in  tlu- 
countries  around  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  generally  cul- 
tivated as  an  ornamental  and  aromatic  shrub  in  tlu*  w«  st 
of  Europe.  The  rosemary  may  sometimes  be  smelletl  U>r 
many  leagues  off  the  Spanish  coast.  It  affonls  excflhui 
bee-pasture.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailet. 


1 

^^fti 

1 

^H 

^^■n 

1 

^^^H 

^^D/ 

^H 

^^H 

^ 

H 

^^^^^NH^ 

,    „ 

'it  of  Mt4in'*  id^iHi^^  ami          ^^H 

186 


ROSBTTI 


ROSLYN 


The  stone  contains  a  copy  of  a  decree  promulgated  by  the 
Egyptian  priesthood  assembled  at  Memphis  in  195  b.  c,  in 
honor  of  Ptolemy  V.  Kpiphanes  (205-182  b.  c.)  on  account  of 
certain  benefits  that  he  nad  conferred  upon  Egypt  in  his 
eighth  Year,  by  remitting  certain  taxes  ana  reducme  others, 
by  conferring  privileges  upon  the  priests  and  soldiers,  by 
dedicating  certain  revenues  to  the  temples,  and  by  averting 
serious  damage  from  the  land  by  damming  and  regulating 
the  waters  of  an  unusually  high  Nile.  According  to  the  de- 
cree it  was  directed  that  its  t«xt  be  engraved  in  three  sorts 
of  characters  upon  hard  stone,  and  set  up  in  all  Egyptian 
temples  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  order,  to  commem- 
orate these  beneficent  deeds  of  **  Ptolemy,  the  saviour  of 
Egypt."  It  was  also  directed  that  statues  of  the  king  should 
be  placed  in  all  the  temples,  and  that  a  shrine  containing 
his  image  in  wood  should  be  carried  with  those  of  other  dei- 
fied kings  of  Egypt  in  solemn  processions.  The  first  five 
days  of  the  month  of  Thoth  were  set  apart  for  the  celebra- 
tion of  special  services  in  his  honor. 

The  inscriptions  on  this  stone  were  similar  to  those  on  the 
Tablet  of  Tanis,  also  known  as  the  Stela  of  Canopus,  dis- 
covered at  Tanis  by  Lepsius  in  1866.  The  latter  was  set  up 
in  238  B.C.,  the  ninth  year  of  Ptolemy  III.,  Euergetes  1. 
(246-221  B.  c.)  to  commemorate  his  good  deeds,  and  particu- 
larly his  restoration  of  the  images  of  the  gods,  which  had 
been  carried  off  to  Mesopotamia.  These  texts  served  to 
confirm  the  results  of  the  decipherment  based  upon  the 
Rosetta  Stone.  In  the  original  work  of  decipherment  great 
assistance  was  rendered  to  ChampoUion  in  1822  by  inscrip- 
tions on  an  obelisk  then  recently  brought  from  Philae  to 
London,  which  contained  the  names  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes 
and  Cleopatra,  to  whose  identification  he  was  led  by  the 
Greek  inscriptions  on  the  base  of  the  obelisk.  The  name  of 
Ptolemy  was  already  known,  and  the  decipherment  of  the 
name  of  Cleopatra  added  several  alphabetic  signs  to  those 
that  had  been  previously  determined  on  the  basis  of  the 
Rosetta  Stone.  For  an  account  of  the  decipherment,  see 
article  Egyptology.  See  also  Budge,  The  Mummy  (Cam- 
bridge, 1893),  pp.  144  ff. ;  Ebers,  Cicerone  durch  JSgi/pteUy 
ii.,  pp.  24  ff.  Buuge,  pp.  109-1 10,  ei ves  an  extensive  bi  bliogra- 
phy  of  works  bearing  upon  the  decipherment  and  interpre- 
tation of  the  Rosetta  Stone.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Roset'ti,  or  Roseti,  Constantin  :  poet  and  politician ;  b. 
in  Bucharest,  Roumania,  June  14, 1816;  in  the  army  from 
1833  to  1836 ;  wrote  translations  from  Byron  and  others, 
and  in  1843  published  a  volume  of  original  poems  under  the 
title  CeasuH  de  mulfumire  (Hours  of  Contentment).  He 
was  concerned  in  the  political  disturbances  of  1848,  being  a 
secretary  of  the  provisional  government.  When  the  uprising 
was  put  down  his  journal,  Pruncul  romdn  (The  Roumanian 
Child),  was  suppressed,  and  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
active  as  a  political  writer.  After  the  Crimean  war  he  re- 
turned to  Roumania  and  founded  the  journal  Romdnul  (The 
Roumanian),  and  as  an  ardent  liberal  was  influential  in  poli- 
tics. He  became  a  member  of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and 
held  other  public  positions.  He  urged  the  proclamation  of 
independence,  and  the  alliance  with  Russia  against  Turkey 
in  1877.  From  1878  to  1880  he  was  Minister  of  the  Interior, 
and  was  a  senator  at  the  time  of  his  death,  Apr.  20,  1885. 
A  new  edition  of  his  poems,  translations,  and  political  writ- 
ings appeared  in  1885  at  Bucharest.  E.  S.  Sheldon. 

Rosewood :  (1)  the  beautiful  and  fragrant  wood  of  sev- 
eral leguminous  Brazilian  trees  of  the  genera  Machferium 
and  Triptolem(Ea,  highly  valued  as  a  veneer  for  furniture, 
pianos,  etc. ;  (2)  the  almost  equally  beautiful  wood  of  an 
East  Indian  leguminous  tree,  Dalhergia  laiifolia;  (3)  Ca- 
nary island  rosewood,  the  fragrant  woody  root  of  the  con- 
volvulaceous  Rhodorrhiza  ecoparia  and  R.  ftorida.  The 
last  is  a  delijjhtful  incense,  and  its  powder  is  mixed  with 
snuff.  From  it  is  obtained  the  oil  of  rhodium,  much  vaunted 
as  a  charm  for  horses  and  highly  prized  by  trappers.  (4) 
Burmese  and  African  rosewootls  are  the  timber  of  legu- 
minous trees  of  the  genus  Pferocarpus. 

Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

RoBieraclans  [Lat.  ro'sa,  rose  4-  crux^  cruris,  cross] :  a 
secret  society  reported  to  havo  Ix^en  founded  in  the  four- 
teenth century.  The  first  mention  of  the  society  appeared 
in  the  Fama  Fraternitatis  den  lohlichen  Ordens  des  Rosen- 
kreuzes,  anonymously  published  at  Cassol  in  1614.  and  in 
the  Confession  oder  Bekenntniss  der  Sociddt  nnd  Bruder- 
schaft  ii.  C,  published  the  following  year.  In  those  the 
most  wonderful  stories  were  told  of  the  Hosicrucians,  who 
were  said  to  be  possessed  of  the  deepest  wisdom,  and  most 


potently  at  work  for  the  weal  of  mankind.  Concerning  the 
founder  of  the  society.  Christian  Rosenkreutz — his  ^e^idenf•e 
among  the  Arab  and  Egyptian  magicians,  his  life  in  Spain 
and  Germany  as  head  of  tne  new  order,  his  death  and  buria) 
— the  most  stirring  revelations  were  made  in  a  third  Uw^k, 
Chymische  Hochzeit  Christian  Rosenkreutz\  which  apfjeari'd 
at  Strassburg  in  1616.  Some  theologians  considered  the  s<^ 
ciety  a  means  of  salvation,  others  the  organ  of  a  foul  soin>ine. 
Some  physicians  thought  that  it  would  give  the  fulfillment 
of  the  golden  prophecies  of  Theophrastus  Paracelsus  (•<»n- 
cerning  an  elixir  of  life ;  others,  that  it  was  only  an  impu<leni 
opposition  to  Galen.  The  alchemists  particularly  were  anx- 
ious to  ioin  it,  sure  that  it  had  found  the  philosopher's  stc»n»- 
and  could  make  gold,  but  the  whereabouts  of  the  broth  erh<  >* «! 
remained  unknown.  For  several  years  the  secret  society  t»f 
the  Rosicrucians  was  the  all-absorbing  topic  of  the  iay. 
Some  think  that  the  books  were  written  by  Johann  Valentin 
Andrea,  simply  as  a  satire.  Of  the  real  existence  of  such 
a  society  there  never  was  found  the  slightest  trace.  Sum 
there  arose  a  multitude  of  Rosicrucian  societies,  and  at  tbt- 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century  Cagliostro  pretended  to  be  a 
Rosicrucian.  See  Semler,  Impartial  Collections  for  the  IJiA- 
tory  of  the  Rosicrucians  (Leipzig,  1768) ;  and  Waite,  Th*^ 
Real  History  of  the  Rosicimcians  (London,  1887). 

Rosin,  or  CoPophon^  [rosin  is  appar.  dial,  form  of  rej*in 
(see  Resins);  colophony  is  from  Lat.  coloplw'nia (sc.  resi  no. 
rosin)  =  Gr.  KoKoipt^rta  (se.  frtritnfi,  rosin),  Colophonian  rosin, 
rosin,  liter.,  fem.  of  KoXo^yiof,  pertaining  to  Colophon  (<  Jr. 
KoKoi^y)] :  the  residue  which  is  obtained  by  distilling  off  th»- 
water  and  volatile  oil  from  the  crude  turpentine  from  pine- 
trees.  The  yield  is  from  70  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  wn<'U\ 
(See  Turpentine.)  It  is  largely  manufactured,  together  w  it  I. 
oil  of  turpentine,  at  Wilmington,  Newbern,  and  Beanr  »rt, 
N.  C.  When  entirely  freed  from  water  it  is  translucoi.t. 
The  color  depends  upon  the  purity  of  the  original  turpentim- 
and  the  care  taken  to  distill  at  a  low  temperature.  It  is; 
chiefly  the  anhydride  of  abietic  acid. 

Colophony  is  pale  yellow  and  transparent  (virgin  rosin  >. 
or  brownish  yellow  and  translucent,  according  to  the  care 
taken  in  its  preparation.  It  may  be  obtained  nearly  cul<ir- 
less  by  distillation  with  steam  or  some  inert  gas,  as' hydro- 
gen, carbon  dioxide,  or  nitrogen,  under  a  pressure  of  ten  at- 
mospheres at  a  temperature  not  higher  than  600°  F.  It  has 
a  peculiar  luster,  called  resinous,  is  brittle  when  cold,  ami 
breaks  with  a  conchoidal  fracture;  sp.  gr.  1*07  to  1*08.  It  is 
insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  wood-spirit,  anti 
in  fixed  and  volatile  oils;  partially  soluble  in  petroleum. 
Nitric  acid  dissolves  it,  fonning  chiefly  isophthalic  a<  iii, 
together  with  trimcllitic  acid  and  a  resinous  acid.  It  «li>- 
solves  in  caustic  alkalies  and  alkaline  carbonates.  Col- 
ophony softens  at  160"  F.  and  melts  at  275  F.  At  hiirhtr 
temperatures  it  gives  off  volatile  oils,  acouiring  a  dark  <  ♦  »1<  ►r. 

Colophony  is  extensively  used  in  making  varnishes  a»i*i 
cements,  in  the  calking  of  ships,  in  the  preparation  i»f  p Inci- 
ters and  ointments,  and  as  a  reducing  agent  in  the  soldering 
of  metals.  Large  quantities  are  consumed  in  the  manu f hi - 
ture  of  yellow  soap.  A  well-known  use  of  it  is  for  coverintr 
the  bows  of  violins  to  prevent  the  bow  from  slipping  ovor 
the  strings  without  producing  vibration.  Before  the  int  n>- 
duction  of  petroleum,  rosin-oil  was  used  to  some  extent  in 
lamps.  The  rosin-spirit  is  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute 
for  oil  of  turpentine.  The  viscid  oil  is  used  in  paints,  fi»r 
the  manufacture  of  printer's  ink,  in  soap-making,  in  eheaj» 
lubricators,  etc.  Revisea  by  Ira  Remse>\ 

Rosin  Bible :  See  Bible. 

ROs'kilde :  town ;  in  the  island  of  Sealand,  Denmark  ton 
a  hill  on  a  branch  of  the  Isefjord.  In  the  early  Mid'iU* 
Ages  it  was  a  great  city,  the  royal  residence,  with  l()<».t»«H> 
inhabitants,  and  27  churches  and  monasteries,  but  confl».irrji- 
tions,  the  plague,  and  the  growth  of  Cojienhagen  destn>)»Ml 
its  prosperity.  It  has  a  magnificent  cathedral,  built  1047^*^4, 
which  contains  manv splendid  monuments;  the  Danish  kiiiir> 
are  buried  here.     Pop.  (1890)  6,972. 

Roslyn:  village;  Queens  co.,  Long  Island,  N.  Y. ;  at  :h»» 
south  end  of  IIem])stead  harbor,  on  the  Long  Island  Rail- 
road; 23  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Brooklyn  (for  location,  stn^  ni;»p 
of  New  York,  ref.  8-K).  It  was  named  by  William  CulU  n 
Bryant,  who  had  a  residence  here  and  presented  the  villtiijt' 
with  a  public  hall.  It  has  an  English  classical  school,  a  xti\  - 
ings-bank,  a  weekly  newspaper,  flour,  paper,  and  planing 
mills,  and  canning-fuctories.  Manv  New  York  business  ni»- 1 1 
have  summer  residences  here.  I^op.  (1880)  1,101;  0*^*H>\ 
1,251 ;  (1893)  1,409.  Editor  of  "  New^/' 


188 


ROSS 


ROSSB 


the  Howland  syndicate  to  build  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way.    He  was  a  member  of  the  Manitoba  Leeislature  1878- 

82,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  elected  to  the  Canadian  Par- 
liament. Neil  Macdoxald. 

Ross,  George  William,  LL.  D.  :  educator ;  b.  in  Mid- 
dlesex, Ontario,  Canada,  Sept.  18,  1841 ;  educated  at  Nor- 
mal School,  and  became  a  teacher.  In  1871  he  was  ap- 
pointed county  inspector  of  schools  in  East  Lambton  ;  sub- 
sequently became  inspector  of  county  model  schools,  and 
was  appointed  Minister  of  Education  for  Ontario  Nov.  23, 
1883.    He  was  a  member  of  the  Dominion  Parliament  1872- 

83,  and  since  then  has  held  a  seat  in  the  Ontario  Legislature. 
For  many  years  he  has  been  a  leader  in  temperance  and 
prohibition  movements;  was  an  honorary  commissioner  at 
the  Colonial  and  Indian  Exhibition,  Loudon,  1885,  and  has 
been  editor  of  the  Strathroy  Age  and  of  the  Seaforth  Ex- 
positor. Neil  Macdonald. 

Ross.  Sir  James  Clark  :  navigator ;  b.  in  London.  Apr. 
15,  1800;  nephew  of  Sir  John  Ross;  entered  the  navy  in 
1812,  and  accompanied  his  uncle  on  his  first  voyage  in  search 
of  a  northwest  passage,  and  was  also  with  Capt.  Parry 
(1819-27)  in  the  latter*s  expeditions  having  the  same  object 
in  view,  being  on  one  occasion  wrecked  in  the  Fury ;  in 
1827  was  appointed  commander,  and  in  1829  again  sailed 
with  his  uncle  as  second  in  command,  and  was  absent  four 
years.  On  June  1,  1831,  he  discovered  the  position  of  the 
north  magnetic  pole.  Promoted  to  be  post-captain  on  his 
return,  he  was  engaged  in  a  magnetic  survey  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland  1835-38 ;  in  Apr.,  1839,  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Erebus,  and  in  September  of  that  year, 
in  company  with  the  Terror,  sailed  for  the  Antarctic  seas, 
reaching  lat.  78°  10'  S.,  the  highest  southern  latitude  over 
reached.  A  volcano  was  discovered  in  lat.  77"  32'  S.,  nearly 
13,000  feet  in  height,  which  was  named  Mt.  Erebus.  It  is 
in  Victoria  Land,  discovered  and  named  by  him,  and  the 
most  extensive  Antarctic  land  yet  seen.  In  1844  the  honor 
of  knighthood  was  conferred  upon  him,  and  in  1847  he  pub- 
lished A  Narrative  of  a  Voyage  in  the  Antarctic  Regions. 
He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  of  many  conti- 
nental scientific  bodies.  D.  at  Aston  Abbots  House,  near 
Aylesbury,  Apr.  3, 1862.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Ross,  Sir  John,  K.  C.  B.  :  explorer ;  b.  in  the  parish  of 
Inch,  Wip;onshire,  Scotland,  June  24, 1777 ;  entered  the  navy 
in  1786 ;  in  Jan.,  1818,  received  his  commission  as  commander 
of  the  Isabella,  and  Apr.  25,  in  company  with  the  Alexander, 
Lieut.  Parry,  sailed  from  London  to  ascertain  the  existence 
or  non-existence  of  a  northwest  passage,  returning  in  Nov., 
1818;  in  May,  1829,  again  sailed  in  the  steamer  Victory, 
equipped  by  ^ir  Felix  Booth,  sheriff  of  London,  but  in  Sept., 
1830,  became  ice-bound  in  the  Gulf  of  Boothia,  making  but 
little  subsequent  advance,  and  May  29, 1832,  the  Victory  was 
abandoned.  In  Aug.,  1833,  the  party  was  rescued  by  the  Isa- 
bella, formerly  commanded  by  Capt.  Ross,  but  at  that  time 
engaged  in  the  whaling  busmess.  He  arrived  in  London 
Sept.  19, 1833,  was  knighted  the  following  year,  and  admit- 
ted to  the  companionship  of  the  Bath.  From  1839  to  1845 
he  was  consul  at  Stockholm  :  in  1850  departed,  in  command 
of  the  Felix,  90  tons,  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  return- 
ing the  following  year ;  in  July,  1851,  attained  the  rank  of 
rear-admiral.  D.  in  London,  Aug.  30,  1856.  (See  Polar 
Research.)  He  published  (1819)  A  Voyage  of  Discovery, 
made  under  the  Orders  of  ths  Admiralty  for  the  purpose 
of  exploring  Baffin's  Bay,  and  in  1835  a  Narrative  of  a  Sec- 
ond Voyage,  ificluding  the  Reports  of  Commander  James 
Clark  Ross,  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Northern  Magnetic 
Pole ;  also  published  a  treatise  on  steam-navigation  and 
numerous  other  papers.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Boss,  Sir  JoHx,  K.  C.  B. :  general;  b.  at  Stonehouse, 
Cumberland,  England,  Mar.  18,  1829 ;  entered  the  army  as 
second  lieutenant  in  the  Rifle  Brigade  in  1846  ;  served  with 
that  regiment  during  the  C'rimean  war,  where  he  won  dis- 
tinction and  received  the  brevet  rank  of  major  and  Turkish 
medal  and  order  of  the  Medjidie.  During  the  Indian  mutiny 
he  was  present  at  the  action  at  Cawnpur  and  the  Ciinture 
of  Lucknow;  subseauently  commanded  the  Camel  Corps 
at  the  capture  of  Calpee  and  in  the  ensuing  campaign  m 
Central  India,  and  for  his  services  received  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, the  companionship  of  the  Bath,  and  a  medal. 
He  commanded  the  Bengal  troops  during  the  operations  in 
the  Malay  Peninsula  1875-76,  and  was  assigned  to  the  com- 
mand of  a  large  force  of  Indian  troops  sent  to  the  Medi- 
terranean in  1878,  when  war  with  Russia  was  threatened. 
He  afterward  commanded  the  second  division  of  the  Cabul 


army  during  the  war  with  Afghanistan  1878-79,  and  receiv^il 
the  thanks  of  Parliament  and  was  knighted  for  his  servn.  > 
He  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  troops  in  ('aii:i<l.| 
in  1888,  and  stationed  in  Halifax.  Neil  Macdoxali>. 

Ross,  John  Jones,  M.  D.  :  Canadian  senator;  b.  at  .Vr, 
Anne  de  la  Perade,  Aug.  16,  1833.  He  is  president  of  i\..\ 
Provincial  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  ;  was  a  nwir^ 
ber  of  the  agricultural  council  of  Quebec  1862-JH):  ami 
elected  vice-president  of  the  North  Shore  Railway  <"«::i^ 
pan y  1875.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  Legislative  Conm  i)  ••i 
Quebec  1873-74  and  1876-81 ;  commissioner  of  agri<ul!iif'i 
and  public  works  1881-82,  and  held  this  oflBce  together  we  *i 
that  of  Premier  of  province  1884-87.  He  rep^e^♦•Ilh  I 
Champlain  in  the  Canadian  Assembly  1861-^7,  tlie  ^an  i 
seat  in  Parliament  of  Canada  1867-74,  and  was  calleil  to  ti,  i 
Senate  1887.  Neil  Macdonalu. 

Boss,  LuDwio:  archseologist ;  b.  at  Altekoppel,  HoKttiii.! 
Germany,  July  22, 1806.  Endowed  with  a  traveling  stln.lar 
ship  by  the  Danish  Government,  he  went  to  Athens  in  1k;j 
for  the  scientific  exploration  of  Greek  antiquities.  W}...t 
about  to  return  home,  he  was  appointed  in  1833  by  tl. 
Greek  Government  as  superintendent  of  antiquities  of  ti.« 
Peloponnesus,  and  subsequently  of  the  entire  kingilom.  Ii* 
1845  he  became  Professor  of  Archaeology  at  the  Uni\»r- 
sity  of  Halle.  Ross  was  one  of  the  great  pioneers  in  \U^ 
field  of  Hellenic  archaeology,  topography,  and  epigrajih^. 
He  traveled  all  over  Greece,  excavating,  copying  iuMrip- 
tions,  and  fixing  the  topography  of  classical  localities  ^:ti 
such  accuracy,  scientific  method,  and  descriptive  talent  tlia' 
his  works  have  retained  their  value.  Among  his  many  pub- 
lications the  following  are  the  most  important:  Wami^r-\ 
ungen  in  Griechenland  (1851);  Reisen  auf  den  (intrK- 
ischen  Inseln  des  dgeischen  Meeres  (4  vols.,  1840-52) :  />»'• 
Demen  von  Attika  (1846);  Das  Theseion  und  der  Tftnft:' 
de^  Ares  zu  Athen  (1852) ;  Archdologische  Aufsdize  {1kV»- 
61),  the  second  volume  of  which  also  contains  a  biograj'h- 
ical  sketch  by  Otto  Jahn.    D.  at  Halle,  Aug.  6,  1859. 

Alfred  Gudeman. 

Ross,  William  :  member  of  privy  council  of  Canada :  I. 
at  Bouladine  island,  Cape  Breton,  in  1825 ;  represente<l  Vh - 
toria  in  Nova  Scotia  Assembly  from  1858  till  1867,  and  ti  i- 
same  seat  in  the  Canadian  Parliament  till  1874 ;  colkrtnr 
of  customs  at  Halifax  1874-88.  He  was  sworn  of  the  vrwy 
council  Nov.  7,  1873,  and  was  Minister  of  Militia  an»l  lU- 
fense  from  that  date  till  Nov.  5,  1874.  N.  M. 

Ross,  Sir  William  Chaeles,  R.  A. :  painter;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, England,  June  3, 1794;  son  of  a  miniature-paintor  auii 
teacher  of  drawing,  from  whom  he  received  artistic  train ir:t: ; 
gained  a  prize  from  the  Society  of  Arts  at  the  age  of  thir- 
teen ;  in  1817  became  an  assistant  to  Andrew  Robertscm,  an 
eminent  miniature-painter:  was  appointed  miniature-pain  ttT 
to  Queen  Victoria  1837;  was  knighted  1842;  waspatruni/.*! 
by  all  the  court  circle,  and  occasionally  executed  historii.nl 
and  imaginative  pieces,  having  obtained  a  premium  of  i'KK) 
in  the  great  cartoon  competition  for  his  Angel  Raphael  dis- 
eoursing  with  Adam  (1842).    D.  in  London,  Jan.  2<),  1^60. 

Ross  and  Cromarty:  a  northern  county  of  Scotlarui. 
washed  on  the  E.  by  the  German  Ocean  and  on  the  W.  hy 
the  Atlantic,  and  bounded  N.  and  S.  by  Sutherlan<Khire 
and  Inverness-shire  respectively.  It  comprises  the  di>tri(  t5 
of  Easter  and  Wester  Ross,  the  Black  Isle,  the  islauii  «>f 
Lewis,  and  the  ten  detached  districts  which  formerly  nw»«lo 
up  the  county  of  Cromarty.  Area,  3,078  sq.  miles.  P«p. 
(1891)  78,727.  The  surface  is  wild  and  mountainous.  I'uf 
the  soil  affords  good  pastures,  on  which  large  herds  of  sh«  ep 
and  cattle  are  fed;  agriculture  and  fishing  are  carried  "n. 
The  royal  burgh  of  Dingwall,  166  miles  N.  W.  of  E^im- 
burgh,  is  the  county-town.     Pop.  (1891)  2,300. 

Rossa'no  (anc.  Roscianum)  :  town ;  province  of  Cosenia. 
Italy;  on  a  hill  near  the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  which  it  "V.r- 
looks  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  &-H).  There  are  quarrir-  o(  ' 
marble  and  alabaster  in  the  neighborhood.  Fish  art'  al'un- 
dant,  and  silk  and  cotton  are  raised  in  the  vicinitv,  rt>  ^'^''^ 
as  grain,  olives,  grapes,  etc.  The  town,  still  walled  ami  il'- 
fended  by  a  castle,  was  once  a  very  strong  fortress.  H-'^- 
sano  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop.  Pop.  of  communt-  h*'**''^ 
18,000.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrinijton. 

Rosse,  William  Parsons,  third  Earl  of :  astrononit'r :  ^. 
at  York,  England,  June  17,  18(X);  studied  first  at  Tr.nH^ 
College,  Dublin,  and  then  at  Magdalen  College,  0\f«'r.l. 
where  he  graduated  in  1822;  sat  in  the  House  of  roinn)«'''j^ 
as  Lord  Oxmantown,  representing  King's  County  from  1?^-1 


190 


ROSSINI 


ROT 


Rossini,  ros-see'nee,  Gioacchixo  Antonio  :  composer ;  b. 
at  Pesaro,  Italy,  Feb.  29, 1792.  In  1807  he  entered  the  mu- 
sical school  of'  Bologna,  studying  counterpoint  under  the 
Abbate  Mattel,  and  in  1810  he  produced  his  first  opera, 
La  Cambiaie  di  Matrimonio^  at  Venice.  Other  operas, 
since  forgotten,  followed,  and  in  1818  his  Tancredi  excited 
an  immense  enthusiasm,  first  in  Venice,  and  soon  on  every 
stage  on  which  lUlian  opera  was  given.  In  1815  he  went 
to  Naples  as  director  of  the  opera,  and  composed  among 
other  operas  Elizabetta  (1815).  Otello  (1816),  La  Gazza 
Ladra  (1817),  Mo8^  in  Egitto  (1818).  La  DontM  del  Lago 
(1819),  and  Zelmira  (1820);  but  his  most  celebrated  pro- 
duction of  this  period  is  II  Barhiere  di  Seinglia  (origi- 
nally called  Almaviva),  first  performed  in  Rome  in  1816, 
and  generally  considered  the  masterpiece  of  the  whole  ^nre 
of  opera  bufita — irresistiblv  gay,  and  as  characteristic  as 
graceful  and  brilliant.  Semiramide  (1823),  composed  at 
Bologna  for  the  Fenice  theater,  Venice,  was  not  appreciated 
on  the  occasion  of  its  first  representation.  Rossini  went  to 
London  in  1823,  and  next  year  to  Paris,  where  he  was  made 
successively  director  of  the  Italian  opera,  inspector-general 
of  song  in  France,  and  first  composer  to  the  Qrand  Opera. 
In  bringing  out  his  old  compositions  on  the  Paris  stage  he 
felt  compelled  to  make  considerable  alterations :  the  melo- 
dies required  a  greater  simplicity  and  more  character,  the 
chorus  a  deeper  connection  with  the  whole  organism  and  a 
fuller  significance,  the  instrumentation  greater  variety  and 
elaborateness.  He  made  a  penetrating  study  of  his  task  be- 
fore he  ventured  to  represent  any  new  composition,  but 
when  at  last,  in  1828,  he  made  the  attempt  witn  Count  Ory, 
and  in  1829  with  William  Tell,  his  success  was  astonishing. 
A  few  days  after  the  performance  of  the  last  work  he  left 
Paris  and  retired  to  his  villa  near  Bologna,  where  he  lived 
till  1847,  declining  all  offers,  even  the  most  tempting,  made 
in  order  to  induce  him  to  compose  a  new  opera.  In  1847 
he  removed  to  Florence,  in  1856  to  Paris,  where  he  died  Nov. 
13,  1868.  In  the  last  forty  years  of  his  life  he  published 
only  a  Stahat  Mater,  and  a  Mesae  solennelle,  which  was  per- 
formed at  his  buriaL  See  Edwards's  Life  of  RoMini  (1869), 
and  the  biography  by  Azevedo  (1865). 

Rossiter,  Thomas  Pbichard:  figure  and  portrait  painter; 
b.  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Sept.  29, 1818.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Nathaniel  Jocelyn  in  New  Ilaven,  and  studied  in  Paris,  Lon- 
don, and  other  places  in  Europe  1840-46 ;  National  Acade- 
mician 1849 ;  gold  medal,  Paris  Exposition,  1855.  Many  of 
his  portraits  are  excellent.  He  devoted  the  later  years  of 
his  life  to  painting  the  Life  of  Christ  in  a  series  of  pictures. 
Rehekah  at  the  W  ell  is  in  the  Corcoran  Gallery,  Washington. 
D.  at  Cold  Spring,  N.  Y.,  May  17,  1871.  W.  A.  C. 

Rost,  rost,  Reinhold  :  Orientalist ;  b.  at  Eisenberg,  Ger- 
many, Feb.  2,  1822 ;  studied  in  the  gymnasium  at  Alten- 
burg;  graduate<l  in  1846  at  Jena;  went  to  England  1847; 
from  1851  instructor  in  Oriental  languages  in  St.  Augus- 
tine's College,  Canterbury ;  became  secretary  to  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society  1863.  and  librarian  to  the  India  Office  1869. 
He  prepared  a  descriptive  catalogue  of  the  palm-leaf  MSS. 
in  the  Imperial  Library  of  St.  Petersburg  1852;  edited  Dr. 
H.  H.  Wilson's  Essays  on  the  Religion  of  the  Ilindiis  and 
on  Sanskrit  Liternture  (5  vols.,  1859-65).  Mitor  of  the 
Trllbner  series  of  Simplified  Grammars  1882-88,  and  of  the 
Oriental  Record.  Revised  by  Benj.  Ids  Wueeleb. 

Ros'tocit :  town  of  North- 
ern Germany;  in  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwenn  ;  on  the  War- 
now,  9  miles  from  its  mouth 
in  the  Baltic  (see  map  of 
German  Empirt»,  ref.  2-F). 
It  has  a  universitv  founded 
in  1419,  with  a  library  of 
140,000  volumes:  many  other 
gootl  educational  institu- 
tions ;  manufactures  of  linen, 
leather,  and  toliacco,  and 
an  active  tra<le.  Vessels 
which  draw  more  than  12  feet  must  load  and  unload  at 
Warnemande,  its  port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Waniow.  Pop. 
(1890)  44,409. 

Rostor:  town  of  P^uropoan  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Yaroslaf  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  6-E).  It  has  33  churches 
and  large  manufactures  of  linen  and  candles,  and  holds  an 
annual  fair  from  Feb.  21  to  Mar.  11,  in  which  transactions 
to  the  amount  of  about  2,000,000  rubles  are  carried  out.  Pop. 
17,439. 


Rostof :  town  of  European  Russia,  government  of  Eka- 
terinoslaf ;  on  the  Don,  at  the  beginning  of  its  delta ;  foundt-^i 
in  1749  as  a  fortress,  and  rapidly  growing  into  one  of  the 
commercial  centers  of  Southern  Russia  (see  map  of  Ru>>im. 
ref.  10-E).  Ropes,  linen,  leather,  soap,  and  tobacco  are  ex- 
tensively manufactured.     Pop.  (1888)  66,781. 

Ro8toptchIn',FEDORWAaiLiEvirH. Count:  general;  b.  in 
the  government  of  Orel,  Russia,  Mar.  23, 1763 ;  was  e<lii<at«  «l 
at  the  court  as  a  page  of  Catherine  II. ;  became  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs  under  Paul  I.,  and  was  governor-general  of 
Moscow  in  1812,  when  Napoleon  approached.  He  was  lonir 
believed  throughout  Western  Europe  to  have  set  fire  to  the 
city  before  leaving  it  to  the  French,  but  in  his  La  Verity  ftur 
VIncendie  de  Moscov,  (Paris,  1823)  he  denies  this.  It  i^  cer- 
tain, however,  that  he  set  fire  to  his  own  palace  and  nia<i»' 
preparations  for  the  burning  of  the  magazines.  I),  in  M«^- 
cow,  Feb.  12, 1826.  See  Schnitzler,  Rosloptchine  et  Koutitusof. 
ou  la  Russie  en  181:2  (Paris,  1863).  F.  M.  Colby.  ' 

Rostra  [Lat.,  liter.,  beaks.  So  called  because  decorated 
with  the  beiaks  of  the  galleys  of  Antium,  taken  in  the  tir>t 
naval  victory  of  the  republic,  338  b.  c]  :  the  platform  for 
public  spealang  at  Rome;  originally  situated  net  ween  the 
Comitia  and  the  Forum.  It  was  used  also  as  a  place  f « ^r 
setting  up  statues  of  distinguished  men,  and  on  its  si<i<:'S 
were  displayed  some  of  the  most  important  public  d«H-u- 
ments,  such'as  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  international 
treaties,  etc.  At  Ca*sar's  initiative  the  old  rostra  was  torn 
down,  and  a  new  one  constructed  (probably  not  earlier  thiin 
42  B.  c.)  at  the  west  end  of  the  Forum,  before  the  temple  of 
Concord.  This  was  about  10  feet  high,  80  feet  long,  and  :^:{ 
feet  deep,  its  great  size  being  accounted  for  by  the  nect-s-it  y 
of  providing  a  place  for  statues,  as  above  indicated.  The 
rostra  was  restored  with  great  magnificence  in  the  se<-oiid 
century  a.  d.  (by  Trajan  or  Hadrian).    G.  L.  Uendrkkson'. 

Roswitlia:  See  Urotsvitha. 

Rot  (in  vegetable  pathology) :  any  one  of  many  diseases 
of  plants,  all  due  to  the  attacks  of  fungi  or  other  ^ow  vege- 
table organisms. 

The  hitter-rot  of  apples  causes  upon  the  surface  of  tbt 
mature  fruit  brownish  or  blackish  spots,  which  at  lenjrth 
become  studded  with  minute  black  raised  points.  On  cut- 
ting through  a  diseased  spot  it  is  seen  to  extend  far  into 
the  tissues  of  the  apple.    The  fungus  causing  this  disease 


Fio.  1.— a,  section  through  black  poiot  of  bitter  rot :  6,  itpore-bear 
ing  threads  (highly  magnifled). 

is  Gloeosporium  fru^figenum,  one  of  the  so-called  im|HT- 
fect  fungi  of  the  family  Melanconiace(F.  Its  threads  grow 
parasitically  through  the  tissues  of  the  apple,  killing  the 


«^^^'^ 


♦ 


Fio.  2.— a,  grapes  affected  by  black-rot 


b,  escape  of  the  conidia  :  c,  section  showing  ascoepores  <  b  and  c 
maKnifled). 

cells,  and  finally  come  to  the  surface  and  produw  the 
minute  black  points  mentioned  above,  in  which  sponv*  are 
produced  (Fig.  1).  Spraying  the  fruit  in  August  with  a  1- 
per-ceut.  solution  of  ammoniacal  copi)er  carbonate  is  a  pre- 
ventive. Another  rot  of  the  apple  is  called  black-rot  fn>ni 
the  black  color  of  the  decayed  portion,  in  which  are  found 
little  |)oints  or  pustules  containing  spores.  The  f uncus 
{Mnrrosporiiifn  malorum)  is  closely  related  to  the  precedini:. 
Black-rot  of  grajws  attacks  the  fruit,  leaves,  and  shtK»ts, 


192 


ROTHESAY 


befoTB  Queen  leahella.  The  Martyrs  of  the  Colosseum^  Crom- 
well breaking  up  Service  in  an  English  Churchy  his  best- 
known  pictures  are  suggested  by  American  themes — De 
Soto  discovering  the  Mississippi^  Patrick  Henry  before  the 
Virainia  House  of  Burgesses,  The  Battle  of  Gettysburg. 
Rotnermel  belongs  to  the  class  of  sensational  artists,  but 
his  talent  for  composition  and  color  gives  him  a  high  rank 
among  these.  0.  B.  F&othinoham. 

Rothesay,  roth'sd :  a  royal  burgh  and  favorite  watering- 
place  of  Scotland ;  capital  of  the  county  of  Bute ;  pleasantly 
situated  at  the  head  of  a  spacious  and  sheltered  bay  on  the 
northeastern  coast  of  the  island  of  Bu^e.  Though  the  first 
cotton-mill  established  in  Scotland  was  located  here,  the 
place  has  now  no  industries  worth  mentioning.  Consider- 
able fishing,  however,  is  carried  on.  Near  the  center  of  the 
town  are  the  ruins  of  Rothesay  Castle,  founded  in  1098. 
Pop.  of  burgh  (1891)  9,034. 

Rothesay,  David  Stewart,  Duke  of :  See  Stewart. 

Rothrock,  Joseph  Trimble,  B.  S.,  M.  D.  :  botanist ;  b. 
at  McVeytown,  Pa.,  Apr.  9,  1839;  educated  at  Harvard 
College  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  has  been 
Professor  of  Botany  in  the  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Col- 
lege and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  was  the  botanist 
of  the  U.  S.  geographical  surveys  W.  of  the  100th  meridian, 
made  by  Lieut.  Wheeler  in  1873-74-75.  Among  his  scientific 
publications  are  the  following :  Morphology  of  the  Andres- 
eium  in  Fumariacece  (1863) ;  Revision  of  the  North  American 
GaurinecB  (1864) ;  Flora  of  Alaska  (1867) ;  Botany  of  the 
Wheeler  Expedition  (1878).  He  has  also  written  many  papers 
on  forestry.  Charles  E.  Besset. 

Rothschild,  Germ.  pron.  rot'sheelt.  Meter  Anselm  :  fin- 
ancier and  founder  oi  a  family  celebrated  for  its  great 
wealth ;  b.  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1743 ;  was  intended 
for  the  Jewish  priesthood,  but  was  placed  in  a  counting- 
house  at  Hanover,  whence  he  returned  to  Frankfort  and 
started  in  business  for  himself  on  a  small  scale  as  a  banker 
and  broker.  Devoting  himself  closely  to  his  new  business, 
he  obtained  a  reputation  for  ability  and  integrity,  and  was 
intrusted  with  the  money  affairs  of  the  landgrave,  after- 
ward Elector  of  Hesse,  who  during  Napoleon's  possession  of 
Germany  confided  to  Rothschild  the  keeping  of  his  im- 
mense private  fortune  without  interest.  D.  in  Sept.,  1812, 
leaving  a  large  fortune  to  his  five  sons,  Ansel m,  Solomon, 
Nathan,  Charles,  and  James,  who  established  themselves  re- 
spectively in  the  cities  of  Frankfort,  Vienna,  London, 
Naples,  and  Paris.  All  of  these  were  created  in  1822  bar- 
ons of  the  Austrian  empire. — The  third  son,  Nathan,  b.  Sept. 
16, 1777,  who  established  a  branch  of  the  house  in  England, 
employed  with  great  judgment  the  immense  sums  confided 
to  nis  father,  and  raised  the  firm  to  the  position  of  one 
of  the  leading  banking-houses  of  the  world.  D.  at  Frank- 
fort, July  18, 1836.— Lionel  Nathan,  b.  Nov.  22, 1808,  eldest 
son  of  Nathan,  was  repeatedly  elected  to  the  Brit- 
ish Parliament,  but  declining  to  take  the  pre- 
scribed oath, ''  on  the  true  faith  of  a  Christian," 
was  not  admitted  until  the  act  for  removing  the 
disabilities  of  the  Jews  was  passed  in  1858,  when 
he  took  his  seat,  being  the  first  Jew  admitted  to 
Parliament.  D.  June  3, 1879. — His  son  Nathan 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Rothschild 
in  1885.  See  Reeves,  The  Rothschilds  (London, 
1887).  F.  M.  Colby. 

Rotirera  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Lat.  ro7a,  wheel  -f-  ferre^ 
to  bear! :  a  group  of  microscopic  animals  which 
are  of  interest  not  only  on  account  of  their  mo- 
tions and  powers  of  withstanding  desiccation, 
but  from  tne  fact  that  they  represent  as  adults 
a  structure  which  occurs  only  in  the  embryos 
of  other  worms.  The  scientific  name,  as  well  as 
the  popular  term  of  wheel-animalcules,  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  around  the  anterior  end  of  the  body 
is  a  more  or  less  modified  circle  of  cilia,  the  mo- 
tions of  which  convey  the  impression  of  a  wheel 
in  rapid  rotation.  Just  behind  the  wheel  is  the 
mouth,  which  communicates  with  a  complicated 
apparatus  of  jaws  (mastax)  in  the  throat.  There 
is  a  large  stomach,  and  the  vent  is  on  the  dorsal 
surface  of  the  body.  The  nervous  system  con- 
A  rotifer  ^^^^  ^'  *  ganglion  above  the  throat,  from  which 
nerves  run  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  Eyes  are 
not  infrequently  present,  as  well  as  organs  apnarently'tactile 
in  character.    I'wo  tubes  with  funnel-shaped  openings  into 


ROUBLE 

the  body-cavity  serve  as  excretory  organs.  Organs  of  cir«^ 
lation  and  respiration  are  lacking.  The  sexes  are  sejiari^.., 
and  the  males  are  usually  smaller  than  the  females,  and  ur*' 
further  characterized  by  the  lack  of  intestine  and  \vt\\. 
Most  of  the  rotifers  live  in  fresh  water,  and  are  noticeable 
because  they  are  able  to  withstand  prolonged  drying,  aini 
upon  the  return  of  moisture  again  begin  their  active  lif*-. 
See  Hudson  and  G osse,  i2oh/era  (London,  1886),  and  paiMT^ 
by  Plate,  Salensky,  Leydig,  Jennings  {Report  Michigan  VxAx 


Cbmmis.,  1893),  etc.  '  J.  S.  Kingsley. 

Rot^eck,  Karl  Wevzeslaus  Rodeckeii,  von :  historian  ; 
b.  at  Freiburg,  Baden,  July  18, 1775 ;  studied  law,  afterwani 
history ;  was  api)ointed  Professor  of  History  at  the  universit  y 
of  his  native  citj[;  took  part  with  much  energy,  thouL'fi 
with  moderation,  in  the  opposition  against  the  political  re- 
action which  set  in  after  1815;  was  elected  to  the  u(  f-er 
chamber  of  Baden  in  1819,  to  the  lower  chamber  in  \>*'4\, 
and  was  one  of  the  foremost  men  of  the  liberal  opiK>siti«'Ti. 
This  brought  upon  him  the  hostility  of  the  Govemniei.*. 
and  in  1832  he  was  deprived  of  his  professorship.  I>.  ui 
Freiburg,  Nov.  26,  1840.  By  his  Allgemeine  Oescnichtt  !» 
vols.,  1813-27)  and  the  minor  compendium  of  it,  Allgemei  k^ 
Weltgeschichte  (4  vols.,  1830-34),  ne  exercised  a  great  and  | 
beneficial  influence  on  the  German  middle  classes.  K^-Mi 
books  were  often  reprinted,  and  have  been  translated  iuiu 
several  European  languages.  F.  M.  Colby. 

Rottenstone :  a  fine  earth  or  softened  aluminous  stone, 
much  employed  in  polishing  glass  and  metals.  True  roi  t^-n- 
stone  comes  from  Wales  ana  Bakewell,  Derbyshire.  Trie 
name  is  also  extended  so  as  to  include  tripoli  and  the  infu- 
sorial earths.    See  Infusorial  Earth. 

Rotterdam:  the  second  commercial  town  in  Holland: 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Maas,  about  14  miles  from  the 
North  Sea  and  36  miles  S.  W.  of  Amsterdam  (see  map  of 
Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  6-E).  It  occunies  a  site  in  tin- 
form  of  a  nearly  equilateral  triangle,  the  base  of  which  i<^ 
the  Maas  and  the  vertex  the  Delft  Gate.  The  city  is  inter- 
sected by  numerous  canals  (grachten  or  havens),  and  is  t  ra- 
versed  by  the  Rotte,  a  small  stream,  at  the  junction  of  whit  h 
with  the  Maas  there  is  a  large  dike  or  dam;  whence  the 
name  Rotterdam.  The  numerous  vessels  lying  in  the  ca^ui^ 
and  harbors,  which  are  deep  enough  to  accommodate  thi^"**' 
of  heavy  tonnage  and  admit  of  their  discharging  their  car- 
goes  in  the  very  heart  of  the  city,  always  present  a  busy  and 
picturesque  scene.  Along  the  nver,  which  opposite  the'tow  n 
IS  30  to  40  feet  deep,  is  a  fine  quay  IJ  miles  long,  called  titi 
Boompjes  (Little  Trees),  from  a  line  of  elms  planted  in  16ir». 
now  grown  to  a  large  size.  Here  is  the  birthnlace  of  Er  *^ 
Mus  {q.  r.),  to  whom  a  bronze  statue  is  erectea.  Rotterdam 
is  the  entrepot  of  a  large  cattle-trade  with  England,  and  thi^ 
point  of  departure  of  numerous  lines  of  steamships,  an*!. 
besides  being  the  seat  of  an  extensive  commerce  with  \\\v 
East  Indian  possessions  of  Holland  and  with  Euroi>e  and 
America,  has  important  manufactures.  The  railway  ntite  ^ 
between  Belgium  and  Holland,  connecting  the  cities*  kA 
Brussels,  Antwerp.  Rotterdam,  The  Hague,  and  Amster- 
dam, crosses  the  Holland  Deep  {Hollandsehe  Diep)  l>v  tiie 
great  bridge  at  Moerdijk.     Pop.  (1894)  228,597. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Habrinotox. 

Rotti  :  a  volcanic  island  of  the  Malay  Archipelago :  S.  W. 
of  Timor;  in  lat.  10'  40  S.  and  Ion.  123°  R;  is  36  miles 
lon^,  11  miles  broad,  hilly,  and  produces  rice,  millet,  and 
maize,  ebony  and  other  valuable  woods,  sheep,  bufTtiloe-, 
horses,  swine,  and  fowls,  edible  birds'  nests,  and  wax.  P<r», 
64,000.  M.  W.  H. 

Ronbaix,  roo'ba' :  a  large  manufacturing  town  of  France, 
department  of  Nord ;  6  miles  N.  E.  of  Lille  (see  map  <  ►f 
France,  ref.  1-F).  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of  wit»I«  n 
and  cotton  fabrics,  furniture  cloth,  carpets,  and  twists,  hir^j*- 
dve-works  and  tanneries,  and  carries  on  a  very  active  iratic. 
Pop.  (1891)  114,917. 

Roabiliac, roobee'li-aak', Louis Fran^iois:  sculptor:  h. at 
Lyons,  France,  about  1695  ;  became  a  distinguished  sculpt*  »r : 
settled  in  England  probably  during  the  reign  of  Gei.»rjro  1..    ; 
and  executed  many  important  works  of  art,  among  wliii  h    ' 
were  the  celebrated  monuments  of  Mrs.  Nightine:uK\  that 
of  Juhn,  Duke  of  Argyle,  and  the  statue  of  Hanaol.  all  i>.    ' 
Westminster  Abbey,  the  statue  of  Shakspeare  in  the  British    j 
Museum,  and  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  at  Cambridge.     D.  in    , 
London,  Jan.  11,  1762.  i 

Rouble,  or  Ruble  [from  Russ.  rubli,  ruble]:  the  prin<M- 
pal  Russian  money  of  account.    The  rouble  is  equal  to  UK' 


!  tht^  RfTvtfnn: 


ttDt 


I      ,     ♦'  r  fi^i>M  .  l*i«iWll^  fNi*M»rT  h,  In  Purl*  in  !7«1  r 


U,   -i!4k.W4',  rtf j|r»ivr  Jf^ifff*   «inM 


J^  U,  (J. 


194 


ROULERS 


ROUMANIA 


and  Public  Works,  among  the  important  acts  of  his  adminis- 
tration being  the  negotiation,  with  Cobden,  of  the  com- 
mercial treaty  of  1860,  when  the  grand  cross  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  was  bestowed  upon  him.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  senator  in  1856,  and  in  1863  succeeded  M.  Billanlt 
as  Minister  of  State,  which  position  he  resigned  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  celebrated  letter  of  the  emperor *s  of  Jan.  19, 1867, 
announcing  a  more  liberal  policy,  but  was  immediately  re- 
instated, and  the  additional  portfolio  of  Minister  of  Finance 
was  confided  to  his  charge.  Following  the  election  of  May, 
1869,  the  ministry  resigned  July  18,  and  Rouher  was  nomi- 
nated president  of  the  senate  a  week  later.  During  the 
Franco-German  war  he  was  prominent,  but  on  the  downfall 
of  the  empire  fled  to  England.  Returning  to  France,  he 
was  arrested  and  held  for  a  brief  time.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Assembly,  where  he  took  the  lead  of  the  Bona- 
partist  party.    D.  in  Paris,  Feb.  8,  1884.        F.  M.  Colby. 

Boulers,  rdb'la' :  town  of  Belgium,  province  of  West 
Flanders ;  on  an  affluent  of  the  Lys,  13  miles  by  rail  N.  W. 
of  Courtrai  (see  map  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  10-B).  It 
has  i&T^e  manufactures  of  linen  and  lace,  and  trade  in  flax, 
which  IS  largely  grown  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  (1891)  30,839. 

Bonlette,  rob' let'  [  =  Fr.,  dimin.  of  O.  Fr.  roule^  wheel 
<  Lat  ro'tula,  dimin.  of  rota,  wheel] :  a  game  of  chance 
played  on  a  table  in  whose  center  is  a  cavity,  the  sides  of 
which  are  firm  and  divided  at  eciual  distances  into  thirty- 
eight  compartments  painted  half  black,  half  red,  and  desig- 
nated by  tne  first  thirty-six  numbers,  besides  a  zero  and  a 
double  zero.  The  bottom  of  the  cavity  is  movable  bv  the  aid 
of  a  handle  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  When  the  banker  puts 
the  bottom  in  motion  he  throws  down  in  the  cavity  a  small 
ivory  ball,  and  when  the  movement  stops  the  ball  drops  into 
one  of  the  painted  compartments.  Each  end  of  the  table  is 
divided  into  spaces  on  which  the  players  place  the  stakes  they 
wish  to  risk.  Each  number  has  one,  and  a  player  betting 
on  the  winning  number  receives  thirty-six  times  his  stake. 
There  are  devices  also  by  which  a  player  may  bet  on  two 
numbers,  with  odds  of  1  to  17 ;  three  numbers,  with  odds  of  1 
to  11;  or  twelve  numbers,  with  odds  of  1  to  2.  Finally, 
there  are  six  spaces,  with  even  odds,  on  which  the  player 
bets  respectively  that  the  winning  number  will  be  (1)  odd, 
(2)  even,  (3)  one  in  a  red  compartment,  (4)  in  a  black  one, 
(5)  less  than  19,  and  (6)  more  than  18.  The  advantage  of 
the  bank  in  the  first  bet^  described  is  evidently  as  88  to  36. 
For  the  last  six  methods  zero  counts  as  odd,  red,  and  less 
than  19,  and  double  zero  as  even,  black,  and  more  than  18 ; 
but  if  a  player  wins  on  either  of  these  compartments  he 
loses  half  his  stake  instead  of  receiving  it  double.  See 
BbuoE-ET-Noni, 

Boam :  See  Roumeua. 

Ronma'nla  [from  Lat.  RomanuA^  Roman] :  a  kingdom 
of  Europe,  comprising  the  former  principalities  of  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia,  together  with  the  Dobrudja,  a  territorv  E. 
of  the  Danube,  ceded  by  the  Ottoman  empire  at  the  (!:!on- 
gress  of  Berlin  (1878).  It  is  situated  between  43°  38'  and  48^* 
20'  N.  lat.  and  22'  20'  and  30°  15'  E.  Ion.  (see  map  of  Tur- 
key); bounded  N.  by  Austria-Hungary  and  Russia,  E.  bv 
the  Pruth,  which  separates  it  from  Russia,  and  by  the  Black 
Sea,  S.  by  Bulgaria  and  the  Danube,  W.  by  the  Danube, 
which  separates  it  from  Bulgaria  and  Servia,  and  by  Aus- 
tria-Hungary.   Area,  48,307  sq.  miles. 

Roumania  is  a  crescent-shaped  territory,  rising  gradually 
from  the  Danube  and  Pruth  to  the  inland' frontier,  the  crest 
of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  the  loftiest  of  whose  peaks, 
the  Ciacleul  or  Pion,  attains  a  height  of  8,920  feet.  It  is 
drained  entirely  by  affluents  of  the  Danube.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Aluta  or  Olto,  220  miles  long,  which  rises  in 
Transylvania,  cuts  through  the  Carpathians,  and  empties  at 
Islar;  the  Sereth,  215  m^les  long,  which  rises  in  Bucovina 
and  flows  by  Roman  to  Galatz  ;  the  Dumbovitza,  on  which 
Bucharest,  the  capital, is  situated;  and  the  Pruth.  247  miles 
long.  The  Danube  is  navigable  from  the  Austrian-Hungarian 
frontier  to  the  Black  Sea  for  vessels  of  several  hundred  tons, 
and  hence  is  a  great  commercial  artery.  The  other  rivers, 
save  the  Pruth,  are  not  available  for  transport  tra<le.  Both 
salt  and  fresh  water  lakes  abound  in  the  interior,  and  the 
coast  is  skirted  by  brackish  lagoons.  In  the  Danube  are 
over  800  islands  belonging  t^  Roumania. 

The  territory  naturallv  divides  into  three  regions :  the 
mountainous,  where  are  t^ie  forests  and  mines ;  the  hilly,  de- 
voted to  vineyards  and  pasturage ;  and  the  lowland  of  rich 
alluvial  tracts,  occupied  bv  grain-fields,  along  the  lower 
Danube  and  the  Pruth.    Sixty-eight  per  cent,  of  the  total 


area  is  productive,  SO  percent,  being  under  cult  i  vat  ion.  1 
per  cent,  for  pasturage,  and  17  per  cent,  forest.  The  ri'>u  i  i 
is  waste.  The  upland  plain  between  mountains  and  It^ 
land  is  of  Quaternary  formation ;  the  foot-hills  of  t  he  i  'n 
pathians  are  of  Tertiary  formation,  containing  Pliocciu*  wri 
Miocene  deposits,  while  the  mountain  summits  reprt^st-tit  t 
Secondary,  Primary,  and  Metumorphic  or  Azoic  rwks.  A 
the  birds  and  mammals  of  similar  climate,  large  and  miu.  I 
abound  in  the  forests,  and  the  rivers  and  lakes  teem  win 
every  variety  of  fish  found  in  Europe.  The  forests  cm»ii^ii 
mainly  of  pine,  oak,  fir,  beech,  box,  birch,  poplar,  and  plm. 
The  apple,  pear,  plum,  and  cherry  are  extensively  cnlti  vat .  i 
as  also  all  the  cereals  and  garden  vegetables  known  to  Kii  n  *!  h 
The  vines  are  exoellent.  The  climate  varies  accordinir  % 
situation  and  elevation ;  extremesof  temperature,  98'  F.  ai.i 
—19.  There  are  three  distinct  seasons:  winter  jm- — \ 
almost  without  transition  into  summer,  just  as  autumn,  t 'i 
agreeable  season  lasting  through  November,  suddenly  In 
comes  winter,  when  all  the  rivers  and  even  the  Daniil'M*  nt 
frozen  over.  The  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile,  not  exh>iii>rM 
by  over-c-Mltivation,  and  would  be  most  productive  Imi  t-i 
the  scorching  and  long-continued  droughts  of  summer.  T » i 
chief  agricultural  products  are  inFiize  (average  viold.  .'t? 
000,000  bush.),  wheat  (average  yield,  30,000,000  b'ush.>,  tm 
barley,  oats,  millet,  flax,  hemp,  and  tobacco.  Various  miti 
bles  are  found  in  the  vallev  of  the  Aluta;  millstoIle^.  «;:< 
baster.and  gypsum  abound ;  fuller's  earth  and  hydraulic  lim 
are  common;  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  sodium,  siit ]»!>.<' 
of  aluminium,  and  magnesia  ana  native  sulphur  m^vur  w 
certain  localities.  Gold,  iron,  copper  and  lead  or<*s.  a>  w»  1 
as  cobalt  and  arsenic,  exist.  Salt-works  and  petroleurn-w  ••;  i 
especiallv  yield  valuable  returns.  Live  stock  is  a  in».ii 
source  of  wealth.  In  1890  there  were  594.962  horw»s.  1*26,1  J* 
swine,  2,520,380  cattle,  and  5,212,380  sheep  and  goat  s. 

The  decimal  system  for  money,  weights,  and  nieasur*^  ^  .ti 
introduced  in  1876.  The  unit  of  value  is  the  led  (plu.  Itii 
or  franc.  Gold  is  scarce,  and  silver  the  common  mcHlium  ..i 
exchange.  In  the  financial  vear  1891-92  the  state  n^c  i\.- 
180,147,096  le!  and  expended  168,404,894.  Direct  and  iimI 
rect  taxes  furnished  80,120,000  lei;  state  monopolies,  4"».7tM> 
000  lei;  state  lands,  28,453,000.  The  chief  ex|)enses  >!,,., 
interest  on  public  debt,  68,135,293  le! ;  war  departmcMit,  4«> 
424,072;  financial  department,  23,860,645;  eductttii)n  mtk 
worship,  19,918,421.  The  public  debt  on  Apr.  1,  1H!«.  w.i 
1,082,519,125  lei,  an  enormous  amount  for  so  poor  it  ttM:ir 
try,  being  nearly  200  lei,  or  f40,  for  each  inhabit  am.  I. 
1892  the  imports,  chiefly  from  Germany,  Austria- llutiir:tr^ 
and  Great  Britain,  amounted  to  380,747,296  lei;  the  exp«.rt- 
chiefly  to  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  German v,  and  Au^trh. 
Hungary,  285,884,057.  Grain  formed  nearly  flve-siirl  hs  .  .f  '  •  ■ 
entire  exports,  or  251,900,000  lei;  other  exports  were  fru  i 
and  vegetables,  animals  and  animal  products,  woven  tm'^ 
rics,  lumber.  Nearly  half  the  imports  were  woven  g<KMi-, 
amounting  to  155,900,000  lei;  other  imnorts  were  nuiaH 
and  objects  in  metal,  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  c'onil»u«-f:, 
ble  materials.  Foreign  commerce  is  abnost  exclusivelv  in 
the  hands  of  foreigners.  Eleven  thousand  and  sixty-ilxo 
steamers  and  14,589  sailing  ships,  of  5,727,517  tons,  entm-i:; 
Roumanian  ports  in  1892.  The  Roumanian  men-bant  ih.h 
rine  consisted  in  1892  of  only  30  steamers,  of  1,899 tons.. ii>.i 
235  other  vessels,  of  48.801  tons.  liailways,  posts,  and  !♦•:.- 
graphs  all  belong  to  the  state.  In  1893  there  were  l.."»*^! 
miles  of  completed  railways,  and  843  in  construction.  !•«•- 
tal  communication  was  foVmerlv  conducted  by  Russian  ar  1 
Austrian  commercial  agencies,  but  in  1869  a  regular  |Ni^r.M. 
service  was  organized.  In  1892  15,645,630  lett<?rs,  4.7^7.5ti'. 
postal -cards,  and  7.960,771  newspafKirs  and  parcels  pa**^  ' 
through  the  mails ;  1,091,819  domestic  telegrams  and  446.7  7 'i 
foreign  telegrams  were  sent.  Receipts  for  posts  and  tt  U - 
graphs,  6,149,043  lei;  expenses,  6,022,011  leT.  NuniUr  «•'* 
post-offices,  852 ;  of  telegraph  stations,  411.  Ijength  of  U-W- 
graph  lines,  3,503  miles,  generally  with  two  wires. 

The  government  is  an  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy. 
The  constitution,  one  of  the  most  liberal  in  Europe,  gmirai:- 
tees  to  every  Roumanian  equality  under  the  law,  and  iiUr:* 
of  conscience,  with  free<lom  of  the  press  and  right  of  as- 
sembly. Legislation  is  vested  in  a  senate  of  120  meniU  r^ 
and  a  house  of  188  deputies.  The  person  of  the  kintr  :- 
inviolable,  but  his  seven  ministers,  of  the  Interior,  Finarn  .•, 
Foreign  Affairs,  War,  Worship  and  Public  lnstnit'ti«' . 
Commerce  and  Public  Works,  and  Justice,  are  res|H)n«»ii ". 
to  the  legislative  bodies.  The  kingdom  is  adnunistrati\«  U 
divided  into  the  four  provinces  of  Little  and  Gn^at  W«t- 
lachia  with  17  districts,  Moldavia  with  13  districts,  ai.  i 


VMnmiinUii 


tic 


196 


ROUMANIAN  LITERATURE 


Exposed  as  the  language  has  been  to  very  different  con- 
ditions from  those  under  which  the  other  Romance  lan- 
guages have  developed,  it  is  not  strange  that  it  shows  some 
peculiar  features.  It  has  preserved  some  Latin  words  lost 
m  the  others,  and  has  lost  some  which  thev  have  preserved. 
Its  vocabulary  has  been  much  affected  by  foreign  languages, 
which  have  also  furnished  it  some  suffixes,  and  have  even 
perhaps  somewhat  affected  its  structure.  Very  many  words 
are  of  Slavic  origin,  and  it  has  also  words  from  mediaeval  or 
modern  Greek,  from  Turkish,  Hungarian,  and  Albanian, 
while  the  origin  of  a  number  is  unknown.  A  remarkable 
feature  of  the  language  is  its  post-positive  article  :  {un)  so- 
cru  (a)  father-in-law,  aocrul,  tne  fathor-in-law ;  /oc,  place, 
locul^  the  place ;  ctisd,  house,  caaa  (from  casd  +  a),  the 
house.  A  similar  use  appears  in  Albanian  and  in  Bulgarian. 
In  some  matters  of  phonology  and  inflexion,  particularly  its 
genitive  and  dative  case  (one  form  for  both  uses)  in  articles, 
feminine  nouns,  and  adjectives,  Roumanian  is  nearer  to  the 
Latin  than  is  any  other  language  of  the  family.  (See  Romance 
Laxouaoes.)  There  are  so-called  neuter  nouns,  which  are 
masculine  in  the  singular  and  feminine  in  the  plural ;  this  pe- 
culiarity is  due  to  old  Latin  neuter  nouns.  The  simple  parts 
of  verbs,  or  those  formed  without  auxiliaries,  are  the  pres- 
ent, imperfect,  preterite,  and  pluperfect  indicative,  the  pres- 
ent subjunctive  and  imperative,  the  present  infinitive,  the 
gerund,  and  the  past  participle  ;  this  last  cah  also  be  used 
with  prepositions  so  as  to  correspond  in  sense  to  the  Latin 
supines.  The  auxiliaries  used  for  other  verb  forms  are  not 
always  the  same  as  those  common  in  other  Romance  lan- 
guages. 

Apart  from  a  few  scattered  words  found,  for  example,  in 
Slavic  documents,  the  earliest  specimens  of  the  language 
preserved  to  us  date  from  near  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  first  grammar  was  that  of  Klein,  Elementa  Un- 
gwB  dacoromancB  sive  valachicfB  (Vienna,  1780).  Among 
modern  works  should  be  mentioned  particularly  GrOber^ 
Grundriss  der  rornanischen  Philologie  (i.,  1888),  where  full 
references  may  be  found ;  here  are  added  some  other  works, 
in  part  more  recent,  as  Tiktin,  Oramatica  romina  (i.,  1892 ; 
ii.,  1894),  and  Manual  de  ortografia  ramind  (1889) ;  Indrep- 
tariu  pentru  ortografia  romdnd  (contains  orthographical 
rules  for  st^hools  in  Bukovina,  Vienna,  1893) ;  G.  Weiffand, 
Die  Spraehe  der  Olympo-Walachen  (1888),  Vlacho-meglen 
(1892),  and  Die  Aromunen^  ii.,  1894  (planned  for  5  vols.). 
A  short  grammar  in  English  is  Torceanu,  A  Simplified 
Grammar  of  the  Roumanian  Language  (1883).  Diction- 
aries :  Ion  Costinescu,  Voeaholaru  romdfw-francesu  (1870) ; 
L.  §Aineanu,  Diefionar  romdno-aerman  (1889);  F.  Dame, 
Nouveau  dictionnaire  roumain-fran^aia  (i.,  A-E,  1893 ;  ii., 
P-L,  1894) ;  Ilasdeu,  Etymologicum  magnum  Romanice 
(in  the  letter  B  in  1895).  The  dictionary  of  the  Rouma- 
nian Academy  (see  Laurianu)  is  not  to  be  recommended, 
and  Cihac's  Dictionnaire  d'etymologie  daco-romane  (i.  1870 ; 
ii.  1879)  contains  many  errors.  Gaster's  Chrestom^iie  ro- 
mdnd  (2  vols.,  1883^  has  texts  with  a  glossary,  and  an  in- 
troduction on  the  literature  and  the  grammar.  Some  pe- 
riodicals published  in  Roumania  also  deserve  mention,  as 
Columna  lui  Traian^  Convorhirl  literare,  Revisfa  pentru 
iatorie^  areheoloaie  pi  filologie,  etc.  See  also  Roumanian 
Literature  ancf  the  references  under  Romance  Languages. 

E..S.  Sheldon. 

Roamanian  Literature:  the  literature  of  the  people 
speaking  the  Roumanian  or  Wallachian  language.  It  begins, 
so  far  as  documents  are  preserved,  about  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth,  with  trans- 
lations from  the  Bible,  followed  by  other  religious  writings, 
such  as  catechisms,  prayers,  legends,  etc.,  by  legal  documents, 
public  and  private,  arid  by  chronicles,  of  which  there  are 
many  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  The  old- 
est texts  published  thus  far  are  a  psalter  {Paaltirea  Scheiand, 
i.,  1889),  which  the  editor  Bianu  dates  in  1482  or  1485,  and 
the  Voronetz  manuscript  {Codirele  Voronefean,  edited  by 
Sbiera,  1885),  which  contains  a  part  of  the  Acts  and  of  som'e 
of  the  Epistles,  and  belongs  probabl^v  to  about  the  same 
time,  Hasdeu's  Limha  romdnd  vorbifd  bit  re  1550-1600^  i., 
1878,  ii.,  1879  (commonly  referred  to  as  Cuvente  den  hetruni 
or  Cuvinte  din  bHrdnl),  contains  texts  of  the  second  half  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  with  linguistic  and  litorary  discussions. 
The  Roumanian  Academy  has  published  (1881),  among  other 
texts,  the  psalter  printed  in  1577  by  Coresi  in  Transylvania 
(Coresi  was  probably  of  Greek  descent);  this  was.  it'  seems, 
printed  from  the  same  translation  as  that  used  in  the  psalter 
mentioned  above.    All  these  early  texts  have  rather  linguis- 


tic than  literary  interest;  but  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  Sfimi' 
of  the  religious  productions  were  results  of  the  Reformation, 
showing  themselves  in  Transylvania  through  the  Saxons. 
Of  chronicles  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Ureche  (see  K. 
Picot's  edition,  Chronique  de  Moldavia^  1878-83)  and  Mir<»ii 
Costiu  (lived  about  1628-92;  two  volumes  of  an  edition  bv 
V.  A.  Urechii  were  published,  1885-88).  M.  Cogftlniceanu 
has  published  Cramcele  Romdniel  (1852;  2d  S.  3  t<.»1s., 
1872-74). 

It  was  not  until  the  nineteenth  century  that  Roomaniiin 
literature  began  to  develop  in  sympathy  with  the  literatures 
of  the  great  nations  of  Europe.    A  powerful  stimulus   t4> 
the  growth  of  a  truly  national  literature  has  been  the  na- 
tional spirit,  developing  after  the  French  Revolution  an«i 
after  the  changed  political  aspect,  as  Wallachia  and  Mol- 
davia attained  practical  independence  of  Turkey  and  lat«*r 
became   united,  and  finally  the  independent  kingdom    of 
Roumania  was  established.    The  new  era  be^an  in  the  eigh- 
teenth   century  under  the  leadership  of  Roumanians    in 
Transylvania,  where  they  were  aided  by  Catholic  school^, 
from  which  some  went  to  Rome  to  study.    Klein's  Oram- 
mar  (see  Roumanian  Language)  was  followed  by  some  oth«T 
grammatical  writings.    Klein  wrote  also  many  theologi<-al 
and  historical  works.    Naturally  the  connection  with  the  K«  ►- 
mans  and  their  language  was  emphasized  during  this  f>eri«  h\ 
of  awakening,  as  indeed  it  has  been  since.    Other  n<itt>- 
worthy  writers  are  Petru  Maior  (about  1753-1821),  wh<»*^«* 
historical  work  marks  the  beginning  of  a  more   critical 
period,  and  who  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  lexicon  pul>- 
lished  at  Buda  in  1825;  §incai  (about  1754-1826),  wh«»>./ 
most  important  work  is  his  Cronica  Romtnilor,  a  history  <  »f 
all  the  Roumanians  from  the  year  86  to  1741 ;   lenaolie 
VAcirescu  (about  1740-99),  ban  of  Wallachia,  remarkable 
for  his  grammatical  work  on  the  language,  and  author, 
among  other  things,  of  some  verses.    George  Lazitr  (1779- 
1823)  came  into  Wallachia  in  1816,  and  was  allowed  after  a 
time  to  open  a  Roumanian  school  in  Bucharest  (previously 
the  schools  had  been  Greek);  he  may  be  considered   the 
founder  of  the  national  schools  in  Wallachia.    Venianiin 
Costache  (1768-1846)  and  George  Asachi  (1788-1871)  wc-r- 
similarly  active  even  earlier  in  Moldavia;  the  many  work< 
of  the  latter  (lyric  verse,  dramatic  and  historical  writitiirs) 
belong  largely  to  the  next  i)eriod.    Costache  Conachc  (1T77- 
1849)  was  distinsruished  for  his  learning,  and  was  active  in 
public  affairs.    His  poems  were  not  published  until  18r>6  (*J*i 
ed.  1888).    Budai  Deleanu  (1770-1830),  among  other  thin«r-, 
wrote   the   heroi-comic   J'iganiada  aau  tabdra   J'tgafttlor 
(The  Camp  of  the  Gypsies). 

The  next  period,  beginning  about  1830,  is  that  in  whirh 
the  influence  of  Western  Europe  shows  strongly,  combin»H] 
with  a  national  feeling,  which,  nowever,  still  rests  too  mm  h 
on  pride  of  assumed  Roman  ancestry.  The  strongest  influ- 
ence is  that  of  French,  but  an  Italian  influence  shows  it^^lf 
in  Eliade  (see  H^liade),  who,  like  Asachi  in  Moldavia, 
founded  journals  in  Wallachia,  and  stirred  up  the  youth  *»f 
the  country  to  an  interest  in  education  and  literary  pursuit  v. 
Since  about  1860  comes  the  most  modem  period,  m  whi<h 
the  excessive  admiration  for  French  models  is  sotnewliiit 
tempered  by  a  wider  knowledge  of  modem  European  *ul- 
ture,  and  wtiich  may  be  considered  as  introduced  by  T.  Mu- 
iorescu's  critical  writings.  (See  Maiorescu.)  In  this  tinj»» 
are  to  l>e  noticed  the  organization  of  the  society  J uninivit 
(Youth)  and  the  establishment  of  literary  and  critical  |K»ri- 
odicals,  such  as  the  Convorhiri  literare  (Literary  Conversa- 
tions ;  since  1867).  Both  Maiorescu  and  Eminescu  (1850-><^i, 
the  latter  one  of  the  foremost  poets  of  modern  Roumania] 
made  themselves  acquainted  with  German  literature.  M«iny 
journals  and  periodicals  have  been  started  iir  I^umani»i. 
from  those  of  Eliade  and  Asachi  on,  for  political,  literary,  «.r 
scientific  purposes,  which  have  had  various  degrees  of  merit 
and  success ;  some  of  them  are  mentioned  under  Roi'mania  v 
Language.  (See  also  IIasdeu.)  In  these  much  of  the  work 
of  modern  writers  first  appears.  Not  least  im(K>rlaiit  ar»» 
the  popular  songs,  tales,  etc.,  collected  by  Alecsandri,  l^pi- 
rescu  ( 1 830^7),  and  others.  Many  of  these  have  l)een  t  ra  n  s> 
lated  into  German,  notably  by  the  Queen  of  Rouniaiiiii. 
See  Carmen  Sylva. 

Only  Alecsandri  (or  Alexandri;  see  ALErsANDRi)  am«>Tiir 
Roumanian  writers  has  made  his  name  well  known  out^{4it> 
of  Roumania  for  purely  literary  work ;  but  sex'eral  oth^-t-s 
are  of  some  note  in  the  country  itself.  (See  Aleosandrf^  i 
BoLiNTiNEANU,  i\  and  I.  Xeor'uzzi,  C.  Rosetti.)  Vits«»  has 
been  written,  among  others,  by  G.  Sion  (b.  1822;  has  aK»» 
written  comedies),  ^rbanescu  (b.  about  18**39),  and  Vlahu^a 


198 


ROUSSEAU 


ROWAX-TREE 


to  be  imprisoned  in  a  drawing-room,  and  in  the  spring  of 
1756  he  removed  to  a  little  cottage  on  the  skirts  of  the 
forest  of  Montmorency,  put  at  his  disposal  by  Madame 
d*£uinay.  He  soon  quarreled  with  her  and  took  a  house 
at  Montmorency.  Thence  he  issued  the  novel,  Ixi  Noiwelle 
IWolse  (1761),  which,  by  the  eloquence  and  authority  lent 
to  the  voice  of  passion  and  the  glow  and  fervor  of  a  new 
and  wonderful  stvle,  created  intense  enthusiasm  and  was 
read  with  feverish  eagerness ;  the  Lettre  sur  les  spectacles 
(1758),  condemning  the  theater  for  its  moral  influence;  the 
Contrat  social  (1762),  which  contains  the  fullest  statement 
of  his  political  ideas,  maintains  radically  the  sovereignty  of 
the  people,  and  supplied  the  positive  ideas  of  the  lievolu- 
tion :  iJmile  (1763),  which  unfolds  his  fruitful  views  on  edu- 
cation. This  last  work  offended  the  authorities ;  the  Sor- 
bonne  condemned  it ;  the  Parlement  had  it  burned,  and  or- 
dered Rousseau's  arrest  He  was  warned  and  fled  to  Ge- 
neva, Neuchatel,  and  finally  to  England  (1765),  where  Ilume 
gave  him  a  refuge  at  Wootton.  But  his  irritability,  sensi- 
tiveness, and  suspicion  were  sharpened  by  his  experiences  to 
an  unhealthf ul  deeree ;  he  fancied  himself  the  object  of  a 
conspiracy,  and  fled  back  to  France.  He  spent  a  year  un- 
der a  false  name  with  the  Prince  of  Uonti  and  then  fled  from 
imagined  pursuit  to  different  parts  of  France.  In  1770  he 
returned  to  Paris  and  resume<l  the  copying  of  music  for 
his  support,  still  haunted  by  the  idea  of  persecution.  In 
1777  he  accepted  a  house  on  a  friend's  estate  a  few  miles 
from  Paris,  and  died  there  July  2,  1778,  under  circum- 
stances that  to  some  have  suggested  suicide.  In  1794  his 
body  was  transported  amid  great  ix)pular  enthusiasm  to  the 
Pantheon.  The  main  work  of  the  latter  years  of  his  life 
was  his  Confessions^  one  of  the  most  remarkable  works  of 
the  kind  ever  written,  surprisingly  free*  from  reticence,  and 
unsparing  in  the  revelation  of  himself,  but  not  always  ex- 
act. It  is  hard  to  overestimate  the  influence  of  Rousseau 
upon  his  country  and  Europe.  At  the  center  of  his  ideas 
Was  his  sincere  belief  in  the  goodness  of  nature  and  what- 
ever is  in  accord  with  her.  The  primitive  natural  instincts 
and  affections  were  sacred :  the  primitive  natural  Btate  of 
society  furnished  criteria  for  the  criticism  and  renewal  of 
institutions.  The  sentimentalists  date  from  him,  and  the 
view  that  to  show  that  an  act  is  natural  is  to  prove  that  it 
is  right.  The  standard  editions  of  his  (E^ivrts  are  bv  Mus- 
set-Pathay  (23  vols.,  Paris,  1823-26),  and  by  Auguis  (25  vols., 
Paris,  1822).  One  must  add  L.  Borscha,  Correspondance 
inedite  dc  J,  J.  Rousseau  (Paris,  1S58);  Streckeisen-Moul- 
tou,  (KutTes  ei  Correspondnnre  infdites  d^  J,  J.  Rousseau 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1861-65);  H.  de  R(»thschild.  LeUres  incites 
de  J,  J,  Rousseau  (Paris,  1892).  See  H.  Beaudoin,  La  vie 
et  les  opuvres  de  J,  J.  Rousseau  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1871):  Saint- 
Marc  G-irardin,  J.  J,  Rousseau,  sa  vie  et  sts  oeuvres  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1875);  A.  Chuquet,  J.  J.  Rousseau  (Paris,  1893) ;  J. 
Morley,  J,  J,  Rousseau  (2  vols.,  Ijondoii,  1873). 

A.  G.  Can  FIELD. 

SouBseaa,  I>ovell  Harrison:  soldier:  b.  in  Lincoln  co., 
Ky.,  Aug.  4,  1818:  received  little  earlv  education,  but  sub- 
sequently studied  law  at  Louisville  aui  at  Bloomfleld,  Ind. ; 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841 ;  member  of  the  Indiana  Leg- 
islature 1844-45,  and  of  the  State  Senate  1847.  In  the  war 
with  Mexico,  as  captain  in  the  Second  Indiana  Volunteers, 
he  served  with  gallantry  at  Buena  Vista ;  returne<l  to  Lou- 
isville in  1849;  became  a  successful  criminal  lawyer,  and 
in  1860  was  a  member  of  the  State  Senate,  where  he  boldly 
opposed  the  secession  of  Kentucky.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war  he  raised  the  Third  Kentucky  Infantrv,  of  which 
he  became  colonel  Sept,  1861 ;  appointed  briganlier-general 
U.S.  volunteers  Oct  1.  1861 ;  was  distinguished  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Shiloh  Apr.  7, 1S62 ;  in  command  of  division  and  con- 
spicuous for  gallant r)'  at  Perry ville,  Ky.,  Oct.  8,  1862,  for 
which  he  was  made  major-general  of  volunteers ;  partici|>ated 
in  the  battle  of  Murfreesboro,  I>ec.  31, 1862 ;  commanded  the 
district  of  Tennessee  from  Nov.,  1863,  till  the  close  of  the 
war.  He  resigned  Nov.  30, 1865:  memU»r  of  Congress  1865, 
and  in  Mar.,  1867,  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
regular  army  and  breveted  major-general.  Assigned  to  com- 
mand the  (department  r>f  Louisiana  Julv  28.  \Hi\H,  he  died 
in  New  Orleans,  Jan.  7, 1869.    Revised  by  Jamks  MKRrra. 

Roomean,  Philippe:  still-lifo  and  animal  p«iinter;  b.  in 
Paris,  France,  Feb.  22. 1816 :  nunil  of  Bi'rtin  and  Baron  (tros; 
third-class  medal.  Salon,  1845,  first -class  1848  ;  second-<4ass, 
Paris  Exposition,  1855;  first-class,  Paris  Ex|M)sition,  187H; 
officer  Legion  of  Honor,  1870.  I),  at  A<-<niig!iv,  Dec.  4.  1H87. 
His  pictures  of  still  life  are  notabk*  for  exct'll«*nt  teclinical 


qualities  and  strong  sober  color  schemes.  Importunate  (1  .S50 
and  The  Rat  Retired  from  the  HWW(1885)  are  in  the  Lux- 
embourg Gallery,  Paris ;  and  there  are  works  in  the  muse- 
ums at  Chartres,*  Valenciennes,  and  Nantes.  W.  A.  C. 

Roasseaa.  Pikrre  £tienn'e  Theodore:  landscape-naint(*r: 
b.  in  Paris,  France,  Apr.  15,  1812;  first-class  medal.  Salon. 
1849,  Paris  Exposition,  1855;  medal  of  honor,  Paris  Exjli*- 
sition,  1867;  Legion  of  Honor,  1852.  I),  at  Barbizon.  !>*•«•. 
22,  1867.  He  was  the  friend  and  fellow  worker  of  Mill«'i 
and  Diaz,  and  worked  with  them  at  Barbizon  on  the  bonier^ 
of  the  Forest  of  Fontaineblcau,  finding  in  the  forest  aixi 
the  surrounding  country  the  subjects  for  his  pictures.  He 
was  one  pf  the  greatest  of  the  modern  French  painters  «»f 
landscape,  and  his  works  are  characterized  by  profound  s*  n- 
timent,  extraordinary  technical  qualities,  ana  great  truth 
to  nature.  He  represented  detail  in  a  marvelous  fa.'*hioii 
without  sacrificing  breadth  or  harmony  of  color.  One  of 
his  finest  works  is  The  Hoar  Frost,  in  the  collection  of  >^'. 
T.  Walters,  Baltimore.  The  Woods  of  Fontaifubleau  <  1 SK*  \. 
a  magnificent  picture  of  sunset  etfect,  and  a  number  of 
other  landscapes  are  in  the  Louvre.  Momifig  on  the  Oise^  a 
masterpiece  of  color-harmony  and  unity  of  effect,  is  iu  the 
collection  of  Henry  Graves,  Orange,  N.  J.  W.  A.  i\ 

RonRset,  r<K)sS ,  Camille  F^lix  Michel:  historian ;  b.  in 
Paris,  France,  Feb.  15, 1821 ;  became  in  1843  Professor  ..f 
History  at  Grenoble,  in  1845  at  the  Lyc^  Bonaparte,  and 
was  from  1864  to  1876  historiographer  tothe  ministry  of  War. 
Among  his  works  are  Histoire  de  Louvois  (4  vols.,  1861 -6:i)  ; 
Les  Volontaires  de  1791-94  (1870);  Histoire  ds  la  (iuerrr 
de  Crimee  (2  vols.,  1877);  and  Ijes  Commencements  d'unt 
congurte  :  UAMrie  de  IHSO  d  I840  (2  vols,,  1887).  He  he- 
came  an  academician  in  1871.    D.  Oct.  1»,  1892.    A.  U.  C\  • 

Routh,  rowth,  Martin  Joseph,  D.  D.  :  educator  and  e«h- 
tor;  b.  at  South  Elmham.  Suffolk,  England,  Sept.  18,  17.Vi  ; 
graduated  at  Oxford  1774;  became  college  librarian  17hi. 
and  in  1791  president  of  Magdalen  College,  which  ])ost  lie 
retaine<l  till  his  death  at  Oxford,  Dec.  22,  1854.  He  is  U-^t 
known  by  his  collection  of  the  frogmentarv  writinp  ut  the 
Christian  Fathers  of  the  second  and  thiru  centuries  under 
the  title  Reliquio'  Sacra',  sire  Aucforum  fere  jam  perdi  fo- 
rum, etc.  (5  vols.,  1814-18;  new  ed.,  5  vols.,  1846-48). 

Rove-beetles:  beetles  belonging  to  the  family  jS/rr/>/«v- 
Unid(e,  in  which  the  wing-covers  are  ver}*  short,  leaving  a 
large  part  of  the  abdomen  uncovered.  The  beetle  wht-n 
irritated  turns  this  alxlomen  about  in  such  a  way  as  to  cm»ii- 
vey  the  impression  that  it  is  armed  with  a  sting.  The  r^ive- 
beetles  are  small,  frequently  minute ;  they  live  under  stoiK*<K, 
in  moss,  on  com(K>site  fiowers,  etc. 

RoTeredo,  rw-vd-ra'do:  town  of  Austria;  in  the  Tynd  : 
picturesquely  situated  on  the  I^no,  near  its  junction  viih 
the  Adige ;  14  miles  bv  rail  S.  of  Trent  (see  map  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  ref.  7- A).  Jfapoleon  lionaparte  here  defeated  the 
Austrians  in  1796.  It  is  the  center  of  Tyrolean  silk -manu- 
facture and  has  a  large  transit  trade.    Pop.  (1890)  9.080. 

Rovlgno,  rrJ-veenyo:  town  of  Austria;  in  Istria,  on  h 
rocky  promontory  in  the  Adriatic;  40  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Trieste  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  8^*).  It  'has  tw<. 
harbors,  ship-building  yards,  ro])ewalks,  manufactures  of 
sailcloth,  tunnv-fisheries,  and  an  active  trade  in  wine  and 
oil.     Pop.  (1890)  9,662. 

ROYigO,  ro-voe'go :  town  of  Italy;  province  of  Rovij»<.: 
lying  Wtween  the  Po  and  the  AdiiEfe  on  the  Adigetta,  aTk 
emissary  of  the  Adige ;  38  miles  S.Mr .  of  Venice  (see  map  of 
Italy,  ref.  3-1)).  It  has  an  octagon-shaj^  church  (1594),  a 
cathedral  (1696).  a  picture-gallery,  and  a  town-hall  with  a 
library  of  80,000  volumes.  Me<lia»val  Uovigo  belonged  sonu*- 
times  to  Venice,  sometimes  to  the  house  of  Kste.    Pop.  7.272. 

RoTigO,  DrKE  OF :  See  Savarv. 

RoTing:  Sw  Cotton  Maxi'factl'rks. 

Rowan,  roan.  STKPnKN  Clwjo  :  sailor;  b.  near  iHiblin, 
Ireland,  D(»c.  25,  1808;  entorwl  the  U.S.  navy  as  a  nii<i- 
shipman  Feb.  15,  1826;  was  distinguished  for  ability  and 
courage  on  the  west  coast  of  Mexico  during  the  war  wii  h 
that  country,  ainl  during  the  civil  war  in  the  rivers  of  Vir- 
ginia, the  sounds  of  North  Carolina,  and  at  Charleston,  S.  i '. ; 
for  his  long,  honorable,  and  gallant  service  received  a  vote 
of  thanks  from  Congress;  was  mmle  vice-admiral  Aug.  I.%, 
1870;  became  su|»erintendcnt  Naval  Observatory,  and  wa» 
chairman  of  lighthouse  board  ;  retired  Feb.  26,  1889.  I>.  at 
Washington,  1).  C.,  Mar.  31, 1H90.    Revised  by  C.  BELKyAi*. 

Rowaii-tre« :  See  MuuNTAiN-ASR. 


200 


ROWING 


The  regatta  of  1873  was  held  over  the  course  at  Saratoga, 
and  eleven  crews  entered.  Yale  won.  Columbia  won  the 
regatta  of  1874  in  16:42^.  In  the  following  year  the  regatta 
was  again  held  at  Saratoga,  and  participated  in  by  thirteen 
representative  crews.  Cornell  won  in  16:53,  Harvard  third, 
Yale  fifth.  In  1876  the  Yale-Harvard  races  were  again  es- 
tablished for  eight-oared  shells  with  coxswains  over  a  4- 
mile  straight-away  course  at  Springfield  on  the  Connecticut. 
Yale  won  by  21  sec.  in  22:02.  That  year  Yale  was  not  pres- 
ent at  the  American  College  Regatta,  but  Harvard  sent  en- 
tries for  all  three  events — University  and  Freshmen  crews, 
also  a  single  scull — each  of  which  secured  second  place  in 
their  respective  races,  Cornell  winning  the  three  honors. 
Since  1876  the  Yale-Harvard  race  has  been  an  annual  oc- 
currence. Of  the  nineteen  races  rowed,  including  that  of 
1894,  Yale  has  won  twelve  and  Harvard  seven.  The  best 
time  has  been  made  by  Yale  in  1888,  being  20:10,  which 
stands  as  the  record  for  eight-oared  shells  over  a  4-mile 
straight-away  course.  All  but  the  first  two  of  these  .latter 
races  have  been  rowed  at  New  London,  Conn.,  with  varying 
tide  and  wind.  In  1883  an  annual  race  between  Cornell  and 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  was  initiated. 

Rowing  at  Cornell  dates  from  1869  with  the  formation  of 
the  Undine  Boat  Club.  In  1870  the  Cornell  navy  was  or- 
ganized, and  has  existed  as  such  ever  since.  In  1873  Cor- 
nell sent  her  first  crew  to  compete  with  other  colleges  in  the 
regatta  of  the  American  Colleges  Rowing  Association,  and 
was  annually  represented  in  this  contest  thereafter  until  the 
association  came  to  an  end.  In  the  first  two'contests  her 
crews  finished  fifth,  but  led  in  the  latter  two.  In  the  last 
year  of  the  regatta  not  only  did  the  'Varsity  win,  but  also 
the  Freshmen  crew  and  her  single  sculler,  Francis.  Follow- 
ing these  events,  both  Harvartl  and  Yale  withdrew  from  the 
association,  and  have  declined  races  with  other  colleges 
since. 

Since  1884  neither  Cornell's  'Vai*sity  nor  Freshmen  crews 
have  met  defeat  in  a  series  of  nineteen  races,  the  summary 
of  intercollegiate  races  from  1873  to  1894,  both  'Varsity  and 
Freshmen  included,  being  thirty-two  victories  and  seven 
defeats. 

BEST  ROWING   RECORDS   OF   AMERICAN   OARSMEN. 

MIn.  See. 

1883.  Eight-oared  shell,  1  mile,    Columbia  OolleKe 5     4) 

1889. U  miles,  Cornell 'Varsity. 6  40 

1891.      "         "         "      2      "       Columbia  College,  freshmen.    9  48* 

1891,      "         "         "      3      "      CornelPVarsity 14  27| 

18KH.      "         "         "      4      "      Yale 'Varsity 20  10 

1872.  Six-        "         '*      3      "      Amherst  College 16  821 

1888.  Four-     "         "      1      '*      Argonaut   Rowing    Associa- 
tion     4  51 

1R87.      "         "         "      2      "      Owashtanong  Boat  Club 12  27 

1875.  "         '*         "      3      "       Argonaut   Rowing    Associa- 

tion   15    87J 

1871. 4      *•      Ward  brothers 24    40 

1860.      **         "         '*      5      "      John,    James,    and    Barney 

Biglin  and  Dennis  I^eary..  80    44) 

1871.  "         "         "      6      "      E.  Ross,  S.  Hutton,  G.  Price, 

and  R.  Fulton 89  20| 

1R76l  Double  sculls,         1      "      J.  Smith,  J.  C.  Hayes 5  65j 

1876.  "  "  2  "  F.  E.  Yates,  C.  E.  Courtney  .  12  16 
18K5.  "  '*  8  "  P.  H.  Conley,  C.  E.  Courtney  17  57* 
1876.  Pair-oared  shell,     8      "      J.  Faulkner  and  P.  Regan ...  20  28 

1872.  5  "  John  and  Barney  Biglin 82      1 

1891.  Single  sculte.  i  "  Edwin  Hedley 0  67 

1872.  "         "  1  "  Ellis  Ward 5  1 

1868.  "      ,"  2  "  J.Tyler 11  20 

1890.  "         "  3  "  H.  J.  Qaudaur 19  81 

1888.  '*         "  4  "  E.  Hanlan 27  57i 

1879.  "         "  5  "  E.  Hanlan 33  56i 

Since  the  introduction  of  rowing  as  a  pastime  in  Great 
Britain  there  has  been  a  vast  change  in  all  the  departments 
of  the  sport — in  the  training  for  a  race,  selection  of  a  crew, 
style  of  rowing,  and,  greatest  of  all,  in  the  boats.  Formerly 
the  boats  were  built  with  a  proportion  of  breadth  to  length 
of  1  to  6,  but  the  present  usage  is  1  to  30  and  even  1  to  40. 
Their  finest  racing  boats  were  about  6  ft.  2  in.  beam,  35  feet 
in  length,  weighed  700  lb.,  and  were  rowed  by  oarsmen  of 
200  lb.  weight,  with  two  spare  men  to  act  as  ballast  and  assist 
at  the  oars.  A  shell  24  inches  beam.  66  feet  long,  ^nd  weigh- 
ing 250  lb.,  can  be  rowed  by  eight  men  with  coxswain,  hav- 
ing total  weight  of  1,350  lb.,  at  a  rate  of  12  miles  an  hour. 
This  great  reduction  in  width,  with  a  corresponding  increase 
of  length  and  also  speed,  is  due  almost  entirely  to  tlie  out- 
riggers and  consequent  improvement  in  design  unci  materials 
of  construction. 

To  Harry  C'lasper,  probably,  more  than  any  other  oars- 
man, credit  is  due  for  the  adoption  of  the  outrigging  and 
many  other  improvements  in  ra<'e-boat  building.  In  1828 
Anthony  Brown  had  fastened  various  pieces  of  wood,  now 
known  as  false  outriggers,  to  the  side  of  the  Diamond,  of 


Ousebum,  preparatory  to  its  race  with  the  Fly,  of  Scot5wood- 
on-Tyne,  and  in  1830  Frank  Emmett  had  contrived  a  more 
perfect  plan  of  iron  outriggers  for  his  boat,  the  £agle,  yet  it 
was  not  until  1844  that  Clasper's  four-ou^  ou trigged  boat 
fully  overcame  the  prejudice  of  the  time,  and  racing  boats 
began  to  be  modeled  with  regard  to  the  new  innovation. 
Yet  Clasper's  first  outriggers  were  but  8  inches  long.  To 
Clasper  also  are  we  indebted  for  improving  the  spoon  oar. 

James  Mackay,  who  appeared  in  1857  at  the  Portland 
City  Hegatta  in  a  shell  of  his  own  construction,  was  prc»l>- 
ably  the  first  builder  of  shells  with  outriggers  in  the  L".  S. 
He  received  an  order  from  Harvard  for  a  six-oared  she  IK 
which  he  completed  in  December  of  that  year.  It  was  40 
feet  long,.26  inches  amidships,  built  of  white  pine,  with  ir«>n 
outriggers  and  spoon  oars,  and  was  the  first  six-oared  shell 
launcned  in  the  U.  S. 

Another  improvement  which  added  materially  to  th'* 
speed  of  racing  boats  was  the  sliding  seat,  from  which  ha<^ 
been  evolved  the  roller  seat.  The  distance  through  which 
the  seat  moves  varies  according  to  the  style  of  the  stroke 
rowed.  The  sliding  seat  is  claimed  to  have  been  first  uschI 
by  J.  C.  Babcock,  of  the  Nassau  Boat  Club,  in  a  sculling 
boat  in  1857,  but  it  was  not  until  1870  that  its  merits  wero 
fully  appreciated.  The  change  to  roller  seats  was  made  by 
Charles  E.  Courtney  in  1878,  and  first  used  by  him  in  IbTd 
in  a  race  at  Toronto,  Canada. 

Charles  E.  Courtney  is  authority  for  the  following  general 
directions  as  to  one  style  of  stroke:  The  beginning  of  tht* 


/////// 11  iiwwwww^ 


Fio.  1. 


stroke,  known  as  the  forward  reach,  is  illustrate<l  in  p<»>i- 
tion  1.  In  this  the  seat  is  pulled  forward  w^ith  the  feet  unt  i  \ 
it  is  from  within  9  to  12  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the  fu<  a- 


///M|\\\\V\\\\\\\ 


Fio.  2. 

brace,  the  distance  varying  with  individuals.  The  seat  is 
held  in  position  1  while  the  oar  catches  the  water,  l>eiii^  ^.w 
dipped  as  to  just  fairly  cover  the  oar-blade,  and  until  swin*^. 
ing  the  body  at  the  hips  the  shoulders  are  in  f>osition  *J. 
The  shoulders  go  back  no  farther,  and  the  stroke  is  finish t  .1 
by  the  legs  and  arms,  as  in  position  3.  The  arms  are  kt-pt 
straight  until  just  before  the  logs  are  fully  straightenetl,  wh.  n 
the  elbows  are  bent  and  the  hands  brought  shari)ly  in  to  1 1-.- 
h<Kly.  and  are  then  dropped  almost  into  the  lap  to'brintr  t  Ji. 
oar  cleanly  out  of  the  water.    Then  the  wrist  is  turiieil  t». 


liUATAN 


RUBIAN 


Bnatall^  or  Koatan  :  an  islttnd  in  the  Day  of  Honduras 
(Caribbean  Sea),  80  miles  from  tlie  northern* coast  of  llon> 
<luras,  to  which  it  belon£^ ;  area  about  80  sq.  mileft.  It  is 
long  and  narrow,  partly  billy,  wooded,  and  has  a  good  soil 
and  climate ;  its  nihabitants  (about  1,(X)0)  are  engaged  in 
fishing  and  turtlo-cat<;hing.  In  1742  this  island  was  seized 
by  Great  Britain,  and  in  1797  about  5,(X)0  C'ariljs  were  trans- 
ported to  it  from  St.  Vincent ;  most  of  them  since  passed 
over  to  the  mainland.  Subsequently  Great  Britain  gave  the 
island  to  Honduras,  but  temporarily  held  it  again  1841-42. 
Kuatan  is  one  of  the  Bay  islands.  H.  U.  S. 

Rabasse :  a  variety  of  crystalHze<l  quartz,  discolored  and 
stained  with  specks  of  retX  and  yellow  iron  oxide,  which 
give  it  a  fine  red.  Artificial  rul)asses  of  all  colors  are  made 
from  rock-crystal  heated  and  dipped  in  cold  colored  aniline 
solutions,  which  cracks  the  crystal,  when  the  color  fills  the 
cracks  throughout  the  mass.  It  is  also  called  Mont  Blanc 
ruby.  Revised  by  G.  F.  Kunz. 

Rabefacients  [from  Lat.  ruhffa'cienfi,  pres.  partic.  of 
rubefa'cere,  make  red  ;  rube're^  Ikj  red  +  fa'cere^  make] :  in 
medicine,  agents  cai>able  of  prcnlucing  congestion,  and  thus 
riKlness  of  the  skin,  by  local  contact.  Such  irritant  appli- 
cations have  often  the  power  of  relieving  congestion,  pain, 
spasm,  or  undue  irritability  of  deep-seated  organs,  and  are 
much  used  for  the  purpose  in  therapeutics.  Very  many 
drugs  have  the  property  of  reddening  the  skin,  all  blister- 
ing agents  producing  simple  hypenemia  as  the  initial  ef- 
fect of  their  irritation,  but  the  means  most  emplr)ycd  strictly 
as  rubefacients  are  the  following:  Jleat^  by  means  of  hot 
baths,  cloths  wrung  out  in  hot  water,  bottles  of  hot  water, 
or  heated  solids,  as  earthen  platters,  bricks,  bags  of  sand, 
et-c. :  mustard^  in  the  form  of  prepared  mustanl-paper  mois- 
tened, or  thick  poultices  of  mustard-meal  mixed  with  cold 
water;  oil  of  turpentine^  applied  by  means  of  flannels  first 
wrung  out  in  hot  water  and  then  in  the  oil  previously 
warmed ;  capiticum  (cayenne  pepper),  in  the  form  of  poul- 
tice, or,  better,  as  a  lotion  mixed  with  hot  spirits;  and 
ammonia,  in  the  form  of  liniment  of  ammonia  (volatile  lini- 
ment). Plaster  of  Burgundy  pitch  and  resin  cerate  are  also 
feebly  rubefacient.  Revised  by  U.  A.  Hark. 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul:  painter;  b.  at  Siegen,  Westpha- 
lia, June  29,  1577.  He  was  of  middle-class  family,  but  his 
parents  were  persons  of  influence.  He  was  well  educated, 
and  for  a  time  was  a  page  in  the  household  of  the  Count- 
ess of  Lalaine  at  Brusst>ls.  His  masters  in  painting  were 
first  Tobias  \  erhaecht,  or  Vanderhaecht,  then  Adam  Van 
Noort,  and  finally  Otto  Van  Veen,  or  Vaenius,  all  of  Ant- 
werp. At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was  received  as  a 
master  painter  by  the  Antwerp  g^iild  of  painters.  In  1600, 
during  the  summer,  he  made  the  journey  to  Italy,  and  seems 
to  have  gone  first  to  Venice.  Soon  after  he  attached  him- 
self to  the  ducal  court  of  Mantua,  then  very  brilliant  and 
artistic  in  a  certain  way.  The  Duke  Vincenzo  Gonzaga 
employed  Rubens  permanently,  and  in  1601  sent  him  to 
Rome  with  letters  of  recommendation  to  the  Cardinal  Ales- 
sandro  Montalto.  There  he  copied  pictures  and  also  pro- 
duced original  works,  painting  pictures  at  the  order  of  the 
Archduke  Albert  VII.,  who  at  this  time  had  become  sover- 
eign of  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  His  high  character,  thor- 
ough education,  especially  in  languages,  and  dignified  bear- 
ing seem  to  have  given  him  a  peculiar  position  among  ar- 
tists ;  he  was  trusted  and  treated  as  a  ()ersoii  of  high  rank 
by  the  sovereigns  with  whom  he  came  in  contact  as  a 
painter.  In  16(Ki  he  was  sent  by  the  Duke  of  Mantua  on  a 
private  mission  to  Madri<l,  where  he  had  an  exceptional  op- 
portunity to  study  the  paintings  of  Titian.  Many  pictures 
of  his  own  are  in  the  Madrid  (iallery,  and  it  is  thought  that 
several  of  these  were  painted  during  this  visit.  He  was  in 
Mantua  from  1604  to  1606,  a  second  time  in  Home,  and  left 
Italy  finally  in  1608,  after  nearly  eight  years*  employment  by 
the  Duke  of  Mantua.  Once  in  Antwerp  the  Archduke  Al- 
bert and  his  wife,  Isaljella  Clara  Eugenia,  daughter  of  Philip 
II.  of  Spain,  forbade  his  depnrttire;  in  1609  he  was  made 
their  court  painter,  and  in  the  same  year  he  marriotl.  In 
the  next  year  he  painted  the  Elevation  of  the  CrosA,  now  in 
the  cathedral  at  Antwerp,  and  in  1611  the  Dencent  from  the 
CVoM,also  in  the  cathedral,  and  commonly  called  the  paint- 
er's best  work.  Until  1620  he  remained  at  Antwerp,  master 
of  a  large  studio,  with  many  pupils  and  assistants,  many  of 
whom  rose  to  great  distinction.  Jakob  JohIjumis,  Franz  Sny- 
ders,  Gaspar  de  Crayer,  Jan  Breughel,  and  even  Antony  Van 
Dyck  were  among  his  fellow  workmen. 

In  1620  Rubens  undertook  a  scries  of   pictun's  for  the 


LuxemlK>urg  Palace  at  Paris  for  the  Queen  Dowager  Mari#* 
de  Medicis.  This  business  called  for  his  presence  in  Paris  on 
several  occasions,  but  the  pictures  were  painted  at  Antwerp. 
They  are  now  at  Munich.  In  1626  he  went  to  Holland,  ainl 
in  1d28  again  to  Mad  rid,  on  business  almost  wholly  diplomat  i«- 
in  character.  In  1629,  while  still  in  Madrid,  Rubens  wa>  hj*- 
pointed  secretary  of  the  privy  council  for  the  S{>anish  Net  h- 
erlands,  and  was  commissioned  as  envoy  to  London,  whc-n- 
he  arrived  in  May.  He  left  London  in  Mar.,  1630,  having: 
previously  received  knighthootl  from  King  Charles  I.,  vili«. 
also  granted  him  an  augmentation  of  his  escnitcheon.  In 
Dec,  1630,  he  married  Helena  Pounnent,  niece  of  his  foriiu-r 
wife.  Her  portrait  occurs  very  frequently  in  his  jiiciiirt- 
from  this  time  on.  The  remaining  years  of  his  life  uir*- 
filled  with  artistic  work.  In  1635  ne'  had  to  design  a  nic^: 
elaborate  decoration  of  the  whole  city  of  Antwerp  as  a  vitl- 
come  to  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  son  of  King  Philip  III.  of 
Spain,  the  new  governor-general  of  the  Netherlands,  aj*- 
pointed  on  the  death  of  the  archduchess.  This  was  a  pri  *- 
digious  undertaking,  and  many  vestiges  of  it  yet  remain  in 
published  and  unpublished  drawings,  and  in  the  picture^ 
which  formed  part  of  it.  Many  large  paintings  were  uri(i»T 
way  and  were  left  unfinished  at  his  death,  which  oi'curn-ti 
May  30, 1640. 

In  spite  of  his  active  and  varied  life  the  amount  of  w<»rk 
left  benind  him  was  enormous,  and  a  great  deal  of  it  is  tire- 
served.  His  works  are  singularly  even  in  quality.  The\ 
seem  to  moderns  to  be  lacking  in  charm,  but  they  are  full  of 
vigorous  drawing  and  strong  color.  They  are  easy  to  anci€*r- 
stand,  both  in  subject  and  in  the  more  nictorial  qualities. 

Besides  the  two  great  pictures  in  the  (*athedral  of  Ant- 
werp, named  above,  it  is  generally  thought  that  the  Ik-si 
places  to  study  this  master  are  the  gallery  at  Antwerp  aii<l 
the  old  Pinakothek  at  Munich.  Of  those' at  Antwerp,  77#* 
Crucifixiofi  between  the  Two  Thieves^  Tlie  Adoration  of  tht 
Magi\  and  Hie  Virgin  with  the  Body  of  ('hrist  are  esjK»tiHU> 
important.  At  Munich  there  are  about  fifty  canvH.s*»>, 
most  of  them  large;  there  maybe  named  The' Fall  of  tht 
Rebel  Angels^  artd  another  of  nearly  the  .same  subject*  Tft*- 
Massacre  of  the  Innocents^  St.  Peter  and  St.  liiitl^  tk  j»i<- 
ture  in  which  something  of  the  Italian  feeling  is  seen,  a  rt- 
markable  Silenus  with  Satyr  aful  Bacchante^  and  a  num- 
l)er  of  portraits  of  the  highest  interest  and  value,  as  //#•/- 
ena  Fourmefii^  I^rd  and  jAidy  Arundel,  the  ArehduAe  />  r- 
dinand^  ruler  of  the  Xetherlands,  Philip  IV,  of  SjHt^n, 
the  Artist  with  his  First  Wife,  In  the  National  Ctalltr> 
in  Ivondon  are  the  Abduction  of  the  Sabine  Women^  xh't- 
Plague  of  the  Brazen  Serpents,  two  large  lAvndseapes^  Hiid 
a  remarkable  decorative  drawing.  The  Birth  of  Venus,  A\ 
the  Madrid  Gallery,  at  the  Hermitage,  St.  Petersburg,  at  t  b«' 
Museums  of  Berlin,  Vienna,  Brussels,  Darmstadt,  and  I)r«'>- 
den,  at  the  Ijouvre,  at  the  Pitti  and  the  Ufllzi  in  Flore lu-i-. 
and  in  such  im|)ortant  private  collections  as  Blenheim  aini 
the  Lichtenstein  Palace  are  pictures  impossible  to  enuinerat«* 
— perhaps  300  in  number  in  actual  public  view. 

There  are  many  books  which  treat  of  Rubens,  amou^r 
them  C.  Ruellens,  Iherre  Paul  Rubens,  sen  Leitres^  ei»-. 
(Brussels,  1877);  A.  Michiels,  Rubetis  et  VEcole  dTAnvtrf^ 
(Paris) ;  and  Charles  W.  Kett,  in  the  Great  Art  Series  (18 Til », 
A  good  study  of  him  exists  in  the  Gazette  des  Beaux- A.  rfn 
(1867-68),  and  many  other  notices  scattered  through  the  later 
volumes.  Russell  Sturois. 

Rnberyth'rie  Acid  [iniberythrxe  is  from  Lat  ru'bin^ 
madder  -I-  Gr.  4^v9p6s,  red] :  a  glucoside,  CMHttOu,  found  in 
madder-root  by  Rochleder.  It  is  crystalline,  and  forms  tvI- 
low  prisms  having  a  silky  luster ;  has  a  faint  taste ;  is  si^r- 
ingly  soluble  in  cold,  readily  in  hot  water;  gives  a  ^laei»- 
yellow  solution  in  alcohol  and  in  ether,  and  a  bUx>d-rt*<l 
solution  in  alkalies.  It  gives  red  precipitates  with  barytA- 
water,  with  an  alum  solution  after  the  audition  of  ammonia, 
and  with  basic  acetate  of  lead  after  addition  of  a  little  al- 
cohol. Schimck  did  not  find  this  acid  in  madder,  and  con- 
siders it  a  pro«luct  of  the  decomposition  of  nibian.  U<Kh- 
leder  consiuers  rubian  to  be  impure  ruberythric  acid.  tM^^» 
RuBiAN,  Alizarin,  Madder,  etc    Revised  by  Ira  Remscn. 

Rnbia'cen :  See  Madder  Family. 

Rnblan  [from  Lat.  ru'bia,  madder] :  a  g:lucoside  (Ci«II  i«4  >  > 
disc»overed  in  madder-root  by  Schunck  in  1847.  It  is  ob- 
tained by  treating  a  hot  decoction  of  madder  with  b(»n«'- 
black,  washing  this  to  remove  chlorogenine,  extracting"  it  rt«- 
poatedly  with  Iwiling  alcohol,  and  evaporating  to  dryTi«\«ss. 
it  is  then  dissolved  in  water,  precipitated  with  acetat<»  of 
lead;  the  lewl  com|M)und  is  decomposed  by  sulphurvtt«.^i 


204 


RUDBECK 


RUDOLSTADT 


the  end  of  the  ninth  century.  His  full  name  is  given  as 
Farid  ad-dIn  Muhammad  Rudagl.  Biographical  tradition 
makes  him  a  sort  of  blind  Homer,  but  as  to  his  blindness 
there  is  doubt.  His  poetical  renown  won  him  a  position  at 
the  court  of  the  Samanid  Nasar  II.«  ben  Ahmad  of  Kho- 
rassan.  The  literary  activity  of  Rudag!  appears  to  have 
been  great ;  he  is  said  to  have  composed  more  than  a  mill- 
ion verses.  The  remains  that  have  been  preserved  are  com- 
parativelv  meager,  but  they  are  of  hi^h  merit.  Among  the 
deplorable  losses  may  be  mentioned  his  translation  of  the 
Inaian  book  of  fables,  Kalilah  and  Dimnah^  rendered  into 
Persian  from  the  Arabic  version  of  Abd-allah  ibn  al  Mu- 
kaffa.  Rudag!  outlived  his  royal  patron,  and  fallen  on  evil 
days  he  seems  to  have  died  about  a.  d.  054.  See  Eth^'s 
Rudagl  der  Sdmanldendichter  in  Gdftinger  Nachrichten 
(1873,  pp.  663-741^).  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Radbeck,  Olof  :  scientist ;  b.  at  Vesteraas,  Sweden,  Sept. 
80,  1630.  He  studied  natural  science  at  the  University  of 
Upsala,  where  he  became  a  professor  in  the  faculty  of  medi- 
cine. By  his  discovery,  at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  of  the 
lymphatic  canal  he  gamed  European  renown.  In  addition 
to  investigations  in  several  branches  of  science,  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  archfeology  and  literature,  both  clas- 
sical and  Scandinavian,  publishing  several  sagas  and  Swedish 
provincial  laws  (from  1679).  His  great  botanical  work,  Campi 
elyaii  eller  OlysisvaXd,  was  left  uncompleted.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  ingenious  and  learned  Atlaiul  eller  Manhem  (4 
vols.,  Upsala,  1675-1702),  commonlv  called  Atlantica,  in 
which  he  sought  to  establish  the  iclentitv  of  Sweden  with 
Plato's  fabled  land  and  the  Garden  of  Pjden,  By  the  fire 
in  Upsala  in  May,  1702,  his  library  and  collections,  mcluding 
the  unpublished  continuation  of  Atlantica,  were  destroyed, 
and  his  death  followed  a  few  months  later  (Dec.  12). — His 
son,  Olof  Rudbeck  (d.  1740),  acquired  considerable  eminence 
as  a  zoologist,  and  his  grandson,  also  of  the  same  name  (d. 
1777),  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  comic  poems. 

b.  K.  Dodge. 

Rnddlman,  Thomas  :  Latin  grammarian  ;  b.  at  Raggel, 
Banffshire,  Scotland,  Oct.,  1674 ;  gratluate«l  at  King's  Col- 
lege, Aberdeen ;  was  afterward  apublisher  and  printer  to 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  (1728),  and  principal  keeper 
of  the  Advocates'  Library  (1730).  He  is  chiefly  known  as  the 
author  of  a  once  very  famous  work  on  Latin  Grammar 
(1732),  whose  learned  Latin  introduction  and  appendices  are 
still  of  value.  In  1739  he  brought  out  a  magniflcent  folio 
edition  of  Anderson's  Diplomata  ei  Numismata  Scot  ice,  and 
produced  his  celebrated  "  immaculate "  edition  of  Livy  (4 
vols.  12mo,  1751).  D.  at  Edinburgh,  Jan.  19,  1757.  See  G. 
Chalmers,  Life  of  Ruddiman  (1794). 

Revised  by  A.  Gudeman. 

Rnde,  rttd,  Francois  :  sculptor ;  b.  at  Dijon,  France,  Jan. 
4, 1784.  His  father  was  a  blacksmith  and  made  stoves,  and 
youn^  Rude  was  kept  at  this  work,  receiving  instruction  in 
drawing,  during  leisure  hours  only,  at  an  art  school  in  the 
town.  Medals  were  won  for  drawing,  etc.,  by  the  young  man, 
who  in  1804  made  a  bust  of  the  engraver  and  medalist,  Louis 
Gabriel  Monnier.  In  1807  he  went  to  Paris,  taking  with  him 
his  statuette  of  Theseus  picking  up  a  Quoit,  In  1809  he 
gained  a  second  prize  for  sculpture  at  tne  Imperial  Acad- 
emy, and  in  1812  the  Grand  Prix  de  Rome,  but  did  not  go 
at  once  to  Italy.  At  the  second  restoration  Rude  went  to 
Belgium  with  the  Fremiet  family  of  Dijon,  settled  in  Brus- 
sels, and  in  1821  married  Sophie  Fremiet,  who  was  after- 
ward known  as  a  portrait-painter.  In  1827  he  returned  to 
Paris,  where  he  was  invited  to  take  the  atelier  for  student* 
formerly  managed  by  David  d'Angers  (see  David,  Pierre 
Jean).  Except  for  a  short  visit  to  Italy,  Rude  remained 
faithful  to  steady  and  arduous  work.  He' was  a  man  of  sin- 
gular strength  of  body  and  simplicity  and  direct  force  of 
character,  a  republican  by  conviction,  but  primarily  and  all 
his  life  long  an  artist.  'D.  in  Paris,  Xov.  3, 1855.  Of  his 
work  there  must  be  named  the  group  of  the  Departure  for 
the  War,  on  the  Arc  de  I'fttoile  at  Paris,  the  northern  group 
on  the  side  toward  the  Champs  filysoes,  a  noble  compositicm, 
well  known  to  all  students  ;  Mercury  fastening  his  Winged 
Sandal,  in  the  Louvre ;  Nedjwlitnn  Finher-boy,  also  in  the 
Louvre;  Joan  of  Arc,  in  the  Luxeinbourg  (fanlen:  and 
Hebe  and  the  Eagle  of  Jupiter  and  Love  the  Conqueror, 
in  the  Museum  of  Dijon.  There  are  also  a  great  many  por- 
trait-statues and  busts,  as  La  Perouse,  the  explorer,  in  tlio 
Louvre,  i^0Mi«  David,  General  Caraignac,  and  what  may 
be  called  historical  portraits,  as  of  men  whom  he  had  no 
chance  to  study  from  life,  Napoleon,  at  Fixin  in  Burgundy, 


Marshal  Key,  at  Paris,  Marshal  Bertrand,  at  Chateaurotix 
and  as  decorations  of  the  new  buildings  of  the  Louvn 
statues  of  Moudon,  the  sculptor,  and  Nicholas  l^tt^f^m 
There  exists  a  life  of  Rude,  published  at  Dijon  in  l^r»#i 
and  Hamerton  wrote  an  account  of  him  in  his  Moti*  r< 
Frenchmen .  Russell  Stl'  ru  \  >. 

RttMlnger,  Nicolaus,  M.  D.  :  anatomist :  b.  at  Brifhs 
heim,  Germany,  Mar.  25, 1832 ;  studied  medicine  at  the  I'  ui 
versities  of  Heidelberg  and  Giessen,  where  the  teaohintr*  «' 
Henle,  F.  Arnold,  and  T.  Bischoff  inclined  his  attention  X* 
anatomy ;  graduated  M.  D.  from  the  University  of  Gi«  -v*m  f 
in  1855 ;  immediately  thereafter  he  became  prosector  an- 
adjunct  to  Bischoff  at  the  University  of  Munich,  and  n 
1881  was  elected  Professor  of  Anatomy  there.  He  bnm^'K 
the  anatomical  teaching  at  that  school  to  a  high  standp<.»ii.t 
utilizing  photography  to  depict  his  dissections.  His  ni<'- 
important  works  are  Atlas  des  peripherischen  Nerrfn-s.,  ^ 
terns  des  menschlichsn  K&rpers  (Stuttgart,  1872) ;  7o/" 
graphisch-chirurgische  Anatomie  des  Mensehen  (Stutt^'^ait 
1873-79);  Atlas  des  menschlichen  Gehdrorganes  (Miiiu>  • 
1875).  He  was  coeditor  of  Monatssehrift  fur  Ohrrnh*i' 
kunde  1867-70,  and  of  the  Beitrdge  zur  Anihropologie  nw 
Urgeschichtt  Bayems  in  1877.  S.  T.  Armstrom*. 

Rudolph:  the  name  of  two  German  emperors.  H; 
DOLPU  I.  OF  Hapsburo,  l).  in  1218,  founder  of  the  hr>UM*  «• 
Austria,  and  German  emperor  1273-91,  was  the  oldest  x*i 
of  Albert  IV.,  Count  of  Hapsburg  and  Landgrave  of  A  Km  » 
which  countries  he  inherited  after  the  death  of  his  fath* 
in  1240.  He  was  successful  in  enlarging  his  j)o<SvS<-s-i..i,- 
but  it  was,  nevertheless,  not  the  importance  of  his  }K>litii .. 
position,  but  the  righteousness  and  valor  of  his  |»orM  mx 
character,  which  gained  for  him  the  German  crown,  h 
order  to  strengthen  his  authority  among  his  vassals  u?.> 
procure  the  necessary  support,  he  mairied  his  daugbttrs  ; 
the  two  most  powerful  among  them,  the  count-palatine.  Loi*.- 
and  Duke  Albert  of  Saxony,  and  then  marched  against  t  w . 
others  who  refused  to  do  homage.  King  Ottoear  of  lUAu  inu 
and  Duke  Henry  of  Bavaria.  The  Fatter  was  easily  ii< 
feated;  and  Ottoear  submitted  on  the  approach  of  the  in 
perial  forces  and  made  wace  in  1276.  l^ter,  however.  \  i 
broke  the  truce,  and  in  tne  new  war  was  killed  in  the  )>utf . 
of  Marchfield  in  1278.  Rudolph  gave  Bohemia  an<l  M.< 
ravia  to  the  sons  of  Ottoear,  but  Austria,  Styria,  C'arinth.i 
and  Carniola  he  separated  from  the  heritage  and  fra>  v  * « 
his  own  son,  Albert,  thus  founding  the  state  of  Austn.i 
Against  his  external  enemies,  the  Count  of  Savoy,  the  l>u;. 
of  Burgundy,  etc.,  he  was  also  successful,  and  his  intirn.i 
govenmient  was  distinguished  by  justice  and  love  of  i»r«.. 
and  jHjace.  He  traveled  from  place  to  place  in  the  cntjo'.! 
and  sat  in  court  on  all  important  occasions,  for  which  r»  «-«'  .| 
his  i^ople  called  him  the  living  law — lex  animaftt,  I>.  ji 
1291,  and  was  buried  at  Spires.  His  Life  hasbt>en  wriUtt 
by  Lichnowski  (1836),  Sch5nhuth  (1843),  and  Him  (1M7).- 
Rudolph  II.  (1576-1612),  b.  July  18,  1552,  a  son  of  the  Kim 
peror  Maximilian  II.  and  Mane,  daughter  of  Charh->  \. 
was  educated  at  the  Spanish  court ;  crowned  King  of  Iltiu 
gary  in  1572,  of  Bohemia  in  1575,  and  elected  Kmperur  <• 
Germany  after  his  father*s  death  Oct.  12,  1576.  H»?  u.. 
superstitious,  weak,  and  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Je>^ui!i 
Immediately  after  his  accession  to  the  throne  the  Protest«iv 
worship  was  forbidden  throughout  his  Austrian  dominioip 
the  Protestant  schools  were  closed,  and  the  preatdiers  ntu 
teachers  banished.  In  the  empire  he  espousea  the  caiiM^  « » 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  with  violence,  and  the  format  ii  >i 
of  the  Protestant  Union  (May  4, 1608)  and  the  Roman  Caih 
olic  League  (July  10, 1609)  brought  Germany  to  the  verp.*  ■  ■ 
civil  war.  Meanwhile,  the  Hungarians  arose  and  Boheniii 
revolted.  The  house  of  Austria  seemed  near  its  ruin  win  j 
Matthias,  a  younger  brother  of  the  emperor,  took  the  lead  ii 
the  affairs  of  the  family,  and  compelled  Rudolph  to  cimIo  u 
him  all  his  hereditary  possessions.  Unable  to  maintain  I  i 
authority  in  the  empire,  and  embittered  by  his  misfortinit  << 
the  emperor  retired  into  private  life,  and  died  at  Prague,  J  .i  1 1 
20, 1612.  He  felt  some  interest  in  science  and  literature.  «:' 
several  great  scholars  and  scientists  lived  at  his  court,  ii  • 
Life  has  been  written  by  Gindely  (1863-65)  and  von  He/.  :. 
(18.S5).  Rt'vised  by  F.  M.  l\>Lin 

RnMolstadt :  town  of  (Jermany;  capital  of  the  p'-i*. 
cipality  of  Schwarzburg-Kudolstatit ;  beautifully  situaw. 
on  the  Saale,  IH  miles  S.  of  Weimar  (see  map  of  (Jert'ui 
Empire,  ref.  5-K).  It  has  a  fine  palace  with  a  pioturr-tra. 
lerv  ancl  a  librarv,  and  manufactures  of  woolens,  iMinv'-».n 
and  dyestuffs.     Pop.  (1890)  11,398. 


206 


RULE  NISI 


RULING-MACHINES 


hyperboloid  of  revolution  is  generated  by  a  line  revolving 
round  an  axis  which  it  does  not  intersect.  Ruled  surfaces 
of  the  second  order,  such  as  those  mentioned,  can  be  gen- 
erated by  the  movement  of  a  line  in  two  distinct 
ways;  and  each  line  of  one  system  intersects 
all  the  lines  of  the  other  system.  This  is  not  the 
case  with  other  ruled  surfaces.  The  surface  is 
called  a  developable,  that  is,  capable  of  being 
opened  out  into  a  plane,  if  two  consecutive  gen- 
erating lines  intersect  If  the  intersection  is 
a  fixed  point,  the  surface  is  a  cone,  and  if  the 
lines  are  parallel  the  surface  is  a  cylinder.  See 
Cone  and  Hyperboloid.  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Rule  Nisi :  in  law,  a  rule  or  order  obtained 
on  an  ex  parte  motion,  which,  after  due  service 
upon  the  party  agapist  whom  the  rule  is  ob- 
tained, will  be  mf^e  absolute,  unless  {nisi)  the 
partv  appears  and  shows  good  cause  whyit  should 
not  be  made  absolute.  F.  S.  A. 

Rule  of  the  Road :  See  Road,  Law  op  the. 

RaHn^-machines :  instruments  designed  for 
the  subdivision  of  a  given  unit  of  length  into 
any  required  number  of  parts,  either  equal  or  un- 
equal. These  are  called  "  line-dividing  engines" 
or  "  circular-dividing  engines,"  according  as  the 
unit  to  be  subdivided  is  a  rectilineal  measure  or 
a  circular  arc. 

The  circular-dividing  engine  consists  of  a  disk 
capable  of  accurate  movement  about  a  true  cen- 
ter and  of  suitable  mechanism  for  making  this 
movement  automatic.  A  graduating  attachment 
produces  automatically  the  marks  upon  the  metal 
surface  which  correspond  to  the  movement  in 
revolution.  There  are,  in  general,  two  types  of  mechanism 
by  which  the  movement  in  revolution  is  effected.  Accord- 
ing to  the  first  type,  the  disk  is  moved  by  means  of  a  gear 
and  a  worm  cut  in  the  perij>hery  of  the  clisk.  In  this  type, 
the  accuracy  of  the  subdivision  depends  entirely  upon  the 
accurate  workmanship  of  the  worm  and  gear.  Since  the 
action  is  automatic  there  is  no  chance  for  the  correction  of 
known  errors  during  the  operation  of  graduation.  In  the 
second  type  the  subdivision  is  effected  by  means  of  an  arm 
attached  to  the  disk,  by  which  it  is  carried  a  definite  distance, 
determined  by  the  position  of  two  metal  stops,  one  of  which 
is  fixed,  while  the  other  is  adjustable  by  means  of  a  stout  mi- 
crometer screw.  The  arm  is  connected  with  the  revolving 
disk  by  means  of  electro-magnets.  These  clamp  the  arm  to 
the  disk  during  the  forward  motion  and  are  released  during 
the  backward  motion. 

In  the  operation  of  the  engine  it  is  assumed  that  the  mas- 
ter circle  has  been  graduatea  without  sensible  error  by  suc- 


cle  can  be  exactly  copied,  and  still  further  subdivision  can 
be  effected  by  setting  the  stops  at  the  distance  apart  requirt^l 
to  produce  aliquot  subdivisions.    Suppose,  for  example,  that 


Fio.  1.— Screw-cutting  machine. 


cessive  approximations;  at  least  to  single  degrees.    When 
the  stops  are  set  at  the  proper  distance  apart  the  master  cir- 


FiQ.  2.— The  Rogers  dividing-engine,  front  view. 

it  is  required  to  graduate  a  circle  to  ten  minutes  of  ktc.  Fi  r-t 
the  stops  are  set  to  correspond  to  this  distance  approxiniair^- 
ly.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  this  can  be  done  with  tie 
utmost  exactness,  but  when  the  machine  is  started  in  <)|h  tm- 
tion  the  microscope  under  which  the  lines  of  the  master  cir 
cle  are  viewed,  having  a  high  magnifying  power,  will  ph-^jv 
detect  any  deviation  as  small  as  one-tenth  of  a  second  of  an  . 
As  soon  as  the  slightest  deviation  is  detected  it  can  be  tN-r- 
rected  by  the  motion  of  the  adjustable  stop,  since  ten  divi- 
sions of  the  micrometer  screw  by  which  this  movement  i^ 
effected  are  etjuivalent  to  this  distance.  Thus  an  aix-uinu- 
lation  of  errors  can  be  prevented  while  the  engine  is  jh 
operation,  and  before  any  sensible  error  has  been  intr«- 
duced. 

The  Line-dividing  Engine, — The  movement  by  whirh  th»' 
subdivision  of  a  given  unit  may  be  effected,  as  shown  in 
Pigs.  2  and  3,  is  Usually  produced  by  a  screw  of  superior 
construction.  A  perfect  screw,  however,  can  give  g<xHl  n- 
sults  only  when  it  is  properly  connected  with  the  nilinij  car- 
riage. If  the  screw  has  considemble  length  and  a  relative  Iv 
small  diameter  the  fiexure  must  be  taken  into  account.  All 
kinds  of  constrained  motion  must  be  avoided,  since  urxirr 
changes  of  temperature  the  effect  of  this  constrained  ««>ii..ri 
will  be  variable.  Usually  the  carriage  to  which  motion  is 
given  by  the  nut  moves  over  V-shape<l  ways.  Since,  in  tht- 
construction  of  ways  of  this  form,  it  is,  to  say  the  lea>t,  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  maintain  plane  surfaces  upon  both  Mir- 
faces  of  the  ways  and  at  the  same  time  to  maintain  the  in 
straight  and  parallel,  this  form  of  construction  is  to  l*^ 
avoided  in  a  dividing-engine  in  which  great  preeision  i> 
desired.  The  form  of  ways  shown  in  Fig.  3  is  to  bo  |»n  - 
ferred.  In  this  form  each  way  is  perfected  independent  h 
by  measurement  tests  made  during  the  process  of  const  na- 
tion. It  has  been  found  to  be  not  at  all  difficult  to  reiiiK  r 
the  departure  from  a  true  plane  to  a  limit  correspondin::  !" 
a  radius  of  curvature  as  great  as  500  miles  for  a  diMancv  ef 
40  inches. 

The  carriage  moved  by  the  nut  and  the  screw  is  kcf^t  m 
contact  with  the  face  of  the  vertical  wall  by  means  of  c  yln- 
drical  plugs  backed  by  springs  actin|2^  against  the  opiH.>-5' 
wall.  In  Pig.  3  the  plate  shown  at  2  is  pressetl  against  tlu' 
left  wall  at  1,  and  tne  spring  plugs  act  against  the  riizfit 
wall. 

In  the  constniction  of  a  screw  for  a  dividing-engine  four 
difficulties  must  be  overcome  if  great  precision  is  doiriii. 
(1)  Every  half  of  every  revolution  of  the  screw  must  at  e\»n 
point  be  equal  to  every  other  half.  Errors  which  dejKixl 
upon  a  single  revolution  of  the  screw  are  called  peri««ii«- 
errors  of  single  revolution.  The  writer  has  had  good  suc- 
cess in  the  elimination  of  errors  of  this  class  by  grinding  the 


208 


RtJMl 


RUNES 


instrumental  in  founding  the  Royal  Institution  in  London 
in  that  year ;  settled  at  Paris  and  published  his  Philosoph- 
ical Paj>ers  (vol.  iv.  of  his  Eamya,  1802) ;  married  the  widow 
of  Lavoisier  1804,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  quiet 
prosecution  of  his  scientific  studies  at  his  wife's  villa  at 
Auteuil,  near  Paris,  where  he  died  Aug.  21, 1814.  He  con- 
tributed to  science  a  considerable  number  of  valuable  ob- 
servations and  discoveries,  especially  upon  his  favorite  sub- 
ject, that  of  heat,  of  which  ne  came  near  discovering  the 
mechanical  equivalent ;  made  a  series  of  experiments  which 
directly  led  at  a  later  period  to  the  discovery  of  the  correla- 
tion of  forces ;  was  also  one  of  the  pioneers  of  modem  re- 
searches in  optics  and  magnetism ;  left  prizes  to  be  awarded 
by  the  Royal  Society  of  London  and  the  American  Academy 
oi  Sciences  at  Boston  for  discoveries  on  light  and  heat,  and 
was  himself  the  recipient  of  the  first  Rumford  prize  from 
the  Royal  Society ;  and  endowed  in  Harvard  College  the  Rum- 
ford  professorship  of  the  physical  and  mathematical  sciences 
as  applied  to  the  useful  arts.  See  his  Life^  by  Rev.  Dr.  George 
E.  Ellis  (1871),  and  his  Works,  edited  by  the  same  gentleman 
<4  vols.,  London,  1876). 

RumT,  roo-mee',  JikLlL  ad-dIk  :  Persian  Sufi  poet  and  phil- 
osophic t«acher ;  b.  at  Balkh,  a.  d.  1207.  He  was  descended 
of  high  ancestry  and  his  father,  Baha  ad-dIn  Valad  was  so 
famous  for  his  learning  and  the  influence  of  his  teaching 
as  to  excite  the  enmity  of  the  jealous  sultan,  and  to  be 
obliged  in  consequence  to  leave  Balkh  with  his  family. 
After  various  travels  he  found  his  way  to  Asia  Minor  and 
settled  at  Iconium,  where  he  founded  a  college  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Sultan  of  Riim,  as  Asia  Minor  is  termed 
in  the  Orient.  Hence  the  appellation  RumI,  by  which  his 
more  distinguished  son  is  known.  Jalal  ad-din  was  an  en- 
thusiastic student,  and  his  thirst  for  spiritual  knowledge 
was  fostered  under  his  father's  teaching.  His  father  died  in 
1231,  and  Jalal  continued  under  scholarly  guidance  zealous- 
ly to  pursue  his  studies,  and  he  succeeded  ultimatelv  to  his 
father's  chair  and  to  the  superintendence  of  the  colleges  of 
Iconium.  Sorrow,  which  came  to  him  in  the  untimely 
death  of  his  son  and  in  the  sad  fate  of  a  beloved  teacher, 
seems  to  have  deepened  his  religious  devotion,  to  have  given 
tone  to  his  mystic  philosophv,  and  at  the  same  time  to  have 
•enriched  his  poetic  talents,  lie  became  the  founder  of  the 
Maulavi  sect  of  dervishes,  and  his  zealous  devotion  to  this 
order  seems  to  have  been  a  source  of  inspiration  for  his 
spiritual  and  mystic  odes.  His  great  work  is  the  Mastiavi, 
or  MathnatA,  a  production  of  high  poetic  merit,  religious 
fervor,  and  philosophic  thought.  It  is  a  huge  collection  of 
precepts  and  tales,  and  it  comprises  between  30,000  and 
40,000  rhymed  couplets.  Jalal  ad-dIn  Rumi  died  in  1273, 
shortly  aft«r  the  completion  of  this  monument,  by  which  his 
name  is  known  to  fame.  His  teachings  and  doctrines  con- 
tinued to  be  cherished  by  the  Maulavi  sect  that  he  had 
founded,  and  the  leadership  of  this  dervish  order  has  tra- 
ditionally remained  in  the  direct  line  of  his  descendants. 
There  is  a  versified  translation  of  the  first  book  of  the 
Mci»nat%  by  J.  W.  Redhouse  (London,  1881,  TrQbner's  Ori- 
-ental  Series),  a  volume  which  should  be  consulted  for  fuller 
particulars.  Selected  portions  have  been  rendered  into 
German  by  Rosenzweig  (Vienna,  1838).  For  other  details, 
see  Sir  Gore  Ouseley,  Biographical  Notices  of  Persian  Poets, 
pp.  112-116  (London,  1846);  H.  Ethe,  in  Morgenldndische 
tStudien,  p.  95,  se^,  (Leipzig,  1870) :  S.  Robinson,  Persian 
Poetry  for  English  Readers,  pp.  367-381  (Glasgow,  1883). 

A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Rumohr,  roo'mor,  Theodor  Wilhelh  :  novelist;  b.  in 
Copenhagen,  Denmark,  Aug.  2,  1807.  His  romances,  of 
which  he  wrote  a  great  number,  treat  for  the  most  part  of 
popular  national  heroes,  such  as  Niels  Juel  and  Tordenskjold. 
His  collected  works,  Foedrelands  historiske  Malerier  (14 
vols.),  were  published  at  Copenhagen,  1850-65.     D.  K.  D. 

Rump  Parliament:  the  popular  name  applied  in  English 
history  to  a  remnant  of  the  Long  Parliament,  It  consisted  of 
sixty  members,  who,  after  the  expulsion  of  three-fourths  of 
that  body,  Dec.  6, 1648  (known  as  rride's  Purge),  were  allowed 
by  Cromwell  to  carry  on  the  farce  of  legislation,  and  co- 
operated with  him  and  with  the  army  in  effecting  the  trial 
and  condemnation  of  Charles  I.  The  Rump,  having  at- 
tempted to  resist  certain  encroachments  of  the  army,  was 
dissolved  by  Cromwell  Apr.  20,  1653 ;  was  restorcrr  by  a 
military  movement  during  the  protectorate  of  Richard 
Cromwell;  was  a  second  time  expelled  by  the  army  Oct.  13, 
1659;  reassembled  on  the  advance  of  Gen.  Monk  from  Scot- 
land 1660,  and  decreed  its  own  dissolution  Mar.  16,  1660. 


Ramsey,  James  :  inventor;  b.  at  Bohemia  Manor,  CcH-il 
CO.,  Md.,  about  1743;  became  a  machinist;  made  several 
improvements  in  the  mechanism  of  mills;  in  Sept.,  17M, 
exnibited  on  the  Potomac  river,  in  the  presence  of  (i<-ii. 
Washington,  a  boat  which  ascended  the  stream  by  mp<'l»an- 
ical  appliances;  in  1785  was  granted  by  the  Assembly  of 
Pennsylvania  exclusive  right  for  ten  years  *t  to  navi^jit*- 
and  build  boats  calculated  to  work  with  greater  ea>e  hiui 
rapidity  against  rapid  rivers."  A  year  later  he  intnKlu**-! 
a  steam-engine  of  nis  own  constniction  into  his  boat  on  1 1*. 
Potomac ;  obtained  a  patent  for  steam-navigation  from  t)i«- 
State  of  Virginia  1787 ;  published  at  Philadelphia  his  Shf»ri 
Treatise  on  the  Application  of  Steam  (1788),  which  invoh  «-•! 
him  in  a  controversy  with  John  Fitch  ;  organized  at  Phila- 
delphia a  Rumsey  Society  for  the  promotion  of  st»»am- 
navigation  1788;  went  to  England  soon  afterward  ;  or^jau- 
ized  there  a  similar  society;  built  a  new  steamboat ;  c re- 
tained patents  in  England,  France,  and  Holland,  and  niudc 
a  successful  trip  on  t-he  Thames  in  Dec..  1792.  D.  sudden  Iv 
in  London,  Dec.  23, 1792. 

Raneorn :  town ;  in  Cheshire,  England  ;  on  the  estuary 
pf  the  Mersey ;  12  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Liverpool  (see  maji  ilf 
England,  ref.  7-F).  The  Mersey  is  crossed  here  bv  a  rail- 
way viaduct  1,500  feet  long  and  95  feet  above  high  water. 
There  is  a  large  traffic  by  the  Bridgewater  Canal,  whi<  h 
enters  the  river  at  Runcorn  by  a  succession  of  locks.  Tin- 
industries  include  ship-buildmg,  jope-making,  quarr>intr, 
etc.    Pop.  (1891)  20,05(). 

Runeberg,  roo'ne-bArch,  Johan  Ludvio  :  poet ;  b.  at  Jnkt  >\  >- 
stad,  Finland,  Feb.  5,  1804;  studied  at  the  Univer^itv  "f 
Abo  from  1822  to  1827.  In  1830  he  became  lector  of  a-sth^-t- 
ics  at  the  University  of  Helsingsfors,  and  published  his>  ilr>t 
collection  of  poems,  but  removed  in  1837  to  Borgi,  aud  in 
1842  became  Professor  of  Greek  Literature  at  that  gymna- 
sium. Although  he  was  born  in  Finland  and  spent  his'w  h<  ■  U* 
life  in  that  country,  he  wrote  in  Swedish ;  and  although  h»' 
was  liberally  supported  by  the  Russian  Government,  ht'  jsan;: 
the  valor  and  perseverance  of  his  countrvmen  in  resist  in  j; 
the  invading  and  conquering  Russians.  Tne  immense  pdpii- 
larity  which  his  poems  acquired  both  in  Finland  and  Swetitn 
was  principally  due  to  his  talent.  His  genius  was  lyric-t»pi«% 
and  nis  lyrical  faculty  was  delicately  harmonious. '  His  nu- 
merous minor  poems  evince  a  strong  sense  of  realitv.  Hi^ 
idyls,  Hanna  (1836)  and  Julqvdllen  (Christmas  Eve',  1841 «, 
and  his  tales  in  verse,  Elgskyttame  (The  Elk-hunters,  1K>*J» 
and  Nodeschda  (1841),  are  true  epics,  with  a  lyrical  swiu*:  .n 
the  outlines.  His  dramas,  of  which  Kungame  pd  Salfirfun 
(1863),  a  tragedy  in  antique  form,  is  the  most  remarkuttl* . 
contain  real  characterization.  The  most  celebrated  of  hi^ 
works  is  Fdnrik  Stdls  Sdgner  (Ensi^  Staal's  Tales,  i.,  1^^4^^ ; 
ii.,  1860),  a  collection  of  ballads  treating  subjects  taken  fMiu 
the  war  between  Sweden  and  Russia,  when  Finland  was  con- 
quered by  the  latter.    D.  at  Borg&,  May  6,  1877. 

Revised  by  D.  K.  Doihje. 

Runes  [0.  Eng.  run,  rune,  secret,  mystery  :  Icel.  riin  :  Ci. 
H.  Germ,  runa  :  Goth.  rUna,  secret,  mystery';  cf.  Gr.  4pw^aw, 
track  out,  deriv.  of  Kptwa,  search] :  the  earliest  graphic  svjsieni 
used  among  the  Germanic  tribes.  The  name  rune,  first  nit^n- 
tioned  by  \^nantius  Fortunatus  (sixth  century  a.  d.),  and  nu^t 
probably  older  than  the  letters  themselves,  may  in  iis  firvt 
meaning  have  been  applied  to  the  not(B  of  Tacitus  {fjtrm., 
c.  10),  which  were  cut  on  staves  and  used  for  divination  b> 
the  priests  for  sorcery  and  as  charms.  Whether  the  ruiifV 
were  already  known  at  the  time  of  Tacitus  is  very  doubtful, 
though  the  Germans  were  not  ignorant  of  writing ;  tlio  /«/- 
terarum  secreia  {Germ.,  c.  19)  refei-s  to  secret  correspondenin.*. 
The  investigations  of  Kirchhofl  and  Wimmer  are  the  only 
ones  that  satisfactorilv  account  for  the  origin  of  the  rune>'; 
the  Latin  alphabet  of  the  early  empire  is  the  source  nf  th.- 
twenty-four  runes  of  the  oldest  alphabet.  The  que^tii>Il  hs 
to  the'  date  of  its  introduction  is  more  difficult  to  settlo. 
The  fact  that  Ulfilas  (died  381  A.  D.)  chose  two  runic  char- 
acters in  devising  his  Gothic  alphal>et  justifies  us  in  fixing 
the  date  with  certainty  as  early  as  the  close  of  the  seotnti 
century.  That  this  alphabet  was  common  to  all  (iemiaMK- 
peoples  is  proven  by  the  corresponding  names  of  the  htt«  in 
and  by  the  inscriptions  on  three  monuments :  the  Sweili-h 
hractea  of  Vadstena,  with  twenty-three  signs;  the  tla-p 
found  at  Charnay,  in  Burgundy,  with  twent;^  runes ;  and  ti.t' 
short  sword  found  in  the  Thames,  containing  twenty-i'iu'iit 
characters.  The  first  two  are  the  older,  and  date  pn^bnMy 
from  the  seventh  century.  The  latter  inscription  (about  Ni> 
A.  D.)  slightly  deviates  from  the  original  order,  and  i>how> 


■lll 


r 


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•I 


( 


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h 

1U 


i'lr^    UKisH'-u    '-'I   *    MiiTir^    II.    K*j   tti9 


r,  lJl^l•|.!•r 
IC♦^J«|r*^(• 


210 


RUSH 


RUSK 


on  the  shores  of  Lake  Ladoga,  he  and  his  brothers  Sineus 
and  Truvor  crossed  the  Baltic  and  subjugated  this  region. 
He  soon  extended  his  dominion  to  the  east  and  south,  and 
in  863  he  established  himself  in  Novgorod  and  ruled  the 
country  as  absolute  monarch  until  his  death,  which  occurred 
about  '880.  Ilis  descendants  ruled  Russia  for  more  than 
700  years  until  1598,  and  Russian  princes  still  trace  their 
pedigrees  to  Rurik.  See  Russia;  also  C.  C'.  Rafn,  Anti- 
quites  liusaes.  Rasmus  B.  Anderson. 

Rush  [M.  Ene.  r^ische^  risrhe  <  O.  Eng.  riace,  Cf.  Lat. 
rwa'cMw,  butcher^  broom,  whence  probably  the  O.  Eng.  form] : 
any  plant  of  a  family  {Juncacece)  of  monocotyledonous  herbs, 
of  which  the  genus  Juncus  is  the  type  ;  also  any  one  of  va- 
rious plants  belonging  to  the  Cyveracem  (mostly  species  of 
Seirpus)j  with  naked,  tough,  and  flexible  stems.  There  are 
many  species,  mostly  in  wet  and  cold  regions.  They  are 
employed  in  making  chair-bottoms,  mats,  etc.  Rushes  are 
used  m  Europe  for  strewing  the  floors  of  cottages  instead  of 
carpets.  The  pith  of  some  kinds  is  used  sometimes  for  a  can- 
dle-wick ;  hence  the  name  rushlight.  Most  of  the  numerous 
species  found  in  the  U.  S.  are  also  European  and  Asiatic. 
Juncus  hulbo8U8  is  the  black  grass  of  the  salt-marshes,  and 
makes  excellent  hay.  Scirpua  lacu^tria  is  called  bulrush  in 
the  East,  and  tule  in  California,  where  it  covers  vast  areas 
of  wet  land.  Revised  by  Cuaelles  E.  Bessey. 

Rash,  Benjamin,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence;  b.  at  Byberry,  near  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Jan.  4,  1746;  graduated  at  Princeton  1760;  studied 
medicine  at  Philadelphia,  Edinburgh,  London,  and  Paris ; 
began  practice  at  Philadelphia  Aug.,  1769,  being  at  the 
same  time  chosen  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  medical  col- 
lege of  that  city ;  was  a  member  of  the  provincial  confer- 
ence of  Pennsylvania  1776,  in  which  he  moved  the  resolu- 
tion to  consider  the  expediency  of  a  declaration  of  inde- 
])endence ;  was  chosen  to  the  C-ontinental  C'ongre^  to  flU  a 
vacancy  in  June,  and  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  July  4,  1776.  He  was  surgeon  to  the  Pennsylvania  navy 
1775-76,  was  appointed  in  Apr.,  1777,  surgeon-general,  and 
in  July  physician-general,  of  the  military  hospitals  for  the 
middle  department;  resigned  that  post  Feb.,  1778,  and  re- 
sumed his  duties  as  professor  ana  practitioner  in  Phila- 
delphia ;  established  m  1785  the  flrst  dispensary  in  the 
U.  S. ;  was  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  convention  of 
1787  for  the  ratiflcation  of  the  Federal  Constitution ;  pub- 
lished four  letters  to  the  people  of  Pennsylvania  pointing 
out  the  defects  of  the  Constitution  of  1^76;  sat  in  the 
convention  which  formed  the  constitution  of  1780  ;  ex- 
changed his  professorship  for  that  of  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  medicine  on  the  death  of  Dr.  John  Morgan,  Oct., 
1789;  rendered  eminent  services  to  humanity  during  the 
yellow-fever  epidemic  of  1793,  which  were  subsequently 
recognized  by  testimonials  from  the  King  of  Prusvsia  (1805), 
the  Queen  of  Etruria  (1807),  and  the  Emperor  of  Russia 
(1811);  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Dickinscm  College,  vice- 
president  of  the  Philadelphia  Bible  Society  and  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  president  of  the  Philmlel- 
phia  Medical  Society  and  of  the  Society  for  the  Abolition 
of  Slavery,  and  was  treasurer  of  the  U.  S.  mint  from  1799 
until  his  death,  in  Philadelphia,  Apr.  19,  1813.  From  his 
nineteenth  year  he  was  a  frequent  writer  upon  professional, 
scientific,  political,  religious,  social,  and  ethical  topics.  Se- 
lections from  his  protluctions  were  republished  under  the 
title  Medical  Inquiries  and  ObHervaiions  (5  vols.,  1789-98; 
2tl  ed.,  4  vols.,  1804 ;  3d.  ed.,  4  vols.,  1809),  and  the  best  of 
his  miscellaneous  works  were  collecte<i  by  himself  into  three 
vols..  Medical  Inquiries  and  Observations  upon  the  Diseases 
of  the  Mind  (1813;  5th  ed.  1835);  Sixteen  Introductory 
Lectures  to  Courses  of  Medicine  (1811);  and  Essays,  Lit- 
erary, Moral  and  Philosoiihical  (1798;  2d  ed.  1806).  He 
had  published  an  early  volume  of  Medical  Tracts,  aud  left 
unfinished  a  treatise  on  The  Medicine  of  the  Bible. 

Rash,  Richard  ;  statesman  ;  son  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush  ; 
b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Aug.  29, 1780;  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton 1797;  was  admitted  to  the  Philadelphia  bar  1800;  be- 
came attorney-gj'neral  of  Pennsylvania  Jan.,  1811;  comp- 
troller of  the  State  treasury  Kov.,  1811 ;  was  Attorney- 
General  of  the  U.S.,  Feb.  10,  1814-l)ec,  15,  1817,  having 
temporarily  acted  as  Srcretary  of  State  in  the  latter  year; 
Wiis  minister  to  England  1817-25;  negotiated  treaties  re- 
specting the  fisheries  (1818),  the  northeastern  boundary,  the 
Oregon  question,  and  the  slaves  carried  from  the  U.  S.  in 
British  vessels  after  the  Treaty  of  Ghent ;  was  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  under  President  J.  (j.  Adams  1825-29  ;  was  a 


candidate  for  the  vice-presidency  on  the  ticket  with  Ailaini 
1828;  negotiated  in  Holland  a  loan  for  the  corporati«>n.^  "I 
the  District  of  Columbia  1829;  was  a  commissioner  to  w. 
just  the  boundary  between  Ohio  and  Michigan  1830;  w<i.i 
to  Great  Britain  in  1836  as  commissioner  to  lay  cluiiii  I'l 
the  chancery  court  to  the  Smithsonian  legacy  (see"S3iiTii->«  •*., 
James)  ;  returned  with  the  money  Aug.,  1838 ;  was*  iiiiiii*.t,  i 
in  France  1847-51,  after  which  he  spent  his  closing:  year^  v.\ 
retirement  at  Sydenham,  near  Philadelphia,  where 'lu*  < lit* I 
July  30, 1859.  Ue  wrote  much  in  periodicals  in  sui»]M>rt  cj 
the  war  of  1812,  against  the  U.  S.  Bank,  and  on  other  ^*^H  - 
iects;  superintended  the  publication  of  an  e<iiti(*n  of  li^i 
laws  of  the  U.  S.  (6  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1815);  e<iit«Mi  .| 
pamphlet,  Washington  in  Domestic  Life,  from  i>ri<jin':\ 
Letters  and  Manuscripts  (1857),  and  published  two  vtdum.  i 
of  reminiscences  of  court  life  in  London.  His  soi]>  puUi 
lished  in  1860  his  Occasional  Product  ions,  Pbliticai^  iJtpio^ 
matic,  and  Miscellafieous.  i 

RashTiUe :  town ;  capital  of  Schuyler  co.,  III. ;  on  t ;  h 
Chi.,  Burl,  and  (^uincy  Railroad;  11  niiles  N.  W.  of  liear»i-^ 
town,  50  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Quincy  (for  location,  see  nj«p  .•  1 
Illinois,  ref.  6-C).  It  is  in  a  coal-mining,  grain,  and  fru.rn 
growing  region,  and  contains  a  number  of  manufacti>ri*— .  .{ 
State  bank  with  capital  of  $25,0(X),  a  private  bank,  a  puhl  i 
library,  and  a  tri-weekly,  a  monthly,  and  two  weekly  in^t:^ 
odicals.    Pop.  (1880)  1,662 ;  (1890)  2.031. 

RnshTllle :  city ;  capital  of  Rush  co..  Ind. :  on  Flat  K<  h  s 
creek,  and  the  Cin.,  Ham.  and  Dayton,  the  Cleve..  I'iii..  (  h-, 
and  St.  L.,  the  Ft.  Wayne,  Cin.  and  Louisv.  and  tlie  1*11!^, 
Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L.  railways ;  39  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Indiui  ^ 
apolis,  84  miles  N.  W.  of  Cincinnati  (for  l(K>ation,  see  map  .  i 
Indiana,  ref.  7-F).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region ;  luii 
manufactories  of  flour,  lumber,  furniture,  bent  wtK»d,  WH^hi 
ing-machines,  clay-working  machinery.  drain-pi|K%  shifn 
and  trousers,  extension-tables,  and  other  articles ;  and  c* .; , . 
tains  electric-light  and  natural-gas  plants,  8  c*hun-hf>,  ;J 
national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $200,000,  a  pris  nt>i 
bank,  and  a  semi-weekly  and  2  weekly  news|>a|iers.  l*..t  , 
(1880)  2,515;  (1890)  3,475;  (1894)  estimated.  4,000. 

Editor  of  "  REPrBLi«AN." 

Rush  worth,  John  ;  historical  writer;  b.  in  NorthiiniUr. 
land,  England,  about  1607;  educated  at  Oxford;  ^tti<iif^j 
law  at  Lincoln's  Inn ;  began  in  1630  to  take  notes<  <>f  pr-^ 
eeedings  in  the  higher  courts  and  in  Parliament ;  wais  k-. 
sistant  clerk  to  the  Long  Parliament;  became  secret  Hr\  'i 
Lord  Fairfax;  took  an  active  part  in  negotiations  <lurif  i 
the  civil  war;  was  for  many  years  a  member  of  Parliaiiu-ri*^ 
and  afterward  secretary  to  Lord  Keejter  Bridgrinan,  hut  l-  ^ 
coming  involved  in  debt  spent  his  la^t  years  (from  16M)  :-i 
the  Knig's  Bench  prison,  London,  where  he  died  AIhv  i  j, 
1690.  In  1659  he  began  the  publication  of  HisUn-icttl' (  \--'< 
lections  of  Private  Passages  of  State,  Weighty  Jfafft-rs  , '\ 
Law,  and  Pemarkable  Proceedings  in  Five  Plarlinfitf  t*!^ 
(from  1618  to  1648);  issued  vols.  ii.  and  iii.  in  16HO*  and  n 
the  same  year  his  Tryall  of  Thomas,  Earl  ofSfraJTrfrd.  1 J  ,| 
left  in  MS.  the  materials  for  vols.  iv.  and  v.,  which  were  j-^ 
sued  in  1692,  and  for  vols.  vi.  and  vii.,  completing  tht»  w<>r  k 
which  appeared  in  1701.  A  new  and  better  edition  <»f  t\:,\ 
whole,  together  with  the  Tryall,  was  reprinted  in  1721  si 
vols,  folio). 

Rusk:  town;  capital  of  Cherokee  co.,  Tex.;  on  the  S-, 
Ix)uis  S.  \V.  Railway;  16  miles  S.  E.  of  Jacksonville  {\.>t 
hx^ation,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  3-J).  It  is  in  an  a^rieu  < 
tural  and  iron-mining  region;  contains  a  branch  of  \\„\ 
State  penitentiary,  the  convicts  of  which  are  chiefly  t  ihh 
ployed  in  developing  the  iron  interests  of  the  vicinity  ;  h.n 
an  iron  furnace  at  the  penitentiary  and  another  l>«^tw««  u 
Rusk  and  New  Birmingham,  and  a  national  bank  with  cai.!- 
tal  of  ^50,000,  a  ])rivate  bank,  aud  two  weekly  new>iuiiH  >  ^ 
Pop.  (1880)  626;  (1890)  1,383. 

Rii9k,  Jeremiah  McLain:  agriculturist;  b.  in  M«>rc:i:>i 
CO.,  O.,  June  17,  18;iO;  brought  up  on  a  farm;  at  tiftTt^ri 
became  a  driver  of  a  stage-coach  between  ZanesviU**  ni  .; 
Newark  ;  removed  to  Wisconsin  1853,  where  he  tiianatr«<i  :.i 
farm  and  drove  a  stage;  elected  sheriff  1855;  m^^inK.r  i  :| 
Wisconsin  Legislature  1861;  enliste<l  in  Twenty- fifth  Wi^^ 
consin  Volunteer  Infantry  1862;  served  to  the  clus^e  <.f  t'  i 
war,  obtaining  the  rank  of  brigadier-general;  elected  St^::  i 
bank  comptroller  of  Wisconsin  1865;  re-elected  H<67  ;  i-Kv  ••  , 
ed  to  the  Forty-second  Congress  bv  the  Republicans  lsT«»  ' 
re-elected  to  the  Forty-third  and  I^orty-fourth  Conprv^-^-^  ' 
elected  Governor  of  Wisconsin  1881 ;  twice  re-^leotini.     Ti..  i 


212 


RUSSELL 


work  on  oil-painting,  and  one  which  had  a  large  circulation 
on  pastel,  under  the  title  Elements  of  Painting  trith  Crayons, 
lie  was  greatly  interested  in  astronomy,  and  drew  and  en- 
graved a  lunar  map  and  also  an  elaborate  machine  called 
the  selenographia,  for  showing  the  moon's  phases.  D.  Apr. 
20,  1806.  In  the  National  Portrait  Gallery,  London,  are 
portraits  in  oil-color  of  William  Wilber force  when  a  child, 
and  the  Rev.  Dr.  Dodd ;  also  a  pastel  portrait  of  Richard 
Brinsley  Sheridan,  the  dramatist  and  orator.  At  the  Royal 
Academy  permanent  exhibition  is  Russell's  diploma  pic- 
ture, Ruth  and  Naomi,  in  pastel.  At  the  Soutn  Kensm^- 
ton  Museum  are  several  pastel  drawings.  In  the  Louvre  is 
a  pastel  painted  in  1781,  A  Child  holding  Cherries.  Tlie 
greater  number  of  the  pictures  known  to  exist  are  in  private 
collections.  A  valuable  monograph  on  the  artist  and  his 
work,  with  manv  illustrations,  has  Leen  published  by  George 
V.  Williamson  (Ijondon,  1894).  Russell  Stubois. 

RusselU  John  Ritsskll,  Earl :  statesman :  third  son  of  the 
sixth  Duke  of  Bedfonl;  b.  in  London,  England,  Aug.  18, 
1792 ;  educated  at  Westminster  School  and  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh ;  traveled  in  Sf)ain  and  Portugal  during  the 
Peninsular  war  1809-10:  entered  Parliament  as  a  Whig 
1813,  representing  the  family  borough  of  Tavistock;  dis- 
played great  zeal  in  his  opposition  to  the  Tory  ministry  and 
m  advocacy  of  Roman  Catholic  emancipation  and  parlia- 
mentary reform ;  became  intimate  with  the  literary  men  of 
the  time;  published  the  Life  of  his  ancestor,  William,  Ijord 
Russell  (1819),  Af^  Essay  on  the  History  of  the  English 
Government  and  Constitution  (1821),  Memoirs  of  tike  Af- 
fairs of  Europe  from  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  (2  vols.,  1824-29), 
and  several  other  works ;  was  the  parliamentary  leader  of 
the  great  movement  which  effected  in  1828  the  repeal  of 
the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  in  1829  the  emancipation  of 
the  Roman  Catholics,  and  in  1832  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  modern  era  of  English  historv  bv  the  long-delayed  vic- 
tory of  the  Reform  Bill.  In  18^0-34  Lord  John  Russell 
was  paymaster  of  the  forces  in  the  Grey  administration ; 
was  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Departuient  1835-39, 
and  afterward  for  War  and  the  Colonics  (1839^1)  in  the^iec-' 
ond  Melbourne  ministry,  of  which  he  was  theTeader  in^the 
House  of  Commons.  He  carried  several  important  meaMlrte 
of  reform  in  regard  to  ecclesiastical  and  municipal  affairs, 
education,  marriage,  and  civil  and  criminal  law ;  ,was  re- 
turned to  Parliament  in  the  election  of  1841  for  the;cityof 
London,  which  he  continued  to  represent  for  maiiy  years  j 
was  the  leader  of  the  opposition  to  the  Peel  ministry '184W 
45;  declared  in  favor  of  the  immediate  re|>eal  of  the  Corn- 
laws  Nov.,  1845,  upon  which  basis  he  was  mvited  to  form  a 
ministry  Dec,  1845,  but  failed  through  the  dissensions  of 
Earl  Grey  and  Lord  Palmerston,  and  had  to  yield  to  Sir 
Robert  Peel  the  honor  of  procuring  the  enactment  of  the 
repeal.  Upon  the  dissolution  of  the  old  Tory  party  in  1846. 
Lord  John  Russell  became  Prime  Minister  and  First  Lord 
of  the  Treasury,  and  conducted  the  affairs  of  state  through 
the  difficult  period  embracing  the  Irish  famine,  the  Chartist 
agitations,  and  the  continental  revolutions  of  1848-49.  His 
ministrv  was  overthrown  in  Feb.,  1852,  but  the  Earl  of  Derby 
having  been  unsuccessful  in  his  attempt  to  carry  on  the  gov- 
ernment, the  Aberdeen  cabinet  was  formed  Dec,  1852,  in 
which  Lord  John  Russell  accepted  the  position  of  Secretary 
of  Foreign  Affairs.  He  introduced  a  new  Reform  Bill  1854; 
became  C!olonial  Secretary  in  the  first  Palmerston  ministry 
Feb.,  1855,  and  soon  afterward  went  as  commissioner  to  the 
Vienna  Conference,  intending  to  put  an  end  to  the  Crimean 
war,  but  lost  public  favor  by  his  support  of  the  Austrian 

i)n)gramme,  and  retired  from  the  cabinet  July  16.  In 
lune,  1859,  he  returned  to  office  as  Secretary  of  Foreign 
Affairs  in  the  second  Palmerston  ministrv ;  was  elevated  to 
the  i)eerage  as  Earl  Russell  of  Kingston-kussell  July,  1861 ; 
favored  tne  cause  of  Italian  unity  and  independence,  and 
protested  against  the  annexation  of  Nice  and  Savoy  by 
France;  incurred  severe  criticism  by  his  course  toward  the 
U.  S.  during  the  civil  war,  es|)ecially  in  the  Trent  and  Ala- 
bama affairs,  as  also  by  his  fruitless  manifestations  of  sym- 
pathy for  Poland  and  Denmark  in  their  struggles  with  Rus- 
sia and  Germany.  On  the  death  of  Lord  Palmerston,  Earl 
Russell  again  Ijiecame  Prime  Minister,  Oct.,  1865,  Mr.  Glad- 
stone being,  however,  the  real  leader  of  the  cabinet,  which 
resigned  in  June,  1866.  Aftor  tliat  period  lie  accepti'd  no 
office,  but  took  an  active  part  in  the  debates  of  the  House 
of  Lords  and  devoted  himself  anew  to  literature.  He  edited 
the  Correspondence  of  John,  Fourth  Duke  of  Bedford  (3 
vols.,  1842-46),  the  Memorials  and  Corres/Hjudence  of  C.  J. 


Fox  (4  vols.,  1853-57),  the  Memoirs,  Journal,  and  Ctprre- 
spondence  of  Thomas  Moore  (1852-56)  and  selections  from 
his  own  Speeches  and  Dispatches  (1870) ;  and  wrote  the  /^i  '* 
and  Times  of  C.  J.  Fox  (1859-66),  The  Rise  and  /Vo^/as 
of  the  Christian  Religion  in  the  West  of  Euro^je  (187^1).  ami 
an  autobiographical  work.  Recollections  and  Suga&sft'ttnn, 
1815-73  (1875).  D.  at  Richmond  Park,  Surrev,  Mav  2*-, 
1878.  Revised  by  F.  .Vl.  Colby. 

RusseU,  John  Scott,  F.  R.  S.  :  naval  engineer ;  b.  in  t  be 
Vale  of  Clyde,  Scotland,  in  1808 ;  studied  at  the  Univensit  'u'< 
of  Edinburgh,  St.  Andrews,  and  Glasgow,  graduating  at  t  it».* 
latter  1824 ;  devoted  himself  to  applied  mechanics,  engineer- 
ing, and  natural  philosophy;  delivered  a  course  of  lecturi-^ 
on  the  last  subject  in  the  Lfniversity  of  Edinburgh  in  1K5*J  : 
engaged  at  Edmburgli  in  the  const^ruction  of  small  steam- 
boats for  canal  and  river  navigation,  and  of  steam-carria<r«'^ 
which  ran  upon  the  common  roads  between  Paisley  and 
Glasgow ;  introduced  the  wave  system  into  the  const ructi..ii 
of  ocean  steamships  1885 ;  established  himself  in  I^inilon 
1844  as  a  builder  of  the  largest  class  of  steamships,  and 
built  the  Great  Eastern,  which  was  designed  by  Briiiirl 
upon  his  system ;  read  in  1857  to  the  British  Associati<»n  a 
paper  upon  The  Mechanical  Structure  of  the  Great  S/itp : 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Institution  of  Naval  Arihi- 
tects,  of  which  he  was  vice-president,  and  contributes!  larir**- 
ly  to  its  Transactions.  He  published  an  elaborate  and  e<  wt  ly 
illustrated  work.  The  Modem  System  of  Naval  Architr^f  ur*^ 
for  Commerce  and  War  (1864)  and  of  Systematic  and  Ttth- 
nical  Education  for  the  English  People  (1869).  He  was  ^ .]  1 
known  as'a  philanthropist.  D.  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  June  ^. 
1882. 

Rnssell,  Jonathan,  LL.  D.:  statesman;  b.  at  Pn»vi- 
dence,  R.  I.,  in  1771 ;  graduated  at  Brown  University  ITIH  ; 
studied  law,  but  exchanged  its  practice  for  commercial  pur- 
suits; was  an  accomplished  and  effective  writer  an<i  an 
active  politician;  was  U.  S.  minister  to  Swetlen  1H14~1*^: 
signed  the  Treaty  of  Ghent  1814  as  one  of  the  five  Aiiiericari 
commissioners,  and  was  menilier  of  Congress  1821-2;J.  l». 
at  Milton,  Mass.,  Feb.  19,  1832. 

.  RnsseU,  William,  Ijord :  statesman;  son  of  the  fifth 
;l?arl  of  Bedfortl;  b.  in  England,  Sept.  29, 1639;  educate<l  »t 
Cambridge;  entered  Parliament  1660;  married  Lady  RiuImI. 
daughter  of  Thomas  Wriothesley,  Earl  of  Southami>U>n,  ai.«l 
widow  of  Lord  Francis  Vaughan.  1669 :  first  became  pronu- 
nent  in  1673  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Protes^tant  or 
*' country  party,"  which  carried  on  a  vigorous  oppi)sition  to 
the  unscrupulous  measures  of  the  court ;  proposed  in  No\.. 
1678,  the  removal  of  the  Duke  of  York  from  tne  royal  <'t»im- 
cils,  and  on  June  16, 1680,  appeared  Ijefore  the  kind's  Lti,,  h 
in  Westminster  to  present  that  prince  as  a  recu.wtnt.  and 
headed  the  deputation  of  200  members  of  the  Ii<)us4>  ot 
Commons  which  carried  up  to  the  House  of  Lords  tlu»  Im! 
for  the  exclusion  of  James  as  a  papist  from  the  suet -i-^^ ion. 
When  a  reaction  had  set  in  against  the  Protestant  alarmist  *, 
the  court  determined  to  be  revenged  upon  Russell,  Sidn*  ^  ] 
and  other  prominent  Whigs,  who  were  acconlingly  ac-<Mi-»<Mi 
bv  suborned  witnes^es  of  jMvrticipation  in  the  Rye  H(ui^» 
plot.  Arraigned  for  treason  at  the  Old  Bailey,"  July  i:;. 
1683,  Russell  was  refused  counsel,  but  his  wife  was  inxniit- 
t^d  to  act  as  his  secretary  during  the  trial.  Condeniiud  :.• 
death  and  attainted  July  14,  he  was  beheade<i  in  l>iinolt»*s 
Inn  Fields  July  21, 1683.  The  trial  was  in  violation  of  the- 
forms  of  law,  and  no  evidence  was  given  to  prove  him  g-uilt  > 
of  the  specific  offense  charge<l — ^i.  e.  conspiring  agaiii«»t  tl-.r 
life  of  the  king.  His  attainder  was  reverseii  after  the  n- vo- 
lution of  1688,  and  in  1694  his  father  was  made  I>ukv  of 
Bedfonl,  to  which  title  Lord  William's  son,  Wriotlu-l*  v, 
succeeded.  La<ly  Russell,  born  1636,  survived  her  hii>KHri<l 
forty  years,  and  died  at  Southampton  House,  Sept.  2l#,  1 7'j:;. 
Her'  Letters  to  her  husband  were  published  177H,  btN-arm- 
widelv  popular,  and  have  been  often  reprinted.  See  Lt  h  *'f 
Lord  Russell,  by  Lord  John  Russell,  1819. 

Rnssell,  William  Clark:  novelist;  b.,  of  English  parer'^, 
in  New  York,  Feb.  24,  1844.  He  si)ent  much  of  his  early  1  -  f  »• 
at  sea,  and  afterward  resided  near  Kamsgate.  England!  jir  d 
became  a  contributor,  mainly  on  nautical  topics,  to  I^on,i,.Ti 
journals.  He  has  publishe<l  a  large  numl)er  of  soa  st..r:.  ^ 
and  novels,  including  The  Wreck  of  the  Grosvenor  ( 1S7>*  •  i 
Sailor  ft  Sweetheart  {\Hm);  My  W'atch  Below  {\>i^\^  x  A  .s  , 
(^ueen  (1H83);  Round  the  Galley  Fire  {\\^M\  Jnrk^n  C<»u  ;- 
ship  (1884);  The  Frozen  Pirate  (1887);  The  Death  .S'.; 
(18S8);  Marooned  (1889);  The  Romance  of  Jenny  Hurl,  .. . 
(1889) ;  and  The  Good  Sfiip  Mohock  (1895).    H.  A.  Beers. 


214 


RUSSIA 


ter  of  Agriculture,  the  production  was,  in  bushels,  wheat, 
272,000,000;  rye.  792,000,000 ;  oats,  672,000,000 ;  and  barlev, 
176,000,000. 

The  ownership  of  the  1,098,507,780  acres  of  land  (exclu- 
sive of  Arctic  islands  and  of  40,925,060  acres  forming  the 
pasture-grounds  of  the  Kalmucks  and  Kirghiz)  comprising 
European  Russia  proper  was  in  1892  distributed  as  follows : 
The  state,  410,801,867;  the  imperial  family,  19,890,835;  the 
peasants,  873,310,496;  private  owners,  204,504,582.  The 
area  unfit  for  cultivation,  in  roads,  etc.,  was  210,058.770 
acres  (19*1  per  cent.).  The  amount  of  arable  land  was  287,- 
969,552  acres  (26*2  per  cent.),  orchards,  meadows,  grazing, 
etc.,  174,958,734  (15*9  per  cent.),  forest,  etc.,  425,520,714  (388 
per  cent.). 

The  raising  of  stock  constitutes  a  very  important  branch 
of  farming,  sometimes  intimately  related  to  agriculture  and 
sometimes  an  independent  and  exclusive  occupation  of  the 
peasant.    In  the  northwestern  governments,  in  the  Baltic 

Srovinces,  and  in  Finland,  the  most  important  branch  is  the 
airy  and  the  fattening  of  cattle  for  slaughter.  In  the  south- 
eastern districts  and  m  Bessarabia  worK  cattle  and  horses 
are  of  great  importance,  but  sheep-breeding  for  wool  is  also 
a  profitable  industry.  In  Northeastern  Russia  the  breeding 
of  horses  for  work  purposes  heads  the  other  departments  of 
stock-raising,  but  milcn  cows  are  also  largely  raised  for  the 
production  of  high-grade  butter  and  cheese.  In  the  central 
region  the  fertility  of  the  soil  precludes  profitable  herding 
on  a  large  scale,  but  the  breeding  of  milch  cows,  the  fatten- 
ing of  fine  beeves  and  hogs,  and  the  raising  of  good  trotters 
and  of  large  draft  horses  are  much  developed.  In  the  south- 
ern and  southeastern  steppe  districts,  and  also  in  the  region 
of  the  Don,  herding  is  of  great  importance,  owing  to  the 
great  amount  of  pasture  land,  but  the  most  extensive  branch 
there  is  that  of  nerding  fine-wool  merino  sheep,  exclusively 
confined  to  rich  estates,  the  peasants  raising  as  a  rule  only 
homed  cattle.  Horse-breedmg  is  also  centralized  in  this 
region.  In  1888  European  Russia,  including  Finland,  but 
not  Poland,  had  21,156,000  horses,  29,190,000  cattle,  49,252,- 
000  sheep,  10,928,000  swine,  26,000  camels,  1,409,000  goats, 
and  335.000  stags.  The  wide  range  of  stock-raising  in  Rus- 
sia is  indicative  of  the  vastness  of  the  country  and  the  ex- 
tremes of  its  climate.  Thus  while  reindeer  are  largely  kept 
in  the  north,  camels  are  extensively  herded  in  Caucasia  and 
Turkestan.  Of  wild  animals  the  ermine,  sable,  marten,  bear, 
etc.,  are  found  in  the  north  (Poland  and  Lithuania),  the  wolf, 
deer,  and  fox  everywhere,  and  the  average  annuaJ  value  of 
the  export  of  furs'is  almost  $3,000,000. 

Forests. — Of  the  total  area  of  Russia  about  one-third  is 
forest.  The  decrease  since  the  nineteenth  century  began 
has  been  about  23  per  cent.  An  important  measure  was 
taken  by  the  Government  in  1888  for  the  protection  of  for- 
ests, most  of  which  have  been  placed  unuer  a  special  com- 
mittee appointed  in  each  province.  The  total  area  of  forest 
in  Kurope&n  Russia,  Poland,  Finland,  and  Caucasia  is  498,- 
177,000  acres.  In  this  forest  region  of  the  north  there  are 
immense  districts  in  which  the  only  roads  are  the  rivers  flow- 
ing between  interminable  walls  of  trees.  The  predominating 
species  in  this  region  are  the  conifers,  the  pine,  and  the  fir, 
while  in  the  lesser  forests  of  the  south  the  oak  is  most  com- 
monly to  be  seen,  plentifully  interspersed  in  the  east  with 
the  linden  and  in  the  extreme  west  and  the  Crimea  with  the 
beech. 

Mining  and  Melallnrgy. — The  mineral  resources  are  ex- 
ceedingly great,  and  the  mining  industry  is  carried  on  with 
advancecl  scientific  system  and  very  successfully.  Prior  to 
the  time  of  Peter  the  Great  only  the  mt»st  primitive  begin- 
nings of  a  metallurgical  and  salt  industry  existed,  but  that 
monarch  gave  origin  and  impetus  to  the  development  of  the 
present  extensive  system,  establishing  in  1700  tne  first  sepa- 
rate oflScial  mining  administration,  known  as  the  Prikase 
of  Mining  Affairs.  He  founded  the  mining-college  in  1719, 
and  in  every  way  unceasingly  fostered  the  industry.  From 
that  time  to  the  reign  of  Alexander  II.  the  metal*  interests 
of  the  empire  underwent  various  vicissitu<les  of  rise  and  de- 
cadence, and  were  finally  revolutionized  by  the  liberation 
of  the  serfs  and  the  consequent  modifications  of  economic 
conditions.  The  direction  of  mining  affairs  in  the  empire 
(exclusive  of  Finland)  is  now  mainly  concentrated  in  the 
mining  department  of  the  University  of  State  Domains, 
and  this  administration  directs  not  only  the  raising  of  ores, 
but  also  their  mechanical,  metallurgical,  and  chemical  treat- 
ment The  vast  salt  and  petr(.)leum  producing  industries 
are  excepted  from  the  direction  of  this  department.  In  the 
most  important  branches  of  mining  the  figures  of  produc- 


tion and  yalue  were  for  the  year  1890  (and  in  some  caM> 
1892) as  follows: 


PRODUCTS. 

Pooadfc 

TOH. 

V»l«. 

Gold 

77,580 
36.896 
6,228 


mm 

28,800 

Sas.Hitt.iT'i 

Silver 

Platinum 

SaT'::::;:;::;;::;;;:;;:: 

Zinc 

"♦4,109 
♦6,059 

414.7:ii» 

Mercury  

474.>iiii 

TiiT^.:::::::::::::::::::: 

♦wii'ooo 

♦6,800.000 

♦  1,405,000 

♦4,490.000 

900,596 

852,800 

«.i>«» 

Pie  iron 

16.96N.<«ii 

Coal 

Salt 

Petroleum 

Manganese  ore                  .... 

9.f>4\<«i> 

7»3M^,'JTt> 
2»2  A'S^ 

Sulphur 

4,l:J5 

Total  value 

$66,7K<,:T5 



♦  Amount  for  1898. 

The  number  of  men  employed  in  mining  industrii'^j  in 
1890  was  435,700,  showing  an  increase  in  twenty  years  (»f  al- 
most 100  per  cent.  The  coal-mining  industry  on  the  I),  n 
has  grown  rapidly,  and  the  district,  which  produces  aUjut 
one-half  the  total  output  of  the  empire,  increased  its  outpii 
more  than  100  per  cent,  from  1884  to  1892.  Besides  the  tnu- 
put  of  the  Don — viz.,  3,507,000  tons  in  the  latter  year— P.  - 
land  produced  2,837,300,  the  Ural  region  230,000,  M<-Kr..w 
176,800,  and  Altai  19,200  tons.  The  Caspian  naphtha  (fn  tP  - 
leum)  industry  has  also  extended  rapidly,  the  output  of  crmif 
naphtha  more  than  doubling  from  1887  to  1892,  with  a  cor- 
respondingly great  advance  in  refining. 

Manufaciuring. — It  is  only  in  very  recent  year*  tIkit 
Russia  has  exhibited  strength  as  a  manufacturing  nation  nt 
all  commensurate  with  her  importance  in  other  res|»t(  t- 
The  i>atriarchal  state  of  domestic  economy  under  \%fii*,' 
each  family  was  its  own  producer  and  consumer  longer  in  :.i 
sway  here  than  in  most  other  countries  of  Euro]>e.  and  iii 
many  places  the  breaking  away  was  not  noticeable  m\U\ 
about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  But  the  vn^t 
and  vigorous  growth  of  manufacture  began  in  the  dt'ca«U 
following  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs  (1861),  expniidii)!: 
in  the  succeeding  one  in  which  railwav-building  was  brLnin 
on  a  colossal  scale.  Manufactures  (including  mining  in<hi«' 
tries)  amounted  in  value  to  905,000,000  roubles  ($452,50().<m» 
in  1878,  and  in  1890  the  total  valuation  of  the  out  p.! 
reached  1,656,000,000  roubles  ($828,000,000),  irresi>ecti\f  • : 
the  smaller  industries,  of  which  statistics  are  unootainaMi . 
First  place  among  the  manufactures  of  Russia  is  held  b\ 
cotton,  of  which  the  manufactured  output  not  only  suj)j»h- 
the  home  demand,  but  furnishes  a  considerable  amount  f^r 
export.  The  enormous  increase  has  brought  cotton  alnj*<-t 
into  the  position  of  a  staple  crop  in  Southeastern  Kus^in 
in  Europe  and  the  Southern  Asian  regions  of  the  empire 
notably  Turkestan.  The  total  valuation  of  the  output  .f 
this  industry  in  1890  was  487,100,000  roubles  ($243,5r)0,(MK» . 
The  number  of  spindles  in  Russia  is  about  one-fourth  th<  ^r 
of  continental  Europe  and  about  one-seventh  those  of  Kiii.- 
land. 

The  petroleum-refining  industry  affords  perhaps  the  nio-* 
interesting  figures.  Customs  protection  was  granto*!  in  tli. 
sixties.  In  1876  Russia  imported  a  large  amount  of  p»'tr«- 
leum  products  from  the  U.  S..  2,666,666  j)Oods  (95.909,876  IL. 
of  illuminating  oil  alone.  In  the  eighties  the  im|K)rtati(t 
ceased,  but  the  export  increased,  reaching  in  1890  1,728,IKM). 
000  lb.,  and  the  nome  consumption,  which,  owing  x<\  \h> 
high  price,  reached  only  144,000,000  lb.  in  1876,  niM*  i- 
more  than  1,080,000,000  lb.  in  1800  owing  to  the  rapid  fa! 
of  price. 

The  lK»el -sugar  industry  has  reached  considerable  pr<>f Por- 
tions. In  1891  the  growth  of  beets  amounted  to  80.0(KUMn» 
cwt.  The  manufacture  of  woolens  is  sufficiently  develnjH.i 
to  clothe  the  army  and  satisfy  the  home  demand  for  ^>^»- 
grade  g(X)ds.  Silk  is  manufactured  to  the  value  of  $6,U5."i.- 
000;  paper,  $9,000,000;  tannery  products,  $19,000,000,  of 
l)eer  there  were  brewetl  99.606,087  gal.  Tobacco-nianuf;i'  - 
tures  amounted  to  34,202,000  lb.  (of  which  5,882,400  lb.  ws. 
in  cigarettes).  The  number  of  flour-mills  in  the  empire  ii 
1890  was  7,003,  and  they  produced  2,462,569  tons  of  flour 
valued  at  $73,000.(K)0.  the  total  number  of  manufactnrj.  - 
in  Russia  (exclusive  of  Poland  and  Finland)  is  65,UK).  em 
ploving  about  1,000,000  work-people;  Poland  has  21.tHNt. 
employing  142.900 ;  Finland  (1890),  6,496  manufactoricss  'n. 
ploying  59,176. 

Trade  and  Commerce. — The  exports  of  the  empire  h«><^ 


*JIG 


RUSSIA 


nil  !u«litit:  tho  mir»i*t»^r<  who  harr  wnt*  #x  ojfKrto  an*!  sr%*rral  j 
im  ii.Nr'*  ••(  thf  iii>)Mn<iI  fairiil\.     It  J*»  n  o«ii*iiltalivo  UhJv  | 
111  It ^.-i.in««ii.  Atid  it«  rhit'f  fiitirtion  i«|on'\ii'H  pr-gt'tt*^  of  j 
IriH'*  |.r»  -«  ril."«l  liy  tin-  iiitiUHti>p»,  ntnl  tt»  i^m^iilvr  llif  iiniuial 
ImmI^i  t.     It  i«iii\i<i«4l   inlt»  thr  Ihn'v  «l«|»artitiriit<*  nf  U%\'^-  \ 
)fitioti.   A<itniin«tmtii»n.  Mtid  thiiiiK  <\  witii  a  %|k><  ml   dcftMrt-  I 
iiMht  for  th»»  <li^  ti«.*ii.ii  of  npt'«'Hi«  i<»  tli»»  «'nj|«»'n»r  fn»in  «ir-  ■ 
ri"!  .11*  «'f  tiM'  -^nnt^*.     Tlif  tliini  nf  th**  tMnimiN  i««  tho  rul- 
iiiif  •««•!».»? I".  i»h"^'   iiHMiiUr^  iin»  npiMiiiitisi  h>  iln*  oiti|ii'rt»r  . 
cim-lly    fp.ii»  iwrn*!!**   of    hull    rniik    t>r  4iIVk  o,     NVhiU*  thf 
O'UiiciI  tif  thr  «»ni|u!T  itotktiHiiltatirr  in  it-*  ii«lun\thost*n»tt' 
1%  iMfily  «*\t>i  111  I VI*  and  (iiirTly  judicial.     It  prom iil pit 4>5  thi*  i 
laH*  a'ld  rfii'-tjtijt*"*  th<'  hiL'li  t«»urt  ot  ju««tJ<M«.     S'\rii  of  it> 
iiith"  d»  |»arini«Mit«»  nn*  adinini^tnitivr.  and  two  nrr  c^niirt?  of  . 
<ji«^tinti.     Th«'  f««rnifr«'\uiuiii»'  uit4)tl>«'  c^'Hrnil  adiniiuMra-  ' 
ti«»ii,  n'*i«  w  \Uv  ait^  t»f  t:i»>»TiiorH  and  mHU*  di^pulrH  wiili  , 
thr    f«  iii*t\i»«%.      A   ii|«»i!al  dr|iartrncnt   itf   w^t'ii    nu*niU«rs  I 
|Mi«.^-^  jii.l^'tn»'nt   in  im^IiIkhI  offm-M*'*.     Th»*  fourth  tNnnu'il 
i»  tli«>  \\   \r  *\nod.  «|itih  H  <i«'rniM.-Md  «»f  th»»  ni«'tro|mlitrtn'» 
aif!  )»!<'lt<>|'^  of  the  (  hurrh,  and  iia>  the  su{H'rint«*ii«li-iii'o  of  . 
n  l.^'j<Mi«*  alT.ur^.  ' 

K«»r  atliuini-lr.it i\r  pur|«"^»^  tlir  rnipiri'  i*  divith^l  into 
i:.i\i  niuirtit-aint  "ti-^trh  tH.  Kun>|«an  Hu-^-ni  pro|H'r coiitiiin**  | 
flfiv  !;"*•"'•?«  mo  It-.  ♦•««  h  of  w|»i«  h  I;*  miIm1i\  id.-il  into  di-*-  I 
tri.  t*  \Ar\inj  fi»'m  *\^U\  tofiftrvn.  rnliiinl,  Finland,  M«»*»-  i 
i"**,  Kh  ft,  aii«!  Vihia  rt'ii-titiit*'  m-niTal  >:MVt'riiiiu*nt!».  <'a«  h 
romiN-^  il  of  a  nutiiU  r  of  th(<  minor  t:o\criimrnt%  A-iaiir  i 
Kii«^ia  iMul»m<«-*  four  C'ln  nil  j:ovrrtiin«'iitN  Cauca^un.Tur-  . 
ki*ian,M«  pn««««».  and  Amur.  rompn^iULralMiut  thirty  t'ovmi-  I 
nnnt*  and  t«rri'"rir«.,  U-id*  •*  a  iiumlM-r  of  di-trnt- \*lin  h  i 
ar»-  trmt'Ml  a^*  di-timt.  K.n  h  (:•  m  r.il  ^••vrrniui*nl  has  a, 
>;..*irnor-;:i  in  rnl  r»pri  ^nt  iiii:  tin*  r/ar,  who  ha'*  •»upr«  tin*  | 
d:rt  ('ti«'ii  of  <'i\il  and  n>ii.*nrv  alTair*.  In  tin*  min>>r  );t»v-  i 
<*riiintfit««  th««  >ro»«Tni»r  i^as-i^iid  h\  arouiu'il  of  ri";;*n(\,  to  I 
%ihi'  h  all  i?ii  a-ur*""  mn*t  !•»•  nf«-rr»d.  A  i^miimmI  of  <'ontnd  I 
I*  a.^)  pn>\id«d.  d«  |"iidiinj  dirtftlv  <»n  tlh«  nnni-try  or  I>r-  j 
partm>nt  of  toiM-ral  Control.  In  thi*  frontn-r  pri>\iiu'«'*«  ' 
miiitarv  a.*  *«  II  a*ri»il  »:ovrrnor»  an*  rMahii-lit'd.  j 

In  Kuroj^an  Uu<«-ii  the  1<n  al  a< Im in iM ration  i>  larcdy  in 
th««  h.tiMl<»  of  tlit<  |N*<»|  !«•.  'l'h«'>  do  not  dw«-U  on  M'a?t«n'd  [ 
farm-,  hut  an-  irr.»U[N«l  in  \ir.H;:«  «.  and  vh*\\  of  th«*M»  %'iIIa;:«'H 
(-•>n-tiru!'--  a  t^'Uiinunc  or  mir.  uliu-li  i»  the  unit  of  jMilitn-al 
or^',»nj/n»;<«n.  Tim»  nuiuUr  of  iomtnuiu*«»  n-aih**'*  107,4U^i 
T  »!»♦  mud  h«ltl  h\  a  vio.itft'  it  r^'iranhd  aj»  U-lonctnc  to  tho 
iih"ir  (•••mmuni! V.  Atid  i^  a|»(N.rtioiitsi  anions  th«'  fanulic.H 
ht  i^tTdinc  t<» '  fi«'  numUT  <»f  th»ir  w«»rkini;  unjt«4.  Tht»  i^.m- 
iiiui  al  a***mM>  i*  cfm|»«»^*d  of  all  tin*  h<»u».,  li«,ltioPv,  ^  ho 
t  .••«  I  i»iM  «.f  thtir  oiftn  numU  r  «'ld»  r  i-tant^taj  or  fXi<u- 
ti\4\  and  i'oii-idi  r  and  d<-iiilf  all  toniniuiial  alTmr^.  Tho 
o'Uimum**  an*  unit(*«i  into  %i>l<i«l««.  carh  c  •ntainiiiir  altout 
l*,<"m  hi>u««  h«d<lt  r^.  Tin*  volo*»t  As<M-intily  i*  comiHr^Ml  of 
•i.  N  ;:ut«-»  fp»in  the  vr.U;,i'  riimmuiM-.  otir  for  e»rry  t«-ii 
h"U«« -s  i*ho  ••I.'«  t  a  ^^'Iir^t  fldrr  t*tarsliina),  niid  »ho  havf 
til*'  «am«*  )••«!•  r«  f**r  thf  \i•tll^l  whh  li  thf  (-•>muitinal  aN.*4*in- 
hi.«  *  hA\r  Tt  thf  o»mmun«\  Tluir  fnf<l«»m  i".  liowr\.r,  rv- 
•trii  T^ii  hv  thf  *u{»»  rti-ion  of  an  im{Mrial  t*(\'u  nil.  The  v<>- 
l.«t  a*><«-tiinih4  ai*<«»  rh«-rN«  a  |»«'u-.,«nt«%' tnhunal  of  «i««vfral 
jud^'' -,  »!■••  ha\<»  jun^ij«it"ti  tif  niTi-nM"*  nf  all  «  Ih'^mt*  and 
«»f  I  r"|N  rtT  il.»p'it«  <•  inv'-hmi:  not  o>fr  1<N)  n»uhlfj».  I)i%- 
pnl««»  *»f  larj»  r  aiui^unt  ri.m«'  undfr  rhn  f«»  of  thf  diot!ifl»  ♦ 
•  ho  an«  lakt-n  fp»ni  Ifif  tioiiiiii  i,  arid  haw  a  r»  rtaiii  foii- 
tnd  ottr  ttif  |M  a<saiiu' tridiiimU.  '1  hf  «^}-t«-in  of  liM-al  <i«-lf- 
if..%»  noufut  i%<*\i*"d'd  ini-a^tirahly  t«.  thf  di^tnft  and  pri>v. 
tint  «t.<n-  thf  a<liu.n»otr.«ti'>ti  nf  (ii>n<>mii  al  afTair*»  in  pUii'fil 
m  tit  h.»i.>l«  tif  an  as^  riil'iy  «aii«d  th««  /fm«t\o,  ma«lf  U|> 
of  n<  *•!<  *  I*  "•-<-*- 11'^  •  t  f  rt«tn  aiuount  ^f  land  and  •i'i»i:Htfs 
tli-tini  ti\  «»{n»r  iandf<l  pp'prift  'r*.  h»  thr  h**u<«tii>i«tfn>  in 
tfif  t««\«n*,  and  tftf  iM-a-rtHtrv.  Tfif  tuiMulMf  |ii»%ifr  n  "ti* 
w.tti  th«  '>t'«\a.»*'«  !•  n«»i!iM.'i'«tl  h\  til*'  d«!'ji^«**.  Thf 
|.i«iir^  .'f  thf  /.  M.«»M.«  fM.ii.i  til  iitaMir^  .if  «>iiiiatii>ri. 
r  .wi».  *i. -.ti*.  pun, If  hia'Mi.  taxi'fU.  « tf .,  and  m  man) 
«  a-*  ^  t;  .  1  •.  »«♦  •!  .ti«  %A.u.»iiif  w  -fk  ntnl  *h.i>»ii  a  pn  k't^-s^nr 
*\  .r;!  :  I'lt  ttn  sr  in  !♦  i*  n-n  n-  «•  i*  atT* » i»il  nt  !  hf  ■*u|'«  r\  i*Mn 
••\.  n   •.  I   \t\  •»..  kj.  ..rfi«r  a*  Mif  r»  t.n  »*  !.fali\*  «»f  thf  im- 

1-   '.   «.    Ii..\.   r f.'.        I  >f      t»   .•    \.    'l  •    »     ,,      »|     fi.  '   t     t'i."    /.   IIl*t\     r». 

•>•  1-  r  < .  t.'  !♦  '  fj  t..  !'..  |w  »-.»•  •»,  \'*  ]•>  r  f.  lit  t'l  n.*'  .  -». 
at  1  t:..  r  Mil.:  r  t.»  Ifn  il«'*:\.  in 'i  h.n.t,  and  arfi-aii 
«..%.-^.  of  f.f  li  ...»•♦-*  Mi.'t.i.LH  t-r«tii»  h\  thf  ia*«-t 
•♦  ••  •".  •  U  ••  i»  t..  "if  |«.v«a>'-.  aid  '''>-'»  |m  r  i «  lit.  t*»  th« 
».'  f    '  •        I M  ••'••■  ll    I, *'.<»>,»  t»   .-•!.!  f  1%  ..f  »h»    •  \.     u'.ni  -  a:* 

I.  •     •  »■   I  ifi  \  1-*  K  !•-  »  t  «i>  tn  T'l*  .»r»  |-  .'.»»j»«. 

I  '  •  •.".«•!'  -*!.•  j.%\.  a  III  .1..  i|  I.  "r,,.ii  1  I*,  ifi  •>!"  i- 
Inr  I-.  ••.»'.  of  •'.«•  /t'l.'.li  •,  A.,  h-  i.-^  «»iMrt  al  l  t  i\- 
j  Al-  r«  a-t    t  i.r.,..i|  a<  t .  nM.^  t«i  !h»  sr  «•-  --nn  iil,  an  I  aix 


thfn  ilividiMl  into  thrvt*  clfls.*<%  oaidi  cla--^^  hoMinc  ar  • 
pn»|t«rlion  of  the  total  valuation,  and  rach  flu  x>t.^  .*• 
numU>r  of  n*prv?HMitati\«ni  to  the  duMia,or  nitiin  .{^k.  * 
!>lv.     The  duina  cIhni^'h  I  ho  iiprava,  or  f\ft  ut.v*. 

YIh*  annual  n-Vfuiit*  of  tho  ini|i«*nal  (fo\f  rnm*  nt   .•   : 
1.1(MMMM),0(N)  nmhlfH,  or  I.VMMMNMMHI.  and  thf  ri{. ' 
aliout  tin'  Mimo.     Tln»  r!ii«'f  •»<»iinv.H  tif  ri'vi-nuf  an  ♦    •  •  . 
on  ^pint•*  (Hlmiit  $lJr».tMMM)IMM,  toUniti  an<l  *i.^'»r   • 
t«»ni><alHiut  f  T.V^^M'**^*  ftnd  Mainpdutn-N  and  .'.  *    '    -  ' 
Malt'  (hinmin!k     The  dinrl  laml  and  iN'nM»nal  lax-  ^   f   ■ 
ini|i«*rial  ln*aMiry  amount  to  alniut  |;;.i,(MIU.<mhi.      I  •..    %. 
nM-t»iptH  of  the  zemstv<»H,  or  pn>vin('ial  a.ssemhlf-    i      r 
#*J.VKNMNM).  of  which  the  bulk  in  in  lami  ta\.^      I 
imyiuic  tin*  tax  jmyj*  an  a^-rniin*  of  U-6  i*'\n-^  k*.  -r  4  * 
IHT  ai-re.     The  a>;>n^'j;ate  exin'iiw*  of  tin-  /.  n.** «  ->    % 
la>t  atvfxMhh*  ai'count*^  avt-rapil  1*6  rtiuhif*,  or  h4»  , ,  ■  • . 
male  of  population.     The  eX|x'nM*s  of  ihf  \ii..ij%-  i*  • 
averap*  1*16  ruuliles,  or  5H  (t-nts,  per  malf.     '!!.♦  !   • 
of  din*i't  taxes  annuallv  ftaid  hy  the  jieasani^  tn  M  •• 
Irea-Miry  amounts  to  llH.OtMMKK)  n.uhlfN  of  mhi«  h  r  ••• 
an*  for  the  ivilemption  of  deht  f«ir  the  pun  hii?r  •  f  .& 
almut  5  nmhli-^  |H»r  hrail  of  atlult  mah-H. 

Thei»relK'ally,  each  ahle-Uxlicd  male  in  Kijr»»i«»»    !» 
(with   the  exception  of  th>ctor!»,  tra«  hf rs  <;«Ti:\rT-' 
>h«»uld  serve  fixe  year*  in  the  a«'tive  army,  thir:.*  i    ' 
the  n*M'r>e,  ami  live  yearn  in  the  seci'iid  n-^*  r%v    /  •• 
pratlice,  howevfr,  over  twt>-lhinU  are  euo*i»»i  »:  -■ 
the  n'M»rvej*,  which  drill  MX  weeks  twne  a  y«*ar.      I  : 
f<Mitin^  for  I  lie  entire  eini>in>  isnfarlv  IMKl.ux^  "■•  t»  i^i   . 
I60,(«N>liorM-s;  the  war  fcMitiujr  i>  tiver  •J.Vm.iiMtc  •, 
ami  575.(MK)  h«irM«t.     The  navy  fmhrac*-^  i«.ii.rf*l    *' 
oil  the  liall  ic  and  on  the  Hla*k  Sa.  antl  nnia.n-r  .-i  *  -» 
Caspian  and  <»n  the  Pacific  cvni>l  of  .siU-rto.     .*n«    "* 
War. 

Jirliijion    owl    Ktinrntiou, — The  e^tahl^hid    ar   \ 
n'li^i«*n  of  the  finpirc  i*>  that  of  thf  (ikmk  ('ii<  a-  • 
or  Ortlnnlox  ('ath«»lic   faith.      Then*  arf   no  \t'\    ^ 
WiiUtvH  a»  to  nieinhfrNhip  in  thin  (  hurt  h  and  t' 
s««<ls,  but  estimates  made  with  can*  for  IN*^**  sh.«w  •  • 
Iht  a-H  foHows:   For  Uus^ia  pni|wr,  (m-f k  t  ht.r.  f.     * 
arm V and  nav\ ). (U»,S(>N.407 ;  \i* 'man t  at Iimi u ^. s,;i ■  i . ■  ■ 
estaiits,2.U.VMKM);  JcwH, :MM«MKK>:  M..hAmii...un-.  .'  •-• 
rnittMl  Chundi  ami  Ariiifniaiis,  .V»,tnn»;  |mi;:.»:,s^  !?..»• 
Poland  the  at  Ihf  n-nt**  III  IMK)  were:  Ktiman  (  «M.>       •  •  . 
.VM;  Jewjs  l.i;i4.-2(5^;    Prt»lfstants,  44o.oi,t;   Im^^   • 
(withtiut  arm\),  31fr».>*.V>.     The  numU'r  of  lM*s*  i.'.  r*     . 

matt^l  to  U-  at  least  ]'.*.()0(MMNI.  and  it  is  pn<l  «r . 

of  them  an»  wnni^jlv  accnilitetl  to  the  lin«  k  t*l...f     .. 
ha\e  fflt.  like  the  Jfws  but  far  Ifs-  rnron-u-ly.  fi.    :-    . 
tltiiis  (»f  the  state  and  s(H-iety.     With  thf  e\tt  i  ':   * 
iwtj  iHMlif!!  all  ndiirit^iiH  enj«»y  fnvthiin  In-m  n^Ta     • 
atTairs  of  the  Ktimaii  (  atlhtlic  (  hiiffh  an- t  *  I  t«  r**:     •    • 
hciuin,  and  th«'S4>iif  the  Lutlnrati  Chun  h   in  a  i    '  - 
U.ih  hK-altnl  in  St.  Petersburjc.    Thf  Pnit.«'anf»  •'. 
LutheraiiH,  wht»  came  into  the  empire  oru'ina..^  tr 
maiiT  and  an*  mostly  M'ttletl  in  the  pni«in<ff<*  *>{*.'*   • 
The   pre|M  Hit  If  ranee  of  the  Htunan  Cat  hi  •,..•«  i%   it.    ." 
the  Jew»  inhabit   intMlv  the  town*  ami  xi.:*^.-*  ..'    » 
aiitl  Western  and  S»ui(iweMfrn  Hussia,wK.*    t'*    ^" 
ttiftlaiiH  an*  in  the  eastern  and  siuitlx  ni  part  of  :*  - 
Ii4«sid«*^  thf  I**  tlifre  an'  a  irn*at  nuinU-r  of  «it.a..  •• 
lMid>in>:alm««t  every  i»om-vivable  varut)  of  fai<ta.«'.     *• 
cism.     N-i*  Kask«»i.mk<. 

The  «ii  htMiN  of  the  empir**  are  for  the  nn-t  yw^rt  '.• 
mi!ii*try  of  Public  Iiistrm  ti«>n.  and  tlie  m.p.rr  i*    . 
liitfi  f«»urte«n   e<lutatii>iml   tlisiricis  corri-^i"  t.«.  •  ^    • 
larire  cities,  hut    stmie  s{k*«  ml    -tniNl*  an*  un:fr   * 
miinstrits.      Thf  mtin(<v  tontnbuitil   fi.r  r<*i  j.  »*.   r 
budk''-t   f..r  l**t«:i  was  ^tl.tHWi.iBH).     Thr  rtb..  ••        .    . 
is  as  \ft  i«nl)  in  a  f*»rmatne  t  i»n*li'i«  n,  a*  d  t*       *'    -   . 
Ut:iiintn^  ha**  It  •  n  inadf  ami  nmiiv  «  \( «  .,•!  t  «<  :    • 
hu'iicr  Class — univfrsities  anii  s|i,<  lal  «  (•>  .* -■  a-^ 
f  hie,  the  i:«t»»*ral    lf\ei  of  eilutathih   |t»   |.w.      1    • -i 
li««t  iiunn  T'-us  nu»*iih' i.f  M.  iMfr^l.uri:.  ^b-^     •    *• 
saw,   b'.t    th«n*  arf   %aliablf  *  Ut-n    in    th   •••.'•  •     . 
Imp  rial   I.il  rar>  m  thf  tapit.i!   .s  ..'>«•,  f 'h.  •• 
Wi.rld.      In  tht   arts,  *t  i«n«  •  •.  aiid   .it.  r-i'ii'v    K    •     * 
xtii'pvil  much  that   IS  amnirai  .t  and ''i'   '    •••;  •«    • 
tfif  tiUfst  fnu's  .if  jj.riju*,  *oiiiftrn*  •'••r'!.  r  k"  a*   . 
a».d    liiarly  a'w  i>s   %•_•.. r..i.«  ai.il   %ir*lf.        I  j- 

f.  r'h  an   injri.i'«f  pr'^l-j-J.   n  nf  U*  ks-  V  *.vs  . 
I  •*:••,*   i  \«  '.usivf  tif  li'i  .11  111.  wi»h  an  a^*c'^-:*'«   •  T    •    ■ 
ci  |.:i  *.   l«,r    pn  |-'ti'|i  r»ii' e    in    K';*smn    ui**'*,**    . 
iiiaiif  it  r  in  tl.f  Pcisti,  lit  nn  w.  (n  ruiaii,  I> ::»•*..  **  .    . 


RUSSIA 


217 


nian  lan^iaires.  Periodicals  nombered  743  in  1892  (ezclu- 
sve  of  Finland),  of  which  589  were  in  the  Russian  language. 
Thp  separate  publications  for  1893  (exclusive  of  Finland) 
n-ached  10,242,  of  which  33,875^00  copies  were  printed,  and 
ID  \f^*M  there  were  779  periodicals. 

History. — It  was  not  until  the  advent  of  Peter  the  Great 
i1(>><t^l725)  that  Russia  really  entered  the  arena  of  modem 
uvilizatioa,  and  became  a  forceful  factor  in  Europe.  Its 
<.>r];nn  lies  in  obscurity,  and  for  centuries  its  history  con- 
>>:<  of  faintly  traced  migrations  and  conflicts  of  primitive 
•rid  rude  nomadic  tribes  and  fragments  of  nations.  Four 
.^^nturies  before  Christ  the  Greeks  founded  commercial  sta- 
!  i<  'Hi  among  semi-savages  called  Scythians  and  Sarmatians, 
«ni»m  they  discovered  upon  the  northern  coast  of  the  Black 
Na.  alon^' the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  in  the  Crimea.  There,  for 
NR>  Tears  this  barbarous  horde  hun^  upon  the  boundaries 
«'f  an  unknown  expanse  and  the  frontiers  of  the  Greek  and 
K-^rnan  world.  But  in  the  fourth  century  came  other 
Ui^^fes  of  semi-savages,  the  Goths  and  Huns,  Avars  and 
Alans,  who  swept  over  them  in  successive  waves.  Then  in 
t:i*<  sixth  century  the  Slavs  aopeared  on  the  {)ages  of  history. 
H.  jeved  to  have  been  relatea  to  the  Sarmatians,  they  occu- 
f  •  -1  the  country  as  far  N.  as  the  upper  Volga.  Encoun- 
'.  r'lj;  the  Finns,  they  drove  the  major  portion  toward  the 
H  i.ue  and  Arctic,  and,  absorbing  the  remainder,  developed 
::.f  enmpofiite  Russian  type  with  sallow  complexion  and 
f.w^n  hair.  Flourishing  in  power  the  Slavs  founded  Kieff 
Ar.  1  Novgorod,  each  the  capital  in  time  of  a  principality. 
A'^er  the  lapse  of  a  century,  which  is  a  blank  in  their  an- 
;  ..Js  they  were  overrun  by  a  tribe  of  the  Northmen,  the 
VAT&nsians,  called  by  the  Slavs  the  Rus,  from  whom  the 
ri.«rne  Russian  was  derived,  first  appearing  in  the  ninth  cen- 
'  «rT.  The  Rus  dominated  both  the  Finns  and  Slavs,  but 
:  n*'  latter,  after  throwing  off  the  yoke,  long  suffered  from 
•it ward  attack  and  internal  dissension,  and  at  a  crucial 
:  -.  ment,  to  avert  anarchy,  importuned  the  Rus  or  Varangian 

•  .,•  f  Rurik  to  become  their  ruler.  He  went  to  Novgorod 
m  ^2.  and  it  was  he  who  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Rus- 
*\\n  empire,  over  which  his  family  reig^ned  seven  centuries. 
11l^  cofisin  and  successor,  Oleg  (879-912),  a  powerful  and 
vi-^  ruler,  conauered  Kieff,  thus  greatly  enlarging  his  do- 
Li  ni<  in,  defeated  various  bordering  tribes,  and  even  attacked, 
<»  iti  9<lO  vessels,  the  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  with  whom 
i'.^-  concladed  in  911  an  advantageous  peace.     Igor,  the  son 

•  •f  Kurik  (91^945),  added  to  the  country  by  conquest,  made 
'.u^ui-ce^tiful  war  against  the  Emperor  of  Constantinople  in 
'Ml.  and  WAS  killed  in  battle  against  the  Drevlians,  a  Sla- 
v^r.it'  tribe.  His  widow,  Olga,  whose  name  to  this  day  is 
ft  n^rion&l  word  with  the  Russians,  reigned  during  the  mi- 
-.  T.:y  of  her  son  Sviatoslaff,  and  introduced  Christianity 

/.'  >  the  country,  she  herself  being  baptized  in  Constantinople 
'.  U57.     Sviatoslaff  (945-972)  remained  a  pagan,  extended 

•  1^  borders  of  the  empire  to  the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  in  970 
..vi*ieil  it  amonghis  three  sons,  Yaropolk  I.  (972-980),  Oleg, 
«'.•!  Vladimir.  War  arising  between  the  brothers,  Oleg  was 
^  \:tu  Vladimir  fled,  and  Yaropolk,  originally  rub'ng  Kieff, 
r^^'inited  the  empire,  only  to  oe  reconquered  and  put  to 

-itb  by  Vladimir,  who  returned  in  980  with  a  horde  of 

•  •:  Rus  or  Varangians,  and  became  the  sole  ruler  of  all 
xi  .«•«;&.  Sumamed  The  Great  because  of  his  conouests  and 
!  >  beneficent  measures,  he  made  Christianity  the  official 
:•  ..c:\on  of  the  empire,  founded  churches,  schools,  and  new 
'••v^QSw  and  divided  the  empire  among  his  twelve  sons,  who 
'  '.^Aged  in  fratricidal  war  oefore  the  death  of  their  father, 
jif-'-r  which  Sviatopolk  (son  of  Yaropolk  I.,  but  adopted  by 
\  ^*dimir)  asoendea  the  throne  after  murdering  three  of  his 

•  triers,  only  to  be  deposed  in  war  with  another  brother, 
Ya"-'  -^iaff  (1019-^),  who  succeeded  in  reuniting  and  extend- 
'  J  the  empire  by  successful  wars,  and  emulated  his  father's 

•  Lsaiple  in  reforms.  During  the  next  three  centuries  events 
'  1  to  an  ultimate  enlargement  of  dominion,  and  a  more 

•  'rough  organization  of  the  government,  preceded  by  the 
'•-"'^kins^  of  the  Russian  monarchy  into  a  confederacv,  its 
•—•.  .ration, the  constant  struggle  of  internecine  war,  ana  the 
-  jure  of  large  regions  of  Western  Russia  by  the  Poles,  Lith- 
.  1  vans,  Danes,  and  the  Teutonic  knights.    The  early  part  of 

•  -  .•  f*-riod  was  nevertheless  one  of  generalprogress,  and  im- 

•  niknt  cities  were  founded,  among  them  Tver  and  Moscow, 

•  .  -  la.*^ter  in  1147.  But  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
-t.turjr  came  the  sweeping  Mongol  invasion  from  Eastern 
\  -ta  undfr  Genghis  Khan,  which  the  Russians,  save  at  Mos- 

w.  it-HiJd  not  withstand.    This  was  followed  by  internal 
■»  »-.  famine,  and  pestilence.    In  1230  30,000  men  died  of 

•  .-   plague  in  Smolensk,  and  42,000  in  Novgorod.    Then 


came  another  Mongol  horde  demanding  tribute,  and  putting 
to  fire  and  sword  all  who  failed  to  render  it.  In  tne  next 
century  the  Russians  had  gathered  strength,  and  under  the 
Prince  of  Moscow,  Dmitri  Donskoi,  they  repelled  the  incur- 
sions of  1378  and  1380,  only  to  be  overwhelmed  by  the  num- 
bers of  the  invaders  in  1382,  when  Moscow  was  burned  and 
24,000  of  its  people  slain.  Ivan  the  Great  (1462-1505)  so 
built  up  the  power  of  arms  that  the  Mongols  were  defeated, 
and,  decay  having  set  in  among  them,  an  era  of  freedom 
from  their  assaults  was  entered  upon,  greatly  to  the  relief 
of  the  Russians,  who  began  to  extend  their  dominion  to  the 
E.,  conquering  Kazan  in  1469  and  parts  of  Siberia  in  1499. 
It  was  under  this  ruler  that  one  of  the  fixed  features  of  the 
"  Russian  policy,"  a  jealous  regard  for  Constantinople,  had 
its  inception.  Russia  looked  to  Constantinople  as  its  model 
of  civilization,  and  took  its  initiatives  in  art,  especially 
architecture,  in  literature,  in  religion,  and  in  the  externals  of 
life,  and  when  that  city  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  in 
1453  Ivan  became  the  devotee  of  the  Byzantine  policy, 
which  has  influenced  all  subsequent  Russian  statesmanship. 
Ivan  IV.,  The  Terrible  (1533-84),  conquered  Astrakhan 
(1556),  the  region  of  the  Don  Cossacks  (1570),  and  a  portion 
of  Siberia  (1581),  opened  a  road  to  Archangelsk,  estaolished 
a  printing-press  in  Moscow  in  1569,  and  did  many  meritori- 
ous acts  and  a  single  infamous  one,  which  gave  him  the  sur- 
name of  The  Terrible,  namely,  the  slaying  and  torture  of  60,- 
000  citizens  of  Novgorod,  that  city  having  revolted  from  his 
iron  rule  in  1570.  The  bouse  of  Rurik  ceased  to  exist  with 
the  death  of  Ivan's  son  Feodor  I.  (1584-98),  believed  to  have 
been  poisoned,  and,  after  the  brief  reigns  of  several  rulers 
and  much  intrigue,  revolution,  war,  and  among  other  evils 
a  great  famine  in  1601  by  which  100,000  people  perished 
in  Moscow  alone,  the  first  of  the  Romanoffs,  Michael  Feo- 
dorovitch,  was  elected  czar  by  the  boyars  or  noblemen  in 
1613,  He  promoted  the  internal  prosperity  of  the  coun- 
try, revived  the  long  prostrate  commerce,  and  in  1639  ex- 
tended the  borders  of  the  Asiatic  possessions  to  the  Pacific. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexis  (1645-76),  and  his  son 
Feodor  III.  (1676-82),  whose  reigns  were  signalized  by  many 
important  reforms ;  and  then,  after  intrigue  and  conspiracy, 
in  which  his  sister  Sophia  sought  the  rulership,  and  m  fact 
exercised  a  regency  which  her  brother  overthrew,  there 
ascended  the  throne  as  czar  the  most  colossal  figure  in 
Russian  history,  Peter  the  Great.  Within  a  few  years  under 
his  guidance  Russia  became  the  most  powerful  nation  of 
Northern  Europe,  and  was  recognized  as  a  potent  member 
in  the  political  system  of  the  Continent.  Peter  was  the  first 
to  bear  the  proud  title  of  Emperor  of  Russia.  In  1703  he 
founded  St.  Petersburg  as  the  new  capital  of  the  empire.  In 
1696  he  took  Azov  from  the  Turks ;  m  1709,  by  his  decisive 
victory  at  Poltava  over  Charles  XII.,  he  ended  an  arduous 
campaign  in  the  destruction  of  Sweden*s  supremacy;  in 
1721,  by  the  peace  of  Nystadt,  he  added  Ingria  and  parts  of 
Karelia,  Esthonia,  and  Livonia  to  his  realm,  and  in  1723,  by 
his  prowess  and  shrewd  diplomacy,  secured  the  provinces  of 
Daghestan  and  other  territory  on  the  Caspian,  ceded  by 
Persia.  Besides  all  this  he  introduced  varied  internal  re- 
forms and  improvements  of  vast  extent  and  importance. 
His  surpassing  service,  however,  was  in  opening  the  door  of 
Russia  to  Western  Europe,  and  putting  his  people  in  touch 
with  a  civilization  superior  to  the  Byzantine  standard, 
which  they  had  long  accepted.  Never  probably  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  world  were  so  obdurate  and  refractory  a  people 
absolutely  impelled  by  the  will  of  one  man  to  so  great  an 
advance  as  that  which  the  Russians  made  under  the  virile 
sway  of  Peter  the  Great.  He  died  Feb.  8,  1725,  but  the 
reforms  he  instituted,  the  great  public  works  he  began,  and 
the  policy  he  introduced,  were  carried  forward  by  his  suc- 
cessors, for  they  and  the  people  seemed  to  have  become  in- 
fused with  something  of  his  spirit  and  energy.  Thus  Cath- 
erine I.  (1725-27),  Peter  II.  (1727-^0).  Anne  (1730-41),  Eliza- 
beth (1741-62),  each  contributed  something  to  progress,  the 
last  named  founding  in  Moscow  the  first  Russian  universitv, 
and  Catherine  II.  (1762-96),  more  than  all  combined.  Cath- 
erine was  the  most  picturesoue  of  the  rulers  of  Russia, 
shrewd,  brilliant,  capricious,  of  lax  morals  and  large  intel- 
lect, cultivating  the  arts  and  letters,  given  to  show  and  also 
to  great  enterprises.  While  surrounding  herself  with  an  im- 
posing array  of  statesmen,  soldiers,  and  courtiers  of  doubtful 
repute,  she  was  the  professed  patron  of  public  morality,  and 
founded  innumerable  churches,  schools,  and  benevolent  in- 
stitutions ;  more  imperiously  despotic  than  any  of  her  imme- 
diate predecessors,  she  nevertheless  convoked  an  assembly  of 
delegates  from  all  the  districts  to  frame  a  new  and  more 


216 


RUSSIA 


including  the  ministers  who  have  seats  ex  officio  and  several 
members  of  the  imperial  family.  It  is  a  consultative  body 
in  legislation,  and  its  chief  function  is  to  review  projects  of 
laws  presented  by  the  ministers,  and  to  consider  the  annual 
budget.  It  is  divided  into  the  three  departments  of  legis- 
lation, administration,  and  finance,  with  a  special  depart- 
ment for  the  discussion  of  appeals  to  the  empleror  from  de- 
cisions of  the  senate.  The  third  of  the  councils  is  the  rul- 
ing senate,  whose  members  are  appointed  by  the  emperor 
chiefly  from  persons  of  high  rant  or  ofRce.  While  the 
council  of  the  empire  is  consultative  in  its  nature,  the  senate 
is  partly  executive  and  partly  judicial.  It  promulgates  the 
laws  and  constitutes  the  high  court  of  justice.  Seven  of  its 
nine  departments  are  administrative,  and  two  are  courts  of 
cassation.  The  former  examine  into  the  general  administra- 
tion, review  the  acts  of  governors  and  settle  disputes  with 
the  zemstvos.  A  special  department  of  seven  members 
passes  judgment  in  political  offenses.  The  fourth  council 
IS  the  holy  synod,  which  is  composed  of  the  metropolitans 
and  bishops  of  the  Church,  and  nas  the  superintendence  of 
religious  affairs. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  empire  is  divided  into 
governments  and  districts.  Euro(X!an  Russia  proper  contains 
fifty  governments,  each  of  which  is  subdivided  into  dis- 
tricts varying  from  eight  to  fifteen.  Poland,  Finland,  Mos- 
cow, Kieff,  and  Vilna  constitute  general  governments,  each 
composed  of  a  number  of  the  minor  governments.  Asiatic 
Russia  embraces  four  general  governments,  Caucasus,  Tur- 
kestan, Stepnoye,  and  Amur,  comprising  about  thirty  govern- 
ments and  territories,  besides  a  number  of  districts  which 
are  treated  as  distinct.  Each  general  government  has  a 
governor-general  representing  the  czar,  who  has  supreme 
direction  of  civil  and  military  affairs.  In  the  minor  gov- 
ernments the  governor  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  regency,  to 
which  all  measures  must  be  referred.  A  council  of  control 
is  also  provided,  depending  directly  on  the  ministry  or  De- 
partment of  General  Control.  In  the  frontier  provinces 
military  as  well  as  civil  governors  are  established. 

In  European  Russia  the  local  administration  is  largely  in 
the  hands  of  the  people.  They  do  not  dwell  on  scattered 
farms  but  are  grouped  in  villages,  and  each  of  these  villages 
constitutes  a  commune  or  mir,  which  is  the  unit  of  political 
organization.  The  number  of  communes  reaches  107,493. 
The  land  held  by  a  village  is  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
whole  community,  and  is  apportioned  among  the  families 
according  to  the  number  of  their  working  units.  The  com- 
munal assembly  is  composed  of  all  the  householders,  who 
elect  one  of  their  own  number  elder  (starosta)  or  execu- 
tive, and  consider  and  decide  all  communal  affairs.  The 
communes  are  united  into  volosts,  each  containing  about 
2,000  householders.  The  volost  assembly  is  composed  of 
delegates  from  the  Tillage  communes,  one  for  every  ten 
houses,  who  elect  a  volost  elder  (stai-shina),  and  who  have 
the  same  powers  for  the  volost  which  the  communal  assem- 
blies have  for  the  commune.  Their  freedom  is,  however,  re- 
stricted by  the  supervision  of  an  imperial  official.  The  vo- 
lost assemblies  also  choose  a  peasants'  tribunal  of  several 
judges,  who  have  jurisdiction  of  offenses  of  all  classes  and 
of  property  disputes  involving  not  over  100  roubles.  Dis- 
putes of  larger  amount  come  under  chiefs  of  the  districts 
who  are  taken  from  the  nobility,  and  have  a  certain  con- 
trol over  the  peasants'  tribunals.  The  system  of  local  self- 
government  is  extended  measurably  to  the  district  and  prov- 
ince where  the  administration  of  economical  affairs  is  placed 
in  the  hands  of  an  assembly  called  the  zemstvo,  made  up 
of  nobles  possessing  a  certain  amount  of  land  and  delegates 
elected  by  other  landed  proprietors,  by  the  householders  in 
the  towns,  and  the  peasantry.  The  executive  power  rests 
with  the  uprava,  who  is  nominated  by  the  delegates.  The 
powers  of  the  zemstvos  extend  to  matters  of  education, 
roads,  saloons,  public  health,  taxation,  etc.,  and  in  many 
cases  they  have  done  valuable  work  and  shown  a  progressive 
spirit ;  but  their  independence  is  affected  by  the  supervision 
exercised  by  the  governor  as  the  representative  of  the  im- 
perial Government.  Of  the  votes  which  elect  the  zemstvos, 
04  per  cent,  belong  to  the  peasants,  12  per  cent,  to  nobles, 
and  the  remainder  to  the  clergy,  merchant,  and  artisan 
classes.  Of  the  delcpites  elected  38  per  cent,  by  the  latest 
statistics  belong  to  the  peasants,  ana  35  per  cent,  to  the 
nobles.  In  Central  Russia  two-thirds  of  the  executives  are 
nobles  and  in  East  Russia  two-thirds  are  peasants. 

The  cities  and  towns  have  a  municipal  organization  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  zemstvos.  All  houseowhei*s  and  tax- 
payers are  enrolled  according  to  their  assessment,  and  are 


then  divided  into  three  classes,  each  class  holding  an  e<-|Uii' 
proportion  of  the  total  valuation,  and  each  electing  an  eqii.i* 
number  of  representatives  to  the  duma,  or  municipal  a^c-fui- 
blv.    The  duma  chooses  the  uprava,  or  executive. 

^he  annual  revenue  of  the  imperial  Government  is  aln.i.t 
1,100,000,000  roubles,  or  $550,000,000,' and  the  expendii  ur.-^ 
about  the  same.  The  chief  sources  of  revenue  are  the  ex*  i-* 
on  spirits  (about  $135,000,000),  tobacco  and  sugar,  the  <-(i^- 
toms  (about  $75,000,000)  and  stamp  duties,  and  returns  f  nm 
state  domains.  The  direct  land  and  personal  taxes  for  tii*- 
imperial  treasury  amount  to  about  $25,000,000.  The  annu.il 
receipts  of  the  zemstvos,  or  provincial  assemblies,  appr<>H<.  i: 
$25,000,000,  of  which  the  bulk  is  in  land  taxes.  The  laii<i 
paying  the  tax  pays  an  average  of  9*6  copecks,  or  4*8  ct.*n'  -, 

f>er  acre.  The  aggregate  expenses  of  the  zemstvc>s  at  iIm- 
ast  accessible  accounts  averaged  1*6  roubles,  or  80  cents.  j»#.t 
male  of  population.  The  expenses  of  the  villag:e  eoniinurif^ 
average  1*16  roubles,  or  58  cents,  per  male.  The  total  sum 
of  direct  taxes  annually  paid  by  the  peasants  to  the  imf>crj.tl 
treasury  amounts  to  118,000,000  roubles,  of  which  41.0<HJ.(kh) 
are  for  the  redemption  of  debt  for  the  purchase  of  laij<l,  <.r 
about  5  roubles  per  head  of  adult  males. 

Theoretically,  each  able-bodied  male  in  European  Rii>^i.t 
(with  the  exception  of  doctors,  teachers,  clergymen,  tii  > 
should  serve  five  years  in  the  active  army,  thirteen  years  m 
the  reserve,  and  five  years  in  the  second  reserve  (Zapas) ;  it. 
practice,  however,  over  two-thirds  are  enlisted  directly  in 
the  reserves,  which  drill  six  weeks  twice  a  year.  The  \»Hf  »• 
footing  for  the  entire  empire  is  nearly  900,000  men  and  abi^j* 
160,000  horses ;  the  war  footing  is  over  2,500,000  combatant  < 
and  575,000  horses.  The  navy  embraces  powerful  flotil'a^ 
on  the  Baltic  and  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  smaller  ones  i»n  th^- 
Caspian  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Siberia.  See  Suii>>  o» 
War. 

Religion  and  Education, — The  established  and  ofl]«  jr.' 
religion  of  the  empire  is  that  of  the  Grkek  Church  {y.  • . 
or  Orthodox  Catholic  faith.  There  are  no  very  accural »• 
figures  as  to  membership  in  this  Church  and  the  vari..'iv 
sects,  but  estimates  made  with  care  for  1888  show  the  nuui- 
ber  as  follows:  For  Russia  proper,  Greek  Church  (with«'iit 
army  and  navy),  69,808,407;  Roman  Catholics,  8,300,000:  Vv- 1  - 
estants,  2,950,000;  Jews,  3,000,000;  Mohammedan^s  2.6(HI.(.nhi. 
United  Church  and  Armenians,  55,000;  pagans,  26,0(M).  In 
Poland  the  adherents  in  1890  were:  Roman  Catholics.  6,214.- 
504;  Jews,  1.134,268;  Protestants,  445,013;  Greek  Chun  h 
(without  army),  398,855.  The  number  of  Dissenters  i^  i^n- 
mated  to  be  at  least  12,000,000,  and  it  is  probable  that  uuww 
of  them  are  wrongly  accretlited  to  the  Greek  Church.  Tli»  y 
have  felt,  like  the  Jews,  but  far  less  rigorously,  the  persi-<  u- 
tions  of  the  state  and  society.  With  the  exception  of  th«  w 
two  bodies  all  religions  enjoy  freedom  from  restraint.  Tiie 
affairs  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  are  centered  in  a  vi  1- 
legium,  and  those  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  a  consiMor\. 
both  located  in  St.  Petersburg.  The  Protestants  are  nminiy 
Lutherans,  who  came  into  the  empire  originally  from  (i^r- 
many  and  are  mostly  settled  in  the  provinces  of  the  Baltic 
The  preponderance  of  the  Roman  Catholics  is  in  Polan«i, 
the  Jews  inhabit  mostly  the  towns  and  Tillages  of  Pohni.l 
and  Western  and  Soutnwestern  Russia,  while  the  Mohaui- 
medans  are  in  the  eastern  and  southern  part  of  the  em  pin?. 
Besides  these  there  are  a  great  numl)er  of  small  sect^,  t-n.- 
bodying  almost  every  conceivable  variety  of  fantastic  fanati- 
cism.   See  Raskolniks. 

The  schools  of  the  empire  are  for  the  most  part  under  tl:. 
ministry  of  Public  Instruction,  and  the  empire  is  divi»I»-.i 
into  fourteen  educational  districts,  corresponding  to  ili*- 
large  cities,  but  some  special  schools  are  under  sepanite 
ministries.  The  money  contributed  for  education  in  t)  ♦ 
budget  for  1893  was  $31,000,000.  The  educational  systt ::, 
is  as  yet  only  in  a  formative  condition,  and  though  a'  t!i>-. 
beginning  has  been  made  and  many  excellent  schools  of  i!:i- 
higher  class — universities  and  special  schools— are  in  fxi>'- 
ence,  the  general  level  of  education  is  low.  Libraries  mv 
not  numerous  outside  of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  and  War- 
saw, but  there  are  valuable  ones  in  those  cities,  and  tin- 
Imperial  Library  in  the  capital  is  one  of  the  richest  in  t  m. 
world.  In  the  arts,  sciences,  and  literature  Russia  ha<  tl«  ♦ 
veloped  much  that  is  admirable  and  exhibite<i  occasional  I  \ 
the  finest  fruits  of  genius,  sometimes  startling  and  straiii:*-, 
and  nearly  always  vigorous  and  virile.  The  pres-*  j>.u'n 
forth  an  immense  production  of  books — 9,588  in  Xh*^  v.  .ir 
1892  (exclusive  of  Finland),  with  an  aggregate  of  ^O.^^il^'KUt 
copies,  the  preponderance  in  Russian  (7,188),  and  the  n- 
mainder  in  the  Polish,  Hebrew,  German,  Lettish,  and  K-^th'- 


218 


RUSSIA 


liberal  codo  of  laws;  apparently  absorbed  in  the  sensual 
pleasures  of  a  sumptuous  life,  and  the  petty  personal  in- 
trigues of  a  corrupt  court,  she  yet  accomplished  sucli  solidly 
practical  works  as  bringing  50,000  high-class  German  and 
Swiss  immigrants  into  tne  country.  By  wars,  and  by  diplo- 
macy which  compelled  admiration,  she  acquired  225.000  sq. 
miles  of  territory,  carrying  on  simultaneously  an  immense 
internal  improvement  and  elaboration  of  the  plan  of  gov- 
ernment. In  several  successful  wars  she  took  from  the 
Turks  the  Crimea  and  Azov,  with  other  territories,  and  in 
the  final  dismemberment  of  Poland  (1796)  secured  to  the 
empire  two- thirds  of  that  kingdom.  Under  her  rule  Russia 
made  signal  advance  as  an  influential  power  in  Europe. 
Her  son  Paul  (1796-1801)  joined  the  coalition  against  the 
French  republic,  but  after  the  victories  of  SuwaroS  in  Italy, 
followed  by  disasters  on  crossing  the  Alps,  the  fickle  mon- 
arch veered  to  the  side  of  Napoleon.  But  his  rule  was  un- 
bearable, and  he  was  assassinated.  Alexander  I.  (1801-25), 
through  the  shifting  scenes  of  the  long  Napoleonic  struggle, 
played  a  leading  role  in  the  European  drama,  and  raised 
Kussia  to  the  foremost  place  in  the  continental  balance  of 
power.  Ardent,  impulsive,  and  impressionable,  he  conceived 
large  policies,  and  nis  imagination  was  easily  moved.  En- 
tering the  third  coalition  against  Napoleon  he  shared  with 
Austria  the  defeat  at  Austerlitz  (1805),  where  he  was  present 
on  the  field.  The  fourth  coalition  with  Prussia  followed, 
and  after  the  sanguinary  and  indecisive  battle  of  Eyiau 
(1807)  and  the  conclusive  defeat  of  the  allies  at  Friedland, 
Alexander  accepted  the  peace  of  Tilsit  (July  7,  1807),  by 
which  he  allied  himself  with  his  former  a<lversary,  and  closed 
the  ports  of  Russia  to  Great  Britain.  The  two  monarchs 
proceeded  as  if  dividing  the  world  between  them,  Napoleon 
to  take  the  West  and  Alexander  the  East.  Alexander 
moved  against  Persia  and  gaine<l  Shirvan.  By  the  peace  of 
Frederikshamn  (1809)  he  acquireil  Finland  from  Sweden, 
and  after  a  war  with  Turkey  added  Bessarabia  to  his  pos- 
sessions. Growing  restive  under  the  continental  blockade, 
he  broke  with  Napoleon,  and  the  memorable  invasion  of 
Russia  in  1812  followed.  At  the  head  of  more  than  half  a 
million  men  Napoleon  defeated  Alexander  at  Smolensk, 
again  at  Borodino,  and  entered  Moscow,  which  the  Russians 
themselves  then  fired  and  well-nigh  burned  to  the  ground. 
Vainly  seeking  to  negotiate  peace  he  turned  in  hastv  retreat, 
and  began  the  disordered  and  appalling  winter  fiig)it  which 
destroyed  his  great  arm  v.  In  1813  Prussia  and  Austria  joined 
Russia  in  war  against  f'rance,  and  the  battle  of  Leipzig  de- 
cided the  contest,  leaving  Alexander  foremost  among  the 
victorious  sovereigns,  and  acclaimed  as  the  liberator  of  Eu- 
rope. In  the  reorganization  of  European  politics  through  the 
congresses  of  Vienna  and  Aix-la-Chapelle  his  influence  was 
dominant.  He  founded  the  Holy  Alliance  and  became  the 
pillar  of  reaction  against  the  progressive  tendencies  of  the  age. 
His  internal  policy  experienced  a  similar  change.  During  his 
earlier  years  he  had  shown  a  liberal  disposition.  He  sought 
to  improve  public  education,  founded  universities,  advanced 
the  condition  of  the  serfs,  fostered  industrial  and  commer- 
cial enterprises,  and  relaxed  harsh  political  and  judicial 
methods.  In  his  later  years,  siippression,  censorship,  and 
police  rigor  became  the*  rule.  Detested  ministers  aroused 
general  hostility,  and  secret  societies  multiplied.  The  gay 
hero  of  other  days  became  the  conscious  object  of  wide  dis- 
content, and  sank  into  a  morose  and  dejected  state.  His 
death  quickened  the  outbreak  of  a  revolutionary  conspiracy, 
which  found  its  immediate  occasion  in  the  change  of  suc- 
cession from  the  elder  to  the  next  brother;  but  the  new 
sovereign,  Nicholas  I.  (1825-55),  suppressed  it  with  great 
vigor,  and  sternly  executed  or  exiled  the  chief  conspirators. 
Throughout  his  reign  Nicholas  displayed  reactionary  ten- 
dencies. Commanding,  imperious,  and  autocratic,  he  upheld 
the  principle  of  absolutism  with  a  resolute  hand.  In  a  war 
with  Persia,  from  1826  to  1828,  Russia  completely  triumphed, 
and  gained  the  provinces  of  Erivan  and  Nakhitchevan,  a 
heavy  indemnity,  and  the  exclusive  control  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Next  came  war  with  Turkey  in  defense  of  the  strug- 
gling Greeks.  The  alliance  of  Russia,  France,  and  Great 
Britain  led  to  the  victory  of  Navarino  (1827),  annihilating 
the  Turkish  fleet.  Russia  continue<l  the  contest,  achieve<l 
full  success,  and  forced  Turkey,  through  the  i)eaoe  of  Adrian- 
ople,  to  cede  the  mouths  of  the  Danul»e  and  pay  indemnitv. 
The  heroic  Polish  insurrection  of  1831  wan  energetically 
suppressed,  and  followed  by  measures  which  reduced  the 
kingdom  to  a  province,  stripped  of  the  distinct  constitution 
granted  by  Alexander,  of  its  own  diet  and  its  own  army. 
The  policy  of  Russianizing  these  and  other  alien  fragments 


of  the  empire  into  a  homogeneous  people  became  one  of  the 
features  of  Nicholas's  reign.  The  revolutionary  ejKK-h  of 
1848  emphasized  his  reactionary  spirit.  In  1849  he  hcut  h 
Russian  army  to  aid  Austria  in  crushing  the  Hungarian 
revolt.  In  1853  Russia's  demands  for  tne  protet.-tion  i»f 
Greek  Christians  in  Turkey  precipitated  the  Crimean  war. 
wherein  Great  Britain,  Prance,  and  Sardinia  joined  Turk«  y 
upon  the  plea  that  Russia's  demands  covered  the  design  of 
Turkish  dismemberment.  The  defeats  of  the  Alma,  Hala- 
klava,  and  Inkermann,  and  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  di*ei>lv 
chagrined  Nicholas,  who  died  in  disappointment,  and  left 
the  war  as  a  legacy  to  his  son  Alexander  II.  (1855-81),  who 
hastened  to  bring  it  to  a  conclusion. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris  (1856)  Russia  relinauished  the  right 
to  keep  war- vessels  on  the  Black  Sea,  ana  lost  a  part  of 
Bessarabia.  But  during  the  Franco-Cierman  war  (ISTOi. 
when  no  resistance  could  be  made,  she  announced  her  re- 
sumption of  supremacy  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  Bessarabia 
was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin  (1878).  From  the  fir>»t, 
Alexander  evinced  liberal  tendencies.  He  opened  the  em- 
pire more  than  ever  before  to  the  arts,  ideas,  and  civiliza- 
tion of  the  West.  In  1861  he  gained  the  title  of  The  LilnTa- 
tor,  by  decreeing  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs.  This  great 
reform  reconstructed  the  economic  and  political  relations  <if 
the  people.  The  state  indemnified  the  landlords,  and  the 
peasants  became  the  collective  possessors  of  the  communal 
land.  In  1863  a  fresh  Polish  insurrection  was  suppressiHl  by 
Mouravieff  with  great  rigor.  Aside  from  this  severity,  th»» 
reign  was  signalized  by  liberal  progress  and  unprecefipntt'ti 
material  development.  Conspicuous  among  its  features  wa< 
the  prosecution  of  the  Russian  advance  into  Asia.  In  IK^iS. 
by  treaty  with  China,  Russia  acquired  all  the  left  bank  of 
tUe  Amur.  The  capture  of  Schamyl  in  1859  ended  the  jht- 
sistent  revolt  in  the  Caucasus.  A  double  advance  into  i'»'n- 
tral  Asia  was  made  in  1863,  and  in  the  period  from  1865  to 
1868  Tashkend,  Khojend,  and  Samaftiand  successively  UW 
into  Russian  hands.  The  Khiva  expedition  of  1873,  endin;r 
in  the  capture  of  Khokan  in  1875,  completed  the  conquest  «»f 
Central  Asia.  Outbreaks  of  the  Slavonic  Christians  within 
the  sultan's  domains  led  Russia  in  1877  to  war  with  Turkey. 
The  treaty  of  San  Stefano  (1878),  which  crowned  Ru>i>i8's 
triumph,  modified  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin,  liberated  an«l 
readjusted  the  Balkan  principalities,  enlarging  Servia,  mak- 
ing Koumania  independent,  and  creating  free  Bulgaria  »4u»»- 
ject  to  Turkish  suzerainty.  The  later  years  of  Alexander's 
reign  were  marked  by  the  rapid  development  of  Nihili>nj. 
His  progressive  policy,  however,  continued,  and  uniler  thi- 
infiuence  of  the  liberal  minister  Loris  Melikoff  a  c<in>ti- 
tutional  project  nroviding  for  a  consultative  assembly  *»f 
delegates  elected  by  the  provincial  zemstvos  had  been  signed 
and  was  about  to  be  proclaimed  by  the  emperor,  when, 
after  four  attempts  had  failed,  he  was  assassinated  ^Iat,  1 
(13),  1881.  His  son  and  successor,  Alexander  III.  (1H81-Ji4i. 
had  been  consulted  as  to  the  proposed  project,  and  had  as- 
sented, but  upon  his  accession  other  influences  prevaiU-il. 
and  the  reform  which  would  have  been  the  first  st»'p  I  in- 
ward wirliamentary  government  was  not  promultrat^'d. 
Melikoff  gave  place'to  Ignatieff,  and  reactionary  forces  lie- 
cAme  dominant.  Panslavism  asserted  itself  with  new  vii.'i.>r. 
Violent  anti-Semitic  outbreaks  occurred  in  different  part«-  *  .f 
the  empire,  and  were  followed  by  the  May  laws  of  ls*<*2, 
which  restricted  the  Jews  to  the  pale  of  settlement,  con^i^t- 
ing  of  fifteen  provinces  of  the  southwest,  and  imposed  other 
restraints  upon  them.  After  a  short  period  these  laws  Ih^ 
came  obsolete,  but  in  1890  measures  were  again  taken  f«.r 
their  partial  enforcement,  until  the  public  opinion  of  oth^r 
countries  remonstrated.  Except  in  minor  and  sim<iTn<Hijr 
clashes  in  Central  Asia,  the  reign  of  Alexander  III.  was  fn^- 
from  war.  In  foreign  relations  he  sedulously  culti vate<l  pea*  t\ 
and  came  to  be  known  as  the  peace-keeper  of  Europe.  11*^ 
threw  off  the  subserviency  to  Germanv  which  ha<l  markt^i 
much  of  Russian  statecraft,  and  wit'bout  alienatiiii;  Xhf 
friendship  of  the  powers  of  the  Triple  Alliance  he  encour- 
aged France  as  a  counterpoise  for  peace.  In  Bulgarin  hj«4 
hand  rested  heavily  on  Prince  Alexander,  who  finally  aUli- 
cate<l.  In  contrast  with  the  policy  of  his  predecessor,  he 
discouraged  Western  infiuence,  and  devoted  hims»»lf  to  dt*- 
veloping  the  national  spirit  of  his  own  people.  He  wa^  a 
Russian  of  Russians,  Well-meaning  and  conscientious,  \\* 
sympathized  with  the  spirit  of  political  and  religious  n^ju-- 
tion,  and  it  stamped  the  character  of  his  reign.  He  du-xl 
Nov.  1, 1894.  His  son  and  successor,  Nicholas  II.,  mount inc 
the  throne  at  twenty-six  years  of  age.  was  married  imiut^ 
diately  after  his  accession  to  Princess  Alix  of  Hesse. 


220 


RUSSIAN  LANGUAGE 


Thus  in  Gr.  Russ.  the  datives  of  nogd,  rukd  are  fMo^e,  ruk'S 
(pron.  nogji^  rukje),  while  L.  Russ.  noz*i,  ruci  abide  by  the 
old  Slavic  noze^  ruci.  Gr.  Russ.  locative  of  duck  is  duchS 
(pron.  dnchje)  :  L.  Russ.  duaH,  Gr.  Russ.  imperative  of 
Ijagu  is  Ijagi  :  L.  Russ.  ljaz\  The  Gr.  Russ.  has  lost  the 
vocat.  sing.  masc.  and  f emin.,  while  the  L.  Russ.  has  kept  it ; 
thus  Gr.  Russ.  drug  Tnoj\  syn  mou  but  L.  Russ.  dmie  moj\ 
sgnu  moj\  Gr.  Russ.  duH  moj'a  :  L.  Russ.  duao  mojd. 

On  the  whole,  Great  Russian  has  been  more  conservative 
than  Little  Russian,  in  part  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  for- 
mer has  been  more  uninterruptedly  and  stronglv  influenced 
by  the  Church  Slavonic.  Although  the  Little  Russians, 
like  the  Great  Russians,  are  adherents  of  the  Greek  confes- 
sion (only  a  fragment  of  the  Little  Russian — namely,  in  Ga- 
licia — holds  to  Rome),  and  use  the  same  Church  Slavonic  in 
the  liturgy,  vet  under  the  influence  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Poles  and  their  higher  civilization,  which  lasted  for  cen- 
turies, the  prestige  of  the  Church  Slavonic  yielded  much 
earlier  than  with  the  Great  Russians,  and  even  as  early  as 
the  sixteenth  century  the  fftlk-speech  acquired  some  recog- 
nition. This  is  particularly  true  of  the  Ruthenian  dialect 
in  Galicia,  which  was  recognized  in  the  schools  and  in 
official  use.  In  vocabulary  and  syntax  it  has  been  strongly 
influenced  by  the  Polish,  and  differs  in  many  points  from 
the  much  purer  and  more  original  Ukrain  dialect. 

The  rivers  Pripet  and  Desna,  emptying  into  the  Dnieper, 
form  the  northern  boundarv  of  Little  Russiaji  against  the 
White  Russian  and  Great  Russian.  The  northern  line  ex- 
tends on  to  the  Don  below  the  cities  Kursk  and  Voronej, 
whose  vicinity  is  South  Great  Russian.  S.  of  this  line 
dwell  the  Little  Russians,  stretching  W.  even  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  Russia  into  Galicia,  and  even  over  the  Car- 
pathians into  Northeastern  Hungary.  Farther  to  the  S. 
they  border  in  Bessarabia  upon  the  lioumanians,  the  Black 
Sea  forming  their  southern  boundary.  They  extend  on  the 
E.  as  far  as  the  Don,  though  here  mixed  with  the  Great 
Russians.  They  also  occupy,  mixed  with  Great  Russians, 
the  districts  of  Kuban  and  Tschernomorie  to  the  E.  of  the 
Sea  of  Azov. 

The  South  or  Little  Russian  dialect  consists  of  several 
closely  related  varieties.  Of  greatest  extent  is  the  Ukrain 
variety  which  covers  Podolia  and  Bessarabia,  the  provinces 
of  Kieff,  Poltava,  Kherson,  Kharkoff,  Ekaterinoslaf,  Taurida, 
part  of  Voronej,  and  the  lower  valley  of  the  Don.  N.  of 
this  extends  the  Polesje  variety,  occupying  a  part  of  Vol- 
hynia  and  the  province  Chernigoff.  W.  of  the  Ukrain  ap- 
pears the  so-called  Red  Russian  (called  in  Galicia  Ruthe- 
nian), covering  Podolia,  Galicia  into  the  Carpathians,  and  on 
thence  into  liimgary,  and  Bukovina. 

The  Great  Russian  in  its  widest  sense  includes  the  Great 
Russian  proper  and  the  White  Russian.  The  latter  forms 
in  some  sense  a  transition  to  the  Little  Russian,  and  is  there- 
fore by  some  authorities  regarded  as  a  branch  of  Little 
Russian,  while  others  prefer  to  treat  the  White  Russian  as 
a  third  main  division.  The  linguistic  facts  favor,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  writer,  the  reference  of  White  Russian  to 
the  Great  Russian  group.  The  characteristic  peculiarities 
of  White  Russian  are,  m  the  vocalism,  the  spread  of  the 
vowel  a  or  ta  not  only  to  displace  o,  but  also  «,  ^nerally  in 
unaccented  syllables:  zjaljbny  (for  zeljony)^  hjarjbza  (for 
b'erjoza),  sjaljco  (for  seljco),  etc. ;  in  consonantism,  the  pro- 
nunciation of  soft  d  and  /,  as  dz,  ta,  as  tairem  for  Verem, 
dzerjats  for  djevjat\  etc. 

The  White  Russians  occupy  the  provinces  of  Vilna,  Vi- 
tebsk, Minsk,  Moghilev,  and  also  extend  into  the  provinces 
of  Pskoff,  Tver,  and  Smolensk.  Physically  they  are  the 
weakest  and  most  unenergetic  of  the  Russian  race,  and  until 
recent  yeai-s  were  entirely  subject  to  the  dominating  influ- 
ence of  the  Poles, 

The  Great  Russians  proper,  the  most  numerous,  the 
strongest,  and  the  most  enterprising  Russian  tribe,  early 
effected  from  old  Novgorod  tlie  colonization  of  the  north, 
and  later  from  Moscow  secured  the  control  of  all  European 
and  Asiatic  Russia.  They  are  divided  into  two  groujis  on 
the  basis  of  the  pronunciation  of  the  unaccented  o- vowel — 
an  o-group  (northern)  and  an  a-group  (southern),  the  former 
called  North  Great  Russian,  the  latter  South  Great  Russian. 
The  North  Great  Russians  occupy  tiie  entire  north  of  Euro- 
pean Russia  down  to  the  province  of  Tver,  the  greater  part 
of  which  speaks  o,  then  on  to  tlie  province  of  Moscow,  where 
only  a  small  territory  in  the  extreme  north  s|x»aks  o.  Almost 
the  whole  of  the  province  of  Vladimir  and  the  northern  parts 
of  Nijni-Novgorod  and  Kazan  are  included  in  the  o-group; 
so  also  the  Ural  region  and  parts  of  Siberia. 


The  South  Great  Russians,  or  the  a-speakers,  orcup\ 
parts  of  the  province  of  Smolensk,  almost  all  of  Mus*cow,  all 
of  Kaluga,  Tula,  Orel,  Ryazan,  Tamboff,  Kursk,  Voronej  i-^* 
far  as  it  is  Great  Russian),  the  southern  parts  of  Niji.i- 
Novgorod,  and  Kazan,  the  province  of  Penza,  and  al^o  Jmhi- 
birsk.  Samara,  and  Saratoff. 

The  chief  difference  between  the  North  Great  Russian^ 
and  the  South  Great  Russians  lies  in  the  pronunciation  of  i» 
as  0  by  the  former,  and  as  a  (either  pure  or  as  d\  i.  e.  nii«i- 
way  between  a  and  o)  by  the  latter.  This  applies  only  to 
unaccented  syllables.  Cf.  N.  Gr.  Russ.  albvo,  tndslo,  zachof*  : 
S.  Gr.  Russ.  aldva,  mdala,  zychaCil,  The  a-speakers  are  dj— 
tinguished  by  a  broad  pronunciation,  whereas  among  the  it- 
speakers  the  sound  o  is  often  close,  almost  like  u,  Tht*y 
are  therefore  called  also  the  Low  Great  Russians.  A  furtlu-r 
difference  between  the  two  varieties  is  that  unaccented  e  \u 
South  Great  Russian  generally,  except  at  the  end  of  wonl.^. 
is  pronounced  almost  as  t— e.  g.  p\rb  for  js'erd,  vizii  for 
v^ezu, p*iriehbd  tot p^erechbd — whereas  in  North  Great  Rus- 
sian this  same  unaccented  e  is  freely  rendered  as  io—e.  iz. 
pjorby  vjozu,  afolb,  hjodrb  (S.  Gr.  Kuss.  «'i76,  b'idrb):  vf. 
N.  Gr.  Russ.  jovb  (for  jegb) :  S.  Gr.  B.nss.jM,  The  North 
Great  Russian  exhibits  furthermore  two  features  lacking  in 
South  Great  Russian:  (1)  Primitive  Slavic  i,  which  usumIN 
becomes  soft  e  in  Great  Russian,  is  occasionally  pronoun(-*-«! 
in  North  Great  Russian  as  a  soft  t,  just  as  in  Little  Rui^siHrt  - 
a'ifio  for a'enOf  av'idka  for  av'icka, etc. ;  (2)  the  widely  spnn. i 
pronunciation  of  5  as  c  and  c  as  c  :  cort  for  eort,  color  tk  f«  -r 
colov'ik,  iar*  for  car\  Hrkov  for  cerkov.  The  confusi<»ii  <  : 
the  consonants  is  universal  in  the  northern  provinces,  tli. 
old  territory  of  the  republic  of  Novgorod,  whereas  their  cor- 
rect use  is  limited  to  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Norih 
Great  Russian  territory,  viz.,  Tver,  \  ladimir,  Yaroslav,  K»  •— 
troma,  Nijni-Novgoroa,  and  Kazan. 

The  Standard  or  Literary  Buaaian. — Until  near  the  er.»l 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  especially  since  the  estab- 
lishment of  Moscow  as  a  political  and  religious  center,  i: 
was  a  l^enerally  accepted  principle  that  the  language  of  th- 
Church  should  be  regarded  as  the  medium  of  litemturf- 
and  of  all  that  belonged  to  the  intellectual  or  higher  hu-. 
Its  poverty  in  the  means  of  expression  occasioned,  wIum 
it  was  applied  to  profane  purposes — as  in  civil  document^, 
laws,  and  later,  too,  in  narrative  literature — the  adoi>tioii 
of  popular  expressions,  construction,  and  plirases,  even  m 
the  face  of  protest  from  individual  writers.  A  duHli^m 
was  not  felt  and  not  recognized,  even  though  it  lutiy 
have  actually  existed.  It  remained  for  Russia's  great  r»- 
former,  Peter  the  Great,  to  determine  the  separation  of 
the  profane  from  the  sacred  literature,  and  to  give  it  tn.t- 
ward  indication  through  the  form  of  the  alphabet.  A^ 
early  as  1697,  during  li  is  residence  at  Amsterdam,  PeT»r 
awarded  a  Dutch  bookseller  the  privilege  of  printing  liu^- 
sian  books  in  a  style  of  type  varying  from  the  aiphnU  r 
then  used  in  Russia,  and  distinguished  by  a  smooth m^s  Hn<i 
roundness  of  form  evidently  borrowed  from  the  Latin  al- 
phabet. This  same  form  of  letter  was  later  introtJur^ .  I 
(1707)  into  Russia  itself,  and  was  there  (Moscow)  reonxhu*  .i 
in  a  successful  manner  by  the  type-founder  M.  Jefreino\. 
The  first  book  printed  in  Russia  in  this  new  "  civil  tvj)e  '*  ai- 
peared  in  1708  at  Moscow — a  work  on  geometry,  the  vynr 
approved  so  heartily  of  the  undertaking  that  in  1710  he  ex- 
amined a  collected  list  of  letter-symbols  and  struck  out  wit  n 
his  own  hand  those  which  he  did  not  approve,  and  gave  or- 
ders that  from  that  time  those  which  nad  been  approve. i 
should  be  used  in  the  printing  of  books  on  historical  au-i 
general  subjects.  The  secularization  of  the  Russian  litern- 
ture  in  speech  and  print  was  thus  sanctioned  through  th. 
all-powerful  will  of  the  autocrat.  The  language  was  no\  »r. 
theless  for  some  time  subject  to  great  confusion;  ev»-ry 
man  wrote  or  translated  according  as  knowledge  or  caprn  »' 
might  admit.  Fortunately  there  arose  soon  after  Peter  ih^- 
(treat  a  second  man  of  genius,  who  extended  to  the  narrow  rr 
field  of  literature  and  science  the  work  begun  in  the  larc*.r 
field.  This  literary  Peter  the  Great  was  a  peasant's  son  f  n  -i  m 
the  high  north,  the  academician,  poet,  physicist, gramnian an. 
and  historian,  Loraonosov.  He  rendered  to  the  langua-t- 
a  service  the  value  of  which  can  not  be  easily  overr^itft. 
He  appreciated  how  to  lead  the  confused  and  normles^  l.in- 
guage  into  the  right  courses,  into  a  healthy  popular  font* 
tempered  by  historical  traditions,  and,  while  carrying  out  t  i . 
principle  of  Peter  the  Great,  he  avoided  laying  tKe  ban  of  ni- 
terdiction  upon  the  hitherto  revered  language  of  the  Chun  i- 
He  conceived  it  as  desirable  that  the  language  shouM  r«  ' 
cease  to  draw  its  nourishment  from  the  rich  source^  «>r 


222 


RUSSIAN  LITERATURE 


With  his  reign  the  history  of  modern  ideas  in  his  country 
begins.  The  peasant  Pososhkov  (1670-1726)  was  at  the  same 
time  an  old-fashioned  theologian  and  a  liberal  political  econ- 
omist. Prince  Antiokh  Kanterair  (1708-44),  who  passed 
much  of  his  life  abroad,  turned  out  satires  in  the  stvle  of 
Boileau,  which  even  had  the  honor  of  being  rendered  into 
French.  Vasili!  Tatistchev  (1685-1750)  wrote  the  first  his- 
tory of  Russia ;  Tredlakovskii  (1703-69)  translated  much  and 
made  a  guide  to  versification,  while  unable  to  write  good 
poetry  himself.  Far  more  important  than  anv  of  these  was 
Lomonosov  (1711-65),  not  so  much  as  an  autlior,  although 
he  tried  his  talents  at  literature  of  many  sorts,  but  as  a 
gi'ammariau  and  liter^nry  lawgiver.  The  language  of  Rus- 
sian books  was  still  under  the  yoke  of  the  church  Slavonic, 
and  teemed  with  archaic  expressions,  while  Western  wonls, 
brought  in  with  Western  ideas,  added  to  the  general  con- 
fusion in  which  there  were  no  accepted  models  to  follow. 
Lomonosov,  in  his  grammar  (1755),  laid  down  the  laws  for 
all  to  ol)ey,  his  own  varied  works  served  as  examples  of  at 
least  grammatical  correctness,  and  by  his  successful  intro- 
duction of  tonic  instead  of  the  previous  syllabic  versifica- 
tion he  brought  Russian  jK>etry  back  to  the  form  suited  to 
the  natural  genius  of  the  language.  The  period  that  fol- 
lowed was  very  creditable,  although  few  of  the  works  then 
written  are  read  to-day  or  possess  originality.  French  in- 
fluence and  taste,  then  dominant  in  all  Europe,  were  no- 
where more  supreme  than  at  St.  Petersburg.  Sumarokov 
(1718-77),  the  fii-st  in  his  country  to  have  no  other  profession 
than  that  of  author,  besides  shorter  poems,  composed  many 
stiff  tragedies  in  alexandrine  verse ;  Kntazhnin  (1742-91), 
Kheraskov  (1733-1807),  and  others  followed  in  the  same  vein, 
and  the  last  named  likewise  composed  a  ponderous  epic,  the 
Jiossiada ;  von  Vizin  (1744-92)  wrote  two  really  gooii  come- 
dies, Nedorosl  (the  Minor)  and  Brigadier ;  Kniazhnin,  with 
his  Khvastun  (the  Boaster),  etc.,  Kapnist  (1757-1824),  with 
his  labeda  (Calumny),  succeeded  nearly  as  well ;  and  the 
Empress  Catherine  II.  herself  show^ed  cleverness  in  one  or 
two  light  satirical  plays.  Khemnitser  (1745-84),  and  later 
Dmitriev  (1760-1837),  were  successful  writers  of  fables; 
Bogdanovich  (1743-1803)  gained  a  great  reputation  by  his 
poem  of  Duahenka,  though  he  ranks  below  Derzhavin 
(174S-1816),  the  greatest  lyric  poet  of  Russia  of  his  time, 
and  entitled  to  an  honorable  place  among  European  writers 
of  the  century.  He  is  best  known  for  nis  stately  if  frigid 
odes,  one  of  which,  the  Ode  to  God,  was  translated  into 
many  languages,  including  C-hinese  and  Japanese,  and  hung 
up  in  a  temple  at  Peking.  The  most  important  prose-writers 
oi  the  same  date  were  the  Freemason  publisher  and  book- 
seller Novikov  (1744-1818),  and  Radistchev  (1749-1802),  au- 
thor of  the  Jaumey  from  St,  Petersburg  to  Moscoir. 

The  last  years  of  Catherine's  reign  were  marked  by  a  re- 
action sCgainst  everything  that  savored  of  liberalism,  and 
from  then  till  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  the  literary  move- 
ment was  less  active.  The  must  important  figure  was  Ka- 
ramzin  (1766-1826),  who  did  for  Russian  style  much  what 
Lomonosov  had  done  for  grammar,  discarding  antique 
forms,  clumsy  expressions,  and  foreign  interpolations,  be- 
sides furnishing  by  his  own  productions  mo<lels  for  others 
to  study  and  profit  by.  He  was  a  many-sided  writer,  whose 
most  famous  works  are  his  Letters  of  a  Traveler^  his  senti- 
mental novel  Bednala  (Poor)  Luisa,  and  especially  his  great 
History  of  liuHsia.  He  also  founded  the  VeHtnik  Erropy 
(Messenger  of  Europe),  still  perhaps  the  best  magazine  in 
the  empire.  In  his  political  ideas  he  was  national  and  con- 
servative, and  may  be  l(M)ked  on  as  an  ancestor  of  the  mod- 
ern Slavophils.  In  this  same  transition  perio<l  we  find  the 
dramatist  Ozerov  (1770-1816),  whose  plays,  though  still  fol- 
lowing for  the  most  part  the  approved  rules  of  cla^^sical 
trageily,  sliow  the  Wginnings  of  the  new  romantic  spirit. 

The  Romantic  School, — The  romantic  school  anjse  at 
about  the  same  time  in  Russia  as  in  other  countries.  The 
impulse  to  it  came  from  abroad,  esj)eciany  from  (lemiany 
and  England.  Goethe,  Schiller,  Shakspeare,  and  later, 
above  all,  Bj^ron,  displaced  the  French  moclels  of  the  previ- 
ous generation.  The  great  champion  and  genius  of  the  new 
movement  was  Alexander  Pushkin  (17S)U-lKi8),  the  initititor 
was  his  friend  Zhukovskii  (178:^1852),  who  has  left  com- 
paratively few  original  works,  but  a  great  number  of  excel- 
lent translations,  which  matle  known  to  his  countrymen 
many  of  the  masterpieces  of  foreign  literature.  His  friend 
Kozlov  (1779-1840)  did  much  the  same  thing  with  less  suc- 
cess, while  Batifishkov  (1788-1855),  who  early  became  insane, 
was  the  author  of  a  few  remarkable  j>oeins  that  imitate  the 
plastic  perfection  of  classic  masters.    Griboedov  (murdered 


in  1829  when  ambassador  at  Teheran)  left  Ijehind  a  eoni<'<ly. 
Gore  oi  Uma  (Trouble  from  Cleverness),  which  nink.*%  wiili 
the  first  of  its  kind  in  all  literature.  The  war  against  Na- 
poleon had  caused  a  general  awakening  that  usually  took  on 
a  patriotic  or  liberal  form.  The  former  chamcteriMi*- 
brought  about  the  discovery  and  study  of  the  old  nationa.! 
bylini\  the  latter  led  to  the  December  rising  at  tlie  acut-^- 
sion  of  Nicholas  I.  The  young  iioet  Ryleev  (1795-1h2<»» 
was  hanged  with  othera  of  the  chief  conspirators,  whil*- 
his  friends,  the  critic  and  story-teller  Bestuzhev  (jisoudo- 
nym  Marlinski\,  1795-1837)  and  the  poet  Prince  (>dc>e\- 
skil  (1802-39),  were  banishe<l  to  Siberia  and  the  Cauoaj<iis. 
Only  a  fortunate  absence  from  St.  Petersburg  pre.>ervc«l 
Puslikin  from  being  in  the  plot.  He,  too,  hiul  to  ^ufftr 
banishment  from  the  capital  on  account  of  his  liberal  idta«« 
but  his  genius  gained  by  the  change  of  scene  and  i>artii*u- 
larly  by  his  visit  to  the  Caucasus.  His  first  poem,  UuMtnt 
and  Lludmila^  like  Victor  Hugo's  Jlemnnt,  in  FraiK-*-, 
started  a  great  controversy  which  resulted  in  the  coiiiiih-t«- 
triumph  of  the  romantic  school.  Pushkin's  style  b*»th  in 
prose  and  poetry  approaches  (perfection.  His  shorter  fwiem^ 
were  the  aelight  of  his  own  and  succeeding,  general  i«  »n«  ; 
his  Kapitanskaia  Dock  (The  Captain's  Daughter)  ser\»'«l 
as  a  model  of  a  story ;  his  Boris  Godunov  (Eng.  tran^,  « ^f 
parts  by  N.  H.  Dole  in  Poet  Lore,  Boston,  No.  2, 1889  :  N..-. 
3  and  11,  1890;  Nos.  8  and  11,  1891)  founded  genuine  \iu^ 
sian  tragedy;  his  Evgenil  Onegin  (Eng.  trans,  by  Lieut  - 
Col.  Spalding,  London,  1881)  is  a  long  poem  recalling  Ihfu 
Juan  and  Beppo,  with  passages  of  great  beauty  an«l  Mill 
oftener  of  brilliant  wit,  and  has  a  hero  who  can  be  looked  on 
as  the  ancestor  of  the  realistic  characters  of  later  wril«T^. 
Around  Pushkin  gathered  his  friends  and  disciples,  the  (»•> 
ets  Delvig  (1798-1831),  Baratvnskil  (1800-44),  lazykov  (IKCi- 
46),  Venevitinov  (1805-27),  Gnedich  (1784-1883),*  the  trans- 
lator of  the  Iliad,  and  the  unfortunate  Polezhaev  (1807-;J>*i. 
The  greatest  of  Pushkin's  successors  was  the  passionate  and 
unhappy  Iiermontov  (1814-41),  the  embodiment  of  the  H>- 
ronic  spirit,  which  he  did  not  live  long  enough  to  outgn»w. 
The  most  combative  member  of  the  romantic  schn<»l  ^mv 
N.  Pole voT  (1796-1846);  its  great  critic  I^linskiT  (I8ia-4>i 
The  i)oet  Tiuchev  (1808-73)  was  its  last  distinguished  sur- 
vivor. Contemporary  with  it,  but  not  l)elonging  to  it,  v^vt^ 
the  peasant  potit  Koltsov  (1809-42),  and  the  writer  of  fabb-^ 
Krylov  (1768-1844),  who  has  no  equal  of  his  kind  excLi.t 
La  Fontaine. 

The  realistic  movement  begins  with  Gogol  (1809-52),  tbe 
first  of  the  great  Russian  novelists.  His  comedy  the  Btrvisot , 
his  shorter  stories,  and  his  Nertvyia  Dushi  (Dead  SouU)  an- 
among  the  masteri)i(*ces  of  literature.  No  countries,  e\c-«-fa 
Great  Britain  and  France,  can  compare  with  Russia  for  thf 
number  and  genius  of  her  novelists  and  story-tellers  of  Imx  b 
the  first  and  the  st^cond  rank.  Almost  contemporary  uitli 
Gogol  we  find  the  later  Nihilist  Alexander  Hertzen  (I8i2-7lh. 
whose  chief  novel,  Klo  Vinovat  ?  (Whose  Fault  t),  is  a  pl»a 
for  free  love;  and  the  series  of  novelists  continues  uninter- 
rupted to  the  present  day.  Three  names  stand  out  aUtve 
all  others:  Turgenev  (18i8-83),  Dostoevski!  (1822-81),  and 
Lev  Tolstoi  (b.  1828).  Not  far  behind  them  come  Gonelian  w 
(1814-91),  the  author  of  Ohlomox\  Ohyknm^ennyla  Isturia  {\ 
Common  Storj),  etc.,  and  Pisemskil  (1820-81),  from  ^h« re- 
works all  traces  of  ideal  have  disappeared ;  and  then  numer- 
ous men  of  second  rank  like  Pisarev  (1840-68),  Vasilii  Krt>- 
tovskil  (b.  1840),  Potekhin  (b.  1829),  etc.  Most  of  them  hu\  v 
also  written  short  stories.  Among  the  many  esfiecial  >tory- 
tellers  mention  might  be  made  of  Sollogub  and  Gleb  I's^kci- 
skiT.  As  a  satirical  writer  Soltykov  (pseudonym  Stahedrtn, 
1826-89)  has  no  rival  but  Heine  in  the  nineteenth  centur\. 
( 'hern yshevskifs  famous  romance  iSA^o />/a^  y  (What  i>  {*» 
l)e  doiief)  has  less  literary  worth  than  value  as  the  gosj»el  i.f 
the  earlier  Nihilists.  Among  the  most  recent  writers  an- 
Garshin — a  disciple  of  Tolstoi — and  the  Little  Russian  Kon>- 
lenko.  The  poet,s  of  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  i-i-n- 
tury  have  not  equaled  those  of  the  earlier.  The  greatest  «  f 
them  was  Nekrasov  (1822-77),  a  champion  of  the  jHH>r  ami 
oppreSvsed.  Many  of  the  most  recent  ones,  however,  wiilmut 
attaining  the  first  rank,  have  written  fine  things.  Anit»nc 
them  are  Khomiakov  (1H04-60),  the  Panslavist ;  MaTk<»\  lu. 
1821),  distinguished  by  the  beautiful  finish  of  his  verse:  Stu  n- 
shin  (pseudtmym  »/,  b.  1H20),  a  singer  of  love  and  natun-  . 
the  melanchol'v  P<)l(mskii  (b.  1820):  the  peasant  p<»et  Nikitn. 
(1824-61):  Mei (1822-62);  Stcherbina  (1821-69);  Ple»*tihr,  > 
(1825-93),  etc.  One  of  the  most  promising  of  the  youiiin-r 
poets  to-day  is  the  (trand  Duke  Konstantin  Konslantu.*^ 
vich,  who  writes  over  the  signature  K.  R.     In  trageilv  th.- 


224 


RUSTAM 


RUSTS 


forces.  After  gaining  a  few  successes  in  Armenia  they  were 
forced  to  retreat  toward  their  own  frontier.  In  the  Halkan 
peninsula  they  divided  tlieir  forces  in  Bulgaria,  and  though 
they  gained  possession  of  Nicopolis,  Lovatz,  and  other 
places,  garrisoned  them  by  weak  detachments,  and  allowed 
the  approach  of  a  Turkish  army,  35,()00  strong,  under  O^man 
Pasha,  to  escape  their  notice.  In  the  first  battle  of  Plevna 
(July  20)  the  Russians  were  defeated  with  considerable  loss ; 
in  the  second  (July  30)  they  fared  still  worse,  leaving  a  fifth 
of  their  number  on  the  field.  Gourko,  who  had  led  a  Rus- 
sian division  beyond  the  Balkans,  was  forced  to  fall  back 
upon  Shipka  Pass,  where  he  was  attacked  by  superior  forces, 
and  saved  only  by  the  timely  arrival  of  re-enforcements. 
Russia  now  raised'  fresh  troops  and  obtained  aid  from  Rou- 
mania.  After  regaining  Lovatz  the  allied  Russians  and 
Roumanians  attacked  Plevna,  but  though  they  succeeded 
in  capturing  one  of  the  fortresses  the  attack  on  the  inner 
line  of  defense  was  repulsed  with  enormous  losses  (Sept.  11- 
12).  Public  opinion  laid  the  blame  of  these  disasters  upon 
the  Russian  headquarters,  for  both  officers  and  men  had 
acquitted  themselves  well  on  the  field  of  battle.  Todleben, 
the  defender  of  Sebastopol,  was  now  placed  in  control  of 
the  operations  around  Plevna.  Cut  off  from  all  supplies, 
the  Turks  made  a  last  desperate  effort  to  break  through  the 
Russian  lines  on  Dec.  10,  but  failed,  and  were  forced  to 
surrender.  The  victors  crossed  the  Balkans,  captured  one 
Turkish  army  at  Shipka,  routed  another  on  their  way  to 
Adrianople,  and  entered  tlie  latter  city  on  Jan.  22,  1878. 
The  Porte  had  already  begun  to  negotiate  for  peace,  and  on 
Jan.  31  an  armistice  was  granted  by  the  Russians. 

Besulis  of  the  War. — ^Great  Britain's  dread  of  Russian 
designs  on  Constantinople  led  to  the  dispatch  of  a  British 
fleet  to  that  city,  and  brought  the  two  nations  to  the  verge 
of  war.  Nor  were  matters  improved  when  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  of  San  Stefano  (Mar.  3,  1878)  between  Russia  and 
Turkey  became  known.  By  these,  Bulgaria,  with  its  terri- 
tory enlarged  so  as  to  include  the  greater  part  of  European 
Turkey,  was  to  constitute  an  autonomous  tributary  princi- 
pality, whose  prince,  elected  by  the  people,  was  to  be  con- 
firmed by  the  Porte.  A  Russian  commissioner,  holding 
office  for  two  years,  was  to  superintend  the  introduction  of 
the  new  system,  and  a  Russian  army  was  to  occupy  the 
country  for  the  same  periotl.  Improvements  were  to  be  in- 
troduced in  the  administration  of  Epirus,  Thessaly,  and  the 
other  parts  of  European  Turkey  for  which  the  treaty  did  not 
provide  a  special  constitution':  also  in  Armenia,  whose  in- 
nabitants  were  to  be  guaranteed  security  from  Kurds  and 
Circassians.  In  lieu  of  part  of  tlie  war  indemnity  claimed 
by  Russia  she  was  to  receive  the  districts  of  Kars,  Ardahan, 
liatoum,  and  Bayazid  in  Asia,  and  the  Dobrudscha  in  Eu- 
rope, but  the  last-named  district  was  to  Ije  ceded  to  Rou- 
mania  in  return  for  Bessarabia.  Russia  still  claimed  a  bal- 
ance of  3,0(X),(XX)  rubles.  A  EurojHjan  congress  was  pro- 
nosed,  to  be  held  in  Berlin,  but,  to  the  chagrin  of  Great 
Britain,  Russia  denied  the  right  of  such  a  congress  to  decide 
finally  upon  the  articles  of  the  treaty.  War  seemed  more 
imminent  than  ever,  but  at  length  Russia  consented  to  cer- 
tain mo<lifications  of  the  treaty,  and  the  congress  was 
openetl  on  June  13.  The  work  of  the  congress  was  em- 
botlied  in  the  Treaty  of  lierlin  (July  13),  by  which  Bulgaria 
was  limited  to  the  country  N.  of  the  Balkans,  the  Rus- 
sian commissioner  was  shorn  of  his  powers,  the  portion  of 
Bulgaria  S.  of  the  Balkans  was  formed  into  the  autono- 
mous province  of  Eastern  Rouinelia,  subject  to  the  direct 
authority  of  the  sultan,  and  the  Russian  occupation  was 
limited  to  nine  months.  Austria  gained  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina, and  Turkey  retained  Bayazid.  The  powers  recom- 
mended that  Turkey  should  cede  Thessaly  and  part  of  Epi- 
rus to  Greece,  a  recommendation  subsequently  acted  u|)on 
by  the  Porte.  In  other  respects  but  slight  changes  were 
made  in  the  provisions  of  the  former  treaty.  See  Berlin 
Congress  and  Eastern  (Question.  F.  M.  Colby. 

Rnstam,  or  RnHt^m,  rcMts'tem  :  a  great  hero  in  the  myth- 
ical times  of  ancient  Iran.  He  was  the  son  of  Zal  and  Rfi- 
dabah,  and  his  feats  of  gigantic  prowess  and  prodigious 
strength  play  a  romantic  rule  in  the  great  Per-sian  epic,  the 
Shah-Xumnh.  (Si»e  FirdaisI.)  The  haft  khan,  or  seven 
labors  of  Rustam,  rival  those  of  Hercules.  Thesacl  story  of 
his  slaying  his  own  son  SohnTl),  in  single  coinliat,  forms  one 
of  the  most  pathetic  episodes  in  the  Shdh-yCunah,  and  has 
parallels  in  other  literatures;  for  exanij)le,  in  the  old  Ger- 
manic story  of  llildebrand  and  Iladubrand  and  in  the  Cellic 
tale  of  CucuUin  and  Conloch.      A.  V.  Williams  Jai  kson. 


RoBtehnk,  roost-chook' :  town  of  Bulgaria,  on  tlie  Dan- 
ube; 40  miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Bucharest  (see  map  t.f 
Turkey,  ref.  3-D) ;  the  northwestern  comer  of  the  Bulgarian 
quadrilateral.  (See  Quadrilateral.)  It  has  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  wars  between  Russia  and  the  Ott«»nian 
empire.  Captured  by  the  Russians  in  1810,  it  was  held  by 
them  till  1812.  The  fortifications  then  destroyed  wtn- 
rapidly  rebuilt,  but  razed  to  the  ground  »gHin  in  1H29  in 
accordance  with  the  Treaty  of  Adrianople.  They  were  onf  e 
more  erected  in  1853.  Rustchuk  escajied  capture  in  the 
Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877.  Since  the  creation  of  the  semi- 
independent  principality  of  Bulgaria,  the  city  has  raiudly 
improved  in  appearance  and  business  activity  has  <level- 
oped.    Pop.  (1893)  28,121.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Rilstow,  riis'tS,  Wilhelm:  soldier  and  writer  on  military 
subjects;  b.  at  Brandenburg,  Prussia,  May  25, 1821 ;  enten  d 
the  Prussian  army  in  1838;  was  arrested  and  indicte<l  in 
1850  for  his  Der  Deutsche  Militdrstcutt  vor  und  wdhreml 
der  Revolutimh  (1850J,  but  escaped ;  settled  at  Zurich ;  be- 
came a  celebrated  military  author;  found  practical  empU»y- 
ment  in  the  Swiss  army,  and  took  part  with  distinction  in 
the  campaigns  of  Garibaldi  in  Sicily  and  Naples  in  inrw). 
Besides  his  Geschichte  des  Oriechischen  KriegmcettefHf  (1H52 ; 
supp.  1854-55)  and  Jleertcesen  nud  KriegfUhrung  Jul  tun 
Cdaars  (1855),  he  published  critical  representations  of  all 
the  recent  European  wars,  and  a  number  of  thet»rt»ti(al 
works  on  tactics,  strategy,  elementary  military  organization 
and  education  :  Die  Feldhermkunst  des  lUten  Jahrh  undfrtu 
(Zurich,  1857;  3d  ed.  1877);  Geschichte  der  Infnntirie  (J 
vols.,  Gotha,  1857-58;  3d  ed.  Leipzig,  1884) ;  Atlgemnut 
Taktik  (Zurich,  1858);  Milit&risches  Hand ivMer Ouch  ('2 
vols.,  Zurich,  1859);  Strategie  und  Taktik  der  neueatcn 
Zeit  (3  vols.,  187^75).     D.  at  Zurich,  Aug.  14,  1878. 

Rasts:  the  popular  name  for  various  parasitic  fungi, 
esnecially  for  those  which  produce  reddish  or  brownish  di>- 
coiorations  upon  the  plants  which  they  attack.  Botanists 
are  inclined  to  restrict  the  term  to  the  Uredixe.«  {q.  r.),  which 
include  the  rusts  of  wheat  and  other  cereals,  besides  inanr 
sfHJcies  attacking  other  plants  of  little  or  no  economic  im- 
portance. One  of  the  species  affecting  wheat  is  the  I*urrt- 
nia  graminis  (Fig.  1),  whose  first  stage  develops    in   the 


Fio.  1.— Wheat-runt :  a,  first  stapp.  on  barberry  :  h,  second  sta^t*. 
red  rust,  on  wheat  (highly  magnified). 

leaves  of  the  barberry,  where  it  forms  many  bead-like  row  s 
of  spores  {conidin)  ill  masses  which  are  at  first  internal,  Imt 
eventually  burst  through  the  epidermis  In  the  form  of  mi  nut « 
cups  (Fig.  1,  fl).  The  yellow  spores  of  this  "cluster-cuT*  " 
stage  germinate  upon  and  |>enetrate  the  leaves  of  the  whia». 
where  the  threads  of  the  parasite  produce  clusters  of  n«.l- 
dish-yellow  spores  (Fig.  1,  i),  which  burst  through  the  vy\. 
dermis  in  elongated  patches.  This  is  the  "red-rust  "  sita;:^. 
soc(mimon  when  the  wheat  is  about  full-grown.  The  n'tl- 
rust  spores  (called  urfdo.spores.  or  stylospores)  serve  to 
propagate  the  fungus  still  further;  each  one  falling  iijxm  a 
wheat  leaf  and  finding  suflicient  moisture  germinali'N,  an«i 
penetrates  the  epidermis,  giving  rise  to  another  growth  tf 
parasitic  threads,  and  another  mass  of  red-rust  spi-vn'^. 
Somewhat  later,  the  fungus  forms  small,  dark-colore<l  spor»^ 
sacs,  each  containing  two  relatively  largi^  spores  (Fig.  v>i. 
which  burst  through  the  epidermis  as  elontrate<l  b!fi<  k 
patches.  These  snores  (black-rust  s|M)n»s.  or  teleuto<pon  ^i 
IxMug  thick-walled,  are  capable  of  remaining  on  t}»o  >iraw 
without  injury  during  the  winter,  and  in  the  f<dK)Ui!:_: 
spring  germinate  in  the  moisture  of  the  rotting  straw,  vil^  \ 
spore  forming  a  short  thread  upon  which  are  borne  a  frw 
very  minute  spores  {t<poridia),     When  the  latter  fall  uptm  a 


rfljiiii>-    wru-  11  riuj 


,1.  T,,  ,r 


\  an.*,  '.Hi 

'A.  t., 


hia 


I     IMIDi*  I 


RUTH,  BOOK  OP 


RUTILB 


erty,  and  for  a  time  it«  exercises  were  suspended.  In  1825 
it  was  revived  under  the  name  of  Rutgers,  in  honor  of  its 
benefactor,  CoL  Henry  Rutgers,  of  New  York.  Since  then 
its  work  has  been  carried  on  uninterruptedly  and  successful- 
ly, its  resources  and  facilities  having  been  greatly  increased, 
tn  1863  Rutgers  Scientific  School  was  organized,  and  in  1864 
was  designated  by  the  State  as  the  New  Jersev  State  Col- 
lege "  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts," 
with  which,  as  a  department,  the  college  experiment  station 
is  connected.  In  1894-95  the  number  of  students  in  the 
classical  and  scientific  departments  was  237,  and  of  profes- 
sors and  instructors  30.  Austin  Scott. 

Rath,  Book  of  [Ruth  is  from  Heb.,  liter.,  appearance, 
beauty] :  a  canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  a 
beautiful  pastoral  story,  relating  the  love  of  Ruth,  a  young 
Moabitess,  the  widow  of  a  Hebrew,  for  her  mother-in-law, 
Naomi,  and  the  subsequent  marriage  of  Ruth  to  Boaz,  a 
rich  husbandman  of  Bethlehem-Judah.  It  is  a  picture  of 
domestic  virtue  and  happiness  amid  the  troubleu  times  of 
the  Judges,  when  might  was  fight.  Ruth  was  the  great- 
grandmother  of  King  David.  The  date  and  authorship  of 
the  book  must  be  inferred  solely  from  its  contents  and 
from  its  position  in  the  canon.  It  has  an  Aramaic  tinge, 
and  in  the  Hebrew  Bibles  is  classified  as  one  of  the  five  lit- 
tle rolls  of  the  Hagiographa;  and  from  these  facts  some 
have  inferred  its  post-exilian  origin.  English  Bibles,  how- 
ever, following  the  Septuagint,  place  it  as  one  of  the  five  con- 
secutive stories  of  the  times  of  the  Judges  (Jud.  xiii.  2-xvi. ; 
xvii.-xviii. ;  xix.-xxi. ;  Ruth ;  1.  Sam.  i.-iv.  1,  first  clause), 
and  such  testimony  as  that  of  Josephus  and  Origen  shows 
that  this  is  the  more  ancient  classification.  There  is  no 
reason  for  dating  any  of  these  stories  later  than  the  reign  of 
David.  David's  conquests  over  Damascus-Syria  and  other 
Aramaean  peoples  doubtless  had  an  Aramai'zing  effect  in 
Israel,  equally  with  the  later  events  of  the  times  of  the  ex- 
ile. See  Stephen  H.  Tyng,  The  Rich  Kinsman  (1856) ;  C. 
H.  H.  Wright,  The  Book  of  Ruth  in  Hebrew  and  Chaldee 
(London,  1864) ;  R,  W.  Bush,  Popular  Introduction  to  the 
Book  of  Ruth  (London,  1883) ;  Paulus  Cassel  in  the  Schaff- 
Lange  Commentary;  James  Morison  in  the  Puljnt  Com- 
mentary;  J.  G  lent  worth  Butler's  Bible  Work^  vol.  iii.,  1889. 
Goethe  pronounces  the  book  of  Ruth  "  the  loveliest  thing 
in  the  shape  of  an  epic  or  idyl  which  has  come  down  to  us. 

Revised  by  W.  J.  Beecheb. 

Bnthe'niaii  Rite:  a  branch  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  consisting  of  the  United  Greeks  of  Austria,  Hun- 
gary, and  Poland,  who,  as  a  rule,  speak  the  Russniak  lan- 
piage,  a  Slavic  ton^e  resembling  the  Polish.  They  have 
m  Austria  an  archbishopric  (Lemberg,  with  two  united  sees 
of  Sanok  and  Sambor)  and  two  bishoprics  (Przemysl  and 
Stanislaw6w).  Their  number  is  2,653.567.  They  have  2,376 
priests,  who  care  for  1,535  parishes.  In  1830,  by  an  act  of 
fraud  and  violence,  the  Ruthenians  dwelling  on  the  soil  of 
Russian  Poland  were  separated  from  the  Roman  Church. 
See  Eastern  Rite,  and  Annales  Ecclesim  Ruthence,  etc., 
Leopoli  (1862);  Pelesz,  Oeschichte  der  Union  der  ruthe- 
niachen  Kirche  mit  Rom  von  den  dltesten  Zeiten  (1881) ;  Jor- 
dan, Schematismua  der  gesammten  Katholischen  Kirche 
Oesterreich-Ungama  (1887) ;  Werner,  S.  J.,  Orbis  Terrarum 
Catholicus  (Freiburg,  1890).  J.  J.  Keane. 

Rathenians,  or  Rnssniaks,  sometimes  called  Red  Rns- 
gians:  the  Russian  inhabitants  of  Austria-Hungary,  some 
3,500,000  in  number,  who  are  usually  classed  with  the  Lit- 
tle Russians,  from  whom  they  are  distinguished  by  a  few 
slight  differences  of  dialect.  Most  of  them  are  found  in 
Western  Galicia  and  the  Bukovina,  but  about  400,000  are 
settled  on  the  other  side  of  the  Carpathians,  in  Northern 
Hungary.  Owing  to  their  long  subjection  to  Poland  they 
are  chiefiy  a  nation  of  peasants,  as  the  aristocracy  is  Polish 
or  Polonized.  They  are  intelligent,  quiet,  and  peaceful, 
but  backward  in  civilization,  poor,  and  addicted  to  drunk- 
enness. The  centuries  of  political  and  religious  subjec- 
tion that  they  underwent  at  the  hands  of  their  masters  have 
engendered  bitter  hatreds,  which  have  shown  themselves  by 
cruel  massacres  of  the  nobles  during  Polish  revolts  in  the 
nineteenth  century.  Despite  their  numbers  they  have  suc- 
ceeded in  electing  but  few  members  to  the  Austrian  Reichs- 
rath,  though  they  are  beginning  to  gain  grr)iind.  As  a  rule 
they  belong  to  the  United  Greek  Church,  but  their  political 
sympathies  are  apt  to  be  with  their  brethren  in  Russia.  Their 
literature,  like  the  Little  Russian,  of  wliich  it  forms  a  part, 
is  particularly  rich  in  folk-lore  and  son^s.  For  specimens 
see  Vaclav,  Piesni  Folski  i  Ruskie  (18;W).    They  translated 


the  Bible  in  1581.  They  have  a  theater  and  several  schools 
and  newspapers.  Those  in  Hungarv  have  made  less  prugn-.-^. 
owing  to  the  crushing  policy  of  Magyarization  of  the  in»\- 
emment  at  Budapest.  A  German  grammar  of  the  languatr^* 
was  published  by  Levicki  in  1833,  and  a  catalogue  of  Kii- 
thenian  literature  by  Kotula  (I^emberg,  1878).  See  also  ni<i- 
ermann,  IHe  unganachen  Ruthenen  (2  vols.,  Innsbruck,  1S(>:»- 
68) :  Szuiski,  Die  Pblen  und  Ruthenen  in  Galizien  (Teschm. 
1882);  Kupczanko,  i>te  SchicksaXe  der  Ruthenen  (Lei)>zi;:. 
1887).    See  Russian  Lanouaoe.  A.  C.  Coouix^i:. 

Rathe'ninni  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Ruthenia,a  name  of 
Russia,  where  it  was  first  found] :  a  metal  discovered  in  as^  >- 
elation  with  native  platinum  by  Claus  in  1846.  It  occui^ 
chiefly  in  the  hard  grains  of  iridosmine  in  small  pro|>ortion. 
not  above  6  per  cent.  Its  extraction  is  difficult  and  tedious. 
The  metal  is  obtained  as  a  white  spongy  mass,  density  ><■*'*, 
by  calcining  the  ammonio-chloride.  Next  to  osmium  it  i^ 
the  most  infusible  known  metal,  but  Deville  and  Dehrny 
fused  it,  and  found  a  density  of  11*4.  It  is  scarcely  attacke<'l 
bv  aqua  regia,  but  easily  oxidized  by  fusion  with  hydrat«* 
of  potash,  more  easily  with  saltpeter.  Chlorine  attack's  it  Ht 
incandescence.  It  forms  three  chlorides,  RuCU,  RuClt,  an<i 
RuCU ;  six  oxides,  RuO,  Ru,0,,  RuO,,  RuO,,  Ru,0,,  ami 
RuOi :  and  two  sulphides,  RuaS,  and  RuS*.  Its  fumes  ar»* 
not  poisonous.  Revised  by  Ira  Rem2»i:n. 

Rutherford  :  borough  ;  Bergen  co.,  N.  J. ;  near  the  Pu^ 
saic  river,  on  the  N.  Y.,  Lake  Erie  and  W.  Railroad  :  7 
miles  S.  E.  of  Paterson,  8  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Jersey  (iiy 
(for  location,  see  map  of  New  Jersey,  ref.  2-E).  It  is  aii 
attractive  residential  place,  built  up  chiefly  by  New  York 
business  men,  and  contains  several  cnurches,  public  sc'h(M»]>, 
school-district  library,  and  three  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1880)2,299;  (1890)2,293. 

Rutherford,  Samuel  :  theologian  and  controversiali^^t ; 
b.  at  Nisbet.  Roxl^urghshire,  Scotland,  about  1600;  gratiu- 
ated  M.  A.  from  the  University  of  Edinburgh  1621  ;  >>ecan]H 
minister  of  Anwoth  1627 ;  was  deprived  by  the  hi^h  c<  »u- 
mission  court  of  Gallowav  1630,  and  silenced  for  preachm^^ 
against  the  Articles  of  ^erth  and  banished  to  Aljerch^rt» 
1636;  was  restored  to  Anwoth  in  1638;  was  a  delegate  t<» 
the  General  Assembly  Nov.,  1638;  Professor  of  Divinity  in 
New  College,  St.  Andrews,  Oct.,  1639;  principal  of  that  *c<l- 
lege  1647.  and  rector  of  the  universitv;  was  commissioner  t<> 
the  Westminster  Assembly  1643-47,  but  was  deprived  of  Ju- 
posts  1660,  and  cited  to  appear  before  the  next  Parlianu  Mt 
on  the  charge  of  hi^h  treason.  During  the  four  years  of  h-.^ 
service  on  the  commission  he  wrote  The  Due  Right  of  Pr-»'.\- 
teries  (1644);  Lex  Rex  (1645),  which  was  burned  under  h> 
windows  at  St.  Andrews  in  1661 ;  The  Trial  and  Triumph  "f 
Faith  (1645);  and  Christ  Dying  and  Drawing  Sinn  em  /•> 
Himself  (1647).  D.  in  Edinbui^gh,  Mar.  29, 1681.  He  wh^ 
prominent  among  the  Presbyterian  divines  of  his  time.  ap<i 
author  of  a  large  number  of  theological  treatises,  w)i:<  h 
were  highly  esteemed;  among  them  were  a  reply  to  Uvw 
Thomas  Hooker's  Summe  of  Church  Discipline ;  Covenant  of 
Life  (1655);  Civil  Policy  (1657);  Life  of  Grace  (1659),  vw. 
There  have  been  reissued  Twelve  Communion  »Sernif,ftt 
(1876)  and  Quaint  Sermons  (edited  by  A.  A.  Bonar,  1H^%>. 
See  A.  A.  Bonar,  i>//era  of  Rev,  Samuel  Rutherford,  with  a 
sketch  of  his  life  (1851;  new  and  revised  ed.  London.  IWM. : 
another  ed.  of  his  Letters  (New  York,  1891),  and  the  Lif" 
by  Andrew  Thomson  (London,  1884;  2d  ed.  1891). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacks<>x. 

Rntherftard,  Lewis  Morris:  astronomer;  b.  at  Morri- 
ania,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  25, 1816;  gratluated  at  Williams  CoUejre  ji. 
1834;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1837;  retired  from  practice  \u 
1849  to  devote  himself  to  travel  and  study,  especially  of  a^- 
tronomv.  He  was  the  first  to  apply  photography  to  aooum!  •• 
celestial  measurements.  In  18o4'he  had  a  large  telrs<<.|.' 
especially  constructed  for  photographic  purposes,  and  h  - 
pictures  of  celestial  objects  taken  with  this  instrument  Itiv. 
not  yet  been  surjjassed.  In  1883  he  retired  from  acfivt'  as- 
tronomical work,  and  presented  his  instruments  to  (.'ohnnr  .i 
College.    D.  at  Tranquillity,  N.  J.,  May  30. 1892. 

S.  NrwcoMB, 

Rntherglen,  rttg'lfn:  town  of  Lanarkshire.  Scotland :  ot> 
the  Clyde,  3  miles  S.  E.  of  Glasgow  (see  map  of  Scotland,  r.  f. 
12-G)!  It  was  formerly  a  place  of  great  importance,  h  .% 
is  now  dependent  on  its  connections  with  Glasgow  for  U-tii 
its  trade  and  its  manufactures.    Pop.  (1891)  13,861. 

Rattle  [from  Lat.  rw'/i/iM, red,  golden  red]:  a  native  'i- 
ide  of  titanium  used  to  color  porcelains  and  artificial  itn  th 


228 


RYAN 


RZHEP 


rine  piratical  squadron  off  the  port  of  Sale,  and  subsequently 
distinguished  himself  still  more  in  the  war  between  Hol- 
land and  England,  1652,  and  in  the  Danish  service.  In  1667 
he  sailed  up  the  Thames,  destroyed  the  shipping  at  Sheer- 
ness,  and  burned  a  number  of  English  men-of-war ;  in  1672 
he  attacked  the  English  and  French  fleets,  and  compelled 
England  to  conclude  the  Peace  of  Breda.  In  the  war  with 
France  he  commanded  in  the  Mediterranean,  but  was  de- 
feated off  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily  by  Admiral  du  Quesne. 
He  succeeded  in  conducting  his  fleet  safely  into  the  harbor 
of  Syracuse,  where  he  died  next  day,  Apr.  29, 1676. 

Ryan,  Harris  Joseph,  M.  E.  :  electrical  engineer ;  b.  at 
Powell's  Valley,  Pa.,  Jan.  8,  1866;  educated  at  Baltimore 
City  College,  Lebanon  Valley  College,  and  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, graduating  at  the  last  named  in  1887 ;  instructor  in 
physics,  Cornell  Universitv,  1888-89;  appointed  Associate 

frofessor  of  Electrical  Engineering,  Cornell  University,  1889. 
*rof.  Ryan  is  the  author  of  various  papers  on  electrical  ma- 
chinery read  before  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical 
Engineers,  of  which  he  is  a  member,  and  is  a  contributor  tq 
The  Electrical  World,  The  Electrical  Engineer,  The  Sibley 
Journal  of  Engineering,  and  numerous  other  U.  S.  and 
European  electrical  journals.  C.  H.  T. 

Ryan,  Stephen  Vincent,  D.  D.  :  bishop;  b.  near  Almonet, 
Upper  Canada,  Jan.  1,  1825 ;  was  taken  when  a  child  to 
Pennsvlvania ;  was  educated  at  St.  Charles's  Seminary, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  completed  his  theoloencal  studies  at  St. 
Mary's  Seminarv,  Barrens,  Mo. ;  was  ordained  priest  June 
24,  1849,  in  St  Louis,  Mo. ;  was  prefect  and  professor  for 
some  years  at  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  and  afterward  at  St. 
Vincent's  College,  Cape  Girardeau,  Mo.,  of  which  institu- 
tion he  became  president  about  the  year  1856 ;  was  named 
provincial  visitor  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission  in 
1857 ;  appointed  by  the  Holy  See  second  Bishop  of  Buffalo 
Mar.  3,  1868,  and  was  consecrated  Nov.  8  of  the  same  year. 

Revised- by  J.  J.  Keane. 

Ryazan :  See  Riazan. 

Rvbinsk' :  town  of  Russia,  government  of  Yaroslav ;  on 
the  Volga;  48  miles  N.  W.  of  Yaroslav  (see  map  of  Russia, 
ref.  6-E).  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  centers  of  in- 
ternal commerce  in  the  empire,  and  is  at  the  head  of  the 
Mariinskaia  and  Tikhvinskaia  Canals  which  unite  the  basins 
of  the  Volga  and  the  Neva  and  Dwina,  and  thus  the  Caspian 
with  the  Baltic.  It  has  a  large  transit  trade  in  cereals,  flax 
and  hemp  and  their  seeds,  lard,  spirits,  metals,  cloths,  and 
other  manufactures,  and  the  Volga  is  open  on  an  average  219 
days  per  year.  The  town  is  an  ancient  one,  first  mentioned 
in  history  in  1137;  became  important  in  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  when  the  canals  were  finished.  Pop. 
(1890)  32,111.  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Rydberg,  ridbSrch,  Abraham  Victor:  author;  b.  at 
JOnkoping,  Sweden,  Dec.  18,  1829;  educated  in  the  Latin 
school  of  WexiS,  studied  at  the  University  of  Lund,  and 
was  for  many  years  editor  of  Odteborgs  Jtandels-  och  Sjd- 
fartatidnina,  one  of  the  most  influential  papers  of  Scan- 
dinavia. He  has  published  several  translations  (Goethe's 
FausC)  and  novels,  among  which  Den  siste  Athenaren  (The 
Last  of  the  Athenians,  1859),  a  picture  of  the  last  contests 
between  Greek  paganism  and  Christianity,  was  translated 
into  German  and  English ;  several  poems  characterized  by 
finish  and  originality :  a  number  of  zesthetical  and  historical 
studies,  Venus  frdn  Milo  (1874),  Romerska  dagar  (1875-77), 
etc. ;  and  a  series  of  works  belonging  to  .the  philosophy  of 
religion — Bibelns  Idra  om  Kristus  (The  Teaching  of  the 
Bible  about  Christ,  1862),  Medehitidens  magi  (Ma^ic  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  1864),  Romerska  sngnar  om  Apostlann  Paulus 
och  Petrus  (Romish  Legends  about  the  Apostles  Peter  and 
Paul,  1871),  Urpatriar kernes  tafia  i  Genesis  (The  Primitive 
Patriarchs'  Tables  in  Genesis,  1873),  etc.  His  Under sdkningar 
i  germanisk  Mythologi  (1886 :  Eng.  trans.  1889,  under  the 
title  Teutonic  Mythology)  is  a  brilliant  but  wholly  unscien- 
tific work.  Revised  by  D.  K.  Dodge. 

Ryde :  town  of  England ;  on  the  northeast  coast  of  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  opposite  Portsmouth,  at  the  other  side  of  the 
Spithead  roadstead  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  14-1).  It  is  a 
fashionable  watering-place ;  it  consists  of  Upi)er  and  Lower 
Ryde — the  former  being  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  village 
<La  Rye  or  La  Riche).  while  the  latter  is  of  recent  construc- 
tion.   Pop.  (1891)  10,952, 

Rydqyigt,  rid'kwist,  Johan  Erik:  scholar;  b.  at  Gothen- 
burg, Sweden,  Oct.  20, 1800;  was  editor  of  a  literary  journal, 


Heimdal  (1828-32);  became  a  royal  librarian;  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Swedish  Acadeiny.  His  Svenska  apraketn 
lagar  (Principles  of  the  Swedish  Language,  5  vols.,  1854)- 74) 
is  still,  in  spite  of  the  many  changes  in  linguistics,  the  au- 
thoritative work  on  that  subject.  He  was  also  the  author 
of  a  study  of  the  early  Scandinavian  drama  Nordens  aldtftfi 
skddespel,  and  the  translator  of  a  number  of  Moore's  poems. 
D.  at  Stockholm,  1878.  D.  K.  Dodoe. 

Rye :  a  cereal  plant  {Secale  cereale),  native  of  the  coun- 
try about  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  is  largely  cultivated  in  On- 
tral  and  Northern  Europe,  where  the  grain  is  the  chief 
breadstuff  and  the  straw  is  largely  used  for  thatching.  K  ve 
grows  well  in  a  cold  climate,  and  will  thrive  on  poor  sand} 
soils  better  than  wheat.  Rye  is  not  so  nutritious  as  wheat, 
and  makes  an  inferior  and  darker-colored  bread.  An  av- 
erage analysis  of  rye  grown  in  the  U.  S.  gives:  Water,  11*6; 
ash,  1*9;  protein,  i0'6;  fiber,  1*7;  carbohydrates,  72*5;  fat, 
1'7.  Fertilizer  analyses  give  for  grain  a  percentage  of  1-76 
nitrogen,  0*82  phosphoric  acid,  O'M  potash ;  and  for  straw  a 
percentage  of  3*25  ash,  0*46  nitrogen,  0*28  phosphoric  aoid. 
0*79  potash. 

In  the  U.  S.  about  80,000,000  bush,  are  produced  annu- 
ally. In  the  e.astern  States  the  straw  is  often  of  as  much 
value  as  the  grain.  Machinery  has  been  devised  for  thresh- 
ing the  grain  without  breaking  the  straw,  which  is  us<^«l 
largely  for  matting,  mattresses,  and  saddlerj.  Whisky  is 
extensively  distilled  from  rye  in  the  U.  S.,  gm  in  Holland, 
and  a  liquor  called  kvass  in  Russia.    George  C.  Watson. 

R^e-ffrass :  the  Lolium  perenne,  a  European  grass  nat- 
uralizea  in  the  U.  S.  In  Europe  it  is  highly  esteemed  both 
for  hay  and  pasture,  and  is  the  most  important  of  all  for- 
age plants,  but  in  the  U.  S.  it  is  not  very  hiehly  valueil. 
The  Italian  rye-grass  {L,  italieum)  is  also  greatly  valued  iu 
Great  Britain.    For  the  Lolium  temulentum  see  Darxel. 

Rye  Honse  Plot:  a  scheme  devised  by  some  En^lt^h 
Whigs  to  kill  King  Charles  II.  while  on  his  way  from  New- 
market, and  to  give  the  crown  to  the  Duke  of  Monmouth. 
It  was  so  called  from  the  Rye  House,  a  farm  near  Newmar- 
ket, where  the  murder  of  the  king  was  to  be  undertaken. 
The  plot  was  discovered,  and  many  leading  Whigs,  includ- 
ing Algernon  Sydney  and  Lord  Russell,  were  sent  to  the 
block,  and  many  others  were  severely  punished. 

Rye,  Sparred :  See  Ergot. 

Ryleey,  ril-a'yef,  KondratiI  Fedorovich  :  poet ;  b.  in 
Russia,  Sept.  18,  1796,  the  son  of  a  retired  officer.  He  wa.v 
brought  up  in  the  first  corps  of  cadets,  was  in  the  artillerj 
during  the  campaign  of  1814,  and  withdrew  from  the  army 
four  years  later,  in  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  took  up  his 
residence,  he  served  as  a  Government  official  and  then  a5 
secretary  of  the  Russian  American  Company.  At  the  same 
time  he  was  active  in  literature  and  politics.  He  published 
poems  in  different  papers,  and  with  his  friend  A.  Bestuzhev 
was  editor  of  the  Sevemala  Zveada  (North  Star),  an  or^an 
of  the  romantic  school.  He  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  t  he 
band  of  conspirators  who  brought  about  the  futile  military 
rising  at  the  accession  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas  I.,  althoii>;[i 
convmced  that  success  was  impossible,  and  was  hanged  \s  ith 
four  of  his  comrades  July  26,  1826.  His  character  sefm«*  i«« 
have  been  exceedingly  pure,  and  his  patriotism  of  the  high- 
est kind.  His  complete  works  were  published  at  St,  Pett-r^- 
burg.  1872.  See  TJie  Poems  of  K.  F,  Relaieff,  translated 
by  F.  Hart-Davies  (London,  1887).  A.  C.  Coolidue. 

Rymer,  or  Rymonr,  Thomas:  historiographer;  b.  at 
Northallerton,  Yorkshire,  England,  about  1641 ;  educate*!  at 
Sidney-Sussex  College,  Cambridge;  studied  law  at  GrayV 
Inn;  became  historiographer  to  William  III.  in  1692;  n«*»w 
chiefly  remembered  for  the  vast  Latin  collection  of  Enir- 
lish  historical  and  diplomatic  documents  known  as  Rymer  $ 
Fcedera  (20  vols,  folio,  1704--35,  of  which  15  were  ediletl  ty 
himself  and  the  remainder  by  Robert  Sanderson).  I).  \xi 
London,  Dec.  14, 1713.  Rymer  left  58  MS.  vols,  of  imiH.r- 
tant  historical  documents,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  A 
Syllabus  (in  English)  of  the  Fcedera  was  published  by  :>ir 
Thomas  Duffus  Hardy  (8  vols.,  1869-86). 

Rymour,  Thomas  :  See  Rhymer,  Thomas. 

Ryswick,  riz'wik :  small  town  of  the  Netherlands,  proT- 
ince  of  South  Holland ;  2  miles  S.  E.  of  The  Hague  (see  map 
of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  6-E).  It  is  famous  for  tl.r 
treaty  of  peace  between  France  and  the  allies,  Germany, 
Holland,  England,  and  Spain,  signed  here  Sept.  20, 1697. 

Rzhef :  See  Rshef. 


230 


SABAL  PALMETTO 


SABBATH 


years  accordine  to  Herodotas,  ii.,  137).  His  reijpi  in  Egypt 
was  mild,  and  ne  left  monumental  remains  in  Thebes.  Ho- 
shea  of  Israel  (2  Kings  zvii.  4)  asked  his  aid  against  Shal- 
maneser  of  Assyria  in  vain,  and  later  other  Syrian  princes 
made  alliance  with  him  against  Assyria.  Sargon,  who  de- 
feated Sabaka  at  Raphia,  S.  of  Gaza,  and  afterward  exacted 
tribute  of  him,  calls  him  a  "prince,"  and  his  cartouche, 
found  at  Nineveh,  shows  him  wearing  the  crown  of  Lower 
Egypt.  Stade  considers  him  to  have  been  simply  a  petty 
local  ruler.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Sabal  Palmetto:  See  Palmetto. 

Sabanilla,  sak-bak-neelyak,  or  Saranilla:  8eaix>rt  of 
the  department  of  Bolivar,  Colombia ;  on  a  bay  7  miles  W. 
of  the  delta  of  the  river  Magdalena  (see  map  of  South 
America,  ref.  1-B).  It  is  connected  by  railway  with  Barran- 
quilla,  on  the  river,  and  is  the  maritime  port  of  that  place, 
and  consequently  of  the  greater  part  of  the  republic.  The 
bay  is  shallow,  and  vessels  anchor  in  a  roadstead  several 
miles  below.    The  population  is  small.  H.  H.  S. 

Sabbath  [from  Heb.  sJuibbdth,  rest,  sabbath,  deriv.  of 
shabdth,  rest  from  labor] :  the  weekly  day  of  relieious  rest. 
The  observance  of  a  weekly  rest-day  is  very  widely  held  to 
have  a  natural  basis  in  the  constitution  of  man.  The  per- 
sistency with  which  such  an  institution  has  been  maintained 
for  many  ages  among  Jews,  Christians,  Mohammedans,  and 
even  some  pagan  nations,  supports  this  view.  Inquiries  in- 
stituted by  a  commission  of  the  British  Parliament  in  1832, 
the  testimony  of  641  medical  men  of  London  in  a  petition  to 
Parliament  in  1853,  and  of  a  great  number  of  medical  socie- 
ties, physicians,  physiologists,  political  economists,  and  man- 
agers of  industrial  establishments,  go  to  prove  that  in  the 
case  of  men  engaged  in  ordinary  bodily  or  mental  labor  the 
rest  of  the  night  does  not  fully  restore  the  waste  of  energies 
during  the  day,  and  that  to  maintain  a  condition  of  vigor 
a  supplementary  rest  of  about  one  day  in  seven  is  needed. 
This  view  is  confirmed  by  the  experience  of  Prance  during 
the  Revolution,  when  the  decade  was  substituted  for  the 
week,  and  each  tenth  day  devoted  to  rest — a  proportion  of 
time  which  was  found  to  be  insufficient.  The  need  of  a 
weekly  respite  from  daily  toil  appears  also  in  the  social  na- 
ture and  relations  of  man  as  a  member  of  the  family  and  of 
the  state.  These  aspects  of  the  weekly  rest  have  been  ably 
illustrated  by  Pierre  Proudhon,  the  French  radical  philoso- 
pher, in  his  essay  La  Celebration  du  Dimanehe,  and  more 
fully  in  papers  presented  at  the  Sunday  Rest  Congress  in 
connection  with  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889 ;  and  in  pa- 
pers read  at  the  Chicago  Sunday  Rest  Congress  in  1893, 
published  as  The  Sunday  Problem  (New  York,  1894). 

The  week  of  seven  days  may  be  traced  to  the  dawn  of  hu- 
man history,  and  it  is  probable  that  wherever  the  week  ex- 
isted it  was  marked  by  the  observance  of  sabbath  or  rest- 
days.  A  weekly  Sabbath  was  known  to  the  Semitic  As- 
syrians and  Babylonians,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  name 
Sabaitu  is  found  in  the  inscriptions,  where  it  is  defined  as 
**  a  day  of  rest  for  the  heart."  It  seems  also  to  have  been 
known  to  the  Accado-Suraerians,  the  aboriginal  inhabitants 
of  Chaldea,  and  their  equivalent  term  for  Sabbath  is  ex- 
plained to  mean  "  a  day  of  completion  of  labor."  (Sayce, 
JTibberi  Lectures  for  1887  and  Social  Life  among  the  As- 
syrians, 1893.)  The  Assyrian  Sabbath  differed  widely  from 
that  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  connection  between  the  two 
is  as  vet  uncertain.  See  Francis  Brown's  Assyriology  and 
J.  D.  t)avis's  Genesis  and  Semitic  Tradition, 

The  first  mention  in  the  Bible  of  such  an  institution  is  in 
Gen.  ii.  2,  3 — a  passage  which  forms  the  close  of  the  earliest 
of  the  records  of  which  the  Mosaic  history,  according  to  the 
theory  of  many  biblical  scholars,  is  composed.  The  seventh 
day  is  consecrated  by  the  Creator,  who,  naving  finished  the 
creative  work  of  six  days,  or  periods,  blessed  and  hallowed 
the  seventh  because  he  rested  therein.  The  natural  mean- 
ing of  the  passage  is  the  establishment  of  a  holy  rest-day 
after  every  six  days  of  labor  for  the  race  just  created.  The 
natural  law  of  periodic  rest  was  thus  lifted  out  of  the 
sphere  of  mere  physical  necessities  into  that  of  intellectual 
and  spiritual  privilege  and  enjoyment,  as  befitting  a  creature 
made  in  the  image  of  the  Creator  and  capable  of  holding 
fellowship  with  him.  Its  connection  with  the  Creation 
shows  that,  with  the  familv  constitution,  it  was  intended  to 
lie  at  the  basis  of  the  development  of  all  human  life,  inclu- 
sive of  all  human  conditions,  and  not  merely  for  any  sect 
or  age.  As  to  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  in  the  patri- 
archal period,  the  Mosaic  narrative,  which  is  very  brief  and 
meager,  gives  us  no  knowledge  save  what  may  be  inferred 


from  the  occasional  intimations  of  the  divisioii  of  time  by 
weeks  (Gen.  xxix.  27 ;  viii.  10, 12 ;  iv.  10,  etc.). 

The  first  mention  of  the  Sabbath  by  name  occurs  in  F.x. 
xvi.  23,  seq.y  where  itft  observance  is  not  introduced  with  the 
formalities  with  which  an  institution  of  such  importam  e 
would  be  inaugurated  for  the  first  time,  but  in  languiit:^ 
which  seems  to  imply  that  it  was  not  wholly  unknown  lo 
the  people.  It  next  appears  among  the  Ten  Command- 
ments, which  were  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  Jewish 
law  by  the  circumstances  of  peculiar  solemnity  under  which 
they  were  spoken  on  Mt.  Sinai  and  given  to  Moses  en- 
graved on  stone  tablets  by  the  hand  of  God  (Ex.  xx.  8).  lt:» 
observance  was  enforced  by  gratitude  for  deliverance  fn»m 
bondage  (Deut  v.  15),  and  was  constituted  a  sign  of  co\  t*. 
nant  between  God  and  the  Jews.  Like  other  of  these  grfat 
commands,  the  law  of  the  Sabbath  reappears  in  the  Jewish 
municipal  and  ceremonial  code  with  special  prescrii>ti(ins 
and  penalties,  all  of  which  show  the  importance  attached  to 
its  Observance  and  the  great  care  taken — as  by  the  prohibi- 
tion of  servile  work,  gathering  of  sticks,  kindling  fires,  etc. 
— that  all  alike,  servants  as  well  as  masters,  strangers  as 
well  as  members  of  the  congregation,  should  enjoy  its  bene- 
fits. A  single  instance  is  recorded  of  the  punishment  of 
death  being  inflicted  upon  a  presumptuous  transgre^^^  .r 
(Num.  XV.  30,  seq^,  Connected  with  the  weekly  Sabbath 
there  was  ordainea  in  the  Jewish  municipal  and  ceremonial 
law  a  system  of  sabbatical  years  of  local  and  national  >m:- 
nificance  and  use  (Lev.  xxv.).  The  Sabbath  also,  in  it» 
leisure  and  opportunity  for  social  intercourse  and  holy  con- 
vocation (Lev.  xxiii.  3),  sustained  an  important  relation  to 
the  free  republican  institutions  of  the  Jews.  In  later  j»eri- 
ods  of  the  Jewish  history,  Isaiah  (Iviii.  13^  and  Jeremiah 
(xvii.  21,  seo.)  enforced  its  observance  with  tnreatenings  and 
promises;  Ezekiel  (xx.  12,  seq,)  put  its  violation  foremost 
among  the  national  sins;  Nehemiah  (x.  31;  xiii.  13)  nar- 
rates the  public  efforts  at  reformation  after  the  return  fmni 
the  Babylonish  captivity.  Henceforward  the  Sabbath  was 
kept  with  scrupulous  care,  and  gradually  to  the  time  cf 
Christ  became  ourdened  with  seu-enforced  severities  and 
ridiculous  prohibitions. 

Christ,  while  observing  the  Sabbath,  sought  by  his  exain- 

Ele  and  teachings  to  rescue  it  from  the  puerile  superstitirms 
y  which  it  had  come  to  be  degraded.  He  performed  mira- 
cles of  healing,  and  with  his  disciples  gathered  ears  of  grain 
for  food  as  he  passed  through  the  fields  on  the  Sabbath,  ana 
justified  his  conduct  by  showing  that  such  works  of  net»  ^ 
sity  and  mercy  were  not  violations  of  its  true  law.  He 
taught  that  the  Sabbath  was  made  for  man,  for  his  benefit, 
and  not  man  for  the  Sabbath,  and  that  He,  the  Son  of  man, 
the  one  in  whom  all  humanity  is  represented  in  its  |K'rfee- 
tion,  was  so  the  Lord  of  the  Sabbath  as  rightfully  to  define 
and  prescribe  its  true  obligation  and  use  (Mark  ii.  27,  28  >. 

The  resurrection  of  Christ  and  his  subsequent  api»«'ar- 
ances  to  his  disciples  till  his  ascension,  and  the  miraculciis 
descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  first  day  of  the  week.  Ie<i 
to  that  day  being  set  apart  for  the  special  religious  as^^^ru- 
blies  of  the  Christians  and  for  the  simple  services  of  their 
faith.  For  a  time  the  Jewish  converts  observed  both  iho 
seventh  day,  to  which  the  name  Sabbath  continued  to  1^ 
given  exclusively,  and  the  first  day,  which  came  to  be  calK  d 
the  Lord's  Day.  St.  Paul  sought  to  relieve  the  conseien»»  -» 
of  the  Gentile  Christians  from  the  obligation  of  keeping  the 
Jewish  Sabbath,  and  warned  them  that  such  observanee 
might  even  be  an  evidence  of  backsliding  (Col.  ii.  16;  (ial. 
iv.  10).  Within  a  century  after  the  death  of  the  last  of 
the  apostles  we  find  the  observance  of  the  first  day  of  tht« 
week,  under  the  name  of  the  Lord's  Day,  establishe<i  a* 
a  universal  custom  of  the  Church,  according  to  the  te^u- 
monv  of  the  Didache,  and  of  Barnabas,  Ignatius,  Pliny, 
Justin  Martyr,  and  Tertullian.  It  was  reganled  not  h«»  a 
continuation  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath — which  was  denouiie*  »1. 
together  with  circumcision  and  other  Jewish  and  anti- 
Christian  practices  {Apology  of  Aristides,  a.  d.  12^1) — \  ut 
rather  as  a  substitute  for  it;  and  naturally  its  observuij<  e 
was  based  on  the  resurrection  of  Christ  rather  than  on  \  tit 
Creation  rest-day  or  the  Sabbath  of  the  Decalogue.  T»  r- 
tullian  (about  200),  in  saying  that  Sunday  was  piven  tn  jcy, 
and  enjoining  abstinence  from  secular  care  and  lalmr  on  it, 
makes  it  evident  that  the  Lord's  Day  was  regarded  as  takii  .; 
the  true  place  of  the  original  seventh-day  Sabbath.  But  ttw 
position  of  the  early  Church,  struggling  into  existence,  ox- 
posed  to  persecution,  and  with  many  of  its  members  slaves 
of  heathen  masters,  would  prevent  unbroken  reg:ularity  of 
worship  and  a  general  cessation  of  labor,  until  in  the  time  of 


232 


SABLE 


SACCOMYID^ 


S&bians  mentioned  in  the  Koran.  They  even  asserted  that 
they  were  descendants  of  one  Sabi,  son  of  Seth  or  Adam. 
See  Chwoson,  Die  Saabier  (St.  Petersburg,  1856);  Well- 
hausen,  Skizzen^  iii.,  p.  206;  Dozy,  Nouveaux  documents 
pour  Vetude  de  la  religion  des  Marraniena  in  Actes  du 
aixihme  congr^s  des  OrientcUiates  (Leyden,  1885,  ii.,  1,  p.  281). 

Richard  Gottheil. 

Sable  [from  0.  Fr.  sable ;  cf.  Fr.  zibelin^,  soble,  Ital.  zi- 
bellinOy  Germ,  zobel ;  loan-word  from  Huss.  aobolj'\ :  a  name 
given  to  species  of  the  family  Muatelidm  and  genus  Mustela. 
The  animals  in  external  appearance  resemble  the  weasel,  but 
they  are  considerably  larger  and  their  bodies  are  not  so  elon- 
gated. In  summer  the  color  is  reddish  or  brownish  yellow, 
clouded  with  black,  and  becoming  lighter  toward  the  head  ; 
in  winter  it  is  dark.  The  length  of  the  body  in  well-grown 
sables  does  not  vary  much  from  17  inches  from  the  snout  to 
the  tail,  while  the  tail  is  from  7  to  10  inches  long.  The  Old 
World  form  {Mustela  zibdlina)  inhabits  Northern  Europe 
and  Asia.  The  sable  furs  are  chiefly  obtained  in  Siberia. 
This  Siberian  form  in  winter  often  has  the  whole  body  cov- 
ered with  lustrous  blackish-brown  or  sometimes  quite  black 
hairs,  but  with  these  are  generally  intermingled  white  ones. 
The  posterior  tubercular  grinder  of  the  upper  jaw  is  oblong, 
and  nearly  twice  as  long  oil  the  inner  as  on  the  outer  side. 
The  American  sable  {Muatela  americana)  is  most  abundant 
in  British  America,  and  the  furs  in  the  markets  are  chiefly 
obtained  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  It  is  distinguished 
from  the  Siberian  species  by  the  posterior  tubercular  grinder 
of  the  upper  jaw  being  quadrate,  and  rather  longer  on  the 
inner  than  on  the  outer  side.  The  furs  of  both  species  are 
held  in  high  esteem.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Sable,  Cape :  See  Cape  Sable. 

Sable  Island  [Fr.  aable,  sand] :  an  island  104  miles  S.  E. 
of  Cape  Can  so,  in  Nova  Scotia,  It  is  a  dependency  of  Nova 
Scotia,  and  is  an  arc  34  miles  long,  convex  to  the  S.,  and 
from  1^  to  5  miles  in  breadth.  It  is  composed  of  ^rass- 
covered  sand-hills,  inclosing  a  lake  11  miles  long  with  a 
maximum  depth  of  12  feet.  Lat.  of  east  point,  43°  59'  N., 
Ion.  59"*  47'  W. ;  lat.  of  west  point,  43"  57'  N.,  Ion.  60"  8'  W. 
Many  ponies  are  bred  here.  The  island  has  a  life-saving 
station,  it  bein^  surrounded  by  extensive  and  very  danger- 
ous shoals.  It  IS  in  the  regular  course  of  ships  from  Europe 
to  Southern  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick.  It  is  said 
tx)  be  slowly  gp-owing  smaller.  It  was  colonized  in  1598  by 
forty  French  convicts,  but  five  years  later  only  twelve  sur- 
vived, and  the  colony  was  broken  up.  The  island  should 
not  be  confounded  with  Cape  Sable  island.  See  Cape 
Sable.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Sables,  or  Les  Sables  d'Olonne,  la'saabTdd'ldn' :  town  ; 
in  the  department  of  Vendee,  France ;  on  the  Bay  of  Bis- 
cay ;  50  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Nantes  (see  map  of  France,  ref . 
5-C).  It  was  founded  by  Louis  XI.,  who  built  its  harbor 
and  constructed  its  fortifications.  It  is  a  favorite  water- 
ing-place, and  carries  on  extensive  fisheries  and  a  large 
export  trade  in  grain,  wine,  wood,  salt,  and  fish.  Pop. 
(1891)  10,293. 

Sabri^na:  a  celebrated  temporary  volcanic  islet  of  the 
Azores,  a  short  distance  S.  W.  of  Cape  Ferraria,  the  western 
point  of  San  Miguel  island.  It  appeared  in  1811,  and  the 
process  was  watched  by  the  crew  of  the  British  frigate 
babrina,  from  which  its  name  is  derived.  Sixteen  days 
after  the  eruption  the  cone  attained  its  greatest  dimensions 
— 215  feet  in  neight  and  6,000  in  circumference.  It  was  coms 
posed  of  ashes  and  scoria  without  cohesion,  and  was  grad- 
ually washed  away  until  in  1850  the  lead  showed  a  depth  of 
15  fathoms  where' it  had  formerly  stootl.  M.  W.  II. 

Sacaline :  a  forage  plant  {Polygonum  sachalinense)  from 
the  island  of  Saghalin,  on  the  Russian  shore  of  the  Pacific, 
introduced  in  the  U.  S.  in  1894.  It  is  a  perennial  woody 
herb,  growing  6  to  12  feet  high.  It  is  said  to  be  relished  by 
live  stock,  and  the  shoots  and  leaves  are  recommended  as  a 
kitchen  vegetable.  The  plant  is  supposed  to  resist  severe 
drouth.  L.  H.  B. 

Saccar'do,  Pietro  Andrea,  Ph.  D. :  botanist ;  b.  at  Tre- 
viso,  Italy,  Apr.  23,  1845 ;  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Padua,  and  author  of  many  works  on  the  fungi, 
the  most  important  of  which  are  Fungi  Italici  (1877-86) 
and  the  Sylloge  Fungorum  Omnium  hue  usque  Cogniforum 
(10  vols.,  1882-92),  containing  descriptions  of  39,6613  species. 
He  has  made  a  distribution  of  specimens  under  the  title 
of  Mycotheca  Veneta.  C.  E.  B. 

Saccas :  See  Ammonius. 


Saccharim'etry  [Lat.  acus^'eharum,  sugar  +  Or.  fJrpow, 
measure! :  the  process  of  ascertaining  the  proportion  of  sugar 
dissolved  in  a  lic^uid.  This  can  be  effected  by  using  the  hy- 
drometers of  Brix  or  Balling,  sometimes  called  saccharim'e- 
ters,  which  are  specially  constructed  so  as  to  indicate  the  (Mor- 
een tage  of  sugar  in  an  aqueous  solution.  (See  Hydrometer.  \ 
But  the  means  generally  adopted  is  by  utilizing  the  optical 
properties  of  sugar.  All  sugars  and  their  solutions  have  the 
power  of  rotating  the  plane  of  polarization  of  light ;  some, 
such  as  cane-sugar  and  grape-sugar,  rotate  the  plane  to  the 
right,  while  laevulose  rotates  the  plane  to  the  left.  (See  Opth  > 
and  Polarization.)  If  6  is  the  angle  of  rotation,  /  the  lengt  h 
of  solution  traversed,  and  p  the  number  of  unit«  of  weight  *>f 
dry  sugar  present  in  a  certain  volume  of  solution,  9  —  l/>a, 
where  a  is  positive  or  negative  according  to  the  specie^  <>f 
sugar,  and  nas  a  determinate  value  for  a  given  temperatun>. 
The  latter  Quantity,  which  is  the  angle  of  rotation  for  /  =  1 . 
^  =  1,  is  called  the  specific  rotatory  power.  Hence  /  heiut^ 
assigned,  and  e  and  o  being  obtained  by  experiment,  the 
value  of  ^,  giving  the  percentage  of  sugar,  is  calculated. 
The  experiments  are  carried  out  by  means  of  a  saccharimeter. 
an  instrument  of  which  there  is  a  considerable  number  of 
varieties.  These  are  divided  into  two  classes.  One  measures 
the  angle  of  rotation  directly,  while  the  other  deteruiine> 
the  rotation  by  the  contrarv  rotation  caused  by  a  thin  plate 
of  quartz.  The  latter  are  called  shadow  saccharimeters,  from 
the  principle  involved.  The  original  instrument  of  this  kind 
was  due  to  Prof.  Jellett,  of  Dublin,  but  it  has  been  greatly 
improved  upon  by  Dubosca  and  Cornu.  Another  somewhat 
different  form,  devised  by  Laurent,  has  been  adopted  by  the 
French  Government.  The  distinguishing  feature  is  that  for 
certain  positions  of  the  optical  parts  of  the  instrument  the 
field,  one  half  of  which  is  covered  with  a  half -wave  nlate  at 
quartz  or  mica,  appears  divided  into  two  half  disks,  «»ne 
bright  and  the  other  dark,  and  in  another  position  as  a  uni- 
form shadow  without  a  dividing  line.  In  tne  latter  case  the 
instrument  is  adjusted  for  use.  Then  if  the  observation  tul>e 
is  filled  with  a  solution  of  suj^ar  and  placed  in  the  saccha- 
rimeter between  two  Nicol  prisms,  a  polarizer  and  an  ana- 
lyzer, so  that  the  light  passes  through  it  before  reaching  the 
latter  prism,  the  equality  of  tone  m  the  two  half  di>ks  is 
annulled.  The  analvzer  is  then  made  to  revolve  in  the 
proper  direction  until  the  inequalitv  disappears.  The  anjrle 
of  rotation  is  shown  by  a  scale  indicating  angular  degn.H'^. 
while  another  scale  gives  the  corresponding  percentage  uf 
sugar.  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Saccharomy'ces :  a  genus  of  fungi,  including  the  yeast- 
plant.    See  Fermentation. 

Sacchini,  saak-kee'nee,  Antonio  Maria  Gasparo  :  com- 
poser ;  b.  at  Pozzuoli,  near  Naples,  July  23, 1734 ;  was  e<lu- 
cated  in  the  conservatory  of  Sant*  Onofrio  at  Naples : 
achieved  a  great  success  at  Rome  in  1762  by  his  o|>em 
Semiramide,  and  at  Venice  in  1768  by  his  Aleaaandro  ntlF 
Indie ;  after  composing  about  fifty  operas  for  Italian  the- 
aters, went  to  Germany  in  1771 :  repaired  next  year  to  I>.»n- 
don,  where  he  was  very  successful  with  his  operas^  but  whent-e 
he  at  last  was  compelled  to  flee  in  1782  on  account  of  del»t : 
found  employment  in  Paris,  but  only  one  of  his  operas, 
CEdipe  d  Colbne^  performed  after  his  death,  made  any  gr^al 
impression.    D.  in  Paris,  Oct.  7,  1786. 

Sac  City:  city:  capital  of  Sac  co.,  la.;  on  the  north 
fork  of  the  Raccoon  river,  and  the  Chicago  and  N.  W.  Kail- 
way  ;  46  miles  W.  bv  S.  of  Fort  Dod^  (for  location,  5*-e 
map  of  Iowa,  ref.  4-E).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  dairy- 
ing region,  is  an  important  trading  and  shipping  point,  and 
derives  good  power  for  manufacturing  from  the  rivtT. 
There  are  6  cnurches,  graded  public  schools.  Sac  City  In- 
stitute (Baptist,  founded  in  1894),  a  national  bank  with 
capital  of  |50,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  |75.(XX),  a 
monthly  and  2  weekly  periodicals,  flour-mill,  and  windmill 
and  lightning-rod  factories.  Pop.  (1880)  595 ;  (1890)  1.249  ; 
(1894)  1.825.  EnrroR  of  **  Sun." 

Saccomy^dflD  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Sac'comys,  the  tyj^- 
ical  genus ;  Gr.  ffJueitos,  sack +/*«'»»  mouse] :  a  family  of  niouso- 
like  rodents  peculiar  to  North  America;  distinguished  by 
the  hind  limbs  being  much  longer  than  the  fore,  and  hence 
adapted  for  leaping ;  the  presence  of  large  external  cheek- 
pouches  not  connected  with  the  mouth,  and  lined  with  fur 
within ;  and  the  development  of  a  long  tail.  The  skull  is 
thin,  with  the  interorbital  sj>ace  rather  broad ;  the  tym- 
panies inflated  and  vestibular ;  the  {)etrosals  approximated  ; 
the  squamosals  more  or  less  restricted  to  the  oroit ;  the  mas- 
toids roofing  over  in  part  the  cerebral  cavity ;  the  nasaU 


234 


SACHS 


Sachs,  Julius,  Ton,  Ph.  D. :  botanist ;  b.  at  Breslau,  Si- 
lesia, Oct.  2, 1832 ;  studied  at  tbe  university  at  Prague,  and 
in  1859  became  assistant  in  physiological  botany  in  the  lab- 
oratory of  agricultural  chemistry  at  Tharandt ;  in  1861  Pro- 
fessor of  Botany  at  Bonn ;  in  1867  Professor  of  Botany  in 
the  University  at  Freiburg,  and  in  1868  at  Wttrzburg,  where 
there  has  been  establishea  under  his  guidance  a  great  in- 
stitute for  the  study  of  plant-physioTogv.  He  has  pub- 
lished many  botanical  works,  amom?  which  the  best  known 
are  Handhuch  der  ExperimentcU-Phyaiologie  der  Pflanzen 
(1866);  Lehrbueh  der  Botanik  (1868;  4th  ed.  1874;  the  3d 
and  4th  editions  were  translated  into  English  in  1875  and 
1892,  under  the  title  Text-book  of  Botany,  Morphological  and 
Physioloaical) ;  Oeschichte  der  Botanik  (1875;  trans,  into 
English  1890) ;  Vorlesungen  Hber  Fflamen-Phyttiologie  (1882 ; 
trans,  into  English  1887);  Abharidlungen  uber  Pftanzen- 
Physiologie  (1892).  The  influence  of  Sachs  upon  botany  has 
been  greater  than  that  of  any  other  botanist  of  recent  times. 

Charles  E.  Besset. 

Sac  Indians :  See  Aloonquian  Iia>iAirs. 

Sackbnt  [from  0.  Fr.  saqtieboute,  Fr.  saquebute  :  Span. 
sacabuehe,  originally  a  hooked  lance  by  which  foot-soldiers 
drew  or  pushed  riders  from  their  horses;  O.  F.  sachier, 
draw  out  <  Lat.  sacca're  +  0.  F.  boieri  >  Fr.  bouter)  rital. 
bottare,  push,  from  Teuton,  botan,  0.  Eng.  biatan] :  a  wind 
instrument  somewhat  resembling  the  trumpet,  naving  a 
slide  like  the  modern  trombone.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
book  of  Daniel,  but  the  translation  is  probably  wrong,  the 
English  sackbut  being  a  very  different  instrument,  derived 
from  a  model  found  at  Pompeii. 

Sackett*s  Harbor:  village;  Jefferson  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on 
Black  River  Bav  (an  inlet  of  Lake  Ontario),  and  the  Rome, 
Watertown  ana  Ogdensburg  Railroad ;  8  miles  E.  of  Lake 
Ontario,  170  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Albany  (for  location,  see  map 
of  New  York,  ref.  2-G).  It  has  an  excellent  inner  harbor, 
with  sufficient  depth  of  water  to  accommodate  the  largest 
vessels,  good  water-power  for  manufacturing,  and  agricul- 
tural surroundings.  Its  banking  is  done  at  Watertown. 
The  Oneida,  the  first  U.  S.  war-vessel  ever  launched  on 
Lake  Ontario,  was  built  at  Sackett's  Harbor  in  1809.  In 
the  war  with  Great  Britain  (1812-15)  the  village  was  an 
important  naval  station.  Two  war-vessels,  the  frigate  Su- 
perior and  the  Madison,  were  built  here  in  eighty  and  forty- 
five  days  respectively  from  the  time  the  timber  was  cut.  A 
third  war-ship,  partially  completed  when  peace  was  de- 
clared, remained  on  the' stocks,  and  was  for  many  years  an 
object  of  local  pride.  The  U.  S.  Government  has  a  military 
station  here,  known  as  Madison  barracks.    Pop.  (1880)  885  ; 

(1890)  787. 

Sackyille :  town  of  Westmoreland  County,  New  Bruns- 
wick ;  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  on  the  Intercolo- 
nial Ilailway,  terminus  of  a  branch  railway  extending  37 
miles  to  Cape  Tormentine,  on  Northumberland  Strait ;  129 
miles  N.  E.  of  St.  John  (see  map  of  Quebec,  etc.,  ref.  5-1). 
It  has  a  good  harbor,  a  brisk  trade,  foundries,  factories,  and 
a  steam-tannery,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  considerable  ship-build- 
ing industry.  It  is  the  seat  of  Mt.  Allison  College  (Wesley- 
an)  and  of  Wesleyan  male  and  female  seminaries.     Pop. 

(1891)  1,500.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Haebinoton. 

Sackyille.  Geosoe  Germain,  Viscount,  better  known  as 
Lord  George  Germai.v,  third  son  of  the  first  Duke  of  Dor- 
set;  soldier;  b.  in  England,  Jan.  26,  1716;  educated  at 
Westminster  School  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  ;  served 
with  credit  at  the  battles  of  Dettingen  (1743)  and  Fontenoy 
(1745),  and  under  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  against  the  Pre- 
tender in  Scotland ;  became  a  privy  councilor ;  was  secre- 
tary for  Ireland  1751 ;  made  lieutenant-general  1758  ;  com- 
manded the  allied  cavalry  at  the  battle  of  Minden,  Aug.  1, 
1759,  when  he  failed  to  execute  the  orders  of  the  command- 
er-in-chief. Prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  to  charge  upon 
the  French  infantry;  was  tried  by  court  martial  and  cash- 
iered early  in  1760,  but  was  restored  to  favor  at  the  acces- 
sion of  George  III.  (Oct.,  1760) ;  entered  Parliament  1761 ; 
was  restored  to  the  privy  council  1766  ;  entered  the  cabinet 
of  Lord  North  as  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  Oct., 
1775;  retained  that  post  throughout  the  war  of  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution,  distinguishing  himself  by  his  bitterness 
against  the  Americans,  and  resigned  Feb ,  17H2,  on  which 
occasion  he  was  created  Viscount  Sackville.  I).  Aug.  26, 
1785.  He  is  one  of  the  persons  whose  claims  to  the  author- 
ship of  the  letters  of  Junius  have  been  advocated.  See  Ju- 
nius, The  Letters  of. 


SACRAMENTARIANS 

Sackyille,  Lionel  Sackville  West,  Baron  :  diplomat  i«t : 
b.  at  Bourn  Hall,  Cambridgeshire,  England,  Jnly  19.  1H27: 
educated  at  home ;  entered  diplomatic  service  1847 ;  mini>trr 
to  Argentine  Republic  1873;  to  Spain  1878;  to  the  l.S. 
1881 ;  represented  Great  Britain  in  the  Washington  confer- 
ence on  Samoan  affairs  1887;  negotiated  Fisheries  Treat)  of 
Washington  1888 ;  having  become  a  persona  non  grata  on 
account  of  a  letter  written  bv  him  to  a  Mr.  Murchison  in 
advocacy  of  the  re-election  of  President  Cleveland  in  l^*^** 
(on  the  ground  that  it  would  be-  to  the  advantage  of  Great 
Britain),  he  received  his  passports  from  the  U.  S.  Gov^ru- 
ment  and  returned  to  England. 

Sackyille,  Thomas  :  See  Dorset,  Thomas  Sackville. 

Saco :  city ;  York  co.,  Me. ;  on  the  Saco  river,  and  t)j»! 
Boston  and  Maine  Railroad ;  14  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Portlarnl, 
100  miles  E.  of  Boston  (for  location,  see  map  of  Mainf^.  r»*f. 
11-A^.  The  river,  which  is  here  navigable  for  vessels  of  l» 
feet  draught  during  nine  months  of  the  year,  provides  ex- 
cellent power  for  manufacturing  by  a  fall  of  40  feet,  and  i* 
crossed  by  four  bridges.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  an 
agricultural  region ;  contains  a  public  high  school,  14  pTih- 
lic-school  buildings,  Thornton  Academy,  2  libraries  (Y«.rk 
Institute,  founded  1866,  and  Dyer,  founded  1881)  contam- 
ing  over  10,000  volumes,  2  national  banks,  and  2  savin;,'^- 
banks ;  and  has  manufactories  of  cotton  goods,  cotton-ma- 
chinery, boots  and  shoes,  lumber,  brushes,  belting,  and  other 
articles.  There  is  considerable  coasting  trade.  AlK)ut  ;U 
miles  from  the  city  is  Old  Orchard  beacn,  a  popular  Mim* 
mer  resort,  with  commodious  hotels,  and  the  grounds  of 
Methodist  Episcopal  national  and  district  camp-meet  in  i;^\ 
Pop.  (1880)  6,389 ;  (1890)  6,075. 

8aco  River :  a  stream  which  rises  in  the  White  Moun- 
tains, New  Hampshire,  and  flows  S.  E.  160  miles  throujrh 
New  Hampshire  and  Maine  to  the  Atlantic  ;  has  several  con- 
siderable falls,  one  of  which.  Great  Falls,  is  72  feet  in  height, 
and  furnishes  water-power,  which  is  utilized  at  many  phn.»*s 
for  manufactories. 

Sacrament  [from  Lat.  aacramen' turn,  oath,  sacred  thing, 
mystery,  deriv.  of  sacra' re,  make  sacred,  declare  sacre*!.  d.- 
riv.  of  sa'cer,  sacred] :  a  term  used  in  the  Church  since  Tt-r- 
tuUian  (about  200),  in  a  loose  sense,  of  sacred  doctrino  and 
ceremonies  (like  the  Gr.  fiwrrfipiov),  and  then,  more  jwrticti- 
larly,  of  baptism,  the  Eucharist,  and  a  few  other  solemn  rix*^ 
connected  with  Christian  worship.  St.  Augustine  detin*-'* 
sacrament  in  the  narrower  sense  to  be  the  visible  sign  fit  hv, 
invisible  grace  {signum  visibile  gratim  inviftibilis).  Tc*  tK:- 
was  afterward  added  by  Protestant*,  as  a  third  mark,  tli.ii 
it  must  be  instituted  by  Christ  and  enjoined  upon  his  f » .i- 
lowers.  Sacraments  are  also  called  signs,  seals,  and  nieaT.< 
of  grace.  Their  number  is  by  Protestants  confined  to  tui» 
— viz.,  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper — on  the  ground  tiial 
these  alone  are  instituted  by  Cnrist  and  expresslv  <M.in- 
manded  to  be  observed  to  the  end  of  time.  The  koiutin 
Catholic  and  the  Greek  Churches  add  to  them  five  othon — 
viz.,  confirmation,  penance,  extreme  unction,  ordination.  aT»«i 
matrimony.  The  Council  of  Trent  anathematizes  thoj**'  i*  ^«  • 
deny  that  there  are  more  or  less  than  seven  sacrament*  (r^vf 
plura  vel  pauciora  quam  septem  sacramenta).  In  the  Gret  k 
Church  tncy  are  called  *' mysteries."  As  to  the  efficacy  nf 
the  sacraments,  Protestants  require  faith  as  a  subjtt- 1 1  \ « 
condition,  while  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  teaches  th..* 
the  sacraments  work  ex  opere  operato — i.  e.  by  the  inh<»ni»» 
power  God  has  imparted  to  the  institution  or  by  the  ]K'r- 
lormance  of  the  act.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  cur-^  x 
any  one  that  "saith  that,  in  the  three  sacraments,  to  \m\. 
baptism,  confirmation,  and  order  [ordination],  there  iv  tm  • 
imprinted  in  the  soul  a  character,  tnat  is,  a  certain  spirit  ua: 
anu  indelible  mark,  on  account  of  which  they  can  not  Ik*  n  - 
peated."  {Canons  and  Decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  ^  -. 
vii..  canon  ix. ;  Schaff,  Creeds,  ii.,  121.)  There  has  U  .  : 
much  controversy  about  the  sacraments,  especiallv  the  L<»r- 1"^ 
Supper,  which  is  sometimes  emphaticallv  calle<l  the  s^tiin- 
mont,  between  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics.  an<i  a'-  • 
between  Luther,  Zwingli,  and  Calvin,  and  their  f(>lh»\x»  r-. 
The  Quakers  reject  the  sacraments  as  exlenial  ceremfin.  - 
and  hold  only  to  internal  baptism  or  regeneration  nf  t\.t 
Spirit,  and  internal  communion  with  Christ.  See  arii*  ',,  ^ 
on  the  several  sacraments,  especially  Eucharist. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Sacramentarians :  the  opprobrious  epithet  apj^litNl  t. 
the  followers  of  Zwingli  by  tne  Lutherans  in  Reformat  i«  t 
times  because  the  former  denied  the  presence  of  the  Ihmx\ 


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236 


SACROBOSCO 


SADDLE 


should  obtain  the  final  victory  was  always  the  central  point 
of  their  national  existence.  Meantime,  sacrifices  in  great 
variety  were  provided,  but  those  especially  appointed  as 
"sin-offerings  were  always  of  the  same  character  and 
value.  A  more  valuable  sacrifice  was  indeed  required  as 
the  sin-offering  of  the  high  priest  or  of  the  collective  con- 
gregation, and  also  one  slightly  more  valuable  from  a 
"  pnnce,"  for  obvious  reasons ;  but  there  was  no  gradation 
in  the  value  of  the  victim  in  proportion  to  the  aggravation 
of  the  offense.  Their  efficacy  was  thus  made  to  depend 
simply  upon  the  Divine  appointment. 

The  chief  kinds  of  Hebrew  sacrifices  were  the  whole 
burnt-offering,  which  was  wholly  consumed  upon  the  altar, 
and  with  which  an  oblation  of  fine  flour  and  oil,  with  in- 
cense, and  a  drink-offering  of  wine  were  offered;  the  sin- 
offering,  of  which  only  the  fat  and  kidneys  were  burned  upon 
the  altar,  the  flesh  being  either  "  burned'  without  the  camp  " 
in  case  the  blood  had  been  sprinkled  within  the  sanctuary, 
or  eaten  by  the  priests  alone  in  case  the  blood  had  been 
only  sprinkled  upon  the  brazen  altar;  and  the  trespass- 
offering,  which  is  distinguished  clearljr  from  the  last,  al- 
though the  ground  of  the  distinction  is  not  entirely  clear. 
These  were  all  propitiatory  offerings,  and  with  them  the 
priest  was  required  "  to  make  atonement "  for  the  people. 
Besides  these  were  the  peace-offerings,  perhaps  the  most 
common  of  all,  which  might  be  offered  in  any  number  and 
of  any  sacrificial  animal.  Of  these,  the  same  parts  were 
burned  on  the  altar,  a  portion  given  to  the  priests  to  be 
eaten  by  them  and  their  families,  and  the  rest  of  the  flesh 
eaten  by  the  offerer  and  his  friends  in  a  holy  feast  before 
the  Lord.  There  were  other  important  sacrifices  required. 
Such  were  the  Passover  lamb  offered  in  memory  of  the  de- 
liverance from  Egypt  and  as  a  special  type  of  Christ  by  each 
head  of  a  family  on  the  fourteenth  of  tne  month  Nisan  in 
each  year,  and  eaten  in  their  homes  on  the  following  night ; 
the  two  goats  on  the  great  day  of  atonement  in  each  year, 
of  which  one  was  sacrificed  at  the  altar,  the  other  sent  as  a 
"scape-goat"  into  the  wilderness;  the  red  heifer,  burned 
without  the  camp  and  its  ashes  used  in  purifications ;  and 
a  great  variety  of  sacrifices  for  individuals  on  special  occa- 
sions. The  original  comprehensive  offering,  from  which  all 
the  others  were  specialized,  appears  to  have  been  the  burnt- 
offering. 

Under  the  Levitical  law  the  essential  point  of  the  sacri- 
fice was  the  blood,  the  treatment  of  which  always  formed 
the  culminating  point  in  the  sacrificial  ritual.  A  burnt- 
offering  of  a  lamb  for  the  whole  people  was  regularly  of- 
fered every  morning  and  evening,  with  its  accompanying 
oblation  or  "  meat-offering."  In  regard  to  the  sin-offering, 
in  order  to  bring  it  within  the  reach  of  all  it  was  provided 
that  for  the  required  animal  might  be  substituted  by  the 
poor  a  pair  of  doves,  or  even  in  case  of  extreme  poverty  an 
offering  of  fiour.  The  symbolical  character  and  significance 
of  the  sacrifices  are  set  forth  at  some  length  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews.  See  G.  F.  Oehler,  Theology  of  the  Old  Tes- 
iament,  Eng.  trans.,  ed.  G.  E.  Day  (New  York,  1883) ;  A. 
Cave,  The  Scriptural  Doctrine  of  Sacrifice  (2d  ed.  Edin- 
burgh, 1890) ;  and  W.  Robertson  Smith,  Religion  of  the 
Semites  (2d  ed.  1894).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Sacrobos'co,  Joannes,  de :  Latinized  name  of  John  Hol- 
lywood, an  English  mathematician  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Little  is  known  of  him,  except  that  he  entered  the 
University  of  Paris  1221,  became  professor  there,  and  died 
in  1244  or  1256.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  De  Sph<pra 
JfM/iJt,  a  paraphrase  of  a  part  of  Ptolemy's  Almagest,  which 
he  had  employed  in  Arabic.  It  was  first  printed  in  1472, 
and  was  reprinted  with  commentaries  about  sixty  times 
until  the  ena  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Sacram  [Mod.  Lat.  (sc.  o«,  bone),  the  sacred  bone,  neut. 
of  Lat.  sa'cery  sacred] :  in  the  vertebrate  skeleton,  a  bone 
situated  below  or  behind  the  lumbar  and  above  or  before 
the  coccygeal  vertebrae.  In  man  it  is  formed  of  five  (rarely 
four  or  six)  united  vertebne.  It  is  large,  roughly  triangular, 
and  is  penetrated  by  foramina  for  the  passage  of  nerves.  It 
is  developed  from  thirty-five  centers  of  ossification.  The 
rabbins  called  it  luz,  and  said  that  it  never  decays,  but 
forms  the  germ  of  the  new  body  at  the  resurrection ;  the 
Arabs  say  that  the  judgment  angel  sits  upon  it  and  judges 
the  soul  of  the  departed. 

Sacy,  si&'see',  Antoine  Isaac,  Baron  Silvestre,  de :  Orien- 
talist ;  b.  in  Paris,  France,  Sept.  21,  1758 ;  studied  law  and 
Oriental  languages;  elected  to  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions 
1785  ;  overseer  in  the  mint  1791-92 ;  Professor  of  Arabic  at 


the  £cole  des  Langues  orientales;  called  to  the  Institute 
(section  of  literature  and  fine  arts)  1795,  but  did  not  take  )i:i 
place  till  1803 ;  Professor  of  Persian  at  the  Colle|t:t'  'ii 
France  1805;  represented  Paris  in  the  Corps  Li'gisiatii 
1805-15;  created  oaron  by  the  emperor  1813;  administnit'  \ 
of  the  College  de  France  and  the  Ecole  des  Langues  oriin^ 
tales  1822 ;  entered  the  Chamber  of  Peers  1832;  couservat.  i 
of  the  Oriental  MSS.  of  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  and  ]m  r^ 
petual  secretary  of  the  Academic  des  inscriptions  18^^.  I), 
m  Paris,  Feb.  21, 1838.  A  few  of  his  principal  works  an- 1 
Orammaire  Arabe  (1810;  2d  ed.  1881);  Chrestomatlu^, 
Arabe  (1806;  2d  ed.  1826);  Principes  de  la  Gramma. r^ 
generate  (1799;  8th  ed.  1852);  Relation  de  ttgypit  y%M 
Abd-allatiph  (1810);  Memoirs  d^histoire  ei  de  Utttratu*-^ 
orientalss  (1818);  Les  Siances  de  Hariri  (1822;  2il  iM^ 
1847) ;  and  £xpos4  de  la  religion  des  Druses  (1838).  S-.  .J 
Reinaud,  Notice  historique  ei  littiraire  sur  Silvestre  </^ 
Sacy  (Paris,  1838).  Richard  Gotthkil. 

Sacy,  Samuel  Ustazade  Silvestre,  de :  journalist  ;  s  n 
of  Baron  de  Sacy  ;  b.  in  Paris,  Oct.  17, 1801 ;  appointed  .  n 
the  staff  of  the  Journal  des  Dibats  1828,  wliich  position  ht^ 
held  for  more  than  thirty  years ;  member  of  the  AcH<liMny 
May  18,  1854 ;  keeper  of  the  Mazarin  Library  1836 ;  it>  ad^ 
ministrator  1848;  member  of  the  council  of  public  eihi.>a^ 
tion  1864.  He  published  essays,  VariHis  litteraires  (lK"»*^ij 
edited  Bibliotheque  Spirituelle  and  Lettres  de  Madame  di 
SSvignS  (1861-64).    D.  Feb.  14, 1879.  R.  G. 

Saddle  *.  a  contrivance  designed  to  rest  on  the  back  ci 
an  animal  and  serve  as  a  seat  for  a  rider  or  as  a  supjMjrl  !«•< 
other  weights.  It  thus  includes  the  pack-saddle  and  the  f  mr^ 
of  a  single  harness  that  supports  the  weight  of  the  shafts  | 
for  four-wheeled  vehicles  this  is  merely  a  broad  pa<idri| 
strap  buckled  around  the  animal's  body,  but  for  a  liea^v 
two- wheeled  cart,  since  part  of  the  weignt  of  the  loail  n-*H 
on  the  shafts,  the  saddle  is  large  and  more  heavily  pidd'ij 
than  a  riding-saddle.  The  pack-saddle  varies  much  in  f<»rni, 
but  that  most  used  in  the  transportation  of  goods  <*onsist-  -  i 
crossed  sticks,  like  a  common  saw-horse,  securely  fastened  t^i 
saddle-bars  of  long  bearing. 

The  use  of  riding-saddles  is  of  ancient  origin.  Pancirolitji 
relates  that  Constantine  the  younger  was  killed  in  the  vras 
340  by  falling  from  his  saddle,  and  the  Emperor  Theotio>:ii-| 
in  the  year  385,  forbade  the  use  on  post-horses  of  s^idii,.  j 
weighing  over  60  lb.  Riding-saddles  may  be  classed  uinl.^ 
two  types,  Hungarian  and  Moorish.  The  original  of  the  f-  r^ 
mer  consisted  of  wide  parallel  bars,  joined  at  the  ends  ^i 
heavy  bows,  to  which  were  secured  parallel  strips  of  h'uU% 
There  were  no  stirrups.  The  Hungarian  saddle  of  the  |.rt-^ 
ent  closely  resembles  the  primitive  one,  while  the  Eni:ii-ii 
saddle  is  the  most  highly  developed  form  of  the  type  in  Ku^ 
rope,  and  the  McClellan  saddle  (named  after  Gen.' George  1 5, 
McClellan)  the  best  in  the  U.  S.  These  two  saddles,  t  h.  u^:- 1 
from  the  same  source,  are  quite  different  in  construe! imi  , 
The  tree  of  the  English  saddle  is  a  skeleton  on  which  t^  h 
saddle  is  made.  As  completed,  the  seat  and  bearings  ar»>  a^l 
padded,  with  scarcely  anything  of  the  original  outline  >li<>Wi 
ing,  except  at  the  edges.  Probably  in  point  of  style  it  i:i 
the  most  perfect  saddle  made,  but  one  who  is  in  the  sadtil  i 
all  dav  is  glad  to  exchange  it  for  something  easier.  Tin 
McClellan  tree  forms  the  saddle  itself.  The  tree-bows  nr.i 
shaped  to  fit  the  animal's  back,  and  padding  is  dis{H'iiM-i 
with,  even  for  the  seat.  It  is  covered  with  rawhide.  an«l  aj 
but  necessary  strapping  is  eliminated.  The  fender  of  t  he  M  ( ^ 
Clellan  is  borrowed  from  the  Mexican  saddle,  and  i*  im^ 
proved  in  the  modification  of  the  McClellan  saddle  kn<»N»:] 
as  the  Whitman,  after  its  inventor.  Col.  Whitman,  U.  s, 
army.  The  trade  nomenclature  of  saddles  of  the  II un;::;* 
rian  type  includes  also  the  Sliaftoe,  Somerset,  Kilgort*,  tti:.| 
Morgan.  A  later  form  is  a  pneumatic  saddle,  in  whirh  4 
rubber  bag,  filled  with  air,  is  placed  under  the  leather  <i.\i 
ering  of  the  seat.  The  object  is  to  increase  the  comfort  «  ^ 
the  rider,  and  lessen  the  concussion  of  his  weight  on  tho  ain 
imal's  back.  It  has  been  most  successful  as  applied  to  rn.  ^ 
ing-saddles. 

The  so-called  Moorish  type  probably  originated  in  Per^ih. 
In  the  primitive  form  a  number  of  skms  were  superimjx><r  | 
on  the  animal's  back,  with  a  front  and  back  wocilen  cant  I. , 
the  whole  confined  by  straps  completely  surrounding  tfi 
animal.  In  the  construction  of  its  various  forms  the  tiiu-i 
fabrics  have  been  employed,  and  it  has  always  been  the  rii«  •-• 
expensive  saddle  made.  Mexican,  Texas,  and  C&liforii':^ 
saadles  are  derived  from  this  type,  retainine  the  main  fon^ 
tures  of  the  original.    The  Moorish  saddle  has  heavy,  long 


238 


SADO 


SAFETY-LAMP 


edited  by  Arthur  Clifford,  with  a  memoir  and  notes  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  under  the  title  Slate  Papera  and  Letters  of  Sir 
R.  Sadler  (2  vols.,  1809). 

8ado,  saa'dd :  an  island  in  the  Sea  of  Japan ;  about  30 
miles  from  the  Japanese  mainland ;  between  V^"  and  139^ 
E.  Ion.  and  371**  and  38^  N.  lat.  It  forms  part  of  the  pre- 
fecture of  Niigata,  and  has  a  population  of  about  103,000 ; 
it  possesses  famous  gold  and  silver  mines,  but  the  output 
from  these  has  not  of  late  years  much  more  than  covered 
expenses  of  working.  The  island,  which  is  chiefly  of  lime- 
stone formation,  is  very  hilly,  with  one  plain  between  two 
mountain  groups.  J.  M.  D. 

Sadoleto,  sak-do-la'to,  Jacopo:  cardinal;  b.  at  Modena, 
Italy,  July  14,  1477;  was  ordained  priest  in  Rome  in  1502; 
appointea  secretary  to  Leo  X.  in  1513 ;  made  Bishop  of  Car- 
TCutras,  in  France,  in  1517,  and  cardinal  in  1536.  D.  in 
Rome,  Oct.  18, 1547.  He  made  a  favorable  impression  even 
on  the  most  zealous  Reformers  by  his  conciliatory  spirit, 
and  he  was  often  employed  in  the  diplomatic  negotiations 
between  Charles  V.,  Francis  I.,  and  the  popes.  His  writ- 
ings, PhiloaophiiB  Consolationes  (1502);  De  Liberia  recte 
inatituendis  (1533) ;  Phasdnis  aive  de  Laudibua  PhilosophicB 
(1538),  etc.,  and  his  Letters  were  published  in  a  collected 
edition  at  Verona  (4  vols.,  1737)  and  at  Rome  (5  vols.,  1759). 
See  Joly,  jSltude  sur  Sadolet  (Caen,  1857). 

Revised  by  J.  J.  Eeane. 

Sadowa,  sak'dS-vak :  village  of  Bohemia ;  on  the  Bistritz ; 
9  miles  N.  W.  of  K5niggr&tz  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary, 
ref.  3-E).  This  is  the  name  given  by  the  Austrians  to  the 
battle  of  KOniogrItz  (q.  v.),  in  which,  on  July  3,  1866,  240,- 

000  Prussians  defeated  220,000  Austrians  and  Saxons.  The 
Prussian  loss  was  9,000  men,  while  the  Austrians  lost  over 
40,000  men  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 

Sa'fed  [=  Arab.;  Heb.  Ts'phath,  liter.,  watch-tower  J : 
town  in  Palestine,  in  the  ancient  province  of  Galilee  (alti- 
tude, 2,749  feet),  with  splendid  view  of  Jebel  Zebut,  Jebel 
Jermak,  Tabor,  and  Carmel ;  thought  by  some  to  be  mentioned 
in  Matt.  v.  14.  A  fortress  was  built  there  by  Fulke  1140, 
defended  by  the  Templars ;  taken  by  the  Sultan  of  Damas- 
cus 1220 ;  reconstructed  by  the  Templars  1240 ;  taken  dofl- 
nitely  by  the  Moslems  1266,  and  made  capital  of  a  prov- 
ince. In  1799  it  was  occupied  by  a  French  garrison.  Jews 
settled  there  in  large  numbers  in  the  sixteenth  century,  ex- 
pecting that  the  Messiah  would  make  it  his  capital.  Its  ba- 
zaar is  of  little  importance.  See  Neubauer,  Oeogr.  d,  Tal- 
mud (1868,  p.  227);  Baedecker,  Palest,  und  Syria  (2d  ed. 
1894,  p.  258) ;  Tristram,  Land  of  Israel  (liondon,  1865,  p. 
576).  Richard  Gottheil. 

Safes:  structures  desired  to  protect  papers,  money,  or 
other  contents  from  loss  either  by  theft  or  by  fire.  For  the  lat- 
ter see  FiRE-PROOF  Safes.  Those  supposed  to  be  proof  against 
burglarious  attacks,  directed  either  upon  the  inclosing  walls 
or  merely  against  the  lock  (see  Lock)  securing  the  door,  should 
successfully  resist  for  twelve  hours  at  least  any  attempts  to 
open  them ;  but  such  is  the  perfection  of  the  mechanical  and 
chemical  means  used  that  probably  there  are  none  of  the  so- 
called  burglar-proof  safes  the  contents  of  which  could  not 
be  abstracted  by  an  undisturbed  burglar  in  very  much  less 
time. 

Burglar-proof  safes  are  of  two  distinct  constructions :  1. 
Those  which  have  walls  ciust  in  one  mass  of  iron  or  steel  or 
of  some  alloy  of  these  metals.  2.  Those  having  their  walls 
built  up  of  bars  or  plates  of  iron  or  steel  secured  together 
by  bolts  or  rivets.  The  first  class  may  be  subdivided  as  fol- 
lows, viz.:  a.  Safes  in  which  the  resistance  to  attack  depends 
upon  their  form,  and  the  extreme  hardness  and  toughness 

01  the  cast  metal  used.  Such  are  the  spherical  safes  made 
from  an  alloy  of  iron  and  chromium,  b.  Safes  having  the 
cast  metal  of  their  walls  re-enforced  by  a  network  of  wrought- 
iron  or  steel  rods,  about  which  the  molten  iron  or  steel  is 
poured,  and  which  is  solidly  inclosed  by  the  cast  metal  when 
It  cools.  The  second  class  may  also  be  divided  in  the  fol- 
lowing way,  viz.:  c.  Safes  made  of  bars  or  plates  of  homo- 
geneous wrought  iron  or  steel,  d.  Safes  in  which  the  bars 
or  plates  are  composed  of  layers  of  iron  and  steel  welded  to- 
petner.  e.  Safes  made  of  layers  of  bars  or  plates  of  wroiiijht 
iron  or  steel,  between  which  are  interposed  one  or  more 
layers  of  bars  of  hard  cast  iron. 

For  most  burglar-proof  safes  of  recent  construction  great 
pains  have  been  taken  to  conceal  the  heads  of  the  bolts  or 
rivets,  and  in  some  cases  these  have  been  ma<le  so  short  as  to 
simply  fasten  each  layer  of  plates  to  those  adjacent,  but  in 


no  instance  extending  through  the  whole  thickness  of  tli*- 
walls.  The  doors  have  also  been  fitted  with  the  greater' 
accuracy  in  order  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  exph»>i\.- 
Apertures  through  the  doors  of  safes  for  the  passa^;^  <-; 
spindles  for  operating  bolts  and  locks  have  been  found  a 
source  of  insecurity,  and  therefore  doors  for  burglar- pnn.: 
safes  have  been  contrived  so  that  when  shut  they  are  fas- 
tened by  bolts  operated  automatically,  and  they  are  provioi  •, 
with  clockwork  which  can  be  so  adjusted  before  the  ch^.r  i- 
closed  that  at  a  certain  hour  the  bolts  are  drawn  by  the  re- 
lease and  action  of  powerful  springs.  W.  F.  Durkee. 

Safetj-lamp :  a  lamp  so  constructed  as  to  be  safely  em- 
ployed m  an  atmosphere  so  contaminated  with  fire-dan  ;• 
as  to  explode  when  a  nake<l  flame  is  exposed  to  it.  Fiv-i.- 
ly  exposed  coal  underground  often  gives  forth  one  or  man- 
kinds of  gas,  such  as  carbon  dioxide  (COs),  oxygen,  nitn» 
gen,  and  fire-damp  (CII4).  To  the  latter  other  namt-  aj/- 
plied  are  carburetted  hydrogen,  methane,  and  Marsu-ua.s 
Ig.  v.).  From  a  single  ton  of  anthracite  coal  more  tlmn 
6bO  cubic  feet  of  gas  have  been  emitted,  of  which  U*i  jht 
cent,  was  fire-damp.  Bituminous  coal,  being  softer  ai.d 
more  porous,  parts  with  its  gas  more  easily,  though  the  total 
amount  per  ton  id  not  so  large.  If  the  atmosphere  eontiim 
from  6  to  17  per  cent,  of  fire-damp  the  mixture  is  dantrf  r- 
ously  explosive.  Outside  of  these  two  limits  it  is  still  in- 
flammable. It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  therefore  that 
the  ventilation  of  a  coal  mine  shall  oe  good  enough  to  pr.- 
vent  contamination  of  the  air  with  fire-damp.  Since  ixrf^ct 
ventilation  is  impossible,  the  miner  needs  a  lamp  for  illun.i- 
uating  purposes  that  mav  be  used  in  a  slightly  eontunM- 
nated  atmosphere,  and  the  inspector  needs  the  inean>  of 
detecting  sucn  contamination,  however  slight. 

Between  1812  and  1816  several  forms  of  safety-lamp  w.-r^ 
devised,  that  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy  being  the  one  whirl. 
has  remained  most  extensively  in  use.  For  any  given  ft;<-l 
the  temperature  at  which  ignition  begins  is  lower  than  that 
developed  by  the  subsequent  process  of  combustion  ;  for  ex- 
ample, the  ignition-point  of  pnosphorus  is  below  the  bt-iilint:* 
point  of  water,  while  the  temperature  due  to  its  co^lbu^l:'<!l 
exceeds  that  of  red-hot  iron.  Davy  discovered  that  in  t% 
quiet  atmosphere  a  mere  partition  of  wire  gauze  is  enoni:'' 
to  prevent  the  transmission  of  flame,  the  gauze  ab^^}^lll^^' 
and  radiating  enough  heat  to  reduce  the  temperature  InI<.u 
the  ignition-point.  To  a  small,  cylindrical  oil-lamp  he  ar- 
tached  a  cylinder  of  iron-wire  gauze  about  6  inches  l<>i-j 
and  less  tlian  2  inches  in  diameter,  which  inclosiMl  \\.>- 
flame.  It  was  supported  in  a  framework  of  small  n^tal 
rods  fitted  into  tenninal  flat  brass  rings.  One  of  the>e  en- 
closed the  body  of  the  lamp,  while  the  other  was  coven-.i 
with  gauze  and  served  for  attachment  of  a  handle.  Th*- 
meshes  of  the  gauze  permitted  free  access  of  air  to  thr 
flame  and  transmission  of  part  of  its  light.  The  standard 
adopted  as  a  limit  of  safetv  was  iron  gauze  with  784  nie^ht  < 
per  square  inch,  the  wire  bein^  about  ^  inch  in  thicknt  vn. 
When  such  a  lamp  is  carried  into  an  atmosphere  contami- 
nated with  from  3  to  6  per  cent,  of  fire-damp  the  flame  be- 
comes elongated  and  smoky,  being  surrounded  by  a  zone  if 
mixed  gases  less  rich  in  oxygen  than  air  is,  and  contain  it  .: 
carbon  and  hydrogen,  both  of  which  are  combustible.  Ti.«' 
flame  therefore  occupies  an  appreciably  larger  volume,  an-i 
indicates  the  approach  of  danger  before  an  actually  expi«»- 
sive  atmosphere  is  reached.  Within  a  dangerous' at  ni' <- 
phere  the  entire  space  within  the  cylinder  of  gauze  Uk-ohh^x 
occupied  with  flame,  but  this  may  for  some  time  fail  to  !•< 
transmitted  through  the  gauze.  Such  transmis^ion  n  ay 
occur  after  the  gauze  becomes  red-hot,  or  if  the  lamp  i>  ex- 
posed to  a  draught.  The  indication  of  danger  should  U- 
suflficient  to  cause  the  withdrawal  of  the  miner  from  su.r 
surroundings.  Modifications  of  the  Davy  lamp  have  c<  v  ** 
into  use,  chiefly  with  a  view  to  surrounding  the  flame  wr: 
ghiss  so  as  to  increase  the  effective  radiation  of  light :  bu* 
in  each  case  access  and  egress  of  air  are  effected  through  i»n»- 
or  more  thicknesses  of  wire  gauze.  Mueseler's  lamp  is  ex- 
tensively  employed  in  continental  Europe;  besides  the  irl.*^^ 
chimney  it  has  a  conical  metallic  chimney  above  the  fla:;.«- 
to  increase  the  draught  of  feed-air. 

Of  late  years  electricity  has  been  extensively  applied  »: 
mining  oi)erations,  and  the  most  obvious  application  w<mi  • 
nat u nil Iv  seem  to  be  the  substitution  of  the  incamlev<-»'!.! 
electric  lamp  for  the  miner's  wire-gauze  safety-lamp,  mj.vn- 
the  former,  if  carefully  handled,  is  quite  safe  in  any  atrn  — 
phere  whatever.  The  difficulty  attendant  upon  the  attn.r  - 
ment  of  effective  insulation,  suitable  wiring,  and  the  pto- 


240 


SAFFRON 


dry ;  soak  half  an  hour  in  a  cold  fat-soap  bath ;  drj ;  then 
dye  lukewarm  in  the  solution  of  saffranine.  (2)  Soak  the 
cotton  from  four  to  six  hours  in  a  lukewarm  bath  to  which 
the  extract  from  i  lb.  of  nutgalls  has  been  added ;  wring ; 
soak  one  hour  in  a  cold  bath  containing  for  every  pound  of 
cotton  }  to  f  oz.  of  perchloride  of  tin  crystals ;  wash ;  dye  in 
a  lukewarm  bath  to  which  the  color  is  added  in  three  or 
four  installments  to  secure  an  even  color.  For  a  dark-rose  or 
cherry  color  use  the  second  method,  doubling  the  quantity 
of  nut-galls  and  increasing  slightly  the  quantity  of  perchlo- 
ride of  tin.  For  ponceau  and  scarlet,  first  give  the  cotton, 
after  treatment  with  hyposulphite,  a  bottom  of  turmeric 
(hot),  then  continue  by  the  second  method.  To  darken 
the  shades,  let  the  cotton  soak  in  the  gall-bath  over  night. 
Tannin  may  be  used  in  place  of  nutgalls,  f  oz.  to  the  pound  of 
cotton.  Lastlj,  pass  all  cotton  dy^  with  saflfranine  through 
a  cold  bath  slightly  acidulated  with  acetic  acid. 

Revised  by  Ira  Rehsen. 

Saffron  [from  0.  Fr.  safran  (whence  Germ,  safran),  from 
Arab,  zafaran,  saffron,  deriv.  of  safrd^  yellow] :  a  yellow 
substance,  consisting  of  the  stigmas,  with  part  of  the  styles, 
of  the  saffron-crocus  {Crocus  sathms),  a  plant  indigenous  in 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and  extensively  cultivated  in  Aus- 
tria, France,  and  Spain,  and  formerly  in  England.  Spanish 
saffron  is  the  best.  It  is  said  that  100,000  flowers  are  neces- 
sary to  produce  1  lb.  of  saffron.  This  dye  is  often  adul- 
terated with  safflower,  marigold,  pomegranate,  and  other 
flowers.  The  stigmas  of  the  true  saffron  are  from  1  inch 
to  li  inches  long,  narrow  and  roundish  where  they  are  at- 
tached to  the  style,  but  spreading  and  club-shaped  near 
the  extremity,  which  is  truncated.  They  have  an  orange  or 
brownish-red  color,  yellow  in  the  narrower  part,  an  agree- 
able aromatic,  almost  intoxicating,  odor,  ana  an  aromatic 
bitter  taste,  and  impart  a  yellow  color  to  the  saliva  and  to 
water,  alcohol,  and  oils.  Strong  sulphuric  acid  colors  them 
blue,  then  red,  and  finally  brown.  Saffron  was  formerly  a 
favorite  dye,  but  is  now  rarely  used  as  such.  It  is  employed 
in  mediciue  for  coloring  tinctures  and  for  liqueurs,  var- 
nishes, confectionery,  and  especially  cakes  in  the  west  of 
England.  The  coloring-matter  of  saffron  is  a  glucoside,  to 
which  the  names  saffranine,  saffron-yellow,  polychroite,  and 
crocine  have  been  given.  Revised  by  Isa  Remsen. 

Saffron  of  Mars :  See  Ibox  (3fediciiial  Uses  of  Iron), 

Sa'fl:  an  Atlantic  port  of  Morocco,  Africa,  well  for- 
tified, with  a  fair  harbor  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  1-B).  It 
is  visited  occasionally  by  Hamburg  and  other  steamers,  but 
its  former  considerable  trade  has  been  largely  captured  by 
Mogador,  S.  of  it.     Pop.  9,000,  one-third  Jews. 

Sa'gan:  town  and  railway  center  in  the  province  of  Sile- 
sia, Prussia;  on  the  Sober  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref. 
4-H).  It  has  a  fine  palace  with  a  beautiful  park,  and  ex- 
tensive manufactures  of  woolen  and  cotton  cloth.  Pop. 
(1890)  12,623. 

Sagar,  saa-g&r',  or  Saugor :  an  island  in  the  delta  of  the 
Ganges,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hu^li ;  23  miles  lon^  N.  and 
S.,  and  2i  to  8  miles  broad.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  disas- 
ters, and  as  a  station  for  Hindu  pilgrims.  Its  misfortunes 
are  due  to  the  storm-waves  that  sometimes  sweep  over  it. 
According  to  the  Calcutta  Review  200,000  people  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  storm-wave  of  1688.  Before  the  cyclone  of 
1864  it  had  5,625  inhabitants,  of  whom  only  1,488  survived. 
It  has  few  permanent  inhabitants,  but  is  visited  annually, 
in  January,  by  from  100,000  to  200,000  pilgrims.  The  cele- 
bration attended  by  them  lasts  only  three  days,  but  a  cer- 
tain proportion  remain  for  weeks  to"  take  baths.  The  island 
contains  a  meteorological  observatory,  a  lighthouse,  and 
telegraph  station.  It  is  infertile,  covered  with  jungles,  and 
infestea  by  wild  beasts.  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Sagar,  or  Saugor :  city  of  the  Central  Provinces,  British 
India,  and  capital  of  a  district  of  Sagar;  lat.  23  50'  N., 
long.  78^  49'  E.;  on  the  border  of  the  artificial  lake  Sagar 
(see  map  of  N.  India,  ref.  7-E).  The  lake  is  about  4  miles 
ill  circumference,  and  is  surrounded  by  temples  with  plat- 
forms for  baths.  The  city  is  pitjturesque,  well  built,  with 
wide  streets.  Near  by  is  a  large  and  old  fort  commanding 
the  town,  a  prison,  and  a  cantonment.  Its  chief  commerce 
is  in  salt.  Pop.  (1891),  44,674. — Saoar  is  also  the  name  of  a 
town  in  Mysore,  and  of  one  in  Haidarabad.         M.  W.  II. 

Sagas:  See  Icelandic  Literature  and  Scandinavian 
Literature. 

Sagas' ta,  PrAxedes  Mateo:  statesman;  b.  at  Torrecilla 
de  Cameros,  Spain,  July  21,  1827;  studied  at  the  School  of 


SAGHALIEN 


Engineers  in  Madrid ;  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Cor- 
tes 1854;  took  part  in  the  insurrection  of  1856  and  fled  t" 
France ;  returned  to  Spain  on  the  proclamation  of  the  am- 
nesty and  became  professor  in  the  School  of  Engineer^  il 
Macfrid,  and  editor  of  La  Iberia,  the  princi(>al  organ  <>f 
the  progressist  party;  after  the  unsuccessful  insurrection  of 
June,  1866,  he  atain  fled  to  France,  but  retumetl  after  tli*- 
fall  of  Queen  Isabella  II.:  member  of  Gen.  Prim's  fir^t  f.al>i* 
net;  Minister  of  State  Jan.,  1870;  declared  for  the  mun- 
archy;  Minister  of  State  in  the  first  cabinet  of  Kin^  An^a- 
deus;  successively  Minister  of  Forei^  Affairs,  Minister  of 
the  Interior,  and  president  of  council,  1874,  under  Mur>}.<il 
Serrano;  gave  in  his  adherence  to  Alfonso  XII.  1875;  joiii<<i 
the  new  liberal  party,  1880;  canje  into  power  at  the  heaei  of 
a  coalition  in  1881,  which  was  superseded  in  1883  by  a  caWi- 
net  formed  from  the  dynastic  left.  On  the  death  of  Alfon- 
so XII.,  Nov.  23,  1885,  ne  again  took  charge  of  the  Govern- 
ment at  the  request  of  the  queen  regent ;  his  ministry  wa% 
overthrown  1890,  and  the  conservatives  returned  to|M»w»r 
under  Castillo.  On  the  latter's  resignation  in  Dec.,  lK*\t, 
Sagasta  succeeded  him ;  in  Mar.,  1895,  he  resigned,  and  wil^ 
again  succeeded  by  Castillo.  C.  HL  Thurbek. 

Sage  FFr.  sauge] :  a  plant  of  the  genus  Salna  of  the  mini 
family  {LabiatcB).  S,  officinalis  is  a  familiar  garden-h<rb. 
Its  leaves  are  employed  in  flavoring  meats  and  other  di^he>. 
and  sage-tea,  a  decoction  of  its  leaves,  is  a  useful  domestic 
remedy,  having  aromatic,  stimulant,  and  tonic  powers. 

Sage,  Alain  Rene,  le :  See  Lesage. 

Sage-brush :  the  popular  name  of  species  of  bitter  shrubs 
of  the  genus  Artemisia  {f&mi\yComposifce)  growing  uj^.n 
the  Great  Plains  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  North 
America.  A.  tridetitaia  is  from  3  to  6  or  even  10  to  12  f**ei 
in  height,  and  is  the  common  large  sage-brush  of  Idaho. 
Montana,  Wyoming,  and  Colorado,  extendinjr  also  eastward 
to  the  plains.  Among  other  common  species  are  A.  aiua 
and  A.  filifoHa.  Charles  E.  Bes>ey. 

Sage-cock,  or  Cock  of  the  Plains :  a  kind  of  grouK*,  th«: 
Centroeercus  urophasianus.  It  is  characterized,  among  th*. 
tetraonine  forms  which  are  feathered  to  the  toes  but  wit  h 
the  toes  themselves  bare,  by  the  tail  being  much  elongate*! 
and  cuneate,  and  the  constituent  feathers  narrow  and  a:* 
tenuated,  and  the  shafts  of  the  feathers  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  throat  very  spinous.  The  color  above  is  brownish 
yellow,  with  blackish  areas  on  the  inner  fields  of  the  feath- 
ers; the  wing  has  light-colored  shafts  to  the  feathers  of  ilit- 
coverts;  the  lower  portions  of  the  breast  are  whitish,  th*- 
abdomen  marked  with  a  broad  black  area.  The  male  binl 
has  very  large,  dilatable,  naked,  and  yellow  air-sac»  tm  ea<.h 
side  of  the  neck,  bordered  by  stiff,  scale-like  feathers.  Th*- 
species  is  the  largest  American  representative  of  the  famih. 
the  male  having  an  average  length  of  over  30  inches,  and 
the  female  about  21  or  22;  but  these  dimensions  are  fre- 
quently much  exceeded.  It  is  confined  to  the  arid  plains  nf 
tnie  western  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  ranging  from  the  Black  HilN 
in  the  E.  to  California  and  Oregon  in  the  W.,  and  from  Brit- 
ish America  in  the  N.  to  Arizona  in  the  S.  In  thos*.*  plaii> 
the  sage-brush  {Artemisia)  grows  in  abundance,  and  th» 
sage-cock  feeds  upon  that  plant,  whereby  a  bitter  flavor  i- 
imparted  to  the  flesh ;  but  it  is  said  that  if  the  bird  is  evis- 
cerated at  once  after  being  killed  this  taint  is  not  so  marki  <1. 
There  is  a  simple  muscular  membranous  bag,  contnLstin^- 
with  the  peculiarly  developed  gizzard  of  the  orainarv  s|>eiies. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lita^. 

Sag'enite :  See  Quartz. 

SAghallen,sira-gaa-leen',or Sakhalin,knownas  Karafi  ro 
by  the  Japanese  and  as  Taraiko  by  the  natives  :  a  li»nir  ni.  . 
narrow  island  off  the  east  coast  of  Asia,  stretching  dinvil^ 
S.  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amur  river,  between  lat.  45  54  ai.  . 
54"  24  N.  Its  length  is  670  miles,  breadth  from  15  to  80  un U  n 
its  area 29.336  sq.  miles,  and  it  is  traversed  by  parallel  uiout,- 
tain  chains,  thickly  wooded,  the  highest  peak  being  Ki»*'»i>- 
pal  (La  Marti nicre).  near  the  center  of  the  island,  4,860  f. . ' 
nigh.  The  chief  productions  are  coal  of  good  quality.  fu!>. 
and  timber;  the  climate  and  soil  do  not  favor  agricul tun- 
At  Dui  on  the  west  coiust.  and  Mauka  (.'ove  farther  > 
are  Government  penal  stations;  the  last  is  also  a  ti^hii'." 
center.  Since  1875,  when  Japan  ceded  her  rights  ovt-r  tt. 
southern  portion  of  the  islana  in  exchange  for  the  northt-rr 
Kurilcs,  Saphalien  has  been  altogether  Russian.  The  nnt  i> «  -. 
mostly  of  Ainu  stock,  number  3,200;  a  dictionary  of  tht».r 
tongue  was  compiled  by  M.  M.  Dobrotvorski,  and  compKt*'. 
and  published  in  1876  by  his  brother  Ivan.     J.  M,  Dixon. 


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1 

242 


SAHARA 


Mediterranean,  but  the  resulting  seas  combined  would  not 
be  as  large  as  Lake  Tanganyika  or  Lake  Nyassa.  The  other 
depressed  area  is  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Libyan  desert 
(the  oases  of  Aral  and  Siouah),  nearly  E.  of  Fayoum  and  150 
miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  an  elevated  plateau. 

A  mountainous  region  stretches  through  the  desert  S.  E. 
and  N.  W.,  extending  from  S.  of  Algeria  to  Darf ur,  dividing 
the  eastern  or  Libyan  desert  from  the  Central  and  Western 
Sahara,  and  having  its  backbone  in  the  Tassili  and  Tibesti 
Mountains.  They  make  a  nearly  unbroken  range  1,100  miles 
long,  culminating  in  Mt.  Tarso  of  Tibesti,  about  8,000  feet 
high.  To  the  W.  of  this  range  and  connected  with  it  are 
the  mountain  complexes  of  Ahaggar  and  Azjer,  which  oc- 
cupy the  geographic  center  of  the  Sahara,  with  elevations  of 
from  4,000  to  5,000  feet.  These,  with  areas  of  lower  moun- 
tains to  the  N.  and  S.,  make  an  elevated  band  which  crosses 
the  Sahara  nearly  centrally  from  the  Syrtis  on  the  N.  to 
Sokoto  on  the  S. 

The  remainder  is  much  diversified  by  plains,  hills,  and 
valleys,  and  is  furrowed  by  the  beds  of  streams,  generally 
dry,  but  having,  nevertheless,  as  well-defined  basins  as  in 
other  parts  of  the  world.  The  surface  is  sometimes  a  shingly, 
denuded,  arid  plateau  {hamada  of  the  Arabs),  drearily  uni- 
form, slightly  undulating,  but  little  intersected,  from  the 
surface  of  which  the  wind  sweeps  every  particle  small  enough 
to  be  carried  away.  This  may  he  succeeded  by  a  region  of 
ravines  and  valleys  (wadies)  which  are  sometimes  simple 
coulees,  sometimes  extensive,  with  a  full  series  of  ramifica- 
tions. With  these  are  associated  sharp  escarpments,  which 
are  the  edges  of  the  higher  plateaus,  and  sometimes  isolated 
buttes  i^ara^  plural  gour,  of  the  Arabs).  Not  rarely  the  wady 
ends  in  a  closed  basin  (sebkha),  which  may  be  always  dry  or 
occasionally  ^Ued  with  water,  making  a  temporary  l^oon. 
The  latter  when  dry  are  covered  with  a  layer  of  saline  emores- 
cence  which,  under  favorable  conditions,  forms  a  veritable 
crust.  Elsewhere  are  plains  of  sands  heaped  into  dunes.  The 
latter  are  grouped  irregularly,  and  reach  sometimes  a  height 
of  300  or  400  feet,  but  are  not  so  subject  to  shifting  by  the 
wind  as  is  sometimes  represented.  They  remain  fairlv  per- 
manent from  generation  to  generation,  and,  although  heavy 
wind-storms  may  carry  considerable  quantities  of  sand,  the 
trails  are  not  generally  obliterated  nor  the  wells  covered. 
These  seas  of  sand  have  the  name  of  erg,  and  of  these  four 
large  ones  are  known  (two  in  the  Libyan  desert  and  two  at 
the  W.  and  parallel  to  the  Atlantic  coast).  Besides  these 
there  is  a  series  of  smaller  ones  from  Southern  Algeria  to 
Fezzan,  and  some  other  isolated  ones  of  small  size. 

A  few  of  the  rivers  of  the  Sahara  debouch  into  the  At- 
lantic, the  principal  ones  being  the  Draa  and  the  Sakiet-el- 
Hamra,  near  the  northwestern  angle  of  the  Sahara,  the  for- 
mer with  water,  the  latter  without.  Many  smaller  valleys 
debouch  into  the  Syrtes  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Libyan 
desert  has  few  of  the  wadies.  The  richest  part  of  the 
Sahara  for  these  stream-beds  is  the  central  elevated  re- 
gion of  Ahaggar,  Azjer,  and  Tassili.  From  this  region 
radiate  innumerable  stream-beds,  some  of  which  are  lost  in 
the  sand  at  lower  levels,  while  others  can  be  traced  to  the 
Mediterranean  or  to  the  basin  of  the  Niger.  Lake  Chad  has 
a  similar  but  less  extensive  system.  The  existence  of  these 
stream-beds  suggests  that  formerly  the  Sahara  may  have 
been  a  well-watered  region.  If  so  it  was  probably  in  late 
geological,  certainly  before  historical,  times.  Perhaps  they 
are  due  to  the  occasional  filling  which  they  undergo,  which 
is  due  to  the  intense  local  storms  (cloud-bursts),  in  which 
the  rain  comes  when  it  comes  at  all.  The  stream  is  then 
filled  with  a  torrent  which  advances  with  impetuous  force 
and  continues  until  lost  in  a  lagoon,  in  the  sand,  or  in 
some  regular  outlet,  as  Lake  Chad.  Such  streams  exert 
powerful  erosive  action,  doing  in  a  few  hours  the  work  which 
it  would  take  a  tamer  stream  years  to  perform.  To  such 
streams  is  probably  also  due  the  subterranean  water  which 
forms  permanent  or  temporary  wells,  and  whose  existence 
renders  possible  commerce  across  the  Sahara. 

Geology. — The  Sahara  is  geologically  as  diversified  as  other 
regions.  The  core  of  the  elevated  center  about  Ahaggar  is 
formed  of  the  early  prefossiliferous  crystalline  rocks.  About 
this  core,  with  prolongations  to  the  Atlas  on  the  one  side 
and  Tibesti  on  the  other,  is  found  an  enormous  area  where 
Palaeozoic  rocks  come  to  the  surface.  The  next  in  the  series 
is  a  large  development  of  the  Cretaceous,  which  extends 
from  Tunis  to  the  Nubian  desert  and  Kordofan.  The  Eo- 
cene and  Miocene  cover  a  large  area  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  Libyan  desert,  and  the  Pliocene  and  Quaternary  occupy 


the  southern  and  central  part  of  the  Western  Sahara.  Evi- 
dence of  volcanic  action  is  found  in  the  Ahaggar  and  Tilie^ii 
Mountains  and  to  the  E.  of  Fezzan. 

Climate, — The  mean  annual  temperatures  of  the  Sahara 
are  about  those  of  Northern  Mexico,  passing  from  68  K.  at 
the  north  to  86"  at  the  south.  The  January  means  vary  fmn. 
40"  at  the  north  to  73^  at  the  south.  In  summer  it  is  holt*^: 
in  the  center,  the  July  mean  temperatures  over  a  large  j*art 
of  the  interior  being'95''  or  more  and  falling  to  86  at  th<* 
margins.  The  mean  annual  range  varies  from  20^  at  the 
margins  to  40''  within.  The  true  features  of  the  temf»erat  ure 
only  appear  when  the  extremes  and  the  daily  range  are  coii- 
Bulted.  The  difference  between  day  and  night  often  runs  t*« 
50°  or  more.  In  the  northern  and  central  parU  of  the  desen 
winter  temperatures  below  freezing  are  common.  In  sum- 
mer temperatures  of  about  120'  are  not  rare  over  the  Sahara, 
and  Rohlfs  once  recorded  127*  F.  in  the  shade.  This  rct'onl 
has  been  surpassed  in  the  Colorado  desert  of  Southern  ( 'ali- 
fomia,  where  a  record  of  128"  F.  was  made  in  July,  18?<7. 

In  winter  the  desert  surface  is  occupied  by  a  part  of  Ow 
high-pressure  band  which  surrounds  the  earth.  The  wincU 
then  flow  gently  out  in  all  directions,  except  in  the  X.  W., 
where  an  inflowing  current  from  the  N.  W.  enters  by  cross- 
ing the  Atlas  Mountains.  In  the  summer  the  surface  i< 
occupied  by  an  area  of  relatively  low  pressure.  The  winds 
then  generally  flow  into  the  desert,  but  there  become  dry 
because  of  the  high  temperatures. 

The  moisture  of  the  air  is  generally  verjr  slight  In  many 
cases  records  of  only  2  per  cent,  of  relative  humidity  have 
been  made,  and  in  a  few  cases  the  instrument  has  faile<i  t(» 
find  an  appreciable  amount,  making  a  record  of  0  per  cent. 
Under  such  conditions  the  sky  is  intensely  blue,  exce{>t  when 
the  air  is  loaded  with  fine  dust,  and  mirages  are  common  m 
the  heat  of  the  day.  Dew  and  hoar  frost  are  almost  un- 
known. Yet  there  is  probably  no  part  of  the  desert  whf  n- 
rain  does  not  fall  occasionally,  but  sometimes  years  inter- 
vene between  showers.  Beginning  at  the  south,  the  rainfali 
on  the  parallel  of  10*"  N.  lat.  is  about  50  inches,  and  the  rainy 
season  is  in  middle  and  late  summer.  This  is  gradually  n*- 
duced  northward  until,  on  the  parallel  20°  N.,  the  amount  !> 
only  from  5  to  8  inches  annually.  North  of  this,  regular 
mid  and  late  summer  rains  occur  in  the  mountainous  r»^ 
gions,  but  elsewhere  the  rainfall  becomes  irregular  and  oc- 
casional only,  giving,  however,  an  annual  average  of  5  inciit^ 
or  more.  This  condition  continues  to  the  Atlas  MountniI.^ 
on  the  W.  and  to  the  Mediterranean  on  the  E.,  except  t)ia: 
in  Algiers  the  Mediterranean  regimen  of  rainfall  (^princ 
and  late  autumn,  with  dry  September)  obtains  over  a  nar- 
row strip  on  the  edge  of  the  desert. 

The  winds  that  come  from  the  Sahara  and  blow  out  over 
the  neighboring  regions  are  of  a  peculiar  and  sometini.-^ 
destructive  character.  They  have  received  many  nanu"5— 
harmattan,  leste,  leveche,  sirocco  (of  Sicily),  chamsih.  sirao<uT:. 
They  are  characterized  by  heat,  dryness,  and  dust,  Tli  • 
heavy  winds  of  the  interior,  carrying  much  sand,  are  pn- 
erally  from  the  S. 

Cause  of  Aridity, — This  desert  has  continued  from  the 
earliest  known  times  without  material  change,  except  a  jvi>- 
sible  progressive  (but  slight)  increase  in  aridity.  From 
what  precedes  it  appears  that  it  is  not  due  to  solar  heat  «a5 
thougnt  by  the  ancients),  nor  to  recent  elevation  alx)ve  the  sfa. 
nor  character  of  surface,  nor  is  it  due  to  the  northeast  traiK 
wind,  to  which  it  was  attributed  by  Humboldt.  The  ariditx 
is  a  purely  atmospheric  phenomenon,  due  to  the  outflow  .f 
wind  in  winter,  and  to  the  great  heat  when  the  inflow  takr^ 
place  in  summer.  The  direction  of  the  winds  again  is  du'» 
to  the  distribution  of  atmospheric  pressure.  As  the  detail? 
of  the  last  are  due  to  the  distribution  of  land  and  wht.  r. 
the  Sahara  must  have  been  a  desert  ever  since  the  eonii- 
nents  took  on  their  present  form. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — The  flora,  though  poor,  is  intereNtinc 
because  peculiar,  and  not  formed  by  an  interminglins:  cf 
that  of  the  Sudan  and  Mediterranean  coast.  It  is  ^ar»^ 
entirely  lacking ;  even  in  the  sandy  deserts  and  the  ojtsi--: 
(comprising  about  75,000  sq.  miles)  are  true  islands  of  ver- 
dure. Here  the  chief  plant  is  the  date-palm.  The  fauna  i^ 
even  poorer  than  the  flora.  In  the  erg  or  hamada  oik*  ca'j 
travel  for  days  without  seeing  an  animal.  In  the  lnonntai^^ 
are  jackals,  wolves,  antelopes,  and  sometimes  lions  and  ti- 
gers. The  binls  are  very  few  in  species  and  number.  Th«' 
ref)tiles  are  relatively  abundant,  and  permanent  waters  an* 
stocked  with  fish  and  other  water  animals. 

Population. — The  central  part  of  Sahara,  from  Tuni*  an«1 
Tripoli  to  the  Central  Sudan,  is  occupied  by  the  Tuan  trs 


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244 


SAILFISH 


sails  follow  the  rules  given  as  to  form  and  class,  but  have 
pecuUar  names.  The  most  common  are  spritsails,  standing 
lugs,  dipping  lugs,  and  sliding  gunters. 

Sailflsli :  any  fish  of  the  genus  Histiophorua^  having  a 
remarkably  long  and  high  dorsal  fin.    The  ventral  fins  are 

modified  into  elongated  styli- 

j|^^  form  appendages  of  two  or 

^^fkk  three  rays,  and  there  are  small 

^^^K^  persistent  teeth.    The  species 

'V         ^^^^^V^  nave  an  elongated  sword,  as 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^—    in  the  swordfishes  {XiphiidcB\ 

^^^^^***"^^^^  but  are  regarded  as  the  type  of 

^w  I  a  special  family  (Hiatio'pnori' 

^■^  /[  d<B)y  including  also  the  spear- 

\V^  fishes  (Tetrapturus).  They  are 

\  inhabitants  of  warm  seas,  es- 

^  pecially    the    Indo  -  Pacific, 

ranges  N.  to  Cape  Cod  in  summer.  The  dorsal  fin,  erected 
when  the  fish  floats  on  the  surface,  has  been  likened  to  a 
sail.    They  are  known  also  as  banner-fishes  and  spikefishes. 

Sailing  :  See  Navigation  and  Great-oiecle  Sailing. 

Saiufoin  [  =  Fr. ;  aaiih  sound,  wholesome  (  <  Lat.,  sanus) 
+  foin,  hay  (  <  Lat.  fmnnrn)] :  a  perennial  leguminous  for- 
age-plant, Onohrychia  sativa,  very  valuable  on  drv,  chalky 
lands,  but  not  much  raised  in  the  U.  S.  It  is  prized  as  green 
forage,  as  hay,  and  as  a  crop  to  be  plowed  under. 

Saint  [via  O.  Fr.  from  Lat.  sanc'tus,  holy,  sacred,  (as 
noun)  saint,  transl.  of  Gr.  iyios.  holy,  saint] :  in  the  Now 
Testament  a  title  of  all  Christians  (Rom.  i.  7 ;  1  Cor.  i.  2 ; 
Eph.  i.  1 ;  Phil.  i.  1,  etc.),  in  the  sense  that  they  are  called 
out  of  the  world,  regenerated  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  con- 
secrated to  God  and  to  holiness.  In  the  Apostles*  Creed  as 
now  recited  "  the  communion  of  saints  "  is  one  of  the  ar- 
ticles of  faith,  closely  related  to  the  preceding  article  on 
"  the  holy  catholic  Church,**  but  the  clause  is  not  found  in 
the  earlier  forms  of  that  symbol.  The  oldest  MS.  copies  of 
the  Gospels  bear  simply  the  names  of  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke, 
and  Jonn,  without  **S.**  attached  to  them.  After  the 
fourth  century  the  term  began  to  be  applied  to  particular 
persons  of  special  eminence  in  piety  and  services  to  the 
Church,  as  the  apostles,  evangelists,  and  martyrs.  It  be- 
came the  exclusive  title  of  a  spiritual  nobility  or  aristoc- 
racy. Special  honor  was  paid  to  their  memory,  which 
gradually  assumed  the  character  of  a  limited  Christian 
hero-worship,  called  by  the  scholastic  divines  doulia  or 
veneratio  (as  distinct  from  latria  or  adoratio,  which  is  due 
to  God  alone,  and  hyperdulia^  or  a  peculiar  degree  of  ven- 
eration which  is  claimed  for  the  Virgin  Mary  as  the  mother 
of  our  Lord  and  queen  of  saints).  The  Greek  and  Roman 
Churches,  believing  in  the  active  intercession  of  the  saints 
in  heaven  in  behalf  of  the  struggling  Christians  on  earth, 
consider  it  proper  and  useful  to  pray  to  them ;  with  this 
difference,  tliat  God  is  to  be  implored  as  the  giver  of  all  bless- 
ings, while  the  saints  are  to  be  implored  as  the  friends  of 
God,  that  through  their  advocacy  may  be  obtained  from  him 
all  necessaries  of  life  (hence  the  form  Or  a  pro  nobis.  Pray 
for  us).  Protestants  reject  the  worship  of  saints,  images,  and 
relics  as  inconsistent  with  the  first  and  second  commandments 
and  the  exclusive  worship  of  God,  and  hence  they  pray  di- 
rectlv  to  God  and  to  Christ. 

Wno  are  the  saints  was  a  question  for  a  long  time 
left  to  the  public  sentiment  of  the  Christian  people  in  the 
particular  nation  or  province  or  monastic  order  to  which 
the  saint  belonged.  The  voice  of  the  people  was  regarded 
as  the  voice  of  God.  But  to  prevent  the  immoderate  in- 
crease of  the  number  of  saints,  the  popes  since  Alexander 
III.  (a.  d.  1170)  have  monopolized  the  rignt  of  canonization — 
i.  e.  of  deciding  and  pronouncing  a  departed  Christian  to  be 
a  saint,  and  authorizing  and  prescribing  his  worship  within 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  act  of  canonization  is 
preceded  by  a  regular  process  of  law,  in  which  one  acts  as 
the  accuser  of  the  candidate,  another  as  his  advocate.  The 
necessary  qualifications  for  the  honor  are,  besides  the  high- 
est sanctity,  the  power  of  working  miracles,  either  during 
their  lifetime,  or  after  their  death  through  their  pictures  or 
relics  or  the  invocation  of  their  aid.  An  Italian  proverb 
says  it  requires  a  miracle  to  prove  a  miracle.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  after  the  lapse  of  several  centuries,  which  usually 
intervene  between  the  death  of  a  saint  and  his  canonization. 
In  1862  Poj>e  Pius  IX.  solemnly  canonized  twenty-six  Jap- 
anese missionaries  and  converts  who  died  in  a  persecution  m 
1597,  nearly  300  years  before.    See  Descrizione  delle  cere- 


ST.  ANDREWS 

monie  ehe  si  celebrano  nella  Bcksiliea  Vaticana  per  le  solenui 
Canonisazioni  dei  Santi  (Rome,  1862). 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  celebrates  the  memcjry  of  vmh 
canonized  saint  on  the  day  of  his  death  (which  is  rejirHnlM, 
as  his  birthday  in  heaven).  Its  calendar  of  saints  include- 1 1  ■ 
the  apostles,  evangelists,  and  most  eminent  martyrs,  failur*. 
schoolmen,  and  missionaries  down  to  the  Reformation,  wl. - 
are  the  general  property  of  Christendom ;  (2)  the  specifically 
Roman  saints  who  lived  after  the  Reformation  ancf  zeal<»u.-l\ 
opposed  Protestant  doctrines  (as  Ignatius  I^oyola,  I'harl.- 
Borromeo);  (3)  a  few  popes.  The  last  canonized  yij\>e  »a- 
Pius  V.  (1566-72),  who  excommunicated  Queen  ElizaV>eth. 

The  biography  of  saints  has  given  rise  to  an  imrat-ns. 
body  of  literature.  The  most  learned  and  extensive  w^rk 
on  the  subject  is  the  Ada  Sanctorum  of  the  Bollandi-t-. 
begun  in  1643,  embracing  60  vols.  foL,  and  not  yet  com- 
pleted. A  convenient  abridgment  is  AJban  Butler's  Ltt^< 
of  Saints  (in  many  editions,  e.  g.  12  vols.,  Dublin,  lH>(i'. 
Cf.  Baring-Gould  (Prot.),  Lives  of  the  Saints  (17  vols.,  I.,  n- 
don,  1872-92) ;  Lives  of  the  English  Saints,  edited  bv  Cftr- 
dinal  Newman  (15  vols.,  1844-46);  R.  M.  Stanton  (R.  C.).  A 
Menology  of  England  and  Wales  (1888). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksos. 

St.  Albans  (anc.  Verulamium)i  city;  in  HertfonMiir.-. 
Enffland ;  on  the  Ver,  a  feeder  of  the  Colne ;  20  miles  N.  N.  W. 
of  London  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  11-J).  In  commeinoni- 
tion  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Alban  (303)  Offa,  King  of  Mrr- 
cia,  founded  a  Benedictine  abbey  here  in  793,  which  obtiiiiu'^i 
precedence  overall  other  abbeys  in  England.  The  sihWy 
church  was  rebuilt  by  its  abbot,  Paul  of  Caen,  after  1077,  anl 
consecrated  in  1115.  This,  even  after  many  alterations  wvA 
additions,  still  remains  the  most  important  example  of  Nor- 
man architecture  in  England.  It  has  been  considerably  n- 
stored  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott  and  Sir  Edmund  Beckett  a^Tl- 
85).  Its  extreme  length  outside  is  548  feet,  and  the  (ii.ih:- 
nave  (284  feet)  is  the  longest  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  A 
feature  of  interest  is  the  substructure  of  the  shrine  (^f  M- 
Alban,  pieced  together  from  9,000  fragments.  The  abU) 
gate-house,  which  alone  remains  of  the  monastic  build inr-, 
was  converted  from  a  jail  in  1869  to  the  use  of  the  graminnr 
school.  St.  Albans  is  historically  interesting  from  tht  tu.i 
battles  fought  here  during  the  wars  of  the  Roses  in  145r»  aj.  x 
1461.  Straw-plaiting,  boot-making,  and  silk-manufa<ttiri 
are  carried  on.    Pop.  (1891)  12,895.  R.  A.  Robert>, 

St.  Albans:  town  (settled  in  1763J;  capital  of  Franklin 
CO.,  Vt.;  on  the  Central  Vt.  lUilroad;  3  miles  E.  of  \^U 
Champlain,  32  miles  N.  of  Burlineton,  70  miles  S.  of  Moi'^ 
treal  (for  location,  see  map  of  Vermont,  ref.  2-B).  It  li 
picturesquely  situated  on  a  plain  375  feet  above  lake-l*-vi  1 
and  390  feet  above  sea-level,  is  surrounded  by  high  biIS| 
and  is  the  center  of  a  large  agricultural  and  dairving  rpj:i«  i-. 
It  contains  8  churches,  high  school,  public  graded  sch.^*  - 
academy,  2  convents,  public  library,  hospital,  a  home  f<  i 
children,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $100,000.  a  tru-i 
company  vith  capital  of  $50,000,  and  a  daily,  a  weekly,  at:. I 
a  monttly  periodical.  The  town  is  principally  engagt-d  in 
making  butter  and  cheese,  contains  the  headquarters  of  Wi 
Central  Vermont  Railroad,  with  offices,  car  and  madr.:.^ 
shops,  and  two  roundhouses,  and  has  manufactories  t»f  in.it 
and  steel  bridges,  viaducts,  turn-tables,  iron  roofs,  and  nmr 
ble  and  granite  monuments.  In  1864  the  town  was  rahici 
by  a  band  of  Confederates  from  Canada,  and  in  18(56  v..! 
the  rendezvous  of  Fenian  invaders  of  Canada.  Pop.  (1^^" 
7,193 ;  (1890)  7,771. 

St.  Andrews:  town;  in  Pifeshire,  Scotland;  on  a  ro<ki 
plateau  adjoining  St.  Andrews  Bay ;  42  miles  N.  N.  K.  ■  I 
Edinburgh  (see  map  of  Scotland,  ref.  lO-I).  The  sohiv.K  .  j 
St.  Andrews  were  noted  as  early  as  1120;  and  in  1411  tlH 
university,  the  first  in  Scotland,  was  founded.  It  ha^  a  m  . 
seum,  and  a  library  with  over  100,000  volumes.  St.  Andn  w  \ 
contains  ruins  of  a  cathedral  (1160),  a  bishop's  palace  1 1*^<»«'  i 
and  manv  Celtic  and  prehistoric  remains.  It  is  a  |w>i.ui..| 
watering-place,  and  widelv  known  as  the  hcmlquarter-  I 
golf.  Pop.  (1891)  6,853.  See  St,  Andrews,  by  Andrew  l^r.J 
(London.  1893). 

St.  Andrews :  a  port  of  entry ;  capital  of  Charlotte  CnuiiT\j 
New  Brunswick ;  at  the  mouth  of  St.  Croix  river;  on  rMv>;i 
maquoddy  Bav;  66  miles  by  land  W.  of  St.  John:  on  tt  i 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  (see  map  of  Quebec,  etc.,  ref.  6-tM 
It  has  a  good  harbor,  a  weekly  newspaper,  a  marine  ht-spi*'  j 
a  custom-house,  a  postal  savings-bank,  and  various  puiM] 
buildings.  It  is  an  attractive  place  of  summer  resort,  Poj^ 
1,800. 


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246 


ST.-CfiSAIRE 


ST.-CLOUD 


St.-C^8alre,  s&n'sd'zSr' :  town  of  Rouville  County,  Que- 
bec, Canada;  on  Yamaska  river;  33  miles  E.  of  Montreal 
(see  map  of  Quebec,  etc.,  ref.  5-B).  It  has  a  large  trade,  a 
fine  water-power,  thriving  manufactures,  an  astronomical 
observatory,  a  museum  of  mineralogy  and  zoology,  and  is 
the  site  oi  Ste.  Croix  College,  a  commercial  school,  and  a 
Presentation  convent.  Pop.  of  parish,  5,200«  almost  all 
French-Canadians. 

St.-Chamond,  s&n'shaa'mon' :  town ;  in  the  department  of 
Loire,  Prance;  at  the  confluence  of  the  Gier  and  Ban;  7 
miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of  St.-Etienne  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  6- 
6).  It  has  several  silk-mills,  iron-works,  and  manufactures 
of  ribbons  and  lace.  The  vicinity  contains  rich  coal  mines. 
Pop.  (1891)  14.599. 

St.  Charles:  city;  Kane  co..  111.;  on  the  Fox  river,  and 
the  Chi.  and  N.  VV.  and  the  Chi.  Gt.  West,  railways ;  8  miles 
S.  of  Elgin,  38  miles  W.  of  Chicago  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Illinois,  ref.  3-F).  It  is  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  which 
furnishes  good  water-power,  and  contains  foundries  and 
machine-shops,  malleable  iron-works,  manufactories  of  but- 
ter, cheese,  flour  and  feed,  and  paper,  a  private  bank,  and  a 
weekly  newspaper.    Pop.  (1880)  1,5:^3;  (1890)  1,690. 

St  Charles ;  city  (settled  in  1780,  incorporated  as  a  town 
in  1809,  chartered  as  a  city  in  1849) ;  capital  of  St.  Charles 
CO.,  Mo. ;  on  the  Missouri  river,  and  the  Burlington  Route, 
the  Mo.,  Kan.  and  Tex.,  and  the  Wabash  railways;  20  miles 
X.  W.  of  St.  Louis  (for  location,  see  map  of  Missouri,  ref. 
4-J).  The  main  business  street  extends  along  the  river 
front,  and  the  residence  portion  lies  on  and  beyond  a  hill 
that  rises  a  short  distance  back  from  the  river.  The  river 
is  here  spanned  by  an  iron  railway  and  highway  bridge 
6,535  feet  long,  with  approaches,  completed  in  1871,  cost 
^1,750,000.  St.  Charles  contains  9  churches,  several  public 
schools,  Roman  Catholic  and  Lutheran  parochial  schools. 
Lindenwood  College  for  young  ladies  (Presbyterian,  opened 
in  1880),  Sacred  Heart  Academy  (Roman  Catholic*  oi)ened 
in  1818),  St.  Charles  College  (Methodist  Episcopal,  South, 
chartered  in  1838),  4  libraries  with  about  11,000  volumes,  a 
national  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  2  savings-banks  with 
combined  capital  of  $100,000,  and  2  daily  and  5  weekly 
newspapers.  There  are  3  large  flour-mills,  a  grain  elevator 
with  storage  capacity  of  50,000  bush.,  a  tobacco-factory  with 
annual  capacity  of  1,000.000  lb.  of  manufactured  goods,  2 
breweries,  extensive  car-works,  brick-works,  large  'com-cob 
pii>e  factory,  and  other  industrial  plants.  Pop.  (1880)  5,014 ; 
(1890)  6,161 ;  (1895)  estimated,  8,000.      J.  H.  Alexander. 

St.  Christopher :  See  St.  Kitts. 

St.  Clair:  city  (settled  in  1828);  St.  Clair  co.,  Mich. ;  on 
the  St.  Clair  river  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pine  river,  and  on 
the  Mich.  Cent.  Railroad ;  12  miles  S.  of  Port  Huron,  the 
county-scat,  45  miles  N.  E.  of  Detroit  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Michigan,  ref.  7-Ij).  It  is  intan  agricultural  region,  has 
ferry  connection  with  Courtwright  on  the  Canadian  side  of 
the  river,  and  contains  6  churches,  3  public  schools.  Ladies' 
Library  Association,  Walker  system  of  water-works,  com- 
pleted in  1886,  a  savings-bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  and 
a  weekly  newspaper.  The  manufactories  inclmle  salt- 
works, brick-yards,  breweries,  iron-works,  planing-mill,  sash, 
door,  and  blind  factory,  foundry,  tannery,  and  ship-vards. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,923;  (1890)  2,353;  (1894)  estimated,  2.500. 

Editor  of  "  Republican." 

St  Clair:  borough;  Schuylkill  co..  Pa.;  on  Mill  creek, 
and  the  Penn.  and  the  Phil,  and  Reading  railways;  3  miles 
N.  of  Pottsville  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref. 
5-11).  It  has  10  churches,  4  public-school  buildings,  a  pa- 
rochial school,  improved  water-works,  eleetric  lights,  electric 
railway  to  Pottsville,  and  2  weekly  newspapers,  and  is  prin- 
cipally engaged  in  mining  and  shipping  anthracite  coal  and 
manufacturing  mining  apparatus.  Pop.  (1880)  4,149 ;  (1890) 
3,680;  (1895)  estimated,  4,500.       Editor  of  "Splinters." 

St.  Clair,  Artuur  :  soldier;  b.  at  Thurso,  Caithness.  Scot- 
land, in  17J^4;  was  grandson  of  the  Earl  of  Rosslyn;  e<lu- 
cated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh;  entered  the  British 
army  as  an  ensign  May  13,  1757:  served  under  Amherst  at 
the  taking  of  Louisburg  July  26,  175H;  became  a  lieuten- 
ant Apr.  17,  1759;  wtis  distinguished  under  Wolfe  at  C^ue- 
bec;  resigned  his  commission  Apr.  16,  1762;  settled  in 
Ligonier  Valley,  Pa.,  1764,  erecting  there  a  fine  residence 
and  several  mills;  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  Second 
Pennsylvania  Regiment  Jan.  3, 1776:  accompanied  Sullivan 
in  the  expedition  against  C^uebec  ;  was  appointed  brigadier- 
general  Aug.  9,  1776;  joined  Washington  Nov.,  1776;  ren- 


dered valuable  service  in  connection  with  the  battle  cf 
Princeton  Jan.  2,  1777 ;  was  for  a  short  time  adjutant -ir»ii- 
eral ;  was  appointed  major-general  Feb.  19, 1777;  succo*  «l*'.i 
Gates  in  command  at  Ticonderoga  Apr.  1 ;  was  forced  t*) 
evacuate  that  post  July  4,  thereby  incurring  unpopularity 
and  retirement  from  his  command,  but  acted  as  a  volun- 
teer aide  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine  Sept.  11, 1777;  ^a^ 
acquitted  with  honor  by  a  court  martial  in  1778:  wa>  a 
member  of  the  court  martial  on  Maj.  Andrd;  comman«i«vl  ai 
West  Point  from  Oct.  1 ;  distinguished  himself  in  the  S<mth«rn 
campaign  which  terminated  at  Yorktown,  and  subse(|Ueiitl> 
in  tnat  under  Greene;  was  a  member  of  the  ContinentHi 
Congress  1785-87,  being  its  president  during  most  of  th« 
latter  year :  became  first  Governor  of  the  Northwestern  T^-r- 
ritory  m  1789  and  retained  the  office  till  1802:  ma-le  xhr 
treaty  of  Fort  Harmer  with  the  Indian  tribes  1789 ;  IxM-ani.- 
commander-in-chief  of  the  U.  S.  army  Mar.  4, 1791;  xnau. 
an  expedition  against  the  Indians  of  the  Miami  aiiil  th' 
Wabash,  and  suffered  a  severe  defeat  near  the  Miami  v..- 
lages  Nov.  4,  1791;  was  vindicated  from  blame  by  a  <t.in 
mittee  of  investigation  appointed  by  Congress;  r(''si^ii«->l 
the  command  of  the  army  May  5, 1792;  was  removed  from 
the  post  of  Governor  by  Jefferson  Nov.  22,  1802,  wh«»n  h" 
settled  near  Greensburg,  Pa^  where  he  passed  his  reuxiiniii:: 
years  in  fioverty.  D.  near  Greensburg,  Aug.  81,  181N.  lU 
published  a  ydrraiive  of  the  Manner  in  trhich  the  (Uiv.- 
paiffn  against  the  Indiana  in  the  »rtr  J7iU  iras  eondutt^fl 
(1812).  See  The  Life  ar^  Public  Services  of  Arthur  *s/. 
Clair  (Cincinnati,  1882). 

St.  Clair,  Lake  :  the  smallest  of  the  Laurentian  chain  >•! 
lakes;  receives  the  overflow  of  Lake  Huron  through  >!. 
Clair  river,  and  discharges  through  Detroit  river  into  I^;ik« 
Erie.  The  lake  is  30  miles  in  length  from  N.  to  S.,  24  inilt>  in 
maximum  and  12  in  mean  breadth.  Its  area  is  396  sc^.  m i !•  ^. 
and  its  mean  elevation  above  the  sea  576  feet,  or  51^  f«  it 
lower  than  Lake  Huron  and  3  feet  higher  than  Lake  Kr:i- 
Its  mean  depth  over  a  large  central  area  is  about  H»  U^  t. 
Its  bottom  is  of  fine  blue  mud,  covered  in  many  plar.-. 
with  a  thin  layer  of  sand  and  fine  gravel,  and  is  over^n'"^*  i* 
throughout  with  vegetation  which  supports  an  abundant  ► 
of  low  forms  of  life.  The  northern  part  is  exceedingly  >\\:i'.- 
low,  being  filled  with  sediment  from  St.  Clair  river.  S«h-  ^t. 
Lawrence  River  and  Gulf.  Israel  C.  Ri^stix, 

St.  Clair  River  [originally  named  Sinclair,  from  Pat  ri  ,. 
Sinclair,  a  British  officer,  who  purchased  land  along  the  ri\ » r 
from  the  Indians  in  1765]:  the  outlet  of  I^ake  Huron.  It 
has  a  length  of  41  miles,  and  a  fall  of  5^^  feet.  The  rin-.i: 
discharge  is  225,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  rivtr  h.-^ 
built  a  low-^rade  delta  at  its  mouth,  known  as  the  St.  I  '!;•  r 
Flats,  and  divides  into  seven  principal  channels  befon*  nm  i  - 
ing  Lake  St.  Clair.  In  summer  the  delta  has  the  api>canii.<  • 
of  a  luxuriant  prairie  of  grasses  and  rushes,  which  gn»w  iu  ;■ 
few  inches  of  water.  Several  hotels  and  hundreds  of  suin  nt«  r 
cottages  have  been  built  on  the  flats,  each  house  l)eing  >i.i  - 
ported  on  piles  or  on  embankments  formed  by  drt'dLri-c 
neighl)oring  canals.  It  is  one  of  the  most  charming  s^im.n  «  r 
resorts  in  America.  One  of  the  branches  into  whirh  tl«i 
stream  divides  has  been  improved  for  navigation,  ami  :!w 
course  shortened  by  the  dredging  of  a  canal  ak)out  lA  m  !•-< 
long,  300  feet  wide,  and  with  an  original  depth  of  10  ft»-t 
along  a  central  area  200  feet  broad.  The  embankiTieiit^  »u 
either  side  are  40  feet  wide,  and  5  feet  high  above  nu-.n^ 
water-level.  The  available  depth  of  water  in  the  <'»ii a",  in 
1893  was  18  feet,  but  contracts  have  been  awanletl  by  i  h«3 
U.  S.  Government  for  deepening  it  to  20  feet,  this  Ikmhi:  «  imi 
of  the  improvements  necessary  to  complete  the  naviiral»il.ty 
of  the  route  from  Buffalo  to  Duluth  for  vessels  of  2(>  ft  J| 
draught.  Israel  C.  Rtssell. 

St-Clond,  sftn  kloo':  town ;  in  the  department  of  S*  it  i*^ 
et-Oise,  France ;  on  the  Seine ;  6  miles  S.  W.  of  Paris  (x»v  mif 
of  France,  ref.  3-F).  It  derives  its  name  from  St.  ('h»«i«  nnj 
grandson  of  Clovis,  who  founded  a  monastery  here  in   r>.~.i, 


aijajn  hj 
L  built  li 
her»»    T  ii 


The  place  was  burned  by  the  English  in  1358.  and  aijain   hj 
the  Armagnacs  in  1411. '  In  the  |>alace  of  St.-Cloud 
1572,  Henry  III.  was  assassinated  in  1589;  and 
coup  d'etat  of  Nov.  10,  1799,  which  placed  Napoleon    1^« 
parte  at  the  heatl  of  the  French  Government,  was  efTt-t- 1- 
The  capitulation  of  Paris  in  1815  was  signed  here,  m\\\ 
the  decrees  of  Charles  X.  in  18JiO  which  caused  the  s«*t 
Revolution.    The  Duke  of  Orleans,  bn)ther  to  Loui-*   X 1  Vj 
made  extensive  additions  to  the  royal  chateau.     In  1^7(»  \\ 
palace  was  seriously  injured  by  fire,  but  many  of  the  ^a'l 
able  works  of  art  were  preserved.     Pop.  (1891)  5,660. 


^L  UififttiM- 


vii 


'  ¥Mn^  M<^ant 


/   i  ^  1 .  Id  I  l\  .  .     .  ^ 


l<|(       (Mt*-       IMM^I 


248 


STE.-MARGUERITE 


ST.  GEORGE'S  CHANNEL 


to  ascend.  In  1891  an  elevation  of  14,500  feet  was  reached 
on  its  northern  slope.  Consult  Report  on  Second  Expedi- 
tion to  Mt.  iSt,  EUaa  in  Thirteenth  A7in.  Rep.  U,  S,  Geol, 
Surv.  Israel  C.  Russell. 

Ste.*Margrnerlte :  See  L^bins,  The. 

Ste.-Marie :  town  of  Beauce  County,  Quebec,  Canada ;  on 
the  river  Chaudiere:  30  miles  S.  of  Quebec  (see  map  of  Que- 
bec, ref.  4-D).  It  lies  in  a  fertile  region,  has  a  fine  Roman 
Catholic  college,  a  spacious  convent,  a  good  trade,  a  large 
number  of  mills,  and  ores  of  copper  and  manganese.  Pop. 
about  2,800. 

Salnte-Maare :  See  BenoIt  de  Sainte-More. 

Salntes,  aiLnt'  (anc.  Mediolanum) :  town ;  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Charente- Infer ieure,  France ;  on  the  Charente ;  28 
miles  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Rochefort  (see  map  of  France,  ref. 
6-D).  It  has  several  interesting  Roman  remains,  numerous 
breweries,  distilleries,  tanneries,  and  potteries,  and  an  active 
trade  in  grain,  hemp,  leather,  and  wine.    Pop.  (1891)  13,368. 

St.-£tienne,  s&nt'a'ti-en' :  town ;  in  the  department  of 
Loire,  France ;  on  the  Furens,  an  affluent  of  the  Loire ;  36 
miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of  Lyons  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  6-G). 
It  is  situated  in  the  center  of  rich  coal-fields,  from  which 
over  8,(X)0,000  tons  are  annually  raised,  and  which  have 
given  to  the  city  a  most  vigorous  manufacturing  impulse. 
It  arose  in  an  astonishingly  short  time ;  it  had  49,614  in- 
habitants in  1851,  and  122,769  in  1891.  Its  principal  branches 
of  manufacture  are  ribbons  and  firearms;  looms,  some  of 
which  (1895)  are  driven  by  electricity,  employing  about  40,- 
000  persons  are  in  operation,  and  produce  ribbons  to  the 
value  of  nearly  $19,0()0,000  annually,  which  are  sent  all  over 
the  world,  and  are  unsurpassed  in  beauty  of  design  and 
colors ;  20,000  persons  are  employed  in  the  ironwoAs,  and 
produce,  besides  large  quantities  of  cutlery,  files,  nails,  etc., 
nearly  all  the  rifles  and  revolvers  for  the*  army.  The  first 
railway  in  France,  the  Chemin  de  Fer  de  St.-Etienne  k 
Lyon,  was  constructed  to  carry  coal  to  Lyons. 

St.  Easta'tlas :  an  island  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  West 
Indies ;  crossed  by  lat.  IT  29'  N. ;  area,  7  sq.  miles.  It  is  little 
else  than  the  summit  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  has  no  run- 
ning water.  It  now  forms  part  of  the  Dutch  colony  of  Cu- 
ra9oa.    Pop.  (1892)  1,633.  H.  H.  S. 

Saint-ISvremond :  See  £vremond. 

St.  Francis  River :  one  of  the  six  great  tributaries  of  the 
St.  Lawrence.  It  rises  in  Lake  St.  Francis,  in  Beauce  County, 
Quebec,  flows  flrst  in  a  southwesterly  direction  till  it  reaches 
Lennoxville,  when  it  flows  northwesterly  and  falls  into  the 
St.  Lawrence  at  Lake  St.  Peter  after  a  course  of  120  miles. 
It  is  the  principal  river  of  the  Eastern  Townships.  The 
tributaries  are  tne  Salmon,  the  Coaticook,  the  Massawippi, 
which  drains  the  beautiful  lake  of  the  same  name,  atid  the 
Magog,  which  drains  the  magnificently  picturesque  Lake 
Mernphremago^.  The  river  runs  through  a  fertile  and  well- 
cultivated  territory,  diversified  with  highlands  and  tracts 
of  woodland.  The  towns  and  villages  upon  the  river's 
banks  are  Angus,  with  its  large  paper-mill ;  Lennoxville, 
with  its  university :  Sherbrooke,  with  its  extensive  manu- 
factures ;  Windsor  Mills,  with  its  lumber  and  paper  trade  ; 
Richmond,  an  important  railway  center ;  and  Drummond- 
ville,  the  center  of  a  rich  farming  district.  Its  course  is 
frequently  interrupted  by  shallows  and  rapids,  and  destruc- 
tive floods  are  often  caused  by  the  blocking  of  the  ice  on  or 
near  these  in  early  spring.  The  scenery  amid  which  the 
river  flows  resembles  in  many  places  the  character  of  an 
English  landscape,  more  particulariy  in  the  vicinity  of 
Richmond  and  Sherbrooke.  J.  M.  Harper. 

St  Francis  River:  a  tributary  of  the  Mississippi,  form- 
ing part  of  the  boundary  between  Missouri  and  Arkansas.  It 
rises  in  the  Iron  Mountain  district  of  Southwest  Missouri,  and 
flows  S.  W.  450  miles,  entering  the  Mississipni  near  Helena, 
Ark. ;  is  navigable  150  miles,  passes  through  a  continuous 
swamp  after  entering  Arkansas,  and  sprea<ls  into  nufnerous 
lakes,  one  of  which,  50  miles  long  by  20  wide,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  produced  by  a  sinking  of  the  soil  at  the  time 
of  the  great  earthquake  of  1811.  It  serves  as  an  important 
backwater  in  overflows  of  the  Mississinj)i  river. 

Revijsed  by  M.  W.  IIarrikotox. 

St  Francis  Xarier  (z&v'i-er).  College  of:  an  institution 
of  learning  in  New  York,  founded  by  the  fathers  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Jesus  in  Oct.,  1847,  and  endowed  with  full  collegi- 
ate powers  by  the  regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of 
New  York  in  Jan.,  1861.    The  college  buildings  are  located 


on  Fifteenth  Street,  W.  of  Fifth  Avenue,  with  a  frontap»»  of 
275  feet  and  a  depth  of  200,  extending  to  Sixteenth  i>tn*«t. 
The  library  contains  25,000  volumes.  The  regular  eour^*- 
preoaratory  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  embracer  t  fie 
stuay  of  logic,  metaphysics,  and  theodicy;  English,  Latin, 
and  Greek;  rhetoric,  poetry,  and  elocution;  matheroHtic-s 
and  the  natural  sciences;  history,  geology;  and  mythol<»;:}. 
The  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  is  given  to  graduates  who  en;<  r 
the  post-graduate  class,  pass  two  examinations  in  ethics  htA 
sociology,  and  write  three  creditable  dissertations  on  the 
subject-matter  of  the  year.  The  president  of  the  cuU»*go  is 
Rev.  Thomas  E.  Murphy,  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  ih** 
teaching  staff  includes  twenty  members  of  the  same  socii-t\. 
The  students  number  over  900:  200  in  the  post-grad uat«» 
course,  150  in  the  collegiate,  400  in  the  grammar  dei>arlii)eiit, 
and  nearly  200  in  the  preparatory  department. 

Edw.  p.  Spillanb,  S.  J. 
St.-Oall :  canton  of  Switzerland ;  bounded  E.  by  xh^ 
Rhine  and  N.  by  the  Lake  of  Constance.  Area,  7ts>  >c\. 
miles.  The  surface  exhibits  a  thoroughly  alpine  charaot*  r 
— mountains  covered  with  forests,  pastures,  and  snow  and 
ice,  and  valleys  studded  with  vineyards,  orchards,  and  grain- 
fields.  Agriculture,  dairy-farming,  and  wine-making  art- 1  h^ 
principal  branches  of  industry.  Pop.  (1888)  228,1 74,  of  wh( im 
more  tnan  half  are  Roman  Catholics  and  the  rest  mostly  Prot- 
estants. 

St.-Gall:  capital  of  the  canton  of  St.-Gall,  Switzerland; 
on  the  Steinach,  in  a  valley  at  an  elevation  of  2,152  feet  ^M'e 
map  of  Switzerland,  ref.  3-1).  It  was  formerly  fortified,  hut 
its  walls  and  ramparts  have  been  transformed  into  prc>ii]t>- 
nades.  The  town  has  a  fine  cathedral,  many  good  ethua- 
tional  institutions,  two  large  public  libraries,  and  exten>iw> 
manufactures  of  woolen,  linen,  and  cotton  fabrics,  es{>tM-iHt- 
ly  fine  muslins  and  printed  calicoes.    Pop.  (1888)  27,3UO. 

St.  Gall  :  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  ;  a  na- 
tive of  Ireland,  and  a  pupil  of  St.  Columban;  originally 
named  Cellach  or  Caillech ;  b.  in  554;  followed  St.  Colum- 
ban to  Switzerland  in  590,  and  became  the  apostle  of  x\if 
Suevi  and  the  Alemanni.  In  614  he  built  his  cell  in  a  dtii-i- 
forest  on  the  Steinach,  in  Switzerland,  where  now  stands  t):*- 
flourishing  city  of  St.  Gall,  and  gathered  around  him  a  j\\u:\- 
ber  of  hermits*,  who  lived  together  according  to  the  rule  '"f 
St.  Columban.  D.  at  Arbon,  15  miles  S.  E.  of  Constan.  f. 
Oct.  16,  627.  From  this  beginning  gradually  develojHMi  th. 
famous  monastery  of  St  Gall,  one  of  the  principal  cent «- 1-5  •  ■' 
learning  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Ablx)t  Otmar.  720- 7'f*. 
substituted  the  milder  rule  of  St.  Benedict  for  that  of  ?>t. 
Columban,  built  a  church,  founded  a  hospital,  organizes i  a 
school,  etc.  Under  Gozbert,  816-887,  the  monastery  was 
made  a  free  royal  abbey,  with  right  to  elect  its  own  aLlN.t, 
and  exempted  from  any  episcopal  control.  Under  Sol<nn.  ►'« 
Ill.t  891-920,  the  institution  reached  the  culminating  p<»niti 
of  its  prosperity.  The  monks  of  St.  Gall  were  celebrated  n«  -t 
only  for  tneir  learning,  but  also  for  their  skill  in  music,  in 
copying  and  ornamenting  manuscripts,  etc.  The  firi^t  fh»Mj, 
it  suffered  was  the  revolt  of  the  city  of  St.  Gall  in  141 '» 
The  abbot  was  compelled  to  recognize  its  freedom  and  irn  im- 
pendence. After  the  Reformation  it  gradually  fell  into  lie- 
cay,  but  it  retained  its  enormous  revenues  until  the  Revolu- 
tion. It  was  secularized  in  1798 ;  its  estates  were  confi?<'at*M  1 
and  its  territory  was  formed  into  a  bishopric.  See  Ildoph«  .r  -i 
von  Arx,  Geschichte  des  Kantons  St.  Oallen  (3  vols.,  >• 
Gall,  1810-13);  Franz  Weidmann,  Geschichte  der  Stiffs. 
hihUothek  St.  Gallens  (1841);  C.  J.  Greith,  Der  heilige  Cr-i.' 
Ins  (1865) ;  and  the  edition  by  R.  Shuli  of  Wahlafrid's  oriiri  n.i  I 
life  of  St.  Gall  (1890).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacks*  »n. 

St.  George :  one  of  the  Pribilop  Islands  (q.  v.)  in  B*'riii.j 
Sea.  It  is  triangular,  30  miles  around,  with  an  area  of  27  jsq, 
miles.  It  is  the  highest  of  the  group,  reaching  an  elevnt  loi 
of  920  feet.  M.  W.  II. 

St.  George,  Cape :  See  Cape  St.  Georob. 

St  George's :  See  Bermuda  Islands. 

St.  George's:  capital  of  the  island  of  Grenada  and  <. 
the  British  colony  of  the  Windward  islands.  West  In.l-,  ^ 
on  a  bay  near  the  south  end  of  the  island  (see  map  of  W".  > 
Indies,  fef.  9-M).  The  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  W*r  s 
Indies;  the  town,  built  in  part  on  hills,  is  very  pictun»S4p:,. 
it  has  a  considerable  trade  with  the  other  islands  and  w  it  1 
Europe  and  the  U.  S.    Pop.  about  6,000.  H.  U.  ^^. 

St.  George's  Channel :  a  body  of  water  connecting  t  hi 
Irish  Sea  with  the  Atlantic  and  separating  Ireland  fr«*u 
Wales.    It  is  100  miles  long  and  65  miles  broad. 


Ill      "MH 


miaaiiiii 


ilfiHti,  nfT^'-ffTt 


|V^/»A>n. 


W.A.C. 


St  It- 


wf^^l  l>tp1ftTf 


T.»T    »•!  »  .         J  I     I? 


M  innti  illrry 


-1,'liftiit^  P'luiktir. 


250 


ST.  JOHN 


(see  map  of  Quebec,  ref.  5-A).  It  has  a  very  line  water- 
power  in  the  rapids  of  the  river,  which  descend  300  feet  in 
Sk  miles.  The  power  is  used  for  flour-mills,  sawmills,  and 
other  factories.  In  the  vicinity  are  mines  of  iron  and  plum- 
bago. The  climate  is  celebrated  for  its  salubrity.  Pop.  (1891) 
2,032,  mostly  French-Canadian.  M.  W.  H. 

St.  John,  West  Indies :  See  St.  Thomas, 

St  John :  the  capital  of  Antigua,  West  Indies,  and  the 
seat  of  several  military  and  civU  authorities  (see  map  of 
West  Indies,  ref.  6-L),  It  is  beautifully  situated  and  has  a 
good  and  fortified  harbor,  which,  however,  is  not  accessible 
for  large  vessels.  The  town  is  generally  well  built,  especially 
on  the  hills  surrounding  the  port.  It  sometimes  suffers 
greatly  from  lack  of  water,  and  it  was  seriously  injured  by 
the  earthquake  of  Feb.  8,  1843.     Pop.  (1891)  9,738. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

St.  John  :  city,  seaport,  and  shiretown  of  St.  John  Coun- 
ty, province  of  New  Brunswick,  Canada ;  on  the  St.  John 
river  at  its  entrance  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific,  the  Intercolonial  and  the  Shore  Line  railways; 
277  miles  N.  W.  of  Halifax,  481  miles  E.  of  Montreal  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Quebec,  ref.  6-H).  It  has  one  of  the 
finest  harbors  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  protected  by  a  break- 
water 2,250  feet  long,  and  always  free  from  ice.  Partridge 
island,  at  its  entrance,  contains  a  fine  lighthouse  and  a  quar- 
antine hospital.  St.  John  river  enters  the  harbor  through 
a  rocky  gorge  about  100  yards  wide,  and  has  a  fall  of  17 
feet  at  low  tide ;  but  as  the  tides  in  the  harbor  rise  from 
25  to  35  feet,  the  waters  of  the  river  and  harbor  are  at  the 
same  height  twice  daily,  and  then  permit  the  safe  pas- 
sage of  vessels  either  way.  Including  Carleton  on  the  W. 
and  the  former  city  of  Portland  (annexed  in  1889)  on  the 
N.,  the  city  has  an  area  of  about  6,000  acres,  one-quarter  of 
which  is  built  up.  It  is  laid  out  regularly  with  broad 
streets  running  N.  and  S.  and  E.  and  W.,  some  of  them 
hewn  through  30  feet  of  solid  rock,  the  princifial  ones  laid 
with  block  pavement,  the  sidewalks  generally  being  of  as- 
phalt. Water  is  supplied  by  gravitation  from  Little  river, 
5  miles  distant.  The  plant  is  owned  by  the  city,  and  in  1893 
had  cost  111.327,421.  The  city  has  a  thorough  system  of 
sewerage  and  gas  and  electric-light  plants. 

Public  Buildings. — Among  the  notable  buildings  are  the 
custom-house,  post-office,  city  building.  General  Public  Hos- 
pital, Provincial  Lunatic  Asylum,  Protestant  and  Roman 
Catholic  orphan  asylums.  Home  for  Aged  Females,  Sailors* 
Home,  Wiggin's  Orphan  Asylum  for  sons  of  seamen.  Re- 
formatory for  Boys,  Free  Public  Library,  Mechanics'  Insti- 
tute, Masonic  and  Odd  Fellows'  halls,  Dominion  Savings- 
bank,  and  the  railway  station. 

Churches,  Schools,  etc.St  John  contains  35  churches 
and  81  schools.  The  finest  church  buildings  are  the  Roman 
Catholic  Cathedral,  and  the  Centenary  Methodist,  Trinity 
Episcopal,  St.  Andrew's  Presbyterian,  and  the  Germain 
Street  Baptist  churches.  The  school  system  is  public  and 
non-sectarian,  and  is  ably  maintained.  The  Victoria,  Cen- 
tennial, and  Albert  schools,  the  Mt.  Pleasant  Convent  School 
(Roman  Catholic),  the  Davenport  School  for  Boys  (Church 
of  England),  and  the  Madras  School  are  of  high  grade.  A 
reference  library  is  maintained  by  the  St,  John  Law  Society, 
and  there  are  5  daily,  7  weekly,  and  2  monthly  periodicals. 

Transportation.— 'V\ie  gorge  is  spanned  by  a  sus}»cnsion 
bridge  for  veliicles,  and  by  a  steel  cantilever  bridge  (opened 
in  1885)  for  railways.  The  Intercolonial  Railway  connects 
the  city  with  all  parts  N.  and  E. ;  the  Canadian  Pacific  with 
all  parts  W.,  inclu<linff  the  valley  of  the  St.  John  :  and  the 
Shore  Line  with  St.  Stephen  and  Calais.  There  is  regular 
steamship  connection  with  Prince  Edward  Island,  Nova 
Scotia,  Boston,  the  West  Indies,  and  European  ports.  A  sys- 
tem of  electric  street-railway  cormects  all  parts  of  the  city. 

Bitsiness  Interests. — The* city  has  excellent  facilities  for 
manufacturing.  Shii)-building,  once  a  groat  industry,  has 
almost  ceased  since  the  introduction  of  iron  and  steel  in  the 
construction  of  vessels.  The  cliicf  industries  are  the  manu- 
facture of  lumber,  cotton  goods,  rolled  iron,  nails,  nuts  and 
bolts,  engines  and  boilers,  furniture,  leatl  pipe,  paint,  car- 
riages, and  sashes  and  (l<H»rs,  The  ex}K)rts  in  the  fiscal  year 
1892-93  were  valued  at  !j;:i,943,867  ;  the  imports,  $3,596,969. 
The  seagoing  tonnage  entered  in  1893-94  was  inward.  513,- 
296  tons;  outward,  510,359;  coastwise,  inward,  270,553; 
outward.  287,429.  Banking  faciliti('s  are  afforded  by  the 
banks  of  New  Bninswick.  Nova  Scotia,  Halifax,  Montreal, 
and  British  North  America,  and  there  is  a  Dominion  bank 
for  savings. 


Oovemment  and  Finance, — The  city  is  divided  into  thir- 
teen wards,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor  with  a  Ixiani  if 
fifteen  aldermen,  all  elected  by  the  city  at  large.  Tiie  v\\) 
and  county  retuni  three  members  to  the  Dominion  II..ii>*' 
of  Commons  and  six  members  to  the  Provincial  Hous*  of 
Assembly.  In  1893  the  revenue  from  taxes  was  $;i:>5.'J(i: . 
from  other  sources  $201,117;  assessed  value  of  real  iw.u 
personal  property,  $24,256,700;  debt,  $3,592,007;  as^4t^ 
$4,051,804. 

History. — The  site  was  visited  by  de  Monts  in  1604  :  wa« 
occupied  by  the  French  as  a  fort  under  Charles  de  la  T«iir 
in  1^5  ;  passed  under  British  rule  in  1713  by  the  treaty  •  f 
Utrecht ;  was  settled  by  American  loyalists,  principally  fn  u. 
New  England,  in  1783 ;  and  was  incorporated  bv  roval  clmr- 
ter  as  a  city  in  1785.    Pop.  (1881)  26,127 ;  (1891)  39;i79. 

Alfred  A.  Stocktox. 

St.  John,  sin'jtin  or  sant-jon',  Henrt:  See  BoLnroDROKn. 

St.  John,  James  Augustus:  Orientalist  and  mis<»ellHii«- 
ous  author;  b.  in  Caermarthenshire,  Wales,  Sept.  24,  IHH  ; 
acquired  a  good  knowledge  of  languages,  ancient  and  ni"<i. 
ern,  including  Arabic  and  Persian ;  was  at  an  early  au'»' 
engaged  as  sub-editor  of  The  Oriental  Herald  \  started  the 
London  Weekly  Review  1827;  settled  in  Normandy  iNJf*: 
traveled  in  Norway  the  same  year ;  visited  Egypt  and  Nu- 
bia, ascending  the  Nile  to  the  second  cataract;  ma<lf  >*  v- 
eral  discoveries  in  physical  geography  and  archa'olo^y.  in- 
cluding that  of  the  site  of  the  tomb  oi  Osiris  on  the  S.n<T.<i 
Isle;  explore{l  Lake  Moeris ;  followed  the  (supj)Otietl)  tr.M  k 
of  the  Israelites  through  the  Desert  of  Sinai :  gave  an  a«  - 


ajgy^ 

The^  Hellenes^  or  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  Anr%n,t 
Greece  (3  vols.,  1842),  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his  >■  r 
Bayle ;  published  The  Nemesis  of  FOicer  (1854) ;  the  //m- 
tory  of  the  Four  Conquests  of  England  (2  vols.,  ISfi^M  a 
Life  of  Sir  Walter  Baleiah  (2  vols.,  1868);  several  noviU  . 
two  religious  treatises,  Pnilosovhy  at  the  Foot  of  tht^  (Wu^* 
(1854)  and  The  Preaching  of  Christ,  its  Nature  and  Cnu.^'- 
quenres  (1855);  a  biography  of  Loiiis  Napoleon,  Kw/Mn-r 
of  the  French  (1857)  ;  and  a'  treatise  on  The  Education  o' 
the  People  (1858).    D.  Sept,  22, 1875. 

St.  John,  sant-jon',  John  Pierce  :  Governor  of  Kansas :  h. 
at  Brockville.  Franklin  co.,  Ind.,  Feb.  26. 1833 ;  went  tn  (  ali- 
fomia  in  1853 ;  made  voyages  to  South  America,  Mexico.  i\iA 
the  Sandwich  islands ;  removed  to  Charleston,  111.,  in  isfto  t. 
study  law;  fought  in  the  civil  war,  and  was  made  coli.n.  . : 
settled  in  Kansas  as  a  lawyer ;  was  elected  Govenior  (»f  tl.a* 
State  in  1878,  and  re-elected  in  1880;  was  the  candidat*- .  f 
the  Prohibition  party  for  President  of  the  U.  S.  in  18^. 

St  John,  sin'JMn,  Percy  Bolinobroke:  author:  tl.l.-t 
son  of  James  A.  St.  John ;  b.  at  Plymouth,  England,  Mar 
4,  1821 ;  accompanied  his  father  in  his  Eastern  travels  w}ji..i 
a  boy,  and  early  devoted  himself  to  literature ;  made  a  I.  ur 
through  the  U.  S.,  Texas,  and  Mexico  about  1840 :  Wen:,  t 
Paris  correspondent  of  77* e  North  British  Daily  Mail  l^W  ; 
wrote  the  Book  of  the  War  (1853),  for  which  he  recoivt^i  '  •  i 
thanks  of  the  Greek  Parliament;  wrote  many  novels  a:  I 
was  a  contributor  to  many  magazines  and  literary  |H-ri. 


The  Creole  Bride  (1864) ;  Tlit  Snow  Ship  (1865) :  (rt^fxl 
Gold  (1870);  The  North  Pole  (1875);  and  A  Dauaht^r    j 
the  Sea  (1884).    D.  Mar.,  1889.     Revised  by  II.  A.  Bkkr-. 

St  John,  Sir  Spenser:  diplomatist  and  Orientalist  ;  -.  •! 
of  James  A.  St.  John  ;  b.  in  London,  Dec.  22.  1826 ;  <l.^\ .  ♦ »  I 
himself  to  Oriental  literature  ;  became  proficient  in  the  M .-» •  .^ 
language:  was  appointed  secretary  to  Sir  James  Bn^.K  i 
rajah  of  Sarawak  (Borneo),  in  1848 :  was  secretary  to  Br^ ».  .k.  i 
mission  to  Siam  1850  ;  was  acting  British  commissi(»n*-r  ..c  i 
consul-general  in  Borneo  1851-55:  was  full  consul-K**J'»  '  i 
1855-62 ;  published  Life  in  the  Forests  of  the  Far  En.^t,  C'  • 
prisinq  Explorations  of  the  Interior  of  Borneo,  Sttrtt*r,  . 
etc..  With  Illustrations  (2  vols.,  1862) ;  went  to  Haiti  a<  «•/..' . 
d'affaires  1863,  and  visited  Spain  in  1866  with  his  U\\:*^ 
whom  he  assibted  at  Simancas  in  researches  jpreparatt^ry  ti 
the  publication  of  the  latter's  Life  of  Sir  Salter  Ii^nl*  t  -  i 
He  was  appointed  minister  resident  to  Peru  in  1?5J^1,  u  i 
minister  plenipotentiarv  to  Mexico  in  1884.  He  wa^  \  • 
autlior  of  The  Life  of  Sir  James  Brooke  (1879)  antl  Ilo  i 
or  the  Black  Republic  (1884).        Revised  by  U.  A.  Hklk-, 


252 


ST.  JOHNS 


ST.  JOSEPH 


Commercial  Bank,  esteblished  1857,  capital  in  1898  $806,- 
000.  All  Government  business  was  transacted  through  these 
banks.  On  Dec.  10, 1894,  both  were  forced  to  suspend,  caus- 
ing heavy  losses  to  shareholdei-s  and  others,  and  creating  a 
serious  financial  crisis,  during  which  several  of  the  oldest 
and  most  extensive  mercantile  establishments  failed.  They 
have  since  gone  into  liquidation,  and  three  Canadian  banks 
have  opened  branches  in  St.  John's,  The  savings-bank  is  a 
Government  institution,  the  Government  controlling  all  its 
expenditures  and  the  general  revenue  of  the  colony  being 
liable  for  all  its  deposits.  On  Dec.  31, 1893,  the  amount  of 
deposits  was  $3,068,288.  ,  ^        .,     .  i_  tt 

Tra7isportatton,—The  city  is  connected  by  rail  with  Har- 
bour Grace,  Placentia,  etc.  The  Allan  line  of  steamships 
call  at  St.  John's  on  their  outward  and  inward  passages,  car- 
rying mails  and  passengers.  The  service  is  weekly  during 
nine  months  of  the  year,  and  fortnightly  during  three.  The 
city  has  also  steamboat  communication  with  the  principal 
.  ports  N.  and  S.  Steamers  of  two  lines,  plying  between  Liv- 
erpool and  Halifax  and  between  New  York,  Halifax,  and 
St.  John's  respectively,  call  at  intervals  of  about  ten  days. 

Business  Interesta.^The  people  are  engaged  principally 
in  business  connected  with  the  fisheries,  which  form  the  sta- 
ple industry  of  the  colonv.  Seal-oil  and  seal-skins  are  ex- 
ported mainly  to  Great  Britain,  and  codfish  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Brazil,  and  the  West  Indies,  On 
Jan.  1, 1892,  there  were  registered  at  the  port  of  St.  John's 
2,222  vessels,  of  94,583  tons.  The  imports  in  the  preceding 
year  aggregated  in  value  $6,869,458,  and  the  exports  $7,437.- 
158.  The  export  of  codfish  was  1,244,834  quintals,  valued 
at  $4,864,525.  The  number  of  sailing  vessels  clearing  from 
St.  John's  for  the  seal-fisheries  was  once  very  large,  but  these 
have  been  superseded  largely  by  steamers.  There  are  several 
sawmills,  machine-shops,  iron-foundries,  furniture-factories, 
breweries,  tobacco-factories,  tanneries,  and  boot  and  shoe, 
and  rope,  twine,  and  net  factories. 

ffiatory.— Since  1855,  when  a  responsible  Government 
was  granted  the  colony,  the  progress  of  the  city  has  been 
rapid  and  substantial.  In  1846  the  city  was  visited  by  a  fire 
which  destroyed  three- fourths  of  the  buildings,  and  on  July 
8, 1892,  by  another,  which  laid  waste  more  than  one-half  of 
the  city.  Nearly  1,800  buildings  of  all  kinds,  many  of  them 
built  of  stone  and  brick,  were  destroyed,  causing  a  total  loss 
of  about  $16,000,000,  and  two-thirds  of  the  large  mercantile 
establishments,  with  their  stores,  perished  in  the  flames. 
Eleven  thousand  people  were  left  homeless.  The  portion 
of  the  business  part  of  the  city  which  had  been  destroyed 
was  rebuilt  on  a  larger  scale,  and  much  finer  shops  and  offices 
than  the  old  sprang  up.    Pop.  (1891)  29,007.    M.  Harvey. 

St  Johns :  chef-lieu  of  St.  Johns  County,  Quebec ;  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Richelieu,  and  on  the  Grand  Trunk, 
Canadian  Pacific,  and  Vermont  Central  railways ;  27  miles 
S.  E.  of  Montreal  (see  map  of  Quebec,  ref.  6-B).  The  prin- 
cipal manufacture  is  earthenware  goods.  There  is  also  a 
silk-factory.  The  river  trade  includes  exports  of  lumber 
and  grain  from  the  Lake  Champlain  district.  The  place  is 
of  some  note  in  connection  with  the  war  of  1812,  and  near 
the  barracks  and  military  school  there  are  still  to  be  seen  the 
remains  of  old  fortifications.  The  river  is  spanned  by  three 
bridges,  which  connect  Iberville  with  St.  Johns.  Pop.  (1891) 
4^722.  J'  M.  Harper. 

St  Johns :  village ;  capital  of  Clinton  co.,  Mich. ;  on  the 
Detroit,  Gr.  Hav.  and  Mil.  Railway  ;  22  miles  N.  of  Lansing, 
98  miles  VV.  N.  W.  of  Detroit  (for  location,  see  map  of  Michi- 
gan, ref.  7-1).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and  contains 
sawmills  and  grist-mills,  foundry,  carriage-shop,  and  one  of 
the  largest  table-factories  in  the  world.  There  are  2  State 
banks  with  a  combined  capital  of  $85,000,  a  national  bank 
with  capital  of  $100,000,  a  Ladies'  Library  Association,  and 
8  weeklv  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  2,370 ;  (1890)  3,127 ;  (1894) 
State  census,  3,440.       Editor  of  •'  Clinton  Republican.'' 

St  Johnsbury :  town  ;  capital  of  Caledonia  co.,  Vt. :  on 
the  Passumpsic  river,  and  the  Boston  and  Maine  and  the 
St.  J.  and  Lake  Champlain  railways ;  21  miles  N.  of  Wells 
river,  34  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Montpelier  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Vermont,  ref.  4-D).  It  is  noted  for  having  the  largest 
manufactory  of  scales  and  balances  in  the  world,  and  con- 
tains also  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  agricultural-imple- 
ment works.  'Among  the  notable  institutions  are  the  St. 
Johnsbury  Academy,  built  and  endowed  at  a  cost  of  $200,- 
000  by  Thaddeus  Fairbanks ;  the  St.  Johnsbury  Athennpum, 
built  and  provided  with  a  library  of  10,000  volumes  and  an 
art  gallery  by  Horace  Fairbanks :  and  a  museum  of  natural 


science.  The  town  has  2  national  banks  with  combined  capi- 
tal of  $700,000,  2  savings-banks,  and  2  weekly  newspui>er>. 
Pop.  (1880)  8,360;  (1890)  3,857;  (1895)  town  and  village,  es- 
timated, 7,100.  Editor  of  "  Caledonian." 

St  John's  College :  an  institution  at  Annapolis.  Md.  It 
originally  existed  as  an  institution  of  learning  under  tht: 
name  of  King  William's  School,  which  was  founded  in  th«' 
year  1696,  so  that  the  continuity  of  its  history  would  pla<e 
it  immediately  after  Harvard  in  regard  to  age.  In  1784  ihc 
funds  and  library  of  the  school  were  transferred  to  tlie  in- 
fant college  by  special  charter,  and  its  name  was  changed  \t, 
St.  John's.  It  was  formally  opened  Nov.  11, 1789.  Amonjj 
those  who  were  active  in  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  col- 
lege in  its  infancy  are  to  be  found  Rev.  John  Carroll,  the 
first  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  of  America,  and  the  Kt. 
Rev.  T.  J.  Claggett,  Protestant  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Mary- 
land. The  college  is  non-sectarian,  but  receives  a  large  shnVe 
of  its  patronage  from  the  Protestant  Episcopal  b(xiy.  In 
Oct.,  1894,  there  were  about  190  students  in  attendance. 
The  president  is  Thomas  Pell,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  and  thert'  an- 
fifteen  members  in  the  faculty.  The  college  receives  annu- 
ally from  the  State  of  Maryland  about  $15,000  for  its  sup- 
port.   It  also  has  a  small  endowment.  Thomas  Fell. 

St  John's  Dance :  a  name  given  to  the  medieval  Danc- 
ing Majha  {q.  v.), 

St  John's  Rirer :  a  stream  which  rises  in  the  swamps  r>f 
Brevard  co.,  Fla.,  and  after  a  course  of  nearly  400  miles 
reaches  the  Atlantic.  It  is  regularly  navigated  by  ateamboa t  s 
to  Enterprise,  280  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  small  steanuTs 
have  ascended  some  60  miles  above  that  point.  It  has  liut 
a  slight  fall  and  a  very  gentle  current.  Its  banks  are  clnd 
in  rich  half -tropical  verdure,  and  for  nearly  two-thirds  c.f  its 
course  it  is  nowhere  less  than  a  mile  in  breadth,  and  often 
expands  into  spacious  lakes.  Its  lower  course  is  nearly  par- 
allel with  the  coast  and  about  20  miles  from  it  For  nearly 
100  miles  from  its  mouth  it  forms  a  wide,  sluggish  slieet  n'f 
water,  more  resembling  a  lagoon  than  a  river,  the  distan<  t- 
from  shore  to  shore  in  some  places  being  fully  5  miles.  It 
is  fed  by  springs  and  by  the  sluggish  overflow  of  swamns, 
and  is  but  slightly  influenced  by  freshets.  After  passing?  the 
bar  at  its  mouth  there  is  a  depth  of  14  or  15  feet  to  Jackson- 
ville, 10  feet  to  Palatka,  and  8  feet  to  Lake  George.  Tli»- 
minimum  depth  at  mean  low  tide  on  the  bar  is  7  feet,  witii 
an  average  rise  and  fall  of  5*4  feet 

Revised  by  Israel  C.  Russell. 
St  John's  University:  an  institution  at  Colleguville, 
Steams  co.,  Minn. ;  founded  in  1857  by  Very  Rev.  Demttrius 
Marogna,  who  was  first  president  and  died  in  1869.  It  wav 
chartered  in  1857;  empowered  to  confer  university  deprr*''-'^ 
in  1869;  received  from  Leo  XIII.  in  1878  power  to  create 
doctors  in  theology,  philosophy,  and  canon  law;  receivtii 
title  of  university l)y  act  of  Legislature  1883. 

Revised  by  J.  J.  Kkane. 
St  Johnsville:  village;  Montgomery  co.,  X.  Y. ;  on  the 
Mohawk  river,  the  Erie  Canal, and  the  Is.  Y.  Cent,  and  Hud. 
River  and  the  West  Shore  railwavs ;  64  miles  W.  N.  W.  of 
Albany  (for  location,  see  map  of  Isew  York,  ref.  4-1).  It  i^ 
in  an  agricultural  and  dairying  region,  and  contains  manu- 
factories of  agricultural  implements,  paper,  pianos,  and 
woolen  gootls,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000.  ami 
a  weekly  newspaper.     Pop.  (1880)  1,072 ;  (1890)  1,263. 

St-John's-wort  Familv :  the  Hypericacecf,  a  small  grou  j> 
of  240  species  of  choripetalous,  dicotyledonous  herbs,  shrul»>, 
and  trees.  The  flowers  are  regular  and  hermaphrotlite, "» itii 
five  sepals,  five  petals,  many  hyi)ogvnous  polyadelphoii> 
stamens,  and  a  one-celled  many-ovuled  ovary  with  fn  m 
three  to  five  carpels.  The  leaves  are  opposite  and  punctato- 
dotted.  The  forty  species  of  North  America,  some  of  which 
are  showy,  belong  mainly  to  the  genus  Bypericum.  The 
common  St.-Johrrs-wort  (//.  perforatum)  is  a  yellow-fl<»w- 
ered  perennial  weed,  naturalized  in  the  tT.  S.  from  Enn»jv, 
which  is  most  diflftcult  to  eradicate  from  fields.      C\  E.  W. 

St  Joseph  :  island  of  the  St.  Mary's  river,  between  l^ki- 
Huron  ana  Lake  Superior,  belonging  to  Ontario  and  s^-pa- 
rated  from  the  Canaaian  side  by  a  narrow  channel.  It  i^ 
about  45  miles  long  and  half  as  broad,  hilly,  and  fertile.  It 
was  early  settled  by  French  Canadians,  and  now  contains  w 
prosperous  population  of  farmers  and  fishermen.  Theiv  arv 
three  small  towns,  named  St.  Joseph,  Hilton,  and  Peral»roko. 
on  the  island.  M.  W.  H. 

St.  Joseph :  village ;  capital  of  Berrien  co.,  Mich. ;  on  LaVe 
Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Joseph  river,  and  on  tl  e 


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THE  NEW  YORK 
PUBLIC     LIBRARY 


AS^C^,   I  '  •'f^X   AND 

Tl    D    •"    PO     N'OA    IO*<S. 


256 


ST.  LOUIS 


SAINT-MARTIN 


of  28  representatives,  one  from  each  ward,  and  a  board  of  pub- 
lic improvement,  consisting  of  a  president,  a  street  commis- 
sioner, a  water  commissioner,  a  sewer  commissioner,  a  park 
commissioner,  and  a  harbor  commissioner.  The  first  tnree 
commissioners  must  be  educated  engineers.  The  bonded 
debt  in  Apr.,  1894,  was  121,196,711.56;  assessed  valuation 
of  real  and  personal  property,  $310,841,850*;  rate  of  taxation 
for  municipal  purposes,  exclusive  of  the  tax  to  pay  interest 
on  the  bonded  debt,  limited  to  1  per  cent. ;  total  tax  within 
old  limits  of  city  (1893)  $2.05  on  $100.  In  1893  there 
were  26  banks  in  the  city,  which  together  had  $16,850,000 
capital,  $8,789,918  surplus,  $11,782,062  time  deposits,  $43,- 
137,039  current  deposits,  and  $81,080,850  in  loans,  currency, 
bonds,  stocks,  and  real  estate.  The  clearings  of  the  year 
aggregated  $1,139,014,291. 

Matinfacturea.^The  census  returns  of  1890  showed  6,148 
manufacturing  establishments,  with  a  combined  capital  of 
$140,775,392,  employing  93,610  persons,  paying  $53,165,242 
in  wages  and  $122,010,805  for  materials,  and  turning  out 
products  valued  at  $228,714,317.  The  principal  establ^h- 
ments.  according  to  the  value  of  products,  were  breweries, 
capital  $15,910,417,  value  of  products  $16,185,560 ;  tobacco- 
factories,  capital  $3,894,820,  products  $14,354,165 ;  flour- 
mills  and  grist-mills,  capital  $4,320,955,  products  $12,641,- 
000;  slaughtering  and  packing  houses,  capital  $3,274,671, 
products,  $12,047,316 ;  foundries  and  machine-shops,  capital 
$10,184,926,  products  $11,945,493;  manufactories  of  men's 
clothing,  capital  $5,765,150,  products  $9,630,688;  publishing 
houses,  capital  $5,192,065,  products  $8,551,249 ;  shops  for 
making  and  repairing  steam-cars  and  street-railway  cars, 
capital,  $2,453,443.  products  $5,641,252 ;  and  manufactories 
of  boots  and  shoes,  furniture,  carriages  and  wagons,  paints, 
saddlery  and  harness,  iron  and  steel,  brick  and  tile,  and 
lumber. 

Transportation, — The  trade  of  the  city,  which  depended  a 
long  time  upon  navigation  by  river,  received  great  impulse 
from  new  railway  connections,  and  the  deepening  of  the  chan- 
nel of  the  Mississippi  at  its  mouth,  so  as  to  admit  seagoing 
vessels  of  the  largest  size^gave  St.  Louis  further  importance 
as  a  receiving  depot  for  much  of  the  grain  of  the  Northwest 
consigned  to  Europe.  There  are  25  trunk  lines  of  railway, 
comprising  57,000  miles  of  track,  entering  the  city.  The 
receipts  of  freight  by  rail  aggregated  10,133,448  tons'in  1893, 
and  the  shipments  5,350,128  tons.  The  cit^  also  commands 
over  6.000  miles  of  direct  navigation  by  nver,  accessible  to 
steamers  and  barges  during  a  large  part  of  the  year.  St. 
Louis  is  an  interior  port  to  which  foreign  merchandise  can 
be  transported  without  appraisement  at  the  port  of  original 
reception,  and  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1893, 
it  had  imports  valued  at  $3,305,351.  Transportation  by  rail 
is  facilitated  by  five  bridges  across  the  Mississippi  and  Mis- 
souri rivers  and  by  a  Union  Station  in  the  city.  The  most 
noted  bridge,  as  well  as  the  most  noted  structure  in  the  city, 
is  the  lofty  steel  viaduct  across  the  Mississippi  for  railway  and 
highway  traffic,  designed  and  built  bv  James  B.  Eads.  (See 
Arch  and  Bridges,  Arched  Bridges.)  ^he  Merchants'  bridge, 
built  of  steel  on  the  truss  plan,  and  completed  in  1890  at  a 
cost  of  $3,000,000,  crosses  the  same  river  3  miles  above  the 
^ads  bridge,  and  the  Belief  ontaine  bridge  crosses  the  Missouri 
river  just  above  its  junction  with  the  Mississippi,  and  con- 
nects with  the  Alton  bridge  across  the  Mississippi,  furnishing 
a  new  approach  from  the  N.  and  the  E.  The  Union  Kail- 
way  Station  is  used  by  21  railways,  has  a  train-shed  of  steel 
and  glass  covering  80  tracks,  each  accommodating  8  full- 
length  cars,  and  with  its  site  cost  $6,500,000.  Its  electrical 
lighting  plant  furnishes  300  arc-lights  and  5,500  incandescent 
lamps.  Cupples  Station,  a  regular  railway  station  within  the 
city  and  about  a  mile  from  Union  Station,  consists  of  seven 
tracks  running  into  the  center  of  a  lar^e  block  of  buildings, 
in  which  eight  of  the  largest  commercial  firms  do  business. 
The  facilities  for  loading  and  unloading  cars  are  perfect  and 
the  speed  with  which  the  work  is  done  is  remarkable.  There 
are  2,000  trucks,  capable  of  holding  2  tons  each,  in  use,  and 
hydraulic  elevators  carry  them  to  all  floors.  During  Sept., 
1894,  there  were  830,000  tons  of  freight  handled  without  the 
use  of  wagons. 

History, — St.  Louis  was  founded  Feb.  15, 1764,  by  Pierre 
Ligueste  Laclede  as  a  trading-f>ost,  and  named  in  honor  of 
Louis  XV.  of  France.  In  1765  it  was  made  the  capital  of 
Upper  Louisiana,  with  Saint- Ange  de  Bellerive  as  governor. 
Although  subject  to  the  authority  of  Spain  by  the  treaty 
concluded  at  raris  in  1763,  St.  Ix)uis  was  practically  under 
French  control,  and  remained  so  until  formal  possession  was 
taken  by  Don  Pedro  Pierras,  Nov.  29, 1770.    The  transfer 


bv  France  to  the  U.  S.  of  the  territory  of  Louisiana  took 
place  in  St.  Louis  Mar.  9, 1804.  The  town  was  incorimrateU 
Nov.  9,  1809;  the  first  brick  building  was  erected  in  1^I.'> ; 
the  first  steamboat  arrived  Aug.  2,  1817;  John  Jacob  A<t.tr 
located  the  Western  department  of  his  companv  here  in  lf<VJ: 
the  town  received  a  citv  charter  in  1822;  sunered  fearfully, 
from  cholera  in  1848 ;  Oarondelet  was  annexed  to  it  in  IHTo'; 
and  the  city  was  made  independent  of  the  county  in  IHT-"). 
During  the  civil  war  it  was  held  for  the  Union  through  iLf 
foresight  and  courage  of  Gen.  Nathaniel  Lyon  and  Frank 
P.  Blair.  It  was  constantly  occupied  by  troops,  was  a  ha^ 
of  supplies  for  the  army,  and  contained  a  large  military  h*  >— 
pital.  The  Western  sanitary  commission  had  its  head'qiia.r- 
ters  here,  and  at  a  single  fair,  lasting  twelve  days,  $554.r>!il 
was  realized  for  the  commission.  Pop.  (1880)  350,522  ;  (lsJ*f»; 
U.  S.  census,  451,770 ;  local  claim,  460,357 ;  (1894)  estimHle<i, 
595,500.  Calvin  M.  Woodward. 

St.  Lonls  Series:  a  division  of  the  Subcarboniferous  er 
Mississippian  group  of  rocks,  t3rpically  exposed  at  St.  Loui^. 
Mo.,  whence  its  name,  but  occurring  as  an  important  de]M>>it 
of  limestone,  sometimes  odlitic  or  breeciated,  and  passing: 
into  calcareous  shale  in  Missouri,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana,  etc. 
The  rocks  are  commonly  from  200  to  250  feet  thick,  ai^i 
yield  a  great  variety  of  invertebrate  marine  fossils.  Sinr- 
gen  Hill,  Ind.,  is  noted  for  the  abundance  and  variety  <>f 
fossils  there  obtained  from  rocks  of  this  group.  See  C  'or- 
relation  Papers — Devonian  and  Carhonijeroits,  bv  H.  S. 
Williams,  Bull.  No.  80  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 

Israel  C.  Russelu 

St.  La'cia:  an  island  of  the  British  West  Indies  (Wind- 
wai'd  islands  colony);  one  of  the  Caribbee  pvup,  N.  of  St. 
Vincent.  Area,  248  sq.  miles.  It  is  of  volcanic  ongin,  moun- 
tainous, and  has  a  crater  which  emits  sulphur  fumes  ami. 
rarely,  flames.  The  scenery  is  very  pictures(jue,  the  moun- 
tains assuming  strange  forms,  and  having  their  sides  clothitl 
with  tropical  forests.  The  soil  of  the  valleys  is  very  fert  iU- : 
sugar  and  cacao  are  the  principal  products  and  ex[>ons. 
This  is  one  of  the  islands  infested  by  the  poisonous  fer-ij»  - 
lance ;  the  climate  is  somewhat  insalubrious.  St.  Lucia  v(n*^ 
long  disputed  by  the  French  and  British;  the  latter  hav. 
held  it  permanently  since  1803.  Pop.  (1891)  43,708.  Capital, 
Castries,  with  about  5,000  inhabitants.  H.  H.  S. 

St.-Malo,  s&n'm&ia'ld' :  town;  in  the  department  of  Ilh- 
et-Vilaine,  France ;  near  the  mouth  of  the  Kance,  on  a  sniaU 
island  in  the  English  Channel;  connected  with  the  main- 
land by  a  causeway  650  feet  long  (see  map  of  France,  nf. 
3-C).  The  harbor,  which  is  perfectly  dry  at  ebb-tide,  ha^ 
from  40  to  50  feet  of  water  at  flood-tide,  is  large  and  saf»-. 
and  defended  by  fortifications  both  on  the  mainland  an<l  oi. 
the  island.  Fishing  for  cod  and  herring  in  the  Channel,  ami 
for  seals  and  whales  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  trading  along  tin- 
coast  and  to  foreign  ports,  ship-building,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  sailcloth,  ropes,  etc.,  are  vigorously  carried  on.  Pou, 
(1891)  9,227. 

Saint-Marc  Girardln :  See  Gibardin,  FaANyois  Augvs  te 
Saint-Marc. 

St.  Martin,  sAn'makr't&n' :  an  island  of  the  West  Indit^^. 
in  the  Caribbee  chain ;  crossed  by  lat.  18''  4'  N.  Area,  :t7 
sq.  miles.  It  is  mountainous,  but  less  than  1,400  feet  hiirh 
is  fertile  and  has  a  salubrious  climate.  By  an  arrangcnu^ir 
originally  made  in  1648,  this  island  is  nearly  equally  divi<Ii  ,i 
between  Francfe  and  the  Netherlands;  the  French  porti.  t 
(pop.  in  1887  8,445)  is  a  dependency  of  Guadelou^te;  tliv 
Dutch  portion,  pop.  (1892)  4,023,  is  attached  to  Curacoa. 

H.  H.  S, 

Saint-Martin.  Alexis  :   See  Beaumont,  William. 

Saint-Martin,  Louis  Claude,  Marquis  de:  general! \ 
known  under  the  name  of  Le  Philosophe  inconnu,  the  nanu" 
under  which  he  published  his  writings ;  b.  at  Amboise,  d<  • 
partment  of  Indre-et-Loire,  France,  Jan.  18, 1743;  servt^d  ii. 
the  armv  until  1771,  but  afterward  devoted  himself  to  il.o 
study  of  theologv  and  philosophv,  especially  the  niystii- 
Martinez,  Pasqualis,  Swedenborg,  ^akob  Bdhme,  and  the  di—  ! 
semination  of  their  teachings.  He  entertained  very  hitt\ 
views  as  to  the  incoming  of  a  purely  spiritual  Christiamtv  an<i 
as  to  the  final  restoration  of  all  things  through  Christ.  Y>.  at 
Paris,  Oct.  13,  1803.  His  writings,  Des  Errturs  et  d^  /.i 
Veriti,  par  un  Philosophe  iticonnu  (Paris,  1775);  Tabie'iu 
naturel  des  Rapports,  qiii  existent  entre  Dieu^  V Homtn^  *t 
rUnivers  (1782) ;  Ecce  Ifomo  (1796);  De  VEsprii  des  Chn^>  s 
(1800);  U Homme' de  Disir  (1790),  etc.,  are  all  against  5«  n- 
sualism  and  materialism.    In  France  they  made  no  grvat 


258 


ST.  PARIS 


ST.  PAUL 


St.  Paris :  village :  Champaign  co.,  0. ;  on  the  Ohio  S., 
and  the  Pitts.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L.  railways;  11  miles  \V. 
of  Urbana,  the  county-seat,  15  miles  E.  of  Piqua  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  5-1)).  It  contains  a  public  high  school, 
flour  and  planing  mills,  broom  and  carriage  factories,  a  na- 
tional bank  with  capital  of  $52,100,  and  two  weekly  news- 
papers; and  ships  large  quantities  of  grain,  flour,  lumber, 
and  live  stock.  Pop.  (1880)  1,099;  (1890)  1,145;  (1895)  esti- 
mated, 1,400.  Editor  of  •'  Era-Dispatch." 

St.  Paul :  the  principal  one  of  the  Pribilof  or  Seal  isl- 
ands, in  Bering  Sea.  It  is  the  largest  and  the  northern- 
most of  the  group,  triangular  in  form.  Area,  32  sq.  miles. 
The  highest  point  is  Bogoslof,  reaching  about  650  feet  above 
sea-level.  Pop.  about  JiOO  Aleuts,  devoted  to  the  hunting 
of  seals.  The  climate  is  severe.  Potatoes  and  peas  can  be 
raised,  and  many  swine  are  kept.  M.  W.  H. 

St.  Paul,  Fr.  pron.  sAiVpol':  town  of  the  French  island  of 
Reunion,  on  the  western  side  of  the  island ;  has  a  go(xi  harbor 
and  considerable  trade.     Pop.  (of  commune)  26,()00. 

St.  Paul :  city ;  uort  of  entry ;  capital  of  the  State  of 
Minnesota  and  of  Ramsey  County;  on  both  sides  of  the 
Mississippi ;  lat.  44"  52  46"  X.,  Ion.  93'  04'  54"  W. ;  410 
miles  >f.  W.  of  Chicago  (for  location,  see  map  of  Min- 
nesota, ref.  9-F).  The  city  is  mainly  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  river,  and  the  two  sections  are  connected  bv  three 
substantial  highway  bridges.  It  is  built  on  three  plateaus, 
the  lowest  being  the  river  flats ;  the  second,  the  main  pla- 
teau, on  which  the  business  portion  and  a  part  of  the 
residence  |.>ortion  are  built ;  and  the  higher,  a  range  of  ir- 
regular bluffs,  on  which  are  the  principal  residences.  The 
city  limits  include  85,487  acres,  within  which  lie  the  sub- 
urbs of  Merriam,  St.  Antony,  Union,  Groveland,  Macales- 
ter,  and  Dcsnoyer  parks,  Arlington  Hills,  and  others.  There 
are  45*49  miles  of  paved  streets  and  51  bridges,  five  of  which 
cross  the  river,  tne  others  bein^  built  over  ravines  and 
tracks.  The  water-supply  is  obtained  from  a  chain  of  lakes 
N.  of  the  city,  the  daily  consumption  and  supply  being 
8,000,0(X)  gal. ;  length  of  conduit  for  water  service,  4^  miles  ; 
sewers,  143'71  miles;  water-mains,  227  miles.  There  are 
24  parks,  with  a  total  of  450  acres,  including  Como  Park, 


suite  Capitol,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

with  377  acres.  The  notable  buildings  are  the  State  Capi- 
tol, city-hall,  U.  S.  Government  building  (cost  over  |;800,- 
OCK)),  Pioneer  Press,  Manhattan.  New  York  Life,  Germania 
Life.  Globe  and  Endicott  office  buildings.  There  are  38 
musical,  literary,  social,  and  sporting  organizations,  10  libra- 
ries, and  56  newsi>upers  and  perioiliculs. 

Churches  mid  Schools.— '>\.  Paul  contains  167  churches : 
Lutheran,  28;  Methodist  Epi.»«copal,  26;  Koman  Catholic, 
21 ;  Congregational,  18  :  Baptist,  18;  Pre-^bytcrian,  17;  Prot- 
estant Episcopal.  16;  Evanu't'lical.  5;  Jewish,  5 ;  People's, 
3;  Unitarian,  2;  and  one  each,  Christian, Christian  Science, 
(Jospl  Tabernacle,  Salvation  Army.  Spiritualist,  and  Swe- 
den borgian.  There  are  44  public  schools  witli  484  teachers 
and  an  enrollment  of  19,0(K)  pupils.  The  public  sdmols  in- 
clude a  large  and  finely  equipped  manual  training-school 
and  26  public  kindergartens.  The  total  annual  expense 
(1894-95)  was  $451,500.  There  are  60  paro<hial  and  private 
schools,  with  an  estimated  enrollment  of  8.000  pupils.  The 
colleges  are  :  Hamline  University,  for  both  sexes  (Methodist 


Episcopal,  established  in  1854),  endowment  $175,000:  Ma. 
alester  College  for  both  sexes  (Presbyterian,  incorjK»rat»  «i  . 
1874),  endowment  $2(K),000 ;  St.  Thomas's  Seminary  ( Kon -.. 
Catholic,  established  in  1885) ;  St.  Paul's  Seminarv  (Hon... 
Catholic,  established  in  1894),  endowment  |;5<k/,0(J()  ;  m; 
Concordia  College  (German  Lutheran,  established  in  lsi»-} 

Charitable  Iimliluiions. — These  include  two  Koman  ( ';it  • 
olic  orphan  asylums,  Protestant  orphan  a-sylum,  Hrun  • 
Catholic  Infants'  Home,  Protestant  Babies'  Home,  I>ay  N  i.i « 
ery.  Home  for  the  Aged,  Home  for  the  Friendless.*  Hi  .m«! 
of  the  Good  Shepherd  (Roman  Catholic),  Woman'sChri^i  ;•.: 
Home,  St.  Paul  Bethel,  and  the  Friendly  Inn.  Othrr  U  t- 
evolent  institutions  and  societies  are :  Board  of  Contr.  • 
Children's  Home  Society,  Needlework  Guild,  Xcwsl».  >\- 
Home  Association,  Parisli  Settlement,  Free  Dispensiiry.  .-^^ 
Vincent  de  Paul  Society,  Hebrew  Kelief  Society,  Society  f. 
the  Relief  of  the  Poor,  Society  for  Prevention  of  Oueli  \ .  .'^: 
Mary's  Home,  Young  Women's  Friendlv  Association,  iir 
and  County  Hospital,  Bet hesda  Hospital,  St.  Jos*M)h%  H-  - 
pital,  St.  Luke's  Hosi>it«l,  and  the  Homceopathic  Hr^spitnl. 

Cilv  Finances.— The  total  bonded  debt,  Jan.  1,  \H^'k  n>.m 
18,392,100,  of  which  $2,460,000  was  for  the  city  water  -\  - 
tem.  The  revenues  of  the  water  department  are  now  >nM 
cient  to  provide  for  future  extensions,  pay  interest  on  t  h*-- 
bonds,  and  provide  a  sinking  fund  for  their  redemption  a 
maturity.  The  floating  debt  was  |2ii5,000.  The  annual « .  •- 
of  the  city  government  is  about  $2,000,000;  asse.ssiMj  v«l;. 
of  real  estate  is  $119,094,861,  of  personal  property  $15,*J4'J 
448,  and  the  annual  tax-rate  2  mills  on  the  dollar. 

Business  Interests. — The  manufacturing  establish ni«-rr 
reported  in  the  census  of  1890  number  1,442  (distriLir.- 
among  61  industries),  representing  an  invested  capital  • 
$22,501,211,  employing  18,658  persons,  paying  $10,37;i.:i> 
in  wages  and  $15,865,573  for  materials,  and  turning  imi 
products  to  the  value  of  $33,035,073.  St.  Paul  does  a  l;tr_ 
lobbing  business  (about  $150,0(X),000  annually),  the  a\ai  t 
ble  tnwie  area,  covering  Minnesota,  the  Dakotas,  Montai  i 
Idaho,  Washington,  and  Northern  Oregon,  imng  5S2,1*>4  ^i 
mile.s,  with  a  population  of  2,536,170.  There  are  22  l>aI.^  ^ 
of  which  5  are  national,  5  savings,  and  12  State ;  total  ca;  i 
tal,  with  surplus  and  undivided  profits,  $8,527,615. 

Means  of  Communication. — St.  Paul  is  an  important  rail 
way  center,  from  which  extend  seven  eastern  trunk  lint's  mi  < 
four  transcontinental  systems.  It  is  connected  with  the  Ki> 
and  South  by  the  lines  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  nn«l  *^i 
Paul,  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  Burlington  and  N<»rtl>.r' 
Chicago  and  Great  Western,  Wisconsin  Central,  and  Mi  i 
neapolis  and  St.  Louis,  now  part  of  the  Rock  Island  sy>t.  :  i 
The  "Soo"  line,  through  its  relation  to  the  Canacliaii  V\ 
cific,  gives  an  outlet  to  the  East  independent  of  the  Chu  .u 
systems.  To  the  West  connection  is  made  with  thi*  Pa.  :? 
coast  over  the  systems  of  the  Northern  Pacific,  the  cin  , 
Northern,  Canadian  Pacific,  and  Union  Pacific,  in  com  In. 
tion  with  the  line  of  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Miniieap.  ; 
and  Omaha.  The  St.  Paul  and  Duluth,  Eastern  Miini*--<  ii 
a  part  of  the  Great  Northern  svstem,  and  the  Omaha  .i 
have  lines  extending  from  St.  t*aul  to  the  head  t.f  L.- 
Superior, and  a  very  large  part  of  the  commerce  betwei-n  ^ 
Paul  and  the  East  is  conducted  over  the  lake  route.  '11 1 
citv  also  has  103  miles  of  street-railway,  electric  and  cal!. 

jfTistory. — The  first  house  in  St.  Paul  was  built  in  iv. 
The  early  settlers  were  principally  French,  and  en*rai:«-.|  • 
the  fur  and  whisky  trade.  A  Roman  Catholic  mission  v  i 
begun  in  1841,  from  which  the  city  takes  its  name.  T  i 
site  was  surveyed  and  plot  recorded  in  1847;  the  si-tth n..  • 
was  incorporated  as  a  town  and  made  the  territorial  <aj':' 
in  1849,  and  became  a  city  in  1854.  St.  Paul  owt's  i!>  r..^ 
growth  to  its  situation  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  t  i 
Mississippi  river.  The  assistance  of  the  Federal  (i.-v.-r-i 
ment  has  been  secured  in  extending  the  navigable  dui!  i.- 
to  Minneapolis,  and  a  survey  of  practicable  routes  for  a  ^'  ■; 
canal  to  connect  the  citv  with  Lake  Superior  has  1m»ti  :h 
thorizod  bv  the  Government.  Pop.  (1880)  41.47:J:  <lv»( 
133,156;  (1894)  estimate<L  180,000.  J.  G.  V\u, 

St.  Paul:  city  (founded  in  1886);  capital  of  Ilowani  - 
Neb.;  on  the  Loup  Fork  of  the  Platte  river,  and  {\w  ]>  i 
lingh^n  Route  and  the  Union  Pac.  railways;  23  mih'^  N  .i 
Grand  Island,  174  miles  W.  of  Omaha  (for  hx*atic»n,  'i*  #•  r  i 
of  Nebraska,  ref.  10-F).  It  is  in  a  grain-growing  and  >i<-  k 
raising  region,  and  has  5  churches,  a  grammar  s<'1i«m)1.  v,  \ 
eral  flour-mills,  3  national  banks  with  combined  fapir.-  .i 
$150,(KK),  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (18K))  4S2  ;  (\^\^\ 
1,263 ;  (1894)  estimated,  1,500.    Editor  of  "  Republkan." 


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260 


ST.  PETER'S  CHURCH 


principle  of  the  St.  Petersburg  convention  has  been  incor- 
porated into  later  codes  like  that  worked  over  by  the  Brus- 
sels Conference  in  1874.  The  U.  S.  has  never  acceded  to  it. 
The  obligations  of  this  St.  Petersburg  Declaration  are  re- 
ciprocal only,  so  that  its  signatories  if  at  war  with  the  U.  S. 
would  not  be  bound  by  them.  Theodoeb  S.  Woolsey. 
St  Peter's  Church  :  See  Peter's,  St.  . 
St.  Peter's  Sandstone ;  a  deposit  of  friable  white  and 
yellow  sandstone  occurring  principally  in  Wisconsin,  but 
coming  to  the  surface  in  the  adjacent  portion^  of  Minnesota, 
Iowa,  and  Illinois;  named  from  St.  Peter's  (now  Minnesota) 
river,  at  the  mouth  of  which  it  is  well  displayed.  Its  aver- 
age thickness  is  from  80  to  100  feet,  with  a  maximum  of  212. 
It  is  one  of  the  minor  divisions  of  the  rocks  deposited  dur- 
ing the  Cambrian  period ;  it  rests  on  Lower  Magnesian  lime- 
stone and  is  overlaid  by  Trenton  limestone.  By  many  ge- 
ologists it  is  considered  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Chazy  of 
New  York,  but  is  probably  more  nearly  equivalent  to  the 
basal  member  of  the  Trenton.  Fossils  are  rare,  and  consist 
of  tubes  made  bv  worms  when  the  sands  were  soft,  impres- 
sions of  seaweeds,  and  shells  of  Lingulepia.  It  is  an  im- 
portant source  of  artesian  water.  Consult  Oeology  of  Wis- 
consin, vol.  i.,  by  T.  C.  Chamberlin.     Israel  C.  Russell. 

St.-Plerre,  s^npi-Sr' :  principal  town  and  port  of  the 
island  of  Martinique,  French  West  Indies ;  on  a  bay  of  the 
west  coast  (see  map  of  West  Indies,  ref.  7-N).  It  has  no 
harbor,  properly  speaking,  but  the  roadstead  is  protected  by 
the  island  itself  except  ouring  hurricanes,  when  its  exposed 
position  makes  it  very  dangerous.  The  town  is  partly  on 
low  and  somewhat  insalubrious  lands,  (partly  on  picturesque 
hills,  where  the  residences  are  charmingly  placed  among 
trees  and  flowers.  The  botanical  garden  is  one  of  the  finest 
in  the  West  Indies.    Pop.  about  20,000.  H.  II.  S. 

St.-Pierre :  town  of  the  French  island  of  Reunion,  for- 
merly Bourbon  ;  in  the  Indian  Ocean ;  on  the  southern  shore 
of  the  island.  It  has  a  good  harbor  and  a  rapidly  increas- 
ing trade.     Pop.  of  commune,  24,500. 

Saint-Pierre,  Jacques  Henri  Bernardin,  de :  author ; 
b.  at  Havre,  France,  Jan.  19,  1737 ;  studied  at  first  for  the 
Church  ;  went  in  1750  to  Martinique  as  a  sailor,  and  on  his 
return  a  few  years  later  attended  the  school  of  engineering  at 
Rouen,  but  in  1760  lost  his  position  in  the  army  on  account 
of  insubordination.  After  unsuccessful  ventures  at  several 
employments  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  was  apj>ointed 
a  captain  in  the  engineering  corps  of  Finland,  but  failed  to 
interest  Catherine  II.  in  his  schemes  of  a  model  republic. 
Leaving  the  country  in  1766  he  fought  against  the  Rus- 
sians in  Poland,  inspired  by  a  Polish  princess ;  then  again 
in  Saxony  against  the  Poles,  to  avenge  himself  on  his  for- 
mer inspiration.  After  this  he  returned  to  France  and  re- 
ceived a  position  as  an  engineer  in  the  Isle  de  France,  but 
settled  in  1771  in  Paris  and  devoted  himself  to  literature, 
associating  much  with  Rousseau,  who  exercised  a  consider- 
able influence  both  on  his  style  and  his  ideas.  He  miblished 
in  1773  Voyage  d  I  Isle  de  France,  etc.;  in  1784  Etudes  de 
la  Nature  (5  vols.),  which  gave  him  rank  among  the  best 
French  prose- writers ;  in  1788  Paul  et  Virginie,  which  be- 
came one  of  the  most  celebrated  books  of  the  age  and  was 
translated  into  all  European  languages;  in  1790  La  Chau- 
fniere  indienne  and  Le  Cafe  de  Sfirate ;  and  subsequently 
many  other  works,  none  of  which  attained  such  success  as 
Paul  et  Virginie ;  was  mwle  director  of  the  botanical  gar- 
den in  1792,  Professor  in  Morals  at  the  normal  school  in 
1794 ;  received  a  pension  under  the  empire.  D.  at  Eragny- 
sur-Oise,  Jan.  21,  1814.  Aime  Martin,  who  married  his 
widow,  published  a  collected  edition  of  his  works  in  twelve 
volumes  in  1813-20;  his  posthumous  works,  letters,  and  a 
biography  in  1833-36. 

8t.-Plerre  and  Miqnelon,  -meek'lon :  a  group  of  three 
islands  and  many  islets  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  near  the  south  const  of  Newfoundland,  constitut- 
ing a  French  colony  ;  valuable  only  as  a  rendezvous  for  ves- 
sels engaged  in  the  cod-fisheries,  of  which  some  1,500  annually 
enter  the  port.  Area,  91  S(|.  miles.  Pop.  (1889)  5,983.  St.- 
Pierre,  the  capital,  has  a  population  of  800. 
St-Privat  Battle  of:  See  Gravelotte,  Battle  of. 
St-Ouentln,  siin'kaan'tAiV  :  town ;  in  the  department  of 
Aisne,  France ;  on  the  Soinine ;  95  miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of  Paris 
(see  map  of  France,  ref.  2-F) :  has  extensive  manufactures 
of  cotton  yam,  linen,  tablecloths,  lace,  muslin,  and  gauze,  be- 
sides large  distilleries  and  soa(>-works.  it  contains  an  an- 
cient Gothic  church,  and  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  prome- 


SAINT-SIMON 

nades  occupying  the  site  of  its  old  fortificatons.  P'.pi 
(1891)  44,209.  A  battle  took  place  here  on  Aug.  10,  1.>)T, 
between  the  army  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  assisted  b>  an 
English  contingent,  and  the  French,  m  which  the  Fni  eh 
were  defeated.  During  the  Franco-German  war,  on  .\an\ 
19,  1871,  the  Germans  under  von  Goeben  here  defeat***!  Dm 
French  under  Gen.  Faidherbe ;  the  former  lost  3,01)0  iiirn 
and  captui'ed  10,000  prisoners. 

St.  Begris  Falls:  village;  Franklin  co.,  N.  Y.;  on  'hi 
St.  Regis  river,  and  the  N.  Adirondack  Railroad;  22  nulis 
S.  W.  of  Malone,  the  county-seat  (for  location,  see  mn\  .  i 
New  York,  ref.  l-I).  It  has  excellent  water-power,  lar.v 
lumber  trade,  several  manufactories,  and  a  weekly  ne\^  ^{  a- 
per.     Pop.  (1880)  not  in  census ;  (1890)  1,210. 

St.  Boqne,  Cape :  See  Cape  St.  Ro<jue. 

Saint-SaSns,  sAn'saa'aaii'.  Charles  Camille  :  organist  u:  < : 
composer;  b.  in  Paris,  France,  Oct.  9, 1835.  He  showed  u  r. 
markable  aptitude  for  music  in  his  childhood,  and  nrndv  ra)  .•  i 
progress  under  his  teachers;  entered  the  Conservator)  :'i 
1847.  obtained  second  organ  prize  in  1849,  and  first  in  l^'l ; 
composed  his  first  symphony  when  sixteen  vean*  oh\ ;  n 
1853  became  organist  of  the  Church  of  St.  Merri,  ami  iii 
1858  organist  of  the  Madeleine,  which  post  he  resign t-ti  in 
1877.  He  has  composed  largely  in  almost  every  art- fori- , 
Among  his  operas  Le  Timbre  d' Argent,  £tienne  Jltr^' 
Henry  VIIL,  Ancanio,  and  Phryni  may  be  specially  not  it .  i 
as  also  Samson  et  Dalila,  a  sacred  cantata.  He  has  writirn 
four  very  popular  symphonic  poems  for  full  orche<t  rju  *  i  - 
titled  respectively  Le  Rouet  d'Omphale,  Phatton,  Ihw** 
Maeahre,  and  La  Jeunesse  d^Hercule.  D.  E.  H. 

Salntsbnry,  George  Edward  Bateman:  critic  and  h'- 
erary  historian  ;  b.  at  Southampton,  England,  Oct.  Sii,  l**!*- 
He  graduated  at  Oxfonl  in  1867 ;  was  classical  master  in  K:i.m- 
beth  College,  Guernsey,  1868-74,  and  head  master  i.f  •!. 
Elgin  Educational  Institute  1874-76.  Among  his  pubi«  u 
tions  are  a  standard  Primer  of  French  Literature  (IbJ^M  ntJ 
Short  History  of  Fretich  Literature  (1882) ;  a  life  of  />rv  /»  i 
(1881)  and  of  Marlborough  (1885) ;  A  History  of  Elizah^h.,^ 
Literature  (1887)  and  several  volumes  of  selections,  truii-ia 
tions  from  the  French,  etc.  H.  A.  Bllr^. 

Saints'  Days:  in  the  calendar  of  the  Church,  day>  -»t 
apart  for  the  special  commemoration  of  any  saint.     In  v  \ 
Roman  Catholic  Church  the  number  of  saints  is  very  ^rt*.* 
and  a  considerable  number  of  saints  are  commemorHtt-<i  •" 
each  day  of  the  year ;  but  it  is  the  custom  to  assign  tu  jir 
ticular  countries,  districts,  or  dioceses  a  certain  numUr  ■ 
saints  for  special  commemoration.    These  saints'  da\s  <  <  : 
stitute  the  calendar  for  that  district.    Any  day  not  a'  &^)ii>i 
day  in  the  local  calendar,  and  not  a  festival  nor  a  Sunuv' 
is  called  a  feria  or  vacant  day  ;  other  days  are  either  h  ■ 
days  of  obligation,  doubles,  semi-doubles,  and  simi>lrs.  w 
cording  to  the  solemnity  of  the  occasion  and  of  the  mtv  ; 
for  the  day.    See  the  Ordo,  published  annually,     J.  J.  K. 

St-Serran,  siln'sar'vian' :  town  of  France;  depart nv! 
of  Ille-et-Vilaine ;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ranee,  opfiosiii-  m 
Malo  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  8-C).  It  has  two  gotnl  \,\v 
bors  and  an  active  commerce.  It  is  fortified  and  much  Ir^ 
quented  as  a  watering-place.    Pop.  (1891)  9,670. 

Salnt-Slmon,  sftn'se'emon',  Claude  Henri,  Comto  <'.. 
founder  of  French  socialism ;  b.  in  Paris,  France,  Oct .  1 7. 1 7»' 
received  a  military  education  and  aided  the  Amerii^aii  <  ■ 
nies  in  the  Revolutionary  war.    Early  conceiving  the  i.  * 
that  a  great  destiny  awaited  him,  he  sought  by  everv  m.  .r 
to  enlarge  his  knowledge  of  men  and  things  by  varietl  exi  f 
ence.    He  gave  up  the  military  career  and  proposwl  a  •*<)'•  ;- 
for  a  Dutch  and  French  exp«lition  against  the  Briti-^h  V. 
Indies,  but  neither  this  nor  a  subseauent  project  for  c<»n!i. 
ing  Madrid  with  the  sea  by  a  canal  attracted  the  att»M:ti 
of  the  authorities.    In  the* revolution  he  took  no  pronr.i  ♦  • 
part.,  but  was  imprisoned  for  nearly  a  year  during  the  Mr  •_ 
of  Terror.     He  speculated  in  the  confiscated  estates  <•!  •• 
emigris  and  realized  a  small  fortune,  but  spent  it  all  't 
little  more  than  a  year.     An  unhappy  marriage,  diss<>lvoii  < 
the  mutual  consent  of  the  parties,  complete<l  his  exi»erinn  :  • 
Reduced  to  absolute  penury,  he  lived  partly  on  the  cla*-  ' 
of  his  friends  and  partly  on  the  precarious  results  of  • 
literary  work  to  which  he  now  devoted  himself.    Thr  t 
of  his  writings  was  Lettres  d'un  Habitant  de  Geneva  (ls< 
This  was  followed  by  several  scientific  and  p)lilioil  \%' 
ings  which  passed  almost  without  notice.     His  char:u!.  i 
tic  views  were  first  propounded  in  L' Industrie  (1^1 7<  m' 
further  developed  in  U Organisateur  (1819);  Du  Sys^i' 


262 


SAL  AfiRATUS 


SALE 


Sal  ASra'tns  [Mod.  Lat.,  aerated  salt ;  sal,  salt  +  aeraius, 
Latinization  of  aerated,  from  Lat.  a'er,  air] :  a  somewhat  im- 
pure and  imperfectly  carbonated  bicarbonate  of  potash,  made 
by  exposing  a  concentrated  solution  of  neutral  potassic  car- 
bonate to  an  atmosphere  of  carbon  dioxide  proceeding  from 
fermentation  or  other  source  ;  hence  the  name.  The  finely 
granular  form  of  the  commercial  article  is  probably  a  result 
of  agitation  during  the  absorption  of  the  carbonic  acid.  Me- 
dicinally, a  purer  crystalline  bicarbonate  of  potash  is  used, 
which  is,  or  should  be,  fully  charged  with  2  equivalents  of 
carbonic  acid  for  1  of  potash.  Sal  aeratus  was  at  one  time 
extensively  used  as  an  article  of  domestic  consumption,  but 
has  been  chiefly  displaced  by  the  cheaper  and  better  com- 
pound bicarbonate  of  soda,  known  as  cooking-soda,  some- 
times as  soda  saleratus.  Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Sarahdln  {Yusuf^ben-Ayub'Salah-ed-Din):  Sultan  of 
Epypt  and  Syria;  b.  in  1137  at  the  castle  of  Tekrit,  on  the 
Tigris,  of  which  his  father,  the  Kurdish  chieftain  Ayub, 
was  pfovernor.  His  uncle  Shir-koh  in  1163  was  sent  by  Xur- 
ed-dm  Mahmud,  Sultan  of  Syria,  to  Egypt  to  reinstate  the 
dispossessed  Emir  Shaour.  Salahdin  accompanied  him,  and 
in  the  subsequent  campaign  showed  great  courage  and  mili- 
tary ability.  Shaour  Wame  'suspicious  of  his  nrotectors 
and  joined'  the  crusa^lei-s,  but  was  defeated  and  beheaded. 
Thereupon  Shir-koh  became  governor  of  Egypt  as  Nur-ed- 
din's  representative  and  on  his  death  was  succeeded  by  Sal- 
ahdin,  who  manifested  remarkable  capacity  as  a  civil  ruler. 
On  the  death  of  Nur-ed-din  (1174)  he  became  independent 
Sultan  of  Egypt,  to  which  Syria  was  speedily  added,  his  title 
to  both  bein^  confirmed  by  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad.  The 
Christian  knights  in  Palestine  constantly  violated  their 
treaties,  attacking  and  plundering  the  Mussulman  caravans. 
To  end  these  outrages  Salahdiu  invaded  Palestine  and  de- 
stroyed the  Christian  army  at  the  battle  of  Tiberias  (July  4, 
1187),  where  the  King  of  Jerusalem,  Guy  of  Lusignan,  was 
taken  prisoner.  The  capture  of  Jerusalem  followed  (Oct.  8, 
1187).  The  king  and  inhabitants  were  treated  kindly,  but 
the  knights  of  the  various  orders  were  put  to  death  as  vio- 
lators of  their  treaties.  Excitement  at  the  fall  of  Jei-usalem 
caused  the  third  crusade  (1180),  and  after  a  siege  of  two  years 
Acre  was  captured  by  the  Christians.  The  contest  between 
Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  and  Salahdin  was  really  a  species  of 
tournament,  wherein  the  most  brilliant  exploits  were  per- 
formed on  both  sides,  with  little  gain  by  either.  A  three 
years'  truce  was  concluded  (Sept.  2,  1193)' whereby  the  coast 
from  Tyre  to  Jaffa  was  ceded  to  the  Christians.  Salahdin 
died  at  Damascus,  Mar.  3,  1193.  His  estates  were  divided 
among  his  seventeen  sons  and  his  brother  Malek-el-Adil. 
His  fame  was  deservedly  great.  Magnanimous  and  just, 
skillful  and  intrepid  in  war,  judicious  and  far-sighted  in 
civil  affairs,  the  founder  of  a  vast  and  wisely  administered 
empire  comprising  Egypt,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Palestine, 
and  Arabia,  ne  is  the  hero  of  Mussulman  chivalry. 

E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Sal  Alem^broth,  or  Salt  of  Wisdom :  a  compound  of 
corrosive  sublimate  and  sal  ammoniac,  once  used  in  medi- 
cine, but  now  discarded. 

Salaman'ca  (Rom.  Salamantica  or  Elmantica) :  town  of 
Spain ;  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name ;  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Tonnes,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  mag- 
nificent bridge  of  twenty-seven  arches  (see  map  of  Spain, 
ref.  14-D).  It  is  surrounded  with  old  walls,  but  several  por- 
tions within  the  walls  have  been  in  ruins  since  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  city  by  the  French  in  1812.  The  streets  are 
mostly  steep,  narrow,  crooked,  and  dark,  but  they  are  often 
lined  with  lofty  edifices  most  interesting  in  architectural 
respects.  The  university  was  founded  in  1200.  It  is  the 
first  institution  of  its  kind  in  Spain,  and  enjovs  a  high  repu- 
tation all  over  Europe.     Pop.  (1887)  22,200. 

Salamanca :  a  town  of  the  state  of  Guanajuato,  Mexico ; 
on  the  river  Lerma  and  the  Mexican  Central  Railway;  34 
miles  S.  of  Guanajuato  (see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  6-G*).  It 
has  manufactures  of  cotton  cloths.    Pop.  al)out  10,000. 

Salamanca:  village;  Cattaraugus co.,N.Y.;  ontheAlle- 
ghanv  river,  and  the  Erie,  the  Buffalo,  Roch.  and  Pitts.,  the 
W.  N.  Y.  and  Penn.,  and  the  N.  Y.,  Penii.  and  0.  railways; 
34  miles  E.  of  Jamestown,  60  miles  S.  of  Butralo  (f(»r  loc'a- 
tion,  see  map  of  Now  York,  ref.  6-( ').  It  contains  7  cliurches, 
union  graded  school  with  three  buildinijs,  2  Roman  Catholic 
schools,  public-schof)l  library,  sewerage,  natural-gas  and  elec- 
tric-light ulants.  gravity  system  of  watiT-works,  2  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  ^100,000,  2  weekly  news- 


papers, railway-shops,  sole-leather  tannery,  4  saw  and  plan- 
ing mills,  3  cigar-factories,  2  grist-mills,  wire-mattress  U- . 
tory,  foundry,  and  embroiderv-factorv.  It  was  inc<»r|N.«niti.i 
as  a  village  in  1878.  Pop.  (l680)  3,498;  (1890)  3.692;  (IMM, 
estimated,  with  suburbs,  5,500. 

Editor  of  "Cattaraugus  REPrBLicA.v.** 

Salamander  [vifi  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  8alamandra  =  ii\ 
(raXjofidtf^ ;  cf.  rers.  8amander,  salamander]:  any  ci.i  ■' 
numerous  forms  of  tailed  amphibians,  especially  the  sjh  . ;. , 
of  SALAMANDRiD-fi  (g.  V.).  Thcse  are  small  and  of  lizani-l.; 
form, 'and  are  terrestrial  as  distinguished  from  the  a(iua: 
newts  of  the  same  family.  They  inhabit  damp,  shady  jil.u  •  v 
and  feed  mostly  on  worms,  slugs,  snails,  insects,  etc!  Sn!  ■ 
mandra  maculosa  is  the  common  spotted  salamander  of  ( \  u- 
tral  and  Southern  Europe.  The  black  salamander  (*V.  afr  r 
is  Alpine,  and  in  this  species  the  larvae  attain  the  air-hnar'- 
ing  stage  within  the  body  of  the  mother.  The  salaniai:.i 
has  been  popularly  identified  with  the  fabulous  aninml  ■ ! 
that  name  formerly  supposed  to  be  able  to  live  in  or  to  .  \. 
tinguish  fire.  The  salamander  of  Marco  Polo  was  ai^U-t  r 
The  animal  locally  known  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  I .  > 
by  the  name  is  a  pocket-gopher  {Geomys  tu2a\  a  nxicnt, 

Salaman'drldiB  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  «a/amancfra. silt 
mander.  See  Salamander]  :  an  Old  World  family  of  hi 
phibians  of  the  order  Urodela  {q,  v.),  including  the  t}  j  :•  a 
salamanders  and  newts.  They  have  posterior  jwilatint-  pr- 
esses, with  teeth  on  their  inner  margins;  the  para>[>)t<-ij<'. : 
toothless;  no  post-frontosquamosal  arch  or  ligament;  ai  i 
opisthocoelian  vertebne. 

SaPamIs  (modern  Kolmiri) :  Greek  island ;  in  the  (i  ulf  •  1 
Egina;  8  miles  W.  of  Athens.  Area,  36  sq.  miles.  Poi 
(1889)  6,254.  It  is  arid,  rocky,  mountainous,  and  well  w«m  : 
ed  ;  produces  cotton,  olives,  and  wine.  The  village  of  An 
belaki  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Salami^.  I:i 
the  strait,  hardly  over  a  mile  in  width,  between  Salami-  i.t  i 
Attica,  the  Greeks  under  Euribiades  utterly  defeated  i..^ 
Persian  fleet  (Oct.  20,  480  B.  c).  E.  A.  tr. 

Sal  Ammoniac :  See  Ammonia. 

Salamstone :  See  Corundum. 

Salayerry,  saa-laa-ver-ree',  Felipe  Santiaoo,  de  :  « -l 
dier ;  b.  at  Lima,  Peru,  May  3,  1806.  He  was  a  studmt  a 
Lima,  and  with  several  classmates  ran  away  and  jniiud  r  i 
patriot  army  in  1821  ;  served  through  the  revolution;  \*  n 
lieutenant-colonel  under  Lamar;  headed  revolts  at'-i - 
Gamarra  1833,  and  was  general  of  division  in  the  oami :»  .;; 
against  him  1834;  declared  against  Orbegoso  Feb.  2*1  1*^-1 
seized  Lima,  and  proclaimed  himself  supreme  chief  ot  ?.  rj 
In  the  confused  condition  of  affairs  most  of  the  \^i.^\-\y  -I 
the  republic  adhered  to  him.  Orbegoso  invoked  tlif  aii  • 
Santa  Cruz,  president  of  Bolivia,  who  marched  into  IV  r* 
Salaverry  was  defeated,  captured,  and  shot  at  Arequipa.  1  •  • 
19, 1836.  He  was  a  brilliant  and  popular  leader  and  n  >^ "'  • 
of  some  note.  IL  11.  >. 

Saldanha  Ollreira  e  Dann,  saal-daan'yaa-d-lee-va  i-n^Ji 
S-down',  JoXo  Carlos,  Duke  of  Saldanha:  statesnmn  .im 
soldier;  grandson  of  the  Marquis  of  Pouibul;  b.  at  Li-^l^  :i 
Nov.  17,  1791 ;  fought  against  the  British  and  was  tak>  i 
prisoner,  but  was  soon  permitted  to  join  the  Portufjii*- 
court  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  where  he  served  in  the  army  a: 
held  important  ofTicial  positions.  When  Brazilian  *  ii-  • 
pendence  was  declared  he  returned  to  Portugal,  ami  a*t.  j 
wani  as  a  moiierate  constitutionalist  and  sui>|K)rter  of  I>«  r 
Pedro  took  part  in  the  war  against  Dora  Miguel.  At  i  'i 
unsuccessful,  he  was  again  force<l  to  leave  the  country.  »  i 
returned  in  1832,  and  after  repeated  successes  receivtd  m 
capitulation  of  Dom  Miguel  at  Evora  1834.  He  UM«ft| 
M mister  of  War  and  president  of  the  council  May  31,  1*^-  1 
but  resigned  in  November  of  the  same  year,     Havin":  tuK- 

f)art  in  the  unsuccessful  conservative  revolution  of  IS'.Jj.  u 
ived  abroatl  until  recalled  by  the  queen  in  1846.  In  ' 
following  year  he  formed  a  ministry ;  was  repla<-ed  b>  :  i 
second  dictatorship  of  Costa  Cabra'l  1849;  overthnw  i-  i 
administration  by  force  of  arms  1851 ;  conductwl  tb«-  i:  i 
ernment  until  the  accession  of  Pedro  V.  (1856).  when  \\*  >  i 
came  again  the  head  of  the  opposition ;  was  minister  at  !:•  .  i 
1862-64,  and  again  1866-69;  went  to  Paris  as  mini>trt  M.n 
1869 ;  instigated  a  revolution  in  the  palace  May  19,  l^To 
consequence  of  which  he  again  became  Prime  Minister,  t 
resignetl  in  August,  and  was  sent  to  Loudon,  where  he  •'.'• 
Nov.  21,1876.  F.  M.  C  oi  I•^ 

Sale  (of  gooils) :  the  transfer  by  the  seller  of  the  p  i.»  ri 
proi)erty  in  goods  to  the  buyer,  pursuant  to  contrai*i,  for 


264: 


SALE 


the  delivery  of  the  goods  to  the  buyer,  or  to  a  third  person 
for  transmission  to  the  buyer.  If  such  appropriation  is  un- 
conditional, and  the  goods  conform  to  the  order,  property 
passes.  But  the  seller  may  appropriate  the  goods  condi- 
tionally. In  such  case  property  does  not  pass  until  the  im- 
posed conditions  are  fulftlted.  For  example,  the  seller  may 
take  a  bill  of  lading  of  the  goods  in  his  own  name,  attach 
thereto  a  draft  for  the  purchase  price,  and  require  payment 
of  the  draft  as  a  condition  of  the  buyer's  acquiring  the 
property.  Where  the  condition  is  expressly  imposed  the 
rights  of  the  parties  are  clear.  Frequently  the  language 
and  acts  of  tne  parties  are  equivocal,  and  the  question 
whether  the  seller  intended  to  appropriate  the  goods  ab- 
solutely to  the  contract  or  to  reserve  to  himself  the  right 
to  their  disposal  becomes  a  difficult  one.  This  is  exempli- 
fied bv  the  case  of  The  Calcutta  Company  vs.  De  Mattos  (32 
Laio  Journal,  Queen's  Bench  322 ;  33  ihid.  214),  the  judges 
of  the  lower  court  being  equally  divided  as  to  the  intention 
of  the  parties,  and,  on  appeal,  two  of  the  judges  entertaining 
a  third  view. 

Where  a  contract  is  made  for  the  manufacture  and  deliv- 
ery of  an  article,  the  property  therein  does  not  pass,  accord- 
ing to  the  English  decisions  and  those  of  many  of  the  U.  S., 
until  delivery  and  acceptance,  or  until  the  article  is  ready 
for  delivery  and  approved  by  the  buyer.  In  some  of  the 
States  it  is  held  that  the  buyer  assents  in  advance  to  the 
appropriation  of  the  finished  article  to  the  contract,  and 
that  title  passes  upon  the  seller's  tendering  it. 

Whether  a  contract  for  the  sale  of  a  part  of  a  larger  bulk 
of  goods,  of  uniform  kind  and  quality— e.  g.  1,000  bush,  of 
wheat  from  a  grain  elevator,  oi  100  gal.  of  oil  from  a  tank, 
or  50  barrels  of  flour  from  a  car-load — is  one  for  a  present 
sale  of  specific  goods,  or  one  for  the  sale  of  goods  thereafter 
to  be  ascertained,  is  a  question  upon  which  the  authorities 
are  divided.  The  English  view,  which  has  been  adopted  in 
many  of  the  U.  S.,  is  that  the  contract  can  not  be  more  than 
an  agreement  to  sell,  and  that  property  can  not  pass  until  the 
portion  contracted  for  has  been  separated  from  the  bulk.  It 
IS  said  there  is  no  individuality  until  it  is  divided ;  the  law 
knows  no  such  thing  as  a  floating  right  of  property,  which 
may  attach  itself  either  to  one  parcel  or  the  other,  as  may  be 
found  convenient  afterward,  {bolder  vs.  Ogden,  15  Penn.  St. 
528.)  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  maintained  by  many  State 
courts  that  the  subject-matter  of  such  a  contract  is  ascer- 
tained or  specific  goods,  where  it  is  a  designated  quantity  out 
of  a  specified  mass  of  uniform  quality  (Kimberly  vs.  Patchin, 
19  N.  Y.  330) ;  and  that  the  property  in  such  designated 
quantity  will  pass,  upon  making  the  contract,  if  the  parties 
so  intend.  This  doctrine  seems  to  accord  with  commercial 
usage.  In  some  States  it  has  been  adopted  wholly  or  in  part 
by  statute.    See  Mass.  Pub.  Stot.,  c.  72,  §  7. 

Risk  of  Lo88, — This,  unless  otherwise  agreed,  passes  from 
the  seller  to  the  buyer  with  the  property  in  the  goods,  with- 
out reganl  to  their  possession.  If  delivery  has  been  de- 
layed through  the  default  of  either  buyer  or  seller,  the 
goods  are  at  the  risk  of  the  party  making  default  as  regards 
any  loss  which  would  not  have  occurred  but  for  such  de- 
fault.   Sale  of  Goods  Act,  §  20. 

Transfer  of  Title. — At  common  law  a  person  can  give 
no  better  title  to  goods  than  he  possesses,  unless  he  acts  as 
the  true  owner's  agent,  or  unless  the  true  owner's  conduct 
respecting  the  goods  has  estopped  him  from  denying  such 
person's  authority  to  sell  them.  (See  Estoppel.)  In  Eng- 
land this  rule  does  not  apply  to  sales  in  Market  Overt 
{q.  !♦.).  and  th(>re,  as  well  as  in  most  of  the  U.  S.,  it  has  been 
modified  by  Factors'  Acts  and  similar  statutes.  The  chief 
feature  of  this  legislation  is  the  power  it  confers  on  agents 
or  consignees,  who  are  intrusted  oy  the  owner  with  goods 
or  with  documentary  evidence  of  title  thereto,  such  as  a  bill 
of  lading,  warehouse  certificate,  delivery  order,  or  the  like, 
to  give  a  perfect  title  to  hona-iide  purchasers.  See  Lee  vs. 
Butler  (189:i),  2  Queen's  Bench  318:  Goodwin  vs.  Mass. 
Company,  152  Mass.  180 ;  Soltau  vs.  Gerdau,  119  N.  Y.  380, 
applying  such  legislation. 

As  delivery  is  not  nofcssary  to  the  transfer  of  ownership 
of  goods,  it  should  follow  that  one  who  has  sold  goods  to  A 
can  not  give  title  to  them  to  B,  although  they  are  allowed 
by  A  to  remain  in  his  possession.  Such  is  the  general  rule. 
In  a  few  of  the  U.  S.  the  courts  have  held  that  a  seller  who 
has  never  delivered  the  gocnls  to  the  first  fiurchaser  may 
confer  a  perfect  title  upon  a  second  hona-fide  buver. 
{Husrhle  vs.  Morris,  131  111.  587.)  The  adoption  of  this 
doctrine  in  the  British  Sale  of  Goods  Act,  §  25,  is  **  the  re- 
sult of  a  long  struggle  between  the  mercantile  community 


on  the  one  hand  and  the  principles  of  the  common  law  o 
the  other." 

We  have  seen  that  the  owner  of  goods  may  deliver  th.  • 
under  a  contract  that  the  title  shall  remain  in  him.  w 
the  performance  of  some  condition  by  the  buyer,  *iu«i,  a 
the  full  payment  of  the  price.  Here  the  common  law  •!■ 
not  recognize  any  power  in  the  conditional  vendt'e  to  i  - 
any  greater  interest  than  he  possesses.  {Harknetis  \>,  /.  ■ 
sell,  118  U.  S.  663.)  A  different  rule  has  been  declan.i  ■ 
the  Pennsylvania  courts,  and  statutes  have  been  pa-^M-,!  w 
many  jurisdictions  requiring  contracts  for  conditional  ni  • 
to  be  in  writing  and  recorded,  in  order  to  be  effectual  apitr  > 
the  buyer's  creditors  and  hona-fide  vendees. 

Sellers  Duties,— The  most  important  is  that  of  deliv«- 
If  the  contract  specifies  the  time,  place,  and  manner  of  . 
livery,  its  terms  must  be  followed.    In  the  absence  of  ai:r.  ■ 
ment  or  custom,  the  seller  must  deliver  the  goods  ujKm  [>«\ 
ment  or  tender  of  the  price;  the  place  of  delivery  i>  •: 
seller's  place  of  business,  or  residence,  or  their  place  of  -* 
posit  at  the  time,  according  to  the  subject-matter  of  rj 
sale;  or,  if  the  seller  is  to  send  the  goods  to  the  vcncUo  «•  i 
distance,  the  place  of  their  receipt  by  the  common  carri*  r 
delivery  must  be  made  at  a  reasonable  hour;   the  ex.i 
quantity  agreed  upon  must  be  delivered.    Any  exf>enK'  n 
cidental  to  putting  the  goods  into  a  deliverable  state  ni<  ^ 
be  borne  by  the  seller.    He  is  also  bound,  when  deliver*: : 
goods  to  a  carrier  on  behalf  of  the  buyer,  to  make  a  reas/.i  a*  * 
contract  for  their  transportation,  and  to  give  accurate  dir. 
tions  for  their  delivery  to  the  buyer.    If  the  buyer  ha>  i. 
had  an  opportunity  to  inspect  the  goods,  the  seller  mii>t  n' 
ford  him  a  reasonable  opportunity  for  inspection  so  that  li 
may  ascertain  whether  they  are  in  accordance  with  tht-  o  : 
tract. 

Buyer* 8  Duties, — The  buyer  is  bound  to  accept  ar<l  i-.i 
for  the  goods,  and,  if  the  terms  of  the  contract  recpiire  / 
he  must  send  for  them.  While  the  buyer  is  under  no  <i .. 
gation  to  accept  a  different  quantity  of  goods  from  ti.  .1 
which  he  ordered,  if  he  does  accept  it  he  must  pav  ther^f  i 
at  the  contract  rate.  In  case  the  buyer  rightfully  n;.  i 
goods  tendered  to  him  by  the  seller,  he  is  under  no*dui\  t| 
return  them  ;  he  need  oiily  inform  the  seller  of  his  rej»"(  li  •. 
The  courts  have  experienced  much  difficulty  in  some  « .i^- 
in  determining  whether  the  buyer  has  accepted  the  j;.  .s 
Perhaps  no  better  rule  can  be  framed  on  this  subjo<»i  i  L  • 
the  one  laid  down  in  the  British  Sale  of  Goods  Act,  j;' :.  • 
" The  buyer  is  deemed  to  have  accepted  the  goods  wlun  :. 
intimates  to  the  seller  that  he  has  accepted  them,  or  wl«: 
the  goods  have  been  delivered  to  him,  and  he  does  any  ."  t 
in  relation  to  them  which  is  inconsistent  with  theowDp'r^'  ' 
of  the  seller,  or  when,  after  the  lapse  of  a  reasonablf  ti:  • 
he  retains  the  goods  without  intimating  to  the  seller  Xhni  ..i 
has  rejected  them." 

Seller's  Remedies, — If  the  property  in  the  subject-iiui"' 
of  the  sale  contract  has  passed  to  the  buyer,  or  if  tho  l«iiv  ] 
has  agreed  to  pay  the  price  on  a  day  named,  the  solKr  « :. 
maintain  an  action  for  the  purchase  price.    In  other  ( .<-  i 
the  buyer's  breach  of  his  contract  will  give  the  selhr  t; 
right  to  maintain  an  action  for  damages  for  refusal  t<»  .i- 
cept  and  pay  for  the  goods.    (See  Damages,  Measirk  of  | 
According  to  English  decisions,  the  refusal  of  the  buvtr '  i 
take  and  pay  for  goods,  the  property  in  which  has  pa^v  t: '  i 
him,  does  not  divest  him  of  such  property,  unless  by  t  hf  !  •  r'H 
of  the  contract  such  a  result  is  stipulate<l  for,  and  with  '-l.j-  ■ 
modifications  such  is  still  the  niie  under  the  Sale  of  (i<- .  ^ 
Act  (§S  39  and  46).    The  doctrine  which  generally  <»l»f''"^ 
in  the  U.  S.  is  as  follows :  **  The  vender  of  personal  ]»roj.«  r* . 
in  a  suit  against  the  vendee  for  not  taking  and  paying'  for »  - 
property,  has  the  choice  ordinarily  of  either  one  of  tl::- 
methods  to  indemnify  himself:  (1)  He  may  store  or  n'- 
the  property  for  the  vendee,  and  sue  him  for  the  entir.-  v  ' 
chase  price  ;  (2)  he  may  sell  the  property,  acting  as  tlnMii.'  -  • 
for  this  purpose  of  the  vendee,  and  recover  the  differmo"  '  •  - 
tween  tne  contract  price  and  the  price  obtaine<l  on  su.  I.  -•  - 
sale ;  or  (3)  he  may  keep  the  property  as  his  own.  ami  '•  - 
cover  the  difference  between  the  marJcet  price  at  tho  tr- 
and  place  of  delivery  and  the  contract  price."    (/>«>/«/"  •>' 
Mc Andrew,  44  N.  Y'.  72.)    Other  remedies  of  the  selU  r  ar- 
discussed  under  Stoppaoe  in  Transftu  {q.  r.). 

Buyer's  Remedies. — These  are  an  action  for  damairrs  f  ' 
breach  of  the  seller's  contract,  or  for  Conversion  (q.  f. .  • ' 
for  Specific  Performance  {q.  v,). 

Other  topics  connected  with  sales  of  personal  antl  n  ■ 
property  are  presented  in  the  articles  on  Deed  and  Fbai  i»-. 
Statute  of  {q,  v,). 


266 


SALEM 


SALERNO 


$28,360,000,  of  which  $16,463,000  was  on  real  estate ;  and  the 
net  debt,  Jan.  1, 1895,  was  $1,100,523.  There  are  7  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  $2,000,000,  2  savings-banks 
with  combined  deposits  of  $12,000,000,  and  8  mutual  insur- 
ance companies. 

Business  Interests, — Salem  merchants  early  established 
fishing  industries ;  in  1670  sent  vessels  to  the  West  Indies 
and  Europe ;  and  immediately  after  the  lievolutionary  war 
opened  trade  with  China,  India,  Java,  Sumatra,  the  Philip- 
pine islands,  Arabia,  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Russia,  South 
America,  and  other  foreign  parts.  For  many  years  the  city 
was  noted  for  its  large  foreign  trade,  and  at  one  time  had 
almost  the  monopoly  of  the  East  India  and  China  trade ;  but 
it  no  longer  has  a*  foreign  commerce.  There  is  a  large 
coasting  trade,  and  an  immense  tonnage  of  coal  is  here 
landed  for  transshipment  to  interior  cities.  The  manufac- 
tories comprise  a  cotton-mill  with  160,000  spindles,  a  lead- 
factory,  and  several  tanneries,  machine-shops,  and  shoe-fac- 
tories. 

Notable  Buildings. — There  are  a  few  buildings  typical  of 
the  period  of  1634-1700.  The  public  library  (established 
in  lifeO)  contains  29,000  volumes ;  the  Essex  Institute  (soci- 
ety established  in  1848)  has  a  library  of  40,000  volumes,  and 
1()0,000  pamphlets  on  science,  art,  local  history,  and  music, 
a  large  collection  of  historical  relics  and  portraits,  and  the 
frame  of  the  Puritan  meeting-house  of  1634 ;  the  Peabody 
Academy  of  Science  has  a  museum  of  ethnology  (including 
an  East  India  marine  museum  dating  from  1799)  and  zool- 
ogy, and  special  collections  of  Essex  County  zoSlogy,  botany, 
and  archaBology ;  and  the  Athenasum  has  a  library  of  20ft60 
volumes. 

History. — Salem  was  settled  by  Roger  Conant  and  the 
"  Old  Planters  "  in  1626.  Endicott,  with  a  second  charter, 
came  in  1628.  Banished  by  the  magistrates,  against  the 
wishes  of  his  people,  Roger  Williams  went  from  Salem  to 
settle  Rhode  Island  in  1636.  In  1692,  as  the  result  of  the 
witchcraft  delusion  in  Salem  village  (Danvers),  nineteen 
persons  were  hanged  by  order  of  the  court,  appointed  by  the 
royal  governor,  sitting  in  Salem.  Here,  too,  the  awakening 
first  occurred,  and  in  1693  all  convicted  and  accused  persons 
were  set  free.  In  the  Revolution  the  first  provincial  assem- 
bly sat  here  in  1774;  the  first  armed  resistance  to  British 
authority  (Leslie's  Retreat)  occurred  at  the  North  bridge 
Feb.  26, 1775 ;  and  Salem  furnished  large  numbers  of  troops 
and  158  armed  privateers.  The  U.  S.  frigate  Essex  was 
built  in  Salem  in  1799.  In  the  war  of  1812-15,  40  of  the 
250  American  armed  vessels  went  from  Salem,  and  in  the 
war  of  1861-65  the  citv  furnished  3,000  men  and  gave  200 
lives  to  the  Union  cause.     Pop.  (1880)  27,563 ;'  (1890)  30,801. 

John  Robinson. 

Salem :  city  (founded  in  1854) ;  capital  of  Dent  co.,  Mo. ; 
on  the  St.  L.  and  San  Fran.  Railway ;  127  miles  S.  W.  of 
St.  Louis  (for  location,  see  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  6-1).  It  is 
in  an  agricultural,  stock-raising,  and  iron-raining  region ; 
and  contains  7  churches,  Salem  Academy,  5  roller-process 
flour-mills,  3  steam  planing-mills,  several  sawmills,  2  State 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  $40,000.  and  4  weekly  news- 
papers. Pop.  (1880)  1,624;  (1890)  1,315;  1895  estimated, 
2,000.  Editor  of  "  Monitor." 

Salem :  city ;  capital  of  Salem  co.,  N.  J. ;  on  the  Salem 
river,  and  the  W.  Jersey  Railroad ;  14  miles  S.  E.  of  Wil- 
mington, Del.,  34  miles  S.  W.  of  Philadelphia  (for  location, 
see  map  of  New  Jersey,  ref.  6-B).  It  is  in  a  rich  agricultural 
region,  has  regular  steamboat  communication  with  Philadel- 
phia, and  contains  13  churches,  high  school,  several  public 
schools.  Friends'  School,  public  library  (founded  in  1804),  4 
hotels,  2  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $250,()(X), 
and  3  weekly  newspapers.  There  are  6  canneries  for  fruit 
and  vegetables,  3  iron-foundries,  3  manufactories  of  glass, 
machine-shops,  mills,  hosiery,  and  hollow-ware  and  oilcloth 
factories.    Pop.  (1880)  5,056 ;  (1890)  5.516. 

W.  II.  Chew,  editor  of  "  Standard." 

Salem :  village ;  capital  of  Washington  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on 
the  Delaware  and  Huason  Railroad :  25  miles  S.  of  White- 
hall, 41  miles  N.  E.  of  Troy  (for  location,  see  map  of  New 
York,  ref.  4-K).  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  dairying,  and  slate- 
quarrying  region,  is  a  popular  summer  resort,  and  contains 
Washington  Academy  (opened  in  1791),  St.  Paul's  Hall 
(E^rotestant  Episcopal,  opened  in  1885),  Raleigh  School,  2 
national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  1 100,000,  2  weekly 
newspapers,  cheese-factory,  several  mills,  and  railwav  re- 
pair-shops. Pop.  (1880)  1,410;  (1890)  not  separately  re- 
turned ;  (1894)  estimated,  1,400. 


Salem:  city  (founded  by  Moravians  in  1766):  Forsyth 
CO.,  N.  C. ;  on  branches  of  the  Norfolk  and  Western  an«: 
the  Southern  railways;  adjoining  Winston,  the  railway  sIh- 
tion  and  banking-place  ;  112  miles  W.  of  Raleigh  {{otUhh- 
tion,  see  map  of  North  Carolina,  ref.  2-F).  It  was  the  cen- 
ter of  important  movements  in  the  early  Indian  ami  ih' 
Revolutionary  wars,  and  was  visited  by  Union  and  Con fe< It-r- 
ate armies  in  the  war  of  1861-65.  It  is  the  seat  of  Saleii: 
Female  Academv  (Moravian,  founded  in  1802).  wliioh  re- 
tains its  original  name,  although  it  has  bettome  one  of  tl.e 
leading  colleges  for  women  in  the  Southern  States  and  lia^ 
collegiate  and  post-graduate  courses,  .schools  of  niusio,  art. 
and  languages,  and  commercial  and  industrial  depart  men  t>. 
The  manufactories  comprise  cotton  and  woolen  mills.  i«k 
bacco-factories,  and  iron-works.  Pop.  (1880)  1,340;  (lK«h 
2,711 ;  (1894)  estimated,  4,000  to  5,000.  John  H.  Clewell. 

Salem:  city;  Columbiana  co.,  0.;  on  the  Salem  and  the 
Penn.  railways;  70  miles  W.  of  Pittsburg,  Pa.  (for  local i^ui, 
see  map  of  Ohio.  ref.  3-J).  It  contains  7  churches.  3  grntU  A 
public  schools,  a  public  high  school,  2  national  banks  with 
combined  capital  of  $300,000,  2  private  banks,  2  daily  ami 
2  weeklv  newspapers,  and  manufactories  of  machinery,  en- 
gines, sWet-iron,  church-organs,  wire  nails,  pumps,  stovi-s, 
furniture,  and  other  articles,  art-works,  church-furniture 
works,  tile- works,  and  brick- works.  Pop.  (1880)  4,<M1 ; 
(1890)  5,780 ;  (1893)  7,320.  Editor  of  "  Daily  News." 

Salem:  city;  capital  of  the  State  of  Oregon  and  uf  Ma- 
rion (bounty;  on  the  Willamette  river,  and  the  Southt-m 
Pac.  Railroad;  53  miles  S.  of  Portland  (for  location,  stt- 
map  of  Oregon,  ref.  3-CJ.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  an«l  fruit- 
growing region ;  is  laid  out  with  streets  100  feet  wide,  and 
blocks  330  feet  square,  with  16-foot  alleys;  and  is  oik- 
of  the  handsomest  cities  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  has  c(*niinu- 
nication  with  Portland  twice  a  day  by  railway  and  onct*  a 
day  by  steamboat.  Water  for  manufacturing  purp<>tit\s  i^ 
brought  to  the  city  from  the  Willamette  and  Santiam  ri\  er> 
by  a  canal  18  miles  long.  In  1890  over  |1,000,000  was  in- 
vested  in  manufacturing  industries,  which  included  several 
large  flour-mills,  a  woolen-mill,  foundries  and  maehint?- 
shops,  tanneries,  tobacco-factories,  plants  for  fruit-dry iii;r 
and  canning,  carriage  and  wagon  factories,  brick-kilns,  and 
agricultural-implement  works.  The  city  contains  2  i»nl)- 
lic  parks,  20  churches,  a  public  high  school  and  5  gramnijir 
schools,  a  State,  a  Masonic,  and  2  educational  libraries,  Wil- 
lamette University  (Methodist  Episcopal,  opened  in  lK44i, 
the  Academy  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (Roman  C'atholic,  ojumm  li 
in  1860),  a  Friends'  Institute  (opened  in  1892),  2  nati«T..i; 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  $175,000,  an  incorffoniit*! 
bank,  2  private  banks,  and  4  daily,  4  weekly,  and  2  iitli»r 
periodicals.  The  reformatory  and  charitable  instituiiniK 
comprise  the  State  Penitentiary,  Reform  School,  Deaf  Mute 
School,  Institute  for  the  Blind,  Insane  Asylum,  and  <  Or- 
phans' Home.  The  city  is  an  important  business  cent.  r. 
and  is  very  progressive.  A  Methodist  mission  was  estab- 
lished 9  miles  Ixjlow  the  present  city  in  1834;  the  city  va- 
incorporated  in  1853,  and  became  the  State  capital  in  'l^t>u. 
Pop.  (1880)  2,538;  (1890)  4,515;  (1895)  estimated.  15,000. 

S.  T.  Richardson. 

Salem:  town;  capital  of  Roanoke  co.,  Va. ;  on  the  Hi.nti- 
oke  river,  and  the  Norfolk  and  Western  Railroad:  60  nulrs 
W.  by  S.  of  Lynchburg.  180  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Hiohniond 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Virginia,  ref.  6-E).  It  is  in  an  airri- 
cultural  and  tobacco-raising  region,  is  the  seat  of  Roaxoki 
College  {q.  v.),  has  good  water-power,  and  contains  a  pnui*  -t 
public  school,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  ^To.WHJ,  a 
State  bank  with  capital  of  $67,300,  a  loan  and  trust  v*'iu- 
pan V  with  capital  of  J?50,000,  and  a  weekly  and  a  mouthh 
periodical.     Pop.  (1880)  1,759 ;  (1890)  3,279. 

Saleratns :  See  Sal  AEratus. 

Saler'no:  chief  town  of  the  province  of  Salerno,  ItaW : 
33  miles  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Naples,  on  the  Gulf  of  Sahr!!.- 
(see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  7-F).  The  chief  object  of  int*  rt  -? 
is  the  old  Norman  cathedral  (1084),  injuriouslv  restored  ni 
1768,  but  still  the  most  imposing  specimen  of  Nomian  anln- 
tecture  in  Southern  Italy,  and  containing,  besides  rii-h  mar- 
bles and  mosaics,  twenty-eight  magnificent  granite  ami  |^  r- 
phyry  columns  from  the  temples  of  Paestum.  Traditii>n  a>- 
serts  that  the  body  of  St.  Matthew  was  brought  from  ilu 
East  in  930  and  deposited  in  the  crypt  of  the  cath«tlr»: 
Salerno  was  originalty  a  Roman  colony  ;  it  became  the  i-aji- 
tal  of  a  principality  in  the  ninth  century,  and  in  10T7  it 
was  taken  by  Robert  Guiscard,  who  made  it  his  capital.    Tht 


ft'^tttf^f 


WlilM^       fVii..    V 


•IjP-'JllHi 


ri^^iTW*  **» 


K4tj 


►t    Hi  vrn-iit.  u-nit/)  .- inu  :  Nipnuh  ♦vT 


268 


SALIGENIN 


SALISBURY 


adult  the  following  skeletal  peculiarities  may  be  mentioned : 
Ribs  as  a  rule  are  lacking,  their  place  being  taken  by  the 
transverse  processes  of  the  few  (usually  ten)  vertebrae.  The 
caudal  vertobrro  have  been  replaced  by  a  bony  rod  (urostyle). 
The  skull  is  very  complex ;  the  ethmoid  bone  is  in  the  shape 
of  a  girdle  (oa  en  eeinture)  around  the  cerebrum,  and  tne 
quadrato-jugal  arch  is  usually  complete.  Teeth  never  occur 
in  the  lower  jaw,  and  they  may  be  lacking  from  the  upper 
one.  Pectoral  and  pelvic  girdles  are  always  present,  and 
the  two  halves  of  the  former  may  either  be  firmly  united  or 
they  may  play  one  over  the  other',  differences  seized  upon  by 
Prof.  Cope  to  divide  the  otherwise  homogeneous  order  into 
two  subdivisions.  The  skin  is  naked  (i.  e.  without  plates  or 
scales),  but  it  is  not  infrequently  "  warty,"  from  the  presence 
of  large  defensive  glands  which  secrete  an  acrid  fluia.  In  all 
except  a  few  tropical  fonns  a  tongue  is  present,  and  is  used  in 
capturing  the  prey,  which  consists  to  a  large  extent  of  insects. 

some  of  the  Salientia  are  aquatic  (frogs),  some  (toads) 
are  terrestrial,  going  into  the  water  only  for  the  purpose  of 
oviposition  in  the  spring,  and  still  others  (tree-toads)  live  in 
trees  and  bushes,  and  have  the  tips  of  the  toes  modified  into 
sucking-disks  to  insure  a  firm  hold  upon  the  branches  upon 
which  they  dwell.  All  of  the  Salientia  have  vocal  organs, 
but  these  are  most  exercised  at  the  time  of  reproduction. 
Most  interesting  are  some  of  the  reproductive  habits.  The 
eggs  are  laid  in  gelatinous  strings  or  masses,  usually  depos- 
ited freely  in  the  water.  In  the  case  of  the  obstetrical  toad 
of  Europe  the  male  wraps  the  egg-strings  around  himself. 
In  the  members  of  the  genus  Notoirema  of  South  America 
the  skin  of  the  back  becomes  folded  into  a  sac  in  which  the 
eggs  are  carried  until  hatchetl.  In  the  Surinam  toad  {Pirn) 
the  eggs  are  received  upon  the  back  of  the  male,  the  sKin 
of  which  grows  up  around  the  separate  eggs  until  each  is 
inclosed  in  a  cup  and  covered  with  a  lid  of  skin.  In  these 
cups  the  eggs  develop  until  they  have  obtained  the  adult 
form,  when  they  escape  to  begin  free  life. 

None  of  the  Salientia  is  marine.  Their  great  home  is 
in  the  tropics.  The  typical  toads  are  especially  developed 
in  tropical  America,  Africa,  and  Asia ;  the  true  tree-frogs 
and  related  forms  are  most  abundant  in  Australia  and  trop- 
ical America ;  and  the  typical  frogs  are  most  numerous  m 
tropical  Asia  and  Africa,  while  they  are  entirely  excluded 
from  Australia.  Comparatively  little  is  known  of  their  geo- 
logical history,  but  frogs  and  toads  have  been  found  in  the 
Upper  Eocene  of  Europe. 

LiTERATUBE.— Ecker,  Anatomie  des  Froaches  (1864-62); 
Boulenger,  Catalogue  of  the  Batrachia  Salientia  in  British 
Museum  (London,  1882) ;  CJope,  Batrachia  of  Xorth  Amer- 
ica (1889).  J.  S.  KiNGSLEY. 

Saligenln :  See  Salicin. 

Sairna :  citv ;  capital  of  Saline  co.,  Kan. ;  on  the  Smoky 
Hill  river,  and  the  Atch.,  Top.  and  S.  F6,  the  Chi.,  Rock  Is. 
and  Pac.,  the  Mo.  Pac.,  and  the  Union  Pac.  railways ;  47 
miles  W.  of  Junction  City,  118  miles  W.  of  Topeka,  the 
State  capital  (for  location,  see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  5-G),  It 
derives  power  for  manufacturing  from  the  river,  has  5  grain 
elevators,  flour-mills,  paper-mills,  and  planing-mills,  foundry 
and  machine  shops,  gas,  water,  and  electric-light  plants,  and 
street-railways,  and  contains  16  churches,  5  public  schools, 
Kansas  Wesleyan  University  (Methodist  Episcopal,  chartered 
in  1885),  Normal  University,  St.  John's  School  (Protestant 
Episcopal),  3  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $250,- 
000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  and  a  daily,  5 
weekly,  and  3  monthly  periodicals.  There  are  valuable  salt- 
springs  and  gypsum-quarries  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  (1880) 
8,111;  (1890)6,149;  (1894)5,541. 

Editor  of  "  Republican  Journal." 

Sallna  Group:  an  American  geological  formation  of 
Upper  Silurian  age,  otherwise  known  as  the  Onondaga  salt 
group.  It  consists  of  red  and  green  shales  and  impure  lime- 
stone, containing  large  masses  of  gypsum,  and  is  best  devel- 
oped in  Central  New  York,  where  it  is  about  1,000  feet  thick 
and  forms  an  east-and-west  belt  averaging  about  10  miles 
broad,  passing  through  Syracuse.  It  is  the  source  of  brine 
from  which  8,000,000  to  "12,000,000  bush,  of  salt  are  made 
annually.  I.  C.  R. 

Sali^nan  Indians :  a  linguistic  stock  of  North  American 
Indians  deriving  its  name  from  the  Salinas  river,  California, 
in  the  main  and  tributary  valleys  of  which,  in  Monterey  and 
San  Luis  Obispo  Counties,  they  formerly  resided.  It  is  rep- 
resented by  a  single  known  tribe,  the  Chalone,  whose  villages 
were  Aspasniagan,  C-hulare,  Ekgiagan,  Eslanagan,  Gocharone, 
Ichenta,  and  Yumanagan.    These  settlements  supplied  the 


neophytes  of  the  missions  of  San  Antonio  and  San  MigiK^l.  r-*'- 
tablished  by  the  Spanish  padres  in  1771  and  1797  resjiect  i\  v\\. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  natives  connected  with  the  Soled  u<j 
mission,  founded  in  1791,  also  belonged  to  this  family,  aux 
some  of  the  Aspasniagan  were  neophytes  of  the  mi^sion  «'f 
San  Carlos. 

In  their  general  habits  and  customs  the  Salinan  Indian- 
resembled  the  Costanoan,  Esselenian,  Mariposan,  and  utii  i 
southern  Central  California  tribes.  By  Graliano,  in  17J«J. 
they  were  described  as  of  medium  size,  dark  color,  and  a- 
being  the  ugliest  and  filthiest  of  the  natives  of  Am^^ri^a. 
They  led  in  part  an  agricultural  and  pastoral  life.  Tlu-.r 
houses  were  circular  and  were  constructed  of  stones  or 
adobes  and  roofed  with  thatch. 

Though  the  San  Antonio  and  San  Miguel  tribes  won- 
probably  never  very  populous,  the  missions  bearing  th<i~' 
names  when  first  established  contained  respectively  l,4<«i 
and  1,200  Indians.  In  1884  only  a  dozen  Indians  of  thr 
Salinan  group  were  known  to  survive. 

Authorities. — D.  A.  Galiano,  Viaje  por  las  goletas  Sufi! 
y  Mexicana  en  1792  (Madrid,  1802);  Alexander  S.  Tavlor, 
Tndianology  of  California^  in  California  Farmer  (San  F'ran- 
cisco,  1860-63) ;  H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  California,  vol*. 
i.-vii.  (San  Francisco,  1884-90);  H.  Yn.  Uenshaw,  Mi.s^it>n^ 
of  California^  in  Popular  Science  Monthly  (Aug.,  181M)):  .1. 
W.  Powell,  Indian  Linguistic  Families,  seventh  rrjH.r 
Bureau  of  Ethnology  (Washington,  1891).  See  Indian**  <»f 
North  America.  F.  W.  II  oik;  i:. 

Sali'nas:  city;  capital  of  Monterey  cc,  Cal. ;  on  tit. 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad ;  94  miles  S.  E.  of  San  Francis  .. 
(for  location,  see  map  of  (California,  ref.  9-C).  It  is  in  ar, 
agricultural,  stock-raising,  and  wool-growing  region,  aixi 
has  6  churches,  a  public  high  school,  2  State  banks  with  (Com- 
bined capital  of  $420,000, 2  agricultural-implement  factors  >», 
electric  lights,  and  2  daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers,  l**-].. 
(1880)  1,854;  (1890)  2,339;  (1895)  estimated,  3,500. 

Editor  of  "Journal." 

Sallne^vllle:  village;  Columbiana  co.,  0.;  on  the  Peim. 
Railroad;  80  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Alliance,  63  miles  W.  N.  W. 
of  Pittsburg  (for  location,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  3-J).  It  i^ 
in  a  coal-mming  region,  and  contains  a  private  bank  and  a 
weekly  newspaper.    Pop.  (1880)  2,302;  (1890)  2,369. 

Sallnonieter :  a  form  of  Hydrometer  (q.  i\)  for  measur- 
ing the  amount  of  salt  in  a  given  solution. 

Salisbury,  sawlz'berrv,  or  New  Samm:  capital  of  Wilt- 
shire, England ;  in  a  valley  near  the  confluence  of  the  Avi.u. 
Bourne,  Wily, and  Nadder ;  84  miles  W.  S.  W. of  Ijon<l<>n  («-».* 
map  of  England,  ref.  13-11).  It  has  a  magnificent  cathi-ti  rai. 
which  is  the  purest  and  richest  specimen  of  the  Early  Ki.j- 
lish  style.  The  main  building  was  constructed  122()-r»<  ir. 
the  form  of  a  double  cross.  Tne  cloisters  and  chapter-h<»u^.* 
were  added  in  1270,  and  the  spire,  the  highest  in  En^lar»  i 
(400  feet),  was  erected  about  1330 ;  it  leans  over  2  feet  to>*  ara 
the  S.  It  is  449  feet  long  and  81  feet  high  in  the  interi  r; 
the  length  of  the  great  transept  is  203  feet.  It  was  much 
damaged  by  injudicious  restoration  (1782-91),  but  this  li:t« 
been  considerably  remedied  by  a  restoration  begun  by  Mr 
Gilbert  Scott  in  1863,  and  continued  afterward  by  Strt»et  and 
Sir  Arthur  Blom field.  Old  Sarum  (Sorhiodunum),  in  Kt- 
man  times  a  camp  of  imporiance,  stood  about  a  mile  X.  cf 
the  present  city.  It  consists  of  a  conical  hill  encircled  with 
intrenchments.  Salisbury  returns  one  member  to  Parlia- 
ment.    Pop.  (1891)  17,362.  R.  A.  Robert>. 

Salisbury:  township  (settled  about  1720,  organize<l  in 
1740);  Litchfield  co.,  (^onn. ;  on  the  Housatonic  rivtr,  ariii 
the  Phila,,  Reading  and  New  Eng.  Railroad ;  63  miles  N.  W. 
of  Hartford  (for  lfK?ation,  see  map  of  Connecticut,  ref.  7-r>'. 
It  contains  the  villages  of  Salisbury,  Lakeville,  and  Liriu» 
Rock,  7  churches,  public  schools,  kindergartens,  a  }^r»- 
chial  school,  Scoville  Memorial  Library,  Connecticut  Stha  il 
for  Imbeciles,  St.  Mary's  Convent,  Hotchkiss  School,  a  sav- 
ings society,  and  a  private  bank.  It  is  picturesquely  kH-au-i 
and  has  6  large  lakes  and  a  variety  of  mountain' sitMurv. 
Salisbury  contains  iron  mines  (yielding  the  widely  kno^^ri 
Salisbury  ore),  blast  furnaces,  car-wheel  works,  and*  cutJtr\ 
and  cutlery-handle  factories.  The  assessed  valuation  of  ti  *- 
township  is  about  |;l, 800,000.  Pop. (1880) 3,715:  a85K)»8,4-JO: 
(1895)  estimated,  3,500.  Donald  T.  Warxer. 

Salisbury:  town ;  capital  of  Wicomico  co.,  Md, ;  on  t^  ♦• 
Wicomico  river,  and  the  Bait,  and  E.  Shore  and  the  N.  ^^. 
Phila.  and  Norfolk  railways;  95  miles  S.  E.  of  Annaj^li-, 
the  State  capital,  140  miles  S.  E.  of  Baltimore  (for  locHti>>ii. 


270 


SALIVATION 


SALMON 


discovered.  The  parotid  has  one  large  duct^  the  duct  of 
Steno ;  the  sub-maxillary,  the  duct  of  Wharton ;  the  sub- 
lingual— from  eight  to  twenty  minute  ducts  opening  in- 
dependently beneath  the  tongue — the  ducts  of  Rivinius; 
and  a  few  uniting  to  form  a  single  duct,  the  duct  of  Bar- 
tholine,  which  joins  that  of  Wharton.  These  ducts,  their 
branches,  and  the  interior  of  the  glands  are  lined  with  epi- 
thelial cells.  The  process  of  secretion,  more  or  less  con- 
stant, is  most  active  during  the  mastication  of  food ;  then 
saliva  is  abundantly  formed  and  poured  into  the  mouth. 
The  salivary  glands  are  the  seat  of  disease — mumps  or  paro- 
tiditis, a  specific  inflammation  (see  Mumps)  of  the  parotid; 
inflammation  and  abscess  of  the  parotid  in  low  fevers :  de- 
posits of  diphtheritic  infiltration  m  some  cases  of  that  dis- 
ease ;  not  infrequently  concretions  of  chalkv  matter  form  in 
the  glands.  Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

SaliTatlon  [from  Lat.  mliva'tio,  deriv.  of  salivare,  aa- 
liva'tus^  to  spit,  salivate,  deriv.  of  aali'vdX :  a  specific  irrita- 
tion of  the  salivary  glands,  mouth,  and  throat.  Though 
most  frequently  due  to  mercury,  it  may  be  caused  by  other 
drugs,  as  iodine,  and  may  occur  in  certain  diseases.  In  for- 
mer years  mercurv,  in  heroic  doses,  ranked  as  a  remedy  sec- 
ond only  to  bloodletting.  Salivation,  though  now  rare,  was 
then  a  frequent  occurrence — intentionally  produced  in  many 
cases,  in  others  the  accidental  result  of  large  doses  and  in- 
dividual susceptibility.  Children  will  endure  large 
doses  of  mercurials  without  salivation ;  adults  are 
relatively  susceptible.  An  active  state  of  the  skin, 
kidneys,  and  bowels,  and  a  healthy  state  of  the 
mouth,  favor  immunity  from  salivation,  even  when 
the  mercurial  taken  is  considerable ;  reversely,  if 
opium  or  any  remedy  which  checks  the  functional 
excretions  be  taken  before  or  at  the  same  time,  even 
small  doses  of  mercury  may  salivate.  Salivation  is 
manifested  by  a  coppery  or  metallic  taste,  by  sore- 
ness of  the  gums,  tenderness  of  the  jaws  and  t«eth 
when  pressed  together  or  closed  with  force,  excess- 
ive secretion  and  flow  of  saliva,  even  dribbling  from 
the  mouth ;  swollen,  red,  ulcerated  gums ;  swollen,  coated, 
salvy  tongue,  taking  the  imprint  of  the  teeth ;  and  a  foul 
"  mercurial  "  breath.  In  grave  cases,  spongy,  bleeding, 
sloughing  gums,  loosened  teeth,  swelling  of  the  face  and 
neck,  and  even  gangrene  of  the  mouth,  may  result.  There  is 
accompanying  constitutional  depression,  fever,  pain,  and 
sleeplessness.  Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Sal'lnst  (Gains  Sallttstius  Crtspus) :  historian ;  b.  86 
B.  c.  at  Amiternura,  in  the  counti^  of  the  Sabines,  of  a 
wealthy  plebeian  familjr ;  elected  trtbunua  plebia  in  52  ;  ex- 
pelled from  the  senate  in  50  by  the  censors  on  account  of 
the  dissipated  and  scandalous  life  he  led ;  reinstated  in  the 
senatorial  dignity  in  49  by  being  elected  quaestor  by  the  aid 
of  CfiBsar,  to  whose  party  ne  belonged,  and  whom  he  as  prae- 
tor accompanied  to  Africa  in  46 ;  was  appointed  proconsul 
of  Numidia,  and  returned  to  Rome  loaded  witn  riches; 
formed  the  magnificent  fforti  Salluatiani  on  the  Quirinalis, 
and  lived  in  luxurious  retirement,  devoting  himself  to  the 
study  of  history.  D.  at  Rome,  34  b.  c.  Of  his  Hisioriarum 
Libri  Quinque  only  fragments  are  extant,  but  his  Bellum 
Catilinarium  and  Bellum  Jugurthinum  have  been  pre- 
served, and  are  much  appreciated.  Editions  by  Gerlach  (8 
vols.,  Basel.  1823-31),  Dietsch  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1859),  Kritz 
(3  vols.,  1828-53) ;  English  translations  by  Sir  H.  Steuart 
(1806),  by  Watson  (1852).  and  by  J.  R.  Mongan  (1864).  New 
fragments  of  the  histories  were  discovered  in  1886  by  E. 
Hauler  in  an  Orleans  palimpsest ;  see  Wiener  Studien  (viii., 
p.  315,  and  ix.,  p.  25),  and  the  edition  of  II.  Jordan  (Berlin, 
1887);  also  Sauusfi  hiatoriarum  reliquiw,  ed.  B.  Mauren- 
brecher  (fasc.  i.,  Leipzig,  1891 ;  fasc.  ii.,  1893). 

Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Salma'sluB,  Claudius  {Claude  de  Saumaiae):  cla^ssical 
scholar ;  b.  at  Semur-en-Auxois,  Cote-d'Or,  France,  Apr.  15, 
1588 ;  studied  at  Paris  and  Heidelberg ;  embraced  Protes- 
tantism; was  appointeil  professor  at  the  University  of  Ley- 
den  in  1631.  The  ambition  of  his  wife,  theological  contro- 
versies, and  above  all  the  scandal  caused  by  his  Defensio 
rtgiapro  Carolo  I.  (1649),  which  called  forth  the  memorable 
reply  of  Milton,  induced  him  to  accept  a  flattering  invita- 
tion from  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden  (1650).  The  climate 
did  not  agree  with  him,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Leyden 
urged  him  to  return,  because  *' their  university  could  as 
little  be  without  him  as  the  univei*se  without  the  sun."  He 
left  Stockholm  in  1651,  but  died  Sept.  3,  1653,  at  Spa.  Sal- 
masius  is  one  of  the  great  encyclopaedists  of  his  time,  the 


high  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  being  well  attested  by 
Balsac's  famous  saying, "  Non  homini  sed  scientiae  deest  (ju^hi 
nescivit  Sabnasius";  but,  unlike  his  illustrious  cont»Mii(*«  • 
raries,  Scaliger,  Casaubon,  and  Lipsius,  his  immense  eruiii- 
tion  was  not  kept  under  control,  and  in  conseqiiemv  hi- 
numerous  works  present  a  confused  mass  of  leamtnl  detail., 
accumulated  without  regard  to  methodical  arrangeinriii 
and  clearness  of  exposition.  As  a  text  critic,  Saima>iij^ 
never  occupied  any  high  rank.  In  1606  he  discover»*<i  iii 
Heidelberg  the  Greek  Anthology  of  Kephalas,  only  the  5*»- 
called  Anihologia  Flanudea  having  been  known  up  to  t)mi 
time.  His  most  famous  works  are  his  Pliniance  tjrerciitt- 
tionea  in  Solinum  (1629)  and  a  critical  edition  of  the  Srrip- 
torea  Hiatotim  Augiiatw  (1620),  to  which  may  be  added  tht 
learned  treatises  ^e  lingua  nelleniaiica  (1643),  De  f/,»i/M.*. 
and  De  re  militari  Jtomanonim  (1657).  See  Fr.  Cn-uzfr, 
Opuacula  II.  (pp.  65-75) ;  Saxe,  Onomaaticon  1 V.  (pp.  18f<H  ff.  \. 

Alfred  Gudkhan. 
Salmon  [via  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  aal'mo,  salmo'nis,  salmon ; 
cf.  adli're,  to  leap]:  a  name  given  to  several  species  of  lh<- 
genus  Salmo  of  the  Atlantic,  characterized  by  anatlronums 
habits  (that  is,  by  their  ascending  from  the  sea  into  fre*-h 
waters  to  breed),  as  well  as  to  the  species  of  the  genus  Ori- 
corhynchua  of  the  Pacific.  The  species  belonging  to  the 
genus  Sahno  have  only  about  eleven  rays  to  tne  anal  fia, 


The  Atlantic  salmon. 

while  those  of  the  genus  Oneorhynchus  have  fourteen  to 
eighteen.  All  of  these  agree  essentially  in  habits.  Their 
natural  home  is  the  salt  water,  for  there  they  obtain  their 
food  and  rapidly  increase  in  size ;  toward  autumn  thev  as- 
cend rivers,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  source,  to  spawn.  Dur- 
ing their  sojourn  in  fresh  water  they  almost  entirely  abstain 
from  food  and  alter  considerably*  in  appearance';  thi>  »ii- 
vergence  from  the  normal  form  is  most  apparent  in  the  malv. 
The  snout  becomes  attenuated  and  more  or  less  hooke<i.aiid 
the  lower  jaw  is  modified  in  a  similar  manner;  the  \**j*\\ 
becomes  emaciated,  and  the  skin  decked  with  glowing  htciil 
colors.  In  the  salmon  of  Europe  and  Eastern  America  thi^ 
is  temporary,  and  the  males  in  considerable  proportion  lU*- 
scend  to  the  sea,  revive,  and  assume  their  pristine  vigor  and 
form.  Some  of  the  species  of  the  genus  Oneorhynchus  ot 
the  Pacific  coast  become  so  abnormally  developed  that  aftt-r 
spawning  they  die,  and  their  carcasses  are  left  by  myriaiis 
in  the  waters  they  have  traversed. 

Salmo  aalar  is  common  to  the  cold  waters  of  Europe  an<l 
North  America.  In  the  U.  S.  it  is  nowhere  abundant  ex- 
cept in  some  rivers  of  Maine,  although  in  British  America 
there  are  a  number  of  streams  in  which  it  is  found  in  lartre 
numbers.  It  is  generally  believed  that  in  former  tinu-s. 
and  when  the  country  was  discovered  bv  Europeans,  the 
species  was  found  farther  S.,  and  Hendrik  Hudson,  in  the 
journal  of  his  ascent  of  the  river  which  bears  his  name, 
records  **  great  stores  of  salmon  in  the  river."  It  is  t(»l dr- 
ably certain,  however,  that  the  fish  called  by  him  sahnon 
was  the  weakfish  {Cynoscion  regalia)^  of  the  family  «Sri^r- 
/urfo",  having  no  relation  to  the  Salmonidce..  The  salm«»n- 
rivers  of  Canada  are  controlled  by  the  Government  and  Ivt 
for  private  use. 

Tlie  extreme  youne  is  banded,  and  also  has  red  spots.  In 
this  state  it  was  long  known  under  the  name  of  parr,  and  sup- 
posed to  represent  a  distinct  species  of  the  family.  Other 
names  are  samlet,  salmon-fry,  and  pink.  When  about  r 
year  old,  and  when  the  spots  have  disappeared  and  it  Iv- 
comcs  of  a  bright  silvery  color  before  going  to  the  sea.  it  i.- 
called  a  amoU  \  after  its  return  from  the  sea  into  itvA. 
water  it  is  designated  as  a  grilae;  and  finally,  on  its  seii»mi 
return  from  the  sea,  it  is  known  as  a  salmon. 

Oneorhynchus  quinnat  is  the  common  salmon,  king-sal m<m. 
or  (luiiinat,  of  California  and  farther  N. ;  it  is  a  much  dovp«r 
fish  than  the  Eastern  species,  and  is,  further,  at  once  ui- 
tinguishable  bv  the  greater  number  of  anal  rays — fifteen  or 
sixteen  generally.    1  his  species  will  live  and  flourish  in  much 


272 


SALONICA 


SALT 


and  military  respects.  The  Emperor  Diocletian  was  bom 
here,  and  3  miles  to  the  S.  W.  he  built  in  308  a.  d.  the  fa- 
mous palace,  coverine;  8  acres,  to  which  he  retired  after  his 
abdication.  The  city  and  the  palace  were  destroyed  in  641 
by  the  Avars,  but  on  the  site  of  the  palace  and  out  of  its 
ruins  arose  the  modern  town  of  SpAi&to—SaloncB  Palatium, 
See  Spalato.  Revised  by  M.  \V.  Harrington. 

Saloni^ca  [Turk.  Selanik,  anc.  e€aaa\oviicfi,  Thessalonica, 
whence  the  modern  name] :  city ;  capital  of  the  Ottoman  vila- 
yet of  Salonica,  which  nearly  corresponds  to  the  ancient  Mace- 
donia (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  4-B).  It  occupies  a  most  ad- 
vantageous site  on  the  JEgean,  rising  amphitheatrically  on 
Mt.  Kortiasch  from  the  northeast  shore  of  a  fine  harbor  of  the 
Gulf  of  Salonica.  .  It  was  rebuilt  on  the  site  of  a  city  named 
Therma  by  Cassander,  who  named  it  Thessalonica  in  honor 
of  his  wife,  the  sister  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Pvdna  (168  B.  c.)  it  became  capital  of  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  if acedonia ;  15,0(X)  citizens  were  massacred  by  order 
of  Theodosius  (390) ;  it  was  pillaged  by  the  Saracens  (904) ; 
taken  by  the  Marquis  of  Montferrat  (1204),  who  founded  the 
empire  of  Salonica ;  and  conquered  by  the  Ottomans  (1430). 
The  massacre  of  two  foreign  consuls  by  a  Mussulman  mob 
on  May  6,  1876,  contributed  to  brine  on  the  Russo-Turkish 
war.  As  the  chief  station  on  the  via  Egnatia,  which  con- 
nected the  eastern  provinces  with  Rome,  it  was  to  St.  Paul 
a  center  for  the  dissemination  of  Christianity,  and  to  it  he 
addressed  two  epistles.  It  was  called  for  centuries  the 
Orthodox  City,  and  was  largely  instrumental  in  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Bulgarians  and  Slavonians.  Along  its  narrow 
and  crooked  streets  many  architectural  monuments  are 
seen.  Among  them  are  a  hippodrome :  a  colonnade  built  by 
Nero ;  an  arch  of  triumph  with  the  names  of  the  seven  poli- 
tarchs ;  an  arch  of  Constantine,  erected  after  his  victory  over 
Licinius ;  many  churches,  little  subsequent  to  Constantine, 
exceedingly  rich  in  mosaics,  as  St.  George  or  the  Rotunda 
(Orta  Sultan  Osraan  Djami),  St.  Demetrius  (Kassim  Diami), 
St.  Sophia  or  the  cathedral  (Aya  Sophia) ;  also  the  mediaBval 
city  walls,  built  on  cyclopean  foundations.  Salonica  is  the 
terminus  of  a  trans-European  railway,  of  several  highways 
which  traverse  the  entire  vilayet,  and,  next  to  Constantino- 
ple, is  the  chief  outlet  to  the  commerce  of  European  Turkey. 
Many  European  and  Ottoman  steamship  lines  touch  here 
regularly.  The  bazaar  is  a  rambling,  antique  building,  but 
the  scene  of  great  activity.  Pop.  (1890)  122,000,  of  whom 
more  than  half  are  Jews,  the  rest  being  chiefly  Greeks  and 
Ottomans.  The  inhabitants  are  industrious  and  enterpris- 
ing, and  maintain  good  schools,  literary  societies  and  clubs, 
and  a  museum.  Salonica  has  manufactories  of  morocco 
leather,  silk  and  cotton,  and  it  exports  grain,  cotton,  wool, 
hemp,  skins,  opium,  wine,  and  especially  tobacco,  that  called 
Yenidji  being  esteemed  the  finest  raised  in  Turkey. 

E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Salop :  See  Shropshire. 

Salpa  [Mod.  Lat,  from  Lat.  stxTpa  =  Gr.  (rUAini,  a  kind  of 
stockfish] :  a  genus  of  Tunicata  in  which  the  body  is  barrel- 
shaped,  with  an  opening  at  either  end.  They  are  found 
floating  freely  in  the  ocean.  In  the  life-history  there  is  an 
Alternation  of  Generations  {q,  v.).  first  noticed  by  the  poet 
Chamisso.  In  one  generation  the  individuals  are  free,  and 
inside  of  each  grows  a  long  coil  of  embryos.  This  escapes 
later,  and,  remaining  entire,  forms  the  chain  stage  in  which 
the  salpiB,  placed  side  by  side,  form  a  chain  or  band,  each 
individual  containing  an  egg  which  is  to  grow  into  one  of 
the  single  or  solitary  forms.  For  structural  features,  see 
Tunicata.    See  also  Brooks,  The  Genua  Sabm  (Baltimore, 

1893).  J.  S.  KiNGSLEY. 

Salset'te :  an  island  of  British  India  (area,  240  so.  miles : 
pop.  about  110,000),  connected  with  the  island  of  Bombay 
by  a  causeway  and  a  stone  bridge,  and  famous  for  the  im- 
mense rock-cut  cave-te tuples  found  at  Kenery  in  the  center 
of  the  island  and  at  several  other  nlaws.  'f  here  are  many 
rice-fields  and  palm-trees.  The  island  was  held  by  the 
Portuguese  from  early  in  the  sixteenth  century  till  1739. 

Salsify,  Oyster-plant,  or  Vegetable  Oyster  [MnJsiff/  is 
from  Fr.  aahifis  <  O.  Fr.  fterctfii  cf.  Ital.  sasMcfn'ra;  sam) 
(kLbX,  aa'xufn),  rock,  stone +"  Lat. /r/niVf,  rub]:  a  Euro- 
pean plant  {Tragojmfjon  porn foi ins)  of  tlie  family  (Mm- 
posihr.  It  is  cultivated  for  the  roots,  which  are  long,  taper- 
ing, and  have,  when  properly  cooked,  a  taste  somewhat  like 
that  of  the  oyster.  The  root' is  highly  nutritir»us.  The  plant 
is  frequently  known  as  vegetable  oyster.  The  goat's-hoard 
{T.  praieT^a),  with  yellow  flowers,  is  an  introdiu-ed  weed  in 
eastern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 


Sal  Soda :  See  Soda. 

Salt  [0.  Eng.  aealt :  O.  H.  Germ,  aalz  (>  Mod.  Germ. 
aalz):  Goth,  aaff;  cf.  O.  Bul^.  soil,  0.  Ir.  aalaw^,  Lat.  sn!, 
Gr.  iXf,  saltj :  chloride  of  sodium  (NaCl).  The  salt  of  c«  m- 
merce  contains  various  saline  admixtures,  due  to  the  {mh-;].- 
iarities  of  the  source  used  for  manufacture;  their  quant:') 
depends  also  on  the  method  of  manufacture.  Natural  « »u  n  >  ^ 
of  pure  salt  are  uhknown  ;  crystals  of  pure  salt  may  >m*  <'l>- 
tained  from  a  well-developed  rock-salt.  The  presence  .f 
common  salt  in  the  water  of  the  cx^ean,  of  various  lakc^  ai  . 
springs,  as  well  as  its  occurrence  as  an  exudation  of  tht-  ^^ 
in  several  localities  of  the  Orient,  is  mentioned  in  the  earli- 
est historical  records,  although  under  different  names. 

The  idea  regarding  the  chemical  constitution  of  pure  s; !: 
has  changed  during  the  progress  of  chemistry.  The  pn*j«-  i.t 
view  was  for  the  first  time  experimentally  demon stratt^i  \  y 
Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1810;  he  produced  pure  salt  \'\ 
burning  sodium  in  chlorine  gas.  Chemically  pure  salt  i^ 
usually  produced  by  neutralizing  pure  sodium  carlMaii.*- 
with  pure  hydrochloric  acid,  evaporating  the  solution  '  • 
dryness,  and  fusing  the  residue.  Its  use  is  chiefly  eoiitlt)t  -i 
to  the  chemical  laboratory.  The  salt  of  commeVce  i>  ot- 
tained  from  sea-water,  brines,  and  rock-salt. 

Sea-water. — The  water  of  the  ocean  is  a  weak  and.  c.  lu- 
paratively  speaking,  impure  brine.  It  contains  from  lU  t..  4 
per  cent,  of  saline  matter,  of  which  about  three-fourtli-.  1^ 
chloride  of  sodium  and  about  one-fourth  other  salt.s,  \i/.: 
chloride  of  magnesium  and  the  sulphates  of  calcium,  nwi^- 
nesium,  sodium,  and  potassium.  Sea-water  varies  littk-  it, 
composition  and  concentration.  It  represents  the  nu.iu 
source  of  supply  for  the  manufacture  of  salt  in  FraM  i . 
Portugal,  Spain,  Italy,  the  West  Indies,  and  Central  hu4 
South  America,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  supply  for  ti.- 
U.  S. ;  it  is  also  largely  used  for  the  production  of  salt  iti 
Holland,  Belgium,  and  England,  being  frequently  emploud 
for  the  solution  of  rock-salt  of  an  inferior  color. 

Rock-aalt. — Whenever,  during  the  geological  ei>och'?.  a, 
larger  or  smaller  body  of  salt  water  was  cut  oflf  ir<»n»  ti. 
mam  ocean,  and  was  subsequently  placed  under  favorai ;. 
climatic  conditions  for  its  evaporation  and  the  sul>S4.-qut"  ' 
preservation  of  its  saline  residue,  then  a  salt-depo^it,  vv  - 
monly  called  rock-salt,  was  produced.  Sometimes  sevrr.'. 
independent  deposits  occur,  one  above  the  other,  intfr>tnit - 
fled  with  the  rocks  of  the  same  geological  basin.  Th»»  c  !•  - 
brated  salt-deposit  of  Stassfurt,  Germany,  is  worthy  ..f 
special  notice  on  account  of  the  large  quantities  of  ih.'ii- 
sium  compounds  within  its  surface  layers.  The  vari«  j^ 
saline  constituents  of  the  ocean  are  arranged  in  this  «h-j  .-  • 
in  an  order  which  corresponds  closely  with  the  d»«:rt  t  f 
their  solubility  in  water.  The  majority  of  rock-salt  «!♦  j-  - 
its  consist  only  of  part  of  the  constituents  of  the  o<'ean  win  h 
served  for  their  production.  The  rock-salt  occurs  eith*  r  .u 
densely  aggregated  masses  of  cubical  crystals,  or  in  <•.■•:.- 
pact  masses  having  a  conchoidal  fracture.  It  is  in  >i'i>  > 
mstances  colorless  and  transparent,  yet  more  frtHpu-in.v 
either  red,  yellow,  or  blue,  rarely  green.  Its  most  <»f.nut'  t. 
admixtures  are  either  sulphate  of  calcium  and  the  c*lilor  .1  > 
of  calcium  and  magnesium,  or  the  sulphates  of  vhU  n.::  . 
magnesium,  and  sodium,  and  the  chloride  of  m«|Tiu.j,i,j., 
Rock-salt  deiwsits  consist  frequently  of  altematiii>f  lit).> 
of  salt  and  gyj)sum.  These  various  lavers  are  due  to  si:.- 
cessive  periods  of  evaporation.  Colorless  and  dry  n-  ►- 
salt  deiK>sits,  when  easy  of  access,  are  directly  inin(*<i  «•'. 
advantage,  and  the  salt  obtained  by  that  process  i>  >u}-'- 
quently  brought  into  a  desirable  form  for  doiiH*>ti<-  u> 
Colored  salt-deposits,  or  those  which  suffer  from  an  ex.  •  ^* 
of  water,  or  which  contain  a  lar^e  percentage  of  the  aU\.- 
mentioned  foreign  saline  admixtures  or  iday,  or  ti!..i  t 
those  wliich  are  located  at  great  depths,  are  usually  <ii}4-t.*  \ .  d 
while  in  the  mine,  and  their  solutions  treated  like  hriin  f  i 
the  manufacture  of  salt.  Rock-salt  deposits  have  Ikm-m  i..- 
ticed  in  every  part  of  the  globe.  Among  those  recent  1\  ■..- 
covere<l  in  North  America  are  those  upon  Petite  An.s<»  i^:.i-  :. 
Vermilion  Bay,  Louisiana,  at  Goderien,  Province  of  Uiit..r  . 
Canada,  in  Western  New  York,  and  in  Michigan. 

Brinea. — Brines  are  either  artificial  or  natural;  tl.at  *, 
they  are  prepareil  either  by  dissolving  rock-salt  or  tht  >  ji  •» 
the  natural  or  chance  solutions  of  saline  de|)o>ils  l>y  in.  a'  » 
of  subterranean  currents  of  water.  Natural  soIuiioT--  ■  f 
rock-salt  furnish  brines  at  Saltville,  W.  Va.,  Gotleridi,  <  >•/., 
and  in  New  York  and  Michigan.  The  value  of  a  hriii*  •  r 
the  manufacture  of  salt  does  not  entirely  depend  »>u  t-r  r 
tlie  concentration  or  relative  projiortiou  of  pure  salt  ami  i  f 


i 


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274 


SALT 


ments  by  leading  agricultural  chemists.  Boussingault  proved 
that  those  cows  which  had  been  fed  with  an  addition  of  salt 
to  their  food  did  not  yield  more  milk,  or  contain  more  fat, 
or  show  increase  in  weight  of  flesh,  vet  they  looked  more 
healthy  and  vigorous ;  in  fact,  their  whole  exterior  had  been 
highly  improved  as  compared  with  animals  which  had  been 
fed  with  tne  same  food  without  an  addition  of  salt.  Liebig 
came  to  the  same  result ;  he  found  in  the  case  of  two  oxen 
which  were  to  be  stall-fattened,  one  of  which  received  its 
food  with  the  addition  of  a  dose  of  1  oz.  of  salt  per  day, 
while  the  other  one  did  not  receive  anv,  that  the  latter  soon 
looked  bristly,  dull,  inactive,  and  sickly,  while  the  former 
remained  smooth-skinned,  lively,  and  vigorous.  The  well- 
recognized  superior  quality  of  meat  from  the  cattle  and 
sheep  raised  upon  the  marsh-meadows  along  the  seashores  of 
Northern  Germany,  Holland,  Belgium,  England,  and  other 
countries  has  been  ascribed  in  a  large  degree  to  the  fact 
that  their  food— the  marsh-grasses— is  frequently  salted  by 
the  spray  of  the  oceanic  waters. 

Smt  a  Promoter  of  Vegetable  Orowth, — The  use  of  com- 
mon salt  as  a  manure  for  promoting  the  growth  of  farm- 
crops  originated  at  an  early  date  in  the  history  of  agricul- 
ture. Modern  researches  do  not  prove  common  salt  to  be 
valuable  as  a  general  fertilizer,  but  point  out  its  various 
modes  of  action,  and  thereby  tend  to  restrict  its  use  to  spe- 
cial kinds  of  soil  and  of  crop,  for  it  has  been  noticed  that  the 
use  of  salt  f requentlj[  exerts  not  only  a  decided  influence  on 
the  chemical  composition  and  physical  condition  of  the  soil, 
but  also  on  the  character,  i.  e.  composition,  of  the  plants 
raised  under  its  influence.  All  recommendations  of  careful 
ol^ervers  agree  in  advising  the  use  of  but  small  quantities  at 
a  time  (from  800  to  400  lb.  per  acre),  applied  in  a  well-dif- 
fused form,  and  only  at  intervals  of  years.  Numbers  of  an- 
alyses of  current  farm-crops  have  snown  that  a  large  ma- 
jority of  species  of  plants  growing  along  the  seashores  or  in 
the  vicinity  of  saline  springs  contain  much  smaller  quanti- 
ties of  sodium  than  potassium  compounds.  As  a  natural 
disintegration  of  rocks  and  soil  renders,  in  all  probability, 
sodium  as  well  as  potassium  compounds  accessible  as  plant- 
food,  there  is  far  less  reason,  as  a  general  rule,  to  expect  an 
exhaustion  of  the  soil  in  sodium  compounds  as  soon  as  in  po- 
tassium compounds.  These  circumstances  explain  the  posi- 
tion which  sodium  compounds,  and  chloride  of  sodium,  its 
most  diffused  form  in  lands  under  cultivation,  occupy  in 
a  rational  system  of  supplying  plant-food  to  farm-crops. 
They  are  considered  of  secondary  importance  as  plant-food. 
Nessler  has  shown  that  the  presence  of  salt  in  the  soil  in- 
terferes with  a  ready  combustion  of  tobacco-leaf,  favoring  its 
charring;  in  the  case  of  the  beetroot  it  has  been  proved 
(Grouven)  that  it  increases  the  percentage  of  soluble  saline 
compounds  in  the  juice  to  a  considerable  degree,  and  thus 
reduces  their  value  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  The  fact 
that  larger  quantities  of  salt  destroy  the  common  flora, 
and  that  it  merely  supports  a  vegetation  of  its  own,  becomes 
at  once  manifest  to  those  who  glance  at  the  vegetation  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  salt-sprmgs  and  marine  inlets.  Its 
reputation  as  a  valuable  aid  in  the  production  of  farm-crops 
rests  largely  on  its  action  on  the  physical  and  chemical  con- 
dition of  the  soil.  It  increases  the  capacity  of  the  soil  to 
absorb  and  retain  moisture  by  imparting  to  it  in  some  degree 
its  own  high  hygroscopic  quality,  an  influence  most  desirable 
in  a  dry  season.  An  application  of  from  400  to  500  lb.  per 
acre  as  a  top-dressing  on  dry  grasslands  and  pasture  is  fre- 
quently followed  by  good  results.  It  aids  in  diffusing  the 
existing  resources  of  plant-food  (potash  and  phosphoric  acid). 
Exhausted  and  worn-out  lands  derive  but  little  benefit  from 
its  periodical  use  beyond  an  increased  power  to  retain  mois- 
ture. Its  use  is  largely  confined  to  the  raising  of  forage- 
crops. 

Salt  for  Meat-packing.— The  object  of  the  meat-packer 
consists  not  only  in  securing  the  preservation  of  pork  and 
l)eef  for  a  reasonable  time,  but  also  in  securing  its  palatable 
condition  and  as  far  as  possible  in  retaining  its  natural 
color.  Practice  recommends  the  use  of  the  coarse  and  hard 
Qualities  of  salt  for  meat-packing  for  the  following  reasons  : 
They  dissolve  gradually  and  contract  the  meat  by  degrees 
to  a  desirable  firmness;  they  keep  the  siilt  pickle  within  a 
moderate  concentration ;  they  can  not  enter  mechanically 
into  the  meat  and  thus  overcharge  it,  and  may  therefore  be 
applied  in  sufficient  excess,  so  as  to  comj^nsate  for  the 
losses  of  pickle  by  leakage,  etc..  without  endangering  the 
tenderness  and  flavor  prematurely.  Common  fine  salt  an- 
swers for  a  short  periotl  of  keeping  very  well,  and  is  conse- 
quently used  in  the  packing  of  meat  for  immediate  con- 


sumption. Fifty  to  fifty-six  pounds  of  coarse  salt  are  usu- 
ally taken  for  salting  down  one  barrel  of  meat ;  the  bott>  m 
and  the  top  of  the  barrel  are  always  carefully  covered  wiiii 
a  layer  of  coarse  salt.  The  purer  the  salt  the  better  ihi 
quality  of  the  meat.  A  salt  which  contains  large  quant  it  i*  ^ 
of  foreign  saline  admixtures,  particularly  of  chlfiride  of 
calcium  and  chloride  of  magnesium,  imparts  a  pun;:'Tr 
and  disagreeable  taste,  and  injures  also  the  color  of  tif> 
meat,  for  these  saline  compounds  have  an  unpleasant  taM.\ 
and,  being  at  the  same  time  in  a  higher  de^ee  hvgro6ott).i« . 
they  cause  a  more  copious  discharge  of  juice  from  nu-ai, 
which  renders  the  latter  of  a  paler  color  and  of  a  hanier 
texture ;  the  color  of  packed  meat  is  frequently  improv«Ml  bi 
an  addition  of  niter,  which  if  used  on  a  small  scale  is  harm- 
less. In  the  U.  S.  the  coarse  salt  made  from  brines  and  fr>>m 
sea- water  is  used,  besides  the  English  coarse  and  fine  ^\u 
the  salt  from  Turk's  island,  and  other  localities  in  the  \NV?'. 
Indies.  Texas  meat-packers  are  trying  the  superior  hm  k- 
salt  of  Petite  Anse,  La.  A  good  rock-salt  is  well  fitte<l  fcr 
the  purpose,  yet  on  account  of  its  ereat  hardness  it  has  t<. 
be  broken  up  in  smaller  pieces  than  conunon  solar  ^alt. 
For  the  packing  of  fish  a  fine  grade  of  coarse  salt  is  used. 


n 


INILYSES 

OF  SALT. 

ooNsrrruBNTB. 

98-88 
0-782 
0-004 
0008 
0-890 

1 

a 

II 

h 

Chloride  of  sodium 

96-004 
1-815 
0092 
0089 
2-500 

95-881 
0316 
0-356 
0-140 
8344 

96-76  ;07-5I2 

Sulphate  of  calcium 

Chloride  of  calcium 

Chloride  of  maenesium .... 
Moisture 

1-56 

• 

014 
0  90 

0  2?M 
Oft* 

*  Not  stated. 

Salt  for  the  Dairy  Business. — The  dairy  business  has  at- 
tained such  commanding  proportions  that  the  amount  ••( 
salt  reouired  in  its  operations  amounts  to  millions  of  bn-sh- 
els.  The  peculiar  nature  of  the  dairy  products  of  the  V.  S. 
calls  for  the  best  qualities  of  salt  in  tne  markets.  A  ^"  ««: 
dairy  salt  ought  to  be  of  a  neutral  reaction  and  of  a  pun- 
saline  taste,  free  from  pungent  after-taste;  it  ought  x*>  u 
of  a  properlv  reduced  granulated  size,  dissolving  readily  ni 
water,  free  from  any  offensive  odor,  without  any  stain  ir. 
color,  and,  what  is  of  not  less  importance,  free  from  color^-^i 
specks.  The  better  qualities  of  the  English  "common  fir.*- 
salt,"  "  Ashton's  brand,"  etc.,  were  at  first  used  almost  ex- 
clusively by  the  dairymen  of  the  U.S.,  partly  becauM*  Tt»»- 
exporters  of  provisions  in  the  seaport-towns  dealt  also  lar^'t-j 
ly  m  foreign  salt. 

A  common  fine  or  boiled  salt  is  in  every  instance  the  n«- 
sult  of  more  rapid  evaporation,  and  thus  most  liable  to  t .  i 
affected  in  its  composition  by  the  retention  of  impure  motlj.  r^ 
liquors.  Washing  processes  have  been  devised  by  wh  hi 
fine  salt  designed  for  dairy  purposes  is  freed  froni  its  ^K- 
noxious  features.  Dairy  salt  is  manufactured  in  the  l\  >h 
from  the  coarse  (or  sofar^  and  from  common  fine  s^lt :  4 
made  from  the  former  kind,  it  must  be  ground  finer,  f  n 
bethought  to  be  in  such  a  state  of  division  as  to  n-aiii.*! 
dissolve  when  worked  into  the  butter  or  the  curd;  U  :.i 
kinds  ought  to  be  used  by  weight  and  not  by  measure,  li- 1 
English  brand  is  somewhat  more  bulky  than  the  bnir.  I^ 
of  the  U.  S.,  and  that  portion  of  the  product  of  the  l".  >i 
which  has  been  obtained  from  boiled  salt  is  lighter  than  i  i  t'l 
produced  from  solar  salt;  in  composition  there  netd  '  i 
scarcely  any  difference  if  made  with  eoual  care.  The  ciimm 
tity  of  dairy  salt  that  ought  to  be  used  in  butter  and  cIk-  - 1 
depends  somewhat  on  the  amount  of  moisture  retain«Ml  i  .i 
eitner  substance  when  ready  for  salting;  to  have  a  fully  ^;  ^ 
urated  solution  of  salt  left  is  the  real  object.  The  bt'>t  .i  i^ 
thorities  advise  the  use  of  1  oz.  of  salt  (the  best  dairy)  i*>  i 
lb.  of  butter,  and  1  lb.  of  it  for  every  100  lb.  of  curd. ' 

ANALYSES   OF   SALT. 


CONSTITUENTS. 


Chloride  of  sodium 

Sulphate  of  calcium  — 
Chloride  of  calcium  . . . . 
Chloride  of  magnesium, 
Moisture 


vofniDOQ 
iineMit, 


95-353 
1-855 
0  155 
0  136 
8-000 


CJooinio& 

flMMlt, 

MichlRU. 


Eairlhk, 


90-882 
0805 
0974 
0781 
6  75« 


97  «» 
1  480 

trace. 
0080 
07C0 


97  !<  ' 

1  i.>' 
trno*" 

0  :  * 


276 


SALTO- 


SALT  RANGE 


Churches,  Schools,  etc, — All  leading  religious  denomina- 
tioDS  are  well  represented,  and  many  fine  church  edifices 
have  been  erecteo.  The  public-school  system  is  equal  to 
any  in  the  U.  S. ;  15  public-school  buildings,  aggregating 
in  cost  $750,000,  were  erected  in  1893-94.  In  1891  the  city 
contained  8  libraries  with  87,000  volumes,  and  in  1894  there 
were  4  daily,  2  semi-weekly,  8  weekly,  4  semi-monthly,  and 
7  monthly  periodicals. 

Finances  and  Banking. — The  receipts  of  the  city  govern- 
ment from  all  sources  during  1894  were  $1,937,661 ;  expen- 
ditures, $1,019,170,  including  the  unusual  ones  of  $238,672 
for  gravity  sewer,  and  $156,258  final  payment  on  city  and 
county  building.  The  city  tax-rate  is  o^  mills ;  the  assessed 
valuation  in  1894  was  $35,000,000.  The  city  has  ^as  and 
electric  light  works,  and  owns  a  water  system  vsJued  at 
$2,000,000.  The  bonded  municipal  debt  m  1894  was  $2,- 
400,000.  In  1895  there  were  4  national  banks  with  combined 
capital  of  $1,500,000,  3  State  banks  with  capiUl  of  $1,200,- 
000,  5  private  banks,  2  incorporated  banks,  and  a  savings- 
bank  with  capiUl  of  $100,000. 

Business  Interests. — Manufacturing  is  extensively  carried 
on.  The  city  is  headquarters  for  mining  men,  and  is  the 
mining  center  of  Utah  and  adjoining  States.  It  is  the  d^- 
pdt  for  agricultural  products,  and  the  distributing-point  for 
a  large  agricultural  area  under  a  perfect  system  of  irriga- 
tion. The  census  returns  of  1890  showed  149  manufactur- 
ing establishments  (representing  45  industries)  with  a  com- 
bined capital  of  $2,658,676,  employing  1,997  persons,  paying 
$1,276,219  for  wages  and  $1,665,877  for  materials,  and  tum- 
ingout  products  valued  at  $3,864,402. 

History. — The  city  was  founded  by  Briohah  Young  {q,  v.) 
July  24, 1847.  [Jntil  1870  the  population  was  almost  entire- 
ly Mormon,  but  the  development  of  mining  and  other  in- 
dustries induced  a  large  immigration.  The  beauty  of  the 
city  and  its  environment,  the  presence  of  hot  springs  and 
the  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  the  rare  climatic  and  scenic  ad- 
vantages, make  Salt  Lake  City  an  attractive  place  for  tour- 
ists. Pop.  (1880)  20,768 ;  (1890)  44,843 ;  (1895)  estimated, 
65,000.  Edward  P.  Colborn. 

Salto :  a  town  of  Uruguay ;  on  the  river  Uruguay,  at  the 
head  of  navigation  for  large  vessels ;  opposite  Concordia  in 
the  Argentine  Republic  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref. 
7-E).  It  is  connected  by  railway  with  Montevideo  and  the 
Brazilian  frontier ;  is  the  shipping-port  for  the  trade  of  the 
upper  Uruguay,  including  the  western  part  of  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul ;  and  is  the  center  of  a  rich  grazing  district.  Pop. 
about  12,000.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Salto, 
which  has  an  area  of  4,940  sq.  miles  and  a  population  of  32,- 
000,  almost  entirely  employed  in  the  grazing  industry. 

H.  H.  S. 

Sal  ton  Lake :  a  temporary  lake,  caused  by  an  overflow 
of  the  Colorado  river  into  a  depressed  area  in  the  Colorado 
Desert.  The  bed  of  the  lake  is  N.  and  a  little  W.  from  the 
head  of  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  W.  of  the  Colorado  river 
in  California,  and  probably  was  once  occupied  by  the  (}ulf 
waters.  The  lake  was  formed  in  the  early  summer  of  1891, 
when  the  river  was  unusually  high,  and  remained  fairly 
constant  several  months,  when  it  began  to  shrink  slowly. 
The  spot  has  large  deposits  of  salt,  which  changed  the  fresh 
waters  of  the  river  into  salt  water  in  the  lake.  See  Colo- 
rado Desert.  M.  W.  H. 

Sartonstall,  Gurdon  :  Governor  of  Connecticut ;  creat- 
mndson  of  Sir  Richard  Saltonstall ;  b.  at  Haverhill,  Mass., 
Mar.  27,  1666;  graduated  at  Harvard  1684;  ordained  minis- 
ter of  New  London,  Conn.,  Nov.  25, 1691 ;  was  distinguished 
as  an  orator,  and  took  so  active  a  part  in  politics  that  he  was 
made  Governor  of  Connecticut  1707,  and  held  that  post  until 
his  death  Sept.  20,  1724.  He  bequeathed  £1,000  to  Harvard 
College  to  educate  students  for  the  ministry. — His  son, 
GuRDON,  b.  at  New  London,  Conn.,  Dec.  22,  1708,  graduated 
at  Yale  College  1725;  became  brigadier-general  of  Connec- 
ticut forces  1776 ;  was  cashiered  for  misconduct  in  the  Pe- 
nobscot expedition  1779 ;  died  at  Norwich,  Sept.  19, 1785. 
—Dudley,  nephew  of  Gen.  Saltonstall,  b.  at  New  London, 
Sept.  8, 1738,  became  a  commodore  in  the  Continental  navy, 
and  died  in  the  West  Indies  in  1796. 

Revised  by  G.  P.  Fishbr. 

Saltonstall,  Sir  Richard  :  colonist ;  b.  at  Halifax,  Eng- 
land, in  1586;  nephew  of  Sir  Richard,  who  became  lord 
mayor  of  London  1597;  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  as  as- 
sistant governor  to  Winthrop  1630;  was  associated  with 
Phillips  in  the  foundation  of  Watertown  1630,  but  went 
back  to  England  the  following  year,  and  never  returned  to 


Massachusetts.  In  1651  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Massarhu- 
setts  ministers  Cotton  and  Wilson  remonstrating  against 
the  persecution  of  the  Quakers.  D.  in  England  alx>ii< 
1658.  Through  his  sons,  who  settled  in  Massachusett>.  ti» 
was  ancestor  of  the  Saltonstalls  of  New  England. — Richaki>. 
b.  at  Woodsome,  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1610,  was  mathc  u 
lated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  1627;  was  an  earl^ 
settler  of  Ipswich,  Mass.;  was  assistant  governor  1687;  \>" 
friended  the  regicides  Goffe  and  WhaOey,  and  prote>t"i 
against  the  introduction  of  Negro  slavery  into  the  cohm^ 
He  returned  to  England  in  1670.  D.  at  Huhne,  Apr.  *ji'. 
1694 

Saltonstall,  Richard:  jurist;  b.  at  Haverhill,  Ma-. 
June  14, 1703 ;  graduated  at  Harvard  1722 ;  was  a  rcpre^  i.t- 
ative  from  Haverhill  as  early  as  1728;  was  frequentlv  ^ 
member  of  the  general  court  and  of  the  executive  count  ii . 
was  a  scientific  and  practical  farmer,  and  also  learned  m 
the  law ;  was  chairman  of  the  commission  for  settling  th> 
boundary-line  between  Massachusetts  and  New  Ham[K>tiir» 
1737,  and  was  judge  of  the  superior  court  nearly  twenty 
years  (1736-55).    D.  Oct.  20, 1756. 

Saltpeter,  or  Nitre  [saltpeter  is  (by  analogy  of  salt)  fron. 
Fr.  satpitre,  from  Lat  sa&e'trce,  liter.,  rock-salt;  sal,  ^.t 
+  pe'ircB,  gen.  of  jpe7ra,  rock,  stone] :  a  compound  in  chen  i>- 
try  called  potassium  nitrate  (KNO|),  that  has  long  l*-.! 
known  and  occurs  widely  distributed  in  nature,  tbou^'h  ii 
relatively  small  quantities.  When  refuse  animal  matt.; 
undergoes  decomposition  in  the  soil  under  proper  C4>i<i. 
tions,  the  nitrogen  contained  in  it  passes  into  the  form  nf  i 
nitrate,  and  as  potassium  is  generally  present,  the  panicnm- 
nitrate  formed  is  saltpeter.  The  chanee  is  brought  aU  ^ ' 
by  the  action  of  certain  microbes  whicn  exist  in  the  x^i.. 
and  are  especially  abundant  and  efficient  in  warm  coiii. 
tries.  It  is  in  such  warm  countries  that  saltpeter  earths  .tr- 
found.  In  Bengal  the  saltpeter  earth  of  the  villages  is  C(  >\\<^  :- 
ed  by  a  special  caste,  the  Sorawallahs,  into  loosely  h^^t*- 
gatea  heaps.  From  these  the  salt  is  obtained  bv  srriij.ii.- 
off  the  uppermost  layers,  which  show  a  white  efAoresier  •  t . 
The  process  of  nitrification  is  carried  on  artificially  en  :. 
large  scale  in  the  so-called  **  saltpeter  plantations.**  Ii 
these,  refuse  animal  matter,  more  especuiUy  manun-,  is 
mixed  with  earthy  material,  wood-ashes,  etc.,  and  piled  u]-. 
These  piles  are  moistened  with  the  liquid  products  fr<!:. 
stables.  After  the  action  has  continued  for  two  or  t}.r»- 
years  the  outer  crust  is  taken  off  and  extracted  with  wat*  r, 
The  solution  thus  obtained  contains,  besides  potassium  ni 
trate,  calcium  and  magnesium  nitrates.  It  is  treated  ^it  ; 
a  water-extract  of  wo<xl-ashes  or  with  potassium  carbonau^ 
by  which  the  calcium  and  magnesium  are  precipitatiii  uh 
carbonates.  Much  of  the  saltpeter  in  the  market  is  ii)n<M 
from  sodium  nitrate  by  treating  it  with  potassium  ohlt)n<{e 
advantage  being  taken  of  the  fact  that  sodium  chlori<le  i^ 
less  sol uble  in  water  than  potassium  nitrate.  Saltpet  e n  r }  >• 
tallizes  in  long  rhombic  prisms  of  a  salty  taste.  When  ci>- 
solved  in  water  it  causes  a  lowering  of  temperature.  I:  a 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  fireworks.  Its  chief  uf^,  }m-v>< 
ever,  is  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.      Ira  Reiisil>. 

Saltpeter,  Chili:  a  salt  known  in  chemistry  as  mkIiuiii 
nitrate  (NaNOj).  It  is  also  called  cubic  nitre,  becau.<^?  it  vr\  s^ 
tallizes  in  rhombohedrons  resembling  a  cube.  It  cH.vun( 
abundantly  in  Northern  Chili,  especially  in  Tarapata,  ai.«j 
to  some  extent  in  Southern  Peru.  The  natural  salt  en 
tains,  besides  the  nitrate,  sodium  chloride,  sulphate,  ai;  J 
iodide.  Sodium  nitrate  is  very  similar  to  potassium  nitn4r4', 
but  it  can  not  be  used  in  place  of  the  more  expensive  jM.tas^ 
slum  salt  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  oecause  it  U^ 
comes  moist  in  the  air,  and  does  not  decompose  as  quii  kl}^ 
as  potassium  nitrate.  It  is  used  extensively  in  the  manuf  u'^ 
ture  of  nitric  acid  and  of  potassium  nitrate;  it  is  alst»  ti  .| 
most  important  source  of  iodine.  In  commerce  the  sal*  ii 
known  simply  as  nitrate.  It  is  largely  exported  from  C1iii 
to  Europe  for  use  as  manure.  In  1892  the  value  of  the  •  i« 
ports  was  31,785,000  pesos.  For  this  purpose  the  nativ^ 
salt  is  rendered  marketable  by  a  process  of  solution  aad 
crystallizing.  In  its  action  it  is  comparable  with  calrium 
or  potassium  nitrates.  Ira  REX:iL5. 

Salt  Range,  or  Kalabagh  Mountains:  a  mount aii^ 
group  of  the  Punjaub,  India;  extends  westerly  from  thi 
west  bank  of  the  Jnilam  to  the  Suleiman  Mountains,  wit^  4 
break  in  its  continuitv  where  it  yields  a  passage  to  the  ln<li«i 
It  is  only  2,500  feet  high,  but  its  bold  peaks  and  steep.  ^  .ki 
precipices,  consisting  of  granite,  gypsum,  and  layers  of  al- 
most perfectly  pure  rock-salt  (which  has  been  mined  f n  n 


^^H^n^lfnf                                                       Sl^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l 

H^^Dt'                                                                           '  *  KB^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^I 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  » 

^^^^^^^^Hi' 

i^^^^^^^^^^^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Bt ' 

1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Bi  1 

■ 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^V ' 

' 

I 

•^                fl 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K  '^ 

^^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K ' 

1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H* 

'  1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B ' 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H t 

...  1 

^H 

iffu  -^  ■^lit'wri  i:'  M:r  rininiiii—                                                                    ^^^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K^  1 

1/ 

si>.  H                so.  1^                            ^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^&' 

^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B 1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B ^ 

1 

':    J 

'  1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^  * 

»iMl.|    *l         ..'            -.U^Mi,     f»Il*.|.      I.*    ^1'      «.*!.»      «'    .*     .ir,.»,     r,      ,.,♦.,      ,^,»,      .^    Uflk^»*                                  ^^^H 

278 


SALUZZO 


of  higrher  rank  or  authority  by  raising  or  touching  the  hat, 
dropping  the  point  of  the  sword,  presenting  arms,  firing 
cannon  or  small-arms,  manning  yards,  dipping  the  colors, 
etc.  In  the  personal  salute  with  cannon  the  number  of  guns 
fired  depends  upon  the  rank  of  the  person  saluted.  In  the 
U.  S.  the  Presiaent  receives  21  guns,  the  Vice-President  19, 
the  members  of  the  cabinet,  the  chief  justice,  the  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  and  Governors  within 
their  own  State  or  Territory,  17  guns.  The  general  receives 
17  guns,  lieutenant-general  or  major-general  commanding 
16,  major-general  13,  and  brigadier-general  11  guns.  Besides 
these  personal  salutes  there  are  the  national  salute  of  21  guns, 
the  salute  to  the  Union  of  one  gun  for  each  State,  and  the  old 
Federal  salute  of  13  guns.  These  are  fired  in  honor  of  cer- 
tain days  and  occasions. 

In  the  personal  salutes  is  seen  the  survival  of  the  custom 
of  the  saluter  placing  himself  unarmed  in  the  power  of  the 
saluted.  The  touching  or  removal  of  the  cap,  dropping  the 
point  of  the  sword,  presenting  arms,  firing  cannon  and  small- 
arms,  manning  yards,  etc.,  symbolize  the  removal  of  the 
helmet,  giving  up  the  weapon,  unloading  the  firearms,  ex- 
posing the  crews,  abandoning  the  guns,  etc. 

James  Mercur. 

Salazzo,  saa-loot'sd:  town;  in  the  province  of  Cuneo, 
Italy ;  ^  miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Turin  (see  map  of  Italy, 
ref.  8-B).  The  cathedral,  semi-Gothic  and  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  Church  of  St.  Martin  and  St.  Bernard,  of  St 
Domenico,  etc.,  all  contain  objects  of  interest.  In  one  of 
the  public  squares  there  is  a  fine  monument  erected  to  Silvio 
Pellico,  who  was  born  here.  The  ancient  castle  of  the  Mar- 
cruises  of  Saluzzo  is  used  as  a  prison.  Saluzzo  manufactures 
silk,  leather,  and  hats.    Pop.  9,716. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Salyador,  Span.  pron.  s&l-v<&-dor'  (often,  but  incor- 
rectly, called  San  Salvador,  from  its  capital) :  a  republic  of 
Central  America;  bounded  N.  W.  by  Guatemala,  N.  and  N.  E. 
by  Honduras,  and  S.  by  the  Pacific,  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca  sepa- 
rating it  from  Nicaragua  on  the  E.  Area,  7,255  sq.  miles ; 
pop.  (1891)  estimated,  777,895 ;  it  is  thus  the  smallest  but  the 
most  thickly  settled  republic  in  America.  The  main  Cor- 
dillera of  Central  Amenca  runs  along  the  northern  frontier. 
Parallel  to  this,  and  about  30  miles  farther  S.,  another  moun- 
tain chain,  attaining  nearly  8,000  feet,  crosses  from  E.  to 
W.,  and  is  continued  into  Nicaragua ;  this  chain  is  entire- 
ly of  volcanic  origin,  and  contains  nearly  thirty  active  or 
quiescent  craters.  The  space  between  the  two  mountain 
ranges  is  an  irregular  basin  or  plateau,  2,000  feet  in  average 
elevation,  and  varied  by  low  mountains;  this  is  the  finest 
and  most  thickly  settled  part  of  Salvador.  S.  of  the  vol- 
canic range  a  strip  of  low  land,  partly  alluvial,  fringes  the 
Pacific.  The  coast  is  about  200  miles  long,  partly  rocky, 
but  not  high.  The  only  very  good  harbor  is  formed  by  the 
Gulf  of  Fonseca ;  the  commercial  ports  are  La  Union  on 
the  gulf.  La  Libertad,  and  Acajutla.  The  principal  river 
is  the  Lempa,  which  drains  the  plateau  and  is  partly  navi- 
gable ;  there  are  several  beautiful  lakes,  including  Cuija,  on 
the  Guatemala  frontier,  and  Ilopongo.  Volcanic  and  seis- 
mic disturbances  are  very  frequent;  in  the  central  range 
eruptions  from  one  or  more  peaks  are  almost  constantly 

going  on.  Slight  earthquakes  are  so  common  as  to  be 
ardly  noticed,  and  severe  ones  occur  at  intervals;  San 
Salvador  has  been  ruined  no  less  than  eight  times.  The 
climate  is  hot  and  often  unhealthful  on  the  coast,  warm  on 
the  plateau,  temperate  in  regions  above  3,000  feet,  where 
most  of  the  towns  are  located.  Rains  are  less  abundant 
than  in  other  parts  of  Central  America,  though  the  climate 
is  by  no  means  dry.  The  rainiest  months  are  from  May  to 
October,  and  in  July  and  August  there  are  frequent  torren- 
tial showers  and  thunder-storms.  Considerable  tracts  of 
forest  remain,  and  are  rich  in  cabinet  woods,  balsam,  etc. 
The  land,  especiallv  that  formed  by  disintegrated  volcanic 
tufa,  is  very  fertile,  and  most  of  the  inhabitants  are  en- 
^i^ed  in  agriculture.  The  most  important  crops  are  coffee, 
indigo,  tobacco,  sugar,  and,  for  home  consumption,  maize, 
beans,  and  rice.  Large  herds  of  cattle  are  pastured  in  some 
districts.  Gold  and  silver  are  mined  on  a  small  scale. 
About  5  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  classed  as  whites, 
55  per  cent,  as  Indians,  and  the  remainder  as  mixed  races, 
witn  a  few  Negroes ;  some  of  the  Indians  retain  their  own 
language  and  customs,  but  all  are  submissive  and,  nomi- 
nally, Roman  Catholics.  As  elsewhere  in  Central  America, 
the  educated  and  intelligent  class  is  small,  but  controls  all 
the  wealth  and  power.    The  government  is  a  centralized  re- 


SALVAGE 

public ;  the  president  is  elected  for  four  years,  and  congress 
consists  of  a  single  house  elected  for  one  year.  The  four- 
teen departments  are  essentially  governed  from  the  capital. 
The  state  religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic ;  other  cree<h  are 
tolerated,  but  are  almost  unknown.  There  are  about  Immi 
public  and  private  schools,  with  85,000  pupils;  the  siau 
maintains  a  university  with  faculties  of  sciences,  arts,  law, 
medicine,  etc.  The  only  railway  runs  inland  from  Acajutla 
(58  miles  in  1898),  but  others  are  planned;  the  comoin 
roads  are  nearly  all  bad.  There  is  a  fairly  good  telegmjl. 
system,  and  cable  communication  with  the  U.  S.  The  prin- 
cipal exports,  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  are  col!.« 
(about  half  of  the  total),  indigo,  sugar,  and  silver ;  the  aver 
age  annual  value  of  the  exports  in  1894  was  about  6,0u<V 
w0pe8O8.  The  value  of  the  recorded  imports  is  little  over 
half  as  much,  but  the  figures  are  probably  aef ective.  Nearlj 
one-third  of  the  entire  trade  is  with  the  U.  S.— principall) 
California — and  the  proportion  is  increasing.  The  mone- 
tary standard  is  the  silver  peso  or  dollar,  equal  to  96]^ 
cents  of  U.  S.  silver  in  intrinsic  value.  Few  national  coins 
are  in  circulation ;  those  of  Europe,  the  U.  S.,  Mexico,  Peru, 
'etc.,  are  freely  used.  The  metric  system  of  weights  and 
measures  is  legalized,  but  the  old  Spanish  ones  are  still  io 
general  use.  The  external  debt,  payable  in  gold,  was  in 
1893,  about  $1,500,000,  and  the  interest  is  promptly  met ; 
the  internal  debt,  partly  funded,  is  about  7,600,000  pts^js. 
Salvador  or  Cuscutlan  was  conquered  by  Jorge  de  Alvanuio 
in  151^,  and  during  the  colonial  period  it  was  a  province  of 
Guatemala.  From  1828  to  1889  it  was  a  state  of  the  Central 
American  Confederation.  The  numerous  revolutions  and 
wars  with  other  Central  American  republics  have  generallr 
been  caused  by  attempts  to  bring  about  a  union  of  the  re> 
publics,  or  struggles  m  favor  of  autonomy.  See  Guzman 
Topografia  fis^  de  la  Repuhlica  del  Salvador ;  Squier,  7'A« 
States  of  Central  America  (1858) ;  Reyes,  Vida  de  Moran\u 
(1888) ;  Bancroft,  History  of  the  Padjic  States :  Centrul 
America  (1882-87).  He&bxet  H.  Smith. 

Salyage  [from  O.  Fr.  salvttge,  liter.,  a  saving,  deriv.  of 
salver  >Fr.  sauver  <  Lat.  salva're,  save,  deriv.  of  sal  t-u.y 
safe]  :  the  compensation  due  for  the  relief  of  a  vessel,  or  of 
property  or  persons  therein,  from  an  impending  peril  of  the 
sea,  by  the  voluntary  exertions  of  those  who  are  under  ii.« 
legal  obligation  to  fender  assistance,  resulting  in  the  ulti- 
mate safety  of  the  object  of  such  relief. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  peril  be  immediate.  It  i^ 
enough  that  it  is  probable,  as  where  the  motive  power  of  a 
steamer  ceases,  or  a  sailing  vessel  is  dismasted.  Fire,  ti.- 
dangering  a  vessel  afloat,  is  a  marine  peril.  Recapture  fn^ii^ 
pirates  or  the  public  enemy  is  relief  from  a  sea  peril.  at.<:. 
if  lawful,  will  be  rewarded  with  salvage.  Recapture  b}  a 
ship  of  a  neutral  power  is  unlawful. 

The  crew  or  passengers  of  the  relieved  vessel  are  not  en- 
titled to  salvage,  as  a  rule,  because  in  case  of  a  con)ii)<<n 
danger  it  is  the  duty  of  every  one  on  board  the  ship  to  pivn 
every  assistance  he  can,  by  the  use  of  all  ordinary  mean>  i^ 
working  and  pumping  the  ship,  to  avert  the  danger.  Yi " 
if  one  of  the  passengers  or  crew  renders  services  outside  auo 
beyond  his  legal  duty  he  may  recover  salvage.  {The  Cour,'^^ 
mara,  108  U.  S.  852.)  Members  of  a  fire  department.  wIih 
act  in  the  performance  of  a  legal  duty  in  saving  a  ve^s^I,  ait) 
not  entitled  to  salvage. 

The  services  must  be  successful  to  some  extent,  for  if  ih*\ 
property  is  not  saved,  or  in  case  of  capture  is  not  retak«  i.^ 
no  salvage  is  earned.  More  than  one  set  of  salvors.  h>*«^ 
ever,  may  contribute  to  the  result;  and  all  who  material  it 
contribute  to  the  saving  of  the  property  are  entitled  to  sh.nr?! 
in  the  reward,  in  proportion  to  the  nature,  duration,  n>^ 
and  efilciency  of  the  service  rendered. 

The  amount  of  salvage  to  be  awarded  is  largelv  a  mattf  r, 
of  fact  and  discretion  in  each  case ;  and  an  appellate  L-oi.ri 
rarely  varies  the  amount  given  upon  the  trial.  Indtttr^ 
mining  salvage  compensation,  admiralty  judges  coi)«idi  :t 
(1)  the  labor  expendea  by  the  salvors;  (2)  the  promplitn.i-  ^ 
skill,  and  energy  which  they  display;  (3)  the  value  of  i:  i 
property  employed  by  the  salvors,  its  risk,  and  their  i'*--' 
sonal  risk  in  rendering  the  service ;  (4)  the  value  of  t  •  i 
property  saved  and  its  risk.  Salvage  is  not  to  be  in  vh 
rounded  with  Prize  {q.  v.).  The  latter  is  more  like  a  gift  .  j 
fortune,  conferred  without  regard  to  the  loss  of  the  c^w  r.t  r| 
who  is  a  public  enemy,  while  the  former  is  a  rewani  :  i 
saving  the  property  of  the  unfortunate,  and  should  not  «  n  ^ 
ceed  what  is  necessary  to  insure  the  most  prompt,  enerjrn*"  i 
and  daring  effort  of  those  who  are  able  to  furnish  rnluli 


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280 


SALVATOR  ROSA 


oommand  of  the  Canada  forces.  Of  the  daughters,  the  eld- 
est, Catherine,  has  since  1881  been  in  charge  of  the  French 
work,  with  the  title  of  La  MarichaXe^  and  two,  Emma  and 
Lucj,  have  India  especially  in  charge — the  latter  livine  with 
and  as  the  native  poor.  Other  notable  names  identified  with 
the  array's  progress  are  those  of  Commissioners  Booth-Clib- 
bom,  Booth-Tucker,  Rail  ton,  Hanna  Ouchterlony,  Howard 
Carleton,  Cadman,  Coombes,  and  RidsdelL 

The  auxiliary  league  is  composed  of  persons  who,  not 
necessarily  indorsing  every  method  used  bv  the  army,  yet 
sympathize  in  its  desire  to  reclaim  the  fallen  and  to  save 
the  lost,  and  who  are  precluded  from  taking  any  other  part 
in  it  by  pressure  of  other  duties  or  ill  health.  Many  per- 
sons of  influence  and  position  in  this  way  assist  in  removing 
prejudice  and  encouraging  the  work. 

In  Oct.,  1890,  Gen.  Booth  published  In  Darkest  England, 
and  the  Way  Out,  a  book  in  which  he  dealt  with  and  solved 
the  problem  of  destitution  and  crime  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  Salvation  Army,  through  which  alone  it  would  be 
practicable  to  carry  out  such  a  scheme  as  he  proposed.  Five 
million  dollars  would  be  required,  by  the  e^enerars  estimate, 
to  put  the  whole  in  working  ortler,  but  half  a  million  would 
be  sufficient  to  start  it.  On  Jan.  80  following  Gen.  Booth 
publicly  signed  a  deed  of  trust  for  the  half  million  dollars, 
and  two  parts  of  the  plan — the  City  Colony  and  the  Farm 
Colony — are  in  successful  working  order  and  self-support- 
ing, and  negotiations  are  well  under  way  (1894)  for  the 
third — the  Over-the-sea  Colony.  Should  the  plan  be  fully 
carried  out,  the  general  declares  that  in  England  in  twenty 
years  no  man  or  woman  willing  to  work  would  be  unem- 
ployed. Perhaps  in  no  country  has  the  Salvation  Army 
made  more  rapid  strides,  or  taken  deeper  hold,  than  in  the 
U.  S.  On  Mar.  10,  1880,  Commissioner  George  Scott  Rail- 
ton,  in  company  with  seven  illiterate  yet  earnest  young 
women,  landed  at  Castle  Garden,  New  York.  After  a  time 
the  work  was  very  prosperous,  but  unfortunately,  owing  to 
the  unfaithfulness  of  one  in  its  command,  a  secession  t.ook 
place  in  Oct.,  1884,  which  resulted  in  the  loss  of  the  official 
organ,  property,  and  many  officers.  Commissioner  Frank 
Smith  followed  in  office  and  was  in  command  some  three 
years,  during  which  a  hard  struggle  was  experienced.  Com- 
mander and  Mrs.  Ballington  Booth  took  command  of  the 
work  in  the  U.  S.  in  Apr.,  1887,  and  since  1890,  in  particu- 
lar, the  progress  of  the  movement  has  been  rapid.  In  Nov., 
1892,  the  army  was  established  in  55o  cities  and  towns,  hav- 
ing 656  corps  and  outposts,  and  during  that  month  the  1,500th 
ofncer  was  commissioned.  Five-eighths  of  the  officers  are 
by  birth  or  naturalization  citizens  of  the  U.  S.  In  Jan., 
1895,  there  were  2,002  officers.  The  official  organ  is  the  War 
Cry,  and  there  are  also  a  Swedish  and  a  German  War  Cry 
and  a  monthly  magazine  known  as  The  Conqueror.  It  was 
reported  that  14,000,000  persons  had  attended  the  army's 
•ervices  during  the  year  1891  throughout  the  U.  S. 

Ballington  Booth.    Maud  Ballington  Booth. 

Salvator  Rosa:  an  anglicized  form  of  the  name.  See 
Rosa,  Salvatore. 

Salvia'nns :  presbyter  of  Marseilles ;  an  important  Chris- 
tian writer  of  the  fifth  century;  b.  probably  at  or  near 
Treves ;  author  of  several  works,  of  which  the  following  are 
extant :  1.  Ad  Eccleaiam,  in  four  books,  a  tractate  against 
avarice,  published  under  the  pseudonym  of  Timothetis;  2. 
De  Guhernatione  Dei,  composed  between  439  and  451,  in 
eight  books,  in  defense  of  God's  constant  providence ;  8.  Nine 
letters.  Salvianus's  Latinity  is  excellent  for  the  period,  and 
bears  evidence  of  a  study  of  Lactantius,  but  he  is  diffuse 
and  very  rhetorical.  Of  the  vices  of  his  time  he  gives  a 
most  vivid  picture.  Best  editions  by  C.  Halm  (Berlin,  1877) 
and  F.  Pauly  (Vienna,  1883).  M.  Warren. 

Salvini,  saal-vee'nee,  Tommaso  :  tragedian ;  b.  in  Milan, 
Italy,  Jan.  1,  1830.  His  father  abandoned  the  profession  of 
literature  for  the  stage.  His  mother  was  also  an  actress. 
Young  Salvini  showed  a  rare  talent  for  acting,  and  he  was 
placed  under  the  tuition  of  Gustave  Modena,  and  about  1847 
joined  the  Histori  troupe,  and  achieved  success.  In  1849 
Salvini  took  an  active  part  in  the  war  of  Italian  independ- 
ence, and  became  the  friend  of  Mazzini.  Garibaldi,  and 
Saffi,  with  whom  he  was  taken  pri<w)ner  at  Genoa.  Retiring 
to  Florence  he  devoted  a  year  to  professional  studv,  pre- 
paring amone  others  the  rohs  of  Othello,  Saul,  Hamlet,  and 
Orosmanes.  His  theatrical  tours  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portu- 
gal were  a  series  of  ovations.  In  1872  Salvini  visited  South 
America,  where  he  was  received  with  equal  enthusiasm,  and 
in  1873-74  he  made  a  tour  in  the  U.  S.,  giving  128  perform- 


SAMARIA 

ances,  as  well  as  twenty-eight  in  Havana,  Cuba.  In  1881- 
82  he  again  visited  the  U.  &,  and  made  a  third  tour  in  1ks.v 
86,  since  which  ho  has  retired  from  the  stage,  and  livi>  in 
Florence.  Salvini  also  acted  in  Great  Britain,  Germany. 
Austria,  and  Hungary,  producing  everywhere  a  pr<^foui.<i 
impression.  B.  B.  VALLENTiNb. 

Salzburgr:  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Sabburg,  Austria; 
195  miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Vienna  (see  map  of  Au^^na- 
Hungary,  ref.  5-D).  It  is  picturesquely  situated  at  the  f<«.t 
of  the  Noric  Alps,  on  both  sides  of  the  Salza,  which  lie rv 
rushes  forth  from  a  narrow  defile  and  winds  through  tl.'* 
city  toward  the  Inn.  The  city  is  old,  with  crooked  and  nar- 
row  streets,  but  it  contains  many  fine  monuments  and  e'li- 
fices  built  of  white  marble.  It  is  surrounded  with  «al.- 
pierced  by  twenty  gates,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  i^ 
the  Sigismund  Thor,  425  feet  long,  hewn  through  the 
M5nchsberg.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral  (1614--d4),  a  Bene- 
dictine monastery  with  a  library  of  65,000  volumes  and  94 kj 
MSS.,  a  botanical  garden,  a  college,  a  theological  seminary, 
a  medical  school,  a  museum  of  antiquities,  and  a  \>\\hYv 
library  with  82,000  volumes  and  1,400  MSS.  After  79^  .Si!^- 
burg  was  the  seat  of  archbishops  who  became  noted  for  tli*  ir 
ecclesiastical  severity.  In  1498  the  Jews  were  expelled,  ami 
in  1782  30,(X)0  Protestants  were  compelled  to  leave  ihnr 
homes.  Salzburg  has  manufactures  of  paper-hangings,  mu- 
sical instruments,  lead-pencils,  mirrors,  and  type,  sevrnil 
oil-mills  and  factories  for  spinning  and  weaving  cotton,  ui.d  I 
carries  on  an  active  trade  with  \ienna  and  Bavaria.  Pop.  i 
(1891)  27,644 

Salzkam^mergat :  district  of  the  Austrian  province  "f 
Upper  Austria,  between  Salzburg  and  Styria;  remarkublt* 
for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery  and  lor  its  salt-works.  It  ccui- 
prises  an  area  of  255  sq.  miles,  with  19,000  inhabitant<.  ( »n 
account  of  the  alpine  character  of  the  district,  agricultuiv 
is  almost  impracticable ;  the  inhabitants  are  mostly  enirov'*  «1 
in  cattle-rearing  and  dairy-farming,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  salt  from  the  salt-springs.  The  most  striking  feature  ••[ 
the  scenery  is  the  lakes,  inclosed  by  forest-clad  mount :iii  -. 
The  highest  peak,  Hoher  Priel.  readies  an  elevation  of  7,1<-U 
feet.  The  most  celebrated  of  the  lakes  is  Traun,  formeii  t.y 
the  river  Traun.  The  richest  salt-works  are  those  of  W\A 
and  Hallstadt.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrinoto.s. 

Samana'  T^^J*  a  deep  indentation  in  the  eastern  en<l  <  f 
the  island  of  Santo  Domingo  (Dominican  Republic),  Wt  >i 
Indies.  It  is  37  miles  long  and  12  wide,  with  two  entranr.  -. 
which  could  be  easily  defended  by  forts:  it  forms  a  mtv 
large  and  fine  harbor,  perfectly  safe  except  in  the  rare  evei.t 
of  a  cyclone  from  the  E.  The  principal  ports  are  Sahanu 
la  Mar  on  the  south  side  and  Santa  B&rbara  de  Samana,  •>!> 
the  north.  Although  it  lies  near  the  route  from  New  Yofk 
to  the  Isthmus  of  ranama,the  U.  S.  Congress  refused  u* 
ratify  a  treaty  for  its  purchase  in  1870. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Samar :  one  of  theVisaya  group,  Philippine  islands,  Ka«: 
Indies ;  area,  5,167  sq.  miles ;  pop.  (1887)  185,386  inhabitant  <. 
most  of  whom  are  mestizoes.  The  mountains  of  this  island 
are  higher  and  wilder  than  those  of  the  other  islands.  Thr 
capital  is  Catbalonga,  on  the  west  coast.  The  princi|>a! 
articles  in  which  traSe  is  carried  on  are  wax,  cabinet  wixni^, 
palm  oil  and  mat-work.      Revised  by  M.  W.  HARRiNciTox. 

Samara,  saa-mak'rak :  government  of  European  Russia : 
bounded  E.  by  the  Kirgluz  steppes  and  W.  by  the  Vol  pa. 
Area,  58,321  sq.  mil^s.  It  is  very  fertile  and  well  adai^tt-ti 
to  agriculture,  but  thinly  peopled.    Pop.  (1890)  2,665,300. 

Samara :  capital  of  the  government  of  Samara,  Euro[H>nri 
Russia ;  on  the  Vol^a  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  7-H).  It  ha^ 
an  extensive  trade  in  grain,  fish,  caviare,  tallow,  and  hide?. 
Pop.  (1891)  99,856. 

Samarang':  town  of  Java,  East  Indies;  the  capital  ^'f 
the  Dutch  residency  of  Samaran^;  on  the  northern  ci^a^t  if 
the  island,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Samarang  (see  map  <>f 
East  Indies,  ref.  8-D).  It  is  tolerably  well  built,  and  hn- 
an  important  trade,  though  its  climate  is  unhealthful  ar..! 
its  harbor  shallow,  and  in  the  wet  season  even  unsafe.  Svitr.Hr 
rice,  and  pepper  are  extensively  cultivated  in  its  viciii;i\ 
and  it  is  the  entrepot  for  the  products  of  the  central  \KKr'. 
of  the  island.     Pop.  71,440,  of  whom  3,600  are  Eurof^eun^ 

Sama^ria  [from  Lat.  Samari' a=zGiT,  :Utuip9ia,  fr».>m  lit-* . 
Shom'ron] :  an  ancient  city  of  Central  Palestine,  6  milt^s  N.  NN . 
of  Shechem,  and  about  half-way  between  the  MediterrQn«-.i;. 
and  the  Jordan.  It  was  founded  923  B.c.  by  Omri,  the  ^ivti' 
of  the  nineteen  kings  of  the  northern  kingdom  of  Israel.  wt:< 


282 


SAMARKAND 


SAMOA 


and  I — .  The  letters  are  twenty-two  in  number,  their  order 
being  the  same  as  in  Hebrew,  but  their ^form  is  like  the  an-' 
cient  Hebrew  and  Phoenician,  and  not  like  the  square  char- 
acter adopted  by  the  Jews  subsequent  to  the  Exile.  In  pro- 
nunciation they  are  the  same  as  Hebrew,  except  the  gut- 
turals, which  are  all  quiescent  and  interchange  readily  with 
one  another,  being  exceedingly  weak.  The  vocabulary  is 
essentially  the  same  as  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee,  although 
many  words  have  been  introduced  from  Arabic,  Latin,  and 
Greek.  See  Uhlemann,  Inst  ling.  SamarxL  (Leipzig,  1837) ; 
Nicholls,  Chrammar  of  the  Samaritan  Lang,  (London,  1858) ; 
Petermann,  Brevis  Ling.  Samarit.  Or.  (Berlin,  1873). 

The  Samaritan  literature  is  limited  in  extent.  (1)  The 
Samaritan  Targum  is  ascribed  by  tradition  to  Nathanael 
the  high  priest,  who  died  SO  B.  c.  There  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  it  was  composed  about  the  same  time  as  the  Tar- 
gum of  Onkelos,  with  which  it  has  many  points  of  agree- 
ment, although  certainly  an  entirely  inaependent  version. 
The  translation  is  exceedingly  literal  and  close,  even  whei*e 
the  sense  was  not  clear  to  the  translator.  (Of.  Winer,  De 
Veraionis  Pent.  Samaritance  indole  (Leipzig,  1817) ;  Pe- 
termann, Pent.  Samarit.^  fasc.  i.  Genesis  (Berlin,  1872); 
BrUll,  Samarit.  Targum  zum  Pent.  (Frankfort,  1875),  in 
Hebrew  square  characters.  Cf.  also  Fragments  of  a  Samari- 
tan Targum,  with  an  introduction  by  Nutt  (London,  1874), 
and  Krit.  Stndien  Hher  manuscript.  Frag,  des  Sam.  Targ., 
von  BrllU  (Frankfort,  1875).)  This  Targum  is  also  printed 
in  the  great  Paris  and  Walton  Polyglots.  The  Samaritans 
had  also  a  Greek  version,  mentionea  by  some  of  the  Fathers 
as  rh  tofioftrucip,  which  has  been  lost ;  also  an  Arabic  ver- 
sion, whicn  they  still  possess.  (2)  Chronicles. — First  in  im- 
portance is  the  Samaritan  Chronicle,  or  book  of  Joshua, 
composed  probably  in  the  thirteenth  century,  taking  some 
of  its  material  from  the  Hebrew  book  of  Joshua,  but  adding 
thereto  much  of  a  legendary  character,  showing  that  the 
Jews  were  from  the  time  of  Eli  apostates  and  their  oppres- 
sors, continuing  the  narrative  until  about  350  a.  d.,  where  it 
concludes  abruptly.  It  was  published  by  JuynboU  (Leyden, 
1848),  with  Latin  translation  and  commentary.  There  is 
also  the  chronicle  Fl  Tholodoth  (The  Generations),  pro- 
fessedly by  Eleazar  ben  Amram  (1142  ▲.  d.),  and  then  con- 
tinued by  many  others  until  1859,  giving  the  calculation  of 
sacred  times,  the  age  of  patriarchs,  list  of  high  priests  until 
the  present.  It  was  published  by  Neubauer  in  Journal 
asiatique  (1869).  Then  comes  the  chronicle  of  Abulfath, 
in  the  middle  of  the  fourteeenth  century,  a  digest  of  the 
two  previous  works,  with  fresh  legendary  material,  published 
by  Vilmar  (Gotha,  1865).  Other  minor  works,  corresponding 
with  the  Jewish  Hagada  literature,  are  found.  (3)  Ijiturgies 
and  Hymns. — Nutt  (p.  143)  says  that  there  are  nineteen 
volumes  of  these  in  the  British  Museum,  besides  those  known 
in  the  Carmina  Samarit.  of  Gesenius  (Halle,  1824)  and 
Karme  Shomeron  of  Kirchheim  (Frankfort,  1851.)  Peter- 
mann publishes  specimens  in  his  Oram,  and  Chrest.  The  pres- 
ent Samaritans  nave  two  collections,  called  Durrdn  (String 
of  Pearls)  and  Defter  {Book).  These  hymns  and  prayers  be- 
long to  widely  different  jjeriods.  The  earliest  are  ascribed 
to  tne  angels.  Heidenheim  has  published  many  of  them  in 
his  Vierteh'ahrsschrift.  (4)  There  are  also  commentaries, 
theological  tracts,  and  a  few  recent  grammatical  works,  writ- 
ten in  Arabic.  See  the  article  Samaria  in  Herzog's  Rexil" 
encyk.^  by  Petermann;  Smithes  Dict.^  by  Deutsch;  Kitto, 
Cyclop.  (3d  ed.),  by  Davidson ;  and  Nutt,  Samaritan  Hist., 
Dogma^  and  Literature  (London,  1874).        C.  A.  Brioos. 

Samarkand^,  or  Samareand  (probably  the  ancient  Mara- 
eanda) :  capital  of  the  province  of  Serafshan ;  comprising 
the  southern  part  of  Russian  Turkestan  ;  situated  at  an  ele- 
vation of  2,154  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  8  miles  S.  of 
the  river  Serafshan  (see  map  of  Asia,  rcf.  4-D).  By  the 
Arabian  poets  of  the  Middle  Ages  it  is  described  as  a  para- 
dise on  account  of  its  beautiful  surroundings,  and  under  the 
dynasty  of  the  Sassanides  (833-1 0(X)  a.  d)  it  flourished  as  a 
home  for  learning  and  all  the  arts  of  peace.  It  lost  much 
by  the  occupation  of  Genghis  Khan  in  1219,  but  it  rose 
again  toward  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  when 
Timur  made  it  the  capital  of  his  immense  empire,  and 
adorned  it  with  architectural  monuments  of  all  kinds — the 
tomb  of  Kasim-bin-Abbas,  the  moscjue  of  Timur.  the  citadel, 
Timur's  tomb,  the  Medresse,  etc.  By  the  Mohammedans  of 
Central  Asia  the  city  is  still  considered  the  principal  seat  of 
Mohammedan  learning,  and  its  eighty-six  mosques  and 
twenty-three  colleges  attract  numerous  pilgrims  and  stu- 
dents.   In  1868  it  was  seized  by  Russia,  with  the  whole  dis- 


trict of  the  Serafshan.    The  Transcaspian  Railway  has  been 
completed  to  Samarkand.    Pop.  in  1889,  according  to  Cur- 
zon,  40,000,  of  whom  6,000  are  m  the  European  quarter. 
Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Samar'rah :  town ;  in  the  vilayet  of  Mesopotamia :  «)i) 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris;  62  miles  N.  W.  from  Bag.la<i 
(see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  7-J).  It  was  founded  by  the  Cali;  h 
Motassem  (836)  with  frightful  extravagance.  The  sta)>:>^ 
of  the  caliph  could  contain  1(X),000  horses.  The  city  i>  n-- 
vered  by  the  Shilte  Mussulmans,  and  annually  attract>  great 
numbers  of  pilgrims.  Pop.  8,000.  The  ruins  of  ancioiii 
Opis  and  of  the  Median  wall,  which  extends  for  sevt-r.^! 
miles  along  the  river,  are  close  by.  K  A.  (t. 

Sambation  [through  Heb.  from  Gr.  aafifiaruAt  v6tratMs] :  a 
river  said  by  Oriental  folk-lore  to  flow  during  the  week,  but 
to  rest  on  the  Sabbath.  It  is  flrst  mentioned  by  Plinv 
(Hist.  Nat,,  xxxi.,  2).  Josephus  {Bell.  Jud.^  vii.,  5, 1)  revcr^^i 
the  order,  and  says  it  flows  only  on  the  Sabbath.  In  the 
Midrash  and  later  Jewish  saga  it  is  connected  with  the  re- 
ported dwellings  of  the  ten  lost  tribes  {Jew.  Quart.  Rev.,  i.. 
p.  20,  seq.).  It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  identify  the  river. 
but  the  belief  had  its  origin  in  the  many  mtermitteni 
springs  in  Palestine,  and  in  the  wish  to  make  nature  witne«j 
to  the  holiness  of  the  Sabbath.  There  existed  another  sa{:& 
on  a  river  which  flowed  sand  and  stones  (Bar  Hebra*u>.  m 
Mittheil.  d.  Acad.-Orient.  Ver.  zu  Berlin,  iii.,  38),  which,  be- 
cause of  its  name  {Nahar  hoi.  Sand  or  Week  river),  was  con- 
founded with  the  Sambation  {All.  Zeit.  d.  Judenth.,  Mav  2il 
1892,  p.  247;  Zeit.  f  Assyr.,  viii.,  p.  278).  Similar  traditions 
exist  in  the  East.  See  also  Neubauer,  Oeogr.  du  Talmwi 
(1868,  p.  33);  Brttll,  Jahrbucher  /.  JUd.  Oeseh.  (i.,  p.  64i; 
Zeit.  f.  Volkskunde  (ii.,  p.  297).  Richard  Gotthcil. 

Sambre,  saknbr :  a  small  river  of  Europe  which  nse<  in 
the  department  of  Aisne,  France,  flows  in  a  N.  E.  direct n  n. 
and  joins  the  Meuse  at  Namur  in  Belgium  after  a  course'  <>f 
about  100  miles.  It  is  navigable  for  a  great  part  of  it& 
course,  and  forms  an  important  part  of  the  system  of  canals 
in  Northern  France  and  Belgium. 

Sam'isen  [Jap.,  liter.,  the  three  pleasing  threads]:  xh^ 
most  popular  of  Japanese  musical  instruments.  It  con5i^'3 
of  a  neck  or  flnger-board  2i  feet  long,  and  a  square  druiti 
(7f  by  7  inches),  rounded  off  at  the  corners  and  c()v»rr.i 
with  parchment.  There  are  three  strings  of  silk,  which  the 
player  strikes  with  a  broad  pecten,  8i  inches  long,  of  ViM.,1. 
ivory,  or  tortoise-shell.  The  parchment  covering  the  ilrura 
is  of  cat-skin,  and  is  double  at  the  point  where  the  nla\ir 
strikes.  The  instrument  is  held  by  the  left  hand,  cu*^-  *» 
the  left  shoulder,  transversely,  so  that  the  drum  comes  umi*  r 
the  right  arm.  The  drum  receives  the  flrst  blow  from  n.^* 
pecten  or  haehi,  and  thus  two  vibrations  are  set  up.  In  t!<' 
lingering  the  nails  are  made  to  press  the  strings.  Tht*  in- 
strument is  said  to  have  been  introduced  from  Looch  ••> 
about  1560.  J.  M.  Dixon. 

Sammon^icas,  Quintus  Serenus  :  a  Roman  poet  of  th* 
third  century  a.  d..  whose  didactic  poem,  De  Medicina,  in  1 .1 M 
hexameters,  is  a  collection  of  medical  receipts  drawn  lar^'t  It 
from  the  elder  Pliny;  correct  in  versification,  but  dull  a:-! 
prosaic.  Edited  by  Ackermann  (Leipzig,  1786),  and  in  Bath- 
rens's  Poet.  Lat,  Jfinores,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  ici2-158.        M.  W. 

Sam'nites  [from  Lat  Sam'nis,  plur.  Samni'tes,  a  8an:- 
nite,  deriv.  ol  Sam'nium,  for  older  Sabinium,  name  k*{ 
their  country,  deriv.  of  Sabi'nus,  Sabine] :  a  people  of  S.t- 
bine  origin  occupying  Samnium,  the  territory  of  Centn^ 
Italy  S.  of  the  Sabines  {q.  v.).  Like  the  latter,  they  wen»  a 
conrederation  of  tribes,  but  their  organization  seems  to  hn\ « 
been  more  perfect  than  that  of  the  parent  race.  They  gralu- 
ally  moved  beyond  the  natural  boundaries  of  their  territory, 
and  occupied  points  on  the  Adriatic,  and  in  the  territory  of 
Campania  ana  Lucania,  coalescing  with  the  Oscan  [H^oplf?: 
who  inhabited  this  region.  In  the  northern  part  of  C^an- 
pania  they  came  in  contact  with  the  Romans,  and  thus  wfi» 
inaugurated  the  long  series  of  wars  which  resulted  in  Ronj*  s 
conquest  of  the  whole  of  Southern  Italy  (272  b.  c).  T:ie 
Samnites  probably  found  the  Oscan  language  in  the  oriirinnl 
territory  which  they  occupied,  as  well  as  in  Campania,  I  -it 
as  their  own  (the  Cmbro-Sabellian  dialect)  was  s><>  cIm-^Iv 
related  to  it,  the  mingled  product  does  not  seem  to  ha\e 
differed  much  from  the  original  Oscan. 

G.  L.  HENDRICKSt»N, 

Samniam :  See  Samnites. 

Samo'a:  group  of  fourteen  volcanic  islands  of  Polyiu-.s, 
N.  E.  of  the  Fiji  islands;  lying  nearly  E.  and  W.  betwoto 


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284 


SAMSON 


SANAA 


Jud.  zvii.-xyiii.  and  xix.-xxi.  The  author  took  pains  to  divide 
the  story  into  two  parts.  The  first  part  (xiii.  2-xv.  20)  gives 
an  account  of  the  birth  and  the  wild  youth  of  Samson,  up 
to  the  time  when,  after  the  battle  of  Lehi,  *'  he  became  judge 
of  Israel,  in  the  days  of  the  Philistines,  twenty  years."  The 
second  part  (xvi.)  gives  an  account  of  the  last  few  weeks  or 
months  of  his  life,  when  he  relapsed  into  folly,  and  perished 
thereby,  **he  having  been  judge  of  Israel  twenty  years." 
Samson  is  the  son  of  the  Danite  Manoah  of  Zorah  (xiii.  2), 
livin|f  in  Mahaneh-Dan  (xiii.  25,  xvi,  31 ;  comp.  xviii.  11-12). 
To  his  mother,  long  barren,  the  birth  of  a  son  was  announced 
by  an  angel  (comp.  Luke  i.  7,  13).  He  is  a  Nazirite  by  birth 
(xiii.  5,  7,  xvi.  17;  comp.  1  Sam.  i.  11),  a  different  thing  from 
being  a  Nazirite  temporarily  by  vow  (Num.  vi.  2-21). 
Through  his  passion  for  a  Philistine  woman,  he  providen- 
tially becomes  involved  in  a  series  of  personal  quarrels  with 
the  Philistines.  In  these,  though  he  is  not  blameless,  he 
has  the  sympathy  of  the  reader.  One  exploit  leads  to  an- 
other, until  ho  becomes  judge.  No  details  of  his  career  as 
judge  are  given.  In  his  youth,  however,  the  Philistines 
ruled  Israel  (xiv.  4),  and  Israel,  judging  by  the  conduct  of 
the  men  of  Judah  (xv.  10-13),  was  in  an  abject  condition ; 
while  in  his  later  years  the  Philistines  kept  their  own  side 
of  the  border  (xvi.).  The  inference  is  inevitable  that  the 
twenty  years  of  his  administration  were  a  success,  and  ful- 
fill the  promise  made  before  his  birth  (xiii.  6).  Many  imag- 
ine that  he  was  merely  a  local  judge,  but,  if  lan^a^e  means 
anything,  the  statement  that  he  ** judged  Israel"  indicates 
that  he  was  chief  magistrate  of  the  nation.  Ussher  assumes, 
that  the  twenty  years  of  Samson  followed  the  forty  vears  of 
Eli,  and  dates  them  B.  c.  1140-1120.  It  is  more  probable  that 
Samson  belongs  to  the  time  of  Philistine  oppression,  some 
decades  earlier  (Jud.  x.  7).        Revised  by  W.  J.  Beecheb. 

Samson,  Geokoe  Whitefield,  D.  D.  :  theologian  and 
critic ;  b.  at  Harvard,  Mass.,  Sept.  29,  1819 ;  graduated  at 
Brown  University  1839,  at  Newton  Theological  Institute 
1843;  was  for  many  years  pastor  of  a  Baptist  church  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  and  president  of  Columbian  College, 
D.  C,  1859-71,  when  he  became  president  of  Rutgers  Fe- 
male College,  New  York.  He  traveled  in  Europe  and  the 
East  1848,  publishing  a  series  of  letters  and  essays  on  Italy, 
Egypt,  Palestine,  and  Sinai ;  has  written  several  theologic- 
al pamphlets  and  critical  essays  on  art,  and  is  author  of 
To  Datmonion^  or  the  Spiritual  Medium  (1852),  reissued 
in  an  enlarged  form  under  the  title  Spiritualism  Tested 
(1860) ;  Outlims  of  the  History  of  Ethics  (1860) ;  Elements 
of  Art  Criticism  (1866) ;  Physical  Media  in  Spirit  fial  Mani- 
festations (1869) ;  The  Atonement  as  assumed  Divifie  Re- 
spmsibility  (\S7S) ;  Bible  Revisers'  Greek  rex^(1880);  Bible 
Wines  (1883) ;  Idols  of  Fashion  and  Culture  (1887)  ;  Test- 
ed Truths  as  to  Relations  of  Capital  and  Labor  (1890); 
OuizoVs  Harmony  of  Historic^  Philosophic,  and  Religious 
Instruction  in  French  Colleges  (1891) ;  Classic  Text  of  Au- 
thorships Authenticity  of  Authority  applied  to  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  Scriptures  (1893). 

Samsun^  (anc.  Amisus) :  town ;  in  vilayet  of  Trebizond, 
Asia  Minor ;  a  port  of  large  importance  on  the  Black  Sea ; 
northern  terminus  of  several  trans-Anatolian  commercial 
routes  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  4-0).  It  exports  wool,  silk, 
sheepskins,  goatskins,  wax,  gums,  opium,  grain,  fruit,  wine, 
valonea,  and  tobacco.    Pop.  (1889)  14,500.  E.  A.  G, 

Samael  [from  Heb.  Sh'mU'H,  for  shHnu^a'el,  heard  of 
God] :  a  Hebrew  judge,  lawgiver,  and  prophet,  whose  history 
is  recorded  in  the  first  of  the  two  biblical  books  of  Samuel ; 
b.  at  Ramathaim  Zophim,  in  Mt.  Ephraim,  probably  in  the 
twelfth  century  b.  c.  ;  was  consecrated  by  his  mother,  Han- 
nah, to  the  service  of  Jehovah  as  a  Nazirite  before  his 
birth ;  brought  up  in  the  household  of  the  chief  priest,  Eli, 
at  Shiloh ;  received  in  childhood  a  divine  message  forebod- 
ing the  downfall  of  the  family  of  Eli ;  assumed  the  judge- 
ship of  Israel  about  twenty  years  after  the  death  of  Eli,  at 
which  time  he  headed  a  successful  expedition  against  the 
Philistines  ;  resided  at  Ramah  (probably  the  same  as  Rama- 
thaim Zophim) ;  visited  annually  the  three  principal  sanc- 
tuaries. Bethel,  Gilgal,  and  Mizpeh,  and  made  his  sons  dep- 
uty judges,  but  in  consequence  of  their  misconduct  was 
commissioned  by  Jehovah  to  accede  to  the  popular  clamor 
for  a  king ;  to  which  end  he  anointed  Saul  as  nrst  monarch 
of  Israel,  and  on  his  disobedience  to  a  divine  command 
anointed  the  youthful  shepherd  David  in  his  place.  He 
died  shortly  before  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Saul,  and  his 
spirit  was  successfully  invoked  by  the  **  witch  of  Endor  "  to 
announce  to  Saul  the  fatal  result  of  the  battle  in  which  he 


lost  his  life.  Samuel  is  regarded  as  the  father  of  prophecy. 
This  does  not  mean  that  there  had  been  no  prophets  Y>efure 
him,  but  that  he  gave  organized  form  and  increased  power 
to  the  prophetic  activity  in  Israel.  The  "corapanieb*'  of 
prophets  or  his  own  time  and  the  "  sons  of  the  prophets  "  nf 
later  times  probably  owed  their  origin  to  him.  In  connn- 
tion  with  prophetic  training  he  gave  an  impetus  to  literarr 
and  musical  culture,  thus  making  possible  the  great  devf  1- 
opment  of  these  that  characterized  the  reigns  oi  David  ami 
Solomon. 

The  chronology  of  the  life  of  Samuel  is  obscure,  and  great 
differences  of  opinion  exist.  Probably,  however,  he  wa.s  a 
grown  man  at  the  death  of  Eli  (1  Sam.  iii.  l^iv.  1) ;  then 
for  twenty  years  he  made  his  influence  felt  as  a  proph^  t. 
neither  he  nor  Samson,  nor  any  other  man,  being  at  that 
time  judge  of  Israel  (vii.  2);  then  for  perhaps  eight^tn 
years  he  was  judge  (vii.  6,  seq.\  chief  magistrate  of  Israel ; 
then  Saul  was  made  king,  and  Samuel,  being  thus  out- 
ranked, was  no  longer  chief  magistrate,  though  he  continurd 
to  be  judge  till  his  death  (vii.  15).  His  administration  was 
brilliantly  successful,  though  the  accounts  of  it  are  vtry 
brief.  Israel  became  independent  of  the  Philistines  (vii.  i:^- 
14).  He  settled  the  Amorite  question,  which  had  been  a 
source  of  trouble  from  the  time  of  Joshua  (viL  14).  He  (»r- 
ganized  the  administration  of  justice  (vii.  16-17).  Though 
nis  sons  failed  to  walk  in  his  footsteps,  he  handed  over  W 
his  successor  a  strong  and  prosperous  nation. 

Revised  by  W.  J.  Beecher. 

Samuel,  The  Books  of:  called  in  the  LXX.  and  Vulgate 
the  first  and  second  books  of  Kings.  The  books  of  Jutj^'*  ^ 
and  Samuel,  either  with  or  without  Ruth,  are  a  conne<  t»«l 
whole,  evidently  formed,  to  a  larce  extent,  by  the  prme^N 
of  combining  earlier  writings.  The  Talmud  attributes  the 
series  to  the  prophet  Samuel,  with  supplementary  work  l*y 
the  prophets  Nathan  and  Gad.  This  can  not  be  correct  in 
the  sense  that  Samuel  personally  wrote  the  larger  T>art  nf 
these  books,  but  it  is  probably  correct  in  the  sense  that  the 
work  was  initiated  by  him,  and  dominated  throughout  by 
his  spirit.  In  1  Chron.  xxix.  29  we  are  told  that  the  affftir-* 
of  King  David,  first  and  last,  "with  all  his  reign  and  hi< 
might,  and  the  times  which  passed  over  him  and  over  Israel 
and  over  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  countries,"  are  written 
"  upon  the  words  of  Samuel  the  seer,  and  upon  the  w<»ni5 
of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  upon  the  words  of  Gad  the 
observer."  Evidently,  the  sources  thus  described  are  either 
a  collection  of  the  writings  whence  the  present  seri**^. 
Judges,  Ruth,  and  Samuel,  was  compiled,  or  else  that  seri^-s 
itself,  the  second  alternative  being  the  more  probable. 

Scholars  hold  various  opinions  as  to  the  time  when  the 
books  of  Samuel  were  composed  in  their  present  fonu,  but 
really  there  is  no  reason  for  dating  them  later  than  the  life- 
time of  Nathan,  that  is,  some  time  in  the  reign  of  Solom*>n. 
All  the  many  alleged  reasons  for  assigning  to  them  a  later 
date  fade  out  when  closely  examined. 

In  any  case,  the  books  of  Samuel  are  not  continuous,  as  a 
literary  work,  with  the  books  of  Kings,  though  the  latter 
take  up  the  history  at  the  point  where  the  former  leave 
it.  The  author  of  Kings  habitually  names  his  sources  (1 
Kings  xi.  41,  xiv.  19,  e.  g.),  passes  a  sentence  of  formal  u\>- 
proval  or  condemnation  on  each  ruler  (2  Kings  xvi.  2.  u. 
e.g.),  gives  his  chronology  in  a  formulated  system,  wlii'e 
the  author  of  Samuel  habitually  does  none  of  these  thin^^. 
And  many  additional  particulars  might  be  citeil  to  show 
that  the  authors  of  the  two  series  were  men  very  dissimilar 
in  their  point  of  view  and  their  literary  habits. 

In  their  contents  the  books  of  Samuel  are  a  history  » .f 
David  and  his  reign,  with  a  preliminarv  account  of  the 
calamities  that  preceded  Samuel,  the  brilliant  administra* 
tion  of  Samuel  himself,  the  establishing  of  the  kingdom,  the 
reign  of  Saul,  and  especially  Saul's  relations  to  David. 

Revised  by  W.  J.  Beecher. 

Samarai,  saa'mdb-ri'  (literally,  guard):  the  name  given 
to  Japanese  warriors  under  the  feudal  regime.  Before  th«' 
Tokugawa  shogunate  the  name  included  even  the  sh(>j:uii 
and  daimios.  The  samurai  were  a  class  apart,  numlH-rin;: 
in  1870  about  400,(X)0  families,  intermarrj'ing  among  them- 
selves and  having  a  peculiar  code  of  honor,  etiquette.  an<i 
morality.  The  privilege  of  wearing  two  swonis,  withdrawn 
in  1876,  gave  them  the  name  of  **  two-swonied  men."  Th' 
modern  police  and  gendarmerie  and  the  officers  of  the  arm) 
and  navy  are  of  samurai  stock.  J.  M.  Dixon. 

Saiiaa^ :  city :  capital  of  the  Ottoman  vilayet  of  Yem»*ti, 
in  Arabia.    It'is  situated  7,120  feet  above  the  level  of  the 


5U»  Aii* 


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^hun  Illaft,  f  *ii|^n  r  fW.  Cite  eUar  Blul 


11    n.  > 


m      1,1, 


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IL  H.  , 


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'i'JkiMfUu{ltiUp^mJua  L^Jt  athii  Iw^Uta 


111 

I    A 


If 


SAN  BUENA  VENTURA 


SANCTIFICATION 


San  Baena  (bwft'nak)  Yentu^ra:  city;  capital  of  Ventu- 
ra CO.,  Cal. ;  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the  S.  Pac.  Railroad ; 
60  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Los  Angeles  (for  location,  see  map  of 
California,  ref.  12-E).  Its  legal  name,  as  above  given,  is  de- 
rived from  a  famous  old  Spanish  mission ;  its  post-ollice  desig- 
nation is  Ventura.  It  contains  the  ancient  mission  build- 
ing, public  high  school,  2  grammar  schools,  public  library 
and  reading-room  (founded  in  1874),  Y.  M.  (J.  A.  building, 
electric  light,  street-railway,  water,  and  sewer  plants,  several 
hot  springs,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $100,000,  a  private 
bank,  and  a  daily  and  4  weekly  newspapers.  The  pnncipal 
industries  are  apiculture  ana  fruit-growing.  The  equable 
climate  and  spnngs  have  made  it  a  popular  resort  for  in- 
valids. Pop.  (1880)  1,870;  (1890)  2,320;  (1895)  estimated, 
4,000.  Editoe  of  **  Ventueian." 

Sanclioni^athon  [6r.  Iffyxowiilhtv^  Ifiefxmn/iBtov  =  Phceni- 
dan.  Sakkun-ydthonj  Sakkun  has  given] :  name  of  a  mythical 
Phoenician,  who  is  said  to  have  lived  before  the  Trojan  war, 
and  to  have  written  a  history  of  the  Phcenicians.  Philo 
Herenius  of  Byblos  (Gebal),  b.  64  a.  d.,  pretends  to  have 
translated  this  book  into  (}reek,  under  the  name  ^oti^ueiic^ 
IffTopia,  or  T&  ^oi^ucued.  Fragments  of  this  work  have  been 
preserved  by  Eusebius  {De  Prepar.  Fvang,,  bk.  i.,  chaps. 
IX.  and  X. ;  bk.  iv.,  chap,  xvi.)  and  the  Neo-Platonic  phi- 
losopher Porphyry  (De  Abstin,,  ii.,  56).  Sanchoniathon  is 
also  mentioned  by  Athenaeus  (Detpnoaophiat,  bk.  iii.,  ch.  c), 
Theodoret  {Adv,  Oentiles,  Disput.  ii.),  and  Suidas  (MQlIer, 
Frag,  Hist.  OrcBC.,  iii.,  p.  561\  The  statement  of  Philo  has 
been  accepted  by  Grotius,  Mignot,  Ewald,  Renan,  Spiegel, 
and  Thiele,  but  rejected  by  Bod  well,  Meiners,  and  Hiss- 
man.  Lobeck  stands  alone  in  assuming  that  the  falsifica- 
tion is  due  to  Eusebius.  Modem  scholars,  while  denying 
the  existence  of  a  Phoenician  writer  by  the  name  of  Sancho- 
niathon, believe  that  Philo  has  embo<ued  in  his  work  tradi- 
tions which  were  current  in  his  native  city  (Bunsen,  Mov- 
ers, Buncker,  Rawlinson,  Baudissin),  though  the  whole  has 
more  or  less  a  pseudepigraphic  character  (Baudissin,  Pietsch- 
mann,  von  Gutschmid).  The  fragments  extant  seem  to  show 
that  Philo  culled  from  various  sources.  They  contain  two 
different  so-called  Phoenician  cosmogonies,  one  beginning 
with  wrwfta  and  x^f»  the  other  with  leoXwla  and  fidau.  Then 
follows  an  account  of  the  rise  of  the  human  race  {<pSt,  vGp, 
f^^li  giants,  mankind),  and  of  the  beginnings  of  culture, 
drawn  from  three  different  sources.  To  this  is  added  the 
mythical  history  of  the  city  of  Byblus.  A  still  further  frag- 
ment is  preserved  by  Eusebius  on  r&  htvypa/pSfisya  6w0e(«v 
^iwofArfifuera  (according  to  Gutschmid's  correction),  which  prob- 
ably treated  of  the  writings  of  the  mjrthical  Egyptian  Tnoth. 
The  tendency  of  Philo's  work,  which  contains  Egyptian, 
Grecian,  Phoenician,  and  Hebrew  elements,  is  undoubtedly 
euhemeristic,  and  in  its  syncretism  endeavors  to  prove  the 
Phoenician  origin  of  Greek  religion.  In  1836  Wagenfeld  as- 
tonished the  learned  world  with  excerpts  from  what  he 
claimed  to  be  a  newly  found  MS.  of  the  whole  of  Pbilo's 
translation,  Sanchuniathona  Urgeach,  der  Phdnizier  (Han- 
over, 1836),  but  the  whole  was  soon  recognized  as  a  fraud. 
See  Jahrb.  fur  Theol,^  vii.,  pp.  95,  aeq, 

LiTEBATUEE. — The  text  is  published  in  C.  Mttller,  Fra^- 
menta  Hiat  Or<BCor.  (iii.,  p.  561,  aeq.) ;  Orelli,  Sa/nehonior 
thonia  Fragmenta  (Leipzig,  1826) ;  transl.  in  Cory*s  Ancient 
Fragmenta  (London,  1876,  p.  1);  Lenormant,  Beginninga  of 
Hiatory  (New  York,  1882,  p.  524).  See  also  Movers,  Die 
Phdnizier  (i.,  pp.  117,  aeq,) ;  Ewald,  in  the  Abhand,  der 
KOnigl,  GeaelL  der  Wiaa.  zu  Odttingen  (1853,  vol.  v.,  p.  3) ; 
Renan,  Memoirea  de  VAcademie  dea  Jnacriptiona  (1858,  vol. 
xxiii.,  p.  241);  Thiele,  Egyptische  en  Meaopotamiache  Ooda- 
dienaten  (Amsterdam,  1872,  p.  440);  Duncker,  OeacK  dea 
Alterthuma  (1874,  vol.  i.,  p.  259);  Ed.  Meyer,  Oeach.  dea 
Alterthuma  (1884,  vol.  i.,  §  206);  Baudissin,  Studien  zur 
Semit.  Religionageach,  (1876,  vol.  i.,  pp.  3,  aeq^\  Pietsch- 
mann,  Oeach,  der  Phdnizier  (1889,  p.  136);  Rawlinson,  Hiat. 
of  Phoenicia  (1889,  p.  385) ;  von  Gutschmid,  Kleine  Schriften 
(1890,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  21,  aeq,);  Gruppe,  I>ie  Oriech.  Cultur  und 
My  then  (Leipzig,  1887,  p.  347).  Richaed  Gottheil. 

San  Cristo'bal  de  los  Llanos,  or  Las  Casas :  formerly 
Ciudad  Real ;  capital  of  the  state  of  Chiapas,  Mexico ;  on  a 
plain,  about  6,700  feet  above  the  sea  (see  map  of  Mexico, 
ref.  9-J).  It  was  founded  in  1528  on  the  site  of  an  Indian 
village  ;  subsequently  it  was  famous  as  the  residence  of 
Las  Casas  when  ne  was  Bishop  of  Chiapas.  Pop.  (1892),  with 
the  immediate  vicinity,  16,050.  H.  H.  S. 

Sancroft.  William,  D. D. :  archbishop;  b.  at  Fressing- 
field,  Suffolk,  England,  Jan.  30,  1616;  educated  at  Bury 


School  and  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  be- 
came fellow  1642;  was  deprived  of  his  fellowship  by  the 
Long  Parliament  1649 ;  became  chaplain  to  Bishop  Cosin  of 
Durham  1660,  in  which  year  he  assisted,  privately,  in  the  re- 
vision of  the  Prayer-book ;  obtained  from  that  prelate  the 
rectory  of  Houghton-le-Spring  and  was  prebendary  in  Dur- 
ham Cathedral ;  was  elected  master  of  Emmanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  1662 ;  was  promoted  successively  to  the  deaneries 
of  York  1663,  and  of  St.  Paulas,  London,  1664 ;  spent  lar^i- 
sums  on  the  repair  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral ;  was  present eii 
by  Charles  II.  to  the  archdeaconry  of  Canterbury  1668,  and 
to  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury  1677.  He  atteu<led 
Charles  II.  on  his  deathbed,  and  wrote  the  petition  presented 
to  James  II.  in  1687  against  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence. 
This  petition  was  signed  by  himself  and  bv  six  other  prel- 
ates, for  which  thev  were  committed  to  tne  Tower  June, 
1688,  tried  for  misciemeanor  before  the  kind's  bench,  and 
acquitted  June  29, 1688.  Notwithstanding  his  CTievanc^s. 
he  did  not  take  part  in  the  conspiracies  against  James ;  re- 
fused to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Wflliam  and  Mary ; 
was  deprived  of  his  see  Feb.,  1691 ;  refused  to  recognize  his 
deposition ;  retired  to  his  native  place,  and  attempted,  with 
the  aid  of  the  numerous  nonjuring  clergy,  to  maintain  an 
episcopal  succession.  D.  at  Fressingfield,  Nov.  24, 1693.  lie 
was  the  author  of  several  volumes  of  sermons,  letters,  and 
political  essays.  Many  of  his  unedited  MSS.  are  in  the 
Bodleian  Library,  Oxford.  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perrt. 

Sanctiflcation  [from  Lat.  aanctiftca'tio  (derir.  of  Baneti- 
fUa're^  sanctif v ;  aatic'tua^  holy  +  fa' cere,  make),  trans,  of 
Gr.  &7td[^cir,  hallow,  make  holy,  deriv.  of  iywt,  holy]  :  the 
work  of  God's  ^ace  by  which  those  who  believe  in  Chri>t 
are  freed  from  sm  and  built  up  in  holiness.  In  Protestant 
theology  it  is  distinguished  from  justification  and  regen- 
eration, both  of  whicn  lie  at  its  root,  and  from  neither  of 
which  is  it  senarable  in  fact ;  inasmuch  as  the  term  justifi- 
cation is  confined  to  the  judicial  act  or  sentence  of  God,  by 
which  the  sinner  is  declared  to  be  entitled,  in  consideration 
of  what  Christ  has  done  in  his  behalf,  to  the  favor  of  G<<1, 
and  of  which  sanctiflcation  is  the  efficient  execution ;  and  the 
term  regeneration  is  confined  to  the  initial  efficient  act  by 
which  the  new  life  is  imparted,  of  which  sanctiflcation  is 
the  progressive  development.  Both  regeneration  and  jus^ 
tiflcation  are  momentary  acts,  and  acts  of  God  in  which  the 
sinner  is  passive;  sanctiflcation,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a 
progressive  work  of  God,  in  which  the  sinner  co-operates. 

The  nature  of  sanctiflcation,  as  well  as  its  method  and 
the  relation  of  the  divine  and  human  factors  in  its  prosecu- 
tion, is  differently  conceived  by  the  several  types  of  tneolo^ry. 

1.  The  Pelaaian  and  Raiionaliatic  view  excludes  the  ac- 
tion of  the  Holy  Spirit  altogether;  and  makes  sanctiflcation 
to  be  nothing  more  than  continued  right  action,  in  the  na- 
tive powers  of  the  free  moral  agent,  by  which  he  g^radually 
conquers  evil  tendencies,  and  builds  up  a  holy  character. 

2.  The  Mediaeval  and  Roman  vietv  refuses  to  distingui'»h 
between  justification  and  sanctiflcation;  and  makes  both 
justification  and  sanctification  to  be  the  cleansing  from  sin, 
and  the  infusion  of  gracious  habits  by  the  Holy  Ghost  for 
Christ's  sake  by  the  instrument  of  baptism,  upon  which  sul>- 
jective  change  the  removal  of  guilt  and  the  divine  favor  iv 
conditioned.  (Counc.  Trent,  sess.  6,  can.  7.)  It  is  theref<"re 
held  to  be  progressive,  and  to  be  advanced  by  gootl  workis 
which  possess  real  merit,  and  deserve  and  secure  increase  of 
grace  {Counc.  Trent,  sess.  6,  can.  32);  as  well  as  by  f>en- 
ances,  prayers,  fastings,  etc.,  which  satisfy  God's  justice  iiivl 
purify  the  soul.  {Counc.  Trent,  sess.  14,  ch.  viii. ;  sess,  6.  iviii*. 
29  and  30.)  If  the  believer  dies  before  the  process  of  dt^liv- 
erance  from  sin  is  perfected,  he  must  complete  it  in  pur;ra- 
tory,  the  pains  of  which  are  expiatory  ana  purifying;  a!i.i 
there  he  may  be  assisted  by  the  prayers  and  masses  ami  «':•>- 
pensing  power  of  the  Church  on  earth.  (Bellarmin.  /Vr- 
aator.,  ii.,  9.)  But  it  is  possible,  even  before  death,  for  a  Ih-- 
liever  perfectly  to  conform  to  all  the  demands  of  God's*  law 
as  graciously  adjusted  to  this  life  {Counc.  TretU,  sess,  6,  il.. 
xvi.,  can.  25) ;  and  it  is  even  possible,  out  of  love,  to  perform 
supererogatory  service  by  obedience  to  the  councils  of  ChriM, 
which  are  advisory  but  not  obligatory  until  voluntarily  un- 
dertaken. These  are  voluntary  poverty,  celibacy  and'  ol  •^- 
dience  to  monastic  rule ;  and  they  merit  more  than  the  nier»» 
salvation  of  the  person,  and  contribute  to  the  **  treasury-  •  f 
merits  "  at  the  disposal  of  the  Church,  which  is  imputalV 
at  the  discretion  of  those  holding  the  jurisdiction  to  believor* 
on  earth  or  in  purgatory  not  yet  fully  justified.  Bellarmm. 
De  Monachiia,  chaps,  vi.  and  vii. 


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288 


SANDAL-WOOD 


SAND-BLAST 


dB  la  Lyre  (1840),  and  especially  Horace  and  ConmUo  (1842), 
La  Comtesee  de  Mudolstadt  (1843),  Le  Meunier  d'Angibault 
(1845),  Le  Piche  de  Monsieur  Antoine  (1846),  etc.  In  Jeanne 
(1844)  she  returned  to  the  purely  artistic  novel  without 
any  tendency,  and  there  followed  some  of  her  most  beau- 
tiful productions — La  Petite  Fadeite  (1849),  La  Mare  au 
IHabte  (1846),  Franpois  le  Champi  (1848),  etc.— but  in  1848 
she  plunged  with  enthusiasm  into  the  very  midst  of  the 
Revolution — wrote  proclamations  and  founded  newspapers. 
After  the  Revolution  she  wrote  during  a  long  period  chiefly 
for  the  theaters,  and  some  of  her  plays  were  very  success- 
ful. They  are,  nevertheless,  nothing  but  dramatized  novels, 
without  any  genuine  dramatic  effect.  She  was  most  success- 
ful with  the  novel,  more  especially  the  descriptive  and  re- 
flective novel,  and  in  this  genre  even  her  latest  books,  Mile, 
la  Quintinie  (1863),  Le  Marquis  de  Villemer  (1864),  La  Con- 
fession d'une  Jeune  Fille  (1865),  Cadio  (1868),  are  brilliant 
and  powerful  productions.  D.  June  8, 1876.  Her  collected 
works  contain  Romans  et  Nouvelles  (84  vols.) ;  Mimotres, 
souvenirs,  impressions,  voyages  (8  vols.) ;  Thedtre  (4  vols.) ; 
Theatre  de  Nohant  (1  vol.);  Correspmulanee  (10  vols., 
1882-84).  Revised  by  A.  G.  Canfield. 

Sandal-wood  [sandal  is  from  Arab,  gandal,  from  Sanskr. 
candana,  sandal-tree] :  the  agreeably  aromatic  and  precious 
wood  of  several  trees  belonging  to  the  genus  Sanlalum 
and  of  one  or  two  other  trees.  The  original  sandal- wood 
of  India  is  yielded  by  Sanlalum  album,  a  tree  25  feet  high, 
with  a  trunk  a  foot  in  diameter.  Three  kinds  or  hues 
were  known  in  Europe  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century- 
white,  yellow,  and  rea,  of  which  the  last-named  may  have 
been  confounded  with  the  inodorous  wood  of  red  sanders  or 
Santal-wood  (q.  v.).  After  the  discovery  of  the  Sandwich 
islands  a  large  part  of  the  supply  of  the  sandal-wood  of  com- 
merce came  from  two  or  three  species  of  Santalum  peculiar 
to  those  islands,  and  later  from  S.  yasi  of  the  Fiji  islands 
and  from  S,  austro-xaledonicum  of  New  (Caledonia :  also 
from  Fusanus  meatus,  a  tree  of  Western  Australia  of  the 
same  family.  The  high  price  this  wood  brings  has  caused 
the  reckless  extirpation  of  the  tree  from  the  more  accessible 
stations,  but  in  India  the  original  sandal- wood  tree  is  pro- 
tected by  the  Government.  It  is  employed  as  a  perfume 
and  for  the  fabrication  of  small  articles — ^glove-boxes,  cask- 
ets, etc.  Much  is  consumed  in  India  in  the  celebration  of 
sepulchral  rites  and  for  medicinal  purposes,  where  the  pow- 
der, made  into  a  paste  with  water,  is  used  for  making  the 
caste-mark.  The  principal  market  is  China,  where  it  is 
most  largely  used  for  incense  in  temples,  etc.  The  Malabar 
sandal-wood  there  brings  three  or  four  times  the  price  of 
that  of  the  South  Sea  islands.  The  wood  yields  1  per  cent, 
of  a  peculiar  essential  oil,  on  which  the  characteristic  frag- 
rance depends.  This  oil,  largely  extracted  in  some  parts  of 
India  from  the  fresh  wood,  has  been  used  in  medicme  as  a 
substitute  for  copaiba.  The  famous  and  richly  carved  gates 
of  the  temple  of  Somnauth,  supposed  to  be  1,000  years  old, 
are  of  sandal-wood.  See  Sandalwobts  and  Dyestuffb. 
Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

^  Sandal  worts :  the  Santalacem,  a  small  familv  of  apetalous 
dicotyledonous  plants  widely  distributed  over  the  world.  It 
is  most  nearly  related  to  Loranthaeecs,  but  incompletely,  if 
at  all,  parasitic,  according  with  that  family  in  having  its 
ovules  and  seeds  destitute  of  integuments.  The  sandal-woods 
(see  Sandal-wood)  are  far  the  most  important  representatives 
of  the  family.  The  European  species  are  all  herbs,  as  are 
the  members  of  Comandra,  the  commonest  North  American 
representative ;  but  the  AUe^hanies  have  two  shrubby  gen- 
era; one  of  these,  f)/rularia,  oil-nut,  has  a  large  kernel 
abounding  with  acrid  oil.  The  ouandang-nut  of  Australia, 
however,  is  bland  and  edible.  The  Australian  cherry  (so 
called),  with  the  stone  on  the  outside,  is  the  nut  of  an 
exocarpus,  supported  on  an  apparent  succulent  red  berry, 
which  IS  formed  by  an  enlargement  of  the  tip  of  the  flower- 
stalk.  Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Sandaraeh  [vift  0.  Pr.  from  Lat.  sanda'raca  =  Gr.  <rtv9a- 
pdKti,  sandarach,  realgar,  an  Eastern  word,  probably  bor- 
rowed ultimately  from  India.  Cf .  Sanskr,  sindHra-] :  a  gum- 
resin  from  a  small  coniferous  tree.  Thuja  articulata,  which 
grows  in  Barbary.  It  occurs  in  pale-yellow  oblong  grains 
or  tears,  covered  with  a  fine  dust,  is  transparent  and  brittle, 
with  a  vitreous  luster  on  the  fracture.  According  to  Unver- 
dorben  and  Johnston,  it  consists  of  three  resinous  acids. 
The  a-resin  forms  a  white  or  yellow  powder  slightly  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  not  easily  fusible,  and  is  present  in  but  small 
quantities.     The  /3-resin  forms  about  tnree-fourths  of  the 


whole,  is  light  yellow,  softens  at  212**  F.,  and  is  readily  solu- 
ble in  cold  alcohol.  The  7-resin  is  a  light-yellow  |)owilrr. 
soluble  in  boiling  alcohol,  and  melts  with  difficulty,  de<  i>ni- 
posing  at  the  same  time.  In  medicine,  sandarach  wa.s  for- 
merly given  internally,  and  entered  into  the  composition  .  f 
various  ointments  and  plasters.  It  is  chiefly  nsea  as  an  in- 
cense and  in  varnishes.  Its  powder  is  rubbed  on  writinc- 
paper  where  erasures  have  been  made,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  spreading  of  ink.  Revised  by  Ixa  Rem  skn. 

Sand  Beach :  village ;  Huron  co.,  Mich. ;  on  Lake  Ilurcr. 
and  the  Flint  and  Pere  Marquette  Railroad  ;  70  miles  N.  "^ 
Port  Huron,  120  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Detroit  (for  local  i<in.  v. 
map  of  Michigan,  ref.  6-L).  It  occupies  an  elevated  >i*.. 
which  slopes  back  from  the  lake  by  a  series  of  terrat'^s ;  h  i> 
excellent  natural  drainage  and  a  good  system  of  wat«'t- 
works ;  contains  valuable  mineral  springs  and  large  bat  h- 
houses;  and  has  considerable  dairy,  salt,  flour,  lime,  and 
lumber  interests.  The  U.  S.  Government  has  constructed!  a 
costly  harbor  of  refuge  for  the  shipping  of  the  Great  I^kt^ 
The  village  has  a  private  bank  and  two  weekly  newsi»ap*T% 
Pop.  (1890)  1,046;  (1895)  estimated,  1,500. 

EniToa  OF  "Huron  Tuie>." 

Sand-blast :  a  stream  of  sand  propelled  by  the  pres^un^ 
of  air  or  steam  and  used  for  cutting  and  engraving  plass. 
stone,  and  other  solid  substances.  The  process  was  invent*^*! 
by  Gen.  Benjamin  C.  Tilghman,  and  was  suggested  by  th^ 
well-known  effect  of  wind-blown  sand  in  destroying  th^ 
transparency  of  glass.  In  practice,  two  kinds  of  wori  are  j  >*r- 
formed  by  the  sand-blast,  called,  respectively,  heavy  and  liu-h' 
work.  For  the  former  a  hi^h  pressure  and  a  correspondiugly 
great  velocity  are  required ;  for  the  latter  the  pressure  i« 
light  and  the  velocity  low.  Ordinarily,  for  light  work.  t)i< 
necessar}'  velocity  is  given  to  the  sand  by  means  of  an  air- 
blast  produced  either  by  a  rotary  fan  or  positive  blower,  or 
by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  acting  toward  a  varuun: 
maintained  by  a  fan  or  a  steam-jet.  For  simplv depoli>hiii): 
glass  or  making  the  so-called  ground  glass,  tne  current  if 
air  is  conducted  into  a  rectangular  troug:h  of  any  dc>irf-<: 
length,  narrowed  at  the  bottom  to  an  opening  an  inch  wk^^. 
and  having  its  top  perforated  by  small  tubes  for  the  admi>- 
sion  of  the  sand.  The  glass  is  carried  slowly  across  tl.t 
opening  of  this  jet,  and  about  an  inch  below  it,  by  meai  > 
of  a  traveling  apron.  By  this  proce^  glass  is  obscured  with 
great  rapidity,  almost  as  soon  as  it  is  held  in  position.  In 
order  to  engrave  a  design  upon  the  glass,  the  parts  whi«  h 
are  to  remain  bright  have  to  be  protected  with  a  coinp..^i- 
tion  or  by  blotting-paper,  soaked  m  glycerin  and  glue,  in  'in 
which  the  desired  pattern  has  been  cut  out. 

For  heavy  work  either  air  or  steam  may  be  used;  bin 
steam  is  more  readily  employed,  and,  as  it  cuts  twice  as  fH>t 
as  air  under  the  same  pressure,  is  generally  preferred.  Tl.e 
steam  is  used  in  a  jet,  technically  called  the  blast-pipe  "r 
gun.  As  shown  in  the  accompanying  sectional  drawing.  \\ 
consists  of  a  hollow  bronze 
cylinder  of  about  1^  inches 
external  diameter,  having  a 
lateral  opening  near  its  upper 
end  (by  which  the  steam  en- 
ters), and  tapering  somewhat 
at  its  lower.  Through  the  top 
of  this  cylinder  an  iron  tufa« 
passes,  secured  by  a  stuffing- 
Dox.  This  is  called  the  sand- 
tube  ;  its  exterior  diameter  is 
somewhat  less  than  that  of 
the  opening  through  the  cyl- 
inder, and  it  tapers  with  it  at 
its  lower  end.  though  some- 
what less  rapidly,  thus  leaving 
a  narrow  concentric  aperture 
for  the  passage  of  the  steam. 
The  exterior  cylinder  is  pro- 
longed beyond  this  concentric 
opening  to  form  a  socket  for 
a  supplementary  or  directing 
tube  called  the  nozzle -tube 
(seen  separately  on  the  right). 
This  tube,  being  the  only  por- 
tion of  the  blast-pipe  which 
is  exposed  to  wear,  is  made  of 
sheet-steel,  or  sometimes  of 
chilled  iron.  The  sand  used  should  be  sifted  so  as  to  be  of 
uniform  size,  and  should  be  clean,  hard,  sharp,  and  dn. 


Sand-blast 


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290 


SANDERSON 


SANDS 


the  Covenant,  and  had  his  living  sequestered;  attended 
the  king  as  ecclesiastical  councilor  at  Oxford,  at  Hampton 
Court,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Wight ;  was  ejected  from  his  pro- 
fessorship 1648,  but  restored  1660,  and  shortly  after  made 
Bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  took  part  in  the  Savoy  Conference 
1661.  D.  at  Lincoln,  Jan.  29,  1663.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  I^atin  treatises  on  cases  of  conscience,  the  obligation 
of  an  oath,  etc.,  written  for  the  guidance  of  Charles  I.,  and 
other  tracts,  collected  in  his  Works  (Oxford,  1854 ;  6  vols. J, 
edited  by  Bishop  Jacobson.  His  Life  was  written  by  Izaak 
Walton.    His  sermons  are  masterpieces. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Pebet. 

Sanderson,  Sybil  :  opera-singer ;  b.  at  Sacramento,  Cal., 
in  1864 ;  passed  her  childhood  m  San  Francisco,  and  took 
her  first  lessons  in  singing  under  local  teachers.  In  1881 
she  went  to  Paris  and  entered  the  Conservatory ;  studied  later 
under  Jules  Massenet,  the  opera-composer.  On  May  15, 1889, 
made  her  debut  in  Paris  in  Massenet's  Eaclarmonde^  which 
was  com  posed  for  her.  1  n  the  previous  year  she  had  appeared 
at  The  Hague  as  a  test  under  the  name  of  Ada  Palmer.  In 
1890  she  sang  in  Brussels,  in  1891  in  London,  and  in  1892  in 
St.  Petersburg.  In  1893  she  created  the  role  of  Phryne  in 
Saint-Sa6ns's  opera  of  that  name.  In  1894  she  was  engaged 
for  the  season  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera-house,  New  York, 
and  made  her  first  appearance  there  on  Jan.  16,  1895,  in 
Massenet's  Manon,  Her  voice  is  a  clear,  brilliant,  high  so- 
prano. D.  E.  Hervey. 

SandersriHe:  city:  capital  of  Washington  co.,  Ga. ;  be- 
tween the  Oconee  and  the  Ogeechee  rivers,  and  on  the  Au- 
gusta Southern  Railroad ;  64  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Macon,  135 
miles  N.  W.  of  Savannah  (for  location,  see  map  of  Georgia, 
ref.  4-1).  It  is  the  center  of  a  large  cotton-growing  region, 
and  contains  a  private  bank  and  two  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,279  ;  (1890)  1,760. 

Sand-gronse :  a  name  applied  on  account  of  their  habitat 
to  the  birds  of  the  family  pTEROCLiDiE  {q.  v.), 

Sandhopper,  or  Beach-flea :  names  given,  in  allusion  to 
their  power  of  leaping,  to  var 
rious  amphipod  crustaceans 
found  under  sea-wrack  near 
the  high-tide  mark.  Most  of 
the  manv  known  species  be- 
long to  the  genus  Orcheatia, 
as  the  common  species  of  the 
New  England  coast,  O.  agilia. 
They  are  known  also  as  sand- 
fleas  and  shore-jum|)ers. 

Sandhurst :  village  ;  in 
Berkshire,  England ;  33  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  London  (see  ma[> 
of  England,  ref.  12-J).  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Royal  Military 
College  and  the  Staff  College.    See  Military  Academies. 

Sandhnrst,  or  Ben'digo:  city  of  Victoria,  Australia; 
third  in  size  in  the  colony;  90  miles  N.  of  Melbourne,  on 
Bendigo  creek,  760  feet  above  the  sea-level ;  an  important 
railway  junction  (see  map  of  Australia,  ref.  8-H).  It  is  well 
built,  and  contains  many  public  edifices,  a  fine  botanic  gar- 
den, and  five  large  re-servoirs  of  water.  It  is  in  the  center 
of  a  rich  gold-bearing  region,  and  the  district  produces 
highly  esteemed  wines  and  considerable  quantities  of  cereals, 
especially  barley.  The  mining  industry  gives  employment 
to  about  7,000  persons,  and  one  of  the  mines,  the  Lansell, 
has  reached  a  depth  of  over  2,500  feet,  the  deepest  on  the 
continent.  The  climate  is  hot  and  variable;  a  maximum 
temperature  of  126'  F.  in  the  shade  has  been  observefl.  The 
mean  annual  rainfall  is  24  inches.     Pop.  (1891)  87,238. 

Mark  W.  IIarrixotox. 

San  Diego,  -di-a'g(5:  city;  port  of  entry;  capital  of  San 
Diego  CO.,  Cal. ;  on  San  Diego  Bay  and  the  National  City  and 
Otav,  the  San  I).,  Cuvaraaca  and*  Ejist.,  and  the  S.  Cal.  rail- 
ways ;  lat.  32^  41'  N.;ion.  117"  13'  W. ;  480  miles  S.  E.  of  San 
Francisco  (for  location,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  13-G). 
The  bay,  discovered  by  Cabrillo  in  1542.  is  pronounced  next 
in  excellence  on  the  Pacific  coast  to  that  of  San  Francisco. 
The  first  settlement  wjis  made  in  May,  1769,  when  Father 
JuniperoSorraestHl»lished  here  the  first'of  the  California  mis- 
sions, that  of  San  I)ie«;o;  but  the  present  city  dates  in  growth 
from  1867,  when  the  new  town  was  he«rnn  oh  the  water  front 
of  the  bay.  The  climate  is  the  mildest  and  most  uniform 
known,  and  has  made  the  city  a  pojmlar  resort  for  invalids 
from  all  parts  of  the  U.  S.  San  Diei^^o  County  is  the  principal 
honey-producing  county  in  the  State,  and  markets  in  the  city 


OreheMtia  agUis  (magnified). 


large  quantities  of  wheat,  wool,  honey,  fruit,  and  live  st-»ek. 
There  are  several  gold  mines  within  50  miles  of  the  v\\\. 
The  principal  industry  of  the  region  is  fruit  and  nut  «  u, 
tiire,  inaugurated  in  1869,  and  represented  by  over  2.0<N).(n»o 
trees.  The  city  contains  3  public  parks,  one  with  1,400  af  p-  ; 
U.  S.  custom-house;  free  public  library  (founded  in  is^j.; 
public-school  district  library;  county  hospital;  16  puMi  - 
school  buildings;  public-school  property  valued  at  alw  » 
$200,000;  Academy  of  Our  Lady  of  Peace  (Roman  (ail  - 
lie);  board  of  tracie  and  chamber  of  commerce:  gas  hi- i 
electric  lights;  electric  street-railways ;  wate r- works  ;  2  na- 
tional banks  with  combined  capital  of  $400,000,  3  ^Ta•• 
banks  with  capital  of  $180,000,  and  a  private  bank  ;  afxi  J 
daily,  5  weekly,  and  4  monthly  periodicals.  There  an*  m  \  - 
eral  flour  andplaning  mills  run  by  steam-power,  larp*  mhi- 
works,  factories  for  carriages  and  wagons,  foundry  and  nin- 
chine-shops,  a  tannery,  and  other  industries.  The  city  }i.i> 
an  assessed  property  valuation  of  over  $14.000,0(M),  him  I  .» 
bonded  indebtedness,  chiefly  incurred  for  improvi-ii  ^w.r- 
age,  of  $375,000.  On  the  peninsula  on  the  opposite  sirl«  f 
the  bav  and  connected  witli  the  city  by  steam  ferry  is  ( '.r  - 
nado  6each,  which  contains  many  fine  residences  and  a  h*'- 
with  accommodations  for  1,200  guests,  costing  nearly  *!.- 
000,000.  Pop.  (1880)  2,637  ;  (1890)  16,159;  (1894)  estimat.  .1. 
20,000.  H.  W.  Tauott. 

Sand-lance :  See  Sand-eel. 

San  Domingo :  See  Santo  Domingo. 

Sandpaper:  paper  one  side  of  which  is  covered  wi'') 
glue,  upon  which  sharp  sand  or  powdered  glass  has  1m  .  :i 
evenly  sifted  and  is  held  by  the  glue  when  dry.  It  is  m.ii- 
of  many  grades  and  degrees  of  fineness,  and  is  us*»d  i'^ 
smoothing  the  surface  of  wood,  by  the  carpenter  and  j«  ir<  r. 
when  giving  it  its  final  finish. 

Sand  Piles:  See  Foundation. 

Sandpiper:  any  one  of  several  small  birds  of  the  fan  i  r 
SeolopacidcB,  that  freouent  sandy  shores  and  utter  a  pij  :.j 
note.  They  have  a  bill  almut  equal  to  the  heail  in  len^"  • . 
covered  with  a  soft  skin  ;  the  toes,  four  in  numlier.  e.\« . ; '. 
in  Calidris,  the  hindmost  being  very  small.  They  < ; ' 
mostly  be  distinguished  from  the  true  snif>es  by  their  ^h<  r'.  r 
bills  and  uniformly  colored  tail-feathers.  They  are  n».i  i  « 
birds  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  breed  far  north.  .^  - 
curring  at  times  in  great  flocks  during  their  fall  mi^rrnt.. :.« 
Thev  feed  along  the  shore,  picking  up  small  cni>ta(  ♦  .n.-. 
molluscs  or  in- 
sects, or  prob-  \  J{^ 7^;;, vl///;'>^-%^ '*.'*'  ?.  *^.?5?t 
ing  for  them 
in  the  mud. 
There  are 

about  twenty- 
five  species, 
some  of  wide 
range,  twenty 
of  which  oc- 
cur in  North 
America,  al- 
though one  or 
two,  like  the 
ruff  (Machetes 
piignax)  and 
the  si)oon-bill  sandpiper  (Euryn/)rhynehits  pygmtrns),  sr^ 
stragglers  from  other  regions.  Among  the  most  c«»ni!n<''i  :- 
the  sf)Ottetl  sandpiper  (Act  if  is  maetilaria),  familiarly  kn  "^'^. 
as  tip-up,  which  breeds  in  many  parts  of  the  U.  S..  ofti  r  ■: 
some  little  distance  from  the  water,  and  is  not  so  grei:ar.<  .^ 
as  most  species.  The  broad-billed  sandpiper (7ri>i<;ri  />/"•,- 
rhyncha)  is  an  Old  World  species.  F.  A.  Li »  <:». 

Sands,  Benjamin  Franklin:  rear-admiral  U.  S.  ^.i^^. 
b.  in  Baltimoi-e,  Md.,  Feb.  11,  1811 ;  entered  the  navy  a^  \ 
midshipman  Apr.  1,  1828.  Served  on  the  east  craM  f 
Mexico  during  the  war  with  that  countrv;  commantlMi  ''-^ 
steamer  Fort  Jackson  in  l)oth  the  Fort  1*  isher  fight>  in  •  e 
civil  war;  promoted  rear-admiral  1871.  He  was  lone:  i.-.  •.- 
tified  with  the  building  up  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Ol>>*'r\;it  \. 
He  sened  as  an  assistant  in  the  very  earliest  days  cf  t  \t 
institution,  and  it  was  through  his  earnest  efl'orts  tl.i*  it  I 
was  equinped  with  what  was  then  the  largest  tehsnf  •»' 
the  world.  During  his  superintendency  the  oloorva'  7 
ranked  among  the  highest  of  similar  institutions,  .v-*-  IN^ 
port  No.  726,  House  of  Representative's,  52d  Conirre^^i.  f -^t 
session.  Naval  Observatory.  D.  at  Washington,  I>.  ('..  .'  .  t 
30,  1883.  Revised  by  C.  Belknai 


The  broad- billed  sandpiper. 


292 


SANDYS 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


pany,  of  which  he  became  treasurer  1619 :  was  instrumental 
m  securing  a  charter  for  the  Pilgrims  of  the  Mayflower  and 
in  establishing  representative  government  in  the  colony  of 
Virginia,  thereby  becoming  obnoxious  to  the  "  Spanish 
party  "  at  court,  and  was  imprisoned,  along  with  belden, 
1621,  for  having  opposed  the  royal  projects  in  Parliament. 
D.  at  Northborne,  feent,  in  Oct.,  1629.  He  founded  a  lecture- 
ship on  metaphysics  ac  Oxford,  and  wrote  at  Paris,  in  1599, 
Europm  Speculum,  or  a  Surrey  of  the  State  of  Reliaion  in 
the  Western  Part  of  the  Worlds  which  passed  through  many 
editions.  A  volume  of  Sacred  Hymna  (1615),  containing 
translations  of  50  select  Psalms,  is  attributed  to  him. 

Sandys,  Georoe:  English  traveler  and  author;  b.  at 
Bishopsthorpe,  York,  in  1577;  educated  at  St.  Mary's  Hall 
and  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford ;  traveled  through  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  Turkish  empire  1610-12;  published  a 
Relation  of  his  journey  (1615),  with  illustrations,  often  re- 
printed, and  considered  of  great  value  by  Orientalists ;  went 
to  Virginia  as  colonial  treasurer  1621 ;  completed  at  James- 
town a  translation  of  Ovid's  Metamorphoses  (1626),  of  which 
the  first  five  books  had  previously  appeared ;  built  the  first 
water-mill,  and  promoted  iron-manufacture  and  ship-build- 
ing in  Virginia ;  returned  to  England  1624 ;  printed  poetical 
paraphrases  of  several  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
translated  from  the  Latin  of  Grotius  the  tragedy  of  Chrisfs 
JPiutsion  (1640) ;  was  for  some  years  gentleman  of  the  privy 
chamber  to  the  king,  and  passed  his  latter  years  at  Bexley 
Abbey,  Kent,  where  he  died  in  Mar.,  1644.  A  Life  was 
published  by  Rer.  H.  J.  Todd,  prefixed  to  a  Selection  from 
Sandys' 8  Metrical  Ptiraphrasea  {1839),  a,nd  a  complete  edition 
of  his  poetical  works,  with  introduction  and  notes,  was  pub- 
lished m  1872  by  Rev.  R.  Hooper. 

San  Felipe  de  Linares :  usually  called  Linares  (9.  r.). 

San  Felipe  de  los  Andes,  -fd-lee[.pd-d&-lus-aan'das,  or 
de  Aconcagna,  d£-f&-kdn-kaa'gwaa  r  capital  of  the  province 
of  Aconcagua,  Chili ;  in  a  valley  at  the  foctf 'of  the  Andes ;  50 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Santiago,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
railway  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  8-C).  It  has  a  con- 
siderable trade  over  the  Andes  with  the  Argentine  Republic. 
Pop.  (1885),  11,768.  ....        'H.  H.  S. 

San  Fernan'do,  formerly  Isla  de  Leon :  fortified  mari- 
time city  of  Spain ;  9  miles  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Cadiz ;  on  the 
low  island  of  Leon  (see  man  of  Spain,  ref.  20-C).  It  is  a 
modern  town  with  an  arsenal,  an  observatory,  hospitals,  and 
barracks  for  troops.  The  population  consists  chiefly  of 
Government  employees,  and  the  only  industry  is  the  extrac- 
tion of  salt  from  the  neighboring  tidal  marshes.  Pop. 
about  27,000.  M.  W.  H. 

Sanford :  city  ;*  Orange  co.,  Fla. ;  on  Lake  Monroe,  an  en- 
largement of  the  St.  John's  river,  and  the  Jack.,  Tam.  and 
Key  W.,  the  San.  and  Ind.  Riv.,  the  San.  and  St.  Petersb., 
and  the  Sav.,  Fla.  and  West,  railways;  125  miles  S.  of  Jack- 
sonville (for  location,  see  map  of  Florida,  ref.  4-J).  It  is  at 
the  head  of  large  steamer  navigation  on  the  river ;  is  an  im- 
portant shipping-point  for  oranges  and  for  early  vegetables 
and  fruit  consicrned  to  Northern  markets ;  and  contains  10 
churches,  2  public  schools,  railway  car-shops,  machine-shops, 
wood-turning  mills,  cigar  and  fruit-preserving  factories,  a 
national  bank  (capital  $50,000),  an  incorporated  bank  (capi- 
tal $31,000),  and  a  weekly  paper.  It  was  founded  bv  Gen. 
H.  S.  Sanford  in  1870.  Pop.  (1890)  2,016;  (1895)  estimated, 
3,000.  Edftor  of  **  Gate  City  Chronicle." 

San  Francis'co:  city,  metropolis,  and  chief  seaport  of 
California ;  coextensive  with  San  Francisco  County  ;  on  the 
end  of  a  peninsula  6  miles  wide  and  20  miles  long,  separat- 
ing the  south  arm  of  San  Francisco  Bay  from  tne  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  on  the  X.  Pac.  Coast,  the  San  Fran,  and  N.  Pac., 
the  S.  Pac.  railways  (of  which  only  the  last  named  has  a 
line  running  directly  into  the  city) ;  lat.  37**  48'  26*6'  N., 
Ion.  122^  24'  39-6"  W.  (for  location;  see  map  of  California, 
ref.  7-B). 

Site,  etc. — Its  area  is  42  s^j.  miles,  including,  besides  the 
entire  end  of  the  peninsula  across  to  the  ocean.  Goat  isl- 
and, with  141  acres.  2  miles  E.  of  the  jieninsula ;  Alcatraz 
island,  with  30  acres,  1  mile  X.  of  the  peninsula;  and  the 
Farallones,  six  rocky  islets,  24  miles  off  shore  in  the  ocean. 
Nearly  half  the  areiV  consists  of  high  nn-ky  hills,  rising  in 
several  points  to  800  feet  above  the  sea.  The  site  has  much 
level  land,  but  a  large  part  of  tliis  has  been  supplied  by  art, 
the  original  inequalities  of  the  surface  having  Wn  graded 
away.  The  harbor  is  part  of  a  bay  50  miles  long  and  5 
miles  wide,  deep,  landlocked,  and  most  beautiful.    The  city 


is  supplied  with  water  from  Pilarcitos  valley,  20  miles  t.» 
the  S.,  where  the  rain-water  is  caught  in  a  large  rcM'rvdir, 
and  artesian  water  is  found  at  depths  varying  from  120  to 
160  feet,  though  from  many  wells  water  nSust  be  raisiHl  l»\ 
pumning.  The  city  is  laid  oflf  in  rectangular  block>,  .s^j.i- 
rated  by  wide  streets,  which  in  the  north  run  with  the  cnnii- 
nal  points  of  the  compass,  and  in  a  portion  of  the  south  \k  itti 
the  semi-cardinal  points.  Market  Street,  which  separat»^ 
the  two  main  surveys,  125  feet  wide  and  3  miles  long,  is  <>nt> 
of  the  most  important  and  imposing  business  streets  in  the 
world.  Among  remarkable  features  are  the  peninsular  i><>-i' 
tion,  fronting  to  the  W.  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  to  the  K.  on 
the  bay,  and  to  the  N.  on  the  Golden  Gate;  the  wtMHltn 
architecture  in  the  residence  district;  the  hilly  site;  the  t»\- 
cellent  street-car  system,  with  cables  over  many  of  the  hills ; 
Chinatown ;  the  fniit-market,  wonderful  in  rariety  and  abuii- 
dance  of  its  supplies;  the  wharf  for  Italian  fishing-bfmt>: 
the  Seal  Rocks,  with  their  sea-lions  at  the  entrance  of  tiiH 
harbor;  Sutro  Heights,  a  pleasure-garden  kept  open  to  iht- 
public  by  Adolph  Sutro;  tne  Sutro  bath-house:  tne  numer- 
ous large  hotels ;  and  the  peculiar  climate,  which  pennit> 
the  fuchsia  and  geranium  to  blossom  in  the  open  air  of  luid- 
winter  while  it  compels  the  wearing  of  overcoats  in  mid- 
summer. Golden  Gate  Park  has  an  area  of  1,050  acres,  with 
abundant  evergreen  vegetation  of  beautiful  form  and  colnr. 
excellent  drives,  comm^ious  and  elegant  buildings  for  iiub- 
lic  entertainment,  creditable  statuary,  a  highly  varied  sit<\  a 
steep  hill  900  feet  high  on  the  S.,  and  a  magnificent  cK**>:iri 
beach  and  surf  at  its  west  end. 

Climate, — There  is  almost  unbroken  coolness  of  tenii»cni- 
ture  by  breezes  fresh  from  the  ocean  every  day.  The  an- 
nual death-rate  for  each  1,000  inhabitants  is  20,  a  proport  i  .1. 
exceeded  in  most  other  seaport  cities  of  equal  size.  'I  I  it- 
heavy  fogs  in  summer  are  pernicious  to  asthmatics,  and  t«.r.- 
sumptives  find  better  climates  in  other  parts  of  the  State. 

Buildings, — The  citv-hall,  though  unfinished  at  the  <'1.r^#. 
of  1894,  had  cost  $5,000,000.  It  is  the  largest  building  of  :  hi- 
city  in  ground  plan.  Its  material  is  brick,  covered  in  f n  nt 
with  stucco.  The  branch  mint  has  an  imposing  fn>iit  '-f 
gray  limestone  in  the  Greek  style  of  architecture.  The  I*h  i:i«"«- 
llotel,  of  brick,  seven  stories  high,  cost  with  its  site  f  :5,< *<«».- 
000,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  famous  hotels  c^f  t ).*' 
world.  Other  notable  buildings  are  the  Academy  of  s  1- 
ences,  the  Pioneer  Hall,  both  endowed  by  James  Lick  ;  tl.»- 
Cooper  Medical  College  and  Lane  Hospital  (in  acljoluiin: 
buildings);  the  Hopkins  Art  Institute, given  to  the  State  l«y 
E.  F.  Searles ;  the  Mills  building,  twelve  stories,  of  brick  an  1 
stone,  with  a  framework  of  steel,  erected  at  a  cost  of  |il.O(«>,- 
000;  and  several  other  high  buildings  of  similar  coustruo- 
tion.  The  prevalent  style  of  architecture  is  highly  orna- 
mental, with  a  great  multitude  of  bay-windows  desigrj***!  !.♦ 
catch  as  much  sunlight  as  possible.  The  material  of  inr**- 
tenths  of  the  dwelling-houses  and  of  many  of  the  fac•t<)^it^^ 
is  wood. 

Ifistitutions, — As  an  important  seaport  San  Francisco  bA<  a 
large  custom-house,  a  national  marine  hospital,  a  national  id  il- 
itary  post  (the  Presidio),  and  on  the  northern  border  of  t'.i 
penmsula,  and  also  on  Alcatraz  and  Goat  islands,  exten*viv<- 
fortifications.  The  city  has  a  large  number  of  church e;^  and 
educational  and  philanthropic  institutions.  The  Meihai.i  •<' 
Institute  has  property  valued  at  more  than  f  1,000,000 :  t.t 
Academy  of  Sciences  had  an  endowment  of  about  f64K).(aht 
from  the  estate  of  James  Lick,  and  the  Lick  Mechanical  Art 
School  one  of  $540,000. 

Government, — The  city  council  (consisting  of  a  >Kianl  •  f 
twelve  members,  known  as  the  board  of  supervisors  >  arui 
the  chief  executive  oflftcers,  including  mayor,  auditor,  lr»\i>- 
urer,  assessor,  sheriff,  recorder,  county  clerk,  public  adii-f  - 
istrator,  and  coroner,  are  elected  biennially.  The  exjtr's. 
of  the  municipal  government  in  the  fiscal  vear  ending  Juii** 
30,  1894,  was  |U5,370,000  ($19  for  every  resident).  incTu.iM.L 
$1,080,000  for  schools,  $600,000  for  police,  $400,000  for  ti.^- 
fire  department,  and  $650,000  for  repairing,  cleaninir.  n:  : 
lighting  the  streets.  The  debt  in  excess  of  the  >ink:':. 
fund  was  $260,000,  and  the  asses.sed  value  of  pn.jHri^ 
$342,000,000. 

3fanufa^fures. — The  city  has  numerous  lai^  mainifi.- 
turing  establishments,  including  a  rolling-mill,  nuulr.- 
shons,  foundries,  shipyards,  wire-works.  ro|>ewalk,  ]»1.4i.-t  «•• 
mills,  sugar-refineries,  and  factories  for  carriagi^,  fu^-  • 
ture,  boxes,  shoes,  clothing,  tinware,  etc.  The  gn»>>  xu  ...• 
of  the  products  manufactured  in  1894  was  estimated  *: 
$00,(KK).()00,  including  refinecl  sugar,  $18.000,0<K»  ;  -.  v 
$8,000,000;  clothing  and  shoes,  $8,000,000;  fumitun*  .»:..! 


rMOX     A»^0 


THE  NEW  YORK 
PUBLIC    LIBRARY 


ASTOf*,  LFNOX  AND 
TILD    N   FOUNDATIONS. 


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294 


SANGSTER 


SANITARY  COMMISSION,  THE  UNITED  STATK 


The  fragment  of  a  Graal  romance,  Joseph  of  Arimaihea, 
exists  in  English  alliterative  verse  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
and  has  been  edited  for  the  Early  English  Text  Society  by 
Rev.  W.  W.  Skeat  (1871).  H.  A.  Beers. 

Sangster,  Charles  :  poet ;  b.  near  Kingston,  Ontario, 
Canada,  July  16,  1822,  and  educated  there ;  was  editor  of 
the  Amherstburg  Courier  and  Kingston  newspapers  for  fif- 
teen years,  and  in  1868  became  attached  to  the  Post-office 
Department,  Ottawa,  from  which  he  was  retired  in  1886. 
He  published  The  St,  Lawretice,  The  Sagnenay^  and  other 
Poems  (1856),  Hesperus  and  other  Poems  and  Lyrics  (1860). 

Sangnina'ria :  a  genus  of  plants  containing  one  species, 
S.  canadensis.    See  Blood-root. 

San'hedrin,  incorrectly  but  commonly  Sanhedrim  [from 
Heb.  san'hedh'rm^  from  Gr.  aw49pioy^  assembly ;  <r6v,  with, 
together  +  cSpa,  seat] :  either  of  two  councils  of  the  ancient 
Hebrews. 

A.  The  Great  Sanhedrin, — The  Jewish  tradition  traces 
its  origin  to  the  seventy  councilors  appointed  by  Moses 
(Num.  xi.  16-25 ;  comp.  lix.  xviii.  13-26),  and  asserts,  with- 
out proof,  its  existence  at  all  periods  of  the  nation's  history 
until  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans. 
The  earliest  reliable  trace  of  its  existence  is  under  the  Mac- 
cabees (2  Mace.  i.  10;  iv.  44;  xi.  27;  1  Mace.  xii.  6).  It  was 
in  full  activity  at  the  time  of  Herod  (Joseph.,  Ant,y  xiv., 
0-4),  and  we  find  constant  mention  of  it  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament (Matt.  xxvi.  50 :  Mark  xiv.  5,  xv.  1 :  Luke  xxii.  66 ; 
John  xi.  47;  Acte  iv.  15,  v.  21.  27,  34,  vi.  12,  15,  xxii.  30, 
xxiii.  1,  6, 15,  20,  28).  It  was  the  supreme  "  privy  council " 
of  the  Jews ;  not  only  their  court  of  final  appeal  and  last 
resort,  but  also  an  executive  and  legislative  assembly,  shap- 
ing the  general  polity  of  the  nation.  Its  power  in  matters 
civil  and  religious  was  practically  unlimited.  It  decided 
all  cases  brought  upon  appeal  from  the  lower  courts :  it  had 
authority  over  kings  and  high  priests ;  in  it  was  vested  the 
trial  of  heresy,  idolatry,  false  prophecy  (hence  the  active 
part  it  took  against  our  Lord) ;  and  it  alone  had  power  to 
pronounce  sentence  of  death.  Its  active  jurisdiction  was 
confined  to  Judaea,  but  the  Jews  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
seem  in  some  degree  to  have  recognized  its  authority.  Ow- 
ing to  the  inability  to  check  the  constant  disorders'  during 
the  last  yeai-s  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth,  its  power  was 
greatly  curtailed  by  the  Romans,  and  three  years  before  the 
death  of  Christ  the' right  of  executing  sentence  of  death  was 
denied,  save  when  confirmed  by  the  Roman  authorities 
(John  xviii.  34).  In  the  unsettled  condition  of  affairs  at- 
tending the  fall  of  Jerusalem  it  found  itself  unable  to  exe- 
cute civil  authority,  and  from  that  time  until  its  extinction 
in  the  third  century  its  power  was  merely  nominal. 

It  had  seventy-one  members  chosen  from  those  who  were 
distinguished  in  birth,  learning,  or  position.  In  the  New 
Testament  are  mentioned  (1)  priests  (4f»x««P««)»  chiefs  of  dif- 
ferent orders  of  priests ;  (2)  elders  {wp^trfivrt/toi),  those  vener- 
able from  age  or  position;  (3)  scribes  (ypofAfwrtTs),  those 
learned  in  the  law  and  tradition.  Its  officers  were  presi- 
dent {Nasi,  chief) ;  first  vice-president  (Ab-beth-din,  father 
of  the  court) ;  second  vice-president  (Ilhakam-,  judge) ;  be- 
sides a  force  of  secretaries  and  court  officers  (Luke  xxii. 
52).  The  members  sat  in  a  semicircle  in  a  room  immediate- 
ly adjoining  the  temple,  called  n\T3n  n3B7  (hall  of  squares). 

Their  meeting  in  the  house  of  the  high  priest  for  the  trial  of 
our  Lord  does  not  seem  to  have  been  legal.  After  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem  they  removed  to  Tabneh,  and  finally  to  Tibe- 
rias, where  the  Sanhedrin  became  extinct  a.  d.  425. 

B.  The  Lesser  Sanhedrin. — A  court  of  twenty-three 
members  appointed  by  the  Great  Sanhedrin,  sitting  in  all 
towns  of  over  120  households,  with  jurisdiction  over  local, 
civil,  and  criminal  matters.  See  Matt.  v.  22,  x.  17 ;  Mark 
xiii.  9. 

Literature.— Selden,  De  Syiiedriis  et  Prcpfecttiris  Juri- 
dicis  Veterum  Ebrieoruin  (1650),  a  mine  of  learning  and  the 
great  source  from  which  all  knowledge  of  this  sulyect  is 
drawn,  but  containing  a  mass  of  irrelevant  matter ;  Ugolini, 
Thesaurus,  vol.  xxv. ;  Light  foot  gives  much  valuable  infor- 
mation, derived  from  the  Talmud  and  Mishna  (sec  Works); 
cf.  Schttrer,  T?ie  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Christ,  Eiig. 
trans.,  second  division,  i.,  i)p.  16:J-105. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Sanltar J  Commission,  The  United  States :  an  organi- 
zation formed  during  the  civil  war  for  the  purj)ose  of  dis- 
tributing relief  to  the  soldiers  of  the  Union  army.  On  Apr. 
15, 1861,  the  day  of  President  Lincoln^s  call  for  75,0(X)  men, 


the  women  of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  organized  a  socittty  wi»: 
the  somewhat  vague  iaea  of  affording  relief  and  comfon  ••< 
the  volunteers.  In  Charlestown,  Mass.,  on  the  same  <i.i), 
and  at  Lowell  a  few  days  after,  the  women  of  those  <Mti.  ^ 
formed  similar  societies.  On  Apr.  19  the  ladies  of  (l.v  — 
land,  O.,  organized  an  association  for  the  care  of  th»-  f.-u-  - 
lies  of  volunteers.  The  Women's  Central  Relief  A>MHini  i-  r. 
(founded  at  a  public  meeting  in  the  Cooper  Uniim,  N*  .4 
York,  Apr.  29, 1861)  sent  a  committee  to  Washington  l<»  <•  1.- 
fer  with  the  medical  bureau  and  the  War  Def>artment  in  t.r- 
der  to  learn  more  definitely  in  what  way,  with  least  finrr^.r- 
rassment  to  the  Government  and  most  help  to  the  am. , 
the  women  could  serve  the  volunteers.  They  presenter  I  ■.. 
the  Government  their  plan,  based  very  much  on  the  ^axw- 
tary  commission  of  Great  Britain,  asking  for  the  apfxiu^- 
ment  of  a  scientific  board,  Xg  be  commissioned  with  amj  ■• 
powers  for  visiting  all  camps  and  hospitals,  advising,  n*  - 
ommending,  and,  if  need  be,  enforcing,  the  best-know u  aii.; 
most  approved  sanitary  regulations  in  the  army. 

The  Government  not  unnaturally  dreaded  the  possible  01  N 
lision  of  such  a  bodv  with  the  medical  and  military  auth«»r,- 
ties,  and  required  tliat  the  consent  of  the  medic^  hurt »:. 
should  be  obtained  before  such  a  commission  was  apjHiintfi. 
This  consent  was  denied.  The  best  that  could  be  securetJ  w  .1^ 
the  appointment  of  a  doubtful  semi-ofiicial  commission,  with 
the  privilege  of  advising  with  the  medical  bureau,  of  visit- 
ing the  army  in  the  field,  and  of  recommending  to  the  War 
Department  sanitary  regulations  and  reforms.  A  few  thini.> 
soon  became  obvious,  and  guided  their  course : 

1.  The  great  object  of  such  a  commission  must  be  to  (!•  - 
velop,  strengthen,  and  support  the  regular  medical  and  \\i\.\- 
tary  authorities  and  methcils — to  stimulate  the  depart nn-m.- 
having  the  supplj  of  food,  transportation,  camp  equip;i:;i. 
drainage,  and  mcite  them  by  kind  and  wholesome  critiri^iL. 
and  counsel,  and  by  the  force  of  public  opinion,  to  du  th«- r 
utmost  to  prevent  pestilence  and  the  spread  of  scur\7'»  an«i 
the  lessening  of  needless  exposures  of  every  kind. 

2.  The  Sanitary  Commission  became  very  early  in  its  h;-- 
tory  thoroughly  convinced  that  to  prevent  evils  to  the  h«  a  •  h 
of  the  army  was  greatly  more  important  and  serviceablo  t  Imh 
to  attempt  to  cure  them  after  they  appeared.  It  accordm.:- 
ly  gave  its  attention  chiefly  to  prevention,  by  a  syst**m  .: 
camp-inspection  and  the  promulgation  of  counsels  touching' 
the  choice  of  camp-sites,  the  importance  of  drainage  and  \-<~ 
lice,  and  the  character  and  cooking  of  food.  By  the  apfKinf- 
ment  of  skilled  medical  inspectors  it  established  at  onot-  nu 
advisorv  and  tolerably  friendly  relation  with  the  su^ge<.»n^  ir, 
the  fiel^. 

Among  the  policies  of  the  Sanitary  Commission  w^as  th> 
prevention  of  incompetency,  inefficiency,  and  contra*  t.  a 
ideas  in  the  medical  bureau.  Another  preventive  mea^urt 
which  it  inaugurated  was  the  erection  from  its  own  miNl'.- 
of  pavilion  hospitals,  designed  to  make  contagion  and  )K>-t:- 
lence  less  easy  and  fatal.  Its  plane  became  the  tyj>e  nf  ir.. 
great  general  hospitals  which  were  erected  at  the  base  of  tl-- 
Union  armies. 

One  of  the  earliest  services  of  the  Commission  wa>  ;h. 
establishment  of  soldiers'  homes  at  the  chief  places  wli.  n 
new  regiments  were  concentrating,  to  take  care  of  the  m.  k 
and  supply  the  defects  in  the  unperfected  arrangements  -r 
the  quartermaster's  bureau  for  receiving  them. 

As  soon  as  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson  the  Commir^si.in. 
finding  the  Government  transportation  of  the  sick  to  L.t^ 
pitals  very  rude  and  inadequate,  began  to  or^nize  a  ^ystnu 
of  hospital  steamers.  These  boats,  supplied  with  evcrv'  <M.ni- 
fort,  with  surgeons  and  nurses,  plied  between  the  j¥>rts  umr- 
est  to  the  seats  of  war  and  the  nearest  general  hospitals.  awX 
transported  in  comparative  comfort  tens  of  thousands  • .' 
sick  and  wounded  men.  The  cars  in  which  the  largrst  jM-r- 
tion  were  transported  were  places  of  torture  to  wounut-*!  wwh. 
The  Commission  devised  a  sort  of  hospital-car,  in  wliicli  :,•. 
common  stretcher  upon  which  the  wounded  man  was  t*arT!-  •: 
from  the  field  could  be  converted  into  a  hanging  Ijetl  in  tf  t 
car.  The  car  was  so  hung  on  gutta-i>ercha  springs  as  to  ti'- 
viate  jolting. 

The  wants  of  the  hospitals  and  camps  very  early  in  \^\\  \ 
had  exhausted  60,000  articles  which  had  been  forwanU'^1  w 
the  Commission.  By  September  of  that  year  it  became  pla-r- 
that  a  demand  for  extra  food  and  extra  clothing  wai;  gmt .: 
to  exceed  anything  that  the  unorganized  and  inlernuite.' 
beneficence  of  the  people  would  furnish.  The  organizaii*  .1 
of  over  7,000  aid  societies,  which  offered  opportunities  t. 
millions  of  women  to  take  some  active  share  m  the  war,  w,i> 
one  of  the  Commission's  best  services.    On  Sept.  5,  1^0I, 


296 


SANJO  SANEYOSHI 


SANKHYA 


Sau'Jo  Saneyosh'l:  statesman;  b.  at  Kioto,  Japan,  in 
1836,  of  an  old  princely  family.  He  early  began  to  take  a 
prominent  position  in  state  matters.  His  efforts  were  di- 
rected to  the  restoration  of  the  imperial  power,  and  his  co- 
operation at  court  was  invaluable  to  Saigo  and  the  other 
leaders  of  the  malcontents  in  the  provinces.  After  the  res- 
toration in  1868  he  became  vice-premier,  and  in  July,  1871, 
premier,  a  position  which  he  held  until  1886,  when  he  be- 
came chancellor.    D.  Feb.,  1891.  J.  M.  D. 

San  Jos^,  -hd-sa' :  capital  of  Cost«  Rica  (since  1823)  and 
of  the  province  of  San  Jos4 ;  in  a  valley  at  the  foot  of  a 
chain  of  volcanic  mountains;  95  miles  by  rail  from  the 
port  of  Limon  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  60  miles  by 
mixed  route  from  Puntarenas  (see  map  of  Central  America, 
ref.  8-J).  It  is  the  commercial  center  of  the  republic,  and 
lies  in  one  of  the  richest  agricultural  districts;  has  a  ca- 
thedral, national  library,  uuiversity,  various  Government 
buildings,  and  two  fine  parks.  San  Jos6  is  about  4,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  conseauently  has  a  temperate  climate ; 
the  water-supply  is  good,  but  there  is  no  drainage.  Owing 
to  the  frequency  of  earthquakes,  all  the  buildings  are  low, 
and  the  churches  are  without  towers.  San  Jose  was  founded 
about  1750.    Pop.  25,000.  H.  H.  S. 

San  Jos^ :  city ;  capital  of  Santa  Clara  co.,  Cal. ;  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad ;  8  miles  S.  E.  of  San  Francisco 
Bay,  47  miles  S.  of  San  Francisco  (for  location,  see  map  of 
California,  ref.  &-C).  It  is  in  the  heart  of  the  beautiful 
Santa  Clara  valley,  and  is  connected  with  San  Francisco  by 
three  lines  of  railway  and  a  waterway  through  the  bay,  and 
with  the  Pacific  Ocean  at  Santa  Cruz  and  Monterey  by  rail. 
The  city  is  laid  out  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  with 
streets  ranging  from  60  to  100  feet  in  width.  There  are 
four  public  parks — Washington  Square,  28  acres,  contain- 
ing tne  Stat«  Normal  School  (cost  $200,000) ;  the  Plaza,  4 
acres,  containing  the  new  city-hall  (cost  $150,000);  St. 
James's  Park,  2  blocks  in  the  center  of  the  city,  opposite  the 
court-house  and  Hall  of  Records  (cost  $500,000);  and  Alum 
Rock  Park,  7  miles  E.  of  the  city,  400  acres,  containing  nu- 
merous mineral  springs,  and  connected  with  the  city  by  a 
beautiful  boulevard  and  by  railway.  The  city  contains  a 
U.  S.  Government  building  that  cost  $200,000. 

Churches  and  Schools. — San  Jos4  contains  a  Roman 
Catholic  Cathedral  and  2  other  Roman  Catholic  churches,  7 
Methodist  Episcopal,  4  Presbyterian,  4  Baptist,  3  Lutheran, 
2  Protestant  Episcopal,  2  Christian,  and  one  each  Congre- 
gational, Friends,  Jew,  Seventh-day  Adventist,  and  Uni- 
tarian. There  are  also  a  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, Young  Men's  Institute,  Union  Chapel,  Spiritual  Union. 
Salvation  Army  barracks,  Theosophical  Society,  Christ's 
Rescue  Mission,  and  Florence  Night  Mission.  The  public- 
school  system  comprises  a  high  school,  6  grammar  schools, 
and  6  kindergartens,  with  an  enrollment  of  4,000  pupils  and 
an  annual  cost  of  maintenance  of  over  $90,000.  The  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  maintains  Notre  Dame  College,  St.  Jo- 
seph's College,  Notre  Dame  Academy,  and  St.  Aloysius's 
School,  and  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  the  University 
of  the  Pacific,  half  a  mile  N.  of  tne  city.  There  are  2  com- 
mercial colleges,  4  private  schools,  a  public  library,  and  4 
daily,  9  weekly,  and  5  monthly  periodicals.  The  charity 
institutions  include  the  O'Connor  Sanitarium  (Roman  Cath- 
olic), the  Pratt  Home  for  Old  Ladies,  and  the  Home  of 
Benevolence,  maintained  by  the  Ladies'  Benevolent  Associa- 
tion. 

Finances  and  Banking, — The  city  has  annual  receipts 
and  expenditures  of  about  $275,000,  net  debt  of  $300,000, 
and  a  property  valuation  of  $17,800,000.  Unassessed  realty 
belonging  to  the  city,  parks,  reservations,  etc.,  estimated, 
$1,000,000.  In  1894  there  were  6  State  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  $1,590,000,  and  a  national  bank  with  capi- 
tal of  $500,000. 

Business  Inferests.^-Lying  in  the  center  of  a  great  fruit- 
growing region,  the  dominant  industry  is  the  preparation 
and  handling  of  the  fruit  product.  There  are  three  large 
canneries,  one  the  largest  in  the  world,  numerous  packing- 
houses and  shipping  firms,  a  large  woolen-mill,  ana  an  ex- 
tensive yard  for  granite-polishing  and  marble-cutting. 

History, — The  pueblo  of  San  Jose  was  established  in  1782 
by  the  Spaniards.  Under  the  first  constitution  of  Califor- 
nia the  State  caoital  was  located  here.  The  completion  of 
the  overland  railway  in  1869  greatly  promoted  the  prosper- 
ity of  the  city,  ana  since  1880  its  growth  has  been  rapid. 
Pop.  (1880)  12,567;  (1890)  18,060;  (1894)  with  suburbs,  esti- 
mated, 30,000.  Chaeles  H.  Allen. 


San  Jo86  de  Cncuta :  See  Cucuta. 

San  Jnan,  -hdb-aan' :  a  western  province  of  the  Arpn- 
tine  Republic,  between  Chili,  Rioja,  San  Luis,  and  >ltn- 
doza.  Area,  29,700  sq.  miles.  A  grejit  part  of  the  surfa<  •• 
is  covei*ed  with  mountain-chains,  parallel  to  the  Ande>.  hu'I 
7,000  to  13,000  feet  high.  In  the  west  there  are  arid  table- 
lands, and  in  the  east  extensive  travesias  or  dry  desert  ^, 
which  could  be  reclaimed  by  irrigation.  Most  of  the  inlmt^ 
itatants  are  p;athered  in  the  three  fertile  valleys  of  TuImh. 
Jacal.  and  Fertil.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  raised  and  exiHirt^Nl 
to  Chili,  but  agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation.  Th«Tr 
are  extensive  vineyards,  and  the  wines  of  San  Juan,  re>tfii- 
bling  Malaga,  are  noted.  Until  1864  the  province  was  fre- 
quently devastated  by  civil  wars.  Pop.  (estimated,  lHi«:'», 
about  150,000.  San  Juan,  the  capital,  on  the  San  Juan 
river,  was  founded  in  1561,  and  has  a  population  of  ah*}ui 
15,000.  On  Oct.  27,  1894,  it  was  partly  destroved  by  an 
earthquake.  Herbert  A,  Smith. 

San  Jnan  Bantista, -bow-tees'ta& :  capital  of  the  stati- 
of  Tabasco,  Mexico ;  on  the  west  or  left  bank  of  the  ri>er 
Grijalva,  which  is  navigated  by  small  steamers  to  this  point 
(see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  8-J).  It  is  built  on  flat  lima,  hu.>i 
few  public  or  private  buildings  of  any  pretension,  and  i> 
hot  and  somewhat  unhealthfuL  It  controls  the  trade  "f 
the  upper  Grijalva  and  portions  of  Chiapas.    Pop.  11, (XK). 

H.  H.  S. 

San  Jnan  de  Fnca,  Strait  of:  the  entrance  to  Puir^t 
Sound  and  the  Gulf  of  Georgia;  lies  S.  of  Vancouver's  I>1- 
and  and  N.  of  the  State  of  Washington.  Its  entrance  i^  iti 
lat.  48°  23'  30'  N.,  Ion.  124'  43'  48"  W. 

San  Jnan  del  Norte :  See  Greytown. 

San  Jnan  del  Bio:  a  town  of  the  state  of  Quen'tar.\ 
Mexico;  28  miles  £.  S.  E.  of  Quer^taro;  6,500  feet  alM>\f 
the  sea  (see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  7-G).  It  owes  its  imi*<»r- 
tance  principally  to  rich  silver  mines  in  the  vicinity.  Th»» 
place  IS  beautifully  situated  and  surrounded  by  ga^df•^^. 
Pop.  about  10,000.  *&.  H.  S. 

San  Jnan  del  Snr :  a  port  of  Nicaragua ;  on  a  bay  r>f 
the  Pacific,  where  the  coast  is  nearest  to  Lake  Nicara^tia 
(see  map  of  Central  America,  ref.  7-H).  The  harbor  is  g4»ii: 
and  safe.  This  was  the  Pacific  terminus  of  the  Cent  ml 
American  transit  route,  now  abandoned ;  it  is  the  on!  v 
cable-station  on  the  Pacific  side,  and  the  commercial  }t«irt 
of  Southwestern  Nicaragua.  The  proposed  interoccaiju* 
ship-canal  will  terminate  just  N.  of  this  place.      H.  11.  S. 

San  Jnan  de  Nicaragua :  See  Grettowv. 

San  Jnan  de  Pnerto  Bico :  capital  and  most  import  ant 
city  and  port  of  the  island  of  Puerto  Rico,  Spanish  Wt^t 
Indies ;  on  a  bay  of  the  northern  coast  (see  map  of  Wr-t 
Indies,  ref.  5-J).  The  city  is  built  on  the  western  extremity 
of  a  low  coral  island  which  shelters  the  bay;  the  latiHr 
forms  one  of  the  safest  and  most  commodious  liarbors  in  th*' 
West  Indies,  but  the  entrance  is  somewhat  difficult.  re<|uir- 
ing  a  pilot.  San  Juan  was  founded  by  Ponce  de  Let>n  in 
1511;  subsequently  it  was  strongly  fortified  and  repuW- J 
several  attacks  by  English  fleets.  The  mast  important  ex- 
ports are  coffee  and  sugar.    Pop.  (1887)  26,387.     H.  H.  S. 

San  Jnan  Birer,  Nicaragua :  See  Nicaragua. 

Sankey,  Ira  David  :  evangelist ;  b.  at  Edinburgh,  l^w- 
rence  co..  Pa.,  Aug.  28,  1840;  in  business  at  New  Casil^. 
Pa.,  1855-70,  when  he  joined  D wight  L.  Moodv  in  evanpl- 
istic  work  in  Chicago,  111.  They  labored  togetlier  in  (inai 
Britain  1873-75,  and  again  in  1883.  Mr.  Sankey  is  the  au- 
thor of  several  popular  sacred  tunes,  and  has  published  a 
compilation  entitled  Sacred  Sofigs  atid  Solos, 

Sankhya  [Sanskr.  sdmkhya,  enumerative  (see  below), 
from  samkhycky  number] :  the  name  of  the  oldest  one  anion c 
the  products  of  Indie  speculation  that  was  elaborated  into  a 
complete  system.  For  the  names  of  the  other  five  systems, 
see  SAXsKRrr  Literature.  Native  tradition  makes  the  San- 
khya system  older  than  Buddha  (older,  say,  than  500  b.  c), 
and  maintains  that  Buddha  in  the  establishment  of  his  doc- 
trincs  was  greatly  influenced  by  it;  and  this  tradition  is 
supported  by  many  correspondences  between  the  two  sys- 
tems. The  origin  of  the  rationalistic  S&nkhya  is  to  W 
sought  in  the  reaction  from  the  idealistic  monism  of  the 
Upanishads  (see  Vedanta),  and  is  to  be  localized  in  the 
same  region  that  brought  forth  also  Buddhism.  Originally 
the  system  must  have  maintained  an  o|>en  hostility  to  x\\* 
Brahmanicnl  system,  as  appears  indeed  from  its  polemi«-> 
against  Brahmanical  ceremonialism.    But  in  the  nrst  pre* 


298 


SAN  LAZZARO 


SAN  MARTIN 


things,  but  also  our  inner  organs — is  likened  to  a  dancer 
that  executes  a  dance  before  the  soul  as  spectator. 

The  purpose  of  tlie  Sankhya  is  to  bring  us  to  understand 
the  absolute  difference  of  the  soul  from  matter;  and,  es- 
pecially, even  from  the  finest  modifications  of  matter  as  ex- 
emplified in  the  inner  organs:  forasmuch  as  the  intelligent 
recognition  of  this  difference  releases  the  soul  from  the 
bonds  of  matter  and  puts  an  end  to  the  series  of  rebirths. 
And  hereby  is  attained  that  absolute  deliverance  from  sor- 
row which  every  wise  man  is  to  strive  for.  All  other  means 
for  doing  away  with  sorrow — because  their  effect  is  only 
transitory — are  worthless.  An  offshoot  of  the  Sankhya  sys- 
tem is  the  Yoga  philosophy.  See  Yoga.  K.  GikasE. 
Translated  by  C.  R.  Lanman. 

San  Laz'zaro:  a  small  island  of  the  Venetian  lagoons, 
first  mentioned  in  the  twelfth  centiury,  when  a  hospital  for 
lepers  was  established  there.  After  the  disappearance  of 
leprosy  it  was  used  for  other  hospital  purposes,  until  the 
Venetian  republic  ceded  it  to  Peter  Mecnitar  and  his  Arme- 
nian followers  who  had  fled  before  the  Turks.  The  Arme- 
nian church  and  convent  contain  many  objects  of  interest. 

San  Leandro,  -la-aan'dro :  town ;  Alameda  co.,  Cal. ;  on 
the  S.  Pac.  Railroad ;  9  miles  S.  E.  of  Oakland,  the  county- 
seat  ;  15  miles  K  of  San  Francisco  (for  location,  see  map  of 
California,  ref.  7-C).  It  is  in  an  a^cultural  and  fruit-grow- 
ing region,  and  has  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments and  hardware,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $25,000, 
and  two  weekly  newspapers.    Pop.  (1894)  estimated,  2,800. 

San  Lncar  de  BarrameMa  (anc.  Ebora):  fortified  port 
and  town  of  Si)ain,  in  the  province  of  Cadiz ;  on  the  Gua- 
dalquivir, near  its  mouth ;  15  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Cadiz  (see 
map  of  Spain,  ref.  19-C^.  It  exports  large  quantities  of 
wines  and  fruit.  It  is  a  popular  summer  resort  for  sea- 
bathing.   Pop.  (1887)  22,667. 

San  Lncas,  Cape :  See  Cape  San  Lucas. 

San  Lnls,  -Idb-ees' :  an  interior  province  of  the  Argentine 
Republic ;  surrounded  by  Mendoza,  San  Juan,  La  Rioja,  Cor- 
doba, and  the  territory  of  La  Pampa.  Area,  about  18,0()0  sq. 
miles.  In  the  north  much  of  the  surface  is  mountainous ; 
the  Salinas  desert  separates  the  province  from  La  Rioja. 
The  southern  part  is  a  plain  included  in  the  Pampas,  but 
partly  taken  up  by  arid  salines.  Owing  to  the  dryness  of 
the  climate  little  of  the  land  is  available  for  agriculture 
without  irrigation,  but  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised  in  large 
numbers  and  exported  both  to  Buenos  Ayres  and  to  Chili. 
The  mountain  region  is  rich  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  graphite, 
etc.  The  inhabitants  suffered  greatly  during  tne  civil  wars. 
Pop.  (1892)  about  100,000.  San  Luis,  the  capital,  is  a  town 
of  8,000  inhabitants,  on  a  plateau  2,502  feet  above  sea-level ; 
from  this  point  nearly  the  whole  province  and  the  distant 
Andes  can  be  seen.  It  is  an  important  station  on  the  rail- 
way from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Chili.         Herbert  U.  Smith. 

San  Lnls  Obis'po:  city  (incorporated  in  1874) ;  capital  of 
San  Luis  Obispo  co.,Cal. ;  on  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad ;  9 
miles  N.  of  San  Luis  Obispo  Bay,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway  to  Port  Harford,  and  90  miles  N.  W.  of  Santa  Bar- 
bara (for  location,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  10-D).  It  is  in 
an  agricultural,  dairying,  and  stock-raising  region,  and  con- 
tains 5  State  banks  with  combined  capital  of  |720,(X)0,  the 
Acmlemy  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  (Roman  Catho- 
lic), and  a  dailv  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880) 
2,243 ;  (1890)  2,995.  Editor  of  •*  Tribune." 

San  Lnls  Potosi  :  an  interior  state  of  Mexico ;  bounded 
by  Coahuila,  Nuevo  Leon,  Tamaulipas,  Vera  Cruz.  Hidalgo, 
Queretaro,  Guanajuato,  and  Zacatecas.  Area,  24,446  sq. 
miles.  In  the  central  and  northern  parts  thefe  are  exten- 
sive high  plains  included  in  ttie  Mexican  plateau  ;  those  are 
varied  by  mountains  and  hills.  The  eastern  and  southern 
portions  are  on  the  mountainous  border  of  the  table-land, 
and  are  exceedinj^ly  varied  in  scenery  and  climate.  Agri- 
culture is  the  most  important  industry,  the  principal  cro{)s 
being  maize  and  wheat  on  the  plateau,  sugur-cane,  cotton, 
and  coffee  in  the  warm  valleys,  and  maguey,  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  pulque  and  the  spirituous  licjiior  called  niez- 
cal.  The  mines  (of  silver,  gold,  lead,  etc.)  are  among  the 
most  valuable  in  Mexico ;  salt  is  obtained  from  salines  on 
the  plateau.  In  the  western  part  the  grazing  industry  occu- 
pies much  of  the  land.  The  manufactures  are  increasing 
in  importance,  and  altogether  this  is  one  of  tlie  richest  and 
most  progressive  of  the  ^lexican  states.  Pop.  (1893)  esti- 
mated^ 550,670 ;  a  large  proportion  are  of  Indian  or  mixed 
race.  HERBtuiT  II.  Smith. 


San  Luis  Potosf :  capital  of  the  state  of  the  same  nam*- : 
in  a  valley  on  the  mountainous  border  of  the  plateau,  iy,'^n) 
feet  above  the  sea ;  362  miles  by  railway  N.  N.  W.  of  M»i- 
ico  (see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  6-(j).  It  is  regularly  lutd  <.nt 
with  wide  streets  and  numerous  small  souares  ornanieiit<d 
by  trees  ;  the  outskirts  have  so  many  garaens  and  t^ee^  tliit. 
from  a  distance,  only  the  higher  towers  can  be  seen.  Tiif 
cathedral  and  many  churches  are  richly-  ornamented.  >uii 
Luis  has  a  university,  school  of  engineering,  mint,  etc.,  ^ii:i 
considerable  manufactures;  it  is  an  important  railway  ten- 
ter and  has  a  large  and  increasing  trade.  The  silver  niin*-* 
(discovered  in  1583),  which  first  gave  importance  to  the  phu^v, 
are  nearlv  abandoned.  The  climate  is  dry  and  temjK*rat<. 
Pop.  (1892)  62,573 ;  this  includes  numerous  suburban  viUa^'r^. 
the  city  having  about  40,0(X).  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

San  Marcos:  town ;  capital  of  Haysco.,  Tex. ;  on  tlie  Smi 
Marcos  river,  and  the  International  and  Gt.  Northern,  an<j 
the  Mo.,  Kan.  and  Tex.  railways;  31  miles  S.  of  Austin,  tht 
State  capital  (for  location,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  5-H ).  I»  j^ 
in  an  agricultural  region,  and  contains  2  national  banks  with 
combined  capital  of  $130,000,  Coronal  Institute  (Meth<xh^t 
Episcopal,  South,  chartered  in  1879),  public-school  building 
(erected  in  1890,  cost  $10,000),  a  U.  S.  fish-culture  stati*.n. 
grounds  of  the  Texas  Chautauqua  Association,  water-work>. 
electric  lights,  several  steam-ginneries  and  cottonse<Ml-oil 
mills,  an  interesting  group  of  boiling  springs,  and  3  wwkir 
newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  1,232 ;  (1890)  2,385. 

Isaac  H.  Julian,  editoe  of  •*  People's  Era." 

San  MarPno:  the  oldest  and  smallest  independent  r^ 
public  in  the  world,  situated  in  eastern  Central  Italy  (^t> 
map  of  Italy,  ref.  4-E).  It  is  governed  by  a  legislati>e  ><  n- 
ate  of  sixty  members  elected  for  life,  an  executive  coun- 
cil of  twelve,  two-thirds  of  whom  go  out  every  year,  and 
two  presidents  elected  for  six  months.  This  has'U'cn  the 
form  of  government  since  1847,  when  the  constitution  i»a» 
considerably  changed.  Area,  82  sq.  miles,  embraiung  the 
small  villages,  with  a  population  of  about  8,200.  The  <«j  i- 
tal,  of  the  same  name,  is  perched  on  the  crest  of  a  miun- 
tain  2,635  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  said  to  have  U^n 
founded  early  in  the  fourth  century  bv  St.  Marinus,  a  con- 
verted  stone-mason,  who  fled  from  fiimini  (12  miles  N., 
during  the  Diocletian  persecution.  Borgo,  500  feet  1o\k  '  r 
down,  is  the  residence  of  the  principal  inhabitants.  Tlit; 
other  three  villages  are  Serravalle,  Faetano,  and  Moiit«> 
Giardino.  There  is  a  standing  army  of  thirty-eight  oflii  t- r> 
and  950  men,  and  an  annual  revenue  of  about  227,000  lirt-. 
The  principal  products  are  fruit,  silkworms,  and  wine,  ainl 
there  is  some  good  pasturage.  Gunpowder  is  manufactun  d. 
See  histories  of  the  republic  by  Melchiorre  Delftco  (Milan, 
1804)  and  Cazeneuve  (Paris,  1887). 

San  Martin,  saan'maar-teen',  Jos£,  de :  general :  b.  ;it 
Yapeyu,  Misiones  (now  in  the  Argentine  Republic),  PVb.  'J*». 
177^.  His  father  was  governor  of  Misiones,  but  returneii  m 
1785  to  Spain,  where  young  San  Martin  early  entered  n.» 
army  as  a  cadet.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  with 
France,  attaining  the  rank  of  lieutenant-coIoneL  1^1  can - 
while  he  had  adopted  republican  ideas ;  in  1811  he  re>ign.^i 
and  went  to  London,  where  he  was  associated  with  Mintr.'in 
and  other  noted  Spanish- American  republicans.  In  isi-j  !.r- 
and  other  young  officers  sailed  for  Buenos  Ayres  with  tl..- 
object  of  offering  their  services  to  the  patriot  junta  of  lhj»: 
colony.  On  his  arrival  San  Martin  was  commissioned  it» 
organize  a  regiment  of  cavalry.  This  force,  the  Mi»unt»ti 
Grenadiers,  was  distinguished '  throughout  the  war  for  in* 
de[)endence.  About  Aug.,  1812,  San  Martin  and  his  fri«r  i^ 
organized  the  secret  society  called  the  Lautaro  L<n1j.': 
this  speedily  l)ecame  the  most  important  political  inilu- 
ence  in  the  country,  and  most  of  the  subseoueut  sueieoM-s 
were  directly  or  indirectlv  due  to  it.  At  tne  end  of  isi:: 
San  Martin  succeeded  Beigrano  as  commander  of  the  \<t- 
triot  forces  in  Upper  Peru  or  Bolivia.  By  the  rovenM-^  'f 
1814  the  patriots  were  practically  driven  out  of  all  the  S,»iirij 
American  colonies  except  those  in  the  basin  of  the  I'ia-.t 
The  patriots  of  the  Plata  basin  had  repeatedly  atlemp'i.t 
to  attack  the  central  Spanish  power  in  reru  by  way  of  1.2» 
Paz  and  Lake  Titicaca,  but  they  had  alwavs  bt>en*drix' r. 
back,  the  mountain  region  Iwing  unfavorable  lor  cavji'.r\ 
San  Martin  conceived  the  idea  of  opening  a  new  lino  if 
attack  by  crossing  the  Andes  into  Chih :  this  scheme  he  mas 
able  to  carry  out  through  the  support  of  Pueyrreilon,  din  <^ 
tor  of  BueTi'os  Ayres,  and  the  secret  influence  of  the  Laut.'irt) 
Lodge,  lie  drilled  and  organized  his  army^  during  two 
years,  and  on  Jan.  17, 1817,  began  his  march  with  4,000  men. 


300 


SANSKRIT  LANGUAGE 


second,  the  fact  that,  of  all  the  Indo-European  languages, 
the  Sanskrit  has,  on  the  whole,  best  conserved  the  pristine 
features  of  their  common  parent-speech — a  consi aeration 
appealing  with  especial  force  to  most  of  the  cultivated  Eu- 
ropean races,  inasmuch  as  their  languages  are  descended 
from  this  parent-speech.  The  application  of  the  compara- 
tive method  to  the  study  of  genetically  related  tongues  is 
due  in  largest  measure  to  the  study  of  Sanskrit,  which  has 
thus  proved  to  be  the  most  important  factor  in  the  revo- 
lutionizing of  some  parts  of  classical  philolo^^  and  in  the 
creation  of  Germanic  philology.  Moreover,  with  the  broad- 
ening of  the  conception  of  philology,  the  conception  of  com- 
parative philology  has  also  grown  broader ;  instead  of  being 
confined  to  phonology  and  to  the  morphology  of  word  and 
of  sentence  (comparative  grammar),  it  includes  the  whole 
intellectual  life  of  a  people,  as  that  life  is  manifested  not 
only  in  its  langu^,  but  cuso  in  its  literature,  its  antiquities, 
ita  customs  and  laws,  its  religion,  its  philosophy.  These 
subjects  when  treated  comparatively  form  chapters  of  com- 
parative philology ;  and  these  are  the  very  subjects  which 
receive  and  are  yet  to  receive  especial  illumination  from  an- 
cient India. 

The  languages  of  India  may  be  divided  primarily  into 
Arj^an  ana  non-Aryan  (see  Htnnology  under  India,  and  es- 
pecially Dravidian  Languages,  and  Constable's  Harid  Atlas 
of  India,  plate  10) ;  the  Aryan  constitute,  with  the  Iranian 
Languages  (q,  v.),  the  Indo-Iranian  group  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean family  of  languages.  For  the  relation  of  this  group 
to  the  others,  see  Indo-European  Languages.  The  Arvan 
languages  of  India  show  three  principal  stages  of  develop- 
ment: (1)  Old  Indie  or  Sanskrit;  (2)  Middle  Indie  or  Prakrit 
(see  PRlKRrr  Languages);  and  (8)  New  Indie  or  Bhasha. 
The  old  Indie  belongs  locally  to  the  Punjaub  and  the  Indo- 
Gangetic  plain.  The  name  Sanskrit  is  applied  to  the  an- 
cient and  sacred  language  of  India,  the  tongue  in  which 
the  Vedas,  Brahmanas,  Upanishads,  epics,  etc.,  are  written. 
It  is  difficult  to  say  just  how  long  it  was  a  true  vernacular ; 
but,  under  the  influence  of  learned  writers  and  grammari- 
ans, it  has  maintained  for  2,000  years  a  more  or  less  arti- 
ficial existence  as  a  means  of  communication,  spoken  and 
written,  for  the  learned  of  India.  The  word  Sanskrit  is  a 
Sanskrit  word  meaning  **  elaborate,"  and  it  doubtless  con- 
notes a  certain  antithesis  to  Prakrit,  which  means  the  '^or- 
dinary" or  '* vulgar"  (idioms).  It  is  in  its  broader  sense 
that  the  term  Sanskrit  is  applied  to  the  language  of  the 
widely  different  periods  of  Sanskrit  literature;  in  a  nar- 
rower sense,  it  is  often  used  as  the  equivalent  of  "  classical 
Sanskrit,"  the  language  of  the  later  classical  works  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  archaic  dialects  of  the  Veda  and  Brah- 
manas. 

There  is,  properly  speaking,  no  Sanskrit  alphabet.  The 
Hindus  of  the  different  parts  of  India  write  the  language 
usually  each  in  his  own  vernacular  alphabet.  The  alphabet 
which  prevails  in  Hindustan  proper  is  the  one  called  No- 
^aH,  or  Deva-ndgarl ;  and  this,  of  all  the  Indie  alphabets, 
IS  the  one  adopted  by  Occidental  editors  of  Sanskrit  works. 
It  is  written  from  left  to  right.  Alberuni  (in  his  India, 
written  about  1030  a.  d.,  chap,  xvi.)  mentions  among  the 
principal  alphabets  the  Nagara  of  Malwa.  Nagara  means 
"  of  the  city,"  and  refers  perhaps  to  the  very  famous  city  of 
Ujjain,  once  the  capital  of  Malwa.  The  alphabet  is  prob- 
ably derived  from  a  Semitic  source.  By  far  the  most  im- 
portant discussion  of  this  subject  is  that  of  G.  Btihler,  Ind- 
ian Studies,  No.  3  (Vienna,  1895). 

The  system  of  sounds,  in  the  native  order  of  arrangement, 
is  as  follows :  Vocalic:  o,  a,  i,  i,  «,  m,  r,  f,  I,  e,  di,  o,  du ;  the 
breathing  h  and  nasalization  n ;  consonantal : 


Mutes. 

Surd. 

Surd 
asp. 

Sonant. 

Son. 
asp. 

Nasal. 

Semi- 
vowels. 

Sibi- 
lants. 

Guttural 

k 

kh 

g 

gf^ 

n 

PalatAl 

c 

eh 

% 

ft 

y 

g 

Lingual 

t 

th 

4 

dh 

?* 

r 

8 

Dental 

t 

th 

d 

dh 

n 

/ 

8 

Labial 

P 

ph 

b 

hh 

m 

V 

and  the  sonant  guttural  aspirate  h.  The  vowels  are  writ- 
ten with  different  characters  according  as  they  are  long  or 
short.  The  o,  i,  and  u  vowels  are  pronounced  as  in  Italian, 
save  that  the  short  a  has  the  value  of  the  neutral  vowel 
in  but.  The  I  is  like  the  common  Knglish  /-vowel  in  ankle, 
and  the  r-vowels  are  simply  untrilled  r-sounds  with  vocalic 
value  in  syllable-making.  Of  the  mutes,  the  unaspi rated 
surds  and  sonants  and  the  nasals  of  tiie  guttural,  dental, 
and  labial  series  are  familiar:  the  surd  aspirates  kh,  th. 


ph  are  like  the  simple  surd  with  following  breathing,  a-^ 
in  blockhead,  pot-hook,  uphill;  and  the  sonant  aspimtt^ 
are  rendered  in  practice  as  in  abhor,  etc.,  though  their  strict 
value  is  matter  of  question.  The  whole  palatal  series  i^ 
secondary,  and  derived  by  modification  of  original  gut- 
turals (see  Palatalization  :  pronounce  c  and  j  as  in  dolrf, 
jar).  The  Unguals  are  pronounced  with  the  tip  of  the 
tongue  reverted  upward  to  the  dome  of  the  palate.  A  mti^t 
striking  peculiarity  is  the  prevalence  of  the  a-sounds,  which 
make  up  over  one-quarter  (28  per  cent.)  of  all  the  sounds 
of  any  ordinary  piece  of  text  And  since  original  e,  o,  and  a 
(cf.  iiSopKa  =  acMar^),  often  also  vocalic  n  and  m,  have  all 
been  leveled  in  Sanskrit  to  one  uniform  a,  it  is  not  stranin^ 
that  short  a  aggregates  about  one-fifth  of  all  Sanskrit  sounds 
The  word-accent  is  a  pitch-accent,  not  a  strea:»-accent.  For 
the  phonetic  relations  of  Sanskrit  to  the  parent-language, 
see  Bru^ann's  Comparative  Orammar  of  the  Indo-Oer- 
manie  Languages, 

For  the  phonetic  changes  of  the  language,  reference  mu^t 
be  made  to  the  grammars.  Several  general  statements  may 
be  made,  however:  hiatus  is  avoidea;  when  a  surd  is  eon- 
current  with  a  sonant,  either  the  surd  is  changed  to  a  sonant 
or  else  the  sonant  to  a  surd  (assimilation,  regressive  or  pro- 
gressive) ;  consonant  groups  are  abbreviated.  The  laws  of 
phonetic  combination  (samdhi)  wear  indeed  an  artificial  as- 
pect in  the  classical  period ;  yet  even  there  the  rationale  (tf 
many  or  most  of  them  is  discernible;  and  in  the  Vedas  thd 
case  is  quite  otherwise,  and  the  samdhi  quite  simple. 

As  for  morphology,  the  Sanskrit  surpasses,  on  the  whole, 
all  the  cognate  tongues  in  transparency  of  structure,  thus 
contrasting  sharply  with  the  Latin,  which  has  been  likent^i. 
morphologically,  to  **a  venerable  ruin."  Its  words  invit** 
analysis  and  are,  for  the  most  part,  easily  analyzable  inti> 
roots,  suflixes  of  derivation,  and  inflectional  ending]s.  Thi^ 
feature  of  the  language  is  exhibited  incidentally  with  won- 
derful clearness  and  completeness  by  Whitney  in  his  7;foo/«, 
Verb-forms,  and  Primary  Derivatives  of  the  Sanskrit  Lan- 
guage (Boston,  1885).  The  Sanskrit  roots  come  nearer  in 
form  and  meaning  to  their  Indo-European  prototypes  than 
do  the  roots  of  any  other  of  the  related  lan|^uages.  It  wa> 
this  conservation  of  old  material,  coupled  with  its  surpa.»- 
ing  transparency  of  structure,  that  made  the  study  of  Shth 
skrit  so  fruitful  in  results  and  so  suggestive  of  new  and  rit:- 
orous  methods  to  be  pursued  in  etymologizing  and  in  tl.o 
science  of  language  generally. 

In  the  noun  three  numbers,  singular,  dual,  and  plural,  an- 
distinguished;  and  the  dual  is  actually  used  probably  to  a 
larger  extent  than  in  any  other  Indo-European  langimp-. 
There  are  the  usual  three  genders,  the  feminine  themes  end- 
ing .prevailingl}^  in  a  long  vowel.  The  cases  are  eight :  nt>ni- 
inative,  accusative,  instrumental,  dative,  ablative,  genitive, 
locative,  and  vocative ;  and  their  proper  uses  are  so  precis**! y 
like  those  of  the  Indo-European  case-system  that  it  siiffiw-^. 
in  lieu  of  a  general  description  of  them,  to  refer  to  Ini>o- 
EuROPEAN  Lanouaqes.  The  declension  of  a^ectives  is  (es- 
sentially the  same  as  that  of  substantives.  The  pronoun^ 
are  of  course  of  three  persons,  and  except  in  the  first  and  ^m>- 
ond  persons  show  three  genders.  Their  inflection  is  pecul- 
iar, but  offers  striking  parallels  to  the  facts  of  the  eogiitirt' 
tongues  (with  sa-s,  sd,  ta-d,  cf.  6,  ii,  r6,  Ang.-Sax.  se,  seo,  d(^-f : 
with  i-d,  cf.  Lat.  i-d,  Eng.  i-t).  The  numerals  agree  wt- 11 
w^th  those  of  the  parent-speech  (thus  tri  =  three ;  nava  = 
nine).    See  Indo-European  Languages. 

The  verb  shows,  as  in  Greek,  etc,  the  distinctions  of  voic«». 
tense,  mode,  number,  and  person.  The  voices  are  active  and 
middle.  In  the  present  svstom  there  is  a  special  passive  in- 
flection ;  elsewhere  the  middle  serves  also  as  passive.  The r»» 
are  four  tense-systems,  present,  perfect,  aorist,  and  future. 
The  modes  are  indicative,  subjunctive  (mostly  Vedic^,  opta- 
tive, and  imperative.  There  are  three  numbers  and  thr^^* 
persons.  There  are  also  secondary  conjugations,  i>assivo. 
intensive,  desiderative,  and  causative.  Most  important  is  t he 
distinction  between  verbs  without  the  thematic  o-vowel  and 
verbs  with  it  {-fu  verbs  and  -«  verbs).  The  retention  of  an- 
cient accentual  conditions  is  very  remarkable,  and  in  general 
the  whole  system  of  conjugation  casts  floods  of  light  u^miu 
innumerable  inflectional  forms  of  the  related  languages^. 

The  syntax  is  very  bald  and  simple :  partly  because  of  t^.« 
ample  number  of  case-forms  for  the  expression  of  all  the 
most  important  logical  relations ;  and  partly  because,  in  Uw 
case  of  the  verb,  although  there  is  an  abundant  wealth  t.f 
mode  and  tense  forms,  the  Hindus  never  came  to  turn  them 
to  account,  as  did  the  Greeks,  for  the  nice  expression  of 
modal  and  temporal  relations. 


•»  li  thtrJ  r^j'*'   if  ^t»tn!',  r«tM  fM/rrwrfi. 


^r.'tlerit  wnn! 


frtf^fft  ^Vft^^nnf^^^  f»tnf.4/»ft*t  rAfffr*/<«^^^f/**i' 


i»,  Ibit  ItolMi  tflH 


302 


SANSKRIT  LITERATURE 


portant.  It  consists  of  1,017  hymns,  each  containing  on  an 
average  about  ten  double  lines,  so  that  the  text  is  somewhat 
less  than  that  of  the  two  Homeric  poems  together.  Its 
more  significant  division  is  into  books,  hymns,  and  stanzas 
(mandala,  sukia,  re).  There  are  ten  books.  Of  these,  books 
ii.-vii'i.  are  called  *'  Family-books,"  as  containing  each  the 
hymns  ascribed  to  a  single  family  or  clan  in  which  they 
doubtless  originated  and  by  which  they  were  handed  down 
as  a  sacred  inheritance.  Thus  book  iii.  contains  the  hymns 
of  Vigvainitra  and  his  tribe ;  book  vii.,  those  of  Vasishtha ; 
and  so  on,  the  names  being  those  of  the  most  famous  sages 
or  eponvm  heroes  of  Indie  antiouity.  The  hymns  of  book 
ix.  are 'addressed  to  the  deified  drink  Soma.  The  tenth 
comprises  hymns  ascribed  to  very  different  autliors,  while 
the  first  consists  of  fifteen  groups,  each  attributed  to  some 
ancient  poet-sage.  The  soma  is  the  juice  of  a  plant  believed 
to  be  of  the  milkweed  family,  and  now  classed  as  Sarco- 
atemma  brevistigma ;  and  the  Soma  sacrifice  appears  to 
have  been  an  exceedingly  important  feature  of  the  Vedic 
religion.  Certain  principles  of  arrangement  within  the 
books  are  discernible :  thus  in  books  ii.-vii.  the  hymns  to 
the  fire-^xi  Agni  {ignis)  come  first ;  then  those  to  Indra,  the 
Jupiter  rluvius ;  and  so  on.  The  oldest  hymns  may  have 
originated  as  early  as  1200  or  1500  b.  c,  but  it  is  not  feasi- 
ble to  assign  a  precise  date.  Geographically,  the  early 
Vedic  Aryans  may  be  referred  to  the  land  of  the  Punjaub 
and  Indus.  Their  religion  is  a  worship  of  the  anthropo- 
morphized forces  of  nature,  and  is  in  many  ways  most  in- 
structively primitive.  The  best  works  on  this  subject  are 
E.  W.  Hopkins's  The  Reiiaiotis  of  India  (Boston,  1895)  and 
H.  Oldenberg's  Die  Religion  dea  Veda  (Berlin,  1894). 

The  Brahmanas  of  the  Rigveda  are  the  Aitareya  and  the 
^dnkhdyajia  or  Kdmltaki;  and  each  of  these  is  supple- 
mented by  an  Aranyaka  of  similar  designation ;  and  part  of 
each  Aranyaka  forms  an  Upanishad  (translated.  Sacred 
Books^  vol.  i.).  I'o  this  Veda  further  belong  A^valayana's 
^rauta-sutra  and  ^'unkhayana's  (^'rauta-sutra,  both  edited  in 
the  Bihliotheca  Indica  (Calcutta) :  and  also  A^valayana's 
Grhya-sutra  and  (^ankhayana's  Grhya-sutra,  edited  and 
translated,  the  first  by  A.  F.  Stenzler,  and  the  second  by  H. 
Oldenberg. 

5.  The  Sdmaveda  is  a  Veda  of  admans.  A  Saman  is 
properly  a  tune,  not  a  text ;  but  the  word  adman  came  to 
be  used  of  the  text  to  which  a  given  tune  was  sung,  a  stanza 
of  the  Rigveda  modified  for  chanting.  Of  the  1,549  stanzas 
of  the  Saraaveda  (edited  and  translated  by  T.  Benfey,  Leip- 
zig, 1848),  1,474  occur  also  in  the  Rigveda'. 

6.  The  Black  Yajurveda  belongs  to  the  period  of  the  high- 
ly developed  ritual.  At  least  five  schools  of  the  older  Ya- 
jurveda possessed  special  Sanhitas,  of  which  four  are  extant. 
Of  these,  the  Tdittifiya  has  been  published  by  A.  Weber 
(Berlin,  1872)  and  the  Mditrayamya,  by  L.  von  Schroder 
(Leipzig,  1881-86).  In  all  these  older  texts  sacred  formulas 
are  confusedly  mingled  with  prose  passages.  To  remedy 
this  confusion  a  new  school,  called  Vajasaneyins,  arranged 
a  Sanhita  of  "clear  formulas,*'  that  is  of  formulas  clear  of 
Bi-ahmana  passages.  The  word  for  "  clear  "  {^nkla)  means 
also  "  bright "  or  "  white  " ;  and  it  is  perhaps  with  reference 
to  this  double  meaning  that  the  older  Yajus  texts  were 
called  "Dark"  or  "Black."  The  Brahmana  of  the  White 
Yajurveda  or  Vdjctaaneyi-Samhitd  is  the  Qatapatha,  much 
of  which  has  been  Englished  by  J.  Eggeling,  Sacred  Books, 
vols,  xii.,  xxvi.,  and  xli.  Sathhitd^  Brdhmana,  and  (^rduta- 
antra  (Katvavana's)  have  all  been  published  by  A.  Weber 
(Berlin,  1852^59). 

7.  7%e  Atharvai*eda  Sanhita,  as  compared  with  that  of  the 
Rigveda,  represents  a  lower  plane  of  life  and  thought.  It 
contains  magic  incantations  for  the  waniing  off  of  the  most 
diverse  malign  influences,  and  prayers  and  charms  for  suc- 
cess in  the  various  affairs  of  life,  as  love,  gaming,  ouarrels, 
journeys,  etc.  The  text  was  published  by  Roth  and  Whitney 
(Berlin,  18o()),  and  Whitney  has  left  the  manuscript  of  a 
translation,  in  course  of  publication  (1895)  in  Lanman's  Har- 
vard Oriental  Series. 

8.  Vedic  Bihliof/rnphy. — The  first  complete  edition  of  the 
Rigveda  was  issued  bv  T.  Aufrecht  in  Roman  letters  (Ber- 
lin, 1861-63:  2d  ed.  Bonn,  1H7T).  Max  Miilh-r's  great  six- 
volunied  quarto  editirui,  in  Nfi'mri  letters,  witli  native  com- 
mentary, etc.,  wjis  Iw'gun  in  1849  and  completed  in  1874 
(London).  A  new  edition  of  this  in  four  vohimes  (|uarto 
wjis  issued  in  1892  (Lcmchm).  Octavo  editions,  also  in  Na- 
gari,  were  issued  by  MUller  in  1878  and  1877.  The  greatest 
achievements  in  Vedic  exegesis  are  those  made  by  Roth,  and 
contained  chiefly  in  the  St.  Petersburg  lexicon.     H.  Grass- 


mann  has  published  a  Wdrterhurh  zum  Rigveda  (Leijizig, 
1875),  and  a  complete  translation  (Leipzig,  1877).  For  a 
succinct  sketch  of  the  Vedic  literature,  with  numerous  refer- 
ences to  other  sources  of  information,  see  A.  Kaegi'»  Rio- 
veda  (Englished  by  R.  Arrowsmith,  Bostxin,  1886),  notes  1-28, 
or  Lan man's  Sanskrit  Reader,  pp.  352-59. 

B.  The  Classical  Period.  1.  Bpoa.-^The  most  inif«»r- 
tant  works  of  this  period  are  the  great  epics.  Thes^*  an' 
treated  separately.    See  Maha-bharata  and  RAmayana. 

2.  The  PHrdnaa. — These  are  pseudo-historical  works,  of!»'n 
in  prophetic  tone,  and  in  metrical  form.  Their  name  means 
"Old,"  but  the  extant  Puranas  are  held  to  be  not  owt  a 
thousand  years  old.  The  Jihagavata-Purdna — or  nir>st  of 
it — was  published  and  translated  bv  E.  Burnouf  (Paris. 
1847).  Of  the  Vianu-Ptirdna,  H.  II.  Wilson  gave  an  analy- 
sis and  translation  (2d  ed!,  enriched  with  notes,  by  Fit'z- 
edward  Hall,  6  vols.,  London,  1864-771  Of  this  and  other 
Puranas,  as  the  Agni-Purdna,  the  Mdrkandeya-I^irdnn, 
there  are  cheap  Hindu  editions.  The  Kt>/iu' treats  of  the 
evolution  and  dissolution  of  the  universe,"  of  the  yugns  or 
ages,  of  mythical  geography,  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  \\w 
origin  of  the  castes;  gives  many  ancient  legends,  account •». 
of  the  Vedic  literature,  the  dynasties  of  kings,  the  historv  of 
the  god  Krishna,  etc.  The  Puranas  are  in  fact  a  kind  of 
encycloptedic  digest  of  Indie  knowledge,  but  in  many  wa^x 
quite  untrustworthy. 

3.  The  Artificial  J^oiV^.—These  are  called  Kdvyas,  and 
the  oldest  are  referred  to  the  fifth  or  sixth  eenturv  of  our 
era.  They  take  their  material  from  the  great  popufar  epi«  >. 
but  can  never  themselves  have  been  popular,  since  onlv  the 
learned  could  understand  them.  In^them  the  epic  elerneiu 
gives  place  more  or  less  to  the  lyric  and  descriptive.  an«l 
they  are  often  not  without  real  poetic  merit  and  gen  nine 
feeling.  There  are  six  of  them  that  the  Hindus  call  -* gnat 
Kavyas  " ;  and  among  the  six  the  most  noted  are  the  Baghn- 
van^a,  or  **The  Ancestry  and  Deeds  of  Rama,'*  an<i*  tt)** 
Kumdra-aambhava,  or  "Birth  of  the  War-go(i,'*  both  a>- 
cribed  to  the  famous  Kalidasa,  and  both  edited  and  tran^ 
lated  by  A.  P.  Stenzler,  the  latter  translated  also  by  R.  T. 
H.  Griffith  into  English  verse.  See  especially  the  inasterh 
fifth  canto. 

4.  77ie  Drama.— The  real  beginnings  of  the  drama  niav 
be  seen  in  the  Rigveda,  where  there  are  not  a  few  hymns  I'u 
the  form  of  genuine  dramatic  dialogue.  In  the  Mahu- 
bharata,  too,  are  passages  of  similar  character.  And  tht» 
public  recitations  of  the  epics  were  in  fact  really  dramatu- 
performances.  The  earliest  direct  allusion  to  this  subjiH't  i< 
made  by  Panini,  probably  in  the  fourth  century  b.  c,  who 
speaks  of  "rules  lor  actors"  {nafa^autras).  The'woni  nnfn^ 
with  many  derivatives,  including  ndtya,  Anglo-Indmn 
nauteh,  and  ndtaka,  "  drama,"  comes  from  the  root  nftrt  or 
nrt,  "  to  dance,'^  and  perhaps  warrants  the  inference  that  th»» 
Hindu  drama  originated  in  pantomime.  Prom  the  stat*- 
ment  of  Patanjali  (about  143  B.  c.),who  mentions  the  slav- 
ing of  Kansa  bv  Krishna  as  a  subiect  of  dramatic  repr»*<on- 
tation,  it  would  seem  that  the  oldest  performances  wen'  of 
a  kind  like  to  the  medieval  mysteries.  There  has  b<^»n 
much  debate  (A.Weber,  E.  Windisch)  as  to  whether  \\u- 
Greek  drama  influenced  that  of  the  Hindus.  The  ques^tiini 
is  unsettled.  The  Hindu  plav  is  divided  into  acts,  with 
benediction  in  place  of  a  prologue,  with  prelude  and  with 
interacts;  and  it  is  peculiar  in  that  the  women  and  inferit»r 
characters  speak  not  Sanskrit  but  Prakrit.  The  dialogtu*  i'? 
in  prose,  with  lyrics  interspersed.  Levi  enumerates  tho 
titles  of  some  375  dramatic  works ;  of  the  extant  dramas 
hardly  more  than  fifty  are  of  considerable  literary  value. 

The  Mrcchakafikd,  or  "  Earthen  Toy-cart,"  is  held  to  l>e 
the  oldest.  It  is  ascribed  to  King  (^'udraka,  and  the  s<vn«' 
is  laid  at  Ujjain.  It  is  a  love-story  with  political  under- 
plot. The  Sanskrit  work  most  famous  as  literature  is  tht* 
Cakuntald  of  Kalidasa  (about  550  A.  D.  f).  For  this  and  hi> 
dramas  Vikramorvagl  and  Mdlnvikd,  see  KXlidasa.  To 
9ri  Harshadeva — apparently  the  King  of  Kanauj  at  the  time 
of  HirEx-TSANO  {q.vX  about  630  a.  d. — are  asoribo<i  ttie 
RatndrdU  and  the  Xdgdnanda.  Bhavabhiiti  is  said  1<» 
have  flourished  at  this  same  court  of  Kanauj  about  700  a.  i>. 
He  was  author  of  the  Mahdrlra-carita^  or  "  Life  of  the  (ma* 
Hero,"  and  Vftara-rdma-rarifa,  or  "Later  Life  of  Rhiuh,** 
which  toi^ether  form  a  dramatize<l  version  of  the  Ramayann. 
and  of  tlie  Mdlaf'i-mddhara,  a  domestic  drama.  TTier-i*  an- 
held  in  high  esteem  by  the  Hindus,  but  Bhavabhuti.  m«» 
compared  with  Kalidil*^a,  is  more  artificial,  more  uii«b  ^ 
bondrtge  to  the  rules  of  the  writers  on  dramatic  com {M>siti«  ?-. 
Bhatta  Narayanans  Venl-sathhdra,  or  "The  Seizing  of  tl..^ 


304 


SANTA  BARBARA 


SANTA  CRUZ 


to  him  as  emperor ;  but  later  he  went  over  to  the  repub- 
licans, and  by  heading  a  revolt  at  Vera  Cruz  Dec.  2,  1822, 
was  the  chief  instrument  of  Iturbide's  downfall.  During 
the  presidency  of  Gimdalupe  Victoria,  1824-28,  Santa  Anna 
Uvea  in  retirement;  but  the  political  stniggles  of  1828 
brought  him  again  into  prominence.  By  a  pronunciaraento 
in  favor  of  Guerrero  he  materially  aided  him  to  attain  the 
presidency,  and  was  rewarded  by  high  commands  in  the 
army.  In  1829  he  was  sent  against  the  Spanish  army, 
which  had  invaded  Mexico  under  Gen.  Barradas ;  the  latter 
was  forced  to  capitulate  at  Tampico  Sept.  11,  and  this 
success  added  immensely  to  Santa  Anna's  popularity.  In 
1832  he  headed  the  revolt  by  which  Bustamante  was  over- 
thrown and  Gomez  Pedraza,  the  constitutional  president, 
was  restored  for  the  remainder  of  his  term.  Santa  Anna 
himself  became  a  presidential  candidate,  and  was  elected  for 
the  term  beginning  Apr.  1, 1833.  He  assumed  the  executive 
only  at  intervals  and  for  short  periods.  At  first  the  chair 
was  occupied  by  Vice-President  Gomez  Farias,  an  enlight- 
ened statesman  who  instituted  many  reforms.  These  excited 
violent  opposition  in  the  Church  and  army,  secretly  fomented 
by  Santa  Anna,  who,  whenever  he  acted  as  president,  posed 
as  the  champion  of  religion  and  order.  By  such  intrigues 
he  obtained  the  support  of  the  reactionist's,  had  Farias  ban- 
ished in  1835,  abolished  the  federal  constitution,  and  be- 
came practically  dictator,  though  commonly  acting  through 
vice-presidents  who  were  his  subservient  tools.  Texas  se- 
cedea  in  1836.  Santa  Anna  marched  against  the  rebels, 
stormed  the  Alamo,  and  massacred  its  garrison  Mar.  6, 1836. 
but  was  defeated  and  captured  by  Houston  at  the  battle  of 
San  Jacinto  Apr.  21-22.  To  obtain  his  release  he  recog- 
nized the  independence  of  Texas  in  a  treaty  which  was  re- 
Eudiated  at  Mexico ;  all  his  popularity  was  lost,  and  when 
e  returned  to  Jalapa  he  signified  his  intention  of  retiring 
to  private  life.  The  French  invasion  of  Vera  Cruz  in  1838 
brought  him  out  again;  he  was  given  command  of  the 
army,  defeated  the  French  Dec.  5,  and,  having  lost  a  leg  in 
the  engagement,  became  at  once  a  popular  hero  and  mart;^r. 
In  1839  he  supported  Bustamante  against  the  federalist 
revolts,  and  was  for  a  short  time  acting  president.  In  1841, 
partly  by  intrigue  and  partly  by  open  rebellion,  he  deposed 
Bustamante  and  caused  himself  to  be  chosen  president  with 
dictatorial  powers,  increased  by  the  new  constitution  of 
June  12, 1843.  This  led  to  fresh  revolts.  In  Dec.,  1844,  his 
opponents  seized  the  capital  during  his  absence;  he  was 
defeated,  captured,  and  banished,  taking  up  his  residence 
in  Havana.'  Fresh  chappies  brought  his  party  again  into 
power ;  he  was  recalled  in  1846,  and  in  December  of  that 
year  was  again  elected  president,  but,  as  usual,  only  as- 
sumed the  executive  at  intervals.  During  the  war  with  the 
U.  S.  he  commanded  the  Mexican  army,  and  was  repeatedly 
defeated  by  Taylor  and  Scott  (see  Taylor,  Zachart,  and 
S(X)TT,  WiNFiELD) ;  after  the  capture  of  Mexico  he  resigned 
and  left  the  country.  In  1853  he  was  recalled  by  a  con- 
servative revolution,  was  made  acting  president,  and  on 
Dec.  16, 1853,  declared  himself  perpetual  dictator,  with  the 
title  of  supreme  highness.  But  the  liberals,  under  Alvarez 
and  Coraonfort,  speedily  excited  a  civil  war.  After  a  vain 
attempt  at  conciliation  Santa  Anna  fled  from  the  capital 
Aug.  9,  1855,  and  soon  left  the  country.  In  his  absence 
he  was  tried  and  condemned  for  treason  and  his  estates 
were  confiscated.  He  was  never  again  prominent  in  Mexi- 
can affairs,  though  he  kept  up  a  series  of  intrigues  in  the 
U.  S.  and  elsewhere,  and  vainly  offered  his  services  to  the 
French  invaders  and  to  Maximilian.  In  1867  he  made  an 
attempt  to  enter  the  country,  but  was  captured  and  exiled. 
After  the  amnesty  of  1874  he  returned,  but  lived  in  obscurity. 

D.  at  Mexico,  June  20,  1876.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Santa  Bar^bara :  city ;  capital  of  Santa  Barbara  co.,  Cal. ; 
on  Santa  Barbara  channel,  and  the  S.  Pac.  Railroad ;  14  miles 

E.  of  Elwood  (for  location,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  11-D). 
There  is  regular  steamer  communication  with  San  Francisco, 
San  Diego,  and  San  Pedro.  Santa  Barbara  is  in  a  sheltered 
nook  of  the  shore,  is  protected  on  the  N.  by  the  Santa  Ynez 
Mountains,  and  from  its  dry,  equable  climate  has  become 
one  of  the  most  noted  midwinter  health  rtvSorts  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  temperature  ranges  from  50 '  to  55^  in  winter, 
and  from  65°  to  70"*  in  summer.  The  city  has  beautiful  sur- 
roundings, with  luxuriant  roses  and  tropical  plants,  many 
attractive  residences,  a  Spanish  and  a  Chinese  Quarter,  and 
an  excellent  bathing-beach.  There  are  a  public  nigh  school, 
primary  and  grammarschools,  St.  Vincent's  School,  manual- 
training  school,  free  kindergarten,  collegiate  school,  commer- 


cial college,  College  Hospital,  2  national  banks  with  combin('<l 
capital  of  $200,000,  2  State  banks  with  capital  of  $00,000,  :i 
libraries  (Public,  Franciscan  Mission,  and  Natural  IIi^tor>), 
and  2  daily  and  8  weekly  newspapers.  The  Spanish  Mis^siini, 
founded  by  Junii)ero  Serra  in  1786,  is  within  a  mile  of  the 
city ;  it  includes  a  church  with  two  towers,  a  refectory,  a 
dormitory,  and  a  garden,  and  is  still  in  charge  of  Franciscan 
monks.  Other  points  of  interest  are  the  springs  containing: 
sulphur,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  iron,  alumina,  and  pota^li ; 
the  Parra  Grande,  or  great  erapevine,  which  annually  yiehJ*; 
about  8,000  lb.  of  fruit,  at  Montecito,  4  miles  distant';  ami 
numerous  avenues  of  magnolias,  bananas,  and  dat<:-j>alm5, 
fields  of  pampas  grass,  groves  of  walnut,  orange,  prune,  olive 
and  loquat  trees,  and  interesting  Chinese  vegetable  ^rdens. 
The  city  is  in  an  agricultural  and  stock-raising  region,  anil 
has  large  wool,  olive  oil,  asphaltum.  petroleum  oil,  and  fruit- 
growing interests.  It  has  received  the  popular  name  of  the 
American  Men  tone.  The  harbor  was  first  visited  by  St^lias- 
tian  Vizcaino  in  1603.  The  presidio  established  by  Gov. 
Felipe  Neve  in  1782  was  maintained  till  the  arrival  of  Gt:n. 
Fremont.    Pop.  (1880)  3,460;  (1890)  5,864. 

G.  K  Thurhoxp. 

Santa  Catharl'na :  an  island  of  the  state  of  Santa  Cat  ha- 
rina.  It  is  34  miles  long  by  3  to  5  miles  wide,  and  is  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  a  channel  which  forms  an  excellont 
harbor.  The  surface  is  partly  hilly.  On  the  western  side  i'? 
the  capital  of  the  state,  sometimes  called  Santa  Catharina, 
but  properly  Desterro  (q,  v.).  H.  H.  S. 

Santa  Catharina:  a  maritime  state  of  Brazil,  boundeii 
by  Parani,  the  Atlantic,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  and  the  Arp  n- 
tine  Republic.  Area,  28,627  sq.  miles,  A  low  coast  bell  lie< 
between  the  ocean  and  the  Coast  Range,  which  here  ri.se<  to 
5,000  or  in  parts  to  6,500  feet.  This  range  is  succee<led  hy 
an  irregular  plateau  which  falls  gradually  westward.  Tlie 
coast  l^lt  and  mountains  are  covered  with  forest,  araucarin 
predominating  above  3,000  feet.  The  plateau  is  occupied  in 
part  by  open  grass-lands,  in  part,  especially  toward  the  W..  by 
tracts  of  forest.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Pelotas  or  upj^r 
Uruguay,  on  the  soutncm  boundary ;  the  Iguassii,  a  bran<  h 
of  the  Parand,  on  the  northern  boundary;  and  the  Itajah}. 
flowing  to  the  Atlantic.  The  climate  is  essentially  tro[>ic^Ll 
on  the  coast,  temperate  on  the  plateau.  Santa  Catharina, 
though  it  has  a  fertile  soil  and  otner  natural  advantages,  hn^ 
developed  very  slowly.  Agriculture  and  grazing  are  almost 
the  only  occupations.  There  are  considerable  agricultural 
colonies  of  German  and  Italian  immigrants.  A  little  cN>al 
is  mined.    Pop.  (1888)  estimated,  236,346.  H.  U.  S. 

Santa  Clara :  town  (founded  in  1852,  received  new  chart  or 
in  1867);  SanU  Clara  co.,  Cal.;  on  the  S.  Pac.  Railroad:  3 
miles  W.  by  X.  of  San  Jos4,  and  48  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  San  Fran- 
cisco (for  location,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  8-C).  It  is  in 
the  center  of  the  beautiful  and  rich  agricultural  valley  fmni 
which  the  town  takes  its  name,  and  contains  a  Stat^^  bauk 
with  capital  of  $125,000,  a  public  high  school,  Santa  Clara 
College  (Roman  Catholic,  opened  in  1851),  Academy  of  Our 
Lady  of  Angels  (Roman  Catholic),  convent  school,  a  library, 
and  two  newspapers.  The  University  of  the  Pacific  (Metln'*- 
dist  Episcopal,  opened  in  1852)  is  about  midway  betwt'on 
Santa  Clara  and  San  Jose.  Pop.  (1880)  2,416 ;  (1800)  2,J!tJn  ; 
(1895)  estimated,  3,000.  Editor  op  •*  Journal." 

Santa  Cruz,  or  St.  Croix ;  an  island  of  the  Danish  vr»^st 

Indies;  in  the  Virgin  islands  group;  37  miles  8.  of  St. 
Thomas.  Area,  83  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  hilly,  with  c^ni- 
siderable  plains  near  the  coast;  the  soil  is  fertile  and  wtil 
watered.  Sugar  and  rum  (known  as  Santa  Cruz  nun)  an^ 
the  principal  products  and  exports.  The  common  langua^re 
is  English.  Santa  Cruz  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  141«;i 
was  occupied  in  turn  by  Spanish,  English,  and  French  a<l- 
venturers,  and  was  sold  by  the  French  to  a  Danish  ct.m- 
pany  in  1733.    Chief  town,  Cheistiansted  (q.  r.).    II.  II.  S. 

Santa  Cmz :  a  territory  of  the  Argentine  Republic ;  oc- 
cupying the  southern  part  of  Patagonia  S.  of  lat.  46^  S.,  and 
bounded  S.  and  W.  by  Chili.  Area,  111,000  sq.  miles.  Th.» 
greater  part  is  a  terraced  plateau,  which,  especially  near  iho 
Andes,  contains  good  pasture-land.  Some  of  this  has  lxi*n 
taken  up  by  sheejvfarmers,  but  the  civilized  population  dit< 
not  exceed  2 ,000.  There  are  a  few  roving  Indians,  who  s«'ll 
guanaco-skins  to  the  traders.  Capital,  Gallegos.  The  Sunt* 
Cruz  river,  from  which  the  territory  takes  its  name,  has  n< 
sources  in  several  beautiful  lakes  on  the  western  slope  of  tlu» 
Andes ;  it  is  navigable  for  small  craft,  and  its  estuarv  form^ 
the  port  of  Santa  Cruz.  II.  ll.  S. 


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306 


SANTA  Ffi  DB  BOGOTA 


SANTANDER 


The  cathedral  of  San  Francisco,  of  light  brownstone,  is 
built  around  a  former  cathedral  whose  history  dates  back 
to  1622.  The  educational  institutions  comprise  3  public 
schools,  the  University  of  New  Mexico  (Congregational, 
opened  1880),  St.  Michael's  College  (Roman  Catholic,  opened 
1859),  the  Presbyterian  Academy  (opened  1881),  Academy 
of  Our  Lady  of  tight  (Roman  CathoRc),  Whitin  Hall  School 
(Congregational),  tne  Ramona  Industrial  Schopl  for  Indian 
fidrls  (memorial  to  Helen  Hunt  Jackson),  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  school  for  Indian  toys. 

History. — As  far  back  as  1541  the  place  existed  as  an  Ind- 
ian pueblo  or  town,  with  a  population  estimated  at  upward 
of  15,000.  About  1605  it  was  occupied  by  the  Soaniards, 
who  gradually  reduced  the  Indians  lo  slavery  ana  opened 
and  worked  the  rich  mines  of  gold  and  silver.  In  1680  the 
Indians  revolted,  expelled  the  Spaniards,  closed  up  and  ob- 
literated all  traces  of  the  mines,  and  burned  all  the  Spanish 
archives  and  church  ornaments.  The  Spaniards  under 
Vargas  recaptured  the  pueblo  in  1692,  and  tne  territory  was 
held  by  Spam  till  1821,  when  Mexico  declared  and  perfected 
its  independence.  In  1846  U.  S.  troops  under  Gen.  S.  W. 
Kearny  took  possession  of  the  city;  in  1848  the  territory 
was  ceded  to  the  U.  S. ;  and  in  1851  Congress  created  the 
Territory  of  New  Mexico,  with  Santa  Fe  as  its  capital. 
Pop.  (1880)  6,635 ;  (1890)  6,185.  G.  J.  Haqab. 

Santa  F6  de  Bogota :  See  BoootX. 

Santala^cesB :  See  Sandalworts. 

Sant-Aldegonde :  See  Maknix,  Phiupp,  van. 

Santal-wood,  Sanders,  or  Sannders:  the  heart-wood 
of  a  tree,  PteroearpiM  aantcUinuB,  found  in  the  East  Indies, 
Ceylon,  and  Madagascar,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Coromandel 
and  Malabar.  It  occurs  in  large  billets,  compact,  hard,  and 
of  a  dull  murky  red.  Its  coloring-matter  is  supposed  to  be 
similar  to,  if  not  identical  with,  that  of  barwood.  It  is  only 
developed  b^  age,  and,  while  it  is  abundant  in  the  trunks, 
is  not  found  in  the  young  branches.  Weidel  isolated  two  pe- 
culiar bodies  from  santal-wood :  (1)  Santal  (2C8H«Os3HtO), 
colorless  crystals,  tasteless,  odorless,  insoluble  in  water,  bi- 
sulphide of  carbon,  benzene,  and  chloroform,  and  slightly 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  Its  alkaline  solution  is  jellow, 
but  becomes  rapidly  red  in  the  air,  and  gives  red  precipitates 
with  lime  and  baryta.  Its  alcoholic  solution  assumes  a  dark 
red  with  ferric  chloride.  He  obtained  3  parts  from  1,000  of 
wood.  (2)  SantcUine  (Ci»Hi40»),  which  is  a  magnificent  scar- 
let, with  a  green  metaUic  iridescence,  is  insoluble  in  water, 
slightly  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  and  imparts  a  reddish 
purple  to  alkaline  solutions.  Santal-wood  is  used  chiefly  on 
the  Continent  to  give  a  bottom  to  woolen  cloth  to  be  subse- 
uuently  dyed  with  indigo,  yielding  by  this  combination  a 
nne  blue  {bleu  de  Nemours),  which  is  purple  blue  by  reflect- 
ed light.  It  also  imparts  a  dark  red  to  woolen  and  cotton 
goo(£,  which  assumes  a  rich  brown  on  pMussing  throush  a  bath 
of  bichromate  of  potash ;  with  sumac  it  fl;ives  a  dark  brown, 
with  fustic  a  light  brown.  Revised  by  Iba  Remsen. 

Santa  Maria :  a  name  for  Puerto  de  Santa  Maria  {q,  v,), 

Santa  Maria :  town  (settled  in  1874) ;  Santa  Barbara  co., 
Cal. ;  on  the  Santa  Maria  river,  and  the  Paciflc  Coast  Rail- 
way ;  13  miles  from  the  ocean,  31  miles  S.  of  San  Luis  Obis- 
po (for  location,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  10-D).  It  is  in 
an  agricultural,  fruit-growing,  and  stock-raising  region,  and 
contains  4  churches,  3  public-school  buildings  (hiA  school 
cost  $15,000),  4  hotels.  State  bank  with  capital  of  |25,000, 
and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  800;  (1890)  900; 
(1895)  estimated,  1,500.    Editor  op  "  Santa  Maria  Times." 

Santa  Maria,  Domingo :  statesman;  b.at  Santiago,  Chili, 
Aug.  4,  1825.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  ^ntiago ; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1847 ;  held  minor  Government 
offices,  and  early  became  known  as  a  pronoimced  liberal. 
Being  involved  in  the  insurrection  of  1851-52,  he  was  ban- 
ished for  a  year  to  Peru ;  was  elected  to  congress  on  his  re- 
turn, and  became  widely  known  for  his  brSliant  oratory ; 
and  during  the  political  struggles  of  1858-59  was  ae:ain  ban- 
ished, traveling  in  Europe.  President  Perez  recalled  him, 
and  made  him  Minister  of  Finance  1863-64.  During  the  war 
with  Spain  he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Peru.  In 
1868  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court.  He 
supported  the  administration  of  President  Pinto,  was  his 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  of  the  Interior,  and  finally 
Minister  of  War  during  the  second  year  of  the  contest  with 
Bolivia  and  Peru.  His  vigorous  measures  won  him  great 
popularity,  and  he  was  elected  to  succeed  Pinto  Sept.  18, 
1881-Sept.  18, 1886.    The  war  was  brought  to  a  successful 


end  in  1888,  and  in  the  same  year  the  Araucanian  Indiana 
were  finally  subdued.  Subsequently  he  was  president  of  the 
senate.    D.  at  Santiago,  1890.  H.  H.  8. 

Santa  Maria  di  Capaa:  See  Capua. 

Santa  Marta :  capital  and  port  of  the  department  of  Mag* 
dalena,  Colombia ;  on  a  bay  of  the  northern  coast ;  40  m\\l< 
E.  N.  £.  of  the  mouths  of  the  Magdalena  (see  map  of  Sooth 
America,  ref.  1-B).  It  was  founded  by  Rodrigo  ae  Bastia^'v 
in  1525,  as  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  naui^. 
which  corresponded  in  part  to  the  modem  departmebt. 
During  the  colonial  period  it  was  very  important  as  a  port. 
and  center  of  conquest ;  Quesada,  marching  from  this  plac-f . 
conquered  the  plateau  of  loogoti.  The  town  was  repeaUnli} 
attacked  by  Indians,  and  taken  and  sacked  by  English  aitii 
French  corsairs ;  the  ruins  of  the  Spanish  forts  erects!  fr 
its  defense  may  still  be  seen.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the  \>>A 
on  the  coast ;  a  short  railway  runs  to  Ciepega,  and  (1895/  '^ 
projected  to  Cerro  de  San  Antonio  on  the  Ma^alena.  Santa 
Marta  is  an  episcopal  see,  and  has  a  cathedral,  seminarr, 
hospit-al,  etc.   Top.  about  6,0(X).  Herbert  H.  Smitil  ' 

Santa  Marta,  Sieri'a  Nerada  de :  an  isolated  group  <  f 
mountains  in  Northern  Colombia  (department  of  Magtla- 
lena),  near  the  coast,  and  immediately  S.  E.  of  the  town  "f 
Santa  Marta.  Brettes  and  Nufiez,  who  first  scaled  the  high- 
est peak  in  1891,  found  it  to  be  17,018  feet  above  isea-levfi : 
other  estimates  make  it  higher.  From  the  sea  the  snow- 
crowned  summits  present  a  magnificent  sight.  The  gT<.>uf> 
is  completely  separated  from  the  Andean  system,  and  has  a 
different  geological  structure.  H.  H.  S. 

Santa  Maura,  saan't^mow'raa^  or  LencaMIa:  one  vf 
the  Ionian  islands ;  formerly  a  peninsula,  but  since  the  ^^v- 
enth  century  b.  c.  separated  from  Western  Greece  by  ti 
strait  about  a  mile  wide.  Area,  180  so.  miles.  Pop.  2r)/MNi. 
Its  history  has  been  mainly  that  of  tne  other  Ionian  El- 
ands (q,  v.).  Hills  traverse  it  from  north  to  south,  tt- rn.i* 
nating  in  white  cliffs,  whence  its  ancient  name  Leueas  air. 
XcvK^f,  white).  One  of  these  cliffs  served  as  a  place  of  i'\^ 
cution  of  criminals.  This  is  still  called  Rock  of  Sapiilu  ^ 
Leap,  from  the  tradition  that  the  poetess  and  other  un- 
happy lovers  cast  themselves  hence  into  the  sea.    E.  A.  G. 

Santa  Mon^ica :  city ;  Los  Angeles  co.,  Cal. ;  on  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  and  the  S.  Cal.  and  S.  Pac.  railways ;  17  mil'*? 
W.  of  Los  Angeles,  the  county-seat  (for  location,  see  map  •  f 
California,  ref.  12-F).  It  is  a  popular  summer  resort,  i>  w,- 
ga^d  in  ostrich-farming,  lumoering,  and  milling,  and  n^n- 
tains  one  of  the  longest  ocean  wharves  in  the  world  (exteixl- 
ing  4,700  feet  into  Santa  Monica  Bay),  7  churches,  graAi^-^i 
grammar  and  high  school,  public  library,  water-works,  vKk- 
tric  lights,  2  State  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $115.- 
000,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  The  Pacific  oranch  of  tl;e 
National  Home  for  Disabled  Volunteer  Soldiers  is  here.  P<  r. 
(1880)  417 ;  (1890)  1,580.  Editor  of  "  Outlook." 

Santa^na,  Pedro:  general  and  politician;  b.  at  Hiu<^ba, 
Santo  Domingo,  June  29,  1801.  He  was  a  lawyer  ar.i 
wealthy  landowner  until  1844,  when  he  headed  the'  revolu- 
tion by  which  the  eastern  part  of  the  island  became  ind*  - 
pendent  of  Haiti ;  was  president  of  the  Dominican  Rt^uU 
lie,  then  formed,  1844-48 ;  repulsed  the  invasion  of  Soulouij.f: 
1849 ;  deposed  Jimenes,  and  was  president  for  a  short  Ihiu  . 
was  president  by  reguhir  election  1858-57,  and  again  defea'- 
ed  Soulouque  in  1855  and  1856.  After  the  deposition  « *' 
Baez,  Nov.,  1858,  Santana  again  assumed  the  presidency,  hw. 
despairing  of  bringing  about  order,  he  ceded  the  republic  t 
Spain  in  Mar.,  1861.  He  was  appointed  lieutenant-gentTA 
in  the  Spanish  army,  and  quelled  an  insurrection  in  Az*.  i 
D.  at  Sapto  Domingo,  June  14, 1864.  H.  H.  S. 

Santander^ :  capital  of  the  province  of  Santander,  Spam . 
on  a  promontory  in  an  inlet  of  the  Bar  of  Biscay,  whoiv  a 
spacious  and  perfectly  safe  harbor  is  formed  by  two  »•■:•- 
and  provided  with  convenient  quavs  and  docks  (see  raa|)  • . 
Spain,  ref.  12-F).  The  surrounaing  hills  are  beaut  if u 
covered  with  vineyards  and  forests,  and  rich  in  miiuTa 
springs  and  iron  and  copper  ores.  The  rivers  and  thr  ^.> 
teem  with  fine  fish.  There  are  several  good  manufaotc>nt  ^ 
Wheat  and  ores  are  the  principal  exports.   Pop.  (1887)  4 1  .<lv. 

Santander :  an  interior  department  of  Colombia,  on  *.W 
east  side  of  the  river  Magdalena;  surrounded  by  M»s:\l*- 
lena,  Venezuela,  Boyacd,  Antioouia,  and  Bolivar.  Area.  IH  - 
291  sq.  miles.  It  is  traversed  oy  the  Eastern  CordillorH  • 
the  Andes,  and  two-thirds  of  the  surface  b  eesent:!  ' 
mountainous.  Near  the  Magdalena  and  in  the  eastern  )vt;t 
there  are  extensive  plains.    The  river  Sogamoso  divides  tLe 


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308 


SANTI 


SANTLBY 


1792),  and  the  in9uiT6ction  of  Aug,  10.  He  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  national  guard  of  Paris,  with  the 
rank  of  general  of  division,  and  governor  of  the  Temple 
during  the  imprisonment  of  the  king,  whom  he  escorted  to 
the  scaffold,  in  the  summer  of  1793  he  was  made  a  general 
of  division  and  sent  to  the  Vendue  at  the  head  of  an  army 
of  20,000  men,  but  was  beaten  at  Coron  Sept.  18,  1793 ;  re- 
called and  arrested  as  an  Orleanist,  he  did  not  regain  his  lib- 
erty till  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  After  this  he  with- 
drew into  private  life.  D.  Feb.  6, 1809.  See  Carro,  San- 
ierret  sa  vie  politique  et  privSe  (Parb,  1847). 

Santi,  saan'te'e,  Giovanni:  painter;  father  of  Raphael 
Sanzio ;  b.  at  Castello  di  Colbordolo,  in  the  duchy  of  Ur- 
bino,  Italy,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  His 
master  in  painting  is  unknown,  but  he  seems  to  have  formed 
his  style  from  that  of  Melozzo  da  Forli  and  other  great 
painters  of  his  time.  Giovanni  Santi's  best-known  work  is 
the  fresco  in  the  Dominican  church  at  Ca^li  (1482).  There 
is  a  Visitation  at  Fano,  and  a  Madonna  unth  Saints  in  Sta. 
Croce  there.  A  St,  Jerome  in  San  Bartolo  at  Pesaro ;  an 
Unthroned  Madonna  with  Four  Attendant  Saints,  at  the 
Pieve  of  Gradara ;  a  St.  Sebastian,  in  the  oratory  of  that 
saint  at  Urbino,  b&sides  a  votive  picture  of  the  Buffi  family 
in  the  Franciscan  church  there,  and  a  fresco  of  a  Madonna 
and  Child  in  Raphael's  house  in  Urbino  are  recognized  as 
Santi's  work.  Tne  Brera  at  Milan  and  the  National  Gal- 
lery in  London  possess  examples  of  his  art.  He  was  also  a 
poet ;  a  MS.  in  the  Vatican  Library  {Codex  Ollobonianus, 
1805),  consisting  of  844  folio  leaves  in  terza  rima  exists,  cele- 
brating the  virtues  of  Duke  Federigo  di  Monte  Fettro,  and 
is  interesting,  as  it  contains  allusions  to  the  artists  of  the 
time  and  Giovanni  Santi's  sentiments  and  opinions  on  art 
D.  in  1494.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Santiago,  or  Santiago  de  Chile,  sa&n-tee-aa'gd-da-chee- 
\d :  capital  and  largest  city  of  Chili ;  on  a  plain  by  the  little 
river  Mapocho ;  68  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Valparaiso,  its  port 
(116  miles  by  rail) ;  1,755  feet  above  sea-level  (see  map  of 
South  America,  ref .  8-C).  It  is  the  most  populous  city  on 
the  Pacific  slope  of  America  except  San  Francisco ;  is  the 
center  of  Chilian  wealth,  fashion,  and  culture,  and  exhibits 
more  luxury  and  taste  in  building  than  anv  other  capital  of 
South  America.  The  situation,  on  the  plateau  called  the 
valley  of  Chili,  is  very  fine.  The  plain,  naturalljr  dry,  has 
been  improved  by  an  elaborate  system  of  irrigation  which 
keeps  the  city  gardens  and  parks  alwavs  green.  The  snow- 
capped Andes,  mcluding  the  giant  of  the  range,  Aconcagua, 
are  in  plain  view  on  the  E.,  contrasting  with  the  barren  rocks 
of  the  Coast  Range  on  the  W.  A  single  rocky  hill,  Santa 
Lucia,  rises  within  the  city  limits,  and  has  been  transformed 
by  private  munificence  into  a  beautiful  park  and  pleasure- 
ground.  The  Alameda,  a  very  wide  street,  crosses  the  city 
and  is  its  main  artery;  it  is  ornamented  by  four  rows  of 
trees,  with  a  central  promenade  and  two  driveways,  and  is 
set  at  intervals  with  statues,  some  of  them  spoils  of  the  Peru- 
vian war.  Many  of  the  finest  public  and  private  buildings 
and  retail  stores  are  on  this  street.  The  cathedral,  municipal 
buildings,  etc.,  face  the  old  Plaza  de  Armas,  now  the  Plaza 
de  la  Independencia.  Among  other  public  edifices  may  be 
mentioned  the  Hall  of  Congress,  fronting  a  fine  square,  the 
mint,  the  opera-house,  said  to  be  the  finest  in  America,  and 
the  Exposition  Hall.  Nearly  all  the  better  class  of  buildings 
are  of  stone,  and  many  show  great  architectural  taste.  The 
residences  are  genei-ally  of  two  or  at  most  three  stories,  and 
set  in  extensive  grounds  ornamented  with  orange-trees,  etc. ; 
for  this  reason  the  city  occupies  a  very  large  area  in  pro- 
portion to  its  population.  Dwellings  are  furnished  with  taste, 
often  with  great  luxury.  There  are  several  public  parks, 
and  a  well-stocked  botanical  garden.  As  a  center  of  learn- 
ing Santiago  has  a  renowned  university  and  various  other 
institutions  of  higher  education;  a  national  library  with 
70,000  volumes  and  40,000  manuscripts ;  a  museum,  acad- 
emy of  fine  arts,  observatory,  etc.  It  is  connected  by  rail- 
way with  the  northern  and  southern  provinces,  and  with  the 
coast.  Commercially  it  yields  in  importance  to  Valparaiso. 
Santiago  was  founded  by  Valdivia,  the  conqueror  of  (Jhili,  in 
Feb.,  1541.  Earthquakes  are  frequent,  but  have  never  been 
very  destructive.  The  climate  is  changeable,  ranging  from 
23-9'  to  9ir  F.  Pop.  (1885)  189,332;  in  1894  probably 
225,000.  The  province  of  Santiago,  of  which  the  city  is  also 
the  capital,  has  an  area  of  5,223  sq.  miles,  and  a  population 
of  about  425,000.  Herbert  if.  Smith. 

Santiago  de  Compostela,  -da-kom-pds-ta'la& :  city ;  in  the 
province  of  Corunna,  Spain ;  at  the  confluence  of  the  Sar  and 


the  Sarela ;  83  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Comnna  (see  map  of  Spain. 
ref.  12-B).  It  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  a  nmu- 
nificent  cathedral,  a  university,  and  several  educational  &'.>: 
religious  establishments,  from  which  it  chiefly  tlerivts  (•.- 
importance.  The  cathedral  is  said  to  contain  the  b(>iie<  •: 
the  patron  of  Spain,  the  apostle  James.  It  was  built  in  tL  • 
eleventh  century  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  270  feet  long  uf.i 
204  feet  broad,  and  contains  six  naves  formed  by  beaut ilu 
Gothic  pillars.  Before  the  Reformation  this  church  wa^  hr.- 
nually  visited  by  great  crowds  of  pilgrims,  but  the  nuniit*  .- 
of  visitors  has  since  decreased  and  the  city  decayed.  Tht-r 
are  manufactures  of  linen,  silk,  leather,  and  paper,  and  ti> 
vicinity  is  rich  in  cereals,  vegetables,  fruit,  and  wine.  Pep. 
(1887)  24,302. 

Santiago  de  Compostela :  the  name  given  to  James  {q.  v.i 
the  son  of  Zebedee,  as  the  patron  saint  of  Spain. 

Santiago  de  Cnba,  -dft-koo'baa,  or  simply  Cuba  (in  ol! 
books  often  called  St,  Jago  de  Cuba) :  city  and  port  of  Culni; 
on  a  bay  of  the  south  coast,  near  the  eastern  extremity  o! 
the  island  (see  map  of  West  Indies,  ref.  5-E).  The  harbor  i^ 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  West  Indies,  but  it  is  separated  f  n>m 
the  interior  by  rugged  mountains  which  retard  comrouDirji- 
tion ;  hence  the  port  is  only  the  third  in  Cuba  in  important^. 
The  city,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  mountains,  is  very 
picturesque,  but  hot  and  subject  to  epidemics  of  yell'V 
fever.  The  houses  are  generally  low,  but  well  built :  ther^ 
are  few  public  ediflces  of  note. '  The  town  has  several  ljr:i 
squares  and  public  gardens.  Short  railways  ran  to  the  in- 
terior. Santiago  is  the  center  of  the  Cuban  copper  re^i.  n. 
The  principal  exports  are  su^r,  rum,  coffee,  cacao,  fruit \ 
and  copper  ore.  Pop.  (1891),  with  the  district,  71,307 ;  of  tit* 
city  proper,  about  40,000.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Santiago  del  EBtero,  -dfil-as-tfi'ro :  an  interior  proviru^f 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  Argentine  Republic;  surrouD'.-: 
by  Santa  F6,  Cordoba,  Catamarca,  Tucum&n,  Salta,  ami  t^  r 
territory  of  £1  Chaco.  Area,  31,500  shj.  miles.  It  is  a  plair 
the  greater  part  included  in  the  region  of  mingled  f(>r«>'.> 
and  open  lands  called  the  Gran  Chaco;  in  the  iM^uth'-:. 
part  there  are  true  open  pampas.  The  principal  ri%ei>  ^-> 
the  Salado  and  Dulce,  neitner  of  wnich  is  navigal .- 
Nearly  all  the  civilized  population  is  gathered  in  the  n  n^  - 
S.  of  the  Salado,  about  18,000  s<).  miles  in  extent  Gra/;;.^ 
grain-planting,  and  timber-cutting  are  the  only  important ;'. 
dustries.  Pop.  (1890)  about  250,000  (including  wild  IndKHi* 
Santiago  del  Estero,  the  capital,  on  the  Dulce,  was  fouifir  i 
in  1552,  and  (disregarding  the  first  settlement  of  But  ;.<  ? 
Ayres)  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  republic.  It  is  much  deca\  "i. 
and  has  frequently  suffered  from  overflows  of  the  river. 
Pop.  8,000.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Santiago  de  los  Caballeroa,  -da-los-kaa-bakl-ya  r''^.  «r 
de  la  Yega:  town  of  the  Dominican  Republic,  We^t  In>;:>  ^j 
in  the  central  plain  called  the  Vega  Real;  85  miles  N.  N.  W. 
of  Santo  Domingo,  on  the  road  to  Puerto  Plata  (sfe  nj&p 
of  West  Indies,  ref.  &-H).  This  is  the  most  beautiful  ara 
fertile  part  of  the  island,  and  is  free  from  the  heat  and  fe\  vt^ 
of  the  coast.  The  town  is  the  most  populous  in  the  interiui 
of  the  republic,  and  has  a  thriving  trade,  especially  w  toi 
bacco.    Pop.  about  10,000.  H.  H.  S.  j 

Santillana,  saan-teel-yaa'niik,  Inioo  Lopez  de  MF.yr»«>u, 
Marquis  of:  soldier  and  poet;  b.  at  Carrion  de  los  (\>r  .vaj 
Spain,  Aug.  19, 1398;  son  of  the  grand  admiral  of  i'ft5t  ie 
was  created  Marquis  de  Santillana  by  Juan  II.  of  Ca^itile  foj 
his  services  in  wars  against  Aragon  and  the  Moors,  and  &I:4 
the  battle  of  Olmedo  against  the  King  of  Navarre  in  1 4| 
received  the  title  of  Conde  del  Real  de  Manzanares.  r;<| 
the  death  of  Juan  in  1454  Mendoza  retired  from  public  iij 
and  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His  best-known  '^crk  j 
Los  Proi^erbios,  or  Centiloguio  (1496),  a  collection  of  1<I 
proverbs  in  rhyme.  He  wrote  also  Didlogo  de  Bitis  r'-..« 
jPoWttna (1448);  Doctrinalde  /Vti>ado«(1453);  the  Cofni^.i,,^ 
de  Ponza  (a  dramatic  poem) ;  and  serranillas,  D.  at  Giiati 
lajara.  Mar.  25, 1458.  His  works  have  been  edited  by  Aril 
dor  de  los  Rios  (Madrid,  1852). 

Santley,  Charles:  baritone  singer;  b.  in  Liverpool,  Fr\| 
land,  Feb.  28, 1834 ;  studied  at  Milan  under  Oaetana  Na\  a  aI 
under  Garcia  on  returning  to  England.  He  san|r  the  it 
of  Adam  in  Haydn*8  oratorio  The  Creation^  at  St.  Mart:i 
Hall  in  London,  Nov.  16, 1857.  In  1859  he  appeareil  in  'I 
opera  of  Dinorah  with  the  Pyne  and  Harrison  Company  { 
Covent  Garden  theater;  and  in  1862  made  his  dp'but  j 
Italian  opera.  He  made  a  tour  in  the  U.  S.  in  1871.  I 
London  he  sang  in  Zampa  and  The  Waterman^  with  tj 


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310 


SANZIO 


SiO  PAULO 


epidemics  of  yellow  fever,  Santos  is  the  most  unhealthfol  port 
in  Brazil.  It  is  the  outlet  of  the  greater  part  of  Sfio  Paulo, 
and  exports  more  coffee  than  any  other  port  in  Brazil  except 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  Great  numbers  of  immigrants  pass  through 
it.  Santos  was  founded  in  1539.  Pop.  about  20,000.  Six  miles 
S.  of  it  is  the  small  town  of  Sfio  Vicente,  the  oldest  permanent 
settlement  in  Brazil  (founded  1532),  and  until  1681  camtal  of 
the  captaincy  of  the  same  name.  H.  H.  S. 

Sanzio,  Raphael  :  See  Raphael. 

S&o  (sown)  Carlos :  See  Campinas. 

S&o  Francisco  Blrer :  a  river  of  Brazil,  rising  in  Minas 
Geraes  near  hit.  20'  30'  S.,  flowing  N.,  then  X.  N.  E.,  and 
finally  curving  to  E.  S.  E.,  and  entering  the  Atlantic  in  lat. 
lO"*  29'  S.  Length  about  1,800  miles.  It  traverses  the  states 
of  Minas  Geraes  and  Bahia,  and  below  its  great  bend  separates 
Bahia  and  Sergipe  on  the  S.  from  Pemambuoo  and  Alagoas 
on  the  N.  Among  the  great  rivers  of  South  America,  the 
Sfio  Francisco  ranks  in  length  with  the  Orinoco;  but,  unlike 
the  Orinoco,  Amazon,  and  raraguay,  it  is  essentially  a  high- 
land river,  the  greater  part  of  its  course  being  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  Brazilian  plateau ;  and  it  is  nowhere  bordered 
b^  extensive  forests.  Its  most  remarkable  feature  is  its  di- 
vision into  an  upper  and  a  lower  course  by  a  series  of  rapids 
and  a  great  cataract.  These  mark  its  descent  from  the  pla- 
teau, after  it  has  attained  its  full  volume,  only  200  ifiiles 
from  the  sea.  The  cataract  of  Paulo  Affonso  is  sometimes 
called  the  Niagara  of  Brazil,  and  it  approaches  Niagara  in 
grandeur  though  differing  greatly  in  appearance.  The  great 
river  is  here  forced  through  a  narrow  gorge — ^in  one  place 
only  51  feet  wide — and  after  rushing  oown  a  slope,  forms 
three  successive  falls,  with  a  total  depth  of  265  feet.  The 
torrent  is  churned  into  a  mass  of  foam,  producing  an  effect 
of  indescribable  grandeur.  Above  this  fall  there  are  several 
rapids,  and  below  it  an  unnavigable  space  where  the  river 
forms  a  deep  cafion ;  the  total  obstructed  portiop  is  about 
190  miles  long.  Below  it  the  river  is  freely  navigable  from 
Piranhas  to  the  sea,  148  miles ;  at  Penedo,  30  miles  above  the 
mouth,  it  is  nearly  a  mile  wide.  The  bar,  at  high  water,  ad- 
mits vessels  of  15  feet  draught.  Above  the  falls  there  is  a 
navigable  space  from  Pirapora  to  Sobradinho,  984  miles.  Of 
the  numerous  affluents  the  most  important  are  the  Parau- 
peba  and  Rio  das  Velhas  on  the  right  and  the  Paracatii, 
Urucuya,  Carinhanha,  Corrente,  Rio  Grande,  and  Rio  Preto 
on  the  left.  All  of  these  are  navigable  for  greater  or  less 
distances.  The  Sfio  Francisco  was  opened  to  free  navigation 
in  1867,  but  no  foreign  commerce  has  been  attracted  to 
it.  Brazilian  steamers  ply  regularly  on  the  upper  course, 
which  is  connected  with  Bahia  by  railway ;  the  Kio  das  Vel- 
has is  also  navigated.  The  principal  industry  of  the  basin 
is  cattle-raising,  but  it  contains  much  agricultural  and  min- 
ing land.  See  Burton,  Exploration  of  the  Highlands  of 
Brazil  (1869) ;  Halfeld,  Relatorio  concemente  d  ezploragdo 
do  Rio  de  S.  Francisco  (1858)  and  Atlas  e  Relatorto  (1860) ; 
Roberts,  Relatorio  aohre  o  ex^me  do  Rio  S.  Francisco  (1880)  ; 
Wells,  Three  Thousand  Miles  through  Brazil  (1886). 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

8fto  €k>n^alo.  Bio :  See  Lagoa  dos  Patos. 

Sfto  Jo&o  (-zho-own')  da  Barra,  or  da  Parahyba,  -daa- 
p&-raa-ee'bi&  (formerly  Parahyba  do  Sul) :  city  and  port  of 
the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Parahyba  river,  near  its  mouth.  Formerly  it  was  the  com- 
mercial center  of  the  lower  Parahyba  valley,  but  its  impor- 
tance has  decreased  since  Campos  has  been  united  to  the 
Bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  by  a  railway.  It  is  a  port  of  call  for 
coasting  steamers,  and  exports  sugar.  The  oar  is  passable 
only  during  spring  tides ;  at  other  times  vessels  anchor  in 
the  roadstead.  Sfio  Jofio  has  an  important  sugar-factory. 
Pop.  about  7,000.  H.  H.  S. 

Sfto  Jo&o  d'El  Bel,  -del-rfi'ee :  a  town  of  the  state  of  Minas 
Geraes,  Brazil ;  66  miles  S.  W.  of  Ouro  Preto  (see  map  of 
South  America,  ref.  6-G) ;  is  connected  with  SabarA  and  Rio 
de  Janeiro  by  railway,  and  is  the  commercial  center  of  a  large 
district.  It  was  founded  about  1670,  and  was  long  famous 
for  its  gold  and  diamond  mines.  Cattle  and  hogs  are  raised 
in  the  vicinity,  and  hides,  lard,  and  the  favorite  Minas 
cheeses  are  exported.    Pop.  about  10,000.  H.  H.  S. 

S&O  LeopoFdo :  a  town  of  the  state  of  Rio  Grande  do 
Sul,  Brazil ;  on  the  Rio  dos  Sinos,  a  branch  of  the  Guahyba 
or  lower  Jacuhy ;  20  miles  N.  of  Porto  Alegre  (see  map  of 
South  America,  ref.  7-P).  The  first  German  colony  in  Bra- 
zil was  established  here  in  1824,  and  the  town  is  the  center 
of  a  thriving  agricultural  region  almost  entirely  peopled  by 


Germans  or  their  descendants ;  it  has  railway  and  steam- 
boat communication  with  Porto  Alegre.  German  is  the 
common  language.    Pop.  about  7,000.  H.  H.  S. 

S&o  Luiz :  See  MabakhIo  (the  city). 

S&o  Mlgael :  See  St.  Michaels. 

Sadne,  s5n :  a  river  of  France  which  rises  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Vosges,  at  an  elevation  of  1,299  feet  above  the  le\el 
of  the  sea ;  flows  S.  and  joins  the  Rh6ne  at  Lyons.  Itis  en- 
tire length  is  282  miles;  it  is  navigable  for  a  mstance  of  17<> 
miles  l^low  the  citv  of  Gray,  department  of  Haute-Saone. 
It  is  joined  by  the  Doubs  on  the  left  side. 

SaOne-et-Loire,  -a-lw&r :  department  of  France ;  between 
the  rivers  Sa6ne  and  Loire,  and  mostly  occupied  bv  U> 
mountains  of  Cote-d'Or.  The  mountains  are  low,  an<{  ri« ;. 
in  coal  and  iron,  and  on  their  slopes  is  produced  the  ct  )»- 
brated  M&con  wine.  On  the  pastures  along  the  rivers  \^t\z*- 
herds  of  cattle  and  horses  are  reared.  Iron  platvs  ai*: 
rails,  machinery,  etc.,  are  manufactured  in  Creusot  ana 
other  towns.    Area,  8,302  sq.  miles.    Pop.  (1891)  619,523. 

Sadne,  Haate :  See  Hautb-Sa6ne. 

S&o  Paulo,  sown-pow'ld  :  a  southeastern  maritime  staT'^ 
of  Brazil ;  bounded  by  Minas  Geraes  on  the  N.  and  Y. . 
Rio  de  Janeiro  on  the  E.,  the  Atlantic  on  the  S.  E..  P:t- 
ran&  on  the  S.,  and  Matto  Grosso  on  the  W.  and  N.  \^'. 
Estimated  area,  112,330  so.  miles,  but  the  boundary  virh 
Minas  Geraes  is  unsettlea.  The  Brazilian  Coast  I^til'. 
here  divided  by  the  Parahyba  valley  into  two  pamll^l 
chains,  traverses  the  southeastern  part,  and  is  separat^^i 
from  the  ocean  by  a  narrow  strip  of  lowland.  ^bjl-V  *.i 
the  mountains  the  surface  is  an  irregular  plateau,  varied  bv 
hiUs  and  by  the  deep  valleys  of  rivers  which  flow  westwAn: 
to  the  Paran4.  Tne  coast-strip  mountains  and  a  wid' 
tract  back  of  them  were  originally  covered  with  forest.  hiuI 
this  is  the  most  fertile  and  thickly  settled  portion  of  th> 
state.  Bordering  the  Parang  and  its  branches  there  nr^ 
other  extensive  forests  inhabited  only  by  a  few  mvin:: 
Indians.  The  river  Paran&  forms  the  western  l)oun().ir\. 
and  its  branch,  the  Paranapan6ma,  separates  S2o  PatJ<< 
from  Parang.  The  Pardo,  Tiete,  and  Aguapehy  are  iru- 
portant  branches  of  the  Parand,  obstructed  by  falls  nt  ar 
their  mouths,  but  partly  navigable  in  their  upper  cour^-^. 
On  the  Atlantic  side  the  only  important  river  is  the  Parn- 
hvba.  The  principal  harbors  are  the  Bay  of  Santos  ami  th- 
channel  formed  by  the  island  of  SSo  Sebastiflo.  The  cii- 
mate  of  the  plateau  is  mild  and  salubrious;  some  c-t)a^* 
towns,  as  Santos,  are  hot  and  unhealthful.  A  little  ^tUi  i« 
washed  in  the  river-beds,  and  there  are  deposits  of  excel If^n: 
iron,  marble,  etc.  The  forests  are  rich  in  cabinet  w«h.!- 
SSo  Paulo  is  the  most  populous  and  thriving  of  the  Bra- 
zilian states  and  the  most  important  coffee-pnxlucing  roizi>  >;. 
of  the  world ;  the  coffee  zone  includes  the  Parahyba  Aali*^ 
and  the  forest  strip  back  of  the  mountains;  sugar-cane  - 
extensively  plantea,  especially  in  the  coast  belt ;  ami  on  thr 
plateau  the  grazing  industry  is  important.  The  pin»{... . 
called  Paulistas,  have  always  been  noted  for  their  ent^r- 
prisin^  spirit.  During  the  colonial  period  they  disooven  1 
the  mines  of  Minas,  Goyaz,  and  Matto  Grosso,' settling  u.. 
those  regions  and  the  southern  province;  and  their  sla\»- 
hunters  were  long  a  terror  to  the  Indians  of  Para^cuay.  ( tf 
late  they  have  covered  a  large  part  of  the  state  with  nu.- 
ways,  encouraged  exploration  and  settlement  towani  tL. 
Parand,  and  developed  manufactures ;  and  they  have  ;nv«  i. 
some  of  the  best  statesmen,  authors, and  engineers  to  Rraz:!. 
The  captaincy  of  S&o  Paulo,  originally  called  Sfio  Vieti:r» . 
was  formed  in  1534,  with  its  capital  at  Sio  Vicente.  •  : 
the  Bay  of  Santos ;  this  was  changed  to  SSo  Paulo  in  l^^v 
The  captaincy  originally  included  all  of  Southern  Hra7K  ; 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  Minas  Geraes,  Santa  Catharina  (with  \i\  > 
Grande  do  Sul),  Goyaz,  Matto  Grosso.  and  Paran4  were  s*: 
cessively  cut  off  from  it  Pop.  (1888)  estimated,  1,5^46/2-4  J  : 
the  calculated  annual  increase  is  3*5  per  cent.  There  u'e 
many  German  and  Italian  immigrants.  H.  H.  Smith. 

S&o  Paalo :  capital  and  principal  city  of  the  state  of  Si.' 
Paulo;  on  a  small  branch  of  the  river  Tiet^;  236  mii^^ 
W.  S.  W.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  (370  miles  by  railway),  88  mil*  - 
from  its  port  of  Santos  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  6>G  . 
Owing  to  its  situation  on  the  plateau  and  near  the  Tn>i»: 
of  Capricorn,  it  has  a  mild  ana  very  agreeable  and  healthn.; 
climate.  It  is  well  built,  and  has  the  aspect  rather  <»f  a 
European  than  of  a  Brazilian  town;  there  are  a  nurol^r 
of  public  gardens  and  parks.  The  old  Jesuit  colle|;:«'  t$ 
usea  as  the  state-assembly  building ;  other  notable  edi^ces 


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312  SAPPERS,  MINERS,  AND  PONTONIERS 


SAPROPHYTES 


rionally  fighting  with  muskets,  and  at  the  Garita  San  Cosine 
it  did  excellent  service  as  infantry.  After  the  war  it  was 
stationed  at  West  Point  to  assist  in  the  instruction  of  cadets 
at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy.  In  1853  a  detachment  ac- 
companied Stevens*s  survey  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad. 
In  1858  the  company  formed  part  of  the  Utah  expedition, 
returning  to  West  ^oint  in  the  fall  of  the  same  year.  In 
the  fall  of  1858  a  detachment  was  sent  to  the  Pacific  coast, 
where  it  was  engaged  until  1861  in  opening  and  repairing 
roads,  constructing  bridges,  and  in  fortifying  San  Juan  isl- 
and at  the  time  of  the  boundary  dispute.  In  1861  this  de- 
tachment proceeded  to  Washington,  where  it  was  engaged 
upon  the  defenses  and  in  the  instruction  of  volunteer  troops 
in  the  preparation  of  siege-material.  The  main  portion  of 
the  company  was  engaged  during  the  summer  of  1861  in 
the  defense  of  Fort  Pickens.  In  the  fall  of  1861  it  joined 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  An  act  of  Congi-ess  of  Aug.  6, 
1861,  added  three  companies,  of  150  men  each,  to  the  engi- 
neer troops,  and  authorized  one  company  of  topographical 
engineers.  In  1863  the  Corps  of  Engineers  and  of  Topo- 
graphical Engineers  were  merged  into  one,  and  the  stren^h 
of  the  battalion  of  engineers  thus  became  five  companies. 
One  of  these  was  not  organized,  however,  until  1866.  From 
the  fall  of  1861  until  the  end  of  the  civil  war  the  battalion 
formed  part  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  its  services 
were  invaluable.  Under  Capt.  Duane  (afterward  brigadier- 
general  and  chief  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers)  the  original 
company  had  been  thoroughly  instructed  in  ponton iering, 
sapping,  and  mining.  This  instruction  quickly  pervaded  the 
battalion,  and  it  was  thus  enabled  to  give  lessons  to  the  vol- 
anteers  which  could  be  obtained  from  no  other  source.  A 
number  of  volunteer  regiments  were  organized  as  engineer 
troops,  and  in  addition  to  these  many  infantry  and  artillerv 
troops  served  as  engineer  soldiers  when  occasion  requirea, 
the  high  character  and  intelligence  of  the  volunteers  render- 
ing it  an  easy  matter  to  find  men  capable  of  being  quickly 
instructed  in  these  duties.  For  mining  at  Vicksburg  and 
Port  Hudson  practical  miners  were  selected  from  the  differ- 
ent regiments,  and  temporarily  organized  as  military  miners. 
The  sapping  at  these  sieges  was  done  by  details  from  the 
infantry,  as  it  had  been  in  the  seventeenth  century,  before 
the  time  of  Vauban.  In  all  cases  these  troops  served  under 
the  engineers  when  on  engineer  duty. 

The  most  remarkable  feats  in  this  branch  of  the  service 
during  the  war  were,  in  mining,  the  Petersburg  mine  (July, 
1864) ;  in  sapping,  the  siege  of  Fort  Wagner  before  Charles- 
ton, July  to  Sept.,  1863 ;  and  in  pontoniering,  the  bridge 
across  the  James  river  at  Charles  City  Court-house.  The 
latter  was  over  2,000  feet  long  in  pontons,  besides  200  feet 
of  trestle-work.  It  was  built  by  the  regular  battalion  of 
engineers,  two  companies  of  the  Fifteenth  New  York  and  part 
of  a  company  of  the  Fiftieth  New  York,  in  all  about  450 
men,  in  about  five  hours  on  the  evening  of  June  15, 1864, 
the  approaches  having  previously  been  prepared  by  the  First 
New  York  Engineers.  The  stream  was  rapid  and  deep,  in 
some  places  85  feet.  This  was  the  longest  floating  bridge 
ever  constructed  by  an  army  in  the  field.  Another  long 
bridge  was  built  by  the  same  troops  over  the  Chickahominy 
in  1862.  That  stream  was  a  less  difficult  one,  and  a  large 
portion  of  the  bridge  was  built  on  trestles  and  cribwork. 

Upon  the  reduction  of  the  army  in  1870  the  number  of 
enlisted  men  in  the  battalion  of  engineers  was  limited  to 
854,  one  company  being  reduced  to  a  skeleton  of  ten  ser- 
geants and  ten  privates ;  and  in  1875  the  number  was  fur- 
ther reduced  to  200.  In  1884  the  number  was  increased  to 
450  and  in  1889  to  500.  One  company  of  100  men  is  sta- 
tioned at  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  engaged  in 
the  instruction  of  cadets  in  practical  military  engineering. 
The  others  are  stationed  at  the  engineer  school  of  practice 
at  Willets  Point,  N.  Y.  They  are  kept  thoroughly  drilled 
as  infantry,  and  are  well  instructed  in  field  fortification, 
sapping,  mining,  pontoniering,  field-sketching,  and  the 
service  of  submarine  mines.  The  oftioers  of  the  battalion 
are  temporarily  detailed  from  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  usu- 
ally serving  with  it  four  or  five  years. 

Napoleon  I.  considered  the  proper  proportion  of  engineer 
troops  to  infantry  to  be  1 :40.  Since  his  day  the  advances 
in  the  art  of  war  have  largely  increased  this  proportion.  It 
should  be  especially  large  in  a  country  like  tne  U.  S.,  where 
the  army  is  rather  a  magazine  of  military  knowledge  than 
a  force  capable  of  resisting  a  powerful  enemy.  In  France 
the  proportion  is  about  1:21;  in  Great  Britain,  1:20;  in 
Oermany,  1 :  25 ;  in  Russia,  1 :  18 ;  in  Austria-Hungary, 
1 :  19 ;  and  in  the  U.  S.,  1 :  25.  O.  H.  Eenst. 


Sappey, stikp'pa',  Marie  Philibert  Constant. M.  D.  :  anat- 
omist; b.  at  Bourg,  department  of  Ain,  France,  Aug.  UK 
1810 ;  graduated  M.  D.  from  the  Paris  School  of  Medicine  in 
1843;  in  1844  passed  the  concoura  for  associate  profe^^or  <>f 
surgery;  in  18o8  was  appointed  Professor  of  Anatomy,  lit- 
is a  member  of  many  French  and  foreign  medical  and'  scicD- 
tific  societies,  and  an  ofiicer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  111^ 
great  work  is  his  TraiU  d^ancUomie  dtaeriptive  (1847-6:{, 
numerous  editions).  S.  T.  A. 

Sapphire  [from  O.  Fr.  aaphir  kIibX.,  sapphfrus  =ziiT, 
o-dCir^ipof,  f rom  Heb.  «af>pir,  sapphire] :  a  gem,  among  the 
purest  forms  of  corundum.  However,  it  is  not  usually  call<  <i 
sapphire  by  dealers  in  gems  unless  blue,  the  red  stones  U- 
ing[  called  rubies,  the  yellow  ones  Oriental  topaz,  the  gn^ii 
Oriental  emeralds,  and  the  purple  Oriental  amethyst.  in<lu^ 
trially  used  for  wire  draw-plates,  watch-jewels,  phonog^raph 
points,  etc.  Aateria  is  a  variety  of  sapphire  which  when  cui 
round  shows  a  star  of  bright  ravs,  due  to  it^  crystalline  stru'  - 
ture.    See  Corundum,  Ruby,  Topaz,  and  Precious  Stone*. 

Revised  by  Geo.  F.  Kunx. 

Sappho,  B&f'o  (Or.  Scnr^) :  the  world's  greatest  po^>te^v ; 
b.  at  Eresos  or  at  Mytilene  in  Lesbos,  toward  the  latter  [art 
of  the  seventh  century  b.  c,  contemporary  of  Alcseiis  and 
Solon.  In  consequence  of  political  troubles  she  had  to  take 
refuge  in  Sicily,  out  returned  to  Lesbos  in  course  of  tin:r> 
and  there  she  died.  The  literary  mythmongers  of  ant.<«- 
uity  made  up  stories  out  of  supposed  allusions  in  ht-r 
verses.  Of  this  order  is  the  romance  of  her  hopeless  love  for 
the  fair  youth  Phaon,  and  of  her  leap  from  the  Leucadian 
rock.  But  the  poetess  of  love  fared  worse  with  the  eomic 
poets  of  Athens,  who  could  not  understand  the  Lesbtan 
songstress  and  who  wrought  their  wicked  will  on  her  mt^m- 
ory.  To  them  Sappho  was  a  courtesan ;  to  them  the  school 
of  maidens  whom  she  trained  in  the  service  of  the  Mu^^-s 
and  to  whom  she  addressed  her  burning  verses  was  a  schm.i 
of  vice.  Nowadays  few  are  found  to  controvert  the  the5> 
that  Sappho  was  a  lofty  as  well  as  an  ardent  soul,  to  whiin 
all  lovers  of  true  womanhood  as  well  as  of  true  art  must  d< 
homage.  Her  poems,  written  in  the  -^olic  dialect.  " f»w 
but  all  roses,"  were  arranged  in  nine  books  after  the  nuntU  r 
of  the  nine  Muses  and  according  to  the  measures  empl<»>r  i. 
Of  these  only  two  poems  remain  entire  or  nearly  »>.  'at A 
there  are  besides  a  number  of  fragments,  enough  at  all  cvi*iit  ^ 
to  show  her  ardor,  her  tenderness,  her  playfulness,  her  K'\. 
of  art,  her  love  of  nature.  In  the  handling  of  the  langua;:* 
and  of  the  metrical  form  she  was  a  supreme  artist,  ancl  if 
nothing  else  remained,  the  Sapphic  strophe  would  be  a  iniiiiu- 
ment  of  her  genius.  Editions  of  her  poems  have  been  pijl>- 
lished  by  Neue  (Berlin,  1827) ;  by  Bergk,  PoetcB  Lyrici  Onrci ; 
by  Wharton,  with  English  translations  (2d  ed.  1887).  S^x* 
the  elaborate  work  by  Cippolini,  Saffo  (1890). 

B.  L.  GlLDERSLEET^ 

Sapporo,  or  Satsliporo,  s&n'po-rd:  a  town  in  Yc/- , 
Japan,  and  once  the  capital  of  tne  island;  in  a  plain  about 
20  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ishikari  river  (see  map  of 
Japan,  ref .  3-E).  When  the  colonization  department  ( Ka « /*j- 
kushi)  began  its  work  in  1871,  Sapporo  became  a  center  >*t 
activity.  Planing-mills,  silk-factones,  an  agricultural  c*4>l- 
lege  with  model  farm  attached,  a  brewery,  etc.,  were  orcan- 
ized.  A  mission  from  the  U.  S.,  with  Gen.  Horace  (^aj-mn 
at  its  head,  was  located  here,  and  professors  from  the  t\  >. 
were  intrusted  with  the  organization  of  the  college.  Sirwo 
the  breaking  up,  in  1881,  of  the  verv  expensive  colonizatinu 
department,  Sapporo  has  been  merely  chief  town  of  one  *  t 
the  three  prefectures  of  the  island.  Its  port  is  Otani.  '2*2 
miles  distant,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway  ^'  hi<  L 
extends  inland  40  miles  to  the  coal  mines  of  Poronai'. 

J.  M.  Dixox. 

Sap^rophytes  FGr.  o-oirp^f ,  rotten  +  ^vr^r,  a  plant] :  plart  v 
which  live  upon  tne  organic  matter  of  dead  plants  or  ar.i- 
mals,  or  at  least  on  their  dead  parts,  as  distinguished  f  n  -i 
Parasites  {q.  v.),  which  live  upon  and  obtain  their  fivnl  f  r.  m 
living  plants  or  animals.  They  are  all  colorless  plant^^,  or  a* 
least  they  are  not  green,  and  have  suffered  a  greater  or  l<-« 
structural  degeneration  of  their  vegetative  organs,  as  in  th.» 
case  of  parasites.  In  fact  the  effect  of  saprophytisro  u(h  !i 
the  plant  appears  to  be  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  (^rn- 
sitism,  a  result  to  be  anticipated,  since  in  some  cases  a  |kar:.- 
site  may  become  saprophytic,  while  in  others  asapropb\i« 
may  become  parasitic. 

Saprophytes  occur  in  four  of  the  six  great  branches  of  tr« 
vegetable  kingdom.  Thus  of  the  protophytes,  some  of  tKe 
bacteria  are  saprophytes.    Of  the  phycophytes,  the   blat  k; 


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314 


SARATOGA,  BATTLE  OP 


SARCOPHAGUS 


ings  of  stone,  2  cathedrals,  80  churches,  and  a  museum  with 
a  nne-art  gallery  and  a  library.  It  manufactures  cloth,  linen, 
tobacco,  leather,  earthenware,  rope,  etc.,  has  large  breweries, 
distilleries,  vinegar-factories,  ana  foundries,  and  carries  on 
an  extensive  trade  in  grain,  cattle,  and  fish.  Pop.  (1890) 
123,410. 

Sarato^ga,  Battle  of:  a  decisive  battle  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary war  in  the  Xorth  American  colonies.  Burgoyne,  in 
command  of  the  British  forces,  had  crossed  the  Hudson  Sept. 
18  and  14,  1777,  and  encamped  his  army  on  the  heights  and 
plains  of  Saratoga.  Gates,  who  commanded  the  Americans, 
nad  in  the  meantime  moved  his  army  up  to  Stillwater  and 
taken  possession  of  Bemis*s  Heights,  to  the  S.  of  Saratoga, 
near  tne  river — a  strong  position — which  he  fortified.  On 
Sept.  19  Burgoyne  attack^  the  left  wing  of  the  American 
army  under  Benedict  Arnold,  and  succeeded  in  holding  the 
field,  though  he  sustained  a  loss  of  over  500  men,  that  of 
the  Americans  falling  below  400.  Burgoyne  then  discovered 
that  he  had  a  dangerous  foe  in  his  front.  He  also  learned 
of  the  capture  of  bis  fleet  of  boats  laden  with  supplies  by 
Lincoln's  militia  in  his  rear,  and  the  destruction  of  his 
communications  with  Canada ;  but,  receiving  promise  of  aid 
from  Sir  Henry  Clinton  from  below  bv  way  of  the  Hudson, 
he  fortified  his  position  and  awaitea  the  latter*s  coming. 
As  Clinton  did  not  arrive,  Burgoyne,  finding  himself  in 
danger  of  being  cut  off  from  retreat,  and  his  supplies  being 
nearly  exhausted,  determined  to  risk  a  battle,  ana  on  Oct  7 
advanced  at  the  head  of  1,500  men,  with  six  pieces  of  artil-' 
lery.  His  right  was  at  once  attacked  by  a  New  Hampshire 
brigade  and  Morgan's  riflemen.  Arnold,  who  had  been  re- 
lieved from  command  after  the  battle  of  Bemis's  Heights 
owing  to  some  misunderstanding  with  Gen.  Gates,  and 
acting  without  orders,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
troops,  and  with  great  daring  and  recklessness  led  them 
into  action.  The  British  lines  were  repeatedlv  broken  and 
Burgoyne  with  difiiculty  refined  his  camp,  but  with  the 
loss  of  his  able  second.  Gen.  Frazer.  Gen.  Arnold  was  also 
severely  wounded  in  the  leg.  Renewing  the  assault,  the 
Americans  gained  a  lodgment  in  the  camp,  when  darkness 
put  an  end  to  the  conflict.  During  the  night  Burgoyne 
retreated  and  took  possession  of  the  heights  in  his  rear. 
Afraid  of  being  surrounded,  he  continued  his  retreat  next 
day  to  Saratoga.  As  he  received  no  aid  from  Clinton,  and 
as  every  line  of  retreat  was  closed  to  him,  it  was  decided  in 
council  to  propose  a  cessation  of  hostilities  while  terms  of 
capitulation  were  being  negotiated.  Gates  at  first  de- 
manded an  unconditional  surrender,  which  Burgoyne  re- 
fused, but  on  the  17th  terms  were  agreed  upon — the  British 
to  march  out  with  the  honors  of  war,  and  be  permitted  to 
embark  for  England,  on  condition  of  not  serving  against 
the  U.  S.  a^in  during  the  war.  The  number  of  prisoners 
surrendered  was  5,752.  Gates's  army  numbered  upward  of 
10,000.  The  terms  of  the  surrender  were  not  ratified  by 
Congress,  Burgoyne's  army  being  retained  as  prisoners  until 
the  close  of  the  war.  Burgoyne  and  several  other  officers, 
however,  were  permitted  to  depart ;  forty-two  guns,  between 
4,000  and  5,000  muskets,  and  a  large  supply  of  ammunition 
were  among  the  valuable  captures. 

Revised  by  P.  M.  Colby. 

Saratoga  Springs :  villa^  (incorporated  in  1826) ;  Sara- 
toga CO.,  N.  T. ;  on  the  Adirondack,  the  Del.  and  Hudson, 
the  Fitchburg,  and  the  Sar.,  Mt.  McGregor  and  Lake  George 
railways ;  38  miles  N.  of  Albany,  182  miles  N.  of  New  York 
(for  location,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  4-J).  It  is  in  the 
foot-hills  of  the  Adirondack  Mountains,  has  a  small  val- 
ley running  through  its  center,  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
summer  resorts,  and  is  noted  for  the  number  and  variety  of 
its  mineral  springs.  It  is  also  widely  known  for  the  political 
conventions  that  have  been  held  here.  The  village  has  the 
Holly  system  of  water-works,  supplied  from  mountain 
springs ;  efficient  fire  department ;  electric  street  lights ;  8 
public  parks,  Woodlawn,  Yaddo,  and  Congress ;  several  art 

f:alleries;  and  a  large  number  of  costly  summer  residences, 
t  has  wide,  clean  streets  and  exte^sive  drives. 

There  are  nearly  forty  mineral  springs,  of  which  the  best 
known  are  the  Congress,  Vichy,  Hathom,  Kissingen,  Vic- 
toria, High  Rock,  Carlsbad,  Red,  Columbian,  Royal,  Mag- 
netic, Geyser,  Patterson,  Favorite,  Excelsior,  Empire,  and 
the  Star.  They  are  alterative,  diuretic,  cathartic,  and  tonic. 
(See  also  Minbkal  Waters.)  Four  miles  E.  is  Saratoga  Lake, 
a  favorite  place  for  regattas,  with  a  straight-away  course  8 
miles  long  and  wide  enough  to  accommodate  fourteen  racing 
sculls  abreast  The  Saratoga  Racing  Association  has  grounds 


near  the  village,  with  a  mile-track  and  a  grand  stand  Bocom- 
modating  6,000per8ons,  and  Woodlawn  Oval,  with  the  Sara- 
toga Athletic  Clubhouse,  in  the  north  end,  has  all  conve- 
niences for  track  and  field  sports. 

The  principal  public  buildings  are  the  new  Convention 
Hall,  seating  5,000  persons  (cost  $100,000);  the  town-hali. 
containing  the  courts  and  theater;  and  the  armory  of  tin- 
Twenty-second  Separate  Company,  N.  G.  S.  N.  Y.  "  Of  ho- 
tels, the  largest  are  the  Grand  Union,  the  United  States,  arnl 
Congress  Hall.  These,  with  eight  other  large  and  numer- 
ous small  ones,  have  accommodations  for  40,000  guevt-. 
During  the  summer  season  they  expend  $40,000  for  orche^ 
tral  music. 

There  are  2  Presbyterian,  2  Baptist,  2  Methodist  Cpis^*o- 

Eal,  and  Congregational,  Protestant  Episcopal,  and  Roman 
atholic  churches.  The  educational  institutions  coinprisp 
seven  public  schools,  including  an  academic  and  central 
grammar  school,  with  enrollment  of  2,800,  and  annual  c<»t 
of  $40,000,  and  the  Temple  Grove  Female  Seminary,  with 
accommodations  for  20()pupils.  The  charitable  institutions 
include  the  Children's  Home,  the  Emergency  Hospital,  antl 
the  Home  of  the  Good  Shepherd.  There  are  three  librarie^i 
(Athenffium,  Temple  Grove  Seminary,  and  Union  Frw 
School)  with  about  10,000  volumes,  and  a  monthly,  2  daily, 
and  6  weekly  periodicals.  The  annual  receipts  and  exiif  n- 
ditures  of  the  village  are  about  $125,000  each ;  bonded  debt, 
$200,000;  property  valuation,  $6,000,000.  In  1895  there 
were  2  national  banks,  with  combined  capital  of  $225,000 
and  surplus  of  $155,00i0.  The  principal  industries  are  the 
bottling  of  mineral  waters  and  the  manufacture  of  merlical 
supplies. 

The  name  Saratoga  is  derived  from  the  Indian,  meaning 
"Hillside  of  the  Great  River."  The  territory  was  deeded, 
by  the  Indians  to  the  Dutch  in  1684.  Rip  van  Dam  was  the 
first  white  owner  of  the  original  springs,  and  Sir  William 
Johnson  was  the  first  who  thorougnly  tested  their  eflicacv. 
The  first  hotel  was  established  in  1774.  Some  of  the  mineral 
waters  have  been  bottled  and  exported  to  various  parts  4»f 
the  world  since  1826.  The  Saratoga  battle-field,  where  Gen. 
Burgoyne  surrendered  to  Gen.  Gates  on  Oct.  17, 1777,  is  12 
miles  S.  E.  of  the  village.  Pop.  (1880)  8,421 ;  (1890)  11,975 ; 
(1895)  estimated,  15,000. 

La  Monte  Waldron,  editoe  of  "  Daily  SAaATooiAX.** 

Sarawak' :  a  British  dependency  on  the  northwest  coast 
of  Borneo.  It  was  granted  in  1842  to  Sir  James  Brc>okt>« 
with  the  title  of  rajah,  by  the  Sultan  of  Brunei.  He  vra.-* 
succeeded  in  1868  by  his  nephew.  Sir  Charles  Brooke,  and  in 
1888  the  state  was  placed  under  the  protection  of  Grt*at 
Britain.  Area,  50,000  so.  miles.  Pop.  about  300,000.  c*^u- 
sisting  of  native  races — Malavs,  Dyaks,  Tayans,  and  Muruts, 
as  well  as  some  Chinese.  The  capital,  Kuching,  has  aboiit 
25,000  inhabitants,  and  caiTies  on  a  large  and  steadiW  in- 
creasing trade  in  timber,  edible  birds'  nests,  gutta-pefc-ha, 
sago,  antimony  ore,  and  rice,  in  exchange  for  which  it  im- 
ports European  manufactures  and  tobacco.  The  revenue 
for  1893  was  $457,122 ;  expenditure,  f478498.' 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harriitotox. 

SarcoooPla  [=  Lat  =  Gr. ;  adpi,  ^upn^s,  flesh  +  ictf aao. 
glue] :  a  nauseous  gum-resin  produced  by  PtncBa  sareoroi/a. 
P.  mucronata,  SarcoeoUa  vulgaris,  etc.,  evergreen  shruti^^  of 
the  order  PencBocea^  ranging  from  the  Euphrates  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.    It  is  seldom  used  in  civilized  region >. 

Sarcoph'agas  [=  Lat.,  from  Gr.  o-c^m^dtyot ;  scil.  Ai«o$, 
liter.,  flesh-consuming  stone ;  trdpi,  ffaptcit,  flesh  +  j^«>«Ijr^ 
eat]:  primarily  a  limestone  found  in  Assos  in  the  Trt^ic;] 
used  for  making  cofiins  which  were  supposed  to  have  t  \w 
property  of  destroying  the  corpse  within  a  orief  period.  Tl.c 
name  came  thus  to  be  applied  to  all  stone  cofiins,  and  U>4  >.-^^- 
ly  also  to  any  large  coffin  of  other  material.  The  earlier*! 
specimens  are  those  of  Egypt,  which  were  made  of  gran  it* 
basalt,  limestone,  alabaster,  and  jointed  wood.  In  the  oour>o 
of  time  the  fonns  underwent  considerable  change.  The  enr- 
liest  are  from  the  fourth  dynasty  and  are  rect^gular,  vcixh 
a  flat  or  curved  cover,  with  little  or  no  ornamentation,  ami 
in  the  shape  of  an  Egyptian  house.  From  the  Middle  King- 
dom the  specimens  are  mainly  of  wood,  the  tops  beine  inter- 
sected by  lines  of  inscriptions,  with  flgures  of  gods  in  the  <-»f  h:  n 
spaces.  Outside  the^  were  painted  and  adorned  with  fuls^* 
doors,  while  the  intenors  were  adorned  with  sacred  texts;.  1  n 
the  New  Kingdom  both  stone  and  wood  were  used,  and  a 
more  artistic  form  employed.  Sacred  texts  were  placfni  on 
papyrus  rolls  instead  of  on  the  coffins,  so  that  the  flat  sid*-s 
were  no  longer  needed  for  this  purpose.   As  a  consequence  a 


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SAREE 


SARGON 


hood  as  a  teacher  and  by  writing  for  papers,  magazines, 
and  cyclopedias ;  tried  his  fortune  as  a  dramatist  in  1854 
with  the  Taveme  des  Etudi<mt8,  which  failed ;  tried  again 
in  1860  with  Candide  and  Monsieur  OareU,  which  succeed- 
ed ;  and  then  wrote  a  number  of  plays  with  a  rapidity  al- 
most unparalleled :  Ijes  Pattes  de  Mouche^  PiccoUno^  Les 
Femmes  fortes^  and  Nos  Intimea  in  1861 ;  Les  Ganaches, 
La  PapiUonne,  and  Lea  PremUres  Armea  de  Fiparo,  in 
1862 ;  iataille  d' Amour  and  l4ea  Diahlea  noira  in  1863 ; 
Don  Quichotte  and  Les  Pommea  du  Voisin  in  1864 ;  Lea 
Vieux  Oar^ona  and  La  Famille  Benoiton  in  1865;  Noa 
Bona  Villageoia  and  Maiaon  neuve  in  1866,  etc.  Most  of 
these  plays  made  a  great  and  decided  success,  and  the 
author  took  rank  by  general  consent  as  the  first  play- 
wright of  his  age,  ruling  the  stage  wherever  there  is  one. 
The  most  prominent  of  his  later  works  are  SSraphtne  (1868); 
Patrie  (1869);  Femande  (1870);  Divorffona  and  Daniel 
Rochat  (1880) ;  Odette  (1881) ;  Fedora  (1882) ;  La  Toaea 
(1887);  Cleopdtre  (1890);  Thermidor  (1891);  Oiamonda 
(1894).  He  received  the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
in  1868,  and  was  received  as  member  of  the  French  Acade- 
my May  23, 1878.  Revised  by  A.  G.  Canfield. 

Saree' :  town ;  in  the  province  of  Mazanderan,  Persia ; 
on  the  Tejen,  18  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Caspian  Sea 
(see  map  of  Persia  and  Arabia,  ref.  2-H) ;  center  of  a  rich 
and  fertile  country ;  is  an  old  place,  mentioned  by  Firdausi, 
but  long  ago  lost  its  importance.  In  1836  cholera  destroyed 
nearly  tne  whole  population,  and  since  that  time  it  has  been 
rising  very  slowly.    Pop.  estimated  at  8,000. 

Sai^as'80  Seas  [Sargaaao  is  from  Span,  aargazo,  seaweed] : 
areas  in  the  North  Atlantic,  North  Pacific,  and  other  oceans, 
having  an  abundance  of  the  seaweed  Sargaaaum  bacciferum. 
The  best  known  is  that  in  the  North  Atlantic,  which  is  the 
central  area  of  a  whirl  of  currents,  and  is  a  region  of  light 
winds.  It  extends  from  the  Azores  to  the  Antilles,  and  from 
lat.  16°  N.  to  lat  38''  N.,  but  the  sargasso  is  most  abundant 
W.  of  Ion.  45''  W.  The  seaweed  is  found  in  the  Gulf  Stream 
and  neighboring  waters,  and  is  often  cast  upon  the  shores  of 
the  West  Indies  and  Florida.  In  the  Sargasso  Sea  it  is  in 
streaks,  often  scores  of  feet  long,  or  in  islands  which  may 
cover  many  acres,  but  the  outlines  of  which  are  constantly 
changing.  It  forms  a  thin  superficial  layer  and  offers  no 
resistance  to  ships.  There  are  twenty  to  twenty-five  plants, 
on  the  average,  to  each  square  mile,  and  each  plant  when 
pressed  together  makes  from  a  pint  to  a  quart  when  wet, 
or  about  one-eighth  of  this  when  dry.  The  plant  vegetates 
freely  on  the  Sareasso  Sea,  but  has  not  been  found  fructify- 
ing there.  Its  color  is  greenish  olive,  varying  with  age  from 
yellowish  to  whitish,  and  bears  many  berry-like  lumps  or 
floats.  The  patches  of  seaweed  have  a  veritable  fauna  of 
fish,  crustaceans,  and  molluscs  numbering  sixty  or  seventy 
species,  several  of  which  have  develooed  marked  features  of 
protective  imitation.  One  remarkable  fish  {Antennariua 
marmoratua),  2  to  4  inches  lon^,  can  be  distinguished  from 
the  plant  only  by  close  inspection.  The  Sargasso  Sea  has 
remained  substantially  in  the  same  place  and  with  the  same 
characteristics  for  the  400  years  since  Columbus's  first  voy- 
age. Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Sargent,  Aaron  Augustus  :  U.  S.  Senator ;  b.  at  New- 
buryport,  Mass.,  Sept.  28,  1827 ;  was  in  early  life  a  printer 
and  editor ;  emigrated  to  California  in  1849 ;  sidled  law 
while  editing  The  Nevada  Journal ;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  1854  ;  was  district  attorney  of  Nevada  County  1855-56 ; 
vice-president  of  the  Republican  national  convention  at 
Chicago  1860;  M.  C.  1861-63  and  1869-73,  and  U.  S.  Sena- 
tor for  the  term  1873-79.  Became  U.  S.  minister  to  Ger- 
many 1882 ;  resigned  in  1884.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
first  Pacific  railway  act  passed  by  Congress.  D.  in  San 
Francisco,  Cal,  Aug.  14, 1887. 

Saivent,  Charles  Sprague  :  arboriculturist ;  b.  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  Apr.  24,  1841 :  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
1862 :  from  that  time  served  in  the  Union  army  until  the 
close  of  the  civil  war,  attaining  the  rank  of  major ;  then 
traveled  in  Europe ;  appointed  director  of  the  Arnold  ar- 
boretum and  botanic  garden  of  Harvard  College  in  1872, 
holding  that  position  six  years ;  in  1878  appointed  Arnold 
Professor  of  Arboriculture  in  Harvard  College  ;  in  1879  be- 
came special  agent  of  the  tenth  census  to  collect  statistics  in 
regard  to  the  forests  of  the  U.  S. ;  became  head  of  the  for- 
est division  of  the  northern  transcontinental  survey ;  in  1888 
became  editor  of  Garden  and  Forest ;  has  written  many  pa- 

g^rs  for  scientific  and  other  journals  on  botany,  forestry,  etc. 
e  is  the  author  of  Report  on  the  Foreata  of  North  America 


(being  vol.  ix.  of  the  Reporta  of  the  Tenth  Census  of  the 
United  Staiea,  188S) ;  The  Wooda  of  the  United  Stales,  tcith 
an  Account  of  their  Structure^  QtuUitieat  and  Uaes  (18>5k 
The  SUva  of  North  America  (begun  in  1891) ;  and  Notes  on 
the  Foreat  Flora  of  Japan  (1894). 

Revised  by  Cbarlks  E.  Bxsskt. 

Sargent,  Epes  :  ioumalist  and  author;  b.  at  Gloucester. 
Mass.,  Sept.  27,  1813 ;  educated  at  the  Boston  Latin  Soh<^>l 
and  Harvard  College ;  was  editorially  connected  at  diiTer- 
ent  times  with  the  Boston  Advertiaer  and  Atlas  (1837).  the 
New  York  Jtftrror  (1839)  and  New  Monthly  Magazine  (lb4:;«. 
and  the  Boston  Evening  Transcript  (1846).  In  1847  he  set- 
tled at  Boxbury,  near  Boston,  ana  devoted  himself  entire!? 
to  literarv  work.  He  was  an  industrious  compiler  of  rea^lcrv 
and  speakers  for  schools ;  edited  manv  repnnts  and  collec- 
tions, and  wrote  a  number  of  successful  plays,  such  as  tbr 
Bride  of  Genoa  (1836)  and  Vdasco  (1837),  besides  tales  f<  r 
the  young,  poems,  and  Novels,  some  of  which  were  once  p.-f- 
ular,  but  are  mostly  forgotten.  Some  of  his  aongs  were 
spirited  and  were  set  to  music.  The  best  known  of  them  is 
A  Life  on  the  Ocean  Wave.  Perhaps  his  Life  of  Htnrii 
Clay  (1842)  and  his  Songs  of  the  Sea  (1847)  have  the  be-t 
title  to  remembrance  among  his  original  writings.  D.  iii 
Boston,  Dec.  31, 1880.  H.  A.  Beers. 

Sargent,  John  Singer  :  portrait  and  figure  painter ;  b.  m 
Florence,  Italy,  of  American  parents,  in  1856;  pupil  of  Cnn>- 
lus  Duran,  Paris ;  honorable  mention,  Paris  Salon,  laTs ; 
second-class  medal,  Paris  Salon,  1881 ;  medal  of  honor. 
Paris  Exposition,  1889 ;  Legion  of  Honor  1889.  He  is  one 
of  the  greatest  living  portrait-painters.  His  works  are  dis- 
tinguished by  consummate  tecnnical  skill,  and  are  excellt-ni 
in  the  representation  of  character.  He  has  painted  many 
portraits  in  Paris,  London,  New  York,  and  Boston.  Ho 
lived  in  Paris  for  a  number  of  years,  from  about  1872  to 
1885,  then  went  to  London  where  he  has  since  resided.  H<' 
visited  the  U.  S.  in  1888, 1889,  and  1891.  His  picture  <>f  » 
Spanish  dancer.  La  Carmencita,  first  exhibited  at  the  S- 
cietv  of  American  Artists,  in  New  York  in  1890,  was  bouiri : 
by  the  French  Government  in  1892.  He  is  a  member  of  ti..- 
Society  of  American  Artists  (elected  1880),  an  ass^xiato 
member  of  the  National  Academy,  and  a  member  of  the  :v>- 
ci6t4  Nationale  des  Beaux-Arts,  Paris.  W.  A.  C. 

Sargent,  Winthrop:  soldier;  b.  at  Gloucester,  Mas?.. 
May  1,  1753 ;  graduated  at  Harvard  1771 ;  became  captaii. 
of  one  of  his  father's  ships  1775 ;  navy-agent  at  Glouce^t-i  r 
1776 ;  served  at  the  siege  of  Boston  as  captain  of  artillery, 
and  subsequently  in  the  Long  Island,  New  Jersey,  and  Penii- 
sylvania  campaigns,  attaining  the  rank  of  major ;  was  con- 
nected with  Gten.  Rufus  Putnam's  Ohio  Comoany ;  was  mad.- 
by  Congress  surveyor-general  of  the  Northwest  Territ<ir\ 
1786;  became  its  secretary  1787;  was  its  Governor  lTy>- 
1801 ;  was  adjutant-generiu  of  St.  Clair's  expedition  again ^^ 
the  Miami  Indians  1791,  and  in  Wayne's  expedition  17t»4- 
95,  being  wounded  in  the  former;  was  a  member  of  xhv 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  and  of  the  P}nl<»- 
sophical  Societv,  and  an  oririnal  member  of  the  Societv  <f 
Cincinnati  as  delegate  from  Massachusetts ;  aided  Dr.  I^t  t.- 
jamin  S.  Smith  in  preparing  his  Papers  Relative  to  etrfatu 
American  Antiquities  (1796) ;  published  Boston^  a  p<v  -i 
(Boston,  1803);  was  Governor  of  Mississippi  Territory  17l««», 
and  again  1801.    B.  in  New  Orleans,  June  3, 1820. 

Sargent,  Winthrop  :  author ;  grandson  of  Maj.  Winthron 
Sargent ;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  23. 1825  ;  graduatt-i'i 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  1845,  and  at  Canibri<lu'? 
Law  School  1847;  practiced  his  profession  in  Philadelrl  :a^ 
and  subsequently  in  New  York;  edited  from  original  M>>., 
with  a  valuable  introductory  memoir.  The  History  of  Bro  i- 
dock's  Expedition  against  Fort  Dugussne  (Philadelfih  .^ 
1855);  edited  The  Loyalist  Poetry  of  the  Revolution  (l.V.7> 
and  several  reprints  of  curious  Revolutionary  tracts;  ni  <l 
was  author  of  The  Life  and  Career  of  Major  John  Ami-  , 
Adjutant-General  of  the  British  Army  in  America  (B<  »-;r,  ♦ , 
seventy-flve  copies  only,  1861),  a  work  of  extraordinary  n^ 
search.  He  wrote  largely  for  The  North  American  AV'r w^  r 
and  other  magazines ;  was  an  accomplished  bibliography r  ; 
was  for  many  years  engaged  in  preparing  a  cato^oyu^  mi- 
8onn4  of  books  relating  to  America  (unfinished).  D.  in  Paris 
France,  May  18, 1870. 

Sar^gon  FAssyr.  Sharru-kenu,  the  true  king] :  Ein^  of  As- 
svria  722-705  b.  c.  ;  founder  of  the  last  and  most  illustrivus 
Assyrian  dynasty  722-606  b.  c.  He  appears  to  have  been  a 
usurper,  though  probably  of  royal  stock.    Numerous  rei'onlft 


318 


SARSPIELD 


SASKATCHEWAN  RIVER 


thin  ligneous  layer,  and  a  central  medulla,  which  often 
abounds  in  starch.  The  roots  have  scarcely  anj  smell,  but 
when  chewed  produce  a  disagreeable  acrid  impression  in 
the  mouth,  which  persists  for  some  time.  Sarsaparilla  con- 
tains a  crystallizaole  principle  called  parillin,  upon  which 
such  medicinal  virtues  as  the  drug  possesses  most  probably 
depend.  There  are  various  sorts  of  sarsaparilla,  obtained 
from  different  localities,  which  are  most  easily  grouped  into 
the  mealy  and  non-mealy,  according  to  the  proportion  of 
starch  they  contain.  Of  the  mealy  are  Honduras,  (juatemala, 
and  Brazilian  or  Lisbon  sarsaparilla,  and  of  the  non-mealy 
Jamaica,  Mexican,  and  Guayaquil.  Sarsaparilla  was  at  one 
time  held  in  high  esteem  as  a  medicine,  principally  as  a 
remedy  for  syphilis,  but  it  is  now  accorded  but  feeble  power, 
and  where  used  is  prescribed  simply  to  assist  the  action  of 
more  potent  drugs.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Sarsfield.  Patrick,  Earl  of  Lucan:  Jacobite  soldier;  b. 
in  Ireland  about  1645 ;  served  on  the  Continent  in  the  Eng- 
lish Life  Guards,  under  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  and  against 
him  at  Sedgmoor  1685 ;  was  at  the  Revolution  a  member  of 
the  Irish  Parliament  and  one  of  the  wealthiest  and  most  in- 
fluential Irish  Roman  Catholics;  adhered  to  the  cause  of 
King  James,  to  whom  he  offered  his  services  in  1680 ;  fought 
at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  July  1, 1690 ;  surprised  the  Eng- 
lish artillery  before  Limerick,  and  compelled  William  III. 
to  raise  the  siege  Aug.,  1690 ;  commanded  the  Irish  reserve 
at  the  battle  of  Aughrim  July  12, 1691 ;  exhibited  great  gal- 
lantry in  the  second  defense  of  Limerick ;  obtained  honor- 
able conditions  of  surrender  Oct.,  1691 ;  retired  to  France 
with  a  corps  of  Irish  volunteers ;  distinguished  himself  at 
Steenkirke  Aug.,  1692,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Lan- 
den  July  19, 1693. 

Sartain',  John  :  engraver,  designer,  and  literary  editor ; 
b.  in  London,  England,  Oct  24, 1808 ;  became  an  engraver 
and  did  some  important  work,  including  some  of  the  plates 
for  William  Young  Ottley's  works  on  early  Italian  prints. 
He  removed  to  the  U.  S.  in  1830,  and  settled  in  Philadelphia. 
He  is  generally  thought  to  have  introduced  mezzotint  en- 
graving into  America.  He  also  practiced  oil-painting  and 
miniature-painting  on  ivory  and  vellum.  Afterward  he  was 
editor  and  proprietor  of  Tne  Foreign  Semi-monthly  Maga- 
zine, and  having  bought  The  Union  JUagazine  renamed  it, 
and  became  the  founder  of  Sartain^s  Union  Magazine,  He 
was  the  designer  of  several  public  monuments,  among  which 
is  that  to  Washington  and  Lafayette  in  Monument  Cemetery, 
Philadelphia.  Revised  by  Russell  Sturois. 

Sarthe,  si&rt :  department  of  France,  extending  on  both 
sides  of  the  Sarthe ;  comprises  an  area  of  2,396  sq.  miles. 
The  surface  is  mostly  level,  and  the  soil  often  light  and 
sandy.  Wheat  and  wine  are  produced,  but  the  rearing  of 
cattle,  poultry,  and  bees  is  the  chief  occupation.  The 
manufactures  comprise  iron,  glass,  porcelain,  and  faience. 
Capital,  Le  Mans.    Pop.  (1891)  429,737. 

Sarti,  Giuseppe  :  composer ;  b.  at  Faenza,  Italy,  Dec.  28, 
1729;  received  his  musical  education  in  Bologna;  composed 
his  first  opera  in  1752,  Pompeo  in  Armenia^  which  baa  suc- 
cess; wais  director  of  the  opera  at  Copenhagen  1756-65; 
visited  London  in  1769-70 ;  was  chapel-master  at  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Milan  1779-84 1  went  in  that  year  to  St  Petersburg 
as  director  of  the  opera.  B.  in  Berlin,  July  28, 1802.  He 
Composed  over  thirty  operas,  of  which  none,  however,  made 
any  great  impression,  but  of  his  church  music  his  terzetto, 
Ampliua  Lava  Me,  is  still  remembered.  He  was  the  teacher 
of  CherubinL 

Sarto,  Andrea,  del ;  properly  Andrea  d'Aonolo,  named 
del  sarto,  or  [son]  of  the  tailor,  from  his  father's  calling : 
painter ;  b.  probably  at  Gualfonda^  in  Tuscany,  in  1487.  It 
IS  commonly  stated  that  his  family  name  was  Vannucchi. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  a  goldsmith,  then  to  Giovanni  Barile, 
a  Florentme  painter  of  no  eminence,  and  finally  to  Piero  di 
Cosimo,  an  artist  of  ability,  with  whom  Andrea  remained  for 
some  years.  He  was  still  a  very  young  man  when  he  painted 
the  frescoes  at  the  convent  of  the  Servi,  in  Florence,  on  the 
square  of  the  Annunziata,  and  those  of  the  convent  of  the 
Scalzo  in  the  old  Via  Larga,  now  Via  Cavour.  By  the  time 
he  was  twenty-five  he  was  one  of  the  best  fresco-painters 
in  Florence,  and  also  a  consummate  painter  in  oil.  From 
that  time  until  his  death  he  was  the  ^nerallj  accomplished 
artist,. capable  of  any  kind  of  work,  and  mcapable,  in  a 
sense,  of  error,  as  his  nickname,  Afidrea  senza  errore,  sug- 
gests. Without  great  elevation  of  style  or  much  originality 
of  conception,  he  was  still  a  painter  of  delightful  pictures, 


the  color  of  which  is  especially  to  be  enjoyed.  In  1518  he 
went  to  the  court  of  France  and  painted  for  King  Fran- 
cis I.,  and  the  story  is  told  that  the  King  intrusted  money  to 
him  to  be  used  in  the  purchase  of  pictures  in  Florence,  ami 
that  Andrea  misappropriated  it.  He  was  certainly  in  Flor- 
ence aeain  in  1521,  ana  never  left  Italy,  and  rarely  Florence, 
after  tnat  time.  D.  in  Florence,  Jan.  22, 1581.  Of  hi£t  nu- 
merous frescoes,  those  in  the  convent  of  the  Servi  reprc»ic>ut 
scenes  in  the  legendary  Life  of  St,  Philip,  a  Birth  of  the 
Virgin,  in  which  a  lovely  female  fieure  is  asserted  to  be  a 
portrait  of  the  artist's  wife,  and  a  Procession  of  the  Jfa^\ 
in  a  cloister  adjoining  is  the  noble  fresco  of  the  Holy  Family 
called  La  Madonna  ael  Saeco,  because  St.  Joseph  is  leanin jr 
on  a  large  full  sack.  The  frescoes  in  the  Scalzo  convent  an* 
in  monochrome,  a  series  of  biblical  subjects  with  ornamental 
borders.  At  Pog^o  a  Caiano  is  a  very  important  fresco  of 
Ccesar  receiving  Tribute,  Of  his  easel-pictures  one  of  th*- 
finest  is  in  the  Louvre,  Charity,  There  are  also  there  two 
pictures  of  the  Holy  Family  and  an  AnnuncitUion,  In  th«* 
London  National  Gallery  is  a  valuable  portrait  of  himselL 
In  the  Pitti  Palace  there  are  two  Annunciations,  a  £>eposi- 
tionfrom  the  Cross,  the  portraits  of  himself  and  wife,  an<l 
a  dozen  other  pictures  of  value.  In  the  Cffizi  Gallery  is  the 
Madonna  di  San  Francesco,  Very  many  other  paint  in  i^s 
are  to  be  seen  in  public  and  private  galleries  throughout 
Europe.  Russell  Stukois. 

Sarto^ris,  Adelaide  (Kernels) :  See  Kemble. 

Sarts :  a  name  applied  to  the  sedentary  natives,  mis  distin> 
guished  from  the  nomads,  in  Turkestan  and  neighboring^ 
part«  of  Central  Asia,  whatever  their  ethnic  relations,  but 
sometimes  lunited  to  the  sedentary  population  of  Turkis^h 
language  and  relationship  in  Russian  xurkestan.  As  thus 
limited  they  number  about  700,000,  are  homogeneous,  dt^ 
voted  to  trade,  are  Mohammedans,  and  have  a  consideral>le 
sacred  literature.  M.  W.  n. 

Sartwell,  Henbt  Pabkeb,  M.D.,  Ph.D.:  botanist  and 
physician ;  b.  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Apr.  18, 1792 ;  sureeon  in 
the  U.  S.  army  during  the  war  of  1812-15 ;  settled  at  Beth ^U 
Ontario  co..  In  .  Y.,  1821,  and  at  Penn  Yan  1832 ;  for  more 
than  forty  years  was  an  enthusiastic  botanical  collector, 
forming  an  herbarium  of  80,000  species,  owned  by  Hamilt<»ii 
College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.  About  1846  he  devoted  his  whoU- 
time  to  the  study  of  the  genus  Carex,  and  brought  out  Carter  j^ 
AmericancB  Septentrionalis  Exsiccates  (2  parts.  New  York, 
1848;  part  iii.  unfinished).    D.  at  Penn  Yan,  Nov,  15,  1867. 

Saskatch'ewan :  district  of  the  Northwest  Territories  of 
Canada,  between  lats.  62°  N.  and  65^  N.,  with  Eeewatin  an<l 
Manitoba  on  the  E.  and  Alberta  on  the  W.  Area,  107.OU2 
sq.  miles.  It  is  a  well-watered  and  wooded  country,  thickly 
scattered  with  lakes,  especially  in  the  northern  half,  and  iV 
crossed  from  W.  to  E.  by  the  Saskatchewan  river.  It  i> 
generally  level  or  gently  rolling,  but  a  series  of  lofty  hill* 
loUow  along  the  south  bank  of  the  river  just  named.  A 
large  part  of  it  is  considered  suitable  for  colonization,  and  it 
is  maae  accessible  by  a  railway  extending  from  Prince  A  I- 
bert  southward  to  Kegina  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail  war, 
and  by  the  Saskatchewan,  which  is  navigable.  The  popula- 
tion in  1891  was  11,150,  of  whom  over  hiuf  were  Indians  and 
nearly  one-fourth  half-breeds.  The  latter  are  mostly  of 
French  descent,  and,  with  a  few  of  pure  French  race,  are 
for  the  most  part  settled  about  Batoche  on  the  South  Sas- 
katchewan. The  agricultural  products  are  yet  small,  anti 
include  live  stock,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  peas,  and  potatcH.">. 
There  is  also  a  considerable  production  of  pelts,  mc^^^tlv 
musk-rat.  The  chief  settlements  are  Battleford  and  Prince 
Albert.  Mark  W.  Harrixotox. 

Saskatchewan  Birer :  a  river  which  rises  on  the  e&.vt. 
em  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  two  main  branches, 
flows  eastward  for  about  l^SOO  miles,  and  empties  into  I^^ik  J 
Winnipeg.  A  few  of  the  minor  branches  of  the  South  Sh^ 
katchewan  have  their  sources  in  the  U.  S.  It  is  a  part  «..f 
the  drainage  system  that  reaches  Hudson  Bay  through  >  e)s<  *n 
river,  which  is  one  of  the  great  hydrographic  basins  of  Nt  trt  i. 
America.  From  the  junction  of  the  North  and  South  i>4i>- 
katchewan  to  Lake  Winnipeg  the  river  flows  through  the  <)»-- 
serted  bed  of  Lake  Agassiz.  The  sources  of  the  north  aii.l 
south  branches  are  stated  by  Dr.  Hector  to  be  but  a  few  milt  ^ 
apart,  in  a  nucleus  of  lofty  summit-glaciers  about  lat.  «*%! 
40  N.,  Ion.  117"  W.,  near  Mt  Hooker,  15,700,  and  Mt. 
Brown,  16,000  feet  in  height,  where  the  Rocky  Mountairis 
are  200  miles  in  breadth.  Thence  diverging  800  miles  apa  rr 
midway,  they  unite  at  550  miles  in  direct  distance  eastwnnll 


320 


SATIN  BOWER-BIRD 


SATRAP 


a  smooth  and  lastrous  fabric  of  silk,  of  Chinese  invention. 
Of  the  warp  threads  only  one  in  every  five  or  ten  is  raised 
to  allow  the  shuttle  to  be  passed,  but  each  thread  is  raised 
in  regular  succession  as  the  shuttle  is  thrown.  It  is  woven 
with  the  right  side  uppermost. 

Satin  Bower-bird  :  See  Boweb-bibd. 

Satinet :  a  coarse  fabric,  of  which  the  warp  is  cotton  and 
the  weft  woolen ;  originally,  an  inferior  variety  of  satin. 

Satin-spar:  a  fibrous  variety  of  carbonate  of  lime,  of 
snowy  whiteness,  found  in  England,  Scotland,  and  elsewhere, 
which  when  polished  has  a  luster  resembling  that  of  satin. 
A  fibrous  kind  of  Gtpsum  {q.  v.),  also  called  satin-spar,  is 
softer  than  the  above,  and  is  frequently  made  into  orna- 
ments resembling  cat's-eye. 

Satin-wood:  a  name  given  to  several  kinds  of  orna- 
mental wood.  The  best  is  from  Guiana,  and  is  the  wood  of 
Ferolia  guianenais^  now  included  in  the  genus  Parinarium, 
Florida  satin-wood  is  from  Xanihoxylumfloridanum^  a  kind 
of  prickly-ash  tree.  The  West  India  satin-wood  is  from  dif- 
ferent trees,  some  of  it  of  the  very  best  and  others  of  the 
poorest  quality.  The  rich  and  fragrant  satin-wood  of  India 
IS  usually  of  good  quality.  It  comes  from  the  CMoroxylon 
sunetenia,  a  cedrelaceous  tree  which  yields  a  sort  of  wood- 
oil.  Satin-wood  is  used  in  making  workboxes,  hair-brushes, 
and  cabinet-work.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailet. 

Satire  [vi&  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  aa'tira,  aa'iura  (so.  lanx^ 
dish),  a  dish  filled  with  various  kinds  of  fruits,  food  com- 
posed of  various  ingredients,  a  mixture,  medley,  liter.,  fem. 
of  MUuTy  filled  with  food,  sated] :  a  form  of  composition, 
which,  as  an  attack  on  the  weakness  and  wickedness  of  hu- 
manity, belongs  to  all  mankind  and  to  universal  literature. 
Prose  is  at  its  service  as  well  as  poetry ;  it  may  take  the 
shape  of  sermon  as  well  as  song.  It  may  be  dramatic,  as  in 
comedy,  mask,  and  mummerv.  It  may  be  epigrammatic, 
as  in  lampoon  and  pasquinaae.  It  may  be  indirect,  as  in 
parody  and  travesty.  It  may  be  a  formal  diatribe ;  it  may 
be  an  informal  skit.  Satire  is  older  than  comedy,  for  the 
silli  of  Xenophanes  {a.  v.)  were  satirical  and  every  phase  of 
satire  was  represented  in  Greek  literature.  But  the  great 
models  of  satirical  art  are  found  in  Roman  literature.  When- 
ever satire  as  literature  is  mentioned  Horace  and  Persius 
and  Juvenal  come  up  to  the  mind,  and  the  satire  is  assur- 
edly most  congenial  to  the  Italian  temperament,  ancient  and 
modern.  Nor  were  the  Romans  slow  to  claim  satire  as  their 
especial  province.  Satura  quidem,  says  Quintilian  (x.,  1, 
93),  tota  nostra  est^  and  the  loss  of  the  Greek  forerunners  has 
enabled  the  Romans  to  make  good  their  claim  here  as  in  the 
whole  field  of  didactic  poetry  to  which  satire  stands  related 
as  does  the  application  to  the  sermon.  The  first  appearance 
of  aatura  in  Roman  literature  is  in  the  aaturcB  of  Ennius 
(q.  v.),  where  it  is  evidently  a  medley  in  verse ;  the  SaturcB 
Menippem  of  Vabbo  {q,  v.\  of  which  we  have  considerable 
fragments,  are  in  prose  and  verse,  as  is  the  so-called  Satiricon 
of  Petbonius  Abbiteb  (y,  v.). 

The  subjects  of  Ennius  and  of  Varro  covered  a  wide 
range,  and  their  miscellaneous  character  corresponds  to 
the  original  meaning  of  the  word.  In  the  hands  of  Lucil- 
ius  the  aatura  was  largely  used  as  an  instrument  for  per- 
sonal attack  on  the  characters  of  those  who  had  stirred  the 
poet*8  indignation,  and,  though  the  fragments  of  Lucilius 
show  that  motley  was  the  wear  of  his  muse  also,  still  the 
Lucilian  satire  has  narrowed  the  range  of  the  word,  just 
as  the  mocking  epigram  has  prevailed  over  all  the  other 
Greek  forms,  and  just  as  elegiac  has  become  synonymous 
with  plaintive.  In  its  function,  then,  the  satire  was  as- 
similated to  that  especial  form  of  the  Old  Attic  comedy 
which  dealt  with  personal  abuse,  the  form  known  as  the 
lati$ut^  I94a;  and  when  the  native  historians  of  Roman  liter- 
ature followed  the  established  fashion  of  paralleling  Roman 
with  Greek  and  tried  to  adjust  the  growtn  of  Roman  come- 
dy to  Aristotle's  schemes  for  Greek  comedy,  the  aatura  nat- 
urally took  the  place  of  the  Old  Attic  comedy,  and  the  re- 
semblance was  emphasized  by  Horace  and  Persius  them- 
selves. Cratinus,  Aristophanes,  and  Eupolis  were  claimed 
as  brothers  of  the  same  guild.  In  view  tnen  of  the  largely 
doctored  accounts  given  by  the  Romans,  both  of  their  his- 
tory and  their  literature,  scholars  may  be  forgiven  for  ques- 
tioning the  very  existence  of  the  dramatic  aatura,  which  is 
said  to  have  been  a  manner  of  acted  lampoon,  akin  to  the 
rude  veraua  Fescennini  of  the  populace;  and  it  has  been 
recently  maintained  that  this  is  only  another  Roman  adapta- 
tion, another  reconstruction  of  early  Roman  literary  history 


after  Greek  models,  jnst  as  so  much  Roman  political  history 
has  been  reconstructed  after  Greek  models.  Still  it  is  dU 
to  be  denied  that  there  is  a  dramatic  element  in  the  clasvic 
satires  of  Rome.  It  comes  out  in  sundry  of  the  satires  of 
Horace  and  is  awkwardly  conspicuous  in  Persius,  but  per- 
haps both  these  poets  are  simply  living  up  to  a  theory.  In 
Juvenal,  the  third  of  the  great  Roman  satirists,  the  dramat- 
ic element  is  not  a  marked  feature,  and  his  declamatory 
rhetoric  has  had  more  influence  on  modem  satire  than  Il^r- 
ace's  bonhomie,  or  the  priggish  wisdom  of  Persius.  By  ci>n- 
centration,  then,  and  crystallization  the  satire  proper  cam*; 
to  be  as  we  still  have  it.  Poetry  became  the  medium  and  the 
hexameter  the  form,  and  though  the  satirical  spirit  mi^ht 
manifest  itself  in  prose-fiction  with  interlarded  verse,  aft  in 
Petronius,  or  in  the  various  measures  employed  by  Catullu:* 
and  Martial,  satire  as  such  had  received  its  tjrpe,  and  t  hat 
tvpe  is  still  potent.  The  accepted  satire  is  in  verse  and 
that  verse  the  heroic  verse  of  the  nationality — in  French  the 
alexandrine,  in  English  the  decasyllabic.  French  satire  is 
represented  by  Boileau,  English  satire  by  Dryden  and  Pofie, 
for  Dryden  and  Pope  are  the  models,  not  Butler — AhsaJom 
and  Achitophel  and  the  Duneiad,  not  Hudibraa,  Of  coui^. 
if  the  term  satire  is  widened  to  meet  the  definition  given  at 
the  outset  of  the  article  it  will  be  necessary  to  includ*>  a 
vast  body  of  literature :  Lucian  and  Apuleius,  Reynard  the 
Fox,  Tyll  EuUnwiegel  (ffoufleglaa),  the  Piera  Plowman  of 
Langland,  the  Fpiatolca  Obacurorum  Virorum,  and  so  on, 
down  through  moralists,  essayists,  and  novelists  without 
number,  of  all  nationalities  and  of  every  century.  Mom  us, 
the  spirit  of  mockery  and  fault-finding,  the  son  of  Night, 
appears  early  in  the  list  of  Greek  divinities,  and  his  wor^fai}* 
and  his  influence  are  universal.  B.  L.  Gildkbsleeve. 

Satire  H6nipp6e,  sa&'teer'md'nee'pfi' :  a  famous  FreiK  h 
satire,  so  called  from  the  Greek  philosopher  Menippus,  who 
used  in  his  works  the  form  of  prose  interspersed  with  verse, 
in  which  it  is  composed.  It  is  due  to  the  collaboration  of 
Pierre  Le  Roy,  Jacques  Gillot,  Nicolas  Rapin,  Jean  Pa^^^^^THt, 
Florent  Chrestien,  and  Pierre  Pithou,  and  appeared  in  1594, 
after  having  circulated  privately  in  manuscript.  It  was 
aimed  against  the  league,  and  its  fuller  title  was  De  la  Ver- 
tu  du  Catholicon  d'Eapokgne  at  da  la  tenue  dea  Fatata  de  Par  in. 
It  I'eflects  the  tamper  of  the  bourgeoisie,  worn  out  by  th** 
civil  strife,  and  putting  the  peace  and  unity  of  their  count rr 
above  party.  Good  editions  are  those  of  Ch.  Read  ( 1 8 76 )  u 1 1 d 
C.  Labitte  (1880).  A.  G.  Canfield. 

Satisfaction :  See  Accobd  and  Satisfaction,  Jul>qme>t. 
MoBTGAOE,  Payment,  and  Release. 

Satow,  seHLt'o,  Ebnest  Mason,  B.  A.,  C.  M.  G. :  scholar 
and  diplomatist;  b.  in  London  in  1842.  Appointed  stu- 
dent interpreter  in  Japan  in  1861,  he  was  present  at  the 
action  at  Kagoshima,  Sept.,  1868,  and  acted  as  interpreter  at 
the  bombardment  of  Shimonoseki,  Sept.,  1864.  In  1H76  ht- 
was  promoted  to  be  second  secretary  of  legation  at  Tok  i  •, 
and  in  1888  received  the  decoration  of  the  cross  of  St.  Mi- 
chael and  St.  George.  During  this  period  he  had  obtain<ii  a 
profound  acquaintance  with  the  language,  history,  and  An- 
tiquities of  Japan.  In  1884  he  was  transferred  to  8iam  a* 
agent  and  consul-general  at  Bangkok,  and  became  tnini^t«T 
resident  in  the  following  year.  He  was  transferred  to 
Montevideo  in  1888,  and  in  1898  was  promoted  to  be  envoy 
extraordinary  and  minister  plenipotentiary  at  the  court  ot 
Morocco.  He  has  published  an  English-Japanese  d iotinnary. 
and  has  contributed  valuable  articles  to  the  Transeiciior^ 
of  the  Aaiatic  Society  of  Japan.  J.  M.  Dixon. 

Satpara,  s&t-poo'r&  [from  Sanskr.  ^ata-,  hundnd  -*- 
pftra-,  castle,  fortified  town] :  a  name  originally  restri<  t.  A 
to  the  mountains  which  divide  the  Nerbudda  and  Tapti  \n!- 
leys.  Northern  India, but  now  generally  applied  to  the  irn.ii 
range  or  table-land  which,  commencing  fi.  of  the  faniMns 
Amarkantak  plateau,  runs  nearly  up  to  the  western  otxi^t 
Accepting  Amarkantak  as  the  eastern  boundary,  the  Sa*- 
puras  have  a  range  from  E.  to  W.  of  about  600  miles,  ar:*! 
m  their  g^atest  depth  exceed  100  miles  from  N.  to  S.  Tlu 
shape  of  the  range  is  almost  triangular;  from  Amarkantak, 
3,328  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  an  outer  ridge  nin-^ 
S.  W.  to  a  point  in  the  Bhandara  district.  The  nvera^o 
height  at  the  crest  of  the  chain  is  but  little  under  2.000  f»» i 
above  the  sea ;  the  highest  peak,  Dhupgarh,  in  HoshiingatM  ;. 
rises  as  high  as  4,454  feet.  Nearly  tne  whole  range  oon^i-t'S 
of  trap ;  toward  the  W.  a  series  of  craggy  peaks  is  met  wit K, 

Satrap  [vifi  O.  Fr.  from  Lat.  aa' trapes  =:Qt,  varpAwif^ 
from  0.  Pers.  kh^rapavd ;  khaatra-,  rule,  power  +  />d-. 


kA*!- 


nm 


J  ifKftkA^i    f 


cAiiU^V^U* 


'mx  m  w*- 


hU  ih^ll 


iieif  Man- 


**        Win 


Satnrnft'tla  fst^ftk,  IIkat^  tsmii.  plur,  d' 


<  m 


Hiktiirtiljm  V^rtf - 
vr-dfuiiiiir  tfi 


ii^  L.  iioitmicKvo*' 


(liar  of  liio 


uil 

:^ 

nrv.     Ill 

:icj 


>l 


nl 
i4iilkfn 


i_ 


k|itvp>*  f'nim    III     Pr    »»«//r#   .     T.i 


322 


SAUGERTIES 


dancing  Kuretes.  In  their  earliest  form  they  were  carica- 
tures of  the  elder  or  bearded  Dionysus ;  thej  were  half-ani- 
mal, and  were  depicted  in  early  vase-paintings  with  long 
sharp-pointed  ears,  long  horse-tails,  long  hair,  and  long, 
pointed  beards.  They  were  half-animal,  not  only  in  form, 
out  in  character ;  they  were  lustful  and  sensual,  and  vase- 
paintings  represent  them  as  ravishers  of  the  nymphs  and 
Bacchantes,  and  even  of  Iris.  This  anticjue  type  of  satyr 
was  supplanted  by  a  less  sensual  type,  which  was  created  by 
Praxiteles  in  his  famous  statue,  ana  has  remained  the  norm 
of  the  Satyr.  In  the  Satyr  of  Praxiteles  we  have  the  Puck 
of  antiquity,  the  figure  of  a  lusty  youth,  in  which  the  animal 
nature  is  brought  out  by  the  goat-ears,  the  teat-like  pro- 
tuberances l^pw)  on  the  neck,  the  animal  cast  of  counte- 
nance, stump  nose,  bristly  hair,  thick  lips,  cynical  smile,  and 
diminutive  tail.  In  some  cases  sprouting  horns  on  the  fore- 
head indicate  a  transition  stage  between  the  Satyr  and  Pan 
and  Panisks.  The  Satyr  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  Pan  and  Silenus,  and  especially  from  the  Faunus  of 
the  Romans,  a  creation  that  arose  from  their  confounding 
the  Satyrs  and  Pans.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Saugerties,  saw'gcr-teez :  village ;  Ulster  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on 
the  Hudson  river  at  the  mouth  of  Esopus  creek,  and  on  the 
West  Shore  Railroad  ;  12  miles  N.  of  Kingston,  the  countjr- 
seat  (for  location,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  7-J).  It  is  m 
an  agricultural  region,  has  good  water-power  for  manufac- 
turing, and  ships  large  quantities  of  bluestone,  limestone, 
and  agricultural  products.  There  are  7  churches,  4  graded 
schools  forming  Union  Free  School  District  No.  10,  a  paro- 
chial school,  a  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  with  li- 
brary and  reading-room,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of 
1200,000,  a  state  bank  with  capital  of  $125,000,  a  savings- 
bank,  manufactories  of  paper,  blank  books,  brick,  and  wood- 
pulp,  and  a  daily,  a  monthly,  and  2  weekly  periodicals.  Pop. 
(1880)  3,923  ;  (1890)  4,237 ;  (1895)  estimated,  6,000. 

Editor  op  "  Daily  Post." 

Saogor :  island  and  town  of  India.    See  Saoar. 

Sank  Center :  city  (founded  in  1857) ;  Stearns  co.,  Minn. ; 
on  the  Sauk  river,  and  the  Gt.  North,  and  the  N.  Pac.  rail- 
ways; 117  miles  N.  W.  of  St  Paul,  the  State  capital  (for  lo- 
cation, see  map  of  Minnesota,  ref.  8-C).  It  is  in  an  agri- 
cultural region,  has  several  flour-mills  and  other  manufac- 
tories, and  contains  10  churches,  public  graded  and  high 
schools,  private  academy  and  training  school,  a  national 
bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  2  private  banks,  and  2  weekly 
newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  1,201 ;  (1890)  1,695;  (1894)  school 
census,  1,955.  Editor  op  "  Herald." 

Sank  Rapids :  village  (located  in  1850) ;  capital  of  Ben- 
ton CO.,  Minn.;  on  the  Mississippi  river,  and  the  Gt.  North, 
and  the  N.  Pac.  railways ;  75  miles  N.  W.  of  St.  Paul,  the 
State  capital  (for  location,  see  map  of  Minnesota,  ref.  8-D). 
It  has  excellent  water-power  and  extensive  quarries  of  fine 

fanite,  is  engaged  in  farming  and  dairying,  and  contains 
churches,  high  school,  German  Lutheran  school,  steam 
sawmill,  planing-mill,  feed-mill,  and  2  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1880)  508  ;  (1890)  1,185 ;  (1895)  estimated,  2,800. 

Editor  op  "  Sentinel." 

8anl  [from  Heb.  Shd^ul,  liter.,  asked  fori :  the  first  King 
of  Israel,  a  son  of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin ;  was 
anointed  by  Samuel ;  fought  with  great  success  against  the 
Philistines,  Moabites,  Ammonites,  Edomites,  and  Amalek- 
ites,  and  governed  well  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  reign,  but 
afterward  became  possessed  of  "an  evil  spirit  from  the 
Lord,"  committed  great  cruelties,  and  fell,  together  with 
three  of  his  sons,  in  the  battles  of  Mt.  Gilboa  against  the 
Philistines,  about  1055  b.  c.  The  history  of  the  latter  part 
of  Saul's  reiffn  is  simply  a  part  of  the  history  of  David. 
For  further  details  concerning  Saul,  see  the  articles  David 
and  Jews. 

Sanlcy,  so'see',  Louis  F^licien  Joseph  Caignart,  de :  nu- 
mismatist and  Hebraist ;  b.  at  Lille,  France,  Mar.  10,  1807 ; 
studied  at  the  Ecole  Poly  technique ;  was  appointed  Profes- 
sor of  Mechanics  at  the  military  school  of  Metz  in  1838,  and 
shortly  after  keeper  of  the  museum  of  artillery  :  gained  ce- 
lebrity first  as  a  numismatist  by  his  EAsai  de  Classification 
des  Suites  monetaires  hyzantines  (1886) ;  studied  Assyrian 
and  Celtic  inscriptions,  and  wrote  Les  Campagnes  de  Jules 
Cisar  dans  les  Oaules  (1860),  but  devoted  himself  more  es- 
pecially to  Hebrew  antiquities;  visited  the  Holy  Land  in 
1850,  and  wrote  Voyage  ant  our  de  la  Mer  morte'et  dans  les 
Terres  bibliques  (2  vols..  1852-54):  itudes  sur  la  Nmnismor 
tique  judalque  and  Histoire  de  VArt  judaXque  (1858) ;   Voy- 


SAUNDERS 

age  en  Terre- Saints  (1865);  Les  Demiers  Jours  de  Jtm^n- 
/«f»(1866);  Histoire  d' Herode  (1S67)  i  Etude  ekronohgupu 
des  Livres  d'Esdrtis  et  de  Nihimie  (1868) ;  and  Sejft  SiicUi 
de  V Histoire  judalque  (1874).    D.  in  Paris,  Nov.  4,  imi 

Saalsbury,  Willard:  U.  S.  Senator;  b.  in  Kent  (•<>.. 
Del.,  June  2,  1820;  educated  at  Delaware  and  Dickin^^n 
Colleges ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1845 ;  was  attomev-t:<  i.- 
eral  of  Delaware  1850-55,  and  U.  S.  Senator  1859  to  ^71. 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Eli  (b.  Deo.  20, 1^17, 
who  was  re-elected  for  third  term  Jan.  16,  1883.  In  1>T4 
Willard  Saulsbury  was  appointed  chancellor  of  Delavarv, 
D.  at  Dover,  Apr.  6,  1892.  Another  brother,  Gove,  «4* 
Governor  of  Delaware  1865-71. 

Sault  Sainte  Marie,  soo'sant-m&'ree,  Fr.  pron.  so  sSn!  - 
mt&'ree' :  village ;  port  of  entry ;  district  of  Al^oma.  Ea-t 
Ontario,  Canada;  on  the  St.  Mary  river,  the  St.  Xlary  Kn.U 
Ship-canal,  and  the  Canadian  Pac.  Railwav;  opposite  t^* 
city  of  the  same  name  in  Michigan;  622  miles  w.  of  M  :- 
treal  (see  map  of  Ontario,  ref.  CkH).  It  has  a  water-|H.w»r 
canal,  electric-light  plant,  a  pulp  and  paper  mill  operate<] )  \ 
water-power  (cost  over  $1,000,000),  branches  of  the  InjjKr.u- 
Bank  of  Canada  and  the  Canadian  Bank  of  Coninierr'. 
schools  for  Indian  boys  and  girls,  and  two  weekly  nev^fa- 
pers.  The  village  is  in  an  agricultural  and  mineral  retr^n. 
IS  a  popular  summer  resort,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  An^^iior. 
Bishop  of  Algoma  and  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  •  f 
Northern  Canada.    Pop.  (1891)  2,414.     Chase  S.  Osboe.v. 

Sault  Sainte  Marie:  city;  capital  of  Chinpewa  (  >.. 
Mich. ;  on  the  St.  Mary  river,  near  the  outlet  of  Lake  Su^^- 
rior,  the  ship-canal  around  the  rapids,  and  the  Duluth,  *^ 
Shore  and  Atlantic,  and  the  Minneapolis,  St.  P.  and  S.  ^t' 
Marie  railways  (for  location,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  2-l<. 
It  is  connected  with  a  village  of  the  same  name  on  the  Chi.i- 
dian  side  by  an  international  railway  bridge,  1^  miles  V-wz 
which  cost  $1,000,000.    Navigation  between  Lakes  Sufteri-' 
and  Huron  is  facilitated  by  a  lock  and  canal,  which  <•  '. 
about  11,000,000.    The  U.  S.  Government  is  building  a  -  • 
ond  lock,  which  will  be  the  largest  in  the  world,  and  «i.! 
cost  with  improved  approaches  $5,000,000.    The  annua! 
tonnage  passing  through  the  canal  is  greater  than  that    : 
the  Suez  Canal.    The  city  has  direct  connection  b\  i; 
bridge  with  the  Canadian  Pacific  railways.     There  an  ♦i, 
churches,  6  public-school  buildings,  public-school  prep*- 
valued   at    $75,000,  parochial-school    property   valu.<i   ..' 
$8,000,  2  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $l.*i<i.(Mii . 
a  State  bank  (savings)  with  capital  of  $50,000,  a  buiM:  .* 
and  loan  association,  a  monthly  and  2  weekly  perit^Iiciii^ 
water  and  sewer  plants,  electric  lights  and  street-rail'nH}-.! 
and  an  assessed  valuation  of  $1,600,000.     The  induct r  i\ 
establishments   include   23   sawmills,  2    cigar-factori<  >.  .1 
brick-yards,  2  machine-shops,  foundry,  flour,  shingle,  a:  J 
planing  mills,  shipvard  and  marine  railway,  and  a  )>ran   i 
of  the  State  fish  hatchery.    Pop.  (1880)  1,»47;  (1890)  b,:^ 
(1894)  7,185.  Chase  S.  Osborn,  editob  of  "  Nem>.  ' 

Sanmaise :  See  Salmasius. 

Sanmnr,  so'mtir' :  town  of  France,  department  of  Mali.-' 
et-Loire ;  on  the  Loire ;  80  miles  S.  E.  or  Angers :  is  fan.-  il 
for  its  rosaries  made  of  cocoanut-shella,  has  manufaotur«'<^  I 
linens  and  cambrics,  and  trades  in  wine,  com,  hemp,  at  I 
spirits  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  5-D).  It  was  the  seat  of  r,\ 
celebrated  Protestant  academy  founded  in  1598  by  tin'  :  .i 
tional  synod  of  Montpellier,  and  suppressed  bv  a  royal  vu\  I 
of  Jan.  8,  1685.  That  academy  developed  the  first  f«r.  i 
school  of  criticism  in  modem  theology.    Pop.  (1891)  12.^'J-1 

Sannders :  See  Santal-wood. 

Saunders,  Frederick:  author;  b.  in  London,  Aug.  H 
1807;  established  himself  in  the  publishing  busine*^  ;| 
New  York  in  1836,  and  subsequently  was  for  S4.>nu'  ii:| 
an  assistant  editor  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  In  \<\ 
he  received  the  appointment  of  assistant  librarian  <>f  t;i 
Astor  Library,  which  oflice  he  continued  to  hold  until  :| 
beginning  of  1876,  when  he  was  made  chief  librurLHii  I 
acting  superintendent.  He  has  published  Memories  <•'  "i 
Great  Metropolis  (1852);  Salad  for  the  Solitarv  0^r>i\ 
Salad  for  the  Social  (1856) ;  Fisarh  of  Thought  and  Mo,<,  •  •  i 
(1858);  Festival  of  Song  (1865);  Abwit  Woman,  I^n>.  -I 
Marriage  (1868);  Evenings  unth  the  Sacred  Poets  (ls7'| 
a  revised  and  illustrated  edition  of  Salad  for  the  St»lt'-. 
and  the  Social  (1872 ;  new  ed.  1883) ;  The  Story  of  s^  • 
FamofM  Books  (1887);  and  7%e  Story  of  the  Discover,, 
the  New  World  by  Columbus  (1892). 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beik<. 


fAvain 


trt-filiit,    iir  Sklpti«rf  A   n 


tl^h-^.  i^ 


M 


U>  liU  ^u  Juiiu.    ilio 


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O^flVIOfl- 


d  \l£^l*  . 


324 


SAVANILLA 


Earl  Rivers,  alleging  that  he  was  bom  in  London,  Jan.  10, 
1698 ;  was  reared  in  poverty.  He  obtained  a  tolerable  edu- 
cation in  a  grammar  school  at  St.  Albans,  and  was  after- 
ward apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker ;  but  having  displayed  lit- 
erary tastes,  he  went  to  London  about  1716,  where  he  ob- 
tained the  patronage  of  Steele,  and  of  Wilks  and  Mrs.  Old- 
field,  the  actors,  ana  assumed  the  name  of  his  alleged  father. 
In  1717  he  translated  from  the  Spanish  a  play,  Woman* a  a 
Riddle,  which  had  a  run  of  twelve  nights ;  produced  in  1723 
a  successful  tragedy.  Sir  Thomas  Overbury ;  in  1726  a  vol- 
ume of  Miscellaneous  Poems  and  Translations;  in  1728 
The  Bastardy  a  Poem,  which  speedily  ran  through  five  edi- 
tions ;  and  in  1729  his  best  work,  2  he  Wanderer,  a  Moral 
Poem.  In  1727  he  was  condemned  to  death  for  killing  a 
man  in  a  tavern  brawl,  but  was  pardoned  in  opposition  to 
the  wishes  of  his  alleged  mother;  was  then  taken  into  the 
house  of  Lord  Tyrconnel,  but  soon  quarreled  with  his  pro- 
tector ;  subsisted  thereafter  upon  money  subscribed  by  rope 
and  his  literary  circle;  obtamed  from  Queen  Caroline  an 
annual  stipend  of  £50  in  conseauence  of  some  verses  he  had 
written  on  her  birthday;  resided  several  years  at  Bristol, 
where  he  was  thrown  into  prison  for  debt  Jan.,  1743.  D. 
there  Aug.  1, 1743.  He  is  now  best  remembered  by  the  pa- 
thetic Lhje  written  by  his  friend  Johnson.  For  an  exposure 
of  the  improbability  of  Savage's  story,  see  W.  Moy  Thomas 
in  Notes  and  Queries  (1858).        Revised  by  H.  A,  Beers. 

Saranilla :  See  Sabanilla. 

SaTan'na  [from  Span,  sdbana,  large  cloth,  sheet,  savanna 
(in  this  sense  also  saiana,  with  accent  on  second  syllable)  < 
Lat.  sabanum  =  Gr,  adfiwov,  linen  cloth,  towel] :  a  grassy 
plain  in  a  tropical  region,  yielding  pasturage  in  the  wet  sea- 
son, and  often  having  a  growth  of  under-shrubs.  It  corre- 
sponds to  the  prairie  of  more  northern  latitudes.  The  word 
is  chiefly  used  in  tropical  America. 

Savanna :  city ;  Carroll  co..  Ill ;  on  the  Mississippi  river, 
and  the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.,  and  the  Burlington  Route  rail- 
ways ;  10  miles  W.  of  Mt.  Carroll,  the  county-seat  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  2-B).  It  is  an  important  ship- 
ping-point, and  has  several  manufactories,  a  State  bank 
with  capital  of  $50,000,  and  two  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1880)  1,000 ;  (1890)  3,097. 

Savan'nah :  city  (originally  Yamacrow  Bluff) ;  port  of 
entry ;  capital  of  Cfhatham  co.,  Ga. ;  on  the  Savannan  river, 
and  the  Cent,  of  Ga.,  the  Fla.  Cent,  and  Pen.,  and  the  Sav., 
Fla.  and  West,  railways ;  18  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  115  miles  S.  W.  of  Charleston  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Georgia,  ref.  &-E).  It  has  an  excellent  landlocked  har- 
bor, which  has  been  improved  by  the  U.  S.  Government 
since  the  war  of  1861-65,  with  23^  feet  of  water  between  the 
city  and  the  bar.  The  city  is  partly  built  on  a  bluff  40  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  river,  has  an  area  of  6  sq.  miles,  was 
laid  out  on  a  plan  original  with  the  founder,  and  is  adorned 
with  a  large  variety  of  ornamental  trees  and  shrubbery. 
Since  1884  the  city  has  been  drained  thoroughly  and  pro- 
vided with  an  improved  system  of  sewerage  and  twenty-flve 
artesian  wells,  the  latter  having  a  total  capacity  of  over 
6,500,000  gal.  per  day. 

Streets  and  Buildings. — The  streets  are  laid  out  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  are  lighted  by  electricity,  and  have 
over  25  miles  of  electric  railway.  There  are  many  fine  shell- 
road  avenues  leading  to  places  of  interest  in  the  suburbs. 
The  principal  wholesale  houses  are  on  Bay  Street ;  the  chief 
shopping  thoroughfares  are  Congress  and  firoughton  Streets ; 
and  the  fashionable  promenade  is  Bull  Street  to  Forsyth 
Park  and  the  Parade-ground.  Among  the  notable  public 
buildings  are  the  city-hall,  court-house,  U.  S.  Government 
building,  the  Oglethorpe  Club-house,  formerly  the  Masonic 
Hall,  in  which  the  ordinance  of  secession  was  adopted  ;  the 
Telfair  Academy  of  Arts,  containing  valuable  collections  of 

Saintings,  statuary,  casts,  and  other  works  of  art ;  Hodgson 
lall,  in  which  are  the  library  and  collections  of  the  Georgia 
Historical  Society ;  the  Commercial  Club-house ;  and  the 
Independent  Presbyterian  Church,  considered  one  of  the 
handsomest  church  edifices  in  the  South. 

Parks  and  Resorts. — Savannah  has  34  public  parks  and 
squares,  with  a  total  area  of  65  acres.  The  largest  is  Forsyth 
Park,  10  acres,  which  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  fountain  and 
trees.  Adjoining  it  is  the  Parade-ground,  20  acres,  which  con- 
tains a  Confederate  memorial  monument.  Johnson  Sauarc 
contains  a  monument  to  Gen.  Xathanael  Greene ;  Maaison 
Square,  one  to  Sergt.  Jasper :  and  Monterey  Square,  one  to 
Count  Pulaski.  The  favorite  seaside  resorts  are  the  Tybee 
island  beach,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river ;  Thunderbolt,  on 


SAVARY 

Thnnderbolt  river;  White  Bluff,  9  miles W.  of  the  citr.and 
reached  by  a  fine  shell  road  ;  the  Isle  of  Hope  and  Bcauli*<a. 
on  the  Skidaway  river.  The  Sea  islands  are  also  much  fiv- 
quented.  Bonaventura,  4  miles  S.  of  the  city,  one  of  fcur 
cemeteries,  is  widely  known  for  its  avenues  of  ancient  Xw^- 
oaks,  whose  branches  are  covered  with  long,  waving  gray  (»r 
Spanish  moss. 

Churches,  Schools,  etc, — The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  Bomari 
Catholic  bishopric  and  contains  41  churches  of  variou>  •!•• 
nominations.  On  the  site  of  Christ  Church,  the  (>]<!>< 
Protestant  Episcopal  edifice,  John  Wesley  ^tablished  \\v 
first  Sunday-school  in  America.  The  city  has  a  school  f«o|  u- 
lation  of  over  10,000,  a  public  high  school,  9  public-Kh" . 
buildings,  public-school  property  valued  at  over  f300,(Km. :» 
private  secondary  school  for  boys,  and  Savannah  Acaden.i 
(non-sectarian,  chartered  in  18i64).  There  are  3  libran»* 
containing  over  25,000  volumes ;  14  charitable  institutun^, 
10  social  and  literary  clubs ;  3  free  dispensaries ;  5  holt- u^ : 
and  2  daily,  7  weekly,  and  2  monthly  periodicals. 

Finances  a/nd  Banking. — In  1803  the  city  had  a  net  lielt  <•{ 
$3,494,450,  and  an  aggregate  assessed  valuation  of  f33.424.- 
663.  In  1805  there  were  2  national  banks  with  coiubiriti 
capital  of  f800,000,  6  State  banks  with  capital  of-$2,2oO.(J>.Mi. 
a  safe  and  trust  company  with  capital  of  $125,000,  a  pri^att 
bank,  and  16  loan  companies. 

Business  Interests,— ^yssmtAi  is  the  third  largest  cottoi.- 
sbippin^  port  in  the  U.  S.  Besides  cotton  it  exports  larL* 
quantities  of  rice,  lumber,  and  naval  stores,  and  ships  vcj  - 
tables  and  melons  to  Northern  cities.  In  the  fiscal  Tr^r 
1893-94  its  exports  of  domestic  merchandise  aggregate*  i 
value  $25,527,468,  and  its  imports  of  foreign  goods  1^'';:  - 
948.  The  principal  industries  are  the  manufacture  \A  1-'- 
tilizers,  rice  cleaning  and  polishing,  and  foundry  and  nu 
chine-shop  work.  In  1890  the  city  had  187  manufactnri- :: 
establishments,  representing  42  industries,  with  oomlii.*': 
capital  of  $2,977,450,  employing  1,643  persons,  paying  f^4*». 
766  for  wages  and  $2,597,652  for  materials,  ana  turning  vut 
articles  valued  at  $4,467,688. 

History. — The  city  was  settled  by  Gen.  James  EDWiRi- 
Oglethorpe  iq.  v.)  in  1733;  repulsed  a  British  attack  :. 
1776;  was  captured  by  the  British  in  Dec.,  1779,  and  » .- 
held  by  them  to  the  close  of  the  war.  It  received  a  t:". 
charter  in  1789.  In  1796  and  1820  it  suffered  severely  I  •• 
fire.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war  of  1861-^  the  fort^  • 
the  harbor  were  seized  by  the  State  authorities,  and  dun  ra- 
the war  the  city  was  a  Confederate  military  post.  Gen.  .^t  -  '■• 
man  invested  the  city  on  Dec.  10,  1864,  the  Confetierh!-! 
abandoned  it,  and  the  Union  army  took  possession  on  I>«  i 
21.  Pop.  (1880)  30,709;  (1890)  43,189;  (1895)  estinia  «  •, 
62,107.  Thomas  M.  Noawo»»D. 

Savannah:  town;  capital  of  Andrew  co.,  Mo.;  on  tti 
Chi.,  Gt.  West,  and  the  Burlington  Route  railwavs ;  2  m..  \ 
W.  of  the  One  Hundred  and  Two  river ;  14  miles  \.  E.  of  "^ 
Joseph  (for  location,  see  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  2-D).  It  \\ 
in  an  agricultural,  fruit-growing,  and  stock-raising  n*-:;  j 
and  contains  8  churches,  a  graded  public  school  with  hi^:  • 
school  department,  2  State  banks  with  combined  capital  I 
$44,340,  4  newspapers,  a  large  flour-mill,  and  a  ercaiiu-nl 
Pop.  (1880)  1,206 ;  (1890)  1,288 ;  (1895)  estimated,  1,500. 

Editor  of  "  REPUBurAN,** 

Savannah  River :  a  stream  which  forms  the  boundarvl 
line  between  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  From  its  s^^uni 
to  its  mouth  on  Tybee  roads  its  channel  is  450  miles  1*  t.j 
while  the  distance  in  a  direct  line  is  only  250  w\i'\ 
With  its  tributaries  it  drains  an  area  of  over  8,000  sq.  nui'  I 
The  Savannah  is  a  turbid  stream,  and  the  current  in  t'l 
upper  portion  of  the  river  and  its  tributaries  is  rapid  ai.| 
carries  a  great  deal  of  silt,  particularly  during  the  seas-  n  .j 
freshets.  Bars  are  therefore  formed  in  the  broader  jion  i  -l 
of  the  river  where  the  current  is  less  rapid.  At  Savarj  u 
the  mean  rise  and  fall  of  tide  is  6i  feet.  The  tidal  wave  .  i 
dinarily  ascends  to  a  point  about  28  miles  above  Savatiral 
or  45  miles  from  Tybee  roads.  The  river  is  navigahU*  to  M 
vannah  for  vessels  drawing  22  feet  of  water,  and  l»y  v.  ..J 
vessels  to  Augusta,  231  miles.  Under  appropriations  of  i  i 
gress  improvements  in  the  river  and  harbor  of  Savaiiim^  I 
(1895)  in  progress,  having  in  view  the  securing  of  a  26- f  I 
channel  to  Savannah. 

Savary,  s^'vaa'ree',  Anne  Jean  Marie  Ren^,  Duke  of  Ki 
vigo :  general ;  b.  at  Marcq,  department  of  Ardennes,  Frn-  I 
Apr.  26, 1774 ;  entered  the  army  in  1790 ;  served  on  t  h©  K  i  •  i 
and  in  Egvpt;  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  colonel  aft<^r  :l 
battle  of  Marengo,  and  in  1803  became  general  of  brip.  j 


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i 

326 


SAVINGS-BANKS 


ive  provisions  will  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  in  the  years 
from  1817  to  1872  the  interest  paid  by  the  Government  to 
savings-banks  exceeded  that  which  it  had  received  from  in- 
vestments on  their  account  by  the  sum  of  £4,169,427  10«.  5d. 
As  an  incentive  to  industry  and  economy,  and  a  check  to 

Eauperism,  the  Government  could  afford  to  bestow  this 
ounty  upon  savings-banks,  but  onlv  upon  terms  that  would 
tend  to  exclude  from  any  considerable  share  in  it  the  opulent 
classes,  whom  the  liberal  interest  allowed  and  the  security 
afforded  by  savings-banks  would  naturally  attract.  Trus- 
tees in  England  are  made  liable  only  for  tlieir  own  personal 
malfeasance,  but  in  Ireland  they  are  made  liable  for  losses, 
unless  by  their  rules  they  limit  their  liability  to  a  fixed  sum, 
which  is  not  to  be  less  than  £100.  The  Government  has 
never  conceded  its  liability  to  make  |;ood  the  losses  sustained 
by  saving-banks,  though  in  one  instance  of  exceptional 
hardship  Parliament  appropriated  £30,000  as  a  partial  resti- 
tution to  depositors. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  depositors  and  the 
balance  to  the  credit  of  savings-banks,  incluaing  interest,  on 
the  books  of  the  national  debt  commissioners  in  quinquen- 
nial periods  from  1817  to  1882.  The  year  1861  is  also  in- 
cluded, as  marking  the  highest  limit  reached  by  savings- 
banks  before  their  decadence.  This  began  under  competi- 
tion with  the  post-office  savings-banks,  from  which,  how- 
ever, the  savings-banks  afterward  recovered : 


Nombvr  of 
depoilton. 


1817. 
1822. 
1827. 
1832. 
1837. 
1842. 
1847. 
1852. 


*  9,291 

*204,5a4 

•395,000 

440,861 

636,389 

875,066 

1,096,086 

1,209,934 


Amooatto 

enditof 

•vlagibuikt. 

•Ddinf 
Not.  10. 

NmDberof 
d.podton. 

1,366,560 
1,609,103 
1,558,189 
1,385,782 
1,425,147 
1,509,847 
•1,552,983 

£281,028 
6,546,690 
14,188,708 
14,416.885 
19,711,797 
25,406,642 
30,286,632 
31,912,413 

1857 

1861 

1862 

1867 

1872 

1877 

1882 

1887 

£35,255,722 
41,790,788 
40,809.578 
36,792,912 
40,000,462 
44.238,686 
*44,5M,451 
•47,262,222 


•  Partly  estimated. 

Since  1887  the  deposits  of  trustee  savings-banks  have  been 
decreasing,  while  those  of  the  post-office  savings-banks  have 
been  rapidly  growing. 

Poat'Office  Savings-banks, — In  1861  a  system  of  post- 
office  savings-banks  was  established,  which,  however,  was 
little  more  than  an  expansion  and  adaptation  to  existing 
conditions  of  the  scheme  of  Patrick  Colouhoun,  made  prom- 
inent by  Whi thread  in  1807.  No  arbitrary  interference 
with  the  existing  system  of  savings-banks  was  attempted,  but 
these  were  left  to  hold  their  own  in  competition  with  the 
new  system  as  best  they  could.  The  practical  operation  of 
the  latter  may  be  briefly  stated :  Certain  post-offices  through- 
out the  United  Kingdom  are  designated  at  which  sums  of 
not  less  than  one  shilling  or  some  multiple  thereof  will  be 
received  for  transmission  to  the  central  office  in  London. 
Not  exceeding  £30  in  one  year,  or  £150  in  all,  or  £200  in- 
cluding interest,  is  received  from  any  one  person.  The  de- 
positor receives  a  book  in  which  his  deposits  are  entered, 
and  a  receipt  for  each  deposit  is  also  forwarded  to  him  in 
due  course  from  the  central  office.  The  moneys  are  invested 
in  the  public  funds,  and  deposits  of  not  less  than  £1  or 
multiples  thereof  receive  interest  at  the  rate  of  2|  per  cent, 
per  annum.  The  Government  is  responsible  for  the  repay- 
ment of  all  moneys  received,  thus  affording  to  depositors 
perfect  security.  A  depositor  may  apply  at  any  post-office 
savings-bank  in  the  kingdom  for  the  purpose  of  withdraw- 
ing money,  and  may  direct  payment  of  the  same  to  be  made 
to  him  at  that  or  at  any  other  post-office  savings-bank.  His 
order  is  forwarded  to  the  Postmaster-General,  by  whom  a 
warrant  for  the  designated  amount  is  drawn  upon  the  post- 
master where  payment  is  to  be  made,  which  is  forwarded  to 
the  depositor,  who  presents  the  same,  together  with  his  book, 
and  receives  his  money. 

The  system  was  inaugurated  by  opening  in  England  and 
Wales  301  postal  savings-banks,  which  number  was  in- 
creased before  the  close  of  the  year  to  1,629.  The  system 
was  extended  in  the  following  year  to  Ireland  and  Scotland. 
In  1866  the  number  of  postal  savings-banks  in  the  United 
Kingdom  was  3,369,  or  more  than  five  times  the  highest 
number  under  the  old  system ;  on  Mar.  31,  1882,  the  num- 
ber was  6,645,  and  on  M*ar.  31,  1891,  it  was  10,063.  In  the 
ten  years  from  Sept.,  1861,  to  Sept.,  1871,  there  had  been  de- 
posited, including  interest,  £44,198,743,  withdrawn  £28,044,- 
539,  leaving  due  depositors  £16,154,204.  During  the  calen- 
dar year  1881  there  was  deposited  £11,345,957;   interest 


credited,  £826.990;  withdrawn,  £9,469,668;  balance  due  d^ 
positors  Dec.  31,  £36,194,495.  In  1892  the  number  of  |M.tta. 
savings-banks  was  10,519,  the  amount  deposited  was  i^Jl,. 
334,903,  and  the  total  amount  due  depositors  £75,853,079. 

Penny  savings-banks,  military  savings-banks,  and  savintv- 
banks  for  seamen  have  been  establish^  as  auxiliaries^  uf  th* 
general  system,  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  the  special  n(^i> 
of  classes  for  which  the  ordinary  savings-banks  did  n<  l 
hold  out  adequate  inducements  or  facilities.  The  iitMinv 
savings-banks  have  commonly  been  tributary  to  the  larv** ' 
institutions,  making  them  the  depositories  of  their  atrpri- 
gate  accumulations.  The  military  and  seamen's  saviitj- 
banks  have  been  conducted  independentlv.  Their  stati»;  •  > 
are  unimportant,  and  fail  to  exhibit  any  distinctive  feMTun-? 
concerning  the  thrift  of  the  classes  they  represent,  for  hir^^- 
numbers  of  these  prefer  to  deposit  in  the  regular  instituti'-n- 

Savings-hanks  in  the  U.  S. — Shortly  after  the  succes^f ., 
inauguration  of  savings-banks  in  Great  Britain  upon  a  ]>f>y.. 
lar  and  practical  plan  these  institutions  began  to  attnii' 
attention  in  the  U.  S.  The  first  organization  of  which  tlifi. 
is  record  was  effected  in  the  city  of  New  York,  Nov.  ':i*, 
1816.  The  first  to  go  into  practical  operation  was  in  PhiU- 
delphia,  which  as  a  purely  voluntary  association  began  \" 
receive  deposits  Dec.  2,  1816,  which  would  indicate  an  »r- 
ganization  effected  prior  to  that  in  New  York.  The  fir>t  t< 
become  incorporated  was  in  Boston,  Dec.  13, 1816,  and  it 
organized  and  began  business  in  the  spring  of  1817.  Thu» 
the  U.  S.  anticipated  Great  Britain  in  giving  to  this  inti'r>.«t 
the  sanction  and  protection  of  law.  The  savings-banJk  i  f 
Salem,  Mass.,  was  next  incorporated  Jan.,  1818,  and  c<  n.- 
menced  business  in  April  following.  The  savings-bank  •  { 
Baltimore  opened  as  a  voluntary  association  for  receiving- 
deposits  on  Mar.  16,  1818,  and  was  duly  incorporated  ti. 
December  of  that  year.  The  example  of  these  cities  ana 
towns  was  rapidly  followed  by  others. 

T?te  plan  of  organization  of  savings-banks  is  not  hlu^ 
gether  uniform.  In  some  States  there  is  a  large  b<xiy  t-i 
corporators,  empowered  to  enlarge  their  numoer  iu'dfix- 
nitely,  who  elect  from  their  number  annually  a  board  ^-i 
trustees  or  directors,  to  whom  the  management  of  the  :i:- 
stitution  is  committed.  In  others  the  corporators  are  a  u^ 
fined  and  limited  number,  who  are  themselves  the  tru^t^  ^ 
and  responsible  for  the  management.  These  are  commi>r.l> 
empowered  to  fill  vacancies  that  occur,  though  in  s^hm 
cases  this  is  done  by  designated  authority  outsi<le  of  tli» 
board.  In  the  Northeast  savings-banks  are  maiiap^d  ly 
trustees  for  the  depositors ;  in  other  parts  they  are  fiv- 
quently  managed  by  corporations  with  capital  stock. 

AOOREOATE  SAVINOS-DEPOSITS  OF  SAVUfGS- BANKS,  WITH  IK 
NUMBER  OF  DEPOSITORS  AND  THE  AVERAGE  AMOUNT  Hi  t 
TO  EACH  BY  STATES,  TERRITORIES,  AND  GEOORAPHti  Al 
DIVISIONS  IN  1898-94. 


STATES,  TERRITORIES,  AND 
DIVISIONS. 

*^J^' 

Anowlar 

Eastkrn: 

Maine 

New  Hampshire 

158,922 
109,510 
02,289 
1,814,498 
130.610 
835.879 

$68,261,809 
70,616,944 
27,966,  KVi 

899,995,570 
69,068,724 

183,967,220 

$754,861  .e-K 

$34^ 

4:* 

Vermont 

Rhode  Island 

fi-"  " 

Connecticut 

Sio.  •i 

Totols 

2.096.653 

«;>i 

MiDDLC : 

New  York 

1,686,156 

137,897 

248,244 

18,264 

144,218 

1,258 

$617,069,449 

84,266.2»« 

66.a25,ft.M 

8,898.811 

48,758,Kr5 

72,667 

$:n- 

New  Jeriey 

-4*«    » 

Pennsylvania 

e»-  ' 

Delaware 

Mf^rylftnd 

District  of  Columbia 

Totals 

2.186,036 

$764,906,421 

«:;>  .-i 

Southern : 
West  Virjfinla 

8,532 

•8,760 

•23,246 

♦7,196 

881 

•2,590 

7,786 

2,450 

$886,025 
416.695 

8,939,976 
886.KS3 
175,115 
108,S47 

8,057.H45 
801, &48 

'*"l,4li840 

$9,479,314 

47  '  - 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

1  r  )  4  •! 

Georaria 

Florida 

ii'i! 

Alabama 

SL^  '.I 

:>>!    '1 

Texas 

vJ    J 

Arkansas.. 

Tennessee , 

9,664 

14f       1 

Totals 

66,086 

S14.'    ii\ 

♦ParUyest 

Imated. 

828 


SAVORY 


SAVOY  DECLARATION 


able  to  resist  the  prophetic  spirit  which  compelled  him  to 
speak  his  Master's  words.  Tne  sentence  of  excommanica- 
tion  followed  (1497).  The  Arrahhiati  got  possession  of 
Florence.  Fra  Girolamo's  letters  to  foreign  sovereigns, 
urging  them  to  call  a  council  to  dethrone  the  BorjB^ia  and 
elect  a  new  pope,  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  On 
Apr.  7, 1498,  occurred  the  famous  attempt  at  a  **  trial  by 
fire,"  to  decide  whether  he  was  divinely  commissioned,  but 
its  fiasco  turned  the  people  against  him,  and  on  the  ni^ht 
of  the  following  day  tne  convent  of  San  Marco  was  attacked 
by  an  infuriated  mob.  The  signoria  sent  thither  officers  to 
demand  the  surrender  of  the  prior,  who,  with  two  of  his 
brethren,  was  conveved  to  the  dungeons  of  the  Bargello,  and 
brutally  tortured  tne  same  night.  These  barbarities  were 
continued  for  weeks,  and  suspended  onl^  when  the  life  of 
their  victim  was  in  danger.  In  the  delirium  of  agony  Savo- 
narola sometimes  gave  confused  answers  as  to  his  prophetic 
S'fts,  but  no  confession  of  guilt  could  be  extorted  from  him. 
is  destruction,  however,  was  inevitable.  The  pope  threat- 
ened Florence  with  an  interdict  and  with  every  other  form 
of  vengeance  if  she  spared  the  hated  friar.  Sentence  of 
death  was  pronounced  on  May  22,  1498,  and  the  next  day 
he  and  his  two  friends  and  fellow  monks  Domenico  and  Sil- 
vestro  were  publicly  hanged  and  then  burned  in  the  Piazza 
della  Signona  and  their  ashes  thrown  into  the  Amo.  The 
judgment  of  historj  has  acquitted  Savonarola  of  the  charges 
brought  against  him  in  his  own  day,  and  the  sincerity  of 
his  faith  and  the  disinterestedness  of  his  aims  are  as  unques- 
tioned as  the  purity  of  his  life  and  the  power  of  his  in- 
tellect. Even  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  through  Popes 
Paul  V.  and  Benedict  XIV.,  has  declared  his  works  irre- 
proachable, and  placed  him  among  the  servants  of  God.  In 
the  convent  of  San  Marco  are  preserved  various  obiects  of 
interest  once  belonging  to  the  martyred  prior,  such  as  his 
Bible  filled  with  annotations  by  his  own  hand,  etc.,  and  a 
portrait,  probably  by  his  friend  Fra  Bartolommeo.  He  was 
of  middle  stature,  dark  complexion,  plain  in  feature,  pallid 
and  worn  with  abstinence ;  his  expression  severely  noble,  but 
benevolent,  and  when  animated  nis  keen  dark  eyes  slowed 
like  fiames.  It  is  incorrect  to  speak  of  him  as  "  a  reformer 
before  the  Reformation,"  for  he  had  no  thought  of  leaving  or 
opposing  the  Church.  Yet  his  insistence  upon  the  Bible 
as  the  surest  guide  to  the  knowledge  of  spiritual  things,  and 
his  protests  against  the  corruptions  of  the  Church,  had  un- 

?[uestiouabIe  infiuence  in  hastening  the  Reformation  which 
ollowed  so  shortly  after.  Among  the  many  works  of  Savo- 
narola the  best  known  is  his  Triumphus  Crucia  de  Veritate 
Fidei  (Florence,  1497 ;  Eng.  trans.  Triumph  of  the  Cross, 
London,  1868 ;  also  translated  Sorrow  ana  Hope :  Medita- 
tion on  the  Slst  Psalm,  written  in  Prison,  1894).  The  prin- 
cipal Life  of  Savonarola  is  by  Prof.  Pasquale  Villari  (2  vols. 
8vo,  Florence,  1860 ;  translated  into  EngUsh  by  Homer,  Lon- 
don, 1863 ;  2d  ed.  1888),  with  full  references  to  authorities 
and  a  list  of  Fra  Qirolamo's  works,  both  published  and  un- 
published ;  see  also  W.  R.  Clark*s  Life  and  Times  of  Savo- 
narola (1878).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Savory :  popular  name  of  the  Satureja  hortensis  (sum- 
mer savory)  and  of  the  Satureja  montana  (winter  savory), 
labiate  garden-herbs  of  Old  World  origin,  employed  in  ao- 
mestic  cookery  for  their  flavor. 

Savoy :  formerly  a  political  division  of  the  kingdom  of 
Sardinia,  and  originally  the  family  possession  of  the  dynasty 
now  reining  in  Italy.  Li  1860  it  was  ceded  to  France,  and 
it  is  divided  into  the  two  departments  of  Savoie  and  Haute- 
Savoie.  Savoy  is  the  loftiest  mountain  region  of  Europe, 
containing  the  highest  peak,  Mont  Blanc.  Bounded  N.  oy 
the  lake  of  Geneva  and  E.  by  Piedmont,  it  is  covered  by  the 
Graiian  Alps,  and  entirely  broken  up  into  mountains  and 
valleys.  It  contains  very  little  arable  land,  but  that  which 
it  contains  is  most  carefully  cultivated,  planted  with  vines 
and  mulberry-trees,  and  generally  produces  wheat  enough 
for  home  consumption.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Savoy  is 
not  great,  though  coal,  lead,  iron,  etc.,  are  found,  and  to 
some  extent  worked.  But  the  pastures  which  cover  the 
mountains  are  very  important,  ana  feed  large  herds  of  cattle 
and  sheep ;  dairv-farraing  is  the  principal  occupation.  The 
area  of  tne  two  aepartments  is — Savoie,  2,224  so.  miles,  with 
(1891)  263,297  inhabitants ;  Haute-Savoie,  1,667  sq.  miles, 
with  (1891)  268,267  inhabitants.  The  Savoyanis  are  an  hon- 
est, industrious,  intelligent,  and  hosiiitable  race,  deeply  at- 
tached to  their  native  country.  They  emigrate  in  large 
numbers,  but  when  they  have  amassed  enough  wealth  they 
return  to  live  in  their  fatherland.  | 


Saroy  Conference :  a  conference  between  Episcopalian » 
and  Presbyterians  held  in  London  soon  after  the  Resto- 
ration. The  Episcopalians  were  determined  to  restore  the 
Church  of  England  to  what  it  was  before  the  civil  war.  but 
the  Presbyterians,  who  mainly  had  been  in  possession  of 
church  benefices  and  church  power  for  many  years,  con- 
tended for  some  modification  of  the  former  system.  A 
royal  commission  was  issued  on  Mar.  25. 1661,  appointing 
certain  Church  of  England  and  Presbyterian  (Dvines  t«. 
confer  together,  and  gave  them  authority  to  review  th** 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  to  compare  it  with  ancient  litur- 
gies, to  consult  respecting  exceptions  made  to  it,  and  by 
agreement  to  make  alterations  such  as  would  satisfy  tender 
consciences  and  restore  unity  to  the  Church.  The  instru- 
ment appointed  **  the  master's  lodgings  in  the  Savoy,'*  L<jn- 
don,  as  tne  place  of  meeting.  As  the  terms  of  the  commis- 
sion specified  advice  and  consultation  as  purposes  of  the 
meeting,  friendly  conference  seemed  necessary;  but  the 
Episcopal  party  manifested  no  disposition  for  anvthing  oi 
that  kind.  Tney  required  written  communications  frcnn 
their  opponents  stating  their  exceptions  to  the  Liturgy,  acd 
to  them  gave  answers  both  uncourteous  and  captious,  nut 
indicating  any  disposition  to  conciliate,  but  foreclosing  ti,e 
possibility  of  removing  Presbyterian  objections.  The\ 
said:  The  alterations  asked,  if  allowed,  would  be  a  virtual 
confession  that  the  Liturgy  was  an  intolerable  burden,  a 
cause  of  schism,  and  would  justify  past  nonconformitj. 
Taking  such  ground,  it  mattered  not  what  the  object  it  >{!» 
made  might  be — none  was  admissible ;  and  therefore  U*  b>i- 
vise  and  consult  was  a  thing  out  of  the  question.  It  ha<i 
been  arranged  that,  while  the  rest  of  the  Presbyterian 
brethren  employed  themselves  in  drawing  up  ejccepiwns 
against  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  Baxter  should  pre^uire 
additions.  In  one  fortnight  he  accomplished  his  task  an<i 
presented  his  reformed  Liturgy.  The  author  tells  us  that  h'^ 
compared  what  he  did  with  the  Assembly's  Directory,  \\\v 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  Hammond  I'Estrange*;  but 
he  seems  to  have  borrowed  little  or  nothing  from  th<<e 
sources,  beyond  introducing  or  allowing  the  use  of  tht^ 
creeds — sometimes  the  use  of  the  Athanasian  Creed — the 
Te  Deum,  and  the  Psalms  in  order  for  the  day.  A  rejoiniier 
to  the  bishops'  answers  touching  exceptions  made  to  tht^ 
Liturgy  followed  on  the  part  of  tne  ministers,  but  no  efft-ct 
was  produced  by  it.  At  last  it  was  settled  that  there  shciuld 
be  a  formal  debate,  to  be  conducted  by  three  persons  en 
each  side.  Strangers  were  allowed  to  be  present,  and  th«* 
room  was  full  of  auditors,  young  Tillotson,  the  eminent 
preacher  and  archbishop  of  later  days,  being  among  them. 
The  debate  turned  upon  vague  abstractions  and  upon  subtle 
theological  distinctions,  occasionally  intemiptea  by  out- 
bursts of  temper  and  uncivil  personalities.  As  might  be 
expected,  the  hall  of  the  Savoy  Palace  became  an  arena  f^r 
logical  gladiatorship,  the  object  of  the  meeting  was  a  strife 
for  victory,  and  the  end  of  the  conference  was  hopeles*^  iH*- 
agreement.  Baxter's  Reformed  Liturgy  was  reprinted,  e^l- 
ited  by  Charles  W.  Shields,  under  title  The  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer  as  Amended  by  the  Presbyterian  Divines  o^ 
1661  (Philadelphia,  1864;  2d  ed.  New  York,  1883). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Saroy  Declaration :  an  ecclesiastical  document,  derivit^i; 
its  name  from  the  Savoy  Hosoital  in  London,  where  it  VM^ 
framed.  Before  the  death  of  6liver  Cromwell  a  meeting  w*« 
convened  by  notice  from  the  clerk  of  the  council  of  state,  aii- 
dressed  to  the  Congregational  elders  resident  in  London. 
Cromwell,  though  not  favorable  to  the  proceeding,  yet  jxr- 
mitted  it ;  but  tne  ministers  did  not  meet  until  after  hi^  xU- 
cease;  then  they  assembled  in  the  Savoy  Sept.  29,  16r>8,  t-. 
declare  the  principles  of  their  faith  and  polity.  The  busint^s 
was  disliked  b^  people  about  the  court,  who  feared  it  uii^lit 
lead  to  fresh  divisions  between  the  Independents  and  Prt-^bv- 
terians.  There  might  be  political  intrigues  at  the  backpToun«i 
of  the  movement,  for  Cromwell  said  in  reference  to  some  of 
its  projectors,  who  were  republican  officers,  "  They  must  W 
satisfied,  or  we  shall  all  run  back  into  blood  again."  At  a,\ 
events,  when  the  meeting  came  to  be  held  nothing  was  d«Ti.» 
which  the  Protector  would  have  disapproved.  The  Devln- 
ration  did  not  clash  with  the  sentiments  of  broad  charit>  ^  • 
dear  to  his  heart.  As  to  doctrine,  the  Declaration  is  subsfnn- 
tially  the  same  as  the  Westminster  Confession.  Its  specia::> 
consists  in  its  outline  of  ecclesiastical  order.  Whereas  tl.o 
covenants  or  mutual  agreements  into  which  Congregatioiia.- 
ists  had  entered  at  the  formation  of  their  churchi»s  in  the 
time  of  the  civil  wars  generally  contained  some  refen.»nct.< 


^      HAWnibu                    a^       ^1 

^^1 

^^^H 

''^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^KFf  ' 

1 

^^H 

^^1 

^Hi 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Kt^w7>J.I     1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^V- 

Ofifi^r            ^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 

ml?tt»iTFiT  trff  til"  Trrt:n»I  r^rfj^r^Titinc  ^rp*;              ^^| 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^m  ' 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Hr 

^^^1 
^^^1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Brak  cult; 

^^^1 

^^H 

^^^H 

330 


SAWYER 


SAXE-<JOBURG  AND  GOTHA 


same  ^te,  and  then  the  entire  log  could  be  cut  into  boards 
by  a  single  traverse  of  the  carriage. 

In  the  more  recent  gang-saw  mills  there  are  two  gates,  in 
one  of  which  there  are  but  two  saws,  through  which  the  log 
is  first  passed  and  made  parallel-sided ;  it  is  then  turned 
upon  one  of  these  sides  and  passed  through  the  second  gate, 
in  which  there  is  a  suflScient  number  of  saws  to  cut  the  log 
into  the  desired  thickness  of  boards  or  planks. 

Circular  saws,  driven  by  steam  or  water  power,  have  been 
largely  used  for  the  manufacture  of  lumber,  especially  in 
the  U.  S.,  where  their  use  for  that  purpose  originated  in  a 

rtent  granted  on  Mar.  16, 1820,  to  Robert  Eastman  and 
Jaquith,  of  Brunswick,  Me.  Multitudes  of  other  patents 
for  circular-saw  mills  have  been  granted,  covering  more  or 
less  valuable  improvements,  but  this  form  of  mill  remains 
a  very  wasteful  means  of  converting  timber  into  lumber. 

The  band-saw  has  been  adapted  to  the  sawing  of  logs,  and 
is  used  to  a  large  extent  on  tne  Pacific  coast  of  the  iTS.  for 
utilizing  the  large  timber  of  that  region ;  this  form  of  saw  is 
less  wasteful  and  works  rapidly.  W.  F.  Durfee. 

Sawyer,  Leicester  Ambrose:  biblical  scholar;  b.  at 
Pinckney,  N.  Y.,  July  28, 1807;  graduated  at  Hamilton  Col- 
lege, Clinton,  N.  Y.,  1828 ;  studied  theology ;  was  ordaifted  as 
a  Presbyterian  minister  in  1882,  and  from  1840  to  1847  was 
teacher  in  Central  College,  Ohio,  after  which  he  preached  in 
several  places ;  subsequently  was  editorially  connected  with 
the  Utica  Morning  Herald,  Author  of  Elements  of  Biblical 
Interpretation(Sew  Haven,  1886);  Mental  Philosophy  (1839) ; 
Moral  Philosophy  (1845) ;  A  Critical  Exposition  of  Bap- 
tism (Cincinnati,  1845) ;  Organic  Christianity,  or  the  Church 
of  God  (1854) ;  and  The  Reconstruction  of  Biblical  Theories, 
or  Biblical  Scie^ice  Improved  (1862).  In  1838  he  began  a 
new  translation  of  the  entire  Bible,  which  he  completed 
about  1862.  The  New  Testament  was  published  at  Boston, 
Oct.,  1858.  The  prophetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
were  issued  Dec.,  1860,  and  the  book  of  Daniel,  with  the 
apocryphal  additions,  was  separately  issued  in  1864.  The 
reinainmg  (earlier)  portions  oi  the  Old  Testament  were  not 
published.  Revised  by  W.  H.  Whitsitt. 

Sawyer,  Philetus  :  U.  S.  Senator ;  b.  at  Whiting,  Vt., 
Sept.  22, 1816;  went  to  Wisconsin  1847;  engaged  in  the  lum- 
ber business  at  Oshkosh  on  an  extensive  scale ;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Legislature  1857  and  1861 ;  mayor  of  Oshkosh 
1863-64 ;  was  a  delegate  to  the  Loyalists'  convention  1866, 
and  sat  in  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1865  to  1875,  when 
he  declined  a  re-election.  He  served  on  several  important 
committees  connected  with  the  business  interests  of  the  North- 
west, and  became  chairman  of  the  committee  on  Pacific  rail- 
ways.   He  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  Wisconsin  1881-93. 

Sawyer,  Thomas  Jefferson,  D.  D.  :  clergyman ;  b.  at 
Reading.  Vt.,  Jan.  9, 1804 ;  graduated  at  Middlebury  College 
1829 ;  was  pastor  of  a  Universalist  church  in  New  York 
1830-45,  and  again  1852-61,  having  in  the  interval  been 
principal  of  the  Liberal  Institute  at  Clinton,  Oneida  co., 
N.  Y. ;  taught  theology  in  the  same  institution ;  resided  on  a 
farm  at  (Uinton  1861-69.  after  which  he  became  Professor 
of  Theology  in  Tufts  College,  Medford,  Mass.,  an  institution 
which  he  had  been  instrumental  in  founding  (1852),  as  he 
had  also  been  in  the  establishment  of  the  theological  de- 
partment of  the  St.  Lawrence  University  (1856).  He  has 
defended  the  doctrines  of  Universalism  in  public  discus- 
sions with  clergymen  of  other  denominations,  and  some  of 
these  polemics  have  been  published,  the  most  important 
being  the  discussion  with  Rev.  Isaac  Westcott,  entitled  The 
Doctrine  of  Eternal  Salvation  (New  York,  1854).  In  oppo- 
sition to  the  views  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  he  published 
Who  is  our  Ood  9  the  Son  or  the  Father  9  (1859).— His  wife, 
Caroline  M.  Fisher,  b.  at  Newton,  Mass.,  Dec.  8,  1812,  was 
married  1832;  has  written  much  in  prose  and  verse  for 
periodicals,  especially  The  Christian  Messenger;  published 
several  translations  from  the  French  and  German,  and  ed- 
ited The  Ladies^  Repository,  a  Universalist  monthlv  maga- 
zine. She  also  published  the  Poems  of  Mrs.  Julia  II.  Scott 
(1854),  preceded  by  a  Memoir, 

Saxe,  John  Godfrey  :  poet  and  humorist ;  b.  at  Highgate, 
Vt.,  June  2,  1816;  graduated  at  Middlebury  College  1839; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  St.  Albans  1843 ;  practiced  law 
in  Franklin  County  1843-50 ;  was  editor  of  the  Burlington 
Sentinel  1850-56 ;  was  State's  attorney  of  Vermont  one  year, 
after  which  he  devoted  himself  chicny  to  literature  and  to 
popular  lecturing ;  was  Democratic  candidate  for  Governor 
1859  and  1860.  Author  of  several  volumes  of  humorous 
poems,  the  longest  of  which  were  delivered  at  college  com- 


mencements and  other  anniversary  occasions.  His  puh- 
lished  works  include  Progress  (1846) ;  New  Rape  of  the  Li^rk ; 
The  Proud  Miss  McBride;  The  Money  King  (l^^) :  i'Ui^r 
Stories  of  Many  Nations;  The  Masquerade  (1866);  hiid 
Leisure  Day  Rhymes  (1875).  More  than  fortv  editi<»n>  A 
his  collected  poems  have  been  issued  in  the  U.  S.  and  in 
England.    D.  at  Albany.  N.  Y..  Mar.  81,  1887. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Saxe,  Marshal:  the  name  bv  which  Maurice,  Count  «f 
Saxony,  is  generally  known.    Ife  was  born  at  Go»lar.  i  >< '. 
28, 1696;  a  son  of  Augustus  II.  the  Strong,  Elector  of  Sax- 
ony and  King  of  Poland,  and  Aurora  von  K5nigsmark.    li. 
his  twelfth  year  he  was  in  the  army  of  Prince  Eugene,  ai  -i 
in  1711  received  formal  recognition  from  his  father,  wh- 
raised  him  to  the  rank  of  count,  but  his  debaucheries  ai.<: 
dissipations,  in  which  he  surpassed  even  his  father,  deveb  '{--j 
as  early  and  as  rapidly  as  his  brilliant  talents.    He  M'r\»., 
in  a  campaign  against  the  Turks  in  1717,  and  two  y<'ar^ 
later  went  to  France,  bought  a  regiment,  was  ap|x>ii.:»-«: 
maricheU  de  caf?ip,  and  studied  with  great  energ>'  muih< 
matics,  mechanics,  and  fortification.    In  1726  the  estate^  •  ( 
Courland  elected  him  duke,  but,  declining  the  pro  wised  mar- 
riage  with  the  duchess,  he  maintained  nis  ducal  autht-rii} 
against  her  opposition  with  great  difficulty,  sup{)ortinL*  a 
small  army  by  means  of  the  money  lent  him  by  Adrifii* 
Lecouvreur,  the  actress.    In  1727  he  withdrew  to  Paris.  .\\ 
the  outbreak  of  the  Austrian  War  of  Succession  he  offers  i 
his  services  to  his  native  country,  but  by  the  fault  of  ( \  l:.' 
BrQhl  they  were  not  accepted,  and  he  received  a  FrvL.  h 
command.    Be  took  Prague  by  storm  in  1741,  and  foutlt 
with  great  distinction  in  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  and  on  t^t- 
Rhine  ;  but  his  fame  as  a  great  general  he  gained  chiefly  \y 
his  campaigns  in  Flanders  from  1744  to  1748.    He  w<n  k 
brilliant  victory  at  Fontenoy  May  11, 1745,  and  at  Raui  i  ui 
Oct.  11, 1746.    He  took  Brussels,  Bergen-op-Zoom,  and  Mari- 
tricht,  and  conquered  the  whole  of  Belgium.    The  enthusi- 
asm of  the  French  people  and  king  knew  no  bounds ;  hon*  r> 
were  heaped  upon  him ;  he  was  made  marshal-eeneral  <>f  aii 
French  camps  and  armies,  and  presented  with  the  imlmf 
and  estates  of  Chambord,  where  ne  led  a  princely  life,  hi.<i 
died  Nov.  80,  1750.    His  RSveries,  written  m  1731,  but  aft^^r 
ward  revised  and  much  enlarged,  is  full  of  ingenious  ai  <i 
audacious  ideas;  his Xe//re«  e/ Jtf^otrM,  published  in  1T'.»4. 
have  also  some  interest.  Revised  by  F.  M.  CoLii^ . 

Saxe-Artenburg :  a  duchy  of  the  German  empire ;  an  a. 
511  sq.  miles;  pop.  (1890)  170,864;  budget  of  1895,  3,847,11'' 
marks;  public  debt  (July,  1898),  887,460 ;  is  situate*!  N.  K 
of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  and  consists  of  two  separate  (<un^ 
called  the  eastern  and  the  western  district.  Capital,  Al'«  r- 
burg.  By  the  division  of  1485  the  country  fell  to  the  All"  r- 
tine  line.  In  1558  it  was  returned  to  Duke  Johanu  Fr:.-.- 
rich  the  Magnanimous,  of  the  Ernestine  line,  and  was  u).<i>  r 
dukes  of  its  own  from  1603  to  1672,  when  the  ri*i>rn:i.^ 
family  became  extinct,  and  it  fell  to  Saxe-Gotba.  As  t!..« 
line  too  became  extinct  the  country  fell,  aceordintj  t*»  *:  • 
convention  of  Nov.  15,  1826,  to  the  Duke  of  Saxc-HiMluir.- 
hausen,  who  gave  up  his  own  country,  Hildburghaustii,  h'  : 
became  Duke  of  Saxe-Altenburg.  His  descendants  an*  ^: 
reigning.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrinuton. 

Saxe-Co'bnrg  and  Gotha,  -gotak :  two  duchies  whu  h  t- 
gether  form  a  constitutional  and  hereditary  monarchy,  ur- 
der  the  sovereignty  of  a  duke,  and  an  independent  in«nU ♦ ' 
of  the  German  empire;  area,  755  sq.  miles,  of  which  217  - 
miles  belong  to  Coburg  and  588  sq.  miles  to  Gotha ;  8e[>arat^  •. 
from  each  other  by  the  Thuringian  Forest — Coburjf  t«»  tbt  S. 
and  Gotha  to  the  N.    Pop.  (1890)  206,513.    Capitals,  C\a.u  . 
and  Gotha.     Each  duchy  has  a  legislative  chamber  of  :'- 
own  (Gotha  19  and  Coburg  11  deputies).    These  depur.^ 
also  form  a  common  diet  for  the  united  duchies.     C  «>1  ^ 
has  a  budget  of  1.233,200  marks,  with  a  debt  of  3.2i:J.^-  < 
marks:  Gotha,  a  budget  of  4,204,150,  and  a  debt  of  140. 1 *'^. 
There  is  also  a  budget  of  2.012,182  marks,  common  to  thi- 1«  i 
duchies.    Since  the  accession  of  Duke  Ernst  II.  in  1844.  tl  •  - 
two  small  duchies  have  formed  the  stariing-point  for  tv..    i 
intellectual  progress.    The  union  of  the  two  countries  daiH 
from  1826.    The  house  of  Saxe-Coburg,  founded  in  1«>m».  t  • 
came  extinct  in  1699.    The  contest  concerning  the  lirri tr- 
ended in  1720.    The  Duke  of  Saxe-Saalfeld  re<-eivttl  •   .! 
country.    The  Dukes  of  Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg  rx^i^ne  1  1 1 
1826,  when  they  ceded  Saalfeld  to  Meiningen,  and  nnti^.  I 
Gotha,  whose  own  dynasty  had  died  out.    Ernst  II.  va>  ^j. 
ceeded  in  1893  by  his  nephew,  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Habjumutus. 


j5^*r,>f /litrtjt  iff  t.iir-  t  iitaft  '^.^M'nS,  »*m'  fiftinn  ' 


tfjf  tfia, 


Saxoiif.  Klfer^oni  oj 


liiptf% 


U.  i>UI/U^ 


rf»JJ.*A,    .Vlii*TM*M'^.    ft  f-     [ 


III  '^«  *♦.•('»•  .   If  ■  L»-'    ,    '  ;  (I'T  I '  »    ■  ir    T  r»<'  •  •  "T  •  u^ii   i';  iJii- 


ii    •.jj. 


332 


SAXONY,  KINGDOM  OP 


the  particular  Saxon  Government,  whioh  is  independent 
with  respect  to  the  interior  administration.  The  reigning 
king  is  Albert,  who  ascended  the  throne  Oct  29, 1873 ;  the 
representation  of  the  people  is  composed  of  two  chambers. 
The  finances  are  in  good  order.  The  budget  estimate  for 
each  of  the  years  1892-98  was  97,688,109  marks,  with  a  sp- 
cial  revenue  and  disbursement  of  51,405,100  marks,  relatmg 
to  public  works.  More  than  half  the  total  revenue  is  de- 
rived  from  state  domains,  forests,  and  railways,  the  last 
alone  giving,  in  1892,  a  net  revenue  of  80,597,450  marks. 
The  total  debt  in  1892  was  625,780,750  marks,  nearly  all 
incurred  in  the  acquisition  of  railways  and  telegraphs,  and 
the  promotion  of  other  works  of  public  utility.  The  total 
income  of  all  classes  of  the  population  was  estimated  in  1892 
at  1,584,950,632  marks,  an  increase  of  17,000,000  marks  over 
the  preceding  year.  The  army  forms  the  Twelfth  Corps  of 
the  German  imperial  army.  The  Saxon  colors  are  green 
and  silver. 

History. — That  German  tribe  which  the  Romans  called 
Saxones  was  in  ancient  times  settled  between  the  Eider,  the 
Elbe,  and  the  Trave.  Charlemagne  made  war  upon  them 
772-804,  and  subjugated  them,  and  Saxony  became  a  duke- 
dom, belonging  to  the  Frankish  and  afterward  to  the  Ger- 
man empire.  Under  Otto  the  Magnificent,  Thuringia  was 
united  to  it,  and  Otto*s  son,  Henry,  became  King  of  Germany 
in  919.  His  successor,  the  Emperor  Otto  I.,  gave  the  duke- 
dom of  Saxonv  to  Hermann  Billung.  Under  the  house  of 
the  Billungs,  Saxony  made  war  upon  the  Emperor  Henry 
IV.  in  1073,  but  in  1106  the  house  became  extinct,  and  un- 
der the  Emperor  Lothar,  in  1125,  the  country  came  into  the 
possession  of  Duke  Henry  of  Bavaria.  His  son.  Henrv  the 
Lion,  increased  the  dukedom,  but  when  he  was  placed  un- 
der the  imperial  ban  his  dominions  were  scattered,  and, 
after  being  reduced  to  a  small  piece  of  land,  the  dukedom 
of  Saxony  was  given  to  Margrave  Bernhard  of  Ascania.  The 
house  of  Ascania  branched  ofl!  in  1260  into  two  lines,  of 
which  one,  the  Wittenberg,  became  extinct  in  1422,  while 
the  other,  the  Lauenburg,  reigned  until  1680.  The  title  of 
Duke  of  Saxony  followed  the  Wittenberg  branch ;  it  was 
changed  in  1355  to  that  of  elector,  and  both  land  and  title 
were  bestowed  on  Frederick  the  Valiant,  Mar^ave  of  Meis- 
sen, in  1423.  Thus  the  name  of  Saxony,  which  originally 
designated  a  tribe,  became  a  princely  title,  and  was  trans- 
ferred to  countries  with  which  it  had  no  historical  connec- 
tion. Since  1088  the  house  of  Wettin  has  reigned  in  the 
margraviate  of  Meissen.  In  1485  the  grandsons  of  Fred- 
erick the  Valiant,  Ernst,  and  Albert,  divided  the  inherited 
countries,  so  that  Ernst  received  Thuringia,  and  Albert, 
Meissen,  and  two  lines  were  thus  formed,  which  still  flour- 
ish, the  Ernestine  and  the  Albertine,  of  which  the  former 
reigns  in  the  Saxon  duchies,  the  latter  in  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony.  After  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1648,  the  rise 
of  Brandenburg  became  an  impediment  to  the  development 
of  the  electorate.  The  Elector  Augustus  embraced  Koman 
Catholicism  in  1697,  became  King  of  Poland,  and  involved 
Saxony  in  war  with  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.  His  succes- 
sor, Augustus,  sided  with  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria  against 
Frederick  of  Prussia,  and  in  the  Seven  Years'  war  Saxony 
suffered  heavy  losses.  Under  Frederick  Augustus  III.  (1763- 
1827)  the  country  again  began  to  rise,  though  it  had  some 
very  hard  years  also  during  this  period.  As  a  member  of 
the  German  empire  it  took  part  in  the  war  against  France, 
and  concluded  an  alliance  with  Prussia  in  1806,  but  after 
the  defeat  at  Jena  it  concluded  an  alliance  with  Napoleon 
and  entered  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  after  which 
the  elector  received  the  title  of  king.  By  the  Peace  of 
Tilsit  the  King  of  Saxony  obtained  the  duchy  of  Warsaw, 
which  had  just  been  established,  and  portions  of  Pnissia 
and  Austria,  but  after  the  battle  of  Leipzig  he  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  allied  Russians,  Prussians,  and  Austrians, 
and  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815)  was  deprived  of  7,720 
sq.  miles  of  territory.  In  the  long  period  of  peace  from 
this  moment,  and  up  to  1866,  the  country  became  very 
prosperous,  though  a  narrow  and  short-sighted  policy  of 
government  presented  many  obstacles  to  its  development. 
The  revolutionary  years  of  1848-49  brought  many  great  and 
beneficial  reforms  to  Saxony.  Aug.  9,  1854,  King  John  as- 
cended the  throne,  and  both  he  and  his  minister,  Beust,  made 
a  most  stubborn  opposition  to  the  Prussian  policy,  and 
showed  a  decided  partiality  for  Austria  as  the  leader  of  the 
small  states.  The  war  of  1866  brought  the  independence  of 
Saxony  in  imminent  danger,  and  the  king,  John,  saved  his 
crown  only  by  entering  the  North  German  confederacy, 
over  which  Prussia  presided,  by  paying  80,000,000  marks  in 


SAY 

war  indemnity,  and  by  dismissing  Beust.  The  liberal  partT 
in  Saxony  hailed  this  event  with  enthusiasm,  but  the  party 
consisting  of  the  court,  the  nobility,  and  the  army  omcf  rs 
continued  hostile  to  Prussia.  In  1870-71  the  Saxon  soldiers 
fought  under  the  leadershijp  of  the  crown  prince,  afterward 
Kin^  Albert,  as  true  allies  oy  the  side  of  the  Prussians,  anl 
the  interior  development  of  the  country  has  not  only  ke{  t. 
pace  with  that  of  the  rest  of  Northern  Germany,  but  m 
some  respects  even  advanced  beyond  it.  A  new  modiHta- 
tion  of  its  constitution  took  place  Oct.  12,  1874,  giving  to 
the  lower  house  of  representatives  a  more  democratic  ehnr- 
acter,  while  the  upper  house  is  still  strongly  aristocratic  m 
its  membership.  Revised  by  Al.  W.  Harbington. 

Saxton,  Joseph  :  inventor ;  b.  in  Huntingdon  co..  Pa.. 
Mar.  22, 1799.  His  mechanical  ingenuity  was  early  shown 
by  improvements  in  the  machinery  in  his  father's  nail-fai  - 
tory.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  went  to  Philadelphia,  and 
there  invented  a  machine  for  cutting  the  teeth  of  chroiion.- 
eter  wheels,  an  original  escapement  with  a  compensAtinj; 
pendulum,  and  made  the  clock  which  marks  the  Uiur 
from  the  belfry  of  Independence  Hall.  In  1828  he  went  t<i 
London,  where  he  resided  for  nine  years.  He  was  plac-eil  a> 
chief  assistant  in  the  Adelaide  Gallery,  then  the  great  s  :- 
entific  repository,  and  while  there  constructed  a  magnet* - 
electric  machine  by  which  the  first  magnetic  spark  wa>  jt«- 
duced.  He  also  constructed  the  apparatus  used  by  Whfu'- 
stone  in  his  experiments  on  the  velocity  of  electricity  in  is 
passage  through  a  wire.  He  next  invented  a  locomotirt' 
differential  pulley,  bv  means  of  which  high  speed  may  U 
given  to  vehicles  by  norses  traveling  at  a  slow  rate,  an<l  a 
medal-ruling  machine  for  tracing  lines  on  metal  or  glavN, 
representing  by  an  engi-aving  the  design  on  the  face  of  ih^ 
medal.  He  returned  to  the  U.  S.  to  superintend  the  «.-<r.- 
struction  of  the  machinery  and  balances  for  the  Phila*ki- 
phia  mint,  and  subsequently  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  v*  -d- 
struction  of  the  standard  weights  and  measures  for  the  V.  S. 
This  position  he  filled  with  ability,  furnishing  the  Statt 
capitals  and  the  custom-houses  with  accurate  sets  of  wei^hti^ 
and  measures.  A  gold  medal  was  awarded  him  at  the  Lon- 
don Exhibition  of  1851  for  a  large  class-balance  of  extren.f 
precision.  He  was  one  of  the  original  corporators  of  ilf 
National  Academy  of  Sciences.  Among  his  many  ingeni«  ri- 
de vices  and  inventions,  the  mirror-comparator  for  comj^ar- 
ing  and  the  tracing-machine  for  dividing  standard  nita- 
ures,  his  deep-sea  thermometer,  used  in  the  exploration  of  t  ti> 
Gulf  Stream  bv  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  his  self-registerii.  j 
tide-gauge,  ana  his  immersed  hydrometer,  deserve  es])€cial 
mention.    D.  at  Washington,  D.  C,  Oct.  26, 1873. 

Revised  by  R.  H.  Thurstos. 

Sax  ton,  RuFus :  soldier ;  b.  at  Deer  field,  Mass.,  Oct.  lt>, 
1824;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  July  1,1  M^ 
as  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  artillery :  from  1855  to  isVj 
was  on  coast-survey  duty,  and  for  a  year  was  assistant  in- 
structor of  artillery  tactics  at  West  Point.  On  the  outbrenk 
of  the  civil  war  he  was  stationed  at  St.  Louis,  and  (lani'i- 
pated  in  dispersing  the  Confederate  force  at  Camp  Jacks ^n. 
May  10,  1861 ;  appointed  assistant  quartermaster  U.S.  arm  v 
May  13,  1861,  he  served  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Lyon  as  chief 
quartermaster  until  transferred  in  July  to  the  staff  of  (i^^n. 
McClellan  in  West  Virginia.  In  September  he  accompaino>i 
the  expedition  to  Port  Royal,  S.  C. ;  appointed  brigatiler- 

fenerat  U.  S.  volunteers  in  Apr.,  1862,  ne  commaudiHl  at 
[arper's  Ferry  when  threatened  by  Jackson;  assigned  i«. 
duty  as  military  governor  of  the  department  of  the  S..u»h 
July,  1862,  where  he  was  engaged  in  organizing  Negro  lalor- 
ers  and  troops,  and  as  commissioner  of  the  Freed  men  V  Bu- 
reau until  Jan.,  1866,  when  he  was  mustered  out  of  the  vol- 
unteer service ;  brevet  major,  lieutenant-colonel,  colonei. 
and  brigadier-general.  In  1872  he  became  deputy  quartt- r- 
master-general  U.  S.  army,  with  rank  of  lieutenant-ooloru-l : 
in  1882  assistant  quartermaster-general,  with  rank  of  ouI«- 
nel ;  retired  Oct.  19,  1888.        Revised  by  James  Mercir. 

Say,  Jean  Baptiste :  economist;  b. in  Lyons,  France, .Tan. 
5,  1767 ;  was  educated  for  a  commercial  career,  and  spiiit  a 
part  of  his  youth  in  England;  found  employment  on  h.tr 
return  to  Paris  on  Mirabeau's  paper,  Courrier  de  /Vorv^.v, 
and  afterward  as  secretary  to  Claviere,  Minister  of  Finaiuv ; 
edited  from  1794  to  1800  La  Dicade;  became  a  memUr 
of  the  tribunate  in  1799;  published  his  celebrated  Trat!- 
d'iconomte  politique  in  1803,  and  enjoyed  a  great  reputa- 
tion when  his  thorough  disagreement  with  Napoleon *s  jK^lii  % 
compelled  him  to  retire  into  private  life.  He  establish^: 
a  large  spinning-mill,  and  published  in  1815  Caiechiume 


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SCAD 


SCALE-CAKP 


produced  by  the  burrowing  of  the  itch-insect  beneath  the 
cuticle  or  scurf -skin,  and  the  vesicles  are  the  result  of  inflam- 
mation to  which  its  presence  and  irritation  have  given  rise. 
The  insect  will  not  be  found  in  the  fluid  or  cavity  of  the  vesi- 
cle, but  by  laying  open  the  diverging  canals  with  a  fine  needle 
may  often  be  found  at  its  end.  This  parasitic  insect  is  known 
as  the  A  cams  scabiei,  or  Sarcoptea  nominia.  It  is  a  whitish 
insect,  from  rh^^  ^  lAr^h  of  an  inch  long.  The  male  is  mi- 
gratory in  his  habits,  and  small.  His  head  is  provided  with 
two  mandibular  organs  and  four  palpi  or  bristles ;  the  adult 
male  has  eight  le^s.  The  female  is  sedentary  in  habits,  and 
more  easily  founa,  especially  at  the  ends  of  channels,  where 
she  lays  her  eggs.  The  acarus  makes  its  progress  beneath 
the  epidermis  by  means  of  suckers  or  disks  upon  its  legs,  and 
by  aid  of  bristles  upon  its  back,  directed  backward.  Hahne- 
mann ascribed  itch  to  a  supposititious  cause,  a  subtle  humor, 
which  he  termed  psorOj  ana  which  he  regarded  as  the  cause 
of  multitudinous  ailments  of  all  kinds ;  but  the  microscope 
has  established  the  parasitic  nature  of  the  disease.  The  treat- 
ment of  scabies  consists  in  killing  the  parasites.  Remedies 
producing  this  end  are  termed  parasiticides.  Chief  among 
these  is  sulphur,  in  ointment,  powder,  or  vapor.  Sulphurous 
acid  is  a  convenient  application.  Carbolic  acid,  kerosene, 
petroleum,  strong  alkalies,  and  solution  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate are  also  efficacious.  Even  when  cured  as  a  specific 
disease,  the  redness  and  vesicles  may  linger,  a  chronic  con- 
dition of  irritation.    Soothing  ointments  are  then  indicated. 

Revised  by  W.  Peppeb. 

Scad :  the  Traehurus  trachunta,  a  fish  of  the  family  Car- 
angidcBj  distinguished  by  its  elongated,  fusiform  body,  com- 
pletely plated  lateral  line,  and  silvery  color.  When  fresh 
it  is  scarcely  edible,  but  it  takes  salt  well,  and  when  pickled 
is  very  good.  Immense  quantities  are  taken  in  the  British 
seas.  The  name  has  been  extended  to  congeneric  species, 
as  well  as  to  species  of  like  form  belonging  to  the  genera 
Traehuropa  and  Decapierua. 

SciBYola,  sev'5-laa:  a  cognomen  common  among  the 
members  of  the  plebeian  family  of  the  Mucii  in  ancient 
Rome.  The  two  most  prominent  members  of  the  family 
were  Quintus  Mucius  Sc^vola,  the  Augur,  and  Quintus 
Mucius  Sc-«voLA,  THE  PoNTiFEX,  both  Celebrated  as  jurists, 
and  nearly  contemporary.  The  former  was  tribune  of  the 
people  in  128  b.  c,  praetor  in  121,  consul  in  117,  and  died 
soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  Marius  and 
Sulla.  Cicero,  who  was  born  in  106  b.  c,  states  that  after 
assuming  the  garb  of  manhood  {toga  viHlia)  he  was  taken 
by  his  father  to  Sc»vola  to  be  instructed  in  law,  and  that 
he  remained  in  close  attendance  upon  him  until  his  death. 
The  Pontifex  Scievola  was  tribune  in  106  b.  c,  and  consul 
in  95.  He  was  proscribed  and  put  to  death  bv  the  party  of 
Marius  in  the  year  82.  Cicero,  who,  after  the  death  of  ScaBV- 
ola  the  Augur,  attached  himself  to  the  Pontifex,  character- 
izes him  with  the  epigrammatic  phrase  that  of  jurisconsults 
he  w^  the  most  eloquent,  and  of  orators  the  most  deeply 
versed  in  the  law.  Revised  by  G.  L.  Hendrickson. 

Seagliola,  sk&l-yo'lcilt  [from  Ital.  acagliiio'la,  liter.,  dimin. 
of  aca'qlia^  scale] :  an  imitation  of  marble,  made  by  mixing 
ground  gypsum  with  glue,  coloring  it,  applying  it  to  the  sur- 
face to  h^  marbleized,  and  setting  into  the  soft  mass,  if  it 
be  desired,  bits  of  various  ornamental  stones.  When  hard 
the  surface  is  smoothed  and  polished.  It  is  an  admirable 
imitation  of  the  more  costly  marbles,  but  is  not  durable, 
especially  in  damp  places. 

Scala,  skaa'l^  (Lat.  Scaligeri) :  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
Italian  family  which  reigned  in  Verona  from  1260  to  1387. 
After  a  long  series  of  internal  disturbances,  tyrannv  alternat- 
ing with  anarchy,  Mastino  della  Scala  succeeded  in  1260  in 
making  himself  master  of  the  city.  He  ruled  with  firmness 
and  wisdom ;  the  citv  prospered,  and,  althoue^h  he  was  as- 
sassinated in  1277,  the  power  continued  in  his  family  for 
more  than  a  century,  tinder  Canerande  (1311-29)  the  for- 
tune of  the  family  culminated.  He  was  confirmed  in  his 
possessions,  to  which  were  added  Vicenza,  Padua,  Treviso, 
etc.,  by  the  Emperor  Henry  VII.  At  his  court  lived  Dante, 
and  many  of  the  most  magnificent  architectural  monu- 
ments of  the  city  were  erected  during  his  reign.  Most  of  his 
successors,  Cangrande  II.,  Paolo  Alboino,  and  others,  were 
worthless  and  infamous  tyrants,  and  in  1387  Galea/zo  Vis- 
conti  of  Milan  expelled  Antonio  della  Scala.  The  male 
line  of  the  family,  which  flourished  in  Bavaria  under  the 
name  of  Scaligeri,  became  extinct  in  1598 ;  the  female 
is  still  flourishing  in  the  families  of  Dietrichstein  and  Lam- 
berg. 


Scala  NoTa  (anc.  KtdwoKis):  town;  in  Asia  Minor,  vilayH 
of  Aidin  ;  7  miles  S.  W.  from  the  ruins  of  Ephesus  (see  niii|) 
of  Turkey,  ref.  5-D).  It  has  a  good  and  sheltered  harUr, 
and  is  the  main  port  of  the  towns  in  the  valley  of  the  M<^ 
ander.    Pop.  7,600,  almost  all  Greeks  £.  A.  G. 

Scald :  See  Burns  and  Scalds. 

Scaldhead :  See  Favus. 

Scale  [from  Lat.  aea'la,  flight  of  steps,  for  *aeadla,  deriv. 
of  acan'dere,  climb] :  a  mathematical  instrument  u^<e<l  m 
plotting  and  in  other  branches  of  applied  eeometr^.  It  con- 
sists of  a  slip  of  wood  or  other  material  divided  into  purr- 
in  accordance  with  some  mathematical  law.  Thecomrnoij 
ivory  ruler  of  the  instrument-maker  has  a  great  variet>  <f 
scales  stamped  on  its  faces,  of  which  the  accile  of  equal  part< 
and  the  actue  of  chorda  are  of  most  frequent  use. 

Scale  of  Equal  Parta, — This  consists  of  a  number  (»f 
inches,  or  aliquot  parts  of  an  inch,  laid  off  along  a  line.  The 
representative  fraction  gives  the  ratio  between  the  scale  anii 
the  object  it  represents.  Thus  if  the  scale  is  of  1  inch  t» 
8  miles  the  representative  fraction  is  1 :  506,^.  The  first 
part,  counting  from  the  left,  is  subdivided  into  ten  C4}U&1 
parts,  the  0  of  the  scale  being  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
part.  The  principal  diviaiona  are  numbered  from  the  0  t(v 
waid  the  rie;ht,  and  the  attbdiviaiona  toward  the  left.  This 
scale  is  used,  in  connection  with  a  pair  of  dividers,  for  lay- 
ing off  and  measuring  the  lines  of  a  drawing.  The  diat^uiial 
scale  is  used  to  further  divide  the  subdivisions.  If  the  di- 
vision is  into  tenths,  ten  parallel  lines  at  equal  distance:>  arv 
drawn  above  the  simple  scale,  and  the  perpendiculars  art- 
erected  at  the  ends  of  the  division.  Then  from  the  point.^ 
of  subdivision  on  the  uppermost  line  parallel  lines  are  urawn 
to  the  corresponding  points  one  subdivision  to  the  right  on 
the  base  line.  The  intercepts  of  these  diagonals  on  the  lint*> 
parallel  to  the  base  determine  the  length  of  the  farther  sub- 
division. 

Scale  of  Chorda. — This  scale  is  used  for  laying  off  and  for 
measuring  the  angles  of  a  drawing.  It  is  constructed  by 
laying  off  from  the  left-hand  extremity  of  a  given  line  the 
chords  of  all  the  arcs  from  0**  up  to  90°,  correspontlfn^  \o 
some  assumed  radius.  The  extremity  of  each  chord  i^ 
marked  by  a  corresponding  number ;  tfie  origin  of  the  s^^nN- 
and  the  extremity  of  the  chord  of  60%  which  is  equal  to  the 
radius,  are  marked  in  a  more  conspicuous  manner  than  rh*> 
other  divisions.  To  lay  off  an  angle,  the  vertex  and  out- 
side being  given,  take  the  chord  of  60°  as  a  radius,  and  fr.  r; 
the  vertex  of  the  angle  as  a  center  describe  an  arc  cuttiru 
the  given  side;  then  from  the  point  in  which  this  art*  vu\^ 
the  side  as  a  center,  with  a  radius  equal  to  the  chord  of  the 
arc  corresponding  to  the  given  angle,  describe  a  second  arc 
cutting  the  first;  join  this  point  of  intersection  with  the 
given  vertex ;  the  last  line  will  make  the  rei^uired  angle  with 
the  given  side.  The  method  of  measuring  an  angle  by 
means  of  the  scale  is  obvious. 

Scale :  in  music,  the  regular  series  of  sounds,  or  degree^ 
on  the  stave,  which  form  the  gamut.  The  scale  in  its  sim- 
plest form  consists  of  seven  steps  or  degrees,  counted  u{>- 
ward  in  regular  order  from  a  root  or  prime,  to  which  series 
the  eighth  is  added  to  complete  the  octave.  By  reverse 
motion  the  same  notes  form  the  descending  scale';  and  bj 
the  addition  of  other  notes  above  or  below  in  a  continuous 
order  the  scale  may  be  extended  to  seven,  eight,  or  more 
octaves.  The  diatonic  scale  is  that  which  consists  of  th** 
tones  and  semitones  of  the  octave  in  their  natural  order  ar  d 
relation;  as,  for  example.  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  P,  G,  A.  (For  the 
oriffin  of  this  scale,  see  the  article  Gamut.)  Of  the  diatonic- 
scale,  only  two  varieties  are  in  use  in  modem  music — viz.. 
the  major  and  the  minor.  The  chief  characteristic  interval 
in  both  the^  scales  is  the  third,  which  is  one  semiton*> 
greater  in  the  major  than  in  the  minor.  In  ancient  mu^u- 
several  other  diatonic  scales  were  in  use  as  described  undt* r 
the  head  of  Mode  {q.  v.).  The  word  scale  means  also  the  en- 
tire range  or  compass  of  sounds  producible  by  any  given  in- 
strument, as  the  scale  of  the  violin,  flute,  organ,  or  pian>. 
It  is  also  applied  by  organ-builders  to  a  graduated  rxiW, 
plan,  or  scheme  showing  the  lengths  and  diameters  of  thi* 
various  pipes  comprised  in  any  stop.  In  like  manner  tl.r- 
length  ana  thickness  of  the  strings  of  a  piano  are  rvf:\\- 
lated  by  a  carefully  graduated  scheme  called  the  accUe :  hence 
the  terms  new  or  improved  scale  refer  to  changes  adopts  I 
by  manufacturers  in  regard  to  the  length  and  thickness,  of 
the  strings.  Revised  by  Dudley  Buck. 

Scale-carp :  See  Carp. 


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SCANDINAVIA 


SCANDINAVIAN  LANGUAGES 


II.,  in  person.  In  1461  the  sultan,  hopeless  of  victory,  ac- 
knowledged the  independence  of  Albania  and  Epirus.  Per- 
suaded by  the  pope  to  violate  the  treaty  and  attack  the  Ot- 
tomans, bcanderbeg  won  eight  splendid  victories,  the  last, 
with  24,000  men,  over  Mohammed  II.,  who  had  100,000.  tie 
died  at  Alessio,  Jan.  17, 1468,  and  was  buried  at  Scutari  in 
Alt^nia.  When  in  1477  the  Ottomans  captured  Scutari, 
they  broke  open  his  tomb,  divided  his  bones  into  fragments 
as  precious  relics,  had  them  set  in  gold  and  silver,  and  wore 
them  around  their  necks  as  talismans  to  give  intrepidity  and 
success.  Despite  his  ferocity  and  lack  of  faith,  Scanderbeg 
is  deservedly  nonored  and  revered  as  the  **  hero  of  Albania. 

E.  A.  GaosvENOR. 

Scandlna^yia:  a  name  applied  by  the  Romans  to  a  sup- 
posed great  island  N.  of  Germany,' probably  the  southern 
point  of  Sweden,  extended  by  modems  as  a  geographic 
name  for  the  peninsula  between  the  Baltic  Sea  and  Gulf  of 
Bothnia  on  tne  one  hand,  and  the  North  Sea  and  Atlantic 
Ocean  on  the  other.  It  includes  Norway,  Sweden,  and  part 
of  Finland.  The  name  is  sometimes  used  in  an  ethnographic 
sense,  when  it  also  includes  Denmark.  See  Norway,  Swe- 
den, Denmark,  Finland,  and  Lapland.  M.  W.  H. 

Scandinayian  Languages:  the  name  applied  collectively 
to  the  Teutonic  languages  of  the  Scandinavian  north,  inclu- 
sive of  settlements  from  Scandinavia,  notably  Iceland  and 
the  Faeroes.  With  Gothic  and  West  Germanic  Scandinavian 
forms  the  Teutonic  branch  of  the  Indo-European  family  of 
languages.  An  earlier  classification  made  Scandinavian  and 
Gothic  East  Germanic  as  opposed  to  West  Germanic,  but, 
although  coincidences  in  some  points  exist,  no  other  rela- 
tionship than  the  one  at  present  assumed  is  probable.  The 
linguistic  territory  of  Scandinavian  is  Norway,  Sweden,  in- 
cluding parts  of  f^inland  and  Esthonia,  Denmark,  including 
the  adjoining  northern  parts  of  Schleswig  and  the  Danish 
dependencies  of  the  Faeroes,  Iceland,  and  Greenland.  At  an 
earlier  period  Scandinavian  was,  at  least  for  a  time,  the  lan- 
guage of  conquered  territory  elsewhere — ^viz.,  in  Swedish  set- 
tlements in  Russia  from  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh  century; 
in  Norwegian  settlements  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands 
from  800  to  1800 ;  in  the  Hebrides,  Northern  Scotland,  and 
the  Isle  of  Man  from  800  into  the  fifteenth  century ;  and  in 
Ireland  from  800  to  1800 ;  in  Danish  settlements  in  England 
from  the  ninth  into  the  eleventh  century ;  and  in  Danish 
and  Norwegian  settlements  in  Normandy  from  900  until 
after  1000.  From  the  Shetlands,  Ireland,  Scotland,  Eng- 
land, Normandy,  and  Russia  there  is,  however,  no  extant 
monument  from  ancient  times. 

In  its  historical  development  Scandinavian  falls  chrono- 
logically into  several  periods.  Common  Norse,  the  first, 
extends  from  the  earliest  time  down  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Viking  age  in  700.  It  is  the  homogeneous  parent  language 
of  the  north  before  it  shows  traces  of  dialectic  differences. 
The  second  period  is  coincident  with  the  so-called  Viking 
a^,  from  700  to  1050.  Instead  of  a  single  language,  three 
dialects  appear — Old  Norwegian,  Old  Danish,  and  Old  Swe- 
dish, including  the  sharply  defined  dialect  of  the  island  of 
Gotland,  Old  Gutnic,  to  which  was  added  after  the  settlement 
of  Iceland,  principally  from  Western  Norway,  in  the  ninth 
century,  a  fourth,  Old  Icelandic.  This  dialectic  separation, 
furthermore,  proceeded  in  such  a  way  that  two  groups  were 
formed — an  eastern,  made  up  of  Old  Danish  and  Ola  Swed- 
ish, together,  accordingly,  called  East  Norse,  and  a  western, 
comprising  Old  Norwegian  and  Old  Icelandic,  together 
called  West  Norse.  At  the  end  of  the  Viking  age  these 
dialects  again  had  differentiated  into  languages,  properly  so 
called,  whoso  early  or  "  old  "  period  extends  to  the  Reforma- 
tion, or  about  the  year  1530,  at  which  time  the  modern  or 
"  new  "  period  begins.  The  whole  development  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian languages  down  to  the  Reformation  is  commonly 
included  uncter  the  one  term  Old  Norse.  In  Scandinavia  it- 
self, in  the  Viking  age  and  later,  dqnak  tunga,  Danish  lan- 
guage, was  applied  to  the  language  of  the  entire  north ;  in 
the  same  signification  norrsnt  mdl,  Norwegian  lan^age, 
also  occurs  in  Norway  and  Iceland,  but  it  is  usually  limited 
spe<jifically  to  West  Norse. 

Common  Norse  is  only  scantily  preserved  in  Scandinavian 
loan-words  adopted  by  the  neighboring  Lapps  and  Finns  in 
the  early  centuries  oi  the  Christian  era,  and  in  something 
over  a  hundred  runic  inscriptions  in  the  earlier  Germanic 
alphabet  of  twenty-four  characters,  the  oldest  of  which  date 
from  about  the  year  500.  Of  the  Teutonic  dialects  Common 
Norse  even  more  than  Gothic  stands  nearest  in  essential 
points  to  Common  Teutonic.     Important  differences  be- 


tween Scandinavian  and  Gothic  observable  in  the  earliest 
time  are :  Norse  retention  of  final  a,  t,  u  of  stem  in  substan- 
tives, syncopated  in  Gothic ;  Norse  o^stems  end  ^nit.  sing. 
-CM,  dat.  sing.  -«,  Goth,  -is,  -a ;  an-stems  end  ^nit.  and  dat. 
sing,  -any  Goth,  -ins,  -in ;  u-stems  end  dat.  sing,  -i  u,  (joth. 
-au ;  r-stems  end  nom.  pL  -t if  (ii(  palatal  liquid),  Goth,  -ju*: 
1  sing.  pret.  of  weak  verbs  ends  -o,  Goth.  -a.  The  most  im- 
portant points  of  coincidence  with  Gothic  are  the  devt'it>[^ 
ment  of  Teutonic  jj  to  Gothic  ddj\  Norse  a^';  Teutonic  uw 
to  Gothic  gatCy  Norse  ggw ;  Teutonic  z  to  Gothic  s,  Noree  Ji. 

During  the  Viking  age  (700-1050)  it  is  possible  to  obtain 
for  the  first  time  a  tolerably  complete  view  of  the  languacf. 
The  sources  of  information  are,  as  in  the  earlier  period,  h>an- 
words,  and  not  only  in  Finnish-Lappish,  but  in  Keltic.  Ku^ 
sian,  and  Anglo-Saxon.  Runic  inscriptions,  besides,  occur 
in  great  numbers  over  the  whole  Scandinavian  norths  written 
after  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century  exclusively  in  the 
shorter  or  Old  Norse  alphabet  of  sixteen  characters.  To 
these,  after  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  is  to  be  added  a 
literature  consisting  of  the  oldest  Eddie  lavs  and  earl|( 
Skaldic  poetry  cit^  in  Icelandic  MSS.  of  tKe  thirteenth 
century,  until  then  orally  transmitted  and  still  preservinu 
an  archaic  form.  The  Viking  age  was  not  only  pre-emi- 
nently a  period  of  rapid  organic  change,  but  local  uifferen- 
tiations  occur  also  at  an  early  period,  as  has  already  b«^n 
noted,  in  two  well-defined  groups,  and  after  the  introducti<;u 
of  Christianity,  which  manes  tne  end  of  the  period,  there  are 
four  languages  instead  of  the  one  at  its  be^nning.  Aft*>r 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  a  native  literature  VK^gin^ 
in  Icelandic-Norwegian,  soon  abundant  enough  to  .««hcvr 
comprehensively  the  facts  of  the  language.  The  alpha)  •ft 
used  is  essentially  the  Latin.  From  the  runic  alphal)t't  f. 
thorn,  was  retained,  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  5  was  borroweii. 
To  indicate  new  vowel-conditions  the  MSS.  use,  but  incon* 
sistently,  various  digraphs  and  modified  forms.  Vowel- 
length  in  the  oldest  MSS.  is  indicated  by  accent. 

Old  Norse  in  the  literary  period  exhibited  the  following 
phonetic  conditions : 

A.  Sonants: 

Vowels:  Palatal.    Short:  »,/,  e  (^),  y,  s.    Long:  I,  ^,  q,  y,  S. 
Guttural.    Short:  a,  o,  u,  t\  q.    Long:  d,  6,  u,  v.  ^• 

In  the  function  of  sonants  (only  in  unstressed  syllables) : 

Nasals :  m,  n. 
Liquids :  — ,  /,  r. 

Diphthongs :  ct,  au,  ey  (ey) ;  ja,  jo,  j\ju,  jd,f6,  jh,  ju ;  t^a, 
re  (t'€),  vt,  vq,  rd,  vi,  i«,  vi,  vq. 

All  vowels  and  diphthon|^  may  be  nasalized,  c  has  a 
twofold  value :  close  Teutonic  e,  wnose  corresponding  hm^; 
form  is  i ;  open  6,  by  umlaut  from  a,  whose  long  form  is 
CB.  The  two  values  fall  together  in  most  MSS.  0  has  a  two- 
fold value :  short  close  6  from  close  e  or  0,  the  long  form  <• : 
or  short  open  d  from  open  0  or  q,  the  long  form  lackinc 
d,  which  is  used  in  most  printed  texts,  was  borrowed  froiu 
German  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

B.  Consonants: 


CLASSES  or  CONSONANTS. 


Explosives :  voiced — 
voiceless. . 

Spirants :  voiced 

voiceless. . . . 

Nasals 

Liquids 

In  the  function  of  con- 
sonants  


Labials. 


h 
m 


u,  f,  («•) 


Inter- 


Den- 
tals. 

!  PaUtAls 
1      and 
(irutturaU 

d 

i 

9 

n 

ff 
A- 

•..; 


There  was,  in  addition,  breath  (laryngeal)  h;  U  is  rt'pn- 
sented  by  2 ;  ha  by  x. 

The  consonants  occur  long  (geminated),  with  the  except  \*  »ti 
of  the  spirants  where  8  is  the  only  one  lengthened,  f  occur* 
in  loan-words.  Common  Norse  palatal  (dorsal)  R  (Teutonic. 
z)  is  merged  in  Old  Norse  r. 

Of  the  Common  Teutonic  vowels  Old  Norse  maintain**'., 
under  circumstances,  in  direct  continuity :  Short :  o,  e,  t\  o. ». 
Long :  d,  S,  I,  0,  a.  Diphthong  an.  Teutonic  «,  is  pepreisei  -.  t  *  : 
throughout  by  Old  Norse  d.  by  »-,  i^-umlaut  S,  Tout*  n-. 
ai  by  Old  Norse  d,  by  »-,  /^-umlaut  d ;  by  «-umlaut  W.  w):  1  • 
in  its  turn  as  final  is  contracted  to  ^,  and  sporadically  > 


^^^^M II  mil  1  III            1 

^^^^^^^^F: 

l^^^^^v'           H 

^^^1 

f  ^1 

^^^^^^ 

,   1 

^^^1 

* 

ii 

1 

v 

rit«Ji  i«t  uU  i\(itwrAv*N  («                ^^H 

^^B 

^^H 

^^^^H 

^^H 

haI  in  J111U17  ovuv  Ui                ^^H 

'Wrhliiit  lif  liH  iDcn)                  ^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Bf 

^^^H 

338 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE 


corresponding  active  form,  which  then  ends  in  -k,  -ak,  -zk. 
These  endings  were  supplanted  early  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury by  -z  or  -«,  whicn  somewhat  later  became  -zt  or  -zsL 
Modern  Icelandic  has  -at :  Swedish  and  Danish  have  -s. 

The  Use  of  the  Definite  Article. — The  definite  article  enn 
(inn)  stands  before  an  adjective,  but  after  a  substantive,  to 
which  it  is  suffixed  with  (original)  declension  of  both  sub- 
stantive and  article.  That  it  was  originally  free  in  the 
same  position  is  shown  by  instances  in  the  Old  Icelandic 
Stockholm  Book  of  Homilies,  so  called,  from  early  in  the 
thirteenth  century. 

For  the  history  of  the  individual  Scandinavian  languages, 
see  Danish  Language,  Icelandic  Language,  Norwegian 
Language,  and  Swedish  Language. 

Bibliography. — Adolf  Noreen,  Aliisldndische  nnd  Alt- 
norwegische  Orammatik  unter  Beruckaichtigung  dea  Umor- 
diaehen  (Halle,  1884);  Paul,  Grundriaa  der  Oermaniachen 
Philologie  (vol.  i.,  Strassburg,  1891),  in  the  chapters  Ge- 
aehichte  der  Nordiachen  Sprachen  by  Adolf  Noreen  and 
Sknndinaviache  Mundarten  by  J.  A.*  Lundell,  which  con- 
tain an  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  language ;  Old  Norse 
is  also  considered  in  Brugmann,  Elementa  of  the  Com- 
parative Grammar  of  the  Jndo- Germanic  Languagea  (vols, 
i.-iii.,  1888-92);  Cleasby-Vigfusson,  An  Icelandic- Engliah 
Dictionary  (Oxford,  1874);  J.  Fritzner,  Ordbog  over  det 
gamle  norake  Sprog  (Christiania,  1883,  aeg.):  SveinbjSrn 
Egilsson,  Lexicon  poeticum  antiqum  linguce  aeptentrionalia 
(Copenhasren,  1860;  Latin  definitions  of  poetical  words  and 
collocations);  Hugo  Gering,  Gloaaar  zu  den  Liedem  der 
rSaemundar]  Edda  (Paderbom  and  MUnster,  1887);  L.  F. 
A.  Wimmer,  Oldnordiak  Iceaebog  (Copenhagen,  1882);  Th. 
MSbius,  Analecta  Norrana  (Leipzig,  1877). 

William  H.  Carpenter. 

Scandinaylan  Literature:  the  literary  monuments  of 
the  Scandinavian  language  or  languages.  See  Scandina- 
vian Language,  Danish  Literature,  Icelandic  Litera- 
ture, Norwegian  Literature,  and  Swedish  Literature. 

Scandinayian  Mythology;  the  system  of  myths  per- 
taining to  the  Scandmavian  peoples.  It  is  frequently  called 
Norse  or  Northern  mythology,  but  might  more  properly 
be  denominated  Teutonic  mythology,  since  its  chiei  deities 
were  worshiped  not  only  in  Iceland,  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark,  but  also  in  Germany  and  England — in  short,  by 
every  branch  of  the  Germanic  or  Teutonic  race. 

Original  Sourcea, — Some  information  in  regard  to  this 
mythology  is  to  be  gleaned  from  the  old  runic  inscriptions 
found  on  monumental  stones  throughout  the  lands  inhab- 
ited by  Teutonic  races,  but  mainly  in  the  Scandinavian 
countries.  Heathen  Germany  supplies  a  few  ancient  laws 
and  glossaries  containing  mythological  words.  Formulas  are 
also  preserved  bv  which  converts  to  Christianity  renounced 
the  old  gods  ana  in  which  names  of  heathen  divinities  ac- 
cordingly occur.  Richer  veins  of  information  are  such  Ger- 
man heroic  poems  as  the  Nihelungen  Lied^  the  Gudntn,  the 
Saxon  Heliandy  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  Beoumlf.  Caesar,  in 
his  De  Bello  Gallico,  gives  us  glimpses  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  Teutonic  Druids  preserved  their  mythological 
songs  and  epics,  and  with  Caesar  Tacitus  ranks  as  a  source 
of  information.  Next  after  Caesar  and  Tacitus  come  the 
Christians  who  wrote  in  Latin  down  through  the  Middle 
Ages,  but  they  are,  as  a  rule,  very  silent  on  the  subject  of  the 
heathen  religion.  Among  this  class  of  writers  Denmark 
furnishes  a  remarkable  exception  in  Saxo  Grammaticus. 
The  first  eight  books  of  his  Hiatoria  Danica  contain  an 
outline  of  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  deities  being  pre- 
sented us  kings  and  potentates  of  early  times.  Mythological 
fragments  must  also  be  looked  for  in  the  customs,  habits, 
speech,  traditions,  proverbs,  ballads,  folk-lore  tales,  and  in 
tlie  usa<res  of  the  Christian  Church  throughout  Teutonic 
lands.  The  chief  sources  of  Scandinavian  mythology  are 
to  be  found  in  Iceland,  and  in  Icelandic  literature  the  most 
important  documents  ai-e  the  Elder  and  the  Younger  Edda, 
(See  Edda  and  Icelandic  Literature.)  The  Younger  Edda 
gives  in  prose  a  succinct  account  of  the  Odinic  religion.  It 
also  contains  some  poetic  quotations  not  found  in  tne  Elder 
Edda. 

Interpretafiona. — Modem  Authoritiea. — Both  Snorre  and 
Saxo  Grammaticus  present  the  euhemeristic  interpretation 
of  the  myths,  and  this  view  prevailed  until  late  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  Euhemerism  was  finally  superseded  by  the 
so-called  physical  interpretation  making  the  divinities  rep- 
resent the  various  forces  and  phenomena  of  nature.  This 
theory  was  most  elaborately  developed  by  the  Icelander 


SCANDINAVIAN  MYTHOLOGY 

Finn  Magnusson  in  his  Eddalceren  og  dena  Oprindelae  (Co- 
penhagen, 1824-26).  More  recently  an  ethical  has  Wt-n 
combined  with  the  physical  interpretation — that  is  ¥  \\\W 
accepting  the  phenomena  and  forces  of  nature  as  the  bii>N 
of  the  myths,  tne  scholar  seeks  to  establish  its  deeper,  phil«> 
sophic,  poetic,  and  moral  value  to  its  votaries. 

The  most  prominent  writers  on  Scandinavian  mytholocr 
of  the  nineteenth  century  are  Finn  Magnusson, 'T^wricon 
Mythologicum  (Copenhagen,  1828) ;  Jacob  Grimm,  Deutsfh 
Mythologie  (4th  ed.  1875;  an  Eng.  trans,  by  Stallybni^- 
London,  1880);  Karl  Simrock,  Deutsche  Mythologie  i^s- 
eral  editions);  Wilhelm  Mannhardt,  Germaniache  Mythm 
(1858) ;  P.  A.  Munch,  Nordmoindenea  Gudelxre  i  HedenUd 
(Christiania,  1847);  R.  Keyser,  Nordmcendenea  ReliavjtH 
forfatning  i  Hedendommen  (Christiania,  1847);  N.  F.  S. 
Grundtvig,  Nordena  Mythologi  (Copenhagen,  1808-1^2) :  N. 
M.  Petersen,  Nordisk  Mythologi  (Copenhagen,  1849) ;  Btn;*- 
min  Thorpe,  i^or//t<5m  ^y/Ao/o^ry  (London,  1851);  KaMtii.« 
B.  Anderson,  Norae  Mytholoay  (5th  ed.  Chicago,  iHtM-. 
Finally,  special  attention  should  be  called  to  the  elabora'e 
investigations  made  since  1880  by  the  Norwegian  lin^ui-t 
Sophus  Bugge  {Studier  over  de  nordiake  aude-  og  helte-fuigM 
(Jprindelae,  Christiania,  1890)  and  by  the  Swwlish  s<}in!ftr 
Viktor  Rydberg  {Underadkningar  %  germaniak  mythoh.'jx 
(GSteborg',  1886-90).  Bugge  attempts  to  show  the  influ^n'*- 
of  classical  mythology  and  early  Christianity  upon  ScaiMi- 
navian  myths,  while  Rydberg,  in  opposition  to  Bugp*',  vin- 
dicates the  exclusive  Teutonic  origin,  and  seeks  to  establish 
the  harmonious  connection  between  the  various  myth^  a^ 
parts  of  an  all-embracing  mythological  epic.  In  his  <on- 
nict  with  Bugge  he  is  ably  supported  by  the  Gernmu 
scholar  MttUennoff  {Deutaehe  Alterthumakunae^  vol.  v.,  lb*ci , 
An  English  translation  of  Rydberg*s  work  by  R.  B.  Antlt-r- 
son  appeared  in  London  in  1889,  and  bears  the  title  Teutuui' 
Mythology. 

General  Featurea, — The  various  forces  and  phenornt  tih 
of  nature — heat  and  cold,  night  and  day,  the  seasons,  t Insi- 
der and  lightning,  life  and  death — led  the  old  Teutoii>  t- 
speculate  on  the  rise,  development,  and  fall  of  all  \\\m: 
tnings.  The  Scandinavian  myths  are  inferior  to  the  Grt*^ 
in  point  of  beauty,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  ouir..i-N 
them  in  deep  significance  and  wealth  of  thouerht.  'I  ••• 
Greek  gods  live  a  nappy  life,  free  from  care.  The  life  of  i  fit- 
old  vikings  was  characterized  by  constant  stnigglt*  ai  a 
warfare,  and  so  their  gods  too  are  engaged  in  an  uncndn  .- 
conflict  with  the  powers  of  evil  which  they  never  wh'  .  . 
overcome.  A  peculiar  feature  of  the  asa- faith  is  its  e^  i;ik- 
tology,  by  which  it  presents  in  the  clearest  manner  the  i«l. .» 
that  the  present  world  must  perish  and  give  place  to  a  nt  « 
and  better  one.  The  gods  tnemselves  know  that  they  in 
common  with  all  other  beings  are  sinful  and  contaminate  i 
by  evil.  They  are  conscious  that  they  can  not  escape  dtn'L 
and  destruction,  but  they  seek  in  every  way  to  ward  off  ll  .i: 
terrible  catastrophe  as  long  as  possible.  'They  also  kn«  ^^ 
that  after  the  destruction  of  this  world  and  out  of  its  f nu- 
ments  there  are  to  rise  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth  win.  '. 
are  to  be  more  beautiful  than  the  present  universe  and  f n  *- 
from  sin  and  sorrow  and  care.  In  the  regenerated  wor! 
gods  and  virtuous  men  shall  enjoy  eternal  happiness.  T\\* 
Scandinavian  myths  form  a  drama,  in  which  every  dfta. 
leads  up  to  Ragnarok,  the  twilight  of  the  gods,  which  o  n- 
stitutes  the  final  act. 

Tlie  Creation, — In  the  beginning  (the  prechaotic  iK»ri«- 
there  were  two  worlds,  Niflheim  to  the  N.  and  Mu>j «  \-\ 
heim  to  the  S.,  and  between  them  was  Ginnuneagap.  ti.' 
wide  abyss.  In  Niflheim  were  the  well  Hvergermer.  fr»  •!. 
which  flowed  twelve  ice-cold  streams,  called  the  Eli\"i:-. 
into  Ginnungagap.  Muspelheim,  on  the  other  hand,  wilv  i-  - 
tensely  bright  ana  hot,  and  in  the  midst  of  it  sat  Surt  guar>:  • 
ing  its  borders  with  a  flaming  sword  in  his  hand.  The  K!  .- 
vogs  flowed  far  into  Ginnungagap,  where  the  venom  tti<'\ 
carried  with  them  became  ice.  Vapors  rose  and  fro/o  r  > 
rime,  and  in  this  way  were  formed  many  layers  of  conpt^n'..  V 
vapor.  Meanwhile  sparks  flew  from  Muspelheim,  and  ^  hr  n 
the  heated  blasts  came  in  contact  with  tne  frozen  vajx  »r  t : 
melted  into  large  drops,  and  hy  the  might  of  him  (Surt)  uK  . 
aent  the  h^at  these  drops  quickened  into  life  and  look  t :  ► 
form  of  an  immense  giant  named  Ymer  and  of  a  great  cn  .w 
named  Audhumbla  (chaos).  Ymer  was  nourish^  by  th' 
cow's  milk,  and  the  cow  fed  herself  by  licking  the  salt'ntiu" 
on  the  stones,  and  by  this  licking  she  produced  in  the  cour>«-i 
of  three  days  a  man  named  Bure.  Bure  begot  a  son,  narr  « *\ 
Bor,  by  the  giantess  Bestla,  daughter  of  the  ^ant  !<•  i- 
thom;  Bor  became  the  father  of  three  sons,  0dm  (spirit  >,; 


ntrTrtoT^^        ] 

1 

stifl  (C  IL  AfltlPrvari 

'\irit  WtMirMi 

ru^«<Ait^ 

340 


SCAPHOID 


the  heel  with  aflat-edged  spur.  The  spade-foot  toads  burrow 
by  day  and  feed  at  night.  In  the  breeding  season  they  fre- 
quent temporary  pools,  and  at  this  period  their  voices  are 
very  loud.  The'allied  genera  belong,  with  one  exception,  to 
the  Old  World. 

Scaph'oid,  or  Nayle'alar  Bone  [scaphoid  is  from  Gr. 
med^,  boat  4-  f 28o5,  appearance,  form,  likeness ;  navicular 
is  from  Lat.  navicula,  dimin.  of  na'viSy  boat] :  a  name  ap- 
plied to  one  of  the  bones  of  the  wrist,  and  another  of  the 
foot,  on  account  of  their  fancied  resemblance  to  a  boat  in 
shape. 

Scaphop^oda :  See  Mollusga. 

Scap'ala  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  gea'pulm  (plur. ;  sing,  not 
used),  shoulder-blades,  back] :  the  shoulder-blade,  a  bone  of 
the  anterior  or  upper  extremity,  forming  part  of  the  shoul- 
der. It  is  regarded  as  a  pleurapophvsis  of  the  occipital 
(fourth  cephalic)  vertebra.  In  man  ana  nearly  all  mammals 
it  is  normally  firmly  united  to  the  coracoid  bone,  which  is 
regarded  as  a  process  of  the  scapula,  thouf  h  representing  a 
hseapoph^sis  of  the  occipital  vertebra.  The  dorsum  of  the 
scapula  IS  marked  by  a  prominent  keel  or  spine.  The 
scapula  is  developed  from  seven  centers,  and  is  in  man  not 
fully  ossified  till  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  life. 

Scap^alar  [from  Late  Lat.  sca'pula^  shoulder,  formed  as 
sing,  to  Lat.  aca'ptUcB^  shoulder-blades] :  (1)  a  garment  worn 
by  lay  brethren  and  professed  monastics  of  various  Roman 
Catholic  orders.  It  is  a  long  piece  of  serge,  one  end  of 
which  falls  in  front  and  behind  the  wearer.  Its  size,  color, 
and  proportions  vary.  (2)  A  small  concealed  emblem  worn 
by  many  Roman  Catholics,  who  bind  themselves  to  a  certain 
round  of  religious  exercises  called  the  Devotion  of  the  Scapu- 
lar. There  are  several  scapulars,  as  that  of  the  Passion  and 
that  of  the  Seven  Sorrows  of  Mary,  but  the  original  one,  that 
of  Our  Lady  of  Mt.  Carmel,  was,  it  is  claim^,  revealed  by 
the  Virgin  to  the  Blessed  Simon  Stock,  an  English  Carmelite 
and  general  of  that  order,  who  died  in  1265. 

Sear'ab,  or  Scarabn'us :  a  black  or  metallic-colored  dun^- 
beetle  {ScarabcBus  cegyptiorum  or  Aieuchua  saeer)  found  m 
tropical  countries,  particularly  in  Egypt,  where  it  was  re- 
ganied  as  the  symbol  of  the  god  Khepea  (q.  v.),  and  the  em- 
blem of  the  revivification  of  the  body  and  the  immortality  of 
the  soul.  This  was  by  virtue  of  the  solar  significance  of  the 
object,  whose  Egyptian  name  (kl^eper)  signified  to  be  or  exist 
and  also  to  roll,  as  of  the  sun.  Tne  daily  revolution  and  re- 
appearance of  the  sun  typified  the  return  of  the  soul  to  life. 
The  beetle  places  its  eggs  in  a  mass  of  ox-dung  which  it  rolls 
into  a  ball.  The  ball  is  propelled  by  the  beetle  with  its  hind 
legs.  According  to  HorapoUo  and  early  Greek  and  Syrian 
writers,  the  female  did  not  exist,  and  hence,  as  procreated 
by  the  male  only,  the  scarab  was  held  to  be  a  symbol  of 
the  self-begetting  and  of  the  immortal,  while  in  the  hermetic 
literature  it  was  regarded  as  the  type  of  the  ^  only-begotten," 
of  "  generation,"  of  **  father,"  of  "  man,"  and  of  the  "  world." 
It  is  evident,  however,  that  these  latter  ideas  are  for  the  most 
part  foreign  to  the  original  Egyptian  conception. 

The  Egyptian  figures  of  the  scarab  were  made  of  gold, 
silver,  precious  stones,  granite,  basalt,  steatite,  faience,  and 
paste,  and,  in  the  Roman  period,  of  glass.  Those  in  stone, 
faience,  and  paste  were  usually  glazed  blue  or  green.  They 
were  inscribed  with  religious  or  nistorical  texts,  with  names 
of  gods,  kings,  and  other  persons,  and  with  magical  legends 
and  devices  which  are  impossible  of  clear  explanation.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  thev  were  ever  intended  to  be  read.  They 
may  most  conveniently  be  classified,  according  to  their  pur- 
pose, as  funereal,  ornamental,  and  historical.  Funereal 
scarabs  were  placed  on  the  fingers  or  over  the  heart  of  the 
dead,  and  in  the  latter  case  the  Ritual  of  the  Dead  (q.  v.) 
prescribed  that  certain  words  should  be  inscribed  on  a  scarab 
of  green  jasper  and  put  in  the  place  of  the  heart.  When 
buried  with  the  mummy  they  bore  a  variety  of  names  or  of 
magical  emblems  that  were  to  serve  for  the  protection  of  the 
dead.  Ornamental  scarabs  were  an  adoption  by  the  living 
of  the  trappings  of  the  dead,  and  were  apparently  employed 
principally  as  charms.  They  were  strung  together  lengthwise 
as  necklaces,  or  used  singly  as  rings  or  seals,  and  were  in- 
scribed with  the  name  of  the  reigning  sovereign,  or  some 
national  hero«  or  with  magical  or  ornamental  designs.  His- 
torical scarabs  comprise  all  those  bearing  royal  names  or 
historical  texts  or  data.    The  number  of  the  former  is  very 

freat,  and  nearly  every  king  from  Menes,  the  first  Egyptian 
ing,  to  the  Roman  Antoninus  is  represented  in  extant  speci- 
mens.   The  favorite  names,  if  frequency  and  number  may 


SCARLATINA 

form  the  test,  were  those  of  Thothmes  III.,  Amenophis  III., 
and  Ramses  II.  Curiously  enough  a  large  proportion  of 
these  scarabs  date  from  periods  other  tnan  that  of  th«: 
Pharaoh  in  question.  From  the  reign  of  Aroenophi>  IIL 
come  four  scarabs  which  contain  actual  historical  teit.s 
relating  to  his  prowess  as  a  lion-hunter,  to  the  limits  of  hi> 
kingdom  (from  Nubia  to  Mesopotamia),  to  the  arrival  of  L:> 
Semitic  bride,  and  to  the  construction  of  a  sacred  lake  iu 
his  eleventh  year,  which  has  intimate  connection  with  t\^ 
introduction  of  the  solar  monotheism  of  the  "  heretic  *'  kin;: 
of  the  succeeding  reign,  Amenophis  IV.,  or  Khanatea. 
When  Egyptian  influence  extended  to  the  East,  the  Phu-ni- 
cians  ana  others  borrowed  this  design  and  produced  objects 
to  which  the  name  scaraboids  is  usually  applied.  The  de^ 
sign,  and  in  part  the  symbolism,  were  also  adopted  by  th» 
Gnostics,  and  upon  their  gems  they  inscribed  appropriate 
legends.  The  manufacture  of  forged  scarabs  is  purxue^J 
to  a  large  extent  in  Egypt,  to  meet  the  demand  of  travel- 
ers, some  of  the  specimens  being  made  with  such  skill  a» 
to  deceive  the  unwary  or  even  experts.  See  Birch,  Cata- 
logue of  Egyptian  Antiquities  at  Alnunek  Castle  (liondcm. 
1880) ;  lioftie.  Essay  of  Scarabs  (London,  1884) ;  Budg«^, 
Catalogue  of  the  Egyptian  Collection  of  the  Harrow  SchtxA 
Museum  (Harrow,  w87).  The  Mummy  (pp.  281  fl.,  Lond«'n. 
1803),  and  Catalogue  of  the  FitzwiUiam  Collection  (Lond<m. 
1804) ;  Murray  and  Smith,  Catalogue  of  Oems  (Lon<lon. 
1888) ;  Petrie,  Historical  Scarabs  (London,  1889),  and  hi<i  i 
various  works,  such  as  Illahun  (London,  1891),  Havara  j 
(1889),  and  Kahun  (1890) ;  Meyer,  Scarabs  (New  York,  j 
1894).  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Scarborough  [0.  Eng.  Skardeburge,  fortified  rook]:  ! 
town ;  in  Yorkshire,  England ;  43  miles  N.  E.  of  York  ai.d  j 
54  miles  N.  of  Hull  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  5-J).  It  ri^^  I 
like  an  amphitheater  from  a  sandy  nay,  and  is  protected  on  | 
the  N.  by  a  promontory  which  is  crowned  by  an  histori. :%!  \ 
castle  dating  from  1136  and  rebuilt  by  Henry  II.  ScartM«r-  . 
ough  is  one  of  the  principal  watering-places  of  England :  tt  | 
has  an  aquarium,  a  museum,  a  market-hall,  a  spa,  with  ni::t- 1 
eral  springs  discovered  in  1620,  and  a  promenade  thrt^t: 
quarters  of  a  mile  long  opened  in  1890.  The  harl)or  is  in-  I 
closed  by  three  piers,  ana  has  a  floating  dock  and  a  li^hr- 1 
house.  Jet  is  manufactured  and  there  is  a  considerable  fi^.)-  j 
ing-trade.  Scarborough  returns  one  member  to  Parliament ' 
Pop.  (1891)  33,776.  R.  A.  K.     ' 

Scarf-skin :  See  Epidermis.  | 

Sca'ridn  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Sca'rus,  the  tynii-ai 
genus,  from  Lat.  sca'rus  =  Gr.  iritdpos,  a  kind  of  sea-fi^n  •  .s'.  i 
cretensis)] :  a  family  of  teleocephalous  fishes  known  as  parr.  ♦  - ' 
fishes,  from  some  resemblance  of  their  mandibles  to  the  1 
of  a  parrot    The  body  is  oblong  and  compressed ;  the  s«\i.^-* 
larse  and  cycloid ;  the  jaws  well  exposed,  and  with  the  t** :  ;< 
soldered  to  them,  so  that  they  form  a  cutting  edge,  but  « .:  h 
imbricated  series  of  older  worn  teeth;  dorsal  single,  with  u 
longer  anterior  spinous  part  (containing  nine  spines),  and  » 
shorter  posterior  portion  (with  ten  articulated  ravb) ;  ai    ' 
fin  corresponding  to  the  posterior  half  of  the  dorsal,  ur  • 

Erovided  with  two  spines  and  ei^ht  soft  rays ;  pectorals  w  r  r 
ranched  rays;  ventrals  thoracic,  with  one  spine  and  flvf 
soft  rays;  the  lower  pharyngeal  bones  are  ossified  topt*iht-r! 
in  a  solid  mass.  The  species  are  confined  to  the  tropical  n- 
gions,  and  in  these  latitudes  are  everywhere  to  be  found  <  : 
coral-reefs  and  among  the  groves  of  coral.  They  are  re}x>n  »»• . 
to  browse  upon  the  coral,  which  they  cut  by  means  of  thr:r 
strong  trenchant  jaws,  in  order  to  obtain  the  living  polyp,    i 

A  species  of  the  family  (Scaru^  cretensis)  was  known  t 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  was  the  subject  of  several  faM*  -  , 
In  the  reign  of  Claudius,  according  to  Pliny,  Optatu.s  K..- 
pertius  introduced  it  into  the  Italian  sea  between  Ch^tia  an  : 
Campania,  where  it  became  abundant.  It  was  regardeil,  :&'., 
least  for  a  time,  as  being  the  very  first  of  fishes.  i 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 
Scarlati'na,  or  Scarlet  Feyer  [scarlatina  is  Mod.  l.u* ., 
from  Ital.  scarlattina,  liter.,  dimin.  of  scarlatto,  scarlet  1 :  ,.:  vi 
of  the  acute  eruptive  or  exanthematous  fevers.  It  is  chu  fly 
a  disease  of  childhood,  with  immunity  for  adults,  incrpHM:  1-: 
as  the  period  beyond  puberty  lengthens.  It  is  an  infettn' .  h 
disease,  propagated  often  by  close  aggregation  of  chili  in  r., 
as  in  schools,  asylums,  or  at  play ;  but  the  contagion  rt^Uti  h 
vitality  with  great  persistence,  and  may  be  conveyed  >  y 
clothing,  letters,  foocl,  etc.  The  disease  occurs  sometinu>>  - 1 
local  epidemics ;  at  other  times  with  a  graver  type  an<i  ^re:.*\ 
mortality,  involving  whole  communities.  In  different  i'  ••  ih 
vidual  cases,  as  well  as  different  seasons  and  epidemit-s 


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342 


SCERODITE 


SCHAFP 


Teloped  scepticism  as  a  STstera  of  philosophy,  and  made 
universal  doubt  the  highest  principle,  and  iwaxh  (sus(>en- 
sion  of  judgment)  and  irm^  (tranquillity  of  mind,  im- 
perturbability) the  practical  objects  to  be  attained.  With 
Pyrrho,  Timon  the  Sinograph  and  ^nesidemus  are  reck- 
oned as  the  representatives  of  the  old  sceptics.  The  last 
named  collected  Pyrrho*s  arguments  in  the  form  of  ten 
tropes,  as  follows :  Knowledge  of  truth  is  uncertain,  because 
of  the  difference  (1)  in  the  organization  in  animals  result- 
ing in  different  modes  of  knowledge  (how  can  we  decide  f) ; 
(2)  in  the  human  constitution  in  tastes,  feelings,  desires, 
capacities,  etc. ;  (3)  in  the  structure  of  the  organs  of  sense, 
the  same  object  being  white  to  the  eye,  sweet  to  the  taste, 
rough  to  the  touch,  etc.;  (4)  in  the  mental  and  physical 
conditions  at  different  times;  (5)  in  the  position,  distances, 
and  intervals  of  objects ;  (6)  in  the  appearance  of  objects 
by  reason  of  their  complication  with  each  other ;  (7)  in  the 
appearance  of  objects  owin|f  to  their  variation  in  quantity, 
size  of  parts,  etc. ;  (8)  in  objects  on  account  of  the  general 
relativity  of  things  known;  (9)  in  the  frequency  with 
which  objects  are  observed ;  (10)  in  regard  to  education, 
all  customs,  habits,  laws,  ideas,  faith,  and  theories  being 
derived  from  it.  The  later  school  of  sceptics  includes 
Agrippa,  Favorinus,  Sextus  Empiricus,  and  others.  Agrippa 
reduced  the  tropes  to  five :  (1)  The  discordance  of  opinions 
renders  all  uncertain ;  (2)  ^every  proof  rests  upon  grounds 
which  again  need  proof,  and  so  ad  infinitum ;  (3)  all  our 
ideas  are  relative ;  (4)  all  systems  rest  upon  hypotheses ;  (5) 
the  vicious  circle,  demonstrating  the  grounds  on  which  the 
proof  rests  by  that  which  is  proved  by  them.  Sextus  Em- 
piricus has  left  us  a  complete  account  of  ancient  scepticism, 
and  himself  sums  up  the  whole  as  follows :  Nothing  is  cer- 
tain in  itself,  as  is  proved  by  the  diversity  of  opinion,  and 
nothing  can  be  made  certain  by  proof,  since  it  derives  no 
certainty  from  itself,  and,  if  based  on  other  proof,  leads  us 
either  to  the  regressus  ad  irifinitum  or  to  a  vicious  circle. 

Among  famous  sceptics  of  later  times  are  Algazel  the 
Arabian,  Duns  Scotus  the  Schoolman,  Agrip|)a  of  Nettes- 
heim,  Glanvill,  Nicolaus  Cusanus,  and  Him  hay  m,  who  re- 
ject science  in  the  interest  of  faith.  Montaigne,  Charron, 
Sanchez,  and  Le  Vayer  revive  the  ancient  scepticism. 
Hume  is  the  greatest  modern  sceptic.  He  saps  all  dogma- 
tism by  making  habit  or  "  invariable  sequence  "  the  origin 
of  the  idea  of  causality,  and  thus  occasions  by  way  of  reac- 
tion the  rise  of  the  Kantian  system  and  its  derived  schools, 
which  "criticise  the  faculty  of  cognition  "  and  build  their 
structures  upon  insight  into  method,  and  thus  eliminate 
scepticism  by  making  its  partial  view  (of  method^  a  complete 
one.  William  T.  Ha&bis. 

Scerodite :  See  Sinters. 

Schabzieger  Cheese :  See  Cheese. 

Schack,  shaak,  Adolf  Friedbich,  Graf  von:  poet ;  b.  at 
Schwerin,  Mecklenburg,  Germany,  Aug.  2, 1815 ;  studied  law 
at  Bonn,  Heidelberg,  and  Berlin,  devoting  much  of  his  time 
to  the  study  of  Oriental  and  European  languages ;  traveled 
in  Italy,  Egypt,  Syria,  Turkey,  Greece,  and  Spain,  where  he 
made  extensive  researches  into  the  history  of  the  Spanish 
drama;  was  called  to  Munich  by  King  Maximilian  of  Ba- 
varia where  he  resided  up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  Apr.  14, 
1894.  He  published  Epische  Dichtungen  aus  dem  Persi- 
schen  des  Firdusi  (1803);  Stimmen  vom  Ganges  (1856); 
Gedichte  (1866):  Ndchte  des  Orients  (1874);  ^'eihgesdnge 
(1878) ;  Lotosbldtter  (1883) ;  Memnon  (1885);  and  a  number 
of  epic  and  dramatic  poems.  Like  RUckert,  with  whom  he 
may  be  compared  in  many  respects,  he  was  a  master  of  the 
poetic  form,  not  only  in  his  translations  from  Oriental  litera- 
tures, but  also  in  his  original  prmhictions,  which,  moreover, 
are  distinguished  by  their  deep  philosophic  thought. 

Julius  Goebel. 

Scha^dow,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  von :  painter ;  b.  in  Ber- 
lin, Sept.  6,  1789.  He  was  a  son  of  J.  G.  Schadow,  the 
sculptor,  and  was  thoroughly  taught.  In  1810  he  went  to 
Rome  with  his  brother  Rudolph,  the  sculptor,  and  there  was 
influenced  by  Cornelius  and  Overljeck ;  l)ecame  a  Roman 
Catholic  and  a  member  of  the  religious  and  somewhat  mys- 
tical school  which  those  painters  had  brought  together.  In 
1819  he  returned  from  Italy  to  Berlin,  and  was  made  pro- 
fessor in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  In  1826  he  was  made 
director  of  the  DQsseldorf  Academy.  I),  at  DQsseldorf, 
Mar.  19,  1862.  In  the  Berlin  National  Gallery  are  his  pic- 
ture Christ  at  Emmaus  and  a  Portrait  Group  of  his  father 
and  brother  with  the  sculptor  Thorwaldsen.  At  the  Staedel 
Institute  at  Frankfort  is  the  picture  of  the  Wise  and  Fool- 


ish Virgins ;  at  the  old  Pinakothek  at  Monich  is  a  n<<^y 
Family ;  and  at  the  Cathedral  of  Anspach  is  a  Christ.  His 
last  work  was  an  allegorical  painting  founded  \i\\oi\  I)ui)t>'< 
Divina  Commedia.  Russell  Stuboi:'. 

Sehadow,  Johann  Gottiprikd  :  sculptor ;  b.  in  B«  rlii!. 
May  20,  1764 ;  studied  drawing  and  sculpture  in  hi>  nativ*- 
city  and  at  Rome  1785-D7,  and  was  appointed  profe>M>r  .it 
the  Academy  of  Art  in  Berlin  in  1788.  His  life  was  hf^  f/ 
chiefly  at  Berlin  from  this  time  on,  but  he  traveleil  nun  h 
especially  in  Italy.  His  style  is  founded  upon  cla^«:i4ii 
traditions.  His  principal  works  are  statues  of  Fre<lrrj  ^ 
the  Great,  in  Stettin ;  Leopold  of  Dessau,  in  Ziethen,  and  t^*- 
Count  de  la  Marck,  in  Berlin ;  Luther,  in  Wittenberg ;  fi.. 
monument  of  Marshal  BlQcher,  at  Rostock ;  and  a  nuinUr 
of  busts,  some  of  which  are  in  the  Walhalla  on  the  DaTiij''>*' 
near  Ratisbon,  etc.  He  also  modeled  the  quadriga  over  tht 
Brandenburg  gate  of  Berlin,  and  a  frieze  on  the  outsi<i(r  of 
the  mint  in  that  city.    D.  in  Berlin,  Jan.  27, 1850. 

Revised  by  Russell  Sturgis. 

Schadow, Rudolph, called  also  Zeiio Ridolfo :  sculptor : 
b.  in  Rome,  July  9, 1786 ;  was  the  oldest  son  of  Johaun  (i. 
Schadow.  He  studied  with  Thorwaldsen  and  C-anova.  ani 
became  famous  at  an  early  a^.  He  was  much  enipl'>>e«). 
and  perhaps  too  constant  application  caused  his  early  dmt  h. 
at  Rome,  Jan.  31, 1822.  Among  his  works  are  the  l)ai-nh«  f* 
of  the  Daughters  of  Leueippe,  Socrates  and  Theodata,  wvA 
that  of  the  tomb  of  the  Marquis  of  Lansdowne ;  the  >\h\  i.*  ? 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  Diana,  and  a  Bacchus ;  a  grou{<  uf 
the  Virgin  and  Child ;  and  his  last  work,  Achilles  dt-itntiiuj 
the  Body  of  Penthesilta,  Russell  Stiroi^.  ' 

8chaeffer,  sha'fer,  Charles  Frederick,  D.  D.  :  th»s  !«- 
gian;  b.  at  Germantown,  Pa.,  Sept.  3.  1807;  gnwluattMi  a* 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania;  studied  theology  privati .) : 
pastor  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  Hagerstown,  Md.,  Lancaster.  <♦.. 
Red  Hook,  N.  Y.,  and  Easton,  Pa.;  professor  of  thro!  jv. 
Columbus,  O.,  1840-45,  Gettysburg.  Pa.,  1857-64,  antl  Pli  :.v 
delphia,  Pa.,  1864-79.  D.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov.  j^i. 
1870.  Among  his  more  important  works  are  the  tran-l.iti  n 
of  Lechler  on  Arts  in  the  English  edition  of  LangeV  <  "  •.- 
mentary,  the  translation  of  Kurtz's  Sacred  History,  a  re- 
vised translation  of  Arndt's  True  Christianity^  and  a  r-vj- 
mentary  on  Matthew,  Dr.  Schaeffer  was  a  prominent  ii'- 
vocate  of  confessional  Lutheranism,  and  his  articles*  in  7  u* 
Evangelical  Review  of  Gettysburg  contributed  |)owt  rU.  y 
to  the  movement  that  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  it.i' 
General  Council.  H.  E.  JAr<>B». 

Schaeffer,  Charles  William,  D.  D.,  LL.  P. :  theolotriai, : 
nephew  of  Rev.  Charles  Frederick  SehaeflPer;  b.  at  HaL'*  i>- 
town,  Md.,  May  5.  1813;  graduated  at  University  of  IVi.::- 
sylvania,  and  Theological  Seminary  at  Gettysburg,  P.i  . 
pastor  at  Barren  Hill,  Pa.,  18:35-40,  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1n;«»- 
49,  Germantown,  Pa.,  1849-74;  professor  in  the  Lutlit-r.iM 
Theological  Seminary,  Philadelphia,  1864-94,  when,  on  i  :^ 
resignation  of  the  chair  of  Church  History,  he  was  cit*  ••  I 

Srofessor  emeritus.  Dr.  SehaeflPer  was  for  many  vear>  pn-^:- 
ent  of  the  Lutheran  Ministcrium  of  Pennsylvania.  l:.t* 
been  president  of  the  General  Synod  and  the  General  (  *mu- 
cil,  and  has  served  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  h>  & 
trustee  since  1859.  He  has  published  Early  History  of  i*  * 
Lutheran  Church  in  America  (1857).  Family  Prayers'.  :i.  •! 
one  volume  of  a  translation  of  the  IleUle  Reports  ('Kch^Ih;^. 
Pa.,  1882).  H.  E.  JAr<»P>. 

Schaeffer,  David  Fredericb:,  D.  D.  :  Lutheran  ya^x  r 
and  theologian ;  b.  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  July  22, 1787 :  srra<iiirit'  : 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  1807;  studieti  tht-*.!.  z\ 
privately ;  pastor  at  Frederick,  Md.,  1808,  until  within  a  >  i  .»r 
or  two  before  his  death.  He  conducted  a  private  th»M.:.  j- 
ical  seminary,  and  directed  the  studies  of  a  numlx^r  of  m  •-* 
useful  pastors.  He  was  one  of  the  most  active  founder'  i-f 
the  Theological  Seminary  at  Gettysburg, and  of  the  (MiitTa: 
Synod,  of  which  body  he  was  secretary  for  a  number  of  yi\tr- 
from  its  founding.  He  edited  The  Jjutheran  Intelliynir^  r. 
the  first  English  periodical  in  the  Lutheran  Church  orAtu*  r- 
ica.     D.  at  Frederick,  Md.,  May  6,  1837.        H.  E.  JA^m-*. 

Schaff,  Philip,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.D. :  b.  at  Coire.  Switztrlm.  1. 
Jan.  1,  1819;  studied  at  Coire,  Stuttgart,  TQbingen,  HrI  »•. 
and  Berlin ;  took  the  degree  of  B.  D.  and  passed  the  exmni- 
nation  for  a  professorship  in  Berlin  1841 ;  traveleil  as  tnt*  r 
of  a  Prussian  nobleman  through  several  European  counirii  ^  ; 
returned  to  Berlin  and  lectured  in  the  university  on  cwz*  >.- 
and  church  history  1842-44;  was  called  to  a  profe^«»r«'*  i- 
in  the  theological  seminary  of  the  German  Reformed  Cburcn 


344 


SCHAUFPLER 


SCHELUNQ 


mained  there  as  a  teacher  till  1873.  In  1877  he  produced 
his  first  piano  concerto.  Since  then  he  has  composed  large- 
ly for  the  piano  and  for  orchestra,  and  also  has  written  an 
opera,  Mafawnntha,  In  1890  he  visited  the  U.  S.  on  a  con- 
cert tour,  and  the  next  year  he  settled  in  New  York,  where 
he  established  a  conservatory  of  music  D.  E.  B. 

Schanffler,  showf'fler,  William  Gottlieb,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  : 
missionary;  b.  at  Stuttgart,  Germany,  Aug.  22,  1798;  re- 
sided in  Russia  during  his  youth ;  studied  theology,  and 
went  to  Turkey  as  an  independent  missionary  1825,  but 
having  soon  convinced  himself  that  he  needed  more  thor- 
ough training,  removed  to  the  U.  S.  in  1827 ;  ^aduated  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  1880;  was  ordained  Nov.  14, 
1831 ;  was  missionary  to  the  Jews  in  Constantinople,  Turkey, 
1831--55,  and  after  that  to  the  Moslems ;  he  translated  the 
entire  Bible  into  Hebrew-Spanish  and  into  Turkish,  the 
New  Testament,  the  Pentateuch,  and  Isaiah  in  the  latter 
language  having  been  printed  in  Germany  under  his  super- 
vision ;  and  published  an  Essay  on  the  Kight  Use  of  Prop- 
erty (1832).  He  was  also  author  of  a  work  entitled  meditor 
tions  on  the  Last  Days  of  Christ.  D.  in  New  York,  Jan. 
26, 1883. 

Schanmbarg-Lippe,  showm'bdbreh-lip'p« :  aprincipality 
and  state  of  the  German  empire,  between  Hanover  and 
Westphalia.  Area,  131  sq.  miles ;  pop.  (1890)  39,183.  The 
southern  part  is  hilly  and  well  wooded ;  the  northern  is  flat, 
and  here  is  found  lake  Steinhudermeer,  occupying  an  area 
of  22,000  acres.  The  actual  revenue  in  1892-93  was  1,096,516 
marks;  the  public  debt  in  1891  was  510,000  marks.  Capital, 
BUckeburg;  pop.  (1890)  5,186. 

Schedone,  sko-do'na,  Bartolommeo  (called  also  Schi- 
DONE) :  painter ;  b.  at  Modena,  Italy,  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  supposed  to  have  oeen  a 
pupil  of  the  Caracci,  but  his  painting  seem  to  show  a  deep 
stud^  of  Correggio  and  Raphael.  He  worked  in  the  palace 
and  m  the  cathedral  of  his  native  city.  His  chief  works  are 
a  Madonna  di  Pietd,  at  the  Academy  of  Parma,  the  Birth 
of  Christy  and  a  Madonna,  at  Loreto!  His  pictures  at  Capo 
di  Monte,  Naples,  were  painted  for  his  generous  patron, 
Duke  Ranuccio  of  Parma.  He  is  also  well  represented  in 
the  Louvre.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  portrait-painter. 
He  died  at  Parma  in  1615  of  grief  at  having  lost  a  large  sum 
of  money  through  gambling.  W .  J.  Stillman. 

Scheele, shale, Karl Wilhelm :  chemist ;  b. at Stralsund, 
Pomerania,  at  that  time  a  Swedish  possession,  Dec.  19, 
1742 ;  studied  chemistry  in  Stockholm  and  Upsala,  and  set- 
tled in  1777  as  apothecary  at  K5ping,  near  Stockholm,  where 
he  died  May  21, 1786.  By  his  comprehensive  chemical  an- 
alyses he  discovered  tartaric  acid,  manganese,  chlorine, 
baryta,  glycerin,  the  pigment  called  Scheele*s  green,  and 
the  coloring-matter  of  Prussian  blue.  His  papers  were  col- 
lected and  published  in  French,  Eng:lish,  German,  and 
Latin  {Mimoires  de  Chimie,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1785-88).  In  his 
Chemical  Observations  and  Experiments  on  Air  and  Fire 
(Leipzig,  1777 ;  translated  into  English,  London,  1780)  he 
described  oxygen,  unaware  of  its  previous  discovery  by 
Priestley. 

Scheele,  Knut  Hennino  Gezelius,  von,  D.  D. :  bishop ; 
b.  at  Stockholm,  Sweden,  May  31, 1888 ;  educated  at  Upsala, 
where  he  became  Professor  of  Theology  in  1879,  whence 
he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Gotland,  with  residence  at 
Visby,  in  1885.  He  visited  the  U.  S.  in  1893  as  special 
representative  of  the  King  of  Sweden  at  the  tercentenary  of 
the  Decree  of  Upsala,  celebrated  by  the  Swedish  Augustana 
Synod.  Among  the  more  important  of  Bishop  von  Scheele's 
works  is  a  work  on  symbolics,  published  in  both  Swedish 
and  German,  and  an  outline  of  the  same  subject  in  Zockler's 
Handhuch  der  Theologischen  Wissenschaften,       H.  E.  J. 

Scheele's  (aheelz)  Green,  or  Swedish  Green :  name  given 
to  the  arsenite  of  copper.  Scheele  prepared  it  by  slowly 
pouring  a  hot  solution  of  11  parts  of  ai-senious  oxide  in  32 
of  potash  into  a  hot  solution  of  32  parts  of  blue  vitriol,  with 
constant  stirring.  Sharpies  says  the  best  results  are  obtained 
when  a  solution  of  2  parts  arsenious  oxide  and  8  parts  cryst. 
carb.  soda  is  mixed  with  a  solution  of  6  parts  blue  vitriol. 
The  product  is  a  yellowish-green  powder,  consisting  essen- 
tially, according  to  Sharpies,  of  CuiAsaOe2Il,0,  or  CuO, 
51-49;  As,0«,  41*93;  H,0,7-93.  It  may  or  may  not  contain 
basic  sulphate  and  carbonate  of  copper,  according  to  the 
proportions  and  degree  of  dilution  of  the  materials.  Par- 
rot green,  picket  green,  and  many  varieties  of  Brunswick, 
Neuwied,  and  mineral  green  and  blue,  consist  of  Scheele's 


green  with  more  or  less  hydrate,  basic  sulphate,  or  basic 
carbonate  of  copper,  and  sometimes  considerable  firy(M»un). 
Scheele's  green  is  little  used  in  the  U.  S.,  being  replaced  Ij 
the  more  brilliant  Schweinfurth  Green  {q.  v.). 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsek. 

Scheffel,  Joseph  Viktor,  von :  poet  and  novelist ;  b.  at 
Karlsruhe,  Germany,  Feb.  16,  1826;  studied  law  and  (iir- 
man  philology  at  the  Uniyersities  of  Heidelberg,  Munuh. 
and  Berlin ;  practiced  law  for  several  years ;  traveled  in 
Italy ;  and  after  his  return,  devoted  himself  entirely  t<»  lit- 
erary pursuits.  In  1854  be  published  his  famous  Trorftj>*ffr 
von  Sdckingen,  an  epic  poem  of  great  poetic  diarro,  and  in 
1858  his  great  historical  novel  Ekkehara,  a  story  of  the  t«rith 
century.  Both  of  these  works  were  little  noticed  at  fir>t.  un- 
til the  great  events  of  contemporary  German  history  ami  tht* 
subsequent  establishment  of  the  empire  gaye  rise  to  a  renais- 
sance of  German  antiquity.  Scheffers  artistic  descri  pt  ion  <  tf 
German  life  of  the  past,  his  delightful  humor,  and  true  (^a- 
triotic  feeling,  then  led  to  his  teing  imitated  by  a  ho>t  «>f 
followers,  ana  for  a  long  time  the  historical  novel  was  t  Ke 
literary  fashion  of  Germany.  He  became  equally  popular 
as  a  lyric  poet,  especially  by  his  Oaudeamus  (1868),  a  col- 
lection of  lyrics  oi  quaint  and  exquisite  humor,  many  of 
which  became  favorite  student  songs.  His  BergpMtlmt  n 
(1870),  a  later  collection  of  poems,  is  less  popular,  thoui;h 
it  probably  contains  hitf  best  lyric  productions.  D.  Apr.  'J, 
1886.  Julius  Goebll. 

8cheffer,  Art  :  historical  and  portrait  painter;  b.  at  Dord- 
recht, Holland,  Feb.  10,  1797;  son  of  Johann  Baptist 
Scheffer,  historical  painter  (1773-1809);  pupil  of  Guerin  id 
Paris;  officer  Legion  of  Honor  1825.  He  was  not  in  swi.- 
pathv  with  either  the  academic  or  classic  style  of  paint  in  c 
taugnt  b^  his  master,  nor  with  that  of  the  new  school  <f 
romanticists  led  by  Delacroix  and  G^ricault,  and  he  fomu'  1 
a  style  of  his  own,  more  sentimental  than  vigorous  aifi 
healthy.  He  was  a  devoted  adherent  of  the  Orleans  family, 
and  accompanied  the  Due  d*0rl6ans  to  the  siege  of  Autwcrj'. 
After  returning  to  Paris,  he  painted  pictures  of  militarv 
scenes  for  the  Versailles  Museum,  and  when  the  Revolution 
of  1848  broke  out  he  assisted  the  king  and  his  fainil>  t<v 
escape  from  Paris,  and  retired  to  Holland.  He  went  to 
England  later,  and  returned  to  Paris  after  the  coup  d^itnt 
of  1851,  but  kept  aloof  from  politics.  D.  at  Argentcinl, 
France,  June  15,  1858.  One  of  his  most  noted  pictures.  The 
Suliote  Woman  (1827),  is  in  the  Louvre.  Other  works  are 
in  the  museums  at  Versailles,  Nantes,  Marseilles,  Mont> 
pellier,  and  Amsterdam,  and  in  the  National  Galleries  in 
London  and  Berlin.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Scheldt,  skelt  (anc.  Scaldis,  Fr.  Eseauf) :  the  most  im- 
portant river  of  Belgium.  It  has  its  rise  in  a  small  lake  in 
the  department  of  Aisne,  France,  and  by  a  circuitous  pas> 
sage  enters  Belgium  near  Toumay ;  thence  flows  N.  N .  W. 
past  Tournay,  province  of  Hainault,  at  H^rinnes  beeonxs 
the  boundary  of  this  province  and  East  Flanders,  and  at 
Escamaffles  oecomes  tne  common  boundary  between  \Ve>t 
and  East  Flanders;  thence  N.  N.  K,  past  Oudenarde  to 
Ghent,  where  it  receives  the  Lvs  on  the  left;  thence  E.  8.  K. 
to  Dendermonde  and  N.  N.  E.  to  Antwerp,  at  which  [>oitit 
it  becomes  a  noble  stream,  with  a  fine  harbor  sufficient  for 
the  largest  ships.  Leaving  Antwerp,  its  course  is  N.  W. 
The  island  of  South  Beveland  divides  it  into  two  arms  ;  the 
left,  or  south,  known  as  The  Hond  or  West  Scheldt,  and  th«« 
most  important,  enters  the  North  Sea  near  Flushing.  Tlu* 
right,  or  north,  called  the  East  Scheldt  arm,  is  dividt-d 
again  by  the  island  of  North  Beveland  before  it  flows  into 
the  sea.  It  has  an  entire  length  of  210  miles,  and  is  na\  i- 
gable  to  Conde,  near  its  source.  Among  its  numerous  af- 
fluents, the  Scarpe,  Lys,  and  Darme,  from  the  left,  and  the 
Dender  and  Rupel,  from  the  right,  are  the  most  important. 
A  system  of  canals  connects  this  stream  with  the  print'ip;il 
cities  of  Belgium.  The  entrance  to  the  river  is  rendfn  i 
somewhat  difficult  for  large  vessels  by  sandbanks  whi»  'i 
form  at  its  mouths.  These  mouths  are  almost  op()osite  ti»:iT 
of  the  Thames,  thus  increasing  its  commercial  and  na\al 
importance.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrinuthn. 

Schelling,  shel  ling,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Joseph,  von : 
philosopher;  b.  at  Leonberg,  a  village  near  Stuttgart.  WQr- 
temberg,  Jan.  27,  1775;  d.  at  the  baths  of  Ragatz.  Swit/.»'r- 
land,  Aug.  20,  1854.  His  father,  distinguished  as  an  Ori«»n- 
talist,  was  a  country  clergyman  who  became  prelate  at  Maul- 
bronn ;  he  directed  his  son's  education.  In  his  sixteenth  yrar 
young  Schelling  entered  the  theological  seminary  at  TQb'in^- 
en,  and  studied  theology  in  connection  with  philosophy  ami 


346 


SCHEM 


SCHERER 


Schem,  shem,  Alexander  Jacob:  author;  b.  at  Wieden- 
brQck,  Germany,  Mar.  16, 1826 ;  studied  at  the  gymnasium 
of  Paderborn  1830-43 ;  at  the  university  of  Bonn  1843-45,  and 
at  that  of  Tubingen  1845-46 ;  edited  Westphalian  newspapers 
1849-51 ;  removed  to  the  U.  S.  1851 ;  was  Professor  of  Hebrew 
and  of  Modem  Languages  at  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa., 
1854-60,  after  which  he  devoted  himself  to  literature  in  New 
York,  chiefly  in  the  departments  of  geography  and  statis- 
tics; edited  ecclesiastical  almanacs  for  1860  and  1868-69; 
wrote  for  religious  and  political  newspapers;  aided  Rev. 
Oeorge  R.  Crooks  in  the  preparation  of  his  Latin-English 
School  Lexicon ;  was  one  of  the  editors  of  The  Methodist  and 
of  The  Methodist  Quarterly  Review ;  was  a  contributor  to 
Appletons*.  McClintock  &  Strong's,  and  Johnson's  Cyclo- 
patdias,  and  prepared  a  revised  American  edition  of  a  Con- 
versationS'Lexicon  in  the  German  language  (12  vols.,  1869, 
^q.),    D.  at  West  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  May  21,  1881. 

Revised  by  A.  Osbobn. 

Schemnitz,  shem'nits:  a  large  mining-town  in  Hont 
county,  Northern  Hungary;  on  the  Schemnitz;  65 miles N. 
by  W.  of  Budapest,  at  an  elevation  of  1,300  feet  above  the 
sea  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  5-G).  It  has  a  cele- 
brated mining-school  with  chemical  laboratories  and  a  fine 
collection  of  minerals.  The  mines,  which  yield  gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  iron,  extend  below  the  city.    rop.  15,265. 

Schenck,  skenk,  Robert  Cumhino  :  diplomat ;  b.  at  Frank- 
lin, O.,  Oct.  7, 1809 ;  graduated  at  Miami  University  in  1827; 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  beginning  practice 
at  Dayton;  member  of  State  Legislature  1^1  and  1842,  and 
member  of  Congress  1843-51 ;  L.  S.  minister  to  Brazil,  and 
employed  on  diplomatic  missions  to  Buenos  Ayres,  Monte- 
video, and  Paraguay  1851-54.  Appointed  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  on  the  outbreak  of  tne  civil  war  in  the  U.  S., 
he  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  July  21, 
subsequently  in  Western  and  Northern  Virginia ;  engaged 
at  the  battle  of  Cross  Keys  Apr.,  1862.  At  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run  he  was  severely  wounded  and  incapacitated 
until  December,  when,  having  meanwhile  been  promoted  to 
be  major-general  from  Aug.  30,  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  Eighth  Army-corps  and  Middle  department.  lie  re- 
signed from  the  army  uec.^  1863,  and  resumed  his  seat  in 
Congress,  having  been  re-elected,  serving  at  the  head  of  the 
committee  on  military  affairs  and  that  of  ways  and  means ; 
appointed  minister  to  Great  Britain  Dec.  22, 1870 ;  resigned 
1876,  and  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
where  he  died  Mar.  23, 1800. 

Schenck,  William  Edward,  D.  D.  :  clergyman ;  b.  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  Mar.  29, 1819 ;  was  educated  at  Princeton 
College  and  Seminary  with  one  year  in  the  study  of  law  be- 
tween the  two  courses ;  pastor  at  Manchester,  N.  J.,  1842- 
45;  Hammond  Street  church,  New  York,  1845-48;  First 
church,  Princeton,  N.  J.,  1848-52 ;  superintendent  of  church 
extension  in  the  Presbytery  of  Philadelphia  1852-54;  secre- 
tary, 1854-86,  and  editor,  186^-70,  of  the  Presbyterian  board 
of  publication ;  permanent  clerk  of  the  General  Assembly 
(Ola  School)  1862-70;  and  vice-president  of  the  American 
CoUmization  Society  since  1877.  Dr.  Schenck  has  published 
many  minor  works  and  several  books,  including  Children 
in  lieaven ;  Historical  Account  of  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Princeton,  N.  J.  (Princeton,  1851);  God  our 
Ouide ;  The  Fountain  for  Sin  (1867-68 ;  translated  into 
German) ;  Church  Extension  in  Cities ;  General  Catalogue 
of  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  (ISSl);  &nd  Necrolog teal 
reports  of  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  (1874-84). 

C.  K.  HOYT. 

Schenec'tady :  city ;  capital  of  Schenectady  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on 
the  Mohawk  river,  the  Del.  and  Hudson  and  the  N.  Y.  Cent, 
and  Hud.  River  railways,  and  the  Erie  Canal ;  17  miles  W. 
of  Albany  (for  location,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  4-J).  It 
has  connection  with  the  West  Snore  Railroad  at  South  Sche- 
nectady and  with  the  Fitchburg  at  Scotia,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  river,  and  local  roads  connect  it  with  Saratoga 
and  Troy.  The  city  is  located  in  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
portions  of  the  renowned  Mohawk  valley.  The  older  parts 
are  along  the  river-bank,  the  modern  are  on  the  heights 
which  surround  the  valley  here.  The  supply  of  water  is  by 
the  Holly  system.  The  city  has  gas  and  electric  lights  and 
an  electric  street-railway. 

Public  Buildings. — Among  the  notable  public  buildings 
are  the  Ellis  Hospital,  Children's  Home,  Home  of  the  Friend- 
less, Free  Public  Library,  the  Van  Curler  opera-house,  and 
a  State  armory. 

Churches  and  Schools, — Schenectady  has  21  churches  and 


4  missions,  the  former  divided  as  follows:  Methodist  E|>uv 
copal,  8 ;  Roman  Catholic,  8 ;  Baptist,  German,  Presby teriari. 
Protestant  Episcopal,  and  Reformed,  each  2 ;  and  Afriiit*.. 
Con|;regational,  English  Lutheran,  German  Lutheran,  hmi 
Jewish,  each  1.  There  is  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  with  a  commo<li<  u- 
building.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  Union  College  {q.  r.).  tl» 
academical  department  of  Union  University,  and  of  Unim 
Classical  Institute,  a  preparatory  school.  The  pablic-s('h<H.| 
system  comprises  graded  schools,  occupying  six  modin, 
buildings,  having  about  2,500  pupils,  and  costing  annu<i  1^ 
about  ^1,000.  There  are  two  parochial  schools,  a  bu^riiti^^ 
college,  and  several  private  schools. 

Finances  and  Banking. — The  city  receipts  for  the  vear 
ending  Feb.  28, 1894,  were  $444,114,  and  expenditures  f4l.'i.- 
977:  the  debt  was  $470,569,  and  the  property  valuati<  t. 
$9,899,186.  In  1895  there  were  two  national  banks  wii:. 
combined  capital  of  $200,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  (<f 
$100,000,  and  a  savings-bank  with  deposits  of  $1,500,000. 

Business  Interests, — The  manufacturing  Industrie's  hp- 
numerous  and  extensive,  and  include  the  main  plant  of  tlu 
Edison  General  Electric  Company,  the  Schenectady  Lim- 
motive-works,  Westinghouse  Agricultural  Works,  car-w^ork-. 
copper  and  sheet-iron  works,  foundries,  8  knitting-^llK^ 
mica-insulator  works,  shawl-factory,  women's  underMVfar 
mill,  shirt-factory,  planing-mills,  boat-yards,  and  carriai:* . 
varnish,  and  sash  and  blind  factories.  There  are  3  dai.> 
and  4  weekly  newspapers. 

History. — Schenectady  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  thi 
State.  It  was  settled  by  Arent  Van  Curler  in  1661 ;  jmu- 
ented  in  1684 :  burned  by  the  French  and  Indians,  who  m.i^- 
sacred  all  but  sixtv  of  its  inhabitants  in  1690:  creatfl  a 
borough  in  1765;  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1708:  and  h.il 
almost  its  entire  business  portion  burned  in  1819.  iVr. 
(1880)  13,655 ;  (1890)  19,902 ;  (1895)  estimated,  24,000. 

Editor  of  "  Daily  Gazette.'* 

Schenkel,  Daniel:  theologian;  b.  at  DS^rlin,  Zun<  }i. 
Switzerland,  Dec.  21,  1813;  studied  theology  in  Basel  uii<:>  r 
de  Wette  and  Hagenbach,  afterward  in  Gottingen ;  wa.s  rtj  - 
pointed  pastor  at  Schaffhausen  in  1841;  Professor  of  Tl»»- 
ology  at  Basel  in  1849,  and  in  1851  at  Heidelberg*  Ht-  t^ - 
came  professor  emeritus  in  1884.  He  edited  Allgfju^n.t 
Kirchenzeitung  (1852-59)  and  Allgemeine  Kirchliche  Ztif- 
schrift  (1859-72),  and  Bibel-lexicon  (1869-75,  5  vols.) ;  w  r  : 
Das  Wesen  des  Protestantismus  aus  den  Quellrn  de.s  lit*-'- 
mationszettalters  beleuchtel  {3  vols.,  1846--51 ;  2d  eii.  1  >.'. , 
1862),  which  defended  the  thesis  that  Protestantism  had  (■  " 
its  end  rather  to  found  a  new  community  of  believers  tli.n. 
a  new  theology  or  polity.  This  idea  he  again  deveU>{M<i  in 
his  Das  Prinzip  des  Protestantismus  (1852).  Up  i«»  tl  - 
time  he  was  orthodox,  but  with  his  Christliehe  uo<jmn:  i, 
vom  Standpunkte  des  Gewissens  (2  vols,,  1858-59)  he  run.' 
out  on  the  liberal  side,  and  this  altered  position  is  yet  iii<  :• 
plain  in  his  Das  Charakterbild  Jesu  (1864;  translatetl  ir' 
English  by  W.  11.  Furness,  1866),  which  represents  Je^ii>  ..- 
a  mere  man  without  miraculous  power.  He  was  the  ft>uii«i' . 
of  the  German  Protestant  Union.  D.  at  lleidelberi;,  Ma\ 
21, 1885. 

Schenk'endorf,  Max,  von :  poet;  b.  at  Tilsit,  Gcnn.n-x. 
Dec.  11,  1783;  studied  law  at  the  University  of  Kr.m:.- 
berg;  practiced  his  profession  until  the  breaking  out  *►!  t,.,- 
wars  of  liberation  in  1818,  when  he  entered  the  Prus-i:» 
army.  Though  unable  to  fight  on  the  battle-field,  on  jm  - 
count  of  the  lameness  of  his  right  arm,  he  inspired  hi^  <  om- 
rades  by  his  excellent  war-songs.  Many  of  these  sonps.  u  1 1 1-  . 
appeared  in  the  collection  of  his  Gediehte  (1815).  p>ssts-«  1. 1 
true  ring  of  popular  poetry,  and,  like  the  war  lyncs  of  K»  r- 
ner  and  Amdt,  they  were  a  powerful  help  in  arousing  <i.r- 
man  patriotism  against  the  tyranny  of  Napoleon.  S<-v  A. 
Hagen,  M.  von  Schenkendorf  (ISQS).  Julius  Goebll. 

Scherer,  shf-rSr',  Edmond  Henri  Adolphe:  critic:  b.  :: 
Paris,  Apr.  8,  1815;  was  educated  in  the  College  IJourl-.' . 
Paris;  studied  theology  at  Oxford,  England,  and  Str.t-v. 
burg,  and  was  in  1845  appointed  Professor  of  ExcgoMv  m* 
Geneva.  His  views  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible  \m\v  ^ 
undergone  some  modification,  ne  resigned  his  chair  in  l'!*'** 
and  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  became  one  of  the  lead<-rv  ,,( 
the  liberal  movement  within  the  Protestant  Church.  r«r 
many  years  he  wrote  literary  and  political  articles  fi»r  /  - 
Temps.  Elected  a  member  of  the  ijegislative  Assemhlv  n. 
1H71,  he  took  an  active  part  in  politics.  D.  at  Versaiil'^ 
Mar.  16,  1889.  His  principal  theological  works  aiv  J** 
VEtat  actuel  de  VEglise  Rifomife  en  Francs  (1844>;  J,*y 
Critique  et  la  Foi  (1850);  Alexandre  Vitttt,  sa  tne    et  ,v< 


348 


SCHILLER 


rector  of  the  theater  at  Manheim,  announced  The  Robbers 
for  representation  on  the  stage,  and  Schiller,  being  refused 
leave  of  absence,  went  to  Manheim  without  it,  and  wit- 
nessed the  first  successful  performance  of  the  play  Jan. 
18, 1782.  On  his  return  to  Stuttgart  he  was  arrested  and 
temporarily  imprisoned ;  the  duke  endeavored  to  exact  a 
ple(^  from  him  that  he  would  write  no  more  poetry,  and 
the  orobability  of  sterner  measures  being  taken  induced 
Schiller  ta  take  refuge  in  flight.  In  September  of  the  same 
year,  under  an  assumed  name,  in  company  with  a  musician 
named  Streicher,  he  left  Stuttgart,  and  for  nearly  a  year 
afterward  remained  in  concealment  on  an  estate  belonging 
to  the  noble  family  of  Wolzogen,  near  Meiningen.  During 
this  time  he  completed  his  plays  of  Fiesco  and  IfUrigue  and 
Love.  The  first  of  these,  rejected  by  Dalberg,  was  finally 
produced  at  Manheim,  and  became  so  popular  that  the  au- 
thor was  offered  the  post  of  dramatic  poet  to  the  theater 
there,  with  a  meager  salarv.  He  accepted  the  position,  un- 
dertook also  the  editing  of  a  new  dramatic  periodical,  Tha- 
lia,  and  remained  in  Manheim  until  the  spring  of  1785,  when 
an  invitation  from  KArner  (the  father  of  the  famous  poet, 
Theodore  Korner)  drew  him  to  Leipzig.  Soon  afterward  he 
followed  Kdrner  to  Dresden,  and  was  supported  in  the  most 
generous  manner  by  that  faithful  friend  during  two  years 
while  writing  his  tragedy  of  Don  Carloe,  his  historical 
sketch  The  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands^  the  romantic  fri^- 
ment  The  Ohost-seer^  and  a  number  of  lyrical  poems.  In 
the  summer  of  1787  Schiller  visited  Weimar  for  the  first 
time,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  authors  Wieland 
and  Herder.  He  also  met  his  future  wife,  Charlotte  von 
Lengefeld,  whom  he  returned  to  see  the  following  summer, 
and  in  the  garden  of  the  Lengefeld  family  at  Rudolstadt 
first  met  Goethe.  The  interview  has  a  special  interest  from 
the  fact  that  these  poets,  destined  to  be  such  friends  and 
colaborers,  disliked  each  other  at  first  sisht.  Nevertheless, 
it  was  through  Goethe's  influence  that  Schiller  early  in  1789 
was  offered  the  place  of  Professor  of  History  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Jena.  He  at  first  hesitated  to  accept  on  account 
of  want  of  preparation,  but  he  was  tired  of  his  homeless 
life,  and  saw  in  the  appointment  the  possibility  of  marriage. 
His  opening  lectures  were  remarkably  popufar.  He  mar- 
ried Charlotte  von  Lengefeld  early  in  1790,  and  devoted 
himself  to  a  life  of  study  and  creative  activity.  But  during 
the  following  year  he  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  the  e^ave 
by  an  inflammation  of  the  lungs ;  the  report  of  his  death 
was  circulated,  and  he  was  already  so  well  known  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  Germany  that  two  Danish  noblemen,  the 
Prince  of  Augustenburg  and  Count  von  Schimmelmann, 
sent  him  the  sum  of  1,000  thalers  annually  for  three  years, 
in  order  that  he  might  rest  and  recover  his  strength.  His 
History  of  the  Thirty  Years*  War  was  published  in  1793, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  that  year  he  returned  to  Wttrtemberg, 
with  his  family,  and  remained  until  the  following  spring, 
his  visit  being  wisely  ignored  by  the  duke.  Through  con- 
sultation with  the  publisher  Cotta  a  literary  periodical 
called  The  Hours  was  projected,  and  this  led  to  the  most 
important  crisis  of  his  life.  Goethe's  co-operation  was  too 
important  to  be  overlooked  ;  the  two  poets  aiscovered  unex- 
pected points  of  sympathy,  and  soon  became  united  in  a 
personal  and  literary  friendship  as  noble  as  it  is  rare  in  his- 
tory. Schiller  soon  freed  himself  from  the  influence  of 
Kant,  which  had  for  a  time  interrupted  his  poetical  activity, 
but  which  had  also  been  of  great  influence  on  his  artistic 
development ;  stimulated  by  Goethe,  he  wrote  his  finest  bal- 
lads and  lyrics,  and  was  greatly  encouraged  by  the  success 
of  his  periodical,  The  Hours.  His  plan  for  a  great  drama 
based  on  the  history  of  Wallenstein  was  resumed,  and  the 
completion  of  the  work  as  a  trilogy  or  triple  drama  in  the 
year  1799  placed  him  at  once  in  the  first  rank  of  authors. 
His  ill  health,  however,  made  it  more  and  more  difficult  for 
him  to  discharge  the  duties  of  his  professorship  at  Jena;  a 
closer  intercourse  with  Goethe  became  an  intellectual  ne- 
cessity, and  in  the  year  1800,  after  the  grant  of  a  liberal 
pension  by  the  duke,  Karl  August,  he  removed  to  Weimar. 
His  friendship  with  Goethe  drew  upon  both  the  bitter  hos- 
tility of  most  of  the  secondary  authors  of  Germany,  and 
many  attempts  were  made  to  estrange  the  two  great  friends. 
The  splendid  rhythm,  rhetoric,  and  artistic  completeness  of 
form  of  Schiller  s  Song  of  the  Bell,  The  Diver,  and  his  clas- 
sical ballads  bore  down  all  narrow  criticism,  and  secured  his 
fame  as  a  poet  in  the  universal  judgment  of  the  German 
people.  His  Wallenstein  was  a  great  success  upon  the 
stage ;  not  less  so  his  ^faria  Stuart,  which  appeared  in 
1800,  and  the  The  Maid  of  Orleans,  in  1801.    In  the  year  1802 


Schiller  was  ennobled  by  the  emperor,  Francis  II.  His 
next  work,  Tlie  Bride  of  Messina  (1803).  was  an  attempt  to 
unite  the  stately  formalism  of  the  antique  Greek  chorus 
with  the  free  romantic  element  of  modem  dramatic  an. 
Notwithstanding  passages  of  rare  lyrical  beauty,  the  experi- 
ment can  not  be  considered  successful,  although  the  play 
is  occasionally  eiven  on  the  German  boards.  WiUiam  Teli. 
which  appeared  in  1804,  although  poetically  inferior  t** 
Wallenstein^  was  Schiller's  great^t  dramatic  success.  He 
visited  Leipzig  and  Berlin  when  it  was  produced,  and  was 
received  with  the  greatest  popular  enthusiasm.  There  wa** 
a  chance  of  his  obtaining  the  post  of  director  of  the  royal 
theater  in  Berlin,  but  the  duke  doubled  his  pension  in  order 
to  retain  him,  and  Schiller  was  also  unwilling  to  relinqui-^h 
his  intercourse  with  Goethe.  He  began  a  new  play.  De- 
metriuSy  and  was  well  advanced  in  the  work  when,  m  the 
spring  of  1805,  his  failing  vital  power  reached  its  limit.  A 
simple  cold  apparently  turned  the  balance,  and  on  May  V. 
he  died.  A  dissection  showed  that  under  no  cirtSumstanct^ 
could  his  life  have  been  prolonged  for  more  than  six  months 
more.  His  remains  weve  exhumed  in  1826,  placed  in  a  gran- 
ite sarcophagus,  and  transferred  to  the  vault  of  the  grand 
ducal  family,  where  they  now  repose  beside  those  of  G<>ethc. 
While  as  a  poet  Schiller  holds  one  of  the  most  prominent 

E laces  in  German  literature,  ranking  next  to  Goethe,  his  in- 
uence  as  a  philosopher  and  critic  must  not  be  overlooktxi. 
Quite  early  in  his  literary  career  we  discover  a  pronounctMl 
talent  for  philosophy,  a  talent  which  he  afterward,  by  the 
careful  stuay  of  Kant's  system,  developed  to  so  great  an  ex- 
tent that  he  ranks  among  Germany's  greatest  thinkers. 
His  philosophic  studies  were,  however,  not  directed  to  the 
logical  operations  of  the  human  mind,  but  rather  to  etlm-v 
and  SDsthetics,  and  a  number  of  essays  {Leber  Anmuth  uud 
Wurde,  1793;  Ueber  das  Erhabene,  1793;  Briefe  uber  die 
dsthetische  Erziehuna  des  Metisehen^  1795,  etc.)  give  evi- 
dence of  the  profoundness  with  which  Schiller  grasped  and 
solved  the  most  diflicult  problems.  In  these  brilliant ly 
written  essays  the  rigid  ness  of  Kant's  ethics  and  the  one- 
sidedness  of  his  aesthetics  are  overcome,  and  the  innennt^t 
thoughts  of  the  great  classical  period  of  German  literature, 
which  culminate  in  the  advancing  of  a  modem  ide^l  of  hu- 
manity superior  to  that  of  the  Greeks,  find  their  powerful 
philosophic  expression.  The  results  of  his  philosopnic  stud- 
ies Schdler  with  a  remarkable  skill  undertook  to  turn  iuU* 
poetry  in  his  famous  philosophic  poems  {Das  Oluck^  Dt-r 
Genius  J  Das  Ideal  una  das  Lehen,  etc.),  the  like  of  which 
no  other  literature  possesses.  The  infiuence  of  philosophy 
on  Schiller's  critical  activity  is  also  qiiite  evident.  He 
stands  next  to  Lessing  as  a  critic  of  Uerman  literature. 
While  the  former  carefully  established  the  subtle  fomml 
distinctions  between  the  various  branches  of  poetry,  and  laitl 
down  the  laws  which  govern  poetic  production  accordingly » 
Schiller  discusses  chiefly  the  nature  of  poetir  and  its  diflfer- 
ent  branches,  inouiring  besides  into  the  psychological  opera- 
tions of  the  poers  mind.  To  him  we  owe  the  best  critical 
estimate  of  Goethe's  genius  {Correspondence  unth  Ooetht\, 
and  his  famous  essay  on  Naive  and  Sentimental  Poetry  ha» 
influenced  literary  criticism  to  the  present  time. 

In  Schiller  the  interest  belonging  to  individual  character 
is  associated  with  his  genius,  and  lends  to  it  the  magnet  istn 
which  accompanies  universal  popularity.  On  the  hundredi  \\ 
anniversary  of  his  birth,  in  1859,  a  "  Schiller  fund,"  amount- 
ing to  several  hundred  thousand  dollars,  was  created  in  (Ger- 
many, and  the  annual  income  is  devoted  to  the  assistance  c^f 
needy  authors,  some  fifteen  or  twenty  of  whom  are  n«>w 
wholly  or  partially  supported  from  this  source.  All  the 
principal  cities  of  Germany  have  erected  statues  in  his  la.n- 
or.  The  unselfish  devotion  of  his  life  to  his  art  is  reiffj- 
nized  with  a  fervor  which  takes  no  note  of  his  early  irn^cu- 
larities;  and  without  ever  having  made  the  slightest  pruf»  Vi- 
sion of  democracy  he  is  everywhere  celebrated  in  German  v 
as  the  poet  of  the  people.  The  explanation  of  this  fa*  t 
must  be  sought  for  in  the  sincerity  of  his  nature,  no  Ir^s. 
than  in  the  persecution  of  which  he  was  temporarily  th. 
object.  Carl  vie  finely  says  of  him  :  "  He  was  a  nigh  min  loi- 
tering servant  at  trutn's  altar,  and  bore  him  worthily  in  the 
office  he  held." 

Bibliography. — K.  Hoffmeister,  Schillers  Leben  (18:^s~ 
42):  E.  Boas,  Schillers  Jugendjahre  (1856);  E.  Palle^k♦^ 
Schillers  Leben  urui  Werke  (1858);  G.  Schwab,  SchttUr'^ 
tehen  (1860);  H.  Dttntzer,  Schillers  Leben  (1881):  CV 
Brahra,  Schiller  (1888);  J.  Minor,  Schiller  (1890);  JavsU 
Grimm.  Rede  auf  Schiller  (1859);  Fr.  Vischer.  Rede  a.  r 
Schiller  (1859);  Kuno  Fischer,  Schillers  Schriften  (181U  ♦  , 


350 


SCHLEICHER 


SCHLESWIG 


of  his  contemporaries  to  the  beauties  of  Old  Germanic  po- 
etry, and  by  his  letters  on  art  in  the  Europa^  a  periodical 
which  he  edited  while  in  Paris,  he  caused  a  revival  in  the 
plastic  arts  of  Germany.  But  he  is  also,  especially  during 
the  last  period  of  his  life,  the  chief  representative  of  the 
pernicious  elements  of  romanticism.  lie  advocated  the  re- 
establishment  not  only  of  the  papal  hierarchy,  but  also  of 
medieval  feudalism,  and  the  injurious  effects  of  his  and  his 
associates'  influence  in  this  direction  were  onlv  gradually 
overcome.  See  R.  Havm,  Die  rotnantiscfie  Schule  (1870); 
W.  Dilthey,  Schleiermacher  (1870) ;  I.  Minor,  Fr.  Schlegela 
prosaische  Jugendschriften  (1882).  Julius  Goebel. 

Schleiclier,  shli'cher,  August  :  comparative  philologist ; 
b.  at  Meiningen,  Germany,  Feb.  19, 1821 ;  studied  theology 
and  comparative  philology  at  Leipzig,  Tubingen,  and  Bonn 
1840-46 ;  privat  ducent  in  science  of  language  at  Bonn 
1846-48 ;  newspaper  correspondent  in  Austria  1848-60 ;  ap- 
pointed Assistant  Professor  of  Comparative  Philology  at 
Prague  1850 ;  Professor  of  Science  of  Language  and  Teu- 
tonic Philology  at  Jena  from  1857 ;  died  at  Jena,  Dec.  6, 
1868.  His  residence  at  Prague  directed  his  interest  toward 
the  Slavic  languages,  which,  with  the  related  Baltic  lan- 
guages, became  from  that  time  central  in  his  scientific  work 
and  interest  Though  his  favorite  thesis,  that  the  science  of 
language  is  to  be  classed  among  the  natural  sciences,  has  not 
been  maintained,  the  influence  of  his  views  has  been  power- 
fully felt  in  checking  arbitrary  empiricism  and  establishing 
stricter  methods  of  investigation.  Onief  works :  Die  Spraehen 
Europaa  (Bonn,  1850) ;  Formenlehre  der  kirchenslav.  Spraehe 
(1853) ;  ffandbuch  der  lilauischen  Spraehe  (2  vols.,  Prague, 
1856-67) ;  Die  deuteche  Spraehe  (Stuttgart,  1860) ;  Compen- 
dium der  vergL  Grammafik  (Weimar,  1862 ;  4th  ed.  1876)  ; 
Laut-  und  Fortnetilehre  der  polahischen  Spraehe  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1871).  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

SchlePden,  Matthias  Jakob  :  botanist ;  b.  in  Hamburg, 
Gt'rmany,  Apr.  5,  1804;  flrst  studied  law  at  Heidelberg, 
then  medicine  at  Gdttingen,  and  Anally  botany  at  Jena, 
where  he  was  appointed  professor  in  1839.  In  1862  he  re- 
signed his  office,  and  after  a  short  stay  at  Dorpat  (1863-64) 
as  Professor  of  Vep^etable  Chemistry,  he  settled  at  Dresden. 
His  principal  works  are  Orundzuge  der  wissenschaftlichen 
Botanik  (2  vols.,  1842-43),  which  attracted  much  attention 
and  gave  rise  to  many  controversies;  it  was  translated  into 
English  by  Dr.  Ijankester  (1849);  Die  Pftanze  und  ihr  Le- 
hen,  translated  into  English  by  Prof.  Henf rev  (1848) ;  Baum 
und  Wold  (1870) ;  Die  Rose  (1873).  D.  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  June  23,  1881. 

Sehleiermacher,  shiier-maiJch-er,  Fbiedricb  Ernst 
Daniel:  theologian  and  philosopher;  b.  at  Breslau,  Ger- 
many, Nov.  21,  1768;  the  son  of  a  Reformed  clergyman; 
was  brought  up  in  the  community  of  Moravian  Brethren, 
receiving  a  profound  religious  impulse  from  them.  From 
1783  to  1787  he  attended  the  paedagogium  at  Niesky  and 
the  seminary  of  the  United  Brethren  at  Barby.  He  com- 
pleted his  theological  course  at  Halle,  and  after  filling  the 
positions  of  private  tutor,  assistant  preacher,  ete.,  became  in 
1796  the  chaplain  of  the  Charit^r  Hospital  at  Berlin ;  in  1802 
court  chaplain  at  Stolpe,  and  in  1804  Professor  {extraordi- 
narius)  of  Theology  and  Philosophy  at  Halle.  In  1809  he 
preached  at  the  Trinity  church  in  Berlin,  and  the  follow- 
ing year  received  appointment  as  Professor  (prdinarius)  of 
Theology  at  the  new  University  of  Berlin,  which  position 
he  retained  till  his  death.  During  the  ten  years  previous 
to  going  to  Berlin  he  had  studied  and  criticisinl  the  Kantian 
philosophy,  and  was  greatly  attracted  by  Jacobins  exposition 
of  Spinoza.  He  subsetjuently  studied  and  translated  Plato, 
and  did  much  by  his  lectures  to  encourage  the  study  of  the 
remains  of  the  early  Greek  philosophy.  Hi»  activity  knew 
no  limits.  He  labored  to  effect  a  union  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Reformed  Churches  on  the  broad  basis  that  demanded 
unity  in  the  spirit  of  Protestantism  and  allowed  diversity 
as  to  doctrines  and  modos  of  worship.  His  failure  in  this 
led  to  a  misunderstanding  with  Minister  von  Altenstein, 
which  lasted  for  some  years.     D.  in  Berlin.  Feb.  12,  1834. 

The  fundamental  point  of  view  of  Schleiermacher's  system 
is  this :  Religion  is  not  a  knowing  nor  a  doing,  but  a  feel- 
ing— a  feeling  of  the  universal  life  of  the  Infinite,  and  of 
the  dependence  of  the  Ego  upon  it.  Hence,  with  him,  re- 
ligion begins  with  the  feeling  of  dependence.  Reflection 
upon  this  feeling  gives  rise  to  descriptions  of  it,  and  hence 
the  statement  of  religious  principles  and  dogmas.  All  re- 
ligions are  historic  and  positive.  Amon^  these  Christianity 
holds  a  unique  place,  inasmuch  as  in  it  is  found  the  recon- 


ciliation with  the  Infinite,  hence  the  very  essence  of  religion 
itself.  Upon  the  same  framework  of  antithetic  ideas  of  thf 
universal  and  particular  (infinite  and  finite,  common  and 
special,  God  and  the  Ego)  he  builds  his  system  of  ethh  >. 
The  organizing  activity  of  reason  in  the  realm  of  the  com- 
mon or  univeraal,  securing  identity  of  common  usage,  i»  tljc 
first  province  of  ethical  action — that  of  interchange  amnn;r 
men.  The  second  is  that  of  organization  in  the  realm  of 
particular  individualitv,  the  province  of  inalienable  i>eru*rt- 
ality.  The  third  and  fourth  provinces  of  ethical  action  are 
not  those  of  organization,  but  of  "symbolism,"  the  third 
being  that  of  symbolism  with  identity  in  the  realm  <.f 
thought  and  language,  and  the  fourth  the  symbolism  with 
individuality  in  the  realm  of  feeling.  Corresponding  to 
these  four  provinces  are  the  four  institutions:  (a)  Statr.  m 
which  each  is  for  the  whole;  {b)  civil  society,  organize^!  fnr 
the  benefit  of  the  individual;  (c)  school  (college,  etc.),  for 
community  of  culture ;  (d)  church,  "for  individual  syn»b(.li.! 
activity."  The  most  important  of  Schleiermacher*s  writin^-s 
are:  (1)  Discourses  on  Religion  (Berlin,  1799);  (2)  Maw*- 
loguea  (1800);  (3)  Confidential  Letters  on  F,  Schlegefs  Lu- 
cinde  (1800) ;  (4-7)  Four  Collections  of  Sermons  (1801-2O,  -. 
(8)  Outlines  of  a  Critique  of  Previous  Systems  of  Ethtcs 
(1803);  (9)  Translation  of  Plato's  Worit«  (1804-28);  (10)  T/i^ 
Christian  Faith  according  to  the  Principles  of  the  Evantj*'!- 
ical  Church  {iH21-22);  (11)  Theological  Encyclopcpdia  {M  1  l 
After  his  death  were  published  (1835)  lectures  on  the  history 
of  philosophy,  dialectics,  [>sychology,  ethics,  politics,  and 
pedagogics.  The  lectures  on  the  life  of  Jesus,  whicli  aj»- 
peared  in  1864,  made  an  epoch  when  first  delivered.  Ac- 
cording to  the  authority  of  Zeller,  Schleiennacher  is  th*? 
greatest  theologian  of  the  Protestant  Church  since  the  pi'ri*«i 
of  the  Reformation — **a  churchman  whose  liberal  idea^  wili 
yet  prevail  in  regard  to  the  union  of  Protestant  confev^^ion^. 
the  constitution  of  the  Church,  and  the  rights  of  conscien*  •• 
and  individuality  in  religion" — ''a  deep-working  religi<«i.N 
teacher,  who  formed  the  heart  by  the  understanding  aod 
the  understanding  by  the  heart — a  philosopher  who  scattervd 
fruitful  seeds,  who  introduced  a  new  era  in  the  knowlt*<lc«' 
of  Greek  philosophy,  and  who  assisted  in  German v*s  i»oHtic  al 
regeneration."  He  investigated  the  nature  of  religion  nmr- 
profoundly  than  any  before  him.  Physically,  he  was  sma.l 
of  stature,  slightly  deformed,  (juick  and  animated  in  his 
movements,  his  countenance  kind  and  sympathetic.  His 
Autobiography  (covering  only  the  first  twenty-six  years  «f 
his  life)  was  published  in  1851.  His  Correspondence  with 
J,  C.  Gass  appeared  the  following  year  in  4  vols.  Hi> 
Biography  has  been  written  by  K.  Schwartz,  D.  Schenkt- 1, 
W.  Dilthey,  and  others.  William  T.  Harris. 

Schleitz,  shlits :  town  of  Reuss  (vounger  branch).  Thu- 
ringia,  Germany,  and  residence  of  tfie  reigning  family  ;  '24 
miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Gera,  terminus  of  a  branch  railroad*  fn»tii 
Schonberg ;  elevation,  1,407  feet  (see  map  of  German  Empire, 
ref.  5-F).  It  is  well  kept,  has  beautiful  streets,  tannerit  ^, 
a  foundry,  factories  of  lamps,  whips,  and  lace ;  also  a  <^t  .}. 
lege  and  schools  for  teachers,  for  deaf  mutes,  and  for  wo^^i- 
carving.  Near  by  is  the  ch&teau  of  Heinrichsruh.  Pot*. 
(1800)  4,928.  M.  W.  H. 

Schleswig,  shles'rich  (i.e.  Bay  of  the  Schlei):  distiit! 
and  town  of  the  southern  part  of  the  Danish  peninsula  <^-o 
map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  2-E).  The  district  was  a  Dan- 
ish province  until  1864,  when  it  was  taken  by  Pnis&>ia  l»v 
conquest  and  united  two  years  later  with  Holstein  to  forrn 
the  province  called  Schleswig-Holstein.  The  town  is  at  ih»» 
end  of  a  slender  arm  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  which  penetmt^x 
nearly  half-way  across  the  peninsula  and  is  called  the  Schln. 
Schleswig  is  an  ancient  town,  was  known  to  the  Amliian 
geographers,  and  by  800  was  a  place  of  considerable  c-«  n.- 
merciat  importance.  This  continued  during  the  Midii.r- 
Ages,  but  eventually  the  removal  of  the  ducal  reM<it'iuf. 
the  rivalry  of  Lfibeck  and  Kiel,  and  the  silting  up  of  tiu» 
mouth  of  the  Schlei  caused  its  trade  to  decline,  and  it  n- 
mained  only  of  strategic  interest,  which,  however,  wa.^  lo-^i 
as  a  result  of  the  war  of  1864.  Southwest  from  the  t«»wn 
are  the  traces  of  the  Danewerk,  a  line  of  intrenchments  (.-on- 
nectingthe  Schlei  with  the  Treene,  which  flows  westwanl  and 
empties  into  the  North  Sea.  It  was  thrown  up  in  the  ninth 
century,  or  earlier,  and  was  intended  for  the  defense*  of  the^ 
peninsula.  It  was  used  for  this  purpose  for  ten  centuries 
and  was  repeatedly  renewed  and  strengthened  until  it  wil« 
abandoned  in  1864  by  the  Danish  army  under  Gen.  de  Mora 
without  striking  a  blow.  Pop.  of  town  of  Schleswig  (1WM>>. 
15,123.  Hark  W.  HARRiNtiTOK. 


n 
1*1 


II    ^ik:    w  !■  j  k.        I*.    Ill 


•r--"rr'r1  • 


<^4iku;  |«ci»o'«  ii^» 


Hr  lint  I  it  ^iM-iMt 


SCHMID 


SCHNEIDEWIN 


Schmid,  Leopold  :  cleric ;  b.  at  Zurich,  June  9, 1808 ;  stud- 
ied theology  at  TQbingen  and  Munich ;  became  professor  in 
the  priest  seminary  at  Limburg  1831,  and  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  1839  at  Giessen.  Although  a  strict  adherent  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  his  broader  and  more  liberal  views, 
acquired  by  an  extensive  study  of  philosophy,  brought  him 
into  collision  with  the  ultramontane  party.  In  1849  his  elec- 
tion as  Bishop  of  Mentz  was  not  confirmed  by  Pope  Pius  IX., 
who,  however,  dared  not  place  his  book,  Der  Geist  dea  Kath- 
olieismus  oder  Orundlegung  der  ehriatlichen  Ir$n%k  (2  vols., 
Giessen,  1848-50),  in  the  Index.  The  papal  action  led  him  to 
leave  the  theological  and  enter  the  pnilosophical  faculty  at 
Giessen.  His  little  pamphlet  Ultramontan  oder  katholiach  f 
(1867)  indicated  his  renunciation  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.    D.  at  Giessen,  Dec.  20, 1869. 

Schmidt,  shmit,  Frederick  Augustus  :  theologian ;  b. 
at  Leutenberg,  Thuringia,  Jan.  3, 1837;  emigratea  to  the 
U.  S.  in  1841 ;  educated  in  Concordia  College  and  Seminary, 
St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  pastor  Erie  co.,  N.  Y.,  and  St.  Peter's  Eng- 
lish church,  Baltimore,  Md.;  entered  the  service  of  the 
Norwegian  Synod  in  1861 ;  professor  at  Decorah,  la.,  1862- 
72 ;  professor  in  Theological  Seminary,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1872- 
76,  at  Madison,  Wis.,  1876-86,  Northfield,  Minn.,  1886-90, 
Minneapolis  since  1890.  Dr.  Schmidt  was  a  chief  opponent 
of  Dr.  Walther  in  the  controversv  on  the  subject  of  predes- 
tination that  agitated  the  Synoaical  Conference,  establish- 
ing and  editing  for  this  purpose  the  Altea  und  Neuea  (1880- 
85).  H.  £.  Jacx)bs. 

Schmidt,  Hedoiich  Julian:  journalist  and  author;  b.  at 
Marienwerder,  Prussia,  Mar.  17,  1818;  studied  philology 
and  history  at  the  University  of  KSnigsberg;  settled  in 
1847  at  Leipzig  as  editor,  afterward  in  connection  with  Gus- 
tav  Freytag  as  proprietor  of  the  Orenzboten,  which  sup- 
ported the  Prussian  interest  in  Germany ;  removed  in  18ol 
to  Berlin  and  edited  the  Berliner  Allgemeine  Zeitung  1861- 
63 ;  d.  in  Berlin,  Mar.  26, 1886.  Author  of  Oeschichte  der 
Romantik  im  Zeitalter  der  Reformation  und  Revolution  (2 
vols.,  1850) ;  Qeechichte  der  deutschen  Literatur  aeit  Leaaings 
Tod  (3  vols.,  1858);  Oeachichte  dea  geiatigen  Lehena  in 
DeutaeMand  von  Leibniz  hia  auf  Leasinga  Tod  (2  vols., 
1860-64) ;  Bilder  aua  dem  geiatigen  Leben  unaerer  Zeit  (1870) ; 
Oeachichte  der  deutachen  Literatur  von  Leibniz  bia  auf  un- 
aere  Zeit  (1886).  He  was  a  much-dreaded  critic,  hostile  to 
morbid  romantic  tendencies,  and  advocated  healthy  realism 
in  poetry.  See  G.  Preytag*8  Erinnerungen  aiia  meinem 
Leben  (1886).  J.  G. 

Schmidt,  Henet  Immanuel,  S.  T.  D.  :  educator ;  b.  at 
Nazareth,  Pa.,  Dec.  21, 1806,  where  he  was  educated,  and  af- 
terward taught  1826-29 ;  Lutheran  pastor,  Bergen  co.,  N.  J., 
1831-33,  Boston,  Mass.,  1836-38,  Montgomery  co..  Pa.,  1844 ; 
professor  at  Hartwick  Seminary,  New  York,  1833-36,  Penn- 
sylvania College  and  Theolo^cal  Seminary,  Gettysburg,  Pa., 
1838-43 ;  principal  of  Hartwick  Seminary  1845-47;  Professor 
of  German  Language  and  Literature  in  Columbia  College, 
New  York,  1848-80.  D.  in  New  York,  Feb.  11,  1889.  He 
published  Hiatory  of  Education  (New  York,  1842) ;  The 
Lutheran  Doctrine  of  the  Lord^a  Supper  (1852) ;  Courae  of 
Ancient  Geography  (1860).  H.  E.  Jacobs. 

Schmidt,  Johannes  :  comparative  philologist ;  b.  at 
Prenzlau,  Prussia,  July  29,  1843 ;  educated  at  the  Marien- 
stifts  Gymnasium  in  Stettin  and  at  the  Universities  of  Bonn 
and  Jena ;  decent  in  Comparative  Philology  at  Bonn  1868 ; 
assistant  professor  in  Bonn  1873;  autumn  of  same  year 
professor  in  Graz;  since  1876  Professor  of  Comparative 
Philology  in  Berlin ;  member  of  the  Royal  Prussian  Acad- 
emy. Author  of  Zur  Geachichte  dea  indogerm.  Voccdiamua 
(1871-75) ;  Die  Verwandtachaftaverh&ltniaae  der  indofferm. 
Sprachen  (1872) ;  Die  Pturalbildungen der  indogerm.  JSeuira 
(1889);  Die  Urheimath  der  Indogermanen  und  daa  euro- 
pdiache  Zahlayatem  (1890) ;  also  important  articles  in  Kuhjia 
Zeitachrift  fur  vergleichende  Spra^hforachung,  of  which 
since  1875  he  has  been  coeditor  with  E.  Kuhn.  In  wide  and 
accurate  scientific  acquaintance  with  the  details  of  the  ^am- 
matical  structure  of  the  Indo-European  languages  he  is  un- 
excelled by  any  living  scholar.  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Schmidt-Rimpler,  Hermann,  M.  D.  :  ophthalmologist ; 
b.  in  Berlin,  Prussia,  Dec.  30,  1838 ;  graduated  M.  D.  at  the 
University  of  Berlin  in  1861 ;  was  a  military  surgeon  for 
some  years,  and  after  1871  was  brigade-surgeon  at  the  Fred- 
erick William  Institute ;  at  that  time  he  was  appointed  Ex- 
traordinary and  in  1873  Ordinary  Professor  of  Ophthal- 
mology at  the  University  of  Marburg ;  in  1891  he  accepted 


the  same  chair  at  the  University  of  GSttingen.  His  chief 
work,  Augenheilkunde  und  Ophthalmoakopie  fikr  AerzU 
und  Studirende  (Brunswick,  1885),  has  passed  through  s-rv- 
eral  editions  and  has  been  translated  into  several  Eurof  »t>an 
languages.  S.  T.  Abmst&ono. 

Schmiicker,  Beale  Melanchthon,  D.  D.  :  clergy m»n 
and  author;  son  of  Samuel  S.  Schmucker;  b.  at  G^ttv. 
burg.  Pa.,  Aug.  26, 1827 ;  graduated  at  Pennsylvania  Co]  !•';:♦ 
and  Theological  Seminary,  Gettysburg,  Pa. ;' pastor  at  Mar- 
tinsburg,  Va.,  1845-51,  'AUentown,  Pa.,  1852-62.  Yjt>uu 
1862-67,  Reading  1867-^1,  Pottstown  1881-«8.  D.  at  PoTt>- 
town,  Oct.  18,  lSS8.  He  was  especially  distinguished  a«i  a 
liturgical  scholar  and  writer,  bcmg  unexcelled  in  this  de- 
partment in  the  U.  S.  The  Church  Book  (1867. 1892)  of  t  h^ 
General  Council  and  The  Common  Service  (1888)  of  all 
English-speaking  Lutherans  owe  more  to  his  indefatigable 
labor  ana  investigations  than  to  any  one  else.  The  Amer- 
ican edition  of  the  Halleache  Nachrichten  was  edit<»cl  hy 
him,  with  Dr.  Mann  and  Dr.  Germann,  and  furnished  with 
exhaustive  historical  notes.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Genen&l 
Council's  committee  on  foreign  missions  1869-88,  and  stK-re- 
tary  of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  Theological  Seminary, 
Philadelphia,  from  its  founding  in  1864  until  his  death. 

H.  E.  Jacobs. 

Schmncker,  Samuel  Simon,  D. D.:  theologian;  b.  at 
Hagerstown,  Md.,  Feb.  28, 1799;  educated  at  the  Univen^ity 
of  Pennsylvania  and  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  ;  pas- 
tor at  New  Market,  Va.,  1820-26 ;  pro^ssor  in  Theologit  al 
Seminary,  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  1826-64.  D.  at  Gettysburg,  Pa., 
July  26, 1873.  Schmucker  represented  the  American Xutli- 
eran  type  of  theology,  as  he  termed  it,  which  was  charart*  r- 
ized  by  indifference  to  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  the  Luth- 
eran Church.  He  advocated  this  tendency  in  his  Element  a 
of  Popular  Theology,  first  published  in  1834;  Amerirun 
Lutheran  Church  (1851);  Lutheran  Manual  (1855) ;  Lutu. 
eran  Symbola,  or  American  Lutheraniam  Vindicated  (1^<.V>  ^ : 
Church  of  the  Redeemer  (1867),  besides  in  numerous  art  if -If  > 
in  the  reviews  and  church  papers.  He  wrote  The  Lhfini*^ 
SynodicaX  Platform  (1856),  as  an  American  recension  of  tr^n 
Augsburg  Confession  to  be  adopted  by  the  synods  of  ih^ 
General  Synod,  in  which  the  Lutneran  doctrines  of  original 
sin  and  tne  sacraments  were  greatly  modified.  He  also  It^- 
bored  in  the  cause  of  Church  union,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  in  1846  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance.        H.  E.  J. 

Schneider,  Johann  Gottlob:  classical  scholar;  b.  at 
Collmen,  near  Wurzen,  Saxony,  Jan.  18,  1750;  began  hi^ 
philological  studies  at  Schulpforta,  which  he  continue<l  ar 
Leipzig,  and  at  G5ttingen  unaer  Heyne,  who  recommenii^^i 
him  to  Brunck  at  Strassburg  to  aid  the  latter  in  his  e<liti«  >:: 
of  the  Greek  poets.  Here  he  added  to  his  classical  studu-^ 
that  extensive  and  thorough  acquaintance  with  anatorr.). 
botany,  and  zo61ogy  which  gave  so  great  value  to  his  imIj- 
tions  of  the  ancient  authors  who  treat  of  those  subj<»<'rv. 
In  1776  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Ancient  Laiigua!ri> 
and  Eloquence  in  the  University  of  Prankfort-on-the-Odtr. 
When,  in  1811,  the  university  was  removed  to  Breslau,  h- 
accompanied  it,  holding  the  same  office,  which  he  re^igne*: 
in  1816  on  his  appointment  as  chief  librarian.  Of  th^ 
many  valuable  editions  published  by  him  may  be  men- 
tioned :  Scriptorea  Rei  Ruaticca  (4  vols.,  1794-95);  Vitruvius 
(8  vols.,  1807-08);  Aristotle's  Biatoria  da  AnimaUbus  <4 
vols.,  1812);  Works  of  Theophrastus  (5  vols.,  1818-21.; 
jElian.  De  naturali  animalium ;  Nicander's  Alexiphartfuira 
and  TherioMk",  and  Orpheus's  Argonautica,  On  his  lar^r* 
Griechiach'Deutachea  W&rterbueh  (2  vols.,  1797-98;  3d  v^i., 
with  supplement,  1819-21)  Passow  based  his  lexicon.  D.  at 
Breslau,  Jan.  12, 1822.  Revised  by  A.  Gudemax. 

Schneider,  Karl  Ernst  Christoph  :  classical  scholar ; 
b.  at  Wiehe,  Prussian  Saxonjr,  Nov.  16,  1786;  studied  the- 
ology and  philology  at  the  University  of  Leipzig;  in  1816  a|»- 
pointed  Professor  of  Ancient  Literature  in  the  University  .  f 
Breslau;  published  De  Originibua  Tragoedia  {ISIB) ;  ediu-i. 
with  a  critical  commentary,  Plato's  Republic  (3  vols.,  l^CU^v- 
33  ;  supplement,  1854);  German  translation  of  same  (/*/<»,''* 
Staat),  of  the  7'imceua  (1847),  and  an  edition  of  Prt>cUi>*> 
Commentariua  in  Plafonia  Timmum  (IS51) ;  Caesar's  (.\*»»<- 
mentarii  de  BeUo  Oallico  (2  vols.,  1840-55),  with  elahorato 
commentary:  edited  a  portion  of  the  Plato  in  Didot's  fii'-- 
liotheca  Or(Bca  (Paris,  1846-53).  D.  at  Breslau,  May  16. 
1856.  Revised  by  A.  Gudemax. 

Schnei'dewin,  Friedrich  Wilhelm:  classical  scholar; 
b.  at  Uelmstedt,  Brunswick,  June  6, 1810;  entered  the  U  ni- 


%ySdtim(f!^ 


lalUJiAr 


iht  Mid- 


It^r:  li  Ml  CAimttiMntfMm 


354 


SCHOLASTICISM 


relatively  to  one  another.  It  would  be  unjust  to  tax  them 
with  their  shortcomings  in  history  and  the  natural  sciences; 
those  elements  of  human  learning  they  borrowed  from  their 
predecessors,  and  they  were  too  busy  as  pioneers  of  a  mighty 
intellectual  movement,  as  the  schoolmasters  of  the  young 
nations,  to  devote  attention  to  special  and  minor  departments 
of  the  world  of  knowledge,  even  if  their  value  were  as  clear 
to  them  as  to  us.  To  one  of  these  schoolmen,  Vincent  of 
Beauvais,  we  owe  the  famous  Speculum,  forerunner  of  our 
modem  eneyclopffidias,  in  which  the  divisions  of  human 
science  and  their  respective  claims  are  justly  observed  and 
recognized.  Withal,  Albert  the  Great  and  Roger  Bacon  rec- 
ognized fully  the  bearings  of  the  study  of  nature,  and  the 
great  moral  poem  of  Dante  is  a  study  in  social  and  political 
questions  of  the  highest  order.  The  annalists,  chroniclers, 
and  historians  of  the  time,  themselves  schoolmen  or  trained 
in  the  schools,  show  an  ever-widening  interest  in  human 
affairs,  much  shrewdness,  a  large  extent  of  observation,  and 
a  well-developed  political  sense.  It  may  also  be  noted  that 
even  in  the  schools  during  the  latter  half  of  the  twelfth  and 
in  the  thirteenth  century  the  technical  and  oratorical  styles 
were  in  a  constant  struggle  for  the  masterv,  a  phase  of  this 
movement  which  is  well  illustrated  bjr  the  contemporary 
Alexander  of  Hales  and  William  of  Paris,  the  former  repre- 
senting the  didactic  and  the  latter  the  larger,  more  rhetorical 
manner.  A  glance  at  the  weighty  philosophical  problems 
which  constantly  attracted  the  attention  of  the  schoolmen 
is  sufficient  to  impress  a  frank,  intelligent  mind  with  re- 
spect. They  were  the  relations  of  faith  and  reason ;  the 
nature  and  means  of  knowledge ;  the  reality  of  observations, 
phenomena,  experience ;  the  personality  of  man ;  the  nature 
of  the  universe,  immortality,  the  future  life ;  the  rights  and 
duties  of  the  factors  of  society,  the  forms  and  functions  of 
government,  etc.  And  all  this,  not  in  a  loose,  inconsistent, 
contradictory  manner,  but  with  logical  coherency,  and  a 
consciousness  that  they  were  contributing  in  a  systematic 
way  to  the  creation  of  a  great  whole  in  which  faith  and  rea- 
son have  each  the  share  that  is  demanded  by  the  peculiar 
nature  and  office  of  each.  The  most  perfect  specimen  of  this 
philosophic  spirit  is  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  the  most  ad- 
mirable of  the  scholastic  works  is  the  Summa  Theologica  of 
that  stupendous  genius — "  a  vast  encyclopff?dia  of  the  moral 
sciences,  in  which  whatever  could  be  known  of  God  and  man 
and  their  relations  was  set  down ;  a  monument  severely  har- 
monious, magnificent  in  design,  but  yet  unfinished,  like  so 
many  other  of  the  great  mediaeval  undertakings."  ( Ozana?n.) 

Sources  of  Scholasticism, — Inasmuch  as  this  term  implies 
a  rounded  and  consistent  body  of  doctrines,  it  sums  up  all 
previous  knowledge  of  a  higher  order,  and  draws  upon  all 
the  fountains  of  human  learning  then  known.  In  theology 
the  written  word  of  God,  the  decisions  of  councils  and 
popes,  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  Church  history,  canon 
law,  the  liturgy,  and  popular  religious  custom  and  feeling, 
furnish  the  materials  of  the  scholastic  writings.  In  philos- 
ophy Aristotle,  as  known  to  the  Middle  Ages,  with  Boe- 
thius  and  the  pseudo-Areopagite,  form  the  sources  of  their 
logic  and  metaphysics.  The  schoolmen  accepted  without 
question  the  teachmgs  of  the  Church,  and  proceeded  to  co- 
ordinate them  by  means  chiefly  of  the  Aristotelian  method 
and  principles,  to  illustrate,  explain,  and  defend,  to  reduce 
the  propositions  of  theology  to  formal  theses,  against  which 
they  marshaled  all  possible  objections,  which  were  answered 
briefly  and  in  order,  but  not  Injfore  the  theological  truth 
in  question  had  been  defined  and  proved.  Thus  theol- 
ogy grew  under  their  hands  into  a  perfect  science,  with 
the  aid  of  the  dialectic  methoil,  and  all  the  teachings  of  the 
Catholic  Church  were  built  up  as  into  a  vast  edifice,  which 
had  its  vestibule  or  preparation  in  natural  theology,  its 
framework  in  the  revealed  and  defined  truths  of  religion, 
its  roof  or  completion  in  their  orderly  presentation  by  the 
schoolmen,  and  its  decoration  in  the  countless  services  ren- 
deretl  by  human  reason  to  the  entire  j)rocess. 

The  Processes  of  Scholasticism. — The  doctors  of  the 
schools  wrote  usually  on  two  distinct  lines.  Soinetinies  they 
composed  independent,  orij^inal  writinp?,  and  thus  arose  tlioiV 
sums  of  theology,  their  controverted  and  so-called  quodlil)e- 
tal  (questions.  Again,  they  wrote  coniinentaries  on  some  fa- 
vorite work,  like  the  Bible,  the  ps<>u(lo-AnH)prt«;ite,  Hoethius, 
Peter  Lorabanl,  or  Aristotle.  In  either  case  thoy  usually 
divided  their  subject-matter  into  parts,  which  were  in  turn 
subdivided  into  questions  and  articles— the  bulk  of  the  doc- 
trine being  always  given  in  the  latter,  and  the  ouMines  fur- 
nished by  the  titles  or  theses  i)lace(l  at  the  head  of  each 
division  and  subdivision.    Each  article  opened  with  a  series 


of  formal  objections,  after  which  the  doctrine,  theolot;i»:u 
or  philosophical,  was  stated,  and  the  sufficient  groun<i.s  for 
it  assigned,  whereupon  the  answers  to  the  objections  fal- 
lowed. Clear  statement,  compressed  sentences,  close  dia- 
lectic reasoning,  frequent  fine  distinction,  and  a  sharji  in- 
sistence upon  the  point  at  issue  mark  these  brief  tn^ati-^-v 
of  theology,  which  were  as  pleasing  to  the  mediaeval  mini 
as  the  dialogue  was  to  that  of  the  Greek.  There  is  in  tiif 
writings  of  the  best  of  the  schoolmen  a  magnificent  fday  .  f 
reason,  which  recoils  before  no  difficulty,  reminding  us  oft.  r. 
of  certain  wonderful  feats  of  skill  that  the  conterof)orary  ar- 
chitects successfully  attempted.  Before  them  there'  \uA 
been  theologians  without  number,  and  scarcely  a  jniint  in 
theology  had  been  left  untouched.  But  they  created  t.'.>' 
science  of  theology ;  they  impressed  the  most  rational  <  * 
philosophies  into  its  service  ;  they  mapped  out  all  the  nn.:- 
tiplex  relations  between  God  and' man,  and  in  all  this  i)..  v 
preserved  a  certain  free  and  speculative  spirit,  with  niih'- 
turned  habitually  toward  investigation,  and,  within  cvria.n 
limits,  filled  with  an  insatiable  curiosity^. 

History  of  Scholasticism. — The  origins  of  this  mcth«Hl  ..r 
system  are  not  to  be  found  in  a  sudden  discovery  and  a4i.j!- 
tation  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  ;  thev  are  as  old  m  i 
deep  as  those  of  other  great  phenomena  oi  the  time.     Tii. 

Ehilosophy   of  Aristotle  had  been  handed  down  thn.u;:'i 
loethius,  and  that  of  Plato  through  the  pseudo-Areopai::* 
Ecclesiastical  science  had  found  numberless  exponents,  f  r-  m 
Bede  and  Isidore  of  Seville  down  to  the  meaner  annah-- 
and  collectors  of  canons  in  the  darkest  years  of  the  tt-i.t 
century.     The  rational  and  scientific  presentation  of  th».-  ^ 
logical' truths  had  been  happily  performed  by  many  writ*  -- 
long  previous  to  the  rise  or  what  is  known  as  schoraMKi-n  . 
Usually,  however,  its  history  is  said  to  begin  with  ."^i.  Ai.- 
selm  of  Canterbury  (1033-1109),  in  whose  Monoloyium  t't. 
outlines  of  the  scl'iolastic  dialectic  method  are  disiiinf"\ 
visible.     Abelard,  William  of  Champeaux,  Kf»scelin,  I'»  t-  r 
Tjombard,  the  Blessed  Albert  the  Great,  St.  Thomas  A <,..:- 
nas,  St.    Bonaventure,  and  Duns  Scotus  mark   its    pr--- 
ress  to  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  which  was  it>  r«  a 
apogee,  and  in  which  its  highest  exponents  were  the  Kh  <-..■ 
Albert  the  Great,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  Bonaventure.     Tl..  ii 
theological   systems  are  at  once  complete  and  grandi. '^. 
and   awaken   forever    the    astonishment    of   disj>ar'>i«)ii;.: 
students,  for  the  keen,  searching  analysis  of  details,  the  i»  j 
ular  proportions  of  the  parts,  and  the  suc(*essful  l)«»ldi.»  — 
with  which  they  are  fitted  together,  and  resist  all  ttnt;i:.--- 
nizing  forces.     Other  great  doctors  of  this  brilliant  pt  j  ,  «i 
were  Alanus  of  Lisle,  Alexander  of  Hales,  Ilenrv  of  (i.ni' 
Richard  Middleton,  Peter  of  Poitiers,  William  of  Pari.^.  ♦  t« 
From  an  early  date,  however,  divergent  currents  an<l  u-\  •.- 
encies,  arising  from  various  sources,  made  themselves  \i-  - 
ble.     Thus  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  rei>rcM'Tir    . 
opposing  views  in  theology  and  philosophy,  and  again  wi:  1.- 
in  each  great  body  there  were  fresh  clefts.    Trie  s*-**  r.  . 
period  of  scholasticism  covers  the  fourteenth  and  flfte^iifi 
centuries,  and  is  marked  by  a  tendency  on  the  one  hand  t 
free  philosophy  and  the  other  sciences  from  their  aiioilla'-) 
dependence  on  theology,  and  on  the  other  to  gather  fr«.  n. 
the  latter  all  possible  benefit  for  the  practical,  ascetic,  >}ir- 
itual  needs  of  the  soul,  as  opposed  to  the  purely  sciein.r:. 
satisfaction  of  the  intellect.    Thus  the  differentiation  of  t  i  - 
sciences  (Roger  Bacon,  Raymond  Lull)  and  the  growt  \\  «  .' 
mystical  theology  as  a  specific  branch  (Master  Kt-kluir* 
Tauler,  Suso,  Ruysbroeck,  Thomas  k  Kempis,  the  '*  Gerti.;!.. 
Theology ")  divide   with  theology  proper   the   intert*:-t    «  ! 
students  in  this  second  age.    It  was  inevitable  that    t  • 
succession  of  men  like  St.  Thomas  and  St.  Bonaveinu^ 
should  fall  upon  weaker  shoulders,  and  several  other  ijr- 
cumstances  combined  to  hasten  the  decline  of  the  ^cat  ii;- 
telleetual  movement  of  the  thirteenth  century.    The  \V»  •*:- 
em  Schism,  the  Franciscan  controversies,  ana  the  i>oliti.M 
changes  drew  men's  minds  more  to  practical  imine^li.M*. 
interests,  and  the  cultivation  of  dogmatic  philosophy   sn,  '. 
theology  was  neglected  for  moral  and  legal  questions,'    It  .- 
the  age'  of  the  moralists  and  jurists,  of  the  comnient:i;.   -- 
on  the  law  of  the  Church,  and  the  civil  law.     Duninct.-. 
Occam,  Pierre  d'Ailly,  Gerson,  Capreolus,  Denys  Ic  Kh  .•-. 
treux,  Gabriel  Biel,  and  Thomas  of  Strassburg  represi»nt  t  ♦   - 
later  and  weaker  stage  of  scholasticism,  previous  t«»    : 
Reformation. 

NeO'Scholasticism. — As  the  theology  and  philoev^phr  .  f 
the  mediipval  schools  were  not  a  sudden  and  foreign  ifii*t».  '  - 
tat  ion,  but  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  previous  lit»r.x-. 
movement,  so  the  true  Catholic  theology  and  philosoph\  ^.f 


iLf¥i#iim» 


moi.lif^.  P    r*.       tTt-ifr  .rl^ 


f^flmifi'Mrt 


^.►'iti.  rti-iii-Ti\ 


Mi 


Srhi^n'Hrrtnt!  ^    n  fm|n*rfr/ 


356 


SCnONEBECK 


Schtt'nebeck :  town ;  in  the  province  of  Saxony,  Prus- 
sia ;  on  the  Elbe ;  9  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Magileburg  (see  map 
of  German  Empire,  ref.  4-F).  It  has  large  salt-works,  brew- 
eries, and  distilleries,  and  manufactures  of  powder,  chem- 
icals, soap,  white  lead,  and  vinegar.  It  suffered  much  from 
an  inundation  in  Feb.,  1876.    Pop.  (1890)  14,189. 

Schttii'feld,  Edward :  astronomer;  b.  at  Hillburghausen, 
Saxe-Meiningen,  Germany,  Dec.  22,  1828;  became  an  as- 
sistant to  Argelander  at  the  University  of  Bonn,  where  he 
took  an  active  part  in  cataloguing  all  tne  stars  of  the  north- 
ern hemisphere,  down  to  the  ninth  magnitude.  In  1875  he 
succeeded  Argelander  as  director  of  the  Bonn  Observatory 
and  Professor  of  Astronomy.  In  1869  he  received  the  Wat- 
son medal  from  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Wash- 
ington for  his  work  in  cataloguing  the  stars,  1).  at  Bonn, 
May  1, 1891.  S.  N. 

Schoolcraft,  Henry  Rowe,  LL.  D.  :  ethnologist ;  b.  at 
Watervliet  (now  Guilderland),  N.  Y.,  Mar.  28. 1793 ;  studied 
at  Union  and  Middlebury  Colleges ;  devoted  himself  to  a 
scientific  study  of  the  art  of  glass-making,  his  father  being 
a  manager  of  extensive  glass-works ;  began  the  publication 
at  Utica  in  1817  of  a  work  on  Vitreology,  which  was  left 
incomplete  through  lack  of  patronage;  made  a  journey 
through  the  mineral  regions  of  Southern  Missouri  and  Ar- 
kansas in  1817-18,  of  which  he  published  an  account,  A 
View  of  the  Lead-mines  of  Missouri  (New  York,  1819) ; 
obtained  from  Secretary  Calhoun  in  1820  an  appointment 
as  geologist  to  an  exploring  expedition  sent  to  the  upper 
Mississippi  and  Lake  Superior  copper  region,  and  published 
a  Journal  (1821) ;  was  m  1822  appointed  Indian  agent  for 
the  tribes  of  Lake  Superior;  was  the  principal  founder  of 
the  Michigan  Historical  Society  (1828)  and  of  the  Aigic  So- 
cietv  of  Detroit  (1831),  an  association  for  the  investigation 
of  Indian  antiquities ;  was  at  the  head  of  a  scientific  expe- 
dition which  in  1832  explored  for  the  first  time  Ijake  Itasca 
and  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi;  negotiated  in  1836  a 
treaty  by  which  the  U.  S.  purchased  from  the  Chippewas  a 
tract  of  16,000,000  acres  on  the  upper  lakes,  after  which  he 
became  superintendent  of  Indian  affairs  for  the  northern 
department,  and  in  1839  chief  disbursing  agent  for  the  same 
department;  publishe<l  Algic  Researches  (2  vols.,  1839^,  a 
collection  of  Indian  tales  and  legends;  removed  to  Isew 
Yt)rk  1841 ;  issued  the  prospectus  of  an  Indian  Cyclopcedia 
(1842),  afterward  carried  into  effect  in  another  form ;  super- 
intended at  Washington  the  publication  of  a  series  of  reports 
on  all  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  U.  S.  (6  vols.,  illustrated, 
Philadelphia,  1851-57),  containing  material  of  great  value, 
but  unsatisfactory  as  a  whole  from  lack  of  systematic  ar- 
rangement and  from  unwarranted  theorizing.  D.  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  Dec.  10, 1864.  Among  his  numerous  publica- 
tions were  a  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  Itasca  Lake,  the 
Actual  Source  of  the  Mississippi  {ISM ;  reissued  in  1853, 
along  with  the  account  of  the  earlier  exploration  of  1820) ; 
(hieota,  or  Characteristics  of  the  Red  Race  of  America  (New 
York,  1844) ;  Notes  on  the  Iroquois  (Albany,  1848) ;  Personal 
Memoirs  of  a  Residence  of  Thirty  Years  with  the  Indian 
Tribes  (Philadelphia,  1851) ;  and  Scenes  and  Adventures  in 
the  Semi-Alpine  Regions  of  the  Ozark  Mountaifis  (1853). 

Revised  by  J.  W.  Powell. 

Schoolmen :  those  philosophers  of  the  Middle  Ages  whose 
labors  wera  directed  chiefly  to  adjusting  the  relations  of  the 
Christian  religion  to  philosophy.  See  Philosophy  {History 
of  Philosophy)^  Nominalists,  Realism,  and  Scholasticism. 

Schools:  collections  of  persons  brought  together  and  duly 
organized  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  and  receiving  in- 
struction. The  word  school  is  commonly  applied  to  an  or- 
ganization intended  to  provide  elementary,  secondary,  or 
professional  instruction,  and  not  to  an  institution  designed 
to  offer  exclusively  non-professional  studies  of  college  or 
university  grade.  Thus  we  have  elementary  schools,  sec- 
ondary schools,  normal  schools,  trade  schools,  theological 
schools,  law  schools,  and  medical  schools,  each  group  of 
which  is  treated  below.  See  also  Agricultural  College, 
College,  Common  Schools,  Kindergarten,  Manual  Train- 
ing, Military  Academies,  University,  etc. 

I.  riisTORicAL  Development  of  Schools. 
7%e  Orient. — In  India  schools  for  the  instruction  of  boys 
have  existed  from  time  immemorial.  These  were  held  in  tfie 
open  country,  under  the  shade  of  trees,  or,  in  case  of  bad  weath- 
er, under  primitive  roofs.  Exercises  were  first  performed  on 
the  sand,  then  on  palm-leaves  with  a  stylus,  and  finally  with 
ink.    Among  the  Israelites  great  care  was  taken  to  instruct 


SCHOOLS 

the  children,  but  until  the  Christian  era,  so  far  as  is  knovc, 
such  instruction  was  limited  to  the  family.    In  the  re^r  64 

A.  D.,  however,  the  high  priest  Gamala  decreed  that  ewii 
town  should  support  a  scnool  under  pain  of  excommui.i.«- 
tion.  As  given  m  the  Talmud,  if  the  number  of  chili  in  u 
did  not  exceed  25,  the  school  should  be  conducted  br  ( nt- 
teacher ;  if  more  than  25  and  less  than  40,  there  shouM  i»^ 
an  assistant ;  if  more  than  40,  there  should  be  two  nm^u-n. 
The  Talmud  describes  in  detail  the  duties  of  the  teachtTaii'l 
the  obligations  of  the  pupil,  showing  conclusively  that  }.t- y 
reliance  was  placed  by  the  Jews  upon  the  effects  of  the  tra-it 
ing  effected  oy  the  schooTs.  Corporal  punishment  was  u ! 
erated  only  for  children  above  the  age  of  eleven.  "Af''! 
the  afi^e  of  six  receive  the  child  and  load  him  like  an  'ti 
"  Children  should  be  punished  with  one  hand  and  can^v, 
with  two."  In  case  of  disobedience  the  pupil  might  U-  ..'- 
prived  of  food  and  even  **  struck  with  a  strap  of  shoe-leatbir ' 
in  China  the  necessity  of  the  most  thorough  provision  i  i 
schools  was  inculcated  by  Confucius.  The  philos^.phv  <•! 
the  country  demanded  the  most  complete  knowledge  j-o-: 
ble  of  the  methods  and  characteristics  of  the  fathers.  T 
this  end  the  provisions  for  education  were  systematic  an< 
universal  Hue,  the  famous  missionary  and  traveler.  At 
Clares  that  of  all  countries  it  is  in  China  that  priman  » 
struction  is  most  widely  diffused,  and  another  missiiUHT 
asserts  that  "  there  is  not  a  village  so  miserable,  nor  a  ham 
let  so  unpretending,  as  not  to  be  provided  with  a  stb*-  l' 
When  Japan  adopted  Chinese  civilization,  it  adoptni  tr., 
Chinese  school  system,  which  continued  until  the  oi^-iun. 
of  the  country  to  European  and  American  influences.  Ir 
1872  a  law  was  passed  providing  for  an  elementary  sh- 
for  ever}^  600  of  the  population.  This  law  has  been  \<r 
generally  carried  out,  ana  the  benefits  derived  from  it  lia^ 
been  very  great.  In  Egypt  intellectual  culture  reaih»^l  j 
very  high  point,  but  education  was  confined  almost  ex- m. 
sively  to  the  priestly  caste,  which  guarded  jealously  all  ih 
sources  of  knowledge.  Here,  therefore,  as  in  the  other  <  <  r. 
temporaneous  nations,  schools  were  only  im|)erfectly  iie\'. 
opea. 

Greece. — The  necessity  of  education  in  the  most  comyr* 
hensive  sense  was  universally  recognized  among  the  Grwkj 
but  schools  were  private  and  not  subject  to  governments 
supervision.  The  Athenian  lad  was  put  under  a  pedap^.nij 
(a  conductor  of  boys,  usually  a  slave),  who  took  him  at  J 
early  age  to  a  palestra  or  primary  school.  Here  the  lx>y  wJ 
taught  gymnastics,  reading,  writing,  mythology,  and  t>i  j 
cially  music.  Homer  was  universally  the  boy's  read  ing-U«  ^ 
From  the  palestra  the  pedagogue  took  his  pupil  to  the  grn^ 
nasium  or  secondary  school.  Here,  as  in  the  palestra,  >{'i 
cial  attention  was  given  to  music,  as  a  means  of  ins[>ir.Ri 
the  soul  with  a  love  of  harmony  and  order.  Grammar  tnj 
rhetoric  were  also  taught.  From  the  gymnasium  the  puj  il 
either  betook  themselves  to  their  several  vocations  f«r.  i 
case  of  special  ambitions,  continued  their  studit»s  in  *\.\ 
schools  of  the  sophists  or  under  personal  private  instruetiifl 
It  was  to  such  pupils  that  Socrates.  Plato,  and  Aristotle  i:»» 
instruction.  In  tne  Republic  and  the  Laws  of  Plato  antl  \h 
Politics  of  Aristotle  the  Greek  ideas  of  education  are  » 
forth.  The  prevailing  thought  was  the  harmonious  dev.« 
opment  of  all  the  powers  of  the  pupil,  i)hysical,  mental,  aw 
moral.  In  Sparta  education  was  regarded  as  equallv  ira 
portant,  but  here  special  stress  was  placed  upon  the  traimn| 
of  men  physically  for  military  duty. 

Rome.'--Wii\i  the  Romans  education  manifesteti  twos*  m«i 
what  distinct  types.  During  the  republic  it  inclinetl  t<»  tbi 
Spartan,  during  the  empire  to  the  Athenian.  Before  thi 
second  Punic  war  no  provision  was  made  for  schools.  Kl 
education  was  limited  to  the  care  of  the  family.  Under  iM 
svstem  a  severe  family  discipline,  coupled  with  the  Ron.  *t 
iieals  as  to  the  civic  and  military  virtues,  succeedetl  in  -ii 
veloping  a  remarkable  race  of  men.  With  the  in  trod  net  i  \ 
of  a  taste  for  Greek  arts  and  literature  in  the  thinl  ceniur] 

B.  c.  the  era  of  severe  simplicity  gradually  ^ve  way  t«>  nf^ 
ideals.  Schools  of  philosophers  and  rhetoricians  came  t.M 
existence,  and  the  younger  children  were  intrusted,  a-*  :1 
Athens,  to  the  care  of  pedagogues.  But  even  under  the  r^. 
pire  education  was  not  taken  up  as  an  affair  of  the  >t.»'. 
each  teacher  followed  his  own  method.  Varro  wn>t»'  ■  Jj 
grammar,  rhetoric,  history,  and  geometry,  and  his  w(>rks !  a  I 
much  influence  for  several  generations.  Of  more  ira^K»r1n^.«^ 
were  the  Institutes  of  Oratory  by  Quintilian,  who  pvi-  ^ 
detailed  account  of  the  ideal  education  of  an  orator  Iril 
the  earliest  childhood  to  manhood. 

Middle  Ages. — During  the  period  of  the  invasions  tlu-  \  f'^ 


SCHOOIjS 


357 


r&iiiii?  turbulence  made  the  establishment  of  schools  lm~ 
l*MMt»le.  Even  the  Christian  Fathers  were  divided  in  their 
o{>ini«>ns  as  to  the  influence  of  a  comprehensive  education. 
TertuUian  rejected  all  pagan  learning,  and  St.  Augustine, 
aUvt  his  conversion,  renounced  his  taste  for  classical  poetry 
and  eloquence.  St.  Basil,  on  the  other  hand,  recommended 
t^ittt  Toung  Christians  become  familiar  with  the  orators, 
p.«*ts.'and  historians  of  antiquity ;  and  St.  Jerome  wrote  a 
trvHti<»e  on  the  education  of  girls  which  has  elicited  warm 
(t>mmeQdation.  But  the  ideas  of  the  time  were  monastic  in 
tbt'ir  nature,  and  early  monasticism  was  unfavorable  to  the 
fd'abli^hment  of  schools  of  any  kind.  Here  and  there  groups 
of  yiiung  Christians,  aspiring  to  the  priesthood,  gathered 
»n>und  the  priest  for  instruction,  but  these  were  scarcely 
Worthy  the  name  of  schools.  Sidonius  Apollinaris,  writing 
in  the'fifth  century,  says :  ^  Teachers  no  longer  have  pupils, 
uul  learning  languishes  and  dies.''  It  was  not  till  the  age 
ol  Charlemagne  that  an  attempt  was  made  to  provide  for 
vTsteniatic  instruction.  This  great  ruler  not  only  estab- 
iLthKl  a  kind  of  itinerant  school,  which  followed  tne  king 
OD  his  travels^  with  Alcuin  at  its  head,  but  he  decreed  the 
establishment  of  schools  in  various  parts  of  his  domain. 
NVthiog  gives  a  more  depressing  picture  of  the  intellectual 
feebleness  of  the  time  than  the  description  of  the  methods 
of  instruction  contained  in  Einbard's  Vita  Caroli  Magni. 
iSee  Guizot,  History  of  Civilization  in  France,  lect.  xxii.) 
Thus,  notwithstandme  the  enlightened  efforts  of  Alcuin,  who 
has  aptly  been  called  the  first  mmister  of  education  in  France, 
neither  the  clergy  nor  the  people  by  their  intelligence  or 
their  appreciation  responded  to  tne  efforts  that  were  put  forth. 
N(<  one  of  Charlema^e*8  successors  took  up  his  thought, 
ami  the  Council  of  Aix-la-('hapelle,  in  817,  decided  that  no 
more  day-pupils  should  be  admitted  to  the  conventual 
»h«K*k  It  was  not  till  the  twelfth  century  that  Scholas- 
ni  [!(v  iq.  r.),  by  the  introduction  of  the  Aristotelian  proc- 
a»^  of  reasoning,  awakened  some  intellectual  activity.  But 
tvftk  this  was  chiefly  a  mental  gymnastic,  and  gave  dis- 
torted views  of  all  the  affairs  and  relations  of  life.  The  fact 
that  Ahelard  bv  the  renown  of  his  eloquence  could  gather 
about  him  in  I'aris  thousands  of  students  shows  that  there 
VKs  an  interest  in  learning,  which,  under  wise,  inspiring, 
4tid  systematic  guidance,  might  perhaps  have  accomplish^ 
unp<'rtant  results.  But  no  such  guidance  was  at  hand.  It 
Bft  not  till  that  general  awakening  called  the  Renaissance 
that  schools  of  any  considerable  importance  were  established. 
Thorv  were,  it  is  true,  ecclesiastical  schools  for  the  educa- 
^iim  of  priests,  but  their  methods  were  crude  and  their  re- 
Mlii  narrow  and  distorted.  In  1863  choirs  and  benches 
wer>j  fi)rbidden,  because  they  encouraged  pride.  The  rod 
^^  frwly  used.  **  Day  and  night,"  wrote  an  abbot  to  An- 
lelm.  *'w«  do  not  cease  to  chastise  the  children,  but  they 

S'»w  worse  and  worse."  "  In  the  fifteenth  century,"  says 
oDteil,  in  describing  the  schools,  "  the  rods  are  twice  as 
\mi%  as  those  in  the  fourteenth."  But  it  would  be  errone- 
QQs  to  Mippoee  that  the  conditions  generally  prevalent  in 
Europe  were  universal.  On  the  contrary,  after  the  rise  of 
Mohammedanism  in  the  seventh  century,  schools  were  es- 
tablished in  all  the  principal  cities  in  the  East  as  well  as 
m  the  West  The  most  celebrated  were  at  Bagdad,  Damas- 
fn?^,  Cordova,  Salamanca,  and  Toledo.  Here  grammar,  phi- 
l^^Dhy.  chemistry,  medicine,  and  the  various  branches  of 
mitihematics  were  studied  with  great  success.  They  gave 
alL'el>ra  and  trigonometry  their  modem  forms,  determined 
thf  »i2e  of  the  earth  by  measuring  a  degree,  made  a  cata- 
^^«  of  stars,  invented  the  pendulum  clock,  and  discovered 
•Icobol,  as  well  as  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.  Their  schools 
7*te  largely  attended  by  the  most  enterprisine  and  aspir- 
in;; yoQth  of  the  other  countries  of  Europe,  and  their  influ- 
em^  was  considerable  in  awakening  the  thought  which  led 
to  the  Renaissance. 

Th*  Revival  of  Learning. — It  Is  of  importance  to  note  that 
the  fiT>t  general  intellectual  movement  of  modem  Europe 
»w  through  the  universities.  Cambridge,  Oxford,  Bologna, 
^••roo,  Naples,  Paris,  Prague,  Vienna,  and  Heidelberg  were 
*^bli*hed  before  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
TThe  moral  and  intellectual  tone  of  the  universities  was  low, 
W  their  influence  in  behalf  of  learning  soon  made  itself 
wt,  Stadenta  had  special  halls  or  colleges  in  which  they 
•'•i*.*«l  and  boarded  under  official  superintendence.  At  flrst 
^  universities  wore  free  associations,  but  they  were  soon 
^'^'^enijpd  as  elements  of  power  by  the  Church  and  the 
njl<'r\  and  soon  received  special  privileges.  Before  the  end 
'»f  the  twelfth  centurr  contemporary  authorities  assert  that 
^  the  Univenity  of  Bologna  there  were  12,000  students  and 


a  little  later  that  at  Paris  there  were  20,000.  These  were 
grouped  into  four  faculties — those  of  theology,  philosophy, 
law,  and  medicine,  the  classification  which  is  still  prevalent 
in  Germany.  During  this  period  schools  were  greatly  as- 
sisted by  the  writings-of  the  most  enlightened  teachers.  Be- 
sides Abelard  (1079-1142),  Gerson,  chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  (136^1429),  Vittorino  da  Feltre  of  Padua 
(1379-1446),  and  -^neas  Silvius,  afterward  Pope  Pius  11. 
(1458-64),  contributed  greatly  to  improve  the  methods  and 
spirit  of  instruction.  In  the  secondary  schools,  which  were 
mostly  conventual,  "the  seven  liberal  arts"— viz.,  Latin, 
grammar,  dialectics,  rhetoric,  music,  arithmetic,  geometry, 
and  astronomy — were  regularly,  thongh  not  very  efficiently, 
taueht. 

The  Reformation, — The  great  religious  upheaval  of  the 
sixteenth  century  was  hendded  by  a  number  of  eminent 
teachers  and  patrons  of  learning.  Manuel  Chrysoloras 
collected  a  vast  number  of  Greek  M88.  and  introduced 
them  into  Italy.  Pope  Nicholas  V.  founded  the  Vatican 
Library  and  made  Bx)me  the  center  of  learning.  Agric- 
ola  not  only  transplanted  the  spirit  of  letters  from  Italy 
to  Germany,  but  ^ve  most  valuable  advice  to  those  en- 
gaged in  establishing  schools.  To  the  authorities  at  Ant- 
werp inquiring  for  a  nead  master,  he  wrote :  **  Take  neither 
a  theologian  nor  a  rhetorician,  but  one  who  knows  how  to 
teach,  to  speak,  and  to  act  at  the  same  time.  If  you  know 
such  a  man  get  him  at  any  price."  Reuchlin  created  great 
enthusiasm  for  the  study  of  Hebrew,  and  Erasmus  per- 
formed a  still  higher  service  in  behalf  of  Greek  and  of  po- 
lite learning  in  general.  The  impulse  thus  given  was  earned 
on  by  Luther,  wliose  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone 
transferred  from  the  Church  to  the  individual  the  responsi- 
bility of  saving  knowledge.  The  logical  result  was  a  great 
movement  in  behalf  of  the  means  by  which  individual 
knowledge  could  be  increased.  Luther  not  only  advocated 
the  establishment  of  schools  everywhere,  but  he  gave  impor- 
tant adyice  in  re^rd  to  their  organization  and  improve- 
ment. His  teachmgs  wrought  a  veritable  revolution.  He 
pushed  forward  the  art  of  giving  instruction,  and  provided 
for  special  instruction  of  the  best  scholars  to  fit  them  for 
the  work  of  teachers.  While  he  put  great  sti^ess  on  the 
study  of  theology,  and  gave  a  very  prominent  place  to 
studies  in  GreeK,  Latin,  and  Hebrew,  he  recommendnl 
mathematics  and  history.  He  made  the  support  of  the 
schools  a  charge  upon  the  public  treasury,  and  placed  upon 
the  parents  the  moral  obligation  to  send  their  children  to 
school.  Perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  was  the  fact 
that  he  insistea  upon  an  absolute  emancipation  from  the 
old  spirit  of  exclusiveness,  for  it  was  in  this  emancipation 
that  the  revolution  really  consisted.  The  gist  of  his  teach- 
ings in  this  respect  was  contained  in  these  words:  "The 
monks  have  imprisoned  young  men  like  birds  in  a  cage.  It 
is  dangerous  to  isolate  the  young.  It  is  necessary,  on  the 
contrary,  to  allow  young  people  to  hear,  see,  and  learn  all 
sorts  of  things,  while  all  the  time  observing  the  restraints 
and  the  rules  of  honor."  This  new  spirit  became  the  fun- 
damental idea  of  education  in  Germany,  and  it  exerted  a 
vast  influence  in  giving  German  schools  of  all  grades  the 

§  re-eminence  they  have  ever  since  maintained.  These  fun- 
amental  propositions  were  given  definiteness  of  form  two 
generations  later  by  the  great  father  of  educational  or- 
ganization, Comenius.  Michelet  calls  him  "  the  flrst  evan- 
Slist  of  modem  pedagogy — Pestalozzi  being  the  second." 
is  particular  service  was  in  giving  exactness  to  different 
grades  of  instraction,  in  deflning  the  most  important  laws 
m  the  art  of  teaching,  in  determining  how  elementary  in- 
stmction  should  be  conducted,  and  in  applying  to  all  grades 
of  teaching  the  laws  of  modem  logic.  The  ciassiflcation  of 
studies  outlined  in  his  different  works,  of  which  there  were 
twenty  volumes,  was  essentially  the  same  as  that  generally 
adopted  at  the  present  day  by  the  best  schools  of  Europe 
and  America.  While  the  work  of  Comenius  was  going  on 
in  Germany,  England,  and  Sweden,  other  efforts  were  put 
forth  in  different  parts  of  Europe.  In  Geneva  the  ecclesi- 
astical policy  of  Calvin  provided  for  the  establishment  of 
schools  and  teachers.  Melanchthon  drew  up  the  "  Saxony 
plan,"  which  was  long  the  basis  of  organization  in  many 
parts  of  Grermany.  In  Strassburg  the  school  of  John  Sturm 
became  so  famous  that  it  was  sought  by  pupils  from  all 
parts  of  Europe.  In  all  Roman  Catholic  countries  schools 
were  organized  in  the  most  thorough  manner  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  Jesuits.  The  foundation  of  all  the  Jesuit 
schools  was  the  study  of  the  classics,  but  they  taught  also  phi- 
losophy, ethics,  mathematics,  and  history.   At  the  beginning 


358 


SCHOOLS 


of  the  eighteenth  century  the  fame  of  the  Jesuits  as  teachers 
had  become  so  great  that  they  had  been  called  upon  to  es- 
tablish schools  in  every  part  of  the  world.  In  1710  they 
were  reported  to  have  613  colleges,  157  schools  for  the  edu- 
cation of  teachers,  and  twenty-four  universities.  The  sys- 
tem proposed  by  Loyola  in  1588,  with  the  exception  of  some 
slight  modification  made  in  1832,  has  remained  unchanged 
to  the  present  day.  Thus  far  the  organization  of  schools 
since  the  Reformation  has  been  largely  shaped  either  by  in- 
dividual teachers  or  bv  general  religious  considerations. 

Germany, — From  the  time  of  Comenius  until  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  schools  of  Germany  were  multiplied,  but 
there  was  no  very  radical  change  in  the  plan  of  organiza- 
tion. In  1715  A.  H.  Francke  founded  the  first  Peaagoai- 
um,  or  normal  school  for  the  training  of  teachers,  and  nis 
organizing  and  inspiring  power  was  such  as  to  bring  to- 
gether more  than  4,000  teachers  and  pupils  in  the  institu- 
tions under  his  control.  Methods  were  still  further  im- 
proved by  Basedow  and  Bochow,  and  both  Frederick  the 
Great  and  Maria  Theresa  gave  practical  encouragement  to 
the  schools  by  declaring  them  entitled  to  the  protection  and 
care  of  the  state.  Even  the  eccentric  Frederick  William  I. 
of  Prussia  published  an  edict  of  compulsory  education.  But 
notwithstanding  all  these  efforts,  the  elementary  schools  re- 
mained in  wretched  condition  throughout  the  eighteenth 
century.  It  was  not  till  after  the  Napoleonic  wars  had 
shattered  Prussia  (see  Napoleon  I.,  Jena  Campaign)  that 
thoroughgoing  reform  took  place.  The  methods  recom- 
mended by  Pestalozzi  and  Froebel  {oq,  v.)  were  then  gen- 
erally applied  in  the  elementary  schools,  and  all  grades  of 
instruction  were  subjected  to  the  most  systematic  and  rigid 
revision,  as  well  as  state  control  and  state  superintendence. 
In  a  most  solemn  address  to  the  German  people,  Frederick 
William  III.  recognized  the  great  part  that  education  must 
play  if  the  nation  was  to  be  developed  in  internal  power  and 
splendor.  Educational  affairs  of  all  grades  were  intrusted 
to  a  department  of  education,  consisting  of  four  of  the 
most  eminent  professors  of  Germany,  at  tne  head  of  whom 
was  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt.  Order  was  soon  evolved  out 
of  the  chaotic  conditions  that  formerly  prevailed.  After 
tentative  orders  in  1811  and  1812,  a  general  statute  was 
promulgated  in  1816  constituting  the  fundamental  school 
law  of  Prussia.  Although  this  great  ordinance  was  in  some 
of  its  parts  modified  by  the  Prussian  Code  of  1854,  and 
again  by  the  Falk  Laws  of  1872,  its  general  characteristics 
were  those  which  have  made  the  schools  of  Prussia  the 
most  famous  in  the  world  during  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  organization  may  be  briefly  de- 
scribed as  follows:  Schools  were  classified  in  four  general 
groups — primarv  schools,  secondary  schools,  universities,  and 
technical  schools.  In  the  fourth  class  the  normal  schools 
were  to  occupy  the  place  of  foremost  importance.  No  teach- 
er was  to  be  employed  who  had  not,  after  a  severe  course  of 
pedagogical  training,  passed  a  rigid  examination,  not  only 
in  the  matter  to  be  taught,  but  also  in  the  art  of  giving 
instruction.  Pensions  were  provided  for  teachers  Honor- 
ably retired.  The  hours  of  instruction  for  pupils  in  the 
lowest  grades  are  twenty-two  per  week;  in  the  highest, 
thirty-two.  In  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools  the 
work  is  strictly  prescribed ;  in  the  universities  there  is  abso- 
lute freedom.  By  the  Falk  Law  of  1872  the  middle  school 
was  specially  adapted  to  commercial  requirements  In 
Prussia,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  model,  all  the  schools 
are  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  thirty-six  district 
boards  or  committees.  The  laws  compel  an  attendance  of 
lupils  from  six  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  in  case  of 
ieficiency  oven  a  longer  time.  In  Prussia,  Saxony,  and 
Bavaria,  small  fees  may  be  exacted  of  each  pupil,  but  in 
the  other  states  elementary  instruction  is  free.  In  all  the 
German  states  the  laws  requiring  compulsory  attendance 
are  enforced  with  rigor,  and  consequentlv  the  percentage 
of  illiteracy  is  everywhere  very  small,  'fhe  proportion  of 
pupils  who  advance  to  the  higher  grades  is  very  large.  In 
Berlin,  during  the  decade  from  1881  to  1891,  of  the  aver- 
age of  about  160,000  scholars  in  the  public  schools,  about 
9,000  were  in  the  gymnasia,  about  5,600  in  the  realschools 
of  the  first  class,  about  10,000  in  the  various  trade  and 
technical  schools,  and  about  133,000  in  the  common  schools. 
In  Saxony,  of  600,000  pupils,  more  than  11,000  were  in 
schools  of  gymnasium  grade.  In  all  the  states  of  Germany 
trade  schools  (see  below)  and  schools  of  agriculture  (see 
Agricultubal  Ck)LLEGE)  occupy  a  prominent  place,  and  are 
generously  supported. 
France, — Bieiore  the  Revolution  the  schools  of  France 


§; 


were  for  the  most  part  under  the  direct  or  indirect  contni 
of  the  clergy.  Napoleon  saw  the  necessity  of  thorough  and 
comprehensive  reorganization.  His  method  (sec  JifformA 
dunng  the  Consulate  under  Napoleon  I.)  was  not  fort  una  t«. 
The  organization  of  an  educational  hierarchy  with  the  uni- 
versity at  Paris  as  its  head  proved  to  be  so  unwieldy  thai 
the  primary  and  secondary  schools  never  acquired  life  nr 
efficiency.  While  the  Germans  were  demonstrating  the  suc- 
cess of  local  boards  of  control  acting  under  a  wisely  framr-'i 
general  law,  the  French,  on  the  contrary,  were  showing  t  U^ 
inherent  weakness  of  a  system  that  took  all  power  out  "i 
the  hands  of  those  who  were  most  interestea  in  succe<^. 
The  war  of  1870  proved  even  to  the  French  theraselve*  tJ.. 
superiority  of  the  German  system.  The  law  of  1881  providf^i 
for  a  thorough  reorganization.  The  schools  were  clAa>«-i 
under  the  terms  superior,  secondary,  and  primary,  aiid  :iii 
were  placed  under  the  supervision  of  a  Minister  of  Inst  ruc- 
tion. Professors  in  the  universities  are  paid  by  the  statt. 
as  are  also  in  part  those  of  the  lyeSea,  The  colUgea  are  su[»- 
ported  by  departments  or  municipalities,  with  occasional  en- 
dowment of  chairs  by  the  Government.  The  normal  8c*ho»> 
are  mainly  supported  by  the  central  Government,  the  pri- 
mary schools  mainly  by  local  taxation ;  but  in  case  of  nei^t-s- 
sity  a  **  supplementary  subsidy  "  is  furnished  by  the  genrml 
Government  for  the  better  payment  of  teachers.  In  all  the 
public  schools  primary  eaucation  is  gratuitous.  Of  the 
4,520,928  children  in  school  in  1891,8,453,071  were  in  public 
schools,  and  1,067,857  in  schools  under  private  management, 
but  subject  to  governmental  inspection.  The  system  of  t  4h  -h  - 
nical  and  trade  schools  is  very  elaborate,  and  extends  *«• 
nearly  every  vocation.  Since  1881  the  system  of  schools  « f 
all  grades  has  been  made  one  of  the  most  thoroueh  in  K>i- 
rope,  though  the  French  methods  of  instruction  have  nt»i 
yet  become  equal  to  those  of  Germany. 

Great  Britain, — The  schools  of  Great  Britain  have  ha^l  t% 
peculiar  history.  Before  the  Reformation  there  wore  few 
schools  except  those  connected  with  monasteries  and  catbi- 
drals.  At  tne  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  sixte«u 
^ammar  schools  nad  been  founded,  and  this  number  iiu^ 
mcreased  by  as  many  more  during  the  reign  of  Henry  V I  i.. 
by  63  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL,  by  138  in  the  tirur- 
of  Elizabeth,  and  by  142  in  the  reign  of  the  Stuarts.  Tlio* 
schools,  established  under  private  endowments,  were  iv: 
subject  to  general  governmental  control.  In  the  eighteen' ii 
century  a  considerable  number  of  charity  schools  wtt  • 
founded,  largely  for  the  purpose  of  giving  religious  instrvn-- 
tion.  While  the  charity  schools  were  open  to  lx>th  boys  hikI 
girls,  the  grammar  schools  were  open  to  boys  alone.  Tl.  • 
wretched  condition  of  the  English  schools  in  the  eightofntL 
century  is  amply  revealed  by  the  writings  of  Joseph  Laiu-.!^- 
ter  and  Andrew  Bell.  In  1808  the  Royal  Lancastrian  >>^ 
ciety  and  in  1811  the  British  and  Foreign  School  Soc'itt* 
were  organized,  but  they  accomplished  little  except  to  tit-m- 
onstrate  the  need  of  governmental  assistance.  In  1810  a 
select  committee  on  the  condition  of  schools  was  api>oint4-<i. 
with  Henry  Brougham  at  its  head;  but  its  achieveinvii^- 
were  mostly  limited  to  the  dissemination  of  knowledgt>.  1 1 
was  not  till  1832  that  Parliament  made  its  first  appn^pria- 
tion  of  £20,000  for  the  erection  of  school-buildings.  Jr. 
1835  and  1838  committees  of  in<juiry  were  appointe<i,  hu»\ 
in  1839  a  committee  of  the  privy  council  on  eilueatifn 
was  established.  The  first  fruits  of  this  committee  \^<>r>' 
the  establishment  of  model  schools  and  the  appointment  of 
inspectors  of  all  aided  schools.  The  system  thus  enttrv^s 
upon  was  rapidly  developed,  and  in  1858,  when  the  anniml 
grants  amoimted  to  £830,000,  a  member  of  the  privy  c<.nin«  i. 
was  raised  virtually  to  the  position  of  minister  of  education. 
The  result  was  a  revised  code  in  1862,  which  swept  awnv 
many  of  the  worst  features  and  made  the  distribution  Jf 
funds  depend  on  the  efficiency  and  standing  of  indi^iilual 
schools.  In  1867  the  royal  commissioners  reported  that  vf 
3,000  endowed  schools,  782  had  been  designated  in  the  ar- 
ticles of  endowment  as  grammar  schools  and  the  othei^  :i5 
charity  schools.  This  law  was  violently  opposed  as  too  nui- 
ical,  but  it  was  followed  by  the  much  more  radical  Kilu- 
cation  Acts  of  1870  and  1871,  with  which  the  name  of  the 
Right  Hon.  William  E.  Forster  is  inseparably  conn€<»ted. 

These  memorable  acts,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  cor- 
ner-stone of  the  present  English  system  of  elementary  eiiu- 
cation,  may  be  summarizea  under  the  following  heatAi»  : 
(1)  That  either  by  voluntary  organization  and  effort,  or  b^ 
the  compulsory  establishment  of  school  boards,  the  suitplv 
of  elementary  schools  should  be  made  sufficient  for  all  the* 
school  districts  in  the  kingdom.    (2)  That  every  such  ele- 


360 


SCHOOLS 


aitx  Stats- Unia ;  Arnold,  Higher  Schools  and  Universities 
in  Oennany ;  Painter,  History  of  Education  ;  Boone,  Edu- 
cation in  the  United  States;  Klem,  European  Schools; 
Quick,  EduccUional  Reformers ;  Barnard,  Superior  instruc- 
tion in  Different  Countries ;  Grant,  History  of  the  Burgh 
Schools  of  Scotland;  Arnold,  Reports  on  Elementary 
Schools;  Arnold,  Middle-class  Education  and  the  State,  to 
which  is  added  Schools  a/nd  Universities  in  France ;  lloyt, 
Education  in  Europe  and  America,  C.  K.  Adams. 

II.  Primary  Schools. 

This  term  is  here  applied  to  those  schools  which  are 
planned  to  furnish  the  elementary  education  necessary  for 
citizenship  and  for  the  ortlinary  duties  of  life.  Such  schools 
are  now  almost  universally  support«d  by  the  state.  In 
point  of  time,  they  occupy  the  children  from  about  the  sijcth 
to  the  fourteenth  year,  or  during  the  first  eight  years  of  a 
course  of  study,  the  kindergarten  not  being  included.  Where 
schools  are  graded  this  period  is  frequently  divided  in  the 
U.  S.  into  primary,  intermediate,  and  grammar  departments. 
The  obligation  of  the  st*te  to  provide  instruction  for  all  its 
children  is  a  modern  conception.  In  ante-Christian  society 
education  was  largely  a  state  concern,  but  it  was  confined 
exclusively  to  the  more  wealthy  classes.  From  the  time  of 
Christ  practically  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, all  elementary  education  was  controlled  by  the  Church. 
Occasionally  the  state  intervened  when  a  ruler  more  en- 
lightened than  his  fellows  took  some  step  in  advance.  But 
the  great  achievements  in  this  field  have  all  been  accom- 
plished in  the  nineteenth  century. 

In  Great  Britain, — Until  well  into  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury primary  or  elementary  education  in  England  wasprac- 
tically  left  entirely  to  the  care  of  the  clergy  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church.  Parliament  in  1632  for  the  first  time  voted 
money  to  aid  in  the  building  of  schools.  In  1846  money 
was  first  given  for  increasing  the  salaries  of  teachers:  in 
1853  grants  began  to  be  made  according  to  the  number  of 
pupils  in  attendance ;  while  in  1862  these  grants  were  made 
to  de])end  on  the  successful  passing  of  examinations.  The 
Elementary  Education  Act  of  1870  as  subsequently  amended 
regulates  elementary  education  in  England  and  Wales,  while 
the  act  of  1872  extended  the  system  to  Scotland.  The  cen- 
tral authority  is  a  committee  of  council  on  education,  the 
acting  chief  being  the  vice-president,  who  is  a  member  of  the 
cabinet.  The  local  administrative  unit  is  the  district,  to 
form  which  boroughs  and  parishes  are  groufxjd  together. 
Each  district  has  a  school  board,  which  may  compel  parents 
to  send  their  children  to  school.  Under  this  law,  sufficient 
school  accommodations  must  be  provided  in  every  district 
for  all  children  between  the  ages  of  five  and  fourteen.  The 
obli^tory  subjects  of  instruction  are  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, drawing  for  boys,  and  needlework  for  girls.  Optional 
subjects  are  singing,  geography,  sciences,  algebra,  modem 
languages,  cookery,  and  some  others.  lieligious  instruction 
is  given.  There  are  seven  grades,  and  each  pupil  should 
pass  one  grade  each  year.  After  passing  the  foui'th  grade, 
the  children  may,  if  twelve  years  of  age,  leave  school.  This 
education  became  practically  free  only  in  1891.  The  sys- 
tem of  paying  for  results,  or,  in  other  wortls,  giving  grants 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  examinations  passed,  still 
prevails,  and  with  all  its  faults  seems  to  have  a  strong  hold. 
The  schools  are  local  or  denominational  institutions.  The 
state  aids  them,  but  does  not  manage  them.  The  managers 
of  any  schools  may  cut  loose  from  the  governmental  connec- 
tion at  any  time,  the  state's  rights  to  supervision  being  based 
solely  on  its  contributions  to  financial  resourc;cs.  The  busi- 
ness of  inspectors  is  solely  to  ascertain  and  report  on  the  ef- 
ficiency of  the  schools.  Probably  in  no  country  is  there  so 
large  local  independence  and  power  to  adapt  the  school  to 
the  needs  of  the  country  as  in  Great  Britain. 

The  schools  of  Scotland  have  long  been  famous.  Here 
from  1695  to  1872  elementary  education  was  regulated  by 
the  act  of  James  VI.,  which  ordained  that  every  parish 
should  have  a  school  snpf)orted  by  revenues  derived  from 
the  land,  the  teachers  Ixjing  appointed  by  the  heritors  and 
the  presbytery  of  the  Establishetl  Church.  By  the  P]lemen- 
tary  Education  Act  of  18?2  the  Scotch  education  depart- 
ment was  instituted,  and  each  borough  and  parish,  or  group 
of  parishes,  was  required  to  have  a  scliool  board  to  admin- 
ister both  elementary  and  secondary  education  and  to  en- 
force the  attendance  of  children  from  five  to  fourteen  years 
of  age.  In  Ireland,  since  1845,  elementary  education  has 
been  under  the  sui)erintendence  of  the  commissioners  of 
national  education  in  Ireland.    Of  these  national  sclux>ls 


there  were  in  1893  8,459,  having  on  their  rolls  832,545  of  th^ 
939,694  children  of  school  age. 

In  Germany, — The  school  laws  of  Prussia  are,  with  sli;:l.t 
modifications,  the  standard  in  all  the  German  state^^  T)i« tr- 
ough organization  of  the  school  system  dates  from  the  i>r»»^ 
tration  of  Prussia  after  her  crushing  defeat  by  Nhiki1c<>ii. 
The  reform  in  education  undertaken  under  the  leauoivliif 
of  von  Humboldt  began  first  with  the  university,  then  ex- 
tended to  the  secondary  schools,  and  presently  priroarr 
schools  felt  the  same  impulse.  Since  1816  Prussian  com- 
mbn  schools  have  been  usually  considered  the  bei^t  in  ti.f 
world.  The  attendance  on  the  schools  is  compulsory.  Tit' 
law  of  1888  provided  for  making  instruction  free.  About  is 
per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  schools  is  borne  by  the  state  ainl 
the  rest  by  the  community.  The  minister  of  ecelesiasticjtl. 
educational,  and  medical  affairs,  a  member  of  the  cabini't.  i<« 
the  head  of  all  the  educational  Institutions  of  the  kingdom. 
The  course  of  study  is  prescribed  in  general  outlines  by  the 
central  Government,  and  the  appointment  of  teachers  muM 
be  approved  by  the  Government.  The  course  of  study  in 
the  elementary  schools  includes  religion,  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  geography,  singing,  drawing,  natural  history, 
and  history  of  man.  '  Needlework  and  household  economy 
is  taught  to  the  girls.  Instruction  in  natural  history,  nat- 
ural science,  and  nistory  of  man  is  entirely  oral.  Phy>ical 
exercises  are  prescribed,  and  every  school  is  provided  ^ith 
suitable  apparatus.  Industrial  education  for  girls  consiM< 
of  knitting,  crocheting,  embroidering,  sewing,  darning,  cut- 
ting, fitting,  and  patching,  and  is  found  in  every  sch«Hil. 
The  study  of  arithmetic  is  less  extensive  than  in  the  V.  S. 
Vocal  music  is  continued  through  the  entire  course.  Thf 
school  hours  are  usually  six  a  day.  Schoolrooms  are  apt 
to  be  small  and  overcrowded.  Tlie  school  year  consist  >  of 
forty-five  weeks,  with  six  or  seven  weeks  of  vacation.  !>«•/:»  I 
holidays  are  more  frequent  than  in  the  U.  S.  Lessons  u^-u- 
ally  last  from  forty  to  fifty  minutes.  Examinations  are 
comparatively  rare,  are  usually  oral,  and  are  conduct «mI  in 
the  presence  of  parents  and  friends.  In  Germany,  students 
who  are  to  take  a  secondary  course,  as  a  rule  leave  Xh* 
common  schools  and  enter  the  secondary  schools  at  the  a..:* 
of  nine  or  ten. 

In  France. — The  educational  reorganization  of  Fran<> 
dates  from  the  Franco-(Terman  w^ar.  School  managemt-iit 
is  completely  centralized.  This  was  done  originally  1>y 
Napoleon  in  constituting  the  University  of  France.  Sii..-. 
1850  the  central  school  organization  has. not  been  official i\ 
called  university,  though  in  common  usage  it  still  is.  IV- 
vious  to  1870  only  one  important  effort  had  been  nm.:*- 
looking  toward  the  education  of  the  people.  This  was  tht- 
passage  in  1833  of  Guizot's  laws  which  imposed  upon  tl.< 
commune  the  obligation  of  establishuig  primary  si'Ikn^s. 
The  law  was  not  well  executed.  Jules  Simon  dei*lar(Hi  th«t 
it  was  the  German  schoolmaster  that  conquered  at  Se^lan 
As  in  Prussia  after  Jena,  so  in  France  in  1871  it  begun  t,. 
be  felt  that  the  school  was  to  be  the  instrument  of  nutioi.a. 
regeneration.  The  law  of  1878  created  a  fund  of  23,0(K).<N<it 
francs  for  the  pur]x>se  of  establishing  necessary  schoolhou*^'^ 
The  law  of  June  16, 1881,  made  instruction  obligatory,  thii* 
of  Mar.  28,  1882,  made  it  gratuitous,  and  that  of  Oct.  ol^ 
1886,  reorganized  education,  and  declared  that  within  a  itT- 
tain  period  all  public  schools  should  be  under  the  ehargo  <-f 
laymen.  In  1857  Prance  devoted  to  primary  insitmetion 
the  sum  of  16,523,969  francs;  in  1891,173,372,524  franco, 
and  in  no  modem  country  has  the  advancement  in  educa- 
tional lines  been  so  great  and  so  rapid.  The  course  of  st  ud> 
for  primary  schools  prescribed  by  the  law  of  Mar.,  1H*»*J. 
comprises  moral  and  civic  instruction,  reading,  writing,  th^- 
elements  of  arithmetic  and  the  metric  system,  history  and 
geo^phy,  especially  of  France,  object-lessons  and  the  fir^t 
notions  of  science,  elements  of  design,  of  singing,  manual 
work,  needlework  in  the  school  for  girls»  gymnastic  exer- 
cises, and  in  the  school  for  boys  military  training.  In  t  W 
superior  primary  schools  this  course  is  much  extendini. 

In  the  United  States. — The  school  organization  of  i  he 
U.  S.  shows  a  general  adherence  to  a  certain  type,  with  in- 
finite variety  in  details.  The  great  local  differences  w<.rk 
more  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  pupil  than  they  would  in 
Europe,  since  the  people  of  the  U.  S.  are  proverbially  migra- 
tory, and  change  of  schools,  with  consequent  loss  of  time,  in 
very  common.  The  success  of  primary  schools  is  deter- 
mined by  (a)  the  intensity  of  public  interest,  (6)  the  thorou^>i- 
noss  and  comprehensiveness  of  organization  and  surH^^r^:- 
sion,  and  {c)  the  aptitude  and  training  of  teachers.  Ther»» 
is  a  general  disposition  on  the  part  oi  the  people  to  appr<>- 


362 


SCHOOLS 


pupils  for  the  different  colleges,  though  they  are  managed 
m  entire  independence  of  these  colleges.  In  Massachusetts, 
as  early  as  1797,  the  academies  were  virtually  incorporated 
into  the  system  of  public  schools  by  receiving  endowments 
of  land  from  the  State.  In  1834,  by  an  act  of  the  New  York 
Legislature,  the  regents  of  the  university  were  required  to 
apply  the  surplus  income  of  the  literature  fund  beyond  the 
sum  of  $12,000  to  the  education  of  common-schoor teachers 
by  distributing  it  to  such  academies  as  should  undertake 
their  instruction.  Philadelphia  o^anized  a  high  school  in 
1837,  the  first  of  the  kind  in  the  U.  8.  outside  of  Massachu- 
setts. Baltimore  followed  in  1839,  Cincinnati  in  1850,  Chi- 
cago in  1856.  The  New  York  Free  Academy  was  organized 
in  1849.  Courses  of  study  in  the  different  high  schools  vary, 
as  the  schools  themselves  are  subject  to  local  influences. 
Private  endowed  schools  also  have  different  courses  shaped 
mainly  by  the  influence  of  the  college  to  which  the  majority 
of  their  graduates  are  sent.  Most  public  high  schools  receive 
and  educate  both  sexes  in  the  same  class-rooms  and  under 
the  same  teachers.  In  a  very  few  of  the  larger  cities  there 
are  separate  high  schools  for  girls  and  boys.  The  following 
statistics  on  secondary  education  in  the  U .  S.  as  to  students 
and  teachers  in  public  high  schools  and  private  academies 
are  taken  from  the  report  of  the  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion for  1890-91 : 


FUPiLs,  Era 

PobUeUgfa 
•ebooli. 

Prtrmte 

T«l>L 

8tudADt«  .... 

811,000 
25,068 
85,000 
126,000 
8,270 
8,745 
4,5« 

99,000 
20,907 
61,000 
48,000 
6,281 
8.041 
8,190 

810,000 

l*r*?piMi»^g  for  ooH^^ge  . . . , 

45,905 

Sex — ^maw 

136,000 
174,000 

f^malp. 

Teachera  • 

14,501 
6,786 

Male 

Female 

7,715 

*  Incomplete ;  there  are  probably  at  least  30,000  teachers  in  aec- 
ondary  schools  in  the  U.  S. 

The  constitutions  of  at  least  twenty-two  States  specify 
high  schools  as  the  object  of  legislative  and  general  interest. 
The  newer  States  universally  recognize  the  high  schools  as 
part  of  the  State  system  of  education.  In  the  East,  Massa- 
chusetts has  gone  so  far  as  to  compel  the  offering  of  high- 


school  advantages  to  all  her  children.  As  high  schools  can 
not  be  established  within  easy  reach  of  every  one,  the  Statt- 
pays  for  carrying  children  from  sparsely  settled  district*  t«. 
the  nearest  village  or  city  high  school.  The  public  hii:h 
schools  are  relatively  best  and  strongest  in  the  Wr-^ieni 
States;  the  private  and  endowed  academies  in  the  I*litst*'ri) 
States.  The  question  of  introducing  military  drill  and  tu«  - 
tics  in  public  schools  is  beginning  to  be  agitated.  In  itx'^i 
high  scnools  participation  in  military  drill  is  yet  optional. 

Provisions  for  the  preparation  of  secondary  teachers  an- 
meager  as  compared  with  such  provisions  in  the  foivnuM 
European  countries.  The  best  secondary  teachers  are  (col- 
lege graduates,  who,  however,  rarely  have  been  able  to  obtain 
any  special  professional  training.  Colleges  and  uniTersili**^ 
are  beginning  to  establish  chairs  in  pedagogy  to  supply  thi^ 
professional  training  in  some  measure.  A  unique  contrivanc*- 
to  meet  a  special  want  is  the  summer  school  for  teachers,  a 
feature  in  many  leading  universities.  These  schools  are  at- 
tended largely  by  secondary  teachers,  who  find  opportunity 
not  only  for  studying  their  own  specialties,  but  also  in  iu<r«t 
cases  for  taking  work  in  psycholc^y  and  pedagogy. 

No  account  of  secondary  schools  would  be  complete  with- 
out mention  of  the  work  of  the  committee  on  secondary - 
school  studies  appointed  by  the  National  Educational  As- 
sociation July  9,  1892.  This  committee  consisted  of  Un 
prominent  educators.  It  appointed  nine  sub-committees  or 
conferences,  each  numbering  ten,  on  the  various  subjecLs 
comprising  the  ;?eGondary  curriculum.  These  sub-oomm it- 
tees  met  in  Dec.,  1892,  and  prepared  elaborate  reports,  whii-h 
were  transmitted  to  the  central  committee  as  material  f •  >r 
their  work.  The  report  of  the  main  committee,  with  iht* 
reports  of  the  conferences  as  an  appendix,  was  published  l>y 
the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  in  Jan.,  1894,  and  has  sinci* 
been  the  center  of  educational  discussion  in  the  U.  S,  The 
committee  prepared  four  model  programmes  for  secondary- 
schools,  which  are  inserted  below.  No  school  is  known  C* 
be  actually  following  any  one  of  these ;  but  since  the  report 
appeared  a  number  of  schools  have  modified  their  program  in  t-s 
to  conform  closely  to  these  model  progn^nmes,  and  it  i>  c*  r- 
tain  they  will  form  for  some  years  to  come  the  standani 
toward  which  a  large  number  of  schools  will  more  and  niorx 
closely  approach.  C.  II.  Thurbes. 


MODEL  SECONDARY 

PROGRAMUES. 

< 

Three  f  orei^rn  laofiruages  (one 
modern). 

Latdv-Sciektific. 

Two  foreign  languages  (one 
modern). 

Two  foreign  languages  (both 
modem). 

EMOLiaa. 

One  foreign  language  (ancKfct 
or  modern). 

Latin 6  p. 

Kngllsh 4p. 

Alfcebra 4  p. 

History 4  p. 

Physical  geography 3  p. 

»7. 

I^tin 5  p. 

French  (or  German)  begun,  fi  p. 

English 4p. 

Algebra 4  p. 

History 4  p. 

Physical  geography 8  p. 

EiiKli^ : 41 

Algebra 4  j. 

History a  I 

Physical  geography 3  j- 

I. 

English 4p. 

Algebra. 4  p. 

History 4  p. 

Physical  geography 3  p. 

80  p. 

Latin 6  p. 

English 2  p. 

Qerman  ♦  (or  French)  begun  4  p. 

Geometry 8  p. 

Physics 3p. 

History 3  p. 

20  p. 

I^tin 5  p. 

French  (or  German) 4  p. 

English 2  p. 

German  (or  French)  begun.  6  p. 

Geometry 8  p. 

Physics 8p. 

Botany  or  zoology 8  p. 

aop. 

Latin,  or  Ger.,  or  French  5  i»r  4  11 

English 3or4p 

Geometry :^  ., 

Physics <;, 

HiKtory :j  ^. 

n. 

English 2p. 

German  (or  French)  begun.  4  p. 

Geometry 3  p. 

Physics 8p. 

Botany  or  zoOlogy 8  p. 

20  p. 

Lathi 4  p. 

Greek  ♦ 6  p. 

English 8  p. 

German  (or  French) 4  p. 

20  p. 

Latin 4  p. 

French  ^or  German) 4  p. 

English 8  p. 

German  (or  French) 4  p. 

M.them.«c]S^^^|}4p. 

Astron.  i  yr.,  meteorol.  i  yr.  3  p. 
Histoiy 2p. 

siFp. 

Latin,  or  Qerman,  or  French  4  p 

v^^iu.\.  j  as  in  others  3  ♦ 

English  J  additional    2  t  •  •  •  -  ^  P 

Mathematics  ]JJS^^;;-    4p 
Astron.  i  3rr.,  meteorol.  i  vr.  3  t. 
niMt/ii^r ♦  tt« *o Latinscienr M  *  ^ 
^*«*<^'^«  additional              ^.<r 

i.\'  J- 

ni. 

English 8  p. 

German  (or  French) 4  p. 

Mathematics ^*^«^^''?     2*    . 

^^  1  geometry  2  f  *  P* 
Astron.  4  yr.,  nieteorol.  i  yr.  3  p. 
History 2  p. 

20  p. 

T  JLtJn  . . , .                        ,   4  p 

Latin 4  p. 

Fn«rli«h  i  •'^ '"  classical  21      .  _. 
*^'*«"^1  additional        2  f  '  **  P" 

German  (or  French) 3  p. 

Chemistry 3  p. 

Trig,  and  higher  algebra  i 

or                     V.  3  p. 

History \ 

GeoL  or  physiography  |  yr. ) 

and                      }■  8  p. 
Anat.,  physioL,  hyg.   i  yr. ) 

" 

French  (or  German) 8  p. 

Fnclifth  J  as  in  classical  2  «      . 
tngush  j  additional        2  f  •  *  P" 

German  (or  French) 4  p. 

Chemistry 8  p. 

Trig,  and  higher  algebra  3) 

or                       V8p. 

History ( 

Ghjol.  or  physiography  ^  yr.  i 

Anat.,  physiol.,  hyg.    i  yr.  f 

Latin,  or  German,  or  French  4  t" 
Fn«rii«h  )*«  *°  classical  2t      ^ 
^"^^^"''jaddiUonal          2)  •  *V 

Chemistry s ». 

Trig,  and  higher  algebra :>  j  ■ 

History a*. 

Geol.  or  physiography  |  jr.  i 

and                       '.  3  T> 
Anat,  physiol.,  hyif.     «  yr.  \ 

Greek 6  p. 

IV. 

English 2  p. 

German  (or  French) 3  p. 

Chemistry 3  p. 

Trig,  and  higher  algebra  / 

m^..Z f'" 

•  In  any  school  in  which  Greek  can  be  better  taught  than  a  modem  language,  or  in  which  localpublic  opinion  or  the  history  of  the  8chi««^l 
makes  it  desirable  to  teach  Greek  in  an  ample  way,  Greek  may  be  substituted  for  Qerman  or  French  in  the  second  year  of  the  *»«isiri»iil 
programme. 


364 


SCHOOLS 


most  persons  who  prepare  for  teaching  follow  that  business 
for  life,  so  that  the  number  of  new  teachers  that  must  be 
supplied  each  year  is  comparatively  small,  but  little  over  5 
per  cent.,  the  average  length  of  service  for  Prussian  teachers 
during  the  last  50  years  being  16*9  years,  while  in  the  U.  S. 
about  80  per  cent.'must  be  renewed  each  year.  This  fact 
greatly  enhances  the  cost  and  labor  of  preparing  teachers  in 
the  latter  country.  To  supply  trained  teachers  for  all  schools 
it  would  take — e.  g.  in  the  single  State  of  Illinois  alone — 143 
normal  schools,  each  having  100  students  (the  usual  number 
in  a  German  normal  school),  a  three  years'  course  of  study, 
and  graduating  33  students  annually.  Illinois  has  in  reality 
two  State  normal  schools,  each  graduating  from  25  to  50 
persons  every  year — that  is,  instead  of  furnishing  the  4,000 
or  5,000  new  teachers  needed,  the  normal  schools  of  that 
State  furnish  less  than  100  annually.  (2)  The  attendance 
in  German  normal  schools  is  unbroken  save  by  accident,  so 
that  each  year  there  are  nearly  as  many  graduating  as  en- 
tering students ;  but  in  the  U.  S.  the  attendance  is  so  irregu- 
lar that  rarely  more  than  a  fourth  or  a  third  as  many  stu- 
dents graduate  as  enter.  This  irregularity  of  attendance 
causes  discontinuity  in  study,  and  explains  the  fragmentary 
nature  of  the  instruction  in  the  average  normal  school.  (3) 
As  a  rule,  the  preparation  enjoyed  by  students  of  German 
normal  schools  is  of  uniform  amount  and  excellence,  being 
special  instruction  in  public  or  private  schools  for  three 
years  after  the  close  of  the  Volks-school  course  at  the  age 
of  fourteen,  and  concluded  by  a  public  examination  before 
school  commissioners.  The  preparation  for  entrance  to  nor- 
mal schools  in  the  U.  S.  varies  much,  ranging  from  that 
given  in  the  poorest  country  school  to  that  furnished  by  the 
best  city  hign  schools.  Under  such  conditions  the  German 
method  of  training  teachers  can  be  much  more  effective  in 
every  way  than  can  that  in  the  U.  S.,  with  its  broken  attend- 
ance and  great  variety  in  preparation.  (4)  The  supply  of 
learned  ana  skillful  teachers  in  Germany  being  practically 
unlimited,  and  the  direction  of  the  normal  schools  being  in 
the  hands  of  state  officials  and  educational  experts,  it  natu- 
rally follows  that  these  schools  are  sup[)lied  with  thoroughly 
efficient  corps  of  instructors ;  whereas  in  the  U.  S.,  in  which 
no  such  body  of  trained  teachers  exists,  and  where  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  normal  schools  is  intrusted  to  State 
boards  who  concern  themselves  with  business  rather  than 
with  educational  affairs,  it  is  not  surprising  to  And  a  teach- 
ing corps  in  the  normal  school  which  varies  as  much  in 
5 reparation  and  fitness  to  teach  as  the  student  body  itself 
oes  in  scholai*ship  and  ability. 

The  normal  schools  of  the  (j.  S.  and  Germany  are  practi- 
cally agreed  as  to  the  need  of  training-schools  m  which  the 
students  may  have  an  opportunity  to  observe  and  practice 
teaching  under  criticism  and  direction.  The  training  de- 
partment usually  covers  the  field  of  elementary  instruction, 
sometimes  including  on  the  one  hand  the  kindergarten  and 
on  the  other  the  high  school.  In  (rermany  it  is  common  to 
have  one  class  to  represent  the  ordinary  country  school.  In 
general  the  student  teacher  prepares  more  trial  lessons  and 
teaches  less  in  the  practice  school  than  is  customary  in  the 
U.  S.  Thus  there  is  in  Prussia  one  trial  lesson  a  week  for 
each  student  during  the  second  and  third  years,  whereas 
class-teaching  in  the  training-school  is  reserved  for  the  last 
year.  In  the  normal  schools  of  the  U.  S.  it  is  usual  to  give 
the  actual  conduct  of  a  class  in  the  early  part  of  the  second 
year,  but  it  is  less  common  to  have  repeated  trial  lessons 
under  searching  criticism,  followed  by  thorough  discussion 
on  the  part  of  teachers  and  students. 

The  loUowing  table  exhibits  the  amount  and  distribution 
of  professional  and  academic  work  that  is  accomplished  in 
the  German  normal  schools,  and  will  furnish  a  basis  for 
further  comparisons : 


I.   PCDAOOOICH. 

1.  History  of  education 

8.  Pedagogics  (psycholog}*  and  logic) . 
8.  Methods 

4.  Teachers^  meetings  (for  pupil  teachers) 
6.  Model  lessona  by  teachers 

6.  Trial  lesaona  by  the  pupiln 

7.  Preparation  for  teaching  in  training 

school 

8.  Teaching  in  training-school 

9.  Observation  (con) 


HOURS  PBR  WBKK  | 
EACH   YEAR. 


FIrrt.    Scfvnd.i  ThW. 


1 
2 

1 

1 

4-6 
1-2 


oral,  of 
irliol*. 


5-6 


12*8 


WORK   IN  GERMAN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS— CONTINUED. 


BOURS  PER  WCKK  < 
KACB  YKAa. 


Flm.    SwomL'  Third. 


II.  Rblioion. 

1.  Biblical  history S 

2.  Catechism ;     . . 

8.  Hymns '      1 

4.  Exegesis  and  church  history 

m.  Gbrmaic. 

1.  Grammar , 

2.  Essay  aod  oration 

8.  Cursory  reading , 

4.  Careful  reading  (detailed  study  of  se- 

lectioDS,  declamations,  and  system- 
atic study  of  classical  works) , 

5.  History  of  literature 

IV.  GxNBRAL  Hunromr 


V.  Mathbmatics. 

1.  Arithmetic  and  algebra. 

2.  Oeometiy , 


VI.  Natural  Scibncb. 

1.  Natural  histor>* 

2.  Physics 

8.  Chemistry , 


vn.  Gboorapht. 

VIII.  Drawino... 

IX.  WRmNo 

X.  Otmhastics.. 


XI.  Music. 

1.  Piano 

2.  Organ 

a.  H  armony 

4.  Violin 

ft.  Elementary  singing 

0.  Figurative  descant  and  choral  singing 

7.  History  of  music 

8.  Mixed  choir  singing 

Total  required 

XII.  Frencb  (optional) 


87 


4  7 

4  7 

«  7 

5  t* 


881 

9 


It  can  be  seen  from  the  foregoine  table  that  no  subject  i> 
pursued  for  less  than  one  year,  while  many  subjects,  >u«  h 
as  history,  geogi*aphy,  drawing,  gymnastics,  and  ceri^iin 
branches  of  music,  are  studied  throughout  the  entire  ihr^t* 
years.  Many  other  subjects  are  pursued  continuously  f».r 
two  years.  It  is  curious  to  notice  that  the  number  of  hour>» 
per  week  assigned  to  any  given  subject  does  not  exceotl  tw.., 
except  for  arithmetic  and  algebra,  biblical  history,  and  ti»»«l,- 
ing  m  the  training-school.  On  the  other  hand,  the  norm  a  1 
schools  of  the  U.  S.  usually  pursue  whatever  subjects  th*-> 
have  in  hand  for  four  or 'five  recitation  periods  of  fort)'- 
five  or  fifty  minutes  each  per  week. 

There  has  been  a  decid^  movement  in  many  States  of  t  Ik- 
U.  8.  for  the  abolition  of  all  academic  instruction  in  norma; 
schools,  the  argument  being  that  the  State  should  not  hn\  ^ 
to  ^ay  for  this,  since  the  academies  and  high  schools  profess 
to  impart  academic  knowledge.  It  is  declared  that  th** 
high  schools  should  teach  the  what  and  normal  schools  the 
?iow.  This  movement  has  resulted  in  securing  perhai^  n 
higher  grade  of  academic  instruction,  but  it  has  nowhcrx 
driven  it  out  of  institutions  for  the  training  of  teachers. 

The  conditions  of  admission  to  normal  schools  in  tho 
U.  S.  do  not  greatly  vary  in  the  different  States,  and  mar  t-e 
summarized  as  follows:  (1)  The  candidate  must  be  not'lc^^s 
than  sixteen  years  of  age;  (2)  must  possesss  sound  healtS 
and  a  good  moral  character;  (3)  must  be  able  to  pas>  a 
satisfactory  examination  in  reading,  spelling,  writing,  arith- 
metic, and  the  elements  of  Knglish  grammar,  or  be  a  gra<h2- 
ate  of  an  accredited  high  schom ;  (4)  must  sign  a  declarati<  n 
of  intention  to  teach  for  a  certain  specified  time,  usual i> 
two  or  three  years,  in  the  common  schools  of  the  State.  1 :. 
city  normal  schools  it  is  often  customary  to  require  grailu- 
ation  from  the  high  school  as  a  condition  of  adnii^i.m 
That  the  actual  instruction  in  normal  schools  is  not,  4>r  »xi 
letist  need  not  be,  so  elementary  as  might  be  inferred  fn^tt* 
a  study  of  the  curriculum  that  follows,  becomes  evidt  i  •_ 
when  the  age  of  the  average  normal  student  is  considtTt*! 
Answers  from  twenty-four  representative  State  norniH! 
schools  show  that  the  average  age  at  graduation  is  tweni  \  - 
two  years.  Since,  however,  their  coursses  do  not  exceed  th  ri . 
years  in  length,  it  is  clear  that  the  average  entrance  &«;•' 


366 


SCHOOLS 


at  Marseilles,  by  Martin  at  Marmontier,  and  by  Honoratus 
on  the  Leryns,  about  400.  The  schools  of  Armagh,  Aran,  and 
Clonard  in  Ireland,  Whitherne,  Lantwit,  and  Llan  £lwy  in 
England,  may  have  been  founded  in  the  fiflh  century,  and 
the  school  of  theology  at  Constantinople  owed  its  origin  in 
the  seventh  to  an  independent  movement ;  but  it  was  the 
Benedictine  order  and  aiscipline  that  ^ave  lasting  fame  to 
the  foundations  of  Columban  at  Luxeuil,  St.-Gall,  and  Bob- 
bio,  and  efficiency  to  the  great  schools  of  Bangor,  lona, 
Lindisfame,  Canterbury,  and  York.  The  regula  of  Chro<ie- 
gang  of  Metz  (754),  made  binding  on  the  entire  Church  in 
Aachen  in  814,  provided  for  an  episcopal  school  at  each 
cathedral.  Both  episcopal  and  monastic  schools  received 
enthusiastic  support  by  Charlemagne.  His  palace  school, 
where  Alcuin  and  Erigena  taught,  set  an  example  followed 
not  only  by  Tours  and  Fulda,  Corvey  and  Ferrieres,  but 
also  by  the  cathedral  schools  of  Orleans  and  Rheims.  The 
tenth  cetiturv  marks  the  ascendency  of  Liege,  the  eleventh 
that  of  Le  6ec.  In  this  Norman  cloister  Lanfranc  and 
Anselm  laid  the  foundations  of  scholasticism,  and  their  in- 
fluence was  quickly  felt  in  Chartres  and  Rouen,  in  Glaston- 
bury and  Oxford.  The  mendicant  friars  brought  the  heri- 
tage of  Le  Bee  to  the  new  centers  of  learning. 

University  SchooU.-^From  the  thirteenth  century  theo- 
logical schools  began  to  be  connected  with  the  universities. 
The  atudium  penerale  rarely  had  its  origin  in  an  episcopal 
school,  never  in  a  monastery.  Of  the  forty-six  universities 
founded  before  1400,  twenty-eight  had  at  the  outset  no 
theological  faculty,  having  generally  grown  out  of  city 
schools,  medical  schools,  or  law  schools.  Among  the  other 
eighteen  many  were  new  creations  and  some  sprang  from  pri- 
vate schools  like  that  of  Al>elanl.  But  the  I<  ran(!iscans  and 
the  Dominicans,  besides  founding  their  own  colleges,  grad- 
ually secured  generous  representation  on  the  theological  fac- 
ulties. Probably  no  other  school  of  theology  ever  enjoyed  the 
prestige  of  the  College  de  Sorbonne.  The  theological  course 
at  Paris  (twelfth  century)  was  open  only  to  masters  of  arts 
and  covered  ten  vears,  five  for  the  baccalaureate  and  five  for 
the  licentiate,  'the  student  began  with  a  biblical  course 
familiarizing  him  with  the  literal,  tropical,  allegorical,  and 
anagogic  interpretations.  This  was  followed  by  dogmatics 
based  on  Lombard's  sentences.  Instruction  was  given  by 
lectures,  repetitions  in  the  colleges,  and  disputations.  Sub- 
stantially the  same  rules  prevailed  in  all  mediteval  universi- 
ties. In  advance  of  Cambridge  (twelfth  century),  and  next 
to  Paris  in  importance,  was  Oxford  (twelfth  century).  Tou- 
louse was  founded  in  1229,  Coimbra  in  1291,  Salamanca  in 
1855,  and  Valladolid  in  1418.  Bologna  had  no  theological 
faculty  until  1362;  but  Rome  (1303i,  Pisa  (1343),  Florence 
(1349),  and  Padua  (1363)  taught  theology  at  the  beginning. 
Prague  (1347)  was  the  first  German  university.  Then  fol- 
lowed Vienna  (1365),  Erfurt  (1379),  Heidelberg  (1885),  Co- 
logne (1388),  Leipzig  (1409),  Rostock  (1419),  Freibure  (1457), 
Tubingen  (1477),  and  Mayence  (1477).  Geneva  had  a  uni- 
versity in  1368  and  Basel  in  1460,  Upsala  in  1477  and  Co- 
penhagen in  1479.  Famous  Louvain  (1431)  reflected  the 
wisdom  of  the  fratres  devoti. 

Modern  Catholic  Schools. — The  Renaissance  inaugurat- 
ed a  new  era.  Classical  autiquitv  returned,  the  Semitic 
world  drew  nearer,  the  physical  universe  expanded  and  at- 
tracted minds  emancipated  by  nominalism,  and  the  religious 
life  demanded  greater  earnestness  and  freedom.  The  in- 
tellectual forces  of  the  modem  world  began  to  operate. 
But  the  renascent  influence  has  been  felt  in  varying  de- 
grees in  different  parts  of  Christendom.  While  the  Ro- 
mance and  Teutonic  nations  claimed  the  heritage  of  Byzan- 
tium, the  Slavs,  so  long  under  her  tutelage,  had  not  yet 
reached  their  majority.  But  the  Orthodox  Church,  by  nur- 
turing national  life  and  letters,  has  proved  a  faithful'  tutor 
in  Russia,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria,  not  less  than  in  Roumania 
and  Greece,  and  these  nations  are  making  rapid  progress. 
The  religious  academies  of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Kiev, 
and  Kasan  may  not  be  consciously  affected  by  Occidental 
thought,  but  they  are  flourishing  institutions,  and  especially 
devote  praiseworthy  attention  to  non-Christian  religions  ant'l 
to  missionary  history.  The  universities  of  Bucharest  (1869) 
and  Czernowitz  (1876),  as  well  as  that  of  Athens  (1837),  have 
theological  faculties. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  owes  it  largely  to  a  new 
order  of  theological  schools  that  her  inflnonce,  still  so 
marked  in  the  Romance  nations,,has  survived  the  Renais- 
sance. By  the  establishment  of  colleges,  at  the  universities 
or  independently,  embodying  Sturm's  humanistic  and  their 
own  religious  principles,  Loyola  and  his  successors  sought 


to  meet  the  demands  of  the  age  for  spiritual  earnestness, 
classical  learning,  and  biblical  erudition.  Few  schools  ha\t* 
attained  the  efficiency  of  the  Collegium  Romanum  (1554h. 
The  studia  snperiora  comprised  four  years  of  philo8fi(»hy. 
three  years  of  positive  or  biblical  theology  and  dogmat  i/  > 
based  on  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  three  years  of  casui>tr>. 
Other  famous  colleges  were  the  Germanicum  (15.V2),  tlx- 
Anglicanum  (1580),  the  Claromontanum  at  Paris  (1562),  and 
those  of  Pont  k  Mousson  (1572)  and  Dijon  (1581).  Clerical 
seminaries  were  also  established  at  Rome  (1565),  at  Milan 
(1572),  and  elsewhere  by  Borromeo,  and  subsequently  in  €'ver>- 
Roman  Catholic  country.  Had  the  searching  cnticisTll^  if 
the  Port  Royalists  been  heeded,  the  Society  of  Jesus  riii<:ht 
have  been  saved  from  spiritual  decay  and  loss  of  pow^r. 
When,  in  1773,  Clement^  XIV.  dissolved  the  order,  it  hnil 
669  colleges  and  176  seminaries,  and  controlled  80  thool*';:- 
ical  faculties ;  but  its  moral  influence  was  so  shattered  thu: 
not  even  the  restoration  of  1814  could  rehabilitate  it,  Ji> 
system  of  education  still  survives,  but  scarcely  to  the  protr 
of  the  Church.  To  this  day  Italy  depends  upon  her  *il7 
seminaries,  no  Italian  university  having  a  theolog^eid  fac- 
ulty. Spain  is  equally  dependent,  and  though  Coimbra 
teaches  theology  Portugal  has  many  seminaries.  Fmiice  i^ 
better  provided,  with  her  Roman  Catholic  faculties  at  Pan^. 
Lille,  Lyon,  and  Toulouse.  At  Vienna,  Sal*burg,  Budai**-T. 
Cracow,  Innsbruck,  Agram,  and  Gratz  Roman  Catholic  tl:»  - 
ology  is  taught,  and  Prague  has  both  a  Czech  and  a  Gerrnun 
faculty,  but  there  are  forty-three  seminaries  besides  in  Au^ 
tria.  'Freiburg  (1457),  Munich  (1826),  MQnster  (177:i).  Wiir/- 
burg  (1582),  Bonn  (1818),  Breslau  (1702),  and  TQbinpen  ha\*^ 
Roman  Catholic  faculties.  Besides  Louvain,  Belgium  )>av 
sixteen  seminaries.  Since  1854  Ireland  has  had  a  Kcniihii 
Catholic  university  at  Dublin.  England  has  twenty-s«»viii 
Roman  Catholic  seminaries. 

German  Protestant  JSchooh, — In  the  independent  Teu- 
tonic churches  the  Renaissance  bore  richer  fruits.  The  U\t)\i- 
ence  of  Luther  was  strongly  felt  in  the  universities  alreatly 
leavened  with  humanism,  and  there  the  study  of  LutberaTi 
theology  remained  in  touch  with  other  departments  if 
learning.  Luther's  suggestions  were  nobly  carried  out  b\ 
Melanchthon.  Under  his  presidency  Wittenberg  (1502)  U- 
came  a  great  cent-er,  and  other  universities  mo<leled  tl.tir 
instruction  after  it,  as  Marburg  (1529),  TQbingen  (15;ir> 
Leipzig  (1539),  Konigsberg  (1544),  Greifswald  (1545),  U<ist<<  k 
(1563),  Heidelberg  (1551),  and  Jena  (1558).  The  chan^-e  in- 
volved an  extension  of  the  biblical  course,  interpret  at  it  n 
of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts  of  the  Scriptures,  and  gr^at- 
er  attention  to  Augustine.  The  theological  faculty  becaint 
an  arbiter  in  doctrinal  matters.  In  the  {leriod  of  6rth<j<lo\- 
ism  occasioned  by  this  arrangement,  Giessen  was  founde<i  :u 
1607  and  Kiel  in  1665.  Metaphysics  had  crowded  Bible  stud  \ 
and  personal  piety  into  the  background,  when  Spener  aim 
Francke  made  their  plea  for  faithful  exegesis  and  living  ex- 
perience, and  embodied  their  ideas  in  the  University  of 
Halle  (1694)  and  the  seminarium  ministerii  eecle^ia'^t  i  r k 
(1714).  The  indifference  of  pietism  to  theology  as  a  sciem  v 
undermined  orthodoxy  and  paved  the  way  for  rationaii^n^ 
In  the  opposition  against  supematuralism  GSttinjgen  (ITtiTi 
became  a  leader.  Kant*s  Critique  made  this  conflict  nie^n- 
ingless  by  a  higher  synthesis,  but  the  new  theological  de\  tl- 
opment  start-ed  with  Schleiermacher*s  and  Hegel's  teachin:^ 
at  Berlin  (1810).  To  their  influence  the  still  dominant  Uu- 
dencies  emanating  from  Baur  in  Tilbingen,  Reuss  in  Str>«ss> 
burg,  and  Ritschl  in  Bonn  are  largely  traceable.  Sc-itv- 
tific  methods  prevail  in  the  biblical  departments  and  tit.ti 
increasing  application  in  Church  history,  dogmatics;,  ami 
practical  theology.  The  professors  in  tlie  seventeen  evan- 
gelical faculties  are  free  to  present  their  own  views  and  t*. 
modify  them  as  research  demands.  Their  lei'tures  are  tJ  ♦• 
prominent  feature.  Disputations  are  seldom  held.  *Sennnar^ 
and  theses  try  the  student's  strength.  A  triennium  ]eac)>  t.. 
the  doctorate  in  philosophy,  three  additional  years  suflice  f.  .r 
the  licentiate.  The  doctorate  in  theology  is  conferred  eit  ht  r 
rite  or  honoris  causa,  the  recipient  recognizing  the  honor  \  \ 
dedicating  a  work  to  the  faculty.  The  annual  averai^-c  • 
doctors  of  divinity  made  in  all  Germany  is  forty. 

Other  European  Schools. — The  Universities  of  Upsal|>  nt  .[ 
Lund  (1668),  Christiania  (1813).  Copenhagen,  Hel.sinr^fi.-^ 
(1827),  and  Dorpat  (1(W2)  supply  the  clerical  noe<ls  of  ^>w.^'- 
den,  Norway,  Denmark,  Finland,  and  Lutheran  Ku----'  i. 
Preachers'  sc^minaries  have  also  been  established  by  tK» 
Moravians  at  Gnadenfeld  and  Nisky,  the  Baptists  at  II at!'- 
burg  and  Stoc^kholm,  the  Methodists  at  Frankfort  and  L*  i  - 
sala,  and  the  Congregationalists   at   Christ inehamn.        {z\ 


368 


SCHOOLS 


to  the  physicians  of  Philadelphia  prior  to  1751,  and  Dr. 
Hunter,  of  Newport,  R.  I.,  ^ve  anatomical  demonstrations 
in  1754-56.  Dr.  William  Shippen,  Jr.,  of  Philadelphia,  gave 
a  course  in  anatomy  to  twelve  students  in  1762.  These  were 
all  private  enterprises.  The  first  regularly  organized  school 
of  medicine  was  the  College  of  Philadelphia,  which  was 
founded  by  Dr.  William  Shippen,  Jr.,  and  Dr.  John  Mor- 
gan at  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  John  Fothergill,  of  London,  in 
1765.  Dr.  Morgan  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Medicine 
in  May,  1765.  and  Dr.  Shippen  to  the  chair  of  Surgery  in  Sep- 
tember of  the  same  year.  The  first  course  of  lectures  was 
given  in  Nov.,  1765,  and  continued  annually  thereafter.  The 
College  of  Philadelphia  subsequently  became  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania. 

The  requirements  for  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  medi- 
cine were  :  (1)  A  satisfactory  knowledge  of  Latin,  mathe- 
matics, natural  and  experimental  philosophv  ;  (2)  one  course 
of  lectures  in  anatomy,  materia,  medica,  chemistry,  theorjr 
and  practice  of  physic  and  clinical  lectures,  and  one  year  s 
attendance  on  the  practice  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital 
and  a  public  examination ;  (3)  apprenticeship  to  a  reputable 
phvsician. 

The  requirements  for  the  degree  of  M.  D.  were :  The  can- 
didate, being  twenty-four  years  of  age,  and  a  bachelor  of 
medicine  of  three  years'  standing,  must  present  and  defend 
an  original  thesis.  The  degree  of  M.  B.  was  first  conferred 
in  1768,  and  of  M.  D.  in  1771. 

The  second  medical  school  in  North  America  was  founded 
in  New  York  in  1767  in  connection  with  King*s  (now  Colum- 
bia) College  by  Dr.  Samuel  Bard  and  Dr.  Peter  Middleton. 
The  degree  of  M.  B.  was  first  conferred  in  1769,  and  of  M.  D. 
in  1770.  It  was  broken  up  by  the  Revolutionary  war,  but 
was  reorganized  in  1792  and  merged  with  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  in  1807.  The  third  medical  school 
was  founde<l  in  connection  with  Harvanl  College  in  1783, 
the  fourth  in  connection  with  Dartmouth  College  in  1798, 
the  fifth  was  the  Maryland  College  of  Medicine  in  Baltimore 
(now  the  University  of  Maryland),  founded  in  1807,  and 
the  sixth  at  Yale  Co'llege  in  1813. 

From  this  date  the  growth  of  medical  colleges  was  rapid, 
until  almost  every  large  city  possessed  one  or  more.  Many, 
like  those  at  Castleton,  Vt.,  Berkshire,  Mass.,  and  Fairfield, 
N.  Y.,  were  established  in  small  country  towns  independent- 
ly of  any  institutions  of  learning  or  hospital  facilities,  and 
gave  purely  theoretical  instruction  by  lectures,  the  effect 
being  to  lower  the  standard  of  medical  education.  In  some 
schools  a  single  course  of  lectures  was  exacted  prior  to 
graduation  ;  in  others  two  courses  of  four  mouths  each ;  in 
the  vast  majority  two  courses  of  not  more  than  six  months 
each;  and  in  comparatively  few  colleges  three  courses  of  lec- 
tures. Since  1890  a  movement  to  lengthen  the  number  of 
courses  to  three,  and  in  some  cases  to  four,  has  gained 
strength,  to  the  great  advantage  of  medical  education. 

Requirements  for  Admission  to  Medical  Colleges. — Prior 
to  1892  no  uniform  requirements  for  admission  to  medical 
cx)lleges  existed  in  the  U.  S.  In  1892  the  Association  of 
American  Medical  Colleges  established  the  following  stand- 
ard :  (1)  Ability  to  write  an  English  composition  of  not  less 
than  20<)  words.  (2)  To  translate  simple  Latin  prose.  (3) 
A  knowledge  of  algebra  or  higher  arithmetic.  (4)  Elemen- 
tary physics. 

The  regents  in  the  State  of  New  York  require  that  all 
applicants  for  admission  to  medical  schools  must  file  a  cer- 
tificate showing : 

(A)  That  they  hold  a  degree  of  bachelor  or  master  of 
arts,  of  bachelor  or  master  of  science,  or  of  bachelor  or  doc- 
tor of  philosophy ;  or,  (B)  That  during  or  prior  to  the  stu- 
dent's first  year  of  medical  study  he  has  passed  an  examina- 
tion cx)nducted  under  the  regents  of  the  University  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  or  by  the  faculty  of  a  medical  school  or 
college  in  accordance  with  the  standard  and  rules  of  the 
said  regents,  in  arithmetic,  grammar,  geop-aphy,  orthogra- 
phy, American  history,  English  composition,  and  the  ele- 
ments of  natural  philosophy  ;  or,  (C)  That  he  possesses  one 
or  more  of  the  following  equivalents: 

(a)  A  certificate  of  having  sutteessfully  completed  a  full 
year's  course  of  study  in  any  college  or  university  under  the 
supervision  of  the  regents  of  the  university,  or  registered 
by  them  as  maintaining  a  satisfactory  standanl.  {h)  A  cer- 
tificate of  having  satisfacttirily  completed  a  three  years' 
course  in  any  institution  subject  to  the  visitation  of  the  re- 
gents, or  registered  by  them  as  maintaining  a  satisfactory 
academic  standard,  {c)  A  cortificate  of  having  passed  the 
examination  prelimihary  to  the  study  of  medicine,  required 


by  the  present  medical  act  of  Canada,  {d)  A  certificate*  <»f 
having  passed  the  matriculation  examinations  of  any  uni- 
versity in  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  {e)  A  regent's  clii>k»nm. 
(/)  Riegents'  pass-cards  for  any  twenty  counts  not  incJudiij;: 
reading  and  writing. 

Many  medical  colleges  in  the  South  and  West  do  not 
exact  even  these  modest  requirements. 

A  few  medical  schools  require  more,  e.  g.  the  University  of 
Michigan,  which  rejjuires  an  elementary  knowledge  of  Kng- 
lishf  mathematics,  including  arithmetic,  algebra  and  plaiit 
geometry,  physics,  botany,  zoSlogy,  physiology,  history,  and 
Latin  prose. 

The  re()uirement8  of  Harvard  Medical  School  are  :  Kng- 
lish,  Latin,  physics,  chemistry,  and  any  one  of  the  f<.>l low- 
ing:  French,  German,  algebra,  plane  geometry,  or  botany. 

The  Johns  Hopkins  Medical  School,  at  Baltimore,  Md./re- 
quires :  (1)  An  ability  to  pass  the  matriculation  examination 
to  enter  any  undergraduate  course  at  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University ;  (2)  a  reading  knowledge  of  French  and  German ; 
(3)  a  knowledge  of  minor  courses  in  physics  (at  least  five 
class-room  exercises  and  three  hours'  laboratory  work  ea*  h 
week  for  one  year  constituting  a  minor  course),  ehemiKtr> 
(five  class-room  exercises  and  five  hours*  laboratory  work 
each  week  for  one  year),  and  biology  (five  class-room  exer- 
cises and  five  hours' laboratory  work  each  week  for  one  year  ■. 
or  the  degree  of  A.  B.  in  the  chemical-biological  eoui>e  of 
the  university. 

Courses  of  Study. — ^The  best  medical  courses  are  ^rra«l»'«i 
and  cover  a  period  of  four  years.  In  the  most  advanced 
schools  the  first  two  years  are  spent  in  the  study  of  anat- 
omy, embryology,  physiology,  histology,  bacteriology,  pat  hoi- 
ogy,  physiological  chemistry,  and  pharmacology ;  the  third 
year  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  meuicine,  sui^gery,  f:yiitvcu*U>- 
gy,  and  obstetrics,  and  the  fourth  year  to  clinical  wortc  and 
special  branches  of  medical  practice.  In  the  first  two  ye^trv 
laboratory  work  occupies  a  prominent  place,  and  rec*ita'ti«>ij« 
and  seminary  conferences  are  held  rather  than  formal  diiia<^ 
tic  lectures. 

Many  schools  have  three  courses  of  lectures  which  pra^ti- 
cally  cover  identical  subiects,  but  this  method  of  instruct  if  •» 
is  no  longer  popular,  and  laboratory  work  and  graded  nH.*ita- 
tions  are  fast  taking  the  place  of  didac;tic  lectures. 

Medical  educators  differ  as  to  the  advisabilitv  of  T^^piir- 
ing  a  degree  in  arts  or  sciences  preliminary  to  t^e  studv  <»f 
medicine,  and  many  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  maji»rity  <.f 
young  men  can  not  afford  to  sacrifice  the  time  needed  to  se- 
cure a  degree  before  commencing  a  course  of  medical  stiulv 
proper,  extending  over  a  period  of  at  least  four  years,    llivv 

E refer  the  arrangement  of  studies  existing  at  Cambrid^t*. 
Ingland,  whereby  the  last  two  years  of  study  for  the  dvjrri^r 
of  B.  A.  constitute  the  first  two  years  of  medical  stuc]y  Jcai!- 
ing  up  to  the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  the  end  of  three  vears  t  h«»rf*- 
after,  thus  practically  giving  a  medical  course  of  five  yearv 
Jtequiremefits  for  Decree  of  M,  I), — The  requirements  U*t 
this  degree  vary  materially.  In  some  schools  in  the  U.  S. 
the  degree  is  conferred  after  three  years  of  medical  ^tui)> 
and  an  attendance  upon  two  courses  of  lectures,  liie  ma- 
jority of  the  medical  schools  since  1892  have  require<l  t  hr^-r 
courses  of  lectures.  The  leading  schools  require  four  courvt-* 
of  lectures  and  practical  work  in  laboratones. 

Number  of  Schools, — In  1891  there  were  95  regfular.  %» 
eclectic,  14  homceopathic,  2  physio-medical  colleges,  &n<i  1« 
post-graduate  schools  of  medicine,  with  18,160  student £i  uiiti 
4,931  graduates  receiving  the  degree  of  M.  D. 

II.  Canada. — There  are  12  medical  schools  in  Oana^ia. 
The  requirements  for  admission  are  English,  arithni«>t  i> . 
algebra,  geometry,  Latin,  and  Greek,  French,  German,  <.»r 
natural  philosophy. 

Courses  of  study  extend  over  four  years.  During  the  fir^* 
and  second  years,  anatomy,  physiology,  histologr,  chemic.sl 
physics,  general  chemistry,  materia  medica  and  thera|>«M}- 
tics,  toxicology,  and  botany.  During  the  third  and  fourth 
years,  theory  and  practice  of  medicine,  includinjc  Die<liral 
pathology:  principles  and  practice  of  surgery,  in<*ludir:^ 
surgical  pathology;  clinical  metlicine,  clinical  surgery,  tiiiil- 
wifery.  diseases  of  women  and  chiltlren.  medical  jurispru- 
dence, and  sanitary  science. 

Ill  Quebec  the  requirements  for  admission  to  the  in«^))«\<nl 
schools  are  nearlv  equal  to  the  medium  requirements  for  a<i 
mission  to  the  scKools  of  Great  Britain. 

III.  (treat   Brita  in.  —  Bequ  iremenis  for  A  dm  i/ntion . 

Minimum. — English,  Latin,  mathematics,  including  alcehrs 
and  geometry,  elementary  mechanics,  and  one  of  the  follow* 
ing  optional' subjects :  Greek,  French,  German,  Italian,  or 


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SCHOOLS 


American  law  school.  It  is  claimed  that  the  earliest  law- 
school  in  the  U.  S.  was  at  the  College  of  William  and  Mary 
in  Virginia.  Chancellor  Wythe  was  certainly  appointed 
Professor  of  Law  in  that  college  in  1779 ;  but  it  may  be 
doubted  if  a  law  school,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  ex- 
isted there  at  that  time.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  famous 
school  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  may  justly  be  regarded  as 
the  parent  of  law  schools  in  the  C  8.  1  his  school  was  es- 
tablished by  the  Hon.  Tapping  Reeve  in  1782.  The  Hon. 
James  Gould  was  associated  with  him  in  1798,  and  after 
Judge  Ke€ve's  retirement  in  1820  remained  in  charge  of  the 
school  until  its  discontinuance  in  1883.  This  school  was 
eminently  successful  in  attracting  a  high  class  of  students 
from  all  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  the  average  attendance  being 
about  twenty-five  a  year.  The  course,  with  two  months' 
vacation,  occupied  fourteen  months.  The  insstruction  was  by 
lectures,  thrown  into  the  form  of  legal  treatises,  specimens 
of  which  may  still  be  seen  in  Eeeve's  Domestic  lielationa 
and  Gould's  Pleading. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  sporadic  and  ephemeral  courses 
of  lectures  delivered  by  Judge  James  Wilson  at  the  College 
of  Philadelphia  in  1791  and  1792,  by  James  Kent,  Esq^.,  after- 
ward Chancellor  Kent,  at  Columbia  College,  Now  ^  ork,  in 
1797,  and  by  Prof.  Stearns  at  Harvard  College  from  1815  to 
1817.  But  it  is  still  true  that  the  Litchfield  school  was  for 
many  years  without  a  rival,  the  Harvard  Law  School,  the 
oldest  of  all  existing  law  schools,  not  being  established  until 
1817.  The  first  dozen  years  of  this  new  school  were  full  of 
discouragement  Most  of  those  who  desired  a  law-school 
education  still  resorted  to  Litchfield,  or,  during  the  years 
1823-29,  to  another  successful  private  school  at  rforthamp- 
ton,  Mass.,  conducted  by  Judge  Samuel  Howe  and  John 
Hooker  Ashmun.  The  prosperity  of  the  Harvard  school 
dates  from  its  reorganization  in  1829  when  Judge  Story  and 
Mr.  Ashmun  were  appointed  professors.  In  1833,  when  the 
Litchfield  school  was  given  up,  there  were  law  schools  at 
Harvard,  University  of  Maryland,  Yale,  University  of  Vir- 
ginia, Cincinnati  College,  and  at  Transylvania  University, 
Kentucky,  with  less  than  150  students  in  all.  There  were  two 
new  schools  in  the  next  decade,  at  Dickinson  College,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  at  the  University  of  Indiana.  Five  more  were 
established  between  the  years  1846  and  1850.  In  1860  the 
number  of  law  schools  had  risen  to  twenty-two,  with  a  total 
attendance  in  that  year  of  about  1,000  students.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  law  schools  existing  in  the  U.  S.,  with 
the  date  of  their  foundation,  the  length  of  the  course,  and 
the  number  of  students  in  the  academic  year  1893-94 : 


M AMK  OF  LAW  SCHOOLS. 


Han'ard 

Unlvensity  of  Maryland 

Yale 

University  of  Virginia 

Cincinnati 

DiekinHon 

University  of  Indiana 

University  of  Louisville 

University  of  North  Carolina 

Tulane 

Cumberland 

Washington  and  Lee 

UuiverHity  of  Pennsylvania 

Albany 

De  Pauw 

University  of  Mi88it«ippi 

Columbia 

University  of  the  City  of  New  York 

University  of  (ieorgia 

Northwestern 

University  of  Michigan 

M'Kendree 

Columbian 

University  of  Kentucky 

University  of  South  Carolina 

St.  Louis 

University  of  Iowa 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Howard 

University  of  Notre  Dame 

Georgetown 

Richmond 

Boston 

University  of  Missouri 

University  of  Alabama 

Illinois  Wesleyan 

Mercer 

Vanderbilt 

Hastings 

University  of  Kansas 

University  of  West  Virginia 

•  Piior  to  1H05-96  the  course 


Dm*  of 

Lntcth  of 

Mtebltoh- 

oourM, 

meni. 

ymn. 

1817 

8 

ittse 

8 

18^4 

2* 

1826 

2 

ia38 

2 

1H36 

2 

1H42 

2 

1M6 

2 

1846 

2 

1847 

2 

1847 

1 

1849 

1 

IK-iO 

8 

IKM 

1 

1865 

2 

IKV) 

8 

IKVi 

8 

I8r)8 

2 

lK-)9 

1 

1K59 

S» 

1^9 

2 

1H6() 

2 

1W» 

2 

IKiS 

2 

18()6 

2 

1H«57 

2 

1H»18 

8» 

18<)8 

2 

isr,9 

2 

1W9 

2 

1K7() 

2 

1H70 

1 

lh75J 

8 

1872 

2 

IKTTl 

2 

1874 

2 

1875 

1 

1875 

2 

1878 

8 

1878 

8 

1878 

2 

NoalMr  of 
■tudraU  in 


146 

188 

1«) 

158 

56 

66 

47 

66 

75 

74 

62 

228 

48 

87 

20 

270 

251 

21 

189 

607 

27 

828 

6 

24 

116 

aiw 

169 
48 
4,H 

2t$7 
28 

2r><i 

18 
55 
14 
30 
140 
82 
47 


was  two  years. 


LAW  SCHOOLS  IN  THB  UNITKD  STATES— OOHnNTED. 


NAME  OF  LAW  SCHOOLS. 


National  University 

Northern  Indiana  Normal  School. . 

Central  Tennessee 

Chaddock 

Allen 

Iowa  College  of  I^w 

University  of  Texas 

National  Normal 

WiUanieUe 

University  of  Oregon 

Emory 

Buffalo 

Cornell 

University  of  Minnesota. 

Shaw 

University  of  Tennessee 

Lake  Forest 

Arkansas  Industrial 

Sioux  City 

Atlanta 

University  of  Nebraska 

Metix>pol)8 

New  York  

Ohio  State  University 

Detroit  College  of  I^aw 

University  of  Colorado 

Denver 

Kent 

Western  Reserve 

Leland  Stanford  Junior 

University  of  the  South 

Centre  College 

Wake  Forest 

American  Temperance  University. 


Total,  75  schools.. 


1879 
1879 
lKr9 
IWO 
1882 
1888 
1883 
18H4 
l^«4 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1887 
1888 
1M88 
1888 
1880 
1890 
1890 
1891 
1801 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1801 
1892 
1892 
1892 
1802 
1893 
1898 
1894 
1894 
1894 


Uagik  of  '  No:  t.-  ' 
ttiki' .' 


% 

Vi\ 

]" 

1* 

2 
2 

2 

2 

I 

2 

8* 

2 

8 

9 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

8 

8 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

8 

1 

2 

2 


ii; 


1 
'."^ 

V* 

4?.« 

ol 

14 

i: 

Vci 


*  Prior  to  1895-96  tne  course  was  two  years. 

Fifty-three  law  schools  have  been  organized  since  tlu-  •  i 
war — seventeen  in  the  period  1890-95.    There  were  ii.*M')  ^'  ■ 
dents  in  law  schools  in  1888-89,  and  7,804  in  189;5-ia.    T  i  ^ 
shows  the  rapidly  growing  conviction  that  a  legal  win*  at- 
is  best  acquired  in  a  law  school.    It  is  noticeable  ul.s<>  <! 
atonlyeignt  of  the  seventy-five  schools  is  the  coun*  linn; 
to  a  single  year.    In  eleven  the  course  extends  over  n.r - 
years.    It  is  highly  probable  that  in  a  few  years  a  niajoni  \  - ' 
the  schools  will  have  the  three  years' course.  Furtheniu»r«'  . 
but  seven  of  the  seventy-five  schools  are  university  .m  Ij.-  .-. 
The  significant  feature  of  legal  education  in  the  V.  >..  " 
will  be  seen,  is  the  wide  departure  from  Engli^^h  tni<liil"'  - 
in  favor  of  study  with  a  practicing  lawyer  and  the  cl<  m-  j. 
proximation  to  the  continental  principle  of  university  :•  . 
training.    This  result  has  been  reached  not  by  iniituti<  i<  • 
continental  methods,  but  by  an  independent  develnj.ii.  r.- 
There  are  still  iinj)ortant  differences.    Upon  the  c<»ni;:.' 
of  Europe  the  students  attendance  at  the  univerhit\  «>. 
school  is  compulsory,  while  in  the  U.  S.  it  is  optional.    1m 
continental  countries  a  collegiate  education  is  a  prert«ju  >.' 
to  admission  to  the  law  school.     In  the  U.  S,  the  u't-; 
majority  of  law  students  have  no  academic  degnn-.  an<i  ':  \ 
standard  of    admission    requirements  is   lamentably  l**, 
although  gradually  rising.    The  Harvard  I^aw  S«.ln'<»l.  in- 
deed, after  the  acailemic  year  1895-96  will,  with  rare  e>«  •  j- 
tions,  give  the  degree  of  LL.  B.  only  to  college  graduatrx. 

Methods  of  Instruction. — There  is,  as  yet,  no  ci>nM:.-':l 
of  opinion  as  to  the  best  mode  of  teaching  law  in  a  i:i« 
sch(K)l.  In  the  Euroj)ean  universities  the  profess4»rs  ('..tli 
almost  wholly  by  lectures, but  the  seminar  courses,  in  i» l..«!i 
the  students  and  the  professor  discuss  the  original  autl.-  ni 
ties,  are  growing  in  favor.  In  American  law  schools,  mN  .  in 
early  days  the  instruction  was  generally  given  in  tlu-  f  rfl 
of  lectures,  but  since  the  iuulti]>lication  of  legal  tiva'  >d 
the  lecture  methml  has  Ihhmi  largely  supersedeil  by  tlu'  im-i) 
tat  ion  method.  The  student  reads  a  certain  numl>er  of  i  •..*'«( 
of  a  given  text-book,  upon  which  he  is  catechised  in  tlu-  <  .ni 
rcK>m  by  the  pn^fcssor,  who  also  expounds  and  critici.--^  'N 
treatise'.  In  1870  the  inductive  and  genetic  methtxl.  mi  i^ 
is  almost  universally  ado^)ted  in  the  teaching  of  t>lln  r  -*'i 
enres,  was  for  the  first  time  used  in  the  teaching 
To  Prof.  Langdell,  dean  of  the  Harvanl  Law  SlIi 
longs  the  honor  of  this  innovation.  The  chief  merit 
new  system  lies  in  its  development  of  the  habit  of  i'  'd 
lectual  st»lf-reliance.  The  text-books  used  contain,  i 
treatise  or  commentary  upon  the  original  sources  but 
original  sources  themselves,  being  collections  of  cas<»>  '-4 
various  branches  of  the  law,  properly  classifie<l  and  s  al 
ratiged  as  to  show  the  historical  development  of  legal  {  H 


of    .!« 

it  ..I 'hi 


372 


SCHOOLS 


gested  and  compact  body  of  facts  and  principles  before  its 
application  to  practical  problems  can  oe  undertaken  with 
assurance  of  success.  The  splendid  researches  carried  out 
by  a  generation  of  scholars  now  passed  away  were  essential 
to  successful  development  of  the  school  of  technology,  and 
in  a  still  greater  degree  were  the  methods  of  scientific  in- 
vestigation necessary  to  that  development.  Observation 
and  experiment  came  to  the  front,  and  for  the  first  time  in 
the  history  of  education  began  to  be  esteemed  at  something 
like  their  full  value.  It  came  to  be  understood  that  the 
path  to  success  was  not  alone  through  the  study  of  books, 
but  that  the  study  of  things  was  more  important.  What  is 
known  as  the  **  laboratory  method  "  of  instruction  began  to 
be  adopted  in  the  most  progressive  institutions  of  learning, 
and  soon  proved  itself  to  be  vitalizing:  and  powerful.  All 
other  departments  of  learning  were  forced  to  become  the 
imitators  of  science  in  the  use  of  this  method,  and  the  "new 
education "  resulted.  Many  feared  the  effect  upon  the 
courses  of  study  tending  to  produce  what  was  long  errone- 
ously called  a  "  liberal  education,"  but  it  was  soon  found 
that  if  the  simple  "  culture  effect "  be  considered  alone,  the 
new  education  asks  no  odds  of  the  old,  while  in  the  produc- 
tion of  sound  thinking  and  a  virile  intellectuality  it  is  far 
and  away  ahead. 

All  of  this  was  a  necessary  forerunner  to  the  perfectly 
organized  school  of  technology,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  the 
development  of  the  latter  was  in  a  large  measure  contem- 
poraneous with  the  evolution  of  the  new  education  as  out- 
lined above.  A  class  of  professional  schools  has  existed, 
indeed,  almost  as  long  as  education  itself,  namely,  those  or- 
ganized and  maintained  for  the  training  of  clergyman,  law- 
yers, and  physicians.  Militarv  schools  have  also  lon^  been 
m  existence,  and  out  of  these  latter  came  the  beginnings  of 
technical  instruction. 

In  Europe  this  ^ginning  is  to  be  found  in  the  creation 
of  the  celebrated  £)cole  Polytcchnique  in  France,  in  the 
third  year  of  the  Convention  (1794).  It  was  primarily  for 
the  training  of  young  men  in  mathematics  aud  drawing,  to 
fit  them  for  the  Engineer  and  Artillery  Corps  of  the  French 
army.  It  owes  much  of  its  excellence  to  the  labors  of  Car- 
not,  who  strove  to  give  it  a  secure  and  proper  foundation. 
The  number  admitted  to  its  classes  was  limited,  and  only 
the  best  of  the  candidates  were  selected.  Some  of  the  most 
celebrated  military  and  civil  engineers  of  France  have  re- 
ceived their  training  there,  and  it  has  numbered  among  the 
members  of  its  faculty  such  famous  men  as  Lagrange, 
Laplace,  Berthollet,  Poisson,  etc.  It  continues  to  adhere 
with  considerable  conservatism  to  the  princirial  methods  of 
its  early  history,  and,  in  spite  of  innumerable  competitors 
that  have  sprung  up  since  its  foundation,  its  rank  is  among 
the  highest. 

The  famous  School  of  Mines  at  Freiberg,  earlier  in  its  es- 
tablishment by  many  years,  has  enjoyed  a  long  and  illus- 
trious career,  and  is  an  excellent  tvpe  of  a  technical  school 
differing  very  decidedly  from  the  jScole  Polytcchnique.  In 
its  early  development,  amid  the  rich  mining  resources  and 
industries  of  Saxony,  it  illustrates  the  general  principle  that 
nearly  every  one  of  the  first  technical  schools  owes  its  origin 
to  the  demands  of  the  leading  industry  in  its  immediate  vicin- 
ity, by  which  also  the  character  of  its  instruction  was  large- 
ly determined.  Influenced  largely  by  this  principle,  schools 
of  technology  became  very  numerous  throughout  conti- 
nental Europe  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Most  of  them  have  kept  pace  with  the  extraordinary 
development  of  science  and  scientific  methods  which  has 
taken  place  during  the  last  half  of  the  century ;  their  fa- 
cilities for  instruction  have  increased,  and  their  courses  of 
study  have  become  largely  professional.  The  polytechnic 
school  has  begun  to  assume  its  proper  place  in  European 
schemes  of  education  as  something  quite  distinct  from  the 
earlier  trade  schools,  from  which,  however,  it  was  in  many 
instances  evolved.  Besides  France  and  Germany,  Austria, 
Sweden,  Switzerland,  and  Russia  have  maintained  technical 
schools  of  high  repute.  Indeed,  tiie  U.  S.  is  indebted  to 
Russia  more  than  to  any  other  nation  for  some  of  the  most 
important  and  valuable  features  of  the  modern  school  of 
technologv.  It  was  at  two  famous  Russian  schools,  the 
Imperial  Technical  School,  at  Moscow,  and  the  Institute  of 
Technology,  at  St.  Petersburg,  that  the  experiment  was 
first  made  of  combining  in  the  engineering  courses  the 
study  of  text-books,  lectures,  and  other  exercises  long  known 
to  form  a  necessary  part  of  scholastic  training,  with  prac- 
tical exercises  in  workshops  in  which  the  student  was  made 
familiar  with  machines,  their  construction  and  use,  and  the 


nature  of  the  materials  upon  which  they  worked.  Many  of 
the  older  and  more  conservative  schools  in  Europe  hH\f 
been  reluctant  to  follow  the  example  of  the  RussiaoN  W 
the  numerous  aud  great  advantages  of  the  method  havt 
been  recognized  in  England  and  in  a  still  greater  dv^n-f  m 
the  U,  S.,  where  nearly  every  school  of  technology  ha> 
adopted  the  Russian  plan  in  a  greater  or  less  degree. 

Great  Britain,  although  contributing  more  largely,  pvT- 
haps,  than  any  other  nation  to  those  scientific  di>>('ovi'ni<» 
upon  which  all  technology  is  based,  was  slow  to  realize  tir 
necessity  for  technical  education.  It  was  not  until  it  \*^ 
came  evident  that  France,  Germany,  and  other  nati(>D<i  ).f 
continental  Europe  were  likely,  through  their  eneourafrt- 
ment  of  technical  schools  and  colleges,  to  deprive  tt.v 
United  Kingdom  of  the  prestige  of  first  place  in  enpU(N»r- 
ing  and  manufacturing  skill,  that  the  British  began  u>  dt- 
veTop  this  side  of  their  educational  system.  Much  int<^n>»t 
was  suddenly  created,  royal  commissions  were  appointeil, 
the  work  of  foreign  countries  was  examined  and  r(>|H>ne>i 
upon,  and  organized  efforts  resulted  in  the  rapid  advMtict>- 
ment  of  the  interests  of  technolojry.  One  organization,  ex- 
tensive in  scope  and  comprehensive  in  plan,  deserves  mon 
extended  notice,  even  in  a  brief  treatment  of  the  siubjed 
It  is  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Technical  Education.  The  Prince  of  Wa:»^ 
is  the  president  of  the  institute,  and  among  its  vice-presi- 
dents are  the  lord  majror  of  London,  the  president  of  the 
Royal  Society,  the  president  of  the  Institute  of  Civil  Euct- 
neers,  and  many  otner  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  (tnat 
Britain.  The  operations  of  the  institute  include  the  man- 
agement of  three  London  colleges  and  the  system  of  t^  h* 
nological  examinations.  The  three  colleges  are  the  City 
and  Guilds  Central  Technical  College,  which  is  **a  o<»ll':.t 
for  higher  technical  instruction  in  mechanics  and  niathi^ 
matics,  civil,  mechanical,  and  electrical  engineering.  an«i 
chemistry,"  the  City  and  Guilds  Technical  Colle^'f  at 
Finsbury,  and  the  London  Technical  Art  Scho<jl.  Tl.*- 
scheme  of  technological  examinations  is  very  elaborate  tirtd 
ambitious.  Examinations  are  conducted  once  every  }'-»r 
at  various  centers  in  the  United  Kingdom,  upon  a  wiilr 
variety  of  technical  subjects,  more  than  sixty  in  nuinUr 
Prizes  and  honors  are  awarded,  and  in  some  cases  grant >  uf 
funds  are  made.  The  object  is  to  encouraee  local  dex  I'-f*- 
ment  of  technical  education,  and  the  results  are  commeti- 
surate  with  the  magnitude  of  the  undertaking. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  earliest  foundation  for  technical  edu- 
cation was  that  of  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  at 
Troy,  N.  Y.  It  was  established  in  1824  by  Stephen  ^an 
Rensselaer  as  a  School  of  Theoretical  and  Appliea  Soituc*- 
In  the  early  vears  of  the  republic  it  was  the  necessary  cus- 
tom to  employ  learned  and  skilled  foreigners  in  varii  l^ 
public  works,  and  most  of  the  engineers  at  first  engapd  on 
the  construction  of  canals  and  roads  came  from  Franiv. 
Many  young  men  were  sent  there  from  the  U.  S.  to  be  edu- 
cated, and  the  Rensselaer  School  evidently  owed  its  oripn 
to  a  desire  on  the  part  of  its  founder  to  create  an  institution 
capable  of  supplying  this  demand.  Its  work  has  U^n 
mostly  confinea  to  the  education  of  civil  engineers,  in  whit  i 
it  has  had  a  lon^  and  successful  career. 

About  the  middle  of  the  century  the  importance  of  the 
sciences  of  chemistry,  physics,  geology,  etc.,  had  become  **» 
evident  that  several  of  the  more  important  colleges  e?tal- 
lished  Sf)ecial  departments  for  scientific  work.  The  «'!<i 
education  still  held  sway,  and  was  at  most  only  williriir  t<. 
admit  the  new  as  a  sort  of  annex,  but  carefully  avoiding  n^ 
sponsibility  in  most  cases  by  providing  quite  a  distinct  or- 
ganization for  the  scientific  school.  The  Sheflield  Scieniific 
School  of  Yale  University  was  the  earliest  of  thest\  having 
been  founded  in  1847.  It  was  followed  by  the  I^wrem- 
Scientific  School  of  Harvard  University  in  1848,  and  the 
Chandler  Scientific  School  of  Dartmouth  College  in  isWl. 
The  first  two  were  for  a  long  time  schools  of  science  ratlwr 
than  its  applications,  although  they  have  latterly  takin 
more  of  the  character  of  schools  of  technology  with  th«  r- 
ough  courses  in  several  branches  of  engineering.  Th- 
school  at  Dartmouth  College  has  confined  its  work  larc'ly 
to  civil  engineering.    All  have  done  work  of  a  high  onlfr. 

Technical  education  in  the  U.  S.  received  its  greatest  im- 
petus, however,  during  the  lat«r  vears  of  the  civil  war  aii«l 
those  first  following  its  close,  'this  must  be  attribute* I  to 
two  causes :  First,  the  passage  of  the  Morrill  Act  by  whieh 
large  land  grants  were  made  to  the  several  States  for  tb** 
purpose  of  enabling  them  to  establish  institutions  for  ?i>  n^'r 
instruction  in  agriculture  and  mechanics ;  second,  the  very 


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374 


SCHOOLS 


ized.  General  industrial  schools,  in  which  a  number  of 
trades  are  taught,  are  found  throughout  the  two  empires, 
while  special  trade  schools,  in  which  one  particular  branch 
is  dealt  with,  are  distributed  acconling  to  local  needs.  Thus 
there  are  special  trade  schools  for  silk-weaving,  linen-weav- 
ing, watch-making,  wood-working,  mason-work,  machine- 
work,  brewing,  etc.  Courses  in  these  schools  are  generally 
from  three  to  five  years  in  length,  and  embrace,  besides 
practical  trade-train mg,  instruction  in  mechanical  and  f  ree- 
nand  drawing,  geograpn v,  business  forms,  mathematics,  book- 
keeping, and  science,  trom  the  nature  and  extent  of  the 
instruction  many  of  these  schools  should  more  properly  be 
classified  as  technical  schools,  and  even  when  the  object  is 
merely  to  combine  the  elements  of  a  general  education  with 
the  training  of  a  handicraftsman  the  large  amount  of  time 
required  prevents  their  benefits  being  very  generally  reaped 
by  the  artisan  class.  The  actual  effect  of  these  schools  is 
in  consequence  rather  to  prepare  a  limited  number  of  grad- 
uates fitted  for  superior  workmen  and  foremen  than  to  sup- 
plv  a  means  of  training  the  great  mass  of  artisans. 

^ he  aim  of  the  Belgian  schools  approaches  more  nearly  to 
that  of  a  true  trade  school  than  those  of  the  scho<:)ls  just  de- 
scribed. Trade  proficiency  rather  than  an  all  around  edu- 
cation is  the  end  sought.  Mental  instruction  is  indeed  gen- 
erally provided,  but  its  character  is  limited  to  such  branches 
as  have  a  direct  bearing  upon  the  trade.  Besides  a  number 
of  institutions  supported  by  guilds  and  trade-unions,  as  well 
as  several  parochial  schools  m  which  practical  tra<le-train- 
ing  is  furnished,  two  very  comprehensive  trade  schools  exist 
at  Toumay  and  Ghent.  In  these  schools  the  pupil  upon  en- 
tering selects  a  special  trade,  which  he  pursues  for  a  course 
of  three  years.  Instruction  is  given  in  these  schools  in  draw- 
ing, mathematics,  science,  and  industrial  economy. 

In  no  country  is  the  character  of  trade  and  technical  in- 
struction more  differentiated  than  in  France.  In  each  of  the 
French  schools  the  grade  of  product  aimed  at,  whether  it  be 
artisan,  foreman,  superintenaent,  or  engineer,  is  accurately 
defined.  Of  the  first  mentioned  class  are  the  manual  ap- 
prenticeship schools,  into  which  boys  are  admitted  at  twelve 
or  thirteen  years  of  age.  These  schools  are  municipal  in- 
stitutions receiving  state  aid.  They  are  in  fact  elementary 
trade  schools  which  devote  the  greater  part  of  a  three  years' 
course  to  practical  manual  work.  The  aim  is  not  to  turn  out 
full-fledged  workmen,  but  rather  to  shorten  the  periotl  of 
apprenticeship.  Mental  instruction  to  the  extent  of  three  or 
four  hours  a  day  is  given  throughout  the  course.  There  are 
schools  of  this  character  in  Pans  for  the  mechanical  trades, 
for  bookmaking,  and  for  furniture-making.  Other  schools 
exist  at  Havre,  St.-Etienne,  Rheims,  Nantes,  and  St.-Cha- 
mond.  Besides  these  municipal  schools  there  exists  a  svs- 
tem  of  national  apprenticeship  schools,  which  are  diviJed 
into  primary  and  secondary  gra<les.  The  primary  schools 
are  similar  in  character  to  the  municipal  schools,  but  afford 
somewhat  more  advanced  instruction.  In  the  three  second- 
ary schools  at  Chalons,  Angers,  and  Aix,  the  instruction  in 
both  theoretical  and  practical  brandies  is  very  thorough, 
and  is  such  as  to  fit  tne  gra<luates  to  become  superintend- 
ents and  masters  of  industrial  establishments.  The  course 
is  three  years  in  length,  and  pupils  nmst  be  between  fifteen 
and  seventeen  years  at  entrance. 

Ortat  Britain. — In  Great  Britain  trade  schools  (with  one 
or  two  possible  exceptions)  do  not  exist.  Thei*e  are  a  large 
number  of  technical  schools  representing  a  great  variety  of 
aims  and  methods  in  which  workshop  instruction  plays  a 
part,  but  the  principle  almost  universally  obtains  that  a 
trade  can  only  be  properly  acrjuired  in  a  regular  shop. 

The  Unifei  States. — Practical  trade-sch(H>l  work  in  the 
U.  S.  began  with  the  foundation  of  the  New  York  trade 
schools  in  1881.  At  first  the  work  of  these  schools  was  con- 
fined entirely  to  evening  classes.  From  the  beginning  the 
aim  has  been  to  train  beginners  for  practical  work  at  the 
trades.  It  is  not  designed,  however,  to  reach  the  expert- 
ness  of  the  finished  mechanic,  but  rather  to  give  a  thorough 
grounding  in  the  science  and  practice  of  the  trade,  leaving 
speed  and  experience  to  be  acquired  in  after-practice  at  the 
trade.  These  schools  have  been  pre-eminently  successful. 
Starting  with  thirty-three  pupils  in  1881,  the'  attendance 
has  steadily  grown,  until  in  1893  it  reached  556.  Manual 
instruction  is  supplemented  in  all  classes  by  instruction  upon 
the  nature  of  materials  and  the  scientific  principles  involved 
in  the  trade.  Schools  of  like  nature  have  been  established 
by  the  Philadelphia  Master  Builders'  Exchange  and  by  the 
Pratt  Institute  of  Brooklyn.  In  all  of  these  institutions  the 
principle  obtains  of  confining  the  instruction  given  in  the 


SCHOPENHAUER 

schools  to  an  essentially  practical  preparation  for  the  trade 
and  to  pupils  of  sufficient  age  to  learn  rapidly,  leaving  thf 
general  education  to  be  gained  in  the  common  schooU  ]*iv- 
vious  to  entering. 

This  system  has  received  the  endorsement  of  the  Naticn*) 
Association  of  Master  Builders,  who  at  their  meeting  of  l^x** 
at  Cincinnati  passed  resolutions  recommending  that  a  M 
who  wished  to  enter  the  building  trades  should  go  at  fiN 
to  a  trade  school  to  learn  the  science  and  practice  of  hi< 
trade.  When  the  trade-school  course  is  finished  and  he  hji< 
proved  by  an  examination  held  by  a  committee  of  ina^' r 
mechanics  that  he  has  profited  by  it,  he  is  to  enter  a  \(<>rk- 
shop  as  a  **  junior."  When  old  enough  and  able  to  «1«  h 
full  day's  work  he  is  to  apply  for  a  second  examiTiatl<  n. 
which  if  passed  entitles  him  to  be  considered  a  jounk)- 
man. 

This  system  seems  well  suited  in  its  essentials  to  the  th^  i^ 
and  genius  of  the  people  of  the  U.  S.  and  destined  to  <!.• 
velop  throughout  the  country.  One  great  obstacle  to  pn-;:- 
ress,  however,  is  the  attitude  of  the  labor-unions,  wh«)  i>\- 
pose  the  entrance  of  trade-school  graduates  into  the  trMii*- 
upon  the  same  ground  that  they  seek  to  limit  the  numbers' 
apprentices.  In  order  to  secure  a  full  and  free  developnn  ttt 
of  the  trade-school  movement  in  the  U.  S.,  a  recognition  -f 
thQ  trade-school  graduate  by  the  organization  of  the  journ*  )- 
men  as  well  as  by  organizations  of  masters  is  necessarv. mtiI 
his  establishment  with  a  definite  place  and  a  definite  (h>«. He- 
mic value  in  the  industrial  world.  C.  R,  Rmhardn 

Schooner:  a  vessel  with  two  or  more,  masts  and  fon-- 
and-aft  ringed ;  or,  if  the  foremast  have  a  square  to\*^n  1, 
the  vessel  is  called  a  topsail  schooner.  When  sailing  hy tin- 
wind,  schooners  have  an  advantage  over  souare-riggedviN- 
sels,  and  they  are  easily  handled  by  a  small  crew. 

Schoonmaker,  Augustus  :  lawyer ;  b.  at  Rochester.  11- 
ster  CO.,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  2,  1828;  was  educated  in  the  pril.i. 
schools  of  his  native  town;  1848-50  taught  in  thedi>tr<^ 
schools  of  the  county;  in  1851  began  the  study  of  law.  a;.I 
was  admitted  to  practice  in  1853.  He  was  elected  (nhu.:) 
judge  in  1863;  re-elected  in  1867 ;  in  1875  was  elected  to  ii " 
State  Senate,  where  he  drafted  a  bill  to  provide  for  iiiu- 
formity  of  text-books  in  the  common  schools,  which  ^it.- 
bodied  the  princij)le  of  the  one  which  finally  became  a  h»w 
of  the  State.  In  1877  he  was  elected  attorney-general  of  t-  • 
State,  and  during  his  term  of  office  (1877-79)  had  to  ilal 
with  the  questions  relating  to  the  release  of  William  M. 
Tweed,  the  complications  of  the  Erie  Railway,  the  new  hj- 
portionment  under  the  census  of  1875,  and  the  coui^titiit. -ii- 
ality  of  that  portion  of  the  New  York  city  charter  crt-Hiir.j 
a  board  of  estimate  and  apjxjrtionment  In  18isi  he  «ji> 
appointed  one  of  the  civil-service  commissioners  of  N' * 
York.  In  1887  he  became  an  interstate  commerce  c(»min:^ 
sioner.     D.  at  Kingston,  N.  Y.,  Apr.  10, 1894. 

Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allkn. 

Schopenhaaer,  shop^n-how-er,  Arthuk:  philos^ipli^r: 
b.  in  Dantzic,  Prussia,  Feb.  22,  1788.  His  father  mh>  a 
banker;  his  mother,  Johanna,  a  writer  of  novels  and  Kw  s^ 
of  travels.  He  entered  the  University  of  GSttingen  in  \>*f\* . 
studied  philosophy  under  Schulze  the  skeptic,  and  jnivn 
especial  attention  to  Kant  and  Plato:  in  1811  heanl  t'> 
lectures  of  Fichte  at  Berlin ;  wrote  his  famous  essay,  On  f^f 
Fourfold  Hoot  of  the  Principle  of  tSufficiefit  Reastm.  for  ii- 
degree  at  Jena  in  1813;  adopted  Goethe's  theory  of  (hm-^, 
and  wrote  in  1816  an  essav  On  Seeing  and  Color.  His  prim  1 1 1' 
work.  The  World  a^  Will  and  Representation^  was  com | »<■>«'  i 
in  Dresden  and  published  in  1819.  After  a  visit  to  ItAly  t " 
settled  at  Berlin  University  as  docent,  and  remained  tii«  r." 
in  this  capacity  until  1831*  with  the  exception  of  sonu'  in- 
tervals spent  in  Italy.  Want  of  success  as  a  lecturer  tan-. 'i 
his  withdrawal  from  Berlin  in  1831  to  Frankfort-on-fli^- 
Main,  where  he  8j)ent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  seclusion.  »!"i 
died  Sept.  21,  1860.  His  characteristic  dtK'trine  i>  jh^-- 
mism.  The  world  is  the  worst  of  possible  worlds.  Wo  '  nf 
alleviate  our  lot  in  it  by  sympathizing  with  the  sulTtri,'. 
and  in  a  still  more  effectual  way  by  an  ascetici<n>  whi  > 
destroys  our  will  to  live.  This  view  of  the  world  he  <•'<- 
nects  with  his  doctrine  of  the  Will,  but  not  in  a  very  oh^  '■  ;' 
manner.  According  to  him  the  Will  is  the  onlv  sul»tfti!*  •' 
essence  in  the  universe ;  it  is  Kant's  "thing  in  itself."  T'  - 
intellect,  consciousness,  our  entire  theoretical  activitv,  - 
simply  a  result  of  the  Will  in  its  higher  forms.  Tho  ^^ ' 
constantly  energizes  toward  life,  and  the  stadia  of  natun*  .*»'^ 
simply  the  insti*umentAlities  of  the  Will  created  on  it>  «•  ^ 
to  life.    Mere  matter,  as  the  product  of  forces,  is  the  low.  -' 


tntfnl  rtHffl^f,,  w^flfT  I      KrHf*«iilt<*r  Kw^4**| 


h4  Hf^itWM 


^f♦  »|  I  j. 


■  •  V,  ftf  ' 


fc.,4.tM,;4. 


<  c  ti  Tiitiiri 


kO- 


m 


iti 


iTii.'V.         I'      iir      Ik 'VIM 


jhui^  SiiiTjior    wntuii  l*y  R  F^  W 


376 


SCHRODER 


SCHUMANN 


Sctartfder,  Sophie  (BUrger):  actress;  b.  at  Paderborn, 
Westphalia,  Feb.  23,  1781 ;  appeared  upon  the  stage  when 
twelve  years  of  age  in  St.  Petersburg,  where  the  troupe  to 
which  her  parents  belonged  was  playing ;  married  in  1795 
Stolhners  (whose  true  name  was  Smets),  the  director  of  an- 
other band,  in  1804  the  singer  Schrdder,  and  in  1825  the 
actor  Kunst ;  acted  in  all  the  principal  theaters  of  Qer- 
many,  but  principally  at  Vienna,  and  acouired  a  great  fame 
bj  her  impersonations  of  Phaedra,  Meaea,  Merope,  Lady 
Macbeth,  Sappho,  etc.  In  1840  she  retired  from  the  stage 
with  a  pension  from  the  Austrian  court.  D.  at  Munich,  Feb. 
25,  1868.  Her  Life  was  written  by  P.  Schmidt  (Vienna, 
1870).— Her  daughter,  Wilbklminb  SchrOder-Devrient,  b. 
at  Hamburg,  Oct.  6,  1804,  made  her  dibut  as  a  singer  in 
1821  in  The  Magic  Mute ;  sang  as  Donna  Anna,  Euryanthe, 
Fidelio,  etc.,  and  was  soon  acknowledged  as  the  first  singer 
of  Germany ;  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm  in  Paris, 
London,  and  St.  Petersburg;  retired  from  the  stage  in  1847. 
D.  at  Coburg,  Jan.  26,  1860.  She  was  twice  married,  the 
first  time  (1823)  to  the  actor  Karl  Devrient.  Her  Life  was 
written  by  Claire  von  Glttmer  (1862)  and  Wollzogen  (1863). 

Sotanbert,  Franz  :  *^  the  immortal  melodist " ;  b.  in  Vien- 
na, Jan.  31, 1797 ;  son  of  a  school-teacher  in  the  Lichtenthal 
district  of  the  city ;  was  trained  chiefly  by  the  organist  of 
the  parish  church ;  became  leader  of  the  choristers'  school 
of  tne  court  chapel ;  composed  his  first  symphony  in  1813 ; 
taught  in  his  father's  school  to  avoid  conscription ;  in  1818 
became  teacher  of  music  in  the  family  of  Count  Esterhizy 
at  Zel^cz,  Hungry;  in  the  same  year  returned  to  Vienna, 
where  the  publication  (1821)  of  his  Url  King  gained  him 
popularity ;  gave  his  first  and  only  public  concert  in  1828 
m  Vienna.  D.  in  Vienna,  Nov.  19,  1828.  He  is  best  known 
by  his  songs,  several  hundred  in  number,  of  which  some 
fifty  or  sixty  are  celebrated  and  will  live.  His  music  was 
scarcely  known  to  the  outside  world  during  his  lifetime. 
His  fecundity  was  marvelous,  and  the  quantity  of  MS.  left 
behind  to  be  discovered  by  the  musical  world  was  enormous. 
His  original  MSS.  prove  the  great  ease  and  rapidity  with 
which  he  wrote,  rarely  making  a  revision.  This,  indeed,  is 
the  source  of  a  characteristic  drawback  to  the  merit  of  most 
of  Schubert's  instrumental  compositions — viz.,  a  too  great 
diffuseness,  or  lack  of  condensation,  coupled  frequently  with 
literal  repetition  of  large  sections.  Among  his  larger  works, 
aside  from  the  songs,  may  be  specially  mentioned  the  great 
C  major  Symphony  (No.  9),  the  Unfinished  Symphony, 
many  fine  sonatas  for  piano  solos,  and  also  with  violin, 
trios  for  piano,  violin,  and  violoncello,  the  Mass  in  E  fiat,  etc. 
He  wrote  several  o[)eras  which  were  not  successful.  Schu- 
bert's technical  handling  of  his  material  compares  respect- 
ably with  his  contemporaries,  but  in  this  regard  he  made  no 
attempt  at  originality.  The  chief  characteristics  of  Schu- 
bert are  the  continued  freshness  of  his  peculiarly  delightful 
melodies,  supported  by  harmonies  of  equal  interest.  &e  the 
Lives  by  von  Hellborn  (Vienna,  1865)  and  Reissmann  (Ber- 
lin, 1875).  Dudley  Buck. 

Schactaardt,  shoo'A:hf&rt,  Hugo  :  Romanic  philologist ;  b. 
at  Gotha,  Germany,  Feb.  4,  1842 ;  educated  at  the  gymna- 
sium in  Gotha  and  at  the  llniversitiei^  of  Jena  and  Bonn ; 
1870-73  privat  decent  in  Leipzig ;  1873-76  Professor  of  Ro- 
manic Pnilology  in  Halle;  since  1876  professor  in  Graz; 
author  of  Vokalism\is  des  Vulgdrlateins  (3  vols.,  1866-68) ; 
Ueber  einige  Fdlle  hedingten  Lautwandels  im  Churwdl- 
«cAen  (1870);  Ritomellwid  Terzim{\HlA)\  Slawo-Deutsches 
und,SlawO'Italienisches  (1884) ;  Ceber  die  Lautgesetze  (1885) ; 
Romanisehes  und  Keltisches  (1886);  KreoUsche  Studien 
(1881-91);  Auf  Anlass  des  Volapuks  (1888);  Baskische 
4S/ttdi«n (parti.,  1893);  Weltsprache  und  Weltsprachen {1S94), 
He  is  a  brilliant  creative  scholar.  B.  I.  W. 

Schalte,  shdbl'ttf,  Johann  Frtedrich,  von:  polemical 
writer ;  b.  at  Winterberg,  Westphalia,  Apr.  23. 1827 ;  studied 
law  at  Berlin  ;  practiced  there  and  at  Amsberg  and  Bonn ; 
became  Professor  of  Canon  Law  at  Pra^nie  1855.  He 
wrote  Handbuch  des  katholi»chen  Eherechis  (Giessen,  1855) ; 
Das  katholische  Kirchenrecht  (2  parts:  (^ufllen  des  katho- 
lisehen  Kirchenrechts  and  St/ntem  des  alfgemeinen  katho- 
lisehen  Kirchenrechts,  1856-6(M  ;  Lehrhuch  des  katholischen 
Kirchenrechts  {1SQ3;  4th  ed.  1886);  Lehrburh  der  deutschen 
Reichs-  und  Rechtsgeschichte  (2  parts,  Stiittpirt,  1860-61; 
6th  ed.  1892) ;  Die  Rechtsfrage  des  EinJtitxHPs  dtr  Regierung 
bei  den  Bischofswahlen  in  /VeM*scH(0  lessen,  18(59).  He 
made  a  sensation  by  his  pamphlet  Die  Mac  hi  der  romischen 
Pdpste  Hber  FUrsten,  Ldtuler,  Volker,  Jndiriduen  (Prague, 
1871),  for  in  it  he  set  himself  against  the  dogma  of  papal 


infallibility.  He  then  (1871)  left  Prague  and  removed  to 
Bonn,  to  whose  law  faculty  he  belongs.  He  is  a  leader  uf 
the  Old  Catholics.  In  their  behalf  he  has  produced  many 
books  and  pamphlets,  of  which  ma^  be  mentioned  a  second 
edition  of  the  pamphlet  just  mentioned  with  an  addition. 
Die  entgegengesetzten  Lehren  der  Pdpste  und  Conciii^n  dfr 
ersten  8.  Jahrhunderte  Uber  das  Verhdltniss  der  ureltlich*-u 
Oewalt  der  Kirche  gegenuberaestellt ;  also  Die  Stellung  d^r 
Concilien  Pdpste  und  Bischbfe  vom  historisehen  und  eunon- 
isehen  Stanapunkte  und  die  P&pstliche  Constitution  r>om  L< 
Juli,  1870  (ISIS) ;  Der  Cblibatszufangund  dessen  Aufht^bung 
gewUrdigt  (in  advocacy  of  its  abolition,  Bonn,  1876i ;  IJie  Ut- 
sehichte  der  Ouellen  wid  Literaiur  des  canonischen  Rechtjt 
von  Oratian  bis  auf  die  Oegenwart  (3  vols.,  Stuttrart,  1«7.V 
80) :  Die  Oeschichie  der  Quellen  und  Literatur  des  ei-angr- 
lisehen  Kirchenrechts  in  DeutscMand  und  Oesterreich  und 
die  evanaelischen  Kirchefirechtssehriftsteller  (1880);  Df 
Summa  der  Paucapala  alter  das  decretum  Oratiani  {(.lie^^n, 
1890);  Der  Alt' Katholicismus,  Oeschichte  seiner  I^nttr$ch'- 
lung,  «.  s,  w,  (Giessen,  1887);  Die  Summa  des  Stephanu^, 
Tomacensis  Hber  das  Decretum  Gratiani  (1891) ;  Uie  Suht- 
ma  magistri  Rufini  zum  Decretum  Oratiani  (1892). 

Samuel  Macauley  Jackson. 

Schnltz,  JoHK  Christian,  M.  D.  :  lieutenant-governor  •  -i 
Manitoba ;  b.  at  Amherstbur^,  Ontario,  Jan.  1, 1840 ;  CTa<luHt- 
ed  as  a  physician  in  1861 ;  assisted  Gov.  Mactavish  and  Hlsln  .p 
Anderson  in  establishing  the  Institute  of  Rupert *s  Ltaiul  ii- 
1863.  In  1867  and  1868  he  agitated  in  favor  of  the  uni«>n  .f 
all  the  provinces;  and  when  the  Northwest  was  pun-ha^^-i 
by  Canada  in  1869  he  and  others,  loyal  to  the  Govemmei.t. 
were  captured  by  insurgents  who  opposed  the  transfer.  <iii.j 
were  imprisoned  in  Fort  Garry.  He  effected  his  esi.'aiH'  an.: 
in  1870  returned  to  Manitoba,  and  at  the  first  ^neral  f  lei't  i<  n 
was  chosen  to  represent  Lisgar  in  the  Dominion  ParUani<iiT. 
which  seat  he  held  until  1882,  when  he  was  appointefl  to  i  mc 
Senate.  He  was  captain  of  the  Lisgar  Rifle  Company  1^T1  - 
74;  a  member  of  the  executive  council  for  the  Northwt<* 
Territories  in  1872;  appointed  member  of  the  I>oinini<  it 
board  of  health  for  Manitoba  and  the  Northwest  Territon*  - 
same  year,  and  one  of  the  board  of  governors  of  MaiiitoU^ 
medical  board,  and  has  been  president  of  the  South we^terii 
Railwav  of  Manitoba.  He  was  appointed  lieutenant -cti^- 
emor  of  Manitoba  July  1, 1888.  Neil  Maci>oxali>. 

Schnltze,  shoblt'sg,  Carl  ArousT  Jruus  Fritz.  Ph.  I).  • 
professor  of  philosophv  and  pedagogy;  b.at  Celle«  Ilan<>\«-r. 
May  7, 1846;  educated  at  the  gymnasium  in  I'elle,  and  u' 
the  Universities  of  Jena,  GSttingen,  and  Munich  ;  pri vnt. 
tutor  1869-70;  high-school  teacher  1870-72;  privat  d<K.  •:♦ 
1872-75 ;  and  Professor  Extraordinary  of  Philosophv  1875-Tt; 
in  Jena  University;  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  f*efla*r»>.'\ 
since  1876  in  the  Roval  Polytechnic  School  in  r>n»<«i.  fl. 
Of  his  pedagogical  works  the  best  known  is  Deutsc/te  Krz>" 
hung  (1893),  an  important  contribution  toHerbartian  liton.- 
ture.  Others  are  Der  Fetischismus,  Ein  Beitrag  sur  A**- 
thropologie  und  Religionsgeschichte  (1871);  Geschirhte  ii*r 
Philosophic  der  Renaissance  (vol.  i.,  1874);  Philoaophif  ti-" 
Naturwissenschaft  (2  vols..  1881-82) ;  Die  Orundpedank^  * 
des  Materialismus  und  die  Kritik  derselben  (1881)  ;  Iht 
Orundgedanken  des  Spiritismus  und  die  Kritik  dern*  U  r  n 
(1883);  Die  Sprache  des  Kindes  (1880);  Stammbaum  d*r 
Philosophic  (1890);  Vergleichende  Seelenkunde  (vol.  i, 
1892);  Der  Zeitgeist  in  Deutschland,  seine  Wandiun^  t  »] 
19.  und  seine  muthmassliche  Gestaltufig  im  ^.  Jahrhundrrt 
(1894).  J.  K  RvssKLo^ 

Schnltze  Powder :  See  Explosives. 

Schnmactaer,  shoo'mi&Arh-^r,  Heinbich  Christian  :   a.^- 

tronomer;  b.  at  Brainstedt,  Holstein,  Germany,  Sepi.  A, 
1780;  studied  mathematics  and  astronomy  at  Kiel,  Jona! 
Copenhagen,  and  G5ttingen,  and  became  Professor  €>f  .\>- 
tronomv  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen  in  1815 ;  reniovf^i 
in  1821*10  Altona,  where  he  died  Deo.  28, 1850.  In  ls-.>l  |., 
founded  the  Astrmwmische  Nctchrichten,  In  1830  h*»  ni.i.i- 
the  observations  of  the  length  of  the  secon<ls-iH»n«lulu'i. 
which  formed  the  basis  of  the  Danish  scale  of  nieasiiro. 

Schn'mann,  Robert:  composer;  b.  at  Zwickau,  Sax«»nv. 
June  8,  1810;  after  a  short  course  in  law  and  phiK)S4i|»hy  ,it 
Heidelberg,  he  settled  in  1830  at  Leipzig,  in  order  to  st'u.i> 
under  Wieck,  an  eminent  piano-teacher;  but  having  onj^ 
pled  his  right  hand  he  was  forced  to  devote  himself  to  fom 
position  instejid  of  piano-playing,  and  in  his  studies  wn- 
guided  by  Heinrich  Doni.  In  184iJ  he  was  appoint^^l  I*n-- 
fessor  of' Coni|)osition  in  the  conservatory  at  L«eipzig.  ar.-l 


1 

1                 J^^^^^^^l 

1 

^^^^^^^^^Ki' 

1 

1 

378 


SCHUYLKILL 


SCHWARTZ 


of  great  value.  The  failure  of  the  Canada  expedition  ex- 
cited much  hostility  toward  Schuyler,  and  insinuations  were 
uttered  against  his  loyalty,  which'became  so  offensive  that  in 
the  autumn  of  1776  he  sent  in  his  resignation  to  Congress, 
which  that  body  declined  to  accept ;  but  the  abuse  continu- 
ing, Schuyler,  in  Apr.,  1777,  proceeded  to  Philadelphia  and 
demanded  a  court  of  inquiry,  which  entirely  approved  his 
management  of  affairs,  and  he  resumed  command  of  the 
northern  department.  The  forced  abandonment  of  Ticon- 
deroga  by  St.  Clair,  and  his  retreat  to  Fort  Edward,  where 
Schuyler  had  iust  arrived  with  re-enforcements,  compelled 
the  latter  to  fall  back  to  Saratoga,  after  using  everv  means 
to  obstruct  the  advance  of  Burgoyne.  The  losses  thus  sus- 
tained in  stores,  ammunition,  etc.,  caused  a  widespread  con- 
sternation throughout  the  country,  and  the  clamor  against 
Schuyler  was  renewed,  and  this  time  Congress  ordered  his 
supcrsedure  by  Gates.  At  the  time  of  the  latter's  arrival 
(September)  to  assume  command,  Schuyler  occupied  a  forti- 
flea  position  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mohawk,  to  wnich  he  had 
fallen  back  from  Saratoga.  Gates  had,  since  Schuyler's  re- 
sumption of  the  command  of  the  northern  department,  been 
unfriendly  to  Schuyler,  and  it  was  with  feelings  of  mortifi- 
cation that  the  latter  received  the  order  deposing  him  at  a 
time  when  the  feeling  of  depression  arising  from  i(>rmer  dis- 
asters had  been  dispelled  by  recent  victories,  and  when  volun- 
teers were  from  all  quarters  swelling  his  army.  He,  however, 
obediently  turned  over  his  command  and  placed  his  suc- 
cessor in  possession  of  full  information  of  the  situation,  and, 
though  without  command,  remained  with  the  army  to  aid 
in  any  capacity,  and  was  present  at  the  surrender  of  Bur- 
goyne. A  court  of  inquiry  again  approve<l  of  his  manage- 
ment in  strong  terms,  but  m  Apr.,  1779,  he  resipied,  though 
continuing  to  render  valuable  service  in  the  military  opera- 
tions in  his  native  State.  From  1778  to  1781  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Continental  Congress,  and  in  1789  was  appointed 
U.  S.  Senator  from  New  York,  and  again  in  1797  to  succeed 
Aaron  Burr.  In  the  New  York  Senate  he  contributed 
largely  to  the  co<le  of  laws  adopted  by  the  State,  and  was 
an  active  promoter  of  the  canal  system.  D.  at  Albany,  Nov. 
18,  1804.  See  his  Life  and  Times,  by  B.  J.  Lossing  (2  vols., 
1860-62:  new  ed.  1872). 

Schnylkill,  skool'kil  [Dutch,  liter.,  hidden  channel,  be- 
cause unobserved  by  the  first  explorers] :  a  river  which  rises 
in  Schuylkill  co.,  Pa.,  and  after  a  southeasterly  course  of 
125  miles  flows  into  the  Delaware  at  Philadelphia,  which 
city  it  traverses.  Its  lower  portion  affords  extensive  wharf- 
age, and  is  of  much  commercial  importance.  The  river  was 
(1816-25)  adapted  to  slack-water  navigation  for  freight- 
boats  to  Port  Carbon,  3  miles  above  Pottsville.  The  river 
affords  the  greater  part  of  the  water-supply  for  Philadel- 
phia, It  enters  the  Delaware  between  League  island,  con- 
taining a  navy-yard,  and  Mud  island,  on  which  is  Fort 
Mifflin.  Revised  by  I.  C.  Russell. 

SchnylkHl  Hayen:  borough;  Schuylkill  co.,  Pa.;  on  the 
Schuylkill  river  and  canal,  and  the  Lehigh  Val.,  the  Penn., 
and  the  Phila.  and  Reading  railways ;  4  miles  S.  of  Potts- 
ville, 31  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Iveading  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Pennsylvania,  ref.  5-H).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  coal- 
mining region,  has  large  wharves  and  canal-boat  docks  for 
shipping  coal,  and  contains  rolling-mills,  hosiery-works,  rail- 
way car-shops,  shoe  and  soap  factories,  and  a  weekly  news- 
paper.   Pop.  (1880)  3,052 ;  (1890)  3,088. 

Schwab,  shi-aap,  Gustav  :  author;  b.  at  Stuttgart,  Ger- 
many, June  19,  1792 ;  studied  theology  and  philosophy  at 
Tubingen;  was  appointed  Professor  of  Ancient  Literature  in 
the  gymnasium  of  Stuttgart  in  1817  ;  pastor  at  Goraaringen 
in  1837,  and  of  the  St.  Loouhard  cliurch  in  Stuttgart  in 
1840,  where  he  died  Nov.  4,  1850.  His  poems  show  purity 
and  warmth  of  fet'ling,  though  they  do  not  possess  the  sim- 
plicity and  classic  perfection  of  form  of  Uhland's  songs. 
Like  the  lattt^r  i>oet  and  other  ra('inl)ers  of  the  Suabian 
school  to  which  he  belonged  he  wrote  many  ballads,  some 
of  which  have  be<'ome  very  popular.  The  fin>t  collpcte<l 
edition  of  his  Gedichte  appeared  in  2  vols,  in  1828-29 ;  a 
second  revised  edition,  Neiie  Answahl  (Stuttgart,  1838),  has 
been  often  reprinted.  Of  his  prose  works,  the  most  remark- 
able are  Schiliers  Leben  (Stuttgart,  1840;  3d  ed.  1859); 
Sagendea  klassisrhen  AlterthumH  (StuttL^art,  1838-40;  14th 
ed.  GQterslohe,  1882) ;  Deutsche  Volksburher  {IH4H;  13th  ed. 
GQterslohe,  1880);  and  Weytveiser  durrh  die  Litfernfur  der 
DeuUchen  (Leipzig.  1846;  4th  ed.  1870).  See  K.  KlQpfel, 
Omtav  Schwab  ala  Dichter  und  SrhriftstvUer  (1884). 

Revised  by  JuliisGoebel. 


8chwalbe,  shfaal'b^,  Gustav  Albert,  M.  D.  :  professor  «.f 
anatomy;  b.  at  Qu^dlinburg,  Germany,  Aug.  1,  1844;  e<l  i- 
cated  in  the  gymnasium  at  Quedlinburg,  and  at  the  Uni\*T- 
sities  of  Zurich,  Bonn,  and  Berlin;  became  privat  d<KMnt  at 
Halle  Jan.,  1870;  professor  at  Freiburg  in  Baden  May  to 
Oct^,  1871 ;  professor  extraordinarv  at  I^ipzig  Oct.,  1871,  t.- 
Oct.,  1873;  ordinary  Professor  ol  AutXomy  at  Jena  Oc  •.. 
1873,  to  Apr.,  1881 ;  held  same  position  at  Konigsber^  A(>i.. 
1881,  to  Oct.,  1883,  when  he  accepted  a  chair  at  Stras>bnr  j. 
His  principal  works  are  Lehrbuch  der  Neurologie  (1881 )  and 
Lehrbuck  der  A natomie  der  Sinneaorgane  (1887).  He  i>  «•»  i i - 
tor  of  Morph-ologische  Arbeiten  (begun  1891),  and  has  eiiii*  d 
part  i.  of  Anatomy  (20  vols.,  1872-92),  and  with  Iloff  nianit 
and  Hermann  a  Yearly  Report  of  Afiatomy  and  Physioloirj- 

Schwarber  [better  known  as  Chelidoxius,  the  I)uiitjIul' 
Gra%o- Latin  translation  of  the  (ierman  ikhwaibe^  a  swn:- 
low ;  Gr.  x«Ai5«5y] :  a  friend  of  Albert  Dllrer,  and  the  ant  h'  r 
of  the  text  in  Latin  verse  to  his  three  series  of  wood-<'uts.  7*A' 
Apocalypse,  The  Passion  of  Christ,  and  The  Life,  of  tl.r 
Virgin  Mary,  Schwalber  was  a  monk  of  the  abl>ey  of  m 
Egidius  (St.  Julian,  St.  Gilgan,  St.  Giles),  built  by  l'<>iir«.i 
III.  in  1140  for  a  society  of  Scotch  Benedictines.  He  w.i- 
nicknamed  Musophilus,  from  his  love  of  learnincr,  and  }.• 
had  a  reputation  for  considerable  knowledge  of  the  elav^.< 
Latin  poetry.  While  a  member  of  this  monastery  he  wn.s 
the  text  for  Dllrer's  wood-cuts,  besides  verses  about  lii> 
monastery,  Versic,  de  Fund,  Ccenob.  £gid.,  SLnd  about  ih. 
abbots,  Versie.  de  Abbat.  nonnuilis  ejusdem  Ccenob^  In  15 1'* 
Sdiwalber  left  Nuremberg  to  become  abbot  in  the  J^chottcii 
Kloster,  near  Vienna.    D.  there  Sept.  8,  1521. 

Schwann,  Theodor:  physiologist;  b.  at  Xeuss,  Pru^^-^ia, 
Dec.  7,  1810.  He  studied  at  the  Jesuits'  College  Col<  izui , 
at  Bonn,  Wllrzburg,  and  Berlin,  where  he  graduated  iii 
medicine  in  1834.  He  was  assistant  to  Johannes  MQlIer  i* 
the  Anatomical  Museum  at  Berlin  till  1838.  He  dis<-<»v»«r.  i 
pepsin  and  its  function  in  digestion,  the  envelop  of  m  r\»'- 
til)ers,  the  organic  nature  of  yeast,  and  made  a  series  of  r>- 
searches  on  muscular  contractility,  and  other  physiologu  a. 
subjects.  He  was  Professor  of  Anatomy  at  the  K<>rnus 
Catholic  University  of  Louvain  1838-48,  and  at  Lie^je  fr«  r*. 
1848.  D.  at  Cologne,  Jan.  14,  1882.  His  cell-theory,  ^l,i,  }. 
is  the  basis  of  modern  histology,  was  published  in  Jfim^ 
scopical  Investigations  on  the  Accordance  in  (he  ^frucfurf 
and  Growth  of  Plants  and  Animals  (Berlin,  1839  ;  trnns.  \\ 
Sydenham  Society,  1847). 

Schwann,  White  Hatter  of :  See  Histology  (A>rtr«  ai.d 
Nerve-centers), 

Sehwanthaler,  shraan'Uial-rr,  LuDMno  Michael.  :  sculp- 
tor; b.  at  Munich,  Aug.  26,  1802,  the  son  of  a  seulpt-r. 
studied  in  Rome,  but  wrought  in  Munich.  His  statues,  <i»^  - 
rations,  and  models,  are  seen  in  the  great  cities  of  OerniHiiv, 
but  chiefly  in  Munich.  He  executed  the  frieze  of  thv  Hnr- 
barossa  hall,  the  colossal  statue  of  Bavaria,  and  the  uu>t<i)i«-^ 
of  the  Ruhmeshalle  which  adjoins  it,  the  colossal  bnn/i 
statues  in  the  throne-room  of  the  nalace  at  Munich,  an<i  tl.« 
monumental  images  in  the  Walhalla.     D.  Nov.  28,  184M. 

Schwartz,  shraarts,  Christian  Fredkrick:  niissi^.n.Hn* : 
b.  at  Sonneiiburg,  Prussia,  Oct.  26,  1726;  studied  in  the  I  :'  - 
versity  of  Halle  1746-49 ;  was  ordained  at  Ci>penha|^en  1 74.* : 
embarked  at  London  for  India,  where  he  arrivetl  J  ul y,  1 7.Vi : 
settled  at  Tranquebar,  a  Danish  mission  on  the  Coroinnn.j. 
coast;  transferred  his  services  to  the  English  S<H.»it.*tv  f..r 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  1766,  when  he  reniciv*t'«]  -  . 
Trichinopoly,  and  in  1778  to  Tanjore;  was  sent  as  aii.J.i— 
sador  to  Hyder  Ali  at  Seringapatam  to  negotiate  a  |»i  n<  • . 
and  admitted  by  him  after  ali  other  envoys  had  bct-u  r»  - 
fused,  and  succeeded  in  relieving  the  city  of  Taniore  f r.  n 
imminent  danger  of  famine  by  his  influence  with  the  nut  *  »• 
farmers,  who  brought  in  their  cattle  on  his  pt^rsonal  pi*-;.:." 
of  payment.  I),  at  Tanjore,  Feb.  13,  1798.  He  was  t.r.*  Tf 
the  most  celebrated  missionaries  of  modern  times.  He  kiu»ii 
Sc'hultz  in  translating  the  Bible  into  Tamil,  and  was  tn;  -r 
to  the  son  and  heir  of  the  rajah  of  Tanjore,  who  ertTtf-^  t 
his  memory  in  the  mission  church  a  magnificent  monuiui  -■: 
designed  by  Flaxman;  the  Kast  India  Comjiany  also  yltf  k  . 
a  monument  of  hiin  by  Bacon  in  St.  Mar}''s  church,  >la.ir:t^. 
See  Memoirs  of  his  Life  and  Correspondence,  bv  11; 
Pearson,  D.  D.  (2  vols.,  18:« ;  3d  ed.  1839). 

Schwartz,  Maria  Sofia  (Birath):  novelist;  K  at  !».- 
raas,  Sweden,  July  4,  1819;  was  married  in  1840,  antl  t  .- 
came  a  widow  in  i858.  She  was  the  author  of  a  nurnlKT  .  f 
novels,  ail  of  which  have  been  translated  into  German  at.ii 


380 


SCHWEINFURTH 


SCHWERIN 


the  elaborate  and  learned  commentaries  annexed;  among 
the  most  valuable  are  Appian  (3  vols,,  1782-^) ;  Polybius 
(8  vols.,  1795;  5  vols.,  18S1,  Oxford)  with  Lexicon  Poly- 
bianum  ;  Seneca's  EpistolcB  (2  vols.,  1809) ;  Epictetus  (5  vols., 
1799) ;  Atheuaeus  (14  vols.,  1801-07) ;  Herodotus  (6  vols.,  in  12 
parts,  1815),  to  which  was  added  a  Lexicon  Jlerodoteum  (2 
vols.,  1824) ;  OpusetUa  (2  vols.,  1806).  D.  at  Strassburg,  Jan. 
19, 1880.  Revised  by  Alfred  Gudeman. 

Sctaweinftirth,8ht^n'fdbrt:  town  of  Bavaria:  on  the  Main; 
28  miles  N.  E.  of  WQrzbur^  bv  rail  (see  map  of  German  Em- 
pire, ref.  5-E).  It  is  beautifully  situated  and  well  built,  and 
nas  large  manufactures  of  chemicals  and  pigments,  espe- 
cially ultramarine  blue  and  Schweinfurth  green.  Large 
cattle  and  wool  markets  are  held  here.    Pop.  (1890)  12,438. 

Schwelnftirth,  Georo  August  :  explorer  and  botanist ;  b. 
at  Riga,  Russia,  Dec.  29,  1836 ;  studied  botany  and  natural 
science  at  Heidelberg,  Munich,  and  Berlin ;  made  several 
journeys  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  to  investigate  the  flora 
and  fauna  of  those  regions  1864  to  1886,  and  wrote  Planta 
quofdam  Niloticm  (1862) ;  Beitrag  zur  Flora  jEthiopiena 
(1867) ;  Jieliquim  Kotschyarw  (1868) ;  Im  Ilerzen  von  Afrika 
(2  vols.,  1874 ;  translated  into  English  as  The  Heart  of  Africa 
in  1874) ;  Artes  Africana  (1875),  etc. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Schweinfurth  Green,  or  Paris  Green :  a  pigment  said 
to  have  been  discovered  by  Rusz  and  Sattler  at  Schwein- 
furth in  1814,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  was 
manufactured  at  Vienna  at  an  earlier  date  under  the  name 
of  Mitis  green.  Other  names  are  Imperial^  Vienna^  Emer- 
aldy  and  Kaiser  Oreen,  Some  varieties  of  berg  or  mountain 
green  and  of  Neuwied  green  consist  of  this  pigment  mixed 
with  gypsum  or  heavy  spar.  The  first  chemical  paper  by 
Justus  voii  Liebig  i*elatea  to  this  color ;  it  was  publisned  by 
him  in  July,  1822,  in  the  Repertorium  der  Pharmaeie. 

Schweinfurth  green  is  an  aceto-arscnite  of  copper  of  vari- 
able composition.  It  has  been  very  extensively  used  for 
wall  and  other  paper  staining,  for  tarlatans,  artificial  flow- 
ers, and  as  a  vermm  exterminator,  especially  for  cockroaches 
and  potato-bugs.  Its  use  for  wall-))aper  has  greatly  dimin- 
ished. Much  has  been  written  with  regard  to  the  dangers 
of  arsenical  wall-paper.  It  has  been  alleged  that  not  onlv 
may  green  papers,  to  which  the  pigment  is  loosely  attached, 
give  off  arsenical  dust,  which  may  enter  the  mouth  and  air- 
passages  and  produce  harm,  but  ttiat  paper  containing  even 
very  small  Quantities  of  arsenic,  in  any  form,  may  evolve 
arseniurettea  hydrogen  or  other  arsenical  gases  of  a  very 
poisonous  character.  Distinguished  chemists,  however,  deny 
the  possibility  of  the  production  of  any  arsenical  gases 
from  wall-paper,  and  the  alarming  suggestions  concerning 
arsenical  wall-paper  are  regarded  as  entirely  without  foun- 
dation. Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Schweinitz,  Edmund  Alexander,  de,  S.T.D.:  bishop; 
son  of  Lewis  David  von  Schweinitz ;  b.  at  Bethlehem,  Pa., 
Mar.  20, 1825  ;  studied  theology  in  the  Moravian  seminary 
of  his  native  town  and  at  the  University  of  Berlin  ;  became 
a  clergyman,  and  was  pastor  of  several  churches  in  Penn- 
sylvania ;  edited  TVie  Moravian  for  several  years ;  conse- 
crated bishop  at  Bethlehem  1870 ;  was  president  of  the  Mora- 
vian College  and  Theological  Seminary  1867-84 ;  was  one  of 
the  translators  of  Herzog's  Reaiencyclopddie  (Philadelphia, 
1856,  aeq,),  and  author  of  The  3Ioravian  Manual^  being  an 
Account  of  the  Moravian  Church  (Philadelphia,  1859 ;  2d 
ed.  Bethlehem,  1869) ;  Systematic  Beneficence  (1861) ;  The 
Moravian  Episcopate  (Bethlehem,  1865 ;  2d  rev.  ed.  Ijondon, 
1874) ;  a  Life  of  Zeieberger,  the  Western  Pioneer  and  Apos- 
tle to  the  Indians  (Philadelphia,  1870) ;  and  Tlie  History  of 
the  Church  known  as  the  Unitas  Fratrum  (1885).  D.  Dec. 
18, 1887. 

Schweinitz,  George  Edmund,  de,  A.  M.,  M.  D. :  ophthal- 
mologist ;  son  of  Bishop  de  Schweinitz  ;  b.  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Oct.  26,  1858 ;  educated  at  the  Moravian  College,  Beth- 
lehem, Pa.,  and  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  where  he 
gratluated  in  1881 ;  prosector  of  anatomy  in  the  university 
1883-88;  lecturer  on  medical  ophthalmology  1891-92;  Pro- 
fessor of  Ophthalmology,  Philadelphia  Polyclinic,  1891 ; 
Clinical  Professor  of  Ophthalmology,  Jefferson  Medical  Col- 
lege, Philadelphia,  1892  ;  ophthalmic  surgeon  to  Children's, 
Philadelphia,  Methodist,  and  Orthopanlic  Hospitals.  His 
principal  published  works  are  Congenital  Anomaliets  of  the 
Eye  in  American  System  of  Obntetrics  (1889) ;  Affections  of 
the  Eyelids,  Lachrymal  Apparatus,  (Umjnnctiva,  and  Cornea 
in  Cyclopcedia  of  Diseases  of  Children  (vol.  iv.,  1890) ;  Affec- 


tions of  the  Coniunctiva^  Cornea,  and  Sclera  in  System  of 
Therapeutics  (1892) ;  Diseases  of  the  Eye :  a  Handbook  of 
Ophthalmic  Practice  (Philadelphia,  1892).  He  was  editor, 
with  Dr.  Hare,  of  The  University  Medical  Magazine  Oct., 
188a-Sept.,  1889,  and  of  the  same  journal  with  Dr.  E.  Mar- 
tin Oct.,  1889-^pt.,  1891.  Since  1892  he  has  been  ophthal- 
mic editor  of  The  Therapeutic  Oazette. 

Schweinitz,  Lewis  David,  von.  Ph.  D. :  botanist ;  b.  at 
Bethlehem,  Pa.,  Feb.  18,  1780 ;  educated  in  Germany,  whertf 
he  resided  from  1798  to  1812 ;  Moravian  minister  at  Salem, 
N.  C,  1812  to  1821 ;  settled  in  his  native  town  1821,  and  n*- 
sided  there  until  his  death  Feb.  8,  1834.  He  added  by  hi^ 
own  researches  more  than  1,400  new  species  to  the  catalogut*^ 
of  American  flora,  the  greater  part  being  fungi  which  hnil 
been  previously  little  studied.  He  was  the  author  of  Con- 
spectus Fungorum  in  Lusatim  superioris  aaro  Niskietis^ 
crescentium  e  methodo  Persooniana  (with  Albertini,  IHOo) ; 
Syrhopsis  Fungorum  Carolines  superioris,  etc.  (1^2) ;  Syn- 
opsis Fungorum  in  America  Borecdi  media  deaentittm 
(1831-34) ;  and  monographs  on  Vioia,  Carex,  and  other  gen- 
era. Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Schweizer-Sidler,  shtit's^r-zid'Ur,  Heinricb:  IjatiDi>t : 
b.  at  El^g,  Switzerland,  S^t.  12, 1815 ;  educated  at  Zuric  h ; 
teacher  m  gymnasium  of  i2urich,  docent  in  the  university, 
and  professor  from  1871 ;  author  of  Elemeniar-  und  Forme  u- 
lehre  der  lateinischen  Sprache  (1869;  2d  ed.  as  Grammaith 
der  lateinischen  Sprache,  1888);  Oermania  of  Tacitus  (5th 
ed.  1890) ;  and  numerous  articles  in  journals.  D.  at  Zuri<li. 
Mar.  81,  1894.  B.  I.  W. 

Schwenli'feld,  Hans  Kaspar,  von:  sectarian  leader;  I*, 
at  Ossig,  Silesia,  1490;  employed  in  the  service  of  the  Duk«' 
of  Liegnitz;  embraced  the  Reformation  with  great  enthuvl- 
asm,  but  developed  afterward  its  ideas  in  a  manner  which 
brought  him  in  conflict  with  the  Reformers.  It  was  espt-- 
cially  his  conception  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  sacramint 
of  spiritual  nourishment  without  change  in  the  elements 
and  his  demands  for  the  establishment  of  a  Church  to 
which  only  the  saints,  the  truly  converted,  should  be  ad- 
mitted, which  gave  offense.  His  teaching  was  known  a.> 
The  Middle  Way.  Political  pressure  having  forced  ihf 
Duke  of  Liegnitz  to  adopt  Lutheranism,  SchwenkXeld  vol- 
untarily left  Silesia  (1529)  and  went  to  Strassburg.  There 
he  was  suspected  of  Anabaptism,  tried,  and  banished  (15^:^ . 
The  next  two  years  were  passed  in  Augsburg,  but  a^ain 
Lutheran  antagonism  drove  him  away  and  he  went  to  Ulin. 
and  from  there  as  a  center  went  aoout  preaching.  I),  at 
Ulm,  Dec.  10,  1561.  In  his  Grosse  Confession  (1540-57.  3 
parts)  he  gave  a  representation  of  his  doctrines.  An  edition 
of  his  numerous  writings  appeared  at  Frankfort  1564r-70  in 
4  vols,  folio.  A  sect,  the  Sen wenkf elders,  was  oi^ganizeil  in 
Silesia,  but  most  of  them  emigrated  in  1734  and  settled  hi 
Pennsylvania,  where  they  number  about  1,000  members,  and 
have  their  own  churches  and  schools.  See  O.  Kadelbaoh. 
AusfUhrliche  Gesehichte  Kaspar  von  Schwenkfelds  and  drr 
Schwenkfelder  in  Schlesien,  aer  Ober-Lausitz  utid  Ammka 
(Lauban,  1861).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jac  kso.n. 

Schwerin' :  capital  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  Germany ;  on  the  western  side  of  Lake  Schwerin 
(see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  2-F).  It  is  connected  by 
railways  with  Hamburg  and  Wismar,  and  is  beautifully  sit- 
uated, surrounded  with  old  walls,  generally  well  built,  and 
contains  many  magnificent  buildings,  among  which  the  du- 
cal palace  is  the  most  remarkable.  It  has  ^ood  educationnl 
institutions,  museums,  galleries,  and  collections,  and  nunuT- 
ous  manufacturing  establishments.    Pop.  (1890)  38,643. 

Schwerin,  Kurt  Christoph,  Count  von:  soldier;  b.  in 
Swedish  Pomerania,  Oct.  26,  1684;  studied  at  Leycion. 
Greifswald,  and  Rostock;  entered  the  Dutch  army  in  17(>t». 
and  fought  at  Ramillies  and  Malplaquet ;  took  service  with 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg  m  1706,  and  distinguishtHl 
himself  by  repelling  the  Hanoverians,  who  invaded  tlif 
country ;  after  that  part  of  Pomerania  in  which  his  e<^taits 
were  situated  was  cede<l  to  Prussia,  he  entered  the  ser\  irt> 
of  that  country,  and  was  sent  by  Frederick  William  I.  *»ij 
several  important  diplomatic  missions.  He  enjoved  in  a 
still  higher  degree  the  confidence  of  Frederick  the  Gnnt, 
who  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal  and  gave  hi  in 
the  title  of  count.  He  won  the  battle  of  Mollwitz  Apr.  lo, 
1741.  in  the  first  Silcsian  war,  stormed  Prague  Sept.  16, 1 744, 
in  the  second,  and  fell  in  the  battle  of  Prague  May  6,  ITriT. 
in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  See  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  />*#'*- 
grophische  Denkmale  (Leipzig,  1873).  F.  M.  Colby. 


^^1 

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^^^^pl^  Airf  is*  nr  tii  n  V 

^ 

^^^^^^^^^^H*  ^ 

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1 

1 

1 

^^^^^^^^^^H  J ' 

^1 

382 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS 


SCIOPPIUS 


Science,— There  is  no  matter,  All  ia  Mind.  Christian  Science 
defines  Soul  and  dreams.  In  truth  Soul  is  X^od.  In  error  soul  is 
sense.  Dreams  are  the  conscious  and  unconscious  states  of  mat- 
ter; wherein  the  nit^ht  dream  is  quite  as  real  and  tauiy:ible  as  the 
day  dream ;  for  Lile  or  mind  in  matter,  is  a  dream  dt  all  times, 
ancl  is  never  the  reality  of  Being. 

That  matter  is  substance,  or  includes  mind,  is  pantheism  which 
has  no  kinship  with  Christ  Spirit  must  be  substance,  since  mat- 
ter is  neither  the  substance  of  Spirit,  nor  its  retlex  univei^. 

Man^s  orij^in  is  not  material  but  spiritual.  The  uuivene  is  not 
the  result  of  physical  propulsion,  but  is  an  evolution  from  infinite 
Mind.  "  God  is  Spirit,"  Truth.  As  matter  is  the  opposite  of 
Spirit,  Truth,  so  must  it  be  the  op^wsite  of  God.  Matter  is  the 
subjective  state  of  error,  detlccting  from  the  everlasting  upright- 
ness, and  eventuating  in  false  personal  beliefs  in  sin,  disease,  and 
death,  only  to  bo  overcome  by  con(juering  Truth, — eradicated  not 
by  drugs  or  hygienic  rules,* that  is,  laws  of  matter,  but  by  the 
power  of  Mind.  Jesus,  referring  to  this  original  evil,  which  he 
cast  out  in  healing  tlie  sick,  callwi  it  "the  devil,"  and  *•  a  liar  from 
tlie  beginning." 

This  theory  is  corroborated  by  Jesus*  supremacy  over  all  phases 
of  matter,— a  control  not  suj>ematural,  but  divinely  natural,  m  one 
abiding  in  God,  Good,  the  centre  and  circumference  of  the  mii- 
verse.  From  this  it  follows  that  genuine  healing  must  be  wrought 
upon  thought,  not  body.  When  following  these  leadings  of  scien- 
tific Kevelation  the  Bible  was  the  writer's  only  text  book. 

Practically  Christian  Science  is  the  fulfilling  of  the  law  of  Love, 
namely,  lovmg  God  supremely,  loving  your  neighbor  as  yourself, 
and  loving  your  enemies. 

These  doctrines  were  brought  into  modem  light  by  the  present 
writer,  in  the  vears  1866-7.  When  apparently  near  death,  her  con- 
victions laid  nold  upon  the  sublime  verity  that  all  evil,  whether 
moral  or  phvsical,  must  bo  non-existent  because  contrary  to  the 
omnipotent  (tood^  God.  She  found  in  the  Bible  a  new  meaning, 
whereby  she  was  snatched  from  the  Valley  of  shadows,  and  her 
feet  set  on  the  Uock.  As  it  was  through  this  understanding  of 
God,  through  Christ,  God^s  idea,  that  all  healing  must  come,  she 
adopted  Christian  Science  as  the  name  of  this  curative  system. 

In  1867  she  began  healing  others  with  wonderful  success,  and 
taught  her  first  student. 

Iler  textbook,  Science  and  Health  with  Key  To  Th*  Scrij>tures^ 
is  the  outgrowth  of  her  experience,  and  was  first  published  in  1»75. 
On  July  4th,  1876,  the  first  Christian  Scientist  Association  was 
organized.  In  June,  lf^79,  the  first  Church  of  Christ,  Scientist,  was 
founded  in  Boston,  with  twenty-six  members,  the  writer  becoming 
its  pastor,  though  she  did  not  receive  ordination  till  1881.  This 
Mother  Church  has,  in  1895,  a  membership  of  five  thousand  one 
hundred  in  ditf'erent  oarta  of  the  country,  aoout  eight  hundred  be- 
ing local  residents.  During  the  same  year  she  founded  her  Mas- 
sachusetts Metaphysical  College  in  Boston,  the  laws  then  enabling 
her  to  obtain  a  charter  for  medical  instruction ;  though  no  such 
privileges  were  grimted  after  1883.  She  startetl  in  1883,  as  editor 
and  proprietor,  The  Chn'jttian  Science  Journal^  still  the  official 
organ  or  the  Scientists.  The  first  National  Association  was  con- 
vened in  New  York,  on  February  11, 1886,  and  still  meets,  though 
discarding  organized  action. 

The  first  denominational  chapel  was  erected  at  Oconto,  Wiscon- 
sin, in  1886,  and  has  been  followed  by  others.  In  1894  the  Boston 
Church  completed  a  beautiful  edifice,  as  a  Testimonial  to  the 
writer  of  tliis.  It  was  dedicated  on  Jan.  6th  1895,  and  cost,  includ- 
ing the  land,  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars.  In 
1894,  it  was  estimated  that  in  Europe  and  America  there  were  at 
least  two  hundred  thousand  disciples,  while  half  a  million  people 
more  attest  its  power.  In  the  U.  S.,  in  1894,  there  were  three 
hundred  societies  meeting  regularly  for  worship,  twenty-six 
teaching  institutes,  and  sixty -six  dispensaries  and  reading  rooms. 

The  Christian  Science  Publishing  Society,  issues  7'Af  ChrUtian 
Science  Journal^  tlie  Quarterly  Bible  Lttumns^  and  many  tracts, 
some  in  German  and  Norwegian.  The  writer's  works  include 
Science  and  Health  with  Key  to  the  Scriptures  (already  mentioned), 
Jittroftp^t'tion  and  Introspection  (1891),  Christ  and  ChristmoJt^  a 
poem,  illustrated  (1*^93),  Pulpit  and  Press  (1895),  Fnity  of  Good 
and  CnreaUty  of  Evil  ( 1887),  No  and  Yes  (1891),  Budimental  Di- 
vine Science  (1891),  Pkople'^s  Idea  of  God  (1886),  and  Christian 
Ihaling  (1886).  Mary  Baker  £dov. 

Though  numerous  books  and  pamphlets  parporting  to 
deal  with  Christian  Science  have  been  published,  Mrs.  Kddy 
and  her  followers  recognize  as  authoritative  only  those  enu- 
merated above.  Robert  Lilley. 

Scientiflc  Schools :  See  Technical  Schools,  under 
Schools. 

Scilla:  See  Scylla. 

ScillT  (sir lee)  Islands  (anc.  Cassiterides) :  a  group  of 
islands  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  situated  30  miles  W.  of 
Land's  End,  the  southwestern  promontory  of  Cornwall.  It 
consists  of  140  isles  and  rocks,  of  which  six  are  inhabited — 
St  Mary,  Tresco,  St.  Agnes,  Sampson,  Hryher,  and  St.  Helen's, 
Total  area,  8,560 acres.  Pop.  about  2,500,'of  whom  about  1,300 
live  on  St.  Mary,  where  Ilu^h  Town,  the  capital,  is  situated. 
On  St.  Agnes  is  a  lighthouse ;  and  on  Bishop  Rock,  6  miles 
westward,  is  one  of  the  finest  lighthouses  of  its  kind.    All 


the  islands  are  rocky,  consisting  of  granite  with  a  thin 
layer  of  light  sandy  soil.  Agriculture  and  fishing  are  tin* 
principal  occupations;  good  crops  of  barley,  oats,  and  f»ota- 
toes  are  raised.  The  navigation  around  tliesc  i^les  is  very 
dangerous.  In  1705  the  fleet  under  Admiral  Sir  Cloude>l*  y 
Shovel  fell  upon  these  rocks,  when  his  ship  and  several  ot herd- 
were  lost.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Sdn'cidn  [Mod.  I^at.,  named  from  Scin'rua^  the  tvf  dral 
genus,  from  Lat.  scin'cua  =  Gr.  cKlyKoSj  vKiyyot^  a  kind  of 
lizanl]  :  an  extensive  family  of  lizards  of  the  group  Lejdu- 
glosaa.  As  limited  by  Gray,  it  includes  those  forms  m  whi<'ii 
the  body  is  subc^Undrical  or  fusiform,  and  with  the  tail  cylin- 
drical or  tapering ;  the  scales  generally  smooth,  but  sonie- 
times  keeled  or  striateil;  the  head  sub-quadrangular  Hn<i 
regularly  shielded,  with  the  rostral  plate  moderate,  ancl  the 
nostrils  lateral,  and  in  a  special  nasal  shield  inter[x>s4Hl  Vh- 
tween  the  frontal  and  labial  shields ;  the  limbs  variable  in 
development,  typically  four,  generally  more  or  less  weak, 
sometimes  alropnied.  According  to  Prof.  Co{)e,  the  tem^ionil 
fossa  is  roofed,  the  premaxillary  double,  the  palatine  nia:xil- 
lary  lamime  dilated,  and  rarely  a  xiphisternal  fontanelle  i^ 
developed.  The  tongue  is  short,  flat,  and  squamous.  Th^ 
family  embraces  numerous  genera,  distributed  in  almost  ail 
parts  of  the  world.  There  is  every  gradation  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  members,  from  those  forms  in  which  the  linih> 
are  quite  strong  and  provided  with  flve  dic^ts  each,  to  th«t^? 
in  which  they  are  entirely  wanting,  and  the  number  or  de- 
velopment of  these  parts  is  of  comparatively  little  system  at  m^ 
value  in  the  group.  The  family  is  well  represented  iu  tlic 
U.  S.  chiefly  by  species  of  the  genus  Eumfcen, 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Scinde :  a  province  of  India.    See  Sindh. 

Sclo,  or  Chios  (Turk.  Sakiz  Adaat):  island;  in  tb*^ 
j£gean,  in  the  latitude  of  Smyrna,  and  separated  from  tht- 
western  extremity  of  Asia  Minor  by  a  strait  less  than  5  niil«-^ 
wide  where  narrowest;  32  miles  long  from  N.  to  S-.  an.l 
from  18  to 8  from  E.  to  W. ;  area,  571)  sq. miles.  It  is  r<Kky, 
but  so  fertile  and  beautiful  as  to  justiiy  its  title  of  l^ut-tn 
of  the  -^gean.  Water-springs  abound.  There  are  few  f .  .r- 
ests  near  the  coast,  but  the  interior  of  the  island  is  covenii 
with  firs.  Toward  the  south  there  are  remarkable  plarifa- 
tions  of  mastic-trees,  the  culture  of  which  furnishes  tfi>* 
main  support  of  twenty  villages,  and  from  which  a  valual^r- 
hygienic  gum  is  obtained.  Its  many  harbors  render  tltt* 
island  easy  of  access  from  every  direction.  The  Iuniui.<»~ 
colonized  Scio  about  1130  B.  c,  and  it  formed  a  part  of  tt.* 
Ionian  confederacy.  It  heroically  resisted  the  Persia!  i-. 
from  whom  it  was  delivered  by  the  treaty  of  Cimon  (44i» 
B.  c).  During  the  Peloponnesian,  Roman,  and  mediafxal 
wars,  it  experienced  many  vicissitudes.  Under  the  Gem/t-M: 
it  enjoyed  prosperity  from  1346  until  1566.  when  it  was  i-on- 
quered  by  tne  Ottoman  admiral  Piali  Pasha.  As  the  pri  vat«> 
property  of  the  sultana,  the  island  was  mildly  govern* -l, 
and  the  inhabitants  became  un warlike  and  cfTeminate.  ai.d 
were  undisposed  to  join  in  the  struggle  for  Greek  in^lt- 
pendence.  ilcnce  the  atrocious  massacre  of  Apr.,  1H25,  wa^ 
without  provocation  and  almost  without  pretext.  The  C  >ttt.- 
raans  slew  or  enslaved  30,000  persons;  2i0,000  who  e5<'«|..  •! 
were  scattered  over  the  world,  some  even  reaching  Amori-  a. 
and  by  August  the  population  had  shrunk  to  10,000.  St  i<» 
has  suffered  much  from  frequent  earthquakes,  vet  the  in- 
dustry and  intelligence  of  the  people  have  largely  rej^ton  .1 
their  former  pn>sperity.  Pop.  70,000.  of  whom  6S,0(H.»  an- 
Gi*eeks,  and  1,200  Mussulmans.  Scio,  the  capital,  vm-s 
founded  bv  the  Genoese  at  the  extremity  of  the  plain  ^f 
Cambos.  It  has  dockyards  and  a  good  Harlior,  and  is  lio 
maritime  center  of  the  Archipelago.  The  princijMil  exp«  .n  ^ 
are  lemons,  oranges,  olives,  almonds,  anise,  beans,  mast  a-, 
and  worked  leather.  E.  A.  Grosvexur. 

Scioppins,  stsee-op'pce-d<)s  {Kasnar  Schopp):  cla>^i<;i! 
scholar  and  controversialist ;  b.  at  Neumark,  m  the  I*uliiti- 
natc.  May  27,  1576:  studied  at  Ileidelberg,  Altdorf,  an! 
Ingolstadt;  visited  Italy,  Bohemia,  Poland,  and  IIollMn.: 
abjured  Protestantism  and  l)ccame  a  Roman  Catholic  ^n 
1598.  His  fanatical  propaganda  earned  for  him  the  tit  It  >  •  ■:' 
Duke  of  Clara  Valle  in  Spain  and  patrician  of  Rome.  II;x 
virulent  invectives  against  the  Jesuits  and  Jc^seph  St^alic*' 
(see  ScALUiER,  Joseph),  and  his  insane  diatribes  as^ii  -i 
Cicero,  Varro,  and  many  post-Augustan  writers,  alien  a:.- 1 
even  his  own  partisans,  so  that  he  was  compelled  to  puM:-li 
many  of  his  polemical  writings  under  an  assumed  nainf. 
He  died  in  Padua,  Nov.  19,  1649.  Among  his  st»i«*ntiti«- 
writings  may  be  mentioned  his  Grammaiica  philosophico 


tbviMieiifi 


IIIIJ    l»  I  V  t  •    I  .ilt'M  I 


ilis^4^tixi,  >jaiU v  jiri  li: 


384 


SCLATER 


SCOPAS 


which  rises  from  the  general  level  and  forms  a  dead  wall  in 
front  of  the  orbit ;  post-orbital  processes  are  more  or  less  de- 
veloped ;  the  lower  jaw  has  its  descending  ramus  subquadrate, 
the  upper  angle  acute  and  sub-erect,  and  the  lower  rounded 
or  subtruncate  and  bent  inward ;  molar  teeth  *f^  x  2,  pro- 
vided with  roots,  and  (except  the  anterior  upper  one  wnen 
present)  of  nearly  equal  size,  with  tubercular  crowns ;  per- 
fect clavicles  are  developed ;  the  hind  limbs  moderately 
large;  the  fibula  and  tibia  separate  from  each  ot^er.  At 
least  150  species  are  known,  represented  in  almost  all  quar- 
ters of  the  world,  except  Australia.  There  are  all  gradations, 
between  the  slender  and  graceful  form  of  the  squirrel  and 
the  heavy,  almost  bear-like,  form  of  the  woodchuck.  This 
transition  is  manifest  from  the  arboreal  sauirrels  {Sciurus) 
through  the  ground-loving  Tamiaa  with  well-developed  tails; 
the  Spermopkilus,  or  prairie-squirrels,  with  shorter  tails; 
Cynomys,  or  the  prairie-dogs,  with  stouter  forms ;  and  Arc- 
tomys,  or  the  woodchucks,  with  still  more  robust  forms. 

Revised  by  F.  A,  Lucas. 

Sclater,  Philip  Lutlky,  Ph.  D.,  P.  R.  S.,  P.  L.  S. :  orni- 
thologist; b.  at  Hoddington  House,  Hamphire,  England, 
Nov.  4,  1829 ;  educated  at  Winchester  College  and  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford,  cpraduating  in  1849;  took  a  nrst 
class  in  mathematics,  ana  subseouently  became  a  fellow; 
was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1855,  and  practiced 
in  the  western  circuit  for  several  years.  In  1859  he  became 
secretary  to  the  Zodlogical  Society  in  London,  and  in  1860 
editor  of  TKb  Ibis,  positions  which  he  has  held  ever  since. 
He  is  a  member  of  the  council  of  the  Roval  Geographical 
Society,  and  from  1877  to  1882  was  one  of  the  general  secre- 
taries of  the  British  Association.  He  has  published  about 
1,000  papers  on  ornithology  and  other  branches  of  natural 
science.  Among  his  more  important  works  are  Monograph 
of  the  Tanagrine  Genus  CcUhsU  (1857);  Monograph  of  the 
Jaeamars  and  Puff-birds  (1882) ;  Nomendator  Avium  Neo- 
tropiealium  (1872);  Catalogue  of  Birds  in  the  British  Mu* 
seum,  vol.  xi.,  Ccsrebidce^  Tanagridcs,  and  Icteridcs  (1886), 
vol.  xiv.,  Oligomyoda  (18i88),  vol.  xv.,  Tracheophonm  (1800). 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Scleren'chyma :  See  Histology,  Vegetable  {Stony  Tis" 
sue), 

Scleroder^ma  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  a'Kkiip6s,  hard  +  S/p/Ao, 
skin] :  a  sub-order  of  plectognath  fishes,  in  which  the  bones 
of  the  upper  jaw  are  but  imperfectly  united,  the  teeth  in- 
dependently developed,  and  the  scapular  arch,  with  the  hy- 
pocoracoid  and  hypercoracoid  bones  both  developed.  The 
form  is  typically  fish-like,  in  which  respect  the  species  dif- 
fer much  from  the  other  members  of  the  order.  Tne  dermal 
armature  is  developed  in  the  form  of  small  scale-like  plates 
or  bristles ;  the  dorsal  fin  is  represented  by  from  one  to  six 
spines;  the  pelvic  elements  are  well  developed.  To  the 
noup  thus  distinguished  belong  two  well-defined  families — 
TriacanthidcB,  including  the  most  fish-like  forms,  and  Ba^ 
listidcBf  comprising  the  more  aberrant  species. 

Sclerotica :  See  Eye. 

Sclo'pis.  Pederioo  Paolo,  Count :  politician  and  writer 
on  historical  law ;  b.  at  Turin,  Italy,  Jan.  10, 1798 ;  took  his 
legal  degree  in  the  university  of  his  native  city  in  1818,  and 
in  1827  gave  his  first  historical  lecture,  /  Longobardi  in 
Italia,  before  the  Turin  Academy  of  Sciences.  This  was 
followed  by  La  Storia  delV  Ant  tea  Legislazione  net  Piemonte 
(Turin,  1833) ;  La  Storia  delta  Leotslazione  Italiand  (4  vols., 
Turin,  1840-64) ;  Ricerehe  Storiche  sopra  le  Relazioni  Poli- 
tiche  tra  la  Dinastia  di  Savoia  ed  il  Oovemo  Britannico 
(Turin,  1853).  In  1845  he  was  elected  corresponding  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute  of  France,  and  in  1869  foreign  member 
of  the  same ;  in  1847  was  made  president  of  tne  superior 
commission  of  press  censorship  in  Piedmont ;  in  Mar.,  1848, 
accepted  the  portfolio  of  justice ;  in  1849  was  named  senator, 
and  from  1861  to  to  1864  was  president  of  the  Italian  Senate ; 
was  also  elected  pi-esident  of  the  Turin  Academy  of  Sciences. 
In  1868  Victor  Emmanuel  bestowed  upon  him  the  highest 
order  of  the  kingdom,  that  of  the  Annunziata;  in  1871,  being 
selected  as  repreisentative  of  Italy  in  the  congress  of  arbitra- 
tion which  assembled  at  Geneva  for  the  settlement  of  the 
Alabama  question,  he  was  elected  president  of  this  congress, 
and  performed  the  duties  of  his  office  with  signal  ability. 
D.  Mar.  8,  1878.  Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Sclot,  Bebnat  :  See  d'Esclot,  Bernat. 

Scollard,  Clinton:  poet;  b.  at  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  Sept  18, 
1860.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  1881,  and  studied 
in  the  graduate  department  of  Harvard  University  and  for 


a  short  time  at  Cambridge  University,  England.  In  IShS 
he  was  chosen  Assistant  Professor  of  Rhetoric  at  Hamilton 
College,  and  subseqiiently  Professor  of  English  Literature. 
He  has  published  Pictures  in  Song  (1884);  With  Rttd  and 
Lyre  (1886) ;  Old  and  New  World  Lyrics  (1888) ;  Giovio  au4 
Oiulia  (1891) ;  Songs  of  Sunrise  Lands  (1892) ;  and  an  nli- 
tion  of  Ford's  Broken  mart  (1895).  H,  A.  B. 

Scolopac'idflD  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  the  genus  Sro  /"> 
pax,  from  Lat.  sco'lopax,  scolo'pacis  =.  Gr.  ainKAra^,  vkoK^ 
r,  snipe,  woodcock] :  a  family  of  wading  birds,  iDclud- 


ing  snipe,  woodcock,  sandpipers,  and  related  forms.  The 
bill  is  long  and  slender,  rather  soft  and  flexible,  and  with  the 
sides  compressed  and  grooved  to  the  tip,  which  is  blunt : 
the  lower  mandible  has  no  angle  at  its  lower  margin ;  the 
nostrils  are  basal,  elongated,  and  situated  in  a  eroove  cloMti 
by  a  membrane ;  the  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  the  first  or 
second  primary  being  longest ;  the  tail  is  usually  short  and 
even;  the  legs  elongated;  the  thighs  exserted  and  nake<i; 
the  tarsi  elongated  and  slender ;  the  toes  moderately  lunj; 
and  attenuate,  the  anterior  being  connected  more  or  lej>» 
by  a  basal  membrane,  the  hinder  short  or  wanting.  Some 
members  of  the  family  are  found  in  uplands  far  from  water. 
and  others  in  inland  forests.  See  Curlew,  Sandpiper,  Snipe, 
Woodcock,  etc.  Tbeodorb  Gill. 

Scombereso'cid»  [Mod.  Lat., named  from  Scombertfoi, 
the  typical  genus ;  Lat.  scomber,  from  Gr.  cidftfipos,  mackerel 
+  Lat.  e'sox,  eso'eis,  pike] :  a  family  of  fishes  comprising  the 
flying  fishes,  half-beaks,  and  other  remarkable  forms.  The 
body  is  more  or  less  elongated,  the  scales  are  cvcloid,  a  lat- 
eral peak  develofied  alone  each  side  of  the  belly ;  the  head 
is  more  or  less  quadrangular  and  flattened  above ;  the  javsi 
are  very  variable  in  development,  sometimes  very  muih 
elongated,  and  sometimes  short  and  subtruncate ;  the  uT»pi  r 
is  constituted  by  the  intermaxillaries  at  the  middle  ana  the 
maxillaries  at  the  sides;  the  teeth  are  variable  in  devel*'^)- 
ment ;  the  branchial  apertures  confluent  below ;  brancliu-s^- 
tegals  in  considerable  number ;  the  dorsal  fin  single  and  far 
back,  composed  mostly  of  branched  ravs;  anal  fin  opposite 
the  dorsal ;  caudal  distinct  and  generally  emarginated.  and 
with  its  lower  lobe  longest ;  pectorals  with  branched  ray^ 
and  variable  in  development ;  veutrals  abdominal.  The  air- 
bladder  is  generallv  present,  but  is  shut  off  from  any  ciiu- 
munication  with  tne  intestinal  canal ;  the  pseudobranehi^r 
are  hidden  and  glandular ;  the  stomach  is  not  distinct  fri>m 
the  intestine,  which  is  straight  and  without  pyloric  apixn- 
dages.  The  species  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  the  tropical 
seas.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Scom'bridn  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Seom'ber,  the  tvpii  &l 
^nus,  from  Lat.  scom'ber,  from  Gr.  ami/tfipos,  mackerel]:  ao 
important  family  of  fishes,  including  the  mackerels,  tunnit->. 
bonitoes,  and  related  forms.  The  body  is  elongated  arid 
fusiform ;  the  scales  very  small  or  wanting  (geneFallv  cycki .1, 
but  about  the  thorax  larger  and  sometimes  ctenoid  ones  are 
developed,  which  form  the  so-called  corselet  of  the  tunnies: 
dorsal  fins  two,  the  first  composed  of  rather  slender  spin(>LS 
rays,  the  second  ¥rith  branched  rays,  the  posteriors  of  wbi^h 
are  free  and  developed  as  finlets ;  anal  similar  to  the  seccnd 
dorsal ;  caudal  forked,  and  well  adapted  for  powerful  pruf lul- 
sion;  pectorals  pointed;  ventrals  thoracic,  each  with  one 
spine  and  five  rays ;  numerous  (more  than  twenty-five)  ver- 
tebne ;  numerous  pyloric  cieca  developed.  The  species  vary 
in  size  from  the  dimensions  of  a  small  mackerel  to  those  of 
the  great  tunny,  which  sometimes  attains  a  weight  of  orer 
1,000  lb.  Some  are  great  wanderers.  In  the  summer  cif 
1871,  for  example,  there  appeared  suddenly  on  the  coast  cf 
Massachusetts  large  numbers  of  a  small  tunny  {Orcynus  al- 
literatus)  which  nad  previously  l)een  unknown  along  the 
coast  of  America,  although  familiar  as  a  Mediterrantan 
fish.    See  Mackerel  and  TuNinr. 

Sco^pas  (Gr.  Sk^to)  :  sculptor ;  b.  in  the  island  of  Pan^ 
flourished  B.  c.  390-350,  and  was  one  of  the  most  celebrai»ii 
of  Grecian  artists.  He  worked  mostlv  in  marble,  the  pnKl- 
net  of  his  native  place,  and  chose  his  favorite  subjects  fn-ni 
the  myths  of  Dionysus  and  Aphrodite.  With  Praxiteles,  ho 
formed  the  character  of  the  second  or  later  Attic  schiK>l  vi 
sculpture,  in  contradistinction  to  the  earlier  school  of  Phidi*-. 
He  was  celebrated  also  as  an  architect,  and  constructe<l  t^l■ 
temple  of  Athena  A  lea  at  Tegea,  and  engaged  with  Leochart  > 
and  others  in  embellishing  the  mausoleum  at  Halicarnas-U's 
The  statement  that  he  assisted  in  the  erection  of  the  temple 
of  Artemis  at  Ephesus  rests  on  a  doubtful  passage  of  Pliny. 
Among  the  most  noted  works  ascribed  to  Seopas  were  a 
statue  of  Aphrodite  Pandemos  in  Eiis,  one  of  Apollo  Smin- 


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SCOTER 


SCOTLAND 


Laing,  vol.  ii.),  in  Calderwood's  History  of  the  Kirk  of 
Scotland,  in  Dunlop's  Collection  of  Scofen  Confessions  (vol. 
ii.),  in  Niemeyer's  Collectio  Conftss.  Reform,,  and  in  SchafTs 
Creeds  of  Christendom  (vol.  iii.). 

Scoter :  any  sea-duck  belonging  to  the  genus  Oidemia  of 
Fleming.  The  species  arc  distinguished  by  the  bill  being 
much  swollen  at  the  base,  with  the  terminal  part  depressed 
and  broad,  and  the  extension  of  the  feathers  of  the  chin  fol*- 
ward  as  far  as  the  nostrils.  The  color  is  to  a  great  extent 
black.  The  American  species  are  Oidemia  americana  (the 
common  scoter),  0,  fusca  (velvet  scoter),  O.  perspicillata 
(commonly  called  suirf-duck  or  sea-coot),  and  0.  degla?idi 
(the  velvet  duck  or  white-winged  coot). 

Scotists :  among  the  Schoolmex  {q.  i\\  the  followers  of 
John  Duns  Scotus.  Their  principal  adversaries  were  the 
Thomists,  The  Scotists  hekl  to  freedom  of  the  will  and  the 
immaculate  conception  of  the  Virmn.  Franciscans  were 
generally  Scotists ;  tiie  Dominicans,  Thomists. 

Scotland :  that  part  of  Great  Britain  which  lies  X.  of  the 
Cheviot  Hills  and  the  Tweed.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and 
W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  E.  by  the  North  Sea,  on 
the  S*.  by  England  and  the  Irish  Se4i.  Its  greatest  extent, 
from  Dunnet  Head  in  the  N.  (58'  41'  N.)  to  the  Mull  of  Gal- 
loway (54°  38'  N.),  is  288  miles.  The  area  is  29,785  sq.  miles, 
of  which  the  islands  comprise  over  one-seventh. 

Coast. — The  development  of  the  coast-line  is  very  consid- 
erable in  proportion  to  the  area  of  the  kingdom,  for  it 
amounts  to  2,300  miles,  which  ffives  1  mile  of  coast-line  to 
every  12  sq.  miles  of  area.  No  point  of  the  country  is 
farther  than  40  miles  from  the  sea. 

No  contrast  could  be  greater  than  that  between  the  east 
and  west  coasts.  The  former  resembles  that  of  England. 
It  is  generally  fonned  of  soft  sandstones  and  clays  and  gen- 
erally low  and  shelving,  although  marked  by  a  few  bold 
headlands,  such  as  Duncansby  Head,  Tarbat  Ness,  Kinnaird 
Head,  Buchan  Ness,  Fife  Ness,  and  St.  Abb's  Head.  Its  in- 
dentations, including  the  Firths  of  the  Forth  and  the  Tay, 
and  the  Moray  Firth,  which  bifurcates  into  Loch  Beaulv 
and  Cromarty  Firth,  are  few,  but  they  penetrate  far  inland, 
and  form  the  estuaries  of  comparatively  important  rivers. 
The  west  coast,  on  the  other  hand,  as  far  S.  as  the  Firth  of 
Clyde,  is  formed  of  hard  rocks,  rises  boldly  from  the  sea, 
and  is  intersected  by  numerous  narrow  sea-lochs,  bounded 
by  steep  hills,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  mountain- 
ous peninsulas.  The  most  considerable  of  these  peninsulas 
is  that  of  Kintyre  or  Cantire.  It  is  nearly  60  miles  in  length 
and  terminates  in  the  Mull  of  Kintvre.  Narrow  sounds  sepa- 
rate the  mainland  from  Skye,  Mull,  and  others  of  the  Inner 
Ilebrides;  and  a  broad  strait,  the  Minch,  separates  these 
from  the  Outer  Hebrides,  or  Long  Island. 

The  eastern  coast  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde  is  generally  level, 
while  that  of  the  peninsula  of  Galloway,  farther  S.,  is  gen- 
erally steep,  and  juts  out  in  the  Mull  of  Galloway,  the  most 
southerly  point  of  Scotland,  in  lat.  54°  38'  N.  The  north- 
ern coast,  between  Duncansby  Head  and  Cane  Wrath,  is 
wild  and  rugged  and  marked  by  bold  headlantls. 

Relief. — In  its  broad  features  Scotland  may  be  divided 
into  a  highland  region  in  the  north,  a  lowland  plain  in  the 
center,  and  an  upland  region  in  the  south.  The  Highlands 
are  cleft  in  two  by  a  long  and  narrow  valley,  the  Great  Glen 
(Glenmore),  which  extends  along  an  anticlinal  axis  from 
Ijiwh  Eil  to  the  Beaulv  Loch,  This  valley  is  occupied  by  a 
chain  of  lakes  connected  by  the  Caledonian  Canai,  and  its 
summit-level  is  only  105  ieet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  mountain  region  to  the  N.  of  this  glen  is,  for  the 
most  part,  sterile  and  inhospitable  and  very  thinly  peopled. 
Lofty  mountains  lift  their  summits  above  its  extensive 
moors,  the  most  considerable  being  Ben  Dearg  (3,547  feet), 
Ben  Wyvis  (3,929  feet),  and  Mam  Soul  (3,862  feet).  Toward 
the  N.  E.  this  mountain  region  merges  into  the  undulating 
sandstone  plains  of  Caitl mess,  which  form  bold  and  striking 
headlands  on  the  coast. 

The  mountain  region  to  the  S.  of  Glenmore  is  known  as  the 
Grampians.  In  its  arrangement  it  is  much  more  linear  than 
the  Northern  Highlands.  A  central  chain  can  be  traced 
from  Ben  Nevis  (4,406  feet)  in  the  southwest  to  the  roast  of 
Aberdeen.  The  Pass  of  Druinochter,  on  the  confines  of  Perth- 
shire and  Inverness,  crosses  this  chain  at  an  elevati(m  of 
1,488  feet.  The  Northern  Grampians  branch  off  from  the 
central  chain  near  the  head- waters  of  the  Dee,  and  attain 
an  elevation  of  4,296  feet  in  Ben  Mac<lhui.  The  Southern 
Grampians  culminate  in  Ben  Lawers,  3,984  feet.  The  Gram- 
pians are  almost  as  sterile  as  the  Northern  Highlands,  and 


moors  abound,  but  there  are  excellent  pastures  in  the  val- 
leys ;  and  where  these  open  out  toward  the  N.  E.  and  S.  K. 
they  offer  every  facility  for  a  successful  pursuit  of  agri- 
culture. The  western  coast  of  the  Highlands  is  genen*;!v 
steep  and  rugged,  and  sea-lochs  penetrate  far  into  the  lan^l : 
their  interior  abounds  in  picturesque  lakes.   Strathmor.-  \  r  h- 

freat  vale)  extends  along  the  foot  of  the  Highlands  from  U^U 
iomond,  in  the  southwest,  to  Stonehaven,  in  the  northeaM. 
It  is  separated  from  the  sea  and  the  great  central  plain  h\- 
tending  between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde  by  a  series  of  liiiU 
broken  through  by  the  Forth  and  Tay,  and  known  as  tli.* 
Campsie  Fells,  the  Ochil  Hills  (2,363  feet),  and  theSidhiu^ 
(1,399  feet).  Southern  Scotland  consists  of  an  extensive 
hilly  region  stretching  from  St.  Abb's  Head  on  the  GemjAu 
Ocean  U)  Stranraer  on  the  IrL«ih  Sea,  and  culminating  in  tl..- 
Broad-Ijaw  (2.754  feet)  and  the  Merrick  (2,764  feet).  Tif* 
valleys  of  the  Tweed  and  Clyde  almost  cut  off  from  the  m  ti-i 
mass  the  outlying  ranges  of  the  Lammennuir  and  Pentlai.i 
Hills  toward  the  N.  The  range  forming  the  boundan  t  >- 
ward  England  is  known  as  the  Cheviots  (2.636  feet ).  'Tli- 
southern  hills  are  generally  broa<l  and  flat;. they  are  iiii.  r- 
sected  by  deep  grassy  glens,  which  own  out  into  fertile  val- 
leys and  plains.  Among  the  latter  that  called  the  MerM*.  ai 
the  mouth  of  the  Tweed,  is  the  most  considerable. 

The  western  islands  are  generally  of  considerable  hei-lit 
(Ben  More,  on  Mull,  3,185  feet) ;  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlai.l-. 
though  they  present  bold  cliffs  toward  the  sea.  and  an*  mu'  i' 
broken  up  by  intricate  channels,  rise  to  a  height  of  only  l.r»i'*» 
and  1,475  feet  respectively. 

Geology. — The  rocks  are  chiefly  of  Palffozoic  age.  Tl.i- 
clay  and  chlorite  slates  and  the  graywacke,  interNtratifhd 
with  mica-schist  and  gneissose  flagstones,  which  fonn  n»*ar,  v 
the  whole  of  the  Highlands,  are  classed  by  Prof.  A.  (ink. 
as  metamorphosed  Lower  Silurian.  On  the  west  coast  flu  r. 
occur  sandstones  of  Cambrian  age,  while  crystalline  gn<  i--. 
equivalent  to  ihe  Laurentian  rocks  of  North  America,  <<*<  u- 
py  the  Outer  Hebrides  and  the  west  coast  of  SuthcrlaT-.i. 
These  rocks  are  frequently  broken  through  by  iffneou^  n-  k-. 
which  form  some  of  the  highest  summits.  GranitfiJ  \  n 
dominate, but  porphyry  is  found  in  the  southwest,  and  l«i-.i ' 
is  highly  developed  on  the  islands  of  Skye  and  Mull.  <»m 
the  S.  E.,  from  the  Clyde  to  Stonehaven,  around  Moray  arl 
J)ornoch  Firths  and  in  Caithness,  these  Silurian  rcK'k^  ■  f 
the  Highlands  are  bounded  bv  flagstones  and  sandstont^  •  f 
the  Devonian  formation,  which  prevails  in  the  Orkneys,  w  uii  - 
the  Shetlands  exhibit  the  geological  features  of  the  Iliui*- 
lands. 

The  great  lowland  plain  is  occupied  by  limeston<>s  an  i 
coal-measures  of  the  Carboniferous  system,  the  hills  Uiiii: 
largely  formed  of  porphyritic  rocks  and  basalt.  Tuff  an- 1 
volcanic  agglomerate  occur  in  various  localities.  A  narr-iw 
belt  of  Devonian  rocks  separates  these  lowlands  from  ih'- 
southern  uplands,  whose  graywacke  and  shale  of  Sihiri.ii. 
age,  pierced  by  masses  of  porphviy  ((^heviots)  and  granit*^ « m 
the  west),  are  the  prevailing  rocks.  Indications  of  an  an<itiit 
glaciatiou  are  frequent.  Subsequently  an  upheaval  of  t  U 
country,  evidenced  by  raised  beaches,  took  place.  Scotlar;.; 
is  rich  in  coal  and  iron.  Lead  is  found  in  the  southern  luli>. 
Excellent  building-stones  abound.  Aberdeen  is  known  for 
its  granite;  Craigleith  for  it5  freestone.  Scotch  jn^bM.-, 
garnets,  amethysts,  and  other  precious  stones  are  among  tin- 
minor  products  of  the  mineral  kingdom. 

Hydrography. — The  rivers  rise  in  the  hills,  and  frecjuenr- 
ly  pass  through  mountain  lakes.  Their  course  is  mon»  rjtpi  I 
than  that  of  the  rivers  of  England.  The  water-part ini: 
being  near  the  west  coast  the  rivers  of  the  eastern  sloi)e  ar-* 
much  the  longest.  The  Tweed  is  a  rapid  stream,  formni!;.  m 
its  lower  course,  the  lx)undary  between  England  anil  vN it- 
land,  and  entering  the  German  Ocean  at  Berwick.  Th. 
Forth,  though  an  inconsiderable  stream,  deserves  to  l>e  in- 1'- 
tioned  because  of  its  firth.  It  is  navigable  to  Stirling.  Th 
Tay  is  the  most  imfwrtant  river  of  Scotland.  It  ris**s  to  th 
N.  of  L(K'h  Ijomcmd,  flows  through  Lcx'h  Tay,  leavj^s  'h- 
mountains  at  Dunkeld,  intersects  tne  St  rath  more,  and  tu\ti  - 
Iv  enters  the  Firth  of  Tay.  It  is  navigable  as  far  as  IVrth. 
"fhe  remaining  rivers,  with  the  exception  of  the  Clvilf.  .r.- 
of  little  use  to  navigaticm,  but  thev  abound  in  fish.  Tl.- 
Clyde  rises  in  a  small  lake  on  the  soutliern  confines  of  I^inari.- 
shii-e,  and  enters  the  Firth  of  Clyde  below  Glaj^gow.  It ^  rir- 
rent  is  very  rapid,  and  it  forms  several  waterfalls,  but  ,i:  i 
vast  expense  for  di-edging  it  has  been  made  navigable  U-r 
largo  vessels  as  far  as  Glasgow. 

Scotland  abounds  in  lakes.  They  are  almost  without  ♦  t- 
ception  in  the  Highlands  and  collectively  cover  an  an*:*  • ' 


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388 


SCOTLAND 


Manufactures. — These  are  of  considerable  importance, 
especially  in  the  lowlands.  The  textile  industry  (1891) 
gave  employment  to  206,550  preons,  and  there  were  747 
factories  with  2,413,735  spindles,  71,471  power-looms,  and 
154,501  hands.    The  cotton  industry  has  its  centers  at  Glas- 

?:ow  and  Paisley ;  the  woolen  manufacture  is  carried  on  at 
Iftwick  and  Galashiels  on  the  Tweed,  but  also  in  Stirling, 
Kilmarnock,  and  Bannockburn ;  carpets  are  made  at  Kil- 
marnock and  Glasgow ;  Dundee  and  Dunfermline  are  the 
principal  seats  of  the  linen,  hemp,  and  jute  industries. 
Knittmg  is  widely  carried  on  ^  a  aomestic  industry.  The 
making  of  machinery,  which  employs  51,426  men,  and  ship- 
building (23,518  workmen)  have  tfeeir  chief  seats  on  the 
Clyde,  where  the  largest  ocean  steamers  and  ironclads  are 
built.  Other  industries  of  importance  are  printing  (20,317 
workmen),  paper-making,  sugar-refining,  the  preserving  of 
provisions,  glass-making,  and  the  manufacture  of  chemicals. 

Commerce. — Glasgow  is  the  commercial  capital  of  the 
country,  although  as  a  shipping-port  it  ranks  seventh  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  being  preceded  not  only  by  London 
or  Liverpool,  but  also  by  (Jardiflf,  Hull,  Newcastle,  and 
Southampton.  The  railways  at  the  end  of  1893  had  a 
length  of  3,215  miles,  and  there  were  also  86  miles  of  tram- 
way and  153  miles  of  canal.  For  further  details,  see  Great 
Britain. 

National  Wealth.-An  1886  the  total  value  of  pro|jcrty 
and  profits  assessed  by  the  income-tax  amounted  to  £59,- 
406,708 ;  in  1893  to  £65,606,195  (all  incomes  of  less  than  £150 
are  exempt).  This  increase,  however,  did  not  extend  to  the 
owners  or  occupiers  of  lands  and  tenements.  The  number 
of  depositors  in  savings-banks  (1893)  was  596,179,  and  £12,- 
583.676  stood  to  their  credit,  an  increase  of  £4,338,681  since 
1883.  In  1892  there  existed  342  co-operative  industrial  and 
provident  societies,  with  195,919  members,  a  capital  of 
£2,98:3,303,  and  a  turn-over  of  £9,743.238 ;  and  61  building 
societies  employing  a  capital  of  £976,255.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  Jan..  1894,  there  were  61,978  paupers  with  33,218 
dependents  (2*3  per  cent,  of  the  total  population). 

Jteligion. — Scotland,  since  1560,  has  an  ^Established  Church, 
organized  on  the  Presbyterian  system,  and  now  governed 
by  1,348  parochial  kirk  sessions  of  ruling  elders,  with  the 
minister  as  moderator ;  84  presbyteries,  16  synods,  and  a 
General  Assembly  which  meets  annually  in  May.  It  claims 
604,984  communicants,  and  about  45  per»cent.  of  the  entire 
p)pulation  are  claimed  to  adhere  to  it.  Since  1874  its  min- 
isters are  elected  by  the  congregations.  This  question  of 
patronage  led  in  1843  to  a  secession  and  the  foundation  of 
the  Free  Kirk,  with  1,260  ministers  and  missionaries,  1,050 
churches,  343,069  communicants,  and  the  adherence  of  34 
per  cent,  of  the  population.  There  are  several  other  bodies 
of  Presbyterians  (e.  g.,  the  United  Presbyterian  Church,  with 
615  ministers,  STJi  churches,  48  home  mission  stations,  and 
188,706  members),  as  well  as  an  Episcopal  Church,  which  tem- 
porarily, 1662-88,  enjoyed  the  aavantages  of  establishment, 
although  it  numbered  very  few  adherents.  It  now  has  7 
bishops,  268  churches  and  missions,  and  266  clergy.  The 
Roman  Catholics  are  supposed  to  number  365,000  souls,  and 
besides  the  Irish  in  the  towns  they  embrace  the  inhabitants 
of  the  islands  of  Barra.  South  Uist,  Eigg,  and  Canna,  and  of 
a  few  Highland  valleys.    See  Scotland,  Church  of. 

JB^duca/iow.— Scotland  has  long  been  in  advance  of  Eng- 
land in  educational  matters,  more  especially  as  regards 
secondary  education.  Since  1872  all  public,  elementary,  and 
middle-class  schools  are  administered  by  school  boards,  and 
education  is  free  for  all  children  between  the  ages  of  five 
and  fourteen.  In  1893  there  existed  3,005  of  thei«e  schools, 
attended  by  617,448  children.  In  addition  to  these  there 
are  numerous  superior  schools  in  the  enjovment  of  endow- 
ments or  supported  bv  public  bodies,  the  more  famous 
among  these  being  the  fedmburgh  Academy,  Fettes  College, 
the  Edinburgh  High  School,  Merchiston  College,  and  the 
five  schools  supported  by  the  Merchant  Company.  There 
are  four  universities  and  a  university  college,  with  285  profes- 
sors and  6,382  students.  The  oldest  of  these  universities, 
that  of  St.  Andrews,  was  founded  in  1411.  Among  schools 
for  special  purposes  may  he  mentioned  the  theological  col- 
leges, seven  training-colleges  for  teachers,  an  agricultural 
college,  veterinary  colleges,  and  a  s<.;ho<)l  of  medicine  for 
women.  Many  of  these  schools  are  at  Edinburgh,  which 
is  likewise  the  seat  of  the  Royal  Society  (founded  1783)  and 
of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy.  See  Schools  and  Common 
Schools. 

Political  Institutions. — Scotland  sends  72  members  to  (he 
House  of  Commons,  and   16  representative  peers  to  the 


House  of  Lords,  who  are  elected  for  the  duration  of  each 
Parliament  (the  Scottish  peerage  numbers  87  members,  <•! 
whom  48  are  also  peers  of  the  United  Kingdom).  At  th. 
time  of  the  Union  (1707)  the  Scottish  Church  and  the  jjwli- 
cial  system  were  left  intact,  and  Scottish  law  differs  in  man) 
notable  respects  from  that  of  England.  The  high  court  of 
justice  includes  a  court  of  session  for  civil  cases,  an<l  a  hi^h 
court  of  justiciary  for  criminal  offenses.  The  inferior  juri- 
diction  is  exercised  by  sheriff  courts,  bv  borough  magistnit4'> 
and  justices  of  the  peace  (bailies).  The  police  force  num- 
bers 4,488  men.  In  1893  2,394  persons  were  committed  for 
trial,  and  1,902  convicted. 

Local  ^vemment  was  reorganized  in  1889  on  the  outlinfic 
followed  in  England.  Elected  county  councils  have  taktik 
the  place  of  the  old  commissioners  of  supply  and  Ti^\ 
trustees.  Municipal  bodies,  presided  over  oy  a  provcKt, 
exist  in  numerous  cities  and  burghs.  In  1888-90  (the  la^^t 
year  for  which  there  is  a  complete  return)  the  local  exfMi.- 
diture  amounted  to  £7,341,893,  inclusive  of  £886,54^)  ft-r  ihe 
relief  of  the  poor,  and  £1,493,015  for  the  support  of  schM>]>. 
Of  the  total  amount  required  £4,690,788  was  raised  by  rat*-. 
tolls,  and  dues,  £964,525  was  contributed  by  the  ira|)erid) 
Government,  and  £1,410,898  was  raised  by  loans. 

History. — When  Scotland  first  became  known  to  the  Ko- 
mans  its  Highlands  w^ere  occupied  by  Gaelic  Picts,  while  tiit 
south  was  held  by  Cymric  Britons.  The  Highlands  w<n- 
known  to  them  as  Caledonia  (a  corruption  of  Gael  Duiu 
Land  of  the  Gael).  Julius  Agricola  (80-85)  first  penetrali  <i 
this  ** Barbaria "  as  far  as  the  Tay,  and  inflicted  a  defeat 
u;K>n  the  Picts  at  Mons  Grampius,  but  his  con(juej;ts  wt-re 
only  temporary,  and  when  the  Emperor  Hadrian  was  in 
Britannia  (122)  he  caused  a  wall  to  be  built  from  the  Sol n  ax- 
to  the  Tyne  as  a  protection  of  the  Roman  provinces  afraiD^t 
the  predatory  northern  tribes.  Twenty  years  aftensard.  in 
the  reign  of' Antoninus  Pius,  the  legate  Q.  Lollius  Urbii  u> 
once  more  advanced  into  Caledonia,  and  constructed  tlit 
Antonine  wall  between  the  Forth  and  Clvde.  In  208.  how- 
ever, Severus  once  more  retired  to  the  "fyne.  and  althouL'h 
Flavins  Theodosius,  the  father  of  Theodosius  the  Gnat, 
once  more  recovered  the  country  between  the  two  wal;> 
(369),  and  bestowed  upon  it  the  name  of  Valentia,  in  honor 
of  the  Emperor  Valentin ian  I.,  the  Romans  finally  retired 
from  their  conquests  and  abandoned  Britannia. 

The  Picts  again  swept  down  over  the  lowlands  and  far 
into  England,  ravaging  and  devastating  the  country  with 
savage  but  irresistible  valor.  The  Britons  now  called  thi* 
Anglo-Saxons  to  their  aid,  and  the  Picts  were  once  kjofv 
confined  to  their  Highlands;  in  449  a  Saxon  chieftain,  l-^i- 
win,  founded  Edinburgh.  In  503  the  Scots — that  is,  \\\v 
Celts  from  Ireland— crossed  over  to  Britain  and  founded. 
under  the  leadership  of  Fergus,  a  Scottish  kingdom  along  the 
western  coast  of  Caledonia,  from  the  Firth  of  Clvde  to  the 

E resent  Ross-shire.  The  Celts  of  Ireland  were  (Christ  Imun 
aving  been  converted  by  St.  Patrick,  and  in  563  St,  I'o- 
lumba  went  over  from  Ireland  and  settled  among  the  heathen 
Picts,  spending  the  rest  of  his  life,  till  597.  in  converting 
them  to  Christianity.  In  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury Scotland  formed  four  indej^endent  kingdoms,  namelr. 
that  of  the  Scots,  along  the  west  coast  to  the  N.  of  the 
Clyde;  that  of  the  Picts,  to  the  N.  of  the  Forth;  Stmih- 
clyde  in  the  southwest,  which  was  held  by  the  Britons ;  and  t  lie 
Saxon  domain  of  Bernicia.  In  836  Renneth,  a  lineal  ile- 
scendant  of  Fergus,  became  King  of  the  Scots,  aiid  in  M"» 
he  also  became  King  of  the  Picts,  transferring  his  roi>idinoe 
to  Forteviot  in  Stratherne,  the  old  capital  of  the  Pn  u 
Thus  the  Scots  and  the  Picts,  two  tribes  of  the  CVltic  nnv 
and  speaking  two  dialects  of  the  Celtic  language,  cojih-^t'^l 
and  formed  one  empire,  which  was  originally  known  as  Al- 
ban  (Highlands),  but  developed  in  course  of  time  into  Sviia 
or  Scotland,  a  designation  by  right  belonging  to  In-lai.'i. 
In  945  the  King  of  England  bestowed  upon  Malcohn  I. 
(942-954)  a  portion  of  the  Cambrian  kingdom,  and  thus  \^.t> 
established  that  claim  for  homage  which  subsequently  i«>l 
to  many  wars.  In  970  King  Edgar  of  England  ^e^t^*^^l 
upon  Kenneth  III.  the  purely  Saxon  district  of  LoiliijiJi 
The  same  king  occupied  also  Strathclvde,  and  his  sm-iev-  r, 
Malcolm  II.  (1003-33),  acquired  the  Merse  and  Tevioi.ijut 
from  the  Prince  of  Northumberland,  thus  extending  n^  i- 
land  to  the  Tweed. 

While  the  Scottish  kingdom  was  externally  much  cxtriid- 
ed,  the  Scottish  people  underwent  an  internal  chan.ire  1} 
which  the  (^eltic  character  almost  disappeared.  So  n.flto 
Teutonic  elements  were  al>sorbed  that  in  the  coarse  of  two 
centuries  a  new  national  type  was  developed,  in  which  the 


390 


SCOTLAND,  CHURCH  OP 


Reformation,  the  history  of  the  Church  in  Scotland  is  one 
of  constantly  increasing  power  and  wealth,  and  of  growing 
corruption.  The  parochial  system  of  Scotland  owes  its  es- 
tablishment to  this  period,  and  the  Scottish  ecclesiastics  main- 
tained a  brave  and  successful  struggle  for  independence 
against  the  claims  of  the  primacies  of  Canterbury  and  York, 
who  successively  sought  to  assume  control  over  the  Scottish 
bishops. 

In  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  half  the  wealth  of  Scot- 
land had  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Church.  The  feudal 
power  of  the  greater  nobles  was  greatly  weakened  by  this, 
and  also  by  the  rising  up  of  a  middle  class' of  lesser  land- 
holders and  burghers,  who  had  become  the  most  powerful 
party  in  Scotland  in  intelligence,  industry,  and  resources. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  writings  of 
the  continental  Protestant  divines  were  introduced  into 
Scotland,  and  the  result  was  seen  in  the  awakened  intelli- 
gence and  spiritual  earnestness  of  this  middle  class.  Pat- 
rick Hamilton,  a  youth  of  high  mental  endowments,  re- 
turned from  Wittenberg  in  1527  and  began  to  preach  the 
Reformed  doctrines.  He  was  tried  for  heresy  and  burned  at 
the  stake  (1528).  Persecutions  followed  for  thirty  years, 
and  then  came  the  triumph  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland. 
See  Knox,  John  ;  Hendejuson,  Albxandeb  ;  and  Peesbyte- 
BiAN  Church. 

Distinetive  CharctcterisHcs. — The  peculiar  and  essential 
features  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Scotland,  besides  the 
profession  of  the  evangelical  faith  common  to  all  the 
churches  of  the  Reformation,  were — (1)  The  government  of 
the  Church  by  that  order  of  men  which  is  indicated  in  the 
New  Testament  by  the  terms  presbyters  and  bishops  or 
overseers ;  (2>.  the  subjection  of  the  Church  in  all  things 
spiritual  to  Christ  as  her  only  Head,  and  to  his  word  as  her 
only  rule. 

the  First  Covenant  and  Book  of  Diseipline. — In  1557  the 
First  Covenant  or  Common  Bond  was  signed.  The  sub- 
scribers to  this  document,  after  declaring  their  faith  in 
*'  the  Evangel  of  Christ,"  promise  "  before  the  majesty  of 
God  to  maintain  and  defend  the  whole  congregation  of 
Christ,  and  every  member  thereof,  to  the  death,"  and  "  to 
renounce  and  forsake  all  su|)crstitions,  abominations,  and 
idolatries."  The  word  congregation  was  then  used  as  the 
distinctive  name  of  all  those  who  held  to  the  doctrines  of 
the  Reformed  Church,  having  the  same  signification  as  the 
work  kirk^  which  was  subsequently  introduced,  and  the 
leaders  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland  were  known  as  "  the 
Lords  of  the  Congregation."  The  various  congregations 
which  belonged  to  the  Congregation  used  the  liturgy  of  Ed- 
ward VI. ;  and  the  Apostles'  Creed  and  King  Edward's  Cate- 
chism formed  the  articles  of  religion  by  which  they  were 
bound  into  a  doctrinal  unity.  At  the  death  of  the  regent, 
Mary  of  Guise,  in  1560,  the  Parliament  of  Scotland  met,  and 
on  Aug.  24  an  act  was  passed  which  is  described  as  "  The 
Confession  of  Faith  and  Doctrines  believed  and  professed 
by  the  Protestants  of  Scotland,  and  authorized  by  the  Es- 
tates in  Parliament."  This  confession  was  in  fact  "the 
Order  of  Geneva,"  including  the  confession  of  faith  prepared 
for  the  English  congregation  at  Geneva  by  John  Knox. 
Immediately  afterward,  on  Dec.  20,  1560,  the  first  General 
Assembly  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  was  held,  and  from  this 
date  the  Assembly  "took  order  for  God's  glory  and  the  weal 
of  his  Kirk  in  the  realm  of  Scotland."  At  this  Assembly 
"the  Book  of  Discipline  of  the  Church  was  allowed  and  ap- 
proved." This  bi)ok  was  afterward  submitted  to  the  council, 
which  refused  to  sanction  it.  Nevertlieless,  the  Church  pro- 
ceeded at  once  to  carry  it  into  execution.  The  principles 
of  religious  liberty  were  not  understood  in  that  age,  and  the 
Scottish  Reformers  did  not  hesitate  to  enact  laws  which  in- 
volved the  infliction  of  civil  penalties  for  offenses  that  were 
purely  religious,  though,  to  their  credit,  it  should  be  stated 
that  these  penalties  were  seldom  inflicted ;  but  with  these 
exceptions  the  great  principles,  both  of  faith  and  onler, 
which  were  then  agreed  to,  remain,  amid  all  the  changes  of 
confessions,  as  those  held  by  all  the  branches  of  the  Reformed 
Church  in  Scotland  to  this  day.  It  is  especially  worthy  of 
note  that  in  this  "first  Book  of  Discipline," wliile  "the  duty 
of  nations  and  their  rulers  to  own  the  truth  of  God  and  to 
advance  the  kingdom  of  his  Son,"  is  clearly  stated,  it  is  at 
the  same  time  maintained  that  the  Kirk  possesses  an  inde- 
pendent and  exclusive  jurisdiction,  "  which  flows  directly 
from  God  and  the  Mediator,  Jesus  Christ,  and  is  spiritual, 
not  having  a  temporal  head  on  earth,  but  only  Christ,  the 
only  King  and  Governor  of  his  Church."  For  seven  Tears, 
from  the  death  of  the  regent  Mary  of  Guise  (1560)  till  the 


abdication  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  the  Kirk  was  without 
state  endowment,  and  indeed  without  any  recognition  l*} 
the  state  of  her  jurisdiction. 

Patronage. — At  a  very  early  period  lay  patronage  wa^*  in- 
troduced into  Scotland.  Laymen  who  had  endowed  churclii'> 
and  monasteries  reserved  for  themselves  and  their  hein*  thr 
right  of  presenting  incumbents  to  the  benefices  thus  found«*<t. 
At  a  later  |>eriod  these  rights  of  presentation  were  to  a  Urp- 
extent  annexed  to  bishoprics,  priories,  abbacies,  and  i>ti»r 
religious  houses,  so  that  at  the  time  of  the  Reformat  I'h 
there  were  only  263  out  of  the  940  benefices  the  patroiiji;'* 
of  which  remained  in  the  hands  of  laymen.  The  rights  of 
presentation  which  belonged  to  the  religious  bouses  wtre 
after  the  Reformation  a  continual  subject  of  contention  U^ 
tween  the  Assembly  and  the  queen.  In  1565  the  General 
Assembly  asked  that  the  absolute  right  of  the  queen  or  of 
any  lay  patron  to  present  a  minister  without  examinatiua 
be  disallowed.  To  this  the  queen  answered  that  it  seenie^l 
to  be  ^'  no  way  reasonable  that  she  should  defraud  hern-lf 
of  so  great  a  part  of  the  patrimony  of  the  crown  as  to  pu' 
the  patronage  of  benefices  forth  of  her  own  hands.'*  The 
patronage  to  these  benefices  continued  to  be  held  by  the 
queen,  or  was  oy  her  distributed  among  her  favorite  nobles. 

ImmediatiCly  after  the  queen's  abdication  the  Parliament 
met  on  Dec.  15, 1567.  and  passed  an  act  in  favor  of  the  Re- 
formed Kirk,  ratifying  the  act  of  1560  by  which  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith  was  sanctioned  and  adopted,  and  amoo;; 
other  statutes  one  for  the  examination  and  admission  of 
ministers  by  the  Kirk,  reserving  the  right  of  presentation 
to  the  lay  patrons.  This  Parliament  also  **  declared  and 
granted  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Kirk  anent  preaching  of  th* 
true  word  of  God,  correction  of  manners,  and  administntinn 
of  the  holy  sacraments.'*  A  similar  act  was  passed  in  15ir2, 
ratifiying  and  enlarging  the  rights  of  the  Kirk  in  regard  to 
her  juri^iction  over  the  appointment  or  deprivation  of  min- 
isters. The  acts  of  1567  ana  1592  have  always  been  reg&ra<-xi 
as  the  solemn  recognition  and  sanction  by  the  nation  of  K\\v 
constitution  of  the  Reformed  Church,  and  the  great  chHrtt- rs 
of  her  Presbyterian  government  and  freedom  from  the  su- 
premacy of  the  crown  in  all  causes  spiritual  and  ecclesia^tiail. 

The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  and  the  WextminMtr 
Standards. — In  1603  James  ascended  the  English  thror.f. 
After  a  long  and  bitter  struggle,  both  in  England  and  in 
Scotland,  against  the  royal  encroachments  on  the  civil  an<i 
religious  li&rties  of  the  people,  an  ordinance  of  the  Eii<;lish 
Lords  and  Commons  in  Parliament  was  passed  on  June  12. 
1643,  calling  the  Westminster  Assembly.  The  Geni'ral  A-*- 
sembly  of  the  Kirk  met  in  Edinburgh  on  Aug.  2  in  the  san»e 
year.  Commissioners  from  England  were  present,  and  the 
result  of  their  conferences  was  that  on  Aug.  17  **lhe  S»knin 
League  and  Covenant"  was  passed  unanimously  by  \lc 
General  Assembly ;  it  was  then  carried  to  the  Convoni. 'n 
of  Estates  and  unanimously  ratified  by  them.  Coniniis- 
sioners  were  also  appointed  to  represent  the  Kirk  of  Scot- 
land in  the  Westminster  Assembly.  The  Confcssi«>n  of 
Faith  of  the  Westminster  divines  was  finished  in  1046.  and 
on  Aug.  4,  1647,  it  was  adopted  by  the  Scottish  General  As- 
sembly, with  two  modifications;  and  two  years  later  the 
Estates  of  Parliament  ratified  this  decision. 

Later  History. — Charles  II.  was  restored  to  the  throne  in 
1660,  and  an  attempt  was  then  made  to  conform  the  .Sc-citti^ 
Church  to  that  of  England  by  the  establishment  of  tiie 
episcopal  form  of  government.  So  severe  was  the  i>ers(ru- 
tion  that  even  to  l^  present  at  a  field  conventicle  was  |»un- 
ishable  by  death  and  confiscation  of  gooiLs.  Yet  the  gn'st 
body  of  the  Scottish  people  steadfastly  resisted.  In  tht 
year  1688  W^illiam  of  Orange  became  king.  In  Apr.,  HV^. 
the  Scottish  Parliament  met  and  passed  an  act  abnli2>li;n^ 
prelacy.  In  1690  the  Parliament  passed  acts  rescinding  tiie 
statute  of  1669,  which  had  declared  the  kingV  supn^niacj, 
and  ratifying  the  Confession  of  Faith  and  settling  Pre^l.v- 
terian  church  government.  The  same  Parliament  pas-^ti 
an  act  abolishing  lay  patronage,  though  the  new  mi>narcb 
was  known  to  be  strenuously  opposed  to  its  abolition.  In 
1693  the  Parliament  passed  an  act  for  "  settling  the  quwt 
and  peace  of  the  Church,"  but  this  act  expressly  provitlt^ 
for  summoning  the  General  Assembly  by  royal  "authoritj. 
The  General  Assembly  met  in  May,  1694.  The  king  in- 
structed  the  royal  commissioner  that  if  the  act  of  supremacy 
was  not  accepted  he  should  at  once  dissolve  the  Assemblr, 
but  at  last  the  threat  of  dissolution  was  withdrawn,  and  the 
independence  of  the  Kirk  was  again  confirmed. 

Daughter  Churches. — In  the  articles  on  the  Fkex  CBrEce 
OF  Scotland  and  Presbttebun  Chuech  {qq.  v.)  will  be  found 


(Iff 


1^' 

1  IliV  Al^l^-UlAl  I 


.    t     1     .      M 


N#llftflAt   r*tlriiti 


Atii 


U   '   i-lil'tl'.'vl  r 


tbr  iin)n 


^  Vurk  III  l?W.  ft  I 


^itfM  iLhui^    Wai  W«w>itiig{i^i,  i>.  i 


392 


SCOTT 


net,  and  Anne  Rutherford,  daughter  of  Dr.  John  Ruther- 
ford, Professor  of  Medicine  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
He  was  lineally  descended  from  the  ancient  chieftain  W  al- 
ter Scott,  traditionally  known  as  Auld  Walt  of  Harden.  He 
was  a  strong  and  healthy  child  until  about  eighteen  months 
old,  when  he  became  incurably  lame  in  his  right  leg — a 
weakness  which  sadly  interfered  with  his  love  of  active 
sports,  but  never  marred  his  cheerfulness,  good  temper,  or 
courage.  His  early  childhood  was  passed  in  the  farmhouse 
of  Sandy-Knowe.  At  the  age  of  eight  he  was  placed  in  the 
High  School  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  remained  for  four 
years,  the  first  two  in  the  class  of  Luke  Eraser,  and  the  re- 
maining time  under  the  tuition  of  the  distinguished  rec- 
tor. Dr.  Alexander  Adam,  of  whom  Scott  gives  a  nleasant 
account  in  his  fragment  of  A  utobioaraphy.  Personally  popu- 
lar, and  making  himself  respected  by  his  courage  and  gen- 
eral ability  to  take  care  of  himself,  he  was  not  regarded  as 
a  very  bright  scholar,  although  even  then  giving  evidence 
of  his  love  of  knowledge,  of  a  strong  memory  for  whatever 
pleased  him.  and  of  spcial  delight  m  history,  poetry,  fairy 
tales,  and  romances.  In  1788  he  entered  the  university,  and 
for  a  year  or  more  attended  the  classes  in  Greek,  Latin, 
logic,  and  ethics,  giving  some  attention  also  to  history  and 
law.  In  the  ancient  languages  he  made  but  little  progress, 
although  more  successful  in  other  studies.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising, then,  that  in  thorough  knowledge  and  discipline  he 
should  have  found  himself  at  fault.  \  ears  afterward,  and 
when  he  had  become  famous,  he  writes  in  his  Autobiography: 
"  It  is  with  the  deepest  regret  that  I  recollect  in  my  man- 
hood the  opportunities  wnich  I  neglected  in  my  vouth. 
Through  every  part  of  my  literary  career  I  have  felt  pinched 
and  hampered  by  my  own  ignorance ;  and  I  would  at  this 
moment  give  halj  the  reputation  I  have  had  the  good  for- 
tune to  acquire  if  by  doing  so  I  could  rest  the  remaining 
part  upon  a  sound  foundation  of  learning  and  science. 
His  progress  in  the  university  was  arrested  by  a  severe  at- 
tack of  illness,  which  seems  to  have  broken  up  all  plans  of 
further  study,  and  in  1785-86  he  entered  into  indentures 
with  his  father  to  serve  the  usual  apprenticeship  to  a  writer 
to  the  signet.  In  1792  he  was  called  to  the  bar.  During 
these  and  the  succeeding  years  he  was  crowding  his  mind 
with  vast  accumulations  of  "  ponderous  and  miscellaneous  " 
knowledge  of  poetry  and  archaeology,  fiction,  and  history, 
not  easy  to  condense  or  reduce  to  system  and  order.  **  My 
memory  of  events,"  he  says,  **  was  like  one  of  the  large  old- 
fashioned  stone  cannons  of  the  Turks,  very  difficult  to  load 
well  and  discharge,  but  making  a  powerful  effect  when  bv 

food  chance  any  object  did  come  within  range  of  its  shot.'* 
[e  had  already  begun  to  collect  books  and  articles  of  an- 
tiquarian interest,  **  the  germ  of  the  magnificent  library  and 
museum  of  Abbotsford."  His  mind  was  already  turning 
toward  letters,  and  in  1796  he  made  his  first  considerable 
publication,  being  translations  from  the  German  of  Bilrger. 
This  was  followed  in  1799  by  a  translation  of  Goethe's  (roetz 
von  Berlichingen,  The  Iloune  of  As/)€ti,  which  was  not  pub- 
lished till  1829,  and  several  ballads. 

In  the  meantime,  in  Dec,  1797,  after  a  serious  disap- 
pointment in  love,  he  was  married  to  Charlotte  Margaret 
Carpenter,  or  Charpentier,  a  young  lady  of  French  birth  and 
parentage,  but  a  resident  in  England.  Two  years  later, 
through  the  influence  of  his  friends,  he  obtained  the  ap- 
pointment of  sheriff-depute  of  Selkirkshire,  an  office  with 
light  duties,  which  brought  the  important  addition  to  his 
resources  of  £300  a  year.  In  Jan.,  1802,  he  published  two 
volumes  of  the  Minstrehu  of  the  Scottish  Border,  which  was 
completed  the  next  year  by  a  third  volume.  It  was  received 
with  great  favor,  and  may  be  considered  as  opening  the  way 
to  his  general  fame.  It  brought  him  also  into  familiar  ac- 
quaintance with  men  of  genius  and  lovers  of  legendary  lore, 
such  as  Richard  Heber,  long  member  of  Parliament  for  the 
University  of  Oxford,  and  that  eccentric  genius  John  Leyden. 
From  this  time  onward  to  the  year  1831,  when,  at  the  age 
of  sixty,  he  gave  to  the  world  the  fourth  series  of  Tales  of 
my  La'fidlora,  there  was  but  one  year  (1807)  which  was  not 
marked  by  some  indei)endent  work  in  verse  or  prose,  bear- 
ing the  impress  of  his  genius,  giving  new  impulse  to  litera- 
ture and  new  fame  to  the  land  of  his  birth.  There  is  room 
to  mention  only  the  most  important  of  these.  In  1805  the 
Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  was  publislied.  It  t(X)k  the  world 
by  surprise,  and  was  received  with  unbounded  delight,  not 
only  for  its  chivalric  spirit,  its  "  vivid  riciiness  of  coloring," 
its  pathos,  beauty,  grace,  and  airy  fresiiness,  but  as  giving 
the  promise  of  original  pt)etic  fervor  and  power  to  which 
the  kingdom  had  long  been  a  stranger.    Edition  after  edi- 


tion was  called  for,  and  sold  as  soon  as  published.  **  In  th" 
history  of  British  poetry," says  Lockhart.  "nothing  hiwl  t\.r 
equaled  the  demand  for  the  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel:'  Tfib 
was  followed  in  1808  by  Marmion,  perhaps  the  stnmgcst  jin.j 
boldest  of  his  poems,  and  in  1810  by  The  Lady  of  the  Lii^, 
in  some  respects  more  pleasing  than  any.  In  these  his \Hnu 
power  culminated.  The  poems  subsequentlv  publishwl—  7/,. 
Vision  of  Dan  Roderick  (1811),  Rokehy  (1812),  The  Bno  r 
of  Triermain  (1813),  The  Lord  of  the  Isles  (1815)— win'  u^.- 
equal  to  the  earlier,  and  in  various  ways  gave  evidence  «.f  i 
waning  popularity,  which  Scott  was  among  the  first  to  n^  - 
ognize.  Another  reason  for  this  perceptive  loss  of  jx)|mlAr 
favor  was  the  appearance  of  another  brilliant  light  in  im 
early  poetrv  of  Lord  Byron. 

During  tliese  six  or  e'ight  years  Scott  had  been  ailvanc  ir  j 
in  fame  and  in  pecuniary  resources.  In  1804  he  t<M)k  th. 
house  of  Ashestiel,  in  the  Ettrick  Forest,  overlooking  tho 
Tweed.  In  1806  his  friends  had  procured  for  him  tht-  H\y 
point ment  to  one  of  the  clerkships  of  the  court  of  se^^i'»I!^ 
worth  about  £1,300  a  year,  the  emoluments  of  which,  h(»w- 
ever,  by  an  express  arrangement,  he  did  not  receive  iiniil 
the  death  of  his  predecessor  in  1812.  Still  earlier,  in  iHit."*. 
he  had  become  a  regular  partner  in  the  printing-hou>e.'f 
James  Ballantyne  &  Co.,  although  this  connection  wa-<  k»  |.i 
a  profound  secret  from  nearly  every  one  of  his  most  intimat** 
fnends.  This  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  importHiit 
step  of  his  life.  "  He  continued  bound  by  it,"  savs  hijs  n.d- 
in-Iaw,  **  during  twenty  years,  and  its  influence  on  his  litt-r- 
ary  exertions  and  his  worldly  fortunes  was  productive  «•! 
much  good,  and  not  a  little  evil."  In  1808  he  took  a  promi- 
nent i>art  in  establishing  TVie  Quarterly  Review  in  L*m«i.'n. 
in  opposition,  politically,  to  77i«  Edinburgh  Rerietr,  the  ac- 
knowledged advocate  of  the  Whigs.  In  1811  he  punha-r.! 
Abbotsford,  a  propertv  of  100  acres  of  land  on  the  baiik^ 
of  the  Tweed,  near  Afelrose,  for  £4,000.  To  this  he  a»i.i.  i 
estate  after  estate  adjoining,  purchasing  at  high  rates  Ua 
he  had  expended  nearly  or  quite  £40,000,  to  which  m\\<\  !•- 
added  £25,000  more  for  preparing  the  grounds  and  eni  tp  ^' 
the  mansion  where  for  a  few  years  he  dispensed  a  splenili«l 
hospitality,  and  to  which  his  fame  drew  visitors  from  evtn 
part  of  the  civilized  world. 

In  1813,  on  the  death  of  Pye,he  was  offered  the  office  of 
poet-laureate,  which  he  refused ;  but  in  Mar.,  1820,  hv  m- 
cepted  a  baronetcy,  and  in  November  of  the  same  vear  the 
presidency  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  llii^  tx»r- 
tions,  two*  yearn  later,  during  the  visit  of  George  IV.  to  Kti- 
inburgh,  seem  to  have  tended,  in  company  with  overwDrk. 
to  undermine  his  health. 

On  tlie  decline  of  his  jwpularity  as  a  poet  his  fertile  niii.-l 
turned  to  another  form  of  literature,  with  which  for  ten  <•: 
twelve  years  he  surprised  and  enchanted  the  world.  In 
1814  appeared,  anonymously,  a  novel  under  the  title  of  Tl'u- 
verley.  The  next  year  Guy  Mannering  was  publishe<l ;  ir. 
1816,  The  Aritiqitary  and  the  first  series  of  the  Tales  of  V, 
Landlord;  in  1817,  Rob  Roy;  in  1818,  The  Heart  of'M.'i- 
lothian  (second  series  of  Tales  of  My  Landlwrd);  \i\  1*<]1«. 
Tales  of  My  Landlord  (third  series)  and  Jvanhoe.  Tin- 
splendid  series  of  novels,  thrown  off  with  an  ease  and  rni'i.t- 
it V  without  parallel,  marks  the  high  tide  of  his  genius.  Tin  -*• 
which  follow  are  on  a  somewhat  lower  level,  but  the  uhun- 
dance  of  the  production  was  hardly  diminished.  The  Mor,- 
astery  and  The  Abbot  followed  in  1820;  Kenil worth  an- 1 
The  Pirate  in  1821;  The  Fortunes  of  Xigel  in  1822;  /v«- 
eril  of  the  Peak,  Quentin  Durward/ Rnd  St,  Ronan's  M'^/' 
in  1823;  Redgauntlet  in  1824;  Tlie  7'ales  of  the  CrumiUr> 
in  1825;  and  VVoo(/«^Of A*,  written  in  the  midst  of  impeni- 
ing  troubles,  in  1826.  The  Chronicles  of  the  Canongate  \\\t^' 
and  second  series)  followed  in  1827  and  1828,  Anne  of  tit  ir  r- 
stein  and  Ttie  Tales  of  3fy  Landlord  (fourth  series)  in  l^:.*i* 
and  18J31  close  the  long  list. 

The  secret  of  the  author  of  Wawrley,  although  known  t- 
some  and  confidently  conjectured  by  almost  every  one.  \».i- 
not  acknowledged  until  after  the  bankruptcy  ofVon>t«lM' 
and  the  Ballantynes  had  rendered  even  a  formal  coiio  a.- 
ment  no  longer  possible.  Early  in  1826  Constable  ^^<i- 
obliged  to  stop  payment,  and  the  Ballantynes,  induihnc 
Scott  as  partner  in  the  house,  being  closely  c'onnectiMl,  U\  •'  i 
for  a  very  large  amount.  The  humiliation  to  Scott  wn>  i'.- 
describable,  but  he  met  the  trial  with  remarkable  stni.u'"' 
and  dignity.  The  most  liberal  otters  of  assistance  wrrv 
made  to  him  by  friends  and  admirers,  among  them  ouo  I'f 
£30,000  from  an  anonymous  corresjiondent,  but  he  finnW 
declined  them  all.  He  refused  to  take  anv  advantaije  oi 
circumstances  which  might  have  freed  him  from  the  claiiu^ 


394 


SCOTTISH  LANGUAGE 


SCRANTON 


Ireland,  and  the  same  cause  perhaps  has  something  to  do 
with  the  very  common  pronunciation  uf  r  in  cases  where 
in  Southern  England  and  some  regions  in  the  U.  S.  that 
sound  has  been  lost  (though  the  Scotch  r  is  not  like  the 
sound  heard  in  the  U.  S.)«  as  well  as  with  the  fact  that  in 
the  U.  S.  speakei-s  rarely  drop  or  misplace  th«  sound  of  h 
in  standard  English,  and  more  generally'  distinguish  wh 
from  w  than  is  the  case  in  England.  But  it  is  not  necessary 
to  assume  that  Scotch  pronunciation  is  the  only  or  even  the 
chief  cause  of  these  and  some  other  features  of  American 
pronunciation.  See,  further,  Jamieson's  Etyinologieal  Dic' 
iionary  of  the  Scottish  Language  (revised  ed.  4  vols.,  1879- 
82) ;  J.  A.  H.  Murray,  Ths  Dialect  of  the  Southern  Coufi- 
ties  of  Scotland  in  transactions  oftfie  (London)  Philological 
Society  (1870-72,  part  ii.);  A.  J.  fellis,  Early  English  Pro- 
nunciation (part  v.,  1889),  etc.  S.  S.  Haldeman. 

Revised  by  E.  S.  Sheldon. 

Scottish  Language :  the  language  spoken  in  Scotland. 
This  is  well  known  to  be  not  a  Celtic  dialect,  but  a  form  of 
English  which  differs  from  the  standard  speech  by  reason 
of  a  separate  development,  and  because  of  external  influ- 
ences to  which  the  latter  has  not  been  subjected  in  the 
same  degree.  English  became  the  language  of  Scotland 
owing  to  political  events  in  the  early  history  of  the  country. 
The  Northumbrian  kingdom  in  the  seventh  century  included 
the  Lowlands  of  Scotland  in  its  supremacy.  As  a  result, 
English,  the  language  o|  Northumbria,  began  to  spread 
more  widely  over  the  Lowlands.  When  the  Scottish  King- 
dom became  separated  from  England,  the  struggles  for 
supremacy  between  the  Saxons  of  the  Lowlands  and  the 
Celts  of  the  Highlands  resulted  in  a  victory  for  the  former, 
and  EngUsh  became  after  a  time  the  recognized  literary 
language. 

The  form  of  English  thus  adopted  was  that  called  North- 
ern English,  spoken  from  the  Humber  northward.  Up  to 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  Scotch-English  did  not 
differ  from  that  used  in  Yorkshire  and  Northumberland. 
From  about  this  time,  however,  owing  to  the  development 
•of  a  separate  national  life  and  literature,  that  form  of 
Northern  English  spoken  in  the  capital  city,  Edinburgh, 
became  the  standard  literary  langua^  of  Scotland-  The 
literature  produced  in  this  language  includes  such  impor- 
tant names  as  Barbour,  James  L  (of  Scotland),  Wyntoun, 
Henryson,  Dunbar,  and  Douglas. 

The  various  external  influences  affecting  Scotch-English 
differ  considerably  in  degree  from  those  affecting  the  lan- 
guage of  England.  Celtic,  which  remained  as  a  linguistic 
sub-stratum  in  the  Lowlands  and  as  the  dominant  speech  of 
the  Highlands  for  many  years,  influenced  the  English  of 
Scotland  more  than  that  of  any  other  part  of  Britain.  Thus 
many  Celtic  words,  not  found  in  English,  belong  to  Scotch. 
The  Norse  or  Scandinavian  influence  was  probably  as  great 
as  upon  Northern  English  as  a  whole,  and  thus  greater  than 
upon  Southern  or  Midland  English.  The  French  influence 
was  due  not  so  much  to  the  Norman  conquest  as  to  those 
close  political  relations  between  Scotland  and  France  which 
enabled  the  former  to  retain  her  independence  for  so  many 
years.  The  revival  of  classical  learning  powerfully  affected 
Scotland,  as  it  did  the  rest  of  Britain,  but  the  earlier  clas- 
sical influence  was  probably  not  so  great  upon  the  language 
of  the  north  as  upon  the  language  of  tne  south.  Moi-e 
powerful  than  all  other  influences  has  been  the  effect  upon 
the  Scottish  language  of  the  standard  language  of  England. 
Its  earliest  marked  effect  was  at  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  this  was  greatly  increased  by  the  union  of  the  two 
countries  under  the  same  kin^  in  1603.  In  fact,  since  that 
time,  except  for  a  partial  revival  of  the  popular  speech  in 
the  poems  of  llamsey,  Fergusson,  and  Burns,  the  Scottish 
language  has  gradually  given  j)lace  to  the  literary  language 
of  England.  Even  the  speaking  of  Scotch-English,  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  English  of  the  south,  has  more  and  more 
been  given  up  by  educated  people,  so  that  this  form  of  the 
language,  so  long  dominant  in  the  northern  kingdom,  has 
been  gradually  sinking  to  the  position  of  a  mere  dialect, 
without  a  literature  or  a  considerable  body  of  cultivated 
speakers. 

A  systematic  treatment  of  the  subject  may  be  found  in 
The  Dialect  of  the  Southern  Counties  of  Scotlami,  by  James 
A.  n.  Murray,  in  Transactions  of  the  (London)  Philological 
Society  (1870-72).    See  English  Language. 

OuYER  Farrae  Emerson. 

Scottish  Llteratare :  See  English  Literature. 

Sootas,  Duns  :  See  Duns  Scotus. 


Sootns,  Johannes  :  See  Erigena. 

Seoul ler,  James  Brown,  D.  D.  :  clergryman ;  b.  near  New- 
ville.  Pa.,  July  12, 1820 ;  educated  at  Dickinson  College  and 
the  United  Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary,  Allt}:hei)y. 
Pa. ;  pastor  of  the  United  Presbyterian  churches.  Fourth  .  f 
Philadelj)hia  1844-47,  Cuylerville,  X.  Y.,  1847-52,  Arc^l.. 
N.  Y.,  1852-62 ;  editor,  1862-63,  of  The  Christian  lnMno''nf, 
for  which  he  had  written  Forty  Letters  from  Abroad,  prlu-,- 
pally  Italy  and  Egypt  (1860-61).  Dr.  Scouller's  i»rint  ipal 
published  works  are  A  Manual  of  the  United  l*rtshijttn<u 
Church  (1881 ;  2d  ed.  1887) ;  Calvinism :  its  Ilistory  nv.l 
Influence  (1885);  and  History  of  the  United  Presbyttroiu 
Church,  in  American  Church  Ilistory  Series  (New  Yf-rk, 
1894).  C.  K.  lloYi. 

Scovel,  Sylvester  Fithtan:  clergyman  and  educator: 
b.  at  Harrison,  O.,  Dec.  29,  1835;  educated  at  Hanover  c  "1- 
lege,  Indiana,  and  New  Albany  (now  McCormick)  Theolo<;i<  al 
Seminary;  pastor  of  Presbyterian  church,  Jefferson ullf. 
lud.,  1852^1,  First  Presbyterian  church,  Springfield,  0.. 
1861-66.  First  Presbyterian,  Pittsburg.  Pa.,  1866-83;  and 
since  1883  has  been  president  of  Wooster  University,  C>lu«». 
He  has  published  sermons,  addresses,  and  Centennial  Vo!- 
urm  of  the  Fir&t  Presbyterian  Church  of  Pitt^turg  {ViiHr 
burg,  1884).  C.  K.Hoyt. 

Scranton:  town;  capital  of  Jackson  co.,  Miss.;  on  th** 
Pascagoula  river  and  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  Railroad : 
half  a  mile  N.  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  45  miles  S.  W.  of  Mi>- 
bile,  Ala.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Mississippi,  ref.  9-H).  It 
saws  and  ships  large  quantities  of  pine  lumber,  has  an  e:L- 
tensive  oyster  industry,  and  contains  a  State  bank  with  & 
capital  of  $25,000,  and  two  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1»<K») 
1,(552;  (1890)1,353. 

Scranton :  city ;  capital  of  Lackawanna  co^  Pa. :  on  th< 
Lackawanna  river,  and  the  Cent,  of  N.  J.,  the  Del.  and 
Hud.,  the  Del,  Lack,  and  W.,  and  the  N.  Y.,  Out.  an^l  W. 
railways;  18  miles  N.  E.  of  Wilkesbarre  and  107  mil«*s  X. 
of  Philadelphia  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  n-f 
3-1).  It  is  the  fourth  city  in  the  State  in  population  and 
the  center  of  the  great  anthracite  coal  region,  and  lm>  & 
picturesque  location  in  the  Lackawanna  valley  on  a  plateau 
at  the  confluence  of  Roaring  brook  and  the  Lackawtii  u.i 
river.  The  city  is  laid  out  with  wide  straight  streets;  ko 
several  public  parks  and  squares,  and  a  beautiful  drive  t<> 
Elmhurst;  and  contains  140  miles  of  streets,  many  im\'*>t 
with  asohalt  and  brick,  improvwl  water-works,  gas  an«i 
electric  light  plants,  and  electric  street-railways.  The  nn-a 
is  191  sq.  miles.  Among  the  notable  public  buildinp^  an 
the  U.  S.  Government  building,  court-house,  umiuiii.l 
building,  Albright  Memorial  Library,  Mose«  Taylor  ll«  - 
pital,  and  the  Oral  School  for  the  deaf  and  dumb.' 

Finances  and  Banking. — The  assessed  valuatitm  (>f  na: 
and  personal  property  in  181)4  was  $19,291,124,  and  tli*-  ii't 
debt  Jan.  1, 1895,  was  f  488,232.  In  1895  there  wen'  \\  i:a- 
tional  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $650,000,  4  M^'t 
banks  with  capital  of  $500,000,  a  trust  and  safe  d«*j'<Mi 
company  with  capital  of  $250,000,  and  an  unclassitied  I  ••:  '^ 
with  capital  of  $30,000.  Scranton  has  15  buildin;r  it:  1 
loan  associations,  all  local  and  all  but  two  on  the  temiiiia!  wz 
plan,  with  an  aggregate  of  4.851  shareholders,  1,708  iK^rrtw- 
ers,  and  25,746^  shares  in  force. 

Churches,  Schools,  etc. — Scranton  is  the  seat  of  a  ]?nirf.r. 
Catholic  bishopric  and  has  70  churches  of  various  deri'  nti- 
nations.  There  are  37  public-school  buildings,  public-*^  i.<  -  \ 
propertv  valued  at  over  $900,000,  4  colleges,  a  nuniierx.^J 
public  libraries,  2  hospitals,  and  4  daily,  17  weekly,  an«i  6 
monthly  periodicals. 

Business  Ifiterests. — The  census  returns  of  1890  slb^w.-l 
138  manufacturing  establishments  (representing  41  iinlu^- 
tries),  with  a  combined  capital  of  $25,144,936,  enipIo\ini: 
8,498  persons,  paving  $3,921,831  for  wages  and  $15.96n.M'5 
for  materials,  with  products  valued  at  $22,801,028.  Tli« 
principal  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  st«'«  1.  4 
establishments,  with  $8,840,706  capital,  emploving  *i'^-^^ 
persons,  paving  $1,726,229  for  wages  and  $10,716,206  f'-r 
materials,  with  products  valued  at  $13,278,299.  Then  fal- 
low the  manufacture  of  malt  liquor,  3  establishments.  $471,- 
700  capital ;  silk  and  silk  goods,  3  establishments,  $440,W 
capital ;  olaned  lumber,  8  establishments,  $429,536  capit.i! : 
flour  ana  feed,  5  establishments ;  carriages  and  wagi>n<,  I'. 
The  city  is  an  important  center  for  general  trade  and  ci.e 
of  the  principal  aistributing-points  for  the  anthracite  enNil 
trade. 

History.^The  city  was  founded  by  Joseph  H.  and  Georige 


H»tt^m  !•  1               1 

1 

1 

1 

^^B 

1 

1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B ' 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K ' 

1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Vt' 

1 

^1 

,  .>Ji  i^Lci^^^  Ir.r.: 

396 


SCRIVKNER'S  CRAMP 


SCUD^RY 


gradnate<l  at  Cambridge,  1835 ;  was  for  many  years  master 
of  classical  schools,  esuecially  that  at  Falmouth,  where  he 
was  also  incumbent  of  a  church  1846-61 ;  became  rector  of 
St.  Gerrans,  Cornwall,  1861 ;  vicar  of  Ilcndon  and  a  preben- 
dary of  Exeter  1876.  D.  at  Hendon,  Oct.  26, 1891.  lie  holds 
a  high  rank  in  the  philological  criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  published  valuable  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament 
of  Stephens  (1860;  7th  ed.  1877)  and  of  the  Codex  Bezce 
(1864) ;  a  Full  Collation  of  the  Codex  Sinaiticus  with  the 
Received  Text  of  the  New  Testament  (1863);  and  the  Cam- 
bridge Paragraph  Bible,  with  the  Text  Revised  and  a  Criti- 
cal introduction  prefixed  (1873);  Greek  Testament^  with 
the  Changes  of  the  New  Testament  Revisers  (1881) ;  wrote  a 
Plain  Introduction  to  the  Criticism  of  the  New  Testament 
(1861 ;  4th  ed.  by  E.  Miller,  revised  and  enlarged,  1894,  2 
vols.),  and  other  works  of  kindred  character ;  was  appointed 
one  of  the  company  of  revision  of  the  authorized  version  of 
the  New  Testament  1870,  and  was  granted  a  pension  from 
the  civil  list  18?2, "  in  recognition  of  his  services  in  connec- 
tion with  biblical  criticism." 

Sciiyener's  Cramp :  See  Neurosis. 

Serornla,  or  Strama  [scrofula  is  from  Lat.  scro'ftUa, 
scrofulous  swellings,  scrofula,  plur.  of  *scro'fula^  liter.,  dimin, 
of  scro'fa,  sow,  swine  being  affected  by  a  similar  disease ; 
struma  is  from  Lat.  stniere,  to  build,  since  the  lymphatic 
glands  are  enlarged  in  this  condition] :  a  constitutional  dis- 
ease characterized  mainly  by  defective  nutrition  of  the  tis- 
sues. Persons  of  the  lymphatic  temperament  are  most  liable 
to  develop  tlie  marked  symptoms  of  struma  or  scrofula. 
Scrofula  is  hereditary  in  manv  families.  In  other  persons 
it  may  arise  de  novo  from  bad  hygiene  and  regimen,  espe- 
cially  in  children  when  rapidly  developing.  Most  cases  for- 
merly considered  scrofulous  are  now  regarded  as  tuberculous, 
directly  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  Bacillus  tuberculosis. 
Many  symptoms,  too,  of  disordered  blood-states  formerly 
grouped  as  scrofulous  are  now  distinguished  as  having  defi- 
nite causes.  Eczema,  though  often  an  exponent  of  struma, 
is  as  often  due  to  other  causes — nervous  influences,  gouty  or 
rheumatic  taint,  gastric  and  intestinal  derangements.  The 
scrofulous  person  is  often  light-complexioncd.  the  skin  white, 
the  body  full,  or  even  obese,  but  the  muscles  soft  and  flabby. 
In  other  individuals,  of  what  is  called  the  dark  strumous 
type,  there  maybe  delicately  formed  features,  clear  complex- 
ion, and  much  personal  beauty.  The  chief  characteristic  of 
scrofula  is  the  susceptibility  of  the  lymphatic  glands  and  of 
the  bones  and  joints  to  grave  forms  of  disease  from  slight 
exciting  causes.  It  must  not  be  confused  with  rachitis,  or 
rickets,  with  which  it  has  no  necessary  connection,  nor  with 
inherited  syphilis.  Either  persistently  or  with  every  slight 
impairment  of  health  the  glands  of  the  neck,  groin,  abdo- 
men, etc.,  may  become  indurated  and  enlarged.  Such  swell- 
ings may  be*  evanescent  or  leave  permanent  indurations. 
The  glands  of  the  neck  freouently  are  so  engorged  with 
scrofulous  exudative  matter  tnat  it  undergoes  cheesy  or  ca- 
seous degeneration — or  actually  suppurates,  producing  scrof- 
ulous abscess.  Scrofula  is  not,  then,  a  definite  specific  dis- 
ease, but  a  condition  of  serious  perversions  of  the  nutritive 
(qualities  of  the  blood,  and  resulting  affections  of  the  various 
tissues  and  organs  of  the  body.  Enlarged  glands,  moist 
skin  diseases,  superficial  abscesses,  and  destructive  inflam- 
mations of  the  bones  and  joints  are  some  of  its  manifesta- 
tions. Inherited  scrofulous  taint  may  remain  latent  until 
developed  by  depressing  sickness.  Thus  measles,  a  harm- 
less disorder  in  robust  children,  is  hazardous  when  struma 
lurks  in  the  system.  The  bottle-fed  infant  and  the  found- 
ling are  more' often  scrofulous  than  the  nursed,  home-reared 
child.  The  mucous  surfaces  are  very  liable  to  disease  in  stru- 
ma, chronic  bronchial  catarrh,  diarrhoea,  and  cholera  infan- 
tum. The  relation  of  scrofula  and  tuberculosis  is  disputed. 
Modem  pathologists  believe  that  the  bacillus  of  tubercle  is 
the  efficient  cause  of  most  of  the  conditions  formerly  at- 
tributed to  struma,  the  micro-organism  lying  dormant  in  the 
body  until  from  some  accidental  source  of  depression  a 
suitable  nidus  is  formed  for  its  development  ana  multipli- 
cation ;  but  there  are  some  cases  in  which  neither  tubercle 
nor  syphilis  can  be  demonstrated,  and  for  these  the  term 
struma  may  still  properly  bo  retained.  The  treatment  of 
scrofula  is  hygienic  and  nutritive — warm  clothing,  bathing, 
friction  to  the  skin,  pure  air,  nutritious  diet,  special  articles 
such  as  cod-liver  oil,  and  preparations  of  malt  and  of  phos- 
phates. Iron,  iodine,  and  arsenical  preparations  act  as  al- 
teratives to  reduce  glandular  enlargements. 

Revised  by  John  Ashuurst,  Jr. 


Scrophalaria'cesB :  See  Fioworts. 

Scrapie  [from  htkt.  sent' pulus  (dimin.  of  scru'pus^A  rou;:l . 
sharp  stone),  pebble,  (as  a  weight)  a  scruple]:  m  aiK>ihi  ... 
ries*  weight,  one-third  of  a  drachm,  20 grains,  the  ylxlh  j",!'* 
of  the  pound  troy.    The  Romans  gave  the  name  to  the  ji . : 
part  of  any  standard  unit  of  measure. 

Scndder,  IIenry  Martyn,  M.D..  D.D.:  clergyman  a.l 
missionary;  son  of  Kev.  John  Scudder;  b.  at  Panditer.j  •. 
district  of  Jaffna,  Ceylon,  Feb.  5,  1822 ;  went  to  the  U.  S.  I'i 
1832 :  graduated  at  University  of  City  of  New  York  in  IM". 
and  at  Union  Theological  Seminary  m  1843;  was  ordaiiiMJ 
a  Presbyterian  clergyman  same  year,  and  sailed  for  Ma(ira> 
as  a  missionary  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  1  r 
Foreign  Missions.  In  addition  to  his  missionary  work  In- 
studied  medicine  in  the  medical  college  of  Madras,  graduutt-i. 
opened  a  hospital  and  dispensary  for  grataitoos  treat nin.t 
of  the  poor,  and  received  an  honorary  M.  D.  from  New  V<  ^^ 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in  1853.  He  was  in 
Madras  from  1844  to  1851,  and  in  the  Arcot  Mission  fn  in 
1851  to  1863 ;  returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  1864 :  was  pastor  of  a 
Reformed  Dutch  church  in  Jersey  City  1865-71 ;  was  a  Prt- 
byterian  pastor  in  San  Francisco;  was  pastor  of  the  (Vntpa. 
Congregational  church,  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1871-Nov..  Ih^j  ; 
pastor  of  Ply^mouth  Congregational  church,  Chicagi>,  II... 
1883-87.  Ills  publications  include  several  works  in  iii' 
Tamil  language.  lie  went  to  Japan  in  1887  to  enga^'t- ::. 
missionary  work. 

Sendder,  Horace  Elisha  :  author ;  b.  in  Boston,  Ma- . 
Oct.  16,1838;  puduated  at  Williams  College  185H:  tai..- 
in  New  York  till  1861,  when  he  removed  to  Boston  anti  o-  - 
voted  himself  to  literary  work.  He  was  editor  of  The  Ki'^f- 
side  Magazine  (Cambridge,  1867-71),  and  became  a  n.*<il' •  • 
of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1875.  In  1890  he  became  e<litor  of  !•  - 
Atlantic  Monthly.  He  is  the  author  of  Seven  Little  Pt-i- " 
and  their  Friends  (1862);  Dream  CAiWrw  (1863) ;  Stw\.s 
from  my  Attic  (1869);  The  Bodley  Books  (\S7r>-H7) -,  Tf" 
Dwellers  in  Five-Sisters  Court  (1876) ;  Stories  and  Romnu.'  ^ 
(1880);  LifeofNoah  Webster{\9m\  History  of  the  i'nr'  ' 
States  (1884);  Men  and  Letters  (1888):  etc. 

Revisecl  by  H.  A.  Beer>. 

Sendder,  John,  D. D.,  M.  D.:  missionary;  b.  at  Fn-.h. ! ... 
N.  J.,  Sept.  3, 1793 ;  graduated  at  Princeton  1811 ;  M.  D..  C.  - 
lege  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York,  1815;  l)e(:i!i' 
a  physician  in  New  York,  where  he  was  house-surgt-un  '■• 
the  City  Hospital ;  abandoned  an  extensive  pra<.»tice  U>  <i-- 
vote  himself  to  missionary  work;  was  a  missionarv  pliw- 
cian  of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  m  Ceylon  1820-36.  after  whi.h  i  • 
was  transferred  to  the  Madras  mission ;  spent  several  >f.ii- 
(1842-46)  in  the  U.  S.,  visited  the  Cape  of  Gooti  llo\n^  i  ' 
his  health  1854,  and  died  of  apoplexy  at  Wynberg.  S-.' . 
Africa,  Jan.  13,  1855.  Author  of  several  publicatitm."  >  *. 
missionary  subjects.  His  labors  in  the  establishment  • : 
hospitals  and  schools  in  Ceylon  and  Southern  India  vor 
very  successful.  He  takes  rank  with  the  best  of  the  r.nr. . 
missionaries  in  India.  His  ten  children — eight  sons  a'.-; 
two  daughters — all  became  missionaries  in  India ;  nuM  ' 
them  are  also  phvsicians.  See  his  Memoir^  by  Rev.  J.  i'. 
Waterbury  (New  tork,  1856). 

Sendder,  Samuel  Hubbard:  naturalist;  b.  in  B< »<<•'. 
Mass.,  Apr.  13, 1837 ;  graduated  at  Williams  College  \<u. 
and  at  Lawrence  Scientific  School  of  Harvard  1862.  lie  ha- 
been  a  prominent  member  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natun.l 
History,  holding  almost  every  ofiice,  including  that  of  pr«  hi- 
dent  (1880-87).  He  was  assistant  librarian  of  Han-ant  ( •  \- 
lege  1879-82;  paleontologist  of  the  U.  S.  geological  Mir\'-^ 
1^6-92;  member  National  Academy  of  Science  since  1>TT. 
His  publications,  which  number  upward  of  620.  are  man.  v 
upon  insects,  especially  butterflies,  Orthopt^ra,  and  ft^ssil  u- 
sects.  Among  the  more  important  of  his  works  may  be  et  •..• 
merated  :  Catalogue  of  N  A.  Orthoptera  (1867);  A  {V«.'' ' 
of  Orthoptera  (1868-79) :  Catalogue  of  Scientific  *SVri-.  • 
(1879);  Butterflies:  their  Structures,  Changes,  and  L'"- 
histories  {imi)\  NomenclatorZoologieus(lSS2);  Butter'  > 
of  the  Eastern  United  States  (1888-^9) ;  Tertian/  In*rrf<.' 
North  America  (1890);  Life  of  a  Butterfly  (1893);  (t'>  " 
to  the  Common  Butterflies  (1893).  He  was  also  une  of  t;- 
founders  of  Science,  and  its  editor  1883-85. 

J.  S.  KiNtJSLM. 

Solidary,  skn'dti'rw'.  Madeleine,  de :  poet  and  novi)  >* : 
b.  at  Havre,  France,  June  15,  1607;  was  educatetl  in  Trtn-; 
became  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  figures  in  the  lit«n-t 
circle  of  the  Hotel  Rambouillet,  and  acquired  great  celebn.^ 


398 


SCULPTURE 


mental  development  than  rude  sculpture.  It  is  not  meant 
that  scnlpture  always  precedes  drawing;  probably  the  re- 
verse is  the  case,  because  the  temptation  to  scratch  or  other- 
wise mark  on  a  flat  surface,  and  in  doing  so  to  represent  a 
beast  or  a  man,  must  always  have  been  present.  Sculpture 
may  not  always  precede  drawing,  but  will  always  be  found 
more  nearly  trutnf  ul  to  nature  than  the  drawing  of  the  same 
epoch.  The  sculptor  having  form  only  to  consider  is  con- 
cerned at  first  with  two  things :  The  first,  to  produce  an  or- 
namental object,  or  else  to  ornament  parts  of  a  useful  thing, 
as  a  paddle  or  the  prow  of  a  canoe ;  the  second,  to  represent 
something  that  he  takes  an  interest  in.  Another  idea  often 
mingles  with  these  two — ^namely,  the  production  of  an  object, 
like  an  idol  or  fetish,  in  which  he  can  embody  some  notion 
of  worship  or  which  he  can  use  to  terrify  an  enemy.  This 
last  motive  speedily  disappears  or  becomes  of  little  moment 
as  the  skill  of  the  sculptor  increases.  As  he  becomes  able 
to  deal  with  form  somewhat  easily  and  with  results  partly 
satisfying  to  himself,  he  finds  a  pleasure  so  intense  in  the  pro- 
duction of  his  work  of  art  and  also  in  the  suggestions  from 
nature  which  he  is  enabled  to  embody  in  it  that  he  forgets 
all  other  considerations.  Thus  in  an  Assyrian  sculptured  slab 
covered  with  figures  in  low-relief  representing  a  battle,  the 
triumphal  entry  of  a  king,  or  the  same  kin^  hunting  a  lion, 
it  is  evident  that  the  sculptor's  chief  care  is  for  the  beauty 
of  his  work.  His  slab  was  one  of  many  which  were  to  form 
the  dado  of  a  long  and  narrow  gallery ;  the  persons  who  were 
to  see  his  bas-relief  would  never  be  far  away  from  it,  and 
it  was  for  a  point  of  view  10  or  15  feet  away,  "and  for  light 
coming  from  high  in  the  wall,  that  he  had  to  plan  his  work. 
Therefore  his  figures  were  small,  or,  when  large,  filled  with 
small  details  ;  his  relief  was  kept  low,  and  the  outline  when 
the  relief  quits  the  background  was  especially  cared  for. 
Under  these  conditions  he  labored  to  produce  the  most  beau- 
tiful or  striking  combinations  of  lines  and  masses  possible 
to  him ;  but  in  doing  this  he  made  reference  constantly  to 
nature,  and  indeed  found  in  the  study  of  nature  his  chief 
suggestions  of  beauty  and  of  strength,  ferocity,  swift  and  vig- 
orous action,  and  otHer  things  agreeable  to  look  upon.  Thus 
nothing  he  could  imagine  would  be  as  fine,  let  us  suppose, 
as  a  lion  in  free  action  walking  or  springing ;  to  this  beau- 
tiful thing  he  could  a<ld  human  interest  by  showing  the  lion 
stniggling  with  the  hunters ;  and  if  in  so  doing  he  was  able 
to  fiatter  the  king  who  employed  him  by  representing  his 
majesty  twice  as  tall  as  his  attendants  and  easily  victorious 
over  lions  by  the  score,  this  in  no  wav  interfered  with  his 
artistic  design  or  its  impressiveness.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that 
religious  or  patriotic  impulses  act  upon  the  sculptor  as  upon 
other  men.  Such  impulses,  however,  do  not  seriously  modify 
the  sculptors  work,  except  in  so  far  as  they  stimulate  the 
whole  man,  excite  his  enthusiasm,  raise  him  above  himself 
as  the  phrase  is,  and  in  doing  this  they  may  improve  his 
work  or  ruin  it  as  man's  nature  and  his  surroundings  may 
decree.  Thus  in  the  famous  group  by  Francois  Rude  on  the 
eastern  face  of  the  Arc  de  I'Etoile  and  representing  the  de- 
parture for  the  war  of  patriotic  volunteers,  there  is  no  ques- 
tion that  Rude  was  strongly  in  sympathy  with  the  subject 
chosen  and  the  enthusiastic  love  of  country  which  suggested 
it.  As  a  sculptor,  however,  he  was  concerned  chiefly  with 
the  beauty  and  vigor  of  his  composition  and  the  harmoniz- 
ing of  the  numerous  and  variea  masses  which  make  it  up, 
and  at  the  same  time  with  the  full  expression  of  the  differ- 
ent figures,  here  of  youthful  agility,  there  of  manly  strength 
in  its  maturity,  and  in  the  crowning  figure  of  womanly 
forms  carried  to  superhuman  massiveness  and  force.  Pa- 
triotism and  hostility  to  the  foes  of  France  must  have  acted 
upon  Rude  as  a  powerful  stimulus  throughout  his  life,  but 
it  is  only  in  this  indirect  way  that  those  |)assions  can  be  said 
to  have  dictated  the  design  for  Le  Depart, 

History, — The  earliest  sculpture  of  which  the  date  can  be 
fixed  approximately  is  that  of  the  Egyptian  buildings  of  the 
early  dynasties,  and  the  few  statues  of  the  same  epoch  which 
have  been  discovered.  These  are  dated  by  different  authori- 
ties at  from  4500  to  3500  b.  c.  The  merit  of  those,  both  ar- 
tistically and  in  the  representation  of  natural  forms  and  ex- 
pression of  face,  is  very  great,  so  that  we  find  Egyptian  fine 
art  already  in  an  advanced  stage  of  development  at  that 
early  age.  The  sculptures  from  Mesopotamia  of  a  date  al- 
most as  remote  are  indeed  far  inferior  in  merit  to  the  Egvf)- 
tian,  but  are  still  those  of  an  advanced  civilization.  Tliere 
is  no  doubt  that  further  investigations  in  the  region  about 
the  Euphrates  will  reveal  a  continuous  series  of  civilizations, 
vying  with  one  another  in  their  fine  arts  as  in  other  respects. 
That  of  which  we  know  the  most  is  the  Assyrian  sculpture. 


(See  Assyrian  Abt.)  There  was  also  sculpture  produced 
among  the  mountainous  states  of  Asia  Minor  which  has  W'f-a 
studied  with  some  success  since  about  1880;  this  is  of  pe<'u;- 
iar  importance  because  of  the  influence  of  its  later  pn.^i  i<  - 
tions  over  the  early  art  of  Greece.  (For  the  more  devei<»j»,-il 
art  of  Greece,  see  Grecian  Architecture;  also  AiLf-uni*  - 
TURE,  Chryselephantine  Statues,  and  Parthenon.)  Tti- 
dates  of  Greek  sculpture  are  nearly  as  follows :  During  th*- 
years  from  600  to  480  B.  c.  the  earliest  works  which  can  i>r«t('' 
erly  be  called  Grecian  were  produced,  such  as  the  mptojrt-. 
of  Selinus  now  in  the  Museum  of  Palermo,  the  ApoUo  *>f 
Tenea  at  Munich,  the  Apollo  of  Thera  at  Athens,  the  seati-il 
figures  from  Branchid®  (Miletus)  in  the  British  !Vfus<.*ui:i. 
the  frieze  of  the  Temple  of  Assos  partlv  in  the  Louvre,  a;»'i 
the  pediment  sculptures  of  the  Temple  of  j£gina,  ii«»w  iti 
Munich.  These  are  arranged  here  in  the  order  of  their  in- 
creasing refinement.  The  two  fine  statues  at  Xaple>  caHt^l 
Marmodiua  and  Aristogiton  are  thought  to  be  copies'  or  d'j- 
plicates  of  statues  put  up  in  Athens  about  500  b.  c.  The  n  - 
markable  statues  found  in  Athens  on  the  Acropolis  in  l*^<-5 
and  1886,  and  distinguished  by  their  well-preserved  |»aint  itu. 
may  be  of  the  years  from  500  to  the  Persian  invasion  in  4lr.*. 
The  Persian  wars  following  this  year  and  lastin|:  till  4 77 
may  probably  have  checked  the  growth  of  fine  art  in  (in-v... , 
while  preparing  for  a  rapid  and  splendid  development  ^  itl. 
peace.  When  Athens  became  the  chief  city  in  Greeee  ai  'I 
the  head  of  a  confederation  of  states,  the  epoc:h  of  her  grt  at- 
est  and  noblest  fine  art  was  soon  to  begin.  The  vear^  fr<  m 
460  to  430  B.  c.  are  marked  by  the  sculptures  of  tlie  Tenij  .. 
of  Zeus  at  01ympia,of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  of  the  Tvn.- 
ple  at  Bassap  (Phigaleia),  of  the  Temple  of  Athena  Nike  *  u 
the  Acropolis,  and  in  part  of  the  Erechtheum.  The  <  li;.  f 
sculptors  of  the  best  time  of  Grecian  art,  with  the  dat»-s  <  f 
their  highest  achievement  approximately  given, are  Phidias 
440;  Mvron,  440;  Cresilas,  440;  Polyclitus,  430;  S<.-.»f  m^. 
420;  Cephisodotus,  370;  Praxiteles.  360.  From  that  Xiu.*- 
until  the  third  century  a.d.  the  history  of  Greek  sculpt ur*- 
is  mainly  that  of  an  art  serving  states  or  powers  not  (4rfHk  . 
the  merit  and  importance  of  the  work  done  varies  v»tt 
greatly,  according  to  the  opportunity  offered  by  the  ne^ 
masters  of  the  Mediterranean  world,  such  as  the  Kinjr<  <'t 
Pergamum,  then  Alexander  the  Great  and  his  8ucc-e-s?-»r^, 
and  finally  the  Roman  dominion.  A  great  deal  of  ntibi'- 
sculpture  was  produced  in  every  brief  epoch,  if  not  in  every 
year,  down  to  the  death  of  Marcus  Aureiius  in  180  a.  d.  :S^V* 
Roman  AacHiEOLOOY. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  sculpture  was  common Iv 
painted  in  bright  and  varied  colors  among  all  the  peoplr-i 
of  antiquity.  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Greeks,  and  the  jH'opU- 
of  the  Gneco-Roman  empire  all  agreed  in  this.    See  Po2^^> 

CHROMY. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  sculpture  had  less  purely  sculj- 
turcsrpie  character  than  generally  in  classical  antiquity — 
that  is  to  say,  the  artists  had  less  sense  of  the  beauty  an<l 
expressiveness  of  pure  form,  as  in  the  human  body.  They 
knew  much  less  about  the  body,  partly  because  of  the  cus- 
tom of  wearing  very  full  and  ample  clothing,  and  no  lon^^r 
bathing  and  exercising  in  public  as  the  ancients  had  (^>ne  ; 
religion,  moreover,  taught  the  unworthiness  of  the  flesh  as 
nothing  in  Greek  or  Roman  life  had  asserted  it.  On  tht^ 
other  hand,  the  decorative  and  building  instinct  was  vt^ry 
strong  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Bvzantine  arti5t*st 
had  no  sculpture  beyond  that  of  capitals  ana  similar  an*hi- 
tectural  members  and  rude  bas-relieis  of  sacred  subject ;  t  hei  r 
decoration  was  chiefly  in  color  on  fiat  surfaces.  The  Wesi- 
cm  nations  in  the  years  following  the  establishment  of  coni> 
paratively  i)eaceful  communities  showed  a  strong  taste  for 
figure-sculpture  as  useil  in  the  decoration  of  architect urv. 
This  was  rude  enough  in  the  eleventh  century,  but  grew  rap- 
idly in  refinement.  The  statues  in  the  porches  and  the  *'  n>ynl 
galleries  "  in  such  cathedrals  as  Chart  res  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, Bourges,  Paris,  and  Chartres  again  in  the  thirtet-nUi 
century,  are  the  highest  development  known  to  us  of  si-ul;- 
ture,  whose  chief  aim  is  decoration,  the  climax  of  ei«-i  I- 
lence  being  reached  in  the  porches  of  Rheims  cathetlr.t' 
(1250,  and  the  following  years).  This  art  was  pursueii  >*  r.  ♦! 
almost  equal  success  in  England,  Spain,  and  parts  of  r»tr- 
many.  In  Italy  the  mediaeval  sculpture  is  abundant  i\v*\ 
beautiful;  it  keeps  something  of  the  ancient  grace  and  a!^> 
some  of  the  ancient  knowledge  of  the  human  form.  For  th»* 
development  of  sculpture  in  Italy  at  the  close  of  the  Mid«i  •.♦ 
A^es,  see  Renaissance,  Michelangelo,  and  the  names  <'f 
other  sculptors  of  the  eptx'h.  In  France  and  the  north  p»'n- 
erally  sculpture  passed  from  the  style  of  the  Middle  A^^  s 


400 


SCUTCUING 


SEA-BASS 


ber,  metals,  drugs,  paper,  and  earthenware;  exports  (in  value 
only  one-third  of  the  imports)  raw  stuffs,  dyewoods,  and  rags. 
Pop.  36,000,  of  whom  27,500  are  Mussulmans. 

£.  A.  Grosvenob. 

SSentchingr :  See  Flax. 

Sciitibranchia^ta  FMod.  Lat. ;  Lat.  scu'tum,  shield  + 
hran'chicB^  gills]  :  an  obsolete  term  for  those  molluscs  now 
included  under  the  Zygobranehia,    See  Gasteropoda. 

Seyelite :  See  Pebidotite, 

Scylax,  si'laks  (Gr.  2ic^Xa|) :  Greek  geographer  of  Cary- 
anda  in  Caria,  who,  by  command  of  Danus  L,  made  a  voyage 
of  discovery  from  tne  Indus  through  the  Indian  Ocean  to 
the  Red  Sea  (Ilerodotus,  iv.,  44).  The  PeripluSy  which  bears 
the  name  of  Scylax  and  describes  a  vovaee  along  the  coast 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  is  a  mucn  later  performance, 
and  has  been  assigned  to  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century 
B.  c.  It  was  edited  by  Mailer  {Oeoaraphi  GrcBci  Minorea^ 
vol.  i.,  pp.  15-98).  See  Bunbury,  llistory  of  Ancient  Ge- 
ography (vol.  i.,  p.  384,  seq.),  B.  L.  G. 

ScvUa,  or  Scilla,  sillaa  (Gr.  rh  S^^XAoioy  inpw;  Ital. 
Sciglio) :  a  high  and  steep  promontory  on  the  Italian  side 
of  the  Strait  of  Messina.  In  ancient  mythology  it  was  the 
home  of  the  sea-monster  Scylla,  who,  along  with  the  whirl- 
pool Chary bd is,  threatened  destruction  to  all  mariners. 

J.  R.  S.  S. 

Scylll'idiB  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  ScyUium^  the  typical 
eenus,  in  form  dimin.  of  Gr.  Sic^AAa,  Scylla ;  cf.  (ric^Xioy,  dog- 
fish, and  ffic^AXciy,  rend,  tear] :  a  family  of  sharks  distin- 
guished by  the  position  of  their  dorsal  fins  and  their  habit 
of  laying  eggs  like  those  of  the  rays.  It  includes  the  dog- 
fishes. The  body  is  more  elongated  than  is  the  case  with 
the  sharks  generally.  The  ScylliidiB  are  inhabitants  en- 
tirely of  the  seas  of  the  Old  World  and  Australia.  They  are 
among  the  few  sharks  which  lay  eggs  invested  in  parchment- 
like  cases,  like  those  of  the  rays.    Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Scym'nidiB  [Mod.  Lat..  named  from  Scymnus,  the  typ- 
ical genus,  from  Gr.  (ric^/iyos,  cub,  whelpl :  a  family  of  sharks 
distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  anal  fins  and  presence  of 
unarmed  dorsals.    It  includes  the  Greenland  sharks. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Seymnns,  sim'niis  (Gr.  ^6fufos) :  Greek  geographer,  to 
whom  has  been  attributed  an  outline  of  the  geography  of 
the  ancient  world  composed  in  iambic  trimeters.  Tne  au- 
thorship of  this  w^fH^rriffUf  as  it  is  called,  is  doubtful,  as  the 
original  Scymnus  wrote  in  prose,  and  the  time  is  uncertain, 
the  first  or  second  century  b.  c.  It  was  edited  by  M tiller 
{Oeographi  OroBci  Minores,  vol.  i.,  pp.  196-237).  See  Bun- 
bury,  liistory  of  Ancient  Geography  (vol.  iL,  71).    B.  L.  G. 

8cyphomeda'8»  [Gr.  (nct^s,  cup  +  Medusa,  a  fabled 
monster]:  a  group  of  ccelenterates  belonging  to  the  class 

SCYPHOZOA  {q,  V,), 

Seyphoph'ori  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  <rid^f,  cup  +  ^^pciy,  bear] : 
an  order  of  fishes  established  by  Prof.  Cope,  and  distin- 
guished by  the  following  characters :  The  skeleton  is  com- 
pletely ossified ;  the  basis  cranii  simple :  the  parietals  nar- 
row, and  distinct  from  each  other  as  well  as  the  supraoc- 
cipital ;  the  pterygoid  is  very  peculiar,  being  enlarged  and 
funnel-shaped,  and  excavatea  by  a  bowl-like  chamber 
(whence  the  name),  which  expands  laterally  and  is  covered 
by  a  lid-like  bone  ;  no  symplectic  exists ;  the  jaws  are  well 
developed,  but  the  intermaxillaries  coalesce,  at  least  in  the 
ohl,  into  a  single  bone,  and  the  maxillaries  are  lateral ; 
opercular  apparatus  complete,  but  with  the  interoperculum 
and  suboperculum  reduced  in  size ;  scapular  arch  with  the 
several  coracoid  elements  represented ;  the  brain  has  over 
the  cerebellum  a  peculiar  plicated  organ  ;  the  air-bladder  is 
simple,  and  communicatee  by  a  duct  with  the  intestinal 
canal.  The  order  is  related  to  the  more  generalized  form  of 
Teleoceohali,  as  well  as  to  the  Nematoanathi,  It  is  repre- 
sented by  but  two  known  families,  which  are  peculiar  to  the 
rivers  of  Africa  ;  these  are  the  Mormyridce  and  Gymnarchi- 
dce,  Theodore  Gill. 

Scyphozo'a  [Gr.  exO^tj  cup  +  ((e^u^  nnimal] :  one  of  the 
great  divisions  or  classes  of  the  ('(KLExtkrata  {g.  r.),  includ- 
ing the  sea-anemones,  coral-polyps,  and  the  acraspedote  jellv- 
fishes.  The  group  is  differentiated  from  the  other  class  (Z^- 
drozoa)  by  the  fact  that  there  is  an  eclcxlerinal  oesophagus 
formed  by  the  inpushing  of  the  external  skin  through  the 
mouth.  As  in  all  Coelenterata,  there  is  no  distinction  be- 
tween the  digestive  cavity  and  body-cavity,  but  the  com- 
mon enteric  cavity  is  complicated  by  folds  of  the  outer  wall 


(septa)  which  increase  greatly  the  amount  of  digestive  sur- 
face. On  these  septa  are  borne  thread-like  gastrai  or  ni*;*- 
enterial  filaments  which  play  an  important  part  in  digest  i'.n. 
The  sexes  are  usually  separate  and  the  genital  prcxiu*  t> 
(eggs  and  spermatozoa)  arise  from  the  entoderm.  Two  >u\»- 
classes  are  recognized,  the  Scyphomedusce  and  the  Anthoz'ii. 
The  SeyphomedusfB  (except  the  lucemarians) are  free-sw  in - 
ming  solitary  forms  commonly  known  as  jellyfishes,  in  wliirii 
the  body  is  umbrella-shaped  or  disk-like,  the  mouth  kx^in^  ««ii 
the  extremity  of  a  longer  or  shorter  proboscis,  while  the  Mi  im- 
porting layer  (mesogloea)  which  lies  between  the  ec-todeni 
and  entoderm  of  all  CWeriYera/a  is  develo|)ed  into  a  thii  k 
gelatinous  mass  which  makes  up  the  bulk  of  the  bcxlv.  Ic 
the  ^n/Aozoa  (often  called  Actinozoa)  9kte  included  ^esvil*>, 
solitary,  or  colonial  (compound)  forms  commonly  calle<l  s*  vi- 
anemones,  coral-polyps,  and  the  like.  In  these  the  bcxly  it- 
tains  a  more  simple  condition.  It  is  more  or  less  c<^liiinnNT 
and  the  free  end  or  oral  disk  is  surrounded  by  a  circh*  <•! 
tentacles,  the  number  varying  between  wide  limits  (sc^e  U- 
low).  In  the  center  of  the  oral  disk  is  the  slit-like  iiK»u'h. 
no  proboscis  being  present.  From  the  mouth  the  ecto^ier- 
inal  oesophagus  extends  into  the  body,  opening  below  into 
the  large  digestive  chamber.  In  many  forms  the  two  eri<l- 
of  the  mouth  differ,  one  being  for  the  taking  in  of  water, 
while  from  the  other  flows  out  the  water  already  osecl,  car- 
rying with  it  the  indigestible  particles  taken  m  with  th*.- 
food.  The  digestive  cavity  is  partially  divided  by  the  s*»y»TM 
(already  noticed),  which  are  folds  of  the  lining  Walls  whi<  i) 
project  inward  from  the  wall  of  the  body  like  the  spoke*»  «if 
a  wheel  from  the  rim  toward  the  hub.  The  arrangement  of 
these  septa  varies  greatly,  but  in  all  cases  there  are  at  either 
one  or  both  ends  of  the  body  (corresponding  to  the  lonp-r 
axis  of  the  mouth)  septa  which  differ  from  the  rest  and 
are  consequently  known  as  directives.  The  support  in ^' 
layer  is  weakly  developed,  never  attaining  the  thickness  pr»*- 
sented  in  the  Scyphomed^iwe.  The  Anthozoa  are  diviilf 
into  orders  chieify  upon  the  number  and  amngement  •>! 
the  septa.  In  the  Octocorallia  {q.  t\)  the  septa  are  eic^T. 
and  there  are  usually  eight  feathery  tentacles  surround  iiu' 
the  oral  disk.  In  the  Tetracoballia  {q,  t*.),  a  croup  of  ftr>- 
sil  forms  occurring  in  the  Palaeozoic  rocks,  the  septa  an' 
very  numerous,  but  are  always  in  multiples  of  four.  In  thf 
IIexacoballia  (g.  v.)  the  tentacles  are  always  in  inulti)iif^ 
of  six,  while  the  septa,  except  in  a  few  instances — e.  g.  A  nttp- 
alhuSf  with  two— follow  the  same  law.       J.  S.  Kinusley. 

.Scyros :  See  Skyros. 

Scythe  [^M.  Eng.  sit  he  <  0.  Eng.  sighe :  IceL  sighri  (Jerm. 
«en«e<0.  H.  Germ,  segansa  is  from  same  root ;  cf.  I^t.  ^- 
ca're,  cut] :  a  long,  curved  blade.' sharp  on  the  concave  ^^liz*-, 
used  in  cutting  grass.  It  is  attached,  for  use,  to  a  our\('«i 
handle,  called  a  snath.  Shorter  and  stron^r  scythes  art* 
used  for  cutting  bushes,  etc.  The  introduction  of'niowini:- 
machines  has  to  a  great  extent  superseded  the  use  of  scvthc^ 
in  haymaking;,  but  where  the  fonner  can  not  be  employ  «.ii 
scythes  are  still  indispensable. 

Scyth'ia :  the  ancient  name  for  the  vast  regions  wliir!: 
extend  N.,  E.,  and  S.  of  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Sea  *  f 
Aral.  It  was  not  so  much  used  as  a  geographical  term,  f *  »r 
the  boundaries  of  these  regions  were  entirely  undefined  ;  it 
was  rather  a  general  term  by  which  the  Romans  den<*teil  a 
swarm  of  savage  tribes  living  tliere,  of  whom  they  knew  verv 
little. 

Scythop'olls :  the  Beth-sh^an  of  Josh.  xvii.  11,  the  Bfth- 
shan  of  1  Sam.  xxxi.  10,  now  called  Beisan,  the  most  im- 
portant city  of  the  ancient  Decapolis  {q.  t*.),  and  the  oni\ 
one  W.  of  the  Jordan,  about  4  miles  from  that  river,  aud 
nearly  14  miles  S.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  It  was  nearly  ll^ 
well  watered  as  Damascus,  four  perennial  streams  ninniu  j^ 
through  it.  It  was  a  place  of  great  stren^h,  its  acro{>«.:.> 
rising  800  feet  above  the  plain.  ,The  ruins,  which  art'  :( 
miles  in  circuit,  surpass  all  others  in  Western  Palestine.  Ir^ 
classic  jiame,  ScythopoliSy  is  of  disputed  derivation,  but  t!i«- 
old  conjecture  that  there  was  there  a  remnant  of  the  Styti.i- 
ans,  who  invaded  Palestine  on  their  wfiy  to  Egypt  (650  b.  i . :« 
is  the  most  probable.  Scythopolis  was  the  seat  of  a  bi>ht.|.- 
ric  in  the  fourth  century  a.  d.  The  modern  villa^,  of  s<M!i« 
fiftv  houses,  contains  a  colony  of  Egyptians  establishetl  thiri: 
by  Ibrahim  Pasha  in  1848.    *     Revised  by  S.  M.  JArK^i^^N. 

Sea :  See  Ocean  and  Phtsiooraphv. 

Sea-anemones :  See  IIexacorallla  and  AcriynD^r.. 

Sea-ba88 :  a  serranoid  fish  {Centropristis  atrarius)  com- 
mon on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  U.  S.    See  Fisheries. 


■ 

^^^^B 

^^^^^rioi^^H 

1 

1 

1 

Mils  ill             ^^H 

1 

1 

v#  lOtniKvitfnu. 

^^^^^    'J  1 1 

I 

» > 

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urinrilfif  (HI  lU              ^^H 

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iiUoiSf* 

402 


SEAL 


SEAL-FISHERIES 


Seal  [M.  En^.  sele  <  0.  Eng.  aeolh  :  O.  H.  Germ,  aelah  : 
Icel.  aelr]:  a  pinniped  mammal  of  either  of  the  families 
PhocidcB  or  OtariiacB.  The  name  is  applied  more  particu- 
larly to  the  members  of  the  family  PhocidcB^  the  eared  seals 
being  termed  fur  seals  or  sea-bears  and  sea-lions.  With  the 
exception  of  a  species  {Phoea  aihirica)  inhabiting  Lake  Bai- 
kal, seals  are  marine,  but  some  find  their  way  into  the  lakes 
of  Newfoundland,  and  they  ascend  rivers  for  considerable 
distances,  a  few  having  been  taken  even  in  Lakes  Cham  plain 
and  Ontario.  They  are  more  or  less  gregarious  in  habits, 
especially  during  the  breeding  season,  when  they  are  found 
in  herds  of  thousands  or  hunareds  of  thousands  on  the  ice- 
floes. As  a  rule,  the  female  brinp  forth  but  one  young, 
and  this  is  covered  with  a  soft  woolly  coat,  which  is  shed  in 
two  or  three  weeks.  Seals  feed  principally  on  fish,  but  also 
eat  cuttlefish,  crustaceans,  and  molluscs.  They  are  capable 
of  remaining  beneath  the  water  for  five  or  ten  minutes,  or, 
according  to  some  observers,  even  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes, 
but  if  this  be  true,  it  is  certainly  exceptional.  Those  spe- 
cies which  winter  in  the  ice  keep  a  hole  open  to  which  they 
come  to  breathe,  a  habit  of  which  advantage  is  taken  by 
hunters,  who  either  wait  by  the  holes  and  spear  the  animal 
as  it  emerges  or  else  set  a  net  over  the  hole. 

Pour  genera  of  seals  {Stenorhynchua^  Lobodon^  Ommato- 
phoca,  and  Lej)tonyx),  each  with  a  single  species,  are  pecul- 
iar to  Antarctic  seas,  but  nearly  all  species  and  individuals 
occur  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  for  the  most  part  in 
the  frigid  and  colder  portions  of  the  temperate  zone.  The 
most  familiar  of  the  seals  is  the  harbor  seal  {Phoca  vitulina)^ 
a  species  common  to  both  the  eastern  and  western  hemis- 
pheres, ranging  from  New  York  to  Spain,  along  the  northern 
shores  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  down  the  Pacific  coast  of 
the  U.  S.  to  California.  It  attains  a  length  of  5  or  6  feet ; 
the  general  color  is  yellowish  gray  above,  varied  with  mark- 
ings of  dark  brown  or  blackish,  lighter  below,  but  it  is  sub- 
ject to  considerable  variation.  The  Caspian  seal  (Phoca 
easpica)  resembles  the  harbor  seal,  and  is  considered  a  de- 
scendant of  that  species,  having  entered  the  Caspian  Sea 
when  it  was  a  branch  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  become 
modified  by  isolation.  The  harbor  seal  is  found  on  the 
coast  in  small  bands.  The  largest  of  the  seals  (excepting 
the  Elephant  Seal  and  Sea-leopard,  qq,  v.)  are  the  bearded 
seal  {Erignathu8  barbatua)  and  the  gray  seal  (Halichcerus 
grypus),  each  of  which  attains  a  length  of  8  or  0  feet,  al- 
though they  are  said  to  grow  even  larger.  The  gray  seal  is 
found  only  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  the  Baltic,  while  the 
bearded  seal  is  circumpolar.  Both  are  less  gregarious  than 
the  other  species.  The  gray  seal,  as  its  name  implies,  is  free 
from  markings,  while  the  bearded  seal  is  blotched  with 
brown  or  blackish.  The  netsick,  or  ringed  seal  {Phoca 
f(BHda)^  is  a  species  resembling  the  harbor  seal,  but  is 
smaller,  and  has  light  markings  in  the  form  of  rings  sur- 
rounding oblong  dark  patches.  This  species  is  prized  by 
the  Eskimo,  as  it  winters  in  the  Arctic  regions  and  forms 
an  important  article  of  food. 

The  curious  hooded  or,  more  correctly,  bladder-nosed  seal 
(Cystophora  cristcUa)  attains  a  length  of  7  or  8  feet,  and 
derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  the  males  possess  the 
power  of  inflating  the  skin  about  the  nose.  It  is  usually  in- 
correctly figured  with  the  hood  on  top  of  the  head.  It  is 
a  northern  species,  and  is  not  found  in  herds.  See  Allen, 
History  of  North  American  Pinnipeds  (Washington,  1880) ; 
Elliott,  Seal  Islands  of  Alaska  (Washington,  1881) ;  Fish- 
ery Industries  of  the  United  States,  Quarto  Fishery  Re- 
port (Washington,  1884-87).  See  also  Harp-seal,  Monk- 
seal,  Otariid^,  Phocid^e,  Seal-fisheries,  and  Sea-lion. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Sea-layender :  See  Marsh-rosemary. 

Sealchraig :  See  Selkirk,  Alexander. 

Seal-engraving:  See  Gem. 

Sea-leopard :  an  Antarctic  seal  (Stenorhynchus  leotonyx) 
named  from  its  spotted  coat  of  gray  and  white.  Asiae  from 
the  sea-elephant  it  is  the  largest  of  the  southern  hair-seals 
and  one  of  the  most  abundant.  It  attains  a  length  of  10 
feet,  and  the  crowns  of  the  molars  are  divided  by  deep 
notches  into  three  portions.  F.  A.  L. 

Seal-flsheries :  industries  which  consist  in  the  captur- 
ing of  seals  for  commercial  purposes,  and  which  may  be  said 
to  have  arisen  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century ; 
though  the  walrus,  a  near  relative  of  the  seal,  had  been 
systematically  pursued  for  at  least  200  years  before,  com- 
paratively few  hair  or  fur  seals  appear  to  have  been  taken 
prior  to  1790.    In  the  present  condition  of  the  seal-fisheries 


it  is  often  found  advisable  to  take  different  kinds  of  sealv .  n 
the  same  voyage,  or  to  combine  the  seal-fishing  with  il" 
whale-fishing,  especially  in  the  Antarctic  fisheries. 

The  principal  seat  of  the  hair-seal  fishery  is  off  the  c<«ii^** 
of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  the  value  of  the  seals  tukt- b 
there  exceeding  that  of  the  catch  elsewhere.  Still  larj« 
numbers  of  seals  are  taken  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  LawrvDcv, 


The  common  leal. 


near  Nova  Zembla  and  Jan  Mayen  islands,  in  the  Wh/.e 
and  Caspian  Seas,  and  on  Kerguelen  and  Heard  islan*i>  ii 
the  South  Pacific,  as  well  as  at  other  points  in  the  AntAp ' 
Ocean.  The  harp-seal  {Phoca  grcenlandica)  is,  conimercu.iv. 
the  most  important  of  the  hair-seals,  but  the  hoode<l  >'-m, 
or  bladder-nose  {Cystophora  cristata\  the  souare  fli[|"'r 
{Erigtiathus  barbatus),  and  the  Caspian  seal  {Phoca  c(uj>'-  > 
are  all  taken  in  considerable  numoere.  The  southern  f<a 
elephant  {Macrorhinus  proboscideus)  in  times  gone  by  U- 
furnished  an  enormous  amount  of  oil.  The  California  ^  i- 
elephant  (if.  anaustirostris)  and  the  Caribbean  seal  (J/'"i- 
chus  tropicalis)  nave  been  practically  exterminated.  V^  :* '  -n 
the  last  few  years  some  of  the  large  southern  seals  (.S''^  - 
rhynchus,  Lobodofi^  Leptonvx)  have  been  taken,  but  thin  ' a?. 
hardly  be  said  to  be  a  regular  fishery  for  them,  and  it  i>  ii< : 
probable  that  their  capture  would  long  prove  reraunemin*'. 
The  most  important  part  of  the  Newfoundland  seal-fi-^li'  r^ 
is  carried  on  by  steamers,  and  these  are  also  employed  in  ^-^ 
Nova  Zembla  and  other  northern  fisheries,  having  praetii  a. .» 
superseded  sailing  craft  where  the  seals  are  taken  on  the  i  - 
fioes  at  some  distance  from  land.  Many  seals  are  still  Uk-  r 
near  shore  by  nets  or  by  shooting.  Between  twenty  and  t  h  r ;. 
steamers  are  engaged  in  the  Newfoundland  fisheries,  wLi  : 
also  employ  not  far  from  5,000  men,  although  only  f^^  » 
short  time,  as  the  season  is  from  Mar.  10  to  May  1.  In  ti* 
most  fiourishing  days  of  the  seal-fishery  8,000  to  10.000  n  -  . 
were  engaged.  In  1892  the  Newfoundland  sealers  took  .«"' 
174  seals,  the  value  of  skins  and  oil  being  $865,784,  l>u*  " 
1893  the  cateh  was  only  129,061  seals.  The  annual  pnxli  t 
of  the  Norweeian  fishery  is  about  $300,000.  The  5eal>  a'^ 
taken  on  the  floe-ice  which  drifts  down  from  the  north,  r;^ 
the  major  part  are  the  newly  bom  young,  which  have  nev^ 
left  the  ice  and  are  excessively  fat.  Tney  are  killed  v"l 
clubs,  and  heaped  up  on  the  ice  until  a  pause  in  the  slaui^ 
ter  will  admit  of  their  being  skinned.  The  pelt,  with  '\^^ 
attached  blubber,  weighs  from  20  to  40  lb.  Sealskin  ha- 1.  r 
is  well  known  ;  the  oil  is  used  for  tanning  and  lubricfti": 
purposes,  and  for  making  soap.  It  varies  much  in  (jum.:'^. 
according  to  the  care  used  in  its  preparation,  but  the  \'f 
is  limpid  and  almost  devoid  of  taste  or  odor.  The  9ea-*> 
phant  is  taken  chiefly  on  Kerguelen  and  Heard  i<lHi.'i^ 
and  the  Crozets,  but  some  are  killed  on  Macquarie  i>l«i'i 
by  the  New  Zealand  sealers,  and  other  localities  are  yW-^^ 
from  time  to  time  with  more  or  less  success,  much  de|  tr.  i 
ing  on  the  length  of  time  they  have  been  left  undisturi-Mi. 
New  London,  Conn.,  is  the  principal  port  from  which  tho  vn- 
elephant  and  southern  fur-seal  fishery  is  prosecuted,  th*  '<» 
being  generally  carried  on  by  the  same  vessel.  The  v»-m.- 
employed  are  stout  schooners  of  75  to  150  tons,  well  provi«.Ml 
witn  boats,  and  it  is  customary  to  land  parties  of  men  on  t:  t 
islands,  and  leave  them  to  kill  the  animals  and  tr?  ou^  '' 
oil,  or,  in  the  case  of  the  fur-seals,  to  salt  down  the  ^'^  • ; 
Or,  again,  as  at  Kerguelen  and  Heard  islands,  the  v<v-  * 
may  be  anchored  in  the  best  harbor  obtAinaMe,  whilt  ' 
greater  part  of  the  crew  live  on  shore.  The  Antan.'tif  -^  - 
fisheries  are  vero  arduous,  for  the  climate  is  severe  and  c^  * 
are  frequent,  while  at  the  same  time  a  successful  vorao  -- 
by  no  means  a  certainty. 


IWllT  Of' 


iikticvl    rrw->-i*-4    ,\4    '  I. 


404 


SEA-MOUSE 


SEA-SERPENT 


the  establishment  of  marine  hospitals  and  relief  funds  by 
collections  from  the  wages  of  seamen,  etc.  Seamen  must 
submit  to  the  usual  punishments  lawful  and  agreed  upon  in 
the  shipping  articles,  such  as  short  allowance,  being  put  in 
irons,  etc. ;  but  flogging  has  fallen  into  disuse,  and  m  the 
U.  S.  has  been  abolished  by  statute. 

For  a  full  treatment  of  the  rights  and  duties  of  seamen, 
see  the  statutes ;  Maude  and  Pollock's  Compendium  of  the 
Law  of  Merchant  Shipping  (London,  1881) ;  Abbott's  Law 
of  Merchant  Shipping  (London,  1892^;  Kay's  Law  of  Ship- 
master and  Seamen  (London,  1875);  Parson's  Law  of  Ship- 
^ng  (Boston,  1869) ;  Desty's  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United 
States  relating  to  Commerce,  Navigation^  and  Shipping, 
See  also  Courts  for  the  Admiralty  Courts. 

F.  Stusoes  Allen. 

Sea-mouse :  a  popular  name  for  marine  annelids  of  the 
ffenus  Aphrodite,  remarkable  for  the  beautiful  colors  pro- 
duced by  the  hairs  of  the  animal. 

Sea  of  Cortes :  See  California,  Gulf  of. 

Sea  of  Sodom,  or  Sea  of  the  Plain :  See  Dead  Sea. 

Sea-otter:  See  Otter. 

Sea-pie :  See  Otster-catcher. 

Sea-rayen:  SeeScuLPiN. 

Search :  See  International  Law  (Summary). 

Search  and  Seizure :  the  examination  and  taking  into 
custody  of  one's  person  or  property.  The  fourth  amend- 
ment of  the  U.  S.  Constitution  provides  that  "  the  right  of 
the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers,  and 
effects  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures  shall  not 
be  violated,  and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable 
cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly 
describing  the  place  to  be  searched  and  the  persons  or 
things  to  be  seized."  A  similar  provision  exists  in  each 
State  constitution.  It  is  declaratory  only  of  common-law 
principles,  which  were  clearly  announced  in  Wilkes  vs.  Wood 
(19  State  Trials  1153,  A.  d.  1763),  Leach  vs.  Money  (ibid. 
1001,  A.  D.  1765),  and  Entick  vs.  Carrinaton  (ibid.  1030, 
A.  D.  1765).  The  first  two  cases  decided  that  a  general 
warrant  to  seize  some  person  or  papers  not  named  was 
illegal,  and    the    third  declared  a  warrant   to  seize   the 

Sapcrs  of  a  person  named  to  be  equally  illegal.  Lord  Cam- 
en's  judgment  in  the  last  case  is  celebrated  for  its  learning 
and  ability,  and  is  regarded  "  as  one  of  the  permanent  monu- 
ments of  the  British  Constitution." 

Some  searches  and  seizures  were  permitted  by  the  common 
law,  and  do  not  fall  within  the  constitutional  inhibition. 
.They  may  be  resorted  to  for  the  recovery  of  stolen  ^ods, 
or  in  the  case  of  excisable  or  dutiable  articles,  or  m  the 
case  of  things  whose  possession  or  sale  is  forbidden  by  law, 
such  as  burglars'  tools,  gambling  apparatus,  intoxicating 
liquors,  and  others,  or  for  the  purpose  of  levying  an  attach- 
ment or  execution.  Even  in  such  cases,  however,  the  law 
does  not  authorize  the  use  of  general  search  warrants,  but 
requires  the  magistrate  to  have  satisfactory  evidence  upon 
oath  that  a  case  of  the  kind  mentioned  probablv  exists,  and 
to  have  a  particular  description  of  the  place  to  be  searched, 
and  of  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized.  The  warrant 
must  also  name  the  place  and  the  person  or  thing  to  be 
searched  and  seized.  If  an  officer  attempts  to  arrest  a  per- 
son under  a  general  warrant,  or  under  one  which  does  not 
truly  name  or  sufficiently  identifv  him,  he  may  resist  the 
officer,  and  if  the  latter  makes  the  arrest,  he  is  liable  for 
false  imprisonment.  ( West  vs.  Cabell,  153  U.  S.  78.)  In 
some  of  the  States  statutes  authorize  officers  to  seize  intoxi- 
cating liquors  without  a  warrant,  in  the  first  instance,  but 
the  officers  are  required  to  obtain  promptly  a  warrant  there- 
for, or  they  become  liable  as  trespassers.  Weston  vs.  Carr, 
71  Me.  356. 

Searches  and  seizures  which  are  resorted  to  not  for  the 
purpose  of  capturing  stolen  property,  or  that  which  is  under 
the  ban  of  pnositive  law,  or  of  levying  legal  process,  are 
deemed  unreasonable.  Accordingly,  a  statute  providing  for 
the  issuing  of  warrants  by  judges  of  insolvency  on  the  com- 

Elaint  of  an  assignee  to  search  for  property  of  the  debtor 
as  been  declared  unconstitutional.  (Rooinson  vs.  Richards, 
79  Mass.  454.)  The  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  held  a  statute  to 
be  unconstitutional  which  authorized  a  court,  in  revenue 
oases,  on  motion  of  the  Government's  attorney,  to  require  the 
defendant  or  claimant  to  produce  in  court  his  private  books, 
invoices,  and  papers,  or  else  the  allegations  or  the  attorney 
should  be  taken  as  confessed.  (Boyd  vs.  United  States,  116 
U.  S.  616.)    The  provision  was  deemed  tantamount  to  a 


compulsory  production  of  a  man's  private  papers,  and  to 
effect  the  sole  object  and  purpose  of  search  and  seizurr^: 
hence  it  was  declared  to  be  within  the  scope  of  the  fourth 
amendment.  The  language  of  Lord  Camden  in  Entick  v\ 
Carrington  was  regarded  as  expressing  the  true  doctrine  or 
the  subject  of  searches  and  seizures,  and  as  furnishing th- 
true  criteria  of  the  reasonable  and  unreasonable  cbani^r 
of  such  seizures.  It  was  said  that  the  principles  laid  dowr 
in  that  opinion  affect  the  verv  essence  of  constitutional: 
liberty  and  security.  They  reach  further  than  the  coDei>'' 
form  of  the  case  then  before  the  court ;  they  apply  to  &!. 
invasions  on  the  part  of  the  Government  and  its  emplovt^  - 
of  the  sanctity  of  a  man's  home  and  the  privacies  of  lift. 
It  is  not  the  breaking  of  his  doors  and  the  nimmafing  >-{ 
his  drawers,  but  the  invasion  of  his  indefeasible  nght  f 
personal  security,  personal  liberty,  and  private  property, 
where  that  right  has  never  been  forfeited  by  his  convict:- :. 
of  some  crime,  that  constitutes  the  essence  of  the  offense, 

Francis  M.  Bubdick. 

Searcy:  town;  capital  of  White  co..  Ark.;  on  the  Lirt! 
Red  river,  and  the  Searcy  and  West  Point  Railroad :  .Vj 
miles  N.  E.  of  Little  Rock,  the  State  capital  (for  locati> :;. 
see  map  of  Arkansas,  ref.  3-D).  It  is  an  important  shippir.;:- 
point  for  cotton  and  fruit ;  has  several  alum,  chalybeate,  did 
sulphur  springs,  which  have  made  it  popular  as  a  health  n  - 
sort;  ana  contains  Searcy  College,  for  males  (Meth(«^^: 
Episcopal,  South),  Galloway  Female  College^,  Searcv  K«- 
male  Institute,  a  public  school,  a  State  bank  with  capital  if 
$30,000,  and  a  daily,  a  monthly,  and  three  weekly  peri-i> 
cals.    Pop.  (1880)  840 ;  (1890)  1,203 ;  (1895)  estimated,  3.:o.r. 

Editor  op  **  Citizd." 

Searles,  WiLLiAJf  HsNity:  civil  engineer;  b.  in  Cir. :> 
nati,  0.,  June  4,  1837;  graduated  at  the  Rensselaer  P-iy 
technic  Institute  in  1860,  where  later  he  was  Proft*^^»r « ' 
Topography  and  Road-engineering  for  three  years.  H**  ^-i- 
been  locating  and  constructing  engineer  on  many  railwM .  n 
and  is  the  author  of  Field-engtneering  (1879)  and  The  Ji^a!- 
road  Spiral  (1882). 

Sea-robin:  See  Gurnard. 

Sears,  Barnas,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  theologian  and  educat'r: 
b.  at  Sandisfield,  Mass.,  Nov.  19, 1802 ;  ^duated  at  Br<  vi. 
University  1825,  and  at  Newton  Theological  Seminary  I'^J'' : 
was  pastor  of  a  Baptist  church  at  Hartford,  Conn..  liS{(»-^iv . 
was  afterward  Professor  in  the  Literary  and  Theoloj-.  . 
Institution  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.  (now  Colgate  Univers.:>  . 
studied  theology  at  German  universities  1833-^ ;  ws^i  f >r<  >■ 
lessor  in  Newton  Seminary  1836-48,  acting  as  presio^  : 
during  the  later  years ;  succeeded  Horace  Mann  as  secivta'. 
of  the  Massachusetts  board  of  education  1848-55 ;  « :■> 
president  of  Brown  University  1855-67,  and  after  that  tr:  • 
general  agent  of  the  Peabody  Educational  Fund.  Hr  ^  • 
several  years  editor  of  the  Baptist  Christian  Review  U*^ " 
seq),  a  regular  contributor  to  ^ibliotheca  Sa^ra^  and  am  i  ' 
(with  Edwards  and  Felton)  of  Classical  Studies  (IM* 
The  Ciceronian  (1844),  and  The  Life  of  Luther  (18o<»).  ».. 
ited  N6hden*s  German  Grammar  (1842),  Select  Wntiw^  > ' 
Luther  (1846),  and  Roget's  Thesaurus  (1854),  and  puh\\i 
many  addresses,  educational  reports,  and  miscellaneous  •^ 
says.  During  his  stay  in  Europe  he  baptized  in  the  K.  • 
near  Hamburg,  by  night  and  stealthily,  in  order  to  a^<  . 
legal  prosecution  and  police  persecution,  I.  G.  Oncken  &: 
six  otners,  who  formed  the  first  German  Baptist  chun^h  :r 
communion  with  the  Baptists  of  England  and  the  U.  S.  1' 
at  Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y.,  July  6, 1880. 

Revised  by  C.  H.  Thurbfr. 

Searsport:  town;  Waldo  co.,  Me.;  on  Penobscot  Bit. 
6  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Belfast,  the  county-seat,  27  miles  S.  W. 
of  Bangor  (for  location,  see  map  of  Maine,  ref.  9-E).  It  i* 
principally  engaged  in  ice-gatnering,  ship-building,  haj- 
shipping.  and  the  lumber-traae,  and  contains  saw  and  ^'< 
mills,  spool-mill,  poultry-farms,  the  Sears  Public  Libr^rr  | 
(opened  in  1872),  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  |o(»A'^'^^ 
and  a  savings-bank.    Pop.  (1880)  2,322 ;  (1890)  1,693.  i 

Rev.  Robert  G.  Harbutt,  First  Congregational  Chi'b>  4.  | 

Sea-serpent :  a  gigantic  marine  animal,  said  to  have  (-*  a 
seen  in  various  localities,  but  never  captured,  and  regani- J 
by  most  zoSlogists  as  purely  mythical.  The  earliest  n-U  ^ 
ences  to  the  sea-serpent  are  to  bie  found  in  Norse  literatt.^fY. 
where  frequent  mention  is  made  of  the  Sd-Orin.  In  !''''! 
the  creature  was  described  by  Glaus  Magnus  in  his  w<  He 
Historia  Gentium  Septentrionalium,  where  its  length  i«  ^!t 
down  as  200  feet  and  girth  20  feet.    In  1734  the  Hex.  VajI 


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406 


SEASIDE-GRAPE 


SEBACIC  ACID 


iinpressioas  due  to  the  rocking.  In  many  persons  a  few 
mild  dosep  of  calomel  before  the  Toyaee  prevent  the  occur- 
rence of  Seasickness.  In  others  a  little  bromide  of  potash, 
soda-water,  or  saline  draughts  suffice.  Persons  wno  are 
specially  liable  sometimes  escape  entirely  by  preserving  a 
horizontal  position  during  most  of  the  voyage.         W,  P. 

Seaside-grape :  a  small  polygonaceous  tree  {Coccoloha 
'uvifera)  of  Florida  and  the  West  Indies,  producing  the  ex- 
tract called  Jamaica  kino.  (See  Kino.)  It  has  clusters  of 
purple  edible  fruit,  and  a  beautiful  hard  wood,  which  yields 
A  red  dye. 

8ea-8qairt :  any  one  of  the  Ascidia  {q.  v.). 

)$ea-9wallow :  See  Gurnard. 

Seattle,  sefe-at't*l :  city ;  capital  of  King  co..  Wash. ;  on 
Puget  Sound,  and  the  Gt.  Northern,  the  N.  Pac.,  the  Colum- 
bia and  Puget  S.,  and  the  Seattle,  Lake  Shore  and  East, 
railways ;  28  miles  N.  of  Tacoma  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Washington,  ref.  3-D).  It  lies  on  the  east  side  of  Admiralty 
Inlet,  between  Elliot  Bay  (salt  water)  and  Lake  Washine^n 
(fresh  water).  The  contour  of  the  city  is  hilly,  with  valleys 
running  N.  and  S.  The  steep  rise  of  the  hills  from  the  water 
of  the  sound  presents  a  striking  view,  especially  when  ap- 
proached in  tne  evening.  This  is  enhanced  by  two  snow- 
capped ranges,  the  Olympics  on  the  W.  and  the  Cascades  on 
the  S.  £.,  and  by  Mt.  Rainier,  rising  in  the  south  to  a  hei|^ht 
of  14,444  feet.  The  city  has  seven  public  parks — ^the  City, 
Denny,  Kinnear  (each  partially  improved),  Madrona,  Leschi, 
Ravenna,  and  Woodland — some  of  which  afford  scenery  of 
rare  natural  beauty.  The  business  districts  are  covered 
with  handsome  ana  substantial  buildings,  nearly  all  erected 
since  the  great  fire  of  1889. 

Climate, — The  summers  are  cool  and  pleasant ;  the  rainy 
season  is  broken  by  much  good  weather ;  the  annual  range 
of  temperature  is  from  10°  to  88'' ;  the  rainfall  in  1893  was 
45  inches.  A  peculiar  feature  Of  the  climate  is  that  the 
rainy  season  is  more  healthful  than  the  dry  season.  The 
death-rate  is  about  8  in  1,000.  Ocean  storms  spend  their 
force  on  the  Olympic  Mountains  before  reaching  the  city. 

Public  Buildings. — The  county  court-house  occupies  a 
prominent  site  overlooking  the  city ;  the  county  almshouse 
and  hospital  is  a  fire-proof  structure  which  cost  over  $80,000. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  maintains  Providence  Hospital 
and  the  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  a  reformatory  for 
girls.  There  is  an  efficient  boanl  of  associated  charities. 
The  Public  Library  (founded  in  1872)  is  supported  by  a  per- 
centage of  the  criminal  fines,  and  has  spacious  rooms  and  a 
large  patronage.  Terms  of  the  U.  S.  circuit  and  district  courts 
are  held  here,  and  a  U.  S.  land-office,  U.  S.  custom-house,  U.  S. 
weather  bureau,  and  the  board  of  U.  S.  inspectors  of  steam- 
vessels  for  Washington  and  Alaska  are  located  here. 

Churches  and  Schools. — Seattle  contains  12  Methodist 
Episcopal  churches,  9  Baptist,  5  Congregational,  6  Presby- 
terian, 5  Lutheran,  4  Protestant  Episcopal,  3  Roman  Catho- 
lic, 8  Disciples,  3  German  Evangelical,  3  Methodist  Prot- 
estant, 2  Jewish,  and  one  each  Advent,  Free  Methodist, 
Reformed  Presbyterian,  and  Unitarian,  besides  a  Salvation 
Army  barrack,  and  17  missions.  The  public-school  system 
has  a  large  endowment  of  State  lands.  There  are  16  public- 
school  buildings  (which  cost,  with  land,  $678,000),  with  (1893} 
134  teachers  and  6,424  pupils ;  2  parochial  schools,  several 
private  kindergartens,  and  girls'  schools.  The  State  Uni- 
versity occupies  a  fine  site  on  341  acres  of  school  land 
within  the  city  limits,  and  has  about  500  students  and  a 
valuable  library,  practically  public.  There  are  also  a  Bap- 
tist university,  Seattle  Female  College,  College  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception,  and  the  Academy  of  Holy  Names. 
The  Workmen's  Guild  supports  a  library.  In  1894  there 
were  3  daily,  16  weekly,  a  semi-monthly,  and  ten  monthly 
periodicals. 

Finan4>e8  and  Banking, — In  1894  the  city  receipts  were 
$553,630;  ex(>enditures,  $591,000;  the  bonded  debt  was 
$3,540,000;  the  assessed  property  valuation,  $32,752,153; 
tax-rate,  12*5  mills.  There  were  7  national,  3  savings,  and 
5  private  banks.    Seattle  has  never  had  a  bank  failure. 

Business  Interests, — The  manufactories  number  331,  with 
$4,758,283  capital  invested  and  $10,203,007  value  of  product, 
and  include  sawmills,  a  flour-mill,  breweries,  extensive  drain- 
tile  and  brick  works,  foundries,  boiler-works  and  machine- 
shops,  sash  and  door  factories,  funiiture  factories,  bookbind- 
eries,  tanneries,  manufactories  of  tinware,  shoes,  crackers, 
soap,  and  ice,  creosoting  works,  ship-building  yards,  etc. 
There  is  a  large  business  in  the  wholesale  shipments  of  fresh 
fish.    There  are  91  miles  of  street-railways,  of  which  22 


miles  are  cable  road  and  69  miles  electric.  These  lines  kt^ 
also  used  for  freight.  The  cable  lines  run  over  the  hx^Xu-^* 
hills,  which  are  the  choice  residence  districts.  Every  p^.r- 
tion  of  the  city  is  easily  accessible.  The  commercial  <i(i* 
vantages  of  Seattle  are  remarkable.  By  water  there  is  Tfv:\.- 
lar  steamship  connection  with  the  Onent,  with  San  Km]  - 
Cisco,  and  Alaska.  The  railway  connections  are  suj^erior  !< 
those  of  any  point  on  the  Pacific  coast,  four  transcontini-ntbi 
lines  competmf^  for  business,  two  of  which  have  their  t.  r- 
minals  in  the  city.  Lumber,  grain,  and  coal  are  shippN-*!  i» 
all  parts  of  the  world.  The  city  is  the  center  of  tra!c](  f<r 
all  the  numerous  small  steamers,  called  the  mosouito  fitt. 
plying  to  the  ports  of  Puget  Sound,  which  has  about  l.:j<x* 
miles  of  coast-line.  An  immense  business  in  cedar  shinglt^ 
and  lumber  has  been  developed,  and  shipments  by  rail  1 1- 
tend  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  A  companv  has  been  forni<  ti 
for  the  utilization  of  Snoqualmie  Fails  by  electrical  trsn- 
mission  of  power.  Large  sums  have  been  invested  in  a  >t»^>' 
plant.  An  appropriation  has  been  secured  from  the  U.  >. 
(rovernment  to  begin  the  construction  of  a  canal  conrnvt- 
ing  Puget  Sound  tnrough  Lake  Union  with  Lake  Wa.»hiiu'- 
ton.  The  lake  is  about  25  miles  in  length,  and  does  ii<  t 
freeze  in  winter.  Vessels  scour  their  bottoms  in  fresh  wat.r 
and  avoid  the  expense  of  docking.  The  lake  is  surrouiKifi 
with  valuable  deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  and  with  fine  b<Ml*.  ^ 
of  timber.  By  the  canal  a  landlocked  harbor  would  W 
formed  of  great  value  to  the  Gtovemment  in  connect  in 
with  the  dry  dock  at  Port  Orcbabd  {a,  v,),  A  second  cou.- 
pany  has  entered  into  a  contract  witn  the  State  proyiding 
for  a  second  canal  S.  of  the  city. 

History, — Seattle,  named  from  an  Indian  chief,  was 
founded  in  1852.  It  remained  a  village  until  1880.  An 
important  episode  in  the  early  history  was  the  protect iiu 
of  the  Chinese  by  a  vigilance  league,  which  prevente<]  xuv 
triumph  of  the  lawless  elements.  The  city  early  be<an:e 
the  central  commercial  point  for  the  Puget  Sound  n^^Mn. 
On  June  6, 1889,  it  experienced  a  conflagration  which  de- 
stroyed property  valued  at  $15,000,000,  but  one  brick  buili- 
ing  remaining  in  the  business  district.  Seattle  was  the  tir< 
large  city  to  free  its  streets  of  horse-cars. 

Pop.  (1880)  3,638;  (1890)  42,837;  (1892)  SUte  census,  5i<,- 
898;  (1894)  estimated,  60,000.  Wallace  Nuttisg. 

Sea-nnicorn :  See  Narwhal. 

Sea-nrchin :  See  Echinoidea  and  Paleontoloot. 

Seaweeds :  the  popular  name  for  the  plants  wliieh  ^'« 
in  the  sea,  often  extended  so  as  to  include  all  aouatic  plar/^ 
whether  growing  in  salt  or  fresh  waters.  Tney  are  tti> 
known  as  Alo^  {q,  t*.),  sea-mosses,  and  sea-ferns  (althcu^S 
they  are  neither  mosses  nor  ferns).  In  this  wide  sen^e  ?«a- 
weeds  belong  to  no  less  than  six  different  classes  of  the  veg- 
etable kingdom,  viz.:  (1)  SchizophycecB^  the  fission  ftlir?. 
mostly  microscopic  and  usually  blue-green  or  smoky  grtr: . 
inhabiting  fresh  and  salt  waters;  (2)  Chlorophyc^ir,  \\v 
green  algie,  mostly  microscopic,  ^een  (sometimes  obKur>'i 
by  brown  coloring-matter),  inhabiting  fresh  and  salt  waters: 
(3)  Phceophycece,  the  brown  algae,  including  FucoID^  hn : 
Kelp  {qa,  t».),  mostly  of  large  size,  green  (but  obscurF<i  \ ) 
brown  coloring-matter),  inhabiting  salt  waters ;  (4)  Coleoci  ,i- 
tecBy  the  simple  fruit-tangles,  microscopic,  green,  inhalatin;: 
fresh  waters ;  (5)  Bhodophyeece,  including  one  order  {Ilun- 
decs),  the  Red  Seaweeds  {q,  r.),  usually  of  considerable  >\7e, 
green  (obscured  by  red  coloring-matter),  inhabiting  si' 
waters;  (6)  Charophyetcp,  the  Stonbworts  (^t*.),  aj'-^tiy 
large  plants,  green,  inhabiting  fresh  waters.  These  t»lai.t< 
do  not  constitute,  therefore,  a  single  natural  group,  althou.'h 
usually  so  treated.  Charles  £.  Bessey. 

Sea-wolf:  See  Wolf- fish. 

Sebaceous  Glands:  See  Histoloot  (The  Skin  and  its 
Appendages), 

SebacMc  (also  called  Sebic  and  Pjrrolelc)  Add  [sfbtmc 
is  from  Lat.  se'bum^  tallow  ;  pyroleic  is  from  Gr.  wvp.  fire  ♦ 
Eng.  oleine]  :  a  compound  with  the  empirical  formula  i.\r 
H18O4,  formed  during  the  destructive  distillation  of  all  fatty 
bodies  which  contain  oleic  acid  or  olein.  Nitric  acid  f<»nn* 
it  also  when  acting  upon  fatty  bodies,  together  with  oia!:« 
acid  and  other  lower  nomologues  of  the  same  series,  or  \hi*<' 
having  the  general  empirical  formula  CBHtn.aO*,  a  serie*  oi 
which  malonic,  succinic,  and  suherie  acids  are  meml'^rN 
Sebacic  acid  is  most  readily  obtained  by  fusing  together 
castor  oil  and  caustic  potash,  2  parts  of  oil  being  slowlr 
mixed  with  one  part  of  potash,  fused  with  a  little  water. 
and  heated  until  the  mass  is  faintly  yellow.    After  boiling 


408 


SECOND  ADVENT 


SECULAR  GAMES 


Charles  11.  of  Bavaria,  who,  after  the  death  of  Charles  VI., 
laid  claim  to  parts  of  the  Austrian  heritage,  in  spite  of  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  was  elected  emperor  under  the 
name  of  Charles  VII. ;  commanded  his  army  with  success; 
expelled  the  Austrians  from  Bavaria,  and  succeeded  in  nego- 
tiating a  tolerable  peace  for  his  son  in  1745.  After  this  time 
he  lived  quietly  on  his  estate,  Meuselwitz,  near  Altenburg, 
in  the  Saxon  duchies,  but  in  1758  he  was  imprisoned  by 
Frederick  II.  for  six  months,  and  forced  to  pay  a  heavy  fine. 
D.  at  Meuselwitz,  Nov.  28, 1763.— In  the  nineteenth  century 
several  members  have  acquired  a  name  as  poets :  (3)  Leo 
(1773-1809) ;  (4)  Karl  Siegmund  (1744-85),  translator  of 
CamoSns ;  (5)  Christian  Adolf  a767-1833) ;  (6)  Gustav  An- 
ton (1775-1823),  known  also  in  the  U.  S.  as  a  lecturer  under 
the  name  of  Patrik  Pealb.  P.  M.  Colby. 

Second  Advent :  the  visible  reappearance  of  our  Lord 
in  the  world  since  his  ascension  to  heaven.  More  exactly, 
inasmuch  as  he  revisited  the  world  visibly  to  call  the  apostle 
Paul,  the  second  advent  denotes  a  return  visible  to  all  the 
world,  or  to  the  whole  Church,  or  to  an  elect  first-fruits 
of  the  Church.  The  first  and  the  third  opinion  represent 
two  schools  of  Christian  belief.  Beyond  question,  our  Sav- 
iour himself  promised  to  return  visibly.  Even  assuming 
(Matt  xxiv.,  Mark  xiii.,  Luke  xxi.)  to  pive  his  promise 
intermixed  with  later  interpretations,  the  .unmistakable 
foundation  is  a  word  of  his  own,  which,  moreover,  is  im- 
plied throughout  the  four  Gospels,  including  John  (see  John 
V.  25,  28 ;  ^.  39,  40 ;  xiv.  3, 18),  and  throughout  the  Epistles 
of  Paul,  Peter,  John,  James,  and  Jude.  The  Revelation  is 
full  of  it.  Indeed,  next  to  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus,  it  has 
well  been  called  the  first  Christian  doctrine. 

In  the  Gospels  our  Saviour  seems  to  identify  his  coming 
with  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  When  an  evolving  event  in- 
cludes many  stages,  even  though  widely  apart  in  time, 
prophecy  very  commonly  blends  these  in  one,  inasmuch  as 
the  subsequent  stages  are  only  an  explication  and  amplifi- 
cation of  the  first.  As  has  been  truly  said,  prophecies  of 
fundamental  import  have  a  springing  and  germmant  ful- 
fillment in  every  age.  The  prophecies  of  the  first  advent 
show  the  same  blending  of  imperfect  fulfillments,  in  which 
God  came  near  to  his  people  with  the  consummate  fulfill- 
ment, in  which  God,  though  unrecognized,  was  with  his 
people.  Even  so,  as  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  released  Christ 
in  his  Church  from  the  threatening  constraint  of  Judaism 
and  set  him  and  her  free  for  their  victorious  course  in  the 
world,  it  was  a  true  and  indeed  visible  return  of  Christ, 
with  which  he  therefore  fuses  every  fuller  accomplishment 
of  his  promised  return,  even  to  the  consummate  fulfillment 
at  the  end.  He  himself,  as  incarnate,  denies  of  himself  any 
other  than  a  restricted  knowledge  of  times  and  seasons, 
which  implies  a  restricted  knowledge  of  specific  phases  of 
evolution  in  the  Parousia,  or  second  advent.  Only  two 
things  are  distinct :  One,  that  ever3rthing  which  he  foretells 
shall,  in  a  real  sense,  come  to  pass  in  that  generation ;  sec- 
ondly, that  hi&  coming  may  oe,  in  its  absolute  and  final 
sense,  long  delayed,  giving  occasion  to  despondency  in  some 
of  his  people  and  to  licentious  security  in  others.  This  fu- 
sion 01  dinerent  stages  of  the  Parousia  is  the  more  obvious, 
as  Christ's  visible  return  is  only  the  highest,  coercive  evi- 
dence of  his  spiritual  return,  sight  being  used  as  the  most 
convincing  and  most  spiritual  bodily  sense. 

The  Revelation  alone  of  the  New  Testament  books  de- 
scribes the  second  advent  as  separated  bv  an  earthly  reign 
of  1,000  years  from  the  last  judgment  ana  reconstitution  of 
all  things.  Accordingly,  since  a.  d.  200  until  of  late,  this 
opinion  has  never  had  much  currency  in  the  Church.  It 
seems  to  be  regaining  ground.  C.  C.  Starbuck. 

Secondary  Era:  a  division  of  geologic  time  co-ordinate 
with  Primary,  Tertiary,  and  Quaternary  eras.  A  synonym 
in  more  general  use  is  Mesozoic  Eba  (q.  v.). 

Secondary  Schools :  See  Schools. 

Secretary :  in  the  U.  S.,  the  name  of  the  officer  of  the 
cabinet,  the  respective  heads  of  the  executive  departments 
of  State,  War,  Navy,  the  Treasury,  the  Interior,  and  Agri- 
culture. For  an  account  of  their  duties,  see  the  articles  on 
these  departments. 

Secretary-bird  :  a  bird  of  prey  (Gypogeranua  serpenta- 
rtua),  which  owes  ita  popular  name  to  a  crest  of  feathers  at 
the  back  of  the  head  which  suggests  a  pen  tucked  behind 
the  ear  of  a  scribe.  On  account  of  anatomical  peculiarities 
the  bird  is  placed  in  a  distinct  family  (OypogeranidcB).  The 
secretary-bird  is  readily  distinguished  from  all  other  birds 


of  prey  b^  the  disproportionate  length  of  its  legs,  for  while 
the  body  is  smaller  tmin  that  of  a  golden  eagle,  the  legs  arv 
2  feet  long.  The  toes  are  short,  nails  blunt ;  the  genera! 
color  is  grayish  blue,  with  blackish  markings  on  wing^.  uii. 
and  under  side.  The  bird  feeds  on  rats  and  snakes,  even  •  n 
the  venomous  species,  grasping  them  with  its  long  legs  ano 
using  its  outstretched  wing  as  a  shield  on  which  to  ntw" 
the  fangs  of  its  prey.  It  is  found  throughout  Sc)uthcn> 
Africa,  W.  of  lat.  15**,  and  in  Cape  Ck)lony  is  protectini  br 
law.  F.  A.  LucAx  " 

Secret,  Discipline  of  the :  an  English  equivalent  of 
Arcani  Disciplima  {q,  v.). 

Secretion  [from  Lat.  «ecre7to,  a  setting  apart,  separ&tm;:. 
deriv.  of  seeer'nere,  separate;  ««-,  apart  +  eer'nere,  di>tin- 
guish,  separate] :  one  of  the  chief  physiological  proce.s<;e>  <  f 
the  body ;  the  separation  of  certain  elements  of  the  bUA, 
and  their  elaboration  to  form  special  fluids,  termed  s^rrv- 
tions  and  excretions.  Both  of  these  products  contribute  to 
the  health  and  nutrition  of  the  body,  the  secretion  perform- 
ing some  positive  function,  as  aiding  digestion ;  the  ex(  ra- 
tion subserving  the  same  purpose  negativelv  by  trvf.hc 
the  system  of  effete  matter,  the  dibris  of  cell  and  tix^n:. 
which  if  detained  in  the  blood  develops  disease.  The  f  urn - 
tion  of  the  perspiratory  and  sebaceous  glands  is  secreton. 
so  far  as  they  preserve  the  moisture  and  delicacv  of  th' 
skin,  but  is  chiefly  excretory,  eliminating  water  and  vari*  \i^ 
effete  matters  from  the  system,  and  hence  is  classed  as  an  ex- 
cretion. Bile  is  variously  deflned  as  a  secretion,  an  en  rt- 
tion,  and  as  both,  its  constituents  being  effete  subsUni-t-^ 
deleterious  to  health  if  not  promptly  excreted,  yet perftni.- 
ing  an  important  part  in  the  process  of  intestinal  ai^e>ti>;i. 

Secretion  is  performed  in  several  wavs.  The  sinnpl*>t 
form  is  seen  in  the  serous  shut  sacs  which  invest  the  Iutun 
heart,  and  intestines — the  pleune,  pericardium,  and  j»erit - 
neum.  These  are  lubricated  by  a  fluid  which  filters  d  ir»t:  i\ 
through  the  fiat  endothelial  lining  cells  from  the  blood-^*-^ 
sels  beneath ;  so  also  are  product  the  synovial  fluids  <•]. 
the  inner  smooth  surfaces  of  the  joints.  A  more  typical  >- 
cretory  structure  is  the  tubule,  a  cylindrical  recess  or  ti/- 
at  right  angles  to  the  surface,  lined  with  secreting  cv ..-. 
Secreting  surfaces,  as  the  mucous  lining  of  the  bronohi&i 
tubes,  stomach,  and  bowels,  have  many  hundreds  or  th>u- 
sands  of  such  tubules  to  the  square  inch.  An  isolated  ^r<*t]p 
of  tubules  ramifying  from  a  single  central  duct  const  it  u'r-^ 
a  simple  gland ;  a  number  of  such  groups  having  a  conim- :. 
duct  IS  a  compound  gland  ;  the  larger  glands,  composfil  •  f 
an  extensively  divided  tubular  system  with  corresfK)nci:i.;: 
lobules,  are  termed  racemose  glands — that  is,  in  stni(  turv 
resembling  a  cluster  of  berries.  Such  complicated  glandiil&r 
structures  serve  merely  to  multiply  secreting  surface  wit  Kii. 
a  limited  space ;  the  functional  action  is  much  the  sar.n 
whether  performed  on  the  free  surface,  in  the  tubule  aiA 
follicle,  or  by  the  multiple  gland.  Secretion  is  the  pixwiiK : 
of  cell-activity.  The  cell  derives  its  material  from  the  bl« "  •*!. 
its  stimulus  to  action  from  the  nervous  system,  and  it  eUUr 
rates  a  peculiar  fluid,  in  each  instance  predetermined  b; 
the  inherent  function  of  the  gland  or  organ  of  which  it  i^ 
an  integral  part  Secreted  fluids  are  homogeneous,  con ^i^^- 
ing  chiefly  of  water  with  variable  quantities  of  salt5  ai .1 
fatty  matter,  and  in  each  case  a  distinguishing  comiKjnent. 
as  pepsin  in  gastric  juice  and  mucin  in  mucus. 

Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Secular  Clergy :  See  Clerot. 

Secnlar  Games  [translation  of  Lat.  ludi  ateculares  i&Iso 
known  as  ludi  Terentini);  ludi,  plur.  of  lu'dus.  game  4- 
acBCula'rea,  plur.  of  scecula'Hs  (whence  Eng.  aeefilar),  of  a 
century,  deriv.  of  acB'culum,  century] :  games  celebrate<l  il 
ancient  Rome  in  honor  of  the  infernal  deities  Dis  and  l^*y 
serpina.  The  festival  seems  to  have  been  of  Etruscan  origin. 
ana  to  have  been  connected  with  a  belief  in  the  existence  in 
the  life  of  the  state  of  great  periods  whose  beginning  bvA 
end  were  marked  by  special  portents  from  the  gods.  Sw  b 
a  period  was  supposed  to  be  equal  to  the  longest  naman  life, 
and  was  variously  computed  at  100  and  110  years.  O^ii.c 
to  the  different  modes  of  reckoning,  the  games  were  lut 
held  at  regular  intervals.  The  first  well-attested  in^taiuv 
of  their  celebration  at  Rome  was  in  249  b.  c.  Secular  ganie< 
were  again  held  in  146b. c.,and  under  the  empire  in  Kb.*.. 
and  in  47,  88,  147,  204, 248,  and  262  A.  D.  An  insoripti<m  ha> 
recently  been  discovered  giving  an  account  of  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  games  under  Augustus  in  17  b.  c. ;  it  was  for 
this  occasion  that  Horace  wrote  his  Carmen  atBculare, 

O.  L.  HXNDRICKSOX. 


^tftc  »iii4c  Uii%in4i  1mm  UvUi  , 


'iHl%    A\^  «:tUl.Wir|^ 


•<IS  (i/lffl 


1*11^ 


S»»iTni'lia  :  >  il  t  ,   '  .t.t  '  ( ■ 


•'T*... 


410 


SEDAN 


SEDGWICK 


of  Missouri,  ref.  4-P).  It  was  laid  out  by  Gen.  G.  R.  Smith 
from  a  part  of  his  farm  in  1861,  was  a  U.  S.  military  post 
during  the  war  of  1861-65,  and  for  several  years  was  the 
west  terminus  of  the  Mo.  Pac.  Railway.  Gen.  Nathaniel  Lyon 
and  Gen.  John  C.  Fremont  fitted  out  military  expeditions 
here  in  1861,  and  for  a  few  days  in  1864  the  city  was  held 
by  Confederate  troops.  The  city  has  an  elevation  of  086 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  in  an  agricultural,  coal-mining, 
and  limestone  region,  which  has  also  beds  of  emery  and 
potter's  clay,  and  indications  of  iron,  lead,  and  zinc.  Sedalia 
contains  23  churches,  13  public  schools,  a  high-school  build- 
ing that  cost  $40,000,  George  R.  Smith  College,  public  li- 
brary with  over  10,000  volumes,  court-house  (erected  in 
1884,  cost  $115,000),  new  U.  S.  Government  building,  8 
national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $300,000,  2  State 
banks  with  capital  of  $350,000, 10  building  and  loan  asso- 
ciations, and  3  daily,  7  weekly,  and  2  monthly  periodicals. 
The  locomotive-shops  of  the  So.  Pac.  Railwav  and  the  gen- 
eral offices  and  car-shops  of  the  Mo.,  Kan.  ana  Tex.  Railway 
are  located  here.  There  are  also  flour-mills,  iron-foundry, 
woolen-mills,  machine-shop,  agricultural-implement  works, 
brewery,  grain  elevator,  and  carriage  and  broom  factories. 
Pop.  (1880)  9,661 ;  (1890)  14,068.  Thomas  Seddon. 

Sedan,  Fr.  pron.  s«-daan' :  town :  in  the  department  of 
Ardennes,  France ;  on  the  Meuse ;  64  miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of 
Rheims  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  2-H).  It  contains  an  ar- 
senal and  several  magazines,  and  was  at  one  time  a  place  of 
great  military  importance.  It  has  manufactures  of  cloth 
and  other  kinds  of  woolen  fabrics.  Metal-working  is  also 
carried  on.  The  Protestants  had  here  a  flourishing  acade- 
my, which  was  closed  by  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  in  1685.  On  Sept.  2,  1870,  Napoleon  111.  and  his 
whole  army  of  86,0(X)  men  surrendered  here  to  the  King  of 
Prussia.    Pop.  (1891)  17,023. 

Sedan-chair :  a  portable  vehicle  differing  from  the  litter 
and  the  palanquin  m  that  the  traveler  is  carried  in  a  sitting 
posture  by  two  men.  The  sedan-chair  took  its  name  from 
»edan  in  France,  where  it  was  invented,  but  it  had  long 
been  employed  in  Eastern  countries,  notably  in  India  and 
China.    It  was  first  seen  in  England  in  1581. 

Sedatiyes  [from  Lat.  aeda're,  seda'tus^  make  sit,  settle, 
compose,  calm] :  a  term  somewhat  loosely  employed  in  med- 
ical parlance  to  designate  agents  which  are  soothing  or  ac- 
tually ansBsthetic  over  the  sensory  function,  or  which  in  re- 
lation to  various  motor  functions  tend  to  diminish  activity. 
Aconite,  hemlock,  and  chloroform  are  thus  called  sedative — 
the  first,  because  it  lessens  the  force  and  frequency  of  the 
heart's  beats ;  the  second,  because  it  paralyzes  the  voluntary 
muscular  system ;  and  the  third,  because  it  is  a  general  para- 
lyzer  of  the  cerebro-spinal  functions.  From  these  examples 
it  is  obvious  enough  that  there  is  no  group  of  allied  agents 
to  which  the  general  term  sedative  can  apply ;  and  where 
used  in  relation  to  special  paralyzing  power  the  latter  term 
is  far  more  accurate  and  expressfve. 

Sedge  Family:  the  Cyperacece;  a  group  of  grass-like, 
monocotyledonous,  herbaceous  plants,  numoering  2,500  to 


Fio.  1.— A  sedge  {Cartx  umbellata)  reduced,  with  enlarsred  perigjn* 
ium  and  bract  at  left,  and  pistil  and  transverse  section  at  right. 

8,000  species.   Their  stems  are  usuallv  solid  and  three-angled, 
and  their  leaves  three-ranked,  with  closed  sheaths.    The 


flowers  are  greatly  reduced  from  the  lily  type,  having  three 
stamens  (rarely  more)  and  a  one-celled  ovary  with  two 
or  three  carpels, 
which  contains  a 
single  basifixed, 
anatropous  ovule, 
the  latter  devel- 
oping into  a  free 
seed.  The  peri- 
anth is  wanting, 
or  at  most  rudi- 
mentary, and  the 
plants  are  often 
moncecious  or  di- 
cecious.  , 

Sedp^es  are  com- 
mon in  all  parts 
of  the  globe  and 
are  particularly 
abundant  upon 
low  and  wet  lands. 
They  are  usually 
not  so  nutritious 
as  the  grasses,  but 
constitute  a  large 
proportion  of  the 
coarse  hay  which 
is  cut  from  wet 
meadows.  The 
largest  genera  of 
the  family  are  Cy- 
penis  (containing 
from  400  to  500 
species),  Fimbris- 
tylia  (200),  Scir- 
pus  (200),  Rhyn- 
chospora       (150), 


Fio.  2.— Papyrus  (CuperuM papyruM\. 


Scleria  (100),  and  Carex  (500).    See  the  articles  Cabkx.  V\- 
PE&us,  and  Papyrus.  Charles  E.  B  esse  v. 

Sedgemoor:  a  wild  region  of  Somersetshire,  Engl(in<]. 
extending  S.  E.  from  Bridgewater.  On  July  6,  1685,  tli» 
Duke  of  Monmouth,  son  of  Charles  II.  of  England  by  Lm  v 
Walters,  was  defeated  here  by  the  army  of  James  II.  uwU-r 
the  Earl  of*  Faversham.  The  duke  was  taken  prisoner,  ani 
executed  July  15, 1685.    See  Blackmore's  Loma  Doone. 

Sedgwick,  Adam,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  :  geologist ;  b.  st 
Dent,  Yorkshire,  England,  in  Jan.,  1786;  graduati^l  at 
Cambridge  1808;  became  fellow  of  Trinity  College  1^<1<»: 
took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England  1817;  was  apf>oiiit<M 
Woodwardian  Professor  of  Geology  at  Cambridge  IM**; 
chosen  fellow  of  the  Royal  Societv  1819;  became  pn>ct».r .  f 
the  university  1827;  {)resident  of  the  Geological  Society  .f 
London  1829-31;  received  the  Copley  medal  of  the  K«'\il 
Society  1863.  D.  at  Cambridge,  Jan.  27,  1873.  His  ^-eol'  -- 
ical  studies  covered  wide  areas  in  continental  Europe  a!>  w^i 
as  Great  Britain,  but  the  older  sedimentary  rocks  of  Kn^' 
land  and  Wales  were  his  special  field.  In  classifying  th.  -• 
he  first  announced  the  Cambrian  as  a  system  Wlow  ti,-' 
Silurian ;  and  a  question  as  to  the  position  of  the  line  <i'\  a- 
rating  the  two  systems  occasioned  a  long  controversy  vrit! 
Murchison,  involving  much  bitterness  and  personal  fivlinc- 
He  was  an  active  opponent  of  the  doctrine  of  evoluti<r. 
His  works  consist  chiefly  of  reviews,  lectures,  addresses.  »ii'i 
memoirs,  scattered  through  the  publications  of  learned  m- 
cieties,  the  most  important  separate  essays  being  a  Dis- 
course an  the  Studies  of  the  University  of  Cambridge  (\k'A: 
enlarged  ed.  1850)  and  a  Synopsis  of  the  Classification  (»/ 
t?^  Palaeozoic  Rocks  (1855).  See  Cambrian  Period,  hi,  . 
consult  Geikie's  Memoirs  of  Sir  R.  Murchison  (1874)  aii'l 
Hunt's  Chemical  and  Geological  Essays  (1875). 

Sedgwick,  Catharine  Maria:  author;  daughter  of 
Judge  Theodore  Sedgwick ;  b.  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  I>eo.  >. 
1789;  undertook  after  her  father's  death  (in  1813)  the  maL- 
agement  of  a  private  school  for  the  education  of  younj 
ladies,  and  continued  in  that  employment  fifty  years,  >.^«' 
published  her  first  work  of  fiction,  A  New  England  Tale,  in 
1822,  the  success  of  which  decided  her  to  continue  the  can^^r 
of  authorship;  brought  out  Redwood  (2  vols.,  1824).  wl.i<h 
was  reprintea  in  England,  translated  into  French,  Italian. 
German,  and  Swedish,  and  compared  favorably  with  tht 
novels  of  Cooper,  to  whom,  indeed,  it  was  attributed  in  the 
French  version ;  and  was  the  author  of  other  popular  works 
including   The   Traveller  (1826);   Hope  Leslie,  or  Ecriy 


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SEELTE 


See,  Horace  :  naval  engineer  and  architect ;  b.  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  July  19, 1885.  He  was  educated  at  the  Acad- 
emy of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  and  the  Gregory 
Academy ;  became,  after  entermg  business  life,  interested  in 
steamship  construction.  From  1887  to  1889  he  was  the  su- 
perintenaing  engineer  of  the  works  of  William  Cramp  &  Sons, 
at  Philadelphia,  and  introduced  many  improvements  into 
the  design  and  manufacture  of  the  steam-engine.  He  had 
much  to  do  with  the  introduction  of  triple-expansion  engines 
into  the  vessels  of  the  U.  S.  navv.  He  designed  engines  for 
the  cruisers  Yorktown,  Concord,  Bennington,  Philaidelphia, 
Newark,  and  Vesuvius,  and  for  several  well-known  yachts  and 
important  merchant  vessels.  The  cylindrical  face-plate,  if 
it  may  be  so  called,  has  been  one  of  those  by  which  it  has 
been  possible  to  produce  perfect  surfaces  in  main  bearings 
and  crank-shaft  journals,  so  that  heating,  heretofore  consid- 
ered a  natural  conse<|uence  following  the  trial  of  a  new  en- 
gine, has  been  elimmated.  He  has  been  president  of  the 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers ;  is  fellow  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  ;  and 
a  member  of  the  British  Institution  of  Naval  Architects,  and 
of  other  societies. 

Seed-lac :  See  Lac. 

Seeds  [0.  Eng.  scmI  :  Germ,  scuit :  Icel.  «a5  :  Goth,  -aepa  in 
manoMps,  seed  of  men,  the  world ;  cf.  Lat.  se'rere,  aa'tum, 
sow,  Gr./^Mu,  throw ;  Indo-Europ.  root ««-,  throw] :  the  imme- 
diate result  of  sexual  propagation  in  phanerogamous  plants, 
being  the  ovules  after  fertilization  and  the  consequent  for- 
mation of  the  embryo,  which  is  the  germ  of  a  new  individual. 
A  seed  consists  of  the  embryo ;  of  the  matured  coats  of  the 
Ovule  (q.  v.),  commonly  two,  of  which  the  outer,  and  gener- 
ally the  firmer,  is  technicallv  called  the  testa,  the  inner,  teg- 
men;  and  often  of  a  stocK  of  nourishing  matter  accu- 
mulated around  or  accompanying  the  embryo.  The  latter 
was  named  cUbumen,  from  a  mainly  fanciful  analogy ;  the 
seed  being  likened  to  an  egg,  the  albumen  was  supposed  to 
answer  to  its  white  (albumen)  and  the  embryo  to  its  yolk. 
Seeds,  such  as  those  of  peas,  beans,  and  almonds,  which 
have  no  albumen — that  is,  no  stock  of  nourishment  outside 
of  the  embryo — have  always  a  strong  and  well-developed 
embryo,  abundantly  supplied  with  the  same  or  similar 
matter  stored  in  its  own  tissues.  The  general  structure  of 
the  seed  depending  upon  that  of  the  ovule,  the  same  terms 
are  mostly  applicable'  to  it  and  to  its  modifications  and 
parts  (such  as  anatropous,  orthotropoua,  rhaphe,  chalaza, 
etc.);  but  the  closed  orifice  through  which  impregnation 
was  effected  is  called  the  micropyle ;  the  scar  left  by  sepa- 
ration from  the  seed-stalk  or  placenta  is  the  hilum;  the 
accessory  and  usually  partial  external  covering,  which  is 
sometimes  developed  by  a  growth  from  the  micropyle  or 
the  apex  of  the  seed-stalk,  is  an  arillus  or  aril.  The  mace 
of  nutmeg  and  the  pulpy  covering  of  Euonymus  seeds  are 
familiar  examples.  A  caruncle  ana  a  strophiole  are  nearly 
similar  appendages  at  the  base  or  hilum,  not  developea 
into  a  covering.  Other  appendages  to  cei*tain  seeds  are 
the  coma,  or  tuft  of  downy  nairs  at  the  summit,  as  in  milk- 
weed, or  the  base,  as  in  willow,  also  the  wing,  as  in  trumpet- 
creeper;  these  and  various  other  appendages  aid  in  the 
dispersion  of  seeds.  The  albumen  of  the  seed,  when  dis- 
tinctively present,  may  differ  greatly  in  abundance,  con- 
sistence, and  nature;  as  from  farinaceous  or  fiowery  in 
wheat  to  cartilaginous  or  homy  as  in  coffee,  or  to  the  tex- 
ture and  appearance  of  ivory  in  the  vegetable-ivory  nuts. 
In  many  cases,  as  in  those  just  referred  to,  it  forms  much 
the  larger  part  of  the  kernel  of  the  seed;  in  otherAthe 
embryo  is  so  minute  as  to  be  with  difficulty  discernea  an- 
tecedent to  germination ;  while  sometimes  the  embryo  is 
the  more  conspicuous,  and  the  albumen  is  reduced  to  a  thin 
layer.  When  copious,  the  albumen  generally  envelops  the 
embryo,  but  sometimes  the  latter  enfolds  the  former,  as 
in  mallows,  or  is  coiled  around  it,  as  in  four-o*-clock  and 
chick  weeds.  The  embryo  and  its  parts  are  described  in 
other  articles.  (See  Germination,  Cotyledon,  and  Embry- 
ology.) Its  most  important  structural  charactenstic  is 
the  number  of  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves — one  in  monocoty- 
ledonous  or  endogenous  plants ;  two  in  the  dicotyledonous 
or  exogenous. 

There  are  manv  confiicting  accounts  as  to  the  duration 
of  vitality  in  seeds.  The  story  of  grain  found  buried  with 
Egyptian  mummies  having  germinated  after  being  exhumed 
is  generally  discredited.  All  recent  attempts  under  proper 
observation  and  due  precautions  have  failed.  The  appear- 
ance of  plants  new  to  the  station  upon  the  soil  brought 


to  the  surface  from  excavations  can  usually  be  otherwLs*» 
explained  when  thev  appear  to  involve  a  hign  antiquity,  al- 
though there  is  no  douDt  that  buried  seeds  have  germinat»^i 
after  a  lapse  of  fifty  or  more  years.  The  best-authenticatMi 
case,  pointing  to  a  much  longer  preservation  of  viuiit) 
under  such  conditions,  is  that  of  the  growth  of  raspl>ern* 
seeds  found  in  the  abdominal  portion  oi  a  skeleton  exhumed 
from  a  Roman  tomb  near  Dorchester,  England ;  but  it  i< 
one  not  beyond  doubt  and  uncertainty.  One  or  two  serie>  •  f 
experiments,  conducted  by  the  sowing  of  seeds  of  knowr]  n'z-. 
and  also  by  the  annual  sowing  from  a  stock  of  a  con^itifr- 
able  variety  of  seeds  of  the  same  age,  indicate  a  ra[)i(i  *-\- 
tinction  of  vitality  under  ordinary  conditions.  Out  of  V.^ 
species,  representing  74  families  of  plants,  only  94  kii.  > 

frew  after  8  years,  only  57  after  4  to  8  years,  only  16  Ir  •:  i 
to  21  years,  5  from  25  to  27  years,  3  to  43  years.'  In  (nii- 
nary  cases,  leguminous  seeds  have  longest  preser^-ed  gfni.i- 
nating  power,  in  some  very  well-authenticated  instance>  up 
to  seventy  or.  perhaps  a  hundred  years.  Nearly  unif<  n:i 
temperature,  darkness,  and  either  dryness  or  bunal  V^s^u  i 
atmospheric  infiuences,  most  favor  the  prolongation  of  vital- 
ity.   See  also  Food.  Revised  by  Charles  K  6e>>ly. 

See'land  :  the  largest  and  most  important  of  the  Danl^^h 
islands ;  between  the  Catteg:at  and  the  Baltic,  and  bet  «>»•:] 
the  Sound  which  separates  it  from  Sweden  and  the  (in.ii 
Belt  which  separates  it  from  the  island  of  Funen.  An », 
2,718  sq.  miles, or  with  neighboring  islands  administratis  \ 
dependent,  2,900  so.  miles.  The  ground  is  low  and  un- 
dulating, dotted  witn  small  lakes  and  studded  with  fori  st^ 
of  oak  and  beech,  but  nowhere  rising  more  than  300  fet* 
above  the  sea.  The  soil  is  very  fertile  and  well  cultivaiMi. 
Pop.  (1890)  in  the  administrative  limits,  722,000. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Hakringk^n. 

Seeley,  Sir  John  Robert,  M.  A.:  educator  and  autiiT: 
b.  in  London,  England,  in  1834;  graduated  at  Camhriikv 
1857 ;  became  fellow  of  Christ's  College  1858 ;  Prof.-^  r 
of  Latin  in  University  College,  London,  1863 ;  sueit x-^W. 
Charles  Kingsley  as  Professor  of  Modem  History  at  C'd  •:- 
bridge  Oct.  9, 1869.  Author  of  Ecee  Homo,  or  the  LiU  <Jh  i 
WorkofJemis  Christ  (London,  1865),  which  rapidly  jjhs^^j 
through  many  editions  and  elicited  many  replies;' if "/^'"« 
Imperialism  (1869) ;  Lectures  and  Essays  (1870);  and  e«];t<  r 
of  Livy,  with  Introduction,  Historical  Examinatitm,  '»  -J 
Notes  (1871);  wrote  Life  and  Times  of  Stein  (3  vols..  ISTi*  : 
Expansion  of  England  (ISSS) ;  Natural  Religion  (18^2):  A 
Short  History  of  Napoleon  L  (1886):  Goethe  Rfrwr^'t 
after  Sixty  I  ear«  (1893);  Growth  of  British  Policy  {\>^X^'. 
D.  at  Cambridge,  Jan.  13, 1895.    Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Seelye,  see'lee,  Julius  Hawley,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  e<li.- 
cator ;  d.  at  Bethel,  Conn.,  Sept.  14,  1824 ;  graduated  a: 
Amherst  College  1849;  studiea  theology  at  the  Aubiiri. 
Seminary,  and  also  in  Germany ;  was  pastor  of  the  FiM 
Reformed  Dutoh  church,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1853-58.  tUr. 
became  Professor  of  Mental  and  Moral  Philosophv  in  An.- 
herst  College.  In  1872  he  visited  India,  where  lie  ^\^\.\ 
three  months,  largely  occupied  in  lecturing  to  educateii  ar.'i 
English-speaking  Hindus  on  the  truths  of  Christianr>. 
Some  of  these  lectures  were  published  in  Bombay  (1*^7-; 
by  request  of  their  auditors,  and  also  at  Boston'  (l{<T4t. 
under  the  title  The  Way,  the  Truth,  and  the  Life,  He  r!^' 
published  a  volume  on  Christian  Missions  (New  York,  l^To 
an  elementary  text-book  on  Duty  (1891),  brides  various  ?*  r- 
mons,  addresses,  and  articles  in  Quarterly  reviews,  and  trari- 
lated  Schwegler's  History  of  Philosophy  (New  York.  ls>i. 
He  aided  in  the  revision  of  Hickok's  Psychology  (1882).  In 
1874  he  was  elected  to  Congress  by  a  spontaneous  moverntr^ 
of  the  people  of  his  district,  and  without  having.  reoeiv»ni  a 
nomination  from  any  political  party.  In  1876  he  was  i'le«t« : 
president  of  Amherst  College,  retaining  his  profe^s<>r>h.p. 
He  resigned  both  offices  in  1890.  D.  at  Amhen^t.  Maxv 
May  12, 1895.  Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisher. 

Seelye,  Laurenus  Clark,  D.D.:  educator;  brother  <-^f 
Julius  H.  Seelye ;  b.  at  Bethel.  Conn.,  Sept  20,  1837  :  ^j^- 
uated  at  Union  College  1857 ;  studied  at  Andover  Thtt^i  J-  j 
ical  Seminarv  1857-59,  at  Berlin  and  Heidelberg  Univer- 
sities 1860-62;  traveled  in  Europe,  Egvpt,  and  Palo>tin' ;  ] 
was  pastor  of  the  North  Congregational  church  at  Sprinj- 
field,  Mass.,  1863-65;  was  Professor  of  English  Litenit:r^ 
and  Oratory  at  Amherst  College  1865-74;  organized  m  i 
became  in  1874  first  president  of  Smith  College  for  younj 
women,  at  Northampton,  Mass. ;  author  of  various  contri- 
butions to  reviews,  including  articles  on  collegiate  educa- 
tion and  on  Celtic  literature. 


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>*infiuV,  fiinPAHI*.  M.  D. : 


An 

III  A 


414 


SEINB 


SEISTAN 


northwestern  direction,  passes  through  Paris,  where  it  is 
from  400  to  600  feet  wide,  and  enters  the  English  Channel 
at  Havre  by  an  estuary  7  miles  wide.  Its  entire  length  is 
482  miles,  of  which  about  350  below  Troyes  are  navigable 
by  barges,  and  40  from  Rouen  to  Havre  (to  which  the  term 
Seine  maritime  is  applied)  by  vessels  of  200  to  800  tons.  It 
receives  from  the  left  the  Yonne,  the  Essonne,  and  the 
Eure,  and  from  the  right  the  Aube,  Mame,  and  Oise.  By 
canals  it  communicates  with  the  Loire,  Sadne,  Rhine,  Rhdne, 
Meuse,  and  Scheldt.  Though  surpassed  in  some  respects  by 
the  Loire,  Saone,  and  Garonne,  yet  with  the  hills  and  val- 
leys, forests  and  meadows,  numerous  villages,  populous 
towns,  and  famous  cities  which  line  its  banks  it  is  one  of 
the  finest  rivers  in  Europe. 

Seine :  department  of  France ;  completely  inclosed  with- 
in Seine-et-Oise ;  area,  185  sq.  miles.  It  is  the  smallest  but 
the  most  densely  peopled  and  wealthiest  department  of 
France,  comprising  Paris  and  the  suburban  villages  of 
Boulogne,  Clichy,  Puteaux,  etc.  The  ground  is  undulating 
and  traversed  by  the  Seine  and  the  Marne.  The  soil  is  not 
naturally  fertile,  but  it  has  been  made  very  productive  by 
the  skill  of  the  farmers  and  gardeners.  Immense  quantities 
of  vegetables,  mushrooms,  melons,  peaches,  and  strawberries 
are  raised  for  the  markets  of  Paris.  Beautiful  forests,  as 
those  of  Boulogne,  Vincennes,  St.-Cloud,  and  Meudon,  cover 
a  large  part  of  the  surface  between  the  cities,  and  rich  quar- 
ries of  building-stone  and  gypsum  are  found.  Pop.  (1891) 
3,141,595. 

Seine-et-Marne,  -o-maaru' :  department  of  France,  ad- 
joining Seine-et-Oise  on  the  W. ;  area,  2,214  sq.  miles.  The 
ground  is  slightly  undulating  and  the  soil  very  fertile.  Ex- 
tensive forests,  yielding  excellent  timber,  are  found,  among 
which  is  that  of  Fontamebleau.  Large  crops  of  wheat,  vege- 
tables, and  fruits  are  raised ;  the  wine  of  the  department  is 
mediocre,  though  it  produces  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
kinds  of  table-grapes,  the  Chasselas  de  Fontainebleau.  On 
the  pastures  and  meadows  numerous  cattle  are  reared,  and 
immense  quantities  of  cheese,  the  so-called  fromage  de  Brie, 
are  sent  to  the  Paris  markets.  The  manufacturing  industry 
of  the  department  is  not  of  great  importance.  Pop.  (1891) 
356,709.    Capital,  Melun. 

Seine-et-Oise,  -o-waaz' :  department  of  France.  Area, 
2,163  sq.  miles.  In  the  southern  part  the  ground  is  almost 
flat ;  in  the  northern,  hilly  and  covered  with  forests.  The 
soil  is  generally  not  fertile,  but,  being  well  manured  and  ex- 
cellently cultivated,  yields  large  crops  of  fruits  and  vegeta- 
bles for  the  capital.  Different  branches  of  manufactures 
.  are  pursued  with  s^eat  success.  Several  fine  varieties  of 
stone  and  clay  are  found,  and  the  porcelain  manufactures  of 
S<$vres  have  acquired  a  worldwide  reputation.  Pop.  (1891) 
628,590.    Capital,  Versailles. 

Seine-Inf^rienre,  -fth'fa'ri-6r':  department  of  France,  bor- 
dering on  the  Enfi^lish  Channel.  Area,  2,330  sq.  miles.  The 
ground  is  general^  composed  of  plains,  watered  by  numerous 
small  streams,  and  broken  only  m  the  southwestern  part  bv 
ranges  of  low  hills.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  well-cultivated. 
Forests  abound ;  large  crops  of  grain,  hemp,  fiax,  hops,  and 
fruits  are  raised,  and  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  are  extensively 
reared.  Manufactures,  and  especially  fisheries  and  com- 
merce, form  important  sources  of  wealth.  Large  quantities 
of  cheese,  butter,  and  cider  are  made.  Poultry,  chickens, 
turkevs,  ducks,  and  geese  are  raised,  and  enormous  quantities 
of  eggs  are  exported  to  England.  Pop.  (1891)  839,876.  Cap- 
ital, Rouen. 

Seines :  See  Fisheries. 

Seip,  sip,  Theodore  Lorenzo,  D.  D. :  educator;  b.  at 
Easton,  Pa.,  June  25,  1842 ;  graduated  at  Pennsylvania  Col- 
lege, Gettysburg,  Pa.,  ami  Theological  Seminary,  Philadel- 
phia. He  has  been  connected  with  Muhlenberg  College, 
Allentown,  Pa.,  since  its  organization  in  1867,  first  as  prin- 
cipal of  the  academic  department,  and  successively  as  Pro- 
fessor of  the  Latin  and  Greek  Languages,  becoming  presi- 
dent in  1886.  H.  E.  J. 

Sei'sin  [from  0.  Fr.  aeiaine,  misine,  dcriv.  of  seiair,  sat- 
«»>,  seize :  Ital.  eagire ;  of  Teuton,  origin ;  cf.  O.  H.  Germ. 
aazjan^  set]:  in  law,  possession  of  a  freehold  estate.  The 
terra  originally  signified  any  possession,  whether  of  real  or 
^  personal  property,  but  it  became  appropriated  at  an  early 
period  to  describe  the  possession  of  a  freehold  tenant  of 
lands.  If  such  freeholaer  surrenders  the  actual  physical 
possession  to  another  who  lays  no  claim  to  the  freehold 
(as  a  tenant  for  years),  he  does  not  thereby  lose  his  seisin. 


I  The  tenant's  possession  is  referred  to  the  landlord's  sei- 
sin, and  constitutes  a  part  of  it  (See  Property.)  But  if 
actual  possession  of  the  land  be  taken,  riehtfuUy  or  wrong- 
fully, by  one  who  intends  thereby  to  hold  the  freehold,  the 
act  IS  a  disseisin  of  the  owner  and  operates  to  transfer  the 
freehold  to  the  "  disseisor."  (For  this  extraordinary  conse- 
quence of  a  disseisin,  see  Limitation  of  Actioxs.)  '  In  th<; 
same  way  every  one  who  has  a  vested  future  estate  of  free- 
hold, whether  in  reversion  or  remainder,  is  seised  of  such 
estate  so  long  as  the  present  or  particular  estate  upon  which 
the  future  estate  is  limited  continues  to  be  vested  in  posses- 
sion. If  the  particular  tenant  is  disseised,  however,  everr 
future  estate  which  depends  upon  his  estate  is  divested  by 
the  same  act.    See  Landlord  and  Tenant  and  Reiiaim>lr. 

The  expression  "livery  of  seisin,"  which  described  the 
ancient  process  of  conveyance  of  freehold  interests,  known 
as  feoffment,  is  only  the  archaic  equivalent  for  the  phrase 
delivery  of  possession.  See  Feoffment,  Freehold,  ami 
C^RANT.  George  W.  Kirchwey. 

Sels'mograph :  an  instrument  recording  graphically  the 
motions  of  a  point  on  the  earth^s  surface  during  an  earth- 
quake. Instruments  for  the  automatic  record  of  earth- 
quakes are  classed  according  to  special  function — as  ib 
seismoscopes,  which  merely  detect  and  record  the  fact  of  an 
earth  tremor,  with  or  without  indication  of  its  time;  c2} 
seismometere,  which  measure  also  the  maximum  fon.^  <»f 
the  shock,  either  with  or  without  indication  of  its  directtion ; 
and  (8)  seismographs,  which  record  the  number,  suoci»s>ion, 
direction,  amplitude,  and  period  of  successive  oecillation<. 
Most  seismoscopes  are  devices  involving  a  delicately  adju>i- 
ed  trigger  whose  small  movement  permits  a  weigh't  to  fdU. 
causes  an  alarm  to  sound,  or  stops  a  clock.  In  seismometer^ 
a  heavy  liquid  is  agitated  or  made  to  spill  from  a  vessel,  or 
a  movable  solid  is  thrown  down  or  displaced.  In  the  tt.n- 
struction  of  seismographs  the  primary  endeavor  is  to  gi\  c 
astatic  suspension  to  a  heavy  body,  that  is,  to  suspend  it  in 
such  way  that  when  its  position  is  disturbed  through  a 
small  distance  no  force  will  be  developed  tending  to  restore 
its  original  position;  or  what  is  the  same  thing,  so  that  if 
its  support  be  moved  the  motion  will  not  be  communicat«'<l 
to  the  body.  This  ideal  result  has  never  been  accompli>he.i. 
but  close  approximations  have  been  obtained  by  varitu< 
devices.  The  complementary  part  of  the  apparatus  cvn- 
sists  in  systems  of  levers,  etc.,  connecting  the  body  a^twt- 
ically  suspended  with  various  fixed  points,  or  surfaces  mov»-*l 
by  clockwork,  in  such  way  as  to  secure  a  graphic  reconl  t»f 
the  relative  motions  in  various  directions.  The  more  ehit»- 
orate  machines  record  motion  in  the  vertical  direction  and 
in  two  horizontal  directions.  See  Earthquakes,  and  con- 
sult the  Transactions  of  the  Seismological  Society  of  Jaj«an. 

G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Seismology  [Gr.  <rtiafi6sf  earthquake  +  k6yot,  discourse, 
reason] :  See  Earthquakes. 

Seismometer  and  Seismoscope :  See  Sbismooraph. 

Seiss,  sees,  Joseph  Augustus,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  L.  H.  I).: 
author  and  preacher ;  b.  near  Emmittsburg,  Md.,  Mar.  l<. 
1823;  student  in  Pennsylvania  College,  Gettysburg,  Ph.; 
ordained  to  the  Lutheran  ministry  1844;  i)astof  in  S'irtjinU 
1842-47,  Cumberland,  Md.,  1847-^2,  Baltimore  1852-.>, 
Philadelphia  since  1868.  He  is  a  preacher  of  extraordinury 
power.  His  literary  career  began  with  Lectures  on  th'r 
Epistles  to  ths  Hebrews  (1846),  and  has  continued  until  his 
books  and  pamphlets  number  considerably  over  100.  11 1^ 
Gospel  in  Leviticus  was  republished  in  England,  and  lii^ 
Lectures  on  the  Apocalypse  has  been  translated  and  i»uh- 
lished  in  Germany  and  Holland.  He  has  been  editor  «'f 
The  Prophetic  Times  and  Th^  Lutheran.  He  is  one  of  tl;r 
founders  of  the  General  Council,  of  which,  as  well  as  of  the 
ministerium  of  Pennsylvania,  he  has  been  president,  il- 
has  been  president  also  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  x\>: 
Philadelphia  Seminary  almost  ever  since  its  foundation,  a  i.i 
a  member  of  the  committee  that  prepared  The  Church  Ii""k 
and  The  Common  Service.  H.  E.  JAt^oBi^. 

Seistan,  sas-tawn',  or  Sistan :  district  divided  bt»two.  n 
Persia  and  Afghanistan,  Central  Asia ;  between  lat.  30  at)»i 
32°  N.  and  Ion.  60*^  and  62'  E.,  bordering  W.  on  the  Por>i:.b 
provinces  of  Khorassan  and  Kirman.  The  surface  ft»riii- 
an  extensive  depression,  toward  which  the  surroundinir  ta- 
ble-lands slope  gently.  The  soil  consists  either  of  quuk- 
sand  or  of  a  still  clay  covered  with  coarse  grass  and  t«nm- 
risk-bushes,  and  uncultivable  except  along  the  rivers,  which 
from  the  surrounding  highlands  gather  in  the  middle  of  tl.e 


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416 


SELENIOUS  OXIDE 


SELBUCUS 


on  them,  but  with  hydrochloric  acid  they  evolye  chlorine, 
forming  selenious  acid  and  chlorides. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Sele'nions  Oxide:  the  only  oxide  of  selenium  known. 
It  is  a  solid  white  substance  obtained  by  combustion  of 
selenium  in  oxygen,  or  by  evaporating  selenious  acid  to 
dryness.  Its  formula  is  SeOa.  It  sublimes,  without  fusing, 
below  redness,  condensing  in  crystals,  and  is  very  deliques- 
cent. Its  compound  with  water,  selenious  acid  (H«SeOs),  is 
a  strong  acid,  which  decomposes,  with  heat,  the  chlorides 
and  nitrates,  and  forms  neutral  salts  with  bases,  beine  ex- 
ceptional, nevertheless,  in  bein^  decomposed  by  heat,  as  above 
intimated.  The  selenites  are  bibasic,  and  large  numbers  have 
been  prepared  and  investigated,  but  for  these  the  chemical 
text-books  must  be  referr^  to. 

SeFenite  [from  Lat.  sele'mtes  =  Or.  drcXifWriis  (sc.  x/Oos, 
stone),  deriv.  of  crcx^yi},  moon.  So  called  from  its  luster] :  a 
mineralogical  name  for  gypsum.  Dana  believes  that  the 
^tKipdrris  of  Dioscorides  was  probably  really  crystallized 
gypsum,  but  not  the  selenitia  of  Pliny.  Discoveries  in 
molecular  structure  indicate  two  distinct  varieties  of  the 
species  selenite  or  gypsum — allotropic  modifications,  as  they 
may  be  called— one  having  density,  when  homogeneous,  = 
2*818  (Mohs  found  2*31,  and  Kenngott,  as  the  mean  of  16, 
found  2-317),  and  the  other  =  2-337  (Pilhol  found  2-331). 

Sele'nlam  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Or.  crcx^m,  moon.  So  called 
from  its  chemical  analogy  to  tellu'rium  (from  Lat.  tellu8, 
earth),  being  as  it  were  a  companion  to  it] :  a  chemical  element 
discovered  by  Berzelius  in  1817.  Sulphur,  selenium,  tellurium, 
and  oxygen  form  Berzelius's  natural  amphigen  group  of  ele- 
ments, which  are  certainly  separated  widely  from  tne  halo- 
gen group  in  many  respects,  though  fluorine  apparently 
forms  a  connecting  link,  naving  many  affiliations  with  both 
groups.  Selenium  must  be  considered  one  of  the  rarer  ele- 
ments, though  several  native  mineral  compounds  of  it  are 
known.  The  mineral  clausthalite  is  selenide  of  lead,  zor- 
gite  a  double  selenide  of  lead  and  copper,  these  being  the 
principal  sources  of  commercial  selenium,  and  somewhat 
common  in  the  mines  of  the  Hartz  Mountains,  at  Tilkerode, 
Clausthal,  and  Zorge,  also  at  Olasbach  in  Thuringia.  Lehr- 
bachite  is  a  selenide  of  lead  and  mercury  from  the  Hartz ; 
berzelianite^  a  selenide  of  copper  from  the  same,  and  from 
Skrikerum  in  Sm&land,  Sweden ;  eueairite,  a  copper  and 
silver  selenide,  also  from  Skrikerum,  and  found  in  several 
Chilian  localities ;  naumannite,  a  silver-lead  selenide  from 
the  Hartz.  There  is  a  silver  selenide  in  crystals  at  Tasco  in 
Mexico  (del  Rio) ;  HemanniUj  a  mercuric  selenide,  from  the 
Hartz ;  and  a  few  others  less  known.  Certain  iron  pyrites, 
as  at  Fahlun  in  Sweden,  contain  selenium ;  and  when  these 
are  used  for  making  sulphuric  acid,  a  seleniferous  deposit 
forms  in  the  leaden  chambers,  in  which,  indeed,  the  element 
was  first  discovered  by  Berzelius.  Selenium  is  obtained  prin- 
cipally from  the  dust  that  accumulates  in  the  flues  of  sul- 
phuric-acid works,  and  of  roastine-fumaces  where  iron  py- 
rites containing  selenium  are  used.  The  relative  quantity 
of  selenium  in  the  pyrites  is  very  small,  but  the  product  of 
its  combustion  is  a  solid  that  is  much  less  volatile  than  the 
gases  given  off  in  the  burning  of  the  pyrites,  so  that  this 
product  accumulates  in  the  flues.  In  oraer  to  obtain  the  se- 
lenium from  the  dust,  this  is  treated  with  an  oxidizing  ag^nt, 
either  nitric  acid  or  a  nitrate,  and  the  selenium  thus  all 
converted  into  the  dioxide,  SeOi,  or  into  a  salt  of  selenic 
acid,  HsSeOi.  Both  of  these  oxides  are  easily  reduced  by 
sulphurous  acid,  the  element  selenium  being  precipitated. 

There  are  at  least  two  modifications  of  selenium  which 
correspond  to  those  of  Sulphur  {q.  v.).  One  is  slightly 
soluble  in  carbon  disulphide,  the  other  is  not.  The  soluble 
form  is  obtained  by  reducing  selenious  acid  by  means  of 
sulphurous  acid,  or  other  reducing  agent.  The  insoluble 
variety  is  obtained  by  melting  selenium  and  rapidly  cooling 
it.  Tne  soluble  form  is  crystalline,  the  insoluble  form  is 
amorphous. 

Selenium  does  not  kindle  easily,  like  sulphur,  but  when 
heated  strongly  will  bum  in  the  air ;  and  selenides  will  bum 
before  the  blowpipe.  A  characteristic  odor  accompanies 
this  combustion,  compared  by  some  to  that  of  horse-radish, 
by  which  the  presence  of  selenium  in  a  mineral  can  be  de- 
tected by  those  who  know  the  odor. 

Compounds, — Selenietted  hydrogen,  corresponding  to  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  these. 
It  is  a  permanent  gas,  which  may  be  formed  by  the  action 
of  an  acid  on  selenide  of  potassium,  or  by  heating  selenium 
in  a  current  of  dry  hydrogen  to  its  vaporizing-point.    At  a 


higher  temperature  dissociation  again  occuib.    It  is  very 

Soisonous,  producing  catarrhal  disease  when  inhaled,  ari'l 
estroying  the  sense  of  smelL  It  does  not  liquefy  at  —  lO  < '. 
The  electrical  conductivity  of  selenium  is  influenced  to  a 
remarkable  degree  by  heat  and  light.  Amorphous  selenium 
does  not  conduct  electricity,  but  the  crystallized  does  so.  aii<l 
the  conductivity  increases  rapidly  with  a  rise  in  temptr^ 
ture.    According  to  the  latest  investigations,  however,  araor- 

?hous  selenium  conducts  electricity  when  heated  to  165  cr 
75**  C,  and  higher.  Revised  by  Ira  Remsex. 

Selencia,  ael-joo'^e-eSk,  or  Selenceia  (Or.  X^KtvmtU)  sel- 
ydb-see'aa:  the  name  of  several  cities  founded  mostly  by 
Seleucus  I.,  Nicator.  1.  A  city  on  the  Tigris.  In  the  time  of 
Titus  it  had  a  population  of  600,000 ;  it  was  partially  bum^i 
in  116  A.  D.  by  Trajan,  and  was  destroyed  in  162  a.  d.  by  L. 
Vems. — 2.  Skleucia  Pieria  in  Syria,  near  the  mouth  of  thr* 
Orontes. — 8.  Seleucia  on  the  river  Belus  in  Syria.— 4.  Sll- 
EUciA  in  Northern  Palestine.— 6.  Seleucia  Sidera  discovere<l 
by  O.  Hirschfeld  in  the  plain  of  Isparta  in  Pisidia. — 6.  Sel- 
eucia in  Pamphylia  near  the  mouth  of  the  Eurymed(»n.— 
7.  Seleucia  on  the  Calycadnus  in  Cilicia  Tracheia,  the  £><  eDt^ 
of  the  drowning  of  Barbarossa.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Selen'cidiB:  one  of  the  five  great  dynasties  of  ancient 
Persia  before  the  Mohammedan  conquest.  After  the  de&th 
of  Alexander  the  Oreat  (a.  c.  d22)  the  vast  empire,  including 
Iran,  that  had  been  brought  under  his  command,  fell  a(>«rt. 
and  Syria  became  one  of  the  recognized  ruling  powers  un<icr 
Seleucus  Nicator  (ruled  b.  c.  312-281),  who  hadf  been  one  "f 
Alexander's  generals.  This  vigorous  commander  bec-ainf 
the  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucids.  He  was  $u<  - 
ceeded  by  his  son  Antiochus  I.,  Soter  (b.  c.  280-261),  and  t!  c 
latter  in  his  turn  by  a  son,  Antiochus  II.,  Theos  (b.  c.  261- 
246).  Under  the  first  Seleucids  the  Oreek  sovereignty  o^^r 
Persia  was  preserved  intact  for  nearly  seventy  years:  it^ 
unity,  however,  was  broken  about  B.  c.  256  by  the  revolt  of 
Bactria,  and  in  b.  c.  250  by  the  rebellion  and  rise  of  Part  hi  j 
as  an  independent  power  under  Arsaces.  The  Seleucid  .su- 
premacy itself  may  be  said  to  have  ceased  in  Iran  about  b.  < . 
150,  at  the  time  of  the  Parthian  monarch  Mithradatc>  tbt 
Oreat.  It  had  lasted  less  than  two  centuries,  and  as  a  {hv^»t 
in  Persian  political  history  its  existence  was  even  less  than 
a  hundred  years  in  duration.      A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Selea'cns  (in  Or.  X4\wicos) :  the  name  of  several  ruler>  -f 
antiquity.  1.  Seleucus  I.,  Nicator,  one  of  the  eenemN  ••! 
Alexander  the  Oreat,  b.  in  365  B.  c.  In  321  B.  c.  he  heiariie 
governor  of  Babylonia  and  in  317  of  Susiana.  He  was  fun^<  i 
by  Antigonus  in  315  to  flee  to  Ptolemy  in  Egypt.  In  31J 
he  was  victorious  over  Anti^nus  and  regained  contml  '/ 
Babylonia,  Susiana,  and  Media.  This  year  (312  B.  c.)  wa.*^  ihr 
beginning  of  the  Seleucid  era.  Henceforth  his  arms  v^ert* 
uniformly  successful,  and  he  advanced  into  India  farth'T 
even  than  did  Alexander,  thus  gaining  the  title  of  Siratnt, 
He  was  the  flrst  of  all  the  successors  of  Alexander  to  a5- 
sume  the  title  of  king.  In  the  battle  of  the  kings  at  Ip^> 
in  301  he  chiefly  was  instmmental  in  causing  the  defeat  .f 
Antigonus,  and  he  thus  added  Armenia,  Southern  A-m 
Minor,  cjid  Syria  to  his  kingdom.  He  then  allied  him>4.if 
to  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  whose  daughter  Stratonice  ho  mar- 
ried, but  he  soon  became  involved  in  a  war  with  Denietriu>. 
and,  having  taken  him  prisoner,  held  him  in  captivity  un!.: 
his  death  in  283.  His  war  with  Lysimachus  ended  in  2"^^* 
with  the  addition  of  Asia  Minor  to  his  empire,  which  th-> 
extended  from  the  western  seaboard  of  Asia  Minor  to  Ind.a. 
and  was  divided  into  seventy-two  satrapies.  His  aim.  i- -n- 
trary  to  that  of  Alexander,  was  to  Hellenize  the  Orit>ni. 
and  he  was  successful  to  a  degree,  but  the  removal  of  h> 
capital  from  Seleucia  on  the  Tigris  to  Antioch  on  the  C»n'r:- 
tes  tended  to  estrange  the  two  elements.  In  281,  in  a^ii- 
tion  to  the  surrender  of  his  wife  Stratonice,  he  gave  ihr 
whole  of  Asia  to  his  son  Antiochus.  and  himself  undert  -ok 
the  conquest  of  Macedonia,  but  was  murdered  by  I*tol»'mT 
Ceraunus  in  281  b.  c.  before  he  could  aceomolish  his  r^hji'^t 
—2.  Seleucus II., Callinicus, the great-granason of  Si'ltuc .- 
I.,  reigned  246-226  B.  c.  He  could  not  withstand  Ptolf !.) 
Euergetes,  King  of  Egypt,  who  to  avenge  the  murder  of  \i> 
sister  Berenice  advanced  victoriously  a^nst  Seleucus  as  far 
as  Susa,  and  in  239  added  Palestine,  Phoenicia,  and  i\*\* 
Syria  to  Egypt.  Antiochus  Hierax,  the  younger  brothrr  ■  f 
Seleucus,  declared  himself  King  of  Asia  Minor,  but  was  i^ui- 
dued.  The  Parthians  then  revolted,  and  in  238  were  viot«  r:- 
ous  over  Seleucus,  thus  founding  the  Parthian  kingil(<:*- 
Attalus,  too,  sought  for  a  slice  of  the  crumbling  empire,  aJ"^ 
in  226  defeated  Seleucus,  who  in  fleeing  from  the  battle  «h^ 


418 


SELF-CONTROL 


SELKIRK 


References. — James,  Principles  of  Psychology  (New  York, 
1890);  Avenarius,  Der  menschliche  Welibegriff;  Royce, 
Philoa,  Review,  Sept.,  1894 ;  Baldwin,  Mental  Devdopment : 
Methods  and  Processes  (New  York  and  London,  1895). 

J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Self-eontrol :  See  Will. 

Self-defense :  See  Assault  and  Battery,  Homicide,  and 
Trespass. 

Self-induction :  See  Induction,  Electro-magnetic. 

Seligrman,  Edwin  Robert  Anderson,  LL.  B.,  Ph.  D. : 
professor  of  political  economy  and  finance ;  b.  in  New  York, 
Apr.  25,  1861 ;  graduated  at  Columbia  College  1879 ;  stud- 
iea  three  years  at  the  Universities  of  Berlin,  Heidelberg, 
Geneva,  and  Paris ;  at  Columbia  College  Law  School  and 
School  of  Political  Science  1882-84;  lecturer  on  Political 
Economy,  Columbia  College,  1885-87;  adjunct  professor 
1887-90:  Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Finance  1890; 
treasurer  of  the  American  Economic  Association  1885-90; 
associate  editor  Political  Science  Quarterly  since  its  estab- 
lishment in  1886;  author  of  Railway  Tariffs  and  the  Inter- 
state Commerce  Law  (1887) ;  Two  Chapters  ofi  the  Medi(eval 
Guilds  of  England  (1887) ;  Finance  Statistics  of  the  Ameri- 
can CommonwecUths  (1889) ;  Taxation  of  Corporations  (1890) ; 
On  the  Shifting  and  Incidence  of  Taxation  (1892). 

C.  H.  Thurber. 

Se'llm :  the  name  of  three  Ottoman  sultans.  Selim  I., 
Yavuz,  the  Inflexible  (1512-21) ;  b.  1467.  By  the  aid  of  the 
janissaries  he  usurped  the  throne,  deposing  his  father  Ba- 
yezid  II.,  whom  he  is  believed  to  have  poisoned  shortly  after. 
Then  he  put  to  death  all  his  brothers  and  kinsmen.  Attack- 
ing Persia  he  defeated  Shah  Ismail  at  Calderon  with  im- 
mense slaughter  (1514)  and  annexed  Kurdistan  and  Mesopo- 
tamia. Conquering  Syria  (1516),  the  title  Servant  of  the 
Two  Holy  Cities  (Mecca  and  Medina),  hitherto  reserved  to  the 
caliohs,  was  added  to  his  name  in  the  official  prayer.  He 
subaued  Es^ypt  (1517),  hanging  at  the  gate  of  Cairo  the  he- 
roic Mameluke  sultan  Touman  Bey.  The  sherif  of  Mecca 
sent  him  the  keys  of  the  Kaaba,  and  Mohammed  XII.,  the 
last  Abasside  caliph,  resigned  to  him  the  insignia  and  the 
rights  of  the  calipnate.  Since  then  the  Ottoman  sultan  has 
been  considered  both  political  and  spiritual  head  of  Islam. 
The  next  three  years  he  devoted  to  reorganization  of  his  em- 
pire. Excessive  use  of  opium  hastened  his  end,  and  he  died 
at  Tchorlu  (1521),  the  very  place  where  eieht  years  before 
he  had  fought  against  his  father.  A  gifted  poet,  profound 
scholar,  f  arsighted  statesman,  and  resistless  conqueror,  he  was 
bloodthirsty  and  cruel  beyond  expression.  He  is  the  only 
parricide  among  the  Ottoman  sultans. — Selin  II.,  Mest,  the 
Drunkard  (1566-74);  b.  1524;  son  of  Suleiman  II.,  and 
Roxelana.  His  generals  subdued  Western  Arabia  (1567)  and 
Cyprus  (1571),  but  lost  the  naval  battle  of  Lepanto  (1571), 
where  220  Ottoman  ships  were  sunk  or  captured,  30,000 
prisoners  taken,  and  15,000  Christian  galley-slaves  set  free. 
Meanwhile  Selim  cared  only  for  intoxication  and  the  pleas- 
ures of  the  harem,  and  died  from  over-indulgence  in  wine 
(1574).— Selim  III.  (1789-1807) ;  b.  1761 ;  son  of  Mustapha 
III.;  succeeded  his  uncle  Abd-ul  Hamid  I.  At  his  accession 
the  empire  seemed  near  dissolution.  Syria  was  in  rebel- 
lion ;  Egypt  was  tyrannized  over  by  the  Mamelukes ;  the 
Persians  and  Kurds  menaced  the  eastern  frontier ;  armies 
of  brigands  marched  through  the  provinces  ;  a  hopeless  war 
against  Russia  and  Austria  was  going  on.  Selim  was  the 
first  sultan  animated  by  Western  ideas.  Ridding  himself  of 
the  foreign  war  by  the  disastrous  treaty  of  J  assy  (1792),  he 
endeavored  to  repress  disorder  and  introduce  administra- 
tive, commercial,  and  militiiry  reforms.  But  popular  fanati- 
cism denounced  his  innovations  as  violations  of  the  Koran. 
The  support  he  received  from  Prance  through  the  French 
ambassador,  Gen.  Sebastiani,  excited  the  jealousy  of  Great 
Britain.  A  British  fleet  appeared  before  Constantinople,  but 
was  repelled.  Finally  the  janissaries  and  the  Mussulman 
clergy  combined ;  Selim  was  deposed  and  confined  in  the 
seraglio  and  his  cousin  Mustapha  IV.  raised  to  the  throne 
(1807).  The  following  year  Balractar  Pasha,  his  devoted  ad- 
herent, marched  upon  Constantinople  with  a  formidable 
army.  Thereupon  Mustapha  had  Selira  bowstrung,  and  Bal- 
ractar penetrated  the  palace  in  triumph,  only  to  find  the 
corpse  of  his  master  in  the  throne-room.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Selimnla  or  Isllinlye :  See  Slivno. 

Selinsgrove :  borough ;  Snyder  co..  Pa. ;  on  the  Susque- 
hanna river,  and  the  Penn.  Railroad ;  50  miles  N.  of  Harris- 
burg,  the  State  capital  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania, 


ref.  4-F).  It  has  good  water-power ;  is  in  an  agricultuni! 
region;  contains  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $50.o<*' 
a  monthly  and  two  weekly  newspapers,  several  sawmilN  ai.: 
planing-mills,  and  sash-factories;  and  is  the  principal  outi> 
for  the  produce  of  the  county.  The  Missionary  Instituii  •  i 
the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  (chartered  m  185^)  i^  i<- 
cated  here.    Pop.  (1880)  1,431 ;  (1890)  1,307. 

Sell'nns  (Gr.  :UKuw/s):  ancient  city;  on  the  south vc** 
coast  of  Sicily  j  was  founded  in  the  seventh  century  b.  r.  1  \ 
a  Me^arian  colony,  and  derived  its  name  from  the  (luaiiti*:- 
of  wild  parsley  XaiXtwov)  which  grew  in  the  vicinity.    A 
strong  and  flourishing  city,  it  was  almost  ruined  hV  r. 
Carthaginians  under  Hannibal  Gisgo,  when  16,000  of  il<  r 
habitants  were  massacred  and  5,000  made  slaves  (409  b.  ' 
and  was  entirely  destroyed  during  the  first  Punic  war  c:M 
241  B.  c).     Its'ruined  temples  served  as  a  refuge  to  t: 
early  Christians,  but  it  was  never  rebuilt.    These  t«*nij  - 
are  the  vastest  in  Europe.    The  last-built  and  largest,  nr  t^ 
uring  369  feet  by  178  feet,  with  seventeen  columns  od  i 
side  and  double  porticoes,  was  erected  toward  the  '•  .i- 
die  of  the  fifth  century  b.  c,  and  consecrated  to  A\- 
Its  finest  sculptures  have  been  removed  to  the  Mustum  <  f 
Palermo.    See  Benndorf,  Die  Metopen  von  Selinunt  il)*:- 
lin,  1873) ;  and  Baedeker,  Southern  Jtaly  and  Sicily. 

E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Seljnks,  sel-jooks':  a  Turkish  tribe  which,  being  dnx  n 
from  the  highlands  of  Turkestan,  settled  in  the  plain>  < : 
the  E.  of  the  Caspian  Sea.    There  they  were  convertnl  ^» 
Islam.    They  were  famous  for  strength  and  courage,  m  : 
the  Caliph  Motassem  (833-842),  chose  his  bodv-guani  Ir-  - 
among  tnem.    Under  the  leadership  of  their  chiet  Seljuk— 
whence  the  tribe  derives  its  name — ^these  guards  rcvci'*  i 
seized  the  temporal  power,  and  founded  an  indepemi"" 
state  in  Khorassan,  though  all  the  time  acknowledging  t- 
spiritual  supremacy  of  their  former  masters.    Togrul  l^:, 
grandson    of    Seljuk,    conquered    Balkh     and    Khaun.:* 
(Khiva)  in  1041,  Irak  Adjemi  (1043),  Kerman  and  F^-^ 
(1047),  Bagdad  (1055),  and  Irak  Arabi  and   Mosul  (1<>0: 
Having  thus  completed  the  subjugation  of  Persia,  ht-  »«- 
sumed  the  title  of  sultan.    The  extent  and  prosfKniy    f 
the  empire  largely  increased  under  his  nephew  AlrnAr^  .. 
(1063-73),  the  conqueror  of  the  Byzantine  emperor  Ronian.- 
Diogenes,  and  under  Malek  Shah  (1073-93),  the  son  of  .\> 
Arslan.    Malek  Shah  conquered  Arabia,  Syria,  and  Val-  - 
tine,  Armenia,  and  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor,  rulinp  r^  '  ' 
as  the  Chinese  frontier  and  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Arat  » 
Sea.    He  founded  at  Bagdad  a  law  school  and  an  ol-^rva 
tory,  the  first  established  in  Asia,  but  removed  the  ca{  im 
to  Ispahan.     He  encouraged  the  construction  of  r<*fti-. 
bridges,  canals,  and  works  of  public  utility,  being  abh  -♦• 
onded  in  all  his  undertakings  ty  his  vizier,  Nizam-ul-M'. « 
The  rapid  growth  of  the  power  of  the  Seljuks  was  dw   • 
their  religious  ardor,  to  tne  skill  and  intrepidity  of  tS  r 
early  chiefs,  and  to  their  peculiar  facility  in  assimil:ti!: 
not  only  their  kindred  of  Turkish  stock,  but  also  su^-y  ' 
races.    Their  decline  dates  from  the  division  of  their  »•■ 
pire  by  Malek  Shah  into  sultanates  for  his  four  son-,  f 
lowed  by  other  divisions.    The  sultanate  of  Iran  wa>  '  • 
chief,  and  was  to  exercise  a  sort  of  authority  over  tht- «  :- 
ers.     It  was  swallowed  up  by  the  sultanate  of  Khaur^rr., 
(1194),  which  in  turn  was  overthrown  by  the  Mongols  {V^y  . 
when  the  last  sovereign  Ala-Eddin  and  his  gallant  son  Dj•^&  - 
Eddin  were  utterly  defeated  by  Genghis  Khan.    The  -.. 
tanate  of  Aleppo  fell  in  1114,  that  of  Damascus  in  115o.:r  . 
of  Kerman  in  1191.    The  sultanate  of  Iconium  conii  r.^  . 
nearly  all  Asia  Minor,  and  lasted  till  1299,  when  Ala-E*  •  '• 
III.,  having  fled  from  the  Mongols,  died  at  Constant in<t 
Prom  its  ruins  arose  ten  principalities,  one  of  which  ui.i- r 
the  Emir  Othman  was  in  time  to  subdue  all  the  rest  ami ' 
develop  into  the  Ottoman  empire.    The  Seljuks  of  lci»rin/' 
and  Iran  were  the  Mussulmans  earliest  and  most  frequ* '-'  T 
encountered  by  the  hosts  of  the  first  and  second  c^u^^^^^ 
and  were  their  most  formidable  antagonists.         E.  X  ti. 

SePklrk  :  a  county  of  Scotland,  ancientlv  called  Ettri'  '^ 
Forest;  bounded  by  the  counties  of  Peebles,  Edinbnr." 
Roxburgh,  and  Dumfries;  area,  257  sq.  miles;  pop.  il**''' 
27,712.    Its  surface  is  composed   principally  of  r^ui. :  • 
grassy  hills,  the  highest  of  which  is  Dun  Rig  {2,W  U' 
and  it  is  chieflv  devoted  to  cattle-raising.     Selkirk  wa- ' 
birthplace  of  Jfames  Hoge:,  the  "  Et trick  Shepheni":  «' 
of  Mungo  Park,  the  traveler;  and  it  is  noted  \n  l>oth  li'-^ 
ature  and  history.    With  Peeblesshire  it  sends  one  mnit'  ' 
to  Parliament.    'The  royal  burgh  of  Selkirk,  39  miU-  >  '• 


VOfiK  1 


S»^IUII<>lAlf>Clr 


UJXJ      -XUfi 


^reA^r   111 


420 


SEMIPALATINSK 


SEMITIC  LANGUAGES 


Semipaiatingk' :  RuBsian  province  and  town  of  Central 
Asia.  The  province  is  on  the  upper  Irtish  river,  between 
Siberia  and  Lake  Balkash.  Area,  184,631  so.  miles.  It  is 
of  triangular  form,  with  the  apex  directed  K.  A  range  of 
mountains  and  hills  which  runs  E.  and  W.  through  its  mid- 
dle separates  the  great  steppe  of  the  Irtish  on  the  N.  from 
the  steppe  of  Balkash  on  the  S.  Pop.  (1890)  576,578,  four- 
fifths  01  whom  are  Kirghiz,  who  are  generally  nomadic. 
The  remainder  are  nomadic  Kalmuks  and  sedentary  Rus- 
sians, Sarts,  and  others.  The  chief  town  is  Semipalatinsk, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irtish,  in  lat.  50"  24'  N.  (see  map  of 
Asia.  ref.  3-E).  Although  of  administrative  importance,  it 
is  a  cheaply  built  and  decaying  town,  surrounded  by  the 
bare  steppe',  and  in  constant  danger  from  moving  dunes. 
The  climate  is  rigorous,  and  industry  and  traific  are  small. 
Pop.  18,000.  Mark  W.  Hareinoton. 

Semi-Pelagianism :  See  Anthropology  (Theological). 

Semir^amis :  according  to  Ctesias,  the  wife  of  Ninus, 
founder  of  the  Assyrian  kingdom,— a  woman  of  extraordi- 
nary beauty,  passion,  and  military  prowess  who  flourished 
nearly  2,200  years  B.  c,  survived  ana  eclipsed  her  husband, 
and  after  a  reign  of  forty-two  years  abdicated  in  favor 
of  her  son,  Ninyas.  All  this  is  admitted  to  be  mythical 
Herodotus  {Hist,  i.,  184)  mentions  a  Semiramis  who  ruled 
over  Babylon  five  generations  before  Nitocris.  This  Semir- 
amis of  flerodotus  is  certainly  not  to  be  identified  with  the 
Semiramis  of  Ctesias.  The  name  appears  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  Sammuramat,  found  upon  the  monuments,  wife 
of  the  Assyrian  king  Rammannirari  III.  (811-782  B.  c). 

Semirechensk' :  Russian  province  of  Central  Asia ;  S. 
of  Lake  Balkash,  and  bounded  on  the  S.  and  E.  by  Chinese 
territory ;  area,  152,280  so.  miles.  The  province  is  oval  in 
form,  with  the  long  axis  N.  and  S.  It  falls  into  two  natural 
divisions,  the  northern  plain  and  the  southern  and  western 
mountainous  region.  The  plain  is  the  country  of  the 
"seven  rivers"  (Russian,  Semtretehie),  all  tributaries  of  Lake 
Balkash.  This  part  is  dry,  largely  sandy,  in  some  places  a 
sandy  desert,  grows  strongly  alkaline  toward  the  lake,  and 
has  a  rigorous  climate.  The  mountainous  region  includes 
a  part  of  the  Thian-shan  range  and  many  lakes,  the  largest 
being  Issykul ;  has  more  rain,  a  milder  climate,  and  consid- 
erable forest  growth.  Production  and  trade  are  very  small. 
Pop.  (1889)  671,878,  largely  Kirghiz,  the  remainder  of  many 
races,  fully  half  nomadic.  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Semit'ie  Langnasres  [Semitic  (i.  e.  pertaining  to  Shem 
or  his  descendants)  is  based  on  the  Greek  transliteration  (5^^) 
of  Heb.  ShSm,  which  literally  means  name,  sign,  celebrity]  : 
a  well-defined  group  of  languages  co-ordinate  in  importance 
with  the  group  known  as  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European,  but 
sharply  markea  oflf  from  it.  The  principal  representatives  of 
the  Semitic  group  are,  in  alphabetical  arrangement,  Arabic, 
Aramaic,  Babylonian,  Ethiopic,  Hebrew,  Phoenician,  and 
Syriac.  The  name  Semitic  is  an  inexact  term.  It  rests  on 
iiie  assumption  that  the  nations  classed  in  the  tenth  chapter 
of  Genesis  among  the  sons  of  Shem  spoke  languages  belong- 
ing to  a  single  group,  and  embraced  also  all  the  members  of 
that  group.  Neither  proposition  is  correct.  The  principle 
governing  the  order  of  enumeration  in  the  famous  table  of 
nations  is  geographical  position,  and  not  Linguistic  afilnity. 
Instead  of  Semitic,  various  terras  have  been  proposed,  the 
most  satisfactory  among  them  being  Syro-Arabic,  first  sug- 
gested by  Renan. 

The  basis  of  union  between  the  languages  belonging  to 
the  Semitic  group  is  such  that  they  form  intersections  of 
one  and  the  same  branch,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Aryan 
languages,  where  two  distinct  branches  emanating  from  the 
parent  trunk  are  recognized ;  and,  again,  a  subdivision  into 
north  and  south  is  sufficient  for  the  Semitic  group,  while  in 
the  case  of  the  Aryan  eight  grand  divisions  are  commonly 
recognized.  The  relation  of  any  North  Semitic  language  to 
a  member  of  a  South  Semitic  is  closer  than  that  between 
members  (say)  of  the  Indo-Iranian  and  the  Teutonic  division, 
and  almost  as  close  as  that  marking  (say)  the  English  and 
German  within  the  Teutonic  division.  Correspondingly, 
within  the  Xorthern  and  Southern  Semitic  divisions  the 
members  stand  in  a  relation  toward  one  another  closely 
approaching  that  of  co-ordinate  dialects. 

The  intimate  relationship  thus  indicated  between  the  lan- 
guages of  the  Semitic  group  is  due  to  a  variety  of  causes, 
prominent  among  whicn  are  (1)  the  comparatively  limited 
territory  over  which  the  languages  are  spread ;  (2)  the  un- 
interrupted communication  in  consequence  largely  of  this 
limited  territory  among  the  nations  speaking  or  adopting  a 


Semitic  language ;  and  (3)  the  closer  ethnic  relationship  of 
the  Semitic  nations,  only  two  races  being  distinguished  by 
scholars,  as  against  five  adopted  for  the  Ar^an  group. 
The  chief  traits  characterizing  the  Semitic  lang^uages  ar^ 

(1)  the  peculiar  relations  existing  between  the  consonant < 
and  vowels  whereby  the  former  constitute  the  essential  ele- 
ments of  a  stem  and  of  its  accretions,  while  the  latter  pU> 
the  subsidiary  though  important  r6le  of  particularizing  th'i 
general  meaning  conveyed  by  the  consonantal  framework. 

(2)  The  triliteral  character,  either  actual  or  adapter!,  of  xhf 
stems  within  the  historical  period  of  the  language.  Tht- 
comparatively  small  number  of  instances  in  which  the  niip  - 
berof  consonants  constituting  the  stem  are  four,  and  s^:  : 
more  rarely  five,  are  only  apparent  exceptions  to  the  rulr. 

(3)  The  arrested  development  in  the  expression  of  the  tinu  - 
relations  in  the  case  of  the  verb,  whicn,  starting  out  Kit:. 
the  vague  differentiation  by  means  of  pronominal  affixes  t « • 
tween  the  emphasis  placed  on  the  act  and  when  plaot^l  ••?> 
the  actor,  does  not  pass  beyond  the  stage  of  di8tiD^i*>hr  j 
between  the  act  when  completed,  whether  in  reality  or  m 
the  mind  of  the  speaker,  ana  when  not  similarly  completoi. 

(4)  The  pragmatic  character  of  the  verbal  and  nounal  for- 
mations and  the  parallel  relationship  existing  between  th** 
two.  The  Semitic  stem  as  such  has  both  substantive  and 
verbal  force,  and  while  the  actual  number  of  modal  varia- 
tions differs  for  the  different  languages  of  the  group,  tht> 
manner  of  expressing  the  variations,  (a)  by  means  of  t^e  rt- 
du plication  of  the  second  or  third  letter  of  the  stem,  {f»\A 
vocalic  lengthening  after  the  first  consonant  or  bj  a  vocahr 
prefix,  (c)  by  the  prefixing  of  certain  consonants  n,  h,  *?i.  t. 
is  the  same  in  all;  and  not  only  does  the  noun-format  !<.!> 
follow  the  same  principles,  but  the  agreement  with  tht 
verb  is  such  as  to  indicate  the  ultimate  fusion  of  the  t«'\ 

(5)  The  paucity  of  auxiliary  particles,  more  particularly  cf 
conjunctions. 

Besides  these  general  traits,  there  are  a  number  of  othf  r 
features  of  a  secondary  order  which  the  Semitic  langna^'^ 
have  in  common.  Thus,  the  ^n^ral  agreement  of  thf  wc- 
cabulary  is  very  large,  embracing  a  considerable  nuinlter  of 
common  words,  the  pronouiLS  in  the  first  instance  and  U^m  ^ 
of  relationship  in  the  second,  as  well  as  verbal  stems.  Br/, 
within  the  Semitic  group  the  agreement  is  closer  betvtr?i 
some  as  against  others.  The  general  character  of  t he  Si* n i  it i 
syntax  is  marked  by  its  simplicity,  and  there  is  less  Tariat  i«  d 
bietween  the  languages  in  this  respect  than  one  would  f»t^r- 
haps  expect  until  we  come  to  the  period  of  a  closer  contact 
between  Indo-Eurppeans  and  Semites. 

Perhaps  the  most  noticeable  point  of  variation  amon^  th« 
Semitic  languages  is  to  be  found  in  the  writing  employe  i. 
They  present  at  least  three  distinct  alphabets :  (a)  The  cini.  i- 
form  characters  of  Babylonia  and  As^ria;  {b)  the  Phcpnic^ii. 
and  its  derivatives,  the  square-letter  Hebrew.  Palmyr^-i  ^, 
Arabic,  Syriac,  Samaritan,  together  with  the  alphabet  of  tr.' 
South  Arabic  and  Abyssinian  inscriptions  as  the  prol»ai . 
prototype  of  the  Phcehician;  and  (c)  the  Ethiopic,  which  i^ 
sufficiently  distinct  to  merit  a  place  for  itself. 

On  the  basis  of  the  features  enumerated  the  division  u:* 
North  and  South  Semitic  languages  is  made.  To  the  foniit-r 
belong  the  Phoenician,  Hebrew,  Moabitic,  Babylono-Asyyri.ir , 
and  the  various  Aramaic  dialects,  biblical  Aramaic^  P».- 
myrene,  Nabatcean,  the  idioms  of  the  Babylonian  and  of  t*  • 
Palestinian  Talmuds,  Samaritan,  the  North  Arabic  and  an- 
cient Syrian  inscriptions,  Syriac — Eastern  and  Western— 
Mandaic,  and  the  modern  Syriac  dialects  of  Urmia,  Tu*-- 
Abdin,  Salames,  and  of  the  Lebanon  district.  To  the  5m  .ut ! 
em  division  belong  (1)  classical  Arabic,  and  the  modern  dia- 
lects of  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Morocco,  with  Maltese  as  a  f  i>urT  n. 
developed  under  Italian  infiuence  ;  (2)  Sab^ean,  also  known, 
though  less  correctly,  as  Himyaritic,  of  which  Miniean  l«  a 
dialect,  and  which  appears  to  survive  in  some  dialects sf><  U>  .. 
along  the  southern  coast  of  Arabia;  (3)  Ethiopic  or  (it>'/. 
spoken  in  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Ab^^ssinia,  and  surviTJr.c 
in  the  modern  dialects  of  Tigre,  Tigrina,  and  Amhario,  tc*- 
gether  with  its  offshoots,  Gurague  and  Harar. 

By  way  of  simplification  the  North  Semitic  group  can  i*- 
said  to  comprise  (1)  Hebra&o-Phoenician,  (2)  Babylono-A5^\r- 
ian,  and  (3)  Aramaic;  and  the  South  Semitic  (1)  Ara(> 
and  (2)  Yemenitic-Abyssinian.  Taking  these  up  in  turn,  t  r.. 
Hebrew  and  Phoenician  bear  so  close  a  resemblance  ton* 
another  that  they  may  be  regarded  as  co-ordinate  offsln^.ts 
of  some  older  and  lost  form.  Of  the  two,  the  Phcpni«.':i' 
on  the  whole  presents  the  more  archaic  aspect.  Of  liii  r- 
ature  in  the  true  sense  nothing  has  survived  in  the  origiiial 
Phoenician.    Instead  there  are  inscriptions  ou  tombs*  tcm- 


^M 

■        KXlM  1 

^^^ 

H 

1 
1* 

^H 

.1 
r 

1 

^^1 

* ' 

1 

^^^B 

nkynlir  lh»iioQl»:i 

1 

^^^^^^K 

tt-        ^^H 

422 


SBMLBH 


SENANCOUE 


languages,  a  connection  so  close  as  to  warrant  the  assump- 
tion of  a  common  origin  for  the  two,  Egyptian  itself  being 
the  result  of  a  combination  of  a  Semitic  substratum  with 
Haraitic  elements.  There  is  nothing  improbable  in  the  sup- 
position of  an  eastern  migration  of  Semites  into  Arabia  and 
the  Euphrates  valley,  and  then  by  further  moves  an  en- 
trance into  Palestine  and  Syria.  If,  as  seems  probable,  the 
origin  of  the  so-called  PhoBuician  alphabet,  which  is  so  pe- 
culiarly adapted  to  Semitic  speech,  is  to  be  sought  in  South- 
em  Arabia,  an  additional  support  for  what  may  be  called  the 
African  theory  will  be  founa.    See  Language. 

Literature. — Ernest  Renan,  Histoire  des  Langiies  SSmi- 
iiques  (5th  ed.  Paris,  1878) ;  William  Wright,  Comparative 
Grammar  of  the  Semitic  Languages  (Cambridge,  1890); 
Theodor  Noeldeke,  Die  Semitiachen  Spraehen  (Leipzig, 
1887) ;  J.  Barth,  Die  Nominalbildungen  in  den  Semitiscfien 
Spraehen  (Leipzig,  1889-91).  Morris  Jastrow,  Jr. 

Semler,  Johann  Salomo:  theologian;  b.  at  Saalfeld, 
Saxe-Meiningen,  Dec.  18^  1725;  studied  theology  at  the  Uni- 
versitv  of  HSle,  where  he  was  appointed  professor  in  1751, 
and  director  of  the  theological  seminary  in  1757.  D.  at 
Halle,  Mar.  14,  1791.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
starting  of  the  rationalistic  movement  in  the  German  the- 
ology, but  he  was  cautious  in  forming  his  views  and  care- 
ful in  arguing  them ;  and  although  his  talent  as  an  author 
was  rather  small,  his  works  are  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  gen- 
uine historical  criticism,  which  exercised  great  influence. 
His  principal  works  are  Apparatus  ad  lioeralem  Veteris 
Testamentt  interpretationem  (Halle,  1778);  Ahhandlung 
von  freier  Untersuchung  des  Kanons  (4  vols.,  1771-75); 
Versuch  einer  hihlischen  Ddmonologie  (1776);  Versuch 
ehristlicher  Jahrbucher  (2  vols.,  1783-86);  and  an  auto- 
biography (2  vols.,  1781-82).      Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Semlin  (Hung.  Zimony) :  town  of  Austria,  at  the  eastern 
end  of  the  military  frontier,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Save 
and  the  Danube,  opposite  Belgrade  (see  map  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  ref.  9-H).  It  is  poorly  built,  a  large  portion  con- 
sisting of  mud  huts,  but  it  carries  on  a  very  important  transit 
trade  between  Austria  and  Turkey.    Pop.  about  13,000. 

Sern'mering,  or  Semering :  a  branch  of  the  Noric  Alps, 
forming  the  boundary  between  Lower  Austria  and  Styria; 
rises  4,416  feet  above  the  sea,  and  contains,  at  an  elevation 
of  3,066  feet,  the  principal  pass  leading  from  Vienna  to 
Trieste.  The  first  carriage-road  was  built  here  in  1728  by 
Charles  VL,  who  placed  at  the  turning-point  of  the  road  a 
memorial  column  with  the  inscription,  Aditus  ad  maris 
Adriatici  litora.  In  1840  a  longer  but  more  comfortable 
road  was  completed,  and  in  1854  a  railway  was  opened  be- 
tween Glo^gnitz  on  the  Austrian  and  MQrzzuschlag  on  the 
Styrian  side,  ascending  to  2,893  feet,  and  leading  through 
fifteen  tunnels  and  over  sixteen  viaducts.  The  road  was 
constructed  by  Carlo  Chega,  and  was  considered  the  most 
audacious  and  most  ingenious  engineering  work  of  its  kind. 

Seinmes,  Raphael  :  naval  ofiicer;  b.  in  Charles  co.,  Md., 
Sept.  27,  1809,  of  Scotch-Irish  parentage ;  became  a  mid- 
shipman in  the  U.  S.  navy  1826;  was  a  volunteer  aide  to 
Gen.  Worth  in  Mexico  1847 ;  became  commander  1855 ;  was 
secretary  of  the  lighthouse  board  1859-61 ;  resided  at  the 
beginning  of  the  civil  war ;  held  a  commission  m  the  Con- 
federate navy ;  obtained  great  notoriety  by  his  exploits  as 
commander  of  the  Sumter  and  the  Alabama  in  capturing 
and  burning  scores  of  U.  S.  merchant  vessels.  After  the 
war  he  edited  a  daily  paper  in  Mobile,  Ala.,  subsequently 
becoming  professor  in  the  Louisiana  Military  Institute,  but 
returned  to  Mobile  to  practice  law.  Author  of  Service  Afloat 
a7\d  Ashore  during  the  Mexican  War  (Cincinnati,  1«51); 
Campaign  of  General  Scott  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico  (1852) ; 
The  Cruise  of  the  Alabama  (New  York,  1864) ;  and  Memoirs 
of  Service  Afloat  during  the  War  between  the  States  (Balti- 
more, 1869).  He  was  editor  of  the  Memphis  Bulletin  in  1867. 
D.  at  Mobile,  Aug.  30,  1877.  Revised  by  C.  Belknap. 

Semoli'na  [from  Ital.  semolino,  liter.,  dimin.  of  semola, 
bran  (whence  Fr.  semoule,  semolina)  <  Lat.  si'mila,  the 
finest  wheat  flour]  :  an  article  of  food  much  used  in  France 
and  Italy,  and  to  a  small  extent  also  in  Great  Britain  and 
other  countries ;  consists  of  a  finely  cracked  wheat,  or  a  very 
coarse  meal  made  from  wheat.  The  hard-grained  wheats  of 
Spain,  Odessa,  and  Southern  Italy  are  best  adapted  for  mak- 
ing it.  As  those  wheals  are  not  easily  reduced  to  flour,  small 
particles  continually  escape  being  crushed  by  the  millstones, 
and  after  grinding  they  are  separated  into  various  grades. 
Semolina  is  used  in  making  bread,  puddings,  and  soups. 


Sem'pach :  village  of  Switzerland,  canton  of  Liaceme: 
famous  for  the  battle  fought  here  on  July  9, 1386,  betwi.-eD 
the  Austrians  and  the  Swiss,  in  which  the  Austrian  noble- 
men, in  spite  of  their  valor  and  superior  numbers,  Wi-re 
butchered  like  sheep  by  the  Swiss  peasants,  as  they  were  ud- 
able  to  use  their  horse,  and  unable  to  fight  on  foot  encum- 
bered by  their  heavy  armor.  The  army  of  Duke  Leo|>'>M 
consisting  of  4,000  horse,  appeared  before  Sempach  on  Jul> 
9, 1396,  and  was  there  met  ov  the  confederated  Swiss,  duuj- 
bering  1,300.  As  the  ground  was  unfitted  for  the  action  uf 
cavalry,  the  knights  dismounted  and  formed  themselves  iitt" 
a  solid  and  compact  body.  The  Lucemers  charged,  but  th> 
wall  of  steel  was  impenetrable,  and  not  a  man  of  the  Aus- 
trians was  wounded,  while  sixty  of  the  bravest  L«ucemt'^^ 
with  their  chief,  were  killed.  Then  Arnold  von  Winkelri**-!. 
a  knight  of  Unterwalden,  rushed  forward,  rasped  with  out- 
stretched arms  as  manv  pikes  as  he  could  reach,  buried 
them  in  his  bosom,  and  bore  them  down  to  the  earth  bv  il.t 
weight  of  his  body.  His  companions  rushed  over  his  \nHi\ 
into  the  breach  thus  made,  slaughtered  a  great  number  of 
the  armor-encumbered  knights,  and  threw  the  remainder 
into  the  utmost  confusion  and  dismay.  See  Otto  Kleisner. 
Die  Quellen  zur  Sempacher  Schla^ht  und  die  Winkelried- 
Sage  (G6ttingen,  1873). 

Semper,  Gottfried:  architect;  b.  in  Hambur^g,  Nov.  t>l), 
1803 ;  studied  mathematics  at  G5ttingen,  architecture  in  Mu- 
nich and  Paris;  traveled  much  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Greece ; 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Architecture  at  Dr^en  in  \t*M: 
fled  to  London  in  1849  on  account  of  his  participation  iu 
the  revolutionary  movements,  and  taught  at  the  R<\val 
Academy  in  Marlborough  House  till  1856,  when  he  became 
Professor  at  the  Polytechnic  Institude  of  Zurich.  In  \^)^ 
he  was  called  to  Vienna  to  give  advice  as  to  the  prop'J^<^i 
building  of  the  museum,  and  in  1871  he  settled  there  to 
superintend  those  important  structures.  In  1869  also  hf 
was  employed  upon  the  new  Dresden  theater  in  place  of  th^ 
one  burned  in  ihat  year ;  this  building  was  not  fini>h  oo 
until  1878.  His  other  important  buildmgs  are  the  Vo\}- 
technicum  at  Zurich,  the  Cnurch  of  St.  Nicolai  in  Hambunj, 
the  synagogue  at  Dresden,  etc.  At  the  Universal  Exjn^i- 
tion  of  1867  he  exhibited  a  plan  of  a  theater  in  Kio  ilt< 
Janeiro,  for  which  he  obtained  a  gold  medal.  He  wn»t«- 
Die  vier  Elemente  der  Baukunst  (Brunswick,  1851) ;  l^f^r 
Industrie,  Wissensch-aft  und  Kunst  (1852) ;  Der  Stil  in  dt  n 
technischen  und  tektonischen  Kunsten  (2  vols.,  Frankfort, 
1860-65),  etc.  He  set  forth  with  great  decisiveness  and  de- 
fended with  many  ingenious  arguments  and  acute  obscr%  a- 
tions  the  view  that  the  antique  architecture  and  soul[>turv 
were  polychromic  throughout,  and  he  decorated  the  anti^i?:*- 
department  of  the  Art  Museum  of  Dresden  in  aceonlanc-f 
with  this  principle.    D.  in  Rome,  May,  1879. 

Revised  by  Russell  Sturgis. 

Semper,  Karl:  naturalist ;  nephew  of  Gottfried  Semper ; 
b.  at  Altona,  Germany,  July  6,  1832;  was  educated  in  tht< 
naval  school  of  Kiel  and  the  Polytechnic  School  of  Hanovt  r, 
and  studied  natural  science  in  the  University  of  Wllrzburj;. 
After  visiting  the  principal  countries  of  Europe  he  embarkt-d 
in  1858  for  the  Indies,  visited  Manila,  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands, China,  and  Japan,  and  was  after  his  return  t«»  Ku- 
rope,  in  1866,  appomted  Professor  of  ZoSlogy  at  Wn  Tit- 
burg,  and  held  the  position  until  his  death  May  29,  l>*u.i. 
He  visited  the  U.  S.  m  1877,  and  delivered  a  course  of  hi-- 
tures  before  the  Lowell  Institute,  Boston,  published  undtr 
the  title  Animal  Life  as  affected  by  the  Natural  Conditmnf 
of  Existence  (New  York,  1881).  He  published  Rei^eji  tm 
Archipel  der  Phil ippinen  (Wiesbaden,  1867-72);  Z>i>  7V.i- 
lippinen  (WQrzburg,  1869^;  Die  Patau  Jnseln  im  i<filuu 
Ocean  (Leipzig,  1873);  Die  naturlichtn  EodstenzbediuKju^t- 
gen  der  Thiere  (Leipzig,  1880),  and  other  works.  Healv? 
edited  9  volumes  of  Arbeiten  aus  dem  Zoologischen  Injitttut 
in  Wllrzburg.  Revised  by  J.  S.  KufosLtv. 

Senaneonr,  s«-ni£an'koor',  ]6tienne  Pivkrt,  de:  auth.^r 
of  Obermann:  b.  in  Paris  in  1770;  educated  for  the  pri«'>T- 
hood,  but  disliking  that  profession  ran  away  from  home  hi  t 
lived  in  Switzerland,  whence  after  a  brief  period  of  marrit>d 
life  he  returned  to  France,  saddened  by  the  loss  of  his  jouug 
wife  and  beggared  in  fortune.  His  scanty  earnings  a^^  a 
hack  writer  in  Paris  were  supplemented  by  a  small  pension 
granted  by  Louis  Philippe,  but  his  struggle  with  poverty 
combined  with  domestic  misfortunes  and  ill  health  to  givV 
his  books  a  tone  of  deep  melancholy.  His  RSveries  »>ir  la 
Nature  primitive  de  V Homme  (1799)  is  strongly  marked  by 
the  influence  of  Rousseau.     Obermann  (1804)  is  the  story  of 


424 


SENECA  INDIANS 


SENNACHERIB 


job-printing  establishment;  7  churches;  an  academy;  a 
soldiers*  monument ;  electric  railway  to  Waterloo,  Genesee, 
and  Cayuga  Lake  Park;  a  national  bank  with  capital  of 
$100,000,  a  sayings  and  a  private  bank,  and  4  weekly  news- 
papers. Pop.  (1880)  5,880;  (1890)  6,116;  (1895)  estimated, 
6,500.  "  CouEiKB  "  Printing  Company. 

Seneca  Indians :  See  Iboquoian  Indians. 

Seneca  Lake :  a  body  of  water  in  Western  New  York, 
bounded  by  Seneca,  Schuyler,  Ontario,  and  Yates  Counties. 
It  is  35  miles  long,  from  1  to  4  miles  broad,  with  an  elevation 
of  447  feet,  and  its  shores  are  bold,  picturesque,  and  fertile. 
The  lake  is  navigated  by  steamboats.  Its  waters  reach  Lake 
Ontario  by  Seneca  and  Oswego  rivers.  Its  greatest  depth 
is  630  feet. 

Seneca-oil :  a  local  name  for  Petroleum  {q,  v.). 

Se'nefelder,  Aloys:  inventor;  b.  at  Prague,  Bohemia, 
Nov.  6, 1771 ;  entered  on  the  stage  at  Munich,  his  father 
beine  an  actor ;  afterward  attempted  literature,  and  engaged 
finally  in  the  printing  business,  which  led  to  his  invention 
of  LrrnoGBAPHY  {g.  v.).  Lack  of  money  and  the  imperfec- 
tion of  the  invention  in  its  primitive  state  caused  him  many 
difficulties  and  disappointments,  and  it  was  not  until  1806, 
when  he  settled  at  Munich  and  received  the  support  of  the 
Bavarian  Government,  that  he  was  able  to  perfect  his  in- 
vention. D.  at  Munich,  Feb.  24, 1834.  He  wrote  a  Lehr- 
buck  der  Lithographie  (Munich,  1818 ;  French  translation, 
Strassburg,  1819 ;  English  translation.  Complete  Course  of 
Lithography,  1819).  See  Nagler,  Aloya  Senef elder  und  der 
geisthche  Rath  Simon  Schmidt  (Munich,  1832). 

Sen'ega :  a  drug  consisting  of  the  root  of  a  polygalaceous 
perennial  plant,  PolygcUa  senega^  which  grows  throughout 
most  parts  of  the  U.  ».,  frequenting  open  fields  and  rocky 
places.  It  is  small,  with  small  white  flowers  forming  a  close 
spike  at  the  summit  of  the  stem.  The  roots  are  of  various 
sizes,  tapering,  branched,  and  twisted,  with  a  thick  gnarled 
head  from  which  the  several  yearly  stems  arise.  The  epi- 
dermis is  dark-colored,  corrugated,  and  is  the  active  part 
of  the  root.    The  dried  root  has  little  smell,  but  leaves  a 

gungent  and  acrid  impression  in  the  mouth  after  chewing, 
enega  contains  a  peculiar  principle  called  polygalic  acm, 
probably  identical  with  saponine.  The  drug  is  an  acrid 
irritant,  producing  vomiting  and  purging  in  overdose.  Its 
first  use  m  medicine  was  by  the  Seneca  Indians,  who  em- 
ployed it  as  a  remedy  in  cases  of  rattlesnake-bite,  but  by 
physicians  it  is  used  almost  exclusively  as  an  ingredient  in 
cough-mixtures  in  the  second  stage  of'  respiratory  catarrhs. 
Its  effects  are  analogous  to  those  of  squill.  Senega  is  an 
ingredient  of  the  compound  sirup  of  sauill  of  the«  United 
States  Pharmacopoeia.  Kevisea  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Senegal':  the  largest  river  of  Senegambia,  Northwest 
Africa.  It  lies  almost  on  the  border  of  the  Sahara,  and  de- 
rives its  water  chiefly  from  several  large  southern  tributaries 
rising  in  the  regions  of  Futa  Jallon  and  Bambara.  Though 
a  bar  at  its  tnouth  obstructs  navigation  from  the  sea,  tne 
lower  half  of  the  river  (5(X)  miles)  is  navigated  at  high  water 
by  small  steamers.  C.  C.  A. 

Senegal :  a  French  colony  bordering  on  the  Atlantic  in 
the  northwestern  part  of  Senegambia,  Africa.  Pop.  135,- 
0(X).  There  is  a  governor-general,  assisted  by  a  colonial  coun- 
cil, at  the  chief  town,  St.  Louis.    See  Senegambia. 

Senegam'bia  [named  from  Senegal  +  Gambia,  names  of 
its  two  chief  rivers] :  a  French  possession  in  Northwest  Af- 
rica, with  no  well-defined  boundaries  on  the  E.  and  S.  It 
borders  on  the  Atlantic  and  the  Sahara  limits  it  on  the  N. 
The  Gambia  may  be  called  its  southern  boundary,  and  its 
extension  to  the  £.  may  be  taken  as  including  that  part  of 
the  French  Sudan  lying  W.  of  the  upper  Niger.  The  popu- 
lation, including  the  colony  of  Senegal  and  the  upper  Niger 
region,  is  believed  to  be  about  1,850,(XX).  In  the  seventeenth 
century  France  took  possession  of  some  points  on  the  coast, 
but  the  great  extension  of  the  colony  eastward  dates  from 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  particularly  from 
the  period  1871-88,  which  saw  the  gradual  advance  of  the 
French  power  to  the  upper  Niger,  an  acquisition  that  cost 
enormously  in  human  life  and  money,  on  account  of  the  try- 
ing climate  and  stoutly  contested  campaigns  with  powerful 
Mohammedan  chiefs.  The  most  formidable  opponents  of 
the  French  advance  were  the  great  religious  pretenders  and 
potentates,  Mahmadu-Lamine,  whose  final  defeat  and  death 
was  the  result  of  the  campaign  under  Gen.  Gallieni  (1886- 
88),  and  Samory,  the  most  powerful  ruler  in  the  French  Su- 
dan, who  was  not  finally  subdued  until  1893.    The  vast  ter- 


ritory is  for  the  most  part  sparsely  peopled.  It  includes  t 
number  of  distinct  tribes,  of  whom  the  Mandingo,  the  Yolofs. 
and  the  Fulbe  are  the  most  important.  The  greater  part  oi 
the  country  is  very  fertile,  and  rice,  maize,  tobacco,  and  cotton 
raising  are  capable  of  large  development.  In  Senegal  profn  r 
about  one-third  of  the  land  is  under  cultivation,  and  ihf 
raising  of  cattle  and  sheep  is  a  growing  industry.  The  greni 
drawbacks  are  the  climate  and  the  disinclination  of  the  na- 
tives to  labor,  but  in  the  best-cultivated  regions  the  French, 
within  a  few  years,  have  doubled  the  product.  On  the  upf^r 
Senegal,  in  1884-86,  45  per  cent,  of  all  the  European  n  m- 
dents  died,  the  most  fatal  causes  being  sunstroke,  avsenten\ 
and  malaria.  The  capital  and  chief  port  is  St.  Louis,  on  au 
island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal.  Pop.  20,000.  Fnn 
Kayes,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Senegal,  a  railway  ha> 
been  built  eastward  94  miles  to  Bafoulabe,  and  is.  to  be  f i- 
tended  to  the  upper  Niger.  Another  railway  connects  St. 
Louis  with  Dakar,  an  important  town  at  Cape  Verde,  and  ii 
is  greatly  assisting  in  the  development  of  the  coast  districts. 
The  most  important  interior  settlements  are  Kayes,  on  the 
upper  Senegal,  Balfoulabe,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bathoy,  and 
Eiammako,  on  the  upper  Niger,  from  which  point  the  French 
have  descended  the  river  and  occupied  TimDuctu. 

C.  C.  Adams. 

Senescenee :  See  Old  Age,  Diseases  of. 

Senigariia,  or  Sinigaglia  (anc.  Sena  aallica) :  tr>wn ; 
province  of  Ancona,  Italy ;  near  the  Adriatic,  at  the  ni<iuih 
of  the  Misa,  which  divides  the  town  into  two  parts  (see  map 
of  Italy,  ref.  4-E).  The  streets  are  broad  and  well  pav^i. 
and  some  of  them  are  flanked  by  fine  buildings  constnn  tr.j 
with  porticoes  forming  a  continuous  sheltered  promenade. 
The  maritime  trade  is  carried  on  by  means  of  a  short  cana!. 
for  which  the  lower  arm  of  the  Misa  has  been  made  availahK*. 
The  manufacturing  activity  is  considerable,  chiefly  in  >ilk 
and  linen.  The  annual  fair  of  Senigallia  (beginning  July  22 
and  ending  Aug.  8)  was  formerly  one  of  the  most  famous  in 
Europe,  and  is  still  much  frequented.  The  town  is  the  pla*  .* 
of  the  victory  of  C.  Claudius  Nero  over  Hasdrubal  (207  b.  <.i. 
Pop.  9,602.  Revised  by  M.  W.  HAREUfCTox. 

Senior,  Nassau  William  :  economist ;  b.  in  Borkshiiv. 
England,  Sept.  26,  1790;  graduated  at  Oxford  1812:  ^as 
admitted  to  the  bar  1819 ;  was  Professor  of  Political  Econ- 
omy at  Oxford  1825-30,  and  again  1847-62 ;  was  master  in 
chancery  1836-63.  D.  in  London,  June  4,  1864.  He  wa- 
the  author  of  essays  upon  political  economy,  philosophy,  etc .. 
of  narratives  of  travel  in  Turkey  and  Greece  (1859)  and  in 
France  and  Italv  (1871),  and  was  for  forty  years  a  leading 
contributor  to  The  Edinburgh  Review  and  other  magazines 

Senlac :  See  Battle. 

Senna  [from  Arab,  sand,  senna]:  the  leaves  of  several 
species  of  Cassia  {g.  v.),  various  preparations  of  which  are 
used  medicinally.  Those  which  constitute  the  commercial 
senna  are  exported  from  Southern  India  and  from  Aleian- 
dria.  A  senna-plant  {Cassia  acuti folia),  indigenous  in  Eir)|;t 
and  the  African  deserts,  furnishes  most  of  the  Alexandrui 
senna.  Great  labor  has  been  expended  by  chemists  in  en- 
deavoring to  isolate  the  valuable  cathartic  principle  of  senia. 
which  was  discovered  by  Dragendorff  and  Kubly  in  1S6>^  i» 
be  cathartic  acid.  It  is  a  complex  glucoside,  and,  singularlv. 
contains  sulphur.  Like  glucosides  generally,  it  is  eti>ii( 
alterable,  ana  hence  difficult  of  isolation  and  preparati<  i*. 
Further  information  may  be  had  in  the  National  Jjisp^mu- 
tory,  under  Senna,  Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Sennaar':  an  ancient  kingdom  of  the  Eastern  Sudari. 
Africa,  which  retained  its  name  when  it  became  a  proviu  . 
of  Egypt ;  lying  mostly  between  the  Bahr-el  Azrek  and  iht 
White  Nile.  The  soil  is  so  fertile  along  the  river  Iwnk* 
that  Sennaar  was  long  called  the  granary  of  the  Egyptian 
Sudan,  but  away  from  the  rivers  the  region  is  mostly  an  un- 
inhabited sandy  waste.  In  the  flourishing  days'  of  tit 
Egyptian  Sudan  there  was  a  dense  population  "alon^  ilu- 
two  great  rivers,  in  whose  valleys  a  laree  amount  of  j:rairi 
was  raised,  while  in  the  towns  gola-smelting,  leather-work- 
ing, pottery-making,  and  other  industries  were  pursued. 
Sennaar,  for  generations  the  chief  town,  had  great  imj^ir- 
tance  until  Khartum  became  the  center  of  commerce.  Its 
population  had  dwindled  to  8,000  before  the  Mahdist  n- 
volt.  It  was  the  last  Egyptian  stronghold  to  succumb  to 
the  Mahdi.    Now  only  heaps  of  stone  mark  its  site. 

C.  C.  Adams. 

Sennach'erlb  [Gr.  Xcamxdptfios  :  Ileb.  San*cheHhh,  fnni 
Assyr.  Sin-aehi-irib,  liter.,  "  the  Moon(-god)  has  multiplied 


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426 


SENSES 


totality  of  sensations.  Bonnet  (1755),  von  Holbach  (1770), 
Buffon  (1780),  Cabanis  (1798),  Destutt  de  Tracy  (1815), 
Laromiguiere  (1818)  held  the  doctrine  of  sensationalism. 
Among  recent  German  writers  Czolbe  has  elaborated  a  sys- 
tem of  psychology  that  derives  all  the  elements  of  self-con- 
sciousness from  sensation.  But  he  has  to  assume  teleological 
forms— "the  sensations  and  feelings  which  are  hidden  in 
space  or  the  world-soul  "—to  explain  the  "fundamental 
limits  of  knowledge."  His  contemporaries,  however— Mole- 
schott,  BQchner,  vogt — proclaim  not  only  sensationalism, 
but  materialism  without  reserve.  While  (Jabanis  said  that 
thought  is  a  secretion  of  the  brain,  Carl  Vogt  added,  "  the 
brain  produces  thought  in  the  same  way  that  the  liver  pro- 
duces bile,"  etc.  John  Stuart  Mill  (1865)  defines  matter  to 
be  "  a  permanent  possibility  of  sensation,"  and  mind  to  be  "  a 
series  of  feelings  with  a  background  of  possibilities  of  feel- 
ing " ;  thus  making  sensation  the  central  principle,  not  only 
of  knowledge,  but  of  being,  and  afjparently  reaching  the 
doctrine  of  Berkeley,  Ease  eat  percim.  Post-Kantian  sensa- 
tionalism has  had  to  explain  away  the  existence  of  universal 
and  necessary  ideas,  such  as  time,  space,  causality,  etc.  Mill 
holds  the  geometrical  axioms  to  be  "  generalizations  from 
observation."  Herbert  Spencer  (1860)  holds  that  knowl- 
edge  consists  in  "symbolic  conceptions"  when  it  relates 
to  aught  else  than  concrete  objects  that  are  not  "  too  great 
or  too  multitudinous  to  be  mentally  represented."  In  con- 
trast to  this,  he  holds  that  "  the  ultimate  truth  which  tran- 
scends experience  by  underlying  it  is  the  persistence  of 
force."  Thus  he  makes  in  one  instance  all  general  ideas 
"symbolic,"  the  real  being  particular  things  only;  and 
then  he  makes  force,  which  corresponds  to  the  most  sym- 
bolic of  our  ideas,  to  be  the  most  real  of  realities.  Within 
the  period  1870-95  a  more  thorough  study  of  physiological 
psychology  by  a  scientific  method  nas  done  more  to  clear  up 
and  reduce  to  exact  knowledge  the  theory  of  the  action 
of  the  five  senses  than  the  loose  observations  of  twenty-five 
centuries  previously.  The  articles  on  Psychomktry  and 
Psycho-Physics  give  the  history  and  bibliography  of  this 
movement.  It  is  too  early  to  perceive  the  effects  of  these 
investigations  into  the  essential  nature  of  sense-perception 
upon  general  philosophical  theories,  but  it  is  certain  that 
they  will  modify  very  materially  the  conceptions  and  method 
of  presentation  of  those  who  in  the  future  defend  the  doc- 
trine that  all  knowledge  is  derived  from  the  five  senses. 

William  T.  Harris. 

Senses  [from  Lat.  aen'aua,  feeling,  one  of  the  senses,  de- 
riv.  of  aenti're,  aen'aum,  feel] :  special  developments  of  the 
general  sensibility  of  the  living  organism.  In  the  special 
senses,  i.  e.  hearing,  sight,  etc.,  the  property  of  general  sen- 
sibility of  the  organism  has  become  immensely  modified 
and  intensified  by  being  concentrated  and  localized  in  dis- 
tinct organs,  the  ear,  the  eye,  etc.,  and  by  being  specialized 
so  that  each  organ  transfers  from  the  object  to  conscious- 
ness only  a  distinct  part  of  that  total  impression  which  the 
object  is  able  to  give  and  consciousness  is  capable  of  receiv- 
ing—the ear  only  the  audible,  the  eye  only  the  visible,  etc. 
There  are  five  such  senses — ^hearing,  sight,  smell,  taste,  and 
touch— but  they  all  rise  simply  as  individual  developments  of 
the  same  fundamental  faculty  of  general  sensibility.  Their 
degree  of  individualization  is  very  different,  being  highest 
in  sight  and  feeblest  in  smell  and  taste;  the  latter  both  dis- 
appear very  easily  in  mere  feeUng,  as  smell  in  sneezing  and 
taste  in  nausea.  It  is  apparent,  however,  that  the  general 
sensibility  of  the  human  organism  covers  a  much  larger 
ground  than  its  five  individual  senses.  There  are  sensations 
which  enter  into  consciousness  with  great  vividness  without 
going  through  the  special  senses,  as,  for  instance,  the  feel- 
ings of  hunger,  thirst,  suffocation,  pleasure,  pain,  rest,  fatigue, 
etc.,  which  are  termed  general  sensations.  See  Acoustics, 
MuscLE-SENSE,  Visiox,  ctc,  and  Organa  of  Special  Senae  in 
the  article  Histology.    Revised  by  Edward  T.  Reichert. 

Sensibility :  See  Feeling  and  Sensation. 

Sensitive  Plant :  a  low  leguminous  plant,  Mimoaa  pii- 
dica,  of  tropical  America,  now  widely  dispersed  over  the 
world  and  commonly  cultivated,  on  account  of  the  rapid 
movement  of  the  leaves  which,  when  brushed  or  jarred,  ap- 
pear to  shrink  from  the  touch.  This  faculty  is  shared  in  a 
less  degree  by  several  other  species  of  Mimoaa  and  some  re- 
lated plants,  such  as  the  sensitive  hxi&r  {Schrankia)  of  the 
southern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  See  Plant  Movementa  in  the 
article  Physiology,  Vegetable. 

Senso'rinm  [  =  Lat.,  the  seat  or  organ  of  sensation,  de- 
riv.  of  aen'aua,  sense,  feeling]:   the  supposed  seat  in  the 


SENTIMENT 

nervous  system  of  the  processes  which  underlie  sensation. 
The  cortex  or  gray  matter  of  the  brain  is  considered  the 
sensorium  in  modern  discussion  in  physiology  and  psychol- 


ogy- 


.a 


Sentence  [vifi  0.  Fr.,  from  Lat.  senten'tia  (for  *sentien  fia\ 
wav  of  thinking  or  feeling,  opinion,  judgment,  deriT.  of 
aeriti're,  feel,  thmkl:  in  the  law,  a  judgment  or  determi- 
nation pronounced  by  a  court  after  the  trial  or  hearing  of « 
cause,  by  which  the  remedy  is  granted  or  the  sanction  i?  im- 
posed.   In  the  common-law  courts  the  term  is  confined  t< 
criminal  cases,  their  final  decision  in  civil  suits  being  ch\W. 
a  "judgment";  while  the  corresponding  act  of  a  court  "f 
equity  is  usually  denominated  a  "decree."    In  those  tribu- 
nals whose  procedure  is  based  upon  the  civil  law— in  xh^ 
admiralty  courts,  the  English  ecclesiastical  couils,  and  jsornt^ 
times  in  the  U.  S.  in  the  probate  or  surrogate  courts— tlj^ 
term  "  sentence  "  is  used,  instead  of  "  judgment "  or  "  decn  ♦•;' 
to  designate  all  judicial  determinations.    The  sentenct?^  in 
civil  causes  like  judgments  are  either  final  or  interlocutory- 
final,  when  they  pass  upon  all  the  issues  material  to  the  '1»- 
cision,  determine  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  parties,  arid 
terminate  the  pending  controversy ;  interlocutory,  when  tl'^v 
pass  upon  some  collateral  matter  or  proceeding  in  the  action. 
or  when  they  establish  some  right  preliminary  to  the  fin.il 
adjudication.    In  criminal  trials,  according  to  the  common- 
law  methods,  the  sentences  are  all  from  their  very  nature 
final.    It  is  the  exclusive  province  of  the  jury  to  determine 
the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the  accused.    When  a  verdict  «>f 
guilty  is  rendered,  the  prisoner  is  thereby  convicted,  and  it 
then  becomes  the  duty  and  function  of  the  court  to  pn)- 
nounce  upon  him  the  judgment  or  sentence  which  the  law 
provides  as  a  punishment  for  his  crime.    Previous  to  tbi* 
final  act  in  all  cases  of  felony  the  convict  is  publicly  aske*i 
by  the  judge  if  he  has  anything  to  say  why  the  sentenw  of 
the  law  should  not  be  pronounced  upon  him.    This  proot-^l- 
ing,  which  was  originated  at  an  early  period  of  the  Enph-^h 
law,  when  the  prisoner  could  not  be  defended  by  counsel,  in 
order  that  he  might  have  an  opportunity  to  su^gie^t  any  omr 
that  had  occurred,  is  now  an  empty  form,  and  vet  the  form 
must  be  observed,  or  else  the  judgment  would  be  void.    N-j 
error  being  shown,  the  presiding  judge  declares  the  senten^, 
whereby  the  court  orders  the  prisoner  to  be  capitally  execuv  1 
on  a  certain  day  named,  or  to  be  imprisoned  for  a  sixK-itini 
period,  or  to  be  fined  in  a  designated  amount,  or  otliervi^ 
punished  as  provided  by  law.    This  sentence  is  enlerwl  ty 
the  clerk,  and  constitutes  a  most  important  part  of  iKf 
judicial  record.    The  doctrines  and  rules  of  the  law  in  ivf- 
erence  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  a  Judgment  (o.  v.)  b\>]\) 
also  to  sentences.    See  the  treatises  of  Bishop  and  Wharton 
on  Criminal  Law,  and  Black  on  the  Law  of  Judgments. 
Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Alias. 

Sentiment :  the  higher  form  of  emotion,  attacliinp  t-^ 
ideals  of  art  and  life.  (See  Idkals  and  Ideai.  Feelin*  - 
The  great  classes  into  which  the  sentiments  fall  are  u:?iia:.^ 
distinguished  as  ethical,  aesthetic,  and  religious.  The  reh j 
ious  are  the  most  complex,  and  rest  upon  the  other  tw-. 
Religious  objects  and  ideals  involve  both  the  ethical  ar-. 
sBsthetic  determinations— that  is,  they  are  both  beautiii: 
and  good.  ,  ^  .   .        ^ 

Ethical  Sentiment :  its  Nature  and  Origin.— Constnom- 
is  the  popular  term  for  this  emotion.  It  involves  thm'  *-.'- 
ments,  which  are,  however,  closely  united  in  a  single  -i..'^ 
of  mind,  called  ethical.  If  we  fancy  the  menUl  liff  i'^; 
right  through  at  the  moment  of  a  moral  decision,  we  >h<  u.j 
find  three  elements  which  moralists  distinguish  by  tK 
phrases  moral  quality,  moral  authority,  and  moral  ui'^- 
These  may  be  made  clearer  by  a  concrete  instance:  I  p^' 
money  to  a  beggar  because  I  am  bound  by  consiieiu t  t, 
do  so.  The  moral  quality  of  my  act  is  my  feeling  of  ':^ 
harmony  with  my  be"tter  acts  as  a  whole,  and  the  exa^-ti  i. 
I  make  upon  other  men  to  be  charitable  also;  without  li  - 
conscience  would  be  wanting— the  act  would  be  intlifTern.: 
The  moral  authority  of  the  act  is  the  feeling  which  at  i-iii'^ 
arises  that  this  quality  has  an  immediate  reference  to  n.v 
will.  I  am  bound  to  choose  it  as  ray  act ;  without  thi*  th-  T' 
is  no  conscience — conscience  is  dead.  The  moral  itUa.  '* 
the  outreach  of  my  feeling  toward  a  state  of  will  in  yhi- 1 
such  a  relative  and  hesitating  decision  would  vield  to  t  !•  »r.  r 
and  more  direct  moral  vision;  a  state  of  will  which  1^'*> 
not  picture,  can  not  conceive,  but  which  I  feel  my  wi*  >'; 
meant  for,  and  for  which  my  present  act  for  cousciei.  v 
sake  is  the  onlv  means  to  prepare  me. 

Moral  sentiment  arises  evidently  around  acU  and  aitJ- 


428 


SEOUL 


SEPTUAGINT 


worths  "  of  the  ethical  idealists,  as  well  as  the  '*  real  beauty 
in  objects "  of  the  realists — all  these  get  their  due,  as  far 
as  their  psychology  is  concerned,  in  some  such  formula  as 
this :  The  sense  of  beauty  is  an  emotional  state  arising  from 
progressive  psycho-physical  accommodation  to  mental  ob- 
jects. Of  course  the  metaphysics  of  beauty  and  art  is  not 
touched  by  this,  and  it  does  not  prejudice  full  metaphysical 
treatment. 

References. — Wundt,  PhysiologiseJie  Psychologie  (4th 
ed.) ;  Ward,  article  P^cholo^y  in  Eneyc.  Britan,  (9th  «i.) ; 
Lotze,  Outlines  of  Pathetics :  Marshall,  Pleasure^  Pain^ 
and  JEsihetica  (iievr  York,  1894) ;  Baldwin,  handbook  of 
Psychology  (vol.  ii.,  chaps,  on  Pieaaure  and  Pain  and  Emo- 
tions of  Relation),  J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Seoul,  sd-ool'  [from  Korean  seul,  liter.,  capital^,  or  offi- 
cially Han-yang :  the  capital  of  Korea ;  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Han-Kang,  a  tributary  of  the  Yellow  Sea ;  lat.  37°  31' 
N.,  Ion.  127'  7  W.  (see  map  of  China,  ref.  4-M).  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall,  12  to  25  feet  high,  now  partly  in  ruins, 
with  eight  gates  which  are  closed  at  night.  It  has  three 
straight  streets,  about  60  feet  wide  and  starting  from  the 
three  principal  gates.  These  are  fairly  well  kept,  but  the 
other  streets  are  narrow,  uneven,  and  filthy.  There  are  but 
two  noteworthy  buildings,  the  palace  of  the  king  and  a  small 
Buddhist  temple  of  white  stone,  once  richly  ornamented, 
but  now  much  defaced.  The  other  buildings  are  small,  low, 
thatched,  or  tiled,  and  densely  peopled,  ana  these  buildings 
encroach  on  the  great  streets,  irom  which  they  are  clear^ 
from  time  to  time.  There  are  no  arrangements  for  sanita- 
tion or  public  comfort.  A  noteworth^r  object  is  the  great 
bell  which  sounds  the  hours  for  opening  and  closing  the 
^tes.  It  was  made  in  1468  and  is  alleged  to  be  the  third 
in  size  in  the  world.  The  city  dates  from  1897  a.  d.  ;  became 
a  royal  city  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  was 
sacked  by  the  Manchus  in  1637.  It  is  the  heart  of  Korea  in 
the  same  sense  that  Paris  is  the  heart  of  France,  and  the 
ambition  of  every  Korean  gentleman  is  to  pass  his  life  there, 
at  leisure  to  enjoy  its  attractions.  It  was  long  forbidden  to 
foreigners,  and  in  1888  a  fanatical  outbreak  against  foreign 
residents  occurred.  The  city  was  occupied  by  the  Japanese 
in  1894.  Pop.  (by  census  m  1793)  193,000,  estimated  by 
Cavendish  (1891)  at  250,000,  of  whom  50,000  were  in  the 
suburbs.  See  Cavendish,  Two  Months  in  Korea,  in  Scottish 
Oeographieal  Magazine  (Nov.,  1894),  and  the  works  men- 
tioned under  Korea.  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Separate  Baptists,  Separate  Charehes,  or  Separates : 

See  Baptists  and  Free-will  Baptists. 

Separate  Lutherans  of  Prussia :  those  Lutherans  who 
refused  to  comply  with  the  order  of  Frederick  William  III. 
uniting  the  Lutneran  and  Reformed  Churches.  See  Luther- 
anism  and  the  Lutheran  Church  {The  Lutheran  Church 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century), 

Separatists :  in  general,  those  who  withdraw  from  an  es- 
tablished church  or  religious  organization  ;  sectaries.  The 
term  was  commonly  applied  in  England  in  the  sixteenth 
and  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  centuries  to  those  Chris- 
tians who  were  also  called  Brownists  and  Barrowists,  and 
later  Independents  (q.  r.). 

Sepia :  See  India  Ink. 

Sepi'idfB :  See  Cuttlefish. 

Se'poT  [  :  Fr.  spahi,  cipaye,  from  Hind,  sipdhl,  native 
soldier,  from  Pers.  sipdhl.norsem&n  soldier,  deriv.  of  sipdh, 
whence  Hind,  sipdh,  militarjr  force,  army]  ;  a  native  soldier 
in  the  British  service  in  India.  The  practice  of  employing 
the  natives  as  troops  dates  back  to  the  middle  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  A  large  force  of  Sepoys  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Plassey,  and  Clive  afterward  organized  a  native 
army  in  Bengal.  Their  good  conduct  inspired  general  con- 
fidence in  their  loyalty,  and  their  numbers  were  increased 
till  at  the  time  of  the  mutiny  (see  India,  History)  they  were 
about  230,000  strong,  while  the  European  troops  numbered 
about  40,000.  After  the  suppression  of  the  mutiny  (1858) 
their  numbers  were  reduced,  and  in  1894  there  were  145,000 
natives  to  75,000  Europeans  in  the  British  army  in  India. 
The  Sepoys  consist  of  Mohammedans,  Rajputs,  Brahmans, 
and  men  of  other  castes,  besides  Sikhs,  Gurkhas,  and  hill- 
men  of  various  tribes.     The  higher  officers  are  European. 

September  Fvifi  O.  Pr.  from  Lat.  September  (sc.  men  sis, 
montn),  liter.,  the  seventh  month,  deriv.  of  septem,  seven]  : 
the  seventh  month  of  the  old  Roman  year,  but  the  ninth  of 
the  Gregorian.  It  is  the  month  of  the  autumnal  equinox, 
which  occurs  about  the  22d. 


Septien'mia :  See  Blood-poisoning. 

Septima'nia  [Late  Lat.,  deriv.  of  Lat  septima'nus,  per- 
taining to  the  number  seven,  deriv.  of  septem^  seven.  N) 
called  from  its  seven  cities — Toulouse,  Agen.  Bordeaux,  P..i- 
tiers,  Saintes,  Perigueux,  Angouleme] :  an  ancient  dis^trn » 
in  the  southwest  of  France ;  ceded  to  the  Goths  in  419.  l^ 
name  appears  in  the  writings  of  Sidonius  ApoUinaris  (4o<>- 
482).  It  was  conouered  by  the  Saracens  in  712-710;  ii^^y 
lated  by  Charles  Martel  in  737 ;  conquered  in  part  by  V^\  m 
in  760 ;  became  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Aquitaine'in  77^: 
became  a  dukedom  in  817,  a  marouisate  in  844;  and  v(d» 
devastated  by  the  Normans  in  859.  The  Spanish  Manl 
was  set  off  in  864,  and  soon  after  it  passed  to  the  hou^t-  <  f 
Toulouse. 

SeptimMus  Seyems :  See  Severus,  Septimhts. 

Septnages'ima  [Lat.  (sc.  dies,  day),  the  seventieth  flay. 
liter.,  fem.  of  septuage'simus,  seventieth,  deriv.  of  sep'u^i- 
^tn7a,  seventy] :  in  the  ecclesiastical  calendar,  the  third  Sun- 
day before  Lent.  The  first  Sunday  in  Ijent  is  terme<l  (^ua-i- 
ragesima,  the  three  preceding  ones  Septuagesima,  Sexai:c>- 
ima,  and  Quinquagesima. 

Sep^tnaglnt,  or  LXX.  [from  Lat.  Septuaginta,  liur^ 
the  Seventy,  applied  to  this  version  because  of  the  allec^i 
number  of  its  joint  translators] :  the  name  commonly  giNen 
to  the  earliest  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Tejitament, 
otherwise  called  the  Alexandrian  version.  Accord  in  j;  u» 
the  fabulous  account  of  its  origin  in  the  letter  of  the  i-^  a- 
do-Aristeas,  repeated  by  Josephus  {Ant.,  xii.,  2)  and  othtrs. 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  King  of  Egypt  from  288  (2mo)  tu  ^47 
B.  c,  at  the  instance  of  his  librarian,  Demetrius  Phalen  l\ 
sent  an  embassy  to  Jerusalem  to  procure  from  the  h.;:L 
priest  Eleazar  a  copy  of  the  Jewish  Law,  and  to  iiiakt-  ur- 
rangements  for  a  translation  of  the  same  into  Greek  for  u.^ 
Alexandrian  Library.  Seventy-two  learned  men  wen-  nc- 
cordingly  selected  by  the  high  priest,  six  from  each  trit'f. 
and  sent  to  Egypt  with  a  magnincent  copv  of  the  Law  writ- 
ten on  parchment  in  letters  of  gold.  They  retired  to  tne 
island  of  Pharos,  where  they  completed  the  translation  lu 
seventy-two  days.  According  to  Fhilo  (Life  of  Moms,  lu 
5-7),  they  were  divinely  inspired.  The  legend  aT)!>earb  witli 
embellishments  in  Justin  Martyr  (Hortatory  Address  in  ".' 
Greeks,  chap.  xiii.  [Ante-Nieene  Fathers,  i.,278]),  acci»ri.:i:: 
to  whom  the  translators  were  shut  up  in  separate  cells  mikI 
worked  independently,  yet  their  several  versions,  being  tom- 
pared,  were  found  to  agree  verbatim.  So  also  Iivtiai^ 
(Against  Heresies,  chap,  xxi.,  2;  do.,  i.,  451,  sea:)  and  (.  1.  m- 
ent  of  Alexandria  (The  Stromata,  I.,  xxii.;  do.,  II..  :iiU.. 
In  this  later  form  of  the  story  the  translation  is  nisile  t< 
include  the  whole  Old  Testament.  All  that  can  he  inferrti 
with  certainty  from  this  legend  is  the  high  estimation  i' 
which  the  translation  was  held  by  the  Jews  as  earlv  a-  tr- 
first  century  of  the  Christian  era.  There  is  no  improbabh it} 
in  the  supposition  that  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  may  have  f-n- 
cured  a  copy  of  the  books  of  Moses  for  his  universal  lil»rary. 
Jews  were  then  numerous  in  Alexandria.  On  the  other  hati ; 
a  translation  of  the  Old  Te>stament,  or  at  least  of  the  l^v^. 
must  have  become  a  necessity  at  that  period  to  the  Hvlltr)- 
istic  Jews,  to  most  of  whom  the  Hebrew  original,  long  U-l  r- 
the  Christian  era,  was  a  sealed  book ;  and  to  this  nece^s^i^j 
alone  it  may  have  owed  its  origin. 

The  character  of  the  translation  proves  it  to  have  \^v. 
the  work  of  many  hands.  The  Pentateuch  is  best  trnr.^ 
lated.  Anthropomorphisms  and  offensive  expre-^sions  ar.-. 
however,  often  softened ;  e.  g.  for  "they  saw  the  GtMl  of  W 
rael "  (Ex.  xxiv.  10)  we  read  "they  saw  the  place  where  ♦:.» 
God  of  Israel  stood.*'  The  translation  of  Proverbs  ha<-  con- 
siderable merit, and  the  book  of  Job  was  rendered  by  a  n.^i 
of  genius,  who  was  better  acquainted,  however,  with  th- 
Greek  poets  than  with  Hebrew,  and  dealt  very  freely  wit: 
his  text.  The  speech  of  Job's  wife  (ii.  9)  is  a  curious  irit*  r- 
polation.  Ecclesiastes  is  rendered  with  barbarous  lit.  rhl- 
ness,  so  as  to  be  in  some  places  unintelligible ;  e.  p.  Ka  t '. 
vii.  30.  The  prophets  are  for  the  most  part  poorly  tmu- 
lated,  especially  Isaiah ;  and  the  translation  of  Daniel  w«^ 
so  bad  tnat  the  version  of  Theodotion  was  early  substitV" 
for  it  in  (Christian  use,  and  but  a  single  manuscript  of  ;' 
is  known.  In  some  books,  particularly  Jeremiah,  a  n'*tn 
sion  of  the  text  was  followed  differing  from  our  Dn-^J' 
Hebrew;  to  others,  as  Esther  and  Daniel,  apcxjryphai  ai^.: 
tions  were  made.  The  version  contains  all  tho'lxToks  e  n»- 
monly  printed  in  the  English  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  T«»:^-a- 
ment!  except  the  second  book  of  Esdras.  Some  manus^n; t^ 
and  editions  add  a  third,  others  a  fourth  book  of  Maocal-etN 


430 


SEQUOIA 


SERAING 


The  nearest  relative  of  the  genus  is  Taxodium,  which  is  rep- 
resented by  the  bald  cypress  of  the  southern  Atlantic  U.  S. 
and  Mexico.  The  foliage  of  the  two  species  is  strikingly 
different.  The  leaves  of  the  redwood  resemble  those  of  the 
yew,  being  spreading  and  arranged  comb-like  on  two  sides 
of  the  branchiet ;  the  cones  are  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut.  The 
leaves  of  the  big  tree  are  smaller,  awl-shaped,  and  closely 
oppressed  to  the  branchiet ;  the  cones  of  the  size  of  an  Eng- 
lish walnut.  The  wood  of  the  redwood  is  light,  but  firm, 
straight-grained,  and  handsome,  although  the  rich  brownish- 
red  color  fades  on  exposure  without  protection,  while,  like 
most  of  the  cypress  laraily,  it  is  very  durable.  Only  the 
redwood,  which  occurs  in  large  quantities,  affords  a  material 
of  commerce,  bein^  lumbered  on  a  large  scale,  and  used  for 
construction,  interior  finish,  railway  ties,  etc. ;  the  available 
sapplies  are  being  rapidly  exhausted  by  the  wasteful  meth- 
ods of  lumbering.  The  tree  is  tenacious  of  life,  the  stumps 
even  of  the  oldest  trunks  long  retaining  their  vitality  at  tne 
circumference,  and  sprouting  into  a  circle  of  fresh  young 
shoots,  in  which  it  differs  from  most  other  conifers.  This 
tree  (the  redwood)  occurs  along  the  west  slope  of  the  Coast 
Ranges  from  Monterey  Bay  to  the  Oregon  line,  but  is  most 
abundant  N.  of  San  Francisco  Bay  up  to  lat.  40''.  Where  the 
redwood  abounds  it  forms  forests  almost  by  itself.  There 
are  trees  from  50  to  over  75  feet  in  circumference  and  from 
200  to  275  feet  in  height,  and  credible  accounts  are  ^ven 
of  still  larger  ones.  Archibald  Menzies  was  the  first  bota- 
nist to  collect  specimens  of  the  redwood  (about  1810).  They 
remained  undescribed  until  1832,  when  one  of  these  speci- 
mens was  figured  by  Lambert,  and  named  Tcixodium  aem- 
pervirens.  Soon  after  the  tree  was  made  known  to  bota- 
nists by  David  Douglas ;  in  1847  Endlicher  founded  upon  it 
the  genus  Sequoia, 

S.  giaantea,  the  big  tree,  appears  to  have  been  first  dis- 
coverea  in  the  spring  of  1852  by  a  white  hunter  named 
Dowd,  who  reached  the  Calaveras  ^ove.  Specimens  reached 
the  Atlantic  States  and  Europe  m  1853,  and  Lindley  first 
described  the  species  as  Welliiigtonia  gigantea,  on  Dec.  24, 
1853 ;  a  figure  of  it  also  appeared  in  1854  in  The  Botanical 
Magazine,  The  Calif ornian  botanists  proposed  to  call  it 
Washingionia  califomica,  and  under  this  name  it  was  pub- 
lished in  the  California  Farmer  in  1854.  Meanwhile  Dr. 
Torrey  determined  that  this  tree  was  of  the  same  genus  as 
the  redwood — i.  e.  Sequoia — notwithstanding  the  difference 
in  foliage,  a  conclusion  announced  also  by  Dr.  Asa  Gray  in 
The  American  Journal  of  Science  for  Sept.,  1854.  Prof. 
Decaisne  in  Paris  had  already  taken  the  same  view,  assign- 
ing the  name  Sequoia  gigantea,  which  the  tree  now  bears, 
as  early  as  June  1854.  {Bull,  Soc,  Bat,  France,  i.,  70.)  The 
name  Sequoia  wellingtonia,  proposed  by  Seemann  in  1855, 
is  therefore  antedated  by  S,  gigantea,  which  must  stand. 

Although  in  general  of  greater  size  than  the  redwood, 
this  tree  is  not  so  handsome.  The  branches  are  short,  the 
spray  less  graceful.  The  wood  is  similar,  but  of  a  duller 
reddish  hue.  This  species  nowhere  forms  a  forest  by  itself, 
but  is  mixed  with  other  coniferous  trees,  mainly  sugar-pines, 
and  generally  occurs  in  detached  "  groves."  Its  range  in 
latitude  is  only  between  two  and  three  degrees,  in  longi- 
tude being  confined  to  a  narrow  belt  on  the  western  slope  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada ;  its  vertical  range  is  restricted  between 
4,760  feet  (at  the  northernmost  locality)  and  7,000  feet. 

There  are  some  twenty  groups  or  groves  segregated  and 
named.  The  most  northern  grove  known  is  situated  in 
Placer  County,  50  to  60  miles  N.  of  the  two  groves,  first 
discovered  and  most  accessible  in  Calaveras  County.  The 
North  Calaveras  ^rove,  covering  50  acres,  contains  ninety- 
three  trees,  of  which  four  are  over  300  feet  high,  the  tallest 
standing,  called  the  Keystone  State,  being  325  feet,  and  its 
diameter,  6  feet  from  the  ground,  45  feet.  Between  these 
groves  and  the  Merced  river  are  two  or  three  patches  of  big 
trees  (Tuolumne  and  Merced  grove),  but  none  of  great  note 
until  the  Mariposa  grove  is  reached.  This  is  16  miles  S.  of 
the  Yosemite  valley,  and  is  in  two  patches,  the  lower  one  at 
5,500  feet  containing  about  125  large-sized  trees,  one  of  the 
largest  being  the  Grizzly  Giant,  over  93  feet  in  circumference 
at  the  ground,  and  over  64  at  11  feet,  which  is  measured 
above  the  bulge  of  the  trunk,  characteristic  of  the  cypress 
family.  Most  of  these  trees  have  been  sadly  injured  by  fire. 
About  a  dozen  miles  S.  of  this  grove  is  the  Fresno  grove, 
said  to  contain  about  600  trees,  the  largest  81  feet  in  cir- 
cumference. Prom  this  district  S.  to  the  Tule  river,  but  at 
greater  elevations,  trees  appear  to  be  more  abundant  than 
elsewhere,  and  more  widely  dispersed  through  the  forest, 
the  Dinky,  King's  river,  New  King's  river,  and  Kaweah 


having  been  named.    The  age  of  sequoias  was  formerly  es- 
timated as  high  as  4,000  to  6,000  years,  but  countings  of  aii- 


Fio.  1.— Grizzly  Giant,  ''  Wawona,*'  275  feet  high,  28  feet  diameter. 

nual  rings  reduce  the  age  of  the  oldest  to  between  2,000  and 
2,500  years,  most  of  them  probably  below  this.  Authentic 
accounts  of  the  trees  are  to  be  found  in  J.  D.  WTiiinevs 
Yosemite  Book^  and  in  the  writings  of  Muir,  Clarence  Kin^'. 
Lemmon,  and  others.  See  also  Garden  and  Fore»t,  e<i»e- 
cially  vol.  iii.,  p.  573,  for  a  map  of  the  groves. 


Fio.  2.— Section  of  a  big  tree,  92  feet  in  circumference. 

Both  species  seem  to  require  for  their  success  the  huini-l 
atmosphere  of  the  region  in  which  they  occur.  They  thrive 
well,  however,  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  especially  in  Ya\z- 
land  and  Ireland.  Several  trees  of  tne  Sequoia  gtgau^ra, 
over  40  feet  in  height,  are  to  be  found  in  Koehester,  N.  V. 
In  former  ages,  seven  or  eight  species  were  in  existence  and 
distributed  over  a  large  part  of  the  world,  especially  in  tl  e 
Tertiary  period,  when  it  occurred  all  around  the'  An  Jio 
zone,  and  in  Europe,  as  far  S.  as  Greece.     B.  E,  Fkrnow. 

Sequoyah :  See  Guess,  George. 

S^racs:  See  Glacieeis. 

Seraing,  se'rftiV:  town;  in  the  province  of  Lie^,  B«!- 
gium;  on  the  Meuse;  4  miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of  Liuge  ;^« 
map  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  10-G).  It  has  large  mn:)- 
ufactures  of  steam-machinery,  locomotives,  iron  gocxis.  A\d 
mirrors,  and  ha*  rich  coal  mines  in  its  vicinity.  Pop.,  ^i'-' 
the  commune  (1891),  32,912. 


»f*rtA.Tt- 


H(l      I  .il  *     rnfti 


S!: 


^,  armf*trr  "*i-npr-rirn  '  , 


f'K^r't'it^Mm  ]fr>ni 


rV! 


.  itQi  FL."»  I 


432 


SERGE 


SEROUS  MEMBRANE 


tion  of  the  law  against  stran^rs,  but  he  could  not  own 
property,  and  could  be  sold  with  the  land  which  he  tilled. 
The  terms  aer/  and  villein  are  used  almost  indiscriminately 
of  the  non-freemen,  though  originally  the  former  term  sig- 
nified a  lower  order  of  bondman. 

The  abolition  of  serfdom  in  Europe  was  a  gradual  process. 
In  England  it  gradually  disappeared  during  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries.  It  is  mentioned  for  the  last  time 
in  1574  by  a  commission  issued  by  Oueen  Elizabeth  for  its 
abrogation  in  the  counties  of  Cornwall,  Devon,  Somerset,  and 
Gloucester.  In  France,  where  both  Louis  IX.  and  Louis  X. 
had  sought  support  in  the  serfs  against  the  feudal  counts, 
serfdom  was  maintained,  often  in  very  harsh  forms,  up  to 
the  Revolution.  In  Denmark  it  was  abolished  in  1784  by 
Frederick  VI.,  at  that  time  heir-apparent  only,  but  actually 
TOverning  instead  of  his  insane  father ;  in  Prussia  in  1808 
by  von  Stein  ;  in  Hungary  in  1848  by  the  revolutionary  anti- 
Austrian  Diet ;  and  in  Russia  in  18^1  by  Alexander  II.  See 
Slavery.  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Serge  [vi6  O.  Fr.  :  Ital.  sargia  <  Lat.  se'rica,  silken  gar- 
ments, liter.,  neut.  plur.  of  se'ricua,  silken,  deriv.  of  seres. 
See  Seres]:  a  name  applied  to  various  twilled  fabrics. 
Silk  serge  is  a  coarse  ana  strong  material  used  for  lining 
coats,  making  light  shoes,  etc.  Woolen  or  worsted  and 
woolen  serges  are  made  for  ladies*  cloaks  and  other  uses. 
Some  kinds  of  coai-se  serge  are  employed  for  making  the 
^rments  of  certain  ecclesiastics.  Other  finer  kinds  are 
in  some  countries  used  exclusively  for  shrouds. 

Sergeant  [vifi  0.  Fr.  serjani :  Ital.  serviente  <  Lat.  ser- 
viens,  serffien'tis^  servant,  vassal,  soldier, •  liter., jpres.  partic. 
of  Lat.  servi're^  serve] :  a  non-commissioned  officer  (i.  e.  an 
enlisted  soldier  holding  an  appointment  from  the  colonel 
authorizing  him  to  exert  a  limited  authority  over  his  fellow 
soldiers)  in  the  army  and  marines,  of  a  rank  higher  than 
that  of  corporal.  Each  infantry  company  has  a  certain  num- 
ber of  sergeants,  one  of  which  is  of  higher  rank  and  pay 
than  the  rest,  and  is  called  first  sergeant.  Each  battalion 
(or  regiment,  if,  as  in  the  U.  S.,  it  has  but  one  battalion)  has 
a  sergeant-major,  who  is  the  highest  non-commissioned 
officer  of  the  battalion.  He  is  the  executive  officer  of  the 
adjutant,  and  superintends  the  making  out  of  details  and 
the  performance  of  other  camp  duties  for  the  adjutant. 
There  is  also  a  quartermaster-sergeant  to  each  battalion. 
In  the  U.  S.  service  a  number  of  Quartermaster  and  com- 
missary sergeants  not  attached  to  oattalions,  and  the  ord- 
nance sergeants,  whose  duty  relates  to  the  care  of  ordnance, 
arms,  ammunition,  and  military  stores  at  the  posts  to  which 
they  are  attached,  are  provided  for  by  law  to  be  selected 
from  sergeants  of  the  line  who  have  served  for  a  certain 
length  of  time  as  privates  and  non-commissioned  officers. 

Revised  by  James  Mercur. 

Sergeant,  John,  LL. D. :  lawyer;  son  of  Jonathan  D. 
Sergeant,  lawyer;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa,,  Dec  5,  1779; 
graduated  at  Princeton  1795 ;  was  admitted  to  the  Philadel- 
phia bar  1799;  was  appointed  a  commissioner  of  bank- 
ruptcy 1801 ;  was  subsequently  deputy  attorney-general  of 
Pennsylvania ;  sat  several  times  in  the  Pennsylvania  Legis- 
lature; was  member  of  Congress  1815-23,  1827-29,  and 
1837-42;  was  the  leading  representative  of  the  Northern 
States  in  advocating  the  passage  of  the  Missouri  Compromise 
Act  1820 ;  was  minister  to  the  Panama  congress  1828 ;  Whig 
candidate  for  the  vice-presidency  on  the  ticket  with  Clay 
1822,  in  which  year  his  Select  Speeches  were  published ; 
president  of  the  Pennsylvania  constitutional  convention 
1830 ;  declined  the  mission  to  England  1841 ;  for  half  a  cen- 
tury was  rerarded  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Pennsylvania 
bar.    D.  in  Philadelphia,  Nov.  23, 1852. 

Sergi,  sar'jee,  Giuseppe;  psychologist  and  anthropolo- 
gist ;  b.  at  Messina,  Sicily,  Mar.  22, 1841 ;  educated  at  Mes- 
sina; became  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  lyceums  at  Messina 
and  Milan ;  in  1880  Professor  of  Anthrojwlogy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Boloffna,  and  in  1884  professor  in  the  University 
and  director  of  the  Institute  for  Anthropology  at  Rome. 
His  principal  works  are  Element i  di  Pfncologi'a  (Messina, 
1879);  Teoria  fisiologica  delta  Percezione  (Milan,  1881); 
L'oripine  dei  fetiomeni psichici  (Milan,  1885);  Psychologie 
physiologique  (French  trans.,  Paris,  1887) ;  Principi  di  psi- 
cofogia,  vol.  i.,  Dolore  e  Piacere  (Milan,  1894) ;  together 
with  many  anthropological  memoirs.    J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Sergipe,  originally  Sergipe  del  Key,  sffr-zheep  a-ddl-ra' : 
an  eastern  maritime  state  of  Brazil ;  between  Bahia,  Ala- 
goas,  and  the  Atlantic.    Area,  15,090  sq.  miles.    The  interior 


is  included  in  the  Brazilian  plateau,  which  is  here  low. 
much  broken,  and  has  little  forest ;  a  broad  belt  of  lowland 
is  separated  from  the  ocean  by  extensive  sand-dunes.  Th<^ 
great  SAo  Francisco  River  (q,  v.)  forms  the  northern  bound- 
ary; aside  from  it  the  state  has  only  a  few  insignifio<ii>t 
streams,  and  the  mouth  of  the  SSo  Francisco  forms  the  only 
harbor.  The  climate  is  dry  and  much  of  the  land  is  unfit 
for  agriculture;  the  best  is  in  the  coast  belt  and  on  t)i»* 
edge  of  the  plateau,  where  sugar  and  cotton  are  cult  i vat  4.^ 
In  the  interior  cattle-raising  is  the  principal  industry.  S»t- 
gipe  is  the  smallest  and  one  of  the  least  populous  and  [>ro- 
gressive  of  the  Brazilian  states.  The  exports  are  hi<i«>, 
sugar,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  a  little  gold  obtained  from  •sur- 
face-washings. Pop.  (1894)  estimated,  261,991.  (^apit&L 
Aracajd,  a  small  town  on  the  coast.  H.  H.  Smtth. 

Sericnltare :  See  Silk. 

Series  [from  Lat.  series^  connection,  row,  success i<.r.. 
series,  deriv.  of  se'rere^  join,  bind  together] :  in  mathemat- 
ics, a  succession  of  terms  whose  values  proceed  according 
to  some  law.  The  most  familiar  examples  are  the  progrn.^ 
sions  of  elementary  algebra,  called  respectively  arithmetical 
and  geometrical  progression.  A  series  may  terminate  at  a 
certain  term,  but  more  commonly  it  may  be  continutHi 
without  end.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  called  an  infinite  seriej*. 
The  above-mentioned  nrogresslons  are  examples  of  infinit*' 
series,  because  either  of  them,  when  once  started,  may  be  vi  »n- 
tinued  indefinitely. 

An  infinite  series  may  be  either  convergent  or  divergt  ut. 
A  convergent  series  is  one  the  sum  of  all  of  whose  tenn>  m(^ 
proaches  a  certain  limit  if  the  series  is  continued  indefinit*!} . 
A  familiar  exami)le  of  this  is  afforded  by  a  decreasing  ^t-V 
metrical  progression.  Students  of  algebra  know  that  tiic 
progression 

l  +  i  +  i  +  i+  ete.,  ad  infinitum, 
will  approach  2  as  a  limit,  always  differing  from  that  limit 
by  a  quantity  equal  to  the  last  term  included  in  the  aiMi- 
tion,  which  term  may  be  made  as  small  as  we  please  by  con- 
tinuing the  series. 

A  divergent  series  is  one  the  sum  of  whose  terms  doe^  not 
thus  approach  a  limit.  A  series  may  be  divergent  in  tw*. 
ways;  tne  sum  of  the  terms  may  increase  beyond  ail  limit, 
when  their  number  becomes  infinite,  and  may  therefore  U' 
called  infinity.  But  the  sum  may  also  be  continuallv  lar^r 
and  smaller,  without  increasing  indefinitely.  Such  a  sc- 
ries is 

1-1  +  1  —  1  + etc. 
The  sum  of  this  series  will  always  be  either  0  or  1,  acoonl- 
ing  as  the  number  of  terms  added  is  even  or  odd.     It  i> 
therefore  called  divergent. 

Series  are  of  very  extensive  use  in  advanced  mathen)atii->^ 
especially  in  the  applications  of  algebraic  methods,  befauv«> 
of  the  great  number  of  quantities  which  can  not  be  exprt^^-^'-i 
in  any  other  way.  Quantities  expressed  by  a  series  are  su  id  :  i  • 
be  developed  in  a  series,  and  if  tne  series  is  convergent  th»«r 
true  values  can  be  found  with  any  degree  of  accural- v  l\ 
taking  a  sufficient  number  of  terms.  But  if  the  seri«^^  li. 
which  the  development  is  made  is  divergent,  it  can  not  r^[- 
resent  the  quantity.  S.  Nkwcomr. 

Serinagnr :  city  of  Kashmir.    See  Srinaoar.  . 

Seringapatam' :  city  of  Southern  India  and  fonner'v 
capital  of  Mysor ;  on  an  island  in  the  Cavery,  in  lat.  12  ii 
N.,  Ion.  76^  48'  E.  (see  map  of  S.  India,  ref.  6-D>.  L'n«i»r 
Hyder  Ali  and  Tippoo  Sahib  its  fortifications  were  strenirth- 
ened,  and  althougn  unhealthful  it  had  300,000  inhabitants. 
In  1799  it  was  conquered  by  the  British,  and  now  it  has  K•^- 
than  12,000  inhabitants,  and  these  mostly  in  the  suburb  4.f 
Ganjam.  M.  W.  U. 

Sermon :  See  Homiletics  and  Homilt. 

Serous  Membrane  [serous  is  deriv.  of  se'rutn.  s<^«?  Si  - 
rumI  :  in  the  human  body  the  membranous  walls  of  ttie 
aracnnoid,  pleural,  pericardial,  and  peritoneal  cavities,  ar..i 
the  investing  memorane  of  the  testis.  Serous  mem bmr'^ 
in  all  instances,  save  the  peritoneum  in  women,  are  ohi^^i 
sacs,  with  their  opposed  walls  more  or  less  in  contact,  but 
lubricated  by  secreted  serous  fluid,  so  as  to  permit  of  fno 
motion.  The  serous  membrane  is  therefore  a  contrivHr..v 
of  nature  to  insure  the  freedom  of  the  large  organs  of  t^e 
body  in  the  limited  movements  incident  to  their  functi«iii.i: 
activity.  The  movements  of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  iTltt■^- 
tines,  the  more  limited  increase  and  decrease  of  size  of  \K^ 
brain,  and  the  considerable  friction  of  the  joints  are  fa<  r.i* 
tated  and  made  easy  by  the  well-lubricated  serous  nuMi:- 


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434 


SERPENT-STARS 


SERUM  THERAPEUTICS 


representatives  of  the  order  as  a  whole  live  in  hot  regions, 
and  are  averse  to  cold.  The?  are  absent  altogether  in  the 
extreme  northern  and  southern  countries,  and  s{)aringly  de- 
veloped and  hibernating  during  cold  weather  in  the  tem- 
perate regions,  but  almost  equally  abundant  in  the  tropical 
regions  of  the  several  quarters  of  the  ^lobe.  In  the  north- 
em  part  of  the  U.  S.  only  three  species  of  the  jxjisonous 
snakes  (the  scale-headed  and  plate-headed  rattlesnakes  and 
the  copperhead)  occur,  and  the  greatest  number  in  anv  one 
region  within  the  U.  S.  are  found  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexi- 
co. See  Poisox  or  Serpents  and  the  names  of  different 
genera  and  species.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Serpent-stars :  See  Opbiuroidea. 

Serpent-worshipers :  See  Ophites. 

Serpnkhor  :  town ;  in  the  government  of  Moscow,  Rus- 
sia ;  on  the  Nara;  67  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Moscow  (see  map  of 
Russia,  ref.  7-E).  It  has  a  fine  cathedral  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  and  manufactures  of  linen  fabrics  of  different  de- 
scriptions, mostlv  coarse ;  also  leather,  paper,  earthenware, 
and  furniture.    'Pop.  (1888)  22,718. 

Ser'pala  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  ser'pula^  little  snake,  deriv. 
of  ser'pere^  creep] :  a  genus  of  annelids  which  build  calcare- 
ous tubes  in  which  they  live.  The  head  is  surrounded  with 
feathery  tentacles,  one  of  which  is  modified  into  a  stopper  to 
close  the  aperture  of  the  tube  when  the  animal  is  retracted. 

Serra,  Junipero  :  missionary ;  b.  in  the  island  of  Majorca, 
Nov.  24, 1713.  He  entered  the  Franciscan  order,  was  sent 
to  Mexico  in  1749,  and  labored  for  years  among  the  Indians 
of  the  northwestern  districts.  When  the  Jesuits  were  ex- 
pelled, in  1767,  their  missions  were  placed  in  charge  of  the 
Franciscans.  Father  Junipero  was  made  president  of  those 
of  California,  then  confined  to  the  peninsula  of  Lower  Cali- 
fornia. One  of  his  first  measures  was  to  extend  his  field  to 
Upper  California  (now  California).  The  San  Diego  mission 
was  founded  July  16, 1769,  Monterey  soon  after,  and  others 
later.  These  were  the  first  civilized  communities  within  the 
bounds  of  the  present  State.  Many  of  the  buildings  remain. 
D.  at  the  San  Carlos  mission,  Aug.  28, 1784.  See  Bancroft, 
History  of  the  Pacific  States :  Calif  ornia,  and  The  Century 
Magazine  (May,  1883).  H.  II.  S. 

Serra  do  Mar :  a  division  of  the  Brazilian  Coast  Range 
bordering  the  coast  or  runningnear  it  from  Southern  Para- 
ng to  Espirito  Santo.  The  Parahyba  valley  separates  it 
from  the  Serra  da  Mantiqueira.  The  bizarre  forms  of  many 
of  its  peaks  make  this  region  extremely  picturesque.  It 
culminates  in  the  Groan  Mountains  {q.  v.).  H.  II.  S. 

Serran'idiD  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Serra'nus,  the  typ- 
ical genus,  from  Lat.  serra,  saw] :  a  family  of  fishes  of  the 
sub-order  Acanthopteriy  including  the  sea-bass,  groupers, 
jewfish,  etc.  The  body  is  oblong  and  compressed  ;  the  scales 
ctenoid  and  generally  moderate ;  the  head  compressed,  and 
more  or  less  pointed ;  the  supramaxillary  bones  not  retrac- 
tile behind  under  the  supraorbital  bones ;  the  spinous  por- 
tion of  the  dorsal  fin  about  as  long  as  the  soft  or  longer ; 
anal  like  the  soft  portion  of  the  dorsal,  and  with  three 
spines.  The  variation  in  size  among  the  species  of  the  fam- 
ily is  great,  some  being  only  a  few  inches  long,  while  others 
exceed  7  or  8  feet.  Among  the  gigantic  forms  are  the  jew- 
fish (Promicrops  guasa)  of  the  Southern  States  and  Cuba, 
which  attains  a  weight  of  500  or  600  lb.,  and  the  Stereolepis 
gigas  of  California,  which  appears  to  attain  an  eoually  large 
size.    Almost  all  the  species  are  esteemed  as  food. 

Serrano  y  Domingaez,  sSr-raa'no-ee-dS-meen'gdth,  Fran- 
cisco, Duke  de  la  Torre :  soldier  and  statesman ;  b.  at  San 
Fernando,  near  Cadiz,  Spain,  Sept.  18,  1810;  entered  the 
army  and  rose  rapidly  in  rank ;  joined  Nan'aez  in  effecting 
the  overthrow  of  the  regent  Espartero  in  1843  ;  became  lieu- 
tenant-genend  and  senator  in  1845,  and  obtained  such  influ- 
ence over  the  young  queen  after  her  marriage  (1846)  as  to 
give  rise  to  much  scandal.  After  taking  part  in  several  po- 
tical  intrigues  and  holding  some  important  offices,  he  be- 
came captain-general  of  Cuba  1860-62,  and  won  a  dukedom 
as  a  reward  for  his  successful  efforts  to  reannex  San  Domingo 
to  Spain.  In  1866  he  became  president  of  the  senate  in  Spain 
and  suffered  a  short  imprisonment  in  the  same  year.  His  con- 
tinued opposition  to  the  (jovemment  caused  his  exile  to  the 
Canary  islands  July,  1868,  when  he  took  part  with  Prim 
and  Topete  in  effecting  the  revolution  which  drove  Isabella 
from  the  throne.  He  then  became  the  ostensible  head  of 
the  Government  as  president  of  the  council  of  ministers 
and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army ;  was  elected  regent 
June  16,  1869;  negotiated  the  acceptance  of  the  Spanish 


crown  by  Prince  Amadeus  of  Italy,  by  whom  he  was  made 
premier  Jan.,  1871 ;  resigned  that  post  in  Jolv  of  the  sanif 
year;  took  the  field  as  commander-in-chief  against  \h^ 
Carlists  Apr.,  1872;  concluded  with  them  the  convenlituj 
of  Amorevieta  in  May ;  returned  to  oflflce  as  premier  for  a 
few  months  ;  fled  to  France  soon  after  the  proclamation  iif 
the  republic  (Apr.,  1873),  but  shortly  returned  ;  was  nia<i' 
chief  of  the  executive  after  the  coup  cTHat  of  Gen.  Paui 
Jan.,  1874,  and  remained  at  the  head  of  the  Government  rii! 
the  end  of  the  year,  when  he  resigned  his  authoritv  into  iv- 
hands  of  Alfonso  XII.    D.  in  Madrid,  Nov.  26, 1885. 

F.  M.  (^OLBV. 

Serto'rins,  Quintus  :  Roman  general.  He  was  a  natirc 
of  Nursia  in  the  country  of  the  Sabines ;  distinguishcfl  hiiii- 
self  in  the  battle  of  Aqu»  Sextiip  (102  b.  c.)  under  Mariu>. 
He  fought  with  Cinna  at  the  Colline  gate  in  87  b.  c.  apaii:-' 
Pompeius  Strabo,  but  he  did  not  participate  in  the  blui^iv 
massacre  which  Marius  instituted  at  the  capture  of  Knit;«  . 
on  the  contrary,  he  put  to  death  a  ^ang  of  about  4.i«m» 
slaves  whom  Marius  had  let  loose  on  tne  city,  and  who  ha : 
perpetrated  the  most  horrible  cnielties.  In  82  b.  r\  he  v(a- 
sent  to  Spain  as  propnetor,  but  in  the  same  vear  Sulla  r.- 
turned  to  Rome  from  Asia,  and  the  power  of  tfie  domo^-mii 
party  came  to  a  sudden  end.  Although  he  had  in  the  )»^ 
ginning  onl^-  a  small  army,  Sert,orins  maintained  bis  \*  «.- 
tion  in  Spam  against  the  leading  generals  of  Rome.  11  >• 
gained  the  favor  of  the  natives,  especiaUy  the  Lusitaniai  \ 
who  became  his  faithful  allies,  ana  gradually  drew  al>>>\jt 
him  the  remnant  of  the  Marian  party.  In  74  b.  r.  Ik 
formed  an  alliance  with  Mithridates.  Metellus  Pius.  wh<ci 
Sulla  first  sent  against  him,  was  repeatedly  defeatpil^  an  i 
even  Pompey,  who  came  to  Spain  in  76  b.  c,  achieved  in  t  j- 
ing,  and  was  driven  back  across  the  Ebro.  But  intri^^j'- 
and  jealousies  arose  in  Sertorius's  camp,  and  in  72  b.  c.  h 
was  invited  to  a  banquet  by  Perpenna  and  treacherously  :»- 
sassinated  at  the  fdltival.  His  biography  by  Plutarch  h 
very  interesting,  though  more  full  in  its  description  uf  Lj- 
personal  character  than  in  its  narrative  of  his  exploits. 

Revised  by  G.  L.  Hendrii  kmlx. 

Sertnla^riiD :  a  group  of  Hydroida  {q.v.)  of  un^-vr'.i - 
position.    They  form  colonies  sometimes  10  inches  in  hviz  * 
The  individual  polyps  are  situated  in  homy  causes  (tbu  m 
No  medusa  (jellyfish)  stage  occurs  in  the  life-history. 

Serum  [from  Lat.  aeVwm,  whey;  cf.  Gr.  hp^s^  whey,  ai.- 
Sanskr.  sdrtk-,  curds] :  the  watery  portion  of  certain  auima; 
fluids.  Serum  of  milk  is  whey  containing  no  allmminot.- 
matter,  whereas  serum  of  blood,  the  fluid  part  left  aft'  '• 
the  separation  of  the  coagulum  from  blood,  is  a  strfi  j 
solution  of  albumen  in  a  liquid  containing  certain  Miit^ 
neutral  and  alkaline.  The  total  amount  of  saline  niatwr 
in  the  serum  of  a  healthy  man  is  somewhat  over  10  jtr 
cent.,  and  there  are  present  carbonates  and  pho:f:phat»'>  *'i 
sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  and  magnesium,  with  eonM>i«r- 
able  chloride  of  sodium,  some  chloride  of  potassium,  a . 
sulphate  of  sodium  and  potassium.  The  amount  of  a!'  •. 
men  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  7  per  cent.  Both  the  j^il  r.- 
and  the  albuminous  matter  prevent  the  solution  of  the  bi<"  •.- 
globules,  which  are  very  soluble  in  water  itself,  and  an*  n:- 
tacked  at  once  on  addition  even  of  a  very  little  water  * 
blood.  The  physiological  and  pathological  pr«>pertii-  ' 
blood  serum  nave  recently  occupied  much  attention,  ai-. 
there  bids  fair  to  be  great  advancement  in  the  treatmcn:  • : 
disease,  based  upon  these  studies.  The  serum  of  an  aninn 
is  known  to  possess  properties  which  render  it  more  or  !•  ^' 
destructive  to  in vadmg  micro-organisms.  According  a>tr  - 
is  ill  or  well  developed  will  be  the  likelihood  or  nnlikthl:.  ■  •. 
of  a  severe  attack.  Revised  by  W.  Peppkb. 

Seram  Therapeutics :  that  department  of  medic  al  pn.  - 
tice  which  secures  Immunfty  (9.  v.)  by  the  intrcxiucti.  i*    ' 
certain  substances  in  the  blood  which  act  in  an  antagt>tii>:. 
manner  to  the  bacteria  of  the  disease  in  ouestion,  or  to  t  • 
toxic  substances  developed  from  these  or  oy  them.    Ar«^>n'. 
ing  as  the  protective  substances  are  present  in  large  or  mh  \ 
quantity,  permanently  or  temporarily,  so  will  be  the  p»n» 
nence  and  completeness  of  tne  immunity.    The  samov-^ 
of  immunity  may  be  developed  by  artificial   imx-ulah"' 
with  the  specific  micro-organisms  themselves.     The  l»tT»' 
maybe  made  less  powerful  by  certain  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion, as  was  done  oy  Pasteur  in  the  case  of  the  anthr.i\ 
bacillus,  or  they  may  be  injected  in  small  araount^.  .ti*: 
thus  immunity  developed  without  risk  of  a  serious  att.v  k 
Immunity  mar.  however,  be  obtained  by  injeetion  of  tr- 
products  of  the  bacteria,  obtained  either  from  cultures «..' 


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436 


SERVIAN  LANGUAGE 


ties.  Commerce  is  confined  to  the  exportation  of  raw  mar 
terials  and  the  importation  of  the  most  essential  manufac- 
tured goods.  The  system  of  agriculture  is  simple  and  rude ; 
little  attention  is  paid  to  education,  and  the  condition  of 
the  country  and  people  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
progress  made  by  Roumania  and  Bulgaria  since  1870. 

The  unit  of  value  is  the  dinar  or  franc.  During  the  fiscal 
year  1894  the  state  receipts  were  63,755,600  dinars ;  expen- 
ditures, 63,736,300.  The  public  debt  is  359,144,500  dinars. 
In  1893  the  imports  amounted  to  40,922,525  dinars,  seven- 
twelfths  of  which  were  from  Austria-Hungary:  exports, 
48,910,400,  about  five-sixths  of  which  were  to  AustriarHun- 
gary.  There  are  388  miles  of  railway.  Length  of  tele- 
graph lines,  1,946  miles ;  offices,  143. 

Servia  is  an  hereditary  monarchy.  The  national  assembly 
or  Skuptchina  consists  of  134  members  and  meets  annually. 
Pop.  (1894)  2,256,084.  Except  143,684  Roumanians  and  37,581 
gypsies  (1891),  there  are  few  not  of  the  Servian  race.  With 
rare  exceptions  the  inhabitants  belong  to  the  national 
Church,  the  Eastern  Orthodox  or  Greek.  Pop.  of  chief 
towns  (1890) :  Belgrade,  the  capital,  54,249  ;  Nisch,  19,877 ; 
Kragujevatch,  12,669;  Lescovatch,  12,132;  Pojarevatch, 
11,134.  In  1892  there  were  20,934  marriages,  93,833  births, 
and  74,128  deaths.  Bv  statute  of  1889  military  service  is 
obligatory  on  every  able-bodied  male  Servian  from  the  age 
of  twenty-one  to  fiity-one ;  1  year  in  active  service,  9  in  the 
reserve,  10  in  the  first  division,  and  10  in  the  second  division 
of  the  national  militia.  Servia  claims  ability  to  put  into 
the  field  5,700  officers,  239,950  men,  with  45,100  horses  and 
402  cannon. 

History, — The  Servians  are  a  branch  of  the  Slavic  family. 
During  the  seventh  century  they  were  induced  by  the  By- 
zantine emperor  Ueraclius  I.  to  abandon  their  homes  in  the 
Carpathians  and  colonize  the  then  depopulated  territory 
between  the  Danube  and  Adriatic.  Bound  to  the  Byzantine 
empire  by  friendship  and  allegiance,  they  formed  an  effi- 
cient defense  against  the  barbarians  of  the  north.  Christian- 
ized in  the  ninth  century,  Servia  became  independent  in  the 
eleventh,  and  its  sovereign,  the  Grand  Shupane,  was  recog- 
nized as  a  king  by  Pope  Gregory  VII.  Stephen  Dushan, 
the  tenth  sovereign,  conquered  nearly  all  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula, threatened  Constantinople,  and  in  1346  took  the  title 
of  czar.  In  1389,  at  the  terrible  battle  of  Kossova  where  the 
Servian  king  Lazarus  and  Sultan  Murad  I.  were  slain,  Servia 
lost  its  independence,  and  disappears  from  history  till  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth ,  century.  Then  the  peasant 
Kara  George,  aided  by  Russia,  expelled  the  Ottomans,  and 
ruled  from  1804  to  1813.  Again  tne  Ottomans  overran  the 
country  when  the  swineherd  Milosch  Obrenovitch,  who  had 
assassinated  Kara  George,  headed  a  desperate  resistance  dur- 
ing fifteen  years.  Supported  by  Russian  diplomacy  he 
forced  the  Porte  in  1830  to  recognize  him  as  hereditary 
prince  of  Servia.  In  1869  a  constitution  was  framed,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  (Government  appointed  one-third  of  the 
Skuptschina,  while  the  electorate  of  the  other  two-thirds  was 
greatly  restricted.  In  1876  Servia  declared  war  against  the 
Ottomans,  and  was  saved  from  destruction  only  by  the  inter- 
ference of  Russia.  The  Congress  of  Berlin  (1878)  recognized 
the  independence  of  the  principality,  and  increased  its  terri- 
tory on  the  south  at  the  expense  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 
Servia  declared  itself  a  kingdom  Mar.  6,  1882.  In  Nov., 
1885,  King  Milan  made  an  unjustifiable  attack  on  Bulgaria, 
but  was  ignominiously  defeated  and  his  kingdom  maintained 
intact  only  through  the  intervention  of  Austria-Hungary. 
In  1889  a  more  liberal  constitution  was  granted,  all  taxpay- 
ing  citizens  becoming  electors,  by  whose  votes  the  entire 
Skuptschina  was  elected.  The  Servians  are  a  brave  and 
generous  people,  and  the  unfortunate  history  of  Servia  since 
1868  is  largely  due  to  the  influence  of  their  incapable  and 

Susillanimous  ruler,  Milan  I.  {q,  t\\  who  on  Mar.  6, 1889,  ab- 
icated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Alexander  I.  The  latter  in  May, 
1894,  by  a  coup  d'4(at,  abolished  the  new  constitution  and 
restored  that  of  1869. 

Works  or  Reference. — Chopin,  Provinces  Danubiennes ; 
Courriere,  Histoire  de  la  liiUrature  contemporaine  chez  les 
Slaves;  E.  de  Laveleye,  The  Balkan  Peninsula;  Minchin, 
Servia  and  Monienegro ;  Saint-Rene  Taillandier,  La  Serhie 
au  XIX*  Si^de,  Karah  George  et  Milosch ;  von  Ranke,  His- 
tory of  Servia.  E.  A,  Grosvenob. 

Servian  Language :  See  Slavic  Languages. 

Servian  Literature :  in  its  broadest  sense,  the  literary 
monuments  of  the  Servian  or  Servian-Croat  language,  spoken 
by  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Servia,  Bosnia,  Herzegovina, 


SERVIAN  LITERATURE 

Montenegro,  Dalmatia,  and  Croatia  (including  Slavonian 
about  6,0^,000  in  all  This  belongs  to  the  southern  dinsion 
of  the  Slav  languages,  and,  though  somewhat  influencHJ  bv 
Turkish,  is  most  closely  related  to  Bulgarian,  Slovenian,  abd 
Russian.  In  a  narrower  sense  the  term  Servian  is  restricted 
to  Servia  alone.  The  Servian  and  Croat  lan^ages  and 
literatures,  although  essentially  of  the  same  origin,  and  dif- 
ering  in  little  except  that  the  former  employs  the  Cyrillic 
(Russian)  alphabet  and  the  latter  the  Latin,  had  for  centu- 
ries an  independent  development,  owing  to  political,  relig- 
ious, and  territorial  influences.  While  Croat  literature  de- 
veloped under  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  Welters 
European  influences,  Servian  literature,  as  the  intellectual 
medium  of  a  people  belonging  to  the  Greek-Oriental  Cliurfh. 
grew  under  tne  influence  of  that  Church  and  the  Byzantine 
empire.  Consequently  the  Servians  received  with  the  <iM 
Slovenian  liturgy  also  the  Old  Slovenian  or  Old  Bulgariaa 
language.  This,  by  an  admixture  of  dialectic  peculiarities. 
was  giwiually  moulded  into  the  so-called  Servian  Chnn-h 
Slavonic,  in  which,  until  the  destruction  of  the  Old  Servian 
realm  (battle  at  Kossova  in  1889),  a  rather  extensive  Church 
literature  was  produced. 
Early  Servian  Literaturt. — Among  the  first  writers  va« 


Hmeuna,  Prague,  1868  and  1870). 
Sava,  who  founded  the  Servian  monastery  Chilander  on 
Mt.  Athos,  and  was  in  fact  the  apostle  of  the  Servian 
people,  wrote  a  legend,  a  ritual,  and  a  liturgy  from  Old 
Bulgarian  sources.  Domentian  wrote  lives  of  St.  Sava  and 
St.  Simeon  (ed.  by  Danicid,  Belgrade,  1865).  The  AwfoWvr, 
by  Archbishop  Danilo  (1201~18SB),  is  a  genealogical  account 
of  Servian  kmgs  and  archbishops  (ed.  by  Danicio,  Agrain, 
1866).  These  works  were  of  a  panegyric  ecclesiastical  nature, 
hardly  popular  enough  to  encourage  secular  literature. 

The  most  important  productions  for  the  study  of  the  old 
language  and  history  of  Servia  are  the  documents  and  ivi^ 
ords  of  the  old  kings,  and  especially  the  Zakonik  (a  eoll'X'- 
tion  of  laws),  by  King  Stephen  Dushan  (d.  in  1356).  The 
Turkish  yoke  after  Kossova  almost  completely  checked  lit- 
erary life  in  Servia  for  nearly  400  years;  but  the  Gt-<pels 
were  printed  in  Bel^^ade  in  1552,  and  Georg  Brankcivir, 
during  his  captivity  in  Eger,  wrote  a  chronicle  of  Servia 
from  the  origin  of  the  Servian  people  to  about  1700. 

Literary  Activity  during  the  Turkish  Supremacy. — While 
Servian  literature  was  thus  suppressed  by  the  Turkish  t^on- 
quest,  a  similar  and  cognate  literature  sprang  up  and  at- 
tained full  development  in  the  Illyrian  towns  or  the  Dalma- 
tian cities  and  islands  from  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  t4>  that 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  gradually  declining  thereaftir. 
Its  langtiage  was  Croat  (West  Servian-Croat)  in  the  old  his- 
toric sense,  although  in  the  south  (at  Ragusa)  the  ."v^uth 
Servian  or  Herzegovinian  dialect  predominates.  This  liter- 
ature frequently  loses  the  national  Slavic  color  owing  to  lit 
imitation  of  the  various  Italian  literary  movements.  A  (H^n- 
siderable  portion  of  it  is  actual  translation  from  the  Italian, 
but  most  of  it  is  lyric  poetry,  love  songs  in  the  style  of  the 
Italian  sonnet  poetry,  idyllic  tales,  and  epics;  even  the  drama 
is  represented  in  both  tragedy  and  comedy.  The  ohlf< 
writer  of  this  literature  is  Marko  Maruli^*,  at  Spalato  {lil^^ 
1524) ;  his  poetry  is  biblical,  its  form  yet  rather  imperfect 
The  island  of  Lesina  produced  two  masterly  poets— Hannibal 
Luci6  (1480-1525),  author  of  lyric  songs  and  the  drama 
Rohinja,  and  Peter  Hektorovic  (1486-1572),  who  wrote  tbt 
descriptive  poem  Rihanfa  (a  fisherman's  tale).  Then  Ra^M 
took  the  leadership,  owmg  to  such  lyric  poets  as  MeniViii 
(1457-1501)  and  Drzi6  (d.  about  1510).  both  masters  of  Ic^f 
poetry.  Greatest  of  idl  was  Ivan  (>unduli6  (d.  165((),  the 
author  of  the  epic  Osman^  celebrating  the  Polish  victi^rv 
over  the  Turks  at  Chocim.  In  1667  Ragusa  was  de<tn'.u'<i 
by  an  earthquake,  which  ended  its  material  and  intellectual 
development.  Jacob  Palmotic  (d.  1680)  portrays  its  de>t  ruc- 
tion and  rebuilding  in  his  epic  Ikibrovnik  ponovljen  (Kapi« 
Renewed).  The  works  of  Dalmatian  poets  have  beon  e<liud 
by  the  South  Slavonic  Academy  at  Agram  (1869,  setfX 

"  The  reinvcU  of  Sennan  literature  was  due  to  the  j)«>liiii»l 
struggles  carried  on  by  Austria  against  the  Turks  fur  ihc 
liberation  of  the  Servian  people,  at  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  centurie>.  A 
considerable  part  of  Servia  was  thus  restored  to  \Ve^t«*ni 
European  life  and  civilization,  but  at  the  same  time  a  r««<> 
tion  against  the  latter  took  place ;  Russian  teachers  werv 
called  to  the  schools,  and  the  Church-Slavonic  languac*'  >» 
its  Russian  form  introduced  into  the  service  of  the  Cburcis. 


«;t, 


iT»h  Kfn-. 


..I 
ir 


J.  J.  k:     /v 


438 


SESAME-GRASS 


SETI 


There  are  several  varieties,  which  have  been  regarded  as 
species.  They  are  annual  Oriental  plants,  naturalized  in 
most  warm  crimates.  Sesame  was  probablv  introduced  into 
the  U.  S.  by  slaves  from  Africa.  Its  rich  oify  seeds  are  prized 
by  the  Negroes,  who  also  make  a  thick  gefatinous  drink  of 
the  leaves,  which  is  very  bland  and  useful  in  diarrhoeas. 
The  seeds  can  be  made  to  yield  half  their  weight  in  oil, 
which  is  in  some  respects  better  than  olive-oil.  The  oil  is 
called  oil  of  benne  and  gingell^-oil. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Besset. 

Sesame-^rass :  a  lar^e  grass,  Tripsacum  dacti/laidea,  of 
the  U.  S.  growing  in  moist  soil  near  tne  Atlantic  coast  from 
Connecticut  southward,  with  broad  leaves  and  a  solid  stem, 
like  that  of  Indian  com  or  sugar-cane,  which  it  somewhat 
resembles.  It  is  very  coarse,  and  in  the  North  is  not  valued, 
but  in  parts  of  the  South  and  in  the  West  Indies  and  Mex- 
ico is  used  as  fodder. 

Ses^amoid  Bones  [sesamoid  is  Gr.  irn<rdfiri,  sesame  +  suf- 
fix 'Old,  like  ;  so  called  from  their  supposed  resemblance  to 
a  sesame-seedj :  bones  developed  in  tne  tendons  of  muscles. 
The  most  familiar  example  is  the  patella  or  knee-pan.  They 
do  not  belong  to  the  vertebral  appendages  proper,  but  to  the 
sclero-skeleton. 

Sesos'tris  [Gr.  'X4<rmvrpis,  or  "Xtc^wris ;  cf.  Egypt.  Seseisu 
=  Ramses  II.J :  the  name  applied  by  Greek  writers  to  Ram- 
ses II.  of  the  nineteenth  Egyptian  dynasty,  about  whom 
they  grouped  the  record  of  the  aeeds  of  other  famous  Phara- 
ohs as  well  as  those  which  belonged  to  himself,  thus  form- 
ing a  single  exaggerated  personality.  Views  have  differed 
as  to  the  persons  thus  combined,  Biinsen  holding  to  a  com- 
mingling of  two  kinffs  of  the  ancient  empire,  while  Lepsius 
held  that  Ramses  II.  formed  the  central  figure.  Manet  ho 
applies  the  name  Sesostris  to  Usertasen  II.  of  the  twelfth 
dynasty,  while  Herodotus  and  Diodorus  evidently  have  Ram- 
ses in  mind.  According  to  the  Greek  story,  Sesostris  was 
reared  with  children  bom  on  the  same  liay,  apparently 
1,700  in  numlxjr,  and  in  his  youth  led  victorious  expeditions 
into  Ethiopia  and  Libya.  After  his  father's  death  he 
equipped  an  arm;)r  of  600,000  infantry,  24,000  cavalry,  and 
27,000  chariots,  giving  the  command  to  his  fellow  students, 
marched  against  Ethiopia  and  took  heavy  tribute.  He  then 
fitted  out  a  navy  of  400  vessels  and  sailed  to  the  end  of  the 
Arabian  peninsula.  Thence  he  nroc^eeded  through  Arabia 
and  along  the  coast,  crossing  the  Indus  and  conquering 
India.  Returning  by  land  he  subdued  the  Scythians.  Ac- 
cording to  one  account  he  left  a  portion  of  his  army  in  this 
region,  and  they  became  the  ancestors  of  the  (^Ichi.  Then, 
after  conquering  Thrace,  he  returned  to  Egypt  with  great 
spoil  and  many  captives,  having  been  absent  exactly  nine 
vears.  The  remaiiuier  of  his  reign  occupied  fifty-nine  yeai*s. 
lie  divided  Egvpt  into  thirty-six  nomes  or  districts ;  built 
roads,  canals,  cities,  and  temples,  using  his  captives  as  labor- 
ers ;  by  grace  of  Thoth  was  learned  in  the  law,  and  was 
reckoned  among  the  great  P]gyptian  lawgivers;  introduced 
the  worship  of  Serapis;  and  divided  the  Egyptians  by  a  sys- 
tem of  caste,  forbidding  also  that  a  son  abandon  the  calling 
of  his  father.  In  his  old  age  he  became  blind  and  took  his 
own  life.  The  Greek  story  is  in  accordance  with  the  actual 
faot«  only  in  a  few  particulars.  For  the  Egyptian  account, 
see  Ramses.  See  Herodotus  (ii.,  gg  102-110)  and  Diodorus 
(i.,  |:i§  53-58),  and  the  authorities  quoted  by  Wiedemann, 
Aegyptische  Oeitchichte,  p.  429.    ^      Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Sessa  Aurnii'ca  (anc.  tSnensa) :  town :  in  the  province  of 
Caserta,  Southern  Italy ;  on  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano 
about  6  miles  from  the  Tyrrhene  S<'a  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref. 
6-F).  Suessa  was  a  conspicuous  city  of  the  Auronians  or 
Aurunciaus  as  early  as  418  b.  c,  and,  judging  from  the  po- 
sition of  important'architectural  remains,  antiquarians  and 
geologists  are  of  opinion  that  the  town  was,  in  part  at  least, 
buried  by  a  volcanic  eruption.  The  present  town  is  poorly 
built,  but  it  has  a  cathedral,  a  theological  seminarv,  and  a 
technical  college.     Pop.  6,000. 

Sester'tiiiB  [Lat.,  liter.,  two  and  a  half:  i<p'mf8,  half  + 
fer'tiua,  third,  i.  e.  the  third  (aft)  being  only  a  half] :  in  ancient 
Rome,  a  silver  or  bronze  coin  w«)rth  one-fourth  part  of  a 
denarius.  Originally,  it  wjus  worth  two  an<l  a  half  asses,  but 
in  later  times  four  asses  ma<le  one  sestertius,  and  the  coin, 
originally  of  silver,  was  struck  in  fine  bronze.  The  sostertium 
was  a  money  of  account  ecjual  to  1,000  sestertii,  but'  it  was 
never  coined.  The  value  of  the  sestertius,  roughly  stated, 
was  from  one  and  a  half  to  five  cent*  of  U.  S.  money,  for  the 
value  declined  greatly  after  the  fall  of  the  republic. 


Sesto,  Cesare,  da ;  painter ;  b.  at  Sesto,  Milan,  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  He  was  a  pupil  or  imit-ator  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci.  He  afterward  went  to  Rome  and  became  acquaint*  d 
with  Raphael,  whose  style  he  adopted.  Baldassare  Peru/7i 
engaged  him  to  assist  in  executing  the  frescoes  in  the  citable! 
at  Ostia.  His  masterpiece  is  the  picture  in  the  Church  of  r^ai. 
Rocco  of  Milan,  in  several  compartments.  At  Saronno  ii<- 
painted  four  narrow  pilasters  with  figures  of  St.  Martin.  >r. 
Geor^,  St.  Sebastian,  and  St.  Roch  (San  Rocco),  whirh  ht- 
inscribed  Ctesar  Magnus  fecit ;  this  has  led  some  critics  t<- 
believe  that  he  belonged  to  the  de  Magni  family,  or  th:.t 
these  frescoes  were  by  another  painter,  but  the  similarity  of 
workmanship  does  not  allow  of  the  latter  hvpothesis.  Th»- 
date  of  his^eath  is  supposed  to  be  1524. — ilis  brother  Ste- 
FANo  was  a  sculptor  whose  bas-reliefs  in  the  Certosa  of  Pa\  in 
ai*e  remarkable.  W.  J.  Stillmax. 

Sestri  Ponen^te :  town ;  in  the  province  of  Genoa*  Ttalv : 
beautifully  situated  on  the  seashore  about  6  miles  \V. « f 
Genoa  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  4-B).  It  has  a  deli^fhtful  cli- 
mate, and  is  a  favorite  summer  resort.  The  inhabitants  of 
Sestri  Ponente  are  extensively  engaged  in  ship-buildinp,  ht  «] 
are  otherwise  very  industrious.    Pop.  of  commune,  10,6.^6. 

Sestns,  or  Sestos :  See  Abydus. 

Sete  Qaedas :  See  ParanX  (river). 

Seth,  Andrew,  M.  A.,  LL.  D. :  educator  and  philofopher : 
b.  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  Dec.  20, 1856;  educate<i  in  Kdin- 
burgh,  Berlin,  and  other  universities;  became  assistant  ir* 
logic  in  Edinburgh  in  1880;  professor  in  University  t'.  1- 
lege,  Cardiff,  1883  :  lecturer  in  the  University  of  EdinlmrjJi 
1^3;  professor  at  St.  Andrews  1887;  andPn)fpssor  of  Ij^-i- 
and  Metaphysics  in  Edinburgh  Universitv  1891.  His  j.r:!  - 
cipal  worKs  are  :  The  Developnienf  from  Kant  to  Ilegel,  tci  *h 
Cnaptera  on  the  Philosophy  of  Religion  (1882);  Us-says  f* 
Philosophical  Criticism  (188.^;  edited  in  conjunctitmi*  it L 
W.  R.  B.  Haldane);  Scottish  Philosophy:  a  Compariju,t%  o/ 
the  Scottish  and  German  Answers  to  iTume  (first  serii-*  ^f 
Balfour  Lectures,  1885;  2d  ed.  1890);  Hegeliani^m  a.  ' 
Personality  (second  series  of  Balfour  Lectures,  1887  ;  2d  t.  i 
1893).  J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Se'tl  [Seti  meri-n-Ptah^  belonging  to  Set,  belovetl  of  Pi.-i^  : 
Gr.  Sci^s] :  name  of  two  Egyptian  kings,  the  first  and  f<  >untj 
rulers  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty. 

Seti  I.,  son  of  Ramses  I.  aiid  father  of  Ramses  II.  t^- 
Ramses),  ruled  for  about  twenty-seven  years.  The  jxTi-i 
just  preceding  had  been  one  of  weakness,  in  which  the  lim- 
its of  the  kingdom  were  narrowed  from  those  established  1»> 
Thothmes  III.  (See  Thothmes.)  This  resulted  from  ni- 
internal  dissensions  caused  by  the  effort  of  Khtxaten  if/.  -  i 
to  establish  the  solar  monotheism  of  Aten  and  to  aU  !- . 
the  worship  of  Amon.  Monumental  proof  of  the  return  • :' 
the  nation  to  the  old  religion  under  Seti  is  seen  in  thi  :i  - 
scriptions  and  representations  on  the  walls  of  the  hypovr\ '  • 
hall  at  Kamak,  which  Seti  founded.  Besides  t  his  jrn  ii 
building,  he  was  architecturally  active  elsewhere  in  Thil '  - 
and  also  in  many  parts  of  Egypt.  He  was  a  patron  of  tx" 
and  left  many  monuments  bearing  his  name,  some  of  tl.< : . 
undoubtedly 'usurj)ed.  T'rom  some  of  his  monumt'Tiis  ♦•>!  w 
his  own  name  has  been  erased,  indicating  the  later  n»vuUi'ii 
of  the  Egyptians  against  the  cult  of  the  foreign  deity  Si  i.  :u 
whose  honor  Seti  was  named. 

Manetho  marked  a  dynastic  division  between  Rani><*^  l. 
and  Seti  I.,  and,  for  reasons  unknown,  began  a  new  dvnti^t} 
with  the  reign  of  the  latter.  On  obvious  grounds^,  howr\i  r. 
the  dynasty  is  reckoned  by  some  from  the  ascent  of  Uiv  - 
ses  I.'to  the  throne.  In  his  first  year  Seti  I.  was  coni|K  ..'•! 
to  proceed  to  Asia  against  the  be'duin  (Shasu)  aiiti  tlu-  j-  - 
pies  of  Palestine  and  Syria.  Among  the  conquere<l  p*-.  i'.  - 
the  Hittites  (Khefa)  are  enumerated,  but  the  striMicth  w  i  ;.  i> 
they  exhibited  under  Ramses  II.,  the  succeeilinjf  kinir,  n  r  - 
ders  this  record  somewhat  doubtful.  Later  Seti  1.  enjTM.:-  : 
in  war  with  the  Libyans  and  overcame  them.  Gra/bs...  . 
they  enlisted  as  mercenaries  under  Seti  and  his  sueo--^  -. 
till  some  4(X)  years  later  they  had  grown  to  such  powur  il  y 
the  Libyan  Shishak  usurped  the  throne  and  fouiitUNi  «  i-cji 
dynasty.  Seti's  inscriptions  claim  for  him  a  dominion  t\- 
tending  from  Mesopotamia  to  Punt,  Nubia,  and  Libya,  a"  ' 
they  show  that  under  him  the  mines  of  Sinai  ami'  Nu:  .« 
were  worked.  The  recorti  of  his  exploits  is  sculpture* J  . . 
the  north  wall  of  the  hyi)ostvle  hall  at  Kamak.  (1^  p^  .-. 
Denkmdler^  iii.,  126a-130b;  firugsch,  Oeschichfe  -4^5»«/; '  ■•, 
pp.  457  ff.,  Brcxlerick's  English  edition,  pp.  242  IT. ;  W  i^u- 
mann,   Aegyptische    Creschichte,   pp.  416  ff. ;   Lu»hingt«.ii, 


440 


SETUBAL 


SEVEN  UP 


of  Sutech.  It  was  the  demand  of  the  Hyksos  king  Apepi 
addressed  to  the  Egyptians,  that  they  should  adopt  Set  as 
their  chief  god,  which  led  to  the  relieious  war  that  ended  in 
the  expulsion  of  the  Hyksos  by  A&Dmes,  the  first  king  of 
the  eignteenth  dynasty.  In  the  Hyksos  city  Tanis  Set  was 
regarded  as  a  solar  deity,  the  enemy  of  the  serpent  Apep, 
whereas  the  general  Egyptian  view  identified  the  two.  Set 
was  not  only  a  foreign  god,  but  came  to  be  regarded  as  the 
god  of  the  foreigners,  and  after  the  evils  of  foreign  oppres- 
sion had  been  experienced,  the  honor  paid  to  him  gradually 
ceased,  till  during  the  twenty-second  and  following  dynas- 
ties the  general  detestation  in  which  he  was  held  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  his  name  was  erased  from  the  monuments 
and  his  images  destroyed.  He  is  also  found  as  the  god  of 
the  Hittites,  and  consequently  he  was  regarded  as  the  enemy 
of  R&,  the  sun-god.  Set  was  represented  in  the  hieroglyph- 
ics as  an  ass-neaded  figure,  or  as  an  ass  seated  on  nis 
haunches  with  a  forked  tail  in  a  vertical  position.  The  ass, 
crocodile,  and  hippopotamus  were  sacred  to  Set,  and  red- 
haired  men  were  under  his  special  protection.  See  Meyer, 
Set'Typhon  (Leipzig,  1875).  Charles  R.  Gillbtt. 

Seta^bal  (sometimes  called  St.  Uses)  :  town ;  in  the 
province  of  Estreraadura,  Portugal ;  on  the  Bay  of  Setubal ; 
20  miles  S.  of  Lisbon  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  17-A).  It  has 
an  excellent  harbor,  lined  with  broad  quays  and  defended 
by  five  forts.  It  is  an  old  town,  the  Cetohriga  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  is  surrounded  by  walls,  but  it  is  well  built  and 
clean.  It  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  Portuguese  salt-trade,  and 
has  also  an  extensive  trade  in  wine  and  oranges.  Consider- 
able pilchard-fisheries  are  carried  on.    Pop.  15,600. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Hirrinoton. 

Seal :  same  as  Seoul  (q,  v.). 

Senrt,  or  Saird:  town;  on  the  upper  Tigris;  in  the 
vilayet  of  Bitlis,  Kunlistan  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  5-1).  It 
is  probably  the  ancient  Tigranoceria^  built  by  Tigranes  the 
Great  (80  b.  c).  It  carries  on  trade  in  wheat,  barley,  mo- 
hair, and  galluuts.  Pop.  12,000,  Kurds,  Armenians,  Syri- 
ans, and  Chaldeans.  E.  A.  (*. 

Seosse :  See  Suso. 

Serasto^pol,  or  Sebas^topol :  seaport  and  fortress ;  near 
the  southwest  extremity  of  the  Crimean  peninsula  in  the 
Black  Sea  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  11-C).  The  roadstead 
and  the  harbor,  and  the  extensive  establishments  connected 
with  them,  form  the  most  important  features  of  the  place. 
It  was  a  Tartar  village  {Akhtiar)  until  1780,  when  the  Rus- 
sian Government  commenced  the  work  of  establishing  here 
its  naval  arsenal.  The  great  harbor  fortifications  which 
existed  at  the  period  of  the  siege  were  planned  in  1834,  and 
also  at  the  same  time  land-defenses.  The  latter  had  not 
been  constructed  when  (Sept.,  1854)  the  allied  armies  of 
Great  Britain  and  France  established  themselves  before  the 
place  and  the  memorable  siege  commenced.  Every  effort 
was  then  made  to  increase  the  strength  of  existing  intrench- 
ments,  and  the  process  continued  pari  passu  with  the  siege. 
The  bastions  (of  earth)  mentionea  in  accounts  of  the  siege 
had  been  previously  thrown  up.  The  connecting  lines  had 
not  the  strength  of  ordinary  field-fortifications,  t-he  scarcity 
of  earth  preventing  the  excavation  of  ditches,  except  about 
the  bastions  and  other  points  of  support  (e.  g.  the  Malakoff, 
originally  a  stone  tower ;  the  Redan,  an  earthwork,  etc.).  To 
compensate  for  want  of  ditches,  every  practicable  expedient 
was  adopted  to  render  access  difficult. 

Though  compressed  into  comparatively  small  linear  space, 
the  real  magnitude  of  these  defenses  was  enormous,  5,000  or 
6,000  men  being  at  some  periods  daily  engaged  on  them,  and 
the  labor  being  unintermitted  during  the  eleven  months  of 
the  siege.  The  garrison  during  this  period  (always  in  free 
communication  with  the  external  forces  by  which  it  was  re- 
plenished) was  usually  about  30,000  men;  the  number  of 
guns  mounted  at  the  final  assault  is  said  to  have  been  800, 
several  times  that  number  having  been  rendered  unservice- 
able in  the  course  of  the  siege  (Oct.,  1854-Sept.,  1855).  The 
Russian  loss  in  the  defense  was  84,000  men.  (Todlehen.) 
The  forces  actually  engaged  were,  during  the  latter  months, 
about  as  follows:  French,  120,000;  British,  27,000 ;  say,  147,- 
000  men.  The  Sardinians  (5,000)  and  Turks  are  not  includ- 
ed, as  thev  were  not  directly  engaged.  The  former  and  a 
fortion  of  the  Turkish  force  helped  to  hold  the  base  (Bala- 
lava)  and  communications  of  the  besiegers.  The  French  k)ss 
was  44,500  (i\rj«/);  hence  the  total  loss  of  allies  must  have 
been  about  60,000.  The  total  loss  of  besieged  and  besiegers 
must  have  been  nearly  150,000. 


The  fortifications  and  naval  establishments  were,  after  the 
cap>ture,  destroyed  by  the  allies,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris, 
which  terminated  the  war,  Russia  was  debarred  from  build- 
ing arsenals  and  maintaining  a  naval  force  in  the  Black  vSea 
beyond  a  very  limited  magnitude ;  but  this  restriction  vm 
removed  by  the  abrogation  of  the  neutrality  of  the  Blaok 
Sea  by  the  Conference  of  London  (1871).  The  town  has 
been  rebuilt,  and  since  1885  the  fortifications  have  been  ac- 
tively replaced  and  the  docks  reconstructed.  Sevastopol  h^ 
become  a  pleasant  watering-place,  and  is  Russia's  gjeato^ 
southern  naval  headquarters.  It  has  ceased  to  be  a  com- 
mercial port  since  the  opening  of  the  new  harbor  at  Kaifa 
(1895).  Pop.  (1890).  inclusive  of  the  garrison  of  12,000,  41,- 
000.    See  Crimean  War.    Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrixoton. 

Seyen  Pines,  Battle  of:  See  Fair  Oaks. 

Seren  Sages  (or  Wise  Men)  of  Greece :  according  to 
most  authorities,  Bias,  Chilon,  Cleobulus,  Periander,  Pitta<.u<, 
Solon,  and  Thales,  but  the  names  are  variously  given.  Many 
aphorisms  in  prose  and  verse,  chiefly  practical  observation^ 
for  the  regulation  of  life,  the  work  of  these  and  other  wive 
men  of  the  antephilosophic  period  of  Greece,  have  been  ci^l- 
lected  in  Orelli*s  Opuacula  OrcRCorum  Veterum  Senteniiota 
ei  Moralia  (vol.  i.,  p.  188,  aeq,),  J.  R.  S.  S. 

Seyen  Sleepers :  according  to  an  early  tradition,  seven 
Christian  brothers  of  Ephesus  who,  during  the  persccuti.n 
of  Decius  (251),  took  refuge  in  a  cave,  the  entrance  of  whi<  h 
was  walled  up  immediately  after  by  the  heathen.  There  th»  y 
slept  miraculously  until  447.  Then  they  awoke,  told  i\if  ir 
story  to  many  persons — amon^  others  to  the  Emperor  Tlut*- 
dosius  II. — andf  died  after  havme  thus  confirmed  the  faith  nf 
the  Christians.  The  Roman  Catnolic  Church  commemora  1 1-? 
them  on  July  10.  This  legend  can  be  traced  at  least  as  far 
back  as  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  It  is  also  uM 
by  Mohammed  in  the  Koran.  Kindred  tales  are  foun«l  in 
various  forms  in  the  folk-lore  of  the  East.  K  A.  G. 

Seyenteen-year  Locust :  See  Cicada. 

Seyenth-day  Adyenti^ts :  See  Adventists. 

Seventh-day  Baptists:  a  denomination  of  Christians 
formerly  called  Sabhaiariana.  They  hold  to  the  imnier-i<  n 
of  adult  believers,  and  also  to  the  observance  of  the  seveD'h 
day  of  the  week  as  the  Sabbath,  arguing  that  since  the  in>:i- 
tution  of  the  Sabbath  at  the  close  of  creation  and  its  fonnal 
annunciation  as  a  part  of  the  Sinaitic  code  there  has  alwa\^ 
been  an  unbroken  chain  of  men  who  have  kept  the  seventh 
day  of  the  week  as  a  Sabbath,  according  to  its  original  in^M- 
tution  and  enjoyment,  and  considering  the  introduction  of 
the  observance  of  Sunday,  in  the  middle  of  the  second  <f n- 
tury,  as  the  first  step  to  apostasy.    Traces  of  the  peculiar 

Eractice  of  observing  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  as  the  S»l»- 
ath  among  some  of  the  early  Reformers  are  not  few.  TL» 
Sabbatarians  began  to  attract  attention  in  England  ab  ut 
the  time  of  the  Commonwealth.  In  1650  they  assumeii  a 
denominational  form  in  that  country.  The  first  Sabbatanaii 
church  in  America  was  organized  at  Newjiort,  R.  I.,  in  16«i". 
under  the  care  of  Stephen  Mumford.  In  1671  they  left  lU 
Baptist  denomination.  In  1818  they  assumed  their  pres*  ni 
name.  In  the  U.  S.  they  have  three  colleges,  one  at  Alfre«i 
Centre,  N.  Y.,  one  at  Milton,  Wis.,  and  one  at  Salem,  W.  Va^ 
a  number  of  academies  and  periodicals,  a  tract  and  pul»li<a- 
tion  society,  and  a  missionaiy  organization.  The  nunil»er  of 
organizations  in  1892  was  112,  the  number  of  members  9.317. 
In  England  thev  are  at  present  few  in  number. — Seventh- 
day  Baptists  ((Jerman),  a  small  sect  which  in  1728  sei'e«i»si 
from  the  Dunkers  of  Pennsylvania,  and  established  at  tirvt 
a  solitary,  and  then  a  conventual,  life  at  Ephrata,  Lanca<ttr 
CO.,  Pa.  They  hold  a  part  of  their  property  in  comimm, 
adopt  the  Capuchin  habit  and  a  system  of  monastic  naiue^ 
and  recommend,  but  do  not  absolutely  reouire,  celibacy.  M 
present  their  leading  establishment  is  at  onowhill,  Franklin 
CO.,  Pa.  In  1890  there  were  six  organizations  and  194  men.- 
bers.  Their  founder  was  Conrad  Beissel.  See  A  Gen^ritl 
History  of  the  Sabbatarian  Churches,  by  Mrs.  Tamar  1)«m? 
(1851).    See  Baptists.  Revised  by  W.  H.  Wbitsitt. 

Seven  Up :  a  game  at  cards  known  also  as  all-fourn  atit 
old  sledge.  It  is  designed  for  two  players  and  is  playeii  '^  ii>: 
a  full  pack,  the  cards  ranking  as  in  whist.  Six  canl<  arv 
dealt  each  player,  three  at  a  time,  and  the  next  is  tun'«ii 
face  up.  If  tfie  non-dealer  is  dissatisfied  with  this  for  tnii  ir- 
he  "  begs,"  and  the  dealer  must  either  immediately  add  nf.*' 
point  to  his  opponent's  score  or  lay  the  turned  car^i  a>j«i" 
and  deal  three  more  to  each  player,  turning  the  next  carl 
for  trump ;  but  if  this  be  of  the  same  suit  as  before  ho  \\\\x< 


442 


SEVERN 


SilVRES 


Seyem :  a  river  of  England  which  rises  in  Montgomery- 
shire at  an  elevation  of  1,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
flows  east,  south,  and  then  southwest,  and  falls  into  the 
Bristol  Channel  after  a  course  of  about  210  miles,  though 
the  distance  from  source  to  mouth  is  only  80  miles  in  a 
straight  line.  It  is  navigable  for  150  miles,  and  the  tide, 
which  in  its  estuarv  assumes  the  character  of  the  bore,  lo- 
cally called  ht/gre.  is  perceptible  120  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Its  chief  affluents  are  the  Teme  and  the  upper  and  lower 
Avon  on  the  E.  and  the  Teme  and  the  Wye  on  the  W.  A 
canal  18^  miles  long,  and  navigable  for  vessels  of  400  tons, 
extends  from  Gloucester  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  estuary. 
Other  canals  establish  communication  between  the  Severn 
and  the  Thames,  Trent,  and  Mersey. 

Sere'rus,  Alexandee  :  See  Alexander  Severus. 

Severns,  Septimius  :  Roman  emperor  (103-211  a.d.);  b. 
near  Leptis  in  Africa  in  146;  married  the  famous  Julia 
Domna,  daughter  of  Bassianus,  priest  of  the  Sun  at  Emesa. 
While  commander-in-chief  of  the  Roman  armies  in  lUyria 
and  Pannonia  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  troops.  He 
deposed  the  Emperor  Julianus  and  crushed  the  rival  claim- 
ants Pescennius  Niger  and  Clodius  Albinus;  captured  By- 
jsantium  (107)  after  a  memorable  siege  which  lasted  three 
years;  invaded  Parthia  and  captured  Ct««iphou;  from  203 
to  207  remained  peacefully  at  Rome,  where  he  remodeled 
the  constitution  of  the  Pretorian  Guards ;  was  then  called 
to  Britain  to  repress  rebellion  and  marched  the  entire  length 
of  the  island,  subduing  the  Caledonians ;  died  at  Eboracum 
(York)  in  211,  his  death  being  hastened  by  the  unnatural 
conduct  of  his  son  Caracalla.  E.  A.  Grosvenob. 

Sererns,  Sulpicius  :  See  ScLPicirs  Severl\s. 

Ke  Terns,  Wall  of:  a  wall  of  stone  partly  built  or  repaired 
by  the  Emperor  Severus  in  208  a.  d.  to  protect  Roman  Brit- 
am  from  the  Caledonians.  It  was  originally  erected  by 
Hadrian.  It  extended  from  the  Sol  way  to  the  Tync,  imme- 
diately N.  of  the  wall  of  Hadrian,  and  consequently  far  S. 
of  that  of  Antoninus.  Considerable  portions  of  the  wall 
still  remain.    See  Hadrian's  Wall. 

Serler,  sev-eer',  John  :  pioneer  and  soldier ;  b.  on  Shenan- 
doah river,  Virginia,  in  1745,  of  French  parents;  originally 
named  Xavier;  explored  the  Holston  river  in  East  Tennessee 
(then  North  Carolina),  built  Fort  Watauga,  and  fought  suc- 
cessfully against  the  Indians.  During  the  Revolutionary  war 
he  distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery.  He  was  foremost 
in  almost  all  the  battles  and  skirmishes,  as  well  as  treaties 
and  negotiations,  with  the  Indians  during  many  years,  and 
was  regarded  by  the  settlers  as  their  friend  and  protector ; 
was  chosen  in  1785,  without  opposition.  Governor  of  the 
anomalous  State  of  Franklin,  comprising  Western  North 
Carolina  and  Eastern  Tennessee.  lie  received  from  Presi- 
dent Washington  the  commission  of  brigadier-general  of 
the  territory  S.  of  Ohio  river.  In  1796  the  State  of  Tennes- 
see was  ei*ected  and  admitted  into  the  Union,  and  Sevier 
was  chosen  Governor,  served  for  two  consecutive  terms,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1803;  was  elected  a  Representative  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  in  1811,  and  re-elected  in  1813.  I),  near  Fort 
Decatur,  Ga.,  Sept.  24,  1815,  while  on  a  mission  to  the  Creek 
Indians.  F.  M.  Colby. 

Sevier  Tjake  :  a  IkkIv  of  salt  water  in  Western  Utah  ;  in 
lat.  39^  N.,  Ion.  ViO  10'  W.;  altitude,  4,000  feet.  Its  sole 
tributary  is  the  Sevier  river,  which  enters  at  the  north  end. 
It.s  vallev  is  a  sotithward  arm  of  the  Sevier  desert,  limito(l 
at  the  W.  by  the  House  Range  of  mountains  ami  at  the  E. 
by  the  Beaver  Creek  Kange.  The  lake,  having  no  outlet,  is 
of  variable  size,  its  extent  depending  on  the  relation  be- 
tween inflow  and  evHiK)ration.  In  1872  its  length  was  28 
miles,  its  width  10  miles,  its  area  188  sq.  miles,  and  its  depth 
15  feet :  but  its  natural  size  was  somewhat  greater,  for  at 
that  time  a  portion  of  the  water  of  the  Sevier  river  was  use(l 
for  purposes  of  irrigation.  The  whole  of  the  river  is  now 
utilized  in  that  way  throutjh  the  entire  spring  and  summer, 
so  that  little  water  reiwjhos  the  lake  except  in  winter.  As  a 
result  its  lK)ttom  generally  l)ecomes  dry  each  year,  and  the 
water  acquires  in  winter  a' depth  of  but  a  few  inches.  The 
salts  which  ma<le  the  natural  water  a  strong  brine  have  l)een 
precipitated  and  form  a  crust  over  the  lake-bottom.  This 
crust  is  estimated  to  contain  1.500,(KK).0<M)  tons,  of  which 
about  three-tourths  is  sodium  chloride  and  the  remainder 
so<lium  sulphate  and  magnesium  sulphate*.  The  only  in- 
habitants of  the  lake  are  a  sptviesof  brine-shrimp  (Arfemia) 
and  the  larvie  of  certain  insects.  Such  fislies  as  reach  it 
from  the  river  are  poisoned  by  the  brine.    Old  water-lines 


about  the  margin  of  the  valley  show  that  the  lake  was  oncv 
of  greater  extent.  At  the  time  of  its  extreme  depth,  5!iO 
feet,  it  coalesced  with  Great  Salt  and  other  lakes,  the  whole 
forming  a  vast  inland  sea.    See  Bonneville,  I^ke. 

G.  K.  GiLBEET. 

S^Tlgn^,  sa'veen'ya',  Marie  de  Rabittin  Chastal,  Mar- 
quise de:  writer;  b.  in  Paris,  France,  Feb.  6,  1626:  w««  hfi 
an  orphan  very  early,  but  received  an  excellent  education 
from  her  uncle,  Abbd  de  Coulanges,  and  married  in  1644  (he 
Marquis  Henri  de  S^vignd  (d.  1651),  to  whom  she  bore  a  n»ii 
and  a  daughter.  She  was  rich,  spirited,  beautiful,  one  o!  t  h** 
most  prominent  members  of  the  literary  circle  of  the  HotMl 
Rambouillet,  and  on  intimate  terms  with  all  the  iirincif«i 
actors  in  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde.  In  1669  her  aaughter, 
to  whom  she  was  passionately  attached,  was  married  to  tltf 
Marquis  de  Grignan,  governor  of  Provence ;  the  consenuent 
separation  occasioned  a  correspondence  which,  although  not 
intended  for  publication,  appeared  after  the  death  of  tJie 
authoress,  and  has  made  her  name  celebrated,  the  leiUrs 
being  at  once  of  great  historical  interest  and  of  the  hight>>t 
literary  merit.  D.  at  Grignan,  Apr.  18, 1696.  The  chiof 
edition  of  her  Letters  is  that  of  Regnier  (14  vols.,  1^62-07; 
new  ed.  begun  1887).  See  also  Walckenaer,  Mtmoiren  iuu- 
chant  la  Vie  et  leB  Eerits  de  Madame  de  Set*igne  (lH4.ii; 
Capmas,  Lettres  inidiies  de  Madame  de  SMfftie  (h^76); 
Combes,  Madame  de  Sivigni  Ai>/ortenne  (1885) ;  the  biog- 
raphies by  Bossier  (1887)  and  Vallery-Radot  (1888);  and  Sa- 
porta,  La  famille  de  Madame  de  Sivigni  en  province  ( IK^y .. 

F.  M.  Colby. 

Seville,  sev'il  (Span.  Sevilla^  anc.  Hispalta):  capital  ot 
the  province  of  Seville,  Spain ;  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Guaualquivir,  70  miles  from  its  mouth  (see  map  of  Spain. 
ref.  19-C).  Under  the  Romans,  Goths,  and  Moors  it  mhs 
the  capital  of  wealthy  and  powerful  empires  The  earht-r 
kings  of  modern  Spain  also  resided  nere ;  and  thuncli 
Charles  V.  removed  the  royal  residence  to  Valladolid.  n- 
ville  rose  to  a  still  hi^^her  degree  of  s[ilendor  and  prosfxr/v 
when  America  was  discovere<],  as  it  became  the  mart  of  thr 
new  colonies.  During  the  French  invasion  (1810-13).  ar,<l 
by  the  subsequent  loss  of  the  Spanish  colonies,  it  sufTerMl 
very  much,  but  it  recovered  rapidly,  and  is  an  enter]iri>- 
ing  modern  town.     Its  old  Moorish  walls,  5  miles  in  circuit, 

Eierced  by  fifteen  gates,  and  surmounted  by  sixty-six  tower., 
ave  disappeared,  except  the  single  gate  called  Triiin&. 
Across  the  city  runs  the  Alameda,  a  broad,  open  street  lini^l 
with  palaces,  planted  with  magnificent  elms,  and  ailorut^l 
with  numerous  fountains,  which,  like  the  city  in  general,  tuv 
provided  with  water  by  several  great  aqueducts,  of  \kbi«fi 
that  built  by  Julius  Ca^ar  and  rebuilt  by  the  Moors  in  llTi 
is  a  magnificent  structure  resting  on  410  high  archers  Th' 
rest  of  the  city,  with  the  exception  of  the  numenms  pHl-.i  • 
scjuarcs  and  promenades,  consists  mostly  of  narrow  >tnet< 
lined  with  high,  somber-looking,  but  substantial  h<»u<(>  •( 
Moorish  construction.  Among  its  edifices  the  calhe<lral  i> 
the  most  remarkable.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  Gothic  struc- 
tures in  the  world,  481  feet  long,  315  feet  wide,  and  14r>  f.t'. 
high  under  the  transept  dome,  and  it  is  most  magnifi(M.i>« 
adorne<l  with  paintings  by  Murillo,  the  Ilerreras,  and  fti.«r 
masters  of  the  sphool  of  Seville,  besides  Ix^in^  almost  ovtT- 
loaded  with  sculptures.  Unique  of  its  kind  is  the  Girali.i. 
a  belfry  350  feet  nigh;  and  most  interesting  on  account  1-th 
of  their  architect  tire  and  ornamentation  are  the  Alca/ar  <  r 
royal  palace  and  the  university,  founded  in  1579.  Be^:.i<j 
the  university,  to  which  several  scientific  establishment.^  nr** 
attached.  Seville  has  many  ginxl  educational  institutions  h:  •! 
several  valuable  libraries  and  art  collections.  Anioni:  n^ 
manufactures  are  an  immense  cigar-factory,  a  cannon-finn- 
dry,  several  manufactories  of  muskets  and  other  finarr  n 
powder,  saltpeter,  soap,  leather,  cotton  threa*!.  etc.  Its  (.!.:•  i 
exports  are  oranges,  olive-oil,  wine,  wool,  cork,  copi^-r.  lia<i, 
and  quicksilver.  As  Seville  was  held  by  the  Mo<irs  f«>r  !iu* 
centuries  and  entirely  rebuilt  by  them  from  the  matorJ:ii>  "f 
former  Roman  edifices,  it  became  a  purely  Moorish  citv.pt.i 
to  a  certain  extent  it  still  preserves  that  character,  tlio:--:! 
the  narrow,  tortuous  streets  are  graduallv  giving  wu^  '* 
broad  and  straight  boulevards.  Pop.  (1H87)  143,is:>.  T:.v 
province  of  Seville  occupies  the  lower  valley  of  the  (iu;»iVi 
quivir,  bounded  W.  bv  Iiuelva  and  S.  by  Cadiz;  art^a,  r);Ji»'' 
sfj.  miles;  pop.  (1887)544,815. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  IIarrixcjtiin. 

Sevres,  sev*r :  town  ;  in  the  department  of  SeintM't-<>J**'. 
France ;  on  the  Seine ;  10|  miles  S.  W.  of  Paris  by  rail  (•st'f  ni*; 
of  France,  ref.  3~F).    It  is  celebrated  for  its  manufacture^ '-' 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K  l»      l> 

■ 

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fH 

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^1 

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1 

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^^1 

J 

444 


SEWARD 


SEWERAGE 


came  conspicuous,  and  from  that  time  he  was  prominently 
connected  with  all  the  political  movements  of  importance  in 
the  State  and  nation.  He  earnestly  advocated  the  election 
of  John  Quincy  Adams :  was  one  of  the  State  committee  to 
welcome  Lafayette  in  1827 ;  was  elected  in  1880  as  an  anti- 
Masonic  candidate  for  the  State  Senate,  where  he  labored 
for  the  improvement  of  schools,  construction  of  railroads 
and  canals,  and  for  the  collection  of  those  documents  which 
form  the  monumental  Colonial  History  of  JN^ew  York,  Dur- 
ing the  next  four  years  he  delivered  frequent  addresses,  de- 
noancing  the  course  of  President  Jackson,  and  supporting 
the  newlv  formed  Whig  party  with  such  fervor  ana  success 
that  in  1884  he  was  nominated  for  Governor.  In  this  he 
was  unsuccessful,  but  on  the  triumph  of  the  Whigs  in  1887 
he  was  again  nominated,  and  was  elected  bv  a  small  ma- 
jority. Though  his  administration  was  one  of  peculiar  diffi- 
culties, owing  t9  bitter  factions  within  the  party,  he  recom- 
mended and  succeeded  in  carrying  so  many  wise  measures 
that  his  position  in  the  party  was  much  strengthened.  He 
was  re-elected  in  1840.  During  his  administration  Roman 
Catholics  were  first  admitted  to  the  public  schools,  many 
of  the  disabilities  of  foreigners  were  removed,  the  natural 
history  and  geological  survey  of  the  State  were  begun,  and 
the  State  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Albany  was  estab- 
lished. From  1848  to  1849  his  activities  were  confined  to 
professional  practice  and  to  occasional  addresses  on  scho- 
lastic and  political  subjects.  In  1849  he  was  chosen  as  a 
Whig  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  where  at  once  he  took  a  position 
of  prominence  not  only  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  his  partv, 
but  also  as  an  influential  adviser  of  President  Taylor.  It 
was  in  Mar.,  1849,  in  a^  speech  on  the  admission  of  Califor- 
nia, that  he  spoke  of  the  exclusion  of  slavery  from  all  new 
States  as  demanded  by  "the  higher  law,"  a  phrase  which 
was  so  severely  criticised  as  treasonable  by  SoutJiem  mem- 
bers that  it  became  famous  as  a  watchword  of  abolition. 
On  the  accession  of  Fillmore  after  the  death  of  President 
Taylor,  Seward  declined  to  follow  his  party  in  the  support 
of  what  was  deemed  Fillmore's  pro-slavery  policy,  llis 
speeches  in  the  Senate  and  before  public  audiences  during 
this  period  ^ave  him  great  prominence  by  reason  of  their 
comprehensiveness  and  independence.  In  1852  he  favored 
the  nomination  of  Gen.  Scott,  but  opposed  the  statement  of 
the  party  platform  concerning  slavery.  Re-elected  to  the 
Senate  in  1855,  he  took  prominent  part  in  the  political  agi- 
tations extending  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  In  1858,  in 
the  course  of  a  speech  at  Rochester,  he  coined  the  second  of 
the  famous  phrases  that  arc  inseparably  connected  with  his 
name  when  he  declared  that  the  slavery  question  indicated 
"  an  irrepressible  conflict "  which  could  only  terminate  by 
making  the  country  either  entirely  a  free  nation  or  entirely 
a  slave-holding  nation.  Both  in  1856  and  in  1860  he  was 
the  most  conspicuous  candidate  of  the  Republican  partv  for 
the  nomination  for  the  presidency.  In  1860  the  New  I'ork 
delegation,  headed  by  William  M.  Evarts,  went  to  the  Chi- 
cago convention  with  much  confidence  that  their  candidate 
would  be  chosen.  On  the  first  ballot  Seward  received  ITSi 
votes  and  Lincoln  102.  The  vote  of  Pennsylvania  went 
over  to  Lincoln  and  other  States  followed.  Seward,  though 
defeated  in  the  convention,  supported  Lincoln  earnestly  by 
speaking  in  the  West  as  well  as  in  the  East.  When  Lincoln 
assumed  office  the  arduous  and  delicate  post  of  Secretary  of 
State  was  given  Mr.  Seward.  Though  he  habitually  under- 
estimated the  strength  and  the  earnestness  of  the  South,  his 
management  of  the  delicate  foreign  relations  of  the  Govern- 
ment were  characterized  by  tact  and  skill.  When  the  Con- 
federates Mason  and  Slidell  were  taken  from  the  British 
vessel  the  Trent,  Great  Britain  made  a  peremptory  demand 
for  their  restoration,  and  for  a  time  war  seemed  almost  in- 
evitable. The  answer,  first  drawn  by  Mr.  Seward  and  then 
slightly  modified  by  President  Lincoln,  was  a  masterpiece 
of  tact  and  diplomatic  skill.  The  position  taken  was  that 
the  exemption  from  search  claimed  by  Great  Britain  was 
what  the  U.  S.  had  fought  for  during  the  war  of  1812  against 
Great  Britain,  and  that  as  Great  Britain  had  come  to  the 
position  of  the  U.  S.  the  Government  very  cheerfully  released 
the  prisoners.  In  all  the  negotiations  with  foreign  powers 
to  induce  them  to  preserve  a  position  of  strict  neutrality  the 
duties  of  the  Secretary  were  |>erformed  with  great  skill. 
On  the  evening  of  Apr.  14,  1865,  when  President  Lincoln 
was  assassinated,  one  of  the  conspirators  forced  his  way  into 
Mr.  Seward's  bedroom,  where  he  was  lying  ill,  and  struck 
him  several  times  in  the  face  and  neck  with  a  dagger.  The 
wounds,  though  severe,  did  not  prove  mortal.  Recovery, 
however,  was  very  slow.    Sewai*d  was  retained  in  his  posi- 


tion by  President  Johnson,  whom  the  Secretary  support^l  io 
hi^  policy  of  reconstruction.  After  a  memorable  service  of 
eight  years  he  retired  in  Mar.,  1869.  Though  much  enfeebled 
in  body  he  undertook  with  his  family  a  voyage  around  the 
world  in  1870,  and  published  in  1871  an  account  of  his  oU 
servations.  He  died  at  Auburn,  Oct.  10,  1872.  His  works 
in  5  vols.,  include  the  most  important  of  his  speeches. 

C.  K.  Adams. 

Sewell,  Elizabeth  Missing:  author;  b.  in  the  I^le  of 
Wight  in  1815 ;  became  well  known  as  the  author  of  nov<^K 
of  the  so-called  High  Church  school  of  fiction,  among  whioh 
were  Amy  Herbert  (1844) ;  Oertr^tde  (1845) ;  Laneton  rnr- 
soncLge  (1846) ;  Margaret  Percival  (1847),  which  were  n»i»iil>- 
lish^  in  the  U.  S.  She  also  wrote  works  of  travels,  main 
volumes  of  a  devotional  character,  poems,  and  histories  of 
Greece,  Rome,  and  Egypt  for  young  people.  D.  in  London. 
June  10. 1884.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Sewel'lel  [from  native  (Amer.  Ind.)  name] :  a  rtxicnt, 
Haplodon  rufus^  representing  a  special  family,  Haplodontviir. 
It  IS  noted  for  its  rootless  molars;  is  redaish  brown,  uith 
very  small  eyes  and  a  short  tail ;  is  about  the  size  of  a  mu>k- 
rat,  and  has  very  strong  jaws  and  a  plump,  heavy  body.  Ir 
is  found  on  the  Pacific  coast  in  (Jalifomia,  Oregon,  and 
Washington,  is  gregarious,  and  lives  in  burrows.  Its  skin  i^ 
employed  by  the  Indians  as  an  article  of  dress. 

Sewen :  See  Bull-trout. 

Sewerage  [deriv.  of  sewer  <  M.  Eng.  assetter^  from  O.  Fr. 
esseuwer^  to  drain  <  Lat.  ex,  out  +  deriv.  of  aqua,  water] :  h 
system  of  sewers  or  underground  channels  for  carrying  •  ff 
the  sewage  or  liquid  refuse  and  the  storm-water  of  a  local i it. 
The  construction  of  such  a  system  for  a  town  is  also  oall»->l 
sewerace. 

In  all  densely  populated  areas  a  proper  regard  for  t]i.> 
health  of  the  community  requires  the  removal  of  solid  ai.d 
liquid  refuse  from  the  neighborhood  of  dwellings.  Wh-r-- 
dwellings  are  far  apart,  as  in  country  districts,  the  li«|iiid 
wastes  from  the  house  may  be  safely  disposed  of  on  the  x^il 
by  very  simple  means;  but  when  dwellings  are  crowded  u^ 
gether,  as  in  towns,  there  is  no  longer  sufficient  availaJ-!*- 
open  ground  in  the  vicinity  for  such  disposal,  and  sewcr^ 
become  a  necessity.  In  towns  where  there  are  no  sewers  ti.«* 
sewage  is  run  into  cesspools,  where  it  decomposes,  con  tan  ji- 
natin^  the  earth,  air,  and  water  in  the  vicinitv,  and  becomt'* 
the  disseminator  of  disease.  To  provide  for  the  promja  aiid 
rapid  removal  of  this  sewage  is  the  object  of  sewerage,  'rh'- 
requisites  for  a  sewer  are  that  it  be  so  constructed  r>  t«» 
carry  the  sewage  to  its  outfall  with  the  least  possible  delay : 
that  it  be  smooth  on  its  interior  surface,  so  as  not  to  ntard 
the  flow  of  sewage  and  aflford  no  lodging-place  for  the  s<»l;d 
particles ;  that  it  oe  water-tight  throughout  its  entire  lensrth. 

The  foremost  nations  of  antiquity  understood  the  ner.-- 
sity  for  sewerage,  and  their  great  cities  had  carefully  d»- 
signed  and  well-constructed  sewers.  In  the  ruins  of  1^1  y- 
lon  and  Nineveh  and  of  the  ancient  cities  of  Egypt  an' 
found  the  remains  of  systems  of  sewerage.  Exploration  \ui< 
brought  to  light  the  extensive  sewers  of  ancient  Jerusaloni. 
and  the  visitor  in  Rome  to-day  sees  in  the  Cloaca  Maxinia  » 
sewer  which  still  fulfills  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  in- 
structed twenty-five  centuries  ago. 

During  the  ciark  ages  sanitary  works  were  neglected,  but 
fatal  epidemics  and  plagues  brought  thinking  men  at  h< 
to  realize  in  some  degree  the  necessity  for  attending  to  ma!- 
ters  relating  to  the  public  health.  Sanitary  works  wprv 
again  undertaken,  ana  with  advancing  civilization  sanitary 
science  has  received  more  and  more  attention. 

Sewers  designed  to  caiTy  both  the  liquid  wastes  and  th»* 
storm  water  from  any  locality  are  called  combined  sewer^. 
Those  designed  to  carry  only  the  sewage  proper  are  eall<<l 
separate  sewers. 

The  Separate  System  of  Sewerage.— -In  this  the  fir^t 
thing  to  be  determined  is  the  size  of  the  sewers.  The  pn)j>»  r 
size  of  any  sewer  depends  upon  the  number  of  people  contnl'- 
uting  sewage  to  it ;  the  amount  of  sewage  per  day  for  e&fh 
person;  the  maximum  rate  of  discharge;  and  ihe  form. 
grade,  and  interior  surface  of  the  sewer.  In  estimating  tl.<' 
number  of  people  provided  for  on  any  line  of  sewers.  {'H- 
vision  must  be  made  for  the  extension  and  growth  of  tow  ns 
and  a  lil)eral  allowance  made  for  an  increase  in  the  volun^' 
of  sewage. 

Amount  of  Seirage. — The  amount  of  sewage  per  oap'f» 
d(>()ends  very  largely  uf)on  the  water-supply.  It  is  als»>  'li- 
pendent  upon  the  habits  of  the  people,  the  amount  of  manti- 
facturing  in  which  large  quantities  of  water  are  usetl.  and 


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446 


SEWERAGE 


PLAN 


no.  1. 


Depth.— The  sewers  should  be  far  enough  below  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cellars,  to  afford  sufficient  fall  for  the  house-drains 
starting  from  beneath  the  cellar 
floor.    The  minimum  depth  will 
usually  be  from  6  to  8  feet. 

Laying. — In  laying  the  sewers 
care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the 
flow-line  on  a  continuous  grade, 
and  to  make  the  joints  water- 
tight. The  joints  should  first 
be  caulked  with  a  gasket  of  oak- 
um, or  some  similar  material,  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  cement 
to  the  inside  of  the  pipe,  and  tlie 
joint  filled  with  pure  cement, 
mixed  with  sufficient  water  to 
make  it  of  the  pro|)er  consist- 
ency for  working.  Y-branches 
should  be  placed  along  the  line 
of  sewers  in  front  of  each  lot,  so 
that  house  -  drains  may  be  con- 
nected at  any  time  without  cut- 
ting or  disturbing  the  main  line 
of  sewers.  The  opening  of  the 
Y-branches  should  be  closed  with 
an  earthenware  cover. 

Manholes  are  masonry  shafts 
extending  from  the  sewers  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  large  enough  to  admit  a  work- 
man to  inspect  or  clean  the  sewers.  They  are  usually  formed 
of  an  8-inch  brick  wall.  The  form  is  the  frustum  of  a  cone 
with  the  large  end  down.  The  top  should  be  about  2  feet 
in  interior  diameter,  and  the  bottom  about  4  feet.  The 
form  at  the  bottom  is  sometimes  elliptical.  The  top  is  fin- 
ished by  a  cast-iron  cap,  level  with  the  surface  of  the  street. 
The  cover  is  perforated  to  aid  in  ventilation.  Sometimes  a 
dust-pan  is  placed  under  the  cover  to  catch  the  dirt  which 
falls  through  the  openings  in  the  cover. 

The  bottom  should  be  of  concrete,  and  built  so  as  to  be 
water-tight  It  should  be  formed  to  the  contour  of  the  in- 
vert of  the  sewer,  so  that  the  flow  of  the  sewage  will  not  be 
checked  in  the  manhole.  Steps  should  be  built  into  the 
wall  to  facilitate  getting  in  and  out.  Fig.  2  is  a  vertical 
section  of  a  manhole  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  sew- 
er. Manholes  should  be  placed  at  the  junctions  of  the  lat- 
erals with  the  mains,  and  at  changes  of  direction  in  the  line 
of  sewers. 

Lampholea,  or  observation  openings,  are  formed  by  a  T- 
branch  extending  from  the  sewer  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  top  of  the  vertical  pipe  is  covered  with  a  cast- 
iron  cap  having  a  movable  cover  level  with  the  pavement. 
Sometimes  the  vertical  pipe  is 
not  carried  to  the  surface,  but 
is  capped  below  the  pavement 
and  its  position  carefully  re- 
corded. 

The  Combined  System  of 
Sewerage. — Where  the  ground- 
water needs  to  be  removed  as 
well  as  the  sewage,  as  is  usually 
the  case,  special  provision  must 
be  ma<ie  for  this  purpose.  A 
good  sewer  is  not  a  good  drain. 
A  sewer  should  be  water-tight, 
while  a  water  -  tight  conduit 
would  be  of  no  use  as  a  drain. 
The  drainage  should  be  provided 
for  by  a  separate  system  of 
drain-pipes  so  laid  as  to  admit 
the  water  and  carry  it  away. 
They  may  be  laid  beside  the 
sewer-pipe  or  under  it  or  over 
it,  as  tne  circumstances  may  re- 

Suire.  Where  the  sewers  are 
eep  enough  they  may  be  laid 
above  the  sewer  and  discharged 
into  the  manholes.  The  advan- 
tage of  this  method  is  that  each  section  between  the  man- 
holes is  independent  of  the  rest  of  the  system,  and  any 
stoppage  in  one  section  will  not  affect  any  of  the  other  sec- 
tions. 

Size  of  Combined  Sewers. — In  determining  the  size  neces- 
sary in  any  case,  the  disposal  of  the  storm-water  is  the  only 
question  to  be  considered.    The  ordinary  flow  of  sewage  is 


so  small  compared  with  the  volume  of  storm -water  delivemi 
to  the  sewers  during  and  immediately  after  a  storm  that 
the  sewage  may  be  left  out  of  consideration.  In  estiraatiiiL' 
the  necessary  size  the  following  conditions  must  be  t^kt  n 
into  consideration :  The  area  to  be  drained ;  the  rate  f»f 
rainfall ;  the  percentage  of  the  rainfall  reaching  the  sewor ; 
the  grade  of  the  surface  of  the  ground;  the  grade  of  th<- 
sewer ;  and  the  amount  of  ground- water. 

Sewers  are  rarely  built  large  enough  to  provide  for  all 
of  the  water  which  falls  in  extraordinary  storms  la>t  •  _: 
only  a  short  time.  Besides  this,  not  all  of  the  rainf.i.. 
reaches  the  sewers.  The  percentage  of  that  which  d'^*^ 
pass  into  the  sewers  depends  upon  the  relative  proijorlitn 
of  roofed  and  paved  area  to  the  whole  area  to  be  (iraiiuil. 
and  the  nature  of  the  soil  of  the  unpaved  part.  The  grad. 
of  the  natural  surface  of  the  ground  affects  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  storm-water  reacnes  the  sewer.  It  is  customnry 
to  assume  a  certain  depth,  varying  from  half  an  inch  t<.  J 
inches  per  hour,  as  reacning  the  sewer,  although  the  rain- 
fall may  occasionally  be  several  times  that  amount. 

Different  formulas  have  been  proposed  for  determinini: 
the  size  of  sewers.  The  following  are  some  of  these.  Julii;^ 
W.  Adams*s  formulas : 


y  1642H 


in  which  D  =  diameter  of  sewer  in  feet. 

Q  =  cubic  feet  per  second  to  be  provided  for. 
L  =  length  of  sewer. 
H  =  rise  for  length  L. 

log.  J)  =  ^\og.A+\og.N-S-!9 

in  which  D  =  diameter,  in  feet,  of  sewer. 
A  =  acres  to  be  drained. 
N=z  length  in  feet  in  which  the  sewer  falls  1  ft«  t. 

These  formulas  are  on  the  basis  of  1  inch  of  rain  per  hour. 
half  of  which  reaches  the  sewer  within  the  hour. 

Thomas  Ilawksley's  formula,  used  in  the  main  drainasr  • 
of  London : 

3  log.  A  -t-  .V  -^  6-H 
10 


rio.2. 


log.  diameter  of  main  (in  inches)  = 

in  which  A  =  acres  drained. 

iV=  length  in  feet  in  which  the  sewer  falls  1  f(»"r. 

This  is  on  the  basis  of  1  inch  of  rain  \ieT  hour. 

The  principal  difference  in  the  various  formulas  is  in  th»' 
assumption  of  the  amount  of  water  which  the  sewer  is  i>> 
provide  for.  They  are  never  built  large  enough  to  carry  all 
of  the  water  of  the  heaviest  rainfall.  Having  dec'ided  tlu 
amount  of  water  which  the  sewer  is  to  carry,  the  size  n.'^\ 
be  calculated  by  the  formulas  previously  given  for  the  rt«»w 
of  sewage  in  pipes. 

Form  of  Seicers. — If  a  sewer  has  an  approximately  in- 
stant flow  and  is  to  run  half  full  or  more,  the  best  form  iN 
circular.  In  combined  sewers,  however,  the  ordinary  fl-w 
of  sewage  usuallv  fills  but  a  small  part  of  the  cross-set  tin 
of  the  sewer,  ani  in  that  case  the  egg-shaped  section  wim 
the  small  end  down  is  best.  This  concentrates  the  flow  in 
the  bottom  of  the  sewer,  so  that  the  depth  and  velocity  .f 
flow  may  be  kept  as  ^reat  as. possible  when  the  quantity  <'f 
sewage  is  at  its  minimum, 
and  by  expanding  in  the 
upper  part  provides  for  the 
greatly  increased  amount 
delivered  to  the  sewers  by 
storms. 

Fig.  3  shows  one  of  the 
many  forms  of  e|:g-shape<l 
sewers.  The  vertical  diam- 
eter A  B  is  one  and  a  half 
times  the  greatest  diameter 
CD.  C  A  D  is  a  semicircle 
described  on  C  D.  The 
lower  arc  is  described  with 
a  radius  equal  t/>  one-fourth 

C  D,  and  the  sides  are  described  with  a  radius  eoual  to  th^ 
vertical  diameter.  The  shaded  portion  at  the  bott»>ni  » f 
the  figure  shows  the  relative  depth,  and  hence  yehx^itj.  A 
the  same  amount  of  sewage  in  a  circular  and  in  an  etrj- 
shaped  sewer  of  the  same  capacity. 

Manholes. — The  manholes  for  the  combined  system  differ 
from  those  in  the  separate  system,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  onlr 
in  resting  on  the  sewer  itself  instead  of  a  concrete  found*- 


ill 


m 


M«N*rSlli> 


rr  ^iiifi^n  I 


If  BUJ-  ttt»  1 


:tit9*tii^  li  iitrrtit^b  c^liAf- 


448 


SEWERAGE 


SEWING-MACHINES 


Fia.  7. 


vide  an  escape  for  the  air.    The  charcoal  is  about  3  inches 
deep  in  the  pans.     It  is  renewed  about  once  a  month  by 
being  rebumed  in  retorts  from  which  air  is  excluded. 
Flafhs. — The  design  for  a  system  of  sewers  for  any  town 
depends  upon  local  circum- 
stances. No  one  system,  how- 
ever well  adapted  for  a  given 
locality,  will  be  universally 
applicable.       The    separate 
system    is   to   be   preferred 
where  the  storm-water  can 
otherwise  be  provided  for,  or 
where  the  sewage  must  be 

Sumped,  or  where  sewage 
isposal-works  are  necessary, 
ana  its  cost  is  a  small  frac- 
tion of  that  of  combined 
sewers  for  the  same  locality. 
In  some  cases  in  addition  to 
the  small  sewers,  ^>ecial  oon- 
duits  for  storm -water  are 
needed  for  a  limited  area. 
These  need  not  be  placed 
deep  in  the  ground,  and  they 
can  be  discharged  into  the 
nearest  natural  watercourse,  even  within  the  town,  where 
sewa^  could  not  be  discharged. 

Disposed  of  Sewage, — After  the  sewage  has  been  collected 
and  carried  away  from  a  locality  the  problem  of  its  disposal 
remains  to  be  solved.  It  may  be  discharged  without  puri- 
fication into  a  stream  or  large  bodv  of  water ;  it  may  be 
partly  purified  by  subsidence,  or  nitration,  or  chemical 
process,  or  by  a  combination  of  these,  and  then  discharged ; 
or  it  may  be  purified  by  application  to  the  soil  in  several 
ways.  When  sewage  is  emptied  into  a  large  stream  or 
body  of  water  its  disappearance  is  due  to  several  causes. 
It  is  diluted  by  the  large  volume  of  water  into  which  it  is 
discharged ;  part  of  the  impurities  are  deposited  by  subsid- 
ence ;  part  oi  the  or^nic  matter  becomes  food  for  aquatic 
plants  and  animals ;  and  part  of  it  is  destroyed  by  oxida- 
tion and  nitrification.  So  long  as  the  amount  of  sewage  is 
very  small  in  comparison  with  the  volume  of  water  into 
which  it  is  discharged,  this  method  may  not  be  objection- 
able, unless  the  stream  receiving  the  sewage  is  to  be  used 
for  water-supply.  The  pollution  of  streams  and  lakes  by 
sewage  is  a  growing  evil.  In  many  countries  in  Europe  it 
has  been  forbidden  by  law,  and  in  the  U.  S.  such  laws  are 
imperatively  required  in  order  to  preserve  sufficient  unpol- 
luted water-supply  for  the  large  towns. 

When  sewage  is  purified  by  subsidence  it  is  collected  in 
tanks  and  allowed  to  stand  until  the  particles  in  suspension 
are  deposited  on  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  when  the  partly 
clarified  liquid  is  drawn  off.  Sieves  and  filters  are  also  em- 
ployed for  purifying  sewage.  Chemical  processes  of  many 
Kinds  have  been  used.  In  these  processes  certain  chemicals 
are  mixed  with  the  sewage,  and  it  is  purified  by  the  pre- 
cipitation of  the  suspended  impurities,  and  some  of  those 
held  in  solution.  All  of  these  methods  remove  the  sus- 
pended impurities  and  the  organic  matter  from  the  sewage 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  but  the  effluent  is  still  unfit  to 
be  turned  into  the  natural  watercourses. 

A  still  more  efficient  method  of  purification  is  by  apply- 
ing the  sewage  to  the  soil.  This  may  be  done  by  broad 
irrigation,  intermittent  filtration  on  limited  areas,  or  by 
sub-surface  irrigation.  Where  broad  irrigation  is  employed 
the  ground  is  first  underdrained  and  the  sewage  is  applied 
to  the  surface  by  leading  it  in  furrows.  The  method  of  ap- 
plication depends  upon  the  crop  under  cultivation.  Some- 
times it  is  spread  over  nearly  all  of  the  surface  for  a  time. 
And  sometimes  it  is  only  run  in  the  furrows,  placed  from  2 
to  4  feet  apart.  The  sewage  is  absorbed  by  the  soil,  and 
wherever  the  sludge  accumulates  it  is  spaded  under.  The 
<iity  of  Berlin  {q.  v.)  has  an  excellent  system  of  sewage 
farms. 

Where  the  method  of  intermittent  filtration  is  employed, 
filter-beds  of  soil  are  prepared  with  the  sole  object  oi  filter- 
ing the  sewage,  and  no  attempt  is  made  to  raise  any  crop. 
The  sewage  is  applied  to  the  niter-beds  in  succession,  time 
being  given  between  the  applications  for  the  aeration  of  the 
soil.  In  sub-surface  irrigation  the  sewage  is  delivered  to 
the  soil  through  drain-tile  laid  from  6  to  10  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  sewage  passes  out  of  the 
tile  at  the  joints,  and  is  absorbed  by  the  soil.  This  method 
is  especially  applicable  on  private  grounds,  where  no  sewers 


are  available.  The  action  of  the  soil  in  purifying  sewage  is 
somewhat  complicated.  It  filters  out  the  suspended  parti- 
cles, and  the  organic  matter  in  the  sewage  is  destroyeil  ly 
oxidation  and  by  the  bacteria  in  the  soil.  The  effluent  water 
is  collected  by  drain-tile  and  delivered  to  the  natural  wattr- 
courses. 

For  further  information,  see  Latham's  Sanitary  Engi- 
neering ;  Adams's  Sewera  and  Drains  for  l^pulous  fh  <- 
trids ;  Staley  and  Pierson's  Separate  System  of  Sewerage  ; 
and  Baumeister's  Cleaning  and  Sewerage  of  Cities.  St- 
Plumbing.  Cady  Staley. 

Sewing-machineg  [sewing  is  pres.  partic  of  sew  <  M. 
Eng.  sewen,  sew  <  0.  Eng.  siowan  :  O.  il.  Germ,  siuwan :  I<vl. 
syja :  Goth,  siujan  <  Teuton,  siu- :  Lith.  siuti  :  Lat.  su  ere  . 
Gr.  Ksur-a^i^] :  machines  for  stitching  fabrics,  operated  bj 
the  foot,  hand,  or  other  motive  power. 

In  1700  Thomas  Saint,  an  Englishman,  secured  a  pat^^nt 
for  a  machine  intended  for  **  quilting,  stitching,  and  sew  in  ^\ 
making  shoes  and  other  articles.'*  This  machine,  although 
made  chiefly  of  wood,  had  many  features  similar  to  th^'Sf 
common  in  modem  sewing-machines,  such  as  the  overhang- 
ing arm,  a  vertical  reciprocating  needle-bar,  havine  secured 
in  its  lower  end  by  means  of  a  set-screw  a  straight  needle 
with  a  terminal  notch  instead  of  an  eye.  There  was  also,  at 
a  short  distance  from  the  needle,  a  straight  awl  to  make  the 
holes  through  which  the  thread  was  to  be  pushed  by  ihv 
notch-ended  needle.  On  the  top  of  the  needle-bar  lias  a 
large  spool,  from  which  the  thread  was  drawn  as  required 
to  form  the  stitch.  This  machine  also  had  what  is  now 
called  a  feed,  for  moving  the  material  after  each  stitch  the 
proper  distance  for  the  next,  and  thread-tighteners  (ttL- 
sions)  above  and  below  it.  The  stitch  used  by  Saint  «a* 
known  as  the  tambour  stitch  (now  called  the  chain  stitch^ 
the  continuous  thread  was  pushed  by  the  notch-ended  nee^i.e 
through  a  hole  made  by  the  awl,  and  the  needle  was  th<  n 
withdrawn,  leaving  a  loop  of  thread  below  the  materia, 
which  was  then  moved  by  the  feed  the  proper  distanc-e  f*>r 
the  next  stitch,  a  second  loop  being  formed  passing  througL 
the  first,  which  was  then  drawn  tight 

At  intervals  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  oentan 
machines  for  embroidering  and  ornamental  stitching  n  ere 
invented.  These  could  have  been  made  to  fasten  two  or 
more  pieces  together,  but  they  were  not  intended  for  that 
work,  and  therefore  can  not  with  propriety  be  called  sewing- 
machines.  Several  machines  were  also  patented  for  making 
a  running  stitch,  by  means  of  fluted  rollers  which  foldtti 
the  cloth  m  short  vertical  convolutions  and  forced  it  on  t<»  a 
horizontal  needle.  Such  machines  used  needles  full  of  thread, 
and  the  needle  was  threaded  in  the  ordinary  way.  In  IM"* 
the  Rev.  John  Adams  Dodge,  of  Monkton,  Vt,  invent e«i  and 
(with  the  assistance  of  John  Knowles,  a  mechanic)  c<n- 
structed  a  sewing-machine  which  made  a  back  stitch  in  a 
satisfactory  manner,  but  it  was  never  patented  or  manufac- 
tured for  sale. 

The  first  sewing-machine  that  was  manufactured  for  sale 
was  patented  in  France  in  1830,  and  in  a  modified  form  in 
the  U.  S.  in  1850.  Its  inventor,  Barth^lemy  Thimonier.  con- 
structed of  wood  eighty  machines  which  made  a  chain  >titcb 
of  such  strength  that  they  were  used  in  the  year  1830  f»r 
manufacturing  army  clothing.  These  machines  were  de- 
stroyed by  a  mob  which  alleged  that  they  were  deprivir,g 
tailors  of  their  bread.  A  few  years  later  Thimonier  h^d 
other  machines  constructed  of  metal,  which  were  driven  h\ 
a  treadle  and  cord.  These  were  also  destroyed.  Thimoniirs 
machine  anticipated  many  of  the  more  important  featu^> 
of  the  machines  of  to-day.  It  had  the  overhanging  arm. 
flat  cloth-plate,  vertical  post,  vertical  reciprocating-nei'dit . 
continuous  thread,  and  a  presser-foot. 

The  Hunt  Machine.— About  1832-^  Walter  Hunt,  a  New 
York  mechanician,  invented,  manufactured,  and  sold  a  f<  v 
sewing-machines  which  were  successfully  operated.  Hi* 
machine  had  a  curved  needle  with  an  eye  near  its  point,  at- 
tached to  the  end  of  a  vibrating  arm.  It  used  two  contin- 
uous threads,  the  lower  being  wound  on  a  bobbin  carrit\i  in 
a  shuttle,  and  made  a  lock  stitch — i.e.  one  in  which  it:* 
thread  from  the  needle  and  that  from  the  shuttle  are  iuttr- 
locked  at  or  near  the  middle  of  the  thickness  of  the  mnit- 
rials  being  sewn.  Hunt  neglected  to  apply  for  a  patent  fr 
his  invention  for  about  twenty  years,  and  during  that  tim-' 
the  manufacture  and  sale  of  the  machine  was  not  pm^f 
cuted;  his  tardy  application  for  a  protecting  patent  ^a^ 
denied  on  the  ground  that  he  had  forfeited  nis  rights  by 
neglect  and  the  sale  and  public  use  of  the  machine  at  the 


450 


SEWING-MACHINES 


SEXTANT 


carried  that  the  machines  are  assembled  by  selecting  their 
component  parts  at  random  from  the  hundred  or  more  re- 
ceptacles containing  them.  This  interchangeable  method 
of  construction  is  adopted  by  all  sewing-raac-hine  manufac- 


Fio.  4.- 


Fio.  5.— Button-hole  stitch. 


-Twisted  loop  stitch. 

turers,  and  by  its  use  the  business  can  be  thoroughly  sys- 
tematized and  the  manufacture  be  carried  on  at  a  minimum 
cost. 

The  revolving  hook  used  in  the  Wheeler  &  Wilson  sewing- 
machine  has  been  mucli  modified  and  improved;  that  at 

present  used 
m  their  No. 
9  machine  is 
represented 
in  Fig.  7.  A 
greater  pos- 
sible rate  of 
speed  is 

claimed   for 
these       ma- 
Fio.  6.— Domestic  shuttle.  chines   than 

for  those  which  employ  a  shuttle ;  a  further  advantage  is 
found  in  their  running  with  less  noise. 

A  variety  of  rotating-hook  lock-stitch  machine,  and  one 
which  embodies  an  entirely  new  departure  in  sewing-ma- 
chines, is  the  invention  of  Mrs.  Harriet  Ruth  Tracy.  It  has 
a  rotating  bobbin-holder  provided  with  three  hooks,  which 
in  turn  operate  to  carry  the  loop  from  the  upper  thread  over 
the  bobbin-holder,  ana  a  boboin  or  cop  containing  1,000 
yards  of  thread.    The  special  features  of  this  machine  are : 

(1)  its  large  thread-carrying  capacity  in  the  bobbin-holder; 

(2)  the  fact  that  it  has  no  take-up  above  the  bed,  the  three 
rotating  hooks  disposing  of  all  tne  slack  (a  feature  which 
permits  a  large  amount  of  thread  to  be  carried) ;  and  (3)  the 
rotating  positive  motion  of  the  entire  mechanism,  which 
allows  of  very  rapid  running.  In  five  seconds,  by  a  slight 
change  of  adjustment,  this  machine  can  be  made* to  take  a 
chain  stitch  with  a  single  thread  or  a  chain  stitch  having  a 
second  or  locking  thread  run  through  it  on  the  under  side 
of  the  cloth,  which  prevents  raveling  and  at  the  same  time 


Fio.  7.— Wheeler  &  Wilson  bobbin  and  bobbin  case  in  the  rotary  hook. 

leaves  the  stitch  elastic.    The  machine  is  characterized  by 
simplicity  and  great  ingenuity. 

Tne  twisted  loop  or  chain  stitch  is  made  only  by  the  Will- 
cox  &  Gibbs  machine.  A  short  straight  needle  is  carried 
by  a  vertical  reciprocating  bar,  actuated  by  a  vibrating 
lever,  put  in  motion  by  a  link  connecting  it  to  an  eccentric 
on  the  main  shaft  of  the  machine.  At  the  front  end  of  the 
main  shaft  is  a  peculiarly  shaped  hook,  which  in  its  rota- 
tion catches  the  upper  thread  as  the  needle,  having  an  eye 
near  its  point,  descends  through  the  cloth,  and  forms  a  loop 
through  which  the  needle  passes  on  taking  the  next  stitch; 


the  hook  then  engages  the  upper  thread  again,  and  at  t' 
same  time  the  first  loop  is  thrown  oflf  the  hook  and  the  fir-; 
named  stitch  drawn  tight  by  the  operation  of  forming  li. 


Fio.  9.— Willcr.x  <t 
Gibbs  hoi»k. 


Fio.  8.— The  Tracy  chxular  three-pointed  rotary-shuttle  with  boll  is 
placed  inside  its  case  re-ady  for  use. 

second  loop.  This  machine  is  practically  silent  in  its  opera- 
tion, even  when  running  as  rapidly  as  to  make  3,000  stii<  i..  > 
per  minute. 

The  button-hole  sewing-machines  do  their  work  in  a  tb-  '- 
oughly  eflScient  manner,  the  button-hole  finished  by  it  h  \u: 
much  more  durable  than  those  made  by  hand-work,  he- 
ton-hole  attachments  are  intended  to  be  used  in  cunnecii.  ^. 
with  an  ordinary  lock-stitch  sewing- 
machine  ;  they  not  only  make  a  perfect 
button-hole,  but  will  also  make  the 
button-hole  stitch  on  the  edges  of  gar- 
ments, shoes,  etc.,  which  the  button- 
hole machine  can  not  do. 

Besides  those  already  enumerated, 
there  is  a  large  variety  of  sewing-ma- 
chines manufactured  for  doing  special 
work.  Among  them  are  the  cylinder  sewing-machine,  hav- 
ing a  cylindrical  work-holder,  for  sewing  seams  on  sl»M'Vf- 
trousers,  water-hose,  boot-legs,  leather  buckets,  and  other  ar- 
ticles of  tubular  form ;  and  the  carpet  sewing-machine,  f  : 
making  up  carpets. 

The  operations  required  for  the  manufacture  of  a  sewin::- 
machine  are  very  numerous,  embracing  designing,  drawn... 
pattern-making,  casting,  pickling,  tumbling,  tool-makii:. 
forging,  annealing,  stamping,  swaging,  filing,  iK>li!>hin.. 
screw-making,  turning,  drilling,  plating,  japanning,  on-j 
menting,  assembling,  testing,  and  packing.  For  the  nuim. 
facture  of  sewing-machine  needles,  see  Needles  and  Nef  i>i./  - 

MAKING. 

There  are  but  two  sewing-machine  factories  in  whi(  h  al. 
parts  of  the  machine,  including  cases  and  needles,  are  manu- 
factured. The  manufacture  of  sewing-machine  needle^  at;. 
cases  has  reached  large  proportions  as  independent  iixiii- 
tries.  The  census  returns  of  1890  showed  that  59  tM.i' 
lishments  manufacturing  sewing-machines  and  attaclmur:- 
reported.  These  had  a  combined  capital  of  $16,043,136.  tii- 
ployed  9,121  persons,  paid  $5,170,555  for  wages  and  $:i..")0.'. 
173  for  materials,  and  had  products  valued  at  $12,8J^i.l4: 
There  were  also  reported  7  establishments  manufacturii.. 
sewing-machine  cases,  which  had  a  combined  capital  of  *!.• 
430,403,  employed  1,842  persons,  paid  $886,725  for  w.s-- 
and  $990,439  for  materials,  and  had  products  valued  at  je-- 
249,551.  W.  F.  DuRFEF. 

Soxage'sima  [=  Late  Lat.  (sc.  di'es,  day),  liter.,  fern  f 
sexage  simns,  sixtieth,  deriv.  of  sea-agin'ta,  sixty]:  in  tr- 
calendar  the  eighth  Sunday,  nearly  sixty  days,  before  F.a>!' ' 
See  Septuagesima. 

Sextant  [from  Lat.  sex'tans,  sextan' ti^,  the  sixth  part  : 
an  as,  also  a  sixth  of  certain  other  measures  of  land,  lenir!i. 


•^ 


MAI  Mil*    h  ."  .      .-"MjIM    r^ir  :^  t\  i 


^ 


1^- 


ITIM.    I 


452 


SEYFFARTH 


SPORZA 


Sejffarth,  zif  fakrt,  Gustav,  Ph.  D.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. :  scien- 
tist and  archieologist ;  b.  at  Uebigau,  Prussian  Saxony,  July 
13, 1796 ;  educated  at  Leipzig  University,  where  he  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  Archroology  from  1825  to  1855 ;  professor 
in  the  Concordia  Lutheran  Theological  Seminary  at  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  1855-71,  and  afterward  took  up  his  residence  in 
New  York.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  works  in  Ger- 
man and  Latin  upon  theology,  Oriental  philology,  mythology, 
history,  and  chronology,  chiefly  notable  for  their  extreme 
advocacy  of  the  literal  school  of  biblical  interpretation  and 
their  entire  rejection  of  the  system  and  results  of  the  Egyp- 
tian researches  of  Champollion  and  Bunsen.  He  resid^  in 
New  York  from  1871  till  his  death  Nov.  17, 1885.  See  his 
autobiography,  Literary  Life  (New  York,  1886). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Sejmonr,  see'mor:  town;  New  Haven  co.,  Conn.;  near 
the  junction  of  the  Naugatuck,  Bladen,  and  Little  rivers,  and 
on  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  Hart.  Railroad;  10  miles  N.  W.  of 
New  Haven  (for  location,  see  map  of  Connecticut,  ref.  11-F). 
It  contains  5  churches,  new  high-school  (building  cost  $40,- 
000),  several  other  schools,  public  library,  a  weekly  news- 
paper, and  manufactories  of  paper,  rubber,  woolen  goods, 
pins,  nails,  and  mechanics*  tools.  The  manufacture  of  woolen 
cloth  was  begun  here  over  a  century  ago.  In  1803  Gen. 
David  Humphreys,  who  imported  the  first  merino  sheep  into 
the  U.  S.,  bought  the  clothing-works  here  and  built  a  large 
mill.  The  place  was  incorporated  as  the  borough  of  Hum- 
phreysville  m  1836,  and  as  a  town  under  its  present  name 
m  1850.    Pop.  (1880)  2,318 ;  (1890)  8,318. 

W.  C.  Sharpk,  editor  of  "  Record." 

Sermour :  city  (laid  out  in  1852) ;  Jackson  co.,  Ind. ;  on 
the  Bait,  and  Ohio  S.  W.,  the  Evansv.  and  Terre  H.,  and  the 
Pitts.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L.  railways ;  18  miles  S.  of  Colum- 
bus, 51  miles  N.  of  Louisville,  Ky.  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Indiana,  ref.  9-E).  It  is  noted  for  its  manufactories,  which 
include  rolling  and  planing  mills,  foundry,  woolen-mill,  and 
spoke,  carriage,  furniture,  harness,  and  cradle  factories.  It 
contains  the  machine-shops  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Di- 
vision of  the  Bait,  and  Ohio  S.  W.  Railway,  10  churcnes,  5 
public-school  buildings,  including  the  Shields  high  school, 
2  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $200,000,  and 
2  daily  and  3  weekly  papers.  Pop.  (1880)  4,250 ;  (1890) 
6,337 ;  (1895)  estimated,  6,500.      Editor  of  **  Democrat." 

Seymonr,  Edward,  Duke  of  Somerset:  See  Somerset, 
Duke  of. 

Seymour,  Frederick  Beauchamp  Paget^  first  Baron 
Alcester :  naval  officer ;  b.  in  London,  Apr.  12,  1821 ;  en- 
tered the  navy  in  1834,  and  passing  through  the  different 
grades  became  admiral  in  1882.  In  1880  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  assumed 
supreme  control  of  the  allied  fleet  on  the  coast  of  Albania. 
In  the  military  operations  in  Egypt  in  1882  he  bombarded 
the  forts  of  Alexandria  July  11-13,  for  which  service  he  re- 
ceived the  thanks  of  Parliament  and  was  raised  to  the  peer- 
age.   D.  in  London,  Mar.  30,  1895. 

Seymonr,  George  Franklin,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. :  bishop ;  b.  in 
New  York,  Jan.  5,  1829;  graduated  at  Columbia  College 
in  1850  and  at  the  General  Theological  Seminary  in  1854 ; 
had  charge  of  a  mission  station  at  Dobbs  Ferry  for  six 
years ;  became  first  head  of  St.  Stephen's  College,  Annan- 
dale,  1860,  and  in  1861  rector  of  St.  Mary's  church,  Manhat- 
tan ville,  N.  Y. ;  in  1863  went  to  St.  John  s  church,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  and  was  in  1865  elected  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical 
History  in  the  General  Theological  Seminary ;  in  1874  was 
chosen  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Illinois,  but  the  General  Con- 
vention refused  to  confirm  him ;  in  1875  was  elected  dean 
of  the  General  Theological  Seminary.  In  1877  he  was  chOvSen 
Bishop  of  Springfield,  III.,  and  was  consecrated  June  11, 1878. 
Bishop  Seymour  has  published  numerous  pamphlets  and 
works,  all  of  a  theological  nature,  and  chiefly  written  in  de- 
fense of  church  doctrine.  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Seymour,  IIoratio,  LL.  D. :  Governor  of  New  York ; 
nephew  of  Senator  Horatio  Seymour;  b.  at  Pompev,  Onon- 
daga CO.,  X.  Y.,  May  31,  1810;  removed  in  childhood  to 
Utica;  studied  at  Oxford  and  Gon(»va  Academies,  N.  Y., 
and  at  Partridge's  Military  Institute.  Middletown,  Conn. ; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Utica  18:{2,  but  soon  withdrew 
from  practice  to  devote  himself  to  the  management  of  the 
large  estate  he  inherited  by  the  death  of  his  father;  was 
a  member  of  the  staff  of  Gov.  Marcy  1HIJ3-39 ;  was  electecl 
to  the  State  Assembly  as  a  Democrat  1841,  and  three  tirnos 
re-elected,  serving  as  Speaker  in  1845  ;  was  chosen  mayor  of 


Utica  1842;  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  GoTi>rr..%r 
1850;  was  Governor  1853-55;  vetoed  a  prohibitory  hi] -v  r- 
law  Mar.,  1854;  was  defeated  in  the  election  of  that'  T(>dir  i  > 
the  Prohibitionist  candidate,  Myron  H.  Clark ;  va^  &^^,  ■ 
elected  Governor  as  a  War  Democrat  1862;  aided  in  >:;- 
pressing  the  riots  in  New  York,  and  rendered  efficit  nt  - 
operation  to  the  national  <jiovemment  in  the  war  for  i- 
Union;  was  defeated  for  re-election  in  1864,  in  which  >>  • 
he  presided  over  the  national  Democratic  conventinj:  :,* 
Chicago,  as  he  did  again  at  New  York  1868,  when  ht-  « .^ 
nominated  for  the  presidency  much  against  his  will,  an . 
received  80  electoral  votes,    D.  at  Utica,  Feb.  12,  lim. 

Seymour,  Lady  Jane:  third  queen  of  Henry  VI II.,  »iv  r 
of  Protector  Somerset,  and  daughter  of  Sir  John  Seyn. -i.' 
b.  in  England  about  1510;  became  maid  of  honor  U)  C^  i> 
Anne  Boleyn;  married  Henr^  May  20,  1536,  the  day  {.ft' 
the  execution  of  Anne,  and  died  shortly  after  giving  I  ir 
to  a  son  (Edward  VI.)  Oct.  24,  1537.  She  was  chi.fl*  r.. 
table  for  her  sympathy  with  the  Protestant  Reformat kh. 

Sejmoar,  Thomas  Day:  scholar;  b.  at  Hudson,  0.,  A;r 
1,  1848;  graduated  at  Western  Reserve  College  b: 
studied  in  Berlin  and  Jjeipzig  1870-72;  Profess4:>r  (»f  (in  ► 
in  Western  Reserve  College  1872-80 ;  appointed  Prf«f»-> ' 
of  Greek  in  Yale  College  1880 ;  chairman  of  the  tnu* ... 
ing  committee  of  the  American  School  of  Classical  Stuuh^ .: 
Athens  since  1887.  He  has  published  as  author  ami  edit- ' 
Selected  Odes  of  Pindar  (1882) ;  Homeric  Languiigt  ,v. 
Verse  (1885);  Homer's  Iliad  (i.-iii.,  1887,  iv.-vi./M':  . 
School  Iliad  (1889).  C.  H.  Thirhlr. 

Seymour,  Thomas  Habt  :  Governor  of  Connecticat ;  h  i: 
Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1808;  educated  at  Partridge's  Mili'^r. 
Academy  at  Middletown;   became  a  lawyer  at  Hartf'-. 
and  editor  of  The  Jeffersonian  (1837),  a  Democratic  m«* 
paper;  was  some  time  judge  of  probate;  sat  in  i'ou-^T  • 
1843-45;  entered  the  Mexican  war  as  major  of  the  N/ 
Regiment;  became  lieutenant-colonel  Aug.  12, 1S47:  < 
manded  the  regiment  after  the  death  of  Col.  Ransf>m  at  >i 
lino  del  Rey ;  was  breveted  colonel  for  services  at  Chai  •>  ■ 
pec  Sept.  13,  1847;  was  Governor  of  Connecticut  Iso^^V 
and  mmister  to  Russia  1853-57.    D.  at  Hartford,  Stp:.  . 
1868. 

Seymonr,  Truman  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Burlington,  Vt..  S*  •  • 
25, 1824;  graduated  at  Wes^t  Point  1846;  entered  tbt  }  :- 
Artillery;  was  breveted  lieutenant  and  captain  for  galiai  ". 
in  the  Mexican  war;  was  assistant  professor  at  West  i'  •.  ' 
1850-53;   served   under   Maj.   Anderson  at    Fort  Su:\-  ' 
Apr.,  1861 ;  became  chief  of  artillery  of  McCalFs  divi^i  -i. 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  Mar.,  1862;  was  commi^^i'r   • 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  Apr.  28,   1862;   wa*  >. 
tinguished  in  the  Virginia  and  Maryland  campaign*,  v    • 
manding  a  brigade  at  Mechanicsville,  Gaines's  Mill  hikI  ii- 
dale,  and  a  division  at  Malvern  Hill,  Manassas,  South  M-  < 
tain,  and  Antietam  ;  was  severely  wounded  at  Fort  Wa-.*  ' 
July  18,  1863 ;  commanded  an  expedition  to  Florida  Y  i 
1864;  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  Wilderness;  commanti'  < 
division  in  the  Shenandoah  valley  Oct.,  1864,  and  in  liu    i 
erations  around  Petersburg  up  to  the  close  of  the  war.   \'>r  ■ 
veted  from  major  to  major-general  in  both  the  volunr   ' 
and  regular  army.    Mustered  out  of  volunteer  service  \\: 
1865,  he  returned  to  his  regiment;  received  the  dei:"" 
A.  M.  from  Williams  College;  major  Fifth  Artillen-  1*^*1  : 
retired  1876.    D.  at  Florence,  lUly,  Oct.  30,  1891. 

Revised  by  James  MeR'  i  s. 

Sfax  (probably  the  Tapkoura  of  Ptolemy):  fortifi**]  - 
on  the  Gulf  of  Gabes,  or  Lesser  Syrtis,  Tunis ;  lat.  34  U  \ 
Ion.  10'  45'  E. ;  is  divided  into  two  cities,  the  uppr  h;. 
lower,  the  latter  also  called  Rabat.    The  harbor  is  sif«.  I  ■ 
shallow,  and  large  ships  must  anchor  2  miles  out.    The  i. 
merce  is  very  large,  and  is  chiefly  with  France,  Italy.  (''•• 
Britain,  and  Greece.      Sfax  is  celebrated   for  ii.<  tatJi  ' 
sponges,  and  gardens.    It  is  intensely  MohammodHii.  «'  • 
much  admired  in  Arabic  literature.     Pop.  30,000. 1'f  »'  ' 
about  5,000  are  Europeans.  M.  W.  il 

Sforza,  sfort'smi :  the  name  of  an  Italian  familv^* 
niled  Milan  as  a  dukedom  in  the  fifteenth  and  si\t* 
centuries  and  exercised  considerable  influence  on  i\w  i- 
tics  of  Italy  by  their  ambition,  which  was  generally  »r  • 
panied  with  violence  and  faithlessness,  ana  by  thoir  t.-iN' 
which  was  not  always  accompanieil  with  education,  th-    .' 
several  members  showed  interest  for  and  gave  much  pr- !   • 
tion  to  science,  poetry,  and  art.    The  founder  of  the  li 
was  (1)  GiACOMUZZo  Attendoix),  a  peasant-boy  fnun  • 


454 


SHAFTESBURY 


SHAHAPTIAX  INDUXS 


ahire  Witches  (1682),  The  Squire  of  Almtia  (1688),  and  Vol- 
unteerSy  or  The  Stock-jobbers  (1698);  became  poet-laureate 
and  royal  historio^apher  1688,  succeeding  Drydeu  in  both 
posts,  and  thereby  incurring  a  resentment  which  led  to  his 
unjust  impalement  by  that  poet  as  the  hero  of  Mae  Fleck- 
noe  in  the  character  of  "  monarch  of  dullness."  D.  Dec.  6, 
1692.    His  collected  Works  appeared  in  4  vols.,  1720. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 
Shaftesborr,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  First  Earl  of : 
party  leader ;  o.  at  Wimbome  St.  Giles,  Dorsetshire,  Eng- 
land, July  22, 1621 ;  entered  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  1637; 
was  elected  for  Tewkesbury  to  the  Short  Parliament  in 
1640;  at  first  supported  the  king,  but  after  ten  months' 
service  in  the  royalist  army  went  over  to  the  popular  party 
in  1644,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  war.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  "Barebones"  Parliament  in  1653,  and  of 
Cromweirs  council  of  state  in  the  same  year,  but  later  sep- 
arated from  the  cause  of  the  Protector  and  co-operated  m 
the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  As  a  reward  for  his  services 
he  was  made  a  privy  councilor  in  1660  and  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  in  1661,  having  previously  been  raised  to  the 
peerage  with  the  title  of  Baron  Ashley.  He  was  one  of  the 
grantees  of  the  province  of  Carolina  1663  and  1665 ;  secured 
the  services  of  John  Locke  as  private  secretary  1666,  and 
prepared  with  Locke  the  famous  aristocratic  constitution 
lor  the  government  of  the  Carol  inas.  A  member  of  the 
**  Cabal "  1670,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  deceived  as  to  the 
true  nature  of  the  disgraceful  Treatv  of  Dover.  In  1672  he 
was  made  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  and  Lord  Chancellor,  but  in 
1673  went  over  to  the  opposition  and  lost  his  office.  Pro- 
testing against  the  prorogation  of  the  Parliament,  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  1677-78,  but  on  his  release  con- 
tinued as  the  bitter  foe  of  the  court  party,  and,  professing 
to  believe  the  perjured  testimony  of  Titus  Gates,  took  the 
lead  in  the  persecutions  of  the  Catholics.  He  procured  the 
passage  of  tne  Habeas  Corpus  Act  1679  ;  presented  the  Duke 
of  York  before  the  court  of  kind's  bench  as  a  "Popish 
recusant  *'  in  1680 ;  brought  armed  followers  to  the  Oxford 
Parliament  in  1681 ;  was  thrown  into  prison  by  order  of  the 
council  on  a  charge  of  high  treason  July  2,  but  released 
Dec.  1,  1681,  the  grand  juir  having  refused  to  find  a  true 
bill ;  went  to  Amsterdam  Nov.,  1682,  and  died  there  Jan. 
22,  1683.  He  was  the  Achitophel  of  Dryden's  satire,  is  brill- 
iantly sketched  by  Macaulay  in  his  History,  and  gave 
name  to  Ashley  and  Cooper  rivers  in  South  Carolina.  See 
his  Life,  by  W.  D.  Christie  (1871) :  also  Fox-Bourne's  Memoir 
of  John  Locke  (1876) ;  and  a  biography  by  H.  D.  Traill  in 
the  English  Worthies  Series  (1886). 

Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Shaftesbnr J,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  Third  Earl  of : 
grandson  of  the  first  earl ;  b.  in  London,  Feb.  26,  1671 ;  was 
educated  under  the  supervision  of  Locke;  entered  Parlia- 
ment 1693;  resided  in  Holland  1698-99;  succeeded  to  the 
peerage  1699 ;  supported  the  administration  of  William  III., 
and  retired  from  public  life  on  the  king's  death ;  was  noted 
as  a  philanthropist  and  stigmatized  as  a  free-thinker;  pub- 
lishea  a  Letter  on  Enthusiasm  (1708)  in  defense  of  the  rights 
of  the  '•  French  Prophets,"  The  Moralist,  a  Philosophical 
Rhapsody  (1709),  Se?isus  Communis  (1710),  A  Soliloquy,  or 
Advice  to  an  Author  (1710) ;  spent  much  of  his  time  on  the 
Continent,  and  was  preparing  a  work  upon  the  arts  of  de- 
sign when  he  died  at  Naples,  Feb.  15, 1713.  His  principal 
work.  Characteristics  of  Men,  Matters,  Opinions,  and  Times, 
was  posthumously  published  (3  vols.,  1713-23 ;  often  re- 
printed), and  enjoyed  great  popularity.  See  Fowler,  Shuftes- 
hury  and  Hutcheson  (London,  1882). 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  Seventh  Earl  of  : 
b.  in  London,  Apr.  28,  1801 ;  took  a  first  class  in  classics  at 
Gxford,  1822 ;  was  made  D.  C.  L.  1841 ;  entered  Parliament 
1826,  representing  the  borough  of  Woodstock  from  1826  to 
1830,  Dorchester  1830  and  laSl,  the  countv  of  Dorset,  in 
which  the  estates  of  the  family  are  situated,  from  1833  to 
1846,  and  the  city  of  Bath  from  1847  to  1851 ;  supported  the 
administrations  of  Liverpool  and  Canning ;  was  made  a  com- 
missioner of  the  India  board  of  control  by  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  1828;  was  a  lord  of  the  admiralty  under  Sir 
Robert  Peel  1834-35 ;  succeeded  his  fatlier  in  the  peerage 
1851.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Lunacy  Commission  from 
1828  till  his  death,  and  did  much  to  secure  the  passage  of 
bills  which  have  been  called  the  Magna  Charta  of  the  liberties 
of  the  insane.  He  labored  zealously  to  improve  the  condition 
of  the  working  classes ;  carried  through  the  Ten  Hours'  Bill, 
and  followed  it  up  by  obtaining  the  assent  of  Parliament 


to  other  measures  regulating  defective  workshops  and  far- 
tories,  night  work,  and  the  treatment  of  children  by  tii*  :r 
employers  in  trades  and  manufactures,  etc.  His  course'  w 
public  life  was  always  very  independent.  He  was  thf  l<h.i- 
mg  philanthropist  in  English-speaking  lands,  and  stuol  i:. 
public  estimation  as  the  embodiment  of  every  virtue.  Hi* 
endorsement  of  any  scheme  was  sufficient  to  give  it  sij<'<  iv^ 
He  was  therefore  continually  called  upon  to  presiilc  u' 
meetings  of  all  sorts.  He  was  president  of  the  Briti>li  ;r  <; 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  the  Pastoral  Aid  Society,  the  V.mxu- 
gelical  Alliance,  and  other  organizations  for  the'prufiaKH' :  ': 
of  evangelical  doctrines,  and  was  long  regarded  as  the  i.»M  < 
of  the  so-called  Exeter  Hall  school  of  Low  Churchmen,  ii" 
was  an  active  promoter  of  the  abolition  of  slavery  thnou:.- 
out  the  world.  D.  at  Folkestone,  Get.  1, 1885.  See  hu  L*  '^ 
by  Edwin  Hodder  (3  vols.,  London,  1886;  n.  e..  1  \.l.. 
1887).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Shagreen'  [from  Fr.  chagrin,  from  Turk.  m^Ah.  bark  f 
a  horse  (from  the  skin  of  which  shagreen  was  first  uu\t.*  . 
shagreen] :  a  variety  of  tawed  leather  made  in  Persia  »n  i 
other  parts  of  the  East,  and  long  celebrated  for  its  hard[i»^> 
and  strength.  The  name  shagreen  is  also  given  fish-^k!I.^ 
principally  those  of  sharks  and  rays,  covered  with  (al  - 
ned  papillie.  Shagreen  prepared  from  the  tuberculou>  >h  '. 
of  the  ray  (Trygon  sephen)  is  called  galuchai  by  the  Fn  i..  • 
Shagreen  is  dyed  in  various  colors,  and  is  used  as  a  cuvt-nnj 
for  small  articles,  as  boxes  and  handles  of  swords. 

Shah  [from  Pers.  shah, king;  cf.  chess, pttsha,  and  satm' : 
Pers.  khsatra,  province  :SansKr.  kshatra-,  rule,  power):  Ui- 
title  of  the  ruler  of  Persia  and  of  certain  other  A>:;r  • 
princes.  The  sons  and  other  male  relatives  of  the  Per-.  ••, 
shah  also  assume  this  title,  the  full  title  of  the  monarch  i» 
ing  shah-in-shah,  king  of  kings. 

Shah  Abba8 :  See  AbbAs  I. 

Shahap'tian  Indians :  a  family  of  North  American  It,  .- 
ians,  comprising  the  following  named  tribes:  Chopunr.i--. 
Sahaptin,  Nez  Perc^  or  NImapu  (the  last  being  their  •  wi. 
name),  Klikatat,  Paloos,  Tenamo,  Tushepaw,  Tvigh,  I'n-a- 
tilla,  Walla  Walla,  Yakima. 

Habitat, — ^The  tribes  occupied  a  large  section  of  coun'r\ 
along  the  Columbia  river  and  its  tributaries,  their  w^m*  ri. 
boundary  being  the  Cascade  Mountains.  The  Choininii:*^ 
were  found  in  1804  occupying  a  large  area  in  Westeni  M.iii'. 
Northeastern  Gregon,  and  Southeastern  Washington,  on  :>' 
lower  Snake  river  and  its  tributaries.  The  Klikatat  o<mu|...-«1 
the  head  waters  of  Cowlitz,  White  Salmon,  and  Khka'at 
rivers,  Washington.  The  Paloos  in  1805  were  on  Clears u*.  * 
river,  Idaho,  above  the  Forks,  and  on  the  small  streams  tn''- 
utary  to  it,  W.  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  Tu>h«iM« 
appear  to  have  been  an  eastern  branch  of  the  Nez  IVr-  . 
According  to  Lewis  and  Clark's  report  the  Walla  Wal  a 
lived  on  both  sides  of  Columbia  river,  from  tJie  mouth  <  i 
Lewis  (or  Snake)  river  to  the  Musselshell  Rapid,  wintori'  z 
on  Tapteel  (or  Yakima)  river.  It  is  probable  that  unthr  *\.k 
general  name  Lewis  and  Clark  included  one  or  more  i'tl.  r 
divisions,  the  Umatilla,  for  instance,  who  originally  livrti  •  ii 
Umatilla  river,  Gregon,  The  Tenaino,  who  are  iionrly  re- 
lated to  the  Warm  Spring  Indians,  formerly  liveii  at  ('« 1.: 
Gregon,  on  Columbia  river.  The  Tyigb  originally  oit  u)  <•  i 
Tyigh  creek  and  valley,  the  former  being  a  tributary  of  •: 
Des  Chutes  river,  Gregon,  about  30  miles  S.  of  the'  Dul .  v 
The  Yakima  (called  Shanwappam  by  Lewis  and  Clark)  \v>  r 
found  in  1805  on  the  head  waters  of  Cataract  (or  Klikata' 
and  Tapteel  (or  Yakima)  rivers,  Washington. 

General  Chara4:teristics. — Comparatively  little  is  kn«>«-j 
of  the  mutual  relations  of  the  several  members  of  this  fa:.  • 
ily.    The  linguistic  family  as  a  whole  is  a  rather  ^lell-i- 
fined  one,  though  in  some  of  its  sounds  and  in  its  h.ir^' 
character  the  language  considerably  resembles  the  Chino«  k  t 
and  Salishan.    In  habits  of  life  theShahaptian  tribes  dit!>  -^  : 
considerably  from  the  Chinook  of  the  (.'olurobia,  tn  wh-  - 
they  were  much  superior,  and  more  nearly  resembh-*!  'f- 
inland  Salishan  tribes.    Living  as  they  did  on  the  largo  wai'  - 
courses,  salmon  constituted  their  most  important  i<km1.  I  ,• 
the  possession  of  horses  (for  all  the  tribes  were  "  hor^-  1 1    • 
ians")  undoubtedly  wrought  considerable  change  in  i!*' 
habits,  and  caused  them  to  become,  to  some  extent,  hunti  > 
At  the  time  of  Lewis  and  Clark's  visit  (1804-05)  non«   < ' 
these  tribes  had  any  idea  of  agriculture,  and  some  of  tr-. 
bands  met  by  the  explorers  on  Snake  river  periodicHlly  «ur 
fered  from  hunger.    The  Chopunnish  were  then  liviiii:.  !  - 
the  Chinook,  in  communal  houses,  and  the  same  v\\^*  " 
probably  prevailed  also  in  the  other  divisions  of  the  faiu; ) 


n  .,    .     ..,■     tk. 


iii   ;i"»»'ii. 


Ihmk  lit  liifiir^t  'r 

l|4     HI     IlOfi 


456 


SHAKESPEARE 


two  of  each  sex.  Elders  are  assisted  by  deacons,  two  of 
each  sex  when  the  order  is  full,  or  more  if  necessary,  who 
manage  temporal  affairs.  The  total  number  of  Shakers  in 
the  U.  S.  is  about  1,000,  forming  15  societies  or  settlements, 
of  which  2  are  in  the  State  of  New  York,  3  in  Massachusetts, 
1  in  Connect  icut,  2  in  New  Hampshire,  2  in  Maine,  3  in  Ohio, 
and  2  in  Kentucky.  New  Lebanon,  in  Columbia  co.,  and  Wa- 
tervliet,  in  Albany  co.,  N.  Y.,  are  the  most  important. 

The  Shakers  publish  a  monthly,  called  The  Manifesto^  at 
East  Canterbury,  N.  H.  It  was  started  in  1871.  See  also 
The  Concise  History  of  Shakers  (East  Canterbury,  1894) ; 
Pearly  Gate  (Chicago,  1894) ;  and  The  Millennial'  Church 
(Albany,  N.  Y.,  1848).  Alonzo  G.  Hollister,  Elder. 

Shakespeare,  William  :  dramatic  poet ;  b.  at  Stratford- 
on-Avon,  Warwickshire,  England,  in  Apr.,  1564 — on  the  23d 
of  that  month,  0.  S.  (N.  S.,  May  8),  it  is  supposed.  His 
father,  John  Shakespeare,  was  of  the  yeoman  class;  his 
mother,  Mary  Arden,  was  of  a  family  of  the  minor  gentry. 
John  Shakespeare  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  character 
and  ability.  He  became  a  landholder,  and  rose  rapidly 
through  all  the  grades  of  office  in  Stratfoni  until  he  be- 
came chief  alderman  and  ex-officio  justice  of  the  peace. 
Misfortune,  however,  befell  him,  and  he  was  reduced  to 
comparative  poverty,  and  was  even  subject  to  arrest  for  debt. 
Of  Shakspeare's  boyhood  nothing  is  known;  but  he  was 
doubtless  educated  at  the  grammar  school  in  Stratford, 
where  he  got  the  "  small  Latin  and  less  Greek  "  with  which 
Ben  Jonson  credits  him.  Passages  in  his  works  showing 
more  than  ordinary  familiarity  with  law-terms  have  been 
regarded  as  indicating  that  he  was  for  a  time  in  an  attor- 
ney's office.  This  is  more  probable  than  the  tradition  that 
he  was  apprenticed  to  a  butcher.  The  first  fact  that  is 
really  known  about  him,  after  his  baptism,  is  that  in  his 
eighteenth  year  he  had  become  entangled  with  a  woman  of 
twenty-five,*  Anne  Hathaway,  the  daughter  of  Richard 
Hathaway,  who  lived  at  Shottery,  near  Stratford.  He  mar- 
ried this  Woman  by  special  license,  dated  Nov.  28, 1582,  and 
their  first  child,  Susanna,  was  baptized  May  26, 1583.  Twin 
children,  a  boy  and  girl,  named  Hamnet  and  Judith,  were 
>)aptized  Feb.  2,  1585.  Shakespeare  soon  (perhaps  in  1585) 
left  Stratford  to  seek  his  fortune  in  London.  Tradition  says 
that  he  had  killed  some  of  the  deer  of  Sir  Thomas  Lucy,  of 
Charlecote,  near  Stratford,  and  that  the  knight's  vindictive- 
ness  was  one  of  the  causes  of  his  leaving  his  native  village. 
The  story,  not  improbable  in  itself,  finds  a  certain  confirma- 
tion in  t&e  fact  that  Sir  Thomas  is  apparently  caricatured  as 
Justice  Shallow  in  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor, 

Absolutely  nothing  is  known  of  Shakespeare's  first  years 
in  London.  Tradition  says  that  he  began  by  holding  horses 
at  the  door  of  the  theater.  It  is  certain  that  he  soon  |^t 
some  humble  position  inside  the  theater  (another  tradition 
says  as  a  mere  "  prompter's  attendant "),  and  after  a  time  be- 
came an  actor,  tnough  he  seems  never  to  have  risen  higher 
than  a  position  of  what  is  known  as  "  general  utility."  He 
was  one  of  the  original  performers  in  Ben  Jonson  s  Every 
Man  in  his  Humour ;  he  appeared  in  the  same  author's  Se- 
janus ;  and  there  is  a  tradition  that  he  played  the  Ghost  in 
Hamlet,  and  that  his  brother  Edward  saw  him  play  the  part 
of  an  old  man,  which  was  probably  that  of  Adam  in  As  You 
Like  It,  A  few  years  later  he  began  his  career  as  a  drama- 
tist by  rewriting  old  plays  in  conjunction  with  others,  his 
seniore  in  years  and  as  playwrights.  It  was  the  custom  of 
the  various  companies  of  players  to  have  several  playwrights 
in  their  pay,  who,  working  together,  produced  new  plays  and 
patched  up  old  ones.  Marlowe,  Greene,  and  Peele  were  per- 
haps among  Shakespeare's  collaborators.  His  superiority  to 
all  his  contemporaries  soon  asserted  itself,  and  he  began  to 
write  alone  or  with  little  assistance.  His  first  wholly  original 
play  was  probably  Love's  Labour  '«  Lost ;  for  in  Titus 
Andronieus,  a  revolting  tragedy  characteristic  of  a  kind  of 
drama  then  in  vogiie,  tnere  are  but  slight  traces  even  of  his 
'prentice  hand.  He  probably  also  in  his  earliest  dramatic 
days  had  some  small  share  in  the  revision  of  Part  I.  of  Hen- 
ry F/.,  which  was  almost  certainly  an  old  play  by  another 
author  or  authors. 

Shakespeare's  success  provoked  the  jealousy  and  excited 
the  enmity  of  at  least  one  of  those  whom  he  eclipsed — Rob- 
ert Greene,  a  gifted  but  dissolute  man,  who  diecl  in  wretch- 
edness, and  who,  in  a  pamphlet  written  during  his  last  ill- 
ness, sneered  at  Shakespeare  as  "  an  upstart  crow,  beautified 
with  our  feathers;  .  .  .  and  that  being  an  absolute  Johan- 
nes factotum,  is  in  his  own  conceit  the  only  Shake-scene  in 
.  a  country."      ** Beautified  with  our  feathers"  may  mean 


that  he  got  credit  by  acting  what  others  wrote;  but  s^-u.tr 
take  it  to  be  a  charge  of  plagiarism  in  the  revision  of  ji;'.- 
written  by  others.  A  few  months  later,  Henry  Chettle,  wh  - 
was  one  of  the  knot  of  writers  to  which  both  Greene  an : 
Shakespeare  belonged,  came  to  the  defense  of  the  latter  iu  .t 
pamphlet  in  which  he  says  that  Shakespeare's  detuear:*  : 
was  "  no  less  civil  than  he  was  excellent  in  the  oualit)  !  *. 
professes  " ;  adding  that  "  divers  of  worship  [people  uf  rnr  * 
and  reputation^  have  reported  his  uprightness  of  dealii.j. 
which  argues  his  honesty,  and  his  facetious  [felicitou.<]  .s^m*  • 
in  writing  which  approves  his  art"  Among  the  fri^f::- 
that  Shakespeare  won  was  the  Earl  of  Southampton,  a  ml  i'  - 
man  of  taste  and  culture,  who  took  great  interest  in  litera- 
ture and  the  drama.  To  him  the  poet  dedicated  hi^  tir-' 
published  poem,  Venus  and  AdoniSyWhich  was  his  first  pun .} 
literary  effort:  he  calls  it  "  the  first  heir  of  his  invention. 
There  is  a  tradition  that  Southampton  gave  Shakes] tar 
£1,000,  quite  eoual  to  £6,000  at  present.  This  may  U  u-: 
exaggeration,  though  such  munincence  was  not  unknuv;. 
in  those  days  among  English  noblemen.  When  >hak<- 
speare  publisned  Lucrece,  his  second  poem,  he  dedicateil  iL.> 
also  to  Southampton,  saying,  "The  love  I  dedicate  tu  }(>'■  ^ 
lordship  is  without  end,  .  .  .  What  I  have  is  yours ;  wl^^ 
I  have  to  do  is  yours ;  being  in  part  all  I  have  devoted  your-. ' 
This  is  apparently  the  acknowledgment  of  a  great  serv  i-  * 
and  it  was  possibly  through  the  nobleman's  generosity  tiuir 
the  poet-dramatist  became  a  very  considerable  sharer  in  tf< 
Blackfriars  theater,  at  which  the  company  with  w^hich  ht-  w  i- 
connected  was  in  the  habit  of  performing.'  Having  attnui.-. 
this  advantageous  position,  Shakespeare  soon  reached  thr  l:- 
most  height  of  success,  as  to  both  reputation  and  profit. )  <«>- 
sible  to  one  of  his  profession.  The  notion  long  prevalent  t  t^t 
he  was  neglected  during  his  life,  and  that  his  plays  rose  )i  r 
popularity  only  a  long  time  after  his  death,  is  entirely  ml- 
founded.  Contemporary  evidence  shows  that  he  wai,  ttj- 
most  admired  of  all  the  dramatists  of  his  day,  and  that  u  :j-  i 
the  productions  of  the  best  of  his  contemporaries — Ben  .Iid- 
son  included — failed  to  pay  the  expenses  of  their  re]»n-*'.- 
tation,  his  plays  filled  the  house  to  overflowing.  He  t-ntt:' -i 
upon  a  career  of  dramatic  production  which  is  with -ui  ^ 
parallel  in  the  history  of  literature,  and  which  soon  }»l:i'-  - 
him  in  independent  circumstances.  He  had  money  to  >{4-:  *> 
and  money  to  lend ;  and  he  used  it  to  place  his'  fatbtr  ii. 
comfort  and  to  acquire  landed  property  and  other  wealtn  >'. 
his  native  town.  The  Heralds'  College  made  his  fatlur  i 
gentleman  by  coat-armor,  and  this  may  have  been  done  at  tl.. 
instance  of  the  successful  playwright,  who  thereby  Ik* a;:  i 
a  *'  gentleman  "  by  descent  both  on  his  father  s*  an<l  u> 
mother's  side.  He  invested  a  part  of  his  monev  in  the  tii  l.i  ^ 
of  Stratford,  and  he  bought  rJew  Place,  the  best  hou^  ii 
the  town,  and  gradually  added  other  lands  to  the  t-^tait. 
To  this  house  he  retired  on  his  withdrawal  from  the  tlita  •  : 
about  1611,  and  there  he  died  Apr.  23, 1616,  and  was  luri' 
on  the  25th  in  the  Stratford  church.  His  daughter  J(i<li:.. 
was  married  to  Thomas  Quiney,  a  vintner,  about  two  met:'}  - 
before  her  father's  death.  Her  sister  Susanna  becanu  '..it- 
wife  of  Dr.  John  Hall,  a  Stratford  physician,  in  1607. 

Of  Shakespeare's  life  in  London  very  little  is  known,  a - 
most  nothing  except  the  successive  production  of  his  fO.rv 
Fuller  says  that  he  and  Ben  Jonson  used  to  have  iim'^^ 
"wit-combats,"  in  which  he  compares  Jonson  to  a  litj-^ 
Spanish  galleon  and  Shakespeare  to  a  light  English  inai>-  •' 
war.  Jonson  was  his  junior,  but  was  one  of  thotie  mI 
knew  him  intimately;  and  jealous,  hot-tempered  Ben  K<w-. 
him  well  and  honored  his  memorjr  after  his  death.  He  ^i;;- 
ports  Fuller's  comparison  by  saying,  with  a  classical  al-- 
sion,  that  Shakespeare  was  distinguished  by  great  ci»].i*  ^- 
ness  and  facility  of  thought  and  language — so  great  a>  t.  •  ♦ 
almost  oppressive  to  his  hearers.  There  was  a  sort  of  vluu  * 
which  Raleigh,  Jonson,  Beaumont,  Selden,  and  Donne  W'  r- 
members,  and  which  met  at  the  Mermaid  Tavern;  an«l  n* 
wit-combats  probably  took  place  at  these  meetings.  Tr* 
dition  says  that  Jonson  owed  to  Shakespeare's  influence  ti ' 
performance  of  his  first  comedy.  Every  Man  in  his  Htow  ■■  -. 
which  had  been  offered  and  rejected.  This  story  agreis  \^ ;' . 
Shakespeare's  reported  kindliness  of  nature,  and  with  fiv 
gruff  and  cynical  scholar-dramatist's  love  for  him. 

Shakespeare's  Sonnets,  154  in  number,  were  publislied  :r: 
1609,  and  were  dedicated  to  .a  *'Mr.  W.  H."  as  their  ""i  > 
begetter,"  but  by  the  publisher,  not  by  the  poet,  who  <«t"  ^ 
to  have  had  no  agency  m  the  publication  of  any  of  his  wj-rh* 
except  Venus  and  Adonis  anaLucrec^,  If,  as  the  grt'at  n  ..- 
jority  of  editors,  critics,  and  commentators  believe  lanu  r.-: 
them  Wordsworth,  Coleridge, Sir  Henry  Taylor,  Swinburit. 


^iia#4  tf 


ffrfwiA  oviir  fikAlocipMmV  ^r&v«  («a  wliifili  Uwm 


n-^»  iii»*.-ri  I ' 


I  ii#  4^«#f«  |M>bli4>««1  iltfniMr  li'*  nft*Ui»^i 


458 


SHAKESPEARE 


in  some  verses  almost  as  hard  and  expressionless  as  the  en- 
graying  itself,  assures  us  was  a  good  likeness,  has  a  general 
conformity  in  the  features  and  the  form  of  the  head  to  the 
bust.  The  latter  was  originally  colored  after  life,  and  had 
hazel  eyes  and  auburn  hair  and  beard.  These  traits  were 
afterward  obliterated  by  a  coat  of  white  paint.  The  bust  and 
the  engraved  portrait  in  the  folio  are  the  only  portraits  of 
Shakespeare  wnich  are  of  undoubtable  authenticity ;  but  one 
known  as  the  Chandos  portrait  has  tradition  of  very  re- 
spectable antiquity  in  its  favor.  There  is  a  very  slight  and 
vague  tradition  that  Shakespeare  *'  died  a  papist,"  but  this  is 
very  improbable.  His  works  favor  no  religious  form,  sect,  or 
dogma.  There  was  also  a  tradition  in  Stratford  fifty  years 
after  his  death  that  he,  Drayton,  and  Ben  Jonson  had  "  a 
merie  meeting,  and  it  seems  drank  too  hard,  for  Shake- 
speare died  of  a  feavour  there  contracted."  This  tradition 
has  probably  as  little  foundation  as  the  other. 

Although  Shakespeare  was  acknowledged  as  the  greatest 
dramatist  of  his  time,  his  reputation  rather  diminished  than 
increased  during  the  century  after  his  death.  He  had  no 
followers  or  imitators ;  he  established  no  school.  Dramatic 
taste  and  dramatic  writing  steadily  declined  after  the  Eliza- 
bethan age  (about  1575  to  1625),  and  by  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century  Shakespeare  was  lightly  thought  of 
bv  the  literary  critics,  and  much  neglected  by  the  actors. 
There  had  been  among  the  reading  public,  however,  a  steady 
although  not  a  large  demand  for  his  plays.  The  folio  of  1628 
was  succeeded  by  another  folio  in  lo32,  and  a  third  edition 
was  called  for  and  published  in  1664.  In  the  last  Pericles 
and  six  spurious  plays  which  had  been  published  in  quarto 
in  Shakespeare's  lifetime,  with  his  full  name  or  his  initials 
upon  the  title-page,  were  included.  A  fourth  edition,  also 
in  folio,  appeared  in  1685.  Upon  these  four  folios,  and  upon 
the  existing  old  quarto  edition  of  twenty  of  the  plays,  the 
readers  of  Shakespeare  depended  until  Rowe*s  edition  ap- 
peared in  1709  (see  bibliography  below).  From  the  time 
•of  the  appearance  of  this  edition  the  fame  of  Shakespeare 
steadily  grew  until  about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  he  was  acknowledged  to  be  the  first  of  poet?  and  of 
dramatists,  the  most  creative  mind,  the  greatest  master  of 
imagination  and  of  language,  that  the  world  has  known. 
The  number  of  Shakespeare's  commentators  has  much  ex- 
ceeded that  of  his  editors.  His  text  was  left  in  such  a  con- 
dition by  the  printers  of  the  old  quartos  and  folios  that, 
although  it  may  be  read  even  in  those  impressions  with 
pleasure  and  with  a  full  comprehension  of  its  general  mean- 
ing, there  is  to  its  perfection  need  of  more  critical  labor 
than  is  required  by  most  old  manuscripts ;  and  of  such 
there  is  none  to  consult,  for  of  Shakespeare's  writing  not  a 
line  has  come  down  to  us — not  even  a  word,  except  his  own 
signature.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  more  critical  ability  and 
learning  has  been  displayed  upon  this  subject  than  upon 
any  other  in  the  whole  range  of  literature,  the  poems  of 
Homer  perhaps  excepted.  The  works  written  upon  Shake- 
speare form  a  library  in  themselves,  and  a  complete  bibliog- 
raphy (unfortunately  there  is  none  such  in  existence)  would 
fill  a  good-sized  volume. 

Shakespeare,  like  so  many  other  men  of  great  eminence, 
left  little  trace  of  his  personality  behind  him.  His  only 
son,  Hamnet,  died  at  the  age  of  twelve  years.  His  two 
married  daughters  left  children,  but  the  family,  even  on 
the  female  side,  became  extinct  in  the  third  generation. 
New  Place,  his  residence  upon  his  retirement  from  the  thea- 
ter, after  passing  through  several  hands  was  in  1759  razed 
to  the  ground  by  its  last  owner,  the  Rev.  Francis  Gastrell, 
who  was  exasperated  by  a  quarrel  with  the  town  authorities 
and  by  the  persecution  of  prying  visitors  to  the  home  of  the 
great  poet.  John  Shakespeare's  house,  which  stands  in  Hen- 
ley Street,  and  in  which  it  is  probable  that  William  was 
bom,  was  a  comfortable  dwelling  for  that  age.  After  fall- 
ing into  decay,  it  was  bought  by  an  association  and  restored 
for  preservation  as  a  memorial  of  the  poet.  More  recently, 
the  grounds  of  New  Place  and  the  cottage  at  Shottery  in 
which  Ann  Hathaway  is  supposed  to  have  lived  before  her 
marriage  have  been  bouffht  for  the  same  purpose. 

KiCHARD  Grant  White.    Revised  by  W.  J.  Rolfe. 

Bibliography. 
Editions. — Among  complete  editions  (besides  the  early 
folios  mentioned  above)  that  are  of  any  critical  value,  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  named  :  Nicholas  Rowe's  (6  vols.,  1700) ;  A. 
Pope's  (6  vols.,  1723-25) :  Louis  Theobald's  (7  vols.,  1733  ;  2d 
ed.  1740):  Sir  Thomas  Hanmer's  (9  vols.,  1744);  Bishop  War- 
burton's  (8  vols.,  1747) ;  Edward  Capell's  (10  vols.,  1760-68) ; 


Dr.  Samuel  Johnson's  (8  vols.,  1765);  Isaac  Reed's  (10  v..)^.. 
1785);  Edmond  Malone's  (10  vols.,  1790) ;  George  St4»cv»'r.-  v 
with  Bovdell's  illustrations  (9  vols.,  1802;  in  parts,  171^1-lMrj  ; 
Reed's  (first  ed.  with  his  name,  21  vols..  1803 ;  2d  ed.  1^1.'.  . 
Alexander  Chalmers's  (10  vols.,  1806) ;  the  Variorum  of  i^  \ 
edited  by  James  Boswell  from  a  corrected  copy  left  bv  ila.if.' 
(21  vols.):  S.  W.  Singer's  (10  vols.,  1826);  Charles  'Kni^-h;^ 
Pictorial  ed.  (8  vols.,  1838-48);  J.  P.  Collier's  (8  vols..  lM-,>- 
44 ;  2d  ed.  6  vols.,  1858) ;  G.  C.  Verplanck's  (3  vols..  1844-47. : 
H.  N.  Hudson's  (11  vols.,  1851-56) ;  J.  0.  Halliweirs,  afi-  r 
ward  Halliwell-Phillipps's  (16  vols,  folio,  1853-65 ;  tmU  IV' 
copies  printed);  Singer's  2d  ed.  (10  vols.,  1856);  R.  ('^x^\^ 
White's  (12  vols..  1857-66);  Alexander  Dvce's  (6  vols..  \>^'u 
2d  ed.  9  vols.,  1864-67 ;  3d  ed.  9  vols.,  1875) ;  Howard  Stu  .'■- 
ton's  (3  vols.,  1858-60);  the  Cambridge  ed.,  by  W.  G.  (  in  » 
and  W.  Aldis  Wright  (9  vols.,  1863-66:  2d  ed.,  bv  W.  A. 
Wright,  1891-93) ;  Charles  and  Marv  Cowden-Clarke^  .•  . 
(3  vols.,  1863-66) ;  W.  J.  Rolfe's  (40  vols.,  1870-83  :  Fri.  ::■: 
ly  ed.  20  vols.,  1884);  Horace  Howard  Fumess's  New  IV.- 
orum  (10  vols,  issued,  1871-95);  Clarke  and  Wright  V  (il^ '. 
ed.  (the  standard  for  line  numbers,  1874);  H.  N.  Hud-  u  • 
Harvard  ed.  (20  vols.,  1880-81);  R.  G.  Whites  Riversi.l.'  .-1. 
(6  vols.,  1883);  the  Henry  Irving  ed.,  by  Sir  Henrv  Irvir  j 
and  F.  A.  Marshall  (8  vols.,  1888-90);  the  Banksid'e  e^l..  i.} 
Appleton  Morgan  (20  vols.,  including  the  twenty  pla>>  •! 
wnich  early  quartos  exist,  1888-92);  the  Templeed.,  bv  Is- 
rael Gollancz  (1894 — ^not  completed  in  May,  1895).  Th«'  L- - 
pold  ed.  (1  vol.,  1877),  with  the  German  Delius's  text,  i>  valu- 
able for  the  elaborate  biographical  and  critical  intnHiiu  ii",'i 
by  F.  J.  Furnivall. 

Editions  of  single  plays  and  series  of  plays  (niohtly  f- r 
educational  use)  are  too  numerous  to  be  cataloguinl  Imt. 
The  Clarendon  Press  and  Rugby  series,  and  Charlrs  Wnr..^ 
worth's  Shakespeare'' a  Historical  Plays  (3  vols.,  18S.j>.  an- 
noteworthy  among  those  which  have  some  critical  vain**. 

The  Poems  and  Sojinets  are  included  in  most  of  the  n- 
cent  standard  editions.  The  first  complete  edition  of  l*-*'. 
was  issued  in  1709  (an  incomplete  edition  appeared  in  li»4" . 
The  Sonnets  were  first  collect etl  in  1609.  'rne  bi'St  nuKun 
edition  is  Edward  Dowden's  larger  ed.  (1881).  Another  iii.- 
portant  one  is  Thomas  Tyler's  (1890). 

The  first  complete  American  edition  of  the  work?  '«•.!}. 
life,  glossary,  and  notes  by  Dr.  Johnson)  was  puhli^h^.|  \u 
8  vols,  in  1795-96,  at  Philadelphia.  The  first  hosUm  c  i  • :.  ■■ 
(including  only  the  plavs)  was  in  8  vols.,  1802-04.  Tlii* 
editions  of  this  appeared,  each  re^«t, stereotyping  Win*:  i\  •  n 
unknown.  An  edition  in  17  vols,  was  published  at  Plil..- 
delphia  in  1809,  and  one  in  7  vols,  (edited  hj  O.  W.  B.  T.  .»- 
boity,  though  his  name  does  not  appear  in  it)  in  B<)>ti)ii  w 
1836  (reprints  of  Reed's  text  had  oeen  issued  in  1M3  «i -i 
1814).  An  edition  of  the  plays  in  10  vols.  (Reed's  text*  «{►- 
peared  in  New  York  in  1821,  and  again  in  1824.  The  tir^' 
American  edition  of  the  Spurious  and  Doubtful  Play*'  wa- 
published  at  New  York  in  1848. 

Life^  Birthplace,  etc. — S.  Neil,  Shakespeare,  a  CnHnu 
Biography  {1S61) ;  Halliwell-Phillipps,  Outlines  of  Lift  • 
Shakespeare  (7th  ed.  1887);  F.G.  Fleav,  Life  and'  Wor^n.,'' 
Shakespeare  (1886) ;  D.  W.  Wilder,  Life  of  Shakef^/'^'^  - 
(1893);  T.  S.  Baynes,  Shakespeare  Studies  (1894);  ('.  M. 
Inglebv,  Shakespeare,  the  Man  and  the  Book,  i>art"<  i.  m  •: 
ii.  (1877-61) ;  C.  Knight,  Bioqraphy  of  Shakspere  (in  Pi. - 
torial  ed.,  but  also  publishea  separatelv);  G.  R.  Fnri<  h. 
Shakespeareana  Genealogica  (1869 ;  on  the  Shakespean-  ai.t 
Arden  families,  persons,  and  places  in  Warwickshirt*  uu:- 
tioned  by  Shakespeare,  and  characters  in  the  hi>tori  ;. 
plays);  J.  R.  Wise,  Shakespeare,  his  Birthplace  ami  th 
Neighborhood  (1861);  Sidney  Lee,  St  rat  ford-on- A  trm  (ii.  i. 
1890);  J.  L.  Williams,  Homes  and  Haunts  of  Shakf^/»»'rf 
(superbly  illustrated,  1891-93J;  W.  Winter's \SA a A>,<;*v/r/< 
England  (illustrated  ed.  1893) ;  and  Old  Shrines  and  I- 
(1894).  J.  Walter's  Shakespeare's  True  Life  (1890)  i*  im- 
piously illustrated,  but  not  always  trustworthy. 

Dictionaries  and  other  Reference-books.-^ k.  Schnii.lt. 
Shakespeare  Lexicon  (2d  ed.  1886);  Dyce's  Glossary  (><.. 
ix.  of  ed.  of  Shakespeare  published  sei)arately) ;  R.  Nan  ^. 
Glossary  (rev.  ed.  1859);  Cnarles  and  Mary  Cowden-Clark*, 
Shakespeare  Key  (1879) ;  J.  Bartlett's  Concordanrr  .'• 
Shakespeare  (1895;  supersedes  all  earlier  works  of  ii^ 
class) ;  Mrs.  H.  H.  Furness,  Concordance  to  the  iVws  «.'' 
Shakespeare  (1874;  gives  every  instance  of  every  wt>n^:  K. 
Abbott  s  Shakespearian  Grammar  (187J^) ;  W.  S.  Walk-  r*^ 
Shakespeare's  \ersification  (1854)  and  Critical  Examiri- 
lion  of  Text  of  Shakespeare  (I860);  A.  J.  Ellis's  £""' 
English  J^onunciation  (part  iii.  published  separately):  K. 


460 


SHAMMAI 


SHANS 


Supreme  Being  is  good,  yet  so  great  are  the  power  and  desire 
of  the  king  of  the  lower  worltfto  injure  man  that  the  prin- 
cipal worship  conducted  by  the  Shamans  is  intended  to  pla- 
cate him.  Hence  the  declaration  that  Shamanism  is  devil- 
worship.    See  Tylor's  Primitive  CulUire  (2  vols.,  1871). 

Sham^mai  (shortened  from  Heb.  Shemdya) :  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Sanhedrin  during  the  reign  of  Herod.  He  is 
always  mentioned  together  with  Hillel,  from  whom  he  is 
said  to  have  differed  greatly  by  his  harshness  of  manner  and 
his  rigorous  interpretation  of  the  Law.  The  followers  of 
these  two  teachers,  who  still  existed  in  Jerome's  days,  pre- 
served the  traditions  of  their  masters,  though  the  freer  in- 
terpretations of  the  Beth  Hillel  prevailed  over  the  more 
rigorous  of  the  Beth  Shammai.  Shammai  is  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  the  So^or  (Josephus,  Ani,^  xiv.,  9, 4)  who  alone 
dared  to  oppose  Herod  when  ne  appeared  before  the  Sanhe- 
drin in  47  B.  c,  and  who  was  sparea  by  Herod  on  the  taking 
of  Jerusalem  (t6.,  xv.,  1, 1).  Richard  Gottheil. 

Shamo,  Desert  of:  See  Gobi. 

Shamo^kln :  borough ;  Northumberland  co.,  Pa. ;  on  the 
Lehigh  Val.,  the  Nortn.  Cent.,  and  the  Phila.  and  Reading 
railways ;  17  miles  W.  of  Ashland,  and  19  miles  S.  E.  of  Sun- 
bury,  the  county-seat  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania, 
ref .  4-G).  It  is  in  the  center  of  the  anthracite  coal  region ; 
contains  several  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  other  manu- 
factories, 15  churches,  45  public-school  buildings  (1890-91), 
public-school  property  valued  at  over  $140,000,  water-supply 
from  Shamokm  creek,  and  electric  lights ;  and  has  a  nation- 
al bank  with  capital  of  $100,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital 
of  $50,000,  a  building  and  loan  association,  8  daily  and  4 
weekly  newspapers,  an  assessed  valuation  (1893)  of  $1,004,- 
020,  and  a  total  debt  (1894)  of  $59,000.  Pop.  (1880)  8,184; 
(1890)  14,403. 

Shamroek  [from  Ir.  seamrog  :  Gael,  aeamrctg,  trefoil, 
white  clover]  :  the  national  badge  of  Ireland,  as  the  thistle 
is  that  of  Scotland.  It  is  a  plant  with  trifoliate  leaves, 
which  was  used  by  St.  Patrick  to  illustrate  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity.  The  plant  now  generally  called  by  the  name 
is  a  hop  clover  {Trtfolium  minus).  The  wood-sorrel  {Oxalia 
acetosella),  the  common  white  clover,  and  the  black  medick 
or  nonesuch  (Medieago  lupulina)  have  each  been  identified 
with  the  original  shamrock. 

Shanghai,  or  Shanghae,  shaang'hr :  a  hien  or  district 
city  of  the  province  of  Kiangsu,  China,  and  the  most  im- 
portant emporium  of  foreign  trade  in  the  empire ;  on  the 
west  or  left  bank  of  the  Hwang-pu,  near  its  junction  with 
the  Wu-sung  river,  and  12  miles  above  its  embouchure  into 
the  estuary  of  the  Yangtse-kiang ;  lat.  31°  14'  42"  N.,  Ion. 
12r  28'  55'  E.  (see  map  of  China,  ref.  6-L).  In  shape  it  is 
an  irregular  oval,  surrounded  bv  a  wall  3 J  miles  in  circuit, 
and  pierced  with  seven  gates.  Its  principal  native  suburb 
lies  between  the  east  gate  and  the  river,  and  opposite  this  is 
the  anchorage  for  iunks.  Except  in  the  foreign  settlement, 
which  lies  outside  the  north  gate  and  stretches  N.  and  N.  E.  for 
2  miles  along  the  bank  of  the  river,  the  streets,  both  within 
and  without  the  walls,  are  narrow  and  dirty.  The  foreign 
settlement  consists  of  three  so-called  "  concessions,"  known 
as  the  French,  the  British,  and  the  American  concessions 
respectively.  The  first  mentioned  is  a  narrow  strip  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  a  canal  called  the  Yang-King-pang ;  thence 
for  three-fifths  of  a  mile  to  the  Wu-sung  river  (or  Soo-chow 
creek,  as  it  is  called  by  foreigners)  stretches  the  British 
settlement  (the  first  to  be  laid  out).  Beyond  this  lies  Hon- 
Kew,  called  the  **  American  "  settlement  by  foreigners,  be- 
cause here  the  first  U.  S.  consul  took  up  his  abode.  In  1863 
it  was  incorporated  with  the  British  for  municipal  purposes. 
The  French  settlement  has  its  own  municipal  government. 
There  is  no  restriction,  however,  as  to  the  nationality  of 
residents  or  land-renters  in  any  of  these  concessions.  So 
efficient  has  been  the  municipal  management  of  both  that 
Shanghai  has  earned  the  distinction  of  being  the  "Model 
Settlement "  of  the  East.  The  streets  are  well  made  and 
well  kept,  and  are  lined  with  imposing  buildings.    Those 

Parallel  with  the  Yang-tse  road,  wiiich  runs  along  the  river 
ank,  and  is  known  as  The  Bund,  are  named  after  Chinese 
provinces,  while  the  cross  streets  are  named  after  cities.  Ex- 
cellent roads  constructed  during  the  military  occupation  of 
Shanghai,  when  threatened  by  the  Taipings,  radiate  from 
the  settlement  to  the  W.  and'  S.,  and  are  much  used  for 
driving,  while  a  complicated  systems  of  creeks  and  canals, 
connecting  with  the  Grand  Canal,  makes  communication 
with  the  interior  both  easy  and  inexpensive. 


The  western  half  of  the  Settlement  is  occupied  aliijf« 
entirely  by  Chinese,  for  whose  benefit  a  Mixea  Court  ha- 
been  provided  In  all  civil,  criminal,  and  political  matttr- 
the  subjects  and  citizens  of  the  different  treaty  powers  ur  . 
as  elsewhere  in  China,  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  thr;r 
own  consuls,  except  in  the  cases  of  Great  Britain  and  Ucr- 
many,  which  have  provided  special  courts. 

Shanghai  was  first  opened  to  foreign  residence  and  tra  .• 
in  1848,  in  accordance  with  the  treaty  concluded  at  Nankin- 
in  the  preceding  year,  though  its  importance  as  a  comrnt  r- 
cial  center  had  long  been  recognized.  In  1893,  accordinj;  !<■ 
the  reports  of  the  imperial  maritime  customs,  the  f:r. - 
value  of  the  trade  of  the  port  amounted  to  177,017,tCJ6  hat- 
kwan  or  custom-house  taels  (=$185,868,727  U.  S.  eoii. 
This  included  imports  of  foreign  goods  amounting  tn  m.- 
974,245  taels,  imports  of  native  produce  of  the  gross  val:  • 
of  55,293,713  taels,  and  exports  of  native  produce  of  1«  .ti 
origin  to  the  amount  of  37,749,878  taels.  The  chief  fon  i-i. 
inaports  are  opium,  cotton,  and  woolen  goods,  metals,  ecai. 
window-glass,  indigo,  machinery,  matches,  needles,  sjiihIj:- 
wood,  kerosene  oil,  paper,  sugar,  soap,  planks,  seaweed,  silk. 
skins,  stores,  and  ebony  and  other  woods.  The  countn. - 
from  which  most  of  the  commodities  were  receive<I  are : 

Great  Britain 26,896,967  ta^l^ 

Hongkong 20,524,125     '* 

India 16,729,415     " 

Japan 6,296,51 7     " 

United  States 5,193.534     " 

Continental  Europe,  excluding  Russia.     4,984,866     " 

The  articles  of  native  produce  exported  to  foreign  coun- 
tries include  beans  and  bean-cake,  chinaware,  cloth,  vnv 
cotton,  ground  nuts,  Chinese  drills,  hemp,  medicines,  «»]]., 
paper,  rice,  raw  silk,  rugs,  straw-braid,  sugar,  tea,  tobac., 
wax,  and  wheat.  The  shipping  statistics  show  that  iu  th. 
same  je&T  2,822  steamers,  aggregating  3,147,734  tons.  hiA 
343  sailing  vessels  (117,151  tons)  entered  port;  and  ilm; 
2,821  steamers  (3,154,379  tons)  and  331  sailing  vessels  dlo.- 
606  tons)  cleared.  The  population  of  Shanghai  is  e5timai*  u 
at  400,000,  of  whom  about  2,000  are  foreigners.  K.  L. 

Shan-hai-kwan  [literally,  mountain -sea -barrier]:  a 
strongly  fortified  town  of  China,  pleasantly  situated  on  t!  - 
shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Peh-chih-li,  at  the  eastern  end  of  iit» 
Great  Wall.  It  consists  of  three  towns  separated  by  stni.c 
walls  and  surrounded  by  one  outer  wall.  The  large  inn«-r 
city  is  the  business  center ;  the  inclosure  on  the  E.  is  (m x  u- 
pied  by  official  and  soldiers,  and  that  on  the  W.  by  tra-U-^- 
people  and  soldiers.  The  place  is  said  to  be  impregiial •'.»•. 
It  is  a  station  on  the  Tientsin-Mukden  Railway,  cx)nij'Ii  i'^ 
for  a  few  miles  beyond  Shan-hai-kwan. 

Shannon:  the  largest  river  of  Ireland.  It  rises  in  tti'^ 
county  of  Cavan  at  256  feet  above  sea-level,  flows  first  s.  w 
Limerick,  then  W.,  and  enters  the  Atlantic  throuch  an  i^tn- 
ary  10  miles  wide  at  its  mouth.  In  its  course,  which  i:<  2M 
miles  in  length,  it  forms  several  lakes,  viz. :  Loughs  Al'M-rj, 
Boderg,  Bofin,  Forbes,  Ree,  and  Derg.  Vessels  of  1,000  tovs 
burden  can  ascend  to  Limerick,  and  small  steamers  to  At.i- 
lone.  The  river  is  canalized  between  Limerick  and  Kili.ii"-. 
and  some  distance  below  Athlone.  The  Inny,  Brosna,  .M  .i- 
kear,  Maigue,  and  Deel  fall  into  the  Shannon  on  the  ^f\ 
and  the  Suck  and  the  Fergus  on  the  right. 

Shanny :  a  marine  spiny-rayed  fish  of  the  genus Fhol is,  *»r  a 
related  genus,  of  the  family  Pnolididm.  The  common  shanr.j 
{Pholia  pholi8\  found  in  shoals  on  the  coasts  of  England  ai  •! 
France,  is  usually  about  5  inches  long,  and  is  remarkable  f ■  r 
the  habit  of  creeping,  by  means  of  its  ventral  fins,  out  of  tii* 
water  into  the  crevices  of  the  rocks,  and  there  remaining  iint .; 
the  return  of  the  tide.  It  has  been  known  to  live  Ih.rty 
hours  out  of  salt  water,  but  soon  dies  in  fresh  water.  Tit» 
American  radiated  shanny  {Eumesogrammus  subbifurcath* 
is  found,  though  rarely,  on  the  coasts  of  Massachusetts  ai«i 
New  York. 

Shans :  Burmese  name  for  the  most  numerous  of  ih^ 
races  of  Indo-China,  extending  from  Assam  to  Kwan^tun;:. 
and  from  Yunnan  to  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  though  not  oct  uf^i- 
ing  all  this  territory.  They  form  the  chief  race  of  if>' 
Siamese,  and  are  represented' among  the  Miautze  comimini- 
ties  farther  N.  in  Chinese  territory.  They  probably  no- 
grated  from  the  mountains  of  Sze-chuen,  aiid  appearini  •  'i 
the  upper  waters  of  the  Irawadi  about  2,000  years  ac  . 
Their  languages  are  very  similar,  and  they  are  reroark.-ii  ^ 
homogeneous  in  appearance,  manners,  and  customs,  thouc- 
much  divided  geographically  and  politically. 


462 


SHARON 


and  hounds.  One  of  tlie  commonest  of  these  in  the  Xorth 
Atlantic  is  S^ualtis  aeanthiaa^  with  a  stout  spine  in  each 
dorsal.  Its  liver  is  valued  for  its  oil.  The  small-spotted 
dogfish  {Scylliorhinus  canicula)  and  the  large-spotted  {S, 
cahUus)  are  found  on  the  British  coast. 

The  so-called  false  sharks  are  species  of  another  group, 
iloLOCEPUALi  {q,  v.).  Dr.  Gill,  in  a  revision  of  his  Arrange- 
ment of  the  Families  of  Fishes,  allocates  the  families  to  four 
orders:  Opistharthri,  including  Chlamydoselachidm  and 
HexanchiaoB  {Notidanidce)  ;  Prosarthri,  the  HeterodontidcB 
{Cesiraciontid(t) ;  Tectospondt/li,  the  Echinorhinida,  Oxy- 
notidw,  SqucUidcBy  and  DalatiidiB  (Scymnida) ;  and  Aatero- 
apondyii,  the  remaining  families. 

See  Mliller  and  Uenle,  Sysienuitische  Beschreibungder 
Plagiostomsn  (Berlin,  1841) ;  Hasse,  Natur  System  der  JSlds- 
mobranchier  (Jena,  1879,  and  suppl.,  1885);  and  Balfour, 
A  Moiwgraph  on  th^  Development  of  Flasmobranch  Fishes 
(London,  1878).  See  also  Anoel-fish,  Dogfishes,  Fox 
Shark,  and  Hammerhead.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Sharon :  borough ;  Mercer  co.,  Pa. ;  on  the  Shenan^o 
river,  and  the  Erie,  the  Lake  Shore  and  Mich.  S.,  and  the 
Penn.  railways ;  14  miles  W.  of  Mercer,  41  miles  S.  S.  W.  of 
Meadville  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsvlvania,  ref.  3-A). 
It  contains  2  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $250,- 
000,  a  private  bank,  4  public  schools,  public-school  library 
(founded  in  1877),  Hall  Institute  (Baptist,  chartered  in  1888), 
and  a  daily  and  4  weekly  newspapers.  It  is  principally  en- 
gaged in  mining  coal  and  manufacturing  iron  and  steel, 
having  large  rolling-mills,  blast-furnaces,  foundries  and 
machine-shops,  and  nail-factories.  Pop.  (1880)  5,684  ;  (1890) 
7,459.  Editor  of  "  Telegraph." 

Sharon  Springs :  village ;  Schoharie  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on  the 
Del.  and  Hudson  Railroad ;  20  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Coopers- 
town,  59  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Albany  (for  location,  see  map  of 
New  York,  ref.  5-1).  It  is  a  popular  summer  resort  m  a 
narrow  valley,  1,100  feet  above  sea-level,  surrounded  by  high 
hills,  and  has  four  noted  mineral  springs— chalybeate,  mag- 
nesia, white  sulphur,  and  blue  sulphur — which,  with  a  spring 
of  pure  water,  now  into  a  small  stream  below  a  wooded  bluff 
W.  of  the  village,  after  a  descent  of  65  feet  over  a  ledge  of 
perpendicular  rocks.  Pop.,  permanent  (1880),  627;  (1890) 
623 ;  summer  residents  and  tourists  exceed  10,()00. 

Sharp,  Granville  :  abolitionist ;  b.  at  Durham,  England, 
Nov.  10, 1734;  studied  law,  and  for  several  years  was  a  clerk 
in  the  ordnance  office ;  was  the  chief  patron  of  the  slave 
Somerset  in  suing  for  his  freedom,  whicn  resulted  in  the  fa- 
mous decision  against  the  legality  of  slavery  in  England 
(1772);  resigned  his  post  in  the  ordnance  office  on  account  of 
opposition  to  the  American  war  Apr.,  1777 ;  devoted  him- 
self thenceforth  to  jihilanthropic  objects,  especially  the  over- 
throw of  slavery  and  the  slave-trade ;  was  tne  first  chairman 
of  the  Association  for  the  Abolition  of  Negro  Slavery  in 
1787 ;  was  the  principal  promoter  of  the  colony  of  Sierra 
Leone;  opposed  the  impressment  of  seamen;  advocated 
parliamentary  reform,  and  favored  the  claims  of  Ireland. 
D.  in  London,  July  6, 1813.  He  was  the  author  of  sixty-one 
publications,  chiefly  pamphlets,  in  advocacy  of  the  causes 
to  which  he  devoted  his  life,  philological  tracts  in  favor  of 
Trinitarianism,  and  millenarian  interpretations  of  biblical 
prophecies.  See  his  Memoirs,  by  Prince  Hoare  (1820)  and  by 
Charles  Stuart  (1836). 

Sharp,  James,  D.  D.  :  archbishop ;  b.  in  the  castle  of 
Band,  Scotland,  May  4,  1618;  educated  at  the  University  of 
Aberdeen,  where  he  figured  among  the  students  who  de- 
clared against  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  1638 ;  be- 
came Professor  of  Philosophy  at  St.  Leonard's  College,  St. 
Andrews  164iJ ;  minister  of  Crail,  in  Fifeshire,  1648;  was 
the  representative  of  the  Presbvterians  sent  to  Cromwell 
1656,  to  Monk  and  to  Charles  II.  1660;  was  appointed  king's 
chaplain  for  Scotland  and  Professor  of  Divinity  in  St. 
Marv*s  College,  St.  Andrews;  consecrated  Archbishop  of 
St.  Andrews  and  Primate  of  Scotland  upon  an  Episcopalian 
foundation  Dec,  1661 ;  was  regarded  as  a  tool  of  Charles  in 
the  persecution  of  the  Covenanters,  and  consequently  assas- 
sinated by  "a  band  of  nine  enthusiasts*'  on  Magus  Muir, 
St.  Andrews,  May  3,  1679.  llevised  by  S.  iM.  Jackson. 

Sharp,  John,  D.  D.  :  archbishop ;  b.  at  Bradford,  York- 
shire, England,  Feb.  16,  1644;  educated  at  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  on  leaving  which  he  became  chaplain  to  Sir 
Heneage  Finch,  then  attorney-general,  through  whom  he 
obtained  the  archdeaconry  of  Berkshire  16?2 :  a  prebend  at 
Norwich  1675 ;  the  rectorship  of  St.  Bartholomew,  London, 


SHAW 

1676;  of  St.  Giles-in-the-Fields  1677;  and  the  deanery  •! 
Norwich  1681.  He  became  chaplain  to  Charles  II.  ai.'- 
James  11.,  by  whom  he  was  deprived  of  his  preferment >  f<  r 
preaching  against  his  policy  1686.  On  the  acce^^ion  •>! 
\Villiam  and  Mary  he  became  dean  of  Canterbur>'  l»>*«t*. 
and  Archbishop  of  York  1691.  D.  at  Bath,  Feb.  2,  ITlt 
Seven  volumes  of  his  Sermons  were  published  in  1709. 

Sharpe,  Samuel  :  Egyptologist ;  b.  in  London,  Mar.  *». 
1799.  Though  a  London  oanker,  he  was  best  known  on  a.  • 
count  of  his  accomplishments  in  the  study  of  the  Orioiit.i. 
languages,  Hebrew,  Coptic,  and  the  Ep^yptian  hieroglyplij»  •. 
He  was  also  a  careful  writer  on  histoncal  subjects  coniu-ct^ri 
with  his  linguistic  studies.  Of  his  numerous  works,  f- 
following  are  the  most  notable :  The  Holy  Bible  Tran^lnt'd, 
being  a  lietnsion  of  the  Authorized  English  Version  (ls*^» 
7%e  New  Testament,  Translated  from  OriesbacKs  Trj: 
(1840;  5th  ed.  1862) ;  History  of  the  Hebrew  Natimi  and  >t. 
Literature  (1869;  4th  ed.  1882);  Texts  from  the  Holy  ^r  - 
Explained  by  the  Help  of  the  Ancient  Monuments  (1866 :  l'<. 
ed.  1869) ;  Hebrew  Scriptures  Translated  (3  vols.,  !><«',  . 
The  Chromlogy  of  the  Bible  (1868) ;  Short  Hebrew  Gm 


A.D.  640  (1846;  6th  ed.  2  vols.,  1876;  this  work  coml.:ii.  . 
three  previous  publications  in  what  was  their  second  etlitu  n 
in  revised  form,  viz. :  Early  History  of  Egypt,  1838 ;  Ap  v; » 
under  the  Ptolemies,  1838;  and  Egypt  under  the  Romn.\ 
1842);  Alexandrian  Chronology  (1^7) ;  Egyptian  My'Ut^- 
o^y  and  Egyptian  Christianity  (1863);  Egy^ian  Jn>^ni>- 
ttons  from  the  British  Museum  (several  series,  1837--*»')  ; 
Vocabulary  of  Egyptian  Hieroglyphics  (1837) ;  The  Tr'j.'f 
Mummy-ca^e  ofAroeri-ao  (1858) ;  Egyptian  Hiero^lyj'htr^^ : 
being  an  attempt  to  Explain  their  Nature^  Origin.  "'>-' 
Meaning  (1861) ;  Egyptian  Antiquities  in  the  British  }i'<- 
seum  Described  (1862) ;  The  Decree  of  Canopus  (1869) :  r  - 
Rosetta  Stone  (1871);  and  Hebrew  Inscriptions  frum  *l^ 
Valleys  between  Egypt  a  fid  Mf.  Sinai  (2  parts,  *187">-7« . 
D.  in  London,  July  28, 1881.  A  biography  appeared  in  l^*<^^ 
written  by  P.  W.  Clayden.  Charles  R.  GiLLtrr. 

Sharpsburgr:  borough;  Allegheny  co..  Pa.;  on  the  Al- 
legheny river,  and  the  Penn.  and  the  Pitts,  and  West,  rail- 
ways ;  5  miles  N.  E.  of  Pittsburg  (for  location,  see  map  oi 
Pennsylvania,  ref.  5-B).  It  is  in  a  coal-mining  region,  ai>i 
contains  rolling-mills,  blast-furnaces,  foundries,  a  Stat*' 
bank  with  capital  of  $50,0(X),  and  two  weekly  newspaix- rs. 
Pop.  (1880)  8,466 ;  (1890)  4,898. 

SharpBburgr:  a  village  in  Washington  co.,  Marvlan^l: 
lying  between  the  Antietam  and  Potomac  rivers  (S4*e  niap 
of  Maryland,  ref.  2-D).  It  was  the  scene  of  the  battle  of 
Antietam  Sept  17,  1862.    Pop.  (1890)  1,163,    See  Antietim. 

SharpsYille:  borough  (organized  in  1874);  Mercer  iv.. 
Pa. ;  on  the  Shenango  river,  and  the  Erie,  the  Penn.,  an<l 
the  Sharpsville  railways;  8  miles  N.  R  of  Sharon,  11  nuU> 
S.  S.  W.  of  Greenville  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pen nsy Ivan. .». 
ref.  3-A).  It  is  in  a  coal-mining  region,  is  engaged  in  :'• 
manufacture  of  pig  iron,  and  contains  7  churches,  2  puM.<  - 
school  buildings,  a  private  bank,  and  a  weeklv  newspufnT. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,824;  (1890)  2,330;  (1895)  estimate'd,  3,0(K). 

Editor  of  "  Adveetiser." 

Shashanq :  See  Shishak. 

Shasta,  Monnt :  See  Rocky  Mountains. 

Shas'tra  [from  Sanskr.  pdstro',  order,  command,  sarr«^i 
book,  deriv.  of  (ds-,  order,  instruct,  govern] :  a  name  «i»- 
plied  to  the  authoritative  books  of  the  Hindus  upon  re l:!:- 
lon  and  civil  and  religious  law.  The  principal  work^  f 
this  class  are  collectively  called  Dharma-s  Ctstra,  or  "  Law 
Shastra." 

Shatt-el-Arab :  See  Euphrates. 

Hhaw,  Albert,  Ph.  D. :  journalist  and  author;  b.  at  Now 
London,  O.,  July  23,  1857 ;  graduated  in  1879  at  Iowa  CVl- 
lege,  Grinnell,  la. ;  became  a  journalist  in  Iowa;  also  stifi- 
ied  at  Johns  Hopkins  University ;  in  1883  became  connti  leil 
with  the  Minneapolis  Daily  Tribune  as  an  editorial  wriitr. 
but  completed  his  work  at  Johns  Hopkins,  and  received  fn^rj 
that  institution  in  1884  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.;  returnoJ  t-. 
Minneapolis  and  became  chief  of  the  editorial  staff  of  ihe 
Tribune,  which  position  he  held  until  1891.  with  the  extv^^ 
tion  of  a  year  and  a  half  (1888-89^  in  Europe,  which  wa> 
devoted  largely  to  the  study  of  municipal  government.  lie 
declined  professorships  in  several  colleges,  and  in  181H)  be- 
came the  founder  and  editor  of  the  American  edition  of 


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464 


SHEAFFE 


SHEDD 


fifteen  volumes  of  grammars  and  dictionaries  of  Indian  lan- 
guages (1860-74) ;  edited  The  Hiatorical  Magazine  (1859-65) ; 
and  published  The  Catholic  Church  in  Colonial  Days  (1883) ; 
The  Hierarchy  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States 
(1886) ;  Life  and  Times  of  Archbishop  Carroll  (1888) ;  and 
three  of  five  projected  volumes  on  The  History  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  in  the  United  States.  D.  at  Elizabeth,  N.  J., 
Feb.  22, 1892.  Revised  by  G.  J.  Haoab. 

Sheaffe,  Sir  Rooer  Hale  :  soldier ;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass., 
July  15, 1763 ;  obtained  a  commission  in  the  British  army, 
1778,  through  Earl  Percy,  whose  headquarters  had  been  at 
his  mother*s  house  in  Boston  three  years  before ;  served  in 
Holland  1799,  and  in  the  expedition  to  the  Baltic  1801; 
served  in  Canada  1802-11,  and  again  1812-13 ;  had  risen  to 
the  rank  of  major-general  in  1811 ;  took  command  of  the 
British  forces  at  the  battle  of  Queenstown,  after  the  death 
of  Gen.  Brock,  and  succeeded  in  inflicting  a  serious  defeat 
upon  the  American  invaders,  for  which  service  he  was  made 
a  baronet  Jan.  16,  1813;  defended  York  (now  Toronto) 
against  the  attack  of  Apr.,  1813;  became  full  general  in 
1828,  and  colonel  of  the  Thirty-sixth  Regiment  in  1829. 
D.  in  Edinburgh,  July  17, 1861. 

Shearman,  Thomas  Gaskell:  lawyer  and  writer  on 
economic  subjects;  b.  in  Birmingham,  England,  Nov.  25, 
1834.  His  parents  removed  to  New  York  when  he  was  nine 
years  of  age ;  he  was  educated  privately ;  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1859;  has  practiced  law  for  manv  years  in  New 
York  and  Brookl vn ;  was  counsel  for  Henry  Ward  Beecher  in 
his  trials;  Republican  in  politics  from  1856-80;  since  1880 
has  devoted  most  of  his  time,  outside  of  business,  to  the 
propa^tion  of  free-trade  ideas,  always  declining  public  of- 
fice ;  joint  author  of  Law  of  Practice  and  Pleadings  (1861- 
65) ;  Law  of  Negliaence  (four  editions,  1870-88) ;  and  au- 
thor of  Talks  on  Free  Trade  (1881) ;  Does  Protection  Pro- 
tect f  (1883) ;  Pauper  Labor  of  Europe  (1885) ;  Distribution 
of  Wealth  (1887) ;  The  Single  Tax  (1887) ;  Henry  George's 
Mistake  (1889);  Who  Gum  the  United  States  f  (1889); 
Crooked  Taxation  (1890);  Natural  TW^/ton  (1891). 

Shearwater :  any  one  of  several  birds  of  the  genus  Puf- 
finus,  and  the  family  Procellariidce,  The  greater  shear- 
water {Pufflnus  major)  is  from  18  to  20  inches  in  length, 
and  the  Manx  shearwater  (P.  anglorum)  about  15.  They 
are  often  seen  hundreds  of  miles  from  land.  The  majority 
are  brown  or  cinerous  above  and  white  below;  but  the 
sooty  shearwater  (P.  fuligifwsus)  is  an  almost  uniform  sooty 
brown ;  the  tail  is  rather  long  and  rounded ;  the  feet  larc^e ; 
the  tarsus  shotter  than  the  middle  digit ;  the  nasal  tubes 
are  short,  flat,  and  obliquely  truncated,  instead  of  being 
pronounced,  as  in  the  true  petrels.    See  Pbocellaaiid^. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Sheathblll :  any  bird  of  the  family  Chionididije,  Only 
two  species  are  known,  and  both  are  inhabitants  of  the  south- 
ern hemisphere— one,  Chionis  alha,  being  native  to  the  Falk- 
land islands,  etc.,  and  the  other,  Chionis  or  Chionarchus 
minor y  peculiar  to  Kerguelen's  island.  Much  difference  of 
opinion  has  prevailed  among  naturalists  respecting  the  re- 
lations of  these  birds  to  others  in  the  class,  some  having  re- 
garded them  as  waders  (Grallce),  others  as  swimmers  (Longi- 
pennes),  and  others  still  as  gallinaceous  forms.  They  are 
now  generally  placed  with  the  waders,  near  the  peculiar 
plover-like  Olareola,  but  they  also  have  undoubted  affinities 
with  the  gulls.  In  their  economy  and  habits  they  strongly 
resemble  pigeons  and  fowl ;  according  to  Kidder,  who  stud- 
ied the  species  of  Kerguelen's  island  in  life,  the  "  observer  is 
first  struck  by  the  strong  resemblance  which  Chionis  bears 
to  the  piceons  in  general  appearance,  gait,  and  mode  of 
flight.  The  general  shape  of  the  body  is  of  an  ordinary 
columbine  character,  the  head  being  notably  small,  as  usual 
in  that  group,  the  neck  short  and  full,  and  the  body  plump ; 
the  tail,  moreover,  having  but  twelve  rectrices."  "  Tne  feet, 
in  almost  every  particular,  are  thoroughly  gallinaceous,  even 
to  the  character  of  the  marginal  fringe  of  the  toes."  In  color, 
however,  they  recall  rather  the  characteristics  of  the  gulls 
than  of  either  gallinaceous  or  columbine  forms.  "  On  the 
other  hand,  the  bird's  omnivorous  diet,  habits  under  confine- 
ment, easy  domestication,  dislike  of  water,  entire  inal)ility 
to  swim,  and  many  other  points  in  its  habits  are  strongly 
gallinaceous  characteristics,  by  so  much  removing  it  from 
the  vicinity  of  either  grallatorial  or  natatorial  birds."  Never- 
theless, the  indications  furnislied  by  the  skeleton  outweigh 
all  such  superficial  correspondences*  and  conclusively  prove 
that  the  birds  in  question  are  derivatives  from  gull-like  (and 
therefore  primarily  natatorial)  types,  but  modified  for  terres- 


trial life.  They  are  omnivorous  in  diet,  feeding  upon  ve^.'- 
table  substances  (seaweeds,  etc.).  molluscs,  and  eggs.  C  'A  lo/n^ 
cUba  has  a  total  length  of  17  inches  or  more,  and  C,  m//..^ 
about  14  or  15  inches.  They  are  called  white  paddy  i  \ 
whalers.  Rensed  by  F.  A.  Luca^.  ' 

Sheathlnff :  a  covering  for  a  ship's  bottom,  made  of  >hi  <  t 
copper,  and  first  introduced  about  1800.  It  not  onlv  j?er>r. 
to  protect  wooden  ships  from  boring-shrimps,  tere<)os.  ari<i 
other  small  destructive  animals,  but  to  a  great  extent  it  j>n  • 
vents  the  fouling  of  the  bottom  by  seawe^s  and  bamacK^. 

Sheba,  or  Saba  [from  Heb.  Sh*bhd\  or  Shebhff\  .' 
shehha\  seven] :  the  name  of  three  persons  in  the  Old  Te^rn- 
ment :  (1)  A  great-grandson  of  Ham  (Gen.  x.  7),  who  ap{*<  ar- 
te have  settl^  somewhere  on  or  near  the  shores  of  the  l\i- 
sian  Gulf.  (2)  The  tenth  of  the  thirteen  sons  of  Jukrnn 
(Gen.  X.  28),  who  settled  in  Southern  Arabia,  and  gave  in- 
name  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Sabaeans,  whose  queen  vi-it -: 
Solomon  in  Jerusalem  (1  Kings  x.  1-13).  (S)  A  grandson  <>f 
Abraham  and  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv.  1-3),  whose  des«.eniiui/* 
were  nomads,  in  close  connection  with  the  descendant.-  <f 
the  Hamitic  Sheba  mentioned  above.  The  same  name  in  & 
slightly  different  form  occurs  in  the  Old  Testament  as  \\.\' 
(4)  of  the  Benjamit«  who  revolted  against  David,  wa<  <]•  - 
feated  by  Joab,  and  beheaded  by  the  people  of  Aliel-Ktb 
maachah,  where  he  had  taken  refuge;  (5)  of  a  Gadite  •! 
Chron.  v.  13) ;  and  (6)  of  a  town  in  Simeon. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacks<is. 

Shebojr'gan :  city  (settled  in  1836,  chartered  as  a  yiW'A-z" 
in  1846,  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1853);  capital  of  Slit!"  ^- 
gan  CO.,  Wis.;  on  Lake  Michigan, at  the  mouth  of  the  >lt- 
boygan  river,  and  on  the  Chi.  and  N.  W.  Railway:  52  iin.t- 
N.  of  Milwaukee,  and  137  miles  N.  of  Chicago  (for  hx  aiiri. 
see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  6-F).  It  has  an  excellent  Imrt'  : 
and  a  large  lake  commerce,  particularly  in  lumber,  coa].  m  i 
tan  bark.  A  line  of  steamers  connects  the  city  with  >i 
waukee,  Chicago,  and  other  points  on  the  lake,  and  the  n>.!- 
way  and  its  branches  make  the  city  the  trade-center  «)f  i 
large  and  rich  agricultural  region.  There  are  two  pui-:. 
parks,  one  of  which,  Fountain,  contains  an  artesian  ^^  . 
whose  waters  are  strongly  impregnated  with  mineral  nh  - 
and  form  an  important  article  of  commerce.  The  c\\\  > 
lighted  by  gas  and  electricity,  derives  its  supply  of  w.i:-' 
from  the  lake,  is  well  sewered,  and  has  an  efficient  >trf.  •- 
railway  service.  Amon^  the  public  institutions  an-  1^ 
churches,  high,  grammar,  mtermediate,  and  primary  s<  Ik--  - 
kindergartens,  Roman  Catholic  and  Lutheran  pans  t  t-i. 
schools.  Day  School  for  the  Deaf,  hospital,  insane  h.'-yUw 
and  Home  for  the  Friendless.  In  connection  with  the  | u- 
lic  schools  is  a  library  of  8,000  volumes.  There  are  2  >ui'> 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  $300,000,  and  3  daily  aixt  T 
weekly  newspapers.  The  assessed  valuations  in  181)2  Siur- 
gated  $5,415,080.  Sheboygan  is  particularly  noteil  f<>r  !'- 
manufacture  of  chairs  and  other  furniture.  There  arv  'p 
chair-factories,  which  employ  about  2,000  persons  and  lur: 
out  7,000  chairs  per  day.  About  40,000  feet  of  lunil>er  ^r 
used  daily  in  the  manufacture  of  funiiture.  The  van  i!« 
manufacturing  industries  employ  about  5,500  persons,  wh 
receive  in  wages  about  $225,000  per  month.  Other  imj  r- 
tant  establishments  are  2  manufactories  of  enamehHi  wa'- . 
2  boot  and  shoe  factories.  3  foundries  and  machine-sh<>(  ^.  ^ 
tanneries,  2  carriage-factories,  2  breweries,  and  maiiufa 
tories  of  toys,  office  and  hotel  furniture  and  fixtures  vtin-fr. 
folding-beds,  venetian-blinds,  wire-mattresses,  and  oxif  i'^  •  r 
bottle- wrappers.  There  are  also  dry  docks.  brick-y»'N 
lime-kilns,  a  ship-vard.  and  5  large  cheese-warehoust*?*. '  i'-i 
(1880)  7,314 ;  (1896)  16,359 ;  (1894)  21.018.    J.  E.  Riordan. 

Shechem :  See  Nablus. 

ShechPnah  [from  Late  ITeb.  «A<' AAlna A,  dwelling,  pr.- 
ence,  deriv.  of  sndkhan,  dwell] :  a  name  which  first  »[.}•*  .»r^ 
in  the  Jerusalem  Targum  to  designate  the  Divine  Prc^* :  <  • 
wherever  it  exists  in  a  special  manner,  but  more  particular  \ 
as  manifested  in  the  holy  of  holies  within  the  ancient  sii. 
tuary  of  Israel. 

Shedd,  William  Greenovoh  Thayer,  D.  D.,  LL.D.:  th 
ologian :  son  of  a  clergyman;  b.  at  Acton,  Mass..  Jtin«-  Ji. 
1820;  graduated  at  University  of  Vermont  in  1H;W.  aii'i  »* 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1H43;  was  past  or  of  tft 
Congregational  church  in  Brandon,  Vt.,  1844-45;  Pr«»f»^-  ' 
of  English  Literature  in  the  University  of  Vermont  1M.'»- 
52:  Professor  of  Sacred  Rhetoric  and  Pastoral  The«»lo  '• 
Auburn  Theological  Seminary  1853-53 ;  Professor  of  Fa  -  '  I 
siastical  History  and  lecturer  on  pastoral  theology  in  Ati'J  - 


\ 


466 


SHEEPSHEAD 


SOELBURNE 


sought  for  in  all  the  mutton  breeds.  Medium-sized  lambs 
of  quick  development,  compact  build,  and  gooil  quality 
stand  high  in  favor  in  the  markets,  and  they  can  be  raised 
at  a  minimum  of  cost.  It  is  generally  considercKl  more 
profitable  to  dispose  of  them  before  they  pass  the  age  of  one 
year.  Thomas  Shaw. 

Sheepshead :  a  well-known  fish  {Arehosargus  probata- 
cephalus)  of  the  family  Sparidm,  found  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  U.  S.  south  of  Cape  Cod,  but  most  abundant  in  the 
warmer  waters.  The  name  is  given  in  allusion  to  a  fancied 
resemblance  of  the  head  to  that  of  a  sheep,  produced  by  the 
form  and  color  as  well  as  the  cutting  teeth  of  the  jaws.  *  The 
body  is  deep  and  robust  with  the  back  arched ;  the  dorsal 
fin,  has  twelve  spines  and  eleven  rays,  and  is  preceded  by  a 
recuml)ent  spine ;  the  anal  fin  has  three  spines  and  ten  rays ; 
the  color  is  gra}',  with  about  seven  blackish  bands ;  the  front 
teeth  are  broad' and  incisor-like,  the  lateral  teeth  molars,  and 
in  several  rows.  The  sheepshead  sometimes  exceeds  2  feet 
in  length,  although  averagmg  less.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
esteemed  fishes  found  in  American  waters,  and  on  account 
of  the  delicacy  of  its  flesh  has  been  likened  to  the  English 
turbot.  It  is  also  highly  regarded  as  a  game-fish.  It  feeds 
chiefly  on  molluscs  and  crustaceans,  and  its  molar  teeth  and 
stout  jaws  are  eminently  adapted  for  breaking  shells.  The 
fresh-water  drum  {Haplodinotus  gmnniena)  is  among  the 
fishes  loosely  called  sheepshead  in  the  U.  S. 

Sheep-tick:  a  wingless  parasitic  insect  {Melophagns 
otnnus)  of  the  order  Diptera  and  family  Uippoboscidce,  often 
extremely  annoying  to  sheep.  There  are  various  arsenical 
washes  which  will  destroy  tliem ;  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
is  also  recommended  for  "the  purpose. 

Sheeraz :  Sec  Shiraz. 

Sheerness':  a  strongly  fortified  seaport  in  Kent,  Eng- 
land ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Medway,  at  its  junction  with 
the  Thames :  52  miles  by  rail  E.  of  London  (see  map  of  Eng- 
land, ref.  12-L).  The  Harlwr  is  safe  and  commodious,  and, 
being  almost  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames  estuary,  is  often 
crowded  with  vessels.  The  Government  dockyard,  with  wet 
and  dry  docks,  storehouses,  etc.,  covers  60  acres.  The  prin- 
cipal trade  is  due  to  the  ovster-ftsheries.  Sheerness  is  also  a 
favorite  summer  resort,    top.  (1891)  13,841. 

Sheffield :  town ;  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land ;  at  the  junction  of  the  Sheaf  and  the  Don ;  41  miles  E. 
of  Manchester  and  165  miles  N,  N.  W.  of  London  (see  map  of 
England,  ref.  7-11).  It  is  situated  at  the  foot  and  on  the  slopes 
of  a  range  of  hills,  and  is  generally  well  built,  a  street-improve- 
ment scheme  having  been  carried  out  after  1875.  Noticeable 
among  its  public  buildings  are  the  i)arish  church  of  St.  Peter, 
erected  in  the  reign  of  Ilenrv  I. ;  St.  Marv's  Roman  Catholic 
church  (ia50);  the  Cutlers' 'Hall,  the  Albert  Hall,  the  new 
market-hall  (1851),  and  the  new  town-hall,  crowne<l  with  a 
statue  of  Vulcan.  Among  educational  institutions  are  the 
Firth  College  (1879),  with  thirteen  professors  or  lecturers, 
the  Technical  School,  the  Wesley  College,  and  the  Free 
Grammar  School.  The  St.  George's  Museum,  founded  by 
Ruskin  in  1890,  contains  a  collectirm  of  engravings,  min- 
erals, etc.,  and  the  Mappin  Art  Gallery  has  a  fine  collec- 
tion of  pictures.  There  are  several  public  parks  and  exten- 
sive botanical  gardens.  The  cutlery  business  of  Sheffield 
dates  from  very  early  times.  The  Sheffield  whittle  of 
Chaucer  was  the  common  knife  used  by  those  whose  social 
rank  did  not  permit  them  to  carry  a  sword.  The  Cutlei-s' 
Company  was  founded  in  1624,  but  Sheffield  was  of  little 
importunoe  up  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Sheffield  Castle,  rebuilt  in  1270,  was  the  place  of  imprison- 
ment of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  (1572-86).  It  was  taken  by 
the  parliamentary  army  in  1644,  and  shortly  afterward  was 
demolished.  Sheffield  is  the  center  in  Kngland  of  the  manu- 
facture of  knives,  files,  saws,  carriuge-springs,  boilers,  stoves, 
grates,  buttons,  and  all  kinds  of  agricultural,  mechanical, 
medical,  and  optical  instruments.  Silver-plating  and  brit- 
annia  metal  were  botli  invented  here,  and  have  given  rise 
to  a  comprehensive  manufacturing  industry.  Since  1871 
rails,  rail  way -springs,  tires,  steel  blocks  for  liaval  and  mili- 
tary artillery,  and  arinor-i)lates  have  been  largely  manufac- 
tured. Sheffield  returns  nve  members  to  Parliaiiient.  l*on. 
(1894),  3:J8,316.  R.  A.  I{oberts. 

Sheffield:  city  (founded  in  1H84):  Colbert  co..  Ala. ;  on 
the  Tennessee  river,  and  the  Ririn..  Shef.  and  Tenn.  Kiv., 
the  Louisv.  and  Nash  v.,  and  the  Memphis  and  Charleston 
railways;  2  miles  W.  of  Tuscumhia,  the  county-seat  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Alabama,  ref.  1-B).    It  is  in  an  agri- 


cultural region,  and  contains  8  church  organizations,  sevt-rn! 
public  schools,  5  blast-furnaces,  and  2  weekly  papers.  Pi  u. 
(1890)  2.781 ;  (1894)  about  1,200.       Editor  of  **  Kkaper." 

Sheffield,  Johk,  Duke  of  Buckinghamshire  and  Nonnnfi- 
hj:  statesman  and  poet;  b.  in  England  in  1649;  8uccit(].*i 
his  father  as  Earl  of  Mulgrave  1658;  served  in  the  I>iii.'i 
wars  of  1666  and  1672;  became  privy  councilor  and  1*  ri 
chamlierlain  in  1685;  favored  the  revolution  of  lOW:  w  .^ 
made  Duke  of  Normanby  in  1694,  lord  privy  seal  «?..: 
Duke  of  Buckinghamshire  in  1708,  and  built  in  St.  .lanir-'^ 
Park  the  residence  now  known  as  Buckingham  Palaet-  nu'. 
belonging  to  the  crown.  He  was  said  to  have  been  an  eur.v 
lover  of  Queen  Anne;  was  author  of  some  p<^ms  wliich  ••!  - 
joyed  fame  during  his  own  generation,  ana  was  a  friimi  •  f 
Dryden,  to  whose  memory  he  erecte<l  a  monument  in  \Vt-- 
minster  Abbey.  D.  Feb.  24, 1721.  Besides  minor  ihkmh-  ' ' 
wrote  a  metrical  Essay  on  Satire  and  an  Essay  on  /V'/^. 
His  poetical  works  were  first  printed  in  1728. 

Sheh&b-Eddin :  See  Chehab-Eddin. 

Shehr,  or  Sahar:  town;  in  South  Arabia,  on  the  (i>  ' 
of  Aden ;  manufactures  coarse  cotton  cloth,  and  currit  >  • '. 
a  brisk  general  trade,  though  it  has  no  harbor,  but  only  nr 
o{)en  roadstead.  Pop.  probably  5,000.  Four  miles  K!  h 
remains  of  another  town  of  the  same  name,  once  iniiM.ni.i :. 
but  now  a  decayed  fishing- village.  E.  A.  (i. 

Sheik  [from  Arab,  sheikh,  shaykh,  elder,  venerabl.-  .  ' 
man,  chief,  deriv.  of  shdkha,  grow  old,  be  old]:  a  li*  . 
among  Arabs  applied  to  the  head  of  a  trilie.  Anionjr  Mi.- 
sulmans  in  general  it  is  prefixed  to  the  name  of  a  reli^'.- 1* 
dignitary,  or  one  versed  in  theology,  or  a  reputed  saini. 

Sheikh-ul-Islam :  See  Mufti. 

Shell,  Richard  La  lor:  patriot  and  orator;  h.  at  Dm:  • 
downey,  Tipperary,  Ireland,  Aug.  17,  1791;  was  tilu«  «•  i 
at  the  Jesuit  College,  Stony  hurst,  England,  and  graiina*.! 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  1811 ;  studied  law  at  Line  : 
Inn;  was*  called  to  the  bat  at  Dublin  1814;  wn»t«»  st^«^ 
successful  dramas;  contributed  Sketches  of  the  Irish  /.'■' 
to  Campbell's -AVir  Monthly  Magazine,  repnblisheil  in  i- 
U.  S.  by  R.  S.  Mackenzie  (New  \  ork,  2  vols.,  1854):  Un  :.i. . 
an  effective  popular  orator  in  the  agitation  for  Roman  Ca'  - 
olic  emancipation;  was  chosen  by  the  Catholic  Ass*Hiwti.  ;■ 
in  conjunction  with  O'Connell,  to  represent  that  Ixniy  at  i;  - 
bar  of  the  House  of  Lords  1825;  was  active  in  prom*»i  u 
the  election  of  O'Connell  to  Parliament  in  1828;  whs  1.,..- 
self  chosen  member  for  Milburne  Port  shortly  aftt-r  t  ■ 
passage  of  the  Relief  Act  1829 ;  was  returned  for" the  r.-m.' » 
of  Louth  1831,  and  later  for  Timierary  and  Dungarvaii :  n- 
came  noted  as  a  brilliant  and  effective  parliamentary  nr.i'-  r 
and  aided  O'Connell  for  several  years  in  his  campai^jn  \  ' 
the  repeal  of  the  Union,  until  1838,  when  he  ac'cij'tr-i  • 
sinecure  post  of  commissioner  of  Greenwich  Ilospital.  1 
subsequently  became  vice-president  of  the  Boanl  of  Tr.i .  . 
meml)er  of  the  privy  council  18ii9,  and  ju(lgc-adv«h.r.- 
general  1841 ;  was  master  of  the  mint  1846--50.  and  wa- ..  - 
pointetl  minister  to  Tuscany  1850.  D.  in  Floreniv,  M.^^  .'  . 
1851.  His  Memoirs  wi^re  written  by  W.  Torrens  >!<(  ul... 
(2  vols.,  1855);  a  collection  of  his  Speeches  was  publi'*}!.  !  *. 
London,  1845,  and  his  Sj)eeche8,  Legal  and  l\jlittcah  in  1^"'- 
— His  vounger  brother,  Sir  Jistin  Sheil,  became  iuj  • 
general  and  minister  to  Persia,  and  aided  his  wife  n.  ^ 
pre[>aration  of  a  valuable  work,  Glintftses  of  Life  ami  M  • 
fiers  in  Persia  (1856).  Revised  by  H.  A.  iJttKv 

Shekel  [from  Heb.  shegel,  shekel  (liter.,  a  weight  >.  «It  r  . 
of  shdqal,  weigh  ;  cf.  Gr.  alyKos,  shekel] :  a  standnnl  vt .:.  : 
among  the  ancient  Israelites,  and  also  a  coin  of  goM,  m'^  '. 
or  copper,  originally  of  a  shekel's  weight.  The  shokt'l  «'f  '  - 
sanctuary  (Ex.  xxx.'  13 ;  Num.  iii.  47)  was  made  of  sih rr  a  i 
was  equal  to  20  gerahs  (FIzek.  xlv.  12),  or  about  54  «-.  i/-. 
There  were  other  kinds  of  shekels.  The  gold  shekel  ^^  '^ 
worth  about  $5.69;  the  copjier  shekel,  a  little  nmre  tf..ii  •* 
cents.  Reviseil  by  S.  M,  JArKM  n. 

Sherbnrne:   a  seaport;   capital  of  Shelburne  r<.ii:"\. 
Nova  Scotia ;  141  miles  S.  \V.  of  Halifax  (see  map  of  t^':-  ■  • 
etc.,  ref.  8-B).    It  has  a  verv  fine  harlxn*.   Shelburnt*  1  j^"  * 
on  Cape  Roseway,  are  in  lat.  43'  38-5'  N.,  Ion.  65    l')-''  \\ 
There  is  excellent  water-power,  affoHed  by  the  river  Iv.-**- 
way.     Fishing,  commerce,  and  ship-buildine  are  exifii^  ^    ' 

Pursued,  and  the  port  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  pn»N:i" 
'he  place  has  lost  greatly  in  importance.    Durint:  tin  v.  ] 
for  American  indei>enderice  it  was  the  center  of  loyal, -r  ir 
flueme,  and  then  had  about  12,000  inhabitants.    Pop.  J."''" 
Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrim.t.'N. 


468 


SHELDRAKE 


professor  (1876-82)  and  Professor  (since  1882)  of  Historical 
Theology  in  Boston  University.  He  has  published  History 
of  Chnstian  Dodrim  (2  vols..  New  York,  1886)  and  His- 
tory of  the  Christian  Church  (5  vols.,  1894).  A.  O. 

Sheldrake,  or  Shieldrake  [sheldrake  is  from  Eng. 
sheld,  variegated,  spotted  +  drake ;  cf .  O.  N.  skjoldungr  ( < 
skjdldr,  a  patch);  shieldrake  is  identified  with  the  second- 
ary meaning  of  skjoldr,  shield,  given  in  allusion  to  the 
markings  on  the  breast] :  a  river-duck  of  either  of  the  genera 
Tndorna  and  Casarca.  The  common  sheldrake  {Tadoma 
tadonia  or  cornuta)  is  about  the  size  of  a  goose,  and  has  a 
red  bill  with  a  basal  protuberance,  head  and  neck  green, 
with  a  white  collar  below,  and  a  brown  belt  extending 
across  the  upper  portion  of  the  back.  The  shoulders  and  a 
median  abdominal  stripe  are  black,  the  speculum  is  green, 
and  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  wliite.  It  is  found  on  sandy 
seacoasts  in  the  OUi  World,  making  nests  lined  with  down 


The  common  sheldrake  of  Europe. 

in  abandoned  rabbit-burrows.  The  ruddy  sheldrake  or 
I5rahuiiny  duck  {Casarca  rutila)  is  found  mostly  in  South- 
eastern Europe  and  in  Asia.  Casarca  tadomoides  and  C 
variegata  inhabit  Australia  and  New  Zealand  respectively, 
and  are  plain-colored.  The  so-called  sheldrakes  of  North 
America  are  mergansers. 

Shellac,  or  Shell-lac ;  See  Lac. 

Sheller,  Aleksande  MikhaIlovich :  author;  b.  in  St. 
Petersburg,  Russia,  July  30,  1888;  educated  at  the  univer- 
sity in  that  city ;  interested  himself  in  questions  of  popular 
education,  and  founded  a  school  for  the  poor  which,  at  first 
very  successful,  incurred  the  suspicions  of  the  Government 
and  came  to  an  end  in  1863.  In  the  same  year  lie  published 
his  earliest  verses,  and  in  1864  Onilyla  Bolola  (Dank 
Marshes),  a  novel  that  had  numerous  successors,  among  the 
best  of  which  are  Khleba  i  Zrelistch  (Bread  and  Amuse- 
ments); Des  rublat'Stchepki  letlat  (When  Wood  is  cut 
Splinters  fly);  and  Chuzhie  Orekhi  (The  Sins  of  Others). 
In  1877  he  became  editor  of  the  Zhivopisnoe  Obozrenie;  he 
has  also  written  on  questions  of  religion  and  sociology,  and 
is  especially  known  for  a  History  of  Communism  in  three  vol- 
umes. A.  C.  COOLIDOE. 

Shelley.  Mary  Wollstonecraft  (Godwin):  author; 
daughter  of  William  Godwin  and  Mary  Wollstonecraft ;  b. 
in  London,  England,  Aug.  30,  1797  :  educated  in  accordance 
with  the  peculiar  social  theories  of  her  par^its;  married 
the  poet  Snelley  Dec.  30,  1816,  after  having  lived  with  him 
two  years  previously  to  the  death  of  his  first  wife.  She  was 
the  author  of  Frankefistein,  or  the  Modern  Prometheus 
(1818),  a  singular  novel,  displaying  great  power,  of  Valperga 
(1823),  Lodore  (1835).  and  other  less  successful  romances; 
contributed  to  The  Cabinet  Cyclopfpdia  a  series  of  biogra- 
phies of  eminent  literary  and  scientific  men  of  France.  Italy, 
and  Spain,  and  edited  the  works  of  her  husband,  with  bio- 
graphical prefaces  and  notes  (1831)-40).  D.  in  liondon,  Feb. 
21, 1851.  See  the  Life  by  Mrs.  Julian  Marshall  (2  vols.,  1889). 

KevLsed  by  II.  A.  Beers. 

Shelley,  Percy  Bvsshe:  poet;  b.  at  Field  Place,  near 
Horsham,  Sussex,  England,  Auff.  4,  1792.  His  grandfather, 
Bysshe  Shelley  (b.  i\t  Newark,  N.  J..  1731).  acquired  a  large 
fortune,  was  made  a  baronet  in  1806,  and  died  Jan.  6,  1815. 


SHELLEY 

His  father,  Timothy,  b.  Sept.,  1753,  married,  in  1791,  Eliza- 
beth, daughter  of  Charles  Pilfold,  of  Effingham,  Sum?. 
The  domestic  surrounding  of  the  poet  were  unfortunai^^. 
neither  of  his  parents  havmg  given  him  suitable  training'  "r 
inspired  him  with  affection — a  circumstance  to  which  mu.  I. 
of  the  waywardness  of  his  career  may  be  attributed.    I  If 
received  his  early  education  at  a  school'  taught  by  the  j»an-h 
clergyman  at  Wamham ;  entered  at  the  age  of  ten  Si<  i. 
House  School,  Brentford,  where  he  was  noted  rather  a^  hi. 
insatiable  reader  than  as  a  successful  student ;  entered  Et-ii 
College  in  1805;  was  addicted  to  experiments  in  chemistry, 
read  much  upon  ghosts  and  the  "occult  sciences  " ;  was  rarv- 
less  of  his  tasks,  but  translated  half  of  Pliny's  Natural  His- 
tory for  his  own  satisfaction ;  wrote  an  incredible  aiu'»!Ji:t 
of  fragmentary  verses,  mostly  **  poor  stuff,"  as  he  afterward 
perceived;  composed,  with  his  cousin  Medwin,  one  or  iixre 
plays  and  novels,  and  with  another  cousin,  Harriet  Grove  iuf 
whom  he  was  deeply  enamored),  a  romance  entitle<l  y?*/^ 
trozzi,  which  was  printed  in  1810.  and,  strange  to  n iji?», 
brought  him  £40 ;  printed  also  a  volume  of  poems.  *'  by  Vic- 
tor and  Cazire,"  which  he  quickly  withdrew  from  circulati..n. 
and  of  which  no  copy  is  known  to  be  extant,  and  another  n*- 
mance,  St,  Irvyne,  all  within  the  same  year  (1810)  in  wh:<  h 
he  entered  University  College,  Oxford ;  published  under  xue 
pseudonym  of  Margaret  Nicholson  a  volume  of  burlt^jue 
poems ;  was  expelled  from  his  college  Mar.  25, 1811.  for  hav- 
ing printed  a  pamphlet  entitled  The  Necessity  of  At  ho. ^n: 
went  to  London  with  his  friend  Hogg,  who  was  also  exj*  ilni 
in  connection  with  the  same  affair;  was  left  without  snpf-r 
by  his  offended  father,  but  received  occasional  supplit!^  fr-in 
the  savings  of  his  sisters,  then  at  school ;  eloped  to  S  «.tiand 
with  one  of  their  schoolfellows,  Harriet   Westbrook.  the 
licautiful  daughter  of  a  retired  innkeeper,  and  mdrrieii  ln-r 
in  Edinburgh,  Sept.,  1811 ;  effected  a  settlement  with  hi^ 
father,  by  wnich  he  received  a  small  annuity;  traveleil  with 
his  wife  to  York  and  Keswick,  where  he  met  Southev  nnJ 
perhaps  De  Quincey;  proceeded  to  Dublin,  Feb.  12. 1'^li 
where  he  printed  three  revolutionary  pamphlets,  addn-^^i 
one  or  more  political  meetings,  and  fancied  that  he  li>yl 
Ijeen  reouestea  by  the  police  to  leave  the  city ;  went  t*^*  'h' 
Isle  of  Man,  to  North  and  South  Wales,  Devonshire.  hi.<1 
Carnarvonshire,  making  but  brief  residences  at  any  jHir.t 
after  flying  visits  to  Dublin  and  Killamev,  finally  i^t'Nii 
in  London,  May,  1812 ;  printed  early  in  1§13  Qfteen  Mnb. 
his  first  poem  of  real  literary  merit,  a  production  stniirlv 
tinctured  with  anti-religious  fanaticism.    His  first  cliild, 
lanthe,  was  bom  in  June,  1813.    Shelley  was  remarrie*!  m 
London,  Mar.  24 1814,  but  soon  found  his  married  life  uiwou- 
genial ;  separated  from  his  wife,  settling  upon  her  nearly  «.! 
his  disposable  income,  and  about  this  time  conceived  a  |«a>- 
sion  for  Mary  Godwin  (daughter  of  William  Godwin  h;  *! 
Mary  Wollstonecraft).  which  was  fully  returned.     As  ntit fu r 
of  them  had  any  respect  for  the  marriage  bond,  they  saw  n<' 
difficulty  in  consulting  their  own  inclinations,  and  prti  t^-^l- 
ed  to  Switzerland,  traveling  as  man  and  wife ;  returntni  f< 
England  at  the  close  of  1814.    In  consequence  of  the  il-  a'h 
of  his  grandfather  he  obtained  an  annuity  of  £1,000  and  If^ 
father's  succession  to  the  baronetcy  (Jan.,  1815);  >lu<ii«'J 
surgery  during  the  winter  of  1815-16,  and  daily  walkt^l  a 
London  hospital ;  wrote  in  1815  his  second  nwm  of  j-^^r 
manent  interest,  Alastor,  or  th^  Spirit  of  Solitudt,  pii- 
lished,  with  other  poems,  in  1816 ;  proceeded  to  the  1  j*kt  <  f 
Geneva  in  the  spring  of  1816;  resided  there  some  month- m 
daily  intercourse  with  Byron;  returned  to  London  in  if'' 
autumn;  legalized  his  connection  with  Mary  G<Hlwin  1  v 
marriage  Dec.  30,  1816,  Harriet  having  shortly  befon-  iN'^ 
10)  drowned  herself  in  the  Serpentine ;  conducted  an  iin^u-  • 
cessful  chancery  suit  against    Mr.  Westbrook    (Ham«'< 
father)  for  the  custody  of  his  two  children,  decision  h^'C 
given  against  him  by  Lord  Eldon  on  the  ground  of  atf.«  i^ni 
Aug.  23,  1817 ;  settled  at  Great  Marlow,  Buckingham-lsir 
where  he  played  the  part  of  a  country  gentleman :  niH«.' 
about  this  time  the  acquaintance  of  Keats  and  the  l»rot!t  /^ 
James  and  Horace  Smith,  and  became  verv  intimate  w:t>: 
Leigh  Hunt;  published  in  1818  The  HevolC  of  Islam  c  r:-- 
nally  called  Laon  and  C^/Ana), a  grandly  conceived. suI'Iki-. 
and* highly  original  poem,  but  with  many  inequalitie-  i'^'  i 
blemishes;  suffered  much  from   pulmonary  di>ea'^.  >»hi' 'i 
led  him  in  Mar.,  1818.  to  leave  England  fo'r  the  la-t  i  m.  : 
traveled  with  his  early  friend  Hogg  to  Italy,  residiui:  -  - - 
cessivelv  at  Milan,  Pisa,  Leghorn,  and  the  Bagni  di  Luu.: 
visited  feyron  at  Venice,  remaining  there  some  Weeks;  i'  !■- 
pleted  Rosalind  and  Helen  (publishe<l  1819),  a  jMvm  <  f  i  - 
tie  value;  translated,  or  rather  abridged,  the  ^Syw/^'^"!"'""' 


Ikt.i'Ru 


4(\h 


,i     ..rul 


470 


SHEMAKHA 


SHEPHERD-DOG 


Shema'kha (anc.  Kamachia):  town  of  Russia;  in  Trans- 
caucasia: on  the  Pirsa^hut,  at  an  eleyation  of  2,230  feet. 
It  is  fortified,  and  has  large  and  well-stocked  bazaars  and 
manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton  stuffs.  Much  wine  and  fruit 
are  produced  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  (1892)  22,139. 
Shemltic  Lang^nages :  same  as  Semitic  Languages  {q.  r.). 
Shenando'ah:  town  (founded  in  1870);  Page  co.,  lu.; 
on  the  Nishnebotne  river,  and  the  Burlington  Route,  the 
Humeston  and  Shen.,  and  the  Omaha  and  St.  L.  railways ; 
19  miles  N.  E.  of  Hamburg,  40  miles  S.  E.  of  Coimcil  Bluffs 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  7-D).  It  is  the  center  of 
a  rich  agricultural  region,  and  contains  12  churches,  the 
Western  Normal  College  (opened  in  1881),  3  public-school 
buildings,  2  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  f  115,- 
000.  a  private  bank,  and  a  semi-weekly  and  3  weekly  news- 
papers. The  vicinity  includes  among  its  industries  some  of 
the  largest  wholesale  nurseries  in  the  West.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,387;  (1890)  2,440;  (1895)  3,100.    Editor  of  "Sentinel." 

Shenandoah  :  borough ;  Schuylkill  co..  Pa. ;  on  the  Le- 
high Val.,  the  Penn.,  and  the  Phil,  and  Risad.  railways ;  13 
miles  X.  bv  E.  of  Pottsville,  the  county-seat,  and  105  miles 
N.  W.  of  l?hiladelphia  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, ref.  5-H).  It  is  in  the  heart  of  the  richest  coal  district 
in  the  anthracite  region,  the  development  of  which  has 
given  it  rapid  growth.  Six  of  the  largest  collieries  in  the 
coal  region  are  within  the  borough  limits,  and  eight  others, 
equally  productive,  are  within  the  radius  of  a  mile.  The 
borough  has  gas  and  electric-light  plants,  an  electric  rail- 
way connecting  adjoining  towns  and  villages,  2  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  $200,000,  3  building  and 
loan  associations,  each  local  and  serial,  and  a  daily  and  2 
weekly  newspapers.  There  are  18  churches,  7  public-school 
buildings  (valued  at  $60,000),  a  public  library  connected  with 
the  schools,  2  parochial  schools,  a  brewery,  2  hat  and  cap 
factories,  and  other  industries.  Shenandoah  was  laid  out 
in  1862,  and  incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1866.  Pop.  (1880) 
10,147;  (1890)  15,944;  (1895)  estimated,  over  17,000. 

M.  E.  Doyle,  editor  of  "  Sunday  Morning  News." 

Shenandoah  River :  a  stream  which  rises  in  Augusta  co., 
Va.,  and  flows  N.  E.  170  miles  to  the  Potomac  at  Harper's 
Ferry,  W.  Va.  The  north  fork  joins  the  main  stream  at 
Front  Royal.  The  Shenandoah  aifords  great  water-power. 
During  the  civil  war  its  valley  was  the  scene  of  many  mili- 
tary operations,  and  was  laid  waste  by  Gen.  Sheridan  in  1864. 

ShenMi :  town  of  Nubia,  on  the  Nile,  in  lat.  16*"  38'  N. ; 
was  a  place  of  some  commercial  importance  before  the 
Mahdist  revolt.  Almost  the  entire  population  of  the  town 
and  district  perished  of  famine  in  1889.  C.  C,  A. 

Shenshin,  AfanasiI  Afanasievich  :  poet,  who  has  written 
under  the  name  of  Fet  (that  of  his  mother  by  a  first  mar- 
riage) ;  b.  in  the  government  of  Orel,  Russia,  Nov.  23, 1820 ; 
studied  in  the  University  of  Moscow,  and  from  1844  to  1856 
served  in  the  army,  after  which  he  settled  in  the  country. 
His  first  volume  of  verses  was  published  in  Moscow  in  1840. 
As  a  writer  Fet  belongs  to  the  school  of  pure  art.  His  short 
poems,  though  at  times  lacking  in  warmth,  are  characrer- 
ized  by  perfect  form  and  delicate  grac^e.  He  has  also  made 
excellent  translations  of  the  whole  of  Horace  and  Juvenal, 
Goethe's  Faust^  Shakspeare's  Julius  Cctsar  and  Antony  and 
Cleopatra,  etc.  A.  C.  Coolidge. 

Shensi,  shen'see'  [literally,  western  defiles] :  a  province  of 
China,  bounded  N.  by  Mongolia,  E.  by  the  llwang-ho  (which 
separates  it  from  Shansi)  and  Honan,  S.  by  Hupeh  and  Sze- 
chuen,  and  W.  by  Kansuh.  Area,  67,400  sq.  miles.  S.  of  the 
Tsing-ling  range  it  is  mountainous  and  well  wooded;  N.  of 
it  the  Loess  {q.  v.)  formation  prevails,  and  everything  is  yel- 
low. The  houses  are  made  of  yellow  earth,  Vegetation  is 
covered  with  yellow  dust,  and  even  the  atmosphere  is  seldom 
free  from  a  yellow  haze.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Wei  (a 
long,  shallow  affluent  of  the  Hwang-hoi,  which  flows  E.  along 
the  northern  base  of  the  Fu-niu  and  Tsing-ling  ranges  (some 
of  whose  peaks  reach  an  elevation  of  11.000  feet),  and  the  Han- 
KiANo  {q.  v.).  Iron  and  coal  abound,  but  are  not  much  worked, 
except  near  the  up|>er  waters  of  the  Han.  Being  a  loess  re- 
gion. Northern  Shensi  is  unfit  for  rice  cultivation.  W^heat, 
barley,  pulse,  millet,  maize,  ground-nuts,  poppy,  hemp,  to- 
bacco, and  cotton  are  extensively  grown.  Wneat  is  the  staple. 
Capital,  Si-ngan-foo.     Pop.  about  8,500,000.  R.  L. 

Shenstone,  William  :  poet ;  b.  at  the  Leasowes,  near 
Halesowen,  Shropshire.  Plngland,  in  Nov.,  1714;  studied  at 
Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  and  passed  his  life  in  retirement 
on  his  hereditary  estate,  writing  elegies,  ballads,  odes,  and 


pastorals  which  had  considerable  |iopularity.  The  Sf>eT5*<^ 
rian  poem  entitled  The  Schoolmistress  (1742),  the  I^istor'i! 
Balla4  (1743),  and  the  well-known  stanzas  Written  in  nu 
Inn  at  Henley,  are  the  only  ones  remembered.  D.  at  tl..- 
Leasowes,  Feb.  11.  1763.  His  Works  and  Letters  were  f  <•:. 
lected  in  3  vols.,  1764-69.  An  edition  of  his  Poems,  by  (iiiti.- 
lan,  with  a  memoir,  appeared  at  Edinburgh  in  1854,  and  li* 
Essays  on  Men  and  Manners  vreve  republished  at  LiumIi  :; 
in  1868.  Shenstone  was  also  one  of  the  best  amateur  laia!- 
scape-gardeners  of  his  time.  Revised  by  H.  A.  BEER^. 

She'ol :  the  transliterated  Hebrew  word,  meaning  a  h*  I- 
low  place,  a  cave,  used  in  the  Revised  Version  of  the  Kihit- 1" 
denote  the  place  of  departed  spirits.  It  therefore  corre,sj«  .L.i- 
with  Hades  in  classical  Greek  literature.  In  the  Authon/*  <1 
Version  it  is  translated  by  pit,  grave,  hell.  S.  M.  J. 

Shepard,  Charles  Upham,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  geologist ;  l . 
at  Little  Compton,  R.  L,  June  29,  1804 ;  graduated  at  Mu- 
herst  (yoilege  1824 ;  studied  botany  and  mineralogy  at  Cau,- 
bridge  under  Nut  tall ;  taught  those  branches  at'  B(»st<Ti : 
was  for  two  years  assistant  in  the  laboratory  of  Prof,  ^:]l:- 
man  at  New  Haven,  and  for  one  year  lecturer  at  the  Brew- 
ster Scientific  Institute  at  New  Haven ;  employed  on  a  (iiv- 
ernment  commission  to  investigate  the  metHods  of  sujrar- 
culture  and  manufacture  in  the  Southern  States  183:?--:^ : 
lecturer  on  Natural  History  at  Yale  College  1830-47;  a^nn  i- 
ate  of  Dr.  James  G.  Percival  in  the  geological  survev  ■  f 
Connecticut  1835 ;  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Natural  lli>- 
tory  at  Amherst  1845-52,  and  in  the  Jiedical  Collt'tf  at 
Charleston,  S.  C.  1854-61 ;  afterward  became  again  pR»f."*- 
sor  of  Natural  History  at  Amhei-st;  was  author  of  a  Treat "^ 
on  Mineralogy  (1832;  3d  ed.  enlarged,  1855),  and  of  a  if'- 
port  on  the  Geology  of  Connecticut  (1837).  D.  May  1.  ls^5. 
— His  son,  Charles  L^pham  Shepard,  Jr.,  M.  D.,  bom  at  N«  * 
Haven,  Oct.  4,  1842,  graduated  at  Yale  College  1863,  and  i-i 
medicine  at  GSttingen,  Germany,  1867;  became  Profc;<>or  *f 
Chemistry  at  the  Metlical  College  of  Charleston.  S.  ('..  in 
1867.  He  wrote  many  papers  on  mineralogy,  and  has  Ua. 
active  in  the  development  of  the  phosphate  industries  <  f 
South  Carolina  and  Florida.     Revised  by  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Shepard,  Elliott  Fitch,  LL.  I). :  lawver ;  b.  at  Jairi«— 
town,  Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y.,  July  25, 18S3 ;  was  e<lucu!t-i 
at  the  University  of  the  Citv  of  New  York;  was  admilttHl  lo 
the  bar  in  1858.  During  {he  civil  war  he  raised  the  5M 
New  York  Volunteer  Regiment,  which  was  called  in  h:> 
honor  the  Shepard  Rifles.  In  1876  he  was  prominent  amiT.j 
the  founders  of  the  New  York  State  Bar  Association :  aiA 
shortly  before  his  death  founded  the  American  Si^hljr  » 
Union.  He  was  owner  and  editor  of  the  New  Y'ork  Mm! 
and  Express,    D.  in  New  York,  Mar.  24, 1898. 

Shepard,  Thomas  :  clergyman ;  b.  at  Towcester,  North- 
amptonshire, England,  Nov.  5,  1605;  graduateii  at  Caii^- 
bridge,  1627 ;  became  a  preacher  at  Earle's-Colne,  E'^Sf  \  : 
was  silenced  for  nonconformity  in  1630.  He  emigratt-d  ' 
Massachusetts,  arriving  at  Boston,  Oct.  8,  1635 ;  succtvd.^i 
Thomas  Hooker  as  pastor  of  the  church  at  Cambridge,  Foh.. 
1636;  was  influential  in  founding  Harvard  College:  p:'- 
lished  ^ew  England's  Lamentation  for  Old  England's  Er- 
rors (London,  1645) ;  The  Sound  Believer  (1645) ;  The  C-  .•■ 
Sunshine  of  the  Gospel  breakit^  forth  upon  the  India njt  r» 
jyew  England  (London,  1648 ;  reprinted  New  York,  l&^"i  : 
Uteses  Sabhaticce  (1649) ;  and  other  theological  works.  Afi-  r 
Hooker's  death  he  was  esteemed  the  most  learned  and  sk.!.- 
ful  ex^wnent  of  Puritan  theology  in  New  England.  I),  ^t 
Cambridge.  Aug.  25, 1649.  He  left  numerous  work-in  M^. 
some  of  which  were  published  in  England,  especially  ^^^- 
jection  to  Christ  (16o2),  to  which  was  prefixed  a  Z*/*  ■' 
Shepard  by  Samuel  Mather  and  William  Greenhill:  The 
Parable  of  the  Ten  Virgins  Opened  and  Applied  (I»n(l<n. 
folio,  1660 ;  new  eds.  1839,  Aberdeen,  1838  and  ia5:jl^ :  «:• : 
various  collections  of  Senno7is.  He  left  an  Autohiogni}'^  >. 
first  printed  at  Cambridge  (1832)  for  the  Shepard  Congn  u.»- 
tional  Society.  A  collected  edition  of  his  Works  apiKa'.i 
at  Boston  (3  vols.,  1853),  with  a  memoir  by  Rev.  ilont.." 
Alger,  of  Cambridge.  A  memoir  by  Cotton  Mather  nia>  U- 
found  in  the  Magnalia  Christi  Americana  (best  ed.  B«'<t(  n. 
1855,  2  vols.).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jac  k>c»x. 

Shepardson  College :  See  Denison  Uxiversfty. 

Shepherd-dog:  any  one  of  the  breeds  of  domestic  <l"i:* 
which  are  trained  to  assist  in  attending  the  flocks  of  >h<.  t . 
Of  all  strains  of  shepherd-dogs  the  Scotch  collie  is  the  ni'^t 
celebrated.  It  is  one  of  the  most  sagacious  and  d<K''i»'  - ' 
dogs.    A  good  Scotch  collie  should  have  a  long,  narn-^^ 


472 


SHERIDAN 


.  SHERIFF 


Richmond.  On  the  25th  he  rejoined  the  anny,  having  de- 
stroyed the  depots,  trains,  and  track  at  Beaver  Dam  and 
Ashland  stations,  liberated  400  Union  men,  and  defeated  the 
enemy's  cavalry  at  Yellow  Tavern,  where  their  cavalry  lead- 
er, J.  E.  B.  Stuart,  was  mortally  wounded.  The  outer  line 
of  works  around  Richmond  was  taken,  but  the  second  line 
was  too  strong  to  be  carried.  Resuming  the  advance,  the 
battle  of  Uawes's  Shop  was  fought  May  28;  Cold  Harbor 
was  occupied  on  the  31st,  and  held  until  the  arrival  of  the 
infantry.  On  June  7  Sheridan,  with  two  divisions,  started 
around  the  left  of  Lee's  army  and  destroyed  the  Virginia 
Central  Railroad  in  the  rear.  The  Richmond  and  Freder- 
icksburg railroad  was  struck  at  Chesterfield,  and  the  Virginia 
Central  was  again  cut  at  Trevilian*s,  where  he  routed  Wade 
Hampton  (June  11) ;  next  day  he  tore  up  the  railwav  nearly 
to  Louisa  Court-house,  when,  on  the  advance  toward  Gordons- 
ville,  an  indecisive  engagement  took  place ;  not  hearing 
from  Hunter,  who  was  to  meet  him  here,  he  withdrew,  re- 
joining the  army  June  19.  On  Aug.  7  the  Middle  Depart- 
ment and  departments  of  West  Virginia,  Washington,  and 
Susquehanna  were  constituted  "  the  Middle  military  divi- 
sion, and  Sheridan  assigned  to  command  of  the  same.  Nu- 
merous severe  cavalry  skirmishes  occurred  during  August 
and  early  in  September,  but  no  general  engagement,  al- 
though the  two  armies  lay  in  such  position — the  Confederates 
under  Gen.  Early  on  the  west  bank  of  Opeouan  Creek,  cov- 
ering Winchester,  and  Sheridan  in  front  of  Berryville — that 
either  could  bring  on  a  battle  at  will.  The  imperative  ne- 
cessity of  having  the  unobstructed  use  of  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Railroad  and  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal  led  Grant 
to  take  the  initiative,  although  Sheridan's  defeat  would  have 
exposed  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  to  invasion ;  but  be- 
fore giving  orders  to  attack  he  visited  Sheridan  (Sept.  16), 
the  latter  expressing  such  confidence  of  success  that  Grant 
gave  him  but  two  words  of  instruction  :  "  Go  in  ! "  Three 
days  later,  at  the  crossing  of  the  Opequan,  he  attacked  Early, 
whom  he  routed  after  a  vigorous  oattle,  and  captured  3,000 
prisoners  and  5  guns.  Early  rallied  his  army  at  the  strong 
position  of  Fisher's  Hill,  where,  on  the  22d,  he  was  again 
defeated,  with  heavy  loss,  and  pursued  to  the  mountains. 
Sheridan  devastated  the  valley  on  his  return,  rendering  it 
untenable  for  an  enemy's  army.  He  was  then  (Sept.  20)  ap- 
pointed a  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army.  On  Oct. 
19  Early,  after  surprising  the  Union  army  in  the  morning, 
was  disastrously  defeated,  owin^  to  the  arrival  of  Sheridan 
from  Winchester.    (See  Cedar  Creek.)    The  thanks  of  Con- 

r-ess  were  bestowed  upon  Sheridan  and  his  army,  and  Nov. 
he  was  appointed  major-general  in  the  regular  army.  On 
Feb.  27,  IfiSSo,  starting  out  with  10,000  cavalry,  he  destroyed 
the  Virginia  Central  Railroad,  the  James  River  Canal,  and 
immense  quantities  of  supplies,  and  defeated  Early  again  at 
Waynesboro,  rejoining  (irant  before  Petersburg  Mar.  27. 
Sheridan  had  now  a  force  of  about  9,000,  and  in  subsequent 
operations  was  under  the  immediate  orders  of  Gen.  Grant. 
He  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Five  Forks  (q.  v.)  with  his 
customary  vigor.  The  loss  of  this  battle  compelled  Lee  to 
evacuate  Petersburg.  Sheridan  pursued  the  ffying  anny  to 
Sailor's  Creek,  where  he  captured  16  guns  and  400  wagons. 
When  the  Sixth  Corps  came  up  a  combined  attack  resulted 
in  the  capture  of  upward  of  6,000  prisoners.  On  Apr.  8  four 
supply-trains  were  captured  at  Appomattox  Station,  and  at 
Appomattox  Court-house  the  advance  of  Lee's  army  was 
resisted  until  dark.  On  the  morning  of  the  9th  the  enemy 
endeavored  to  break  through  his  dismounted  command, 
but  abandoned  the  attempt  when  Sheridan,  moving  aside, 
disclosed  the  infantry  benind.  Mounting  his  men,  Sheri- 
dan was  about  to  charge  when  the  white  flag  betokening 
surrender  was  displayed  in  his  front.  In  June,  1865,  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  military  division  of  the 
Southwest,  of  that  of  the  Gulf  in  July,  of  the  department 
of  the  Gulf,  Aug.,  1866,  and  of  the  fifth  military  district 
(Louisiana  and  Texas)  Mar.,  1867.  In  Sept.,  1867,  he  was 
transferred  to  the  department  of  the  Missouri,  continuing 
in  command  until  Mar.  4,  1869,  when  he  was  promoted  to 
be  lieutenant-general,  and  assigned  to  command  of  the 
division  of  the  Missouri,  headquarters  at  Chicago,  assuming 
command  Mar.  16.  In  1870  he  visited  Europe  and  witnessed 
the  Franco-German  war.  During  the  political  disturbances 
in  Louisiana  in  1875,  Gen.  Sheridan  was  sent  to  New  Orleans, 
returning  to  Chicago  on  quiet  being  restored.  He  assumed 
command  of  the  army  Nov.  1, 1883  ;  was  appointed  general 
June  1,  1888.  Author  of  Personal  Memoirs  of  P,  II.  Shen- 
dan  (1888).     D.  at  Nonquitt,  Mass.,  Aug.  5,  1888. 

Revised  by  James  Mercur. 


Sheridan,  Richard  Briksley  Butler  :  dramatist ;  son  of 
Thomas  Sheridan,  actor  and  author,  and  Frances  Chaii>l«*r- 
laine,  author ;  b.  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  Sept..  1751;  eduentf] 
in  Dublin  and  at  Harrow  School;  published  a  rhm"! 
translation  of  Arista?netus,  Aug.,  1771 ;  married  MissLm- 
ley,  a  beautiful  oratorio  singer,  of  Bath,  in  1773;  bn>uirhi 
out  his  first  comedy.  The  Rivals^  at  Covent  Garden.  .Idh.. 
1775 ;  followed  it  in  November  with  an  opera, T^tf  Duenna,  f«ir 
which  his  father-in-law  composed  the  music,  and  which  v&x 
acted  seventy-five  niffhts  the  first  season;  became  j>art-|>»ir. 
chaser  of  Garrick's  half  of  Drury  Lane  theater  in  .June. 
1776;  produced  A  Trip  to  Scarborouah  Feb.,  1777.  all^T.^! 
from  Vanbrugh*s  Relapse  \  and  in  Slay  followed  it  iri(K 
The  School  for  Scandal,  the  most  successful  comply  *if 
manners  in  the  English  language :  became  owner  of  one 
half  of  Drury  Lane  1778;  wrote  Monody  on  Death  ofdar- 
rick  1779 ;  brought  out  the  farce  of  The  Critic,  or  a  Trntj- 
edy  Rehearsed,  Oct.,  1779.  Elected  a  member  of  The  Cluh. 
he  became  a  friend  of  the  leading  wits  and  statesmen  of  the 
time;  was  elected  to  Parliament  from  Stafford  1780;  «ii« 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  1782;  cultivated  oratory  with 
great  success ;  crowned  his  fame  as  a  public  speaker  \i\ 
two  great  speeches  against  Warren  Hastings,  one  in  bring- 
ing charges  in  Parliament,  Feb.,  1787,  and  one  on  the  trial 
at  Westminster  Hall,  in  June  of  same  year;  held  hi«i  ovn 
in  debate  even  gainst  Pitt;  revised  Thomson's  adaptAtioi) 
from  Kotzebue,  The  Stranger:  rebuilt  Drury  Lane  ITiU: 
produced  in  1799  his  patriotic  play,  Pizarro^  also  an  adaf^ 
tation  from  Kotzebue;  became  treasurer  of  the  navy  anti 
a  privy  councilor  in  1806 ;  was  ruined  by  the  bumiiijr  *'f 
Drury  Lane  1809;  made  his  last  speech  in  Parlinuit-tit 
1812.  Having  fallen  into  habits  of  dissipation  and  can^ie^^- 
ness  in  money  matters,  his  last  years  were  harassed  by  kk 
importunities  of  creditors,  pursuing  him  even  to  his  dt-iith- 
beu.  D.  July  7,  1816,  and  was  buned  in  Westminster  Alt- 
bey.  His  Life  was  written  by  Thomas  Moore  (1825).  whu 
also  edited  his  plays,  admitting  one  piece,  The  Camp,  wbt<  L 
he  did  not  write.  His  Speeches  have  been  collect eu  in  ti^f 
volumes  (1816).  The  Rit^s  and  The  School  for  Seamh' 
were  published  in  1884,  with  biography,  introauction:<,  ri.u 
notes,  by  the  present  writer.  Brander  Matthewn. 

Sheridan,  Thomas :  actor  and  author;  b.  in  1721  at  Quil- 
ca,  near  Dublin,  Ireland  (the  residence  of  Dean  Swift) ;  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Dublin;  became  an  actor  174:i: 
played  tragedy  at  Covent  Garden  theater  1744  and  at  Dniry 
Lane  1745 ;  was  by  some  considered  a  rival  of  Garrick ;  «»^ 
manager  ol  the  Dublin  theater  1746-55;  was  ruined  h}  & 
wanton  riot;  withdrew  temporarily  from  the  sta^;  l^ecan.'' 
a  successful  teacher  of  elocution  at  Ijondon.  Oxford,  Hr.^: 
Cambridge,  and  in  Scotland  and  Ireland ;  returned  to  tl.< 
stage  1760;  was  pensioned  by  George  III.;  was  acting  rmit>- 
ager.of  Drury  Lane  1776-79,  after  his  son  obtaine<l  c»»ntr» ' 
of  that  theater;  published  several  works  on  elocuiioi:; 
edited  the  works  of  Swift  (1784);  wrote  his  Life,  and  »ji> 
author  of  a  General  Dictionary  of  the  Ef^lish'  lAiny*my 
(1780)  of  considerable  phonetic  value.  D.  at  Margate.  Knw* 
land,  Aug.  14,  1788.         Reyised  by  Brander  Matthews. 

Sherif,  sh«-reef  [Arab. sherif,  noble] :  a  title ;  applif<i  t> 
Mussulmans  to  descendants  of  Fatima,  the  daughter  of  th*- 
prophet  Mohammed.  The  Sherif  of  Mecca  is  the  guardian  of 
the  Kaaba  {q,  r.),  and  chief  dignitary  of  the  city.     E.  A.  (i. 

Sheriff  [M.  Eng.  shereve  <  O.  Eng.  sclr-gerefa  :  wlr. 
shire  +  gerefa,  reeve,  officer] :  a  county  officer  with  adiian- 
istrative  and  generally  also  judicial  functions. 

In  EnglaiA,  Ireland,  and  Wales  the  sheriff  is  the  v\\\d 
officer  of  the  crown,  in  every  county  or  shire,  who  does  att 
the  sovereign's  business  in  the  county,  the  custotly  of  thi 
county  being  committed  to  him  alone  by  letters  {liateiit  <«f 
the  crown.  The  office  of  sheriff  is  one  of  "the  most  anoi*  n» 
and  honorable  known  to  the  English  law.  The  cu.'it<Mly  <>f 
the  county  is  said  to  have  formerly  been  committetl  to  th* 
earl  or  (Lat.)  comes,  and  anciently  the  sheriff,  whoee  \j\\\\\ 
title  is  vicecomes,  was  his  deputy.  The  earls  in  time  liot-aiit'' 
unable  to  transact  the  business  of  the  county,  and  the  t»'ir- 
den  was  laid  on  the  sheriff,  who  is  now  entirely  indepoiuhr.t 
of  the  earl. 

Sheriffs  were  formerly  chosen  by  the  inhabitants  (»f  th^ 
several  counties,  but  now  by  statute  they  are  annun'N 
appointed  by  the  crown  (on  nomination  by' the  ju<lge<  au-; 
the  great  officers  of  the  crown)  on  Nov.  12,  and  the  fH»r-«n 
appointed  must  have  sufficient  land  within  his  countv  *  r 
bailiwick  to  answer  the  crown  or  the  people.  The  disclmrirt 
of  the  office  is  compulsory,  and  within  one  month  after  a 


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474 


SDERMAN 


Harvard  University ;  became  a  fellow  of  Columbia  in  1887, 
and  afterward  instructor  in  the  Columbia  School  of  Architec- 
ture. He  has  published  Madrigals  and  Catches  (1887) ; 
Lyrics  for  a  Lute  (1890) ;  and,  with  John  K.  Bangs,  New 
Waggiiigs  of  Old  Tales  (1888).  H.  A.  B. 

'  Sherman,  John  :  clergyman ;  grandson  of  Roger  Sher- 
man ;  b.  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1772;  graduated  at  Yale 
College  1792 ;  was  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  church 
at  Mansfield,  Conn.,  from  Nov.,  1797,  to  Oct.,  1805,  when  he 
left  that  post  on  account  of  having  adopted  Unitarian  prin- 
ciples; was  for  a  short  time  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  at 
Trenton  Falls,  N.  Y.,  where  he  established  and  conducted 
an  academy.  D.  at  that  place  Aug.  2, 1828.  He  was  the 
author  of  One  God  in  One  Person  Only  (1805),  the  first  elab- 
orate defense  of  Unitarianisin  that  apj>eared  in  New  Eng- 
land ;  and  Philosophy  of  Language  Illustrated  (1826). 

Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisher. 

Sherman,  John  :  statesman ;  b.  at  Lancaster,  0.,  May  10, 
1823  ;  brother  of  Gen.  W.  T.  Sherman ;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  1844 ;  was  a  delegate  to  the  Whig  conventions  of  1844 
and  1848 ;  sat  in  Congress  1855-61 ;  was  Republican  candi- 
date for  the  Speakership  1859,  but  was  defeated  after  a  pro- 
longed contest ;  became  chairman  of  the  House  committee  of 
ways  and  means ;  was  re-elected  to  Congress  1860,  but  before 
taking  his  seat  was  chosen  U.  S.  Senator ;  re-elected  1866  and 
1872 ;  was  long  the  chairman  of  the  Senate  committees  on 
finance  and  on  agriculture ;  took  a  prominent  part  in  de- 
bates upon  finance  and  the  conduct  of  the  war,  was  one  of 
the  authors  of  the  reconstniction  measures  ailopted  1866- 
67,  and  was  appointed  Secretary  of  Treasury  Mar.  7, 1877. 
He  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  from  Ohio  Jan.  18,  1881 ; 
elected  president  pro  tern,  of  U.  S.  Senate  Dec.  7,  1885 ;  re- 
elected U.  S.  Senator  Jan.  13,  1886,  continuing  president 
pro  tern,  of  the  Senate,  but  he  resigned  the  latter  office  Feb., 
1887.  In  1888  he  was  a  prominent  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dential nomination,  which  was  finally  awarded  to  Harrison. 
He  was  re-elected  to  the  Senate  in  1893. 

Sherman,  Roger,  M.  A. :  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence ;  b.  at  Newton,  Mass.,  Apr.  19, 1721 ;  was  in 
childnood  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker,  and  followed  that 
occupation  until  1743,  when  he  settled  at  New  Milford, 
Conn.,  and  joined  an  elder  brother  in  keeping  a  small  store ; 
studied  privately  law,  politics,  and  mathematics ;  was  chosen 
county  surveyor  1745;  made  for  several  years  the  astro- 
nomical calculations  for  an  almanac  issued  in  New  York ; 
studied  law ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1754 ;  sat  for  several 
years  in  the  colonial  assembly ;  removed  to  New  Haven  in 
1761 ;  was  assistant  governor  nineteen  years  (1766-85),  judge 
of  common  pleas  and  of  the  superior  court  twenty-three 
years ;  treasurer  of  Yale  College  1766-76 ;  sat  in  Congress 
from  1774  until  his  death ;  was  one  of  the  five  members  of 
the  committee  to  draft  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
1776 ;  served  on  many  important  committees  on  tne  board 
of  war  and  ordnance  and  on  the  treasury  board ;  assisted  in 
codifying  the  laws  of  Connecticut  1783 ;  was  one  of  the 
framers  of  the  original  Articles  of  Confederation  1777,  and 
an  active  member  of  the  Federal  constitutional  convention 
1787;  U.  S.  Senator  1791-93;  and  mavor  of  New  Haven 
from  1784  till  his  death  in  that  city  July  23, 1793. 

Sherman,  Thojias  West  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Newport,  R.  I., 
Mar.  26,  1813;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy 
July,  1836,  when  he  was  assigned  to  the  artillery  as  second 
lieutenant  and  sent  to  Florida,  where  he  served  against  the 
Indians  until  1842:  wiis  subsequently  employed  in  recruit- 
ing and  in  garrison  until  1846;  was  promoted  captain  in 
May,  1846.  In  the  war  with  Mexico  he  commanded  his  bat- 
tery at  Buena  Vista,  and  was  breveted  major ;  again  in  gar- 
rison and  on  frontier  duty  1848-61,  in  April  of  which  lat- 
ter year  ho  attained  a  majority  in  his  corps,  and  was  as- 
signed to  guard  the  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore  Railroad 
and  to  restore  communications  with  Washington.  On  May 
14  he  was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant-colonel,  and  three  days 
later  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  In  the  Port 
Royal  ex|)edition  (Oct.,  1861)  he  commanded  the  land-forces, 
which  he  had  organized,  continuing  in  command  in  South 
Carolina  until  the  end  of  Mar.,  1862,  when  he  was  assigned 
to  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee  as  divisicm  commander,  par- 
ticipating in  the  Corinth  campaign  (April  to  June).  Trans- 
ferred to  the  department  of  the  Gulf,  he  commanded  a  di- 
vision in  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans  until  May,  1863,  w^hen 
he  joined  the  expedition  to  Port  Hudson,  and  in  the  in- 
vestment of  the  place  commanded  the  second  division  Nine- 
teenth Corps,  forming  the  left  wing  of  the  besieging  army. 


In  the  assault  of  May  27  he  lost  a  leg  while  learling  tlu-  a>- 
saulting  column.  Colonel  of  artillery  June  1, 186:1  Kf-tLii.- 
ing  to  duty  in  Feb.,  1864,  he  hela  various  command^  ik 
Louisiana  until  1866,  when  he  was  mustered  out  of  thtM. ,- 
unteer  service.  He  was  breveted  brigadier-genera)  au.l  ui.;- 
jor-general  for  gallantry,  and  Dec.  31, 1870,  was  retirtil  fn  •• 
active  service  with  the  full  rank  of  major-general,  h.  a; 
Newport,  R.  I.,  Mar.  16, 1879.    Revised  by  James  Meri  i  r. 

Sherman,  William  Tecumseh,  LL.  D.  :  soldier;  h.  ht 
Lancaster,  ().,  Feb.  8,  1820;  son  of  Judge  Charles  H.  Mirr- 
man.  From  1829,  when  his  father  died,  he  was  reare<l  ii.  il.. 
family  of  the  Hon.  Thomas  Ewing;  in  July,  18:W.  he  ».,. 
appointed  a  cadet  at  the  U.  S.  Mfiitary  Acatienjy.  «n«l  w. 
July,  1840,  he  graduated  and  was  appointed  a  second  lici.i. »» 
ant  in  the  Third  Artillery  ;  first  lieutenant  Nov..  1H41.  H^ 
served  in  Florida  until  1842;  was  in  garrison  at  Fort  M<.ti'- 
trie,  S.  C. ;  in  1846  he  was  ordered  to  California,  seniriL'  h- 
acting  assistant  adjutant-general  of  the  department  of  (hi- 
fornia  until  Feb.,  1849,  when  he  was  transferreii  t<>  >..•! 
Francisco  on  similar  dutv  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Per>iforK 
Smith,  commanding  the  division  of  the  Pacific  Onlemi  t., 
New  York  in  Jan.,  1850,  as  bearer  of  dispatches,  he  wa;!  n,..r. 
ried  on  May  1  to  Ellen,  daughter  of  Thomas  Ewin*:,  th-n 
Secretary  of. the  Interior.  In  September  of  that  year  he  \»:l^ 
transferred  to  the  commissary  department,  with  the  nink  «>f 
captain,  and  stationed  at  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans  ni.'s 
Mar.,  1853.  when,  after  a  six  months'  leave  of  absence,  ht-  re- 
signed from  the  army  Sept.  6, 1853,  to  engage  in  Ww  W.\- 
ing  business  in  San  Francisco;  removed  to  New  V«.rk  jn 
1857,  in  which  vear  the  affairs  of  his  firm  were  clo<e«i.  I:- 
1858  he  removed  to  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  where  he  pmrti-.'; 
law  until  July,  1859.  when  he  was  elected  superintendeni  -•' 
the  proposed  military  aeademy  in  Louisiana.  The  in-i  •  i- 
tion  was  opened  Jan.  1, 1860,  as  the  Louisiana  State  Se- 
nary of  Learning  and  Military  Academy,  and  Shennan  r-- 
mained  at  its  head  until  Jan.  18, 1861,  when  be  addres-*-.!  a 
letter  to  the  Governor  asking  to  be  relieved  *'the  m«'n»nt 
the  State  determined  to  secede."  His  request  was  soon  a!'»  r 
granted,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  February  he  left  U*r  > . 
Louis,  where  for  a  short  period  he  held  the  presidency  if  . 
street-railway.  On  May  14,  1861,  he  was  appointe<l  oil.  i-. 
of  the  Thirteenth  Regular  Infantry,  and  soon  after  hi<  arr,- 
val  in  Washington  was  placed  in  command  of  a  l>ris:H«l«  ii- 
Tyler's  division,  which  he  led  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Hm 
July  21.  On  Aug.  3  his  commission  of  brigadier-geiu'ni!  ' 
volunteers  was  issued,  to  date  from  May  17,  and  Aug.  24  f  ■ 
was  ordered  to  duty  in  the  department' of  the  CumUr'ai. i 
under  Gen.  Anderson,  succeeding  to  the  command  of  i.,.i* 
department  Oct.  8,  1861,  but  was  relieved  in  NovemlxT  ;«'.'' 
sent  to  Missouri.  After  a  brief  service  on  inspection  dtii'' 
he  was  (Dec.  23)  placed  in  command  of  the  camp  of  in^in.-- 
tion  and  ix)st  of  Benton  Barracks,  whence  in  Ft?b.,  It<*i2.  m. 
w^as  transferred  to  Paducah,  Ky.,  to  aid  in  the  oitenifi-'i» 
then  in  progress  on  the  Tennessee  river.  Here  he  orjrHni/'"': 
the  division  which  he  subseouentlv  commanded  at  the  ••••• 
tie  of  Shiloh  (Apr.  6-7),  where  his  conduct  did  nuni.  : 
check  disorder  and  overcome  the  shock  of  the  unex|»t\t-: 
onset.  Gen.  Halleck  reported  that  Sherman's  finnne**  r 
the  6th  saved  the  day.  Grant  officially  aunounceil  tha*  i^ 
was  indebted  to  Gen.  Sherman  for  the  success  of  the  »;.!- 
tie.  The  advance  upon  and  siege  of  Corinth  next  foll«wn:, 
resulting  in  the  evacuation  of  that  place  May  29.  In  li- 
meanwhile  (May  1)  he  had  been  promoted  to  be  maj*r-c»:; 
eral  of  volunteers.  In  July,  havmg  been  assigned  to  .. •■:- 
mand  the  district  of  Memphis,  he  occupied  that  plac*^  ■' 
the  21st,  where  he  remained  until  called  upon  in  Dimmi:  Ur 
by  Gen.  Grant  to  take  command  of  the  exj^edition  for  It 
capture  of  Vicksburg.  As  this  movement  was  int^nidiHl  •« 
be  a  surprise,  the  preparations  were  hastily  execute*!.  Y.y^- 
barking  his  troops  Dec.  21,  a  landing  was  effecttni  on  f^'' 
26th  at  Johnston's  Landing,  some  12  miles  up  the  Yh; - 
On  the  20th  the  attempt  to  carry  the  position  by  assault  » t« 
bravely  made,  but  without  success,  and,  owing  to  tht-  -« '- 
render  of  Holly  Springs,  which  overthrew  Gen.  Grant '^s  i  ..• . 
of  co-operation,  re-enforcements  were  arriving  to  the  imh  t-  \. 
Sherman  returned  to  Milliken's  Bend,  whore  Gen.  MtC  •' 
nand  took  command  Jan.  4.  1863.  Sherman  was  a--i::r.t  i 
to  the  Fifteenth  Corps,  which  took  a  leading  part  in  \.U*  t- 
sault  and  capture  of  Arkansas  Post  (Fort  Hindman)  fn  i- 
nth. 

In  the  Vicksburg  campaign  which  suceeetled,  Sherman  ^^  "^ 
a  f»rominent  part  with  nis  command — in  the  exptnliii.T. ' ' 
Steele's  Bayou  to  the  Yazoo  (March);  the  feint  ujwn  Haiic.-' 


476 


SHERWOOD  FOREST 


SIIILLABER 


Sherwood  Forest:  a  hilly  region  in  the  west  of  Notting- 
hamshire, England,  between  Nottingham  and  Worksop, 
about  25  miles  in  length  by  8  in  br^th.  It  was  once  a 
royal  hunting-forest,  and  known  to  legend  as  the  scene  of 
Robin  Hood's  exploits.  It  is  divided  into  farms,  and  it  in- 
cludes the  town  of  Mansfield,  several  villages,  and  many 
parks  and  gentlemen's  country-seats.  The  soil  is  gravelly 
and  usually  unproductive. 

Shetland  (or  Zetland)  Islands :  a  group  of  about  100 
islands,  of  which  28  are  inhabited,  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
between  lat.  59"*  50'  and  60*"  52'  N.,  and  beloi^ging  to  Scot- 
land. Area,  551  sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1891)  28,711.  The  largest 
island  is  Mainland,  with  the  town  of  Lerwick ;  among  the 
others  are  Yell,  Unst,  Barra,  and  Foula.  They  are  all  tree- 
less, high,  and  rocky,  presenting  steep,  abrupt,  and  bold 
coasts,  with  fine  natural  harbors,  and  a  rugged,  wild  surface 
in  the  interior.  In  the  valleys  some  oats,  barley,  and  pota- 
toes are  cultivated.  The  climate  is  mild  and  damp.  Many 
cattle  and  sheep  are  reared,  but  the  principal  occupation  of 
the  inhabitants  is  fishing,  especially  for  cod  and  herrings, 
giving  employment  to  7,500  men  and  300  boats.  Eggs  form 
an  important  article  of  export.  See  Hibbert,  A  Seserip- 
/io7i  of  the  Shetlatid  Islands  (new  ed.  1892). 

SheTchen'ko,  Taras  Qrioobovich  :  the  greatest  of  Little 
Russian  writers ;  b.  Feb.  25,  1814.  He  was  the  son  of  the 
serf  of  a  German  landed  proprietor  in  the  government  of 
Kiev,  and  from  his  childhood  was  exposed  to  brutal  treat- 
ment, but  picked  up  the  rudiments  of  an  education,  early 
showinff  a  talent  for  song  and  also  for  painting,  which  caused 
him  to  oe  apprenticed  tJo  a  house-decorator  in  order  to  learn 
that  business.  In  1832,  with  his  master,  he  moved  to  St. 
Petersburg,  where  he  attracted  the  interest  of  the  poet 
ZhukovskiT  and  others,  who  bought  his  freedom.  At  first 
all  went  well  with  him,  but  in  1847,  owing  to  some  of  his 
writings  and  to  his  participation  with  Kostomarov  {q.  v,)  in 
a  society  of  which  the  Government  disapproved,  he  was  binn- 
ished  as  a  common  soldier  to  the  Asiatic  frontier  of  the  em- 
pire. In  this  vicinity  he  passed  the  next  ten  years,  part  of 
the  time  in  prison  and  forbidden  to  write  or  paint.  After 
the  accession  of  Alexander  II.,  the  intercession  of  powerful 
friends  procured  his  pardon,  but  although  he  began  to  com- 
pose again  his  health  was  broken  and  he  died  in  St.  Peters- 
Durp^,  Feb.  26, 1861.  Shevchenko's  Kobzar,  a  volume  of  lyr- 
ics m  the  Little  Russian  dialect,  appeared  in  1840  (new  ed. 
1860),  and  achieved  great  popularity.  The  deep  poetic  sym- 
pathy for  the  life  of  the  people  in  these  pieces  made  their 
author  the  idol  of  his  countrymen,  while  the  hopeless  sad- 
ness and  pessimism  of  his  tone  were  the  natural  result  of  his 
own  experiences.  In  1841  he  brought  out  Haidamaki,  a 
Cossack  epic,  also  the  only  Russian  one  with  claims  to  g^at- 
ness,  and  this  was  followed  by  Hanialia^  Maiakj  and  other 
pieces.  See  article  in  the  Revue  des  Deiix  JHondes  (1874), 
and  llie  Peasant  Poeis  of  Russia,  by  W.  K.  Morfill,  in  The 
Westminster  Review  (July,  1880).  A.  C.  Coolidge. 

Shib'boleth  [from  Heb.  shibboleth,  ear  of  corn,  stream, 
deriv  of  *shdbhal,  increase,  flow] :  a  test  or  password  by 
which  one^s  rank  in  society  is  indicated.  It  is  recorded  in 
Judges  xii.  that  after  Jephthah's  victory  over  the  Ephraim- 
ites  the  men  of  Gilead  detected  their  fugitive  enemies  by 
requiring  them  to  pronounce  the  word  shibboleth^  which  the 
Ephraimites  called  sibboleth,  and  thus  betrayed  their  origin ; 
wnereupon  they  were  put  to  death. 

Shield  [O.  En^.  scield :  0.  H.  Germ,  scilt  (>  Mod.  Germ. 
sehild) :  Icel.  skjdldr :  Goth,  skildus] :  a  buckler,  a  broad 
defensive  weapon  carried  upon  the  arm  to  protect  the  body 
from  blows  and  missiles.  Most  savage  nations  employ  shields 
of  some  form,  and  all  the  nations  of  antiauity  used  them, 
as  in  mediaeval  Europe,  down  to  the  general  introduction  of 

funpowder  in  warfare.    The  shield  is  of  great  importance  in 
eraldry.    For  practical  use,  shields  were  of  leather,  wootl, 
basketwork,  etc.    See  Heraldry. 

Shleldrake :  See  Sheldrake. 

Shields:  the  name  of  two  towns  of  England,  about  8 
miles  from  Newcastle,  opposite  to  each  other  on  the  Tyne, 
near  its  entrance  into  the  North  Sea— North  Shields  on* the 
northern  bank,  in  the  county  of  Northuml)crland ;  South 
Shields  on  the  southern,  in  the  county  of  Durham  (see  map 
of  England,  ref.  4-1).  North  Shields  has  two  dwks — the 
Northumberland,  of  55  acres,  opened  1857,  and  the  Albert 
Edward,  of  24  acres,  opened  1884.  There  are  large  exports 
of  coal  and  coke  and  imports  of  timber,  grain  and  espjirto- 
grass.    North  Shields  forms  part  of  the  Iwrough  of  Tyne- 


MOUTH  (q.  V,).  The  total  tonnage  entered  and  cleareil  a* 
both  ports,  exclusive  of  that  coastwise,  was,  in  181^3.  \iM^K- 
869.  South  Shields  is  an  old  town,  but  is  well  built  lu  i'> 
mrxlern  part.  It  has  a  town-hall,  public  library  and  n.u- 
seum,  marine  school,  etc.,  and  a  park  of  45  acres.  TL- 
south  pier,  a  breakwater  nearly  a  mile  in  length.  wa>  U- 
ffun  in  1854,  and  is  not  yet  completed  (1805).  Th(»  T}!)" 
docks  of  the  North  Eastern  Railway,  covering  SOatn-sur. 
chiefly  used  for  shipping  coal  and  coke.  The  hHrU>r  '^ 
lined  with  ship  and  boat  yanls,  and  alkali,  glass,  and  tr  ' 
works.  On  an  eminence  overlooking  the  harbor  are  the  tv- 
mains  of  a  Roman  station  where  coins,  portions  of  an  aha' 
etc.,  have  been  dug  up.  South  Shields  sends  one  nicn.i^' 
to  Parliament.    Pop.  (1891)  78,431.  R.  A.  Koberi>. 

Shields,  Charles  Woodruff,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.:  educatr. 
b.  at  New  Albany,  Ind.,  Apr.  4, 1825;  graduated  at  I^iii"- 
ton  College  (1844)  and  Ttieological  Seminary  (1847):  v;.^ 
pastor  of  Presbyterian  churches  at  Hempstead,  Ijong  Islar  i. 
1849-50,  Philadelphia,  1850-65;  and  since  1865  has  h^u: 
Professor  of  the  Harmony  of  Science  and  Revealed  Hvh^.  •» 
in  Princeton  College.  He  has  published  The  Prt^yitr^u 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  aceoraing  to  the  ReviMon  uf  '■' 
Westminster  Divines  (New  York,  1864 ;  4th  ed.  Ikn;  . 
Liturgia  Expuraata  (Philadelphia,  1864;  8d  ed.  New  York. 
1884) ;  Philosophia  Ultima,  or  Science  of  the  Sciences  (\". 
i..  New  York,  1877 ;  8d  ed.  1889 ;  vol.  ii.  1889) ;  Order  of  f- . 
Sciefices  (1884) ;  Religion  and  Science  in  their  Rflatimn  :  • 
Philosophy  ;  Essays  on  Church  Unity  (1891);  The  Histor.- 
Episcopate  (1894) ;  and  21ie  Question  of  Unity  (18)^). 

C:  K.  Ilo^x 

Shi-Hwang-Ti :  See  Chi-Hwano-Ti. 

Shilltes  [Arab,  shiah,  sect]  :  the  most  numerous  nf  M'.<- 
sulman  heretical  sects.  Their  main  characteristics  are  n'j<-  - 
tion  of  the  Sunna  (see  Sunnites)  and  extravagant  devotion  • . 
Ali.  the  son-in-law  of  the  prophet  Mohammed  and  the  foLr  ■ 
caliph.  The  most  advanced  maintain  that  the  revel atioh  ■* 
the  Koran  was  intended  by  God  for  Ali,  but  given  l<>  M  - 
hammed  through  an  error  of  the  archangel  Gabriel.  Tic 
majority,  however,  are  content  with  denouncing  ihf  fir^* 
three  caliphs,  Abubekir,  Omar,  and  Othman,  as  usur{)ci>.  ai  . 
asserting  that  Ali  was  the  rightful  successor  of  Mohaum  •  : 
The  memory  of  the  tragic  death  of  Ali  by  murder,  ami  ' 
his  two  sons,  Hassan  and  Housseln,  by  poison  and  nuiri'. 
inflames  the  Shittes  to  this  day  beyond  conception  and  .- 
annually  commemorated  with  bloody  rites.  Tne  bitttni--* 
of  hatred  between  the  Sunnites  and  Shiltes  has  never  I  •  • . 
equaled  even  in  the  most  envenomed  wars  of  ChristeiKi' ' 
To  kill  one  Shilte  is  declared  by  the  Sunnites  more  ac  •  • 
able  in  the  sight  of  God  than  the  slaughter  of  seventy  ri.r  -j 
tians.  In  the  treaties  imposed  by  the  Ottomans  oii  V'T<\ 
the  flrst  clause  has  commonly  stipulated  that  the  Per-i.  % 
who  are  Shiltes,  should  not  hereafter  curse  the  memorit'^ 
the  first  three  caliphs.  The  Shiltes  are  found  main!}  *: 
Persia,  India,  and  among  the  Tartars.  They  nunilier  j  r 
ably  not  more  than  18,000,000,  and  are  divided  intoniH'. 
minor  and  hostile  sects.  E.  A.  Grosve>oii. 

Shikarpnr' :  town ;  in  tlie  Presidency  of  Boml)ay.  lini  ^ 
India ;  in  a  low,  level,  regulnrlv  inundated,  but  fertile  a:.. 
not  unhealthful  plain ;  in  lat.  27"  57'  N.,  Ion.  68  45  K.;  l^ 
miles  W.  of  the  Indus,  with  which  it  communicate<  \<}  » 
canal  (see  map  of  N.  India,  ref.  5-A).  It  is  an  entn>|N*'t  fi>r 
transit  trade  between  the  Bolan  Pass  ami  Karachi.  1' i- 
(1891)  42,004. 

Shiko'kn  :  the  third  in  importance  of  the  islands  fonr..':: 
the  empire  of  Japan:  between  Ion.  132°  and  135^  K.  n'^ 
lat.  32J*  and  34^"  N. ;  area,  6,a55  so.  miles.  The  mean  t.  n.*l 
perature  is  about  59''  F.  The  island  comprises  the  ppn^  ii  ^v? 
of  Tosa,  Awa,  Sanuki,  and  lyo.  The  surface  is  hilly.  atA 
there  is  no  mountain  over  4.6b0  feet  high.  The  chief  i«'*-* 
are  Kochi,  Matsuyama,  Takamat^u,  and  Tokushima.  T  ^ 
(1891)  2,827,397.  J.  M.  I'- 

Shil'laber,  Benjamin  Penh  allow  :  humorist :  h.  in  P  rt*- 
mouth,  N.  H.,  July  12,  1814;  entere<l  a  printingM»tlit''  tf 
Dover  1830;  was  a' compositor  at  Demerara.  Guiana.  1^-"^ 
37,  and  in  the  office  of  The  Boston  Post  1840-47;  wa.*  •  :>• 
torially  connected  with  the  latter  paf)er  1847-50,  mMjiiri-lI 
celebrity  by  his  **  savings  of  Mrs.  Partington  "  ;  was  j«r!  *«? 
and  editor  of  The  Pathfinder  1850-52;  proprietor  and  i^:  * 
with  Charles  G.  Halpine  ("  Miles  O'Reilly^')  of  The  (V  /f; 
hag  1850-52  ;  returned  to  the  Post  1853-56,  and  wa5  *  !■•  •' 
the  editors  of  Tlie  Saturday  Evening  Gazette  1856-66 :  nf 
tired  to  his  home  at  Chelsea,  Mass.,  and  devote<l  hiniMif  U> 


478 


SHINSHIU 


SHIP-BUILDING 


which  are  re/?anled  as  of  great  value.  He  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  in  1880« 
and  president  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  in 
1890.    D.  at  Ilomewood,  Pa.,  May  5, 1893. 

Shinshiu,  or  True  Doctrine  (known  also  as  Ikko-  or 
MontO'Bhiu) :  a  powerful  sect  of  Japanese  Buddhists,  having 
their  headquarters  at  Kioto,  in  the  great  Nishi  (West)  Hon- 
gwanji  temple.  Its  founder  was  a  man  of  good  family.  Shin- 
ran  bhonin  (1173-1263  a.  d.),  who  studied  as  a  lad  at  Hiyei- 
zan.  (See  Kioto.)  Tlie  Shinshiu  sect  finds  salvation  in  the 
"extinction  of  passion,"  a  doctrine  at  once  the  cause  and  ef- 
fect of  salvation,  which  salvation  is  called  Nirvana.  The 
doctrine  of  "help  from  another"  is  also  taught,  and  Amita, 
or  "  the  boundless  "  Buddha,  is  relied  upcm  for  the  comple- 
ti<m  of  merits  and  a  rebirth  into  paradise.  In  this  sect 
there  is  less  difference  than  in  any  other  between  laymen 
and  priests,  the  latter  being  allowed  to  marrv  and  to  eat 
flesh  and  fish.  J.  iM.  Dixon. 

Shinto  (liter..  Way  of  the  Gods):  the  ancient  cult  of  the 
Japanese,  whicli  has  scarcely  a  title  to  be  classed  among  re- 
ligions, having  no  moral  system  and  no  eschatology.  It  has 
passed  through  three  phases :  the  early  stage,  when  it  was 
part  and  parcel  of  the  national  life,  and  was  as  much  polit- 
ical as  religious;  the  second  stage,  when  it  had  to  struggle 
with  the  powerful  and  profound  system  of  Buddhism,  which 
almost  swallowed  it  entire;  and  the  modem  stage,  when  a 
brilliant  band  of  literary  men  sought  to  rescue  it  from  the 
obscure  condition  into  which  it  had  fallen.  These  strove  to 
identify  it  with  a  reformed  patriotism  and  a  restored  im- 
perialism, and  their  views  ^nally  triumphed  in  the  restora- 
tion of  1868.  The  first  period  may  be  considered  to  have 
lasted  until  about  a.  d.  550,  and  its  history  is  told  in  the 
Kojiki  and  the  Xihongi^  written  a  century  and  a  half  later 
— books  which  may  be  called  the  Japanese  scriptures,  in  so 
far  as  they  are  concerned  with  the  creation  of  the  race  and 
its  early  history  frotn  a  religious  standnoint. 

Probably  about  the  year  400  A.  D.  the  ancestral  worship 
out  of  which  Shinto  developed  was  so  far  organized  that  the 
home  was  no  longer  deemea  sufficient,  and  a  separate  temple 
was  erected.  Over  it  was  tdaced  as  custodian,  or  chief  priest- 
ess, a  daughter  of  the  Mikado.  When  Buddhism  arrived 
from  the  West  in  the  sixth  century  it  seems  to  have  adopted 
wholesale  the  Shinto  pantheon,  and  all  that  remained  dis- 
tinctive of  the  old  ritual  was  the  gohei.  From  this  era  is  to 
be  dated  the  term  Shinto,  way  of  the  gods,  in  contrast  with 
Butsudo,  or  way  of  Buddha,  both  Chinese  terms.  The  gohei 
(liter.,  august  cloth  or  present)  was  originally  a  piece  of 
hem})en  cloth  hung  on  the  sacred  sakaki  (Clej/era  Japonica) 
in  honor  of  the  goils.  The  material  was  changed  successively 
to  cotton,  silk,  and  finally  to  paper.  In  modern  temples  all 
that  is  visible  to  the  eye  of  the  worshiper  is  a  mirror  and  a 
bundle  of  these  zigzag  paper-cuttings  attached  to  a  rod. 
Tlie  paper  is  usually  white,  but  on  occasion  a  succession  of 
gohei  mav  be  seen — yellow,  red,  black,  white,  blue — in  honor 
of  the  gods  of  wood,  fire,  earth,  water,  and  metal  respectively. 
The  wand  plays  a  considerable  part  in  the  divination  with 
which  Shinto  l)ecame  associated  during  the  thousand  and 
odd  years  of  its  eclipse.  The  god  was  supi)osed  to  come  in 
answer  to  the  woi-shiper's  call  and  to  possess  the  wand,  and 
through  it  the  gohei,  the  whole  rite  resembling  closely  the 
Slmmanism  of  Northern  Asia.  The  priests  of  Shinto  seem 
to  have  made  clever  use  of  the  phenomena  of  water  boiling 
on  mountain  heights  at  a  low  temperature,  and  of  the  heat- 
absorbing  (pmlities  of  salt,  in  their  ordeals  of  water  and  fire. 
See  Esoteric  Shinto,  by  Percival  Lowell,  in  vols,  xxi.-xxii. 
of  the  Tninaactions  of  tlie  Asiatic  Society  of  Japnii. 

The  Tokutrawa  shogunate  stronafly  favored  Buddhism, 
with  its  gorgeous  ritual  and  magnificent  temples;  but  a  re- 
acticm  toward  the  sini|»licity  of  early  Japanese  life  and  ous- 
tt»ms  st^t  in  amone:  native  scholars,  Mabuchi  (1697-1760)» 
Motoori  (1T;«>-1K)1),  Hirata  (1776-184:})  being  the  most 
pr<»niiiient.  This  movement  is  known  as  the  revival  of  pure 
Shinto,  and  wjis  directly  hostile  to  the  dual  rule  under  the 
shogunate.  Satsuma,  always  less  Buddhistic  than  the  rest  of 
Japan,  led  the  restoration  movement  in  186<S,  and  the  result 
was  altogether  favorable  to  Shinto,  which  became  the  only 
state  religion.  Buddhist  temples  were  stripped,  "purified," 
and  handed  over  to  Shinto  keeping.  The  revived  reliijion, 
however,  proved  entirely  too  feeble  to  supplant  Buddhism 
and  quickly  lost  ground.  *'  Pure  Shinto,"  indeed,  was  largely 
the  fad  of  scholars,  for  Buddhism  hatl  ap])ropriated  and  iis- 
similated  almost  everything  that  was  dear  to  the  people  in 
their  old  religion. 


The  Shinto  temple  proper  {yashiro  or  Jinia)  differ*  fr  r 
the  Buddhist  tera  (monastery  or  temple)  in  l>eiDg  iiuiu  r 
destitute  of  furniture,  smaller,  and  usually  double.    Tii> 
ner  shrine  (honaha)  at  the  back  contains,  carefully  iiu]>  -. 
in  a  succession  of  boxes,  the  sword  (if  a  male  deity),  or  n  • 
ror  (if  a  female),  which  is  jealously  guarded  as  ihe  si.  - 
treasure  of  the  place.     With  this  mirror  the  mirror  ♦-xp  r- 
to  view  in  the  outer  shrine  or  oratory  (haiden)  has  n«.-i 
whatever  to  do,  being  a  loan  from  Buddhism.    Wor^h. 
ascend  the  steps  in  front,  strike  the  teraple-gong  with  a  : 
provided  for  tlie  purpose,  smite  or  rub  their  hands  !.»:;•:. 
and  then  <lppart  after  throwing  some  coins  on  tlie  fio<-r.    « 
the  entrance  to  the  temple  is  a  torii.  or  sacre<l  arch.    Si  • 
morality  is  practically  a  Rousseau-like  following  of  in' 
impulses,  and  proclaims  neither  heaven  nor  hell;  its  pr:  • 
hood  is  not  a  caste,  nor  wholly  devoted  to  a  rvligious  .if- 
is  largely  a  form  of  hero-worship,  and  intensely  naj-: 
and  its  chief  deity  is  Amaterasu,  goddess  of  the  sun,  fr  : 
whom  the  Mikado'  traces  his  descent. 

Other  deities  are  Susano,  a  kind  of  Mars,  pre^idini:    .' 
the  moon  ;  and  his  daughter  Uga-no-mitama,  p<>pularh  v  • 
shipeti  as  Inari.  the  goddess  of  rice.    Most  oi  the  ii* 
appear  to  be  deified  human  beings.     See  article  pti  1- 
for  Japanese   mj'thology.  the  Introduction  to  the  K'    . 
Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan  (vol.  x..  -n; 
and  various  articles  in  these  Transactimu  bv  Ernest  ^.t'  « 

'J.  M.  I»i\  >. 

Shlp-bnildingr :  naval  architecture,  or  the  art  of  <l*-i.' 
ing  and  constructing  vessels  for  navigation,  and  mor^  t  -: 
ticularly  the  larger  vessels,  or  those  which  carry  n.  ^  • 
whether  intended  for  war  or  for  commercial  puriM'>'v 
is  impossible  to  state  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  tin  • 
or  the  portion  of  the  globe  in  which  ship-building  oriu  i  • 
Among  razor-knives  found  in  Denmark,  belongiui:  i--  •  ^ 
"bronze  age"  in  Europe,  are  several  with  repns«iT.ii    m 
thereon  of  galleys  which  compare  favorably  with  tli<  -    I 
ancient  Rome.     The  Phcenicians  were  the'  greatest  ■ 
mercial  people  of  ancient  history,  and,  instructed  hv  •  i 
Egyptians,  seem  to  have  been  the  first  to  make  nuit-  i 
progress  in  the  construction  of  vessels.    Among  the  p:.  .  i 
ings  in  the  tomb  of  Ramescs  the  Great  is  a  reprcM  \ais\    ' 
of  a  naval  combat  between  the  Egvptians  and  a  }- 
supposed  to  be  Phcenicians,  whose  slups  are  profit-'. !•  i 
sails.    A  biblical  reference  to  the  power  of  Tyre,  eapUf.. 
Phoenicia,  describes  its  vessels  and  their  const ruft  id • :  •  i 
planking  being  made  of  the  fir-trees  of  Senir  (flernioj. .  •  i 
masts  of  cedars  of  Lebanon,  the  oars  of  the  oaks  of  \\u-  .  \ 
the  rowing-benches  of  ivory,  and  the  sails  of  fine  1  in-  • 
Egypt.     Reference  is  also  made  to  mariners,  pilots,  cai^•  M 
and  men  of  war,  showing  the  progress  made  in  the  ar:-   i 
ship-building  and  navigation.    A  peculiar  feature  in  *  i 
construction  of  the  ships  of  the  Egyptians  was  the  p!..-  i 
ing,  which  was  about  3  feet  square,  and  was  laid  t*^'' 
lapping,  like  shingles  upon  a  roof,  being  fastene<i  t"  : 
ribs  or  frames  by  wooden  tree-nails.    According  t<^  II- ; 
otus  the  Nile  vessels  were  fitted  with  rudders  at  the  -t 
thus  antedating  the  application  of  that  invent  it  >n  t«'  -  j 
going  vessels  by  several  centuries.     The  ves^^ls  «  f  i 
Phoenicians  served  as  models  to  the  Greeks,  whost'  •il  ;  -   i 
the  height  of  their  civilization,  show  a  marked  re?<iiti'. ». 
to  those  of  the  dwellers  in  Tyre. 

Shi/)-fmild ing  in  Europe.-— The  nations  of  the  nori'  i 
EuroT)e  developed  a  class  of  vessels  which,  from  sp»"<i'  .  i 
found  buried  in  mounds  in  Scandinavia  and  Denmark.  -  i 
a  remarkable  knowledge  of  the  forms  of  least  ro^i-i.i:  I 
together  with  the  strength  of  materials  and  their  pr 
distribution,  an<l  suggest  that  the  influence  of  tie*  !'•  . 
nicinn  ship-builders  had  in  some  way  penetrated  to  the  n  :> 
of  Europe. 

Cii'sar,  in  his  history  of  the  campaign  against  tli»»  V. » 
in  the  year  54  b.  c,  states  that  their  ships  were  li.i  ' 
tirely  of  oak,  and  designed  to  endure  the  force  and  \ ."   • 
of  the  tempests;  the  rowers'  benches  were  fastened  i'V   •  i 
spikes:  instead  of  cables,  they  secured  their  anth<rv\*    I 
chains  of  iron.     A  Roman  ship  of  the  time  of  Tnijan.  -     I 
in  Lake  Ricciola,  was  raised  after  more  than  1,300  year^ .  •  i 
jilanking  was  of  pine  and  cypress,  covered  on  the  (>ut»-r  <  j 
with  sheets  of  lead  fastened  with  copper  nails. 

The  (treeks  and  Romans  had  a  peculiar  methi»d  of  <:  '•< 
ing  their  vessels  with  long  hemfwn  cables,  whiih.  p;.--  : 
thr«>ugh  holes  at  the  stem -post,  continued  all  arou'i.i  t 
vessel  fore  and  aft  immediately  under  the  wales;  a.--  ''j 
hulls  were  undergirded  transversely  in  the  same  maiuirl 


480 


SHIP-BUILDING 


the  buoyancy  of  the  water  acting  in  an  opposite  direction 
through  a  point  which  is  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  volume 
of  displacement,  called  the  center  of  buoyancy.  When  the 
vessel  is  at  rest  in  an  upright  position  the  two  points  lie  in 
the  same  vertical  plane.  The  position  of  the  center  of 
buovancy  is  calculated  about  two  axes — one  taken  at  the 
load-line  and  the  other  at  the  mid-length  of  the  vessel.  In 
order  that  the  vessel  may  float  at  a  given  draught  at  the 
bow  and  stern,  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  vessel  in  a  fore- 
and-aft  direction  must  lie  in  the  same  vertical  line  with  the 
center  of  buoyancy  of  the  immersed  body.  When  these 
points  are  thus  located  the  vessel  is  said  to  be  in  trim  and 
proves  the  correctness  of  the  designer's  calculations,  for  in 
order  to  ascertain  with  accuracy  tne  position  of  the  center 
of  gravity  of  the  vessel  the  weight  of  each  particle  that  goes 
to  makeup  the  entire  vessel  must  not  only  be  calculated, 
but  also  its  moment  about  some  point  in  the  length  taken 
as  an  axis.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  vertical  center  of 
gravity  must  be  determined  in  order  to  ascertain  its  distance, 
called  the  metacentiic  height,  below  the  metaceuter  of  the 
vessel.  The  metacenter  is  a  point  above  the  vertical  center 
of  buoyancy  at  a  distance  equal  to  the  moment  of  inertia  of 
the  load- water  plane  divided  by  the  volume  of  water  dis- 
placed. The  metacentric  height  is  a  measure  of  the  initial 
stability  of  the  vessel,  but  not  of  the  range  of  stability.  (See 
Hydrostatics,  Stability  of  Floatina  Boaies.)  For  good  easy 
behavior  the  metacentric  height  should  not  exceed  3  feet, 
and  for  safety  not  be  less  than  18  inches,  provided  that  the 
vessel  has  a  reasonable  amount  of  free-board  or  height  out 
of  water.  There  are  many  other  calculations  that  can  be 
made  in  regard  to  the  stability  of  the  vessel  in  various  con- 
ditions of  load  or  when  some  of  the  compartments  are  filled 
with  water. 

The  plans  necessary  to  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  design  are 
given  biilow,  but  these  must  be  supplemented  by  detail  plans 
of  the  principal  parts  of  the  vessel :  1.  Plan  of  lines,  or  half- 
breadth  and  oody  plan.  2.  Midship  section.  3.  Profile  in- 
board.   4.  Deck  plans.    5.  Cross-sections.    6.  Sail  plan. 

The  plan  of  lines  shows  the  form  of  the  vessel,  and  is  in 
reality  the  *'  traces  "  of  planes  taken  at  right  angles  to  each 
other  throughout  the  ship.  From  these  the  shape  of  the 
vessel  is  laid  down  full  size  upon  the  mould-loft  fioor.  The 
midship  section  is  taken  at  the  mid-length  of  the  vessel  and 
shows  the  character  of  the  framing,  the  disposition  and 
thickness  of  the  plating  of  sides  and  bottom,  decks,  bulk- 
heads, stringers,  etc.,  in  fact,  all  the  parts  upon  which  the 
strength  of  the  vessel  depends.  If  the  vessel  is  not  built  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  of  one  of  the  insurance  companies,  plans 
and  calculations  showing  the  strength  of  the  structure  must 
accompany  the  application,  and  this  involves  considerable 
mathematical  investigation,  for  the  ship  must  be  taken  as  a 
girder,  and  the  maximum  stresses  the  material  is  subject  to 
calculated  for  the  top  and  bottom  fianges  of  the  girder.  The 
inboard  profile  ^ives  the  location  of  the  principal  weights  in 
a  foi*e-and-aft  direction,  the  spacing  of  tne  frames,  the  loca- 
tion of  bulkheads,  the  distances  between  the  decks,  the  posi- 
tion of  cargo  hatches,  and  the  portions  devoted  to  cargo, 
coal,  passengers,  crew,  etc.  The  deck  plans  and  cross-sections 
show  the  general  arrangement  of  the  deck  framing  and  plat- 
ing, and  the  arrangement  of  the  cabins  and  passenger  accom- 
modations. The  sail  plan  gives  the  general  outside  appear- 
ance of  the  vessel,  with  the  amount  of  sail  carried,  the  neight 
of  masts,  etc.  The  many  questions  of  handling  cargo  quick- 
ly and  effectively,  of  steering-gear  for  controlling  the  vessel, 
providing  sufficient  sail-power  to  prevent  the  vessel  falling 
off  in  the  trough  of  the  sea  when  the  machinery  is  disabled, 
the  working  and  stowing  of  lifeboats,  give  the  designer  oc- 
casion for  the  careful  application  of  scientific  and  experi- 
mental data.  The  work  involved  in  the  preparation  of  the 
design  for  a  war-ves-sel  is  of  a  much  more  complex  nature. 
The  features  of  speed,  armament,  protection,  accommodation, 
and  endurance  are  so  thoroughly  interwoven  and  depend  so 
much  one  u|K)n  the  other  that  the  emphasizing  of  any  one 
feature  must  be  at  the  expense  of  some  of  the  others.  Thus 
the  most  thorough  and  scientific  investigation  must  be  made 
of  the  vessel  in  all  its  features  to  enable  the  maximum  of 
elliciency  to  be  attained  in  the  ship  as  a  whole. 

Laying  Down. — The  form  of  the  vessel  or  the  lines  hav- 
ing been  determined  in  the  draught ing-room,  the  frames  or 
ril>s  are  next  drawn  full  size  upon  the  fioor  of  a  building 
known  as  the  mould-loft,  in  order  that  moulds  or  scrive- 
boards  may  be  made,  to  wliich  each  frame  is  shat)ed  or  bent. 
To  facilitate  the  work  in  the  loft,  the  ship  is  divided  into 
two  parts  called  the  fore  and  after  bodies,  being  divided  by 


an  imaginary  line  amidships,  or  a  point  near  which  the  curv- 
ature of  the  lines  is  reversed.  On  the  bodies  are  laid  <  •£[ 
the  edges  of  the  plating,  the  line  of  the  stringers  aud  ke*-]- 
sons,  the  undersides  of  the  decks,  the  outline  of  the  fl(M>r^. 
etc.  For  the  wooden  vessels  the  moulds  represent  the  ^haj- 
and  taper  of  the  frame  timbers.  Pieces  of  timber  are  th«  n 
selected  and  worked  exactly  to  the  moulds,  their  edges  Wi- 
eled  to  conform  to  the  curvature  of  the  vessel  taken  tnm 
the  mould-loft  floor,  and  the  joints  or  butts  carefully  dow- 
eled together.  For  metal  vessels  the  moulds  are  made  t<> 
show  the  shape  of  the  outer  edge  of  the  frame  and  the  line  <•*. 
the  floors;  the  object  in  thus  moulding,  shaping,  and  U'lul- 
ing  the  frames  is  to  have  them  their  true  shape,  S4.>  Umt 
when  put  together  they  shall  form  the  outlines  of  a  v»'>>r. 
agreeing  with  the  plan  of  the  naval  architect,  and  giving;, 
wnen  the  planking  or  plating  is  fastened  to  them,  the  com- 
plete outline  of  the  hull.  While  this  part  of  the  work  i^ 
going  on,  the  shipwrights  are  preparing  the  foundation  and 
laying  the  keel-blocks  upon  which  the  vessel  is  to  be  built. 

Ordering  Material, — For  convenience  in  ordering  the  ma- 
terial of  an  iron  or  steel  vessel  an  exact  model  of  it  is  mmh 
in  wood  on  a  scale  iV^h  or  A^th  of  full  size ;  on  this  mcxlel  art- 
marked  off  the  stations  or  the  frames,  the  deck-lines,  the 
edges  of  the  plating  and  stringers,  and  the  plates  laid  off  in 
their  proper  lengths  so  as  to  have  a  proper  shift  of  the  Imtt^ 
or  joints.  The  dimensions  of  the  frames  and  plates  are  t  UfU 
measured  from  the  model,  and  after  verification  as  to  width 
in  the  loft  are  sent  to  the  mills.  An  allowance  is  made  f^r 
machining  the  plates,  or  such  of  them  as  form  the  ouitt 
strakes,  for  the  inner  strakes  are  often  placed  on  the  >hi{> 
without  planing  the  edges,  the  ends  only  being  machined  n- 
order  to  nave  close  joints  for  calking  metal  to  metal. 

Keel'bloeks, — As  the  entire  weight  of  the  vessel  must  vouie 
upon  the  keel-blocks,  it  is  essential  that  they  shall  havf  a 
verv  firm  foundation,  such  as  piling  or  concrete ;  they  gt-n- 
erally  slope  lengthwise  toward  the  water,  and  are  plMerii 
about  4  feet  apart  from  center  to  center.  Each  block  )> 
built  up  of  several  pieces  of  timber,  the  bottom  pieces  ofier. 
of  sufficient  length  to  serve  as  a  foundation  upon  which  to 
build  up  the  supports  of  the  launching  ways ;  the  u(>{if  r 
pieces  are  in  some  yards  so  put  together  as  to  permit  of 
being  removed  from  under  the  keel  without  splitting,  whilf 
in  others  the  removal  of  the  blocks  is  effected  by  split  tin:: 
out  the  cap  pieces.  The  blocks  are  generally  given  an  in- 
clination to  the  foot  of  from  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  heavy 
vessels  to  three-quart6i*s  of  an  inch  in  light  ones,  to  fa<>ili- 
tate  launching. 

Keel. — The  first  operation,  be  the  ship  of  wood  or  metAl. 
is  to  place  the  keel  upon  the  blocks ;  if  the  vessel  is  of  nieiui 
the  keel  may  be  constructed  after  one  of  several  meth<>«]s 
The  bar-keel  consists  of  a  plain  bar  in  suitable  lengths  with 
scarfed  butts,  the  plating  of  the  garboanl  strakes  Xmu^ 
flanged  or  turned  down  against  the  Mirs,  and  riveted  thrr>n^':. 
and  through.  Another  variety  is  the  side  bar-keel,  which  :> 
built  up  of  three  parts,  the  middle  piece  extending  aU'U 
the  keel  proper  to  a  depth  equal  at  least  to  the  flours,  ai.>i 
the  garboard  strakes  being  riveted  through  in  a  mannt-r 
similar  to  that  employed  with  the  ordinary  bar-keel ;  thi^  i> 
one  of  the  strongest  of  keels,  and  also  one  of  the  most  (m<^!- 
ly.  Another  variety,  and  one  that,  in  these  days  of  cidlulnr 
or  double-bottom  construction,  finds  general  acceptanee.  :> 
the  fiat  keel ;  this  consists  merely  of  flat  plates  bent  to  >hA|t . 
If  the  keel  laid  is  a  bar-keel  of  either  type,  the  g:irU>ai'l 
strakes  are  at  once  put  in  place  to  afford  a  landing  for  t[u 
frames.  The  stem  and  stern  post  are  set  up,  and.  if  the  v^^ 
sel  is  of  wootl,  the  deadwood  and  other  pieces  in  the  cenitT 
line  are  bolted  in  place. 

Stem  and  Stern  Post. — The  stem  of  a  metal  vessel  is  n-u- 
ally  a  simple  forging  rabbeted  to  receive  the  ends  of  (nt 
plating-rtnat  is,  a  recess  is  cut  in  it  on  each  side  so  that  ihc 
plates  may  end  in  it  and  form  a  fair  and  flush  surface.  TK*- 
stern-post,  if  of  a  single-screw  vessel,  b  quite  an  elal)*»nifr 
forging,  although  of  late  years  castings  of  steel  have  U'«j. 
substituted  for  forgings  with  great  success.  The  j«*>i  .* 
made  up  of  two  jxarts  in  one,  first  the  post  proper  on  wlij-  Ij 
the  plating  ends,  and  through  which  the  screw-shaft  )>n.v<«>. 
fonning  incidentally  a  part  of  the  stern  bearing,  and  setHi«..i 
the  rudtler-post  or  the  support  of  the  rudder  ;  the  two  t>  n- 
nected  form  a  continuous  frame  about  the  propeller.  It 
twin-screw  vessels  the  stern  frame  is  scarcely  less  elal>>rai»'. 
for  pnivision  is  usually  made  for  heeling  thereon  the  ^hnfi 
brackets  or  struts  which  supiK)rt  the  screws.  The  fritn.' 
must  also  receive  the  ends  of  the  hull-plates  and  support  tl:'' 
rudder. 


482 


SHIP-BUILDING 


SHIP-CANALS 


reouire.  In  addition  to  the  Tertical  stiffening,  horizontal 
weos  are  sometimes  worked  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
bulkhead,  with  their  ends  securely  bracketed  to  the  ship's 
side. 

Decks, — The  upper  deck,  to  which  is  carried  the  full  scant- 
ling of  the  vessel,  plays  a  very  important  part  in. the  struc- 
tural stren^h.  The  arrangement  of  the  material  subject 
to  longitudmal  stress  may  hd  compared  to  a  beam  of  which 
the  upper  deck  is  the  top  and  the  keel  the  bottom  flange, 
the  outside  plating  forming  the  web  of  the  beam  ;  therefore 
in  vessels  of  large  size  this  deck  is  plated  completely  over  in 
order  to  secure  for  the  top  flange  of  the  girder  the  proper 
sectional  area.  On  the  ends  of  the  beams  are  worked  string- 
ers of  heavier  plating  than  the  balance  of  the  deck-plating, 
making  good  connection  with  the  sheer  strake  by  means  of 
heavy  angle  bars ;  the  space  between  the  stringers  is  filled 
in  with  plating  as  required.  In  wooden  vessels  the  strength 
at  the  deck  is  made  up  through  the  waterways,  thick  strakes, 
and  clainj)s,  which  are  strong  pieces  of  timber  or  plank  run- 
ning longitudinally. 

Tne  remaining  decks  of  an  iron  vessel  are  wjjrked  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  upper  deck.  Where  the  frames  pierce 
the  plating  staple-angles  are  sometimes  worked  about  the 
frames  to  make  them  water-tight.  Deck  beams  should  be 
supported  by  stanchions ;  so  far  as  possible  these  should  be 
in  the  midship  line,  but  for  convenience  of  staterooms  and 
deck  arrangements  they  are  sometimes  worked  two  to  a 
'  beam,  and  placed  beside*  the  joiner-work  bulkheads. 

Fastenings, — The  fastenings  of  a  wooden  vessel  are  com- 
posed of  copper  and  iron  bolts,  iron  spikes,  and  treenails  of 
wood.  The  plank  is  fastened  generally  by  spikes  or  tree- 
nails, except  at  the  butts,  which  are  bolted.  For  additional 
security  the  frames,  outside  and  inside  planking,  are  often 
fastened  together  by  through-bolts,  driven  from  the  out- 
side and  riveted  on  washers  against  the  inside  of  ceiling. 
The  deck  plank  is  usually  fastened  by  spikes.  The  fasten- 
ings of  a  metal  vessel  consist  almost  entirely  of  rivets,  which 
are  hammered  into  place  while  hot. 

Calking, — When  the  planking  is  fastened  the  seams  or 
slight  spaces  between  the  edges  of  the  plank  are  filled  with 
oakum,  and  this  is  driven  in  with  great  care  until  it  is  as 
hard  as  the  plank.  To  hold  the  oakum  the  planks  are  laid 
with  a  slight  bevel  outward,  about  ^th  of  an  inch  for  each 
inch  of  thickness  of  plank ;  otherwise  the  oakum  would  be 
easily  forced  through  the  seam.  An  improved  method  is 
to  cut  a  recess  in  the  edges  of  the  plank  about  midway  of 
the  depth,  so  that  the  oakum  will  spread  into  the  recess  and 
render  it  impossible  to  be  driven  tnrough.  After  the  calk- 
ing the  seams  are  paid  with  hot  pitch  or  marine  glue.  In 
metal  vessels  all  water-tight  work  must  be  calked  metal  to 
metal,  that  is,  a  slight  layer  of  metal  must  be  driven  over 
against  the  adjacent  metal  until  the  joint  is  absolutely  tight. 
This  work  was-formerly  done  entirely  by  hand ;  now  a  calk- 
ing-tool  operated  by  compressed  air  or  electricity  is  used, 
the  blows  being  given  with  great  rapidity. 

Launching. — The  vessel  has  been  built  resting  upon  the 
keel-blocks  and  shores ;  while  here  the  shafting  and  propel- 
lers have  been  put  in  place,  the  rudder  hung,  the  oottom 
painted,  and  all  work  below  the  water-line  on  the  outside 
surface  finished.  Now  the  vessel  is  to  be  transferred  from 
the  fixed  keel-blocks  to  a  movable  platform  which  shall 
allow  the  vessel  to  move  easily  and  without  damage  into 
the  water.  This  is  done  by  building  on  each  side  of  the 
vessel,  about  one-fourth  of  the  breadth  of  beam  from  the 
keel,  a  platform  or  foundation  to  which  the  weight  of  the 
vessel  snail  be  transferred.  In  laying  the  keel-blocks  the 
bottom  pieces  were  made  of  sufficient  length  to  allow  of 
their  forming  the  foundation  for  this  platform.  On  these 
are  built  up  the  groundways,  which  are  shored  to  prevent 
spreading  and  are  capped  with  strong  pieces  of  timber,  3^ 
to  4  feet  wide,  with  smooth  upper  surfaces ;  on  these  are 
laid  the  bilgeways,  which  are  also  large  smooth  pieces  of 
timber,  free  to  slide  with  the  vessel ;  on  the  bilgeways  are 
constructed  the  cradles,  which  are  fitted  to  the  ship^s  bot- 
tom ;  between  the  cradles  and  the  bilgeways  are  fitted  rows 
of  long  wedges  of  such  thickness  that  when  driven  up  the 
vessel  will  be  lifted  from  the  keel-blocks,  and  the  weight 
brought  to  bear  on  the  groundways.  The  upper  surface  of 
the  groundways  and  the  bottom  surface  of  the  bilgeways 
are  coated  with  tallow,  and  the  bilgeways  secured  to  the 
groundways  by  pieces  of  plank  at  the  bow  so  that  they 
can  not  move  until  they  are  sawn  asunder.  Then  the  wedges 
are  set  up  until  the  keel-blocks  can  be  removed  and  all 
clear  for  launching ;  when  all  is  clear,  the  planks  at  the  bow 


are  sawn  off,  and  the  vessel,  resting  only  on  the  groa^- 1 
surfrfbes,  begins  slowly  to  slide  down  the  inclined  ijlan^- . 
she  soon  gains  headway,  and  in  a  few  seconds  is  iii  tL- 
water.  After  launching,  the  fitting  of  the  joiner  work  ar)«l 
cabins,  the  putting  together  of  the  machinery,  stepping  an  .1 
securing  the  masts  and  rigging  of  the  ship,  are  proceeilt<i 
with  until  the  vessel  is  complete  in  all  respects. 

Philip  Hkubokx. 

Ship-canals:  canals  intended  for  the  passage  of  ship- 
proper;  hence,  therefore,  canals  to  connect  sea  -with  >«  .'^ 
and  thus  by  a  short  cut  to  obviate  a  long  ocean  navi^tioi,. 
Such  canals  are  usually  laidaoross  an  isthmus  or  i>eniii>uia. 
The  Suez  Canal  is  an  apt  instance;  so  also  are  the  projis-i*  •! 
canals  across  the  Central  American  isthmus  and  the  istliii;u^ 
of  Florida.  The  Caledonian  Canal  (q,  v,)  of  Scotland  i>  ai. 
instance  of  a  class  of  minor  ship-canals.  In  another  !-«-n^- 
ship-canals  are  those  proposed  to  connect  routes  of  natui-i: 
navigation  (rivers  or  lakes),  by  allowing  a  passage  of  i\  .- 
vessels,  whatever  they  may  be,  used  in  such  navigation.  '1 .  ► 
this  class  belong  many  of  the  works  described  in  the  i-y«  «~ 
pffidia  under  separate  heads — e.  g.  the  Illinois  and  Mi<  m- 
OAN  Canal  {g,  v,) ;  see  also  the  article  Canals. 

The  importance  of  a  navigable  connection  betwtfti  th. 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  through  the  isthmus  which  (■••n- 
nects  North  and  South  America  calls  for  a  condenae<l  vi«  u 
of  the  chief  plans  proposed  at  different  dates,  and  of  tli  • 
natural  obstacles  baffling  them  all  up  to  the  present.  Fr.  >u. 
the  era  of  the  Spanish  conquest  of  America  the  seart-h  f<-r 
the  secret  of  the  supposed  natural  strait  was  carried  i  :. 
along  the  whole  coast-line  of  the  two  continents;  and  m  ht  • 
this  ceased,  the  possibility  of  the  construction  of  an  artifi«.  i.I 
route  began  to  be  discussed.  Governments,  companies,  avi 
individuals  have  devoted  much  time  and  money  to  i:  » 
search  for  a  practical  route  for  a  ship-canal.  Teh  uan  t  f  |  k  •. 
Honduras,  Nicaragua,  Chiriqui,  the  Isthmus  of  l^anan.i 
(or  Darien),  and  the  Atrato  river,  have  all  figured  in  c**»nii'  - 
tion  with  this  question,  and  a  full  statement  of  the  varKi.- 
surveys  and  projects  made  prior  to  1866  will  be  found  I'l 
the  report  of  the  superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Ol»>»'r»- 
atory  (Admiral  C.  H.  Davis),  made  in  compliance  witii  i 
resolution  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  (Ex,  Doc,  62^).  See  aN  . 
Engineering  (London),  in  a  series  of  articles  entitled  T\ ' 
Nicaragua  Canal  (Feb.  24,  1893,  et  seq,). 

The  results  of  the  surveys  since  1875  of  the  Amerit  mti 
isthmus  for  ship-canals  and  their  substitute,  the  shif>-rai.- 
way,  will  be  found  under  Nicaragua  Canal  and  Ihiunn"^ 
Canal,  below,  and  in  the  article  Ship-railways.  Since  ls7i« 
important  results  at  both  Nicaragua  and  Panama  have  pr- 
eceded from  efforts  to  construct  the  canals.  The  remain ;i  ^ 
E rejects  have  ended  either  in  surveys  and  estimates,  <»r  n: 
kpsed  concessions  from  the  governments  on  whose  territc  r  * 
the  canals  were  to  have  been  constructed. 

Panama  Canal. — Across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  o<^»tiir-. 
next  to  Nicaragua,  the  greatest  depression  yet  found  on  :]  • 
isthmus,  the  summit-level  of  the  railway  being  287  f ♦  •  • 
above  sea-level.  The  route  from  Porto  Bello  or  Chagrt^  i*- 
Old  or  New  Panama  has  been  the  established  line  ui  c^'v.- 
munication  since  1658,  nearly  coeval  with  the  first  js^'tt  .^ 
ment  in  America.  A  survey  was  made  in  1843  by  iK> 
French  engineer,  M.  Garella  (ingenieur-en-chef  des  ffiiH*  ^  , 
of  which  the  report  was  printed  in  the  Journal  of  t.- 
Franklin  Institute,  and  in  the  French  Journal  des  ^'ttn'- 
et  ChaussSes  (1844).  George  M.  Totten,  chief  engint^T  .  : 
the  Panama  Railroad,  subsequentlv  made  an  estimate  f.r 
a  canal  with  locks,  to  cost  from  160,000,000  to  f  115,0(X).ihhi. 
according  to  the  summit-level  adopted.  The  survey  w:i^ 
renewed  by  the  U.  S.  Government,  by  Commander  K.  i'. 
Lull,  U.S.  navy,  resulting  in  the  location  of  a  practiL«l!r 
line  for  an  interoceanic  ship-canal,  2^  feet  deep,  fnnn  t{,, 
Bav  of  Aspinwall  on  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  Panama  un  li.t 
Pacific. 

In  1879  Count  Fenlinand  de  Lesseps  made  an  apptvil  -. 
the  several  nations  to  send  delegates  to  a  propose*!  ei»r>trn  -- 
to  meet  in  Paris,  to  decide  upon  the  route  and  the  plan  i  : 
an  interoceanic  cankl  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pt4<ir. 
Oceans  through  the  American  isthmus.  On  May  15  of  t  *.;.: 
year  the  congress  met  in  Paris.  Twenty-four  count : ..  - 
were  represented.  Count  de  Lesseps  was  elected  pn's.iii»  r.*. 
The  congress  decided  that  a  canal  with  a  constant  level  ^.i^ 
desirable,  and  that  this  canal  should  be  by  way  of  Liiu" 
Bay  to  Panama. 

Immediately  after  the  adiournment  of  the  congress  t^  ♦ 
Universal  Interoceanic  Canal  Company  was  organized  un<u  r 


484: 


SIIIP-CANALS 


mote  the  undertaking.  For  a  full  history  and  complete 
statement  of  facts  see  the  Florida,  Atlantie,  and  Gulf  Ship- 
canal  Company^  published  in  New  York  (1881) ;  also  report 
of  Gen.  tjuincy  A.  Gillniore,  in  the  annual  re|)ort  of  the 
chief  of  engineers  U,  S.  army  (1880). 

Cape  Cod  Ship-eanaU — To  shorten  the  distance  and  avoid 
the  dangers  of  navigating  around  Cape  Cod  a  proposition 
for  a  ship-canal  between  Barnstable  l3ay  on  the  north  and 
Buzzard's  Bay  on  the  south  has  been  brought  forward. 
Probably  the  best  route  follows  a  natural  depression  be- 
tween Sandwich  on  the  north  coast  and  Monument,  at  Buz- 
zard's Bay,  on  the  south,  a  distance  of  about  8  miles.  At 
an  earlier  geological  period  this  depression  was  a  sea-chan- 
nel separating  Cape  Cod  from  the  mainland,  and  it  is  so  low 
even  now  that  within  the  nineteenth  century  the  storm- 
tides  have  met  each  other. 

Many  examinations,  surveys,  and  reports  were  made  from 
1776  to  1878,  when  Clemens  Herschel,  C.  E.,  made  an  ex- 
haustive report  on  the  subject,  and  estimated  the  cost  of 
a  canal  and  jetties  with  a  depth  of  18  feet  at  mean  low 
water,  and  a  width  of  111  feet,  at  |2,000,(X)0  in  cash. 

Although  the  State  Legislature  has  granted  many  char- 
ters to  different  companies,  yet  very  little  actual  work  has 
been  done  on  the  constructirm  of  the  canal.  There  are 
(1805)  several  bills  for  charters  before  the  present  session  of 
the  Legislature. 

Suez  Canal, — According  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (b.  c.  60) 
there  was  a  canal  from  the  Gulf  of  Pelusium  (not  far  from 
the  present  terminus  of  the  canal)  to  the  Red  Sea.  It  was 
begun  by  Necos,  continued  by  Darius,  and  finished  by  Ptol- 
emy II.  The  canal  was  said  to  be  wide  enough  for  two 
galleys  to  pass  abreast. 

For  the  modern  canal  nothing  was  done  except  to  make, 
careful  surveys  until  1849,  when  the  project  of  a  ship-canal 
was  finally  taken  up,  to  be  carried  tnrough  by  Count  Fer- 
dinand de  Lesseps.  After  the  route  had  been  carefully 
surveyed  and  favorably  reported  on,  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt 
granted  the  first  concession  to  M.  de  Lesseps  in  Nov.,  18M. 
At  Constantinople,  where  de  Lesseps  had  an  interview  with 
the  prime  minister,  the  project  was  favorably  received  ;  but 
through  the  interest  of  the  representative  of  Great  Britain, 
Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  the  sanction  was  not  given. 
In  order  to  place  the  subject  prominently  before  commercial 
nations  de  Lesseps  wrote  to  tne  principal  foreign  ministers, 
asking  that  they  would  name  engineers  of  high  rank,  and 
would  secure  their  uniting  in  a  commission  to  examine  the 
routes  for  a  ship-canal.  The  commission  met  and  appointed 
a  sub-commission  to  prosecute  the  study  of  the  proposed 
route  on  the  ground,  which  they  did,  and  presentea  to  Said 
Pasha  a  preliminary  report  dated  Alexamlria,  Jan.  2,  1856. 
The  commission  rejected  the  plan  for  an  indirect  canal  from 
Alexandria  as  *'  inadmissible  from  a  technical  and  an  eco- 
nomical point  of  view,"  and  reported  in  favor  of  a  direct 
route,  malcing  an  estimate  of  2()0,000,000  francs  as  the  cost 
of  the  work.  A  second  concession  was  given  on  Jan.  15, 
1856,  the  terms  of  which  were  designed  to  satisfy  the  oppo- 
sition which  had  already  begun  in  Great  Britain,  and  to 
guarantee  fair  returns  to  the  stockholders  who  might  invest. 
The  viceroy  made  an  official  declaration  for  himself  and  his 
successors,  subject  to  the  ratification  of  the  sultan,  that  the 
canal  and  all  its  ports  should  be  open  at  all  times  as  a  neu- 
tral his^hway  to  every  merchant  ship  passing  from  one  sea 
to  anotner,  without  any  exclusive  distmction  or  preference 
to  persons  or  nationalities.  The  statutes  which  were  to  gov- 
ern the  company  fixed  its  capital  stock  at  2(X),0(X),000  francs. 

The  Egyptian  Government  engaged  to  furnish  a  contin- 
gent of  the  fellaheen,  and  the  work  was  at  once  begun. 
The  location  of  the  northern  terminus  of  the  canal  was 
changed  from  Pelusium  to  Port  Said.  The  first  work  on 
the  canal  was  at  this  terminus,  and  was  begun  on  Aug.  25, 
1859,  by  de  Ijesseps  in  the  presence  of  about  150  persons. 
For  a  description  and  illustration  of  the  artificial  harbor  at 
Port  Said,  see  Harbors. 

From  Port  Said  the  distance  across  the  isthmus  in  a  di- 
rect line  is  about  70  miles.  The  length  of  the  canal  is  100 
miles,  of  which  over  60  per  cent,  is  through  shallow  lakes. 
The  material  excavated  was  usually  sand,  but  in  places  it 
was  necessary  to  blast  through  strata,  2  or  3  ft*et  m  thick- 
ness, of  solid  rock.  The  total  excavation  was  80,000,000 
cubic  yards. 

On  account  of  the  complications  with  Great  Britain  and  its 
opp)06ition  to  the  construction  of  a  canal,  obstructions  were 
placed  in  the  way  of  the  work  from  time  to  time  which 
greatly  delayed  its  completion  and  increased  its  cost.    The 


most  important  result  was  the  withdrawing  of  the  fellahw^n 
from  the  work  by  peremptory  orders  from  the  British  Gov- 
ernment to  the  viceroy.  Although  the  work  was  delaye<i  hi 
this,  it  served  to  bring  into  use  a  much  more  extensive  plant 
of  machinery,  specially  constructed  to  perform  work  hitht-r- 
to  done  by  men.  The  appliances  thus  use<l  were  various 
and  very  efficient.  With  them  the  contractors  exrHvat««l 
50.(X)0,000  cubic  meters,  with  the  assistance  of  less  Ihan 
4,0(X)  men  and  in  the  space  of  less  than  five  years*.  The 
work  was  all  performed  m  daylight. 

The  canal  was  formally  opened  by  vessels  fn»ni  nearly 
all  the  maritime  nations  of  Europe  on  Nov.  17, 1B69.  ThV 
canal  at  that  time  was  in  a  very  imperfect  state,  not  l>eirtg 
fully  completed  in  width  and  depth,  but  the  company  h&> 
since  finished  the  work  and  maintained  the  depth  needi-d. 
The  canal  has  a  sufficient  depth  and  width  to  permit  the 
safe  passage  of  ships  drawing  25  feet  of  water.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  increase  in  the  number  of  ships,  tonna^'p, 
and  receipts : 


1870. . 
1875.. 
1880.. 
1885.. 
1800.. 
1K91.. 
1892.. 
18Ud.. 
1894.. 


486 
1,494 
8.0*^ 
3,624 
3.389 
4,207 
3,559 
3.341 
3,852 


HccMpte  frns  t«Ik 


43!S.9I1 
1.887,578 
8,057,421 
6.335.753 
6.890,094 
8,698,777 

7.710.666 
8,089,106 


7,j<>i.^y~ 

16.7^4».ll.^ 

14,18:^.ri! 
14.770.ft<l 


*  Computed  at  5  francs  to  the  dollar. 

In  the  concession  it  was  laid  down  that  the  maximum 
charge  was  to  be  10  francs  per  ton  "of  capacity,"  Th*- 
business  of  the  canal  became  so  great  that  it  was  necessary 
to  widen  and  deepen  it.  This  work  is  (1895)  nearly  coni- 
pleted.  The  new  dimensions  are  31  "3  feet  depth;  iMtttom 
width,  108'2  feet;  surface  width,  420  feet;  area  of  priMii. 
8,240  sq.  feet.  There  are  sidings — called  gurea — exeavauni 
for  the  passage  of  vessels  at  several  points ;  the  rmiius  of 
the  curves  is  2,000  feet.  The  cost  of  tne  canal  as  originally 
completed  was  195,000,000. 

The  Corinth  Canal, — This  canal  extends  from  the  Bay  of 
Corinth  to  the  Gulf  of  Athens.  It  was  across  this  islh!llu^ 
that  the  Athenians,  800  years  before  Christ,  haule<l  thtir 
triremes,  which  are  thougnt  to  have  been  of  about  150  tons 
burden.  The  canal  saves  185  miles  (342  km.)  from  Adriatic 
ports  and  95  miles  (178  km.)  from  Mediterranean  |M»rtiv 
The  average  tolls  are  18  cents  per  ton  and  20  cents  pter  ('a»- 
senger.  The  length  pi  the  canal  is  3*9  miles  (6,290  meters), 
part  of  which  is  excavated  in  alluvial  soil  and  part  in  cai- 
careous  and  granitic  soft  rock.  There  is  no  lock  or  tunhol. 
it  being  a  sea-level  canal.  There  are  generally  quiet  har- 
bors at  each  end,  but  jetties  are  (1895)  being  constructed  fur 
further  protection.  The  width  of  the  canal  is  22  meters  <72 
feet)  at  bottom,  and  24*20  meters  to  28  meters  (791  to  92  f eft » 
at  the  low-water  level.  The  depth  of  the  canal  below  !<»»- 
water  level  is  8  meters  (26J  feet).  The  heaviest  euttiii«  i* 
about  79  meters  (259  feet) ;  the  average  cutting  is  45  meters 
(147-J^  feet).  The  amount  of  material  excavated  was?  11.5CMJ.- 
000  cubic  meters  (14,463,400  cubic  yards).  The  tot^l  t^-M 
was  nearly  15,000,000.  The  work  was  begun  in  1SS4,  bu* 
suspended  at  various  times  bj  financial  embarrassments,  li 
was  completed  so  as  to  permit  its  inauguration  by  the  Kinc 
of  Greece  on  Aug.  6, 1893,  but  it  was  not  opened  to  navi:r»- 
tion  until  Nov.  9,  1893.  Owing  to  the  slips  of  the  <ai.a.] 
sides,  developed  in  the  original  excavation,  it  was  f*  urui 
necessary  to  construct  retaining  walls  for  rather  more  than 
half  of  its  length.  The  total  amount  of  masonry  in  tlu--^ 
walls  and  used  in  protecting  the  slopes  of  the  cuttintJ^  wa.-* 
165.000  cubic  meters  (216,000  cubic  yards). 

Crofistadt  afid  St,  Petersburg  Canal, — This  is  a  work  of 

freat  strategical  and  commercial  importance  to  Ru<Ma. 
'he  plans  were  matured  in  1874,  and  work  was  W^in  m 
1877.  The  canal  and  sailing  course  in  the  Bay  of  (  n»n- 
stadt  are  about  16  miles  long  together,  the  canal  pn>p^r 
being  6  and  the  bay  channel  10  miles,  and  extend  fn>m 
Cronstadt,  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  to  St.  Petersburir.  Thv 
available  depth  prior  to  its  construction  was  9  feet  in  tijf 
river.  The  canal,  opened  in  1890,  is  navigable  for  %t*^^-l* 
drawing  20^  feet ;  its  greatest  width  is  350  feet  and  it«  least 
width  220  feet ;  the  toUl  cost  was  19,000,000.  For  a  d^ 
soriptive  and  historical  sketch,  see  London  Times,  Oct.  17, 
1881 


Sh 


III  I      Mlil|i.fliiiiifti 


n 


riL^^'^'r; 


486 


SHIPPIGAN 


SHIPPING,  LAW  OF 


the  headquarters  of  Gen.  Braddock^s  army,  and  the  site  of 
several  colonial  forts  built  to  protect  the  settlers  from  Ind- 
ians.   Pop.  (1880)  2,213 ;  (1890)  2,188. 

John  C.  Wagner,  editor  of  "  News.'* 

Shippi^an':  post-village  in  Gloucester  co..  New  Bruns- 
wick ;  on  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  near  the  northeast  angle 
of  the  province :  254  miles  N.  of  St.  John  (see  map  of  Quebec, 
etc.,  rei.  3-1).  It  has  a  magnificent  harbor,  which  serves  as  a 
port  of  refuge,  and  important  herring,  cod,  and  mackerel 
fisheries.  It  occupies  an  important  point  in  the  scheme 
to  shorten  the  transatlantic  jmssage.  It  is  the  proposed  ter- 
minus of  the  Continental  Railway,  and  from  this  port  ferry- 
steamers  are  to  cross  to  St.  George's  Bay,  Newfoundland. 
Just  beyond  Shippigan  is  the  wide  flat  island  of  Miscon, 
said  to  be  the  best  district  for  plover  in  the  Dominion.  Pop. 
2,500,  nearly  all  French-Canadians.  M.  W.  H. 

Shipping-articles :  See  Seaman. 

Shipping,  Law  of:  the  body  of  rules  governing  the  own- 
ership and  employment  of  vessels,  as  well  as  the  relations 
and  conduct  of  persons  engaged  in  their  navigation.  It  is 
a  branch  of  Mercantile  Law  {g.  v.). 

What  is  a  Ship  f — The  term  has  a  very  broad  signification 
in  this  branch  of  the  law,  unless  narrowed  by  a  statute. 
Whether  a  particular  water-craft  is  subject  to  the  rules  of 
shipping  depends  not  on  its  size,  form,  capacity,  or  means 
of  propulsion,  but  upon  the  use  for  which  it  was  designed 
and  to  which  it  is  put.  Hence  a  floating  elevator,  a  steam- 
dredge,  and  a  floating  bath-house-have  been  treated  as  ships, 
because  intended  and  emploved  for  navigation  and  trans- 
portation. A  bath-house  built  on  several  boats,  with  a  view 
to  its  transportation  whenever  and  wherever  desired,  is  to  be 
deemed  the  permanent  cargo  of  the  boats.  Public  Bath 
No.  13,  61  Feileral  Reporter,  6d2. 

Ownership  of  Vessels. — This  may  be  acquired  by  capture 
(see  7%«  General  Usages  of  War  under  International  Law), 
by  operation  of  law,  as  in  the  case  of  the  bankruptcy  or  the 
death  of  the  former  owner,  or  by  contract  between  the  for- 
mer and  the  present  owners.  A  contract  to  purchase  a  ves- 
sel from  a  ship-builder  and  to  pay  the  price  m  instAllments 
as  the  work  progresses  does  not  pass  ttie  title  to  the  pur- 
chaser until  the  vessel  is  in  a  deliverable  state  and  the  pur- 
chaser is  notified  thereof,  unless  the  parties  stipulate  that 
it  shall  pass  sooner.  Such  has  been  the  rule  alwavs  in  the 
U.  S.  {Clarkson  vs.  Stevens,  106  U.  S.  5a5),  and  was  finally 
established  in  Great  Britain  bv  the  House  of  Lords  in  Seat'h 
vs.  Moore,  11  Appeal  Cases  350  (a.  d.  1886). 

The  present  sale  of  a  chattel  passes  title  to  the  purchaser 
at  common  law,  although  the  contract  is  oral,  and  the  chat- 
tel is  not  delivered  nor  the  price  paid,  except  in  cases  within 
the  statute  of  frauds.  (See  Frauds,  Statute  of.)  This  rule 
is  believed  to  apply  to  ships  in  the  U.  S.  British  courts,  how- 
ever, declare  that  "  a  ship  is  not  like  an  ordinary  chattel : 
it  does  not  pass  by  delivering,  nor  does  the  possession  of  it 
prove  the  title  to  it,"  and  that  as  well  by  the  law  merchant 
as  by  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act  (17  and  18  Vict.,  c  104, 
§§  55-65)  a  bill  of  sale  is  necessary  to  the  transfer  of  title 
from  the  seller  to  the  purchaser  of  a  ship. 

Because  of  the  costlmess  of  ships  and  of  the  risks  and  re- 
pairs incident  to  them,  it  has  been  customary  from  an  early 
period  for  several  persons  to  unite  in  their  ownership.  Gen- 
erally the  title  of  such  persf)ns  is  that  of  part-owners  and 
not  of  partners — a  form  of  title  mucli  oltler  than  that  of 
partnership  (see  Part-owners uip),  although  by  agi'eement 
they  may  constitute  themselves  partners.  If  part-owners  of 
a  vessel  can  not  agree  as  to  its  employment,  English  mer- 
cantile law  permits  the  majority  in  value  to  "  employ  it 
upon  any  jirolwible  design,"  upon  their  giving  a  stipulation 
to  the  dissenting  owners,  in  a  sum  equal  to  the  shares  of  the 
latter,  either  to  restore  tlie  ship  or  to  pay  the  value  of  such 
shares.  Such  dissenting  owners  then  bear  no  part  of  the 
expense  and  reap  none  of  the  profits  of  tlie  adventure.  This 
rule  is  bastnl  on  the  idea  that  ships  "are  built  to  yilow  the 
sea,  and  not  to  lie  by  the  walls  " — that  their  employment  is 
a  matter  of  public  concern.  If  the  part-owners  are  equally 
divided,  the  court  will  decide  between  them.  In  the  U.  S. 
it  has  gone  to  the  extent  of  ending  such  conflicts  by  forcing 
a  sale  of  the  vessel,  but  in  (treat  Britain  it  never  exercised 
such  power  until  authorized  by  statute.    (24  Vict.  c.  10,  ^8). 

Liability  of  Owners. — English  maritime  law  determinetl 
the  liability  of  ship-owners  for  the  conduet  of  jn^rsons  in 
charge  of  the  vessel  on  their  l)ehalf  by  the  common-law 
rules  of  agency.  (See  Agent.)  In  ease  of  loss  occasioned  by 
their  agents,  their  res|>onsibility  was  C(»extensive  with  the 


loss.  Such  was  not  the  rule  of  the  general  maritime  law  if 
Europe.  By  that  rule  innocent  owners  were  chargeabh-  f«»r 
the  acts  of  the  master  and  crew  to  the  extent  of  their  in- 
terest in  the  ship  only,  and  if  the  ship  was  lost  their  Habiiity 
was  at  an  end.  The  reason  given  by  Grotius  for  this  ruK  i^ 
that  men  would  be  deterreS^  from  owning  and  operaiini: 
ships  if  they  were  subject  to' the  fear  of  an  indefinite  lin- 
bility  for  the  acts  of  the  master.  This  fear  induced  ParliH- 
ment  to  limit  the  liability  of  ship-owners  (see  preamk>le  to 
7  Geo.  II.,  c.  15),  although  British  legislation  has  not  adopt  i-I 
fully  the  doctrine  which  prevails  on  the  Continent;  it  leu^f^ 
innocent  owners  responsible,  in  many  cases,  to  the  valii**  nf 
ship  and  freight  immediately  before  the  injury,  althongh  tli*- 
ship  be  destroyed  or  injurea  by  the  same  act,  or  afterward ! 
on  the  same  voyage.  (See  17  and  18  Vict.,  c.  104,  g503,  ar>l 
25  and  26  Vict.,  c.  63. 5^54-56.)  The  U.  S.  Government  )ia< 
abolished  the  English  rule  which  it  inherited,  and  hn- 
adopted  the  continental  rule,  graduating  the  liability  by  th< 
value  of  the  ship  after  the  injury  as  she  comes  back'int<< 
port,  and  the  freight  actually  earned ;  and  enables  the  <>wi.- 
ers  to  avoid  all  respK>nsibirity  for  acts  done  without  thnr 
privity  or  knowledge,  by  giving  up  the  ship  and  freight,  tf 
still  in  existence,  in  whatever  condition  the  ship  may  U- : 
and  without  such  surrender  subjects  them  only  to  a  re^f>*>ii- 
sibility  equivalent  to  the  value  of  the  ship  umI  freight  h-> 
rescued  from  the  disaster.  U.  S.  Rev.  Statutes,  §5i  4*2>'J, 
4283;  ITie  Scotland,  106  \J.S.2i, 

Master^s  Duties  and  Pmrers, — The  master  is  resj»onsibU' 
for  the  proper  navigation  of  the  ship,  and  is  entitlcKi  to  \\" 
obedience  of  all  the  officers  and  crew.  He  is  bound  to  exf- 
cise  due  care  and  skill  in  keeping  the  vessel  in  a  seawort  h y 
condition,  and  in  properly  guarding  all  interests  committed  t<> 
him  by  the  owners  of  the  ^ip  or  of  the  cargo.  Acconiinirl\ . 
he  has  authority  to  make  contracts  relative  to  the  usual  em- 
ployment of  the  ship  and  to  its  repairs  and  necessaries.  Ji*- 
may  even  sell  it  when  the  prosecution  of  the  voyage  lje<-onn  ^ 
ira possible  and  immediate  necessity  to  sell  exists.  II is  |h *\\ .  r 
to  pledge  the  ship  and  crew  is  described  in  the  articles  on 
Bottomry  and  Respondentia  (qg.  v.).  When  the  vesMi  i^ 
in  her  home  port,  or  subject  to  the  supervision  of  the  muh'^ 
nrsBAND  {g.  v.),  the  master's  implied  authority  is  gn»at.y 
limited. 

Nationality  and  Registraiion. — The  registration  of  Brit- 
ish ships  begins  with  the  Navigation  Act  of  1660  (13  Car.  11.. 
c.  18,  §  10),  whose  professed  object  was  *•  the  increase  of  sh;  im- 
ping and  encouragement  of  the  navigation  of  this  natii-M. 
wherein,  under  the  good  providence  and  prot-ectiou  of  (».-.l. 
the  wealth,  safety,  and  strength  of  this  kingdom  is  s(t  niK  i. 
concerned":  but  whose  real  objects,  according  to  BLf  n- 
stone,  were  dealing  a  blow  to  the  sugar  islands  and  "<ii).- 
ping  the  wings  of  those  our  opulent  and  enterprising  neiirir- 
Dors."  {\  Commentaries  A\H.)  Under  this  act  shiyis  nu^'it 
be  registered  as  a  rule  by  English  owners,  whether  built  m 
England  or  elsewhere:  but  a  statute  of  the  next  ye.nr  n- 
quired  them  to  be  of  English  building.  (13  and  14  Car.  11.. 
c.  11,  g 6.)  This  remained  the  policv  of  Great  Britain  M!it.: 
1850.  The  subject  is  now  governed  by  17  and  18  Vic-t..  * . 
104,  which  provides  that  any  ship  may  l>e  registered  whi-  •• 
is  owned  by  natural-bom  subjects,  or  by  persons  h'tr.il^ 
naturalized  or  denizated,  or  by  corporations  establi^nri 
under  the  laws  of,  and  having  the  principal  place  of  busin*  ^^ 
within,  the  British  dominions.  Unless  registered,  a  ^illl.  is 
not  to  be  recognized  as  a  British  ship,  so  as  to  be  entitUMi  !.» 
any  of  the  advantages  or  to  the  protection  enjoyed  by  mi.  I 
a  ship,  or  to  use  the  national  flag  or  to  assume  the  niiti4ii)a. 
character. 

The  registry  laws  of  the  U.  S.  are  base<l  upon  an  <»arl\ 
act  of  Congress  (ch.  i.  of  1792)  which  copieil  very  ehiselv  tli»' 
English  statute  then  in  force.  (26  Geo.  III.,  c.  60.)  \\\\.\ 
vessels  built  within  the  U.  S.  and  belonging  wholly  to  cit.- 
zens  thereof,  and  vessels  which  may  be  captured  in  war  h\ 
citizens  of  the  U.  S.  and  lawfully  c<mdemned  as  prize,  or 
which  may  be  adjudged  to  be  forfeited  for  a  breach  o(  tl-.- 
laws  of  the  U.  S.,  l»eing  wholly  owned  bv  citizens,  or  ve^^  !•« 
wrecked  in  the  U.  S.  and  purchased  an  A  repairecl  by  a  n-i- 
zen,  in  case  the  repairs  cost  three-fourths  of  the  value  of  tJif 
vessel  when  repaired,  can  be  registered  (U.  S.  Rev.  Sta:., 
§j$4132  and  4136),  with  the  exception  of  a  limited  eltisis  pr«- 
vided  for  bv  ch.  63  of  the  laws  of  1892  and  other  ^p^vMl 
statutes.  The  place  of  registration  is  the  vessel's  home  j».'rt. 
In  onler  to  register  a  vessel,  the  owner  must  take  and  MiS^- 
scribe  the  oath  required  by  statute,  must  give  a  bond  tlai 
the  certificate  of  registry  shall  be  us(.»d  solely  for  Uiis  ve^v. .. 
must  produce  a  certificate  of  construction  from  the  t«aq»«n- 


)}V-K\i 


iiliM  f^«l»^#,  Kl^  |1atfi|M. 


riOll 


4^  lliA  KMtir^Wli 


488 


SHIP-RAILWAYS 


ready  for  transportation.  The  vessel,  resting  on  blocks 
along  its  keel  and  bilges,  is  supported  on  platform>cars  88 
feet  wide,  carried  on  240  wheels,  arranged  in  four  lines  to 
run  on  two  tracks  of  standard  gauge,  18  feet  apart  between 


P'lO.  1. 

centers.  The  gridiron  on  which  the  ship  and  cradle  move 
up  and  down  in  the  lifting-dock  is  like  the  deck  of  a  bridge 
with  floor-beams  arranged  in  pairs,  slightly  separated  to  ad- 
mit the  hydraulic  presses  between  them,  and  are  connected 
in  the  usual  way  by  track-stringers  under  the  rails.  The 
hydraulic  presses  are  25  inches  in  diameter  and  twenty  in 
number,  and  are  designed  to  lift  a  vessel  carrying  1,000  tons 
of  cargo,  together  with  the  cradle  and  gridiron,  a  total  weight 
in  all  of  2,500  tons.  They  are  placed  21  feet  apart  longi- 
tudinally and  64  feet  transversely,  and  have  a  maximum 
stroke  of  40  feet.  The  cross-heads  on  the  inner  cylinders 
or  rams  are  attached  to  the  floor-beams  with  eye-bars. 

When  a  vessel  is  to  be  lifted  the  gridiron,  with  a  cradle 
on  its  tracks,  is  lowered,  and  the  vessel  is  hauled  into  posi- 
tion with  hydraulic  capstans.  Witter  is  then  forced  into 
the  presses  until  the  keel-blocks  are  brought  to  a  bearing; 
next  the  bilge-blocks  are  drawn  into  place  and  the  pumps 
are  again  started,  raising  the  gridiron  m  less  than  ten  min- 
utes to  a  position  where  its  tracks  are  slightly  alwve  those 
of  the  railway.  A  connected  system  of  heavy  iron  chocks, 
supported  by  the  masonry,  is  then  moved  under  the  ends  of 
the  girders  by  hydraulic  power,  the  gridiron  is  lowered  to  a 
bearing  on  them,  and  its  tracks  are  connected  with  those  of 
the  railway.  Two  locoiiu^tivrs  will  brtul  the  ship  n<  rns^  the 
isthmus  in  less  than  twt^  }i*.itr-,  jm/i  il]r  Itfiiiiir-iIcK  k  nt  Mir 
other  end  by  a  reverse 
operation  quickly  re- 
places it  in  the  water. 

The  track  is  com- 
posed of  rails  weigh- 
mg  110  lb.  per  yard, 
laid  on  very  heavy 
ties,  some  of  which 
extend  under  all  four 
rails.  It  is  stone- 
ballasted,  on  the 
most  solid  cuttings 
and  embankments, 
and  is  characterized 
by  smoothness  and 
rigidity. 

A  novel  feature  is 
the  way  in  which 
the  difnculties  aris- 
ing from  the  immense 
tides  of  the  Bay  of 
Fundy  are  overcome. 
A  basin  500  feet  long 
and  300  feet  wide  is 
constructed  at  the 
south  end.  The  en- 
trance-gates and  sea- 
walls are  of  heavy  mnflr»n(v,  iln^  r>i|i  In  iurr  fit  llio 
level  of  the  top  of  the  |iftjtJL;-tii*(  k  unti  niilwjsy. 


of  the  gate  proper  is  17  feet  lower,  or  13  feet  below  high  water 
spring  tide,  and  retains  a  minimum  depth  of  32  feet  in  the 
basin.  The  lifting-dock  at  the  inner  end  of  the  basin  is  27(1 
feet  long.  Vessels  will  be  able  to  enter  or  leave  during  the 
high  stages  of  the  tide,  while  the  ex- 
cellent anchorage  off  shore,  and  the 
large  storage  capacity  of  the  basin,  in- 
sure a  continuity  of  traffic  uninter- 
rupted by  the  fluctuations  of  the  bay. 
This  pioneer  ship-railway  is  {l^i")) 
more  than  three  -  fourths  finisheii. 
Awaiting  the  completion  of  this  gre^ii 
work  are  many  others  that  are  pro 
jected,  and  wliose  construction  will 
doubtless  quickly  follow. 

The  Hurontario  Railway, — This  i< 
to  connect  Georgian  Bay  with  Lake 
Ontario  at  Toronto.  It  \&  to  be  % 
miles  long,  probably  in  one  strai;:iii 
line ;  the  maximum  grades  going  s«>uth 
(the  direction  of  heaviest  traffic),  8  feel 
per  mile ;  going  north,  22  feet  per  mil^- ; 
its  track  will  consist  of  six  rails,  anii 
the  estimated  cost  is  115,500.000.  The 
available  water-power  along  its  lint*  is 
over  100,000  horse-power,  from  wiiieh 
electricity  for  doing  all  the  work  of 
operating  the  railway  will  be  p!u r- 
ated.  The  saving  in  distance  over  tii*- 
route  around  by  way  of  I)etn>it  is 
about  300  miles,  while  the  country  through  which  it  isi  t*- 
run  favors  facility  and  permanence  of  construction. 

Columbia  River  Railway. — A  boat-railway  along  tlie 
Dalles  of  the  Columbia  river,  U.  S.,  between  Three  Mile  K«|»- 
ids  and  Celila,  is  under  way.  Congress  in  Aug.,  1894,  havin:: 
appropriated  $100,000  for  the  preliminary  work.  The  nov.  1 
feature  of  this  work  is  the  proposed  use  of  one-<leyTiv 
curves  on  the  railway.  The  track  would  be  similar  to  the 
Chignecto  ship-railway,  and  the  general  features  are  m1-<> 
alike  with  some  variation  in  details  to  suit  the  flal-b«>at 
traffic  for  which  it  is  designed. 

The  Tehuaiifepec  Rail  way.— This  was  first  proposeil  I'v 
Capt.  James  B.  Eads  in  lo79,  and  with  characteristic  en- 
ergy, in  a  few  years,  in  the  face  of  almost  universal  op|><tsi- 
tion,  he  pushed  through  all  the  stages  of  preliminary  :^ll^- 
veys,  detailed  plans,  congressional  inquiries,  procurement  i'f 
concessions  from  Mexico,  and  some  actual  construction  at  a 
cost  of  more  than  half  a  million  dollars.  A  table  of  the  (li«^ 
tances  the  railway  would  save  is  unnecessary,  for  it  is  plain 
that  lengths  and  breadths  of  continents  are  involveil.  v^'ith 
the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal,  one  of  the  two  great  barriers 
to  interoceanic  navigation  was  removed.  The  com  plot  i«)n  of 
the  Tehuantepec  ship-railway  would  remove  the  other. 

TehuHTitcp  ('  WHS  selet'led  ns  the  pro]  ur  local  inn  tHn-riFj^ 
ikf  iis  ^reaiiT  prnximil y  to  iUl-  L'.  S.,  its  siijHirior  iuhMnT.i^i< 


Tlje  U} 


ill  di>liiiH"o  imd  lime  Iq 
m*jT\i  hi 


490 


SHIP'S  MAGNETISM 


SHIPS  OF  WAE 


pass  C.  A.  Schott  was  enabled  to  trace  out  with  chalk  on  the 
iron  gun-turret  (sides  11  inches  thick)  of  an  ironclad  vessel  its 
magnetic  equator,  and  found  its  plane  inclined  to  the  hori- 
zon at  an  angle  of  nearly  90°  dip ;  after  revolving  the  tur- 
ret 180"*,  the  line  of  no  polarity  again  was  tnvced  out,  when 
the  plane,  passing  through  the  intermediate  horizontal  po- 
sition, graaually  approached  its  former  place  after  a  lapse 
of  about  twelve  hours ;  it  probably  takes  weeks  before  the 
fixed  position  is  reached,  dcpendmg  on  the  action  of  the 
iron.  Inside  such  turrets  the  magnetic  intensity  is  very 
much  weakened,  but  12  per  cent  was  found  to  be  left  in 
the  above  case.  The  readier  is  referred  to  Sir  George  B. 
Airy's  Treatise  on  Magnetism  (London,  1870)  and  to  the 
Admiralty's  Manual  for  the  Deviations  of  the  Compass^  by 
•Capt.  F.  J.  Evans,  R.  N.,  and  Archibald  Smith  (London). 
This  manual  is  the  standard  work  ou  the  subject  of  the  de- 
Tiation  of  the  compass. 

The  earth's  magnetic  force  has  been  represented  by  three 
<K}mponent  forces,  to  the  ship's  head,  to  the  starboard  side, 
-and  to  the  keel  respectively ;  similarly,  the  components  of 
the  combined  total  ma^etic  force  of  earth  and  ship  are 
in  these  dii^ections;  their  respective  differences  or  compo- 
nents of  disturbance  can  be  expressed  by  linear  equations 
possessing  each  a  constant  and  three  coefficients,  which  are 
to  be  determined  by  experiment  for  each  shin  and  position 
of  compass,  and  must  be  numerically  worked  out  by  appli- 
•cation  of  the  method  of  least  squares. 

The  general  character  of  the  deviation  in  wood-built  sail- 
ing ships,  with  compass  as  usual  on  the  quarter-deck  and  over 
the  miadle  fore-and-aft  line  of  the  ship,  is  found  as  follows : 
No  deviation  when  heading  (magneticallv)  N.  or  S. ;  greatest 
deviation  when  heading  (magnetically)  &.  or  W. ;  deviation 
easterly  when  head  in  eastern  semicircle,  and  westerly  when 
head  in  western  semicircle.  In  steam- vessels,  with  the  com- 
pass aft,  these  directions  of  no  and  maximum  deviation  will 
often  be  found  displaced  by  several  degrees,  yet  preserving 
their  general  symmetrical  character.  In  the  southern  (mag- 
netic) hemisphere  the  deviations  are  reversed,  though  for 
steam-vessels  they  may  be  only  partially  changed.  In  iron- 
built  ships  an  individual  character  has  to  be  recognized. 
The  points  of  no  deviation  are  shifted  from  the  N.  and  S. 
points,  and  lie  nearly  in  the  direction  (by  compass)  of  the 
ship's  head  and  keel  while  building ;  they  may  not  be  oppo- 
site to  each  other,  nor  be  removed  exactly  at  right  angles 
from  the  point  of  maximum  deviation.  In  general,  the  de- 
viation is  easterly  when  the  part  of  the  ship  which  was  S.  in 
building  is  E.  of  the  compass;  westerly  when  W.  The  de- 
viation described  above  is  technically  known  as  the  semi- 
circular deviation,  and  may  be  expressed  by  B  sin  C  -¥  C 
cos  f .  In  the  general  deviation  formula  J  =  Jl  -»-  ^  sin  f  + 
C  cos  f  +  />  sin  2C  +  -&  cos  2f ,  the  angle  f  being  the  azi- 
muth or  the  compass-bearing  of  the  ship's  head  reckoned 
from  the  disturbed  magnetic  meridian  positive  to  the  east- 
ward ;  it  is  a  constant,  generally  small,  +  if  easterly  devia- 
tion is  in  excess.  +  i5  is  approximately  the  deviation  at  E., 
and  -f-  (7  at  N. ;  in  the  last  terms  of  the  harmonic  function 
involving  2f ,  and  which  are  technically  known  as  the  quad- 
rantal  deviation,  +  Z)  is  the  mean  deviation  ai)proximately 
at  X.  E.  and  S.  W. ;  the  coefficient  E  is  generally  small  or 
zero ;  the  deviation  Z  is  reckoned  +  when  the  N.  end  of  the 
needle  is  drawn  to  the  E. ;  and  the  above  empirical  expres- 
sion applies,  provided  the  deviation  on  any  course  does  not 
much  exceed  20',  or  about  two  points,  in  which  latter  case 
the  formula  becomes  more  complicated.  The  correct  mag- 
netic course  will  be  f  =  f*  +  8.  The  semicircular  deviation 
rarely  exceeds  10^  in  wood-built  vessels,  but  in  iron-built 
ones  may  reach  doul)le  and  treble  this  amount.  The  quad- 
rantal  deviation  seldom  exceeds  1"  or  2'  in  wood-built  ships, 
but  in  iron-built  ones  may  reach  three  or  four  times  this 
amount.  The  semicircular  deviation  is  principally  due  to 
the  effect  of  permanent  or  sub-permanent  magnetism.  The 
quadrantal  cieviation,  which  undergoes  no  change  with  a 
change  in  the  ship's  plac^e,  is  mainly  due  to  the  effect  of  in- 
duced magnetism. 

The  heeling  error  in  wood-bnilt  ships  is  not  appreciable, 
but  in  iron-built  ones  it  may  be  serious;  generally,  the  er- 
ror vanishes  with  the  ship's  head  at  or  near  p].  or  W.,  and 
attains  a  maximum  value  with  headings  at  or  near  N.  or  8. 
The  sign  of  the  error  changes  with  a  change  from  the 
northern  (magnetic)  to  the  southern  hemisi>here.  In  the 
northern  (magnetic)  hemisphere,  with  the  compjiss  above 
the  upper  deck,  the  majority  of  iron  ships  have  the  N. 
end  of  their  compass-needle  drawn  to  windward,  and  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  to  the  leeward.    The  hwling  error  is 


due  to  the  joint  disturbing  effect  of  the  vertical  component.- 
of  permanent  and  of  induced  magnetism. 

The  values  of  the  coefficients  A,  B,  C,  Z>,  E^  are  found  <]  j- 
rectiy  from  observations,  the  deviation  of  thecompft$»  beini: 
observed  with  the  ship  heading  in  a  number  of  equidi>taiir 
points  around  the  horizon,  usually  either  32,  16,  or  b.  If 
the  deviation  is  observed  on  four  cardinal  compass-point «, 
D  rematns  indeterminate;  if  on  four  quadrantal  comfta*^^- 
points,  E  remains  indeterminate.  These  observations  ar..' 
made  by  swinging  the  ship  (or  allowing  it  to  swing  by  tii*- 
tide),  and  noting  for  the  several  headings  the  bearing  r»f  a 
distant  object,  or  by  reciprocal  bearings  if  the  localitv  !*•• 
confined,  or  when  at  sea  by  azimuths  of  the  sun,  the  1<>  ;ii 
time  and  latitude  being  known.  The  deviations  bein^  <.'('- 
termined  for  a  number  of  points,  tliey  may  be  plotted  ^n 
what  is  known  as  Napier's  diagram,  and  graphically  int«:T- 
polated  by  drawing  a  curve  with  a  free  hand  through  the  m;  v. 
eral  fixed  positions.  The  deviations  for  any  oonipass  e<>ur<< 
will  then  become  known.  They  may  also  Ije  tabulated. 
If  we  deduce  numerically  the  coefficients  A,B,C,  />,  £,  ^»^ 
can  compute  directly  the  values  of  9  for  plotting  or  tabu- 
lation. In  either  case  we  know  the  correct  magnetic  cour>«- 
corresponding  to  the  disturbed  or  compass  course,  as  well  a^ 
the  reverse  of  the  compass  course  belonging  to  any  ci>rrt'T.-: 
magnetic  course. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  inside  iron  turrets  the  ma::- 
netic  intensity  is  greatly  diminished ;  the  same  is  the  vh-* 
with  nearly  aJl  iron  ships,  the  directive  force  of  the  netNiK- 
being  diminished.  The  relative  horizontal  force  is  f<»nii-i 
by  means  of  the  number  of  oscillations  in  a  given  time  <>t 
a  small  needle,  and  the  proportion  of  the  disturbed  to  tin 
undisturbed  horizontal  force,  usually  called  K,  is  deti-r- 
mlneil  from  oscillations  in  four  equidistant  azimuths.  It 
is  usually  less  than  1,  and  is  closely  connected  with  th-- 
coefficient  Z>,  as  mav  be  surmised  from  the  fact  that  x  i- 
due  to  the  effect  or  the  horizontal  induction  of  s<»ft  ir^u. 
D  and  A  are  nearly  constant.  A  knowledge  of  Die  valut 
of  A.  is  of  importance;  by  its  assistance  the  values  of  />' 
and  C  may  be  found  without  swinging  the  ship  fmni  oi- 
servations  of  8  and  K  on  one  course;  similarly,  ol»j>ervTTij 
on  two  courses,  we  may  determine  J9,  C\D  and  A.  The  vmJu, 
of  A  is  further  needed  in  the  computation  of  the  heeling' 

en-or,  which  is  expressed — (D  +  '^—  1  j  tan  6  .  i .  cos  f '  for 

a  heel  of  the  vessel  of  +  t  degrees  to  the  starboard.  II»Tf 
fi  is  the  ratio  of  the  disturbed  vertical  force  at  the  v^^iu- 
pass  to  the  earth's  vertical  force;  it  is  found  by  meaxi>  «f 
oscillations  of  the  dipping-needle  in  the  plane  of  tlie  niac- 
netic  prime  vertical;  fi  changes  with  a  change  in  the  ::*•<.. 
graphical  position ;  $  is  the  magnetic  dip.  It  is  thert-f-  n 
not  actually  necessary  to  heel  the  ship  in  order  to  detcrTnii.. 
the  heeling  deviation.  It  should  be  added  to  the  gt-'iii-rai 
deviation  table. 

The  mechanical  correction  of  the  deviation  of  the  ei.fti- 
pass  is  properly  resorted  to  in  case  no  suitable  posit  i4»ii  l-r 
the  standard  compass  can  be  found  where  the  de^intiMn^ 
are  comparatively  small ;  in  ships  built  heail  S.  (northern 
hemisphere),  andintended  for  navigation  in  northern  lua::- 
netic  dips,  the  compass  should  be  placed  as  far  forward  a- 
practicable.  It  may  also  be  elevated  3  or  4  yards  alwvi- 
deck.  The  semicircular  deviation  may  be  eorpeetoil  me- 
chanically, either  by  means  of  two  mag^net^  or  bv  one  mag- 
net ;  the  quadrantal  deviation  may  be  corrected  by  a  nia^< 
of  soft  iron  placed  near  the  level  of  the  compass;  the  >«iin..* 
may  be  effected  by  the  mutual  action  of  two  compav-fs 
placed  side  by  side  ;  the  heeling  deviation  may  be  c*>m-ii.'i 
by  the  application  of  a  vertical  magnet.  In  mechaiiiiai.) 
corrected  compasses  there  is  alwavs  some  danger  thai,  \i\\i 
change  of  geographical  position,  loss  of  magnetism  of  rn.ij- 
nets,  and  change  in  the  sub-permanent  ma^ietism  of  i.u- 
hull,  deviation  may  reappear,  though  the  disturbing  for^- 
may  have  been  completely  neutralized  in  one  place  and  u: 
(me  time.  It  is  therefore  never  to  be  trusted,  and,  as  a  ru.< . 
deviation  tables  should  be  formed  whether  mecluuiiciJ  tvr- 
rcctions  have  been  applied  or  not. 

An  excellent  collection  of  important  memoirs,  entitle<l  A 
Series  of  Papers  from  the  Iransactiotis  of  Foreign  S'H-fr- 
ties  by  l^isson,  G,  B,  Airy,  A,  tSmith,  F.  J.  Evanjt^  11'.  l*'. 
Rundell,  with  other  papers  and  documents,  luis  l>ron  pi.U 
lished  by  the  British  Ailmiralty.  C.  A.  S<  hot  t. 

lievised  by  Frank  H.  BiGi:Li»w. 

Ships  of  War:  vessels  built  and  armed  for  offensivi«  .  r 
defensive   purposes.     Moilern    war-ships   include   the   l.u- 


492 


SHIPS  OP  WAR 


smooth-bores  and  two  8-inch  Parrott  rifles.  Though  her 
speed  was  only  about  6  knots  at  the  best,  this  vessel  per- 
formed most  valuable  and  effective  service  throughout  the 
war,  both  before  fortifications  and  on  the  blocke^e.  In  a 
period  of  about  six  months  she  was  struck  some  193  times, 
out  never  forced  to  go  into  a  home  port  or  to  depend  upon 
outside  assistance  for  repairs.  The  Monitor  (q.  r.)  was 
built  of  iron  under  the  superintendence  of,  ana  from  an 
original  design  by,  Ericsson.  The  opportune  appearance 
of  the  Monitor  in  Hampton  Roads  in  Mar.,  1862,  and  her 
successful  combat  with  the  Merrimac,  gave  a  fictitious  value 
to  this  vessel  as  an  example  of  naval  architecture.  Never- 
theless, these  vessels  performed  invaluable  services  and  fur- 
nished the  type  of  modem  coast-service  ironclads  and  a 
system  of  armament  which  has  been  followed  in  the  most 
powerful  ironclads  of  recent  construction.  At  the  termina- 
tion of  the  war  it  was  determined  to  build  four  seagoing 
double-turreted  monitors  without  overhanging  armor-shelf 
at  either  the  end  or  the  sides.  These  were  the  Miantonomoh, 
the  Monadnock,  the  Terror,  and  the  Amphitrite.  Their  hulls 
were  of  wood,  and  were  armored  with  laminated  plates  an 
inch  thick,  with  a  total  thickness  of  6  inches  at  the  sides 
and  12  inches  on  the  turrets.  The  Miantonomoh  made  a 
voyage  to  England,  where  she  attracted  much  attention, 
and  was  no  doubt  the  progenitor  of  the  Devastation ;  the 
Monadnock  was  sent  around  Cape  Horn  to  San  Francisco. 
In  1874  these  vessels  were  broken  up  and  rebuilt  into  the 
double-turreted  monitors  of  the  same  names. 

Improvements  in  the  Canstritction  of  Ironclads, — During 
the  period  of  the  civil  war  in  the  U.  S.  construction  of  iron- 
clads proceeded  rapidly  in  Europe,  but  until  a  later  period 
it  was  more  influenced  by  the  developments  in  artillery  than 
by  the  results  of  the  war.  The  introduction,  in  1864,  of  the 
7}  and  15^  ton  guns  into  the  French  armaments  made  the 
Flandre  class  ineffective  before  they  were  completed.  In 
1865  the  Ocean  was  begun,  and  later  the  Marengo,  the 
Suffren,  and  the  Friedland,  after  the  same  type,  only  the 
latter  being  completely  of  iron.  They  were  protected  at  the 
water-line  by  8-inch  armor.  The  armament  consisted  of  four 
23-ton  guns  mounted  in  a  central  battery  protected  by  6i- 
inch  armor,  and  four  15i-ton  guns  in  barbette  turrets  at 
each  of  the  four  corners,  projecting  beyond  the  sides  of 
the  ship,  and  armored  witn  6i-inch  plates.  The  Fried- 
land  differs  from  the  other  ships  in  having  only  two  bar- 
bettes, each  armed  with  a  23-ton  gun.  In  1868-69  a  fourth 
group  of  ships  was  begun,  the  Richelieu,  the  Colbert,  and 
the  Trident,  plated  with  9-inch  armor  and  very  similar  to 
the  preceding  group,  the  excess  of  1,200  tons  displacement 
being  devoted  mainly  to  armor  and  armament.  The  hulls 
of  these  ships  were  constructed  of  wood,  except  the  extremi- 
ties forward  and  abaft  of  the  central  battery,  which  were 
of  iron.  Such  was  the  construction  of  the  French  ironclad 
navy  up  to  the  time  of  the  Franco-German  war. 

E.  J.  Reed,  appointed  in  1862  to  the  oflice  of  chief  con- 
structor of  the  British  navy,  undertook  the  building  of  the 
Bellerophon,  in  which  the  cellular  system  of  construction 
was  first  fully  introduced,  realizing  a  considerable  saving  in 
weight  with  great  increase  in  the  strength  of  the  structure, 
and  obtaining  a  system  of  water-tight  subdivision  which  is 
the  only  protection  against  rams  and  torpedoes.  Designs 
for  the  best  mode  of  defense  combined  witn  the  most  pow- 
erful means  of  attack  sprang  up  with  the  rivalry  between 
guns  and  armor.  For  masted  ships  Capt.  Coles  advocated 
the  turret  system  and  Mr.  Reed  the  broadside  system,  each 
striving  to  give  the  utmost  protection  armor  could  afford  to 
the  battery  and  other  vital  parts,  while  enabling  the  largest 
guns  to  be  worked  safely  under  these  defenses.  The  broad- 
side system  armored  the  battery  and  the  water-line,  while  the 
sides  and  the  upper  portions  of  the  ships  remained  much  as 
in  the  older  frigates.  The  turret  aimed  at  lower  sides,  as 
offering  less  target  to  the  enemy,  while  affording  an  all- 
round  protected  fire.  In  1862  the  Enterprise,  the  Favorite, 
and  the  Research  were  adapted  to  Mr.  Reed's  principle — the 
belt  and  the  battery — upon  which,  also,  with  the  addition 
of  indented  ports  at  the  corners  of  the  batter>',  to  give  wider 
range  of  fire,  were  built  the  Pallas,  the  Penelope,  the  Beller- 
ophon, and  the  Hercules.  In  the  Sultan  an  upper-<leck 
battery  with  four  guns  was  added.  On  the  Sultan  pattern 
the  Audacious  and  several  other  vessels  were  built.  As  the 
guns  increased  in  size  the  batteries  decreased  and  the  guns 
became  fewer,  but  the  belt  remained. 

The  Monarch,  ordered  in  1865,  was  designed  as  a  seagoing 
rigged  turret-ship  having  7-inch  armor,  a  free-board  of  14 
feet,  and  an  armament  of  four  25-ton  guns  in  two  turrets 


plated  with  8-inch  and  10-inch  armor.  Then  came  the  Cap- 
tain, a  ship  designed  by  Capt.  Coles  and  Messrs.  Laird  in 
rivalry  of  the  Monarch.  She  was  intended  to  combine  a 
low  free-board  with  the  qualities  of  a  seagoing  frigate,  and 
the  result  of  her  first  cruise  seemed  to  indicate  the  value  df 
the  combination ;  but  an  investigation  of  the  calamity  of 
her  capsizing  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  on  the  night  of  Sept.  6. 
1870,  with  500  men,  only  eighteen  of  whom  were  savni, 
showed  that,  in  comparison  with  the  other  qualities,  tbc 
small  stability  due  to  lack  of  free-board  was  a  latAl  error  in 
her  design.  This  disaster  led  to  more  complete  and  exart 
investigations  of  the  stability  of  ships  than  had  ever  befcrv 
been  customarv.  A  seagoing  mastless  turret-ship,  or  im- 
proved and  enlarged  monitor,  was  then  devised,  and  thrt-e 
such  ships  were  built — the  Devastation,  the  Thunderer,  and 
the  Fury. 

The  Devastation  is  a  mastless,  twin-screw,  se«-going  tur- 
ret-ship, 285  feet  long,  62  ft.  3  in.  beam ;  mean  drau^^lir. 
26  ft.  8  in.;  displacement,  9,300  tons.  Her  sides,  which 
rise  4  ft.  6  in.  above  the  water-line  right  aft,  arc  pro- 
tected along  the  whole  length  by  armor  12  inches  thick; 
right  forward  this  belt  drops  to  6  inches  above  the  wau  r- 
line,  and  is  covered  by  an  armored  deck,  3  inches  thick,  ar- 
ranged so  as  to  give  great  support  to  the  bow  in  rammiii;;. 
Armor  of  the  same  thickness  covers  the  deck  aft.  On  il.e 
middle  of  the  upper  deck  there  is  a  raised  breastwork  alKuii 
150  feet  in  length,  protected  by  10-inch  and  12-inch  aninr. 
covered  by  a  deck  2  inches  thick  and  11  feet  above  the 
water,  forming  a  glacis  for  two  turrets,  each  containing'  a 
pair  of  35-ton  guns,  protected  by  annor  12  and  14  iuciit^ 


Fto.  l.^Devaatation. 

thick.  All  the  necessary  hatches,  openings,  smoke-pij  «^, 
etc.,  are  led  up  by  iron  trunks  to  a  light  flying-deck  whi'  !> 
extends  between  the  two  turrets,  slightly  overlapping  ea(  n. 
The  sides  of  the  vessel  above  the  armor-belt  are  continu««l, 
forming  an  unarmored  superstructure  extending  9  ft.  :i  in. 
above  the  water-line  forward,  and  to  the  height  of  tli» 
breastwork  throughout  its  length  and  slightly  abaft  it.  tli«> 
open  deck  aft  having  4^  feet  free-board.  The  trial  at  luaa- 
draught  showed  a  speed  of  13*84  knots,  the  engines  dev«^l..jv- 
ing  6,650  indicatea  horse-power.  She  cames  1.350  l<  n- 
of  coal,  which  enables  her  to  steam  4,700  knots  at  10  kn.  > 
an  hour. 

In  1894  the  Devastation  was  refitted  throughout,  su|»- 
plied  with  new  machinerv  and  armament,  and  exton>iT«> 
internal  rearrangement.  The  tables  at  the  end  of  this  aru- 
cle  give  the  present  outfit. 

In  the  construction  of  the  thinl  ship,  the  Dreadnought 
— first  named  Fury — a  new  design  was  followeil,  makiiu' 
the  breastwork  of  the  same  width  as  the  ship  itself— iii 
other  words,  raising  the  armored  side  of  the  ship  to  a  Itvti 
with  the  upper  deck  of  the  breastwork.  The  Dread  mm  v'hi 
was  35  feet  longer  and  of  over  1,500  tons  greater  displatn^ 
ment  than  the  Devastation,  and  the  armored  belt  was  car- 
ried for  the  whole  length  of  the  ship  at  the  same  height  aK.v** 
the  water-line,  increased  to  14  inches  thickness  amidjiliif*. 
In  1885  this  vessel,  whose  design  was  then  sixteen  years  vA, 
was  commissioned  as  the  fiagship  of  the  British  Chanml 
squadron. 

In  1872-73  the  Italian  first-class  battle-ships  Duilio  ai  i 
Dandolo  were  begun.  They  were  the  first  vessels  uf  i!'* 
central-citadel  type  with  revolving  turrets  en  echelon.  F"'" 
their  general  design  the  naval  authorities  accepted  thevhw 
of  the  British  committee  on  designs,  trusting  for  lx>th  l'U«v- 
ancy  and  stability  to  their  unarmored  raft.  The  priiui} i.l 
dimensions  are  as  follows:  Length  between  peqx»ndioiilai>, 
340  ft.  11  in. ;  beam,  64  ft.  9  in. ;  mean  draught,  26  ft.  7  Ui.; 
displacement  at  deep  load-line,  11,200  tons. 


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.  mtirtt  lun&iajUik  tkuji  if t  liit  wuov  viam^        ^^^U 

494 


SHIPS  OF  WAR 


Tf^  '*  Admiral  Class''  of  British  r6M«/».— Following  the 
Inflexible,  the  British  built  the  Ajax  and  the  Agamemnon, 
reduced  copies  of  the  first  vessel,  and  then  the  Colossus  and 
the  Edinburgh  of  the  same  type,  with  18  inches  side-armor 
and  armed  with  43-ton  breech-loading  guns.  A  great  rain 
was  made  in  the  speed  of  the  latter  two  vessels  over  their 
predecessors,  partly  by  a  better  form  and  partly  by  improved 
propelling  machinerv,  by  which  much  greater  power  has 
been  obtained  from  the  same  weight  of  material.    The  **  Ad- 


FiG.  4.— Collingwood. 

miral "  class,  of  which  the  Collingwood  was  the  first,  begun 
in  1880,  followed  by  the  Rodney,  the  Howe,  the  Anson,  the 
Camperdown,  and  the  Benbow,*in  1883-84,  while  following 
the  same  system  of  construction,  have  their  battery  mounted 
en  barbette.  This  modifies  the  distribution  of  the  armor  by 
dispensing  with  the  upper  part  of  the  citadel — necessary 
witn  turrets  to  protect  their  training,  loading-gear,  etc. — 
and  allows  the  maximum  thickness  of  the  armor  to  be  con- 
centrated on  the  water-line  where  required  to  protect  the 
machinerv  and  the  boilers.  A  part  of  the  weight  thus 
saved,  ani  that  due  to  the  less  weight  of  barbettes  over  tur- 
rets, is  devoted  to  ordnance;  for  the  Howe,  the  Camper- 
down,  and  the  Anson  carry  four  66-ton  guns  each,  the  Rod- 
ney four  68-ton  guns,  and  the  Benbow  has  two  111 -ton 
^ns.  In  addition  to  the  heavy  guns  they  all  carry  six  6- 
inch  euns  in  a  machine-gun  proof  battery  on  the  upper 
deck,  between  the  barbettes. 

British  Turreted  Ships. — The  steady  progress  of  France 
and  Italy  in  the  building  of  armored  vessels  of  the  first  class 
had  in  1884-85  aroused  the  attention  of  the  British  to  the 
probabilitv  that  if  their  rate  of  construction  were  to  con- 
tinue the  t'rench  fieet  would  soon  be  superior  to  theirs,  and 
eminent  authorities  contended  that  upon  certain  methods  of 
comparison  the  French  fieet  was  then  the  more  powerful. 
The  relative  merits  of  the  central-citadel  tvpe  of  British  bat- 
tle-ship and  the  completely  armor-belted  battle-ships  of  the 
tvpe  of  the  A  miral  Duperre  received  careful  attention,  and 
though  most  serious  allegations  were  made  by  Sir  E.  J. 
Heed,  popularly  considered  an  authority,  against  the  safety 
of  this  citadel-ships  when  their  ends  were  riddled  by  shot, 
the  balance  of  favor  seems  to  remain  with  the  British  type. 
As  the  result  of  this  discussion  Great  Britain  laid  down  in 
1885  two  turreted  battle-ships,  the  Victoria  (afterward  sunk 
by  collision  with  the  Campenlown)  and  Sans  Pareil,  of 
10,470  tons  displacement  each,  the  armament  consisting  of 
two  110-ton  16J-inch  guns  in  a  single  turret  forward,  pro- 
tected bv  18-inch  compound  armor,  and  twelve  6-inch  guns 
in  broailside  on  the  ufiper  deck,  protected  by  a  3-inch  steel 
side  and  steel  traverses.  The  citadel  is  170  feet  long  and 
the  armor  18  inches  thick  at  the  sides.  Also  were  then  begun 
the  Nile  and  Trafalgar,  two  double-turreted  battle-ships  of 
tvpe  similar  to  the  Inflexible,  of  11,940  tons  displacement. 
Tf  heir  armor-belt  is  of  unusual  length  and  20  inches  thick. 
The  two  turrets,  each  mounting  two  66-ton  guns,  are  situ- 
ated, like  the  Dreadnought's,  on  the  middle  line,  but,  unlike 
this  ship,  the  Nile  and  Trafalgar  have  a  broadside  battery 
of  eight  5-inch  guns  lietween  the  turrets.  These  vessels  at- 
tained on  trial  in  1800  a  speed  of  17  knots. 

These  vessels  were  reganied  when  designed  as  the  maxi- 
mum displacement  and  i)ower  to  be  hereafter  required,  and 
indeed  it  was  predicteil  by  some  authorities  who  favored  the 
building  of  protected  cruisers  that  these  vessels  might  be 
the  last  ironclad  battleships.  They  were  hardly  launched 
when  the  British  authorities  formulated  in  1889  the  most 


extensive  programme  ever  adopted  by  them.  Under  th.f 
title  of  the  Navy  Defense  Act  f  105,000,000  was  appropriate«i 
for  building  and  completing  by  Apr.,  1894,  70  ve$«els  t'> 
carry  566  guns,  having  an  aggregate  of  336,000  tons  di^ 
placement  and  of  594,000  horse-power.  These  vessels  com- 
prise 10  armored  battle-ships,  8  of  the  first  and  2  of  the 
second  class ;  40  protected  cruisers,  9  of  the  first  and  31  i.f 
the  second  class;  and  18 .  torpedo-vessels.  The  dbtiu- 
guishing  features  of  the  programme  were  the  rapiditv  wiih 
which  the  vessels  were  to  be  built,  the  great  increase'of  en- 
gine-power and  speed,  and  the  increase  in  size  and  power  of 
the  armored  vessels.  Nine  out  of  ten  of  these  are  barbt'll*^ 
vessels,  in  contrast  to  the  recent  turret-ships,  and  aiv  *  f 
greater  free-board  and  superior  sea-keeping  qualities  to  tl... 
earlier  vessels.  The  Royal  Sovereign,  the  first  of  t\w>*^ 
battle-ships,  was  completed  in  Apr.,  1892.  The  rapiditv  ..f 
construction  surpasses  all  previous  records  in  the  Luildin.' 
of  great  war-ships,  as  the  Roval  Sovereign  was  laid  down  ij. 
Sept.,  1889.  This  vessel  is  the  largest  battle-ship  hitheri* 
constructed  for  the  British  navy,  and  has  six  eounterpan>. 
named  the  Renown,  Repulse,  Ramillies,  Resolution,  IIk^ 
venge,  and  Royal  Oak.  The  eighth  vessel  of  this  cla<s  i^ 
a  turret-ship,  the  Hood.  The  armament  of  the  ItoyaJ  S.v- 
ereign  comprises  four  13^inch  67-ton  guns,  mounted  in  bar- 
bette in  pairs,  and  firing  a  projectile  weighing  1.250  lb.  w  ;i  b 
a  powder-charge  of  630  lb. ;  ten  6-inch  100-pounder  quick- 
firing  guns,  double-banked,  the  four  on  the  main  deck  Ix'ins: 
mounted  in  casemates  protected  by  6-inch  armor,  while  thv 
six  on  the  upper  deck  are  mounted  in  sponsons ;  sixteen  »>- 
pounder  and  twelve  3-pounder  quick-firers,  8  small  machiiu- 
guns,  and  two  9-pounder  field-guns.  The  auxiliary  ariiia- 
ment  is  distributed  all  over  the  ship  and  extends  from  Ih>w 
to  stem.  The  ship  is  also  fitted  with  seven  torpedo-tuU-N 
of  which  two  are  submerged.  The  following  table  givr* 
the  principal  dimensions  of  the  Royal  Sovereign  and  lur 
predecessor  in  design,  the  Trafalgar,  and  includes  the  n- 
suits  of  actual  trials  for  speed  and  power  as  obtained  in 
smooth-water  trials : 


DIMENSIONS,  ETC. 


RoTal 


Length 

Breadth 

Drauffht,  mean 

Displacement,  tons 

Free-boai^]j5[;^*^;  ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 

T  vt  -o  J  natural  draugiit 

^•"••*^-  j  forced  draught 

aru»«^     *  natural,  knots 

Bpeeu    •)  forced,  knots 

Coal  carried  at  the  designed  load*draught,  tons. 

Coal  endurance  at  10  knots 

Total  weight  of  armament,  tons 

Weight  of  auxiliary  armament,  tons 

Height  of  heavy  guns  above  water-line 

Length  of  belt 

oreate«thickne«.;^*;j™»''*;;k:::::;::::::; 

Total  weight  of  armor  and  backing,  including 
protective  deck,  tons 


380  ft. 

stsrt 

75  ft. 

78  ft. 

27  ft.  6  in. 

27  ft  rt  ic 

14,160 

i2.:o. 

19  ft.  6  in. 

11  ft  3  in 

18  ft. 

11  ft.  3  in 

9,700 

K.44'» 

18,800 

12,S**> 

1677 

16  22 

18-0 

17  iS 

900 

iM> 

A,000 

5.i>rt 

1,410 

1.1 '''>5 

BOO 

i:s5 

88  ft. 

15  It. 

260  ft, 

29)  ft. 

18  in. 

a^in. 

8  in. 

Sio. 

4,560 


4.400 


Growth  of  the  French  Navy, — The  modern  nary  of  Frami^ 
dates  from  the  close  of  the  Franco-German  war,  when  a  pro- 
gramme was  elaborated,  accordin|f  to  which  the  anuon^d 
fleet  was  to  consist  of  16  first-class  ironclads,  12  second  class 
and  20  coast-service  yessels  of  two  classes.  It  was  then  difi- 
nitely  decided  to  use  only  iron  or  steel  in  futnre  const nn^- 
tion,'a  conclusion  which  was  arrived  at  very  tardily  consider- 
ing the  progress  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  Channel. 

The  Redoutable,  8,800  tons,  the  first  ressel  built  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  new  programme,  was  begun  in  18T2  up'n 
designs  of  M.  de  Bussy,  ana  was  then  classed  as  a  first-ila.« 
ironclad.  The  Devastation  and  Foudroyant  (since  naun'«I 
Courbet),  ships  of  nearly  10,000  tons  displacement,  were  lt»- 
gun  in  1876  upon  the  same  general  plans  as  the  RedoutaMo, 
masted,  high  free-board,  central  battery. 

The  A  miral  Duperre,  begun  in  1876,  has  proved  the  tyri» 
upon  which  the  later  French  ships  have  been  designe<i  with- 
out substantial  variation,  excepting  only  that  the  later  vi'>- 
sels  have  been  fitted  with  military  masts  instead  of  the  fuil 
ship-rig  of  spars  and  sails.  The  designers,  believing  that 
mastless  low  free-board  turret-ships  would  not  make  p^**! 
seagoing  battle-ships,  and  in  order  to  reduce  the  ann<>T>*l 
area  and  increase  its  thickness,  discarded  the  central  battorr 
of  the  preceding  fii^t  rates,  which  was  also  no  longer  «iiia- 
ble  to  tne  heavy  gims  required,  and  mounted  on  the  Amiml 
Duperr6  four  1^-inch  48-ton  guns,  each  in  an  armored  bar* 


it  hhmii  the  MiMD^  tlham  wriv  l^tm  la  1691,  tijut 


'^mmMJCt^iym^rrm 


496 


SHIPS  OF  WAR 


cipal  dimensions  are :  Length,  348  feet ;  beam,  60i  feet ;  mean 
draught,  24  feet;  free-board,  IH  feet;  displacement,  10,300 
tons.  There  is  a  belt  of  18-inch  armor  extending  over  slight- 
ly more  than  half  the  length,  rising  3  feet  above  the  water- 
line,  and  extending  4i  feet  below  it.  The  under-watcr  pro- 
tective decks  at  the  ends  of  the  belt  are  3  inches  thick,  and 
the  armor-deck  over  the  belt  2}  inches  thick.  Above  the 
18-inch  belt  and  for  the  same  length  the  side  is  covered  with 
5-inch  armor  to  the  upper  deck. 

The  armament  consists  of  four  13-inch  guns  mounted,  two 
in  a  turret,  one  forward  on  the  central  line  of  the  ship  and 
one  aft,  each  turret  protected  by  17-inch  armor.  At  a  high- 
er level  than  these  turrets  are  four  others  of  8^inch  armor, 
each  containing  two  8-inch  guns.  The  battery  is  thus  so 
arranged  that  four  8-inch  guns  fire  straight  ahead  and  four 
right  astern,  in  addition  to  the  13-inch  guns.  There  are 
also  four  6-inch  guns  protected  by  5-inch  armor,  two  on  each 
broadside  on  the  main  deck  at  the  same  level  as  the  13-inch 
guns.  There  are  twenty-eight  rapid-firing  and  machine 
guns  and  six  torpedo-tubes.  The  batt«ry  of  these  vessels 
far  exceeds  that  of  any  vessel  in  the  world  of  their  size,  and 
equals  that  of  any  ship.  The  engines  are  of  9,000  I.  H.-P., 
and  a  maximum  speed  of  16i  knots  is  expected,  with  a  sus- 
tained sea-speed  of  15  knots.  The  normal  coal-supply  is 
1,400  tons,  and  the  bunker  capacity  1,800  tons. 

The  seagoing  battle-ship  Iowa  was  authorized  in  1892  and 
begun  in  1893.  This  vessel  will  exceed  her  predecessors  in 
size  by  about  1,000  tons  and  in  speed  by  a  knot,  but  will  be 
of  about  the  same  general  design,  although  greatly  improved 
by  considerable  increase  of  free-board  forward  and  better 
security  against  interference  of  the  lines  of  fire  of  the  guns 
of  the  battery. 

In  1895  Congress  authorized  two  additional  battle-ships 
and  six  composite  gunboats  of  1,000  tons  displacement. 

The  Texas  and  Jlaine,  begun  in  1889,  should  be,  accord- 
ing to  the  latest  classification  adopted  in  the  British  navy, 
rated  as  third-class  battle-ships.  The  Maine  has  been"  offi- 
cially called  an  armored  cruiser  in  the  U.  S. 

CRUISERS. 

There  no  longer  exists  in  the  classification  of  war-vessels 
a  definite  size  or  class  which  may  actually  be  distinguished 
as  armored  or  unarmored,  as  was  the  case  so  recently  as 
1880.  Then  began  the  extensive  introduction  of  armored 
decks  in  all  classes  of  cruisers,  and  since  then  the  rapid  im- 
provement in  rapid-firing  and  machine  guns,  and  also  the  im- 
provement in  machinery  with  greater  possibilities  of  speed, 
nave  tended  to  a  rapid  increase  in  the  size  of  cruisers,  and 
an  increased  amount  of  armored  protection  by  the  use  of 
thin  armor-plating  on  the  sides  in  addition  to  protective 
decks,  armored  protection  for  individual  guns,  and  coffer- 
dams of  water-excluding  material.  The  use  of  sails  in  the 
larger  cruisers  has  practically  disappeared,  and  the  greater 
dependence  upon  fuel  has  also  tended  to  increase  the  size  of 
these  ships  in  order  to  increase  the  supply  of  coal  carried, 
and  thus  increase  the  endurance  at  sea  under  steam. 

The  following  tabulated  particulars  relate  to  eight  of  the 
most  important  cruisers  in  the  world : 


water  amidshios ;  it  is  6  inches  thick  on  the  slopes,  3  inches 
at  the  flats,  reduced  to  2^  inches  at  the  ends  of  the  ve»*r\. 
In  addition  to  this  there  is  a  belt  of  5-iuch  armor  in  wake  uf 
the  machinery  spaces  between  the  protective  and  main  decks. 
Behind  this  belt  is  a  cofferdam  or  cellular  space  3  ft.  6  in. 
deep,  extending  all  around  the  ship,  filled  with  celluloM-, 
a  very  light  and  water-excluding  material.  The  armament 
consists  of  six  8-inch  guns,  two  mounted  in  a  barbette  for- 
ward plated  with  10-inch  armor,  two  similarly  mounted  aft, 
and  one  on  each  broadside  amidships  on  the  spar-de<k. 
Twelve  4-inch  rapid-firing  guns  are  mounted  in  sponson>  of 
4-inch  armor  on  the  main  deck,  and  eight  6-pounder  guii> 
in  2-inch  armored  sponsons  on  the  same  deck.  The  H-inch 
guns  are  25  feet  and  the  4-inch  guns  164  feet  above  (he  de- 
signed load-line.  There  are  six  torpedo-tubes  for  ejectiiiir 
Whitehead  torpedoes  above  the  water-line,  one  forward  and 
one  aft  and  two  on  each  broadside.  There  are  twin-screws 
and  each  screw  has  two  sets  of  three  cylinder  triple-expan- 
sion engines,  making  four  sets  of  engines,  each  in  a  sey»a- 
rate  water-tight  compartment.  It  is  estimated  that  the  ves- 
sel can  maintain  at  sea  a  speed  of  18'5  knots. 

The  first-class  cruiser  Brooklyn,  authorized  in  1892  and 
begun  in  1893,  is  similar  in  design  to  the  New  York,  but  nf 
greater  size  and  armament. 

The  Columbia  was  built  for  the  express  purpose  of  previns: 
upon  commerce,  and  when  begun  in  1890  it  was  stated  l-v 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  that  '*  no  merchant  vessel  that  sh"»- 
meets,  armored  or  unarmored,  can  escape  from  her."  Sii* 
and  her  sister  ship,  the  Minneapolis,  are  of  7,375  tons  <ii5- 

Slacement,  412  feet  long,  58  ft.  2i  in.  beam,  and  22  ft.  6^  in. 
raught.  The  Columbia  is  expected  to  maintain  at  sea  a 
speed  of  21  knots  an  hour.  There  are  three  screw  pro- 
pellers, one  placed  amidships  as  in  ordinary  single-screw 
ships,  and  one  on  each  side,  slightly  forward  of  the  middle 
screw.  Each  screw  has  a  separate  triple-expansion  engine 
in  an  independent  water-tight  compartment.  All  the  mo- 
tive machinery  and  boilers  are  below  the  armored  de<k. 
which  is  4  ft.  6  in.  below  the  water-line  at  the  sides  and  1 
foot  above  amidships;  the  slopes  are  4  inches  thick,  ami  the 
flat  24  inches.  There  is  a  cellular  structure  5  feet  wide  ex- 
tending the  whole  length  of  the  ship  at  the  outer  edge  of  the 
protective  deck.  The  coal  carried  at  the  designed  draught  i;; 
750  tons,  and  the  total  capacity  of  the  bunkers  is  2,000  tcn^. 
The  battery  of  this  vessel  is  a  light  one,  being  only  intondinl 
to  cope  with  small  cruisers  and  armed  merchantmen ;  it 
consists  of  two  40-caliber  6-inch  ^uns  mounted  in  the  cj^en 
on  the  spar  deck  forward,  one  8-inch  gun  aft,  eight  4-in(ii 
rapid-firing  guns  in  4-inch  steel  sponsons  on  the  main  deik, 
and  eighteen  machine-guns  of  various  sizes. 

Growth  of  the  U.  S,  Nai^,—The  navy  of  the  U.  S.  l^ 
gan  modem  construction  in  1883  by  the  building  of  the 
cruisers  Chicago,  Boston,  and  Atlanta,  and  the  disi»at<  h- 
boat  Dolphin.  During  the  period  of  the  building  and  com- 
pletion of  these  ships  it  became  necessary  also  to  e*;tablish 
in  the  U.  S.  the  manufacture  of  the  class  of  steel  of  which 
such  vessels  were  built,  and  the  construction  of  mwlem 
ordnance  and  ammunition.  At  this  time  twenty-five  years 
had  elapsed  since  the  construction  of  powerful  modem  mtu- 


niMKNSIONS,  ETC. 


I^enfirth 

Breadth 

Draiifcht 

Displacement 

Coal  capacity,  maximum 

Armor,  thickness  of  belt 

Armor,  thickness  of  battery. . 

Armor,  thickness  of  deck 

I.H.-P 

Speed 


Armament. . 


Cost,  totals . 


N«w  York. 


:«Oft.    6*  in, 
M  ft.  10  in. 
S3  ft.    3Mn 
8,a00  tons. 
1,290  tons. 

4  in. 
5|  to  10  in. 
6   to   Sin. 

17,401 
21  knots, 
six  H-in. 
twelve  4- in. 
eipht  6-pdrs. 
four  l-pdrs. 

2  Oatlinsr. 


Kooklyn. 


400  ft.  6  in. 
64  ft.  8iin. 
»4ft. 

9,271  tons. 
1,753  tons. 

din. 
.5f  to  8  in. 
6   to  8  in. 

16.000 
20  knots, 
ei^ht  8-in. 
twelve  5-In. 
12  ti-pdrs. 
four  l-pdrs. 

4  Gatling. 


Minnempolb. 


412  ft. 
58  ft.  H  In. 
22  ft.  (4  In. 
7,375  tons. 
1,670  tons. 


4  to  2*  in. 
20,493. 
23  073  knots, 
one  8-in. 
two  6-in, 
ei^ht  4- in. 
12  e-pdrs. 
J  4  l-p<lrH.  I 
( 4  Gatlg.  ) 


Si«ln. 
InftuiU  Mula 


340  ft. 
65  ft.  2  in. 
21  ft.  6  in. 
6,890  tons. 
1,100  tons. 
12  in. 
10  in. 
3  to  2  in. 
13.722 
20-24  knots, 
two  11 -in. 
ten  5"5-in. 
two  275-in. 
sixteen  R,-F. 


RoniA, 
Ruik. 


396  ft.  6  in. 
67  ft. 
26  ft. 

10.J«8  tons 

2,tXK)  tons. 

10  in. 


2}  in. 

13,250 
18  5  knots, 
fonr  8-in. 
sixteen  6-in, 
six  4  r-in, 
18  R.-F. 


Gi«al  Briuin. 


860  ft. 
60  ft. 

23  ft.  9  in. 

7,390  tons. 

860  tons. 


2  in. 

Sin. 
12.550 
20-97  knots, 
two  10'6-in. 
ten  6-in. 
twelve  6-pdr8. 
five  Spars. 


jL3.n00,000        S3.400.000        $2,000,000  $2,125,000 


I 


875  ft. 
65  ft. 

25  ft.  9  in. 
9,100  tons. 
1,500  tons. 


6  to  8  in. 

21.411 
21-6  knots, 
two  10-6-ln. 
ten  6-in. 
16  S-pdrs. 


iW  ft. 

71ft. 

27  ft 

14.200  tons. 

8,000  toun. 


6in. 

2.MXH> 

22  knots. 

•two9"~*  m 

twelve  G-in. 

a8R-F. 


$S..N'«VtMi 


*This  table  consists  of  actual  trial  data,  excepting  the  Rurik  and  Powerful,  given  as  designed. 


Cruisers  of  the  U.  S.  Navy. — The  armored  cruiser  New 
York,  bejcun  in  1890  and  completed  in  1893,  is  of  the  same 
tvpe  as  the  Blake  and  Blenheim  of  the  British  navy,  but 
slightly  inferior  in  size  and  battery-power.  She  has  an  ar- 
mored protective  deck  the  whole  length  of  the  ship,  extend- 
ing 4  ft.  9  in.  below  the  water  at  the  side  to  a  foot  above  the 


clads  was  begtm  abroad,  and  during  the  greater  part  of  that 
period,  since  the  close  of  the  civil  war,  n<me  of  the  new 
types  of  war-vessels  hatl  been  built  in  the  U.  S.,  and  the  re- 
public was  absolutely  without  rank  as  a  naval  power.  In 
effective  force  the  navy  was  in  1886  rated  as  nineteenth 
among  the  nations.    Thus  the  U.  S.  followed  Japan,  TurkoT. 


^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H 

^^^K                                                                                   ^^^H 

^^^^p                                                                          ''          ^^^^1 

^^Bi                                                     ii't        ^^H 

^^K^                                                                                                                      ir«                ^^H 

^^^^Bi                                                                                       ^^^^1 

^^^pi                                                                                       ^^^1 

^^K                                                                                    ^^H 

^^■.-                                                                                       ^^H 

^^^^p-                                                                                       ^^^^1 

^^^■»-                                                                        if          ^^^H 

^^^K                                                                                              ^^^H 

^^^  1  tralljii                                                                                                      ^^B 

^^^^H                                                                                               ^^^^M 

^^m-                                                                   ^^M 

^^^Bt                                                                                       ^^^H 

^^^^^^Bif                                                                                                                                              ^^^^^^^1 

^^^V'                                                                              "''           ^^^1 

^^^^H 

•tinir  r«^b~ 

498 


SHIPS  OF  WAR 


A  usfria- Hungary. 


Lroffth 
b.p. 


Barbette  Shipa. 
ph.. 


Erzherzoi?  Rudolph 
Erzherzogin  StefaDie  . 
Coaat-defetue  Ships. 


B 
C 


Erzherzog  Albrecht 

Central-battery  ahip$. 

Custoza 

Don  Juan  de  Austria .... 

Kaiser 

Kaiser  Max 

Prinz  Eugen 

Tegethoff 

Armored  Cruiter. 

KaiseriD  Maria  Teresa. . . 

Monitors. 

Leitha 

Maros 

KOrOs 

BzamoB 


1887 
1887 


1872 


Ft  In. 

29a  0 
278  10 


285  2 


1872 

802  3 

187R 

1^3 

1871 

2M0 

1875 

240  8 

1877 

240  3 

1878 

286  11 

1893 

851  0 

1871 

166  0 

1871 

166  0 

1892 

177  0 

1892 

177  0 

Ft.  In. 

62  4 
669 


568 

580 
600 
68  3 
60  0 
60  0 
71  1 

.52  6 

27  6 
27  6 
26  9 
26  9 


dmoghl. 


DIsplaM-. 


Ft.    taL 

25  8 
21  6 

Too* 
6,870 
5,060 

220 

5,500 
5,500 
5,500 
5,M0 

24  6 

200 
^  8 
200 
200 
24  10 

7,060 
8,550 
5,810 
8,566 
8,566 
7,390 

200 

6,270 

87 
8  7 

310 
810 

448 
448 

7,500 
8,300 

KsoU 
160 
170 

8,500 
8,500 
8,500 
8,600 

17  25 
17-25 
17-25 
130 

4,440 
2,700 
8,200 
2,700 
2,700 
8,950 

140 
180 
13  0 
130 
130 
16-5 

10,000 

19  1 

820 

820 

1,250 

1,260 

80 
80 
100 
100 

12      11 
9        8 


11 
11 
11 
9 

9 

8 
6 
8 
8 


6i 
6 
6 


14      14 


2i      0 
2i      0 


Three  12-in.,  six  4-7-iu. 
Two  12-iu.,  six  6-in. 

Four  9-4-iD.,  six  6-fn. 
Four  9*4-in.,  six  6-iu. 
Four  9-4-in..  six  6-io. 
Eight  9  6  in.,  11  R.F. 

Eight  9  4  in.,  6  R-F. 
Eight8-4-in.,6R.-F. 
Ten  9-In.,  6  R.-F. 
Eight  8-4-in.,  6  R.-F. 
Eight  8  4-in.,  6  R.-F. 
Six  9  6-in.,  6  6-iu.,  13  R.-F. 

Two  9  6  in.,  six  6  in.,  11  R.F. 

Two  6-in. 

Two  6-ln. 

Two  4  7in.,  2  R.-F. 

Two  4-7-in.,  2  R.-F. 


Brazil. 


Turret. 

Lima  Barros 

Bahia 

Riachuplo 

Aquidaban 

Central  Battery. 

Mariz-e-Barros 

Brazil 

Sete  de  Setembro 

Monitors. 

Alagoas 

Rio  Graude 

Piauhy 

Mnrnnhao 

Pernambuco 


1866 
1866 
1883 
1886 

1886 
lHt)4 
1874 

1864 


180  0 

178  0 

305  0 

805  6 

198  10 

17*.)  8 

219  0 

120  0 

120  0 

120  0 

860 

13  6 

1,360 

35  0 

8  84 

1,000 

52  0 

19  6 

5,700 

520 

19  8 

6,791 

31  0 

9  6 

1.444 

;»o 

12  0 

1.5J8 

46  6 

11  6 

2,145 

280 

90 

840 

280 

90 

.^40 

280 

90 

340 

2,100 

640 

1 7.300 

+  6,201 


120 

10-5 

16-7 

U6-8 


600         9  0 

07.->       lis 

2,000        120 


7-6 
7-5 
7  5 


41      8 
4|      2{ 

7      10 


41      21 
41      21 

8t      0 


4| 
41 
41 


Four  7-ln. 

Two  70-pdrs. 

Four  9  2-in.  B.-L. 

Foiu-9-in.  B,-L.,  four5|-in.  B  -L. 

Four  7-in. 

Four  7-in.,  four  68-pdrs. 

Four  9-iu. 

One  70p<lr. 
One  70-pdr. 
One  7-in. 


Chili. 


Almirante  Cochrane 1874 

Huascar 1«<>4 

CapitanPrat I  1890  I 


204  0  46  0 
196  0  35  6 
828  0  I    60  8 


19  2 
15  6 
21  10  I 


3,560        3,000 
1,130        1,200  I 
6,900  1   12,000  I 

China, 


13  0    "        9       44        Five  8-in.  B.-L. 

110    I        4J      24        Two  8-in..  four  20-p<lrs. 

18-8    I      118    4       .  Four9  5-in.,eiglit4|-in.,a)R.  1* 


Ting  Yuen.. 
Chen  Yuen . 
Tien  Sing... 
Ping  Yuen.. 
Lai  Yuen . . . 
King  Yuen. . 


1881 

308  5 

59  0 

200 

7,4.30 

6,300 

15  88 

1881 

308  5 

600 

19  8 

7,500 

6,200 

14-. 50 

1875 

lOiO 

20  4 

70 

200 

840 

10  00 

1890 

2000 

400 

16  0 

2,850 

2,400 

105 

18H7 

270  0 

40  0 

16  0 

2,8.V) 

3,6<H) 

16  5 

1887 

270  0 

400 

16  0 

2,850 

3,600 

16  6 

14 
14 
3 
8 
8 
8 


8 

8 

1 

2 

94 

2 


Denmark. 


Helgoland 

Odin 

LIndormen  . . . . 

Oorm 

Rolf  Krake .... 
Esbern  Snare.. 

Absalon 

Iver  Hvitfeldt . 
Tordenskjold . . 
Skjold 


257  0 

59  2 

18  8 

6,347 

3a«8 

13-3 

236  10 

486 

14  1 

3,08:3 

2,260 

124 

216  3 

394 

14  1 

2,044 

1.500 

12-2 

231  8 

890 

14  5 

2,301 

1,670 

12-8 

184  10 

88  1 

10  8 

1,344 

7.50 

7-8 

1.50  0 

26  0 

10  1 

627 

500 

11  0 

1.50  0 

260 

10  1 

627 

600 

11  0 

242  0 

49  6 

18  0 

8,260 

6,100 

15  6 

fcJl  6 

433 

16  6 

2.400 

2.600 

140 

2268 

880 

13  6 

2,150 

2,260 

130 

Prbmikr  Rang. 
Cniraaaes. 

Devastation 

Courbet 

Amiral  DuperrA . 

Caiman 

Indomptable 

Tonnerre 

Fulminant 

Furieux 

Re<loutable 

Trident 

Friedland 

Colbert 

Marengo 

OcAan  

Kuflfren 

Richelieu 

P'ormidable 

Terrible 

Requin 

Amiral  Baudin  . . 

Hoche 

Magenta 

Marceau 

Nentune 

Brennus 


1879 
1882 
1879 

inas 

188:3 
187.5 
1877 
18^8 
1876 
1K76 
1873 
1K75 
18<Vi 
1MC.8 
1H70 
isr:3 
1HS5 
IKSl 
IKS") 
18s:i 
IHsiJ 
1S90 
1H><7 
1SM7 
181II 


311  7 

311  7 
319  10 

♦278  2 
♦279  9 
|*5^41  6 
*24S  0 

♦  246  0 

312  0 
314  1 

*:317  0 
♦317  9 
*2S2  10 
♦i»>^2  10' 
*)l^'i  10 

♦  :\*i  7  I 
3i»l  5 
271  7  I 

♦  -^ru  9 

'6i\  5 

.S.*iO  0 

.'«(>  0 

H-iO  0 

XV\  0  ' 

♦  344  6  ; 


098 

24  1 

9,639 

69  8 

24  1 

9,6.39 

66  11 

26  9 

li.ino 

69  0 

237 

7.239 

69  0 

23  7 

7,2^39 

57  9 

21  0 

6,580 

57  8 

21  0 

•  5,584 

58  4 

21  4 

5.695 

64  6 

23  10 

8.800 

57  10 

26  10 

8,814 

58  0 

27  6 

8.916 

57  10 

26  7 

8,617 

57  2 

2«>  3 

7,187 

.57  7 

27  8 

7,3:34 

57  2 

27  2 

7.604 

,57  10 

26  5 

8,790 

69  0 

25  9 

11.441 

.5y  0 

2:3  7 

7.1H4 

r)n  0 

2.-3  7 

T.1H4 

m  0 

25  9 

11.441 

0.5  6 

2<i  3 

10,5.m 

(m  6 

•>»r,  8 

10,581 

6:,  r> 

2«>  3 

10..5S1 

Cm   6 

2('.  3 

H».5H1 

6.5  0 

27  10 

lO.bOO 

France. 


8..320 
8,100 
8,0(K) 
6,0(X) 
6,0(N) 
4,160 
3,550 
8,420 
6.071 
4,8»<2 
4,428 
4XM 
8,«i73 
3,781 
4.1M1 
4.»^)«» 
9,7<iO 
6.-Ji<» 
6.<HN) 

8,:W0 
ll.OiM) 
12,000 
11.017 
ll.i^K) 
13,000 


15- 1 
15-4 
14  2 
14-5 
14  5 
140 
1322 
140 
14  66 

14  17 
13-3 
14-47 
135 
13  7 
14-3 
13  11 
16  2 
11-7 
l.iO 

15  0 
16-5 
16-5 

16  4 

16  0 

17  5 


I-  I 


2i 

6 

8 

44 

6i 

3 

7 

4* 

41 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

8 

0 

9 

8 

Four  12-in.,  two  .5,5,  in. 

Four  12-in.,  two  5ft  in. 

One  6 A  in. 

One  10  in.,  two  6-in.,  eight  light. 

Two  8  2-in.,  two  6.in.,  eight  liKlt 

Two  82- in.,  two  6-in.,  eight  tight 


One  12-in..  four  10,V«n.»  Ave  4\k  lu 

Four  10-in.,  six  llglit. 

Two  9-in.,  two  light. 

Two  10  in.,  two  light. 

Two  8-in.,  two  lighL 

Three  54 -in. 

Three  5j-in. 

Two  lO^in.  Krupp,  four5-in.  Knipi* 

One  62-ui.  Krupp.  four  5  in. 

One  9  6-iu.,  three  5-iu.,  4  R.-F. 


1«4      ft/0 
164      8A 

21A  10 

20i  1.5i 

m  m 

Uk      9J 

m    9i 

19*  124 

154  104 
8i      «>A 


9 

8« 
7J 
71 
7J 
84 
2U 
2i>t 


84 

i 

'A 

0 
14^ 


20  J  17 

2M  13f 

17J  18i 

17!  i:<i 

17t  i:3| 

17f  13! 

17i  15J 


Four  134-in.,  fourlOi-ln.,  six  .5»-)i» 

Four  I84in.,  four  104-in.,  six  54-iu. 

Four  184in.,  fourteen  tk-in. 

Two  164-in.,  four4in. 

Two  164-in.,  four  4-in. 

Two  IM-in.,  four  4!-in. 

Two  lOl-in.,  four  4-in. 

Two  134-in. 

Eight  lOMn.,  sixSa-in. 

Ei^ht  lOi-in.,  two  9j-in.,  six  54  in 

Eight  lOi-in.,  eight  54-ln. 

Eight  lOi-in.,  two  94-in.,  six  Sj-in 

Four  lOj-in.,  four  94-in.,  seven  5j m 

Four  104,  four  94-in.,  two  54  in.,  *'i"-  *! ' 

Four  104.  four  94-in.,  six  5}-in..  oi .  4.  ' 

Six  104,  five  94-in..  seven  54-iu..  on*'  i. 

Three  17-in.,  twelve  54-in. 

Two  16|-in„  four  4-in. 

Ttvo  16i-in.,  four  4-in. 

Three  16}-in.,  twelve  54-in. 

Two  lH4-in.,  two  10»-in.,  sixteen  5'  >" 

Two  13i-iii.,  two  10»-in.,  sixteen  :>•  i'. 

Two  13i-in.,  two  lOMn..  sixteen  r^'  r 

Two  I3i  in.,  two  KH-in.,  sixteen  '  ■  •> 

Four  13f  in.,  eight  94-in.,  eight  5i  lu 


snips  OF  WAR 
Fra nee  ic€in t in  u *> ef). 


499 


-J ' . 


•     .u-tMAttii.... I*caM 

,r-iil>»«l. ^...,,.      l«>•^ 

V4imir.««... .,  iJJiltf 

I 


•  ki«tt«a««^>a». 


r,t\ 


ISxfrRBf        II«M       tH«|>li«- 


n.  In. 

msi  7 


K    IB. 

r^  * 

71  J 
57  h 
57  5 

70  Jl 

m  7 
m  7 

6<V€ 


ft,  b. 

^n 

5fre 

aes 

220 

lao 

sto 

Ifi-  7 

25  10 

e^5!A> 

]1   -^'A} 


i2.auo 

7,^00 


IH'U 
IT  0 
18  0 

16  ^ 

17  0 
17  & 

IRO 
IMO 
17  ft 

*^-& 

IK  U 


1H 
1« 

la 
la 

18 

15f 
151 

ri 


i  Two  ]g,  two  lltjin.,  tfiirht  SMo,,  so  R -F. 

Two  la,  two  jot  m..  «*iiht  ft  5-i£i.,  ^  R  -F. 
]  Twu  I:*,  two  ^>|  iu.,  eight  &"5^in..  ao  tt- F. 

Two  IS  5-lti..  Jt^ur  i-Ui,,  ttiKht  light. 
I  Tmto  lau-in.,  four  4-in.,  eig^tit  li^bt, 
.  Two  lS'5-iu.,  four  -l-tB..  cig:ht  lij^liL 
I  Two   11  «^iii.,   xvfo  Vrnlu.,  rljfUt   SA-io* 

eight  4'm.,  lie  R-F. 
I  Four  II  tiin.,  tenfi  5^ia,  six  I  In.,  M  K-F, 
'  Pitiir  1 1  t^iD.»  teti  55-iu  ,  6tx  i  iu-,  M  H--F, 

Two    11  ^iii..  two    Wl5-iii.,  eiglit    &^lD., 
I     eight  4  in.,  a>  K -F. 
I  Two  7  frin  ,  tt<n  5  5  in..  2*  R  F. 

F'^iir  II  Hiu,.  it^u  5  5'iiL^six4'l&^3&  li-F 


^^ar 


ii;;s>^-)nni^re. . 

ipharittr 

'..  r.eii^e 

..ml 

_•  1-  v,.lin J 


.  Irt76 
1K7S 
.  1K.H) 
.  I.s7:» 
.  IHTT 
.  1H75 
.  IKNO 
.  ISKi 
.'  ISTft 
.      1KS2 

.    .»a 1>^5     ' 

vv> IS>7  ; 

.  ..'t'-n 1*^^  ( \ 

V 1^'.«0 

-^- I'^Kll 

n.i  1.- !>«:•)  ' 

^i:.'^ I^i  j 

.  !..:u' IS><5  I   , 

,   iv  .1*-  Lome H'.H) 

:.  1 11^-6 }^J2 


-^41 
•241 
iJ41 


6.  V# 
S7  9 
57  9 
41»  2 
4H  9 
4H  9 
57  2 
57  2 
57  2 
57  2 


irij-  r 

I  i:   j-b^*  Tr*^ville 

' .       / •  -co  f  ^ J  CM  in lJt»t'n. 


*  181  0       40  4 


♦  Hi5  0       a5  7 


1K03 
KVJ2 


I'CO 
lh72 


JTI  0 
'2^i  0 
H4S  0 
3ts  0 
34S  0 
a4^  0 
I 

Iftf.  10 
11^  10 


in  V» 

10  9 
IG  9 
21  6 
20  9 
20  9 
2:5  3 
23  3 
23  3 
2i  3 

11  0 


10  4 


52  0 
57  5 
4f>  0 
46  0 
40  0 
40  0 

5:^  0 

53  0 


4.52.3 
4.52:^ 
4.4^ 
4,127 
4.5CV4 
5.K-H1 
5,s<VJ 
5>^1 
5,?<G0 

1.639  ; 


*'..4o 
2.31U  I 
2.7-^ 
2.070  , 
2.4<iO 
2.214 

4.5.V;  j 

4.1M) 
3.?C),T 
4,1(X) 


I 


6.207 

4.745 
4,745 
4.745 
4,745 


,745 


.3.390 
3.510 


7.r,(H» 

8,:iuu 

1.921 
l,^<27 


r4^    I 

10  83  ; 

12-M 
13-08  I 
12  8<J  I 
12-75  I 

115:^  I 

14  0     ! 
14  14 
14  0     I 


1.700        130 


1,045        1.54:)0        13  2 


20  0 
17  0  I 
190 
19  0 
19  0 
19  0 

12  S.-: 
12  25 


13 
17J 


94 
11 

9t 
11 


^♦) 
13i 
4J 
4i 
4! 
6i 

m 

71 


9i      0 


9k       0 


4 

18 

:H 
3} 
Zi 
ai 

8! 
8< 


0 
17 
0 
0 
0 
0 

8« 

8« 


Two  lux -in. 

Two  13;  in. 

Two  13i  in. 

Six  9i-in.,  six  3t-in. 

Six  9j-in.,  one  7i-in.,  six  51-in.,  one  4J-in. 

Si.v  9:-iu..  one  7i-in..  six  5^-in. 

Four  9?-in.,  two  7i-in..  six  5i-in. 

Four  9i-in..  one  7^in..  six  5j-in..  one  4J-ln. 

Four  9»in..  two  7^in.,  four  5i-in. 

Four  9i-in.,  one  7<-in.,  six  5j-in.,  one  4J  in. 

One  lOJ  in.,  two  4-in. 


One  9i  iu. 

Two  7  5  in.,  six  6  3-in.,  two  liKht. 

Two  13  5-in..  four  4  in. 

Tv*'o  7  5-in.,  six  5  6  in. 

Two  7-5-in.,  six  5  0-in. 

Two  7  5-in.,  six  5  6-in. 

Two  7  5-in.,  six  5  6-in. 


Two  91 -in. 
Two9i  iu. 


(rfrmdinj. 


yri(jatt». 

V  ,    ^.y 

18^-4 

28n  0 

.■-.:.:  1-1(1 

1K74 

2S0  0 

-:       J  Wi.'i'-lm    

I8t;8 

:U5  4 

ri  -Vj  .lerGrosjie 

1K74 

:^)7  5 

-:.'.uri: 

IS-^l 

249  0 

C'»rvettts. 

^ .  ".-"^n    

1877 

298  6 

fi    

INTS 

2".i8  0 

.    --luOerK 

1878 

2^t8  6 

^  ^.-ii 

1880 

298  6 

(iHn-r«*9eU. 

'\'     Z"^ 

1876 

143  0 

■     --  

1K70 

1 13  0 

f. 

1K70 

14.3  0 

■^     ".-^a    

1877 

14:^  0 

1K77 

14:^  0 

t-    -i     

1878 

113  0 

•  i'-'O 

1>C8 

143  0 

-      -'.li      

1879 

14:^  0 

-V      -.if.'ler 

18M0 

143  0 

1H80 

143  0 

i;^-..,i-l       

1881 

143  0 

'■'<vst  Defense. 

-    -''—I 

1889, 
1^J«) 
1K91  1 

i^n*- 

240  0 

■       :    -aJ 

iH<n2 

'•.  .""^  raui   

1892  1 

H-,ttl*>thip» 

K  i-'"..-^!    Frie(lru?h    Wil- 

1891  , 

-       .M            

1892  '. 

354  4 

"      — ".^ur^ 

1N91   , 

.    .  ,.-:ir>ur,C 

1S91 J 

62  2 
62  2 

6<»  0 
53  6 

59  0 

60  0 
6»)  0 
6«»  0 
60  0 

35  6 

.35  6 

:i'>  6 

a5  6 

:i5  6 

:i5  6 

35  6 

a5  6 

35  6 

:i5  6 

a5  6 


49  3 


25  1 

25  1 

25  6 

2:^  9 

19  6 

19  8 

19  8 
19  8 
19  8 

10  3 
10  3 
10  3 
10  3 
10  3 
10  3 
10  3 
10  3 
10  3 
10  3 
10  3 


7.6r»6 
7.IV.K) 
9,757 
6.770 
5,200 

7.400  ' 
7,4<K» 
7.44» 
7,400 

1.109 

1,H»9 
l.KX) 
1,I<>9 
1.109 
1.1(»9 
1.109 
l.K^ 
1,1  <>9 
1,109 


8.«)00  14  5 

8.(NK»  I  14  5 

8.00C»  •  19  0 

5.4' M)  ,  14  0 

3,'.«J0  I  13  5 

,^600  I  14  0 

S.rHMi  14  0 

h^^^M^  ,  14  0 

5,00<»  I  14  0 


700  ' 
70") 
70<>  . 


9  0 

9  <) 

9  0 

9  0 

9  0 

9  0 

9  0 
90 

9  0 

9  0 

9  0 


24 


3,.-i<X)        4.80r.)  ,     15  0 


9.842        8.000        16  0 


1(H 

12;- 

17i 
17i 
171^ 
17i 

8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 


5^U   Ei^rht  lOj-in..  one  8J-in. 
5^1i    Eij:ht  10;-in..  oue8i  in. 
6j       I  Eighteen  9i-in.,  four  8;-; 
5;       I  Four  lOi-in..  two  6,Vin. 
0        I  Nine  9i-in.,  five  6-iu. 


151 
15} 
15.^ 
151 

4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 


'  One  li:-in.  B.-L.,  four  lOi-in.  B.  L. 
I  One  llj-in.  B.-L..  four  10;  in.  B.-L. 
I  One  lli-in.  B  -L.,  four  lOi-in.  B.-L. 
I  One  lU-in.  B.-L.,  four  lOjin.  B.-L. 


i  One 
One 

I  <  Mie 
One 
One 
One 
One 
One 
One 
One 
One 


12  in. 
12  in. 
12  in. 
12-in. 
12-in. 
12-in. 
12  in. 
12  in. 
12  in. 
12  in. 
12in. 


16      12 


Three  9  4-in..  six  light. 


Six  11  2- in,,  sixteen  35-in. 


(ivpni  Britain. 


••■'.  iU'Jlt.      ' 

'-•  t".'n 
.•  r^-r.     .     . 

•  .:V'h.      .". 

Ij-ir 
t'a^r*-il 


l<7fi 

3-}0  0 

75  0 

25  3 

1 
11.8S0   1 

8.010 

1 
13  81 

16 

24 

1>75 

.3^«>  n 

r.3  10 

2»>  6 

10  H-JO 

8.-J10 

iro    ' 

11 

It 

1N71 

•^->  0 

02  3 

27  6 

9.:V^>  1 

7.21  1 

14  5  : 

H> 

14 

1872 

2^5  0 

•)•.»  3 

2«'.  8 

9.. •'.-■?<>  ' 

6.271  > 

13  4     ' 

10 

14 

l«H-,>    1 

32.-)  0 

r^s  0 

2»;  3 

9.t2'i  1 

7.  JH^ 

112 

11 

\x 

iS^i    1 

32.-.  0 

OH    0 

2»-.  3 

9. 12<> 

O.otKl 

14  2     ' 

14 

\H 

1V^<^ 

315  0 

7:^  0 

27  6 

11.910 

12.1  N(0 

n;  7 

21 » 

14 

]svr 

3J5  0 

73  0 

27  6 

11.91(t 

12.->-t<) 

ir,  7 

2«» 

14 

F. 

ih^r 

3tO  0 

7u  0 

27  3 

10.470 

14..">»<) 

17  2 

18 

16 

T> 

iwn 

.380  0 

75  0 

27  6 

U.l.V) 

13.000 

17  5     , 

18 

17 

F. 

r  16-in.,  ei>:hf  4-in..  6  R.  F. 

r  12'  in..  IH  K  -F. 

r  lo^in.  B   L..  tw(>7  Hrs..  14  K.  F 

r  lo-in..  M  K.-F. 

r  12  in.  H  -L.,  the  6-in..  11  R.-F. 

r  12  in.  B.-L  ,  five  6  in.,  1 1  It.-F. 

r  IM.'i-in  .  six  4  7-in..  sineiit^MMi  iitrl't. 

r  13  .'>-in  .  >ix  4  7-in  ,  s«*vt'nteen  li_'lit. 

»  17  in.,  one  U»in.,  twelve  O  in.,  twentv- 

it'  li-).t. 

r  13  5  in.,  ten  6  in.,  eighteen  light. 


500 


SHIPS  OF  WAR 
Great  Britain  {continued). 


First  Class. 

barbette  Ships. 

Collingwood 

Rodney 

Howe 

Camperdown 

BeDbow 

Anson 

Barfleur 

Centurion 

Royal  Sovereign. . , . 

Royal  Oak 

Revenfce 

Resolution 

Repulse 

Ramillies 

Empress  of  India. . . 

Maeulficent 

Majestic 

Renown 

Prince  George 

Vietorioua 

Hannibal 

C(rjtar 

Mars 

Jufiiier 

lUxutrious 

Second  Crjiss. 

Turret-nhips. 

Agamemnon 

Ajax 

Conqueror 

Hero 

Rupert 

Hotspur   

Glatton 

Orion 

Belleisle 


Length 
b.p. 


MflM 

dTBtlgiU. 


Dicplac*-  I 

tDMlt. 


1882 
18t^ 
1885 
1885 
,1885 
1886 
1882 
1802 
1891 
1892 
1892 
1892 
1892 
1892 
1891 
1895 
1894 
1895 


Ft  In. 

826  0 
825  0 
8250 
8800 
8800 
8^0 
8600 
8600 
8800 
8800 
3800 
3800 
3800 
3800 
3800 
3900 
8900 
380  0 
890  0 
890  0 
890  0 
3900 
390  0 
3900 
390  0 


Third  Class. 

Ai-mored  Cruiaera. 

Superb 

Neptune  (turret) 

Monarch      "       

Hercules. 

Sultan 

Alexandra 

T6m6raire 


1879 
1880 
1881 
1885 
1872 
1870 
1871 
1880 
1878 


1876 
1874 
1867 
1868 
1868 
1873 
1876 


Nelson 

Northampton 

Shannon 

Bellerophon 

Penelope 

Imp^rieuse  (barb.) . . 
Warspite 
Orlando  " 

Undaunted  ** 
Australia  '* 
Narcissus  *' 
Galatea  *' 

Immortality  ^* 
Aurora  " 

Audacious 

Invincible 1869 

Iron  Duke 1870 

Swiftsure 1871 

Triumph |  1870 

Fourth  Class. 

Turret'thipa. 

Cyclops 1871 

wrgon 1H71 

Hecate ,  1871 

Hydra •  1871 

Prince  Albert 1864 


Scorpion., 
Wivern . . . 


1863 ; 

1863  , 


Fifth  Crjiss. 

Rigged  Skipa. 

Warrior I  1860 

Black  Prince 1861 

Achillea I  1868 

Minotaur !  1863 

Afrincourt '  1865 

Northumbei  land |  1866 


2800 
2800 
270  0 
270  0 
250  0 
2^0 
245  0 
2460 
2460 


8823 
8000 
3300  , 
825  0  I 
325  0  I 
3250 
2850  I 


1876 

2800 

1876 

2800 

1875 

2600 

1865 

300  0 

1867 

2600 

1883 

315  0 

1884 

816  0 

1886 

3000 

1886 

3000 

1886 

8000 

1886 

8000 

1887 

8000 

1888 

300  0 

1886 

300  0 

1869 

2800 

1869 

2800 

2600 
2800 
2800 


2^  0 
225  0 
225  0 
2250 

240  0 

i^  6 

224  6 


880  2 
380  2  , 
3800  I 
400  0  I 
400  0 
400  4 


Ft  ia. 
680 
68  0 
68  0 
686 
68  6 
68  6 
70  0 
70  0 

75  0 

76  0 
75  0 
75  0 
75  0 
75  0 
75  0 

75  0 

76  0 
72  0 
76  0 
75  0 

75  0 

76  0 
75  0 
750 
75  0 


I 


Ft  in. 

26  10 

269 

273 

273 

273 

278 

256 

25  6 

276 

276 

278 

276 

276 

27  6 

27  6 

276 

276 

269 

276 

276 

276 

276 

276 

276 

278 

660 
660 
580 
680 
530 
500 
640 
620 
62  0 


69  0 
63  0 
67  6 
59  Oi 
59  Oi 
63  8 
620 

600 
600 
540 
66  1 
600 
620 
62  0 
56  0 
660 
66  0 
56  0 
56  0 
560 
560 
540 
M  0 
640 

55  0 

56  0 


45  0 
45  0 
45  0 
45  0 

48  1 

42  41 
42  4i 


58  4 
58  4 

58  3i 

59  4} 
59  5 
59  5 


240 
240 
240 
240 
22  9i 
21  10 
19  5 
21  4 
21  0 


266 
256 
267 
266 
28  8i 

26  3 

27  1 

240 
24  0 
223 

24  8| 
16  8i 
27  4 
27  4 
22  6 
226 
226 
226 
22  6 
22  6 

21  0 

22  3i 
228 
21  9 

25  3 
86  7i 


16  4 
16  4 
16  4 
16  4 

19  6 

16  2 
15  9 


26  7 

26  9 

27  3 

26  9 

27  6 
27  34 


Toiu. 
9,500 
9.600 
10,300 
10,000 
10,600 
10.600 
10,500 
10,500 
14,150 
14,150 
14,150 
14,150 
14,150 
14,150 
14,150 
14,900 
14,900 
12.350 
14,900 
14,900 
14,900 
14.900 
14,900 
14,900 
14,900 


8.660 
8,660 
6,200 
6.200 
6.440 
4.010 
4,910 
4,870 
4,870 


9,170 
9,310 
8.320 
8,680 
9.210 
9,490 
8,640 

7,630 
7,630 
6,390 
7,550 
4,470 
8,400 
8,400 
6.600 
6,600 
6,600 
6,600 
5,600 
5.600 
5,600 
6.010 
6,010 
6.010 
6.910 
6,640 


9,570 
11,100 
11,500 
1 12,000 
11.500 
11,500 
13,000 
13,000 
13,000 
13,000 
13,000 
13,000 
13,000 
18.000 
18,000 
12,000 
12,000 
12,000 
12,000 
12,000 
12,000 
12,000 
12.000 
12,000 
12,000 


4,500 
6.000 
6,000 
6,000 
6,000 
2,500 
2.000 
2,600 
2,600 


8,500 
6,000 
8,000 
8,500 
8.000 
7.000 
6,500 

6.600 
4.5<I0 
2,500 
4.000 
2,700 
10,000 
10,000 
8.500 
8.500 
8.500 
8.500 
8,500 
8.500 
8,500 
8,310 
8.500 
8.500 
3.500 
8,500 


3.480  1.200 

8,480  1.200 

3,480  .     1,200 

3,480  I     1.200 

3,880  I     1,300 

2,750  I     1.450 

2,750  1,000 


9,210 
9,210 
9.820 
10.690 
10,690 
10,780 


4.000 
4,000 
4,000 
4.000 
4,000 
4,(X)0 


Speed. 


Knott. 

16  5 

16-76 

16-8 

16  9 

16  7 

16-9 

180 

18-5 

180 

180 

17-5 

17-9 

17-5 

17-5 

180 

J  17-6 

$17-6 

tl80 

$17-6 

tl7-6 

$17-6 

tl7-6 

tl7  5 

$17-6 

tl7-6 


121 

121 
16-8 
15-2 
14-0 
11-2 
110 
11  9 
11  9 


160 

13  4 
14-5 
14-7 

14  0 
14-8 
13-8 

13-6 
12-6 
12-85 
124 

no 

16  7 
16-7 
181 
181 
18-1 
181 
181 
18-1 
181 
11-6 
12  6 
124 
12-6 
126 


9  9 
9  9 
99 
9-9 


10-51 
8-5 


12-7 
12  7 
12-7 
12  0 
12  0 
12-0 


10      18 
10      18 


10 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
14 
14 
14 


18 
18 
18 
18 
9 
9 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
6 
6 
6 


14 
14 

81 

8i 

9 

8 
10 
12 
12 


7 
9 
6 
6 
6 
6 
8 

6 
6 
6 
6 
16 


18 
18 
12 
12 
14 
11 
14 
5 
6 


12 
12 
10 
9 
9 
12 
11 


18      10 
18      10 


10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
6 
6 
6 
6 


I  Four  12-in.  B.-L.,  six  6-iii.,  23  R.-F. 
I  Four  13  5-in.  B.-L.,  six  6-in.,  14  R.-F. 

Four  13  5-in.  B.-L.,  six  6-in.,  18  R.-F. 

Four  13-5-in.  B.-L.,  six  ft-ln.,  22  R.-F. 

Two  17-in.  B.-L.,  ten  6-in.,  16  R.-F. 

Four  13  5.ln.  B.-L.,  six  6-in..  22  R.-F 

Four  lO-in.,  ten  4-7-in.,  seventeen  lipht 

Four  10-In.,  ten  4'7-in.,  seventeen  li^ht 

Four  18-5-ln.,  ten  6-in.,  28  li^ht  R.-F. 

Four  13-5-in.,  ten  6  in.,  28  li^t  R-F. 

Four  13-6-in.,  ten  6-in.,  28  li^ht  R-F. 

Four  13  5-in.,  ten  6-iD.,  28  light  R-F. 

Four  13-5-in.,  ten  6-in.,  28  lifrht  R-F. 

Four  13'6-in.,  ten  6-in.,  28  li«:ht  R-F 

Four  13-5-in.,  ten  6-in.,  28  liifat  R-F. 

Four  12-in.,  twelve  6-in.,  28  R-F. 

Four  12-in.,  twelve  6-m.,  28  R-F. 

Four  10-in.,  ten  e-in.,  20  R-F. 

Four  12-in.,  twelve  6-in.,  28  R-F. 

Four  12-in.,  twelve  6-in.,  28  R-F. 

Four  12-in.,  twelve  6-in.,  28  R-F. 

Four  12-in.,  twelve  6-in.,  28  R-F. 

Four  12-in.,  twelve  6-in..  28  R-F. 

Four  12-in..  twelve  6-ln.,  28  R-F. 

Four  12-ln.,  twelve  6-in.,  28  R-F. 


Four  12i-in..  two  6-in.,  14  R-F. 
Four  124-in.,  two  6-in.,  14  R-F. 
Two  12-in.  B.-L.,  four  6-in.,  6  R-F. 
Two  12-in.  B.-L.,  four  6-in.,  10  R-F. 
Two  9-2-in.  B.-L.,  two  6-in.,  10  R-F. 
Two  12-in.  M.-L..  two  6-in.,  4  R-F. 
Two  12-in.  M.-L.,  8  R-F. 
Four  12-in.  M.-L.,  six  R-F.  6-pdrs. 
Four  12-in.  M.-L.,  six  6-pdr8.  R-F. 


Sixteen  lO-ln.  M.-L.,  six  4-in.,  16  R.-F. 
Four  12Hn.  M.-L..  two  »-In.,  8  R-F. 
Four  12-in.  M.-L..  29-ln.,  1  7.in.,  10  R-F 
Eight  10-in.  M.-L.,  2  9-in..  4  7.in.,  HI  R   F 
Eight  9-2-in.  B.-L.,  4  8-in,,  74-ln..  21  R  -V. 
Ten  10-in.,  2  11-tn.  M.-L.,  6  4-in.,  10  R   r 
Four  11-ln.  M.-L., four  10-in.  M.-Lu, six  4  xn  . 

14  R-F. 
Four  10-in.  M.-L.,  eight  9-in.  ML.,  24  R  F. 
Four  10-in.  M.-L.,  eight  9-in.  M.-L..  14  R  F 
Two  10-in.  M.-L.,  seven  9-in,  M.-L. 
Ten  9-in.  M.-L.,  5  7-In.  M.-L.,  6  4-in..  4  R  F 
Eight  8-in.  M.-L.,  three  40-pdrs. 
Four  9  2-ln.  B.-L.,  six  6-in..  18  R-F. 
Four  9  2-ln.  B.-L.,  six  6-In.,  IS  R-F. 


Two  9'2-in.  (18-ton)  B.-L. 
9  R-F. 


ten  6-in.  B  L  . 


6      10 

6      10 

6      10 

6      10 
j    Bides  4|    ( 
I  tiurets  10  C 

44      0 

4i      0 


Ten  9-in.  M.-L.,  eight  4-in.  M.-L.,  10  R  F 
Ten  9-in.  M.-L.,  4  64-pdr«.,  4  4-in..  4  R  F 
Ten  9-in.  M.-L.,  four  64-pdrs..  6  R-F. 
Ten  9-ln.  M.-L„  eight  4-^.  M.-L.,  8  R.  F 
Ten  9-in.  M.-L..  eight  4-in.  M.-L.,  16  R  F. 


Four  10-in.  M.-L..  four  6-in.,  6  R-F. 
I  Four  10-in.  M.-L.,  4  R-F. 
Four  lO-in.  M.-L.,  4  R.-F. 
Four  lO-in.  M.-L.,  4  R-F, 


Four  9-in.  M.-L. 

Four  9-in.  M.-L. 
Four  9-in.  M.-L. 


4}  0  ,  Four  8-in.  M.-L.,  twenty-eight  7-In  M. 

M  0  I  Four  8-in..  twenty-four  7-in.  M.-L. 

44  0  Fourteen  9-in.  M.-L..  two  7-in.  M  -L. 

64  3  Seventeen  9-ln.  M.-L.,  12  R-F. 

54  3  Seventeen  9-in.  M.-L. 

5i  3  Six  9-in.  M.-L.,  18  8-in.,  2  6-in.  B.-L. 


Notr.— Many  of  the  older  British  vessels  have  been  refitted  with  new  machinery,  and  others  are  rated  at  actual  present  performanoe. 
therefore  not  identical  with  the  original  design  or  trial  performance  given  in  the  text  for  historical  review. 


Greece. 


Basileus  Qeorgios 1H67 

Olga IMfiO 

Hydra 1K8U 

Spt^tsia 1 W9 

Psara 1890 


20<)  0 

33  0 

15  6 

1.774 

2.4f>0 

12  8 

7        61 

'iW  0  ■ 

ftfl  0 

22  6 

2,0<50 

l.ft'iO 

100 

5A    6 

.^)  0 

51  10 

18  0 

4.HS5 

6,700 

17  0 

12        41 

820  0  , 

61  10 

18  0 

4,H«5 

6.»30 

17-5 

12        4} 

3200 

51  10 

18  0 

4.885 

6.900 

170 

12       4} 

Two  9-in. 

Four  6^-in.,  two  5^ln.,  two  4/e-iu 

Three  10-6-in.,  five  6-in. 

Three  10*6-in.,  five  6-in. 

Three  10*6-in.,  five  6-in. 


Frcnnh  i|ki|ilfew4i}rp  Unckv. 


Argentine  Cruiser  Nueve  de  Julio  (3.575  tons ;  22  knots). 


:    1 


It    I  I  '^"" 


United  States  Monitor  Amphitrite. 


SHIPS  OF  \^  AR 


501 


.^-r  I 


Hmia^^^ifit, 


io 


t  r  I :.  •»  ^« »  MorotJiiiL . 

\-.  i:^a  I>oria 

K     rniberlo 


^j,rd»-ffna   i 

. :  w »,.  <  rdfflio  di  St.  Bon. . ' 

A    *a..N*^ie  /^i/*6trrfo ! 

'      NTi  Class. 


1KK4 
18M5 
1HH5 
1SS8 
I8i>l 

1H90 


Li.'ipe  Ama^Jeo. 

'liia 

■<D  < 'la3«. 

T    r.  iitore 

_>!»-Iri.Jarclo 

.   •  na   

t-ia  Pia... 
n  Martino 
.4  '-rnnred  Cru iters. 

>''■>  Aliyrrto 

'  *'i'/"*  (ftifitnildi  . 
•  '■>  liixto 


1871 
187^.2 
18<i5 

18rt5 

I8r>4 
ISrt:^ 
1863 


'f.»r  Pi4iatii  . 


rw  to. 

i^»  11 
.M)  11 

328  2  , 

li-M  2  ' 

4()0  0  ' 

400  0  I 


U<rm       Di>t4ut 


]inv«f. 


Sf«r>^ 


ft     I&. 

7*  <* 
74  ti 
6i  ^ 

64  9 

65  4 
65  4 
65  4 
76  9 
76  9 


n.  Id. 

SI  *J 
31  i 
2*>  7 

26  7 

27  2 
27  2 

27  2 

28  6 
28  6 


I*i.VlllO 
J5,VW30 

ll,iiU) 

11, mx) 

11,0«I0 
10.045 
13,i51 
13,251 


411  0       76  9    '     28  6    I    13,940 


?W4  6 
344  6 

2617' 
261  6  I 
261  3  , 


29:J  8 
249  4 
'^19  4  I 
247  6  I 
247  6  I 

32S  0  I 
325  0  I 

325  6  I 
325  0  , 


68  10 
68  10 

57  8 
57  4    ' 
57  5    I 

404     i 
47  11  I 
47  11  I 
50  0 
50  0     ' 

59  0 
59  0 

59  0 

59  0     I 


24  9 
•^1  9 

26  3 
24  8 
24  4 

21  6 

20  9 
20  9 
20  9 
209 

23  7 

23  7 

23  7 
23  7 


9.>^)J) 
9,800 

6J19 
5,Hr>4 
5,814 

4.376 
4,224 
4.224 

4,2*58 
4.268 

6.500 
6..VX) 
6.5()0 
6.500 
6,500 


in  *\ 

l«  4 
15  -i 

15  4 

17  0 

16  0 
161 
IH  2 

18  0 

23,000  j     190 


16JW) 

7.710 

7.9JI0 
10.»J<J0 
10.<M»0 
10..V)0 
19.5410 
20,000 


19 
TtJ 

21, '.^ 

17» 

174 

17» 

19 

19 


0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


13.500  I 
13,500 

I 
3.496 
3.413 

3.000  I 

3.240 
2,115 
2.471   ' 
2.924 
2,620  I 

13.000  , 

13.<>00  ' 
14.«A>"> 

13.0<^>  ' 

13,000  , 


180 
18  0 

12  9 

12  4 

13  0 

13  0 

12  0 

13  0 
11  5 
11  5 


180 


18  0 
180 


n4  2  barb.  » 
1f   4  inside    (  i 

9\        4 

9}        4 

8*  6 
Si  6 
4}        4 

5  8 

4A  3 

4A  8 

4rt,  8 

4/o  3 


Fftyr  J7  In,.  lvnKh>  6  in. 

Fwur  iTjViii..  f<»ur4j'o  in. 

F«>ur  17j'o  iO"  f<^^>ur  4rVin. 

Four  17iQ.,  twelve  6  iii. 

Four  17-in.,  twelve  6^iQ. 

Four  17-in.,  twelve  6-in. 

Four  13  5  in.,  eiplit  6-in..  sixteen  4I-in. 

Four  l35-iu.,  eight  6-in.,  sixteen  4J-in. 

Four  13  5-in.,  eijflit  6-in.,  sixteen  4  J -in. 

Four  10  in.,  ei?ht  6  in..  8  4-7-in..  16  R.-F. 
Four  10  in.,  eigiit  6-in.,  8  47-iii.,  16  R.-F. 

One  11-in..  six  10-in. 
One  11-in.,  six  10-in. 
Eleven  10-in. 

Two  10-in.,  eijjht  light. 

Two  9-in.,  nine  8-in.,  eipht  lipht. 

Two  9-in.,  nine  8  in.,  seven  light. 

Two  9-in..  nine  8-in. 

Two  9-in.,  nine  8-iu. 


Two  lOin.,  ten  6-in.,  six  5-in.,  20  R.-F. 

Two  10-in.,  ten  6-in..  six  5-in..  20  R.-F. 
Two  10-in.,  ten  6-in.,  six  5-in.,  20  R.-F. 


Ja/Htn. 


V  -.-.     I  1877 

K      _-..    I  1877 

•.    '-:     I  1877 

K    :.!..    j  18W 

Jr-tiiorfd  Cruiwrji.         i 

'V  .   .'X I  1890 

•]  •• :  lA'e-  1K91 

i-  .^   .-"irna   1KH9 

v.»!«  i.-{iuua ibyo 


218  8  I     47  6  I  18  0 

2-.'9  6       40  7  I  17  6 

229  6  I     40  7  I  17  6 

210  6       38  7  I  17  4 

308  0  ,     42  6  14  0 

2«»5  0  ,     .^lO  10  21  2 

29.-»  0        .50  6  ,  21  2 

295  0  I     50  6  I  21  2 


3.718 

3.NX) 

14  0 

2.2.10 

2.5*  H) 

14  0 

2,2ii0 

2,r><M) 

14  0 

1,4.59 

975 

100 

2.450 

5.6a) 

19  0 

4,m) 

5.44N) 

17  5 

4.:^*> 

5,44^) 

17  5 

4,300 

5,400 

17  5 

Four  9TV>n  .  two  6i-in. 
Six  5iia.,  three  »>U  in.  - 
Six  5i-in..  three  ♦4V''"- 
Two  6rt-i^-t  si^  5|in. 

Ten  47  in.  R.-F.,  fourteen  light. 
One  12T»-in.,  eleven  4J-in.,  eleven  light. 
One  12  6-in..  eleven  4|-in..  eleven  light. 
One  12  6-in.,  eleven  4i-iu.,  eleven  light. 


Netherlands, 


r>  «  I  A«»a. 

tf-T  Cla'*sen 

•  v-n  NVjlhelmiua 


1891 
lHy2 


r..j:   h'T  Nederlaiiden     1874 


-a  . 
-I  .. 


IWJH 
1S70 

isivs 

:  IK 1S77 

>  H^^ndriok  der  Ne-     1866 
•  -  anclen. 


--ra»^r 

:  Hmo 

Monitors. 
-Jh..id 

'-•riAa 


tT'-rlee  . 


-lill... 


18r59 
1S71 

i.H^;s 

1K70 
18»V8 
1H76 
1878 
1S70 


1868 

1«71 
1S70 
1877 
1878 
1K76 
1879 


229  7  I 
328  0 

2»iy  0  I 
iy;i  2  I 
195  6  I 
195  6  ' 
1!U  10 

2«n  5  , 

229  7  j 

283  0 

2S3  0  ' 
28:3  0 

180  0 
180  0  I 
is«5  0  I 
18<)  0 
IHti  0 
1H4)  0  I 

1?^  0 
201  5 
1S»)  4  I 
187  0 

mf)  4  I 

120  5  j 
151  0 
151  0 
151  0  I 
151  0  I 


44  3 

49  3 

49  3 

:38  0 

40  0 

40  0 

:iS  0 

49  3 

42  7 

47  0 
47  0 
47  0 

46  2 
44  0 

47  4 
4:3  6 
47  4 

43  6 

43  7 
49  3 

44  0 
44  0 

44  0 

27  6 

24  11 

2H  0 

25  0 

28  0 


14  5 

19  8 

20  0 
16  0 

15  8 
15  6 

15  6 
10  10 
18  1 

16  9 
16  9 
16  9 

9  6 
9  6 
9  6 
9  6 
9  6 
9  6 
9  6 
10  2 
9  6 
9  6 

10  2 
5  0 
4  3 
4  3 
4  3 
4  3 


2,490 
•  4.«i00 
5.4<H) 
2,21  K) 
2,378 
2.198 
2,2lK.) 
2.156 
3,375 


2.400 
5.900 
4,:»<'<1 
2.2<«» 
2.0(10 
2.2.  K) 
2.2<«» 
K<0 
2,000 


3,400 
3.4<10 
3,44X) 


I.rv30 

l..ViO 

i.rv.0 
i.r».30 

i,6N» ; 

1.530 
1.525 
1.935 
1 .5(.6 

i,.5yo 

1..566 
340  , 
367 
3»J7 
3^17  ' 
320  1 


G'iO 
6S0 

6S0 
6N1 
fiN> 

6.S4) 

691 

tvSO 

680 

680 
200 
320 
320 
320 
320 


16  5 

17  0 

11  95 

12  8 
12  0 
12  7 
12  3 

9  0 
12  0 

20  0 
2<»  0 
20  0 

80 
8  0 

7  0 

8  0 

7  0 

8  0 
7  0 
7  0 
70 
80 

7  0 

6  0 

7  0 
7  0 
7  0 
7  0 


11 
11 
8 
6 
6 
6 
6 


6 
6 
6 

^\ 
5i 
5i 
5^ 
5J 
5^ 
5J 
5^ 
5* 
5* 

5} 
4* 
5 
5 
5 
5 


4 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
4i 

9J 

9* 

8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 

8 
0 
4 
4 
4 
4 


One  8-2-in..  one  6-7in..  five  light. 

One  11-.  one 8  3-.  two 67-in., fourteen lighL 
I  Four  11-in.,  four  4i-in. 

Two  9  in. 
I  One  ir2-in.,  6  R-F. 
'  One  11  2-in.,  0  H  -F. 

One  11 -2- in.,  7  R.-F. 

Two  11-in. 

Four  9-in.,  four  4/0  in. 

Three  84  in.,  two  6  in..  10  R-F. 
Three  8  4  in.,  two  6  ii)..  10  R-F. 
Three  8  4  in.,  two  6  in.,  10  R.-F. 


» in..  3  R   F. 
Mn..  3  R-F. 


One  11  : 
I  One  11  : 

One  11  2  in..  3  R-F. 
I  One  11  2-in..  3  R-F. 
I  One  ir2-in.,  3  R-F". 
'  One  n  2-in.,  3  R.-F. 
I  One  11  2  in.,  3  R.-F. 

Two  11-in. 

One  ir2-in.,  3  R.-F. 
I  One  11  2-in..  3  R.-F. 


One  11  2  in..  3  R.-F. 
I  Two  .3-10. 
1  Two4}-in. 

Two  4;  in. 
I  Two4i  in. 
i  Two4i-in. 


.\t' oil  tor*. 

I   1^72  203  5  49  3 

'  ang    I   is«.:)  ,     200  2  I  45  1 1 

•r         1K*W  2«W  5  '  45  11 

.   lirn I   1NJ6  I     164  0  1  43  11 

.  i*-<iajna I  1876  ,     200  0.  40  0 


Xnriiny. 


13  2 
11  3 
11  3 
11  3 


2.0f)3  I 
1.515  I 
1.515  1 
1,447  I 


fi<TO 
5«»0 


500  I 
451)  ' 
350  1 


8-3 
8  0 
8  0 
6  0 


PortuQdl. 


17  11   ;     2,479  I     3,625  .     13  25  | 
J^ussta, 


\4i       ei 


10 


Two  IMn. 
Two  11-in. 
Two  11-in. 
Two  11  in. 


I  Two  10[-in.,  one  5-in.,  three  light. 


Cruisers. 

1878  I  298  6 

'  F.4lJnhTinrh I  1K75  I  2M1  4 

1  .Vdiuiral '  1873  |  281  4 


49  3 

21  7 

47  11 

21  0 

47  11 

21  0 

.5.740  .5.-300  I  13  5 
4.''->2  5.-.'-^2  ]  15  2 
4,Gi>2  I     4,4:2  I      14  0 


5J         Foiir  »<  in.,  twelve  6  in. 

4*  Four  Kin..  f\vo  6  in..  12  R    F. 

4i       ,  Six  8-in..  two  6  in.,  lO  R  -F. 


602 


SHIPS  OP  WAR 


Russia  {continued). 


Dal*  of     LkBffth 
I  luincb.       b.  p. 


Mmb     I  Dltplw 


SliMd. 


Cruisers. 

Dmitri  DonRkoi 

Wladiinir  MoDarch 

Pamyat  Azova 

Oremyashtchy 

Orosyashtchy 

Otvainy 

Rurik 

Jiossia 

Rurik  No.  2 

Battle-ships. 

Tchesm^ 

Sinope 

Catherine  II 

Admiral  Nachimoff 

Nicholas  I 

Alexander  II 

Oangoot 

Twelve  Apostles 

Oeorghy  Pobyedonosets. . , 

Navarin 

Sessoi  Veliki 

Sessoi  Veliki  No.  2 

Rotislatc 

Ftiris 

Petropaulovsk 

Poltava 

iSebastopol 

Tria  Sviatitelia 

Sbaooino  : 

Turret-ships. 

Peter  the  Great 

Admiral  ChitchafcoflT 

Admiral  Spiridoff 

Admiral  Oreig 

Admiral  Lazareff 


18H3 

29S0 

1S82  ! 

2U5  0 

1KH7  ; 

877  0 

18i« 

226  0 

1H90  1 

229  0 

1892  , 

220  0 

1892 

896  6 

Ft.  in. 
29S  0 
295  0 
877  0 
226  0 
229  0 
220  0 
896  6 
480  0 
440  9 


1886 
1887 
1886 
1885 
1889 
1887 
1890 
1890 
1891 
1891 
1894 


881  0 
&31  0 
831  0 
3830 
8270 
827  0 
2780 
8300 
8200 
838  0 
844  6 
344  6 
844  6 

aw  6 

367  6 
867  6 
867  6 
1893       357  6 


I 


Battery-ships. 
Kniaz-Pojarskl .... 

Pervenetz 

NetroDJ-menja 

Kreml 

Netron  Menya 


Single-turreted  Monitors. 

F^dinorog i 

Bronenoaitz i 

Circular  Ironclads.       I 

Novgorod 

Admiral  Popoff 

Coast-defense  Ships.      I 

Admiral  Ousbakoff i  1893 

Admiral  Seujavin 1898 


1872 
1«(W  I 
IWW 
IHGS  , 
1867  I 

1867 
1864 
18<54  I 
1H64 
1864  , 

1864 
1864 

1878 
1876 


261  10 
261  10 
261  10 
261  10 

263  5  I 
2208  ! 

214  8 

215  0  ' 
219  10 

200  0  ' 
200  0  , 


Ft.  in. 
62  0 
52  0 
51  0 
41  0 
41  8 
41  0 

67  0 

68  6 
70  0 

69  0 
69  0 
690 

61  0 
67  0 
67  0 

62  0 
60  0 
09  0 

67  0 

68  10 
68  10 

68  10 
72  2 

69  0 
69  0 
69  0 
72  2 


624 

48  0 
42  9 
42  9 
42  9 

49  0 
62  11 
52  11 

52  11 

53  0 

46  0 
46  0 


101  0  I  101  0 
121  0  I  121  0 


278  8 
278  9  I 


52  6 
52  6 


Ft.  in. 

24  7 
23  0 
23  0 
11  0 
11  0 
11  0 

26  0 

25  0 

27  0 

26  6 
26  6 
26  6 
25  3 
25  6 
25  6 
21  0 

25  8 

26  7 
250 


27  0 
260 
26  0 

26  0 

27  0 


23  9 

17  6 

17  3    I 

18  3    ' 
17  10 

21  0    I 

14  8 
16  1 

16  8 

15  6 

11  2J 
11  2i 

13  2 
13  0 

17  0 
17  0 


Tont. 
6,000 
5,754 
6,000 
1,500 
1,492 
1,500 
10,923 
12,130 
12,095 

10.181 
10,181 
10.800  I 
7.781 
8.440 
8.440 
6,628 
8,200 
10,280 
9,476 
8,800 
8,800 
8,800 
12,480 
10.9t0 
10,960 
10,960 
12,480 


8,749 
3.800 
8,700 
8,754 
8,754 

4.506 
3.300 
3,870 
3.865 
8,4»4 

1,406 
1,381 


4,126 
4.126 


7,300 
7,000 
8,000 
2.000 
2,000 
2,000 
13,250 
15,000 
15,000 

11.000 
12,750 
11,000 
8.000 
8.000 
8.000 
8,300 
11,500 
15.000 
9,000 
8,000 
8.000 
8,000 
10,600 
10.600 
10,600 
10,600 
10,600 


8,2.'i8 
2.060 
2,031 
2.0(K) 
2,000 

2.835 
800 
1.140 
2.822 
2,893 

450 

481 


2.490        2,270 
3,610        8,500 


5,000 
5,000 


KnoU. 
16  6 
15  8 

18  0 
15  0 

15  0 
160 
18-6 
190 

19  0 

16  0 
16-73 
15-6 
16-7 
14-8 
16  5 
147 
16*6 
16  5 
16-0 
16  6 
16-5 
16  6 
16  0 
17-5 
17-5 
17-6 
160 


14  5 
10-75 
10  75 
10  0 
100 

100 
9  0 
80 
8-5 
90 


7  0 
90 


160 
160 


Inchet. 
10 


10 
9 
6 
6 
6 

10 


16  14 
16  14 
16      14 


10 
14 
14 
16 


12  14 

16  12 

16  12 

16-7  10-2 

16-7  10-2 

16-7  10-2 

18  12 

15|  10 

15^  10 

161  10 

16  16 


14 

6 
6 


4» 
4f 

6i 
6 

4* 

6 
5 


8 
8i 


4*      2* 
4i      2k 


21 
4 
4 
4 
4* 

0 
0 


11        9 
18      16 


10 
10 


Two  S-ln.,  twelve  6  in.,  16  R.-F. 

Four  8-in.,  twelve  6-in.,  18  RF. 

Two  8-in.,  thirteen  6-in.,  14  R-F. 

C)ne9-in.,  one  6-in. 

One  9-in.,  one  6-iu. 

One  9-in.,  one  6-in..  10  R.-F. 

Four  8-In.,  16 6-in.,  6  4-7in.,  !«  R -F. 

Four  8-in.,  16  6-in.,  6  4-7-in.,  18  R.-F. 

Four  8-in.,  16  «-in.,  6  4-7-in.,  18  R.  F. 

Six  12-in.,  seven  6.in.,  8  R..F. 
Six  12-in.,  seven  6-in.,  8  R-F. 
Six  12-in.,  seven  6-in..  8  R-F. 
Eight  8-in.,  ten  6-in.,  10  R-F. 
Two  12-in.,  four  9-in.,  eight  6- In. 
Two  12-in.,  four  9-in.,  eight  6-in. 
One  12-in.,  four9in.,  four  6-in. 
Four  12-in.,  four  6-in. 
Six  12-in.,  seven  6-in. 
Four  12-in.,  eight  6-in. 
Four  11-8-in.,  six  6-9  in.,  20  R-F. 
Four  11  8-in.,  six  5-9-ln.,  20  R-F. 
Four  11 -8-in.,  six  5  9-ln.,  20  R-F. 
Four  12-in.,  12  6-in.,  4  4-7-in.,  16  R-F. 
Four  12  in.,  eight  8-in.,  24  R-F. 
Four  12-in.,  eight  8-in.,  24  R-F. 
Four  12  in.,  eight  8-in.,  24  R-F. 
Four  12  in.,  12  6  in.,  4  4-7-in.,  £6  R  F 


Four  12  In.,  18  R-F. 
Two  11-ln.,  four  4-pdr8.,  one  8-p<1r. 
Two  11-in.,  four  4-pdr8  .  one  3-iMlr. 
Three  11-ln.,  four  4-pdr8.,  one  9-in  n.f" 
Six  9-in.,  four  4-pdrs.,  one  9-m.  uioriar 

Eight  8-in..  two  6- In. 
Fourteen  8-ln.,  four  4pdr8. 
Fourteen  8-in.,  six'd-pdrs.,  one  9  in   ii  *r 
Fourteen  8'in.,  six  4-pdr8.,  one  9-Ui  ii.:r 
Fourteen  8-in. 

Two  9-ln. 
Two  9-in. 

Two  llin. 

Two  12-in.,  four  light. 

Four  10-In.,  two  9-In.,  four  6-In..  9^  R  V 
Four  10-in.,  two  0-in..  four  6-in.,  20  H  1-. 


Spain. 


Pelayo 1887 


PuigeerdA  (turret-Rhip). 
Broadside  Ships. 

Vitoria 

Numancia 

Sagunto 

Zaragoza 

Duque  de  Tetuan  (gunboat  > 

Armored  Cruisers. 
Emperador  Carlos  V. . . 
Infanta  Maria  Teresa. . . 

Vizcaya 

Almirante  Oquendo 

Cardt'uat  Cisneros 

Catahula  

yew  ship 

Princesa  de  Asturias.. 


1874 

1865 
186:3 
1869 
1867 
1874 

1892 
1890 
1891 
1891 


&*46 

662 

127  11 

296 

816  7 

67  0 

313  7 

62  10 

279  2 

64  1 

270  7 

64  1 

141  0 

31  0 

364  0 

65  0 

340  0 

65  0 

340  0 

65  0 

340  0 

65  0 

840  0 

65  0 

i    340  0 

65  0 

364  0 

69  0 

3400 

650 

24  8 

67 

24  11 

25  2 

24  3 

2:^9 

6  11 

220 

21  6 

21  6 

21  6 

21  6 

21  6 

22  0 

21  6 

9.902 

6,800 

tl60 

653 

826 

8-0 

7.250 

4.500 

11-6 

7,305 

8.700 

80 

7,352 

3,200 

80 

6,620 

8,700 

10  9 

703 

190 

80 

9,325 

16.000 

+  200 

7.000 

13,000 

+  20  0 

7.000 

13,(X)0 

+  200 

7,000 

13.000 

+  20  0 

7,000 

13.(K)0 

t200 

7.(X)0 

13,0(K) 

t200 

9.2:« 

15.H00 

t20  0 

7,000 

13,000 

$20  0 

17-7 

11  8 

8A 

8 

6J 

4 

ss 

4 
4 

tk 

8 
0 

6 

0 

12 

10 

12 

10 

12 

10 

12 

10* 

12 

10* 

12 

lOi 

12 

lOi 

Two  12-in.  B.-L.,  two  11-in.  B.-L.,  tlaitt^ii 

smaller  guns. 
One  6^in.,  two  4^ In. 

Eight  9-in.,  three  8-In. 

Eight  10-in.,  seven  8-in. 

Eight  9-in.,  three  7- in. 

Four  9-in.,  three  7-in..  ten  6^in. 

One  6i^in.,  four  472  M.-L. 

Two  11-in.,  ten  6-6-in..  sixteen  Hphr. 
Two  ir2-in.,  ten  4  2-in.,  sixteen  htrht. 
Two  11  ^-In.,  ten  4-2-in.,  sixteen  li»:lit 
Two  11  ■2-in.,  ten  4  2-in.,  sixteen  li^ht. 
Two  11 -2-in.,  ten  6-5-In.,  16  R.  F. 
Two  11  ^-in.,  ten  6  5-in.,  16  R.-F. 
Two  112-in.,  ten  6-5-in.,  four  4-ln..  7  K  K 
Two  11 -2-in.,  ten  5-5-in„  one  8*6  in.,  1'.  H  i 


Surdeji. 


Monitors. 

John  Ericsson 

Thordon 

Tirflug 

Loke 

Ounboats. 

Hildur 

Ulf 

Bjttrn 

Berserk 

Smve 

Folke 

Skold 

Fenris 

Uerda 

Turret-ships. 

Svea r.. 

0«ta 

Xf'w  ship 

Thule 


1865 
WA\ 
IMiO 
1871 

1871 
1873 
1H73 
1873 
1874 
1874 
IKOH   I 

isri 

1871 

1886  . 
18U0  I 


1892 


197  0 
197  0 
1'.I7  0 
205  3 

131  0  , 
131  0  I 
131  0 
131  0 
131  0  , 
131  0 
104  0 
104  0 
131  0 

248  4 

248  4 
270  0 

249  4 


46  10 

11  8 

^^2^2 

880 

46  10 

11  8 

l..'>22 

381) 

46  10 

11  8 

1.522 

38<) 

45  4 

12  0 

1,620 

460 

22  3 

88 

461 

133 

22  8 

8  3 

461 

155 

22  3 

83 

461 

155 

22  3 

8  3 

457 

155 

22  3 

8  3 

4.^7 

155 

22  3 

8  3 

457 

155 

22  7 

7  6 

240 

17 

22  7 

87 

200 

43 

22  3 

88 

461 

ia-3 

48  7 

11  10 

2,900 

8,100 

4S  7 

11  10 

2,90() 

3.100 

48  0 

17  0 

8,403 

3,r«K» 

49  3 

15  9 

8,135 

3,150 

70 
7  6 

7  6 
8-0 

80 
80 

8  0 
80 
80 
80 
8  7 
6  0 
8-0 

15  5 

15  5 

X  15  0 

;i6  0 


101  41 

10»  4i 

104  4J 

17*  4i 


m 

16ft 
16* 
16* 
HH 
8* 
10* 
16^ 

m 

11* 


2* 

2* 
2* 
2* 
2* 
2* 
2* 
2* 
2* 

7-8 
7-8 


Two  15-In. 
Two  9*-in. 
Two  9*-in, 
Two  9*-in. 

One  9|-in. 
One  9  J -in. 
One  9* -in. 
One  9*-in. 
One  9*-in. 
One  9*  in. 
One  9* -in. 
One  9Mn. 
One  9* -in. 


11* 


Four  6-in.  B.-L.,  two  10-in. 
Two  10-in.,  four  6-in.  B.-L, 
Two  10-ln.,  four  4-7-in..  16  R-F. 
8    I  Two  10-in.,  four  6-iu.,  6  R-F. 


SHIPS  OF  WAR 


503 


Turkey. 


Dftteof 


[r,ni)rrti  tjrauur. 

'  ■i-K'id'^r 

-  ;.  t,  fil  fxittery  .SAiy>a. 

ir  t  Sciu-fket 

ir  .  Ttfvik 

Il!.>r 

'     L'.Mk-nd 

ii-h 

la-h 


lpu>s 

-  •    ...'„ ^874 

.;r  i  Ziiffer !  1W9 

;    -i-.iui-i-Hair |  iKT'i 

;,    XI  i-Schefket 1868 

H'lrbftte  Sfiijts.  I 

-^.-h     I  lHr,4 

iM-lifh IHJVt 

-    •'    I'll ISiM 

laru^-h imi 

Turret-$hip. 

ifzi-*-!- Rahman 1868 

frmor^rf  (runhoaf*. 

•:   ^ I  islam '  iSTvJ 

-  r      1875 

:ai..ovoh I  .... 


b   p. 

Ft.  In. 
^41   0  I 

2lti  5 

2r:»  4 

♦J-20  4  ' 

iSlH  3 

:»•.>•>  0 

21  :i  3 

;«;»  0 

2:H)  0 

ay-)  3 

JWi  5  I 


I      M«4n       DUpIacv- 
draughi.        meul. 


904  0 


101  9 
144  4 


Ft.  In. 
65  6 

42  7 
Ti2  6 
m  0 
3(»  4 
55  9 
4Z  7 

m  0 
m  0 

39  4 
427 


2th>  0  ,     55  8 

5?.<-2  0  55  8 

::>*>-v'  0  55  8 

2I)«»  0  55  8 


45  11 


24  7 

30  10 


Itidlc.it«d 
I     h«ir*e- 
power. 


Ft.  In. 

Ton*. 

8.UU0 

12.000 

16  5 

2,aso 

1.75<) 

24  11 

4,»i8: 

3.5<)« 

16  5 

2.:iS() 

2.4:a) 

18  1 

2,8(K3 

3.r>o 

24  10 

6,700 

4,5<K» 

17  4 

2,2«»6 

I.HOO 

25  0 

fl.l4<) 

7,<)10 

16  5 

2.m) 

2,5.'>5 

18  1 

2.8t)6 

3,t»0i) 

IC  5 

2,1>W 

i,yoo 

25  6 

6.4<X) 

3.7a5 

25  6 

6  44K> 

3,7;i5 

25  6 

6.4(M) 

3.7:i-. 

25  6 

6,400 

8,735 

14  6 

2,500 

2,500 

5  11 

as5 

290 

5  7 

404 

400 

....     1 

SpMd. 


11  0 

13  0 

12  0 

13  0 
13  0 

no 

13  74 
13  0 

12  0 

no 

13  0 
12  0 
12  0 
120 

120 

70 
70 


Inch**. 
14        0 


6 
8 
6 
9 
9 
6 
12+U 
6 
9 
6 

5i 
6i 
5* 


51      4f 

8        3 
3        3 


I  Gun*. 

Four  11  ^-in.,  six  6-iu.,  10  R.-F. 

,  One  9-in.,  four  7  in. 

tli^hi  9-in.,  two  8-in. 
'  1-  uiir  9-iu« 

Four  9-in. 
I  Ten  9-in.,  two  7-ln.,  6  R.-F. 

Two  Wx'a-in.,  two  7-in.,  one  4-in. 

Twelve  lO-in..  three  6-in. 
I  Four  9-iu.,  one  5-iu. 

Four  9-iu. 

One  9-in.,  four  7-m. 

'  Two  11  ^-in.,  Hrht-fi-in..  six  4-in. 
Two  ir2-in.,  ei^'lil  6-in.,  si.\  4-in. 
Two  ir2-in.,  ei;:lit  Gin.,  six  4-in. 
Two  ir2-in.,  eight  6-in.,  six  4-in. 

Two  9-in.,  two  7-in.,  one  5-in, 

Two  4  in. 
Two  4-iu. 


Untied  StdteM.^ 


<^.hu>H*tts 1   lsa3 

:   4.. I '   1^>3 

1S««3 
IMinl 

1890 


i   V..r 


trffi  Cruiser 9. 


Monitors. 

'  • 

■rfx 

rntf  I  iron) 

.  ri-^Tiioh  ijron) 

•  I ti't^k  I  iron)         .   . 

T    ir.«ni 

'•«    inm) 

l\ 

i'-"n> 

«..-iiH  iiron) 

.   , 

:•  hH-  ;ir<»ui 

'II    iron ) 

.r.  .11.. 

_'M    iron  I 

i.u-    in)n) 

\'Lan    iron) 

•  .'ik  « iron) 

'.r/    iron) 

•  .•  k^-t    iron  I 

.»!.•    inm) 

•   !  'lU'  iirnn)   


an  . 


1891 


1S91 
1SS3 

is:8 

1K,'<3 
1SS2 
ISiio 
1S*J2 
l'«J2 

lH<i.3 

1>*V2 
HiW 
lH*i2 

is«;2 

18<^2 
1H»>3 
l'<63 
1S«J2 

1H»)2 

1HU3 


ai8  0 

69  3 

24  0 

lo.r^oo 

9.00ti 

aw  0 

69  3 

24  0 

10..iOO 

9.(HN» 

318  0 

69  3 

24  0 

lo.:">00 

9.0»K) 

301  4 

64  1 

22  6 

6.:mX) 

8.riO0 

318  0 

57  0 

21  6 

O.r.48 

9.' Ml 

300  0 

72  2i 

24  0 

11,296 

11,000 

380  61 

64  10 

23  11 

8.200 

17.401 

400  6 

(^  0 

24  0 

9,153 

16,000 

2.56  0 

59  0 

14  10 

4.084 

5.244 

2.^9  8 

55  10 

14  6 

8.'.>\M) 

+  1  .tkKJ 

259  8 

55  10 

14  6 

3.l/.«0 

tl.42«> 

2.-.9  8 

55  10 

14  6 

H.'.m 

ta.cxx) 

259  8 

55  10 

14  6 

',iM.¥^ 

tl.OJO 

'^)  0 

fX)  0 

18  2 

6.<X10 

t3,roo 

225  0 

43  8 

13  6 

2.100 

340 

2i5  0 

43  8 

18  6 

2.100 

340 

200  0 

46  0 

11  6 

1.875 

aio 

200  0 

46  0 

11  6 

1,875 

340 

200  0 

46  0 

11  6 

1,875 

aio 

200  0 

46  0 

11  6 

1.875 

340 

225  0 

43  8 

13  6 

2,100 

a40 

225  0 

4^i  8 

13  6 

2.100 

.340 

200  0 

46  0 

11  6 

1.S75 

340 

20«»  0 

46  0 

11  6 

1.875 

344) 

200  0 

46  0 

11  6 

1.875 

.^40 

21 X)  0 

46  0 

11  6 

1.875 

a40 

22.5  0 

4:^  8 

13  6 

2,1<X) 

340 

250  9 

43  5 

15  0 

2.18:^ 

4,800 

15  0 

17 

8 

Four  13-in.,  eijjht  8.in.,  four  6-in.,  26  R.-F. 

15  0 

17 

8 

Four  13  in.,  eiu'ht  8-in.,  four  6-in.,  26  R  -F. 

15  0 

17 

8 

Four  13-in.,  ei^lit  8-in.,  four  6-in.,  26  R.-F. 

17  0 

12 

8 

Tw(»  12-iu.,  six  6-in.,  22  R.-F. 

170 

12 

8 

Four  lo-iu.,  .six  6-in..  10  R.-F. 

tl6  0 

15 

3 

Four  12  in.  B.-L.,  eit'ht  H-in.  B  -L.,  six  4- 
in.  R.-F.,  twenty  6-pdrs.,  six  l-pdrs. 

21  0 

6 

0 

Rix  ^in..  twelve  4-in..  12  R.-F. 

t2«J  0 

8 

4 

Ei^'ht  8^in.  B.-L.,  twelve  6-in.  R.-F.,  six- 
teen R.-F. 

13  6 

14 

8 

Two  12  in.,  two  10-in.,  six  6-p<lr8.,  4  1  pdrs. 

12  0 

n^ 

5 

Fr»ur  10  in.  B.-L.,  two  4  in.,  6  R.-F. 

105 

nf 

6 

Four  10  in.  B.-L..  two  4-in..  6  R.-F. 

14  5 

m 

6 

Foiir  10-in.  B.-L..  two  4-in.,  6  R.-F. 

12  0 

lU 

5 

Four  10-in.  B.-L.,  two  4-in.,  6  R.-F. 

12  4 

14 

18 

Four  10' -in.  B.-L.,  two  4-in.,  6  R.  F. 

6  0 

10 

5 

Two  15-in.  S.  B. 

60 

10 

5 

Two  15-in.  S.-B. 

6  0 

n 

6 

60 

n 

5 

Two  15-in.  S.-B. 

6  0 

n 

5 

Two  15-in.  S.-B. 

60 

n 

5 

Two  15-in.  S.-B. 

6  0 

10 

5 

Two  1.5  in.  8.  B. 

6  0 

10 

5 

Two  1.5-in.  S.-B. 

60 

11 

5 

Two  1.5-in.  S.-B. 

6  0 

n 

5 

Two  1.5-in.  S.-B. 

6  0 

n 

5 

Two  1.5-in.  S.-B. 

6  0 

n 

5 

Two  1.5-in.  S.-B. 

6  0 

10 

5 

Two  15-in.  S.-B. 

17  0 

6 

0 

Four  6-1  Kirs.  R.-F. 

yir»t  Jiotc. 
•  ilM'lLs 


THUf  of      Lffijrth 
launch.         U  p. 


<»  '^ftnd  Hate. 


-!]>hia 


>t'*r  I  wo4Mit.. . 
Tttird  Hatf. 


-ry. 


1888 
lh85 
lKs'9 
1KS9 
1SX9 
1S88 
1HH4 
IK'q 
1  ><«•.» 

I  ik<k; 

!   1858  ' 

I  I 

I   Ift'y^ 


.  i^'.to  ' 

.,  i><*n  ; 

.1  1N91 

.1  1892  I 

.,  1^'<4  ' 

.;  i*<92  : 

.1  I8y2  , 


rXARMORED  VESSELS.* 
I'm' ted  States. 


FL  in.  I 

1892  I   412  0 

1893  I  412  0 
1892   340  0   53  0 


in. 


327 
.}-,'5 
327 
310 
310 
312 
271 
271 
:ioo 
;^oo 
2:i5 

230 
2.^1) 
2:io 
257 


240 
2«M 
204 


'm 


0 

36  0 

0 

-m  0 

0  1 

3r.  0 

0  1 

37  0 

0 

37  0 

0 

37  0 

0 

32  0 

0  ! 

32  0 

0  i 

32  U 

rau^hu 

meut. 

Ft.    In. 

Ton*. 

22  6i 

7.:i75 

22  6i 

7.375 

21  6 

5,500 

19  6 

4,413 

19  0 

4..-.«)0 

19  2i 

4,.«4 

\H  9 

4.09.S 

18  9 

4,<K*8 

IH  7 

3.?:^ 

16  10 

3.(i<iO 

16  10 

.3,01  to 

18  0 

3,1^^ 

18  0 

3.1h:j 

19  2 

3,250 

14  0 

1,710 

14  0 

1.710 

14  0 

1,710 

14  7 

2.(X«I 

14  7 

2.0'.)  1 

14  7 

2,1  W» 

14  3 

1,1X5 

12  0 

1,177 

12  0 

1,177 

'  Indi<<at«d 


18..509 
20.493 
13,500 

10.064 
5.UH4 
8.HI5 
8.M19 
9,913 
6. »■»<»♦> 
4.o:ii) 
4.o:i0 

10.1  KXI 
lO.OOO 

7;i3' 

3.392 
3.105 
3.1: '.6 
5.527 
5  227 
'5.4.">7 
2.2.-U3 
1  .^73 
2,199 


Sp««d. 


KdoU, 
22-8 
23  0 
20  0 

20  1 
15  3 
19-7 
19  0 
19  5 

18  2 
15  6 
15  6 

19  0 
19  0 

9  6 


(.vunc. 

j  One  8  in.,  two  6-in.,  ei;7ht  4-in.,  sixteen  R.-F. 
'  <  itje  8  in.,  two  6-in.,  ei^ht  4-in.,  .sixteen  R.-F. 
Ten  5-in.  R.-F.,  four  8-iu.,  twenty  R.-F. 


,«■.  1 

17  0     1 
17  5 

18  7 

IH  4 
15  5 

15  5 

16  0 

Four  8-in.,  six  6-in.,  twelve  R.-F. 

Four  8  in.,  ei^'lit  6  in.,  two  5-in.,  ten  R.-F. 
I  Twelve  t>in.,  thirteen  R.-F. 
.  Twelve  6  in.,  thirteen  R.-F. 
I  Twelve  6-in.,  thirU'en  R.-F. 

Two  8-in.,  six  6  in.,  fourteen  R.-F. 
j  Two  8  in.,  six  6  in.,  ten  K.-F. 
I  Two  8-in.,  .six  6-in.,  ten  R.-F. 
I  ()ue  6-in.,  ten  .5-in.  R.F.,  twelve  R.-F. 
,  One  6-in.,  ten  .5-in.  R.-F..  twelve  R.-F. 
I  Ten  8-in.  M.-L.,  nine  H.-F. 

Six  6  in.,  fipven  R.-F. 
Six  6  in.,  seven  R.-F. 
Six  6  in.,  wven  R.-F. 
Nine  .5-in.  R.  F.,  ei^ht  R.-F. 
Fik'ht  ,5  in    R.-F.,  ei^hf  R.-F. 
Nine5in.  R.-F.,  ei^ht  R.-F. 
Two  4-in.  R.-F..  five  R.  F. 
FiE-ht  4  in.  R.-F..  six  R.-F. 
Eight  4-in.  R.-F.,  six  R.-F. 


•  All  vessels  are  of  steel,  except  as  noted  after  the  name. 


504 


SHIP-WORM 


SIIISIIAK 


United  AStafes  {continued). 


Gunboat  No.  7 

Gunboat  No.  8 

Gunboat  No.  9 

Marion  (wood) 

Mohican  (wood) 

Iroquois  (wood) 

Adams  (wood) 

Alliance  (wood) 

Essex  (wood) 

Enterprise  (wood) . . . . 

Monocacy  (iron) 

Thetis  (wood) 

Alert  (iron) 

Ranger  (iron) 

Fourth  Rate. 

Petrel 

Vesuvius 

Yantic  (wood) 

Michigan  (iron) 

Pinta  (iron) 

TorpedO'boata. 

Alarm(iron) 

Gushing 

Stiletto  (wood) 

Ericsson 

Torpedo-boat  No.  8. . . 
Torpedo-boat  No.  4 . . . 
Torpedo-boat  No.  5. . . 


D»to  of     LcoRth 
lauDch.       b.  p. 


1873 
18H3 
1K59 
1874 
1875 
1874 
1874 
1866 


1874 
1874 

1886 
1885 
1864 
1843 
1865 

1874 
1890 
1889 
1894 


Ft.  in. 
2200 
850  9 
250  9 
216  0 
216  0 
198  10 
186  0 
185  0 
185  0 
185  0 
255  0 
166  0 

175  0 

176  0 

176  8 
252  4 
180  0 
163  3 

137  0 

158  6 

138  9 
88  6 

149  7 
160  0 
160  0 
160  0 


Fu  Id. 
883 
40  U 
40  1| 
87  0 
870 
83  10 
36  0 
85  0 
85  0 
85  0 
85  0 
808 
820 
820 

81  0 
266 
900 
2r  li 
260 

280 

14  8 
11  0 

15  6 

16  0! 
16  Oi 
16  0} 


dmught. 

DbpUc*- 

OMBt. 

U 

8re«l. 

Ft.  In. 

Too.. 

KdvU. 

11  0 

1,371 

1,750 

$14  0 

90 

1,892 

1,600 

$130 

90 

1,392 

1,600 

$130 

16  6 

1.900 

753 

11  2 

16  6 

1,900 

613 

10-6 

15  8 

l,57Ti 

1,202 

10-7 

14  3 

1.875 

650 

9*8 

14  8 

1,375 

668 

100 

14  3 

1,875 

505 

10  4 

14  3 

l,;i75 

790 

11  4 

90 

1,870 

860 

11  2 

18  0 

1,250 

490 

7-5 

12  9 

1,080 

865 

100 

12  9 

1,020 

865 

100 

11  7 

802 

1,095 

11-79 

10  7 

930 

8,800 

21-5 

12  2 

900 

2:25 

8-3 

90 

685 

805 

10-5 

10  0 

850 

190 

85 

10  6 

800 

600 

100 

4  10 

105 

1,720 

225 

80 

31 

a59 

18-2 

4  9 

120 

1,800 

$24  0 

5  0 

142 

2.000 

$24  5 

50 

142 

2,000 

$24-5 

50 

142 

2,000 

$24-5 

Eight  4-in.  R.-F.,  four  6-p(lrs.,  two  1-pdrs. 

Eight  4in.  R.-F.,  two  6-pdrs.,  four  1-pdrK 

Eight  4-in.  R.-F.,  two  6-pdrs.,  four  1-pdrs. 

One  8-in.  M.-L.  R.,  six  9-in.  R.-B.,  two  20-pdr».  B.-I*. 

Eight  9-in.  S.-B.,  one  8-ln.  M.-L.  R.,  two  20-pdrs.  B.I. 

Two  8-in.  M.-L.,  four  60-pdrs.  M.-L.,  one  6(>-pdr.  B.L 

Four  9-In.  S.-B.,  one  8-in.  M.-L..  two  87  H. 

Eight  4-in.,  four  6-pdr8.,  two  l-pdnc 

Eight  4-in.,  four  6-pdrs.,  tw(^l-pdrs. 

Four  9-in.  S.-B.,  one  8-in.  M.-L.,  one  37  H. 

Four  8-in.  S.-B.,  two  eO-pdrs.  B.-L.,  six  37  H.,  two  47  H. 

One  Hotchkiss  68. 

Two  9in.  S.  B.,  one  IMn.  S.-B.,  one  60-pdr.  B.-L.,  i  37  H. 


Four  6-ln.  B.-L.,  six  R.-F. 

Three  dynamite-guns.,  three  R.-F. 

Two  9-in.  S.-B..  one  8-in.  M.-I^,  one  6apdr.  B.-L. 

Four  30-pdrs.  B.-L. 

Four  12-pdr8.  S.-B. 


Three  torpedo-tubes. 

Three  torpedo-tubes,  three  l-pdrs.  R.-F. 
Three  l-pdre.,  8  torpedo-tubes. 
Three  1-pdrs.,  3  torpedo-tubes. 
Three  1-pdrs.,  8  torpedo-tubes. 


Ship-worm :  any  bivalve  of  the  family  TEEEDiNiDi£  {q,  r.). 

Shipwreck  (in  law) :  See  Wreck. 

Shiras,  George,  Jr.,  LIj.  D.:  justice  U.  S.  Supreme  Court : 
b.  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  Jan.  26, 1832 ;  educated  at  Ohio  Univer- 
sity, at  Yale  College,  where  he  graduated  1858,  and  at  Yale 
Law  School ;  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Pittsburg  and  practiced 
in  that  city;  appointed  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  U.  S.  July  19,  1892.  The  degree  of  LL.  D.  was 
conferred  upon  him  by  Yale  University  in  1883.    C.  H.  T. 

Shiraz,  shee'raaz,  or  Sheeraz :  town ;  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Fars,  in  Persia ;  in  lat.  29"  36'  N.  and  Ion.  52°  44'  E. 
(see  map  of  Persia  and  Arabia,  ref.  4-II);  situated  at  an 
elevation  of  4,500  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  valley  made  fa- 
miliar by  Moore's  Lalla  Rookh,  and  still  celebrated  for  the 
abundance  and  excellence  of  its  fruits  of  every  description. 
Founded  in  697,  it  was  during  more  than  five  centuries  a 
favorite  residence  of  the  Persian  princes,  and  a  seat  of  sci- 
ence and  art.  Sa'di  and  Ilafiz  were  born,  lived,  and  died 
here.  Shiraz  contains  the  tomb  of  Hafiz,  and  that  of  Sa*di 
is  a  few  miles  to  the  N.  E.  The  city  suffered  fearfully  from 
earthquake  in  1812  and  again  in  1824.  Rebuilt,  it  was  al- 
most destroyed  by  another  earthquake  1853.  It  was  again 
rebuilt,  but  on  a  less  extended  scale.  Its  manufactures  and 
trade  have  greatly  declined,  but  its  wine,  rose-water,  car- 
pets, and  inlaid  work  are  still  famous  in  the  East.  Pop. 
about  25,000.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Shire :  See  County. 

Shir^,  shee'ra  :  river  of  Southeastern  Africa,  issuing  from 
the  Lake  of  Nyassa,  in  lat.  14'  28'  S.  It  flows  with  many 
rapids  and  cataracts  from  the  elevated  plateau  of  the  inte- 
rior into  the  flat  coast  land,  where  it  forms  a  broad,  calm 
stream,  navigable  for  the  largest  vessels,  and  joins  the  Zam- 
besi about  90  miles  above  its  mouth. 

Shirlaw.  Walter  :  genre-painter;  b.  at  Paisley,  Scotland, 
Au^.  6, 1838.  His  parentis  removed  to  the  U.  S.  in  1840,  and 
in  time  he  Ijecame  a  bank-note  engraver ;  in  1870  he  went  to 
Munich,  where  he  was  a  pupil  of  Raab,  Wagner,  Ramberg, 
and  Lindensciimidt ;  became  a  National  Academician  1888. 
His  Sheep-shear inff — Bavarian  Highlands  (1876),  exhibited 
in  1877  at  the  National  Academy,  New  York,  attracted  much 
attention.  As  an  illustrator  his  designs  for  Goldsmith's 
Hermit  are  notable.    Studio  in  New  York.  W.  A.  C. 

Shirley,  James:  dramatist ;  b.  in  London,  Sept.  13, 1596; 
educated  at  Merchant  Taylors'  School,  St.  John's  College, 
Oxford,  and  Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge;  took  orders  in  the 
Church  of  England,  and  obtained  a  curacy  in  Hertfordshire, 
but  soon  vacated  it  by  becoming  a  Roman  Catholic;  taught 
for  some  time  a  grammar  school  at  St,  Albans,  but,  being 
unsuccessful,  became  a  dramatic  writer  in  London ;  had 
produced  thirty-nine  plays  before  the  Great  liebellion ; 
founded  a  classical  academy  at  Whitefriars,  and  wrote  sev- 
eral grammatical  treatises.    D.  in  London  from  exposure 


FKA.NCia   T.   BoWLKs, 

conseouent  upon  the  great  fire  of  1666,  and  was  burieil  (^r. 
29.  His  Dramatic  Works  and  Poems  (6  vols.,  1833)  w«  n- 
first  edited  by  Gifford  and  Dyce.  He  is  regarded  as  the  Iti-^? 
of  the  Elizabethan  dramatists.  The  Traitor  (1631)  i«.  (•> 
common  consent,  his  best  tragedy,  and  The  lAuiy  of  PI*  n  n. 
lire  (1635)  his  best  comedy.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Bekrs. 

Shirley,  William  :  colonial  governor  of  Massachusetts; 
b.  at  Preston,  Sussex,  England,  in  1693  ;  became  a  lawyer ; 
settled  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1734;. was  commissioner  for  fixir  ^ 
the  boundary-line  between  Massachusetts  and  Rhorlelslainl : 
was  royal  governor  of  Massachusetts  1741-45;  planned  ih.- 
successful  expedition  against  Cane  Breton  1745;  w&s  in 
England  1745-53;  returned  to  Massachusetts  as  govenn-r 
in  the  latter  year;  treated  with  the  Eastern  Indians  1754: 
explored  Kennebec  river,  erecting  there  several  forts:  >*«- 
commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  British  North  Anieri*  a 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  French  war  1755;  planned  the  ex- 
pedition of  Gen.  Prideaux  against  Niagara,  and  prootvlo! 
nimself  as  far  as  Oswego ;  was  appointed  lieutenant-gfntr.ii 
1759;  became  afterward  governor  of  the  Bahama  i^iHli^.*. 
but  returned  to  Massachusetts,  where  he  built  a  fine  n-i- 
dence  at  Roxbury.  D.  at  Roxbury,  Mar.  24, 1771.  Auth-r 
of  Elect  ra,  a  tragedy;  Hie  Birth  of  Hercules,  a  nias^iue;  .1 
Letter  to  the  Duke  of  Newc<istle,  with  a  Journal  of  th- 
Siege  of  Louishurg  (1745);  and  The  Conduct  of  Gen.  Wilham 
Shirley  briefly  Stated  (1758). — His  son  William,  an  oi^u>■T 
in  the  army,'was  killed  at  Braddwk's  defeat  1755. — An«>t}.«  r 
son,  Sir  Thomas,  b.  in  Boston,  became  a  major-eenenil  i*. 
the  British  army,  was  created  a  baronet  1786,  and  was  •:'i\- 
ernor  of  the  Leeward  islands.    D.  Mar.,  1800. 

Shir'wa :  lake :  a  little  S.  E.  of  Lake  Nyassa.  Southra-t 
Africa;  formerly  supposed  to  have  as  its  outlet  the  LiijriMU 
river,  but  discovered  (1887)  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  hui:.- 
evaporating-pan  with  an  area  of  about  350  sq.  miles  itif- 
which  a  number  of  small  rivers  discharge.  Its  water*  an- 
brackish,  are  gradually  drying  up,  and  there  is  evithMnf 
that  formerly  the  lake  stood  at  a  much  higher  level  an<l 
discharged  into  the  Lujenda  river.  C.  C,  A. 

Shi'shak  :  the  Hebrew  name  of  the  Egvptian  king  Sf.n- 
shanq,  first  ruler  of  the  twenty-second  (Bubastito)  liv- 
nasty  (960-800  b.  c).  He  was  probably  of  Liibvan  liiifaj. . 
and  at  the  close  of  the  twentv-first  (priestly)  dyntt-*> 
grasped  the  royal  power  which  Ke  had  actually  w-ifl«it«i 
previously.  This  was  largely  due  to  the  increased  influcn*  • 
of  the  Libyan  mercenaries  from  whom  the  Egvptian  hfii  y 
had  l>een  recruited  since  the  time  of  Seti  I.  and  Ramses  ll. 
The  dominion  of  Egypt  was  much  extended  bv  Shishak,  >^  li  • 
wage<l  war  in  Palestine  against  Rehoboam,  fong  of  Ju«i.il.. 
His  inscriptions  on  the  south  wall  of  the  Temple  of  Air.t-n 
at  KarnaK  contain  the  names  of  128  cities  or  regions  in 
Palestine  and  Syria  which  fell  into  his  hands.  Tlie  h^:  i.*' 
really  larger,  but  a  considerable  number  of  names  are  ii>> 
longer  legible.    Jerusalem  was  among  the  captured  pUo>, 


506 


SnOEBlLL 


SHORTHORNS 


other  important  Invention  is  that  of  a  machine  for  sew- 
ing sgles,  whi/3h  was  improved  by  Gordon  McKay.  One  of 
these  machines  in  the  hands  of  a  good  operator  will  easily 
sew  on  the  soles  of  800  pairs  of  women's  shoes  in  ten  hours. 
Ori^rinally,  shoes  made  by  the  McKay  process  were  not  so 
wellflnished  as  to  the  inner  part  of  the  soie  where  tlie  stitches 
came  through,  but  this  defect  was  overcome  by  the  use  of  a 
smooth  inner  sole,  cemented  to  the  sole  in  such  a  way  as 
entirely  to  cover  the  stitclies.  A  later  and  more  important 
invention  is  that  of  the  Goodyear  welt  machine,  as  it  is 
called,  which  has  enabled  manufacturers  of  shoes  to  produce 
footwear  so  closely  resembling  hand-work  in  appearance 
and  durability  as  to  render  it  extremely  difficult  to  distin- 
guish one  from  the  other.  Indeed  in  the  best  grades  what 
difference  exists  may  be  fairly  said  to  be  in  favor  of  the 
machine-sewed  goods.  A  great  part  of  the  boots  and  shoes 
used  in  the  U.  S.,  esnecially  the  finer  kinds,  are  made  in  large 
establishments  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and 
other  large  cities,  but  more  in  several  towns  in  Massachu- 
setts, Maine,  and  New  Hampshire ;  Lynn,  Mass..  is  the 
greatest  seat  of  this  manufacture,  and  among  the  other  large 
centers  are  Haverhill,  Brockton.  Milford,  ^larblehead,  Wor- 
cester, Braintree,  and  Dan  vers,  in  Massachusetts;  Portland, 
Augusta,  and  Lewiston,  in  Maine ;  Dover  and  Farmington, 
in  New  Hampshire.  Until  about  1890  the  U.  S.  did  but  lit- 
tle export  business  in  boots  and  shoes. 

Revised  by  Vauqhan  Snider. 

Shoebill :  a  large  wading  bird  {Balipniceps  rex)  inhabit- 
ing the  region  of  the  White 
Nile,  Africa.  It  is  named 
from  its  large,  peculiarly 
shaped  beak,  ana  is  also 
termed  whale-headed  stork, 
although  its  affinities  are 
rather  with  the  herons.  It 
stands  nearly  5  feet  high,  is 
gray,  and  has  a  little  re- 
curved crest.         F.  A.  L. 

Shoe'buryness :  a  prom- 
ontory   in    the    county    of 
p]ssex,     England  ;    on    the 
northern    shore   of    the   es- 
Shoebill.  tuary  of  the  Thames,  direct- 

ly opposite  Sheer ness  (see 
map  of  England,  ref.  12-L).  Shoeburyness  was  selected  by 
the  Government  as  the  locality  of  exi)eriment.al  firing  at 
armored  targets  and  for  trial  of  new  guns.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  school  of  gunnery,  with  artillery,  barracks,  batteries, 
targets,  etc. 
Shoeing  of  Horses :  See  Farriery. 
Sh5gnn  (Jap.,  liter.,  general,  the  Chinese  Taiang-Kiun) : 
A  Japanese  military  title,  said  to  have  been  first  employed 
by  the  Emperor  Suijin  in  the  first  century  b.  c,  when  he 
divided  the  empire  into  four  military  divisions.  The  name 
began  to  have  a  political,  significance  with  Yoritomo  {q,  r.), 
who  was  appointeil  in  1192  Sei-i-tai-Shogum,  or  generalis- 
simo, against  the  barbarians.  Henceforward  the  shogunate 
more  and  more  represented  the  real  governing  force  in  the 
empire,  until  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  Tokugawas 
(see  Iyeyasu)  became  a  real  reigning  'dynasty.  The  empire 
was  centralized  afresh  from  Yedo,  so  that  in  1868  when  the 
emperor  resumed  power  he  merely  fell  heir  to  the  bureau- 
cratic system  developed  by  these  rulers.  J.  M.  Dixon. 

Sholapur' :  district  and  city  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
Bombay  Presidency,  British  India;  on  the  l)order  of  Ilaida- 
rabad.  The  district  lies  between  the  parallels  17°  13'  and 
18^  35'  N.;  has  an  area  of  4,521  sq.  miles;  is  bleak  and 
treeless,  and  generally  flat  or  slightly  undulating,  and  is 
subject  to  great  irregularity  in  the  amount  of  rainfall, 
making  airriculture  der)endent  on  irrigation.  Its  silks, 
finer  cotton  cloths,  ancl  blankets  have  a  good  name,  and 
the  chief  exports  besides  dulhs  are  oil,  oil-seeds,  ghee,  and 
turmeric.  Ihe  population  numbers  about  6CK),0(K),  mostly 
Hindus.  The  city  of  Sholapur,  chief  town  and  a<lministra- 
tive  headquartei*s  of  the  district,  is  in  hit.  17^  40'  N.,  Ion.  75^ 
57'  E.,  near  the  Sina  river  (see  man  of  S.  India,  ref.  4-D). 
It  is  a  station  on  the  Great  Indian  Peninsular  Railway.  It 
is  one  of  the  principal  cotton-markets  of  the  Dekkan.  Pop. 
(1891)  61,915.  Mark  W.  Harrixoton. 

Sho'mer,  Shammer,  or  Jebel  Shomer:  a  territory, 
part  of  the  great  central  plateau  of  Arabia;  lx)unded  N.  by 
the  Syrian  desert,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  mountains 


9.000  feet  high,  N.  E.  by  Irak  Arabi,  S.  by  the  sultAnato  of 
the  Wahabees,  and  W.*  by  Turkish  Arabia.  The  Aralis 
here  have  always  remained  in  a  savage  condition,  litiU* 
influenced  by  the  rise  of  the  Mussulman  empire.  AlM)nt 
the  end  of  tlie  eighteenth  century  they  came  under  the  jk.w- 
er  of  the  Wahabees,  but  since  the  overthrow  of  the  lait»T 
have  been  independent.  The  country  is  divided  into  fue 
provinces,  said  to  contain  eighty-six  towns  and  village*?,  the 
chief  of  which  is  Hayel.  Between  it  and  Medina  consider- 
able trade  is  carried  on.  Corn  and  fruit  are  raised  \>\  ar- 
tificial irrigation.  Dates,  cotton,  horses,  and  asses  are  ex- 
ported.   Pop.  of  territory  estimated  at  450,000.     E.  A.  G. 

Shooting  Stars :  See  Meteors. 

Shore :  See  Coast. 

Shore,  Jane:  mistress  of  Edward  IV.;  b.  in  London. 
England,  about  1445;  married  a  rich  London  goldMiuih 
named  Matthew  or  William  Shore;  became  mistress  of  King 
Edward  IV.  about  1470,  and  of  Lord  Hastings  after  the 
death  of  the  former,  1483.  She  was  accused  of  witchcraft  as 
an  accomplice  of  Hastings,  who  was  beheaded  for  that  pre- 
tended crime,  though  the  real  reason  for  the  proceeilinirs 
against  them  was  their  known  partiality  to  the  cause  of  the 
young  princes.  According  to  More's  account,  Jane  Shore 
was  charged  by  King  Kichard  III.  with  having  withereil 
his  arm  by  her  arts  of  sorcery;  was  committed  to  the  Tower 
and  her  property  confiscated ;  was  never  brought  to  trial, 
but  was  compelled  by  the  Bishop  of  London  to  do  public 
penance  for  impiety  and  adultery.  The  king^s  solicitor. 
Thomas  Lynon,  desired  to  marry  her  after  the  death  of 
Hastings,  but  Kichard  tried  to  dissuade  him,  and  whether 
the  marriage  took  place  is  not  known.  She  survived  until 
after  the  accession  of  Henry  VI II.,  and  popular  lei:end 
represented  her  as  having  died  of  hunger  in  a  ditch — a 
version  which  long  retained  currency  through  the  faim-us 
drama  of  Kowe  bearing  her  name  ;*  but  the  legen<l  W!i> 
probably  derived  from  the  name  of  a  London  locality  <till 
called  Shoreditch.  Sir  Thomas  More  bears  emphatic  te>ii- 
mony  to  her  Ixjauty,  kindliness,  and  wit. 

Shore,  Sir  John  :  See  Teionmouth,  Barox. 

Short,  Charles,  LL.  D.  :  educator;  b.  at  Haverhill, 
Mass.,  May  28,  1821 ;  received  his  early  education  at  Brad- 
fonl  Acacfemy  and  Phillips  Andover  Academy ;  gratlujitrd 
at  Harvard  1846;  classical  instructor  in  Koxbury  antl  Phila- 
delphia 1847-63  ;  president  of  Kenyon  College,  (>..  and 
Professor  of  Intellectual  and  Moral  Philosophy  186:^67. 
On  the  death  of  Dr.  Anthon,  Pi-ofessor  of  (ireek  in  Colum- 
bia College,  New  York,  Dr.  Henry  Drisler  was  transferred  to 
the  Greek  chair,  and  Dr.  Short  sncceetled  Dr.  Driller  a-* 
Professor  of  Latin  in  1868.  He  edited,  with  additions,  Ad- 
vnuced  Latin  Exercises  in  Schmitz  and  Zumpt's  Latin  Se- 
ries (1860) ;  revised  Mitchell's  Sew  Ancient  (reogni/tfi>; ; 
wrote  an  elaborate  essay  on  the  Order  of  Words  in  (irrek. 
prefixed  to  Dr.  Drisler's  edition  of  Vonge's  Engtish-drrtk 
Lexicon  (1870);  and,  with  Charlton  T.  Lewis,  revistnl  (IhTV) 
Andrews's  Fretind's  Latin  Dictionary,  He  contriinite<i 
many  articles,  mostly  critical,  to  reviews  and  other  j)eri«'<l- 
icals,  chiefly  to  the  BihUotheca  Sacra.  He  was  from  the 
outset  a  member  of  the  American  committee  co-op«'ratiiii: 
with  the  British  committee  in  the  revision  of  the  Kngii-ti 
Bible.     D.  in  New  York,  Dec.  24,  1886. 

Revised  by  Bknj.  Ide  Wheelfr, 

Short,  William  :  diplomatist ;  b.  at  Soring  Garden.  Va.. 
Sept.  30,  1759;  studied  at  William  and  Mar>'  College;  \\h< 
at  an  early  age  a  member  of  the  executive  council  of  \'ir- 
ginia;  accompanied  Thomas  Jefferson  on  his  embassy  t" 
Prance  as  secretary  of  legation  1784;  was  appointe<i  char,;,' 
d\iffaireH  to  France  by  Washintrton  1789  (being  the  lir>t 
commissitm  signed  by  him  as  President),  and  was  MihM- 
cpiently  minister  to  the  Netherlands  and  to  Spain,  where  in 
1795  he  concluded  the  negotiations  which  resulted  in  tlu- 
treaty  of  friendship,  commerce,  and  boundaries,  I>.  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Dec.  5,  1849. 

Shorthand  :  See  Phonography  and  Stenography. 

Shorthorns:  a  breed  of  beef-cattle  which  originateil  in 
the  valley  of  the  river  Tees,  between  the  countiesof  Durham 
and  York,  in  England.  They  are  often  called  Durh.-.ni. 
shorthorned  Durham,  and  Teeswater  cattle.  Since  very  ea'-i\ 
times  the  cattle  of  the  northeastern  coast  of  Knglanil  have 
differed  in  type  from  those  of  other  parts  of  Great  Britain, 
and  there  are  many  reasons  for  believing  that  this  is  due 
to  an  jwlmixture  of  the  blood  of  the  cattle  of  the  a«lja<'eni 
countries  of  continental  Europe,  brought  over  at  the  time 


508 


SHOSnONEAN  INDIANS 


Unkagarits — inhabiting  the  northwestern  part  of  Utah,  west 
of  Utah  and  Great  Salt  lakes,  and  a  strip  in  Eastern  Ne- 
vada. They  were  one  of  the  few  Shoshonean  divisions  en- 
gaging in  agriculture,  and  were  scattered  over  the  country 
as  the  springs  and  watercourses  aifordcd  arable  land.  Ac- 
cording to  some  authorities  the  Gosiute  are  a  mixture  of 
Shoshoni  and  Ute.  There  seems  to  be  no  aboriginal  name 
of  the  confederacy — a  fact  indicating  very  recent  organiza- 
tion as  such.    Pop.  (1890)  256. 

Paiute, — The  generally  accepted  idea  is  that  the  term 
originated  from  pah^  water,  and  Ute,  hence  **  water  Ute  " ; 
more  likely  it  is  derived  from  pai^  true,  and  Ute,  thus  signi- 
fying **  true  Ute.''  The  name  has  been  applied  at  various 
times  to  most  of  the  Shoshonean  tribes  of  Eastern  Utah, 
Northern  Arizona,  Southern  Idaho,  Eastern  Oregon,  Nevada, 
and  Eastern  and  Southern  California,  whereas  it  properly 
belongs  exclusively  to  the  Corn  creek  tribe  of  Southwestern 
Utah.  Paiute,  however,  is  a  convenient  divisional  name  for 
the  tribes  occupying  the  southwestern  part  of  Utah,  Central 
Nevada,  and  Northern  Arizona,  and  including  the  Cheme- 
huevi  of  Colorado  river.  Under  it  are  also  included  the 
tribes  of  Southeastern  California  from  the  neighborhood  of 
Owens  valley  along  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  sierras,  and  to  the 
S.  of  Tulare  Lake  and  E.  of  the  Coast  Range.  The  principal 
Paiute  tribes  are :  Chemehuevi  or  Tantawats,  formerly  about 
the  great  bend  of  Colorado  river  and  now  attached  to  the 
Colorado  river  agency — ^population  about  200 ;  Kwaiantik- 
wokets,  formerly  E.  of  Colorado  river,  in  Arizona,  where 
they  affiliated  largely  with  the  Navajo,  and  numbered  62  in 
1874 ;  Shivwits  and  Uinkarets  in  Northern  Arizona — popu- 
lation 182  and  40,  respectively,  in  1874.  There  are  19  in- 
significant tribes  or  bands  in  California,  among  them  the 
Mono  (a  term  collectively  applied),  Keats,  and  Moquats; 
17  in  Nevada,  and  8  in  Utah  (including  the  Kaivavwits  and 
Unkakaniguts).  The  Paiute  population  approximates  2,500, 
there  being  in  Utah  500,  Northern  Arizona  500,  Southern 
Nevada  1,000,  and  Southeastern  California  500. 

PanaminL — This  division  is  linguistically  related  more 
closely  to  the  Shoshoni  than  to  any  other  of  the  tribes  of 
the  stock,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  became  de- 
tached from  that  body  through  the  intrusion  of  the  Gosiute, 
and  gradually  drifted  to  their  later  habitat  in  and  around 
Panamint  and  Death  valleys,  between  lat.  86°  and  37",  East- 
ern California.  A  few  individuals  live  in  the  mining  town 
of  Darwin,  while  about  150  are  scattered  in  the  desert  coun- 
try to  the  E.  of  Panamint  valley. 

Paviotso  (strong,  able). — These  Indians  form  a  confeder- 
acy of  twenty-eight  insignificant  tribes,  chiefly  in  Western 
Nevada,  but  extending  into  Oregon  as  far  north  as  Lakes 
Hamev  and  Malheur,  and  west  wan!  to  about  Warner  Lake 
near  the  southern  boundary,  and  Camp  Bidwell  in  North- 
eastern California.  The  shores  of  Honey  Lake  in  Eastern 
California  were  also  occupied  by  them.  In  the  east  they 
extended  to  the  Shoshoni  territory  in  Ion.  117^  30'.  Their 
lowermost  settlements  were  in  Owens  valley,  Eastern  Cali- 
fornia. Like  many  other  tribes  of  this  region,  the  Paviotso 
were  early  confounded  with  the  Paiute,  whom  they  closely 
resemble.  Their  extension  north  into  the  I*yraraid  Lake 
region  of  Western  Nevada  and  into  Oregon  has  been  com- 
paratively recent,  having  after  a  long  conflict  displaced  the 
Saitttka.    They  probably  number  about  4,000. 

Shoshoni. — This  is  the  most  northerly  division,  and  for- 
merly occupied  Wyoming,  the  entire  central  and  southern 
parts  of  Idaho,  except  the  area  occupied  by  the  Bannock,  a 
small  part  of  Eastern  Oregon,  Eastern  and  Central  Nevada, 
and  a  small  strip  of  Utah  W.  of  Great  Salt  Lake.  The 
Snake  river  country  in  Idaho  is  perhaps  to  be  considered 
their  chief  seat,  whence  they  are  also  called  Snake  Indians. 
In  1803  Lewis  and  Clark  found  the  northern  bands  of  the 
Shoshoni  on  the  head- waters  of  the  Missouri  in  Montana, 
but  they  had  earlier  ranged  farther  east  on  the  plains,  whence 
they  hail  been  driven  into  the  Rocky  Mountains  by  the  hos- 
tile Atsina  and  Blackfeet,  who  early  obtained  firearms. 

The  more  northerly  and  eastern  Shoshoni  were  horse  and 
buffalo  Indians,  and  in  character  and  warlike  prowess  com- 
pared favorably  with  most  western  tribes.  Those  of  Snake 
river  and  to  the  south  in  Nevada  represented  a  lower  type, 
since  most  of  this  country  was  barren  and  comparatively 
devoid  of  large  game.  They  dejjended  for  food  to  a  large 
extent  upon  fish,  supplemented  by  rabbits,  roots,  nuts,  and 
seeds.  The  Shoshoni,  more  commonly  than  any  others  of 
the  Shoshonean  tribes,  were  called  Di<;ffers  and  Shoshokos 
(walkers.)  None  of  them  were  agriculturists.  In  general, 
the  style  of  their  habitations  corresponded  to  the  two  types 


of  Shoshoni.  In  the  north  and  east  they  lived  in  pole  and 
skin  lodges,  but  in  the  sage  country  to  the  west  brush  shel- 
ters were  used,  some  of  them  in  the  Snake  river  region  bein;: 
mere  roofless  semicircles  that  afforded  little  pn^eciiun 
against  the  wind  and  snow.  There  were  many  dialect^  c>(>r- 
responding  to  the  degree  of  isolation  of  the  several  trilH>, 
but  mutually  intelligible.  The  most  important  of  the  orij;i- 
nal  divisions  or  bands  of  the  Shoshoni  are  the  Tukuarika  or 
Sheep-eaters,  Tussawehe,  and  Wihinasht.  They  have  mat<^- 
rially  decreased  in  numbers ;  those  surviving  are  in  Nevada ; 
on  Fort  Hall  and  Lemhi  reservations,  Idaho  (pop.  948  and 
357  respectively) ;  western  Shoshoni  reservation,  Nevada  (r>"f». 
367),  and  the  Shoshoni  reservation,  Wyoming  (pop.  88^3 1. 
Their  entire  number  approximates  5,000. 

Tobikhnr, — This  term,  meaning  settlers,  belongs  strir-tly 
to  a  group  of  small  tribes  formerly  about  San  Gabriel  mis- 
sion and  Los  Angeles,  Southern  Califoi-nia,  but  has  bi-eii 
adopted  as  a  group  name  to  include  the  Shoshonean  trilM'5 
who  spoke  related  dialects,  and  lived  about  the  missiousi  of 
San  Luis  Rey,  San  Juan  Capistrano,  San  Fernando,  L<k 
Angeles,  San  Bernardino,  and  San  Gabriel  These  formed 
the  southwestern  or  coast  division  of  the  stock,  and  their 
remnants  compose  the  bulk  of  the  so-called  Mission  Indians 
which  embrace  also  a  few  representatives  of  the  Yum  an 
stock.  The  status  of  the  Indians  of  this  group  and  their  re- 
lation to  the  State  government  have  never  been  fully  deflni*<i. 
Thejr  appear  not  to  have  been  agriculturists  prior  to  tht' 
mission  period ;  hence  upon  the  disestablishment  of  the  mi>- 
sions  some  of  the  Indians  returned  to  their  primitive  nuMhi 
of  life,  while  others  practiced  the  rude  arts  of  agrieullurf 
learned  under  mission  sway.  Notwithstanding  their  d<K'ile 
and  submissive  character  the  Tobikhar,  like  most  of  th^ 
Shoshonean  tribes,  were  doubtless  once  of  a  more  aggressive 
and  warlike  disposition,  and  were  able  to  force  their  way  u* 
the  coast  through  the  Chumashan  and  Mariposan  tribes  on 
the  north,  and  those  of  Yuman  stock  on  tne  south.  The 
population  is  about  2,200. 

Tusayan  (probably  from  the  Navajo  Zilh-Tdsditn,  signify- 
ing country  of  the  isolated  buttes). — The  so-calle<l  pn)viiu  ♦• 
of  Tusayan  comprises  seven  pueblos  on  the  summits  of  four 
mesas  in  Northeastern  Arizona,  about  50  miles  £.  of  tlir^ 
Rio  Colorado  Chiquito,  and  about  the  same  distance  S.  *>t 
the  Rio  San  Juan.  The  pueblos  constitute  three  group>: 
Walpi,  Sichumovi,  and  Hano  or  Tewa  in  one  ;  Mashongn<»\  i. 
Shumopovi,  and  Shupaulovi  the  second,  7  miles  west  wan  I ; 
Oraibi  the  third,  8  miles  still  farther  west.  Six  of  the>.- 
villages  are  inhabited  by  the  Hopi  (signifying  **  people,"  but 
impronerly  called  by  the  oppronrious  Zuili  term  Moki).  the 
seventh  pueblo,  Uano,  being  occupied  by  a  division  of  xh*- 
Tewa  tribe,  of  Tanoan  stock,  who  left  their  kindre<i  on  tlie 
Rio  Grande  about  1680,  and  settled  at  Tusayan,  where  th«  y 
maintain  their  distinctness.  The  Hopi  afford  the  only  iri- 
stance  of  tribes  of  the  predatory  Shoshonean  stoc-k'\»}h» 
have  adopted  a  strictly  pueblo  life.  Tusavan  was  known  t.. 
the  earliest  Spanish  explorers  of  the  Southwest.  Marcos  i.f 
Niza  in  1539  spoke  oi  it  under  the  name  Totonteac.  It 
was  first  visited  by  whites  in  1540,  when  Tobar  and  Pad  ilia, 
and  afterward  Cardenas,  of  Coronado's  army  reached  the  s*- 
called  province  from  ZufSi.  Expeditions  to  Tusayan  wen- 
also  made  b^  Espejo  in  1583  and  Oftat«  in  1598.  Mission> 
were  established  at  the  now  ruined  pueblos  of  Awatobi  etkI 
at  Mashongnovi  and  Shumopovi  at  an  early  dat«,  but  wt  re 
abandoned  upon  the  murder  of  the  missionaries  and  destnu  - 
tion  of  the  churches  during  the  Pueblo  revolt  of  lt>H), 
Tusayan  tradition  •seems  to  indicate  that  the  present  Ho|>i 
villages  are  a  confederacy  of  phratries.  or  perhaps  indejienij- 
ent  groups,  who,  after  various  wanderings,  settled  in  one 
place.  The  union  is  not  a  close  one,  and  tradition  points  to 
feuds  and  even  to  bitter  wars  between  the  towns,  durint; 
one  of  which  Awatobi  (once  the  principal  pueblo)  was  total- 
ly destroyed.  Like  the  other  Pueblo  tribes,  the  Hopi  have 
been  agriculturists  since  first  known  to  history.  They  early 
acouired  possession  of  sheep,  and  are  expert  weavers,  jK>tters, 
ana  basket-makers.  The  estimates  of  population  given  hy 
the  early  explorers  are  greatly  exaggerated.  They  nuinl tr 
about  1,750. 

Ute, — This  division  formerly  occupied  the  central  and 
western  portions  of  Colorado  and  Southeastern  Utah,  in- 
cluding the  eastern  part  of  Salt  Lake  valley  and  Utah  V2il- 
ley.  They  extended  also  into  New  Mexico,  occupying  mu«  h 
of  the  drainage  area  of  the  Rio  San  Juan.  None  of  the  Vu* 
were  agriculturists,  but  they  appear  to  have  been  always  a 
warlike  people,  and  their  early  possession  of  horses  intensi- 
fied their  aggressive  character.    The  various  divisions  or 


4Wlv 


l>fK 


l*«f|'.  flceu)  ^tui;  i}«M^i  tl.t*Tt^i 


Ml  »  niiJiliKji  iryi»aiii*r 


jih.rwrm 


i.|  ^Mi^iUv 


rvHnTftI,  fbnqMrftHr  •';^«>**».  |tr*«!Mf^  tWf  Tf-^itfi*  I»M»hI  r»ft»l 


Cflffllal 


510 


SHRIKE 


SIALAGOGUES 


defeated  Hotspur,  and  in  1644  the  town  was  besieged  by  the 
uarliainentary  army.  Shrewsbury  sends  one  member  to 
Parliament.     Pop.  (1891)  26,967. 

Shrike  [O.  Eng.  scrlc,  thrush,  (perhaps  also)  shrike  :  Icel. 
shrikja,  shrike,  liter.,  shrieker ;  of.  Eng.  nhriek]  :  any  one  of 
the  LaniidcB,  a  family  of  passerine  birds.  The  best  known 
North  American  species  is  the  butcher-bird  (Lanins  boreal  is). 
They  are  noted  for  their  habit  of  impaling  insects  and  small 
birds  upon  the  points  of  thorns. 

Shrimp  [cf.  shrimp,  another  form  of  scrimp] :  a  name 
properly  restricted  to  crustaceans  of  the  genus  Crangon,  but 


The  shrimp. 

more  usually  applied  to  any  of  the  smaller  long-tailed  crus- 
taceans. The  common  shrimp  of  Great  Britain,  C.  tnilgnris, 
is  esteemed  a  delicacy  as  food. 

Shropshire,  or  Salop :  a  west  midland  county  of  Eng- 
land ;  on  both  si<les  of  the  Severn,  and  bounded  W.  by 
Wales.  Area,  1,319  scj.  miles.  The  northern  part  is  level, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Wrekin  (1,320  feet),  and  is  chiefly 
under  tillaj^e ;  the  southern  is  hilly,  reaching  1,800  feet  in 
the  Clee  Hills,  and  mainly  devoted  t^  cattle-breeding.  The 
county  has  a  fine  breed  of  sheep.  There  is  a  considerable 
production  of  coal  and  some  of  iron,  limestone,  and  free- 
stone.    Pop.  (1891)  236,324. 

Sh rove-Tuesday  [from  shrire,  to  confess  sinl:  the  day 
preceding  Ash- Wednesday,  so  called  from  the  old  custom 
of  confessing  and  receiving  shrift  on  that  day  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  forty  days'  fast.  It  is  in  general  a  day  of 
pleasure  in  most  Roman  Catholic  countries.  It  is  the  Car- 
nival of  the  Italians,  the  Mardi  Gras  of  the  French,  and 
the  Pancake-Tuesday  of  former  days  in  England. 

Shn'briclc,  William  Branford:  rear-admiral  U.S. navy; 
b.  on  Bull's  island.  South  Carolina,  Oct.  31,  1790;  entered 
Harvard  in  1805,  but  was  appointed  mi<lshipman  June,  1806. 
He  became  lieutenant  Jan.,  1813 ;  commanded  a  gunboat 
in  Hampton  roads  in  1813,  and  assisted  in  the  defense  of 
Norfolk  and  the  navy-yard  at  Gosport;  in  1813  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Constituticm,  and  made  two  cruises,  aiding  in 
the  capture  of  three  ships  of  war,  including  the  Cyane  and 
the  Levant ;  was  awarded  a  sword  by  his  native  State  and  a 
medal  by  Congress;  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  com- 
mander 1820,  and  served  at  the  navy-yards  at  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  and  New  Vork  until  Apr.,  1826,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  Lexington  ;  in  1831  was 
commissioned  captain ;  commanded  the  West  India  squad- 
ron 18ii8-40;  was  in  command  of  the  navy-yard  at  Norfolk, 
Va.,  Oct.,  1840-Oct.,  1843  ;  chief  of  the  bureau  of  provisions 
and  clothing  for  the  navy  1845-46 ;  was  appointecl  to  com- 
mand tlie  Pacific  squadron  July,  1846,  and  during  the  war 
with  Mexico  captured  several  ports ;  was  appointed  to  the 
lighthouse  board  Sept.,  1852 ;  placed  in  command  of  the 
eastern  coast  sijuadron  for  the  protecti<m  of  American  fish- 
ermen July,  1853,  and  in  September  returned  to  Washing- 
ton and  resumed  his  duties  as  chairman  of  the  lighthouse 
board  ;  appointed  president  of  board  to  prej)are  regulations 
for  tlie  navy  Aug.,  1857;  commanded  the  Brazil  squadron 
and  Paraguay  expedition  185S-59,  returning  to  resume  duty 
as  chairman  of  the  lighthouse  board;  was  ret!  ret  I  in  1861, 
but  continued  a  member  of  the  advisory  board  until  1870; 
was  commissioned  rear-admiral  in  1862.  D.  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  May  27,  1874. 

Shn'feldt,  KonnuT  W. :  roar-admiral  V.  S.  navy;  b.  in 
Red  Hook,  N.  V.,  Fel).  21,  1S22 :  entered  the  navy  as  a  mid- 
shipman May  11,  1839;  comnjanded  several  vessels  on  the 
coast  during  the  civil  war,  and  was  actively  engaged  against 
the  defenses  of  Charleston;  commanded  the  flag-ship  of  the 
East  Indian  squadron  during  1S05  and  IHOO.  and  that  of  the 
Mediterranean  from  1871  to  1873;  in  1875  a[)pointed  chief 


of  the  bureau  of  equipment  and  recruiting.  He  was  consul- 
general  to  Cuba  during  the  first  vear  of  the  civil  war — n 
place  of  great  importance,  which  he  filled  with  aiimirable 
judgment  and  discretion.    Retired  Feb.  21,  1884. 

Shnllsbur^:  city;  Lafayette  co..  Wis.;  on  the  Ch!. 
Mil.  and  St.  P.  Railway ;  24  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Dubuque,  r^it 
miles  S.  W.  of  Madison  (for  location,  see  map  of  Wisc.-n-ir., 
ref.  7-C).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  lead-mining  n-gi'-n. 
and  contains  4  churches,  3  hotels,  a  national  bank  with  caj^- 
ital  of  f;50,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000.  and  t  v  .► 
weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  1,168;  (1890)  1,393;  (IMCj. 
estimated,  1,400.  Editor  of  **  Pick  and  Gad.'* 

Shn'mag^in  Islands:  small  archipelago  of  Alaska. in  l;;r. 
55'  N.,  Ion.  160°  W.,  just  E.  of  the  peninsula  of  Alaskti,  fr.M. 
which  they  are  separated  by  Unga  Straits,  consisting  of  I'ri- 
ga,  Nagai,  Popoff,  Korovin,  Big  Koniushi,  Little  Koniu>hi. 
Simeonoff,  and  many  smaller  islands  and  islets.  Unga  i- 
about  10  miles  long  by  7  broatl,  and  contains  the  only  >etil»- 
ment  of  any  size  on  the  islands,  viz.,  the  little  towu  of  Iriu-a 
near  the  southeast  angle.  Nagai  is  about  30  miles  long  l»}  4 
broad,  and  of  very  irregular  shape.  The  islands  are  gent  r- 
ally  mountainous,  are  without  tree-growth,  have  abundant 
rainfall,  and  several  excellent  harboi*s.  Good  lignite  hjt> 
been  found  on  Unga.  Salmon  abound  in  the  stream^  in 
early  summer,  and  good  cod-banks  are  near  by.  Thes<"  inl- 
ands were  discovered  by  Lieut.  Waxel  in  1741,  and  y^tv 
given  the  name  of  one'of  his  sailors  burie<l  there.  Ana 
about  600  sq.  miles.  Mark  W.  IIarrincton. 

Shninla  :  town  ;  in  Bulgaria,  half  way  between  RuM<  huk 
and  Varna ;  in  a  fertile  plain,  inclosed  on  three  sides  l»y  in- 
accessible spurs  of  the  Balkans  and  strongly  fortified  <-# 
map  of  Turkey,  ref.  3-1)).  It  is  also  an  im(>ortant  com- 
mercial  center  and  manufactures  leather,  copjHjr  ware,  hua 
cloth.     Pop.  (1893)  23,517.  E.  A.  G. 

Shnr  [Heb.,  wall] :  the  name  applied  bv  the  Hebrews  to 
the  desert  which  bordered  Egypt  on  the  1^.  of  the  southvni 
half  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  (Ex.  xv.  22).  Some  have  .i.- 
rived  the  name  from  the  wall,  1.500  stadia  long,  whii  h  i- 
alleged  by  Diodorus  (i.,  57)  to  have  been  built  by  Se<<-ir:- 
from  Pelusium  to  Ileliopolis  for  the  defense  of  Eg\ji 
against  the  eastern  Bedouin.  {TrumhuW.Kad^sh  Bamta,]]'. 
44  ff".)  An  anbu  haq  (wall  of  the  ruler)  in  this  region  c  r- 
tainly  is  mentioned  in  a  papyrus  of  the  twelfth  dynasty.  Imi 
it  ante<lated  Sesostris-Ramses  by  more  than  the  whole*n>k- 
sos  period.  In  most  of  the  Old  Testament  passage>  s);».r 
seems  to  have  been  the  name  of  a  place  near  Egypt  ((i. ;:. 
xvi.  7,  XX.  1,  XXV.  18;  1  Sam.  xv.  7,  xxvii.  8),  and  it'ha>  U-.  i. 
conjectured  that  it  corresponded  with  the  Egyptian  Au'>>i 
(wall,  Gr.  Gerrhon)y  which  probably  lay  near  the  Mi*<iit»r- 
ranean  to  the  N.  of  the  isthmus,  and  was  a  fortified  nlat'e  on 
one  of  the  highways  to  the  East  (Strabo,  Geogr.,  xvi.,  2.  '-^^'^ . 

Charles  R.  Gillett. 

ShnrtlelT,  Nathaniel  Bradstreet,  M.  D.:  antiquary.  !•. 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  June  29, 1810;  graduated  at  Harvard  is^U. 
and  at  the  Medical  School  1834 ;  became  a  physician  in  \U^- 
ton  ;  mayor  of  Boston  1868-70.  He  was  tlie  author  oi  An 
Epitofne  of  Phrenology  (1835) ;  A  Perpetual  Calendar  fi.r 
Old  and  2^eiv  Style  (1848) ;  Passengers  of  the  JJayffotrer  i>, 
KIJO  (1849);  Notice  of  William  Shurtlef  of  Atarshfithi 
(1850):  Genealogy  of  the  Lever ett  Family  (1850);  and  .4  7'./- 
pographical  Description  of  Boston  (1871),  l>esi<ies  many  mi- 
nor publications  and  contributions  to  The  Genealogical  Pkj- 
isfer.  He  was  the  editor  of  the  series  of  liecords  of  t\t 
Governor  and  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay  IGJS-^'>  'T* 
vols.  4to,  1853-54),  and,  with  David  Pulsifer,  of  the  eijunlly 
important  Records  of  the  Colony  of  New  Plymouth  (12  \t>l>. 
in  11,  4to,  1855-61).     D.  in  Boston,  Oct.  17,  1874. 

Shnsha:  town  of  Elisabethpol,  Asiatic  Caucasus,  Rn>sia: 
lat.  39'  46'  N.,  Ion.  46''  25'  E.;  formerly  a  fortress,  on  nii  i^^- 
lated  rocky  hill,  inaccessible  on  three  sides;  celebratoi  T  r 
its  silk-culture,  carpets,  and  horses;  70  miles  S.  by  E.  of  il-- 
city  of  ElisiibethiH)!  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  12-G).  The  cli- 
mate is  rigorous.  "This  place  was  formerly  capital  of  iht 
khanate  of  Karabagh,  annexed  bv  Russia  in  1S22.  !*•  p. 
(1891)  26,806.  *  M.  W.  11. 

Shnyaloff :  another  form  of  the  name  Schi^aauiv  {q.  '.>. 

SiaPa^Ognes  [Gr.  <riaXo¥,  saliva  -f  ieyvrf6t.  leailing.  <U'n\ 
of  476tv,  lead]:  drugs  that  cause  an  increajsed  secreti<'n  *f 
saliva.  Mercury  has  this  pronertv  more  than  any  oll^r 
substance,  but  as  the  increasetl  salivary  flow  is  simply  ii" 
among  many  effects  of  a  poisonous  dose  of  the  drug,  ti- 
term  sialagogue  is  not  a  proper  definitive  appellation. 


512 


SIAM 


SIBERIA 


European  arts,  sciences,  and  languages  are  taught,  and  for 
many  years  it  has  been  the  custom  to  send  a  few  young 
Siamese  abroad  for  a  technical  education. 

Oovernmefit. — The  throne  is  hereditary,  but  the  king  may 
choose  his  successor  in  his  own  family.  The  legislative 
power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  king,  assisted  by  a  council  of 
ministers.  The  tributary  states  are  ruled  sometimes  by 
their  own  princes,  sometimes  by  a  royal  commissioner,  and 
there  is  a  strong  tendency  toward  increased  centralization. 
The  kingdom  proper  is  divided  into  forty-one  districts 
under  royal  governors.  The  king's  annual  revenue  is  esti- 
mated at  $10,000,000,  produced  by  a  land-tax,  customs,  taxes 
on  opium,  spirits,  tin  mines,  fruit-trees,  edible  birds'-nests, 
fisheries  (in  the  order  of  the  amount  of  revenue  from  each), 
and  other  sources.  All  taxes,  except  customs,  are  farmed. 
There  is  no  public  debt.  The  standing  army  consists  of 
13,000  men,  well  supplied  with  arms  and  artillery,  is  largely 
officered  by  Europeans,  and  is  said  to  be  in  a  very  effective 
condition.  All  males  of  suitable  years  are  subject  to  mili- 
tary duty.  The  Government  has  a  small  navy,  and  the 
mouth  oi  the  Menam  is  fortified  at  Paknam. 

Commerce, — Bangkok,  the  capital,  is  also  the  commercial 
center  and  chief  port.  In  1893  the  imports  were  valued  at 
$1 1,295,890  and  the  exports  at  $22,285,570.  About  one-fourth 
of  the  imports  in  value  was  cotton  goods,  and  of  the  exports 
five-sevenths  consisted  of  rice.  Other  exports  were  teak, 
pepper,  salt  and  dried  fish,  and  bullocks  and  hides.  Both 
imuorts  and  exports  are  chiefly  exchanged  with  Hongkong 
ana  Singapore,  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  to  the 
northward  to  the  Shan  states  and  Yunnan.  In  1892  292 
vessels  (248  of  them  British)  entered  Bangkok,  and  288 
vessels  (242  British)  cleared  from  that  port.  A  railway,  14 
miles  long,  connecting  Paknam,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
with  Bangkok  was  opened  in  1893.  A  railway  from  Bangkok 
to  Korat,  165  miles  rJ^.  E.,  is  under  construction,  and  many 
others  have  been  projected.  Bangkok  has  an  electric  tram- 
way in  operation.  Telegraph  lines,  with  a  total  length  of 
1,780  miles,  connect  Bangkok  with  Chiengmai,  Chantabun, 
and  other  Siamese  cities ;  also  with  Saigon  in  Tonquin  and 
Maulmein  in  Burma.  There  is  a  postal  service  with  98 
stations  outside  of  Bangkok  (1890),  and  Siam  belongs  to  the 
International  Postal  Union.  In  1890  189,970  domestic  and 
219,170  foreign  letters  were  handled.  The  unit  of  money 
is  the  tical,  a  silver  coin  worth  forty-one  cents  in  average 
exchange.  Silver  and  bronze  are  coined  in  fractions  of  the 
Heal,  and  paper  money  is  current  in  multiples  of  this  coin. 
The  unit  of  weight  is  the  chana  (2f  lb.,  avoirdupois) ;  and 
of  length,  the  niu  (1 J  English  inches)  or  the  toah  (48  niu  =  80 
inches). 

History. — The  Siamese  apparently  came  from  the  north 
and  first  appear  in  history  m  575  a.  d.,  when  they  founded 
Labong,  about  lat.  18'  N.,  in  the  Upper  Menam  valley.  The 
date  of  introduction  of  Buddhism  among  them  is  put  at 
638  A.  D.  They  pressed  steadily  southward  as  invaders  until 
in  the  thirteenth  century  they  had  reached  the  gulf  and 
peninsula,  and  had  apparently  more  territory  than  tliey  have 
now.  In  1350  they  made  Avuthia  the  capital,  and  it  so  con- 
tinued until  1782,  when  theGfovernment  removed  to  Bangkok, 
where  it  remains.  For  many  centuries  they  carried  on  wars 
with  their  neighbors,  the  Burmese,  Peguans,  Cambodians, 
and  with  the  people  they  displaced,  with  varying  fortune 
but  final  success.  The  Burmese  twice  took  their  capital 
(1555  and  1767),  the  second  time  only  after  a  two  years*  siege. 
In  1592  Siam  entered  into  Close  diplomatic  and  commercial 
relations  with  Japan,  and  many  Japanese  settled  in  the 
country,  where  they  played  the  part  now  taken  there  by 
Europeans,  but  native  jealousy  finally  resulted  in  their  ex- 
pulsion with  violence  in  1632.  Very  similar  is  the  history 
of  their  relations  with  Prance,  begun  in  1684.  The  present 
dynasty  succeeded  a  Chinese  one,  and  began  with  the  re- 
moval of  the  capital  to  Bangkok  (1782).  The  conquests  of 
Shans  and  Laos  have  been  chiefly  under  this  dynasty.  The 
last  three  kings  have  made  es|>ecial  effort  to  extentl  the  re- 
lations of  Siam  with  the  Western  world.  Maka  Mongkut 
(1852  to  1868),  the  immediate  predecessor  of  the  present  king, 
was  a  man  of  great  learning  and  enterprise,  and  the  present 
king,  Chulalongkorn,  continues  his  broad-minded  jwlicy. 
Siam  is,  however,  weak,  and,  wedged  in  as  she  is  between 
British  and  French  possessions,  owes  her  continued  exist- 
ence to  sufferance  on  their  part.  In  1893  France  possessed 
hei-self  of  Siam's  territories  across  the  Mekong,  and  in  1895 
negotiations  were  in  progress  between  France  and  Great 
Britain  to  form  a  buffer  state  between  Siam  and  China,  Ton- 
(piin  and  Burma. 


References. — The  classical  work  on  Siam  is  that  of  Mgr. 
Pallegoix,  Description  du  royaume  Thai  ou  Siam  (2  vol^., 
1854).  See  also  Bowring,  The  Kingdom  and  People  of  aSV««i 
(2  vols.,  1857) ;  Mouhot,  Travels  in  the  Central  Parts  of 
IndO'China,  etc.  (2  vols.,  1864,  translated  from  the  Tour  tin 
Monde) ;  Vincent.  Land  of  the  White  Elephant  (1874 :  new 
ed.  1889) ;  Leonowens,  An  English  Governess  at  the  SiVim/ j**- 
Court  (1870) ;  Bock.  Temples  and  Elephants  (1884) ;  Colqu- 
houn,  Among  the  Shans  (1885).      Mark  W.  IIarrinotox. 

Siamese  Twins :  See  Eno  and  Chano. 

Sibe'ria  [from  Russ.  Sihirf,  Siberia,  a  word  perha[^  t»f 
Tartar  origin  from  Sstbir,  the  name  of  the  seat  of  the  Tar- 
tar rulers  on  the  Irtish] :  a  territory  in  Northern  Asia,  lie- 
longing  to  Russia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Artti*- 
Ocean  from  the  mouth  of  the  Kara  river  on  the  W.  ti» 
Bering  Straits  ;  on  the  E.  by  Bering  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk, 
the  Tartar  Channel,  and  the*  Sea  of  Japan  S.  to  the  mouth  •*( 
the  Tumen-kiang  on  the  Korean  frontier ;  on  the  S.  by 
Korea,  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  and  the  Russian  provinfVN 
Semipalatinsk,  Akmolinsk,  and  Turgai  of  the  steppes;  on 
the  W.  by  the  upper  Ural  river,  the  L  ral  Mountains,  and  tht- 
Kara  river.  It  includes  portions  of  the  governments  of 
Orenberg  and  Perm  usually  classed  as  European.  Thus  lim- 
ited Sil)eria  has  an  area  of  4,925,(X)0  sq.  miles,  and  a  ]H>pu- 
lation  of  about  6,(X)0,000.  It  is  about  a  quarter  larger  tlmn 
all  Europe,  but  has  only  the  population  of  Belgium. 

Political  Divisions. — Politically,  Siberia  includes  Sagha- 
lien  with  the  above,  but  excludes  Orenburg  and  Penu,  gi%- 
ing  an  area  of  4,888,496  sq.  miles,  and  a  population.  acc(.frd- 
ing  to  official  estimates  from  1889  to  1892,  generally  for 
1890,  of  4,538,561,  or  a  little  less  than  one  per  squan*  mile. 
In  this  territory  are  the  governments  of  Tobolsk  and  Tcmi^k. 
formerly  composing  the  government  of  Western  Siberia, 
but  now  directly  administered  under  the  Russian  MiniMer 
of  the  Interior;  the  governments  of  Yeniseisk  and  I^kut^k. 
and  the  province  of  Yakutsk,  formerly  composing  the  gen- 
eral government  of  Eastern  Siberia,  now  called  the  genera) 
government  of  Irkutsk;  the  provinces  of  Transbaikalia, 
and  of  the  Amur,  the  Coast  I*rovince  or  Primorskaia  Obla^t. 
and  the  circle  of  Saghalien,  forming  the  general  govemmeni 
of  the  Amur.  For  details  as  to  these  governments  and  prov- 
inces, see  each  under  its  own  heading. 

Configuration. — The  Ural  Mountains,  which  separate  .Li- 
beria from  European  Russia,  reach  an  elevation  of  only 
5,522  feet  at  their  culminating  point  at  Mt.  Konehakof  in 
the  government  of  Perm.  They  can  be  traversed  without 
difficulty,  and  their  slopes  are  especially  gentle  on  the  A>i- 
atic  side.  These  mountains  aside,  Siberia  has  a  very  simple 
structure,  consisting  of  an  elevated  plateau  in  the  southeaM. 
set  in  mountains,  and  passing  toward  the  W.  and  N.  bv  an 
enormous  plain.  The  plateau  is  called  the  plate&u  of  Vi- 
tim,  from  tne  branch  of  the  Lena  which  takes  its  rise  therv. 
It  is  the  northward  extension  of  the  great  plateau  of  Asia, 
which  has  its  highest  and  broadest  pan  abutting  the  Hima- 
laya Mountains  and  extends  nearly  to  Bering  Straits.  In 
Siberia  it  is  narrow  and  relatively  low,  rarely  surpassing' 
3,000  feet.  In  this  plateau  all  the  great  rivers  of  Siln'ria 
take  their  rise.  The  margins  consist  of  a  series  of  moun- 
tain ranges  with  relatively  gentle  slojie  where  thev  abut  <m 
it,  and  abrupt  descents  toward  the  plain  or  sea,  6n  the  ««*a 
of  Okhotsk  the  mountains  rise  abruntly  from  the  wator. 
and  there  is  an  outlying  range  in  kamchatka.  In  the 
Amur  region  plains  of  considerable  ma^itude  interx-em- 
between  the  ranges  at  the  eastern  margin  of  the  plateau 
and  the  coast  ranges,  which  extend  from  Korea  to  the  rnoiith 
of  the  Amur.  The  termination  of  the  nlateau  towanl  thr 
N.  E.  is  in  a  region  very  imperfectly  explored.  The  area  ?«. 
far  described  includes'  only  about  one-fourth  of  Sil>oria. 
The  remainder  consists  of  an  enonnous  plain  extending: 
W.,  N.  W.,  and  N.,  and  sloping  N.  and  W.,  with  an  WMt- 
fined  intermediate  hilly  region.  This  is  the  great  plain  of 
Asia,  and  is  continual  bt»yond  the  Trals  in  the  plain  of 
Russia  and  Germany.  In*  Asia  it  consists  southwest  wanl 
of  steppes,  grassy  and  sandy,  which  rise  very  grmlually  to 
the  low,  rounded,  imperceptible  watershed  between  tlu 
Arctic  and  Turkestan  systems  of  drainage.  lis  slojie  nort  fa- 
ward  is  rapid  near  the  mountains,  thence  px)wing  more  and 
more  gradual.  The  steppes  pass  gradually  into  the  tundras  v( 
the  north,  which  extend  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  along  the  entire 
northern  boundarj'.  They  are  level  or  rolling  plains,  sul>- 
arctic  and  arctic  in  character,  with  an  alluvial  .noil.  The) 
are  of  a  depressing  sameness,  are  well- watered,  ami  w«»ulil 
be  suitable  for  cultivation  did  the  climate  permit-    Their 


514 


SIBERIA 


SIBLER 


Russia.  The  Siberian  forests  are  sometimes  dense  and  con- 
tinuous, but  they  are  more  often  open,  with  intervening 
Srairics.  The  oaks,  lindens,  and  maples  are  found  only  on 
le  Pacific  vei*saiit^  and  here  they  are  of  unfamiliar  species. 
The  common  fruits — the  apple,  pear,  cherry,  gooseberry — do 
not  flourish  in  Siberia,  but  the  hop  is  very  common.  The 
northern  limit  of  cereals  is  about  60°  N.  lat.  in  the  basin  of 
Uie  Obi,  and  rises  to  61°  or  62°  in  Yakutsk  and  the  Aldan 
basin,  but  descends  to  54"  K.  on  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  and  in 
Kamchatka.    They  do  not  flourish  on  the  elevated  plateaus. 

The  fauna  is  not  unlike  the  European,  except  in  the  south* 
west,  where  it  is  like  that  of  Turkestan,  ancl  the  southeast, 
where  it  is  closely  allied  to  the  Manchurian.  The  northern 
shores  have  the  reindeer,  the  northern  hare,  two  species  of 
fox  and  a  wild  dog,  two  species  of  lemmings,  and  the  Sibe- 
rian bear,  the  last  becoming  more  and  more  rare.  The 
mammoth  and  a  rhinoceros  abounded  in  these  plains  appar- 
ently at  a  time  antedating  the  Glacial  epoch.  Farther  S. 
animal  life  is  abundant,  and  even  the  tiger  penetrates  into 
the  Amur  valley.  Lake  Baikal,  though  a  oody  of  fresh 
water,  has  its  own  species  of  seal,  and  the  waters,  both  run- 
ning and  standing,  abound  in  flsh.  Among  the  domesti- 
cate animals  is  the  reindeer,  which  here  descends  to  lat.  50° 
N.  on  the  mountains  bordering  on  Mongolia,  where  its  hab- 
itat touches  that  of  the  camel.  Siberia  offers  abundant  pas- 
turage, and  is  especially  suited  to  the  raising  of  live  stock. 
According  to  recent  estimates,  it  possessed  over  2,000,000 
each  of  horses  and  homed  cattle,  nearly  3,000,000  sheep, 
500,000  swine,  200,000  goats,  146,000  domesticated  reindeer, 
and  8,600  camels.  The  collection  of  furs  (fox,  ermine,  mar- 
ten, sable,  bear,  squirrel)  forms  an  important  industry. 

Agricfdture, — The  amount  of  arable  land  is  estimated  at 
from  one-third  to  one-flfth  of  the  total  area,  more  in  propor- 
tion in  Western  than  in  Eastern  Siberia.  The  maritime 
province,  adjoining  Manchuria  and  the  Pacific,  is  more  favor- 
able for  agriculture,  so  far  as  climate  and  water-supply  are 
concerned,  but  it  is  little  known.  Agriculture  is  very 
primitive,  but  the  virgin  lands  yield  enormous  crops.  The 
chief  crops  are  wheat  (spring  and  winter),  rye,  oats,  barley, 
the  potato,  and  tobacco.  There  are  few  manufacturing  in- 
dustries. Trade  is  mostly  with  European  Russia,  but  is  very 
profitable,  with  high  prices  and  high  rates  of  interest. 

Popidation, — The  population  is  most  dense  over  a  long 
and  slender  triangle,  whose  base  is  on  tiie  Ural  Mountains, 
and  whose  axis  passes  from  Ekaterinburg  to  Vladivostok, 
through  Lake  Baikal.  In  this  space  the  greater  portion  of 
the  inhabitants  are  of  European  descent,  mostly  Russians, 
with  a  few  Poles  and  still  fewer  Oermans.  N.  of  th  is  area,  and 
over  three-fourths  of  Siberia,  the  population  is  very  sparse, 
and  consists  of  tribes  of  Finnish  relationship  in  the  west 
(Ostiaks,  Samoyedes,  etc.)  and  of  uncertain  relationships  in 
the  east  (Chukchees,  Koriaks,  Kamchadales,  etc.,  with  a  few 
Eskimos  about  Cape  East).  S.  of  the  area  above  described 
are  Turco-Tartars  in  the  west  (Kalmuks,  etc)  and  Mongols 
in  the  east  (Buriats,  Tungusos,  etc.).  The  Buriats  occupy 
much  of  the  Amur  valley,  and  the  Tungusos  extend  north- 
ward into  the  Yenisei  basin  until  their  area  adjoins  that  of 
the  Samoyedes.  There  are  also  a  few  thousands  of  Jews 
and  gypsies  scattered  through  Siberia.  The  abundant  ar- 
chaeological remains  show  that  Siberia  has  been  occupied 
from  the  earliest  times,  and  the  peoples  along  the  Arctic 
coast  appear  to  be  the  ethnic  remnants  of  the  aborigines. 
Peoples  of  Turkish  or  Mongolian  races  in  wave  after  wave 
have  swept  over  the  country  and  left  remnants  of  their 
own  tribes  in  its  southern  parts.  The  lot  of  the  indigenes, 
whether  aboriginal  or  not,  is  not  pleasant.  Oppressed  by 
imposts  of  the  nature  of  tribute,  robbed  of  their  lands  most 
suited  for  the  chase,  fleeeetl  by  functionaries  and  merchants, 
exposed  to  new  and  destructive  maladies,  and  demoralized  by 
spirituous  liquors,  their  number  is  decreasing  rapidly. 

The  religions  are  as  diverse  as  the  peoples.  Tlie  Russians 
are  generally  Orthodox,  but  many  dissenters  have  been  de- 
ported. The  Poles  are  usually  lioman  Catholics,  the  Tartnrs 
Mohammedans,  the  Mongols  Lama- Buddhists,  and  the  north- 
ern indigenes  pagans  of  the  Shaman  type.  Missionary  effort 
is  active  throughout  the  country,  and  especially  in  the  west. 
Many  of  the  indigenes  profess  Christianity. 

The  conquest  of  Siberia  was  begun  in  lo82.  The  latest  ad- 
dition to  its  territory  was  Saohalien  {q.  v.)  in  1875.  From  the 
beginning  a  stream  of  voluntary  colonists  has  poured  into  Si- 
beria from  European  Russia,  although  immigration  was  at 
times  forbidden  by  the  Government  and  is  strictly  regu- 
lated. The  number  of  such  colonists  from  1860  to  1880  is 
officially  estimated  at  about  100,000.    In  the  latter  part  of 


the  eighties  it  had  increased  to  about  35,000  per  vear,  an<i 
since  the  Samara  famine  it  has  greatly  increased  and  i> 
estimated  to  have  been  100,000  in  1892. 

Increase  through  Deportation. — Deportation  to  Siljeri-* 
was  important  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  adds  antiii- 
ally  about  20,000  to  the  population,  of  whom  about  <>i)i>- 
fourth  arc  voluntary,  accompanying  their  families.  Fr.tn 
1823  to  1869  there  were  over  600,000  persons  deported  t> 
Siberia,  and  of  them  167,000  were  voluntary.  About  1') 
per  cent,  of  the  deported  were  women ;  12  per  cent.  w.r>- 
sentenced  to  hard  labor,  20  per  cent,  to  loss  of  civil  rij^fi- -. 
13  without  such  loss,  and  2^  were  free  to  change  re>id('ii'- 
in  Siberia ;  52  per  cent,  were  de|>orted  by  executive  act,  •  r 
otherwise  without  process  of  courts.  When  deported  the* 
are  sent  to  prisons  at  Tinmen  and  thence  distributed,  si.rii.- 
to  the  extreme  north,  some  to  hard  labor  in  mines  in  ii>-> 
Amur,  some  to  the  convict  island  of  Saghalien,  but  gen^rni  y 
to  some  less  remote  or  less  forbidding  place  where  the  cla.  f 
reminder  of  their  condition  is  the  strict  police  surveilUinv 
to  which  they  are  subjected.  The  political  exiles  are  th.- 
most  intelligent  and  worthy,  but  tne  worst  treateil.  Tin- 
criminals  sometimes  become  vagabonds,  and  may  iMntiuiit- 
their  unlawful  careers.  The  exiles  in  Siberia  make  5  {«  r 
cent,  of  the  population  as  a  whole — 1  in  Vakut'ik.  3  m 
Tomsk,  4  in  Transbaikalia,  5  in  Tobolsk,  10  in  Veui^ti^W 
and  Irkutsk,  and  in  Saghalien  about  70. 

Vital  Statistics,  etc, — ^Aside  from  the  unfavorable  c<'iuli- 
tions  induced  by  the  introduction  of  criminals  bv  dt* {mrtA- 
tion,  the  social  state  of  Europeans  in  Siberia  is  not  bad.  'V\w 
birth-ratiC  is  very  high  (45*5  in  1890)  and  the  death-r»u 
somewhat  high  (31),  but  not  so  high  as  in  European  Ru^-ia. 
Only  9  per  cent,  of  the  population  as  a  whole  live  in  1 1  «• 
towns.  The  number  of  females  (1888)  surpassed  that  of  n.^^ 
males  by  1  in  100.  In  1891-92  there  were  1,446  primbr> 
schools  with  49,118  pupils,  55  middle  schools  with  7.401  j.i.- 
pils,  17  professional  schools  with  974  pupils  (only  75  giria  ii. 
the  last),  and  a  university  at  Tomsk,  opened  in  1887. 

Means  of  Cmnmunicaiion,  etc, — A  telegraph  line  exltm!- 
from  the  Urals  to  Nikolaevsk  at  the  mouth  of  the  A  mur.  I'm  - 
sides  the  railway  to  Tinmen  one  across  the  country  fr«  ir. 
Orenburg  to  Vladivostok  was  begun  in  1892,  and  is'  {lsu'> 
well  advanced.  The  section  from  Chiliabinsk  (where  it  ••«  n- 
nects  with  the  European  system)  to  Omsk  is  alrea«ly  t-sin- 
pleted,  as  is  also  a  piece  255  miles  long  at  the  eastern  ei>«:, 
extending  N.  W.  from  Vladivostok.  The  chief  t<iw«s  hi* 
Omsk  (pop.  54,?21  in  1890);  Irkutsk  (50,274) ;  Tom^k  (4U- 
856) ;  Tiuraen  (35,396) ;  Tobolsk  (21,336). 

LiTERATUKK. — The  encyclopa?dic  and  more  complete  w*  -riv- 
on  Siberia  are  naturally  in  Russian,  and  the  German  litt^  ra- 
ture  is  large.  The  following  are  the  works  available  in  K  Mu- 
lish and  the  more  classical  of  the  German  books  :  Mid^M.- 
dorff,  Heise  in  dem  diissersten  Norden  und  Ositn  Sihin*i^^ 
(4  vols.,  1851-60);  Kennan,  Tent-life  in  Siberia  (1870).  al^ 
magazine  articles  by  this  author  ;*Seebohm,  ^  TiW/  to  u." 
Valley  of  th^  Veni^i  (1879);  Mndgc,  Fur-clad  Adt^htf^r^^ 
through  Alaska^  Kamtchaika,  and  Eastern  Sitter ia  (1>>^» 
Xordeuskiold,  Voyage  of  the  l>^rt(1881);  ladrintzef.  .s.^- 
ricfi,  geographi«che.  ethnographische^  und  hisiorische  .S'l- 
dien  (trans,  from  Russian,  1886);  I^ndsdell,  Through  ,s.>- 
ria  (2  vols.,  1882);  Woeikof,  Die  Klimate  der  Erde  (2  v.  ^. 
1887);  De  Long,  Voyage  of  the  Jeanette  (2  vols.,  Iv^:  : 
Melville,  The  Lena  Delta  (1885);  Lenamundufw  of  t  u 
Russian  International  Polar  Exjiedition ;  Price,  FrutH  t  - 
Arc-tic  Ocean  to  the  Yellou; Sea  (1892).  « 

Mark  W.  IIarringtmn. 

Sibilants  [from  Lat.  sihilans,  partic.  of  sibila  re,  ♦ 
hiss] :  in  phonetics,  a  group  of  fricatives  or  spirants  <  i)'.r- 
acterized  by  a  hissing  sound.  This  hissing  sound  is  j  r.  - 
duced  by  a  current  of  breath  directed  by  the  blade  t»f  t  «• 
tongue  against  the  teeth.  The  commonest  exampK>s>  art- » 
as  in  sun,  sh  (.v)  as  in  shine,  z  as  in  zinc,  zh  (i)  as  in  aiu  •  ^  \ 
s  and  sh  are  voiceless,  z  and  zh  are  voiced  ;  s  and  z  ar»'  f*.- 
duced  by  a  sharper  or  more  concentrated  current  t>f  i)r»..i" 
than  z  and  zh,  in  which  the  tongue  is  drawn  l>ack  and  t:.i 
point  slightly  raised.    See  Spiraxts  and  Consonant. 

Benj.  Ide  Wuefler. 

Sibler,  WiLHELM, Ph. D. :  clergjman ;  b. at  Breslau. Prn<- 
sia,  Nov.  12,  1801.  After  a  gymnasium  course  he  serw-i 
for  two  years  and  a  half  in  the  Prussian  army,  rising  t<»  a 
lieutenancy;  studied  in  the  military  school  at  Berlin;  aban- 
doning military  life,  studied  philosophy  and  philology  u\ 
Breslau  and  Berlin;  gvmnasium  professor  at  Dresden  is:ii»- 
37 ;  tutor  in  Livonia,  Russia,  1837-41.    Ilaving  studied  ti.t- 


516 


SICILY 


SICKLES 


provident  felling  and  abuse  of  pasturage.  In  consequence 
the  water-supply  is  uncertain  and  limited.  The  heavy  win- 
ter rains  are  of  little  benefit,  being  neither  absorbed  by  the 
soil  nor  collected  in  natural  or  artificial  storehouses  for  the 
drj  season.  Still,  evaporation  from  the  surrounding  seas 
mitigates  the  heat,  and  its  condensation  on  the  summits  of 
the  northern  coast  range  furnishes  a  supply  of  water  which, 
though  badly  economized,  somewhat  protects  the  soil  from 
droughts.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Giaretta,  formed  by 
the  union  of  the  Simeto  and  Gurnalunga,  the  Cantara,  Sal- 
so,  Platani,  and  Belici.  The  numerous  smaller  streams  are 
often  obstacles  to  internal  communication  from  the  violence 
of  their  currents  in  winter  and  from  the  difficulty  of  con- 
structing secure  bridges  over  them.  The  larger  number  are 
dry  in  summer.  The  temperature  is  generally  agreeable,  ex- 
cept during  the  prevalence  of  the  parching  sirocco.  The 
climate  is  not  unhealthful,  except  in  the  many  localities  ren- 
dered almost  uninhabitable  by  malaria. 

Minerals. — The  minerals  correspond  with  the  geologic 
formations  of  which  the  island  is  composed — Primitive  at  the 
N.  E.,  Secondary  along  the  N.,  and  mainly  Tertiary  through 
the  rest  of  Sicily.  Sulphur  and  rock-salt  are  the  most  im- 
portant mineral  products.  The  marbles,  jaspers,  and  agates 
are  fine.  liignite  and  alum  are  found,  and  also  at  the  east- 
em  coast  amber,  usually  of  a  transparent  yellow,  but  some- 
times blue  or  green. 

Agriculture  and  other  Industries, — The  soil,  almost  no- 
where alluvial,  is  exceedingly  fertile  wherever  water  can  be 
secured  for  irrigation.  Agriculture  is  carried  on  only  in 
the  rudest  and  most  primitive  way,  and  until  recent  years 
insecurity  of  life  and  property  have  prevented  investment 
in  rural  improvements.  Excellent  wheat  is  raised  in  large 
quantities,  but  generally  exported,  the  necessities  of  the  in- 
habitants being  supplied  by  the  importation  of  a  cheaper 
and  inferior  article.  The  vineyards  produce  delicious  wines 
of  various  kinds.  Ilemp,  saffron,  and  sumach  are  grown. 
The  mulberry  is  cultivated  for  the  silkworm.  Almonds, 
figs,  olives,  lemons,  oranges,  and  tobacco  are  raised  exten- 
sively. The  cultivation  of  cotton  and  the  sugar-cane  has 
greatly  decreased.  Manufactures  are  unimportant  and 
hardly  more  than  supply  the  wants  of  the  working-classes. 
Pishing  is  prosecuted  with  energy.  The  tunny  is  taken 
and  cured  at  different  points  along  the  coast,  and  sardines 
and  anchovies  are  shipped  to  foreign  ports  in  large  quanti- 
ties. Means  of  intercommunication  are  very  detective. 
There  are  few  highways,  the  roads  are  mostly  bridle-paths, 
and  the  towns  of  the  interior  are  generally  not  accessible  by 
small  carriages.  In  1894  633  miles  of  railway  had  been 
opened  up. 

Language  and  Literature, — The  Sicilian  dialect  resem- 
bles that  of  Calabria.  It  generally  agrees  with  the  Tuscan 
in  vocabulary,  but  with  the  frequent  substitution  of  u  for  o 
final,  of  //  by  dd^  and  with  the  omission  of  the  i/-sound  after 
q ;  but  it  possesses  many  words  from  the  Arabic  and  others 
from  unknown  sources.  Though  not  a  literary  language,  it 
has  ancient  chronicles  in  the  popular  speech  and  some  mod- 
ern poems  justly  admired.  Eaucation,  though  making  prog- 
ress, is  still  in  a  backward  state,  and  Sicily  is  far  behind  con- 
tinental Italy. 

History. — The  earliest  known  inhabitants  were  the  Sica- 
ni  or  Siculi,  who  crossed  from  Italy.  At  an  early  period 
the  Phoenicians  planted  their  factories  along  the  coast  and 
introduced  the  Phoenician  worship.  They  were  shortly  fol- 
lowed by  Greeks,  who  so  thoroughly  colonized  the  island  in 
the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries  before  Christ  that  all  its 
ancient  culture  and  civilization  were  of  Greek  origin :  but 
the  colonists,  being  from  many  different  states,  were  disin- 
clined to  unite  in  any  common  organization.  The  cities 
they  founded  were  governed  by  oligarchies  or  tyrants,  but 
though  often  at  war  with  each  other  rose  to  great  wealth 
and  power.  The  Carthaginians  in  great  force  invaded  Sici- 
ly, but  received  a  crushing  defeat  at  Hiroera  (480  b.  c). 
Then  followed  the  most  brilliant  half  century  of  the  Greek 
domination.  Troubles  among  the  cities  furnished  a  pretext 
for  the  disastrous  Athenian  expedition  (415  b.  c).  After 
409  B.  c.  the  Carthaginians  gradually  mastered  most  of  the 
island,  but  were  sturdily  resisted  by  Dionysius,  tyrant  of 
Syracuse.  At  the  close  of  the  first  Punic'  war  (241  b.  c.) 
they  were  forced  to  cede  their  Sicilian  possessions  to  the 
Romans,  Syracuse  still  remaining  independent ;  but  all  Sici- 
Iv  became  a  Roman  province — the  first  Rome  possessed — at 
tKe  close  of  the  second  Punic  war,  and  so  continued  until 
395,  when,  on  division  of  the  Roman  empire,  it  became  part 
of  the  empire  of  the  Eiast    Christianity  was  early  intro- 


duced, apparently  from  Rome.  Overcome  by  the  Goths, 
Sicily  was  delivered  by  Belisarius  and  continued  a  Byzan* 
tine  possession  until  827,  when  its  subjugation  was  '<*om- 
menced  by  the  Saracens  and  was  completed  in  878.  Umlt-r 
the  Mussulman  sway  agriculture,  manufactures,  and  com- 
merce steadily  increased.  In  1061  the  wealthy  iblnnd 
tempted  the  Jformans  under  Roger  Guiscard,  but  it  wa> 
not  wholly  subdued  until  1090.  The  Normans  held  it  untii 
1194,  when  it  passed  to  the  Hohenstaufen  emperors,  who 
were  replaced  in  1268  by  Charles  of  Anjou  and  the  Frenc^h. 
The  massacre  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers  (q.  v.)  ended  the 
power  of  the  latter  (1282),  and  the  island  came  into  thf 
hands  of  Peter  III.  of  Aragon.  The  Aragonese  dyiia.^ty 
reigned  till  1504,  after  which  until  1706  Sicily  was  under  t la- 
Spanish  crown.  Then  for  brief  periods  it  was  held  by  Aus- 
tria, Savoy,  Austria,  and  Spain,  till  in  1735  it  was  Pennite^i 
with  Naples  under  Don  Carlos  as  King  of  the  Two  Sicili#->, 
and  was  ruled  by  his  house  until  its  liberation  (1860)  h\ 
Garibaldi  and  its  incorporation  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 
Its  condition  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  deplorable.  Its  nutn- 
inal  independence  was  limited  to  control  of  its  internal  af- 
fairs, while  its  rulers  constantly  neglected  to  defend  it 
against  the  Mussulmans ;  but  great  progress  has  been  madt- 
since  1860. 

All  the  ancient  peoples  who  ruled  Italy — the  Siculi,  PhoF^ 
nicians,  Greeks,  Carthaginians,  and  Romans — have  left  mi»n- 
uments  of  their  occupation.  Those  by  the  Greeks  are  &t  u- 
pendens,  and  include  the  vastest  and  most  splendid  existing 
remains  of  Greek  temples.  These  are  specially  to  he  se^-n 
at  Selinonte.  Girgenti  (Agrigentum),  Segesta,  Syracuse,  ami 
Himera.  Even  the  reconstructed  Roman  theaters  of  Syra- 
cuse, Segesta,  Taormina,  and  Palazzolo  rest  on  Greek  foun- 
dations. In  Sicily  are  found  very  beautiful  ancient  pottery 
and  unsurpassed  medals.  Some  edifices  date  from  the  Hy- 
zantines  and  Saracens,  but  the  most  important  memoriaU 
of  the  latter  are  the  useful  plants,  such  as  sugar-cane  aitd 
cotton,  which  they  introduced. 

Population. — Sicily  is  divided  into  the  provinces  of  Cal- 
tanisetta,  Catania,  Girgenti,  Messina,  Palermo,  Sinu'u^a. 
and  Trapani.  Total  population  (1881)  2,927,901 ;  1893  {ofti- 
cial  estimate),  8,404,665.  Principal  cities:  Palermo,  276,- 
000;  Messina,  146,400;  Catania,  121,000. 

Literature. — See  Freeman,  History  of  Sicily  (4  vols., 
Oxford,  1891) ;  also  Freeman,  Story  of  Sicily  {Siew  York, 
1892);  Amari,  Storia  dei  Musulmani  di  Sicilia  (3  vols., 
Florence,  1854-72) ;  Lloyd,  History  of  Sicily  to  the  Athenian 
War  (London,  1872);  Chiesi,  La  Sicilia  illustrata  nflUi 
Storia,  nelV  Arte,  nei  Paesi  (1892);  Di  Giovanni,  Filolo^ia 
e  Letteratura  Siciliana  (2  vols.,  Palermo.  1871) ;  Lo  Fiim., 
Duca  di  Serradifalco,  Antichitd  delta  Sicilia  (5  vols,  folm); 
Evans.  7%e  Classic  and  Connoisseur  in  Italy  and  Sicily  C^ 
vols.,  London,  1835) ;  also  the  Tours  of  Brydone,  Sir  R  C, 
Hoare,  and  Simond.  E.  A.  Grosyenor. 

Sic'kingen,  Franz,  von:  champion  of  the  Reformation: 
b.  Mar.  2, 1481,  in  the  castle  of  Ebernburg.  near  Kreuznnch. 
in  the  present  Rhenish  Prussia;  was  one  of  the  wealthii';:! 
and  most  powerful  knights  of  his  time,  and  was  treated  vith 
much  regard  both  by  Charles  V.  and  by  the  French  kin^, 
Francis  1.  He  spent  all  his  time  in  feuds  with  his  neigh lM>rN 
and,  having  come  into  contact  with  the  new  religious  'ulv»f- 
through  his  friend  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  he  formed  a  plnn  of 
carrying  through  the  Reformation  by  force.  As  the  aes|«»ii- 
ing  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  all  its  pn>perty  anii 
the  distribution  of  its  estates  among  the  knights  formetl  the 
principal  points  of  his  plan,  he  expected  support  from  thf 
nobility,  and  pamphlets  were  written  and  spread  among:  ttif 
peasantry  in  order  to  arouse  them,  too,  against  their  ei^lt-^i- 
astical  lords;  but  the  attempt  entirely  failed.  One  aftor 
another  his  castles  were  taken,  and  at  last  he  was  conipclUti 
to  surrender  himself,  together  with  his  last  castle,  Land^luhl, 
near  Kaiserslautern.    v.  May  8, 1523. 

Sickles,  Daniel  Edoar  :  soldier ;  b.  in  New  York,  (>ct 
20, 1825 ;  was  educated  at  the  University  of  New  York,  but 
left  without  graduating ;  learned  the  printer's  trade,  then 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1846.  He  50<»n 
became  identified  with  politics,  and  in  1847  was  elected  \o 
the  State  Legislature  as  a  Democrat.  In  1853  he  was  ap- 
pointed corporation  attorney  of  New  York  city,  and  the 
same  year  accompanied  Mr.  JBuchanan  to  England  as  j^m^hp- 
tary  ot  legation.  Returning  in  1855,  he  was  elected  State 
Senator,  and  the  following  year  was  chosen  member  of  Con- 
gress from  New  York  city,  and  re-elect<^d  in  1858  ami  in 
1860.    On  Feb.  27, 1859,  he  shot  and  killed  Philip  Barton 


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518 


SIDNEY 


SIEGE 


Bnelish  commissioners  to  negotiate  a  peace  between  Swetien 
and  Denmark.  He  was  absent  from  England  at  the  time 
of  the  Restoration,  and,  not  acceding  to  this,  he  lived  abroad 
in  exile  for  nearly  eighteen  years.  In  1677  he  receiveil  a 
pardon  from  the  king,  with  permission  to  return  to  his 
native  country;  twice  unsuccessfully  stood  for  a  seat  in 
Parliament,  and  was  considered  as  being  in  league  with 
Monmouth,  Essex,  William  Lord  Russell,  and  other  popular 
leaders.  The  discovery  of  the  Rye  House  plot  in  1683  gave 
the  court  an  opiwrt unity  of  ridding  itself  of  so  dangerous 
an  opponent,  lie  and  Russell  were  arrested  and  committed 
to  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of  high  treason.  The  only  wit- 
ness as  to  the  main  facts  charged  was  Lord  Howard,  who 
by  his  own  confession  had  been  a  party  to  the  plot,  and  was 
ready  to  swear  away  the  lives  of  nis  associates  in  order  to 
save  his  own.  The  law  required  two  witnesses  to  prove  the 
alleged  crime,  and  under  the  decision  of  the  infamous 
Chief  Justice  Jeffreys  the  other  witness  was  found  in  a 
manuscript  on  government  which  had  been  discovered 
among  the  papers  of  Sidney,  in  which  it  was  maintained 
that  a  people  liad  the  right*  to  depose  an  unworthy  sover- 
eign. The  trial  was  opened  Nov.  7,  1683;  sentence  was 
pronounced  on  the  26th ;  and  on  Dec.  7  he  was  beheaded 
on  Tower  Hill,  Ijondon,  and  buried  the  next  day  at  Pens- 
hurst.  The  reversal  of  the  act  of  attainder  was  one  of  the 
earliest  acts  of  the  first  Parliament  of  William  and  Mary. 
His  Discourses  concerning  Government  was  published  in 
1698,  and  a  4th  ed.,  with  some  miscellaneous  writings,  in 
1773,  Lives  of  Sidnev  have  been  written  by  Meadley  (Lon- 
don, 1813),  Van  Santvoord  (New  York,  1851),  and  A.  C. 
Ewald  (London,  1873). 

Sidney,  or  Sydney,  Sir  Philip:  author  and  statesman; 
b.  at  Penshurst,  Kent,  England,  Nov.  9.  1554;  studied  at 
Oxford  and  at  Cambridge;  traveled  extensively,  visiting 
Belgium,  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Italy,  in  all  of  which 
countries  he  was  n(»ted  for  his  skill  in  knightly  exercises  as 
well  as  for  his  fondness  for  literature  and  art.  He  returned 
to  England  in  1575,  and,  aided  by  the  influence  of  his  uncle, 
the  Earl  of  Leicester,  rose  to  high  favor  at  court.  In  1576 
he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Vienna,  but  after  his  return  he 
lost  the  queen's  favor,  probably  in  consequence  of  his  bold 
remonstrance  against  the  prcJject  of  her  marriage  to  the 
Duke  of  Anjou,  and  retire<l  for  a  time  to  the  seat  of  his 
brother-in-law,  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  where  he  devoted 
himself  mainly  to  literary  pursuits.  Here  he  wrot^i,  be- 
tween 1579  and  1581,  his  pastoral  romance  Arcadia,  which 
was  never  completed,  and  his  Defence  of  Poesie,  upon 
which  his  literary  fame  mainly  rests.  In  the  meantime  the 
queen's  favor  for  him  revived,  and  he  t(X)k  a  prominent  j)art 
in  all  pageants  of  the  court.  He  fell  deeply  in  love  with 
lAdy  Penelope  Devereux.  afterward  Latly  Rich  and  La<ly 
Mountioy,  whom  he  celebrated  under  assumed  names  in  his 
Arcadia  and  in  the  series  of  love  sonnets  entitled  Astrophel 
and  Sidla,  publishetl  soon  after  his  death  (1591).  In  1583 
he  Wfis  knignted,  and  married  the  daughter  of  Sir  Francis 
Walsingham.  In  1585  he  wished  to  join  Sir  Francis  Drake 
in  his  second  expedition  against  the  Spaniards  in  the  Wost 
Indies,  but  the  queen  forbade  this,  fearing,  as  she  said, 
"  lest  she  should  lose  the  jewel  of  her  dominions."  It  is 
said,  probably  without  good  grounds,  that  the  crown  of  Po- 
land was  offered  to  him.  The  war  was  raging  l)etween 
Spain  and  the  Netherlands,  and  Elizabeth  made  some  show 
of  assisting  the  Dut^'h.  In  1585  Sidney  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Flushing,  and  soon  after  was  made  general  of  horse 
under  his  uncle,  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  in  which  capacity  he 
gave  promise  of  much  military  ability.  On  Sept.  22, 1586,  he 
encountere<l  a  body  of  the  Spaniards  under  the  walls  of  the 
town  of  Zutphen.  *  Sidney  whs  severely  wounded,  and  die<l 
at  Arnheim,  Oct.  7.  1586.  The  well-known  story  of  his  re- 
fusing the  cup  of  wine,  when  fainting  from  loss  of  blood,  in 
order  to  give  it  to  a  wounchnl  soldier,  has  l>een  (piestioned, 
but,  whethertrue  or  false,  well  illustrates  his  chivalrous  and 
generous  chanicter.  His  body  w»us  conveyed  to  Enirland, 
where  it  lay  in  state  for  several  <iays,  and  a  general  mourn- 
ing, the  first  of  the  kind  in  English  hi-^tory,  was  observed. 
Sir  Philip  Sidney  is  perhaps  the  best  English  model  of 
knightly  virtues,  and  his  charaeter  has  always  l)een  a  favor- 
it«  theme  with  poets.  His  writings  had  great  celebrity  in 
their  day,  but  they  are  nuirked  by  the  st mined  and  artificial 
style  of  the  pericKl.  His  Arcndin  wjis  first  published  soon 
after  his  deatn  (1590)  as  The  Counffss  of  Pemhroke's  Arcadia 
(reprinted,  Ijondon,  186H).  His  CompU'te  Workn  appeared  in 
London  in  3  vols,  in  1?25;  his  Miscellaneous  \Vorki<,  with  a 


memoir,  were  published  at  Oxford  in  1826,  reprinted  at  It*-- 
ton  in  1860;  his  Complete  I^ems,  e<lited  by  Kev.  A.  B.  iir>r- 
sart.  were  published  at  London  in  1873.  See  the  Life,  h\  .J. 
A.  Symonds  (London,  1886;  2il  e<l.  1889).  See  En..limi 
Literature.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Belr>. 

Sidon,  or  Zidon  [from  Lat.  Si' don  =  Gr,  lilAw^  fro^ 
Heb.  7Vl<//i5»,Sidon, liter., fishing- place]:  an  ancient  cit)  -:: 
Phamicia,  ou  the  Mediterranean,  in  lat.  33""  34*  N.  (s«t»  w. »; 
of  Palestine,  ref.  3-E).  Its  origin,  lost  in  antiquity,  is  tin  . 
according  to  Josephus,  to  Sidon,  the  oldest  son  of  Cana.n.. 
and  it  is  referred  to  even  in  the  book  of  Genesis.  <  <•  ►- 
brated  for  its  manufactures  and  commerce,  its  nam«*  ^^.i- 
applied  to  the  whole  country  and  nation.  Homer  calN  tin 
Sidonians  "  skillful  in  all  things."  Sidon  had  trade-slat  i  -i^ 
in  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Spain,  and  Northern  Africa:  its  ll»^  t- 
visited  the  British  islands  and  the  Baltic ;  and  its  f lurj  ]• . 
glass,  linen,  gold,  silver,  and  ivory  wares  were  fann'i,^  h 
thousand  years.  Its  most  brilliant  period  began  ah-  .t 
1600  B.  c,  but  it  was  ultimately  eclipsed  by  Tyre,  i'aj- 
tured  by  Shalmaneser,  King  of  Assyria,  about  720  b,  <^.,  it 
was  almost  utterly  destroyed  during  its  revolt  against  t).» 
Persian  Artaxerxes  (351  B.C.).  Rebuilt,  it  never  re;;:iinf«i 
its  former  splendor.  Under  the  Greek,  Syrian,  and  ICntr.  i'. 
dominion,  it  further  declined.  Alternately  held  during  rl.- 
crusades  by  the  Christians  and  Mussulmans,  it  was  ra/.-l 
by  Malek  Ashraf  in  1291.  In  the  vicinity  were  discover.  •! 
(1887)  sarcophagi  of  unsurpassed  workmanship  (now  tii*- 
chief  treasure  of  the  Museum  of  Constantinople),  one  «if 
which  is  perhaps  that  of  Alexander  the  Gre«it. 

E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Sidonins  Apollinaris:  See  Apollinaris  Sidoxius. 

Sidra,  Gulf  of:  See  Syrtis. 

HIebold,  zee'bolt,  Philipp  Franz,  Freiherr  von  :  traveler. 
physician,  zoologist,  and  botanist ;  b.  at  Wlirzburg,  Bava- 
ria, Feb.  17,  1796;  studied  medicine  and  natural  sclents  >. 
entered  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Comiiany,  an.i 
was  appointed  leader  of  a  scientific  mission  whicn  arnxtii 
at  Nagasaki  in  1823.  He  soon  acquired  an  extraordinarx 
influence  over  the  Japanese,  whose  language  he  masten.i. 
and  in  1826,  when  he  accompanied  the  Dutch  embassy  t>> 
Yedo,  he  was  allowed  to  remain  l)ehind,  the  only  forei;:ri«r 
in  the  hermit  city.  The  sale  of  a  map,  however  (see  Ino.. 
brought  him  into  difficulties,  and  after  a  term  of  impri-*- 
onmeut  he  was  finally  banished  from  the  country  in  1k;o. 
On  his  arrival  in  Holland  he  was  created  a  baron,  and  s^H-t.t 
the  next  twenty-nine  years  of  his  life  in  writing  and  iu  ar- 
ranging his  scientific  collections  at  Leyden,  Munich,  hiuI 
WQrzburg.  European  gardeners  owe  to  him  the  intrixiur- 
tion  of  Japanese  lilies,  |)eonies.  camellias,  chrTsanthemuiiiN 
and  other  attractive  plants.  At  the  close  of  his  life  he  n- 
turned  to  Japan.  His  great  work  is  a  folio,  magnifiifni  y 
illustrated,  \ippon,  Archiv  zur  Besehreibung  wn  Jn/^.u. 
D.  at  Munich,  Oct.  18,  1866.  J.  M.  Dixon. 

Siedlce,  si-ed'l'tsd:  town  of  Russia;  the  capital  of  tit- 
go  vernment  of  Siedlce  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  8-A).  U 
has  a  fine  palace  surrounded  with  beautiful  ganiens,  dis- 
tilleries, sugar-refineries,  and  manufactories  of  agriculmn*! 
implements.  Pop.  (1890)  14.015,  two-thirds  Jews.  The  ir-  •*•- 
ernment  of  Siedlce,  comprising  an  area  of  5,5:^  sq.  inil.^, 
with  671,598  inhabitants  in  1890,  is  situated  to  the  W.  of 
the  river  Bug,  between  the  governments  of  Ijomza,  Wnrvaw. 
Radom,  Lublin,  Volhynia,  and  Grodno,  and  wcupies  ntariy 
the  same  territory  as  the  old  palatinate  of  Pmllachia. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  llARRiN(iToN. 

Siege  [from  0.  Fr.  siege,  Fr.  siege,  deriv.  of  segit'r.  N- 
siege  :  Span,  sifiar  :  Proven?,  setjar  <  Lat.  ^sedica  rf,  (1»*- 
riv.  of  sede're,  sit] :  the  investing  of  a  fortified  nlace  by  av 
enemy  for  the  purpose  of  compelling  it*  surrender  by  (■<•!>- 
tinned  offensive  operations.  Niodem  fortresses  are  of  tw«> 
general  types — single  fortressos,  consisting  of  an  eiMvinie 
and  its  outworks  (see  Fortification),  and  intrenched  caruu-. 
consisting  of  the  former  combined  with  detached  w«>rk-. 
(See  Intrenched  Camps,)  The  latter  may  be  defen<ie<l  mmi- 
I)ly  by  its  garrison  or  by  a  large  army  m  wldition  to  tin- 
garrison.  The  methods  of  attack  will  vary  with  thi*st'  «iil- 
ferent  circumstances,  and  may  be  classified  as  (1)  sioire  of  a 
single  fortress;  (2) siege  of  an  intrenched  c*mp defentli-ii  l*y 
its^rarrison  simply ;  and  (S)  siege  of  an  intrenched  cainj*  «h.- 
cunied  by  an  army. 

1.  The  method  perfected  by  Vauban  in  the  latter  hiilf  <'f 
the  seventeenth  century  applied  to  the  first  case,  and  un«itT 
ordinary  cin'umstances  with  the  proper  force — five  or  ?ii 


520 


SIEGE 


Feb.,  1871)  is  an  illustration.  The  works  planned  for  the 
defense  of  this  place  were  not  all  completed  at  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war,  and  some  of  the  points  selected  for  the  de- 
tached works  were  occupied  by  field-fortifications  of  the 
semi-permanent  type.  These  were  selected  by  the  Germans 
as  the  point  of  attack.  The  investment  was  completed 
Nov.  3,  the  garrison  consisting  of  16,000  and  the  attacking 
force  of  30,W0  men,  increased  about  the  middle  of  January 
to  80.000.  A  bombardment  was  opened  Dec.  3,  and  con- 
tinued night  and  day  until  Feb.  13,  during  which  time 
more  than  500,000  projectiles  were  thrown  into  the  place. 
In  five  days  nearly  every  house  in  the  city  had  been  struck. 
The  defense,  under  Col.  Denfert-Rochereau,  was  gallant  and 
skillful.  For  many  weeks  he  kept  the  enemy  at  a  distance 
by  first  occupying  exterior  positions,  and  then  freeljr  using 
his  projectiles  at  long  range.  This  kept  the  line  of  invest- 
ment so  attenuated  that  the  attacking  force  was  inadequate. 
Moreover,  the  latter  was  compelled  to  throw  up  lines  of 
circumvallation  against  the  threatening  force  under  Gen. 
Bourbaki,  and  to  use  part  of  its  artillery  in  defending  them. 
The  detached  field-works  were  finally  evacuated  Feb.  3-8, 
the  approaches  having  reached  the  ditch.  Thus,  after  98 
days'  investment  and  08  of  bombardment,  the  attack  found 
itself  just  where  it  would  have  been  on  the  first  day  of  the 
siege  had  it  not  been  for  these  field-works.  Further  ojiera- 
tions  were  to  be  pushed  against  the  main  works,  but  the 
gan-ison  was  ordered  out  of  the  place  by  the  French  Gov- 
ernment, and  turned  it  over  to  the  Germans  Feb.  17  and  18, 
Paris  having  capitulated  Jan.  28.  That  a  well-managed 
assault  may  sometimes  be  successful  against  an  intrenched 
camp  was  proved  by  the  capture  of  Kars  by  the  Russians 
on  the  night  of  Nov.  17-18,  1877.  The  defenses  consisted 
of  twelve  detached  permanent  forts  and  a  citadel,  all  built 
since  the  Crimean  war.  Some  of  the  forts  were  connected 
by  lines  of  trenches  thrown  up  during  the  war  of  1877. 
Thev  were  manned  by  a  full  garrison  of  about  23,000 
Turks  anned  with  the  tJest  modern  breech-loaders.  The  at- 
tacking force  was  about  35,000  men.  The  Turks  are  con- 
sidered the  equals  of  any  troops  in  the  world  when  fighting 
in  a  fixed  position,  as  behind  fortifications,  yet  this  assault 
resulted  in  the  killing  or  capture  of  the  entire  garrison, 
with  the  exception  of  tnirty  or  forty  men.  The  most  promi- 
nent features  of  its  management  were  that  no  intimation 
had  been  given  to  the  enemy  that  it  was  contemplated,  the 
points  of  attack  were  skillfully  selected,  the  various  columns 
attacked  simultaneously,  and  a  moonlit  night  was  selected 
for  it,  when  the  light  was  sufficient  to  prevent  confusicm 
among  the  columns,  though  not  sufficient  to  expose  them  at 
a  distance  to  the  view  of  the  enemy. 

III.  When  the  intrenched  camp  is  occupied  by  an  army, 
the  difficulties  of  forcing  an  entrance  are  greatly  magnified ; 
and  if  the  army  is  not  very  much  inferior  to  the  attacking 
force,  they  will  probably  be  insuperable.  The  method  of 
blockade  may  then  be  resorted  to,  with  a  view  to  exhaust- 
ing the  supplies  of  the  besieged  of  ammunition  and  provi- 
sions. Here  the  attack  and  defense  consist  at  first  of  a 
struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  communications  with  the 
place.  These  being  once  all  secured  by  the  attack,  their 
lurther  operations  consist  mainly  in  harassing  the  garrison 
by  a  distant  bombardment  while  vigilantly  guarding  against 
the  introduction  of  supplies  or  re-enforcements.  The  defense 
consists  in  keeping  up  a  fire  upon  the  enemy,  with  occasional 
sorties  in  large  bodies,  the  object  of  which  is  to  make  a  per- 
manent break  in  the  conlon,  with  a  view  to  its  destruction 
or  to  cover  the  introduction  of  re-enforcements.  The  sieges 
of  Atlanta  and  Richmond  during  the  civil  war  in  the  U.  S., 
and  of  Metz  and  Paris  in  the  Franco-German  war,  are  illus- 
strations.  In  the  cases  of  Atlanta  and  Richmond  the  o{)era- 
tions  were  confined  to  the  preliminary  struggles  for  the 
communications.  Having  lost  these,  the  defenders  with- 
drew at  their  last  opportunity,  preferring  the  immediate 
loss  of  the  place  to  the  sacrifice  oi  both  place  and  troops  a 
few  weeks  later.  At  Metz,  although  the  army  of  Bazaine 
was  driven  into  the  fortress  and  kept  there  against  its  will, 
and  weakened  the  fortress  for  resistance  to  blockade,  never- 
theless it  offered  an  immense  obstacle  to  a  forced  entrance. 
The  general  method  of  occu[)ying  the  ground  by  the  Ger- 
mans was  about  the  same  both  around  Metz  and  Paris.  A 
first  line  of  outposts  was  establislied  from  half  a  mile  to  a 
mile  from  the  works.  These  were  intrenched,  and  were 
strong  enough  to  resist  small  parties  of  the  enemy,  but  not 
a  heavy  force.  Behind  these  was  a  carefully  selected  posi- 
tion, forming  the  main  line.  Its  distance  from  the  works 
depended  upon  the  nature  of  the  ground,  and  varied  from 


1  to  3  miles,  the  normal  distance  being  2^  miles,  or  a  little 
more  than  the  effective  range  of  the  guns  of  the  enemy,  h 
was  fortified  by  rifle-trenches  and  gun-«mplacementj$  of  the 
strongest  profile,  strengthened  by  abattis  or  other  obslu^Ies, 
with  occasionally  an  inclosed  work  capable  of  offering  in- 
dependent resistance.  Farther  to  the  rear  central  |K>inLs 
were  selected  and  fortified,  at  which  the  reserves  were  pobttNL 
and  upon  which  the  troops  were  to  rally  in  case  of  the 
enemy  s  success  in  breaking  through  the  cordon.  The 
length  of  the  line  of  investment  of  Metz  was  24  miles^  aiitl 
of  that  at  Paris  45  miles.  In  each  case  the  besieging  force 
was  about  200,000  men.  The  holding  of  such  lines  by  suih 
numbers  would  have  been  utterly  impracticable  previously 
to  the  modem  improvements  in  small-arms  and  the  introduce 
tion  of  the  free  use  of  continuous  lines  of  intrench  men  ts. 
As  it  is,  when  the  investment  is  once  closed  the  besiegin<; 
army  has  a  ^reat  advantage  over  the  defenders,  since  it  can 
accomplish  its  purpose  without  leaving  its  works^  The 
roles  are  reversed,  and  the  besieged  are  compelled  to  thn»w 
themselves  against  the  intrench  men  ts,  where  they  are  snrp 
to  meet  with  destruction.  The  army  in  Metz  was  ir3.(«H) 
strong  and  that  in  Paris  500,000,  many  of  the  latter,  how- 
ever, worthless  as  soldiers.  The  former  capitulated  ntwr 
70  days'  blockade,  and  the  latter  after  129  days'.  Tb»* 
operations  about  these  cities,  especially  Metz,  give  rise  t«» 
the  curious  but  essential  question.  Can  one  army  invent  and 
besiege  another  of  equal  magnitude  f  The  olnect  of  the 
sorties  from  Metz  was  to  break  through  the  conion  and  pit 
away  with  the  active  army,  leaving  the  place  to  be  held  hy 
its  garrison.  The  fortifications  aided  such  attempts ;  and  if 
they  had  been  mere  field-intrench ments  which  were  being^ 
evacuated,  the  beleaguered  army  would  have  had  still  le'-> 
chance  of  success.  The  answer,  then,  seems  to  be.  Let  an 
army  somewhat  demoralized  by  defeat  simply  lie  dormHiit 
for  a  while,  and  it  may  be  invested  by  equal  numbers  and 
taken  by  siege.  The  so-called  siege  of  Plevna,  July  to  Iiu-.. 
1877,  was  one  oif  the  most  prominent  features  of  the  Rus^<^ 
Turkish  war  of  1877-78.  Upon  its  occupation  by  the  Turk- 
ish army,  about  the  middle  of  Julv,  Plevna  was  without  de- 
fenses. The  construction  of  field-fortifications  was  cM»ti- 
tinued,  almost  under  the  fire  of  the  enemy,  during  the  five 
months  which  followed,  until  there  was  an  intrenched  camp, 
having  47  detached  works,  supplemented  by  numerous  lint^ 
of  trenches,  and  occupying  a  perimeter  of  about  22  milo*. 
The  Russians  attacked  the  place  on  July  20  with  a  small 
force — about  7,000  men — ana  were  repulsed  with  a  li^^'^  «»f 
more  than  one-third  their  number.  They  assaulted  agHin 
on  July  30  with  30,000  men,  and  were  repulsed  with  a  lo» 
of  over  7,000.  They  again  assaulted  Sept.  11,  with  JHMNM 
men,  after  a  four  days*  bombardment,  and  were  repul>f«i 
with  a  loss  of  18,500  men.  They  then  concluded  to  n'SiHt 
to  a  blockade.  The  investment  of  the  place  was  coniplete^l 
Oct.  24,  after  a  hot  contest  for  the  last  communications  the 
Turks  committing  the  error  of  allowing  themselves  to  l*e 
shut  in,  instead  of  abandoning  the  place  before  it  was  t^M> 
late.  The  line  occupied  by  the  Russians  was  46  miles  Kni?;. 
the  force  employed  being  about  110,000  men.  The  Turks 
at  this  time  had  about  40,000.  Subsequent  operations  wrre 
limited  to  strengthening  the  defenses  on  both  sides,  with 
the  exception  of  the  partial  assaults  of  Oct.  19  and  Nov.  «, 
the  object  of  which  was  to  gain  certain  points  by  which  the 
line  of  investment  could  be  shortened.  By  Dec.  10  the 
Turkish  commander,  Osman  Pasha,  having  consumed  all  of 
his  provisions,  found  himself  compelled  to  surrender  or  to 
leave  his  works  and  throw  himself  against  the  fortifications 
whfch  surrounded  him,  in  a  desperate  attempt  |to  cut  hi> 
way  out.  He  chose  the  latter  alternative,  lost  in  the  at- 
tempt 6,000  men,  killed  and  wounded,  while  inflicting  a 
loss  of  but  1,800  upon  the  enemy,  and  then  surrendered. 

The  blockade  may  be  applied  to  a  single  fortress,  but  il> 
chances  of  success  will  then  be  less  favorable,  for  the  rpaN>it 
that  the  number  of  mouths  in  the  place  being  comparatively 
small,  the  stock  of  provisions  may  be  such  as  to  enable  it  to 
hold  out  longer  than  the  requirements  of  the  besieger  will 
permit. 

IV.  For  a  long  period  in  the  early  history  of  war,  when 
the  arms  omployea  were  slings  and  arrows*  the  high  ami 
thick  walls  of  fort.resses  offered  insuperable  obstaeles  t*) » 
forced  entrance.  Sieges  then  were  simple  blockades.  At 
a  later  date  mining  was  resorted  to;  ramps  of  earth  and 
wood  were  thrown  up,  beginning  beyond  the  range  of  an 
arrow,  and  sloping  upward  to  the  top  of  the  wall;  or  the 
battering-ram  was  employed  to  effect  a  breach.  The  methinl 
of  carrying  on  the  operation  among  the  Greeks  and  Romani 


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I 

622 


SIEMENS'S  ARMATURE 


SIERRA  NEVADA 


a  pyrometer,  etc. ;  and  published  On  a  Regenerative  Con- 
denser (1850) ;  On  the  Conversion  of  Heat  into  Mechanical 
Effects  (1853) ;  On  a  Regenerative  Steam-engine  (1856) ;  and 
On  the  Increase  of  Electrical  Resistance  in  Conductors, 
with  Rise  of  I'emperature,  and  its  Application  to  the  Meas- 
ure of  Ordinary  and  Furnace  Temperatures  (1871).  He  was 
knighted  Apr.,  1883,  and  died  Nov.  20  the  same  year.  See 
his  Life  by  W.  Pole  (London,  1889). 

Siemens's  Armature ;  See  Electric  Motoe. 

SiemenB^S  Begrulator :  See  Electric  Lighting. 

Siena,  se^-a'naa,  Guido,  da :  painter ;  b.  at  Sienna,  Italy, 
about  1200.  A  picture  of  his  dated  1221  still  exists.  Ue  was 
one  of  the  first  Italian  painters  to  break  away  from  Byzan- 
tine traditions,  and  is  the  artist  who  confirms  the  priority 
of  the  Siennese  school  to  the  Florentine.  He  did  not  paint 
in  fresco,  but  on  panel.  Ills  best-known  picture,  a  \  irgin 
holding  the  Divine  Child  on  her  knees,  is  in  the  Dominican 
church  at  Sienna.  Another  Madonna,  dated  1262,  at  San 
Bernardino  is  supposed  to  be  by  this  artist.  W.  J.  S. 

Sien'na  [It.  terra  di  Siena,  earth  of  Sienna] :  an  ocher- 
ous  earth  which  when  ground  forms  an  excellent  pigment 
called  raw  sienna,  and  when  burnt  assumes  a  still  richer 
orange-red  tint.    It  is  brought  from  Italy. 

Sienna  (Ital.  Siena,  anc.  Sena  Julia) :  city  of  Tus- 
cany, Italy ;  chief  town  of  the  province  of  Sienna ;  cover- 
ing a  beautiful  hill  1,100  feet  above  the  sea,  a  spur  of  the 
Chianti  chain ;  in  lat.  43^  22  N.,  Ion.  11°  11'  E. ;  60  miles 
by  rail  S.  of  Florence  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  4-D).  The 
walls  are  about  4  miles  in  circumference  ;  the  citadel  occu- 
pies the  northwest  corner  of  the  town,  which  is  entered  by 
nine  gates;  and  the  principal  streets  railiate  in  irregular 
lines  from  the  Piazza  vittorio  Emanuele,  a  fine  large  open 
space  nearly  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  The  Duomo,  or 
Chiesa  Metropolitana,  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Gothic 
architecture  m  Italy,  stands  on  an  elevation  not  far  from 
the  center  of  the  town.  Its  length  is  about  300  feet,  its 
mean  width  120  feet.  The  western  facade  is  magnificent  in 
color  and  in  the  richness  of  its  sculptures.  The  effect  of 
the  interior  is  peculiarly  picturesque,  partlv  from  the  hori- 
zontal layers  of  black  and  white  marble  of  which  not  only 
the  walls  but  even  the  columns  are  composed,  and  partly 
from  the  roofing,  which  is  a  vault  of  blue  studde4  with 
stars.  The  pavement  is  of  marble  inlaid  in  various  styles, 
the  work  of  uifferent  artists  from  the  fourteenth  to  the  six- 
teenth century,  the  most  distinguished  of  these  being  Becca- 
fumi  (1517).  The  marble  pulpit  is  adorned  with  some  of  the 
finest  reliefs  of  Nicola  Pisano  and  his  school.  The  bronze 
tabernacle,  the  pictures  by  Duccio  (1300),  several  early  works 
of  Michelangelo,  the  celebrated  frescoes  of  Pinturicchio  (1502) 
representing  scenes  from  the  life  of  Pius  II.,  the  fonts,  the 
vases  for  holy  water,  the  large  collection  of  old  choir-books 
exquisitely  adorned  with  miniatures,  are  among  the  count- 
less other  objects  of  the  highest  interest  to  the  student  of 
art.  In  the  Church  of  S.  A^ostino  and  in  several  others,  in 
the  ex-convent  of  S.  Domenico,  and  in  many  private  jmlaces 
are  choice  pictures  by  early  painters,  above  all  by  Scxloma. 
The  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  is  very  rich,  especially  in  pic- 
tures of  the  Siennese  school.  The  university,  founded  in 
1321,  was  formerly  very  celebrated.  There  are  cloth  and 
furniture  factories,  but  the  industries  are  small. 

As  early  as  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  Sienna  was  governed 
by  a  count.  In  the  disputes  between  the  })apacy  and  the 
German  emi)erors  it  at  first  took  the  side  of  the  former,  and 
like  its  neignbors,  Florence  and  Pisa,  developed  into  an  in- 
dependent commonwealth.  In  1186  Sienna  joined  the  other 
large  Tuscan  commonwealths  in  their  resistance  to  Henry, 
son  of  Frederic  Barbarossa,  but  after  some  successes  was 
reconciled  to  the  emperor,  and  thenceforward  it  continued, 
for  the  most  part,  steadfastly  Ghibelline.  In  1260  the  Sien- 
nese inflicted  a  crushing  defeat  on  the  Florentines  at  Monta- 
perto,  but  hostilities  were  frequently  renewetl  afterward. 
An  awful  plague,  known  as  the  black  death,  broke  out  in 
1348,  and  continued  to  ap|>ear  until  toward  the  close  of  the 
century.  During  the  first  year  of  this  frightful  malady 
80,000  persons  are  said  to  have  perished  in  the  city  and  ter- 
ritory of  Sienna.  In  1480  the  government  of  the  common- 
wealth fell  into  the  hands  of  Pandolfo  Petrucci,  who  con- 
tinued to  direct  public  affairs  successfully  until  1512.  After 
his  death  the  Medici,  with  Spanish  help,  annexe<l  Sienna 
to  the  territory  of  Florence.  From  this  time  its  history  is 
almost  one  with  that  of  the  rest  of  Tuscanv.  Pof).  (1893) 
29,000.  Revised  by  M.  W.  JIarrinuton. 


Sierra:  See  Mountain. 

Sierra  Leone,  si-ar'raa-lee-6'ne^ :  a  British  colony  on  th«' 
northern  end  of  the  Guinea  coast,  Africa,  from  7'  to  9  N. 
lat..  including  about  150  miles  of  coast  and  extending  V?" 
miles  inland.  Area  about  15,000  stu  miles.  The  soil  i>  f»  r- 
tile,  especially  in  the  low  coast-land,  but  the  climate  is  v\- 
tremely  hot  and  unhealthful,  especially  in  the  wet  sf-a-ii. 
The  rainfall  at  Freetown  is  about  110  inches,  of  which  twi- 
thirds  fall  in  July,  August,  and  September.  All  trup^.i' 
plants  and  fruits  grow  luxuriantly,  and  palm  oil,  pepfior.  irii.- 
ger,  gum-copal,  ground-nuts,  etc.,  are  exported.  Su{;ar,  <  nf- 
fee,  indigo,  and  cotton  have  been  introduced,  and  siki-^ ••; 
well.  The  settlement  was  made  in  1787  with  a  philant  hmp: 
purpose,  the  idea  l)eing  to  form  a  home,  or  at  least  a  j>la«-r  <.f 
refuge,  for  free  Negroes,  and  in  spite  of  its  climate,  which  i- 
very  unhealthful  for  Europeans,  the  colony  is  steadilv  gr.-w- 
ing.  The  chief  products  and  exports  are  palm  oil,  pa]ni-ki  r- 
nels,  benni-seeds,  ground-nuts,  kola-nuts.  India-rubber,  <'^'iu. 
and  hides.  The  capital  and  chief  port  of  the  coast  is  Fn » - 
town,  which  is  fortified  and  is  a  naval  coaling-station.  }*t>\'. 
(1893)  180,000,  with  224  whites.  Administration  is  actua^.v 
effective  over  only  about  75,000  of  the  ix)nulation. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Sierra  Mad  re,  -maa-dra',  or  Sierra  Madre  del  Pa- 
clftco:  the  irregular  chain  of  mountains  which  boni*  r> 
and  frames  the  western  side  of  the  Mexican  plateau.  \>»  »• 
Mexico.)  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  continuation  of  the  m<  '\i '.- 
tains  on  the  western  border  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Yiit>:u, 
and  the  name  Sierra  Madre  is  applied  to  it  also  in  South- 
ern Arizona.  Entering  Mexico  near  Ion.  109"  W.  it  s^j cu- 
rates Chihuahua  from  Sonora,  occupies  the  western  part  ••( 
Durango,  and  is  continued  through  Jalisco.  On  the  ea>i*Tr. 
or  plateau  side  the  declivity  is  gentle,  but  the  Pacific  >uw 
is  marked  by  steep  slopes,  numerous  precipices,  and  nittc- 
nificent  scenery.  Few  of  the  peaks  exceed  10,000  feet.  1 1 1 
chain  is  much  broken,  and  oiten  tliere  are  several  panill' '. 
ranges.  In  Jalisco,  especiallv,  the  mountains  are  cut  i'V 
deep  caflons  where  rivers  break  through  them.  The  liijht  r 
slopes  are  covered  with  pine-forests'.  The  Sierra  Matlr.- 
del  Sur,  in  Southern  Mexico  (Guerrero,  Oajaoa),  is  an  K. 
and  W.  range,  parallel  to  and  near  the  Pacific,  and  ri?iii;: 
in  parts  to  10,000  feet;  apparently  it  has  no  structural  con- 
nection with  the  Sierra  Madre  del  Pacifieo.  The  inouniaii.> 
forming  the  eastern  border  of  the  plateau  are  sonieiiiri-- 
called,  collectively,  the  Sierra  Madre  del  Oriente  or  K«>t»Tn 
Sierra  Madre.  Herbert  II.  Smith. 

Sierra  Morena,  -mo-ra'naa :  a  mountain  range  of  Sj^.n. 
separating  the  basin  of  the  Guadiana  from  that  of  the  (iua- 
dalquivir,  and  extending  between  Ion.  S°  and  4^*  W.  Its  a-^ 
I)ect  is  generally  rugged  and  somber;  its  highest  peak  is  Ara- 
cena,  about  5,500  feet  high. 

Sierra  NeTa'da  [Span.,  snowy  mountains :  «i>rrri.  siw. 
mountain  range  <  Lat.  serra  +  neva'do,  snowy,  tleriv.  -f 
nieve,  snow  <  Lat.  nix,  nivis"] :  a  mountain  range  of  Smi!Ii- 
ern  Spain,  75  miles  long  and  25  broad,  between  the  Guaual- 
quivir  and  the  3Iediterranean.  Its  highest  poaks  are  Mu.a- 
hacen,  11,658  feet,  and  Veleta,  11,387  feet,  and  it  ha>  n- 
ceived  its  name  from  its  being  covered  on  many  of  its  \^\\^- 
with  perpetual  snow  and  ice.  Its  southern  slopes  an*  <  U4 
with  chestnut  forests,  olive  and  orange  groves,  and  v:hi- 
yards. 

Sierra  Nerada:  a  mountain  ranee  of  Eastern  C'alifT- 
nia,  separating  the  great  valley  oi  California  from  tli- 
interior  basin  of  Nevada.  The  general  trend  is  N.  X,  W. 
The  range  is  continued  at  the  N.  by  the  Cascade  Mountaii  >. 
and  at  the  S.  turns  S.  W.,  uniting'  with  the  Coast  Kaiiin- 
It  is  essentially  a  broad  plateau  inclined  towani  Iht?  W., 
except  at  the  extreme  N.,  where  it  divides  into  s«'V»  ra! 
ridges.  The  crest-line  and  highest  peaks  are  alone  tlie  ♦  «<- 
em  margin,  and  the  eastern  slope  is  steep.  The  lung  wt-t- 
eru  slope  is  broken  by  deep  cafions.  Among  its  lHi:l"-t 
peaks  are  Dana  (12,992),  Lvell  (1:^,042).  Brewer  (i:i^^'i. 
Tyndall  (14,886),  and  Whitney  (14,898),  the  loftiest  jH^ini  .f 
tlie  U.  S.  south  of  Alaska.  The  principal  passes  an*  Tthn- 
chapi  (8,830),  crossed  bv  the  Southern  Pacific  Kai'.r. ,.  i. 
Walker  (5,320),  Truckee  (7,200),  crossed  by  the  Central  I'a- 
cific  Railroad,  and  Beckworth  (5,190).  The  snowfall  on  :!' 
western  slope  is  heavy,  and  the  rivers  nourished  by  it<  ni*-"- 
ing  irrigate  the  Califomian  valley.  The  easteni  si«'pi*  ■-- 
chara<?terized  by  the  arid  climate  of  the  interior  basii'- 
Among  the  higher  peaks  are  a  few  small  glaciers. 

G.  K.  Gilbert, 


^^^^fci  K^fiuU  4^  Hiiiil*  Viiriii 

f 

j^^^^l 

'(-....  r. 

1 

^^^^^^^V  1 

1 

^^^^^^^^^■11 

1 

^^H 

^^^^^^^^^p# 

«  il»  ^1  111          ^^H 

524 


SIGISMUND 


SIGNAL  SERVICE 


Louis  (1383)  the  Poles  chose  his  younger  daughter,  Uedvig, 
queen,  Charles  Durazzo  seized  the  regency  in  Hungary, 
and  Maria  was  kept  in  captivity  by  John  llorvath,  ban  of 
Croatia.  Sigismund  rescued  and  married  her,  and  was 
crowned  King  of  Hungary  in  1387.  He  then  undertook  a 
war  against  the  Turks,  supported  by  the  German  and  French 
chivalry,  but  was  completely  routed  at  Nicopolis  (1396)  by 
Bajazet,  fled  to  Greece,  and  found,  when  in  1401  he  returned 
to  Hungary,  his  queen  dead,  his  throne  occupied  by  Ladls-' 
laus  of  Naples,  and  his  brother  deposed  in  Germany,  and 
vindicating  himself  only  with  difficulty  in  Bohemia.  In 
1403  he  expelled  Ladislaus,  and  again  took  possession  of  the 
throne  of  Ilun^arv,  and  in  1410  was  even  elected  Emperor 
of  Germany.  In  1414  an  oecumenical  council  was  convoked 
at  Constance  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the  schisms  in  the 
Church,  and  reconcile  the  Hussite  party.  He  gave  his  as- 
sent to  the  decree  of  the  council  condemning  Uuss  to  be 
burned  at  the  stake;  and  the  Hussite  war  l^gan.  D.  at 
Znaim,  Moravia,  Dec.  9, 1437.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son- 
in-law,  Albert  II.  of  Hapsburg. 

Siflrismand :  the  name  of  three  kings  of  Poland  of  the 
Jagellonian  dynasty :  Sigismund  I.,  the  Great,  b.  in  1466,  a 
son  of  Casimir  IV.,  succeeded  his  brother  Alexander  on  the 
Polish  throne  in  1507.  His  was  probably  the  most  success- 
ful reign  in  the  history  of  Poland.  A  treaty  with  the  Turks 
g&YQ  Poland  the  free  navigation  of  the  Black  Sea,  the' sover- 
eignty of  Moldavia,  and  secured  her  against  the  invasions 
of  the  Mongols.  He  knew  how  to  curb  the  arrogant  nobil- 
ity ;  was  prudent  in  his  expenses,  and  a  patron  of  literature, 
which  flourished  hip;hly  under  him  and  his  son  ;  and  he  fa- 
vored the  Reformation,  which  from  Germany  spread  rapid- 
ly among  the  Poles.  After  the  death  of  his  first  wife,  Bar- 
bara Zapolska,  he  married  Bona  Sforza  of  Milan,  an  in- 
triguing, avaricious,  and  licentious  woman,  who  exercised 
great  influence  over  him,  and  alienated  to  some  extent  the 
love  of  his  subjjects  from  him.  D.  Apr.  1, 1548,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Sigismund  II.,  Augustus,  b.  Aug.  1, 
1520,  who,  although  educated  purposely  by  his  mother  in 
effeminacy  and  dissoluteness,  opposed  the  ambitious  schemes 
of  the  queen-dowager  with  great  decision.  At  the  Diet  of 
Lublin  (l560)  Sigismund  succeeded  in  uniting  Lithuania 
firmly  to  Poland,  and  at  the  Diet  of  Warsaw  (1572)  he 
granted  religious  liberty,  but  the  intolerance  of  the  nobles 
prevented  anything  like  freedom  of  worship  to  the  serfs. 
Volhynia,  the' Ukraine,  and  Livonia  were  also  incorporated, 
and  his  reign  was,  in  both  external  and  internal  respects,  a 
period  of  great  prosperity.  D.  July  14, 1572,  and  with  him 
the  male  line  of  the  Jagellonian  dynasty  became  extinct. 
His  sister  Catharine,  however,  who  was  married  to  John  III., 
King  of  Sweden,  had  a  son,  Sigismund,  who  was  elected 
King  of  Poland  as  Sigismund  III.  after  the  death  of  Ste- 
phen Bdthori  (1587),  and  was  crowned  at  Cracow ;  but  his 
only  aim  was  to  unite  Sweden  and  Poland,  in  order  to  re- 
establish Roman  Catholicism  in  the  former  and  suppress  the 
Reformation  in  the  latter.  In  1592  John  III.  died,  and  Sig- 
ismund succeeded  him  as  King  of  Sweden,  but  in  1604  he 
was  formally  deposed  by  the  Swedish  estates,  and  his  uncle, 
Charles  IX.,' raised  to  the  throne.  Unwilling  to  give  up  his 
claims,  he  then  began  a  long  series  of  wars  with  Sweden 
which  contributed  much  to  the  final  ruin  of  Poland.  D.  at 
Warsaw,  Apr.  30, 1632. 

Sigmaringen :  See  Hohenzollern. 

Sign  [viA  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  sig'num,  mark,  sign,  token ; 
cf.  Seal]  :  in  astronomy,  a  portion  of  the  ecliptic,  contain- 
ing a  twelfth  part  of  the  complete  circle,  or  thirty  degrees. 
The  first  sign  begins  at  the  j)oint  of  the  equator  through 
which  the  sun  passes  at  the  time  of  the  vernal  equinox  in 
the  upper  hemisphere ;  and  the  si^ns  are  counted  onward, 
proceeding  from  W.  to  E.,  according  to  the  annual  course 
of  the  sun  around  the  circle.  The  signs  and  their  char- 
acters are  as  follows : 


{-Spring. 
V  Summer. 


U 


A.  Libra,  Balance. 

H,  Scorpio,  Scorpion.        V  Autumn. 

*,  Sagittarius,  ^rrA<v.      ) 

t3,  CapricornuH,  (ioat.       j 

-ar,  AqiiariuH.  Waterman.]- Winter. 

X,  Pisces,  Fishes.  \ 


r,  Aries,  Ram. 
9 ,  Taurus,  Bull. 
a ,  Q«mini,  Ttriiis. 
O,  Cancer,  Crab. 
4,  IjOO,  Lion, 
m.  Virgo,  Virgin.  ) 

The  first  character,  T,  indicates  the  horns  of  a  ram  ;  8 ,  the 
head  and  horns  of  a  bull ;  n ,  the  ancient  statues  of  Castor 
and  Pollux ;  ®,  the  claws  of  a  crab ;  U .  a  corruption  of  the 
Greek  letter  A,  initial  of  A^«y,  lion ;  tik,  corruption  of  wap  for 
irap64ifos,  virgin ;  =0=,  scales ;  Til,  the  tail  of  a  scorpion,  or  the 
legs  and  tail;  f,  an  arrow;  \3,  for  rp,  initials  of  rpdyos, 
goat.;  .sr,  running  water ;  K,  two  fishes  joined.    See  Zodiac. 


Sign :  in  algebra,  a  symbol  indicating  a  relation  subsLit- 
ing  between  two  quantities,  or  an  o()eration  to  be  performeti. 
Of  the  latter,  those  most  commonly  used  are  +,denotiD^ 
addition ;  — ,  subtraction ;  x ,  multiplication ;  -i-,  division ; 
y',  square  root;  V,  cube  root;  and  V»  ^^^  root,  Tlie 
signs  aenoting  relations  are  =,  equal  to;  >,  greater  than; 
<,  less  than,  etc. 

Signaling :  a  means  of  transmitting  intelligence  to  a  dis- 
tance by  means  of  signals  appealing  to  the  sense  of  sight  or 
of  bearing.  For  army  signaling,  especially  in  the  U.  S.,  see 
Signal  Service  and  Heliotrope,  and  for  signaling  at  »ea 
see  the  former  article  and  Foo-signals,  Naval  Signals,  and 
Road,  Law  or  Rule  of  the.  Signaling  is  of  great  impor- 
tance on  railways,  for  which  see  Railways  {Signals  and 
Interlocking),  Signals  are  also  used  to  make  announcement.^^ 
of  weather  predictions.  (See  Weather  Siovals.)  For  in** 
signals  used  before  the  invention  of  the  electric  telegraph 
to  transmit  messages  to  a  great  distance,  see  Tblegrapb. 

Signal  Serrice :  that  branch  of  the  public  service  of  a 
country  which  is  concerned  with  transmitting  intelligence 
by  means  of  signals,  especially  in  the  army  and  navy.  Ft- w 
persons  without  experience  have  any  idea  of  the  remarkable 
ranges  at  which  signals  made  by  motions  are  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  or  the  wonderful  gain  had  by  the  use  of  a  simpi»^ 
pocket-telescope.  Signaling  at  5  miles  is  held  by  experienc«-<i 
signalists  to  be  at  very  short  range.  Messages  have  been 
sent  10  miles  bv  means  of  a  pocket-handkerchief  attach^*! 
to  a  12-foot  roa.  With  the  flags  and  staffs  in  use  in  the 
Signal  Corps  of  the  U.  S.  army  communication  is  said  to 
have  been  had  at  25  miles'  distance,  and  detached  words  an» 
reported  to  have  been  read  at  a  distance  of  40  miles. 

it  is  well  known  that  the  success  of  modem  military 
operations  depends  very  largely  upon  celerity  of  uiu^*- 
ment  and  the  concentration  of  the  largest  force  at  a  gi^<'t) 
point.  The  greatly  increased  accuracy  and  range  of  sinal.- 
arms  and  artillery  have  made  it  imperatively  necessary  that 
there  should  be  rapid  and  sure  means  of  intercommunica- 
tion  between  the  various  component  parts  of  an  army,  and 
that  there  must  be  prompt  transmission  of  information 
both  on  the  inarch  and  on  the  field  of  battle.  The  condi- 
tions necessary  to  meet  these  requirements  are  well  pn»- 
vided  for  by  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  U.  S.  army  as  at  prers- 
ent  organized.  The  system  of  military  signals  of  which 
Maj.  Albert  J.  Myer  was  the  originator  prov^  to  be  a  grtat 
advance  over  the  crude  and  unwieldy  methods  previmisiy 
in  use.  Its  value  was  speedily  demonstrated  by  actual  U'< 
almost  immediately  after  the  anointment  of  Myer  as  fir^t 
signal  oflicer  of  the  army  in  lo60,  and  at  the  close  of  tlie 
civil  war  its  usefulness  as  an  auxiliary  arm  on  the  field  i>f 
battle  and  on  the  march  was  not  only  recognized  by  gi vine 
it  a  place  in  the  permanent  military  establishment,  but  the 
record  which  the  corps  made  during  the  war  has  been  utilize<i 
by  the  military  powers,  and  the  Myer  system  serves  as  a 
basis  upon  which  rests  modem  military  signaline.  In  Aug.. 
1861,  a  camp  was  formed  at  Georgetown,  D.  C,  wnere  signal- 
parties  were  instructed  and  equipped  to  attend  each  anny 
that  took  the  field;  but  it  was  not  until  Mar.  3, 1863,  that 
the  Signal  Corps  was  given  a  separate  and  systematic  or- 
ganization. It  was  to  consist  of  1  colonel,  1  lieutenant-coh^ 
nel,  2  majors,  1  captain,  and  8  lieutenants  for  each  army- 
corps,  ana  for  each  oflScer  there  was  allowed  a  sergeant  and 
6  privates.  The  corps  was  authorized  for  the  duration  ot 
the  civil  war,  and  appointments  were  to  be  made  on  th« 
recommendation  of  examining  boards. 

The  Signal  Corps  served  with  the  greatest  efficiency  on 
all  fields  during  the  civil  war,  and  even  on  naval  vessols. 
notably  with  Farragut  in  the  fight  at  Mobile  Bay.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  it  was  again  reorganized.  The  act  of  July 
28, 1866,  provides  that  there  should  be  one  chief  si^al  ofli- 
cer, with  the  rank  of  colonel,  but  it  made  no  provision  for 
a  corps  other  than  by  a  limited  detail  of  six.  officers  an<i 
not  to  exceed  100  men  from  the  Engineer  battalion.  The 
school  of  instmction  was  established  at  Fort  Whipple,  nov 
Fort  Myer,  Virginia,  and  here  for  many  years  signal  in- 
struction was  given  to  officers  of  the  army  and  the  navy  anii 
to  the  enlisted  men  of  the  Signal  Corps.  In  1870  a  meieor^^ 
logical  division  was  added  to  the  signal  service,  to  pn^vide 
for  taking  meteorological  observations,  with  a  view  to  ^^- 
ing  notice  by  telegraph  and  signals  of  the  approach  and 
force  of  storms,  and  for  twenty-one  years  this  work  fornuHl 
a  most  important  part  of  the  duties  of  the  service,  gaining: 
for  it  a  worldwide  reputation  by  the  skill  with  which  it* 
weather  forecasts  were  produced  and  their  great  reliability. 


acvicit 


nd«  ."TVi»r  rir  mtf 


HJk    i 


! 


H 


I  UlUvAl.     llU!  l^tX^  Ojl^  (l4ilt4ir 


'J'^'*-^m^^ 


'  WtiAR  iii«  ballnna  k  uuI*i«<X  Um-  luwHouvifuiii-lMU'  W  tu 


iw^uiv^nr 


526 


SIGNATURE 


SIHON 


The  equipment  of  the  car  consists  of  an  aneroid  barome- 
ter, prismatic  compass,  telescope,  field-glasses,  note-book  and 
pencil,  telephone,  majis  of  the  country,  and  a  camera.  The 
opera^r  is  thus  fully  prepared  for  photographic  work  and 
observation.  It  may  be  thought  that  a  balloon  would  pre- 
sent a  good  target  to  the  enemy,  but  the  experiments  at 
Shoeburyness  with  an  old  captive  balloon  showed  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  hit  such  an  object  with  long-range  mus- 
ketry fire  or  by  artillery  fire,  especially  if  it  be  kept  moving, 
which  it  always  would  be. 

The  advantage  that  a  force  possessing  a  balloon-tram  has 
over  a  less-favored  enemy  is  manifest.  All  the  great  na- 
tions have  equipped  their  armies  with  captive  balloon-trains, 
FiQ.  4.— Cipher  disk. 


Plan  for  service  disks. 


Vertical  section  exhibiting  plan  for  four  disks. 

and  the  individual  processes  of  manipulation  are  regarded 
as  military  secrets.  The  French  claim  to  possess  a  dirigible 
balloon,  and  if  its  practicability  be  established  the  machine 
should  prove  a  most  powerful  engine  of  war. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  that  the  svstem  of  signal- 
ing used  in  the  U.  S.  army — which  is  practically  the  invention 
of  one  man,  Gen.  A.  J.  Myer — has  developed  into  a  military 
science.  In  most  of  the  foreign  armies  the  signal  service 
has  been  dignified  by  a  separate  corps  organization,  and 
where  not  separately  organized  they  form  a  distinct  division 
of  some  corps  already  in  existence,  such  as  the  engineer,  and 
the  practical  exigencies  of  war  have  in  war  served  to  make 
them  independent  in  all  but  name.  In  Great  Britain  the 
signaling  operations  are  entirely  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Royal  Engineers  Telegraph  Corps,  which  consists  of  6 
officers*  and  245  men.  In  the  Austrian  army  this  duty  is  jier- 
formed  by  a  regiment  having  charge  of  railways  and  tele- 
graph. In  the  Russian  army  there  are  7  field-telegraph 
boards,  each  board  consisting  of  3  divisions,  with  the  strength 
of  1  olBoer  and  38  men.  In  the  German  army  there  are  7 
field  and  4  stMni-[)ermancnt  telograph  divij^ions,  each  field 
division  being  composed  of  4  officers  and  148  men.  Belgium, 
Holland,  Spain,  and  Italy  have  all  given  special  attention 
to  the  organization  of  telegraph  and  signal  trains  in  connec- 
tion with  their  military  establishments. 

In  addition  to  the  military  telegraph  lines  undercharge 
of  the  chief  signal  officer  of  the  U.  S.  army,  there  are  thirty- 
three  military  posts  and  stations  whose  telegraphic  connec- 
tions with  the  great  commercial  systems  of  the  U.  S.  are 
over  prominent  linos,  constructed  and  operated  by  the  Signal 
Corps  of  the  army.  There  is  at  prcvSent  hardly  a  military 
post  which  has  not  a  telegniph  station  either  within  its  limits 
or  at  some  convenient  point  speedy  of  access.  In  addition 
to  the  regular  telegraph  st^'vice  attention  is  being  given  to 
suitable  equipment  of  its  flying  telegrapli-t rains  in  all  phases, 
from  the  connection,  by  means  of  suc-li  lines,  of  army  head- 
quarters with  the  permanent  lines  of  the  U.  S.,  to  the  pro- 
vision for  temporary  telegraphic  or  telephonic  communica- 
tion between  army,  division,  or  even  brigade  headquarters, 
with  all  essential  points,  whether  in  camp  or  on  battle-line. 

II.  II.  C.  UUNWOODY. 

Siflrnatnre :  in  the  old  system  of  medicine,  some  physical 
peculiarity  of  a  drug  which  was  supposed  to  indicate  its 


use.  Thus,  because  the  euphrasy  or  eye-bright  has  a  flower 
with  an  eye-like  mark,  it  is  good  for  the  vision  ;  the  nxk- 
liverwort  was  thought  to  be  shaped  like  the  liver,  hence  it 
is  good  for  diseases  of  that  organ.  This  belief  prevailetl 
not  only  among  herbalists  and  pretenders,  but  among  tlie 
best-trained  physicians  of  the  time. 

Sign-langnaiTC  -  ^^  Deaf-mutes. 

SignorellltSeen-yo-rel'lee,  LucA  :  painter;  b.  at  Cortina, 
Italy,  about  1441 ;  pupil  of  Piero  della  Francesca.  In  1472 
he  was  painting  at  Arezzo,  in  1474  in  Citt&  di  Castello.  lit- 
afterward  went  to  Rome,  and  in  the  Sistine  chapel  painti'«l 
two  frescoes  representing  incidents  in  the  histoiy  of  M*r^>. 
These  were  completed  by  1484,  when  he  returned  to  ('<»r- 
tona,  and  paintea  an  altarpiece  for  the  chapel  of  Sant*  On<- 
frio  in  the  Cathedral  of  Perugia.  In  1490  he  paint e<l  th^ 
Circumcision  in  the  Church  of  San  Francesco  at  ^\»lt«-^- 
ra  and  an  altarpiece  in  the  Duomo,  and  the  next  year  re- 
turned to  Cortona  and  took  office  as  a  councilor.  The  eiL'ht 
frescoes  in  Mont*  Oliveto,  near  Sienna,  were  comniis6i«»nt.i 
in  1497,  but  the  greatest  works  of  this  master  are  the  fres- 
coes of  the  chapel  of  the  Madonna  di  San  Brizio  in  the  <  a- 
thedral  of  Orvieto.  These  were  undertaken  after  Sigiiurel- 
li's  sixtieth  year.  The  four  great  compositions  with  life-.-^i/e 
figrures  represent  Antichrist^  Hell,  The  Jiemtrrection,  and 
Paradise,  These,  with  the  decorative  designs  around  them. 
were  all  executed  by  Signorelli  and  his  assistant  Girolanj«> 
Genga  within  three  years  and  three  months.  Signorelli 
painted  innumerable  altarpiecea  and  frescoes  beMdes  the 
works  mentioned.  He  signed  his  name  in  several  roannei> : 
Lucas  Signorellius  Corthonensis,  also  in  a  Greek  form,  Aovwar 
6  KoptrUs,  also  Lucas  Coritius,  also  Lucas  JKgidii  Signorelli 
Cortonensis.  He  was  the  first  of  the  whole  cycle  of  Italian 
painters  in  his  mastery  of  drawing  the  human  figure,  an>i 
of  his  use  of  it  in  his  compositions  for  its  own  sake,  11 1^ 
frescoes  at  Orvieto  greatly  impressed  Michelangelo.  wIiom- 
Last  Judgment  testifies  to  the  influence  Signorelli  had  <)>Hr 
him.  Signorelli  died  at  Cortona  in  1523.  He  had  livtHl 
there  in  splendor  and  luxury,  more  like  a  nobleman  than  a 
painter,  according  to  Vasari.  His  son  Antonio  and  his 
nephew  Francesco  Signorelli  were  painters  also.  Luca  Si- 
gnorelli is  well  represented  in  European  galleries.  Fur  fur- 
ther information,  see  Vasari ;  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle's  ^m- 
tory  of  Painting  in  Italy  (1864-71);  Robert  Vischer,  Lw>i 
Signorelli  (Leipzig,  1879);  and  Kugler's  Handbook^  edittJ 
by  Sir  II.  A.  Layard  (1887).  W.  J.  Stillma.n. 

Slg^onmey:  city;  capital  of  Keokuk  co.,  la.;  «m  the 
Skunk  river,  and  the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.  and  the  Chi..  R«n  k 
Is.  and  Pac.  railways  ;  25  miles  £.  of  Oskaloosa,  28  miles  W. 
of  Washington  (for  location,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  6-1).  It 
is  in  a  coal-mining  region,  has  im|K)rtant  manufact *»ri»-j. 
and  contains  a  public  high  school,  a  national  bank  v<\'\\ 
capital  of  Jf50,000,  2  State  banks  with  combined  capital  i»f 
$100,000,  and  a  monthly  and  8  weekly  periodicals.  Pop. 
(1880)1,735;  (1890)1,523. 

Sigonrney,  Lvdia  Howard  (Huntley)',  poet;  b.  at  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  Sept.  1,  1791 ;  established  a  select  sch*x)l  lor 
young  ladies  at  Norwich  1809,  and  at  Hartford  1814;  pnh- 
iished  a  volume  of  Moral  Pieces  in  Prose  and  Verse  (l5Sl')i. 
and  was  thenceforth  through  a  long  life  one  of  the  nio-i 
popular  of  American  poets.  She  published  fifty-nine  a  ol- 
umes  of  poems,  essays,  and  letters,  chiefly  on  moral  or  n  lij- 
ious  themes.  She  married  Charles  Sigoumev,  a  mer<'li:ii:t 
at  Hartford,  in  1819;  visited  Europe  1840;  d.  at  Hartf.r.i. 
June  10,  1865.  Among  her  works  were  Letters  to  Yo,'.^ 
Ladies  (1833);  Ziiizendorff,  and  other  Poems  (1835):  i*^ 
cahontas,  and  other  Poems  (1841) ;  Measant  Memories  u^ 
Foreign  Lands  (1842) ;  Past  Meridian  (1854);  and  a  jM^^t- 
humous  autobiography,  Xe/^ffr«  of  Life  (1866).  Two  vol- 
umes of  her  selected  poems  appeared  in  London  1841,  an«i  a 
hoice  edition,  illustrated  by  l)arley,  was  published  at  New 


York  1848. 


Revised  bv  H.  A.  Bki  r> 


Sigwart,  Christoph,  von.  Ph.  D.,  Dr.  TheoL,  LL.  I). :  b. 
at  Tubingen,  Wlirtem berg.  Mar.  28, 18iK);  educateil  there  »i  d 
lM»came  professor  in  a  seminary  1859  and  Professor  of  1*1 1- 
losophy  in  the  University  of  TQbingen  1863.  He  is  a  <*or- 
respon'ding  member  ofr  the  Academy  of  Si'iences  of  Berlin. 
His  principal  works  are  Spinozas  neuentdeck'ter  Tractat  »'•* 
Oott,  etc.,  erlautert  (1866) ;  Logic  (vol.  i.,  1873 :  vol.  iL.  187s ; 
2d  ed.  vol.  i..  1889;  vol.  ii.,  1893;  English  translation  1«>4); 
Vorfraaen  der  Ethik  (1886) ;  Die  Impersoncdien,  Eitu  l*^j- 
ische  Untersuchnng  (1888).  J.  M.  B.' 

Sihon,  or  Sihun :  See  Syr-Dart  a. 


ii»  Uui* 


=  Cr.  5«iA^' 


.if 


528 


SILESIA.  AUSTRIAN 


SILICON 


lead,  copper,  and  coal  being  abundant.    Pop.  (1890)  4,224,- 
458.    Capital,  Breslau. 

Silesia  was  from  the  sixth  century  inhabited  partly  by 
German,  partly  by  Slavonic  tribes,  and  formed  a  nef  or— as 
it  was  divided  between  several  dukes — several  fiefs,  first  of 
the  Polish,  then  of  the  Bohemian  crown.  In  1537  the  Duke 
of  Liegnitz  and  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  made  an  agree- 
ment that  if  either  of  the  two  reigning  lines  became  extinct 
its  possessions  should  fall  to  the  other.  In  1675  the  ducal 
family  died  out,  but  the  German  emperor  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge the  validity  of  the  agreement  of  1537,  and  incor- 
porated Liegnitz  and  the  other  ducal  possessions  as  a  lapsed 
fief  of  Bohemia  into  the  Austrian  empire.  In  1740  the 
duchies  were  seized  by  Prussia.  (SQe  Febderick  II.  of 
Prussia  and  Seven  Years*  War.)  Under  the  Prussian  Gov- 
ernment the  province  has  developed  greatly,  and  forms  one 
of  the  richest  provinces  of  the  kingdom. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Silesia,  Anstrian :  province  of  Austria,  between  Prussia, 
Moravia,  and  Galicia.  Area,  1,987  sq.  miles.  The  northern 
part  is  covered  by  the  Sudetic  Mountains ;  the  rest  is  flat, 
though  hiffh.  The  climate  is  somewhat  rigorous,  but  health- 
ful. Good  crops  of  rye,  barley,  and  oats  are  raised,  cattle, 
sheep,  and  bees  are  extensively  reared,  and  copper,  lead, 
iron,  and  coal  are  mined.  Pop.  (1891)  605,649,  of  whom  four- 
fifths  are  Roman  Catholics.    Capital,  Troppau.    M.  W.  H. 

Sillioaette  [from  ifitienne  de  Silhouette,  French  Minister 
of  Finance  in  1759,  either  because  of  his  excessive  public 
economy,  causing  his  name  to  be  applied  to  things  cheap,  or 
because  of  his  making  such  figures  as  a  diversion]  :  a  figure 
drawn  in  outline  and  filled  in  solid,  usually  with  black, 
without  other  details  than  those  of  the  outline ;  much  like  a 
shadow.  By  extension  the  term  is  used  when  there  is  some 
slight  delineation  of  the  parts  within  the  bounding  line. 

Sil'ica  or  Silicic  Acid  [silica  is  Mod.  Lat,  from  Lat. 
si  lex.  si'licis,  flint] :  a  compound  (SiO«)  of  Silicon  {g.  v.) 
with  oxygen.  It  was  first  pointed  out  by  Smithson  in  1811 
that  this  substance  is  a  weak  acid,  and  shortly  afterward 
Berzelius  showed  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  and 
widely  distributed  acids  of  the  mineral  kingdom.  It  occurs 
in  nature  partly  free,  partly  in  combination  in  the  silicates. 
Free  silica  is  either  crystallized  or  amorphous.  The  crys- 
tallized varieties  contain  no  water,  have  the  specific  gravity 
2*66  or  2*3  according  to  the  form,  and  are  insoluble  or  diffi- 
cultly soluble  in  alkalies.  The  amorphous  varieties  contain 
water,  have  the  specific  gravity  2*1  to  2*2,  and  are  dissolved 
by  alkalies.  The  principal  form  in  which  silica  occurs  is 
Quartz  (q.  v.). 

Tridymite  crystallizes  in  the  same  system  as  quartz,  but 
has  a  lower  specific  gravity,  2'3,  and  constitutes  an  undoubt- 
ed allotropic  form  of  silica.    It  was  discovered  by  von  Rath. 

AmorpAous  Forms  of  Silica. — Silica  when  precipitated 
from  solution,  and  when  fused,  as  with  the  oxyhydrogen 
flame,  assumes  the  density  2*225,  and  in  this  form  is  highly 
soluble  in  caustic  alkalies — to  a  small  extent  in  many  saline 
solutions,  and  even  in  pure  water.  This  is  the  form  in 
which  silica  is  left  in'  the  decomposition  of  many  natural 
silicates  by  alkaline  waters,  and  it  is  therefore  present  in 
most  soils.  All  amorphous  varieties  of  mineral  silica  are 
called  opal.  Among  these  are  Opal  and  Hyalite  (^g.  v.). 
Mixtures  of  the  crystallized  and  amorphous  varieties  of 
silica  also  occur  in  nature.  Among  these  are  Agate,  Chal- 
cedony, Chert,  Flint,  and  Carnelian  (qq.  v.).  An  analysis 
of  a  very  pure  opal  by  von  Rath  gives  the  formula  3SiOs.H«0, 
with  the  density  1*99,  corresponding  to  9*84  per  cent,  of  wa- 
ter. Some  of  these  hydrates,  however,  contain  as  much  as 
13, 16,  and  even  21  per  cent,  of  water,  and  some  opals  as 
low  as  5  or  6  per  cent.  only.  This  indefinite  character  of 
opal  is  probably  due  sometimes  to  admixture  with  quartz 
or  other  forms  of  silica,  a  variable  insoluble  residue  oeing 
generally  left  on  boiling  with  an  alkali. 

The  relations  of  silica  to  life  upon  the  land  are  very  im- 
portant. Of  the  animal  kingdom  it  is  but  a  very  trifling 
constituent,  but  to  many  plants  silica  has  the  same  relation 
that  tricalcic  phosphate  has  to  most  animals — that  is,  silica 
is  the  main  material  of  the  plant-skeleton.  Of  the  ashes 
of  plant-stems,  particularly,  silica  is  often  found  to  be  a 
large  constituent ;  thus  in  ash  of  rye-straw  is  found  65  per 
cent.,  of  potato-stems  36  per  cent.,  and  of  wheat-straw  as 
much  as  73  per  cent.  Hence  the  importance  of  the  exist- 
ence in  soils  of  silica  in  such  form  that  it  may  pass  in  solu- 
tion into  the  roots — namely,  in  the  form  of  soluble  silica, 
or  more  probably  that  of  hydrated  silica. 


Silicic  hydrates  may  be  obtained  artiflcially  by  several 
methods.  If  solutions  of  soluble  glass  (see  Glass)  an 
treated  with  acids,  hydrate  of  silica  precipitates  in  gelat- 
inous form.  This,  if  well  washed  and  dried  over  oil  <»f  vit- 
riol, gives,  according  to  Doveri,  a  product  of  the  comf»«-i- 
tion  3SiO«.2H,0,  which  was  converted  at  212*  P.  into  3Si< »,  - 
H«0,  the  same  as  von  Rath's  native  opal,  referred  to  ab<>\»^. 
Hydrates  may  also  be  obtained  by  the  action  of  the  gasei.ii- 
fluoride  of  silicon  on  water.  Fuchs  obtained  thus  the  aU.\  i 
trisilicic  monohydrate,  and  another,  a  tetrasilicic  moD<*ii\- 
drate  (4SiO«H80).  Ebelman  also  obtained  a  definite  hvdrat' 
(2SiOs.3UsO)  as  a  transparent  solid  glass  by  the  aeti<in  ot 
air  upon  silicic  ether.  By  Dialysis  {q.  v.)  Graham  obtainnl 
a  solution  of  5  per  cent  of  silica  in  pure  water,  which  mav 
be  boiled  rapidly  down  to  14  per  cent,  if  no  gelatinizatioit 
is  allowed  on  the  edges.  This  solution  is  tasteless,  with  n 
feeble  acid  reaction.  In  the  course  of  a  few  davs  it  pa>*.-- 
spontaneously  into  a  transparent  jelly.  Addition  of  a  littl. 
muriatic  acid  or  an  alkali  tends  to  preserve  it.  Carbon  i« 
acid  coagulates  it,  also  alkaline  and  earthy  carlxmates  in 
minute  proportion.  Added  to  a  solution  of  gelatin,  tin- 
precipitates,  together  with  the  silica,  about  in  equal  partv 
This  solution  evaporates  to  a  lustrous  transparent  glass  cf 
composition  SiO,.H«0,  containing  22  per  cent.  H,0. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

SiHcate  Cotton :  See  Mineral  Wool. 

SiHcide  of  Carbon:  a  very  hard  crvstalliue  suhstanr^ 
first  obtained  about  the  year  1890  by  lE.  G.  Acheson,  nf 
Chicago,  while  experimenting  for  the  production  of  dia- 
monds in  the  electric  furnace.  Under  tiie  supposition  tli.i* 
he  had  formed  a  compound  of  carbon  and  corundum,  h« 
gave  it  the  name  '*  carborundum,"  by  which  it  is  comm»  r- 
cially  known.  Chemical  analysis,  however,  shows  that  r 
has  the  following  composition :  Silicon, 69*10;  carbon,30-20: 
with  about  seven-tenths  of  1  per  cent,  of  oxide  of  in-n. 
alumina,  and  lime,  which  ma^rbe  regarded  as  impurities  an>! 
as  imparting  color,  which  varies  from  nearly  white  to  a  detj- 
emerald  green  and  blue.  The  composition  may  thus  l>e  ex- 
pressed by  SiC,  the  elements  being  united  atom  to  atom. 

The  crystallization  is  rhombohedral,  usually  with  a  br.^il 
development  of  the  basal  plane,  forming  hexagonal  plati> 
confusedly  aggregated  and  very  small,  but  with  brilli«nt 
surfaces,  an  adamantine  luster,  and  transparent  Spt'oifir 
gravity  about  3.  It  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat,  is  not  fu>i- 
ble  before  the  blowpipe,  and  is  insoluble  in  acids. 

The  most  important  physical  characteristic,  industrialh. 
is  its  extreme  hardness,  which  appears  to  be  between  that  i>t 
the  sapphire,  which  it  scratches,  and  the  diamond.  It  i«. 
used  as  a  substitute  for  emery  or  corundum,  and  is  ma.k 
into  wheels,  whetstones,  and  polishing-cloths.  It  is  manu- 
factured by  exposing  a  mixture  of  sand  and  carbon  to  tl.e 
heat  of  a  powerful  electric  current  for  eight  hours.  Tht 
result  is  a  mass  of  crystals  of  small  size,  which  is  cruslit-il 
and  the  powder  digested  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to  rv- 
move  soluble  impurities. 

See  Acheson,  Carborundum,  its  History,  Manufacturt, 
and  Uses,  in  Jour,  Frank.  In4tt.  (Philadelphia,  Sept.,  lfcJ<J3i; 
SchUtzenberger,  Contribution  to  the  History  of  Carbosiliftro*^* 
Compounds  {Comptes  Rendus,  May,  1892);  Carbontndufn. 
etc..  The  Electrical  Engineer,  xv.,  p.  227  (Mar.,  1893) ;  .sci- 
ence, xxii.,  141  (Sept.  15,  1893).  W.  P.  Blake. 

Silicon  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat  si' lex,  si' I  iris,  flint] :  an 
element  which,  next  to  oxygen,  is  the  most  abundant  on*- 
in  the  solid  part  of  the  earth's  crust.  Quartz,  sandstontrw 
and  other  forms  of  Silica  (q.  v.)  contain  over  45  per  cent  *A 
their  weight  of  silicon.  (Granite  and  gneiss-rocks  Avern^- 
35  per  cent,  of  silicon,  slates  30  per  cent.,  and  trap-rocks  •*;< 
per  cent  Silicon  was  first  obtained  by  Berzelius  in  1^2:< 
from  the  silicofluoride  of  potassium  by  the  action  of  iu^ 
potassium  thereon.  It  appears,  when  thus  obtained,  as  an 
amorphous  powder  of  a  dull-brown  color,  which  smears  th** 
fingers  like  lampblack.  It  does  not  conduct  electricity:  i^ 
not  acted  on  by  mineral  acids,  except  hydrofluoric,  but*  dis- 
solved by  potash  solution.  Heated  in  air  or  oxvgen,  it 
burns  brilliantly,  forming  silica,  SiO,.  Silicon  may  be  ol»- 
tained  in  this  form  also  by  the  action  of  potassium  or  so- 
dium on  gaseous  fluoride  or  vaporous  chloride  of  siliwm; 
also  by  the  electrolysis  of  fused  silicofluorides,  and  bv  heat- 
ing sand  (silica)  with  metallic  magnesium.  A  second  alh- 
tropic  form  of  silicon  is  obtained  by  exposure  of  the  al«<»^e 
to  strong  heat,  which  causes  it  to  become  denser  and  pass 
into  graphitoid  silicon.  This  form  was  obtained  in  hex- 
agonal tabular  crystals  by  W6hler  by  fusing  silicofluoride 


530 


SILK 


about  one-sixth  of  the  entire  world's  supply,  France  much 
less.  Raw  silk  is  graded  in  ref^ard  to  its  commercial  value; 
French  and  Italian  is  the  higher  priced,  that  produced  in 
Asiatic  Turkey,  Japan,  and  that  part  of  China  known  as 
the  Canton  jdis'trict  follows,  and  common  China  silk  shipped 
through  Shanghai  represents  the  inferior  grade. 

Conditioning, — The  raw  silk  reeled  in  Japan  and  China 
on  the  European  system  is  classified  as  filature.  Native- 
reeled  silk  can  be  rereeled ;  these  are  known  as  rereels. 
The  fineness  of  raw  silk  is  expressed  by  a  number,  which  in- 
dicates the  weight  for  a  certain  number  of  yards.  This 
weight  is  expressed  in  deniers  (old  style  penny  we  iifht)^  and 
is  called  its  title  (French,  iitrp;  Italian,  titolo).  Of  t  his  there 
are  several  standards,  the  most  used  being  the  Milan  legal 
standard  and  the  Lyons  standard,  the  first  numbering  1  ft)r 
each  unity  of  weight  of  J  decigram  for  4o0  meters,  while 
the  Lyons*  standard,  which  is  also  known  as  the  interna- 
tional, numbers  the  same  unity  of  weight  for  every  500 
meters.  As,  however,  uniformity  in  fineness  is  not  obtain- 
able, the  "  number"  of  raw  ailk  is  usually  expressed  between 
limit-s.  Thus  if  raw  silk  is  numbered  9/11  deniers,  it  means 
that  for  every  unity  of  length  it  weighs  between  9  and  11 
times  the  unity  of  weight,  averaging  10  deniers.  A  scien- 
tific metho<l  of  assaying  silk  has  been  found  necessary,  in 
order  to  establish  its  title,  the  amount  of  moisture  it  con- 
tains, etc.  This  is  commonly  called  conditioning.  Nearly 
every  European  city  in  the  industries  of  which  silk  plays 
any  part  has  a  conditioning  establishment.  A  certincale 
is  given  for  each  separate  parcel,  which  gives  it  a  sort  of 
legal  status,  and  is  sunicient  for  commercial  purposes.  Near- 
ly all  the  silk  exported  to  the  U.  S.  from  Europe  is  ac- 
companied by  a  certificate  of  conditioning,  while  much  of 
the  Asiatic  silk  imported  is  conditioned  in  the  V.  S. 

WoHte  Silk. — Under  this  general  name  may  be  included 
everything  that  in  the  course  of  the  manufacture,  from  the 
cocoon  to  the  finished  fabric,  is  eliminated  through  one  i*ea- 
son  or  another.  This  includes  the  pierced  cocoons  which 
have  been  used  for  seed,  and  all  others  that  are  unadai)ted 
for  ret^ling.  In  reeling  the  raw  silk  only  about  70  per  cent, 
of  the  silk  in  the  cocoon  is  utilized,  the  rest  going  as  waste. 
Wiiste  is  also  made  at  every  subsequent  process  of  manufac- 
ture. All  this  waste  is  the  raw  material  for  a  subsidiary 
but  important  industry,  that  of  making  the  yarn  that  is 
commonly  called  spun  silk,  which  can  Ije  used  for  many  pur- 
poses, as  it  possesses  all  the  luster  of  silk.  Spun  silk  is  used 
as  filling  in  silk  fabrics;  it  can  be  used  in  combination  with 
wool,  cotton,  and  other  fibers,  in  mixed  gocnls.  Spun  silk 
is  also  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  velvets  and  ])lushes. 

Treatment  of  Raw  Silk. — Raw  silk  has  to  be  thrown 
before  it  becomes  fit  for  further  process  of  manufacture. 
Only  for  a  few  special  tissues  can  it  be  woven  as  it  is.  The 
throwing  consists  in  twisting  several  threads  into  one  thicker 
thread.  It  includes  various  operations,  such  as  rereeling, 
doubling,  cleaning,  spinning,  doubling  again,  twisting,  and, 
if  the  silk  has  to  be  dyed,  reeling  again  into  skeins. 
Thrown  silk  is  known  as  tram  if  to  be  used  for  the  filling 
and  as  organzine  if  to  be  used  for  the  warp.  The  tram, 
being  less  exposed  to  friction  and  to  rough  handling  during 
the  weaving,  is  less  strong  than  the  organzine;  it  has  a 
smaller  number  of  raw  silk  threads,  and  is  given  less 
twist  in  the  throwing  than  is  the  case  with  organzine. 

Boiling  and  Dyeing. — ('ombined  with  the  silk  is  always 
present  a  certain  amount  of  gum,  which  to  some  extent  im- 
pairs its  brilliancy.  This  can  be  eliminated  by  iDoiling  the 
silk  with  soap,  the  operation  being  called  *' boiling  off." 
Boiled  silk  is  as  near  as  pos-^ible  the  purest  silk  obtainable 
for  commercial  purposes.  The  loss  in  weight  caused  by  the 
boiling  may  be  as  high  as  25  per  cent.,  but  there  is  a*  pro- 
portionate gain  in  the  brilliancy  of  the  fiber.  Boiled  silk 
is  used  in  the  richer  tissues,  in  which  great  luster  has  to  be 
combined  with  strength  and  softness  of  the  filler.  For  some 
tissues  only  a  partial  boiling  is  necessary,  while  for  others 
all  the  ori^jinal  stiffness  of  the  fiber  is  re<|uired.  The  opera- 
tion of  boiling  usually  prece<les  the  dyeing.  The  dyeing  of 
silk  is  a  very  delicate  operation,  and  while  the  desired  shade 
has  to  be  produced  on  the  filler,  this  must  not  lose  its  brill- 
iancy. Silk  takes  the  dye  as  easily  as  w<h)1,  and  more 
readily  than  any  of  the  vegetable  lih'ers.  Silk  can  also  be 
bleached  by  being  exposed  to  the  action  of  sulphur  fumes. 
The  loss  in  weight  which  silk  sustains  through  the  boiling 
can  be  regained  in  the  operation  of  dyeiuir.  Tlie  dyer  can 
even  increase  the  weight  of  the  silk  by  wliat  is  called  load- 
ing, but  the  incre»U5e  in  weight  is  often  obtainod  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  strength  of  the  fiber.     This  operation  is  based 


on  the  property  ix)ssessed  by  silk  of  absorbing  and  retail.  ' ._' 
other  substances.  The  substances  available  are  white  Mt^..  . 
tannic  acid,  compounds  of  tin,  learl,  iron,  and  other  nu-ii.  -. 
The  excessive  lotiding  of  silk  is  intended  to  deceive  the  r^  •■- 
sumer,  and  such  addition  is  extensivelv  made  to  blaek  >i.v-. 
the  charge  sometimes  more  than  doubling  the  weight.  >  . 
that  is  not  loaded  is  commonly  known  as  pure  dye.  1  ii- 
silk  is  usually  dyeil  in  the  skeins  before  being  woven.  '1  . 
tissues  can  be  dyed  after  thev  have  been  woven,  but  nsuu  ;. 
only  the  lower-priced  and  lighter  tissues  are  so  tre;it..i 
The  operation  is  called  piece-dyeing,  as  distinguis^lied  fniii 
skein  or  yarn  dyeing. 

Fabrics  of  Silk. — The  natural  qualities  of  silk   make  jt 
possible  to  obtain  with  this  fil>er  greater  diversifii-at it ^n  n. 
the  tissues  that  can  be  woven  with  it  than  is  the  ca^^-  'w  •  ■ 
any  other  fiber.    The  weaving  is  preceded  by  the  ofH»rati«  n- 
of  winding,  six>oling,  warping,  etc.,  which 'make   the  ynr-j 
reatly  for  the  loom.   Improvements  in  machinery  have  m^  • 
it  possible  to  weave  almost  any  fabrics  on  power-looin*^.  ai  <1 
the  greater  proportion  of  the  silk  tissues  now  proiluc-e<i  ure 
so  woven,  although  some  of  the  richer  fabrics  reouire  -<» 
much  care  that  they  can  be  proiluced  only  on  hana-KM.jij^. 
In  the  CS.  the  looms  are  nearly  all  driven  by  jH>wer.  \>  r 
in  Europe  there  are  still  many  hand-looms.     Tissues  « :.•. 
be  classified  into  two  distinct  families.     Plain  tissues  ar-- 
in  one  color  only,  and  show  no  elaborate  pattern,  the  \:j- 
riety  in   them   being   obtained   by  the  different    arranL'*- 
ment  of  the  warp  and  filling  threads  as  regards  ea<*h  i»it..  r. 
Fancy  tissues  include  all  those  in  the  making  cif  whn  >i 
enter* more  than  one  color,  all  figured  tissues  tnat  show  a 
design.    When  one  color  is  used  for  the  warp  and  anofur 
for  the  filling  in  a  plain  tissue,  the  two  colors  combine.  pr«»- 
ducing  a  peculiar  effect  of  reflex,  known  as  ehangiul  !»• 
(French,  glace).     Plain  silk  cloth  can  be  embossed,  pp- 
ducing  figures  in  relief;  for  this  purpose  only  the  lighter 
silk  tissues  are  used.     Another  |)eculiar  effect  that  e.-m  It- 
produced  on  silk  fabrics,  and  w^hich  is  commonly  vaV.*  i 
moire,  is  obtained  by  exerting  strong  pressure  on  the  Sur- 
face of  a  grained  silk  fabric  (gros-grain)  which    Ihh'«'!:i'-- 
flattened  at  certain  spots,  producing  a  design.   In  the  weav- 
ing of  tissues  various  kinds  of  raw  silk  are  einplojiMl.  ac- 
cording to  the  cloth  that  has  to  be  woven.      The  "sort  (>( 
war[)  that  is  used  for  some  fabrics  is  not  suitable  for  others 
and  the  number  of  twists  j^er  yard  of  length  which  have  !<• 
be  given  to  the  organzine  also  varies.     In  the  tissues  pro- 
duced the  weave  varies  according  to  the  positiuo  of  \lv 
single  warp  and  filling  threads  relatively  to  eaeh  othvr. 
Satin  has  a  smooth  surface,  formed  by  well-twLs-ted  war;. 
threads.     Taffeta  is  relatively  light  tissue,  plainly  wov^ii. 
Pongee  is  still  lighter,  and  was  first  imported  from  I'hiim; 
it  is  woven  in  tjfie  U.  S.  and  Europe  in  several  varieii»>, 
known  under  different  names.    The  Japanese  export  lhr^•^• 
quantities  of  light  silk  fabrics,  which  are  known  as  hahinu: 
and  kaiki.    Grained  surfaces  are  represented  by  gro5-gTn:^i 
and  other  tissues.    A  good  gros-grain  has  to  be  carefi;i;> 
woven  to  insure  the  regularity  of  the  grain.     Surah  r»|- 
resents  the  twilled  weaves.     Ribbed  fabrics  are  also  plciiu- 
ful  in  silk  goods,  and  are  known  under  various  names.  ii<  - 
cording  to  the  thickness  of  the  ribs.    Tulle,  gauze,  gT«!M- 
dine,  and  veil  are  transparent  fabrics,  the  weavincr  of  win** 
requires  special  care,  and  the  threatls  for  which  have  to  U 
specially  thrown,  as  some  of  these  require  thread  m>  rt- 
twisted  than  is  the  case  with  other  goods.    Under  the  naii"' 
of  armures  are  known  fancy  weaves,  which  show  a  s|»ei  :al 
effect  or  design,  usually  verv  small,  and  formed  by  un- 
threads themselves  without  the  aid  of  a  change  in  \^A'-r. 
Damask,  brocade,  and  damasse  arc  figured  fabrics  in  which  a 
design  is  produced  while  they  are  being  woven.    Silk  can  i  • 
woven  ahme  and  in  combination  with  other  fillers.     i.ii.*<-\ 
wearable  tissues  are  obtained  by  weaving  together  silk  aii'l 
wool.     Some  dress  fabrics  are  made  with  silk  warp  hi..i 
wool  filling.    Others  have  wool  warp  and  silk  filling.     Tr  r 
|>rincipal   representative  of  these  is  bengaline,  whieh  i<  a 
silk  and  wool  [loplin.    To  the  bengaline  family  also  Wl  v^ 
crystal  weaves,  being  large  fancy  ribbed  goo<l's  in  silk  hJi*. 
w(x)l  mixtures.   Other  silk  and  wool  mixtures,  known  nihu  ^ 
the  names  of  Ottoman  and  others,  show  more  or  less  hir.«' 
ribs,  and  are  principally  used  for  cloaking  purjHxses.    .^i.k  -^ 
also  much  used  in  combination  with  cotton   for  makirj 
cheaper  goods,  which  are  used  for  linings,  for  unibn-l ..-. 
and  other  purposes.     The  cheaper  satins  are  made  of  ^^•^ 
and  cotton,  and  are  known  as  cotton-back  satins  (the  ^i.k 
showing  on  the  satin  face,  the  cotton  on  the  back)  U>  «.i- 
linguish  them  from  the  all-silk  Siitins. 


532 


SILK 


SILKWKKI) 


from  Si)ain,  but  were  superseded  by  Greek  silk-weavers 
whom  Koger,  King  of  Sicily,  had  brought  as  cantives  from 
Corinth,  Thebes,  and  Athens  to  his  own  island.  Some  of 
these  early  silks  surpass  in  beauty  any  of  the  productions 
of  the  manufacturers  of  modern  times.  In  another  hundred 
years  the  manufacture  of  silk  had  extended  to  Lucca,  and 
thence,  about  sixty  years  later,  to  Venice,  Florence,  Milan, 
Geno'&,  and  Bologna.  The  manufacture  of  silk  goods  was 
brought  from  Lucca  to  Lyons  probably  as  early  as  the  fif- 
teenth century,  but  it  made  little  progress  until  silk-culture 
and  the  production  of  the  cocoons  and  raw  silk  were  estab- 
lished at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  In 
England  the  manufacture  had  made  a  little  progress  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  but  all  attempts  at  silk- 
culture  had  failed.  In  Austria,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and 
the  Netherlands  there  were  manufactories  of  silk,  but  very 
little  silk  was  grown. 

In  ^w<!Kca.— The  first  attempts  to  introduce  silk-culture 
into  America  were  made  very  early.  James  I.  having  been 
foiled  in  his  efforts  to  establish  the  rearing  of  silkworms  in 
England,  and  having  learned  that  the  climate  of  Virginia 
was  favorable  for  silk-culture,  sent  over,  in  1622,  silkworm 
eggs,  white  mulberry-trees,  and  some  printed  instructions. 
Ijarge  bounties  were  offered  for  the  production  of  raw  silk, 
and  fines  were  imposed  on  every  planter  who  failed  to  plant 
a  certain  number  of  mulberry-trees,  but  the  enterprise  was 
neglected  by  the  company  and  thrown  upon  the  planters 
before  it  was  fully  established,  and  hence  failed.  Some 
silk  was  exported  to  England  for  several  years,  but  after  a 
time  the  attention  of  the  planters  was  turned  wholly  to 
tobacco.  At  the  time  when  the  colonies  of  Georgia  and  the 
Carol inas  were  founded,  the  effort  was  made  to  revive  the 
culture  of  silk  there,  and  under  vigorous  protection  and 
encouragement  from  England  it  was  for  a  period  of  perhaps 
twenty-five  or  thirty  years  very  successful.  The  first  ship- 
ment of  silk  from  Georgia  consisted  of  8  lb.,  and  was  maae 
in  1735.  From  this  small  beginning  there  was  a  steady  in- 
crease to  1759  or  1760.  After  1760  the  culture  of  silk  de- 
clined :  probably  the  next  year's  yield  was  not  more  than 
$80,000. 

The  culture  was  not  attempted  in  Connecticut  till  about 
1760,  but  it  was  carried  on  there  more  persistently  and  ex- 
tensively than  anywhere  else  in  North  America.  For  many 
years  the  silk  produced  in  Connecticut  amounted  to  $100,- 
000  or  $200,000  per  annum,  but  was  seldom  exported,  being 
mostly  made  up  into  sewing-silk  and  into  woven  fabrics 
by  home  manufacture.  The  rearing  of  silkworms  was  also 
attempted  with  some  success  from  1869  to  1875  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  Jersey,  New  York,  Rhode  Island,  and  Massachu- 
setts. In  most  of  these  States  it  had  been  given  up  during 
the  Uevolutionary  war,  and  was  not  revivedf  again  till  about 
1835  or  1826.  New  machinery  for  reeling,  throwing,  and 
weaving  silk  was  invented  and  put  into  operation ;  and  as 
the  supply  of  American-grown  silk  was  not  sufficient  to 
meet  the  demand,  a  moderate  quantity  was  importe<l.  But 
the  imports  of  manufactured  silks  continued  to  increase.  The 
history  of  silk-culture  in  the  U.  S.  has  been  one  of  ceaseless 
efforts  toward  a  goal  that  has  not  yet  been  reached.  Silk- 
manufacture,  however,  has  developed  into  a  staple  industry. 
In  1880  an  effort  was  made  to  introduce  the  so-called  Chi- 
nese mulberry  {Monm  muIticauliM)  in  the  place  of  the  white 
mulberry  (Monis  alba)  on  which  the  silkworms  had  been 
fed  hitherto.  Speculation  came  in  and  in  18J39  twigs  of  the 
Morns  multieaulia  less  than  2  feet  in  length  and  of  the  size 
of  a  pipe-stem  were  sold  for  $2,  $3,  or  $5.  In  the  autumn 
of  1839  the  bubble  burst,  ruining  thousands.  In  1844  a  se- 
vere winter  destroyed  most  of  the  trees,  and  blighted  in  the 
Northern  States  generally  the  white  nmlberry;  and  for  the 
second  time  the  rearing  of  silkworms  was  practically  aban- 
doned in  the  U.  S. 

Yet  great  good  resulted,  in  the  end,  from  this  apparent 
disaster.  The  men  who  had  devoted  so  much  attention  to 
silk-culture,  finding  the  rearing  of  silkworms  unprofitable, 
tunied  their  energies  to  the  manufacture  of  silk.  From  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  had  been  some 
importation  of  raw  silk,  mostly  for  the  fringe  and  dress- 
trimming  manufacturers,  and  to  some  extent  also  for  expor- 
tation; in  some  vears  it  had  amounted  to  $100,000,  $200.- 
000,  and  in  one  year  to  $600,000.  As  yet  there  was  little 
done  save  in  sewing-silks,  dress-trimminsrs,  and  a  few  styles 
of  riblnms ;  but  in  the  next  decade  (1850-60)  the  demand 
for  sewing-machine  silk  and  twist  be<?an  to  incToase,  and  by 
this  time  it  was  found  that  the  Ix^st  brands  of  American 
sewing-silks  fulfilled  all  requirements  in  quality,  evenness, 


strength,  and  color.  Pongees,  Japanese  silks,  and  oth^r 
mixed  goods  were  made  of  as  good  quality  rs  the  inifM>rtiii 
handkerchiefs,  ribbons,  and  a  few  pieces  of  broad  gocKl.<  wm 
put  upon  the  markets,  and  were  creating  a  demand  for  m«.T. . 
After  years  of  experiment  the  spun  silks  made  from  M.i. 
waste,  pierced  cocoons,  etc.,  were  coming  into  uso,  arj«j 
greatly  reducing  the  cost  of  those  goods  of  which  they  <*«.iilo 
form  a  part.  As  yet  (in  1860)  American  silk-raantifa'cturtrs 
had  received  no  protection  or  aid  from  the  Govemnier.t : 
but  yi  1861  the  exigencies  required  the  raising  of  a  Ian:*' 
revenue,  and  a  duty  of  40  per  cent  ad  valorem^  which  »&> 
afterward  raised  to  60  per  cent.,  was  imposed  on  nianuf». - 
tured  silk,  while  raw  silk  was  admitted  free.  In  1840  s-.-r  • 
machinery  was  taken  from  Connecticut  to  Paterson,  h»  > 

fave  rise  to  an  industry  that  has  been  steadily  growing  hti.i 
as  caused  Paterson  to  be  called  the  Lyons  of  America,  >iijo 
it  is  the  principal  silk-manufacturing  center  in  the  U.  S. 

In  the  U.  S.  nearly  everything  that  is  known  in  the  liru 
of  silk-manufactures  can  be  produced,  although  fot^i^i  i:x>*<> 
find  a  market  either  on  account  of  their  novelty,  as  Eumj* 
retains  the  supremacy  in  designing  and  in  fashion,  or  l*tr 
cause  the  lower  wages  paid  in  other  countries  enable  fonijnj 
manufacturers  to  sell  some  lines  of  goods  cheaper  than  ther 
can  be  produced  in  the  U.  S.,  notwithstanding  the  inij-»r! 
duty. 

SILK    INDUSTRY   IX  THE   IT.   S.,   CKXSl'S  OF   18Ba 


California 9 

Connecticut |  3R 

Illinois  10 

Marj'land i  4 

Massachusetts.  ..|  20 

New  Jersey 182 

New  York |  186 

Ohio 8 

Pennsylvania 66 

Rhode  iKland ;  8 

All  other  States...  5 

Totals 1  472 


f  112.283 

9,087.042 

422,096 

60,400 

8.853,296 

16,809.927 

11,165,918 

87,880 

9.862,063 

122J256 

534,426 


I  $61,007,537 


ofhAodi  I 

I 


dOllBgtW 


214 

5.0K1 

805 

76 

8.216 

17,917 

18,151 

40 

9.622 

194 

698 


$88,666  I 

2,006.804  I 

295.686 

24.283 

1,296.899  ; 

7,176,180  ' 

6,584.899  ' 

18.685  I 

2,981.334 

61.978 

156,104  ' 


Kvs* : 
TV  ' 

IM 

4.^M  . 

17.:  > 
f 
n.*q : 

I.V.  ' 

5r>i  ] 


60.918  I  $19,680,818  I  $69.154.5JS> 


The  values  of  the  principal  it^ms  in  the  production,  as 
given  in  the  census  of  1890,  are:  Ribbons,  $17,081,447, 
dress  goods,  figured  and  plain,  $15,183,134;  machine  twi^t 
and  sewing-silk,  $7,068,213;  upholstery  goods,  $7,680,r>;:6: 
dress  and  cloak  trimmings,  $4,403,757;  tailors'  lininp*, 
$3,011,437;  other  broad  goods,  $1,928,036;  handkerchi.N. 
$1,913,224;  fringe,  knitting,  embroidery,  and  fl<iss  Mlk. 
$1,849,631 ;  hosiery  and  knit  goods,  $1,150,172 ;  velv»-t>  aiui 
plushes,  $3,141,026;  braids  and  bindings,  $2,771. :JH*2 :  tit- 
silks  and  scarfs,  $919,919;  laces,  $261,750;  military  trim- 
mings, $232,600;  other  goods,  $602,330. 

To  meet  the  requirements  of  the  increasing  production  <»f 
silk-manufactures  the  imports  of  raw  silk  in'tne  U.  S.  hax- 
been  increasing  steadily.  This  progression  is  shown  by  the 
following  table,  giving  the  imports  of  raw  silk  in  filial 
vears : 


YEAR. 

FowU. 

1843 

17.898 

]KiO 

*  120,010 

I860 

•297,877 

1870 

683,589 

18H0    

2,562.236 

1885 

3.424,076 

1890 

6,948.366 

V«l 


$53.r-'> 

401  ,>5 

l.»*».f.T*i 

S,0I7.^^'< 

12,l^»4.tV'y 

12,4'J1.7*» 

«3,2S^.i)y9 


*  Estimated  from  curreut  prices. 


Artificial  Silk, — In  1888  public  attention  was  call«Ml  !«•  & 
chemically  prepared  substance  called  artificial  silk.  TJii-  i^ 
a  pure  cellulose  obtained  by  treating  cotton  or  other  tilirp« 
with  acids;  run  through  a  fine  funnel  it  can  be  fornuMl  ir'o 
a  filament  that  is  almost  as  fine  as  silk,  possesses  all  it^i  bn!!- 
iancy,  and  can  be  dyed  very  readily ;  it  is,  however,  rn^il) 
set  on  fire.  '  F.  Sans<ine. 

Silk-cotton :  the  cottony  down  of  many  raalvaceous  tr.»*- 
of  Africa,  India,  and  South  America,  of  the  genera  Bovi'-^^.s. 
Eriodendron,  Choriifia^  etc.  Eriodendrmi  anfractuosum  '.- 
the  common  silk-cotton  tree  of  the  West  Indies.  The  tru- 
are  mostly  very  large,  with  very  soft  wood. 

Silk,  Vegetable :  See  Fiber. 

Silkweed,  or  Milkweed :  a  plant  of  the  genus  As<le- 
PiAS  {q,  v.). 


534 


SILLIMAN 


SILURIAN   PERIOD 


periments  with  the  compound  blowpipe,  with  which  instru- 
ment he  demonstrated  the  fusibility  of  several  bodies  never 
before  fused ;  secured  for  Yale  College  the  valuable  mineral- 
ogical  and  geological  cabinet  of  Col.  George  Gibbs  1812 ; 
founded  in  1818  Th€  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts^ 
of  which  he  was  sole  editor  until  1838,  and  senior  editor,  along 
with  his  son,  1838-46 ;  was  the  first  to  notice  and  reconl  the 
effect  of  a  powerful  battery  in  volatilizing  carbon  and  trans- 
ferring it  from  the  positive  to  the  negative  pole  in  the  state 
of  vapor ;  was  an  eloquent  lecturer  in  scientific  topics  before 
popular  audiences,  having  been  perhaps  the  first  to  give 
such  courses  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  U.  8. ;  made  a 
second  visit  to  Europe  1851 ;  resigned  his  professorship 
1853,  and  was  made  professor  emeritus,  but  at  the  reguest 
of  his  colleagues  continued  to  lecture  on  geology  until  J  une, 
1855,  when  he  retired  from  active  labors.  D.  at  New  Haven, 
Nov.  24, 1864.  He  was  the  author  of  Journal  of  Travels  in 
England  (New  York,  2  vols.,  1810 ;  2d  ed.  New  Haven,  3 
vols.,  1820) ;  Ulements  of  Chemistry  (1830) ;  A  Narrative  of 
a  Visit  to  Europe  (2  vols.,  1853) ;  and  several  minor  publi- 
cations ;  he  also  edited  Henry's  Chemistry  (1814)  and  Bake- 
weirs  Introduction  to  Geology  (1829).  An  interesting  Life 
was  prepared  from  his  MS.  reminiscences,  diaries,  and  cor- 
respondence, by  Prof.  G.  P.  Fisher  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1866). 

Silllman,  Benjamin,  M.  D.,  LL.  D. :  scientist;  son  of 
Benjamin  Silliman,  chemist ;  b.  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Dec. 
4,  1816 ;  graduated  at  Yale  College  1837 ;  became  associate 
editor  of  Silliman 's  Journal  of  Sciejice  1838,  and  associate 
proprietor  (with  Prof.  James  D.  Dana)  1846;  was  an  in- 
stnictor  in  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geology  in  Yale  Col- 
lege 1838-46 ;  became  Professor  of  Applied  Chemistry  1846, 
and  successor  to  his  father  in  the  chair  of  Chemistry  1854, 
which  position  he  held  in  the  medical  department  till  his 
death.  In  1847,  in  connection  with  Prof.  John  P.  Norton, 
he  established  the  Yale  Scientific  School,  which  has  since 

frown  into  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School,  He  was  also 
rofessor  of  Medical  Chemistry  and  Toxicology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louisville,  Ky,,  1849-^4 ;  visited  Europe  with  his 
father  in  1851 ;  was  a  director  in  the  departments  of  chemis- 
try, mineralogy,  and  geology  in  the  Crystal  Palace  world's 
fair  at  New  York  1853,  and  prepared  (with  Charles  R.  Good- 
rich) World  of  Science,  Art^  and  Industry  (New  York,  1853) 
and  Progress  of  Science  avd  Mecha7iism\\^oA),  in  which  the 
results  of  the  exhibition  were  recorded  ;  was  for  many  years 
secretary  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science,  in  which  capacity  he  edited  the  volumes  of  Pro- 
ceedings ;  wrote  First  Principles  of  Chemistry  (1846 ;  revised 
ed.  1856) ;  Principles  of  Physics  (1858 ;  revised  ed,  1868) ; 
and  American  Contributions  to  Chemistry  {lS7o) ;  contribu 


ted  many  papers  to  scientific  societies,  besides  the  large 
number  published  in  his  own  Journal ;  was  a  popular  lec- 
turer on  scientific  subjects.    D.  at  New  Haven,  Jan.  14, 1885. 


Silo :  See  Ensilage. 


Silo'ani  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  SiAw^  from  Heb.  Shilo'h,  liter., 
a  sending  (of  water),  aoueduct ;  Arab.  Silwan^ :  (1)  a  foun- 
tain and  pool  in  Jerusalem,  on  the  southern  edge  of  Ophel, 
1,708  feet  S.  S.  W.  of  the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  winding  tunnel.  The  fountain  proper, 
hewn  out  of  solid  rock,  is  about  6  feet  wide.  Like  the 
Fountain  of  the  Virgin,  it  is  intermittent.  The  lower  basin 
is  52  feet  long,  18  broad,  and  19  deep,  but  now  holding  onlv 
8  or  4  feet  of  water.  It  was  once  arched  over,  Jewish 
writers  say  it  furnished  the  water  used  in  sacrifice  on  the 
last  great  day  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  Jesus  alludes  to 
the  practice  of  sending  a  licvite  with  a  golden  pitcher  to 
get  it  (John  vii.  87-39).  This  most  famous  of  all  the  pcx)ls 
in  or  about  Jerusalem  is  mentioned  only  three  times  in  the 
Bible  (Isa.  viii.  6 ;  Neh.  iii.  15 ;  John  ix.  7),  but  frequently 
by  Josephus.  In  the  tunnel  alluded  to,  cut  in  the  solid  rock, 
there  was  discovered  in  the  summer  of  1880  a  Hebrew  in- 
scription. Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce  made  the  first  intelligible  copy 
(Feb.,  1881).  it  is  thus  translated  by  Canon  S.  li.  Driver': 
"  liehold  the  piercing  through  !  And  this  was  the  manner 
of  the  piercing  through :  Wliiist  yet  the  miners  were  lifting 
up  the  pick,  each  towards  his  fellow,  and  whilst  yet  there 
were  3  cubits  to  be  cut  through,  there  was  heard  the  voice 
of  each  calling  to  his  fellow,  for  there  was  a  fissure  in  the 
rock  on  the  right  hand.  And  on  the  day  of  the  piercing 
thus  the  miners  smote  each  so  as  to  meet  his  fellow,  pick 
against  pick ;  and  there  flowed  the  water  from  the  source 
tojthe  pool,  1,200  cubits,  and  100  cubits  was  the  height  of 
the  rock  over  the  head  of  the  miners."  {Heb.  Text  of  the 
Books  of  Samuel,  p.  xvL)    This  inscription  is  proof  that  the 


compass-plant  i  much  rr- 
ducf  d  >. 


excavation  was  begun  at  each  end,  probably  simiiJraiie'.>i>i^ . 
The  inscription  is  undated,  but  the  shape  of  the  letter^  &{- 
parently  shows  that  it  dates  from  at  least  Hezekiah's  tiii.«  . 
and  it  is  certainly  one  of  the  oldest  known  Hebrew  insc-n^- 
tions.  2  Kings  xx.  20,  2  Chron.  xxxii.  30  may  allude  tr>  n  . 
excavation.  See  the  discussion  by  A.  H.  Sayce  in  R^ror'* 
of  the  Past,  new  series,  i.,  168,  seq.,  and  S.  R.  Uriv«»r,  /.  r..  j-^'. 
xiv.,  seq.  In  1889  a  second  conduit,  some  20  feet  »>elow  i  • 
ground,  was  discovered  leading  from  the  Pool  of  Sihgiiii  tn 
another  reservoir  which  once  existed  below.  To  it  Isa.  m:  . 
6  is  supposed  to  refer.  It  was  to  Siloam  that  Jous  «.n  > 
sent  a  blind  man  to  wash  (Luke  iv.  18).  (2)  The  name  ('f  n 
little  straggling,  dirty  village  ot^cupying  an  old  quarry  •', 
the  east  side  of  the  Kedron,  overlooking  the  Pool  of  Sil- •tu 
Samuel  MicAULEr  Jack>o>. 

SU^phinm  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  siTphium  =  Gr.  <rixi^Mi». 
an  umbelliferous  resin-bearing  plant,  perhaps  the  a^&aftii  i.  j.» 
a  genus  of  perennial  plants  of 
the  family  Compositoe,  compris- 
ing twenty  species,  many  of 
which  are  found  in  abundance 
in  the  U.  S.  on  the  prairies  and 
in  the  Southern  States,  also  in 
other  parts  of  North  America. 
They  are  very  hardy  and  coarse, 
bear  large  flower-heads,  and  ex- 
ude a  plentiful  re^in-like  juice, 
whence  the  commonest  species 
(S.  laciniatum)  has  receiveli  the 
name  of  rosin-weed.  The  stem 
sometimes  exceeds  10  feet  in 
height.  Both  the  resin  and  the 
leaves  are  much  employed  bv 
farriers  for  asthma  in  horses,  and 
a  tincture  has  sometimes  been 
found  useful  as  a  tonic  and  dia- 
phoretic. This  species  is  known 
by  the  names  of  Com  pass-plant 
(q,  v.),  pilot-weed,  and  polar- 
plant,  from  the  fact  that  its 
leaves  have  a  tendency  to  stand 
with  one  surface  facing  the  E. 
and  the  other  the  W. ;  the  plane  of  the  leaf,  which  i>  u-i- 
ally  vertical,  is  thus  N.  and  S.  The  prairie  burdock  i.S'.  v- 
rebinthinaceum)  and  the  singular  cup-plant  {S.  perfolio'u.: , 
belong  to  this  genus.         Revised  by  Charles  E,  I^esscy. 

Sila'rian  Period  [Silurian  is  from  Lat.  Si  lures,  nnni- 

of  a  people  in  ancient  Britain]:  the  division  of  gf^il-  ■:■' 
time  preceded  by  the  Cambrian  period  and  followe<i  by  tt  > 
Devonian.  The  name  was  first  applied  by  Murchison  !«•  » 
rock  series  occurring  in  England  and  Wales  in  a  di&tn-* 
formerly  occupied  by  the  Silures.  In  the  original  des<ri}^ 
tion  of  Silurian  and  Cambrian  rocks  a  large  series  was  in- 
cluded under  both  designations,  and  a  long  dispute  follow.-i. 
Partly  as  a  means  of  settling  this  dispute,  but  also  on  {MLlt**  r- 
tologic  grounds,  the  name  Ordovician  was  proposed  by  I^if- 
worth  as  the  name  of  a  period  between  the  Silurian  and  (  «!  -- 
brian,  and  this  proposition  has  received  much  favor :  but  1 1  *■ 
prevailing  usage  in  Great  Britain  and  North  America  n^f*  i> 
the  disputed  series  to  the  Silurian  period,  constituting  it  a 
minor  division  under  the  title  Lower  Silurian.  The  Sihm  r 
rocks  of  the  U.  S.  are  well  developed  in  the  basin  of  I^iJ-- 
Ontario  and  in  the  Cham  plain-Hudson  valley,  exteiKiiiij 
thence  southwestward  along  the  Appalachian  cbain  thn  u.-i 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  Gt*<»rL">!t 
into  Alabama.  In  Now  England  are  several  outlying  an-.i-. 
in  which  the  rocks  are  metamorphic.  In  Ohio,  India r.v 
Kentucky,  and  Tennessee  are  broad  areas  laid  bare  by  t '  t 
erosion  of  the  crest  of  the  Cincinnati  arch,  and  a  still  gn^ator 
area  follows  the  western  coast  of  Lake  Michigan  and  s*i.<:^ 
an  arm  up  the  Mississippi  valley  into  Minnesota,  ntn- r 
areas  are  found  in  Missouri  and  Texas.  The  hydraulic  iv- 
ment  and  salt  of  New  York  and  the  fossil  iron  ores  of  *r« 
Appalachian  chain  from  New  York  to  Alabama,  bebi<:»- 
sandstones  and  limestones  of  architectural  importance,  aa' 
derived  from  formations  of  this  period.  See  Cambrian 
Period  and  Geology,  and  for  the  flora  of  this  perio<i  >»-e 
Plants,  Fossil,  and  consult  Murchison^s  Siluria  (isVt*: 
Lap  worth's  Tripartite  Classification  of  the  Lower  I\iUo:--f-- 
Mocks  {Oeoh  Mag.,  vol.  vi.,  1879) ;  Sedgwick's  Synopsi*  * 
the  English  Series  of  Stratified  Rocks  Inferior  to  the  vH 
Red  Sandstone  (Proc.  Oeol.  Soc,  London,  vol.  ii.,  18^^. 

0.  K.  Gn^BSRT. 


536 


SILVER 


changed  ores  below,  and  are  more  easy  to  work.  Such  ores 
are  known  in  Mexico  as  coiorados,  especially  if  red,  and  in 
Peni  as  pcuMS,  The  ores  from  a  greater  depth  in  the  mine, 
which  have  not  been  acted  upon  by  the  air,  are  more  com- 
pact, brilliant,  and  darker  in  color,  and  are  called  fiegros. 
The  green  bromide  ores  are  known  in  Zacatecas,  Mexico, 
as  plata  verde.  Chloride  of  silver  is  common  in  the  upper 
portions  of  rich  silver-bearing  veins,  and  usually  forms  thin 
dark-colored  crusts  or  films  upon  the  gangue.  It  is  easily 
identified  by  its  wax-like  hardness,  and  by  giving  a  globule 
of  silver  when  fused  in  the  flame  of  a  candle. 

A  large  class  of  the  metallic  minerals  contain  silver  in 
varying  proportions,  especially  galena  and  blende,  which 
are  rarely  free  from  a  portion  of  silver.  The  greater  portion 
of  the  silver  producea  in  Europe  is  extracted  from  argen- 
tiferous galena.  The  galenas  of  England  and  of  the  Hartz 
Mountains  carry  from  '03  to  -05  per  cent.,  and  those  of  Tus- 
cany from  'OS  to  '07  per  cent.  The  galena  ores  of  the  U.  S., 
with  the  exception  of  those  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  nearly 
all  contain  silver  in  larger  quantities,  the  percentage  rang- 
ing from  '10  to  1*85  and  3*0,  but  the  quantity  of  these  rich 
ores  is  seldom  large  in  the  Eastern  States.  Some  of  the 
Woo<i  river  and  Kootenay  lead  ores  carry  100  oz.  to  the  ton, 
but  30  to  60  oz.  to  the  ton  of  lead  ore  is  a  very  fair  yield. 
Formerly  lead  ores  containing  less  than  10  oz.  could  not 
be  profitably  worked  for  silver,  but  since  the  discovery  by 
Pattinson,  of  England,  in  1829  of  the  process  which  bears 
his  name,  the  cost  of  separating  silver  from  lead  has  been 
greatly  cheapened.  Lead  containing  only  3  oz.  of  silver  to 
the  ton  can  now  be  worked  with  profit,  and  in  smelting  opera- 
tions on  a  large  scale  where  lead  ores  are  used  as  a  flux  even 
a  small  amount  of  contained  silver  is  incidentally  important. 

The  antiquity  of  silver  coinage  is  very  great.  The  most 
ancient  coins  known  were  struck  in  silver  by  Phidon,  King 
of  ^gina,  B.  c.  869.  After  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Cam- 
byses,  about  540  years  before  Christ,  a  great  improvement 
appears  to  have  been  made  in  the  purification  of  silver,  for 
that  which  was  produced  under  Aryandes  was  celebrated 
for  its  purity  and  fineness.  The  alloy  in  the  Greek  silver 
coinage  generally  appears  to  have  been  lead,  which  had  not 
been  removed  for  want  of  the  requisite  skill  in  refining. 
The  Athenian  currency  was  noted  for  its  purity,  and  Xen- 
ophon  mentions  the  profit  with  which  it  could  be  exported. 
Silver  currency  was  adopted  by  the  Roman  republic  alx)ut 
269  B.  c,  and  its  standard  was  as  high  as  the  Greek,  but  it 
rapidly  fell.  Under  Vespasian  the  alloy  was  one-eighth, 
under  the  Antonines  one-fourth,  under  Severus  about  one- 
half,  after  which  there  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a  fixed 
standard.  {King.)  After  the  loss  of  Spain,  from  which  the 
chief  supply  of  silver  was  drawn,  the  silver  currency  van- 
ished, and  was  replaced  by  billon  denarii,  having  only  one- 
fourth  part  of  silver.  According  to  Pliny,  Antony  alloyed 
denarii  with  iron,  apparently  to  hanlen  the  coin.  The 
denarii  of  Justinian  and  the  Italian  Goths  weigh  about  15 
grains  troy,  and  are  the  reputed  direct  antecedents  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  silver  penny. 

Silver  was  largely  used  by  the  Romans  for  household 
plate  and  table  decoration.  It  was  elegantly  chased  and 
embossed  in  the  repoussS  style  by  Grecian  artists.  The 
wealthy  Romans  vied  with  each  other  in  possessing  the 
most  massive  dishes.  Of  such  dishes,  weighing  100  lb.  or 
more,  there  were  150  in  Rome  before  the  first  civil  war. 
Pliny  cites  the  existence  of  one  dish  weighing  500  lb.,  with 
eight  plates  to  match,  weighing  together  250  lb.  The  old 
chased  plate  of  the  Grecian  artists  was  valued  as  a  curiosity 
in  Pliny's  time.  The  ornamentation  of  silver,  known  as 
niello-work,  originated  in  Egypt,  and  was  revived  and  car- 
ried to  great  perfection  by  the  Florentine  silversmiths. 
Cellini  gives  a  recipe  for  the  fusible  argentiferous  compound 
used  to  fill  the  engraved  design.  This  art  was  applied  to 
the  decoration  of  armor  as  early  as  the  days  of  Homer. 
Agamemnon's  breastplate  was  tlius  inlaid.  In  mediaeval 
times  massive  plate  was  in  great  favor,  and  the  chief  form 
of  investment  for  the  noble-born  and  wealthy.  Its  exten- 
sive use  for  ecclesiastical  decoration  is  also  to  be  noted.  In 
1891  over  4,000,000  oz.  of  silver  were  sent  out  from  the  mints 
of  the  U.  S.  in  the  fonn  of  bars  for  industrial  uses.  The 
total  annual  consumption  of  silver  in  the  industrial  arts 
approximates  ^10,000,000  coining  value,  and  is  increasing. 

In  modern  times  solid  silverware  has  been  to  a  great  ex- 
tent replaced  by  nickcliferous  alloys  and  britannia  ware, 
covered  with  a  layer  of  pure  silver  by  the  galvanoplastic 
method.  Silver  may,  by  this  method,  be  deposited  to  any 
desired  thickness,  thus  giving  all  the  appearance  of  solid 


silver,  and  its  utility  for  most  purposes.  The  annual  con- 
sumption of  the  metal  for  this  purpose  alone  is  very  larg^-. 
Silver  thus  deposited  is  pure,  but  solid  silverware  an<l  sih-.  r 
coin  contain  a  portion  of  alloy,  generally  copper.  In  th- 
U.  S.  and  in  France  the  standard  fineness  is  one-tenth  <'f 
alloy,  or  900  parts  of  silver  and  100  of  copper,  the  mixture 
being  denominated  '900  fine.  In  Great  Britain  the  stMndani 
is  higher,  being  925  of  silver  and  75  of  copper,  or  "920  liiif. 
This  is  the  fineness  of  **  sterling  silverware.' 

The  value  of  silver  relatively  to  other  objects  obv^ou^ly 
depends  upon  two  chief  conditions — the  demand  and  tl^ 
supply.  The  demand  is  seriously  affected  by  legiailati*  u. 
as,  for  example,  by  the  demonetization  of  silver.  The  varia- 
tions in  the  demand  are  sufiiciently  indicated  by  the  ]ir^'- 
ceding  references  to  its  use  in  historic  times.  The  supply 
is  also  variable,  and  at  times  excessive.  The  production  ••f 
silver  in  the  lar^e  way,  owing  to  its  mode  of  occurrence  au'l 
mineralization,  is  more  dependent  upon  the  use  of  mechan- 
ical power  (steam  or  water)  than  upon  the  labor  of  men.  and 
generally  it  requires  a  heavy  plant  and  large  capital.  Therv 
may  therefore  be  a  large  production  of  silver  in  sparsely 
populated  regions  and  within  a  short  period  of  time.  With 
gold,  however,  the  bulk  of  the  product  is  derived  from  pla- 
cers. It  is  so  much  more  generally  distributed  in  the  eanh 
that  an  unlimited  number  of  men  may  be  engaged  t^igettier 
in  its  production.  No  expensive  preparations  or  ehenji4-al 
operations  are  required  to  ontain  gold  in  a  merchantable  fonn. 

The  value  of  silver  relativelv  to  gold  has  greatly  chan^'tni 
within  historic  times,  and  it  nas  been  different  In  variixi^ 
countries.  Commerce  has  tended  to  equalize  this  difference-. 
King  justly  observes  that  in  the  ancient  world  silver  \(a> 
to  the  same  extent  the  peculiar  production  of  Europe  that 
gold  was  of  Asia.  It  follows  naturally  that  the  estimation 
of  silver  relatively  to  gold  was  higher  in  Asia  than  in  Eu- 
rope— a  condition  prevailing  until  within  a  recent  i)eri*.ti. 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  1717  showed  that  the  ratio  in  weight  of 
equal  values  of  the  two  metals,  silver  and  gold,  in  China 
and  Japan  was  as  9  :  1,  while  it  was  as  15  :  1  iu  Eun^pi*. 
Perhaps  the  earliest  recorded  ratio  is  found  inscribe<l  at 
KarnaK,  the  tribute-list*  of  Thutmosis  (1600  B.  c.)  givin^' 
13-33:1.  The  same  ratio  is  shown  by  cuneiform  insorij^- 
tions  on  plates  found  in  the  foundations  of  Khorsaba<l  ami 
on  ancient  Persian  coins.  It  was  reported  by  Xenoph«m 
(400  B.  c.)  as  the  ratio  in  Asia.  Toward  the  Christian  era 
gold  fell  in  value  relativelv  to  silver.  As  early  as  alNiut 
189  B.  c.  the  Romans  coincided  with  the  Greeks  in  estimat- 
ing the  value  of  gold  compared  with  silver  as  10  : 1.  UjM.n 
Ctesar's  return  to  Rome  gold  became  so  abundant  that  th*- 
ratio  for  a  time  was  as  7i  :  1.  A  century  later  the  rati»» 
was  as  12^  :  1,  where  it  remained  for  150  years  or  mniv. 
When  guineas  were  first  coined  in  1663  the  value  of  tin.- 
gold  compared  with  that  of  fine  silver  was  rate<i  in  the  Kn;r- 
lish  mint  at  about  14  :  1.  In  1805  the  ratio  was  nearly  :i^ 
15  : 1,  and  in  other  countries  gold  was  rated  higher. '  In 
the  Middle  Ages  the  ratio  varied  from  9  :  1  to  12*8  :  1.  At 
the  date  of  the  discovery  of  America  the  ratio  was  alwut 
11*30  :  1,  since  which,  up  to  the  discovery  of  gold  in  t'«li- 
fornia  and  Australia,  it  gradually  rose  to  15*83  :  1  iu  tic- 
year  1850.  In  1870  and  1871  the  average  commercial  rati  • 
was  15-57  : 1,  and  in  1873  as  15*92  : 1,  with  a  gradual  in- 
crease to  26*49  : 1  in  1893,  and  32*56  :  1  in  1894. 

The  annual  production  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  wnrl*], 
stated  in  kilogrammes,  with  the  ratio  of  silver  to  ^>M  l> 
weight,  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


ANNITAL  PRODUCT.  RILOa. 


1871  to  1875,  m*?an. 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 

1881 

1882 

188:i 

18«4 

1885 

18WS 

1887 

1888 

18*,) 

im^ 

I8jn 

lHft2 

18<»3 


173, 
165, 
179, 
185, 
167, 
163, 
158, 
148, 
144, 
153, 
150, 
159. 
159. 
159. 
185. 
181, 
189, 
196. 
236, 


904 
,956 
,445 
,847 
,307 
,515 
,864 
475 
,727 
,193 
.289 
,741 
,156 
,8<)9 
.809 
.2.'i6 
.824 
.2»4 
570 


sarw. 


1.969.42S 
2,823,779 
2.388,612 
2.551.364 
2,607.507 
2,479.998 
2,592.639 
2.769,065 
2.746.123 
2.788,727 
2.993,805 
2,902.471 
2.990,398 
3,385.606 
8,901,809 
4,180.583 
4.479.649 
4.M5,237 
6,031,488 


Mi»  of  ••:t«t 

ira 

14  M» 
13  .J 
13  7 

15  <» 
1.%  2 
Ifi  ^ 
IM  rt 
19  O 
IH  * 
IS  S 
IS  i 
18  8 

2re 

21  0 

2H1 
2:r6 
25  1 
21  ,^ 


ii4ry«^|44tfJ  U)  iU« 


538  SILVER  COINAGE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


sil\t:stre 


From  the  tables  submitted  to  the  committee  on  coinage, 
weights,  and  measures,  by  the  director  of  the  mint  in  his 
hearings  before  that  body  on  Jan.  27, 1892,  it  appears  that  at 
the  ratio  of  15^  to  1  there  is  about  an  equal  amount  of  the 
two  metals  in  circulation.  The  output  of  gold  and  silver 
from  the  mines  since  1873  shows  also  about  the  same  ratio 
in  the  respective  weights  of  the  metals  produced.  Nor  does 
the  fact  tnat  in  the  latter  part  of  this  period  the  ratio  has 
exceeded  this  in  favor  of  silver  invalidate  the  argument, 
for  the  per  cent,  of  increase  when  compared  to  the  whole 
stock  of  gold  and  silver  is  too  small  to  be  taken  into  ac- 
count, and,  moreover,  is  probably  but  temjwrary.  Since  the 
ratio  of  the  world  from  1803  to  the  demonetization  of  silver 
in  1873  was  15^  fo  1,  and  even  since  the  latter  date  has  been 
about  the  same,  and  since  the  debts  of  the  world,  both  public 
and  private,  have  been  contracted  at  this  ratio,  it  is  a  ^ross 
injustice  to  the  producing  classes,  which  at  last  liquidate 
these  debts,  to  readjust  .the  ratio  so  as  to  conform  to  the  de- 
monetized price  of  silver  as  compared  with  gold.  Pleasured 
by  commodities,  gold  has  risen  50  per  cent,  since  the  de- 
monetization of  silver  in  the  U.  S.  in  1873.  Silver,  as  com- 
pared with  gold,  has  not  fallen  more  than  30  per  cent  Sil- 
ver, therefore,  as  measured  by  commodities,  has  not  fallen, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  the  weight  of  testimony  shows  that  there 
has  been*  a  slight  appreciation  of  silver  in  spite  of  its  de- 
monetization. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Mr.  Windom,  in  his  an- 
nual report  for  1889,  page  73,  arguing  against  the  proposi- 
tion to  put  more  silver  in  the  dollar,  says :  "  The  paramount 
objection  to  this  plan,  however,  is  that  it  would  have  a  de- 
cided tendency  to  prevent  any  rise  in  the  value  of  silver. 
Seizing  it  at  its  present  low  price,  the  law  would  in  effect 
declare  that  it  must  remain  there  forever,  so  far  as  its  uses 
for  coinage  are  concerned."  In  all  tlie  centuries  of  the  past 
no  difficulty  has  been  encountered  in  the  question  of  using 
both  gold  and  silver  as  money.  For  nearly  a  hundred  years 
the  two  metals  were  at  par  at  the  French  ratio  of  15^  to  1. 
This  condition  remained  till  the  U.  S.  and  Germany  demone- 
tized silver,  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  the  par  remained, 
notwithstanding  the  demonetization  by  the  U.  S.  and  Ger- 
many, till  Prance  suspended  the  coinage  of  silver.  Had 
France  continued  the  coinage,  the  nar  no  doubt  would  still 
•exist.  To  demonetize  silver  and  thus  cause  a  greater  de- 
mand for  gold,  to  compel  gold  to  rise  50  per  cent,  and  then 
insist  that  silver  shall  be  coined  at  a  ratio  to  meet  the  rise 
in  gold,  is  a  legislative  confiscation  of  the  rights  of  debtors. 
If  this  policy  were  generally  adopted  it  would  in  effect  de- 
monetize at  least  30  per  cent,  of  the  silver  stocks  of  the 
world  ;  in  other  words,  it  would  eliminate  about  one  billion 
two  hundred  million  in  value  of  silver  now  in  circulation. 
It  would  also  demonetize  30  per  cent,  of  all  the  future  pro- 
ductions of  this  metal.  A  restoration  of  silver  by  its  en- 
larged demand  and  consequent  enlarged  value  is  demanded. 
The  free  use  of  silver  will  lessen  the  demand  for  gold  and 
increase  the  demand  for  silver,  thus  causing  gold  to  fall  and 
silver  to  rise,  and  in  this  way  the  par  of  the  two  metals  can 
be  brought  about  without  injustice  to  creditors  or  debtors. 

R.  P.  Bland. 

Objections  to  the  Free  Coinaffe  of  ^i7iv!r.— Some  of  the 
principal  objections  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver  will  appear 
from  the  following  paragraphs :  By  the  Coinage  Act  of  1873 
the  standard  silver  dollar  of  413^  grains  was  dropped  out  of 
the  monetary  system  of  the  U.  S.  The  act  was  not  passed 
surreptitiously,  as  has  sometimes  been  asserted  by  the  silver- 
money  men.  It  was  recommended  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  in  three  successive  messages,  the  bill  was  printed 
thirteen' times,  considered  through  five  sessions  of  Congress, 
and  the  del)ates  concerning  it  occupy  140  pages  of  the  Cfm- 
oreHsional  Record.  Nor  did  it  drive  silver  out  of  circulation, 
\>ecause  there  were  no  silver  dollars  in  circulation,  very  few 
having  been  coined  since  1834  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  ha«l 
been  cheaper  to  coin  gold  than  silver.  Nor  was  it  an  attempt 
to  injure  the  debtor  chiss  for  the  benefit  of  the  creditor  class, 
because  at  the  time  the  silver  dollar  was  worth  102  cents  in 
gold  and  no  debtor  would  choose  to  pny  in  silver.  It  is  nec- 
essary to  state  these  facts  in  order  to  show  that  free  coinage 
of  silver  can  not  be  demanded  on  the  ground  of  an  original 
injustice  committed  in  1873. 

From  1873  to  1878  no  silver  dollars  existed  in  the  financial 
system  of  the  U.  S.  In  1878  the  silver-money  men  succee<led 
in  passing  the  Bland-Allison  bill  restorine  the  silver  dollar 
as  legal  tender,  but  providing  for'only  a  limited  coinage,  so 
that  gold  still  remained  the  standard.  In  181X)  the  Sherman 
act  provided  for  the  purchase  of  a  larger  amount  of  silver, 


4,500,000  oz.  per  month,  but  at  the  same  time  declaring  it  t^ 
be  the  policy  of  the  U.  S.  Government  to  maintain  all  ddlaiN 
at  a  parity.  Here  also  there  was  no  adoption  of  fr^^e  t  lin- 
age. In  1893  the  Sherman  act  was  re[}ea]ed  so  far  a>  Uf 
purchasing  clause  was  concerned,  and  in  1894.  the  Pr«*<id«  Jit 
vetoed  the  bill  for  the  coinage  of  the  seigniorace.  The  l\  >. 
since  1873  has  therefore  rested  officially  on  the  g<»l<l  \'.i^>. 
and  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  this  basis  it  sold  J^Ui2,- 
500,000  worth  of  bonds  during  1894  and  1895.  On  tLi>  Mau- 
ment  of  facts  we  have  the  following  conclusions : 

(1)  Free  coinage  of  silver  can  not  be  demanded  as  a  ma^*«  r 
of  justice.  Since  1873  all  contracts  have  been  entere<l  .i.r*. 
on  the  gold  basis,  and  no  injustice  has  been  comniiii«Ml  i«y 
the  Government  toward  the  debtor  class. 

(2)  It  is  impossible  for  the  Government  to  maintain  tl  ** 
price  of  silver.  Notwithstanding  t  he  coinage  of  ft400.00<  ».'><*» 
under  the  Bland  act,  and  the  purchase  of  $152,000,000  uiil>  r 
the  Sherman  act,  the  price  has  fallen  from  |1.29  |>er  onu*-*' 
to  65  cents  per  ounce  (1895).  The  fall  in  the  price  of  siher 
is  due,  therefore,  to  the  increased  production  of  silver,  n«/t 
to  its  demonetization. 

(3)  Free  coinage  of  silver  would  not  restore  its  valu»*. 
Even  if  it  drove  all  the  gold  out  of  circulation  the  detnand 
for  silver  as  a  circulating  medium  would  be  limited.  If  t  if 
value  of  silver  went  up  temporarilv  an  enormous  stimulus 
would  be  given  production,  so  that  the  siipplv  would  in«'rea>»» 
and  the  price  would  come  down.  The  U.  S.  would  also  p  t 
silver  from  other  nations  who  would  be  glad  to  unload  on  it. 

(4)  Free  coinage  of  silver  would  therefore  not  establish  l»!- 
metallism,  but  would  drive  ^old  out,  bring  the  U.  S.  to  rite  sil- 
ver basis  and  result  in  inflation  of  prices.  It  is  said  that  tbt^ 
inflation  would  benefit  the  debtor  class  who  have  suffered  ^• 
grievously  during  the  last  twenty  years  by  the  fall  of  pri't-^. 
It  is  not  probable  that  such  relief  would  be  attained.  'I  u<' 
first  result  of  free  coinage  would  probably  be  contraction  -f 
the  cun-ency  by  the  loss  of  gold  and  sinking  of  valuer  ^iuk- 
to  panic.  All  mortgages  due  would  be  foreclosed  and  T!"- 
land  thrown  on  the  market,  or  the  mortgages  renewetl  i»i  :> 
on  a  gold  basis.  On  the  other  hand,  the  creditor  class  wj.uI'J 
be  injured,  and  in  that  class  are  included  all  defK)!»ilor-  in 
savings-banks,  all  beneficiaries  of  trust  funds,  and  all  «-n>:t  I 
investors.  All  men  living  on  fixed  salaries  would  bt*  injnn-ti. 
because  the  cost  of  living  would  go  up.  Finally,  the  Int  fir- 
ing class  would  suffer  from  increased  cost  of  living:  and  it- 
cause  during  inflation  wages  rise  more  slowly  than  pri«  <**.. 

Free  coinage  of  silver  would  seem  to  be  a  very  huzan:<  u^ 
experiment,  bringing  more  hardship  and  injustice  tlutii  ti 
remedies.  It  would  remove  the  U.  S.  from  the  ranks  nf  1 1  '- 
great  commercial  nations  with  the  gold  standanl.  It  W'  u.-l 
destroy  public  credit  and  lead  to  partial  repudiation  of  «!•  l>t. 
It  woula  drive  away  the  foreign  investor  of  capital  and  r>  - 
tanl  the  national  development.  Owing  to  the  appart'ntiy 
unlimited  supply  of  silver  it  would  make  the  standan)  «f 
value  very  uncertain,  thus  embarrassing  all  com  men  la. 
dealings,  R.  Mavo-Smitu. 

Silver  Creek  :  village ;  Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on  I^k. 
Erie,  at  the  mouth  of  Silver  creek,  and  on  the  Lake  Sh.aMl 
Mich.  S.,  the  N.  Y.,  Chi.  and  St.  L.,  and  the  W.  N.  Y.  ar.  1 
Penn.  railways;  9  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Dunkirk,  31  nKl> 
S.  S.  W.  of  Buffalo  (for  l(x;ation,  see  map  of  New  Yt>rk.  n  t. 
6-B).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  ^ai)e-growin>r  niri- 1.. 
and  contains  manufactories  of  milhng  machinery  ai.ii  u 
weekly  newspaper.    Pop.  (1880)  1,036 ;  (1890)  1,678. 

Silvering :  See  Mie&ors. 

Silyer-plating :  See  Electbo-platino. 

Silrerside,  or  Silrer  Fish :  See  Atherina. 

Silver  Stick :  in  the  British  court,  a  title  borne  by  lit 
lieutenant  and  the  standard-bearer  of  the  corps  «»f  iron'. t- 
men-at-arms ;  also  by  the  field  officer  commaudin^^  "any  vi 
the  guard  regiments.*  See  Gold  Stick. 

Silverton  :  t-own ;  capital  of  San  Juan  co..  Col. ;  on  the 
Animas  river,  and  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  and  tttc  sil- 
verton railways;  285  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Pueblo,  494  ntsio 
S.  W.  of  Denver  (for  location,  see  map  of  Colorado.  r*f. 
5-B).  It  has  an  elevation  of  9,400  feet  aUwe  sea-level :  i^ 
surrounded  by  high  mountains,  including  the  noted  Suii.»n 
Mountain  about  2  miles  distant;  and  c^ontains  gold  nr.<i 
silver  mines,  smelting- works,  a  national  bank  with  caT>!U. 
of  ^."50,000,  a  State  bank,  and  two  weekly  newspapers.  l\>j', 
(1880)  264 ;  (1894)  estimated,  1,100. 

Silvestre,  sei'l'vestV,  Theophilr  Ijons :  writer  on  ar : 
b.  at  Fossat,  in  the  department  of  Ariege,  France,  Oct.  1'2. 


540 


SIMMONS 


SIMON  MAGUS 


tutions  which  are  in  a  flourishing  condition.  Splendid  en- 
tertainments and  balls  are  given  by  the  viceroy  and  high 
functionaries  who  pass  the  summer  here.  Simla  has  a  the- 
ater, a  concert-room.  Episcopal  churches,  and  one  Roman 
Catholic  church.  Pop.  13,000.  See  Gazeffeer  of  the  Simla 
District  (1888-«9).  Revised  by  M.  W.  IIareinqton. 

Simmons,  Edward  Emerson  :  genre  and  portrait  painter; 
b.  at  Concord,  Mass.,  Oct,  27, 1852 ;  pupil  or  Boulanger  and 
Lefebvre,  Paris ;  member  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists 
(1888) ;  honorable  mention.  Paris  Salon,  1882 ;  third-class 
medal,  Paris  Exposition,  18i89;  Temple  silver  medal,  Penn- 
sylvania Academy,  Philadelphia,  1889.  One  of  his  best 
works  is  Th^  Carpenter* a  Son  (1890).  He  lived  for  several 
years  at  St.  Ives,  Cornwall,  England,  and  painted  there,  ex- 
hibiting at  the  Royal  Academy,  London,  and  in  Paris  and 
New  York.  He  visited  the  U.  S.  and  painted  portraits  in 
New  York  and  Boston  in  1891  and  1892.  Studio  in  New 
Y'ork.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Simms,  William  Gilmore:  novelist;  b.  at  Charleston, 
S.  C,  Apr.  17, 1806;  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  1827,  but  abandoned  that  profession  for  literature  and 
journalism,  publishing  in  the  same  year  two  volumes  of 
Poems ;  became  in  1828  editor  of  the  Charleston  City  Oc^ 
tette^  a  political  journal  of  Union  proclivities,  which  was 
discontinued  during  the  nullification  excitement  of  1832, 
leaving  him  in  poverty;  resided  at  Hingham,  Mass.,  1832- 
33;  wrote  there  his  longest  and  best  poem,  Atalantia^  a  Story 
of  the  Sea  (New  York,  1833J,  and  his  earliest  novel,  Martin 
Faber,  the  Story  of  a  Criminal  (New  York,  1833) ;  returned 
soon  afterward  to  South  Carolina  and  settled  at  Woodlands, 
near  Medway ;  wrote  a  series  of  romances  founded  on  Revo- 
lutionary incidents  in  South  Carolina,  including  the  Par- 
tisan (1835);  romances  of  colonial  life,  of  which  The  Ye- 
massee  (1835)  is  considered  the  best ;  published  11  volumes 
of  novelettes,  collected  tales,  and  essays ;  2  volumes  of  Views 
and  Reviews  in  American  History,  Literature,  and  Fiction 
(1845-46),  collected  from  a  large  number  contributed  to  the 
leading  magazines  and  periodicals ;  a  History  of  South  Car- 
olina (1840),  a  Geography  of  South  Carolina  (1843),  and 
South  Carolina  in  the  Revolution  (1854).  He  was  several 
years  a  member  of  the  South  Carolina  Legislature,  and 
filled  other  political  offices.  D.  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  June 
11, 1870.  His  best  works  of  fiction  were  republished  in  19 
vols.  (London,  1853-59;  new  ed.  17  vols.,  1865),  under  the 
title  Revolutionary  and  Border  Romances  of  the  South, 
with  illustrations  by  Darley.  A  copious  selection  of  his 
Poems  appeared  in  1864.  See  the  Life  by  George  W.  Cable 
in  American  Men  of  Letters  Series  (Boston,  1888). 

Simon,  Sir  John  :  surgeon  and  sanitarian ;  b.  in  England 
in  1816 ;  was  made  professor  in  King's  College,  Ijondon ; 
surgeon  to  King's  College  Hospital  and  to  St.  Thomas's  Hos- 
pital ;  was  the  first  medical  officer  appointed  to  the  general 
board  of  health  of  the  privy  council,  in  which  capacities  his 
annual  reports  on  sanitary  science,  dealing  with  important 
questions  of  the  dav  in  medicine,  have  been  of  great  value. 
His  Physiological  ^ssay  on  the  Thymus  Ola7\d{\%Ah)  gained 
the  Astley  Cooper  prize  of  £300.  He  has  received  honorary 
degrees  from  the  Universities  of  Munich,  Dublin,  Oxford, 
and  Cambridge.  Among  his  works  are  A  ims  and  Philosophic 
Method  of  Pathological  Research  (1848)  and  Lectures  on 
General  Pathology\lSoO).  He  has  contributed  largely  to 
the  Cyclopcedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  and  to  scien- 
tific and  medical  perio<licals,  and  edited  (with  a  prefatory 
memoir)  Dr.  J.  H.  Green's  Spiritual  Philosophy,  founded 
on  the  Teachings  of  the  late  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge  (2 
vols.,  1865).  Revised  by  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Simon,  see'mon',  Jules  Francois  Suisse  :  statesman  and 
political  writer;  b.  at  Lorient,  department  of  Morbihan, 
France,  Dec.  31,  1814;  succeeded  Cousin  as  Professor  of 
Philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1839,  but  was  dismissed  in 
1851  on  account  of  his  opposition  to  the  coup  d'itat ;  lec- 
tured in  1855  and  subsequently  on  philosophy  in  various 
cities  in  Belgium  ;  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly  for  the  department  of  Loire  in  1863;  offered  a 
strong  opposition  to  the  policy  of  Napoleon  III.,  the  plebi- 
scite of  1870,  the  declaration  of  war  against  Pnissia,  etc.,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  Government  for  the  national  defense 
established  on  Sept.  4,  1870,  and  of  the  (rovernment  of 
Thiers,  Feb.  19, 1871-May  24,  1873,  as  Minister  of  Public 
Education.  During  his  term  of  ofiice  he  carried  through 
important  reforms,  but  provoked  the  hostility  of  the  cler- 
icals by  his  efforts  to  establish  compulsory  education.  On 
Dec.  13,  1876,  he  became  premier,  but  difficulties  with  the 


president  caused  his  resignation  in  May,  1877.  Chosen  sen- 
ator for  life  in  Dec,  1875,  he  has  been  one  of  the  princii-^il 
representatives  of  the  conser^'ative  republican  party.  lii'k 
writings  are  distinguished  by  clearness  and  precision,  iKith 
of  style  and  ideas,  and  some  are  the  result  of  very  <'cni- 
prehensive  studies.  Among  them  are  Uisioire  de  rtjrn/f 
d'Alexayidrie  (2  vols.,  1844) ;  Le  Devoir  (1854) ;  La  RtUqum 
luiturelle  (1856;  translated  into  English  by  I.  W.  Cole,  1/  n- 
don,  1857);  Im  Liberie  (2  vols.,  1859);  tOuvriere  (lWi:i>; 
Le  Travail  (1866);  La  Politique  radieale  (1868);  Le  Lihrr 
echange  (1870);  Souvenirs  du  4  Septembre  (1874);  Dirti, 
Patri'e,  Liberie  (ISSS);  TItiers,  Guizot,  Rimusat  (18K5):  ami 
La  Femme  du  XX*  sihcle  (1891).  F,  M.  Colby. 

Simon,  Richard  :  biblical  critic ;  b.  at  Dieppe.  France, 
May  13, 1638 ;  entered  the  Congregation  of  the  Orator}*  in 
165*9,  but  left  it  again  in  1678 :  was  for  a  short  time  priest 
at  Belleville,  but  retired  in  1682  to  his  native  city ;  devotwi 
himself  exclusively  to  literary  pursuits.  D.  at  Dieppe.  Apr. 
11,  1712.  His  writings---i^itfe«  EccUsice  Orientahs  (1671); 
Histoire  critique  du  Vieux  Testament  (1678;  Eng.  traiw.. 
A  Critical  History  of  the  Old  Testament,  London,  16^2 > ; 
Histaire  critique  ae  la  Creance  et  des  Coutumes  des  Nation  f^ 
du  Levant  (1684);  Histoire  critique  du  Texte  du  Nauvra.s 
Testament  (1689;  Eng.  trans.,  A  Critical  History  of  th*' 
Text  of  the  New  Testament,  1689);  Histoire  critique  dt-A 
Principaux  Comment aieurs  du  Notiveau  Testament  {WJ2  * : 
Nouvelles  Observations  siir  le  Texte  et  les  Versions  du  2s  on- 
veau  Testament  (1695) — form  the  first  and,  both  on  awount 
of  the  consistency  of  the  ideas  and  on  account  of  the  learn- 
ing of  his  arguments,  one  of  the  most  powerful  inanife>t«- 
tions  of  that  theological  standpoint  afterward  known  a> 
rationalism.  They  were  violently  attacked  by  the  Pori- 
Koyalists,  Bossuet,'and  other  theologians.    See  his  Lifr,  I'y 

A.  Bernus  (Lausanne,  1869).      Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Simone  da  Pesaro :  See  Canta\ius,  Sisidne. 

Simonians :  See  Simon  Maous. 

Simonides,  sl-mon'i-deez  (2</M«W9i|r),  or  Semonldes  {Itt 
ymvihrii),  commonly  called  of  Amor§ros,  though  b.  at  Sanuf^ : 
Greek  iambic  poet  who  flourished  about  625  b.  c.  He  i.> 
known  chiefly  fcy  a  satirical  poem — a  manner  of  **Mirn»r 
of  Women  "—in  which  various  types  of  w^omen  are  repn- 
sented  as  descended  from  various  animals  and  from  earth 
and  sea.  Only  one  type  of  the  sex  receives  his  comnn'n- 
dation,  the  ** bee- woman " ;  the  rest  are  handled  without 
mercy  and  with  a  kind  of  personal  spite.  The  remains  «.f 
Simonides  were  edited  by  Welcker  (1835),  and  by  Bergk  in 
his  I^t(B  Lyrici  Grceci,'\o\.  ii.,  p.  441  fol.  (4th  ed.). 

B.  L.  GiLDKRSLEEVE. 

Simonides  (Gr.  SifwWab^f) :  one  of  the  greatest  lyric  j)fHts 
of  Greece;  b.  at  lulis,  in  the  island  of  Ceos,  about  5."»6 

B.  c. ;  d.  about  468  b.  c.  His  sunny  temper  and  his  easy 
philosophy  of  life  made  him  welcome  wherever  his  v<K'atii'n 
took  hira,  whether  he  sojourned  with  the  Pisistratida?  at 
Athens  or  among  the  Scopadie  and  Aleuadae  of  Thessaly. 
After  Marathon,  this  encomiast  of  tyrants  and  oligarchs  wJn 
the  prize  over  ^schylus  for  his  elegy  on  those  who  had  falh  ii 
in  the  great  battle,  and  his  distich  on  the  dead  of  Thermopylji» 
is  the  most  famous  in  the  range  of  literature.  In  Sicily  he 
served  as  mediator  between  Thero  and  Hiero  (476),  and  wa^  a 
specifd  favorite  at  the  brilliant  courts  of  Syracuse  an<i  Agri- 
gentum.  It  was  at  the  court  of  Hiero  that  he  came  into  col- 
lision with  his  great  rival,  Pindar,  who  claimed  for  himself  » 
loftier  spirit  and  a  truer  inspiration ;  and  the  very  wit  and 
grace  of  Simonides,  his  readv  sympathy  with  the  spirit  of  t  he 
age,  the  mundane  tone  of  )iis  poetry,  his  almost  sophi>ii(' 
dexterity  have  justified  the  claims  of  Pindar  in  the  eyes  (»f 
modem  critics.  Of  his  many  lyrical  poems  a  fragment  re- 
mains to  warrant  what  the  ancients  say  of  the  perfection  *>f 
his  style  in  everything  that  he  touched,  of  the  exquisite  Ww- 
derness  of  his  dirges,  in  which  he  surpassed  all  rivals,  and  cf 
his  unequaled  command  over  the  resources  of  the  epigram. 
His  fragments  were  edited  by  Schneidewin  (Bninswi<  k. 
1835),  and  by  Bergk  in  his  J\)ef(B  Lyrici  Gr(fci,  vol.  iii.  jjp. 
384-535  (4th  ed.).  B.  L.  Gildebsleevk, 

Simon  Magna:  a  Samaritan  of  the  apostolic  ago;  h.. 
Justin  Martyr  says  {Apol,,  i.,  26),  at  Gitton,  which  has  UM-n 
identified  with  Knryet  Jit,  a  village  near  Nablus.  He  i>  de- 
siTibed  in  Acts  viii.  9-24  as  a  sorcerer,  called  by  the  pe<»|>l«' 
'*  that  power  of  God  which  is  called  great,"  who  was  apiv.Hr- 
ently  converted  by  the  preaching  of  Philip,  and  sought  m 
purchase  with  money  the  power  of  imparting  the  H«>ly 
Ghost ;  whence  the  expression  simony.    Of  his  subsequent 


542 


SIMPSON 


SINALOA 


Church;  became  vice-president  and  Professor  of  Natural 
Science  at  Allegheny  College  1837;  president  of  Indiana 
Asbury  University  at  Greeneastle,  Ind.,  1839;  editor  of  The 
Western  Christian  Advocate  1848,  and  was  elected  bishop 
1852.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  President  Lincoln,  at 
whose  request  he  devoted  much  of  his  time  during  the  civil 
war  to  the  maintenance  of  public  sentiment  in  behalf  of  the 
Union  by  addresses  in  many  Northern  cities,  being  also  em- 
ployed by  the  Government  m  several  imjwrtant  confidential 
commissions.  In  1863-64  he  made  an  extended  tour  of  in- 
spection of  the  missions  of  his  Church  in  Syria  and  the  East 
generally,  and  traveled  through  several  countries  of  Europe 
upon  a  similar  errand.  He  visited  the  Mexican  missions 
1874,  and  the  European  mission  conferences  1875,  and  on  his 
return  became  a  resident  of  Philadelphia.  Author  of  .4 
Hundred  Years  of  Methodism  (1876);  Ct/cloptpdia  of  Meth- 
odism (1878);  Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching  (187M);  and  ASVr- 
vwns  (1885).  D.  in  Philadelphia,  June  18,  1884.  See  his 
Biography,  by  G.  li.  Crooks  (New  York,  1890). 

Revised  by  A.  Osbobn. 

Simpson,  Thomas:  mathematician;  b.  at  Market-Bos- 
worth,  Leicestershire,  England,  Aug.  20, 1710;  was  in  early 
life  a  weaver,  but  liecame  an  accomplished  mathematician 
by  private  study ;  was  for  some  years  a  teacher  in  Derby  and 
in  London ;  became  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  lioyal 
Military  Academy  at  \V(X)lwich  1743,  and  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  1745;  and  published  many  ingenious  papers 
on  pure  mathematics  and  physical  astronomy,  lie  published 
works  on  fluxions,  the  laws  of  chance,  doctrine  of  annuities, 
algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry.  D.  at  Market-Bos- 
worth,  May  14, 1761. 

Simrock,  Karl  :  poet  and  author ;  b.  at  Bonn,  Germany, 
Aug.  28,  1802 ;  studied  jurisprudence  in  his  native  city  and 
in  Berlin ;  entered  the  Prussian  civil  service,  but  was  dis- 
missed in  1830  on  account  of  a  son^  he  wrote  on  the  revolu- 
tion of  July  in  Paris ;  devoted  himself  to  literature,  and 
studied  especially  the  old  German  language  and  literature, 
of  which  he  was  appointed  professor  at  Bonn  in  1850.  His 
chief  poetic  work  is  Wiela7i,d  der  Schmied  (1835),  one  of  the 
best  epic  poems  of  modern  German  literature,  in  which  the 
old  hero-legend  is  successfully  revived.  He  translated  with 
excellent  taste  and  remarkable  skill  the  Nibelungenlied  into 
modern  German  (1827);  several  works  of  the  minnesingers; 
the  Edda  (1851) ;  Beoumlf(\m^)  and  Heliand  (ia56) ;  Shak- 
speare's  Sonnets  (1867);  Tegner's  Frithiofs  Saga  (1863); 
and  many  other  mediieval  works  of  poetry.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  Handhuch  der  deutschen  Mythoiogie  (1864) ;  Die 
Bheinsaaen  (ISSQ);  Deutsche  Volksbucher  {IH^V^-Q'!);  i^iellen 
des  Sh<tkspeare  (1831),  and  other  works,  I),  at  lionn,  July 
18, 1876.  Revised  by  Julius  Goebel. 

Sims,  George  Robert:  journalist  and  dramatist;  b.  in 
London,  Sept.  2, 1847 ;  was  educated  at  Bonn  ;  entered  jour- 
nalism, and  contributed  to  the  press  the  Dagonet  Ballads 
(1879);  Three  Brass  Balls  {\m(i)\  The  Social  Kaleidoscope 
(1880);  Ballads  of  Babylon  (1880);  The  Theatre  of  Life 
(1881);  How  the  Poor  Live  (1883);  Stories  in  Black  and 
White  (1885);  Mary  Janets  Memoir  (1887),  etc.  His  letters 
to  the  London  Daily  News  on  the  condition  of  the  poor  at- 
tracted much  attention,  and  led,  in  part,  to  the  appointment 
of  a  royal  commission.  Has  written  with  success  for  the 
stap?— ^A«  Lights  o*  Lotidon  (1882);  The  Romany  Bye 
(1883),  etc.  H.  A.  Beers. 

Sims,  James  Marion,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  surgeon ;  b.  in  I^an- 
caster  co.,  S.  C,  Jan.  25,  1813;  graduated  at  South  Carolina 
College,  Columbia,  1832 ;  studied  medicine  at  Charleston  and 
Philadelphia,  graduating  M.D.  at  Jefferson  Medical  College 
1835;  in  1836  entered  upr)n  the  practice  of  his  profession  at 
Montgomery,  Ala. ;  in  1845  called  attention  to  Ins  new  theory 
of  the  nature  and  orij^in  of  trismus  nascent ium,  and  also 
to  the  subject  of  vesico-vai,nnal  fistula,  inventing  instru- 
ments and  an  operation  for  the  cure  of  that  lesion.  He 
urged  the  use  of  metal  lie  sutures  in  every  department  of 
general  surgery.  In  1852  he  pul)lislied  a  full  account  of  his 
di^'covery  in  The  A  merican  JoKDial  of  Medical  Sciences.  In 
1853  he  settled  permanently  in  New  York.  His  investiga- 
tions of  the  diseases  peculiar  to  women  early  le<l  him  to 
perceive  the  importance'  and  necessity  of  establishing  a 
great  permanent  woman's  hospital  in  New  York,  and  a  tem- 
porary hospital  was  opened  in  May,  1855.  Dr.  Sims  was 
elected  attending  surgeon,  with  Drs.  Mott,  Francis,  Stevens, 
Green,  and  Delafield  tis  a  consulting  board,  in  1857-58  he 
obtained  from  the  Legislature  a  charter  for  the  Woman's 
Hospital  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  the  city  of  New  York 


granted  a  site  on  which  a  hospital  was  built  In  1861  Dr. 
Sims  went  to  Europe,  and  he  operated  in  Dublin,  in  Lou- 
don, in  Paris,  and  in  Brussels.  He  received  decorations  f  n>Hj 
the  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Belgian  <.t<>\- 
ernments  as  a  public  benefactor.  In  1868  he  retume<l  to 
New  York.  In  1870,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Frain "- 
German  war,  he  organized  in  Paris  the  Anglo- American  An;- 
bulance  Corps,  took  charge  of  it  as  surgeon- in -chief,  ujni 
went  with  it  to  Sedan.  Soon  after  this  Dr.  Sims  returnrd 
to  New  York.  To  his  labors  and  discoveries  are  mainly 
due  the  establishment  of  the  science  of  gynaecology  as  a  ii«'w 
department  in  medicine,  recognized  by  a  special  pro fi-i^-'-r- 
ship  in  all  well-organize<l  medical  colleges.  Dr.  Suns  wa-  a 
corresponding  member  of  many  learned  societies  in  the  I'.  S. 
and  Lurope,  notably  of  London,  Edinburgh,  Berlin,  Chi  i— 
tiania,  etc.,  and  of  tfie  Koyal  Academy  of  Me<iicine  of  Hni— 
sels.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  American  Me<li<  mI 
Association  at  its  meeting  at  Louisville,  Ky.  D.  in  N»*v^ 
York,  Nov.  13, 1883.  There  is  a  monument  of*  him  in  Brynnt 
Park,  New  York.  See  his  autobiography,  77ie  Story  of  //«// 
Life,  edited  by  his  son,  11.  Marion  Sims,'  M.  D.  (1884). 

Revised  by  S.  T.  Armstronc;. 

Simnlation :  See  Feigxed  Diseases. 

Sinai,  si'nd,  or  si  ni  ("from  Heb.  Slnay;  of.  Sin,  tl.»* 
wilderness  of  Sin,  liter.,  clay] :  (1)  a  triangular  {)eninsula  «»f 
Arabia  Petra^a,  between  the*  Gulfs  of  Suez  and  Akahah.  h** 
apex  points  S. ;  its  base  is  150  miles  across  from  gulf  to  giil  f : 
its  western  side  186  miles  long,  its  ea.stem  side  133,  ami  its 
area  alwut  11,500  sq.  miles.  First  comes  the  wedge-like 
protnision  of  the  limestone  plateau  known  as  the  Desert  of 
the  Wandering,  then  a  sandstone  belt,  and  finally  the  moun- 
tain-masses of  granite  and  porphyry,  flanked  right  and  left 
by  narrow  strips  of  lowland  nordering  the  gulfs.  Thi-<«» 
mountains  may  be  divided  into  three  groups,  the  high«-«t 
peaks  of  which,  respectively,  are  Serbal  (6.734),  Catharii.»- 
(8.526),  and  Shomer  (8,449).  '  The  ancient  Egyptians  calh^ 
this  peninsula  *'the  land  of  the  eods."  Its  solilar}-  grandeur 
impresses  all  travelers  alike.  Mines  of  iron,  copi»er,  and 
turquoise  were  once  worked  here.  It  is  still  the  hc^me 
of  alxnit  5.000  Bedouin.  The  curious  inscriptions,  found 
mostly  on  the  western  side  of  the  peninsula,  are  generally  m 
the  N^abata'an  character,  and  the  Nabata^ans  were,  alHua 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  the  chief  traders  betwtM'n 
Egypt  and  Assyria.  They  were  an  Arab  peofde  living  on  t  ri.» 
east  and  southeast  of  the  Holy  Land.  Some  of  the  inscrit*- 
tions  are  Greek  and  a  few  ('optic.  With  them  are  rn<ie 
drawings.  The  whole  was  probably  the  work  of  caravans 
between  200  B.C.  and  400  A.  d.,  and  of  no  more  iniiH)r- 
tance  than  such  scratchings  usually  are. — (2)  Used  in  the^ 
Old  Testament  interchangeably  with  Iloreb  to  designate 
the  Mountain  of  the  Law.  Le'psius  and  others  have  tru-^i 
to  identify  it  with  five-peaked  Serbal,  the  most  pictures<|ue 
of  all  the  mountains  of  the  peninsula;  but  the  true  Sinui 
is  a  gigantic  mass,  about  2  miles  lone  from  N.  to  S.,  and 
about  half  a  mile  wide  from  E.  to  W.  Its  southeastern  pi-uk. 
called  Jebel  Musa,  is  the  traditional  scene  of  the  giving  of 
the  Law;  but  there  was  not  ojwn  8{>ace  enough  on  the 
south  side  of  the  mountain  to  accommodate  the  Hebrew 
host.  Its  northwestern  }>eak,  called  Sufsafeh,  overlooks 
three  wadies  (Rahah,  Deir,  and  Leja),  which  might  easily 
have  held  3,000,000  or  4,000,000  people;  and  there  is  nl> 
other  such  spot  anywhere  in  the  whole  peninsula.  Hen»  t  he 
Israelites  encamped  for  a  year,  and  here  the  Ijaw  'wa-i 
given.  The  watershed  at  the  foot  of  Sinai  is  5.140  ffit 
above  the  sea,  Jebel  Musa  7,359,  Sufsafeh  a  little  louer. 
The  famous  convent  of  St.  Catharine,  in  whose  library  Tisth- 
endorf  discovered  the  Sinaitic  Codex  of  the  Scrij)(ures  (in 
1844),  and  Mrs.  Agnes  Smith  Lewis  the  oldest  text  of  the 
Syriac  (JosjKds  (in  1893),  is  on  the  east  side  of  the  mmin- 
tain.  Kevised  by  S.  M.  Javksds, 

Sinaitic  Inscriptions :  See  Codex  Sinaitici  s. 

Sinaloa,  s*^e-naa-ld  aa  (sometimes  written  Cixaloa):  a 
northwestern  maritime  state  of  Mexiw,  bounded  by  Smoni 
on  the  N.  W.,  Chihuahua  and  Durango  on  the  N.  K.,  Tepn- 
on  the  S.  E.,and  the  Pacific  and  the  (iulf  of  California  on  the 
S.  W.  (s<»e  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  4-I>).  Area,  36,184  s<}.  niiU-v. 
The  eastern  and  northeastern  parts  are  covereil  with  spur^ 
and  terraces  of  the  Sierra  Macire,  which  have  a  true  nitnin- 
tainous  character,  and  sometimes  attain  6,000  feet  in  alu- 
tude;  on  their  slopes  are  extensive  oak  forests,  and  the 
valleys  are  very  fertile.  The  coast  belt  is  low,  and  in  parts 
unhealthful;  there  are  many  lagoons  near  the  gulf.  Sev- 
eral rivers  cross  the  state,  flowing  down  from  the  Sierra 


544 


SINGLE  TAX 


Singrle  Tax :  a  term  which  has  come  into  use  since  1887 
to  denote  the  proposal,  theory,  or  movement  which  aims  at 
the  collection  of  all  public  revenues  from  one  single  source, 
what  in  political  economy  is  termed  **  rent,"  the  value  of 
land  itself,  irrespective  of  the  value  of  any  improvement  in 
or  on  it;  or,  to  adopt  another  form  of  statement,  a  pro- 
posal or  movement  wnich  aims  at  the  appropriation  of  eco- 
nomic rent,  the  "unearned  increment  of  land  values'*  to 
public  uses,  by  means  of  taxation. 

These  two  forms  of  statement,  though  often  indiscrimi- 
nately used,  since  the  practical  method  of  reaching  the  sin- 
gle tax  from  existing  conditions  is  "to  abolish  all  taxation 
save  that  on  land  values,"  are  suggestive  of  two  different 
points  of  view — the  fiscal  and  the  moral — that  of  govern- 
mental expediency  and  that  of  social  justice.  Although 
social  justice  must  really  include  governmental  expeiHency, 
the  argument  for  the  single  tax  may  perhaps  be  most  con- 
cisely put  by  presenting  it  first  from  the  narrower  and  then 
from  tne  wider  of  these  standpoints. 

From  the  fiscal  aide,  the  single  tax  offers  the  cheapest 
and  in  all  respects  the  best  mode  of  raising  public  revenues. 
Every  owner  of  a  valuable  estate  has  the  (K)wer  of  raising 
revenue  from  those  who  use  it.  lie  may,  as  was  largely  the 
custom  of  feudal  landlords,  require  from  his  tenant^}  a  mul- 
tiplicity of  payments,  conditioned  on  what  they  may  do  or 
have — as  on  the  building  or  repairing  of  houses,  the  growing 
of  crops,  the  engaging  in  certain  occupations,  the  possession 
of  certain  amounts  or  forms  of  wealth,  the  bringing  in  or 
taking  out  of  goods ;  or  even  on  such  occurrences  as  births, 
deaths,  or  marriages.  But  reason  and  experience  both  show 
that  the  largest  revenue  can  be  raised  with  the  least  trouble 
and  expense  by  substituting  for  such  small  exactions  one 
single  charge  or  rent,  and  this  has  become  the  custom  of 
enhp^htened  landlords.  Now  the  taxing  power  of  the  st^ite 
is  simply  that  of  the  superior  landowner  or  "over-lord"  of 
a  certain  area.  It  exists  only  within  that  area,  and,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  individual  landlord,  is  limited  by  what  peo- 
ple are  willing  to  pav  for  the  privilege  of  living  in  it.  For 
though  the  state  still  retains  tne  power  of  seizure  and  pun- 
ishment, which  once  belonged  to  the  larger  landlords  (the 
**  right  of  pit  and  gallows  " — i.  e.  of  life  and  death — having 
in  Scotland  been  taken  from  them  only  in  comparatively 
recent  times),  this  avails  nothing  in  the*  raising  of  perma- 
nent revenues.  If  taxes  be  imposed  beyond  a  certain  point 
in  any  given  area,  men  will  refrain  from  coming  into  it, 
those  already  there  will  leave  if  they  can,  and  those  who 
can  not  leave  will  become  impoverished  and  finally  starve 
and  die.  There  are  many  instances  of  populous  cities  re- 
duced to  ruins  and  fertile  districts  to  deserts  by  ill-laid  and 
excessive  taxation. 

Thus  the  same  principles  that  enable  the  individual  land- 
lord to  raise  the  largest  revenue  with  the  least  waste,  cost, 
and  trouble,  by  a  single  rent-charge,  apply  in  the  case  of 
public  revenues;  and  the  common-sense  way  for  the  state 
or  any  of  its  subdivisions  to  obtain  revenues  is  by  a  single 
tax  on  the  value  of  land.  The  attempts  of  governments  to 
raise  revenues  by  other  taxes  are  really  as  stupid  and  bar- 
barous as  would  be  the  resort  of  an  individual  landlord  to 
petty  feudal  exactions.  Such  taxes  invite  evasion,  fraud, 
and  perjury;  they  require  an  expensive  array  of  tax-gath- 
erers, and  even  then  can  not  be  fairly  assessed  or  fully  col- 
lected. They  check  production,  lessen  accumulation,  and 
take  from  the  people  much  more  than  the  state  receives. 
The  waste  involved  in  the  more  important  of  them  is  not 
merely  in  the  expenses  of  trying  to  collect  them  and  of  try- 
ing to  evade  them.  Taxes  on  im|)orts,  taxes  on  internal  pro- 
duction or  exchange,  taxes  on  capital  in  any  of  its  forms, 
nearly  all  license  taxes,  and  all  that  part  of  real-estate  taxes 
that  rests  on  buildings  and  improvements  do  not  really  fall 
on  those  who  pay  them  to  the  state,  but  with  added  interest 
and  profits  finally  fall  upon  the  ultimate  user  or  consumer. 
These  taxes  are  really  of  the  nature  of  that  most  destructive 
of  fiscal  devices,  the  farming  of  revenue. 

Since  a  tax  on  the  value  of  land  is  not  a  tax  on  land,  but 
on  an  advantage  accruing  on  specially  desirable  land,  which 
can  in  no  case  go  to  the  land-user  as  user,  it  can  not  check 
production,  or  lessen  the  return  from  use  or  improvement,  or 
ne  shifted  from  shoulder  to  shoulder,  increasmg  in  weight 
as  it  goes.  Avoiding  all  the  waste,  loss,  and  fraud  of  indi- 
rect taxes,  it  also  avoids  the  evasions  and  injustice  that  at- 
tend attempts  to  tax  incomes  of  all  kinds,  and  is  of  all  pos- 
sible taxes  that  which  may  be  most  cheaplv,  certainly,  and 
equitably  obtained.  It  can  not  be  evaded.  It  must  fall 
on  the  owner,  wherever  he  may  be,  taking  from  him,  not  in 


proportion  to  anything  his  labor  or  capital  may  have  con- 
tributed to  the  general  wealth,  but  only  in  proportion  t«> 
the  unearned  income  which  the  adjustments  of  the  ^tjite 
give  him  the  special  privilege  of  receiving.  Liand  can  ni»: 
be  concealed  or  removed,  and  its  value  can  be  ascertained  1 
with  greater  ease  and  certainty  than  any  other  value.  A 
small  sign  on  each  separate  piece  of  land,  giving  boundarie*-. 
area,  and  valuation,  woula  bring  public  knowledge  and 
opinion  to  the  aid  and  correction  of  the  assessment,  wh:!*- 
under  a  proper  system  the  collection  would  involve  little  mon- 
than  the  clerical  labor  of  receiving.  In  the  U.  S.,  as  tax»^ 
are  levied  on  land-values  for  state  and  local  puriK>5*^  in 
the  tax  on  real  estate,  and  as  the  percentage  needed  for  na- 
tional purposes  could  be  collectea  by  the  same  system,  the 
substitution  of  this  one  method  of  raising  public  revenue> 
for  the  complicated  svstem  in  use  would  involve  no  ntv 
machinery,  but  only  tde  abolition  of  many  ofiices  and  th^ 
great  lessening  of  corruptive  and  demoralizing  agencies. 

From  ths  Moral  Side, — The  perfection  of  the  single  tm 
as  a  fiscal  measure  does  not,  however,  account  for  the  raf>i<i 
spread  of  the  idea  and  the  ardor  it  excites.  These  cotuk.- 
from  its  moral  side,  in  which  it  is  apprehended  as  the  ea«y. 
yet,  under  the  conditions  of  the  times,  the  only  possible  w?i» 
of  relieving  undeserved  poverty,  establishing  social  ^ustitr. 
and  avoiding  that  monstrous  inequality  in  tne  distributifu 
of  wealth  that  is  so  rapidly  developing  destructive  tendfu- 
cies  in  modem  civilization.  The  argument  from  this  sidf 
ma>'  thus  be  briefly  stated : 

The  equal  right  to  land  flows  from  the  right  to  life,  ami 
is  the  corollary  of  the  right  of  property,  or  exclusive  ri^'hi 
of  the  producer  to  the  product.  In  the  rude  stage  of  stK  i.tl 
life,  where  a  simple  industry  seeks  to  satisfy  primary  ne«ti- 
from  the  spontaneous  offerings  of  nature,  the  equal  right  i*» 
the  use  of  land  and  the  exclusive  right  to  the  prwlucts  nf 
labor  are  secured  when  all  have  free  access  to  the  lainl 
ranged  over  by  the  tribe,  and  each  may  dispose  of  what  lii> 
efforts  obtain.  But  as  society  begins  to  take  settle<l  fonn. 
the  division  of  labor  begins  to  separate  occupations,  and  a 
higher  use  of  land  calls  for  the  use  of  capital,  social  onlf r. 
industrial  necessities,  and  the  recognition  of  the  right  if 
property,  all  recjuire  such  exclusive  possession  of  land  a^ 
shall  assure  to  him  who  plants  that  he  may  reap,  and  to  tiiin 
who  builds  that  he  may  enter  in.  This  need  b«»comes  wici«r 
as  civilization  advances  and  improvements  become  more 
costly  and  industrv  more  complex. 

But  no  matter  how  far  civilization  ailvances,  the  exclu- 
sive right  of  property  need  never  interfere  with  the  ecjunl 
right  to  the  use  of  land.  For  these  rights  are  correlati^f, 
the  one  involving  the  other,  and  the  denial  of  one  beine 
reallv  a  denial  of  the  other.  Thus  to  deny  to  a  man  h^ 
e(^ual  right  to  the  use  of  land  is  to  deny  him  the  benefit>  "f 
his  own  lal)or,  and  to  compel  him  to  yield  that  labor  or  it'^ 
products  without  due  return.  So  far  from  the  right  (»f 
pro{)erty  making  it  necessary  to  attach  to  land  that  ri^ht 
of  ownership  which  by  natural  law  attaches  to  things  tiin- 
porarily  drawn  from  laud  by  lal)or,  such  treatment  of  land 
IS  as  truly  a  denial  of  the  right  of  property  as  making  pn>(>- 
erty  of  men.  Between  chattel  slavery,  the  rude  method  <»f 
appropriating  labor,  and  industrial  slavery,  the  more  civil- 
ized method,  the  difference  is  only  of  form.  In  the  one,  tbr 
man  himself  is  treated  as  the  property  of  another;  in  tin- 
other,  the  land  on  which  the  man  must  live  is  treated  as  tbe 
proj>erty  of  another.  The  result  in  either  case  is  robbery, 
and  robbery  that  may  go  to  the  same  piteh.  To  the  chattel 
slave  must  be  left  enough  of  his  earnings  to  support  life- 
Are  there  not  to-day  in  so-called  free  countries  great  bodit> 
of  men  who  think  themselves  fortunate  to  get  this  f 

In  the  relations  of  individuals  with  each  other  we  find  no 
difficulty  whatever  in  combining  exclusive  possession  with 
equal  rights  to  use.  A  man  may  leave  a  horse,  a  ship,  » 
building,  or  anything  else  incapable  of  division,  to  his  chil- 
dren or  to  others  equally  ;  or  such  equal  rights  may  be  a<^ 
quired  in  daily  transactions  without  difficulty  being  en- 
countered. Where  a  right  to  use  can  not  be  divideS.  it^ 
value  may.  So  the  exclusive  possession  of  land  called  f'»r 
by  soeial  advance  need  involve  no  denial  of  the  equal  ri::!it 
to  use.  That  equality  may  be  swured  in  a  way  permiliiri:; 
the  l)est  use  of  land  by  requiring  from  him  who  is  acconlt'^l 
exclusive  possession  of  any  piece  of  land  a  c^mtribution  t" 
common  uses  equivalent  to  any  advantage  it  gives  overtlmi 
obtainable  from  the  l)est  land  that  others  are  free  to  uv. 
There  is  nothing  new  in  this.  The  principle  lay  at  the  l»^ 
of  feudal  tenures,  and  is  applie<l  partially  in  Chicago,  vlnre 
the  equal  right  of  the  whole  community  to  the  use  of  a  ctr- 


546 


SINIM 


SIOUAN  INDIANS 


8inim  :  the  name  used  in  the  Bible  for  the  Seres,  or  an- 
cient Chinese.    See  China. 

Sink-hole :  a  hollow  of  the  land  drained  at  the  bottom. 
Districts  underlain  by  limestone  or  gypsum  are  often 
drained  through  subterranean  channels,'  and  the  surface 
waters  find  their  way  to  these  channels  throueh  vertical 
crerices  which  are  sometimes  opened  out  into  shafts  of  some 
size.  The  washing  of  soil,  etc.,  into  such  shafts  usually 
produces  a  funnel-shaped  cavity,  and  this  is  known  in  the 
U.  S.  as  a  sink-hole  or  limestone-sink,  and  in  England  as  a 
swallow-hole.  Such  hollows  are  abundant  in  the  great  Ap- 
palachian valley,  which  is  underlain  by  limestone  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Alabama.  The  word  sink  is  sometimes  in- 
appropriately applied  to  drainless  hollows  which  receive  the 
water  of  streams,  and  discharge  it  to  the  air  bv  evaporation. 
See  Playa.  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Sinking  Fund :  See  Finance  (Public  Loans), 

Sinnett,  Alfred  Percy  :  journalist ;  b.  in  London,  1840 ; 
the  son  of  E.  W.  Sinnett,  a  journalist ;  joined  the  staff  of 
the  London  Globe  in  1859 ;  afterward  edited  The  Daily  Press 
at  Hongkong ;  returned  to  England  in  1868 ;  went  to  Alla- 
habad, India,  in  1871,  as  editor  of  The  Pioneer ;  joined  the 
Theosophical  Society  in  1879,  and,  returning  a^in  to  Enj:- 
land  in  1882,  expounded  theosophy  to  the  British  public  m 
two  widelv  circulated  volumes,  Hie  Occult  World  (1881) 
and  Esoteric  Buddhism  (1883).  H.  A.  Beers. 

Sino'pe  (Gr.  Sty^viy,  Turk.  Sin<ib)\  town ;  in  Asia  Minor, 
in  the  vilayet  of  Castamouni  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  4-G). 
Situated  on  a  peninsula  with  a  splendid  harbor,  it  was  the 
most  important  of  the  Greek  colonies  on  the  Black  Sea.  It 
was  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Pontus.  Mithradates  the 
Great  was  bom  here  (134  b.  c).  During  the  Middle  Ages  it 
belonged  to  the  empire  of  Trebizond,  and  was  captured  by 
Mohammed  XL  (1470).  In  its  harbor  the  Ottoman  fleet  was 
defeated  with  a  loss  of  4,000  men  and  twelve  ships  by  the 
Russian  admiral  Nachimoff  (Nov.  30, 1853).  This  event  de- 
cided France  and  Great  Britain  to  interfere,  and  brought 
on  the  (Crimean  war.  The  town  is  well  fortified,  and  has  an 
arsenal  and  shipyard.  It  exports  dried  fruits,* fish,  skins, 
nuts,  and  tobacco.  Pop.  (1889)  7,162,  of  whom  2,840  are 
Greeks.  E.  A.  Grosvengr. 

Sinters  (loan-word  from  Mod.  Germ,  sinter  <  0.  H.  C^rm. 
sintar  :  O.Eng.sinder  (the  spelling  cinder  due  to  influence 
of  Fr.  eendre  <  Lat.  cinis)] :  a  ^neral  designation  for  min- 
eral substances  deposited  as  incrustations  or  {>orous  and 
cellular  masses  from  the  waters  of  mineral  springs.  The 
principal  kinds  are  siliceous  and  calcareous  sinters.  Some 
siliceous  sinters  are  classed  by  Dana  with  the  crypto-crystal- 
line  varieties  of  quartz.  They  proceed  from  waters  contain- 
inff  silica  itself  in  solution,  or  sometimes,  doubtless,  soluble 
silicates  of  bases  which  are  decomposed  by  the  carbonic  acid 
of  the  air.  The  great  mass  of  siliceous  sinters  are  composed 
of  hydrates  of  silica.  Fiorite,  michaelite,  and  geyserite  are 
names  that  have  been  given  to  some  of  these.  Calcareous 
sinters  are  also  called  calcareous  tufas.  They  are  similar  in 
nature  and  origin  to  the  material  of  Stalactites  (q.  v,). 

Sintra :  See  Cintra. 

Sinus :  See  Fistula. 

Sion,  Mount :  See  Zion. 

Sioot,  or  Sini :  See  Assiut. 

Sionan  (soo'&n)  Indians :  that  linguistic  stock  or  family  to 
which  the  "  Sioux  "  and  cognate  tribes  of  North  America  be- 
long. According  to  Trumbull,  Sioux,  the  popular  appel- 
lation of  the  tribes  which  call  themselves  DaKota,  Lakota 
or  Nakota,  is  an  abbreviation  of  Nadowessioux,  which  is  a 
corruption  of  Nadowe-ssi-wag.  "the  snake-like  ones"  or 
" enemies "  (derived  from  the  Algonquin  word  nadowe,  a 
snake).  The  characteristic  languages  are  eminently  vocalic 
and  abound  in  inflections ;  agglutination  and  juxtaposition 
are  also  found. 

Tribes. — ^The  family  comprises  a  number  of  tribes  com- 
monly arranpd  in  ten  groups,  as  follows:  1.{A)  Dakota 
and  (B)  Asstniboin,  The  former  includes  the  six  Dakota 
sub-tribes,  (a)  Santee,  comprising  the  Mde-wa-ka»-to"-wa» 
(Spirit-lake  village)  and  Waqpe  kute  ("to  shoot  among 
deciduous  trees");  (b)  Sisseton  (Sisito"wa'°) ;  (c)  Wahpeton 
(Wa-qpeto"wa°,  "dwellers  among  deciduous  trees");  {d) 
Yankton  (Ihafikto-wa",  "end  village");  (e)  Vanktonnai 
(Ihaflkto»wa'"na,  "little  end  village"),  divided  into  Upper 
Yanktonnai  (including  the  Cut  Head  band  or  Pa-baksa  gens) 
and  Lower  Yanktonnai ;  and  (/)  Teton  (Ti'to»-wa»,  "  dwell- 


ers on  the  prairie"),  in  seven  divisions,  namely,  BniU-  -Si- 
tca"xu,  "burned  thighs"),  including  Upper  or  llighl«f..l 
Brul^  and  Lower  or  Lowland  Brule ;  Sans  Arcs  (Itazij.tr.., 
"  without  bows  ") ;  Blackfeet  (Sihasapa) ;  Minneconjou  (Min- 
ko'oju,  "planting  beside  streams*;;  Two  Kettles  {iu^hi- 
no"-pa,  " two  boilings **) ;  Oglala  (o-gla'la,  ''she  poure<l  ^i.* 
her  own  "),  including  the  Wazaza  and  the  Loafers  (Waglu  \* . 
"  inbreeders ") :  and llufikpapa  (Uncpapa  or  Uneapapa).  Th. 
tribal  organization  of  the  Assiniboin  is  uncertain ;  they  hn- 
called  Hohe  (rebels)  by  the  Dakota.  2.  Dhegiha  (or  ( '^gthn.. 
consisting  of  the  tribes  known  as  (a)  Omaha  (Uroa'ha","**  up- 
stream people");  (6)  Kwapa  or  Quapaw  (Uka'qpa,  "down- 
stream people,"  the  Arkansa  or  Arkansas  of  early  writer** : 
(c)  Ponka  or  Ponca;  (e^)  the  Osage  (Wacaca,  etc.).  divide! 
into  Little  Osage  (Cts^hta,  "campers  on  the  lowland '• 
and  Big  Osage  (rahe'tsi,  "  campers  on  the  mountain  "),  ar.'i 
the  "  Arkansaw  band  "  (Santsu'kci.,  "  campers  in  a  highlani 
grove");  and  (e)  the  Kansa  (Kaw,  Ka^ze,  referring  to  the 
wind).  8.  Tciwere,  comprising  (a)  the  Iowa  (Pa'qot<v. 
"dusty  noses"  or  "dusty  hea<fi");  (b)  the  Oto  (Watnta, 
"lovers  of  sexual  pleasure");  and  (c)  the  Missouri.  4.  M  i»- 
nebago,  including  only  the  Winnebago  tribe  (who  call  them- 
selves Hotcaflgara, "  people  of  the  parent  sjieech  **).  5.  Man- 
dan,  consisting  of  the  Mandan  tnbe.  6.  ffidatsa  (Miuni- 
taree  or  Gros  Ventres  of  the  Missouri),  consisting  of  ia)  \hv 
Uidatsa  and  (b)  the  Crow  (Absoroka  or  Absaniqe,  etc.)  trilt^. 
7.  3f\*/«/o  (Yesa»),  comprising  the  Tutelo,  Sapona,  and  cj:- 
nate  tribes.  8.  Biloxt  (calling  themselves  TanSksha^yaiin. 
including  the  Biloxi  and  very  probably  the  Paskagula  of  Pa«- 
cagoula  tribes.  9.  Catawba  (Flatheads),  comprising  the  C  a- 
tawba,  Woccon,  and  cognate  tribes  (f  Eutaw,  fCnickune. 
f  Nachees,  etc.).  10.  The  "  Virginia  group,"  composed  of  rhe 
Mannahoak,  Monacan,  and  cognate  eastern  trib^  and  con- 
federacies (mainly  extinct). 

Habitat, — Excepting  the  Biloxi,  Paskagula,  Tutelo.  Sa- 
pona,  Catawba,  ana  Woccon  tribes,  the  territory  of  the  Sioimn 
Indians  was  mainly  in  one  body,  extending  from  alK>ut  5:^ 
N.  in  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  territory  to  about  38  .  in- 
cluding a  considerable  part  of  the  watershed  of  Mis^uri 
river  and  that  of  the  upper  Mississippi.  The  detached  \<>T' 
tion  of  Siouan  territor}^  on  the  E.  was  occupied  by  CatA«t*A. 
Biloxi,  etc.  It  cqinprised  a  portion  of  the  present  Star^^ 
of  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  South  Carolina.  Com  ran 
to  current  opinion,  the  general  trend  of  Siouan  migration 
has  been  westward. 

General  Characteristics, — The  Dakota  tribes  were  warlike. 
They  were  hostile  not  only  to  the  white  people  and  iDdianf 
of  other  families  (especially  the  Ojibwa  and  Pawnee),  I'u: 
also  to  the  Crow.  Hidatsa,  Mandan,  Omaha,  and  other  triU> 
of  their  own  familv.  Many  of  the  Dakota  have  come  undf  r 
the  influence  of  thristianitv,  and  are  advancing  towanl 
civilization.  The  Omaha  and  the  Ponka  have  been  warlike. 
but  they  have  never  fought  against  the  U.  S. ;  this  miglu 
be  said  also  of  the  southern  tribes  of  this  family. 

Sociology, — The  civil  and  religious  institutions  are  d*  t'  r- 
mined  by  kinship  as  expressed  in  terms  of  consanguinity  aixl 
affinity.  The  unit  of  the  social  organization  is  the  V*'^ 
which  is  usually  characterized  by  one  or  more  taboos.  Ir- 
religious and  the  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  functions 
are  not  differentiated,  being  exercised  by  chiefs  whose  ten- 
ure of  office  is  limited  by  age  or  other  physical  ineapacit\. 
or  by  misconduct.  The  chiefship  descends  from  father  t<» 
son,  unless  the  ambition  and  influence  of  a  near  relative  'ii^ 
place  him.  With  some  exceptions  descent  is  in  the  n\h> 
line,  although  the  entire  system  of  consanguinity  and  ai!iri:tv 
bears  traces  of  a  period  in  which  descent  was  in  the  fe malt- 
line.  A  plurality  of  wives  is  deemed  essential  to  the  aniHS^- 
ing  of  wealth,  which  is  one  avenue  to  power;  divorce  is  •op- 
tional with  the  husband.  Civil  government,  personal  c< in- 
duct, property  rights,  corporations  or  organized  bodies  "f 
persons,  war,  and  international  relations  are  regulated  by 
laws  and  compacts.  Indirectly  related  to  the  civil  govern- 
ment are  two  Kinds  of  associations  for  religious,  indu^t^ial 
and  other  purposes,  the  first  being  the  feasting  organ i;a- 
tions  and  tne  second  the  brotherhoods  or  dancing  soi'ieties 
to  some  of  which  the  shamans  belong.  Murder  and  rajv.  as 
a  rule,  are  punished  or  avenged  by  death  at  the  banils  of 
kindred  of  the  victim. 

History, — The  Dakota  were  mentioned  in  the  Jesuit  H^ 
lations  as  early  as  168^-40.  In  1658  thev  had  thirty  town> 
W.  N.  W.  from  the  mission  St,  Michel  of  t'he  Potawatami:  m 
1689  they  were  on  the  upper  Mississippi  near  St.  Croix  river. 
In  the  nineteenth  century  the  Teton  Dakota  went  into  the 
Black  Hills  region,  previously  occupied  by  the  Crow  tribe. 


^^^H 

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■ 

548 


SIOUX  CITY 


SIPHONOPHORJE 


Sapona  andprobably  the  Occaneeche  or  Akenatzy,  Eeyauwee, 
Shoccorie,  Stenkenock,  and  Meipontsky  tribes.  The  Tutelo 
were  first  referred  to  by  Capt.  John  Smith.  They  were  in 
Southern  Vir^nia  in  1671,  according  to  Batt;  in  North 
Carolina  in  l'n4,  according  to  Lawson.  They  and  the  Sa- 
pona returned  to  Virginia,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
with  the  Nottoway  and  Meherrin,  migrated  into  Pennsyl- 
vania and  subseouently  joined  the  Six  Nations.  At  the 
close  of  the  Revolutionary  war  the  Tutelo  followed  the  Six 
Nations  into  Canada,  settling  on  Grand  river  reservation, 
Ontario.  The  tribe  was  nearly  exterminated  by  smallpox  in 
1848,  and  the  last  survivor  died  in  1870. 

In  1669  the  Biloxi  had  one  village  on  Biloxi  Bay,  near  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico;  thirty  years  later  there  were  three  villages, 
Biloxi,  Paskagula,  and  Moctobi.  In  1804  the  Biloxi  were  on 
Red  river,  and  in  1828  they  were  reduced  to  twenty  families 
on  Neches  river,  Texas.  In  1894  about  twenty-five  of  the 
tribe  survived  in  Lecompte,  Rapides  parish.  La. 

Of  the  Catawba  tribes,  those  mentioned  earliest  were  the 
Wateree  and  St.  Helena,  seen  by  Juan  Pardo's  expedition  in 
1567.  In  the  earlier  part  of  the  next  century  the  Catawba 
proper  (who  were  called  Flatheads)  were  on  Catawba  creek, 
in  Botetourt  co.,  Va.,  and  may  have  occupied  the  adjoining 
county,  Roanoke,  where  there  is  now  a  settlement  bearing 
their  name.  About  1660  thev  migrated  to  South  Carolina. 
Lawson  (1701-02)  spoke  of  the  Kataba  on  Catawba  river, 
South  Carolina,  as  Esaw,  and  distinguished  them  from  the 
Kadapaw  on  Lynches  creek.  Adair  states  that  in  1743  the 
Catawba  had  400  warriors ;  Ramsav  (1795)  that  in  1780  they 
numbered  490  with  150  warriors.  In  1780  thev  withdrew  be- 
fore Cornwallis  to  Vir^nia,  where  some  of  them  joined  the 
American  army,  returning  to  establish  themselves  in  two  new 
villages.  About  1841  they  sold  to  the  State  of  North  Caro- 
lina 14  sq.  miles  of  their  territory,  reserving  only  1  sq.  mile 
and  a  tract  of  land  on  the  east  side  of  Catawba  river.  At 
that  time,  as  also  in  1890,  they  numbered  about  120. 

The  Mannahoak  confederacy  of  Virginia  consisted  of 
about  a  dozen  tribes,  of  which  the  names  of  eight  have  been 

Preserved.  Their  habitat  was  between  tide-water  and  the 
lue  Ridge.  Of  the  Monacan  confederacy  of  Virginia  five 
tribes  were  named  by  Capt.  John  Smith,  Lederer,  and  Jef- 
ferson.   Both  confederacies  are  extinct. 

For  a  description  of  the  manners,  customs,  etc.,  of  the  Sio- 
uan  Indians  (with  others),  see  Indians  of  North  America. 

Bibliography. — Letters  and  Notes  on  the  North  American 
Indiana^  by  George  Catlin  (1844);  On^iha  Socioloay  and  A 
Stttdyof  Siouan  Cults,  by  J.  0.  Dorsey  (in  3d  and  ilth  Ann. 
Rep.  Bur.  Am.  Ethnology) ;  A  Synopsis  of  the  Indian  Tribes 
in  North  America,  by  Albert  Gallatin  (in  Trans,  and  Coll, 
Am,  Antio,  Soc,  vol.  ii.,  1836) ;  Ethnography  and  Philology 
of  the  Hiaatsa  Indians,  by  Washington  Matthews  (in  Miscel. 
tubl.  U.  S.  Geol.  and  Geo^.  Survey,  No.  7, 1877) ;  Travels  in 
North  America,  by  Maximilian,  Prince  of  Wied  (1843); 
Siottan  Tribes  of  the  Fast,  by  James  Mooney  (Bull.  Bur. 
Am.  Ethnology,  1894) ;  Indian  Linguistic  Families,  by  J. 
W.  Powell  (in  7th  Ann.  Rep.  Bur.  Am.  Ethnology) ;  Informa- 
tion respecting  the  Indian  Tribes  of  t?ie  Untied  States,  by 
H.  R.  Schoolcraft.  James  Owen  Dorset. 

Sionx  (soo)  City :  city ;  capital  of  Woodbury  co.,  la. ;  at 
the  junction  of  the  Big  Sioux  and  Missouri  rivers ;  on  the 
Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.,  the  Chi.,  St.  P.,  Minn,  and  Om.,  the  111. 
Cent.,  the  Sioux  City  and  North.,  the  Sioux  City  and  Pac., 
the  Sioux  City,  O'Neill  and  W.,  and  the  Union  Pac.  rail- 
ways ;  80  miles  S.  of  Sioux  Falls,  S.  D.,  and  100  miles  N.  by 
W.  of  Council  Bluffs  (for  location,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref  4-C). 
It  is  the  second  city  in  size  in  the  State,  has  a  large  frontage 
on  the  Missouri  river  and  a  picturesque  residence  quarter 
on  high  bluffs,  and  is  an  important  commercial  center.  It 
is  the  gat>eway  to  South  Dakota,  the  upper  Missouri  region, 
and  the  Black  Hills  mining  and  grazine^  country. 

Public  Interests, — ^The  city  has  all  the  modem  improve- 
ments :  water-works  (cost  $1,000,000) ;  51  miles  of  electric  and 
8  miles  of  elevated  railway ;  gas  and  electric  lights ;  over  40 
miles  of  sewers ;  25  miles  of  paved  streets ;  citv-hall  and  public 
library  (cost  $80,000) ;  police  building  ($30,000) ;  county  court- 
house ;  U.  S.  Government  building  ($250,000) ;  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
building  ($60,000) ;  2  hospitals :  a  Union  depot  ($600,000) ; 
and  a  bridge  across  the  Missouri  river  ($1,000,000).  There 
are  over  40  churches,  several  of  which  cost  from  $50,000  to 
$75,000  each ;  30  public-school  buildings  (cost  over  $650,000), 
including  a  high-school  building  that  cost  $130,000:  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  Northwest,  and  3  daily  and  13  weekly  papers. 

Business  Interests, — The  census  returns  of  1890  showed 


195  manufacturing  establishments  (representing  60  indus- 
tries), with  a  combined  capital  of  $4,938,606,  emproving  2,997 
persons,  paying  $1,862,612  for  wages  and  $10,829,994  for 
materials,  and  turning  out  products  valued  at  $14,164,667. 
In  1895  there  were  5  meat-packinp^  houses  with  a  capacity  for 
slaughtering  and  packing  13,000  ho^  3,000  cattle,  and  1,60() 
sheep  per  day.  Over  $6,000,000  was  invested  in  manufactur- 
ing. The  principal  productions  were  stoves,  engines,  blu**^ 
flour,  soap,  starch,  wagons,  plows,  tile,  brooms,  furniture,  and 
clothing.  The  jobbing  trade  amounts  to  about  $^,000,Oii) 
per  annum.  There  were  17  banks  of  all  kinds,  having  a  com- 
bined capital  of  $3,575,000  and  a  surplus  of  $940,000,  and  2 
loan  and  trust  companies. 

History. — The  city  was  settled  by  traders  in  1849,  was  an 
important  Government  post  during  the  early  Indian  troublt^, 
and  was  the  outfitting  point  for  the  Black  Hills  expeditious. 
It  achieved  great  fame  from  its  com  palaces,  beautiful  btrui*- 
tures  decorated  with  grains,  grasses,  and  other  product^^  of 
the  soil.  Five  were  Duilt,  in  which  annual  fairs  and  fes- 
tivals were  held,  lasting  a  month.  Since  the  palaces  were 
abandoned  annual  interstate  fairs  have  been  held  at  River- 
side Park,  a  beautiful  retreat  in  the  suburbs^  with  ample 
grounds  and  a  race-track. 

Pop.  (1880)  7,366 ;  (1890)  37,893 ;  (1895)  estimated,  over 
40,000.     Oba  Williams,  m anaoino  editor  of  '*  Journal." 

Sioux  Falls :  citv  (incorporated  as  a  town  in  1877,  as  a 
city  in  1888) ;  capital  of  Minnehaha  co.,  S.  D. ;  on  the  Hi? 
Sioux  river,  and  the  Burl.,  Cedar  Rap.  and  N.,  the  Chi.,  Mil. 
and  St.  P.,  the  Chi,  St.  P.,  Minn,  ana  Om.,  the  Great  N.,  an«l 
the  111.  Cent,  railways;  90  miles  N.  of  Sioux  City,  la.  (for 
location,  see  map  of  South  Dakota,  ref.  7-G).  It  is  in  no 
agricultural  and  stone-quarrying  region ;  has  large  $t<M'k- 
raising  interests;  derives  great  power  from  the  river,  which 
falls  nearly  100  feet  in  a  series  of  cascades  within  a  distance 
of  half  a  mile ;  and  contains  water- works,  sewers,  and  gas  ami 
electric-light  plants.  The  streets  are  paved  with  jasper,  quar- 
ried near  the  city,  and  many  buildings  are  constructed  with 
the  same  stone.  There  are  30  churches,  7  public-school  build- 
ings, public-school  property  valued  at  over  $175,000,  Sioux 
Falls  University  (Baptist),  All  Saints'  School  (Protesiant 
Episcopal),  a  Norwegian-Lutheran  college,  a  business  (xA- 
lege,  the  State  School  for  Deaf  Mu^,  the  South  Dakota 
penitentiary,  4  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of 
1450,000, 3  State  banks  with  capital  of  $200,000,  and  2  daily. 
7  weekly,  and  3  monthly  periodicals.  Sioux  Falls  is  the  seat 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  bishopric  of  South  Dakota  ami 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  bishopric  of  Sioux  Falls.  Pop.  (18K)) 
2,164;  (1890)  10,177;  (1894)  18,564. 

Charles  M.  Day,  editor  of  '*  Arous-Leabkr." 

Sipbon  [from  Lat.  si'pho,  sipho'nis  =  Gr.  crt^m^,  reed, 
pipe,  tube,  siphon] :  a  bent  tube  for  conveying  water  from 
a  reservoir.  A,  to  a  lower 
level,  C,  over  an  elevation,  B, 
which  is  not  more  than  33 
feet  hieher  than  A.  To  put 
the  sipnon  into  action  the  air 
must  oe  exhausted,  and  then 
the  atmospheric  pressure  on 
the  surface  of  the  water  at 
A  causes  the  water  to  rise 
and  flow  over,  with  a  velocity  depending  upon  the  differ- 
ence of  level  between  A  and  C.  The  siphon  is  used  for 
emptying  casks,  and  sometimes  on  pipe-lines  for  water- 
works, but  in  the  latter  case  a  pump  is  placed  at  B,  in  order 
to  remove  the  air  which  otherwise  accumulates  there  and 
diminishes  the  flow.    See  Hydraulics.  M.  M, 

Siphonap^tera  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  ai^mm,  tube  -h  hrrtpot, 
wingless] :  an  order  of  insects  which  contains  the  fleas.  See 
Entomology. 

Siphona^ta  [Mod.  Lat.,  deriv.  of  sipho  =  Gr.  ^^ttm,  tul)e]: 
one  of  the  two  divisions  into  which  the  lamellibranch  mol- 
luscs (clams,  etc.)  were  formerly  divided,  the  name  being 
given  in  allusion  to  the  fact  that  the  posterior  edges  of  the 
mantle  were  united  with  a  tube  (familiar  in  the  so-calittl 
**  head  "  of  the  common  clam).    See  Lavellibrakchiata. 

Sipbonoph^orn  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  trf^y,  tube  -f-  ^opiu 
bearing] :  a  group  of  Hydrozoa  (q.  v.)  characterized  bv  the 
formation  of  fi*ee-swimming  colonies,  the  individuals  oi 
which  have  become  highly  differentiated.  These  individiunls 
are  each  modified  jellyiishes,  and  are  connected  by  a  tul*, 
whence  the  name.  In  a  typical  form  the  following  individ- 
uals may  occur :  (1)  A  float,  to  suspend  the  colony,  occurriug 


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SITKA 


Sis'eowet  Siskowit,  or  Siskawitz  [from  native  (Amer.- 
Ind.)  name] :  a  variety  of  the  great  lake-trout  {ScUvelinua 
fiamaycushf  var.  siakawitz),  found  in  Lake  Superior.  It  is 
similar  to  the  namaycush,  but  is  less  elongated,  and  becomes 
extremely  fat. 

Sisen'na,  Lucius  Cornelius  :  historian ;  b.  about  b.  c. 
110 ;  was  pnetor  b.  g.  78 ;  defended  Verres  in  70,  and  died 
B.  G.  67  in  Crete,  being  at  the  time  legate  of  Pompey  in  the 
war  with  the  pirates.  Having  been  an  actor  in  public  af- 
fairs, he  was  well  fitted  to  relate  the  events  of  his  own  time 
(includine^  the  Social  war  and  the  civil  wars  of  Sulla)  in  his 
work  entitled  Hiaforta,  written  in  an  archaic  style.  Cicero 
says  of  him  (in  his  book  on  Laws)  that  he  surpassed  all  nre- 
vious  Latin  historians,  and  Sallust  highly  praises  his  aili- 
genee.  Sisenna  translated  also  into  Latin  the  Milesian  tales 
(MiAiya-iflucdO  of  Aristides.  Whether  the  Sisenna  who  wrote 
commentaries  to  several  plays  of  Plautus  is  the  same  is  dis- 
puted. Only  fragments  of  the  Hiatorim  remain,  collected 
oy  Peter  in  Hist  Roman,  Fragmenta,  pp.  175-189. 

Revised  by  M.  Wabbbn. 

Siskin  [from  Dan.  ai^en,  or  Swed.  aiaka ;  Germ,  zemj, 
from  Sloven.  diBek :  Polish  6yiu,  siskin] :  an  Old  World 
bird,  Spinua  or  Chryaomitria  apinua,  of  the  family  Frin- 
giUidcB,  The  male  is  a  prevaibng  olive  green  above  and 
yellowish  white  below,  streaked  with  black  on  the  back  and 
sides,  and  with  a  black  throat  and  crown.  It  is  a  favorite 
case-bird.  The  pine-siskin  (S,  pinna)  and  the  American 
gold  finch  are  related  North  American  species. 

Slsmon'dl,  Jean  Chables  L^onabd  Simonde,  de:  his- 
torian and  political  economist ;  b.  at  Geneva,  Switzerland, 
May  0, 1778 ;  educated  in  the  college  of  his  native  town, 
and  was  a  clerk  in  a  large  counting-house  in  Lvons ;  polit- 
ical disturbances  drove  his  family  into  exile,  ana  he  lived  in 
England  and  later  in  Italy  for  several  years ;  settled  finally 
in  his  native  town  in  1800 :  devoted  himself  to  studios  ana 
literary  work,  though  at  the  same  time  participating  very 
actively  in  politics ;  married  in  1819  an  English  lady.  D. 
near  Geneva,  June  25, 1842.  His  first  work  was  a  treatise 
on  political  economy,  De  la  Hicheaae  commereiale  (1803), 
based  on  the  ideas  of  Adam  Smith,  which,  however,  he  after- 
ward abandoned,  and  even  opposed,  in  his  Nouveaux  Pnn- 
eipea  d'Economie  politique  (2  vols.,  1819)  and  Mudea  aur 
lea  Sciencea  aocialea  (3  vols.,  1836).  His  acquaintance  with 
Madame  de  StaSl,  Benjamin  Constant,  Guizot,  etc.,  turned 
his  attention  from  political  economy  to  history,  and  it  was 
as  an  historian  that  he  acquired  his  great  celebrity.  His 
Hiatoire  dea  Ripubliquea  italiennea  du  moyen  dge  (16  vols.) 
appeared  at  Zurich  in  1807-18 ;  La  LitUrature  du  Midi  de 
VEurope  (4  vols.,  1813)  was  translated  into  English  by 
Thomas  Roscoe  in  1823.  Of  his  principal  work,  Hiatoire 
dea  Fran^ia  (31  vols.,  1821-44),  he  gave  an  abstract,  PrScia 
de  VHiatoire  dea  Fran^ia  (2  vols.,  1889).  See  Siamondi, 
Fragmenta  de  aon  Journal  et  de  aa  Correapondance  avec 
MUe,  de  Sainte-Aulaire  (1863),  Lettrea  iniditea  d  Madame 
d* Albany  (1864),  and  another  collection  of  Lettrea  Iniditea 
(1878). 

Sistan :  See  Seistan. 

Sisterhoods :  in  the  religious  sense,  unions  of  women  de- 
voted by  public  vows  to  religious  work.  Thev  are  in  idea 
nearly  as  old  as  monasticism,  for  female  brancnes  of  all  the 
principal  monastic  orders  were  organized  by  the  original 
lounders,  whose  members  are  called  nuns,  and  are  techni- 
cally spoken  of  as  female  religious.  A  distinction  should 
be  made,  however,  between  a  sister  and  a  nun,  for  the  for- 
mer, unlike  the  latter,  is  not  shut  up  in  a  convent,  nor  given 
up  to  contemplation  and  ascetic  practices.  Sisterhoods  in 
tne  strict  sense  are  modern,  for  the  first  one,  still  the  most 
famous  of  all,  was  founded  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in  1629, 
and  is  known  variously  as  Daughters  or  Sisters  of  Charity, 
Gray  Sisters,  and  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  (See  ar- 
ticle Chabity,  Sisters  of.)  There  are  now  many  sister- 
hoods, all  doing  similar  work.  One  of  them,  the  Irish  Sis- 
ters of  Charity,  founded  in  1815,  uses  an  adaptation  of  the 
Jesuit  rule.  The  vows  of  all  are  the  monastic  ones  of  pov- 
erty, celibacy,  and  obedience.  To  these  are  added,  in  some 
cases,  other  obligations.  The  sisters  wear  a  distinctive 
dress,  and  have  houses  to  live  in  and  start  from  on  their 
daily  round  of  labor. 

Protestant  women,  although  equallv  devoted  to  the  relief 
of  suffering,  do  not,  as  a  rule,  favor  sfsterhoods.  They  pre- 
fer to  work  independently.  Besides,  they  resent  the  impli- 
cation of  the  vow  aa  to  **  chastity,"  that  the  married  relation 


is  in  any  sense  derogatory,  instead  of  bein^  in  eyerv  respect 
an  honor  and  glory  to  woman,  and  that  it  i%  a  hindrance  to 
spiritual  life,  whereas  it  is  a  divineljr  ordered  help.  Prut- 
estant  sisterhoods  date  from  the  revival  of  what  is  ealk-d 
"  Catholic  *'  teaching  in  the  Church  of  England.  The  first 
sisterhood  in  the  Church  of  England  was  founded  bv  Dr. 
Pusey  in  1846.  The  Society  of  the  Holy  Trinity  was  found- 
ed at  Devonport  in  1847,  and  manj  others  have  since  been 
organized.  One  of  the  largest  is  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  found- 
ed in  1851.  The  saintly  Sister  Dora  (Dorothy  Pattison,  lKi2- 
78)  belonged  to  the  Sisterhood  of  the  Good  Samaritans. 

The  first  Protestant  sisterhood  in  the  U.  S.,  the  Sisterhood  of 
the  Hol]r  Communion,  was  founded  by  Rev.  Dr.  W.  A.  Muh- 
lenberg in  New  York  in  1852.  It  took  charge  of  St.  I^ukes 
Hospital  in  that  city  in  1859,  and  St.  Johnland  in  1866.  Tlit 
Sisterhood  of  St^  Marj  was  founded  in  New  York  in  1^6.1. 
There  were  in  1895  nineteen  sisterhoods  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  four  being  branches  of  English  ones. 

The  Protestant  sisterhoods  differ  somewhat  in  methods 
and  objects,  but  agree  in  promoting  a  combination  of  ytu-ty 
and  good  works.  They  pay  particular  attention  to  the  iniitT 
life,  and  strive  to  put  the  spiritual  force  thus  gained  to  prac- 
tical account.  In  dress  their  members  resemble  those  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  except  that  they  do  not  cover  up  the 
hair.  Thev  take  vows,  but  not  irrevocable  ones,  although  it 
is  very  seldom  that  a  woman  leaves  a  sisterhood.  For  the 
allied  order  of  Deaconesses,  see  Deaconess. 

Sadli€r*a  Catholic  Directory  (New  York)  annually  gives 
the  figures  for  the  Roman  Catholic  sisterhoods  in  the  V.  S. 
and  Canada,  and  the  Catholic  ZHVe^/ory,  published  in  Dub- 
lin, those  for  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  For  the  sister- 
hoods in  the  Church  of  England,  see  the  yearly  list  in  the 
Kalendar  of  the  Engliah  Church  (London).  For  those  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  see  the  Living  Church 
Quarterly  (Milwaukee,  Wis.).  On  the  general  subject,  see 
Mrs.  Jamieson,  Siaterhooda  of  Charity  (London,  1855): 
Mary  Goodman,  Siaterhooda  %n  the  Church  of  England 
(1868;  2d  ed.  1865);  J.  M.  Ludlow,  Woman'a  Work  in  thf 
Church  (1865) ;  W.  A.  Muhlenberg,  Evangelical  Sisierho(*d» 
(New  York,  1867);  C.  E.  Stephen,  The  Service  of  the  l\}or 
(Ix)ndon,  1870) ;  H.  C.  Potter,  Siaterhooda  afid  Deaconesses 
at  Home  and  Abroad  (New  York,  1871) ;  C.  C.  Grafton,  Vo- 
cation; or.  The  Call  of  the  Divine  Master  to  a  Sister's 
Life  (1886).  Samuel  Macaulet  Jackson. 

Sisters  of  Charity :  See  Chabfiy,  Sistebs  of. 

Sisters  of  Mercy:  a  Roman  Catholic  religious  sister- 
hood, founded  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1827,  by  Miss  Catlieriiie 
McAulev.  The  rule  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Presentation 
nuns.  Originally  each  convent  was  independent,  but  off- 
shoots from  the  parent  house,  especially  outside  of  Ireland, 
are  usually  subject  to  it.  These  religious  women  are  always 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  in  whose  diocese  ihej 
are  locatea.  They  were  introduced  into  the  U.  S.  in  1W3, 
at  Pittsburg.  Their  convents  are  more  than  200  in  num- 
ber, and  the  sisters  are  chiefly  occupied  in  the  conduct  of 
parochial  schools,  private  academies,  hospitals,  and  homes 
for  the  aged.  See  Life  of  Mother  Catherine  McAuier/, 
Leavea  from  the  Diary  of  a  Siater  of  Mercy ,  and  Hoffman  $ 
Catholic  Directory  for  1896.  J.  J.  Keane. 

Sisto'TA :  town  and  fortress ;  in  Bulgaria,  on  the  Danube, 
between  Nicopolis  and  Rustchuk  (see  map  of  Turkey,  rel 
3-D).  It  manufactures  leather  and  cotton  goods  and  carries 
on  a  large  trade  in  wheat  and  wine.  The  treaty  of  Sistova 
was  signed  here  between  the  Ottoman  empire  and  Austria 
(1791),  and  the  Russians  crossed  here  in  1877.  Pop.  (ISiJa) 
13,212.  E.  A.  G. 

Sis'jphns  (Gr.  2l<n^i):  in  Grecian  mythology,  son  of 
^olus,  father  of  Glaucus,  grandfather  of  Bellero))hon,  and 
king  and  founder  of  Corinth.  Because  of  his  wickedness 
Zeus  sent  Death  to  take  him  to  Hades ;  but  Sisyphus  bound 
Death  and  held  him  long  time  prisoner,  so  that  no  one  died 
until  Death  was  finally  released  by  Ares.  For  this  reas«ni 
(though  other  reasons  also  are  given)  Sisyphus,  when  finally 
he  had  come  to  the  house  of  Hades,  was  doomed  to  roll  to 
the  top  of  a  high  mountain  a  huge  rock,  which  always  broke 
away  from  him  just  as  the  top  was  being  reached. 

J.  R.  S.  Stkbrett. 

Sit'lta  (formerly  New  Archangel):  capital  of  Alaska 
Territory,  on  Baranof  island,  near  the  Pacific  coast,  in  Ut. 
57°  2'  N.  (see  map  of  Alaska,  ref.  4-H).  It  has  a  harbor 
that  is  deep  and  commodious,  but  is  difficult  of  ingress  and 
egress.    It  was  founded  by  the  Russians  in  the  eighteenth 


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652 


SKAGERRAK 


SKELETON 


Toted  himself  to  the  study  of  Thomas  k  Kempis.  D.  at 
Upsala,  Mar.  14, 1828.  The  complete  works  of  Vitalis  were 
published  at  Stockholm  in  1873.  D.  K.  Dodge. 

Ska^errak',  or  Skaj^er-Back  :  an  arm  of  the  North  Sea, 
80  miles  broad,  extending  between  Norway  and  the  Danish 
peninsula  of  Jutland,  and  connecting  the  German  Ocean 
with  the  Cattegat  or  Kattegat.  The  current  generally  sets 
E.  along  the  coast  of  Jutland,  where  the  depth  varies  be- 
tween §0  and  40  fathoms,  and  W.  along  tne  Norwegian 
coast,  where  the  depth  generally  is  200  fathoms.  There  is 
neither  haven  nor  good  anchorage  on  Jutland,  but  good  har- 
bors abound  on  the  opposite  coast. 

Skaneateles,  sk&n-ee-&t'leez :  village  (settled  in  1796,  in- 
corporated in  1883) ;  Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y. ;  at  the  outlet  of 
Lake  Skaneateles ;  on  the  Skan.  Railroad ;  7  miles  E.  by  N. 
of  Auburn,  18  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Syracuse  (for  location,  see 
map  of  New  York,  ref .  4-F).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and 
teasel-growing  region ;  derives  good  power  for  manufactur- 
ing from  the  lake ;  contains  flour-mills,  woolen-mills,  iron- 
works, hydraulic  Hme-kilns,  printing-paper  mill,  carriage- 
factories,'  Union  School  and  Academy,  public  library  (found- 
ed in  1877),  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $60,000,  a  savings- 
bank,  and  two  weekly  newspapers,  and  is  a  popular  summer 
resort.  Pop.  (1880)  1,669;  (1890)  1,559;  (1895)  estimated, 
1,700.  Editor  op  "  Febb  Press." 

Skate :  a  name  given  to  certain  species  of  fish  of  the  fami- 
ly RAiiDiS  {q,  1'.).    See  also  Rai^s. 

Skeat,  sket,  Waltee  William  :  clergyman  and  philolo- 
Kist;  b.  in  London,  England,  Nov.  21,  1835;  educated  at 
King's  College  School  and  at  Sir  R.  Cholmeley's  school, 
Highgate;  graduated  at  Cambridge  University  1858;  be- 
came a  fellow  of  Christ*s  College  1860;  took  orders  in  the 
Church  of  England;  curate  1860-64;  became  lecturer  on 
mathematics  at  Christ's  College  Oct.,  1864,  and  subsequently 
lecturer  on  English ;  was  in  1873  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
English  Dialect  Society.  A  prolific  and  useful  writer  and 
editor,  he  has  published  some  forty  works,  among  which 
are  the  following  for  the  Early  EngUsh  Text  Society :  JLan- 
eeht  of  the  Laik,  a  Scotch  Metrical  Romwice  (1865) ;  Par- 
allel Extracts  from  29  MSS.  of  Piers  the  Plotiman  (1866) ; 
The  Romans  of  Partenay  or  Ijusignan,  otherwise  known  as 
the  Tale  of  Melusine  (1866) ;  Pierce  the  Ploughman's  Crede 
(1867) ;  T%e  Vision  of  William  concerning  Piers  the  Plow- 
man (3  parts,  1867-73);  The  Romance  of  William  of  Pa- 
leme,  or  William  and  the  Werwolf  {1SQ7);  The  iMy  of 
Havelok  the  Dane  (1868);  The  Bruce,  by  Master  John 
Barbour  (part  i.,  1870);  Joseph  of  AramcUhie,  or  the  Ro- 
mance of  the  Seint  Graal  (1871) ;  and  Chaucer's  Treaiise 
on  the  Astrolabe.  For  several  of  these  he  prepared  intro- 
ductions, notes,  and  glossarial  indexes.  For  the  Philologi- 
cal Society  he  edited  a  Moeso-Oothic  Glossary  (1868),  for  the 
Oxford  Umversity  Press  2  vols,  of  Specim^ens  of  English 
Literature  and  several  of  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales,  and 
completed  for  the  Cambridge  University  Press  the  variorum 
edition  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Gospels  left  unfinished  by  John 
Mitchell  Kemble.  In  a  new  edition  of  Chatterton's  Poems 
he  settled  the  question  of  authenticity  by  showing  the  pre- 
cise sources  of  Chatterton's  diction;  is  author  of  &  Hand- 
list of  some  Cognate  Words  in  English,  Latin,  and  Greek 
(1871) ;  Questions  for  Examination  in  English  Literature 
(1873) ;  an  Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage (1882) ;  The  Principles  of  English  Etymology  (2  vols., 
1887-91) ;  an  edition  of  Chaucer's  Minor  Poems  (18)88) ;  and 
Complete  Works  of  Geoffrey  Chaucer  (6  vols.,  1894). 

Revised  by  Benj.  Ide  Wheelee. 

Skeleton  [=  Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  aK9\§r6v  (sc.  a&fta,  body), 
dried  body,  mummv,  skeleton,  liter.,  neut.  of  a-jrcA.cr^i, 
parched,  dried  up,  deriv.  of  axtWtty,  dry,  parch]:  in  its 
broadest  sense,  the  structures  serving  to  support  and  pro- 
tect the  more  delicate  tissues  of  the  body  of  an  animal. 
Among  the  invertebrates  the  skeleton  is  often  represented 
by  calcareous  or  siliceous  plates  or  masses  developed  in  con- 
nection with  the  interment,  hence  known  as  the  exoskele- 
ton,  as  distinguished  from  the  more  highly  specialized  sup- 
porting apparatus  developed  within  the  connective  tissue 
as  the  cartilage  or  the  true  osseous  substance  which  consti- 
tutes the  endoskeleton.  Ignoring  the  feeble  attempts  at  the 
formation  of  a  connective-tissue  skeleton  which  are  found 
among  the  lower  animals,  as  the  Vermes  and  the  Moilusca, 
a  true  skeleton,  composed  of  cartilaginous  or  osseous  pieces 
forming  a  definite  framework  throughout  the  body,  may  be 
said  not  to  exist  except  in  vertebrated  animals. 


In  adilition  to  the  endoskeleton,  many  vertebrates  al5<i 
possess  in  connection  with  the  integument  aupplementiiry 
protecting  structures  which  constitute  an  exoskeleton.  Ci»n- 
spicuous  examples  of  such  structures  are  seen  in  the  ex- 
teiiial  skeletal  plates  of  the  sturgeon,  the  tortoise,  or  the  ar- 
madillo. In  other  animals,  again,  a  partial  bony  support  b* 
formed  within  the  substance  of  certain  organs,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  bony  plates  within  the  heart-waUs  of  rominanr^. 
the  osseous  rods  within  the  tongue  of  certain  lizards,  or  tht 
slender  bone  within  the  male  copulative  oigan  of  many  c^r- 
nivora,  rodents,  bats,  and  some  monkeys.  Such  o^>u< 
structures  occurring  within  the  substance  of  the  viscera 
constitute  the  splanchno-skeleton. 

The  first  framework  formed  within  the  immature  animal 
is  the  primary  cartilaginous  skeleton  which  is  developed  h\ 
the  specialization  of  parts  of  the  connective  tissue  of  the 
embryo.  This  framework  of  cartilage  in  a  p;eneral  way  out- 
lines the  bony  skeleton,  although  much  simpler  than  the 
latter  in  its  details.  Among  the  higher  vertebrates  the  (car- 
tilaginous structures  are  only  temporary,  and  after  affunl- 
ing  support  to  the  delicate  softer  tissues  of  the  developing: 
organs  for  a  limited  time  are  replaced  by  the  permanent 
bony  skeleton.  While  such  substitution  is  almost  compute 
among  the  higher  animals,  some  of  the  lower  vertebral  o>. 
as  the  sharks,  retain  the  primary  cartilaginous  framework 
throughout  life  as  their  permanent  skeleton.  Usually,  how- 
ever, after  a  time,  at  certain  points  called  centers  of  o»ifi- 
cation,  the  cartilage  becomes  invaded  by  true  bone-prr>- 
ducing  tissue,  and  the  substitution  of  osseous  for  cartilas:- 
inous  structures  is  effected.  For  the  details  of  the  prix^^e^5 
of  bone-formation,  see  the  article  Histoloot. 

Every  vertebrate,  whether  fish,  amphibian,  reptile,  bird. 
or  mammal,  possesses  in  the  spine  or  vertebral  column  a 
fundamental  axis  in  regard  to  which  the  remaining  portion^ 
of  the  endoskeleton  are  symmetrically  arrang^l.  This  axis 
is  not  necessarily  bony  in  character,  since  in  some  fishes  it 
never  develops  beyond  the  cartilaginous  condition.  In  the 
lanceolet,  or  amphioxus,  it  never  attains  even  to  the  cartilag- 
inous stage,  but  represents  the  primitive  embryonic  axis, 
the  notochord.    See  Embetoloot. 

The  vertebrate  axis  is  formed  by  a  series  of  disks,  the 
bodies  of  the  vertebne  extending  from  the  base  of  the  .•^kuU 
to  the  caudal  pole  and  including  a  variable  number  of  ^t*^- 
ments,  as  few  as  fifteen  or  as  many  as  365.  From  this  fun- 
damental axis  two  series  of  verv  unequal  dorsal  and  ventral 
arches  extend.  The  dorsal  arches  are  formed  bv  the  union 
of  short  vertebral  plates — ^the  laminie — ^which  thus  form  a 
tube  extending  from  the  cephalic  to  the  caudal  pole  of  the 
animal.  This  tube  is  the  vertebral  canal  and  contains  the 
spinal  cord.  At  its  anterior,  or  cephalic  extremity,  the  t\ii^ 
usually  widelv  expands  into  the  cranial  cavity  containing 
the  brain.  The  brain-case,  or  cranial  portion  of  the  skull. 
may  be  considered  in  a  qualified  sense  as  being  composed  of 
enlarged  and  modified  vertebral  segments.  The  dorsal  or 
vertebral  canal  is  distinguished  therefore  as  containing  and 
protecting  the  great  cerebro-spinal  nervous  axis. 

The  ventral  arches  proceeding  from  the  vertebral  axis,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  less  constant,  varying  greatly  in  their 
number  and  position.  The  ventral  arches  are  principally 
represented  by  the  ribs,  thoracic  or  abdominal,  and  by  the 
variable  series'  of  branchial  bows,  or  gill-arches,  placed  at  the 
base  of  the  head.  The  ventral  arches  inclose  the  thoracic 
and  abdominal  organs,  affording  them  protection  and  support. 

The  osseous  framework  of  man,  in  common  with  that  <»f 
other  high  vertebrates,  consists  of  two  parts — the  axial  and 
the  appendicular  skeleton.  The  former  includes  the  tuok 
constant  and  essential  portions  of  the  vertebrate  framework, 
namely,  the  vertebral  column,  the  skull  and  the  ribs,  with 
the  breast -bone.  The  appendicular  skeleton  depends  for  its 
development  upon  the  presence  of  limbs,  since  it  include? 
the  bones  of  the  extremities,  together  with  those  forming 
the  skeletal  connection  between  the  framework  of  the  limbs 
and  the^spine.  These  connections  are  known  respecliveir 
as  the  shoulder-girdle  and  pelvic  girdle. 

The  shoulder-girdle  in  man  consists  of  the  collar-bone  or 
clavicle,  and  the  shoulder-blade  or  scapula,  by  mean?  '-f 
which  the  bones  of  the  upper  limb  are  indirectly  connei  twl 
to  the  axial  skeleton,  an  arrangement  favoring  tlie  grpAt 
latitude  of  motion  enjoyed  by  the  upper  extremities.  The 
pelvic  girdle  is  much  more  fixed,  consisting  of  the  hipliones 
or  innominata,  which  give  firm  support  to  the  thien-hones 
and  transmit  the  weight  of  the  upper  portions  of  the  IhwIt. 
In  animals,  as  the  whales,  where  the  nind  limbs  are  want- 
ing, the  pelvic  girdle,  and  hence  the  pelvis,  is  absent. 


SICSLftTT^: 


SlUMMki 


# 


^H^*if^^i^ 


Hi 


,,n; 


y.rnv*  »tI1ii^^  nf  n 


554 


SKIN 


SKIN  DISEASES 


ble,  which  is  much  longer  than  the  upper  and  compressed 
like  a  knife-blade,  cutting  through  the  wat«r.  They  are  re- 
lated to  the  terns,  but  belonff  to  a  distinct  family.  The 
black  skimmer  (R.  nigra)  is  black  above,  white  below.  The 
spread  of  wing  is  8}  to  4  feet ;  length,  16  to  20  inches.  It 
ranges  northward  to  New  Jersey,  but  B,  alhieollis  is  Indian 
And  R,  jiavirostris  African.  F.  A.  L. 

8kin :  See  Histoloot. 

8kin  Diseases :  diseases  affecting  the  skin.  These  dis- 
eases appear  as  primary  or  secondary  eruptions.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  primary  forms :  (1)  The  mctcuh  or  apoty  a 
change  of  the  normal  color  of  the  skin  without  elevation, 
arises  from  hypenemia,  hemorrhage,  or  inflammation,  some- 
times from  anomalies  of  the  distribution  of  the  coloring 
granules  of  the  skin.  (2)  The  papule  or  pimple,  a  projection 
above  the  surface,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  millet-seed 
to  that  of  a  lentil,  is  produced  by  diseases  of  the  cutaneous 
glands,  inflammation,  and  new  growths  of  the  papillary 
layer.  (3)  The  tubercle  is  a  solid  projection  of  the  size  of  a 
lentil  up  to  that  of  a  hazel-nut.  (4)  The  wheal  is  slightly 
raised  above  the  surface,  and  greatly  exceeds  the  thickness 
in  horizontal  extension,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  fln- 
eer-nail  to  that  of  the  palm  of  the  hand.  (5)  The  tumor 
lorms  a  solid  projection  of  the  size  of  a  walnut  to  that  of 
a  man's  flst.  (6)  Vesicles  are  elevations  of  the  epithelial 
layer  of  the  skin  produced  by  a  transparent  or  milky  fluid, 
coiTesponding  in  size  to  that  of  papules,  and  as  such  never 
beinff  of  a  long  duration ;  while  (7)  hleha  surpass  the  size  of 
vesicles  up  to  that  of  a  goose's  ^gg,  and  (8)  pustules  always 
contain  pus,  and  therefore  form  superficial  abscesses  of  the 
skin.  Vesicles,  blebs,  and  pustules  almost  always  are  sur- 
rounded by  inflammatory  areas. 

Secondary  forms  of  eruptions  are  (1)  the  excoriation,  a 
flat  abrasion  of  the  epithelial  layer  of  the  skin,  arising  from 
destruction  and  rupture  of  primary  eruptions,  very  often 
through  scratching  with  the  nnger-nails.  They  always  heal 
without  the  formation  of  a  scar.  (2)  The  ulcer  presents  a 
loss  of  substance  penetrating  into  the  derma,  wnich  heals 
slowly  and  with  formation  of  a  cicatrix.  (3)  Fissures  are 
elongated  cracks  in  the  skin  on  parts  liable  to  much  stretch- 
ing. (4)  Scales  are  produced  by  detached  epidermis.  (5) 
Crusts  result  from  drying  of  an  exuded  fluid  or  of  extrav- 
asated  blood.  (6)  Scars  or  cicatrices  are  connective-tissue 
formations  which  replace  deeper  losses  of  substance  of  the 
derma. 

The  causes  of  diseases  of  the  skin  are  either  rooted  in  the 
whole  organism,  or  they  are  local  ones,  bv  which  the  skin  is 
primarily  or  chiefly  attacked ;  hence  the  aivision  iiito  symp- 
tomatic and  idiopathic  affections  of  the  skin.  Certain  rashes 
occur  in  variola,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  syphilis,  in  typhoid 
fever,  in  purulent  infection  of  the  blood,  so-called  pysemia, 
in  scrofulosis,  scorbutus,  etc.  Moreover,  diseases  of  internal 
organs  may  involve  the  skin,  especially  affections  of  the  in- 
testinal tract,  of  the  liver  and  spleen,'of  the  internal  geni- 
tal organs,  of  the  urinary  apparatus,  of  the  nerve-centers. 
There  are,  lastly,  normal  processes — dentition,  menstruation, 
pregnancy — which  lead  to  various  kinds  of  cutaneous  affec- 
tions. Besides  general  injurious  influences — heat  and  cold, 
dryness  and  moisture,  different  arts  and  trades — merely  local 
diseases  are  caused  by  the  operation  of  caustic  substances, 
neglect  of  cleanliness  or  exaggerated  washing  and  rubbing 
with  strong  kinds  of  soap,  long-continued  pressure  upon  cer- 
tain parts,  and  parasitic  organisms  which  penetrate  tne  skin. 
The  scratching  of  the  patient  himself  who  suffers  from  itch- 
ing is  an  important  cause  for  producing  mechanically  lesions 
of  the  skin.  Thus  parasites  give  rise  to  such  affections  by 
irritating  the  skin  directly  or  by  exciting  the  sensibility  of 
the  cutaneous  nerves  by  producing  the  sensation  of  itching. 

The  changes  of  the  skin,  by  too  great  an  afflux  of  blo<^ 
(hyperaemia)  or  lack  of  blood  (anaemia),  as  such  do  not  pro- 
duce diseases  of  their  own,  being  always  of  a  transient  cnar- 
octer  or  rooted  in  diseases  of  the  whole  organism,  and  are 
therefore  omitted  in  the  following  enumeration. 

1.  Diseases  due  to  Perverted  States  of  the  Secretions  of 
the  Cutaneous  Olands, — The  sweat-glands  of  the  skin  (see 
Histology)  produce  a  fluid,  the  perspiration,  which  contains 
99*3-99*5  per  cent,  of  water,  the  residue  consisting  of  solid 
matters,  among  which  are  chloride  of  sodium,  phosphate  of 
lime,  hydrochlorate  of  ammonia,  and  traces  of  iron  and  of 
fatty  matters.  Even  in  the  normal  state  each  individual 
diffuses  a  special  odor.  There  are  persons  with  a  peculiar 
rancid  odor  of  their  perspiration,  a  disease  called  hromidrO' 
sis,  either  universal  or  local — for  instance,  lasting  in  the 


armpits,  on  the  feet — ^in  spite  of  the  most  scrupulous  clean- 
liness. This  disease  is  always  dependent  on  too  copious  per- 
spiration (hyperidrosis),  and  curable  by  repeated  treatment 
with  diachylon  ointment.  The  secretion  of  a  colored  per- 
spiration is  termed  chromidrosis.  The  sebaceous  glands, 
which  secrete  a  fatty  mass,  may  produce  the  sebum  in  ei- 
cessive  quantity,  there  being  no  impediment  to  its  secretion 
— the  so-called  seborrhcea.  The  disease  is  very  common  on 
the  scalp  (dandruff),  and  always  leads  to  loss  of  the  hair. 
It  yields  readily  to  certain  preparations  of  tor,  and  a  new 
growth  of  hair  can  very  often  be  obtained.  If.  on  ihe  con- 
trary, the  excretion  of  the  sebaceous  mass  be  interfered  with, 
the  result  is  its  accumulation  within  the  glands  or  their 
ducts,  the  so-called  flesh-worm — comedones.  In  the  mass 
of  a  flesh-worm  there  is  often  found  a  mite,  the  Acaru* 
foUiculorum,  The  flesh-worms,  again,  are  the  most  com- 
mon causes  of  pimples,  as  they  act  upon  their  neighborhood 
like  foreign  boaies. 

2.  Diseases  due  to  Inflammation. — Inflammatory  affec- 
tions of  the  skin  may  be  acut«  or  chronic.  The  acute  con- 
tagious inflammations,  so-called  exanthemata,  are  due  to  dj>- 
eases  which  attack  the  whole  or;ninism,  are  attended  with 
febrile  symptoms,  present  certain  deflnite  appearances  on  thf 
surface  of  tne  body,  and  run  a  course  the  Juration  of  which 
can  be  computed  beforehand.  In  these  diseases — measlf^, 
scarlet  fever,  and  smallpox — ^the  sympathy  of  the  entire  or- 
ganism is  manifested  by  symptoms  of  various  kinds,  both 
while  the  rash  is  present  and  also  after  its  disappeoranct^. 
The  acute,  non-contagious  inflammations  have  a  definite  typ- 
ical course,  as  their  symptoms  succeed  one  another  in  rejru- 
lar  order.  If  the  inflammation  be  manifested  mainly  by  rnl- 
ness,  with  a  slight  exudation  of  the  fluid  part  of  the  bUnxl, 
fugitive  rashes  are  produced,  which,  when  spread  over  lari:? 
parts  of  the  surface  are  termed  erythema,  but  when  present- 
ing isolated  red  spots  are  termed  roseola.  Extended  and  iM>- 
lated  superficial  inflammations,  accompanied  with  stin^n:: 
or  itching  sensation,  receive  the  name  of  urticaria,  the  latter 
being  always  characterized  by  the  development  of  wheals. 
Diseases  of  this  kind  often  are  produced  by  disturbance**  of 
the  stomach  or  by  local  irritations  of  the  skin.  They  usually 
disappear  after  a  short  time  without  special  treatment,  but 
are  very  liable  to  recurrences.  Lastly,  there  exist  acute  in- 
flammations with  accumulation  of  fluid  beneath  the  epider- 
mis, leading  to  the  formation  of  vesicles  and  blebs,  with 
short  duration  and  no  liability  to  return.  The  herpes  ZMter 
(shingles)  is  the  most  important  of  the  forms  of  Hebpl.s 
Ig.  v.).  Shingles  attack  the  individual,  in  most  instatu*e5. 
only  once  during  life.  The  chronic  inflammations,  such  as 
Psoriasis,  Lichen  (gq.  v.),  and  pityriasis  rubra,  are  charst'- 
terized  by  a  tendency  to  repeated  relapses  and  the  protnicteii 
course  which  they  run.  Psoriasis  is  a  very  common  disease, 
characterized  by  white,  rough  patches  on  a  dark-red  groiuni, 
dispersed  all  over  the  body,  mainly  on  the  elbow  and  knee. 
The  patches  are  not  liable  to  any  further  change,  such  as 
suppuration  and  ulceration ;  theyJeave  no  scars,  though  they 
are  sometimes  followed  by  persistent  pigmentation.  Stn^^- 
tions  of  pricking  or  itching  are  complained  of  only  ^hen 
the  patches  flrst  come  out;  afterward  tnere  are  no  subjective 
symptoms.  The  disease  occurs  often  on  otherwise  healths 
and  strong  individuals. 

A  second  group  of  inflammatory  affections  is  charact«rizi'd 
by  intense  itching,  and  besides  the  primary  form  of  eruption 
tfiey  irresistibly  provoke  scratching  in  consequence  of  the 
itching;  this,  again, gives  rise  to  further  changes  in  the  skin 
known  as  excoriations.  To  this  group  belong  Eczejca  {q.  v.) 
and  prurigo. 

A  third  group  of  chronic  inflammatory  diseases  embraces 
those  pimply  and  pustular  affections  which  arise  fn>m  in- 
flammation of  the  hair-sacs  and  sebaceous  glands.  They 
include  acne,  sycosis,  and  rosacea.  Acne  on  the  face,  the 
chest,  and  the  back — one  of  the  most  disfiguring  diseas<»s^— 
is  always  produced  by  accumulation  of  sebaceous  roai$ies  in 
the  glands  (flesh-worms),  and  is  entirely  curable  by  repeated 
enjptying  of  the  glands. 

To  the  fourth  group  of  chronic  inflammations  beloni? 
the  eruptions  in  shape  of  blebs,  termed  Pemphigus  (9.  t\\. 
Chronic  inflammations  of  the  skin  of  very  variable  but  char- 
acLeristic  forms  are  produced  by  a  general  disease,  syphilis; 
here  the  skin  is  merely  svmptomatically  attacked,  De>i«les 
different  other  organs.  With  traumatic  lesions  of  the  skin, 
as  well  as  with  its  inflammatory  diseases,  hieraorrhi^e  i> 
very  often  combined.  Haemorrhage  is  furthermore  a  symp 
tona  of  universal  disease  in  scorbutus  and  in  purpura  rAeu- 
matica.    See  Purpura. 


ly  r 


555 


r««»  w'pi'ifi*  frmlfw^l***?  I  ^f^##f»M  ¥ni 


i  mtffhrwtJiiPT  tum 


end 


■^^ifm  tiitt  liUp  vl  iV«e 


it^ 


fiTAillO  (^.  IV>  <«    I 


ri]rt>r  lliv  finttvtUDg 


iittlir  /iirr 


556 


SKITTLES 


SKUNK 


related  families  dwelling  under  one  roof,  the  household 
being  governed  by  an  elder  or  sub-chief.  There  is  nothing 
in  the  nature  of  a  confederacy  of  the  several  villages.  The 
chieftaincy  was  hereditary,  and,  as  descent  was  through  the 
female  line,  it  passed,  on  the  death  of  a  chief,  to  his  eldest 
brother,  or,  there  being  no  brother,  to  his  sister's  son.  Cus- 
toms came  to  have  the  force  of  laws,  and  persons  were  re- 
strained from  injury  to  the  person  or  property  of  a  fellow 
tribesman  by  the  custom  of  reprisals.  In  some  respects, 
ap]3arently,  the  tribes  of  the  northwest  coast,  especially  the 
Haida,  had  advanced  beyond  the  condition  of  the  eastern 
Indians,  as  partially  shown  by  the  extent  to  which  they 
possessed  personal  property,  and  by  the  establishment  of 
personal  ownership  in  land.  The  Haida  appear  to  have 
Deen  of  martial  cnaracter,  internal  warfare  having  been 
common,  as  also  forays  upon  distant  tribes  for  the  purpose 
of  procuring  slaves.  The  institution  of  heredit-ary  slavery 
seems  to  have  been  intimately  woven  into  the  social  system 
of  the  Haida,  and  slaves  were  regular  objects  of  kNU*ter. 
The  Haida  are  skillful  workers  in  wood,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent in  metal,  particularly  copper.  Their  great  skill  at 
carving  is  seen,  perhaps  at  its  best,  in  the  well-known  carved 
totem-posts  which  adorn  each  village.  Tattooing  was  for- 
merly universal ;  labrets  were  worn  bv  the  females.  The 
institution  of  the  potlatch — the  free  distribution  of  prop- 
erty on  certain  ceremonial  occasions — exists  among  tne 
Haida,  as  among  all  the  tribes  of  the  northwest. 

Pbpulation, — Dawson  estimates  the  present  number  of 
the  Haida  to  be  from  1,700  to  2,000 ;  Petroff  gives  the  num- 
ber of  the  Kaigani  as  788.  These  figures  indicate  a  marked 
decrease  of  population  since  1850. 

Authorities.— H.  H.  Bancroft,  Native  Races  (1882),  iii., 
664,  604 ;  J.  C.  E.  Buschmann,  Spuren  der  aziek,  SpraeJie 
(1859),  673;  Dawson,  Queen  Charlotte  Islands  (1880);  A. 
Gallatin,  in  Schoolcraft's  Indian  Tribes  (1853),  iii.,  402; 
Krause,  Tlinkit  Indianer  {lSS5),d04;  L.  H.  Morgan,  An- 
cient Society  (1878),  176;  I.  PetroflE,  Tenth  Census,  Alaska 
(1884),  32;  Poole,  Queen  Charlotte  Islands  (1872),  195,  309; 
H.  R.  Schoolcraft,  hidian  Tribes  (1855),  v.,  489 ;  Tolmie  and 
Dawson,  Comparative  Vocabularies  (1884),  15,  26.  See  Ind- 
ians OF  North  America.  James  Owen  Dorse y. 

Skittles :  See  Bowls  and  Bowuno. 

Sko'beleff,  Michael  Dmitrievitch :  Russian  general; 
b.  in  1841 ;  served  in  the  army  against  the  Polish  insurrec- 
tion in  1863 :  was  called  to  join  the  general  staff  in  1866 ; 
and  in  1869  was  sent  to  Turkestan,  where  he  secured  much 
valuable  geographical  information,  which  he  ^terward  em- 
ployed to  great  advantage  in  the  expedition  against  Khiva 
in  1873.  In  this  expedition  he  won  great  distinction.  He 
afterward  crushed  the  rebellion  in  Khokand,  and  became 
governor  of  the  territorv  he  had  subdued.  In  the  Russo- 
Tnrkish  war  he  showed  a  degree  of  valor  and  skill  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  inefficiencv  at  the  Russian  military 
headquarters.  He  commanded  the  left  wing  at  Plevna, 
captured  the  so-called  Shipka  army,  Jan.  9, 1878,  and  took 
Aarianople.  D.  suddenly  in  Moscow,  July  7,  1882.  See 
Ossipovitch,  Michael  Dmitrievitch  /SA;o6c/«jr (Hanover,  1887), 

Skoke:  See  Garoet-root. 

Skowhe'pran :  town ;  capital  of  Somerset  co..  Me. ;  on  the 
Kennebec  nver,  and  the  Maine  Central  Railroad ;  35  miles 
N.  by  E.  of  Augusta,  and  50  miles  W.  of  Bangor  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Maine,  ref .  6-C).  It  derives  excellent  water- 
power  from  the  river,  which  has  here  a  perpendicular  fall 
of  about  30  feet,  and  has  manufactories  of  woolen  goods, 
scythes  and  edged  tools,  shoes,  oilcloth,  pulp,  lumber,  and 
flour.  There  are  electric-light  and  power  plants,  water- 
works, 7  churches,  free  public  library  (founded  in  1867),  2 
national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $275,000,  a  saving- 
bank,  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  The  town  was  originally 
known  as  Canaan;  was  incorporated  under  the  name  of 
Milbum  in  1823;  has  been  called  Skowhegan  since  1836. 
It  was  enlarged  by  the  annexation  of  the  town  of  Bloom- 
field  in  1861.     Pop.  (1880)  3,869 ;  (1890)  5,068. 

J.  0.  Smith,  editor  of  **  Somerset  Reporter." 

Skaa,  or  Skaa-gnll ;  See  Jaeoer. 

Skull  [M.  Eng.  skuUe,  loan-word  from  Scandin. ;  cf.  Icel. 
skdl,  bowl  :  Germ,  schale ;  cf.  himschale.  Eng.  scale  {oh 
balance)  is  a  doublet,  of  native  origin] ;  the  hard  framework 
of  the  head  of  vertebrates.  It  consists  of  two  portions,  the 
cranium  which  forms  the  protecting  case  for  the  brain,  and 
the  facial  structures.  These  may  all  consist  of  cartilage 
throughout  life,  as  in  the  sharks,  or  entirely  of  bone,  as  in 


adult  birds  and  mammals,  or  of  both  bone  and  cartilage,  as 
in  many  fishes  and  amphibians.  In  the  lower  forms  no 
separate  cranial  elements  can  be  recognized,  the  brain-case 
forming  a  continuous  structure,  with  openings  here  and 
there  for  the  passage  of  nerves,  blood-vessels,  etc.  In  the 
higher  vertebrates  mstinct  elements  or  bones  can  be  recf>g- 
nized  in  the  cranium,  and  these  arise  either  by  ossification 
of  the  cranial  cartilage  or  by  the  formation  of  bone  in  the 
membranes  outside  the  cartilage  cranium.  A  similar  dis^ 
tinction  can  be  drawn  between  the  cartilage-bones  and  the 
membrane-bones  of  the  face.  For  the  details  of  the  bc»nes 
of  the  skull,  reference  should  be  made  to  works  upon  com- 
parative anatomy.  The  following  are  the  bones  more  fre- 
quently found  in  the  skull,  arranged  according  to  their  ori- 
gin and  position : 
Cranium. 
Cartilage-bones : 

Floor.  Basioccipital,  basisphenoid,  presphenoid. 

Sides.   Exoccipital,  bones  of  the  ear-capsule  (otic),  or- 
bitcsphenoid,  alisphenoid. 

Roof.    Supraoccipital  (part). 

Front.  Mesethmoid,  lamina  cribrosa. 
Membrane-bones : 

Floor.  Parasphenoid. 

Sides.   Temporal  or  squamosal,  parietal,  supra-  and 
post-orbital. 

Roof.    Supraoccipital  (part),  frontal,  pre-  and  post- 
frontal. 
Face. 
Cartilage-bones :  Palatine,  pterygoid,  quadrate,  and  articu- 
lar. 
Membrane-bones:  Premaxillar,  maxillar,  vomer,  nasal, 

lachrvmal,  jugal,  and  ^uadratojugal,  and  in  the  lower 

jaw  tne  dentary,  splenial,  and  angular. 
It  is  rarely  that  all  these  bones  are  present  in  one  and 
the  same  form.  Usually  there  is  an  over-uevelopment  (h^per- 
trophy)  of  one  and  an  under-development  (atrophy)  of  its 
neighbors,  or  a  fusion  of  two  or  more  may  occur.  Still 
other  bones  may  exceptionally  appear  (e.  g.  In  the  sus^jen- 
sory  apparatus  of  fishes),  which  are  properly  not  to  be  re- 
garded as  belonging  to  the  skull.  Although  the  subject  of 
an  enormous  amount  of  study,  the  skull  is  yet  far  from 
thoroughly  known.  The  best  general  account  will  be  found 
in  Parker  and  Bettany's  Morphology  of  the  Skull  (London, 
1877). 

In  the  human  skull  but  twenty-two  bones  exist,  eight  in 
the  cranium  and  fourteen  in  the  face.  This  is  largely  due 
to  the  fusion  of  bones  distinct  in  the  embryo  as  well  as  in 
the  adult  of  lower  forms.  J.  S.  Kingsley. 

Skull-cap  [so  called  from  the  helmet-like  appendage  to 
the  upper  lip  of  the  calyx] :  any  one  of  a  genus  {Scutellaria) 
of  perennial  herbs  found  over  a  wide  range  of  climates  in 
America,  especially  in  Mexico  and  the  sub-tropical  regions, 
though  several  species  grow  in  northern  parts  of  the  T.  s^. 
and  m  Europe.  They  derive  their  name  from  an  envelope 
around  the  fruiting  calyx,  have  little  aroma,  and— e^sf*- 
cially  for  the  cure  of  hydrophobia — enjoy  a  popular  reputa- 
tion which  is  entirely  undeserved. 

Skunk  [from  Abenaki  (Amer.-Ind.)  segan'ku.  skunk]:  a 
musteloid  carnivorous  mammal  of  the  sub-family  Mephi- 
tincB.  The  body  is  moderately  elongated  and  arched  back- 
ward; the  le^  comparatively  short;  the  feet  sub-planti- 
grade; the  tail  rather  long  and  very  bushy;  the  color  is 
particolored,  black  and  white  being  contrasted.  Their  anal 
glands,  according  to  Chatin,  are  essentially  like  those  of  the 
badgers  and  ratels,  and  are  in  a  single  pair  and  of  lar^ 
dimensions ;  their  outer  walls  are  formed  by  a  thick  fleshy 
tunic  formed  of  two  layers  of  interlaced  fibers,  capable  <vf 
sudden  strong  compression  of  the  receptacles;  these  are 
enormous  reservoirs,  with  a  dense  resisting  fibrous  coat,  al- 
ways containing  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  follicular 
product.  The  glandular  substance  is  not  spread  all  over 
the  central  pouch,  but  is  restricted  to  a  particular  portion, 
and  contrasts  by  its  dark  color  with  the  white  ground  of 
the  envelope  of  the  pouch.  The  receptacles  contain  a  nau- 
seous liquid,  which  the  animal,  on  being  alarmed,  di5- 
charges  with  such  force  that  the  jet  is  carried  to  a  tli^ 
tance  of  from  8  to  12  feet.  The  voiding  of  the  liquid  must 
be  sudden;  and  it  does  not  sufiice  that  the  receptacle  is 
large  and  powerfully  muscular ;  the  offensive  liquid  must 
be  directed  far  backward,  so  as  to  flow  as  little  as  posj^ible 
upon  the  rectal  musci^ar  membrane ;  so  the  opening  is  large 
and  upon  the  summit  of  an  umbilicated  papilla,  around 


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SLATER 


SLAVERY 


City  (for  location,  see  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  3-F).  It  is  in 
an  agricultaral  region,  and  contains  2  State  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  |l50,000,  a  public  high  school,  and  a  daily 
and  3  weekly  newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  771 ;  (1890)  2,770. 

Slater,  Samuel  :  manufacturer ;  b.  at  Belper,  Derbyshire, 
England,  June  9,  1768;  was  apprenticed  at  the  age  of  four- 
teen to  Jedidiah  Strutt,  partner  of  Arkwright  in  the  busi- 
ness of  cotton-spinning ;  saw  in  a  newspaper  in  1789  the  law 
passed  by  the  U .  S.  Congress  in  that  year  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  manufactures,  and  a  notice  of  the  bounty  offered 
by  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature  for  the  introduction  of  the 
Arkwright  patents  into  the  U.  S.,  the  communication  of  the 
models  of  the  new  machinery  to  foreign  countries  bein|:  then 
forbidden  by  English  law  under  severe  penalties.  Believing 
himself  able  to  construct  new  machinery  from  memory,  he 
sailed  for  New  York.  He  entered  into  a  contract  with  Will- 
iam Almy  and  Smith  Brown,  of  Pawtucket,  R.  I.,  to  con- 
struct and  work  the  new  cotton-spinning  machinery,  and 
started  at  Pawtucket,  Dec.  21,  1790,  a  mill  with  three  card- 
ing-machines  and  seventy-two  spindles,  which  was  the  vir- 
tual beginning  of  the  manufacture  of  cotton  in  the  U.  S. 
He  erected  cotton-mills  at  Oxford  (now  Webster^  Mass.,  in 
1812,  to  which  he  added  woolen-mills  1815-16,  the  nucleus 
of  the  village  of  Slatersville,  D.  at  Webster,  Mass.,  Apr. 
21,  1835.  See  Rev.  George  S.  Whitens  Memoir  of  Samuel 
Slater  (Philadelphia,  1836 ;  2d  ed.  1846).— His  nephew,  John 
Fox  Slater  (1815-84),  became  a  manufacturer,  and  in  1882 
gave  $1,000,000  for  the  education  of  freedmen  in  the  South. 

Slatin&rton  :  borough  (incorporated  in  1864) ;  Lehia^  co.. 
Pa. ;  on  the  Lehigh  river,  and  the  Lehigh  Val.  and  the  Pfiila. 
and  Reading  railways ;  16  miles  N.  W.  of  AUentown,  the 
county-seat  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  5- 
I).  It  has  9  churches,  14  public  schools,  including  a  high 
school  with  college  preparatory  department,  extensive  slate- 
quarries,  rolling-mills,  steam-boiler  works,  large  school-fur- 
niture factory,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $100,000,  and 
a  weekly  newspaper.  Pop.  (1880)  1,634;  (1890)  2,716 ;  (1895) 
estimated,  8,500.  Editor  op  "  News." 

Slave  Coast :  old  geographical  name  for  that  part  of  the 
coast  of  Upper  Guinea  which  is  about  the  Bight  of  Benin, 
so  named  because  formerly  a  favorable  place  for  obtaining 
slaves.  It  is  now  in  part  Dahomey,  under  French  protection, 
and  in  part  (to  the  E.)  the  territory  of  the  Royal  Niger  Com- 
pany.   See  Dahomet  and  Niger  Territories. 

SlaTe  Lake  and  River :  See  Great  Slave  Lake. 

Slayery  [deriv.  of  slave^  of  like  source  with  Germ,  sklave 
<  M.  H.  Germ,  sklave,  slave,  Dutch  alaaf,  Fr.  esclave,  origi- 
nally a  Slave,  a  Slavonian.  The  word  acquired  its  meaning 
in  Italy  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century] :  a  state  of  bondage 
in  which  one  human  being  is  in  complete  subjection  to  the 
will  of  another.  In  its  usual  sense  it  is  restricted  to  chattel 
slavery,  in  which  the  slave  may  be  bought  and  sold  like  or- 
dinary property,  and  it  thus  excludes  the  milder  forms  of 
bondage,  such  as  serfdom  or  villanage.  In  its  origin  it  was 
the  sign  of  advancing  civilization,  in  that  it  arose  from  the 
practice  of  sparing  the  lives  of  captives,  who  in  the  period 
of  primitive  savagery  were  generally  slain  by  their  captors. 
The  arts  of  production  must  have  reachecl  the  point  at 
which  a  man's  labor  produced  a  surplus  over  what  was  nec- 
essary for  his  own  support,  for  among  barbarians  clemency 
toward  captives  sprang  from  the  perception  that  an  eco- 
nomic benefit  might  be  gained  by  their  enslavement.  The 
slavery  of  the  industrial  classes  has  characterized  the  early 
history  of  all  civilized  races,  and  as  forcing  men  to  labor, 
despite  the  natural  reluctance  inherent  in  barbarous  tribes, 
seems  to  have  been  a  necessary  element  of  progress.  It 
existed  among  all  the  races  of  antiquity  of  whom  there  is 
historic  record,  but  in  some  its  rigors  were  mitigated  by  pe- 
culiar laws  and  customs,  as  among  the  Hebrews,  whose  slaves 
became  free  after  seven  years  had  elapsed  from  the  begin- 
ning of  their  servitude,  while  every  fiftieth  year,  on  the  oc- 
casion of  the  jubilee,  all  slaves  were  emancipated. 

Greek  Slavery, — The  Homeric  poems  bear  witness  to  the 
antiquity  of  the  practice  of  holding  slaves  among  the  Greeks. 
In  the  historic  period  the  supply  seems  to  have  been  kept 
up  by  capture  in  war,  and  by  purchase  from  the  slave- 
owners of  Asia  Minor  and  Thrace.  Kidnapping,  the  sale  of 
children  by  their  parents,  and  enslavement  for  debt  were 
also  sources  of  supply.  The  rearing  of  slaves  was  never  an 
abundant  source  in  Greece,  as  it«  was  cheaper  to  purchase 
those  who  had  already  reached  the  age  of  labor.  They  were 
employed  in  domestic  service,  in  agriculture,  and  even  in 


commerce,  manufactures,  and  occupations  in  which  the  rii'k 
and  responsibility  were  great.  As  to  the  relative  numUrs 
of  the  slaves  in  Greece  reliable  statistics  are  lacking,  but  it 
is  probable  that  in  the  cities  they  were  greatly  in  exee?w»  of 
the  free  population.  It  is  estimated  that  in  Attiea  the 
slaves  bore  to  the  free  native  population  the  ratio  of  thrr»- 
to  one,  and  in  Sparta  the  Helots  are  said  to  have  nuinl>erwi 
220,000,  while  the  Spartans  numbered  onlv  32,000.  Thr  ;r 
treatment  differed  greatly  in  the  different  cities.  In  S|«an« 
the  Helots  suffered  cruel  treatment  at  the  bands  of  tht-ir 
masters,  despite  their  kinship  of  race,  while  the  Atbenmu 
masters  were  noted  for  their  mildness.  By  the  Athenian  law 
a  slave  who  had  just  grounds  for  complaint  against  his  mas- 
ter could  demand  to  be  sold ;  he  had  a  right  to  asylum  in 
the  temples  and  sacred  places,  and  his  death  could  be  aveiiirt-^i 
like  that  of  a  free  citizen.  He  could  purchase  bis  free<inm 
with  the  money  that  he  had  saved  during  servitude,  arni 
could  be  liberated  by  the  act  of  his  master.  As  a  rewttrd 
for  fidelity  or  honorable  services  emancipation  was  frequent. 
No  consciousness  of  the  injurious  moral  effects  of  slavery 
seems  to  have  been  felt  by  the  greatest  thinkers  of  cla>^:'c 
Greece.  Aristotle  and  Plato  both  regarded  the  inslitutii.n 
as  necessary,  the  former  holding  it  to  be  beneficial  to  U^th 
parties  if  practiced  with  justice. 

Roman  Slavery, — In  Rome  slavery  became  more  highlv 
developed,  and  formed  a  more  essential  part  of  the  srKial 
and  political  system  than  in  any  other  ancient  state.  A^  in 
Greece,  the  sources  of  supply  were  wars  and  commerce  wiih 
the  slave-producing  countries  of  the  East,  the  latter  being  hy 
far  the  more  important  source  in  the  latter  years  of  the  re- 
public and  under  the  empire.  The  proportion  of  slave  to 
iree  population  is  estimated  by  Blair  at  three  to  one  in  the 
period  from  the  middle  of  the  second  century  b.  c  to  the 
reign  of  Alexander  Severus  (222-285  a.  d.),  and  the  nuxntur 
of  slaves  owned  by  a  single  master  was  often  very  lar^.  A 
freedman  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  is  said  to  have  left  bv 
his  will  over  4,000,  and  famuies  of  200  or  900  slaves  wei« 
not  uncommon.  As  to  the  legal  status  of  the  slave,  he  was 
under  the  complete  dominion  of  his  master,  against  whom 
he  had  no  lepil  redress.  The  marriage  of  slaves  had  no 
le^al  recognition,  and  their  union  (contuhemium)  was  ter- 
minable at  the  will  of  the  master;  nor  could  a  slave  legal! t 
acquire  property,  though  it  became  customary  to  permit 
him  to  enjoy  a  share  of  nis  earnings,  known  as  his  peculium. 
In  general,  punishments  for  crime  were  more  severe  against 
slaves  than  against  free  men.  Their  harsh  treatment  is  at- 
tested by  several  servile  insurrections,  of  which  the  mi  «t 
formidable  were  that  of  Eunus  in  Sicily  in  133  b.c.  and 
that  of  Spartacus  in  78  B.  c.  By  the  second  century,  how- 
ever, when  the  period  of  conquest  had  closed  and  the  p(>lioT 
of  the  state  aimed  at  peaceful  development  within  exist  in  e^ 
limits,  a  greater  humanity  began  to  display  itself  in  dealinc 
with  the  slaves.  This  was  furthered  by  the  spread  of  Chn>- 
tianity,  which,  though  it  did  not  expressly  forbid  slavery 
or  brand  it  as  a  crime,  rested  upon  premises  which  mu<t 
lead  inevitably  to  its  destruction.  Accordingly,  when  the 
Teuton  invaders  settled  within  the  Roman  empire,  ther 
found  the  condition  of  slavery  greatly  modified.  A  system 
of  caste  or  heredity  in  occupation  had  developed  in  both 
private  and  public  business.  The  coloni  on  the  landed  es- 
tates were  personally  free,  but  could  not  leave  the  lands  of 
the  proprietors,  and  the  prtedial  slaves  in  the  course  of  time 
approached  the  condition  of  the  colotU,  Upon  contact  with 
tne  Roman  civilization  the  Germanic  tribes  were  naturally 
affected  by  the  system  of  agricultural  labor  which  they 
found  in  operation.  Almost  the  only  form  of  slavery  known 
among  them  had  been  the  slavery  of  the  cultivator  of  the 
soil,  and  this  gradually  conformed  to  the  condition  of  the 
Roman  agricultural  laborer.  The  resulting  system  wa^;  serf- 
dom (see  Serf),  the  effect  of  which  was  to  lower  somewhat 
the  position  of  the  old  colonus  while  it  raised  that  of  the 
class  of  agricultural  laborers  as  a  whole. 

Mohammedan  Slavery, — During  the  Middle  Ages  slavery 
was  still  practiced,  but  among  Christian  races  the  enslave- 
ment of  Christians  was  oppcSed  by  the  Church.  No  su<  h 
scruple  applied  to  the  enslavement  of  Mohammedan  c-ai>- 
tives,  many  of  whom  were  held  as  slaves  throughout  Eun)|'e. 
while  numerous  Christian  slaves  were  left  in  the  hands  <>f 
the  Turks  and  Saracens  in  the  course  of  the  many  con  flirts 
between  Christianity  and  Mohammedanism.  Many  Mosl»  m 
slaves  were  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  great  commercial 
cities  of  Italy,  which  carried  on  an  extensive  slave-trade 
with  the  East.  On  the  other  hand,  the  corsairs  of  BarbAr\ 
carried  off  thousands  of  Christians  into  slavery,  even  pone- 


^o 


|»|0> 


[til-  • 


1 


560 


SLAVIC  LANGUAGES 


(8,  4,  5)  The  development  of  the  country— Central  Africa 
— by  roads,  railways,  steamboat  service  supported  by  forti- 
fied posts,  and  telegraph  lines  to  unite  them. 

(6)  The  organization  of  expeditions  and  flying  columns 
to  protect  the  communications  and  "  support  repressive  ac- 
tion." 

(7)  The  restriction  of  the  importation  of  modern  firearms 
and  ammunition  throughout  the  entire  region  in  which  the 
slave-trade  is  carried  on. 

This  is  a  most  attractive  programme,  if  it  can  be  carried 
out.  Without  good  weapons  the  Arabs  and  their  slave- 
hunting  auxiliaries  would  not  venture  to  attack  the  native 
tribes.  Armed  boats  on  the  great  lakes  and  fortified  sta- 
tions on  the  great  highways  would  break  the  trade  up  effec- 
tively, while  the  growth  of  missions,  of  civilization,  and  of 
civilized  trade  would  narrow  its  operations.  To  the  carry- 
ing out  of  this  programme  the  signatories  pledged  them- 
selves with  much  detail  and  many  provisions.  At  sea  also, 
along  certain  stretches  of  coast,  on  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
off  aiadagascar,  the  powers  agreed  to  combine  to  put  down 
slave-trading  in  small  vessels. 

Finally,  those  of  the  signatory  powers  whose  domestic 
institutions  recognized  slavery  agreed  to  forbid  the  importa- 
tion of  slaves,  their  transit,  their  departure,  and  the  trade 
in  them ;  while  Zanzibar,  Persia,  and  Turkey  have  bound 
themselves  to  assist  actively  in  the  suppression  of  this  traffic. 
The  provisions  of  the  act  to  secure  all  these  objects  run 
through  100  articles.  Theodore  S.  Woolsey. 

Slavic  Languages:  a  group  of  Indo-European  languages 
which  embraces  Russian,  Polish,  Servian,  etc.  1.  Whether 
there  ever  was  a  unitary  Slavic  language  is  still  a  problem 
of  philology.  Theoretically,  it  is  proper  to  speak,  within  the 
field  of  the  Indo-European  languages,  of  a  unitary  Slavic 
type,  intimately  relatea  to  the  Baltic ;  and  these  two  are 
o'ften  grouped  as  a  Lithu-Slavic  or  Balto-Slavic  branch  of 
Indo-European,  just  as  Sanskrit  and  Iranian  are  compre- 
hended under  Indo-Iranian.  And  the  branch  thus  consti- 
tuted undoubtedly  stands  in  many  characteristic  phenom- 
ena nearer  to  the  Indo-Iranian  than  to  the  Germanic,  Celtic, 
Italic,  or  Greek.  The  Baits  (i.  e.  the  Lithuanians,  Letts,  and 
Prussians)  have  in  common  with  the  Slavs  as  against  the 
remaining  Indo-Europeans  a  richly  developed  vocabulary, 
similar  formative  suffixes,  and  noun  and  pronoun  declen- 
sions closely  related,  especially  in  the  formation  of  the  so- 
called  compound  declension  of  the  adjective  with  the  pro- 
noun stem  I'o- ;  e.  g.  toO  kydBov  is  in  Lith.  gero-jo  (gen.  of 
geras,  good,  and  jia,  he),  in  Slav,  dobra-jego.  In  conjugation 
there  are  fewer  points  of  contact,  but  the  Lith.  infln.  in  -^e, 
'ti,  and  the  Slav,  in  -ti  come  close  together:  dUti,  dati;  like- 
wise the  supines  in  -turn  :  tH  :  diktum^  data.  In  the  conso- 
nant system  Baltic  shares  with  Slavic  the  loss  of  aspirates : 
Lat.  fero,  Gr.  ^^p«,  Lith.  beriu,  Slav,  berq ;  Lat.  fumua,  Gr. 
6ufuff,  Lith.  (pi.)  dumaiy  Slav,  dymu ;  also  the  change  of  the 
palatal  explosives  to  spirants  somewhat  as  in  Indo-Iranian : 
Gr.  iK€cr6p,  Lat,  centum,  Goth,  hundch,  Lith.  azimtas  {sz  = 
Slav.  5),  Slav,  auto ;  Lat.  hiema,  Gr.  x«M^*'>  Lith.  irVwa,  Slav. 
zima ;  Gr.  yiyi^Ktt,  Lat.  (g)noaco,  Lith.  itno/i,  Slav,  znatu 
In  syntax  may  be  noted  as  common  to  both  the  use  of  the 

qvls  non  ridel  •am 

genitive  object  in  negative  sentences,  e.  g.  Lith.  naaa  jia  ne 

BM         Mit  Mm       TotaatMaMm  eogDOM«da 

reg  nej  paiyata  joa ;  betjuaj^  ^iyatate^  SlAv.jako  fie  vidiii 
jego  ni  znaietijego,  vy  le  znajete  t.  Here  joa  and  jego  are 
objects  in  the  genitive. 

2.  The  Slavic  type  differs  from  the  Baltic  in  two  marked 
peculiarities :  (a)'tne  change  of  diphthongs  into  monoph- 
thongs ;  (b)  by  the  finely  organized  laws  of  palatalization, 
i.  e.  by  the  regular  change  of  A;,  g,  ch  to  5, 1,  i  before  the 
palatal  vowels  e,  e,  i,  t ,  and  by  the  later  change  of  k,  ^,  eh 
to  c,  z,  a  before  the  vowels  e,  i  which  result  from  o»,  at. 
Here  follow  illustrations  of  both  these  typical  phenomena : 

(a)  Lith,  ai  corresponds  to  Slav,  e  (a  long,  broad  sound) ;  bat- 
aua,  terrible :  bSaitiu,  angry ;  dailinti,  decorate :  dUati,  carve ; 
mainyti  :  mSniti,  exchange ;  raiiyti  :  rezati,  cut.  Lith.  au 
corresponds  to  Slav,  u  (orig.  long) ;  Lith.  auaia  :  Slav,  ucho, 
ear;  draugas  :  c^ru^w, friend;  jaunaa  r^uwii, youth;  kaupaa : 
kupu,  heap.  Sometimes  Lith.  au  corresponds  to  Slav,  y  (a 
deep  guttural  long  u) ;  Lith.  au  is  here  plainly  a  resultant 
of  eu;  krauti : krytiy  cover;  grau8zti:grysti,gn&w;  mauti: 
mytif  wipe ;  raudoti  :  rydati,  moan.  Lith.  ei  and  tV  corre- 
spond to  Slav,  f  ;  eiti  :  iti,  go  ;  mielaa  :  miVu,  dear ;  teiaua  : 
tichu,  still ;  jnetua  plur.  dinner-time :  pista  (from  pifja),  food. 

(b)  The  Slavic  palatalization  may  be  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing parallel :  Lith.  keturi :  Slav,  cetyre,  four ;  kibiraa : 


Hbiru,  jug;  hirwarpai  worm-hole:  Hrviy  worm,  cf.  Lith. 
kirmia:  Lat.  tfermia  tor*kvermia;  geidauti,  yea.rD :  o-iidati, 
wait  for;  gerti,  geriu,  drink :  iriti  (for  icr/i),  -Hrq,  devour; 
aarginti,  nurse :  atraiiti  (for  atoriiti),  watch  over ;  vocat. 
nebage  :  neboia  (from  nebogu,  poor).  While  this  form  of 
palatalization  shows  itself  in  all  the  Slavic  languages  and 
dialects,  and  consequently  is  their  common  property,  dating 
from  the  time  of  their  linguistic  unity,  there  has  been  devel- 
oped in  one  of  the  Baltic  languages,  viz..  the  Lettic,  after  the 
time  of  the  division  into  the  three  chief  branches,  Lithuanie, 
Lettic,  and  Prussian,  a  phenomenon  analogous  to  the  Slavic 
palatalization,  so  that  a  c  and  dz  correspond  to  the  Slavic; 
t  (from  k)  and  i  (from  g) ;  e.  g.  Slav.  (Serv.)  ^itofu,  whole : 
Lett. cee/i,  firm  (Lith.  k%etaa)\  Slav. ^iHa,  mark  :  Lett. cer/u, 
cut,  but  Lith,  kertu ;  Slav.  Hrvi :  Lett,  eerms,  worm,  but 
Lith.  kirmia ;  Slav.  Ht^u  :  Lett,  dzlwa^  vivus,  but  Lith.^yira.'*. 
With  the  primitive  Slavic  phenomena  of  palatalization  l>e* 
longs  also  the  change  ch  (=  Gr.  x)  >  ^*  The  Slav,  ch  is,  how- 
ever, itself  a  product  of  a.  Cf,  Slav,  auehu  :  Lith.  aausfta,  to 
which  the  verbum  causat.  is  Lith.  aauainti  :  Slav.  auMti ; 
Lith.  dauaoa  plur.  air :  Slav,  duehu,  but  Lith.  dausinti : 
Slav.  duHti, 

A  later  palatalization,  but  one  which  nevertheless  falls 
within  the  ooundaries  of  the  Slavic  group,  is  the  change  of 
k>  c,a>  dz  (z),  ch  (a)  >  «  or  rf,  which  occurs  in  the  sp<»ci*il 
case  where  a  guttural  comes  before  an  i  or  t,  resulting  from 
original  ai,  oi.  Cf.  Goth,  haila,  which  would  be  *kailas  in 
Litn.  if  it  existed,  and  Slav,  celu,  salvus;  Lith.  kaina  (  :  I^t. 
poena)  and  Slav,  cina,  price ;  Lith.  ^ailua,  sharp  :  Slav. 
dzelii,  violent.  This  api>ears  prominently  in  suffixes  an<i 
case-endings  or  verb  innexions ;  nom.  plur.  of  atogaa,  roc>f, 
Lith.  atogai  :  Slav,  atodzi  from  aiogu ;  dat.  sing,  ijith.  ran- 
kai  from  ranka,  hand  :  Slav,  reyd  from  rqka ;  imper.-optat. 
from  ieka^  flow  :  tiei-ticite.  The  commonest  appearance  i$ 
in  the  Slav,  suffixes  -ici,  -iea,  -ice,  -tea,  which  are  used  su 
widely  as  to  give  the  impress  of  peculiarity  to  the  entire 
body  of  the  language.  The  corresponding  Lith.  suffixes 
show  always  k.  Cf.  Slav,  venici,  garland :  Xiith«  Kutnii-ut; 
Slav,  yunfcf,  steer  :  Lith,  jaunikia, 

8.  Another  strong  characteristic  of  the  Slavic  as  again<t 
the  Baltic  type  is  the  uniform  loss  of  final  -a.  And  as  final 
-u  (<  I.-E.  -0,  -u)  and  -i  (I.-E.  short  -i)  became  silent  at  an 
early  date,  present  Slavic  word-forms  often  appear  muti- 
lated to  the  extent  of  the  entire  final  svUable.  Cf.  Slav. 
drugu  (now  drug) :  Lith.  draugaa  (usually  drauga) ;  Slav. 
oailu  (now  oael,  oai^,  oaal) :  Lith.  aailaa ;  cf.  also  the  casus 
obliqui,  Slav.  ^en.  sing,  noiti  ( <  notji) :  Lith.  naktiea,  Slav, 
ace.  sing,  noiti :  Lith.  naktf.  But  as  an  offset  to  its  poorer 
noun  declension,  Slavic  has  a  fuller  and  clearer  development 
of  verb  forms — a  difference  which  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  difficult  problems  of  philology.  Cf.  Lith.  2  pen.  pre>. 
teki,  3  pers.  teka  :  Slav.  teieU,  teceti,  pi.  tekqti ;  Slav,  aorist 
formation  teku-tekomu,  techu-tichomu,  tekoehu-tekochotftu 
and  imperf.  tec€uuihu-teiaae?u)mu  (also  tedehu-teeiehomu) : 
Lith.  perf.  tekejau  and  habitual  imperf.  tekidavau,  Lith. 
opt.  teketumbet  ( :  supine  teketum  +  bet)  corresponds  with 
cnange  of  category  to  Slav,  condit.  tekfu  hi.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Slavic  language  type  lacks  all  except  a  few  traces 
of  the  0-future :  tekeaiu  must  be  expressed  in  Slav,  either  by 
the  pres.  tekq  (compounded  with  various  prepositions  to 
complete  its  meaning)  or  by  the  inf.  teiti  (=  tetji,  te^i,  tert, 
teci)  with  the  vb.  choitq,  will,  imami,  have,  or  bt^dq^  become. 
This  last-mentioned  distinction  between  the  two  language 
types  is  closely  connected  with  the  fine  distinctions  of  the 
Slavic  verb  as  regards  the  aspects  of  time-duration,  whii-h 
are  not  developed  to  the  same  degree  in  Baltic.  In  contrast 
to  the  Slavic  use  of  the  opt.  as  impv.,  tici'tieite  (where  >  and 
4  are  parallel  to  Gr.  opt.  endings  -ois,  -mtc),  Lithuanian  has 
a  new  formation  from  the  true  infinitive  stem  with  -k  :  te- 
kek,  iektkite.    A  trace  of  the  optative  remains  in  te-teki^, 

4.  The  separation  of  the  Slavic  from  the  Baltic  must  have 
been  many  centuries  before  our  era.  Many  new  acquisi- 
tions of  sounds  and  vocabulary  fall  in  the  suMequent  period 
of  separation.  The  lexicogniphical  material  common  to 
Slavic  and  Baltic  shows  no  great  or  long-continued  advance 
in  culture  from  the  primitive  Indo-European  period.  The 
common  Slavic  vocabulary,  on  the  contrary,  is  characterired 
by  a  great  wealth  of  words  important  for  the  history  of  cul- 
ture, and  testifies  to  so  long  a  period  of  common  deveKii>- 
ment  and  so  rich  and  varied  a  community  of  life  that  the 
separation  of  the  Slavs  into  various  branches  and  ()eoph'5 
must  be  a  comparatively  verv  recent  matter,  and  a  result 
merely  of  local  expansion.  Especially  worthy  of  notice  is 
the  borrowing  of  culture-words  from  the  Teutonic,  usually 


5C2 


SLAVIC  LANGUAGES 


reflected  in  the  names  given  it.  At  the  outset  Dobrowsky 
recognized  in  it  a  southern  dialect,  which  he  called  at  first 
Old  Servian,  later  Bulgaro-Servian  or  Macedonian.  Kopitar 
advanced  the  hypothesis  of  a  Pannonian-Carantanian  origin, 
which  Miklosich  followed  with  slight  modifications.  ^  From 
these  two  scholars  comes  the  name  Old  Slovenian.  Safafik 
defended  the  Old  Bulgarian  hvpothesis,  more  on  historical 
than  on  linguistic  grounds.  The  name  Old  Slovenian  is 
still  used  because  in  native  sources  the  language  was  so 
called,  slovenisku  (slovenica  lingua)^  but  it  is  now  known  to 
have  been  a  South  Slavic  dialect  spoken  somewhere  in 
Macedonia  in  the  ninth  century,  having  the  most  points  of 
contact  not  with  modern  Slovenian,  but  with  Bulgarian, 
and  some  also  with  the  present  Servo-Croatian  dialects.  In 
location  it  probably  formed  a  frontier  between  Bulgarian 
and  Servo-Croatian  ;  not  necessarily  in  Northern  Macedonia, 
however,  for  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  speaks  of  Servi- 
ans near  Salonica.  Aside  from  Its  philological  importance. 
Church  Slavonic  is  indispensable  for  the  history  of  mediaeval 
literature,  serving  beside  the  Christian  Greek  and  Latin  as 
the  third  international  literary  language.  From  the  tenth 
century  to  the  seventeenth  a  wealth  of  patristic  literature, 
including  lives,  legends,  and  homilies,  was  assiduously 
translated — from  the  tenth  to  the  fourteenth  centuries  es- 
pecially in  the  South,  but  later, also  in  Russia.  It  was  also 
the  state  language  in  Bulgaria,  Servia,  Bosnia,  Russia  (in- 
cluding Lithuania),  Moldavia,  and  Wallachia ;  and  while  its 
supremacy,  like  that  of  Latin  in  the  West,  ceased  with  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  yet  even  to-day  the  Russian 
literary  language  rests  on  centuries  of  Church  Slavonic 
traditions  as  to  forms,  vocabulary,  and  orthography.  See 
Russian  Language. 

Individual  Slavic  Languages. 

7.  The  southern  Slavs,  who  in  Byzantine  times  migrated 
in  larger  or  smaller  bands  into  the' regions  of  the  Hiemus, 
the  Adriatic,  and  the  Alps,  are  all  called  bv  Byzantine  histo- 
rians (Procopius,  Menander,  Theophanes,  1" heophylactus)  by 
the  name  ^KKafiviyoU  equivalent  to  Slav.  Slovene,  adi.  sloveil- 
isku,  a  name  continually  met  with  in  all  historical  periods 
in  the  Slavic  South.  The  Bulgarians  were  originally  called 
Slovei^.  both  by  themselves  and  others,  and  their  language 
slovenisku.  The  inhabitants  of  Styria,  Carinthia,  Carniola, 
and  the  coast  around  Trieste  and  Gorz  are  still  called  Slo- 
venci,  and  their  language  Slovenian.  The  republic  of  Ragusa 
also,  in  spile  of  the  identity  of  its  language  with  the  inland 
Servo-Croatian,  held  in  its  rich  poetical  literature  of  the  fif- 
teenth to  the  eighteenth  centuries  to  the  name  of  **  Slovin- 
ian."  Hence  the  Byzantine  name  "iKKoBrivol  must  have  desig- 
nated the  whole  of  the  southern  Slavs.  These  triljes  have 
never  attained  to  a  political  or  cultural  unity.  In  Carinthia, 
Styria,  and  Carniola  they  early  submitted  to  the  Germans, 
and  their  closely  resembling  dialects  formed  the  basis  of 
the  present  Slovenian  language.  The  dialect  of  Caniiola 
forms  the  basis  of  the  literary  language.  Slovenian  was  first 
treated  grammatically  by  Kopitar  (1808),  later  by  Metelko, 
Dainko.  Murko,  and  more  recently  by  Miklosicfi,  Levstik, 
and  Suman.  A  complete  dictionary  is  (1895)  being  edited 
by  Pleterisnik. 

Nearest  related  to  the  Slovenian  is  the  language  of  Sla- 
vonia  in  the  old  sense  of  the  term,  that  is,  of  the  region  be- 
tween the  Save,  Drave,  and  Mur  (including  scattered  areas 
N.  of  the  Mur  in  South  Hungary).  It  probably  extended 
formerly  much  farther  toward  the  E.,  but  the  populations 
driven  out  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  by  the  Turks  entered 
the  present  Slavonia  in  such  numbers  that  the  Old  Slove- 
nian of  the  former  kingdom  of  Slavonia  is  now  restricted 
to  the  counties  of  Warasdin,  Kreuz  (Krizevei),  Agram, 
nearly  to  Belovar  and  Wirowitic.  Since  the  end  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  this  region  has  been  known  as  Croatia  and 
its  language  as*  Horvatian.  Its  literature  began  with  the 
Protestant  movement,  and  furnished  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  a  series  of  important  prose  works  (also 
dicticmaries  by  Belostenec  and  Habdelir).  It  continued  as  a 
literary  language  until  the  rise  of  lllyrianism  in  Agram, 
after  1830,  led  to  its  displacement  by  the  richer  and  more 
extended  Servo-Croatian.  As  a  popular  dialect  it  still  con- 
tinues. It  is  often  called  the  kaj  ilialect,  from  its  use  of  the 
word  kaJ  (quid  f). 

8.  The  Croatians  proper  and  Servians  extend  farther  south, 
roughly  from  the  river  Kulpa  throughout  Istria.i  he  islands, 
the  Croatian  co^st,  Dalmalia,  Montrnegro,  and  throughout 
the  interior  (Bosnia,  Herzegovina.  Old  Servia,  Sorvia),  and 
northward  beyond  the  Save  throughout  Slavonia,  Syrmia, 


and  Southern  Hungary.  The  popular  lan^age  (leriat>-s 
more  or  less  from  the  literary  dialect  according  to  locali'  y. 
That  of  Southwestern  Servia  and  Plerzegovina,  together  i*  I'h 
the  Bezirk  of  Ragusa,  is  nearest  in  character  to  the  literarx 
dialect.  Montenegrin  offers  many  peculiarities  in  pnai'in- 
ciation  and  syntax.  As  a  result  of  ecclesiastical  and  }M»liii. .,. 
separation,  the  Servians  and  Croatians,  so  nearly  relates!  m 
language,  have  had  a  very  diverse  historical  developin*Mi*. 
Though  both  were  originally  converte<l  by  Rome,  aud  U.'!, 
accepted  the  Slavic  liturgy  in  the  ninth  century,  the  sepaT;i- 
tion  of  the  Church  into  Eastern  and  Western  soon  afters ap; 
divided  them  into  two  hostile  camps,  Servia  holding  firm.} 
to  Constantinople  and  to  Church  Slavonic,  while  in  the  w«  -: 
the  influence  of  Rome  in  ecclesiastical  and  public  man*  r- 
constantly  increased.  Not  only  in  the  old  Romance  citi*-*  ^i 
Dalmatia,  but  in  the  iude{)endent  principality  of  I'rcmtu. 
Latin  was  the  ruling  language  in  Church  and  stat«.  ih<»(<ji. 
Church  Slavonic  still  had  a  limited  use  in  private  congr«'i:u- 
tional  matters.  After  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  - 1.^- 
popular  language  was  used  with  Latin  characters,  at  fi!>:  in 
prose  works  for  Christian  instruction,  but  by  the  end  of  ii... 
fifteenth  century  for  a  poetical  literature  which  reached  i{> 
richest  development  in  Ragusa  in  the  seventeenth  eeniui ». 
In  1595  Faustus  Verantius  (Vrancic)  treated  the  "  Dalmai  m- 
ian"  (for  so  he  called  it)  lexicographically  and  proveti  rii- 
Slavic  loan-words  in  Hungarian.  In  1604  appeared  the  fir-- 
grammar  of  the  **  lUyrian  language  by  Bartholomew  Kh-:  . 
and  in  1649  a  valuable  dictionary  by  Jacobus  Miealia.  Th* 
literary  life  of  Dalmatia  spread  to  Bosnia  in  the  sixteenth  tvn- 
tury— at  least  among  Catholic  adherents — ^and  in  the  se\Hi,- 
teenth  and  eighteenth  books  were  printed  in  the  popular  lan- 
guage for  circulation  in  Bosnia,  with  both  the  Cyrillic  aj.'i 
Latin  alphabets.  The  true  founder  of  the  popular  languN  j  - 
as  a  literary  dialect  for  the  Servians  is  Vuk  SteL  Karud/;. . 
who  published  much  popular  material,  principally  s«»nj^. 
in  the  second  and  third  decades  of  the  nineteenth  eeniurv. 
and  based  the  Cyrillic  orthography  on  phonetic  nrineii«;'-. 
Since  this  Servian  dialect  of  Vuk  is  the  same  as  tne  I)aliii'i- 
tian  of  the  fifteenth  to  the  eighteenth  centuries  (later  u^*-*, 
also  in  Bosnia),  which,  as  al>ove  mentioneii,  was  intnHlur.ni 
into  Agram  in  1885  under  the  name  of  Illyrian,  the^e  tw<. 
long  separated  branches  have  at  last  been  united  again  iii!<> 
the  Servo-Croatian  literary  language.  Though  this  still  |  r  •- 
serves  a  dualism  in  name  (Servian  and  Croatian),  and  in  :).  • 
use  of  different  alphabets  (Cvrillic  and  Latin),  it  is  om-  ::i 
grammar  and  vocabulary.  Vuk  prepared  a  small  gmniii.ar 
and  an  excellent  dictionary  (2d  ed.  1852).  The  great  Am- 
demic  Dictionary  of  the  Croatian  or  Servian  Langu4igr,  U  - 
gun  by  G.  Danicic  (1882),  is  being  published  by  the  S>u::i 
Slavic  Academy  in  Agram. 

9.  Most  i>eculiar  in  its  development  has  been  the  langu.i;:'- 
of  the  Bulgarians,  who  borrowed  their  name  from  tluir 
Turkish  conquerors,  the  Bulgars.  They  live,  to  the  nuini"  r 
of  about  3,0(K),000,  E.  of  the  Servians  on  the  lower  Danui-. 
in  the  Balkan  and  Rhodope  Mountains,  in  Roumelia  near.v 
as  far  as  Adrianople,  and  in  a  large  part  of  Macedom.-I. 
They  were  originally  composed  of  seven  Slovenian  trii-v-. 
whose  branches  may  have  extended  to  the  south  as  Ur 
as  Greece,  and  northward  as  far  as  Eastern  Pannonia  ai:  t 
Transylvania;  the  resulting  dialectal  differences  are  not  \*i 
.wholly  obliterated.  Besides  the  use  of  a  post-positive  ar- 
ticle, bulgarian  has  lost  the  true  Slavic  declension,  replm  - 
ing  it  by  prepositions  with  the  general  case,  which  give-  i: 
a  strange  appearance  in  comparison  with  all  other,  e\»ii 
southern,  Slavic  dialects,  with  which  in  other  ways  it  h.> 
many  points  of  contac^t.  This  phenomenon  probably  «lai'-* 
back  to  the  fourteenth  century,  and  may  have  l>een"  p«r;y 
due  to  the  influence  of  Roumanian,  in  which  it  eeriain.y 
developed  much  earlier.  The  Slavic  conjugation.  hc»w»\fr. 
except  for  the  loss  of  the  infinitive,  has  been  retained  u. 
Bulgarian  in  its  old  form,  agreeing  with  the  e*\stern  Sirv— 
Croatian  dialects  even  in  the  formation  of  the  futun-  !•> 
means  of  the  auxiliary  sta  (from  choStq\  and  with  all  Suir.i 
Slavic  dialects  in  the  use  of  the  conjunction  da  with  j^I'Jo  ' 
clauses  (instead  of  ie  iz  in  Northwest  Slavic,  and  rA>-  '^f*'  ii. 
Russian).  As  noted  above,  Bulgaria  was  for  a  loui;  ti;.-' 
the  center  of  Church  Slavonic  literary  activity  (uml^r  i^t 
Emperor  Simeon,  927  a.  i»..  and  his  immediate  su(xv>-4T-'. 
As  a  result,  the  popular  language  does  not  ap|)ear  in  lit«r.»- 
ture  befoi-e  the  seventeenth  century,  and  must  Ik*  pitht  ?  -1 
from  fragments  found  scattered  through  the  Chureh  >i:i- 
vonic  texts.  The  language  was  nuide  known  to  the  liten»r> 
worM  by  Vuk  Stef.  Kanidzie  and  Kopitar,  having  l»*'"' 
scarcely  known  to  Dobrowsky,  and  has  been  iuve>tigai'>i 


564 


SLAVONIA 


SLEEP 


The  Polish  hiiiguage  is  characterized  most  strongly  among 
all  the  living  Slavic  languages  by  retention  of  the  original 
Slavic  nasalization  :  cf.  nriru.  Slav,  dqbu-dqba-dqbn,  Polish 
dqb-d^bu ;  prim.  Slav,  rc^-rqkq-rqku,  Polish  r^ka-r^k^-rqk. 
The  Polish  is  rich,  almost  too  rich,  in  sibilants,  the  original 
Slav,  groups  te-ti^  de-di  bein^  assibilated  :  cie  (i.  e.  ce),  ci 
(i.e.  6t)^  dzie  (i.  e.  rfic),  dzi  (i.  e.  dii) ;  so  also  «,  2,  before 
palatal  vowels  become  ^,  i ;  siano  (i.  e.  nano)  ziemia  (i.  e. 
zerha),  Polish  differs  widely  from  Cech  in  the  treatment  of 
the  old  Church  Slav,  vowel  ^,  making  it  now  ie  (before  soft 
sounds),  now  ia  (before  hard);  thus  iviatr  (Cech.  vUr^  genit. 
vPJru),  but  wiemy^  wierzyc  (Cech.  veriti).  Polish  forms  from 
or  +  cons,  and  of  +  cons,  not  ra-ta^  like  Cecho-Slovak.  and 
South  Slav.,  but  ro-to,  like  Lusatian-Servian ;  er  +  cons,  and 
el  +  cons,  do  not  yield  ri  +  cons.,  IS  +  cons,  as  in  Cech  and 
South  Slav.,  but  re  +  cons.,  le  +  cons.,  e.  g.  Cech  breza  or 
briza,  Pol.  brzoza.  Polish  has  no  r-,  /-  sonans.  In  the  um- 
laut of  ie  >  io  Polish  is  akin  to  Russian.  Polish  has  re- 
tained t  (hard)  and  /  (palatal),. whereas  Cech  has  in  recent 
centuries  entirely  relinquished  t  Beside  other  peculiarities 
of  the  Polish  is  to  be  noted  its  constant  accentuation  of  the 
penultimate  syllable,  as  distinguished  from  Cech  and  Lu- 
satian-Servian, which  accentuate  the  first ;  also  its  lack  of 
distinctions  in  quantity  as  contrasted  with  the  many  long 
syllables,  notablv  final  ones,  in  Cech. 
'  14.  The  Casubian  was  regarded  by  KrvAski,  Biskupski, 
and  Pobtocki  as  a  dialect  of  Polish,  but  by  most  scholars 
has  been  more  correctly  regarded  as  the  last  remnant  of  the 
language  of  those  Slavs  who  formerly  extended  throughout 
Pommerania  and  beyond  the  Oder  to'  the  Elbe.  The  Casu- 
bians  of  to-day  (also* called  Slowincians  or  Slowiencians)  are 
a  poor  fishing  people  around  the  Gulf  of  Dantzic  and  in 
some  places  in  the  provinces  of  West  Prussia  (Putzig,  Neu- 
stadt,  Karthaus,  Dantzic,  Berent,  Konitz,  Schlochau)  and 
Pommerania  (Lauenburg,  Stolp,  Btltov),  and  number  over 
150,000.  A  comparison  of  their  language  (treated  by  Ceno- 
wa,  Hilferding,  Biskupski,  and  others)  with  Polabian  (as 
set  forth  by  Schleicher)  shows  conclusively  that  Polabian 
and  Pommeranian  had  much  in  common  that  can  not  be 
found  in  Polish.  A  most  serviceable  dictionary  of  Casu- 
bian by  Itamutt  was  published  by  the  Cracow  Academy  in 
1803. 

15.  For  an  account  of  the  Russian  dialects,  see  Russian 
Lanouaues.  V.  Jagi<5. 

Slaro'iiia  (  =  Late  Lat.,  deriv.  of  5/a'i»M«,  Slav;  cf.  O. 
Bulg.  Slovientnu  :  Russ.  Slavyaninti^ Slav,  Slavonian ;  per- 
haps connected  with  0.  Bulg.  aloiH)^  word,  alava^  glory  J :  a 
territ^>ry  of  A  ustria- Hungary,  forming  with  Croatia  a  province 
attached  to  Hungary ;  bounded  N.  by  the  Drave  and  S.  by 
the  Save,  and  E.  by  the  Danube.  Area,  9,106  sq.  miles.  A 
branch  of  the  Carnian  Alps  enters  Slavonia  from  the  W.,  and 
traverses  it  in  its  whole  length,  forming  the  watershed  be- 
tween the  Drave  and  the  Save,  and  terminating  somewhat 
abruptly  on  the  banks  of  the  Danul)e.  These  mountains, 
which  nowhere  rise  above  2,700  feet,  are  rich  in  copper,  iron, 
lead,  and  beautiful  marble,  and  their  slopes  are  clotned  with 
fine  timber-yielding  forests,  vinevards  which  produce  a  sweet, 
strong,  richly  flavored  wine,  and  orchards  in  which  apples, 
pears,  cherries,  and  peaches,  figs,  oranges,  and  walnut.s  ripen 
to  perfection.  Along  the  rivers  extend  low,  rather  marshy, 
but  very  fertile  plains,  where  large  crops  of  wheat  and  maize 
are  raised  and  immense  herds  of  cattle  and  swine  reared. 
Oi  manufactures  there  are  almost  none  ;  some  linen  fabrics 
are  made  from  the  excellent  flax  and  hemp  which  are  raised, 
but  only  for  home  use.  The  inhabitants,  who  call  themselves 
Slavonatz  and  their  country  Slavotiska^  are  at  once  warlike 
and  dreamy,  fond  of  music,  poetry,  and  dancing,  excelling 
in  all  kinds  of  horsemanship,  and  preferring  the  life  of  the 
shepherd  to  that  of  the  tiller  of  the  soil.  They  are  deeply 
attached  to  their  fatherland  and  proud  of  their* nationality, 
and  of  late  political  ideiis  and  passions  have  begun  to  play  a 
conspicuous  part  in  their  lives.     See  Croatia. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrinuton. 

Slars  [from  Germ.  Sklm^e,  Sfnre,  from  the  Slavic  forms. 
See  Slavonia]:  a  race  of  Indo-Kuropean  relationship,  char- 
acterized chiefly  by  their  sj>cech  and  constituting  three- 
tenths  of  the  population  of  Kurope,  and  divided  into  three 
main  branches — Eastern,  Western,  and  Southern.  To  the 
first  belong  the  Russians  an<l  Ruthenians;  to  the  second, 
the  Poles,  the  Czechs,  the  Slovaks,  and  theWouds;  to  the 
third,  the  Bulgarians,  the  Servians  and  Croat ians,  and  the 
Slovenes.  For  the  Slavic  population  of  Austria-Hungary. 
Prussia,  and  Russia,  see  the  articles  on  those  countries. 


No  information  is  given,  even  by  legends,  as  to  the  first 
appearance  of  the  Slavs  in  Europe.  In  the  fourth  eenturi' 
they  were  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  neighborhtKMi  <'f 
the  Carpathians,  and  that  is  supposed  to  have  been  <mr  nf 
their  earliest  homes.  Thither  i)oint  the  legends  <if  nmii> 
Slavonic  peoples,  especially  the  Poles  and  Czechs,  and  th*'ni*f 
the  Slavonic  settlers  appear  to  have  spread  north wani  t-. 
the  Baltic  and  southward  to  the  Adriatic.  The  earlif>t 
authentic  records  of  the  Slavs  are  given  by  Procopius,  Jor- 
danes,  Agathias,  the  Emperor  Maurice,  and  other  writ^r5 
during  the  second  half  of  the  sixth  century.  These  authors 
all  lived  in  Byzantium  or  in  Italy,  and  were  fiersonaliy  ar- 
quainted  only  with  the  Southern  Slavs,  who  dwelt  on  th*- 
lower  Danube  and  spread  through  ancient  Moesia  and  Pan- 
nonia.  The  Northern  Slavs  they  knew  by  report  only.  N" 
political  unity  seems  ever  to  have  existed  among  these  eari\ 
Slavs,  but  their  different  bodies  consolidated  at  various  ]>e- 
riods  between  the  seventh  and  eleventh  centuries  into  mon- 
archies, of  which  most  have  virtually  disappeared.  To  tli.- 
earlv  Slavs,  Jordanes  and  some  other  writers  give  the  name 
of  VVends,  by  which  name  the  Slavonic  inhabitants^  of  Lu- 
satia  are  still  known  to  their  German  neighbors.  This  «i»-*- 
ignation,  under  various  kindred  forms,  appears  to  have 
been  applied  to  Slavs  by  foreigners,  just  as  that  of  Wt^Nh 
(Wdlsche)  was  given  by  the  Teutonic  to  the  Ijatin-sj)eakni^ 
peoples. 

Of  the  ancient  Slavs  little  information  can  be  obtained  ex- 
cept from  the  writings  of  Greeks,  Germans,  Arabs,  and  othf-r 
foreigners.  They  appear  to  have  differed  but  little  in  th^- 
various  lands  which  they  occupied,  everywhere  bearing  the 
character  of  being  a  brave  and  hardy  race,  given  to  agricul- 
ture, and  of  a  peaceable  nature,  except  where  they  wen*  in- 
fluenced by  more  martial  neighbors.  Some  modem  writers 
suppose  that  the  Slavs  formed  into  clans,  others  that  thr 
foundation  of  Slavonic  society  was  the  family  community. 
Among  the  Western  Slavs,  at  least,  a  cluster  "of  such  c«'m- 
munities  formed  Aj'upa^  or  district,  at  the  head  of  which 
was  a  jupan,  or  chief,  and  in  its  center  a  ^ad^  or  town. 
The  mode  of  life  among  all  the  Slavonic  tnbes  was  jiatri- 
archal,  the  father  ruling  his  family  with  despotic  p<>w<r. 
Polygamy  prevailed  among  them  in  heathen  times,  and  al^> 
a  kind  of  sutteeism,  but  women  do  not  seem  to  have  occu- 
pied an  altogether  degraded  |)osition.  Of  Slavonic  beatfR-n- 
ism  not  much  is  known,  but  its  deities  app»ear  to  have  iieen 
for  the  most  part  personiflcations  of  nature-forces.  Va^ie 
recollections  survive  of  Svarog,  the  heaven-god,  answering 
to  the  Greek  Ouranos,  the  Vedic  Varuna.  He  appear^  to 
liave  given  place,  in  some  {)arts,  to  a  solar  deity,  Daxhlw.^, 
together  with  whom,  as  the  representative  of' the  sun,  » 
Khoi-s  is  mentioned.  Another  solar  deity  was  Volo-*  or 
Veles,  the  special  [irotector  of  cattle,  surviving  in  Christ  mn 
times  as  St.  Blasius  or  Vlasy.  Ku(>alo  and  Garilo  are  su\>- 
posed  to  have  been  representatives  of  the  summer  sun.  tlie 
fertilizer  of  the  earth.  Fire  is  said  to  have  been  worshi|>i-«l 
under  the  name  of  Ogon,  answering  to  the  Vedic  Agni.  and 
there  was  a  wind-go<l,  Stribog;  but  the  chief  deity  of  the 
Northeastern  Slavs  was  Perun,  the  thunder-god,  answering 
to  the  Teutonic  Thor,  and  supposed  to  be  the  European 
representative  of  the  Vedic  Parjayna.  Among  the  Wc>U'rii 
Slavs  other  deities  were  worshiped,  such  as  Kadigost  an<I 
Sviatovit,  and  the  three-headed  Triglaf,  of  whose  imac*'* 
detailed  accounts  are  given  by  old  writers.  Thew  \V»»>t»ni 
Slavs  anpear  to  have  had  temples  and  priests,  but  it  i< 
doubtful  whether  this  was  the  case  among  their  EasitTTi 
brethren.  Of  inferior  deities  the  memory  is  still  pn*stTx»-«l 
in  the  belief  of  the  common  people  of  all'  Slavonic  laiHi*s  in 
Rusalkjus,  Vilas,  and  many  other  supernatural  bein^r^  vu|i- 
posed  to  haunt  wfjods,  waters,  and  pastures.  The  Wt-^tt-ni 
Slavs  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  accent  Christ ianit v. 
many  of  the  Moravians,  for  instance,  having  been  con  vert  tti 
as  early  as  the  seventh  century,  their  religious  teachin;> 
coming'  from  the  West ;  but  the  submission  of  the  gn  at 
body  of  Slavs  dates  from  the  mission  of  the  Greek  niiiik* 
Cyril  and  Methodius  in  the  ninth  century.  See  Slaui 
Lanuuaues.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Sleep  [O.  Eng.  shfp  :  O.  Sax.  siap  :  O.  H.  Germ,  slaf  (  > 
Mod.  (lenn.  schlnf)  :  Goth.  8lep»\  ct  Lat.  ia*bi\  Inf^sum, 
glide.  sli<le,  fall  down,  whence  Eng.  lapse]',  a  ccuulitit)n  <>f 
the  organism,  normal,  and  occurring  generally  jieriiwlioally, 
in  which  there  is  a  more  or  less  complete 'suspeuMnn  "f 
consciousness  and  the  power  of  voluntary  motion.  It  i^^ 
somewhat  diflicult  to  analyze  the  various  phenomena  whuh 
go  to  make  up  the  condition  calleii  sleepiness.     The  n)o«t 


566 


SLEEPER 


SLIME-MOULDS 


series,  vol.  vi.,  1860) ;  Maury,  Le  Sommeil  et  les  R^ves  (Paris, 
1865):  Hammond.  On  Wakefulness^  with  an  Introductory 
Chapter  on  the  Physiology  of  Sleep  (Philwielphia,  1865), 
and  Sleep  and  its  Derangements  (Philadelpnia,  1869); 
Czerny,  Lntersuehung  Hber  den  Schlaf  {Ihrag  Med,  Woch- 
ensch.,  1892,  No,  4) ;  Kosenbaum,  narum  mussen  wir 
schlafenf  (Berlin.  1892);  Weygand,  Production  des  Rives 
(Leipzig.  1893);  Wundt,  Lectures  on  Human  and  Aninval 
Psychology  (New  York,  1894),  p.  823. 

Revised  by  J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Sleeper :  any  one  of  several  sharks  or  fishes :  (1)  Either 
one  of  the  nur'se-sharks.  (See  Nurse-shark.)  (2)  In  some 
of  the  West  Indian  islands  a  gobioid  fish  of  the  sub-family 
Eleotridina? ;  these  rarely  exceed  a  foot  in  length,  and  are 
of  an  elongated  form,  w'ith  two  separated  dorsal  fins,  the 
first  of  which  has  six  slender  spines,  and  thoracic  ventral 
fins,  which  have  each  a  spine  ana  five  rays. 

Sleep  of  Plants:  the  nocturnal  condition  of  many 
plants.  Many  leaves  assume  a  particular  position  at  night- 
fall or  when  placed  in  a  darkened  room,  as  is  notably  the 
case  with  certain  sorrels  (Oxalis)^  clovers  {Trifolium)^  sensi- 
tive plants  (Mimosa),  and  other  Legumiiiosce.  Many  flowers 
close  at  night  and  open  again  in  the  morning,  as  of  species 
of  Portulaca  and  Oxalis,  and  the  dandelion  and  many  other 
Compositce,  C,  E.  B. 

81eepj  Eye :  village ;  Brown  co.,  Minn. ;  on  Sleepy  Eye 
Lake,  and  the  Chi.  and  N.  W.  Railway ;  48  miles  W.  of 
Mankato  (for  location,  see  map  of  Minnesota,  ref.  10-D).  It 
is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and  contains  6  churches,  a  State 
high  school,  2  parochial  schools,  6  warehouses  and  grain 
elevators,  flour-mill,  brewery,  creamery,  electric  lights,  a  State 
bank  with  capital  of  $25,000,  a  private  baryc,  and  two  weekly 
newspapers.  The  place  was  named  in  honor  of  Ish-a-hum- 
bak,  an  Indian  chief  who  was  friendly  to  the  whites  during 
the  massacre  of  1861,  the  name  meaning  "  Man  whose  eves 
have  appearance  of  sleep."  Pop.  (1880)  997;  (1890)  1,513; 
(1895)  estimated,  2,200.  Editor  of  "  Dispatch." 

Sleldan,  Johanx,  whose  true  name  was  Philippsohn: 
historian ;  b.  at  Sehleiden,  42  miles  S.  W.  of  Cologne,  1506 ; 
studied  at  Lou  vain  and  Paris  and  jurisprudence  at  Orleans; 
was  secretary  to  Cardinal  du  Bellay,  mmister  to  Francis  I., 
King  of  Prance  (1536-41),  although' at  Louvain  he  had  im- 
l)il)ed  Protestant  opinions ;  was  the  representative  of  Francis 
I.  at  the  Diet  of  Regensburg ;  led  a  wandering  life  till  1543 
when  he  settled  in  Strassburg,  which  thenceforth  was  his 
home.  He  was  appointed  historiographer  by  the  princes 
of  the  Smalkaldian  Ijeague ;  represented  Strassburg  at  the 
Council  of  Trent  (1551),  and  on  nis  return  became  Professor 
of  Law.  D.  in  Strassburg,  Oct.  31,  1556.  His  fame  rests 
upon  his  great  history,  De  statu  religionis  et  reipublicw 
Carolo  Ouinto  Ccesare  commentarii  (Strassburg,  1553-56: 
best  ed.  by  Chr.  C.  am  Ende,  3  vols.,  Frankfort,  1785-86), 
which  gives  a  history  of  the  Reformation  from  1517  to  1556. 
resting  on  documentary  evidence.  It  remains  "the  most 
valuable  contemporary  history  of  the  Reformation,  and  con- 
tains the  largest  collection  of  important  documents."  It 
was  translated  into  French  (Geneva,  1557;  new  trans.  The 
Hague,  1767).  Italian  (Florence.  1557),  English  {A  famouse 
cnmicle  of  oure  time,  called  Sleidnnes  commentaries,  etc., 
t  ranslateti  by  John  Daus,  Lcmdon,  1560 ;  same,  edited  by  Ed- 
mund Bohun,  under  title  The  General  History  of  the  Re/or- 
mrtfion,  etc.,  1517-15<W,  with  continuation  to  15G3,  lo89), 
an  I  (lerman  (Frankfort,  1567,  n.  e.  Halle,  1770-73,  4  parts). 
Another  famous  work,  often  reprinted,  was  his  De  quatuor 
ttnmmis  imjjeriis,  Bahylonico,  Persico,  Grcpco,  et  Jiomano 
(Strassburg.  1556;  n.  e.  Amstenlam,  K05;  Eng.  trans.  The 
Key  of  History,  London,  1627,  new  trans.  1695;  French 
tnms.  Geneva,  156^3).  His  Opuscula  appeared  at  Hanau, 
160S.  See  his  Life  by  H.  Baumgarten  (Strassburg.  1878).  who 
also  edited  his  correspondence  {Shidans  Brieftvechsd)  1881. 
Sam L' EL  Macai'LEV  Jackson. 

Slemmer,  Adam  J.:  soldier;  b.  in  Montjjomery  co..  Pa., 
in  1828.  He  graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy 
July  1,  1850,  and  was  appointed  brevet  second  lieutenant  in 
the  artillery ;  first  lieutenant  1854.  Detailed  for  duty  at 
West  Point  in  1855,  he  served  as  A'^sistant  Professor  of  Geog- 
raphy and  History  a  year,  and  of  Mathematics  18,56-59.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  onlered  to  Fort  Moultrie.  S.  C  and 
in  1860  was  transferred  to  Florida,  where,  in  1861,  he  com- 
manded the  small  body  of  V.  S.  troops  in  Pensacola  harbor, 
occupying  with  them  Fort  Barrancas  and  the  neighboring 
feeble  barracks.     When  intelligence  of  the  surrender  of  the 


Pensacola  navy-yard  to  the  Confederates  reached  him,  he 
transferred  (Jan.  10)  his  command  to  Fort  Pickens,  (>pjK>- 
site,  which  action  prevented  the  seizure  of  that  im{»oruuit 
work.  In  May,  1862,  he  was  attached  to  Gen.  BuelTs  anin, 
and  participated  in  the  siege  of  Corinth  and  in  the  su)>>e> 
quent  movement  to  Louisville,  Ky.,  and  to  the  relief  «»f 
Nashville,  Tenn.  He  was  commissioned  a  brigadier-genenil 
of  volunteers  Nov.  29,  1862,  and  engaged  in  the  battle  of 
Murfreesboro  Dec.  81,  where  he  was  severely  wounded  ai.l 
incapacitated  from  further  active  service  in  (he  field.  W*- 
was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel  Fourth  Infantry  Feb.,  iMtu. 
and  in  Aug.,  1865,  he  was  mustered  out  of  tKe  volunttn  r 
service,  and  breveted  colonel  and  brigadier-general.  D.  at 
Fort  Laramie,  Kansas,  Oct.  7,  1868. 

Sleswick  :  another  spelling  of  Schleswig  {q.  t*.). 

Slickensides :  a  peculiar  polished  and  striated  mi rfa<^ 
found  commonly  on  the  wall-rocks  of  mineraJ  vein<  or 
faults,  and  where  slate,  shale,  coal,  and  other  fine  material^ 
have  been  crumpled  and  folded  by  pressure.  Not  un fre- 
quently a  foreign  body,  such  as  a  concretion,  shell,  or  nut 
lying  in  an  argillaceous  rock  of  which  the  particles  have 
been  moved  on  each  other  with  great  force,  shows  the  {*«>i- 
ished  striated  surface  to  which  this  name  has  been  given. 

Slldeir,  John:  statesman;  b.  in  New  York  about  17!^:): 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  1810 ;  settled  at  New  Orleai.^ 
where  he  became  a  distinguished  lawyer;  U,  S.  distrii  i 
attorney  1829-33;  member  of  Congress  1843-45 ;  appointeti 
minister  to  Mexico  1845.  but  not  received  by  the  MexicKn 
Government ;  was  U.  S.  Senator  1853-61,  but  withdrew  in 
conisequence  of  the  secession  of  his  State,  which  he  had  dnne 
much  to  promote.  Sailing  from  Charleston  as  commissi! iner 
of  the  Confederate  government  to  France,  he  and  hi.*  as^i- 
ciate,  James  M.  Mason,  ran  the  blockade  and  embarke<l  Ht 
Havana  on  the  British  steamer  Trent.  On  Nov.  8, 1861,  C»pt. 
Wilkes,  of  the  U.  S.  frigate  San  Jacinto,  stopped  the  Trent, 
seized  the  two  commissioners,  and  brought  them  back  to  xU^ 
U.  S.,  where  they  were  held  prisoners  at  Fort  Warren  in  B<>!<tun 
harbor.  Bitter  denunciations  of  the  seizure  appeared  in  tlie 
British  press,  and  the  attitude  of  the  British  Government 
was  for  the  moment  very  threatening,  but  the  U.  S.  <iis- 
avowed  the  act  of  Wilkes  and  released  the  prisoners  Jan.  1, 
1862,  thus  putting  an  end  to  the  difficulty.  After  the  war 
Slidell  settled  in  London,  where  he  died  July  29,  1871. 

Slide-rule:  an  instrument  for  solving  arithmetical  pr«»K 
lems  where  approximate  results  are  sufficiently  accurate. 
The  form  invented  by  William  Oughtred  (157^^-1660)  is  best 
known,  and  the  more  precise  one  introduce<l  by  E<lv(m 
Thacher  in  1885  is  much  used  by  engineers.  The  princii-M* 
is  that  of  logarithms,  the  divisions  on  one  scale  being  tho^ 
of  the  logarithms  of  numbers  from  1  to  100.  or  from  1  ?•> 
1.000,  while  the  numbers  themselves  are  marked  at  the  tli- 
visions  of  the  other ;  by  sliding  one  scale  along  the  other  the 
products  and  quotients*  of  two  numbers  may  be  read  off  by 
inspection.  Mansfield  Merrixax.  * 

Sir^o:  county  in  the  province  of  Connaught.  Ireland, 
bordenn^  N.  on  the  Atlantic.  Area,  721  sq.  mile*.  The 
surface  rises  from  the  coast  toward  the  E.  and  N.  E.,  reach- 
ing 1,778  feet  in  the  Ox  Mountains.  The  western  part  i? 
level,  the  soil  mostly  consisting  of  a  light  sandy  or  gravvlly 
loam,  intersj)ersed  with  patches  of  bog.  There  are.  how- 
ever, districts  with  a  deep  and  rich  soil  well  adapted  for 
tillage.  Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation,  especially 
cattle-breeding  and  dairy-fanning.  Some  coarse  wo4»l»'n 
stuffs  are  manufactured,  and  fishing  is  carried  on.  Tui> 
meujbers  are  returned  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Pop. 
(1891)  98,013.  Principal  town,  Sligo,  at  the  mouth  of  tin 
Garvoifue.  137  miles  by  rail  N.  W.  of  Dublin,  at  the  head  cf 
the  Bay  of  Sligo  (see  map  of  Ireland,  ref.  6-F).  It  hn^  a 
go(Kl  harbor,  and  exports  cattle,  grain,  butter,  etc.  Slitrn 
has  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  and  a  modern  town-hail. 
Pop.  (1891)  10,110. 

Slime-monlds :  the  Mycetozoa  or  Myxomycetes,  a  gnuip 
of  organisms  of  doubtful  affinity;  when  referred  to  the  ani- 
mal kingdom  called  bv  the  former  name,  when  to  the  ve*:?^ 
table  kingdom  by  the  latter.  They  have  hitherto  l)een  t^'Hi- 
monly  regarded  as  plants,  but  are  more  probably  relate! 
most  closely  to  the  rhizo|XKis  among  animals,  'in  tht-ir 
growing  stage  they  consist  of  a  naked  mass  of  protoplaMn 
of  ind»»finite  size  and  shape,  and  here  their  resemblance  to 
the  rhizopcxlous  infuwrians  is  evident;  but  in  their  n»pm- 
ductive  stage  they  are  definitely  circumscribed  masse*  of 
dry  spores,  here  reminding  one  of  some  of  the  puff-balls 


568 


SLIME-MOULDS 


SLIVNO 


branched  threads  extending  from  the  columella  to  the  perid- 
ium.    Sporangia  single  or  coalesced  into  an  a'thalium. 

Diachea  and  Spumaria  (Fig.  8)  are  the  gen- 
era. 

Family  Didymiacem,  With  lime  (mostly  in 
crystals  in  the  outer  wall  of  the  periilium) ; 
capillitium  of  delicate  tubes  or  filaments,  with- 
out lime,  extending  from  the  columella  or 
base  of  the  sporangium  to  the  peridiura.  Col- 
umella none  or  short,  hemispherical,  or  orbic- 
ular. *•  Fruit "  an  orthosporangium  or  a  plas- 
modiocarp. 

The  more  important  genera  are  Didymium 
and  Chondriodervia  (Fig.  9). 

Family  PhyaaracecB,  With  lime  in  granules : 
capillitium  a  net  of  hyaline,  thin-walled,  broad 
tubes,  usually  filled  with  lime ;  columella  usu- 
ally wanting.  **  Fruit "  mostly  an  orthosporan- 
gium, less  commonly  a  plasmodiocarp  or  an 
fBthalium. 

The  common  genera  of  this  large  family  are 
Tilmadoche^  LeocarpiLs,  Physarum  (Fig.  10), 
Badhamia,  and  Fmigo  (Fie.  11). 

Allied  to  the  slime-moulds  proper  are  two 
other  groups,  the  AcrcusiecB  and  Phytomyxifue 
— classes  they  may  conveniently  be  called — 
which  are  to  be  regarded  as  simpler  and  lower 
than  the  foregoing.  They  may  be  noted  as 
follows : 

Class  AcRASiEii:.  With  no  true  plasmodium,  the  amoeboid 
swarra-spores  not  fusing;  saprophytic;  in  fruit  consisting 
of  rounded  heaps  of  free  spores. 


mating  the  value  of  their  resemblance  to  and  their  difft-r- 
enccs  from  plants,  one  is  compelled  to  admit  that  tlieir  r*^- 
semblanccs  to  any  plants  are  merely  sut)erficial  (e.  g.  to  >«»n  » 
puff-balls),  while  their  differences  are  profoun<l.      Un  if.e 


Fio.  S —Spu- 
maria a/6a. 
natural  size. 


S  4 

Fio.  9.—Chovdriodei'ma  floriforme.  enlar^red  flfte»*n  times :  1.  un- 
opfDed  ;  2,  3,  ruptured,  showing  spores  ;  4,  showing  columella. 

Several  genera  of  these  low  organisms,  falline  into  two 
gr()Uj)S,  are  known.     They  occur  upon  manure  and  other  de- 
caying matter. 

Class  Phvtomyxin^.  With 
a  true  plasmodium,  parasitic 
in  the  cells  of  higher  plants, 
in  fruit  dividing  into  a  mass 
of  spores.  The  organisms  here 
brought  together  are  but  ob- 
scurely known.  Plamtwdioph- 
ora  hrossic(P  (Fig.  12)  occurs 
in  the  roots  of  cabbage,  caus- 
ing club  -  root.  Phytomyxa 
ley  H  m  inosa  rn  m  causes  the 
root -tubercles  of  clover  and 
many  other  leguminous  plants. 
Zopf  has  added  many  other 
organisms  to  the  slime-moulds, 
such  as  VampyreUa,  Bursulla,  Colpodelln,  Protomofias, 
Protomyxay  etc.,  whose  animal  nature  has  never  been  seri- 
ously doubted  and  whose 
affinities  to  the  higher  slime- 
moulds  are  evident. 

As  to  their  place  in  nature, 
the  writer  must  aerree  with 
(le  Bary  in  plrtcingthem  "out- 
side the  limits  of  the  veirota- 
ble  kingdom."  If  plants,  they 
are  so  unlike  all  others  that 
they  must  be  regarded  as  be- 
longing to  a  different  genetic 
line.  To  set  them  off  in  a 
group  by  themselves  would  be  merely  an  evasion  of  the 
({uestion.     Divesting  one's  self  of  prejudice  and  rightly  esti- 


Fio.  10.- 


-Fkysarum  ainuoaum, 
natural  size. 


Fio.  n.—FuUgo 

one-half 


'ptica,  reduced 
if. 


Fio.  \2.—Plasmodiophora  brassicce:  I,  cabHafre-r<x>t,  swoUen,  rat 
ural  size  ;  II,  cells  of  affected  c«bhae».  x  6<» ;  III,  spore**,  *  r.j  ; 
IV,  spores  germinating  ;  V,  amoeboia  masses. 

other  hand,  in  their  structure,  both  in  the  vegetative  an-i 
reproductive  stages,  they  exhibit  such  striking  similarity  !•• 
the  lower  protozoans  that  one  can  not  avoid  the  conclusi  r. 
that  their  real  relationship  is  with  these  lower  animals  rat  K»  r 
than  with  plants.  Among  investigators  who  have  nlaced  th- 
slime-moulds  outside  the  vegetable  kingdom  are  tne  follow- 
ing: de  Bary  (1858),  Haeckel  (1866),  AUman  (1879),  K^^i.t 
(1880),  Zopf  (1887),  Rolleston  and  Jackson  (1887),  Bcnn.rr 
and  Murray  (1889),  Lister  (1890).  On  the  other  hand,  tli.  - 
who  have  devoted  themselves  to  a  study  of  these  organism-, 
systematically  or  descriptively,  generally  regard  them  h- 
plants — e.  g.  Rostafinski  (1875)  probably, Ciook  (1877).  Btrl«-t 
(1888),  Schroeter  (1889),  McBride  (1892),  Massee  (1892). 

Literature. — A.  de  Bary,  Die  Myeefozoen  (1859):  T>r- 
ghicliende  Morphologie  nncL  BioJogie  der  Pihe,  Mycettnu-u 
und  Bacterien  (1884;  Eng.  trans.  1887);  J.  Rostafii.-k:, 
Sluzowce  (Mycefozoa)  Monngrafia  (1875);  M.  C.  Cooke.  7"'.^ 
Myxomycetes  of  Great  Briiain  (1877);  The  Myxovnyrttf.'^ 
of  the  United  States  (1877):  C.  E.  Bessey,  Botany  for  Ih:^' 
Schools  and  Colleges  (1880:  7th  edition  1892):  W.  SaMli- 
Kent,  A  Manual  of  th^  Infusoria  (1880) :  The  Myxomyc^''  < 
or  Mycetozoa :  Animals  or  Plants  f  (1881);  W.  Zopf.  D"' 
Pilzthiere  oder  Schleimpilze  (1887);  A.  X.  Berlese,  J/v.-.'- 
mycetefP,  in  Saccardo's  Sylloge  F^ingorum,\o\.\'\\,  (IS^"^'; 
J.  Schroeter,  Myxomyeeies,  in  Engler  and  Prantl's  /)i>  3*7- 
tHrlichen  Pflanzenfamilien  (1889):  Bennett  and  MurrHv? 
TIandhook  of  Cryptogamic  Botany  (1889):  McBride.  T" 
Myxomycetes  of  Eastern  Iowa  (1892):  G.  Massee,  ^4  J/or,- 
graph  of  the  Myxogastres  (1892).         Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Sling:  a  simple  contrivance  for  hurling  missilofv.  c«»r- 
sisting  of  a  small  disk  of  leather  pierced  by  a  hole  and  sii^ 
pended  by  one,  two,  or  three  strings,  say  a  yard  long.  A 
stone  or  other  missile  was  placed  upon  the  leathern  di*k. 
and  then  whirled  rapidly  about  for  a  time,  when  one  of  th 
strings  was  dropped  from  the  hand  at  the  proper  instai.t. 
and  the  missile  sent  with  great  force  through  the  air.  Ti.^ 
ancient  Greek  light-armecl  troops  in  the  Persian  wars  ari'i 
afterward  used  the  sling,  often  with  a  plummet  of  lead  in- 
stead of  a  stone.  These  bullets  are  well  known  to  anti- 
quarians. They  frequently  bear  the  word  AEEAI.  **  T«k.' 
this,''  or  some  similar  word.  The  Persians.  Achipans,  A<  :ir- 
nanians,  and  especially  the  Balearic  islanders,  were  faniou* 
.slingoi-s.  The  sling  was  also  used  by  several  half-sa\np' 
peoples,  as  the  Tahitians. 

SHv'no,  or  Selim'nia  (Bulg.  Sliven):  town  in  Bulirn'-ia 
(see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  3-D);  commanding  on  the  S.  th-- 
iujportant  pass  in  the  Balkans  called  the  Iron  Gate :  carrio 
on  an  active  trade  in  wool  and  arms.    Pop.  (1893)  23.210. 


570 


SLOVENIAN  LANGUAGE 


SMALL 


was  stronely  opposed  by  the  Magyars  and  the  Czechs  alike, 
but  Slovak  literature  nevertheless  develoj)ed.  Poets  of  re- 
pute were  active:  Holly  wrote  an  epic  on  Svatopluk  in 
twelve  books  in  classical  stvle  and  met^r  and  a  Cyrillo-Me- 
thodiad  in  six  books.  He  died  in  1849,  just  at  the  great  out- 
break of  the  Hungarian  revolution  against  the  house  of 
Hapsburg.  Ljudevit  Stur  (b.  1815;  d.  1856),  studied  in 
Pressburg  and  Halle,  wrote  some  German  pamphlets  against 
the  Magyars  as  the  oppressors  of  the  Slovak  neople,  and  ed- 
ited in  1845-48  the  Slovak  newspaper  SlovensJci  Navini  with 
the  literary  supplement  Orol  Tatranski,  The  revolution 
drove  him  from  Hungary,  and  he  fled  to  Vienna,  where  he 
became  one  of  the  fiercest  agitators  against  the  Magyars, 
while  his  great  countryman  Kossuth,  entirely  Magyarized, 
led  the  Hungarian  revolution  against  Austria.  By  his  paper 
and  personal  influence  Stur  raised  Slovak  to  the  standanl 
of  the  literary  language  of  his  people.  He  also  wrote  in 
Czech  a  critical  work  on  the  character  of  Slavic  popular 

S>etry  (Prague,  1853),  and  left  a  manuscript  in  German 
as  Slaventhum  und  die  Welt  der  Zukunft^  the  first  great 
Slavophil  work,  translated  by  W.  Lamanskij  into  Russian 
(Moscow,  1867). 

A  number  of  other  poets  have  gained  a  good  reputation  in 
Slovak  literature,  which  seems  firmly  established,  even  if 
the  process  of  Magyarization  should  succeed  in  obliterating 
the  nationality  of  the  people. 

The  most  important  and    influential  modern  educator, 

Samraarian,  and  framer  of  the  Slovak  language  is  Martin 
attala,  born  in  1821,  at  TrstenA,  Hungary.  Originally  a 
Catholic  priest,  he  wrote  a  Graminatica  lingum  SloveniciB 
(Schemnitz,  1840),  which  secured  for  him  a  call  as  Professor 
of  Slavic  Languages  to  Prague.  His  principal  merit  is  the 
elaboration  of  the  Slovak  language  in  phonetics,  form,  syn- 
tax :  Pho7iology  of  (he  Old  and  2h  ew  Czech  and  Slovak  iJan- 
gna^e8  (Prague,  1854) ;  Comparative  Gramtnar  of  the  Czech 
and  Slovak  Languages  (Prague,  1857);  Antibarharus  of 
the  Czech  Language  (Brus  jazyka  ceskeho,  Prague,  1877) ; 
text-books  for  Slovak  schools,  etc.  His  polemical  writings 
against  Schleicher,  and  his  defense  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
Koniginhof  Manuscript  (Rukopis  Kraloavoraky)  are  note- 
worthy. Besides  him  three  men  eminently  contributed  to 
the  definite  settlement  of  Slovak  language  and  literature : 
J.  Victorin,  by  his  Grammatik  der  slovakischen  Spra^he 
<4th  ed.  by  Loos,  Budapest,  1876) ;  J.  Loos,  by  his  Wdrter- 
buch  der  slovakischen,  ungarischen  und  deutachen  Sjyrache 
(Budapest,  1871);  and  Sembera,  by  his  excellent  treatment 
of  Czech-Slovak  dialectology  {Zdktadove  dialektologie  cesko- 
slovenske^  Vienna,  1864). 

^  The  chief  collections  of  Slovak  popular  poems  are  by 
Safafik  (2  vols..  Pest,  1823-27) ;  Kollar  (2  vols.,  Buda,  1834- 
35 ;  Narodnie  ZpievaJiky) ;  and  by  the  Slovak  Matica  (sup- 
pressed bv  the  Magyars)  Sbornik  Slovenakych  ndrodnich 
piemi  (Collection  of  Slovak  National  Songs,  2  vols.,  1870-74). 

Hermann  Schoenfeld. 

SloTe'nlan  Langnage :  See  Slavic  Languages. 

SloTenlan  LIteratnre :  the  literature  produced  by  that 
branch  of  the  Slavic  family  which  inhabits  the  southern 
I)ortion  of  Carinthia  and  Styria,  all  Camiola  (except  the 
great  German  speech-island  around  Gottschee),  Gorz  and 
Gradiska,  a  small  part  of  Istria,  the  region  around  Radkers- 
btirg  in  Hungary  and  around  Cividale  in  Italy — total  popu- 
lation (1895),  about  1,300,000. 

This  literature  is  most  closely  related  to  that  of  the  Servo- 
Croats.  It  is  written  in  a  language  the  oldest  form  of  which 
is  held  by  some  of  the  greatest  and  most  authoritative 
scholars— Kopi tar,  Miklosich.  Daiiicic  and  Jagi6 — to  be  the 
mother  language  of  Pala»o-Slavonic,  as  preserved  to  us. 
Great  zeal  has  been  exhibited  in  fixing  the  grammatical 
structure  of  the  language.  This  lalx)r  has  l)een  performed 
by  scholars  like  Kopitar,  Metelko.  Murko,  JaneOic,  Lewstik, 
and,  best  of  all,  Suman  {Slovenska  elovnica,  Klagenfurth, 
1884). 

The  only  literary  monument  of  Old  Slovenian  is  the  litur- 
gical manuscript  of  Freising  (Bavaria).  It  is  in  Latin  script, 
and  belongs  to  the  tenth  century  (ed.  by  Kopitar  in  Glago- 
lita  Kloziamm,  Vienna,  1836).  Then,  until  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  there  was  nothing  that  can  be  classed 
as  literature.  With'  the  Reformation  literary  interest  re- 
vived. The  Carinthian  reformer  Primus  Truber  (1508-86) 
and  his  associates  translated  the  New  Testament  into  Slo- 
venian in  1557.  The  first  complete  edition  of  the  Bible  on 
the  Protestant  side  api)earpd  first  in  1584  in  Tubingen.  Other 
spiritual  and  church  books,  too,  were  composed  by  Truber, 


but  he  was  driven  into  exile,  and  the  incipient  reforraat<in- 
movement  suppressed  by  the  counter-reformation.  Literan 
activity  agjiin  practically  ceased  until  the  end  of  the  ci;:i>- 
teenth  century.  Only  meager  grammatical  and  bibliograph- 
ical work  was  protluced.  The  first  Slovenian  grammar  &\y 
peared  in  1584,  the  first  dictionary  in  1592. 

Toward  the  end  of  tlie  eighteenth  century,  however,  <*-\i- 
consciousness  began  to  awaken  among  the  Slovenes,  a<  »♦.! 
as  in  the  entire  South  Slavonic  world,  stimulated  especial!}  i> 
the  longing  for  liberty  and  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Chun  \„ 
On  the  Catholic  side  s,  comolete  Bible  translation.  pre-«*ri.»- 
nently  by  Japel  and  Kumeraey,  was  issued  1791-1802.  N-.ii- 
lar  literature, too, began  to  flourish;  Valentin  Vodnik(17.>- 
1819)  was  its  founder.  When  Carinthia  was  incorjK.r»iH! 
into  the  Illyrian  provinces  by  Napoleon  and  belonp«»«l  t.» 
France  (1810-14),  he  published  his  llirja  olivlena  (l]l>ru 
revived),  which  cost  him  his  position  as  inspector  of  ><lu  «'U 
when  Austria  regained  her  pro vinces.  He  also  wrote  valua  \  .ir 
poems  (i^ii,  8d  ed.  Laibach,  1869),  and  edited  the  tiM 
Slovenian  newspaper  (1797-1800).  The  greatest  modem  >.'^ 
venian  poet,  however,  is  Francis  Pre§irn  (1800-49) ;  his  r»*»»Mi  - 
are  mostly  lyrics  (complete  edition.  Pesmi  Franeeia  Prekirun, 
Laibach,  1866  ;  German  trans,  by  Samhaber,  Preiirtnkin$ty, 
Laibach,  1880). 

Since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  national  liff 
has  steadily  developed,  and  the  political  revival  has  Unri 
accompanied  by  an  increase  of  literary  productions  <»f  & 
varied  character.  Levstik,  Valjavec,  and  Stritter  are  x>n 
good  national  poets.  The  Matica  Slovenska  (Slovenian  Lit- 
erary Societv)  IS  the  center  of  the  literarv  movement.  '1  \\^ 
periodical  Ljubljanaki  Zvon  (The  Laibach  Bell)  is  the  great 
organ  in  which  the  national  productions  mostly  appear. 

The  principal  collections  of  Slovene  folk-song  are  SlovtuA* 
pesmi  krajnskago  naroda  (5  vols.,  Laibach,  18;it9-44) :  ^n- 
rodne  pemi  ilirske  (Styria,  Carinthia,  West  Hungary).  li\ 
Stanko  Vrac  (Agram,  1839);  Volkslieder  aus  A>a*».  tr-hiis 
by  A.  Grttn  (Count  Auersperg),  Leipzig.  1850 ;  Cvrijt  *."- 
v'enskega  naroda,  by  A.  Jaiiecic  (Klagenfurth,  1852).  >«f 
Child,  Ballads, 

BiBLiooRAPUY. — Kleinmayr  gives  an  excellent  sketch  -f 
Slovene  literature.  Zgodovina  dovenskega  slovstva  (KU;:"  a- 
furth,  1881);  see  also  Pypin  and  Spasovic,  Jstorija  ttlarj.n,- 
skich  literatur  (St.  Pet<ersburg,  18d5;  German  by  Tr.  iVch. 
Leipzig,  1880-84).  Hermann  Schoenfeld. 

Slows :  See  Milk-sickness. 

Sloyd  :  See  Manual  Training. 

Slug  [from  M.  Eng.  slugge,  slothful ;  cf.  Eng.  c^A'a, 
slouch,  and  sluggard]:  any  one  of  various  nake<l  tern-^rnjil 
molluscs,  mostly  memoers  of  the  family  Limacidee  (see  Pi  l* 


The  red  slug. 


monata).  The  name  is  sometimes  applied  to  other  nJoll•.lH^ 
and  occasionally,  but  wrongly,  to  certain  insects  which  ^n:- 
cur  as  pests  in  gardens  and  greenhouses. 

Sing-worms,  popularly  but  incorrectly  calle<l  Slngfi:  ilie 
larvae  of  certain  of  the  saw-flies  {Tenthredinida\  belonpifi- 
to  the  Hymefioptera,  They  are  slug-like  in  form.  In  the 
U.  S.  the  pear,  rose,  vine,  raspberry,  walnut,  linden.  an<l 
other  trees  are  infested  with  the  larVio  of  species  of  *S'/"«- 
dria,  which  are  often  very  destructive.  Decoctions  of  t'  - 
bacco  or  quassia,  whale-oil  soap,  a  weak  solution  of  i'aH«'ii«' 
acid,  and  jjetroleum  are  among  the  substances  reconinu'n«:t"l 
for  showering  shrubs  and  trees  infested  with  slug-worn  ^ 
For  small  trees  and  shrubs  hand-picking  will  general '* 
prove  sufficient. 

Smalcald :  See  Schmalkalden. 

Small,  John  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Strathardle.  Scotland,  in  IT'fi : 
served  in  the  Scotch  brigade,  in  the  Dutch  service,  in  tl.i- 
pursuit  of  the  Jacobites  of  Scotland  1747,  at  Ticondeni:* 
1758,  at  Montreal  1760.  and  in  the  West  Indies  1762 ;  wa>  in 
the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill ;  raised  a  corps  of  Highlandet^  in 
Nova  Scotia,  the  Eighty-fourth  Battalion,  known  ai;  ttn" 
"  Royal  Emigrants,"  which  he  commande<l  as  major  in  \\^^ 
campaigns  of  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania;  l>ecame  W'i- 
tenant-colonel  1780,  lieutenant-governor  of  Guernsey  !?.»•'>. 
and  major-general  1794.     D.  at  (luernsey.  Mar.  17,  1796. 


MfiMfi  C4itviif«iMitffti   fenil 


Li«d  cu  liW, 


572 


SMALL-ARMS 


1869,  and  1872;  they  mentioned  favorably  the  Peabody, 
Remington,  Sharps,  'and  Springfield,  and  finally  recom- 
mended the  adoption  of  the  latter  arm. 

The  same  decade  witnessed  the  adoption  abroad  of  arms 
that  remained  for  nearly  twenty  years  in  the  hands  of  troops, 
and  which,  while  differing  in  many  particulars,  can  be  placed 
in  two  general  chisses  dependent  upon  the  method  of  breech- 
closure — viz.,  by  a  hinged  block  and  by  a  sliding  bolt.  Of 
the  first  class  the  Remington,  the  Springfield  of  the  U.  S.,  and 
the  Martini-FIenry  of  Great  Britain,  and  of  the  second  class 
the  Mauser  of  Germany  and  Berdan  of  Russia,  are  the  best 
known.  As  these,  with  those  of  other  countries,  marked  the 
highest  development  of  the  single-loading  rifled  breech- 
loader, their  principal  features  are  given  in  the  accompany- 
ing table. 

TABLE   I. — SMALL-ARMS  OF  DIFFERENT  NATIONS,   1874. 


NATION.       '      NuM  of  guB. 


Austria 

Belg:iu(n 

Denmark .... 

France 

Qermany  — 
Great  Britain 
Holland    .... 

Italy 

Russia 

Bweden 

Switzerland. . ' 

Turkey  

United  States 


Werndl 

Albini 

Remington 

Graa 

Mauser 

Martini-Henry 

Beaumont 

Vetterli 

Berdan 

Remington 

A'etterlf 

Peabody 

SprinRrffttld.... 


f 

WEIGHT  or— 

;s 

J 

H 

1 

1 

it 

9-88 

II 

1 
'386 

li 

77 

7-83 

1K74 

0'4«1 

1.410 

mi 

0-4SS 

9-85 

{386 

77 

905 

1,367 

1870I0-4S0 

9-08 

|386 

60 

8-75 

1,300 

1874 

0438 

9-25 

386 

81 

952 

1,466 

1871 

0  483 

9-76 

1386 

77 

9-35 

1,410 

1871 

0-4B0 

8-75 

480 

85 

11-07 

1,862 

1871 

0488 

9-59 

386 

66 

8-57 

1,828 

1870 

0-410 

904 

316 

61 

7-50 

1.445 

1871 

0-421 

923 

870 

78 

8-62 

1,400 

1867 

0-473 

935 

370 

66 

7-68 

1,812 

1874 

0-410 

10-34 

816 

56 

6-75 

1,425 

1874 

0-450 

8-50 

480 

85 

1107 

1,360 

1873 

0  450 

8-68 

405 

70 

8-75 

1,350 

Since  1885  there  has  l)ecn  a  great  improvement  in  small- 
arms,  the  most  important  being  the  substitution  of  maga- 
zine-arms for  the  single-loa<lor.s  (see  Maoazine-ouns),  the  de- 
crease in  the  caliber  of  the  barrel,  and  the  adoption  of 
smokeless  powder  in  place  of  the  powder  formerly  used. 

As  magazine  systems  were  gradually  developed  the  ne- 
cessity of  meeting  the  increase<i  expenditure  of  ammunition 
with  an  augmented  supply  of  cartridges  became  evident, 
but  as  the  soldier's  load  was  already  at  the  limit  considered 
practicable,  this  could  only  be  accomplished  by  diminishing 
the  weight  of  a  single  round,  and  tnat  only  by  decreasing 
the  diameter  of  the  oullet  and  consequently  of  the  bore  of 
the  rifle.  This  has  resulted  in  the  adoption  in  different 
countries  of  calibers  between  0*315  and  0*256  inch,  a  decrease 
that  probably  has  not  yet  reached  its  limit. 

When  gunpowder  was  used  in  these  small  bores,  the  foul- 
ing soon  became  excessive,  unduly  impairing  the  accuracy 
of  Are.  To  overcome  this  trials  were  made  which  have  led 
to  the  introduction  of  the  so-called  Smokeless  Powders 
{q,  r.).  Many  of  these  powders  have  been  successfully  devel- 
opetl  and  are  in  general  use ;  their  range  of  chaniber-pressure 
varies  from  14  or  15  tons  per  square  inch,  as  with  the  pow- 
ders used  in  the  French  Berthier  and  the  Schmidt,  to  20  tons 
in  the  Belgian  Mauser  and  21  tons  in  the  German  infantry 
rifle.  This  necessitates  a  strength  and  stiffness  in  the  breech- 
mechanism  of  the  new  rifles  that  the  old  arms  did  not  re- 
quire, and  also  a  corresponding  increase  of  strength  in  the 
barrel.  The  modern  barrels  are  therefore  generally  made  of 
a  superior  ^rade  of  steel  and  of  a  little  greater  thickness  of 
metal.  Being  of  less  interior  diameter  and  also  somewhat 
shorter,  their  weight,  as  compared  with  the  old,  has  been 
diminished.  With  the  augmented  pressure  also  comes  a  great 
gain  in  the  initial  velocity,  necessitating,  in  order  to  secure 
steadiness  of  flight  for  the  bullet,  a  more  rapid  twist  to  the 
rifling,  which  now  makes  in  all  the  new  guns  one  turn  in 
about  8  or  10  inches,  instead  of  18  to  24  inches  as  formerly. 
The  majority  of  the  btirrels  are  rifled  with  four  grooves 
(though  some  have  only  three  an<l  others  six  or  seven),  of  a 
depth  varying  in  the  different  countries  from  0*003  to  0*006 
inch,  and' more  frequently  of  a  width  two  or  three  times 
that  of  the  lands. 

As  leaden  bullets  fired  with  high  vehK'ities  through  such 
barrels  will  not  follow  the  rifling,  but  will  strip  and  over- 
ride the  lands,  it  became  necessary  that  the  surface  of  the 
projectile  be  made  of  some  harder  metal ;  but  to  retain  the 
•  nigh  specific  gravity  of  the  lead,  with  the  consequent  ability 
of  the  ball  better  to  overconu*  the  resistance  <»f  the  air,  the 
greater  portion  of  the  bullet  is  made  of  a  load  slug  and 
then  coated  or  jackettnl  with  a  covering,  about  002  inch 
thick,  of  some  harder  metal,  as  steel,  copper,  nickel,  or  Ger- 


man silver.  These  bullets  have  a  length  of  about  four  f»ti- 
bers,  are  without  the  cannelures  or  lubricant  of  the  lead  lial.. 
and  weigh  on  the  average  alx>ut  220  grains. 

The  weights  of  the  smokeless  powder-charges  vary  with 
the  particular  powder,  averaging  about  30  to  40  grains. 

The  oenetration  of  the  bullet  at  all  distances  has  Im^i;  ir- 
creasea  by  the  alteration  in  its  shape,  by  its  harder  siirf;i-  . 
and  also,  except  at  the  extreme  ranges  where  the  air-n-"  > - 
ance  has  overcome  much  of  the  vel(x?ity,  by  its  more  mi-i 
initial  movement.  At  the  shorter  ranges,  200  to  300  yanS 
protection  is  now  obtained  by  about  0*2  inch  of  steelpiji-t 
and  about  0*3  inch  of  wrought  iron.  The  penetration  ir... 
earth  at  these  distances  is  al)out  25  inches,  into  pine  oN  \: 
30  inches.  As  they  have  not  been  used  to  any  extent  :!i 
warfare  their  effect  upon  the  living  human  body  is  y»t  '.< 
be  fully  determined ;  probably  if  striking  no  bone  the  bull.  - 
will  inflict  wounds  on  three  or  four  men  in  file,  but  W(>ui)<.« 
less  serious  than  those  from  the  heavier  lead  ball 

With  the  greater  number  of  the  modern  guns  and  |«»'^> 
ders  the  velocities  are  about  2,000  feet  per  second,  runnii;:; 
up  for  the  smaller  calibers,  as  tiie  new  guns  of  Italy,  Ilu  - 
land,  Roumania,  and  Norway,  to  about  2.300  feet  per  secon.i. 
This  gives  a  dangerous  space  in  front  of  the  muzzle  of  ftii;v 
600  yards,  a  maximum  even  exceeded  by  the  extremely  re- 
duced calibers  just  mentioned,  and  a  flatnessof  trajcvt-n 
at  all  ranges  compensating  for  errors  when  estimaiin^c  'i' 
distance  of  the  objective  that  would  produce  a  n)is>«i:. 
the  old  weapons. 

The  recoil  is  less  than  half  that  of  the  old  single-loa<U*r. 

The  sights  on  all  modern  military  arms  are  designetl  [r*.- 
marily  for  use  in  battle,  rather  than  on  the  tareet-raii;:' 
thev  are  strong  and  simple  in  construction,  with  an  ••}-  n 
leaf  that  allows  an  unobstructed  view  when  aiming,  h!  i 
generally  without  any  arrangement  giving  drift  or  win'l.jj- 
correction.  The  lowest  adjustment  is  300  meters  (or  yarn- . 
the  leaf  for  that  range  being  turned  down  on  the  li<>^-. 
Above  that,  on  the  leaf,  the  graduations  are  placed  only  f  r 
100-meter  (or  yards)  intervals,  and  with  many  of  the  ^\c\-'^ 
it  is  impossible  to  obtain  any  closer  adjustments  than  z\^^\\ 
by  these  limits,  the  slide  engaging  in  notches  that  <«-<{, r 
onlv  at  the  graduation-marks.  These  latter  generally  ti- 
tend  up  to  1,800  or  2,200  yards. 

For  the  familiar  triangular  bayonet  all  nations  ex<t)'t 
Russia  have  substituted  knives  with  blades  from  9  to  Iv! 
inches  long  and  about  an  inch  wide.  The  guards  arp  A^r 
and  usually  straight,  the  handles  of  wood  and  sttt^t.  w^ : 
about  4  inches  long.  The  weights  of  the  complete  bayn'  > 
are  from  8  to  15  oz. 

The  heat  produced  by  discharge  is  much  in  exce>s  of  it-.i* 
formerly  evolved ;  the  barrels  can  not  be  freely  banditti  nf'- ' 
ten  or  twenty  shots  have  been  quickly  delivered.  To  ».v.'- 
come  this  difficulty,  the  Gennans  have  enveloped  the  hhT' 
in  a  metallic  case,  and  the  Swiss  have  covered  it  with  »''»i 
until  it  appears  entirely  surrounded  by  the  foresKn-k.  l:' 
most  of  tne  other  countries  have  limited  the  wooden  hs:  'i- 
guard  to  the  sj)ace  back  of  the  rear  sight  or  else  extonWi:.,- 
it  only  as  far  forward  as  the  lower  band.  The  latter  pr- 
vision  is  probably  the  l>est,  affording  all  the  protect ii»n  re- 
quired When  firing  or  when  carrying  the  piece  afterwanl. 

The  breech-block  of  the  single-loader  has  been  n'|»la<  ti 
by  a  bolt  having  a  sliding  and  generally  also  a  turuiM:. 
movement.  When  closed  it  sustains  the  shock  of  dist^harc' ; 
moving  it  extracts  the  empty  cartridge-case  and  nn-ocks  ih- 
piece  for  firing.  In  all  countries  these  arms  are  also  ni«j-.. 
zine-guns,  that  for  the  U.  S.,  Fig.  8,  having  been  chie<ii  .i. 


Fio.  8.— U.  S.  magazine  rifle,  model  IflSS. 


the  autumn  of  1892.  This  arm  was  selecteil  onlyaft«rM 
examination  lasting  nearly  two  years,  careful  con^i(^T{♦•"'• 
being  given  not  only  to  the  rifles  use<l  by  the  tnn^ps  i)f  Aj.- 
tria,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Great  Britain!  France,  (Jenn.vt^. 
Japan,  Portugal,  Roumania,  Russia,  and  S\i#tzerlan«l.  J'" 
also  to  those  presented  by  the  leading  gun-inventors  of  !!•• 
U.  S.  and  Eurojn?.  The  rifle  finallv  chosen  was  the  invt*- 
tion  of  ('apt.  O.  Krag,  director  of  the  royal  8mall-arni>  f  "■ 
tory  at  Kongslwrg,  Norway,  and  E.  Jorgensen,  an  arnn'n  r 
then*  employed. 

The  accompanying  tabh*  gives  the  rifles  and  their  anir"-:- 
nition  for^iing  (18U5)  the  infantry  armament  of  var:  •.- 
countries. 


574 


SMALLWOOD 


SMELTING 


fl 


it  appear  in  the  form  of  an  epidemic.  The  treatment  of 
smallpox  is  principally  what  is  called  symptomatic,  that  is, 
addressed  to  the  individual  conditions' incident  to  the  dis- 
ease. Violent  medication  has  been  entii*ely  abandoned. 
The  patient  is  isolated,  given  digestible  food,  plenty  of 
water,  and  cool  and  antiseptic  applications  are  made  to  the 
skin.  Charles  W.  Dulles. 

Smallwood,  William:  soldier;  b.  in  Kent  co.,  Md., 
about  1732;  raisetl  a  battalion  of  Marylanders  1776,  which 
he  commanded  as  colonel,  and  half  of  which  perished  in 
the  battle  of  Long  Island  under  another  commander ;  was 
engaged  in  the  battle  of  White  Plains ;  was  appointe<l  brip;- 
adier-general  Oct.  23,  1776;  accompanied  Gen.  Sullivan  in 
the  Staten  Island  expedition  1777;  raised  a  new  battalion 
of  militiamen  from  the  Wcst-ern  Shore  of  Maryland,  and 
led  it  at  the  battle  of  Germantown ;  was  made  major-gen- 
eral Sept.  15, 1780;  was  with  Gat^s  in  his  Southern  cam- 
paign, out  left  after  the  defeat  at  Camden,  refusing  to  serve 
under  Steuben ;  was  member  of  Congress  1785,  and  Governor 
of  Maryland  1785-88.    D.  in  Maryland,  Feb.  14,  1792. 

Smalt:  See  Cobalt. 

Smart,  Benjabiin  Humphrey:  grammarian  and  meta- 
physician; b.  in  England  about  1785;  was  for  more  than 
fifty  years  from  1815  a  successful  teacher  of  elocution  in 
London;  was  a  voluminous  writer  upon  grammar,  logic, 
rhetoric,  and  metaphysics,  in  which  last  department  he 
claimed  to  "  assert,  correct,  and  carry  onward  the  philoso- 
jhv  of  Locke."  Among  his  works  were  A  Grammar  of  Eng- 
\is\  Pronunciation  (1810) ;  Rudimenta  of  English  Gram- 
mar Elucidated  (1811);  A  (xrammar  of  English  Sounds 
(1813);  Practienl  Logic  (1829);  Accidence  of  Grammar^ 
Principles  of  Grammar,  Manual  of  Rhetoric  and  Logic, 
The  Practice  of  Elocution^  and  tiistorico-Shakspearian 
Readings,  the  five  latter  being  issued  as  a  complete  series 
in  1858;  Outliihe^of  Sematology  (1831),  with  a  Sequel  (1837) 
and  an  Appendix  (1839),  the  three  works  being  issued  to- 
gether as  The  Beginnings  of  a  New  School  of  Metaphysics 
(1839) ;  Th4f  Wag  out  of  Metaphysics  (1844);  The  Metaphy- 
sicians, a  Memoir  of  Franz  Cancel,  Brushmaker,  and  of 
Harold  Fremdling,  Eso.  (1857);  Thought  aikd  Lafiguage 
(1855);  and  An  Introduction  to  Gramtnar  on  its  True 
Basis  (1858).  Smart  also  published  in  1836  a  Pronouncing 
Dictionary,  based  upon  that  of  John  Walker,  issued  an 
epitomized  edition  of  the  j^ame  in  1840,  and  an  Appendix  in 
1846  (revised  eclitions  1860),  which  figure  among  the  au- 
thorities upon  pronunciation  most  frequently  citetl  in  the 
later  editions  of  Webster's  and  Worcester's  dictionaries. 
D.  about  1872.  Revised  by  B.  I.  Wheeler. 

Smart,  Christopher  :  poet ;  b.  at  Shipbourne,  Kent,  Eng- 
land, Apr.  11,  1722;  educated  at  Pembroke  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  became  a  fellow  1745;  settled  in  London 
as  a  writer,  becoming  intimate  with  Pope,  Johnson,  and 
Garrick ;  was  noted  for  improvidence  and  a  convivial  dis- 
position, which  made  him  the  inmate  of  an  insane  asylum 
and  later  of  the  king's  bench  prison  for  debtors,  where  he 
died  May  18,  1770  or  1771.  He  translated  the  Works  of 
Horace  into  English  prose  (2  vols.,  1756).  and  into  verse 
(1767);  published  The  Uilliad,  an  Epic  Poem  (1753).  being  a 
satire  on  Sir  John  Hill,  noted  for  his  quarrels  with  Fielding 
and  with  the  Royal  Society,  and  The  Parables  of  Christ  done 
into  Verse  (1765);  but  his  most  remarkable  production  was 
the  Soyig  to  David,  written  in  a  madhouse,  punlished  in  1763, 
and  reprinted  in  full  in  Chambers's  Cyclopcedia  of  English 
Literature,  See  1^7/^  Christopher  ^mart,  in  Browning's 
Parley ings  with  Certain  People  of  Importance. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Smart,  Henry:  organist  and  composer;  b.  in  London, 
Oct.  26,  1813;  after  studying  law  tooK  up  music;  in  1831 
was  organist  of  the  parish  church  of  Blackburn,  and  there 
composed  his  first  important  work,  an  anthem.  In  18JiC 
went  to  London,  where  he  remained,  playing,  teaching,  and 
composing.  His  works  include  an  opera.  Bertha  (1855); 
cantatas.  The  Bride  of  iJunkernm,  Birmini^liam  festival, 
1864;  King  Renfs  Daughter  (IHll),  The  Fisher  Mnidenn, 
both  for  female  voices;  and  an  oratorio,  Jacob,  (ilnsgow  fes- 
tival, 1873.     I).  July  6,  1879.  D.  E.  Hervev. 

Smeaton,  John:  civil  enjjiniMM*;  b.  at  Ansthorp,  near 
Leeds,  England,  May  28,  1724;  invented  in  1751  an  instru- 
ment for  measuring  a  ship's  progress ;  ma4lo  several  valu- 
able inventions  in  hydraulic  niacliinery.  for  which  he  re- 
ceived the  (\)j)ley  medal  (1751));  was  noted  as  the  builder  of 
the  Eddystone  lighthouse  (175(>-51)),  an  account  of  tlie  con- 


struction of  which  he  published  (1791);  constnicted  Ram-;- 
gate  harbor  (1749-74).  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  tU 
Greenwich  and  I)e[itford  water- works,  and  many  other  im- 
portant improvements.    I),  at  Austhorp,  Oct.  28,'  1792. 

Smectym'nuus :  a  name  compounded  of  the  initiaU  <>: 
the  authors  of  a  celebrated  tract  entitled  An  Answer  [H\\  . 
written  in  reply  to  Bishop  Halls  Episcopacy  by  Jttr.,.. 
Right  Asserted  (1641).  The  names  of  its  five  wriltr-  nrr- 
Stephen  Marshall,  Edmund  Calamy,  Thomas  Young,  Mattht-n 
Neweomen,  and  William  Spurstowe. 

Smell,  Organ  of:  See  Histology  (Organs  of  Speaai 
Sense). 

Smelt  [in  allusion  to  the  cucumber-like  odor  of  the  t}7>- 
ical  species] :  a  small  salmoniform  fish  belonging  to  t!^ 
genus  Osmerus^  or  a  related  genus,  of  the  family  Arg*'>tU- 
nidcp,  and  esteemed  as  food.  These  fishes  have  tlie  t<'eih  ..f 
the  lower  jaw  stronger  than  those  of  the  upper,  and  fauL'-iikt 
ones  on  the  vomer  and  front  of  the  tongue,  and  normal  it 
inhabit  salt  water.  Osniervs  eperlanus  is  the  FiunjfJt-aii 
species;  0.  mordax,  the  eastern  North  American,  known 
also  as  frost-fish;  0.  thaleichthys^  the  California  smt-it. 
Hypomesus  pretiosus  is  the  surf-smelt  of  California  ami 
northward.  The  silver-sides  {Atherinid{p),  structural! v  vtn 
unlike  the  Argentinidw,  are  also  loosely  called  smelt*,  a^ 
the  QdXiioTnm  Atherinopsis  calif orttiensis.  Anumg  otli»' 
fishes  locallv  and  improperly  known  by  the  name  aiv  tin- 
cyprinoid  itybognathus  reglus,  the  spawn-eater,  and  itu- 
Pacific  tomcod. 

Smeltingr  [from  M.  Dutch  smelfen  :  0.  H.  Genn.  snu-h^H 
(>  Mod.  Genn.  schmeUen),  melt ;  cf.  Gr.  ficA,8ciy.  melt,  bui 
probably  not  akin  to  Eng.  melt] :  in  the  more  extende<l  um 
of  the  term  the  entire  process  of  reducing  metals  from  tht-ir 
ores  by  fusion ;  in  a  more  limited  sense  those  particular  nif t- 
allurgical  processes  in  which  an  ore  or  a  product  of  otln  r 
operations,  such  as  roasting,  treatment  with  acicU.  etc..  i^ 
finally  reduced  to  pure  metal  or  some  intermediate  produt  r 
The  fusions  are  conducted  in  shaft -furnaces,  revtTluTHt.n 
furnaces,  or  crucibles.  Metals  really  for  use  or  .*<ale  ina\  *» 
pro<luced  from  ores  by  a  single  smelting  operation,  as  ir-'i. : 
or  they  may  require  a  series  of  smeltings,  alternate<i  «iil) 
roastings,  as  copper  when  made  from  sulphuretted  on  v 
The  smelting  process  may  be  simply  reducing,  or  oxidizi:  i: 
and  reducing,  or  may  be  designed  to  volatilize  certain  U-i- 
ies,  to  oxidize  others!  and  to  reduce  still  others.  Chan'<>ji, 
coke,  and  anthracite  are  the  fuels  generally  used  in  >lniU- 
f  urnaces  and  for  heating  crucibles,  and  bituminous  coal  aii'i 
wooil  for  reverberatory  furnaces;  but  peat,  gas  obtain''*'. 
from  different  materials  in  special  generators  and  peculiarh 
constructed  fireplaces,  natural  gas,  petroleum,  and  wa>tr 
gases  from  furnaces  are  used. 

To  remove  earthy  matters  and  foreign  oxides,  and  to  fd- 
cilitate  the  collection  of  the  reduced  metals,  slags  are  pn»- 
duced,  and,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  effect  to  l«e  ob- 
tained and  the  substance  to  be  removed  by  scorifieation.  tli< 
charges  are  so  constituted  as  to  yield  more  or  lejss  aci«i  -r 
basic  slags  by  judicious  mixture  of  the  ores  treaUni  or  h) 
addition  of  various  fluxes.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  t4>  lii- 
erate  some  sulphur  to  combine  with  the  metals  and  ftinii  » 
matte  or  regnlus,  and  then  iron  pyrites  is  added.  The  u'«'i  - 
eral  products  of  smelting  arc  slag  and  metal,  or  slav:  8i«! 
matte,  or  sometimes  all  three  at  once.  The  slags  may  ha^* 
to  be  subjected  to  a  reducing  smelting  to  obtain  thenir'-ii 
ret-ained  in  them,  the  metal  to  an  oxidizing  and  scorifying 
smelting  to  purify  it,  and  the  matte  to  Bessemerizing.  to  nn 
oxidizing  smelting,  or,  after  roasting,  to  a  reducing  h>  li 
scorifying  smelting,  during  which  some  metals  an*  \vip:} 
removed  by  volatilization,  as  antimony,  arsenic,  and  zir.i  : 
others  by  oxidation  and  scorification,  as  inm,  zinc,  and  (in. 
while  the  desired  metal  is  obtained  in  a  nearly  puiv  M;ii»-  "f 
as  a  concentrated  matte. 

Shaft-furnaco,s  are  mainly  employed  for  reducing  fusi<»ii- 
with  coke,  charcoal,  and  anthracite,  although  by  a  pr-'iNr 
const  met  icm,  go(Kl  management  of  fluxes,  and  prepanit:  :■ 
of  the  ores,  et<'.,  a  partial  oxidizing  action  can  be  pr^Hiu.  fi 
The  fusion  is  almost  invariably  effected  by  the  aid  of  a  l-i:*-'. 
Reverberatory  furnaces,  with'  wockI,  coal,  natural  or  fr.»- 
ducer  gas,  or  petroleum,  are  generallv  used  for  oxidation  :  :i 
very  effective  reducing  tu'tion  can  also  be  obtainiHi  in  i!-'^'- 
by  excluding  the  air  ami  keeping  the  hearth  full  of  rtHlmi*  j 
giises.  In  crucibles  the  results  of  smelting  depend  entir*  ^ 
on  the  nature  of  the  charge,  oxidation  and  scorification  l*- 
ing  produced  by  certain  fluxes:  reduction  by  addin*;  if*"- 
bonaceous  matters;  scorification  alone  by  using  a  ^inn.•• 


\ 


576 


SMITH 


Philosophy  in  the  same  institution.  He  resolved  the  sci- 
N  ence  of  morals  into  four  parts,  and  accordingly  discussed  in 
his  lectures,  first,  natural  theology ;  second,  ethics ;  third, 
justice  with  reference  to  specific  rules  and  precepts ;  and 
fourth,  political  expediency  as  affecting  the  honor,  power, 
and  prosperity  of  the  state.  His  lectures  were  defivered 
extemporaneously,  and  were,  for  both  matter  and  style, 
very  popular,  it  is  first  published  work  was  the  Theory  of 
Moral  Sentiments,  issued  in  1759.  It  called  forth  a  high 
encomium  from  Hume,  and  brought  Smith  at  once  a  wide 
reputation.  Incidentally,  this  publication  led  to  his  being 
selected,  four  years  afterwaid,  to  accompany  the  young 
Duke  of  Buccleugh  on  his  travels.  He  carefully  improved 
the  opportunity  thus  presented  to  become  acquainted  with 
the  internal  policy  of  other  states,  and  to  confer  with  dis- 
tinguished economists  on  the  Continent,  He  returned  to 
England  in  1766,  and  for  ten  years  lived  with  his  mother  in 
partial  retirement  at  Kirkcaldy.  There  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  earnest  study  of  subjects  which  had  occupied  his  at- 
tention for  nearly  twenty  years.  The  result  was  given  to 
the  world  in  17f6  in  his  great  work  entitled  An  Inquiry 
into  the  Nature  and  Sources  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations. 
Many  principles  laid  down  in  that  work  were  no  doubt  de- 
rived from  tne  French  economists,  but  the  completeness  of 
their  compilation  and  the  clearness  with  which  they  are  set 
forth  in  this  treatise  fairly  entitle  Adam  Smith  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  father  of  modem  political  economy.  His 
book  will  continue  to  be,  as  it  has  been  hitherto,  a  standard 
of  reference.  Smith's  biographer  thus  defines  the  main 
feature  of  this  work :  "  Its  great  object  is  to  demonstrate 
that  the  most  effectual  plan  for  advancing  a  people  to  great- 
ness is  to  maintain  that  order  of  things  which  nature  ha^ 
pointed  out,  by  allowing  every  man,  as  long  as  he  observes 
the  rules  of  justice,  to  pursue  his  own  interest  in  his  own 
way,  and  to  oring  both  his  industry  and  his  capital  into  the 
freest  competition  with  those  of  his  fellow  citizens."  After 
residing  two  years  in  London,  he  was  appointed  a  commis- 
sioner of  customs  for  Scotland,  and  removed  to  Edinburgh, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  In  1787'  he  was 
elected  lord  rector  of  the  University  of  Glasgow.  D.  in  Edin- 
burgh, July  17. 1790.  After  his  decease  most  of  his  manu- 
scripts were  destroyed,  as  he  had  directed,  but  a  few  were 
published  in  1795  under  the  title  Essays  on  Philosophical 
Subjects,  Revised  by  J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Smith,  Alexander  :  poet ;  b.  at  Kilmarnock,  Scotland, 
Dec  31, 1830 ;  was  pattern-designer  for  a  lace-factory  at  Glas- 
gow ;  published  a  volume  of  poems,  A  Life  Drama  (1853), 
which  attracted  great  attention  ;  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  Universitv  of  Edinburgh  1854 ;  wrote  Sonnets  of  the  War, 
along  with  Sydney  Dobell  (1855) ;  City  Poems  (1857) ;  Ed- 
win of  Deira  (1861) ;  Dreamthorp  (1863) ;  and  the  prose 
works  A  Summer  in  Skye  (1865) ;  Alfred  HagarVs  Houses 
hold  (1866);  and  Miss  Oona  McQunrrie  (1866).  D.  at 
Wardie,  near  Edinburgh,  Jan.  5,  1867.  Smith  has  been 
classed  with  Bailey,  the  author  of  Festus,  and  others  of 
**  the  spasmodic  scnool "  satirized  in  Aytoun's  Firmilian. 
A  Memoir  by  P.  P.  Alexander  was  published  along  with  a 
posthumous  volume  of  miscellanies  entitled  Last  Leaves 
(1868).  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers, 

Smith,  Andrew  Jackson:  soldier;  b.  in  Bucks  co.,  Pa., 
Apr.  28, 1815 ;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy ; 
appointed  in  the  army  a  second  lieutenant  of  the  First 
Dragoons  July,  1838,  of  which  regiment  he  became  major  in 
Mav,  1861  (known  as  the  First  Cavalry  Aug.,  1861),  and  July, 
1866,  colonel  of  the  Seventh  Cavalry.  Prior  to  1861  fie 
served  almost  continually  with  his  regiment  on  the  frontier. 
In  Oct.,  1861,  he  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  Second 
California  Cavalry,  and  Mar.  17, 1862,  a  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers.  He  was  engaged  in  the  assault  of  Chickasaw 
Bluffs  (Dec.  27-29,  1862),  and  later  in  the  assault  and  cap- 
ture of  Arkansas  Post  (Jan.  11,  1863).  In  command  of  a 
division  of  the  Thirteenth  Army-corps,  he  took  part  in  the 
siege  and  assaults  of  Vicksburg  and  in  the  subsequent  capture 
of  Jackson,  Miss.  In  the  Red  river  campaign  he  commanded 
the  force  (composed  of  detachments  of  the  Sixteenth  and 
Seventeenth  corps)  which  captured  Port  De  Russy,  and  was 
engaged  in  the  battle  of  Pleasant  Hill.  Next  ordered  to 
Missouri,  he  aided  in  driving  Price  from  that  State,  then 
was  called  to  re-enforce  Gen.  Thomas  at  Nashville,  and  en- 
gaged in  the  battle  of  Nashville  and  pursuit  of  Hood's  army. 
Recalled  to  Gen.  Canby's  commana  in  Feb.,  1865,  he  com- 
manded the  Sixteenth  Cor f)S  in  the  reduction  and  capture  of 
Mobile,  Ala.     In  Jan.,  1866,  he  was  mustered  out  of  the  vol- 


unteer service,  and  in  May,  1869,  resigned  his  coram  issic»n 
in  the  regular  army.  The  brevets  of  colonel, brigadier-gin- 
eral  and  major-general  were  bestowed  on  him  for  gaUautry 
at  Pleasant  Hill,  La.,  Tupelo,  Miss.,  and  Nashville,  Teno. 
He  was  reappointed  colonel  of  cavalry  Jan.  22,  1889,  bv  act 
of  Congress  and  placed  on  the  retired  list  on  same  date. 

Smith,  Buckingham  :  bibliographer  and  historian ;  b.  on 
Cumberland  island,  Ga.,  Oct.  31,  1810;  graduated  at  the 
Cambridge  Law  School  1836;  was  elected  to  the  territ(»- 
rial  legislature  at  Florida;  was  secretarv  of  legation  at 
Mexico  1850-52,  and  at  Madrid  1855-58;  and  subsequently 
settled  in  Florida,  where  he  was  a  judge  and  a  member 
of  the  State  Senate.  He  made  sj^ecial  and  important  re- 
searches in  Mexican  history  and  antiquities,  Indian  phil(il(»t:v. 
and  the  early  Spanish  expeditions  in  North  America.  Be- 
sides aiding  Bancroft,  Sparks,  and  Parkman  in  their  rv- 
searches,  he  edited  translations  of  the  Narraiitv  of  Cabrzn 
de  Va^ca  (1861) ;  Letter  of  Hernando  de  Soto  and  Memoir  of 
Hernando  de  Escalante  Fontaneda  (1864) ;  and  translated, 
with  copious  notes.  Narratives  ofths  Career  of  Hernando 
de  Soto  in  the  Conquest  of  Florida  (1868).  In  1864  he  pub- 
lished An  Inquiry  into  the  Authenticity  of  Documents  eon- 
cemina  a  Discovery  of  Nbrth  America  claimed  to  hat^  hftn 
made  By  Verrazano.  D.  in  New  York,  Jan.  6,  1871.  A  por- 
tion of  his  library  was  secured  for  the  New  York  Histon<-ai 
Society.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Smith,  Charles  Emory,  LL.  D.  :  journalist ;  b.  at  Mans- 
field, Conn.,  Feb.  18, 1842;  graduated  at  Union  College  in 
1861 ;  became  editor  of  the  Albany  Express  in  1865,  of  77/^ 
Albany  Journal  in  1870,  and  of  the  Philadelphia  Prt.^  m 
1880.  He  was  president  of  the  New  York  State  Press  A^^»- 
ciation  in  1874,  a  delegate  to  the  national  Republican  conven- 
tions of  1876  and  1886,  and  U.  S.  minister  to  Russia  1890-1>:J. 

Smith,  Charles  Ferguson:  soldier;  b.  in  Philadelphia. 
Pa..  Apr.  24, 1807;  graduated  at  the  U.S.  Military  A cacle in v 
in  1825,  entering  the  army  as  a  lieutenant  of  artillery.  Fn»m 
1829  to  1842  he  served  at  the  Military  Academy  in  various  ca- 
pacities. In  the  Mexican  war,  as  captain  of  artillery,  he  servtni 
with  distinction,  and  received  the  brevets  of  major,  lieuten- 
ant-colonel, and  colonel.  Appointed  lieutenant-colonel  of 
the  Tenth  Infantry  in  1855,  he  commanded  the  Red  ri\>T 
expedition  in  1856,  engaged  in  the  Utah  expedition  in  Ik")?- 
61,  for  a  time  was  in  command  of  the  department  of  I'tah. 
and  was  in  command  of  the  city  and  department  of  Wah)*- 
ington  Apr.  10-28,  1861.  On  Aug.  31,  1861,  he  was  af- 
pointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  ordere<l  tr> 
Kentucky.  In  September  he  became  colonel  of  the  Third 
Infantry.  In  the  operations  about  Forts  Henry  and  Donel- 
son  he  acquired  a  high  reputation.  In  the  fight  for  the  p<«s- 
session  of  the  latter  stronghold  he  led  the  division  which  had 
held  the  left  of  the  investing  lines  of  the  Union  army,  and 
which  storqied  and  captured  all  the  high  ground  on  the 
Confederate  right,  which  commanded  Fort  Donelson.  Gen. 
Smith  was  then  selected  to  command  the  movement  up  xh- 
Tennessee,  and  on  Mar.  21  was  promoted  to  be  major-general 
of  volunteers.    D.  at  Savannah,  Tenn.,  Apr.  25, 1862. 

Smith,  Charles  Forster:  professor  of  Greek:  b.  in 
Abbeville  co.,  S.  C,  June  30.  1852;  educated  at  Woffoni 
College,  Harvard  and  Leipzig  Universities ;  Ph.  D.,  Leir^zi?, 
1881 ;  Professor  of  Greek  and  German,  Wofford  Colhjrt', 
1875-79 ;  Assistant  Professor  Ancient  Languages,  Will- 
iams College,  1881-82;  Professor  of  Modem  I^ntrunffes, 
Vanderbilt  University,  1882-83 ;  Professor  of  Greek,  Van- 
derbilt  University,  1883 ;  Professor  of  Greek,  Univer;*itv  of 
Wisconsin,  1894;  author  of  Thucydides :  Book  Ill.'aud 
Bonk  VI L  of  College  Series  of  Greek  Authors;  vice-pri'^i- 
dent  American  Dialect  Society  1891. 

Smith,  Sir  Donald  Alexander,  D.  C.  L.  :  member  of 
Canadian  Parliament;  b.  in  Morayshire,  Scotland,  in  1S21, 
and  e<lucated  there.  He  was  for  many  years  in  the  ser\'itv 
of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  and  is  resident  govenior  and 
chief  commissioner  of  that  corporation  in  Canada ;  is  pnsi- 
dent  of  the  liank  of  Montreal,  and  a  director  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Kxeou- 
tive  Council  for  the  Northwest  Territories  in  1870;  n'pn^- 
sented  Winnipeg  and  St.  John  in  the  Manitoba  Assenil^ly 
1871-74;  Selkirk  in  Dominion  Parliament  1871-78:  and 
Montreal  West  in  that  body  1887-95.  He  was  knighted  in 
1886  for  his  services  in  connection  with  the  construction  vi 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway.  Neil  Macdonalp. 

Smith,  Edmitxd  Kirby:  soldier;  b.  at  St.  Augustine, 
Fla.,  May  15,  1824;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Militar}-  XvsA- 


678 


SMITH 


1888;  7th  ed.  1894;  vol.  ii.,  1890;  3d  ed.  1894);  The  Preach- 
ing of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  Age  (London  and  New 
York,  1893) ;  The  Historic  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land 
(London  and  New  York,  1894) ;  with  Bartholomew,  tne  Scot- 
tish cartographer,  Historical  Atlas  of  the  Holy  Land  (1895) ; 
and  many  articles  for  reviews.  C.  K.  Hoyt. 

Smith,  Gerrit  :  philanthropist ;  b.  at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Mar. 
6, 1797;  son  of  Peter  Smith,  a  proprietor  of  vast  tracts  of 
land  in  Central  and  Northern  New  York;  graduated  at 
Hamilton  College  1818;  took  up  his  residence  atPeterboro, 
Madison  co.,  N.  Y.,  devoting  himself  to  the  management  of 
his  great  landed  estate ;  became  a  member  of  and  liberal 
contributor  to  the  Colonization  Societv  1825,  but  withdrew 
from  it  1835,  when  he  connected  himself  with  the  American 
Anti-Slavery  Society,  of  which  he  was  thenceforth  one  of 
the  leading  members;  was  elected  to  Congress  1852,  but 
resigned  after  a  single  session ;  was  a  liberal  contributor  to 
the  Free-soil  campaign  in  Kansas ;  gave  pecuniary  aid  to 
John  Brown  1859  when  preparing  the  attack  on  Harper*s 
Ferry,  though,  it  is  believed,  without  a  knowledge  of  that 
project ;  was  nominated  for  Governor  of  New  York  in  1840 
and  in  1858,  at  the  latter  time  on  a  platform  of  abolition 
and  prohibition ;  joined  Horace  Greeley  in  signing  the  bail- 
bond  of  Jefferson  Davis  1867 ;  wrote,  printed,  and  distributed 
many  pamphlets  on  slavery  and  other  reforms ,  built  a  non- 
sectarian  church  at  Peterboro,  in  which  he  sometimes 
preached.  D.  in  New  York,  Dec.  28,  1874.  Author  of 
Speeches  in  Congress  (1855) ;  Sermons  and  Speeches  (1861) ; 
The  Religion  of  Reason  (1864) ;  The  Theologies  (1866) ;  and 
Nature  the  Base  of  a  Free  Theology  (1867).  See  his  Biog- 
raphy,  by  Frothingham  (New  York,  1878). 

Smith,  GoLDWiN,  LL. D.,  D.C. L. :  author;  b.  at  Read- 
ing, England,  Aug.  13,  1823 ;  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Ox- 
ford, where  he  graduated  in  1845,  and  became  a  fellow  of 
University  College  in  1847 ;  called  to  the  bar  in  1847,  but 
never  practiced  law.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernment assistant  secretary  of  the  royal  commission  on  the 
state  of  Oxford  University;  was  secretary  of  the  second 
Oxford  commission;  a  member  of  the  pomilar  education 
commission  in  1858 ;  Regius  Professor  of  Modem  History 
in  Oxford  University  185i?-66,  and  Professor  of  English  anS 
Constitutional  History  in  Cornell  University  1868-71.  He 
ably  championed  the  cause  of  the  U.  S.  Government  during 
the  civil  war ;  visited  the  U.  S.  in  1864  to  deliver  a  series  of 
lectures,  and  was  given  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  by  Brown  Uni- 
versity, In  1871  he  removed  to  Toronto,  Canada ;  was  for 
a  time  a  member  of  the  senate  of  Toronto  University ;  edited 
The  Canadian  Monthly  1872-74,  and  subsequently  founded 
The  Week  and  TJis  Bystander^  the  latter  of  which  is  not 
now  published.  Since  his  removal  to  Canada  he  has  per- 
sistently advocated  the  annexation  of  that  country  to  the 
U.  S.  In  addition  to  numerous  magazine  articles  he  has 
published  the  following  among  other  works :  Lectures  on  the 
Study  of  History  (1861) ;  Irish  History  and  Irish  Charac- 
ter (1861) ;  r/ie  Empire  (1863) ;  Three  English  Statesmen 
(1867);  Coioper  (English  Men  of  Letters  Series,  1880);  A 
Trip  to  England  (1888) ;  Jarie  Austen  (Great  Writers'  Se- 
ries, 1890) ;  Canada  and  the  Canadian  Question  (1891) ;  The 
Moral  Crusader,  William  Lloyd  Garrison  (1892) ;  The  Unit- 
ed States :  an  Outline  of  Political  History,  U9^-1871  (1893) ; 
Bay  Leaves:  Translatiofis  from  the  Latin  Poets  (1893); 
and  Essays  on  Questions  of  the  Day  (1894).  N.  M. 

Smith,  Green  Clay  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Richmond,  Ky.,  July 
2,  1830 ;  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Mexican  war,  gaining 
the  rank  of  lieutenant  of  cavalry;  graduated  at  Transyl- 
vania University  1850,  and  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  Law  School ; 
became  a  lawyer  at  Covington;  was  a  member  of  the  Ken- 
tucky Legislature  1861,  and  a  decided  Union  man ;  became 
colonel  of  the  Fourth  Kentucky  (Union)  Cavalry  Mar.,  1862, 
and  brigadier-general  of  volunteere  June,  1862;  resigned 
Dec.  1,  1863 ;  was  a  member  of  Congress  1863-66 ;  a  dele- 
gate to  the  Baltimore  convention  1864 ;  Governor  of  Montana 
Territory  186^-68 ;  entered  the  Baptist  ministry,  being  or- 
dained in  1869.  In  1876  he  was  the  candidate  of  the  Pro- 
hibitionists for  the  presidency. 

Smith,  GusTAvus  Woodson  :  soldier ;  b.  in  Scott  co.,  Ky., 
Jan.  1,  1822 ;  graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy 
July  1, 1842;  appointed  to  the  Engineer  Corps,  and  for  two 
years  engaged  m  the  construction  of  fortifications  of  New 
London  harbor ;  Assistant  Professor  of  Engineering  at  West 
Point  1844-46 ;  commanded  the  sappers,  miners,  and  pon- 
toniers  during  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz  and  during  the  sub- 
sequent operations  of  the  war  with  Mexico,  receiving  the 


brevets  of  first  lieutenant  and  captain  for  gallantry  at  CVrrr. 
Gordo  and  Contreras.  He  was  principal  Assistant  Pnifr-^^c 
of  Engineering  at  West  Point  1849-54,  when  he  resigne<i  f  n .:. 
the  army.  He  was  subsequently  employed  in  the  eon^lpi-  - 
tion  of  various  Government  buildings  and  in  the  Iron-worK^ 
of  Cooper  &  Hewitt  at  Trenton,  N.  J.  In  1858  be  U* mi. 
street  commissioner  of  New  York  city;  early  in  1861  h*-  •  r.- 
tered  the  Confederate  army,  and  in  August  was  appointtii  a 
major-general.  On  May  31,  1862,  Gen.  Johnston  li»v}:..' 
been  severely  wounded  that  day  at  Fair  Oaks,  Gen.  .<niit  n 
succeeded  to  the  temporary  command  of  the  Army  .' 
Northern  Virginia,  and  subsequently  commande<l  at  Pt'ur^- 
burg,  Va.  In  1864-65  he  was  commander  of  the  State  for".  ♦. 
of  Georgia,  and  was  captured  at  Macon,  Ga,,  Apr.  20.  1  >''••"». 
From  1866  to  1870  he  was  in  charge  of  the  Soulhwe>t  In  i. 
Company's  works  at  Chattanooga,  Tenn,,  and  from  lw7»)  i- 
1876  was  insurance  commissioner  of  Kentucky.  He  i>  tl.^' 
author  of  many  works  on  life-insurance.  Confederate  war- 
papers,  and  criticisms  on  Confederate  battles  and  leador-^. 

Smith,  Hannah:  author;  b.  at  Wellington,  Sbn>{K>hir>' 
England.  Under  the  pseudonym  of  Hesba  Stretton  she  \u\^ 
been  a  prolific  author  of  novels  and  stories,  including  .A- 
sica's  First  Prayer  (1866);  2"he  Clives  of  Burcot  (l.**«7i: 
PauVs  Courtship  (1867);  Hester  Marley's  Promise  {\>*>  , 
and  Bedels  Charity  (1882).  H.  A.  B. 

Smith,  Henry  Bovnton,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. :  theologian  :  l».  a* 
Portland,  Me.,  Nov.  21,  1815 ;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  i  •  - 
lege  1834 ;  was  a  tutor  there  1836-37,  and  again  1840-^1.  i-- 
tween  which  periods  he  studied  theology  at  Andover.  1'*.'.- 
gor,  Halle,  and  Berlin;  was  pastor  of  the  Congregati.Mui. 
church  at  West  Amesbury,  Mass.,  1842-47;  ProfesM>r  f 
Mental  and  Moral  Philosophv  at  Amherst  College  lS47->'>«t; 
was  Professor  of  Church  llistory  in  Union  Theolo^'i' . . 
Seminary,  New  York,  1850-54,  and  of  Systematic  Tht** ►!...'. 
1854-74;  after  that  professor  emeritus;  was  moderator  ' 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  (New  School)  Prosbyit^ria- 
Church  1863-64;  delivered  at  the  meeting  of  that  KkIx  jt 
Dayton,  O.,  an  address  on  Christian  Union  and  Ecrir.^ft^- 
tical  Reuniofh,  which  was  directed  toward  that  union  wii^. 
the  "Old  School*'  Church  which  was  afterward  cnnsu-n- 
mated,  and  for  which  he  prepared  an  essay  on  the  doi-tnr:.-.. 
basis.  The  Reunion  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches  (iNjTi: 
was  appointed  delegate  in  1867  to  the  meeting  of  the  E\a!.- 
gelical  Alliance  in  Amstei-dam,  for  which  he  prejMirtHl  a  ^> 
port  On  the  State  of  Religion  in  the  United  States :  wrt>  '! » 
founder  and  editor  of  The  Americ<tn  TTieological  Rr*>f 
(1859-71),  consolidated  with  The  Presbyterian  Rfvittr  in 
1862,  and  united  with  The  Princeton  Review  in  1872:  a'<i"l 
Prof.  R.  D.  Hitchcock  in  the  Life,  Character^  and  Writn*  .* 
of  Edward  Rohijison  (1864).  He  published  in  1859  a  }h^~ 
tory  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  in  Chronological  TcMes  (foli-  : 
was  translator  in  part,  and  editor,  of  Gieseler's  Church  IJ'  -- 
tory  (4  vols.,  1859-63;  vol.  v.  published  posthumously  i!. 
1880);  editor  of  revised  translations  of  Hagenbaeh*s //<V  rv 
of  Christian  Doctrine  with  large  additions  (2  voU.,  If^l- 
62),  and  Stier's  Words  of  the  Lord  Jes\is  (1864-65).  D.  m 
New  York,  Feb.  7, 1877.  In  that  same  year  his  friend  I'r. 
Prentiss  edited  a  collection  of  his  discourses  and  esjNHys*  tii- 
titled  Faith  and  Philosophy,  In  1881  his  Memoih  ai- 
peared,  edited  by  his  wife,  and  a  briefer  biography,  by  l'.-" 
pupil  Prof.  Lewis  French  Steams,  appeared  in  Boston,  iJSt'i. 
Another  pupil,  Prof.  William  S.  Ivarr,  of  Hartford,  etli't^i 
his  Apologetics  (1882),  his  Introduction  to  Christian  Thf 
ology{lSS3),  and  his  System  of  Christian  Theology  (1884), 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacks4in. 

Smith,  Sir  Henry  George  Wakelyn,  usually  known  a? 
Sir  Harry  Smith  :  soldier :  b.  at  Whittlesea,  Cambridgeshirv. 
England,  in  1788;  entered  the  army  as  second  lieutenant  ic 
the  rifle-brigade  in  1805 ;  served  as  assistant  quartennastor* 
^neral  in  the  campaign  of  Waterloo ;  commanded  a  division 
in  the  Kaffir  war  1834-35 ;  was  appointed  adjutant-gvnt  f^l 
to  the  forces  in  India  1839 ;  was  aistin^ishect  at  the  iiattl'-^ 
of  Gwalior  and  Maharajpur,  being  knighted  for  the  lattT 
service  1844;  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  war  against  tU 
Sikhs  in  the  Punjaub;  was  sent  to  the  relief  of  Lndhinn.i. 
and  took  Aliwal  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  Jan.  28,  1M*5, 
capturing  sixty-seven  guns;  re-enforced  Lord  Gough  in  liinf 
to  enable  him  to  win  the  decisive  battle  of  Sobraon,  Foh.  I^'. 
1846 ;  received  the  thanks  of  Parliament  on  the  proposal « f 
the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  was  made  a  baronet :  beinTi' 
governor  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  1847;  conductetl  ihc 
Kaffir  war  of  1851-52,  and  was  made  lieutenant-general  Ib^ 
D.  in  London,  Oct.  12,  1860. 


580 


SMITH 


Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Virginia:  re- 
moved to  Louisville,  Ky. ;  became  a  professor  in  the  Medical 
University  of  that  city ;  was  U.  S.  commissioner  to  the  Uni- 
versal Exposition  of  Paris  (1867),  Vienna  (187^,  and  Phila- 
delphia (1876) ;  was  in  1872  president  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science ;  was  a  member  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Science  and  of  numerous  associ- 
ations ;  received  from  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  the  cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor ;  was  author  of  a  report,  to  the  U.  S. 
Government  on  The  Proaress  and  Condition  of  Sei*eral  De- 
partmenfs  of  Industrial  Chemistry  (1867),  as  seen  at  the 
Paris  Exposition,  and  Mineralogy  and  Chemistry  (Louis- 
ville. 1873).    D.  in  Ijouisville,  Ky.,  Oct.  12,  1883. 

Smith,  John  Pye  :  clergyman  and  author ;  b.  at  Sheffield, 
England,  May  25, 1774 ;  studied  at  the  Independent  Academy 
at  Rotherham ;  became  a  Dissenting  (Independent)  minister, 
and  in  1800  resident  classical  tutor  in  the  theological 
academy  at  Homerton ;  exchanged  that  post  in  1813  for  the 
divinity  tutorship,  which  he  filled  until  1843;  was  again 
classical  tutor,  and  also  principal,  from  the  latter  date  until 
1850.  For  forty-three  years  he  was  pastor  of  the  Gravel 
Pits  Chapel,  Homerton ;  took  great  interest  in  science,  and 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  D.  at  Guildford, 
Surrey,  Feb.  5, 1851.  He  was  the  author  of  The  Scripture 
Testimony  to  the  Messiah  (2  vols.,  1818-21);  The  Mosaic 
Account  of  the  Creation  and  Deluge  illtistrated  by  the  Dis- 
coveries of  Modem  Science  (1837) ;  Scripture  and  Geology 
(1839) ;  and  other  works.  See  Memoirs  of  the  Life  cmd 
Writings  of  John  Pye  Smith,  by  J.  Medway,  1853. 

Smith,  John  William  :  legal  writer ;  b.  in  London,  Eng- 
land, Jan.  2,  1809;  etlucated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin; 
began  practice  as  a  special  pleader  1831,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  May  8, 1834 ;  was  made  a  re- 
vising barrister  in  1840.  He  was  gifted  with  a  remarkable 
memory,  and  powers  of  nice  discrimination  and  lucid  expo- 
sition. D.  in  London,  Dec.  17, 1845.  Besides  a  Compendium 
of  Mercantile  Law  (1834)  and  A  Selection  of  Leading  Cases 
in  Various  Branches  of  the  Law  (2  vols.,  1837-40 ;  9th  ed. 
1889),  which  are  of  the  highest  authority,  he  wrote  An  Ele- 
mentary View  of  the  Proceedings  in  an  Action  at  Lata,  Law 
of  Laiidlord  and  Te7iani,  and  other  less  important  works. 
See  Memoirs  in  Blackwood's  Magazine  (Feb.,  1847),  Law 
Magazine  (Feb.,  1846),  and  Albany  Law  Journal  (Dec,  1872). 
•  F.  Sturqes  Allen. 

Smith,  Joseph,  Jr.:  Mormon  prophet;  b.  at  Sharon,  Vt., 
Dec.  23, 1805 ;  removed  while  a  chud,  with  his  parents,  to 
Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  where  he  grew  up  almost  without  education, 
leading  an  idle  and  rather  disreputable  life.  According  to  his 
own  account,  he  began  to  have  visions  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
and  on  Sept.  21,  1823,  the  angel  Moroni  appeared  to  him, 
announcing  that  God  had  a  work  for  him  to  perform,  and 
that  buried  in  the  earth  in  a  certain  spot  a  few  miles  dis- 
tant was  a  record  inscribed  u()on  gold  plates,  giving  an  ac- 
count of  the  early  inhabitants  of  America  and  of  their  fate ; 
and  with  this  record  would  be  found  a  kind  of  spectacles 
through  which  alone  the  writing  could  be  read.  Four  years 
after,  the  angel  placed  the  plates  in  his  hands,  together  with 
the  spectacles.  Smith  described  the  plates  as  being  about 
8  inches  long,  7  wide,  and  connected  by  rings  so  as  to  form 
a  volume  about  6  inches  thick.  The  plates  were  inscribed 
on  both  sides  with  hieroglyphic  characters  in  a  language  no 
longer  extant,  but  which  he  was  able  to  decipher  and  under- 
stand by  the  use  of  the  miraculous  spectacles,  which  he 
called  tfie  Urim  and  Thummim.  Smith  professed  to  have 
dictated  in  English  the  contents  of  these  plates  to  Oliver 
Cowdery,  who  acted  as  his  amanuensis,  the  plates  themselves 
mysteriously  disappearing  as  they  were  successively  tran- 
scribed. The  manuscript  thus  prepared  was  printed  at 
Palmyra  in  18:^0  under  the  title.  The  Book  of  Mormon,  an 
Acc-ount  written  by  the  Hand  of  Morani  u/m)?i  Plates  taken 
from  fh e  Plates  of  Neph i.  By  Joseph  Sm ith .  »/r..  A uthor  and 
Proprietory  and  to  it  was  prefixed  a  certificate  signed  by 
Cowderv  and  two  others  to  the  effect  that  they  had  seen  and 
handleci  the  plates.  Subsequently,  all  three  of  the  witnesses 
fell  out  with  Smith,  and  declared  the  whole  matter  to  be  a 
hoax.  Smith  was  soon  joined  by  Sidney  Rigdon,  a  printer 
by  trade,  who  had  also  aspired  to  found  a  new  religion, 
and  the  two  gained  a  small  body  of  followers,  and  in  1831 
went  to  Kirtland,  O.,  where  they  built  a  teraole  and  set  up 
a  fraudulent  bank.  They  were  driven  away  uy  the  citizt'ns 
in  1838.  Smith  had  in  the  meantime  fixed  iipon  a  place 
in  Missouri  as  the  site  of  his  New  Jenisalem,  and  here  his 
adherents  had  begun  to  gather ;  but  becoming  obnoxious  to 


the  surrounding  inhabitants,  they  abandoned  their  sett!-- 
ment,  and  took  refuge  in  Hanetick  ca.  111.,  where  in  1>*4" 
they  established  themselves  in  a  fine  location  at  the  bt* nd  •  f 
the  Mississippi,  calling  their  new  home  Xauvoo;  the  low !: 
increased  so  rapidly  that  in  six  years  the  population  mvw- 
bered  15,000.  Ilere  Smith  soon  began  to  put  forth,  a>  <  •  - 
casion  demanded,  a  succession  of  new  revelations,  aiui't.j 
others  one  establishing  polygamy  as  an  essential  feature  -f 
the  Church  of  the  Latter-Day '  Saints,  and  combinirji;  u, 
his  own  person  all  civil,  military,  municipal,  and  saoeni'  \.u 
authority.  A  newspaper  was  set  up  to  oppose  him:  iH' 
presses  were  destroyed  by  Smith  and  his  adherents  May  ♦*, 
1844;  warrants  were  issued  for  his  arrest  and  that  of  hi^ 
brother  Hyrum  and  some  others;  they  refused  to  oljev  \h^ 
writs;  the  State  militia  were  called' out :  the  Mornmi.x 
armed  themselves,  and  a  conflict  was  imminent.  The  (r-v- 
ernor  of  Illinois  at  length  induced  the  Smiths  to  surren«l»  »■ 
and  submit  to  trial,  guarantying  their  personal  safety  in  tr.** 
interval.  They  were  committed  to  jail  at  Carthage,  tn- 
county-town,  and  a  euard  was  placed  for  their  protect iitn. 
On  the  evening  of  May  27  a  mob  assembled,  disi»erse<l  th^* 
^uard,  and  began  firing  into  the  door  and  window  of  tl " 
jail.  Hyrum  Smith  was  shot  dead;  Joseph  retume<i  th- 
fire  with  a  revolver  until  his  charges  were  exhauste<l,  wl.t-n 
he  endeavored  to  make  his  escape  by  the  window,  but  wu*? 
shot  in  the  attempt,  and  fell  dead  to  the  ground.  See  ^1<>k. 
MONs.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Smith,  Joshua  Toulmin:  author;  b.  in  Birmingham. 
England,  May  29,  1816;  educated  in  the  public  sch<H.i-"f 
Birmingham;  devoted  himself  to  the  Scandinavian  Uu- 
guages  and  literature,  in  which  he  became  proficient :  re- 
sided in  the  U.  S.  1837-42;  published  at  Boston  his  Sortn. 
men  in  New  England,  or  America  in  the  Tenth  Centnr\ 
(1839),  which  was  chiefly  a  translation  from  the  Aniiguitn'ri 
Americance  (1887);  devoted  himself,  on  his  return  to  Ki  l'- 
land,  to  the  study  of  constitutional  and  Old  Saxon  law:  w.i.» 
called  to  the  bar  1849;  wrote  several  able  legal  treat  i>e<.  t^]-  - 
cially  The  Parish,  its  Obliaations  and  POtcers,  Us  O^rr'^ 
and  their  Duties  {ISrA) ;  illustrated  in  several  publieaiinri? 
the  antiquities  of  Birmingham,  and  undertook  the  pre{>ant- 
tion  for  the  Early  English  Text  Society  of  a  Uistory  uj 
English  Guilds,  a  work  of  immense  labor,  which,  as  wel.  a^ 
a  proj'ected  History  of  Birmingham,  was  left  incomplete  .ii 
the  time  of  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Lancing.  Su»-m  x. 
Apr.  28, 1869.  The  History  of  English  Guilds,  edited  i-y 
his  daughter,  Lucy  Toulmin  Smith,  appeared  in  1870. 

Smith,  JuDSON,  D.  D. :  clergyman ;  b.  at  Middlefield.  Ma-**., 
June  28, 1887,  graduated  at  Amherst  College  1859.  and  ^r 
the  Oberlin  Theological  Seminary  1863.  He  was  Profi-s>^  r 
of  Latin  in  Oberlin  College  1866-70,  and  of  Eoclesiia'^T  „  a! 
History  in  Oberlin  Theological  Seminair  1875-84.  In  I'^M 
he  was'made  a  secretary  of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  Boston,  Mii>^. 
He  is  the  author  of  two  volumes  of  historical  lectures  ifri- 
vately  printed)  and  of  various  articles  in  reviews  and  oi.M^r 
journals,  and  since  1882  has  been  one  of  the  editors  of  xuv 
Bibliothecn  Sacra,  G.  P.  FI^HEB. 

Smith,  Ml'nroe,  J.  U.  D. :  professor  of  Roman  law :  !■. 
in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  8,  1854;  A.  B.,  Amherst,  1S74: 
LL.  B.,  Columbia,  1877 ;  studied  at  Berlin,  Leipzig,  a'  i 
Gottingen  Universities  1877-80  (J.  U.  D.,  Gottingen);  !.■  - 
turer  on  Roman  Law,  Columbia  Collepje,  1880-91 ;  Prof«--  r 
of  Roman  Law  and  Comparative  Jurisprudence  since  l>i*l ; 
instructor  in  history  1880-83 ;  Adiunct  Professor  of  Hist«  -^ 
1883-91;  contributor  to  Johnsons  Universal  Cyrlop'rh  , 
The  Nation,  etc.,  and  managing  editor  Political  N/'f.v 
Quarterly  188^93.  C.  H.  Thurblr. 

Smith,  Nathan  Ryno,  M.  D.,  LL.  D. :  surgeon ;  K  a* 
Cornish,  N.  H.,  Mav  21,  1797;  graduate<i  at  Yale  (\.!1.  i.v 
1817;  took  the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  New  Haven  1823:  >*u- 
Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery  in  the  University  of  Vt-y- 
mont  in  1825;  on  the  organization  of  the  Jefferson'Me<ii.x! 
College  in  Philadelphia,  became  the  Professor  of  Anatou  \. 
but. in  1827  accepted  the  chair  of  Surgery  in  the  Univer^.y 
of  Maryland;  in  1838  became  Professor  of  Practical  Mt«l'- 
cine  in  the  Transylvania  University,  Lexington,  Ky. :  in  1^" 
returned  to  the  L  niversity  of  Maryland ;  invented  a  null  -  i 
of  lithotomy,  an  excellentsusi^nsory  apparatus  for  fractnr.  i 
inferior  extremities,  and  wrote  Surgical  Anatomy  of  .'" 
Arteries  (1832)  and  other  medical  works,  D.  in  Baltiint  n. 
Md.,  July  3,  1877.  Revised  by  S.  T.  Aemstrono. 

Smith,  Richard  Somers:  soldier  and  wlucator:  K  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  30,  1813 ;  graduated  at  the  T.  S. 


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582 


SMITH 


humorist  by  his  Letters  of  Major  Jack  Downing  (1833) ; 
lost  his  property  1839 ;  settled  iu  New  York  1842 ;  devoted 
himself  successfully  to  literature,  as  did  also  his  wife  (see 
Smith,  Elizabeth  Oakes):  published  Dewdrops  of  the  j\'t>w- 
ieenth  Century  (1846) ;  My  Thirty  Years  out  of  the  Senate 
(1859);  Powhatan,  a  Metrical  Romance  (1841);  New  Ele- 
ments of  Oeometru  (1850) ;  and  Way  Down  East,  or  Portrait- 
ures of  Yankee  Life  (1855);  besides  a  vast  number  of  un- 
collected verse  and  prose  essays  which  appeare<l  iu  various 
periodicals.    D.  at  Patchogue,  L.  I.,  July  29, 1868. 

Kevised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Smith,  Sydney  :  clergyman  and  author ;  b.  at  Woodford, 
Essex,  England,  June  3.  1771;  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
where  in  1792  he  became  a  fellow  of  New  College ;  resided  a 
few  months  in  Normandy,  where  he  mastered  the  French  lan- 

fuage,  and  in  1794  became  curate  of  a  lonely  parish  on  Salis- 
ury  Plain.  In  1796  he  went  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  re- 
mained five  years,  officiating  in  an  Episcopal  chapel ;  became 
intimate  with  Brougham,  Jeffrey,  and  other  brilliant  young 
men,  who  in  1802  started  The  Edinburgh  Review,  Smith  act- 
ing as  original  editor  and  contributing  seven  articles  to  the 
first  number.  Soon  after  this  he  went  to  London,  where  he 
became  a  popular  preacher,  and  in  1804-06  delivered  courses 
of  lectures  on  moral  philosophy,  contributing  also  to  The 
Edinburgh  Review  until  1827.  In  1806  he  was  presented 
with  the  living  of  Foston-le-Clay,  in  Yorkshire,  worth  £500 
a  year,  but  situated  in  a  desolate  re^on.  In  1809  he  went 
to  Heslington,  near  York,  leaving  Foston  in  charge  of  a 
curate,  hoping  to  exchange  it  for  a  more  desirable  benefice. 
Not  succeeding  in  this,  he  returned  in  1814,  built  a  comfort- 
able rectory,  in  which  he  lived  until  1828,  when  the  chan- 
cellor. Lord  Lyndhurst,  appointed  him  canon  of  Bristol, 
and  gave  him  the  rectory  of  Combe-Florey.  In  1831  he  was 
made  resident  canon  of  St.  PauFs,  upon  which  he  took  up 
his  abode  in  London,  where  he  passea  the  remainder  of  his 
life  in  the  discharge  of  his  official  duties,  in  literary  labor, 
and  in  the  pleasures  of  society,  in  which  he  was  a  great  fa- 
vorite for  his  wit  and  rare  conversational  powers.  D.  in 
London,  Feb.  22, 1845.  Among  his  most  characteristic  pro- 
ductions are  his  Letters  on  the  Subject  of  the  Catholics,  to 
my  brother  Abraham,  who  lives  in  the  Country,  by  Peter 
Piymlev  (1807-08;  published  anonymously),  which  had  a 
large  share  in  bringing  about  Ronian  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion. He  published  several  volumes  of  sermons,  many  occa- 
sional discourses,  and  political  and  social  essays.  His  early 
lectures  on  moral  philosophy  were  edited  by  Francis  Jeffrey, 
and  published  under  the  title  Elementary  Sketches  of  Moral 
Philosophy  (1849).  Several  volumes  of  selections  from  his 
various  works  have  appeared,  the  best  of  which  is  Wit  and 
.  Wisdom  of  Rev.  Sydney  Smith,  accompanied  by  a  biograph- 
ical sketch  and  notes,  by  Evert  A.  Duvckinck  (1856).  His 
memoirs  have  been  written  by  his  daugliter,  the  wife  of  Sir 
Henry  Holland  (1855).  Also  see  Life  and  Times  of  Sydney 
Smith  (London,  1884),  by  Stuart  J.  Reid. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Smith,  William  :  geologist ;  b.  at  Churchill,  Oxford- 
shire, England,  Mar.  23,  1769  ;  in  the  practice  of  his  profes- 
sion as  mineral  surveyor  was  led  to  notice  and  make  maps 
of  the  succession  of  geological  stratA  ;  he  published  a  Tabu- 
lar Yiew  of  the  Order  of  the  Strata,  and  their  Imbedded  Or- 
ganic Reynains,  in  the  Neighborhood  of  Bath  (1799) ;  Min- 
eral Survey,  or  Delineations  of  the  Strata  of  England  and 
Wales  (1815,  with  sixteen  colored  maps) ;  Strata  identified 
by  Organized  Fossils  (1816-19) ;  Stratigraphical  System  of 
Organized  Fossils  (1817) ;  issued  between  1819  and  1824  no 
less  than  twenty-one  colored  geological  maps  of  English 
counties  ;  delivered  lectures  in  most  of  the  provincial  towns 
of  England  ;  sui>erintended  the  model  farm  of  Sir  John  V. 
B.Johnstone  at  Ilackness,  Yorkshire,  1828-34:  received  from 
the  Geological  Society  of  London  the  first  Wollaston  medal 
for  his  important  discoveries,  and  in  his  later  years  received 
a  pension  of  £100  a  year.  He  discovered  and  was  first  to 
apply  the  principle  of  the  classification  and  correlation  of 
formations  by  means  of  their  contained  fossils,  and  has  hence 
been  called  **'the  father  of  English  geology."  D.  at  North- 
ampton, Aug.  28, 1839.  Revised  by  *G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Smith,  Sir  William  :  editor  and  author ;  b.  in  London, 
England,  May  20,  1813  ;  graduated  in  London  University  ; 
studied  law  at  (jray's  Inn,  but  never  practiced ;  was  for 
some  years  Professor  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  German  in  the 
Independent  colleges  of  Highbury  and  Homerton,  and  on 
their  consolidation  as  New  College,  St.  John's  Wood,  ac- 
cepted the  professorship  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Languages 


and  Literature;  became  classical  examiner  in  theUnivcr^itt 
of  London  1858,  and  editor  of  The  Quarterly  Revirw  isfiT*; 
knighted  in  1892.  He  is  widely  known  bv  his  exieiiu.i 
series  of  classical  dictionaries,  having  published  XYu^/s^  uy^u 
Ortek  and  Romart  Antiquities  (1840 ;  2d  ed.,  enlarged  ami 
revised,  2  voIj^.,  1S91),  Biography  and  Mythology  (lW9i.  aii.: 
Geoaraphy  (1852-57),  as  well  as  by  his  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible  (1860-63)  and  Dictionary  of  Christian  Anti(fu»tit*. 
He  prepared  numerous  classical  schoolbooks,  an  A  ngh  <fi- 
Lattn  Dictionary/  (1870),  a  Biblical  and  Clctasical  \\tln* 
(1875),  and  a  series  of  Students'  Manuals  of  ancient  and 
modern  history,  etc.  He  was  knighted  in  1892.  1>.  <>ct.  T, 
1893.  Revised  by  A.  Gudeiia.h. 

Smith,  William  Andrew,  D.  D.  :  preacher  and  educator; 
b.  at  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  Nov.  29, 1802 ;  became  a  prvaiher 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South ;  in  1846  iK^-Auiif 
president  of  Randolph-Macon  College;  in  1866  r*»signt-«K 
and  after  serving  as  pastor  two  years  became  president  <>f 
Central  College ;  was  a  leading  member  of  every  Gentnl 
Conference  from  1832  to  1866 ;  was  appointed  at  the  General 
Conference  of  1866  one  of  the  commissioners  on  the  part  of 
the  Southern  Church  to  settle  the  property  question  with 
the  Northern  Church;  wrote  Lectures  on  the  Philo^jphy 
and  Practice  of  Slavery  (Richmond,  1860),  which  may  he 
considered  as  the  fullest  and  ablest  presentation  of  the  pro- 
slavery  view  of  the  question.  D.  at  Richmond,  Va..  Mar  1. 
1870.  Revised  by  A.  Osborx, 

Smith,  William  Farrar  :  soldier ;  b.  at  St  Albans,  ^'t^ 
Feb.  17,  1824 ;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  MiliUry  Academy 
July  1, 1845;  appointed  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  t«>ix»- 
graphical  engineers ;  served  as  Assistant  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics at  West  Point,  on  several  surveys,  and  on  light  h««u^«^ 
construction  duty ;  in  July,  1861,  was  appointed  colonel  cif 
the  Third  Vermont,  and  was  engaged  in  the  first  battle  ff 
Bull  Run  on  the  staflf  of  Gen.  McDowell.  Commis-Mout-d 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  (Aug.  13),  he  served  in  ihe 
defenses  of  Washington  until  Mar.,  1862,  and  in  the  Vir- 
ginia Peninsular  campaign  of  1862;  promoted  to  be  nirtj«»r- 
feneral  of  volunteers  July  4, 1862,  he  led  his  division  in  the 
(aryland  campaign,  at  South  Mountain,  and  Antietara.  In 
Nov.,  1862,  he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  Sixth 
Corps,  and  engaged  at  Fredericksburg ;  transferred  to  Ninth 
Corps  Feb.,  1863.  In  Oct.,  1863,  he  became  chief  engineer 
of  tne  department  of  the  Cumberland  and  in  NoveniUr  of 
the  division  of  the  Mississippi.  In  Mar.,  1864,  he  wa<  con- 
firmed as  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  in  May  assii:ut*d 
to  the  Eighteenth  Corps ;  on  special  duty  under'  <irders  of 
the  Secretary  of  War  Nov.,  1864-Dec.,  1865.  In  Nov, 
1865,  he  resigned  his  volunteer  commission,  and  in  >Iar^ 
1867,  his  commission  as  major  of  engineers  in  the  repilar 
army.  He  was  breveted  from  lieutenant-colonel  to  iuaj<»r- 
general ;  president  of  the  International  Telegraph  Com j Any 
1864-73 ;  appointed  police  commissioner  New  York  titr 
1875;  president  of  the  board  Dec,  1875-Mar.,  1881 :  v\\)\ 
engineer  in  service  of  the  U.  S.  since  1881 ;  by  act  of  C'<^n- 
gress  of  Feb.,  1889,  reappointed  major  U.  S.  armv,  and  was 
retired  Mar.  1,  1889. 

Smith,  William  Louohtox,  LL.  D.  :  b.  in  Charleston, 
S.  C,  1758 ;  educated  in  England  and  Switzerland  ;  rettimt^ 
to  Charleston  in  1783  ;  was  a  member  of  Congress  1789-1*7: 
an  able  supporter  of  the  administration  of  Washington  and 
Adams,  and  an  active  opponent  of  Jefferson,  against  whom 
he  published  a  pamphlet ;  was  minister  to  Portugal  1 797-lKK», 
and  to  Spain  1800-1801.  D.  in  South  Carolina  in  IHli. 
Author  of  a  volume  of  Speeches,  published  in  London  171*4, 
an  Address  (1794)  to  his  constituents  on  the  diflicultit* 
pending  with  England,  a  Comparative  Yiew  of  the  Cou<ii- 
tntions  of  the  StStes  (Philadelphia,  1796),  and  variims  ether 
political  pamphlets. 

Smith,  William  Robertson,  D.  D..  LL.D.:  the^.l. -ian 
and  Orientalist;  b.  at  Keig,  Abenleenshire,  Scotland.  N*>^'« 
8,  1846 ;  studied  at  Aberdeen,  Edinburgh,  Bonn,  and  (»i"'t- 
tingen ;  was  appointed  Professor  of  Hebrew  in  X\w  Fre* 
Church  College  at  Aberdeen  in  1870;  made  an  extcn-ivf 
journey  in  Arabia  in  1879-80,  which  he  described  iu  »  sries 
of  exceedingly  interesting  letters  to  The  Scotsman.  In  If^l 
he  was  removed  from  his  office  by  an  estraordinar}*  act  of 
the  General  Assembly  on  account  of  his  critical  %-iews  of  the 
Old  Testament  published  in  the  Eneyclop(fdia  Bri f annua- 
In  188^3  he  was  appointed  Professorof  Arabic  in  therniver- 
sity  of  Cambridge ;  in  1886  librarian  to  the  university,  l'"^ 
exchangeil  the  position  for  the  Adams  Arabic  profost^t^r^hip 
in  1889,  succeeding  William  Wright.    He  was  associated  with 


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584 


SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION 


was  soon  after  increased  to  $515,169,  and  in  1867  by  a  re- 
siduary legacy  of  |26.2 10.68  to  $541,379.63,  the  total  sum 
derived  from  the  founder's  beneficence,  which  by  careful 
management  had  been  in  1867  increased  to  $650,000.  At  one 
time  in  the  early  history  of  the  institution  a  large  portion 
of  its  fund  was  in  certain  State  bonds  which  became  worth- 
less :  Congress  appropriated  money  to  make  good  the  loss, 
and  the  permanent  fund  is  held  as  a  deposit  at  6  per  cent, 
in  the  U,  S.  treasury. 

During  the  eight  years  that  passed  before  any  use  was 
made  of  the  money  public  opinion  had  an  opportunity  to 
shape  itself,  and  the  organization  in  Washington  in  1840  of 
the  National  Institution  (afterward  the  National  Institute), 
which  was  intended  by  its  promoters  to  become  the  nucleus 
for  the  development  of  Smithson's  idea,  gave  opportunity 
for  much  experimental  study  in  administration.  The  Na- 
tional Institute,  which  was  for  two  or  three  years  the  largest 
and  most  active  scientific  society  on  the  continent,  devel- 
oped many  features  which  were  ultimately  adopted  for  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  and  experimentally  demonstrated 
that  others  were  impracticable.  It  languished  and  died 
soon  after  the  organization  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
which  it  had  hoped  to  incorporate  with  itself. 

Administration, — The  Smithsonian  Institution  was  for- 
mally established  by  the  act  of  Congress  approved  Aug.  10, 
1846.  As  defined  in  the  act  of  establishment  it  is  composed 
of  the  President  of  the  U.  S.,  who  is  presiding  officer  ex 
officio,  the  Vice-President,  the  members  of  the  cabinet,  and 
the  chief  justice,  and  the  "establishment"  thus  constituted 
is  made  responsible  for  the  dut v  of  **  the  increase  and  diflfu- 
sion  of  knowledge  among  men. ' 

In  addition  to  the  "  establishment "  the  act  nrovides  for  a 
"board  of  regents,"  by  whom  the  business  of  tne  institution 
is  administered,  and  which  is  composed  of  the  President  of 
the  U.  S.,  the  chief  justice  of  tne  Supreme  Court,  three 
members  of  the  Senate,  three  members  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, and  six  citizens  appointed  by  joint  resolution 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  no  two  of 
whom  may  be  from  the  same  State,  though  two  must  be 
residents  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

The  presiding  officer  of  the  regents  is  the  Chancellor, 
whom  tnev  elect  from  their  own  number.  This  position  is 
customarily  held  by  the  Chief  Justice.  The  executive  officer 
is  the  secretary  of  the  institution,  who  is  also  elected  by  the 
regents.  The  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the  secretary  are 
such  as  in  other  institutions  usually  belong  to  the  office  of 
director,  but  the  name  of  "  secretary  "  is  that  which  in  Wash- 
ington designates  the  highest  gracles  of  executive  responsi- 
bility. The  secretary  makes  all  appointments  on  the  staflf  of 
the  institution,  is  responsible  for  the  expenditure  and  dis- 
bursement of  all  funds,  is  the  legal  custodian  of  all  its  prop- 
erty, and  ex  officio  its  librarian  and  the  keeper  of  its  museum. 
He  presents  to  the  regents  an  annual  report  upon  the  opera- 
tions, expenditures,  and  conditions  of  the  establishment, 
which  is  transmitted  by  the  board  to  Congress  for  publica- 
tion. By  special  act  of  Congress  of  1884  an  acting  secretary 
is  proviaed  in  case  of  the  aosence  or  disability  of  the  secre- 
tary, the  designation  being  left  with  the  chancellor  of  the 
institution.  There  is  at  present  but  one  assistant  secretary, 
who  is  in  charge  of  the  National  Museum. 

The  annual  meeting  of  the  regents  is  held  in  January ; 
their  executive  committee  of  three  members  meets  quarterly. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  board  of  regents  took  place  Sept. 
7, 1846,  and  before  the  end  of  the  year  the  policy  of  the  re- 
gents wtis  practically  determined  upon,  for,  after  deciding 
upon  the  plan  of  the  building  now  occupied,  they  elected  to 
the  secretaryship  Prof .  Joseph  Henry,  and  thus  approved  his 
plan  for  the  organization  of  the  institution  which  had  al- 
ready been  submitted  to  them.  Eminent  alike  as  a  man  of 
science  and  an  administrator,  Henry  for  more  than  tliirty 
years  directed  the  activities  of  the  organization. 

Objects  of  the  Institution. — These  as  defined  by  Henry 
are,  first,  to  increase  knowledge  by  original  investigations 
and  study  cither  in  science  or  literature ;  and,  second,  to  dif- 
fuse knowledge  not  only  through  the  U.  S..  but  everywhere, 
and  especially  by  promoting  an  interchange  of  thought 
among  those  prominent  in  learning  in  all  nations.  No  re- 
striction is  made  in  favor  of  any  one  branch  of  knowledge. 

The  leading  features  of  the  plan  of  Prof.  Henry  were,  in 
his  own  words,  "  to  assist  men  of  science  in  making  original 
researches,  to  publish  them  in  a  scries  of  volumes,  and  to 
give  a  copy  of  them  to  every  first-class  library  on  the  face 
of  the  earth."  Probably  there  is  not  a  s(;ientific  investiga- 
tor in  the  U.  S.  to  whom  a  helping  hand  has  not  at  some 


time  been  extended  by  the  institution,  and  the  hand  ha«  'f- 
ten  reached  across  the  Atlantic.  Books,  apparatus,  and  L'  • 
oratory  accommodation  have  been  supplied  to  thousans. 
and  each  year  a  certain  number  of  money  grants  havt-  U-.  n 
made.  Not  less  important  has  been  the  personal  ene<iuraL - 
ment  afforded  and  advice  given  in  the  tens  of  thousaniK  <•( 
replies  written  each  year  in  response  to  inquiries. 

Publications. — The  publications  of  the  estAbli^hniPi/. 
which  are  regularly  distributed  to  about  4,000  instiluti-'  -. 
are  as  numerous  as  those  of  a  great  publishing-hoase.  :i: 
are  practically  all  given  away.  In  audition  to  the  aim  . 
report,  which  contains  in  its  appendix  articles  of  jm^i  i.  if 
interest  in  regard  to  scientific  progress,  there  are  two  -*-;.  - 
printed  at  the  cost  of  the  Smithson  fund :  (1)  The  Sn,,",- 
sonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  28  volumes  in  <jhuri  . 
containing  nearly  15,000  pages  and  many  fine  plate>.  ;' 
The  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  CoUectionSy  in  35  <j«'}i»  • 
volumes,  aggregating  about  22,000  pages.  Besidt*s>  ih.- 
there  are  the  series  oi  Bulletins  of  tne  National  Mu^i.'.. 
50  in  number,  beginning  in  1875;  the  Proceedings  of  :' - 
National  Museum,  including  already  1,100  separate  ]^{>  r-. 
embraced  in  17  annual  volumes,  beginning  with  187s :  :; 
Ajmual  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  beginnin^^  •- 
1879  and  forming  a  series  of  12  illustrated  volumes  in  r«.\  i 
octavo;  and  the  Bulletin  of  the  bureau,  of  which  26  hi.? - 
bers  have  appeared.  The  value  of  the  books  distril'i:vi 
since  the  institution  was  opened  can  not  be  much  le;>a  U^n:. 
$1,000,000,  estimating  at  standard  publishers'  rates. 

In  return  for  its  own  publications,  and  by  purcha'5«\  *'i  • 
institution  has  receiyed  the  great  collection  of  books  whi  ii 
form  its  library,  and  which  is  one  of  the  richest  in  il. 
world  in  the  publications  of  learned  societies.  This  inoln-l  - 
more  than  300,000  titles,  the  greater  portion  of  whii  h.  t.^ 
permission  of  Congress,  have  been  placed  in  the  Na!i<i.i. 
Library  at  the  Capitol,  where  they  are  kept  by  thems<lvr^  ^- 
the  Smithsonian  Deposit.  The  working  libraries  of  tlit-  Na- 
tional Museum  and  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  are  di^ni.' 
from  the  general  Smithsonian  Library,  and  separately  a.;- 
ministered. 

System  of  Exchanaes. — The  Smithsonian  system  of  int.  r- 
national  exchanges,  begun  in  1852.  had  for  its  ot>je('i  'I.' 
free  interchange  of  scientific  material  between  scientitit-  in- 
stitutions  and  investigators  in  the  IT.  S.  and  those  in  f-  r- 
eign  lands,  and  its  results  have  affected  beneficially  titt  li- 
braries of  most  of  the  learned  institutions  in  America.  \v. 
1867  Congress  assigned  to  the  institution  the  duty  of  *  \- 
changing  fifty  copies  of  all  public  documents  for  Mn.  lir 
works  published  m  foreign  countries.  Finally,  in  l^^i'  * 
definite  treaty,  made  previously  at  Brussels,  was  foniM  :y 
proclaimed  by  the  President  of  the  U.  S.,  wherein  the  I'.  ** 
Government,  with  a  number  of  others,  undert4X)k  the<'.L- 
tinuation  of  the  exchange  service  on  a  more  extensive  Ih-.n 
Out  of  this  has  grown  the  Bureau  of  International  Kx- 
changes,  for  the  maintenance  of  which  Congress  p/irii.t!  >' 
provides  by  annual  appropriation.  From  1852  to  IKJ^)  vi- 
Smithsonian  exchange  service  handled  1,175,000  paek.  l-  -. 
The  number  of  correspondents  upon  it^  lists  is  about  *2-].'> ". 

The  National  Jfuseum, — The  Smithsonian  is  by  law  t'f 
custodian  of  the  National  Museum,  of  which  the  "se<  ritary 
of  the  institution  is  the  legal  keeper.  This  must-um  < 
supported  entirely  by  the  Government,  but  previously  i\< 
of  its  maintenance  was  from  the  Smithson  fund.  It  i^  ■;;:• 
only  lawful  place  of  deposit  of  **all  objects  of  art  iinl  ' 
foreign  and  curious  research,  and  all  objects  of  natural  U.^ 
tory,  plants,  and  geological  and  mineralogical  sp«"oiintiis 
belonging,  or  hereafter  to  belong,  to  the  U.  S.,  which  v.uxv 
be  in  the  city  of  Washington  in  whosesoever  custody."  'I  ''-^ 
nucleus  of  these  collections  consists  in  the  s{)ecimens  bmi;i''  i 
home  by  the  Wilkes  and  other  early  exploring  ex|»edi!i  •;  n 
but  for*  many  years  the  museum  was  supported  entirti.v  .** 
the  expense  of  the  Smithson  fund,  and  a  considerahle  j-  :- 
tion  of  the  collections  is  the  property  of  the  iustitutitni.  nv 
National  Museum  of  the  United  States. 

Bureau  of  Ethnology. — The  Bureau  of  American  Krl.i-  - 
ogy  is  an  outgrowth  of  activities  begun  in  the  early  ila\-  ■  f 
the  history  of  the  institution,  and  has  for  its  obiett  ih*  ni- 
vestigHtion  of  the  languages,  habits,  customs,  and  ela^^if  ■•<• 
tion  of  the  North  American  Indians.  In  1870  a  sp^nia!  .v- 
propriation  was  made  by  Congress  for  this  work,  whi'li  > 
(18S)5)  still  in  progress  under  the  direction  of  Maj.  John  ^^• 
Powell,  who  has  been  the  director  of  the  bureau  fn>ni  th*^ 
start.  With  the  aid  of  a  well-trained  staff,  he  has  n^'"' ' 
from  destruction  a  vast  amount  of  important  materi.'il  :n 
regard  to  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  continent,  priceh  ^^ 


r^H 

^^^^^^^^^^flr  1ft  nu<is-fn  -nil. 

1  ^^^^^^^^1 

^^■i 

1 

I 

I 

ot  rf  Uu 

lll^iHi  'AU'-*.*  it  U.  Jr-^ra-ililt 

J 

586 


SMOLENSK 


SMUTS 


large  crops  of  rye,  the  principal  product,  and  of  hemp  and 
flax.  Tooacco  and  hops  are  also  cultivated.  On  its  exten- 
sive pastures  large  numbers  of  fine  cattle  are  raised,  while 
its  vast  forests,  abounding  with  game,  furnish  a  large  amount 
of  valuable  timber.  Much  attention  was  formerly  paid  to 
the  raising  of  bees,  and  honey  and  wax  were  exported.  Cop- 
per, iron,  and  salt  are  found  in  considerable  quantities.  Its 
manufactures  are  unimportant.    Pop.  (1891)  1,412,162. 

Smolensk :  town ;  capital  of  the  government  of  Smolensk, 
Russia ;  on  the  Dnieper ;  250  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Moscow  (see 
map  of  Russia,  ref.  7-D).  It  is  surrounded  by  massive  walls, 
that  are  rapidly  falling  into  decay,  and  has  a  magnificent 
cathedral,  an  episcopal  palace,  monasteries,  several  good  edu- 
cational institutions,  including  a  military  school,  manufac- 
tures of  linen,  carpets,  leather,  and  soap,  and  a  considerable 
export  trade  in  grain  and  flax.    Pop.  (1891)  38,034. 

Smollett,  Tobias  George:  novelist;  b.  at  Dalquhum 
House,  Cardross,  Scotland,  in  1721 ;  lost  his  father  in  early 
childhood ;  was  educated  at  Dumbarton  school  by  the  care 
of  his  grandfather,  Sir  James  Smollett,  of  Bonhill,  a  member 
of  the  Scottish  Parliament ;  studied  also  at  Glasgow,  where 
he  served  an  apprenticeship  to  a  surgeon ;  went  to  London 
at  the  age  of  nineteen,  carrying  a  tragedy  entitled  The 
Regicide,  which  he  unsuccessfully  offered  to  the  theatrical 
managers ;  accepted  the  position  of  surgeon's  mate  in  the 
navy;  participated  in  the  unfortunate  expedition  against 
Cartagena  1741 ;  resided  for  some  time  m  Jamaica ;  re- 
turned to  England  1746;  married  in  1747,  Miss  Anne  Las- 
celles,  whom  he  had  known  in  Jamaica:  published  in  1748 
with  great  success  his  first  novel.  The  Adventures  of  Roder- 
ick Random,  in  which  he  made  good  use  of  his  West  Indian 
experiences ;  visited  Paris  1750 ;  published  The  Adventures 
of  Peregrine  Pickle  (4  vols.,  1751);  after  endeavoring  to  ob- 
tain medical  practice  at  Bath,  settled  at  Chelsea  1753,  in 
which  year  he  wrote  The  Adventures  of  Ferdinand,  Count 
Fathom  ;  published  a  translation  of  Don  Quixote  (1755) ;  is- 
sued A  Compendium  of  Authentic  and  Entertaining  Travels 
{7  vols.,  1757).  in  which  he  embodied  his  own  experiences  at 
Cartagena ;  edited  for  some  time  a  Tory  organ.  The  Critical 
Review ;  was  fined  and  imprisoned  three  months  for  a  libel 
on  Admiral  Knowles  (1759);  wrote  in  fourteen  months  a 
Compleat  History  of  England,  deduced  from  th-e  Descent  of 
Julius  Casar  to  the  Treaty  of  Aix-fa-Chapelle  (4  vols., 
1757-58),  to  which  he  subsequently  added  a  Continuation 
from  1748  to  1760  (4  vols.,  1763),  of  which  the  later  volumes 
have  been  often  reprinted  as  a  supplement  to  Hume ;  trans- 
lated Oil  Bias  (4  vols.,  1761);  wrote  in  prison  his  Adven- 
tures of  Sir  Launcelot  Greaves  (1762);  edited  The  Briton,  a 
newspaper  in  defense  of  Lord  Bute  (1762-63);  aided  Thomas 
Francklin  and  other  writers  in  bringing  out  a  translation  of 
the  Works  of  Voltaire  (37  vols.,  1761-70):  made  a  journey 
through  France  and  Italy  1763-66,  which  furnished  materi*- 
als  for  a  work  of  Travels  (2  vols.,  1766) ;  satirized  Bute  and 
the  elder  Pitt  in  \i\s  Adventures  of  an  Atom  (1769);  went 
for  his  health  to  Italy  1769,  and  wrote  on  the  journey  The 
Expedition  of  Humphrey  Clijiker  (3  vols.,  1771),  his  best 
novel.  D.  at  Monte  Novo,  near  Leghorn,  Italy,  Sept.  17, 
1771.  Smollett  ranks  with  Richanlson  and  Fielding  as  one 
of  the  standard  novelists  of  the  eighteenth  century,  found- 
ers of  the  English  school  of  prose  fiction.  He  was  greatly 
influenced  by  Cervantes,  Le  Sage,  and  the  whole  group  of 
Spanish  "rogue"  or picaro  novelists.  His  stories  are  nar- 
ratives of  low  life,  travel,  and  broadly  comic  adventure, 
vigorous  and  racy,  but  coarse  to  the  verge  of  brutality.  In 
the  persons  of  Commodore  Trunnion,  Jack  Rattlin,  Tom 
Bowling,  and  other  nautical  characters  he  intro<luced  into 
fiction  the  now  familiar  figure  of  the  British  tar.  Many 
complete  editions  of  his  novels  and  poems  have  been  pub- 
lished. Biographies  were  written  by  Dr.  Robert  Anderson 
(1796),  Dr.  John  More  (1797),  Thomas  Roscoe  (Londim.  1840; 
New  York,  1857),  and  D.  Hannay  (Great  Writers'  Series, 
1887).  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Smolt :  See  Salmon. 

Smnggllng  [like  Germ,  schmuggeln,  from  Low  Germ. 
smuggeln;  connected  with  root  smug-  of  Germ,  schmiegen, 
snuggle  up  to,  and  0.  Eng.  smugan,  creep] :  the  (statutorv) 
offense  either  of  bringing  into  a  country  articles  entirely 
prohibited,  or  of  defrauding  the  customs  i*evenue  by  secretly 
importing  goods  upon  which  duties  are  laid  without  paving 
such  duties  or  without  paying  the  full  amount  requireci  by 
law.  In  Great  Britain  the  offense  includes  the  ex|)orting  of 
gpods  with  like  intent,  and  (as  often  defined)  the  introduc- 
tion of  any  articles  into  consumption  without  paying  the 


duties  chargeable  upon  them.  As  the  whole  subject  of  the 
customs  revenue  is  the  creature  of  statute,  the  offenses  whii )) 
consist  in  its  evasion  or  violation  are  also  of  a  statutory 
origin.  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  smuggling  is  e^petial- 
ly  restrained  by  the  Customs  Laws  Consolidation  Act  oi 
1875  (39  and  40  Vict.,  c.  36). 

Sm^wgling  in  the  U.  S, — In  the  U.  S.  the  regulation  <.f 
this  offense  belongs  exclusively  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
national  legislature  and  judiciary,  being  included  in  tht^ 
power  of  Congress  to  regulate  all  foreign  commerce.  The 
body  of  the  existing  law  is  contained  in  the  Rev,  Stat,  of 
the  United  States,  especially  in  tit.  xxxiv.,  chap.  10,  .$§  :ifci.s 
to  3094  (although  some  provisions  are  scattered  throuirh 
other  chapters  relating  to  the  imposition  and  collection  of 
duties),  and  in  the  Supp,  of  the  Rev,  Stat,  of  the  I'nii^ii 
States,  p.  32,  seq.,  where  smuggling  is  defined  as  "  the  »<  t. 
with  intent  to  defraud,  of  bringing  mto  the  United  St«t<*<,  or. 
with  like  intent,  attempting  to  bring  into  the  United  States^, 
dutiable  articles  without  passing  the  same,  or  the  packaj^'o 
containing  the  same,  through  the  custom-house,  or  submit- 
ting them  to  the  officers  of  the  revenue  for  examination.*' 

Penalties, — ^The  following  penalties  may  be  enforced  for 
various  acts  which  are  collectively  embraced  in  the  geneml 
description  of  smuggling:  (1)  The  guilty  person  is  liable  to 
a  fine  of  not  more  than  $5,000  and  not  less  than  $50.  or  to 
imprisonment  for  not  more  than  two  years,  or  to  both.  (2i 
The  goods  fraudulently  introduced  or  attempted  to  be  intro- 
duced are  to  be  seized,  and,  if  condemned  by  the  court,  an- 
te be  forfeited  and  sold.  (3)  The  vessel  in  which  the  gooil* 
are  thus  imported  may  be  likewise  seized,  conderone<i.  ami 
forfeited  if  the  owner  or  managing  agent  was  consenting  to 
and  guilty  of  the  offense.  (4)  Any  vehicle,  conveyance,  team, 
beast,  etc.,  by  means  of  which  goods  are  wrongfully  brouirhi 
into  the  country  by  land  may  also  be  seized  and  iorfeiieii: 
but  no  such  conveyances  belonging  to  and  used  by  ctmiiiu'n 
carriers,  whether  persons  or  corporations,  are  liable  to  for- 
feiture unless  the  owner,  superintendent,  or  a^nt  in  charire 
is  consenting  or  privy  to  the  illegal  importation.  (5)  Vari- 
ous pecuniary  penalties  may  be  visited  upon  the  owner*  or 
masters  of  vessels  for  certain  specific  violations  of  the 
law,  such  as  resisting  or  hindering  the  revenue  officers  and 
the  like ;  which  penalties  are  made  liens  upon,  and  may  iv 
summarily  enforced  against,  the  vessels  themselves.  Ca-t-s 
involving  any  of  the  foregoing  forfeitures  or  pecuniarv 
fines  are  reported  to  the  proper  U.  S.  district-attorney,  anil 
it  is  his  duty  to  prosecute  the  delinquent  or  to  procure  a 
condemnation  of  the  property  in  the  national  courts. 

Detection  of  Smugglinjg. — The  customs  officers  are  clothetl 
with  very  large  powers  in  order  to  detect  and  punish  any 
fraudulent  importation  or  concealment,  or  failure  to  pay  t lie 
full  duties  required  by  the  law.  They  may  board  and  s**'an  h 
all  vessels  lying*  in  port,  and  all  those  bound  to  the  U.  S. 
while  not  more  than  4  leases  from  the  coasts  They  may 
also  search  all  persons  coming  into  the  country,  all  trunks 
boxes,  or  other  baggage,  papers,  envelopes,  all  conveyani'*** 
and  means  of  transport,  stores,  warehouses,  and  other  build- 
ings— in  short,  all  places  or  things  where  the  goods  them- 
selves or  the  evidence  of  their  wrongful  importation  may 
possibly  be  concealed.  Finally,  by  means  of  an  order  of  the 
court  they  may  obtain  an  inspection  of  the  books  of  accoum 
and  business  papers  of  merchants  and  others  suspected  of 
or  charged  with  the  wrongful  non-payment  of  duties.  Whoii 
the  property  seized  is  condemned  and  sold,  the  procee<i*5, 
after  paving  the  costs  and  expenses,  are  distributed,  part 
to  the  U.  S.,  part  to  the  principal  customs  officers  of  the 
district,  and  part  to  the  informer  if  there  was  any  distim-t 
from  the  officer  himself  who  detected  the  offense  and  prtv 
cured  the  seizure.  Revised  by  P.  Stueqks  Allen. 

Smuts  [:  Germ.  fic^TOu/z, dirt:  Dutch,  «wf/]:  the  Vntihv]' 
inece,  an  order  of  minute  parasitic  fungi  principally  at  talk- 
ing the  higher  plants,  and  often  producing  serious  injurit-' 
to  farm  and  garden  crops  (Pig.  1).  In  some  portion:*  of 
England  they  are  known  as  dust-brands.  They  consist  of 
slender,  branching,  colorless  threads,  which  grow  through  the 
tissues  of  their  hosts,  following  the  intercellular  spate*,  or 
actually  penetrating  and  even  filling  the  cell-cavities.  .After 
a  period  of  growth,  the  threads  produce  spores  in  great  num- 
bers, forming  dark,  dusty  masses,  which  nave  suggeste<l  the 
popular  name  of  these  organisms. 

No  sexual  organs  are  known  in  any  of  the  smuts  and  it 
is  probable  that  in  this  group  of  plants  the  structural  dein*- 
dation  due  to  excessive  j)arasitism  is  so  great  that  these  or- 
gans have  been  lost.    This  degradation  is  shown  in  the  ^^ft- 


SMUTS 


587 


A  i!  I.hI  cells  composing  the  filaments,  and  also  in  the  distorted 
.^ri<i  irregular  spore-bearing  masses  (Fig.  2)  which  may  be 


Fio.  1.— Smut  on  Indian  com,  reduced  one-half. 

r -jrunled  as  crushed  and  distorted  spore-sacs  (asci).    The 
>;^'res  arise  within  these  crushed  masses  as  rounded  bodies, 


>  .G    2  —Formation  of  spores  :  a  b  c,  in  Ustilngo  maydin :  d  e^  U, 
aniherarum  ;  /,  U.  Jlo»culo*ontmy  magniiled  900  timeflk 

•Ahi<  h  soon  acquire  a  dark-colored,  thick,  smooth,  or  rough- 
er.t-d  wall.     At  maturity  the  spores  are  set  free  by  the  de- 

lifiuescence  of  the 
cell  -  walls  of  the 
spore-bearing  masses. 
In  a  few  cases  the 
snores  are  borne  sin- 
gly, and  rarely  they 
appear  to  be  in  little 
distorted  ascus  -  like 
cells  (Fig.  2,  f). 

The  production  of 
spores  usually  takes 
place  in  those  parts 
of  the  parasite  which 
have  penetrated  the 
flowering  or  fruiting 
portions  of  the  host, 
and  which  as  a  conse- 
quence are  generally 
much  distorted  (Fig. 
1).  The  spores  are 
distributed  by  winds, 
after  the  nipture  of 
the  epidermis  of  the 
host  and  the  escaj^Ki 
of  the  surplus  mois- 
ture. 

Germination  takes 
place  by  the  protru- 
sion of  a  short  fila- 
ment (Fig.  ii)  known 
as  the  prom ifcdi urn, 
upon  which  are  borne 
v.^WiwXo  «;pores  (the  sporidia\  which  are  so  minute  that  thev 
n:.iy  readily  be  dispersed  by  the  wind. 


5  ^.— fVrrninfttion  of  smut  8|)oreR:  a. 
V-UIn,jo  afencB,  x  1,000:  6.  U.  tritiri, 
'  '^'O;  r,  U  hnrdei,  x  700;  rf,  TilUtia 
tritict ;  «p.,  the  sporidia,  x  200. 


The  parasite  gains 


Fio.  4— Head  of  wheat 
affected  by  U.  tritici\ 
reduced  to  one-half 
natural  size. 


access  to  the  embryo  host  plant  bv  penetrating  the  tender 
walls  of  the  epidermal  cells,  and  it  appears  that  in  many, 
if  not  all,  cases  it  is  impossible  for  such  i)enetration  to  tate 
place  when  the  host  has  made  a  considerable  growth. 

The  smuts  are  divided  by  Schroeter 
into  two  families,  as  follows : 

I.  UstildgiiuxctcB,  with  septate  pro- 
mycelium,  bearing  lateral  sporidia. 
About  150  species,  nearly  all  of  which 
(143)  belong  to  the  genus  Ustilago. 

Wheat  Smut  (l\  tritict),  called  also 
the  *' loose  smut"  of  wheat,  injures 
the  heads  of  unripe  wheat  by  destroy- 
ing the  kernels,  and  turning  them 
into  black  dusty  masses  of  spores  (Fig. 
4).  The  spores  are  very  small  (about 
5*5  by  6'5m),  ovoid  or  elliptical,  and 
minutely  verruculose. 

Oat  Smut  {U,  avencF)  affects  unripe 
heads  of  the  cultivated  oat,  destroying 
them  before  the  ripening  of  the  crop. 
The  spores  are  larger  than  the  preced- 
ing (aoout  7**  or  6*5  by  8m),  globose  or 
ovoid,  and  faintly  verruculose. 

Barley  Smut  {U.  hordei)  likewise 
destroys  the  unripe  heads  of  barley. 
The  spores  are  nearly  of  the  same  size 
as  in  the  oat  smut  (about  7m),  globose 
and  smooth. 

The  three  foregoing  species  have 
generally  been  confounded  under  the 
name  of  U,  carbo,  or  U.  segetum,  but 
i n vest itrat ions  by  Jensen,  confirmed 
by  Kellerman,  prove  them  to  be  dis- 
tinct. These  experimenters  have  found  that  these  smuts 
may  be  greatly  reduced  by  immersing  the  grains  for  eight 
to  fifteen  minutes  in  water  heated  to  56  C.  (133'  F.),  then 
drying  before  sowing. 

Maize  ^^vt  (U.  maydis)  is  parasitic  upon  Indian  com, 
causing  swellings  and  distortions  of  the  kernels  (Fig.  1),  and 
sometimes,  also,  simi- 
larly affecting  the 
staminate  flowers,  and 
even  the  leaves  and 
stems.  The  spores  are 
large  (8  to  13m),  globose 
and  echinulate. 

Other  species  occur 
on  sorghum  ( U.  8orghi\ 
foxtail  grass  {U,  ne- 
glecta),  and  many  other 
grasses,  sedges,  knot- 
weeds,  etc. 

II.  TiUetiacecp,  with 
non-septate  promyce- 
lium,  bearing  terminal 
sf)oridia.  Al)out  170 
species,  distributed 
among  9  genera,  of 
which  the  principal  are 
Tilletia  (33  species), 
Eiityloma  (41),  Urocys- 
tis  (27),  Thecaphora 
(18),  Sorosporium  (23). 

Bunt,  or  Stinking 
Smut  (Tilletia  tritici 
and  T.faittiLS). — These 
two  species,  which  dif- 
fer in  the  first  having 
reticulated  spores  and 
thesecondsmm)t  hones, 
are  parasitic  upon 
wheat,  filling  the  ker- 
nels at  maturity  with 
a  mass  of  closely  packed,  fetid  spores  (Fig.  5).  Both  are 
common  in  the  V.  S.,  Europe,  and  most  otlier  wheat-grow- 
ing countries.  Bunt  may  be  prevented  by  the  hot- water 
treatment  referred  to  above. 

Onion  Smut  {Crorystis  cenuhv)  attacks  the  leaves  of  cul- 
tivated onions,  often  seriously  damaging  the  croj>  in  the  east- 
ern f>nrts  of  the  U.  S. 

Literature. — In  addition  to  the  standard  work^  on  funjq, 
the  rejwler  is  referred  to  the  following:  J.  B.  de  Toni.  Uftti- 
lagineie,  in  Saccardo's  Sylloge  Funyorum,  vol.  vii.  (1888) ; 


Fio.  5— <i,  head  of  wheat  afff»oted  with 
bunt  ;  /),  kernels  fllle<l  with  s[H>rtfs, 
X  one-half  ;  c.  8r<»re8  of  T.  tntiri, 
X  300  ;  d,  spores  of  T.  /u:tens,  x  200. 


588 


SMYRNA 


SMYTH 


J.  Schroeter,  Die  Pilze  Schlesiens  (1889) ;  C.  B.  Plowright, 
A  Monograph  of  the  British  Uredinem  and  Ustilaginete 
(1889) ;  Kellerman  and  Swingle,  Report  on  the  Loose  Smut 
of  Cereals,  in  Second  Annual  Beport  of  the  Experiment  Sta- 
tion of  the  Kansas  Agricultural  College  (1889). 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Hmyr'na  [=  Lat.=  Gr.  %fi6pva.  Cf.  crM^pva,  myrrh] :  city; 
in  the  vilayet  of  Aidin,  Asia  Minor ;  in  lat.  38°  25'  N.  and 
Ion.  24''  50'  E.,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of 
Smyrna  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  5-D).  ft  presents  a  mag- 
nificent appearance  as  seen  from  the  water,  spreading  along 
the  bay  and  up  the  slope  of  Mt.  Pagus.  A  fine  quay  over  B 
miles  in  length,  along  which  the  tramway  runs,  lines  the 
shore,  and  in  front  is  a  spacious  and  sheltered  harbor.  Were 
it  not  for  the  hundreds  of  camels  constantly  traversing  the 
Guay,  Smyrna  with  its  modem  edifices  would  be  taken  at 
first  glance  for  a  city  of  Western  Europe.  It  still  justifies 
its  poetical  names  of  Crown  of  Ionia,  Eye  of  Anatolia,  Pearl 
of  tne  East.  The  slow  deposits  of  the  river  Hermus  and  the 
(quantities  of  rubbish  thrown  into  the  water  threaten  its  ex- 
istence as  a  port. 

Its  origin  is  lost  in  myths.  According  to  tradition,  Tan- 
talus, about  1500  B.  c,  was  its  founder.  Its  name  is  said  to 
\)e  derived  from  Smyrne,  the  Amazon,  the  wife  of  Theseus. 
Colonized  by  the  Greeks  soon  after  the  Trojan  war,  it  was 
constantly  fought  over  by  the  ^olians  and  the  lonians,  and 
ultimately  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  latter.  Taken 
and  dismantled  by  Alyattcs,  King  of  Sardis  (628  B.  c),  it 
was  rebuilt  according  to  the  order  of  Alexander  the  Great 
by  Antigonus  and  Lysimachus.  It  rapidly  developed,  and 
has  since  that  time  been  the  chief  commercial  city  of  Asia 
Minor.  Here  was  one  of  the  Apocalyptic  churches.  Cap- 
tured by  the  Seljuk  pirate  Tzachas  (1080),  Smyrna  suffered 
greatly,  but  was  soon  retaken  by  the  Greeks.  The  Seljuk 
prince  of  ATdin  conquered  it  (1313),  but  a  crusadine  fleet 
drove  out  the  Moslems.  The  Roman  Catholic  faitn  was 
inti*oduced  in  1346,  and  the  city  has  contained  ever  since 
many  members  of  that  communion.  Tamerlane,  after  de- 
feating Bayezid  I.  at  Angora  (1401),  filled  up  the  port,  car- 
ried tlie  place  by  storm  and  butchered  tne  inhabitants. 
Since  1424,  when  it  was  conquered  by  Murad  II..  it  has  re- 
mained in  the  undisturbed  possession  of  the  Ottomans  save 
that  it  was  sacked  by  the  Venetians  in  1473.  The  site  of 
the  city,  though  always  near  the  bay,  has  changed  many 
times.  Smyrna  has  often  suffered  from  earthquakes,  notably 
in  177  (after  which  it  was  rebuilt  by  Marcus  Aurelius),  168o, 
1778,  and  1880 ;  and  from  plague,  as  in  1812  and  1837. 

The  streets  run  generally  parallel  with  or  at  right  angles 
to  the  shore.  The  nouses  are  built  of  wooden  beams  encased 
in  stone,  as  safer  in  fire  and  earthquake.  There  are  several 
free  hospitals,  each  prominent  nationality  having  its  own, 
and  numerous  churches  of  the  leading  (Jhristian  faiths,  as 
well  as  a  synagogue  and  several  mosques.  The  schools  are 
excellent,  especiafiy  those  maintained  oy  the  Iloman  Catho- 
lic and  Protestant  missionaries.  Educational  advantages 
are  nowhere  greater  in  the  Ottoman  empire.  Six  newspapers 
are  published.  Smyrna  is  the  western  terminus  of  the  great 
inland  commercial  routes  and  of  two  railways  that  run  east- 
ward into  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  the  chief  mart 
for  Europ)ean  commerce  in  Anatolia.  The  principal  imports 
are  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  silk  and  woolen  gootls,  worked 
leather,  nails,  machinery,  earthenware,  building-stone,  lum- 
ber, cordage,  etc.;  the  exports,  dried  fruits,  raw  silk  and 
cotton,  opium,  wheat,  rice,  valonia,  oil,  sesame,  goatskins, 
carpets,  wax,  emery,  cheese,  beans,  lx)nes.  mohair,  etc.  The 
exports  average  about  |20,()00,000  annually  in  value,  and  the 
imports  about  |515,0U0,000. 

Smyrna  possesses  some  remarkable  ruins,  as  the  Genoese 
castle  on  the  summit  of  Mt.  Pa^us,  tiie  theater  lower  down, 
the  stadium  and  scant  remains  of  the  temple  of  Diana, 
Pop.  (estimated  1893)  225,000,  of  which  al)Out  half  are 
Greeks,  the  rest  being  Turks,  Armenians,  Europeans,  and 
Jews.  The  Levantines,  offspring;  of  marriages  l)etween  Eu- 
ropeans and  natives,  are  numerous.         K.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Smyrna  :  town  ;  Kent  co.,  Del. ;  on  Duck  creek,  and  the 
Phila.,  Wil.  and  Bait.  Railroad  :  36  miles  S.  W.  of  Wilming- 
ton, 60  miles  S.  of  Phil  ado  l^)hia  (for  k)cation,  see  map  of 
Delaware,  ref.  4-X).  It  is  m  an  agricultural  and  fruit- 
growing region;  is  engaged  in  ship-building  and  the  manu- 
facture of  agricultural  implements,  fruit-baskets,  sashes, 
doors,  and  other  articles ;  and  contains  a  public  high  school, 
two  national  banks,  and  a  weekly  paper.  Pop.  (1880)  2,423 ; 
(1890)  2,455. 


Smyth,  Charles  Piazzi,  LIi.D.:  son  of  Admiral  W.  H. 
Smyth;  astronomer;  b.  in  Naples  in  1819 ;  wasemploye*}  U*t 
some  time  under  Sir  T.  Maclear  in  the  observator>'  of  the  <  ui^ 
of  Good  Hope ;  was  appointed  royal  astronomer  for  Scot  Ian -l 
in  1845,  which  position  he  resigned  in  1888;  made  a  vn}ii.i- 
ble  series  of  observations  from  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe  1  **-"»•■>: 
published  Teneriffe j  an  Astronomer's  Es^rimeni,  or  Sf- 
cialties  of  a  Residence  above  the  Clouds  (1858) ;  in  It^AO  \  i^- 
it«d  the  Kussian  observatories  (see  his  Three  Cities  in  /»''.  - 
sia,  2  vols.,  1862),  and  made  a  thorough  examination  of  :'i> 
Great  Pyramid  of  Egypt,  which  he  considers  to  have  )<»•  r 
built  under  divine  inspiration  as  a  standard  of  a  syst^ni  f 
weights  and  measures.  This  theory  is  set  forth  an<l  n>  - 
fended  in  three  works — Our  Inheritance  in  the  Great  Pyii- 
mid  (1864),  Life  and  Work  at  the  Great  Piframid  <3  t...-^ 
1867),  and  Antiquitif  of  Intellectual  Man  (1868).  lie  vi^wx- 
posed  a  comprehensive  star  catalogue  and  ephemeris  of  *.  - 
lect«d  observations  of  the  same  stars,  published  in  the  Edin- 
burgh Observatory's  publications  (1877-86). 

Smyth,  Egbert  (3offin,  D.D.:  educator;  son  of  R' v. 
William  Smyth  (1797-1868),  Professor  of  Mathematics  .r 
Bowdoin  College;  b.  at  Brunswick,  Me.,  Aug.  24.  l^^Ji*: 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  1848,  and  at  Bangor  Th>^>- 
logical  Seminary  1853.  In  1854  he  was  made  Profe<.-<ir  of 
Rhetoric  and  Oratory  in  Bowdoin  College;  in  1856  he  •iu*- 
ceeded  Rev.  Dr.  Roswell  D.  Hitchcock  as  rrofeesorof  Naturjvi 
and  Revealed  Religion  in  the  same  institution ;  and  in  W»^> 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History  in  AiA  - 
ver  Theological  Seminary.  Since  1878  he  has  been  pn-:- 
dent  of  the  faculty  there.  He  is  one  of  the  board  of  tru*.!*-.  > 
of  Bowdoin  Colleg^,  and  was  for  a  number  of  years  a  ni*-;-!- 
ber  of  the  prudential  committee  of  the  American  Board  <  f 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions.  He  trans)ate«i  (w/-. 
Prof.  W.  L.  Ropes)  Uhlhom*s  Conflict  of  Christianity  ;n''. 
Heathenism  (1879),  has  published  many  addresses,  s<»rino:i-. 
and  scholarly  articles,  and  was  one  of  tlhe  founders  and  tu- 
tors of  The  Andover  Review,       Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisi»  k. 

Smyth,  Herbert  Weir:  Greek  scholar;  b.  at  Wilinii:-'- 
ton,  Del.,  Aug.  8,  1857;  A.  B.,  Harvard,  1878;  Ph.  1)..  (i*. 
tingen,  1884;  instructor  in  Williams  College  1883-K'i : 
Johns  Hopkins  University  1885-88;  appointed  Profe^^tr  •  f 
Greek  in  Bryn  Mawr  College  1888;  secretary  of  A nuri ran 
Philological  Association.  lie  has  published  *Z>er />•/*/ A.»m, 
EI  im  Griech.  (1884);  Sounds  and  Inflections  of  the  (if* . 
Dialects,  vol.  i.,  Ionic  (1894);  and  various  papers  on  pl:]"- 
logical  subjects  in  Tlie  American  Journal  of  Philoi-*::. 
Transactions  of  the  American  PhilologiccU  Associa*t<u 
and  Hie  Classical  Review.  C.  H.  Thcrbek. 

Smyth,  John:  clergyman;  b.  in  England  about  l.Vi.?: 
^aduated  at  Cambridge  1575 ;  became  a  fellow ;  took  onirr^ 
m  the  Church  of  England;  was  reproved  by  the  head>  of 
the  university  in  1586  for  having  advocated  a  Judaic  oI'tm  n- 
ance  of  Sunday,  but  persisted  in  his  teachings;  c*nin«t  ^  i 
himself  with  the  Puntans;  was  minister  at  GainsUmM -j!. 
to  a  congregation  with  which  he  emigrate<l  to  AniMvniaiti 
in  1606;  was  converted  to  Baptist  principles  by  Mfiuiui-- 
ite  theologians:  caused  an  Anabaptist  separation  ani<  :  j 
the  Puritan  refugees  in  Holland,  and  maintained  <M.i,»r. - 
versies  with  Ainsworth,  Robinson,  and  others.  D.  at  An- 
sterdam  in  Aug.,  1612.  He  was  this  author  of  A  Tnif  7^- 
scription  of  the  Visible  Church  (1589);  Hie  Differeurr  ..' 
the  Churches  of  the  Separation  (1608);  Parallels,  Onsnr  .^. 
Observations,  etc.  (1609) ;  The  Character  of  the  Ben^t^  ♦ :  . 
(1609);  and  a  Declaration  of  the  Faith  of 'the  Eugli.^h  7v,- 
ple  remaining  at  Amsterdam  (1611),  etc. 

Revised  by  W.  H.  Whitmtt. 

Smyth,  Newman.  D.  D.  :  brother  of  Egbert  Coffin  .Sinvt>. . 
b.  at  Brunswick,  Me.,  June  25,  1843;  graduated  at  R>w.i,  .:. 
College  1863,  and  at  Andover  Seminary  1867;  was  att.  ,: 
pastor  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  1868;  was  m  Euro|je  isHs-*;.*: 
was  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  church  in  lini.i:  ^ 
Me.,  1H70-75,  of  the  First  Presbyterian  church  in  C^uin-  \, 
111.,  1876-^2,  and  in  1882  became  i)astor  of  the  First  v\\xr> 
(Congregational)  in  New  Haven,  Conn.  He  was  as>i>ta-  : 
teacher  in  the  Naval  Academy  in  Newport  immediately  af-  - 
his  graduation,  and  was  first  lieut«nant  of  the  Sixuoi-f 
Regiment  of  Maine  Volunteers  in  the  last  year  of  the  r.\ 
war.  He  has  published  The  Religious  Feeting  (1877^ :  "  » 
Faiths  in  New  Light  (1877;  revisetl  ed.  1887);  T)*e  rv  - 
dox  Theology  of  To-day  (1881);  Domer  on  the  Future  .S'-  . 
(1881)):  The  Reality  of  Faith  (1884)— a  series  of  sennoj.^: 
Personal  Creeds,  etc.  {1S90) ;  Christian  Ethics  (1892V.  aii-: 
various  articles  in  reviews.  Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisber. 


ijmtig  m 


iiU^. 


*umi  ikJi^ki. 


590 


SNELL 


SNOW 


whose  presence  in  the  nostrils  will  induce  sneezing.  When 
it  is  a  symptom  of  cold,  it  indicates  that  catarrhal  inflam- 
mation has  induced  a  state  of  thines  similar  to  that  pro- 
duced by  a  foreign  substance  in  the  nose.  In  children 
measles  may  begin  with  this  symptom,  and  influenza  is 
also  frequently  so  initiated.  Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Snell,  WiLLEBRORD  (also  known  as  Snellius)  :  astronomer 
and  mathematician ;  b.  at  Leyden  in  1591 ;  succeeded  his 
father  as  Professor  of  Mathematics  at  the  University  of 
Leyden  in  1613.  He  discovered  the  law  of  the  refraction 
of  light  (See  Optics.)  He  was  also  the  flrst  to  calculate 
the  size  of  the  earth  by  means  of  a  trigonometrical  meas- 
urement of  an  arc  of  a  meridian.  The  method  of  proceed- 
ing which  he  employed  in  this  undertaking  he  described  in 
his  Eratosthenes  Batavus^sive  de  TerrcB  Ambitus  vera  (fuan- 
titate  (Leyden,  1617).  He  also  wrote  Cyclometria,  stve  de 
circuli  dimensione  (Leyden,  1621),  and  other  works.  D.  at 
Leyden,  Oct.  30, 162& 

Snera :  See  Mooador. 

Snider  Rifle  (so  called  from  its  inventor) :  a  rifle,  the  es- 
sential features  of  which  are  that  the  breech-block  revolves 
aroand  an  axis  on  the  ri^ht  of  and  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  bore,  and  the  flring-pm  passes  obliquely  from  the  nose 
of  the  hammer  through  the  breech-block  to  the  center  of  the 
base  of  the  cartridge.  This  was  the  first  form  of  breech- 
loader adopted  by  the  British  Government,  which  in  1866 
directed  that  the  old  Enfield  muzzle-loaders  should  be  al- 
tered to  breech-loaders  upon  this  system.    See  Small-arms. 

Snipe  [M.  Eng.  snipe  :  Dutch,  snep^  snip  :  Germ. 
sch^epfe^  snipe  :  Swed.  sndppa^  sandpiper] :  any  bird  of  the 
family  Scolopaeidm,  which  includes  those  known  as  shore- 
birds  or  sandpipers.  (See  Sandpiper.)  More  commonly  the 
name  is  restricted  to  the  marsh-haunting  species  of  the  genus 
Oallinago,  about  twenty  in  number,  which  are  distributed 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  globe,  but  more  particularly  in 
temperate  regions.  They  have  a  straight  bill,  considerably 
longer  than  the  head,  grooved  to  the  end,  which  is  slightly 
expanded,  well  supplied  with  nerves  and  used  in  probing 
the  mud  for  worms.  The  eye  is  placed  far  back,  over  the 
ear.  The  plumage  is  streaked  with  shades  of  buff  and 
brown,  black  and  white,  and  blends  completely  with  the 

f round.  The  tail-feathers  vary  from  twelve  to  twenty-six. 
'he  American  snipe  {Gallinago  delicata)  is  found  in  suit- 
able places  over  the  greater  part  of  the  U.  S.,  breeding  in  the 
northern  portions  and  thence  northward.  In  winter  it  mi- 
grates, occurring  as  far  S.  as  Brazil.  It  is  sometimes  called 
English  snipe;  but  that  bird,  although  very  similar,  is  a 
distinct  species  {Oallinaao  gallinago),  which  docs  not  reach 
North  America,  although  occasionally  found  in  Greenland. 
The  jack-snipe  of  Europe  (G,  gallinula)  is  the  smallest  of 
the  group;  the  great  snipe  of  eastern  South  America  {G, 
gigantea)  is  the  largest.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Snlpeflsh :  another  name  of  the  Bellows- fish  {q,  v,), 
Snoho'mish :  city ;  capital  of  Snohomish  co..  Wash. ;  on 
the  Snohomish  river,  and  the  Everett  and  Monte  Cristo,  the 
Gt.  North.,  and  the  Seattle,  Lake  Shore  and  East,  railways ; 
9  miles  from  Puget  Sound ;  38  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Seattle  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Washington,  ref.  3-D).  It  is  in  an  agri- 
cultural, mining,  and  lumbering  region,  has  regular  steam- 
boat communication  with  Seattle,  and  contains  a  county 
court-house  (cost  $30,000),  8  graded  public  schools,  5 
churches,  about  20  sawmills  and  shingle-mills,  2  sash  and 
door  factories.  Masonic  and  Odd  Fellows'  halls,  water-works, 
electric  lijjhts,  street-railways,  2  national  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  $100,000,  and  2  tri-weekly  and  3  weeklv 
newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  149;  (1890)  1,993;  (1894)  State 
census,  3,250.  Editor  of  "  Eye." 

Snoilsky,  snoil'skee,  Karl  Johax  Gustaf,  Count  {Sven 
rr3«/):  poet;  b.  in  Stockholm,  Sweden,  Sept.  8,  1841.  He 
made  his  first  appearance  in  print,  with  several  other  young 
poets,  in  the  publication  of  the  Upsala  society  Naranlosa 
sftllskapet  (1860).  His  earliest  collection  of  poems,  SmaA- 
dikter  (1861),  is  characterized  by  great  warmth  and  original- 
ity, especially  in  the  descriptions  of  Italian  life  and  scenerv. 
His  sonnets  (1871)  and  his  translation  of  Goethe's  ballads 
(1876)  are  among  the  best  of  their  kind  in  recent  Swedish 
literature.  His  later  poems,  Nye  dikter,  etc.  (1881),  are  more 
national  in  spirit,  and  display  a  deep  sympathy  for  the  un- 
fortunate and  oppressed  classes  of  society.  For  a  number 
of  years  he  has  served  with  distinction  in  the  Swedish  dip- 
lomatic corps.  See  C,  D.  af  Wirsen,  Om  Karl  Snoilskys 
skcUdskap  i  Svea  (1882).  D.  K.  Dodoe. 


Snorri  Stni^lnson  [usually  written  Snorre  Sturlason]  : 
the  most  celebrated  historian  of  old  Iceland.  He  was  Ix  >rn 
in  1178,  and  belonged  to  the  numerous  and  powerful  elan 
of  the  Sturlungs.  He  was  fostered  by  the  prominent  ohi<f 
Jon  Loptson,  at  whose  home  he  acquired  the  book-knowl- 
edge of  his  day,  and  he  became  particularly  familiar  with 
the  old  poetiT  and  saga  literature  of  Iceland  and  Norway. 
At  the  age  of  twenty  Snorre  married  a  wealthy  woman,  niul 
by  this  marriage  he  became  one  of  the  most  powerful  ebit'l> 
of  Iceland  and  was  able  to  attend  the  Althing  at  the  head  of 
about  900  armed  men.  He  was  made  speaker  of  laws  {h^nj- 
sdguma^r)  several  times,  and  for  several  years  he  was  t  he 
richest  and  most  influential  man  in  the  whole  land.  He  i>^ 
came  involved  in  the  bloody  feuds  which  in  his  time  split 
the  Sturlungs  into  warring  factions,  and  he  was  continually 
implicated  in  litigation  with  his  relatives  and  others  in  re- 
gard to  property  and  inheritances.  In  1218  he  made  his 
first  visit  to  Norway,  and  was  received  into  the  housebdld 
of  the  young  kin^,  Hakon  Hakonson.  In  1219  he  visited 
the  lagman  Eskil  in  Sweden,  and  there  he  must  have  ob- 
tained that  thorough  knowledge  of  Sweden  and  Swedi>h 
affairs  which  appears  in  his  writing.  In  1220  he  returned 
to  Iceland,  after  having  previously  promised  to  work  for  th^ 
subjugation  of  Iceland  to  Norway.  As  he  made  no  progn'?v^ 
in  the  realization  of  this  plan,  he  was  suspected  of  faithlf>^- 
ness  by  the  rulers  of  Norway,  and  his  enemies  in  Ic«>lan<i 
took  advant^e  of  this  circumstance  to  bring  about  hi^s  ruin. 
After  endless  feuds  in  his  own  country,  Snorre  had  to  so  a 
second  time  to  Norway  in  1237,  but  he  lost  the  good  will  of 
King  Hakon  and  was  compelled  to  return  to  Iceland.  On 
his  arrival  there  he  got  into  trouble  with  his  son-in-law. 
Gissur  Thorvaldson,  who,  at  the  instigation  of  King  Hakon. 
murdered  him  on  Sept.  22, 1241,  at  his  home  at  Reykholt, 
where  ruins  of  his  splendid  mansion  are  still  to  be  stnn. 
Snorre  became  Iceland's  most  distinguished  sa^nian.  and 
he  enjoys  some  reputation  as  a  skald.  As  a  writer  of  his- 
tory he'ranks  with  Herodotus  or  Thucydides.  His  Jletwa- 
kringlay  embracing  an  elaborate  history  of  the  kings  of  Nor- 
way to  the  death  of  Magnus  Erlingson  in  1177,  is  famoii< 
throughout  the  world.  An  English  translation  of  this  wurk 
was  published  by  Samuel  Laing  in  London  in  1844^  and  a 
revision  of  Laing's  translation  by  Rasmus  B.  Anderson  a|»- 
peared  in  London  and  New  York  in  1889.  The  Yovngtr 
Edda  also  bears  Snorre*s  name,  and  is  to  a  great  extent  \u 
work.    See  Edda  and  Icelandic  Literature. 

Rash  us  B.  Anderson. 

Snow  [0.  Eng.  snaw  :  O.  H.  Germ,  sneo  (  >  Mod.  Genn. 
schnee)  :  Goth,  sjiaiws;  cf.  Lith.  snPgas  :  Russ.  sn it-git  : 
Ir.  sneachd  :  Lat.  nix,  nivis :  Gr.  vi^  (ace.)  <  Ind-£ur. 
sneighos  :  snoiqhos  :  snow] :  the  aggregations  of  minute  spir- 
ules  of  ice  into  which  the  excess  of  vapor  in  the  atmospht-n^ 
is  condensed  when  the  temperature  is  at  or  below  the  m»tz- 
ing-point  of  water.  These  aggregations,  called  snowflako^, 
though  assuming  a  great  variety  of  crystalline  forms,  usu- 
ally present  the  outline  of  a  hexagon  or  a  six-pointe<l  star. 
(See  the  illustration  in  the  article  Ice.)  In  high  and  niiddli* 
latitudes  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  each  winter,  but 
within  the  tropical  regions  no  snow  falls  at  or  near  the  levtl 
of  the  sea,  for  the  temperature  of  the  lower  atmosphere  is 
always  sufficient  to  melt  it,  even  if  it  is  formed  in  the  ui>]H'r 
air.  In  the  northern  hemisphere  the  limit  of  the  fall  of 
snow  at  the  sea-level  is  an  irregular  line  puassing  mainly  Yny^ 
tween  25"  and  40°  N.  lat. ;  in  the  southern  it  is  more  regular, 
lying  in  the  continents  between  laXs.  37"  and  38%  In  gen- 
eral, this  line  is  nearest  to  the  equator  in  the  regions  ^lo^t 
exposed  in  winter  to  the  polar  winds,  as  on  the  ei^em  coast 
of  Asia  and  of  North  America.  As  the  heat  of  the  air  de- 
creases upward,  the  formation  of  snow  is  always  possible 
upon  high  mountains,  even  under  the  equator.  At  tne  sum- 
mit of  the  Andes  and  the  Himalayas,  for  example,  the  mois- 
ture condensed  during  the  rainy  season  falls  in  the  form  of 
snow,  while  it  rains  on  the  slopes  and  plains  below.  Thus 
in  all  latitudes  from  the  equator  to  the  poles  the  tops  of 
high  mountains  are  covered  with  a  layer  of  permanent  snow, 
which  the  summer  heat  is  not  sufllcient  to  melt.  The  lower 
limit  of  perpetual  snow,  called  the  snotp-line,  varies  in  alti- 
tude in  the  different  portions  of  the  globe.  Within  th«* 
tropics  it  is  found  about  3  miles  above  the  level  of  the  S4»a  : 
in  temperate  latitudes  it  descends  to  a  little  less  than  2  milv^ : 
and  at  the  northern  limits  of  the  continents  it  is  about  half 
a  mile,  or  even  less,  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  while  on  th«' 
arctic  islands  vast  fields  of  snow  remain  permanently  very 
near  the  seashore. 


592 


SNUFF 


Snnff:  See  Tobacco. 

Snrders,  Frans  :  painter ;  b.  at  Antwerp,  1579.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Peter  Breughel,  the  younger,  and  afterward  of 
Henarik  van  Balen.  He  became  a  friend  of  Rubens.  He 
began  by  painting  still  life  only,  but  when  he  returned  to 
his  native  city  in  1609  after  a' visit  to  Italy,  he  began  to 
produce  pictures  of  the  chase,  in  which  he  depicted  the 
struggles  of  eager  hounds  with  savage  beasts  at  bay,  intro- 
ducing the  human  figure  also.  Rubens,  whom  he  followed, 
sometimes  made  use  of  his  services  as  an  assistant.  Snyders 
is  celebrated  as  a  fruit-painter.  The  Louvre  possesses  a 
Concert  of  Cats  by  him,  and  the  gallery  of  the  Prado  at 
Madrid  has  many  pictures  of  his,  as  also  the  National  Gal- 
lerv  in  London  and  the  galleries  of  St.  Petei-sburg,  Antwerp, 
Munich,  Dresden,  Brussels,  and  other  European  cities.  D. 
at  Antwerp,  Aug.  19, 1657.  W,  J.  Stillman. 

8oane,  Sir  John,  F.  R.  S.  :  originally  called  Swan  ;  archi- 
tect ;  b.  at  Reading,  England,  Sept.  10,  1753 ;  son  of  a 
bricklayer;  was  sent  to  Italy  for  three  years  (1777-80)  as  a 
traveling  student  at  the  cost  of  the  Royal  Academy ;  ap- 
pointed architect  to  the  Bank  of  England  1788 ;  executed 
plans  for  the  country-seats  of  many  of  the  opulent  gentry, 
a  volume  of  which  was  printed  in  1788;  became  clerk  of  the 
works  to  St.  James's  Palace  and  the  houses  of  Parliament 
1791,  and  Professor  of  Architecture  at  the  Royal  Academy 
1806 ;  published  a  volume  of  his  plans  of  Public  and  Pri- 
vate Buildings  (1828)  and  a  Description  (1827)  of  his  own 
house  and  museum  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  where  he  died 
Jan.  20, 1837.  This  house,  with  its  art  and  antiquarian  mu- 
seum, he  bequeathed  to  the  nation.  Among  its  treasures  are 
pictures  by  Hogarth,  Reynolds,  and  Turner,  and  models  by 
Flaxman. 

Soap  [M.  Eng.  sope  <  0.  Eng.  adpe  :  Germ,  seife  <  Teu- 
ton. *8aipjd,  whence  Lat.  sdpo  >  Fr.  savon  :  Ital.  sapone]  : 
any  salt  of  the  fatty  acids  with  a  metallic  base,  usually  a 
soda  or  a  potash.  All  the  true  Oils  and  Fats  (qq,  i\)  are 
decomposed  by  the  alkaline  hydrates,  by  certain  metallic 
oxides,  and  also  by  acids,  high  steam,  and  hot  water.  In 
the  decomposition  of  fats  by  alkalies  the  products  formed 
are  glycerin  and  the  alkali  salts  of  the  fatty  acids  which 
were  contained  in  the  fats.  This  process  is  known  as  sapon- 
ification. As  a  rule,  soaps  produced  from  soda  are  hard 
soaps,  while  those  produced  from  potash  are  soft  soaps. 
Castor  oil,  however,  forms  with  potash  a  hard  and  brittle 
soap.  A  fundamental  distinction  oet ween  the  hard  and  soft 
soaps  is  found  also  in  the  fact  that  in  the  former  the  glycerin 
is  removed  in  the  mother  liquor  or  spent  lye,  while  m  the 
latter  it  remains  mingled  with  the  semi-fluid  mass.  More- 
over, it  is  not  possible  to  dry  the  potash  soaps,  owing  to  the 
very  hygroscopic  character  of  the  base,  while  soda  soaps  may 
be  so  completely  dried  as  to  admit  of  grindinff  to  powder. 

Saponincation  takes  place  slowly  in  the  cold,  much  more 
quickly  by  aid  of  heat,  and  the  presence  or  absence  of  air  is 
immaterial.  The  result  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  fat  or 
oil  as  well  as  on  the  base ;  e.  g.  if  the  fat  is  complex— con- 
taining, for  example,  stearin,  palmitin,  olein,  etc. — then  as 
many  new  salts  are  formed  as  there  are  fatty  acids  to  com- 
bine'with  the  base. 

In  the  production  of  soap  by  the  action  of  caustic  potash 
on  stearin  (glyceryl  stearate)  the  products  are  glycerin  and 
potassium  stearate ;  thus : 

3  molecules         ni,-«*Hn        8  molecules  of  potassium 


Stearin. 


pot.  hydrate. 


Glycerin. 


(GieH.»0).  )  K,  )  (CsH.)"  )  (C.  JIs.O),  ) 

(CH.)"     )         Tin)  n,     )  K,      ) 

Formerly  in  North  America  and  Russia  much  larger 
quantities  of  potash  were  obtained  in  clearing  ui)  forests 
nian  now,  and  hence  potash  soaps  were  produced  in  pro- 
portionate quantity.  These  were,  especially  in  Germany, 
converted  into  hard  or  soda  soaps  by  utilizing  the  property 
of  the  potassium-salts  in  decomposing  common  salt  or  so- 
dium sulphate,  forming  potassium  chloride  or  sulphate  and 
soda  soap.  Moreover,  the  enormous  production  of  caus- 
tic soda  at  a  cheap  rate  consequent  on  tlie  adoption  of  Le- 
blanc's  soda-process,  stimulated  by  the  great  demand  for 
bleaching-powders,  of  which  sodium  salts  are  a  by-prod- 
uct, has  well-nigh  put  an  end  to  the  use  of  potash  in  pro- 
ducing soap,  excepting  as  an  element  of  domestic  economy 
in  those  regions  where  potash  is  still  a  common  product. 
Thus  in  Canada  and  in  some  other  parts  of  North  America 
"  pot-ashes"  and  "  pearlashcs"  are  still  articles  of  consider- 
able importance. 


SOAP 

As  a  technical  art,  soap-boiling  depends  on  the  use  «»f 
caustic  lyes  of  a  suitable  strength  for  the  saponification  ««f 
fats,  oils,  and  resins.  The  lye  of  the  soap-boiler  is  a  dilut* 
alkaline  liquor  prepared  by  the  action  of  slaked  lime  (calci  urn 
hydrate)  on  a  boiling  solution  of  3  parts  of  potassium  car- 
bonate in  12  parts  of  water,  or  the  same  quantity  of  sodiuin 
carbonate  (soda-ash)  in  half  this  Quantity  of  water.  "Th.- 
manufacturer  nowadays  Uuys  solid  caustic  soda  or  pota-^ri 
from  the  alkali-works.  The  sodium  aluminate  obtained  \>y 
the  decomposition  of  cryolite  is  used  in  the  U.  S.  under  tl:t- 
name  Natrona  refined  saponifier  for  soap-manufacturint; 
purposes  "  ( Wagner), 

The  manufacturer  of  hard  soap,  having  provided  a  stix  k 
of  alkaline  liquors  (lyes)  of  vanous  strengths,  charges  hi» 
soap-pan  with  a  quantity  of  neutral  fat  or  oil,  and  adds 
weak  liquors  of  about  l^OSO"  density.    Soap-pans  are  ma«ie 
of  iron  plates  riveted  at  the  joints,  and  of  various  sizes,  fmm 
10  to  15  feet  in  diameter  and  of  proportionate  depth,  st-t 
over  fire-chambers,  or  more  frequently  heated  by  steam, 
either  in  jackets  or  injected  from  numerous  small  holf-« 
pierced  in  pipes  introduced  into  the  liquors.    They  vary  in 
capacity,  oi  course,  but  many  hold  from  20  to  30  tuns  <  "f 
soap.    As  the  temperature  rises  and  the  oil  and  alkali  liijuor 
mingle,  a  uniform  milky  emulsion  is  formed  in  which  neitlier 
oily  globules  nor  water  are  visible  on  cooling  a  portion  of 
the  fluid.    The  operator  watches  for  this  change,  and  add> 
more  solution  of  alkali  or  water,  as  the  case  may  requirv, 
until  the  emulsion  forms  and  all  alkaline  taste  has  disaj^ 
peared,  using  the  tongue  as  a  test.    Stronger  liquors  an- 
then  added  gradually  to  complete  the  displacement  of  the 
glycerin,  which  was  begun  by  the  weak  liquors,  and   the 
boiling  continues  until  a  strong  alkaline  taste  is  detect  cnI. 
The  workman  then  adds  more  fat  or  oils,  and  repeats  i  la- 
use  of  stronger  lyes  until  gradually  the  soao-pan  is  nearly 
filled,  taking  care  that  at  the  last  there  shall  be  no  excf>- 
of  alkali.     During  this  series  of  operations  he  often  al?<> 
adds  a  portion  of  resin,  which  by  virtue  of  its  constitu- 
tion unoergoes  a  kind  of  saponification  with  alkalies,  ami 
adds  to  the  product  more  than  its  value  in  weight  and  v.  »1- 
ume.    Then  comes  the  next  important  stage  of  the  Hyny^ 
boiling  operation,  in  which,  by  the  addition  oi  salt,  the  emul- 
sion of  oils  and  idkali  is  decomposed,  the  salt  taking  the 
water  and  causing  the  precipitation  of  the  newly  foraied 
soap  in  a  curdy  or  ^anulatea  state,  floating  on  the  deiis»* 
spent  lyes  in  which  is  found  the  glycerin  and  salt,  but  no 
alkali.    This  mother  liquor,  after  the  separation  of  the  soup 
is  complete,  is  withdrawn  and  rejected  as  having  no  valiu-. 
The  imperfectly  developed  soap  is  subjected  a  second  time 
to  a  like  series  of  operations  as  at  first;  it  is  brought   by 
boiling  to  a  homogeneous  state,  more  oils  or  fats  and  stnuiir 
alkaline  liquors  are  added  until  the  whole  has  a  decided  al- 
kaline taste,  and  more  salt  is  then  added  to  cause  the  se|«- 
ration  of  the  soap  from  the  alkaline  solution,  and  the  whole 
mass  is  kept  boiling  for  some  time  until  all  the  fats,  et<... 
are  completely  saponified.     This  completes  the  chemu  al 
part  of  tne  operation  if  the  soap  contains  no  rosin,  an«l  after 
allowing  time  for  subsiding  of  the  dregs  the  *'  curd  "  is  tnm^- 
ferred  by  skimmers  to  the  **  frames,"  where  it  cools  and  lie- 
comes  solid  preparatory  to  cutting  up  for  use.    If  the  soap 
contains  rosm  it  requires  a  further  treatment  before  fram- 
ing— viz.,  the  curds,  after  removal  of  the  spent  liquor  and 
dregs,  are  melted  with  more  water  and  boiled  by  steam  or 
fire  or  both.    A  homogeneous  compound  results,  containing; 
an  indefinite  quantity  of  water,  which  is  permitted  to  n»«t 
for  two  or  three  days,  when  it  separates  into  a  stratum  of  a 
definite  compound  containing  about  65  per  cent,  of  fat 
acids,  6-5  of  soda,  and  28*5  of  water,  and  rjBsting  on  a  lower 
stratum  of  an  indefinite  compound  containing  much  nunv 
water  and  the  dregs  or  sediments  of  the  operation.     Thi< 
lower  stratum,  called  nigre,  contains  also  an  excess  of  alkali, 
and  forms  with  the  addition  of  fat  and  salt  the  staple  <»f 
another  "boil"  for  more  soap.    The  nigre  which  accumu- 
lates with  each  boil  is  used  as  a  mottling  for  clouded  s<»H|rs, 
or  may  otherwise  be  worked  up  in  subsequent  operations. 
A  strong  preference  at  one  time  existed  for  mottled  t!<>aj»>. 
founded  on  the  fact  that  in  such  soaps  no  excess  of  water 
could  exist.    The  substances  which  impart  the  mottled  n\*- 
pearance,  being  heavier  than  soap,  were  held  in  suspen- 
sion only  in  consequence  of  its  thick  and  pastv  condition. 
It  is,  however,  possible  so  completely  to  simulate  the  »\>- 
pearance  of  genuine  mottled  soap,  by  adding  mineral  and 
other  colors  during  the  process  of  hardening  to  soaps  c«»n- 
taining  much  more  than  the  normal  quantity  of  water,  that 
I  this  sign  has  lost  its  value,  and  such  mottlings  are  justly  re- 


594 


SOAP 


SOCIALISM 


much  esteemed  in  scouring  wool,  coarse  linens,  and  for 
other  like  uses  in  the  dyehouse.  As  it  normally  retains  as 
inseparable  from  it  the  excess  of  alkali,  the  free  glycerin 
and  other  impurities,  there  is  no  guaranty,  as  in  the  c*ise  of 
hard  soaps,  for  its  purity.  Hence  many  methods  have  been 
practiced  for  reducing  its  cost — as,  for  example,  the  so- 
caUed  bone  soap,form«i  by  the  addition  of  the  gelatin  from 
ground  bones,  dissolved  or  partially  decomposecl  by  potash. 
In  another  plan  hydrochloric  acid  is  used  to  dissolve  out 
the  mineral  matter  of  bones,  leaving  the  gelatin,  which, 
when  carefully  washed  free  of  acid,  is  added  during  saponi- 
fication to  the  fat.  The  soap  with  bones  is  called  "  Liver- 
pool poor  man's  soap  " ;  it  is  an  open  fraud,  since  gelatin 
and  phosphate  of  lime  can  act  only  as  useless  diluents  of 
soap.  But  this  fraud  is  harmless  compared  with  the  use  of 
the  intestines  of  animals,  skin,  sinews,  hoofs,  hair,  decom- 
posed fish,  and  other  animal  refuse.  Even  naphtha,  a  non- 
saponifiable  oil,  and  dextrin  are  sometimes  employed  in  a 
like  manner.  Soft  soap  contains,  according  to  quality,  fatty 
acids,  50  to  40  parts;  potash,  9-5  to  11"5  parts;  and  water, 
88-5  to  50-5  parts  in  100. 

SiUcated  soaps  contain  either  soluble  silica  or  sand  and 
powdered  pumice,  fuller's  earth,  and  alumina.  These  sub- 
stances act  only  mechanically  as  detergents,  and  may  be 
I)er!nitted  when  a  proper  reduction  in  price  is  allowed. 
Sand  soap,  such  as  is  used  for  scouring  floors,  contains  as 
much  as  75  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  sand,  and  the  French 
savon-mnce  (pumice-soap)  has  from  20  to  26  per  cent,  of 
grouna  silica  or  pumice.  These  comparatively  worthless 
mechanical  mixtures  have  been  replaced  by  soap  in  which 
soluble  glass,  or  silicate  of  sodium,  is  employed  with  ad- 
vantage. This  feeble  alkaline  comj)Ound  has  by  itself  a 
considerable  detergent  power,  and  when  mixed  with  ordi- 
nary soap  an  article  of  greatly  reduced  price  and  useful 
for  many  domestic  and  manufacturing  operations  is  pro- 
duced. These  silicated  soaps  are  quite  strongly  alkaline, 
owing  to  the  nature  of  the  soluble  glass ;  this  excessive  al- 
kalinity is  reduced  for  some  purjwses  by  combining,  with 
the  soap,  rosin  or  fatty  acids,  as  in  the  ordinary  process  of 
soap-making.  Carbonic-acid  and  sulphurous-acid  gases  are 
likewise  passed  into  the  liquid  for  the  purpose  of  partially 
neutralizing  the  excess  of  alkalinity. 

Toilet-soaps  are  made  from  very  pure  and  sweet  mate- 
rials— sweet  almond  oil,  beef-marrow,  refined  sweet  lard, 
saponified  without  heat  and  perfumed  with  various  essential 
oils.  Very  pure  curd  soap  is  also  used  for  the  foundation 
of  toilet-soaps,  for  which  purpose  the  sr)ap  is  reduced  to 
thin  shavings,  melted  over  a  water-bath  with  rose  and 
orange-flower  water  and  common  salt — 24  lb.  of  soap,  with 
4  pints  each  of  rose  and  orange-flower  water,  and  about  half 
a  pound  of  salt.  When  cold  next  day,  it  is  cut  in  small 
bits  ami  dried  in  the  shade,  again  melted  down  with  the 
same  proportion  of  orange  and  rose  water,  strained,  cooled, 
and  driea  again.  The  heavy  animal  odor  is  thus  removed, 
when  it  is  powdered  and  left  in  a  clean  place  exposed  to  air 
for  some  days.  After  this,  it  is  ready  to  receive  the  desired 
perfume,  and  may  be  colored  with  aniline  tints,  ultrama- 
rine, etc.,  and  moulded  in  forms  for  use.  Shav^ing-cream 
is  made  bv  beating  up  lard  with  once  and  a  half  its  weight 
of  potash-'lye,  and  perfuming  and  coloring  as  desired.  Gly- 
cerin soap  is  prei>ared  by  mixing  pure  glycerin  with  a 
toilet  soap,  or  with  the  transparent  soap  produced  from  its 
solution  in  alcohol.     It  mollifies  the  skin  in  cold  weather. 

Properties  of  Soap. — Besides  its  detergent  properties  every 
kind  of  soap  in  use  contains  a  variable  quantity  of  water, 
partly  in  chemical  combination ;  and  its  power  of  absorb- 
ing water  is  also  very  various,  being  from  7^  per  cent,  in 
hard  scnla  soaps  to  162  per  cent,  in  soft  potash  soaps  of  oleic 
acid  when  previou.sly  dried  by  artificial  heat.  Soap  is  per- 
fectly soluble  in  alcohol,  as  also  in  hot  water,  both  solutions 
becoming  of  the  consistency  of  a  jelly  on  cooling.  In  this 
state,  mixed  with  camphor  and  oil  of  rosemary,  the  alco- 
holic tincture  of  soap  is  familiar  as  opod<'ldoc,  or  lifiimfji- 
turn  saponis  composition  of  the  Pharmaropwia.  Tim»ture  of 
white  soap  is  ivadily  decomposed  by  salts  of  calcium  and 
magnesia,  and  is  familiar  to  the  chemist,  when  made  of 
normal  strength,  as  the  most  convenient  test  for  tlie  hard- 
ness of  natural  waters  (Clark's  test).  Potash  soap  is  more 
soluble  in  water  than  soda  soap.  The  sodium  stearate  is 
hardly  affected  when  i)laced  in  10  ])arts  of  water,  while  po- 
tassium stearate  thus  treated  forms  a  stiff  jelly.  Sodium 
oleate  dissolves  in  10  parts  of  water — jiotassium  oleate  in  4 
parts,  and  it  forms  a  jelly  even  with  2  parts.  Cold  water 
partially  decomposes  the' alkaline  oleates,  palmitates,  and 


stearates  (common  soap),  the  neutral  salts  being  res*->lrf-l 
into  alkali,  which  dissolves,  and  the  free  acid,  which  prei-ijn- 
tates.  This  explains  why  in  using  soap,  even  with  pur- 
water,  its  transparency  is  always  disturbed,  while  the  alk  i- 
line  property,  and  consequent  detergent  power,  of  soji|nv  ir- 
is due  to  the  liberation  of  a  portion  of  caustic  potiu^h  >t 
soda,  which  attacks  and  removes  the  grease  of  foullinen.tt. . 

The  value  of  soap  depends  mainly  on  the  amount  of  <it\ 
soap  (the  real  soap  or  alkaline  salt  of  the  fatty  acids)  in  .n  \ 
given  specimen.  The  loss  in  weight  of  a  given  am^Mim  t-i 
soap  cut  in  thin  shavings,  when  completely  desiccateii  ii  . 
drying  oven,  at  212^  F.,  is  hygroscopic  water,  which  si»*.<i.  i 
not  for  best  hard  white  soap  exceed  20  percent.,  for  iii'*- 
tled  soap  25  per  cent.,  and  for  yellow  soap  30  per  cent.  1  is- 
fat  acids  vary  from  60  to  70  per  cent.,  and  the  alkalie<  fr- ;». 
7  to  9  per  cent.,  according  to  quality.  As  before  ment  i<  »ii. .:. 
soaps  made  from  cocoanut  oil  contain  normally  much  nw-'-r* 
water,  and  in  the  yellow  soaps  from  10  to  20  per  cent-  (»f  Mi^.* 
fatty  acids  are  replaced  by  rosin. 

Soap  was  not  Known  to  the  ancients.  It  is  first  m-ii- 
tioned  by  Pliny,  who  refers  to  it  as  something  use«l  by  iij- 
Romans  for  the  purpose  of  beautifying  the  hair.  GeUr  it: 
the  second  century  states  that  soap  was  prepared  fr<»in  xa- 
rious  kinds  of  tallow  with  potash  and  hme.  It  is  si^nm 
furtiier  that  soap  is  used  as  a  medicine,  and  that  by  nwnr^ 
of  it  all  dirt  could  be  removed  from  the  body  andclutr..-. 
For  more  details  respecting  the  manufacture' of  soap,  o in- 
sult Richardson  and  Watts,  Chemical  Te4:hnology:  Mi  ^- 
nratt's  Chemistry;  Watts,  Dictionary  of  Chemistry:  Ai, 
Wurtz,  Dictionnaire  de  Chim,;  R.  S.  Cristani's  Stjap  *n.  ' 
Candles \  Dussance's  Manufacture  of  Soap;  Thorpe.  J**'- 
tionary  of  Applied  Chemisiry,     Revised  by  Ira  Kemse^n. 

Soapberry :  the  fruit  of  the  Sapindus  saponaria  and  >. 
infequalis^  West  Indian  trees  of  the  family  Sapindftr-tf. 
The  pulp  is  a  powerful  deter^nt,  much  stronger  than  omi- 
nary  soap,  and  the  hard  shining  seed  has  been  exitortf<i  ati  1 
useii  for  making  buttons,  which  are  very  durable.  In  rl»- 
southern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  there  grows  another  s<>apl«er:\- 
tree,  Sapindus  marginatus^  which  is  sometimes  40  feel  hijf . 
There  are  various  tropical  species  which  have  a  fruit  "uiii! 
an  edible  pulp,  but  the  seed  is  often  poisonous.  These  trt--^ 
have  no  practical  importance.    Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailed. 

Soapstone :  See  Steatite. 

Soapwort:  a  name  sometimes  applied  in  a  goneml  «nv 

to  the  plants  of  the  family  Sapindacece^  on  account  of  \'-  ■ 
soapy  quality  of  the  fruits  of  many  species.  It  is  alx^  t| 
name  for  plants  of  the  genus  Sapauarta  (family  Caryoy.i  .  - 
lac£(p)  and  other  plants  of  the  same  family,  which  are  si**  - 
times  utilized  for  their  detergent  powers.  There  anr  i!; 
many  parts  of  the  world  vegetables  which  are  excellent  ^in- 
stitutes for  soap.  In  some  instances  this  cleansing  p*.u>- 
depends  upon  the  i)rinciple  saponine,  found  in  p]aiit>  <  f 
widely  diverse  families.  In  the  common  soapwort  the  r  •.-• 
and  the  leaves  contain  saponine,  in  consequence  of  wln<  t 
they  often  are  used  for  washing.  The  root  has  alx»  iin.- 
dicinal  properties.  Revised  by  Charles  E.  BE^^E\. 

Sobieski :  Sec  John  III.,  Sobieski. 

Soccage,  or  Socage :  See  Tenure. 

Socialism  [from  Lat.  so'cius^  sharing,  associated,  (as  nom 
fellow,  partner,  companion]:  a  conscious  endeavor  to  <ii'- 
stitute  organized  co-operation  for  existence  in  place  nf  th 
present  anarchical  competition  for  existence:  or  the  s\<i.  • 
of  social  organization  calculated  to  bring  this  about.  '  Ti  .- 
definition,  though  it  gives,  perhaps,  adequate  expression  :  • 
the  active  and  practical  side  of  socialism,  leaves  out  of  :.i- 
count  altogether  its  theoretical  basis.  From  this  jviint 
view  socialism  is  an  attempt  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  it  .! 
science  of  sociology,  which  shall  enable  mankind,  l>y  t!;-  .- 
oughly  understanding  their  past  and  present,  to  eomj  '-•'- 
hcnd,*and  thus,  within  limits,  to  control  the  inovement  ai  i 
development  of  their  own  society  in  the  near  fntuiv.  ( - :  - 
sequently  socialism  in  its  wide  sense  is  not,  as  is  still  i.t:  - 
monly  thought,  a  mere  aspiration  for  a  better  state  of  >  - 
ciety,*  still  less  only  a  series  of  proposals  to  nHtiptt(>  "  ■' 
evils  arising  from  the  present  social  arrangements.  "^Kuiv  ri 
scientific  socialism  essays  to  give  an  intelligible  explai.:ri  ■ 
of  the  growth  of  human  society,  and  to  show  that  n.^  1 1  L 
step  in  the  long  course  of  development  from  the  institu!:-  ' 
of  private  property,  through  chattel  slavery,  serfdom,  nu  i 
wagedom,  was  inevitable,  so  the  next  step  from  eapita!>:n 
to  socialism  is  also  inevitable.  The  object  which  s«M'i.Hl.-i> 
have  in  view  in  their  propaganda  is  that  this,  the  final  irai:*'- 


696 


SOCIALISM 


to  those  who  were  in  a  position  to  purchase  this  their  only 
commodity  by  the  payment  of  daily  or  weekly  wages.  The 
payment  of  wages  by  no  means  began  with  the  decay  of 
feudalism;  that  form  of  remuneration  for  services  ren- 
dered has  itself  a  history  extending  over  manv  centuries. 
But  the  difference  between  the  wage-earner  who  accepted 
wages  from  others  in  the  intervals  between  laboring  for  him- 
self and  the  wage-earner  for  life,  between  the  independent 
Sroperty-owner  and  the  propertyless  hind  or  **  hand,"  is  a 
ifference  not  only  of  degree  but  of  kind.  The  former  was, 
on  the  whole,  economically  free,  however  badly  he  might 
be  paid  in  mere  money ;  the  latter  is  economically  a  mere 
dependent,  no  matter  to  what  point  his  wages  may  tempo- 
rarily rise.  These  wage-earners  employed  by  a  master  who 
had  accumulated  capital  by  commerce,  the  slave-trade,  or 
piracy,  worked  together  in  co-operation  in  the  workshop. 
They  produced,  primarily  in  social  combination,  articles  of 
social  use,  for  a  social  purpose,  in  the  shape  of  exchange. 
But  these  workers  had  no  share  in  the  ownership  of  the  raw 
material,  no  say  in  the  quantity  or  quality  of  the  articles 
produced,  no  control  over  the  finished  product,  which  be- 
longed to  the  master.  They  received  in  the  shape  of  wages 
that  which  represented  on  the  average  their  cost  of  subsist- 
ence, in  accoraance  with  the  standard  of  life  of  their  class, 
so  long  as  their  employer  required  their  services.  What 
then  had  happened  f  A  great  and  crucial  change  had  been 
brought  about.  The  individual  form  of  production  had 
been  transformed  into  a  social  form  of  production ;  but  the 
form  of  the  ownership  of  the  articles  thus  socially  produced, 
as  well  as  the  control  over  their  exchange,  remained  in  the 
hands  of  the  individual  master  or  employer.  Society  at  this 
stage — and  the  process  can  be  traced  at  various  periods  in 
the  development  of  all  civilized  nations — passed  from  an 
economical  condition  in  which  production  as  well  as  appro- 
priation and  exchange  were  in  the  main  individual,  to  a 
condition  of  society  in  which  production  became  social, 
but  appropriation  and  exchange  remained  at  the  entire  dis- 
posal of  individuals.  This  manifestly  involves  a  direct  eco- 
nomic antagonism,  and  that  initial  antagonism  lies  at  the 
root  of  all  the  antagonisms  of  the  modem  system  of  capi- 
talist and  wage-earning  production  for  exchan^^e  and  pront. 
Competition  now  ruled  the  market.  Competition  by  free, 
propertyless  wage-earners  below ;  competition  for  increased 
pront  by  capitalists  and  employers  above.  The  latter  were 
driven  oy  the  very  necessities  of  their  existence  to  sweep  aside 
the  old  local  restrictive  laws  of  the  Middle  Age  period;  and, 
as  they  gained  strength,  they  were  likewise  impelled  to  sub- 
stitute their  own  commercial  control  in  politics  for  that  of 
the  classes  which  had  hitherto  been  supreme.  From  this 
time  forward  all  improvements  and  inventions  went  into 
the  hands  of  the  capitalist  class  and  were  ishared  by  them, 
though  much  against  their  will,  with  the  landlords. 

Such  was  the  course  of  events  in  Great  Britain,  where  the 
economic  transformation  was  soonest  effected,  the  removal 
of  the  people  from  the  individual  or  collective  ownership  of 
the  soil  having  first  been  carried  out.  Geographical  position 
and  the  character  of  the  people  favored  this  earlier  develop- 
ment in  England,  but  all  civilized  countries  have  followed, 
or  are  following,  along  the  same  road.  Not,  however,  until 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  steam  and  the  great 
machine  industry  became  the  dominant  factore  in  produc- 
tion, was  it  possible  for  the  owners  of  the  capital  and  ma- 
chinery to  obtain  complete  control  over  the  wage-earners, 
and  to  marshal  the  industrial  army  under  their  management 
in  disciplined  array.  With  the  factory  industry,  founded 
on  the  inventions  of  Watt,  Hargi*eaves,  and  others,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  last  great  system  of  human  slavery  was  firmly 
established,  and  wherever  it  has  been  allowe(i  to  flourish 
unchecked  it  is  unquestionable  that  the  cruelty  and  physical 
degradation  by  which  it  has  been  invariably  accompanied 
fully  equal,  if  they  do  not  surpass,  in  horror  the  records  of 
the  ola  chattel  slavery  and  serfdom.  The  British  oflicial 
blue-books  show,  indeed,  that  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  and  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth,  when  unre- 
stricted freedom  of  contract  prevailed  between  the  owners 
of  the  means  of  production  and  the  workers,  women  and 
children,  to  say  nothing  of  men,  were  treated  with  more 
entire  disregard  for  common  humanity  than  were  slaves  or 
serfs  at  any  time  whatever.  Similar  causes  have  produced 
like  effects  in  other  countries,  and  the  condition  of  the  work- 
ing population  in  the  great  cities  on  both  sides  of  the  At- 
lantic, as  set  forth  in  official  reports,  proves  that  compara- 
tively little  has  been  done  to  remedy  the  evils  which  are 
inherent  in  the  competitive  system  of  wage-earning.     At 


the  same  time  the  limited  market  of  the  Middle  Ages  has 
been  converted  into  a  universal  international  market.  Ewr. 
the,nations  that  resorted  to  the  most  stringent  restriori\i 
tariffs  have  been  unable  to  extricate  themselves  from  thi 
great  market  of  the  world,  which  capitalism  has  steadily  f\- 
tended  since  the  discovery  of  America.  Commercial  wur^ 
have  but  served  to  expand  the  ever-widening  circle  of  inter- 
national commerce,  and  the  demand  for  fresh  markets  to 
meet  the  growing  output  of  commodities,  due  to  the  incre&- 
ing  power  of  machinery,  has  been  the  means  of  pushing  ex- 
peditions into  the  remotest  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  Cai>i- 
talism,  therefore,  in  pursuing  its  inevitable  course  and  in 
working  out  the  law  of  its  being,  like  the  great  siave-<u(>- 
ported  civilizations  of  antiquity  and  the  feudalism — by  ii^* 
means  confined  to  its  European  manifestation — which  feil- 
lowed,  has  unconsciously  prepared  the  waj  for  a  chaser  un- 
derstanding between  the  inhabitants  of  this  planet  than  had 
ever  before  been  possible.  The  long  slow  movement  of  ecc»- 
nomic  development  which  arises  out  of  the  institution  oi 
private  property  is  thus  approaching  its  close,  and  we  an- 
on the  threshold  of  the  greatest  and  most  cnicial  trans- 
formation that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  To  convince  the 
dominant  classes  in  every  country  that  such  a  transforma- 
tion is  inevitable,  while  eiducating  and  organizing  the  pnv 
ducing  classes,  so  that  they  may  consciously  and  intelliprit- 
ly  take  advantage  of  the  opportunities  wbich  they  inherit 
from  the  long  martyrdom  of  man  to  the  forms  of  product  k« 
and  exchange — such  is  the  task  of  the  advocates  of  socialism. 

It  has  been  seen  that  when  European  society  in  the  Midd)*^ 
Ages  changed  from  the  form  of  production  by  individual 
free  men  for  individual  use,  only  the  surplus  coming  into 
exchange,  to  the  form  of  production  in  which  groups  of 
wage-earners  worked  in  social  organization  under  em  plovers, 
all  the  goods  l)eing  made  for  the  express  purpose  of  ex- 
change, no  similar  change  was  made  in  the  ownership  of 
these  products.  That  remained  in  the  bands  of  an  in- 
dividual as  before,  who  competed  with  other  individuaK 
similarly  placed  in  economic  control  of  nominally  fn^ 
workers  for  the  sale  of  his  products.  That  which  'di^t^n- 
guishes  this  capitalist  system  of  production  from  all  pn^ 
vious  systems  is  that  it  is  carried  on  primarily  for  fin>}it 
and  exchange.  Goods  are  of  no  immediate  use  to  thf^ 
who  produce  them.  They  are  made  to  go  upon  the  market 
under  the  control  of  the  employer  who  in  order  to  keep 
his  business  going  must  sell  them  for  cash  in  competitiiio 
with  others,  who  likewise  sell  for  cash ;  and,  in  practice,  he 
can  only  hold  his  place  by  steadily  increasing  his  turnover. 
Cheapness  being  the  determining  force  in  the  bitter  com- 
mercial conflict  of  the  markets  of  the  world,  each  producer 
or  manufacturer  is  compelled  to  cut  down  his  cost  of  pro- 
duction to  the  lowest  point  possible  in  order  that  he  may  bt 
able  to  undersell  his  rivals  and  thus  enlarge  the  scope  of  hi« 
trade  and  therewith  his  personal  profit  So  early  as  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  great  economist  Sir 
William  Petty  could  speak  of  "  the  trade  of  the  world  "  as 
falling  to  the  seller  of  the  cheapest  products.  Assuming 
free  competition  to  exist,  this  is  even  more  true  now  than  it 
was  then. 

Economic  Antagonisms  under  the  Modem  Jndustriai 
System, — What,  however,  is  the  law  which  governs  the  ex- 
change of  commodities  under  the  capitalist  system  of  fret 
competition^Kiommodities  being  articles  of  recognized  Rtciai 
use  m  the  social  conditions  of  the  time,  produced  primanJy 
for  the  purpose  of  profit  and  exchange  f  Such  exchange  is « <i^ 
the  average  conducted  on  an  equality,  and  the  relative  value 
of  commodities  so  brought  forward  for  exchange  is  govemt^-. 
by  the  amount  of  social  labor  which  it  takes  to  pnHiucr 
them,  or  which  is  incorporated  in  them.  It  is  impossible  ti- 
tell  whether  a  bushel  of  wheat  is  the  product  of  the  best  or 
the  worst  land,  or  whether  a  bale  of  cloth  has  been  raaile 
by  hand  or  by  the  most  improved  or  by  inferior  machinery. 
Neither  is  it  possible  to  establish  directly  how  much  »^^ciL 
labor  is  emboaied  in  the  articles  so  brought  forward  for  ex- 
change. This  can  only  be  arrived  at  indirectly,  by  way  <>f 
such  exchangie  and  through  the  higgling  of  the' market 
But  the  amount  of  social  labor  necessary  on  the  average  to 
f)roduce  the  two  articles  exchanged  comes  k)ehind  U)th 
parties  to  the  transaction  and  settles  the  terms  on  which 
business  will  be  done.  Any  reduction  in  the  averaije 
amount  of  social  labor  incorporated  in  eitlier  of  the  com- 
modities will  reduce  its  value  to  a  proportional  extent  rela- 
tively to  the  other.  Gold  in  present  conditions  being,  when 
dug  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  a  representative  of  inr<ir- 
porated  social  labor  value,  serves  as  a  medium  of  exchaii.^^v 


4«M  liiUUl  fii 


i.  w  .... 


:i98 


SOCIALISM 


to  take  advantage  of  the  days  of  prosperity  rendered  the 
brifjhter  by  contrast  with  theprevious  gloom.    The  unem- 

5 loved  workers,  who  are  an  unfortunate  necessity  for  the 
ue  functioning  of  the  capitalist  system,  are  absorbed  into 
activity*  the  demand  for  goods  from  every  quarter  increases, 
prices  (not  values)  rise  all  alon^  the  line,  groat  works,  such 
as  railways  and  canals,  are  again  undertaken,  huge  vessels 
are  laid  down  in  all  the  ship-building  yards,  demand  in  one 
direction  enhances  demand  in  another,  wages  are  paid  on 
an  almost  unexampled  scale,  and  goods  are  turned  out  in 
greater  abundance  than  ever  before.  But  at  the  very  mo- 
ment when  the  expansion  is  at  its  height  the  collapse  be- 
gins. Suddenly  a  difficulty  arises  in  disposing  of  one  set  of 
eoods  for  money,  a  large  capitalist  has  to  press  his  bills  or 
his  commodities  upon  the  market  in  order  to  realize  their 
value  for  immediate  cash.  Others  pursue  the  same  course. 
There  is  a  general  rush  to  sell.  The  antagonism  between 
gold  and  commodities  is  felt  in  earnest.  Prices  fall  more 
rapidly  than  they  had  risen.  Workmen  are  discharged,  fac- 
tories are  shut  down  or  run  on  short  time,  furnaces  are  blown 
out,  shipping-yards  are  closed,  railways  are  suspended.  A 
crisis  has  begun;  the  incapacity  of  the  capitalist  class  to 
handle  effectively  the  machinery  of  modern  civilization  is 
proclaimed  to  the  world,  and  bankruptcy  and  stagnation  at 
once  follow.  The  social  form  of  .production  revolts  against 
the  individual  form  of  the  exchange. 

•  Tendencies  toward  the  Socialization  ofth^  Means  of  Pro- 
duction.— At  this  point  socialism  comes  in  and,  having  com- 
pleted its  analysis,  shows  how  the  antagonisms  inherent  in 
the  capitalist  system  must  be  solved  by  making  exchange 
social,  as  production  is  soc-ial ;  by  establishing  co-operative 
pro<luction  and  distribution  in  the  place  of  competitive  wage- 
dom  and  comi)etitive  capitalism.  That  which  in  itself  is 
desirable  from  the  a  priori  point  of  view,  society  is  even 
now  anarchically  and  unconsciously  working  up  to.  The 
entire  series  of  differentiations  arising  out  of  the  establish- 
ment of  private  property  having  been  passed  through,  the 
complete  reintegration  of  collectivism  or  communism  on  a 
higher  plane  is  even  now  in  progress,  without  the  vast  nia- 
iority  even  of  intelligent  and  educated  men  being  in  the 
least  aware  of  it.  Socialism  is  asserting  itself  in  modem 
society  by  reason  of  economic  causes,  as  capitalism  owed  its 
predominance  before  to  the  action  of  the  same  causes. 

Thus  the  capitalist  class  in  all  civilized  countries  have 
championed  competition  and  unlimited  right  of  free  contract 
between  the  wage-earners  and  their  employers;  but  the 
hideous  results  of  this  scramble  in  the  shape  of  physical  de- 
generation, with  accompanying  mental  and  moral  degrada- 
tion, alarmed  even  the  modern  state,  and  laws  have  been 
passed  to  limit  the  freedom  of  the  masters  and  servants 
alike  in  order  to  clieck  in  some  degree  this  serious  deteriora- 
tion. At  the  same  time,  and  as  if  in  spite  of  themselves, 
modern  statesmen,  while  upholding  stoutly  the  doctrine 
that  everything  is  best  done  oy  private  effort',  have  been  im- 
pelled to  set  on  foot  a  numljer  of  public  services,  national 
and  local,  whose  duties  are  continually  extending  in  the  face 
of  all  the  protests  raised  by  the  older  school  of  economists. 
Moreover,  there  is  a  growing  feeling  in  every  civilized  na- 
tion that  the  hours  of  labor  as  well  as  the  wagc»s  of  the  work- 
ers in  these  public  services  should  no  longer  be  governed  by 
the  law  of  curni»etition  for  subsistence  wages,  but  that  tlie 
governments  and  municipalities  should  assure  to  their  serv- 
ants a  (lay's  work  of  no  more  than  reasonable  length  in  j)ro- 
portiun  to  the  intensity  of  their  toil,  and  washes  ad(M|uate  to 
oljtain  for  thcin  a  decent  standard  of  life.  This  view, 
though  still  far  removed  from  socialism,  is  manifestlv  a 
portion  of  a  movement  which  is  leading  toward  it.  iMie 
public  services  are,  in  short,  being  transformed  in  the  inter- 
ests of  the  workers  with  the  assent  of  the  whole  community. 
In  like  manner  tlie  public  health,  the  improvement  of  the 
conditions  and  surroundings  of  the  workers  of  the  cities  in 
particular,  in  order  to  secure  to  the  working  poi)ulation  a 
better  physical  development  and  some  enjoyment  of  life — 
this  also  has  become  a  matter  of  general#"(>ncern  to  which 
national  laws  and  state  and  niuni{M[)al  orilinnnces  give  ex- 
pression. Such  inea-^ures  as  tliese  may  be  reckoned  as  con- 
scious thouijii  small  endeavors  on  tlie  part  of  society  to  cor- 
rect the  evils  of  existing  anarchy  and  to  prepare  the  way  for 
a  better  system. 

Far  more  important,  however,  are  the  nneonscious  striv- 
ings toward  the  new  j)eriod.  On  the  one  liand,  the  forma- 
tion of  companies,  consisting  of  many  l>orullK)l(lers  and 
sharehohlers,  to  carry  out  great  public  works,  and  the  trans- 
formation of  private  concerns  engaged  in  all  the  dej)art- 


ments  of  production  and  distribution  into  similar  oomiia- 
nies,  form  a  distinct  move  in  the  direction  of  80cializiiti>>n. 
The  individual  employer  is  merged  in  a  multitude  of  shar  - 
holders,  and  the  i>ecuniary  relation  becomes  the  sole  ai.  i 
only  tie  between  employere  and  employed.  This  eom^ian^ 
form  is  manifestly  an  unconscious  step  toward  social i^L.. 
seeing  that  these  great  organizations  and  corf>oran<  p-. 
whether  for  production  or  for  distribution,  are  contr*<L-' 
and  directed  by  managers  and  boards  of  directors  who.  r - 
garding  the  matter  solely  from  the  eoonoraic  point  of  vit  t, 
might  as  easily  l)e  appointed  by  the  workers  to  carry  on  t  'f 
business  in  the  interest  of  the  coramunitv  and  the  work,  r^ 
themselves  as  be  nominated  in  the  way  they  are  to-<lay  \*\ 
shareholders  who,  in  the  majority'  of  cases.'have  no  diV^  r 
knowledge  of  the  affairs  from  which  they  derive  an  incMTm  . 
and  perhaps  have  never  been  within  huiidreils  or  th<»usiih.i- 
of  miles  of  the  place  where  "their"  factories,  or  mines,  .t 
works,  or  railwavs,  or  lands  are  situated.  So  soon  as  ti<> 
economic  possibility  is  generally  recognized  the  final  chaiij:  • 
has  begun;  but  at  the  same  time  that  this  roodificaiH' 
from  the  individual  form  into  the  company  form  of  owij.-r- 
shipand  appropriation  is  taking  place,  the  private  firni>  ni.-i 
the  companies  are  alike  abandoning  competition  fcTt-^'Un  :- 
nation.  Banks  are  being  consolidated,  nationally  and  intcnia- 
tionally ;  shipping  companies  are  agreeing  not  to  com}>»  t.- : 
ioint-stock  associations  form  trusts  and  "rings,"  In  t-i.- 
U.  S.,  where  unregulated  competition  attainecl  perhaps  it- 
highest  pitch  of  development,  this  form  of  industrial  H:i«: 
financial  monop*)ly  has  unouestionably  become  more  strik- 
ing than  anywnere  else.  This  process  is  going  on  in  «' 
civilized  countries.  Moreover,  the  intrcxluction  of  inipn»vr> : 
processes  of  manufacture,  which  was  formerly  hastcneii  \>\ 
individual  anxiety  to  compete  on  better  terms,  is  now  liti- 
dered  by  the  disinclination  of  monopolists  to  disturb  vestni 
interests  with  which  they  are  well  content.  Thus  the  ("ip:- 
talist  system  of  production  no  longer  favors  human  pn>i!T»v-. 
but  heads  back  the  economic  evolution,  and  brings  aU'-.' 
periods  of  recurrent  anarchy  in  every  department  of  iini-i-- 
try.  Capitalism  therefore  is'  making  plain  the  way  In-f*  r- 
the  face  of  socialism  bv  its  unconscious  but  inevitable  in<n- 
tution  of  monopoly.  I'he  other  human  side  of  this  ct.«' 
economic  antagonism  is  likewise  unconsciously  org»ni/ii .;: 
its  forces  to  capture  these  monopolies.  Throughtmt  tii 
civilized  world  tne  workers  are  beginning  to  see  that  wbjii- 
ever  be  their  nationality,  whether  they  are  men  or  woum  n. 
skilled  or  unskilled,  their  true  interest  lies  in  the  tborouL' 
combination  of  labor  with  a  view  to  the  final  overt hn»w  -f 
the  wage  system.  Socialism  is  accepted  only  by  the  niin-  r- 
ity,  but  its  principles  are  spreading  daily,  and'  ere  hini;  i' 
will  be  universally  recognized  by  the  toilers  that  mere  strike-. 
however  well  organized,  are  almost  as  hopeless  a  raetho«i  <►: 
struggling  against  the  domination  of  capital  as  was  the  «•'.• 
plan  of  machine-breaking.  The  machines  were  uscmI  agaii.>i 
the  interests  of  the  workers;  therefore  they,  in  their  ii:ii'- 
ranee,  tried  to  destroy  them,  instead  of  combining  to  cai- 
ture  them.  The  great  monopolies  are  in  like  manner  iis^-"! 
against  the  workers;  therefore  they,  in  their  ignoran<«\  h\- 
tempt  to  strike  against  them,  instead  of  using  the  {H>liti  n. 
macninery  at  their  command  to  obtain  ix)ssession  of  ii:\ . 
manage  them.  But  with  national  and  international  «»ri:..!.- 
ization  come  also  education  and  full  apf>reciation  <»f  ri.- 
facts  of  their  s(»cial  surroundings.  Then  the  producers,  w. 
will  constitute  practically  the  whole  community,  can  ni<  ^^ 
forward  in  fraternal  solidarity  and  educated  comprehi-n-i- :. 
to  take  advantage  of  the  economic  conditions  which  h  i^ 
been  preparetl  for  them.  Each  nation  must  of  cours*'  f <  1 .  » 
the  route  marked  out  for  it  by  its  previous  economic  hi-i«r7 
and  its  geographical  jwsiticm.  It  seems  certain,  lK»\vt\»r. 
that  no  matter  by  what  means  it  may  triumph  socialism  wi . 
begin  with  the  public  services  and  the  more  highly  <h\ti- 
oped  company  forms,  and  proceed  until  pHxiuction  iv  las* 
organized  on  the  land  which  has  not  yet  reached  the  c«  ti.- 
pany  form  in  any  country. 

With  the  establishment  of  national  and  eventually  of  in- 
ternational socialism,  mankind  n^sumes  the  definite  ci»T»'r- . 
over  the  means  and  instruments  of  production,  and  nm^'t> 
them  thenceforward  for  all  time  instead  of  being  ovi.Tn..i- 
tercil  by  t  hem.  By  such  co-oi)erative  industry,  whos<*  f*.  •«•  r 
over  nature  is  increase<l  by  each  fresh  invention  and  diN-iv- 
ery,  a  carapace  of  repression  is  lifted  off  from  the  facni;.'-' 
of  each  individual,  and  wealth  being  made  as  plentiful  a^ 
water  by  light  wholesome  labor,  all  freely  contribute  <«•  in- 
crease their  own  happiness  as  well  as  that  of  their  fillv^wN 
Human  nature  assumes  a  new  and  higher  character  iu  u 


600 


SOCINIANS  AND  SOCINIANISM 


first  carried  Unitarian  doctrine  to  Poland  in  1546,  which 
afterward  became  the  seat  of  the  denomination.  Servetus 
in  1531  published  his  first  work,  De  Trinitatis  Errorihua. 
In  1532,  at  Ha^uenau,  he  published  his  Dialogorum  de 
Trinitate,  Librt  duo^  and  at  Vienna,  in  1553,  his  Chris- 
fianismi  Restitutio,  He  was  then  imprisoned  by  the  Ro- 
man Catholics  for  heresy.  Escaping,  ne  went  to  Geneva, 
where  he  was  burned  as  a  blasphemer  and  disturber  of  the 
peace.  His  heresy  was  neither  Arian  nor  Socinian,  but  ap- 
parently a  more  consistent  assertion  of  the  deity  of  Christ 
than  that  of  his  enemy,  Calvin. 

In  Italy,  where  during  the  preceding  century  religious 
faith  had  been  generally  superseded  among  the  educated 
by  a  semi-pagan  humanism,  many  prominent  persons,  af- 
fected by  the  religious  excitement  of  the  Reformation, 
adopted  rationalistic  views.  In  the  second  (quarter  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  at  Vincenza,  a  small  town  m  the  district 
of  Venice,  a  society  existed  consisting  of  persons  denying 
the  divinity  of  Clirist  and  related  doctrine.  It  was  dis- 
persed in  1546,  previous  to  which,  it  is  said,  Bernard  Ochinus 
and  Lrfelius  Socinus  joined  it.  The  latter,  born  in  Sienna  in 
1525,  was  educated  as  a  lawyer,  but  devoted  his  life  and 
great  talents  to  theological  speculations.  He  has  been  cor- 
rectly designated  "the  spiritual  father  of  Socinianism," 
while  his  nephew,  Faust  us  Socinus,  was  "  the  founder  of 
the  sect."  He  remained  ostensibly  a  member  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  at  Zurich,  althougn  by  personal  infiuence, 
wide  correspondence,  and  extensive  journeys  disseminating 
his  opinions.  He  visited  Poland  m  155*1,  and  again  in 
1558,  and  died  in  Zurich  in  1562.  His  nephew,  Faustus 
Socinus  (1539-1604),  filled  with  his  uncle's  spirit,  but  with  a 
much  more  elaborate  and  consistent  system  of  theology,  set- 
tled first  in  Basel,  was  called  into  Transylvania  to  assist 
Blandrata  in  his  controversy  with  Francis  David,  and  set- 
tled permanently  in  Poland  1579.  After  the  removal  of 
Spiritus  to  Poland  in  1546,  Francis  Lismanin,  a  Corsican 
monk  and  confessor  of  the  queen,  Bona  Sforza,  had  been 
converted  to  Unitarianism  in  1551.  He  was  soon  re-enforced 
by  Peter  Conezius  and  George  Blandrata,  a  native  of  Pied- 
mont, who  through  the  infiuence  of  Lismanin  was  appointed 
physician  to  the  aueen.  At  this  time  all  the  Protestant 
synods  held  in  Poland  embraced  promiscuously  the  minis- 
ters of  all  the  Reformed  societies,  whether  Lutheran,  Cal- 
vinistic,  or  anti-Trinitarian.  In  1565  the  latter  were  ex- 
pelled from  communion,  and  forced  to  form  an  independent 
ecclesiastical  organization.  The  Unitarian  Church  thus 
formed  comprised  persons  of  very  dissimilar  opinions. 
"  They  all  concurred  in  maintaining  the  supremacy  of  the 
Father,  but  with  respect  to  Jesus  Christ,  some  thought  him 
to  be  a  God  of  inferior  nature,  derived  from  the  Supreme 
Deity ;  others  held  the  doctrine  of  Arius,  conceiving  him  to 
have  been  the  first  created  Spirit,  who  became  incarnate 
with  a  view  to  effecting  the  salvation  of  mankind  ;  while  a 
third  party  believed  him  to  be  a  human  being.  These  last 
were  divided  into  two  classes — the  one  believing  the  mi- 
raculous conception  of  Jesus ;  the  other  considering  him  to 
have  been  the  son  of  Joseph  as  well  as  of  Mary."  Socinus 
held  that  although  a  man  only,  he  was  entitled  to  divine 
honors,  since  his  exaltation  at  the  right  hand  of  God  and 
assumption  of  the  government  of  the  Church,  while  others, 
l)re-eminently  Francis  David,  denied  this. 

From  the  advent  of  Faustus  Socinus  these  various  ele- 
ments were,  through  his  superior  genius,  wrought  into  a 
homogeneous  ecclesiastical  organization,  and  brought  into 
substantial  agreement  with  the  theological  views  of  his 
uncle ;  and  ultimately  the  denomination  and  system  of  the- 
ology took  their  historical  designation  of  "  Socinian  "  from 
these  great  leaders,  but  during  their  earlier  history  they 
were  called  Pinczovians,  from  Pinczow,  the  place  of  their 
first  settlement,  and  afterwanl  Racovians,  from  Racow,  a 
town  built  for  them  by  a  Polish  nobleman,  and  their  me- 
tropolis of  learning  ana  infiuence.  They  fiourished  exceed- 
ingly for  the  greater  part  of  a  century,  converting  to  their 
views  many  of  the  Polish  nobility ;  they  established  colleges 
which  attained  great  reputation,  attracting  multitudes  of 
Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  youth,  and  they  produced  a 
number  of  theological  speculators  and  polemics  of  great 
learning  and  ability,  whose  works  attained  a  vast  circula- 
tion. In  1563  Blandrata  went  into  Transylvania  to  attend 
the  prince,  John  Sigismund  II.,  as  a  physician,  where  he 
succeeded  in  bringing  over  to  his  own  opinions  Francis 
David,  at  that  time  superintendent  of  the  Reformed 
churches.  These  together  secured  a  large  following,  but 
the  prosiKjrity  of  the  sect  was  greatly  impaired  by  the  bitter 


controversv  which  subsequently  arose  between  Blandrata 
and  David,  the  former  affirming  and  the  latter  denying 
that  divine  honors  are  to  be  paid  to  Christ.  David  v&s 
condemned  by  the  diet  held  at  Weissenburg  in  1579,  and 
died  in  prison  in  November  following.    After  a  long  strnj:- 

fle  with  their  opponents  the  Socinians  were  suppressed  in 
*o]and  in  1658,  the  centennial  of  Blandrata^s  arrival.  Thosi* 
who  refused  to  renounce  their  opinions  went  into  Transyl- 
vania, Hungary,  and  Prussia,  and  the  majority  into  HoliaD< I, 
where  they  were  merged  with  the  Mennonites  and  Low  Ar- 
minians.  Of  churches  of  their  order  in  Transylvania  thero 
were  108  in  1887,  with  nearly  60,000  registered  members. 

A  first  catechism  was  written  by  Georcre  Schoman  <d. 
1591).  Faustus  Socinus  (d.  1604)  left  another  incomplete, 
Valentine  Schmalz  and  Jerome  Moscorovius  produced  the 
Racovian  Catechism,  the  standard  of  the  Socinian  chureh^. 
It  appeared  in  Polish  in  1605,  and  was  published  in  (Ger- 
man 1608,  and  in  Latin  1609.  An  English  edition,  produr^Ni 
in  Amsterdam  1652,  was  ordered  to  be  burned  the  same  year 
by  the  English  Parliament.  It  was  a^n  translate  and 
published  in  English  in  1818,  with  a  history  of  the  P^»li^h 
Socinians  by  Dr.  Thomas  Rees.  After  their  expulsion  fmm 
Poland,  Andrew  Wissowatius  and  other  learned  men,  find- 
ing refuffe  in  Holland,  collected  their  more  important  writ- 
ings ana  published  them  in  8  vols,  folio,  comprising  tit.* 
works  of  Socinus,  Crelius,  Schlichtingius,  and  Wolzogeniu^: 
to  which  a  ninth  volume  has  been  added,  containing  the 
writings  of  Przipcovius  and  Andrew  Wissowatius,  and  a 
tenth  volume,  containing  the  works  of  Brenins.  This  col- 
lection is  known  as  the  Bihliotheca  Fratrum  Polonowm. 

II.  Doctrine.  1.  The  Scriptures, — Socinians  admit  that 
a  supernatural  revelation  is  essential  as  a  means  lo  efftv-t 
the  salvation  of  men.  They  regard  Christianity  as  a  new  law. 
revealed  and  executed  by  Jesus  Christ.  This  revelation  i'^ 
contained  in  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  TestamentN 
and  especially  in  the  latter.  These  are  authentic,  sufficieiif. 
and  perspicuous.  Yet,  as  they  can  contain  no  elements  in- 
consistent with  reason,  they  are  to  be  interpreted  in  a  5ien*>e 
agreeable  to  reason ;  which  rule  of  interpretation  in  tiitir 
hands  led  practically  to  the  conclusion  that  although  (i>ii- 
taining  a  divine  revelation,  and  virtually  infallible,  thoT 
contain  minor  errors. 

2.  Theology. — (1)  The  divine  unity  is  inconsistent  with 
personal  distinctions.  (2)  Free  self-determination  is  mi»i>* 
fundamental  in  the  divine  nature  than  either  justice  «'r 
love.  (3)  By  the  act  of  creating  the  world,  God  has  vc^hin- 
tarily  limited  his  omnipresence  as  to  his  essence,  and  bv 
creating  free  agents  he  has  voluntarily  limited  his  fH>wt>r 
and  his  knowledge,  because  free  will  is  self-detenninni. 
and  future  contingent  events  are  not  the  objects  of  kiio^l- 
edee.  (4)  "  There  is  no  such  justice  in  God  as  requires  al>- 
somtely  and  inexorably  that  sm  be  punished.  There  is,  in- 
deed, a  perpetual  and  constant  justice  in  God,  but  thi«  i>5 
nothing  but  his  moral  equity  and  rectitude,  by  virtue  of 
which  there  is  no  depravity  or  iniquity  in  any  of  his  work-.** 
(Socinus,  Prcelecf,  Theol,,  c.  xvi.)  Hence  he  can  pardon  any 
repentant  and  refonning  sinner  without  a  satisfaction  i'> 
justice.  (5)  The  Holy  Ghost  is  the  impersonal  power  and 
efficacy  of  God. 

3.  Anthropology. — The  guilt  of  Adam*s  sin  is  not  im- 
puted. Man  was  created  naturally  mortal,  and  since  ih- 
time  of  Adam  has  gradually  acquired  an  hereditary  t^ndeni  y 
to  sin,  which  of  itself  does  not  involve  guilt.  Responsibiii*  y 
is  limited  by  ability.  Man,  animated  by  the  promise^  of 
God,  is  able  to  turn  unto  God  ;  and  when  he  does  so  turn 
and  believe,  God  seals  his  promises  more  and  more  on  L> 
heart  by  the  Holy  Spirit.    Itac,  Cat,,  sec.  5,  ch.  x. 

4.  Christology  and  Soteriology,—{\)  Christ,  as  to  his  es- 
sential nature,  is  strictly  human,  but  miraculously  gene  rat 'il 
by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  womb  of  the  Virjjm. 
Hence  ne  was  from  birth  without  sin.  At  his  baptism  W 
was  supematurally  sealed  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  quali- 
fied ana  endowed  with  authority  for  his  office  as  Prophrt, 
Priest,  and  King.  Ho  was  also  taken  up  to  heaven  and  ««i- 
mitted  to  the  vision  of  Go<l,and  instructed  in  divine  thing's 
While  on  earth  he  revealed  the  will  of  God  to  his  disi*ii>l.- 
with  divine  authority.  After  his  death  he  was  rai?*^!  t.^ 
the  throne  of  G(xi,  endowed  with  the  divine  attributes  .f 
omniscience,  omnipotence,  and  supreme  dominion.  Hf  i< 
the  rightful  object  of  divine  worship  and  of  invi>oation.  Hi- 
saves  his  people  as  Prophet  and  King,  the  office  of  VrW^^ 
l>eing  merged  in  the  other  two.  He  will  jnd«re  the  worUi  a' 
the  last  day,  and  raise  believers  to  share  in  nis  own  glorv. 
(2)  As  God's  justice  demands  no  satisfaction,  Christ's  tlcai.j 


b«»l   tH    ,|f- 


mitl  H»-«»nUti«i4iti|r 


nitAx  I .  ' .  >  •  I  4 1 


1      mi.-l^.      «     I      tH'M|'.      -IVI       Ill'.M       ►'.-Mr 


iiiF  iMii«t  ti»i  •'iteliir- 


•  1  \'y*k*  H{^^'^\  M*4«i  4^<it»tH*«,  «^itMi^t^*   Al^lfA^— 


602 


SOCIOLOGY 


Descriptive  Sooiolooy.  —  Systematic  sociology  begins 
with  analysis,  classification,  and  generalization.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  observe  the  elements  tliat  are  combined  in  social 
Ehenomena,  to  know  the  conditions  under  which  they  are 
rought  together,  and  to  examine  the  groupings  and  organi- 
zations that  result.  The  elements  of  s(X,*iety  are  all  included 
under  the  term  population,  which  must  be  studied  under  its 
outward  aspect  of  numbers,  reproduction,  increase,  density, 
migrations,  ami  the  intermingling  of  races  and  nationali- 
ties ;  and  under  its  subjective  aspect  of  sympathies,  antag- 
onisms, tolerances,  habits,  and  traits  of  character.  These 
internal  or  subjective  elements  of  society  are  combined  in  the 
subjective  as[)ect,  or  internal  constitution,  of  society  itself — 
that  is  to  say,  in  the  common  sympathy  and  purpose,  the 
accepted  tradition,  the  public  opinion,  the  general  will ;  in 
a  word,  in  the  social  mind.  Society  as  subjective,  the  social 
mind,  projects  itself  and  realizes  itself  outwardly  in  an  ex- 
ternal organization,  which  is  twofold  in  form.  There  is  a 
series  of  groups  which  are  alike  in  all  important  respects,  and 
merely  repeat  themselves  to  make  up  the  larger  aggregates. 
This  series,  which  may  be  called  the  social  composition,  in- 
cludes the  familv,  the  horde,  the  tribe,  the  town,  the  county, 
the  commonwealth,  and  the  nation.  The  other  form  of  or- 
ganization may  be  called  the  social  constitution.  Its  basis 
is  a  division  of  labor,  and  it  consists  of  associations  engaged 
in  different  activities,  some  economic,  some  political,  some 
cultural,  but  all  co-ordinated  in  one  complex  system  of  mu- 
tual helpfulness. 

Papulation. — ^The  study  of  population  in  its  outward  or 
physical  aspect  begins  with  the  facts  of  aggregation  or 
grouping.  Animal  life  and  human  population  are  massed  in 
tlense  aggregates  in  certain  places,  in  less  dense  aggregates 
elsewhere.  Comparatively  few  individuals  among  animals  or 
men  live  strictly  isolated*  lives.  This  physical  aggregation 
is  the  indispensable  preliminary  condition  to  the  evolution 
of  society.  That  there  may  be  communication,  companion- 
ship, and  mutual  aid,  there  must  be  propinquity  and  contact. 
These  are  ensured  by  the  unequal  distribution  of  food-sup- 
plies, the  varying  degrees  of  temperature  and  moisture,  the 
topography  and  other  physical  circumstances,  making  life 
in  some  places  easier  than  in  others. 

Looking  still  at  the  outward  facts  and  neglecting  for  a 
time  the  internal  factors  of  sympathy  and  social  instincts, 
we  observe  that  aggregation  is  of  two  forms.  Individuals 
descended  from  a  common  ancestry  are  often  foun<l  living 
near  each  other  in  and  alx>ut  the  place  of  their  birth,  as  in 
an  isolated  village,  whose  inhabitants  have  married  in-and- 
in  for  generations  and  have  never  separated.  This  may  be 
called  a  genetic  aggregation.  Other  individuals  born  in 
many  different  places,  perhaps  in  widely  remote  parts  of  the 
world,  are  found  assembled  and  carrying  on  tneir  life-ac- 
tivities in  one  place,  as  in  a  great  modern  city  like  London 
or  New  York.  This  may  be  called  a  congregati?  aggregation. 
The  patriarchal  theory  of  the  origin  of  society  assumed  that 
genetic  aggregation  was  the  original  fonn.  The  social-con- 
tract theory,  logically  carried  out,  would  assume  that  congre- 
gate aggregation  was  the  original  form.  Actually  no  large 
community  is  a  genetic  agijregation  only,  or  a  congregate  ag- 
gregation only.  The  vital  and  mental  energies  evolved  m 
regions  where  resources  are  on  the  whole  abundant  expend 
themselves  not  only  in  maintaining  the  food-supplies  by  in- 
dustry, and  in  perpetuating  population  by  reproduction,  but 
in  ceaseless  motion,  travel,  exploration,  and  colonizing ; 
while  on  the  other  hand,  from  regions  where  the  life-strug- 
gle is  becoming  severe,  population  moves  to  more  favored 
Areas  where  the  opportunities  are  greater.  Migration  is  thus 
A  normal  phenomenon.  Every  community  loses  in  this  way 
individuals  born  within  it  and  receives  individuals  born  else*- 
where.  Every  community  thus  has  a  mixture  of  population 
-elements,  whieli  may  be  called  its  demotic  compositKm.  At 
the  same  time  every  comuumity  excent  colonies,  and  new 
■cities  in  the  first  genonition  or  two  of  their  existence,  is  per- 
petuated mainly  by  its  own  birth-rate  rather  than  by  immi- 
gration. Society,  therefore,  we  may  say,  is  normally  au- 
togenous. It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  assimilation  of  the 
foreign-born  goes  on  with  astonishing  rapidity,  eVen  in  a 
country  like  the  U.  S.,  which  received  from  1820  to  1890  an 
immigration  of  15,437,6.57  souls. 

Turning  to  the  internal  or  psychical  factors  of  society, 
the  most  elementary  phenomena  of  social  ])sych()li)gy  are 
simple  lictivities  of  feeling,  perception,  and  will  that  involve 
two  or  more  individuals,  namely:  (1)  Mutual  perception 
and  communication,  by  motions,  tones,  or  s])eer'h;  (2)  rec- 
ognition of  fellow  beings  of  one's  own  kind  or  species  as 


like  one's  self  and  unlike  all  other  objects :  (3)  imitation; 
(4)  conflict;  (5)  toleration;  (6)  mutual  aid,  alliance;  (7) 
mutual  pleasure,  play,  festivity.  These  mutual  feelings  and 
activities  constitute  association  as  distingni&ihed  from  the 
merely  physical  phenomenon  of  aggregation.  An  imjM»r- 
tant  (juestion  to  be  answered  through  the  study  of  th*-^- 
phenomena  is  that  of  the  relation  of  the  social  to  the  in- 
dividual instincts.  The  notion  which  Hobbes  converts  i 
into  a  classical  doctrine,  that  individual  instincts  only  aro 
primitive  and  that  **  the  state  of  nature"  which  prectniMl 
society  was  "a  state  of  war,"  of  each  individual  apainst 
every  other,  is  not  supported  by  the  results  of  modern  re- 
search. Among  the  lowest  forms  of  life  creatures  dn  i\u\ 
prey  upon  their  own  kind,  but  upon  other  species.  Evi-n 
the  ama^ba,  a  mere  drop  of  structureless  sarcode,  discrimi- 
nates between  fellow  amoebie  swimming  near  and  such  fa- 
vorite food-object*  as  desmids  and  diatoms.  This  recuL^n- 
tion  of  kind  and  of  accompanying  acts  of  imitation  U'gin> 
when  a  sentient  creature  identifies  the  feeling  of  touching  a 
fellow  creature  as  like  the  feeling  experienceil  when  it 
touches  one  part  of  its  own  body  with  another  part.  Su<h 
feelings  can  not  be  associated  with  nutrition  because,  eT»*n 
though  one  pseudopodium  of  an  amoeba  encountering'  an- 
other should  coalesce  with  it,  nutrition  would  not  follow. 
Therefore,  at  the  dawning  of  consciousness  fellow  creatun-s 
of  the  same  species  can  not  regard  each  other  as  ftxnl-oh- 
jects.  On  the  contrary,  they  necessarily  imitate  one  an- 
other in  capturing  non-related  food-objects,  since  the  touch 
of  a  moving  part  of  one  is  to  another  a  stimulus  like  ih.- 
touch  of  a  moving  part  of  itself  against  itself,  and  "Starts 
like  motions.  Consequently  these  beginnings  of  social  foil- 
ings  and  social  actions  are  as  primitive  as  the  individual  in- 
stincts. ,  Among  the  lowest  animal  forms,  as  among  civii- 
ized  men,  the  stniggle  for  food  is  normally  a  rivalry  or  c<»m- 
petition  rather  than  a  "  war." 

Under  the  pressure  of  scarcity,  however,  conflict  may  ar 
any  time  break  out.  Cannibalism  has  doubtless  everywlun* 
had  its  origin  in  starvation.  Toleration  is  then  re-establi-hrti 
by  force,  not  by  moral  feeling,  nor  by  a  conscious  calcn'.u- 
tion  of  expediency.  The  very  strong  kill  off  the  very  wrnk. 
The  very  strong  are  overborne  by  the  numerical  superiority 
of  the  individuals  of  average  power.  The  latter  are  i««ii 
nearly  ecjual  for  one  to  hope  to  vanquish  another,  and  their 
resulting  toleration  is  an  equilibrium  of  strength,  which  i< 
tested  from  time  to  time,  and  so  maintained,  by  frefjuen: 
acts  of  aggression  and  revenge.  Toleration  being  cstal»- 
li3hed,fellow-feeling,syra])athy,and  imitation  can  work  thvm- 
selves  out,  step  by  step,  with' the  evolution  of  intelligi*nre. 
in  the  positive  forms  of  mutual  aid,  alliance,  and  mutiml 
pleasure.  Mutual  aid  begins  in  accidental  helpfulness  nn-i 
protection,  and  is  perpetuated  consciously  when  its  iKMutii? 
are  perceived.  Social  pleasures  are  observed  among  nearly 
all  the  higher  animals,  as  among  men.  Among  the  bir>iV 
and  the  more  intelligent  mammals  infancy  and  youth  are 
a  continuous  playtime.  In  social  pleasures! he  higher  >yrn- 
pathetic  feelings,  which  presently  become  the  stn:>ngT*>t  >«w 
cial  bonds,  are  developed,  and  the  cultural  activities  are 
born.  Mutual  aid  is  the  foundation  of  political  alliance  ami 
of  economic  organization.  Toleration  is  the  foundation  of 
justice.  Imitation  is  the  foundation  of  diversifieil  de>in> 
and  individual  industry. 

Ass(x*iation  reacts  on  the  associated  individuals.  devcl<.j>- 
ing  in  them  a  social  nature ;  but  owing  to  differences  \A 
circumstance  and  of  heredity  the  development  dt>t»s  not  ::i. 
on  e(jually,  or  at  the  same  rate,  in  all  parts  of  the  populh- 
tion,and  social  classes  result.  In  a  majority  of  individuaN 
fellow-feeling,  imitativeness  amounting  to  industry.  t«'Ur- 
ance  amounting  to  justice,  helpfulness,  and  comi>anionabIr- 
ness,  are  ruling  qualities.  This  class  is  the  normally  siK  ial. 
In  other  individuals  these  Qualities  are  deficient  of  al»<«i.i, 
but  are  simulated.  Pretending  to  have  the  s*)cial  nntur. 
and  appealing  to  those  in  whom  it  is  real,  these  psiuilt*- 
social  characters,  if  not  aggressively  anti-social,  nuiko  »:|> 
the  pauper  class.  Yet  others,  whether  simulating  the  MH-in: 
nature  or  not.  having  become  aggressively  anti-social,  an- 
the  criminal  class. 

The  Social  Mind. — The  foregoing  mental  and  moral  tl,*- 
ments  of  societv  are  combined  in  prmlucts  which  we  ca!!  1»t 
such  terms  as  the  common  feeling,  the  moral  sense,  the  \n\\^ 
lie  opinion,  the  general  will,  of  the  community,  and  wlm  !i 
it  is  ccmvenient  for  the  swiologist  to  name  collectivelv  ihi 
social  mind  or  the  social  consciousness:  but  care  is  ruiv^- 
sary  to  avoid  associating  false  conceptions  with  these  tenii>. 
They  do  not  stand  for  mere  abstractions.     The  S4K.nal  ini:. . 


604 


SOCIOLOGY 


of  a  given  trade-union  are  more  alike  with  reference  to 
the  purpose  which  unites  them  than  one  trade-union  is  like 
another;  otherwise  the  differing  members  would  connect 
themselves  with  other  unions.  The  members  of  a  given 
church  are  more  alike  in  feeling  and  belief  than  one  church 
is  like  another.  The  members  of  trade-unions  collectively 
or  of  churches  collectively  are  more  alike  than  trade-unions 
in  general  are  like  churches  in  general.  Each  association 
does  a  specific  work ;  it  may  be  said  to  have  a  functional 
purpose.  Combination  among  associations  is  therefore  a  co- 
ordmation,  and  mutual  aid  among  them  is  not  through 
mere  increase  of  mass  and  power,  but  by  a  division  of 
labor. 

The  social  constitution  is  analogous  to  that  of  a  biotic  or- 
^nism,  as  Spencer  has  shown ;  but  the  analogy  is  of  lim- 
ited value  for  scientific  purposes  until  supplemented  by  a 
close  study  of  those  features  of  social  organization  that  are 
distinctive.  Of  these  the  most  important  is  a  more  perfect 
actual  or  potential  duplication  in  ttie  social  organization  of 
the  or^ns  or  agencies  for  performing  every  essential  func- 
tion. Though  in  the  animal  many  vital  organs  are  dupli- 
cated, there  neither  is  nor  can  be  any  complete  duplication 
of  the  alimentary,  the  circulatory,  or  the  nervous  system. 
Public  association  or  the  state  can  at  need  assume  every 
social  function.  Voluntary  association  can  do  the  same.  It 
is  as  if  the  cerebral  nervous  system,  on  the  one  hand,  had 
the  emergency  power  to  organize  from  the  body-tissues  a 
new  alimentary  and  circulatory  system,  and  the  sympa- 
thetic nervous  system,  on  the  other  hand,  could  at  will 
assume  the  functions  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  This 
power  of  public  and  of  private  association  to  assume  each 
other^s  functions  is  maintained,  because  at  all  times  some 
duplication  is  in  fact  kept  up  in  every  essential  class  of 
social  services.  The  error  of  attributing  to  the  state  de- 
fensive and  juridical  functions  only,  and  to  private  associa- 
tions economic  and  cultural  functions  only,  is  being  con- 
stantly repeated  in  political  and  economic  writing.  The 
fact  is  that  the  state  perforins  always  important  econom- 
ic functions  of  production,  transportation,  exchange  and 
finance,  and  cultural  functions,  religious  or  educational,  and 
that  private  associations,  such  as  political  parties,  political 
clubs,  revolutionary  societies,  and  private  tribunals  to 
achieve  political  or  juridical  ends,  are  among  the  most  im- 
portant voluntary  organizations  known.  The  socialists, 
therefore,  are  right  in  saying  that  the  state  could,  if  neces- 
sary^ and  desired,  carry  on  all  social  undertakings,  and  the 
individualists  are  right  in  saying  that  society  could  got  on, 
and  in  a  way  achieve  its  ends,  without  the  organized  state  ; 
but  both  are  wrong  in  supposing  that  either  thing  will  hap- 
pen under  a  normal  social  evolution.  The  actufd  distribu- 
tion of  functions  between  public  and  private  agencies  is  a 
varying  one,  always  changing  with  changing  circumstances. 
Consequently,  movements  tending  to  increase  public  activity 
on  the  one  hand  or  to  enlarge  the  opportunities  for  private 
initiative  on  the  other  hand  will  be  self -limiting  so  long  as 
conditions  are  normal.  They  should  be  regarded  as  tenden- 
cies toward  equilibrium.  Whatever  belittles  the  state  or 
destroys  popular  faith  in  its  power  to  perform  successfully 
any  kind  of  social  service — whatever  impairs  the  popular 
habit  of  achieving  ends  by  private  initiative  and  voluntarv 
associations,  by  so  much  endangers  society,  checks  its  devel- 
opment, and  prevents  the  full  realization  of  its  ends. 

The  supreme  end  of  society  is  the  protection  and  perfect- 
ing of  sentient  life.  The  end  of  human  society  is  tne  evo- 
lution of  the  rational  and  spiritual  personality  of  its  mem- 
bers. The  associations  directly  concerned  in  this  function 
are  the  cultural,  namely,  the  religious,  the  scientific,  the 
ethical,  and  the  testhetic,  the  educational  organizations,  and 
what  is  called  polite  societv.  Economic,  legal,  and  political 
organization  exists  (in  a  functional  sense)  for  the  sake  of 
cultural  organization  and  activity.  The  social  mind  always 
has  perceived  this  truth,  and  by  means  of  its  sanctions  has 
endeavored  to  mould  the  social  constitution  into  accordance 
with  it.  Associations  and  relationships  sanctioned  by  the 
social  mind  are  known  as  institutions,  and  they  are  fostered 
or  abolished  always  with  a  view  to  cultural  as  well  as  to  pro- 
tective ends.  For  both  ends  specialization  and  division  of 
labor  are  necessary.  Society  is  obliged  to  tolerate  and  pro- 
mote diflferentiation  in  its  constitution  while  it  maintains  the 
homogeneity  of  its  com[)osition.  Psychologically,  therefore, 
the  social  constitution  may  be  described  as  an  alliance  of 
the  like  and  non-toleration  of  the  unlike  in  each  simple  as- 
sociation, supplemented  by  toleration  and  co-ordination  of 
the  unlike  in  complex  association — that  is  to  say,  in  the  re- 


lations of  each  association  to  other  associations  and  to  so- 
ciety at  large. 

Historical  Sociology. — The  stages  of  sequence  in  social 
evolution  have  corresponded  roughly  to  the  four  stages  (if 
synthesis  above  described.  Concourse,  fellow-feeling,  so- 
cial instincts,  and  mutual  aid  had  their  origins  in  aiunial 
society,  and  it  was  by  means  of  them  that  animal  life  V8> 
developed  into  various  types.  The  first  stage  of  associat  ion. 
therefore,  was  zo6genic.  In  the  second  stage  the  evolutioD 
of  speech  and  the  genesis  of  a  varied  tratlition  made  the  s> 
cial  mind  self-conscious,  and  transformed  the  anthrotwid 
into  roan.  Society  then  was  anthropogenic.  The  cnird 
stage,  in  which  the  social  mind,  acting  on  spontaneous 
forms  of  alliance,  created  clan,  tribe,  folk,  and  nation,  was 
ethnogenic.  In  the  fourth  stage  a  wonderful  development 
of  the  social  constitution,  with  division  of  labor,  has  made 
possible  a  high  utilization  of  resources,  a  rapid  multiplica- 
tion of  population,  and  a  democratic  evolution  of  the  social 
mind.    Society  has  become  demogenic. 

Zoogemc  assoeiaiion  is  as  old  as  sentient  life.  All  bio- 
logical speculations  that  ignore  the  social  factor  in  the 
struggle  for  existence  are  imperfect,  and  without  appeal  to 
it  the  evolution  of  animal  intelligence  can  not  be  explained 
at  all.  Long  before  man  appeared  on  the  earth  sympathr 
was  highly  aeveloped,  the  art  of  communicating  feeling>> 
and  simple  ideas,  oy  tones  and  gestures,  was  practiced  b\ 
millions  of  creatures,  family  relationships  were  established, 
and  bonds  of  mutual  aid,  companionship,  and  pleasure  held 
together  swarms,  flocks,  troops,  bands,  and  nerds.  Even 
the  beginnings  of  tradition  had  appeared.  Association  ha<i 
become  the  most  important  defense  and  help  in  the  life- 
struggle.  The  survival  of  the  fittest  was  the  survival  of  the 
social. 

Anthropogenic  Association, — ^Therefore  nothing  could  W 
more  unscientific  than  a  theory  of  human  origins  through 
the  evolution  of  a  single  pair  of  anthropoid  apes  into  man 
and  woman.  If  science  abandons  the  dogma  of  special 
creation,  it  must  abandon  also  the  dogma  of  a  first  pair. 
There  could  have  been  no  continuity  of  animal  and  human 
descent  without  a  continuity  of  animal  and  human  society. 
If  anthropoid  apes  became  simian  men,  a  whole  communitr 
or  many  communities  underwent  the  transformation.  Jdm 
Piske's  theory  {Outlines  of  Cosmic  Philosophy,  Boston,  1874 > 
that  the  prolongation  of  infancy,  as  an  incident  of  the  physical 
evolution  of  man,  by  holding  the  family  together  for  a  rel- 
atively long  period  prepared  the  way  for  more  extended  so- 
cial relations,  reverses  the  probable  order  of  cause  and  effect. 
Increasing  social  intercourse  stimulated  and  developed  the 
cerebral  nervous  system.  Cerebral  development  entailed 
the  prolongation  of  infancy,  which,  in  turn,  oy  delaying  the 
use  of  arms  and  legs  and  jaw,  altered  the  proportions  of  the 
skeleton  and  the  facial  angle. 

These  changes,  it  is  probable,  took  place  sten  by  step  with 
the  evolution  of  speech  and  of  tradition.  Many  evidences 
point  to  communal  festivity,  with  its  attendant  rhythmi<«l 
gesticulation  and  some  approach  to  song,  as  the  means  l>y 
which,  under  the  infiuence  of  mental  exaltation,  conven- 
tionalized sounds  were  so  definitely  associated  with  feelings 
and  ideas  as  to  constitute  the  beginnings  of  speech.  {S«»» 
Language.)  Industrial  traditions  had  their  beginnini.^ 
among  animals.  Most  characteristic  of  the  beginnings  oi 
human  society  were  the  primitive  explanations  and  tradi- 
tions of  life,  death,  and  causation,  known  as  Animism  (g.  v.\ 
and  the  ghost-theory.    See  also  Anthbopolooy. 

Ethnogenic  Association, — There  is  no  reason  to  doul>t 
that  the  earliest  hordes  of  men  were  composed  of  family 
groups.  Amonf^  the  higher  mammals  the  troop,  band,  or 
herd  is  subdivided  into  nairs,  families,  or  studs,  and  it 
would  be  astonishing  to  find  that  the  same  thing  wa^  not 
true  of  the  primitive  hordes  of  men.  At  the  same  time  the 
relations  of  the  sexes  may  have  been  of  the  loosest  descrip- 
tion. Writers  on  the  history  of  marriage  have  too  often 
made  the  mistake  of  assuming  that  the  two  things  must  be 
inconsistent.  The  living  together  of  man  and  woman  di>e< 
not  always  preclude  irregular  indulgence  on  the  part  of 
either.  Festival  occasions  are  still,  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  opportunities  for  conduct  closely  approaching  pn>- 
miscuity  by  men  and  women  who,  none  the  less,  live  habitu- 
ally in  family  relations.  The  trading  of  wives  also,  and  the 
lending  of  wives  to  guests,  are  customs  of  friendship  and 
hospitality  in  many  communities. 

It  is  probable,  further,  that,  tvs  a  rule,  the  domestic  jrn^»p 
was  a  simple  pairing  or  monogamous  family,  in  which  nml^- 
jealousy  and  power  played  the  important  jwrt  ascriln^l  t" 


•liij.oir 


liu.   W4t^    tJC  aiiuUiii'  ^>aUti 


<{Ui    iiU 


606 


SOCIOLOGY 


SOCRATES 


spontaneity  to  system.  The  civilizations  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  like*  those  of  the  Eastern  nations,  were  unstable,  be- 
cause they  were  surrounded  by  a  worldwide  environment 
of  barbansm  and  savagery.  The  modem  Western  civiliza- 
tions are  stable  because  they  simultaneously  grew  to  great 
and  powerful  statehood  in  an  environment  of  civilization, 
whicn  for  ages  had  lain  between  them  and  the  more  remote 
barbarism  of  Africa  and  Asia.  Consequently  there  was  no 
necessity  for  an  extreme  sacrifice  of  personal  initiative  and 
the  lesser  interests  of  life.  The  second  stage  also  with  them 
was  no  partial  evolution.  The  Renaissance,  the  Protestant 
Reformation,  the  American  and  the  French  revolutions  were 
but  so  many  phases  of  a  thoroughgoing  criticism  and  recon- 
struction of  tne  social  constitution  on  lines  of  legality  and 
free  association.  Bv  means  of  this  strong  but  elastic  union 
of  voluntary  and  flexible  organization  with  law,  the  mag- 
nificent development  of  modern  industry  and  a  consequent 
multiplication  of  population  without  parallel  in  history  have 
been  made  possible. 

Spencer's  generalization  that  societies  are  military  or  in- 
dustrial in  type  is  therefore  neither  adequate  nor  altogether 
accurate,  in  tne  form  in  which  he  has  stated  it.  Militarism 
and  industrialism  are  stages  rather  than  types,  and  between 
them  lies  the  stage  of  critical  and  legal  reconstruction,  which 
is  the  cause,  rather  than  the  effect,  of  industrial  evolution. 

The  development  of  the  fundamental  social  interests  thus 
reverses  the  order  of  their  genesis.  Society  is  first  eco- 
nomic, then  juristic,  then  political.  Perfecting  then  the 
political  system,  it  works  back  through  law  to  the  economic 
foundations.  Not  so  in  its  cultural  interests.  The  order  of 
their  genesis — religious,  scientific,  ethical — is  the  order  of 
their  development.  The  political  era  is  also  the  ^reat  re- 
ligious period ;  society  is  theocratic.  Then  the  social  mind 
goes  forward  to  critical  and  scientific  activity  while  it  ap- 
plies itself  to  le^l  construction,  and  it  is  only  by  the  aid  of 
science  and  criticism  that  legal  construction  is  accomplished. 
Finally,  when  it  works  bacK  to  industrial  problems  it  ad- 
vances to  a  serious  study  of  ethical  principles  and  ideals, 
and  only  as  it  does  so  can  it  hope  to  adjust  the  complicated 
relations  of  economic  life.  Future  society,  increasingly  eco- 
nomic, will  be  also  increasingly  ethical. 

ExPLANATOEY  SOCIOLOGY. — I'hc  details  of  explanatory  so- 
ciology are  yet  to  be  worked  out,  but  certain  principles  are 
established.  The  interpretations  of  social  structure  and  evo- 
lution must  be  in  terms  of  natural  causation ;  but  psycho- 
logical phenomena,  no  less  than  physical,  are  natural,  and 
society  must  be  explained  in  terms  of  motives  and  choices, 
as  well  as  in  terms  of  outward  forces. 

The  initial  causes  of  society  are  physical.  Aggregation 
and  association  are  brought  about  by  geographical  and  or- 

fanic  conditions;  but  association  furthers  survival  and 
appiness,  and  the  associated  individuals,  becoming  con- 
sciously and  fully  aware  of  the  benefits  of  society,  attempt 
to  defend  and  improve  it.  The  unconscious  natural  process 
thus  becomes  conscious  and  artificial.  Relations  and  activi- 
ties are  valued,  choices  are  made,  policies  are  devised,  and 
institutions  founded.  The  process  does  not  end  here,  how- 
ever. Natural  selection  works  among  policies,  laws,  and  in- 
stitutions, as  among  individuals.  Some  fail  to  benefit  the 
community,  and  disappear.  Those  that  survive  are  not  al- 
ways the  ones  that  were  supposed  to  be  most  promising  at 
their  inception. 

The  further  task  of  sociology,  therefore,  is  to  discover  the 
details  and  laws  of  these  complicated  processes.  It  must 
try  to  formulate,  first,  the  laws  of  the  purely  physical  and 
unconscious  causation  that  occurs  in  society;  second,  the 
laws  of  conscious  social  choice;  and,  third,  the  laws  that 
govern  the  natural  selection  and  survival  of  arrangements, 
laws,  and  institutions. 

Society  has  often  been  described  as  an  organism.  Being 
essentially  psychical  it  is  more  and  higher  than  an  organism. 
It  is  also  more  than  a  multitude  of  individual  minds.  It  is 
a  psychological  organization  of  conscious  organisms. 

In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  in  the  text,  see  G id- 
dings.  The  7Vieory  o/.S'or/o/or/// (Phihulelpliia,  1804);  Durk- 
heim,  Les  Jiegl 68  de  la  Metliode  sociolor/iqne  (Paris,  1895); 
Darwin,  Descent  of  Man  (London,  1871);  Morgan,  Arwienf 
Society  (New  York,  1877);  J.  Donovan,  The  Fental  Origin 
of  Human  Speech  in  Mind  (Oct.,  1891);  Sir  Henry  S.  Maine, 
Early  Ilintory  of  Institutions  (London,  1875)  and  Early ^ 
Laic  and  Custom  (London,  1888) ;  Weslcnnarck,  History  of 
Human  Marriage  (London,  1891) ;  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  La 
Cite  antique  (1864;  Eng.  trans.  I3(>ston,  1873);  Smith,  Kin- 
ship in  Arabia  (London,  1885).     Franklin  U.  Giddinos. 


Socor'ro  :  town  of  Colombia  ;  in  the  department  of  Snr.- 
tander,  of  which  it  was  formerly  the  capital :  on  a  platen  i 
40  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Bucaramanga ;  4.120  feet  above  tlir  -«  i 
(see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  2-(').  It  was  fountle^l  it. 
1540  on  the  site  of  an  Indian  citv,  and  was  removed  to  it- 
present  site  in  1681.  In  1781  it  w'as  the  center  of  a  ff.ni.i- 
dable  revolt,  and  it  was  the  first  place  in  New  Grana/la  t.. 
declare  for  independence  in  1810.  Hand- woven  mantlt-<  ixiA 
"  Panama  "  hats  are  exi)orted.   Pop.  about  18,000.  II.  H.  S. 

Socorro  :  city  :  capital  of  Socorro  co.,  N.  M. ;  on  the  Ri- 
Grande  river,  and  the  Atch.,  Top.  and  S.  Fe  Railroad :  7:. 
miles  S.  by  VV.  of  Albuquerque;  178  miles  N.  of  El  P;i«-.. 
Tex.  (for  location,  se^map  of  New  Mexico,  ref.  12-R).  It  :- 
engaged  in  mining  and  smelting  gold,  silver,  and  lea<l,  raid- 
ing cattle,  sheep,  and  ^oats,  agriculture,  fniit-culture.  a?  i 
lumbering;  and  contains  6  churches,  3  public-school  bu  li- 
ings  of  brick  (cost  $25,000),  State  School  of  Mines  (cost  i'lM.- 
000),  2  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $10o'<itHi 
and  2  weeklv  newspapers.  The  city  has  an  excellent  clima', 
that  is  highly  recommended  for  prsons  in  the  early  stage>  ..f 
consumption.  When  discovered  by  the  Spaniards,  the  si'*- 
was  occupied  by  an  Indian  pueblo.  The  place  was  settle.! 
by  Franciscan  fathers,  was  destroyed  and  abandoned  in  DV)''. 
and  was  again  settled  in  1765,  lt94,  and  1804.  Pop.  (Ismk 
1,272  ;  (1890)  2,295 ;  (1895)  estimated,  4,000. 

W.  S.  Williams,  kditoe  op  "CniEFTAiy." 

Soco'tra  :  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  off  the  e&sttn> 
coast  of  Africa;  in  lat.  12°  39  N.,  Ion.  54°  1'  E.,  140  mii*- 
N.  E.  of  Cap©  Guardafui;  controlled  by  Great  Britain. 
Area,  1,384  sq.  miles.  The  interior  of  the  island  is  moun- 
tainous, and  mostly  unproductive,  on  account  of  insuili- 
ciency  of  water,  the  streams  drying  up  completely  at  certain 
periods,  but  the  coast-land,  generally  from  2  to  4  miles  bn»a*  . 
IS  low,  level,  and  fertile.  Tne  Island  produces  good  toliaoi-^ 
and  dates  and  the  best  aloes  known,  and  has  superior  sli*^  ;• 
and  goats.  There  is  considerable  trade  with  Muscat.  !}.♦- 
climate  of  Socotra  is  more  temperate  than  that  of  the  ad- 
jacent continent.  Pop.  estimated  at  10,000,  mostly  Arat-. 
Negroes,  and  descendants  of  Portuguese. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Haekisgton. 

Socrates,  sok'ra-teez:  philosopher;  son  of  Sophronr^<uv 
and  Phajnarete ;  b.  at  Athens  in  470  b.  c.  (or  469,  in  ^!av  .r 
June);  drank  the  cup  of  poison  399  b.  c.  (in  April  or  Mav  f , 
His  father  was  a  sculptor,  and  Socrates  in  his  earlv  vt'ar- 
worked  at  the  same  occupation.  He  alludes  to  his  *m«»th  r 
{Theoftefu^)  as  a  midwife,  and  likens  to  her  art  his  own  i^kill  jt. 
drawing  out  ideas  by  conversation.  In  his  youth  he  lean.-.  .1 
geometry  and  astronomy  and  practiced  gymnastics,  llv  i- 
reported  by  Plato  (Phcedo)  as  having  studied  the  work  •  f 
Anaxagoras  on  Nature,  probably  under  the  instruction  » ( 
Ai-chelaus,  the  disciple  of  Anaxagoras;  and  aceordin?  !•• 
Xenophon  (Mem.  L  and  IV.)  he  had  a  critical  know  led gv  .  f 
the  writings  of  the  earlv  wise  men,  as  well  as  of  the  I»ti'- 
school  of  philosophy,  ije  probably  met  Parmen ides  win  n 
about  twenty  years  of  age,  and  mastered  the  Elcatic  view  ..: 
negative  dialectic  (which  proved  its  theories  by  showing  ii:» 
the  contradictions  of  its  opponents),  and  was  tlioroughlv  in- 
structed in  the  doctrine  of  the  Sophist* — possibly  may  hav* 
received  direct  instruction  from  Prodicus,  It  Is  saiii  t) .»! 
having  early  lost  the  patrimony  inherited  from  his  fatli.  r. 
the  wealthy  Crito  assisted  him  in  his  education,  and  tii.- 
ployed  Evenus  to  instruct  him  in  poetry,  Theodorus  in  £^'<Hll- 
etry,  and  Damo  in  music,  and  that  the  celebrated  Aspa-^M 
had  a  share  in  his  culture.  He  married,  and  had  three  son-. 
Xantippe,  his  wife,  has  come  down  in  history  as  the  tyjMr.m 
scold.  Socrates  is  rej)resented  as  using  the'violence  of  hir 
temper  as  a  means  of  cultivating  his  patience.  lie  took  |v«r 
in  tnrce  military  campaigns  with  his  fellow  citizens — Ih.st  .f 
Potidjea  (482  b.*c.).  wherein  he  saved  the  life  of  the  ynurii: 
Alcibiades,  who  was  wounded ;  that  of  Delium  (424  b.  r.).  va 
which  he  saved  the  life  of  Xenophon,  and  himself  rrct'ivr.i 
assistance  against  his  Boeotian  pursuers  from  Alcibi^ull>  ir. 
the  disastrous  retreat  which  followed,  and  wherein  hi<  own 
cool  bravery  was  conspicuously  manifested;  and  thai  of 
Amphipolis  (422  B.  c).  He  proved  himself  to  have  an  »'\- 
tnwirdinary  ca[)acity  to  endure  cold,  heat,  and  fatigue.  1 1-, 
walked  barefoot  upon  the  ice  and  snow  of  Thraee  in  hi- 
usual  clothing,  while  others  were  clad  in  furs.  By  thi^  tin  ^ 
he  had  become  noted  for  his  peculiar  mode  of  instruct i(»?i  l'^ 
means  of  conversations  which  he  held  with  people  <>f  a!. 
classes  at  the  public  resorts.  Aristophanes  in  The  CluOih 
held  him  up  to  ridicule  as  the  arch-Sophist,  as  a  dream*  r 
morally  worthless  and  physically  incapable  (as  Grole  n- 


008 


SODA 


SODIUM 


works,  especially  the  Apoloqy^  Phcsdo^  and  Symposium; 
Aristotle's  Metaphysica  ana  Ethics;  Diogenes  Laertius 
(book  ii.) ;  and,  among  others  of  modem  writers,  the  essays 
of  Schleiennacher,  Boeckh,  Van  Heusde,  Ilegel,  Forchham- 
mer,  Brandis,  Rotscher,  and  Grote  are  important.  Zeller's 
Socrates  and  the  Socratie  Schools  is  the  best  work  accessible 
in  English.  Wiluam  T.  IIarris. 

Soda  [from  Ital.  soda,  liter.,  fern,  of  sodo  (coUat.  form  of 
solido,  solid)  <  Lat.  soldus,  collat.  form  of  so'lidtis,  solid] :  in 
<?hemi8try,  a  hydrous  oxide  of  the  metal  Sodium  (q,  t'.),  Na^O; 
in  commerce,  however,  the  compound  formed  by  the  action 
of  water  upon  this  oxide,  and  generally  designated,  even  by 
chemists,  hydrate  of  soda  or  sodium  hydrate.  The  carbon- 
ates of  sodium  also  are  often  called  soda  commercially.  Sodi- 
um hydrate,  NaOH,  or  caustic  soda,  is  prepared  commercially 
from  the  carbonate  by  the  action  of  lime.  Three  parts  of 
crystallized  carbonate  (sal-soda)  are  dissolved  in  five  times 
as  much  boiling  water,  and  one  part  of  quicklime,  slaked 
and  mixed  to  a  cream  with  three  parts  of  water,  is  gradually 
add^,  with  continued  ebullition.  The  caustic  solution  is 
then  decanted  after  settling,  and  boiled  down  rapidly  with 
the  access  of  air.  From  the  residue  pure  caustic  soda  may 
be  dissolved  out  by  alcohol,  which  is  then  distilled  off ;  but 
for  most  commercial,  manufacturing,  and  medical  uses  the 
residue  is  merely  melted  and  cast  into  sticks,  which  are  pre- 
served in  bottles.  Much  caustic  soda  is  also  made  by  heat- 
ing or  boiling  together  the  Greenland  mineral  cryolite  with 
hydrate  of  lime.  The  compound  is  white,  opaque,  crystal- 
line, and  melts  below  incandescence.  It  is  used  largely,  in 
the  form  of  solution  or  soda-lye,  for  making  soap. 

Revised  by  Ira  Rehsen. 

Soda-ash :  crude  soda,  as  first  produced  before  having 
gone  through  any  refining  processes.  Previous  to  the  French 
Revolution  of  1789  the  only  source  of  the  alkali-soda  was 
from  the  ashes  of  marine  and  seashore  plants,  or  kelp.  The 
trade  in  kelp  ceasing  during  the  Revolution,  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety  in  France  called  \x\toji  chemists  to  find 
some  new  source  of  soda,  all  the  potash  attainable  being 
needed  for  gunpowder.  Xicolas  Leblanc,  a  surgeon  and 
chemist,  obtained  the  prize  offered.  His  method  consists  in 
converting  common  salt  first  into  sulphate  by  means  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  then  heating  this  together  with  charcoal 
and  carbonate  of  calcium,  which  gives  (theoretically)  a  mix- 
ture of  carbonate  of  sodium  and  sulphide  of  calcium.  This 
process  is  carried  on,  particularly  in  England,  on  an  enor- 
mous scale  in  many  large  chemical  works,  all  the  soda  used 
for  making  soap,  glass,  and  a  multitude  of  other  products 
indispensable  to  civilization  being  thus  procured.  For  de- 
tails of  the  process  reference  must  be  made  to  the  standard 
works  on  chemical  technology,  as,  for  example,  the  Diet  ion- 
ary  of  Applied  Chemistry  by  T.  E.  Thorpe. 

The  crude  soda-ash,  sometimes  called  black  ash,  as  it 
leaves  the  furnace  is  a  very  complex  mixture  of  substances, 
containing  chiefly,  however,  carbonate  of  sodium,  caustic 
soda  (hydrate),  carbon,  carbonate  of  calcium,  and  sulphide, 
or,  according  to  some,  oxysulphide,  of  calcium.  It  is  treated 
with  hot  water  or  steam  on  a  furnace- hearth  to  break  it  up. 
and  then  the  carbonate  is  leached  out  with  hot  water  in  an 
ingenious  apparatus  contrived  to  accomplish  much  work 
with  little  water.  The  great  defect  of  Leblanc's  system  as 
originally  carried  out  was  the  loss  of  all  the  sulphuric  acid 
or  of  the  sulphur  used  in  making  it.  Hence  other  methods 
of  obtaining  carbonate  of  soda  from  salt  have  been  much 
sought  after.  One  in  successful  operation,  known  as  the 
Solvay  or  ammonia-soda  process,  consists  of  decomposing 
concentrated  brine  with  a  strong  solution  of  bicarbonate  of 
ammonia,  which  engenders  chloride  of  ammonium  and  near- 
ly insoluble  bicarbonate  of  soda.  The  chloride  of  ammoni- 
um is  readily  reconvertible  into  bicarbonate,  to  be  used  over 
again.  With  respect  to  Leblanc's  method,  however,  it  may 
be  noticed  that  by  Chance's  process,  patented  in  1888,  the 
sulphur  can  be  economically  recovered  from  the  exhausted 
black  ash.  Soda  is  manufactured  to  a  limited  extent  from 
the  Greenland  Cryolite  {q.  r.).     Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Soda-water :  See  AKrated  Waters  and  Solution. 

SoMium  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Eng.  soda.  See  Soda]:  one 
of  the  elements  of  matter,  a  very  important  and  remarkable 
metallic  substance  which  was  first  obtained  in  1807  by  H. 
Davy  by  the  electrolysis  of  caustic  soda  (hydrate).  Its 
occurrence  in  nature  is  chiefly  as  common  salt  (chloride  of 
sodium)  in  the  ocrean,  and  as  a  constituent  of  silicates,  chiefly 
the  feldspai*8  albite  and  oligoclase,  on  the  land.  It  is  also 
found  in  natron,  an  impure  sodium  sesquicurbonate,  con- 


taining besides  sodium  sulphate  and  chloride.  A  cubic  foot 
of  ocean- water  contains  aoout  6,440  grains,  not  far  from  1 
lb.  avoirdupois,  of  metallic  sodium,  and  a  cubical  tank  14 
feet  on  each  side  filled  with  sea-water  will  contain  more  than 
1  ton  of  this  alkali-metal.  A  cubic  foot  of  rock-salt  con- 
tains over  52  lb.  of  sodium.  Sodium  is  a  metal  probably 
more  abundant  in  its  occurrence  than  iron,  and  prolwibiy 
not  necessarily  much  more  difficult  or  expensive  to  obtain 
in  approximate  purity  than  the  latter  metal,  and  yet.  l)y 
reason  of  the  fewer  uses  developed  for  it,  the  cost  of  sodium 
is  much  greater  than  that  of  iron.  Sodium  is  one  of  thi* 
elements  most  essential  to  animal  life,  being  a  constituent 
of  all  blood.  It  is  also  found  in  the  vegetable  organ ismh 
that  dwell  in  the  ocean  and  along  its  coasts,  but  plants 
dwelling  on  land  above  the  sea-level  contain  potassium  mortf 
abundantly  than  sodium. 

Preparation, — Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard  first  prepan^l 
sodium  in  quantity  by  the  action  of  metallic  iron  at  an  in- 
tense heat  on  fused  caustic  soda,  but  a  much  better  meth<Nl 
is  that  of  Brunner,  which  consists  in  distilling  a  mixture  of 
charcoal  and  carbonate  of  sodium,  the  transformation  being 
essentially  as  follows : 

NaaCOi  +  C,  =  2Xa  -f  3C0 ; 
a  current  of  carbonic  oxide  gas  resulting,  which  sweeps 
along  with  it  the  metallic  sodium  in  vapor.  The  latter  is 
condensed  by  passing  the  gases  through  a  thin,  flat  cast-iron 
condenser  of  peculiar  form,  which  becomes,  and  ^emain^ 
throughout,  hot  enough  to  {>revent  the  metal  from  solidify- 
ing within  it,  and  thus  clogging  it  up.  It  is  so  contrived  al^> 
that  a  sharp-pointed  iron  rod  may  te  driven  in  through  it 
into  the  retort  to  clear  it  out  when  in  dan^r  of  choking  up 
and  thus  leading  to  a  dangerous  explosion.  The  sodium 
trickles  out  of  the  condenser  in  meltea  form,  and  is  prevent- 
ed from  taking  fire  and  burning  in  the  air  by  being  receiveii 
in  a  vessel  of  melted  paraffin.  The  vessel  should  be  double, 
each  part  having  a  close-fitting  lid  to  be  applied  in  case  the 
paraffin  should  kindle.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  car- 
t)onate  of  sodium  and  charcoal  are  free  from  silica  and  phos- 
phates, which  energetically  attack  the  iron  of  the  retort  and 
perforate  it  from  the  inside.  Deville  introduced  the  admix- 
ture of  powdered  chalk  with  the  mass,  to  prevent  its  passing 
into  liquid  fusion,  but  this  may  introduce  silicates,  and  an 
excess  of  coarsely  powdered  charcoal  has  been  used  ini^tead. 

A  method  for  the  preparation  of  sodium  on  a  large  sc-a!e 
has  been  devised  by  Castner.  This  consists  essentially  in 
the  reduction  of  sodium  hydroxide  (caustic  soda),  by  hearing 
it  with  an  intimate  mixture  of  finely  divided  iron  and  car- 
bon. The  mass  is  prepared  by  mixmg  the  iron  with  molten 
pitch,  allowing  it  to  cool,  breaking  it  into  pieces,  and  heat- 
ing to  a  comparatively  high  temperature  without  access  of 
air.  The  reaction  is  believed  to  take  place  as  represented  in 
this  equation : 

3XaOH  -I-  FeC,  =  3Na  -»-  Pe  -i-  CO  +  CO,  +  3H. 

Sodium  is  a  brilliant  silver-white  metal,  of  the  softness  of 
wax  within  the  normal  range  of  temperatures,  but  beeorainif 
somewhat  harder  at  20"  below  zero.  It  melts  at  204 *"  F.,  and 
has  the  specific  gravity  0*972  at  15".  It  crystallizes  in  octa- 
hedrons of  the  dimetric  or  tetragonal  system.  Its  vap<»r. 
unlike  that  of  potassium  (which  is  green),  is  colorlfs^^. 
When  exposed  to  the  air,  it  rapidly  absorbs  oxygen,  and 
moisture  if  present,  forming  either  anhydrous  oxide  (Na,0) 
or  caustic  soda  (NaOH).  When  water  touches  it,  there  is  au 
intense  reaction,  with  evolution  of  hydrogen  gas  and  cau>- 
tic  soda.  If  the  quantity  of  water  is  small,  tlie  heat  prx^ 
duced  is  so  high  that  the  metal  takes  fire,  and  bums  with  a 
yellow  flame  and  high  heat. 

In  the  preservation  of  sodium  it  must  be  kept  immers»>4l 
under  the  surface  of  some  lic^uid  which  is  free  from  oxygeu. 
the  heavy  oils  of  coal-tar  being  better  for  this  purpos«e.  hj>- 
parently,  than  rectified  petroleums,  which  seem  to  absorb 
oxygen  slowly  and  transmit  it  to  the  sodium,  which  thu^ 
becomes  soon  encrusted  with  a  product  not  yet  examines! . 
The  addition  of  a  small  percentage  of  amyl  alcohol  to  tho 
oil  prevents  tarnishing  of  the  metal. 

Sodium  Salts. — The  most  important  salts  or  com|X)un<i< 
of  soda  are  the  acetate,  borate,  carl>onates,  hyp<K*hlorite.  hy- 
posulphite, nitrate,  phosphates,  silicates,  sulphate,  sulphite, 
and  tungstate.  Acetate  of  Sodium. — This  is  a  commeR^ial 
article,  prepared  on  a  large  scale  bv  the  manufacturers  of 
wood-vinegar  or  pyroligneous  acid.  It  is  a  white  salt  in  pris- 
matic crystals,  which  effloresce  in  the  air,  soluble  in  three  part> 
of  cold  water.  Heat  converts  it  into  a  mixture  of  carbon  and 
carbonate.    It  is  used  in  medicine  and  as  the  source  of  c\ym- 


610 


SOLANACE.K 


SOLAR  PARALLAX 


conquering  Fulbe  long  ago  imposed  their  rule  and  the  faith 
of  Mohammed  upon  this  and  other  vast  regions  in  tlie  Su- 
dan.  It  is  one  of  the  roost  densely  populated  parts  of  Africa. 
Trade  and  manufaotures  are  weil  developed,  particularly 
the  fabrication  of  leather  goods*  cotton  cloths,  and  wea|)ons, 
but  the  chief  industries  are  agriculture  and  cattle-raising. 
To  Sokoto  proper  belong  many  tributary  states  and  districts, 
the  largest  of  which  is  Adamawa,  S.  of*  the  Bcnue  river,  be- 
sides Yakubu,  Saria,  Kano,  Muri,  Katsena,  and  Samfara.  all 
of  which  pay  annual  tribute  to  the  sultan.  Here  the  slave- 
trade  flourishes.  A  small  standing  army,  chiefly  cavalry,  is 
maintained.  The  capital,  Sokoto,  has  only  about  30,000 
people,  and  is  less  important  in  population  and  trade  than 
several  other  towns,  notably  Kano  {g,  v.).       C.  C.  Adams. 

Solana^ces :  See  Nightshade  Family. 

Holan-goose :  See  Gaxnet. 

So^lanine  [from  hat  sola' num,  nightshade]:  a  natural 
organic  alkaloid  found  in  the  black  nightshade,  potato,  bit- 
tersweet, and  other  species  of  Solanum.  The  alkaloids  ob- 
tained from  these  different  sources  are  probably  not  exactly 
the  same.  Solanine  is  a  solid  crystalline  substance,  readily 
soluble  in  alcohol.  It  is  very  poisonous,  producing  j)aralysis 
of  the  lower  extremities  before  death,  as  has  been  seen  in 
cattle  poisoned  by  eating  the  green  shoots  of  potatoes,  which 
contain  solanine  largely.  Revised  bylEA  Remsen. 

Solano :  See  Simoom. 

Sola'nnm  [Lat.,  nightshade] :  a  genus  of  herbs  and  shrubs 
of  the  family  Solanacew,  most  or  all  of  which  contain  the 
poisonous  principle  solanine.  The  U.  S.  has  several  native 
species,  mostly  southern.  There  are  a  great  many  tropical 
species,  some  of  them  of  great  use  in  local  therapeutics, 
tnough  none  is  extensively  employed  in  the  medical  prac- 
tice of  civilized  lands  except  perhaps  the  Solanum  dul- 
camara^ or  bittersweet.  Several  afford  edible  fruits,  that  of 
the  egg-plant  (»S'.  melongend)  being  the  most  important.  See 
Nightshade  Family.         Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Solar  Cycle :  See  Cycle. 

Hola'rio,  Andrea,  da  (called  also  Andrea  Milanese): 
painter ;  b.  at  Solario,  near  Milan,  Italy,  about  1460.  Ilis 
method  of  painting  indicates  that  he  was  influenced  by 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  but  nothing  positive  is  known  as  to  his 
teaching  in  art.  lie  s|)ent  the  years  1490-93  in  Venice  with 
a  brother,  Cristoforo,  surnamea  II  Gobbo  (the  hunchback), 
who  was  an  architect  and  sculptor.  In  1495  he  had  com- 
plet,ed  for  S.  Pietro  at  Murano  an  important  altarpiece  of 
a  Holy  Family  with  St.  Jerome,  now  at  the  Brera  at  Milan. 
In  1507  he  was  decorating  with  frescoes  for  Charles  d'Am- 
boise  the  chapel  of  Chateau  Gaillon  in  Normandy.  Morelli 
supposes  that  Solario  visited  Flanders  during  the  two  years 
of  his  stay  in  Normandy,  as  his  pictures  have  characteristics 
resembling  those  of  the  Flemish  school.  Andrea  Solario 
died  some  time  after  1515  while  painting  for  the  Certosa  of 
Pavia  an  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  now  in  the  sacristy 
there.  His  best-known  works  are  an  Ecce  Homo  and  a  Re- 
pose in  Egypt  in  the  Poldi-Pezzoli  Gallery  at  Milan,  dated 
1515;  a  Vierge  au  Coussin  vert;  a  bust-portrait  of  Charles 
d'Amboise;  a  Crucifixion  dated  1503;  aJIead  of  John  Bap- 
tist in  a  Charger  at  the  Louvre ;  and  two  portraits  in  the 
National  Gallery  of  the  London,  both  on  panel.  This  painter 
is  sometimes  confounded  with  another  Andrea  di  Milano, 
called  Salai  or  Salaino,  a  pupil  of  Leonardo.  W.' J.  S. 

Solar  Parallax  [solar  is  from  Lat.  Solaris,  belonging  or 
pertaining  to  the  sun,  deriv.  of  sol,  sun]:  the  difference  of 
the  directions  in  which  the  sun  is  seen  from  the  surface  and 
center  of  the  earth.  (See  Parallax.)  The  oroblem  of  deter- 
mining the  solar  parallax  is  identical  with  tnat  of  measuring 
the  distance  of  trie  sun,  and  has  justly  been  called  one  of 
the  noblest  in  astronomy.  Attempts  to  estimate  the  dis- 
tance of  the  sun  were  made  even  by  the  ancient  astrono- 
mers Aristarchus  and  Pt<^leniy,  but  they  were  necessarily 
futile,  since  no  o))servati()ns  they  were  able  to  make  would 
measure  so  small  a  (juaiitity  as  the  parallax  of  the  sun. 
Still  they  thoucrht  they  measiired  the  distance,  and  found  it 
to  be  1.210  radii  of  the  earth.  It  is  remarkable  that  even 
had  the  sun  been  as  near  as  this,  its  apparent  size  would 
show  its  real  diameter  to  be  more  than  five  times  that  of 
the  earth.  As  soon  as  accurate  observations  were  made  with 
the  telescope,  it  was  found  that  the  sun  had  no  such  parallax 
as  it  would  have  were  its  distance  only  1,200  radii  of  the 
earth.  At  the  time  of  Newton  all  that  w^as  known  of  the 
solar  parallax  was  that  it  must  be  immeasurable  with  the 
instruments  then  at  command. 


To  understand  the  modem  solution  of  the  problein,  we 
must  see  how  it  presented  itself  to  astronomers  after  thi*  law « 
of  the  celestial  motions  were  established.  Imag-iue  tbf  ^ul 
with  its  retinue  of  eight  large  planets,  the  cartii  bein*;  oi.  -. 
As  the  earth  revolves  around  the  sun,  astronomers  set-  oiM-* 
planets  in  various  directions,  and  can  thus  determine  i' • 
annual  parallax  of  each.  In  this  way  the  ratios  l>eti^«*'r. 
the  different  orbits  admit  of  very  exact  obeervation,  and  ^  ' 
more  exact  determination  by  Kepler^s  third  law.  Thus  tu  r. 
is  no  difliculty  in  making  a  map  of  the  solar  system  in  v>  \i.-  '.* 
all  the  orbits  shall  he  laid  down  on  the  same  scale.  Wit  f  i.  •  .* 
any  knowledge  of  the  actual  distance  of  the  sun,  it  can  <  -' 
said  that  if  the  distance  of  the  earth  be  represented  by  i}n;'\ . 
then  that  of  Venus  will  be  represented  by  0*7233^3.  that  -r 
Mars  by  152369.  that  of  Jupiter  by  5*2028,  etc.  It  ft.il...»- 
from  this  that  if  any  one  of  these'  distances  can  be  <b-T.-r- 
mined,  or  even  the  distance  of  Venus  or  Mars  from  the  tar:  i 
at  any  moment,  all  the  other  distances  will  follow,  in<*lu<tu  j 
that  of  the  earth  from  the  sun.  just  as  the  knowlnip*  of .« 
single  distance  on  a  map  will  give  the  scale  of  the  maj>.  !> 
will  also  be  readily  understcxKl  that  the  nearer  a  |il.i:.- » 
comes  to  the  earth  the  greater  will  be  its  parallax,  and  i:.'* 
more  easily  will  its  distance  be  determined.  More<->ver,  <»'>- 
servations  on  the  position  of  a  planet  can  be  made  with  nin  i*. 
more  accuracy  than  on  the  sun.  Thus  French  aslroiiouj*  r- 
of  the  seventeenth  century  saw  that  if  the  ap()arent  p<»^it.« '. 
of  the  planet  Mars  among  the  stars  could  be  carefully  Mr- 
served  from  two  distant  points  of  the  earth's  surfat-i\  r- 
parallax,  and  thus  its  distance,  and  the  distance  of  thi^  ^u*,. 
could  be  determined.  An  expedition  was  sent  for  tliis  yw- 
pose  to  the  colony  of  Cayenne  in  South  America,  to  niuB.-- 
observations  of  the  position  of  Mars  during  the  upiK><i(  -i. 
of  1672.  Corresponding  observations  were  made  at  the  Par  - 
Observatory.  By  a  comparison  of  all  the  observations,  c  \i^ 
sini  computed  the  parallax  of  the  sun  to  be  9'5'.  Tho  err  r 
of  this  result  is  only  about  one-twelfth  of  its  entire  anu'Ui/. 
so  that  this  may  justly  be  regarded  as  the  first  actual  d<-i>  r- 
mination  of  the  solar  parallax.  The  corresponding  di>tai.  i 
of  the  sun  would  be  21,600  radii  of  the  earth,  or  about  *^.'... 
000,000  miles. 

In  1849  Capt.  James  M.  Gillis,  of  the  U.  S.  navy,  who  w  i* 
afterward  superintendent  of  the  Naval  Observatory.  nia-:«- 
an  expedition  to  Chili,  for  the  purpose  of  observing  i  i  • 
parallaxes  of  both  Venus  and  Mars;  but  the  two  op|M. bi- 
lious of  Mars  which  occurred  while  he  was  there  were  !.♦•: 
favorable,  the  planet  being  too  far  from  the  earth,  an«i  ^n 
addition  to  this  the  corresponding  number  of  observati.i - 
were  not  made  in  the  northern  hemisi)here.  No  satisfy  t.i  \ 
result  could  therefore  be  reached. 

Attempts  to  determine  the  parallax  of  Mars  were  n< ' 
made  between  1672  and  1849,  because  it  was  supposed  r! ..: 
a  much  more  accurate  parallax  could  be  detennine4l  l)y  <•:  - 
servations  on  transits  of  Venus.  It  occurred  to  Hal  ley,  t; 
English  astronomer,  as  far  back  as  1677,  that  the  tiiiic  :«-- 
quired  by  the  planet  Venus  to  cross  the  disk  of  the  >un  :i. 
transit  would  be  different  at  different  parts  of  the  earsn. 
owing  to  the  effect  of  the  parallax  of  the  plaaet.  It  vi.t< 
necessary,  however,  to  wait  nearly  a  hundred  years  for  an  -j- 
portunity  of  making  such  an  oljservation,  as  no  tran>it  -  f 
Venus  occurred  from  Ilalley's  time  until  1761.  Then  a 
transit  occurred,  and  another  in  1769.  Expeditions  to  ti- 
southern  hemisphere  were  sent  out  by  various  Eun»p».ii. 
nations,  and  these  transits  were  observed  wherever  astnu  - 
mers  could  see  them.  The  results,  however,  were  found  :•• 
be  much  less  accordant  than  had  lieen  anticipated,  aiitl  i\  • 
uncertainty  of  the  observations  thus  shown  was  so  ikt}*!  \- 
ing  that  more  than  half  a  century  elapsed  before  the  H'm.U^ 
were  definitively  worked  up.  The  Germwi  astrnnMin  r 
Encke,  from  an  exhaustive  discussion  of  all  the  «dks.  rv^- 
tions,  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  sun's  }>arallA\  n..- 
85776',  a  result  now  known  to  be  too  small  by  about  0**J<» . 

It  is  now  found  that  the  most  accurate  measiir*»5  t»f  i"i 
parallax  can  probablv  be  made  on  the  small  planets  bet  w.  ^-u 
Stars  and  Jupiter.  It  is  true  that  these  hollies  do  not  <•.•?  ^ 
so  near  the  earth  as  either  Venus  or  Mars,  and  the  tpiair  ♦> 
to  be  measured  is  never  so  large  as  in  the  case  of  th-^ 
planets;  but  this  defect  is  more  than  compensatwl  by  !'.» 
extreme  accMiracy  with  which  the  measures  can  \*o  ma-:- 
l)r.  David  (xill,  astronomer  at  the  Cape  of  Goo*!  Hojh'.  ..v- 
bnnight  this  method  into  use  with  great  success. 

Modern  science  has  shown  that  there  are  other  mcthtHl-  ' 
detennining  the  sun's  distance  and  the  dimejisions  < -f  ' 
solar  system  besides  that  of  actually  measuring  the  p-iri- 
laxes  of  the  planets.     One  of  these  consists  in  dctenmn.: .: 


G12 


SOLD   NOTE 


SOUDUS 


for  some  special  us>e.  Three  grades  of  solder  are  in  com- 
mon use:  common  solder,  of  equal  parts  of  tin  and  lead; 
fine  solder,  of  2  parts  of  tin  to  1  of  lead;  and  a  cheaper 
article,  of  2  of  lead  to  1  of  tin.  The  soft  soldei*s  are  usually 
of  lead  and  tin,  or  lead,  tin,  and  bismuth ;  these  melt  at  a 
low  temperature.  The  hard  solders  can  not  be  melted  at 
a  low  temperature ;  they  are  commonly  of  zinc  and  copper. 

Sold  Note :  See  Bought  Note. 

Sole  [vil^  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  8o'lea  (so  named  from  its  broad 
flat  shape),  liter.,  slipper,  whence  Eng.  sole  (of  a  shoe  or  of 
the  footM :  a  flatfish  of  the  family  Soleidm.  The  common 
sole,  Solea  aolea^  has  the  scales  ctenoid,  the  vertical  fins  not 
confluent,  the  pectorals  of  both  sides  developed ;  it  is  dark 
brown  on  its  upper  and  whit«  on  its  lower  side,  with  the 
pectoral  fln  blacicish  at  its  end ;  it  generally  ranges  between 
10  and  20  inches  in  length,  and  between  1  and  10  lb.  in 
weight,  although  the  latter  dimensions  are  rarely  attained. 
It  is  found  along  almost  the  entire  coast  of  Europe,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  esteemed  of  flshes ;  the  flesh  is  white  and 
firm,  and  is  in  season  in  all  months  of  the  year  except  the 
£pawning-time,  which  takes  place  toward  the  end  of  winter. 
It  is  chiefly  taken  on  the  coasts  of  the  British  Islands  bv 
trawling.  Several  attempts  have  been  made  by  the  Pish 
Commission  to  introduce  it  into  U.  S.  waters.  Another 
species  found  on  the  British  coast  is  the  Solea  (Pegum)  au- 
rantiaca^  or  lemon-sole.  Achirus  lifheatus  of  the  Eastern 
U.  S.  is  the  nearest  American  ally  of  the  European  species, 
but  this  is  more  popularly  known  as  the  hog-cnoker,  cover- 
clip,  or  calico ;  it  is  a  wort.hless  flsh.  In  California  several 
species  of  true  Pleuronecfidm — c.  g.  Parophrys  vetula,  Lepi- 
aopsetta  umbrosa^  Pneitichtht/s  melanostictw*,  and  Orthop- 
setta  sordida — are  called  soles.      Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Sole^idn  t^o<l'  Lat.,  name<l  from  Solea,  the  typical 
genus.  See  Sole]  :  a  family  of  flatfishes  {iteterosotiiata). 
The  body  is  oblong  or  elongated,  and  nearly  equally  devel- 
oped above  and  below  the  lateral  line ;  the  scales  are  small, 
or  absent ;  the  lateral  line  mostly  straight  (sometimes  double 
or  triple) ;  the  head  small,  and  with  a  rounded  projecting 
snout,  and  more  or  less  hooked  upper  jaw ;  the  eyes  are  ap- 

f)roximated,  and  the  upper  is  further  forward  than  the 
ower ;  the  opercula  concealed  by  the  scales ;  the  mouth  un- 
symraetrical,  and  rather  small  and  curved ;  teeth  generally 
confined  to  the  blind  side  of  the  jaws,  and  villiform  (some- 
times wanting) ;  branchial  apertures  restricted  above ;  the 
dorsal  begins  on  the  snout,  the  anal  under  the  pectoral 
fin ;  pectorals  small  or  (in  some  genera)  absent ;  ventrals 
small  and  variously  developed.  The  vertebr®  are  very  nu- 
merous, but  unequally  distributed,  in  the  typical  forms  the 
abdominal  or  rib-bearing  ones  Ijeing  onlv  eight  or  nine  in 
number,  and  the  caudal  about  forty,  l* he  family  is  well 
distinguished  by  the  phvsiognomy  from  the  Pleurotiecttdce, 
especially  so  far  as  the  European  and  American  species  are 
concerned,  but  some  Australian  types  lessen  the  distance  be- 
tween them.  Species  are  most  abundant  in  the  tropics,  but 
are  found  in  every  sea  except  the  extreme  polar  ones. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Solemn  Leagne  and  Covenant :  See  Covenant,  Na- 
tional. 

Solenocon^chsB  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  o-wx^y,  ciiannel,  pipe  + 
K6yxri,  shell] :  the  Scaphopodn,  or  tooth-shells,  in  allusion  to 
the  tubular  nature  of  the  shell.    See  Mollusca. 

Solenogas'tres  [Mod.  Ijat. ;  Gr.  (tvX^v,  channel  +  ywrr^ip, 
belly] :  an  order  of  shell-less  molluscs,  embracing  a  few 
forms  from  the  deep  seas.  They  are  of  interest  to  zoolo- 
gists as  being  very  simple  and  primitive  forms.  See  Mol- 
lusca. 

Solenog'lypha  [Mod.  Lat.;  Gr.  <r«x^»',  channel,  pipe -i- 
7A^iy,  carve,  cut]  :  a  sub-order  of  snakes.  The  maxillary 
bones  are  excessively  shortened,  and  thereby  assume  a  ver- 
tical aspect,  and  are  thus  adapted  to  support  the  venom- 
fangs  ;  the  fangs  (except  in  Causiis)  are  competely  tubular; 
the  pupils  of  the  eyes  are  generally  erect  and  elliptical ;  the 
occipital  region  is  scaly.  The  sub-onler  includes  the  most 
poisonous  and  dreaded  snakes  of  America;  some  equally 
dangerous  in  the  Old  World  belong  to  the  suh-ordor  Protero- 
glypha.  By  Cope  four  families  are  recognized — viz.:  (1) 
CrotalidcPy  including  the  rattlesnakes  and  copperheads  ;  (2) 
ViperidcB,  typified  by  the  vi|>ers  of  Europe  and  Africa ;  (3) 
Causidce;  and  (4)  AtracUtspid id(P  i)t  Africa. 

Revised  by  J.  S.  Kinosley. 

Solenre,  so'ler'  (Germ.  Solothuni);  canton  of  Northwest- 
ern Switzerland ;  area,  302  sq.  miles.     The  surface  is  cov- 


ered by  offshoots  of  the  Jura  Mountains,  which  hero  ar*» 
very  rich  in  iron  and  marble.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  i»n»- 
duces  more  corn  and  wine  than  is  demanded  for  home  con- 
sumption. The  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  is  exten- 
sively carried  on.  Manufactures  are  confined  to  iron  g<wi4lv. 
glassware,  and  watches.  Pop.  (1888)  85,621,  of  whom  74  j»er 
cent,  were  Roman  Catholics  and  the  rest  Protestants;  the> 
all  speak  the  German  language.  The  chief  town  is  Soleur*- 
(Lat.  Solodurum);  pop.  (1888)  8,460. 
Solfeggio :  See  Solmization. 

Solferino,  sol-fo-ree'nd :  village  of  Mantua,  Northent 
Italy;  celebrated  for  the  battle  in  which  the  French,  uniI»T 
the  command-in-chief  of  Napoleon  II.,  and  the  Sardinian^, 
under  Victor  Emmanuel,  utterly  defeated  the  Austrians  (Juiir 
24,  1859)  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  a-C).  It  was  the  deiisiv-.' 
battle  of  the  war  of  Italian  independence.  The  force's  nf 
the  allies  numbered  about  150,000,  while  the  Austrian^ 
brought  about  170,000  into  the  field.  After  their  defeat  t  he 
latter  retreated  toward  Verona  and  left  all  Lombard y  of>eij 
to  the  allies.  Napoleon,  not  caring  to  attack  the  strong  }h im- 
tion  that  the  Austrians  held  in  the  Quadrilateral,  conclutled 
the  truce  of  Villafranca, 

Soli :  See  Cilicia. 

Solicitor  [in  form  via  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  sollicitd tor,  de- 
riv.  of  solUcita're ;  in  meaning  deriv.  of  Eng.  solieii  (in  it* 
legal  sense),  from  Lat.  sollicttare,  urge,  entice ;  «w//  lu^. 
whole  -I-  cie'r«,  ci'tum,  move] :  in  Great  Britain  (undt^r  th. 
present  statutes),  an  officer  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judit-a- 
ture  who,  and  who  only,  is  entitled  to  sue  out  any  writ  or 
process,  or  begin,  or  carrv  on,  solicit,  or  defend  any  »<  - 
tion  or  other  proceeding  m  any  court,  his  official  titlV  lin- 
ing solicitor  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

Formerly  the  tenn  solicitor  was  applied  only  to  thr»s*?  wh" 
conducted  such  business  in  the  court  of  chancery,  the  c^'f- 
responding  terms  in  the  common-law  courts  being  Att<>rne> 
{q.  I'.),  and  in  the  ecclesiastical  and  admiralty  courts  Patw- 
TOR  {q.  r.);  but  it  was  the  general  practice  to  be  admitttu 
both  as  solicitor  and  attorney.  The  Scotch  terra  corre^poinl- 
ing  to  solicitor  is  laip-agent,  and  the  act  regulating  tlio  imI- 
mission  to  practice  the  privileges,  etc.,  of  law-agents  is  th» 
Law-agents^  Act,  1873  (36  and  37  Vict.,  c.  63).  The  solicitor  is 
distinct  in  Great  Britain  from  the  counsel  or  barrister  (lalhd 
advocate  in  Sc'otland),  not  only  as  to  the  work  perfornifni  h\ 
him  for  his  client,  but  also  as  to  the  reauirements  for  hi> 
admission  to  practice  and  his  relations  to  nis  clients.  Thc^e 
matters  are  minutely  regulated  by  statute. 

The  Solicitors'  Act  of  1843  provides  that  with  certain  ex- 
ceptions no  person  shall  be  admitted  as  solicitor  or  attoni^^v 
unless  he  has  served  as  an  articled  clerk  for  five  yejirs  U*  a 
practicing  attorney  or  solicitor,  or  in  case  of  a  perse m  hav- 
ing a  university  degree  three  years,  or  has  been  previ<»usl> 
admitte<l  to  the  bar,  or  has  been  ten  years  clerk  to  an  at- 
torney previous  to  being  articled.  No  s<^licitor  is  allriMri^i  to 
have  articled  clerks  except  when  practicing,  nor  more  t  hm. 
two  at  any  time  ;  and  the  clerk  may  not  engage  in  any  nth^r 
employment  without  the  consent  in  writing  of  the  solicitor 
and  the  sanction  of  a  jud^e  of  the  high  court.  Kxanii tui- 
tions must  be  passed  at  tmies  and  upon  subjects  fixtnl  in 
accordance  with  statutes. 

A  solicitor,  unlike  a  barrister,  is  liable  to  his  client  f'>r 
negligence  in  the  conduct  of  •his  case;  and  may  siu»  hi^ 
client  for  his  remuneration,  and  has  a  general  lien  for  hi- 
costs  on  his  client's  papers.  The  remuneration  of  soHcitiT- 
in  conveyancing  anu  other  noncontentious  business  is  fixt-i! 
by  law  with  "  reference  to  such  matters  as  the  amount  <»f 
money  to  which  the  business  relates,  and  the  skill,  laU.r. 
and  responsibilitv  involved  on  the  solicitor's  part."  He, 
being  an  officer  of  the  court,  is  subject  to  the  summary  juris- 
diction of  the  court  for  professional  misconduct,  etc. 

Solicitors  can  not  practice  as  advocates  in  the  upfvr 
courts,  but  may  before  magistrates  at  petty  sesssions  hw, 
quarter  sessions  where  there  is  no  bar,  in  county  courts,  a! 
arbitrations,  at  judges'  chambers,  coroners'  inquests.  n»vi«i- 
ing  barristers'  courts,  under-sheriffs*  and  secondaries'  (•iuirt>, 
and  the  court  of  bankruptcy.  He  must,  under  a  con>idcrrt- 
ble  penalty,  take  otit  a  yearly  certificate  authorizing  him  t*- 

fractice.   *S(»e  Cordery's  LatP  Relating  to  Solicitors  (2d  t^l. 
jondon,  188H) ;  Turner's  Duties  of  Solicitor  to  Client  (I Lon- 
don, 1884) ;  Begg  on  Law  Agents,         F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

SoPidns:  the  later  Latin  name  for  the  Roman  cold  oin 
called  aureus.  It  received  this  name  first  in  296  wlien  Pi<^- 
cletian  reformed  the  currency,  and  it  retained  its  full  wrii^ht 


hit*     Ar 


►rr  f\n\  flv|*  «  yr^n 


i«o4^r«turl 


111* 


ltM*Htli^M«*%f*M     r>T-i. 


614 


SOLOMON  BEN  GABIROL 


SOLON 


generous,  sympathetic,  and  at  lirst  humble ;  of  fine  humor 
and  noble  intellect,  a  man  of  broad  views,  a  far-sighted 
statesman,  roost  learned  in  the  science  of  the  day.  lie  was 
an  organizer  of  splendid  executive  powers,  a  great  builder 
and  artist,  poet,  ptiilosopher,  and  had  from  the  Lord  pre- 
eminently "an  understanding  heart  to  judge."  Unfortu- 
nately, there  is  another  side  to  the  picture.  From  motives 
of  state  policy  Solomon  married  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh 
of  Egypt  and  many  other  wives  from  among  the  princesses 
of  his  tributary  kingdoms.  This  led  to  latitudinarianism  in 
religion,  to  extravagance  in  public  expenditures,  to  oppres- 
sion and  disregard  of  human  rights.  The  result  was  that 
his  reign  was  partlv  a  failure.  Before  his  death  Edom  and 
Syria  revolted  and  Jeroboam  raised  rebellion  in  Northern 
Israel.  After  liis  death  the  ten  tribes  revolted,  so  that  the 
strictly  Israelite  portion  of  his  kingdom  was  divided,  while 
the  tributary  peoples  fell  away  from  their  allegiance. 

Isaac  Rilky.  'Revised  by  W.  J.  Beecher. 

Solomon  ben  Gablror  (Arab.  Abu  Ayyub  Sulaimdn  i&n 
Jabirol;  LaL  Abi-gebrol,  Avicebrol,  Avicebron):  Jewish 
philosopher  and  poet ;  b.  in  Cordova,  Spain ;  lived  for  a 
time  at  Saragossa;  d.  abont  1041.  His  chief  poem  is  the 
hymn  Ktther  McUkuih  (Crown  of  Kovalty),  a  philosophical 
explanation  of  Jewish  doctrine,  ilis  chief  prose  work, 
written  in  Arabic,  is  the  Source  of  Life^  in  which  **  the 
theories  of  Plotinus  are  developed  and  the  will  plays  a  part 
almost  as  it  does  in  the  system  of  Schopenhauer."  This 
work  was  freely  used  by  Christian  writers  in  the  Middle 
Ages;  the  discovery  of  the  identity  of  the  author  with 
Gabirol  was  made  by  Munk.  Gabirol  also  wrote  a  work  on 
ethics.  See  Steinschneider,  Ilebr,  Ueber»etz.  im  Jfittelal, 
(vol.  i.,  j^  219) ;  St<)ssel,  Sol.  ben  Gabirol  ah  Philoaoph  (Leip- 
zig, 1881);  Dukes,  Solomon  ben  Gabirol  (Hanover,  1860); 
Guttmann,  Die  Phil  des  Ibn  Gabirol  (GQttingen,  1889), 

KiCUARD  GOTTUEIL. 

Solomon  ben  Igaac :  See  Rashi. 

Solomon  (Germ.  Salomon)  Islands :  an  extensive  archi- 
pelago E.  of  New  Guinea,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Bismarck  Archipelago  and  Louisiade  islands.  It  extends  in 
a  line  S.  E.  and  X.  \V.  from  about  lat  4"  S.,  Ion.  154°  E.,  to 
lat  12°  S.,  Ion.  162"  E.,  and  consists  of  seven  large  islands 
and  verv  many  small  ones.  The  islands  forming  the  north- 
ern half  of  the  archipelago  w^ere  taken  under  German  pro- 
tection in  1886.  The  largest  of  these  are  Bougainville  (pop. 
10,000),  Choiseul  (5,850),  and  Isabel  (5,840).  The  total  area 
of  the  German  Solomon  islands  is  8,708  so.  miles,  with  a 
pop.  of  89,000.  The  remainder  of  the  archipelago  has  an 
area  of  8,357  sq.  miles  and  a  pof)ulation  of  87,0(]S.  It  w^as 
brought  within  the  British  prott^ctorate  in  June,  1893.  The 
inhabitants  are  Papuan  and  Polynesian,  the  latter  living 
especially  on  the  smaller  islands,  where  the  p^^pulation  is 
often  very  dense.  They  are  intelligent,  quick,  and  crafty, 
but  make  good  servants,  and  are  in  demand  on  the  Bis- 
marck Archipelago  as  laborers.'  They  are  cannibals;  their 
weapons  consist  of  the  bow  and  arrow,  spoar,  and  club, 
which  are  all  characterized  by  fine  finish.  Their  canoes 
are  the  finest  in  the  Pacific.  The  islands  are  rssentially 
volcanic,  but  are  surrounded  by  coral  reefs.  They  were 
discovered  in  the  sixteenth  century,  but  were  lost  sight  of 
until  1767,  when  they  were  rediscovered  by  Carteret.  They 
are  still  the  least-known  group  of  the  Pacific.  See  Voyogea 
of  Dalryniple,  Hawkes worth,  Fleurien,  Labillardiere,  I)u- 
mont  d'Urville,  Brenchley,  and  Wood;  Wallace,  Austral- 
asia; and  Woodford, -4  Naturalist  among  the  lleadhunters 
(1890).  Mark  \\,  Harrington. 

Solomon,  Soni^  of:  See  Canticle. 

Solomon's-seal :  anv  one  of  the  h'liMconus  herbs  of  the 
genera  Polf/go7tafuw,  Vagntra,  and  I'liifolium.  They  are 
found  in  Europe  and  North  America.  The  roots  are  poj)u- 
hirly  esteemed  as  a  vulnerary,  and  have  some  use  in  domes- 
tic medicine.  Tlie  name  properly  helonirs  only  to  the  sneeies 
of  Po/ggonafum;  the  "seal  '  is  "the  circulHr  'depressed  scar 
left  on  the  root-stoek  by  the  death  and  separation  annu- 
ally of  the  flowering  stem.  The  common  Soloinon's-seal, 
Polygonatnm  multiflorum,  is  found  in  woods  and  cof)ses  in 
many  parts  of  England,  and  also  in  a  few  places  in  Scotland. 
It  has  a  stem  about  2  feet  hii^h.  the  upper  part  of  which 
bears  a  number  of  large,  ovate-elliptical,  alternate  leaves  in 
two  rows.  The  flower-stalks  are  generally  nnbranched  ;  the 
flowers,  which  are  not  large,  are  white  and  drooping. 

Kevised  by  Ciiarlls  E.  Blssev. 

Solomon*9  Temple :  See  Jerusalem. 


Solomon,  Wisdom  of:  See  Wisdom,  Book  op. 

So'lon :  statesman,  sage,  and  poet ;  the  son  of  Exec'<*>ti«it^ : 
filled  the  office  of  first  archon  in  Athens  (Ol.  46,  '4;  b.  . . 
594),  and  in  that  capacity  established  there  the  eontitituT:<.  . 
framed  by  him.,  lie  is  the  noblest  representative  of  \u* 
many-sidedness  which  distinguished  the  Athenian  more  \  h.n. 
all  other  Hellenes.  An  £upatrid  by  birth,  he  engaged  a!--- 
in  trade  and  commerce  by  sea.  By  this  means  it  was  |io^-ih  • 
for  him,  after  finishing  ail  exercises,  as  well  in  music  and  |m  »  :  • 
ry  as  in  gymnastics,  to  become  acquainted  with  the  cnti;'- 
coast  of  the  Archipelago.  It  was  a  time  of  fermentation  ii. 
society;  Psammetichus  had  opened  the  Nile  region  x^>\)* 
Greeks  (b.  c.  666) ;  the  first  mcmey  had  been  coined  in  ^iCgina  . 
navigation  took  all  at  once  a  gigantic  stride  forward  :  y«>uij. 
adventurers  gained  in  a  few  years  great  riches,  and  th-  '^ 
parts  of  the  communities  engaged  in  trade  took  form  a>  a 
new  middle  class,  and  stood  defiantly  opposed  to  the  an- 
cient families  ;  property  in  land  was  outstripped  by  luuvtih..- 
capital;  around  Athens  on  all  sides — in  Argos,  Corinth. 
Sicyon,  Megara — the  old  system  of  things  had  been  bn»k»  n, 
the  ruling  families  had  been  overthrown,  and  through  iH' 
downfall  of  the  constitutions  suigle  tyrants  bail  cijm^  ;.• 
power,  who  shone  by  their  riches,  employed  merct-narv 
troops,  and  pursued  a  narrow  i>olicy  of  self-aggrHndi/*-- 
ment.  In  this  revolutionary  time,  spite  of  all  splendor,  t  h* 
best  possessions  of  the  nation  were  endangered — namely,  ih*- 
free  citizen  class  and  the  sovereign  authority  of  the'  \ny^. 
For  this  reason  Solon  deemed  it  the  work  of  his  life  to  i;i\  ^- 
his  native  city  the  benefit  of  all  progress  in  culture  w  hi*  K 
the  times  offered,  without  causing  her  to  break  with  tl.. 
past  and  be  exposed  to  the  deploraole  evils  connected  wit  r 
a  revolution.  A  written  crimmal  code,  such  as  I>rac<»n  h:i«i 
issued  (b.  c.  621),  was  not  able  to  supply  the  want :  a  th^r- 
ough,  peaceful  reform  of  the  state  was  needed,  which  sIu'M  <i 
reconcile  the  differences  which  tore  the  communities  asum^-r. 
For  a  moral  and  political  renovation  of  the  state  was  xie*  i«-.i 
more  than  all  else  a  vigorous  self -consciousness.  The  At  !•»  - 
nians,  however,  were  feeling  depressed;  Megara  held  pM^s.-*.-^ 
sion  of  Salamis,  and  was  consequently  mistress  of  the  sea :  t  i  » 
Athenians  were  like  captives  in  their  own  land,  and  in  dt « ;• 
despondency  had  renounced  their  own  islands  on  the  e<i,^-f. 
Inflamed  by  Solon's  inspiring  poetry,  they  conquered  Sulaui  i- 
(about  604).  This  was  a  turning-|)oint  for  the  history  if 
Greece.  From  that  day  Megara  sank,  and  Atheii>  V«  -»♦- 
resist  Icssly  to  power. 

Solon  was  the  fii-st  man  in  Athens;  he  was  at  liberty  t« 
secure  for  himself  absolute  power  for  life,  but  it  wa>' in- 
firm resolve  to  accomplish  his  purj)ose  without  any  vi-la- 
tion  of  law.  As  recognized  mediator  between  all  |>anu^. 
and  solely  by  the  force  of  his  genius,  his  impressive  woni>, 
and  his  pure  personality,  he  carried  out  the  most  imiH^rtai.: 
reforms,  applying  them  to  the  evils  of  society  at  tlie  very 
root.  The  radical  evil  was  that  the  small  landowners  wt  rr 
hopelessly  in  debt.  Owing  to  a  hard  debtor-law,  they  f..r- 
feited  even  their  freedom;  a  wretched  proletariat  wj\>*  tlMi-. 
formed,  and  the  land  fell  more  and  more  intt)  the  hand>  i* 
the  great  capitalists.  Solon  caused  Athens  to  alter  its'  srni:d- 
ard  of  coinage  (probably  after  the  example  of  Corinth'  ♦•> 
adopting  also  for  silver  the  Euba'an  gold  standard.  T!:  • 
result  was  a  lighter  drachma,  in  which  debts  ct»uld  be  it  - 
gaily  paid,  so  that  the  poor  obtained  a  relief  of  27  |ier  nrt 
Other  measures  of  alleviation  were  also  introduceti  :  tL. 
debtor-laws  were  made  milder,  and  fixed  limits  set  to  tfi. 
acquisition  of  large  estates;  and  the  surprisingly  great  •<*a«- 
cess  of  this  legislation  (Seisaehtheia)  in  lightening  the  b-.r- 
dens  of  the  people  is  most  plainly  attestwl  by  the  gh^n*  i.- 
prK»m  of  Solon,  in  which  he  calls  Mother  Earth  to  witut^^ 
that  she  has  been  happily  freed  from  the  burden  of  mai  y 
pawn-pillars  (which  were  set  up  in  the  ground  as  tijkeii--  f 
alieiiatinl  lands).  Then  followed  the  great  political  refc  m 
— the  C(mversion  of  the  state,  rule<l  by  families,  into  n 
tiiriocrney.  It  seeme<l  to  the  noble  families  only  a  new  guar- 
anty of  their  privileges  that  none  could  hold  oflbf  a^ 
areiicms  except  the  memU'rs  of  the  first  class,  the  IVnt  .- 
kosiomedimni  (with  a  minimum  of  500  bush,  of  Iwrley  n-' 
income,  corresponding  to  a  taxable  capital  of  6,000  drnchu  a 
or  one  talent),  while  the  citizens  of  the  second  elasN  t'..- 
knights,  with  800,  and  those  of  the  thirtl  (ZeugitaM,  wjtf. 
150  medimni  jis  minimum  of  each  year's  income,  had  »<'<•.  v- 
to  the  council  and  to  the  remaining  offices.  The  nm>{i  i-! 
the  j»eoj)le,  the  Thetes,  who  did  not  belong  to  the  thn-f 
classes,  could  not  become  members  of  the  council  nor  i\A 
any  ofllee,  but  took  part  in  the  public  assemblies.    No  one. 


616 


SOMATOLOGY 


SOMERVILLE 


75,000  sq.  miles.  By  an' arrangement  of  the  British  and 
Italian  governments  in  1894  the  limits  of  their  protectorates 
were  strictly  defined.  It  is  mountainous,  ricli  in  myrrh  and 
incense,  and  inhabited  bv  tribes  related  to  the  Abyssinians 
and  Gallas,  mostly  nomaas  and  ill  famed  on  account  of  their 
savage  and  predatory  habits.  The  principal  port  is  Berbera, 
in  lat.  lO"*  22'  N.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor.  During  the 
hot  season  it  is  deserted,  but  in  winter  comprises  a  popu- 
lation of  about  30,000  people,  who  gather  to  exchange  the 
products  of  their  industry.  See  James,  The  Unknown  Horn 
of  Africa  (2d  ed.  1890).     Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

SomatoFogrjr  [Gr.  tr&iM,  c^/iaros,  body  +  X^os,  discourse, 
reason]  :  the  science  of  living  organized  bodies  as  far  as  re- 
lates to  material  conformation  and  not  to  psychological 
phenomena.  Thus  it  is  included  within  biologv.  In  a  lim- 
ited sense  it  is  applied  to  the  science  of  the  human  body, 
when  it  is  equivalent  to  human  anatomy  and  physiology. 
The  name  somatology  has  also  been  given  to  the  study  of 
inor^nic  bodies,  in  which  case  it  does  not  diflfer  much  in 
signification  from  physics.    See  Anthropology. 

Sombrere^te :  town  of  the  state  of  Zacatec^s,  Mexico; 
100  miles  N.  W.  of  Zacatecas  (see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  5-F) ; 
8,432  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  noted  for  its  silver  mines. 
The  celebrated  "  black  vein  "  of  Sombrerete  was  formerly 
said  to  yield  the  richest  ore  in  the  world.  The  town  had  a 
mint  in  181(^12.    Pop.  about  9,000.  H.  H.  S. 

Homers,  John,  Lord :  statesman ;  b.  at  Worcester,  Eng- 
land, Mar.  4,  1651 ;  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford ; 
studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple ;  called  to  the  bar  1676, 
but  remained  at  Oxford,  engaged  in  classical,  historical,  and 
juridical  studies ;  translated  from  classic  authors  and  wrote 
pamphlets  in  vindication  of  the  exclusion  of  the  Duke  of 
York  from  the  succession  and  in  defense  of  grand  juries 
(1681);  began  legal  practice  at  London  1682;  soon  became  a 
leader  of  the  Whigs ;  one  of  the  counsel  for  the  seven  bish- 
ops 1688 ;  sat  as  member  for  Worcester  in  the  Convention 
Parliament  Jan.,  1689 ;  was  chairman  of  the  committee 
which  drew  up  the  Declaration  of  Right ;  was  made  succes- 
sively Solicitor-General,  Attorney-General,  Lonl  Keeper  of 
the  Great  Seal,  and  in  1697  was  appointed  Lord  Chancellor  and 
raised  to  the  peerage.  His  fidelity  to  William  III.  exposed 
him  to  frequent  attacks,  one  of  which  resulted  in  his  re- 
moval from  the  chancellorship  Apr.  17, 1700,  and  another 
caused  his  arraignment  for  trial  before  the  House  of  Lords 
with  a  view  to  impeachment  on  fourteen  very  miscellaneous 
charges  Apr.  1,  1701,  but  the  prosecution  was  withdrawn 
June  17,  1701.  He  recovered  tis  influence  at  court ;  was 
chosen  president  of  the  Royal  Society  1702;  drew  up  the 
plan  for  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  England  and  Scotland 
1706;  became  president  of  the  council  Nov.,  1708,  and  re- 
signed 1710.  D.  in  London,  Apr.  26,  1716.  A  valuable  col- 
lection of  state  papers,  known  as  the  Somers  Tracts^  was 
edited  from  originals  in  his  library  (16  vols.  4to,  1748-52). 
A  new  edition  of  the  Tracts  was  issued  b^  Sir  Walter  Scott 
(London,  13  vols.  4to,  1809-15).  His  Life  was  written  by 
R.  Cooksey  (1791).  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Som^erset:  city:  capital  of  Pulaski  co.,  Ky.:  on  the 
Cin.,  N.  0.  and  Tex.  Pac.  Railway ;  6  miles  N.  of  the  Cum- 
berland river  and  79  S.  of  Lexington  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Kentucky,  ref.  4-H).  It  is  in  a  grain,  fruit,  and  vegetable 
growing  region,  near  extensive  mines  of  coal  and  iron,  and 
contains  12  churches,  2  hi^h  schools,  a  national  bank  with 
capital  of  $100,000,  a  banking  company  with  capital  of  $80,- 
000,  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  805 ;  (1890)  2,625 ; 
(1895)  estimated,  3,500.  Editor  of  "  Reporter." 

Somerset :  village ;  Perry  co.,  O. ;  on  the  Bait,  and  Ohio 
Railroad ;  20  miles  S.  W.  of  Zanesville,  and  24  S.  by  E.  of 
Newark  (for  location,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  6-G).  It  is  in  a 
region  abounding  in  coal,  iron  ore,  and  potter's  clay,  and 
contains  flour-mills,  planing-mills,  woolen-mills,  carriage- 
factories,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $15,000,  and  a  weekly 
newspaper.    Pop.  (1880)  1,207;  (1890)  1,127. 

Somerset :  borough  ;  capital  of  Somerset  co..  Pa. ;  on  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad ;  36  miles  N.  X.  W.  of  Cum- 
berland, Md. ;  110  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Pittsburg  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  6-(-).  It  is  principally  en- 
gaged in  the  lumber-trade  and  in  the  manufacture  of  maple- 
sugar,  butter,  and  cheese,  and  contains  a  public  high  school, 
2  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  1100.000,  and  4 
weekly  newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  1,197;  (1890)  1,713. 

Somerset,  Edward  Seymour,  Duke  of:  b.  about  1500; 
brother  of  Jane  Seymour,  third  queen  of  Henry  VIII.  and 


mother  of  Edward  VI.  After  the  death  of  Henry  he  v*^ 
to  the  head  of  affairs;  was  created  Duke  of  Somer>*»t  an-i 
earl-marshal  of  England  in  Feb.,  1547,  and  in  March  na^ 
made  lord  protector  and  governor  of  the  realm,  becunui.j 
king  in  all  but  name.  When  the  Scots  opposed  the  mar- 
riage  of  Mary  Stuart  to  Edward  VI.,  Somerset  invadtnl  tl.  ir 
country  and  defeated  them  in  the  battle  of  Pinkie.  T\..^ 
drove  them  to  form  an  alliance  with  France,  and  war  f«u- 
lowed  between  that  country  and  England,  resulting  in  tt.f 
latter^s  loss  of  Boulogne.  His  arrogance  and  rashness  yu*- 
voked  opposition,  and  among  his  political  adversaries  iiv.i^ 
his  own  brother.  Sir  Thomas  SeVmour,  who  was  apjT*- 
hended  and  executed  by  his  orders  Mar.,  1549.  This  brouicht 
the  protector  into  great  odium,  and  in  Oct.,  1549,  he  wa^  de- 
prived by  the  young  king  of  his  protectorship  and  thrown 
into  the  Tower,  but  was  released  with  a  full  pardon  in  a  U-w 
months.  Among  his  foremost  rivals  was  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick, afterward  Duke  of  Northumberland.  Somerset  entervii 
into  a  plot  against  his  life ;  was  .again  arrested,  found  guilty 
of  felony  and  constructive  treason,  and  was  beheaded  un 
Tower  HiU,  Jan.  22, 1552. 

Somerset,  Fitzroy  James  Henry  :  See  Raolan. 

Somerset,  Robert  Carr,  Earl  of:  See  Oveebury,  Mr 
Thomas. 

Som'ersetshire :  county  of  Southwestern  England : 
bounded  on  the  N.  and  W.  by  the  Bristol  Channel ;  an  a, 
1,630  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  much  diversified  by  ranp  ? 
of  low,  rot^ky  hills;  the  Mendip  Hills  in  the  N.  and  thf 
Quantock  Hills  in  the  W.  Coal  and  freestone  are  mine<l. 
and  iron  and  lead  in  small  quantities.  Large  tracts  ^f 
meadow  and  marshes  afford  excellent  pasturage.  The  c-littw- 
known  as  Cheddar  and  cider  are  largely  produced.  G^ntl 
wheat  is  raised  around  Bridge  water.  Dairy-farming  is  on^ 
of  the  principal  occupations;  leather,  glass',  paper,  and  irn 
goods  are  manufactured.     Pop.  (1891)  484,337. 

Somers's  Islands :  See  Bermuda  Islands. 

Som'erYHe,  William  :  poet ;  b.  at  Edston,  Yorkshire.  Eiu- 
land,  in  1677;  entered  Westminster  School  in  1690;  be<npi. 
a  fellow  of  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1704  suceee<lt*<i  t* 
his  patrimonial  estate,  where  he  lived  like  a  jovial  couuiry 
squire,  dividing  his  time  between  his  hounds,  his  book^  mA 
his  bottle.  His  poems  are  The  Two  Springs,  a  Fable  ( 17*2'n: 
Occasional  PoemSy  Translations^  etc.  (172f);  The  Choc*-,  ).i^ 
best  production,  a  didactic  blank  verse  poem  in  four  UvA> 
on  the  art  of  hunting  (1735) ;  IfobbinoL  or  (he  Hural  Gtvh^.-, 
a  burlesque  in  blank  verse  (1740) ;  and  Field  Sports  (1T4.2 . 
D.  July  19,  1742.  Revised  by  H.  A,  Bef.r^. 

Som'erYnie:  city;  Middlesex  co.,  Mass.;  on  the  ^U<\'w 
river,  and  the  Boston  and  Maine  and  the  Fitchburg  mil- 
ways;  joining  Boston  on  the  N.  W.  (for  location,  see  map  -f 
Massachusetts,  ref.  2-H).  It  was  formerly  a  part  of  il:«- 
town  of  Charlestown,  from  which  it  was  set  off  in  IMJ. 
and  is  a  residential  city  whose  inhabitants  are  largely  ♦n- 
gaged  in  business  in  Boston.  It  is  connected  with  B<M«'r, 
by  seven  lines  of  electric  and  five  of  steam  railway,  coiitai!.> 
31  churches,  24  public-school  buildings,  valued  at  f  TOO.c"'. 
a  public  library,  hosf)ital,  old  women's  home,  insane  as>  Imt . 
3  public  parks,*  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  f  l(X).OUi).<i 
savings-bank,  and  2  weekly  newspai)ers.  The  U.  S.  ceii-j- 
returns  of  1890  showed  387  manufacturing  establishment- 
(representing  58  industries),  with  a  combined  capital  •  f 
$3,788,018,  employing  3,126  persons,  paying  f  1,716,496  U 
wages  and  $4,369,0^  for  materials,  and  turning  out  pn«i- 
ucts  valued  at  $7,324,082.  The  city  was  settled  in  1629  a-,  i 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1872.  It  is  built  on  seven  hiu>. 
The  first  vessel  built  in  the  State  was  launched  from  (n-v. 
Winthrop's  Ten  Hill  farm  on  the  Mystic  river  in  1631:  « 
powtler-house  erected  on  Quarry  Hill  about  1703  is  carefi.i') 
preserved  and  is  now  in  the  center  of  a  public  park:  ti.. 
strongest  fortifications  in  the  vicinity  were  built  on  Winttr 
Hill  during  the  siege  of  Boston ;  Gem  Putnam's  **  imj)rfi;nii- 
ble  fortress"  was  on  Cobble  Hill ;  and  the  "citadel,  whir-- 
Washington  raised  the  first  colonial  union  flag,  Jan.  1,  ITTH. 
was  on  Prospect  Hill.  Pop.  (1880)  24,933;  (1890)  4(),i:v.>: 
(1895)  estimated,  52,000.  Jonx  S.  Hayls 

SomerYllle :  borough ;  capital  of  Somerset  co.,  N.  J. :  'H 
the  liaritan  river,  and  the  Central  Ilailroad  of  X.  J.:  1' 
miles  W.  N.  W.  of  New  Brunswick,  and  36  miles  W.  S.  W. 
of  New  York  (for  location,  see  map  of  New  Jersey,  ril. 
3-C).  It  has  gas  and  electric-light  plants,  sewers,  wain- 
works,  7  churches,  graded  public  school  with  16  t*»«chfi>.  •* 
Baptist  classical  school,  3  primary  schools,  public  libran 


C18 


SONG  OF  SOLOMON 


SONORA 


termed  the  syrinx,  just  above  the  forks  of  the  bronchi.  To 
the  syrinx  are  attached  the  singing  muscles,  numbering  in 
the  oscines  from  four  to  six  or  even  eight  pairs.  The  appa- 
ratus is  simple,  and  its  modifications  are  comparatively  shgnt. 
There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  tongue  takes  any,  at 
least  any  important,  part  in  the  production  of  sounds  even 
in  birds  which  pronounce  words.  Song  is  almost  exclusive- 
ly an  attribute  of  male  birds,  although  the  female  may  sing, 
as  does  the  cardinal  of  the  U.  S.,  and  it  is  heard  most  often 
during  the  time  of  pairing,  so  that  springtime  is  pre-eminent- 
ly the  season  of  song ;  still  some  binls  sing  pretty  much 
throughout  the  year,  and  even,  like  the  Carolina  wren,  in 
winter.  The  bolwlink,  on  the  other  hand,  changes  his  manners 
with  his  coat,  and  sings  only  in  full-dress  plumage.  Early 
morning  is  the  favorite  hour  for  song,  next  to  that  tlie  sunset- 
hour,  but  some  birds,  like  the  scarlet  tanager,  sing  during  the 
torrid  heat  of  a  southern  noonday,  and  many  songsters  be- 
sides the  nightingale  sing  at  night,  notablv  the  mocking-bird 
and  yellow-breasted  chat  of  the  U.  S.  iThe  ga^-plumaged 
birds  of  the  tropics  belong  largely  to  the  harsh-voiced  Clama- 
tores,  but  a  bright  coat  is  not  a  sure  sign  of  a  discordant  voice, 
for  the  majority  of  that  strictly  American  family  the  tanagers 
inhabit  the  tropics,  and  sing  as  well  as  the  familiar  scarlet 
tanager  of  more  northern  climes.  Not  only  do  individuals 
of  a  given  species  vary  considerably  in  their  power  of  song, 
but  ceilain  localities  seem  to  develop  musical  talent  better 
than  others.  The  meadow-lark  sings  better  in  Florida  than 
in  the  northern  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  while  the  western  sub-spe- 
cies excels  that  of  the  east.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Song  of  Solomon :  Sec  Canticle. 

Songs  [0.  Eng.  8ong,  aatig  :  Germ,  sanq  :  Goth,  sagcfuw;  cf. 
Gr.  d/ii^,  tuneful  voice,  oracle  <  Indo-iCur.  aanqh-j:  from 
the  literary  standpoint,  short  lyric  or  dramatic  poems  suit- 
able for  setting  to  vocal  music ;  from  the  musical  stand- 
point, compositions  of  relative  simplicity  of  form  which 
carefully  illustrate  and  enhance  the  sentiment  expressed  by 
the  words.  In  the  modern  sense  this  form  may  be  flexible 
as  to  development.  The  word  song  represents  an  indefinite 
quantity,  in  that  its  characteristics  may  range  through  a 
large  scope  as  to  musical  value.  There  are  short  songs  which 
may  be  compared  to  gems,  in  miniature,  by  the  great  paint- 
ers. There  are  also  the  folk-songs  of  various  countries  (the 
canii  popolari  of  the  Italians),  full  of  national  character- 
istics, and  immortal  in  their  simplicity.  I^astly,  there  are 
myriads  of  songs  whose  existence,  both  as  to  music  and  text, 
is  fortunately  but  for  a  day.  Dudley  Buck. 

Songtao :  See  Sonokoi. 

Sonnet  [either  directly  or  via  Fr.  sonnet  from  Ital.  so- 
nettOy  which  in  its  turn  probably  came  from  the  Pro  v.  and 
O.  Fr.  aonet^  a  diminutive  derived  from  the  Lat.  sonus^  a 
sound  or  air  in  music]:  a  poetical  form  which,  as  finally 
perfected  by  the  Italian  poets  of  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries,  consists  of  fourteen  hendecasy liable  verses 
(correspcmding  to  English  decasyllables),  arranged  accord- 
ing to  a  rigid  scheme.  The  main  features  of  this  are  the 
division  of  the  whole  poem  into  two  parts,  the  first  of  eight 
verses  (called  the  octave),  the  second  of  six  (called  the  ses- 
tet); the  further  division  of  the  octave  into  two  tetrastiches 
(called  in  Italian  piedi) ;  the  employment  of  but  two  rhymes 
in  the  octave,  arranged  ah  ba  abba;  the  use  of  either  two 
or  three  rhymes  in  tlie  sestet,  arranged  as  may  suit  the  |x>et. 
The  sestet,  when  it  forms  an  indivisible  whole*,  is  often  called 
in  Italian  sin'ma ;  when  it  falls  into  two  tercets,  volfe.  This 
severe  form,  however,  has  not  been  followed  by  all  sonnet- 
writers,  even  from  the  earliest  period.  Shakspeare,  for  ex- 
ample, hardly  observes  the  minor  divisions  of  the  sonnet  at 
all.  He  arranges  the  rhymes  of  tiie  octave  abababah,  or 
even  ababcdcd,  thus  ne<,^lccting  all  the  subtle  mo<iulations 
of  the  Petrarchan  type.  He  often  allows  the  sense  to  run 
over  from  the  octave  to  the  sestet;  and  even  when  he  [>arts 
the  two  he  makes  little  effort  to  contrast  the  meaning  and 
the  harmony  of  the  latter  with  those  of  the  fonner.  Tliis 
loose  type  of  the  sonnet  is  often  called  the  bastard  or  ille- 
gitimate sonnet;  but  this  is  hardly  ju«titied  by  the  history 
of  the  form. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  of  the  origin  and  devel- 
opment of  the  sonnet.  The  word  occurs  in  botlj  the  Proven- 
cal and  the  Old  French  languages  earlier  than  in  Italian. 
Investigation  has  shown,  however,  that  here  ,sonef  means 
simply  a  short  son — i.  e.  musical  air  or  lyric  set  to  music. 
There  are  a  few  real  sonnets  in  Provencal,  but  all  of  tliem 
are  by  Italians,  or  considerably  later  than  the  rise  of  the 
Italian  sonnet.    Everything  points,  therefore,  to  Italy  as  the 


birthplace  of  the  form;  but  there  are  difficulties  as  to  the- 
manner  of  its  birth.  A  very  widely  accepted  theory  htt> 
been  that  it  was  originally  simply  one  stanza  of  the'lyrir 
canzone.  It  is  hard  to  see,  however,  the  motive  that  shouM 
have  led  to  such  use  of  a  single  part  of  what  was  a  \  «-r\ 
elabomtely  constructed  and  balanced  poetical  form.  Mon* 
probable  is  the  theorv  first  set  forth  by  A.  d'Ancona,  in  hi> 
Poesia popolare  italiana  (Ijeghom,  1878),  that  the  bu-ji.s  cf 
the  sonnet  is  purely  popular.  In  fact,  there  exist  evt-n  u>- 
day  popular  lyrics,  called  strambotti  and  rUpftti^  whov* 
existence  is  fairly  assured  for  the  earliest  period  of  ItHii:tn 
poetry.  The  atrambotto,  whose  home  seems  Xx^  have  Wfw 
Sicily,  is  an  eight-lined  stanza  with  rhymes  arranged  ab  a  h 
ab  ab.  The  rispetto,  on  the  other  hand,  which  was  Tuwan 
in  origin,  is  a  precisely  similar  stanza,  but  of  six  lines, 
with  rhymes  cd  cd  cd.  D'Ancona  believed  that  the  sonnet 
was  obtained  by  one  of  the  earl}r  courtly  poeta  of  the  <<»- 
called  Sicilian  school,  through  joining  these  two  forms.  Thi^ 
theory  has  been  slightly  modified  by  Cesareo  {La  Poe^a 
Siciliana  sotto  gli  Srevi,  Catania,  1^94),  who  thinks  that  a 
six-lined  strambotto  existed  in  Sicily,  as  well  as  that  of  eiijht 
lines,  and  that  the  combination  was  effected  in  Sicily  alone. 
Indeed,  Cesareo  believes  that  the  inventor  of  the  new  fi>mi 
was  Jacomo  da  Lentino,  the  most  original  of  the  Sicilian 
poets,  who  flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. These  investigations  also  show  that  the  earliest  s  in- 
net  scheme  was  nearer  Shakspeare's  than  Petrarch's,  as  the 
rhymes  ran  ab  ab  ab  ab  cd  cd  cd. 

Though  thus  in  all  probability  of  popular  origin,  the  "bon- 
net form  was  from  the  start  employcJd  only  by  courtly  puts. 
The  subject-matter  of  the  earliest  sonnets  is,  like  that  of  tfic 
rest  of  the  poems  of  the  first  Italian  cultivated  poet*.  maml> 
derived  from  the  poetry  of  Provence.  During  tne  thirl*H.*nili 
century  it  became  more  and  more  popular  throughout  Italy. 
Many  experiments  at  refining  and  elaborating  it  were  made. 
Grmlually  the  rhyme  system,  abba  abba,  drove  out  tiie 
older  system  in  the  octave.  Under  the  influence  of  Pn»- 
venyal  poetical  theories,  the  inner  divisions  were  nrn*!*- 
sharper  and  clearer.  On  another  side  efforts  were  made  t** 
vary  the  fixed  scheme,  either  by  atif)ending  a  couplet  or 
group  of  couplets  {cauda  or  coda)  at  the  end  or  by  in^-rt- 
ing  at  fixed  points  subsidiary  seven-syllalile<l  linei,  which 
rhymed  with  the  preceding  eleven-syllabled  lines.  Accx>r«i- 
ing  to  the  number  of  these  insertions,  such  sonnets  were  caii«<l 
soneiti  doppi  and  soneiii  rinterzati.  In  some  cases  soinu'T> 
of  twenty-eight  verses  were  thus  pro<luced.  The  simpler 
form,  however,  proved  the  jiermanently  satisfactory  nn*-: 
and  this  was  finally  fixed  by  the  great  master  of  all  tin- 
Italian  sonnet-writers — Petrarch. 

The  diffusion  of  the  sonnet  form  outside  of  Italy  lM*::Hn 
when  the  rest  of  Europe  came  to  feel  the  powerful  influenee 
of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  In  the  Spanish  Peninsula  titi^ 
took  place  in  the  fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth  centuri«<: 
and  the  earliest  Catalan  and  Spanish  sonnets  belong  to  thi^ 
pericxl.  In  France,  according  to  Joachim  du  Bellay.  the 
sonnet  was  introduced  from  Italy  by  Mellin  de  Saint-<lel.iiN 
a  poet  of  the  early  sixteenth  century;  but  du  Bellay  hinwif 
and  his  friends  of  the  Pleiatle  were  the  first  to  give  it  rehl 
vogue.  In  Kngland  it  was  introduced  toward  the  mifldle  of 
the  sixteenth  century  by  Wyatt  and  Surrey.  The  earli«*^t 
German  sonnet  is  to  be  found  in  a  translation  of  an  aiiii- 
papal  tract  by  Bernardino  Ochino.  This  translation,  ma<ie 
by  <me  Christoph  Wirsung,  appeared  in  1556. 

The  best  general  account  of  the  history  of  the  sonnet  i> 
to  be  found  in  II.  Welti,  Ocschichte  des  Soneties  in  dtr 
deutachen  Dichtung  (Leipzig,  1884).  The  development  i»f 
the  sonnet  in  Italy  is  excellently  treated  bv  L.  Biatleue. 
Morfologia  del  Soneifo  uei  (tecoli  XIIL  e  XlV,  (faM-icoln 
10  of  Studi  di  Filologia  Romanza,  Rome,  1888).  Of  value, 
but  to  be  used  with  care,  is  Louis  de  Veyrieres*s  M'>no- 
graphie  dn  sonnei,  soymetistes  anrieus  et  modemes  [2  vol^.. 
l*aris,  1869-70).  Less  go^nl  is  C'.  Tomlinson's  work,  eutitlr^l 
Tbe  Sonne f :  ita  Origin^  Structure^  and  Plate  in  ptttr*) 
(London,  1874).  A.  R.  Marsh.  * 

Sono'ra :  the  north  westernmost  state  of  Mexico ;  IwumU^l 
by  the  U.  S.  (Arizona)  on  the  N.,  Chihuahua  on  the  E.,  Sitm- 
loa  on  the  S.  K.,  the  Gulf  of  California  on  the  S.  W.,  and  the 
territory  of  Lower  California  on  the  X.  W.  Area,  77.'>.'U 
sfj.  miles.  The  Sierra  Matlre  Range  forms  the  eastern  lioun«i- 
ary,  and  its  spurs  and  sub-ranges  cover  much  of  the  ea^l• 
em  part  of  the  state,  which  is  very  imperfectly  kn<»wn. 
Succeeding  this  region  are  plateaus  and  valleys  with  a  neli 
soil,  but  only  available  for  agriculture  by  irrigation.    The 


f>ON0RA 


HOPMIS'TS 


m 


III!  I-  .iloiii;  the  coast  are  arid,  except  in  the  river  valleys.  | 
I'lir  iiuiihvvesteru  jmrt  is  a  desert,  resembling  the  adjacent 
I>arfs  (»f  Arizona.  Uf  the  few  rivers  the  Yacjui  is  the  must 
iiii|Hirtant.  The  climate  is  hot  on  tlio  lowlands,  mild  on 
I  I-  platoaus  and  in  the  hijrlu'r  valleys;  rains  (princii)ully 
fr  '111  July  to  S'ptember)  are  scanty,  and  the  northwestern 
.1  -1  rts  and  parts  of  the  c<iast-belt  are  essentially  rainless. 

I  ii.  re  is  no  true  forest,  except  in  the  mountains.  Tlie  slate 
i>  rirh  in  minerals;  the  mines  of  silver  and  gold  have  long 
l».  •  n  famous,  lead  occurs  in  conjunction  witii  silver,  and  lat- 
t  '•ly  imf>ortant  coal-beds  have  been  opened  in  tlio  Vaqui 
V  i;ley.  the  pnxJuct  being  exported  to  Arizona.  Mining  is 
I  H*  (.lily  important  industry;  cereals,  etc.,  are  cultivated  in 
i'  »•  river  valleys,  and  there  are  consideralde  herds  of  cattle 
ill  the  nortli.  A  kind  of  guano  is  found  on  islands  in  the 
(iiilf  of  California.  The  Sonora  Railway  (from  the  port  of 
<i'i.iyinas,  on  the  gulf,  to  Benson,  on  the  Southern  Pacific 
li.iilroad)  was  originally  built  as  an  outlet  for  the  coal-fields. 
l'"p.  (1><1>3)  estimated,  140,500.  A  large  proportitm  are  In- 
'liaiis  of  the  Opata.  Pima,  and  other  tribes,  who  retain  their 

•  Id  customs  and  languages,  and  in  many  cases  are  practi- 
«  ally  inde[>eudent.  II.  H.  Smith. 

S<»nora:  city:  capital  of  Tuolumne  co.,  Cal.;  on  Wood's 
iTrek  :  60  mih^  E.  of  Stockton,  IK)  miles  S.  E.  of  Sacramento ; 
»-'|iiidistant  from  the  Yosemite  valley  and  the  Calaveras  big- 
tr.-e  region  (for  hx^ation,  see  map  of  Californiii,  ref.  7-E). 
It  is  the  center  of  a  large  gohl-mining  area;  is  principally 
pn<^';i'^ed  in  mining,  agriculture,  lumbering,  and  grape-grow- 
iiiL';  and  contains  water-works,  the  Snell  [library,  an  acad- 
miv,  f«»un«lrv,  quartz-mills,  and  three  weekly  newspapers. 
!'.>[..  aH.^0)  1,402;  (IHDO)  1,441. 

Sonsoii':  town  of  the  department  of  Antioquia,  Colom- 
Iti  I :  on  the  river  Sonson ;  'Sli  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  3iedellin  ; 
^.'■I'iO  feet  alcove  the  .sea  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref. 
'2- Hi.  It  is  the  center  of  a  rich  grazing  district,  and  is  noted 
for  Its  mild  and  Sivlubrious  climate  and  beautiful  8<.*enery. 
'i:ie  river  here  forms  a  trif)lo  fall  of  2<X)  feet,  and  causes  in 
ir^  deep  ravine  a  continual  son-son,  or  echo,  whence  the 
naiae.     Pop.  about  12,000.  II.  Ii.  S. 

Son^ona'te:  town  of  Salvador;  beautifully  situated  on  a 
plain  l>y  the  Sonsonate  river,  and  on  the  railway  from 
>aiiia  Ana  to  the  port  of  Acajutla;  40  miles  W.  of  San  Sal- 
\  lior  (see  map  of  Central  America,  ref.  4-E).  It  wtis 
f  uiided  s<jcui  after  the  cimipiest,  and  is  the  center  of  a  rich 
ajriiultural  district  and  the  capital  of  a  department  of  the 
Niiiie  name.     Pop.  about  <J,000.  II.  Ii.  S. 

SontafiT.  z«'>n  taaAh,  IIenriettb:  opera-singer;  b.  at  Co- 
l)'..nz,  Uermany,  Jan.  3,  1»(M);  was  gifted  ^^ith  fine  vwal 
.iti.i  dnimatic  jMiwers,  which  were  highly  cultivated  ;  excelled 

II  <ierinan  and  Italian  music,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-five 
riNaKd  Malii>ran,  Pasta, and  Catalan!;  married  Count  liossi, 
uii  Ituluin  noble,  in  I8^i0,  and  retired  to  private  life.  She 
It  -utui'd  her  professiomil  career  in  1840,  nnide  a  tour  in  the 
I  .  S.  in  IHo-^,  and  in  Mexico.  I),  of  cholera  in  Vera  Cruz, 
I  line  IH,  1854.  Revised  by  B.  B.  Vallentlne. 

Soo-Chow-Foo  :  See  Si -Chow. 

Soodan  :  another  spelling  of  Sudan  {q.  v.). 

Soofees:  See  Sufis. 

S»>o'soo,  or  SilSn :  the  Platanista  gattt/fh'ra,  &  cetacean 

•  •f  t!i».  Ganges,  the  only  living  representative  of  the  family 
/^v/////jm////^p,  which  is  allied  to  the  7>//<V/<p,  or  fresh- water 
MMJj.hins  of  South  America.  It  is  some  6  or  b  feet  long,  and 
I-  Tdiiuirily  very  slui^gish,  but  can  move  after  its  prey, 
^*  hi'  h  consists  of  fish  and  crustaceans,  with  nmch  vigor.  It 
it  I-  long  bi-aked  jaws,  120  teeth,  and  curious  rudimentary 
•>'-.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lut  as. 

Noot  [U.  Eng.  ,'<of  :  lid  sot;  cf.  Ir.  «/////:  Lit h.  sthli.s ; 
\r,.suie]:  a  carbonaeeous  deposit  from  smoke,  formed  in 

•  fiiiMieys.  That  wliieh  forms  nearest  the  fire  is  often 
-'.  iiini^  and  varnish-like,  consisting  chiefly  of  dried  tarry 
it.iitrrs  mixed  with  carbon,  and  giving  a'  brownish-blaek 
!■  •Ad«r,  s«)metimes  n<e«l  as  a  pigment  under  tlie  name  of 
M-fr.'.  That  wliieh  ff»rms  further  up  the  chimney  is  more 
■•I  :!i.'  chai-acter  of  Lampblack  (7.  r.). 

Soot}'  Tern:  See  Imjcj-bird. 

Sooysiiiith,  soi  smith,  William:  civil  enirinecr:  b.  at 
T.jriten.  <».,  July  22,  18M0;  graduated  at  tlie  Ohio  Univer- 
"Ay  \n  IS40.  and  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  July  1,  1h:>;{. 
In  K»4  he  re-^ii^nwl  from  the  army  to  emraire  in  civil  engi- 
"•  •  riri::;  in  1855  tx^came  principal  of  the  Bulfalo  llii^hSeiiool. 
ii'-iiining  his  profession  in  1850  he  wiis  in  1850  placed  in 


charge  of  the  construction  of  a  bridge  over  the  Savannah 
river,  the  foundations  of  which  consisted  of  pneunuilic 
piles.  In  the  civil  war  he  served  as  coh>nel  of  the  Thirteenth 
Ohio  Volunteers  in  West  Virginia  till  Jan.,  1802,  when  trans- 
ferred to  the  Arniy  of  the  Ohio,  and  was  engaged  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Shiloh,  Apr.  7.  ('om missioned  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  Apr.  15,  he  particij)ated  in  the  siege  of  Corinth ; 
Commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Perry ville;  was  chief 
of  the  cavalry  department  of  the  Tennessee  July-Oct.,  1803, 
and  of  the  division  of  the  Mississippi  Oct..  l80ii->July,  1864, 
when  compelled  by  ill  health  to  roign.  He  has  since  been 
engaged  in  sinking  fonndatitms  for  briilges  and  otiier  struc- 
tures. He  was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  board  of  1875-76  for 
testing  iron  and  &teel.  Revised  by  M.  Meruiman. 

Sophi^a  (anc.  SvnUca-,  Bulg.  Sr^detz):  city;  capital  of 
Bulgaria;  on  a  small  tributary  of  the  Iskra,  and  on  the 
main  railway  between  Vienna  and  Constantinople  (see  map 
of  Turkey,  ref.  3-C).  Till  18T8  it  was  "a  dirty  and  pesti- 
lential viUage  of  wooden  huts,'*  but  since  Russia  wrested 
from  the  Ottomans  a  semi-independence  for  Bulgaria  (1878), 
it  has  marvelously  improved.  It  now  resembles  a  Euro|)ean 
city  with  its  straight,  clean  streets  aiul  attractive  houses. 
Over  7.(X)0  Ottomans  from  among  its  former  residents  have 
emigrated,  but  the  population  has  almost  trebled  in  seven- 
teen years.  Sophia  possesses  a  commodious  palace,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  prince,  a  cathedral,  an  excellent  college  and 
schools,  and  a  public  garden.  It  manufactures  leather, 
earthenware,  and  woolen  cloth,  and  carries  on  an  active 
transit  trade.     Pop.  (1803)  47,000.  E.  A.  Grosvexor. 

Sophists  [from  Lat.  sophis  (e8  =  GT.  owpun-hi,  deriv.  of 
(rwpi^tffBai^  be  or  become  wise,  plav  the  wise  man  or  Soph- 
ist]: name  applied  to  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece;  after- 
ward to  the  teachers  at  Athens  who  gave  lessons  in  the  arts 
and  sciences  for  money.  The  course  of  Greek  philosophy 
begins  with  the  establishment  of  a  material  first  princir>le 
— water,  air.  fire,  etc. — and  tends  toward  the  rtM'ognition 
of  mind  as  this  fii*st  principle.  Anaxagoras  explicitly  an- 
nounced mind  {vovs)  as  such  first  principle.  The  fii*st  and 
most  obvious  i>hase  of  mind  as  an  activity  is  its  capacity  to 
reflect,  and  hence  to  disccner  grounds  and  reasons.  Each 
ground  or  reason  in  s<jme  meaMire  communicates  its  pecul- 
iar character  to  the  fact  or  opinion  which  it  grounfis. 
Hence  from  the  standpoint  of  grounds  and  arguments  all 
truth  seems  to  be  an  arbitrary  aflair,  depending  upon  the 
selection  which  one  makes  of  grounds  and  reasons.  Truth 
is  supposed  to  be  many-sided,  and  the  point  of  view  taken 
is  supposed  to  justify  one's  difference  in  o|)inion.  The  art 
of  presenting  grounds  or  reasons  to  justify  any  view  is  the 
art  of  the  So|)hists.  Tlie  fact  that  these  manv  sides  or 
grounds  of  truth  are  mutually  interdependent,  and  therefore 
that  each  has  truth  only  as  seen  in  view  of  the  rest — this  is 
the  further  and  deeper  insight  which  it  belonged  to  Socrates 
and  Plato  Xo  discover  and  unfold.  The  universal  or  general 
is  the  net  result,  as  well  as  the  active  princi[)le,  of  that  dia- 
lectic process  wliieh  appears  in  the  genesis  and  mutual  de- 
struction of  different  opinions — "diffi'rent  points  of  view." 
As  a  necessary  elementary  stage  of  human  thinking,  the  work 
of  the  Sophists  is  of  permanent  importance  in  the  history  of 
philosophy.  The  Eleati<'S,  who  set  up  the  do<*trine  of  pure 
being,  found  it  necessary  to  denv  being  to  the  phases  of 
change,  finitude,  and  negativity  tliat  appear  in  the  world. 
Zeno  accordingly  discovered  the  dialectic  of  self-contradic- 
tion involved  in  those  y»hases.  This  was  ado[)ted  l>y  the 
Sophists,  of  whom  the  chief  were  Piotagoras  the  Individu- 
alist (b.  41M1  B.  c),  (iorgias  the  Nihilist  (came  to  Athens  427 
B.  c),  Hij)pias  the  Polymatliist,  and  Prodicus  the  Moralist 
(the  two  latter  l>eing  younger  contemj>oraries  of  Protagoras). 
Evervtiiing  that  existed  in  the  Greek  consciousness  as  opin- 
ion, faith,  custom,  religicms  tradition,  even  the  evidence  (»f 
the  sensi's,  was  sapf>ed  and  ren<lered  uncertain  by  the  rati- 
ocination of  these  So|)hists.  Pi'otagoras  asserted:  Man  is 
the  measure  of  all  things.  Just  as  each  thing  appears  to 
each  man,  so  i^  it  for  him.  All  truth  is  relative.  The  ex- 
istence of  the  go(ls  is  uncertain.  Gorgias  expressed  his 
nihilism  in  three  propositions:  (a)  Notliing  exists;  (//)  if 
anything  existed,  it  would  be  unknowabh';  (/•)  if  anything 
e\i>te«i.  and  were  knowal»le,  the  knowleilge  of  it  could  nev- 
erthelrss  not  be  communicat(Hl  to  others.  "Common  sense,'* 
so  called,  is  t lie  stage  of  naive  faith  in  o!ie*s  |H)int  of  view. 
The  iliscovery  of  the  e<jual  vali<lity  of  "many  points  of 
view"  leads  on  the  one  haml  to  sophistical  practices,  or  on 
the  other  to  skepticism.  I'yrrhnnic  ske]»ticism  in  (Jroece 
connects  back  through  the  Megarian  school  to  the  dialectic 


620 


SOPHOCLES 


SORBOXNE 


of  the  Sophists  and  of  Zeno  the  Eleatic.  See  articles  Soc- 
rates, Philosophy  {History  of  Philosophy)^  and  Moral 
Philosophy.  *         Willum  T.  Harris. 

Hophodes,  sof  o-kleez  (Gr.  io<poKKris) :  the  second  in  time 
of  the  three  great  tragic  f)oets  of  Greece;  b.  of  a  wealthy- 
family  at  Colonus,  a  beautiful  deme  of  Attica  near  Athens, 
in  496  B.  c.  He  was  carefully  trained  in  all  the  arts  of  a  lib- 
eral education,  in  gymnastics  and  music.  At  the  age  of  six- 
teen he  led  the  chorus  of  boys  who  danced  and  sang  the  paean 
in  honor  of  the  victory  of  Salamis,  and  there  is  other  evidence 
of  his  personal  beauty  and  grace.  His  first  play,  acted  in 
468,  was  a  great  success,  and  won  the  prize  over  ^schylus 
after  a  close  contest  which  was  finally  referred  for  decision 
to  Cimon  and  his  fellow  generals.  For  the  next  ten  years 
Sophocles  divided  with  ^schvlus  the  empire  of  the  stage, 
the  older  rival  learning  from  the  younger  as  the  younger  had 
already  learned  much  from  the  older.  After  the  death  of 
^schylus,  Sophocles  was  the  leading  dramatist.  He  never 
failed  of  at  least  the  second  prize,  and  coped  successfully 
with  such  plays  as  the  Alceshs  and  the  Medea  of  Eurip- 
ides. But  as  -<Eschylus  accepted  the  improvements  of 
Sophocles,  so  Sophocles  in  his  later  plavs  was  clearly  in- 
fluenced by  Euripides,  whose  greatness  he  did  not  fail  to 
recognize.  Sophocles  took  an  active  part  in  public  life, 
and  was  called  to  hold  high  positions.  In  consequence  of 
the  sentiments  expressed  in  his  Antigone  (440)  he  was  made 
a  colleague  of  Pericles  in  the  command  of  the  forces  sent 
against  Samos.  Before  that  he  had  been  an  Hellenotamias 
or  treasurer  of  the  Alliance,  and  in  the  troublous  times  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war  he  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  theprohuli 
{irpdfiovXm)  or  committee  of  safety  appointed  in  411.  Love 
played  a  large  part  in  his  life,  and  his  sweet  and  easy  temper 
was  often  put  to  the  test.  According  to  a  familiar  trfuli- 
tion,  when  far  advanced  in  years  Sophocles  was  brought  be- 
fore a  family  court  bv  his  son  lophon  on  the  charge  of  dis- 
ordered intellect.  The  aged  poet  recited  the  famous  enco- 
mium on  Colonus  from  the  (Edipus  Coloneus,  which  he  had 
just  composed,  and  the  charge  was  dismissed — as  the  story 
may  be.    He  died  an  easy  death  in  405. 

Of  his  123  dramas  seven  are  extant,  Afax,  Electra^  (Edi- 
pus Tyrannus,  Antigone,  Trachinice,  Philoetetes,  (Edipus 
Coloneus,  the  first  three  being  the  most  popular  in  Byzan- 
tine times.  Sophocles  introduced  the  thira  actor  and  thus 
increased  the  life  and  movement  of  the  drama,  and  life  and 
movement  were  also  enhanced  by  the  change  which  made  each 
drama  of  the  trilogy  (see  -^schylus)  an  independent  play. 
These  and  other  changes  in  the  external  form  are  manifes- 
tations of  the  same  spirit  that  we  find  working  in  the  heart 
of  the  Sophoclean  drama.  When  we  study  Sophocles  we  are 
no  longer  in  the  -^schylean  realm  of  Titanic  beings,  too 
vast  for  human  sympathy,  for  while  the  heroes  and  heroines 
whom  Sophocles  brings  before  us  are  lifted  above  our  level, 
they  are  of  like  passions  with  ourselves,  and  the  motives  are 
motives  of  flesh  and  blood,  of  human  character  and  human 
will.  His  dramatis perso7UB  are  eternal  types  "writ  large." 
In  the  construction  of  the  plot  Sophocles  had  no  rival.  His 
(Edipus  Tyrannus,  to  cite  but  one  instance,  is  a  tragic  web 
of  uuequaled  subtlety  and  eflfectiveness.  The  lyric  parts  of 
his  plays  are  in  beautiful  balance  with  the  dramatic  element. 
His  language  is  more  supple  than  that  of  ^schylus,  but 
never  falls  short  of  elevation.  It  is  sweet  and  yet  does  not 
lack  a  certain  tang  of  austerity  that  saves  it  from  cloying. 

Editions. — Among  the  most  memorable  editions  of  all 
the  plays  are  those  of  G.  Hermann  (1830-41),  Wunder-Weck- 
lein  (4th  ed.  begun  in  1875),  Schneidewin-Nauck  (begun  by 
Schneidewin  in  1849  and  repeatedly  issued  since),  Campbell, 
in  2  vols.  (1873, 1881.  and  repeated),  Campbell- Abbott,  2  vols. 
(1886) ;  above  all,  the  monumental  edition  of  Jebb  (begun  in 
1883,  nearly  complete  in  1895,  with  repeated  issues  of  (Edipus 
Tyrannus  and  Antigone),  Select  plays  by  Wolf-Bel lermann 
(begun  1858,  often  repeated).  Text  ed.  by  Dindorf  (Teubner 
collection),  by  Schubert  (Schenkl  collection),  by  Nauck 
(Weidmann).  Of  noteworthy  editions  of  single  plays  may 
be  mentioned  Ajax,  bv  Lobeck  (3d  ed.  1866) ;  Antigone,  bv 
Boeckh  (184^3),  by  Humphreys  (1891);  Electra,  by  Jahn  (3(1 
ed,  1882);  (Edipus  Tyrannus.  bv  Elmslev  (1821):  (Edipus 
Coloneus,  by  Reisig  (1820);  Philoctetes,  by  Blaydes  (1870), 
who  has  edited  other  plays  of  Sophoc^les  also.  Of  transla- 
tions into  English  verse  may  be  noted  Plumptre  (1866)  and 
Campbell  (1874);  of  translations  into  Entrlish  prose  after 
Jebb^s  text,  E.  P.  Coleridge  (1893),  and  Jebb  himself  in  the 
edition  cited.  For  the  enormotis  bibliofjraphy  (down  to 
1874  only),  see  Genthe's  Index  Coinmentationum  Sophocle- 


arum.  Invaluable  is  Ellendt's  Lexicon  Sophodeum  (2d  eil. 
by  Genthe,  1872).  See  also  SchSll's  Sophokles  (2d  ed.  Ih70j 
and  Patin's  Sophocle  (5th  ed.  1877).    B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

Sophocles,  Evangelinus  Apostolides :  Greek  scholar;  h. 
at  Tsangaranda,  Thessaly,  Greece,  Mar.  8,  1807;  stu<litd 
at  the  convent  on  Mt.  Sinai;  emigrated  to  the  U.  S.;  en- 
tered Amherst  College  in  1829;  was  tutor  in  Harvanl  Col- 
lege, with  a  brief  intermission,  from  1842-49;  assistant  fin»- 
fessor  1849-60,  and  in  1860  became  Professor  of  Ancicfit. 
Jlodern,  and  Byzantine  Greek,  He  published  a  Qreek  Oram- 
war(1838;  3ded.l847);  First  Lessons  in  GreekilSSd);  Oretk 
Exercises  (1 841 ) ;  Oreek  Lessons  for  Beginners  ( 1 843) ;  ( "a  fa- 
logue  of  Oreek  Verbs  (1844);  History  of  the  Greek  Alpha- 
bety  etc.  (1848) ;  Glossary  of  Later  and  Byzantine  Grt*k 
(1860),  revised  as  Greek  Lexicon  of  the  Roman  and  Byzan- 
title  Periods  (1870),  etc.  D.  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Dec.  17. 
1883. 

Sophonts'ba :  See  Masinissa. 

So^phron :  inventor  or  rather  perfecter  of  the  so-ca]le<l 
Mime  {g.  v.)\  flourished  at  Syracuse  in  the  middle  of  thr 
fifth  century  b.  c.  The  office  of  the  mime  was  to  represent  in 
dramatic  form  a  special  situation  or  a  special  personage.  It 
was  a  commedietta  that  lacked  a  chorus,  that  lacked  an  elal>- 
orate  plot.  The  mimes  of  Sophron  enjoyed  a  great  reputa- 
tion in  ancient  times ;  Plato  read  them  again  and  again  aTi<l 
slept  with  them  under  his  pillow,  and  in  Rome  they  wer»^ 
learned  by  heart  and  much  imitated.  A  few  fragment > 
have  been  collected  by  Blomfield  in  Museum  Criticum  (vol 
ii.,  1826),  and  by  Ahrens,  De  Groec,  Dialect,  (vol.  ii.,  p.  464 1. 
Revised  by  B.  L,  Gildersleeve. 

Soprano :  the  highest  type  of  the  voice  of  women  and 
boys.  The  compass  of  the  high  soprano  may  be  said  to  ex- 
tend from  lower  E  on  the  treble  staff  to  C  above,  and  that 
of  the  mezzo-soprano  from  A  below  to  A  above.  Araon^' 
the  high  sopranos  exceptional  compass  is  sometimes  found, 
reaching  even  to  F  ana  G  in  alt,  D.  B. 

So'ra:  town;  in  the  province  of  Caserta,  Italy;  on  thr 
Garigliano;  about  58  miles  X,  N.  W.  of  Naples  (see  map  of 
Italy,  ref.  6^E).  The  manufactories  of  pai>er,  woolen,  an<l 
other  stuffa  here  are  on  a  considerable  scale,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  modern  machinery.    Pop.  about  5,400. 

Sorac'te:  the  present  Monte  di  San  Greste,  a  mountain 
of  Etruria,  an  outlying  offset  of  the  Apennines,  from  winch 
it  is  detached  by  the  valley  of  the  Tiber.  It  rises  with  its 
bold  and  abrupt  masses  of  the  peculiar  hard  Apennine  linu- 
stone  2,420  feet  above  the  surrounding  plain,  and  forms, 
especially  when  its  top  is  covered  with  snow,  a  conspicuous 
and  very  picturesque  feature  in  the  views  of  the  Campagna. 
(Horace,  Carm.,  i.,  9.)  In  ancient  times  it  was  dedicated  t<» 
Apollo,  and  bore  on  its  top  a  celebrated  temple  of  this  g<jd. 
to  which  large  and  peculiarlv  solemn  processions  were  mH<if 
from  Rome,  situated  26  miles  to  the  S.  In  746  Carlonuiu, 
the  brother  of  Pepin,  founded  the  monastery  of  San  ^^lI- 
vestro  on  the  site  of  the  old  pagan  temple.  Its  present 
name  the  mountain  has  received  from  a  village,  San  C)re>te. 
situated  on  its  slope  and  well  known  for  its  sour  wine. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Sorata :  See  Illampu. 

Horblan  Langnage:  another  name  for  Lusatian-Servian ; 
see  Slavic  Languages. 

Sorbite,  or  Mountain-ash  Sngar  [sorbite  is  from  l^t. 
sor'hum,  sorb-tree]:  a  saccharine  substance  formed  in  the 
juice  of  the  berries  of  Sorbiis  aucuparia,  the  mouutain-a>)i 
of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  the  related  American.  Sorbu^ 
americana.  The  compound  has  the  coiirposition  C«Hi4<>*. 
being  isomeric  with  mannite.  It  belongs  to  the  alcoholN 
and  is  in  turn  related  to  the  sugars.  I.  H. 

Sorbonne,  sorbin':  the  name  generally  applie<l  to  the 
theological  faculty  of  the  ancient  University  of  Paris.  It 
was  derived  from  Robert  de  Sorbon  (b.  at  Sorbon,  in  the  Ar- 
dennes, in  1201,  and  afterward  chaplain  to  Louis  IX. ;  d.  in 
Paris,  renowned  for  sanctity  and  eloquence,  1274).  In  r2">'- 
he  founded  an  institution  connected  with  the  University  of 
Paris,  in  which  seven  secular  priests  were  to  teach  theol«»'jy 
gratuitously  to  sixteen  poor  students,  and  in  the  folh»winj: 
year  the  institution  received  its  charter  from  Louis  IX., 
which  was  confirmed  in  1268  by  Pope  Clement  IV.  Con- 
nected with  it  was  a  preparatory  school.  Both  were  under 
a  provisor.  The  seventy  of  the  examinations  mjule  its 
degrees  of  high  esteem.  The  great  care  which  was  tak«n 
not  to  admit  among  the  teachers  any  but  men  of  the  highot 


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tr       T«1R.-.i 

J 

622 


SORICID^ 


SOTADES 


its  crystallization.  These  bodies  can  be  largely  separated 
from  the  sugars  by  treating  the  partially  evaporated  juices 
with  alcohol.  Experiments  made  by  the  department  of  ag- 
riculture in  1891  indicated  that  fully  200  lb.  of  sugar  per 
ton  could  be  made  from  Forghum  in  this  way.  The  charac- 
ter of  the  U.  S.  internal  reventie  laws,  however,  prevents 
the  use  of  alcohol  ex(;ept  under  such  restrictions  as  would 
render  it  unprofitable. 

Extensive  exi)eriments  were  conducte<l  by  the  department 
of  agriculture  from  1888  to  1803  at  Sterling  and  Medicine 
Lodge,  Kan.,  in  the  improvement  of  sorghum  as  a  sugar- 
producing  plant.  New  varieties  were  developed  and  the 
content  of  su^ar  therein  greatly  increased.  Seeds  selected 
from  canes  with  a  high  content  of  sugar  were  carefully  prop- 
agated and  continued  from  year  to  year  in  a  direct  line  of 
descent.  The  most  approved  varieties  of  sorghum  as  thus 
(leveloped  are  Amber,  Folger,  Colman,  Collier,  McLean, 
Link,  No.  8X,  No.  112,  No.  161,  and  Orange. 

Sorghum  as  a  Food. — Sorghum  produces  seeds  which  are 
quite  equal  to  ordinary  cereals  for  food.  The  composition 
of  sorghum  seed  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Moisture 

Albuminoids 

Petroleum  spirit  extract  (oil) | 

Ether  extract 

Eighty -per-cent.  alcohol  extract  (sugar). . 

FiWr 

Ash 

Starch  and  soluble  carbohydrates 


S«edt  with 

S«Mb  witboat 

trtum-, 

f»uin«. 

IMTOtnt. 

peroMiU 

9  93 

9  63 

1054 

11-39 

378 

3- 16 

061 

OM 

291 

1  78 

8  17 

1-83 

205 

1-69 

67.07 

09.98 

Each  ton  of  sorghum  will  yield  from  100  to  150  lb.  of  seed. 
Sorghum  is  also  valuable  as  fora^  when  sown  broadctist  and 
harvested  as  hay  or  prOvServed  in  silos.  It  is  chiefly  culti- 
vated for  this  purpose  in  Southern  and  Southwestern  Kan- 
sas and  in  many  other  of  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  U.  S., 
as  it  yields  a  crop  which  can  be  relied  upon  in  all  seasons. 
In  all  part«  of  the  U.  S.  sorghum  is  cultivated  in  a  small 
way  for  molasses-making.  The  method  of  cultivation  is 
almost  identical  with  that  of  maize,  but  the  young  plants 
require  more  care.  The  ripe  canes  are  relieved  of  their  seetl- 
heads  and  blades  and  crushed  in  small  three-roll  mills  usually 
driven  by  animal  power.  The  expressed  juices  are  treated 
with  cream  of  lime  heated  to  the  Ixn ling-point  and  the 
scums  removed.  The  clear  juice  obtained  is  rapidly  con- 
centrated in  kettles  or  shallow  pans  to  the  consistence  of 
molas.ses,  yielding  when  carefully  controlled  a  wholesome 
and  pleasant  product. 

Statistical. — The  number  of  gallons  of  molasses  made  in 
the  IT.  S.  from  sorghum  in  the  census  year  1860  was  6,749,- 
123;  in  1870,  16,050,089;  in  1880,  28,444,202;  in  1890,  24,- 
235,219.  In  the  last-named  year  415,691  acres  were  culti- 
vated in  sorghum.  The  yield  of  sugar  reported  to  the  in- 
ternal revenue  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  bounty  for  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1892,  was  1,136,186  lb.,  for  that 
ending  in  1893  1,026,100  lb.,  and  for  that  ending  in  1894 
882,572  lb.  The  average  yield  of  cane  per  acre  wa.s  5*3  tons, 
and  the  average  yield  f>er*ton  of  cane  manufactured  82*5  lb. 
Much  sugar  is  also  made  as  an  incidental  product  in  the 
manufacture  of  molasses.  Harvey  W.  Wiley. 

Soric'idn  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  So' rex,  the  typical 
genus,  from  Lat.  so' rex,  shrew]:  a  family  of  mammals  of 
the  order  Insectivora,  including  shrews  orshrew-mice.  Ex- 
ternally they  resemble  mice,  but  are  readily  distinguishable 
bv  the  longer  and  pointed  snout.  In  contrast  with  the 
talpidcB,  to  which  they  are  most  nearly  related,  they  present 
the  following  characters:  The  skull  is  long,  narrow,  and 
pointed ;  the  zygomatic  arch  is  lacking,  and  there  are  no 
post-orbital  processes ;  the  tympanic  is  ring-like  ;  the  tibia 
and  fibula  are  ankylosed :  the  halves  of  the  pelvis  do  not 
meet ;  there  is  no  cavum  ;  the  teeth  range  in  number  from  26 
to  36  (M.  J,  P.  M.  \:h  C.  j,  I.  VA  X  2) ;  the  cusps  of  the  upper 
molars  are  arranged  in  a  W  ;  tlie  upper  inci.M)rs  are  large  and 
hook-shaped,  the  first  lower  incisors  are  usually  directed  for- 
ward ;  the  cervical  vertebnr  have  we  11 -de  vol  oped  hypapoph- 
yses,  and  the  dorsal  and  lumliar  distinct  hyperapophyses : 
the  sternum  has  a  broad  but  not  keeled  manubrium.  The 
family  is  a  very  homogeneous  one,  and  rej)resentatives  are 
found  in  the  entire  northern  hemisphere.  an<l  extend  south- 
ward into  India  and  Eiistern  Asia  in  the  Old  World  and  into 
Mexico  in  the  New.  The  species  are  all  small,  and  some  of 
them  are  among  the  least  of  mammals.    They  have  certain 


glands  near  the  fore  limbs,  on  the  sides,  and  behind  at  th*^ 
Ukse  of  the  tail,  in  which  is  secreted  a  musky  fluid.  Tlu  y 
feed  not  only  on  insects,  worms,  etc.,  but  on  such  young  ver- 
tebrates (birds,  etc.)  as  they  are  able  to  overcome. 

Kevised  by  F.  A.  Lita.**. 

Soris:  the  name  given  by  Manetho  to  Snofru  {S-neftr-t., 
Snefru),  the  first  king  of*  the  fourth  Egyptian  dyiia^tt. 
Little  is  known  alx>ut  the  man  himself  except  that  hewML**^] 
war  in  Sinai  and  opened  the  copper  mines  in  Wadi  Ma  anifj. 
where  the  evidences  of  his  labor  are  still  visible.  11  is^  toir  t. 
was  the  False  Pyramid  at  Medfim,  built  of  Mokattam  liii-- 
stone,  well  jointed,  115  feet  high,  but  never  compl«t«"i. 
After  death  ne  was  the  recipient  of  divine  honors,  and  v\  .- 
dences  have  survived  which  indicate  that  his  cult  coniin;i«<i 
throughout  the  remainder  of  Egyptian  history.  Monu- 
mental remains  begin  to  be  numerous  from  the  time  «f 
Soris  and  his  successors  during  the  fourth  dynasty,  and  rhr 
representations  of  scenes  of  private  life  preserved  on  \].v 
walls  of  tombs  of  the  period  (see  Mastaba)  show  a  remarka- 
ble degree  of  civilization.  Unger  (Manetho,  p.  92)  refer*  t«. 
Soris-Snofru  the  mention  made  by  Macrobius  {Safurfwhi>- 
rum  convifiorum,  lib.  i.,  23,  g  10)  of  Senemures  or  S«'n»'i«.N 
whose  name  in  turn  has  been  compared  by  some  with  inar 
of  the  Assyrian  Semiramis,  The  entire  *idenlificati<m  :> 
founded  on  conjecture.  Charles  K,  Uillltt. 

Sorites :  See  Logic. 

Soroban:  the  Ja[)anese  abacus.  It  differs  frt>m  t).. 
Chinese  swan-pan  in  having,  as  a  rule,  only  one  bea«l  ♦  n 
each  wire  of  the  upper  or  smaller  division.  It  is  UM.tl  iii 
the  same  way  as  the  (Chinese  use  theirs.    See  Abaci's. 

Soroca'ba :  a  town  of  the  state  of  Sfio  Paulo,  Brazil :  f  n 
the  Sorocaba  river,  a  branch  of  the  Tiete;  60  miles  \V.  of 
Sao  Paulo,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway  ^see  niap 
of  South  America,  ref.  6-F).  It  is  the  center  of  an  inijn.r- 
tant  agricultural  and  grazing  district,  and  is  not^^d  for  if> 
annual  faii-s,  princij)ally  devoted  to  the  sale  of  hors«'s  aixi 
mules;  as  many  as  70,()bO  animals  are  sometimes  place<i  <>(i 
sale.    Pop.  about  12,000.  II.  11.  .S. 

8orrel :  any  one  of  several  sour-leaved  plants,  esi>ecially 
those  of  the  dia*cious  section,  of  the  genus  liumejr  (family 
l^lygonacece),  to  which  genus  the  coarse  herbs  calltnl  d'lk 
also  belong.  The  common  sorrel  of  sterile  fields  is  Bumrjr 
acetosella.  Plants  of  the  genus  Oxyria  (of  the  same  famil>  • 
are  called  mountain-sorrels.  The  wood-sorrels  are  of  ti.t 
genus  Oxalis  (family  Oeraniacece).  There  are  numer<  t:- 
sj)ecies  of  the  genus  Rumex,  some  of  which  are  occasionall) 
used  as  salad-herbs  and  as  flavors  for  sauces.  In  Eu^^|^ 
the  sorrels,  mountain-sorrels,  and  wood-sorrels  are  cuhivat^i 
in  gardens  for  table  use.  All  these  sorrels  owe  their  &«>ur- 
ness  to  the  presence  of  oxalic  acid  and  its  salts. 

Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Sorrel-tree,  or  Sonrwood:  the  Oxydendrum  arl>un>im. 
a  handsome  tree  of  the  U.  S.,  found  in  Ohio  and  Pi*nn<-yl- 
vania  and  southward  to  the  Gulf.  Its  leaves  resemble  thiW 
of  the  peach.  Thev  are  sour,  and  from  them  a  cooling  drink 
is  made  for  the  sick.  The  wood  is  soft  and  very  diiricult  l<» 
dry.    It  is  sometimes  planted  as  an  ornamental' tree, 

Sorren'to  (anc.  Surrenfum) :  town ;  in  the  province  <'f 
Naples,  Italy ;  situated  on  a  small  rocky  peninsula  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Bay  of  Naples,  protected  from  the  sinwtv 
by  Monte  Vico,  and  from  the  west  wind  by  Monte  ]^I«-wi 
(see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  7-F).  It  contains  an  inten^stin,: 
church  and  numerous  villas,  with  gardens  of  almost  trofiical 
luxuriance.  It  was  a  Greek  settlement,  was  adorned  with 
splendid  temples  during  the  Roman  period,  and  after  il«» 
fall  of  the  Western  empire  was  ruled  by  its  own  consul"  nn«i 
dukes.  Of  the  old  temples,  a  few  fine  marbles,  mosaic  pa^•- 
ments,  etc.,  alone  remain,  besides  the  foundations.  Tlu- 
climate  of  Sorrento,  as  agreeable  as  it  is  salubrious,  tfn* 
luxuriance  of  the  vegetation,  and  the  variety  and  licauty  ff 
the  surrounding  scenery,  have  made  Sorrento  one  of  the 
most  frequented  resorts  in  Southern  Italy.  There  is  asn.a'; 
coa^sting  trade  in  the  rich  productions  of  the  vicinity  carrinl 
on  bv  means  of  the  little  harbor.  It  is  the  birthplao  « f 
Torqliato  Tasso.     Pop.  about  6,090. 

Sotados,  sot'a-decz  {Gr.^tordJ^s):  Greek  p<x^t  i»f  ManM>«i.i 
in  Thrace  ;  a  compo.ser  of  indecent  farce.s,  whose  jest  at  tn* 
marital  relations  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  and  his  >i^i'r 
Arsinoi'  cost  the  je.ster  his  life.  Sotades  has  given  hi>  n&in« 
to  a  variety  of  Ionic  verses,  the  Metrum  Sotndevm.  The 
fragments  have  been  collected  and  restored  by  G.  Hennan"* 
Elementa  Doctrimv  Meiricte,  p.  445.  B.  L,  ti. 


■Ilttfl-llttt 


iltr;^i,»  ThUh' 


If^UUU!. 


624 


SOUL 


the  soul  implies  a  definition  of  soul  as  including  not  only 
its  phases  of  corporeal  existence,  but  also  the  higher  ones 
of  thought  and  will.  Hence  if  ^rwx^  (soul)  be  only  the 
principle  of  organic  life,  and  yovs  (reason)  be  the  principle 
of  intelligence  elevated  above  the  former  and  transcending 
it,  the  immortality  of  the  former  is  precluded  by  definition, 
for  the  principle  of  conscious  individuality  is  placed  in  the 
latter. 

Previous  to  Aristotle  and  Plato  the  theories  regarding 
the  soul  were  mostlv  crude  suggestions.  The  Pythago- 
reans thought  that  the  soul  is  a  harmony — that  it  dwells 
in  the  body  as  in  a  prison,  being  confined  there  for  punish- 
ment. Many  conjectures  as  to  the  location  of  the  soul  have 
been  made.  Alcmieon  of  Crotona  (according  to  Theo- 
phrastus)  taught  that  the  soul  was  located  in  the  brain, 
"  whither  all  sensations  were  conducted  from  the  organs  of 
the  senses  through  canals."  Like  other  Pythagoreans  he 
held  that  the  soul  was  subject  to  eternal  motion,  like  the 
stars.  Philolaus  the  Pythagorean  held  that  the  soul  is 
united  to  the  body,  which  is  its  organ,  and  at  the  same  time 
its  prison,  by  number  and  harmony,  all  things  beins  known 
through  number  as  a  common  principle  of  the  soiu  and  of 
things — like  being  known  by  like.  Anaxagoras  attributed 
souls  to  plants,  and  affirmed  that  they  sorrow  and  rejoice. 
Democritus,  who  explained  everything  through  the  "  atom 
and  the  void,"  held  soul  and  fire  to  possess  *'  round  atoms," 
because  they  manifested  the  maximum  of  mobility.  lie 
affirmed  that  thought  arises  when  the  motions  of  tlie  soul 
are  "symmetrical  ;  and,  further,  that  "the  soul  is  the 
noblest  part  of  man  ;  he  who  loves  its  goods,  loves  what  is 
most  divine.  He  who  loves  the  goods  of  the  body,  which  is 
the  tent  of  the  soul,  loves  the  merely  human."  Critias  the 
Sophist  considered  the  blood  to  be  the  substratum  of  the 
soul.  Plato  (in  the  PJuBdrua)  makes  three  souls  or  phases 
of  the  soul:  (a)  the  appetitive  soul  seeking  happiness  or 
sensual  pleasure,  the  gratification  of  desire ;  (b)  the  irascible 
or  courageous  soul,  manifesting  itself  in  combative  activity, 
as  the  former  in  passive  receptivity;  (c)the  rational  soul, 
which  alone  is  immortal.  The  cognitive  or  rational  soul  is 
the  soul  in  its  totality,  and  the  irascible  and  appetitive  souls 
are  merely  phases  of  arrested  development  occasioned  by 
the  confinement  of  the  body.  The  rational  soul  dwells  in 
the  head  (ageing  with  Alcmason),  the  irascible  in  the  heart, 
the  appetitive  in  the  organs  of  nourishment  and  reproduc- 
tion. Plato  defines  {Leg.^  cap.  10)  the  soul  as  a  self-moving 
activity  (ic^kijo-is  IovtV  iuvov<ra).  Transmigration  of  souls 
{Phaido\  a  doctrine  apparently  borrowed  from  Egypt  and 
the  Orient,  is  consonant  with  his  theory  of  the  pre-existence 
of  the  soul,  and  of  the  origin  of  the  appetitive  and  irascible 
phases  of  the  soul  through  the  descent  of  the  rational  soul 
into  a  body.  Having  made  the  discovery  of  general  and 
necessary  ideas,  which  could  not  have  originated  in  sense- 
perception,  he  undertook  to  account  for  them  through  rem- 
iniscence ;  the  soul  had  perceived  them  in  a  former  life. 
These  ideas,  a  priori,  were  simple  and  eternal:  how  could 
the  soul  in  which  they  were  contemplated  be  other  than 
simple  and  eternal  f  While  he  condemned  the  Pythagorean 
view  that  the  soul  was  a  harmony,  Plato  employed  symbolic 
expressions  quite  similar.  In  the  same  spirit  his  successor 
in  the  Academy,  Speusippus,  defined  the  soul  as  "  exten- 
sion, shaped  harmoniously  by  number  " ;  hence  as,  in  some 
higher  sense,  a  unity  of  the  arithmetical  and  geometrical. 
So,  too,  Xenocrat^s  of  Chalcedon,  the  second  director  of  the 
Academy,  taught  that  the  soul  is  a  self-moving  number. 
Aristotle  repudiated  the  use  of  symbolic  language  in  defini- 
tions to  avoid  ambiguity.  He  defined  soul  {De  An.^  ii.,  1)  as 
**  the  first  entelechy  [self-actualizing  energy]  of  a  physical, 
potentially  living  and  organic  body."  The  first  entelechy 
IS  not  a  fully  realized  being,  and  hence  it  has  been  inferred 
that  he  intended  to  exclude  the  reason  (wCs)  from  his  defini- 
nition  of  the  soul,  especially,  too,  as  he  makes  the  yovs  to  l)e 
independent  of  the  body.  But  in  another  place  he  makes 
the  soul  to  be  "  that  by  which  we  live,  feel  or  j)erceive,  move, 
and  understand."  The  vovs  iroirrriK6s  =  the  actus  purun,  or 
pure  reason,  exists  before  the  lx)dy,  and  enters  it  from  with- 
out (^poOcv)  as  something  divine  and  immortal  {De  Gen.  ef 
Corr.y  ii„  3).  The  wOs  iroOirriir^s  =  passive  reason,  including 
the  nutritive  (vegetable),  sensitive  (animal),  and  so  much  of 
the  rational  soul  as  includes  memory,  imagination,  sense- 
perception,  and  discursive  intellect,  he  regarded  {De  An.,  ii., 
2)  as  j)erishable  like  the  body.  Exactly  what  he  meant  by 
this  was  long  in  dispute.  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias,  the 
great  commentator,  held  that  the  active  reason  is  the  worUl- 
soui|  and  that  individuals  are  mere  incarnations  of  it  which 


perish  with  the  bod  jr.  Diciearchus  of  Messene,  pupil  of 
Aristotle,  had  held  this  doctrine.  The  Stoics  bad  held  nearh 
the  same  doctrine,  acknowledging  that  the  soul  outlives  thr 
body,  but  is  not  eternal.  Cleanthes  the  Stoic  asserted  thar 
all  souls  would  exist  until  the  general  conflagration  of  thr 
world;  but  Chrysippus  limited  this  to  the  souls  of  th«> 
wise,  while  Panaetius  denied  the  future  life  altogether.  The 
statements  of  Aristotle,  taken  together,  indicate  his  belief 
in  the  existence  of  the  soul  independent  of  the  body ;  and 
not  merely  as  a  general  world-soul,  but  also  as  individual 
souls. 

In  the  process  of  education,  culture,  or  self -development 
the  individual  gradually  eliminates  his  lower  phases  of 
thought ;  he  depends  less  upon  sense-perception,  leamine 
to  know  a  great  deal  from  seeing  very  little  (Cuvier  could 
describe  the  whole  animal  from  one  of  its  bones ;  Agassiz, 
a  fish  from  one  of  its  scales) ;  mechanical  memory  likewise 
becomes  less  important  as  deduction  from  principles  become^ 
more  prominent;  discursive  intellect  gives  place  to  pure 
intellect.  Thus  the  lower  faculties  die  out,  and  give  place 
to  more  perfect  forms ;  they  become  useless  in  the  presence 
of  more  adequate  forms  of  cognition.  Hence  Aristotle  was 
correct  in  describing  them  as  transient  and  perishable  like 
the  body ;  and  yet  ibe  did  not  at  all  deny,  dy  this,  future 
conscious  identity  to  the  individual.  The  active' reafon  could 
energize  as  nutritive,  locomotive,  appetitive,  and  sensitive, 
organizing  a  new  body ;  for  organization  was  only  a  self- 
limitation  of  the  active  reason,  a  self-arrested  development 
of  it.  Hence  when  Averroes  revived  the  doctrine  of  Alex- 
ander of  Aphrodisias,  the  great  scholastic  thinkers  devotetl 
themselves  to  this  Question  until  they  reconciled  A risit •tie 
with  himself  througn  this  theory  of  the  union  of  the  active 
and  passive  reasons — the  former  as  independent  and  ^ul^- 
stantial,  and  the  latter  as  eternally  produced  through  its 
energy.  Albertus  Magnus  held  that  the  active  reason  lK>arv 
within  itself  the  vegetative,  sensitive,  appetitive,  and  motive 
faculties.  Thomas  Aquinas  held,  similarly,  that  as  the  s<ui) 
is  immaterial,  it  can  not  be  destroyed  through  the  removal 
of  its  substratum.  The  form-producing  principle  of  the 
body,  the  vital  force,  the  appetitive,  sensitive,  and  motive 
powers,  belong  to  the  thinking  substance,  and  do  not  inhere 
in  the  body ;  hence  are  immortal.  Pure  thought  acts  with- 
out organs ;  the  lower  functions  of  the  soul  act  with  orgnns 
created  for  temporary  manifestation.  This  view  shIk 
stantially  agrees  with  that  of  the  Neo-Platonists,  except  as 
to  the  origin  of  the  soul.  "  The  soul  is  immaterial,  and 
whole  or  entire  in  everv  part  of  the  body  " ;  this  statement 
is  constantly  rejwated  by  thinkere  since' Aristotle.  Platt»'s 
doctrine  of  pre-existence  and  reminiscence  is  indorsed  by 
some  of  the  Platonizing  Christian  thinkers  like  Origeil, 
Synesius,  and  Nemesius,  but  is  generally  repudiated,  as  by 
Amobius,  Justin  Martyr,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  St.  Augustine, 
iEneas  of  Gaza.  With  Descartes,  thinking  substance  is  >«> 
sharply  distinguished  from  matter  that  only  divine  inter- 
vention will  account  for  their  interaction.  Geulinox.  MaK»- 
branche,  and  Leibnitz  presented  different  solutions  of  this 
dualism,  but  Spinoza  lx)ldly  denied  it  altogether,  making 
mind  and  matter  two  attributes  of  one  substance.  Iji 
Mettrie,  a  pupil  of  Boerhaave,  observing  the  effect  of  the 
increased  circulation  of  the  blood  upon  his  thoughts  durini: 
a  fever,  concluded  that  psychical  functions  are  all  to  Im*  ex- 
plained by  the  organization  of  the  body.  Diderot  held  that 
atoms  are  endowed  with  sensation,  and  that  when  com- 
bined in  the  animal  organism  they  become  conscious,  thus 
reviving  the  doctrine  of  Democritus  and  Epicurus,  who 
made  the  soul  material,  and  perishable  upon  tne  sejiaration 
of  its  constituent  atoms.  Carl  Vogt  makes  the  phenomena 
of  rhe  soul  to  be  functions  of  the  brain  and  nerves.  Mole- 
schott  and  Bftchner  have  promulgated  and  popularize<l  the 
same  doctrine.  Kant  endeavorea  to  show  that  the  meta- 
physical argument  which  proved  the  immortality  of  the  s<'uJ 
from  its  nature  as  simple  substance  is  a  paralogism,  because 
the  Ego  which  thinks  is  subject  only,  and  does  not  apfK^ar 
»is  object  in  consciousness.  Herbart,  however,  defenrls  the 
idea  of  the  soul  as  a  simple,  spaceless  essence  ;  and  his  (li<- 
ciple,  Beneke,  expounds  the  same  doctrine.  Trendelen- 
burg returns  to  the  Aristotelian  definition  :  **  The  soul  ijj  a 
self -realizing,  teleological  idea;  not  a  result,  but  a  r«rin- 
ciple."  At  present  there  is  a  very  great  activity  on  the 
part  of  the  i)hysiologicaI  school  of  writers,  who  are'  en«:«i:r<l 
in  investigating  the  physical  correlates  of  psychical  action. 
See  articles  on  Psycho- I^hysics,  Psychometry,  Psychoux»y, 
Hypnotism,  Immortality,  and  other  special  topics  relatiiijT 
to  the  soul.  W  ILL  I  AM  T.  Harris. 


626 


SOUTH 


SOUTHAMPTON 


changes,  were  the  l»asos  of  the  modem  states.  Martina  Af- 
fonso  himself  received  a  grant  of  the  most  important  of  tliese 
captaincies,  that  of  SiSo  Vicente,  then  comprising  all  of 
Southern  Brazil.  He  did  not  personally  return  to  it,  but 
it  flourished  under  governors  whom  he  selected.  He  was 
admiral  of  the  seas  of  India  1534-40,  and  gained  there  sev- 
eral brilliant  victories ;  in  1542-45  he  was  governor  of  the 
Portuguese  East  Indies.    I),  in  Lisbon,  July  21,  1564. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

South,  Robert,  D.  D.  :  preacher  and  controversial  writer ; 
b.  at  Hackney,  London,  England,  in  1633;  studied  as  a 
king's  scholar  at  Westminster  School  under  Dr.  Busby ; 
entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  graduated  1654  (D.  D. 
1663) ;  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England  1658 ;  was 
university  orator  1660;  became  chaplain  to  the  Earl  of 
Clarendon  and  tutor  to  his  children  1661 ;  was  made  preb- 
endary of  Westminster  1663 ;  chaplain  to  the  Duke  of 
York  1667 ;  canon  of  Christ  Church  1670 ;  chaplain  to  Law- 
rence Hyde  (afterward  Earl  of  Rochester)  1676,  and  accom- 
panied him  on  an  embassy  to  John  Sobieski,  King  of  Po- 
land, 1677 ;  became  on  his  return  rector  of  Islip,  Oxford- 
shire, 1678,  and  soon  afterward  chaplain  to  King  Charles 
II. ;  was  a  vigorous  advocate  of  passive  obedience  and  of 
the  divine  right  of  kings,  and  a  |K)werful  opponent  of  Dis- 
senters, and  was  esteemed  one  of  the  most  eloquent  preach- 
ers of  the  time.  I),  in  London,  July  8, 1716.  He  caused 
much  talk  in  his  time  by  his  controvei-sftil  publications 
against  Rev.  Dr.  William  Sherlock,  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  whom 
he  accused  of  tritheism.  He  published  collecteil  editions  of 
his  sermons  (Loudon,  1692,  6  vols.;  4th  ed.  1715;  new  ed. 
enlarged  1744,  11  vols. ;  edited  by  W.  G.  T.  Shedd,  New 
York,  1867,  5  vols.).  See  his  complete  works,  with  memoir 
(Oxford,  1823,  7  vols. ;  new  e<^l.  5  vols.,  1842).  A  selection, 
with  memoir,  appeared  in  London  1867. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

South  African  RepnbHc,  formerly  TransraaP  Bepnb- 

Hc  :  one  of  the  independent  Boer  states  in  South  Africa,  ly- 
ing between  the  Vaal  river  on  the  S.,  the  Limpopo  river  on 
the  N.,  between  the  Portuguese  coast  possession  on  the  E., 
and  British  Bechuanaland  on  the  W.  By  treaty  with  Great 
Britain  (1884  and  1890)  the  New  Republic  formed  by  the 
Boers  in  Zululand,  and  a  small  part  of  Swaziland  and  Xma- 
tongaland,  were  added  to  the  South  African  Republic,  which 
has  an  area  of  113,642  sq.  miles  and  a  white  population 
(estimated  1895)  of  about  200,000.  The  black  population  is 
estimated  at  about  375,000,  East  Bechuanas  and  various 
other  KafRr  tribes.  On  Feb.  21,  1895,  Swaziland  was  an- 
nexed to  the  republic.  It  has  an  area  of  6,150  sq.  miles, 
and  a  population  of  60,000  natives,  besides  600  (in  winter 
1,500)  whites. 

Physical  Features,  Products,  etc. — The  country  Is  a  health- 
ful, high,  and  undulating  plateau,  with  wide-spreading  hill 
and  mountain  features  extending  through  the  interior,  from 
the  southern  border  almost  to  the  northern  frontier.  It  is 
abundantly  timbered  near  its  eavstern  border.  Its  western 
and  northwestern  portions  are  step{)e-like  in  character.  Its 
best  agricultural  resources  are  found  on  t)ie  high,  well- 
watered  plains  of  the  southern  portion,  and  the  greater  jmrt 
of  the  country  is  well  ailapted  for  farming  and  stock-raising. 

The  Boers  are  pre-eminently  stock-raisers  and  their  sheep 
and  cattle  form  their  princij»al  wealth.  Great  as  the  re- 
sources of  tlie  country  are,  the  Boers  are  not  vet  able  to  sup- 
ply all  the  food  ro(|uired  by  the  enormous  influx  of  gtjld- 
miners.     About  50,000  acres  are  (1H95)  under  cultivation. 

T)ie  southern  and  southeastern  districts  are  the  greatest 
centers  of  South  African  gold-mining,  and  in  a  few  years 
have  made  South  Africa  the  third  largest  gohl-producer  in 
the  world.  The  ojitput  in  1H92  was  1,325.394  oz.,  by  far 
t)ie  greater  part  of  which  came  from  the  Witwaters'rand 
and  Barberlon  districts ;  in  1893,  1.610,335  oz. ;  in  1894, 
about  2,2(X),0U0  oz.  In  1886  the  site  of  Joluuiiiesberg  on 
the  Witwatei-srand  was  occjipied  by  a  few  huts  where  now 
(1895)  stands  a  city  of  50.000  inhabitants.  The  cai»ital  is 
Pretoria  {q.  v.).  Excellent  coal  is  also  found  ;  leatl  and 
silver  are  being  mine<l,  an<l  there  are  rich  resources  of  iron. 
In  its  mineral  and  agricultural  resources  the  republic  is  one 
of  the  richest  regions  of  like  extent  in  the  world,  but,  ex- 
cept in  gold-mining,  little  has  yet  been  done  to  develop  its 
natural  wealth. 

The  total  mileage  of  railways  o])en  in  Si»f)t.,  1894,  was 
422,  umler  construction  391,  and  projected  473.  The  line 
from  Capetown  to  Kimberley  has  been  extended  to  Pre- 
toria.   The  extension  of  the  Natal  lino  from  Charlestown 


on  the  southern  frontier  to  the  capital  was  to  be  openet]  ir 
1895,  and  the  railway  from  Delagoa  Bay  was  being  ouill  \^ . 
toward  Pretoria.  The  more  important  articles  of  ex{xr 
are  gold,  wool,  cattle,  grain,  skins,  leather,  fruit,  toUt* . . . 
butter,  brandy,  ostrich-feathers,  ivory,  silver,  lead,  and  i<.:  - 
per.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  in  1894  were  £1,k')<»,.>j 
and  £1,595,757,  respectivelv ;  importe,  1893,  £5,371.701,  '\- 
ports  about  £5,000,000.  The  public  debt  on  Sept  15,  l^.»t. 
was  £9,458,966. 

History, — For  the  early  history  of  the  Boers,  who  an*  r 
Dutch  and  Huguenot  descent,  see  Cape  Colony.  A  nuiul-  r 
of  them,  who  had  left  Cape  Colony  for  Natal,  again  renM'\»'.i 
from  under  British  rule  and  founded  the  South  Afri.  y 
Republic,  which  was  recognized  as  a  free  state  by  the  Br/- 
ish,  in  1852.  In  consequence  of  trouble  with  the  nativt*. .; 
was  annexed  by  the  British  in  1877;  but  in  1880  the  B<-r^ 
revolted,  and  in  1881  the  retrocession  of  the  country  t«  -k 

glace  under  British  suzeraintv,  which  underwent  a'nin.j- 
cation  in  1884.  Since  then  t^ere  has  been  a  great  iriti'  i- 
gration  of  British  subjects,  who  form  (1895)  the  niaj«T.'it 
of  the  whites ;  and  considerable  difficulties  have  arisen  f  r-  ii 
the  attempts  of  the  Government  to  enforce  military  s^-rv- 
ice  on  them,  though  they  are  debarred  from  the  franc  hi-*- . 
There  have  been  frequent  wars  with  the  Kaffirs,  who  in  IM'4 
suffered  a  severe  defeat  Aug.  29. 

See  Greswell,  Geography  of  Africa,  South  of  thf  Zn*.^- 
hezi;  Keltic,  Tlie  Partition  of  Africa;  Mather.  ZarnUA,tt. 
and  Silver,  Haiidhook  of  South  Africa,         C.  C.  Adamx 

South  AmbOT :  borough  (founded  in  1835) ;  Middles  \ 
CO.,  N.  J. ;  on  iJaritan  I&y  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kariiai 
river, and  on  the  Penu.,  the  N.  Y.  and  Long  Branch,  and  iii- 
liaritan  Kiver  railwavs;  37  miles  S.  W.  ot  New  York  <  .'v. 
60  miles  N.  E.  of  Philadelphia  (for  location,  see  map  of  N*  * 


olic  churches,  two  large  public  schools,  a  large  Roman  Ca  1 
olic  parochial  school,  asjihaltum-works,  several  pot»»r  -. 
clay-pits,  sand-pit«.  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  J^"io .<>•• . 
and  a  weekly  newspaiKjr.     Pop.  (1880)  3,648;  (1890>  4,:;y>. 
(1895)  estimated  with  enlarged  territory,  5,000. 

M.  N.  Roll,  editor  of  "  CmzEN." 

South  Ameriea :  See  America,  Soutd. 

Soathampton,  county  of  England :  See  Hampshire. 

Soathampton :  seaport  in  Hampshire,  England:  <>ri  n 
peninsula,  at  the  head  of  Southampton  Water;  b**t\\.  i 
the  estuaries  of  the  Test  and  Itchen ;  23  miles  N.  \V.  of  l*'«rT- 
mouth  and  79  miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of  London  (see  niHp  f 
England,  ref.  13-H).  Of  the  walls  built  in  the  time  of  |J:«  •  - 
ard  II.  there  are  cimsiderable  remains,  and  four  of  tin*  -h'^'  '. 
gates  are  well  preserved.  Southampton  contains  inany  .•• . 
buildings,  among  which  is  the  Domus  Dei,  an  hos^»iial  •l.i'- 
ing  from  the  thirteenth  century :  also  St.  Michael  s  clnir- ! 
(1080).  since  altered  and  restored.  Among  modern  >tru- 
tures  are  the  Watts  Memorial  Hall  (1876):  St.  M«rr. 
Church,  designed  by  Street;  and  the  Hartley  Instituti.j..  i 
college  with  thirteen  teachers.  The  old  docks  (1H42  a; 
1851)  have  been  greatly  improved  and  extended,  and  a  »»♦  -» 
tidal  dock,  18  acres  in  extent,  was  ofjened  in  1890.  Th^  '• 
are  also  four  dry  docks.  A  gravinff-<l<K»k,  the  larp>t 
Great  Britain,  was  opened  in  1895.  Mail  steamers  for  t! 
U.  S.,  the  West  liulies.  Brazil,  and  South  Africa  arrivt-  ;«•  . 
depart  here,  and  vigorous  efforts  have  been  made  totN'mi-'- 
with  Liverp(K>l  in  this  resT)ect.  There  are  larg*'  ^•^fH•'*' 
of  British  manufactures.  Provisions,  etc.,  from  Fmntf  .»  ' 
the  Channel  islands,  and  cattle  from  Spain  and  Portugnl  .«'- 
im[>orted.  In  1893  the  total  tonnage  entered  and  i.. a-i 
exchisive  of  that  coa.stwise,  was  2,130,753..  Ship-bui...:  J 
and  the  manufacture  of  engines  are  carrieil  on.  AN./  i 
mile  N.  was  the  Roman  station  of  Clausentum.  The  |»n  - ; ' 
town  was  founded  by  the  West  Saxons  soon  after  4JK") ;  it  .* 
mentioned  as  Hantune  in  Domesday  Book.  The  fiarliam-  •• 
tarv  borough  returns  two  members.  Pop.  of  the  muiu<  i-.. 
borough  (1891)  65,325.  R.  A.  Robkri.-. 

Sonthampton  (P.  O.  name  Sauoeen):  a  port  of  eniry  .  f 
Bruce  County,  Ontario,  Canada ;  at  the  mouth  of  Siui:^  '« 
river,  on  Lake  Huron;  60  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Goilerirh  •-  • 
map  of  Ontario,  ref.  3-C).  It  is  the  northwest  tenninu^  <  I 
the  Wellington,  Grev,  and  Bruce  Branch  of  the  Grand  Tri'  ^ 
Railway.   Grain  and  lumber  are  the  chief  exports.   Po}x  l."-"^* 

Sonthampton:  village  (incorporateil  in  1894);  Snff>  ^ 
CO.,  N.  Y. ;  on  the  south  shore  of  Long  Island,  bi'two:- 


SOUTH   AUSTRALIA 


for  years,  at  others  coming  in  torrents  for  a  few  minutes 
or  an  hour  or  two.  In  general  the  colony  is  very  healthful 
for  colonists,  but  the  northern  coasts  have  the  usual  malarial 
diseases  of  a  virgin  tropical  soil,  with  heavy  rainfall.  These 
are  found  to  disappear  in  time  after  the  soil  is  cultivated. 

Minerals, — The  mineral  products  of  South  Australia  for 
1892,  and  the  entire  production  to  the  end  of  1892,  with  the 
percentage  of  the  total  Australasian  product,  are  given  in  the 
following  table : 


IN  IMS. 

TOTAL.  TO  END  OF  18M. 

MINERALS. 

Vain*. 

Paronit. 

Vain*. 

FtorcmU 

Gold    

£226,284 

0080 
6'682 

6-665 

£1,430,622 

101,727 

20,162,292 

20,812 

4(b',824 

0004 

Silver 

0007 

Copper 

Tin 

175.525 
2,488 

0-773 
0  001 

Coal       

Other  minerals  

2,789 

0-134 

Totals           

£316,079 

0025 

£22,118,286 

0049 

The  most  important  mineral  product  is  copper,  and  the 
colony  owes  its  continued  existence  at  a  critical  time  to  the 
opportune  discovery  of  the  famous  Burra  Burra  copper-min- 
ing district,  90  miles  N.  of  Adelaide.  The  mines  were  devel- 
oped in  1845  and  for  some  years  paid  their  owners  800  per 
cent,  on  the  investment,  but  were  temporarily  abandonea  in 
1864  because  of  the  difficulty  of  transport,  and  reopened  on 
the  construction  of  the  railway  from  Adelaide  to  Kuringa. 
There  is  a  rich  and  large  copper  district  300  or  400  miles  K^. 
of  Adelaide.  Gold  is  obtained  from  mines  in  the  southern 
hills  S.  of  Adelaide  (at  Echunga,  etc.),  at  Wakaringa,  about 
225  miles  N.  of  Adelaide,  and  at  other  places,  but  chiefly 
from  the  Northern  Territory,  where  there  is  a  large  alluvial 
and  auriferous  quartz  region  100  to  150  miles  S.  of  Port 
Darwin.  Gold  was  discovered  in  the  colony  in  1852,  the 
year  after  the  rush  to  the  Ballarat  fields.  The  production 
of  silver,  never  large,  has  nearly  ceased.  Amon^  the  other 
valuable  or  interesting  minerals  may  be  mentioned  iron, 
marble,  ^psum,  mica  (in  the  McDonnell  range^,  garnets,  and 
coorongite,  an  elastic  mineral  similar  to  elaterite,  discovered 
in  the  uoorong  lagoon  on  Encounter  Bay. 

Agriculture, — South  Australia  is  essentially  an  agricul- 
tural and  pastoral  country.  The  value  of  the  crops  for  the 
season  1892-93  was  approximately  £3,327,286,  less  than  the 
corresponding  values  in  Victoria,  New  Zealand,  and  New 
South  Wales,  but  more  than  for  the  other  Australasian 
colonies.  The  value  of  the  crop  per  acre  was  £1  \2s.  8d., 
the  least  in  the  seven  colonies,  the  greatest  being  Tasmania, 
where  it  is  £5  15«.  \d,\  but  the  value  per  head  of  population 
was  nearly  £10,  the  greatest  in  the  seven  colonies.  In  the 
season  of  1892-93  the  total  area  under  crops  was  only  one- 
third  of  1  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  the  colony,  or  2,037,653 
acres.  Three-quarters  of  this  was  in  wheat,  21  per  cent,  in 
hay,  and  only  fractions  of  1  per  cent,  in  each  of  the  other 
crops — vines,  oats,  barley,  and  potatoes.  The  area  of  land 
under  cultivation  has  increased  fivefold  since  1861.  about 
the  same  ratio  as  that  throughout  Australasia.  Wheat  is 
the  staple  crop,  but  the  production  per  acre  was  only  6*1 
bush,  in  1892-93,  while  it  was  22  bush,  for  New  Zealand, 
and  nearly  11  bush,  for  all  Australasia;  yet  owing  to  favor- 
able conditions  of  culture  7  bush,  in  South  Australia  is  con- 
sidered a  satisfactory  crop.  The  colony  exported  4,000,000 
bush. — as  wheat  or  flour — in  1892.  The  average  yield  for 
oats  was  11  bush,  per  acre,  for  barley  13  bush.,  for  potatoes  4 
tons  (worth  £10),  of  hay  less  than  Iton  per  acre.  Consider- 
able attention  is  paid  to  the  vine.  In  the  season  of  1891-92 
594,000  gal.  of  wine  and  3,640  tons  of  table-grapes  were  pro- 
duced. About  80  gal.  of  wine  per  acre  was  the  product  for 
bearing  vineyards — about  that  of  Italy  and  Hungary. 

The  importance  of  irrigation  has  long  been  recognized  in 
the  other  colonies,  but  only  recently  has  it  been  attempted 
on  a  large  scale  in  South  Australia.  In  1888  a  private  com- 
pany began  operations  at  Uenmark,  on  the  river  Murray, 
close  to  the  boundary  of  New  South  Wales,  where  an  area 
of  250,000  acres  was  set  apart  for  this  purpx)se.  Search  for 
artesian  sources  of  water  hus  been  carried  on  successfully. 
On  the  NuUarbor  Plain,  a  part  of  the  Victoria  Desert,  and 
near  the  shores  of  the  Australian  Biirht,  a  well  was  drilled 
777  feet  and  yielded  68,000  gal.  per  diem,  and  other  wells 
have  since  brought  water  near  to.  or  above,  the  surface. 
More  successful  are  the  wells  near  the  central  portion  of  the 
colony,  and  those  at  Uerrgott  Springs,  Coward,  Strangways, 
and  Lake  Harry  give  from  50,000  to  1,200,000  gal.  a  day. 


The  live  stock  possessed  by  the  colony  in  1892  gave  & 
product  valued  at  £3,086,930,  or  about  6  per  cent,  of  that  fcr 
all  Austmlasia,  and  £9  6«.  5rf.  per  head  of  population.  Over 
40*  per  cent,  was  given  by  the  wool-clip  alone.  The  numU  r 
of  animals  in  1893  was:  Sheep,  7,325,003;  cattle,  675.2H4: 
horses,  201,484.  In  general,  the  number  of  stock  is  incn^a.- 
ing  nearlv  3  per  cent,  yearly,  and  somewhat  less  rapidly  th»n 
the  population,  but  the  number  of  swine  is  decreasing.  Thr 
number  of  animals  held  by  this  colony  is  from  5  to  7  y^r 
cent,  of  those  of  Australasia,  except  the  horses,  of  which  tlie 
number  is  11  per  cent.  The  capacity  of  the  colony  for  sh*v|» 
is  probably  nearly  reached,  as  the  area  adapted  for  tht* m  i^ 
relatively  small  and  is  being  encroached  upon  by  tillasrf. 
Should  the  expectation  of  finding  artesian  water  over  the  and 
regions  generally  be  realized,  however,  an  enormous  area  «»f 
land  now  worthless  would  be  easily  rendered  suitable  f^r 
tillage  and  pasture. 

Population.— Th^  population  in  1844  was  17.366;  in  1«»1. 
320,431.  Of  the  latter,  4,895  belonged  to  the  Northern  Tt-rri- 
tory,  and  133,220  to  the  capital,  Adelai<ie.  On  Dec.  31,  IKi^l 
the  total  population  was  341,978  (177,219  males.  164,:.kM 
females),  and  that  of  Adelaide  140,649.  In  1886  the  nuinUr 
of  aborigines  living  in  the  settled  districts  was  3,869.  In 
1891  the  number  was  3,134  (1,661  males,  1,473  females),  aini 
of  Chinese  3.848  (adult  males).  In  1892  the  number  of  mar- 
riages was  2,119;  of  births,  10,544;  of  deaths,  8,711 ;  of  nii- 
migrants,  15,688 ;  of  emigrants,  14,499. 

The  number  of  churches  and  chapels  in  the  colony  in 
1893  was  1,061.  As  to  religious  denominations,  the  p<»puU- 
tion  in  1891  was  divided  as  follows:  members  of  the  Chunh 
of  England,  89,271 ;  Wesleyans  and  Methodists,  50.813 ;  K^^ 
man  Catholics,  47,179;  Lutherans,  23,328;  Presbvlerinns, 
18.206;  Baptists,  17,457;  Bible  Christians,  15,762 ;' Con piv- 
gationalists,  11,882 ;  Jews,  840.  There  is  no  state  aid  t<.»  re- 
ligious establishments. 

Education  is  compulsory  and  regulated  by  the  state,  bm 
not  free.  In  1893  there  were  273  public  schools,  333  |»n>- 
visional  schools,  and  254  private  schools,  with  an  agpreiratr 
of  67,949  pupils;  also  a  normal  college  and  the  Univer>iiT 
of  Adelaide  (founded  in  1872). 

In  1891  there  were  28.847  persons  (886  women)  engaged  in 
agriculture,  5,332  in  pastoral  pursuits,  582  in  fisheries,  and 
4,992  in  mining  industries ;  37.680  were  engaged  in  other  in- 
dustrial pursuits,  26,209  in  commercial,  and  7,266  in  pn>- 
fessional  pursuits. 

Commerce, — Exclusive  of  bullion  and  specie,  the  value  of 
the  total  imports  in  1893  was  £7,934,200,  and  of  the  ex{HTt> 
£^,463,936,  m  both  cases  an  increase  on  the  preceding  wat. 
The  principal  exports  are  wool  (£2,001,297  in  1893),  ulimt 
and  flour  (£1,063,760),  and  copper  ore.  The  trade  is  alni.M 
entirely  with  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  other  Au>inii- 
asian  colonies.  The  chief  imports  are  iron,  clothing,  <»ottnns 
woolens,  and  machinery.  In  1893  948  vessels  entered  arui 
971  cleared  from  the  ports  of  the  colony,  and  there  were  2i:J 
sailing  vessels  and  92  steamers  registered  in  it. 

In  1893  there  were  1,831  miles  of  railway  in  the  ei.lonT. 
nearly  all  under  state  control.  In  1886  the  connection  U- 
tween  Adelaide  and  Melbourne  was  completed,  thus  pultini: 
this  colony  in  railway  connection  with  tne  eastern  ct)louu'S. 
In  1893  the  transcontinental  line  between  Adelaide  and  P<  n 
Darwin  was  completed  from  the  S.  to  Oodnadatta,  6J^  nii!*> 
N.  of  Adelaide,  and  from  the  N.  to  Pine  Creek,  151  nnU>. 
Between  these  two  places  there  remains  1,140  miles  t.*  U^ 
constructed.  Aside  from  this  the  railways  are  all  in  th* 
southeast  corner  of  the  colony.  At  the  end  of  l^<93  tlH-rv- 
were  5,546  miles  of  telegraph  and  telephone  in  u>e,  w.ti 
13,082  miles  of  wire.  This  includes  the  2,000  miles  in  ft 
transcontinental  telegraph  line  from  Adelaide  to  Port  Dar- 
win, where  connection  is  made  with  a  cable  to  India  uimI 
Europe. 

Adminidration.—^he  executive  functions  are  vest e<l  in  a 
governor  apjx>inte<i  by  the  crown  and  an  executive  coun<  il 
of  six  responsible  members,  viz.,  the  chief  secretary,  pn-inuT 
and  attorney-general,  treasurer,  commissioner  of  erowi: 
lands,  commissioner  of  public  works,  and  minister  of  etiu*  a- 
tion  and  agriculture.  The  constitution  (dated  lK")Ci  \f>i> 
the  legislative  |>ower  in  a  parliament  of  two  houses— tht- 
Legishitive  Council,  now  01  24  members,  each  eleeW'<l  fur 
nine  years,  and  the  House  of  Assembly,  of  54  nieinUrs. 
elected  for  three  years.  Each  member  of  the  council  »n'i 
assembly  receives*£50  a  year  and  a  free  pass  over  the  (Gov- 
ernment railways.  There  are  44  count icvS  4  extensive  pas- 
toral districts,  33  municipalities,  and  140  district  councils  lu 
South  Australia  proper. 


I^r  ,-:■  ], 


-,.^|j   -     V;;t-lf;  -U.|  Iff. 


liM/m- 


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Sr  t>«!i 


630 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


Seal  of  South  Carolina. 


South  Caroli'na:  one  of  the  U.S.  of  North  America 
(South  Atlantic  group);  the  eighth  of  tlie  original  thirteen 
States  that  ratified  the  Federal  Constitution ;  popularly 
known  as  the  Palmetto  State. 

Location  and  Area. — It  lies  between  lat.  SS*"  04'  30"  and 
35°  13'  02'  N.,  Ion.  78'  28'  and  83    18'  W.;  is  bounded  on 

the  N.  and  N.  K. 
by  North  Caroli- 
na, on  the  S.  E. 
by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  on  the 
S.  W.  and  W.  by 
Georgia  ;  coast- 
line, 210  miles; 
longest  meridian 
and  longest  par- 
allel, about  225 
miles  each,  inter- 
s<»cting  fiear  Co- 
lumbia; area  (U.S. 
census),  30.570  sq. 
miles  (19,564,800 
acres),  of  which 
400  scj.  miles  are 
water  surface. 

Physical  Fea- 
tures, —  A  great 
geologic  break,  passing  through  the  State  near  Cheraw,  Co- 
lumbia, and  Aiken,  divides  it  into  the  '*  up  country"  and  the 
"  low  country,"  and  the  two  regions  show  marked  differences. 
The  up  country  is  Primary  in  formation;  the  low  country. 
Tertiary,  with  occasional  Cretaceous  outcroppings.  The 
State  is  further  divided  by  Mill  (1825)  and  Hammond  (1883) 
as  follows:  I.  The  Alpine  region  (1.000  sq.  miles),  in  the 
northwest,  has  gneiss  as  its  characteristic  rock,  with  granite, 
hornblende,  itacolumite-slates,  limestones,  and  clays.  The 
highest  peaks  in  the  State — Pinnacle,  in  Pickens  County 
(3.436  feet),  Cesar's  Head  (3,118),  Paris  Mount  (2,054),  in 
Greenville,  and  King's  Mount  (1,692),  in  York — are  capped 
with  mica-slate,  and  have  steep  faces  to  the  S.  and  E.,  contra- 
ry to  the  usual  rule  of  the  Atlantic  slope.  The  mountains 
tend  to  break  into  isolated  masses  to  the  S.  The  soils  are 
loams  and  clays,  rich  in  lime  and  potash.  Hills  and  valleys 
are  clad  in  hardwood  virgin  forests.  II.  The  Piedmont  re- 
gion (10,000  sq.  miles)  embraces  the  remainder  of  the  up  coun- 
try. Excepting  the  Sea  islands  it  is  the  most  thickly  set- 
tled portion  of  the  State,  and  contains  the  center  of  white 
population.  The  surface  is  rolling,  rising  in  places  to  800 
feet.  Granite  outcro|)s  in  three  great  parallel  ridges.  That 
of  Fairfield  has  a  national  reputation  for  hardness,  beauty, 
and  ease  of  cleavage.  Trappean  rocks  underlie  large  tracts 
of  comparatively  level  lands.  This  region  contains  slates, 
and  quartz  is  abun«lant  as  a  surface-rock.  The  soil  is  chiefly 
granitic  and  porphyritic  clays,  with  gray  sands  and  clay- 
slat^is.  A  tenacious  subsoil  preserves  fertility.  The  Alpine 
and  Piedmont  retrions  contain  gold  in  paying  quantities 
(Dorn's  mine  in  Kdgefield  County  and  Brewer's  in  Cliester- 
field  having  yielded  more  than  }|;l,000,000  ea^'h),  besi<les 
copper  and  some  silver.  Inexhaustible  deposits  of  iron  have 
been  partially  developed.  Limestone,  baryta,  whet-stone, 
and  flagging-stone  have  been  quarriecl.  Graphite,  itacolu- 
mite,  iusbcstos,  feldspar,  spinel  rubie^s,  corundum,  and  beryl 
exist.  III.  The  Sandhill  or  Pine  region  (2,000  sq.  miles),  the 
beach  of  a  former  age,  stretches  across  the  State.  Gener- 
ally level,  it  rises  in  the  liigh  hills  of  the  Santee  to  700  feet. 
Ironstone,  sandstone,  buhrstone,  and  kaolin  of  great  purity 
outcrop  in  great  beds  of  sand,  whose  want  of  tenacity  is 
unfavorable  to  vegetation.  IV.  The  Re<l  Hills  (1,500*  sq. 
miles),  skirting  the  sandhills,  are  ?]ocene,  having  red  clays, 
yellow  sands,  buhrstone,  and  a  stone  reseml)lin«c  melinite, 
with  excellent  fire-clay  and  inferior  lignite.  V.  The  Upper 
Pine-belt  (5.000  sq.  miles),  varies  in  breadth  from  20  to  40 
miles,  and  comprises  some  of  the  finest  farming  lands  of 
the  State.  It  contains  both  gray  and  "mulatto"  or  choco- 
late lands,  and  is  c<mii>aratively  level,  rising  only  to  250 
feet.  Here  was  produced  the  largest  yield  of  corn  (256 
bush,  to  an  acn*)  ever  gathered.  VI.  The  Lower  Pine- 
belt  (9,000  sq.  miles)  comprises  the  lower  tiers  of  counties, 
excepting  the  salt-water  region.  The  soil  is  Tertiary.  Hero 
occur  the  famous  phosphate  deposits  lying  between  Charles- 
ton and  Beaufort,  in  river-beds  and  inland  stratii,  2  to  10 
feet  below  the  surface.  They  are  the  detritus  of  marl-beds 
subjected  to  aqueous  action.  VII.  The  Coast-region  (1,500 
sq.  miles)  is  Post-Pliocene,  resting  on  Eocene  and  Pliocene. 


A  sand- ridge  fronts  the  sea,  bacrked  by  expanses  of  mud  or 
sandy  loams.  Many  creeks  between  Savannah  river  and 
Winyah  Bay  afford  inland  navigation  and  form  islan<i> 
which,  when  drained,  are  extremely  fertile  and  healthful. 
The  chief  of  these  are  Hilton  Head,  St.  Helena,  h^liMo. 
John's,  James's,  North,  and  South  islands.  Sullivan's  au«i 
Pawley's  islands  are  sand-bars  noted  for  surf-bathing. 

Rivers  and  Bays. — The  up  country  is  hilly,  with  srtpi.- 
level  expanses,  once  prairies.  Straiglit  streams  have  a  fui; 
of  4^  feet  to  the  mile,  with  rapids  along  the  geologic  br«  uk 
impeding  navigation,  but  furnishing  abundant  water-fK»wt  r. 
The  CatAwba  river  falls  178  feet  in  8  miles.  The  Colun)l»m 
Canal  on  the  Congaree  has  developed  13,000  horse-pow.T. 
A  potential  energy  of  1,(X)0,000  horse-power  exists  in  the 
State.  The  low  country,  while  having  a  greater  genem! 
slope  to  the  ocean,  is  less  undulating.  Winding,  sliigg.^li 
streams,  with  a  fall  of  a  few  inches  to  the  mile,  overflow  m 
floods  an  area  of  5,000  m.  miles.  There  are  2,400  iuil«*s  i.f 
inland  navigation,  which  might  be  increased  by  cnnal^ 
around  the  rapids.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Savannah,  \\\y 
Santee  (formed  by  the  Congaree  and  Wateree.  the  Contrant- 
formed  by  the  Broad  and  the  Saluda,  and  the  Watmt 
known  as*  the  Catawba  in  its  upper  course),  and  the  iVt^ 
Dee  system,  consisting  of  the  Great  Pee  Dee  (the  Va<lkir. 
in  North  Carolina),  the  Little  Pee  Dee, Lynch's.  Bla<k.  ai.<l 
Waccamaw.  The  Ashley  and  the  Cooper  rivers,  fornuiij 
Charleston  harbor,  the  Edisto,  AsheyxK),  Coml>ahee.  hii'; 
Coosawhatchie  are  smaller  streams.  There  are  no  importwi.t 
lake^.  The  chief  inlets  are  Port  Royal,  St.  Helena,  Si.n  <. 
Charleston  harbor.  Bull's  Bay,  and  Winyah  Bay.  (  aj- 
Roman  is  the  chief  promontory.  Port  Royal  has  one  of  ih^ 
finest  harbors  in  the  world,  with  21  feet  of  water  at  low  ti<i''. 
and  a  mean  rise  and  fall  of  tide  of  between  7  and  8  feet.  W) 
jetties  begun  in  1878  Charleston  bar  has  been  deei>enHl  i-« 
17  feet  at  low  tide  and  23  feet  at  spring  tides.  'I  he  n(»rtl. 
jetty  is  15,443  feet  long,  and  the  south  19,104  feet.  Their 
cost  up  to  1894  was  $3,600,000.  Winyah  Bay,  leadin-:  t.. 
Georgetown,  has  7  feet  at  low  tide,  and  10  to  12  feet  at  hii:h. 

Fauna  and  Flora. — Hammontrs  Handbook  of  Stail^^ 
Carolina  (1883)  gives  a  list  of  48  mammals,  170  binK  4  i 
serpents,  23  lizards  and  turtles,  44  amphibians,  an<i  1% 
fishes,  besides  thousands  of  invertebrates  not  classifini. 
There  are  1,310  endogens,  500  exogens,  and  2,582  cr>|'t.- 
gams.  Buffaloes  and  beavers,  once  plentiful,  are  extiint. 
A  few  bcArs  and  wolves  are  reported.  The  magnolia  aj;<i 
the  palmetto  beautify  the  coast,  and  the  orange,  biuianx 
olive,  almond,  and  tea-plant  are  grown  here.  Pine  ani 
cy{)ress  characterize  the  low  country,  hardwoods  the  ui 
country.  All  nut.s,  fruits,  and  berries  of  the  temperate  Z'-in 
grow  wild  or  can  be  cultivated  here.  Peaches,  ap|u«N 
grapes,  and  plums  are  the  commonest  fruits. 

Staple  Productions. — Cotton,  maize,  wheat,  rice,  j»eas.  h.^y. 
and  sweet  potatoes  are  the  chief  staples.  The  Sea  isiar.  .* 
grow  10,000  bales  of  the  famous  long-staple  cotton  \n': 
annum,  and  the  fields  produce  from  500,000  to  750,000  b:i  - 
of  the  short  staple.  In  1894  the  cotton  crop  amountf<l  i«' 
787,808  bales,  and  the  rice  crop  to  11,372,445  lb.  Tohmr- 
growing,  truck-farming,  and  fruit-growing  for  market  ar< 
rapidly  developing.  Stock-raising,  tmce  profitable,  then  m  i:- 
lected*  has  been  revived  with  success.  Hired  field-laUtr  > 
largely  supplied  by  Negroes,  but  there  are  many  small  farm- 
ers among  the  whites,  especially  of  the  Piedmont  rei:i<u. 
who- work  their  own  crops. 

The  following  summary  from  the  census  reports  of  1^^" 
and  1890  shows  the  extent  of  farm  operations  in  the  .^Tnt'  : 


FARMS.  ETC. 


Total  number  of  farms 

Total  acreage  of  farms 

Value  of  faruis,  including  buildings 
and  fenet* s 


93,H64 
13,457,013 


S<W,«77.482 


115.U>S 
13,184,6,"»2  I 


g99,104.eni»       41 


♦  Increase.  +  Decrease. 

The  following  t^ibie  shows  the  acreage,  yield,  and  v;ili:f 
[)f  the  principal  crops  in  the  calendar  year  1894: 


CHOPS. 

Acri?ajre. 

Ylrld. 

%»]«. 

Indian  corn 

l.()rv».'21() 

IH.728,819  bush. 

$12.  i::^ 

:  c 

Wheat 

144,'r>H 

81)7.845      •• 

:-•- 

*■.'. 

Oats 

3;«»,H<)H 

4.l)77,fi96      " 

1M«'! 

'  .  -4 

Hve 

4.20:i 

19,754      ** 

1" 

'•-4 

P(»taloes 

4.'J0K 

248,27^^      '♦ 

1"! 

It    ' 

Hay 

l.'iT.SlM 

'^f  1.1 19  tons 

2.oi^J 

1   «  ■ 

Totals                     

2,3a'i.2S7 

$l7.s^' 

O^ 

632 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


Schools. — The  first  free  school  was  established  in  1710, 
ten  years  after  the  first  public  library  was  opened.  In  1785 
four  colleges  were  provided  for.  Two  were  established,  of 
which  one,  Charleston  College,  survives.  In  1805  the  South 
Carolina  College  (known  as  the  University  of  South  Caro- 
lina between  1866  and  1877  and  1887  and  1890)  was  opened 
in  Columbia.  Free  schools  were  established  in  1811,  but 
private  effort  bore  the  chief  burden.  In  1860  the  State 
ranked  fifth  in  college  endowment  and  sixth  in  college  in- 
come. The  war  of  1861-65  closed  many  schools.  In  1868 
a  public-school  system  was  provided,  which  has  steadily  im- 
proved. The  races  are  taught  separately.  In  1894  there 
were  in  round  numbers  2,600  white  and  1,950  colored  teach- 
ers, and  106,000  white  and  120,000  colored  pupils.  Almost 
every  town  has  a  graded  school.  The  State  has  four  higher 
institutions — the  South  Carolina  College,  the  South  Carolina 
Military  Academy  (chartered  in  1842),  the  Clemson  Agricul- 
tural and  Mechanical  College  for  males  (opened  in  1893),  and 
the  Winthrop  Normal  and  Industrial  College  for  females. 
These  form  tne  University  of  South  Carolina.  The  total  ex- 
penditure for  public  education  in  1894  was  $790,000,  which 
was  raised  by  a  two-mill  tax,  a  poll-tax  of  $1,  and  local 
taxes.  Among  the  private  institutions  of  note  are  the  Col- 
lege of  Charleston  (non-sectarian,  chartered  in  1785) ;  the 
Presbyterian  College  of  South  Carolina  (opened  1879) ;  Allen 
University  (Methodist  Episcopal  colored,  chartered  1880) ; 
Erskine  College  (Associate  Ref.  Presb.,  opened  1839) ;  Fur- 
man  University  (Baptist,  chartered  1850) ;  Newberry  Col- 
lege (Lutheran,  chartered  1856) ;  Wofford  College  (Metho- 
dist Episcopal  South,  chartered  1852) ;  Wallingford  Acad- 
emy (Presbyterian) ;  Benedict  Institute  (colored  Baptist) ; 
ana  female  colleges  and  institutes  at  Columbia,  Due  West, 
GafPney,  Greenville,  Reidville,  Spartanburg,  Sumter,  and 
Walhalla.  Claflin  University,  at  Orangeburg,  chartered  in 
1872,  is  endowed  by  part  of  the  national  land  grant.  Charles- 
ton contains  the  Aleaical  College  of  the  State  of  South  Caro- 
lina and  the  department  of  pharmacy  of  the  University  of 
South  Carolina. 

Libraries. — According  to  a  U.  S.  Government  report  on 
public  libraries  of  1,000  volumes  and  upward  each  in  1891, 
South  Carolina  had  83  libraries  which  contained  18^,982 
bound  volumes  and  19,650  pamphlets.  The  libraries  were 
classified  as  follows:  General,  9:  school,  3;  college,  11; 
college  society,  3 ;  law,  1 ;  theological,  3 ;  medical,  1 ;  Y.  M. 
C.  A.,  1 ;  and' scientific,  1. 

Charitable  and  Penal  Institutions. — The  State  maintains 
a  lunatic  asylum,  a  penitentiarv,  and  farms  for  convict  la- 
bor. There  are  no  reform  schools.  Almshouses  and  jails  are 
maintained  by  the  counties. 

Liquor  Legislation. — In  1892  the  Legislature  prohibited 
the  sale  of  liquor  by  private  persons  and  established  State 
and  county  dispensaries.  Liquors,  chemically  pure,  put  up 
in  sealed  packages,  are  sold  by  salaried  county  aispensers  in 
the  daytime  to  temperate  persons,  who  are  not  allowed  to 
open  the  package  on  the  premises.  The  profits  are  divided 
between  tne  State  and  local  treasuries.  CTonstables  with  ex- 
traordinary powers  search  for  and  seize  illicit  liquors.  This 
law  was  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  State  Supreme 
Court  in  1893,  but  with  a  change  in  the  personnel  of  the 
court  the  decision  was  soon  reversed.  On  Oct.  31,  1894, 
there  were  69  selling  dispensaries ;  from  July  1, 1893,  to  Oct. 
81,  1894,  $573,000  worth  of  liquors  had  been  bought  by  the 
State,  and  this  was  sold  (or  was  to  be  sold)  to  consumers  for 
1679,000. 

Political  Organization. — The  constitution  of  1776  was 
changed  in  1778.  A  third  instrument,  framed  in  1790  and  in 
operation  till  1865,  devolved  most  of  the  government  upon 
the  Legislature,  which  elected  the  Governor,  State  officei's, 
and  many  other  State  officials.  The  constitution  of  1868 
gives  the  Governor,  elected  by  the  people  for  two  years, 
great  powers.  A  Lieutenant-Governor  presides  over  the  Sen- 
ate. The  Legislature,  meeting  annually,  is  composed  of  36 
Senators  (2  from  Charleston  and  1  from  each  other  county, 
elected  for  four  years),  and  124  Representatives,  elected  two 
yeara  and  apportioned  according  to  population.  It  elects 
judges  and  a  few  otlier  public  officers.  State  and  most 
county  officers  are  chosen  by  the  people.  Judicial  power 
is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court  of  three  justices  (term  six 
years)  and  eight  circuit  judges  (term  four  years).  Circuit 
solicitors,  county  probate  judges,  and  trial  justices  complete 
the  system.  All  males  over  twenty-one  years  of  age,  except 
those  convicte<l  of  felony,  lunatics,  and  paupers,  are  allowed 
to  vote.  A  strict  registration  law  prevails.  A  voter  who  has 
lost  his  ticket  must  have  it  renewed  before  the  next  general 


election  or  be  disfranchised.  Eight  boxes  are  provided  for 
separate  groups  of  ofilcials.  They  are  labeled,  and  the  man- 
agers must  read  the  labels  when  required.  Outsider*  are 
not  allowed  inside  the  booths.  Ballots  must  be  of  unifonu 
size,  color,  and  unmarked.  Votes  in  the  wrong  box  are  n«i 
counted.  A  State  board  of  canvassers  lias  final  jurisdicti<  .n. 
except  for  Governor  and  Lieutenant-Governor,  whose  voita. 
are  counted  by  the  House  of  Representatives. 

History, — 1.  The  People. — In  1520  Spaniards  visited  Port 
Royal  and  kidnaped  Indians.  Returning  five  years  laltr. 
they  were  decimated  by  Indians  and  disease  and'abandoneil 
the  idea  of  settlement.  Jean  Ribault  attempted  to  estati- 
lish  colonies  of  Huguenots  in  1562  and  1565,  but  fail*  d. 
Raleigh  accomplish^  nothing.  Heath's  patent  was  repealrtl 
for  non-performance.  Charles  II.  of  England  in  Ifntvi 
granted  lands  between  lat.  31°  and  36''  N.  (extended  in  1605 
to  lands  between  29"  and  86°  30)  to  eight  proprietors,  who 
had  power  to  make  laws  with  the  assent  of  the  freemen.  In 
1666  Sandford  took  possession  of  the  land  **by  torff  ar:d 
twigge."  In  1670  Sayle  with  three  ships  reached  Port  Royal 
and  proceeded  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Ashley  river,  where 
he  founded  Charlestown,  which  ten  years  later  was  removed 
to  its  present  site.  Locke  and  Shaftesbury  had  prepare! 
"Fundamental  Constitutions'*  resting  on  church  memU-r- 
ship  and  lands,  but  allowing  toleration.  The  settlers  swure 
allegiance  to  temporary  instructions  based  on  this  draft.  A 
second  draft  estabiishea  the  Church  of  England.  The  seltlprv, 
chiefly  Dissenters,  refused  to  accept  either  this  or  four  oilit-r 
subsequent  drafts,  claiming  that  they  had  sworn  to  the  fir^^t. 
After  1698  the  proprietary  government  was  conducted  un- 
der the  king's  charter ;  but  estrangement  increased,  and  in 
1719  a  revolution  overthrew  the  proprietary  regime.  Th»r 
king  sent  Sir  Francis  Nicholson  as  first  royal  Governor  iu 
1721,  with  instructions  that  were  in  force  till  the  Revdu- 
tionaiy  war.  During  all  this  time  the  Assembly  gainnl 
power,  and  finally  claimed  all  the  rights  of  the  House  <<f 
Commons.  In  1765  the  people  captured  Fort  Johnson,  in 
which  stamps  were  stored,  and  sent  them  back  to  Englarnl. 
Later  they  refused  to  allow  tea  to  be  landed  and  sent  £o.(xK) 
worth  of  provisions  to  aid  Boston.  A  council  of  safvty 
was  formed  1774,  and  Gov.  William  Campbell  sailed  away 
with  the  seal  of  the  province  in  1775.  South  Carflink 
heartily  seconded  the  call  for  a  congress,  and  was  the  lir-t 
to  frame  a  State  constitution,  May,  1776.  In  June  follow- 
ing Moultrie,  behind  his  palmetto  fort,  repulsed  a  Briii>h 
naval  attack.  This  victory,  physical  as  well  as  moral,  pave 
respite  from  war  for  three  years.  The  siege  and  fall  cf 
Charleston,  1780,  were  followed  by  partisan  warfare,  till  the 
rising  of  the  back  country  and  the  great  victory  of  Kirii:'> 
Mountain  in  Oct.,  1780,  forced  the  British  slowly  back  i-» 
Charleston,  which  was  evacuated  Dec.,  1782.  Columbia  wh< 
made  the  capital  it.  1790.  After  long  debate  the  State  ma-ie 
a  Federal  union  possible  by  accepting  conditionally  the  (in- 
stitution of  the  U.  S.  May  23, 1788.  At  this  time  thelow  c«  un- 
try  was  generally  B'edefal  and  the  up  country  anti-Fedt  ral. 
Jefferson's  doctrines  gained  ground,  and  C.  C.  Pinckney  l«i>t 
his  State  in  the  presidential  election  of  1800.  Since  then  ji 
strict-construction  view  has  prevailed  among  the  whites.  In 
1832  a  convention  nullified  the  tariff  as  unconstitutional  aii>l 
also  the  bill  passed  to  enforce  it.  After  Clay's  com  prom  i^- 
the  anti-tariff  ordinance  was  repealed,  but  the  other  >id< 
not.  All  State  officers  were  reouired  to  swear  paraniouni 
allegiance  to  the  State.  A  small  but  determinea  mijiuniy 
opposed  nullification.  Later  on,  the  idea  of  complete  sf[«i- 
ration  gained  ground.  A  convention  in  1852  asserted  tie- 
right,  but  thought  the  occasion  did  not  justify  it.  Sul»^- 
quent  events  fanned  the  fiame.  Dec.  20, 1860,  a  convent  lou 
unanimouslv  declared  South  Carolina  an  independent  S4>v- 
ereigntv.  With  other  States  the  Confederacy  was  fornuMi. 
South  Carolina  sent  60,000  men  to  battle,  of  whom  12,(K"J 
perished.  Port  Royal  was  taken  in  1861,  and  the  coast  w*? 
the  fighting-ground.  Charleston  was  besieged,  but  not  tak.  n 
until  after  the  march  of  Sherman  in  1865,  when  it  wa-* 
evacuated.  By  the  war  the  ai^sessed  property  of  the  St.iN' 
was  reduced  from  $550,000,000  to  $100,000,000  (f200,0tMK(MM» 
being  the  value  of  the  slaves  set  free).  President  John  von 
appointed  B.  F.  Perrv  provisional  Governor  and  a  gov»n  - 
ment  was  formed.  Congress  placed  the  State  under  ww- 
tary  rule,  and  ordered  a  convention,  which  in  Sept..  isio, 
declared  the  secession  ordinance  null  and  void,  repudiH^nl 
the  Confederate  State  debt,  and  framed  a  new  constituti^i.. 
A  constitution  wa^s  adopted  in  1865  repealing  the  onlinan.v 
of  secession  and  slavery.  A  refusal  to  ratify  the  Fourttvnth 
Amendment  led  to  a  reconstruction  by  Corigrvss,    The  Nt- 


r 
^ 


r^- 


,  ;■  a 


4 


— '    ^   t£  -"^II   '_L/  _J^ 


^o 


-tj 


■•U  '>nrf    t_t  All 


634 


SOUTH   DAKOTA 


course  along  and  near  the  southwestern  edge  of  the  great 
ice-sheet.  W.  of  the  Missouri  the  streams  in  the  order  of 
their  size  are  the  Cheyenne,  Grand,  White,  Bad,  and  Moreau. 

Geology*. — Igneous  rocks  appear  in  a  few  spots,  one  a  dike 
of  diabase,  on  Split  Rock  creek,  N.  E.  of  Sioux  Falls,  and 
five  or  six  small  areas  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Black 
Hills,  and  inchide  the  porpliyries.  The  Archaean  appears  in 
the  east-central  part  of  the  Black  Hills,  lying  N,  and  S., 
with  Harney's  Peak  a  little  S.  of  its  center.  A  somewhat 
larger  area  enters  the  State  from  Minnesota,  in  width  from 
Canton  to  Flantlreau  and  narrowing  westward  to  a  point  a 
little  S.  of  Mitchell.  There  is  another  small  area  below  the 
southeast  end  of  Big  Stone  Lake.  In  the  Black  Hills  it  con- 
sists of  schists,  partly  Early  Huron ian,  and  slates  and  quartz- 
ites,  with  eruptive  masses  of  granite.  The  east  area  is  red 
quartzite  (Huronian),  while  near  Big  Stone  Lake  a  reddish 
granite  is  exposed  only  under  the  drift.  The  Palaeozoic 
rocks  lie  around  the  core  of  Archaean  in  the  Black  Hills, 
being  wider  on  the  \V.,  and  comprise  200  to  300  feet  of  Pots- 
dam sandstone,  about  30  feet  of  Trenton  limestone,  a  few 
feet  of  clay  (possibly  Devonian),  then  600  or  700  feet  of  Car- 
boniferous limestones.  The  Jura-Trias  encircles  the  Palaeo- 
zoic of  the  Black  Hills,  and  includes  200  to  350  feet  of  red 
marly  clays  with  purple  limestone  and  gypsum  (Trias),  and 
75  to  150  feet  of  sandstone,  marls,  and  clays  of  the  Jurassic. 
Encircling  the  last-named  formati(m  in  the  Black  Hills  and 
bordering  the  larger  Archiean  area  in  the  east  part,  broadly 
on  the  S.  and  W.  and  less  on  the  N.,  is  the  Dakota,  a  forma- 
tion of  several  thick  beds  of  sandstone  separated  by  layers 
of  clay  of  irregular  thickness.  The  Colorado  extends  from 
the  Black  Hills  to  a  little  beyond  the  branches  of  the  Chey- 
enne, and  includes  the  intermediate  vallevs  and  the  country 
between  the  Cheyenne  and  Bad  rivers,  and  nearly  all  the  un- 
mentioned  part  E.  of  the  Missouri  and  a  margin  of  irregular 
width  along  the  west  side  of  the  Missouri.  It  represents  the 
Fort  Benton  clay,  50  to  100  feet ;  the  Niobrara  chalkstone. 
50  to  150  feet;  and  the  Fort  Pierre  clays,  600  to  700  feet. 
The  Fox  Hills  comprise  100  to  150  feet  of  sands,  clays,  and 
sandstone  in  the  region  near  the  Missouri  and  X.  of  the  Chey- 
enne. The  Jjaramie  or  lignitic  is  the  great  lignite-bearing 
formation,  with  rocks  similar  to  the  Fox  Hills,  in  the  north- 
west part  of  the  State.  It  comes  down  near  the  Belle  Fourche, 
extends  E.  half  way  to  the  Missouri,  then  N.  E.  to  near  that 
river.  The  Miocene  covers  the  region  S.  of  Bad  river  and 
E.  of  the  south  branch  of  the  Cheyenne  to  near  the  Mis- 
souri, and  includes  the  white  clays,  marls,  and  sandstones  of 
the  Bad  Lands,  known  as  White  river  beds,  also  the  Loup 
Fork  beds.  In  this  State  the  two  may  be  250  to  400  feet 
thick.  The  drift  or  Iwwlder  clay  covers  all  the  surface 
W.  to  a  line  a  little  l)eyond  the  Missouri  river,  following 
closely  its  general  course  to  within  60  miles  of  the  northern 
boundary,  where  it  deflects  some  40  miles  W.  from  that 
stream.  The  outlines  of  the  older  formations  are  less  confi- 
dently stated  where  they  are  covered  by  drift.  The  artesian 
basin  includes  the  region  W.  of  the  following  line :  Begin- 
ning near  Vermillion  on  the  Missouri  river,  thence  X.  \\  .  to 
p]than,  S.  of  Mitchell,  thence  X.  E.  some  25  miles,  thence  a 
little  W.  of  X.  to  the  northwest  corner  of  Clark  County, 
thence  X.  X.  E.  to  the  northern  boundary.  On  the  S.  it 
follows  near  and  a  little  S.  of  the  Missouri.  Many  powerful 
wells  flow  in  the  region  W.  of  this  line  to  the  Missouri,  and 
the  pressure  rises  rai)idly  toward  the  W.  It  is  probal)le  that 
it  extends  along  the  White  and  Cheyenne  rivers  to  near 
the  Black  Hills,  where  a  flowing  well  was  sunk  at  Belle 
Fourche.  The  water-bearing  strata,  the  Dtikota  sandstone, 
are  somewhat  irregular  in  distribution,  conducting  power, 
and  depth.  The  wells  are  used  to  supply  towns,  furnish 
power,  and  to  irrigate  lands. 

Produdiona. — Xi  Sioux  Falls,  Dell  Rapids,  Spencer,  Rock- 
port,  and  near  Alexandria  are  extensive  and  valuable  quar- 
ries of  red  quartzite,  and  at  Yankton  are  extensive  and  thick 
beds  of  Fort  Benton  clay  and  chalkstone,  from  which  a  su- 
perior Portland  cement  is  made.  Brick  clays  are  found  in 
many  localities.  Custer  County  contains  inanganese,  but 
there  is  little  use  for  it  locally,  and  the  cost  of  transporta- 
tion is  too  great  to  justify  slii|)nients  exctH)t  of  the  highest 
grade  ore.  Tin  is  found  "in  the  Harney  Peak  and  Xig^er 
Hill  regions  of  the  Blat^k  Hills,  and  the'first  tin-mill  in  the 
U.  S.  was  opened  near  the  mines  in  IHUO.  During  the  cal- 
endar year  1893  the  Black  Hills  mines  vielded  193,809  tine 
ounces  of  gold,  valued  at  .^4,006,400,  and *1 40,400  fine  ounces 
of  silver,  valued  at  $181,527.     Very  rich  gold  mines  were 

♦  The  trriter  fs  indebted  to  Prof.  J.  E.  Todd,  of  the  State  University, 
tor  the  geological  information  here  given. 


opened  in  1895  near  Hill  City,  and  the  aggregate  pr<xlu<"  i< 
materially  increased.  The  granite  produced  by  the  .*^tair  ri 
1898  was  valued  at  $27,828,  the  sandstone  at  $36,165.  hti. 
the  gypsum  at  $12,550.  The  Sioux  Falls  quartzite  ha^  U^  i 
used  for  paving  in  Chicago  and  other  Western  cities  witi. 
satisfactory  results.  The  chief  industry  of  the  State  is  api- 
culture. Stock-raising  has  become  an  important  inters -;. 
The  State  has  a  variety  of  native  grasses,  and  many  cu/i- 
vated  species  have  been  introducwi  profitably  in  the  <.. . 
settled  parts  of  the  east  and  south.  In  1890  South  Dakou 
had  50,158  farms,  containing  11.396,460  acres,  valued  wiii 
buildings  and  fences  at  $75,310,305.  The  following  tut..- 
shows  the  acreage,  yield,  and  value  of  the  principal  crop>  u. 
the  calendar  year  1*894,  a  year  of  serious  drought : 


CROPS. 


Indian  com 

Wheat 

Oat« 

Rye 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Potatoes 

Hay 

Totals 


ACTM««. 


YkU. 


354,844 
2,4]4.2H1 

6,550 

53,465 

1.818 

49.830 

2.040.888 


1,490,345 

1.5,9?J4.5J55 

6,992,972 

29,475 

721,2N6 

9,490 

],]34.5iN) 

1.918,388 


bush. 


$Ks:,v- 


v., 

f 


5,709,170  I     I    $iy,4;c::}' 


On  Jan.  1, 1895,  the  farm  animals  comprised  293,771  h»'r-t-<. 
value  $8,608,620;  6,937 mules,  value  $259,361 ;  278,928  mil.  ii- 
cows,  value  $4,900,765;  425,334  oxen  and  other  cattle,  vtii.. 
$6,368,775;  323,482  sheep,  value  $532,969;  and  17^}.^- 
swine,  value  $1,012,408— total  head,  1,502,435 ;  total  vaiuc. 
$21,682,898. 

Divisions. — For  administrative  purposes  the  State  i--  'h- 
vided  into  seventy-eight  counties,  as  follows : 


COUNTIES   AND   COUNTY-TOWNS,   WITH   POPULATION. 


Armstrong 

Auroi-a 

Beadle 

Bon  Homme 

Boreman 

Brookings 

Brown 

Brul4 

Buffalo   

Butte 

Campbell 

Charles  Mix    

Choteau 

Clark 

Clay 

(^(Hlinffton 

Custer 

Davison 

Day 

Delano 

Deuel 

Dewej'^ 

Doujrlas 

Edmunds 

Ewinj: 

Fall  Kiver 

Faulk 

Grant 

Cire(?ory 

Hamlin 

Hand 

Hanson 

Hardinj? 

Hughes 

Hutchinson 

Hyde  

•Tacksim 

Jerauld 

Kinjfsburv 

Lake 

Lawrence 

Lincoln 

Lugenbeel  

Lvmau 

McC«M)k 

McPherson 

Marshall 

Martin 

Meade 

Meyer 

Miner 

Minnehaha  

Moodv 

Nowlin 

Penninj^ton 

Potter 

Pratt 

Presho 


6-C 

7-E 

6-F 

&-F 

5-D 

6-G 

5-F 

7-E 

7-E 

6-B 

5-D 

8-E 

5-B 

6-F 

8-G 

ft-F 

7-B 

7-F 

5-F 

6-B 

6-0 

5-C 

7-F 

5-E 

4-B 

a-B 

5-E 

5-G 

8-E 

6-F 

6-E 

7-F 

5- A 

6-D 

7-F 

6-D 

7-C 

7-F 

6-F 

7-(} 

(V-B    , 

8-0   I 

8-C 

7-E 

7-F   ! 

4-E 

5-F 

.VB   ' 

6-B 

H-D 

7-F 

7-G 

7-(* 

7-0 

7-B 

5-D 

7-I» 

7-D 


1,200 

5,468 

5:^ 

4,965 

2;% 


50 
407 

"ii4 

5,001 

2.156 

995 

1,256 

97 

2.302 

46 
6 


4 

3,010 


Pop. 

I«90. 


COUNTY-TOW3<Sw 


34 
5,045 

9..586 
9.057 


I. 


Plankinton. 

Huron , 

TyndaU 


10,132 
16.855 
6,737 
993 
1,087 
8.510 
4,178 


Brookings 

Aberdeen  . . . 
Chamberlain. 
Gann  Valley . 
Minnesela.... 
Mound  City . . 
Wheeler 


6,728    Clark 

7.509  I  Vermillion., 
7,087  '  Wateriown. , 

4,891     Custer 

5,449  I  MitcheU 

9,168     Webster  . . . . 

40  I 

4.574  '  Gary  


Grand  View., 
Ipswich 


4.600 
4.399 
16 
4.478  1  Hot  Sprin<?s. . 

4.(»2  I  Faulkton 

6,814  ,  Milbank 


I 


i.^-r 


153 

i,:wi 

"268  I 
5,573 


4.625 

0.546 

4,26: 

UV 

5.(M4 

10.469 

1,860 

30 


I  Castlewood  . 

I  Miller 

Alexandria  . 

Pierre 

Olivet 

Highmore. . . 


i7  I. 


1.102 
2.(V57  I 
13.248  I 
5.896  I 


124 
1,28:^ 


115 
3<)3  . 
8,2.">1    I 
3,915 


8.605 
8.562 
7,5{1« 
11,673 
9,143 

1  Wessington  St»K. . 

De  Smet 

Madison 

Deadwood 

Canton 

•4! 

i.r* 

233 

Oacouia 

6.418 
5.940 
4,544 

4.640 

Salem 

I^>la 

Brilton 

4J9 



5.165 

21,879 

6,<M1 

149 

6.540 

2,910 

23 

181 

Howard 

Sioux  Falls 

Flandreau 

Rapid  city.   .'.!.. 
Geltysburjif 

10,'^ 

•  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  South  Dakota. 


aOVTJl  DAKOTA 


I 

635 


roif5«TreS    JI3fl>    COtNtY-Tn^V> 

S — ^i  nKTlSl'KH. 

ror  VTIE3. 

5-R 

1  ''ly. 

C?i*rVTtT^W?«S, 

1    f<.p. 

l:i".-)i;irt 



l;  .iMTfs 

1  'MK 

WilllKit 

s.iiii>orn 

7  F 



4.«)10 

WcK»njj<K-ket 

mr 

■-•  tr.a-^st* 

5-0 

..... 

•     33 



S.- ,l.<-v 

^:';t'iii.»n 

H-B 

113 

S   .u,k       

OF 

477 

io,r>Mi 

RtNlfiel.l 

796 

>',l(,j,'V' 

G-D 

7M 

i,(n2H 

1    

.S-rM-llUpT 

0-C 

w> 

>s    1     iV _ 

fi-l) 

2<w} 

2,4l:> 

(>ni(la 

•  .11 

'I'p  

HE 
8-1) 

iHXi 

IKS 

Fort  llandall 

1 

'     TUr-r .. 

K-G 

5.8ii0 

lo.i'W') 

Parker 

728 

1    Lli>'Il 

8-<i 

C.813 

9.13(» 

KIk  Toiiit    

"A-j.:m>r 

5-0 

^'.  nAorfh 

5-D 

46 

2,1  .-sa 

Buiif^or 

V  ,*v|i;il,;ui;rh 

7-C 

^'.  l-illUiJtoU 

7-B 

10 

Vi'.Kt..a.       . 

H  F 

H  890 

10  414 

Yaiiktou 

3,670 

/.    'M.'ll 

7-B 

510 

■':  Sis>eron+.    . . 

13^4 



^i—tMn  aifl  Wah- 

I-tr.f,  Iii-lian  rt*s- 

T.  .taU. . 


9H.2(W    SiS.sOH 


•  H'f*-ivn«'t»  for  location  of  couDties.  see  map  of  South  I-iakota. 
f  Abaodoned.  *  Now  parts  of  other  counties. 

I'n')iripal  CHles  and  Toums,  with  Pofmlntion  hi  ISf^O. — 
>''MX  Fulls,  10,177;  Vatikton,  :^,670;  Pierre.  8,2:^5;  Aher- 
'^'M.  a.lN2;  Huron,  8.0:38:  Watortowti,  2.672;  Learl  City, 
^*M;  Deadwcxxl,  2,860;  Mitchell,  2,217;  and  Kaiud  City, 

I'^/tuhfion  and  Hares.— The  part  of  Dakota  now  in  the 
.ii  Ills  of  the  State  had  in  ISSO  an  estimateci  popidatioii  of 
'.'■^.J^l^^ :  in  1890  the  population  of  the  .State  was  828.808  (na- 
riv.\  287,753;  foreign,  91. Oo.5;  males,  180,250;  females,  UK- 
Vt^:  white,  327,200;  colored,  1,518,  of  whom  541  were  of 
A!!v  Hii  descent,  195  Chinese,  an<l  782  civilized  Indians). 

Mtinufactnres. — The  census  returns  of  INJK)  showed  499 
ii'i'iufrteturing  establishments,  with  an  a^'«;re<:ate  capital  of 
f!  .'<i:.7<>6  (of  which  ^822,855  were  invested  in  land,  ^512.- 
l|..'  ill  buildings,  and  .^1,829,023  in  tools,  machinery,  and  im- 
r  'I.. nts),  employing  2.422  persons,  f)aying  4!l,09H,418  for 
''  .'••s.  :?2H8.214  for  mi.scellaneous  expenses,  antl  ^8.528.840 
1  "fiiHlerials,  and  turning  out  products  vahied  at  '$5,682,748. 
^htuinrt^. — The  assessed  valuations  in  1H93  aggregated 
^.  '♦in:!2.K40,  and  the  total  funded  debt  on  Jan.  1,  1894,  was 
?].'i40;3i)0. 

I'xiiikiuf). — In  1893  there  were  89  national  banks,  with 
'  'Mhiiied  cajiital  of  J^2.510,0(KJ,  individual  deposits  of  ^8.- 
•^.4»i4,  and  surplus  and  profits  of  ;^70H.888;  and  185  State 
■"<"ks.  with  capital  of  .$1,987,058,  deposits  of  $8,480,6S8,  aiul 
^  .rj,la>  of  *487,477.  There  were  also  over  50  private  banks, 
'^'  li  wore  not  required  to  report  their  comlition.  The 
"''"'■  Imnks  were  organized  under  two  laws,  the  old  ones 
'''''•r  the  general  corporation  law,  and  later  ones  under  a 
'•atiking  law,  with  more  restrictions  and  safeguards, 
'^' ^'-  — .•^. .>/....    -Transportation  to  and  within 


M'tihA  of  Cumrnunicttdoti.- 


"•■  >'ate  is  nrovided  by  four  great  railway  lines,  the  Chi- 
'  '- '.  MihvHukee  ami  St.  Paul,  the  CMiicago  and  Xorthwest- 
"■;'.  the  Fremont.  Elkhorn  and  Missouri  ^'allev,  and  the 
''^iliii-ton  and  Missouri  Kiver,  and  by  thirteen*  local  and 
"' ■ 'T  ()i)(s.  The  total  mileage  within  the  State  in  1892  wjis 
> '''\  of  \Uiieh  the  greater  j)art  was  operated  by  the  four 
^'J^^  lines  in  the  order  given.  The  State  receives  about 
^-'I'.'MK)  annunlly  from  taxes  on  railway  propertv. 
,  '"'rrfuM.— The  census  of  1S90  gave  the  following  statis- 
'■  ^  "f  the  religious  bodies  having  a  membership  c^f  1,000 
■r  III., re  each  in  the  State: 


DKNOMINATIO.NS. 

Orcnnixa- 

lK.|l«, 

Church.^ 
ui<i  hnllA. 

MembfT*. 

V«|.,..  of 
church 

177 

prof^rly. 

'^  '"atholic   

169 

2.-..  720 

S24C,.O{0 

"Ii^f  K|>Kcopal 

'       2.-4 

2  IS 

11.371 

y;.'»  -^v) 

•  f  uj.  \  iiiti-d  Norwejfian 

1        14S 

i:is 

7.r»22 

.M.i;.M 

'' -'ii'i"iial 

i:is 

U2 

5.164 

2i>o.i;<M 

■    ui.  r..ri.-ral  roiineii 

1(H> 

97 

4.770  , 

40. 1  •,'.-, 

•  '"  'l'»'l'.  S.  of  America  .. 

l-.'4 

r'5 

4.413 

ir.6.!M0 

^'   il''^nlar 

k:^ 

K", 

3.s.')<;  1 

•';«n.  Svn.HlK-al  ConfMrence. 

71 

li", 

3.097  1 

20.770 

I'l,  Norwi-kri.ui  Evaiijc 

46 

43 

3.0.30  1 

2."..7(N) 

-"u,t  Kl..v,,,pHl 

K-i 

74 

2.<'.l'.» 

2.3^4.. ->32 

i^iii.  Hfiiit'f's  Synod 

3«'i 

36 

2.23'.»  ' 

ll.TtHt 

-•  '''ill  Association 

74 

74 

1.6-iS 

2«M.')n 

''■"1.  IM  tijt'  C.  S 

16 

14 

].INM> 

lL7.->0 

Nfhfmh.^-Th^  net  of  Congress  creating  the  State  »ei  apurt 
2*'^2*l,;t2(>  rieres  of  land  for  thi?  ,supf>orl  of  ptiblic  st4u.M>ls,  and 
bol  li  Ihe  act  and  the  Slutt?  const iJiiLlrfti  lived  th*j  ininimum 

l*r\i-*-    Ml     *vliieh    n.]-    1^M!h]    ^]*-i]|]it    b"    mJiI    J\l     ^10    prr-    -■■?.■, 

Sbjre  than  100,0(K)  acres  have  been  sold  at  an  advance  on 
the  minimmn  price,  and  should  the  remainder  fetch  only 
^10  per  acre,  the  permanent  .scho»)l  fund  would  amount  to 
more  than  ^28,(XXUK)0.  In  18in2  there  were  in  the  State  87,- 
817  children  of  school  age,  of  whom  78,962  were  enrolled  in 
tlie  jniblic  .schools.  There  were  4,298  teachers.  8,258  public 
school  buildings,  10  pidjlic  high  schools,  2  normal  schools 
(at  Madi.^^on  and  Speartish),  and  public-.school  property  val- 
ued at  *2,704,t)88.  The  institutions  for  advanced  instruc- 
tion include  the  University  of  South  Dakota  at  Vermillion 
(opened  in  1S88);  Dakota 'University  at  .Alitchell  (Methodist 
Kpisco})al,  1885);  Pierre  University  at  East  I'ierre  (Presby- 
terian. bSS^);  Sioux  Falls  Univei-sity  at  Sioux  Falls  (Haf)tist, 
1888);  Scotland  Academy  at  Scotland  (Presbyterian,  1H76); 
Augustana  C<»llege  at  Canton  (Lutheran,  1884);  Redlield 
College  at  Redfield  (Congregational,  1887);  All  Saints' School 
at  Sioux  Falls  (Protestant  F]j)iscoi»al,  18S6);  Bhu-k  Jlills 
College  at  Hot  S[)rings;  Academy  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at 
Yankton  (Homan  Catholic);  Yankton  College  at  Yankton 
(Congregational,  1882);  Want  Academy  at  La  Koche  (Ccui- 
gregational) ;  and  the  Wessington  Springs  Seminary  (Free 
Methodist).  There  are  also  a  State  Agricultural  College 
with  an  experiment  station  near  Brookings  and  a  Stale 
School  of  Mines  at  Hapid  City. 

Libraries. — According  to  a  U.  S.  (iovemment  report  on 
public  libraries  of  1,0<K)  volume's  and  upward  each  in  1891, 
South  Dakota  had  11  libraries,  containing  28,866  bound  vol- 
iniH\s  and  8,280  pamphlets.  The  libraries  were  clasj^ilied  as 
follows:  General,  8;  college,  5;  scientific,  1;  garrison,  1  ; 
and  society,  1. 

Pout-offices  and  Periodicals. — In  Jan.,  1895.  there  were 
667  i»ost -offices,  of  which  41  were  i)residential  (8  second- 
class,  '^'S  third-cla.s^)  and  626  fourth-class.  There  were  211 
money-order  olfices  and  21  limited  money-order  olfices.  The 
newsjta pel's  and  periodicals  in  1894  comprised  16  daily,  1 
siMni-weekly,  224  weekly,  1  semi-monthly,  18  monthly,  aiid  1 
bi-monthly  publications — total,  261. 

Cfiaritidde.  Ittformator}/^  and  Penal  Institutions. — These 
include  a  State  School  for  Deaf  Mutes  at  Sioux  F'alls;  a 
Hospital  for  the  In.^me  at  Yankton;  a  Soldiers' Home  at 
Hot  Springs;  a  Reform  School  at  Plankingtrm  ;  and  a  State 
Penitentiary  at  South  Falls;  and  the  Legislature  has  au- 
thorized an  additional  hospital  for  the  insane  at  Kedfield 
and  a  school  for  the  blind  at  (Jary. 

P(ditical  On/anization. — The  constitution  vests  the  legi.<- 
lative  authority  in  a  Legislature  consisting  of  a  Senat**  and 
House  of  Hepresentatives.  which  in  1895  had  48  and  .S8  mem- 
bers respectively.  The  Legislature  meets  bieimially  and 
sessions  are  limited  to  sixty  ilays.  It  is  prohibited  from  en- 
acting private  or  special  laws  for  grant  ing<livorces;  changinsx 
the  names  of  persons  or  places;  constituting  one  person  the 
heir-at-law  of  another;  locating  or  changing  county-seats; 
regulating  county  and  township  affairs;  granting  t()  an  in- 
diviilual,  association,  or  corporation  any  special  or  exclusive 
privilege  ;  or  authorizing  any  game  of  chance,  lottery,  or  gift 
enterprise.  The  executive  autliority  is  vested  in  a  (iovernor 
elected  for  two  years.  There  is  also  a  Lieutenant-(Tovernor 
chosen  in  the  same  way  and  for  the  same  term  as  the  Gov- 
ernor. The  Governor  may  disapprove  of  any  separate  item 
or  items  in  a  bill.  Bills  may  be  pa.ssed  over  his  vetr>  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses,  and  tliose  not  returned  by 
him  within  three  days  of  reception  become  laws.  The  Gov- 
ernor is  assisted  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties  l)y  a  si'cretary 
of  State,  auditor,  treasurer,  superintendent  of  ptd>lic  in- 
struction, commissioner  of  schoid  and  public  hinds,  and 
an  attorney-general,  all  elected  for  ternjs  of  two  years. 
The  judicial  auth(»rity  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court,  circuit 
courts,  county  courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace,  and  such 
other  courts  as  mav  be  created  for  cities  and  ineorjxtratcd 
towns.  The  constitution  contains  a"l)illof  rights."  guar- 
anteeing tliat  the  riudit  to  worship  (iod  ace«)rdin;;  to  the  dic- 
tates L»f  conscience  shall  never  be  infringejl;  that  no  person 
shall  be  denied  any  civil  or  {)olitieal  rii^dit  on  account  of  his 
reliirious  opinions:  that  no  person  shall  l»e  c«»nipell(Ml  to  at- 
tend or  support  any  uiinistry  or  place  of  wnrshij)  against  his 
consent;  and  that  no  money  or  other  {irop^'rty  of  the  State 
shall  be  given  for  any  reliirious  or  .sectarian  purpose.  The 
voting:  |)rivilege  is  extended  to  every  male  person  who  is  a 
citizen  of  the  U.  S.  or  an  alien  who  h/is  declared  his  inten- 
tion of  becoming  a  citizen,  who  ha^  resided  in  the  U.  S.  one 


636 


SOUTH  DAKOTA,  UNIVERSITY  OP 


year,  in  the  State  six  months,  in  the  county  thirty  days,  and 
in  the  precinct  ten  days,  next  preceding  any  election,  pro- 
vided he  is  not  under  guardianship,  insane,  an  idiot,  or  an 
unpardoned  person  convicted  of  treason  or  felony.  Women 
with  the  foregoing  qualifications  may  vote  at  any  election 
held  solely  for  school  purposes.  A  modification  of  the  Aus- 
tralian ballot  law  is  in  force.  The  constitution  authorized 
the  enactment  of  a  State  prohibition  law.  The  Legislature 
passed  one  in  1891.  It  was  immediatelv  contested,  and  a 
county  court  declared  it  unconstitutional,  but  on  an  appeal 
in  1892  the  Supreme  Court  affirmed  its  validity. 

Hiatory.— The  early  history  of  the  State  is  identical  with 
that  of  North  Dakota  {q.  v.).  In  1890-51  the  Indian  Mes- 
siah craze  among  the  Sioux  led  to  grave  apprehensions,  the 
intervention  of  U.  S.  troops,  and  the  death  of  Sitting  Bull, 
a  great  Sioux  chief;  in  1892  the  Yankton  Sioux  Indians 
signed  an  agreement  with  U.  S.  commissioners  to  cede  to 
the  U.  S.  a  large  part  of  their  reservation  between  the  Chen 
teau  and  Missouri  rivers ;  and  in  1893  the  Legislature  passed 
acts  to  promote  irrigation,  to  prohibit  the  introduction  into 
the  State  of  armed  bodies  of  police  or  detectives,  and  to 
create  a  number  of  State  commissioners. 

GOVERNORS  OF  SOUTH   DAKOTA. 


Arthur  C.  Mellette .  _^       , 

Charles  H.  Sheldon 18J»- 

AuTHORiTiES.— Child,  South  Dakota :  Resources,  i'eop/e. 
Statehood  (1888);  Beadle,  Dakota  (1889);  Hagerty,  n« 
State  of  South  Dakota :  St^^tistical,  Historical,  aiid  Polit- 
ical Abstract  (Aberdeen,  1889).     William  H.  H.  Beadle. 

South  Dakota,  University  of:  an  institution  located  at 
Vermillion  by  the  first  territorial  legislature  (1862),  and  first 
known  as  University  of  Dakota,  but  not  opened  by  the  Terri- 
tory until  1883.  The  city  and  county  opened  an  independent 
school  in  the  court-house  in  1882,  to  which  they  applied  the 
original  name.  University  of  Dakota,  and  erected  one  build- 
ing, which  was,  with  the  school,  accepted  as  the  territorial 
university  by  the  Legislature  in  1883,  when  the  first  appro- 
priation was  made.  The  name  was  changed  to  University 
of  South  Dakota  in  1891.  It  has  one  brick  and  two  large  stone 
buildings,  a  20-acre  campiis,  and  86,000  acres  of  land.  There 
*  is  a  College  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  with  four  bachelor  and 
four  master  courses ;  colleges  of  music  and  business ;  mili- 
tary and  preparatory  departments.  It  has  three  laboratories 
and  a  museum  on  the  ''  typical "  ])lan.  The  faculty  consists 
of  the  president,  twelve  professors,  and  three  assistants. 
The  students  number  275.  J.  W.  Mauck. 

Sontii  Deerfleld,  Mass. :  See  Deerfield. 
Soatiiern  Confederacy :  See  Confederate  States. 
Sontiiern  Crown:  See  Corona  Australis. 
Soutliern-wood :  a  plant.  See  Artemisia. 
Sontiiey,  Caroline  Anne  {Bowles) :  poet ;  b.  at  Lyming- 
ton,  Hants.  England,  Dec.  6,  1787.  At  an  early  age  she 
wrote  for  Blackwood* s  Magazine  and  other  periodicals.  In 
1820  a  collection  of  her  pieces  was  made,  which  speedily 
won  for  her  a  place  in  the  world  of  letters.  In  1839  she 
became  the  second  wife  of  Robert  Southey.  The  Paupers 
Deathbed  is,  perhaps,  the  best  known  of  her  poems,  which 
were  prevailingly  of  a  moral,  religious,  and  domestic  char- 
acter. Her  published  works  are  Ellen  Fitz-Arthur,  a 
poem  (1820) ;  The  Widow's  Tale,  and  other  Poems  (1822) ; 
Solitary  Hours,  prose  and  verse  (1826) ;  Chapters  on  Church- 
yards (1829) ;  The  Birthday^  a  poem  (1836) ;  Tales  of  the 
Factories,  in  verse ;  and  Robin  Hood,  a  fragment  of  a  poem 
begun  jointly  by  herself  and  her  husband,  to  which  were 
added  other  fragments  by  both  (1847).  D.  at  Lymington, 
July  20, 1854.  See  Southey  s  Correspondence  with  Caroline 
Bowles,  by  Dowden  (1881).  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Sontiiey,  Robert  :  author ;  b.  at  Bristol,  England,  Aug. 
12, 1774,  the  son  of  a  linen-drai>er.    Early  left  an  orphan,  he 


was  cared  for  by  an  uncle ;  received  his  earlv  education  at 
Westminster  School;  in  1793  entered  Baliol  College,  Ox- 
ford, with  the  design  of  taking  holy  orders,  but,  becoming 
unsettled  in  his  religious  and  political  views,  left  Oxford 
after  two  years,  and  entered  up(»n  a  career  of  authorship  in 
verse  and  prose,  his  first  published  work  being  a  small 
volume  of  poems  (1794).  In  1795  he  married  Edith  Fricker, 
whose  sister  soon  after  became  the  wife  of  Coleridge ;  set 
out  with  his  uncle  for  Portugal ;  published  an  account  of 
his  six  months'  residence  (1797);  was  ma<le  secretary  to  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  for  Ireland,  a  sinecure  with  a 


SOUTHGATE 

salary  of  £850;  resigned  the  position,  and  in  1804  settled 
for  life  at  Keswick  in  the  lake  country.    From  this  time 
his  life  is  mainly  the  history  of  his  numerous  writing  in 
almost  every  department  of  literature.    In  early  maijhcw  <l 
he  had  imbibed  strong  radical  ideas;  proposed,  in  erui- 
j unction  with  Coleridge  and  Lovel,  to  set  up  a  socialist  i«* 
community  or  "  pantisocraey  "  on  the  banks  of  the  Sii>- 
quehanna;   and  wrote  a  drama,    Wat  Tyler  (printed   in 
1793,  but  first  published  in   1817,  without  his  consent ». 
which  was  denounced  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  swli- 
tioua.     In  the  course  of  years  he  went  over  to  the  oj>- 
posite  extreme  of  conservatism  in  Church  and  state,  ainl 
oecame  considered  the  exponent  of  high  Tory  opinions. 
He  was  named  poet-laureate  in  1813.    In  1807  he  received  a 
Government  pension  of  £160  a  year,  increased  to  £4S0  in 
1885.    His  wife,  who  had  for  several  years  been  hopelessly 
insane,  died  in  1837,  and  two  years  afterward  he  marrieii 
Caroline   Bowles.    (See  Southey,  Caroline  Anxe.)    But 
Southey *s  own  faculties  had  begun  to  give  way,  and  on  th^'^ 
day  when  he  brought  his  wife  to  their  home  he  fell  into  a 
state  of  mental  prostration  which  soon  grew  into  coroph-te 
imbecility,  that  continued  to  his  death,  on  Mar.  21, 1848. 
Southey  *s  principal  poems  are  Joan  of  Arc  (1795);  Thalabn 
the  Destroyer,  an  Arabian  tale  (1801) ;  Madoc,  founded  <»ii 
legends  of  early  Welsh  voyages  to  America  (1805);   Thr 
Curse  of  Kehama,  based  lipon  Hindu  mytholo^  (1810: ; 
Roderick,  tlte  La^t  of  the  Goths,  founded  on  Spanish  histf»ry 
(1814);  A  Vision  of  Judgment,  an  apotheosis  of  Geoi^^  III. 
(1821) ;  and  A  Tale  of  Paraguay  (1825).    Among  his  n\\- 
merous  prose  works  are  History  of  Brazil  (1810-19);  Li^f 
of  Nelson  (1813) ;  Life  of  John  Wesley  (1820);  History  of 
the  Peninsular  War  (1820-32);  Book  of  the  Church  (1H24»: 
Sir  Thomas  More,  or  Colloquies  on  Society  (1829);  Liftt  *>f 
John  Bunyan  (1830);  and  The  Doctor  (1834-37).    Ile'alsi* 
contributed  largely  to  The  Quarterly  Review  for  many  yeaiN. 
His  poetical  works  were  collected  by  himself  (10  voIsl/LS^Ti, 
and  nave  been  several  times  republished  in  different  fo^^l^, 
His  Life  and  Correspondence,  edited  by  his  son.  Rev.  C.  i'. 
Southey,  appeared  in  1849,  and  a  selection  from  his  Com- 
monpldce  Book,  by  his  son-in-law.  Rev.  J.  W.  Warter.  in 
1856.    Southey  was  one  of  the  most  indefatigable  and  vo- 
luminous of  English  authors,  his  published  works  in  ver^* 
and  prose  numbering  over  100  titles.     His  reputation  as 
a  poet,  imposing  in  his  own  lifetime,  has  steadily  declintMi. 
His  poetry  is  commonplace,  without  inspiration,  spontanfit), 
or  cnarm  of  style.     A  few  of  his  less  ambitious  pioc^-N 
such  as  My  Library,  The  Holly  Tree,  and  The  Battle  of 
Blenheim,  keep  a  place  in  popular  remembrance,     l)f  Xw- 
prose  writings  the  lives  of  Nelson  and  Wesley  are  anii'iii: 
the  best,  and  indeed  are  amon|^  the  best  standard  biocru- 
pliies  in  the  language.    His  whimsical  and  mystifying  bi»i<k 
The  Doctor  is  a  favorite  with  many  readers.    The*  worth  of 
Southey's  character,  his  wide  learning  and  incessant  pn»- 
ductiveness,  his  dignified  social  standing,  and  his  intinuttn 
association  with  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge,  men  of  a  high*  r 
genius  than  his  own,  still  make  him  an  important  figure  \u 
tinglish  literary  history.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beebs. 

South  Framingham :  village;  Framingham  town.  Mid- 
dlesex CO.,  Mass.;  on  the  Boston  and  Albany  and  the  N.  Y.. 
N.  H.  and  Hart,  railways ;  21  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Boston,  and 
23  miles  E.  of  Worcester  (for  location,  see  map  of  Mas*iaihii- 
setts,  ref.  2-G).  It  contains  8  churches,  a  national  baiik 
with  capital  of  f  100,000, 2  saving-banks,  and  3  weekly  news- 
papers, and  is  principally  engaged  in  the  manufaiiurt>  of 
straw  goods,  woolens,  shoes,  paper,  and  rubber  goods.  Pop. 
(1890)  not  separately  reported. 

Sonthgate,  Horatio,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  and  author :  l». 
at  Portland,  Me.,  July  5,  1812;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  dl- 
Icge  1832,  and  at  Antlover  Theological  Seminar>'  1835 ;  ti*-  ^ 
orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  18K!i6 ;  travtl.>i 
as  a  missionary  in  the  East;  was  chosen  missionary  bi^h.<f» 
of  Constantinople  1844 ;  resigned  his  charge  in  1850  antl  r*  - 
turned  to  the  L.  S.  the  following  year,  in  which  he  Ixx-an*-- 
rector  of  St.  Mark's,  Portland,  of  the  Church  of  the  Advii.i, 
Boston,  ia52,  of  Zion  church,  New  York,  1859-72,  and  (»f  >t. 
Thomas  church,  Ravenswood.  L.  I.,  1882.  The  epistipat* 
of  California  was  tendered  to  him  by  a  convention  of  oUtu'v 
and  laity,  but  the  plan  miscarried.  I).  Apr.  11,  181)4.  II- 
wjis  the  author  of  A  Tour  through  Armenia,  Kurdi^f'" . 
Persia,  and  Mesopotamia  (New  York,  2  vols.,  1840);  -I  Vt.^t* 
to  the  Syrian  Church  of  Mesopotamia  (Now  Y'ork,  l!<44  : 
The  War  in  the  East  (1855) ;  and  Parochial  Sennons  {\^>'M. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 


iHinifli  ItrUi 


iTNrir    t^\ 


•*MJ,     ru. 


■  i   t..  iiir   «      iii.t', 


^bvtlflud  or  Now  S^ftMi 


H4illllM1 


.  r  fr.  ^., 


1^';  1.  -lUi  {>!    cAJwiuix    4^cwi;.uwi0tii,  •    UUIflUlAtil  MHO 


638 


SOUTIIWORTH 


SOVKUEIGNTY 


Their  liUnu^^H 

mi  hy  (1.  A.^H 

^^Blltntlil 

Ikt  itrni  rliiiti^^H 

^^Btlxiiil 

nitier,  Apr, ^^H 

^^  (U.J 

Brpt^Hi^ri  M  ^^H 

^m,  r"  i 

^J  Hrt'MFMi^n^^l 

^^b  ntul 

H'       V 

^Hl.  l>^ 

Bi         ■ 

^^■d'rt 

busitjrss  aj^eiit  uf  the*  liejrilon  Pilgrims  (d.  1021);  was  tftknn 
tn  Plymoufh,  ]VIjisti,»  ia  1621  by  his  wiiluwoil  luothfr,  Alliv 
(i'HJ'pL'iUcv)  Sduthworth,  who  tjccufiie  thi*  sih-oik)  wiff'nf  (»ov. 
WilliHiii  Br.'t ''  >  '  'i*iilor  whoso  niri!  h(.' was  iHhjL'MtLMl;  was 
oiiL^  of  the  •  ists  <»f  Duxlnirv:  wat*  otivn  n  tun'^'i^ 

irniv  ttutl  n'l  «•  in  tho  Lepslnlurt* :   srrvnd  a*  rom- 

inissioner  (or  the  muled  coloaiei*;  gr*veriior  of  the  Koiinel»ec 
pUnUtioa  tiixd  tis^i:itaMi  governor  of  riviuoutli.  I),  jit  lh\x* 
bury  lilMHit  tOHA.  lie  was  suppftetd  lt»  W  the  tiulhor  of  the 
^upuitfm^nl  to  the  a\>«/'  Etujlftnf/'M  Memoriat  of  his  eotisin, 
Nalfiiiniel  Morion,— Mis  brother  TnnjuN  b.  »i  I^*)deii  in 
lOltt,  wus  liL^)  prominent  in  public  affuirs.    I).  1690. 

South  worth,  Kmmv  I>oriitry  Khxa  tAVny/):  novelist; 
b.  iti  Washington.  I>,  (\,  h^v.  26.  1«1H;  wu.s  rmirrifd  in  1841 
to  Krederitk il,  Suuthworth,  of  V\wik  N.  V\,  nnd  two  years 
later  wua  thrown  wholly  \\\Mm  her  own  exertions?  fttra  fivrli- 
horMl  ;  cngTftj^L'd  in  tentldn";,  and  wro1«?  ft>r  the  Washington 
NttHitmd  Era  tt  novnl  entitktd  Hetrilm/ittn,  whU:h  was  pid>- 
iJBhed  in  btiok-forni  in  1H41*»  since  wLieii  time  she  Uns  put 
ft>rtii  in  rapid  sueeession  n  series  of  novelr*  nundjering  nearly 
sixty.     A  uniform  edition  of  her  stories  to  dtd<^  was  puli- 
liahed  At  Phihidelphin  in  1S72  «nd  ermtiiined  f     '       ■       '■ 
ties,  HMioutr  whirh  wen.'  the  foUowiu)?::   The  F<! 
The  Chftngtd  BrtdfM,  The  Forffinf-Hf^rht,  Thr 
riaffc,  Utt  Lomt  IIeir*<ni<,  Thf*  Thrt**  Beaut i**}*^  7 
JImnestead,  Nefrthtdion,  India,  or  Ihr  Ptarl  of  / 
The  Curm  of  CI  if  Ion,  nnd  The  Sfn^ch't*  Lover, 
to  187H  Mrs.*  South  worth  resicied  in  ac!ouritry-!i 
FotnmiK',  near  VVii5hin^'toit.     In  !8Ttj  shf>  reiimv 
Iters,  N,  V.     Her  novels  relate  hir^'clv  to  Soot  lie  , 
hare  boon  widely  pt*pnhtr, and  ^m»ot  theru  hnve  I) 
luted  into  several  forei^i  Ian 
not  high, 

H4mvestre»s*Kjvest'r\  £i( 
at  Morlaix,  doprtrtiuent  of  i 
After  etlitinir  for  si)me  timd 
g4?t.tled  in  18^6  in  Paris,  wh^ 
his  sketches  of  lirittany,  aiil 
ular  as  a  writt^r.     l>.  in  Pal 
mark  able  of  his  novels  jire 
et  VArgenf,  Conft^^Hiun^  f/'vil 
Im  Toils  (the  last  named  r*^»e6^ 
French  Actuleujy) ;   and  of 
L*OmU  Baptisttit  Le  Mt^uHsei 
strotiKly  marked  tenderiey,  repn 
as  inertmpatihlc,     lie  is  S4jmetiii 
he  ofU^u  gives  uif*st  deli;^djtful  pit 
simple  surroundings  and  the  cheol 
stanees.  Ke\T 

Sotiza :  See  Sousa. 

Sttvpreiffn  :  the  British  eoin  rej»rl 
lint;  of  2iifi.  It  ftrst  appenreil  in 
l*j;^2TU7  grains  tvr'  -I"'  is  worth 
Till     Ktt^j^l^^u  ii^d  rlouble 

pla  ^mI  uBHe  -!    Mriiok    n 

it:- 

Sol 

fe,  dc 

preme.  \ 

riv.  of  »J| 

in  any  ^i\ 

ing  the  supr 

people — i,  c.  tl 

rider  who  reec  ^ 

the  word  to  thd 

of  Iho  particular^ 

and  to  thts  latter  as^ 

according  to  the  wilP  ^ 

pr  queen  is  called  sovfl^ 

thority  h'mited  on  r-very 

exceuiive  jKJWer  is  derive! 

term  »f)vereij;n  contains  nol 

Sovereignly  in  pubhc  !awl 
trt.»!led  the  powers  of  the  stat€ 

As  a  suite's  ndations  are  <i    , 
sulijecls,  (2)  with  other  state* — s 
he  internal  and  external.    The  iW 
state  includes  all  those  powers  of  gol 
sesses  ovi-r  its  own  subjects  aufl  han^^l 
its  territorial  limit*!  and  on  its  nierehanl 
Such  powers  or  rjghtt»  are  thow>  oh 


taxation,  Icgialalion,  piinifthnient.  He,     With  thi«ir 

fortdgn   states,  uide*'-  uikIuIv  di.so.riminat*'d 
nothing  tt*  do;  nor  d«H\s  it  efe|H*nd  u|*rm  th« 
Thus  the  internal  sovereignty  of  the  K.  S.  ^^  - 
the  dale  and  fael  *>(  the  ilerlaralion  of  ii 

Kxteniul  *oven'ignty»  however,  Ixdng  i 
into  relations  with  other  slates^  for  whieh  ini- 
consist  is  ne<:.es>iir\\  do^^s  dejxsnd  uim^j  th«  t 
In  the  ease  of  the  t\  S,  this  wfis  maue  by  I  i 
the  tn.tity  of  lTiT!*;  by  Oniit  Britain  in  expr^ 
trealv  of  17t<'i, 

When  a  state  exert'ises  s*>ttie  but  not  all  ut  the  ji«jw»'r*  of] 
extvrnul  sovereignty  it  is  eailt^il  a  dcjicndetii  or  s^mi^^soirisf^ 
eign  state,  e-  g.  Bulgaria. 

Under  the  U,  S,  Constitution  I  be  qufirtion  whether  tti^ 
sf'verftl  States  or  the  T,  S.  arc  invettted  with  I  he  *«>• 
has  lieeu  made  a  matter  of  great  contention.     Oti 
jeet  the  following  considerations  arc  ci^iH^ciiiily  woritj^  . 
notice: 

(I)  In  the  niwisioual  articles  of  ftoace  )  -  f  »--  "   »i  -  t* 
and  Great   Britain  (17M2),  and   in   th»^   *■ 
ITKI,  the  king  acktiowkMlgrs  the  thirteeti 
>vereign,  and  independent  Slal<?s/*  •' treats  wiiU  ihcm 
Mc*h/*  atid  **  relink ^ot^hr-*  all  cluimii  to  the  government,  \ 

and  terrii  .i^of  the  sume«  and  of  everv*  par 

I."    The  I  f  this  is  that  he  ami  no  one  eN 

';timsoi  >u>rM.^nty  over  the  territory  nf  the 
liihh ing  those  iluims  he  l^^ft  Ibcm  ill 


>  i«f| 

It  i  ir 


U  Irl 


rhich  other  states  indejjenrh 
[by  the  nature  of  their  sid 
"l  were  at  that  time  confeii 
(le  took  no  noticp. 
onMitution,  framed  in  I7H7, 
^n  the  iKtwer  of  the  thirt. 
^row  ju>\ver  into  the  han- 
flung  tlicsi'  were  the  pov 
(ii)  scncl  and  n*ccive  an 
llie?*  to  coin  money,  t^' 
llling  forth  the 
IiiN^s  of  \\w  Vi 
i*tiorj^  f.f 
'  <  'nri'-f  itutic 

hiw<.  of  tl 
lot,  nod  all 
laui  li-rin  o| 


■  f 


im  porta 

SI 


f 


20 


<■  ^^^'.W V^^        ^^ 

J^^^^^t     Of  "  Gibraltiw ^ 

^  D  ^ 


Ua 


I— 


-I.   A'^O    R^" 


;  / 


•? 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^D ' 

^^^^^^^1 

l'%«*4M«1l                             < 

aI^^^^H 

^H 

^^^H' 

I  ^^H^HH 

^^^^^^H 

^^m 

^^^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^E 1 

^ 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^m   ^ 

1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

^H 

^^^^H 

■ 

^.,^n^»l.^^l  f,fm~^                  i- 

uii^iu^                     ^^^^B 

^^^^^H 

^1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Hi«' 

^^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^\ 

^^H 

^^^B 

H 

1 

642 


SPAIN 


SPALLANZANI 


In  1889  4,854,742  persons  were  following  agricultural  pur- 
suits, 823,310  the  arts  and  trades,  409,549  domestic  service, 
243,867  industrial  (textile  and  mineral),  194,755  commercial, 
115,764  merchant  marine,  97,257  public  employees,  91,226 
were  inmates  of  asylums,  etc.,  84,510  professional,  72,077  re- 
ligious, and  1,719,955  were  school  and  college  pupils.  In  1892 
the  surplus  of  emigration  over  immigration  was  8,258.  Emi- 
gration is  chiefly  to  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  Argentina. 

The  national  church  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  only 
professed  dissenters  in  1887  were  9,645  rationalists,  6,654 
Protestants,  402  Jews,  and  510  of  other  religions.  In  1884 
there  were  32,435  priests,  1,684  monks  resident  in  161  mo- 
nastic houses,  ana  14,592  nuns  in  1,027  convents.  There 
were  65  cathedrals,  18,564  churches,  30  religious  colleges, 
and  11,202  other  buildings  used  for  religious  purposes. 
Since  1876  private  Protestant  worship  has  been  permitted. 

In  1860  only  20  per  cent,  of  the  population  could  read 
and  write;  in  1889  this  percentage  had  grown  to  28'5. 
Compulsory  primary  education  is  statutory,  but  is  not  en- 
forced. In  1885  there  were  24.529  public  free  primary 
schools  and  5,576  private  ones,  with  a  t^tal  enrollment  of 
1,843,183  pupils.  The  secondary  schools  are  less  efficient. 
There  are  10  universities  with  16,000  students  in  all;  also 
various  special  schools  supported  by. the  Government. 

History, — The  colonization  of  the  coasts  of  the  Peninsula 
by  the  Phoenicians  (Cadiz),  Greeks  (Saguntum),  and  Cartha- 
ginians (Cartagena)  began  about  1100  b.  c.  The  Cartha- 
finians  extended  their  conquest  over  about  a  half  of  the 
eninsula  in  the  third  century  b.  c.  This  was  inherited  by 
the  Romans  as  the  result  of  the  Punic  wars,  and  the  con- 
quest was  completed  19  b.  c.  The  Spiinish  provinces  were 
very  thoroughly  Romanized.  The  Gothic  invasion  was 
begun  in  the  fifth  century  of  our  era,  but  the  Gothic  king- 
dom was  overthrown  by  tlie  Arabs  in  711,  who  remained  in 
control  of  most  of  the  Peninsula  for  three  centuries.  Chris- 
tian kingdoms  were  gradually  established  from  the  eleventh 
century  until  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  V.  of  Aragon  and 
Isabella  of  Castile  united  these  kingdoms  in  1479,  and  began 
a  career  of  prosperity,  which  resulted  in  the  conquest  of  the 
Moors  and  the  discovery  of  America,  and  gave  Spain  the 
form  and  character  which  it  yet  bears.  The  marriage  of 
Isabella*s  daughter  Johanna  with  Philip  I.,  son  of  the  Em- 
peror Maximilian,  made  Spain  a  part  of  the  Hapsburg 
empire,  with  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  Milan,  Naples  and 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  Burgundy,  and  the  colonies,  under  Charles 
I.  of  Spain,  V.  of  Germany  (1516).  The  despotism  of  (vharles 
was  followed  by  the  tyranny  of  the  bigoted  Philii>  II.  (1556- 
98),  who,  with  the  aid  of  the  Inquisition,  undertook  to  root 
out  Protestantism,  and  he  with  his  no  less  despotic  and  in- 
tolerant successors  succeeded  in  bringing  to  a  close  before 
the  eighteenth  century  the  brilliant  period  of  Spanish  his- 
tory, which  began  with  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  The  line 
of  Hapsburg  princes  closed  with  Charles  II.  (1665-1700).  On 
his  death  followed  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  (see 
SUCCESSION  Wars),  which  resulted  in  placing  a  Bourbon 

Srince  on  the  throne,  and  with  two  brief  interruptions  this 
ynasty  has  since  remained  in  power.  The  first  interrup- 
tion was  in  1808-14,  during  which  time  Joseph  was  kept  m 
power  by  his  brother  Napoleon.  This  was  the  period  of  the 
Peninsular  war,  in  which  successful  resistance  to  the  self- 
aggrandizing  schemes  of  Napoleon  was  for  the  first  time 
offered.  Upon  the  dethronement  of  their  king  and  the 
occupation  of  his  throne  by  Joseph  Bonaparte  the  entire 
Spanish  people  rose  in  arms,  and,  though  ill  disciplined  and 
unorganized,  showed  such  vigor  and  courage  as  to  require 
the  personal  presence  of  Napoleon  in  Spain  in  order  to  re- 
store the  French  authority.  Sul)sequently,  however,  he  left 
to  his  marshals  the  difficult  task  of  subduing  the  Spaniards, 
whose  persistent  efforts,  aided  and  directed  by  the  military 
genius  of  Wellington,  resulted  in  driving  out  the  intruders 
and  contributed  to  the  final  overthrow  of  Napoleon.  (For 
an  account  of  the  causes  of  the  Peninsular  war,  see  Napo- 
leon I.  {Spanish  Campaign),  and  for  further  details  Well- 
iNQTox,  Arthur  Wellesley,  Duke  of.)  The  second  inter- 
ruption of  the  Bourbon  rule  was  from  1868  to  1874,  during 
which  years  a  regency,  a  short-lived  monarchy  under  Ama- 
deus,  and  a  republic  were  successively  established.  The 
Bourbons  were  restored  Dec.  30,  1874,  in  the  person  of 
Alfonso  XII.,  eldest  son  of  Isabella.  He  died  in  1885,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  posthumous  son,  Alfonso  XIII.,  with 
Maria  Christina,  his  mother,  as  regent  The  Government 
has  since  passed  alternately  from  a  conservative  to  a  pro- 
gressive ministry,  and  back,  with  gradual  progress  toward 
greater  freedom  and  more  elaborate  constitutional  rights. 


References. — Murray's  Handbook  of  Spain  (1888);  Will- 
komm.  Die  Pyrendische  Halhinsel  (1885) ;  Gallenga,  Ibenuu 
Reminiscences  (1883) ;  Riera  y  Sans,  E^patla  y  sue  Cohtmui 
(1891).  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Spal^ato,  or  Spalatro :  town  and  railway  station ;  in  tht- 
province  of  Dalmatia,  Austria;  on  a  peninsula  jutting  <*<j 
into  the  Adriatic  (see  map  of  Anstria-IIungary,  ref.  lO-K-. 
It  has  a  good  harbor,  is  defended  by  a  citaSel,  and  carn.-> 
on  an  active  trade  in  grain,  cattle,  horses,  swine,  fruit n 
wine,  and  rosoglio,  besides  an  extensive  transit  trade  l^^-- 
tween  Italy  and  Turkey.  It  is  situated  near  the  ancivnt 
Salona,  on  the  site  of  the  famous  palace  of  DiocletiaT), 
called  Salonm  Falaiium,  or,  in  an  abbreviated  form,  S.  Jh- 
lafium ;  hence  the  name  of  the  modem  town.  Of  the  xntv;:- 
nificent  palace,  which  covered  8  acres  of  ground  and  whirli 
it  took  twelve  years  to  build,  many  remains  are  extant.  Pop. 
(1890)  15,697.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Spalax :  a  small  rodent  {Spalax  typhlns)  having  the  hal)- 
its  and  verv  much  the  appearance  of  a  mole.  The  incis4»r» 
are  large,  the  molars,  three  on  each  side  of  either  jaw,  hav4> 
roots.  The  external  ears  are  rudimentary,  as  are  also  x\ie 
eves,  which  are  covered  by  the  skin ;  the  tail  is  rudimentary ; 
the  fore  feet  modified  for  digging.  The  silky  fur  is  of  a 
general  yellowish  brown ;  the  length  is  5  or  6  inches.  The 
animal  is  also  known  as  the  mole-rat.  It  ranges  froiu 
Southeastern  Europe  into  Asia.  F.  A.  I^. 

Spalding,  John  Franklin,  D.  D. :  bishop;  b.  at  Bel- 
grade, Me.,  Aug.  25,  1828;  graduated  at  the  North  Yar- 
mouth Classical  Academy,  Maine,  in  1849,  at  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege, Maine,  in  1853,  and  at  the  General  Theological  Sen)i- 
nary  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  New  York,  in 
1857;  minister  of  St.  James's  church,  Oldtown,  Me.,  1^157- 
59 ;  was  rector  of  St.  (George's  church,  Lee,  Mass.,  till  lh<OiK 
when  he  became  assistant  minister  of  Grace  church,  Prr>vi-  • 
dence,  R.  I.,  for  one  year ;  rectx^r  of  St.  Paul's  church,  Erif . 
Pa.,  1862-74 ;  member  of  the  general  board  of  missions  fn>nj 
1865 ;  dean  of  the  Erie  convocation  Jan.,  1866;  menilx>r  of 
the  general  convention  1868  and  1871 ;  elected  Oct.  24,  \xr<. 
by  the  House  of  Bishops  missionary  bishop  of  Colorad... 
with  jurisdiction  in  Wyoming  and  New  Mexico;  c«)n>4*- 
crated  bishop  Dec.  31, 1*873,  and  removed  to  Denver,  Col., 
in  Feb.,  1874.  He  published  The  Threefold  Ministry  {M'Ak 
Manual  of  Prayers  (1872).  etc.,  and  various  articles,  ser- 
mons, pamphlets,  etc.  Bishop  S|>alding  has  been  for  many 
years  prominently  connected  with  the  movement  to  j>ri- 
mote  lay  co-operation  and  women's  work  in  the  Chunh, 
deaconesses'  institutions,  and  sisterhootls.  He  has  also  d*- 
veloj)ed  and  placed  on  permanent  foundations  tl)e  e<lu(a- 
tional  work  of  the  Churcn  in  Colorado,  including,  under  tlu' 
general  charter  of  the  College  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  \V<iltf 
Hall  for  Girls,  a  school  for  bovs,  a  theological  training- 
school,  etc.  Kcvised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

8paldlng,  Martin  John,  D.  D.  :  bishop ;  b.  in  Marion 
CO.,  Ky.,  May  23,  1810;  graduated  at  St.  Mary's  College  in 
1826,  and  in  1830  went  to  Rome  to  enter  the  College  of  iIm* 
Propaganda;  returning  to  Kentucky,  was  ordained  priest  in 
1834 ;  appointed  pastor  of  the  cathedral  church  at  Bards- 
town,  and  established  The  Catholic  Guardian^  with  whirh 
he  retained  his  connection  until  1858  ;  lectured  in  favor  *>( 
Roman  Catholicism  in  the  U.  S.  and  Canada,  his  Icciun-s 
being  published  under  the  title  Evidences  of  Catholicity 
(1847;  4th  ed.  1866);  in  1848  appointed  coadjutor  of  tiiV 
Roman  Catholic  diocese  of  Louisville ;  in  1850  b*'catne 
Bishop  of  Louisville,  where  he  erected  a  cathedral.  In  1^64 
he  succeeded  Dr.  Kenrick  as  Archbishop  of  Baltimorp  ;  in 
1866,  as  apostolic  delegate,  convened  tne  second  nationnl 
council  at  Baltimore,  and  drew  up  the  acts  of  the  ctnim'il. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Vatican  Council  of  1870-71. 
where  he  urged  an  immediate  decision  on  the  subject  of  pa- 
pal infallibility,  but  wished  it  to  be  indirect  and  implitMl. 
rather  than  positive  and  affirmative;  but  he,  with  the  uihtr 
Roman  Catholic  bishops  from  America,  yielded  in  favor  of 
a  positive  declaration.  His  principal'  works  are  Knrly 
Catholic  Missions  of  Kentucky  (1844);  History  of  the  l^tft- 
estant  Befonnation  in  Germany  and  Stritzerland,  written 
in  opposition  to  Merle  d'Aubigne  (1860) ;  and  a  translaiu'n. 
with  notes  and  an  introduction,  of  D&rns^s  General  Hif^fory 
of  the  Catholic  Church  (1866).  His  miscellaneous  ej^sa^s 
have  also  been  published  in  book  form.  I),  in  Baltinion*. 
Feb.  7, 1872.  Revised  by  J.  J.  Keane. 

Spallanza'ni,  Lazaro  :  naturalist  and  physiologist :  b. 
at  Scandiano,  duchy  of  Modena,  Jan.  12,  1729;  was  ai>- 


Plliltii 


M  f.  r 


imitpmi^  %>vci-Ui> 


"Tttt  f^\t  Jtt  ^jMiJ^f  ffMP  fimMffH.^Min- 


Iff    UtrnH'; 


6^        SPANISH-AMERICAN   LITERATCTRE 


SPANISH  FORK 


period  was  Pedro  de  Peralta  y  Bamuevo  (1670-1748).  the 
reruvian  jurist,  historian,  and  poet.  His  best-known  work 
is  the  epic  Lima  fundada. 

Writers  of  (he  Ninetee7ith  Century. — Pbets. — The  nine- 
teenth century*  has  naturally  prott^iced  more  eminent  writers 
than  all  previous  ages.  Foremost  of  these  is  Andres  Bello 
(b.  Venezuela,  1781 ;  d.  Chile,  1865),  revered  in  South  Amer- 
ica for  his  vast  and  varied  learning  and  for  his  labors  as 
jurist,  educator,  and  poet,  and  conceded  even  by  Spanish 
critics  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  masters  of  Castilian  that  the 
nineteenth  century  has  produced.  His  georgic  La  agricul- 
twra  en  la  zona  tbrrida  is  especially  admirable  both  for  the 
beauty  of  its  language  and  sentiment,  and  for  its  faithful 
descriptions  of  rural  scenes  and  life  in  South  America. 

Spanish-American  poetry  and  fiction,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, treat  principally  of  three  themes — the  exploits  of  the 
early  Spanish  conquerors,  the  st niggles  of  the  colonies  for 
independence,  and  the  phases  of  life  peculiar  to  a  new  coun- 
try— which  impart  to  the  literature  a  unique  and  distinctive 
local  coloring.  Moreover,  a  number  of  poems  and  romances 
are  founded  on  Indian  legends,  or  tell  of  Indian  life  and 
customs,  after  the  manner  of  Cooper  and  Longfellow.  Two 
of  the  best  of  these  are  the  Paine  and  RelmA  of  the  Argen- 
tine publicist  Estanislao  S.  Sjeballos.  who  combines  every 
form  of  literary  activity.  The  earliest  work  of  Juan  Leon 
Mena  (Ecuador,  b.  1832)  was  an  Indian  epic  which  earned 
for  him  the  title  of  Poet  of  the  Indians.  The  Huincahual 
of  the  Chilean  Alberto  del  Solar  is  one  of  the  mostpowerf  ul 

Sroductions  of  this  class.  The  dialect  sketches  of  EJstanislao 
el  Campo,  descriptive  of  the  gauchos  and  life  on  the  pam- 
pas, are  especially  quaint  and  entertaining.  Nearly  all  the 
contemporaries  of  the  struggles  for  independence  were  in- 
spired by  the  patriotic  deeds  of  America's  heroes,  but  no 
one  gave  them  more  fitting  expression  than  did  the  **  Amer- 
ican Pindar,"  Jose  Joaquin  Olmedo  (Ecuador,  d.  1857),  a 
classicist  of  the  purest  type.  His  Canto  d  Junin  is  an  epic 
ode  without  equal  in  the  language.  Some  of  the  patriotic 
poems  of  Nuraa  Pompilio  Llona,  of  Peru,  are  especially  fine ; 
and  the  sonnet  to  Bolivar  by  the  Peruvian  Adolfo  Garcia  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  compositions  of  its  kind.  The  best 
poetic  productions  based  upon  the  days  of  the  conquerors 
are  La  grandeza  de  Mejieo  of  Bishop  Valbuena  (d.  1625) ; 
the  beautiful  epic  Gonzalo  de  Oyon,  by  Julio  Arboleda  (Co- 
lombia, d.  1862);  and  Peralta's  Lima  fundada  (alreiady 
mentioned). 

The  Spanish  language  lends  itself  so  readily  to  versifica- 
tion, especially  when  assonance  is  accepted  instead  of  rhyme, 
that  it  may  almost  be  assumed  that  every  writer,  not  a  sci- 
entific specialist,  is  also  a  poet.  Juan  Leon  Mena  published 
in  1868  a  critical  history  of  the  poets  of  Ek;uador,  at  a  time 
when  few  were  aware  that  that  country  had  ever  possessed 
any.  Cuba  h&s,  of  all  Spanish-Americ-an  countries,  produced 
relatively  the  largest  number  of  lyric  poets.  Gertrudis 
Gomez  de  Avellaneda,  the  greatest  poetess  of  the  language, 
was  a  native  of  Cuba ;  and  persons  of  the  lowest  condition 
break  forth  in  song.  There  the  slave  Juan  Francisco  Man- 
zano  {H,  1830)  won  his  freedom  by  his  pen.  Gabriel  de  la 
Concepcion  Valdes,  another  humble  Negro,  the  author  of 
Siempreinvay  won  laurels  under  the  pseudonym  of  Pidcido. 
Ramon  Vdlez  Herrera's  tragedy  of  Napoleon  en  Berlin,  the 
Pasianarias  of  Rafael  M.  Mendivc,  and  the  Margaritas  of 
the  unfortunate  Francisco  J.  Blanchi^  may  also  be  men- 
tioned. Some  of  the  odes  of  the^  Cuban  Jose  Maria  Here- 
dia,  in  particular  At  Niagara,  A  la  noche,  Al  sol,  and  Ver- 
sos escritos  en  ui\a  tempestad,  compare  well  with  the  best 
of  Coleridge  and  Bryant.  Turning  to  the  continent  one 
finds  vigorous  descriptive  work  in  La  cena  de  Baltasar. 
by  Manuel  Carpio  (Mexico,  d.  1860).  In  La  salida  del  sol, 
bv  his  com[»atriot  Ignacio  M.  Altamirano,  is  description 
ol  a  more  placid  kind.  Altamirano  is  also  the  author  of 
one  of  the  best  recent  novels,  Ciemencia,  The  poems  of 
Arnaldo  Mdrquez  and  Clemente  Althaus,  of  Peru,  take  very 
high  rank  for  their  beauty  and  tenderness  of  sentiment  as 
well  as  purity  of  style.  The  Noche  de  dolor  en  las  montaiias 
and  the  Canto  de  la  vida  of  the  Peruvian  Nunia  Pompilio 
Llona  are  compositions  which  will  he  admired  for  centuries. 
The  Flores  del  aire  of  Dr.  Addn  Quiroga,  of  Argentina,  is  a 
collection  of  poems  of  great  merit  and  originality.  Compo- 
sitions of  remarkable  beauty  will  be  found  in  the'  Bn'sa^  del 
mar  of  the  Peruvian  Manuel  Nicolas  Corpancho,  the  La- 
grimas  y  recuerdos  of  Dofta  Silveria  Espinosa  de  Rendon.  of 
Colombia,  and  the  Flores  silvestres  of  Francisco  Javier  de 
Acha,  of  Uruguay.  Jose  Batres  y  Montufar,  of  (ruatemala, 
a  lyri(|  poet  of  merit,  is  one  of  the  most  noted  stitirists  of 


America.  Matias  Cordoba  and  Garcia  Goyena,  of  Guatemala, 
have  been  justly  compared  as  fabulists  to  iEsop  and  La  Fon- 
taine. 

Novelists  and  Dramatists.  — The  novels  nyost  widdv 
known  are  the  Amalia  of  Jos^  M^rmol  (Argentina);  the 
Maria  of  Jorge  Isaacs  (Colombia):  La  liniema  mdgira  nf 
Jose  T.  de  Cuellar  (Mexico);  Alberto  el  jugador,  by  I>i.n& 
Rosario  Orrego  de  Uribe  (Chile);  the  historical  novel  AY 
Padre  Orafii,  by  Narciso  Arestegui  (Peru) ;  and  the  s^jiar- 
klin^  romance  of  the  Colombian  Julio  Arboleda,  entitled 
Casimiro  el  montafHs.  The  Mexican  historian  Orozco  y 
Berra  wrote  a  beautiful  novel,  Escenas  de  treinta  afios^  rv- 
lating  the  experiences  of  an  unfortunate,  disappointed  in- 
valid. Among  the  most  powerful  recent  novels  are  the  Li- 
hro  extrafio  of  Dr.  Francisco  Sicardi,  of  Argentina,  and  CVm- 
tra  la  nmrea,  by  the  Chilean  Alberto  del  Solar. 

Among  noted  dramatists  of  the  century  have  been.  ir. 
Mexico,  Rodriguez  Galv4n,  author  of  the  first  national 
drama,  Fernando  Calder6n,  and  Manuel  E.  Gorostizai,  author 
of  Independencia  para  todos  and  Contigo  pan  y  ceboUas:  m 
Peru,  Manuel  Nicolis  Corpancho  and  Manuel  A.  Segura;  in 
Uruguay,  Francisco  J.  Acna. 

Two  fine  specimens  of  prose  word-painting  deserve  men- 
tion here,  namely,  the  description  of  the  Falls  of  Tecjuin- 
dama,by  the  Colombian  botanist  Fran.  Antonio  Zea  (17Tt>- 
1822),  and  Simon  Bolivar's  Delirio  sobre  el  Chimborazo. 

Historians  and  Oeoarapkers. — Spanish  America  has  b<'rn 
especially  prolific  of  historians  and  writers  of  descripti^e 
geographical  works.  The  names  of  some  of  the  most  fainfm> 
of  these,  with  their  principal  works,  are  as  follows :  Rafael 
Maria  Baralt  (d.  1860),  Resumen  de  la  hist  aria  antigua  u 
modema  de  Venezuela ;  Lucas  Alaman  (d.  1858),  Hi  storm 
de  Mejieo,  5  vols. ;  Josd  Manuel  Restrepo,  Historia  de  hi 
revolueion  de  Colombia  (1827);  Jose  Antonio  de  Plaza,  His- 
toria de  la  Nueva  Granada;  Joaquin  Acosta  (d.  IK^i?;. 
Viajes  d  las  regiones  ecuatoriales ;  Manuel  Orozco  j  B<rra 
(d.  1885),  Historia  antigua  y  de  la  conqttista  de  Mexico  A 
vols.);  Antonio  Garcia  Cuhas,  Diceionario  geogrdfico,  ht*- 
torico  y  biogrdfieo  de  los  EE,  UU.  Mexicanos  (5  vol.-.i: 
Manuel  Jose  Cortes,  Ensayo  sobre  la  historia  de  Boinot 
(1861);  Antonio  de  Alcedo  (Ecuador,  d.  1812),  Diecionanu 
jeogrdjico  histbrico  de  las  Indias  oc^dentales  (5  v«'N.»: 
Miguel  Lobo,  Historia  general  de  las  antigwts  cohnins  hts- 
pano-amerieanas:  Pio  Benigno  Mesa,  Anales  del  Cuiro: 
Miguel  Luis  and  Gregorio  \  ictor  Amundtegui.  Lon prrcur- 
sores  de  la  independencia  de  Chile  (1872);  Diego  Barn -a 
ArsmtL,  Historia  de  la  indepe7idencia  de  Chile  {IH70):  I^ir- 
tolome  Mitre,  Historia  de  Belgrano  y  de  la  independencta 
argentina  (3  vols.)  and  Historia  de  San  Martin  y  de  hi 
emancipacibn  sud-americana  (4  vols,).  Special  menti"n 
should  be  given  to  Antonio  Raimondi's  great  desoripiiw 
work,  El  Peril,  which  was  cut  short  by  the  author's  death  in 
1890,  only  four  volumes  and  a  part  of' the  atlas  having  Uvn 
published,  and  to  the  Historia  Argentina  of  Mariano  A. 
Pelliza,  now  in  preparation,  the  fourth  volume  having  Wku 
jmblished  in  1804. 

Authorities. — Lira  Americana,  by  R,  Palma  <P«n«. 
1865);  Ameinra  Pbetica  and  the  Diccionario  Biogrn^nt 
Americano,  by  Domingo  Cortes  (Paris,  1875);  Franri-Mt. 
Largomaggiofe,  America  Literaria  (Buenos  A yres,  1nx<  : 
Francisco  Pimentel,  Historia  critica  de  la  literatura  */  d" 
las  ciencias  en  Mejieo ;  J.  M.  Torres  Caicedo,  Ensayttft  hi»- 
grdiicosy.de  critica  literaria  sobre  los  principal es  vuhlin>*ii* 
V  literatos  de  la  America  Latina;  Marcenno  Meneinl«v  y 
relavo,  Antologla  de  poet  as  hispano-ameriranos  (3  vols,  *;- 
ready  publislied ;  Madrid,  1893-04);  Bocetos  literariot  d^ 
escrttores  argentinos,  by  Martin  Garcia  Merou  (Buono 
Ayrcs.  1892).  Garcia  Merou's  Confidencias  literarias  ( 1  S!*4  \ 
although  treating  principally  of  Argentine  writers,  devo^♦-^ 
considerable  sjjace  to  the  leading  authors  of  other  Spani>i.- 
Amcrican  countries.  Marathon  Montrose  liAM^iEY. 

Spanish  Armada:  See  Armada,  The  Spanish. 

Spanish  Fly :  See  Cantharis. 

Spanish  Fork :  city  (founded  in  1851);  Utah  co.,  Utah: 
on  tne  Spanish  Fork  river,  and  the  Rio  Grande  W.  ami  Mi. 
Union  Pac.  railways;  12  miles  S.  bv  E.  of  Provo  (f«»r  U^a- 
tion,  see  map  of  I  tah,  ref.  4-M).  It  is  a  trading-rniint  f.-r 
a  large  agricultural  region,  and  contains  Lutheran,  Mormon, 
and  Presbyterian  churches,  ten  public  and  denominMti'»ii.-«i 
sch<Kils.  an  incorporate<l  bank  with  capital  of  f  2<'),0tK).  a«i«i 
a  weekly  newspawr.  The  battle  of  Diamond  Creek  ^?t^ 
fought  here  on  June  20,  1866.  Pop.  (1880)  2,804:  d*-?"'' 
2,214 ;  (1895)  3,576.  Editor  op  ** Sin." 


616 


SPANISH  LITERATURE 


songs  was  the  Cnneionero  General,  published  in  1511.  A  I 
later  and  more  valuable  collection,  the  Romancero  General, 
was  completed  in  1614.  Over  1,000  pieces  have  thus  been 
rescued  from  oblivion.  Many  of  them  cluster  around  cen- 
ters, partly  historical,  but  largely  imaginary.  Twenty  are 
devoted  to  Charlemagne  and  his  peers,  50  gather  around  the 
name  of  Bernardo  del  Carpio,  and  200  are  songs  of  the  Cid. 

Epic  Poetry. — The  earliest  Spanish  epic  is  the  Pbema  del 
Cid,  which  relates  the  adventures,  real  and  imaginary,  of 
the  early  hero  Rodrigo  (or  Ruy)  Diaz  de  Vivar.  Although 
his  death  occurred  as  early  as  1099,  no  portion  of  the  poem 
is  older  than  the  twelfth  century.  It  is  without  beginning, 
date,  or  name  of  author,  and  contains  8,744  assonant  lines  of 
fourteen  syllables,  more  or  less,  arranged  in  quatrains.  In 
its  execution  it  is  one  of  the  finest  productions  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.    See  Cid. 

It  is  at  least  350  years  from  the  supposed  date  of  the 
Poema  del  Cid  to  the*  next  great  outburst  of  the  epic  Muse, 
in  the  reign  of  Philip  II.  In  1560  Sempere  published  the 
Carolea,  to  glorify  the  victories  of  Charles  v.  Five  years 
later  appeared  the  Carlo  Famoao,  wherein  Luis  de  Zapata 
celebrates  the  achievements  of  the  same  monarch  in  5,000 
prosv  octave  stanzas.  Alonso  de  Brcilla  y  Zuiliga,  courtier, 
soldier,  and  poet  (d.  1596),  wrote  an  epic,  one-third  longer 
than  the  Iliad,  on  the  suppression  of  the  Araucan  Indians 
of  Chile,  in  which  he  bore  an  active  part.  Portions  of  the 
poem  are  of  great  beauty,  and  its  merit  elicited  praise 
even  from  Voltaire.  Gabriel  Laso  de  la  Vega  published  La 
Meximna  (1594)  in  honor  of  the  conquest  of  Mexico  by 
Cortes ;  and  five  years  later  Antonio  de  Saavedra  issued  a 
romantic  life  of  the  conqueror  in  his  Pelegrino  Indiano, 
About  the  same  time  Juan  de  Castellanos  composed  a  rhym- 
ing chronicle  of  the  conquests  in  South  America  in  some 
90,000  lines,  a  narrative  that  strongly  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  Humboldt  and  Southey ;  and  Juan  de  la  Cueva  (1603) 
produced  the  Betica,  on  the  recapture  of  Seville  from  the 
Moors,  in  imitation  of  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered, 

Romances. — Besides  epics  resting  on  Spanish  history, 
there  were  others  having  either  no  basis  of  fact  or  only*a 
very  remote  one.  All  Europe  swarmed  for  manv  centuries 
with  marvelous  recitals  that  gave  rise  to  the  mouem  words 
romnnce  and  romantic.  The  Scriptures,  the  lives  of  the 
saints,  Greek  and  Roman  antiquity,  the  legends  of  Charle- 
magne and  of  King  Arthur,  afforded  inexhaustible  material 
that  was  handled  with  the  utmost  disregard  of  proprieties 
of  time  and  place ;  and  peerless  knights,  giants,  necroman- 
cers, dragons,  and  fair  ladies  imprisoned  in  enchanted  cas- 
tles were  furnished  regardless  of  cost.  The  earliest  Spanish 
romance  was  the  Alexandro  of  Juan  Lorenzo  Segura,  priest 
of  Astorga,  in  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
By  far  the  most  important  and  popular  work  of  this  class 
was  the  Anwdis  de  Gaula  (see  Amadis  of  Gaul),  conjectured 
to  have  been  written  in  Portuguese  about  1360.  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  an  extensive  aftergrowth  of  romances  and  caha- 
llerias  (books  of  chivalry  and  knight-errantry)  that  became 
ever  more  fantastic  and  insipid,  until  put  down  by  the  strong 
but  gentle  hand  of  Cervantes. 

In  the  pastoral  romances  that  supplanted  them  fancy  was 
not  at  such  a  high  tension.  The  earliest  of  these  in  Spain 
was  the  Diana  Enamorada  of  Montemayor  (d.  1561) — an 
imitation  of  the  Arcadia  of  Sannazaro,  the  Neapolitan. 
Later  appeared  the  Filida  of  GAlvez  de  Montalvo,  the 
Galatea  of  Cervantes,  and  the  Arcadia  of  Lope  de  Vega. 

But  romance  was  destined  to  seek  a  still  lower  level. 
Dietco  Hurtado  de  Mendoza  (1503-75),  a  member  of  one  of 
the  noblest  families  of  Spain,  and  almost  equally  distin- 
guisheJ  as  soldier,  statesman,  scholar,  poet,  historian,  and 
writer  of  fiction,  chose  a  strange  subject  for  a  romance.  His 
hero,  Lazarillo  de  Tormes  (Little  Lazarus,  Luke  xvi.  20), 
wjis  an  outcast  from  his  birth,  and  the  guide  of  a  blind  beg- 
gar. His  genius  and  assiduity  secure  promotion,  until  he 
reaches  the  height  of  roguish  ambition  as  a  kind  of  king 
among  thieves.  This  was  followed  in  1599  by  Mateo  Ale- 
mdn's  similar  story  of  Guzman  de  Alfarache ;  and  ia  1626 
appeared  the  exi)loits  of  the  Gran  Tacaflo  Pablo  de  Segovia, 
into  which  the  author,  Quevedo,  put  some  of  his  most  brill- 
iant work.  This  style  of  literature  became  and  remained 
popular.  It  had  a  foundation  in  real  life,  however  low,  and 
was  called  **  picaresque "  from  picaro,  rogue.  The  picaro 
was  an  intelligent  scoundrel,  and  hiul  the  genial  humor  of 
the  South  that  made  him  almost  lovable.  Out  of  the  three 
kinds  of  fiction  named  has  been  developed  the  modern  novel. 

Rise  of  the  Drama. — While  the  remains  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  theater  had  become  so  debasing  that  the  Church 


exerted  all  its  power  to  suppress  them,  the  advantA;:f 
was  seen  as  early  as  the  fifth  century  of  presenting  s<  nut- 
thing  to  catch  the  eyes  and  attention  of  its  less  eaueatcd 
members.  Representations  of  the  stable,  the  teinptatioii. 
Gethsemane,  the  judgment-hall,  and  Calvary  were  given  I  y 
servants  of  the  churches  and  school-children.  Scriptural 
readings  and  choral  hymns  were  added.  Buffoons  vken- 
gradually  introduced,  and  the  devil  and  his  imps  werf 
given  humiliating  positions.  In  time  the  devils  and  the 
fools  became  the  favorite  characters,  and  the  Church  Imtl 
unwittingly  created  a  comic  theater  of  its  own.  A  feeble 
attempt  to  keep  these  exhibitions  within  kx)unds  was  mm\e 
in  the  code  of  Alfonso  X.  (1260).  Still  they  kept  growin*: 
in  number  and  complexity,  until  in  the  seventeenth  wu- 
turv,  in  the  hands  of  Calderou,  they  became  great  alle^«T- 
icaf  sermons.  In  the  meantime  the  worst  of  them  had  t»e*'n 
turned  into  the  streets,  where  they  continued  to  be  pre- 
sented to  the  multitude.  In  1492  appeared  La  CeUsiina, 
a  book  which  in  the  U.  S.  would  be  excluded  from  the 
mails.  Its  merit  lay  in  presenting  live  men  and  women — 
even  though  at  their  worst — instead  of  the  allegorical  fig- 
ures to  which  the  public  had  been  accustomed.  It  was  never 
acted  nor  intended  to  be  acted,  yet  it  had  an  immense  p«>pu- 
larity  and  a  powerful  effect  in  developing  the  drama.  Mi>re 
than  thirty  editions  were  made,  of  the  work,  at  least  seven 
translations,  and  a  swarm  of  imitations. 

The  next  important  step  was  made  by  Juan  de  la  Eneina, 
musician,  poet,  and  priest,  who  (1496-98)  brought  out  eleven 
pieces,  which  show  little  of  the  playwright  in  their  con- 
struction, but  were  really  acted ;  nence  their  author  is  ret*- 
o^nized  as  the  founder  of  the  Spanish  stage.  Bartoloine 
de  Torres  Naharro  (1517)  composed  eight  comedies  in  eas^y 
verse,  and  gave  a  more  regular  form  to  the  drama,  dividing 
it  into  five  acts  (jornadas),  and  prescribing  sound  regula- 
tions for  maintaining  consistency  and  truth  to  nature.  Bnt 
he  gave  little  heed  to  his  own  rules,  introducing  allegorical 
and  impossible  persons  and  incidents.  About  1553  Fran- 
cisco de  Avendafto  wrote  several  plays  of  three  acts.  Lofie 
de  Rued  a  (d.  1567),  a  gold-beater  of  Seville,  who  turned  actor 
and  dramatist,  wrote  sixteen  plays,  and  first  introduced  in- 
terludes {entremeses  and  pasos)  between  the  acts.  Juan  de 
la  Cueva,  a  poet  of  Seville  (1579),  adapted  the  great  histor- 
ical romances  to  the  stage,  and  introduced  the  division  into 
four  jornadas,* 

Religious  and  Historical  Works. — As  might  be  expecte<l, 
there  were  from  a  very  early  period  piex^-es  in  prose  and 
verse  intended  for  edification.  The  Life  of  Saint  Mary  of 
Egypt,  the  Adoration  of  the  Three  Holy  Kings,  and  the 
Danza  General,  or  Dance  of  Death,  are  so  old  as  to  be  with- 
out known  date  or  author.  Then  follow  at  irregular  in- 
tervals Miracles  of  the  Virgin,  by  Gonzalo  de  Bereeo  (1246) ; 
the  Caballerla  Celestial  of  Hier6nimo  de  San  Peiiro  (1554); 
the  Monserrate  of  Virues  (1581);  the  Redenei&n  Universal — 
30,000  lines— by  Fran.  Hern.  Blasco  (1584) ;  and  Diego  de  Ilo- 
jeda's  Christidda  (1611).  The  excessive  fondness  for  alle- 
gory, prevailing  when  these  poems  were  written,  makes 
them  seem  irreverent  to  modem  readers.  In  the  CabaUe- 
ria,  Christ  and  Lucifer,  as  Spanish  knights,  with  their  fol- 
lowers, maintain  a  war  with  varying  success  from  Bethle- 
hem to  Calvary.  The  Christiada  covers  the  period  from 
the  Last  Supper  to  the  crucifixion.  The  whole  is  connected 
and  well  sustained,  but  disfigured  by  the  symbolism  which 
was  exuberant  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Alfonso  X.  of  Castile  (1252-84),  sumamed  el  Sabio,  the 
most  enlightened  prince  of  the  age,  has  been  called  the 
father  of  Spanish  prose,  although  his  part  must  have  been 
chiefly  to  foster  and  direct.  To  him  are  due  a  translation 
of  the  Scriptures,  Libros  de  Astronomia  (containing  the  fa- 
mous Alfonsine  Tables),  a  Lapidario,  a  Crimiea  General  or 
Universal  History,  La  Cronica  6  Historia  de  Esparia  down 
to  his  own  time,  and  a  great  compendium  of  law  still  known 
and  respected  as  the  Siete  Partidas.  Other  chronicles  were 
written  by  Ferndn  Perez  de  Guzradn,  Diego  Rnriquez  and 
Alonso  de  Palencia,  Ambrosio  de  Morales,  and  GenSnimo 
Zurita.  Fernando  del  Pulgar  and  Andr^  Bernaldes  re^ 
corded  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  But  these  old 
chronicles  merely  narrate  a  succession  of  occurrences  with- 
out logical  connection.  The  first  real  historical  work  is  the 
Historia  de  Espafla  by  the  Jesuit  Juan  de  Mariana  (1601  u 
In  his  time  Spain  produced  a  galaxy  of  eminent  historians. 
Among  the  most  prominent  works'  may  be  mentioned  the 

♦  All  this  time  the  exhibitions  were  (fiven  in  f^ardens.  coiirtjurrft. 
or  the  public  streets,  without  scenery  or  costumes.  The  first  tlieaier 
for  the  reception  of  the  public  was  opened  in  1748. 


648 


SPANISH  MACKEREL 


SPARROW 


Ayala  (1828-79).  Manuel  Bret6n  de  los  Herreros  (1796-1873) 
was  foremost  among  writers  of  comedies.  His  numerous 
plays  were  ably  devised,  well  written,  and  full  of  life  and 
gaiety,  and  many  of  them  are  as  popular  to-day  as  when  first 
presented.  The  great  literary  critics  were  Alberto  Lista 
(1775-1848),  Agustin  Durttn  (1798-1882),  Hartzenbusch,  and 
Eugenio  de  Ochoa  (1815-72).  Cecilia  BShl  de  Faber  (1796- 
1877),  better  known  as  Fernan  Caballero,  a  woman  of  extraor- 
dinary capacity  for  seeing,  grouping,  and  delineating  real 
life,  was  the  founder  of  the  modem  realistic  novel  Gertrudis 
Gomez  de  Avellaneda  (1816-73),  whose  writings  exhibit  every 
phase  of  woman *8  love  and  sorrow  and  religious  feeling,  is 
reckoned  the  most  brilliant  poetess  in  Spanish  literature. 
Nearly  all  Spanish  authors  wrote  more  or  less  poetry ;  but 
of  those  who  were  essentially  poets  may  be  named  Ventura 
de  la  Vega  (1807-65)  and  Gaspar  Nuilez  de  Arce  (b.  1834),  dra- 
matists and  lyric  poets,  Jose  Selgas  (1824-82),  poet  of  rural 
life  and  scenes,  Jos^  Zorrilla  (b.  1817),  who  sang  of  Spain's 
departed  grandeur,  and  Ram6n  de  Campoamor  (b.  1817), 
the  poet  philosopher. 

With  tne  quiet  and  prosperity  which  the  termination  of 
the  Carlist  wars  brought  to  Spain  in  1876  came  a  period  of 
enlightenment  as  great  as  that  enjoved  by  any  other  country 
of  Europe.  The  spirit  of  progress  is  nowhere  more  evident 
than  in  the  domain  of  letters.  In  every  class  of  composi- 
tion there  are  works  of  genuine  talent,  but  the  subjects  in 
which  contemporary  Soanish  literature  chiefly  excels  are 
history,  criticism,  and  notion.  Two  political  leaders,  Emi- 
lio  Caste lar  (b.  1832),  the  most   eloquent  speaker   of   the 

E resent  day,  and  Antonio  Canovas  del  Castillo  (b.  1830)  are 
oth  eminent  historians.  Cdnovas  is  moreover  an  able 
critic,  as  are  also  Juan  Valera,  the  diplomat  and  novelist, 
and  Emilia  Pardo  Baz4n,  the  de  Stai^l  of  modem  Spain : 
but  the  most  brilliant  genius  in  the  domain  of  literary  criti- 
cism and  history  is  Marcelino  Menendez  y  Pelayo  (b.  1856), 
whose  elegance  of  style  and  thoroughness  of  research 
have  seldom  been  equaled.  In  Spain,  as  in  the  U.  S.,  the 
novel  is  the  principal  feature  of  literature  as  distinguished 
from  science.  There  too  it  has  attained  a  high  development, 
and  is  the  chief  agency  in  advancing  the  public  sentiment. 
Spanish  novels  are  second  only  to  English ;  among  the  best- 
known  are  those  of  Pedro  Antonio  de  Alarcon  (18;J3-91), 
Jose  Maria  de  Pereda  (b,  18:34),  Juan  Valera  (b.  1827),  Benito 
Perez  Galdos  (b.  1845),  Armando  Palacio  Valdes  (b.  1831), 
and  Dofla  Emilia  Pardo  Bazan  (b.  1851),  and  the  short  stories 
of  Antonio  de  Trueba  (1819-89). 

Authorities. — The  American  reader  who  is  not  a  spe- 
cialist will  re(^uire  nothing  more  before  the  nineteenth 
century  than  Ticknor*s  History  of  Spanish  Literature  (New 
York,  1849,  3  vols. ;  4th  ed.  Boston,  1872,  3  vols.).  Some 
additions  have  been  made  in  the  Spanish  translation  (Ma- 
drid, 1851-56)  and  the  German  (Leipzig,  1852-67).  For  the 
nineteenth  century,  Francisco  Blanco  Garcia's  Literatura 
Espaflola  en  el  Siglo  XIX.  {2  vols.,  Madrid,  1891);  Lite- 
ratas  espaflolas  del  Siglo  XIX,  of  Juan  P.  Criado  y  Do- 
minguez ;  and  the  Historia  de  la  Literatura  Espaflola  of 
Manuel  de  la  Revilla  and  Pedro  de  Alcantara  may  be  con- 
sulted. Marathon  Montrose  Ramsey. 

Spanish  Mackerel :  either  of  two  scombroid  fishes.  (1) 
Along  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America,  Scomberomorus 
ma^ulatus,  a  very  slender,  compresseti  fish,  bluish-green 
above,  satin-like  white  below,  with  yellowish  spots  on  the 
back  and  sides,  and  with  the  first  dorsal  fin  blackish  before 
and  along  its  margin.  It  attains  a  length  of  2^  feet.  It  is 
a  native  of  the  tropical  seas,  but  ranges  from  Southeni 
Brazil  to  Cape  Cod,  and  is  one  of  the  most  esteemed  of  salt- 
water fishes.  (2)  In  Europe,  Scomber  colias,  distinguished 
externally  from  the  common  mackerel  {Scomber  scombrus) 
by  the  larger  eye  and  the  diminished  number  of  wavy 
streaks.  It  is  known  in  the  U.  S.  as  the  chub-mackerel  an^ 
the  thimble-eye. 

Spanish  Main:  an  old  t'erm  still  occasionally  used  for 
those  portions  of  South  and  (V'ntral  America  which  border 
on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  i.  e.  the  modem  Venezuela,  Colom- 
bia, and  the  Central  American  states.  The  original  Span- 
ish term,  Tierra  Firme,  included  only  the  coasts  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco  to  Costa  Rica.  Some  writers  errone- 
ously use  the  name  for  the  Caribbean  Sea.  H.  H.  S. 

Spanish  War  of  Saccession :  See  Si  ccession  Wars. 

Span-worm,  or  Measuring-worm :  the  larva  of  any  geo- 
metrid  moth;  so  called  from  the  elevation  of  its  body  in 
locomotion,  as  if  measuring.  The  Canker-worm  {q.  v.)  is 
an  example. 


Spar :  in  mineralogy,  a  term  used  vaguely  for  sen^ml 
crystalline  minerals  of  uonmetallic  luster  and  smooth  <'lfji\- 
age.    See  Baryta,  Calcareous  Spar,  Feldspar,  and  Fllok- 

SPAR. 

SparMdflB  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  ASpa'rus,  the  tT|ti.-„l 
genus,  from  Gr.  mrdpos,  a  kind  of  fish,  the  gilt-head]  :  a  faiu- 
ily  of  acanthopteryffian  fishes,  comprising  the  porgy,  shot  i-^ 
head,  and  related  forms.  The  body  is  compressed'  and  <  (- 
long;  the  scales  have  obsoletely  pectinated  margin*^  at.': 
striffi  diagonally  crossing  the  surfaces  and  meeting  the  ?i«i.^ 
at  acute  angles;  lateral  line  continuous  to  the  caudal  fir.: 
head  compressed ;  mouth  terminal,  with  an  oblique  lat<ni. 
cleft;  upper  jaw  moderately  protractile,  and  with  the  «su- 
pramaxillaries  partly  sliding  under  the  preorbital  borit'^: 
teeth  in  the  jaws  either  developed  on  the  sides  as  molars, .  r 
in  front  as  more  or  less  defined  incisors,  or  of  both  kiinK: 
dorsal  fin  elongated,  with  its  spinous  portion  rather  1oi)i.%t 
than  the  soft,  and  folding  in  a  dorsal  groove;  anal  with 
three  spines;  caudal  fin  with  pointed  lobes;  pectoral  tir*. 
pointed  and  with  the  rays  branched ;  ventrals  tnoracic.  ej«  h 
with  a  spine  and  five  branched  rays,  and  with  pointed  «\ii- 
lary  scales.  The  family  is  well  represented  in  all  warm  aud 
temperate  seas.  There' is  a  considerable  range  of  variati.'t. 
in  dentition  and  squamation,  as  well  as  in  osteological  c-tiar- 
acters.  No  typical  sparoids  have  yet  been  detected  alcnc 
the  Pacific  coast  of  the  U.  S.    See  Sheepshead. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Spark,  Electric :  See  Electric  Discharge. 

Sparlts,  Jared,  LL.  D.  :  historian;  b.  at  Willing1>:i. 
Conn,,  May  10,  1789;  graduated  at  Uarvard  1815;  wu- 
mathematical  tutor  there  1817-19,  studying  theology-  mtaii- 
while  ;  became  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  at  Baltinioj^. 
Md.,  May,  1819;  was  chosen  chaplain  to  the  U.  S.  Hou>«-  -f 
Representatives  1821 ;  conductea  at  Baltimore  a  peritjdich!. 
The  Unitarian  Miscellany,  1821-23 ;  retired  from  the  nr.M- 
istry  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  removed  to  Boston  ls:J^J : 
purchased  The  North  American  Review^  of  which  he  wa^ 
sole  editor  until  1830;  visited  Europe  1828;  spent  cfai>i<l»r- 
able  time  in  examining  the  English  and  French  anhi\r- 
for  materials  of  American  history :  founded  in  1830  77.* 
American  Almanac:  \  edited  for  the  U.  S.  Government  Thr 
Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  American  Revolutimi  '12 
vols.,  1829-30) ;  published  The  Writings  of  George  ir<M'.. 
ingt(m,  u*ith  a  Life  of  the  Author  (12  vols.,  1834-37) :  J' ^ 
Life  of  Gouvemeur  Morris  (3  vols.,  1832);  conduct e<i  t«  • 
series  of  a  valuable  Library  of  American  Biography  (l»t 
series,  10  vols.,  1834-38;  2d  series,  15  vols.,  1844-4^<^  f-r 
which  he  wrote  several  of  the  lives;  edited  T^e  TVorA\s  '.; 
Benjamin  Franklin^  with  Notes  and  a  Life  of  the  Author 
(10  vols.,  1836-40),  and  The  Correspondefice  of  the  Amert<tiH 
Revolution  (4  vols.,  1854):  published  two  or  three  ctmtr^ 
versial  pamphlets  in  defense  of  his  editorial  conduct  in  t^r- 
recting  Washington's  orthography  and  grammar,  and  uj  •  n 
other  similar  topics,  besides  a  number  of  works  on  relit:i»  > 
subjects.  Dr.  Sparks  was  McLean  Professor  of  Hist«>rT  at 
Harvard  1839-49,  and  president  of  that  institution  184H-''Vi 
D.  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Mar.  14,  186ft.  See  the  Mettwir  i\ 
Rev.  George  E.  Ellis,  D.  D.  (Cambridge,  1869). 

Sparrow  [M.  Eng.  sparve  <0,  Eng.  spearwa -,  O.  \\. 
Germ,  sparo  (>  Mod.  Germ.  Sperling) :  Goth,  sparwi] :  any 
one  of  various  birds  of  the  family  Fringillidi,  The  tt-n»: 
is  generally  applied  to  those  Fringilliate  with  a  streakc-i 
plumage  in  wnich  some  shade  of  Drown  or  chestnut  f-n- 
dominates.  The  most  familiar  species  is  Passer  domenii*  '•«, 
called  in  the  U.  S.  English  sparrow,  from  the  cn^uritn 
whence  it  was  introduc^,  and  more  correctly  known  it. 
Great  Britain  as  the  house-sparrow.  It  is  too  well  knowi  to 
need  a  description.  Its  original  habitat  was  the  grr«ttT 
part  of  Europe  and  temperate  Asia  and  Northern  Afrun. 
The  English  sparrow  was  introduced  into  the  U.  S.  in  t:i'" 
fall  of  1850,  when  Nicolas  Pike  and  other  directors  of  th^ 
Brooklyn  Institute  imported  eight  pairs.  These  did  n«'i 
thrive,  but  others  were  brought  over  in  1852  and  at  i.  :- 
merous  subsequent  dates,  and  by  the  end  of  1886  the  >pj*r- 
row  had  spread  over  the  greater  portion  of  the  V.  S.  E.  i-f 
the  Mississippi  and  N.  of  Florida,  and  ext»»ndetl  in  tht* 
northwestern  portion  of  its  range  into  Iowa  and  Minnt'»-''a 
and  beyond  the  Missouri.  It  was  also  abundant  about  ^HIl 
Francisco,  Salt  Lake  City,  and  New  Orleans,  while  tlurt^ 
were  many  scattered  colonies  beyond  the  frontiers  of  it5  tl«^ 
main.  Since  then  it  has  steadily  spread,  but  exactly  h«w 
much  territory  it  covers  is  not  definitely  known.  The  ^r<ir- 
row  has  also  been  introduced  by  thoughtless  indiviiiuaU 


650 


SPARTA 


SPAVIN 


(for  location,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  IQ-D).  It  is  the  center 
of  a  natural-gas  region,  and  contains  a  woolen-mill,  cannery, 
plow-factory,  creameries,  an  incorporated  bank  with  capital 
of  $25,000,  a  private  bank,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  Pop. 
(1880)1,754;  (1890)1,979. 

Sparta :  city ;  capital  of  Monroe  co..  Wis. ;  on  the  La 
Crosse  river,  and  the  Chi.  and  N.  W.  and  the  Chi.,  Mil.  and 
St.  P.  railways ;  25  miles  N.  by  E.  of  La  Crosse  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref,  6-C).  It  is  in  an  agricul- 
tural and  fruit-growing  region ;  is  a  popular  summer  resort ; 
and  contains  medicinal  artesian  wells,  free  public  library, 
high  school,  paper-mills,  planing-mills,  and  nour-mills,  car- 
riage-factories, machine-snops,  2  State  banks  with  combined 
capital  of  $40,000,  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880) 
2,387 ;  (1890)  2,795.  Editor  op  **  Herald." 

Spar'tacns :  leader  of  the  slaves  in  the  Servile  war  (73-71 
B.  c.) ;  b.  in  Thrace ;  was  at  first  a  shepherd  and  afterward 
chief  of  a  gang  of  robbers,  but  was  captured  by  the  Romans, 
sold  as  a  slave,  and  trained  as  a  gladiator  in  a  school  at 
Capua.  By  showing  how  much  better  it  would  be  to  die  in 
an  attempt  at  freedom  than  to  be  butchered  in  the  arena 
for  a  Roman  holiday,  he  succeeded  in  forming  a  conspiracy 
amonff  the  pupils  of  the  schools.  Seventy  of  the  conspira- 
tors, beadea  by  Spartacus,  fought  their  way  out  of  Capua 
and  took  refuge  in  the  crater  of  Vesuvius.  Here  they  were 
soon  joined  by  numbers  of  runaway  slaves ;  an  organization 
was  accomplished ;  Spartacus  was  chosen  leader,  and  for- 
midable predatory  expeditions  were  undertaken  against  the 
neighbonng  towns.  C.  Claudius  Pulcher  was  then  sent 
agamst  them  with  an  army  of  3,000  men  and  blockaded 
them  in  the  crater,  but  his  force  was  suddenly  attacked  in 
the  rear  and  almost  annihilated.  After  this  success  the  in- 
significant mutiny  of  a  few  slaves  rapidljr  grew  into  a  for- 
midable war.  The  peculiar  state  of  affairs  in  Southern  Italy 
contributed  much  to  this  result.  The  soil  of  that  region 
was  almost  exclusively  owned  or  leased  in  large  allotments 
by  the  Roman  nobles,  whose  estates  were  cultivated  bj  a 
numerous  slave  population,  which  lived  in  the  most  abject 
condition.  Spartacus  proclaimed  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
and  before  long  he  was  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  70,000 
men.  His  plan  was  to  force  the  passes  of  the  Alps,  lead  his 
arrav  out  of  Italy,  and  then  send  every  man  to  his  home. 
With  a  victorious  army  of  about  100.000  men  he  passed  by 
Rome,  and  penetrated  into  the  regions  of  the  Po,  where  he 
was  met  by  two  consular  armies.  He  defeated  and  routed 
them  both,  and  at  the  funeral  games  which  he  celebrated  in 
honor  of  Crixus  he  compelled  the  Roman  knights  among 
his  prisoners  to  fight  as  gladiators  in  the  arena.  Unable  to 
induce  his  soldiers  to  follow  him  out  of  Italy,  he  marched  S. 
and  went  into  winter  quarters  in  Thurii.  The  defection  of 
some  of  his  troops  and  dissensions  in  his  camp  led  to  his 
defeat  by  Crassus.  He  then  tried  to  cross  over  to  Sicily,  but 
was  betrayed  by  the  Cilician  pirates  who  had  agreed  to 
transport  nis  forces.  A  part  of  his  army  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Crassus,  but  Spartacus  and  the  remainder  of  his  troops 
effected  their  escape.  Lucullus  was  now  recalled  from  the 
East,  Pompey  from  the  West.  After  new  victories,  Sparta- 
cus went  toBrundisium  with  the  purpose  of  seizing  the 
shipping  in  the  harbor  and  crossing  over  to  Thrace.  Fall- 
ing m  with  the  army  of  Crassus,  near  the  source  of  the  river 
Silarus,  he  was  defeated  and  slain.  The  fugitives  were 
hunted  down  and  slaughtered, land  the  revolt  was  completely 
suppressed.  Revised  by  P.  M.  Colby. 

Spartanbarg:  city;  capital  of  Spartanburg  co.,  S.  C. ; 
on  tne  Port  Roval  and  W.  Car.  and  the  Southern  railwavs ; 
73  miles  W,  S.  VV.  of  Charlotte,  N,  C,  93  miles  N.  W.  of  Co- 
lumbia, the  State  capital  (for  location,  see  map  of  South 
Carolina,  ref.  4-C),  It  is  in  a  gold  and  iron  mining  and 
limestone-quarrying  region ;  is  the  seat  of  Wofford  Col- 
lege (Methodist'Episcopal,  established  in  1853);  and  con- 
tams  a  high  school,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $100,- 
000,  2  State  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $150,000,  and  a 
daily,  a  semi-weekly,  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880) 
3,253 ;  (1890)  5,544. 

Spartiaiias  ^lins :  See  Augustan  History. 

Spasm  [from  Gr,  amurfi^s,  tnrdfffia,  spasm,  derivs.  of  arw, 
draw,  draw  apart,  pull,  rendl :  sudden  and  involuntary 
muscular  contraction.  The  relaxation  and  tension  of  mus- 
cular tissue  are  dependent  on  nerve-force.  Spasm  of  muscle 
may  result  from  disturbance  of  the  nerve-centers,  from 
peripheral  irritation  of  the  affected  part,  or  from  irritation 
of  other  organs  or  surfaces  reflected  from  the  nerve-centers.  | 


When  spasmodic  rigidity  is  persistent  for  any  length  of 
time  it  is  termed  to7iic  spasm.  Such  is  the  penod  of  rigid- 
ity at  the  beginning  of  the  epileptic  attaclc  and  the  pro- 
longed rigidity  of  tetanus  and  cerebro-spinal  menineitis. 
When  spasm  is  brief  and  recurs  rapidly,  it  is  termed  aanri 
spasm.  Such  are  the  intermitting  and  repeated  musetiJar 
contractions  following  the  inception  of  the  true  epileptic- 
attack,  and  constituting  the  more  ordinary  epileptifonu 
attacks  or  **  fits  "  of  children.  The  graver  spasmodic  <iis- 
eases  are  true  epilepsy;  epileptiform  attacks  from  many 
causes,  as  indigestion  and  worms  in  children,  renal  disease 
in  adults,  and  in  the  course  of  severe  acute  diseases,  nar- 
cotic poisoning,  etc. ;  chorea  or  St.  Vitus's  dance ;  tetanus : 
hydrophobia.  Many  lesser  and  local  states  of  spasm  fre- 
quently occur.  Sneezing  and  coughing  are  spasmodic  con- 
tractions of  the  respiratory  tracts  excited  by  irritation  of 
the  nasal  or  bronchial  mucous  membrane.  Asthma  is  sfuis- 
modic  constriction  of  many  bronchial  tubes,  producing 
dyspnoea.  Whooping-cough  unites  extreme  hypenestheasia 
and  spasm  of  the  bronchi  with  spasmodic  constriction  of 
the  larynx.  Intestinal  colic  and  cholera  morbus  are  con- 
ditions of  painful  spasmodic  constriction  of  the  intestines, 
due  to  cold  or  bad  diet.  In  invalids  and  persons  of  sensi- 
tive nervous  system  painful  spasms  of  various  internal  and 
external  parts  may  develop  suddenly  from  unknown  or 
trivial  exciting  causes.  The  immediate  relief  of  spasm  is 
secured  by  so-called  anti-spasinodics  or  nervines,  as  valerian, 
musk,  camphor;  by  aniesthetics,  narcotics,  and  sedative^ 
as  potassium  bromide,  hyoscyamus,  belladonna,  opium.  The 
permanent  cure,  when  attainable,  follows  the  correction  of 
known  causes.  Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Spatan'gidflB :  See  Echinoidea. 

Spathe  [from  Lat.  spatha  =  Gr.  <rwdBfi,  any  broad  flat 
blaoe,  spatula,  stem  oi  a  palm-leaf,  broadsword,  whence 
(vi&  Lat.  and  0.  Eng.)  Eng.  «/«irf«] :  the  single  sheathing 
bract  which  incloses  a  cluster  of  one  or  more  flowers  in 
many  species  of  monocotyledonous  plants.  Sometimes  the 
inclosed  flowers  are  arranged  on  a  st)ike  of  the  form  calKni 
apadix  {tnrdbi^),  and  in  numerous  palms  the  spadix  is  branch- 
ing, and  besides  the  principal  spathe  there  are  numerous 
secondary  ones  on  the  spadix.      Revised  by  C.  E,  Bessev. 

Spaalding,  Levi  :  missionary ;  b.  at  Jaffrey,  N.  H.,  Aug. 
22, 1791 ;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  1815  and  at  An- 
dover  1818  ;  went  to  Jaffna,  Ceylon,  as  a  missionary  of  the 
American  Board ;  remained  on  that  island  flfty-three  years, 
during  which  time  he  made  but  one  visit  to  the  U.  S.  (1844); 
superintended  a  boarding-school  for  girls  at  Uduville ;  pre- 
pared tracts,  hymns,  and  sc-hool-books  in  the  Tamil  lan- 
guage, into  which  he  translated  several  religious  works: 
prepared  (with  Rev.  J.  Knight)  a  Tamil  Dictionary  (>Ia- 
dras,  1844),  and  issued  a  revised  translation  of  the  Bible. 
D.  in  Ceylon,  June  18, 1873. 

Spaalding,  Solomon  :  clergyman ;  b.  at  Ashford,  Conn., 
in  1761 :  was  a  soldier  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution ;  gradu- 
ated at  Dartmouth  ("ollege  1785;  became  a  Congregational 
minister  in  Connecticut  1787;  settled  in  Ohio  some  years 
later,  and  while  residing  at  Salem  in  that  State  aboQt'l812 
wrote  a  novel  entitled  llie  Manuscript  Fwitid,  suggested 
by  the  opening  of  an  Indian  mound.  It  is  claimed  that  this 
fiction  became  known  to  Sidney  Rigdon  at  Pittsbui^  in 
1814,  and  that  it  was  the  origin  of  the  Book  of  JHorfnon^ 
D.  at  Amity,  Pa.,  Oct.  20, 1816. 

Spa'riii  [M.  Eng.  spaveyne^  from  0,  Pr.  eaparv^in  >  Pr. 
eparvin,  spavin! :  certain  swellings  upon  the  hock-joint  of 
the  horse.  In  bog  spavin  the  swellings  and  lameness  are 
due  to  undue  secretion  of  synovia  (the  lubricating  fluid  of 
joints).  The  most  successful  treatment  is  entire  rest,  with 
frequent  bathing  of  the  parts  with  cold  water,  and  band- 
aging, accompanied  by  firm  pressure  upon  the  swelling, 
secured  by  means  of  compresses  or  spring  trusses.  Bone 
spavin,  or  spavin  proper,  is  bony  enlargement  (exostosis) 
of  the  hock-joint,  usually  beginning  at  the  lower  part  of 
the  joint  on  the  inside,  and  involving  the  heads  of  the 
splint  and  cannon  bones,  and  of  the  small  bones  with 
which  they  articulate.  It  causes  lameness,  obser^'able  even 
in  the  early  stages,  and  an  imperfect  action  of  the  joint, 
gradually  growing  worse  until  finally  the  various  bcm^ 
become  to  a  great  extent  united  and  solidified  by  the  mass 
of  fibrous  bone  which  grows  over  them.  The  disease  is 
caused  bv  strains,  to  which  the  hock  is  particularly  subject 
in  work-horses  drawing  heavy  loads,  especially  when  start- 
ing them,  and  in  race-horses  and  saddle-horses  accustomed 


Brt^H^^^^^J 

f^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^M 

^H  <»  1 

1 

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^^^H 

^^1 

1 

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41  U 

1  ^  leUiiU  Li^iiitiir^y  ItHM  M  mi    ubd  JUMUi  ut            ^^^H 

652 


SPECIFIC  INDUCTIVE  CAPACITY 


SPECIFIC  PERFORMANCE 


See,  further,  Heat,  Liquids,  and  Steam  ;  also  Regnault, 
Queiqttes  Experiences;  Preston,  On  Heat;  Stewart,  Heat; 
Tait,  On  Heai ;  or  any  of  the  larger  treatises  on  physics. 

E.  L.  Nichols. 

Specific  Indactire  Capacity :  See  Inductive  Capacity. 

Specific  Performance:  in  the  equitable  jurisprudence 
of  the  U.  S.  and  of  England,  the-  species  of  remedy  con- 
ferred by  courts  of  equity,  in  which  a  party  is  compelled  to 
perform  the  very  thing  which  he  has  undertaken  to  perform 
m  behalf  of  the  person  to  whom  the  undertaking  is  given. 
In  its  broadest  sense,  the  phrase  would  properly  describe  all 
the  varieties  of  equitable  relief  which  consist  in  procuring 
a  defendant  upon  whom  an  obligation  rests  to  do  the  very 
speciAc  acts  which  such  obligation  requires  him  to  do ;  but 
in  its  technical  and  more  restricted  signification  it  is  con- 
fined to  cases  in  which  the  obligation  arises  out  of  a  con- 
tract entered  into  by  the  defendant.  The  common  law 
knows  but  one  form  of  remedy  for  the  breach  of  any  and 
all  contracts — a  recovery  of  money  either  as  debt  or  dam- 
ages. Whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  agreement,  whatever 
be  its  subject-matter,  whatever  acts  or  omissions  it  calls  for, 
a  pecuniary  compensation  for  its  non-performance  is  the 
only  judgment  that  can  ever  be  obtained  against  the  default- 
ing party  by  means  of  the  common-law  courts.  It  is  very 
plain  that  in  the  innumerable  variety  of  relations  incident 
to  modern  society  contracts  will  necessarily  be  made  for 
whose  breach  this  mere  pecuniary  payment  would  be  an 
utterly  inadequate  and  often  impracticable  relief:  and  a 
system  of  municipal  law  which  provided  no  other  kind  would 
fail  in  maintaining^  and  dispensing  the  justice  which  is  the 
final  object  of  all  enlightened  jurisprudence.  To  supply 
this  defect  in  the  common-law  methods  the  courts  of  equity 
began  long  since  to  decree  the  specific  performance  of  con- 
tracts in  certain  cases;  and  the  general  principles  which 
determine  the  classes  of  agreements  to  which  this  remedy 
may  be  applied  are  now  ascertained  and  well  settled,  and 
constitute  a  distinct  department  of  equity.  The  doctrine  as 
thus  established  is  shown  in  the  simplest  and  clearest  man- 
ner by  enumerating  the  instances  in  which  a  specific  per- 
formance will  not  be  decreed,  and  which  are  therefore  left 
within  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the  common-law  tri- 
bunals and  to  the  application  of  the  common-law  remedies  : 

1.  The  fundamental  and  most  important  rule  is,  that  a 
specific  performance  will  not  be  ordered  when  the  com- 
plaining party  can  obtain  adequate  relief  by  means  of  a 
purely  legal  judgment.  If,  therefore,  the  contract  vests  the 
plaintiff  with  property  in  a  chattel,  so  that  he  can  recover 
Its  possession  through  an  action  at  law,  or  if  by  the  money 
recovered  he  can  restore  himself  to  the  same  position,  in 
contemplation  of  law,  which  he  would  have  occupied  if  the 
defendant  had  fulfilled  his  agreement,  he  will  be  left  to  his 
legal  remedy  alone,  and  courts  of  equity  will  not  interfere 
in  his  behalf.  As  an  illustration:  If  the  contract  relates 
to  ordinary  goods  and  chattels,  or  to  any  kind  of  personal 
property  having  a  marketable  value,  and  contemplates  a 
delivery  thereof  in  any  manner  or  a  transfer  of  title,  since 
a  sufficient  sum  of  money  paid  to  the  injured  party  will 
always  enable  him  to  purchase  or  procure  other  articles  of 
a  like  nature,  amount,  and  value  to  those  stipulated  for 
such  a  pecuniary  compensation  is  deemed  an  adequate 
remedy,  and  a  specific  performance  will  be  refused.  The  ex- 
ample here  given,  and  the  fundamental  rule  which  it  illus- 
trates, have  a  very  wide  application,  and  they  remove  at 
one  blow  all  ordinary  agreements  concerning  personal  prop- 
erty, especially  those  which  are  mercantile  in  tneir  character, 
from  the  operation  of  this  equitable  mode  of  enforcement. 
The  mere  fact,  however,  that  an  agreement  deals  with  or  re- 
lates to  personal  property  does  not  necessarily  withdraw  it 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  a  court  of  equity.  The  subject- 
matter  may  be  a  chattel  of  some  peculiar,  intrinsic,  but  not 
marketable  value,  which  can  not  oe  elsewhere  purchased  or 
reproduced,  so  that  the  pecuniary  damages  will  not  com- 
pensate for  its  loss ;  ancl  in  such  cases,  although  they  are 
exceedingly  rare,  the  specific  relief  may  be  obtained.  A 
certain  class  of  covenants,  also,  wherein  the  parties  promise 
to  execute  some  further  and  more  formal  agreements — as, 
for  example,  to  execute  a  marriage  or  family  settlement  on 
wife  and  children — may  be  specifically  enforced  by  com- 
pellins^  an  execution  oi  the  contemplated  instrument,  al- 
though it  relates  to  personal  property  and  not  to  real  estate. 
These  instances,  however,  are  comparatively  few,  and  in  the 
vast  majority  of  contracts  concerning  pei*sonal  property  or 
personal  services  the  money-recovery  granted  by  the  law 


courts  is  regarded  as  an  adequate  relief,  and  the  extraonli- 
nary  remedy  administered  by  the  equity  tribunals  is  denit^l. 
In  all  the  subsequent  rules  it  is  of  course  assumed  that  tli« 
agreement,  if  judged  by  the  principle  alone  which  has*  ai- 
reiaxiy  been  stated,  is  one  to  which  tne  equitable  method  uf 
enforcement  might  be  applied. 

2.  In  order  that  a  specific  performance  may  be  decrewi. 
such  a  performance  must  be  reasonably  possible  by  Uie  in>ri- 
tracting  party.  If,  therefore,  by  the  original  terms  of  iht- 
contract  ne  did  not  have  the  power  to  fulfill,  or  if  from  tir 
cumstances  occurring  after  its  execution  the  power  has  U^-ti 
lost,  even  through  his  own  voluntary  act,  a  court  of  equit  \ 
will  not  go  through  the  empty  form  of  ordering  an  impf*-^-!- 
bility  to  he  accomplished,  and  the  plaintiff  must  be  contetii« '  i 
with  an  award  of  pecuniary  damages,  which  perhaps  may  U- 
enhanced  by  reason  of  the  "defendant's  conduct.  For  exam- 
ple, if  the  owner  of  a  farm  should,  by  a  valid  agreement .  'f 
sale,  bind  himself  to  convey  it  to  the  purchaser  on  a  future- 
day  named,  but  before  that  time  had  arrived  should  actuaih 
convey  it  to  another  bona-fide  grantee,  a  specific  perfnni:- 
ance  of  the  contract  would  not  be  decreed  at  the  suit  of  iri*- 
original  vendee,  because  a  transfer  of  the  title  to  him  l>y  un- 
vender  would  then  be  impossible,  and  he  would  be  left  tV.  K.^ 
action  for  damages.  Specific  performance  can  be  obtain*-,  i. 
however,  against  a  person  who  buys  with  notice  of  a  j»r;«  r 
contract  for  the  sale  of  land,  or  'who  acquires  title  to  th'- 
property  without  paying  value.  As  a  corollary  of  this  ruJt-, 
it  is  requisite  that  the  terms  of  the  contract  should  It  -*• 
plain  and  unambiguous  that  there  can  be  no  reason&l'.- 
doubt  as  to  the  intention  of  the  parties,  and  that  thi>  d«*siL'ii 
may  be  directly  carried  into  effect  by  the  judgment. 

8.  Not  only  must  the  performance  be  possible  by  the  pan  \ 
upon  whom  the  obligation  rests, but  the  subject-matter  <if  th'- 
agreement,  and  its  stipulations  in  regard  thereto,  miLst  In*  'f 
such  a  nature  that  the  court,  by  means  of  its  ordinary  a>\- 
ministrative  instruments  and  machinery,  can  comj>eI  th- 
specific  performance  which  it  decrees.  Cases  may  ari>e,  &u<i 
are  not  infrequent,  in  which  the  court,  after  directing  a  [kt- 
formance  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  contract,  w.u^i 
have  no  power  to  enforce  its  decision  directly  without  tU- 
parting  from  its  customary  functions  or  incurring  an  anioui:: 
of  trouble,  care,  and  responsibility  incompatible  with  the 
discharge  of  its  regular  duties;  a  specific  performance  iii.. 
then  be  refused,  however  inadequate  might  be  a  mere  re- 
covery of  damages.  Under  the  operation  of  this  priDtijl^ 
the  agreement  of  an  actor,  a  singer,  a  painter,  or  other  an'i-t 
to  employ  his  talents  in  a  specified  manner  can  not  be  <}ie- 
cifically  enforced;  and  the  rule  applies  in  general  to  al! 
stipulations  for  personal  services,  notwithstanding  the  fa*  t 
that  these  senices  may  be  of  such  exceptional  value  tfiht 
they  can  not  be  procured  from  any  other  person  but  the  lit- 
fendant.  For  the  same  reason  it  has  been  decided  that  t  hr 
specific  performance  of  a  contract  to  construct  a  railwa\ 
will  not  DC  decreed,  since  such  an  undertaking  is  too  extti:- 
sive  and  burdensome  to  be  carried  on  under  the  dire<  li.  ii 
of  a  court  of  equity.  See,  however,  Wilson  vs.  Furn*^* 
Railway  Co,,  L.  K.  9  Eq.  28 ;  Lawrence  vs.  Saratoga  R.  A*. 
Co.,  36  Hun.  467. 

4.  Finally,  the  agreement  and  the  relations  of  the  |>arti»-i 
must  be  such  that  a  decree  of  specific  performance  will  \^ 
reasonable,  just,  and  equitable.  It  is  sometimes  said  tm: 
this  remedy  is  never  a  claim  of  right,  but  is  always  a  mntit - 
of  discretion.  The  doctrine  as  tnus  stated  simply  me^u^ 
that  in  determining  whether  the  relief  shall  be  giunted  in  ^ 
given  case  certain  equitable  considerations  are  to  be  taki  ii 
into  account,  and  not  the  mere  fact  that  the  agreement  :^ 
valid  in  law.  The  beneficent  principle  is  applied  that  \.' 
who  seeks  equity  must  do  equity.  If,  therefore,  the  coiitni< ; 
was  procured  by  overreaching  or  artifice,  although  n«»i  >" 
tainted  with  fraud  as  to  be  invalid,  if  it  is  unfair  or  oppri— 
sive  in  its  terms,  if  the  consideration  is  grossly  inadequate', 
if  its  specific  enforcement  would  be  unreasonably  bunUi.- 
some  to  the  defendant  without  any  correspond ing'benefit  t^» 
the  plaintiff,  if  the  plaintiff  has  been  guilty  of  unnecc>!s^ir} 
delay  in  prosecuting  the  action  whereby  his  opponent  lid- 
been  prejudiced — in  these  and  in  similar  cases  showinL'  » 
want  of  good  faith  or  diligence  on  one  side  or  serious  injury 
on  the  other,  the  equitable  considerations  become  contnilijui:. 
and  lead  to  a  denial  of  the  specific  remedy. 

As  the  practical  result  of  these  rules,  the  usual  contract? 
enforceable  by  a  decree  for  a  specific  performance  are  th<i.^- 
directly  relating  to  land  as  their  subject-matter.  It  i>  a 
settled  doctrine  of  the  enuity  courts  that  monev-damasrp*  f^^ 
not  an  adequate  relief  for  the  breach  of  sucli  agreement-- 


G54: 


SPECyKOSCOPE 


glass,  calcite,  and  other  media.  If  the  paths  are  essentially 
diflferent  in  these  particulars,  selective  absorption  and  re- 
flection and  other  disturbing  causes  may  introduce  errors 
into  the  final  comparison. 

Various  sources  of  light,  such  as  the  sun,  the  incandes- 
cent filament  of  the  glow-lamp,  and  a  standard  gas-flame, 
have  been  used  as  standards  in  work  with  this  instrument. 

W.  F.  DURAND. 

Spec'troscope  [Mod.  Lat.  spectrum  +  Gr.  <ricavcZy,  view] : 
any  instrument  for  the  production  and  study  of  spectra. 
Spectroscopes  designed  for  the  precise  determination  of 
wave-length  are  called  spectrometers.  Spectroscopes  may 
be  classified  with  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  dispersing 
device,  whether  prism  or  grating ;  or  with  reference  to  the 
dispersing  power  (high  or  Tow) ;  or  according  to  the  special 
purpose  to  which  the  instrument  is  to  be  put  (telespectro- 
scone,  microspectroscope,  etc.). 

Whatever  the  type  of  spectroscope,  its  action  is  always 
based  upon  the  pnnciples  stated  in  the  article  Spectrum 
{a.  v.).  The  essential  parts  are  the  slit  and  the  dispersing 
device,  to  which  may  oe  added  the  focusing  arrangement, 
and  the  means  of  identifying  and  determining  the  positions 
of  the  various  regions  of  the  spectrum  under  investigation. 
The  slit  possesses  the  same  features  in  nearly  all  forms  of 
spectroscope.  It  consists  of  two  parallel  jaws  of  met«l,  very 
accurately  worked  and  adjusted.  One  or  both  have  freedom 
of  motion  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the 
slit.    Fig.  1  shows  one  of  the  best-known  methods  of  produc- 


Fio.  1. 

ing  these  motions.  The  device  is  due  to  Hilger.  The  two 
edges  should  be  so  true  in  workmanship  that  when  brought 
within  a  small  fraction  of  a  millimeter  of  one  another  the 
aperture  will  still  be  approximate!;^  of  uniform  width  through- 
out. This  aperture  when  illuminated  from  behind  forms 
th'e  source  of  light  the  image  of  which,  dispersed  and  fo- 
cused upon  a  screen,  or  within  the  eyepiece  of  an  observing 
telescope,  is  to  form  the  spectrum. 

Dispersing  Devices, — (1)  Tke  Prism. — The  usual  material 
is  glass,  although  for  special  purposes  rock-salt,  quartz,  fluor- 
spar, carbon  bisulphide,  etc.,  are  used.  Rock-salt  possesses 
the  advantage  of  extreme  transparency  for  the  longer  waves 
of  the  infra-red  to  which  glass  is  opacjue ;  quartz  has  the 
equallv  desirable  property  of  transparencv  in  the  ultra-vio- 
let, ^luor-spar  is  unique  in  having  a  law  of  dis()ersion 
which  gives  great  separation  to  the  longer  waves,  thus  per- 
mitting the  extension  of  measurements  to  regions  unattain- 
able with  prisms  of  other  materials.  This  property  com- 
bined with  very  complete  transparency  in  the  same  regions 
makes  fluor-spar  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  substances  to 
the  student  of  radiation.  Carbon  bisulphide  is  used  where 
a  dispersing  medium  is  desired,  the  law  of  dispersion  of 
which  is  known.    Cauchy's  formula. 


0 


^^^^  =  -  +  x»  +  V 


where  N\  is  the  index  of  refraction  for  a  wave-length,  x, 
and  a,  0  and  y  are  constants,  when  applied  to  nearly  all  sub- 
stances available  in  spectroscopy,  gives  false  values  for  the 
inf  ra-i-ed.  Carbon  bisulphide  appears  to  obey  the  above  law 
for  all  wave-lengths. 
In  glass  an  important  quality  is  high  dispersing  power, 

and  this  is  a  proper- 
ty which  the  variety 
known  as  flint  glass 
possesses  in  a  high 
degree.  How  great 
is  the  difference  be- 
tween different  sorts 
of  glass  will  ap])ear 
from  Fig.  2,  which 
shows  the  spectra 
produced  by  similar  prisms  of  crown  and  of  flint  glass  under 
like  conditions.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  distance  between 
the  Fraunhofer  lines  A  and  H,  or,  in  other  words,  between 
the  extreme  red  and  the  extreme  violet,  is  nearly  twice  as 
great  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other.  Flint  glass  has  one 
very  serious  disadvantage  for  spectroscopic  work,  viz.,  that 


n 

0 

F        E          D      CB   A 

n        0        FED   CBa 

1 

Fio.  2. 


as  its  dispersive  power  increases,  its  transparency,  partir-u- 
larly  for  the  shorter  wave-lengths,  diminisnes.  feven  ordi- 
nary optical  glasses  are  far  from  completely  trans|>ar».-nt, 
and  the  densest  varieties  are  nearly  opaque  to  the  extrcru^ 
violet  of  the  spectrum.  In  spectroscojpes  with  a  single  }»n^m 
the  latter  is  usually  equiangular.  \^^ere  a  train  of  priMi  - 
is  used  to  secure  high  dispersion,  lesser  angles  are  frequehi- 
ly  employed. 

Traiiis  of  Prisms  and  Direct  Vision  CombinationM, — 
Whenever  high  dispersion  is  desired  and  a  prismatic  sj^i*- 
trum  is  preferred  to  the  normal  spectnim  produce<i  \>y 
means  of  the  diffraction  grating,  a  train  of  prisms  is  »_ni- 
ployed.  Kirchhoff  and  Bunsen  used  for  this  purpos**  sim- 
ply a  set  of  independent  equiangular  prisms,  each  in* min- 
ed upon  three  pins.  These  wei-e  set  up  upon  a  meiai.iv- 
plate,  and  were  adjusted  separately  by  hand  until  the  entirt- 
train  was  symmetrically  arrange'd.  As  the  positions  for 
minimum  deviation  dirfered  with  the  wave-length,  this  la- 
borious operation  had  to  be  continually  repealed.  Lat.r 
workers  with  the  spectroscojie  devised  automatic  trains,  such 
that  the  movement  of  the 
eye- telescope  shifted  all  the 
prisms  simultaneously  into 
their  proper  positions.  Fig. 
3  shows  the  automatic  ar- 
rangement due  to  Ruther- 
furd.  In  the  astronomical 
spectroscope  depicted  in 
Fig.  11  a  similar  train  is 
used. 

To  avoid  the  inconven- 
ience of  having  the  colli- 
mator and  observing  tele- 
scopes make  an  angle  with 
one  another,  as  in  Figs.  8, 
12,  and  13,  combinations  of 
flint  and  crown  glass  prisms  are  sometimes  used  in  spectnv 
scopes  of  small  dispersion  to  produce  a  spectrum  with.»ut 
any  considerable  deviation  of  the  rays  from  directit>n  of 
their  original  path.  Fig.  4  shows  the  usual  arrangemeni, 
in  which  c  c  c  are  crown-glass  and//  are  flint  prisms,  li 
is  an  extension  by  Jansen  of  the  original  idea  of  Aiui^  i, 
who  used  three  prisms,  two  crown  prisms  with  one  Hint 
prism  between  them.  The  action  of  both  the  three  and  five 
prism  systems  depends 
upon  the  difference  in 
the  dispersing  powers 
of  crown  and  of  flint 
glass. 

It  is  evident  that  if 
the  system  is  so  con- 
structed that  a  certain  ray  of  wave-length,  X,  so  select e«l  a«^ 
to  lie  near  the  center  of  the  spectrum,  emerges  with  ir- 
path  parallel  to  the  incident  path  (as  in  Fig.  4).  ray>  nf 
other  wave-lengths  will  suffer  more  or  less  divergence  f n  »ru 
that  direction.  There 
is  a  resultant  dispersion 
by  such  a  system,  al- 
though the  mean  direc- 
tion is  unchanged. 

There  are  a  variety  of 
other  methods  for  rec- 
tifying the  direction  of 
the  dispersed  rays  in  the  spectroscope,  some  involving  sub- 
sequent reflection  by  means  of  a  mirror  (Fig.  5),  others  u*- 
tal  reflection  either  within  the  dispersing  prism  (Fig.  6' 
itself  (a  construction  ascribed  to  Hei-schel)  or  by  nitans 
of  a  separate  rectangular  prism  properly  placed  for  thut 
purpose  (Fig.  7).  None  of 
these  devices,  however,  has 
come  into  very  general  use. 

(2)  Grating's  for  the  pro- 
duction of  diffraction-spectra 
are  frequently  used  in  the 
spectroscope  instead  of  prisms 
as  dispersing  apparatus.  It 
is  used  in  spectroscopic  work 
(1)  whenever  a  normal  spec- 
trum rather  than  a  prismatic 
spectrum  is  desired— that  is 
to  sav,  when  direct  absolute  determinations  of  wave-lenirth 
are  to  be  mtwle  ;  (2)  when  high  dispersion  is  wanted.  (Tnit- 
ings  give  relatively  greater  openness  in  the  longer  wm\»^ 
lengths  and   less  in  the  violet  and  ultra-violet   than  u- 


Fxo.  4. 


Fio.  5. 


Fio. 


SPECTROSCOPE 


655 


pri^in^.  They  are  objectionable  in  some  kinds  of  work  on 
.1' '  oiiiit  of  the  faintness  of  the  spectra  pnxiuced,  of  the 
.>\ .  rl.ipping  of  the  spectra,  and  of  the  fortuitous  and  alto- 
iT- :h»r  irregular  distribution  of  intensities.  For  photo- 
^'I'.ij.liic  work,  however,  gratings  are  especially  advantageous 
tM  iaiisc»  the  strong  absorption  which  violet  light  suffers  in 
j..t-v<i!iir  through  flint  glass  (as  indicated  in  a  previous  para- 
^-^raph)  may  be  avoide<Y. 

(  ulihnn'tor  and  Obsertn'ng   Telescope. — Spectroscopes  of 
the  u>ual  form  (Fig.  8)  have  between  the  prism  or  grating 

and  the  slit  a  lens  {i\  the 
purpose  of  which  is  to  bring 
light  to  the  prism  in  par- 
allel rays,  liiis  lens  is  at- 
tached by  means  of  the 
connecting  tube  to  the  slit 
at  such  a  distance  that  the 
latter  is  at  the  principal  fo- 
cus. This  arrangement  is 
called  the  collimator.  Be- 
yond the  prism  the  dis- 
Fio.  a  persed  rays   enter  the  ob- 

serving telescope  (T),  which 
liaving  been  focused  for  parallel  light  brings  the  portion  of 
Mio  >j»ectrum  under  observation  to  a  focus  in  the  eyepiece, 
(uiliuiator-tube  and  telescope  swing  upon  a  common  verti- 
cal axis  at  the  center  of  the 
instrument.  By  means  of 
the  position  of  the  telesco|)e, 
as  indicated  upon  a  divided 
circle  (a),  about  which  it 
moves,  the  region  of  the 
spectrum  which  is  in  coin- 
cidence with  the  cross- hairs 
in  the  eyepiece  is  identified. 
Where  a  grating  is  used 
the  position  of  the  parts  of 
the  spectrosco|)e  is  that 
shown  in  Fig.  9,  the  tele- 
sco|.)e  being  placed  on  either 
side  of  the  collimator  ac- 
.-nling  as  the  right-handed  or  left-handed  spectra  are  to  l)e 
..r.-t-rved,  and  at  various  angles  according  to  the  order  of  the 
-{ ^-cirurn. 

Formerly  a  train  of  prisms  was  used,  a.s  in  tlie  spectrome- 
tor  of  Kirchhoff  and  Bunsen  (Fig.  10).     The  automatic  train 

depicted  in  Fig.  3  was  a 
later  form.  It  found  one 
of  its  most  important  ap- 
plications in  the  telespec- 
troscopc,  a  well-known  form 
of  which  is  shown  in  Fig. 
11.  This  instrument,  which 
could  be  adjusted  so  as  to 
give  any  dispersion  up  to 
that  corresponding  to 
twelve  prisms,  is  construct- 
ed in  compact  form  and  at- 
tached as  an  evepiece  of  a 
Fia.10.  large  telescope' 

Chemical  ^Spectroscopes. 
— For  many  purposes  the  exact  but  laborious  method  of  de- 
t.-rniining  the  position  of  lines  in  the  spectrum  by  making 
r.  i«linsr<  upon  a  finely  divided  cirele  may  be  ailvantagemis- 
".y  >u}»i'lanted  by  a  less  precise  but  more  expeditious  proc- 
♦'--.     This  is  true,  for  example,  in  the  identification  of  sub- 


signed  for  such  work  was  the  chemical  spectroscope  of  Bun- 
sen  (Fig.  12).  The  circle  in  this  apparatus  is  dispensed  with 
and  both  collimator  and 
telescope  are  fixed.  The 
dispersion  is  so  small  as  to 
bring  the  entire  spectrum 
into  the  field  of  view.  A 
third  tube,  S,  carries  a 
transparent  scale  (photo- 
graphed upon  glass).  In 
Pig.  13  the  letter  a  shows 
the  position  of  this  scale. 
There  is  a  lens  at  b  by 
means  of  which  the  imago 
of  the  scale  is  brought  to  fio.  12. 

focus  in  the  eyepiece  of  the 

telescope.    The  rays  are  reflected  from  the  face  of  the  prism, 
as  shown  in  the  figure.    The  scale  is  illuminated  from  be- 
hind by  means  of  a  flame,  Li.    The  appearance  of  the  field 
of  view  when  a  spectrum  consisting 
of  bright  lines  is  under  observation  •  Li 

is  shown  in  Fig.  14. 

At  the  hands  of  Ilofmann  and  of 
Kriiss  and  others,  the  chemical  spec- 
troscope   has  undergone    many   im- 
provements,  among  which    may  be 
mentioned  the  introduction  of  direct- 
vision  prisms  and  of  a  scale  reading 
directly    in   wave-lengths.      Fig.   15 
shows  such  an  instrument,  with  dia- 
gram of  its  parts.     In  the  microspec- 
troscope   al>o.  or  spectroscopic   eye- 
piece,  direct-vision   prisms  are  used 
and  the  direct-reading  scale.    This  in- 
strument indeed  is  simply  a  direct-  Fio.  18. 
vision  spectra<scope  of  small  propor- 
tions and  adapted  to  the  eyepiece  of  the  comi)ound  micro- 
scope.    In  Fig.  16  the  cross-section  of  a  microspectroscope 
is  shown,  with  [>rism  ip)  for  introduction  of  a  reference 
spectrum  and  a  scale  («). 


Fio.  11. 


it  4M^o«i  by  means  of  their  bright-lino  spectra  or  in  the  stiuly 
>(  ul.^orption  sj>ectra.     The  first  instrument  especially  de- 


Fio.  14. 

Spectroscopes  for  the  Infra-red  and  the  Cltra-violet. — For 
the  study  of  the  invisible  spectrum  spectroscopes  of  the  usu- 
al formsare  ill  adapted.  Vari- 
ous si)ecial  types  have  accord- 
ingly IxH'n  developed. 

In  the  infra-red  the  condi- 
tions are  transparency  to  the 
longer  waves  and  sufiieient  dis- 
persii^n  of  that  part  of  thesj>ec- 
trum.  Rul>ens  uses  in  such 
work  an  instrument  with  a  prism 
of  fluor-spar.  Lenses  are  dis- 
|>ens«Nl  with  altogether  in  favor 
of  concave  mirrors,  which  bring 
the  spfclral  image  to  a  focus 
u]>on  the  filament  of  a  linear 
bolometer. 

In  the  ultra-violet,  where  the 
method  is  photographic,  the  best 
results  are  obtained  by  the  u^^e 
of  the  concave  grating  of  Kow- 
land. 

Brashear.  in  his  grating  spec- 
troscope for  the  ultra-violet,  mounts  grating  (0)  and  plate- 
holder  (P)  at  the  ends  of  a  rigid  bar  (li.  Fig.  IT).     The  grat- 
ing is  placed  U|)on  a  car  with  two  wheels,  which  runs  along 


656 


SPECTRUM 


a  metal  track,  S  Ri.     This  track  extends  from  the  slit  in  the 
incident  ray.    Another  track  (S  Ra)  at  right  angles  to  the 


Fio.  18. 


Fxo.17. 


Fio.  18. 


first  carries  a  plate-holder.  The  bases  upon  which  grating 
and  plate-holaer  are  mounted  are  pivoted  to  the  cars  on 
which  they  are  placed,  so  that  the  bar  can  be  brought  to 
any  angle  with  the  incident  ray,  both  grating  and  plate- 
holder  remaining 
always  normal  to 
the  direction  of 
the  bar  and  at 
the  same  distance 
apart.  The  law 
of  the  grating  is 
such  that  if  the 
distance  between 
the  grating  and 
plate  is  equal  to 
the  radius  of  the 
curvature  of  the 
former  the  spec- 
trum will  be  in 
focus  upon  the  plate  in  all  positions  of  the  bar.  The  light 
to  be  investigated  is  focused  upon  the  slit  by  means  of  a 
quartz  lens  or  sometimes  by  a  concave  mirror  of  long  focus. 
Fig.  18  shows  the  general  form  of  the  apparatus. 

A  description  of  some  of  the  varied  applications  of  the 
spectroscope  is  given  in  the  article  Spectrum  (q,  t\) ;  see  also 
Spectrophotometer:  also  the  various  treatises  named  at  the 
end  of  the  former  article.  £.  L.  Nichols. 

Spec'trimi  [=Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  spectrum^  appear- 
ance, image,  apparition,  deriv.  of  ape' cere,  look  at] :  m  op- 
tics, the  image  obtained  when  a  rav  after  dispersion,  cither 
by  passage  through  a  prism  or  by  iliffraction,  is  brought  to 
a  focus.  The  composite  nature  of  light,  through  which  a 
spectrum  is  possible,  is  explained  in  the  article  Light. 

The  first  systematic  studies  of  the  spectrum  were  made 
by  Newton,  1666,  and  it  was  he  who  appears  to  have  first 
recognized  the  supreme  importance  of  the  phenomena  en- 
countered in  such  observations.  Modern  spectroscopy,  how- 
ever, mav  be  regarded  as  having  its  beginning  in  the  experi- 
ments oi  Fraunhofer,  who  in  1817,  by  the  use  of  a  narrow 
slit,  first  produced  well-defined  and  jnire  spectra. 

The  essential  parts  of  the  apparatus  for  the  production  of 
such  a  spectrum  are  (1)  a  slit  illuminated  from  behind ;  (2) 
a  dispersing  device  (usually  a  prism  or  a  diffraction  grating) ; 
(3)  a  focusing  device  (a  lens  or  system  of  lenses,  or  sometimes 
a  mirror) ;  (4)  a  screen  or  an  observing  telescope,  according 
to  the  method  to  be  pursued  in  studying  the  spectrum. 

In  Fig.  1  is  shown  a  slit  through'  which  light  of  a  wave- 
length, K,  passes  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrow. 

But  for  the  interposi- 
"  tion  of  the   prism   P, 

the  lens  L  would  pro- 
duce an  image  of  the 
slit  S,  at  the  conjugate 
focus  S.  The  prism, 
however,  diverts  the 
ray,  and  it  comes  to 
focus  ur>on  the  screen 
t.  It,  The  position  of 
this  refracted  image 
depends  upon  the  wave-length.  If,  for  example,  the  wave- 
length is  one  which  produces  the  impression  of  red  upon 
the  retina  it  will  come  to  focus  at  r;  if  of  violet,  at  v.  If 
the  rav  passing  through  the  slit  be  of  white  light,  the  entire 
space  Tbetween  r  and  v,  which  we  may  suppose  to  be  respec- 
tively the  longest  and  the  shortest  rays  capable  of  affecting 


M-- 


.-.- S. 


Fio.  1. 


the  eye,  will  be  filled  bjr  colored  images  of  the  slit,  eat-h 
diffenng  insensibly  from  its  neighbors  in  hue.  This  infinite 
series  of  elementary  images  constitutes  what  is  called  a  con- 
tinuous spectrum.  Each  image  has  a  width  proportional 
to  that  of  the  slit,  but  the  centers  of  contiguous  members 
of  the  series  are  only  infinitesimally  distant  from  one  an- 
other. Neighboring  images  overlap,  therefore,  with  conse- 
quent color-mixing. 

A  pure  apectnim,  in  the  language  of  the  spectroscopist.  i> 
one  in  which  the  effect  of  this  color-mixing  oy  fusion  of  the 
overlapping  images  is  absent.  In  a  strict  geometrieal  sc^iise 
a  pure  spectrum  would  be  produced  only  by  the  use  of  a 
linear  slit.  The  successive  elementary  ima^^  differ  from 
one  another,  however,  only  infinitesimally  in  color,  and  a 
definite  finite  difference  must  exist  before  the  effect  of  the 
blended  images  upon  the  retina  will  differ  from  that  (»f 
their  components.  In  practice  the  spectra  produced  by  the 
dispersion  of  the  lip^ht  from  any  narrow  slit  (up  to  per hafi^ 
"05  cm.  for  an  ordinary  spectroscope)  may  be  regarded  as 
pure.  The  distribution  of  wave-lengths,  and  consequently 
of  colors,  in  the  prismatic  spectrum  is  determined  by  what 
is  called  the  lato  of  dispersion  of  the  prism.  It  has  not 
been  found  possible  to  give  a  general  expression  to  this  law, 
applicable  to  all  substances.  The  phenomenon  of  dispersion 
differs  indeed  in  various  transparent  media,  such  as  ealcite. 
fiuorite,  rock-salt,  quartz,  etc.,  in  ways  the  explanation  of 
which  has  not  yet  neen  attained.  In  glass,  which  is  an 
artificial  mixture  with  varying  components,  the  dispersion 
is  to  a  considerable  extent  under  the  control  of  the  maker. 

For  any  particular  case  the  dispersion  can  be  indicatt-d 
graphically  in  a  simple  manner.  An  important  example  is 
that  of  an  eauiangular  prism  of  flint  glass,  the  dispersion 
diagram  of  which  appears  in  Fig.  2,    The  ordinates  of  the 


/ 

7^ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

.fl^ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

.6** 

/ 

/ 

y 

/ 

.4M 

y 

/ 

^^ 

^ 

'ioU\ 

\ 

1 

.iM 

^ 

.6^ 

\l^ 

Kfd 


Fio.  2. 

curve  are  wave-lengths  in  millionths  of  a  meter;  the  abscissa* 
are  distances  in  passing  through  the  spectrum  from  vioU: 
to  red.  The  vertical  lines  at  the  base  of  the  diagram  sh<'» 
by  their  distances  apart  the  relative  spaces  which  exist  be- 
tween wave-lengths  0*40**,  0*50^,  etc. 

While  this  diagram  applies  only  to  a  particular  specinun 
of  glass,  it  is  characteristic  to  a  certain  extent  of  nearly  all 
cases  of  prismatic  dispersion,  the  peculiarity  of  which  is  the 
increasing  separation  of  the  rays  as  the  wave-length  dimin- 
ishes, so  that  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  is  relatively  much 
more  crowded  together  than  the  violet  end. 

The  diffraction  spectrum  (normal  spectrum)  is  produre*! 
by  means  of  apparatus,  of  which  that  shown  in  Fig.  3  i> 
typical.  The  diagram  gives  only  the  essential  parts,  which 
are  the  same  as  those  in  Fig.  1,  with  the  exception  that  a  rr- 
flocting  diffraction  grating  (G)  is  used  instead  of  a  pri^ni. 
This  grating,  according  to  modern  practice,  would  con<'-t 
of  a  plate  of  speculum  metal,  the  surface  of  which  is  a<HM.- 


SPECTRUM 


85T 


rale] J  ^rtmnd  to  form  a  pkne  mirror,  or  sometimes  ft  con- 
I  jive  mirror  with  a.  radius  of  several  f^u  Upon  this  surfaoo 
jvi  **  nUed  aimight  equidl^nt  lines  to  the  nujuber  of  sevtiral 
Itwuswiid  per  centimeU^r.    The  process  is  ttiat  deacribed  in 


Fio.  9 

the  article  Ruuno-machines  (q.  i\).  If  monochromatic  light 
from  the  slit  falls  upon  this  ruled  surface,  it  is  sent  back  by 
r»*tk*c'tion  from  the  lines  in  all  directions,  in  a  plane  perpen- 
dicular to  the  ruling  and  to  the  face  of  the  mirror,  and  dif- 
fnut ion-bands  are  formed.  These  are  alternately  black  and 
of  the  color  of  the  light.  The  law  of  the  position  of  the 
o<»k>red  bands,  which  are  distributed  symmetrically  with 
reference  to  a  plane  normal  to  the  grating,  parallel  to  the 
ruling  and  passing  through  the  slit,  is  given  by  the  equation 


Sin  a«  = 


a +  6" 


In  this  formula  a.  is  the  angle  that  the  rays  which  go  to 
fnrm  the  nth  band  of  the  series  make  with  the  incident  ray 
fn»m  the  slit,  \  is  the  wave-length,  while  n  may  be  1,  2,  3, 
ur  4,  etc.,  according  to  the  number  of  the  band  which  we 
are  considering.  The  quantity  a  +  6  is  the  distance  fi*om 
the  ed-i^e  of  one  line  upon  the  grating  to  the  corresponding 
flire  of  the  next — a  being  the  width  of  the  line,  and  b  the 
uurultMl  sjmce  between  it  and  the  next  line.  The  position 
<»f  the  bands  with  reference  to  the  slit  S  and  the  grating  G 
is  shown  in  Fig.  3  (n  r»  rg,  etc.). 

If  the  light  which  enters  the  slit  be  violet  instead  of  red, 
the  dilTraction  bands  will  have  positions  nearer  the  slit  (I'l 
?•,  (•».  etc.).  If  white  or  other  composite  light  be  used  over- 
lapping diffraction  images  of  the  slit  will  be  produced,  and 
thc>e  will  be  so  arranged  with  reference  to  each  other  as  to 
fc.rin  as  a  series  of  spectra  on  either  side  of  the  slit. 

If.  as  in  the  discussion  of  the  prismatic  spectrum,  we  take 
r,,  etr*.,  to  represent  the  longest  visible  wave-length,  and  fj, 
etr.,  the  shortest,  we  shall  have  the  intervening  spaces  in  the 

dia^'ram,  viz.,  t'l  -  -  -  ri.  v^ ra,  t't rg,  etc.,  occupied  by 

spectra.  These  are  called  for  convenience  spectra  of  the 
first,  second,  third,  etc.,  onler.  It  will  be  noticed  that  with 
the  exception  of  the  first  and  second  all  the  spectra  over- 
lap. 

The  formula  given  above  defines  completely  the  position 
arid  eliaracter  of  the  spectra  prcxUiced  by  a  grating.  It  will 
\te  seen,  for  example,  that  the  distance  out  from  the  slit  to 
the  ^Misition  occupied  by  any  given  wave-length,  mea,"«ured 
l>y  the  sine  of  the  angle  a,  is  proportional  to  the  wave-length. 
T!je  violet  end  of  the  diffraction-spectrum  is  thereiore 
always  nearest  the  slit.  The  distribution  of  wave-lengths 
tl»n>ut;hout  the  spectrum,  moreover,  is  a  uniform  one,  in- 
«te:i4l  of  varying  as  in  prismatic  spectra.  It  is  on  account 
i)f  this  property  that  the  name  normal  spectrum  is  applied 
to  a  sr)ectrum  produced  by  means  of  a  grating.  It  is  ob- 
vi.»UN  from  the  formula  likewise  that  sin  a  for  a  given  wave- 
Ifii'^th  is  directly  proportional  to  the  number  of  lines  in  a 
t en ti meter  contained  upon  the  grating,  so  that  the  disper- 
^\r>n  is  entirely  a  question  of  the  fineness  of  the  ruled  sur-- 
fa<  e. 

Aiirnnfages  and  Disadvantafjes  of  Diffract ion-Hpectrn. — 
Thr  ehief  ail  vantage  of  the  ditTraetion-spectrum  lies  in  the 
»«:rupliciiy  of  the  law  of  distribution  of  wave-lengths.  On 
rh:>  account  it  affords  much  the  be^st  means  for  the  accurate 
iij«\'tsurement  of  wave-lengths.  It  is  also  a  great  advantage 
383 


to  be  ftble  to  secure  any  desired  degree  of  diapersioti  without 
recourse  to  the  compIic4iiion  and  inconvenience  arising  from 
the  use  of  &  tritin  of  \mmn^.  On  the  other  hand,  the  jiris- 
matiij  stie<^trum,  by  equal  di:*persiun,  is  much  more  intense^ 
(since  all  the  dispersed  light  goes  to  the  fonnation  of  a  ^ingb 
spectrum  instead  of  a  double  series  of  spectra,  and  because 
the  losses  by  reflection,  etc.,  are  much  less  important. 
Spectra  furnished  by  gratings,  moreover,  show  vagaries  in 
the  distribution  of  intensities,  which  depend  in  a  compli- 
cated manner  upon  the  nature  of  the  ruling.  Certain 
spectra  will  be  very  weak  or  altogether  missing,  others  of 
aonormal  brilliancy.  Some  spectra  will  be  strong  in  a  cer- 
tain color  and  fainl  in  others,  etc.  The  consequence  is  that 
diffraction-spectra  are  ill  fitted  for  use  where  the  Question 
of  the  relative  intensity  of  the  various  wave-lengtns  of  a 
source  of  light  is  to  be  determined. 

Classes  of  Smctra, — Thus  far  those  spectra  have  been 
considered  in  which  all  wave-lengths  between  the  extreme 
red  and  the  extreme  violet  are  present.  Such  spectra  are 
produced  bv  the  radiation  from  glowing  solids  or  liquids; 
they  are  called  continuous  spectra. 

Where  the  source  of  light  is  an  incandescent  vapor  or  gas, 
radiation  is  confined  to  one  or  more  definite  wave-lengths. 
Spectral  images  corresponding  to  these  wave-lengths  only 
are  present  in  the  spectrum,  which  consists  of  a  group  of 
bright  lines,  each  possessing  the  color  due  to  its  particular 
wave-length.  The  intervals  lying  between  are  black.  Such 
spectra  are  called  bright-line  spectra, 

A  third  and  very  important  class  of  spectra  consists  of 
those  produced  by  the  passage  of  light  (which  would  other- 
wise form  a  continuous  spectrum)  through  an  absorbent 
medium.  This  medium  may  be  a  solid  or  licj^uid,  or  it  may 
be  a  vapor.  In  accordance  with  the  law  of  Kirchhoff,  there 
is,  however,  a  perfectly  definite  relation  between  radiation 
and  absorbing  power.  Each  material,  in  a  word,  absorbs  the 
precise  wave-length  or  wave-lengths  which  it  is  capable  of 
radiating,  and  in  the  same  proj>ortion.  Gases  and  va|)ors, 
therefore,  cut  out  well-defined  and  perfectly  monochromatic 
lines  from  the  transmitted  light,  and  thus  produce  what  are 
called  dark-line  spectra.  Solids  and  liquids,  on  the  other 
hand,  absorb  selectively  and  continuously  throughout  ex- 
tended regions,  and  the  spectrum  of  the  rays  transmitted 
by  them  is  crossed  by  dark  transverse  bands,  varying  in 
position  and  width  and  also  in  density  and  sharpness  of 
definition  according  to  the  character  of  the  medium.  Fre- 
quently the  absorption  is  such  as  to  weaken  or  destroy  one 
end  of  the  spectrum  instead  of  producing  a  band. 

Relation  of  Bright-line  and  Dark-line  Spectra:  the 
Frannhofer  Lines. — When,  in  1817,  Fraunhofer  made  the 
first  application  of  the  narrow  slit  to  the  analysis  of  sun- 
light, he  observed  that  the  solar  spectrum  was  crossed  by 
numerous  fine  black  lines.  Repetition  of  the  experiment 
showed  him  that  these  lines  were  always  present,  and  that 
they  were  always  in  the  same  positions.  Fraunhofer  made 
a  map  of  the  spectrum  in  which  he  designated  some  of  the 
lines  alphabetically.    It  is  by  the  letters  which  he  assigned 


.4** 


.S'* 


.e'* 


.T'*    .8'* 


U 


F      £ 
Fio.  4. 


C  B  A 


to  them  that  they  are  still  known.  Fig.  4  shows  the  posi- 
tions of  a  few  of  the  most  important  Fraunhofer  lines  in  the 
prismatic  spectrum.  The  wave-lengths  are  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : 

TABLE   I. 

Wave  lengths.  In  mllllonths  of  a  meter,  of  the  principal  Fraun- 
hofer lines.     Rowland's  values  to  four  places. 


Line.  War«-l«n|tth. 

A 0  7r)5UM 

B or,84".r 

C 0  (\:m 

" • \  Ci-  fcu«w|  ,  T»_  % 


Una.  W»v»  UnRth. 

K 0  .vjroM 

F 0  4.'^«'.1 

(} 0  m^ 

f  0  3U.'i3(H,or  K) 


H 


♦  0  5««»U(l>,) 

It  was  nearly  half  a  century  after  Fraunhofer's  observa- 
tions before  the  cause  of  thetlark  lines  in  the  solar  spectrum 
wjus  determined  and  their  supreme  importance  in  the  seieiice 
of  spectroscopy  was  a|)preciated.  In  the  meantime  the 
bright-line  spectra  obtained  from  the  burning   vapors  of 


658 


SPECTRUM 


X 
A 


C® 


8 


O 


Fio.5. 


fl^ 


TariouB  meUls  h«d  been  described,  and  finally,  aboat  the 
middle  of  the  centurr,  certain  coincidences  of  position  hav- 
ing been  noticed,  it  began  to  be  8U8i»ccted  that  there  was 
some  connection  between  the  two  classes.  Finally  Kirch- 
boff  and  Bunsen  in  Heidelberg  took  the  matter  up,  and  by 
means  of  an  exhaustive  series  of  experiments  demonstrated 
that  the  dark  lines  of  Fraunhofer  are  produced  by  absorp- 
tion, by  the  sun*8  atmosphere,  and  by  that  of  the  earth ;  also 
that  the  materials  producing  absorption  in  the  sun*s  at- 
mosphere are,  in  part  at  least,  identical  with  those  which 
go  to  form  thecnist  of  the  earth.  The  proof  is  based  in  part 
upon  the  celebrated  experiment  of  the  reversal  of  the  so- 
dium lines,  which  consists  essentially  in  placing  in  the  nath 
of  the  rays  from  any  incandescent  source  of  light  wnich 

gives  a  continuous 
spectnim  a  layer 
of  sodium  vapor, 
the  temperature  of 
which  is  lower 
than  that  of  the 
source.  A  favoi^ 
ite  method  of  re- 
peating the  exper- 
iment For  purposes 
of  demonstration 
is  as  follows : 
In  front  of  an  arc-lamp  (A,  Fig.  5)  is  placed  a  condensing 
lens  ((').  a  vertical  slit  (S),  an  object-lens  (()),  and  a  prism 
(P).  The  lamp  A  should  be  tipped  back  so  as  give  the 
bright  continuous  spectrum  of  the  light  from  the  crater  of 
the  up|>er  carbon.     Before  the  slit,  at  6,  a  Bunsen  burner  is 

51ace<l,  into  the  flame  of  which  metallic  sodium  is  intro- 
ueo<l.  The  sodium  vapor  thus  produced  rises  into  the  path 
of  the  ray  from  A  and  absorbs  light  of  wave-lengths  '5890 
and  *5HU6,  to  which  rays  it  is  opaque. 

In  the  s()ectrum  upon  the  screen  a  h  two  dark  lines  are 
formed,  but  these  lie  so  close  together  that  under  ordinary 
conditions  they  are  merged  into  a  single  heavy  black  band. 

By  slight  modifica- 
tions of  the  apnara- 
tus  it  is  poesible  to 
project  upon  the 
screen,  one  above 
another,  suectra  con- 
taining tne  bright 
line  due  to  incandes- 
cent sodium,  super- 
imposed upon  a  con- 
tinuous spectrum, 
Fm.  s.  and    the  artificially 

produced  Fraunhof- 
er line  D,  and  thus  to  note  the  precise  coincidence  in  the 
positions  of  the  two.    See  Pig.  0. 

The  direct  evi<lence  of  experiments  like  the  above  was  sup- 
ported by  mea?iurement  of  the  position  of  thousands  of  dark 
liiu^  in  the  solar  s()ectrum  and  of  the  positions  of  the  thou- 
sands of  lines  obtained  by  the  incandescence  of  the  various 
chemical  elements.  The  comfiarison  of  the  two  showed  the 
identity  of  many  of  the  solar  lines  with  those  of  well-known 
terrestrial  substances.  In  the  cases  of  metals  nossessing 
compli(*MtcHl-line  spectra,  such  as  iron,  nickel,  ana  calcium, 
the  nu II) Iter  of  lines  in  coincidence  was  so  great  as  to  pre- 
clude all  (question  of  agreement  by  chance. 
A  most  important  example  is  allorded  by  the  metal  iron. 


in  the  spiTtrum  of  the  vafw»r  of  which  hundn»ds  of  lines 
hare  Umii  riin|i|NMl  aiul  found  to  cnincitle  with  solar  limvi. 

Kin  hlioff  aiiil   UunM*n  <*xpion>il  the  entire  visible  sjjec- 
iruiii  in  the  xw^M  painstaking  and  preci>e  manner,  measur- 


ing the  potitioo  of  thooaandsof  linaa  in  the  wpt€!tr^m  ^ 

sun  and  in  those  of  the  different  elementa.     Fur  tt  • 

poae  they  used  a  spectrometer  with  a  train  of  fi^ur  ( - 

The   results  were  mapped  upon  a  large  srmlr.    Ar«:«- 

and  Thal^n  made  a  set  of  equally  careful  measur^n  •  "• 

produced  maps  agreeing  well  with  thai  of  tbcfcrr'r 

servers.     By  tne  use  of  concave  gratings  , 

and   photographic  plates  Rowland  has 

since  been  able  to  obtain  absolute  values 

of  wave-lengths  much   more  accurate 

than  any  hitherto  made  by  the  system 

of  hand  measurements,  while  Abney  and 

also  Comu,  likewise  bv   photographic 

methods,  have  extended   the  spectrum 

map  to  regions  lying  far  beyond   the 

limits  of  visibility  in  the  direction  of 

the  red  and  of  the  violet.    Fig.  7  shows 

a  small  portion  of  the  solar  map  (in  the 

green),  which  contains  lines  due  to  the 

vapors  of  iron  and  of  calcium.    The 

coincidence  of  these  with  certain  bright 

lines  in  the  spectra  of  those  metals  is 

also  indicated. 

The  application  of  spectrum  analysts 
in  astronomy  has  led  to  extraordinary 
extensions  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
chemical  constitution  and  physical  con- 
dition of  the  sun,  and  even  of  fixed 
stars,  comets,  and  nebulsp.  The  attach- 
ment of  the  spectroscopic  eyepiece  to 
the  telescope,  for  example,  has  made  it 
possible  to  explore  the  surface*  of  the 
sun  in  detail  with  reference  to  its  con- 
stitution. Only  a  few  of  the  numen>us 
striking  and  beautiful  results  obtained 
in  this  field  of  research  can  be  men- 
tioned here. 

Spectrum  of  the  Chromotphere  and 
Protuberancfs, — If  the  telescope   be  so 
adjusted  that  the  field  of  view,  through 
the  slit  of  the  spectroscopic  evepiec^ 
(the  slit  being  perpendicular  to  tne  limb 
of  the  sun),  comprises  a  portion  of  tha 
8un*s  face,  the  chromosphere,  with  a 
protuberance,  and  the  sky  lying  beyond 
the  liraita  of  the  latter,  as  snown  in' Fig. 
8,  a  triple  spectrum  will  be  formed  :  (1)  The  spcrirLc 
photosphere,  consisting  of  the  continuous  Metrci* 
underlying  molten  constituents  of  the  body  <>f   ft  • 
crossed  by  the  black  lines  produced  by  pasaajti    thr 
cooler  gases  of  the  solar  atmosphere;  (2)  the  spercr 
protuberance,  which  consists  of  the  bright  hoes  ff  r  « 
corresponding  to  C  and  F  of  Praunhorer,  and  a  1  <-  ^  * 
known  as  D..    Until  18»5  it  was  believed  that  lha»  . 
no  counterpart  among  the  lines  of  terreslnaJ  fi^n.*'  - 
it  was  accordingly  ascribed  to  a  hypotheticml  soUr  »•.  • 
to  which  the  name  helium  was  given.     In  that  ]i   «.* 
ever,  the  chemist  Ramsay  announced  the  d^<«>«rr« 
helium  line  in  the  spark  discharge  of  a  |ra»  i4>ca  - . 
cleveite,  a  mineral  found  in  Norway.    This  bn^i-.  :j« 
trura  is  superimpoeed  upon  a  faint  so- 
lar sjiectrum  of  the  usual  character,  due 
to  diffused  or  st ray  sunlight    (3)  I>if- 
fuse<l  sunlight  also  fills  the  npmainder 
of  the  slit,  which  otherwise  would  have 
for  its  field  the  blackness  of  space,  so 
that  beyond  the  limits  of  the  chrom<»- 
sphere  we  can  still  distinguish  the  faint 
spectrum  to  which  reference  has  just 
lM*en  made. 

This  method  makes  it  possible  to  de» 
tormine  the  height  to  which  a  given 
constituent  of  the  chrom<«phere.  nich 
as  hydrogen,  ri^es  above  the  limb  of  the  soa,  t  W  t  -*'• 
under  which  it  exists,  and  even  the  m«4ftoni  wL.   c 
dergoes. 

The  hydrogen-line  (F),  for  example,  aeeo  thr  •.«-*    • 
row  slit,  the  field  of  which  extends  acn^MV  tKr  :      ' 
into  and  through  the  chroroo^pherv,  •ocnf^timr*  a*   •  %-^ 
Fig.  0,  the  line  being  reversed  at  the  limb  and  *  * 
dlingtoa  point    This  effect  is  indi«-atiTrof  tb»  iSi- 
prpj-isure.     FrpquentJy  the  npvemed  line  of  tbr  rhf*  -     . 
in  distorted  in  a  manner  of  which  Fig.  10  is  iTf«  %    % 
displacement  shows  that  tha  floviiif  gBaasai«'»ct  l-  « 


'I  \iit.t:  or    Tui:  --oMi:    \\it  so»if    oiiiLJt   sti: 


t  n;  \. 


.*>.     .«-■   ->»  V-.--^  ««  .-V^^w. 


'   '    "  -"••      >,••    ••Mf  7>V  - 


.  :^^»*ftt  .V-iiT- 


11 


^''IgFr^ 


^^    : 


.1tr>.-i£:c  1,-,  i8a>!t:€itfaftgiSiB*£i^4^  ".  --^ 


:^Ji^^;f?Ty-^...^<M^ 


f 


^i^^'^^^^^^rr^^^^T  ^^^ 


•winvilli^  m  «i^ 


i£'' •_?»k'.iias^^ki?'„2^:-:j 


'•>**• 


^-^JiiSix 


658 


SPECTRUM 


X 
A 


0^ 


i4_ 


Tarious  metals  had  been  described,  and  finally,  about  the 
middle  of  the  century,  certain  coincidences  of  position  hav- 
ing been  noticed,  it  began  to  be  sus[>ected  that  there  was 
some  connection  between  the  two  classes.  Finally  Kirch- 
hoft  and  Bunsen  in  Heidelberg  took  the  matter  up,  and  by 
means  of  an  exhaustive  series  of  experiments  demonstratea 
that  the  dark  lines  of  Fraunhofer  are  produced  by  absorp- 
tion, by  the  sun's  atmosphere,  and  by  that  of  the  earth ;  also 
that  the  materials  producing  absorption  in  the  sun's  at- 
mosphere are,  in  part  at  least,  identical  with  those  which 
go  to  form  the  crust  of  the  earth.  The  proof  is  based  in  part 
upon  the  celebrated  experiment  of  the  reversal  of  the  so- 
dium lines,  which  consists  essentially  in  placing  in  the  nath 
of  the  rays  from  any  incandescent  source  of  light  which 

gives  a  continuous 
spectrum  a  layer 
of  sodium  vapor, 
the  temperature  of 
which  is  lower 
than  that  of  the 
source.  A  favor- 
ite method  of  re- 
peating the  exper- 
iment for  purposes 
Fio-  6-  of    demonstration 

is  as  follows : 
In  front  of  an  arc-lamp  (A,  Fig.  5)  is  placed  a  condensing 
lens  (C),  a  vertical  slit  (S),  an  object-lens  (O),  and  a  prism 
(P).  The  lamp  A  should  be  tipped  back  so  as  give  the 
bright  continuous  spectrum  of  tne  light  from  the  crater  of 
the  upper  carbon.  Before  the  slit,  at  6,  a  fiunsen  burner  is 
placea,  into  the  flame  of  which  metallic  sodium  is  intro- 
duced. The  sodium  vapor  thus  produced  rises  into  the  path 
of  the  ray  from  A  and  absorbs  light  of  wave-lengths  '5890 
and  '5896,  to  which  rays  it  is  opaque. 

In  the  spectrum  upon  the  screen  a  h  two  dark  lines  are 
formed,  but  these  lie  so  close  together  that  under  ordinarv 
conditions  they  are  merged  into  a  single  heavy  black  band. 

By  slight  modifica- 
tions of  the  appara- 
tus it  is  possible  to 
project  upon  the 
screen,  one  above 
another,  spectra  con- 
taining the  bright 
line  due  to  incandes- 
cent sodium,  super- 
imposed upon  a  con- 
tinuous spectrum, 
Fio.  6.  and   the  artificially 

produced  Fraunhof- 
er line  D,  and  thus  to  note  the  precise  coincidence  in  the 
positions  of  the  two.  See  Pig.  6. 
The  direct  evidence  of  experiments  like  the  above  was  sup- 
»rted  by  measurement  of  the  position  of  thousands  of  dark 
lines  in  the  solar  s{)ectrum  and  of  the  positions  of  the  thou- 
sands of  lines  obtained  by  the  incandescence  of  the  various 
chemical  elements.  The  comparison  of  the  two  showed  the 
identity  of  many  of  the  solar  lines  with  those  of  well-known 
terrestrial  substances.  In  the  cases  of  metals  possessing 
complicated-line  spectra,  such  as  iron,  nickel,  ana  calcium, 
the  number  of  lines  in  coincidence  was  so  great  as  to  pre- 
clude all  (question  of  agreement  by  chance. 
A  most  important  example  is  aflorded  by  the  metal  iron, 


po; 
lin 


f^o.  7. 


in  the  spectrum  of  the  vapor  of  which  hundreds  of  lines 
have  been  mapped  and  found  to  coincide  with  solar  lines. 

Kirch hoflf  and  Bunsen  explored  the  entire  visible  spec- 
trum in  the  most  painstaking  and  precise  manner,  measur- 


ing the  position  of  thousands  of  lines  in  the  spectram  of  Utt 
sun  and  in  those  of  the  different  elements.  For  this  pur- 
pose they  used  a  spectrometer  with  a  train  of  four  prism& 
The  results  were  mapped  upon  a  large  scale.  Angstrom 
and  Thal^n  made  a  set  of  equally  careful  measurements,  and 
produced  maps  agreeing  well  with  that  of  the  former  ob- 
servers. By  the  use  of  concave  gratings 
and  photographic  plates  Rowland  has 
since  been  able  to  obtain  absolute  values 
of  wave-lengths  much  more  accurate 
than  any  hitnerto  made  bj  the  system 
of  hand  measurements,  while  Abney  and 
also  Cornu,  likewise  by  photographic  V'. 

methods,  have  extended  tne  spectrum 
map  to  regions  lying  far  beyond  the 
limits  of  visibility  in  the  direction  of 
the  red  and  of  the  violet.  Fig.  7  shows 
a  small  portion  of  the  solar  map  (in  the 
green),  which  contains  lines  due  to  the 
vapors  of  iron  and  of  calcium.  The 
coincidence  of  these  with  certain  bright 
lines  in  the  spectra  of  those  metals  is 
also  indicated. 

The  application  of  spectrum  analysis 
in  astronomy  has  led  to  extraordinary 
extensions  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
chemical  constitution  and  physical  con- 
dition of  the  sun,  and  even  of  fixed 
stars,  comets,  and  nebulsB.  The  attach- 
ment of  the  spectroscopic  eyepiece  to 
the  telescope,  for  example,  has  made  it 
possible  to  explore  the  surface  of  the 
sun  in  detail  with  reference  to  its  con- 
stitution. Only  a  few  of  the  numerous 
striking  and  beautiful  results  obtained 
in  this  field  of  research  can  be  men- 
tioned here. 

Spectrum  of  the  Chromosphere  and 
Protuberances, — If  the  telescope  be  so 
adjusted  that  the  field  of  view,  through 
the  slit  of  the  spectroscopic  eyepiece 
(the  slit  being  perpendicular  to  the  limb 
of  the  sun),  comprises  a  portion  of  the 
sun's  face,  the  chromosphere,  with  a 
protuberance,  and  the  sky  lying  beyond  p,a.  g. 

the  limits  of  the  latter,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
8,  a  triple  spectrum  will  be  formed  :  (1)  The  spectrum  of  the 
photosphere,  consisting  of  the  continuous  spectrum  of  the 
underlying  molten  constituents  of  the  boay  of  the  sun, 
crossed  by  the  black  lines  produced  by  passage  through  the 
cooler  gases  of  the  solar  atmosphere ;  (2)  the  spectrum  of  the 
protuberance,  which  consists  of  the  bright  lines  of  hydrc^pen 
corresponding  to  C  and  F  of  Fraunhofer,  and  a  bright  line 
known  as  Dt.  Until  1895  it  was  believed  that  this  hne  had 
no  counterpart  among  the  lines  of  terrestrial  elements,  and 
it  was  accordingly  ascribed  to  a  hjrpothetical  solar  substantia 
to  which  the  name  helium  was  given.  In  that  year,  how- 
ever, the  chemist  Ramsay  announced  the  discovery  of  the 
helium  line  in  the  spark  discharge  of  a  ^  obtained  fmm 
cleveite,  a  mineral  found  in  Norway.  This  bright-line  spec- 
trum is  superimposed  upon  a  faint  so- 
lar spectrum  of  tne  usual  character,  due 
to  difl'used  or  stray  sunlight  (3)  Dif- 
fused sunlight  also  fills  the  remainder 
of  the  slit,  which  otherwise  would  have 
for  its  field  the  blackness  of  space,  so 
that  beyond  the  limits  of  the  chromo- 
sphere we  can  still  distinguish  the  faint 
spectrum  to  which  reference  has  just 
been  made. 

This  method  makes  it  possible  to  de- 
termine the  height  to  which  a  given 
constituent  of  the  chromosphere,  such 
as  hydrogen,  rises  above  the  limb  of  the  sun,  the  pressures 
under  which  it  exists,  and  even  the  motions  which  it  un- 
dergoes. 

The  hydrogen-line  (F),  for  example,  seen  through  a  nar- 
row slit,  the  field  of  which  extends  across  the  limb  of  sun 
into  and  through  the  chromosphere,  sometimes  appears  as  in 
Fig.  9.  the  line  being  reversed  at  the  limb  and  then  dwin- 
dling to  a  point.  This  effect  is  indicative  of  the  diminishinjT 
pressure.  Frequently  the  reversed  line  of  the  chromosphere 
IS  distorted  in  a  manner  of  which  Fig.  10  is  typical,  and  its 
displacement  shows  that  the  glowing  gases  are  moving  either 


1 

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. 

Flo.O. 


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TAB£r£    or    THE    SOI^AR    AND    SOME    OTHER    SPECTRA. 

-^  -^  ♦i'  so  «0  TO  00  9U  igO  IWJ  ISO  I3|}  140  i5ti 


'^  F  G 


10 


SPECTRUM 


659 


toward  the  observer  (when  the  displacement  is  to  the  violet) 
or  uw^y  from  him  (when  the  displacement  is  toward  the  retl). 

The  same  displacement  of 
the  lines  in  the  spet-tra  of 
fixed  sitirs  is  usetl  in  com- 
puting the  component  of 
their  velocity  which  lies  in 
the  line  of  sight. 

The  spectra  ofnehdm  and 
comets  show  for  these  bodies 
a  gaseous  constitution.  In- 
stead of  a  continuous  spec- 
trum with  ab*«j»rption  lines, 
we  find  in  the  cik^e  of  ihe 
fumier  class  two  or  three 
bright  lines,  ascribable  to 
h  yd  rtige  n  and  nit  rogen.  (See 
Fig.  1  U )  ( '< \ mets  also  show 
bright  handjs  which  corrc- 
spnnd  in  position  to  the 
groups  of  lines  which  con- 
^itute  the  spark  spectrum  of  the  hydrocarbons.  See  Fig.  12. 
Appiic€itiati»  to  Chemical  Anai^atif, — The  fact  that  each 


Fio,  IL 

m*'l»l  when  vaporisfed  and  hentetl  emit;^  Hght  of  certain  defl- 
nile  wave-lengths  affords  an  important  means  of  deteei- 

ing  its  [>rej!ieneei 

^^^^^^H|^^^^^^^^^^^E^^^^|    used 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^    tion  of  the  alka- 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H    t  h  B 
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^    a  I  k al  i  n      ea 

Via.  iss.  since     thejie    al- 

most without  ex- 
ception can  be  made  tfi  give  their  characteristic  colors  at  the 
temperature  of  the  Bunsen  flame.      For  such  porfioses  a 


one-prism  spectro<scopo  with  an  arbitrary  sc^le  is  commonly 
m*ed,  and  the  bright  lines  are  mapped  with  reference  to  that 
stale.  No  accurate  determinutie^n  of  wavcdeiigth^  is  neces- 
sary, since  the  object  i*  simply  to  ret'ognize  tlie  existence 
of  certain  well-delined  lines,  or  groups  of  line^,aIld  to  distin- 
guiiih  them  from  one  another  Fig,  13  shows  !he  grouping 
of  lines  in  the  prismatic  Pf>ectnk  of  the  luoal  important  of 
the  above-mentioned  classes  of  metals. 

Spectrum  analvsis  by  mcatis  of  the  bright  lines  of  the 
elements  is  a  qualitative  method  of  the  greatest  delicacy. 

In  the  case  of  the  metiils  easily  volatilized  in  the  Bvmsen 
burner  it  is  p<j«sihk\  aeeordiiig  to  the  determinntioiis  of 
KirnhhoU  and  Biinsen,  and  of  Simmler,  of  Ciippeh  and 
others  (see  Kayser,  Lehrlmrh  der  Spekiral  Anali/se,  p.  88),  to 
detei^L  the  loUowing  minute  quantities : 

TABLE   n. 

CaeKium , 4  OO  *  iO    •    |  BtrooCluni ,  3  83 ,»:  lit    • 

Rubidium, , 1  43  ^.  10  -  *      CAtclum    . , , , .  *  tiu  x  10  -  * 

iVH^sakiru.., ...,.,..  8'33<I0    '      ^lanj^a^iieie  .., 18  xlO"* 

Sutliijin 71(J>  lU-^^  ,  IfiOUmi 6  WxlO'' 

LiUiium ]'6a..l0    •      TUnllJum «0Ox)O-» 

Barium &  w  -.  lU  - »    \  Copier a  5  x  ju   • 

The  sjjeetrum  of  the  metals  depends  to  a  great  ext4.^nt 
upin  the  temperature  of  the  iiicandej^^ent  vitp>r.  Heating 
dcK?s  not  shift  the  position  of  the  lines,  but  it  increiiseis  their 
brilliuney  and  brings  iuU)  view  new  ones,  which  ha<i  been 
too  weak  to  be  seen  in  the  spectrum  of  the  cf>oler  vaj*or, 
S<jdiunj»  for  example,  which  in  the  Fiunsen  flume  shows  only 
the  well-known  double  line  IK  has  been  found  by  idveing 
and  Dewar  to  possess  at  higher  tem|>eraturei5  at  least  seven 
other  i>ttirs  of  lines  distrihutetl  throughotit  the  sjiectmra 
fnjiii  red  (o  violet.  A  convenient  mi4hod  of  getting  high- 
temperature  spectra  consists  in  volatilizing  the  metals  in  the 
electric  sj^ark.  In  this  way  the  brilliancy  of  the  speetnim 
is  enlmnced.  and  new  metals,  too  refractory  for  vafMiriza- 
llon  at  flam e-temf»enitu res,  are  made  amenable  to  the  meth- 
ods of  spectrum  analysis.  The  delieacy  of  the  methtxl  of 
the  s^parK-sjiectrum,  in  the  case  of  various  metals,  many  of 
whicfi  give  no  line-spectrum  whatever  in  the  Bun  sen  flame, 
is  given  in  table  I J 1. 

TABLE   III. 
M-UL 

Cobalt dtffj^lu    • 

mckct ..,.,.  I  06. 10- • 

fron S  H4^]0    ■ 

Thallium.............  I  aSxlu*' 

Cadmiuiiu 4  56x10    • 

i^ml D  00x10    • 

BlRumth 1  43x10    * 

tVipper 5  00  *  10 "  ■ 

Silver, eaa^io* 

Mercury 100).  10' 

Gold i  50x10"' 

Tin 6  8«xlO'« 

AbmrpHon  Phenomena  hi/  Tran^tmission  thr&ugk  *Si}lids 
and  Liquidti. — Spectrum  anulysis  is  not  eonfined  to  the  de- 
tection of  elements  by  means  of  the  bright  lines  of  their 
emission  S|>ectra  ant]  the  corresponding  black  lines  m  the 
■itiectra  of  the  sun  and  stars.  It  makes  use  also  of  the 
selective  absorjition  whieh  light  sufTcni  when  transmitted 
thnnjgh  various  solids  and  solutions*  In  cases  in  which  the 
abs<:irplion  is  confineil  to  certain  definite  regions  dark  bands 
arc  formed,  the  pi^sition  of  which  in<bcatei«  the  eharaeter  of 
the  absorbing  medium,  while  the  density  and  width  of  the 


Caiejiiiim . . . .  - 25   *10    ' 

Rubidium rOOxlO"* 

Potftiwiym 9'5  x  10  "  " 

Litiiium ».  !i'5  xJO"* 

Barium. 1' 11x10    " 

Strutitium 100x10* 

L'»lctum r0Ox]0-» 

JtaifiieAium...,.,....  SOOxlO* 

ChmuOum 8  5   x  10    ' 

Maiigaueae     5  00  x  10    * 

Ziiu' I'OftxlO    ■ 

tndium ...  111x10    • 


Fio.  13. 


^un 


PhktrtJ2}hylM 


Blood 


Fjo 


bandu  enable^  the  ej^perirnenter  to  estimate  the  strength  of 
the  solution  with  (MUisidcratvle  acrurmy.    Well-known  ca.sej| 

are  thusc  of  chlorophyi  and  bl i,  iht'  "-poitraof  which  are 

shown  in  Fig.  14.     Cerium,  didymium,  and  other  of  the 


660 


SPECTRUM 


raro  earths  lend  themselves  |)eculiarly  to  this  method,  on 
account  of  the  sharpness  of  their  bands.  (See  Fig.  15.)  When 


I     I     I 


fJRtl 


Fio.  16.— Absorption  bands  due  to  didymium. 

small  dispersion  is  used  some  of  the  narrower  bands  mifi^ht 
easily  be  mistaken  for  true  Fraunhofer  lines,  but  higher  dis- 
persion shows  them  in  their  true  character. 

Even  when  no  sharply  marked  bands  are  produced  a 
spectrophotometric  stuaj  of  the  absorption  spectrum  often 


1 

.8 

} 

^ 



^ 

1 

1 

ji 

1 

■ 

Pota 

mum 

Chn 

mate 

J 

/ 

(J 

ran» 

nissic 

nSp 

ictrui 

i) 

.C 

«^ 

.61 

5^ 

.6 

# 

Fio.  16. 

affords  definite  information  concerning  the  character  of  the 
transmitting  medium.  A  solution  of  potassium  chromate, 
for  example,  submitted  to  measurement  gave  the  curve  of 
brightness  shown  in  Fig.  16,  in  which  abscissas  are  wave- 
lengths and  ordinates  are  pefbentages  of  light  transmitted. 
Pigments,  viewed  by  reflected  light,  give  spectra,  likewise 
capable  of  spectrophotometric  analysis  and  characteristic  of 
the  chromatic  properties  of  the  material.  Figs.  17  a  and  17  b 

will  serve  to  illustrate 
this  method  of  express- 
ing or  defining  the  col- 
or of  a  pigment.  The 
curves  refer  to  sul- 
phur, mercuric  sul- 
phide, chromic  oxide, 
and  artificial  ultrama- 
rine. Abscissas  are 
wave-lengths  and  or- 
dinates are  intensitives 
in  terms  of  the  inten- 
sity of  an  ideal  white 
substance,  which  is  de- 
fined as  reflecting  all 
visible  wave-lenpths  as 
magnesium  oxide  re- 
flects light  of  the 
wave-length  '59^.  For 
the  details  of  the  meth- 
ods by  which  these  re- 
sults were  obtained, 
see  Philosoph  ical  Mag- 
azine (5),  vol.  xxxii., 
p.  405 ;  also  vol.  xxxiii., 
p.  19. 

Similarly,  by  obser- 
vation of  the  spectrum 


/ 

A 

/ 

f 

t 

1 

1 

J 

_> 

/ 

.4M 


^6^ 


Fio.  17  o. 


of  a  glowing  body  at  different  stages  of  incandescence  and 
comparison  of  the  same,  wave-lenpth  by  wave-length,  with 
the  spectrum  of  a  standard  lamp,  the  development  of  radia- 
tion with  rise  of  temperature  can  be  definitely  determined. 


Fig.  18  shows  the  results  of  such  an  investigation  of  the 
spectrum  of  platinum  between  700**  G.  and  1,000*"  C.  The 
ordinates  are  ratios 
of  the  brightness  of 
the  platinum  spec- 
trum to  that  of  the 
standard  lamp,  which 
was  an  electric  glow- 
lamp  maintain^  as 
nearly  as  possible  at 
a  temperature  of  in- 
candescence corre- 
sponding to  that  of  a 
luminous  gas -flame. 
The  adjustment  was 
such  that  the  bright- 
ness of  the  platinum 
spectrum  at  1,000°, 
wave-length  *59m,  was 
equal  to  that  of  the 
corresponding  wave- 
length in  the  spec- 
trum of  the  standard. 
InvMible  Parts  of 


m 

^ 

1 

ra 

' 

A 

.M 

3A 

1 

1 
Chromic.  Oxta^ 

. 

V 

¥ 



FIO.  17  b. 


the  Spectrum  {the  Infra-red  and  Ultra-violet). — When  a  spec- 
trum is  produced  by  refraction  or  diffraction,  the  only  ravs 
capable  of  affecting  the  retina  lie  between  wave-lengths 
'39^  and  '76^.  Rays  of  wave-lengths  both  longer  and 
shorter  than  the  above  are  present,  however,  and  these  con- 
stitute the  invisible  spectrum.  Waves  greater  than  *76#l 
flnd  positions  lying  beyond  the  extreme  limit  of  the  red. 
They  form  what  is  termed  the  region  of  the  infra-red. 
Waves  shorter  than  '39^  are  all 
more  strongly  refracted  than  the 
rays  of.  tne  visible  spectrum. 
They  lie  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
violet  and  constitute  the  ultra^ 
violet  spectrum. 

In  the  investigation  of  these 
invisible  rays  indirect  methods 
have  to  be  used.  For  the  infra- 
red the  rays  may  be  allowed  to 
fall  upon  some  surface  which  be- 
comes luminescent  (phosphores- 
cent) under  their  action.  This  is 
the  method  used  by  Draper,  by 
Becquerel,  and  by  Lommel  and 
others. 

The  result  of  this  process  is  to 
cause  those  portions  of  the  lu- 
minescent surface  upon  which 
the  infra-red  rays  fail  to  shine, 
while  the  other  portions  remain 
dark.  In  this  way  the  intenser 
portions  of  the  infra-red  spec- 
trum can  be  explored,  and  if  the 
law  of  the  dispersion  apparatus 
is  known  thev  can  be  mapped. 

It  is  possible  also,  as  has  been 
shown  by  Abney,  to  obtain  pho- 
tographic plates  which  are  sensi- 
tive to  long  wave-lengths,  and  by 
the  use  of  these  to  photograph  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  infra-red  spectrum. 

The  most  complete  method  of  studying  the  invisible  re- 
gions beyond  the  red  consists  in  measuring  the  intensity  of 
the  rays  directly  by  means  of  their  heating  effect.  For  \  hi< 
purpose  Fizeau  anS  Foucault  used  thermometers ;  Laman- 
sky,  Mouton,  Dessains,  Nichols,  and  others  the  linear  ther- 
mopile ;  Langley,  AngstrSm,  Snow,  Paschen, and  many  otlu* r 
observers  the  bolometer. 

By  these  various  methods  it  is  known  that  the  region  of 
the  infra-red  is  similar  to  the  visible  region  of  the  spectrum 
in  nearly  every  particular,  but  that  it  comprises  a  very  nuu  h 
greater  range  of  wave-lengths.  While  the  visible  spectrum 
is  all  included  within  about  an  octave,  the  bolometer  givi< 
evidence  of  waves  more  than  ten  times  as  long  as  the  lonctv>-i 
visible  ray.  If  the  spectrum  of  an  incandescent  solid  be  e\- 
|)lored  by  means  of  thermopile  or  bolometer,  the  infra-ivl 
spectrum'  will  be  found  to  be  continuous,  the  intensities  ris- 
ing to  a  maximum  in  some  region,  the  wave-length  of  whi'  h 
depends  upon  the  temperature  of  the  source.  See  Fig.  *J<». 
which  gives  Langley's  curve  of  intensities  in  the  spectrum 
of  a  luminous  gas-flame. 


Fio.  la 


SMDTitUM 


SPEEDWELL 


661 


If  the  source  ha^e  a  teinperature  below  the  Ted  heat  &D 
infpa-reil  spec t mm  will  still  be  found  to  eiist,  the  intensi- 
tie4  of  wbitrli  are  all  less  and  the  maximum  in  **  region  of 
iinat+i^r  wave-length.  Th©  earve  of  intensities,  moreover,  will 
4!-eip|jearon  the  side  toward  the  rod,  before  the  boundary 
of  the  Tisible  spectrum  is  reached.    See  Pig.  21. 


Fio.  19. 


tvVv 


A 


1.M 


8>* 


Fio.  90. 


l.** 


2:^ 


a** 


Fio.  21. 


Figs.  19,  90,  and  21.  showing  the  corves  of  intensities  of  sunlight,  of 
gas  flame,  and  of  a  solid  below  red  heat,  respectively. 

If  the  source  be  sunlight  we  find  its  spectrum  crossed  by 
dark  lines  and  also  by  bands  due  to  absorption  on  the  part 
of  the  atmosphere  of  the  earth.  The  curve  then  appears  as 
in  Fig.  19,  which  is  also  from  measurements  by  Langley. 

If  the  source  be  a  metallic  vapor  the  bolometer  indicates 
the  extension  of  a  bright-line  spectrum  characteristic  of  that 
metal  throughout  the  infra-rea.  Fig.  22  is  a  diagram  giv- 
ing the  results  of  bolometric  exploration  of  the  spectrum  of 
potassium,  made  by  Snow.    Abscissas  are  wave-lengths  and 


l&OU 
3400 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1900 

F 

OTA 

;si 

JM 

( 

B.  W 

Sn 

)W 

low 

too< 

1 

M> 

100 

r 

t-j 

^J 

Jd 

^Uvn 

jj 

A, 

/^ 

^ 

L^^tel 

^0.: 

d^    0. 

iTi 

0    Li 

IJ  'i. 

n. 

»  I 

STT 

rr 

rr 

rr 

St    i. 

ot 

r-' 

Fio.  22. 


ordinates  are  intensities.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  three 
^rik'ht  lines  between  1*0**  and  1-3m,  and  probably  a  group  of 
liTi.  9,  which  could  not  be  resolved  by  means  of  the  bolometer, 
in  the  region  TV. 


In  the  ultra-violet  region  of  the  spectrum  the  intensity  of 
radiation  is  too  small  t(^  alirHt  rjf  the  general  use  of  holo- 
meine  lueajsur*  ustnts.  Tlu  m  -^mrter  wave-knt^ths  are,  how- 
ever, readilr  jstiidied  by  phtjtography.  hivI  they  can  also  l>e 
rendered  risible  by  the  u^  of  a  lumiuK^r^nt  (fluore^scent) 
substance,  as  has  been  shown  by  H.  Becquerel^  Soret,  and 
others.  Among  the  materials  which  give  back  visible  rays 
when  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  ultrarviolet  are  chloro- 
phyll solution,  petroleum,  various  coal-tar  dyes  in  solution ; 
also  uranium-glass  and  some  sorts  of  fluor-spar.  See  Fluo- 
rescence. 

Of  the  two  methods,  the  photographic  is  by  far  the  more 
complete  and  satisfactory.  By  means  of  the  sensitive  plate 
and  the  concave  grating,  maps  giving  every  detail  may  be 
obtained.  If  the  apparatus  be  of  such  a  character  that  the 
rays  pass  through  glass,  the  spectrum  will  seem  to  come  to 
an  end  in  the  neighborhood  of  *32m,  because  glass  becomes 
opaque  to  still  shorter  wave-lengths.  If  quartz  lenses  be 
substituted,  or  if  concave  mirrors  be  used  instead  of  lenses, 
the  map  can  be  extended  even  further  beyond  the  violet 

The  results  of  investigations  in  the  ultra-violet,  as  in  the 
case  of  those  upon  the  infra-red  of  the  spectrum,  show  that 
no  sudden  changes  take  place  as  we  pass  beyond  the  limit 
of  visibility.  Sunlight,  in  the  ultra-violet,  stiU  shows  a 
continuous  spectrum  crossed  by  a  multitude  of  dark  lines: 
glowing  vapors,  such  as  those  of  the  electric  arc,  show  groups 
of  lines  which  to  an  eye  capable  of  vision  in  such  rays  would 
constitute  a  bright-line  spectrum  of  the  usual  type. 

See,  further,  article  Spectroscope;  also  Schellen,  Spec- 
trum  Analysis;  Roscoe,  Lectures  on  Spectrum  Analysis; 
and  the  works  of  Lockyer,  Huggins,  Langley,  Vogel,  K. 
Angstrom,  Abney,  H.  Becquerel,  &)ret,  etc  E.  ll  Nichols. 

Speetmin  Analysis :  See  Spectroscope  and  Spectrum. 

Speeulation :  See  Political  Economy. 

Spee'ulum  [Lat.,  mirror] :  in  optics  and  astronomy,  a  re- 
flecting surface,  usually  of  metal,  though  the  term  has  also 
been  frequently  applied  to  unsilvered  glass  since  the  intro- 
duction of  silvered-glass  telescopes  by  Foucault  and  Stein- 
heil  in  1857.    See  Telescope. 

Spedding,  James:  scholar;  b.  near  Bassenthwaite,  Cum- 
berland, England,  in  June,  1808.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  of  which  college  he  was  afterward  made  an 
honorary  fellow  ;  graduated  in  1831.  His  life-work  was  the 
study  and  exposition  of  Bacon,  begun  by  a  pitiless  exposure 
of  Macaulay  s  showy  and  inaccurate  essay  on  Bacon,  Even- 
ings with  a  Reviewer  (privately  printed  in  1848  and  reis- 
sued in  1882).  His  mat  edition  of  the  Works  of  Francis 
Bacon  was  published  in  7  volf.  in  1857-59.  In  this  he  was 
assisted  by  R.  L.  Ellis  and  D.  D.  Heath.  In  1870-76  he 
published  a  Life  and  Letters  of  Francis  Bacon,  including 
all  his  occasional  writings,  also  In  7  vols. ;  and  in  1878  Life 
and  Times  of  Francis  Bacon  (2  vols.).  Besides  his  work 
on  Bacon  he  was  the  author  of  Publishers  and  Authors 
(1867)  and  Reviews  and  Discussions  (1869).  D.  in  London, 
Mar.  9,  1881.  H.  A.  Beers. 

Speech :  See  Language  and  Acoustics  ( TTie  Voice). 

Speed,  James:  lawyer;  b.  in  Jefferson  co.,  Ky.,  Mar.  11, 
1812;  graduated  at  St.  Joseph's  College  1828;  studied  law 
at  Transylvania  University;  began  its  practice  at  Louisville 
1833;  was  a  member  of  the  Legislature  in  1847,  State  Sena- 
tor 1861,  U.  S.  Attorney-General  Nov.,  1864-Julv,  1866,  and 
in  the  same  year  was  chosen  president  of  the  I^hiladelphia 
Loyalists'  convention ;  was  Professor  of.  Law  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Louisville.     D.  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  June  25,  1887. 

Speed,  John  :  antiquary ;  b.  at  Farrington,  Cheshire,  Eng- 
lan<f,  in  1542;  was  a  tailor  in  London  until  late  in  life,  but 
at  the  same  time  was  amassing  an  extensive  knowledge  of 
English  antiquities,  and  was  enabled  by  Sir  Fulke  Greville 
to  publish  a  costly  and  valuable  series  of  works.  He  pub- 
lished anonymously  about  1590  a  treatise  on  the  Genealogies 
of  the  Scriptures,  afterward  prefixed  to  the  first  e<lition  of 
King  James's  Hible  (1611),  but  his  first  appearance  as  an 
author  was  in  1608,  when  he  printed  fifty-four  maps  of  va- 
rious counties  and  cities,  and  engravings  of  antiijuities  of 
England  and  Wales,  which  were  inrorpornted  into  77ie 
Theatre  of  the  Empire  of  Great  Britain  (folio,  1611).  In 
the  same  year  he  publishini  his  Hifttory  of  Great  Britain 
under  the  Coni^uests  of  the  Romans.  Sasons,  Danes,  and 
Normans.     I),  in  London,  July  28,  1629. 

Speedwell:  a  plant  of  the  genus  Veronica  of  the  family 
Scrophulariacece.  The  species  are  very  numemus,  compris- 
ing annual  and  perennial  herbaceous  plants  and  small  shrubs, 


662 


SPEICHBRN 


natiyes  of  temperate  and  cold  climates  in  all  piarts  of  the 
globe,  some  of  them  growing  in  wet  ditches  or  in  marshes, 
others  on  the  driest  soils,  but  all  having  very  beautiful  blue, 
white,  or  pink  flowers.       Revised  by  Charles  £.  Bessey. 

Spelchern,  or  Spichem :  See  SaarbrOcken. 

Speier :  See  Speter. 

8peke,  John  Hannino:  explorer;  b.  at  Jordans,  Somer- 
setshire, England,  May  4,  1827;  entered  the  army  in  1841 ; 
served  in  India  and  in  the  Crimean  war ;  accompanied  Capt. 
Richard  F.  Burton  in  the  expedition  which  resulted  in  tne 
discovery  of  the  great  lakes  of  Central  Africa,  and  after- 
ward was  at  the  head  of  another  expedition  (with  Capt. 
Grant)  which  discovered  the  connection  of  the  Nile  with 
those  lakes.  Capt.  Speke  published  a  Journal  of  the  Dis- 
covery of  the  Source  of  the  NUe  (1863),  and  What  Led  to  the 
Discovery  of  the  Source  of  the  Nile  (1864) ;  received  gold 
medals  from  the  geographical  societies  of  Prance  (1860)  and 
England  (1861),  and  from  the  King  of  Italy ;  and  was  en- 
gaged after  his  second  expedition  in  a  bitter  controversy 
with  Capt.  Burton  as  to  the  merits  of  their  respective  dis- 
coveries. He  accidentally  shot  himself  near  Bath,  Sept.  15, 
1864,  and  died  on  the  same  day. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Spelman,  Sir  Henrt:  antiauary;  b.  at  Congham,  Nor- 
folk, England,  in  1562;  graduated  at  Cambridge  about 
1580;  studied  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  but  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  archsBoIogy ;  was  in  1604  high  sheriff  of  Norfolk ; 
was  employed  by  James  I.  upon  important  commissions ; 
was  knighted  about  1612,  in  which  year  he  withdrew  from 
public  business  and  settled  in  London ;  published  his  trea- 
tise De  Non  Temerandis  Ecdesiis ;  of  the  Rights  and  Re- 
spects due  to  Churches  (1613).  D.  in  London  in  1641,  and, 
by  special  order  of  Charles  I.,  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  near  the  monument  of  Camden.  Vol.  i.  of  his  Olos- 
sarium  Archceolo^^ieum^  extending  to  the  letter  L,  was  pub- 
lished 1626 ;  vol.  iL,  completed  by  his  son.  Sir  John,  ana  bv 
William  Dugdale,  appeared  in  1664,  and  the  whole  work 
was  issued  in  a  single  folio  volume  in  1687.  Vol.  i.  of  the 
Concilia  was  issued  in  1639 :  vol.  ii.,  chiefly  by  Dugdale,  in 
1664.  The  Reliquice  Spelmannianm  (Oxford,  folio,  1698), 
with  a  Life,  was  edited  by  Bishop  Edmund  Gibson. — His 
son,  Sir  John,  was  knighted  1641  ''  in  consideration  of  his 
father's  good  services  both  to  Church  and  state,"  and  was 
made  master  of  Sutton's  Hospital.  He  edited  the  Saxon 
Psalter  (1641)  and  a  lAfe  of  Alfred  the  Great  (Lat.  trans. 
1678 ;  Eng.  original  edited  by  Thomas  Hearne,  1709).  D.  at 
Oxford,  July  25, 1643. — Edward  Spelman,  a  great-grandson 
of  Sir  Henry,  published  an  elegant  translation  of  Xeno- 
phon's  Anabasis  (1742)  and  of  the  Roman  Antiquities  of 
Dionysius  Halicarnassus  (4  vols.  4to,  1758).  D.  in  Norfolk 
in  1767. 

Spelt  [0.  Eng.  spelts  from  Lat.  spelta,  spelt] :  the  Triti- 
cum  spelia,  probably  the  far  of  the  ancient  Komans  and  the 
tea  of  the  Greeks ;  a  grain  somewhat  resembling  wheat,  but 
distinct  from  it.  It  can  be  grown  on  poorer  soils  than  those 
which  are  required  for  wheat.  It  is  much  raised  in  parts  of 
Europe,  and  crops  of  it  are  occasionally  seen  in  the  U.  S.,  as 
in  Virginia.  In  quality  it  is  much  inferior  to  wheat.  T. 
befhgalense  is  raised  in  India.  Lesser  spelt,  or  St.  Peter's 
corn  (TViticum  monococcum\  called  also  one-grained  wheat, 
is  raised  to  some  extent  on  poor  soils  in  Europe. 

Spelter :  the  commercial  name  for  zinc  in  pigs  or  blocks. 
See  Zinc. 

Spencer :  city ;  capital  of  Owen  co.,  Ind. ;  on  the  White 
river,  and  the  Penn.  Kailroad ;  52  miles  S.W.  of  Indianapolis 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  8-C).  It  is  in  an  ag- 
ricultural, stock-raising,  and  lumbering  region ;  has  valua- 
ble building-stone  quarries,  block  and  cannel  coal  mines, 
woolen,  flour,  saw,  and  planing  mills,  machine-shops,  and 
pork-packing  house ;  and  contains  a  State  bank  with  capital 
of  $50,000,  a  private  bank,  and  two  weeklv  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,655 ;  (1890)  1,868. 

Spencer :  town ;  capital  of  Clay  co.,  la. ;  on  the  Little 
Sioux  river,  and  the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.  Railwav ;  80  miles 
N.  W.  of  Port  Dodge  (for  location,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref. 
2-E).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  stock-raising  region,  and 
contains  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $100,000,  a  State 
bank  with  capital  of  $25,000,  2  pnvate  banks,  and  3  weekly 
newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  1,392  ;  (1890)  1,818. 

Spencer :  town ;  Worcester  co.,  Mass. ;  on  the  Boston 
and  Albany  Railroad ;  11  miles  S.  W.  of  Worcester,  one  of 


SPENCER 

the  county-seats  (for  location,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref. 
3-F).  It  contains  a  public  high  school,  the  Richard  Sullen 
Public  Library  (founded  in  1857),  electric  railway, a  nation- 
al bank  with  capital  of  $150,000,  a  savings-bank,  and  thrvi- 
weekly  newspapers.  The  principal  industries  are  the  manu- 
facture of  shoes  and  wire.  Here,  it  is  claimed,  is  the  larg('>t 
shoe-factory  in  the  world.  Spencer  was  originally  in  tht- 
^nt  of  Leicester;  was  made  the  West  Parish  of  Leic<^Nt*•^ 
in  1744;  incorporated  as  a  town  under  its  present  name  ii: 
1753;  and  its  first  church  was  organized  in  1744  Pop.  (1HM»» 
7,466 ;  (1890)  3,747.  Editor  of  "  Lk^er." 

Spencer,  Herbert:  philosopher;  b,  in  Derbv,  England. 
Apr.  27, 1820 ;  was  an  only  surviving  child.    His  father  and 
grandfather  were  teachers.    Of  delicate  health  in  boyhocKl. 
he  was  subiected  to  little  outside  pressure,  his  father,  a  man 
of  strong  character,  more  than  usual  breadth  of  culture,  an«l 
original  views,  supervising  his  early  education,  but  leaviii:^ 
him  very  much  to  himself.    At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  wa.^ 
sent  to  study  with  an  uncle,  the  Rev.  Thomas  Spencer,  a 
liberal  clergyman  and  a  scholar,  at  that  time  perpetual  curate 
of  Hinton  Charterhouse,  near  Bath.     Here  ne  reroaini-d 
three  years,  carrying  on  the  study  of  natural  history,  begun 
in  early  childhood  under  his  father's  encouragement,  anci 
devoting  himself  to  mathematics,  where  the  originalitv  of 
his  mind  was  strikingly  shown  by  the  development  of  & 
taste  and  capacity  for  working  out  original  problems.     He 
then,  too,  became  familiar  with  physical  and  chemical  opera- 
tions, his  intellectual  bias  being  strongly  in  the  direction  uf 
experimental  inquiry  and  original  research.    Deciding,  in 
opposition  to  his  uncle's  wishes,  not  to  prepare  himself  for 
a  university  career,  he  returned  to  Derby,  where  he  was 
busied  for  a  short  time  with  inventions  and  miscellanecnis 
study,  and,  after  a  brief  interval  of  teaching,  in  1837  enterr^l 
the  office  of  Sir  Charles  Pox,  and  began  work  as  a  civil 
engineer.    After  this  he  was  engaged  for  several  years  on 
railways,  devoting  his  spare  time  to  scientific  expennii^nt.- 
and  studies,  and  to  occasional  contributions  to  The  Cin' 
Engineer  and  Architect's  Journal.    The  first  indication  •  f 
his  awakening  interest  in  other  directions  was  given  in  l^e 
by  the  publication   in  The  Noncoihformist  of  a  series  of 
letters  on  The  Proper  Sphere  of  Qovemment.    These  wen- 
reprinted  in  pamphlet  form  during  the  following  year,  and 
are  interesting  as  containing,  in  crude  form,  the  first  sugges- 
tions of  many  opinions  on  social  Questions  afterward  so 
fully  developed  m  his  maturer  works.    Growing  discour- 
aged with  the  prospects  of  his  profession,  he  present! v  gave 
up  engineering  work  and   moved  to  London,   where    he 
secured  a  position  on  the  staff  of  The  Economist  newspatx^r, 
of  which  m  1848  he  became  sub-editor.    In  1850  he  pub^ 
lished  his  first  considerable  work.  Social  Statics^  which  wa*; 
largely  a  development  in  more  scientific  form  of  the  ethical 
and  sociological  ideas  contained  in  his  letters  on  govern- 
ment.   The  work  was  a  treatise  on  social  science,  bas»^d 
upon  the  conception  of  the  evolution  of  society  through 
the  operation  of  natural  laws ;  and,  though  Spencer  after- 
ward grew  dissatisfied  with  its  metaphysical  implications,  it 
excited  widespread  interest  at  the  time  on  account  of  its 
original  and  advanced  views.    He  then  devoted  himself  to 
literary  work,  contributing  elaborate  articles  on   a  large 
varietv  of  subjects  to  the  leading  Engli^  reviews.      But 
though  the  subiect-matter  of  his  work  led  him  into  widely 
diversified  fields  of  knowledge  and  inquiry,  his  course  of 
thought  was  systematic ;  and  the  numerous  masterly  essays 
which  he  published  from  1852  to  1860  were  mainly  devotvd 
to  the  elaboration  and  application  to  various  important 
questions  of  the  principle  of  evolution.    These  papers  re- 
appeared in  the  U.  S.  in  the  collections  entitled  Illwiratitms 
of   Unix^rsal    Progress;    Essays,  Morale    Political,    and 
JSsthetic ;  Edu4iation,  Intellectual,  Moral,  and  Physical ; 
and  Recent  Discussions  in  Science,  Philosophy,  and  JioraJA, 
In  1855  Spencer  published  a  very  able  and  original  work 
entitled  The  Principles  of  Psychology,  pronounced  by  J.  S. 
Mill  to  be  "  the  finest  example  we  possess  of  the  psycholog- 
ical method  in  its  full  power."    In  this  work  (afterward  in- 
cluded in  his  larger  treatise  on  the  same  subject)  the  doc- 
trine of  evolution  was  applied  to  the  science  of  mind.    Life 
is  conceived  as  **  the  definite  combination  of  heterogeneous 
changes,  both  simultaneous  and  successive,  in  correspond- 
ence with  external  coexistences  and  sequences";  and  the 
ground  taken  is  therefore  that  mental  faculties  throughout 
the  whole  scale  of  animal  life,  from  lowest  to  highest,  have 
been  developed  by  experience  through  the  intercourse  of 
organisms  with  their  environment,  the  principles  of  variatioa 


664 


SPENCER 


SPENEB 


development.  Eiffht  out  of  the  propoBed  eighteen  parts  of 
this  were  produced,  and  then,  owing  to  the  enormous  expense 
incurred  and  the  scanty  public  support,  Spencer  found  him- 
self forced  to  relinfjuish  the  undertaking.  The  astounding  ex- 
tent of  Spencer*s  life  labors  becomes  all  the  more  manrelous 
when  one  considers  the  impaired  health  which  has  for  many 
years  past  incapacitated  him  for  regular  and  pjersistent 
work.  His  life  has  thus  necessarily  been  a  yeryretired  and, 
externally  considered,  a  very  uneventful  one.  He  has  never 
married,  'and  has  uniformly  declined  all  university  honors 
and  invitations  to  join  scientific  societies.  He  visited  the 
U.  S.  in  1882,  remaining  from  August  to  November.  See 
PosmvisM.  William  Henby  Hudson. 

Spencer,  Jesse  Ames,  D.  D.  :  educator  and  author ;  b.  at 
Hyde  Park,  N.  Y.,  June  17,  1816 ;  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  1837 ;  studied  theology  at  the  Qeneral  Seminary  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church ;  was  ordained  1840 ;  was 
rector  of  St.  James's  church,  Goshen,  N.  Y.,  1840-42;  Pro- 
fessor of  Latin  and  of  Oriental  Ijanguages  at  Burlington  Col- 
lege, New  Jersey,  1849-50 ;  editor  and  secretary  of  the  Epis- 
copal Sunday-school  Union  and  Church  Book  Society  Idol- 
s'? :  declined  the  vice-presidency  of  Troy  University  1868 ; 
was  rector  of  St.  Paul's,  Flatbush,  L.  I.,  1868-65,  and  was 
from  1869  Professor  of  Greek  in  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York.  He  was  the  author  of  a  volume  of  religious 
Discourses  (1843);  History  of  the  English  Reformation 
(1846) ;  The  East,  Sketches  of  Travel  in  Egypt  and  the 
Holy  Land  (1850) ;  a  widely  circulated  History  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  (4  vols.,  1856-69);  Greek  Praxis  (1870);  and  A 
Course  of  Efiglish  Reading  (1873).  Dr.  Spencer  was  editor 
of  The  Youno  Churchman's  Miscellany  (1846-68);  of  6 
vols,  of  the  Classical  Series  of  Thomas  K.  Arnold  (1846- 
50) ;  of  a  New  Testament  in  Greek  (1847),  with  notes;  CfB- 
sar's  Commentaries  (1848),  with  notes  and  a  lexicon;  of 
Pycroft*s  Course  of  Reading  (1844);  of  Archbishop  Trench's 
Poems  (1856) ;  of  a  new  edition  of  Prof.  Alpheus  Crosby's 
Anahasis  (1875);  and  Origen's  Works  (vol.  iv.  in  Ante- 
Nicene  Library,  1885).  Revised  by  W.  S.  Peeey. 

Spencer,  John,  D.  D.  :  b.  at  Bocton,  Kent,  England,  in 
1630 ;  educated  at  the  King's  School,  Canterbury ;  graduated 
at  (Cambridge  about  1650 ;  obtained  a  fellowship  at  Corpus 
Christi  College  1655;  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  became  rector  of  Landbeach,  master  of  Corpus,  and 
archdeacon  of  Sudbury  1667 ;  prebendary  of  Ely  1672  and 
dean  of  Ely  1677.  D.  at  Cambridge,  May  27, 1695.  He  was 
the  author  of  A  Discourse  concerning  Prodigies  (1663 ;  2d 
ed.  1665) ;  Dissertatio  de  Urim  et  Thummin  (1669).  He  is 
best  remembered  bv  his  De  Le^ihus  Hebraorum  Ritualibus 
et  earum  Rationibus  (Cambridge.  1685),  a  work  of  great 
learning  which  excited  much  controversy.  It  maintained 
that  the  Hebrew  ritual  was  almost  entirely  borrowed  from 
the  Egyptian — a  view  previously  upheld  by  Maimonides  in 
his  More  Nevochim,  and  by  Sir  John  Marsham  in  his  Canon 
Chronicus  ^gyptiacus,  aef ended  bv  Bishop  Warburton 
and  combated  by  Witsius,  Shuckford,  Dr.  Woodward,  and 
William  Jones  of  Nayland,  but  now  abandoned.  Editions 
of  this  work  were  published  at  The  Hague  (1686),  and  at 
Leipzig  (1705).  A  new  edition,  brought  out  by  Dr.  Leonard 
Chap{)elow  (Cambridge,  2  vols.,  1727),  contained  a  supple- 
mentary book  (the  fourth)  left  in  MS.  by  the  author,  and 
the  whole  work,  with  a  memoir  and  a  commentary  by  C.  M. 
Pfafl,  was  published  at  Tttbingen  (2  vols.,  1732). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Spencer,  John  Canfield,  LL.D. :  lawyer ;  son  of  Ambrose 
Spencer  (1765-1848),  chief  justice  of  the  State  of  New  York ; 
b.  at  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  8,  1788 ;  graduated  at  Union  Col- 
lege 1806;  was  private  secretary  to  Gov.  Daniel  D.  Tomp- 
kins 1807-08 ;  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Canandaigua  1809 ;  be- 
came master  in  chancery  1811,  judge-advocate-general  on 
the  northern  frontier  1813,  assistant  attorney-general  for 
Western  New  York  1815,  member  of  Congress  1817-19,  of 
the  State  Assembly  1819-20,  being  Speaker  the  latter  year; 
State  Senator  1824-28 ;  commissioner  to  revise  the  statutes 
of  New  York  1829 ;  special  attorney-general  to  prosecute  the 
murderers  of  William  Morgan ;  was  secret-ary  of  State  and 
superintendent  of  common  schools  1839-41 ;  Secretary  of 
War  under  President  Tyler  from  Oct.,  1841,  to  Mar.,  1843, 
when  he  was  transferred  to  the  Treasury  Department ;  re- 
signed the  latter  post  1844  in  consequence  of  liis  opposition 
to  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  thenceforth  devoted  himself 
to  the  practice  of  his  profession.  The  organization  of  the 
State  asylum  for  idiots  and  the  improvement  of  the  common- 
school  system  were  largely  due  to  him,  and  he  served  on 


many  Important  State  commissions.  He  edited,  with  a  pref- 
ace and  notes,  de  Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  America  (2 
vols.,  New  York,  1838),  and  with  John  Duer  and  Benjamin 
F.  Butler  a  Revision  of  the  Statutes  of  New  York  (3  vols., 
Albany,  1846).    D.  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  May  18, 1855. 

Spencer,  John  Charles,  third  Earl  Spencer,  better  known 
as  Lord  Althorp :  statesman ;  b.  May  30,  1782 ;  eldest  son 
of  Georee  John,  second  Earl  of  Spencer ;  educated  at  Har> 
row  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge ;  was  elected  to  Par- 
liament 1804 ;  held  office  under  Fox  as  Junior  Lord  of  the 
Treasury  from  Feb.  11, 1806  to  Mar.,  1807 ;  sat  in  Parliament 
for  the  county  of  Northampton  from  Dec.,  1806,  till  the  pass- 
age of  the  Ketorm  Bill  1832,  during  which  lon^  period  he 
was  one  of  the  leading  members  of  the  opposition ;  was  es- 
pecially prominent  in  the  attacks  npon  the  financial  policy  of 
the  Tor^r  administrations ;  was  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
and  ministerial  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  the  re- 
form ministry  of  Earl  Grev  1830-34 ;  succeeded  his  father  as 
Earl  Spencer  in  Nov.,  1884,  and  soon  afterward  withdrew 
from  active  political  life;  devoted  himself  to  scientific 
agriculture;  was  many  years  president  of  the  Smithfield 
Cattle  Club ;  was  one  of  the  founders  and  the  first  president 
of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  1888 ;  was  an  active  mem- 
ber of  the  Roxburghe  Club  for  reprinting  rare  books ;  and 
vice-chairman  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge.  D.  at  Wiseton  Hall,  Nottinghamshire,  Oct,  1, 
1845.  See  Bagehot,  Biographical  Studies  (1881),  and  Mvera, 
Lord  Althorp  (1890).  F.  M.  Colby. 

Spencer,  John  Poyntz,  Earl :  statesman ;  b.  at  Spencer 
House,  London,  Oct,  27, 1835 ;  educated  at  Harrow  ana  Cam- 
brid^;  entered  Parliament  1857,  but  succeeded  to  the  peer- 
age m  the  same  year ;  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland  186(:{-74 ; 
Lord  President  of  the  Council  1880 ;  again  Lord-Lieutenant 
of  Ireland  1882-85 ;  for  a  second  time  Lord  President  of  the 
Council  in  the  Gladstone  administration  1886;  First  Lord 
of  the  Admiralty  in  the  Gladstone  government  of  1892. 

Spencer,  Saba  (Andrews) :  reformer ;  b.  at  Savona,  N.  Y., 
Oct  21, 1837 ;  educated  in  nigh  and  normal  schools  in  St. 
Louis,  Mo. ;  was  a  teacher  from  the  age  of  sixteen  till  her 
marriage  in  1864  with  Henry  C.  Spencer.  They  removed  to 
Washington,  D.  C,  where  they  founded  a  Spencerian  Business 
College.  In  1871-72  Mrs.  Spencer  defeatisd  attempts  to  li- 
cense the  "social  evil"  in  Washington.  On  Apr.  14, 1871, 
Mrs.  Spencer  and  seventy-two  other  ladies  in  Washington 
were  refused  the  right  to  register  and  vote.  She  brought  suit 
in  the  D.  C.  Supreme  Court,  and  Judee  Cartter^s  decision  that 
"  women  are  citizens,  but  have  not  tlie  right  to  vote  without 
local  legislation"  was  reaffirmed  by  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  in  1874.  Mrs.  Spencer  represented  the  National 
Woman's  Suffra^  Association  at  the  Republican  presiden- 
tial convention  in  Cincinnati  in  1876,  aadressing  the  plat- 
form committee  and  the  convention ;  engrossed,  signed,  and 
with  five  other  women  presented  the  woman's  Declaration 
of  Rights  at  the  Centennial  celebration  in  Independence 
Square,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  4, 1876.  She  was  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  first  seven  congresses  of  women  1878-00,  repre- 
senting the  District  of  Columbia ;  was  official  delegate  from 
the  District  to  national  conference  of  charities  seven  years, 
1881-88 ;  since  the  death  of  her  husband  in  1891  has  been 

E resident  and  pro{)rietor  of  Spencerian  Business  College, 
district  of  Columbia.  She  has  published  Problems  on  the 
Woman  Question  (Washington,  1871)  and  Thirty  Lesforis 
in  the  Eiuflish  Language  (1873).  Susan  B.  Anthoxy. 

Spencer  Rifle:  a  breech-loading  magazine-gun,  exten- 
sively used  as  an  arm  for  the  Union  cavalry  during  the  civil 
war  in  the  U.  S.  It  is  characterized  by  having  in  the  butt 
of  the  stock  a  magazine  holding  seven  cartridges,  which  are 
brought  one  by  one  into  the  chamber  by  a  movement  of  the 
trigger-guard  as  a  lever,  which  at  the  same  time  throws  out 
the  shell  of  the  exploded  cartridge.  A  new  magazine  can  l»e 
inserted  whenever  the  cartridges  have  been  exhausted,  or  the 
magazine  may  be  shut  off  and  the  rifie  used  as  a  single 
breech-loader.    See  Maoazine-guns. 

Spener,  Philipp  Jakob  :  "  The  Father  of  Pietism  " ;  b.  at 
Rappoltsweiler,  Upper  Alsace,  Jan.  13,  1635;  studied  at 
Strassburg,  Tubingen,  and  Basel,  princi|)ally  theology ;  be- 
came private  tutor  to  the  princes  Christian  and  Charles  of 
the  Piuatinate,  and  pastor  in  Strassburg  and  lecturer  in  the 
university  in  philology  and  history  1663 ;  was  appointed  first 
pastor  in  1666  at  Frankfort,  where  he  instituteii  his  famous 
co/^^ia/neifa/i«  (prayer-meetings),  which  finally  brought  him 
into  confiict  with  the  orthodox  clergy ;  became  preacher  to 


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SPERMAPHYTES 


SPHINCTfiB 


ification  (see  Fats)  cetyl  alcohol  and  palmitic  acid.  The 
ethereal  nature  of  spermaceti  was  distinctly  recognized  by 
Ohevreul  (Recherehes  sur  lea  Corfja  gras).  Spermaceti  was  for- 
merly much  used  in  the  production  of  sperm-candles,  which 
are  no  longer  so  common  as  in  the  prosperous  days  of  the 
sperm-whale  fisheries,  the  decline  of  which  dates  from  the 
general  introduction  of  refined  petroleum  and  paraffin.  Sper- 
maceti bums  with  a  bright,  clear  fiame  like  wax.  The 
standard  sperm-candle,  which  is  the  common  unit  of  com- 
parison for  photometric  experiments  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
U.  S.,  is  taken  to  bum  120  grains  of  sperm  in  an  hour,  which 
it  rarely  does  with  accuracy.         Revised  by  Ira  Rehsex. 

Sper^maphytes  [from  Gr.  tnr^p/ua,  seed+^vr^i^, plant]:  an- 
other name  for  the  Anthophytes  (g.  v.). 

Spermatozo'a  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  <rw4ptM,  seed  +  Cfop  (plur. 
(^),  animal,  living  creature] :  the  male  reproductive  cells 
of  animals,  which  by  union  with  the  female  cell  (egg)  render 
the  latter  able  to  develop.  They  consist  largely  of  the  cell- 
nucleus  with  the  addition  of  other  accessory  structures  to 
facilitate  the  union  with  the  egg  (impregnation).  In  shape 
they  vary  greatly,  but  the  most  common  shape  recalls  tne 
tadpole.  In  these  forms  there  is  a  head,  composed  of  the  nu- 
cleus, followed  by  a  "  middle  piece,"  and  this  in  turn  by  the 
tail,  which  may  either  be  thread-like,  or  may  have  an  un- 
dulatory  membrane  attached  to  it.  (Jsually  the  spermato- 
zoa have  the  power  of  motion,  by  means  of  the  vibrations  of 
the  tail,  but  in  some  forms  they  are  motionless.  Recent  in- 
vestigations show  that  both  nucleus  and  "  middle  piece  "  are 
concerned  in  impregnation;  the  tail  and  analogous  struc- 
tures play  no  part  after  the  union.  J.  S.  ^ngsley. 

Sperm  Oil :  See  Oils  and  Spebhaceti. 

Spermophile:  any  rodent  of  the  genus  SpermophUua, 
See  Prairie-squirrel. 

Sperm-whale :  See  Cachalot  and  PHYssTERiDiE. 

Spessartite :  See  Garnet. 

Speasip'pns  (iu  Gr.  Svc^o'inos^  :  philosopher ;  b.  at 
Athens  about  395  b.  c. ;  a  nephew  of  Plato ;  received  the  in- 
struction of  his  uncle,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Syracuse, 
and  succeeded  as  president  of  the  Academy.  D.  at  Athens 
in  339  B.  c.    Of  his  writings  nothing  is  left.        J.  R.  S.  S. 

Speyer,  or  Speier,  spi'er :  city  and  railway  junction ; 
capital  of  Rhenish  Bavaria,  at  the  junction  of  the  Speyer- 
bach  with  the  Rhine  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  6-D). 
It  has  some  susfar-refineries  and  manufactures  of  vinegar 
and  tobacco,  and  carries  on  an  active  trade  in  grain,  timl^r, 
and  wine  on  the  Rhine.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Ger- 
many, and  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  German  emperors  often 
resided  and  held  their  diets  here.  Nevertheless,  it  has  only 
one  monumental  building,  the  cathedral,  erected  in  the 
eleventh  century,  thoroughly  restored  in  1858,  and  one  of 
the  finest  church  buildings  of  Germany.  The  other  great 
edifices  Speyer  once  possessed  were  destroyed  by  the  French, 
who  twice  conquered  and  devastated  the  city.  Pop.  (1890) 
17,585.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Spezla,  spat'si-i& :  town ;  in  the  orovince  of  Genoa,  Italy  -, 
beautifully  situated  on  a  gulf  of  tne  same  name  in  lat.  44'* 
7  N.,  Ion.  9°  48'  E.  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  4-C).  The  old 
walls  and  gates  of  Spezia  have  been  mostly  demolished  in 
the  course  of  the  changes  necessitated  by  the  rapid  growth 
of  the  town  consequent  upon  the  construction  of  the  naval 
arsenal.  The  town  is  the  chief  naval  station  of  Italy  and 
is  defended  by  formidable  batteries;  it  has  extensive  ship- 
building yards,  docks,  etc.,  a  foundry,  and  manufactures  of 
sail-cloth,  white  lead,  cables,  and  leather.  It  is  the  seat  of 
a  school  of  navigation,  and  is  much  frequented  as  a  seaside 
resort.    Pop.  about  19,860. 

Spezzia,  spet'si-aa :  an  island  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf 
of  Nauplia,  Greece ;  has  a  fine  harbor ;  became  distinguished 
in  the  Greek  revolution  (1821-29).  The  inhabitants  are  most- 
ly engaged  in  commerce  and  navigation.  Area,  26  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  (1890)  5,192.  E.  A.  G. 

Sphag'nam  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  v^Jeywot^  a  kind  of  moss] : 
a  large  and  interesting  genus  of  mosses,  many  species  of 
which  grow  in  the  U.  S.,  mainly  in  bogs,  forming  deep, 
spongy  masses,  almost  always  damp.  They  are  called  peat- 
mosses, being  the  principal  ingreaient  in  pure  peat.  See 
Mossworts.  Revi^  by  Charles  E.Bessey. 

Spheg'idn  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  irregularly  from  Sphex, 
the  typical  genus,  from  Gr.  o-^f,  o-^ir^t,  wasp] :  a  family  of 
hymenopterous  insects,  including  the  so-called  sand-wasps 
and  mud- wasps.    See  Htmenoptera. 


Sphenis'cldn :  See  Penguin. 

Sphen'odon :  See  Hatteria. 

Sphenoid  Bone  [sphenoid  is  from  Gr.  ^^r,  wedge  -¥■ 
suffix  -oid,  like] :  a  bone  of  the  skull,  situated  m  man  at  the 
anterior  part  of  the  base.  It  has  been  likened  in  shape  to  a 
bat  with  open  wings.  It  consists  of  a  body,  four  wings,  two 
greater  and  two  less,  and  the  two  pterygoid  processes. 
The  bodv  is  quadrilateral,  and  hollowed  out  into  &  mere 
shell.  This  body  is  conceived  to  represent  the  centrum  of 
the  third  cephahc  vertebra  (constituting  the  posterior  j)or- 
tion  of  the  sphenoid),  joined  to  the  centrum  of  the  second 
vertebra  (the  anterior  portion).  The  two  greater  wings  are 
the  neurapophyses  of  the  thirid  vertebra,  and  the  two  lesser 
wings  are  neurapophyses  of  the  second  vertebra.  The  sphe- 
noid is  exceedingly  complicated  and  irregular  in  its  outlines. 
It  is  developed  from  ten  centers.  It  is  usually  joined  ante- 
riorly in  the  adult  to  the  two  sphenoidal  spongy  bones:  (a 
pair  of  thin,  curved  irreeular  plates).  Posteriorly,  it  lie- 
comes  continuously  united  to  tne  occipital  bone.  It  artic- 
ulates with  all  the  bones  of  the  skull  and  with  five  of  tho^ 
of  the  face. 

Sphere  [(readapted  to  Latin)  <  M.  Eng.  spere^  via  O,  Fr. 
from  Lat.  sphcera  =  Gr.  tr^pa^  ball,  sphere) :  a  surface  all  of 
whose  points  are  equally  distant  from  a  point  within  called 
the  center.  It  may  be  generated  by  a  semicircle  revolvine 
about  its  diameter  as  an  axis.  Any  line  from  the  center  to 
a  point  of  the  surface  is  a  radius^  and  any  line  drawn 
through  the  center  and  limited  by  the  surface  is  a  diameter : 
all  radii  of  the  same  sphere  are  equal ;  also  all  diameters  of 
the  same  sphere  are  equal.  Every  plane  section  of  a  sphere 
is  a  circle ;  if  the  plane  passes  through  the  center,  the  sec- 
tion is  called  a  ^reaf  circle ;  if  it  does  not  pass  through  the 
center,  the  section  is  called  a  amcUl  circle;  the  radius  of  & 
great  circle  is  equal  to  that  of  the  sphere ;  the  radios  of  a 
small  circles  may  have  any  value  from  the  radius  of  the 
sphere  to  0,  in  which  case  the  cutting  plane  mei^ges  into  a 
tangent  plane.  The  surface  of  a  sphere  is  equal  to  four 
great  circles,  or  it  is  equal  to  the  circumference  of  a  great 
circle  multiplied  by  its  diameter.  The  surface  of  a  zone, 
viz.,  the  portion  of  surface  included  between  two  parallel 
planes,  is  equal  to  the  circumference  of  a  great  circle  mul- 
tiplied by  the  altitude  of  the  zone.  The  volume  of  a  sphere 
is  equal  to  its  surface  multiplied  by  one-third  of  its  radius. 
The  volume  of  a  spherical  sector  is  equal  to  the  zone  which 
forms  its  base  multiplied  by  one-third  of  the  radius  of  the 
sphere. 

In  analysis,  the  surface  of  a  sphere  is  a  surface  of  the 
second  order,  whose  equation  in  rectangular  Cartesian  co- 
ordinates is  of  the  form 

(jc-a)»  +  (y-/3)»  +  («-7)'  =  i?, 
in  which  a,  /3,  and  y  are  the  co-ordinates  of  the  center,  and  R 
is  the  radius  of  the  sphere.  Revised  by  S.  Newcoxb. 

Spherical  Trigonometry:  See  Trigonometry. 

Sphe'roid  [from  Gr.  o-^oipa,  sphere  +  suffix  -otd,  likej :  a 
surface  generated  by  an  ellipse  revolving  about  one  or  its 
principal  axes.  If  the  ellipse  revolves  about  its  conjugate 
axis,  It  generates  a  surface  resembling  a  flattened  sphere 
called  an  oblate  spheroid ;  if  it  revolves  about  its  transver>^ 
axis,  it  generates  an  elongated  surface  called  a  prolate  sphe- 
roid. The  surface  of  the  earth  is  very  approximately  an  ob- 
late spheroid. 

Spheroidal  State :  See  Heat  and  Liquids. 

Spherom'eter :  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  radius 
of  a  sphere  when  only  a  portion  of  the  soherical  surface,  as. 
for  instance,  a  lens,  is  ^ven.  The  usual  form  consists  of  s 
vertical  screw  turning  m  a  socket,  which  is  equidistant  from 
three  supporting  legs  with  sharp  steel  points.  Above  the 
sockets  tne  screw  has  a  graduated  circular  head.  The  poiut$ 
of  the  legs  are  brought  in  contact  with  the  spherical  surface, 
and  the  screw  is  turned  until  its  extremity  also  touches  it. 
This  process  is  repeated  with  a  plane.  Thus  the  distance 
between  the  center  of  the  circle  through  the  ends  of  the  legs 
and  its  pole  on  the  sphere  is  obtained,  from  which  the  radius 
of  the  sphere  can  be  calculated.  R.  A.  R. 

Sphincter  [Mod.  Lat,  from  Gr.  v^tyKriip,  anything  which 
binds  tight,  deriv.  of  <r^yy9»,  compress,  squeeze,  bind  tight]: 
in  anatomy,  a  muscle  the  fibers  of  which,  generally  circular, 
surround  some  passage  in  the  animal  organism,  closing  the 
passage,  in  opposition  to  certain  other  muscles  called  dilators. 
Some  of  the  sphincters  are  composed  of  striped  fiber,  some  of 
unstriped,  and  some  of  both  combined.    The  eyes,  pupils, 


flM  t 


M7 


in  \i   uT'    II 


fctn 


f  CMt^lr.  !*i#»iiM^}  *hm!! 


Splrlirrn      -  **i  •  .«  .»t  . »« 
SfiUrt  Ctiit. 


WtM^ 


668 


SPIEGEL 


SPINAL  CARIES 


Orb  web  spider,  Epeira  instUarU. 


both  without  distinct  joints,  and  the  latter,  which  is  joined 
to  the  former  by  a  slender  stalk,  bearing  spinning  mainmilliB 
on  the  hinder  end.  The  cephalothorax  bears  four  pairs  of 
legs  and  two  pairs  of  smaller  appendages,  the  first  of  which 

are  the  poison-jaws,  while 
the  second  are  curiously 
modified  in  the  male  for  re- 
productive purposes.  There 
are  usually  eight  eyes  (some- 
times six  or  fewer)  upon  the 
front  of  the  cephalothorax. 
Respiration  is  accomplished 
by  lungs  or  lungs  and  tra- 
cneie.  When  lungs  alone 
are  present  there  are  two 
pairs  of  these  organs  on  the 
under  side  of  the  abdomen. 
In  other  forms  there  is  a 
single  pair  of  lungs,  the 
other  pair  being  replaced  by 
air-tubes  like  those  of  true 
insects. 

Spiders  are  camiTorous, 
and  live  upon  other  insects 
which  they  kill  by  the  poison  forced  through  the  poison-jaws. 
They  do  not  eat  the  prey,  but  merely  suck  its  juices.  Some 
spiders  hunt  their  prey,  jumping  upon  it  like  a  miniature 
ti^er,  but  the  majority  form  webs  of  silken  threads  covered 
with  a  viscid  substance.  The  shape  and  character  of  these 
webs  varies  exceedingly.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
the  spider  has  a  lair  where  he  can  recognize  any  vibration 
of  the  web,  and  whence  he  can  rush  out  to  further  entangle 
the  prey.  The  web  is  secreted  by  glands  inside  the  body, 
and  as  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  air  in  its  passa^  through 
the  spinning  organs  it  hardens  into  the  familiar  thread, 
which  in  reality  is  a  cable  formed  of  a  number  of  smaller 
fibers.  Besides  its  use  in  forming  webs  the  silk  is  emploj^ed 
in  making  nests,  as  a  means  of  flying,  and  for  the  formation 
of  cocoons  to  contain  the  eggs.  "The  males  are  smaller 
than  the  females,  and  their  approaches  to  the  latter  are 
made  with  extreme  caution,  as  they  run  the  risk  of  being 
devoured ;  extending  their  pedipalps,  they  deposit  the  sper- 
matophores  in  the  female  genital  aperture  ana  betake  them- 
selves to  flight"  {Huxley),  In  their  habits  spiders  are 
amon^  the  most  interesting  of  animals,  well  repaying  ob- 
servation. Besides  the  European  works  of  Thorell  and  Se- 
mon,  the  student  should  consult  papers  by  Emerton,  Trans, 
Connecticut  Accid,  Scietice {\^%-94^ 'y  Peckham,  Trans.Wxa- 
consin  Acad.  Science  (1888) ;  and  McCook,  American  Spi- 
ders (3  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1889-94).  J.  S.  Kinosley. 

Spie'gel,  FaiEDaicH :  Orientalist ;  b.  at  Kitzingen,  near 
Wilrzburg,  Bavaria,  July  11,  1820;  studied  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Erlangen,  Leipzig,  and  Bonn  1838-42,  and  at 
Copenhagen  and  Oxford  1842-47,  and  in  1849  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Oriental  Languages  at  the  University  of  Erlan- 
gen.  Besides  editions  of  vanous  Persian  works  and  gram- 
mars of  the  Old  Persian  and  Old  Bactrian  languages,  he 
published  Eirdeitung  in  die  traditionellen  Schriften  der 
Paraen  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1856-60) ;  Die  Altpersischen  Keilin- 
schriften  (1862;  2d  ed.  1881);  Uran,  das  Land  ztmschen 
Indus  und  Tigris  (1863);  Eranische  Alterthumskunde  (3 
vols.,  Leipzig,  1871-78) ;  vergleichende  Grammattk  der  alt- 
eranischen  Spraehen  (1882) ;  Die  arische  Periods  und  ihre 
Zustdnde  (1887). 

Spiel'taagen,  Friedrich:  novelist;  b.  at  Magdeburg,  Ger- 
many, Feb.  24, 1829 ;  studied  jurisprudence,  and  afterward 
philosophy,  philologv,  and  literature  at  Berlin,  Bonn,  and 
ureifswald;  taught  for  some  time  at  the  university  at  Leip- 
zig, and  finally  devoted  himself  entirely  to  literary  pursuits. 
In  1859  he  removed  from  Leipzig  to  Hanover,  where  he  be- 
came literary  editor  of  the  Zeitung  fur  Norddeutschland ; 
but  in  1862  he  took  up  his  permanent  residence  in  Berlin. 
Spielhagen  has  successiuUy  aspired  to  treat  the  great  ques- 
tions of  the  day  in  a  series  of  novels  distinguished  by  their 
artistic  composition,  their  elegant  style,  and  their  philo- 
sophic thougnt.  The  most  important  of  these  novels,  many 
of  which  have  pasi^ed  through  numerous  editions,  are  Pro- 
blemaiische  Naturen  (1860) ;  Durch  Nachi  zum  Licht  (1861); 
Die  von  Hohenstein  (1863) ;  In  Reih  und  Olied  (1866) ;  Ham- 
mer und  Amhoss  (1869) ;  Sturmflut  (1877) :  Quisisana  (1880) ; 
Angela  (1881) ;  Was  soil  das  werden  (1886) ;  Noblesse  oblige 
(1888) ;  Der  neue  Pharao  (1889).  In  his  excellent  book  Bei- 
irdge  zur  Theorie  und  Technik  des  Romans  (1883),  Spiel- 


hagen attempts  to  fix  the  aesthetic  laws  which  goveni  the 
art  of  novel-writing,  and  in  his  autobiography,  Finder  und 
Erfinder  (1890),  he  gives  a  charming  account  of  the  infin- 
ences  which  conspired  to  make  him  a  novel-writer.  An 
edition  of  selected  novels  appeared  in  1889-92,  comprising 
twenty-three  volumes.  Juuus  Goebel. 

Spiers,  Alexander,  Ph.  D. :  lexicographer:  b.  at  Gosport, 
En^and,  in  1807 ;  graduated  at  the  Universities  of  Paris  ami 
Giessen;  settled  at  Paris  1829;  was  Professor  of  English 
successively  at  the  School  of  Commerce,  at  the  School  nf 
Public  Works  (Ponts  et  Chauss^es),  at  the  Ly<^  Bonaparte 
(1833),  and  at  the  University  of  France ;  became  inspector  of 
collies;  received  from  Napoleon  IIIl  in  1869  the  cross  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor  in  acknowledgment  of  the  value  of  his 
series  of  English  grammars,  and  especially  of  his  standard 
French-English  and  English-French  Dictionary  (Paris  and 
London,  2  vols.,  1846-49),  of  which  two  editions  appeared  iu 
the  U.  S.— one  edited  by  G.  P.  Quackenbos  (New  York,  1852), 
the  other  by  J.  L.  Jewett  (1866).  D.  at  Passy,  near  Paris, 
France,  Aug.  26, 1869. 

Spike  [from  Lat.  spi'ca,  point,  spike,  ear  of  cam,  tuft  or 
head  of  a  plant]  :  in  botany,  a  flower-cluster,  of  the  centrip- 
etal or  indeterminate  order,  in  which  sessile  flowers  are  ar- 
ranged along  an  axis.  The  spadix  and  ament  are  varietifc^ 
of  tne  spike.  The  ears  of  wheat  and  rye  are  familiar  in- 
stances of  the  spike,  which  in  some  instances  is  compound — 
that  is,  contains  many  sessile  spikelets.  When  the  flowers 
are  stalked  instead  of  sessile,  the  spike  becomes  a  raceme. 

Spikenard,  or  Nard  [spikenard  is  spike  (see  Spike)  -k 
nard  <  O.  Eng.  nard,  from  Lat.  nar'dus  =  Gr.  rdipSos ;  of. 
Heb.  nSrdy  Pers.  nard] :  (1)  in  the  East  the  Nardostachyg 
jatamansi,  a  valerianaceous  plant  of  India.  Its  strong  odor 
is  disagreeable  to  most  persons  of  European  and  American 
birth,  but  it  is  considered  very  precious  in  the  East.  Its  me- 
dicinal properties  are  precisely  those  of  valerian.  (2)  Roots  of 
vanous  species  of  valerian  are  exported  from  Europe  to  the 
Levant  under  the  name  of  Frankish  nard,  Celtic  naitl,  and 
mountain  nard.  Cretan  nard  is  also  the  root  of  a  valerian. 
These  are  much  used  in  the  East  as  substitutes  for  the  true 
spikenard.  (3)  In  England  the  fragrant  oil  of  Afuiropoaon 
nardus,  an  EliELst  Indian  grass,  is  call^  oil  of  spikenard,  ft  is 
used  in  perfumery.  (4)  In  the  U.  S.  the  name  spikenard  is 
given  to  Aralia  racemosa,  and  the  A.  nudieauii^,  or  false 
sarsaparilla,  is  called  small  spikenard.  They  have  each  a 
limited  use  in  domestic  medicine. 

Spike,  Oil  of :  the  volatile  oil  of  the  Lavandtda  spiea^ 
the  oroad-leaf  lavender  of  Europe.  It  has  an  odor  much 
like  that  of  oil  of  turpentine.  It  is  used  by  artists  in  pre- 
paring their  varnishes,  and  by  veterinarians  as  a  horse  med- 
icine. Much  of  the  commercial  oil  of  spike  is  an  entirely 
factitious  mixture,  of  which  oil  of  turpentine  is  the  basis.  ' 

Spinach,  or  Spinage :  the  Spinada  oleraeea^  a  chenopodi- 
aceous  Old  World  herb,  much  cultivated  in  nearlv  ail  parts 
of  the  world  as  a  potherb,  especially  for  use  in  the  spring. 
There  are  about  twenty  varieties  grown  in  the  U.  S.  Other 
plants  of  this  and  of  other  genera  having  similar  uses  are 
locally  called  by  this  name. 

Spinal  Caries,  or  Potts's  Disease  of  the  Spine :  an 

inflammatory  condition  of  the  vertebne,  a  sponoylitis.  de- 
structive in  its  nature,  usually  tuberculous  in  character,  and 
slow  in  its  course.  A  slight  injury  is  often  suflScient  to 
awaken  the  process  in  an  individual  predisposed  to  struma. 
Gradual  disintegration  of  the  bodies  of  one  or  more  verte- 
bne takes  place  with  subsequent  bending,  which  produces  a 
kyphosis  or  sharp  projection  backward.  The  earlv  symp- 
toms are  colickv  pains  in  the  abdomen  (often  mistaken  f<»r 
indigestion),  reflex  pains  in  the  limbs,  and  a  peculiar  rigidity 
of  the  back  in  walking  and  stooping.  If  the  disease  is  situ- 
ated in  the  cervical  or  upper  aorsal  regions,  an  irritative 
cough  is  often  among  the  earliest  symptoms. 

Tne  name  Potts's  disease  was  ^ven  to  this  affection  from 
the  fact  that  Dr.  Percival  Potts,  in  1779,  was  the  first  phy- 
sician  to  de^ribe  accurately  this  special  condition  of  the 
bones  which  gives  rise  to  the  hunch-back  deformity.  That 
this  disease  existed  in  prehistoric  times  is  evidenced  by  the 
specimens  in  the  Peabody  Museum  at  Cambridge,  Mass. 

The  treatment  consists  in  keeping  the  diseasM  bones  per- 
fectly at  rest  until  nature  throws  a  bony  bridge  across  the 
diseased  gap  and  anchyloses  the  spine.  This  result  may  he 
accomplished  by  placing  the  patient  continuously  in 'the 
recumoent  posture,  or  by  the  application  of  a  steel'support, 
a  hard  leather  or  rigid  jacket,  plaster-of-Paris  splint>,  or  other 


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670 


SPINET 


SPINOZA 


Jacopo  di  Casentino,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  surpassed  his 
master.  It  is  supposed  that  in  1347  he  was  assisting  his 
master  to  decorate  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella  in 
Florence  with  frescoes  representing  the  Virgin  and  St.  An- 
thony. Of  these  little  remains.  &)me  scenes  from  the  life 
of  St.  Benedict,  by  Spinello,  at  San  Miniato,  near  Florence, 
«re  still  in  good  preservation.  These  were  painted  in  1384, 
when  Spinello  took  refuee  in  Florence  after  the  sack  of 
Arezzo.  Before  this  date  ne  had  decorated  man^  churches 
in  his  native  city ;  in  San  Francesco  an  Annunciation  still 
exists  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Michael.  He  painted  a  fantastic 
composition  of  the  archangel  driving  Lucifer  from  henven, 
a  fragment  of  which  fresco  is  in  the  National   Gallery, 


panel  lor  the  abbey 
The  side-frescoes  for  the  altar  of  Monte  Oliveto  Majggiore 
of  Chiusi  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Ramboux  collection  at 
Cologne.  In  1387  Spinello  was  invited  to  Pisa  to  work  in 
the  Campo  Santo  there,  and  painted  pictures  considered  his 
masterpieces,  but  now  nearly  destroyed.  He  left  Pisa  on 
account  of  political  disturbances,  and  after  a  year  in  Flor- 
ence he  returned  to  Arezzo  about  1394.  Here  he  worked, 
decorating  many  churches  with  frescoes  till  1405,  when  he 
went  with  his  son  and  assistant,  Parri,  to  Sienna,  to  paint  the 
series  of  frescoes  still  preserved  in  the  town-hall  of  that  city. 
The  last  that  is  heard  of  him  in  Sienna  is  in  1408,  after  which 
he  returned  to  his  birthplace,  where  he  died  in  Mar.,  1410. 
For  further  information,  see  Vasari  (Le  Monneer),  vol.  ii., 
and  Kugler*s  Handbook  (1887). 

Spinet:  a  musical  instrument,  stringed  and  provided  with 
a  keyboard ;  one  of  the  forerunners  of  the  piano,  but  much 
weaker,  and  entirely  out  of  fashion. 

Spinner,  Francis  Elias:  financier;  b.  at  German  Flats 
(now  Mohawk),  Herkimer  co.,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  21,  1802 ;  son  of  a 
German  clergyman ;  was  successively  apprentice  to  a  confec- 
tioner at  Albanv  and  to  a  saddle  and  harness  maker  at  Am- 
sterdam, N.  Y. ;  became  in  1824  a  merchant  at  Herkimer ;  was 
deputy  sheriff  of  Herkimer  County  1829-34,  and  sheriff  1835- 
37 ;  served  in  the  militia  and  became  major-general ;  was  for 
twenty  years  connected  with  a  bank  at  Mohawk,  N.  Y..  and 
became  its  president ;  was  auditor  and  deputy  naval  officer 
of  the  port  of  New  York  1845-49;  Democratic  member 
of  the  Thirtv-fourth  Congress  1855-57;  was  an  ori^nal 
member  of  the  Republican  party,  and  re-elected  by  it  to 
Congress  by  9,000  majority  in  1856,  and  again  by  a  similar 
majority  in  1858 ;  was  chairman  of  the  committee  on  ac- 
counts 1859-61 ;  was  appointed  by  President  Lincoln,  on  the 
recommendation  of  Secretary  Chase,  to  the  post  of  treasurer 
of  the  U.  S.  Mar.,  1861 ;  and  held  the  office  until  July,  1875. 
Durinp^  this  period  his  name  was  a  synonym  for  official 
inctgnty,  and  his  curious  signature  on  the  *' greenbacks '* 
became  more  familiar  in  the  U.  S.  than  the  autograph  of 
any  other  living  man.  He  was  defeated  in  1875  as  liepub- 
lican  candidate  for  comptroller  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
D.  at  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  Dec.  31,  1890. 

Spinning:  the  art  of  producing  from  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal fibers  an  even  and  compact  thread  suitable  for  sewing 
or  weaving.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  industries,  ana 
is  still  practiced  in  many  part«  of  the  globe  by  the  spindle 
and  distaff  in  the  same  manner  that  the  process  is  pictured 
on  Egyptian  monuments.  The  distaff,  held  in  the  left  hand, 
was  a  simple  stick  around  which  the  fiber  was  loosely  coiled ; 
the  spindle  was  a  species  of  top  which  was  set  in  motion  by 
a  twirl  of  the  hand,  and  by  combining  its  rotary  motion 
with  a  gradual  movement  away  from  the  spinner,  who  equal- 
ized the  size  of  the  fiber  by  passing  it  between  the  finger 
and  thumb  of  the  right  hand  until  the  motion  of  the  spindle 
was  exhausted,  when  the  thread  was  wound  around  it,  and 
the  process  was  repeated.  The  first  and  most  obvious  im- 
provement consisted  in  placing  the  spindle  in  a  frame  and 
making  it  revolve  by  mechanical  action  of  the  hand  or  foot 
in  connection  with  a  wheel  and  treadle.  This  constituted 
the  spinning-wheel,  which,  notwithstanding  its  simplicity, 
can  not  be  traced  further  back  than  1530.  Modern  invention 
has  added  little  to  this  implement,  the  chief  improvement 
being  a  bobbin  for  winding  the  yam  by  a  motion  separate 
from  that  of  the  spindle.    See  Cotton  Manufactures. 

Spinning-jenny :  the  earliest  form  of  spinning-machine 
in  which  more  than  one  thread  was  spun  at  a  time.  Cot- 
ton, in  the  course  of  manufacture,  is  reduced  from  the 
state  of  the  fleecy  roll  called  cai'ding  into  the  state  of  spun 
thread  by  repeated  though  similar  operations.    The  nrst 


draws  out  the  carding  and  gives  it  a  very  slight  twist,  so  m 
to  make  it  into  a  loose  thread  about*  the  thickness  of  a  can- 
dle-wick, in  which  state  it  is  called  a  roving  or  slubbin.  The 
subsequent  processes  draw  out  the  roving  much  finer,  and 


The  spinning-Jenny. 


at  length  reduce  it  int-o  yam.  The  spinning-jenny,  invent*^ 
about  1764  by  James  Haroreaves  {q.  v.),  was  not,  like  Ark- 
wright's  spinning-frame  (1769),  capable  of  being  applie«l  t<. 
the  preparation  of  the  roving  itself.  In  1779  Samuel  Crt>nif- 
ton  completed  his  invention  of  the  mule,  which  combiutrti 
in  one  machine  the  principles  of  both  the  jenny  and  ihf 
frame,  and  by  which  the  jenny  was  ultimately  superseded. 
See  Cotton  Manufactures. 

The  person  operating  the  jenny  turned  the  wheel  with  thf 
right  hand  and  with  the  left  drew  out  from  the  slubhin-l».>x 
the  rovings,  which  were  twisted  by  the  turn  of  the  wlittl 
Next  a  piece  of  wood,  lifted  up  by  the  toe,  let  down  a  wirv, 
which  so  pressed  out  the  threads  that  they  wound  regularly 
upon  bobbins  placed  in  the  spindles.  The  number  of  s^iin- 
dies  in  the  jenny  was  at  first  eight ;  when  the  patent  vas 
obtained  it  was  sixteen.  It  soon  came  to  be  twenty  or  thirtv. 
and  as  many  as  120  have  been  used.  The  introduction  .f 
the  spinning-ienny  met  with  great  opposition.  In  1779  a 
mob  destroyed  the  jennies  for  several  miles  around  Black- 
burn, and  with  them  all  the  carding-engines,  spinnins:- 
frames,  and  every  machine  turned  by  water  or  horses.  The 
spinning  industry  was  driven  from  Blackburn  to  Manches- 
ter and  other  places.  Nevertheless,  the  jennv  and  the  f raiue 
revolutionized  the  cotton  manufacture.     William  Kknt. 

Spi^nola,  Ambrosio,  Marquis  de :  soldier  in  the  service 
of  8pain;  b.  in  Genoa,  Italy,  about  1571,  son  of  a  wealthy 
Levant  merchant  and  of  a  princess  of  Salerno;  took  servic  e 
at  an  early  age  under  his  brother,  an  admiral  in  the  Spanish 
navy ;  participated  in  the  war  against  the  Dutch  and  Eng- 
lish 1588;  raised  and  equipped  at  his  own  expense  in  Spain 
a  numerous  corps  of  veterans,  at  whose  head  he  proceede<i 
to  the  Spanish  Netherlands  1602 ;  was  instmmental  in  rp<^ 
cuing  the  Archduke  Albert  from  the  superior  forces  of  Prin^-^ 
Maurice  of  Nassau ;  became  chief  commander  of  the  Spani>h 
armies  in  Flanders  1608 ;  and  in  the  fall  of  that  year  u^>k 
command  of  the  forces  around  Ostend,  which  had  been  l»^ 
sieged  for  two  vears.  The  city  capitulated  in  Sept,,  16<>4. 
He  conducted  the  war  with  great  ability,  but  varying  jjih  - 
cess,  until  the  truce  of  twelve  years  (1609),  which  he  favoml : 
commanded  in  the  interval  the  Spanish  forces  in  Germany ; 
took  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Wesel,  and  JQIich  1622;  was  repul^tl 
from  Bergen-op-Zoom  1623;  captured  Breda  after  a  pro- 
tracted siege  1625 ;  was  subsequently  commander  of  the 
Spanish  army  in  Italy,  and  captured  the  city  of  Casale,  Pitni- 
mont,  but  died  while  pressing  the  siege  of  the  citadel.  Sept, 
25,  1630.  His  death  is  said  to  have  been  hastened  by  his 
chagrin  at  the  ingratitude  of  the  Spanish  Govemment  in 
disregarding  his  pecuniary  claims. 

Spinoylic  Acid :  See  Salictuc  Acid. 

Spino^za,  (Baruch)  Benedict  :  philosopher ;  b.  at  Amster- 
dam, Holland,  Nov.  24,  1632;  a  member  of  the  Spanish- 
Portuguese  Jewish  community  at  that  place,  then  the  chief 
seat  of  European  J  udaism.  His  father,  who  was  a  trader, 
noticing  the  extraordinary  faculties  of  the  son,  gave  him  a 
good  education.  Accordingly,  he  entered  upon  the  custom* 
ary  path  of  a  Jewish  scholar,  passing  through  all  the  steps 
of  the  ordinary  rabbinistic  school,  from  the  elements  of  He- 


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672 


SPIRAL  DUCTS 


SPIRITUALISM 


In  the  logarithinio  spiral  the  logarithm  of  the  radius-vector 
increases  uniformly,  and  the  radius-vector  itself  increases 
by  a  constant  ratio'  for  every  equal  increment  of  the  angle 
of  revolution.  Thus  the  distances  of  the  points  of  intersec- 
tion from  the  pole  form  a  geometric  progression.  At  every 
point  of  this  curve  the  tang:ent  makes  a  constant  angle  with 
the  radius-vector.  On  the  inner  side  the  curve  continually 
approaches  the  pole,  which  it  only  reaches  after  an  infinite 
■number  of  convolutions.  The  Khumb  (q,  v,)  is  a  similar 
curve  on  the  surface  of  a  sphere.    Revised  oy  S.  Newcomb. 

Spiral  Ducts  or  Spiral  Tessels:  See  Histology,  Vege- 
table. 

Spirants  [from  Lat.  spi'rana,  partic.  of  9piraWt^  to 
breathe] :  in  phonetics,  a  class  of  consonants  produced  by 
a  friction  of  tne  current  of  breath  against  the  walls  of  the 
narrowed  organs  of  the  mouth.  They  are  also  called  frica- 
tives (Germ.  Reibelaute,  Dauerlaute,  Schleifer),  Such  are 
«,  z,  «A,  zh.ff  V,  J>,  5,  ch  (in  Germ.  icA,  ach),  3,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent r  and  /.  They  are  distinguished  from  explosives  or 
stops,  p,  U  A;,  etc.,  by  being  continuous  and  not  momentary. 
See  Consonant.  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Spire,  or  Spires :  English  name  of  Speyee  (g.  v.). 

Spirillum :  See  Bacteriology. 

Spirit-duck :  a  common  North  American  duck  {Chari- 
toneita  albeola).  The  male  has  the  head  very  puffy  and  iri- 
descent, hence  the  name  bufflehead.    It  is  an  expert  diver. 

Spiritism :  See  Animism  and  Reugion,  Comparative. 

Splrit-leyel :  See  Levels  and  Leveling  and  Hypsom- 

BTRY. 

Spirit-plant :  the  Holy  Ghost  Flower  {q,  v.). 
Spirit-rapping :  See  Spiritualism. 

Spiritualism  [from  Late  Lat.  spiritua'lis,  spiritual,  of  a 
spirit,  deriv.  of  Lat.  api'ritua,  breath,  life,  spirit,  soul  (in  Late 
Lat.)  ghost,  deriv.  of  spira're^  breathe] :  the  creed  of  those 
who  believe  in  the  communication  of  tne  spirits  of  the  dead 
with  the  living,  usually  through  the  agency  of  pculiarly 
constituted  persons  called  mediums,  and  also  m  certain 
physical  phenomena,  transcending  ordinar]^  natural  laws, 
believed  to  accompany  frequently  such  spiritual  communi- 
cation, and  attributed  either  to  the  direct  action  of  spirits, 
or  to  some  force  developed  by  the  medium's  own  personality. 

Revival  of  Spiritualism, — The  elements  of  the  spiritual- 
istic creed  are  not  in  themselves  new,  but  are  traceable  sev- 
erally to  a  high  anti(|uity  among  different  races  and  in 
widely  separated  localities,  and  have  usually  been  associated 
with  some  form  of  religion  ;  they  have  been  revived,  though 
not  of  conscious  purpose,  and  gathered  into  one  body  of  be- 
liefs by  a  movement  having  its  origin  as  the  result  of  cer- 
tain incidents  which  took  place  at  Hydesville,  a  small  town 
in  the  State  of  New  York,  in  1848. 

In  March  of  that  year  rapping  sounds  were  heard,  ap- 
parently proceeding  from  the  furniture,  walls,  and  ceilings, 
of  a  house  in  Hydesville,  belonging  to  a  family  of  German 
descent  named  originally  Voss,  a  name  anglicized  into  Fox. 
It  was  found  that  these  sounds  were  always  perceived  in  the 
presence  of  one  or  both  of  the  young  daughters  of  Mr.  Pox, 
and  that  a  code  of  communication  could  be  established  by 
which  conversation  was  carried  on  with  the  intelligence 
supposed  to  produce  them.  It  was  said  that  in  this  way 
evidence  was  obtained  concerning  a  murder  believed  to  have 
been  committed  in  the  house  some  time  before,  and  the 
sounds  purported  to  come  from  the  spirit  of  the  murdered 
man.  Many  years  after,  in  1888,  Mrs.  Kane  (Margaretta 
Fox)  came  before  the  public  with  a  confession  that  she  and 
her  sister  had  made  the  sounds  with  their  toes ;  but  before 
her  death  she  repudiated  this  confession. 

Noted  Mediums.— The  reported  phenomena  at  the  time 
excited  widespread  attention  in  the  U.  S.  and  led  to  the 
formation  of  numerous  circles  of  experimenters,  where  rap- 
pings  of  a  similar  kind  were  produced,  and  supposed  com- 
munication with  the  spirits  of  the  dead  was  established. 
To  the  spirit-rappings  were  added  other  phenomena,  such 
as  table-turning,  automatic  writing,  trance-speaking,  eto. ; 
and  the  persons  who  developed  them  received  the  name  of 
mediums.  Mediums,  according  to  the  spiritualistic  view, 
are  endowed  with  a  special  faculty  enabling  them  to  be  the 
agents  of  the  communications  ami  other  manifestations  of 
spirits.  Some  show  evidence  of  this  gift  in  early  youth,  and 
others  gradually  develop  it  in  later  years.  The  first  medium, 
after  the  Fox  sisters,  was  Andrew  Jackson  Davis,  who  at- 
tracted notice  in  1845  as  a  clairvoyant  and  later  as  a  trance- 


speaker.  Judge  Edmonds,  a  well-known  lawyer  of  New 
York,  may  also  be  mentioned ;  he  began  an  investigation  of 
the  subject,  became  convinced  that  he  was  himself  in  com- 
munication with  spirits,  and  wrote  an  elaborate  work  on 
spiritualism.  Mrs.  Hayden,  another  native  of  the  U.  8^ 
went  to  England  in  1852,  and  her  stances  there  started  the 
spiritualistic  movement  which  eventually  spread  over  ail 
Europe.  In  1855  the  celebrated  Daniel  D.  Home  also  went 
to  England,  and  later  to  the  Continent  With  Home  spirit- 
ualism reached  its  highest  development,  and  private  and 
professional  stances  were  established  in  almost  every  Euro- 
pean town. 

Home  overshadowed  all  contomporary  mediums,  and 
gained  adherents  to  spiritualism  from  every  intellectual 
and  social  class.  He  was,  according  to  numerous  witnesses, 
equally  successful  in  receiving  spiritual  communications 
and  in  producing  physical  phenomena,  which  were  witness 
and  often  severely  tested  by  competent  observers.  Notable 
experiments  in  testing  Homers  powers  were  made  by  Will- 
iam Crookes,  by  means  of  apparatus  of  his  own  construction, 
with  successful  results. 

Some  years  later  Slade,  and  also  Eglinton,  attracted  much 
attention  in  Europe  by  their  so-called  psychography,  or 
spirit- writing  (usually  produced  on  slates),  which  led  to  in- 
terminable discussion  m  the  press  occupied  with  such  mat- 
ters. The  spiritualists  attributed  this  psychography  to  the 
spirits,  and  the  non-spiritualists  assertea  it  to  be  due  to  con- 
juring. Slade  also  gave  s^nces  for  a  variety  of  spiritual- 
istic phenomena,  ana  achieved  special  notoriety  from  a  series 
of  sittings  with  Prof.  Z5llner,  of  Leipzig,  who,  in  Tran- 
Bcendental  Physics,  recorded  his  belief  that  the  phenomena 
he  had  witne^ed  were  due  to  intelligent  **  fonrth-dimen- 
sional "  beings. 

One  of  the  most  noted  mediums  in  England  was  the  Rev. 
William  Stainton  Moses,  who  died  in  1892.  A  full  account 
of  his  experiences  has  been  published  in  the  Pnoceedingn 
of  the  Society  for  Psychical  Uesearch.  He  claimed  to  re- 
ceive communications  from  spirite,  both  of  those  recently 
departed  and  of  personages  belonging  to  remote  generati(»ns. 
The  list  of  his  physical  phenomena,  according  to  his  own 
account  and  the  evidence  recorded  by  the  witnesses  at  his 
stances,  comprised  most  of  those  produced  by  Home  and 
other  manifestations  as  remarkable.  Mr.  Moses  was  for  sev- 
eral years  editor  of  Light,  a  London  spiritualistic  periu<l- 
ical,  and  was,  besides,  a  busy  clergyman  and  school-mast trr 
of  high  reputation,  and  in  no  sense  a  professional  medium. 

In  1892  a  series  of  sittings  under  unusually  stringent  if 
not  perfect  conditions  was  held  by  a  committee  of  Italian 
savants,  among  others  Schiaparelli,  director  of  the  C^b- 
servatory  of  Milan,  Profs.  Gerosa  and  Brofferio,  with  a  Nea- 
politan medium,  Madame  Eusapia  Palladino,  with  the  result 
that  several  of  this  committee  were  convinced  of  the  suptT- 
nonnal  character  of  the  phenomena  observed,  while  the 
others,  if  not  quite  convinced,  were  unable  to  offer  any  sat- 
isfactory explanation  of  what  they  had  seen.  The  phenom- 
ena consisted  in  alterations  in  the  weight  of  the  medium, 
raps,  moving  of  furniture,  and  materialization  of  hands. 
The  s^nces  of  Madame  Palladino  have  attracted  rooih 
attention  in  Italy,  and  are  remarkable  for  having  influ- 
enced the  thought  of  numerous  persons  of  high  int^lectual 
standing. 

Spiritual  Communications. — Spiritualistic  communica- 
tions or  messages  are  received  through  the  automatic  writ- 
ing with  pencil  or  planchette,  or  trance-speaking  of  the 
medium  when  under  spirit-control ;  bv  direct  writing  of 
the  spirits  on  paper  or  slates  with  pencil  or  chalk ;  by  pre- 
cipitated writing — that  is,  writing  supposed  to  be  proiiui^^ 
on  paper  without  visible  means;  by  table-turning,  either 
with  or  without  contact  of  the  medium,  and  interpret^ci  by 
a  conventional  code;  and  by  raps  on  the  furniture  or  walls 
of  a  room,  made  intelligible'  by  a  code  as  in  table-turning. 
These  communications  are  supposed  to  have  two  objeotsi-^ 
one  is  to  convey  proof  of  the  survival  of  the  dead,  the  other 
to  instruct  in  moral  and  philosophical  knowledge.  They 
are  acknowledged  by  spiritualists  to  vary  greatly  in  char- 
acter and  in  value.  Some  are  merely  the  expression  of  the 
ideas  and  opinions  of  the  medium  himself  or  of  the  sitter>: 
some  are  trivial  or  false,  and  are  attributed  to  a  low  onit-r 
of  mischievous  spirits ;  others,  however,  it  is  asserted,  are 
genuine  and  imply  a  knowledge  of  events  or  of  facts  U- 
yond  the  range  of  the  medium  or  of  the  inquirers,  and  pn>v- 
ing  their  supernormal  origin. 

Physical  Phenomena. — The  princijml  so-called  physic.-*! 
phenomena  of  spiritualism  are  lights,  musical  sounas,  a^  of 


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674 


SPITZ  DOG 


SPOKANE 


•  Spitz  Dog  [used  as  transL  of  Germ,  apitzhund]:  the 
Pomeranian  dog,  a  small  variety  which  is  thought  to  be  a 
cross  between  some  of  the  Arctic  wolf-dogs  and  the  Arctic 
fox,  like  the  Esquimaux,  Siberian,  Lapland,  and  Iceland  dogs, 
to  which,  though  much  smaller,  it  has  a  marked  resem- 
blance. It  is  characterized  by  short  and  erect  ears,  a 
pointed  muzzle,  a  curved  bushy  tail,  and  long  hair,  usually 
pure  white,  but  sometimes  cream -color  or  even  deep  black. 
It  is  brisk  in  its  movements,  useful  as  a  watch-dog,  some- 
what snappish,  handsome,  ouick  of  apprehension,  and  a  fa- 
vorite lapdog  in  Europe  and  the  U.  S. 

Hpitzka,  Edward  Charles,  M.  D.  :  neurologist ;  b.  in 
New  York  Nov.  10, 1852 :  M.  D.,  University  of  City  of  New 
York,  1873;  studied  University  of  Leipzig  1873;  Univer- 
sity of  Vienna  1874 ;  Assistant  Professor  of  Embryology  at 
Vienna  1874-75 ;  Professor  of  Medical  Jurisprudence,  New 
York  Post  Graduate  Medical  School  1881-82 ;  Professor  of 
Neurology  there  1882-84 ;  consulting  neurologist  St.  Mark's 
Hospital  and  Northeastern  Dispensary;  vice-president  In- 
ternational Medical  Congress  at  Washington  1887;  hon- 
orary president  Pan-American  Medical  Congress  1898 ;  au- 
thor of  Insanity y  its  Clctssiflcation,  Diaffnoais,  and  Treat- 
ment ;  articles  on  Organic  Brain  And  Spinal  Cord  Diseases 
in  Pepper's  System  of  Medicine ;  The  Architecture  and 
Mechanism  of  the  Brain  in  Wood's  Handbook  of  Medicine ; 
Insanity  in  Children  in  Keating's  Cyclopcedia ;  and  numer- 
ous proiessional  essays.  C.  H.  Thu&beb. 

Spleen  ff rom  Lat.  splen  =  Gr.  tntK'hp ;  of.  Lat.  lien : 
Sanskr.  pUhdn-,  spleen] :  the  largest  of  the  ductless  glands 
of  the  body.  In  man,  it  is  situat^  in  the  left  hjrpochondriac 
region,  its  outer  convex  surface  corresponding  with  the 
ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  ribs,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  descending  muscular  attachments  of  the  diaphragm ; 
its  inner  concave  surface  adjoins  the  great  pouch  of  the 
stomach.  It  also  comes  near  to  the  pancreas,  left  kidnej, 
left  lobe  of  the  liver,  and  arch  of  the  colon.  It  is  held  m 
position  by  a  |)eritoneal  reflection  from  the  diaphragm, 
called  the  suspensory  ligament.  It  is  even  more  directly 
related  to  these  adjacent  viscera  by  its  blood-supply,  the 
splenic  artery  being  the  largest  branch  of  the  coBiiac  axis, 
the  trunk  which  gives  off  the  nutrient  vessels  of  the  stom- 
ach, liver,  and  parts  of  the  small  intestine.  The  variable 
size  and  gross  and  minute  structure  of  the  spleen  indicate 
that  it  is  a  great  vascular  reservoir.  In  health  it  is  5  inches 
long,  8  to  4  thick,  and  1  to  H  in  breadth,  and  weighs  7  oz. ; 
it  is  larger  immediately  after  eating,  and  in  malarial  and 
certain  other  diseases  may  weigh  15  or  20  lb.,  and  occupy 
the  abdomen  down  to  the  pelvic  bones.  The  fibrous  capsule 
of  the  spleen  is  very  elastic ;  it  is  reflected  inward  on  the 
vessels  as  they  subdivide,  thus  forming  a  system  of  ramify- 
ing partitions,  which  constitutes  the  fibrous  framework  of 
the  spleen.  The  interspaces  of  this  structure  are  occupied 
by  the  substance  of  the  spleen,  a  soft,  pulpy  mass  of  dark, 
reddish-brown  color,  consisting  of  granular  matter,  red 
and  white  blood-cells,  and  the  Malpighian  corpuscles — 
masses  of  lymphoid  cells  closely  packed  about  the  terminal 
arterioles. 

The  functions  of  the  spleen  are  not  definitely  known,  but 
it  is  certainly  the  birthplace  of  both  white  and  red  blood- 
corpuscles.  It  is  active  also  in  the  destruction  of  red  cor- 
puscles, but  less  so  than  was  formerly  supposed.  It  is  not 
an  indispensable  organ,  for  it  has  been  removed  in  animals 
and  men  with  no  serious  or  marked  result.  The  spleen  is 
frequently  congested  in  the  course  of  infectious  aiseases, 
such  as  typhoid  fever,  malaria,  typhus  fever,  and  the  like, 
and  is  often  permanently  enlarged  oy  repeated  congestions, 
infiltration,  and  hypertrophy  of  its  tissue.  There  may  be 
supernumerary  spleens.  The  spleen  is  liable  to  rupture  and 
fissure  from  external  violence.    See  Histology. 

Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Splint :  a  bony  growth,  generally  upon  the  inside  of  the 
fore  leg  of  the  horse,  below  the  knee.  In  joung  horses  it 
is  usually  caused  by  overwork.  Rest,  poulticing,  and  pack- 
ing with  cold  wet  compresses  are  recommended  for  the  early 
st%es.  At  a  later  stage,  iodine,  mercurial  ointment,  blis- 
ters, and  the  actual  cautery  may  be  usefully  employed,  but 
not  till  the  inflammation  is  gone.  If  the  tendons'  are  in- 
terfered with,  veterinary  surgeons  sometimes  remove  the 
splint. 

Splint :  in  surgery,  a  piece  of  wood,  leather,  pasteboard, 

Sutta-percha,  metal,  or  other  material  employed  to  prevent 
isplaceraent  of  the  fractured  ends  of  bones  or  for  other 
analogous  purposes.    In  many  cases  surgeons  use  bandages 


stiffened  with  gypsum,  starch,  dextrine,  or  gum-arabic  in 
the  place,  and  a  very  great  number  of  splint.s  have  lieen  dt^ 
visea  for  special  purposes  in  surgery.    See  Fracturk. 

Splii^gen  :  a  mountain-pass  of  the  Alps  leading  from  the 
Swiss  canton  of  the  Grisons  into  Italy  over  an  elevati<»D  <  f 
6,946  feet.  On  the  Italian  side  it  is  covered  at  many  plai'^? 
with  galleries  of  solid  masonry  to  protect  travelers  fmru 
avalanches.  These  galleries  were  built  by  the  Austrian  Gov- 
ernment, and  finished  in  1834. 

SpolTord,  AiNSWORTH  Rand,  LL.  D.  :  librarian ;  b.  at  Gil- 
manton,  N.  H.,  Sept.  12,  1825 ;  received  a  classical  educa- 
tion by  private  tuition ;  became  principal  librarian  of  C\»n- 
gi-ess  1865,  after  having  been  previously  employed  in  puln 
lishing  and  editing;  is  member  of  many  nistorical  and 
philosophical  societies;  has  written  much  for  the  press  <>n 
nistorical  topics.  He  has  published  Catalogues  ofjhe  Li- 
brary of  Congress ;  The  American  Almanac  and  Tytasum 
of  Facts  (1878-89);  The  Library  of  Choice  Literaturr 
(1881) :  Library  of  Historic  Characters  and  Famous  Eventt 
(1894) ;  and  other  works.  During  his  tenure  of  the  oflSce  <*f 
librarian  the  national  collection  has  grown  from  90.000  i<» 
about  700,000  volumes,  and  the  change  in  the  law  of  copT- 
right  has  been  effected  by  which  all  copyrights  are  entered 
and  all  facts  regarding  literary  property  verified  at  one  cen- 
tral office  at  the  Library  of  Congress,  Washin^n,  D.  C,  in- 
stead of  being  scattered,  as  was  the  case  pnor  to  1870,  in 
the  offices  of  the  district  clerks  throughout  the  country. 

SpolTord,  Harriet  Elizabeth  (Preseott) :  poet  and  story- 
writer  ;  b.  at  Calais,  Me.,  Apr.  8, 1885 ;  removed  at  the  age 
of  fourteen  to  Newburyport,  Mass.;  attended  ftchool  at 
Derry,  N.  H.,  and  early  be^n  writing  stories  for  the  ma^ia- 
zines;  married  in  1865  Richard  S.  Spofford,  a  lawyer  of 
Boston,  and  subsequently  resided  at  Amesbtiry,  Ma«s. 
Among  her  publications  are  Sir  Rohan^s  Ghost  (1859) :  The 
Amber  Oods,  and  other  Stories  (1868);  Azarian  (18ft4); 
New  England  Legends  (1S71);  A  Thief  in  the  Night  {ISTh: 
Art  Decoration  applied  to  Furniture  (1881) ;  The  Marqui$ 
of  Carabas  (1882);  Pbems  (1882);  Hester  Stanley  at  Si, 
Mark's  (1883) ;  BaUads  about  Authors  (1887) ;  and  A  Srttr- 
let  Poppy  (1894).  Revised  by  H.  A.  Bb^rs. 

Spohr,  Ludwig:  composer;  b.  at  Brunswick,  Germany. 
Apr.  5, 1784.  His  father  was  a  physician.  He  was  early 
noticed  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  placed  on  the  civil  lisL 
and  furnished  with  means  for  study  and  travel.  His  mas- 
ters on  the  violin  were  Maurer  and  Eck ;  visited  Russia ;  in 
1804  began  his  professional  career  in  Germany;  was  concert 
conductor  under  the  Duke  of  Saxe-C'obuiTg^-Gotha ;  in  181H 
was  in  Vienna,  in  1816  in  Italy,  in  1817  in  Frankfort  and 
London.  A  residence  of  some  years  in  Dresden  followed, 
and  continued  till  he  was  called  to  the  office  of  chapel-m&*- 
ter  at  Cnssel.  D.  Oct.  22, 1859.  Spohr  was  possessed  of  fine 
sensibility  and  immense  activitv.  Skillful  m  construct iim. 
elaborate*  in  finish,  a  master  of  harmony  and  instrumenta- 
tion, poetic  in  sentiment,  imaginative,  sympathetic,  he  ranks 
with  the  great,  although  not  the  greatest,  composers.  II'' 
was  the  violinist  par  excellence  of  his  day.  His  book  of  in- 
struction for  the  violin  is  a  standard  work.  He  comptv^-*! 
in  nearly  every  style — duos,  quartettes,  quintettes,  sonatas, 
variations,  overtures,  cantatas,  nine  symphonies,  five  or  >ix 
operas,  several  oratorios,  songs  with  pianoforte  accompani- 
ments. His  most  famous  pieces  are  the  symphony  The  (  on- 
secration  of  Tones  and  tne  oratorio  The  Last  Judgm^nf, 
which  is  rather  a  collection  of  musical  gems  than  an  evenly 
developed  structure.  A  vein  of  mournful  tenderness  p«r- 
vading  his  compositions  suggests  monotony  9/id  mannerism. 
A  critic  has  said  that  "  if  all  the  works  of  Spohr  could  W 
destroyed  except  one  specimen  in  each  class  of  compositicD. 
it  would  be  of  advantage  to  his  reputation." 

Revised  by  Dudley  Bcck. 

Spoils  System :  in  politics,  the  system  of  bestowing  pub- 
lic offices  upon  members  of  the  party  in  power  as  rewards  f<^r 
g)litical  services.     See  CiVil  Service  and  Civil  SKEvuh 
EFORM. 

Spokane^ :  city ;  capital  of  Spokane  co..  Wash. ;  on  tht* 
Spokane  river,  and  the  Gt.  Northern,  the  N.  Pac.,  the  t»r. 
Railway  and  Nav.  Co.,  and  the  Spok.  Falls  and  N.  railways : 
about  i5  miles  W.  of  the  boundary-line  between  Washing- 
ton and  Idaho  (for  location,  see  map  of  Washington,  n^f. 
3-J).  It  is  at  the  falls  of  Spokane  river,  and  has  a  very  pic- 
turesque location.  The  business  portion  is  built  about  the 
falls,  with  broad  streets  running  N.  and  S.  and  E.  and  W.. 
and  some  of  the  residence  districts  are  on  higher  ground. 


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676 


SPONGES 


canals  and  transported  through  the  cloaca  to  the  exterior. 
In  any  common  sponge  the  general  course  of  these  canals 


Fio.  1.— Dlajrram  of  a  part  of  a  sponRe  showing  the  pores  and  in- 
current  canals,  i,  communicating  with  the  ampuliee,  a  ;  and  the 
excurrent  canals,  e,  leading  from  the  ampullae  to  the  cloaca. 

can  be  traced  among  the  fibers.  (See  Fig.  2.)  In  these 
forms  the  digestive  layer  is  restricted  to  the  ampullaB,  while 
the  ectoderm  lines  all  the  canals.     Nourishment  is  obtained 

from  minute  parti- 
cles drawn  in  with 
the  water  which  is 
constantly  passing 
through  the  body. 

In  some  sponges  no 
skeleton  occurs,  but 
in  the  majority  some 
framework  is  neces- 
sary to  support  the 
weight  of  the  flesh. 
The  skeletal  elements 
are  of  two  kinds,  spi- 
cules and  fibers,  and 
these  are  greatly  dif- 
ferent, both  in  ap- 
pearance and  in  ori- 
gin. The  spicules  are 
extremely  regular,  al- 
though they  vary 
greatly  among  different  sponges.  Each  spicule  is  the  prod- 
uct of  a  single  cell,  and  is  formed  on  the  outer  suid^ace  of 
the  secreting  body.  These  spicules  are  of  two  kinds ;  in  the 
one  they  are  composed  of  calcium  carbonate,  in  the  other 


Fio.  2.— Section  of  a  sponge  (Tethya) 
showing  the  cloaca  and  the  canal 
system  in  outline. 


in  the  same  sponge.  The  fibers  form  a  continuous  network, 
and  are  the  result  of  secretion  from  the  ends  of  numerou> 
cells.    Chemically  they  consist  of  a  peculiar  organic  sub- 


Fio.  5. — Leucotolenia,  one  of  ty»e 
calcareous  sponges,  azid  thrr* 
of  its  spiculea,  enlArged. 


Fio.  8.— Different  kinds  of  sponge  spicules,  enlarged. 


of  silica ;  and  upon  this  chemical  basis  sponges  are  divided  i  deeper  parts  of  the 

Fibers  and  siliceous  spicules  may  occur  |  sponges   and  that  beautiful  form  termed  the 


into  two  classes. 


Fio.  4.— Development  of  a  calcareous  sponge  (after  F.  E.  Scfaul2e< : 
A,  early  segmentation  of  egg ;  B,  blastoctphere  stage  <clo«e  of 
segmentation) ;  C,  eastrula  after  flration  ;  D,  young  sponge  aft^r 
formation  of  spicules ;  ec,  ectoderm ;  e»»,  emloderm  ;  p,  incur- 
rent  pores  ;  o,  ostiole  ;  r,  radial  tubes. 

stance  known  as  spongin.    When  spicules  and  fibers  oct'ur 
in  the  same  sponge  the  spicules  are  imbedded  in  the  fibers. 
In  the  mesoderm   (the  layer  which  forms  the   skehtal 
elements)  are  the  reproductive  elements.     These  consist  of 
eggs  and  sperm-cells,  and  it 
is  only  after  the  union  of 
these  two  that  the  egg  will 
develop.     In  the  process  of 
development  the  egg  seg- 
ments   (see    Embryology), 
and  then,  in  the  forms  most 
studied,  one  side  of  the  egg 
pushes  into  the  other,  thus 

fiving  rise  to  the  embryo 
nown  as  a  gastrula,  in 
which  ectoderm  and  ento- 
derm are  differentiated. 
The  gastrula  becomes  fixed 
to  some  solid  body,  and 
pores  break  through  the 
wall,  forming  the  begin- 
ning of  the  incurrent-canal 
system.  Later  the  excur- 
rent opening  or  ostiole  is 
formed,  and  all  subsequent 
changes  are  the  result  of 
partial  division  or  budding  from  this  larva.  The  skelet<>D 
arises  early,  and  in  its  future  growth  keeps  pace  with  the 
general  growth  of  the  sponge. 

Various  systems  of  classification  of  sponges  have  been  ad- 
vanced. The  best  seems  to  be  that  which  divides  the  group 
or  branch  into  two  classes,  Calcarea  and  Silieea.    The  (  lu- 

earea  (those  with  caleare- 
^  g)  ^  ous  spicules)  are  all  sin:i: :. 

Ifji         I       marine,  and  without  ar.y 

■  "  ^       -^     "^^  '       economic        imf>ortaiH-r. 

According  to  the  c^-^ra- 
plication  of  structure 
they  are  subdivided  int. 
three  orders.  Fig.  5  is  an 
illustration  of  one  of  the 
simplest  forms. 

The  great  majority  -  f 
sponges  belong  to  li.t 
Silieea^  in  which  spicule  >» 
lyhen  present,  are  sii> 
ceous  in  character.  S^ir.e 
forms,  however,  are  tU- 
generate,  and  have  Ii'ri 
the  spicules,  while  in  & 
few,  which  form  their  m- 
crusting  sheet-s, all  sktlt- 
tal  structures  are  al»st>n!. 
Three  orders  of  Sili'-^ : 
may  be  recognized.  Il 
the  first,  or  Hexactinel- 
lidcB,  the  spicules  an*  six- 
rayed,  and  the  result inc 
skeleton  is  extremely  n-c- 
ular.  These  forms  o<i  ur 
as  fossils  and  in  the 
include  the  "  glass-ri-iM? 
Venus's  flowt-r- 


^IWU^ 


ocean,  and 


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in*  mcnth 


HjV^n^r,  l*iTT^r?t^nn,  M. Tr-  inthnr ;  I 


678 


SPORADES 


SPORTS 


of  Painters,  Engravers,  SctUj>iors,  and  Arehiteets  (1863 ; 
new  ed.,  2  vols.,  1865),  containing:  notices  of  12,000  artists. 
D.  at  Plainfleld,  N.  J.,  in  Mar.,  1859. 

Sporades,  spor'firdeez  [  r=  Lat.  =  Or.  :tinfMts  (sc.  k^im, 
islands),  liter.,  fem.  plur.  of  adj.  ovopcU,  awpdios,  scattered, 
deriv.  of  mnlptip,  scatter]  :  those  islands  in  the  Grecian  Ar- 
chipelago which  are  not  included  in  the  group  of  the  Cy- 
clades.  In  a  restricted  and  more  accurate  sense  it  includes 
only  the  islands  near  the  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor  between 
Samos  and  Rhodes.  The  more  important  are  Samos,  Nica- 
ria,  Patmos,  Kalymno,  Cos,  Syme,  Telos,  Scarpanto,  and 
Rhodes.  All  belong  to  the  Ottoman  empire  and  are  com- 
prised in  the  vilayet  of  the  Archipelago.  The  cluster  of  isl- 
ands N.  of  Negropont  is  sometimes  called  the  Northern 
Sporades.  Scyros,  Scopelos,  Sciathos,  and  Halonnesos  are 
the  chief.    They  belong  to  Greece.         E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Spore  [from  Gr.  arSposy  sowing,  seed,  deriv.  of  mniptuf, 
scatter,  sow]  :  in  botanv,  a  *'  single  cell  which  becomes  free 
and  is  capable  of  developing  into  a  new  plant "  {de  Bary), 
Sachs  attempted  to  limit  the  term  by  defining  a  spore  as  '*  a 
reproductive  cell  produced  directly  or  indirectly  bv  an  act 
of  fertilization,"  reserving  the  term  gonidium  for  those  re- 
productive cells  which  are  produced  without  any  previous 
act  of  fertilization.  Bennett  and  Murray,  on  the  contrary, 
apply  the  term  to  "  any  cell  produced  by  ordinary  processes 
of  vegetation,  and  not  directly  bv  a  union  of  sexual  ele- 
ments, which  becomes  detached  for  the  purpose  of  direct 
vegetative  propagation."  Adopting  de  Bary's  definition, 
spores  in  Sachses  sense  are  sexually  produced,  or  briefly  sex- 
ual spores,  while  those  of  Bennett  and  Murray  are  asexual 
spores. 

Many  kinds  of  spores  are  distinguished  by  botanists,  only 
the  more  common  of  which  are  noticed  here.  jEcidio- 
spores  are  cells  formed  by  abstriction  in  the  *'  cluster-cup  " 
sta^  of  a  rust.  (See  Rusts.)  Ascospores  are  spores  formed 
by  mtemal  division  of  the  protoplasm  of  a  cell,  termed  an 
ascus.  (See  Ascomvcetes.)  Auocospores  are  the  larger  cells 
occurring  in  the  life-history  of  diatoms,  each  the  starting- 
point  of  a  new  series  of  divisions.  Basidiospares  are  cells 
formed  by  pullulation  and  abstriction  from  a  cell  termed  a 
basidium.  (See  Basidiomtcbtes.)  Carpospores  are  spores 
formed  in  a  sporocarp,  e.  ^,  in  liverworts  and  mosses.  Chla- 
mydospores  are  thick-walled  spores  formed  singly  and  asex- 
ually  m  the  cells  of  various  simple  algae  and  moulds.  Coni- 
diospores,  eonidia,  or  gonidia  are  cells  formed  asexuaUy, 
usually  by  abstriction  of  a  little-modified  hypha.  Maero- 
spores,  in  pteridophytes,  are  the  large  spores  which  upon 
germination  form  prothallia-bearing  female  organs.  In 
anthophytes  the  embryo-sac  is  the  homologue  of  the  macro- 
spore.  Microspores,  in  pteridophytes,  are  the  small  spores 
which  upon  germination  form  minute  prothallia-bearing 
antherida.  In  anthophytes  the  pollen-cell  (pollen-spore)  is 
the  homologue  of  the  microspore.  Oospores  are  cells  pro- 
duced by  the  fertilization  of  odspheras  by  antherids.  When 
thick-walled  they  are  often  called  resting-spores,  A  spori- 
desm  is  a  compound  spore,  or  a  spore-cluster ;  each  spore  in 
such  a  structure  is  known  as  a  merispore,  A  sporiaium  is 
a  small  spore  abjointed  on  a  promycelium.  Stylospores  are 
stalked  spores;  the  term  is  sometimes  restricted  to  those 
formed  in  pycnidia.  TeleutoM>ores  are  the  spores,  one  to 
many,  formed  in  the  tightly  fitting  asci  of  the  Uredinece ; 
the  term  is  commonly  applied  to  the  asci  with  their  con- 
tents. Teircumores,  in  the  red  seaweeds  (Floridecf),  are  the 
spores  formed  in  tetrads  by  the  fission  of  a  mother-cell. 
Uredospores  are  the  stylospores  of  the  Uredinece,  Zodspores 
are  motile  spores,  always  aauatic.  Zyaospores  are  cells  pro- 
duced by  the  union  of  similar  cells ;  Known  also  as  resting- 
spores.    See  Fungi.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Spor^zo^a  [from  Gr.  tnripos,  seed  +  C^,  animal] :  a  class  of 
protozoans  the  members  of  which  are  parasitic  in  all  stages 
of  their  existence.  They  lack  all  special  organs  of  locomo- 
tion, and  reproduce  by  the  conversion  of  the  protoplasm  of 
the  cell  into  minute  particles  or  spores,  which,  frequently 
passing  through  an  amceba-like  stage,  develop  into  the 
adults.  Four  sub-classes  are  recognized :  Greoarinida  {q,  r.), 
AmoBbosporida,  Sarcosporida,  and  Myxosporida,  of  which 
only  the  first  contains  many  species.  By  many  writers  the 
disease  known  as  cancer  {caranoma)  is  regarded  as  the  re- 
sult of  parasitism  of  sporozoans  in  the  body.  J.  S.  K. 

Sports :  in  general,  diversions  of  the  field  or  of  the  turf ; 
in  a  special  sense,  contests  between  athletes.  Apparently 
the  earliest  competitive  athletic  sports  were  those  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  from  1,000  to  ^,000  years  b.  c,  though  the  name 


athletic  is  of  recent  application  and  in  its  Greek  origin  rr^ 
ferred  only  to  those  who  competed  for  prizes  io  public 
games,  thus  separating  into  a  distinct  class  the  irf^^tmrd. 
who  exercised  and  competed  with  each  other  for  pleasure  «<r 
improvement.  In  earliest  times  the  best  citizens  eom|iet»-<l 
at  the  Olympian,  Pythian,  Nemean,  Isthmian,  and  Panathe- 
niean  games,  and  highest  honors  were  paid  to  the  winneix 
but  a  professionalism  very  similar  to  that  of  these  times  ap- 
pearea,  and  the  dignity  piven  to  the  contests  was  lost*  Tht^ 
events  open  to  competition  were  foot-racing,  leaping,  throw- 
ing the  discus,  wrestling,  boxing,  and  the  pancratium,  a 
combination  of  boxing  and  wrestling,  and,  separate  fn>n) 
these,  chariot-racing. 

When  the  Romans  invaded  Britain  they  brought  with 
them  the  games  of  the  soldiery,  such  as  jumping,  mnninf;. 
hunting,  swimming,  and  combats  on  horseback.  With  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Saxons  came  skating,  hawking,  and  wrestling,  and 
in  the  Norman  era  were  introduced  the  more  accompushed 
arts  of  the  tourney  and  joust.  In  the  seventeenth  century 
cards,  dice,  hawking,  following  the  hounds  in  chase,  footbali 
bowling,  quoits,  wrestling,  fencing,  shovelboard,  shuttlt^ 
cock,  and  billiards  were  of  prevalent  interest.  Bull  and 
bear  baiting  and  cock-fighting  came  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  were  popular  with  people  of  both  sexes.  It  is  in- 
teresting to  note  the  revival  of  football  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  it  having  been  a  sport  of  so  much  prominene<'  in 
the  earlv  part  of  tne  fourteenth  century.  It  was  prohibited 
in  England  in  1349  because  it  interfered  with  the  other 
sports.  Falconry,  or  hawking,  has  almost  disappeared  f  n>m 
England,  its  place  being  largely  taken  by  fox-hunting.  F<  ^x- 
hunting,  so  called,  is  popular  in  some  parts  of  the  U.  S.. 
where  often  the  presence  of  a  fox  is  made  unnecessary  \>y 
dragging  a  bag  of  anise  seed,  which  leaves  a  scent  in  its 
trail,  over  the  ground  where  the  hunt  (1)  is  to  take  plai-e. 
The  hounds  follow  this  scent  readilj;. 

Wrestling,  boxing,  and  pedestrianism  have  been  popular 
for  centuries,  but  it  was  not  until  well  along  into  the  nine- 
teenth century  that  the  interest  in  athletic  sports  developed 
into  a  passion. 

The  schools  and  colleges  of  Great  Britain  early  took  active 
part  in  organizing  athletic  clubs.  In  1887  the  Rugby  CVick 
Hun  was  founded,  and  Mar.  27,  1858,  an  annual  steeple- 
chase was  inaugurated,  both  at  Rugby,  and  the  School  Hunt 
was  started  at  Shrewsbury  in  1842. 

Oxford  and  Cambridge  met  at  Christ  Church  Cricket- 
grounds,  Oxford,  Mar.  o,  1864,  for  the  first  in t^r-' varsity 
athletic  competition.  The  events  were  running  100  yanis, 
440  yards,  and  1  mile ;  jummng,  both  for  height  and  dis- 
tance;  hurdling,  120  and  200  yards,  and  steeplechasing. 
Each  of  the  competing  teams  won  four  of  the  events. 

The  first  important  athletic  meeting  held  in  London  was 
that  of  the  Civil  Service  Athletic  Sports  at  Walham  Green, 
on  Apr.  22  and  23, 1864.  In  1863  the  Mincing  Lane  Ath- 
letic Club  was  formed,  which  in  1866  became  the  now  fa- 
mous London  Athletic  Club. 

From  about  1861  the  development  and  spread  of  athletics 
all  over  the  civilized  world  has  been  prodigious.  Since  the 
civil  war  the  U.  S.  has  kept  pace  with  Great  Britain,  and 
scarcely  a  city  of  20,000  inhabitants  can  be  found  in  North 
America  or  Great  Britain  which  has  not  at  least  one  flour- 
ishing club  for  the  promotion  of  general  athletics.  In  Ger- 
many and  France  the  same  interest  is  noticeable,  and  it  has 
developed  in  a  large  degree  all  over  Europe,  Australia,  and 
the  British  colonies. 

Since  1880  athletics  has  become  a  most  important  fila- 
ture of  scholastic  life  throughout  the  U.  S.,  and  seems  to  W 
substituting  itself  for  the  lawlessness  exhibited  by  students 
in  class  rushes  and  hazing  affairs.  In  many  institutions  of 
learning  the  encroachment  of  organized  sports  upon  punly 
scholastic  occupations  has  caused  some  of  the  governing 
bodies  to  place  practically  prohibitory  restrictions  on  some 
of  the  games,  most  notabfy  upon  footlMJl. 

Professionalism  has  played  a  most  important  part  in  gen- 
eral athletics,  and  that  part  has  not  in  all  respects  been 
good,  so  that  very  carefully  prepared  definitions  of  an  ama- 
teur have  been  adopted  by  practically  all  amateur  clubs  in 
the  U.  S.,  Great  Britain,  Canada,  and  France,  and  competi- 
tors at  the  amateur  meets  are  obliged  to  qualify  in  accord- 
ance with  their  terms. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  U.  S.  the  definition  of  an  ama- 
teur, as  adopted  by  the  Amateur  Athletic  Union,  is  generally 
accepted,  and  is  as  follows : 

"  6ne  who  has  not  entered  in  an  open  competition  ;  or 
for  either  a  stake,  public  or  admission  money  or  entrance- 


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680 


SPRAIN 


SPRINGER 


at  Yale  College  1815;  studied  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  18lf-19 ;  was  colleague  with  Dr.  Lathrop  over  the 
Congregational  church  of  West  Springfield,  Mass.,  1819-21, 
and  pastor  1821-29;  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian 
church  of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1829-69 ;  visited  Europe  in  1828 
and  1836 ;  engaged  exclusively  in  literary  work  at  Flushing, 
L.  I.,  1869-76.  D.  at  Flushing,  L,  I., 'May  7,  1876.  Dr. 
Sprague  was  a  preacher  and  public  speaker  of  special  emi- 
nence; made  a  collection  of  autographs  (nearly  100,000  in 
number)  and  religious  pamphlets,  presenting  the  latter  to 
the  New  York  State  Library ;  won  the  title  biographer  of 
the  Church  by  his  most  important  publication,  b^un  in  his 
fifty-seventh  year,  Annaia  of  the  American  Piilpit^  sketehes 
of  the  most  prominent  clergymen  of  all  denominations  from 
the  earliest  dates  to  1855  (10  vols..  New  York,  1857-76) ;  and 
among  other  works  Letters  to  a  Daitghter  (New  York,  1822 ; 
republished  under  the  title  The  Daughter's  Oion  Book) ;  Let- 
ters from  Europe  (1828) ;  Lectures  on  Revivals  (1832) ;  True 
Christianity  and  other  Systems  (1837) ;  Life  of  Rev,  Edward 
Dorr  Griffin,  D,  D.  (1838) ;  Letters  to  Young  Men  (1845) ; 
Womsn  of  the  Bible  (1850) ;  Visits  to  European  Celebrities 
(1855);  and  Life  of  Rev.  JedidiahMorse  (1874).   C.  K.  Hoyt. 

Sprain,  or  Sablnxation  [sprain  is  deriv.  of  sprain  (verb), 
from  0.  Fr.  espreindre  >  Fr.  ipreindre,  press,  wring  <  Lat. 
expri'mere,  press  out ;  ex,  out  +  pri'm^e,  press.  Subluxor 
Hon  is  from  sub-,  partially  +  luxation,  from  Lat.  lujM're, 
dislocate] :  a  stretching  or  wrenching  of  the  non-osseous 
parts  of  a  joint,  without  displacement  of  the  bones,  and 
either  with  or  without  lesion  of  ligaments  or  tendons.  Se- 
vere sprains  are  sometimes  as  serious  and  lasting  in  their 
effects  as  dislocations,  especially  on  account  of  the  liability 
of  the  patient  to  attempt  to  use  the  part  before  the  inflam- 
mation has  wholly  subsided.  Perfect  rest,  cold  or  some- 
times hot  lotions  (if  the  latter  be  more  agreeable  to  the 
patient),  accompanied  by  the  use  of  splints  for  mechanical 
support  and  of  opiates  for  the  relief  of  pain,  are  required  in 
the  treatment.  Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Sprat,  or  Garrie :  the  Ilarengulus  sprattus,  a  little  her- 
ring of  the  European  seas.  Sprats  are  spiced,  salted,  dried, 
and  potted  in  many  ways,  and  are  very  good  when  fresh, 
but  are  generally  eaten  by  the  poorer  classes.  The  French 
preserve  great  quantities  of  small  sprats  and  sell  them  for 
sardines.  Great  quantities  are  also  used  for  fertilizing  land. 
The  sprat  is  seldom  over  6  inches  long. 

Sprecher,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  theologian ;  b.  near 
Williamsport,  Md.,  Dec.  28, 1810 ;  studied  in  Pennsylvania 
College  and  Theological  Seminary,  Gettysburg,  Pa. ;'  pastor 
at  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1836-39 ;  pnncipal  of  Emmaus  Insti- 
tute, Middletown,  Pa.,  1839-42;  pastor  Martinsburg,  Va., 
1842-43,  and  Chambersburg,  Pa.,  1843-49;  president  of 
Wittenberg  Theological  Seminary  Springfield,  0.,  1849-74. 
He  combined  with  it  until  1884  the  chair  of  Systematic 
Theology.  Removing  to  the  Pacific  coast,  he  filled  for  a 
time  the  presidency  of  the  college  at  San  Diego,  Cal.  Dr. 
Sprecher*s  chief  book  is  his  Groundwork  of  a  System  of 
Lutheran  Theology  (Philadelphia,  1879).       H.  E.  .Jacobs. 

Spree,  spra :  a  river  of  Prussia ;  rises  in  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony,  passes  through  Berlin,  and  joins  the  Havel  at  Span- 
dau,  after  a  course  of  220  miles.  At  Leibsch  it  becomes 
navigable  for  small  craft,  and  considerable  trafilc  is  carried 
on  along  its  whole  course. 

Sprengel,  Hermann  Johann  Philipp,  Ph.  D.,  F.  R.  S. : 

chemist;  b.  at  Schillerslage,  Hanover,  German v,  in  1834; 
studied  at  the  Universities  of  Gdttingen  and  &eidelberg, 
from  the  latter  of  which  he  took  his  degree  in  1858  with 
the  highest  honor ;  moved  to  England  1859 ;  discovered  and 
described  in  The  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society,  1865,  the 
method  of  producing  vacua  by  the  fall  of  water  or  mercury 
in  tubes.  He  first  drew  attention  to  picrid  acid,  which  he 
suggested  as  a  detonating  charge  for  shells;  and  was  the 
first  who  described  and  patented  in  England  a  number  of 
so-called  safety-explosives,  among  which  are  hellhoffite, 
oxonite,  panclastite,  rackarock,  etc.  Hellhoffite  and  racka- 
rock  were  used  by  (3  en.  John  Newton  in  blowing  up  Flood 
Rock  at  Hell  Gate.-  C.  H.  Thurbee. 

Sprengel's  Air-pnmp :  See  Pneumatics. 

Sprenger,  Aloys:  Orientalist;  b.  at  Nassereut,  Tyrol, 
Sept.  3,  1813;  educated  at  Innsbruck  and  Vienna  (1832); 
went  to  London  (1836)  to  assist  the  Earl  of  Munster  in  his 
work,  The  Military  Sciences  of  ths  Mohammedan  Nations ; 
then  to  Calcutta  (1843)  and  became  (1845)  president  of  the 
College  of  Delhi,  where  he  introduced  European  methods 


of  teaching,  established  a  litho^^phic  press,  and  laBoed  a 

Emny  magazine,  Kiran  Alsadatn ;  was  assistant  resident  at 
uclmow  (1848),  where  he  catalo&^ued  the  royal  librarv; 
examiner  at  the  College  of  Fort  William  (1850) ;  head  of  tfie 
Calcutta  and  Hugli  Mohammedan  Schools;  Qovemment 
interpreter  and  secretary  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal. 
He  was  pensioned  in  1857,  returned  to  Europe,  and  becan.e 
Professor  of  Oriental  Languages  at  Berne.  D.  Dec.  li*, 
1893,  at  Heidelberg,  to  which  place  he  had  retired.  His 
most  important  work  is  Das  Leben  und  die  Lehre  des  Jf^>- 
hamm^d  (Berlin,  1861-65,  3  vols.),  the  most  comprehensive 
life  of  the  prophet  hj  a  European,  but  written  too  much 
from  the  point  of  view  of  a  physician.  Of  his  Bihlu^- 
thecalndica,  which  he  published  in  conjunction  with  other 
scholars,  may  be  mentioned :  Dictionary  of  the  Technical 
Terms  used  in  the  Sciences  of  the  Mussulmans  (Calcutt.-u 
1854) ;  Ibn  Hajar's  Dictionary  of  Persons  who  knev  M't- 
hammed  (1856j ;  Soyuti's  Itkdn  (1856),  etc.  He  also  pub- 
lished Otby's  History  of  Mahmud  of  Ghaznah  (Delhi,  184:> ; 
MasudVs  Meadows  of  Gold  (London,  1849) ;  Die  Alte  On*- 
graphic  Arabiens  (Bern,  1875).  Richard  Gottheil. 

Spring  [liter.,  origin,  source,  beginning,  time  of  beginning 
(cf.  dayspring),  deriv.  of  spring,  to  arise,  take  birth,  rise,  or 
origin]:  the  season  of  the  year  which  follows  winter  and 
precedes  summer.  In  the  temperate  regions  of  the  northern 
hemisphere  it  includes,  in  a  vague  and  indefinite  waj.  the 
months  of  February,  March,  and  April  (as  in  Great  Britain), 
or  March,  April,  and  May  (as  in  North  America) ;  astronom- 
ically, it  would  extend  from  Mar.  21  to  June  21.  In  the 
temperate  regions  of  the  southern  hemisphere  the  spring 
months  are  September.  October,  and  November.  In  the 
tropical  regions  there  is  strictly  neither  spring  nor  autumn, 
but  only  two  seasons,  the  wet  and  the  dry ;  in  the  polar  re- 
gions, only  two  seasons,  summer  and  winter. 

Spring,  Gardiner,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. :  clergyman ;  b.  at  New- 
buryport,  Mass.,  Feb.  24,  1785 ;  was  valedictorian  at  Yale 
College  1805 ;  studied  law  and  taught  in  New  Haven  1805- 
06 ;  established  an  English  school  and  taught  in  Bermuda 
1806-08 ;  admitted  to  the  bar  1808 ;  studied  theology  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  1809^10;  and  was  pa$t<T 
of  the  Brick  church  (Presbyterian),  New  York,  1810-T:>. 
D.  in  New  York,  Aug.  18,  1873.  Many  of  his  publicatii>u> 
have  passed  through  several  editions,  and  have  been  re- 
printed and  translated  in  Europe.  They  include  Essays  on 
the  Distinguishing  Traits  of  Christian  Character  (New 
York,  1813) ;  Memoir  of  Rev,  Samuel  J,  Mills  (1820) ;  Frao- 
mentsfrom  the  Study  of  a  Pastor  (1838) ;  Obligations  of  (he 
World  to  the  Bible  (1839) ;  The  Attractions  of  the  Cro«i(1846» ; 
The  Bible  not  of  Man  (1847) ;  Discourses  to  Seamen  (1847) ; 
The  Power  of  the  Pulpit  (1848) ;  The  Mercy-seat  (1850) ; 
First  Things  (2  vols.,  1851);  CofUrast  between  Good  ami 
Bad  Men  (2  vols.,  1855) ;  Pulpit  Ministration  (2  vols..  1864) ; 
and  his  autobiography,  Persofud  Reminiscences  of  the  Life 
and  Times  of  Gardiner  Spring  (2  vols,,  1866).  The  Memori'til 
Discourse,  by  Rev.  John  0.  Murray,  D.  D.,  has  been  published 
(New  York,  1873).  C.  K.  Ho^t. 

Springy,  Leverett  Wilson,  A.  M.,  D.  D. ;  teacher  and 
author;  b.  at  Grafton,  Vt.,  Jan.  5, 1840;  graduated  at  Will- 
iams College  1863,  at  Hartford  Theological  Seminary  1866; 
pastor  of  Rollstone  Congregational  church,  Fitchburg,  Mass.. 
1868-75 ;  pastor  of  Plymouth  church,  Ijawrenc*e,  Kan.,  1876- 
81 ;  Professor  of  English  Literature,  Universitv  of  Kansa>. 
1881-86 ;  Morris  Professor  of  Rhetoric  at  Williams  Collepe 
since  1886 ;  author  of  Kansas  (in  the  American  Common- 
wealth Series) ;  Mark  Hopkins,  Teacher  (1885).      C.  H.  T, 

Sprfng-bok  [Dutch  for  spring-buck,  so  called  from  its 
habit  of  leaping  when  alarmed] :  a  verv  beautiful,  active, 
and  graceful  antelope  of  South  Africa,  the  Gazella  euchort. 
It  goes  in  immense  herds  upon  the  plains.  Its  flesh  is  in 
some  estimation  as  food,  and  the  hides  are  much  sought  for 
by  tanners.  This  timid  creature,  when  taken  in  hand  young, 
becomes  very  tame  and  sportive. 

Spring  City :  borough ;  Chester  co..  Pa. ;  on  the  Schuyl- 
kill river,  the  Schuylkill  Canal,  and  the  Penn.  Railroaii ; 
opposite  Rogersford,  32  miles  N.  of  Philadelnhia  (for  lega- 
tion, see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref .  6-1).  It  nas  manufac- 
tories  of  wood-pulp,  stoves,  glass,  stove-moulders'  facing, 
fire-brick,  tile,  paper,  sash,  and  lumber,  a  national  bank  with 
capital  of  $200,000,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  Pop.  (1880> 
1,112;  (1890)  1,797. 

Springer :  a  name  given  by  sportsmen  to  seTeral  varie- 
ties of  the  hunting  spaniel,  usea  for  starting  birds  from 


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682 


SPRINGFIELD 


1894,  were  $314,790 ;  the  bonded  debt  on  Mar.  1, 1894,  was 
$902,350 ;  and  the  estimated  value  of  all  property  belonging 
to  the  city  $925,000.  In  1895  there  were  5  national  banks  with 
combined  capital  of  $1,050,000, 1  State  bank  with  cai)ital  of 
$100,000,  and  1  loan  and  trust  company  with  capital  of 
$100,000.  There  are  also  10  building  and  loan  associations, 
all  serial,  1  national,  9  local,  with  4,088  shareholders  and 
41,659  shares  in  force. 

Business  Interests,— The  census  of  1890  showed  374  manu- 
facturing establishments  (representing  63  industries),  with 
a  combined  capital  of  $3,641,415,  employing  3,269  persons, 
paying  $1,746,228  for  wages  and  $3,789,139  for  materials, 
and  turning  out  products  valued  at  $6,562,070.  The  prin- 
cipal industries,  according  to  the  amount  of  capital  invested, 
were  those  connected  with  the  building  trades,  102  establish- 
ments, $558,573  capital;  printing  and  publishing,  12  estab- 
lishments, $261,031  capital;  textiles, $257,215  capital ;  foun- 
dry and  machine-shop  products,  $202,837;  planing-mills, 
$58,500  capital  The  city  is  also  an  important  coal-mining 
center, 

History, — Springfield  was  settled  in  1819  and  platted  in 
1823,  when  it  oecame  the  county-seat.  It  was  incorporated 
as  a  town  Apr.  2,  1832,  and  as  a  city  Apr.  6, 1840.  By  acts 
of  1837  it  was  made  the  permanent  seat  of  the  State  govern- 
ment, and  the  first  session  of  the  Legislature  held  here  was 
convened  Dec.  9, 1839.  Pop.  (1880)  19,743;  (1890)  24,963; 
(1895)  estimated,  30,000.  Joseph  WikLLACS. 

Springfield:  city;  port  of  entry;  capital  of  Hampden 
CO.,  lilass. ;  on  the  Connecticut  river,  and  the  Boston  and 
Albany,  the  N.  Y.  and  New  Eng.,  and  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and 
Hart,  railways ;  98  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Boston,  and  138  miles 
N.  N.  E.  of  New  York  (for  location,  see  map  of  Massachu- 
setts, ref.  3-E).  The  city  is  beautifully  situated,  is  laid 
out  with  wide  streets,  adorned  with  fine  shade-trees,  and  is 
noted  for  the  variety  and  taste  of  its  private  dwellings  and 
the  beauty  of  its  churches  and  public  ouildings.  There  are 
two  parksr— Forest,  comprising  over  500  acres,  laid  out  with 
ponas,  carriage  roads,  and  promenades,  and  Hampden,  con- 
taining about  60  acres,  famous  for  its  horse-races  and  cy- 
cling tournaments.  The  steam-railways  entering  the  city 
use  a  union  d^pdt  erected  in  1889  at  a  cost  of  $500,000.  A 
street-railway  connects  the  extreme  sections  of  the  city  and 
also  extends  to  Chicopee,  West  Springfield,  and  Holyoke. 

Churches  and  Schools, — Springfield  has  39  churches,  of 
which  11  are  Congregational,  7  Methodist  Episcopal,  3  Ro- 
man Catholic  (also  a  mission),  5  Baptist,  3  Union,  2  Prot- 
estant Episcopalian,  and  1  each  unitarian,  Universalist, 
Advent,  Swedenborgian,  Presbyterian,  Lutheran,  Jewish, 
and  Spiritualist.  The  public-school  system  comprises  a  high 
school  and  11  grammar,  12  primary,  7  ungraded,  3  even- 
ing, 3  kindergarten,  1  manual-training,  and  cooking  and 
drawing  schools,  located  in  31  buildings,  and  having  231 
teachers  and  over  7,000  pupils.  Various  parochial  schools 
have  over  1,200  pupils,  and  private  schools  over  100.  The 
city  also  contains  a  French- American  (Protestant)  college, 
the  School  for  Christian  Workers,  and  the  International 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  School.  The  Public  Library  building  is  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  city,  and  besides  a  library  of  about  89,000 
volumes  contains  a  free  reading-room  and  a  museum  of  natu- 
ral history  and  ethnology. 

Finances  and  Banking, — The  city  has  an  assessed  prop- 
erty valuation  of  over  $56,000,000  and  a  funded  debt  of 
$1,930,000,  of  which  $1,650,000  is  water  debt ;  deducting 
assets,  including  sinking  funds,  there  is  a  net  debt  (1895)  of 
$1,577,562.  The  receipts  and  expenditures  are  nearly  ecjual, 
over  $1,600,000  in  eacn  case.  In  1895  there  were  10  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  $3,500,000,  3  savings-banks 
with  aggregate  deposits  of  $18,667,430,  a  co-operative  bank 
with  a  capital  of  $333,000,  3  safe  deposit  companies,  one 
with  a  capital  of  $300,000,  a  bank  clearing-house,  which  in 
1894  cleared  $65,033,128,  and  5  insurance  companies. 

Business  Interests, — The  census  returns  of  1890  showed 
681  manufacturing  establishments  (representing  107  indus- 
tries), with  a  combined  capital  of  $10,524,457,  employing 
9,510  persons,  paying  $5,391,005  for  wages  and  $7,583,487 
for  materials,  and  turning  out  products  valued  at  $16,191,- 
456.  The  city  has  a  great  variety  of  skilled  industries,  ex- 
tensive manufactories  of  railway-cars,  pistols,  sporting-arms, 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  paper,  envelopes,  paper  boxes,  and 
collars,  toys,  needles,  watches,  buttons,  skates,  machinery, 
knit  goods,  confectionery,  corrugated  iron,  paints  and  chem- 
icals, sewing-machines,  etc.  The  U.  S.  armory  is  located  here 
and  gives  employment  to  about  530  men.    Large  additions 


have  been  made  to  the  shops  and  machineir,  and  the  output 
of  rifles  is  100  a  week.  The  arsenal  is  200  bv  70  feet,  and 
accommodates  300,000  stand  of  arms.  The  \J.  S.  Govern- 
ment building,  completed  in  1891  at  a  cost  of  about  $15<X' 
000,  contains  the  post-office  and  the  customs-office.  Tbt 
value  of  the  imports  in  1893  was  $107,718,  and  for  the  first 
quarter  of  1895  nearly  $50,000,  and  the  duty  collected  in 
1893  $47,710.  The  city  has  a  flourishing  board  of  trade. 
There  are  4  daily,  8  weekly,  8  monthly,  2  semi-monthly,  and 
2  Sunday  periodicals. 

History. — Springfield  was  settled  in  1636  by  emigrants 
from  Roxbury  under  the  leadership  of  William  Pjmchon, 
and  was  first  called  A|;awam,  the  Indian  name  for  apportion 
of  the  territory  occupied.  West  Springfield,  Chicopee,  and 
several  of  the  neighboring  towns  were  then  included  in  its 
boundaries.  In  1640  the  name  of  the  settlement  was 
changed  to  Sprin^eld  in  compliment  to  Mr.  Pyncbon, 
whose  country  residence  in  England  bore  that  name.  In 
1675,  during  Kin^  Philip's  war,  the  town  was  burned  by 
the  Indians.  Dunng  Shays*s  rebellion  in  1787  the  U.  S.  ar- 
senal was  attacked,  but  the  insurgents  were  dispersed  bv 
the  State  militia.  Pop.  (1880)  33,340;  (1890)  44,179  ;  (1894) 
51,851.  Eknest  M.  Long. 

Springfield:  city;  capital  of  Oreene  co..  Ma;  on  the 
St.  L.  and  San  Fran.,  and  the  Kan.  City,  Ft.  Seott  and 
Memphis  railways ;  130  miles  S.  of  Jeflferson  City,  the  State 
capital,  and  240  miles.  W.  S.  W.  of  St.  Louis  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Missouri,  ref.  7-F).  It  is  on  one  of  the  highest  pla- 
teaus of  the  Ozark  Mountains,  1,450  feet  above  sea-IevcX  is 
built  in  a  grove  of  forest-trees  with  prairies  on  three  sides, 
and  is  in  an  agricultural  and  lead  and  zinc  mining  region. 
The  streets  cross  at  right  angles  and  are  from  60  to  80  feet 
in  width ;  many  are  macadamized  or  paved  with  brick.  The 
city  is  lighted  oy  gas  and  electricity,  and  has  electric  street- 
railways,  improvea  water  works  and  sewerage,  and  two  pub- 
lic parks.  There  is  a  U.  S.  Government  building  wnich 
cost  with  grounds  $150,000,  and  contains  the  post-ofiice, 
land-ofilce.  Federal  courts,  internal-revenue  office,  and  sig- 
nal-service quarters.  Immediately  S.  of  the  city  is  a  Na- 
tional Cemeterjr,  containing  the  remains  of  1,600  Union  s<>l- 
diers,  and  adjoining  it  is  another  cemetery  with  the  graves 
of  about  500  Confederate  soldiers. 

Churches  and  ^SbAoo/d.— Springfield  contains  9  Methodist 
Episcopal  churches,  7  Baptist,  6  Presbyterian,  5  C/on^rega- 
tional,  4  Christian,  3  Roman  Catholic,  2  Protestant  E{)isco- 
pal,  and  a  German  Evangelical.  The  public-school  system 
comprises  a  high  school  with  building  and  ground  that  eo>t 
$50,000,  a  commodious  central  building,  and  9  ward  schools, 
with  65  teachers  and  nearly  6,000  enrolled  pupils.  A  nor- 
mal school  with  accommodations  for  2,000  pupils  was  opened 
in  1893.  There  are  also  3  Roman  Catholic  parochial  scho<)U 
and  2  private  kindergartens.  For  higher  instruction  there 
are  Drury  College  (Congregational,  chartered  in  1873),  which 
in  1894  had  grounds  and  buildings  valued  at  $115,800.  an 
endowment  of  $210,000,  265  students,  a  faculty  of  12,  and 
classical  and  scientific  courses;  a  Roman  Catholic  college; 
and  several  academies.  Springfield  has  a  circulating  library, 
and  3  daily  and  6  weekly  newspapers. 

Finance  and  Banking, — In  1894  the  city  revenue  was 
$89,753 ;  expenditures,  $80,962 ;  bonded  debt,  $188,800 :  and 
assessed  property  valuation,  $7,790,928.  There  were  5  State 
banks,  a  national  bank,  a  private  bank,  with  aggregate  capi- 
tal of  $725,000  and  deposits  of  $1,890,000,  and  4  loan  and 
trust  companies. 

Business  Interests, — ^The  city  has  a  large  jobbing  trmle. 
embracing  the  chief  lines  of  merchandise,  and  covering 
principally  Southwestern  Missouri  and  Northwestern  Ar- 
Kansas.  The  industrial  establishments  comprise  railway -i-ar 
and  repair  shops,  the  largest  wagon-factory  in  the  State.  4 
candy-factories,  4  roller  flour-mills,  3  tobacco-factories.  2 
iron-foundries,  a  furniture  factory,  a  cooperage,  and  a  stove- 
factory. 

Pop.  (1880)  6,522;  (1890)  21,860;  (1894)  estimated,  over 
25,000.  John  B.  Waddill. 

Springfield  :  city ;  capital  of  Clarke  co.,  O. ;  on  the  Mad 
river,  Lagonda  creek,  ana  the  Cleve.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L„ 
the  Erie,  the  Ohio  S.,  and  the  Pitts.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L. 
railways :  40  miles  W.  of  Columbus,  and  80  miles  N.  E.  of  Cin- 
cinnati (for  location,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  5-D).  It  is  in  an 
agricultural  region,  but  is  best  known  for  its  extensiTe  manu- 
facture of  agricultural  implements.  The  city  has  gas  and 
electric-light  plants,  water-works,  sewers,  and  street-rail- 
ways, and  obtains  excellent  power  for  manufacturing  pur- 


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684 


SPURREY 


SQUARES,  METHOD  OP  LEAST 


More  than  200  are  North  American,  fully  one-half  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  Euphorbia,  commonly  represented  by  £!, 
macuiaia,  K  nutans,  both  prostrate  spreadmg  species,  and 
E,  carollata,  an  erect,  white-flowered,  weedy  herb. 

Economically  the  family  is  of  great  importance ;  medi- 
cines are  supplied  by  species  of  Croton,  Euphorbia,  Jatro- 
pha,  Joannesta,  MercuncUis,  Ricinua,  Stillingia.  etc. ;  caout- 
chouc by  the  latex  of  Hevea,  Mahea,  Manihot,  and  Sapium ; 
food  by  species  of  Manihot,  slender  plants  of  the  tropics, 
with  large  starchy  roots,  the  product  being  known  as  tapi- 
oca and  cassava.  The  box-tree  {Buxus  sempervirens)  is  or- 
namental, and  its  wood  (box-wood)  is  most  useful,  especially 
for  engravers*  purposes.  Many  species  are  grown  in  con- 
servatories, some  of  them  resembling  cactuses  in  their  suc- 
culent, leafless  stems.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Sparrey :  any  plant  of  either  of  the  genera  Spergula  and 
Tiwa  (iSper^tt/aria),  belonging  to  the  family  Caryophyllaeea. 
Spergula  arvensis,  well  known  to  farmers  of  Europe  and 
North  America  as  a  weed,  is  profitably  cultivated  in  the  Low 
Countries  and  Germanv  as  a  forage-plant,  and  its  seeds  vield 
a  valuable  oil  and  oil-cake.  S.  pilifera,  a  dwarf  alpine 
plant,  has  been  recommended  as  a  lawn-plant  in  proper 
climates,  being  handsomer  than  grass  and  requiring  much 
less  care.  Revised  by  Charles  E.  Besset. 

Spar- winged  Goose:  the  Plectropterus  gambensis;  a 
goose  deriving  its  popular  name  from  the  strong  tubercle, 
or  blunt  spur,  on  the  bend  of  the  wing,  formed  by  the  pro- 
jecting wrist-bone  (radiale).  The  body  is  slender,  neck  and 
legs  long;  there  is  an  excrescence  at  the  base  of  the  beak. 
The  bird  is  about  3  feet  long ;  chin,  throat,  center  of  breast, 
under  side,  and  scapulars  white,  rest  of  plumage  greenish 
blacks    It  is  found  in  Central  and  South  Africa.   F.  A.  L. 

Sparzheim,  spoorts'him,  Kaspar:  phrenologist;  b.  at 
Lgn^wich,  near  Treves,  Rhenish  Prussia,  Dec.  31,  1776; 
studied  medicine  at  Treves  and  Vienna,  and  became  a  zeal- 
ous disciple  of  Dr.  Gall,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  travels 
in  Germany  and  France,  and  assisted  in  popularizing  his 
phrenological  doctrines  by  lecturing,  newspaper  articles,  etc. 
In  1813  he  separated  from  Gall,  and  undertook  the  intro- 
duction of  the  new  doctrines  in  England,  where  he  resided 
from  1814  to  1817,  and  from  1835  to  1828,  and  gave  very 
popular  lectures.  From  1817  to  1825  he  lived  in  Paris.  In 
1852  he  removed  to  the  U.  S.,  and  had  iust  begun  to  excite 
interest  when  he  died  in  Boston,  Nov.  10, 1832.  Among  his 
writings  are  The  Physiognomical  System  of  Drs,  Gall  and 
Spurzheim  (London,  1815) ;  Outlines  of  the  Physiognomical 
System  (1815);  Sur  la  Folie  (Paris,  1818);  Essai  philoso- 
phique  sur  la  Nature  morale  et  intellectuelle  de  I  Homme 
(1820) ;  A  View  of  the  Elementary  Principles  of  Education 
(1821).    See  the  memoir  by  Carmichael  (1833). 

Spntnm :  in  pathology,  the  substance  expectorated  from 
the  lungs.    See  Expectoration. 

Spayten  DayTil  (spi  tcn-di'vil)  Creek  [probably  from  the 
Dutch  Spuyt  den  Duyvil,  in  spite  of  the  devil]:  the  channel 
connecting  the  Hudson  river  with  the  Harlem  river,  and 
thence  with  the  East  river,  on  Long  Island  Sound.  The 
creek  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  Manhattan  Island. 

Spy  [deriv.  of  spy  (verb),  from  O.  Fr.  espier  (>  Fr.  epier), 
from  0.  H.  Germ.  »pehon  >  Mod.  Germ,  spdhen  <  Teuton. 
speh-  :  Lat.  spe  cere,  look  at,  view] :  in  the  laws  of  war,  a 
person  who  goes  in  disguise  or  under  false  pretenses  within 
the  lines  or  territory  of  a  belligerent  to  observe  his  strength 
and  obtain  information  concerning  his  works  and  move- 
ments for  the  purpose  of  communicating  the  same  to  the 
enemy.  The  rules  of  warfare  among  all  modem  civilized 
nations  permit  the  infliction  of  the  death  penalty  upon 
spies  taken  in  disguise  within  the  enemy's  lines.  The  em- 
ployment of  spies,  however,  is  considered  a  kind  of  deceit 
allowable  by  the  rules  of  war,  and,  notwithstanding  the  ig- 
nominious method  of  inflicting  death  (usually  by  hanging), 
it  has  not  infrequently  happened  that  men  of  high  honor 
have  undertaken  the  office.  Two  of  the  most  notable  in- 
stances in  all  historv  are  those  of  Capt.  Nathan  Hale  and 
Mai.  Andr6  during  the  Revolutionarv  war. 

Because  of  the  treachery  involved  in  acting  as  a  spy  all 
authorities  are  agreed  that  although  a  sovereign  may  hold 
out  an  inducement  or  the  temptation  of  a  reward  to  persons 
to  engage  in  such  service,  yet  tne  service  can  not  be  required 
of  subjects,  except,  perhaps,  in  some  singular  case  of  the  last 
importance.  In  Great  Britain  by  the  Is  aval  Discipline  Act 
(29  and  30  Vict,  c.  109,  §  6)  spies  can  be  tried  by  a  naval 
court  martial,  and  shall  suffer  death  or  other  punishment. 


In  the  U.  S.  the  instructions  for  the  government  of  the 
armies  of  the  U.  S.  in  the  field  provides  (General  Orders 
No.  100,  sec.  v.,  §88)  that  **  the  spy  is  punishable  with  death 
by  hanging  by  the  neck,  whether  or  not  he  succeed  in  ob- 
taining the  information  or  in  conveying  it  to  the  enemy." 

Exactly  what  acts  shall  bring  a  person  within  the  defini- 
tion of  a  spy  is  not  definitely  determined,  nor  when  be  cea>es 
to  be  a  spy  after  once  having  had  that  character.  In  the 
Franco-Gterman  war  of  1870  the  Germans  claimed  that  per- 
sons crossing  their  lines  in  balloons  were  spies ;  but  thi>  is 
not  in  accordance  with  the  treatment  of  the  subject  of  spies 
in  the  rules  proposed  at  the  Conference  of  Brussels  in  1H74 
(Project  of  an  International  Declaration  concerning  the  Law 
and  Custom  of  War,  Arts.  19-22),  which  expresses  the 
opinion  generally  accepted  among  the  nations  of  Euro(ie. 
See  Vattel's  Law  of  Nations ;  Kent's  Commentaries ;  and 
Halleck's  International  Law,  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Sanali  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  plur.  of  Lat.  sqfm'lus,  a  kind  of 
sea-fish] :  See  Shark. 

Squalls :  bursts  of  wind,  usually  of  brief  duration,  and 
when  accompanied  with  the  proper  precipitation  ctlM 
rain-squalls  or  snow-squalls.  Tney  are  of  many  varieties  as 
to  origin.  One  of  the  commonest  is  the  falling  wind  which 
descends  on  the  water  from  mountainous  coasts.  On  the 
northwest  coast  of  Lake  Superior  they  descend  from  the 
bluffs  and  low  mountains  only  a  few  hundred  feet  high,  yet 
with  such  violence  and  suddenness  in  calm,  warm  weathV r. 
and  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  that  they  are  very  dangerous  to 
sailing-vessels.  In  the  Aleutian  islands  they  often  dej«:-t'n«l 
the  mountains  behind  a  head  of  white  wool-uke  fog,  and  are 
therefore  called  "  woollies.**  The  papagayos  of  Lakes  Nicara- 
gua and  Managua,  and  of  the  Papagayo  Bight  on  the  we$t 
coast  of  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica,  are'  of  the  same  charac- 
ter, but  of  longer  duration.  They  usually  fall  on  the  ocean 
at  from  10  to  20  miles  from  land,  and  the  navigrator  mn< 
keep  within  10  or  beyond  40  miles  from  shore  if  be  wishes 
to  escape  them.  Of  tne  same  character  also  are  the  nevadins. 
a  falling  diurnal  wind  in  Ecuador  and  Peru,  when  the  air 
descends  on  the  plains  from  the  snow-fields  of  the  high«^r 
mountains.  Of  another  type  is  the  derecho  of  the  westt-m 
parts  of  the  II.  S.,  an  occasional  non-vortical  wind  whirh 
spreads  in  a  fan  shape  as  it  advances  from  the  N.  W. 
These  squalls  are  often  mistaken  for  tornadoes,  which  are 
vortical  local  storms.  The  w^hite  squalls  of  the  tropirjil 
seas  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  are  sudden  and  furiou» 
bursts,  whose  approach  is  indicated  by  an  advancing  but 
harmless-looking  white  cloud.        Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Sqaarcfone.  squ&r-cho'na,  Francesco:  painter;  b.  at 
Padua,  Italy,  1394.  His  love  of  art  led  him  to  travel  murh 
in  Greece  and  Italy,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  t  he 
masterpieces  of  ancient  sculpture.  He  then  formed  a  collec- 
tion of  busts,  torsos,  and  bas-reliefs,  with  which  he  adornetl 
his  studio,  and  opened  a  school  which  became  very  popular, 
and  in  which  Andrea  Mantegna  studied.  He  employed  the 
help  of  his  assistants  to  such  an  extent  that  only  one  picture 
exists  in  Padua  which  is  supposed  to  be  entirely  his  work, 
viz.,  the  St.  Jerome  and  other  Saints,  painted  for  the  Lazxare 
family  and  placed  in  the  Carmelite  church.  D,  at  Venice, 
1474. 

Square  Boot:  See  Boot. 

Squares,  Method  of  Least  [square  is  from  O.  Fr.  es- 
quarre  >  Fr.  4querre,  carpenter's  square,  deriv.  of  ^quarrer, 
as  Ital.  squadra  of  squadrare  <  Lat.  "^exquctdra're,  make 
square ;  ex  -I-  quadra,  a  square] :  a  process  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  the  most  probaole  value  of  a  quantity 
from  a  series  of  observations.  In  all  measures,  from  the  or- 
dinary rude  weighings  and  measurings  of  agriculture  and 
commerce  up  to  the  most  refined  astronomical  work,  there 
is  a  liability  to  error  which  can  not  be  avoided.  An  onli- 
nary  scale,  for  instance,  can  be  used  to  measure  down  to  a 
sixteenth  of  an  inch;  that  is,  if  carefully  used,  its  re>ulij; 
will  be  correct  to  that  limit.  The  level  of  a  transit-inst  ni- 
ment  can  make  its  measures,  when  used  with  care,  to  a  ten- 
thousandth  of  an  inch  or  even  less;  but  in  this  case  tln^ 
hundred-thousandths  will  be  uncertain.  An  ordinary  oIk 
server  notes  his  time  to  minutes  only,  and  is  likely  to  state 
the  time  incorrectly  to  the  extent  of  at  least  half  a  minute : 
the  man  who  is  trying  a  fine  watch  will  note  its  errors  tn 
seconds,  or  even  half  seconds;  the  astronomer  uses  tenths 
of  seconds  in  his  rough  data  and  hundredths  or  thousandths 
in  his  calculations,  but  even  here  there  is  always  uncertainty 
in  the  fractions  of  a  second. 


CJ' 


686 


SQUILLA 


medicine  from  a  very  remote  period.  It  is  an  acrid  irri- 
tant, affecting  the  mucous  membranes  and  glands,  and  in 
large  dose  causes  vomiting,  purging,  strangury,  and  may 
even  prove  fatally  poisonous.  Its  medicinal  use  is  from  its 
producing,  in  sraaU  dose,  an  increased  flow  of  urine,  and 
also  modifying  in  some  unknown  way  the  morbid  condition 
of  a  mucous  membrane  affected  with  catarrh,  and  especially 
of  the  bronchi®.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

SqalUa :  one  of  the  stomapod  crustaceans.  See  the  article 
on  tne  Stomapod  a. 

Sqalnting,  technically  termed  Strabls^mas  [Mod.  Lat. 
from  Gr.  ffrpa^ii&s,  a  squinting,  deriv.  of  ffrpafi6sy  distorted, 
squinting] :  the  condition  of  vision  when  the  visual  axis  of 
one  eye  is  deviated  from  the  point  of  fixation.  The  eye 
whose  visual  axis  is  directed  to  the  object  fixed  is  termed 
the  fixing  eye ;  the  other  is  called  the  squinting  or  deviating 
eye.  The  deviation  may  be  inward,  cativeraent  strabismus, 
outward,  divergent  strabismus,  upward  or  downward,  verti- 
cal strabismus.  In  convergent  squint  the  visual  line  of  the 
squinting  eye  is  deviated  inward,  and  intersects  that  of  the 
sound  eye  at  some  point  nearer  than  the  object  fixed ;  in  di- 
vergent squint  it  lacks  the  necessary  movement  inward  to 
intei-sect  that  of  its  fellow  at  the  point  of  fixation,  and 
hence  it  deviates  outward.  Strabismus  may  be  paralytio^or 
concomitant. 

(1)  In  paralytic  squint  the  deviation  is  caused  by  a  paraljr- 
sis  of  one  of  the  muscles  of  the  eyeball.  The  normal  posi- 
tion of  the  eye  and  the  correct  direction  of  its  visual  line 
depend  upon  the  tonicity  of  the  four  straight  muscles,  at- 
tached one  above,  one  beneath,  and  one  on  e4ich  side  of  the 
eyeball.  If  one  muscle  is  paralyzed,  the  eye  is  deflected  to 
the  opposite  side  by  the  stronger  or  intact  muscle.  Gener- 
ally with  paralytic  squint,  in  addition  to  the  deviation,  there 
is  loss  of  movement  in  the  direction  of  the  action  of  the 
affected  muscle.  Thus,  if  the  outer  straight  muscle  of  the 
right  eye  were  paralyzed,  the  affected  eye  could  not  move 
toward  the  temple  on  that  side,  and  woula  be  turned  inward 
by  the  action  of  the  inner  straight  muscle  which  is  unaf- 
fected—that is,  there  would  be  a  convergent  squint.  There 
is  also  generally  double  vision,  because  the  images  from  an 
object  do  not  fall  upon  identical  points  in  the  two  retinas, 
and  hence  are  no  longer  fused,  as  is  the  case  when  the  eyes 
are  normally  moved  by  the  muscles.  Paralytic  squint  is 
caused  by  diseases  of  the  brain,  meningitis,  and  spinal  cord, 
especially  locomotor  ataxia,  certain  general  diseases  like 
syphilis,  rheumatism,  diphtheria,  diabetes,  etc. ;  poisons, 
e.  g.  lead,  and  injuries. 

(2)  In  concomitant  squint  the  deviating  eye  is  able  to  fol- 
low the  movements  of  the  other  in  all  directions.  The 
sqiiint  may  be  either  periodic  or  permanent,  and  it  may 
affect  one  eye  or  it  may  alternate.  The  average  age  for  the 
appearance  of  concomitant  squint  is  about  four  years,  being 
usually  first  noticed  when  the  child  is  beginning  to  learn  to 
spell  or  read  with  small  letters.  There  are  a  number  of 
causes  for  concomitant  squint,  but  the  most  important  is  a 
disturbance  in  the  relation  of  the  power  of  accommodation 
in  an  eye  to  the  power  of  convergence,  i.  e.  of  bringing  the 
eyes  closer  together.  When  the  eye  is  far-sighted  (hyperme- 
tropic) to  a  given  degree,  i.  e.  when  it  has  a  low  refractive 
power,  a  short  antero-posterior  diameter,  and  the  rays  of 
light  are  not  focused  on  the  retina,  it  requires  an  accommo- 
dation, i.  e.  power  to  adjust  itself  for  different  distances  and 
objects,  of  an  equivalent  degree  to  neutralize  it,  the  visual 
lines  being  parallel.  Generally,  however,  some  convergence 
will  accompany  the  effort  of  accommodation.  The  point  of 
convergence  is* then  nearer  than  the  point  for  which  the  eye 
is  accommodated,  or,  in  other  words,  there  is  a  convergent 
squint.  Far-sightedness  is  consequently  often  accompanied 
by  convergent  squint.  In  near-sightedness,  on  the  other 
hand,  or  in  that  condition  in  which  there  is  a  high  refract- 
ive power  and  a  long  antero-posterior  diameter,  the  visual 
lines  often  intersect  at  a  greater  distance  than  the  point  for 
which  they  are  accommodated,  and  there  is  divergent  squint. 
In  a  great  majority  of  the  cases  of  permanent  squint  there 
is  amblyopia  or  imperfect  vision  of  the  squinting  eye.  Two 
views  have  been  held  in  regard  to  this  amblyopia,  one  being 
that  it  is  due  to  lack  of  use  on  the  part  of  the  squinting  eye, 
i.  e.  that  the  squint  causes  the  amblyopia;  the  other  that  it 
is  congenital  and  depends  upon  an  imperfect  develonment 
of  the  centers  of  vision  in  the  brain,  i.  e.  that  the  amblvopia 
causes  the  squint.  The  double  vision,  which  is  so  marked  a 
feature  in  squint  when  it  is  caused  by  paralysis,  is  usually 
absent  in  concomitant  squint,  because  the  eye  involuntarily 


STABAT  MATER 

suppresses  the  false  image,  or  else  has  learned  to  disregard 
it.  In  rare  cases  squint  is  due  to  spasm  of  the  internal 
straight  muscle.  In  paralytic  squint  tne  treatment  consists 
in  finding  the  cause  and  applying  the  proper  remedies.  In 
the  low  degrees,  especially  of  the  periodic  varieties  of  con- 
comitant squint,  the  eyes  may  often  be  straightened  by  pre- 
scribing the  proper  spectacles  to  correct  the  error  or  refrac- 
tion which  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  trouble.  When  the  squint 
is  marked  and  persistent  it  calls  for  operation :  Incision  of 
the  ocular  conjunctiva  or  mucous  membrane,  hooking  up 
the  tendon  close  to  the  cornea,  and  severing  it.  Very  youn^ 
children  should  not  be  operated  upon.  It  is  better  to  wait 
until  the  sixth  or  seventh  year.         G.  E.  de  Schwbinitz. 

Sqairrel  [from  0.  Pr.  esquirel  >  Fr.  ieureuil :  Span,  e^- 
guirol  <  Lat.  *scurius  for  sciu'rus  =  Gr.  aidovpot,  sqnirrel] : 
any  one  of  certain  species  of  the  family  Seiurida.  Tlie 
name  is  more  properly  applicable  to  the  slender  arboreal 
forms  constituting  the  genus  Seiurus.  These  are  of  mod- 
erate size  or  small,  have  a  rather  slender  head,  no  cheek- 
pouches,  rather  long  ears,  no  lateral  wing-like  extension  (^f 
the  skin,  a  large  bushy  tail,  and  the  teeth  are,  as  in  all  the 
other  genera  of  the  family,  84 — viz.,  M.  J,  1. 1  x  2 — but  the 
foremost  upper  molars  are  often  early  deciduous,  and  when 
present  vei^  small.  The  genus  grades  into  Tamias^  or  the 
chipmunks,  and  Spermophilus,  or  the  ground-squirrel?;. 
There  are  about  150  species,  and  representatives  are  foun<l 
in  almost  every  region,  Australasia  and  Polynesia,  the  south- 
em  extremity  of  South  America,  and  the  West  Indies  bciujET 
the  only  considerable  bodies  of  land  in  the  tem[)erate  or 
tropical  zones  destitute  of  them.  Eighteen  species,  with 
sixteen  geographical  races,  or  sub-species,  are  found  in  North 
America  N.  of  Mexico.  In  time  tney  existed,  according  to 
some  authors,  as  early  as  the  Eocene  Tertiarv,  but  the  amni- 
ties  of  those  early  forms  are  doubtful.  In  nabits  the  living 
species  are  all  essentially  similar.  Most  of  their  life  is  spent 
among  the  trees,  and  they  exhibit  great  agility  in  running 
up  the  trunks  and  leaping  from  branch  to  branch.  Their 
principal  food  consists  of  the  nuts  of  trees,  and  in  nut-bear- 
mg  forests  they  are  especially  to  be  found ;  they  also  eat  to 
some  extent  tne  larvn  of  insects,  and  attack  the  nests  of 
birds  for  their  eggs,  and  even  for  their  young.  Their  favor- 
ite attitude  in  eating  is  to  sit  on  their  haunches,  with  their 
tail  thrown  upward  on  the  back,  and  holding  the  eatables 
in  their  paws.  In  the  colder  countries  thev  lay  up  stores  of 
provisions  in  holes  and  nooks  in  or  near  the  trees  in  which 
they  live.  They  are  mostly  readily  tamed,  and  are  generally 
kept  in  ca^  with  revolving  wheels  or  treadmills,  wherein 
they  exercise.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Sqalrrel-corn :  See  Dicentba. 

Sqairrel,  Flying :  See  Fltino  Sqitikbel. 

Srlnagar',  or  Serlnaffor:  capital  of  Kashmir,  situated 
in  a  broad,  marvelously  beautiful  valley  at  an  elevation  of 
5,276  feet,  and  with  a  mean  temperature  of  SC'd*"  F.  (see  map 
of  N.  India,  ref.  3-D).  It  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the  navi- 
gable river  Jhilam,  from  which  numerous  canals,  spanned 
with  light  wooden  bridges,  branch  off,  the  lively  traffic  by 
boat  reminding  one  of  Venice.  The  most  remarkable  build- 
ing is  the  palace  of  the  maharajah ;  it  is  called  the  Shergarh 
(citadel),  and  a  large,  beautiful  flight  of  stairs  leads  from  it 
down  to  the  river.  Close  by  the  city  is  Lake  Dal,  which 
boasts  of  the  far-famed  isle  Chinars  (PlaHnus  orientalis). 
Vegetables  are  raised  here  on  floating  rafts  called  gardens. 
About  21  miles  N.  W.  of  the  city  is  Wular  Lake,  which  cov- 
ers 108  sq.  miles.  A  small  steamboat  plies  between  the  two 
lakes.    Pop.  (1891)  118,960,  mostly  Mohammedans, 

Revised  by  M.  W.  HAauNGToy. 

Staal,  MARGUERrrs  Jeanne  Cordier  de  Launat,  Baroness 
de :  memoir  writer ;  b.  in  Paris  in  1684,  the  daughter  of  a 
poor  painter ;  was  educated  in  a  convent  at  Rouen ;  became 
maid  to  the  Duchess  of  Maine;  took  part  in  Cellamare's 
conspiracy  for  depriving  the  Duke  of  Orleans  of  the  regency, 
and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile  1718-20;  married  after- 
ward a  Baron  de  Staal,  who  held  a  company  in  the  guard  of 
the  Duke  of  Maine,  and  spent  the  rest  of  her  life  at  the  duoal 
court  at  Sceaux.  I),  in  Paris,  June  15, 1750.  Her  Memoirtx 
were  published  in  1755,  and  republished  in  1846  and  18TS: 
her  letters  appeared  in  1806,  her  (Euvres  completes  (2  v(>i>.> 
in  1821.  Her  Mimoires  and  letters  have  considerable  in- 
terest to  the  student  of  history.  See  Sainte-Beuve,  Ptirtrait^ 
Litt era  ires, 

Stabat  Mater  [Lat.,  stahat,  was  standing,  third  s\r\^^ 
imperf.  indie. of  stare, stand -f-ma7fr,  the  mother] :  the  first 


^Mf--^ 


&e*ii«  I 


Wi4t'h*.M 


^lum  til  the  f^  thm 


ifi  nifpBcf  tn«  irttffn 


688 


STAFF 


STAFF  AND  STAFF  SCHOOLS 


(1807) ;  and  hj  a  wide  range  of  intellectual  view  and  just 
and  profound  ideas,  which  some  have  denied  her  the  credit 
of  originating,  but  which  she  at  least  grasped,  communi- 
cated, and  made  available.  These  are  exhibited  especially 
in  De  la  LitUraiure  considSrie  dans  ses  rapports  avec  Us 
institutions  soeiales  (1800) ;  De  VAllemagne  (1810) ;  and  Con- 
Mdirations  sur  la  Revolution  franpaise,  her  last  work,  pub- 
lished by  her  son  in  1818.  De  VAllemaone  was  of  great 
importance  in  stimulating  the  influence  of  German  thought 
ana  literature  in  France  by  giving  the  French  public  a  more 
complete  and  sympathetic  revelation  of  Germany  than  it 
had  ever  had.  'Other  works  are  Lettres  sur  les  ecrits  et  le 
caractere  de  J.  J,  Rousseau  (1788)  and  Dix  annies  d'exil 
(posthumous).  Her  son  published  her  CEuvres  complHes 
(17  vols.,  1821).  See  Lady  Blennerhasset,  Frau  von  Stail 
(3  vols.,  1888-69);  A.  Sorel,  Madame  de  Sta?l  (Paris,  1890). 

A.  G.  GAlfFIELD. 

Staff:  an  exterior  covering  for  buildings,  resembling 
plaster  or  stucco,  flrst  used  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889, 
and  emploved  for  most  of  the  building^  and  exterior  deco- 
rative work  of  the  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago  in 
1893.  It  is  made  of  hydraulic  cement,  sand,  and  a  binding 
material  of  jute  fiber.  M.  M. 

Starfa :  a  small,  uninhabited  Island  of  Argyleshire,  Scot- 
land ;  6  miles  W.  of  Mull ;  celebrated  for  its  curious  cav- 
erns, among  which  that  called  Finoal's  Cave  {q,  v.)  is  the 
most  remarkable.  Among  the  other  caves  are  the  Cor- 
morant and  the  Clam-shell.  The  greater  part  of  the  coast 
is  girt  with  cliffs  from  84  to  112  feet  hign.  In  the  N.  E., 
however,  in  the  lee  of  the  prevailing  winds,  is  a  tract  of  low 
shore  stretching  out  in  beaches  and  fonnin^  a  landing-place, 
and  the  interior  table-land  is  covered  with  rich  soil  and 
luxuriant  grass,  which  feeds  a  number  of  black  cattle. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harsinoton. 

Staff  and  Staff  Schools :  the  assistants  of  the  ^neral- 
in-chief  of  an  army  and  of  his  generals,  and  the  institutions 
in  which  they  are  trained  for  service  on  the  staff.  The  term 
staff  as  commonly  used  includes  (1)  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments (such  as  artillery  and  engineers,  military  law,  medi- 
cal, quartermaster,  pay,  etc.),  (2)  the  personal  staff  (includ- 
ing aides,  orderly  officers,  etc.),  (3)  adjutants,  and  (4)  a  spe- 
cial body  of  officers,  intrusted  with  duties  connected  directly 
with  military  operations,  entitled  the  general  staff. 

The  general  staff  has  been  universally  recognized  as  an 
essentiid  part  of  modem  army  organization.  Its  purpose  is 
to  convert  the  ideas  of  the  general  commanding  into  orders, 
not  only  by  conveying  them  to  the  troops,  but  far  more  by 
working  out  all  the  necessary  matters  of  detail  (Clausewitz) ; 
and  to  watch  over  and  preserve  the  fighting  condition  and 
material  welfare  of  the  troops  (Schellendorf). 

Germany, — ^AU  European  states  since  the  great  success 
of  the  Prussian  armies  in  their  contests  with  Denmark,  with 
Austria,  and  with  France,  in  the  campaigns  of  1864,  1866, 
1870-71,  have  made  the  Prussian  staff  system  in  some  de- 
gree their  exemplar.  The  origin  of  a  general  staff  is  prob- 
ably to  be  founa  in  the  Swedish  organization  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  (then  regarded  as  a  model),  and  traces  of  it 
(no  doubt  taken  therefrom)  are  found  in  the  army  of  the 
great  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  who  had,  in  1655,  two  quar- 
termaster-generals, officers  doing  special  duty  other  than  the 
direct  command  of  troops — ^the  germ  of  the  German  general 
staff  of  to-day.  In  1657  were  added  to  the  ^neral  staff  a 
field-marshal,  a  commissary-general  and  his  assistant,  2 
adjutant-generals,  a  judge-advocate,  a  provision-master,  a 
quartermaster,  a  paymaster,  a  chaplain,  a  surgeon  and  an 
apothecary,  a  wagon-master,  a  provost-marshal  with  3  assist- 
ants, and  11  clerks. 

Frederick  the  Great  had  few  staff  officers.  This  great 
captain  was  not  only  his  own  chief  of  general  staff,  but  he 
often  assumed  the  functions  of  a  staff  officer  of  an  inferior 
grade.  The  staff  of  the  quartermaster-general  then  had 
merely  a  nominal  existence.  In  1741  there  were  5  colonels, 
4  adjutant-generals,  1  brigade-major,  5  majors  (wing-adju- 
tants), 1  quartermaster-general  with  1  colonel  and  2  majors 
as  assistants,  and  9  colonels  and  lieutenant-colonels  of  the 
army  on  general  staff-duty.  The  king's  instructions  to  his 
quartermaster-general,  dated  1757,  contain  the  principles  of 
trie  construction,  attack,  and  defense  of  fortresses  and  forti- 
fied camps ;  reconnoissance  duty  was  performed  by  his  engi- 
neers ;  the  captain  of  the  guides  conducted  columns  of  route, 
as  no  maps  then  existed,  while  the  brigade  majors  regulated 
the  guard  duties  in  camp.  In  1796  the  survey  of  the  king- 
dom was  intrusted  to  the  quartermaster-general's  staff. 


These  were  the  beginnings  of  the  general  staff,  but  it  was 
not  until  1806  that  Col.  von  Massenbach  gave  it  a  definiir 
organization,  and  had  assigned  to  its  officers  their  pro(^r 
duties,  which,  in  general  outlines,  are  still  retained. 

After  the  destruction  of  the  Prussian  army  bjr  Napolet>n 
in  the  campaign  of  1806,  Col.  von  Schamhorst  in  ltH>8  br- 
came  lieutenant  (^uartermaster-eeneral  of  the  Prussian  army, 
with  rank  of  major-general.  His  staff  consisted  of  thirti- 
four  officers  in  all;  one  officer  was  attached  to  each  brigade, 
and  one  (sometimes  two)  to  each  corps.  After  1815  the  or- 
ganization of  the  staff,  which  had  rendered  distinguish*^ 
and  important  services  during  the  closing  campaigns  a^n^^t 
Napoleon,  was  seriously  studied.  A  part  of  its  oflk-vr>, 
placed  under  a  special  chief  as  the  great  general  9taff,  wu 
assembled  at  Berlin,  while  its  other  oticers,  doing  Maff 
duty  in  the  general  and  divisional  commands,  were  in  direct 
contact  with  the  troops.  The  general  staff  was  under  the 
Minister  of  War  till  1821,  when  the  king  named  LieuU-Gen. 
von  Mueffling  chief  of  the  f^eneral  staff,  which  then  ac- 

?[uired  an  independent  position,  taking  its  orders  direntiT 
rom  the  chief  of  the  state  and  commander-in-chief  of  t}^ 
army — a  position  it  retains.  To  this  independence  of  al! 
subordinate  authority  the  Prussian  staff  attributes  its  abil- 
ity to  render  the  services  in  its  lat«r  campaigns  which  ha\e 
placed  it  as  first  among  military  organizations.  Lieut  .-Gen. 
von  Mueffling  was  succeeded  m  1829  by  Lieut.-Gen.  v«  n 
Krauseneck,  who  was  followed  in  1848  by  Lieut.-Gen.  \*>\\ 
Reyer,  on  whose  death,  in  1867,  Gen.  von  Moltke  bectamf 
chief  of  the  general  staff.  The  part  played  by  this  generui 
staff  in  changing  the  map  of  Europe  makes  its  history  one 
of  great  interest. 

The  campaign  of  1866  showed  the  necessity  of  having 
ready  at  the  moment  of  mobilization  of  the  army  a  great 
general  staff,  capable  of  being  doubled,  and  of  leaving  be- 
hind it  when  the  army  takes  the  field  a  sufficient  number  of 
trained  staff  officers  to  make  sure  of  the  means  and  measures 
of  military  transportation,  and  to  insure  the  continuance  of 
the  supplies  necessary  for  the  army  of  operations.  In  1^67 
a  royal  order  established  the  staff  on  the  following  footing: 
Principal  list :  chief  of  general  staff  of  the  army ;  chiefs  of 
division  at  the  offices  of  the  great  general  staff ;  chiefs  uf 
staff  of  the  army-corps,  etc. ;  total,  88  officers.  Seientinc 
list :  21  officers  at  the  office  of  the  great  general  staff,  'fe- 
tal, 109  officers,  46  belonging  to  the  great  general  staff. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  1870  the  German  army 
contained  200  staff  officers,  which  number  was  considerably 
increased  in  the  course  of  the  campaign.  In  1801  the  gen- 
eral staff  proper  consisted  of  186  officers — 127  attachec  to 
the  staff  of  the  corps,  divisions,  etc.,  49  to  the  great  general 
staff  of  Berlin,  10  to  that  of  Munich ;  the  auxiliary  staff 
{scientific  lis(),  officers  simplv  detached  from  their  ivth- 
ments  and  doing  duty  under  the  great  general  staff,  oonsi>ts 
of  68  officers.  Besides  these,  the  general  staff  compris«s 
military  attachis  (about  10),  directors  of  military  schcKtis 
(about  20),  commissaries  of  railroads  residing  at  important 
railway  centers  (25),  and  officers  undergoing  probation  as 
staff  officers  (80).  Moreover,  there  are  some  400  adjutants, 
selected  and  assigned  to  duty  by  the  chief  of  the  general 
staff,  so  that  there  are  about  800  officers  employed  on  gen- 
eral staff  duty. 

The  work  of  the  great  general  staff  is  distributed  to  sepa- 
rate divisions.  The  chief  of  the  j^eneral  staff  directs  th« 
whole.  In  his  office,  under  direction  of  his  aide-de-camp, 
questions  relating  to  the  personnel  of  the  staff,  to  its  organi- 
zation and  administration,  are  considered.  The  work  of 
collecting  military  information,  domestic  and  foreign,  the 
use  of  railways,  the  pursuit  of  military  science,  preparation 
of  maps,  etc.,  are  distributed  to  various  sections,  grouped 
accoraing  to  their  work  or  the  countries  to  whose  study 
they  are  devoted.  The  staff  is  divided  into  three  sections, 
whose  dutv  is  to  study  att«ntively  all  military  events,  do- 
mestic and  foreign;  to  keep  themselves  acquainted  with 
the  changes  affecting  the  organization,  recruiting,  arming, 
and  equipment  of  armies ;  to  study  the  military  geography 
of  different  countries,  the  establishment  or  demolition  of 
fortresses,  the  development  of  the  network  of  roads,  rail- 
ways, canals,  etc.  Each  is  directed  by  a  chief.  Several  staff 
officers,  and  a  number  of  officers  ordered  on  staff  duty  and 
charged  with  the  special  study  of  military  Questions  in  dif- 
ferent countries,  are  under  the  orders  of  eacn  chief. 

The  fourth  section  is  that  of  railways.  This  section  is 
charged  with  all  that  relates  to  military  transportation.  It 
should  know  the  connections  of  the  railways  at  home  and 
abroad,  the  equipment  and  rolling  stock ;  and  it  elaborates 


STAFF  AND  STAFF  SCHOOLS 


689 


the  great  schemes  for  army  transportation  by  railway.  In 
consequence  of  the  great  number  of  officers  needed  to  man- 
a;re  the  movement  of  a  great  army  by  railway,  as  man^ 
officers  as  possible  are  from  time  to  time  attacned  to  this 
section  with  a  view  to  their  instruction  in  these  duties. 

In  the  scientific  corps  of  the  staff  are  the  officers  who 
have  diarge  of  the  section  of  military  history,  of  the  archives, 
And  of  the  library.  In  this  scientific  corps  belong  also  the 
sei-tion  of  geography  and  statistics  and  tne  preparation  of 
miiitAry  niape  of  foreign  countries.  The  general  service  of 
charts  Iwlongs,  under  a  chief  of  the  trigonometric  survey, 
to  another  part  of  the  great  general  staff. 

The  officers  of  the  general  staff  are  selected  from  the  ablest 
gra<luates  of  the  military  schools  after  a  certain  term  of 
service  in  the  line.  They  serve  on  the  staff  in  greater  num- 
ber than  can  possibly  become  permanent  staff  officers.  They 
return  to  the  line  and  serve  a  term  with  their  regiments. 
As  vacancies  occur  in  the  permanent  staff,  they  are  filled 
bv  selection,  at  the  discretion  of  the  chief  of  the  general 
staff,  from  those  officers  who  have,  while  under  his  eye, 
given  proof  of  greatest  capacity  and  devotion,* 

France. — In  the  French  army,  previous  to  1880,  the  gen- 
eral staff  was  a  separate  corps  of  officers,  but  since  that  year 
It  has  been  merely  a  service  to  which  officers  of  the  line  are 
detailed  for  a  term  of  years,  these  officers  still  belonging  to 
their  respective  arms  and  beina;  regularly  promoted  therein. 
By  the  law  of  June  24,  1890,  the  number  of  officers  in  the 
general  staff  was  limited  to  640,  comprising  30  colonels,  40 
lieutenaDt-colonels,  170  majors,  and  400  captains,  under 
wh<»<e  orders  are  placed  180  archivists,  constituting  a  special 
corps  of  officers,  employed  in  clerical  work  and  in  keeping 
the  records. 

In  time  of  peace  the  general  staff  comprises  (1)  the  mili- 
tary household  of  the  president ;  (2)  the  special  staff  of  the 
Minister  of  War;  (8)  the  general  staff  of  the  army ;  (4)  the 
staffs  of  the  military  governors  of  Paris  and  of  Lyons ;  (6) 
the  staffs  of  army-corps,  divisions,  and  brigades;  (6)  the 
staffs  of  territorial  divisions  and  stibdivisions ;  (7)  the  staffs 
attached  to  fortified  places;  (8)  the  staffs  of  marshiUs  of 
France  and  general  officers  specially  employed ;  (9)  military 
attorheji  abroad ;  (10)  the  staff  of  the  commanders  of  the 
artillery  and  the  engineers. 

The  supply  of  officers  for  the  staff  comes  mainly  from  the 
su(>erior  war  school  (see  Military  Academies),  but  officers 
who  have  not  gone  through  this  school  are  allowed  to  com- 
|x*te  for  a  staff  certificate  at  examinations  held  concurrently 
with  the  final  examination  at  this  school  The  officers  who 
pa«  serve  a  probationary  term  of  two  years  in  the  staff, 
after  which  the  best  are  selected  as  required. 

The  personnel  of  the  staff  is  brought  up  to  the  war  footing 
by  calling  in  all  officers  possessing  the  staff  certificate  who 
are  in  the  active  army,  and  by  reeling  all  certified  officers 
and  archivists  belonging  to  the  reserve  or  the  territorial 
annv. 

The  general  staff  of  an  army-corps  is  composed  of  (1)  1 
chief  of  staff  (general  or  colonel),  1  colonel  or  lieutenant- 
GuloneU  2  majors  (sometimes  3),  8  captains,  2  orderly  officers, 
2  archivists  and  8  secretaries  in  time  of  peace ;  in  time  of 
war.  of  14  officers  and  66  men ;  (2)  the  staff  of  the  artillery, 
X  officer?  and  19  men ;  (3)  the  staff  of  the  engineers,  4  officers 
and  8  men. 

A  division  has,  in  time  of  peace,  1  chief  (lieutenant-colonel 
or  major)  and  1  orderly  ofncer  (captain  or  lieutenant) ;  in 
time  of  war,  1  captain  or  lieutenant,  and  30  men  in  addition. 
A  brigade  has,  in  time  of  peace,  1  orderly  officer  (lieu- 
tenant or  captain  possessing  the  staff  certificate),  and  1  oor- 
p<  »ral  or  private  as  secretary ;  in  time  of  war,  1  lieutenant  of 
the  reserve  as  orderly  officer,  and  9  men  in  addition. 

The  artillery  and  en^neers  have  also  a  special  staff,  that 
of  the  former  comprising  810  colonels,  lieutenant-colonels, 
majors,  and  captains,  also  the  second  lieutenants  of  the 
«ohioul  of  application ;  that  of  the  latter  comprising  486  offi- 
<^rs.  The  duties  of  the  former  consist  in  superintending  the 
various  establishments  of  that  arm  and  supplying  the  troops 
wit  h  ammunition ;  those  of  the  latter  in  constructing  and 
repairing  fortifications  and  military  buildings,  directing  the 
<?ninneer  schools,  military  telegraphy,  and  the  military 
|ii^r*-on-hoase8. 

Hu99itu — The  officers  of  the  general  staff  in  Russia  form  a 
^p•=^>ial  corps,  and  are  exclusively  graduates  of  the  general 
%tAff  «ohooi  (Nicolas  Academy)  at  St.  Petersburg.  Entrance 
:<  i  this  school  is  by  competitive  examination,  open  to  officers 

*  Raxnaj  baa  Its  own  cadet  corps,  and  Bavaria  has  its  own  cadet 
war  •chod,  artillenr  and  engineer  school,  and  war  academy. 
M6 


of  all  arms  who  have  served  at  least  three  years ;  the  course 
is  two  and  a  half  years,  the  last  six  months  being  devoted  en- 
tirely to  practical  work  in  the  field;  about 80  students  enter 
every  year  and  about  60  graduate.  Upon  graduation  the 
30  best  enter  the  general  staff.  There  is  also  a  geodetic  sub- 
division of  20  officers,  who,  after  a  two  and  a  Quarter  years' 
course  here,  have  a  two  years'  course  at  the  observatory  at 
Pulkowa  and  then  enter  the  general  staff.  The  general  staff 
comprises  about  480  colonels,  lieutenant-colonels,  and  cap- 
tains, who  do  duty  in  the  different  bureaus  of  the  great 
general  staff  at  the  office  of  the  Minister  of  War,  or  in  the 
military  schools,  or  in  the  general  staff  of  the  generals  exer- 
cising command.  Before  being  promoted  they  are  always 
required  to  have  served  with  troops,  exercising  certain  com- 
mands, so  that  a  number  is  always  detached  on  such  duty. 
The  corps  also  comprises  about  80  general  officers  doing  gen- 
eral staff  duty  and  about  170  on  special  duties  of  various 
Icinds.  Topo^phical  work  is  not  done  by  the  general  staff^ 
as  in  other  armies,  but  by  a  special  corps  of  military  topog- 
raphers, about  450  officers ;  and  there  is  still  another  corps, 
doing  duty  related  to  that  of  the  general  staff,  viz.,  tne 
Fetdjae^eTj  about  45  officers,  selected  from  various  arms,  for 
reconnoissance  work,  carrying  important  orders  to  a  distance, 
etc.  General  officers  also  have  their  aides-de-camp,  selected 
from  the  officers  of  their  commands,  and  simply  detached, 
but  not  considered  part  of  the  general  staff. 

Austria^Hungary. — The  general  staff  of  Austria-Hungary, 
suppressed  as  a  special  corps  in  1871,  but  re-established  as 
sucn  by  the  law  of  Dec.  28,  1875,  comprises  on  the  peace 
footing  260  officers,  besides  a  number  attached  for  temporary 
duty.  The  corps  proper  is  a  closed  corps,  and  an  officer 
once  admitted  remains  a  part  of  it,  whether  he  afterward 
does  duty  with  troops  or  continues  on  general  staff  duty,  but 
it  is  open  for  admission  to  all  officers  up  to  the  rank  of 
major. 

Before  entrance  lieutenants  are  generallv  reouired  to  pass 
at  the  staff  school  (JTrtV^sscAii^e),*  located  in  Vienna.  Ad- 
mission to  this  school  is  by  competitive  examination,  open 
to  first  or  second  lieutenants  of  at  least  three  jears*  service, 
who  are  under  thirty  years  of  age  and  unmamed ;  each  year 
about  45  enter.  The  course  is  two  years,  terminated  by  an 
examination,  at  which  other  officers  who  have  not  taken  the 
course  may  also  compete.  Those  who  pass  are  assigned  to 
the  staff  for  a  probationary  tour  of  dutv  as  reauireu ;  they 
number  usually  about  135.  If  acceptable  they  oeoome  cap- 
tains of  the  ^neral  staff ;  if  not,  they  return  to  their  regi- 
ments. Majors  may  come  directly  from  the  line,  either  oy 
passing  a  special  examination  or  by  selection  of  the  chief  of 
the  general  staff.    Promotion  in  the  corps  is  by  seniority. 

Employed  in  the  bureaus  of  the  genenJ  staff  of  the  army 
are  about  30  officers,  taken  either  from  the  retired  list  or  from 
a  special  body  of  officers,  not  fit  for  active  service,  but  who 
can  be  utilized  for  sedentary  duties,  called  the  Armeeatand, 
who  have  their  own  uniform  and  are  promoted  among  them- 
selves. Besides  these  about  100  officers,  detached  from  their 
regiments,  are  detailed  on  topographical  work.  The  total 
on  general  staff  duty  \a  about  700. 

Italy, — General  staff  dutv  in  Italy  is  performed  by  a  spe- 
cial corps  of  about  160  officers,  drawn  from  the  captains, 
graduates  of  the  general  staff  school,  who  have  commanded 
a  company,  squadron,  or  battery  for  at  least  one  year.  Upon 
promotion  they  generally  return  to  the  line,  and  are  not 
again  recalled  to  the  general  staff  as  majors  until  after  serv- 
ing another  year  with  troops ;  but  captains  who  served  two 
years  before  admission  may  be  promoted  in  the  corps. 

There  are  also  about  120  officers  temporarily  attached  to 
the  general  staff,  including  those  graduates  of  the  staff 
school  (usually  about  24)  who  are  making  their  trial  tour. 
Generals  in  command,  besides  their  general  staffs,  have  also 
orderly  officers,  selected  from  among  the  troops  of  their  com- 
mand and  detailed  for  a  term  not  exceeding  three  years ; 
brigade  commanders  have  neither  f^eneral  staffs  nor  orderly 
officers,  but  aides-de-camp  are  detailed  to  the  brigade  (not  to 
its  commander)  by  the  Minister  of  War.  The  number  of 
orderly  officers  and  aides-de-camp  is  about  100.  There  are, 
therefore,  about  370  officers  on  general  staff  duty. 

*  Austria-Hungary  alao  has  a  military  orphan  asylum  at  Ffachan, 
4  lower  military  realschools  at  St.  P61ten,  GQns,  Elaenatadt,  and 
Koschau,  a  higher  military  realschool  at  Mfthriflch-WelMkirchen.  19 
infantry  cadet  flchools,  1  ca^ahy,  1  artillery,  1  engrineer,  and  1  pioneer 
school,  the  military  academy  (for  cavalry  and  infantry)  at  wiener- 
Neustadt,  the  technical  mlUtarr  academy  (for  artillenr,  engineers, 
and  pioneers)  at  Vienna,  the  higher  artiUery  and  engineer  course, 
and  the  field  officers'  course,  besides  riffdmental  and  other  schools  for 
■oldiers  and  schoola  of  practice  and  application  for  officers. 


690 


STAFF  AND  STAFF  SCHOOLS 


STAFFORD 


Oreat  Britain, — It  can  scarcely  be  said  that  there  is  any 
British  military  staff  as  a  separate  and  distinct  corps  of 
officers.  The  British  War  Department  is  dual,  embracing 
both  political  and  militair  officers.  Command  and  admin- 
istration are  separate.  The  War  Office  and  the  Horse 
Guards,  long  distinct,  were  united  into  one  department 
by  act  of  Parliament  in  1870.  The  general  commanding- 
in-chief  was  thus  brought  into  the  war  Office,  which  is 
under  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War.  The  latter  is  alone  re- 
sponsible to  Parliament,  while  the  former  is  subordinate, 
and  can  exercise  his  authority  only  under  approval  of  the 
secretary;  in  practice,  however,  the  secretary  concerns, him- 
self with  the  army  estimates  only,  and  exercises  merely  a 
general  control  over  the  general-in-chief.  who  has  immedi- 
ate direction  of  all  military  affairs ;  two  Under-Secretaries  of 
State  are  placed  immediately  under  the  Secretary  of  State 
for  War— the  parliamentary  secretary  and  the  permanent 
under-secret ary.  The  first  retires  at  a  change  of  ministry^, 
and  assists  hischief  in  Parliament ;  the  second  does  not  sit 
in  Parliament :  he  has  the  real  direction  of  business,  and 
does  not  go  out  with  the  ministry. 

The  military  affairs  come  under  the  military  department 
of  the  secretary,  and  are  arranged  under  several  bureaus :  (1) 
That  of  the  military  secretary,  dealing  with  matters  relating 
to  officers  personally,  such  as  orders,  leaves  of  absence,  detail 
to  staff-duty,  etc. ;  (2)  that  of  the  adjutant-general  of  the 
army,  concerned  with  all  questions  of  recruitment,  organiza- 
tion,' mobilization,  instruction,  and  discipline;  (8)  that  of 
the  quartermaster-general,  comprising  clothing,  equipment, 
quartering,  food,  mrage,  and  transportation ;  the  ouarter- 
master-general  has  control  of  the  commissariat  and  trans- 
port corps  and  the  pay  department ;  (4)  that  of  the  inspec- 
tor-general of  engineers  and  fortifications ;  (5)  that  of  the 
director-general  of  artillery;  (6)  that  of  the  director  of 
military  intelligence ;  (7)  the  director  of  military  education, 
surgeon-general,  chaplain-general,  and  principal  veterinary 
surgeon. 

The  yearly  array  estimates  and  administrative  matters  are 
under  the  financial  department,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the 
financial  secretary  (a  civil  officer),  under  whom  are  four 
bureaus :  (1)  The  accountant-general  (specially  charged  with 
the  army  estimates) ;  (2)  the  director  of  contracts ;  (3)  the 
director  of  clothing;  (4)  the  director  of  ordnance-factories. 

There  are  two  branches  of  general  staff  service  in  Eng- 
land, viz.,  the  staff  of  the  commands  and  the  personal  staff. 
The  former  comprises  those  officers  who  form  the  staff  prop- 
er of  general  officers,  those  on  topographical  work,  and  those 
sent  on  special  missions.  The  staff  of  a  general  officer  is 
divided  into  two  distinct  bureaus,  the  adjutant-general's  and 
the  Quarterroaster-generars.  In  brigades  a  single  officer, 
called  brigade-major,  combines  the  duties  of  both. 

The  personal  staffs  of  generals  comprise  aides-de-camp 
and  military  secretaries. 

The  officers  of  the  staff  are  taken  exclusively  from  the 
regular  army,  and  should  have  spent  two  years  at  the  staff 
college  or  passed  the  final  examination  for  graduation  at 
that  college.  A  condition  of  eligibility  to  examination  for 
admission  to  the  staff  college  is  five  years'  service  in  the 
army.  Every  officer  who  presents  himself  for  the  graduat- 
ing examination  at  Sandhurst  Staff  College  (see  Militabt 
Academies)  must  have  had  seven  years'  service. 

Officers  on  staff  duty  generally  serve  but  five  years,  after 
which  they  return  to  their  regiments  and  are  not  again 
available  for  at  least  two  years. 

United  States, — In  the  U.  S.  there  is  no  general  staff  prop- 
erly so  called,  but  (as  in  Great  Britain)  some  of  the  duties  of 
this  body  are  performed  by  officers  of  certain  departments 
or  by  officers  of  the  line  temporarily  detailed.  The  so-called 
staff  departments  are  (1)  the  adjutant-general's,  comprising 
1  brigadier-general,  4  colonels,  6  lieutenant-colonels,  and  6 
majors,  their  princioal  duties  being  the  ordinary  routine  of 
office- work,  the  wording  and  issue  of  the  orders  oi  command- 
ing generals,  and  in  the  war  department  all  matters  relat- 
ing to  recruitment ;  (2)  the  inspector-general's  (1  brigadier- 
general,  2  colonels,  2  lieutenant-colonels,  and  2  majors),  their 
duties  consisting  in  inspecting  the  various  posts,  garrisons, 
military  schools,  and  military  departments  of  colleges  to 
which  officers  are  detailed,  and  the  money  accounts  of  dis- 
bursing officers ;  (3)  the  quartermaster's  department  (1  briga- 
dier-general, 4  colonels,  8  lieutenant-colonels,  14  majors, 
and  »30  captains),  whose  duties  consist  in  constructing  and 
repairing  quarters  and  other  public  buildings,  roads,  etc., 
furnishing  transportation  and  supplying  fuel,  forage,  cloth- 
ing, and  material ;  (4)  the  subsistence  department  (1  briga- 


dier-general, 4  colonels,  8  lieutenant-colonels,  8  majors.  13 
captains),  furnishing  supplies  of  food  (principally  the  ration  > 
find  certain  other  articles ;  (5)  the  judge  advocate-general  > 
department  (1  brigadier-general,  1  colonel,  8  lieutenant- 
colonels,  and  8  majors),  who  attend  to  questions  of  law  an<i 
assist  in  revising  charges  and  court-martial  proceedin^>: 
(6)  the  medical  department ;  (7)  the  pay  department :  (H)  the 
Corps  of  Engineers,  part  of  the  line  in  European  armies,  but 
forming  a  closed  corps  in  the  U.  S.,  recruited  exclusirelj 
from  the  highest  graduates  of  the  military  academy,  inainlV 
employed  in  time  of  peace  on  river  and  harbor  work,  a  few 
in  charge  of  repairs  to  forts  or  serving  with  the  battalion  of 
engineers,  and  one  on  the  staff  of  the  commander  of  each 
military  department  in  the  country ;  (0)  the  ordnance  de- 
partment (corresponding  to  the  construction  branch  of 
European  artilleries),  employed  in  the  various  arsenaK 
work-shops,  and  gun-foundnes,  one  on  the  staff  of  each 
department  commander;  (10)  the  signal  corps;  (ll)  the 
post  chaplains.  The  chiefs  of  these  departments,  together 
with  a  certain  number  of  officers  of  each,  constitute  a  kind 
of  staff  to  the  Secretary  of  ^'ar  and  the  general  of  t\e 
army.  An  intelligence  bureau  has  been  organized  at  th*" 
War  Department.  Each  military  department  coromamler 
usually  has  one  officer  of  each  staff  department  on  his  staff; 
(quartermasters,  commissaries,  and  surgeons  are  also  located 
in  the  large  cities  in  char^  of  d6p6ts,  etc.  Each  depart- 
ment commander  has  also  his  personal  aides — a  major-gen- 
eral 8,  a  brigadier-general  2. 

Each  regiment  has  also  a  regimental  staff,  comprising  the 
adjutant  and  quartermaster  of  the  regiment,  detailed  f  nmi 
the  lieutenants  for  four  years.  Elach  post,  moreover,  has  a 
post  adjutant  and  a  post  quartermaster  and  commissary,  de- 
tailed by  the  commanding  officer  from  the  lieutenants  of 
the  post. 

For  further  information  consult  von  Schellendorf,  Dv- 
ties  of  the  GenercU  Staff;  Ran,  L^Stat  militaire  des  puis- 
sances itranghres  (1891) ;  von  Ldbell,  Jahresbertehte  ub*^r 
die  Verdnderungen  una  Fortschritie  im  Militdrwesen ;  and 
L.  Beaug^,  Manuel  de  ISgislation,  d" administration  et  de 
eomptabuitS  militaires  (1892). 

Revised  by  John  P.  Wissta. 

Staffeldt.  Adolf  Wilhelm  Shack,  von :  poet ;  b.  on  the 
island  of  Rtlgen,  Germany,  1769 ;  studied  in  the  militarv 
academy  at  Copenhagen,  and  entered  the  Danish  army.  \i\ 
1791  resigned,  and  studied  law,  arclueology,  and  the  hij«ton 
of  art  at  GSttingen,  after  which  he  spent  several  years  iti 
travel.  In  1800  he  returned  to  Denmarx,  and  held  important 
Government  positions  there  until  his  death  in  1836.  II i-^ 
earliest  collections  of  poems  (1803  and  1808)  attracted  Mvl*' 
attention  at  the  time  of  their  appearance,  and  on  account 
of  their  depth  of  thought  and  frequent  obscurity  of  languau't' 
they  have  never  won  general  popularity.  Unlike  Oehler.- 
schlftger,  Staffeldt  continued  to  be  strongly  influenced  ly 
German  romanticism.  Among  his  later  works  are  the  ro- 
mances Trottbadouren ;  Trende  Natter  (Three  Nights) :  Jin- 
seme  (The  Rases) ;  and  Indvielsen  (The  Consecration).  S^ 
his  Collected  Poems  (2  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1848).    D.  K.  D. 

Stafford :  county  town  of  Staffordshire,  England :  on  the 
Sow ;  29  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Birmingham,  and  183  N.  W.  r.f 
London  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  9--G).  Among  the 
churches  are  St.  Mary's,  restored  by  Sir  G.  Scott  in  l^^i. 
and  St.  Chad,  originally  of  Saxon  origin,  restored  185.VS1 
Shoemaking  is  carried  on.  Stafford  returns  one  member 
to  Parliament.    Pop.  (1891)  20,270. 

Stafford,  William  Howard,  Viscount :  statesman :  K  io 
England,  Nov.  20, 1612;  was  brought  up  a  Roman  Catholic; 
married  a  sister  of  Baron  Stafford,  to  whose  title  Hovani 
succeeded.  During  the  civil  war  Stafford  adhered  to  th<* 
royal  cause,  but  after  the  Restoration  often  opposed  in  ire 
House  of  Peers  the  measures  of  the  court;  was  intimate 
with  Shaftesbury,  and  was,  on  account  of  his  reli^rion, 
selected  by  the  infamous  Titus  Oates  as  one  of  his  Tictiii)^ 
Accused  of  participation  in  the  "Popish  plot"  by  Oate<  'n 
his  first  examination  before  the  House  of  (Jommona,  Staff>^ni 
surrendered  himself  on  the  following  dav,  and  was  c<imii>n- 
ted  to  the  Tower  with  four  other  accused  noblemen  Oct. '{»», 
1678.  On  Nov.  80,  1680.  his  trial  for  high  treason  ww 
begun  before  the  House  of  Lords,  Sir  Heneage  Pinch  (after- 
ward Earl  of  Nottingham)  presiding  as  lord  hi^h  stewani. 
Stephen  Dugdale  and  one  Turberville,  the  chief  witness, 
swore  that  Stafford  had  offered  them  rewards  to  particiia'** 
in  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the  king,  and  Betiif. 
Dangerfield,  and    Denis   offered    oonfirmatonr   testimony. 


iirmre 


mK»I  ltlm«4ff  wHK 


HUiflrMi*   \H<ilf(tlf*M»r 


iUrikiriUl^lt 


<ljnliT    V ir>r  t.%iru    Tn 


SuriifHnf 


\iuiik-'    Wir  (1/ 1  ■!    l\it.i 


«..iii.  *   «ki 


}..  r  .    1 


P.  \.  L.      1 


in  I,f^« 


692 


STAIR 


STAMEN 


Sir  F.  A.  Gore  Ouseley  in  1889  was  appointed  to  succeed 
him  as  Professor  of  Music  in  Oxford  University.  His  de- 
grees and  honors  are  as  follows :  Mus.  Bac.  Oxon.  1859 ;  B.  A. 
1863 ;  Mus.  Doc.  Oxon.  1865 ;  M.  A.  1866 ;  Hon.  Mus.  Doc., 
Durham,  1885  ;  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  1878. 
He  is  also  honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music 
and  honorary  fellow  of  the  Tonic  Sol-Fa  College.  His  com- 
positions are  chiefly  sacred  and  include  three  sacred  cantatas, 
The  Daughter  of  Jairus,  Worcester  festival.  1878 ;  SL  Mary 
Magdalene,  Gloucester  festival,  1883;  The  Crucifixion,  1887; 
the  oratorio  Gideon,  an  early  work ;  and  many  church  an- 
thems and  services.  He  has  also  written  several  theoretical 
works,  a  treatise  on  the  Music  of  the  Bible,  and  a  Dictionary 
of  Musical  Terms,  D.  E.  Hebvey. 

Stair,  James  Dalrtmple,  Seventh  Baron  and  First  Vis- 
count:  jurist;  b.  at  Drummurchie,  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  in 
May,  1619 ;  graduated  M.  A.  at  the  University  of  Glasgow 
1637;  obtained  a  commission  as  captain  in  the  Scottish 
army,  but  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  accepted  the  professor- 
ship of  philosophy  at  Glasgow,  which  he  held  till  1647 ;  was 
admitted  an  advocate  at  the  Scottish  bar  Feb.,  1648 ;  was 
secretary  to  the  commissioners  sent  to  treat  with  Charles  II. 
at  Breda  1649-50 ;  became  a  lord  of  session  July  1,  1657 ; 
was  knighted  by  Charles  II.  1660,  and  confirmed  as  lord  of 
session  Feb.  13,  1661 ;  resigned  office  1663  from  unwilling- 
ness to  subscribe  the  declaration  against  the  Covenants  of 
1638  and  1643  appended  to  the  oath  of  allegiance,  but  his 
resignation  was  aeclined,  and  he  was  made  a  baronet  June, 
1664 ;  became  lord  president  of  the  court  of  session  Jan., 
1671 ;  refused  to  take  the  new  test  oath,  and  was  removed 
from  his  offices  1681 ;  published  in  that  year  his  Modus  Li- 
tigandi  and  The  Institutions  of  the  Law  of  Scotland — a 
work  which  has  been  called  the  Scottish  Blackstone;  be- 
coming involved  in  a  dispute  with  Claverhouse  he  was 
forced  to  flee  to  Holland  Oct.,  1684  ;  prepared  there  his  De- 
cisions of  the  Lord  of  Council  a^\d  Sessions  1661-^1  (Edin- 
burgh, 2  vols,  folio,  1683-87) ;  published  at  Leyden  his  Latin 
treatises  Physiologia  Nova  Experimentalis  (1686) ;  received 
a  pai-don  1686 ;  accompanied  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  Eng- 
land 1688 ;  was  reinstated  in  the  presidency  of  the  court  of 
session,  and  made  Viscount  Stair  Apr.  21, 1690 ;  published 
an  Apology  for  his  political  course  (1690)  and  a  Vindication 
of  the  Di'mne  Perfections  (1695).  D.  in  Edinburgh,  Nov.  29, 
1695. 

Stair,  John  Dalrymple,  First  Earl  of,  better  known  as 
the  Master  of  Stair,  son  of  Viscount  Stair :  b.  in  Scotland 
about  1648 ;  was  admitted  as  advocate  in  the  court  of  ses- 
sion Feb.,  1672;  was  one  of  the  council  for  the  Earl  of 
Argyll  on  his  trial  for  treason  1681 ;  was  twice  imprisoned 
between  1681  and  1685 ;  was  received  into  favor  on  the  ac- 
cession of  James  II.,  by  whom  he  was  made  lord  advocate 
1685  and  lord  of  session  and  lord  justice  clerk  1686 ;  sup- 
ported the  Revolution  1688 ;  was  a  leading  Scottish  member 
of  the  Convention  Parliament  Mar.,  1689 ;  was  one  of  the 
three  commissioners  sent  to  London  to  offer  the  crown  of 
Scotland  to  William  and  Mary  Mav,  1689  ;  was  reappointed 
lord  advocate  1690 ;  became  one  of  the  Secretaries  of  State 
for  Scotland  1691 ;  plotted  the  massacre  of  Glencoe  (q.  v.), 
Jan.,  1692,  for  which  act  he  was  dismissed  from  office  1695 
♦  and  censured  by  a  parliamentary  committee  of  inquirv,  but 
was  never  subjected  to  prosecution  ;  succeeded  his  father  as 
Viscount  Stair  in  1695 ;  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council  on 
the  accession  of  Anne  1702  ;  was  created  Earl  of  Stair  Apr. 
8, 1703 ;  was  one  of  the  commissioners  who  negotiated  tne 
treaty  of  union  between  Scotland  and  England  1706,  and 
was  mainly  instrumental  in  passing  that  measure  through 
the  Scottish  Parliament.  D.  Jan.  8,  1707.  See  Graham, 
Stair  Annals  (1875). 

Stair,  John  Dalrtmple,  Second  Earl  of :  soldier ;  b.  in 
Edinburgh,  July  20,  1673 ;  had  the  misfortune  in  boyhood 
to  kill  his  elder  brother  b^  the  accidental  discharge  of  a  pis- 
tol ;  educated  at  the  University  of  Leyden,  where  he  was 
distinguished  for  scholarship  ;  entered  the  army  as  a  volun- 
teer under  the  Earl  of  Angus,  and  commanded  the  Caraero- 
nian  Regiment  at  the  battle  of  Steinkirk  1692 ;  was  aide-de- 
camp to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  at  Venloo  and  Liege 
1702;  succeeded  to  the  earldom  1707;  obtained  command 
of  the  Scots  Greys ;  was  commissioned  general ;  distin- 
guished himself  at  Ramillies  and  Oudenarde  1706,  and  at 
Malplaquet  1709 ;  withdrew  from  the  army  in  1711 ;  be- 
came privy  councilor  and  representative  j>eer  for  Scotland 
1714 ;  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in 
Scotland  on  the  accession  of  George  I.  (1715) ;  was  ambassa- 


dor to  France  1715-20 ;  resided  on  his  estate  at  Xew  Linton, 
Scotland,  and  devoted  himself  to  scientific  agriculture  1720- 
40 ;  was  made  field-marshal  commander-in-chief  of  Britivh 
forces  in  Flanders  and  ambassador  extraordinary  to  the 
States-General  of  Holland  1741 ;  won  the  battle  of  Dettingra 
June  27,  1743,  and  subsequentlv  filled  several  important 
public  posts  under  the  Walpole  administration.  D.  in  E<lin- 
Durgh,  Afay  9, 1747.  The  Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Dairy  m- 
pie,  published  from  family  papers  (1876),  contains  impor- 
tant nistorical  data.      , 

Stalac'tltes  [from  Gr.  <rrakaKT6s,  dropping,  oozing  out  in 
drops,  deriv.  of  irra\dC*uf,  to  drop] :  icicle-like  mass^es  of 
lime,  limonite,  chalcedony,  pyrites,  etc,  attached  to  the  tttAi 
of  caverns ;  they  are  formed  by  the  evaporation  of  wattr 
holding  these  substances  in  solution.  Stalactites  8omeliroc»« 
form  columns  reaching  from  floor  to  roof  of  high  chambers ; 
sometimes  they  imitate  curtains,  waterfalls,  etc.,  and  con- 
stitute notable  features  in  some  of  the  most  famous  ca^e$. 
The  name  stalagmite  (Gr.  ariXaryiM,  a  drop)  is  given  to  ac- 
cumulations of  material  of  the  same  nature  as  stalactites 
but  deposited  on  the  floors  of  caverns.  This  sometimrf 
forms  continuous  sheets  over  the  surface,  sometimes  ri^trs 
into  columns,  which  meet  and  blend  with  the  stalactittrK 
above.  Stalactites  are  often  tubular,  and,  indeed,  generaiir 
begin  to  form  as  tubes,  since  the  solid  matter  held  in  sv.^u- 
tion  by  a  drop  of  water  when  precipitated  by  evaiioratuin 
forms  a  ring  at  the  base  and  outside  of  the  drop. 

Revised  by  Israel  C.  Russell. 

Staley,  Cady,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. :  civil  engineer  and  edu- 
cator ;  b.  at  Scotch  Bush,  Montgomery  co.,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  It 
1840 ;  educated  at  Union  College.  He  has  been  in engintrr- 
ing  work  on  the  Central  Pacific  Bailroad,  Professor  of  V\\\\ 
Engineering  in  Union  College  1867-86,  and  dean  of  the  fd«  - 
ulty,  and  smce  1884  president  of  the  C^ase  School  of  Ap- 
plied Science  in  Cleveland,  0.  He  is  the  editor  of  nt-*  lt 
editions  of  Gillespie's  Surveys  and  Roads  and  Railnnvi*, 
and  (with  G.  S.  Pierson)  author  of  The  SeparcUe  System  u* 
Sewerage  (1886). 

Stalker,  James,  D.D.  :  minister;  b.  at  CrietC,  PerthshiTv. 
Scotland,  Feb.  21, 1848 ;  was  educated  at  the  University  uni 
New  Colleg[e  of  Edinburgh,  Universities  of  Berlin  ai  'i 
Halle;  minister  of  St  Brycedale  Free  church,  Kirkcalh. 
1874-<87;  since  1887  of  St.  Matthew's,  Glasgow.  lie  «x- 
Cunningham  fellow  at  New  College  1874,  and  Lyman  B«>ti  r.- 
er  lecturer  at  Yale  Theological  Seminary  1891.  Dr.  Stalk*  r 
has  published  The  Life  of  Jesus  Christ  (£>iinburgh  ar^.l 
New  York,  1879;  many  later  editions;  translated  into  sev- 
eral foreign  languages) ;  The  New  Song:  Sermons  for  ( 'li>- 
dren  (1883);  Life  of  St.  Plaul  (1884;  several  later  eclitions-; 
Imago  Christi  (1889;  7th  edition,  1894 ;  translated  iri<> 
Norwegian,  German.  Japanese,  and  other  languages) ;  T^'^ 
Preacher  and  his  Models,  Lyman  Beecher  lectnres^  (N. 'i 
York,  1891;  2d  ed.  1892);  Men  and  MoraU  (1892);  n- 
Four  Men  and  Other  Chapters  (1892) ;  ITiS  Tried  and  Dta'h 
of  Jesus  Christ  (1894).  C.  K.  Horx. 

Stalwarts :  a  name  applied  to  the  section  of  the  Rop'i^ 
lican  party  that  in  1881  opposed  the  administration  of  Pn^i- 
dent  (jrarfield.  The  quarrel  arose  from  the  tatter's  app<«iTi!- 
ment  of  a  collector  of  the  port  of  New  York  in  oppositi*.:! 
to  the  wishes  of  Conkling  and  Piatt,  the  Senators  from  th&t 
State.  The  party  was  divided  between  the  Stalwarts  anc 
"Half-breeds,"  as  the  friends  of  the  administration  wtn 
called,  and  this  dissension  helped  the  Democrats  to  win  m 
the  election  of  1884.    See  Repubucan  Party. 

Stamboal,  st&m-bool':  the  wealthiest,  most  populciN 
and  important  of  the  territorial  divisions  forming  tne  <  :i} 
of  Constantinople  {q,  v,),  called  Istamboul  by  the  Ottoman-. 
Stamboul  is  a  triangular-shaped  promontory,  projecting  I'a^!- 
ward  toward  the  Bosphorus  from  the  mainland,  and  imlaii^^i 
between  the  Golden  Horn  and  Marmora.  It  comprises  thir- 
teen of  the  fourteen  regions  or  climaia  of  the  Nova  R<»ir.A 
of  Constantine.  E.  A.  G. 

Stamen  [=  Lat.,  liter.,  warp  in  an  upright  loom,  threail 
fiber,  deriv.  of  stare,  stand;  cf.  Gr.  rrifmv,  warp  (in  an  i.}- 
right  loom),  deriv.  of  l<rTcb«u,  stand]  :  the  poUen-bearing  i  r- 
gan  in  plants.  Morphologically  it  is  a  leaf,  upon  whic-h  onr 
or  more  pollen -sacs  (spore-sacs  or  sporangia)  are  pnxlut\«i 
On  account  of  its  special  function  it  is  rarely  an  expami»>*l 
structure,  although  it  is  so  in  water-lilies,  cannas,  and  !v  'm" 
other  cases  (Fig.  1,  a).  In  its  usual  form  (Fig.  1,  h\  the 
slender  stalk  (filament)  is  surmounted  by  the  pollen-^' 
{anther),  which  at  maturity  contains  many  loose  cells  xta 


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o^  «awli*,  tV^J^A 


ptotU  (i» 


aifiitr*,  ii«  \h  yu**  r  •  tM|#>.^ft^^. 


694 


STAMPS 


spondence,  but  also  the  work  of  the  postal  authorities  by  ob- 
viating the  necessity  for  a  separate  nandling  of  each  piece 
of  mau  matter. 

The  first  introduction  of  postage-stamps  for  regular  issue 
took  place  in  Great  Biitain  on  May  6, 1840,  and  was  the 
result  of  the  earnest  efforts  of  Sir  Kowland  Hill,  who  had 
fought  for  three  years  in  the  House  of  Commons  for  postal 
reform.  Prior  to  that  time,  James  Chalmers,  of  Dundee, 
Scotland,  had  invented  an  adhesive  label  intended  to  be 
used  as  a  postage-stamp,  but  he  was  unable  to  introduce  his 
invention,  and  the  real  credit  must  remain  with  Sir  Row- 
land Hill,  who  carried  through  successfully  his  scheme  for 
the  reduction  of  postage,  and  at  the  same  time  the  intro- 
duction of  evidences  of  prepayment.  It  is  true  that  Sir  Row- 
land Hill  did  not  attach  so  much  importance  to  the  ad- 
hesive label  as  to  prepaid  envelopes,  and  his  fame  rests  on 
the  Mulready  envelopes  (engraved  by  W.  A.  Mulready), 
representing  Britannia  sending  letters  to  all  parts  of  the 
world ;  these  were  first  placed  on  sale  on  May  o,  1840.  The 
envelopes  were  received  with  ridicule  throughout  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  were  soon  dropped  out  of  use,  the  adhesive 
label  taking  their  place. 

It  was  in  France  that  the  first  attempt  was  made  to  pre- 
pay letters  by  means  of  a  cover,  envelope,  or  band  at  a  fixed 
rate.  De  Velayer,  master  of  petitions,  was  the  inventor; 
the  idea  of  cheap  postage  might  also  be  ascribed  to  him, 
although  it  was  only  for  the  Paris  local  post.  A  postal 
system  already  existed  in  France  and  other  countries,  but 
no  city  had  a  delivery  system.  De  Velayer  obtained  in  1653 
a  special  privileg:e  from  King  Louis  aIV.  to  establish  a 
little  post-ofiice  in  Paris,  and  placed  numerous  boxes  all 
over  the  city,  which  were  to  be  emptied  each  day.  He  an- 
nounced that  in  order  to  expedite  the  service  his  clerks 
would  not  receive  any  money,  out  that  the  letters  must  be 
accompanied  by  a  ticket  showing  prepayment,  which  ticket 
must  be  attached  to,  wrapped  around,  or  placed  within  the 
letter  in  such  a  manner  that  the  clerk  could  easily  remove 
it ;  when  an  answer  was  required  the  sender  had  to  attach 
or  inclose  a  second  ticket.  These  tickets  cost  one  sou  (about 
a  cent)  each,  and  the  principal  office  for  their  sale  was  at 
the  palace.  The  postal  system  had  some  success  as  a  curi- 
osity, but  it  was  in  advance  of  its  time,  and,  besides  suffer- 
ing from  the  indifference  of  the  public,  it  was  soon  at- 
tacked b^  evil-wishers;  the  boxes  were  soiled,  malicious 
people  goine  so  far  as  to  put  rats,  mice,  and  even  worse 
things  into  them,  and  the  enterprise  was  soon  abandoned. 

Some  collectors  of  postage-stamps  accept  certain  letter- 
sheets  stamped  in  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia  in  1818  and  1819. 
These  stamps,  however,  represent  the  exact  contrary  of  a 
postage-stamp,  as  they  indicate  the  amount  of  tax  paid  by 
the  writer  for  the  privilege  of  sending  his  letter  by  other 
means  than  the  regular  postal  service ;  this  is  a  revenue  tax, 
and  not  in  any  sense  a  i^ostal  tax. 

The  example  of  Great  Britain  was  first  imitated  in  the 
TJ.  S.,  where  the  proprietors  of  local  delivery  companies 
began  to  sell  postage-stamps  to  their  patrons  as  early  as  the 
year  1842.  The  first  one  was  the  City  Dispatcn  Post, 
owned  by  Alexander  M.  Greig,  operating  in  the  city  of 
New  York ;  in  Aug.,  1842,  he  sold  the  entire  outfit  to  the 
U.  S.  Government,  which  retained  his  design  for  the  postage- 
stamp,  a  three-quarter  face  portrait  of  Washington,  chang- 
ing the  inscription  to  read  "  United  States  City  Despatch 
Post."  The  (Government  of  the  U.  S.  was  rather  tardy  in 
accepting  the  new  system,  and  until  1847,  when  the  first 
stamp  for  general  use  was  issued,  the  postal  service  de- 
pended either  upon  the  old  cumbersome  system  or  the  in- 
dividual enterprise  of  the  postmasters  in  various  towns, 
who,  on  their  individual  responsibility,  had  postage-stamps 
printed  and  sold  to  the  patrons  of  their  respective  offices. 
This  occurred  in  the  following  cities :  Baltimore,  Md. 
(1845);  Brattleboro,  Vt.  (1846);  Millbury,  Mass.  (1847); 
New  Haven,  Conn.  (1845) ;  New  York,  N.  Y.  (1845) ;  Provi- 
dence,  R.  I.  (1846) ;  St.  Louis,  Mo.  (1845).  It  is  of  interest 
to  note  that  before  the  introduction  of  postage-stamps  in  the 
U.  S.  the  post-office  authorities  in  large  cities  kept  regular 
running  accounts  with  all  well-known  merchants.  Busi- 
ness houses  sent  their  mail  matter  to  the  post-office  daily, 
and  the  cost  of  postage  was  calculated  by  the  clerks  and 
charged  up  to  the  merchants,  bills  being  rendered  at  the 
end  of  each  month. 

Among  established  governments,  Brazil  was  the  first  to 
follow  the  example  of  Great  Britain  with  an  issue  of 
stamps  for  general  postal  use.  These  appeared  on  July  1. 
1843,  and  were  of  three  values,  30,  60,  and  90  reis ;  each 


bore  simply  the  numeral  of  value  on  an  engine-turned 
groundwork.  Postage-stamps  were  first  issued  by  France 
on  Jan.  1, 1849,  in  a  set  of  two,  bearing  an  allegorical  head 
of  Liberty ;  and  by  Belgium  in  Nov.,  1849,  in  a  set  of  two, 
with  the  portrait  of  King  Leopold.  Bavaria,  which  issuetl 
stamps  in  Nov.,  1849,  was  the  first  of  the  many  states  and 
principalities  which  now  constitute  the  German  empire  Ut 
adopt  the  new  system ;  Prussia  and  Hanover  followed  in 
1850,  and  Baden,  Wttrtemberg,  and  Saxony  in  1851.  The 
Princes  of  Thurn  and  Taxis,  who  for  centuries  had  enjoyed 
the  monopoly  of  the  postal  service  in  certain  of  the  German 
states,  issued  their  first  stamps  in  1852.  These  continued  in 
use  till  1868,  or  until  the  formation  of  the  North  German  Ci  m- 
federation,  which  included  all  the  states  that  employed  the 
service  of  the  Princes  of  Thurn  and  Taxis,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  Prussia  and  Saxony.  On  the  formation  of  the  Ger- 
man empire  in  1871  all  the  separate  postal  administrations, 
except  those  of  Bavaria  and  Wtirtemberg,  were  superseded 
by  the  service  of  the  central  Government. 

The  federal  administration  in  Switzerland  did  not  ist&ue 
postage-stamps  until  1850,  but  of  the  separate  cantons  Ge- 
neva and  Zurich  had  issued  them  in  1843  and  Basel  in  1H45. 
Most  of  the  other  prominent  governments  in  Europe  fol- 
lowed in  rapid  succession,  but  some  were  very  slow  in  ac- 
cepting the  reform,  as  appears  from  the  following  list :  Sfiain 
(1850),  Italy  (1851),  Denmark  (1851),  Portugal  (1858),  Norwav 
(1854),  Russia  (1857),  Sweden  (1858),  Greece  (1861).  TurkeV 
(1863). 

In  North  America,  Canada,  New  Brunswick,  and  Nova 
Scotia  made  their  first  issues  in  1851,  Mexico  in  1856,  and 
Newfoundland  in  1857.  In  South  America  Brazil  was  fol- 
lowed by  British  Guiana  in  1850,  Chili  in  1852,  and  Uru- 
guay in  1856,  while  Ecuador  waited  until  1865,  Bolivia  until 
1867,  and  Paraguay  until  1870. 

Every  colony  in  Australia  adopted  the  reform  early  in  the 
fifties,  while  Mauritius,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  Natal 
were  the  first  in  Africa,  Egypt  being  next  in  order  in  1866, 
with  a  set  of  seven  stamps  bearing  a  representation  of  a 
pyramid.  India  in  1854  was  the  first  government  to  issue 
postage-stamps  in  Asia,  using  the  familiar  portrait  of  Queen 
Victoria. 

The  processes  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  postage- 
stamps  are  extremely*  varied  in  character,  every  style  < if 
engraving  and  printing  having  been  used  in  various'  part^ 
of  the  world.  Among  them  the  most  used  are  engrarinc 
on  steel,  on  copper,  on  zinc,  and  on  wood,  surface-printing 
from  steel,  copper,  and  wood,  and  lithography.  All  early  i>- 
sues  of  postage-stamps  were  imperforate  or  with  plain  e<ljpes, 
until  in  1848  Henry  Archer,  in  London,  invented  a  machine 
for  perforating.  The  first  experiments  were  in  the  nature 
of  trials,  and  the  device  was  not  officiall^r  used  until  1854. 
when  Mr.  Archer  sold  his  device  to  the  British  Governments 

The  number  of  stamps  issued  by  different  countries,  as 
well  as  the  extremes,  both  high  and  low,  of  denomination, 
vary  greatly.  The  U.  S.  enjoys  the  distinction  of  having 
had  in  regular  use  at  one  time  a  larger  number  than  any 
other  country.  From  1873  to  1884,  besides  the  re^lar  i^ 
sue  for  general  use,  which  consisted  of  13  adhesive  stamiv^. 
13  envelopes,  and  3  wrappers,  each  department  of  the 
Government  had  its  own  series,  with  a  total  of  92  adhr- 
sives,  12  envelopes,  and  2  wrappers ;  besides  these  there  w«.>n> 
7  i)ostage-due  and  24  newspaper  and  periodical  stamps. 
This  enumeration  does  not  take  into  account  minor  varie- 
ties of  die  or  the  different  colors  of  paper  used  for  the  en- 
velopes. The  postage-stamps  which  have  the  lowest  fH«.f 
value  are  the  ^  milesimo  stamp  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  aii<l 
the  i  centime  of  Spain,  each  representing  about  V^th  t»f  a 
cent  These  are  used  for  local  newspaper  postage.  Th»* 
stamn  of  largest  denomination  is  the  £20  of  bouth  Austra- 
lia, wnich  is  available  for  both  postage  and  revenue  purpcusi*-- 

Overprinted  Stamps^  etc. — One  of  the  roost  interes^tin^ 
developments  of  the  use  of  postage-stamps  is  the  me«i)^ 
employed  by  postmasters  in  various  parts  of  the  world  f -r 
providing  a  particular  value  the  stock  of  which  may  ha\r 
become  exhausted.  The  usual  method  is  to  surcha'rgp  or 
overprint  stamps  of  some  other  value  with  the  new  value 
intended  to  be  given  to  the  stamp,  and  the  first  instanc-e  of 
such  practice  appears  in  France  in  1850,  when,  to  j?upp.y 
the  demand  for  a  25-centirae  stamp,  to  meet  a  newly  estal^- 
lished  rate  of  postage,  a  quantity  of  20-centiroe  'stani|«<, 
which  had  been  printed  by  error  in  blue,  were  oveq>rinl«-»l 
with  the  figures  "25."  These  were  not,  however,  place<l  in 
circulation,  as  a  new  supply  of  the  desired  value  was  pre- 
pared in  time. 


Philadelphia  local  delivery 
stamp.  Blood  &  Co.,  IMl. 


5  Cems. 


Baltimore,  Md., 
1846. 


y^gTurgo^bvT 


€  rsi.rrr,^ 


Brattleboro,  Vt., 
1846. 


New  Haven,  Conn., 
1845. 


,t.^x:< 


N»^w  York  city  car- 
rier stamp,  1843. 


Providence,  B.  L, 
1846. 


St.  Louis,  Mo., 
1845. 


Millburv.  Mass., 

1847. 


LJvinjTston,  Ala.  Victoria,  Ter. 

Cuiifederate  postmasters'  stamps. 


Anjouan  (Johanna). 

Current  type  for  all  French 

colonial  stamps. 


tlllW»04ft* 


Trinidad,  1852. 

Type  used  also  in  Barbados 

and  Mauritius. 


HALFPENNY  I 

Barbados, 


Afghanistan. 
Printed  from  ivory. 


British  Guiana.  1850. 
The  plainest  stamp. 


GUIAJIA. 

Bolivar,  Colombia,  1853.      British  fiuiana.  ia56.    The 
ThesmaiieKt  stamp,     rarest  stamp  ;  only  one  known. 


Korea.  1884. 
Used  only  one  day. 


lov^ooamii^t 


*^  ttt^i^^tiw^A 


Canada, 

ItOl. 


Cape  of  Oood  Hope.  1853. 
The  first  trian^ilar  stump. 


Conpo,  1804. 
The  handsomest  stamp. 


North  Borneo.  IRM. 
One  of  the  handsomest  stamps. 


-jairi.  IK.V»     Type  used 

for  all  Sfmnish. 

colonies. 


Great  Britain.  1H40.  Mulready  en- 

veloiH*.  jfreatly  reduced.    The 

tirst  stamp  issued. 


Hankow.  1W»3.    One  of  the 
Chinese  lreaty-|H»rt 


Hawaiiau 
Postage 


Two  Cents. 


Hawaii.  IH.M. 

One  of  the  rarest 

stamps. 


kepreskxtativp:  types  of  post acjic-st amps. 


Basel. 


Vaud.  Geneva. 

Swiss  cantonal  stamps. 


ij>      foH  r     r. 

^VT.>NAI.    lCt«ll 

1   ^,  ^K\ 

1  L  T'-  TJ^.     ll 

Z  i     «    I  1     »i 


iu 


Zurich. 


Portuguese  India.    Type  used 
for  all  Portuguese  colonies. 


Bavaria,  1849. 
The  first  German  stamp. 


Guadalajara,  1867. 
Issued  during  Mexican  revolution. 


New  Caledonia,  18.V*. 
The  worst  engraved  stamp. 


Dominica.  1882.  Victoria,  1890. 

Stamp  cut  in  half  and        Unpaid  letter  stamp, 
surcharged. 


Obock,  1894.    Camel  post 


Portugal.    Type  intro-  Labuan,  1880. 

duced  in  1871  and  after-       Stamp  surcharged 
ward  used  for  all  colonies.       by  pen  and  ink. 


San  Marino,  1894. 
Issuefl  to  celebrate  the  open- 
ing of  a  new  palace. 


g^      HQMWO»«a 

1 

^'S 

It 

^    iBetMTi 

m 

Surcharged  stamps. 


Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Co. 

Also  used  by  Peru  as  an 

experiment. 


m^m> 


Portugal.  1898.    Jubilee  issue  Salvador.  1802. 

in  memory  of  Prince  Henry  Issued  to  commemorate  tlie 

the  Navigator.  Columbus  celebration 


Mauritius,  1847. 
One  of  the  greatest  rarities. 


Brazil,  1843.  New  Brunswick,  1851. 

REPRESENTATIVE  TYPES  OF   P()STA(JE-STAMPS. 


New  South  Wales,  18R0. 
View  of  Sydney  liaH><»r. 


^  iLi.  »c! 


CAMPS 


SSfr^nVr-rrt 


VijMfri  ,%'i<k.fi»-ij^  |i>Mi; 


^TiVr-iAO- 


rtiiiii  nlaww  af  id* 


T-  r^i  l\<*  TM.  Kv  '  I  n.-  I'l-'^- 


i«liv.  «t  u,w^r 


696 


STANFIELD 


STANISLAS  LESZCZYNSKI 


The  water  is  forced  up  against  the  head  in  the  stand-pipe, 
and  this  in  turn  maintains  the  pressure  throughout  the  pipe 
system.  Stand-pipes  are  sometimes  destroyed  by  wina  or 
by  accidents  due  to  other  causes.  For  an  account  of  these, 
see  a  series  of  articles  by  Pence  in  Engineering  News  dur- 
ing 1884.  Mansfield  Merriman. 

Stanfleld,  William  Clarkson:  landscape  and  marine 
painter;  b.  at  Sunderland,  Durham,  England,  in  1703;  d. 
at  Hampstead,  May  18,  1867.  He  was  a  sailor  in  the  Brit- 
ish navjr,  became  a  scene-painter  while  still  a  young  man, 
and  takmg  up  painting  of  landscape  and  naval  battle  scenes 
attained  success  and  was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in 
1835.  Among  his  most  celebrated  works  are  Battle  of  Traf- 
cdgar  (1836)  and  Battle  of  Roveredo  (1851).  W.  A.  C. 

Stanford :  town ;  capital  of  Lincoln  co.,  Ky. ;  on  the 
Lexington  and  East.  Railway ;  38  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Lexing- 
ton, 1&  miles  S.  E.  of  Louisville  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Kentucky,  ref.  4-H).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  re^on,  and 
contains  woolen,  flour,  and  grist  mills,  the  Stanfora  Female 
College,  a  national  bank  witn  capital  of  $200,000,  a  bankinp^ 
and  trust  company  with  capital  of  $200,000,  and  a  semi- 
weekly  newspaper.    Pop.  (1880)  1,213 ;  (1890)  1,385. 

Stanford,  Charles  Villiers:  composer;  b.  in  Dublin, 
Ireland,  Sept.  30,  1852 ;  went  to  Leipzig  to  study  in  1874, 
and  then  to  Berlin,  returning  home  in  1876.  His  compo- 
sitions include  several  symphonies,  much  sacred  music  in 
large  forms,  the  two  oratorios  The  Three  Holy  Children,  for 
the  Birmingham  festival  of  1885,  and  Eden,  for  the  Birming- 
ham festival  of  1891 ;  three  operas — The  Veiled  Prophet, 
produced  at  Hanover,  Feb.  6,  1881,  Savonarola,  Hamburg, 
Apr.  18,  1884,  and  The  CatUerbury  Pilgrims,  for  the  Carl 
Rosa  Company,  Apr.  28,  1884;  the  cantata  Elegiac  Ode, 
1884,  being  a  setting  of  Walt  Whitman's  Burial  Hymn; 
music  to  the  Greek  plays  Eumenides  and  (Edipus  Tyran- 
nus ;  and  Psalm  cl.  in  cantata  form  (1887).  He  received  the 
degree  of  Mus.  Doc.  from  Cambridge  in  1883,  succeeded 
Otto  Goldschmidt  as  conductor  of  the  Bach  Choir  in  1885, 
and  was  appointed  Professor  of  Music  in  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity Dec.,  1887,  on  the  death  of  Sir  George  Macfarren. 

D.  E.  Hervet. 

Stanford,  Leland:  capitalist  and  philanthropist;  b.  at 
Watervliet,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  9,  1824 ;  received  a  common-school 
education;  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1849 ;  soon  afterward  removed  to  Port  Washington,  Wis., 
where  he  practiced  law  till  1852,  when  he  went  to  Califor- 
nia and  engaged  in  gold-mining ;  settled  in  San  Francisco 
in  1856,  ana  entered  into  business  with  three  of  his  broth- 
ers. He  first  appeared  in  politics  as  a  delegate  to  the  con- 
vention at  Chicago  in  1860  which  nominated  Abraham  Lin- 
coln for  the  presidency  ;  was  elected  Governor  of  California 
in  1861,  and  in  his  inaugural  address  urged  the  importance 
of  building  the  Pacific  Railroad,  and  a  companv  for  that 

Jurpose,  of  which  he  was  elected  president,  was  formed  on 
uly  1  of  that  year.  He  superintended  the  construction  of 
that  part  of  the  road  that  crossed  the  mountains,  spending 
personally  more  than  $20,000,000  on  a  stretch  of  roadway 
of  100  miles.  He  became  interested  in  the  construction  of 
other  railways  and  in  the  development  of  the  agriculture 
and  manufactures  of  California.  He  was  elected  to  the 
U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  for  the  term  1885-91.  With 
his  wife  he  founded  Leland  Stanford  Junior  Universitt 
{q,  v.).    D.  at  Palo  Alto,  Cal.,  June  20, 1893. 

Stanhope,  Charles  Mahon,  F.  R.  S.,  Third  Earl  Stan- 
hope and  Viscount  Mahon:  inventor;  b.  in  London,  Eng- 
land, Aug.  3, 1753 ;  entered  Parliament  1780  ;  succeeded  to 
the  peerage  1786;  was  noted  for  his  radical  opinions;  de- 
clared himself  a  republican,  and  laid  aside  the  insignia  of 
nobility;  distinguished  himself  by  his  scientific  researches; 
made  many  improvements  in  the  art  of  printing,  and  in 
1816  invented  the  Stanhope  printing-press.  D.  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  15,  1816. 

Stanhope,  Edward  :  statesman ;  second  son  of  the  fifth 
Earl  of  Stanhope ;  b.  in  London,  Sept.  24,  1840 ;  educated 
at  Harrow  and  Oxford  ;  called  to  tne  bar  1865 ;  entered 
Parliament  1874 ;  Under-Secretary  of  State  for  India  1878- 
80;  vice-president  of  the  committee  of  council  on  education 
1885 ;  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  1885-86 ;  Secretary 
of  State  for  the  Colonies  under  Lord  Salisbury  1886 ;  Sec- 
retary of  State  for  War  in  his  second  administration  1887. 

Stanhope,  Lady  Hester  Lucy  :  daughter  of  Charles, 
third  Earl  Stanhope;  b.  at  Chevening,  Kent,  England,  Mar. 
12, 1776  ;  was  for  ten  years  a  member  of  the  family  of  her 


uncle,  William  Pitt,  to  whom  she  acted  as  confidential  sec- 
retary until  his  death  in  1806 ;  received  thereafter  a  pension 
of  £1,200,  upon  which  she  resided  some  years  in  li^'^aie^ ; 
proceeded  in  1810  to  Syria ;  visited  Jerusalem,  Damascus. 
Baalbec,  and  Palmjrra;  acquired  by  her  magnificent  and 
singular  ways  of  living  the  respect  and  veneration  of  the 
Arabs,  who  treated  her  almost  as  a  queen ;  established  her- 
self in  1814  in  the  deserted  convent  of  Mar  Elias,  8  mile< 
from  Sidon,  upon  a  crag  of  Lebanon;  adopted  the  dres-^ 
and  style  of  an  emir,  having  at  her  command  a  guanl  of 
Albanians,  over  whom  she  exercised  an  absolute  authority ; 
became  a  benefactress  to  political  refugees  and  to  the  poor 
of  every  kind ;  exerted  considerable  poutical  influence ;  and 
practiced  astrology.  D.  at  Mar  Elias,  June  23, 1839.  Her 
Memoirs  (3  vols.,  1845)  and  Set)en  Years*  Travels  (3  vols., 
1846)  were  published  by  her  physician,  Dr.  Meryon. 

Stanhope,  James,  First  Earl  Stanhope:  soldier;  b.  in 
Paris,  France,  in  1673 ;  resided  in  Spain,  where  his  father 
was  minister  during  1690-94;  entered  the  arm^  1694;  was 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Namur  1695 ;  served  m  Flanders 
until  the  Peace  of  Ryswick;  was  elected  to  Parliament 
1702;  took  part  in  the  expeditions  of  1702  and  1704  in 
Spain;  was  a  brigadier-general  at  the  siege  of  Barcelona 
1705;  maior-general  1707;  commander-in-chief  in  Spain, 
and  took  Port  Mahon,  Minorca,  1708 ;  defeated  the  Span- 
iards at  Almenara  and  Saragossa  (Aug.,  1710),  but  was  forced 
to  surrender  to  the  Duke  of  Vendome  at  Brihuega,  Dec.  8, 
1710 ;  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State  on  the  accession  of 
George  I.,  1714 ;  became  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  and  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  1717 ;  was  created  Viscount  Stan- 
hope of  Mahon  July  2, 1717,  and  Earl  SUnhope  Apr.,  1718 : 
was  again  Secretary  of  Stat-e,  and  took  part  m  nc^tiating 
the  Quadruple  Alliance  1718.    D.  in  London,  Feb.  5,  1721. 

Stanhope,  Philip  Dormer  :  See  Chesterfield. 

Stanhope,  Philip  Henrt,  Fifth  Earl  Stanhope,  better 
known  as  Lord  Mahon :  statesman  and  author ;  b.  at  Wal- 
mer,  Kent,  England,  Jan.  31,  1805;  was  a  grandson  of 
Charles,  the  third  earl ;  graduated  from  Christ  Church.  Ox- 
ford, 1827 ;  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1880 ;  was  Under- 
Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs  (the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton being  the  secretary)  in  the  first  Peel  ministry  1834 ;  was 
secretary  to  the  board  of  control  in  the  last  year  of  the  sec- 
ond Peel  ministry  1845-46;  supported  the'  repeal  of  the 
corn-laws;  introauced  and  carried  the  copyright  act  of 
1842 ;  was  chosen  president  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries 
1846;  was  defeated  at  the  parliamentary  elections  of  1K52 
in  consequence  of  having  voted  with  the  protectionists 
against  the  modification  of  the  navigation  laws;  succeedt^l 
to  the  earldom  Mar.  2, 1855 ;  founded  the  Stanhope  prize 
for  the  study  of  modem  history  at  Oxford  1855 ;  was  cbo>«>n 
lord  rector  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen  1858,  and  one  ot 
the  six  foreign  members  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Po- 
litical Sciences  at  Paris  May  11, 1872.  D.  at  Bournemouth, 
Hampshire,  Dec.  24, 1875.  Author  of  History  of  the  War 
of  Succession  in  Spain  (1832) ;  History  of  England  from 
the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to^  the  Peace  of  \ersailles,  I7JS-^S  (7 
vols.  8vo,  1836-53) ;  Essai  sfir  la  Vie  du  Grand  Condi  (pri- 
vately  printed,  1842,  and  afterward  appeared  in  English 
as  The  Life  of  Louis,  Prince  of  Condi,  1845) ;  The  Life  of 
the  Right  Hon,  William  Pitt,  with  Extracts  from  his'  Cn- 
published  Correspondence  and  MS.  Papers  (4  vols.,  1861-62 : 
4th  ed.  1867) ;  and  a  History  of  England,  comprising  the 
Reign  of  Anne,  until  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  (1870).  Several 
fragments  of  his  great  work  have  been  separately  publishe<i, 
as  The  Forty-Five,  being  a  Narratix^  of  the  Rebellion  in 
Scotland  in  1745  (1851)  and  The  Rise  of  Our  Indian  Em- 
pire (1858).  Lord  Stanhope  edited,  with  notes,  TAe  Letters 
of  Philip  Dormer  Stanhope,  Earl  of  Chesterfield  (4  vols., 
1845) ;  The  Memoirs  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  (2  vols.,  185^-57), 

Stan^islas  Angnstas,  King  of  Poland :  See  Pokiatowsel 

StaniBlas  Leszczynskl.  -lesh-ts^n'skee ;  King  of  Po- 
land ;  b.  at  Leraberg,  Galicia,  Oct.  20,  1677,  of  one  of  the 
oldest  and  wealthiest  families  of  the  Polish  nobility ;  held 
a  high  position  at  the  Polish  court,  and  was  palatine  of  Po- 
sen  when  the  war  broke  out  between  Charles  XII.  of  Swe- 
den and  Augustus  II.  of  Poland  and  Saxony. '  By  the  dip- 
lomatic negotiations  which  he  carried  on  between  August  us 
and  Charles  he  won  the  favor,  and  even  the  friendship,  of 
the  latter,  and  when,  after  the  complete  defeat  of  Augustus, 
Charles  declared  the  Polish  throne  vacant.  Stanislas  was  by 
his  influence  elected  King  of  Poland  in  1705.  He  was  a 
noble  character,  and  not  without  talent  as  a  ruler,  but  after 


698 


STANLEY 


STANTON 


was  created  Baron  Stanley  of  Preston  in  the  peerajie  of  Great 
Britain  in  1886,  and  on  the  death  of  his  brother  m  1893  be- 
came sixteenth  Earl  of  Derby.  Neil  Macdonald. 

Stanley,  Hexrt  Morton,  D.  C.  L.  :  African  explorer ;  b. 
near  Denbifi'h,  Wales,  in  1841,  of  humble  parentage.  He  was 
placed  in  the  poorhouse,  where  he  remained  until  his  thir- 
teenth year,  after  which  he  taught  in  a  school,  and  subse- 
quently shipped  as  cabin-boy  for  New  Orleans,  where  he 
was  adopt ea  oy  a  merchant,  whose  name  he  assumed  instead 
of  his  own,  which  was  John  Rowlands.  His  adoptive  father 
having  died  without  a  will,  and  the  civil  war  breaking  out, 
he  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  army ;  was  taken  prisoner ; 
volunteered  in  the  U.  S.  navy,  and  became  acting  ensign  on 
an  ironclad.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he  went  as  a  news- 
paper correspondent  to  Turkey  and  Asia  Minor,  and  in  1868 
accompanied  the  British  expedition  to  Abyssinia  as  corre- 
spondent of  The  New  York  Herald,  a  portion  of  his  corre- 
spondence being  subsequently  embodied  in  a  volume.  In 
Oct.,  1869,  being  then  m  Spain,  he  was  employed  by  the 
Herald  to  head  an  expedition  to  learn  the  fate  of  Living- 
stone, the  African  explorer,  from  whom  only  vague  intima- 
tions had  been  heard  for  two  years.  He  reached  Zanzibar 
in  Jan.,  1871,  and  toward  the  end  of  March  set  out  for  the 
interior,  with  a  company  of  192  men.  In  November  he 
found  Livingstone,  who  was  living  near  Lake  Tanganyika, 
and  furnished  him  with  supplies  for  further  explorations. 
After  having  explored  the  northern  portion  of  the  lake, 
Stanley  set  out  on  his  return  journey  m  Mar.,  1872,  reach- 
ing England  in  July,  where  he  was  received  with  distin- 
guished honor,  the  Queen  sending  him  a  gold  snuff-box  set 
with  diamonds,  and  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  award- 
ing to  him  in  1873  its  patron's  medal.  Tidings  having 
been  received  of  the  death  of  Livingstone  in  Central  Africa, 
Stanley  was  placed  at  the  head  of  an  expedition,  the  cost  of 
which  was  jointly  undertaken  by  The  New  York  Herald  and 
the  London  Daily  Telegraph,  to  explore  the  lake  region  of 
equatorial  Africa.  He  left  the  coast  in  Nov.,  1874,  at  the 
head  of  300  men,  and  after  many  hardships  and  some  severe 
contests  with  the  natives  reacned  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza 
Feb.  27, 1875,  having  in  the  meantime  lost  194  men  by  death 
and  desertion.  He  circumnavigated  the  lake  in  a  boat 
brought  with  him  in  pieces,  and  found  it  to  be  a  single 
large  lake,  and  not,  as  supposed  by  Burton  and  Living- 
stone, a  group  of  lagoons,  thus  confirming  the  opinions  of 
Speke  and  Grant.  He  started  Apr.  17,  1875,  to  continue 
his  explorations  in  the  direction  of  Lake  Albert  Edward 
Nyanza.  He  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Congo  river  Aug. 
12, 1877,  having  explored  its  whole  course ;  returned  to  the 
Congo  in  1879,  at  tne  head  of  a  Belgian  international  expe- 
dition ;  lectured  in  the  U.  S.,  on  Africa,  in  Dec,  1886 ;  re- 
turned to  Congo  Free  State  in  1887  with  an  expedition  for 
the  relief  of  Emin  Bey,  whom  he  found  on  the  Albert 
Nyanza  Apr.  28, 1888.  He  returned  with  Emin  toward  the 
east  coast  in  May,  1889,  and  reached  the  coast  himself  on 
Dec.  6  of  the  same  year.  On  the  return  trip  he  discovered 
the  Ruwenzori  Mountains  S.  of  Albert  Nyanza.  On  his  re- 
turn to  England  in  1890  he  received  honorary  dcCTees  from 
the  universities,  and  a  special  medal  from  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society.  In  the  following  year  he  visited  the  U.  S. 
and  Australia  on  lecturing  tours,  and  returning  to  London 
in  1892  he  unsuccessfully  stood  for  North  Lambeth  as  a 
Unionist  candidate.  His  Drincipal  works  are  How  I  found 
Livingstone  (London  and  New  York,  1872) ;  Coomassie  and 
Magdala  (1874) ;  Through  the  Dark  Continent  (1878) ;  The 
Congo,  and  the  Founding  of  its  Free  State  (2  vols.,  1885) ; 
In  Darkest  Africa  (1890) ;  My  Dark  Companions  (1893) ; 
and  Slavery  and  the  Slave-trade  in  Africa  (1898). 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Stanley,  Thomas:  classical  scholar;  b.  at  Comberlow, 
Hertfordshire,  England,  in  1625 ;  was  carefully  educated  at 
home ;  graduated  at  Cambridge  1641 ;  studied  law  at  the 
Middle  Temple  ;  published  in  1647  a  volume  of  Poems  and 
Translations  (from  Anacreon,  Bion,  Moschus,  etc.),  fre- 
quently reprinted;  issued  his  chief  work,  The  History  of 
Philosophy,  containing  the  Lives,  Opinions,  Actions,  and 
Discourses  of  the  Philosophers  of  every  Sect,  in  4  vols.,  at 
intervals  between  1655  and  1662  (2d  ed.  folio,  1687 ;  best  ed., 
with  Life  of  the  author.  4to.  1743),  and  in  1663-64  his  elab- 
orate edition  of  The  Tragedies  of  ^nchylus,  with  Latin 
translation,  Greek  scholia,  and  commentary,  which  long 
maintained  its  ground  among  English  scholars  (best  ed.  bv 
Butler,  1809-16).  D.  in  London,  Apr.  12. 1678.  See  Brydges^s 
edition  of  Stanley's  Poems  with  Life  (1814-15). 


Stannard,  Henrixtta  Eliza  Vaughan  {Palmer) :  novel- 
ist ;  b.  at  York,  England,  Jan.  13, 1856 ;  daughter  of  Rev. 
Henry  Vaughan  Palmer,  rector  of  St.  Margaret*B,  York ; 
marned,  1884,  Arthur  Stannard,  a  civil  ene^neer.  Uer 
father  had  been  an  artillery  officer  before  taking  holv  or- 
ders, and  Mrs.  Stannard's  numerous  fictions  have  i)t*alt 
mainly  with  army  life.  Among  these,  published  under  the 
pseudonyms  of  John  Strange  Winter  and  Violet  Whvte,  are 
Cavalry  Life  (1881);  Regimental  Legends  (1883);  the  vrrv 
popular  Bootless  Baby  (1885);  Houp-la  (1885);  Army  *SV<A 
ety  Life  in  a  Garrison  Town  (lo86);  Garrison  Go^j^ip 
(1887) ;  and  A  Siege  Baby  (1887).  H.  A.  Beers. 

Stan'naries  [from  Lat.  stan'num,  tin]:  in  general,  tin 
mines;  in  a  special  sense,  those  of  Cornwall  and  Devon, 
concerning  which  there  are  peculiar  laws  and  usages.  The 
court  of  tne  stannaries  is  very  ancient,  exercising  a  juris- 
diction in  the  time  of  Lord  Coke  which  was  *' guided  bv 
special  laws,  by  customs,  and  by  prescription  time  out  of 
mind."  It  was  established  in  ord'er  that  the  workers  in  t  hese 
mines  might  sue  and  be  sued  in  their  own  court,  **  and  not 
be  drawn  from  their  business  to  their  own  private  loss  and 
to  the  public  detriment  by  attending  their  lawsuits  in  other 
courts.^'  The  early  charters,  records,  and  acts  of  Parliament 
relating  to  this  subject  are  summarized  in  Coke*8  Fourth 
Ifiaiitute,  chap.  xlv.  The  princiral  modern  statutes  bearing 
upon  the  stannaries  are  6  and  7  Will.  IV.,  c.  106,  as  amended 
by  subsequent  acts,  which  regulates  the  constitution  and  the 

Procedure  in  these  courts,  ana  83  and  38  Vict,  c  19,  amended 
J  50  and  51  Vict.,  c.  23,  relating  to  mining  partneri»hi(»s 
within  their  jurisdiction.  The  judges  of  the  stannaries  court 
are  appointed  bjr  the  Duke  of  Cornwall  (the  Prince  of  Wale* i, 
or,  wnen  there  is  none  of  full  age,  bv  the  crown.  See  Baiij- 
bridge  on  Mines,  ch.  vi.,  g§ 8-5,  and  Batten's  Stannaries  Art. 

Francis  M.  Burdick. 
Stannic  Acid :  a^hydrate,  SnO(OHU  obtained  from  stan- 
nous oxide.    See  Tin  [Compounds  of  Tin). 

StanoTOi'  Range  [Russ.  Stanovoi  Khrebei,  L  e.  back- 
bone] :  name  given  by  rallas  to  the  mountains  at  the  sourc-t* 
of  the  Olekma,  but  since  expanded  to  embrace  the  whole  Si- 
berian watershed  between  the  Arctic  and  Pacific  drainage 
systems.  It  is  very  imperfectly  known,  but  appears  to  ex- 
tend N.  E.  from  near  Urga,  in  North  Central  Mongolia,  to 
the  Chukchu  Peninsula,  a  distance  of  2,700  miles.  It  et>n- 
sists  of  parallel  ranges  of  mountains  with  elevated  plateaus, 
which  are  often  very  marshy,  is  more  rugged  on  its  eastern 
than  on  the  western  slopes,  and  is  through  much  of  its  ci- 
tent  clothed  with  forests  and  rich  in  minerals.  A  princif>ai 
range  on  the  western  side  is  the  Tablonnoi  Khrebet,  which 
borders  the  plateau  of  Vitim.  The  highest  point  is  Ml 
Sokhondo  (Ut.  about  50"  N.,  Ion.  110*^  E.),  about  9.250  feet. 

Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Stanstead :  the  chef-lieu  of  Stanstead  County,  Quebec.  Ca- 
nada, and  the  terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  Boston  and  Maine 
Railway  line,  which  runs  through  the  Masawippi  valley  (see 
map  of  Quebec,  ref.  6-C).  It  is  close  to  the  ooundarv-line 
of  tne  U.  S..  which  separates  it  from  North  Derby  or  tk^rlj 
Line,  Vt.  It  includes  Stanstead  Plain  and  Rock  Island :  m 
the  former  there  is  a  Wesleyan  College  and  several  churche>: 
in  the  latter  are  several  factories.  It  is  on  the  edge  of  a  rich 
farming  and  grazing  country.    Pop.  4,200.  J.  M.  H. 

Stanton:  city;  capital  of  Montcalm  co.,  Mich.;  on  the 
Detroit,  Lans..  and  N.  Railroad ;  15  miles  N.  E.  of  Green- 
ville, 62  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Lansing  (for  location,  see  map  «.»f 
Michigan,  ref.  6-1).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  re^on,  aiui 
contains  a  public  high  school,  flour-mills,  planing-niili^s 
foundry,  machine-shops,  a  private  bank,  ana  two  wetkiv 
newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  1,760 ;  (1890)  1,352. 

Stanton,  Edwin  McM asters  :  lawyer  and  Secretarv  of 
War;  b.  at  Steubenville,  0.,  Dec.  19,  1814;  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1836 ;  reporter  of  the  Supi-eme  Court  of  Ohio  1842-4o. 
reporting  vols,  xi.-xiii.  of  Ohio  Reports,  In  1845  he  suc- 
cessfully and  with  distinction  defended  in  the  crimin^il 
court  at  Washington  Caleb  J.  McXultv,  clerk  of  the  House 
of  Representatives,  tried  for  embezzlement.  He  first  at*- 
quired  national  reputation  as  a  lawyer  in  the  important 
case  of  The  State  of  Pennsylvania  vs'The  M'heeling  Bruity 
Company,  involving  the  question  whether  control  of  bri^ictni 
over  navigable  rivers  of  the  West  flowing  between  the  <«^v- 
eral  States  is  vested  by  the  Constitution  m  Congress  or  the 
State  Legislatures.  It  was  decided  that  Pennsylvania's  in- 
terest in  the  controversy  gave  her  standing  in  that  court, 
and  that  regulation  of  bridges  over  navigable  rivers  of  the 


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STANYHURST 


STARK  DECISIS 


ment  (Royal  American^  Jan.  1, 1756 ;  was  in  command  of 
the  southern  district  of  the  American  colonies,  with  head- 
quarters at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  1757;  was  appointed  brigadier- 
feneral  Dec.  27, 1757 ;  was  relieved  by  Gren.  Forbes  early  in 
758,  and  intrusted  (1758)  with  the  erection  of  the  impor- 
tant fortress  known  as  Fort  Stanwiz  at  the  "  Oneida  carry- 
ing-place "  (now  Rome)  on  Mohawk  river,  at  an  expense  of 
£^,000,  as  a  defense  against  incursions  from  the  French  in 
Canada ;  returned  to  Pennsylvania ;  was  appointed  major- 

gmeral  June  19, 1759 ;  repaired  and  fortified  the  old  fort 
u  Quesne  at  Pittsburg,  securing  the  good  will  of  the 
Ohio  Indians ;  resigned  his  commission  in  America  to  Gen. 
Monckton  May  4, 1760,  and  returned  to  England ;  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-general  Jan.  19, 1761 ;  was  made  lieuten- 
ant-governor of  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  colonel  of  the  Eighth 
Foot,  and  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for  Appleby. 
He  was  lost  at  sea  in  Dec.,  1765,  while  crossing  the  Irish 
Channel  from  Dublin  to  Holyhead  in  a  packet. 

Stan'yharst,  Richard:  historian  and  theologian;  b.  in 
Dublin  about  1545 ;  educated  at  University  College,  Oxford ; 
studied  law;  returned  to  Ireland;  married,  became  a  Ro- 
man Catholic,  and  went  to  the  Continent.  On  the  death  of 
his  wife  he  became  a  priest,  and  was  appointed  chaplain  to 
Archduke  Albert,  governor  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  D. 
at  Brussels  in  1618.  He  translated  into  English  heroic  verse 
The  First  Foure  Bookes  of  ViraiU  JEneia  (1583) ;  furnished 
a  Description  of  Irela/nd  to  Holinshed's  Chronicles ;  wrote 
historical  treatises  (in  Latin)  on  Ireland,  and  English  and 
Latin  theological  works. 

Staphylin'ldaD :  the  Rove-beetles  (q.  v.). 

Stapleton.  Thomas,  D. D. :  theologian,  b.  at  Henfield, 
Sussex,  England,  in  1535 ;  educated  at  Canterbury  and  Win- 
chester schools  and  at  New  College,  Oxford,  where  he  was 
admitted  perpetual  fellow  1554 ;  took  orders  in  the  Church ; 
became  a  Roman  Catholic ;  was  appointed  by  (jueen  Mary 
prebendary  of  Chichester ;  retired  on  the  accession  of  Eliza- 
oeth  to  Louvain,  where  he  acquired  publicitv  bv  his  polem- 
ical writings  against  Calvin  and  Beza,  Jewel,  Home,  Whit- 
aker,  and  other  Protestant  divines ;  became  Regius  Profes- 
sor of  Divinity  at  the  University  of  Douay,  where  he  had 
already  become  doctor  of  theology;  returned  to  Louvain, 
where  he  was  appointed  divinity  professor  as  successor  to 
Baius.  D.  at  Louvain,  Oct.  12,  1599.  His  best-known 
works  are  Principiorum  fidei  doctrinalium  Demonstration 
Relectio  principiorum  fidei  doctrinalium,  Defensio  auctori- 
tatis  ecclesiasttccB,  De  Justijicaiione,  De  mctgnitudine  Eo- 
clesim  Romance^  Propugnaeulum  fidei  primitives  Anglo- 
rum,  Antidota  Fvangelica,  Antidota  Aposiolica,  Promp- 
tuarium  Morale^  Promptuarium  Dogmaticnm,  Tres  Tho- 
mcs.  Cardinal  Duperron  looked  on  him  as  the  greatest  of 
the  polemical  theologians,  and  D511inger  says  that  he  was 
the  greatest  champion  of  the  Church  against  the  new  doc- 
trines.   His  works  were  published  at  Paris,  1620  (4  vols.  fol.). 

J.  J.  Keane. 

Star ;  See  Stars. 

Star-anise :  See  Akise-seed. 

Star-apple  Family :  the  Sapotacecs,  a  small  family  (400 
species)  of  gamopetalous.  dicotyledonous  shrubs  and  trees, 
mostly  latex-bearing.  The  flowers  are  regular  and  her- 
maphrodite in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  have  one  or  two 
series  of  stamens,  and  a  superior  two  to  five  celled,  few- 
ovuled  ovarv.  They  are  mainly  tropical  and  sub-tropical. 
In  the  Southern  U.  S.  there  are  nine  or  ten  species,  five  of 
which  are  small  trees  of  the  genus  Bumelia.  "Several 
species  of  this  family  are  useful  to  man.  The  fruits  of 
Liicuma  mammosa,  the  marmalade  of  the  West  Indies,  are 
a  very  agreeable  food,  as  are  those  of  Achras  sapota  (the 
sapodil la-plum)  and  various  species  of  Chrysophyltum  (star- 
apples),  which  are  much  sought  after  in  the  Antilles." 
Some  species  of  Bassia,  the  butter-trees,  yield  a  fatty  sub- 
stance by  pressure  of  the  seeds.  Gutta-percha  is  obtained 
from  Isonandra  gutta,  a  large  tree  of  the  East  Indies,  by  the 
evaporation  of  its  milky  juice.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Starch  [deriv.  of  starch,  stiff  <  0.  Eng.  stearc,  strong] 
(CsHioOs  or  CiiHaoOio) :  a  substance  (also  called  fecula, 
amidon,  and  amylum)  widely  diffused  in  the  vep:etabre  king- 
dom, being  found  in  almost  every  plant,  at  least  at  some 
period  of  its  development.  It  is  especial Iv  abundant  in 
some  families  of  plants,  and  often  occurs  in  large  quantities 
in  the  seeds,  pith,  stalks,  bark,  bulbs,  tubers,  roots,  etc. 
There  are  two  other  substances  found  in  plants  which  re- 
semble starch  in  many  respects — the  inulin,  which  occurs 


in  the  dahlia,  elecampane,  dandelion,  chicory,  mustard-seed, 
etc.,  and  the  lichen-starch  which  is  found  in  Iceland  mcs, 
carrageen-moss,  and  several  of  the  lichen  and  fucus  tribes 
of  plants.    See  Inuun  and  Lichenine. 

Preparation, — Starch  is  extracted  from  a  great  variety  of 
plants,  chiefly  from  wheat,  Indian  com,  rice,  pototoe9,'tbe 
I'oot  of  manioc  or  cassava,  Jatropha  manihot  (tapioca),  the 
root  of  several  species  of  the  Maranta  (arrowroot),  and  the 
pith  of  a  great  variety  of  palms  (sago).  Wheat-flour  con- 
tains from  50  to  80  per  cent,  of  starch.  The  starch  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  whole  wheat  by  "  softening  "  in  cold  water 
and  pressing  under  millstones  or  rollers,  or  in  ba^  under 
water,  as  long  as  milky  water  runs  off  from  it.  This  liquid, 
when  left  to  itself,  deposits  starch  containing  gluten ;  the 
latter,  however,  dissolves  for  the  most  part  m  the  super- 
natant liquid,  which  gradually  turns  sour ;  and  on  decant- 
ing this  acid  liauid,  repeatedly  stirring^  up  the  starch  with 
fr^h  water,  ana  leaving  it  to  settle,  it  is  at  length  obtatneti 

gure,  and  may  be  drira  in  suitable  desiccating  chambers, 
bm-starch  is  extensively  manufactured  in  tne  U.  S.  by 
soaking  corn  in  water  containing  caustic  soda  or  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  dissolve  the  gluten,  grinding,  washing  on 
sieves,  etc.  The  cheapness  and  excellence  of  this  starrh 
has  put  an  end  to  the  importation  of  starch  from  foreign 
countries,  and  large  quantities  are  now  exported.  Rice> 
starch  is  largely  manufactured  in  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Belgium.  The  rice  is  first  soaked  in  a  weak  lye,  then 
ground,  and  washed  on  a  sieve.  Potato-starch  is  large!  y 
manufactured  in  Europe  and  in  the  U.  S.  Horse-chestnut 
starch  is  made  in  France.  A  solution  of  sodic  cubonate  i!< 
used  to  remove  the  bitter  principle.  The  yield  is  about  20 
per  cent.  For  Arbowboot,  Saoo,  and  Tapioca,  see  those 
articles. 

Properties, — **  Starch  is  a  white  shining  powder,  soft  to  th*» 
touch,  pprating  between  the  fingers  or  the  teeth,  sometimt^s 
consisting  of  amorphous  masses,  but  more  freouently  of 
granules  recojpizaole  by  the  microscope.  .  .  .  Starch.  »i> 
lon^  as  it  retains  its  natural  state  of  aggregation,  is  insolu- 
ble m  water,  alcohol,  and  ether ;  but  when  placed  in  contact 
with  hot  waier,  the  water  penetrates  between  the  different 
layers  of  which  the  granules  are  composed,  swelling  them  up 
and  forming  a  gelatinous  mass  known  as  starch-paste,  and 
used  for  stiffening  linen,  etc." — Watts*s  Dictionary. 

Applications  of  /S/arc^.— Starch  is  used  for  stiffening 
cotton  and  linen  cloth,  paper,  etc.  Wiesner  says  com-stan.-h 
possesses  the  highest,  and  potato-starch  the  lowest  stiffening 
qualities.  It  is  use<3rfor  food  in  the  form  of  arrownn»t\ 
tapioca,  sago,  etc.,  for  making  [)aste,  for  powdering  the  hair, 
for  the  manufacture  of  dextrin,  glucose  (com-sirupX  et^^ 
See  Food.  Itovised  by  Ira  Rem  sen. 

Star  Chamber :  an  English  high  court  of  justice  promi- 
nent in  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centurit^, 
supposed  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the  fact  that  tin* 
room  in  which  it  was  held  at  Westminster  was  decorate*! 
with  gilt  stars.  The  first  historical  instance  of  the  use  of 
the  title  is  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  when  the  chancellc>r. 
treasurer,  justices,  and  others  are  mentioned  as  exercisine 
jurisdiction  in  the  "  star  chamber."  Its  powers  are  thcmph: 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  wuncil  which  in  1453  wa? 
recognized  as  having  jurisdiction  over  all  cases  not  det<>r- 
minable  by  common  law,  but  which  declined  in  power  dur- 
ing the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  Bv  the  act  of  1488  Henry  VII. 
empowered  a  committee  of  the  council,  consisting  of  the 
chancellor,  treasurer,  keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  chief  justitf> 
(or,  in  their  absence,  two  other  justices),  a  bishop,  and  a 
temporal  lord  to  act  as  a  court  of  justice  with  junsdicti  ii 
over  cases  in  which  the  operation  of  the  law  was  wrongfully 
impeded.  It  had  the  right  to  punish  without  a  jury  th> 
misdemeanors  of  sheriffs  and  Junes,  and  in  spite  of  its  arbi- 
trary nature  was  of  use  in  quelling  the  turbulent  spirit  i»f 
the  great  nobles  and  bringing  in  a  period  of  good  order.  In 
Henry  VIII.'s  reign  its  powers  were  reabsorbed  by  the  coun- 
cil, but  thenceforth  the  composition  of  the  court  was  um^r- 
tain.  Its  jurisdiction,  which  was  equally  va^e,  compriseti 
in  practice  almost  every  class  of  offenses,  and  it  could  mflu^ 
any  penalty  short  of  death.  The  peculiar  uncertaint  v  of  il- 
legal rules  made  it  the  defense  of  absolute  power,  and  unii<f 
the  Stuarts  its  arbitrary  decisions  and  cruel  punishmenT«» 
brought  down  upon  it  the  popular  hatred.  It  was  abolisli.ti 
by  the  Long  Parliament  in  1641.  F.  M.  Colby. 

Stare  Decisis,  sta'ree-de'e-si'sis  [Lat.] :  a  shortened  form 
of  the  maxim,  '* stare  decisis,  et  non  q\Ueta  movere'"' — "To 
stand  by  decisions  and  not  to  disturb  matters  onoe  settknl. ' 


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•1      /HA'ft^i                                                                                                                                          ^^^H 

702 


STARS 


the  same  general  nature  as  the  snn.  From  the  standpoint 
of  the  nebular  hypothesis,  each  mass  is  hot  because  it  has 
never  had  time  to  cool  since  it  was  first  formed  from  the 
condensation  of  the  nebulae.  Like  the  sun,  the  stars  are 
surrounded  by  atmospheres  of  vapor,  cooler  than  themselves, 
and  spectrum  analysis  shows  tnat  thev  are  composed  of 
chemical  elements  similar  to  those  found  upon  the  earth. 

Number  of  Stars* — The  number  of  stars  which  can  be  seen 
at  one  time  by  the  average  eye,  on  a  clear  evening,  may 
be  estimate  as  between  2,000  and  2,500.  As  only  half  the 
celestial  sphere  is  above  the  horizon,  and  few  stars  can  be 
seen  near  the  horizon,  owing  to  the  vapors  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  atmosphere,  the  number  in  the  whole  celestial  spnere 
is  more  than  double  that  visible  at  any  one  time.  The  tot4il 
number  in  the  heavens  which  the  ordinary  eye  can  see  mav 
be  roughly  estimate  at  5,000 ;  but  these  are  only  a  small 
proportion  of  the  whole  number,  the  great  majority  being 
mvisible  without  telescopic  aid.  It  was  estimated  by  Struve 
that  20,000,000  were  visible  with  HerscheFs  20-foot  tele- 
scope. The  more  powerful  the  telescope,  the  greater  the 
number.  No  exact  estimate  has  ever  been  made  of  the  total 
number  visible  with  the  great  refractor  of  the  Lick  Observa- 
tory, but  it  would  probably  exceed  50,000,000. 

Magnitudes  of  tne  Stars. — A  glance  at  the  nocturnal  sky 
shQws  that  the  stars  are  of  widely  different  degrees  of 
brie^htness.  A  system  of  estimating  the  apparent  magni- 
tudes or  brightness  of  the  stars,  which  has  come  down  to  us 
from  ancient  times,  is  still  in  use  by  astronomers.  On  this 
system,  in  its  ori^nal  form,  the  stars  were  divided  into  six 
different  orders  of  brilliancy.  About  twenty  of  the  brightest 
stars  in  the  heavens  were  called  of  the  first  magnitude. 
Next  in  order  came  the  brightest  stars  of  the  Great  Bear 
and  of  Cassiopeia.  These  were  called  of  the  second  magni- 
tude. The  successive  magnitudes  corresponded  with  the 
continually  diminishing  degree  of  light,  until  the  sixth  was 
reached,  which  included  the  faintest  visible  with  the  naked 
eye.  The  original  division  into  magnitudes  was  not  founded 
on  any  exact  photometric  scale,  but  merely  on  general  im- 
pressions derived  from  estimates  by  means  of  the  eve.  In 
modern  time^  greater  exactness  has  been  aimed  at.  The  gen- 
eral system  which  astronomers  have  attempted  to  follow  is 
that  the  amounts  of  light  represented  by  increasing  magni- 
tudes shall  decrease  in  geometrical  progression.  Supposing 
this  system  to  be  exactly  followed,  a  star  of  the  second  mag- 
nitude would  be  one  which  emitted  two-fifths  as  much  light 
as  one  of  the  first ;  one  of  the  third  magnitude  would  be  two- 
fifths  as  bright  as  one  of  the  second,  and  so  on.  Computing 
this  ratio  down  to  the  sixth  magnitude,  we  see  that  it  would 
represent  but  little  more  than  one-hundredth  part  of  the  light 
of  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude.  The  same  ratio  is  continued 
in  the  star  invisible  to  the  naked  eye ;  a  star  of  the  eleventh 
magnitude  means  one  emitting  about  1  per  cent,  as  much 
light  as  one  of  the  sixth  magnitude.  This  scale  of  increase, 
however,  is  not  perfectly  exact,  owin^  to  the  difficulties  of 
making  precise  photometric  comparisons  between  stars  of 
greatly  different  magnitudes.  The  general  rule  has  been 
that  the  magnitudes  have  been  determined  merely  by  esti- 
mates, and  thus  the  results  given  by  some  observers  have 
been  systematically  different  from  those  given  by  others. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  telescopic  stars.  Even 
in  the  case  of  the  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  the  differ- 
ence of  light  is  probably  greater  than  that  given  by  the  above 
rule,  some  magnitudes  bein^,  in  a  general  average,  three  times 
as  bright  as  those  next  below  them.  The  most  recent  in- 
vestigators have  gone  far,  however,  toward  removing  all 
these  discrepancies  by  using  a  uniform  light  ratio  of  two 
and  a  half  for  a  unit  difference  of  magnitude. 

On  the  ancient  system  every  star  was  supposed  to  belong 
to  one  of  the  six  orders  of  map^nitude,  and  no  distinction 
was  made  between  those  belonging  to  the  same  order ;  but, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  stai-s  range  over  every  degree  of 
brilliancy  from  the  first  to  the  sixth,  and  the  classification 
into  magnitudes  is  arbitrary.  How  exact  soever  we  might 
make  it,  the  brightest  star  of  the  fifth  magnitude  would  be 
equal  with  the  faintest  star  of  the  fourth,  the  brightest  star 
of  the  fourth  equal  to  the  faintest  star  of  the  third,  etc. ; 
hence  astronomers  have  striven  to  express  the  magnitudes 
more  exactly  by  introducing  subdivisions.  At  first  each 
magnitude  was  divided  into  three  subdivisions:  a  bright 
one,  a  medium,  and  a  faint  one.  The  two  extreme  sub- 
divisions were  designated  by  writing  the  number  both  of 
that  magnitude  ana  the  one  next  to  it.  For  example,  the 
magnitude  of  an  average  third-magnitude  star  was  repre- 
sented by  the  number  8  simply.    A  star  between  the  third 


and  fourth,  but  nearer  to  the  third,  was  represented  by  the 
number  3-4.  The  next  class  in  order  would  be  the  bripht- 
est  stars  of  the  fourth  magnitude,  which  were  represented 
by  4*3.  Then  the  average  fourth-magnitude  stars  were  rep- 
resented by  4  simply.  Next,  the  fainter  stars  of  this  order, 
or  those  which  approached  the  fifth  magnitude,  were  called 
4*6.  Next  came  the  brighter  fifth-magnitude  stars,  which 
approached  the  fourth  magnitude,  ana  were  called  5*4,  etc. 
This  system,  though  very  recently  in  use,  is  too  clumsy  to 
meet  tne  requirements  of  exactness  in  science,  and  it  is  now 
common  to  consider  the  magnitudes  as  regularly  variable 
quantities,  and  represent  them  in  the  usual  way  by  numbers 
and  decimals.  Accordingly,  in  modem  photometry  unit^  and 
tenths  are  used.  An  average  third-magnitude  star  is  repre- 
sented by  3*0 ;  one  fainter  by  a  certain  amount  is  called  3*1 ; 
next,  3*2,  etc  The  progression  of  0*1  in  each  magnitude  cor- 
responds to  an  increase  in  light  of  nearly  one-tenth ;  that  is 
to  say,  a  star  of  magnitude  2*9  is  about  one-tenth  brighter 
than  one  of  3*0 ;  one  of  2-8  a  tenth  brighter  than  one  of  2-9. 
etc.  This  rate  of  increase  is  such  that  a  change  of  a  whole 
magnitude  will  correspond  to  an  increase  of  about  two  and 
a  half  times.  Indeed,  in  the  most  recent  photometries  the 
decimals  are  carried  to  hundredths. 

This  system  doe^  not  express  the  amount  of  light  emitted 
by  a  star,  but  rather  the  negative  of  its  logarithm.  It  is  more 
convenient,  however,  than  one  which  would  attempt  to  ex- 
press the  exact  amount  of  light.  Photometric  estimates  are 
necessarily  made  by  the  eye,  and  do  not  admit  of  direct 
measures.  Now  a  geometrical  progression  of  this  sort  can 
be  estimated  better  by  the  eye  than  one  in  which  an  attempt 
is  made  to  measure  the  quantity  of  light. 

The  number  of  stars  of  eacn  magnitnde  increases  with 
their  minuteness.  Roughly  speaking,  there  are  three  times 
as  many  of  the  second  magnitude  as  of  the  first ;  three  times 
as  many  of  the  third  as  of  the  second,  and  so  on.  In  the 
case  of  the  fainter  stars,  however,  the  progression  is  not  so 
rapid.  There  are  between  two  and  three  times  as  many 
stars  of  the  sixth  magnitude  as  of  the  fifth ;  probably  about 
twice  as  many  of  the  seventh  as  of  the  sixth,  and  so  on. 
An  idea  of  thfs  order  may  be  gained  by  saying  that  the  ab- 
solute amount  of  light  emitt^  by  the  entire  number  of  all 
the  stars  of  any  eiven  order  of  magnitudes  is  not  extrava- 
gantly different  irom  the  third  down  to  the  fainter  tele- 
scopic stars.  For  example,  each  star  of  the  sixth  magnitude 
emits  about  two-fifths  as  much  light  as  one  of  the  fifth ; 
but  as  there  are  two  and  a  half  times  as  many  stars,  the 
greater  number  nearly  compensates  for  their  smaller  bril- 
liancy, so  that  the  total  amount  of  light  emitted  by  all  of 
the  sixth  magnitude  is  about  the  same  as  the  total  amount 
emitted  by  aU  of  the  fifth. 

Constellations  and  Names. — In  former  ages  the  figtires  of 
men,  animals,  or  natural  objects  were  supposed  to  be  deline- 
ated on  the  face  of  the  nocturnal  sky,  se  as  to  include  all 
the  principal  stars,  and  the  stars  were  designated  by  the  par- 
ticular limb  or  part  of  the  animal  \ji  which  they  were  found. 
The  bright  red  star,  Aldebaran,  for  example,  in  the  const«>l- 
lation  Taurus,  formed  the  eye  of  the  bull,  and  two  other 
smaller  stars  were  at  the  ends  of  his  horns.  So  we  have 
three  stars  forming  the  belt  of  Orion,  and  three  others  his 
sword.  In  ancient  times  special  names  were  given  to  sev- 
eral of  the  brighter  stars ;  thus  Arcturus  is  alluded  to  in  the 
book  of  Job.  The  Arabs  introduced  special  names  for  100 
or  200  of  the  stars.  Some  of  these  names  are  still  used,  but 
the  tendency  in  astronomical  practice  is  to  drop  them  and 
designate  the  stars  according  to  the  system  of  Bayer.  This 
system,  now  in  vogue  for  all  the  more  conspicnous'  stars,  was 
introduced  by  Bayer  about  the  year  1600.  It  is  analogous 
to  that  which  is  used  in  distin^ishihg  persons  by  two  name^s 
the  surname  and  the  Christian  name.  All  the  stars  of  a 
constellation  have  the  name  of  that  constellation  as  a  sur- 
name. The  Christian  names  are  the  letters  of  the  Greek 
alphabet,  a  /3,  etc.  These  letters  are  used  in  each  constella- 
tion in  the  same  manner  that  persons  of  different  familit'S 
may  have  the  same  Christian  name.  The  first  letters  of  the 
alphabet  are  applied  to  the  brighter  stars,  but  their  order  as 
laid  down  by  Bayer  on  his  maps  is  not  exactly  that  of  bril- 
liancy. Thus  a  Ursa  Minoris  is  one  of  the  two  brightest 
stars  in  Ursa  Minor;  /3  Ursa  Minoris  is  the  other;  y  Minoris 
is  the  third  in  the  order  of  brilliancy,  etc  So  a  Aquila'  is 
the  brightest  star  in  the  constellation  Aquila;  3  AquLlip  the 
next  brightest,  etc.  When  the  Oreek  alphabet  was  exhaust- 
ed, in  the  case  of  any  one  constellation,  the  Italic  alphabet 
was  used.  In  modern  times  several  stars  are  represented  by 
one  of  Bayer's  letters  and  a  number  attached  to  it,    Tbuis 


STAES 


70S 


Vir<l  rtara  in  Aqimrms  are  reprf*ented  by  Ai  and  hi  pespti€- 
tiTrlT.  Flnrastetvl,  in  making  his  gr^aX  caUlotfue  cif  surs, 
fr*iind  Ihitt  »H^  tmiJ  U>  include  so  many  ^tan?  not  lettered  by 
B4*v*?T  Lhal  he  «w.liipt*^l  the  plan  of  using  numbers,  iufettiad 
mI  'tbe  Gitek  and  Italic  letters.    Tht^e  numbers  were  ar- 


Fio.  1.— Portion  of  the  group  in  Perseus. 


ranirod  in  the  orders  of  right  ascension ;  thus  1  Scorpii  was 
ttio  tirst  star  in  Scorpius  wmch  passed  the  meridian,  2  Scorpii 


Fio.  2.— Globular  cluster  in  Canes  Venatici. 


t  he  sc'cond,  etc.    The  system  commonly  used  now  is  to  des- 
i^^nate  the  star  by  Bayer's  letter,  when  it  has  one,  otherwise 


f^o.  8.->Globular  cluster  in  Aquarius. 


by  Flamstop«rs  number.  Stars  which  have  neither  letter  nor 
II  u  TO  be  r  are  distingiiished  simply  by  their  mflgnilude,  right 
asi^eusion.  and  declination,  or  by  their  number  in  some  well* 
known  eataJoflue ;  hut  for  uniformity  the  Donstellation  to 
which  they  belong  h  frequently  indicated. 

DUiriiffilimi  of  the  6Vf«r*,— 1*he  dii^itribution  of  the  stars 
in  space  has  bt'^n  t?onsidered  by  HerfteheJ  and  other  as- 
tronf>mers,  but,  though  mms  tmces  of  arrangement  hav© 
been  diisc^med,  no  distinct  law  has  yet  been  foniitilalcd. 
(Se€?  (Ialjuw.)  In  certain  partes  of  thii  heavens  the  stars  are 
h©aj>e*l  together  in  clusters.  The  teiesco^Ks  reveals  woiider- 
fid  croups,  such  as  that  in  tlercules,  which  contair>3  thuu- 
saiKis  of  Ktars  in  a  small  spwice,  spreading  at  the  edge  into 
curved  sprays.  A  group  near  k  of  the  Southern  CrosM  shows 
an  a^grejy^tion  of  vanoasly  colored  stars.  In  Pi^.  !  the 
central  fjortion  of  the  ^roup  in  Pet^ug  is  exhibited.  Figs, 
2  m\d  8,  representing  cluj^tcrs  in  Canes  Venatici  and  Anuari- 
us,  give  an  idea  of  groups  composed  of  immense  numbers  of 
small  stars  arranged  in  a  globular  form. 

TAftLB  A.—  DIi^TEtBLTlON  OF  STARSI  irOOaDLVO  TO  TBKtn  COST- 
STELLATIONS  AND  MAOJflTL^liES.  (STARft  VISIBLE  TO  THl 
SAKKD  EVE  IN  TQK  LATlTti0ES  OF  THE  KOETHERN  UMITEO 
STATBIS.)      SEE   ALSO   CONSTELLATION, 


COKSTELLATlONtL 


A.  Northtm  Conttetkttiofni^ 
behceen  the  zenith  of  lati- 
tude  45**  and  the  pole. 

1  Ursa  Minor 

2  Draco 

8  Cepheus 

4  Cassiopeia 

6  Pei-seus 

6  Camelopardus 

7  Lacerta 

8  Lynx 

9  Ursa  Major 

10  Canes  Venatici 

B.  Mean  Congtellationa^  be- 
tween the  zenith  of  latitude 
46**  and  the  eqtiator. 

11  \  Andromeda 

]2j  Equuleus 

18  Pegasus 

14  Pisces 

15  Triangulum 

16  Aries 

17J  Auriga 

181  Taurus 

19  Gemini 

80!  Canis  Minor 

21 1  Cancer 

22,  Leo 

23'  Leo  Minor 

24|  Coma  Berenices. 

26l  Bootes 

26l  Corona  Borealis 

27  Hercules 

28  Lyra 

2SI  Cymus 

80  VuTpecula 

81  Sa«itta 

82  Delphinus 

C.  Southern  Cowttellationt, 
from  the  equator  to  the 
Mouthem  horizon. 

Cetus 

B>idanus 

Orion 

Monoceros 

Lepus 

Columba  Noacbi 

Canis  Major 

Arjfo  Navis 

Hydra 

Sextans  Uraniie 

Virgo 

Crater 

Corvus 

Centaurus. 

S«*r|>en8 

Ophiuchua 

Scutum  Sobieskil 

Aquila  et  Antinous. 

Libra 

Lupus 

Scorpio 

Sagittarius 

Caprioornus 

Aquarius 

Fiscis  Australis 


Northern |  10 

Mean 22 

Soutliem 25 

Totals '  57 


•  i  2 


1i  1 

..!  1 


6  19 


24 
24 
25 

15 
10 
1 

13 
18 
20 
5 
19 
2 
4 
2 
10 
24 
5 
17 
8 
4 
10 
19 
12 
31 
13 

!218 
30f^ 


40 
168 
127 
93 
90 
110 
35 
78 
166 
66 


106 

11 

140 

96 

22 

68.. 
115  2 
1 
1 


140 

78 


79  1 
124,  1 

80  1 
5l!.. 

100  .. 
15|  2 
172  8 


52 

138 
4' 
12 
84 


122 
99 
95  2 

90|  1 

26  1 

i:: 

62j . . 
117  1 

42.. 
1441  2 

28  .. 

%:: 

95,  1 

41  1 


2|., 


it;. 

53 
41  . 
9Hi. 

6'. 


9fi'2'  8i  6 
l,Mr^  19i  4, 


54 
220 
160 
126 
186 
188 
48 
87 
227 


189 
16 

178 

128 
80 
80 

144 

188 

106 
87 
92 

161 
40 
70 

140 
81 

227 
69 

197 
62 
18 
81 


132  j330  I  1,;JC7  14!  9 
18  48  152  813  XM  '3,974  41  19 


162 
147 
186 
112 
45 
8 
70 
71 
IM 
48 
181 
35 
26 
12 
82 
113 
11 
123 
53 
4 
41 
90 
63 
146 
22 

1  L288 

6  2,l^^ 

..,  l,i»r>4 

7  N421 


704 


STAEIS 


Variable  Stars, — It  has  long  been  known  that  certain 
st-ars  vary  in  brilliancy  from  time  to  time.  The  two  most 
remarkable  ones,  which  have  long  been  known,  are  o  Ceti 
and  3  Persei,  or  Algol.  During  the  greater  part  of  the 
time  the  former  of  these  stars  is  invisible  to  the  naked  eye ; 
But  at  intervals  of  about  eleven  months  it  increases  so  as  to 
become  plainly  visible,  and  after  retaining  a  maximum  brill- 
iancv  for  some  two  weeks  fades  away  again.  Its  maximum 
brilliancy,  however,  is  very  different  at  different  appear- 
ances, ranging  from  the  second  all  the  way  to  the  fifth. 
The  law  of  variation  is  so  irregular  as  not  to  admit  of  any 
exact  statement ;  even  the  period  of  331  days  varies  from 
time  to  time.  Owing  to  the  manner  in  which  it  blazes  up, 
it  was  formerly  called  Mira  Ceti.  For  an  account  of  the 
variations  in  the  light  of  Algol,  and  the  discoveries  to  which 
they  have  given  rise,  see  Algol. 

In  the  southern  hemisphere  there  is  a  star,i}  Argus,  which 
for  several  centuries  past  has  varied  in  the  most  singular 
manner.  The  first  record  of  it  was  by  Halley  in  1677,  when 
it  was  classed  as  of  the  fourth  magnitude.  In  1837  Sir  John 
Herschel,  while  makinff  observations  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  was  astonished  oy  the  appearance  of  a  new  star  of 
the  first  magnitude,  which  on  referring  to  a  map  he  found  to 
be  11  Argus.  Its  light  was,  however,  nearly  trebled,  being 
then  greater  than  that  of  Rigel.  He  states  that  the  light 
continued  to  increase  until  the  beginning  of  1838.  when  it 
was  brighter  than  most  of  the  stars  of  the  first  magnitude. 
It  then  gradually  faded  away  for  two  or  three  years,  but  in 
1842  and  1843  blazed  up  brighter  than  ever,  so  as  to  be  the 
brightest  star  in  the  heavens,  except  Sirius.  Since  that  time 
it  has  been  steadily  diminishing ;  in  1868  it  was  no  longer 
visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  since  that  time  has  sunk  to 
about  the  eighth  magnitude. 

Why  some  stars  vary  while  others  do  not  science  has  not 
been  able  to  explain,  except  in  a  few  cases.  One  of  these  is 
Algol,  whose  variations  are  due  to  a  partial  eclipse  by  a  dark 
body  revolving  around  it.  There  are  a  few  other  stars  whose 
light  slightly  fades  away  at  certain  intervals,  and  whose  vari- 
ations are  tnerefore  presumed  to  be  due  to  a  similar  cause. 
With  most  of  the  variable  stars,  however,  the  changes  of 
light  go  on  so  continuously  as  to  show  that  it  is  due  to 
the  constitution  of  the  star  itself.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  such  stars  are  brighter  on  one  side  than  on  the  other, 
and  show  different  faces  as  they  revolve.  This  hypoth- 
esis is  a  purely  speculative  one,  not  only  without  proof, 
but  without  any  great  degree  of  probability.  The  theory 
which  at  present  seems  to  rest  upon  the  best  foundation 
is  that  the  variations  are  due  to  a  process  analogous  to 
that  of  the  formation  of  spots  on  the  sun.  The  actual 
area  of  the  sun  covered  by  spots  is  so  small  that  the  varia- 
tion of  the  light  thus  caused  would  evade  photometric  meas- 
urement ;  but  it  may  easily  be  supposed  that  this  spotted 
area  upon  a  few  of  the  stars  so  much  exceeds  that  of  the 
sun,  both  in  variation  and  amount,  as  to  be  sensible  to  such 
measurement.  The  spots  on  the  sun  go  through  a  regular 
period  in  eleven  years.  It  may  therefore  be  called  a  vari- 
able star,  with  a  period  of  eleven  years.  It  may  therefore  be 
said,  with  a  considerable  degree  of  probability,  that  varia- 
tions in  brilliancy  among  the  stars  are  due  to  the  regular 
formation  of  spots  like  those  on  the  sun,  at  intervals  which 
are  sometimes  fairly  regular,  and  at  other  times  very  irregu- 
lar, according  to  the  constitution  of  the  star  itself. 

Colored  Stars. — ^A  very  slight  examination  will  show  to 
anv  observer  of  the  heavens  that  the  stars  are  of  different 
colors.  The  great  majority  are  what  would  be  called  white. 
A  few,  however,  such  as  Sirius  and  Alpha  LyrsB,  have  a 
slightly  bluish  tint.  Many  others,  as  Aldebaran,  Arcturus, 
Antares,  and  Alpha  Ononis,  have  a  reddish  tinge.  These 
differences  of  color  are  probably  due  in  part  to  differences 
in  the  temperature  of  the  stars, "and  in  the  absorbing  power 
of  the  atmospheres  which  surround  them.  It  is  familiarly 
known  that  the  color  of  the  light  emitted  by  a  piece  of 
heated  iron  is  at  first  red,  and  then  it  changes  toward  white 
as  the  iron  gets  hotter.  This  law  is  so  well  established  in 
the  case  of  terrestrial  bodies  that  little  doubt  is  felt  that  the 
red  stars  are  not  at  so  high  temperature  as  those  of  other 
colors.  Another  curious  fact  in  connection  with  this  is  that 
variability  predominates  among  the  red  stars.  It  is  thus 
rendered  likely  that  the  red  stars  are  those  in  the  most  ad- 
vanced stage  of  cooling,  and  most  subject  to  the  formation 
of  spots.  Probably  if  such  a  star  were  brought  as  near  to  us 
as  the  sun  is  we  should  find  the  spots  frequently  covering 
half  the  disk,  or  more,  and  changing  from  time  to  time  in 
amount,  as  the  spots  on  the  sun  change. 


Stellar  spectra  can  be  distinguished  into  four  categories 
or  types.  The  first  is  that  of  the  white  or  azure-tinted  stars, 
like  Sirius,  Lyra,  etc.,  ^,  7,  8,  c,  C  n  ^^  ^^^  Great  Bear.  etc. 
The  spectra  of  these  are  almost  continuous,  except  that  they 
are  furrowed  by  four  strong  black  lines,  which  are  absor|>- 
tion-lines  of  hydrogen.  All  four  lines  can  be  seen  in  the 
most  brilliant,  as  Sirius,  Lyra,  etc. ;  in  the  feeblest  only  the 
H/3,  or  the  F  of  the  sun,  is  ordinarily  visible ;  but  in  general 
this  is  broad  and  dilated,  and  frequently  diffused  at  the 
edges,  especially  in  Sirius.  This  is  an  indication  of  a  very 
high  temperature,  and  of  great  density  in  the  hydrogen  at- 
mosphere of  the  stars  of  this  order.  There  are  also  sei^n 
traces  of  other  lines,  as  of  magnesium,  sodium,  and  some  of 
iron ;  but  these  are  extremelv  feeble,  and  requir*  for  their 
observation  an  atmosphere  of  great  purity.  Many  stars  a(»- 
pear  of  uniform  light,  without  lines,  which  studied  with  care 
are  found  to  belong  to  this  type. 

The  second  type  is  that  of  the  yellow  stars.  They  have 
very  fine  lines,  and  their  spectra  are  perfectly  similar  in 
character  to  that  of  the  sun.  Capella,  Pollux,  and  many 
others  feebly  yellow  have  such  a  character.  The  finene::®  of 
the  lines  requires  that  in  these  researches  the  atmosphere 
should  be  very  clear  and  quiet.  Sodium,  hydrogen,  and  in^n 
are  very  conspicuous  in  them.  Arcturus  and  Aldebaran,  in 
their  periods  of  lively  yellow  light,  approach  this  type,  an<l 
in  the  periods  of  red  light  the  following.  It  is  curious  that 
a  Ursie  Majoris  is  of  this  type,  while  aU  the  others  of  that 
constellation  belong  to  the  nrst. 

The  third  type  is  that  which  is  exhibited  by  the  orang? 
and  red  stars.  It  is  formed  of  lines  and  zones  or  nebulous 
bands.  A  specially  striking  example  is  a  Orionis,  the  pn^ 
totype  of  this  class,  to  which  belong  also  a  Scorpionis,  o  Ct^ti, 
fi  Pegasi,  a  Herculis,  and  many  other  beautiful  example^. 
This  spectrum  ought  to  be  considered  as  really  composed  of 
two  spectra  superposed — one  formed  of  broad  zones  of  grad- 
ually deepening  cloudiness,  producing  the  effect  of  lights 
and  shadows  in  a  fluted  column ;  the  other  formed  of  black 
absorption-lines  of  the  metals.  This,  for  the  structure  of  the 
broaa  zones,  has  for  type  a  Herculis,  where  the  principal 
channelings  are  seven  in  number,  but  upon  these  channel- 
ings,  in  the  periods  of  lively  red  color,  the  black  lines  can 
be  perceived.  In  some  variable  red  stars,  in  the  peri(>d  of 
feebleness,  is  seen  a  spectrum  of  a  few  lively  bright  line^*.  a.s. 
for  example,  in  0  Ceti.  The  black  reversion-lines  of  hydro- 
gen are  feeble,  and  sometimes  not  present  at  all  in  these 
spectra,  while  the  sodium,  iron,  ana  magnesium  lines  are 
very  strong ;  hydrogen  is  truly  there,  but  is  difficult  of  de- 
tection, because  the  lines  are  not  perfectly  reversed. 

The  fourth  type  embraces  some  curious  stars,  for  the  mo5t 
part  red.  They  have  only  three  bands,  coinciding  in  limits 
with  those  of  the  third  type,  but  having  twice  the  breadth ; 
and  thev  are  bright  notwithstanding  the  minuteness  of  the 
stars.  There  are  lucid  lines  in  some  of  them,  but  in  geneml 
these  are  feeble  and  few.  They  have  the  bright  and  well- 
defined  side  of  their  channelings  turned  toward  the  violet, 
while  those  of  the  third  type  turn  it  toward  the  red.  They 
appear  to  give  a  spectrum  similar  to  that  of  carbon  as  it  is 
seen  in  the  central  part  of  the  voltaic  arch  projected  be- 
tween two  carbon  points ;  except  that,  in  the  stars,  the  shad- 
ing off  is  in  the  opposite  direction — that  is,  the  maximum 
light  is  turned  toward  the  violet,  while  in  the  carbon  arch  it 
is  turned  toward  the  red.  Many  of  these  stars  exhibit  onlv 
a  few  luminous  lines,  and  are  without  the  channeled  and 
cloudy  spaces ;  all  such  are  of  a  deep  red,  and  among  them 
are  found  the  most  beautiful  spectra. 

TABLE  B. — THE  MORE  REMARKABLE  STABS  OF  THE  FOURTH 
TYPE. 


Biglit  ueuukm. 

iUftdtaAm. 

4h.  86  2m. 

+67<» 

54' 

6.       Fine. 

4      42-8 

+28 

16 

8 

4      681 

+  0 

59 

6 

6      26-9 

+38 

88 

6  5.    FilM. 

7     n  5 

-11 

48 

7-5 

9      44-6 

-22 

22 

6-5 

10        5  8 

-34 

88 

7 

10      807 

-12 

89 

6.       Fine. 

10      44-8 

-80 

80 

65 

12      385 

+46 

18 

6.    Very  ftne. 

13      19  3 

-11 

69 

76 

13      478 

+41 

2 

7 

19      26  5 

+76 

17 

65 

20        8-6 

-21 

45 

6 

21      25-8 

+50 

58 

9 

21      38-6 

+37 

13 

8-5 

28      89-2 

4-  2 

42 

6.       Fine, 

171* 

^H 

^|H 

^H 

^^^^^^^^Km 

MUrmHiffi. « 

^^^^1 

'1 

T^T^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H 

1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^■v 

^^^^^^^^^^^H  » 

1 

^^^^^^^Ki 

1 

^^^^1 

^^^^^^^^^^^H  t 

■'r  1 

^    nf              ^^H 

^^^^^^^^■* 

1 

^^^HHRi'.. . . 

'  .   1 M  ■'  r  "  M 1 1  ,  1 1  V 

I 

...iv         .r       .-,♦.,1 

uitAT  fVlBtJciii' 

I 

^^^K 

■ 

706 


STATE.  DEPARTMENT  OP 


STATICS 


The  political  senses  which  the  word  state  and  others  from 
the  same  source  took  on  were  more  than  one.  Thus  the  es- 
tates of  the  later  feudal  kingdoms  were  the  three  or  four 
flproups  holding  the  property  and  represented  in  the  assem- 
blies called  the  assemblies  of  the  estates.  These  were  the 
clergy,  nobles,  burghers,  and,  in  a  few  countries,  the  peas- 
ants. In  the  Dutch  republic  much  later  each  province  held 
a  meeting  of  its  estates,  and  the  general  meeting  of  the 
provinces  was  called  the  States-General,  where  all  were  rep- 
resented. The  abstract  sense  of  an  organized  body  politic 
also  came  into  the  word.  When  the  North  American  colo- 
nies called  themselves  free  and  independent  states  this 
sense  was  adopted,  and  this  sense  remained  in  the  term 
"United  States^  which  was  attached  to  the  new  federal  re- 
public for  want  of  a  better.  The  reasoning  from  this  term 
and  from  sovereignty  as  to  what  the  rights  of  the  States  and 
of  the  Union  are  under  the  Constitution,  instead  of  discov- 
ering from  their  attributions  and  powers  what  the^  are,  has 
been  a  source  of  much  confusion  and  error.  Political  sci- 
ence, however,  is  not  responsible  for  this  confusion.  It  knows 
of  independent  and  of  dependent  states,  of  states  formed 
out  of  states  and  of  simple  states,  of  states  under  the  most 
varied  and  dissimilar  forms.  From  the  word  state,  then,  we 
can  argue  nothing  positively  of  the  attributes  of  that  which 
is  so  called.  The  most  that  can  be  said  is  that  a  state  en- 
tirely independent  and  self-governing  in  order  to  carry  out 
the  ends  of  its  existence  ought  to  have  such  and  such  pow- 
ers.   See  also  Sovereignty  and  International  Law. 

Revised  by  T.  S.  Woolsey. 

State,  Department  of:  the  name  of  an  executive  de- 
partment in  the  U.  S.  Government,  having  charge  of  the 
relations  of  that  Government  with  foreign  powers.  Its  head 
is  the  Secretary  of  State,  who  ranks  as  the  first  of  the  cabi- 
net officers,  and  is  aided  in  the  administration  of  his  of- 
fice by  an  assistant  secretary,  and  second  and  third  assist- 
ant secretaries.  The  Secretary  not  only  is  charged,  under 
the  direction  of  the  President,  with  all  negotiations  relating 
to  foreign  affairs,  but  is  the  medium  of  correspondence  be- 
tween the  President  and  the  executive  of  the  several  States, 
is  custodian  of  the  great  seal  of  the  U.  S.,  and  publishes  the 
laws  and  resolutions  of  Congress,  proclamations  admittinp^ 
new  States  into  the  Union,  and  amendments  to  the  consti- 
tutions. He  is  further  required  to  issue  annual  reports  to 
Congress  containing  information  received  from  members 
of  the  consular  and  diplomatic  service. 

Staten  Island  [named  by  the  Dutch  in  honor  of  the 
States-  (Dutch  Staten)  General] :  largest  island  in  New  York 
harbor ;  forming  Richmond  co.,  N.  Y.,  with  county-seat  at 
Richmond  (for  location,  sfee  map  of  New  York,  ref.  8- A).  It 
has  an  extreme  length  of  about  18  miles,  extreme  width  of 
8  miles,  and  areaof  58i  sq.  miles,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  the  Kill  von  KuU,  E.  by  New  York  harbor.  New  York 
Bay,  and  the  Narrows,  S.  S.  E.  by  Raritan  Bay  and  the 
lower  bay  of  New  York,  and  W.  by  Staten  Island  Sound. 
It  is  connected  with  New  York  by  steam-ferry  to  St.  George, 
with  Perth  Am  boy,  N.  J.,  by  /errv  from  Tottenville,  and 
with  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  by  a  railway  bridge  across  the  Arthur 
Kill.  The  island  is  very  hilly,  has  lines  of  railway  extend- 
ing from  St.  George  to  Tottenville  and  from  South  Beach 
to  Erastina,  and  contains  the  towns  of  Castleton,  Middle- 
town,  Northfield,  Southfleld,  and  Westfield,  in  which  are 
the  villages  of  New  Brighton,  Edgewater,  Linoleum ville, 
Port  Richmond,  and  Tottenville.  A  mile  S.  E.  of  Clifton  is 
Fort  Wadsworth  with  a  long  line  of  water-batteries,  on  the 
north  shore  is  the  Sailors' Snug  Harbor,  and  between  St. 
George  and  Tompkinsville  is  a  UT  S.  lighthouse  station.  The 
island  contains  many  churches,  public  and  private  schools, 
libraries,  newspapers,  and  manufacturing  estaolishments,  has 
excellent  drives,  and  is  a  place  of  residence  of  many  New 
York  business  men.  Pop.  (1880)  38,991 ;  (1890)  51,693  (Cas- 
tleton, 16,423 ;  Middletown,  10,557 ;  Northfield,  9,811 ;  South- 
field,  6,644 ;  Westfield,  8,258). 

State  Rights :  See  Sovereignty. 

State's  Erldence,  or  (in  Great  Britain)  King's  or  Qneen's 
Erldence :  a  phrase  popularly  used  to  describe  the  evidence 
of  an  accomplice,  generally  given  under  an  arrangement  made 
with  the  officer  representing  the  state  (in  Great  Britain  the 
crown)  that  the  witness  so  testifying  shall  not  himself  be 
prosecuted  for  the  crime  of  which  he  confesses  himself  to 
be  guilty  while  he  is  disclosing  the  guilt  of  the  party  on 
trial.  It  is  often  necessary,  in  order  that  the  ends  of  jus- 
tice may  not  be  defeatea,  that  one  of  several  criminals, 
whether  indicted  jointly  with  the  others  or  indicted  sepa- 


rately, or  perhaps  not  indicted  at  all,  should  be  procnred 
or  suffered  by  the  prosecution  to  become  a  witness  for  the 
state  and  to  testify  on  the  trial  of  his  fellows,  although  his 
evidence  may  show  himself  to  be  guilty  of  the  same  offense 
or  of  some  other  offense.  When  this  is  done  there  is  gener- 
ally a  tacit  understanding  or  an  express  agreement  with  the 
prosecuting  officer  that  the  person  whose  disclosures  are 
thus  used  on  behalf  of  the  public  shall  not  be  brought  to 
trial  and  conviction.  When  and  with  whom  such  an  ar- 
rangement shall  be  made  rests  on  the  sound  discretion  of 
the  officer  who  represents  the  people,  or,  if  suit  has  already 
been  instituted,  of  the  court,  and  largely  depends  upon  the 
exigencies  of  each  particular  case.  The  evidence  given 
under  such  circumstances  is  of  course  very  suspicious,  and 
it  has  even  been  said  that  as  a  matter  of  law  no  conviction 
can  be  had  upon  the  uncorroborated  testimony  of  an  ac- 
complice. The  better  doctrine,  however,  is,  that  this  is  a 
rule  not  of  the  law,  but  Of  practice  and  of  expediency.  A  jury 
has  the  power  to  convict  upon  such  evidence,  and  their  ver- 
dict could  not  be  set  aside  as  ille^.  The  judge  should 
always  instruct  the  jurv  that  the  testimony  of  an  accomplice 
is  to  be  most  carefully  scrutinized,  and  that,  unless  con- 
firmed in  material  points  by  other  and  reliable  evidence,  a 
conviction  upon  it  is  inexpedient — that  the  corroboration 
should  extend  not  merely  to  the  circumstances  of  the  crime 
itself,  but  also  to  the  participation  therein  by  the  aceuse<l 
who  is  on  trial.  Still,  such  instructions  are  rather  in  the 
nature  of  advice  than  of  (Erection  or  command,  and  they 
may  therefore  be  disregarded. 

Revised  by  F.  Stubgbs  Allen. 

States-€leneral :  an  assembly  composed  of  representa- 
tives of  the  nation.  In  France  it  consisted  of  re|)resenta- 
tives  of  the  three  orders  of  the  kingdom — the  nobility,  the 
clergy,  and  the  third  estate,  or  the  oourgeoisie.  Its  origin 
seems  to  date  back  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  The  first 
convocation  of  which  history  gives  an  elaborate  and  au- 
thentic report  is  that  of  Blois,  1302,  by  which  Philippe  le 
Bel  tried  to  give  a  greater  weight  to  the  course  he  had 
adopted  in  his  quarrel  with  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  The  most 
memorable  convocation  was  that  of  1789,  which  ushered  in 
the  Revolution.  (See  France,  History  of.)  In  Ho!lan<l 
the  name  States-General  is  applied  to  the  legislative  Uxly 
of  the  kingdom,  there  distinguishing  that  assembly  from 
the  merely  provincial  states.  The  Dutch  States-General  i« 
composed  of  two  chambers — the  upper,  elected  by  the  pro- 
vincial states,  and  the  lower,  chosen  by  the  citizens. 

States  of  the  Church :  See  Papal  States. 

StatesTille:  city;  capital  of  Iredell  co„  N.  C. ;  on  the 
Southern  Railway;  26  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Salisbury,  45  milfs 
N.  of  Charlotte  (for  location,  see  map  of  North  Carolina,  ref. 
3-E).  It  is  in  a  stock-raising,  a  corundum-mining,  and  a 
cotton,  tobacco,  and  grain  growing  region,  and  contains  a 
U.  S.  (Government  building,  7  churches,  academy  for  bovs. 
several  public  and  private  schools,  manufactories  of  cotton 
and  tobacco,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000.  and 
2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  1 ,062 ;  (1890)  2,818 ;  ( 1 MC^ 
estimated,  3,500.  Editor  of  ^  Lakdmark.** 

Statice :  a  genus  of  plants  to  which  the  Marsh  Rosemary 
{q,  V,)  belongs. 

Statics  [plur.  of  static,  from  Gr.  m-aruc^  (sc.  t4x^^  art), 
the  art  of  weighing,  liter.,  fern,  of  <merue6s,  causing  to  stand, 
skilled  in  weighing,  deriv.  of  2mbwi,  cause  to  stand] :  that 
branch  ^f  mechanics  which  treats  of  the  properties  and  re- 
lations of  forces  in  equilibrium.  By  equilibrium  is  meant 
that  the  forces  are  in  perfect  balance,  so  that  the  body  utK*n 
which  they  act  is  in  a  state  of  rest  According  to  the  clas- 
sification presented  in  some  text-books  on  the  subject,  and. 
in  fact,  usually  employed  b^  engineers,  the  word  statics  is 
used  in  opposition  to  avnamics,  tne  former  being  the  science 
of  equilibrium  or  rest,  the  latter  of  motion,  and  W)th  together 
constituting  mechanics.  Other  books  regard  statics  as  a  sub- 
division of  dynamics.    See  Dynamics. 

In  statics,  forces  are  measured  by  the  pressures  that  thoy 
wilV  produce,  and  for  convenience  the  unit  of  pressure  i>  a 
certain  effect  of  the  force  of  gravitation  as  inaicated  by  a 
spring-balance  (not  by  a  st«elyard  or  scales)  acted  upon  at 
some  assigned  place  by  a  definite  quantity  of  matter.  Thus 
the  unit  may  be  the  pressure  called  an  ounce,  a  pound,  or  a 
kilo^mme,  as  may  ne  agreed  upon  beforehand.  In  the  di«- 
cussions  of  statics*  it  is  convenient  to  represent  forces  by 
lines,  the  lengths  of  the  lines  being  proportional  to  the  in- 
tensities of  the  forces,  their  directions  parallel  to  the  dino 


HTK'r 


Utjhtk 


f: ''i 


^/V/tMMAflOflCXIif- 


Amfkf  t)}i 


m|>^ff#MV 


.«i  tj  iLti'  iii*k>'A.di^  Ui  ocui<.;jitfi^«*it  |^af«»t 


0  tnlAllDQillipA  Mid 


r  rr-»nd^'*riM»'m  fn  TtnHt«nl  m 


708 


STATISTICS 


as,  for  example,  the  Domesday  Book  of  William  I.,  1088 
A.  D.,  or  the  Land  Register  of  Waldemar  IL,  1231  a.  d.  In 
the  fifteenth  century  evidently  there  was  an  unusual  in- 
terest in  systematic  investigations  into  the  conditions  of  the 
various  countries  of  Europe.  A  second  revival  of  interest 
in  statistical  work  took  place  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  due  to  the  new  measures,  the  new  hopes,  and 
the  new  ideas  which  came  in  with  the  French  Revolution. 
In  France  the  need  of  definite  information  was  formally 
recognized,  and  a  commission  established  to  collect  data  for 
reforms  in  administration  and  finance.  This  finally  led  to 
the  establishment  of  statistical  bureaus  in  France,  as  also  in 
all  other  countries  which  felt  the  infiuence  of  modern  polit- 
ical life.  The  need  of  statistical  investigation  is  one  which 
increases  as  the  spirit  of  popular  government  becomes  more 
intense,  or  the  means  of  realizing  popular  government  more 
perfect. 

(ft)  Statistics  as  a  Branch  of  Knowledge. — ^When  statistics 
was  first  recognized  as  an  independent  study,  the  claims 
made  for  it  were  verv  broad  and  comprehensive.  The 
course  of  lectures  in  which  Achenwall  founded  this  branch 
of  investigation  placed  before  itself  this  purpose,  "To  ^ain 
political  wisdom  by  means  of  a  knowledge  of  the  various 
states."  His  plan  contemplated  a  comparative  study  of  all 
modem  states  under  seven  distinct  heaas:  Literature,  geog- 
raphy, physiography  and  fertility,  the  number  and  character 
of  inhaoiUnts,  the  rights  of  the  several  classes,  the  organi- 
zation of  the  state,  and  a  consideration  of  the  needs  of  the 
state.  The  work  of  Achenwall  exerted  a  great  infiuence 
throughout  Europe.  The  name  of  Sflssmilch  (1707-67) 
must  also  be  mentioned,  since  his  work  was  the  first  which 
conclusively  proved  the  existence  of  a  rieid  law  in  the 
matter  of  births  and  deaths.  Annuities  ana  life-insurance, 
which  presupposed  such  a  law,  existed  indeed  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  but  they  were  not  regarded  as  a  business  which  could 
be  conducted  on  a  scientific  basis.  The  view  taken  by  Sfiss- 
milch  was  carried  further  by  the  well-known  Belgian  writer, 
Quetelet  (1796-1874),  whose  work  entitled  Sur  Vhomme  et 
le  diveloppement  de  see  facultSs  ou  essai  de  physique  sociale 
declares  that  the  constant  averages  in  moral  statistics  are 
a  proof  that  the  actions  of  manlund  are  regulated  by  laws. 
The  field  of  statistics  as  it  was  first  defined  was  curtailed 
hj  the  rise  of  independent  sciences  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  development  of  political  economy 
at  the  hands  of  Adam  Smith  tooK  from  statistics  one  phase 
of  its  investigation.  The  development  of  public  and  ad- 
ministrative law  and  of  practical*  life-insurance  deprived  it 
of  other  lines  of  investigation.  Thus  the  scope  of  statistics 
as  originally  held  has  been  very  materially  narrowed. 

Is  there  a  Science  of  Statistics  t — The  phrase  "  science  of 
statistics  "  has  been  loosely  used  to  convey  a  number  of  in- 
definite ideas.  Its  claim  to  be  a  science  usually  rests  on  the 
observation  of  uniformitv  in  those  domains  of  human  ac- 
tivity which  are  commonly  regarded  as  subject  to  the  con- 
trol of  the  individual.  For  example,  one  would  suppose 
that  suicides,  being  wholly  under  the  direction  of  the  indi- 
vidual will,  would  show  no  rule  of  recurrence,  but  a  study 
of  the  statistics  of  suicides  shows  that  nothing  is  more  con- 
stant in  its  recurrence  than  the  cause  for  which,  the  time  in 
which,  and  the  manner  by  which  suicides  are  committed. 
The  same  is  true  in  any  domain  of  human  activity,  so  much 
so  indeed  that  by  the  use  of  statistics  one  is  able  to  predict 
with  a  very  gr^&t  degree  of  assurance  what  is  likely  to  hap- 
pen. This  &ct,  however,  does  not  seem  to  make  good  the 
claim  that  statistics  may  be  regarded  as  an  independent 
science,  but  indicates  rather  the  possibility  of  scientific 
treatment  of  all  social  and  moral  questions.  From  this 
point  of  view  statistics  comes  to  be  a  method  of  investi- 
gation. It  is  not  an  independent  science,  but  a  branch  of 
the  science  of  logic.  Were  the  existence  of  a  science  of 
statistics  admitted,  it  would  necessarily  be  a  science  that 
would  include  investigations  into  every  department  of  po- 
litical, social,  and  industrial  life,  since  all  of  these  may  be 
studied  by  the  statistical  method.  Accepting  then  statistics 
as  a  science  of  method,  it  may  be  regaraed  as  consisting  in 
a  svstematic  observation  and  classification  of  facts. 

methods  of  Comparison  in  Statistics. — The  chief  use  of 
statistical  investigation,  in  addition  to  the  discovery  of  laws 
of  constant  recurrence,  is  the  discovery  of  laws  of  change. 
It  is  the  peculiar  office  of  statistics  to  discern  the  direction 
of  progress  and  to  measure  both  the  actual  and  the  relative 
strength  of  the  forces  which  impel  it,  and  this  it  does  by 
providing  the  means  of  accurate  comparison  between  con- 
ditions of  society  and  phases  of  human  activity  at  various 


times.  This,  however,  is  no  light  task.  The  difficulty  in 
carrying  it  through  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  mass  of 
data  necessary  for  accurate  description  is  likely  to  be  ^ci 
great  that  the  mind  can  not  grasp  it.  The  student  who 
avails  himself  of  statistics  as  a  means  of  reasoning  is,  on 
this  account,  obliged  to  reduce  the  mass  of  information  pre- 
sented to  him  in  the  form  of  tables  of  fi^^res  to  some  sim- 
ple equivalent  for  the  purpose  of  comparison,  or,  if  the  data 
comprises  incongruous  factors,  they  must  be  reduced  to 
some  common  denominator.  There  are  several  methods  bv 
which  this  may  be  accomplished,  and  the  trustworthiness  of 
the  conclusions  arrived  at  depends  in  very  large  measur*' 
upon  the  intelligence  with  wnich  these  raeth<^s  are  fol- 
lowed. Three  of  these  methods  may  be  noted  :  First,  sta- 
tistics may  make  use  of  percentages  as  a  basis  of  com- 
parison either  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  the  relative 
importance  of  similar  factors,  which,  taken  in  the  aggregate, 
comprise  a  total,  or  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  tne  prog- 
ress or  regress  of  specific  lines  of  facts  during  a  definite 
period  of  time.  The  chief  error  to  which  the  use  of  per- 
centages as  a  basis  of  comparison  is  liable  arises  from  the 
failure  to  observe  the  basal  numbers  upon  which  percentages 
are- computed.  For  example,  an  increase  of  10  miles  in  rail- 
way mileage  in  a  district  which  had  but  10  miles  to  start 
with  would  show  a  higher  percentage  of  increase  than  an 
increase  of  1,000  miles  in  a  district  which  had  10,000  mile« 
of  line  at  the  outset.  One  who  reasons  by  means  of  pt*r- 
centages  must  hold  constantly  in  mind  that  he  is  dealing 
with  ratios  and  not  with  absolute  facts.  A  second  methiM 
of  bringing  large  masses  of  facts  into  usable  shape  is  by 
means  of  **  index  figures."  All  investi^tions  must  of 
course  begin  at  some  definite  period  of  time,  and  all  the 
facts  subjected  to  observation  are  arbitrarily  reduced  to 
some  common  basis.  The  subsequent  changes  for  each  Vint 
of  facts  are  then  set  down  in  their  relation  to  this  assumed 
basis,  and  the  divergence  which  in  this  manner  is  brought  to 
light  shows  clearly  the  relative  movements.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  illustration  let  it  be  assumed  that  one  desires  to  in- 
vestigate the  changes  in  the  prices  of  various  commoditit^. 
The  price  of  all  articles  considered  will  be  set  down,  let  u> 
say,  as  100 ;  subsequent  variations  from  what  may  be  terme^i 
the  original  price  are  noted  with  relation  to  this  fiRure,  and 
the  divergence  of  quotations  from  the  assumed  index  figure 
shows  the  changes  in  price  of  any  particular  commodity  as 
compared  with  other  commodities.  The  general  movement 
also  in  the  price  of  commodities  as  compared  with  the  index 
figure  indicates  the  trend  of  general  prices.  Thus  the  index 
figure  serves  for  the  statistician  a  purpose  similar  to  that 
which  the  "bench  mark"  serves  for  the  civil  engineer. 
Third,  the  most  common  basis  of  comparison  is  by  means  of 
averages.  The  idea  of  an  average  is  to  obtain  a  typical  uniu 
A  typical  unit  may  be  accepted  as  the  representative  of  the 
mass  of  facts  from  which  it  is  deduced,  and  as  such  can  be 
used  as  a  basis  of  comparison.  There  is  great  dan^r,  how- 
ever, in  reasoning  upon  a  basis  of  averages.  This  is  not 
because  the  theory  of  averages  is  incorrect,  but  is  due  to 
the  difiiculty  of  obtaining  an  average  which  is  really  typi<'ai 
in  character.  Two  rules  must  be  observed  in  arriving  at  a 
true  average.  In  the  first  place,  a  sufficientlv  large  number 
of  individual  facts  must  be  collected  to  nulliiy  the  infiueik*r 
of  any  unusual  or  abnormal  cases.  In  the  second  plaet\  iu- 
dividual  facts  should  be  allowed  to  influence  the  average  Id 
proportion  to  their  relative  importance.  For  example,  wheat 
IS  relatively  of  more  vital  importance  to  the  people  than  silks. 
and  any  investigation  which  holds  in  view  the  effect  («f 
changes  in  prices  upon  the  wellbeing  of  a  community  must 
lay  greater  stress  on  variations  in  the  price  of  wheat  than 
in  that  of  silks.  Again,  it  will  not  do  in  determining  thr 
average  of  wages  to  rely  upon  the  daily  rate  of  wages  re- 
ported as  paid,  but  the  number  of  days  in  the  year  for  which 
the  workmen  receive  the  stated  wages  must  also  be  taker 
into  account.  As  in  the  case  of  percentages,  it  is  nec«ssanr 
that  averages  should  be  used  in  an  intelligent  manner,  an^^. 
with  a  clear  appreciation  of  what  they  mean  and  how  thev 
are  obtained. 

Use  of  Statistics. — The  most  familiar  use  made  of  statis- 
tics is  to  portray  existing  social  conditions  and  to  measure 
the  strength  of  existing  social  forces.  A  statistical  inquiry 
has  been  aptly  termed  an  instantaneous  photograph  fX- 
pressed  in  figures.  They  are  of  immense  importance  to  the 
statesman  in  gaining  a  knowledge  of  the  exact  condition  <i 
the  country,  and  if  several  statistical  investigations,  taken  at 
different  times,  be  subjected  to  comparative  scrutiny  .Ht.i 
studied  in  the  light  of  current  history,  the  knowledge  thai 


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710 


STATUTE  OP  FRAUDS 


STAUNTON 


orime,  public  pauperism,  and  the  like.  Amon^  the  special 
capacities  the  most  important  are  those  pertaining  to  citi- 
zenship and  to  the  electoral  franchise.  In  the  U.  S.  the 
differences  of  legal  condition  or  status  belonging  to  class, 
rank,  profession,  or  trade  have  no  existence,  for  every  per- 
son— at  least  every  sane  person — is  clothed  with  the  same 
capacity  in  respect  to  these  siibiects.  See  Liberty,  Citizen, 
and  Marriage.  Kevised  by  F.  M.  Burdick. 

Statute  of  Frauds :  See  Frauds,  Statute  of. 

Statutes  [vi&  0.  Fr.  from  Late  Lat.  statu' turn,  liter., 
something  established,  neut.  perf.  partic.  of  statu' ere^  statu- 
turn,  set  up,  establish,  dertv.  of  status^  condition,  status] : 
laws  in  a  written  form  enacted  by  the  supreme  legislative 
authority  of  a  nation  or  commonwealth,  as  contradistin- 
guished from  laws  established  bv  judicial  decision.  In  its 
generic  sense  the  term  includes  all  legislative  as  opposed  to 
judicial  creations  of  the  law,  whatever  be  the  nature  and 
organization  of  the  body — persons  or  person — which  exer- 
cises the  creative  function. 

Their  Sources. — The  sources  from  which  statutes  have 
emanated  or  may  emanate,  according  to  the  varying  politi- 
cal constitutions  of  different  states,  are  the  general  or  par- 
tial assemblies  of  the  citizens,  the  emperors.  Icings,  or  other 
single  heads  of  despotic  governments,  and  the  representa- 
tive assemblies,  either  hereditary  or  elective.  The  leges  and 
plebiscita  of  the  Roman  citizens  during  the  republic  were 
produced  *by  the  first  class  of  legislators ;  the  "  constitu- 
tions" of  the  Roman  emperors  by  the  second;  while  the 
parliaments  of  Great  Britain  and  of  many  other  European 
nations,  the  U.  S.  Congress,  and  the  State  Legislatures  are 
the  modern  forms  of  the  third.  The  extent  of  the  powers 
held  by  these  bodies  is  determined  by  the  organic  law  of 
each  country.  The  British  Parliament  is  said  to  be  om- 
nipotent ;  which  simply  means  that  the  restrictions  under 
which  it  ordinarily  acts  are  self-imposed.  In  the  U.  S. 
the  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  political  organization  is 
the  express,  positive,  and  extensive  limitation  of  the  legis- 
lative function  contained  in  all  the  written  constitutions, 
which  are  themselves  fundamental  statutes  adopted  by  the 
people  in  their  sovereign  capacity.  With  every  new  revision 
of  tne  State  constitutions  this  limitation  in  reference  to  the 
forms  and  modes  of  legislation,  as  well  as  its  subject-matter, 
is  made  more  far-reaching,  minute,  and  prohibitory. 

Their  Kinds. — Statutes  are  variously  classified,  according 
to  their  external  form  and  according  to  their  subject-matter 
and  effects.    See  Law  and  Jurisprudence. 

Their  Farts, — Statutes  in  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  may, 
and  sometimes  do,  comprise  the  following  distinct  parts: 
the  title,  the  beginning  or  enacting  clause,  the  preamble, 
and  the  purview.  The  title  is  a  brief  preliminary  descrip- 
tion, e.  g.  "  An  act  for  the  amendment  of  the  law."  It 
has  become  of  great  importance  in  the  law  of  the  U.  S., 
since  most  of  the  State  constitutions  prescribe  in  substance 
that  every  statute  shall  contain  but  one  subject,  and  that 
.  this  shall  be  properly  expressed  in  the  title.  By  the  com- 
mencement is  meant  the  formal  enacting  clause — namely, 
"  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
of  the  U.  S.  of  America,  in  Congress  assembled,"  and  "  Be 
it  enacted  by  the  queen*s  most  excellent  majesty,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Lords  spiritual  and 
temporal  and  Commons  in  this  present  Parliament  assembled, 
and  by  the  authority  of  the  same."  The  preamble  is  a 
preface  setting  forth  the  reasons  and  motives  for  the  act. 
Once  very  common,  it  is  now  generally  omitted.  The  pur- 
view is  the  main  body,  the  effective  portion  of  the  statute, 
which  contains  a  statement  of  the  legislative  will,  and  de- 
clares its  object  and  purpose.  Among  the  special  clauses  or 
subdivisions  which  may  be  found  in  it  are  the  interpretation 
clause,  the  saving  clause,  the  repealing  clause,  the  provisoes, 
the  exceptions,  and  the  schedules,  the  objects  of  which  are 
sufilciently  indicated  by  their  names.  In  codes,  whether 
complete  or  partial,  a  more  orderly  and  scientific  arrange- 
ment of  parts  is  always  made,  and  a  division,  according  to 
some  general  plan,  into  books,  titles,  chapters,  sections,  and 
the  like  is  universal. 

When  Operative. — The  time  when  statutes  take  effect  is 
fixed  in  most  of  the  States  of  the  U.  S.  either  by  a  constitu- 
tional provision  or  by  a  general  law.  In  some  they  become 
operative  at  the  expiration  of  a  specified  number  of  days 
alter  the  close  of  the  session,  in  others  at  a  specified  period 
after  the  day  of  their  passage ;  but  the  Legislature  may  in 
the  body  of  a  statute  prescribe  a  different  time,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, that  it  shall  take  effect  immediately.    The  common 


law  made  an  act  operative  from  the  first  day  of  the  session 
at  which  it  was  passed,  but  this  absurd  doctrine  was  abol- 
ished in  the  thirty-third  year  of  George  III.,  and  all  laws 
were  declared  to  be  binding  from  the  time  when  they  re- 
ceived the  royal  assent.  The  repeal  of  a  statute  may  W 
either  express  or  by  implication.  It  is  express  when  effected 
by  a  clause  inserted  for  that  specific  purpose  in  a  subsse- 
quent  act ;  it  is  by  implication  when  the  provisions  of  a 
later  enactment  are  wholly  and  irreconcilably  inconsistent 
with  those  contained  in  an  earlier  one.  Repeal  by  implica- 
tion is  not  favored.  If  the  two  statutes  concerning  tlie 
same  subject-matter  can  possibly  be  harmonized,  both  will 
stand  ;  if  the  contradiction  is  absolute,  the  prior  one  give-s 
way.  For  a  treatment  of  other  topics  connected  with  the 
general  theory  of  statutes,  see  Interpretation,  CoNSTm- 
TioN,  Code,  Law,  and  Law-making,  Methods  or. 

Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Statntes  of  Limitation :  See  Limitation  of  Actions. 

Stttudlln,  stoid-leen',  Karl  Friedricb  :  author ;  b.  at 
Stuttgart,  Julj  25, 1761;  studied  theology  at  TObingen  IT'n)- 
84 ;  traveled  in  Switzerland,  France,  and  England,  and  vbs 
appointed  in  1790  Professor  of  Theology  at  GOttingin, 
where  he  died  July  6, 1826.  His  numerous  writings  relate 
mostly  to  Church  history,  such  as  Universalgeaehichte  d-r 
ehrisilichen  Kirche  (Gfittingen,  1806 ;  5th  ed.  1833) ;  Kirch- 
liche  Oeographie  und  Statistik  (2  vols.,  1804) ;  Allgemtiuf 
Kirchengeschichte  von  Orossbritannien  (2  vols.,  1819) ;  or  t<i 
the  history  of  special  theological  disciplines,  such  as  6'c- 
schichte  der  SittenJehre  e/g«w (4 vols.,  1799-1822);  OesehichU 
der  christlichen  Moral  seit  dem  Wiederaujiehen  der  U*i'#- 
senschaften  (1808);  Geschichte  der  Moralphilosophie  (1822), 
etc.  His  first  work,  strongly  impregnated  by  the  reignin*: 
rationalism,  was  OeachieMe  und  Oeist  des  Skepttcistnus  (2 
vols.,  1794).  His  autobiography  was  published  by  J.  T. 
Hemsen  (1826).  lie  vised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Staanton :  village ;  Macoupin  co..  111. ;  on  the  Chi.,  Peo- 
ria, and  St.  L.  and  the  Wabash  railways ;  14  miles  S.  S.  W. 
of  Litchfield,  36  miles  N.  K.  of  St.  Louis  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Illinois,  ref.  8-D).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  coal- 
mining region,  and  contains  a  private  bank  and  a  weekly 
newspaper.    Pop.  (1880)  1,368;  (1890)  2,209. 

Staanton:  city  (incorporated  in  1749);  capita]  of  Au- 
gusta, CO.,  Va. ;  on  the  ^alt.  and  Ohio  and  the  Ches.  and 
Ohio  railways;  89  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Charlottesville,  60 
miles  N.  of  Lynchburg  (for  location,  see  map  of  Virginia, 
ref.  5-F).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region ;  has  important 
manufactories ;  is  the  seat  of  the  State  Deaf,  Dumb,  and 
Blind  Institution  and  of  the  Western  Lunatic  Asylum ;  and 
is  noted  for  its  educational  institutions,  which'  include  a 
military  academy,  4  seminaries  for  young  ladies,  and  2  busi- 
ness colleges.  There  are  2  national  banks  with  conibineii 
capital  of  $300,000,  a  savings-bank,  and  a  daily,  a  monthly, 
and  8  weekly  newspapers.    Pop.  (1880)  6,664 ;  (1880)  6.975. 

Editor  op  *•  News." 

Staunton,  Sir  George  Leonard  :  traveler  and  diploma- 
tist ;  b.  at  Cargin,  Galway,  Ireland,  Apr.  19, 1737 ;  educated 
at  Dublin  and  at  Montpellier,  France,  where  he  gradual t-d 
in  medicine ;  returned  to  England  1760;  wrote  for  London 
periodicals,  acquiring  the  fnendship  of  Dr.  Johnson  and 
other  eminent  men  of  letters ;  settled  in  1762  as  a  physician 
in  the  island  of  Grenada  in  the  West  Indies,  where  fie  held 
several  official  positions,  including  that  of  attorney-general, 
for  which  he  had  Qualified  himself  by  le^l  study,  and  at^ 
quired  a  considerable  fortune,  which  he  irrvested  in  landiti 
estates ;  formed  in  1774  an  intimate  friendship  with  I>>rd 
Macartney,  the  new  governor  of  the  island,  with  whom  he 
was  sent  prisoner  to  France  on  the  capture  of  Grenaila  in 
1779,  and  whom  he  accompanied  as  secretary  during  his 
governorship  of  Madras  (1781-84)  and  his  celebrated  em- 
bassy to  China  (1792),  of  which  he  published  in  1797  an  in- 
teresting narrative.  D.  in  London,  Jan.  14, 1801.  He  wii> 
made  a  baronet  1784  in  reward  for  his  success  in  negotiatin;: 
a  treatv  with  Tippoo  Sahib. — His  son.  Sir  George  Thomas, 
b.  at  ililford,  England,  May  26,  1781,  accompanied  bi> 
father  to  China  in  1792 ;  learned  the  Chinese  language ;  hM 
important  posts  in  China  in  the  service  of  the  East  Indi* 
Com  pan  v ;  returned  to  England  1817,  and  was  a  member  <»f 
Parliament,  with  short  intervals,  from  1818  to  1852.  D.  Aus:. 
10,  1859.  He  wrote  a  Memoir  of  his  father  (1823),  an  auti>- 
biography  (1856),  and  published  various  works  on  China. 

Staanton,  Howard  :  Shakspearean  scholar  and  chess- 
player; b.in  England  in  1810;  educated  at  Oxford;  settled 


MUtrr. 

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712 


STEAM 


TABLE 

[.—TENSION  OF  STEAM 

AT  VARIOUS  TEMPERATURES. 

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TMtkmio 

PWMUTt  apoD 

T«»p«». 

Tisdonbi 

Pmhun  npon 

tar^ 

an. 

l.q.em. 

tur«. 

em. 

l«l.em. 

OruBmM. 

GnumoM. 

-30«C. 

00386 

0-52 

105»C. 

90-641 

1,288  86 

-86 

00605 

0-82 

110 

107-637 

1,462-10 

-90 

00927 

1-26 

115 

126-941 

1,726-90 

-16 

01400 

1-90 

120 

149-128 

2,027-56 

-10 

0-2093 

2-85 

126 

174-888 

8,370-98 

-6 

0-8113 

428 

130 

208-028 

8,780*87 

0 

0-4600 

6-25 

136 

235*878 

8,200-13 

-f6 

0-6534 

8-88 

140 

271-768 

8,694  90 

10 

09166 

12  46 

145 

812-555 

4,249-50 

16 

1-2699 

17-27 

150 

358128 

4,86904 

SO 

1-7891 

23  65 

155 

408-856 

5,558-81 

86 

28550 

82-02 

160 

465-168 

6,324-84 

to 

81548 

42-89 

165 

627-454 

7,171-27 

86 

4-1827 

66-87 

170 

596-166 

8,105  47 

40 

5-4906 

74-65 

176 

671-743 

9,133  02 

45 

7- 1391 

9706 

180 

754-689 

10,280- 1 

60 

9- 1981 

12805 

185 

845-328 

11,4930 

65 

11  7478 

159-72 

190 

944-270 

18,8388 

60 

14-8791 

203  23 

196 

1,051-968 

14,802-5 

66 

18-6945 

254-17 

200 

1,168-896 

15,892-8 

70 

23-3098 

816  92 

205 

1,296*566 

17,614-5 

75 

28-8517 

392-27 

210 

l,4S2-480 

19,476-0 

80 

85-4643 

482-17 

215 

1,680-138 

21,483-6 

86 

43-3041 

588-77 

220 

1,789  00 

28,643-9 

90 

52-5450 

714-40 

226 

19,097*04 

26,964-8 

06 

63  8778 

861-68 

230 

20,926-40 

28,451-5 

100 

78  0000 

1,033-30 

offers  many^  advantages  Over  a  table,  but  in  order  to  make 
it  of  service  in  a  case  like  the  above  it  must  be  plotted  to  a 

very  large  scale.  Fig. 
1  shows  tne  general  form 
of  the  curve  between 
+  40"  and  +  230°  upon 
a  scale  too  small  to  be 
of  service  for  actual 
readings. 

For  many  practical 
purposes  one  needs  to 
use  only  a  small  portion 
of  the  entire  range  of 
temperatures.  If,  for 
example,  the  change  in 
boiling-point  under  or- 
dinary barometric  fluc- 
tuations is  desired,  the 
extreme  range  of  ordi- 
nates  to  be  considered  is 
from  70  cm.  to  80  cm. 
Fi^.  2  is  such  a  boiling- 
point  curve.  It  follows 
from  the  deflnition  of 
ebullition  given  in  an 
earlier  paragraph  that 
the  boiling-point  corre- 
sponding to  a  given 
pressure  is  simply  the 
temperature  at  which 
steam  acquires  a  tension 
equivalent  to  the  pres- 
sure in  question.  Since 
tensions,  like  atmospher- 
ic pressures,  are  meas- 
ured in  centimeters  of 
mercury,  the  tension- 
curve  for  a  vapor  is  also  the  boiling-point  curve  of  the  liquid 
for  the  same  range.  Thus  in  Fig.  2  abscissas  give  tempera- 
tures at  which  aqueous  vapor 
attains  various  tensions,  and 
also  the  temperatures  at 
which  water  boils  when  sub- 
jected to  atmospheric  pres- 
sures represented  by  the  or- 
dinates  of  the  curve. 

Closely  related  to  the  prop- 
erty of  steam  just  described, 
and  equally  important,  are 
its  variations  of  volume  when 
subjected  to  changes  of  tem- 
perature and  pressure.  A 
perfect  gas  possesses  a  coeffi- 
cient of  expansion  (by  con- 
stant pressure)  of  0*00367.  a 
coefficient  constant  for  the 
range  of  pressures  and  tern- 


. 

1 

i 
f 

^ 

1 

1 

g 

1 
I 

«^ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

\ 

1 

r 

/ 

a 

/ 
/ 

1 

/ 

1 

/ 

-«o<^ 

/ 
/ 
/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

-—*' 

"100 

'C 

800 

'C 

Fio.  1. 


t 

/ 

w, 

1 

> 
/ 

i 

f 

a 

/ 
f 

i 

/ 

74. 

1 

/ 

1 
1 

1 

J 

/ 

78 

1 

/ 

I' 

Ten 

peJ 

X^xn 

•  — 

-B 

)llinj 

fpo 

nts. 

9 

¥> 

1( 

K»o 

IC 

11^ 

peratures  within  which  the  gas  obeys  Charl^'s  law.  Steam„ 
according  to  Him  i^ThioTit  mSennique  de  la  Chaieur\  pos- 
sesses a  coefficient  considerably  larger  than  the  above  at 
ordinary  temperatures  and  gradually  approaches  it  as  the 
temperature  rises.    See  Table  II. 


\       1                  i 

1               --.>.., 

* 

i       , L 

i       -^ 

V     ^V.      '      1 

p        *-~i:-J 

Fxo.8. 


TABLE    II. — COEFFICIENT    OF    EXPANSION    OF    STEAM    AT    C<»- 
STANT  PRESSURES. 
Baag*  of  tamptntart.  Man  nwiBrfaiiL 

0»  to  119« 0004187 

0«>  to  141» 0004060 

0«>  to  162« 0-004071 

0»  to200« 0008988 

0«>  to  247«» 0  008799 

The  behavior  of  a  gas  or  vapor  when  subjected  to  simul- 
taneous changes  of  pressure  and  temperature  can  be  ex- 
pressed by  means  of  a  surface,  the  three  Cartesian  co-onli- 
nates  of  which  are  volume  (v),  pressure  (/)),  and  temperature 
(Q.  For  a  perfect  gas  this  surface  is  hyperbolic,  its  inter- 
section with  any  plane  parallel  to  the  axes  v  and  p  being  a 
rectangular  hyperbola  (Fig.  3^.  This  h3rperbola  is  an  Ikk 
thermfi  curve  for  the  gas.  Tne  intersection  of  the  surface 
with  planes  parallel  to  the  axes  v  and  /  forms  a  series  of 
straignt  lines,  showing  the  relation  between  /  and  v  for  c<m- 
stant  p.  The  characteristics  of  vapors,  as  distinguished  from 
true  gases,  as  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  article  Pneumatk^ 
(q.  v.),  are  too  great  compressibility  to  satisfy  Mariotte's  law 
and  too  great  a  change  of  volume  when  heated  or  cooled  to 
satisfy  the  law  of  Charles.  The  result  of  these  peculiarities 
is  to  alter  the  form  of  surface  which  exhibits  the  relation 
between  p^  v,  and  t  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  the  isother- 
mal curves  to  deviate  from  the  hyperbolic  form,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  intersections  with  planes  parallel  to  the  plane 
t  V  are  no  longer  straight  lines.  The  existence  of  such  a  di- 
vergence in  the  case  of  steam  ap-         

pears  at  once  from  inspection  of 
Table  II.  The  curve  marked 
Vapor  in  Fig.  3  shows  the  char- 
acter of  the  divergence  of  the 
isothermal  curve  from  the  hyper- 
bolic form. 

The  conditions  under  which 
steam  is  made  and  used  compel 
the  consideration  of  its  behavior 
under  conditions  different  from 
those  of  an  isolated  mass  of  va- 
por, which  loses  nothing  by  con- 
densation and  grains  nothing 
from  the  evaporation  of  contiguous  liquid.  Ordinarilv  we 
have  steam  m  the  presence  of  unvaporized  water,  from 
which  it  receives  or  to  which  it  ^ves  up  portions  of  its 
substance  at  every  change  of  condition.  St.eam  thus  situ- 
ated is  said  to  be  saturated.  It  is  much  easier  to  study  the 
properties  of  saturated  than  of  unsaturated  steam,  and  its 
behavior  when  in  that  condition  is  of  prime  importance. 

Energy  required  for  the  Production  of  Steam, — In  the 
conversion  of  a  gramme  of  water  at  0"  C.  into  steam  at  any 
pven  temperature  there  is  a  double  process :  (1)  the  heat- 
ing of  the  liauid  up  to  the  boiling-point,  and  (2)  ebullition 
of  the  li^uia.  If  the  given  temperature  lies  above  the 
boiling-point  for  the  pressure  at  which  the  experiment  is 
to  be  performed — if,  that  is  to  say,  we  are  to  produt'e 
superheated  instead  of  saturated  steam — a  third  proix^^ct 
must  be  added :  (3)  the  heating  of  the  vapor  resulting  from 
ebullition  from  the  boiling-point  to  the  required  tempen- 
ture. 

To  compute  the  expenditure  of  energy  in  these  three 
processes  the  specific  heat  of  water  throughout  the  range  of 
temperature,  from  0"  to  the  boiling-point,  the  heat  of  vapori- 
zation at  the  latter  temperature,  and  the  specific  heat  cf 
steam  must  be  known. 

The  specific  heat  of  water,  although  taken  as  a  reference 
unit  in  calorimetry,  was  found  by  Regnault  to  vary  slightly 
from  its  value  at  low  temperatures  when  the  investigation 
was  extended  over  a  considerable  range.  This  variatiun. 
the  existence  of  which  has  been  abundantly  verified  by  sub- 
sequent observers,  is  of  the  nature  of  a  very  slight  increase 
in  the  specific  heat.  Regnault  expressed  the  change  by 
means  of  the  empirical  formula, 

(5  =  1  +  0-00004/  +  0-0000009/«, 

in  which  c  is  the  specific  heat  and  t  the  temperature.   Table 
III.  gives  the  results  of  Regnault*s  determination. 

The  heat  of  vaporization  of  water  is  likewise  a  function 
of  the  temperature,  diminishing  as  the  temperature  rises* 


Vytumw 
Fio.  8. 


^^^^H 

^^V^^P^H 

^^^^^^^^H9 

^        ctT          ^       TUt^^H 

^^^^^^^^^^Mifif*  ff  •  * 

-*  /tf^M  IflrrTAr? 

Fh 

1 

kiri'Vi^ 

1 

H    'iii^ ... 

U*f^^9  nml  Mir  1                              ^^^H 

^^K 

^^^■r 

^^^^1 

^m 

rr 

1 

^^^L 

^^^1 

^^^^H 

714 


STEAM-BOILER 


additional  heating-surface  without  increased  diameter  is 
known  as  the  French  or  Elephant  boiler,  shown  in  Figs.  2 


Fio.  1.— Plain  cylinder  boiler  set  in  brickwork. 

and  3.    This  type  has  been  much  used  in  iron-works  practice, 
where  it  is  desired  that  a  large  volume  of  water  serve  to 


^  i^-^ 


FiOB.  2  and  3 —French  boiler.    A,  a.<*h-plt ;  F.  furnace ;  W,  water- 
space  ;  S,  steam-space  ;  D,  steam-dome. 

store  the  heat  given  off  from  metallurgical  furnaces  when 
there  may  be  considerable  variation  in  the  intensity  of  com- 
bustion from  time  to  time. 

The  next  types  of  externally  fired  boilers  are  those  con- 
taining, in  the  space  devoted  to  water,  flues  or  tubes  through 
which  the  hot  gases  pass  on  their  way  to  the  chimney.  The 
difference  between  a  flue  and  a  tube  is  that  of  size  merely, 
a  tube  larger  than  8  inches  in  diameter  being  designated  as 
a  flue.    The  flue  boiler  is  shown  in  Figs.  4  and  5,  and  the 


Fios.  4  and  5.— Cylinder-flue  boiler. 

tubular  boiler  in  Fig.  6.  The  flue  boiler  is  preferred  where 
the  fuel  has  a  long  name  from  the  presence  of  combustible 
gas,  since  the  fine  subdivision  of  the  products  of  partial 
combustion  in  the  tubes  tends  to  extinguish  the  flame  before 
the  union  with  oxygen  is  complete.  On  the  other  hand, 
where  the  fuel  is  anthracite,  or  where  the  combustion  can 
be  completed  before  the  gases  enter  the  tubes,  the  extended 


i. 

_  .  ^ 

rj.pr*^! 

h^rmi 

1 1  Hff^Rs '. 

Fio.  6.— Cylinder  tubular  boiler  set  in  brickwork. 

heating-surface  of  the  multitubular  boiler  gives  it  the  pref- 
erence, provided  the  quality  of  the  water  is  consistent  with 
a  design  of  boiler  which  has  parts  to  which  access  is  so  diffi- 
cult as  in  the  small  spaces  about  the  tubes. 
The  fourth  Jiype  of  externally  fired  boiler  is  what  is  known 


as  the  sectional  boiler.  It  comsists  essentially  of  a  system 
of  tubes  or  small  units  so  arranged  that  a  continuous  circu- 
lation of  the  water  is  maintained  through  the  tubes  from 
the  mechanical  action  arising  from  some  portions  of  the 


Fio.  7.— The  sectional  boiler. 

tubes  being  maintained  at  a  higher  temperature  than  others, 
the  heated  and  lighter  water  ascending  and  the  cooler  and 
heavier  water  descending.  The  large  shell  is  dispensed  wit  h, 
and  the  heat  applied  directly  by  both  radiation  and  contact 
to  the  exterior  surfaces  of  the  tubes.  The  steam-space  i^ 
usually  a  large  drum  or  a  system  of  drums  with  which  the 
various  sections  of  tubes  are  connected,  and  there  are  vari- 
ous devices  in  practical  use  for  connecting  and  arranjrin? 
the  tubes,  so  that  they  shall  form  a  compact  arrangement 
with  all  the  necessary  conditions  for  applying  heat,  for  ac- 
cessibility, and  for  securing  circulation  and  disengagement 
of  steam  from  the  water.  Fig.  7  shows  a  side  elevation  cf 
one  of  the  early  pioneers  among  boilers  of  this  type  in 
the  U.  S.,  but  many  other  forms,  and  the  modem  tyj>e  of 
the  form  illustrated,  are  improvements  in  many  re<;|>eit5 
upon  the  original  type.  The  origination  of  this  system  is 
generally  ascribed  to  Jacob  Perkins,  who  in  1831  obtained  a 
patent  in  England  for  improvements  in  generating  steam,  in 
which  he  insisted  on  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by  caus- 
ing the  water  to  circulate  rapidly  over  the  heating-siirfaees 
exposed  to  the  direct  action  of  the  fire.  In  1839  Perkins 
obtained  a  patent  for  a  more  complete  apparatus  involving 
this  idea,  under  the  title  " apparatus  for  transmitting  h«at 
by  circulating  water."  Steam-generators  constructed  with 
special  reference  to  this  idea  had  already  been  tried,  how- 
ever, by  John  Fitch,  John  Stevens,  and  others,  1787-1804: 
later  tney  were  abandoned,  owing  to  practical  difllculties  in 
their  construction  and  keeping  them  m  repair. 

From  the  sectional  type  have  been  derived  the  water-tub'e 
or  coil  boilers,  in  which  the  heating-surface  is  made  up  (>f  a 
great  surface  of  tubes  of  small  diameter  in  curved  or  spiral 
sections  within  which  the  water  to  be  evaporated  circulates 
at  high  velocity  either  naturally  or  by  means  of  a  fort^ii 
circulation.  The  compactness  of  such  boilers  and  their 
availability  for  high  pressures  have  made  them  popular  for 
small  high-speed  marine  vessels. 

Of  the  internally  fired  boilers,  one  representative  is  the 
locomotive  boiler,  in  which  a  rectangular  fire-box  is  sur- 
rounded by  the  water  to  be  evaporated  on  all  sides  except 
the  bottom.  From  the  front  side  of  this  fire-box  the  tul»o5 
carry  the  hot  gases  through  the  water  in  the  barrel  of  the 
boiler  to  discharge  them  into  the  smoke-box  at  the  extreme 
front. 

The  fiatness  of  the  upper  side  of  the  fire-box  or  crown 
sheet  necessitates  an  elaborate  system  of  bracing  or  staying 
for  that  expt:)sed  surface.  The  sides  or  water-legs  are  pre- 
vented from  bulging  by  being  tied  together  by  stay-In >lt^. 
Fig.  8  shows  atypical  construction  of  a  locomotive^en^jiie 
boiler  without  the  extension  smoke-box,  which  is  desi^ntd 
to  catch  and  hold  the  cinders  and  sparks  which  the  intensely 
rapid  draught  of  the  locomotive-engine  boiler  carries  out  «>f 
the  fire-box  in  great  quantities.  Many  so-called  portable 
boilers  are  of  the  locomotive  type. 


'i^  \m  kun^i  9t  Mm%  »^i 


tJQ 


Ui%ri  M'»-^|t 


ftt  r.iM.M  '>?  , 


y»N    11    -K':m»:.  <lu»  (..i*4*r» 


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lur  i««^>rv  ^(t^>  •TtHMrkal 


vibli*  hini 


toucr  <Kt|^  n-toK  II  lull  (IM  MUimuj  taifii  «•!  Imv^  «•• 


*  -ii 


•n'^'Mtlwt  af  fhr  rrtftnMHHl!^^  ' 


rui*  17  Mill  ]ft  - 1  • 


716 


STEAM-BOILEE 


to  the  back  underneath.  This  secures  abundant  contact 
between  the  heatine-surface  and  the  cases. 

What  is  commonly  known  as  a  Oalloway  boiler  is  usually 
a  Cornish  boiler  across  whose  flue  or  flues  conical  water- 
tubes  are  inserted,  so  that  the  gases  shall  impinge  against 
surfaces  within  which  the  water  is  circulating.  The  Field 
tubes,  often  applied  to  the  upright  or  flre-engine  boiler  and 
to  other  internally  fired  types,  consist  of  tubes  closed  at  the 
outer  end,  and  each  containing  concentrically  within  it  a 
smaller  tube.  The  heavier  wat«r  descends  in  the  inner  tube, 
while  the  lighter  hot  water  and  steam  ascend  in  the  an- 
nular space  between  the  inner  and  outer  tube,  thus  causing 
a  rapid  circulation  and  a  rapid  transfer  of  heat. 

Constituent  Parts  of  a  j}ot7er.— There  are  many  appur- 
tenances or  parts  of  a  boiler  which  are  common  to  all  the 
types.  Such  details,  which  are  represented  wholly  or  in  part 
in  nearly  all  boilers  under  the  same  names,  are:  (1)  The 
shell,  or  external  envelope.  (2)  The  fumacSy  the  chamber 
in  which  combustion  takes  place.  (3)  The  flue  or  flues,  the 
passages  for  the  heated  gases  to  the  chimney.  (4)  The  bridge, 
or  rear  wall  of  the  furnace,  which  forms,  with  the  shell  of 
the  boiler  above  it,  the  boundary  of  the  draught-area,  (5) 
The  ash-pity  the  bottom  part  of  the  furnace-chamber,  which 
serves  as  a  receptacle  for  the  ashes  and  cinders,  and  also 
as  an  entrance  for  air  underneath  the  grate.  (6)  The  grate, 
which  is  composed  of  grate-bars  or  fire-bars,  forming  the 
bottom  of  the  furnace  on  which  the  fuel  is  laid.  (7)  The 
furrmce  door,  (8)  The  ash-pit  door,  (9)  The  combustion- 
ehamber.  This  is  an  enlargement  of  the  main  flue  in  the  rear 
of  the  bridge,  formed  by  dropping  the  bottom  of  this  flue. 
This  part  of  the  main  flue  is  often  called  the  combustion- 
chamber,  under  the  assumption  that  the  combustion  of  the 
volatile  portions  of  the  fuel  is  not  completed  in  the  fur- 
nace, ana  that  an  enlargement  of  this  flue  into  a  sort  of 
chamber  favors  a  more  thorough  mixing  of  the  air  and  the 
volatile  or  combustible  gases,  and  thus  produces  complete 
combustion.  This  is  especially  true  where  air  is  admitted  by 
a  special  arrangement  behind  the  bridge  or  through  holes 
in  the  furnace  door.  When  bituminous  coal,  or  fuel  con- 
taining a  large  quantity  of  volatile  matter,  is  used,  some 
such  arrangement  for  burning  the  volatile  matters  should 
be  made.  (10)  The  smoke-box  or  smoke-connection  is  more 
important  in  the  internally  fired  than  in  the  other  classes  of 
boilers.  (11)  The  steam-dome  is  a  vertical  chamber  set  upon 
the  upper  surface  of  the  shell,  and  communicating  with  it 
freely  through  holes  in  the  shell  or  through  a  single  large 
aperture.  Its  object  is  to  furnish  a  chamber  in  which  the 
steam  mav  be  removed  as  far  as  possible  from  the  liquid 
water,  and  brought  to  a  quiescent  state,  so  that  any  parti- 
cles of  water  which  are  carried  up  with  it  ma^  be  sepa- 
rated by  precipitation.  In  some  boilers,  especially  those 
for  marine  purposes,  this  dome  takes  the  form  of  an  an- 
nular space,  which  is  traversed  by  the  smoke-stack  or  chim- 
ney, ana  is  then  called  the  steam-chimney,  (12)  Water-room 
and  steam-room.  The  interior  of  the  shell  of  the  boiler  is 
divided  by  the  surface  of  the  water  into  two  spaces,  called 
the  water-room  and  steam-room,  or  water-space  and  steam- 
space;  all  the  space  occupied  by  water  below  the  water- 
level  being  water-space,  and  the  space  or  spaces  above  the 
water-level,  including  the  steam-dome,  being  steam-room. 
The  water-room  of  a  plain  cylinder  boiler  occupies  about 
three-fourths  of  the  whole  space,  and  generally  in  other 
boilers  about  three-fourths  of  the  internal  capacity  of  the 
shell  when  the  water  is  at  its  mean  level.  (13)  Man-holes, 
hand-holes.  It  is  important  in  the  management  of  boilers 
to  examine  all  accessible  parts  frequently,  and  accessibility 
to  every  part  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  construction, 
not  only  for  cleaning,  but  for  facilitating  repairs.  Man- 
holes are  apertures  left  in  the  shell,  and  closed  by  strong 
plates  which  can  be  removed  at  will,  the  opening  being  large 
enough  to  admit  a  man.    Hand-holes  are  smaller  openings, 

generally  near  the  bottom,  which  enable  cleaning  to  be  done 
y  means  of  tools.  (14)  Heatina-surfaoe,  In  all  boilers 
portions  of  the  metal  plates  which  form  the  shell,  flues,  or 
tubes,  are  exposed  on  one  side  to  the  heat  of  the  furnace,  or 
the  heat  of  tne  gases  in  their  course  to  the  chimney,  and  on 
the  other  side  to  the  contact  of  the  water  or  steam,  the 
transfer  of  heat  being  from  the  furnace  and  flues  to  the 
water  through  these  portions  of  the  structure.  A  heating- 
surface  in  a  steam-generator  may  therefore  be  deflned  to 
be  any  surface  which  acts  as  a  medium  for  the  transfer 
of  heat  from  the  furnace  or  gases  to  the  water  or  steam 
within  the  boiler.  The  efilciency  of  such  a  surface  depends 
on  the  conducting  power  and  on  the  difference  between  the 


temperatures  of  the  furnace  or  gases  and  the  water,  and  the 
thorough  and  rapid  circulation  of  the  fluids  and  gases  in 
contact  with  the  surfaces. 

Several  appurtenances  give  efficiency  and  safety  to  the 
boiler,  viz. :  (15)  The  feed-apparatus,  composed  of  a  pump, 
an  injector,  or  other  device,  with  the  necessary  pipes  for 
supplying  water  to  the  boiler.  The  injector,  often  c&lleti 
Giffafd's  injector,  from  Giffard,  who  first  reduced  it  to  a 
practical  form,  is  a  jet  pump  in  which  a  jet  of  steam  i> 
changed  by  rapid  condensation  to  a  water  jet.  The  latter, 
being  much  smaller  and  retaining  the  same  velocity,  con- 
centrates its  pressure  on  a  much  smaller  area,  and  by  the 
conversion  of  its  energy  into  work  is  enabled  to  force  other 
water  into  the  boiler.  (16)  The  safety-valve,  a  valve  open- 
ing outward,  and  so  adjusted  and  arranged  that  it  will  lie 
opened  by  the  internal  pressure  of  the  steam  when  that 
pressure  exceeds  a  given  amount  per  square  inch.  (17)  The 
steam-gauge,  an  instrument  which  exhibits  at  all  times  to 
the  eye  of  the  engineman  or  stoker  the  pressure  of  the  steam 
in  the  boiler.  (18)  Water-gauges  ana  gauge-cocks^  which 
are  intended  to  show  at  any  instant  the  level  of  the  water 
within  the  boiler.  (19)  The  low-water  detector,  an  instru- 
ment attached  to  many  boilers  for  the  purpose  of  giving  an 
alarm  if  the  water  falls  below  a  given  point. 

Chimneys, — The  chimney,  in  all  cases  in  which  the  draught 
is  produced  by  a  simple  chimney-draught,  performs  the 
functions  of  a  machine,  and  its  dimensions  (its  heieht  and 
cross-section),  taken  in  connection  with  the  area  of  tlie  grate 
and  the  surface  of  contact  of  the  fuel  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  air,  are  the  principal  elements  on  which  not  only  com- 
plete or  perfect  combustion  depends,  but  also  the  quantity 
of  fuel  burned  in  a  given  time.  In  boilers  provided  with 
any  other  means  of  draught,  such  as  the  steam-jet  or  the 
blower,  the  dimensions  of  the  chimney  are  not  so  impor- 
tant. In  almost  all  stationarv  and  in  many  marine  boilers 
the  draught  is  produced  solely  by  a  chimney,  which  forms 
an  indispensable  and  important  part  of  the  apparatus.  The 
determination  of  the  proper  proportions  between  the  beat- 
ing-surface and  the  grate-surface  depends  on  the  initial 
temperature  of  the  gases;  and  as  the  initial  temperature 
varies  with  the  rate  of  combustion  or  the  height  of  the 
chimney,  the  height  of  the  chimney  indirectly  enters  into 
the  consideration  of  this  proportion.  As  is  well  known, 
the  draught  of  a  chimney  is  caused  by  a  difference  of  pres- 
sure at  the  base  of  the  chimney  acting  in  an  upward  dire<^- 
tion,  due  to  the  difference  between  the  weight  of  the  heated 
gases  in  the  chimney  and  that  of  a  column  of  the  external 
air  of  e(jual  height  and  cross-section. 

ffeattng-surfaees, — The  quantity  of  heat  transmitted  by 
any  surface  depends  on  the  extent  of  the  surface  and  the 
difference  of  temperature  between  the  source  of  heat  and 
the  absorbent ;  or,  in  the  case  of  steam-generators,  the  dif- 
ference in  temperature  of  the  incandescent  fuel  or  heatetl 
gases  and  the  water  in  the  boiler.  The  extent  or  amount  of 
heating-surface  is  fixed  with  reference  to  the  initial  tem- 
peratures of  the  furnace  and  gases ;  or,  since  these  temper- 
atures are  proportional  to  the  rate  of  combustion,  the  extent 
of  heating-surface  will  depend  on  the  rate  of  combustion  to 
be  employed.  The  extent  of  heating-surface  must  evidentlv 
also  be  in  proportion  to  the  absolute  quantity  of  fuel  burned 
in  a  given  time ;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  it  must  have  a 
direct  relation  to  the  grate-surface. 

Inasmuch  as  it  is  impossible  to  Tary  the  heating-surface 
at  will,  after  a  steam-generator  is  constructed,  it  is  customary 
to  fix  the  extent  of  this  surface  according  to  average  condi- 
tions of  use,  taking  into  account  average  rates  of  combustion. 
The  following  proportions  represent  as  near  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained the  usual  rules  of  practice.  The  grate-surface  being  1, 
the  heating-surfaces  are  for — 

Plain  cylinder  boilers. lOto  IS,  ATerage  It 

Oomish  boilers 30  to  40,  "  3S 

French  cylinder  boilers 25to40,  •♦  33 

Cylinder-flue  boilers 17to  «^  "  M 

Cylinder-tubular  boilers  (chimney-draught) 25  to  80,  **  a^ 

Traction-engine  boilers **  « 

Marine  tubular  and  flue  boiler»— French,  Eng- 
lish, and  American  practice '*  9S 

Locomotive  boilers 40tolOO,       *•  73 

The  rates  of  combustion  per  hour  and  per  square  foot  of 
grate,  in  ordinary  practice,  are,  according  to  Rankine — 

Slowest  rate  in  Cornish  boilers 4  lb.  per  hour. 

Ordinaryrate 10" 

Ordinary  rate  in  factory  boilers 12  to  18  lb.  per  hour. 

Ordinary  rate  in  marine  boilers 18  to  24  '*        ** 

LooomoUve boUers 40tol20  "        •• 


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11     IJ'    MI4i 


718 


STEAM-ENGINE 


than  five-thirds  the  external  pressure,  then  ^==-^  where 

W  is  the  number  of  pounds  of  steam  discharged  per  square 
inch  of  area  per  second,  and  pt  is  the  boiler-pressure  in 
pounds  per  square  inch.  Letting  Wo  represent  the  pounds 
of  steam  per  second  discharged  through  the  orifice  of  area  0. 

then  Wo  =  I?  X  0,  and  therefore  0  =  -^^-^ 
70  p% 

An  English  empirical  rule  is  that  the  safety-yalve  area 
shall  have  half  a  square  inch  for  each  square  foot  of  fire- 
p^te,  or  *025  of  a  square  inch  for  each  sc^uare  foot  of  heat- 
ing-surface. Another,  quoted  by  Rankine,  is  as  follows: 
Let  A  be  the  area  of  the  piston,  V  its  velocity  in  feet  per 
minute,  P  the  excess  of  pressure  in  the  boiler  above  that  of 
the  atmosphere  in  pounds  per  square  inch ;  then  the  area 

will  be  A  Q^p,  nearly.    Still  another  quoted  by  the  same 

author  is :  "  a  =  area  in  square  inches  =  from  ^-^h  to  ^th 
of  the  number  of  pounds  of  coal  burned  per  hour,  or  a  the 
area  in  square  inches  =  rfirth  to  yivth  of  the  water  evapo- 
rated per  hour." 

In  all  cases  it  is  not  only  a  matter  of  observation,  but  a 
theoretical  law,  that  as  soon  as  efflux  begins  there  is  a  con- 
siderable diminution  of  pressure  underneath  the  valve ;  and 
numerous  devices  have  been  proposed  by  which  the  opening 
of  the  valve  shall  not  be  innuenced  by  the  pressure  in  the 
orifice,  but  bv  the  action  of  the  pressure  at  a  point  remote 
from  the  orifice.    Such  valves  are  called  pop-valves. 

There  are  supposed  to  be,  in  some  circumstances,  sudden 
evolutions  of  steam  in  such  quantities  that  no  relief  is  pos- 
sible through  safety-valves.  In  regard  to  such  cases,  it  can 
easily  be  shown  that  by  reason  of  the  high  specific  heat 
of  water,  as  compared  with  iron,  it  is  very  difficult  for  any 
large  quantity  of  steam  to  be  made  even  from  overheated 
plates,  so  that  the  disasters  perhaps  rightly  attributed  to 
low  water  are  the  result,  not  of  excessive  internal  pressure, 
but  of  the  strain  from  contraction  when  such  overheated 
plates  are  suddenly  cooled  by  contact  with  water. 

The  term  "  horse-power  "  of  boilers  is  often  used  as  a  meas- 
ure of  the  work  which  a  steam-generator  can  do.  Such  use 
is  liable  to  misunderstanding,  inasmuch  as  it  implies  a  rate 
of  work,  and  a  boiler  ordinarily  does  no  work,  out  merely 
supplies  to  a  machine  the  means  for  doing  it.  The  term 
has,  however,  acquired  a  conventional  significance  among 
engineers.  It  has  been  agreed  that  the  commercial  horse- 
power of  a  boiler  shall  be  an  evaporation  of  30  lb.  of  water 
per  hour  from  a  feed-water  temperature  of  100*'  P.  into  steam 
at  70  lb.  gauge-pressure.  This  is  equivalent  to  84i  lb.  of 
water  evaporated  from  a  feed- water  temperature  of  212°  P. 
into  steam  at  the  same  temperature,  wnich  corresponds  to 
83,305  thermal  units  per  hour.  A  boiler  rated  upon  the 
above  standard  of  evaporative  capacity  should  be  capable  of 
developing  that  power  with  easy  firing,  moderate  draught,  and 
ordinary  fuel,  while  exhibiting  good  economy ;  and  should 
be  capable  of  being  driven  to  develop  at  least  one-third  more 
than  its  rated  power  to  meet  emergencies  when  maximum 
economy  is  not  the  most  important  object  to  be  attained. 

Bibliography. — W.  M.  Barr,  High-Pressure  Steam  Boil- 
ers (Indianapolis,  1893) ;  G.  H.  Barrus,  Boiler  Tests  (Boston, 
1891) ;  Z.  Colburn,  Steam-Boiler  Explosions  (New  York, 
1890);  W.  S.  Button,  Steam-Boiler  Construction  (2d  ed. 
London,  1893);  W.  H.  Shock,  Steam  Boilers  (New  York. 
1880) ;  R.  H.  Thurston,  Manual  of  Steam  Boilers  (4th  ed. 
New  York,  1893)  and  Steam-Boiler  Explosions  (New  York, 
1888) ;  R.  Wilson,  Treatise  on  Steam  Boilers  (London ;  en- 
larged from  the  5th  English  ed.  by  J.  J.  Plather,  New  York, 
1893) ;  C.  W.  Williams,  Combustion  of  Coal  (London,  1858). 

P.  R.  HUTTON. 

Steam-engine :  a  device  or  apparatus  for  converting  into 
work-units  the  energy  of  heat,  using  the  expansive  force  of 
the  vapor  of  water  as  a  medium.  The  steam-engine  consists 
therefore  necessarily  of  two  parts — the  engine  proper,  in 
which  the  expansive  force  is  expended,  and  the  generator, 
or  boiler,  in  which  the  energy  of  a  burning  fuel  is  transferred 
to  the  water.  (See  Steam-boiler.)  Essentially  the  same 
mechanism  as  is  required  by  the  steam-engine  can  be  used 
with  ammonia,  ether,  bisulphide  of  carbon,  etc.,  as  a  vehicle 
for  the  heat.  Water  has  the  great  advantage  of  being  cheap, 
everywhere  accessible,  without  odor,  and  with  a  vapor  whicn 
is  not  combustible.  It  has  further  the  great  advantage  that 
by  reason  of  its  low  specific  heat  a  given  volume  of  the 
vapor  of  water  will  carry  more  heat  than  the  same  volume 
of  any  other  medium  at  the  same  pressure. 


The  earliest  notice  of  the  use  of  steam  as  a  motive  power 
is  in  the  Pneumatica  of  Hero  {q.  v).  After  manv  trivial 
machines  by  various  inventors,  the  first  really  useful  steam- 
engine  was  made  by  Edward  Somerset,  second  Marquis  of 
Worcester,  and  described  in  his  Century  of  Inventions  (106^), 
It  was  designed  to  raise  water.  Thomas  Savery  improved 
this,  and  received  a  patent  in  1698 ;  his  engine  was  tne  fir^t 
to  come  into  extensive  use.  Both  these  engines  applied  the 
expansive  force  of  steam  directly  to  the  column  of  water ; 
Savery's  then  condensed  the  steam,  and  by  means  of  valves 
made  use  also  of  the  atmospheric  pressure.  The  invent ic»r: 
of  the  piston  is  due  to  Denis  Papin  (1647-1712),  but  the  first 
practical  cylinder-and-piston  steam-engine  was  made  by 
Newcomen  (see  Newcomen,  Thomas).  James  Watt  {g.  v.)  im- 
proved this  engine  by  providing  a  separate  vessel  to  serve 
as  condenser  and  by  making  the  engine  double-acting.  The 
first  automatic  valve-gear  (1713)  was  the  device  ox  a  boy 
named  Humphrey  Potter;  this  was  improved  in  1718  by 
Henry  Beighton.  Por  the  invention  and  aescription  of  looJ- 
motive  engines,  see  Railways  and  Locomotive. 

The  unit  for  measuring  the  performance  of  steam-engines 
is  the  "  horse-power,"  which  was  determined  first  by  James 
Watt.  The  norse-power  consists  of  88,000  foot-pounds 
moved  in  one  minute,  and  is  a  standard  unit  wherever  the 
English  foot  and  pound  prevail.  The  horse-power  in  coun- 
tries which  employ  the  metric  system  is  slightly  less  (32,549 
foot-pounds).  The  performance  of  steam-enj^es  is  meas- 
ured either  on  the  revolving  shaft  of  the  engine  by  a  meas- 
uring apparatus  or  dynamometer,  or  it  is  determined  by  the 
effort  of  the  expansive  force  of  the  steam,  measured  in  pounds 
of  pressure  exerted  upon  a  known  area  in  the  cylinder  of  the 
engine,  which  product  when  multiplied  bv  feet  of  distanc^e^ 
through  which  that  pressure  is  exerted,  will  give  a  final  prod- 
uct in  foot-pounds,  and  measure  the  performance.  That  is : 
If  P=  the  mean  effective  pressure  per  square  inch  of  area 
in  the  organ  receiving  the  expansive  force  of  the  steam,  and 
A  =  the  area,  in  square  inches,  of  a  disk,  or  piston,  fitting 
steam-tight  in  a  cylinder,  then  P  x  A  =^  a  total  number  of 
pounds.  Purthermore,  if  Xr  =  the  length  of  the  traverse  nf 
the  above  movable  piston  expressed  in  feet,  then  P  x  A  x  L 
will  denote  the  foot-pounds  m  one  traverse  of  the  piston  in 
the  cylinder.  If  the  piston  makes  a  number.  A",  of  traverses 
in  a  minute,  the  proauct  PALN  will  give  the  foot-pounds 
of  performance  per  minute ;  iVwill  usuallv  be  equal  to  twice 
the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute.  Finally,  the  horse- 
power of  a  steam-engine  wul  be  PA  Li\^  -h  83,000. 

It  will  appear  from  the  above  that  two  great  types  of 
engine  can  be  designed  of  ecjual  capacity  in  horse-power. 
The  product  LN  is  called  piston-speed  of  an  eneine,  and 
with  a  constant  value  for  this  product  the  lengtli  of  the 
stroke  may  be  long,  and  the  numoer  of  strokes  per  minute 
small,  or  a  greater  number  of  strokes  per  minute  may  be 
made  with  a  short  length  for  each  stroke.  It  is  further  clear 
that  bv  making  the  product  LN  large  we  can  correspond- 
ingly diminish  the  factor  A,  and  by  making  N  lar^  both 
the  diameter  and  length  of  the  engine  will  be  dimmished. 
When  both  high  rotative  speed  and  high  piston-speed  are 
combined  the  engine  becomes  compact,  is  easily  regulate<l. 
and  is  light.  Such  an  engine,  however,  is  not  ordinarily  s> 
economical  in  the  use  of  steam  as  a  more  moderate  applica- 
tion of  these  principles  permits,  by  reason  of  the  large  clear- 
ance volumes  in  the  cylinder,  and  by  the  necessity  of  a  co- 
pious lubrication. 

The  usual  engine-cylinder  has  a  circular  piston  traversing 
a  cylinder  whose  length  varies  from  the  diameter  of  the 
piston  up  to  twice  its  diameter.  Steam  is  admitted  alter- 
nately on  each  side  of  this  circular  disk  or  piston,  and 
causes  it  to  move  first  in  one  direction  and  then  in  the 
other.  This  most  common  form  of  a  cylinder  is  shown  in 
Pig.  11,  which  represents  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  cylin- 
der, with  its  piston  and  piston-rod.  Fig.  1  represents  a  sec- 
tion of  the  cylinder  of  the  Corliss  engine.    It  shows  a  differ- 


Fio.  1. 


Fio.  2. 


ent  arrangement  of  openings  for  the  entrance  and  exhaust 
of  steam.    Fig.  2  represents  the  piston  with  its  packing- 


•n 


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Urn  tupn^MMuKiu^  imA^f^m  \d  U»n 


irotii 


0^^ 


720 


STEAM-ENGINE 


in  the  hull  Triangular  beams  hare  been  used  to  enable  a 
horizontal  steam-cylinder  to  operate  vertical  pumps  at  a 
considerable  distance  below  the  level  of  the  engine-room. 
The  beam-engine  also  is  convenient  where  more  than  one 


Fio.  7. 

cylinder  is  to  be  used  to  produce  motion  upon  one  crank- 
pin.  The  side-lever  engine  is  one  in  which  the  beam  is 
placed  below  or  at  the  side  of  the  cylinder  so  as  to  bring  the 
center  of  gravity  low  down  in  the  hull  of  a  side-wheel  steam- 
er and  below  a  pjrotective  deck. 

All  reciprocating  steam-engines  may  be  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  way  in  which  the  steam  is  employed  in  their  cyl- 
inders. The  steam  may  be  permitted  to  now  from  the  boiler 
into  the  cylinder  throughout  the  full  length  of  the  stroke  of 
the  piston.  It  must  then  escape  as  exhaust  from  the  cylin- 
der at  the  full  pressure  at  wnich  it  entered  and  carrying 
with  it  all  the  heat  which  corresponds  to  that  pressure. 
Such  an  engine  is  said  to  take  steam  at  full  stroke  and  to 
work  without  expansion  in  the  cylinder  or  without  cut-off.  A 
second  class  of  engine  allows  the  steam  to  flow  from  the 
boiler  into  the  cylinder  at  full  boiler  pressure  for  but  a  part 
of  the  stroke  only.  The  admission  of  steam  is  then  cut  off 
by  the  proper  valve  mechanism,  and  the  steam  inclosed  in 
the  cylmder  expands  in  the  increase  in  volume  as  the  piston 
moves  under  its  action  toward  the  end  of  its  stroke.  This 
increase  in  volume  is  accompanied  by  a  fall  in  pressure  and 
a  reduction  in  temperature,  so  that  upon  exhaust  a  less 
weight  of  steam  and  a  less  number  of  units  of  heat  are  re- 
jected from  the  cylinder  than  in  the  first  case.  Such  an  en- 
gine is  called  an  expansive-working  engine  or  a  cut-off*  en- 
gine. The  degree  of  expansion  is  the  reciprocal  of  the  point 
of  cut-off  expressed  in  terms  of  the  length  of  the  piston- 
stroke. 

Again,  the  steam  may  be  rejected  from  the  cylinder  at  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  escaping  as  the  vapor  of  water 
at  212°  F.,  or  slightly  over.  Such  an  engine  is  called  a  non- 
condensing-engine,  because  although  the  steam  rejected 
passes  back  to  water  in  the  atmosphere  at  large,  it  is  not 
condensed  to  water  in  connection  with  the  engine  itself.  In 
the  other  type  the  steam  is  exhausted  from  the  cylinder  into 
a  vessel,  wnere  it  comes  immediately  into  contact  with  a 
cool  medium,  and  is  thereby  reduced  back  to  warm  water 
with  the  very  great  reduction  of  volume  which  follows  such 
condensation,  so  that  if  the  condensed  water  is  continuously 
removed  from  the  condenser  a  more  or  less  complete  vacuum 
can  be  maintained  therein.  Such  an  engine  is  called  a  con- 
densing-engine,  and  has  the  advantage  over  the  non-con- 
densin^-engine  of  a  greater  mean  pressure  in  the  cylinder 
lor  a  given  boiler-pressure  and  point  of  cut-off,  from  which 
results  a  smaller  engine  for  a  given  power,  or  more  power 
from  an  engine  of  given  proportions.  The  heat  in  the  steam 
is  also  utilized  more  completely,  as  the  hot  water  which  is 
caught  in  the  condenser  is  pumped  back  again  to  the  boiler 
at  a  higher  temperature  than  the  feed- water  would  otherwise 
have.  An  air-pump  is  used  for  draining  the  condensed  water 
from  the  conaenser.  This,  in  many  types  of  condensing- 
engine,  is  operated  from  the  beam  or  cross-head  of  the  main 
cylinder  (Fig.  7).  In  recent  practice  it  has  been  preferred  to 
operate  the  air-purap  independently  with  its  own  steam- 
cylinder.    It  can  then  be  run  at  higher  speed  than  the  main 


engine,  the  vacuum  in  the  condenser  c«n  be  created  before 
the  main  engine  is  started,  and  the  air-pump  can  be  located 
where  it  may  be  found  most  convenient.  The  advantage  of 
the  attached  air-pump  is  that  the  large  engine-cylinder  is 
usually  more  economical  than  the  small  detached  one.  By 
putting  the  condenser  at  a  height  over  32  feet  in  the  air, 
with  a  pipe  running  down  into  a  reservoir  or  well,  in  which 
it  is  at  all  times  sealed,  it  will  be  apparent  that  gravity  act- 
ing upon  the  water  in  the  condenser  and  its  descending  pipe 
will  compel  the  water  to  stand  in  the  pipe  at  a  heieht  at 
which  the  barometric  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  will  jost 
balance  the  column.  In  other  words,  a  Torricellian  vacuum 
prevails  in  the  condenser.  By  causing  the  water  to  met^t 
the  exhaust  steam  at  this  height  condensation  is  continuous, 
and  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  provide  by  the  principle  of  in- 
duced currents  or  otherwise  for  the  removal  of  air  which 
will  enter  the  condenser  by  leakage  and  from  the  steam  and 
water.  Such  condensers  are  called  gravity-condensers.  Two 
great  types  of  condensers  are  used.  In  the  first  the  steam 
meets  the  condensing  water  directly  and  cools  it  by  contact ; 
the  cold  water  or  injection  enters  the  condenser  in  a  jet  by 
atmospheric  pressure,  which  gives  to  this  type  of  conaenser 


I^ 


TS:^ 


Z? 


Fio.  9. 


Fio.  & 

the  name  of  jet-condenser.  In  the  other  type  the  st«am  is 
condensed  by  contact  with  a  surface  of  brass  tubes  which 
are  kept  cold  by  the  circulation  through  them  of  the  con- 
densing water  (Fig.  8).  The  condensing  water  enters  the 
tubes  at  one  end,  as  shown  by  the  arrows,  and  is  discharged 
at  the  other,  while  the  steam  is  admitted  around  the  tubes. 
A  mode  of  packing  the  ends  of  the  tubes  by  ferrules  of  com- 
pressed pine  wood  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  This  device,  the  in- 
vention of  Horatio  Allen,  and  others  like  it  have  con- 
tributed to  render  the  surface-condenser  more  perfect  in  it:s 
operations.  In  the  jet-condenser  a  less  Quantity  of  water  is 
required  and  the  air-pump  handles  it  all.  The  steam  and 
condensing  water  are  intimately  mixed.  In  the  surface-con- 
denser arrangement  the  condensed  steam  is  pure  distilled 
water  and  does  not  become  mixed  with  the  condensing 
water,  which  can  be  impure  and  unsuitable  for  use  in  the 
boilers.  The  air-pump  handles  only  the  water  condensed 
from  the  steam,  and  special 
pumps,  called  circulating-  /"^^^/^T? 
pumps,  are  required  to  cir-  j  ^^  ^^  ( 
culate    the    cooling    water  ~ 

around  the  tubes.    In 

going  vessels  surface -con- 
ensation  is  almost  univer- 
sal, the  salt  water  from  out- 
side of  the  hull  being  circulated  through  the  condenser  and 
overboard,  while  the  pure  distilled  water  from  the  air-pumps 
is  used  over  and  over  again  in  the  boiler. 

Another  difference  which  can  serve  as  a  basis  for  classifi- 
cation of  steam-engines  is  brought  about  by  the  way  in 
which  the  alternating  traverse  of  the  piston  is  affect43d  by 
the  pressure  of  steam.  If  both  strokes  forward  and  back, 
or  upward  and  downward,  of  the  piston  are  produced  by  the 
pressure  of  steam  upon  its  area,  the  engine  is  said  to  be 
double-acting.  Where  steam  drives  in  one  direction  only 
the  engine  is  called  single-acting.  By  far  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  engines  are  double-acting.  W  hat  is  called  the  Cor- 
nish engine  is  one  of  the  best  known  of  the  single-acting 
engines.  In  this  design,  which  is  mainly  used,  and  is  at  its 
best,  for  pumping,  the  steam  enters  the  cylinder  from  the 
boiler,  and  by  its  direct  pressure  and  after  cut-off  bv  its  ex- 
pansion the  piston  is  driven  in  one  direction.  When  this 
stroke  is  completed  a  valve  is  opened  by  which  an  equili- 
brium of  pressure  is  established  through  a  side  pipe  between 
the  top  and  bottom  of  the  cylinder  around  the  piston.  The 
piston  then  yields  to  the  action  of  gravitv  and  returns  to 
its  initial  position  without  the  use  of  fresh  steam,  so  that 
one  stroke  forward  and  back  is  accomplished  by  a  single 
admission  of  steam.  The  Cornish  engine  appears  in  two 
forms :  In  the  first,  the  piston  is  connected  to  the  massive 


722 


STEAM-ENGINE 


the  power  of  the  cylinders  shall  be  able  to  cause  the  driv- 
ing-wheels to  slip.  'Ability  to  start  heavy  trains  is  secured 
by  giving  a  relatively  small  diameter  to  the  driving-wheel, 
while  very  high  speed  requires  a  relatively  larger  diameter 
of  the  wheel,  inasmuch  as  the  circumference  of  the  driver 
measures  the  space  through  which  the  engine  will  move 
forward  in  one  revolution,  which  corresponds  to  two  trav- 
erses of  the  piston.  If  the  driver  is  too  small  for  a  high 
speed  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  will  become 
excessive. 

In  the  traction-engine  for  hauling  upon  common  roads, 
where  the  speed  is  relatively  low,  it  is  usual  to  reduce  the 
speed  of  the  driving-wheels  from  that  of  the  engine-shaft  by 
intermediate  gearing.  The  driving-wheel  also  needs  to  have 
a  tire  of  great  breadth  to  distribute  the  weight  of  the  boiler 
and  engine  over  a  large  area  of  yielding  roadway.  The  tires 
are  also  usually  corrugated  or  roughened  to  give  adhesion. 
The  traction-engine  must  have  a  very  efficient  means  for 
steering  it  to  enable  it  to  make  the  sharp  turns  remiired  in 
ordinary  roads,  and  it  is  furthermore  usually  so  designed 
that  by  throwing  out  the  intermediate  gearing  from  con- 
nection with  the  traction- wheels,  the  steam-engine  proper 
can  be  used  as  an  agricultural  engine  for  threshing,  mill- 
ing, and  other  similar  purposes. 

The  marine  engine  of  transatlantic  practice  is  usually  an 
inverted  vertical  compound  or  triple-expansion,  double-act- 
ing reciprocating  engine.  The  cylinders  are  supported  on 
massive  cast-iron  or  cast-steel  frames  shaped  something  like 
a  letter  A,  while  the  revolving  shaft  is  oelow  the  cylinder 
and  between  the  frames  so  as  to  secure  immersion  for  the 


Fxo.  10. 


screw  or  propeller  at  the  stern  (Pig.  10).  In  the  triple  engine 
the  cranks  stand  at  angles  of  120  degrees  from  each  otner, 
securing  a  good  distribution  of  the  turning  effort  upon  the 
shaft.  The  cross-heads  of  the  first  and  last  cylinders  usually 
operate  the  air-pump,  by  which  the  surface-condenser  is  freed 
from  the  condensed  steam,  while  detached  circulating  pumps 
force  the  water  of  the  ocean  through  the  tubes  to  cool  them. 
Injury  to  the  valves  by  which  the  ocean  water  for  conden- 
sation enters  the  engine  has  been  the  occasion  of  some  note- 
worthy disasters  to  transatlantic  vessels.  The  turning  effort 
of  the  engine-shaft  is  transmitted  from  the  engine  to  the 
propeller  through  a  long  shaft  provided  with  the  necessary 
oearings,  and,  in  particular,  a  massive  thrust -bearing,  upon 
which  is  imposed  the  resistance  to  endwise  motion  which  the 
reaction  of  the  screw  exerts  as  the  vessel  is  forced  forward. 
The  thrust-bearing  accommodates  a  series  of  collars,  or 
enlargements  of  the  shaft,  whose  area  and  number  are  pro- 

Eortioned  so  as  to  keep  the  pressure  per  inch  of  surface 
elow  that  at  which  lubrication  becomes  difficult  or  impos- 
sible. 

For  the  side-wheel  vessel  the  necessity  for  having  the 
center  of  the  water-wheel  shaft  elevated  alx)ve  the  water  a 
distance  nearly  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  wheel  has  made 
the  beam-engine  and  the  inclined  direct-acting  engine  the 
type  most  frequently  met.  Oscillating  cylinders  have  been 
used  in  the  past,  but  are  not  likely  to  be  selected  for  large 
designs  in  the  future.  The  inclined  engine  in  the  earlier 
practice  was  a  simple  condensing-engine  ;  it  has  been  made 
more  recently  comrwund  and  triple  expansion.  The  advan- 
tage of  the  inclinea  type  is  that  the  center  of  gravity  of  the 
engine  is  low ;  the  advantage  of  the  beam  type  hjis  been  the 
flexibility  which  that  constniction  permits,  and  that  it 
secures  a  high  piston-speed  with  a  relatively  small  number 
of  revolutions  imposed  by  the  large  paddle-wheel,  and  allows 


a  long  stroke  and  a  long  connecting-rod  without  taking  up 
valuable  deck-r(X)m  desired  for  cargo  space  in  vessels  of 
little  depth  of  hull.  On  the  other  hand,  when  conditions 
necessitated  such  exceeding  shallowness  of  hull,  due  to  very 
light  draught  of  water,  that  the  concentrated  weight  of  th<* 
vertical  cylinder  and  the  overhead  beam  became  impracti- 
cable, there  was  developed  a  type  of  horizontal  engine  with 
long  stroke  and  small  diameter  of  cylinder,  so  that  the 
weight  of  the  engine  might  be  distributed  over  a  long  lengt  h 
of  the  hull.  The  rapid  current  and  tortuous  channel  <»f 
Western  rivers  suggested  also  the  advisability  of  making  the 
paddle-wheels  on  the  two  sides  operate  by  separate  cylinders 
with  a  further  advantage  in  distributing  the  weight  of  the 
engine.  Furthermore,  for  towing  on  such  rivers  a  type  of 
steamer  with  the  water-wheel  at  the  stern  has  been  devel- 
oped, the  wheel  driven  by  cranks  at  each  end  of  the  shaft 
which  are  operated  by  long  connectine-rods,  one  at  ea^h 
side.  Great  advantage  has  followed,  where  absence  of  i(v 
makes  the  practice  possible,  from  arranging  the  floats  if 
paddle-wheels  so  that  they  will  ent«r  the  water  and  leave  it 
perpendicularly.  The  ra<iial  float  tends  to  lift  the  ves6*»l  a^ 
it  strikes,  and  to  lift  the  water  as  it  leaves ;  the  perpendicu- 
lar or  feathering  {mddle  produces  all  its  effect  in  propulsion, 
without  wasting  a  lifting  effort.  Feathering  is  secured  hy 
connecting  the  floats  by  a  system  of  linkage  which  appears 
in  several  different  forms. 

For  land  engines  and  stationary  practice  probably  the  fivp 
most  widely  extended  uses  which'  involve  tne  largest  units 
are  for  pumping,  for  electric  lighting  and  power,  for  mill 
and  manufacturing  purposes,  for  hoisting  ana  air-coInprv^s- 

ing  in  mining,  and  for 
driving  the  roll-trHin> 
of  iron  and  steel  work>. 
For  pumping,  in  mi- 
dition  to  the  Cornish  en- 
gine, mentioned  above, 
the  two  great  tvf^-s 
most  usual  are  the 
beam-en^ne  and  thv 
direct -acting  pumpini:- 
engine.  The  older  form 
of  beam-engine  was  a 
single  cylinder  condens- 
ing-engine  with  <nvr- 
heSd  beam.  The  Wani 
gives  most  convenient 
attachment  for  conne<-i- 
ing-rods  and  plunp^rs. 
More  recently  the  ci»tn- 
pound  and  triple-ex ^m  n - 
sion  types  have  come  forward,  with  either  the  beam  beh.w 
the  cylindei*s  or  employing  a  beam  of  angular  type,  to  vari- 
ous points  of  which  are  attached  the  rods  to  the  fly-whtt-I 
shaft  and  to  the  pumps.  An  objection  to  the  use  of  the  fly- 
wheel in  massive  pumping-engines  is  its  tendency  altematV- 
Iv  to  accelerate  and  retard  the  flow  of  water  in  the  main  a> 
tlie  varying  crank  angle  permits  the  piston  to  change  its  vt^- 
locity, '  The  direct-acting  pumping-engine  has  no  fly- whet- L 
but  is  so  constructed  that  it  can  not  stop  when  its  stroke  is 
completed  by  the  expedient  of  having  the  valve  which  tli— 
tributes  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  operated  by  another  or  an 
auxiliary  engine,  which  latter  receives  its  steam  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  piston  of  the  main  engine.  This  arrangemen- 
makes  it  impossible  for  the  engine  to  stop  with  both  steam 
passages  covered  by  the  valve.  If  this  second  or  auxiliary 
steam-engine  is  made  also  to  be  a  pumping  cylinder,  xfi\' 
type  of  direct-acting  pump  known  as  the, duplex  pumpiii:^- 
e'ngine  results.  This  type  prevails  very  largely,  and  besidt-> 
the  advantage  of  having  no  fly-wheel  and  no  dead  cenier^, 
it  offers  the  advantage  of  keeping  the  column  of  water  al- 
ways in  motion,  while  a  moment's  pause  at  the  end  of  th»^ 
stroke  of  each  cylinder  permits  the  valves  in  that  cyliniitr 
to  seat  themselves  quietly  before  the  return  stroke  beirin^ 
In  some  recent  designs  the  horizontal  type  has  bovii  m.*- 
lected  with  fly-wheel  and  vertical  beams. 

For  electric-light  and  power  stations,  and  for  electric  rail- 
ways, the  type  of  horizontal  engine,  simple  or  compound,  hn^ 
been  much  used,  the  power  being  distriouted  among  a  lanrv 
number  of  small  units.  In  more  recent  practice,  with  lar^vr 
units,  the  inverted  vertical  type,  compound  and  triple  ex- 
pansion, has  been  extensively*  introduced,  in  many  cases  tht^ 
revolving  armature  for  the  dynamos  being  continuous  wit  h 
the  revolving  shaft  of  the  engine. 
For  both  mill  and  manufacturing  purposes  the  horizontal 


STEAM-BNGIN'E 


723 


prujiTie  in  trtmlem,  cross-oompouml,  <ir  tn|«b-t!srmii^iHn  forrn 
ij.us  U-vn  tay  far  the  must  wiilclv  disiributeil  The  Hy^whi-cl 
ot  sii'-h  eii,t;irn\s  is  tisimlly  miMft?  with  a  broinl  fucL*.  ^  us  t^o 
Im-  used  as  a  belt  or  band  wli  eel  from  which  the  power  could 
\k'  taken  off  to  different  driven  shafts  as  required.  The  en- 
irines  for  cable-railway  practice  are  usually  of  this  type,  but 
instead  of  flat  belts,  round  ropes  bearing  in  grooved'  pulleys 
are  much  more  generally  applied. 

For  hoisting-engines  in  mines  and  for  elevator  service  it 
is  usual  to  reduce  the  speed  of  the  engine-shaft  to  that  of 
tlie  sliaft  which  carries  the  hoisting-drura  by  means  of 
toothed  wheels  or  gearing;  this  permits  the  use  of  cylinders 
of  smaller  diameter  ojM^rating  at  a  high  speed  with  the  cor- 
r»'spnnding  advantages.  In  air-compressing  and  blowing 
intrines  the  horizontal  and  vertical  type  are  very  usual,  the 
steam  and  air  pistons  being  upon  the  same  rod,  and  twocon- 
iH-ciing-rods  from  a  cross-head  between  the  two  cylinders  be- 
in  i;  coupled  to  crank-pins  on  the  fly-wheel  shaft.  These  air- 
r'<»mpressing  and  blowing  engines  require  a  heavy  fly-wheel 
bv  rcjison  of  the  fact  that  the  resLstance  is  least  at  the  Ixj- 
ginning  of  each  stroke,  so  that  energy  must  be  stored  in  them 
it'  the  engine  is  working  expansively,  to  be  given  out  at  the 
end  of  the  stroke  when  the  effort  of  the  expanding  steam  is 
the  lejist.  For  rolling-mill  engines  both  horizontal  and  in- 
vt-rted  vertical  engines  are  used,  in  most  cases  connected 
dinctly  to  the  train  of  rolls.  The  great  variation  in  the 
re-istauce  met  by  the  rolls  requires  a  very  miissive  fly-wheel 
construction. 

The  requirement  that  the  piston  in  the  engine  cylinder 
shall  admit  steam  alternately  upon  its  one  side  and  the  other, 
and  shall  at  the  same  time  discharge  exhaust  steam  from 
one  end  while  receiving  live  steam  from  the  boiler  at  the 
other  end,  has  given  rise  to  a  great  many  different  types  of 
mechanism  for  this  purpose.  The  simplest  type  is  a  single 
valve,  sliding  upon  a  flat  surface  made  at  a  convenient  place 
on  the  side  of  the  cylinder.  The  valve  is  caused  to  slide  by 
ni»'ans  of  a  crank  or  eccentric,  usually  upon  the  revolving 
shaft,  and  so  important  is  this  function  in  the  operation  of 
an  engine  that  space  must  be  taken  for  a  full  description  of 
I  lie  fundamental  forms. 

Fig.  11  represents  a  section  of  an  engine-cylinder  by  which 
the  action  of  the  common  D  slide-valve  (so  called  from 


Fio.  11. 

tho  shape  of  its  section)  may  be  explained.  In  this  sec- 
linn  y  represents  the  valve,  situated  in  a  rectangular  1k)x 
or  casing,  which  is  in  full  communication  with  the  boiler 
wlu^n  the  engine  is  running.  This  box,  calh^l  the  slfum- 
rfusf^  situated  on  the  side  of  the  cylinder  and  forming  part 
of  itjsconstiintly  full  of  steam  at  nearly  the  boiler-nressure 
when  the  engine  is  in  motion.    S  S  are  passages  called  stoam- 

»ii»ages  lea<.ling  from  this  chest  to  the  ends  of  the  cylinder; 

l,  a  pass^ige  called  the  exhaust-port  leading  to  the  oj>en  air 
or  to  the  condenser.  The  jxjrts  are  long  rectangular  opf-n- 
inirs  in  a  |)lane  surface  on  the  side  of  the  cylinder.  The 
valve  V  has  such  form  and  dimensions  that  it  covers  all 
thrse  ports  when  in  its  neutral  or  middle  position,  and  is 
caused  to  slide  back  and  forth  just  enough  to  uncover  alter- 
nately the  steam-ports  S  S.  the  amount  of  this  sliding,  even 
in  the  largest  engines,  in  which  the  valve  may  have  a  super- 


\: 


ficial  area  of  L^ieveral  sijuan?  fecf,  heiiifronly  3  or  4  inrbos. 
In  8inall  eiitrinos  theestetit  nf  slifling  in  one' dii^^^etion  may 
be  only  a  fraction  of  an  inch-  Thi^i  Tuoven>Ltit  of  the  valve 
to  the  rigiit  and  left  is  prodticed  by  means  of  an  eccentric 
or  small  crank  and  a  special  connected  rod  attached  to  the 
valve,  by  which  its  motions  are  made  to  correspond  in  point 
of  time  with  the  moti(»ns  of  the  piston ;  but  the  eccentric 
and  main  crank  being  keyed  to  the  shaft  in  different  posi- 
tions, these  motions,  although  taking  place  in  the  same 
times,  will  not  at  each  moment  correspond  in  direction  or 
velocity. 

It  wdl  be  seen  from  the  figure  that  the  piston  is  at  the 
end  of  its  stroke,  and  its  return  to  the  opposite  end  depends 
on  its  receiving  the  impulse  of  steam  admitted  from  the 
steam-che^t  just  at  this  moment  to  drive  it  back.  It  will 
be  observed,  also,  that  the  valve  has  l)€en  moved  from  its 
central  position,  covering  all  the  ports,  already  sutliciently 
far  to  open  the  steam-port  on  the  right  a  small  amount,  and 
steam  is  already  mimilted  and  fills  the  narrow  space  to  the 
right  of  the  piston.  Thus  the  full  boiler-pressure,  or  nearly 
so,  is  already  acting  on  the  right  of  the  piston  to  drive  it 
back.  The  condition  of  things  on  the  left  of  the  piston  at 
this  moment  is  quite  different.  The  steam  wliich  nas  been 
confined  in  that  part  of  the  cylinder  to  the  left,  and  which 
by  its  expansive  action  has  driven  the  piston  toward  the 
right,  is  free  to  pass  from  this  sj>ace  into  the  atmosphere 
back  through  the  steam-port  S  through  which  it  came,  but 
not  into  the  steam-chest — the  port  S  leading  through  the 
hollow  of  the  valve  to  the  exhaust-port ;  and  this  opening 
is  by  the  movement  of  the  valve  already  larger  than  the 
opening  for  admission  on  the  right.  The  phenomena  which 
take  place  while  the  piston  moves  from  the  right  to  the  left 
are  as  follows :  The  valve  completes  its  excursion  to  the 
left,  and  returns,  so  as  to  shut  off  the  supply  of  steam  on  the 
right  of  the  cylinder,  while  the  piston  is  still  in  motion  to 
the  left.  After  the  supply  is  cut  off,  the  confined  steam  con- 
tinues to  ai't  by  its  expansion  alone,  no  more  l)eing  admitted. 
The  fraction  of  the  stroke  at  which  this  occurs  depends  on 
the  dimensions  of  the  valve  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
mechanism  by  which  it  is  moved.  It  may  happen,  also,  that 
by  the  same  movement  of  the  valve  on  its  return  to  the  right, 
and  while  the  piston  is  still  moving  to  the  left,  the  exhaust- 
passage  is  closed  so  as  to  confine  a  portion  of  the  steam  in 
the  left-hand  j)art  of  the  chandx^r,  to  act  as  a  sort  of  cush- 
ion. This  will  occur  at  the  mouient  the  inner  edge  of  the 
hollow  part  of  the  valve  on  the  left  reaches  the  inner  edge 
of  the  steam-port.  As  the  valve  continues  to  move  to  the 
right,  the  outer  edge  of  the  valve  on  the  left  approaches  the 
edge  of  the  steam-port,  and  at  a  certain  instant  opens  that 
port,  letting  new  or  "live"  steam  from  the  boiler  into  this 
end  of  the  cylinder,  which  mingles  with  the  exhaust  ste^m 
already  confined  there  as  a  cushion.  This  phenomenon  usu- 
ally takes  place  but  an  instant  before  the  piston  reaches  the 
end  of  its  stroke,  in  order  that  it  may  meet  not  only  a  cushion 
of  exhausted  steam,  but  of  steam  at  full  pressure  from  the 
boiler. 

Fig.  12  represents  on  a  larger  scale  a  section  of  a  sim{)le 


Fio.  12. 

slide-valve  and  the  cylinder  ports,  the  valve  being  in  its 
middle  or  neutral  position,  covering  all  the  ports.  The  pro- 
jection of  the  outer  e<lges  of  the  valve  beyond  the  e<lges  of 
the  steam-ports,  so  that  the  )X)rts  are  more  than  covered  by 
the  valve,  is  called  the  outsi<le  lap.  It  exercises  an  imj^or- 
tant  influence  on  the  distributi<»n  of  the  steam.  The  pro- 
jection of  the  insitle  edges  of  the  hollow  part  of  the  valve 
over  the  inner  edges  of  the  steam-ports  is  calh»d  the  inside 
lap;  it  is  always  relatively  small,  and  often  does  not  exist 
to  an  apprci'iable  amr)unt. 

The  adjustment  of  tlie  single  slide-valve  with  a  single  ec- 
centric, when  once  made,  can  not  be  easily  changed  while 


724 


STEAM-ENGINE 


the  engine  is  ninninp.  Where  this  is  desirable  in  order  to 
change  the  degree  of  expansion,  and  by  that  means  the 
power  of  the  engine,  the  link-motion  is  generally  used. 
This  is  a  device  shown  in  Fig.  13,  by  means  of  which  the 


Fio.  13. 


angle  of  advance  and  the  eccentricity  are  simultaneously 
altered  ;  and  it  is  accomplished  by  means  of  two  eccentrics, 
C  C ,  and  a  link,  L,  the  effect  of  the  two,  with  the  link,  being 
to  make  one  virtual  eccentric.  The  arrangement  shown  in 
Fig.  13  Is  that  commonly  used  in  locomotives,  and  is  known 
as  Stephenson's  link-motion.  It  is  arranged  with  a  revers- 
ing lever,  r\  by  which  either  the  eccentrics  C  and  C  can  be 
caused  to  move  the  valve  independently  of  each  other,  but 
one  giving  a  forward  motion  and  the  other  a  backward 
motion  to  the  engine.  At  positions  of  the  link  intermediate 
between  these  the  virtual  eccentric,  which  is  the  resultant 
of  the  two,  controls  the  movements  of  the  valve,  and  varies 
the  degree  of  expansion.  The  not^jhes  in  the  arc  (a)  de- 
termine certain  positions  of  the  link  with  reference  to  the 
valve-stem,  V.  Applying  Zeuner's  valve-oirele  diagram  to 
the  Stephenson  link  with  open  ro<ls,  as  in  Fig.  14, 0  E  is  the 


eccentric  and  Y  0  E  angle  of  advance  for  full  forward  coar 
(notch  4).  For  the  third  notch,  O  E  gives  the  corresponding 
eccentric  and  angle  of  advance,  and  so  on  to  mid-gear 
(notch  0),  in  which  the  eccentricity  is  OE""  and  the  angle 
of  advance  90°.  The  points  of  admission  a  a'  a"  a"  on  the 
left,  from  mid-gear  to  full-gear,  the  corresi^nding  angles 
of  lead,  the  points  of  cut-off  ;?p'  p'  p"  p"'\  the  points  of 
release  d  d'  a'  d"  on  the  right  of  the  piston,  and  the  points 
of  compression  c c'  c'  c"  on  the  right,  are  all  shown  for  dif- 
ferent grades  of  expansion ;  and  the  study  of  the  diagram 
will  also  show  the  variations  of  lead,  /  x,  for  these  different 
grades. 

The  extent  of  sliding  movement  of  the  valve  is  a  consid- 
eration of  importance,  since  the  hurtful  work  of  its  friction 
depends  directly  on  the  extent  of  its  motion.  When  slide- 
valves  are  very  large,  this  useless  work  becomes  an  impor- 
tant item  of  expense.  There  are  two  means  of  reducing  it : 
first,  by  reducing  the  travel  or  space  passed  over  at  each 
stroke  ;  and,  second,  by  relieving  the  back  of  the  valve  from 
a  portion  of  the  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the  valve-chest. 
Fig.  15  represents  a  valve  in  which  both  these  methods  are 
used.  P  is  a  plan  of  half  of  the  valve,  and  S  a  section. 
There  are  two  steam-ports,  8  «,  on  each  side  of  the  exhaust- 


Fio.  15.— Double-ported  equilibri- 
um alide-valTe. 


port.  When  the  valve  moves  from  left  to  right,  for  in- 
stance, both  ports  ««  on  the  left  are  uncovered  simultane- 
ously ;  steam  enters  the  cwi/er 
port  directly  from  the  steam- 
chest,  and  the  iHiier  jwrt  in- 
directly through  the  arched 
opening  in  the  valve  O,  the 
exhaust  taking  place  on  the 
opposite  side,  into  the  hol- 
low of  the  valve  and  into  the 
exhaust- port  £.  A  partial 
vacuum  is  maintained  on  the 
back  of  the  valve  by  means 
of  a  packing-ring,  r  r,  which 
slides  against  the  lower  sur- 
face of  the  steam-chest  cover, 
the  space  inclosed  between 
this  and  the  valve  being  con- 
nected with  the  condenser.  This  kind  of  valve  is  ealle«l  an 
equilibrium  double-ported  slide-valve.  The  valve  of  whicli 
this  is  a  representation  had  a  total  length  of  over  5  feet  and 
a  width  of  over  4  feet,  the  diameter  of  the  packin^-rin^  Ije- 
ing  about  4  feet ;  the  extreme  travel  of  the  valve  in  one  <U- 
rection  was  only  5  inches,  the  outside  laps  less  than  3  inohe>, 
and  the  inside  laps  only  ^^  of  an  inch.  It  formed  a  part 
of  the  mechanism  of  a  large  marine  engine. 

To  avoid  long  steam-passages,  which  are  disadvantageous, 
two  slide-valves  are  often  connected  by  a  bar  and  attached 
to  the  same  valve-stem  within  the  chest,  these  separate 
valves  being  then  placed  near  the  ends  of  the  cyUuder  and 
having  a  common  exhaust. 

Expansion-valves  and  cut-offs  designate  special  combina- 
tions of  valve-mechanism  by  means  of  which  the  steam  may 
be  suddenly  cut  off  at  any  point  of  the  stroke  independeiitly 
of  any  other  phenomena  of  the  distribution  of  steam.  The 
simple  slide-valve,  moved  by  a  single  eccentric,  can  not  l»e 
arranged  to  cut  off  the  steam  at  less  than  one-half  the  ^t^uke 
advantageously,  because,  as  will  be  evident  from  the  insf k-c*- 
tion  of  the  valve-diagrams  for  the  link-motion,  where  the 
higher  grades  of  ex(>ansion  are  used,  the  compression  and 
release  begin  so  much  earlier  that  the  power  of  the  engine 
exerted  in  each  stroke  is  diminished,  and  the  efficiency — i.  e. 
the  economy — of  the  power  is  also  diminished.  To  preserve 
the  efficiency  of  the  steam  undiminished,  and  to  place  in  the 
hands  of  the  engine-driver  the  means  of  adapting  the  powtr 
of  the  engine  to  the  work  to  be  performed,  two  systtMiis  of 
construction  are  employed^-oiie  in  which  the  variation  in 
the  expansion  may  l>e  acljusted  or  controlled  by  the  engine- 
driver  by  hand ;  for  instance,  when  for  a  considerable  j •*•- 
riod  of  time  the  engine  is  not  required  to  perform  it«  full 
amount  of  work,  and  a  single  adjustment  for  the  given  time 
is  all  that  is  required  :  and  second,  when  a  momentary  vari- 
ation of  power  may  be  advisable,  so  that  the  sjieed'of  the 
engine  may  remain  invariable.  The  first  system  is  an  ar- 
rangement of  expansion- valves,  operated  as  requireil  by  the 
engine-driver:  and  the  second  system  the  "cut-off"  system, 
in  which  the  degree  of  expansion  or  the  supply  of  steam  at 
each  stroke  is  regulated  by  the  governor. 

A  great  variety  of  expansion- valves,  as  well  as  varialde 
cut-offs,  are  employed  in  practice.  The  most  cximmon,  aiui 
perhaps  the  most  siinple  and  perfect,  expansion- valve  is  ex- 
hibited  in  Fig.  16.  In  this 
figure  the  upper  surface  of 
the  D-valve  is  made  plane, 
and  it  is  extended  some  dis- 
tance beyond  the  outside 
laps,  a  mortise  or  rectangu- 
lar aperture,  nearly  erjual  in 
area  to  the  steam-port,  being  made  in  the  ends.  The  valve 
is  in  other  respects  precisely  like  all  other  D  slide-valveN 
and  is  moved  by  an  eccentric,  sometimes  by  two  eccentri«-ss 
with  a  link  for  reversing  the  engine.  The  expansion- valvt- 
consists  of  two  plates  E  sliding  on  the  top  of  the  D-valve 
(which  is  called  m  this  combination  the  distribution-vah^  i. 
These  two  plates  are  on  the  same  valve-stem,  S,  which  j>as5st-^ 
through  both,  and  is  supplied  with  screw-threads,  right  and 
left  hand,  so  that  when  the  stem  is  turned  on  its  axis  the 
two  plates  will  approach  or  recede  from  each  other.  Ihi 
their  distance  apart  depends  the  |)eriod  of  cut-off,  and  a  de- 
vice may  be  attached  to  the  valve-stem  outside  of  the  steam- 
chest  by  means  of  which  this  distance  can  be  made  greatiT 
or  less  by  turning  a  hand-wheel  even  while  the  engine  is 
running.  The  degi'ee  of  expansion  is  thus  controllable  by 
hand.    The  expansion-valve  is  moved  by  a  separate  eccentric 


^v^ 


Tfm:^ 


Ql 


Fio.  16. 


STEAM-ENGIXE 


725 


ijpiveriior  art-  very  tiumorous.  The  aid  cninbuiiniim  of  the 
i^nvornor  and  throttle- valve  is  iiul  a  eul-uir.  U^  aLliuii  is 
to  diminish  or  increase  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder  as  the 
»i[H^«Hl  of  the  engine  is  increased  or  lessened,  and  thus  dimin- 
i>li  or  increase  the  work  per  stroke ;  but  a  diminution  of 
t  he  initial  pressure  in  the  cylinder  and  the  pressure  through- 
out the  stroke  entails  wast«  of  heat  and  power,  and  is  there- 
fore only  admissible  where  these  considerations  are  not  re- 
LT-inhd  as  important.  In  stationary  engines  empl(»yed  for 
many  purposes  it  is  not  only  important  in  point  of  economy 
tliat  tliis  w^a^tte  should  be  avoided,  but  the  character  of  the 
w<  .rk  may  be  such  that  variations  of  speed,  to  any  consider- 
able degree,  are  to  be  avoided.  The  action  of  the  governor 
in  causing  a  complete  cut-off  of  the  steam  at  any  point  of 
the  stroke  depends  primarily  upon  the  speed  of  the  engine 
by  wliich  it  is  moved  (see  Governors),  ana  secondarily  upon 
Its  connection  with  the  valves  which  close  the  steam-ports. 
The  power  of  the  governor  is  not  sufficient,  generally,  to 
move  these  valves  directly,  and  hence  its  a(>tiou  consists  in 
nearly  all  cases  in  throwing  into  or  out  of  gear  mechanism 
driven  by  the  engine  itself;  by  which  the  requisite  move- 
ment of  the  valve  is  produced.  One  mode  consists  in  a  sud- 
den disconnection  of  the  mechanism  which  moves  the  valve, 
which  is  then  driven  back  so  as  to  cover  the  steam-j>ort  by 
nutans  of  a  weight  or  spring.  The  closing  of  the  valve  is 
thus  almost  instantaneous — a  matter  of  importance  both  in 
the  o[K?ning  and  ch)sing  of  the  valves.  The  Corliss  engine 
furnishes  an  instance  of  this  kind  of  cut-off.     Fig.  17  repre- 


"sents  a  section  of  the  cylinder  of  a  Corliss  engine,  with  its 
four  valves — the  exhaust- valves  and  the  steam  induction- 
valves.  The  cut-off  mechanism  is  exhibited  in  this  figure, 
in  which  A  represents  a  side  elevation  of  the  cvlinder.  The 
M«-fim-valves  move  about  axes  projecting  at  i  t\  the  exhaust- 
valves  about  axes  at  K  E.  W  is  a  plate  mounted  on  an  axis 
projecting  from  the  side  of  the  cylinder.  It  performs  the 
part  of  a  "rocker"  simply,  being  movTd  backward  and  for- 
ward by  the  eccentric-ro(l,  c.  The  lever-arms  of  the  lower 
or  exhaust  valves  are  contiected  with  this  "wrist-plate"  by 
t  wo  links,  //,  which  are  permanently  adjusted,  so  as  to  cause 
the  exhaust  to  take  place  at  the  proper  moment.  The  U|>- 
\H-r  corresponding  lever-arms  for  the  induction-valves  have 
the  form  of  bell-cranks,  to  one  arm  of  which  a  weight  is  at- 
tarlied  by  a  long  vertical  ro<l,  shown  in  the  dniwing.  The 
links,  rr,  attached  to  the  wrist-plate  are  not  permanently 
jointed  to  the  bell-cranks,  but  the  ends  of  these  links  or  bar's 
slide  along  the  ends  of  the  l)ell-crank;  a  notch  in  the  slid- 
in:r  end  catches  the  arm  on  the  return  motion  and  draws  it 
ba«k.  opening  the  valve.  The  disengagement  of  this  notch 
i^  otTected  by  a  bent  piece,  shown  at  A,  which,  as  the  link,  r, 
IS  drawn  back,  strikes  a  small  protuberance,  />.  The  posi- 
tion of  this  small  protuberance  depends  oidy  on  the  gov- 
«Tnor.  The  governor-rwls,  g  g,  are  attached  to  the  ends  of 
levers  which  move  plates  or  rings  embracing  the  axes,  i  i, 
hud  on  these  plates  the  protuberances  are  made.  When  the 
h«K>k  or  bent  niece  strikes  the  protuberance,  the  not<'h  is 
disengaged,  ana  the  weight,  n<ting  on  the  valve,  closes  it. 
Thr-cuttingoff  of  the  steam  is  thus  instatitaneously  effected. 
Another  example  may  be  given  to  ilhisirale  tlie  use  of  a 
rani-motion  controlled  by  the  governor.  Fig.  IH  represents 
a  section  of  the  cylinder  of  such  an  engine  ;  V  V  the  valves, 
which  are  balanced  poppet-valrfH.  These  valves  are  double 
— that  is,  they  have  two  conical  seats — and  when  they  are 
elos,.d,  the  steam-pressure  acting  on  both  sides  of  the  valve. 
It  is  nearly  balancer!,  'i'he  stems  of  these  valves  extend  to 
a  position  near  the  middle  of  the  cylinder,  and  are  there 


jicluated  by  a  cam,  C.  U-ing  Jilterniiiely  opened  by  tite  cam. 
When  the  cam  in  its  revijlutioii  rtleaNH  <  it  her  Vjilve,  ft  i^ 
carried  back  pronipllv  by  u  .spring.  Tlie  cam  slides  verti- 
cally on  a  rod,  the  vertical  motion  bringing  a  new  arc  of 


Fio.  18. 


the  cam  into  action.  This  vertical  motion  is  c<mtrolled  by 
the  governor.  Other  elllcient  devices  might  Imj  mentioned 
which  are  deservedly  popular,  but  these  are  sufficient  to 
illustrate  the  principle.  The  Stevens  cut-off,  so  common  on 
r.  S.  river-steamers,  has  pop|>et- valves,  the  vertical  valve- 
stems  having  strong  toes  or  projections  attached  to  them 
which  are  lifted  by  corresponciing  tx)es  or  arms  attached  to 
the  rock-shaft.  This  cut-off  is  not  controlled  by  the  governor, 
but  is  adjustable  by  the  engine-driver.  The*  Ky<ler  cut-off 
is  one  in  which  by  an  ingenious  device  the  governor  per- 
forms the  work  of  moving  the  expansion-valve  unassisted 
by  the  engine. 

'  Fly-u'htd. — The  fly-wheel  is  an  important  and  essential 
appendage  to  the  steam-engine  under  many  conditions. 

A  stationary  engine  with  a  single  cylinder  requires  a 
moving  mass  between  the  piston  and  the  working-point, 
which  by  its  alternate  accelerations  and  retardations  will 
store  up  and  give  out  energy  in  such  a  manner  as  to  keep 
the  power,  ri'duced  to  or  at  the  working-p<»int,  nearly  con- 
stant. As  an  example,  the  rolling-mill  is  perhaps  the  most 
striking.  The  useful  work  to  l)e  jwrformed  is  m  this  case 
the  diiving  of  a  heavy  pla.stic  bar  or  plate  of  iron  or  other 
metal  between  rolls — an  operation  not  continuous,  but  oc- 
curring (mly  at  inter\'als.  With  a  single-cylinder  engine  of 
the  ordinary  type  the  pressure  of  the  steam  on  the  piston  at 
any  instant* is  not  usually  suflflcient  to  overcome  the  great 
resistance  offered  ;  by  the  interposition  of  a  heavy  fly-wheel, 
however,  the  action  of  the  engine  produces  gradually  a  high 
velocity  of  revolution  in  the  fly-wheel,  causing  an  accunm- 
lation  of  energy.  When  the  metal  enters  the  rolls,  this 
accumulated  energy  is  given  out;  and  even  if  the  steam 
were  suddenly  shutoff,  the  fly-wheel  would  carry  the  metal 
through  the  rolls.  This  is  accomplished,  however,  only  at  the 
cost  of  a  loss  of  vel(K'ity  in  the  fly-wheel,  which  loss  must  again 
be  restored  by  the  engine.  Again,  when  the  resistance  is 
sensibly  constant,  as  when  an  engine  is  driving  a  shop  or 
factory,  the  jxiwer  of  the  engine  is  nothing  at  the  dead- 
points,  and  is  a  maximum  at  nearly  mi<l-stroke.  If  there 
were  no  moving  mass  to  store  up  and  give  out  energy,  the 
engine  must  cease  working  at  the  first  dead-point ;  for  at 
that  point  the  piston,  which  is  the  working-jM»mt,  comes  to 
a  stop  and  Ijegins  to  return  on  its  course.  When,  in  a<l- 
dition  to  the  above  considerations,  the  action  of  the  steam 
on  the  piston  is  not  ccmstant,  but  diminishes  gradually  from 
the  time  it  is  cut  off,  the  necessity  for  the  flv-wheel  to  keen 
up  a  uniform  or  nearly  uniform  motion  in  tlie  shaft  is  still 
greater;  or,  rather,  the  comlitions  on  which  its  dimensions 
dejiend  become  more  complicated.  In  cas<»s  where  the  en- 
ergy of  the  fly-wheel  is  required  for  a  short  period  of  time 
to  perform  nearly  the  whole  useful  work,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
rolling-mill,  its  dimensions  can  not  be  theoretically  esti- 
mated with  certainty.  Frece«lents  ami  experience  must 
then  l>e  the  chief  guides  to  the  engineer.  Tlie  dimens'-)ns 
suitable  for  a  given  engine,  in  which  the  resistances  are 
suppose*!  constant,  may.  however,  be  detennine<l  from  the<v 
relical  considerations,  at  least  with  the  aid  of  experiments 
made  to  determine  certain  constants  which  enter  the  formu- 
liis.  It  is  impossible  to  establish  a  perfect  unif(»rmity  of 
motion  in  the  crank-shaft  of  an  engine,  because  the  nias«<, 
which  l)y  alternately  gaining  and  l<»sing  energy  preserves  a 
uniform* velocity  during  certain  jicriods  of  motion,  can  only 
act  by  itM'lf  gaining  or  lo-;ing  velocity  momentarily  at  in- 
tervals of  those  |)erio«ls:  but  under  given  c(Hiditions  the 
variations  of  velocity  may  be  made  as  >mall  as  is  <le*«irable. 

Tlie  spa<'e  availaltle  permits  only  a  brief  discMission  of  the 
theory  of  the  action  of  steam  in  the  steam-en;,nne. 

A  certain  ijuantily  of  steam  enters  the  cylintler  at  each 
stroke  <»f  the  piston,  dependiiit:  on  the  cut-off  or  degree  of 
expansion.     During  this  period  the  piston   is  actuated  by 


726 


STEAM-ENGINE 


the  full  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder,  generally  a 
little  less  than  that  in  the  boiler,  and  performs  a  quantity 
of  work  represented  in  foot-pounds  by  the  product  of  the 
pressure  multiplied  by  the  volume  traversed  during  the 
period  of  full  pressure*  or  pi  Vi,  After  the  steam  is  cut  off 
it  continues  to  act  on  the  piston  by  its  expansive  force,  but 
with  a  constantly  diminisning  pressure,  to  the  end  of  the 
stroke.  It  is  usually  assumed  in  practice  that  the  diminu- 
tion of  pressure  takes  place  during  this  part  of  the  stroke, 
according  to  the  law  that  the  pressure  is  inversely  propor- 
tional to  the  volume;  and  on  this  supposition  the  mean 
pressure  throughout  the  whole  stroke  is  determined  by  the 
formula — 

(l  +  log.r) 

Pm=Pi , 

Ob  being  the  mean  pressure,  r  the  ratio  of  expansion ;  the 
logarithms  being  taken  in  the  Napierian  system.  As  the  pis- 
ton returns,  a  certain  back  or  negative  pressure  is  unavoid- 
able, due  to  the  resistance  offered  by  the  steam  that  is  being 
expelled  from  the  cylinder.  That  pressure  can  not  be  de- 
termined from  theoretical 
considerations,  but  it  is  ap- 
proximately known  from 
experience. 

In  engines  in  which  the 
grade  of  exuansion  may  be 
varied  at  will,  the  power  of 
the  engine  will  correspond- 
ingly vary.  The  engine 
making  n  revolutions  per 
minute,  the  distance  passed 
over  by  the  piston  per  min- 
ute will  be  2«aS,  wnich  va- 
ries in  practice  from  200  to 
800  feet.  The  formula  is 
evidently  a  purely  mechan- 
ical one — i.  e.  the  force  of 
the  steam  is  treated  as  though  it  were  any  other  force  sub- 
jected to  like  variations,  and  acting  upon  the  area  of  the  pis- 
ton. Questions  of  the  quantities  oi  heat  do  not  enter.  The 
action  of  this  force  is  usually  illustrated  by  a  diagram  as  fol- 
lows (Fig.  19) :  Let  OD  =  S  represent  the  length  of  stroke  of 
the  piston  ;  AB=  Si  the  distance  passed  over  by  the  piston 
before  the  steam  is  cut  off.    The  ratio  of  expansion  will  be 


Fio.  19. 


Sr 
V 


=  r,  and  that  will  be  equal  to  the  ratio  of  the  volumes 


,jr  of  the  steam  at  point  of  cut-off  and  at  the  end  of  the 

stroke.  Let  OA=pi  represent  the  initial  pressure  of  the 
steam  in  pounds  per  square  inch  ;  then  jOi  A  x  144  will  re|>- 
resent  the  total  force  on  the  piston  =  P,  The  work  per- 
formed during  the  travel  from  0  to  /f  or  A  to  J9  will  be 
represented  hy  PS i  or  A  x  piSi  x  144.  The  area  of  the 
rectangle  OABH  will  then  represent  this  work.  The  work 
performed  during  the  travel  from  JI  to  D  will  in  the  same 
manner  be  represented  by  the  area  HBCD^  on  the  assump- 
tion that  the  curve  BC  is  an  equilateral  hyperbola.  This 
area  will  be  equivalent  to  PS\  log.  r,  and  the  sum  of  these 
two  areiis  representing  the  whole  work  of  the  steam  during 
one  stroke, 

PS,(\  +  log.  r). 

It  is  assumed,  further,  that  on  the  return  of  the  piston 
the  steam  that  filled  the  cylinder  is  discharged  at  a  constant 
pressure,  and  that  the  fall  of  pressure  at  the  end  of  the 
stroke,  as  well  as  the  rise  of  pressure  on  the  entrance  of  the 
steam,  takes  place  suddenly  while  the  piston  is  at  rest.  The 
area  of  the  rectangle  OEDFy  subtracted  from  the  sum  of 
the  areas  given  above,  will  then  give  an  area,  EABCF^ 
which  represents  the  work  performed.  The  area  EOFD  is 
represented  by  palV  the  value  of  p%  l)eing  assumed. 

The  "  efficiencv  '*  of  a  machine  is  a  term  used  to  designate 
the  ratio  of  the  disposable  or  theoretical  work  to  the  useful 
work.  This  is  the  usual  mode  of  estimating  the  loss  of 
eflfect  in  employing  any  machine.  If  the  disposable  work 
is  estimated  m  the  cylinder  of  the  steam-engine  in  the  the- 
oretical manner  above  indicated,  calling  W  the  disposable 

work  and  W  the  real  work,  the  eflicicncy  will  be-^^*  a  frac- 
tion always  less  than  unity,  l.>ecause,  on  account  of  friction, 
there  is  always  in  any  machine  a  certain  amount  of  useless 
or  ineffective' work.  There  are  generally  also  other  causes 
of  loss,  so  that  the  efficiency  of  a  maclnne  becomes  still  less. 


The  efficiency  of  machines  can  be  determined,  therefore, 
only  when  the  disposable  work  W  and  also  the  useful  work 
W  can  be  determined.' 

In  estimating  theoretically  the  power  of  an  engine  fur- 
nished with  a  steam-jacket,  it  is  imitossible  to  assume  with 
certainty  the  actual  conditions  of  tne  problem.  It  is  not 
known,  for  instance,  precisely  what  quantity  of  heat  will  l>e 
furnished  bv  the  steam-jacket,  nor  what  relative  quantities 
of  vaix)r  ana  water  will  be  found  in  the  cylinder  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  expansion.  It  is  usually  assumed  that  enough 
heat  enters  the  cylinder  from  the  jacket  during  the  expan- 
sion to  prevent  the  condensation  which  would  occur  if  no 
heat  were  added — i.  e.  if  there  were  no  steam-jjacket ;  that 
the  curve  of  expansion  is  the  curve  of  quantity  of  vapor 
constant,  and  that  the  steam  is  saturated  and  dry  at  the  W- 
ginning  of  the  expansion.  The  curve  of  expansion  is  then 
represented  by  Rankine  by  the  formula 

pyx^  =  i>  r.'-  or  P=  C.-pJs  =  C-j^, 

and  the  mean  forward  pressure  is  given  by  the  formula 

r  being  the  ratio  of  expansion.  The  mean  effective  pres- 
sure (pm— Pa)  is  then  known  when  p%  is  assumed.   . 

The  application  of  purely  theoretical  rul^  to  the  expan- 
sion is  complicated  by  an  important  secondary  phenomenon 
which  can  not  well  be  submitted  to  analytical  investigation. 
The  cylinders  of  ordinary  engines  are  made  of  cast  iron, 
which'takes  up  and  gives  out  heat  as  a  sponge  takes  up  and 
gives  out  water.  On  this  account,  the  expansion  line  of 
actual  engines  differs  so  much  from  any  theoreticiU  line  that 
can  be  drawn  that  it  is  oidy  from  experiments  with  the 
indicator  that  the  effect  of  this  interchange  of  temperature 
between  the  iron  cylinder  and  the  mixed  steam  and  water 
can  be  determined. 

The  use  of  the  steam-jacket,  or  annular  casing  envelojv- 
ing  the  cylinder  with  hot  steam  from  the  boiler,  is  an  econ- 
omizer of  heat,  not  because  condensation  during  expan<iion 
by  the  adiabatic  curve  is  in  itself  a  loss  of  heat,  but  be<»ause 
the  presence  of  liquid  water  in  the  form  of  cloud,  or  in  any 
other  form,  in  the  cylinder  facilitates  and  renders  mc»re 
rapid  the  interchanges  of  heat  with  the  metal  of  the  cylin- 
der and  the  hot  steam  entering  from  the  boiler.  Thus  the 
initial  pressure  is  diminished  and  the  final  pressure  is  in- 
creasecl  in  a  way  that  can  not  be  estimated  theoretically.  A> 
nearly  all  engines  work  expansively,  it  is  therefore  generally 
impracticable  to  ascertain  theoretically,  except  as  a  mere 
approximation,  the  quantitv  of  work  wtiich  an  engine  un<ier 
given  conditions  is  actually  exerting.  The  only  true  re- 
source is  the  indicator. 

The  following  table  gives  the  quantity  of  vapor  retjuirwl 
per  horse-power  per  hour  for  an  ideal  engine : 


Poondi  id  water  or  rapor 

pw  bon^powOT  pvr  Mor. 

i* 

4 

5 
6 
8 
10 

78-9 
888 
867 
23-2 
21-0 
18-8 
16-7 

156 
12-9 
18-0 
11  6 
11  0 
10-4 
10-0 

The  efficiency  of  a  steam-engine  in  actual  use  may  be  a««cer- 
tained  by  comparing  the  cjuantity  of  steam  actually  used  Xd 
give  one' horse-power  per  nour  with  the  quantity  given  by 
the  above  table  for  the  same  initial  and  terminal  pressun\« 
of  the  steam.  For  instance,  a  non-condensing-engine  may 
give  a  horse-power  per  hour  with  a  consumption  of  35  lb.  of 
water  or  steam  at  a  pressure  of  6  atmospheres — a  common 
I>erformance.  The  theoretical  quantity  requirnl  in  a  j>erfe<t 
engine,  according  to  the  preceding  tal)le,  for  the  same  initial 
pressure  is  21  lb.  The  efficiency  of  the  engine  under  thoM* 
circumstances,  measured  by  the  standard  of  steam  requirtMl. 
is§i^  =  0-6.  Onlinary  boilers  of  the  best  type  may  eva|x>- 
rate  9  lb.  of  water  for  1  lb.  of  coal  bume<l,  the  maximum  of 
evaporation  of  the  boiler  l)eing  about  13*5  lb.  of  water  p«.^r 
pound  of  coal.  The  efficiency  of  the  boiler  is  then  ygry  =  j. 
Multiplying  these  efficiencies  together,  we  have  the  elticiem-y 
of  the  l)biler  and  engine  equal  to  0*6  x  |  =  0-4. 

The  efficiency  of  the  apparatus,  measured  by  the  ratio  of 
the  work  in  foot-pounds  accomplished   to  the  uuuibi-r  t.f 


Mlomii^Mwi 


'.'-•HU^Ji-iV*' 


\  l4  %iw  «oun  imiil  miiMn*- 


r28 


STEAM-HAMMERS 


STEAM-VESSELS 


advantageous  to  work  them  by  hand.  In  light  work,  such  as 
drawing  out  bars  of  steel,  an  automatic  valve-motion  is 
of  the  utmost  importance.  Fig.  1  shows  the  form  of  a  single 
uprieht  hammer  as  used  for  light  forging.  A  hammer 
weighing  300  lb. — i.  e.  the  hammer-bar,  or  part  which  strikes 
the  blow,  weighing  300  lb. — should  make  at  least  300  blows 
per  minute  to  work  economically  in  light  forging.  An  im- 
portant feature  in  these  rapid-running  steam-hammers  is  the 
separation  of  the  exhaust-passages  in  the  slide-valve,  so  that 
the  exhaust  from  the  space  below  the  piston  escapes  through 
a  passage  which  does  not  communicate  with  the  exhaust- 


Fio.  2. 

passage  from  the  space  alx)ve  the  piston.  In  the  exhaust- 
passage  from  below  the  piston  is  arranged  a  throttle- valve, 
which  when  partially  closed  chokes  the  exhaust  escape,  and 
thus,  suspending  the  escape  of  steam  as  the  hammer  de- 
scends, materially  diminishes  the  force  of  the  blow,  and  yet, 
inasmuch  as  the  upper  exhaust-passage  is  open,  the  hammer 
rises  as  quickly  as  when  working  with  full  exhaust.  This  is 
of  advantage  in  working  steel,  as  the  force  of  the  blow  can 
be  lessened  at  will  without  materially  slowing  the  speed  or 
ranidity  of  blows. 

in  setting  steam-hammers  it  is  important  that  the  founda- 
tions should  be  of  the  most  substantial  character.  It  is  usual 
to  make  the  anvil-block  separate  from  the  hammer,  and  to 
place  it  on  a  separate  foundation  which  is  underlaid  with 
some  thicknesses  of  wood,  say  with  two  layers  of  closely 
fitted  timbers  at  least  24  inches  in  thickness.  This  gives  a 
degree  of  elasticitv  to  the  anvil  and  preserves  the  founda- 
tion. The  anvil  /or  iron-forging  hammers  should  not  be 
less  than  five  times,  and  for  steel-forging  ten  times,  the 
weight  of  the  hammer.  The  direct-acting  steam-hammer 
has  numerous  rivals  in  iron  making  and  shaping,  such 
as  helve  and  other  power-driven  hammers,  which  are  found 
useful  in  many  lines  of  manufacture;  drop-presses,  used 
for  drop-forging;  driven  rolls;  and,  finally,  hydraulic  forg- 
ing-jjresses.  The  steam-hammer  forges  tlie  metal  into  the 
required  shape  with  repeated  blows  and  well-directed  skill 
on  the  part  of  the  workman.  In  hydraulic  forging  the  red- 
hot  metal  mav  be  made  to  flow  in  a  solid  state  into  metal 
moulds,  and  driven  into  them  by  plungers  operated  by  hy- 
draulic presses ;  but  the  hydraulic  press  may  also  be  used 
to  compress  metal  between  a  flat  movable  block  and  an  an- 
vil, thus  becoming  a  direct  competitor  with  the  steam-ham- 
mer. The  first  cost  of  hydraulic  ar)pamtus,  however,  limits 
the  extent  of  its  introduction,  ana  the  steam-hammer  will 
probably  long  continue  to  be  one  of  the  most  extensively 
used  forms  of  apparatus  for  forging  iron  and  steel. 


The  largest  steam-hammer  in  the  world  was  built  in  1891 
at  the  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  steel-works.  The  weight  of  tup. 
piston-rod,  and  piston  aggregates  125  tons.  The  cvlinder  i> 
76  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  stroke  is  16J  feet,  'the  anrii- 
foundation  contains  twenty-two  blocks  of  cast  iron,  averaging 
70  tons  each,  resting  upon'steel  slabs  supported  by  white-oak 
timbers.  The  mass  of  iron  aiid  steel  in  the  foundation  weighs 
1,800  tons.  Revised  by  William  Kent. 

Steam-Tessels :  ships  propelled  by  steam.  The  possible 
adaptation  of  steam  for  the  propulsion  of  shi|)s  seems  to  have 
occurred  to  Roger  Bacon  in  the  thirteenth  century.  It  ha-* 
been  stated  that  Blasco  de  Garay,  of  Spain,  in  1543,  pro|)elled 
a  vessel  by  steam,  but  La  Puente,  the  Spanish  historian, 
found  that  de  Garav  maile  (1540-43)  trials  with  paddles  on 
ships  furnished  by  Charles  V.,  but  in  every  case  tne  paddle:^ 
were  moved  by  men.  Suggestions  as  to  the  use  of  steam, 
none  of  which' were  carried  out  practically,  were  made  bj 
Salomon  de  Cans  {Les  liaisons  des  Forces' mouvanteji,  ar&c 
diverses  Machines  taut  utiles  que  plaisantes^  Paris,  1615)  an«l 
the  Maruuis  of  Worcester  {Century  of  lufefifiofis,  London. 
1663).  The  earliest  practical  effort  appears  to  be  that  of 
Papin,  who  in  1707  applieil  his  steam-engine  to  the  propul- 
sion of  a  model  on  the  Fulda  river  at  Cassel.  Neweomen  haii 
in  the  meantime  brought  the  steam-engine  itself  to  a  working? 
condition;  and  in  1736  Jonathan  IIulls  patented  a  marint- 
steam-engine  which  he  proposed  to  employ  in  a  vessel  to  U* 
used  as  a  tugboat.  About  1763  William  Ilenry,  of  Penn<>l- 
vania,  built  a  small  model  steaml>oat,  which  he  tried  with 
success  on  the  Conestoga  river ;  the  experiment  is  notable  as 
having  furnished  the  hint  to  the  efforts  made  lat«r  bv  Rol>- 
ert  Fulton.  During  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteentli  cen- 
tury the  problem  of  steam-navigation  had  begun  to  engaj^e 
many  minds  in  Europe  and  the  U.  S.  In  France  the  Count 
d'Auxiron  and  M.  Perier  made  experiments  in  1774-75,  and 
the  Marquis  de  Jouffroy,  upon  a  larger  scale  and  with  IxiUr 
success,  m  1776-83.  In  the  U.  S.  James  Rumsey,  of  Mary- 
land, was  similarly  engaged,  and  in  1786  built  a  boat  which 
was  propelled  upon  the  Potomac  by  steam  at  the  rate  of  4 
miles  an  hour  by  means  of  a  jet  of  water  forced  out  at  the 
stern.  He  built  a  boat  in  London  with  which  a  succei«f  ul  ex- 
periment was  made  on  the  Thames  in  1792.  Meanwhile  John 
Fitch  experimented  on  the  Delaware  river.  His  first  \xtai, 
built  in  1786,  was  propelled  by  paddles  moved  by  a  steam- 
engine;  at  first  a  speed  of  only  3  miles  an  hour  wa^*  at- 
tained, but  improvements  increased  that  speed  to  8  niilt^. 
It  is  noticeable  that  in  his  boat  he  employed  side-wheiK. 
with  a  screw-propeller  at  the  stern.  In  17^6  Miller,  Taylor, 
and  Symington  ouilt  a  boat  which  consisted  of  two  con- 
nected hulls  driven  by  a  single  paddle-wheel  between  them, 
which  obtained  a  speed  of  5  miles  an  hour  on  Dalswinion 
Loi'h.  They  built  a  larger  vessel  in  1789  with  a  steam- 
engine  of  12  horse-power,  which  attained  a  speed  of  7  milt>. 
In  1801  Symington  built  a  boat  for  towine,  which  drew  ves- 
sels of  140  tons  at  the  rate  of  3|  miles  an  hour.  About  1?.^) 
Rol>ert  Fulton  left  the  U.  S.  for  England,  where  he  tum»tl 
his  attention  to  mechanics,  and  especially  to  steam-navigH- 
tion.  He  made  experiments  in  France,  which  were  only 
partially  successful,  but  he  secured  the  confidence  and  aiil 
of  Robert  R.  Livingston,  the  U.  S.  ambassador,  and  in  1N>6 
retunied  to  New  York,  bringing  with  him  a  Boulton  & 
Watt  steam-engine,  for  which  a  null  was  built.  This  ve>- 
sel,  named  the  Clermont,  made  a  trial  trip  to  Albany,  Autr. 
7-9, 1807,  returning  on  the  two  following  days,  her  averagv 
running  speed  being  5  miles  an  hour.  The  Clermont  was 
130  feet  long,  18  feet  beam.  7  feet  deep,  with  a  burtien  of 
160  tons.  Sue  soon  began  making  regular  trips  betwin-u 
New  York  and  Albany,  and  for  all  practical  purposes  mu^l 
be  considered  the  first  steamboat  adapted  for  tne  eonvev- 
ance  of  passengers  and  freight.  Fultcm  and  Livingston  of>- 
taineil  from  New  York  the  monopoly  for  using  steam-vt*>- 
sels  in  the  waters  of  the  State.  John  Stevens,  of  New  York, 
was  even  earlier  than  Fulton  an  experimenter  in  steam- 
navigation.  In  1789  he  had  perfected  nis  plans  for  a  steam- 
vessel,  and  in  1804  and  1805  built  small  vessels  which  showt^i 
that  his  plans  were  sound.  The  Phoenix,  his  first  steam- 
boat, completed  in  1807,  followed  hard  ui>on  Fulton's  Cler- 
mont. Prevented  by  the  mono|)oly  of  Fulton  and  Living- 
ston from  navigating  the  Huds<3n,  he  sent  his  boat  by  st'a 
to  the  Delaware,  ujxjn  which  she  was  afterward  emplovt^l, 
and  in  this  voyage  denionstrated  the  problem  of  the  piVssi- 
bility  of  the  use  of  steam-vessels  upon  the  ocean.  Steam- 
vessels  in  the  U.  S.  were  thus  an  assured  success.  Fulton 
and  his  coadjutors  soim  placed  a  fleet  of  them  upon  the 


STEARIC   ACH> 

I I  it^ia^jn  fiver  and  Loti^  lslriii4  Sun  ml .  while  SlevcniK  mui  hi« 
--HH  ptftopfl  their  sttdHiiTs  U[K»jj  the  |J(  Uwuro  niid  tho  Vtm- 
Mr*'iivtLl,a«tlup:m  the  llwlsuu  iifter  FhUou't^  nitmnfwly  bml 
•♦xjiirwl.  The  nM  stvmnlifmX  in  U peat  lirituin  was  rht;  (  Vmitsti 
U*  ff»<>l  long,  built  ill  \ii\2  h^i  the  rmvi^rtttimi  uf  ih»'  t'ljtlni 
ttiii  U<fi>tT  tUi^  lijue  Fultuti  uml  Liviri^'stuii  luMt  ln'i^iin  U* 
I  >  1 1 1 1«  I  i-t  #^um*r^  ft  t  Pi  1 1  '^b  u  rg»  fa.  L'  [>i  m  lU  I  n  u  v  i  gii  b  J  fe  r  i  v  o  rs 
.i»t'l  MijiNiili  watt^ra  uf  tiK'  oiv{lixr<l  WivrM  .HEtfmnhfmla  wtirr 
rujdiliy  introtlnt'eil*  htviI  tbtir  urs^  Ei|M>n  the  wtini  fi>l!<>weiL 

\v  ^kHv  05  !H19  the  Kti'unit'i*  Suvaiiiinh  iimdi^  th*'  vr^yHp* 
I  refill  Siiv'^mrHrnhn,  Ga,,  fi>  LiverpHji,  Knghiiirl,  in  Iw»miv4wi> 
.ht>%imd  thfiii^e  tt>  HuMa.  Fnnti  I  hut  firru'  the  fh-vitlojt- 
niMiit  in  i>ci>Aii  steamships  hfts  tieen  .steadily  lx»iMird  hirger 
-»?r^inii'i^  irirludmg  the  itiijtouy  (Jri'ftt  EiiJ?4frti.  Th<'  Lucjt- 
iiitt»  uf  thi'  Cimard  r.ine,  a,  srivw  &iroaMi,Hhip  nif  stri-l,  «t*iO  ffct 
I'lCiiT  ,mt|  hnving  a  ^ixih^  tonniige  fKf  l;l/JWJ  tvii?*,  i m-^nd  thr 

\i  bill  tic  from  (Jiiocri^triwii  to  Xi^w  V  Hrk  in  5  tlitvs  7  hinns 

lievisfil  l>y  Maihij*  HjcxJAMtN. 

HIpiir'ii*  Add  \j<fffirtr  fcs  froru  (ir  o-Tfe^i,  Uillow]:  sjsi^ 
n-  -t  iihuiiduiU  of  the  stiliil  ful-a<iids;  oblaiiieil  in  ihe^jiujii- 
li<'.'ttion  of  all  the  fats  contniniiijj  stearin,  and  i-specialiy  of 
UiM-f's  tallow,  mutton  suet,  hog's  lard,  etc*.  The  so-called 
^t«uric  acid  (or  stearin)  of  commerce  is  a  mixture  of  stearic 
mid  palmitic  acids.  This  commercial  stearic  arid  is  pro- 
d'KtM]  by  the  treatment  of  neutral  fats  by  su[)erheatcd  steam 
nr  Ijy  alkalies.     iSee  .Si>AP. 

S'lponificntion  of  fats  by  water  alone,  at  a  hip:h  t*?inpera- 
•iire.  was  patented  by  R.  A.  Tilghman,  of  Philadeljthia,  .Ian. 
\K  l.S")4,  and  ab<»ut  the  same  time  (Apr.,  1854)  by  Berthelot, 
\viiv>  announced  that  he  had  resolved  the  neutral  fats  with 
water  in  closotl  vessels  at  a  temperature  of  428  F.  Tilgh- 
m.tn  specified  the  preferred  temperature  of  meltinfj:  lead, 
«)',' i  F.,  but  names  also  the  melting  of  bismiith,  518  F.,  and 
t«;  promote  the  reaction  caus<Hl  the  mixture  of  water  and  fat 
to  traveree  small  tubes  of  wrought  iron  heated  in  a  fire  to  a 
pressure  of  90  or  100  atmospheres.  Tilghman's  prr>ccs8,  as 
..rii^inally  set  forth  in  his  patent,  was  never  introduceil  in 
[•raeiiee.  The  very  high  temperature  employed  destroyed 
the  glycerin  and  contaminated  the  stearic  acirl.     As  subse- 

•  luently  modified,  it  has  been  used  with  success,  but,  as  the 
«  iMirts  have  decided,  not  within  the  limits  of  the  patent. 
MeNons,  of  Brussels,  almost  at  the  same  time  with  Tiltrhman 
t.M.k  out  in  Belgium  a  fmtent  for  the  use  of  water  slightly 
Hci'lified  by  sulphuric  acid  to  act  on  fats  under  pressure  at 
a  temperature  of  356'  to  392  F.  The  presence  of  a  snjall 
.piantity  of  sulphuric  acid — 1  to  10  i^r  cent,  of  the  fat  used 
— favors  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  evolution  of  the  fatty 
a<ids.  Melsens's  method  was  put  into  successful  operation 
at  Antwerp  almost  immediately,  using  a  peculiar  form  of 

•  liLTester,  lined  with  lead,  holding  a  ton  of  tallow,  tcj  which 
was  added  50  per  cent,  of  water,  and  in  six  hours  the  decom- 
(M.^iiion  was  complete  at  a  temperature  of  856  F.  (ten  atmos- 
pli.Tes),  and  the  latty  acids  obtained  were  very  satisfax*tory. 

Tlie  possibility  of  dei^om posing  the  fats  by  water  under 
hi:;h  pressure  was  distinctly  recegnized  by  Chevreul,  who 
poiiiterl  out  the  perfect  analogy  between  the  fats  and  the 

•  Minpound  ethers,  which  are  decomposed  when  heated  in 
clo<o  vessels  in  contact  with  water. 

*ieorge  Wilson  in  1852  revive*!  the  method  of  decomposing 
fats  at  a  high  temj)erature,  and  subseipiently  distilling  off 
the  acids  and  glycerin  separately  by  a  current  of  su|)erheated 
^Nam,  originally  conceive<l  by  ('hevroul  and  attempted  by 
Hu--y  and  Le  Canu  in  1H25,  and  more  successfully  by  Du- 
hrunfaut  in  1841.  In  1855  Wilson  exhihited  to  the  jury  of 
the  Paris  Exposition  of  that  year  the  results  of  his  moth(Kl 
Mil  palm  oil  by  means  of  water  and  heat  alone,  distilling 
MtT  iN»th  glycerin  and  fatty  ar'ids  in  a  way  to  obtain  all  the 
pr«Mlucls  in  a  state  of  chemical  j)urity.  To  this  end  the 
.m1  is  heati'd  in  a  still  to  the  temperature  of  550  to  600^  F., 
and  then  a  stream  of  subdivided,  superheated  steam  passes 
tnrough  it  of  a  temperature  of  (HH)  F.  Below  5.">0  F.  the 
^a|»*»nitication  and  distillation  of  the  prcxluets  is  slight :  at 
alH.iii  6tH)  F.  the  distillation  is  more  rapid,  but  is  then 
a«  <unipanied  with  the  pro(luction  of  acrohins.  It  is  by  this 
|.riK-e>^  that  Price's  glycerin  is  produced.  This  pn>cess  works 
Will  onlv  on  palm  oil,  and  is  in  fa<'t  only  a  slight  modiliea- 
tiori  of  the  previous  process  of  Duhrunf/iut.  The  complete 
Nincss  of  the  hot-water  process  was  achieved  only  in  1H.">7 
i»y  Wright  and  Fouche — French  patent  of  1857,  American 

III  1^59.     This  requires  particular  mention. 

Wright  and  Fuuche^H  aft/xirattf.'i  ////  hot  water  a/one  pro- 
hiees  cr»mi»lete  ileconiposilion    of    fats   into   fat-acids  and 


8TEC'KEli 


w» 


gKcenn  by  a  Cfjiitinuoiis  and  automat ic  TOminin^'Iin^  of 
waierund  st^arn  with  the  fai  at  a  pressure  ftud  leiii[*i?miiire 
of  ten  to  twi'iity  atriitist»heres  for  ii  iterUMl  of  twt^lve  to  iwpn- 
Ij  hours.  No  iiine  is  ust>d ;  water  at  rlie  u^nif»eniturf»  nained 
is  the  Hule  chernit^l  agent ;  and  the  glvct^rin  prrjfhte«*d  t*  vi 
i*xt*eik*nt  (pmlity :  the  sRaric  aiul  palmitic  acids  (afutr  px- 
i>pc>^ing  the  ok-iu  arid)  «rf  whito,  fim'-gtiiiiu^].  hnni,  tiiul 
fa-e  of  (xlor.  Hevisf^d  by  Ika  HhStstrN. 

Ste'aHn  [from  (^r.  ffr^'ofk.  tallow]  li\n^i(\JU^O^h  — 
('fitHiio«^};  a  glyeoriiJe  or  ether  of  glycerin,  »is  shown  hv 
1 1  i  ^f  U  t  rni  1 1 1  a  /  rhtta  r  in ,  1 1 1  a  mu  nerc  litt  *  pa  rl  a  ii  v  (*,  at  fa  rtt$  /n 
a  term  applieil  to  the  imjiur©  steanV  uc  id  ohtaTned  h^^  th"." 
saponifix^ution  of  fats  in  the  pjxjjmrfttuin  of  ^tar  i-iiiidJes. 
TnVteaHii  i-i  the  natural  ftjnn  of  Mmrm  in  the  huril  fiitii 
of  both  kingfltaiiis. 

Sti'iirns,  l.Kwrs  FitEXin,  D.  D. :  tbiolopwn-  U  at  Kew- 
huryj«m.  Mftr^i^.,  Mar.  10,  184?;  nephew  of  President  WsJl- 
iam  A.Mvams;  graduated  at  Princeton  (ViUegt*  1867;  stud- 
ted  !heolf>gv  at  Pnnc*fIon.  iu  Berlin,  and  Leipzig,  a]^t  in 
the  Inioj]  'I  hfoffj^'ica!  Seminapy,  Xtw  Yurk,  where  he  gimhi- 
alcilin  1872.  lie  wa^  jui.stur  of  a  Prefebvfcrian  idmix-h  ^1 
Norwood,  X.  J.,  187:5-76,  and  Professor  of  flistory  and  Belles- 
Lettres  at  Albion  College,  Michigan,  1876-79;  Professor  of 
Systematic  Theology  in  the  Congregationar  Seminarv  at 
Bangor,  Me.,  1880,  until  his  death.  His  inaugural  'dis- 
course at  Bangor  (June  1,  1881)  attracted  much  attention 
for  iLs  marked  ability.  In  July,  IHJH,  he  reatl  before  the 
Congregational  International  Council  in  London  a  paper 
of  very  high  merit  on  the  I^e^ent  Doctrinal  Tendencten 
of  Amen'nin  Conf/ret/ationalism.  His  i>rincipal  works  were 
the  Lectures  on  the  Ecidence  of  Christian  £xperietice,  dc- 
livered  at  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  in 
1890,  and  subs(-rpiently  pidilished,  and  a  posthumous  vol- 
ume. Present  Day  Theology,     D.  Feb.  1,  1892, 

Geor(je  p.  Fisher. 

Stearns,  William  ArorsTrs,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. :  fourth  presi- 
dent of  Amherst  College;  b.  at  Bedford.  Mjuss.,  ^lar.  17, 
1805,  the  s<m  and  grandson  of  Congregational  clergimen ; 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  1827;  studied  theology  at 
An<lover,  and  after  teaching  a  short  time  at  Duxburywas 
ordained  to  the  ministry,  and  installed  pastor  of  the  Con- 
gregational church  at  Cambridgeport  Dec.  14,  18iH.  In 
1854  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  Amherst  College,  whicli 
he  held  till  his  death  June  8.'  1876.  Besides  valuable  ad- 
dresses given  during  his  connection  with  the  college  he  pul)- 
lished  several  sermons,  with  papers  in  the  Bihliofheca  tSacra. 
Jh'tdical  Repository ^  and  Sew  £nglander,&  work  on  Infant 
Church  Jlenihemhip  (Boston,  1844),  and  Lift  and  Select 
Dincourses  of  Samuel  IL  Stearns  (1846). 

Ste'atlte,  or  Soapstone  [steatite  is  from  Gr.  trrtap, 
(rrtarot.  tallow,  fat]:  a  kind  of  stone  which  receives  both  its 
names  from  its  unctuous  (piality.  It  is  a  compact  form  of 
talc,  and  is  an  impure  hydrated  silicate  of  magnesia.  It 
has  some  use  in  the  porcelain  manufacture.  A  soft  white 
sort  is  the  French  chalk  of  the  toilet  and  of  the  tailors' 
shops.  J*owdered  steatite  is  employed  as  a  lubricant,  and 
is  an  ingredient  in  several  kinds  of  si  cam-packing.  Steatite 
is  easily  ctit  into  figures,  which  are  then  hardened  by  fire 
and  colored  to  imitate  more  costly  stones.  Steatite  is  em- 
ployeil  in  making  stoves  ami  foot-stoves  for  use  in  cold 
weather,  since  it  retains  heat  for  a  long  lime.  It  is  abun- 
dant in  nniny  parts  of  the  U.  S.  and  other  countries. 

Stebbiiis,  Horatio,  D.I).:  puli)it  orator;  b.  at  Hamp- 
den, Mass.,  Aug.  8,  1821  :  educatecl  at  Exeter  Academy  and 
Harvard  College;  graduatifl  at  the  latter  in  1H48,  and  fr(»m 
Harvard  Divinity  School  in  1851  ;  received  degree  of  I).  D. 
from  Bowdoin  College  in  1856;  pastor  of  Unitarian  churches 
at  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  and  at  Portland,  Me.,  where  during  the 
civil  war  he  nni(h*  a  civic  rej)utation  which  led  to  his  call 
in  1S64  to  the  Unitarian  church  in  San  Francisco  (where  he 
has  since  remained)  as  the  successor  of  Thomas  Starr  King, 
who  luul  done  the  Union  cause  great  service  with  his  voi«e 
and  jM'u.  He  has  been  a<tivelv  engjii^ed  in  edueatioiuil  work 
and  in  social  reforms:  has  published  sermons  and  addres>es 
and  several  orations.  Jonx  W.  Chaowh  k. 

Stockc'l.  Loris  JosKPH  Hkxk:  engineer:  b.  at  Wintzen- 
heim.  Alsaee,  in  1S44;  studied  engifU'ering  and  architecture 
at  <,)uehec :  engage*!  lHtn-62  on  (Jaspe  and  St.  Lawrence 
road  surveys:  appointed  in  ls<»:i  draught>nian  of  pultlic 
huihliniTS  Ottawa;  in  1870  on  permanent  engineering  >tatr, 
Puhlic  Works  Department,  Canada:  in  1H73  »issistant  engi- 
neer on  canal.  harl)or,  and  river  works,  Dominion  of  Canada, 


730 


STEDMAN 


STEEL 


and  in  1880  was  appointed  chief  clerk  engineering  branch, 
Public  Works  Department.  He  is  alithor  of  Geometrical 
Solutions  of  Difficult  Problems  in  Land  Surveying  (1866) ; 
An  Essay  on  the  Liquid  Contracted  Vein;  and  various  tech- 
nical reports.  Neil  Macdonald. 

Stedman,  Edmund  Clarence,  LL.  D.,  L.  II.  D.  :  poet  and 
critic;  b.  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  Oct.  8.  1833;  studied  at  Yale 
College ;  became  in  1852  editor  of  The  Normch  Tribune,  in 
1853  of  The  Winsted  Herald ;  settled  in  New  York  in  1855 ; 
in  1860  was  employed  upon  The  New  York  Tribune ;  was  an 
editor  and  war  correspondent  of  The  New  York  World  1861- 
63 ;  contributed  to  The  Atlantic  Monthly  and  other  maga- 
zines ;  was  in  1863  in  the  attorney-general's  office  at  Wash- 
ington, and  has  been  since  1865  a  stockbroker  in  New  York. 
He  is  the  author  of  Poems  Lyric  and  Idyllic  (1860);  Alice  of 
Monmouth,  and  other  Poems  (1864) ;  The  Blameless  Prince, 
and  other  Poems  (1869);  and  Hawthorne,  and  other  Poems 
(1877).  His  Poems  were  collected  in  a  single  volume  in  1873. 
He  delivered  his  narrative  poem,  Gettysburg,  in  1872  at  a 
meeting  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  his  Ode  at  Dart- 
mouth College  18T3.  Since  1873  he  has  devoted  himself 
largely  to  critical  work;  Victorian  Poets  (1875;  13th  ed. 
witn  supplementary  chapter  in  1887)  was  followed  by  Poets 
of  America  (1885),  and  by  The  Nature  and  Elements  of 
Poetry  (1892),  originally  delivered  in  1891  at  Johns  Hopkins 
Universitv  as  a  lecture  series  on  the  Percy  Tumbull  memo- 
rial founaation.  In  1891  he  succeeded  James  Russell  Lowell 
as  president  of  the  American  Copyright  League.  In  1888-90 
he  edited,  with  Ellen  Mackay  Hutchinson,  an  important 
Library  of  American  Literature  in  eleven  volumes,  and  in 
1895  he  brought  out  A  Victorian  Anthology, 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Steel  [0.  Eng.  stele :  0.  H.  Germ,  stahal  (>  Mod.  Germ. 
stahl) :  Icel.  stal ;  cf.  0.  Pruss.  siakla,  Russ.  stall  is  loan- 
word from  Germ.] :  a  term  comprising  several  modifications 
of  iron.  It  is  necessary  to  define  the  term  *'  steel "  at  some 
length,  since  the  old  classification  very  inademiately  de- 
scries the  modern  cast,  malleable  compounds  oi  iron,  car- 
bon, and  metalloids  used  for  structural  purposes,  and  con- 
stituting at  least  three- fourths  of  the  metal  now  made  by 
steel  processes.  The  old  term  "  steel "  referred  to  the  cast 
malleable  product  of  iron  and  so  much  carbon  (from  J  to  1^ 
per  cent.)  that  the  metal  would  harden  when  heated  to  red- 
ness and  quenched  in  water ;  it  is  used  almost  exclusively 
for  cutting  tools.  The  homogeneity  of  this  metal  is,  how- 
ever, an  equally  distinguishing  oualitv,  and  is  due  to  its 
having  been  poured  into  a  mould  while  in  a  fluid  state,  so 
that  the  slag  might  separate  by  gravity,  and  the  metal  might 
become  solid  and  crystalline.  Wrought  iron,  on  the  con- 
trary, while  having  similar  chemical  properties,  and  some- 
times as  much  carbon,  consists  of  pasty  masses  from  which 
the  slag  is  rarely  quite  expelled  by  the  pressure  that  sticks 
them  together ;  it  is  therefore  laminated  in  structure.  As  the 
soft  compounds  and  those  largely  varying  in  chemical  con- 
stituents came  gradually  to  be  produced  by  casting  processes, 
it  was  natural  and  convenient  to  enlarge  the  term  *'  steel "  to 
cover  them ;  and  the  use  of  the  term  was  at  the  same  time 
rendered  legitimate  and  scientific  by  basing  the  classifica- 
tion on  one  of  the  grand  characteristics— structure  due  to 
casting — rather  than  on  ingredients,  as  heretofore,  especially 
since  structural  qualities  were  constantly  increasing  in  im- 
portance. It  is  found  practically  convenient  to  distinguish 
between  all  the  cast  malleable  compounds,  whether  hard  or 
soft,  by  affixing  the  name  of  the  metalloid  chieflv  incorpo- 
rated, such  as  chrome  steel,  manganese  steel,  and  the  lilce, 
or  the  percentage  of  carbon,  or  both.  It  is  important  to 
know  the  amount  of  carlx)n  in  structural  steels,  and  this 
may  be  readily  determined.  The  general  usa^e  of  com- 
merce, as  well  as  of  works,  is  rapidlv  fixing  this  enlarged 
definition.  As  this  article  is  intended  to  refer  to  those  com- 
pounds of  iron  which  are  generally  known  and  sold  as  steel, 
such  as  Bessemer  rails  and  open-hearth  boiler-plate,  as  well 
as  tool-steel  and  spring  steel,  the  definition  must  for  these 
purposes  be  as  follows :  Steel  is  a  comi)ound  of  iron  which 
has  oeen  cast  from  a  fluid  state  into  a  malleable  mass.  The 
terms  "  pot "  or  **  crucible  "  steel,  "  open-hearth  steel,"  and 
"Bessemer  steel"  are  convenient  for  distinguishing  proc- 
esses of  manufacture,  but  they  do  not  necessarily  distin- 
guish between  steels  which  differ  either  cheraicaUV  or  me- 
chanically. 

Nature  and  Composition  of  Steel. ^From  the  preceding 
definition  it  will  be  observed  that  the  grand  structural  char- 
acteristic of  steel,  to  which  it  largely  owes  its  value  for  all 


uses,  is  homogeneity  due  to  fusion  ;  also,  that  its  chemical 
constituents  and  the  characters  due  to  them  are  very  vari- 
ous. The  important  chemical  qualities  of  tool-steel  are :  ( 1  • 
The  tempering  quality,  which  is  due,  first,  to  the  pressemv  «•( 
SSLJ  i  to  11  per  cent.*of  carbon;  second,  to  the  mechani<al 
mixture  of  this  carbon  with  the  metal  by  means  of  j^hiv 
cooling  from  a  red  heat,  which  makes  the  metal  com  para- 
tivelv  soft,  so  that  it  can  be  cut  with  the  ordinary  t<M>l>: 
third,  the  extreme  hardening  of  the  metal,  when,  by  means 
of  sudden  cooling,  the  carbon  is  chemically  dissolved  in  the 
iron.  (2)  An  important  condition  of  tool-steel  is  its  free<i«»m 
from  ingredients,  such  as  phosphorus,  which  induce  brittle- 
ness.  Excepting  some  modern  steels,  in  the  manufacture  of 
which  nickel,  manganese,  tungsten,  chromium,  titanium,  and 
some  other  metalloids  are  employed,  the  best  tool-steels  have 
but  a  few  hundredths  of  1  per  cent,  of  any  ingredient  except 
carbon,  silicon,  and  iron. 

The  more  important  Qualities  of  structural  steels  vary 
with  their  precise  uses,  in  general,  great  resistance  to  stat- 
ical strains,  or  to  those  gradually  applied,  is  accompanied 
by  comparative  brittleness  and  unfitness  to  resist  strains 
suddenly  applied.  High  resistance,  resilience,  hardness,  and 
brittleness  increase,  up  to  certain  limits,  with  the  amount  of 
impurities,  chiefly  carbon,  contained  in  the  metal.  Low  re- 
sistance, softness,  ductility,  and  toughness  become  more 
marked,  within  certain  limits,  as  the  impurities  become  loss ; 
but  too  little  as  well  as  too  much  impurity  makes  steel  wt&k 
and  unsuitable  for  structural  purposes.  It  requires  what  is 
called  body  to  give  it  resistance  to  either  statical  or  sudden 
strains.  This  body  is  imparted  by  carbon,  manganese,  ^ili- 
con, phosphorus, and  by  other  ingredients;  but  too  much  of 
either  of  them,  or  of  certain  compounds  of  them,  weakens 
the  metal.  While  it  is  known,  generally,  that  the  substanct^ 
mentioned  may  to  a  certain  extent  replace  one  another  as 
body-giving  elements,  and  that  some  of  them  ap|)ear  to  neu- 
tralize others  (for  instance,  that  manganese  restores  the 
ductility  of  steel  made  brittle  by  phosphorus),  comparatively 
little  progress  has  jet  been  made  in  definite  and  formulat^'d 
knowledge  regarding  the  mechanical  effects  of  chemical 
mixture  in  iron  and  steel. 

The  Manufacture  of  Steel— (1)  The  Crucible  Steel  Ptoc^sa. 
— This  is  the  oldest  and  simplest.  It  at  first  consist eii  in 
melting  wrought  iron  with  carbon  in  clay  crucibles.  Thus 
Indian  "wootz"  is  made,  containing  as  much  as  1-1  {>er 
cent,  of  carbon,  so  that  it  requires  decarburization  bi-fore 
it  can  be  forged.  In  the  present  manufacture  other  injjre- 
dients  besides  carbon,  chiefly  manganese,  are  added.  Some- 
times substances  intended  to  combine  with  and  remove  the 
impurities  in  the  wrought  iron  are  introduced,  but  generally 
these  impurities  remain  in  the  steel.  The  finest  steel  mu.< 
therefore  be  made  from  wrought  iron  which  has  been  fniri- 
fied  by  reworking  with  pure  fuel,  and  which  was  originally 
made  from  pure  ores.  The  melting-point  of  wrought  in>n 
is  so  high  that  it  has  been  usual  to  carburize  it  by  cementa- 
tion (see  Fuenace)  in  order  to  fuse  it  at  a  convenient.  t<»ra- 
perature  in  crucibles.  This  cemented  or  blistered  bar  wiis 
the  steel  of  commerce  until  Huntsman  melted  it  in  a  cru- 
cible in  1770,  producing  a  true  east  steel.  The  use  of  tb«? 
Siemens  furnace  and  the  modem  improvement  of  crucibU-s 
render  the  melting  of  wrought  iron  practicable  and  ch^-njiL 
The  cheaper  grades  of  crucible  steel  are  largely  made  fri»m 
Bessemer  steel  rail-ends,  crop-ends,  and  other  scrap.  This 
material,  being  made  directly  from  cast  iron,  without  that 
purification  from  silicon  and  phosphorus  to  which  wrought 
iron  could  have  been  subjected  m  puddling,  produces  an 
inferior  steel  to  that  made  from  the  purest  wrought  iron 
for  purposes,  like  tool-steel,  requiring  both  hardness  and 
toughness.  By  melting  wrought  iron  and  a  little  cast  iron 
together,  especially  ca^t  iron  containing  manganese,  ihe 
cheaper  grades  of  steel  are  produced.  The  impurities  of 
the  cast  iron  remain  in  the  steel.  Although  crucible  st^^l 
has  Ijeen  cheapened  by  using  the  materials  mentioned,  and 
by  means  of  tne  gas-furnace,  the  less  refined  gravies  of  sit-vl 
are  made  at  so  much  less  cost  and  with  so  much  greater 
uniformity  by  the  open-hearth  process,  and  within  certain 
limits  by  the  Bessemer  process,  that  the  crucible  process  is 
becoming  gradually  confined  to  the  finer  grades  of  tiK>l- 
stecl :  and  here  it  must  probablv  lon^  retain  its  su|M?riority, 
chiefly  because  it  can  begin  with  a  highly  refined  iron,  f  n^m 
which  es|)ecially  phosphorus,  silicon,  and  sulphur  have  Ut-n 
more  or  less  completely  eliminated. 

The  quantity  of  steel  made  by  the  crucible  process  is  n'lv 
tively  small.  The  two  processes  which  produce  the  bulk  of 
the  I'netal  for  rails,  structural  material,  wire,  nails,  plait-s. 


732 


STEEL 


and  heavily  moving  blok^hes  or  bubbles.  Second,  the  boil- 
ing of  the  metal,  when  the  slag  settles  and  becomes  thinner 
and  the  whole  surface  of  the  bath  is  covered  with  a  lively 
spouting  of  the  metal  and  slag,  sometimes  of  the  metal 
tnrough  the  slag.  These  periods  represent  the  following 
operations :  (1)  The  silicon  in  the  pig.  having  at  this  tem- 
perature a  higher  affinity  for  oxygen  than  the  carbon  has, 
is  burned  out  first,  partly  by  the*  flame,  which  is  somewhat 
oxidizing,  and  partly  by 'the  oxygen  in  the  ore.  Thus  slag 
is  rapidly  formed  and  also  thickened  by  the  release  of  the 
silica  and  other  impurities  in  the  ore.  (2)  When  the  silicon 
of  the  pig  is  nearly  consumed  its  carbon  begins  to  burn 
freely  and  to  throw  off  carbonic  oxide,  whit-h  makes  the 
now  hotter  and  thinner  slag  boil  violently. 

(3)  Bessemer  Process. — The  chemical  part  of  the  Bessemer 
process  may  be  generally  stated  as  the  oxidation  by  means 
of  air-blasts  of  the  carbon  and  silicon  (in  the  acid)  or  of  the 
carbon  and  phosphorus  (in  the  basic)  in  ibelted  crude  cast 
iron  so  as  to  make  it  malleable.  During  this  reaction  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  iron  is  also  oxidized.  This  is  reduced  by 
adding  manganiferous  pig  iron,  which  reintroduces  the  ne- 
cessary amount  of  carVwn  and  also  adds  manganese,  whose 
presence  is  useful  in  the  subsequent  rolling  of  the  steel. 

The  Bessemer  process  as  first  perfonned,  and  as  still  prac- 
ticed to  a  very  limited  extent  abroad  with  irons  rich  in 
manganese,  consists  in  applying  the  blast  until  all  but  one- 
fourth  to  one-half  of  1  per  cent,  of  the  carbon  is  burned  out, 
and  then  casting  the  product.  Stopping  the  blast  at  this 
point,  however,  is  very  uncertain ;  hardly  any  irons  contain 
the  right  amount  of  manganese  for  this  treatment  and  the 
process  has  certain  mechanical  objections.  Hence  the  near- 
ly universal  practice  is  to  blow  the  iron  until  all  the  carbon 
is  exhausted — a  point  readily  detenuined ;  but  the  product 
now,  as  in  the  open-hearth  process  before  described,  con- 
tains so  much  oxide  of  iron  that  it  is  red-short  and  crumbles 
in  working.  To  reduce  this  oxide  of  iron,  manganese,  which 
has  a  stronger  affinity  for  the  oxygen  than  the  iron  has,  is 
added  by  running  into  the  converter  melted  spiegeleisen, 
which  is  a  pig  iron  containing  10  to  20  per  cent,  of  manga- 
nese, or  by  otherwise  adding  ferro-manganese  to  the  charge. 
Any  desired  amounts  of  carbon  and  manganese  are  also 
thus  added  to  the  product.  No  phosphorus  is  removed  from 
the  iron  in  the  acid  Bessemer  process.  Only  the  carbon  and 
the  silicon  are  oxidized.  It  is  therefore  importj^nt  to  start 
^  with  pig  irons  having  a  little  less  phosphorus,  sulphur,  and 
copper  than  the  steel  may  safely  contain ;  but  it  is  not  usu- 
ally practicable  to  use  irons  low  in  silicon,  for  the  oxidation 
of  this  element  produces  the  high  temperature  necessary  to 
keep  the  mass  fluid.  Manganese  is  to  a  certain  extent  a 
substitute  for  silicon  in  this  resjiect,  and  alwavs  a  valuable 
ingredient,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  irons  of  the  world  do 
not  contain  it  in  important  quantitic^s.  Usually  a  pig  con- 
taining from  li  to  2i  per  cent,  of  silicon  is  required.  This 
will  heat  the  charge  to  such  a  degree  that  10  to  15  per  cent, 
of  scrap  may  be  worked  with  the  pig-iron  charge.  If  there 
is  more  silicon  than  this  the  charge  becomes  too  hot.  One 
reason  why  silicon  has  greater  heating  power  than  carbon 
(it  is  stated  by  Akerraan  to  have  nine  times  as  much)  is  be- 
cause the  product  of  its  combustion,  slag,  remains  in  the 
converter,  while  the  product  of  the  combustion  of  carVion 
goes  out  in  gaseous  form,  and  carries  much  heat  with  it. 

A  standard  American  Bessemer  plant  of  a  type  to  which 
many  existing  works  belong  consists  (1)  of  a  melting  depart- 
ment. The  furnace  and  working-floor  are  shown  in  plan  by 
Fig.  1 ;  sections  of  these  floors  and  the  furnaces  are  shown 
by  Fig.  2.  There  are  hoists  at  a  for  coal,  etc.,  and  at  b  for 
iron ;  four  cupola  furnaces  and  their  platforms  and  blowing 
machinery ;  two  ladles,  K,  standing  on  .ncales,  for  weighing 
the  melted  iron :  and  spouts,  M,  N,  F^ig.  2,  for  conducting  it 
to  the  vessels  or  converters ;  two  reverberatory  furnaces  for 
spiegeleisen,  and  their  spouts.  (2)  The  ccm verting  depart- 
ment, shown  in  ground  plan  by  Fig.  1  and  in  cross-section 
by  Fig.  2.  It  contains  two  5-t()n  to  7-ton  vessels,  N,  in  which 
tfie  melted  iron  is  treated  by  air-blasts.  Such  a  vessel  is 
illustrated  by  Fig.  3.  Also  a  ladle  and  a  hydraulic  ladle- 
crane  at  E,  Fig.  1,  by  means  of  which  the  steel  is  received 
from  the  vessels  and  poured  into  the  ingot-moulds,  which 
stand  upon  a  depressed  })art  of  the  floor  called  the  pit. 
Three  otner  hydraulic  cranes  swing  over  the  pit  to  set  the 
ingot-moulds  and  remove  and  load  the  ingots.  Two  of 
them  swing  over  the  vessels  to  assist  in  their  daily  repairs. 
The  water  and  air  pressure  reservoirs  are  surmounted  by  a 
platform  rf.  Fig.  1,  standing  upon  which  boys,  liy  turning 
valves,  admit  water  to  the  cranes  and  air  to  the  vessels  by 


means  of  underground  pipes.  All  the  constant  operationi? 
of  hoisting,  lowering,  and  blowing  are  conducted  from  tbi> 
platform,  which  overlooks  the  entire  converting  departiufni. 
(3)  The  engine   department,  which  is  not  illustrate*!.     It 


Fio.  2. 


Fio.  1. 

contains  a  blowing-engine,  usually  a  double  en^ne,  calla- 
ble of  delivering  air  at  25  lb.  pressure  i)er  square  inch.  '1  Ue 
water-pressure  machinery  for  actuating  the  hydraulic  ma- 
chinery consists  of  a  pair  of  duplex  pumps. 

The  recent  tendency  in  the  U.  S.  has  been  to  do  awa* 
with  the  troublesome  casting-pit.  In  one  conspicuf>us  ra>i- 
this  is  accomplished  by  ywuring  the  st*»el  into  a  labile  mi^- 
pended  from  an  overhead  traveling  crane.  The  stet»l  iy 
poured  into  moulds  standing  on  cars,  constituting  a  train, 
p  that  the  whole  charge  can  be  hauled  out  of  the  convert- 
ing-house by  a  locomotive  soon  after  it  is  cast. 

A  growing  practice  in  Europe  and  in  the  U.  8.  is  to  di^ 
pense  entirely  with  the  remelting  of  the  pig  iron  in  cu|x>lii>. 
The  molten  piff  iron  as  it  is  tapped  from  the  blast  furTia<^> 
is  run  into  latlTes  mounted  on  cars.  It  is  cast  into  a  lar<:^ 
vessel  holding  100  to  150  tons  of  molten  met^,  ealle<l  the 
mixer.  From  this  mixer  the  iron  is  tapped  whenever  re- 
quired, and  in  the  quantities  needed,  into  la<lle-ears.  fm!!i 
which  it  is  poured  into  the  converters  direct.  This  is  oaIIf«i 
the  direct  process. 

In  the  older  process,  the  pig  iron,  having  been  hoist e<i  to 
the  charging  platform,  is  put,  with,  say,  10  |)er  eent^  of  <^«il. 
into  one  of  the  cupolas  and  melted.  When  some  IH.OOO  to 
30,000  lb.  (whatever  charge  is  determined  on)  have  run  iiiN« 
one  of  the  ladles,  K,  the  latter  is  turned  over  by  means  of  a 
worm-wheel,  thus  pouring  the  iron  into  the  spout,  ^hirii 
leads  it  to  one  of  the  vessels,  the  simplest  form  of  whirh 
is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  A  vessel  that  will  convert  a  6-ton  char^.'v 
is  8i  feet  in  external  diameter  and  15  feet  high.  It  is  nimit- 
chiefly  of  4-inch  to  f-inch  iron  plates,  and  lined  nearly  a  f<«»: 
thick  with  refractory  material.  At  one  end  it  has' an  1.**- 
inch  opening,  called  the  nose ;  at  the  other  a  tuyert^^lh.x, 
communic^itingwith  the  blowing-engine.  From  the  tuyen- 
box  12  fire-brick  tuveres,  each  perforated  with  12  f-^ini  i* 
holes,  project  through  and  are  imbedded  in  the  lining.  A 
tuyere  is  shown  in  section  by  A.  These  tuyeres  last  but 
10  or  15  heats,  and  are  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  U* 
readilv  renewed.  The  vessel  is  mounted  on  trunnions,  ami 
turned  by  a  hvdraulic  cylinder  by  means  of  a  rack  and  pin- 
ion. When  the  charge  enters  for  the  process  the  tuyen-s 
are  turned  up  as  at  C,  so  that  the  iron  will  not  run' into 


BTEKL 


rlj^tji-  The  Uiitst  i»  iUn  inhMUM,  ami  tlie  tuT^re?^  tumt*l 
*ik*wti  ^»  ihiii  thi^  nwiiii  will  lluw  twrr  tliern,  and  l>c  jiicrvtHl 
i  *  V  1 1 1  f  «'  r)  ti^  ri  1 1  j^  f<>l  *j  r  ( ins  t » f  » i  r.  T  h  u  c  u  b  i  en  I  l*ij  ji  t  ei  1 1  s  of  t  h  p 
vi«»ocl  i^  (?lj:bt  In  rwf'hr  ijtru's  1  h^rt  rif  the  cluipge  of  irtm. 


Fio.  3. 


in  r»r(lur  to  give  room  for  ebullition.  The  vessel  lining  is 
h- ated  red  hot  and  the  fuel  discharged  before  the  iron  is 
turned  in.  The  iron  is  now  subjected  to  144  streams  of 
air,  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  at  15  to  25  lb. 
jirt-ssnre,  for  about  twenty  minutes.  Most  of  the  silicon 
i«-  first  burned  out,  the  result  being  slag,  and  a  compara- 
tively dull  flame  at  the  converter-mouth.  When  the  car- 
bun  begins  to  burn  freely  the  volume  and  brilliancy  of  the 
tiiinie  increase;  and  as  the  surging  mass  grows  hotter,  and 
Ix.ils  over  in  splashes  of  fluid  slag,  the  discharge  is  a  thick, 
white,  roaring  blaze,  and  the  massive  ve.ssel  and  its  iron 
foundations  tremble  under  the  violent  ebullition.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  o|H?ration  the  flame  becomes  thinner,  and 
it  suddenly  contracts  and  loses  illuminating  |H>wer  when 
<if<L'arhurization  is  complete.  The  determination  of  this 
jM-riod  is  the  critical  point  of  the  process.  Ten  seconds  too 
much  or  too  little  blowing  injures  or  spoils  the  product.  At 
rhe  proper  instiint,  as  determined  best  by  the  spectroscope 
«»r  by  colored  glasses,  but  usually  by  the  naked  eye,  the  fore- 
luMn  turns  down  the  vessel  and  shuts  off  the  blast.  The 
<ljartre  of  spiegeleiseu  is  then  run  in,  when  another  flaming 
r.  act  ion  occurs.  The  vessel  being  still  further  depressed, 
the  steel  runs  into  the  ladle,  pure,  white,  and  shining,  from 
Jiudor  its  coating  of  red-hot  slag.  A  blanket  of  slag,  most 
ux  lul  in  preserving  its  temperature,  follows  it  into  the  ladle. 
'1  fio  nielal  is  then  let  into  the  ingot-moulds  and,  after  the 
oMprior  surfac^e  of  the  steel  has  crystallized,  the  mould  is 
rtiuove<l,  and  the  ingot  is  ready  for  reheating  and  rolling. 

I'or  the  basic  process  the  converter  is  lined  with  a  mix- 
tun-  of  highly  calcined  dolomite  (magnesian  limestone)  and 
tar.  either  by  ramming  it  into  place  or  building  it  up  of 
tjritk  made  from  the  mixture.  A  certain  amount  of  calcnied 
iiiue  is  charged  with  the  iron,  further  additions  Ixdng  made 
a<  HMjuired.  When  the  carbon  has  been  blown  out,  tlie  slag 
i^  {K)urfd  off  and  a  brief  perio<l  of  blowing,  called  the  after- 
blow,  follows,  during  which  the  last  portions  of  the  phos- 
]»horus  in  the  metal  are  eliminated,  passing  into  the  slag. 

Thf  laiUe-crane  (Fig.  4)  is  a  nwlical  departure  from  the 
nearest  kindred  practice.  The  ladle,  instead  of  swinging 
from  a  crane-chain,  as  in  a  foundry,  is  rigidly  held  in  a  fixed 
..rbit.  This  feature  wa.s  original  with  Bessemer,  and  to 
it  lie  adde<l  the  old  ladle  with  a  |>ouring-nozzle  in  its  bot- 
loin,  regulat^nl  by  a  movable  stop|ier  {1  and  2).  This  con- 
sist-^  of  a  loam-coated  hkI,  a,  armed  at  its  lower  end  with  a 
round-ended  fire-brick  or  plumbago  stopj»er  fitted  to  the 
a  .urave  top  of  a  fire-brick  nozzle.  The  stopper  is  raised  and 
lowered  by  a  lever,  o,  in  the  hand  of  the  workman.  Thus 
I  ho  heavy  steel  is  dis<*harged  pure,  while  the  lighter  slag  and 
impuritit^  are  left  at  the  top.  Pouring  steel  into  moulds 
ov  I'r  the  rim  of  a  ladle,  as  in  foundries,  would  make  exces- 
•sive  ^-nip  from  spilling  and  chilling,  and  is  wholly  imprac- 
ti'-able.  The  vertical  motion  of  the  crane  is  necessiiry  in 
(M.uring  from  the  vessel,  to  keep  the  ladle  close  under  the 
iiosi',  ihiLS  preventing  too  great  a  fall  of  the  stream,  and  con- 
N.Mjuent  slopping.  The  ladle  is  also  tipped  by  a  worm  and 
N%'«rMi-w}jeel, /i,  to  regulate  the  position  of  the  nozzle  over 
tfiu  moulds  and  to  turn  over  the  ladle  for  heating  and  re- 
n.iir^.  The  hydraulic  crane  generally  used  in  works  in  the 
I'.  S.  is  also  illustrated  by  Fig.  4.  and  consists  of  a  cylinder 
ojH'ii  at  the  top  only,  and  re([uiring  chiefly  vertical  support 
f  r<  »m  t  he  solid  pier  on  which  it  rests.  The  ram  passes  through 
Au  u[»per  stuirmg-box  an<l  through  a  top  support  in  the  roof 
of  the  building.  The  jib  is  placed  between  these  su|>ports, 
>»'»  that  the  lateral  strain  on  the  rain  is  comparatively  small. 
The  mm  is  stepped  upon  a  column  of  water  wliich  is  sub- 
^tantiallv  friction  less. 


When  the  ste<d  h  intended  for  rniJis— nnd  sometimoi^M* 
f>er  centu  of  that  made  in  liie  U-  S,  H  s*:i  ujmmI— the  chaiww 
&n3  so  regulaied  a^  to  cast  either  five  or  six  ingols,  atiu  a, 
liUle  over  a»  a  margin  for  chilling  aiitl  spilling*   Each  mgot 


FiQ.  4. 


makes  three  or  six  rails.  The  ingots  are  removed  hot  to  the 
blooming-mill,  and  if  any  heating-furnace  is  ready,  they  are 
charged  into  it  directly,  thus  saving  much  heat.  They  must 
be  allowed  to  crystallize,  however,  before  rolling.  If  the  in- 
terior of  an  ingot  is  still  pasty  from  the  heat  of  conversion, 
it  will  go  to  pieces  in  the  rolls.  Ingots  for  three  to  six  rails 
each  are  used,  instea<l  of  ingots  for  single  rails — first,  to  save 
a  repetition  of  manipulations  in  working.  This  must  be 
done  by  machinery  to  be  done  cheaply,  and  a  machine  can 
handle'a  big  ingot  as  quickly  as  a  little  one.  Second,  the 
extreme  top  of  an  ingot  is  unsound,  and  must  be  cut  off 
and  reconverted;  the  numljer  of  scrap  ends  is  reduced 
to  two  for  three  to  six  rails.  The  practice  is  growing  in 
the  direction  of  large  ingots  and  large  reductions  for  all 
purposes  ;  and  the  counterpart  of  this — to  cheapen  cost — is 
handling  by  steam  and  reducing  rapidly  by  heavier  rolls  and 
hammers.    See  also  Rolling-mills. 

Since  about  1870  open-hearth  and  Bessemer  steel  have 
practically  displaced  puddled  iron  in  the  manufacture  of 
rails,  wire,  plates,  structural  shai>e8,  tin  plate,  and  cut  nails, 
and  has  made  heavy  inroads  into  its  field,  in  bars  and  other 
shai»es. 

The  production  of  crucible  steel  in  the  U.  S.  was  72,586 
gross  tons  in  1891,  84,709  tons  in  1892,  and  63,613  gross 
tons  in  1893.  The  f>roduction  of  ofxMi-hearth  steel  was 
579,753  tons  in  1891,  669,889  tons  in  1892,  and  737,890  tons 
in  1893.  The  pnKluction  of  Bessemer  steel  was  3,247,417 
tons  in  1891,  4,168,435  tons  in  1892,  3,215,686  tons  in  1893, 
and  3,579,101  tons  in  1894. 

The  total  production  of  basic  steel  in  the  world  was  3.638,- 
556  tons  in  1893,  Gertnany  contributing  thereto  2,344,754 
tons.  Of  the  total  productions  of  basic  steel  in  the  world 
in  1893,  2,808.241  tons  was  Bessemer  and  830,315  tons  was 
open-hearth  steel. 

Great  Britain  produced  in  1893  1,493,354  gnjss  tons  of 
Besst^mer  steel  ingots  and  1,456,309  tonsof  o|>en-heaith  steel 
ingots.  Gernuitiy  made  2,171,138  metric  tons  of  manufac- 
tured steel  in  1893.  Belgium  i>nMlueed  273.058  metric  tons 
of  steel  ingots  in  1893:  France  pn»d need  814,977 metric  tons 
of  ingots  in  the  same  year:  Sweden  has  a  record  of  82,422 
tons  of  Bessemer  and  7ti,556  tons  of  o|)en-hearth  steel  ingots 
in  1892:  and  Austria  reports  509.734  metric  tons  of  Bessemer 
and  open-hearth  ingots  in  the  Siime  year.  The  pro<luction 
of  Kussia  in  1892  was  365,484  metric  tons.     Spain  made 


734 


STEELE 


STEELTON 


78,413  metric  tons  in  1891,  and  Italy  56,543  metric  tons  in 
1892.    A  small  quantity  of  steel  is  also  proiluced  in  Canada. 

See  The  Metallurgy  of  Steel,  by  Henry  M.  Howe  (New 
York,  1890) ;  Bauerman's  Treatise  on  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron 
(London) ;  Percy*s  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel  (London) ; 
and  Wedding*s  Eisenhuttenkunde  (Brunswick). 

A.  L.  HoLLEY.    Revised  by  C.  Kirchhoff. 

Steele,  Daniel,  A.  M.,  D.  D. :  minister  and  educator ;  b. 
at  Windham,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  5,  1824;  educated  at  Wesleyan 
Academy  and  Wesleyan  University,  where  he  craduateil 
1848;  joined  the  New  England  Conference  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  1849 ;  was  pastor  until  1862  ;  Professor  of 
Ancient  Languages  1862-69  and  acting  president  of  Genesee 
College  1869-71 ;  and  vice-president  of  Syracuse  Univer- 
sity 1871-72 ;  since  then  has  taught  in  school  of  theology 
of  Boston  University,  and  served  in  several  pastorates.  He 
has  published  Commentary  on  Joshua  {\H12) ;  Binney's  Theo- 
logical CoTnpend  Improved  (1874) ;  Love  Enthroned  (1875) ; 
Milestone  Papers  (1878);  Antinomianism  Rei*ived,  or  a  Ref- 
utation of  the  Doctrines  of  the  Plymouth  Brethren  (1885) ; 
Commentary  on  Leviticus  and  ^''umbers  (1891) ;  Bible  Read- 
ings (1892) ;  Sermons  and  Essays  (1892).   Albert  Osborn. 

Steele,  David,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  and  professor ;  b.  near 
liondonderry,  Ireland,  Oct.  20,  1827;  educated  at  Miami 
University  and  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia;  principal  of  Cynthia 
Academy,  Kentucky,  1857-58;  Professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Greek  in  Miami  Uiiiversitv  1858-59 ;  pastor  of  the  Fourth 
Reformed  church,  Philadelphia,  since  1861 ;  Professor  of 
Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Pastoral  Theology  1863-75,  and  since 
1875  of  Doctrinal  Theology  in  the  Reformed  Presb>'terian 
Seminary,  Philadelphia;  was  moderator  of  the  (ieneral 
Synod  1868;  delegate  to  the  Pan-Presbyterian  Council  at 
Philadelphia  1880 ;  president  of  the  board  of  foreign  mis- 
sions in  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  church  since  1883.  Dr. 
Steele  edited  The  Reformed  Presbyterian  Advocate  1867- 
77;  and  has  published  The  Times  in  which  we  live  and 
the  Ministry  which  they  require  (18?2);  Biographical 
Sketch  of  Rev,  J,  N.  McLeod,  D,  D,  (1875) ;  The  Amlogetics 
of  History  (1886) ;  and  discourses.  C.  K.  Hoyt. 

Steele,  Frederick:  soldier ;  b.  at  Delhi,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  14, 
1819;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  July  1. 
1843,  and  was  assigned  to  the  Second  Infantry ;  fought  in 
the  war  with  Mexico,  gaining  the  brevets  of  first  lieutenant 
and  captain  for  Contreras  and  Chapultepec ;  served  in  Cali- 
fornia 1849-55,  and  on  the  Western  frontier  from  1855  until 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war,  when,  as  major  of  the  Eleventh 
Infantry,  he  was  engaged  in  Missouri,  commanding  a  brigade 
in  the  actions  at  Dug  Spring,  Wilson's  Creek,  and  retreat  to 
Rolla.  Appointed  colonel  Eighth  Iowa  Volunteers  in  Sept., 
1861,  and  commissioned  brigiMuier-general  of  volunteers  Jan. 
29, 1862,  he  commanded  a  division  in  the  army  of  the  South- 
west until  November,  when  promoted  to  be  major-general 
of  volunteers  and  assigned  to  the  Thirteenth  Army-corps, 
which  he  led  in  the  \azoo  expedition  and  capture  of  Ar- 
kansas Post  (Dec.,  1862-Jan.,  1863) ;  transferred  to  the  Fif- 
teenth Corps,  .he  was  engaged  in  the  Vicksburg  campaign, 
when  his  aivision  was  sent  to  Helena,  Ark.,  and  captured 
Little  Rock  Sept.  10  ;  in  1864  commanded  the  department 
of  Arkansas,  and  on  Nov.  29,  1864,  went  to  the  aid  of  Gen. 
Canby  in  the  reduction  of  Mobile ;  was  mustered  out  of  vol- 
unteer service  in  Mar.,  1867.  For  the  capture  of  Little  Rock 
he  was  breveted  brigadier-general,  and  lor  meritorious  serv- 
ices major-general  U.  S.  army.  In  July,  1866,  he  was  assigned 
to  the  colonelcv  of  the  Twentieth  Infantry,  which  he  held 
at  the  time  of  his  death,  at  San  Mateo,  Cal.,  Jan.  12, 1868. 

Revised  by  James  Mercur. 

Steele,  Sir  Ricftard:  author;  b.  in  Dublin,  Mar.,  1672; 
educated  at  the  Charterhouse,  London,  and  at  Oxford.  In 
1695  he  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  Life  Guanls,  and  in  the 
same  year  published  The  Procession^  a  poem  on  Queen 
Marv's  funeral.  This  was  dedicated  to  Lord  Cutts,  who  gave 
Steele  a  captaincy  in  his  regiment,  the  Coldstream  Guards. 
In  1701  he  published  The  Christian  Hero,  a  short  manual  of 
religious  ethics,  and  in  November  or  Deeeml)er  of  the  same 
year  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane  his  first  comedy,  The  Fu- 
neral. This  was  followed  by  The  Lying  Lover  (170;j)  and 
The  Tender  Husband  (1705).  About  this  time  he  became  a 
member  of  the  famous  Kit-Cat  Club,  and  married  a  widow, 
a  Mrs.  Margaret  Stretch,  who  seems  to  have  died  in  1706. 
In  May,  1707,  through  the  infiuence  of  Arthur  Maynwaring, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  Government  office  of  gazetteer. 
In  Sept.,  1707,  he  married  Miss  Mary  Scurlock,  of  Llangun- 


nor,  Carmarthenshire,  Wales.  His  letters  to  this  laily  wpr*' 
first  printed  in  1787.  He  was  always  in  pecuniary  diffi- 
culties ;  but  such  was  his  amiability  that  he  always'  found 
friends  to  assist  him,  and  was  successively  appointi^i  t' 
lucrative  offices,  among  which  were  commissitmer  of  tlj< 
stamp  office,  surveyor  of  the  royal  stables,  ffovemor  of  th.- 
royal  comedians,  justice  of  the  peace  for  MiddlcM'x,  aiil 
commissioner  of  forfeited  estates  in  Scotland.  In  |H>liiii> 
he  was  an  ardent  Whig.  In  1713  he  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Stockbridge,  and  was  expelled  in  the  follow  in^' 
vear  on  account  of  political  articles  written  by  him,  but  wa^ 
knighted  by  the  ting,  and  returned  to  Parliament  for 
Boroughbridge  in  1715.  In  1720  his  patent  as  governor  of 
the  royal  comedians  was  revoked,  by  which,  accordin;?  to 
his  own  statement,  he  suffered  a  loss  of  £10,0()0,  and  in  iht- 
following  year  he  brought  out  his  successful  eomeiiy  ut 
The  Conscious  Lovers,  which  was  dedicated  to  the  kii.^. 
who  sent  him  a  present  of  £500.  His  first  wife,  who  «li.M 
soon  after  their  marriage,  brought  him  a  plantation  in  ih^ 
West  Indies,  and  his  second  wife  was  a  Welsh  heiress,  hut 
he  squandered  his  large  income  in  dissipation  and  un- 
profitable speculations,  and  being  attacked  with  a  ftaralytic 
stroke,  which  disabled  him  from  literary  work,  he  retir*-*! 
to  his  estate  at  Llangunnor,  where  he  died  Sept.  1.  172i.*. 
He  was  burie<l  in  St.  Peter's  church,  Carmarthen.  Sevtm; 
of  Steele's  political  essays  and  pamphlets  had  a  high  repitt.v 
tiou  in  their  day,  and  his  comedies  were  well  received  ui-^-n 
the  stage.  His  chief  fame  rests  upon  his  connection  with 
The  Taller  and  The  Spectator,  almost  the  earliest  of  tim* 
long  series  of  periodical  works  which  occupy  so  prorainmr 
a  place  in  English  literature,  although  in  these  his  part  Wii^ 
much  inferior  to  that  of  Addison,  who  had  been  his  sfh«»-  i- 
fellow  at  the  Charterhouse.  The  Taller  (1709-11)  contaiiuM 
271  numbers ;  188  were  by  Steele,  42  by  Addison,  and  08 
by  both  conjointly.  This  was  succeeded  by  7%€  Speriaf^r 
(1711-12),  containing  555  numbers,  of  which  236  were  U 
Steele  and  274  by  Addison.  After  the  discontinuance  <f 
The  Spectator,  Steele,  with  the  co-operation  of  Addi^  -i, 
started  The  Guardian,  but  Addison  soon  withdrew,  and  tlu- 
work  was  brought  to  a  close  with  the  176th  number,  of  whu  h 
82  were  bv  Steele.  Steele  started  other  papers.  The  Emj- 
lishman,  J%c  Lover,  The  Reader,  The  Theater,  and  fhr 
Spinster,  which  were  comparative  failures;  and  he  left  tu" 
unfinished  comedies.  The  School  of  Action  and  The  G^n- 
tlemaJK  His  Poetical  Miscellanies,  original  and  tran^hitiii 
(1714),  possesses  little  merit.  See  Memoirs  of  the  Life  ftn>i 
Writings  of  Sir  Richard  Steele,  by  H.  R.  Mont  gem  try 
(London,  1865),  and  the  Life  of  Steele,  by  Geo.  A.  Airkni. 
(2  vols.,  Boston,  1889).  Also  Richard  Steele,  by  Austin  l»ol>- 
son  (1886),  who  published  his  Selected  Works  in  18H5. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Steel-engraTing :  See  Exoraving. 

Steell,  Sir  John,  R.  S.  A. :  sculptor ;  b.  at  Aberdeen,  S  -r- 
land,  in  1804;  studied  art  at  Edinburgh  and  sculpt un>  at 
Rome ;  made  the  seated  statue  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  whi<  h 
forms  part  of  the  monument  in  Edinburgh ;  pnxiiicWl  tUt 
colossal  statue  of  Queen  Victoria  placed  above  the  Royal  in- 
stitution, Edinburgh,  and  the  bronze  equestrian  statue  <•: 
the  Duke  of  Wellington  erected  in  1850  in  front  of  ti.« 
Register  House,  Edinburgh.  Others  of  his  statues  an*  »' 
the  Marquis  of  Dalhousie,  and  lion.  James  Wilson  at  ( .u- 
cutta;  of  Prof.  John  Wilson,  erected  at  Edinburgh  iNi'n 
the  Scottish  National  Memorial  to  Prince  Albert ;  eolo^v., 
bronze  statues  of  Sir  Walter  Sc*ott  and  of  Burns  for  Central 
Park,  New  York;  colossal  statues  of  Allan  Ramsay  an<i  hr, 
Chalmers  for  Edinburgh:  and  monuments  to  the  F«»rtv- 
second  and  Ninety-third  Highlanders  in  the  eathedrala  ai 
Dunkeld  and  Glasgow.    D.  Sept.  15,  1891. 

Revised  by  Russell  Stuhgis. 

Steelton:  borough;  Dauphin  co..  Pa.;  on  the  Sus<)ii»^ 
hanna  river,  the  Pennsylvania  Canal,  and  the  Penn.  «nil 
thePhila.and  Reading  railways;  3  miles  E.  of  Harrishurj. 
the  State  capital  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  n ' 
5-(t).  It  was  laid  out  under  the  name  of  Baldwin  in  iNlrJ. 
subsequently  was  known  as  Steel- Works  P.  O.,  and  was  n.- 
corporated  under  its  present  name  in  1880.  It  contains  lii- 
great  plant  of  the  Pennsylvania  Steel  Company,  compriMn. 
several  blast  furnaces,  rail  and  blooming  mills,  and  \>Tu)zr 
and  construction  works;  several  flour,  saw,  and  plani'j 
mills;  electric  railways  connecting  the  borough  with  Harr:^ 
burg;  a  inotlel  public-school  building,  erected  by  the  M**! 
company:  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  f75,()00;  ami  a 
daily  and   three   weekly  newspapers.'    Pop,   (1880)  2,44T; 


736 


STEINEN 


STEM 


(2)  The  Dutch  settlers  of  Southern  Africa  applied  the  name 
to  a  species  of  antelope  peculiar  to  and  not  uncommon  in 
that  region,  and  it  is  now  incorporated  in  the  English  vocab- 
ulary of  animals  in  connection  with  it.  The  species  is  the 
Natuitragus  tragulua  (Pediotragua  campentrU  of  Gray). 
The  steinbok  is  an  animal  of  graceful  and  symmetrical  form, 
with  the  head  well  proportioned,  having  a  bovine  nose  and 
large  muffle ;  the  horns,  developed  only  in  the  male  and 
over  the  orbit,  erect,  elongate,  and  subulate ;  the  legs  long 
and  slender ;  the  feet  destitute  of  side-hooflets ;  and  the  tail 
very  short.  The  color  is  a  fulvous  ash  above  and  on  the 
sides,  and  white  beneath.  The  length  is  generally  rather 
less  than  3^  feet,  and  the  height  at  the  shoulder  somewhat 
more  than  1^  feet.    The  speeias  is  most  abundant  on  stony 

f)lains  and  in  valleys,  and  especially  on  open  flats,  where 
arge  stones  and  clumps  of  trees  are  found.  It  is  very  swift, 
and  progresses  by  great  bounds.  It  is  also  very  timid,  and 
readily  alarmed.    It  is  much  esteemed  for  its  flesh. 

Theodore  Gill. 

Steinen,  Karl,  von  den :  ethnologist  and  traveler ;  b.  at 
Ml\lheim-on-the-Ruhr,  Prussia,  Mar.  7,  1855.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Zurich,  Bonn,  and  Strassburg,  and  ethnology  at 
lierlin  and  Vienna ;  made  a  voyage  round  the  world  1879- 
81,  and  was  artist  and  naturalist  attached  to  the  German 
expedition  to  the  Antarctic  island  of  South  Georgia  1882- 
83.  In  1884-85,  with  two  companions  and  a  detail  of  Bra- 
zilian soldiers,  he  i>enetrated  the  unknown  regions  of  North- 
ern Matto  G  rosso,  Brazil,  discovered  the  head  waters  of  the 
river  Xingu,  and  descended  it  to  the  Amazon.  A  second 
journey  to  the  upper  Xingu  was  made  in  1887-88.  Dr.  von 
den  Steinen's  works  include  Durch  Central- Brasilien  (1886), 
describing  the  first  Xingu  exploration ;  Uiiter  den  Natur^ 
vMern  Central- Brasiliens  (1894);  and  many  scientific 
papers.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Steinheil,  IjOuis  Charles  Aitquste  :  genre,  still-life, 
and  portrait  painter ;  b.  in  Strassburg,  June  26,  1814 ;  d.  in 
Paris  May  17,  1885  ;  pupil  of  Decaisne ;  third-class  medals, 
Salons,  1847  and  1851 ;  second-class  1848 ;  Legion  of  Honor 
1860.    His  Mother  (1847)  is  in  the  museum  at  Nantes. 

Stelnmetz,  Karl  Frjedrich,  von :  b.  at  Eisenach,  Saze- 
Weimar,  Dec.  27,  1796 ;  entered  the  Prussian  army  in  1813 
as  a  lieutenant ;  fought  against  the  F'rench ;  became  a  cap- 
tain in  the  regiment  of  Kaiser  Franz  in  1829 ;  fought  at  the 
head  of  two  battalions  of  the  Second  Infantry  Regiment  in 
Mar.,  1848,  in  the  streets  of  Berlin  ;  was  subsequently  made 
governor  of  the  academy  of  cadets  at  Berlin,  and  made  his 
name  illustrious  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  Fifth  Army- 
corps  in  the  campaign  against  Austria  in  1866.  On  June  27, 
28,  and  29, 1866,  he  made  a  stand  at  Nachod,  Skalitz,  and 
Schweinsch&del  with  his  corps  and  one  brigade  against  three 
corps  of  the  enemy,  defeated  them,  drove  them  back,  and 
tooK  eleven  ^uns  and  6,000  prisoners.  By  this  victory  he 
made  it  possible  for  the  second  army  to  debouch,  on  which 
manoeuverthe  success  of  the  Prussian  battle-plan  depended. 
He  received  immediately  the  highest  order,  that  of  the  Black 
Eagle,  and  the  Diet  voted  him  a  national  dotation.  In  the 
war  against  France  in  1870  he  was  appointcxl  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  First  Army,  consisting  of  the  Firet,  Seventh, 
and  Eighth  Army-corjw,  but  he  held  this  position  only  for  a 
short  time,  as  he  came  in  conflict  with  the  supreme  com- 
mand— in  what  manner  is  not  exactly  known,  but  it  seems 
as  if  the  advance  of  the  First  Army  on  Aug.  6,  and  the 
measures  taken  by  the  general  during  the  advance  toward 
and  around  Metz  on  Aug.  14, 15,  and  16,  did  not  agree  with 
the  plans  of  von  Moltke.  In  reality,  the  general  now  lost 
his  independent  command,  his  army*  being  united  to  that  of 
Prince  Friedrich  Charles,  and  the  supreme  command  given 
to  the  prince.  Nominally,  however,  Steinmetz  remained  a 
commander,  subject  only  to  the  orders  of  the  king,  and  there- 
by, as  well  as  from  the  stubbornness  of  his  cliaracter,  arose 
disagreements  between  him  and  the  prince.  The  result  was 
that  in  Sept.,  1870,  Steinmetz  was  appointed  governor-gen- 
eral of  Posen  and  Silesia,  and  removed  from  the  theater  of 
war.  He  handed  in  his  resignation,  which,  however,  the 
king  did  not  accept.  He  was  made  a  general-field-marshal 
Apr.  8, 1871,  and  placed  d  la  suite.  I),  at  Landeck,  Prussian 
Silesia,  Aug.  4,  1877. 

Stein'schnelder,MoRiTz:  bibliographer:  b. at  Prossnitz, 
Moravia,  Mar.  30,  1816 ;  studied  in  Prossnitz,  Nikolsburg, 
Prague,  Vienna,  Leipzig,  and  Berlin ;  teacher  in  Prague 
1842;  teacher  in  Berlin  1845;  since  1859  director  of  the 
Veitel-Heine-Ephraimsch*  Stiftung  in  that  citv,  and  from 
1869  to  1890  head  of  the  Israelitischb  Tr)chter-Schule.     He 


received  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  Columbia  College  IKST  ; 
the  title  of  professor  1894.  He  has  devoted  himself  es|4- 
cially  to  the  non-theological  literature  of  the  Jews  aii'i 
Arabs  during  the  Middle  Ages.  As  a  bibliographer  ai.d 
historian  of  Hebrew  literature  he  is  unsurpassed.  Amrat;: 
his  numerous  works  are  Catal.  libr,  hehr,  in  hibl.  Bodltunm 
(Berlin,  1852-60);  catalogues  of  the  Hebrew  MSS.  in  th- 
libraries  of  Leyden  (1858),  Munich  (1875),  Hamburg  (187*^.-. 
and  Berlin  (18*78);  JeitM  Literature  (London,  1857;  Ju- 
dex, Frankfort,  1893) ;  Zur  Paeudepigraph.  lAt.  (Berlin. 
1869);  Alfarabi  (Petersburg,  1869);  Ptilem.  und  Apology t. 
Lit,  (Leipzig,  1877) ;  Bibliograph,  Handbueh  (Leipzig,  18oy; ; 
and  Hehrdtsehe  Uebersetz.  dea  JfitteUUtera  (2  vols^  Berlin. 
1893),  a  work  which  received  the  prize  of  the  Acad^mie  des 
Inscriptions  in  Paris.  See  Berliner,  Die  Schriften  des  Dr. 
M,  Steitischneider  (Berlin,  1886).         Bichard  GkriTHSiL. 

Steinthal :  See  Oberun,  Johann  Friedrich. 

StePlarton,  formerly  Albion  Mines:  town  of  Pictou 
County,  Nova  Scotia;  3  miles  from  New  Glasgow  and  39  miles 
N.  E.  of  Truro,  on  the  Intercolonial  Railway  (see  map  of 
Quebec,  etc.,  ref.  2-C).  It  is  a  thriving  but  dingy  town  whi<h 
has  grown  up  about  the  Albion  coal  and  iron  mines,  the 
center  of  the  chief  mining  district  of  the  province.  Petn»- 
leum  is  obtained  in  the  vicinity.  The  town  is  the  chief  des- 
tination of  the  French  immigrants  to  the  province.  Pop. 
(1881)  2,297 ;  (1891)  2,410.  M.  W.  H. 

Steller'ida :  a  group  of  echinoderms,  including  the  Stir- 
fish  (Aeieroidea)  and  ()puiuroidea  {qq.  v.),  in  which  the  body 
is  star-shaped. 

Stellhorn,  Frederick  Willl\m  :  theologian;  b.  in  the 
kingdom  of  Hanover,  Germanv,  Oct.  2,  1841.  Emigrate<l  u> 
the  U.  S.  in  1854;  graduated  at  the  institutions  at  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  and  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  pastor  in  St.  Louis  aii^i 
DeKalb  co.,  Ind.,  1865-69;  Professor  of  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  Northwestern  University.  Watertown,  Wis.,  1865^74. 
and  in  Concordia  College,  Fort' Wayne,  1874-81;  since  l><s; 
has  ])een  Professor  of  Theology,  Capitol  University,  Cohim- 
bus,  O.  In  the  Predestination  controversy  he  parted  ffiiu 
the  Missourians  and  entered  the  Joint  Synod  of  Ohio.  Ut- 
has  been  active  as  editor  of  the  Theologische  Zeitbldftrrni.'i 
Lutherische  Kirchenzeitung,&s  weW  as  a  contributor  to  Tf>f 
Theological  Magazine,  He  has  published  a  Lexicon  of  Sttr 
Testament  Greek  (Leipzig,  1886),  and  begun  a  commentary 
on  the  New  Testament,  of  which  the  volume  on  the  (T<is|it'N 
has  ap{>eared.  H.  E.  JAroU'*. 

StePlio  [Lat.  stel'lio,  a  newt  with  starlike  spot«  on  its 
back,  deriv.  of  stella,  star] :  a  genus  of  lizards  of  the  family 
Agamid(B,  The  best-known  species  is  S,  cordylitM  of  tLv 
Levant.  Strict  Mohammedans  kill  it  because  they  conct-iM* 
that  by  the  frequent  bowing  of  the  head  it  intends  to  inHil: 
their  religion,  mocking  their  own  gestures  at  prayer.  Th** 
Turks  use  its  flesh  and  excrement  in  preparing  a  cosmetic. 

Stem  [0.  Eng.  stemn:  Germ,  8tamm,A  deriv.  of  Indi*- 
Europ.  root  std-,  stand,  and  originally  denoting  the  trunk  <>f 
a  treel :  a  term  of  historical  grammar  denoting  that  part  <*f 
a  word  which  is  left  when  the  inflexional  ending  is  remove*  1. 
The  stem  may  therefore  be  identical  with  the  root ;  e.  g.  in 
Lat.  vox.  Gr.  (Ji^,  or,  in  the  Gr.  verb  fl-/u,  but  the  stem  i«» 
more  commonly  formed  by  adding  to  the  root  a  forniativt 
element  called'  a  suffix.  Thus  in  Indo-Europ.  klufos  * 
Sanskr.  grutda  :  Gr.  jcAvr^t :  Lat.  in-clutvsy  a  is  inflexinniil 
ending,  kluto-  is  stem,  klu-  is  root,  and  -/o-  is  suffix.  Similnr- 
ly  we  divide  ^Vf-6-t,  fdg-xi-a :  y6v-o-s,  rSfi-o-s,  ufw-u-a,  doi-u-tt ; 
Siy-io-s,  atud-iii-m  ;  riit-vo-p,  grd-nu-m ;  wia-ri-s,  cu-ti-s ;  awf 
4tf-a,  hom-in-em  ;  Sanskr.  yd/i-a«-a«,  Gr.  'f4v-^vyos,  liat.  y*^it- 
er-is,  etc.  The  relation  of  stem  to  root  in  the  verb  i>  evi- 
dently parallel  to  that  in  the  noun — an  inheritance  fn>ni  a 
period  prior  to  the  development  of  a  grammatical  distinct  i.m 
between  noun  and  verb;  thus  the  ^cpc-,  ^po-  of  ^pc-ru, 
^pa¥Tai  is  to  the  4o-  of  iv-^i,  or  the  ct-  of  «f-<ri  as  the  Xoy^  of 
\^7»-s  is  to  the  <^Ac/3-  of  ^i^.  Though  the  purposes  of  gnini- 
mati(^l  analysis  are  well  served  by  this  division  of  stem  iiitt. 
root  and  suffix,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  in  every  case  tin 
suffix  was  an  originally  independent  word  or  element,  y  m 
the  contrary,  the  form  of  the  stems  is  in  many  cases  doe  !•» 
the  influence  of  analogy,  and  in  others  to  the  retention  of 
the  fuller  original  form  of  the  primitive  word  which  ha^ 
elsewhere  suffered  reduction  by  the  loss  of  a  vowel.  (N« 
Root.)  The  word  stem  as  thus  used  in  grammar  is  a  tmn^ 
lat  ion  or  transfer  of  the  German  word  atamm,  meaning  tJn- 
trunk  (of  a  tree)  in  distinction  to  the  tmrzel  or  root. 

Benj.  Ioe  Wueellr. 


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738 


STBPHANUS 


STEPHEN 


ticed  and  taught  by  its  author ;  and  Longley's,  a  phonetic 
system.  It  is  believed  that  Graham's  modifications  are  used 
by  more  official  court  stenographers  in  the  U.  S.  than  all 
other  adaptations  of  Pitman.  The  Benn  Pitman,  Qraham, 
and  Munson  systems  are  probably  more  generally  taught 
than  anv  others,  and  each  has  a  comprehensive  dictionary. 

Shorthand  writers  are  employed  as  official  reporters'  in 
both  branches  of  Congress,  in  all  the  State  Legislatures,  and 
in  nearly  every  important  court  in  the  country.    Few  news- 

gapers  now  employ  them  for  shorthand  work  alone,  usually 
iring  an  expert  writer  whenever  a  verbatim  report  of  a 
lecture,  sermon,  trial,  or  other  proceeding  is  wanted.  The 
art  of  shorthand  writing  has  become  an  invaluable  promo- 
ter of  ffeneral  business  activity,  and  has  opened  up  a  pleas- 
ant field  of  work  for  young  men  and  young  women.  There 
is  a  constant  deipand  for  those  possessing  a  knowledge  of 
shorthand  writing  and  a  facility  with  the  typewriter. 

The  more  prominent  systems  in  use  in  Germany,  France, 
Great  Britain,  and  the  U.  S.  have  proved  eoual,  in  the  hands 
of  experts,  to  the  task  of  keeping  pace  with  the  most  fervid 
oratory;  but  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  require- 
ments of  the  art  are  so  arduous  that  only  those  who  have 
devoted  years  to  the  practice,  and  are,  withal,  specially 
adapted  for  the  work,  can  ever  hope  to  make  themselves 
equal  to  the  highest  exactions  of  the  profession.    See  Pho- 

KOORAPHY. 

BiBLiooRAPHT. — Lewis,  Historical  Account  of  the  Rise 
and  Progress  of  Stenography  (London,  1816) ;  Gabelsberger, 
Anleitung  zur  deutschen  Redezeichenkunst  (Munich,  1884); 
Heger,  Renurkenstoerthes  uber  die  Stenographic  (Vienna, 
1841) ;  Upham,  Rrief  History  of  the  Art  of  Stenoaraphy, 
frith  a  Proposed  New  System  of  Phonetic  Shortha/nd  (£fssex 
Institute,  1877);  Anderson,  Ilistory  of  Shorthand,  with 
Reference  to  its  Condition  in  Europe  and  America  (New 
York,  1883);  Westby-Gibson,  Early  Shorthand  Systems 
(London,  1882);  Anderson.  Shorthand  Systems  (London, 
1884) ;  Rockwell,  bibliography  in  Circulars  of  Information, 
United  States  Rureau  of  Education,  No.  S  (Washington, 
1884) ;  Pitman,  History  of  Shorthand  (London,  1884) ;  Wal- 
ford.  Statistical  Review  of  the  Literature  of  Shorthand 
(London,  1885) ;  also,  histones  by  Scott  de  Martmville  (Paris, 
1849),  Levy  (London,  1862),  and  Ziebig  (Dresden,  1878). 

Revised  by  Theo.  C.  Rose. 

Steph'anng,  or  Stephens  (Fr.  I^stienne  or  itienne ) :  a 
family  of  French  printere,  several  of  whom  were  also  noted 
as  scholars.  Henry  Stephens,  the  founder  of  the  house  (b. 
about  1460;  d.  in  1520),  established  himself  in  1502  as  a 
printer  in  Paris,  where  his  works  became  famous  for  the  ac- 
curacy and  beauty  of  their  typography.  He  was  aided,  and 
afterward  succeeded  in  business,  by  his  three  sons,  the  most 
distinguished  of  whom  was  his  second  son  Robert  (b.  in 
Paris,  1503),  who  was  eminent  as  a  scholar,  and  in  1531  began 
the  publication  of  his  great  Dictionarium,  seu  Thesaurus 
LingucB  Latina,  of  which  he  put  forth  three  editions,  the 
last  in  1545,  and  which  has  been  several  times  republished. 
He  also  published  editions  of  the  Bible,  with  notes  which 
were  censured  by  the  Sorbonne  because  of  their  Protestant- 
ism, and  indeed  Stephens  was  a  Protestant,  but  he  was  pro- 
tected by  Francis  I.,  who  had  made  him  royal  printer.  After 
the  death  of  the  king  the  Sorbonne  prohibited  the  sale  of 
his  Bibles,  and  he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Geneva,  1551, 
where  he  continued  printing  and  died  Sept.  7,  1559.  He 
published  nearly  a  dozen  complete  editions  of  the  Bible  in 
Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  French,  and  numerous  separate 
editions  of  the  New  Testament  in  various  languages,  besides 
many  other  very  important  works.  The  present  division  of 
the  New  Testament  into  verses  was  made  by  him  and  first 
introduced  in  his  Greek-Latin  Testament  published  at 
Geneva  155L  After  he  had  taken  refuge  in  Geneva,  the 
business  in  Paris  was  conducted  by  his  brother  Charles  (b. 
1504;  d.  1564),  who  was  appointed  printer  to  Henry  II.,  and 
put  forth  numerous  classical  and  scientific  works.— Henry, 
son  of  Robert  (b.  1528;  d.  Mar.,  1598),  was  especially  emi- 
nent as  a  Greek  scholar,  and  carried  on  his  business  at  first 
in  Paris,  and  afterward  in  Geneva.  He  almost  ruined  him- 
self financially  by  the  publication  of  his  Maio  (1578)  and  his 
immense  Thesaurus  Linaufe  Orcecce  (1572,  5  vols,  fol.,  re- 
printed with  additions,  London  (by  Valpy),  1815-28,  and 
again,  Paris  (by  Didot),  9  vols,  fol.,  1*831-65)',  for  at  that  time 
Greek  students  were  too  few  in  number  to  aflford  purchasers 
for  an  edition.  He  subsequently  traveled  from  place  to  place, 
visiting  all  the  principal  libraries,  for  the  purpose  of  collect- 
ing materials  for  various  works,  which  he  procured  to  be 


printed  by  others.  Among  these  works  is  his  La  PriteU 
lence  du  Langage  frangois  (1579). — Paul,  the  son  of  Henry 
^b.  1566 ;  d.  1627),  carried  on  the  printing  business  at  Geneva 
for  many  years. — Anthony,  the  son  of  Paul  (b.  1592;  d. 
1674),  removed  from  Geneva  to  Paris,  where  for  nearly  half 
a  century  he  conducted  a  printing-house,  but  with  ultimatc 
ill  success.  He  died  at  the  H6tel-Dieu  in  Paris  in  utter  des- 
titution, and  with  him  was  extinguished  this  line  of  famous 
scholars  and  printers.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Stephen,  Saint  [Stephen  is  from  Lat.  Ste'phanus  =  Gr. 
SW^flvot,  liter.,  crown] :  the  first  of  all  Christian  martyrs. 
He  was  one  of  the  seven  deacons  in  the  Christian  congr^^ 
tion  of  Jerusalem.  Charged  by  the  Jews  with  speaking 
against  the  law  and  against  God,  he  was  stoned  to  death  by 
order  of  the  Sanhedrin.  His  history  is  ^ven  in  chapters  vL 
and  vii.  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  His  festival  is  held  oo 
Dec.  26,  both  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches. 

Stephen  I.,  Saint:  King  of  Hungary.  See  Hungary 
(History). 

Stephen :  the  name  of  ten  popes.  Some  historians,  how- 
ever, count  but  nine,  from  the  circumstance  that  Stephen  II. 
died  three  days  after  his  election.  Mar.  27, 752,  before  he  had 
been  consecrated.  The  following  bearers  of  the  name  are 
the  most  noteworthy :  Stephen  L,  Saint :  pope  from  about 
254  to  257  A.  D. ;  is  noted  for  his  controversy  with  Cyprian 
as  to  the  necessity  of  rebaptizing  converted  heretics.  The 
councils  of  Carthage  (255  and  1^6)  havin^^  decided  a^inst 
the  Roman  practice  of  recognizing  baptism  by  heretics  a< 
valid,  Stephen  broke  off  communion  with  the  Afrioin 
Church. — Stephen  III.  (II.) :  pope  from  752  to  757;  suffereri 
severely  from  the  aggressions  oi  the  Lombards.  After  ask- 
ing in  vain  for  help  against  them  from  the  Byzantine  em- 
peror, Constantine  Copronymus,  he  went  in  person  to  Pepin 
le  Bref,  chief  of  the  Frantes,  whom  he  crowned  king  on  the 
condition  that  he  should  expel  Aistulf,  the  Lombard  kinL*. 
from  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna  and  the  Pentapolis  and  iie- 
stow  these  territories  on  the  see  of  St.  Peter.  Pepin  made  t  wt. 
campaigns  in  Italy,  but  succeeded  at  last  in  forcing  the  Lom- 
bards to  retreat  from  the  above  territories,  which  he  then 
gave  to  the  papal  see,  in  spite  of  the  protest  of  the  Byzantine 
emperor,  tnereby  laying  the  foundation  of  the  temporal 
power  of  the  pope.— Stephen  VII.  (VI.)  (896-897)  is  most 
noticeable  for  nis  violence  in  respect  to  his  predecessor  For- 
mosus,  whose  corpse  he  caused  to  be  exhumed,  stripped  of 
the  papal  insignia,  mutilated,  and  thrown  into  the  Tioer,  at 
the  same  time  annulling  all  his  ordinances,  and  even  his 
consecrations. — Stephen  X.  (IX.)  (1057-58)  was  a  son  of  the 
Duke  (5otelon  of  Lower  Lorraine,  and  was  elected  pope 
through  the  influence  of  Cardinal  Hildebrand,  afterward 
Pope  Gregory  VII.,  who  was  the  real  master  of  the  Church. 

Ste-phen  :  King  of  England  ;  b.  in  Normandv  about  1100: 
son  of^tephen.  Count  of  Blois,  by  Adela,  daughter  of  Will- 
iam the  Conqueror.  William,  the  only  son  of  Henry  I.,  was 
drowned  in  1120,  and  the  heir-presumptive  to  the  crown  was 
his  daughter  Matilda,  who  was  marned  to  Henry  V.,  Em- 
peror of  Germany ;  but  before  the  death  of  her  father  the 
emperor  died,  and  she  married  Geoffrev  Plantagenet,  Earl 
of  Anjou,  without  the  royal  sanction,  which  was  neld  to  in- 
validate her  right  to  the  succession.  Upon  the  death  <»f 
Henry  I.  (in  1135),  Stephen  claimed  the  succession,  although 
he  was  not  next  in  the  line,  even  if  Matilda  was  set  aside, 
for  he  had  an  elder  brother,  Theobald,  Count  of  Blois :  he 
was,  however,  chosen  by  a  party  of  the  prelates  and  nobles, 
and  his  election  was  sanctioned  by  the  pope.  At  first  his 
government  was  fairly  successful.  He  ingratiated  the  Eng- 
lish by  issuing  a  charter  confirming  the  favorable  laws  uf 
Henrv  I.'s  reign.  He  made  peace  with  the  Scots,  whose  king, 
David,  paid  him  homage,  and  when  the  war  broke  out  again 
the  English  were  victorious  in  the  battle  of  the  Standani. 
The  entire  reign,  however,  was  filled  with  revolts  and  civil 
war.  The  cause  of  Matilda  was  taken  up  by  a  party  in  Eng- 
land, headed  by  her  natural  brother,  Robert,  Earl  of  Glouces- 
ter, and  after  a  contest  of  several  vears  Stephen  was  de- 
feated and  made  prisoner  at  Lincoln  Teb.  2, 1141.  The  rule 
of  the  empress  was  so  unpopular  that  a  revolt  broke  out,  and 
her  brother,  the  Earl  of  Gloucester,  was  defeated  and  cap- 
tured, but  was  afterward  exchanged  for  Stephen.  The  ci\  il 
war  now  raged  with  varying  fortunes  for  ten  years.  In  1 IX? 
Prince  Henry  Plantagenet,  son  of  Matilda,  arrived  in  Enc- 
land  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force;  but  before  a  deii- 
sive  action  took  place,  the  baron's  on  both  sides  entered  iip<»n 
an  armistice,  and  finally  concluded  the  treaty  of  Wallinc- 
ford  by  which  Stephen  should  retain  the  crown  during  his 


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^40 


STEPHENS 


STEPPE-MURRAIN 


honorary  member  of  a  number  of  scientific  societies.  His 
chief  work  is  The  Old  Northern  Bunic  Monuments  of  Scan- 
dinavia and  England  (London  and  Copenhagen,  3  vols,  f  ol., 
1866-84).  As  a  collection  of  plates  and  transcriptions,  this 
work  is  invaluable,  but  many  of  the  readings  ana  criticisms 
have  since  been  effectually  disproved  by  Wimmer  and  oth- 
ers. He  has  also  published  a  number  of  monographs  and 
texts,  English  ana  Scandinavian,  a  translation  of  Tegn^r*s 
Frithiofa  Saga,  and  a  melodrama,  Revenge,  or  Woman's 
Love,  D.  K.  Dodge. 

Stephens,  John  Llotd  :  jurist,  traveler,  and  author ;  b. 
at  Shrewsbury,  N.  J.,  Nov.  28, 1805 ;  p^uated  at  Columbia 
College  1822 ;  studied  law  and  practiced  in  New  York.  In 
1834-36  he  traveled  in  Europe  and  the  East;  published 
Egypt,  Arabia  B^trcea,  and  the  Holy  Land  (2  vols.,  1837), 
and  Qreece,  Turkey,  Russia,  and  Poland  (2  vols.,  1838).  In 
1839  President  Van  Buren  appointed  him  special  commis- 
sioner to  negotiate  a  treaty  with  Central  America.  The 
civil  war  in  that  country  prevented  him  from  accomplish- 
ing his  purpose ;  but  in  companv  with  an  English  artist, 
Frederick  Catherwood,  he  traveled  in  Central  America  and 
Southern  Mexico,  making  a  special  study  of  the  ancient 
ruined  cities.  Returning  to  New  York  he  published  Inci- 
dents of  Travel  in  Central  America,  Chiapas,  and  Yucatan 
<2  vola,,  with  fine  illustrations  by  Catherwood,  1841).  The 
results  of  a  second  journey,  also  with  Mr.  Catherwood,  were 
embodied  in  Incidents  of  Travel  in  Yucatan  (2  vols.,  1848). 
These  two  works  attained  a  wide  circulation,  and  gave  for 
the  first  time  good  popular  descriptions  of  the  wonderful 
Central  American  cities.  Mr.  Stephens  was  a  delegate  to 
the  convention  for  revising  the  constitution  of  New  York, 
1846.  In  1847  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  organization  of 
the  first  Atlantic  steam-navigation  company.  After  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  California  he  entered,  with  character- 
istic energy,  into  the  scheme  for  a  rail  route  across  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama ;  was  one  of  the  first  presidents  of  the  Pana- 
ma Railway  Company,  and  personally  superintended  the 
construction.  From  exposure  on  the  isthmus  he  contracted 
a  disease  of  which  he  died  in  New  York,  Oct.  10, 1852. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Stephens,  William  :  president  of  the  colony  of  Georna ; 
b.  on  the  Isle  of  Wight,  England,  Jan.  28, 1671,  son  of  Sir 
William  Stephens,  lieutenant-governor  of  that  island ;  gradu- 
ated at  Camoridge ;  studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple ;  sat 
in  Parliament  1696-1722;  settled  at  Charleston,  S.  Cf.,  about 
1730;  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  colony  of  Georgia 
1737;  became  president  of  the  county  of  Savannah  1741, 
and  governor  of  Georgia  1743-50.  D.  in  Georgia  in  Aug., 
1753.  He  was  the  author  of  A  Journal  of  the  Proceedings 
in  Georgia  (London,  3  vols.,  1742).  His  biography  was  wnt- 
ten  by  a  son  under  the  title  of  The  Castle-buiidery  or  the 
History  of  William  Stephens  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  (2d  ed. 
London,  1759). 

Stephenson,  George  :  engineer ;  b.  at  Wylam,  Northum- 
berland, England,  June  9,  1781,  the  son  of  a  poor  colliery 
laborer.  He  was  in  childhood  an  engine-boy;  became  a 
fireman,  and  in  time  was  placed  in  charge  of  an  engine, 
which  he  studied  until  he  had  mastered  its  construction  so 
as  to  be  able  to  take  it  apart  and  put  it  together  a^ain. 
Accident  |fave  him  an  opportunity  of  putting  in  motion  a 
steam-engine  which  needed  repairs,  and  in  1812  he  was 
made  engine-wright  at  Killingworth  Colliery.  The  prob- 
lem of  constructing  a  locomotive  steam-engine  was  then  en- 
gaging many  minds,  and  he  was  in  1814  the  first  to  construct 
one  which  proved  satisfactorily  operative.  He  originated 
the  steam-blast,  which  was  introduced  into  his  second  loco- 
motive, built  in  1815,  and  in  that  year  devised  a  miner's 
safety-lamp,  for  which  a  large  prize  had  been  offered  by  col- 
liery-owners ;  but  Sir  Humphry  Davy  having  simultaneous- 
ly invented  his  safetv-lamp,  this  prize,  valued  at  £2,000, 
was  awarded  to  him,  ilOO  being  awarded  to  Stephenson  by 
the  committee ;  a  separate  subscription  of  £1,000  was  raised 
in  1817,  which  was  presented  to  Stephenson,  and  his  lamp 
is  still  in  use  in  some  English  collieries.  Stephenson  then 
turned  his  attention  to  improvements  in  railways  as  well  as 
engines.  The  first  railway  built  by  him,  opened  in  1822,  8 
miles  long,  was  so  successful  that  in  the  next  year  he  was 
appointed  engineer  of  the  railway  authorized  to  be  con- 
structed between  Stockton  and  Darlington,  and  in  1825  of 
the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  line,  which  was  begun  in 
1826.  He  had  in  the  meantime  set  up  an  establishment  at 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne  for  the  manufacture  of  locomotives, 
and  on  Oct.  6, 1829,  his  engine,  named  the  Kocket,  attained 


an  average  8]3eed  of  14  miles  an  hour,  and  for  a  short  dis- 
tance was  driven  at  the  rate  of  29  miles.  (See  Railways.) 
During  the  next  fifteen  years  he  was  actively  engaged  a^  a 
railway  engineer  and  contractor  in  England  and  on  the 
Continent,  still  carrying  on  his  great  locomotive-factory  at 
Newcastle,  and  also  engaging  in  coal-mining  and  lime- works. 
He  passed  the  closing  years  of  his  life  at  his  seat,  Tapton 
Park,  Derbyshire.  D.  Aug.  12,  1848.  He  retained  during 
all  his  life,  in  speech  and  manners,  much  of  the  rustic  sim- 
plicity belonging  to  his  early  life,  and  declined  the  honor  of 
knighthood.  By  common  consent  he  has  received  the  title 
of  the  father  of  railways,  and  in  1862  a  colossal  bronze 
statue  was  erected  in  ms  honor  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
See  Smiles*8  Life  of  Oeorge  Stephenson  (1857 ;  new'  ed. 
1874).  Revised  by  R.  H.  Thurstox. 

Stephenson,  Robert  :  engineer ;  son  of  George  Stephen- 
son, engineer ;  b.  at  Willington  Quay,  near  Newcastle-upon- 
Tvne,  Oct.  16, 1803.  He  hcul  little  opportunity  to  obtain  an 
education  when  a  boy,  and  in  1819  ne  was  apprenticed  to  a 
coal- viewer ;  but  as  his  father's  circumstances  improved  he 
gave  his  son  the  best  education  within  his  means,  and  in 
1822  sent  him  to  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  re- 
mained six  months  studying  chemistry,  mathematics,  and 
geology,  after  which  he  assisted  his  father  in  railway  sur- 
veying and  in  the  locomotive-works  at  Newcastle.  In  1824 
he  went  to  South  America,  where  for  three  years  he  super- 
intended the  working  of  the  Columbian  Mining  Association. 
He  then  returned  to  England,  where  he  aid^  his  father, 
partly  in  laying  down  the  line  of  the  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester Railway,  but  more  especially  in  the  locomotive- 
works  ;  and  to  him  chieflv  belongs  tne  honor  of  the  prac- 
tical development  of  the  aetails  of  the  locomotiye  and  the 
railway.  He  was  appointed  en^neer  of  the  London  and 
Birmingham  Railway,  which,  built  almost  wholly  under  hi? 
direction,  was  opened  in  1838,  and  from  this  time  he  was 
employed  in  similar  undertakings  at  home  and  broad.  He 
constructed  several  of  the  most  stupendous  iron  railway 
bridges  in  the  world,  including  the  high-level  bridge  ctc^h- 
ing  the  Tyne  at  Newcastle,  the  viaduct  over  the  valley  of 
the  Tweea  at  Berwick,  the  Conway  tubular  bridge,  the 
Britannia  tubular  bridge  crossing  the  Menai  Straits,  the 
Victoria  tubular  bridge  over  the  St.  Lawrence  in  Canada^ 
and  those  crossing  the  Nile  at  Damietta,  Egypt  In  1^^7 
he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Whitby.  He  received 
the  great  gold  medal  of  honor  from  the  French  Industrial 
Exposition  of  1855,  and  was  president  of  the  Institute  of 
Civil  Engine^jrs  from  1855  to  1858.  He  published  a  De- 
scription of  the  Locomotive  Steam-engine  (1838):  Report  on 
the  Atmospheric  Railway  System  (1844);  and  The  Ortnt 
Exhibition,  its  Palace  and  Contents  (1851).  D.  Oct.  12. 
1859.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  where  a  me- 
morial window  has  been  placed  to  his  memory.  See  Smi  It^'s 
Life  of  Oeorge  Stephenson  (new  ed.  1874),  and  Life  ♦>/ 
Robert  Stephenson,  by  J.  C.  Jeaffreson  and  W.  Pole  (2  voli^ 
1864).  Revised  by  R.  H.  Thurston. 

Step'niak,  Seroius  Michael  Draoomanoff  :  author ;  b. 
at  Gaajatch,  government  of  Poltava,  Russia,  1841 ;  memlier 
of  a  semi-noble  family  descended  from  the  Cossacks  of  Lit- 
tle Russia ;  studied  at  Kieff  1859-63 ;  published  in  that  time 
in  the  Little  Russian  dialect  so^e  works  which  were  pro- 
hibited by  the  Government  in  1862  ;  became  docent  in  an- 
cient history  in  the  University  of  Kieff  1865 ;  professor 
1870 ;  removed  from  his  chair  1873  by  the  Government ;  ex- 
iled in  1876  on  account  of  his  criticisms  on  the  system  pur- 
sued by  Count  Tolstoi,  one  of  the  Ministers  of  Justice  ;  stt- 
tled  in  Geneva  1877,  and  published  a  review,  Oromada.  :c 
the  Ukraine  dialect ;  settled  in  London  1885.  He  has  la- 
bored to  establish  equal  political  rights  for  all  people  in 
Russia,  and  has  declared  against  socialism  as  well  as  al>5^^ 
lutism.  Among  his  principal  works  are  the  7\irks  Wit  hi  h 
and  TViVAoM^  (Geneva,  1876);  La  Russia  Sotterranea  (Milan. 
1881 ;  Eng.  trans.  Underground  Russia,  1883) ;  Russia  wi- 
der the  Izars  (Eng.  trans.  1885) ;  Tyrannicide  in  ^uscia 
(1881) ;  Historical  Poland  and  the  Muscovite  Democnir^ 
(1881);  and  The  Career  of  a  Nihilist,  a  novel  (1889).  \U 
has  contributed  numerous  papers  to  the  magazines  and  ny 
views.  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Steppe :  the  name  given  by  the  Tartars  to  the  plains  of 
Central  Asia.  They  are  usually  covered  with  grass,  ami 
correspond  in  their  aspects  and  relations  to  the  prairies  of 
the  U.  S.  and  the  llanos  and  pampas  of  South  America. 
See  Plain. 

Steppe-murrain :  See  Rinderpest. 


STERCULIACELS: 


STEREOSCOPE 


*i^t«r(*ilUll'eeiB  [Mod.  Lat.,  nuiiieil  from  S/^rct/7ia»  the 
t/picul  gijniis,  from  Lat,  Stereulius,  the  pal  ran  deilj  of 
inn nti ring,  derir.  of  sUr'cux,  tlting] :  a  famify  of  exogenous 
nv»j^.  shrubs,  and  herbs,  mostly  tropleal.  Many  of  the  trij^a 
an*  i*f  phKilgrious  size,  »uch  as  the  l>Aobab!5  aod  those  of  the 
i^uncrii  Bombfijc  and  OiAo,  Many  prcHluce  abundantly  a 
-Jii>?tanee  L*alJed  silk-fotlr>rT.  whict  resembles  tnie  cotton. 
I  ml  win  not  spin  well.    Tho  wood  is  oft*n  v-ery  light  and 

''  The  family  eontaitis  nit'dicinal  plants,  atid  produLes 
^  'lut'  excellent  fruiU^  siotne  gums,  a  few  valuable  bark-iibers, 
and  a  number  of  useful  timber-trees;  but  its  most  impor- 
Uiut  product  is  chocolate,  from  the  oiljr  seeds  of  Theohroma 
cacao.  The  flowers  or  fruits  of  certain  species  are  putrid, 
whence  the  botanical  name.        Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Stere :  See  Metric  System. 

Sterelmin'tha  [Mod.  Lat,  6r.  ^rcpc^f,  solid  +  thfum, 
iKuiv^i.  a  worm] :  a  name  given  to  some  of  the  Plathel- 
MiNTHEs  iq.  f.),  in  allusion  to  the  absence  of  all  cavities  in 

the  body. 

Stereo-cheinistrT :  a  branch  of  chemistry  that  has  to  deal 
with  the  relations  which  the  atoms  bear  to  one  another  in 
sy.ace.  The  ordinary  methods  of  investigation  of  chemical 
c<'in[»ounds  lead  to  certain  conclusions  in  regard  to  the 
(■'.nnections  existing  between  the  atoms  in  a  molecule. 
Thus  when  water  is  expressed  by  the  formula  H-O-H,  no 
attempt  is  made  to  tell  anything  about  the  arrangement  in 
>p:ice  of  the  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  and  the  atom  of  oxy- 
iTr  n.  The  formula  expresses  the  view  that  each  of  the  two 
atoms  of  hydrogen  is  linked  to  the  atom  of  oxygen,  but  the 
(pie^tion  whether  they  are  on  the  same  side  or  on  opposite 
sides,  above  or  below,  is  not  touched.  Yet  it  is  certain  that 
if  these  atoms  exist  and  are  united  in  the  molecule  they 
mn«t  l)e  arranged  in  space,  and  a  formula  that  does  not 
take  into  consideration  the  three  dimensions  of  space  is  cer- 
i.iinly  incomplete.  Up  to  within  a  comparatively  short 
time  no  facts  were  known  that  justified  any  speculation  con- 
cerning the  space-relations  of  atoms,  but  it  appears  that  the 
time  has  come  when  such  speculation  is  profitable,  and  facts 
are  constantly  being  brougnt  to  light  that  can  not  be  ex- 
plained without  its  aid. 

The  investigations  of  Pasteur  on  the  different  varieties  of 
tartaric  acid  form  the  basis  of  stereo-chemistry,  Pasteur 
f«.und  that  racemic  acid,  which  can  easily  be  made,  can  be 
converted  into  ordinary  tartaric  acid  and  a  new  variety  of 
tartaric  acid,  and  when  these  two  varieties  of  tartaric  acid 
are  mixed  in  solution  they  form  racemic  acid.  Ordinary 
tartaric  acid,  when  examined  with  the  aid  of  a  polarizing 
apparatus  (see  Polarization),  is  found  to  turn  the  plane  of 
i^oiarizalion  to  the  right,  while  the  new  variety  obtained  by 
I'asteur  turns  the  plane  to  the  left,  and  racemic  acid  is 
optically  inactive — that  is  to  say,  it  has  no  effect  on  polar- 
iz^.h!  ligfit.  No  explanation  of  these  facts  was  offered  until 
many  years  later.  Meanwhile  other  cases  similar  to  that 
studied  by  Pasteur  were  discovered,  and  chemists  came  to 
s^e  more  and  more  clearly  that  their  theory  of  chemical 
constitution  required  an  extension  in  order  to  accommodate 
it  to  the  facts.  At  about  the  same  time,  and  independently, 
Van't  Hoff  and  Le  Bel  made  a  suggestion  with  reference 
t«»  these  cases  that  has  proved  to  be  of  great  value.  The 
main  idcA  is  this :  The  atom  of  carbon,  which,  as  is  well 
known,  has  the  power  to  unite  with  four  univalent  atoms  or 
groups,  is  supposed  to  exert  its  four  allinities  from  a  center 
luward  the  angles  of  a  tetrahedron — that  is,  symmetrically 
in  space.  Suppose  all  four  atoms  or  groups  that  are  in 
combination  with  the  carbon  atom  to  be  of  one  kind,  then 
but  one  arrangement  of  them  in  space  is  possible.  So  also 
if  three  are  of  one  kind  and  one  different,  or  two  of  one 
kind  and  two  of  another,  they  can  be  arranged  in  but  one 
way  around  the  central  carbon  atom.  When,  however,  all 
four  atoms  or  groups  are  different,  then  two  arrangements 
in  space  are  possible.  The  difference  between  the  two  ar- 
rangements is  that  which 
is  observed  l>etween 
either  one  and  its  reflec- 
tion in  a  mirror.  Im- 
I»erfectly  the  two  ar- 
rangements are  shown 
in  the  accompanying 
figures,  in  which  C  rep- 
resents the  carbon  atom 
and  R,  Ri,  R«,  and  Rt  represent  four  different  radicals  or 
atoms. 

A  carbon  atom  which  is  thus  in  combination  with  four 


different  atoms  or  radicals  is  called  mi  a »ymm f Iniuflt WtMfi 
atom.  The  propcj^ition  of  Van't  Hoff  and  I^e  Bel  kUlilm 
presence  of  ^ueh  an  atom  m  a  compound  makes  po«Jb1e  i 
kind  of  isomerisira  that  is  due  to  the  arrangement  of  th« 
constituents  in  space.  In  the  ease  of  the  tartaric  ackis 
there  are  in  tac^t  two  asyni metrical  carbon  atoiB.?  prescnti. 
The  constitution  of  theie  at-ids  is  represenl4jd  by  I  be  for- 
mula 

6h(0H).C0,H. 
It  will  be  seen  that  each  of  the  two  carbon  atoms  that  are 
represented  as  being  in  combination  with  each  other  is  asym- 
metrical, a  fact  that  is  more  clearly  brought  out  by  writing 
the  formula  thus : 

H 

(HO>-(!:-CO,H 

6h(oh).co,h, 

Accordingly,  this  compound  presents  the  conditions  nec- 
essary for  the  two  arrangements  in  space — one  right-hand- 
ed, the  other  left-handed,  corresponding  to  the  action  of 
the  two  varieties  of  tartaric  acid  on  polarized  light. 

The  same   general  statements   hold  true   for   the  lactic 
acids,  which  are  represented  by  the  formula 
H 
(HO)-(!:-CO,H 

6h,. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  ordinary  lactic  acid  which  are 
apparently  analogous  to  the  two  optically  active  varieties 
of  tartaric  acid,  and,  further,  there  is  a  third  variety  corre- 
sponding to  racemic  acid,  and  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
two  active  varieties.  The  relations  l>etween  the  inactive 
racemic  acid  and  the  active  tartaric  acids,  and  between  the 
inactive  lactic  acid  and  the  two  active  varieties  are  not  un- 
derstood. It  can  only  be  said  that  in  each  case  the  molecule 
of  the  inactive  substance  must  consist  of  at  least  one  mole- 
cule of  each  of  the  two  active  varieties. 

Investigation  has  shown  that  the  asymmetrical  carbon 
atom  gives  to  the  compounds  in  which  it  is  present  the  prop- 
erty of  optical  activity  and  the  power  to  form  peculiar 
isomeric  varieties  which  can  not  be  accounted  for  by  the 
ordinary  theory  of  constitution.  >Iuch  progress  has  been 
made  of  late  years  in  the  study  of  the  phenomena  of  stereo- 
chemistry. Perhaps  these  phenomena  are  best  illustrated  in 
the  field  of  the  sugars,  tne  remarkable  studies  of  Emil 
Fiscrher  in  this  field  having  led  to  the  discovery  of  a  large 
number  of  new  sugars,  the  existence  of  which  it  appears  to 
be  impossible  to  explain  without  the  aid  of  the  principles  of 
stereo-chemistry. 

Werner  and  tiantzsch  have  extended  the  ideas  of  stereo- 
chemistry to  some  cla^yses  of  compounds  containing  nitrogen, 
with  interesting  results.  Ira  IIemsen. 

Stereoehrome :  See  Fresco. 

Ste'reoscope  [from  Gr.  <rrept<<j,  solid  +  vKomiw,  to  view] : 
an  instrument  to  aid  the  eyes  in  obtaining  binocular  com- 
bination of  two  similar,  or  nearly  similar,  pictures.  As  long 
ago  as  the  time  of  Euclid  (a.  c.  300)  it  was  known  that  when 
a  near  object  is  regarded  with  both  eyes  the  aspect  is  differ- 
ent to  each  eye  separately.  No  practical  application  of  this 
was  made  to  the  study  of  binocular  vision  until  1838,  when 
Sir  Charles  Wheatstone  constructed  perspective  drawings 
of  a  geometric  solid  as  seen  by  each  eye  separately  when 
held  at  a  fixed  distance  in  front  of  the  face.  The  width  of 
each  drawing  was  made  a  little  less  than  the  distance  be- 
tween the  pujnls  of  the  two  eyes.  In  order  that  one  of  them 
should  be  seen  only  by  the  right  eye  and  the  other  only  by 
the  left,  Wheatstone  looked  through  a  pair  of  tubes;  and 
the  visual  effect  was  found  to  be  that  of  an  apparently  solid 
body  in  space.  In  order  to  obtain  this  effect  more  conven- 
iently anci  to  use  larger  pictures  he  constructed  the  first  re- 
flecting stereoscope.  A  pair  of  i)lane  mirrors,  m  p  and  m  q 
(Fig.  1),  were  fixed  upon  a  frame  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  one  pair  of  edges  being  in  contact  at  m.  Light  from 
the  pictures,  a  b  and  a  b',  was  reflecte<l  into  the  eyes,  R  and 
L,  so  that  the  combination  appeared  to  be  at  A  B. 

Wheat^'^t one's  invention  did  not  become  popularized  be- 
cause of  the  difliculty  of  constructint:  accurate  perspective 
drawings  to  use  with  it.  If  two  such  conjugate  drawings 
be  placed  beside  each  other  in  the  same  plane,  the  corre- 
sponding edges,  rt  and  a  (Fig.  2),  being  on  the  right  and  rep- 
resenting one  of  the  remoter  points  of  the  object  pictured. 


Y42 


STEREOTYPING  AND  ELECTROTYPING 


Fio.  1— Dia^am  of  Wheat8tone*8  stereo- 
Boope. 


Fio.  2. 


while  e  and  e'  represent  one  of  the  nearer  points,  it  can  be 
easily  proved  geometrically  or  ascertained  oy  careful  meas- 
urement that  tne  interval  between  c  and  c'  is  and  must  be  less 
than  that  between  a  and  a.  The  rays  from  c  and  c'  after  re- 
flection appear  to 
^B  the   eyes   to    have 

come  from  some 
point,  C,  nearer 
than  A  or  B  if 
the  arrangement 
is  such  as  to  pro- 
duce the  least  dis- 
comfort to  the  eyes. 
It  was  natural  for 
Wheatstone  to  con- 
clude that  the  lo- 
calization of  each 
point  in  the  binoc- 
ular field  of  view  is 
determined  by  the 
intersection  of  the 
visual  lines  reflected  into  the  eyes.  This  theory  of  binocu- 
lar perspective  was  long  held  and  is  still  frequently  ex- 
pre^ed  or  implied. 

Prior  to  the  invention  of  Wheatstone's  stereoscope,  James 
Eliot,  of  Edinburgh,  constructed  a  pair  of  conjugate  per- 
spectives of  a  landscape,  but  not  until  1839 
did  he  construct  an  instrument  for  viewing 
it.  This  was  merely  a  small  box  open  at  the 
two  ends,  with  a  partition  along  the  mid- 
dle, equivalent  to  a  pair  of  tubes.  About 
the  same  time  the  art  of  photography  was 
introduced  by  Talbot  and  Daguerre.  In 
1849  Sir  David  Brewster  improved  upon 
Eliot's  form  of  box  stereoscope  by  putting 
at  the  eye  end  a  pair  of  semi-lenses  of  glass 
with  thin  edffes  opposed.  In  connection 
with  this  he  devised  the  double  camera  for 
taking  photographically  the  pair  of  pictures 
composing  the  stereograph.  The  stereoscope 
and  camera  were  carried  by  him  to  Paris 
during  the  following  year.  Here  the  stereo- 
scope was  popularized  by  Duboscq,  who  made  these  instru- 
ments and  stereographs  for  it  in  great  number  and  with  va- 
rious modifications. 

The  form  of  open  stereoscope  commonly  in  use  in  the 
U.  S.  was  devised  in  1861  by  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 
In  this  the  box  is  discarded,  but  the  pair  of  semi-lenses  is  re- 
tained, beinff  fixed  at  one  end  of  a  shaft  on  which  slides  the 
stereograph-holder. 

If  the  pair  of  conjugate  pictures  be  transposed,  that  origi- 
nally intended  for  the  right  eye  being  put  on  the  left,  the 
effect  is  reversion  of  relief,  foreground  points  appearing  in 
the  background.  Without  such  transposition  or  use  of  the 
stereoscope  the  same  result  may  be  attained  by  muscular 
crossing  of  the  visual  lines.  By  relaxing  the  muscles  of  the 
eyeball  the  right  eye  may  be  directed  to  the  right  picture 
and  the  left  eye  to  the  left.  The  visual  lines  then  may 
often  become  divergent,  but  the  localization  in  the  field  of 
view  is  perfect.  This  fact  disproves  the  theory  of  stereo- 
scopic perspective  held  by  Wheatstone  and  Brewster.  The 
apparent  distance  and  size  of  the  binocular  image  are  much 
affected  by  the  degree  of  strain  imposed  upon  the  muscles 
which  control  the  eyeballs  and  the  crystalline  lens.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  stereoscope  is  to  attain  the  binocular  image  with 
the  least  possible  disturbance  of  the  conditions  of  natural 
binocular  vision. 

The  bibliography  of  this  subject  is  included  in  that  of 
Vision.  W.  Le  Conte  Stevens. 

Stereotyping  and  Electrotyping  [stereotyping  is  deriv. 
of  stereotype,  from  Gr.  ^rcpc^r,  fixed  +  t6wos,  impression, 
type]:  the  art  or  process  of  making  metal  plates,  reproduc- 
ing in  facsimile  the  surface  of  engravings  or  type  set  up 
as  for  direct  printing.  Stereotypes  are  plates  of  lype-metal 
of  the  same  composition  throughout ;  electrotypes  have  a 
facing,  usually  of  copper,  deposited  by  electricity. 

I.  Stereotyping.— Before  the  invention  of  stereotypes  a 
work  to  be  printed  at  intervals,  as  occasion  demanded,  had 
to  be  kept  continually  in  type  (at  considerable  risk  of  error 
creeping  in)  or  else  reset  for  each  edition.  About  1725  the 
plaster  process  of  stereotyping  was  invented  by  William 
Ged,  a  goldsmith  (b.  in  Edinburgh,  1690;  d.  1749).  In  1731 
^  a  company  formed  by  Ged  contracted  with  the  University  of 


Cambridge  to  print  Bibles  and  prayer-books  by  stereotype, 
but  after  the  printing  of  two  prayer-books  the  contract  was 
abandoned,  owing  partly  to  the  hostility  of  pressmen  to  the 
innovation.  Ged  returned  to  Edinburgh,  and  in  1736  com- 
pleted an  edition  of  Sallust,  which  was  printed  in  1744.  Few 
other  attempts  at  stereotyping  were  made  till  1793,  when 
William  Carey,  the  missionary,  devised  the  method  of  lettintr 
the  form  of  type  fall  face  downward  on  a  surface  of  hot  lead 
at  the  point  oi  solidifying,  and  then  repeating  this  proce<s 
with  the  matrix  so  formed,  the  result  being  a  true  reproduc- 
tion of  the  original  form  in  stereotype.  Pirmin  Didot,  of 
Paris,  modified  this  plan  by  usin^  types  of  a  harder  alloy. 
(30  parts  of  lead,  30  antimony,  30  tin,  and  10  copper) ;  a  form 
of  such  type  was  pressed  into  a  surface  of  pure  lead,  and 
the  matrix  thus  obtained  was  attached  to  the  hammer  of  a 
stamping-press  and  brought  down  upon  a  roll  of  t^pe-metal 
about  to  solidif;^,  thus  flattening  it  out  and  forming  a  ste- 
reotvpe  plate  suitable  for  printing. 

The  method  of  Herhan,  another  French  printer,  was  to 
set  up  the  form  in  copper  matrices  in  intaglio  and  take  a 
cast  m  type-metal  therefrom,  thus  procuring  a  caraeo  im- 
pression at  one  operation. 

Stereotyping  was  introduced  into  the  U.  S.  by  David 
Bruce,  of  'Sew  York,  in  1813.  The  first  work  stereotyped  in 
America  was  the  New  Testament  in  1814.  The  process  *>( 
curving  stereotype  plates  to  adapt  them  to  a  cylinder  print- 
ing-press was  patented  in  England  by  CowpeV  in  1815,  but 
was  not  very  successful  till  applied  to  the  Hoe  perfect! De- 
press. There  are  three  leading  methods  of  stereotyping — plan- 
ter, clay,  and  papier-mach6 ;  but  only  the  last-named  is  now 
much  employed.  The  metal  used  approaches  type-metal  Id 
composition,  and  the  plates  after  being  used  may  be  remelte^i 
and  the  metal  used  again. 

Pictster  Process, — For  this  the  type  is  set  up  with  shoulder- 
high  spaces  and  Quadrats.  The  surface  is  thinly  and  evenly 
oiled  with  a  brush  and  the  form  is  then  inclosed  in  a  nx- 
tangular  frame  termed  a  flask.  Plaster-of- Paris  mixed  with 
water  is  poured  upon  it,  formin^^  a  mould  corresponding  to 
the  face  of  the  form.  When  this  has  sufficiently  hardened 
it  is  withdrawn  and  dried  in  an  oven  until  all  the  moisture 
is  driven  off.  The  mould,  laid  face  downward  upon  a  cast- 
ing-plate (floating-plate),  is  then  placed  within  a  castin?- 
tray,  which  has  a  lid  with  op«nin^  at  the  comers.  Tlie 
whole  is  heated  to  about  400**  P.  while  suspended  by  a  crane 
over  a  pot  of  molten  metal,  and  then  gently  lowered  into 
the  bath  until  the  metal  just  flows  into  the  comer  openinsrs 
forming  a  thin  plate  which  fills  up  all  the  cavities  in  the  fa<.v 
of  the  mould.  After  being  immersed  eight  or  ten  minutes 
the  tray  is  lifted  out  and  lowered  upon  a  stone  so  arranged 
that  the  face  of  the  plate  is  cooled  first,  and  as  shrinkaiie 
takes  place  more  metal  is  added.  The  pan  is  then  opene<i 
and  the  cast  is  separated  from  the  mould  and  fittea  to  a 
block  so  as  to  make  it  type-high  for  printing. 

The  Clay  Process  (or  Ctay-and-Piaster  Process).— For  this 
the  form  is  locked  up  with  high  furniture  and  slugs  and 
placed  on  the  bed  of  a  special  press,  the  face  of  the  type  be- 
ing brushed  over  with  benzine  or  naphtha  and  covered  wit  h 
a  cloth.  A  plate  covered  evenly  to  tne  depth  of  ^  inch  with 
a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  ground  French  clay  and  plaster- 
of-Paris  moistened  to  the  consistency  of  mortar  is  turned 
down  over  the  type,  and  a  partial  impression  taken ;  then, 
after  opening  tHe  press  to  remove  the  cloth  and  any  sur- 
plus clay,  a  complete  impression  is  taken,  imbedding  the  type 
in  the  plastic  material  to  the  desired  extent.  The  mould 
is  then  removed  and  hardened  by  drying,  and  after  bein? 
heated  to  the  temperature  of  molten  metal  is  inclosed  on 
three  sides  by  an  iron  wire,  to  which,  over  the  face  of  the 
mould,  a  sheet  of  metal  is  clamped,  as  in  a  moulder*s  flask. 
The  metal  is  poured  into  the  open  edge,  and  after  eoolin? 
the  mould  is  removed  from  the  cast  by  washing.  Cur\  tnl 
plates  for  the  Hoe  press  were  cast  from  moulds  made  by 
using  on  the  press  a  sheet  of  steel  of  the  desired  curvature 
spread  flat  and  carrying  the  clay  on  what  was  its  concave 
side.  After  the  impression  was  taken  the  sheet  was  re- 
leased and  resumed  its  normal  curvature,  bending  the  plas- 
tic mould  with  it.  The  finished  stereotype  appeared  as  if 
taken  from  a  type  a  little  more  condensed  one  way  than 
that  actually  employed. 

7%«  papier-mach^  process  was  invented  by  Genoux  in 
1829  and  introduced  into  Great  Britain  by  Wilson,  of  Sc^>t- 
land,  in  1832.  It  is  far  more  expeditious  than  any  other  ^by 
II oe  machines  in  1895  plates  could  be  made  in  six  minute? •. 
the  type  used  suffers  no  perceptible  injury,  curved  plates  can 
be  made  with  the  same  facility  as  flat,  and  a  large  numU-r 


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744 


STBRILITY 


STERLING 


and  the  plate  dissolved  away  where  the  lines  expose  it  to 
the  action  of  the  solution.  As  the  wax  withstands  the  solu- 
tion, the  plate  where  covered  by  it  will  remain  unchanged. 
When  the  lines  are  deepened  by  the  action  of  the  electric 
current  and  solution  to  the  required  depth,  the  plate  is 
taken  from  the  solution,  and  after  the  wax  is  cleaned  off  is 
mounted  for  printing.  The  drawing  or  sketch  will  appear 
in  white  lines  on  a  black  ground.  0.  B.  Bkach. 

Sterility  [from  Lat  aieri'litas,  deriv.  of  8te'ril%s,  barren, 
sterile] :  an  incapacity  for  procreation,  whether  in  the  male 
or  female.  A  knowledge  of  the  causes  of  sterility  depends 
on  an  understanding  of  the  laws  of  conception.  (See  Em- 
bryology, Ovaries,  etc.)  Sterilitv  in  the  male  is  due  either 
to  impotency  or  to  the  absence  oi  zodsperms  (spermatozoa) 
in  the  semen,  or  to  their  lack  of  vitalitv  when  present  If 
by  cause  of  old  age,  malformations  of  the  genitals,  or  other 
influences,  a  man  is  incapable  of  performing  the  part  al- 
lotted by  the  laws  of  nature,  he  is  said  to  be  impotent,  and  is 
therefore  sterile.  The  male  may  be  able,  however,  to  per- 
form the  sexual  act,  and  yet  be  incapable  of  procreation,  be- 
cause the  semen  may  not  possess  zoosperms,  without  which 
fructification  is  impossible.  This  deficiency  may  be  natural 
or  acouired ;  it  is  normal  onlv  in  extreme  youth  and  in  ad- 
vancea  old  age.  If  a  man  is  bom  with  but  one  testis  (mon- 
orchid),  as  a  rule  it  does  not  secrete  zodsperms ;  and  if  the 
testes  are  so  imperfectly  developed  as  to  remain  always  in  the 
cavity  of  the  abdomen,  as  in  the  foetus,  then  also  the  seminal 
fluid  is  deficient  in  the  all-important  property  necessary  for 
fecundation.  Whatever  produces  an  inflammation  of  the  tes- 
tes (orchitis)  may  bring  about  such  a  change  in  the  secretory 
apparatus  of  these  organs  as  to  destroy  the  vitalizing  power 
of  the  semen.  A  fall  or  a  blow  on  these  glands  may  do  this, 
but  the  most  common  cause  is  inflammation  communicated 
to  them  by  continuity  of  surface  from  the  urethra,  neck  of 
the  bladder,  and  vesiculie  seminales,  sequels  of  urethritis 
(gonorrhoea).  Not  unfrequently  this  happens  as  a  conse- 
Quence  of  parotitis  (mumps),  where  from  cold  or  other  cause 
tne  inflammation  is  suddenly  transferred  from  the  parotid 
(salivary^  gland  to  the  testes.  The  seminal  fluid  may  be 
emitted*  m  a  normal  manner  and  may  contain  zo5sperms  or 
spermatic  particles,  but  these  may  be  dead  or  very  feeble 
and  incapable  of  surviving  long  enough  to  meet  the  ovule 
deep  witnin  the  genital  canaL  This  condition  may  be  the 
result  of  some  constitutional  vice,  drunkenness,  syphilis,  or 
excessive  venery.  It  is  estimated  that  20  per  cent  of  sterile 
marriages  are  due  to  faults  in  the  male.  A  man  may  be 
sterile  or  incapable  of  procreation  at  one  time,  and  by  ap- 
propriate treatment  unaer  favorable  circumstances  he  may 
possibly  regain  the  lost  power ;  but  the  removal  of  incapac- 
ity in  the  male  is  not  generally  so  successful  as  the  re- 
moval of  the  obstructive  causes  in  the  female. 

In  the  female,  if  competent  for  the  married  relation,  and 
if  the  ovaries  are  functionally  active,  the  cause  of  sterility 
is  generally  some  obstruction  to  the  entrance  of  zoSsperms 
into  the  cervical  canal  (neck  of  the  uterus),  or  adiseasea  con- 
dition of  the  mucous  secretion  of  that  canal,  or  some  ob- 
struction either  to  the  exit  of  ovules  from  the  ovary  (peri- 
ovaritis), or  to  the  passage  of  zoosperms  or  ovules  along  the 
Fallopian  tube  or  oviduct.  If  menstruation  is  normal,  it 
may  be  taken  for  granted  that  ovulation  is  normal — that  the 
ovum  is  at  the  regular  time  discharged  from  the  ovary  and 
starts  on  its  way  to  the  cavity  of  the  womb ;  but  some  pre- 
vious pelvic  inflammation  may  have  obstructed  the  Fallo- 
pian tubes  or  bound  down  their  fimbriated  extremities,  so  as 
to  prevent  them  from  fulfilling  their  functions  in  conduct- 
ing the  ovum  to  the  cavity  of  the  uterus.  This  state  of 
thm^  can  usually  be  diagnosed  with  accuracy,  but  can  not 
usually  be  relieved  as  far  as  sterility  is  concerned.  Any 
marked  and  permanent  deviation  of  the  uterus  from  its  nor- 
mal position,  whether  anteriorly,  posteriorly,  lateral  Iv,  or  by 
descent,  may  interfere  with  conception.  When  the  body  of 
the  uterus  falls  far  forward,  on  the  bladder,  toward  the  pubes, 
it  may  so  displace  the  os  tine®  (outer  orifice  of  the  cervical 
canal)  or  proauce  such  a  degree  of  congestion  in  the  whole 
organ  as  to  prevent  the  zoosperm  from  reaching  the  cavity 
of  the  uterus ;  and  if  the  uterus  is  bent  on  itself  in  this  form 
of  displacement  (antefiexion),  the  obstruction  is  practically 
insuperable.  When  the  body  of  the  uterus  falls  far  back 
under  the  hollow  of  the  sacrum,  pressing  upon  and  obstruct- 
ing the  rectum,  it  may  easily  be  restored  to  its  normal  posi- 
tion and  kept  there  in  a  great  majority  of  cases.  Lateral 
malpositions  and  descent  may  require  the  same  attention. 
A  more  frequent  cause  of  the  sterile  condition,  however,  is 


found  in  the  neck  and  cavity  of  the  uterus.  The  cavity  of 
the  uterus  may  contain  a  tumor  or  polypus,  which  mu5t  l>e 
removed,  or  it  may  be  in  a  state  of  inflammation  (endome- 
tritis), which  must  be  cured.  Again,  the  mouth  of  the  uterus 
(os  tincaet)  may  be  so  small  that  the  semen  can  not  enter  it : 
then  it  must  be  enlarged  by  forcible  dilatation.  Abnormal 
angulation  of  that  portion  of  the  womb  just  above  the  neck 
(lower  uterine  segment)  is  a  frequent  cause  of  sterility.  It 
is  often  bent  to  an  acute  an^le  instead  of  being  comparar 
tively  straight,  but  when  this  is  not  complicated  with  the 
presence  of  a  fibroid  tumor  or  other  adventitious  growth,  it 
may  be  remedied,  and  is  often  easily  and  promptly  cured, 
by  surgical  means.  Another  frequent  cause  of  sterility  is 
an  abnormal  condition  of  the  secretions  found  in  the  utero- 
cervical  canal.  The  mucus  of  the  cervical  canal  from  the 
third  to  the  tenth  day  after  the  end  of  menstruation  should 
be  translucent,  clear  as  the  white  of  a  new-laid  egg,  without 
any  opaque  or  milky-looking  spots.  A  drop  of  mucus  taken 
from  the  cervical  canal  a  few  hours  after  sexual  intercout^ 
should  be  examined  under  the  microscope.  If  living  zoo- 
sperms are  found  in  abundance  twenty-iour  hours  or  more 
aiter  coition  conception  is  possible ;  but  if  the  zoosperms  are 
all  dead  or  in  a  dying  state,  then  there  is  some  abnomiiU 
condition  of  the  litero-cervical  canal  which  gives  rise  to  an 
abnormal  secretion.  The  diseased  condition  of  the  utero 
cervical  canal  (called  endometritis)  is  often  found  in  wom- 
en whose  general  health  is  perfect,  and  is  generally  cura- 
ble.   See  also  the  article  Hybridism. 

Revised  by  B.  C.  Hirst. 

SteriHzation :  See  Disinfection. 

Sterlet  [=  Fr.  =  Germ.,  from  Russ.  sterlyadi,  sterlet] : 
the  Acipenaer  ruthenus,  a  small  species  of  sturgeon  found 
in  various  Russian  rivers  and  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas, 
into  which  they  empty,  and  esteemea  for  its  flesh.  It  is 
characterized  by  a  narrow,  pointed  snout,  and  the  slightly 
fringed  barbels ;  the  dorsal  shields.  11  to  17,  are  moderately 
developed,  the  lateral  ones,  60  to  70,  small,  and  the  abdom- 
inal, 13  to  15,  moderate ;  the  skin  is  densely  covered  with 
minute  denticulated  ossifications  of  subequal  size.  It  rare- 
ly or  never  attains  a  length  of  3  feet,  and  a  common  size 
is  2  feet  in  length  and  3  lb.  in  weight.  It  leaves  tlu> 
sea  in  May  and  June,  and  ascends  the  rivers,  sometime.^ 
very  high  up,  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  It  has  not  onlv 
a  superior  reputation  as  a  table-fish,  but  from  its  roes  is 
made  the  best  caviare,  which  constitutes  a  noteworthy  arti- 
cle of  trade  in  Russia.  Its  introduction  into  rivers  of  the 
U.  S.  has  been  strongly  recommended,  and  it  has  befn 
claimed  that  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  rivers  would  be  esyte- 
cially  suitable  for  it.  The  Russian  Government  has  intro- 
duced it  into  waters  about  St  Petersburg,  and  in  1870  a 
number  of  the  frv  were  introduced  into  the  waters  of  Suth- 
erlandshire,  Scotland,  in  apparently  f^ood  condition.  Their 
embryonic  life  is  so  short  that  it  is  diflicult  to  transport  ti^e 
eggs  with  success.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Sterling :  city ;  Whiteside  co.,  111. ;  on  the  Rock  river, 
and  the  Burlington  Route  and  the  Chi.  and  N.  W.  raOwavs; 
52  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Rock  Island,  110  miles  W.  of  Chicap> 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref .  2-D).  It  has  excellent 
water-power;  manufactures  agricultural  machinery,  com- 
mon and  barbed  wire,  hearses,  coffins,  school  furniture,  gas- 
engines,  and  paper;  and  is  in  an  agricultural  region.  There 
are  14  churches,  3  public  schools,  hospital,  2  national  banks 
with  combined  capital  of  $175,000,  a  private  bank,  and  a 
monthly,  2  daily,  and  4  weekly  periodicals.  Pop.  {\S^)) 
5,087 ;  (1890)  5,824 ;  (1895)  6,724,  estimated  with  suburb^ 
7,800.  Editoe  of  "  GAirrtK." 

Sterling:  city  (founded  in  1872);  Rice  oo.,  Kan.;  on 
the  Atch.,  Top.  and  S.  F6  and  the  Mo.  Pac.  railways :  252 
mUes  W.  of  Kansas  City,  Mo.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Kan- 
sas, ref.  6-F).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  stock-raising  re- 
gion ;  is  principally  engaged  in  farming,  salt-mining,  and 
milling ;  and  contains  13  churches,  3  public-school  Duild- 
ings.  Cooper  Memorial  College,  a  national  bank  (capital  $50,- 
000),  a  State  bank  (capital  $50,000),  a  private  bank,  and  3 
weekly  papers.  Pop.  (1880)  1,014 ;  (1890)  1,641 ;  (1895)  esti- 
mated, 2,000.  Edftor  of  **  Bulletin  and  Gaietts.*' 

Sterling,  John:  author;  b.at  Karnes  Castle,  Isle  of  Bute» 
July  20, 1806,  son  of  Edward  Sterling,  editor  of  the  London 
Times ;  was  educated  at  Glasgow  and  Cambridge  ;  went  to 
London  in  1827 ;  was  a  short  time  on  the  editorial  staflt  of 
The  Atheiueum^  and  during  a  part  of  1831-32  resided  for  his 
health  iu  the  West  Indies.    Returning  to  England,  he  took 


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746 


STETTIN 


STEVENS 


localizing  the  origin  of  sounds,  as  of  small  cavities  in  the 
lungs,  valyular  diseases  of  the  heart,  and  in  aneurism.  The 
best  auscultators  prefer  the  unaided  ear  for  habitual  chest 
examination,  reserving  the  stethoscope  to  aid  in  special  and 
obscure  cases.  The  habitual  use  of  the  stethoscope  blunts 
the  delicacy  of  the  hearing.  Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Stettin,  stet-teen' :  town  and  railway  center  of  Pomera- 
nia,  Prussia ;  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oder,  at  its  entrance 
into  the  Stettiner-Haff,  83  miles  N.  E.  of  Berlin  (see  map 
of  German  Empire,  ref.  2-G).  Across  the  river,  which  is 
here  from  12  to  16  feet  deep,  lies  the  suburb  of  Lastadie,  con- 
nected with  Stettin  proper  by  three  bridges.  Outside  and 
on  the  line  of  the  old  fortifications,  removed  in  1874,  are 
the  suburbs  of  Bredow,  Grabow,  and  ZQllchow.  The  site 
it  occupies  is  hilly,  and  its  streets  are  consequently  uneven, 
but  the  houses  are  neat  and  substantial,  and  many  buildines, 
such  as  the  royal  palace,  the  citadel  and  barracks,  and  the 
town-hall,  are  very  handsome.  Its  sugar-refineries,  oil- 
mills,  Rlass-works,  breweries,  distilleries,  and  manufactures 
of  anchors,  sailcloth,  rope,  tobacco,  soap,  candles,  hats,  etc., 
are  very  important,  and  as  a  place  of  commerce  Stettin  is 
one  of  the  leading  ports  of  Germany.  Only  small  vessels  can 
reach  it,  however ;  its  port  on  the  Baltic  is  SwinemQnde.  It 
is  the  ancient  Sedinum,  afterward  Stettinum,  and  is  of  Slavic 
oriEHQ-  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  the  residence  of  the 
Duke  of  Pomerania,  and,  having  joined  the  Hansa,  it  soon 
became  a  fiourishing  commercial  town.  It  forms  the  outlet 
for  the  rich  products  of  Silesian  industry.  Pop,  (1890)  116,- 
228.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Stenart,  Sir  James  Denham  :  political  economist ;  b.  in 
Edinburgh  in  1712;  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Edinbur^fh,  and  became  an  advocate.  While  traveling  on 
the  Continent  he  entered  into  relations  with  the  Pretender, 
and  when  the  rebellion  of  1745  broke  out  he  was  forced  to 
go  into  exile.  He  returned  to  Scotland  in  1763,  and  was 
subsequentlv  pardoned  for  any  share  he  might  have  had 
in  the  rebellion.  He  published,  among  other  works,  Apo- 
logie  du  Sentiment  de  Monsieur  le  Chevalier  Newton  sur 
Vancienne  Chronologie  des  Orecs  (1757)  and  An  Inquiry 
into  the  Principles  of  Political  Economy  (1770),  which 
preceded  by  several  years  Adam  Smith's  Jn^iry  into  the 
Nciture  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations,  Smith's 
work  completely  superseded  Steuart*s  Inquiry,  but  the  lat- 
ter contains  many  valuable  suggestions,  and  in  some  re- 
spects anticipates  the  ideas  of  later  economists.  Though  he 
must  be  classed  with  the  mercantilists,  Steuart  was  free  from 
many  of  the  errors  of  that  school  of  economists.    D.  in  1780. 

Steaben,  Germ.  pron.  stoi'b«n,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Au- 
gust Heinrich  Ferdinand,  Baron  von :  soldier ;  b.  Nov.  15, 
1730,  in  the  fortress  of  Magdeburg,  Prussia,  where  his  father 
was  an  officer ;  entered  the  Prussian  army  as  a  cadet  1747; 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Rossbach  1757;  be- 
came adjutant-general  1758;  was  aide  to  Gen.  Knoblauch  in 
his  brilliant  march  into  Poland  1761 ;  was  taken  prisoner 
and  carried  to  St.  Petersburg ;  won  the  favor  of  the  Grand 
Duke  Peter ;  was  soon  exchanged ;  was  made  captain  (17621 
and  placed  on  the  staff  of  Fr^erick  the  Great,  from  whom 
he  received,  with  a  few  other  selected  officers,  special  instruc- 
tion in  tactics ;  was  appointed  in  1764  grand  marshal  to  the 
court  of  the  Prince  of  HohenzoUern-Hechingen.  but  re- 
sigTied  that  post  about  1775.  In  1777  he  was  induced  by 
Saint-Germain  to  offer  his  services  to  the  American  insur- 
l^nts  through  the  agency  of  Silas  Deane,  and  was  appointed , 
inspector-general,  with  the  rank  of  major-general,  in  the 
sprin?  of  1778 ;  took  part  as  a  volunteer  in  the  battle  of  Mon- 
mouth in  the  following  June ;  render^  memorable  services 
in  drilling  the  officers  and  men  of  tiie  Continental  army  into 
efficiency ;  prepared  a  manual  of  instruction  for  the  army, 
adopted  by  Congress  and  printed  1779 ;  was  a  member  of 
the  court  martial  on  Maj.  Andre ;  took  command  of  the 
forces  in  Virginia  1780,  and  rendered  good  services  at  the 
siege  of  Yorktown  1781.  His  greatest  exploit,  however,  was 
his  Virginian  campaign.  He  had  been  left  in  Virginia  by 
Gen.  Greene  to  gather  up  and  discipline  the  levies  voted  for 
the  Southern  army  by  tliat  State  when  it  was  invaded  by 
Arnold.  On  the  appearance  of  this  new  danger  the  militia 
flocked  to  Steuben  s  standard.  Arnold  succeeded  in  burn- 
ing Richmond,  and  then  went  down  the  James  river  on  a 
marauding  expedition :  but  when  pui*sued  and  overtaken 
by  Steuben  with  the  militia,  he  fled  up  the  Elizabeth  river. 
Remaining  as  a  citizen  of  the  U.  S.  after  the  war,  Steuben 

Procured  with  difficulty  an  adjustment  of  his  claims  upon 
ongress.    He  was  ultimately  assigned  a  pension  of  $2,500 


and  received  grants  of  land  from  several  States.  On  tht> 
tract  given  him  by  New  York,  in  Oneida  County  (the  to* n- 
ship  of  Steuben),  he  settled,  accompanied  by  North,  Poph.i:. 
Walker,  and  otners  of  his  former  aides,  to  whom  he  gav.  •» 
large  portion  of  his  lands.  D.  at  Steuben,  Nov.  28, 1 794.  If  - 
was  a  man  of  great  kindness  and  generosity,  of  ready  wit  &n  i 
highly  polished  manners.  A  Life  by  Francis  Bo  wen  ai  - 
peared  m  Sparks*s  series;  another,  containing  much  ui 
material,  was  published  by  Friedrich  Eapp  (1860),  an^l  ^r 
epitome  of  the  latter  may  be  found  in  Greeners  Gem.iju 
JSlement  in  the  War  of  Independence  (1876). 

SteabenTille:  city  (site  of  a  fort  built  in  1786,  laid  r.-* 
as  a  town  in  1798,  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1851) ;  capital  •  f 
Jefferson  co.,  0. ;  on  the  Ohio  river,  and  the  Cleveland  ar.i 
Pittsburg  Div.  of  the  Penn.,  the  Pitts.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L. 
and  the  Wheeling  and  Lake  Erie  railways ;  22  miles  X.  •  f 
Wheeling,  and  43  miles  W.  of  Pittsburg  (for  location,  w^ 
map  of  Ohio,  ref.  4-J).  It  is  in  a  rich  agricultural  am 
mining  region ;  is  laid  out  on  the  second  terrace  of  the  Ohi-  >. 
above  danger  from  the  floods  for  which  the  river  is  notr^l 
and  is  nearly  surrounded  by  hills  from  300  to  500  feet  hi;:!:, 
which  protect  it  from  destructive  winds.  The  city  has  t^\- 
cellent  surface  drainage,  good  sewerage,  and  a  water-sup^  \) 
obtained  from  the  river  2  miles  above  the  city,  with  a  sy.-ttiii 
of  high-pressure  mains  for  fire  and  manufacturing  purjM  i^-^ 
and  one  of  low-pressure  for  domestic  uses.  The  princij^ 
streets  are  paved  with  vitrified  brick.     • 

Churches  and  Schools, — Steubenville  has  5  Method  «: 
Episcopal  churches,  3  Presbyterian,  2  Roman  Catholic.  -• 
Lutheran,  and  1  each  African  Methodist  Episcopal,  BapTi-'. 
Congregational,  Christian,  Methodist  Protestant,  Protect  r  : 
Episcopal,  and  United  Presbyterian.  The  public-siL..  > 
system  comprises  6  school  buildings,  54  teachers,  and  o^ '  r 
2,200  pupils,  and  in  1893-94  cost  for  maintenance  over  ^:7.- 
000.  There  are  2  Roman  Catholic  parochial  schools,  wrr. 
over  500  pupils.  The  Steubenville  Female  Seminary,  founii*  . 
in  1829,  has  been  enlarged  in  scope  by  the  addition  of  a  ci  •  - 
lege  preparatory  department  for  both  sexes.  There  are 
several  lioraries  and  3  daily  and  8  weekly  newspapers. 

Finances  and  Banking, — In  1893  the  receipts  for  munic- 
ipal purposes  were  $118,243;  expenditures,  $87,479;  u^ 
net  debt  was  $24,655 ;  assessed  property  valuation,  $5.6*24.- 
100.  In  1894  there  were  2  national  banks  with  combin«->! 
capital  of  $225,000, 3  private  banks,  and  a  building  and  h^aii 
association. 

Business  Interests, — In  the  surrounding  hills  and  uin^r- 
lying  the  city  are  extensive  supplies  of  excellent  coaL  T  t- 
seam  beneath  the  citj  limits  is  worked  by  means  of  severe 
shafts.  Natural  gas  is  abundant  at  distances  of  from  5  t«  > 
50  miles,  and  is  piped  into  the  city;  petroleum-wells  havt^ 
been  opened  within  5  miles;  and  economic  clays  are  eas^ilT 
mined  in  the  hills.  The  principal  manufactories  are  3  bla^t 
furnaces,  2  rolling-mills  and  nail-factories,  2  foundries.  2 
machine-shops,  steel  plant,  boiler-works,  5  glass-factories,  2 
flour-mills,  glass-melting  pot-works,  paper-roiU,  white-ware 
pottery,  and  ice  plant.  Extensive  flre-orick,  paving-brivk, 
and  sewer-pipe  works,  N.  of  the  city,  form  a  part  of  the 
local  industries,  as  do  also  numerous  coal  mines  and  qu.%r- 
ries  of  building-stone  in  the  vicinity,  operated  by  local  c»vi- 
tal.  The  greater  part  of  the  coal  proiluct  is  shipped  to  tr  ^ 
lakes.  The  city  is  the  distributing  point  for  a  laree  area  < ' 
country.    Pop.  (1880)  12,093 ;  (18W)  13,394. 

H.  N.  MeRTZ,  SUPBRINTENDKNT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION'. 

Sterens,  Abel,  LL.  D.  :  minister  and  anthor ;  b.  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  Jan.  19,  1815 ;  studied  at  the  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity, Middletown,  Conn.;  joined  the  New  England  Gn- 
ference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1834,  ii^:.< 
agent  for  the  Wesleyan  University  one  year,  and  in  1{<V> 
was  stationed  at  Boston ;  in  1837  made  a  European  tour. 
and  after  his  return  was  stationed  at  Providence,  R,  I. ;  ii 
1840  became  editor  of  Zion^s  Herald  at  Boston,  and  in  is'iC 
of  The  National  Magazine,  an  illustrated  monthly,  at  N* « 
York,  which  was  discontinued  after  two  or  three  years.  Ir. 
1856  he  was  elected  by  the  general  conference  as  editor  «'t 
the  New  York  Christian  Advocate  and  Journal,  From  1m>» 
to  1874  he  was  joint  editor  of  The  Methodist,  an  inde|K'n<i- 
ent  journal  published  in  New  York.  He  has  published  iri- 
merous  books,  including  Memorials  of  the  hitroductitm  •' 
Methodism  into  New  England  (1848);  Memorials  of  th' 
Progress  of  Methodism  in  the  Eastern  States  (1852) ;  Ch »/ "  •  < 
Polity;  Itistory  of  the  Religious  Movement  called  Methi>c- 
ism  (3  vols.,  1858-61);  Life  and  Times  of  Nathan  Bo '><:*, 
I).  D.  (1863);  History  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Chui^K 


STEVENS 


747 


in  the  United  States  of  America  (4  vols.,  1864-67;  vol.  v.  in 
press,  1895) ;  The  Centenary  of  American  Methodism  (1866) ; 
The  Women  of  Methodism  {\m%)  \  Life  and  Times  of  Ma- 
dame de  Stail  (2  vols.,  1882);  Character  Sketches  (1882); 
and  Christian  Work  and  ConsolcUion  (1885). 

Revised  by  A.  Osborn. 

SteTenik  Alfred:  genre-painter;  b.  in  Brussels,  May  11, 
1S28 ;  studied  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts  and  under  Roque- 
II Ian,  Paris;  third-class  medal.  Salon,  1858;  second-ciass, 
raris  Exposition,  1855;  first-class,  Paris  Exposition,  1867 
and  1878;  medal  of  honor,  Paris  Exposition,  1889;  com- 
mander Legion  of  Honor  1878 ;  commander  in  the  Orders 
of  Leopold  of  Belgium,  Francis  Joseph  of  Austria,  and  St. 
>licbael  of  Bavaria.  He  is  one  of  the  ablest  and  most 
<hanning  painters  of  modem  life  in  the  French  school,  to 
which,  by  residence  and  affinities,  he  belongs,  and  his  works 
are  especially  fine  in  color  quality.  An  excellent  example 
of  his  stvle  is  Five  o*clock  Tea,  in  the  collection  of  Mrs.  w. 
H.  Vanderbilt,  New  York.  Studio  in  Paris. — His  brother 
Joseph,  born  in  Brussels,  1822,  is  distinguished  as  apainter 
of  dog!*  and  other  animals.  Among  his  works  are  Taureau 
/lamand  Doursnivi  par  un  Chien  (1853)  and  Chien  regard- 
ant une  Mouc-he  (1878).  Wiluam  A.  Coffix. 

Stevens,  Alfred  Oeoroe:  sculptor;  b.  at  Blandford, 
Porsetshire,  England,  in  1817.     He  was  the  son  of  a  house- 
fiatnter  and  decorator,  and  was  sent  to  Italy  at  the  expense 
of  a  wealthy  gentleman  to  study  painting.    He  returned  to 
England  about  1842,  and  was  made  a  teacher  in  the  Oovem- 
ment  School  of  Design,  then  established  at  Somerset  House, 
London,  in  which  he  remained  about  four  years.  During  this 
time  he  made  many  designs  for  ornamental  work  of  various 
kinds,  such  as  the  doorway  of  the  Jermyn  Street  School  of 
Mines,  the  doors  themselves  having  been  designed  also  by 
him  but  never  carried  further  than  the  fine  drawing  in 
South  Kensington   Museum.    As  designer  for  the  Qreen 
Lane  works  at  Sheffield  he  made,  about  1851,  some  remark- 
able fire-places  and  stoves,  anticipating  by  many  years  the 
work  of  1885-95  in  modem  adaptation  of  classical  orna- 
ment.   Of  the  years  from  1850  to  1860  are  some  remarkable 
des»igns  for  pottery,  daggers,  and  other  small  objects,  and 
then,  or  at  a  later  time,  he  designed  the  decorations  of  many 
very  costly  houses.    He  made  designs,  in  competition,  for 
thf' painted  decorations  of  some  of  the  halls  of  the  new 
Houses  of  Parliament,  for  the  decorations  of  the  new  For- 
<'i^'n  Office,  and  for  a  memorial  of  the  Exhibition  of  1851. 
In  1857  he  competed  for  a  monument  to  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
ti n^rton,  and,  among  eighty-two  competitors,  was  so  far  suc- 
(^•'saful  as  to  receive  one  of  the  minor  prizes,  and  at  a  later 
lime  to  be  employed  as  designer  of  the  work.    His  design 
was  partly  carried  out,  and  the  monument  in  a  small  chapel 
of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  is  what  exists  of  it    The  architec- 
tural design  of  the  monument  is  fine  and  worthy  of  the  oc- 
casion, but  not  very  original.    The  sculpture  is  of  very  great 
merit.    This  was  to  consist  of  the  equestrian  statue  on  the 
^^urnmit,  which,  however,  was  never  finished,  and  Uie  follow- 
ni^.  which  is  all  in  place:  A  recumbent  figure  on  a  sar- 
i-o[»hagus,  a  group  of  VcUor  and  Cowardice,  and  one  of  Truth 
and  p€Usehood,  besides  decorative  panels.    D.  in  London, 
A)>r.  30, 1875.  Russell  Sturois. 

SteTens,  Charles  Ellis,  Ph.  D.«  LL.  D„  D.  C.  L. :  cler- 
:ryinAn  ;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July  5, 1858 ;  studied  at  Woos- 
t  tT  University,  Ohio,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Yale  Col- 
|.-j^,  Berkeley  Divinity  School,  Middletown,  Conn.,  Kasho- 
rah.  Wis.,  and  in  Europe ;  ordained  priest  in  the  Protestant 
Kpi.<«copal  Church  1875 ;  assistant  mmister  of  Orace  church, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1876;  rector  Clhurch  of  the  Ascension, 
Bnwiklyn,  1877;  for  mainr  years  from  1878  secretary  of  an 
xiuxiliarr  of  the  board  of  missions  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
4-o(iai  Cnuroh  and  chairman  of  numerous  committees  of 
t  he  diocese  of  Long  Island ;  examining  chaplain  diocese  of 
Ijong  Island;  archdeacon  of  Brooklyn  1888-91;  president 
<  >f  Ijca^ue  for  Moral  Instruction  in  Public  Schools  of  New 
York  1890;  rector  Christ  church,  Philadelphia,  1891;  lec- 
t  urer  on  English  and  American  constitutional  law,  Wooster 
r ni versity,  1888,  at  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York 
\>**Jl^  and  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  1892;  lecturer 
<'U    ^constitutional  law  and  English   literature  at  St.  Ste- 
phfu's  College,  Annandale,  N.  Y.,  since  1890;  received  hon- 
orary df'grees  from  Wooster  University  and  King's  College, 
Nova  Scotia;  fellow  of  Society  of  Antiquaries,  Edinburgh, 
tho  Royal  Geographical  Societ^,  and  other  learned  societies ; 
has  in  Dreparation  a  work  entitled  Sources  of  the  Constitu- 
tion ojtht  United  States. 


Sterens,  Ebe.vezer:  soldier;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Aug. 
22,  1751 ;  was  a  member  of  Paddock*s  Company  of  Boston 
Artillery,  and  one  of  the  famous  *'  Boston  tea-part^  "  Dec, 
1773;  removed  soon  afterward  to  Rhode  Island;  raised  two 
companies  of  artillery  and  one  of  artificers  for  the  expedi- 
tion against  Quebec,  in  which  he  served  as  lieutenant,  hav- 
ing b^n  commissioned  May  8,  1775;  became  captain  of 
Knox*s  regiment  Jan.  11,  and  brevet-major  Nov.  9,  1776; 
command^  the  artillery  at  Ticonderoga  and  at  Stillwater ; 
was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel  Apr.  ^,  1778 ;  was  assigned 
to  Lamb's  regiment ;  served  under  Lafayette  in  Virginia ; 
was,  alternately  with  Lamb  and  Carrington,  in  command  of 
the  artillery  during  the  siege  of  Yorktown ;  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati,  and  became  after 
the  war  a  leading  merchant  of  New  York  in  the  West  India 
and  Mediterranean  trade ;  agent  of  the  War  Department, 
and  a  major-general  of  militia.  D.  at  Bockaway,  L.  I.,  Sept. 
2,1823. 

Sterens,  Edwin  Augustus:  inventor;  b.  at  Hoboken, 
N.  J.,  in  1795;  son  of  John  and  brother  of  Robert  L. 
Stevens ;  took  part  in  their  steamboat  experiments  and  en- 
terprises, and  in  conjunction  with  his  brothers  established 
passen^r  and  tow  boats  on  the  Hudson  and  other  rivers ; 
also  aided  in  the  introduction  of  railways,  and  invented 
msaij  appliances  for  use  thereon.  At  the  breaking  out  of 
the  civil  war  he  urged  the  Government  to  put  in  service  the 
ironclad  fioating  battery  of  which  his  brotner  had  long  be- 
fore undertaken  the  construction,  offering  to  complete  it  at 
his  own  risk,  and  to  receive  payment  only  in  case  it  should 
prove  successful;  this  offer  being  declined,  he  expended 
considerable  sums  on  the  vessel,  and  upon  his  death  be- 
queathed it  to  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  together  with  $1,000,- 
000  for  its  completion ;  this,  however,  proved  insufficient, 
and  the  battery  was  never  finished,  ana  was  finally  sold  to 
dealers  in  old  iron.  He  inherited  a  large  fortune  from  his 
father  and  brothers,  endowed  the  Hoboken  High  School, 
and  bequeathed  nearly  $1,000,000  to  establish  at  Hoboken 
the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology.  D.  in  Paris,  Aug.  7, 
1868.  Revised  by  R.  H.  Thurstox. 

Sterens,  Gsoboe  Barker,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  and  educa- 
tor; b.  at  Spencer,  N.  Y.,  July  13,  1854;  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Rochester,  New  York,  1877,  and  at  the  Yale 
Divinity  School  1880;  pastor  of  the  First  Congrcgational 
church,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1880-83,  of  the  First  Presbyterian 
church,  Watertown,  N.  Y.,  from  1883  to  1886,  when  he  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Criticism  and  Interpretation  in  Yale 
Divinity  School.  Besides  reviews,  essavs,  etc.,  he  has  edited 
Chrysostom's  Homilies  on  the  Acts  ana  the  Romans  (1889), 
and  published  a  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Oala- 
tians(lB90),  The  Pauline  Theology  (18^2),  and  The  Johan- 
nine  Theology  (1894).  Oeoroe  P.  Fisher. 

Sterens,  Hekrt:  bibliographer:  son  of  Henry  Stevens, 
antiquanr ;  b.  at  Bamet,  Vt,  Aug.  24, 1819 ;  studied  at  Mid- 
dlebury  Colle^  1838-99;  graduated  at  Yale  College  1843, 
and  at' Cambridge  Law  School  1844 ;  established  himself  in 
London  1845  (where  he  resided  till  his  death)  as  agent  for 
the  British  Museum  in  the  purchase  of  North  and  South 
American  books  of  all  kinds,  and  was  thus  instrumental  in 
placing  in  the  British  Museum  a  very  complete  collection  of 
Americana.  He  also  purchased  for  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, the  Library  of  Congress,  and  the  chief  libraries  of 
the  U.  S.,  and  for  many  private  individuals.  He  published 
several  valuable  bibliographical  treatises  and  catalogues, 
among  which  are  A  Catalogue  Baisonni  of  English  Bibles 
(1854) ;  A  Catalogue  of  the  American  Books  in  the  Library 
of  the  British  Museum  (1856) ;  a  Catalogue  of  the  Croumin- 
shield  Library  (1860),  and  of  the  library  of  Baron  Hum- 
boldt (1861),  which  latter  collection  he  had  purchased ;  Bib- 
liotheca.  Americana  (1861);  Historical  JiuggeU  (1862); 
Bibliotheca  geographica  et  historica  (1870),  the  latter  book 
being  the  catalogue  of  the  library  of  his  father,  of  whom  it 
contains  a  biographical  sketch ;  The  Bibles  in  the  Caxton 
Exhibition  (1878);  Historical  Collections  (2  vols.,  1881-^); 
and  RecolUetions  of  James  Lenox  (1886).  He  also  prepared 
indexes  to  the  State  papers  in  London  relating  to  New  Jer- 
sey (1858).  Maryland  (10  vols.),  Rhode  Island  (6  vols.),  and 
Virginia  (1858).  the  three  latter  being  in  MS. ;  published  a 
work  on  Hie  Tehuantepec  Railway  (1869),  ana  two  small 
volumes  of  Historical  and  Geographical  Notes  (1869),  re- 
lating to  early  explorations  in  America.  He  frequently 
wrote  after  his  name  the  initials  G.  M.  B.  (=  Qreen  Moun- 
Uin  Boy).    D.  in  London,  Feb.  28, 1886. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 


Y48 


STEVENS 


STEVENSON 


SteTens,  Isaac  Ingalls  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Andover,  Mass., 
Mar.  28,  1818 ;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy 
July  1, 1889 ;  promoted  second  lieutenant  of  engineers ;  was 
engaged  upon  construction  and  repairs  of  fortifications 
1889-46 ;  served  in  the  war  with  Mexico  as  adjutant  of  en- 
gineers, participating  in  all  the  battles  from  Vera  Cruz  to 
the  city  of  Mexico,  and  for  gallantry  at  Contreras  and 
Churubusco  and  at  Chapultepec  was  breveted  captain  and 
major,  and  was  severely  wounded  in  the  San  Cosme  suburb. 
From  1849  to  1853  he  was  principal  assistant  and  in  charge 
of  the  office  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey  at  Washington ;  m 
Mar.,  1853,  resigned  from  the  army  to  accept  the  governor- 
ship of  Washington  Territory ;  conducted  the  pioneer  sur- 
vey of  the  route  for  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  an  ac- 
count of  which  he  published;  delegate  to  Congress  from 
Washington  Territory  1857-61 ;  on  the  outbreak  of  the  civil 
war  was  made  colonel  of  the  Seventy-ninth  (Highlanders) 
New  York  Volunteers.  Moving  his  command  to  Washing- 
ton, he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  Sept.  28, 
and  attached  to  the  rort  Royal  expedition,  whicn  left 
Hampton  roads  a  month  later.  He  commanded  the  land 
forces  in  the  actions  at  Port  Royal  Ferry,  Coosaw  river,  and 
a  division  in  the  actions  on  Stono  river  and  the  assault  on 
Secessionville.  On  July  4,  1862,  he  was  made  a  major-gen- 
eral of  volunteers,  and  a  week  later  transferred  to  Newport 
News  in  command  of  a  division ;  at  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Run  his  division  (Ninth  Corps)  was  hotly  engaged. 
Near  Chantilly,  on  the  morning  of  Sept.  1, 1862,  his  division 
encountered  the  enemy,  when  Stevens,  ordering  a  charge, 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  command,  where  he  was 
shot  through  the  head  and  instantly  killed. 

Revised  by  James  Mercub. 

Steyens,  John :  inventor;  b.  in  New  York  in  1749;  grad- 
uated at  King*s  (Columbia)  College  in  1768,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  but  did  not  practice ;  became  interested  in  the 
question  of  navigation  dj  means  of  steam,  and  as  early  as 
1789  presented  a  memorial  to  the  New  York  Legislature 
stating  that  he  had  perfected  his  plans,  and  in  1804  launched 
a  small  vessel  worted  by  steam  with  screws,  and  in  1807 
built  a  steamboat  which  he  called  the  Phoenix.  Fulton  had 
in  the  meantime  built  his  steamboat,  the  Clermont,  and  ob- 
tained the  exclusive  right  of  navigating  the  Hudson  by 
steam,  and  Stevens  sent  his  vessel  to  the  Delaware  river.  In 
1812  he  planned  a  revolving  steam-battery,  to  be  plated  with 
iron,  ana  involving  essentially  the  principles  afterward  em- 
bodied in  the  monitors,  and  in  the  same  year  put  forth  an 
essay  on  railways,  indicating  the  methods  of  operating  them 
by  steam,  and  suggested  the  construction  of  a  railway  from 
Albany  to  Lake  Erie.  The  Camden  and  Amboy  Railroad 
was  planned  by  him.  He  once  owned  the  entire  site  of  Ho- 
boken,  N.  J.,  and  through  profits  in  real  estate  and  other 
enterprises  amassed  an  immense  fortune.  D.  at  Hoboken, 
Mar.  6, 1838.  Revised  by  R.  H.  Thurston. 

Stevens,  John  Leavitt,  LL.  D.  :  writer  and  diplomat ;  b. 
at  Mt.  Vernon,  Me.,  in  1820.  He  was  educated  in  the  schools 
and  seminaries  of  his  native  State.  In  1855  he  became  part- 
ner and  coeditor  with  James  G.  Blaine  of  Ths  Kennebec 
Journal^  of  which  he  subsequently  was  chief  editor  for  many 
years ;  member  of  the  Legislature  1865-70 ;  U.  S.  minister 
to  Uruguay  and  Paraguay  1870-73.  In  1877  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Sweden  and  Norway.  During  his  official 
residence  of  six  years  in  Stockholm  he  wrote  the  History  of 
Oustamis  Adolphus,  In  1883  Tufts  College  conferred  on 
him  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  In  1889  he  was  appointed  minis- 
ter 'resident  to  the  Hawaiian  islands,  a  title  soon  after 
changed,  by  act  of  C-ongress,  to  that  of  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary and  envoy  extraordinary.  He  was  recalled  in  1893, 
his  attitude  during  the  revolution  in  the  islands  being  con- 
demned by  President  Cleveland  as  compromising  j/he  neu- 
trality of  the  U.  S.    D.  at  Augusta,  Me.,  Feb.  8, 1895. 

Stevens,  Robert  Livingston  :  inventor ;  b,  at  Hoboken, 
N.  J.,  Oct.  18, 1787;  son  of  John  Stevens,  inventor;  became 
earlv  interested  in  the  ideas  of  his  father  regarding  steam 
navigation,  and  made  many  improvements  in  the  construc- 
tion of  vessels,  among  which  was  that  of  giving  concave 
water-lines  to  the  hml.  He  subsequently  engaged  largely 
in  the  building  of  steamboats,  improving  the  marine  engine, 
and  introducing  the  beam  engine.  In  1813  he  invented  and 
made  for  the  Government  elongated  percussion  shells  for 
smooth-bore  guns,  and  in  1822  used  anthracite  coal  in  a 
furnace,  and  soon  after  in  his  steamers ;  in  1836  introduced 
the  T-rail  on  the  Camden  and  Amboy  Railroad,  of  which  he 
was  president,  and  in  1842  was  commissioned  to  build  for 


the  IT.  S.  Government  an  iron-plated  floating  battery,  which 
remained  uncompleted  at  his  death.  D.  at  Hoboken,  Apr. 
20, 1856.  Revised  by  R.  H.  Thurston. 

Stevens,  Thaddeus  :  statesman ;  b.  at  Peacham,  Vt,  Apr. 
4, 1792 ;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1814 ;  went  to 
Gettysburg,  Pa.,  where  he  taught  in  an  academy,  at  the 
same  time  studying  law ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1816« 
and  soon  acquired  an  extensive  practice.  In  the  presiden- 
tial canvass  of  1828  he  was  a  strong  opponent  of  the  elect  iun 
of  Gen.  Jackson ;  in  1833  and  several  times  subsequently  he 
was  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature,  in  1836  a  member  of 
the  convention  to  revise  the  State  constitution,  and  in  1838 
canal  commissioner.  He  was  active  in  introducing  the  pub- 
lic-school system  in  Pennsylvania.  In  1843  he  removed  to 
Lancaster ;  in  1848  was  elected  Representative  in  Congress ; 
was  re-elected  in  1850,  1858,  1862,  and  thereafter  to  each 
Congress  until  his  death,  serving  at  various  times  as  chair- 
man of  important  committees,  being  one  of  the  acknowi- 
edged  leaders  of  the  Republican  p^y,  and  distingnishincr 
himself  for  his  earnest  advocacy  of  measures  in  oppositictn 
to  slavery,  for  the  emancipation  and  enfranchisement  of  the 
colored  race,  and  after  the  war  for  stringent  proceediniis 
against  the  seceding  States.  He  was  one  of  the  most  active 
managers  in  the  in^eachment  trial  of  President  Johnson. 
The  degree  of  LL.  D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  Middle- 
bury  College  in  1867.    D.  at  Washington,  Aug.  11,  1868. 

Stevens,  Waltke  Lk  Contb,  Ph.  D. :  physicist ;  b.  in  Gor- 
don CO.,  Ga.,  June  17,  1847 ;  graduated  at  the  University  of 
South  Carolina  1868;  instructor  in  chemistry,  Oglethorpe 
College,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  1870-72 ;  teacher  of  physical  science, 
Chatham  Academy,  Savannah,  Ga..  1873-7o.  After  a  year 
at  the  University  of  Virginia  he  taught  in  New  York  until 
1882,  at  the  same  time  writing  on  pnvsiological  optics  an<l 
acoustics  in  Tke  American  Journal  of  Science^  London 
Philosophical  Magazine,  and  other  journals.  He  was  PTt>- 
fessor  of  Mathematics  and  Physics  in  the  Packer  Collegiate 
Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1882-90;  studied  physics  at 
Strassburg,  Berlin,  and  Zurich  from  1890  to  1892,  when  he 
became  Professor  of  Physics  in  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic 
Institute,  Troy,  N.  Y.  Besides  contributions  to  various!  |*- 
riodicals  he  wrote  a  large  part  of  Appletons*  Physical  Gn^j- 
raphy  (New  York,  1887)  and  revised  Steele's  Physics  (18^). 

SteTens  Institute  of  Technology  :  a  school  of  mechan- 
ical engineering  at  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  founded  in  1870  by  a  lie- 
quest  from  Edwin  A.  Stevens,  and  further  assisted  by  do- 
nations by  its  president,  Henry  Morton.  It  prepares  y'ouni: 
men  for  employment  in  manufacturing  establishments,  on 
railways,  and  the  like,  where  machinery  is  designed,  con- 
structed, and  operated.  Its  course  of  studies  comprises  de- 
partments of  mathematics,  mechanical  drawing,  physics, 
general  chemistry,  analytical  chemistry,  mechanical  enp- 
neering,  experimental  mechanics  and  shop-work,  applieil 
electricity,  languages,  belles-lettres,  and  engineering  practice. 
Its  course  has  been  especially  characterized  by  its  large  ad- 
mixture of  practical  work  in  the  line  of  workshop  practice, 
in  the  handling  of  machine  tools,  and  particularly  in  deal- 
ing with  experimental  problems,  such  as  the  operation  of 
steam,  gas,  and  hot-air  engines,  pumps,  "injectors,  etc.,  with 
accompanying  measurements  of  their  efficiency  by  the  use 
of  indicators,  dynamometers,  calorimeters,  etc.  A  depart- 
ment of  appliea  electricity  was  established  in  1883  and  a 
chair  of  engineering  practice  was  founded  in  1888.  The 
buildings  include,  besides  lecture-rooms  and  drafting-rooms, 
chemic^  and  physical  laboratories,  machine-shops,  foundries, 
and  other  provisions  for  practical  mechanical  and  electrical 
work.  The  faculty  numoers  eighteen,  many  of  whom  are 
leaders  in  their  departments  as  original  investigators  and 
authors.  The  students  number  upward  of  250,  and  on  grad- 
uation receive  the  degree  of  mechanical  engineer. 

Henbt  Morton. 

Sterenson,  Alan:  engineer;  son  of  Robert  Stevenson 
(1772-1850) ;  b.  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  1807;  educated  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh ;  subsequently  studied  natural 
philosophy  under  Sir  John  Leslie,  and  for  the  profession  of 
a  civil  engineer  in  the  office  of  his  father,  with  whom  he  en- 
tered into  partnership.  In  1843  he  succeeded  his  father  as 
engineer  to  the  commissioners  of  northern  lighthouses,  to 
which  his  subsequent  practice  was  confined.  Among  many 
other  important  improvements  in  lighthouse  apparatus,  he 
introduced  the  dioptric  system  in  1836.  Of  the  many  light- 
houses desi|^ned  and  constructed  by  him,  the  Skerryvore 
was  his  chief  work,  an  Account  of  which  he  publisheii: 
also  a  Treatise  on  Lighthouse  Illumination;  contributed 


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11.  A 


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750 


STEWART 


STILES 


Progress  of  Metaphysical,  Ethical,  and  Political  Philoso- 
phy, prefixed  to  the  supplement  to  the  Encyclopaedia  Bri- 
tannica  (1816);  The  Philosophy  of  the  Active  and  Moral 
Powers  of  Man  (1828).  He  also  wrot«  biographies  of  Adam 
Smith,  Thomas  Reid,  and  Dr.  Robertson.  The  best  edition 
of  his  collected  works  is  that  prepared  by  Sir  William  Ham- 
ilton (1856).    D.  in  Edinburgh,  June  11,  1828. 

Revised  by  J.  Mabk  Baldwin. 
Stewart,  Esme:  Lord  of  Aubigny,  Earl  and  Duke  of 
Lennox ;  b.  in  France  about  1555 ;  grandson  of  John,  third 
Earl  of  Lennox ;  derived  his  French  title  from  Sir  John 
Stewart  of  Darnley,  constable  to  the  Scots  army  in  France 
in  the  wars  of  Charles  VII. ;  arrived  in  Scotland  in  Sept., 

1579,  and  immediately  became  a  favorite  of  his  cousin. 
King  James  VI.,  who  created  him  Earl  of  Lennox  Mar.  5, 

1580,  Duke  of  Lennox  and  Earl  of  Darnley  Aug.  5,  1581 ; 
took  an  active  part  in  the  political  intrigues  of  the  time,  in- 
stituting legal  proceedings  against  the  ex-regent  Morton, 
and  secured  his  condemnation  and  execution  for  the  murder 
of  Darnley ;  quarreled  with  the  Church,  and  was  accused  of 
treason,  and  expelled  from  Scotland  Dec.,  1582.  D.  in  Paris, 
May  26, 1583. 

Stewart,  Matthew  :  Earl  of  Lennox,  regent  of  Scotland ; 
b.  in  Scotland  about  1510;  married  Lady  Margaret  Douglas, 
and  had  by  this  marriage  two  sons,  of  whom  the  elder.  Earl 
Darnley,  married  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  He  was  prominent 
in  the  movement  which  resulted  in  the  seizure  and  impris- 
onment of  the  queen  at  Lochleven  Castle,  June  15,  1570; 
was  the  next  day  declared  lieutenant-governor  of  Scotland 
in  behalf  of  his  grandson,  the  infant  Prince  James  VI. ;  was 
elected  regent  July  12 ;  conducted  the  war  against  the  par- 
tisans of  Mary ;  took  Dumbarton  Castle  Apr.,  1571,  but  was 
unable  to  secure  that  of  Bklinburgh ;  held  a  Parliament  at 
Leith  May  9,  1571,  and  when  on  his  way  to  hold  a  Parlia- 
ment at  Stirling  was  attacked  and  mortally  wounded  by  a 
party  of  the  queen's  friends.    D.  at  Stirling,  Sept  4, 1571. 

Stewart,  Robert  :  See  Castlereagh,  Viscount. 

Stewart,  William,  D.  D.  :  minister  and  professor ;  b.  at 
Annan,  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland,  Aug.  15. 1835 ;  educated  at 
the  University  of  Glasgow;  minister  in  the  parish  of  St 
George's-in-the-Fields,  Glasgow,  1868-75 ;  in  the  University 
of  Glasgow  examiner  in  mental  philosophy  for  degrees  1867- 
70,  and  since  1873  Professor  of  Divinity  and  Biblical  Criti- 
cism. Dr.  Stewart  has  published  7^  Divinely  Established 
Connection  between  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  (1873) ; 
The  Plan  of  St,  Luke's  Oosf>el  (1873);  a  revised  and  edited 
translation  of  vols.  xi.  and  xiv.  of  Mever's  Commentary  on 
the  New  Testament  (1879-80) ;  The  Church  of  the  Fourth 
Century  (1883) ;  and  The  University  of  Glasgow,  Old  and 
New,  Illustrated  (1891).  C,  K.  Hoyt. 

Stewart  Island,  also  called  New  Leinster :  the  southern- 
most and  smallest  of  the  three  chief  islands  of  New  Zealand. 
It  is  of  triangular  form,  about  100  miles  in  circumference, 
with  an  area  of  665  sq.  miles ;  consists  largely  of  hills,  of 
which  there  are  three  ranges;  the  highest  summit  is  Mt. 
Anglem  in  the  northern  part,  3,200  feet ;  is  separated  from 
New  Zealand  by  Foveaux  Strait,  20  miles  wide,  and  forms  a 
part  of  the  province  of  Southland.  It  is  well  wooded  and 
watered,  has  much  mineral  wealth,  and  some  fertile  valleys, 
and  the  waters  surrounding  it  abound  in  flsh  and  oysters. 
The  population  is  sparse,  mostly  Maoris  or  half-castes. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Stewartry :  the  name  which  was  given  in  Scotland  to  a 
district  governed  by  a  steward,  which  oflBcer  was  appointed 
by  the  kmg  with  jurisdiction  over  crown  lands  ana  powers 
similar  to  those  of  a  lord  of  regality.  While  the  civil  juris- 
diction of  a  steward  was  equivalent  to  that  of  a  sheriff,  his 
criminal  jurisdiction  was  much  more  extensive.  The  only 
remaining  trace  of  that  jurisdiction  exists  in  the  term 
stewartry,  which,  in  place  of  county,  is  applied  to  the  district 
of  Kirkcudbright.  The  reorganization  of  the  oflBce  took 
place  in  1747,  but  the  name  was  continued  until  1  Vict.,  c. 
39,  substituted  the  name  sheriff  for  it. 

Stib'iam :  the  Latin  name  of  Antimony  {q.  v.). 

Sticking-plaster,  or  Adhesive  Plaster:  an  article  for 
surgeons*  use,  made  of  resin,  lead  plaster,  and  soap,  melted 
together  and  spread  by  machinery  upon  stout  muslin.  It  is 
of  great  value  in  practical  surgery,  out  re(^uires  rather  fre- 
quent renewal,  as  it  loses  its  adhesive  qualities.  It  has  to  be 
warmed  before  application,  but  is  not  loosened  by  wetting. 
Light  adhesive  plasters,  court-plasters,  and  the  like,  are  made 
of  silk  or  goldbeater's  skin,  covered  on  the  adhesive  side 


with  a  solution  containing  isinglass  and  gum-benioin,  while 
the  back  of  the  plaster  receives  a  varnish  of  Chian  turpentine 
and  benzoin.    These  plasters  are  wetted  before  application. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 
Stickleback  rM.  Eng.  stickle,  prickle,  spine  +  ba^k] :  a 
hemibranchiate  nsh  of  the  family  tfasterosteidce,  having  the 
back  armed  with  stout  spines,  whence  the  popular  name. 
(See  HEMiBRANCHn.)  The  form  is  more  or  less  elongated  ; 
the  body  naked  or  covered  with  lateral  plates ;  head  com- 
pressed, more  or  less  pointed ;  dorsal  fin  represented  by  a 
variable  number  of  free  stout  spines  (2-15)  and  an  oblong: 
fin  with  articulated  rays;  ventral  fins  represented  by  en- 
larged spines  with  an  axillar  ray  each,  and  inserted  more  or 


The  slickleback  (Gastero$teus  actUeatua), 

less  behind  the  basis  of  the  pectorals.  The  species  with  two 
or  three  free  dorsal  spines  belong  to  the  genus  Oasterosteus, 
those  with  four  to  EuccUia,  those  with  from  seven  to  nine  to 
Pygosteus,  those  without  a  bony  cuirass  between  theventrals 
to  Apeltes,  and  the  elongated  salt-water  species  with  fifteen 
spines  to  Spifiachia,  The  species  rarely  exceed  6  inches, 
and  are  generally  very  much  less.  Although  so  small,  they 
are  nevertheless  extremely  pugnacious  and  voracious,  and 
attack  without  hesitation  animals  many  times  larger  than 
themselves.  In  the  breeding  season  the  males  assume  re- 
splendent hues,  which  are  very  changeable.  The  males  con- 
struct nests  of  particles  of  grass,  roots,  sticks,  or  leav^^s. 
which  are  unit^  together  by  a  viscid  mucus  or  silk-like 
thread  exuded  from  the  body  and  wound  round  the  material 
collected.  The  male  seeks  out  a  gravid  female,  conducts  her 
to  the  nest,  and  she  deposits  a  few  eggs,  and  then  escapes  by 
an  aperture  already  made  or  which  she  herself  makes  o[>- 
posite  to  the  one  she  entered  by.  This  is  repeated  day 
after  day  until  a  considerable  number  of  ei^gs  is  accumn- 
lated.  £ach  time  the  male  rubs  himself  against  the  female 
and  passes  over  the  eggs.  For  a  month,  while  the  eggs  are 
maturing,  the  male  watches  over  them  with  jealous  care,  and 
only  leaves  when  the  young  are  hatched  and  ready  to  care 
for  themselves.  The  eggs  are  large  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  fish,  and  few  in  number,  not  mucn,  if  at  all,  ex- 
ceeding 100  in  the  common  two-spined  sticklebacks. 

Stigma :  See  Pistil. 

Stigmatiza'tion  [from  Lat.  stigmatiza'tio,  deriv.  of 
stigmatiza're,  from  Gr.  vrvyiuerli^iv,  to  mark,  brand,  deriT. 
of  vrlyiM,  arlyfiOTos,  puncture,  brand,  mark,  deriv.  of  rrl(€v, 
to  prick,  brand,  markl:  a  term  employed  in  the  literature 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  denote  the  miraculou!) 
impression  upon  certain  saints  of  marks  similar  to  the  five 
wounds  of  Christ  (stigmata)  or  of  the  crown  of  thorns.  Re- 
markable instances  are  those  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  (Sept 
15,  1224)  and  Veronica  Giuliani  (1694).  Manjr  persons, 
among  whom  was  St.  Catharine  of  Siena,  are  said  to  have 
felt  at  regular  intervals  the  pain  of  such  wounds,  but  with- 
out any  external  mark.  See  GSrres,  Die  Christliehe  Mys- 
tik  (1854),  and  Imbert-Gourbeyre,  Les  Stigmaiisees  (Paris 
1873).  Revised  by  J.  J.  Keane. 

Stiles,  Ezra,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  clergyman  and  author :  b. 
at  North  Haven,  Conn.,  Dec.  15, 1727;  son  of  Rev.  Isaac 
Stiles,  minister  at  North  Haven  ;  graduated  at  Yale  College 
1746;  studied  theology;  was  ordained  a  Congregational 
minister  June,  1749 ;  was  tutor  at  Yale  College  1749--55 :  en- 
gaged in  a  series  of  researches  with  an  electrical  apparatus 
sent  to  the  college  by  Dr.  Franklin,  and  made  the  first  elec- 
trical experiments  in  New  England ;  preached  for  a  short 
time  to  the  Stockbridge  Indians  1750;  studied  law;  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  1753,  and  practiced  two  years  in  New 
Haven ;  pronounced  a  Latin  oration  in  honor  of  Franklin 
on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  New  Haven,  Feb.,  1755;  was 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  1755-77:  was  inaugu- 
rated president  of  Yale  Colleffe  June  23,  1778;  acted  also 
as  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History  after  1780;  delivere<l 
loctures  on  scientific  subjects;  was  author  of  a  History  of 
Tfiree  of  the  Judges  of  King  Charles  L  (Hartford.  1794^ 
and  An  Account  of  the  Settlement  of  Bristol,  R,  L  (Provi- 


762 


STILTON  CHEESE 


STIRLING 


parts  of  the  world.  One  is  found  in  America,  and  ranges 
from  the  northern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  to  Paraguay.  Its  total 
length  is  about  14  inches,  of  which  the  bill  forms  3  inches, 
ana  the  tail  also  8  inches ;  the  tarsi  are  about  4  inches  in 
length,  and  rather  longer  than  the  tibiae;  the  color  is  a 
glossy  black  on  the  head  above,  the  neck  behind,  the  back, 
and  the  wings ;  white  on  the  head  in  front  of  and  behind 
the  eyes,  and  beneath ;  the  bill  is  black,  and  the  le^  red. 
It  not  only  dwells  by  the  seacoast,  but  is  found  far  inland, 
at  least  on  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  western  parts  of  the 
U.S.  The  stilts  generally  associate  together  in  flocks  of 
twenty  or  thirty.  They  prefer  muddy  flats  with  reedy  mar- 
gins. They  breed  in  the  U.  S.,  and  make  nests  of  grasses, 
etc  They  lay  generally  four  eggs ;  these  are  relatively  large 
and  of  a  yellowish  or  ochraceous  color,  with  dark-brownish 
blotches  and  lines.  According  to  Coues,  on  the  ground, 
whether  walking  or  wading,  they  move  gracefully  and  with 
measured  steps ;  the  long  legs  are  much  bent  at  each  step 
(but  only  at  the  joint),  and  planted  firmly  and  perftxjtly 
straight.  When  feeding,  the  legs  are  bent  backward  at  an 
acute  angle  at  the  heel-jjoint,  to  bring  the  body  lower.  They 
feed  mostly  on  aquatic  insects,  as  well  as  the  eggs  and  young 
of  fishes,  and  small  fishes.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Stilton  Cheese :  See  Cheese. 

Stimpson,  William,  M.  D.  :  naturalist ;  b.  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  Feb.  14, 1830.  He  devoted  himself  principally  to  tne 
description  of  invertebrates.  He  was  naturalist  of  the 
Ringoid  and  Rodgers  expedition  to  the  North  Pacific  Ocean, 
later  was  curator  of  the  Chicago  Academy  of  Science,  and 
lost  all  his  collections,  MSS.,  etc.,  in  the  great  fire  of  1871. 
Later  he  superintended  the  dredgings  of  the  U.  S.  Coast 
Survey  in  tne  Strait  of  Florida.  Among  his  works  are 
Teatctceoua  Molluscs  of  New  England  (1851) ;  Marine  In- 
vertebrates of  Grand  Manan  (1854) ;  Prodromus  Descriptio- 
nis  Animaiium  Evertebratorum  (1857-61,  containing  a 
part  of  the  invertebrates  collected  on  the  Ringoid  and 
Rodgers  expedition) ;  Notes  on  North  American  Crusted 
cea  (1859-71) ;  Crustacea  a/nd  Echinodermata  of  the  Pacific 
Shore  (1857) ;  and  Crustacea  Dredged  in  the  &ulf  Stream 
(1871).    D.  at  Ilchester  Mills,  Md.,  May  26, 1872.    J.  S.  K. 

Stimson,  Fbederic  Jesup  :  novelist ;  b.  at  Dedham, 
Mass.,  July  20,  1855;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1876;  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  in  1882,  under  the  pseudonym 
J.  S,  of  Dale,  published  Ghuemdale,  a  novel  of  college  life. 
In  1884-85  he  was  assistant  attorney-general  of  Massachu- 
setts. Other  novels  are  The  Crime  of  Henry  Vane  (1884^ 
and  The  Residuary  Legatee  (1888).  He  has  also  published 
a  number  of  law-books,  the  most  important  of  which  is  per- 
haps American  Statute  Law  (1886).  H.  A.  B. 

Stimalants  [from  Lat.  stimulans,  stimulan'tis,  pres. 
partic,  of  stimula're,  urge,  goad  on,  deriv.  of  stimulus^  a 
goad]:  those  agents  which  increase  functional  activity  of 
the  various  organs  of  the  bodjr,  more  particularly  in  con- 
nection with  the  respiration,  circulation,  and  nervous  sys- 
tem. Such  are,  pre-eminently,  strongly  nourishing  hot  food 
if  it  can  be  digested ;  if  it  can  not,  then  alcoholic  or  ethe- 
real potions,  ammoniacal  solutions,  heat,  strychnine,  etc. 

Stimalns :  that  which  excites  or  stimulates ;  used  in  phys- 
iology and  psychology  for  any  influence  from  outside  which 
causes  a  reaction  of  the  muscles  in  movement  or  of  the  at- 
tention. 

Sting-flsh :  the  greater  weever  (Trachinus  draeo).    See 

TBACHINIDiE. 

Sting- ray :  any  rav  of  the  genus  Trygon  (family  Trygo- 
nidce\  a  group  of  elasmobranchs  belonging  to  trie  oruer 
RaiicB.  These  fish  have  the  body  rhombic  and  moderately 
broad,  the  skin  smooth  and  without  tubercles,  the  nasal 
valves  coalescent  into  quadrangular  flaps,  the  teeth  flat- 
tened, and  the  tail  long,  tapering,  destitute  of  a  true  fln, 
and  armed  with  an  elongated  spine  (sometimes  with  two) 
compressed  from  before  backward,  and  with  teeth  or  serra- 
tures  at  each  side  directed  downward.  These  spines  are  the 
"  stings  "  which  have  insured  the  popular  name  to  the  forms 
in  question.  There  are  about  thirty  species  found  in  almost 
all  tropical  and  temperate  seas,  and  much  dreaded  on  ac- 
count of  the  wounds  which  they  inflict  with  their  spine- 
bearing  tail.  They  can  whip  the  tail  around  with  great 
ease  and  transflx  the  incautious  intruder  with  the  spines. 
Tetanus  is  sometimes  the  result,  but  the  wound  is  a  physical 
injury  solely  and  not  the  result  of  poison.  One  species  (Try- 
gon centrura)  is  quite  common  along  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  U.  S.    See  also  T&yoonid.£.    Revised  by  F.  A,  Lucas. 


Stinkhora  iIthuph<iUu» 
impudicuM)  redtit.vii 
one  -  half,  with  a 
jounir  qwre-ftmit  At 


Stinkhorn  Fungi :  the  Phallacea,  a  family  of  fetid  gas- 
teromycetous  fungi  numbering  ninety-two  species,  most  ci 
which  are  tropical.  The  plants  are 
filamentous  saprophytes,  growing  in 
soil  which  is  rich  in  decaying  organ- 
ic matter.  The  spore -fruits  are 
roundish  or  egg-shaped  bodies  re- 
sembling Puff-balls  {q,  v.),  which 
develop  at  or  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  whose  spore-bearing 
tissue  (gleha)  emerges  from  the  pe- 
ridium  by  the  elongation  of  the 
sterile  base  (see  figure).  The  fetid 
odor  attracts  flies  and  other  insects, 
to  which  the  spores  adhere,  thus  se- 
curing their  aistribution.  Several 
species  occur  in  the  U.  S,,  one  of  the 
most  common  being  the  Ithyj)?iallus 
impudieus  (see  flgure),  which  is  from 
5  to  10  inches  high,  with  a  white  or 

{)inkish  base  (volva),  a  white,  hollow, 
oosely  cellular  stalk,  and  a  conical, 
reticulated  pile  us  bearing  black 
spores.  Species  of  Dictyophora, 
Mutinus,  and  Simblum  are  common 
in  the  U.  S.    Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Stinkstone :  any  one  of  certain 
marbles  or  limestones  which  on  be- 
ing struck  emit  the  smell  of  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen.  The  British  isl- 
ands abound  in  stones  of  this  char- 
acter and  of  various  geological  ages, 
some  of  them  useful  building-stones. 

Stinkwood :  the  hard,  durable  wood  of  the  Oeoiea  hul- 
lata  (familv  Lauraeea)  and  related  plants,  found  in  South 
Africa.  The  wood  is  handsome  and  valuable,  but  has  a 
disagreeable  smell  even  when  seasoned.  O,  fcsltns,  a  tn^ 
of  the  Canaries,  has  wood  of  a  vile  odor,  but  other  members 
of  this  widespread  genus  are  of  pleasing  tngnnce.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  a  species  of  Cassia, 

Revised  by  K  H.  Bailkt. 

Stipple-engraTing :  See  ENOEAvma. 

Stirling:  town  of  Scotland;  capital  of  Stirlingshirp : 
on  the  Forth ;  35  miles  N.  W.  of  Edinburgh  (see  map  •  .f 
Scotland,  ref.  11-^).  It  contains  a  flne  old  castle,  situatt^l 
on  a  basaltic  hill,  with  steep  precipitous  sides  toward  the 
W.  and  rising  to  a  height  of  340  feet  above  the  plain.  The 
town  and  its  vicinity  are  rich  in  historic  associations,  and 
contain  many  objects  of  interest.  Tartans,  shawls,  rope, 
soap,  leather,  and  malt  are  extensively  manufactured,  and 
an  important  trade  both  on  the  river  and  by  rail  is  carried 
on.  Stirling  unites  with  Dunfermline,  Culross,  Inverkeitb- 
ing,  and  Queensferry  in  sending  one  member  to  ParliamenL 
Pop.  (1891)  16,974. 

Stirling,  James  Hutchison,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  philosopher : 
b.  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  June  22, 1820 ;  took  the  course  in 
arts  and  medicine  at  Glasgow  University ;  for  a  short  tim** 
practiced  as  a  surgeon  in  New  South  Wales;  abandonfi 
practice  in  1851  and  went  to  Germany  to  continue  phii- 
sophical  studies ;  is  the  author  of  The  Secret  of  Hegtl,  '"- 
uwr  the  Hegelian  System  in  Origin,  Principle,  Form,  aui 
Matter  (2  vols.,  1865) ;  Sir  William  Hamilton,  being  the 
Philosophy  of  Perception  (1865) ;  Jerrold,  Tennyson,  Jin- 
caulay,  and  other  Essays  (1868);  As  Regards  Protoplo^ 
(1869);  Philosophy  and  Theology,  GiflPord  lectures  (lWi<)  ; 
Darwinianism :  Workmen  and  Work  (1894) ;  and  the  tnin^ 
lator  of  Dr.  Albert  Schwegler's  Handbook  of  the  History  of 
Philosophy  (1867).  Dr.  Stirling  is  an  opponent  of  Haet'kti 
and  Huxley  on  biological  theones. 

Stirling,  Sir  Thomas, of  Ardoch :  soldier ;  b.  in  Sootlani 
about  1735 ;  became  a  captain  in  the  Royal  Highlandf  r^ 
July,  1757 ;  served  under  Aoercrombie  at  Lake  George  17.V. 
and  Amherst  at  Lake  Cham  plain  1759,  at  the  siege  of  Kinc- 
ara,  and  the  invasion  of  I^ower  Canada  1760;  was  statioiu  1 
in  1765  at  Port  Chartres,  111.,  whence  he  marched  to  Philadii* 
phia  1766 ;  became  lieutenant-colonel  1771,  colonel  1779,  ai.'l 
major-general  Nov.,  1782 ;  served  throughout  the  war  of  ih 
Revolution ;  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Long  Island,  Fi-rt 
Washington,  Red  Bank,  Brandywine,  and  Springfield ;  W45 
made  a  baronet  and  lieutenant-general  179o,  aim  full  gen- 
eral Jan.  1, 1801.    D.  May  9, 1806. 

Stirling,  Sir  William  :  See  Maxwell. 


754 


STOCK  EXCHANGE 


Most  stock  exchanges  place  a  limit  on  ttie  number  of 
members.  On  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange  the  limit  is 
1,100,  a  number  reached  after  a  considerable  increase  in 
1869,  when  a  successful  rival,  the  Open  Board  of  Brokers, 
was  absor))ed  by  consolidation  of  membership.  In  New 
York  the  Stock  Exchange  member  frequently  acts  as  solicitor 
of  investment  business — advertising  extensively — as  general 
banker  and  promoter,  and  as  executor  of  orders  on  the  floor. 
These  functions  are  separated  in  London,  where  a  customer 
usually  gives  his  order  to  a  broker  in  the  exchange  member- 
ship, through  whom  the  **  jobber,"  also  a  member  of  the  ex- 
change, is  employed ;  the  Stock  Exchange  forbids  all  its  mem- 
bers to  advertise.  By  the  constitution  of  the  Paris  Bourse, 
its  members,  the  agents  de  change,  number  only  sixty;  but 
stock-exchange  business  in  Paris  fell  largely  from  the  first 
into  the  hands  of  coulissiers  or  outside  brokers,  who  fre- 
quented the  outer  corridors  of  the  Bourse  and  traded  as 
tnough  members  of  a  regular  exchange.  The  strife  between 
the  eouHssiera  and  the  agents  de  change  is  bitter  and  his- 
toric. The  coulisse  was  repeatedly  suppressed  by  the  couils 
and  the  police,  and  was  driven  at  times  to  other  quarters  of 
the  city.  In  1859  individual  coulissiers  were  heavily  fined, 
but  their  business,  under  the  generic  name  of  the  Petite 
Bourse,  flourishes  to  this  day.  Trading  on  the  larger  Bourse 
in  recent  years  has  been  also  carried  on  by  the  head  clerks 
of  the  agents  de  change^  each  agent  being  allowed  two  such 
clerks  with  privileges  of  the  exchange. 

Discipline  and  Rules, — Stock  exchanges  are  invariably 
governed  by  strictly  enforced  by-laws,  covering  rules  for 
general  management,  mutual  arrangement  and  enforcement 
of  contracts,  and  requirement  of  personal  business  honesty 
and  good  behavior.  On  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange  an 
insolvent  member  is  suspended  until  he  has  settled  with  his 
creditors,  and  may  be  readmitted  only  on  proof  of  such  set- 
tlement and  on  the  formal  vote  of  the  committee  on  ad- 
missions or,  if  rejected  by  them,  on  appeal  to  the  general 
governing  committee.  Suspension  or  expulsion  is  also  fixed 
tis  penalty  for  (1)  the  making  of  fictitious  sales;  (2)  the  mak- 
ing of  fictitious  or  trifling  bids  or  offers ;  (3)  the  buying  or 
selling  of  securities  for  a  less  commission  than  that  fixed  in 
the  by-laws ;  (4)  "  obvious  fraud  " ;  (5)  refusal  to  comply  with 
any  other  regular  provision  of  the  by-laws.  The  London 
Stock  Exchange's  by-laws  impose  suspension  or  expulsion  as 
penalty  for  violation  of  any  Stock  Exchange  rules  or  regu- 
lations ;  for  failure  to  comply  with  the  committee's  decisions; 
and  for  "  dishonorable  or  disgraceful  conduct."  A  declared 
insolvent  also  ceases  to  be  a  member.  The  CLgent  de  change 
in  Paris  is  subject  to  discipline,  under  the  institution's  by- 
laws, whenever  he  "  does  not  confine  himself  strictly  to  his 
duties,"  or  if  he  "introduces  into  his  operations  or  into 
the  collection  of  his  dues  any  innovations  that  may  be  in- 
jurious to  the  public  weal  or  to  the  interests  of  the  com- 
pany." The  penalty  is  left  wholly  discretionary  with  the 
governing  board  or  **  syndical  chamber."  It  may  fine,  cen- 
sure, or  suspend  a  member,  but  for  expulsion  may  only  sub- 
mit its  recommendation  to  the  Minister  of  Finance.  This 
recommendation  is,  however,  usually  final. 

"  Listing  "  of  Securities, — In  nearly  all  stock  exchanges 
no  security  can  be  dealt  in  on  the  fiobr  unless  it  has  been 
officially  admitted  by  the  committee  appointed  for  the  pur- 
pose. Securities  may  also  be  expressly  excluded  from  trad- 
ing by  vote  of  this  committee.  The  only  exception  to  this 
privilege  of  exclusion,  in  European  stock  exchanges,  is  the 
public  stock  of  the  nation  to  which  the  exchange  belongs. 
In  London  an  explicit  Stock  Exchange  rule  forbids  trading 
in  public  loans  raised  by  nations  at  war  with  Great  Britain. 
For  the  "  listing  "  of  new  securities  on  the  New  York  Stock 
Exchange  certain  formalities  are  prescribed.  The  appli- 
cant company  must  show  to  the  committee  on  stock  list  tnat 
the  shares  or  bonds  in  question  were  regularly  issued,  and 
that  they  have  been  actually  marketed.  A  general  financial 
statement  at  a  date  not  too  far  distant  must  accompany  the 
application.  In  the  case  of  shares,  the  securities  must  be 
registered  with  a  trust  company  satisfactory  to  the  stock 
exchange.  In  the  case  of  bonds,  evidence  must  be  submitted 
that  the  mortgage  was  properly  drawn  and  properly  re- 
corded in  every  county  touched  by  the  enterprise.  These 
stringent  provisions  were  the  result  of  numerous  frauds  and 
'*  over-issues  "  of  securities  in  the  earlier  history  of  American 
stock  speculation. 

The  competition  of  the  Consolidated  Exchange  after  1885 
led  to  some  change  in  sentiment  among  the  New  York  Stock 
Exchange  authorities,  A  few  years  after  that  date  the 
New  York  Exchange  governors  established  a  so-called  "  un- 


listed department,"  in  which  securities  were  admitted  with- 
out the  stringent  provisions  as  to  financial  statement,  regis- 
try of  shares,  etc.  As  a  result,  securities  to  an  enorm^^us 
ftggre^ate  value  were  admitted  to  official  trading,  when  t  hr 
investing  public  was  left  in  total  ignorance  of  the  financial 
status  of  tne  enterprises.  These  securities  soon  became  tht' 
chief  center  of  active  and  reckless  speculation.  Althou<:h 
the  Stock  Exchange  generally  repudiates  responsibility  fur 
the  character  and  good  faith  of  securities  dealt  in  upon  its 
fioor,  it  has  lately  been  generally  admitted  that  the  influence 
of  the^  "  unlisted  securities  "  was  demoralizing  and  harm- 
ful. Retroactive  legislation  against  such  securities  was  im- 
practicable, but  in  Feb.,  1895,  the  governing  committee  of  the 
exchange  adopted  a  resolution  which  marked  an  important 
change  of  policy.  A  very  great  amount  of  securities  of  in- 
solvent companies  were  certain,  later  on,  to  be  subject  to 
reorganization.  In  such  cases  the  new  securities  issued  in 
the  adjustment  of  the  corporation's  debt  must  apply  for  ad- 
mission to  the  Stock  Exchange.  The  governing  committee's 
resolution  stipulated  that  all  such  applications  must  be  ac- 
companied by  a  full  and  complete  income  report  for  th«- 
year  preceding,  by  a  detailed  balance  sheet,  and  by  a  civil 
engineer's  report  on  the  physical  condition  of  the  property. 
The  resolution  also  went  much  further,  and  officially  "  nn- 
ommended  "  to  all  corporations,  whose  securities  were  al- 
ready admitted  to  trading,  the  publication,  at  least  fiftet-n 
days  prior  to  an  annual  meeting,  of  a  faithful  and  detail«-«l 
income  account  and  balance  sheet  for  the  year.  Although 
not  mandatory,  this  declaration  of  general  policy  was  re- 
garded as  highly  important  in  the  struggle  of  invei<tors  to 
obtain  complete  and  frequent  financial  statements  from  cor- 
poration directors. 

Method  of  Business, — All  stock  exchanges  provide  an 
open  hall  where  brokers  may  personally  buy  from  or  sell  to 
one  another,  for  their  own  account  or  that  of  cnstoroers. 
such  securities  as  are  admitted  to  trading.  A  regular  com- 
mission, which  is  a  fixed  percentage  usually  on  the  par 
value  of  securities  bought  or  sold,  is  established  for  all  such 
trading.  Members  are  forbidden  under  penalty  to  acee[»t  a 
less  commission.  On  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange  the 
regular  minimum  commission  is  one-eighth  of  1  per  cent,  on 
outside  orders,  one  thirty-second  of  1  per  cent,  on  orders  given 
by  fellow  members,  and  one-fiftieth  of  1  per  cent,  where  a 
member  has  merely  employed  a  fellow  member  to  make  the 
bargain,  delivery  iJeing  made  to  or  by  the  real  purchaser  or 
seller.  All  commissions  are  reckoned  on  a  security*s  par 
value.  In  London  the  official  Stock  Exchange  commissions 
vary  according  to  the  natui'e  and  face  value  of  the  security 
dealt  in.  On  the  stock  of  British  and  colonial  corporations 
they  ran^  from  Is.  to  6s.  per  cent. ;  on  shares  and  bonds  is- 
sued in  tne  U.  S.  the  commission  is  Is.  per  $100 ;  on  Britij'h 
and  fereign  government  funds  it  is  2s.  Qd.  per  cent.  In 
Paris  the  official  commission  of  an  agent  de  change  is  one- 
quarter  of  1  per  cent. 

The  bids  and  offers  made  on  the  floor  of  the  ezchan^t- . 
though  made  only  personally,  become  official.  A  broker  is 
forbidden  under  penalty  to  sell  stock  at  a  price  lower 
than  the  best  bid  made'  in  his  hearing  for  the  amount  in 
question,  or  to  buy  at  a  price  higher  than  the  lowest  offer. 
This  is  to  prevent  unfair  "manipulation."  On  the  New 
York  Stock  Exchange  the  broker  must  deliver  stock  soKl. 
and  must  pay  for  stock  bought,  by  2.15  p.  H.  on  the  day  fol- 
lowing the  transaction.  Since  1892  most  of  these  trans- 
actions are  settled  through  the  Stock  Exchange  Clearing- 
house. (See  below.)  On  the  London  Stock  Exchange,  and 
in  the  majority  of  exchanges  in  Europe,  as  well  as  some  in 
the  U.  S.,  **  settlements  "  between  buyers  or  sellers  are  made 
at  longer  intervals.  In  London  a  contract  made  for  pur- 
chase or  sale  of  securities  is  settled  by  delivery  of  the  seotiri- 
ties  and  payment  of  the  price  at  the  next  oflBcial  settling  (lay. 
These  days  occur  at  fortnightly  intervals,  or  nominally  twice 
a  month,  for  general  securities,  and  once  a  month  for  G4»v- 
emment  stocks.  By  mutual  agreement,  commonly  on  pay- 
ment of  a  fixed  percentage  charge,  the  contract  may  be  lii- 
ferred  or  "  carried  over  "  to  the  next  settlement.  The  Paris 
Stock  Exchange  and  most  other  stock  exchanges  on  the  C't>n- 
tinent  deal  "for  the  account"  similarly  to  London.  In  all 
these  exchanges  cash  transactions,  closed  on  the  spot,  an* 
admissible,  though  rare  outside  of  British  consols.  In  such 
cases,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  daily  quotations  of  British 
consols,  the  "price  for  the  "  account "  is  usually  higher  than 
the  price  for  "  money  "  by  a  margin  sufficient  to  cover  tho 
interest  charge  between  the  date  of  cash  sale  and  the  date  of 
the  next  fortnightly  or  monthly  settlement. 


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\f  nf  hr^ikf^r*.  ♦•!  ih^  !»rtt^  ttf  pFnf<»«= 

^H 

756 


STOCK  EXCHANGE 


STOCKHOLM 


in  modern  stock  exchanges  he  also  makes  his  delivery  of 
stocks  on  the  spot.  But  the  stock  thus  delivered  is  bor- 
rowed from  real  holders,  to  be  repaid  when  the  "short" 
seller  "  covers  "—that  is  to  say,  when  he  buys  outright  in 
the  market  to  close  his  contracts.  The  bull  is  commonly 
"  long "  of  stocks  in  a  speculative  way.  This  term  signi- 
fies that  he  buys  the  stock  and  pays"  for  it  in  money  on 
the  spot,  but  borrows  the  money  for  payment.  When  he 
sells  his  stock,  at  a  profit  or  otherwise,  he  repays  the  loan. 
It  often  happens,  therefore,  that  when  the  bear  is  borrowing 
stocks  and  the  bull  borrowing  money,  the  one  is  simply 
lending  to  the  other.  Sales  by  the  bulls  are  currently  called 
liquidation.  Sttxjks  are  said  to  be  '*  carried  "  when  a  banker 
advances  money  to  the  bull  speculator,  retaining  the  stocks 
as  security  for  the  loan.  The  "carrying  rate^'  naturally 
varies,  therefore,  with  the  rate  of  money  and  the  demand  for 
stocks.  "Pools"  are  combinations  of  operators  devoting 
their  joint  resources  to  the  manipulation  of  a  single  security 
or  group  of  securities.  The  manipulation  is  usually  directed 
by  one  member  of  the  pool.  Contracts  for  such  purpose 
have  in  some  cases  been  recognized  as  legal  by  the  courts, 
but  appeal  to  law  is  rarel]^  made,  and  bad  faith,  such  as  the 
"  selling  out  on  his  associates  "  by  one  member  of  a  "  bull 
pool,"  is  not  easily  proved  against  the  offender.  A  "put " 
IS  a  contract  drawn  by  a  capitalist  or  broker  and  sold  at  a 
specified  sum  to  a  speculator,  in  virtue  of  which  the  specular 
tor  may,  within  a  fixed  period,  deliver  the  stock  to  the  issuer 
of  the  put  and  be  paid  for  it  at  a  stipulated  price.  The 
buyer  of  a  put  is  of  course  usually  a  bull,  and  buys  the  put 
to  guard  himself  against  losses  on  a  possible  decline.  A 
"  call "  is  the  converse  of  a  put.  Its  issuer  contracts  to  sell  to 
the  buyer  of  the  call,  at  or  oefore  a  stipulated  date,  a  certain 
amount  of  a  certain  stock  at  a  fixed  price.  The  bear  buys 
this  to  guard  against  unexpected  advances.  A  "  spread  "  or 
"  straddle  "  combines  the  features  of  both  put  and  call,  con- 
tracting at  the  option  of  its  buyer  to  deliver  to  him  or  re- 
ceive from  him  a  fixed  amountof  securities  named,  the  limits 
of  price  being  set  as  many  points  apart  as  the  situation,  in 
the  view  of  the  issuer,  will  justify.  All  of  the  contracts  de- 
scribed are  generally  classed  as  "  options  "  or  "  privileges." 
A  "  wash  sale  "  is  a  transaction  in  stocks  wherein  buyer  and 
seller  do  not  permanently  transfer  the  securities  at  all,  but 
work  in  a  common  interest  to  create  semblance  of  activity 
and  affect  prices.  In  most  stock  exchanges  "  wash  sales 
are  forbidden  under  heavy  penalty,  but  they  are  difficult  of 
detection  and  undoubtedly  play  a  large  part  in  current  stock 
transactions.  Two  expressions  in  stock-exchange  dialect, 
frequently  used  in  cable  dispatches,  are  peculiar  to  London. 
"  Contango,"  a  word  probably  derived  from  the  continental 
expression  for  "  contingent,"  refers  to  the  rate  or  percentage 
charged  an  operator  lone  of  stocks  for  carrying  over  his  ac- 
count to  the  next  fortnightly  settling-day.  (See  above,  under 
Methods  of  Business.)  "  Backwardation  "  is  an  etymolog- 
ical barbarism  describing  the  premium,  if  any,  charged  to  a 
short  operator  for  permitting  hiin  to  defer  delivery  from 
one  settling  day  to  the  next.  Its  eq[uivalent  on  the  New 
York  Stock  Exchange  is  the  premium  charged  in  the  "  loan 
crowd,"  where  actual  owners  of  stocks  are  lending  the  shares 
to  boar  operators  desirous  of  making  present  deliveries. 

Statistics. — Transactions  on  the  New  York  Stock  Ex- 
change are  more  carefully  recorded  and  tabulated  than  in 
any  other  similar  institution.  The  statistics  of  its  business 
will  therefore  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  trading  which  passes 
annually  on  a  great  stock  exchange.  For  the  calendar  year 
1894  the  following  figures  of  actual  sales  have  been  com- 
piled : 


STOCKS   AND   SHARES. 

P*rv»ln«. 

Market  nlm. 

Shares  ♦ 

^,821,876,020 

839,060,250 

4,845,400 

10,929,900 

627,985 

$8,094,942,769 
248  987  506 

Railway  bonds 

U.  S.  Government  bonds 

6,220,460 

4,4-11,0)5 
924,507 

Rtate  bonds 

Bank  stocks 

♦  Total  number  of  shares  sold,  49,075,032. 

The  year  1894,  however,  being  a  period  of  great  financial 
depression,  is  not  a  fair  year  to  select  as  representative  of 
investment  and  speculation.  Even  in  1893  the  shares  sold 
on  the  New  York  Exchange  aggregated  80,977,839,  of  a  par 
value  of  $7,550,440,205,  and  a  market  value  of  $4,550,260,916. 
The  maximum  year's  record  of  the  Stock  Exchange  in  the 
several  kinds  of  securities  is  as  follows :  Shares  (number), 
116,307,271  in  1882;  railway  bonds,  $660,659,400  in  1885; 
Government  bonds,  $112,571,850  in  1879;  State  bonds,  $26,- 


571,260  in  1882.  It  is  generally  estimatetl  by  brokers  that 
sales  of  200,000  to  300,000  shares  a  day  are  a  fair  avem^  ;n 
active  times.  In  a  period  of  market  excitement  tra^lin^ 
runs  far  beyond  this  average.  The  extreme  high  point  wa> 
touched  in' the  summer  of  1887,  when  one  day's  totjil  ran 
above  1,000,000  shares,  the  volume  of  business  being  so  ^re&t 
that  the  Stock  Exchange  authorities  were  never  able  to  €x>m- 
pile  its  figures,  even  approximately. 

Literature. — The  literature  of  this  subject  is  not  rich. 
The  most  complete  legal  and  historical  discussion  will  b<' 
found  in  J.  R.  I)os  Passos's  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Stork- 
brokers  atid  Stock  Exchanges  (New  York,  1882).  The  Jieftarl 
of  the  British  Royal  Commission  on  the  origin  and  meth<Mis 
of  the  Stock  Exchange  (London,  1878)  is  full  of  valuable  data. 
G.  R.  Gibson,  of  New  York,  has  written  several  light  but 
readable  monographs  on  the  various  European  exchanges. 
Various  memoirs,  chiefly  of  little  value,  have  been  pabli2^he«l 
to  narrate  episodes  of  stock-exchange  adventure.  The  mi«t 
thorough  and  philosophical  discussion  of  the  financial  ques^ 
tions  involved  in  the  subject  is  that  of  Robert  Giffen,  static 
tician  of  the  British  Board  of  Trade,  in  his  Stock  Ex^haj^^fr 
Securities  (London,  1877).  The  numerous  books  and  pani- 
phlets  on  Ifow  to  Avoid  Losses  in  Wall  Streel,  etc.,  ar^ 
worthless  and  mischievous.  Annual  reports  of  the  exchange 
are  usually  limited  to  lists  of  officers,  committees,  and  mem- 
bers. Valuable  information  as  to  the  functions  of  sto^-k 
exchange  trading  at  earlier  periods  may  be  obtained  from 
Walter  Bagehot's  Lombard  Street  (London  and  New  York) 
and  Clement  Juglar*8  Crises  cammerciales  (Paris). 

Alexander  D.  Noyes. 

Stockfish  (from  the  German  stockjisch) :  a  name  for  cim]- 
fish  and  related  species  salted  and  dried.  The  fishes  are  split 
from  head  to  tail,  and  the  vertebral  column  in  part  taken 
out ;  they  are  then  thoroue^hly  washed  and  rid  of  the  blood ; 
after  the  water  has  l)een  drained  off,  they  are  put  in  largo 
vats,  salted,  and  heavy  weights  are  imposed ;  they  are  neit 
washed  and  brushed,  and  laid  out  on  the  sandy  shore  and 
rocks.  Finally,  they  are  combined  in  small  heaps,  and  U^ 
come  ready  for  the  market,  this  stage  being  indicated  by  the 
assumption  of  a  floury  whitish  appearance,  technically  <ieMg- 
nated  as  the  **  bloom.^'  Revised  by  P.  A.  Lucjls. 

Stoek^holni :  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Sweden : 
beautifully  situated  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  M&lar  in  the  Bal- 
tic (see  map  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  ref.  11-G),  It  is  di- 
vided into  (1)  Staden,  the  inner  city,  consisting  of  the  i^l- 
ands  of  Stadsholmen,  Riddarholmen,  and  Helge&iidsholmeD : 
(2)  Norrmalm,  the  northern  part,  connected  with  the  innt-r 
city  by  a  magnificent  bridge  of  ^anite  ;  (3)  Ladng&nlsian- 
det,  now  Ostermalm,  communicatm^  W.  with  Norrmalm :  (4i 
Kungsholmen,  communicating  E.  with  Norrmalm ;  (5)  Soder- 
malm,  the  southern  suburb,  connected  with  the  inner  citv  br 
two  drawbridges;  and  (6)  Salt8J5-6arne,  comprising 'the 
islands  of  Skepi)sholmen,  Djurg&rden,  Kastellholmen.  and 
Beckholmen,  which  complete  the  picture  of  an  island  citv 
cut  up  and  traversed  in  all  directions  by  water.  In  Stadt'ii. 
the  most  prominent  building  is  the  royal  palace,  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  in  Europe  (built  1697-1754),  containing  a  ricb 
library,  the  palace  of  the  stadtholder,  the  mint,  the  town- 
house,  the  cnurch  of  St.  Gertrude,  Storkyrkan,  the  Finnish 
church.  In  the  island  of  Riddarholmen  stand  the  Riddar- 
holm  church,  containing  the  royal  tombs,  among  which  are 
those  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Charles  XII. ;  the  new 
house  of  deputies,  and  the  statue  of  Birger  JarL  The  bridge 
which  leads  from  the  inner  city  acrass  the  Helge&ndsholmtn 
to  Norrmalm  is  380  feet  long  and  64  feet  broad  ;  on  its  east- 
ern side  extend  the  most  beautiful  promenades  of  the  citv. 
StrSnaparterren.  This  part  of  the  citv  contains  the  Brunki- 
berg  Place,  the  Hay  Market,  and  the  tlnce  of  Charles  XlIU 
surrounded  on  three  sides  by  rows  of  linden-trees,  on  tht 
fourth  bv  the  sea,  and  ornamented  by  the  statue  of  Charles 
XIII. ;  the  palace  of  the  princes,  the  royal  theater,  the  Ham- 
mer museum,  the  academy  of  fine  arts,  the  academy  of  s<:i- 
ence  with  rich  collections,  the  observatory,  the  natitn-.i. 
museum,  and  the  Fersen  Terrace,  which  offers  a  magnifi- 
cent prospect.  Ladug&rdslandet  contains  the  arsenaL  tli- 
barracks,  the  veterinary  school,  the  academy  of  arl)orieul- 
ture,  and  the  Hedwig  Eleonora  church;  the'Kungshoimen. 
the  Seraphim  hospital  the  Carolinian  institute,  the  garri>*ii 
hospital;  and  close  by  are  Mariaberg,  the  military  hi.rt 
school,  and  Carlberg.  the  cadet  school.  In  SGdermaim  are 
Mosebakken,  which  presents  the  finest  view  of  the  citv,  an-i 
the  Catharine  and  Maria  Magdalene  churches.  S^klermalr  > 
and  Norrmalm  are  connected  by  a  railway  which  for  IhM- 


758      STOCKS  AND  STOCK  CERTIFICATES 


STOCKTON 


under  the  English  doctrine  they  are  held  not  to  be  goods, 
wares,  and  merchandise,  within  the  meaning  of  the  clause 
of  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  which  requires  delivery,  payment, 
or  a  memorandum  in  writing  to  make  valid  a  contract  for 
the  sale  thereof.    The  contrary  doctrine  is  held  in  the  U.  S. 

Transfer  of  Stock, — The  right  of  transferring  stock  is  in- 
cidental to  its  ownership;  and,  although  the  oflBcers  of  a 
corporation  can  not  take  away  the  right  of  reasonable 
transfer,  they  may  make  reasonable  regulations  governing 
it.  The  mode  in  general  use,  and  often  prescribed  by 
statute,  is  as  follows :  A  book  is  kept  by  some  designated 
officer,  in  which  is  registered  each  certificate  of  shares,  and 
the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  issued.  In  order  to 
complete  a  legal  transfer,  the  holder  of  the  certificate  must 
surrender  it  up  to  this  officer,  who  thereupon  issues  a  new 
one  for  a  like  amount  to  the  assignee,  and  registers  it  in 
the  transfer-book,  and  cancels  the  old  record.  To  obviate 
the  necessity  of  the  personal  appearance  of  the  assignor  to 
surrender  his  certificate,  it  is  the  universal  practice  to  print 
upon  the  back  of  the  certificate  a  power  of  attorney  to  be 
signed  by  the  assignor,  constituting  the  assignee  an  agent 
to  make  the  surrender,  and  perform  such  other  acts  as  may 
be  necessary  to  procure  the  cancellation  and  receive  a  new 
certificate.  This  power  of  attorney  is  often  made  out  with 
a  blank  left  for  the  name  of  the  agent,  and  the  instrument 
signed  or  indorsed  in  this  form  is  passed  from  hand  to  hand 
through  many  successive  owners,  until  some  one  inserts 
his  own  name,  surrenders  the  certificate,  and  takes  a  new 
one. 

Most  corporations  require,  either  in  their  charters  or  by- 
laws, that  stock  shall  be  transferable  only  on  the  books  of 
the  company.  It  is  generally  settled  that  a  transfer  other- 
wise regular  but  not  registered  as  required  is  valid,  and 
passes  tlie  interest  of  the  transferrer  as  between  the  parties. 
Where  the  rights  of  third  parties  are  involved,  the  decisions 
vary  as  to  the  effect  of  the  transfer.  Except  in  a  few  cases, 
as  where  the  transferrer  is  indebted  to  the  corporation  and 
holds  stock  which  is  subject  to  a  lien,  or  where  no  surrender 
has  been  made  of  the  certificate,  a  corporation  can  not 
refuse  to  register  a  transfer  of  the  stock  upon  the  demand 
of  the  proper  party ;  and  in  case  of  refusal,  the  registration 
of  transfer  may  be  enforced  by  either  of  several  remedies — 
an  action  in  equity;  accordmg  to  the  same  authorities, 
mandamus  to  compel  registration ;  and  an  action  at  law  for 
damages. 

In  the  case  of  forged  transfers,  a  corporation  is  liable  to 
the  real  owner,  and  must  make  good  any  loss  which  he  has 
suffered,  and  the  same  is  true  in  various  other  cases,  where 
the  facts  of  the  case  are  such  as  to  charge  the  corporation 
with  notice  of  the  equitv  of  the  real  owner. 

Negotiahility  of  Stock  Certificates. — Stock  certificates  are 
not,  strictly  speaking,  negotiable  instruments ;  but  they  are 
practically  treated  in  great  financial  centers  as  though  they 
possessed  the  quality  of  negotiability.  They  are  pledged  as 
well  as  sold,  and  are  thus  used  to  a  very  great  extent  as 
collateral  security  for  loans.  Although  the  by-laws  of  a  cor- 
poration may  require  a  surrender,  cancellation,  and  re-issue 
to  complete  a  transfer  and  to  create  a  perfect  legal  title,  in 
tlie  U.  S.  the  doctrine  of  estoppel  is  applied  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  to  protect  a  bona-fide  purchaser  of  stock,  in  almost 
every  instance,  where  he  woulJ  be  protected  if  he  were  pur- 
chasing a  promissory  note  or  other  negotiable  instrument ; 
and  the  courts  are  constantly  extending  this  application  of 
the  law  of  estoppel. 

In  Great  Britain  an  entirely  different  rule  prevails,  and 
certificates  of  stock  there  are  mere  evidences  of  ownership 
of  stock,  and  are  not  negotiable  or  quasi-negotiable.  The 
purchaser  is  not  protected  against  equities  involved  in  the 
title  of  prior  owners  of  the  certificate,  and  can  shut  them 
off  only  by  a  transfer  on  the  books  of  the  company ;  and 
this  rule  is  applied  to  certificates  of  stock  issued  by  U.  S. 
corporations  and  held  by  British  subjects. 

In  the  U.  S.,  if  the  holder  of  a  certificate  signs  a  power  of 
attorney  in  blank,  then  delivers  the  certificate  into  the  pos- 
session of  some  person  for  a  sficciflc  purpose,  as  for  safe- 
keeping, and  this  person  in  violation  of  his  duties  fills  up 
the  blank  and  fraudulently  surrenders  the  certificate,  and 
procures  another  one  to  be  issued  to  a  bona-fide  purchaser, 
it  is  very  generally  held  that  the  real  owner  would  be 
estopped  by  his  act  of  indorsing  in  blank  from  setting  up  a 
claim  against  a  bana-fide  purchaser.  In  this  way  the  sub- 
stantial benefits  of  negotiability  are  secured. 

For  further  information,  see  Cook  on  Stocks  and  Stock- 
holders,  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 


Stockton  :  city ;  capital  of  San  Joaquin  co.,  Cal. :  at  the 
head  of  Stockton  channel,  which  connects  it  with  the  San 
Joaquin  river,  and  on  the  Southern  Pac.  Railroad  :  50  niiKs 
S.  by  E.  of  Sacramento,  the  State  capital,  and  100  E.  by  N.  .>f 
San  Francisco  (for  location,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  7-l>i. 
The  entire  San  Joaquin  valley,  the  richest  and  most  prolific 
section  of  country  in  the  world,  300  miles  long  and  Un) 
miles  wide,  with  its  numerous  cities  and  towns,  is  tributan- 
to  the  city  as  a  commercial  and  shipping  point  Stockton 
is  well  laid  out ;  has  paved  streets,  four  public  squares,  em- 
bellished with  semi-tropical  plants  anu  flowers,  excellent 
transportation  facilities  by  rail  and  water,  electric  street- 
railway,  gas  and  electric  lights,  thorough  seweiaee,  and  a 
water-supply  from  artesian  wells ;  and  contains  20  natural 
gas-wells,  with  a  daily  flow  of  over  500,000  cubic  feet.  The 
average  temperature  is  40''  in  winter  and  75°  in  summer,  and 
the  death-rate  is  the  lowest  in  the  Bta'te.  The  public  build- 
ings include  a  granite  court-house,  which  cost  $300,000;  the 
Hazleton  Public  Library,  of  marble,  cost  |65,000;  the  Stale 
Insane  Asylum,  which  cost  |66O.0O0 ;  arid  the  count v  jail. 

Churches  and  Schools, — The  principal  religious  aenomi- 
nations  are  represented  by  substantial  church  edifices.  The 
public-school  system  has  a  high  school  and  12  grammar- 
school  buildings,  property  valued  at  about  $270,000,  enrol] - 
ment  (1894)  2,788,  and  annual  expenses  over  $67,000.  St. 
Agnes's  convent  and  St.  Joseph's  Primarv  School,  under  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Dominic,  are  model  institutions,  with  buildin;:> 
and  grounds  covering  an  area  of  three  blocks.  There  nr- 
also  a  business  college  and  normal  institute  and  several  pri- 
vate schools  of  high  grade. 

Finances  and  Banking.— The  annual  revenue  is  aboni 
$245,000;  tox-rate,  $1.75  per  100;  bonded  indebtedness 
$370,000.  There  are  5  banks :  the  First  National,  with  ca}.i- 
tal  and  surplus  of  $436,000;  Farmers'  and  Merchants*,  $4(k).- 
000;  Stockton  Savings,  capital  and  reserve  $475,000;  St<M^k- 
ton  Savings  and  Loan  Society,  capital  $500,000,  de[K»^iis 
$1,600,000;  and  San  Joaquin  Valley,  capital  and  surpiu> 
$250,000. 

Business  Interests,— ^iocVion  is  an  important  manufac- 
turing city,  containing  extensive  flour,  woolen,  lumber,  and 
paper  mills,  agricultural-implement  works,  foundries,  shifj- 
yards,  machine-shops,  and  terra-cotta  works.  It  is  the  wheat 
center  of  the  State  and  one  of  the  principal  wheat-marketN 
on  the  Pacific  coast. 

History,— The  city  was  laid  out  in  1849  by  Charles  M. 
Weber,  who  owned  a  large  tract  of  land  under  a  Mexie^in 
grant ;  first  becacne  important  as  a  point  of  departure  for 
gold-mining  parties,  and  has  since  prospered  as  a  commer- 
cial and  wheat-distributing  center.  Pop.  (1880)  lO^Si  • 
(1890)  14,424 ;  (1895)  estimated,  18,000.  J.  M.  Rkvck. 

Stockton,  Alfred  Augustus,  Q.  C,  LL.  D.  :  Canmlinn 
publicist ;  b.  at  Stockholm,  King's  Countv.  New  Bmnswii  k. 
Nov.  2, 1842 ;  graduated  at  Mt.  Allison  College  in  1864 ;  aii- 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1868.  He  is  an  examiner  in  arts  in  Mt. 
Allison  College,  an  examiner  in  law  at  Victoria  University, 
president  of  the  New  Brunswick  Historical  Society,  an-i 
registrar  of  the  court  of  vice-admiralty  of  New  Brunswick. 
He  has  been  a  member  of  the  New  Brunswick  House  nf 
Assembly  since  Aug.  28,  1883.  He  has  edited,  with  copi- 
ous notes,  Berton's  Reports  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Amt 
Brunsunck,  Neil  Macdonald. 

Stockton,  Francis  Richard:  humorist;  b.  in  Phila<l<'1- 
phia,  Apr.  5, 1834.  After  graduating  from  the  Philadelnhia 
nigh  school,  he  applied  himself  to  wood-engraving  and  to 
literature,  contributing^  illustrations  to  Vanity  Jpair  an«l 
other  periodicals,  and  issuing  a  number  of  stories  for  chil- 
dren, such  as  The  Tina^a-Ling  Stories  (1869) ;  Tales  ihit 
of  School  (1875),  etc.  He  was  employed  successive! v  u{H>n 
the  Philadelphia  Poet,  the  New  York  Hearth  aftd'  Hou.r 
(1872),  Scribner's  Monthly  (afterward  The  CffUury  Mof.^i- 
zine),  and  St.  Nicholas  (1873).  The  first  of  his  books  to 'at- 
tract general  notice  to  him,  as  a  humorist  of  a  new  and  orij:- 
inal  vein,  was  Rudder  Grange  (1879).  This  was  followotl  hr 
The  Lady  or  the  Tiger  f{\^)\  The  Late  Mrs.  Null  (iK^f;.': 
The  Casting  Away  of  Mrs.  Leeks  and  Mrs,  Aleshine  (lK*-fi  : 
The  Dusantes  (1888);  The  Merry  Chanter  (1890);  and  manv 
others.  H.  A.  Beer^.  ' 

Stockton,  Richard:  jurist;  b.  near  Princeton.  N.  J., 
Oct.  1,  1730;  graduated  at  the  College  of  New  Jersev  in 
1748 ;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1754;  became  member  of  th" 
executive  council  in  1768,  and  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  <( 
the  province  of  New  Jersey  in  1774.  He  attempted  to  efft<  * 
a  reconciliation  between  the  colonies  and  Great  Britain,  ami 


760 


STOKES 


STOMACH 


from  Empedocles  (wtoi  fp^irws,  line  1).  With  periodical  con- 
flagration, individual  immortalitv  (resurrection  of  the  body) 
was  of  course  incompatible.  The  individual,  a  mere  tem- 
porary emanation,  returns  at  last  to  his  source. 

(C)  In  their  ethics  the  Stoics,  if  not  what  is  now  called 
altruistic,  were  essentially  unselfish — that  is,  they  rigidly 
maintained  that  the  end  of  life  was  virtue  for  virtue's  sake. 
What  virtue  was  they  found  it  difficult  to  define,  their  "  liv- 
ing agreeably  to  nature  "  being  very  vague,  not  to  say  that 
they  sometimes  made  nature  mean  human  nature,  sometimes 
universal  nature.  Man  exists  for  society,  for  only  in  that  is 
virtue  possible.  Virtue  is  sufficient  for  happmess;  and 
pleasure,  which  naturally  accompanies  activity,  is  not  to  be 
sought  for  its  own  sake.  The  cardinal  virtues  are  practical 
wisdom,  courage,  self-restraint,  and  justice  (^/>^iojorii,  itif^ploj 
ffw^potr^,  SucauHT^vi}),  and  it  requires  the  possession  of  them 
all  to  constitute  the  truly  wise  man,  who  is  free  and  the  equal 
of  Jupiter  himself.  The  Stoics  drew  a  broad  distinction  be- 
tween acts  and  motives,  and  made  the  moral  quality  of  acts 
depend  entirely  upon  motives.  Man  shall  do  that  which  is 
good  independently  of  surrounding  influences  and  circum- 
stances, and,  having  done  that  which  is  good,  he  shall  feel 
happy  independently  of  the  sufferings  and  misery  which  may 
result  from  his  acts.  Of  the  works  of  the  Stoics  only  frag- 
ments remain,  the  most  important  of  which  is  Cleanthes's 
splendid  Hymn  to  Zeua,  of  which  there  is  an  English  render- 
ing in  Francis  Newman^s  The  Soul,  its  Sorrows  and  Aspira- 
tions, and  another  in  The  Radical  (Boston,  1867).  The  best 
and  most  complete  presentation  of  the  Stoic  philosophy  is  in 
Zeller's  Philosophie  der  Griechen  (vol.  iv.,  pp.  26-340).  Eng- 
lish translation.  The  Stoics,  Epicureans,  and  Skeptics  (Lon- 
don, 1869).  See  also  Ravaisson,  Essai  sur  le  Stoieisme 
(Paris,  1856) ;  W.  W.  Capes,  Stoicism  (London,  1880) ;  H.  W. 
Benn,  The  Great  Philosophers  (2  vols.,  London,  1882). 

Thomas  Davidson. 

Stokes,  Sir  George  Gabriel,  F.  R.  S.  :  mathematician  and 
physicist ;  b.  at  Skreen,  Sligo,  Ireland,  Aug.  13, 1819 ;  edu- 
cated at  Bristol  College ;  graduated  1841  as  senior  wrangler 
at  Cambridge,  and  was  elected  to  a  fellowship  in  Pembroke 
College;  and  in  1849  was  elected  Lucasian  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics in  that  university ;  was  elected  to  the  Royal  Society 
in  1851,  and  was  awarded  the  Rumford  medal  of  that  society 
1852;  was  secretary  1854-85,  and  was  president  1885-90. 
From  1886  to  1893  he  was  member  of  Parliament  for  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  1889  he  was  made  a  baronet.  lie  contributed 
a  report  on  hydro<lynamics  to  the  British  Association  in 
1846,  which  contains  many  valuable  investigations  of  his 
own,  and  several  memoirs  to  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
on  the  dynamical  theory  of  diffraction  and  the  theory  of 
fluorescence  and  phosphorescence,  and  has  written  papers  in 
several  scientific  journals.  In  1884-86  he  delivered  popular 
lectures  on  light  at  Aberdeen,  which  were  published  in  3 
vols.  (1887).  His  mathematical  and  physical  papers  have 
been  reprinted  (2  vols.,  1880-83). 

Stokes.  Whitley  :  Celtic  scholar ;  b.  in  Dublin,  Ireland, 
Feb.  28, 1830;  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin ;  barris- 
ter in  London ;  barrister  in  Madras  1862 ;  connected  with  the 
law  department  of  the  Government  of  India  1864-82,  ren- 
dering important  service  in  the  codification  of  the  Anglo- 
Indian  laws.  His  chief  activitv  has  been  in  the  field  of 
Celtic  philology,  where  he  is  a  scholar  of  great  accuracy  and 
wide  acquaintance  with  the  materials  involved.  He  is  the 
author  of  Irish  Glosses  (1860) ;  IVie  Play  of  the  Sacrament, 
a  Middle  English  Drama  (1862);  Three  Irish  Glossaries 
(1862) ;  Gwreans  an  Bys,  the  Creation  of  the  World,  a  Corn- 
ish Mystery,  with  a  Translation  and  Notes  (1864);  The 
Indian  Succession  Act  (1865) ;  Hindu  Law-books,  edited 
with  Notes  and  an  Index  (Madras,  1865) ;  A  Cornish  Glos- 
sary (1810);  Goidelica{2iieaAS12);  The  Old  Welsh  Glosses 
on  Martianus  Capella  (1872) ;  Life  of  St.  Meriasek,  a  Cofm- 
ish  Drama  (1872) ;  Three  Middle  Irish  Homilies  (1877) ;  On 
the  Calendar  of  Oengus  (1880) ;  Togail  Troy  (1881) ;  The 
Anglo-Indian  Codes,  editor  (2  vols..  1887-88) ;  Urkeltischer 
Sprachschatz,  in  vol.  ii.  of  Pick's  Verql,  Wdrterh.  (1894). 
Revised  by  6enj,  Ide  Wheeler. 

Stokes'  Law :  See  Fluorescence. 

Stoke-npon-Trent :  town ;  in  Staffordshire,  England ;  on 
the  Trent ;  16  miles  N.  of  Stafford  (see  map  of  England,  ref. 
8-G).  It  is  the  capital  of  the  Potteries  district,  producing 
earthenware,  porcelain,  encaustic  tiles  and  pavements.  Coal- 
mining and  brick-making  are  also  carried  on,  and  engines, 
machinery,  etc.,  are  manufactured.  Pop.  of  the  parliamentary 
borough,  returning  one  member,  (1891)  75,352. 


Fio.  1.— Section  of  oeflophajpis, 
stomach,  and  duodenum. 


Stolz,  stolts,  Friedrich  :  philolo^st ;  b.  at  Hall,  in  the 
Austrian  Tyrol,  July  29, 185();  studied  at  the  gymnasiums 
of  Hall  and  Innsbruck,  and  at  the  Universities  of  Innsbruck 
and  Leipzig;  teacher  successively  in  the  gymnasiums  of 
GSrz,  Klagenf urt,  and  Innsbruck ;  since  1887  professor  in  the 
University  of  Innsbruck.  He  is  the  author  of  Die  zusam- 
mengesetzten  Nomina  in  den  homerischen  und  hesiodisehen 
Gedichten  (1874);  Die  laieinische  Nominaleomposition  tn 
formaler^  Hinsicht  (1877) ;  Beitrdge  zur  Declination  dcr 
griecK  Nomina  (1880) ;  Studien  zur  lateinischen  Verbal Aejc- 
ion  (1882) ;  Lateinische  Laut-  und  Fonnenlehre  in  MQflerV 
Handbuch  der  AlterthumswissenscJiaft  (1885 ;  2d  ed.  1889) ; 
Die  Urbevdlkerung  von  Tirol  (1886 ;  2d  ed.  1892) ;  Historische 
Grammatik  der  lateinischen  Sprache,  vol.  i.,  Einleitung. 
Lautlehre,  und  Stammbildungslehre  (1894). 

Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Stomach  [from  Lat.  sto'machus^Gr.  wr6naxos,  throat, 

fullet,  stomach,  deriv.  of  irr^/ia,  mouth]  :  the  chief  ot^gan  of 
igestion ;  the  expansion  of 
the  anterior  portion  of  the 
alimentarv  canal  for  the  re- 
ception of  food,  its  disinte- 
gration and  solution,  and 
the  digestion  of  albuminoid 
matter.  The  stomach  is 
situated  on  the  left  side  of 
the  body,  below  the  dia- 
phragm, behind  and  be- 
neath the  free  ribs.  Its 
lower  extremity  extends 
across  the  median  line.  It 
is  a  membranous  bag  or 
sac,  capable  of  great  disten- 
sion by  food  and  gas,  but 
often  flaccid  and  collapsed  when  empty.  When  full  it  is 
12  inches  long  and  4  high.  The  stomach  receives  food  from 
the  oesophagus  through  its  upper  or  cardiac  (Gr.  impHa,  the 
heart)  orifice,  so  termed  be- 
cause adjacent  to  the  heart. 
The  body  of  the  stomach  is 
beneath  the  ribs  on  the  left 
side,  and  is  termed  the  fun- 
dus, cut  de  sac,  or  great 
pouch.  The  greater  cunsxr 
ture  of  the  stomach  is  the 
lower,  convex  surface ;  the 
lesser  curvature  is  concave 
and  above.  Food  leaves 
the  stomach  through  its 
lower  orifice,  the  pylorus 
(Gr.  irv\c9o6s,  from  wikii,  a 
gate),  ana  enters  the  duo- 
denum, the  first  section  of 
the  small  intestine.  The  stomach  has  four  coats:  (1)  The 
external  serous  layer,  a  reflection  of  the  peritoneum,  cover- 
ing it  at  all  points  except  the  entrance  of  the  nutrient  ves- 
sels and  nerves  in  the  great  and  small  curves.  (2)  The  mus- 
cular layer,  which  has  three  separate  sets  of  fibers — the 
longitudinal,  the  circular,  and  the  oblique.  These  mascular 
bands,  acting  in  different 
directions,  propel  the  con- 
tained food  from  side  to 
side  of  the  cavity,  aiding  in 
its  chemical  disintegration 
by  thorough  admixture 
with  gastric  juice.  This 
spiral  movement  is  termed 
vernacular  (worm-like),  and 
also  peristaltic  (Gr.  w€pi- 
<rT^XA€iv,to  surround  or  wrap 
up).  (3)  The  cellular  coat, 
consisting  of  loose  areolar 
tissue,  connects  the  muscu- 
lar to  the  internal  mucous 
coat.  It  is  called  also  the 
sub-mucous  coat  and  the 
vascular  coat,  as  it  contains 
the  blood-vessels  which  supply  the  elaborate  capillaries  Ije- 
neath  the  secreting  glands  of  the  mucous  membrane.  (4) 
The  mucous  coat  is  thick,  especially  at  the  lower  or  pyloric 
end,  presents  large  longitudmal  folds  when  the  stomach  is 
but  partially  filled  or  empty,  which  disappear  when  it  is  dis- 
tended.   Closely  inspected,  the  mucous  surface  is  found  to 


Fio.  2.— The  muscular  coat  of  ibe 
stomach. 


Fio.  8.— The  mucous  membrani^  of 
the  stomach,  orifices  of  the 
Rlands ;  magnified  90  diameters 
(ikippep). 


STOMACH-PUMP 


STOMATE 


m 


Fin  4 —A  peptic  gland, 
majrnifled  100  diam- 
et«?r8  (Sappey). 


li^  perforated  bv  innumerabli?  close! jr  n^^^^g-atM  nrilicۤ  of 
liK'  ^T^iHtHc  tubules.  ThcM^  un*  uf  I  wo  kiiidj ;  il)  Uie  iJt.'|ttiii 
glaiuis  situated  in  the  cardiac  and  central  parts  of  the  or- 
gan, and  (2)  the  pyloric  situated  at 
the  pyloric  end.  The  stomach  is  con- 
stantly lubricated  by  secreted  mucus, 
which  may  become  excessive  in  diges- 
tive disorders.  Gastric  juice  is  chief!  v 
secreted  after  the  ingestion  of  food. 
(See  Digestion.)  The  stomach  is  in- 
timately related  to  important  adja- 
cent viscera  by  both  vascular  and 
nerve  connections.  Its  main  artery, 
the  gastric,  springs  from  a  common 
root  with  the  hepatic  and  splenic  ar- 
teries, and  it  also  receives  two  branch- 
es of  each  of  them.  By  branches  of 
the  sympathetic  nervous  system  its 
functional  activity  is  influenced  by 
the  health  of  each  organ  and  part  of 
the  body ;  it  receives  the  terminal 
branches  of  the  pneumogastric  nerve, 
which  gives  off  branches  controlling 
the  action  of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  in 
a  measure  the  larynx  and  pharynx.  It  is  by  these  connec- 
tiuiis  that  gastric  indigestion  may  cause  palpitation  of  the 
hi-art,  difficult  and  sighing  breathing,  irritability  of  the 
larynx,  and  hoarseness,  and  by  reflex  influence  many  mor- 
bid sensations  in  various  partsof  the  body. 

The  most  frequent  diseases  of  the  stomach  are  its  func- 
tiniial  disorders.  (See  Dyspei»sia.)  In  addition  to  these 
niiuler  and  chronic  conditions,  the  stomach  is  liable  to 
a^iite  and  organic  disease.  Acute  inflammation  or  gas- 
tritis is  of  rare  occurrence,  the  result  of  violent  mechanical 
c'r  chemical  irritation,  swallowing  corrosive  poisons  or 
putrid  and  acrid  food.  It  is  characterized  by  violent  ejec- 
tion of  all  food,  gastric  mucus,  traces  of  blood  and  bile,  by 
>tii^  of  local  burning  pain,  feeble  pulse,  cold  extremities, 
and  collapse.  Perforating  ulcer  of  the  stomach  is  a  not  in- 
fn'<juent  disease  in  young  women  of  anaemic  character. 
The  symptoms  are  pain  in  the  stomach  upon  reception  of 
frw^l,  its  rejection,  and  occasional  haemorrhage  when  the 
ulcerative  process  has  eroded  a  blood-vessel.  Haemorrhage 
from  the  stomach  is  termed  hcBinatemesis,  and  must  be  care- 
fully discriminated  from  hiemopti/stia,  the  spitting  of  blood 
from  the  lungs.  Cancer  of  the  stomach  is  a  relatively  com- 
rn»»n  affection  of  old  persons,  particularly  of  the  male  sex. 
It  often  occurs  in  persons  of  cancerous  family  history,  in 
t»thers  with  no  hereditary  taint.  When  at  the  pylorus,  food 
is  detained  in  the  stomach,  and  after  a  time  is  ejected  in 
irr»*at  quantity,  mixed  with  mucus,  blood,  and  many  fun- 
;^<)us  products  of  fermentation.  There  is  a  local  darting 
pain,  and  often  a  local  indurated  tumor  felt  at  the  epigas- 
trium through  the  emaciated  abdominal  wall ;  the  face  is 
car-hectic,  the  Ixxly  wasted,  strength  fails,  death  comes  by 
exhaustion.  Extreme  neuralgia  of  the  stomach — gastralgia 
or  jra-^tro-dynia — may  occur,  dependent  on  deranged  nerve- 
centers  or  rheumatic  or  gouty  vice  of  the  blood. 

Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Stomach-pnmp :  a  form  of  syringe  which  has  a  flex- 
ible tube,  designed  to  be  passed  down  the  oesophagus  into 
tii«^  stomach,  after  which  water  is  injected  through  it  into 
t)u-  stomach  and  then  withdrawn  by  reversing  the  action  of 
tljr*  syringe.  The  operation  may  be  repealed  until  the 
«i'»maeh  is  thoroughly  washed  clear  of  it«  contents.  The 
Hi«-trument  is  especially  useful  in  removing  poisons  from 
t  he  stomach.  In  case  of  insane  pers<:)ns,  or  where  s<.ime  dis- 
ta>*?  of  the  mouth  or  oesophagus  exists,  artificial  feeding  is 
DMjuired,  and  is  usually  accomplished  with  a  siin]>le  rul)ber 
tul>e.  The  same  is  used  in  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  tlie 
>toiuach  for  the  purpose  of  washing  out  that  organ. 

Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Storoap'oda,  Stom'apod,  or  Stomatop'oda  pviod.  Lat. ; 
(ir.  <rr6fta,  <rT6fiaros,  mouth  +  wo{n,  iroios.  loot]:  a  group  of 
malaiostracous  crustaceans,  embracing  about  sixty  species  of 
marine  forms  with  elongate  loose-jointed  bcKlies.  The  cara- 
pax  is  small,  having  the  bust  three  thoracic  rings  free;  the 
*«"alk*Hl  eyes  have  a  distinct  ring;  five  pairs  of  feet  are  modi- 
tl*  d  for  maxillijxjds,  the  second  of  thest;  forming  a  strong 
pirioer;  and  three  pairs  of  thoracic  feet,  each  of  which  is 
I  .v(H branched.  The  gills  are  borne  on  the  abdominal  feet. 
These  characters  mark  the  group  off  strongly  from  all  other 
forms.     They  further  differ  from  most  crustaceans  in  that 


they  d<»p<isit  the  e^p  in  their  burmwiu    The  young;  tbo^gil 
[urge,  an}  thin  and  transparent,  wid  werw  long  regarded  i^ 


Mamt[8  shrinip. 


belonging  to  different  forms.  The  species,  which  are  known 
as  Mantis  shrimps,  and  which  belong  to  the  single  family 
Squillida?,  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  warmer  seas,  a  single 
species  occurring  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts.  See  Miers, 
Ann.  and  Mag,  Nat.  Hist,  (1880) ;  Brooks,  Challenger  Ex- 
pedition, J.  S.  KlNGSLEY. 

Sto'mate  [from  Gr.  <rr6iuL,  mouth] :  a  breathing-nore  in 
the  epidermis  of  plants,  c<)nsisting  of  two  elongated,  some- 
what curved  cells,  the  guartl-cells  {g  in  figure),  between 
which  is  a  definite 

.9 


opening.  When 
the  guard  -  cells 
curve  away  from 
one  another,  as 
they  do  when  the 
atmosphere  is 
moist,  the  slit  be- 
tween them  is 
opened,  permit- 
ting the  Tree  in- 
gress and  egress 
of  gases.  The  sto- 
mates  are  always 
placed  over  inter- 
cellular spaces 
of  the  unaerly- 
ing  tissues,  an  ar- 
rangement which 
permits  an  inter- 
change of  gases 
throughout  the 
plant. 

Stomates  are 
found  in  some 
liverworts,  where 
they  are  curi- 
ous chimney-like 
structures,  but  in  Stomat«»B  of  beet :  a,  top  view,  open  :  g,  g-tmrd- 
f  hp  npfli-lv  rplfttwl  ^*'^^ '  *>•  ^"^*^  closed  ;  c,  vertical  transverse 

ine  neaiiy  reiaieu         Rectlon,  open  ;  d,  same  closed,  highly  niag- 
mossi'S         (where         nified. 
they  are  confined 

to  the  capsules)  they  have  essentially  the  same  structure  as 
in  the  flowering  plants.  In  the  fern  worts  they  ot-cur  on  the 
leaves  and  stems,  and  do  not  differ  in  any  essential  respect 
from  those  in  the  flowering  plants.  They  rarely  occur  on 
submerged  parts  of  plants,  and  in  leaves  which  lie  upon  the 
surface  of  the  water  they  are  confined  to  the  upper  side.  In 
ordinary  leaves  they  are  usually  more  abundant  upon  the 
lower  side.  In  some,  as  in  the  compass-plants,  they  arc  about 
equally  abundant  upon  both  sides.  The  number  of  stomates 
on  leaves  varies  very  greatly.  Weiss  determined  the  num- 
ber per  square  millimeter  for  the  leaves  of  many  species, 
and  published  the  results  in  Pringsheim's  Jnhrbucher  fur 
wissenschaftHche  Botanik  (I860).  A  few  of  these  are  given 
below : 

Olive  {Olea  europea),  625;  hackberry  {Celtis  occidentalis), 
616:  black  walnut  {Juglans  nigra),  461 ;  lilac  {Sgringa  vul- 
garis). 8.S0 ;  barberry  (Berberis  vulgaris),  22ii ;  golden  cur- 
rant (liibes  attreum),  145.  In  the  foregoing,  stomates  occur 
on  the  upper  side  only;  in  the  following  they  occur  on  both 
sides :  sunflower  {Hdianthus  annuuH),  upper,  175.  lower,iJ*25 ; 
cabl)age  {Bras,nca  oleracea),  u.  219,  1.  801  ;  j)ea  {Pisiim  Hati- 
vum),  u.  101,  1.  216;  Indian  corn  {Zea  mugs),  u.  94.  1.  158; 
Cottonwood  {Populus  monilifera),  u.  89,  1.  181 ;  oats  {Arena 
safirn),  u.  48,  1.  27. 

In  tlie  development  of  stomates  an  epidermal  cell  under- 
goes divi>ion,  usually  into  two  uiUMjual  portions,  and  the 
smaller  y)art  is  again  divided  in  like  manner.  This  may  oc- 
cur a  third  or  even  fourth  lime,  when  a  last  division  into 
two  equal  parts  (the  guard-cells)  takes    place.     These  soon 


762 


STOMATITIS 


STONE 


become  somewhat  rounded  and  separate  at  the  center  by  the 
splitting  of  the  partition  between  them. 

Charles  E.  Besset. 

Stomati'tis :  See  Mouth,  Diseases  of  the. 

Stomatopoda :  See  Stomapoda. 

8tomlat'idn  [Mod.  Lat,  named  from  Sto'miaa,  the 
typical  genus,  from  Gr.  vrofdas,  having  a  large  mouth,  de- 
nv.  of  <rr6i»a^  mouth] :  a  family  of  isospondylous  fishes.  The 
species  are  elongated  and  of  a  club-shaped  form,  taperine 
from  before  backward ;  the  skin  is  naked,  or  covered  with 
very  thin  and  readily  deciduous  scales ;  opercular  apparatus 
imperfectly  developed  and  very  oblique ;  mouth  witn  a  very 
deep  lateral  cleft ;  upper  jaw  with  its  margin  formed  by  the 
Bupramaxillary  as  well  as  intermaxillary  bones;  teeth  on  the 
jaws  acute,  and  often  barbed  ;  gill  openings  very  deep  and 
continuous  below ;  branchiostegal  rays  numerous  (twelve  to 
seventeen);  anal  fin  very  far  behind  and  small;  caudal  dis- 
tinct; pectoral  fins  low  down  on  the  scapular  arch,  and  nar- 
row ;  ventral  fins  inserted  far  backward.  The  ovaries  have 
oviducts,  and  conseouently  the  eggs  are  discharged  directly 
through  them  into  the  water.  Tne  family  is  composed  of  a 
few  species,  which  are  rather  small  (all  being  considerably 
less  tnan  a  foot  in  length),  and  inhabitants  of  the  open  sea 
and  deep  water. 

Stone  [0.  Eng.  ata^  :  0.  H.  Germ,  stein  (>  Mod.  Germ. 
stein) :  Goth,  stains ;  cf .  0.  Bulg.  stina,  wall,  and  Gr.  aria, 
ffrioy,  pebble] :  in  engineering,  either  natural  or  artificial 
rock  suitable  for  use  in  foundations,  walls,  and  piers.  The 
natural  sandstones,  limestones,  and  granites  furnish  the 
greater  part  of  all  stone  used  in  architecture  and  engineer- 
mg.  The  essential  qualities  of  a  rock  which  renders  it  a 
good  building-stone  are  strength  and  durability,  while  beau- 
ty and  cheapness  are  desirable.  The  Egyptians  quarried 
many  very  large  stones  for  obelisks  and  for  use  in  their  tem- 
ples, while  from  the  earliest  times  stone-cutting  has  been  a 
well-understood  art^  The  cutting  of  dimension  stones  in 
the  quarry  by  means  of  channehng-machines,  introduced 
about  1870,  has  materially  lowered  the  cost  of  many  varieties 
of  natural  stone.  See  Building-stone  for  an  account  of  the 
properties  and  methods  of  testing  natural  stone,  and  Ma- 
sonry for  a  description  of  the  manner  in  which  stones  are 
laid  together  in  building  and  engineering  constructions. 

Artificial  stone  consists  of  blocks  or  monolithic  masses 
formed  of  materials  which  cement  together.  It  is  a  com- 
bination of  hydraulic  cement,  sand,  crushed  stone,  pebbles, 
etc.  Some  varieties  are  of  great  value  in  districts  where 
durable  and  cheap  building-stone  is  not  supplied  by  nature. 
The  strength  and  durabiuty  of  all  varieties  of  artificial 
stone  vary  directly  with  the  ultimate  strength  and  hardness 
attainable  by  the  hydraulic  in^edients  employed.  An  ob- 
vious means  of  improving  their  quality,  tnerefore,  is  the 
employment  of  the  highest  grades  of  cement.  Artificial 
stone  may  be  made  into  blocks  to  be  used  as  cut  stone,  or  it 
may  be  built  up  into  immense  masses  of  anv  desired  shape 
by  moulding  tne  different  parts  in  place.  T^he  more  impor- 
tant artificial  stones  are  briefly  described  below.  Most;  of 
these  bear  the  names  of  their  inventors. 

Concrete  {q.  v.)  is  composed  of  hydraulic  cement,  sand, 
and  broken  stone  or  pebbles,  and  is  much  used  in  engineer- 
ing construction.  Granolithic  is  a  trade-name  for  a  com- 
bination of  hydraulic  cement  and  crushed  granite  (a  granitic 
concrete),  frequently  employed  for  sidewalks  and  curbs,  and 
for  floors  in  stables,  cellars,  breweries,  etc.  BSton-Coignet 
is  a  combination  of  hydraulic  cement,  hydraulic  lime,  and 
sand,  much  used  in  France.  The  peculiarities  are  the  sub- 
stitution of  hydraulic  lime  instead  of  part  of  the  more  ex- 
pensive and  stronger  cement,  and  the  small  quantity  of 
water  used,  and  the  thoroughness  of  the  mixing.  Portland 
stone  is  a  name  frequently  given  to  a  mixture  of  Portland 
cement  and  sand.  The  term  Portland  as  applied  to  the 
stone,  and  also  as  applied  to  the  cement  of  which  it  is  made, 
was  derived  from  the  similarity  of  the  artificial  stone  to  the 
natural  stone  derived  from  the  island  of  Portland,  off  the 
south  coast  of  England.  McMurtrie  stone  consists  essenti- 
ally of  the  Portland  stone  described  above,  in  the  pores  of 
which  are  formed  compounds  of  alumina  with  the  fattv 
acids  by  the  double  decomposition  of  alum  and  a  potash 
soap.  The  peculiar  merit  of  this  stone  is  that  its  power  of 
absorbing  water  is  decreased  by  the  use  of  the  alum  and  the 
soap.  Absorbed  water  dissolves  the  salts  of  magnesia,  lime, 
soda,  and  potash  (of  all  of  which  there  is  always  more  or  less 
in  cement),  and  on  evaporating  leaves  a  white  eflloresceiice 
on  the  surface  which  injures  the  appearance  of  the  wall. 


For  this  reason  the  ordinary  artificial  stones  are  in  disfavor 
for  architectural  purposes.  The  McMurtrie  stone  has  bein 
used  in  Washington,  D.  C,  to  a  limited  extent,  the  window- 
trimmings  of  the  National  Museum  and  also  the  fronts  of  a 
few  stores  and  dwelling  being  of  this  stone.  Frear  sione  is 
composed  of  sand  and  Portland  cement,  to  which  gum  shell- 
lac  is  added.  The  shell-lac  adds  to  the  early  strength  of  the 
stone,  but  it  is  not  certain  that  it  adds  to  the  ultimate 
strength.  It  was  for  a  time  much  used  in  architectural  work 
in  the  western  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  but  did  not  give  sati^ftu*- 
tion.  Ransoms  stone  is  made  bv  forming  in  the  interstict^ 
of  sand,  gravel,  or  any  pulverized  stone  a  nard  and  insoluble 
cementing  substance,  oy  the  natural  decomposition  of  t^o 
compounds  in  solution.  Sand  and  the  silicate  of  soda  are 
mixed  in  the  proportion  of  a  gallon  of  the  latter  to  a  bubhel 
of  the  former  and  rammed  into  moulds.  At  this  stage  of 
the  process  the  blocks  or  slabs  may  be  easily  cut  into  anv 
desired  form.  They  are  then  immersed,  under  pressure,  iii 
a  hot  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium,  after  which  they  arc 
thoroughly  drenched  with  cold  water  to  wash  out  the  chlo- 
ride of  sodium  formed  during  the  operation.  In  Great  Brit- 
ain grind-stones  are  frequently  maae  by  this  process.  Sonl 
stone  has  as  its  basis  a  cement  formed  by  adding  a  ^«>lu- 
tion  of  chloride  of  magnesium  to  the  oxide  of  magnesium. 
The  strength  of  this  stone  as  well  as  its  hardness  exct't^is 
that  of  any  other  artificial  stone  yet  produced.  This  pro* - 
ess  was  formerly  used  in  making  emery-wheels.  Owiu^  t'> 
the  great  strength  of  the  cement  only  acomparativelv  small 
proportion  is  required.  Medusaline  is  an  artificial  stone 
combining  the  peculiarities  of  the  McMurtrie  and  Sorel  proi> 
csses.  In  one  variety  the  inert  material  is  sawdust  and  the 
product  is  used  as  fire-proofing.  Ira  O.  Baker. 

Stone :  in  Great  Britain,  legally  a  weight  of  14  lb.  avoir- 
diiDois;  but  other  stones  are  in  use,  such  as  24  lb.  of  w.^.l 
ana  8  of  butcher's  meat.  In  other  European  countries  thtrt- 
are  weights  called  stone  differing  in  pounds  avoirdupois,  and 
chiefly  employed  for  weighing  wool,  hemp,  flax,  and  feath- 
ers, the  stone  for  flax  containing  twice  as  many  pounds  *l^ 
the  one  used  for  wool  or  feathers.  In  all  the  pnncipal  coiu- 
mercial  states  of  Oermany  the  stone  (of  flax)  is  the  fifth  of 
a  hundredweight  (centner  =  100  or  112  lb.)— L  e.  20  lb.  in 
Prussia  and  the  ZoUverein,  Hamburg,  LQbeck,  and  Bremen. 
22  lb.  in  Austria,  while  in  Sweden  it  is  equivalent  to  3*^  ll>. 
The  origin  of  this  peculiar  method  of  weight-measurini:  i> 
rather  obscure,  and  still  more  so  is  that  of  the  different 
forms  into  which  it  has  branched. 

Stone  (in  pathology) :  See  Calculus. 

Stone,  Charles  Pomerot:  soldier;  b.  at  Greenfield. 
Mass.,  Sept.  30,  1824;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Aui<l- 
emy  in  1845 ;  appointed  a  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  ord- 
nance ;  served  m  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  was  brevet e<l 
captain ;  constructed  the  arsenal  at  Beoicia,  Cal.,  and  i>er- 
formed  the  duties  of  chief  of  ordnance  of  the  division 
of  the  Pacific  1851^56;  engaged  in  the  banking  busim-K^ 
for  a  year  in  San  Francisco;  in  1857  was  appointed  by  the 
Mexican  Government  chief  of  a  commission  to  survey  and 
explore  its  lands  in  Sonora  and  Lower  California ;  was  a}>- 
jwinted  Jan.  1, 1861,  to  organize  and  drill  the  District  .f 
Columbia  militia  for  defense  of  the  capital.  Appoint eii 
colonel  of  the  Fourteenth  U.  S.  Infantry  May  14.  and  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  May  17,  he  served  under 
Gen.  Patterson  during  the  latter's  operations  in  the  Shenan- 
doah in  July.  In  Feb.,  1862,  he  was  placed  in  confinement 
in  Fort  Lafayette,  New  York  harbor,  and  held  until  A\\^.  \K 
when  released,  not  only  without  charges  being  preferrt^l 
against  him,  but  without  explanation  of  the  cause  of  his  ur- 
rest.  In  1863  he  served  in  the  department  of  the  Gulf:  in 
1863-64  was  chief  of  staff  to  Gen.  Banks;  mustered  out  of 
volunteer  service  Apr.  4, 1864.  He  commanded  a  brigade  cf 
the  Fifth  Corps  before  Petersburg  from  Aug.  21  to  Sept.  U, 
1864,  when  he  resigned  from  the  army.  He  was  in  the  mili- 
tary service  of  the  Khedive  of  Egypt  1870-82 ;  brigadier-gt-n- 
eral  and  chief  of  staff  1870 ;  Perik-Pasha  1873-83,  a  gra«lp 
next  below  field-marshal;  received  numerous  decorati»'n«' 
and  orders,  and  filled  various  confidential  positions  unilrr 
the  khedive.  lie  was  chief  engineer  for  the  erection  of  the 
Bartholdi  statue  of  Liberty,  New  York.  D.  in  New  York. 
Jan.  24, 1887. 

Stone,  David  Marvin  :  journalist  and  author;  b.  at  Ox- 
ford, Conn.,  Dec.  23,  1817:  was  a  merchant  in  Philadel|»hi ; 
1842-49;  obtained  his  earliest  reputation  as  an  author  of 
poetry  and  light  literature  contrioutetl  to  newspa(>er^  uvA 
magazines;  became  commercial  editor  of  The  Jvumul  vf 


rt  Ix  Hi 


it.  Me«^ 


..  uumUi:  luftiii^iiil 


*kl.4aji«ff. 


ritiofad  ItAtbtc  U^  lonv  of  u 


THi»'  •***»  '!'•-  %i  •;  '»• '  ♦iiii. 


764 


STONE-PINE,  SWISS 


STOP 


capture  of  Macon  and  Andersonville  and  liberation  of  pris- 
oners, but  was  compelled  to  surrender  July  31,  and  neld 
prisoner  until  Oct.  27 ;  in  temporary  command  of  the  de- 
partment of  Ohio  Nov.,  1864 ;  in  command  of  various  dis- 
tricts and  departments  until  mustered  out  of  volunteer 
service  Sept.  1,  1866 ;  became  colonel  Twentv-first  Infantry 
July  28, 1866 ;  breveted  colonel,  brigadier,  and  major-general 
for  gallant  conduct;  retired  from  active  service  Aug.  16, 
1871.  Resigned  Sept.  15, 1882 ;  Governor  of  California  1883- 
87.    D.  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  5,  1894. 

Stone-pine,  Swiss :  See  Cembra  Pine. 

Stone  Rlrer,  Battle  of:  See  Mubfreesbobo. 

Stoneware :  See  Pottery  and  Porcelain. 

Stoneworts:  the  Characecp,  an  order  of  lower  plants, 
allied  to  the  Red  Seaweeds  {q.  r.)  on  the  one  hand  and  the 


Fio.  1.— a,  a  stonewort  (Chara  intermedia),  half  the  natural  size  ; 
6,  portion  of  stem,  x  16  ;  c,  cross-section  of  stem,  x  15. 

Mossworts  (q,  v.)  on  the  other.    They  are  small,  green 
aquatic  phmts  with  jointed  steins,  bearing  whorls  of  leaves 


Fio.  2.— a,  leaf,  bearing  young  sexual  organs,  x  15  ;  b,  carpogone  ; 
c,  coronula,  x  80  :  c,  imtherid  ;  d,  threads  from  interior  of  an- 
therid,  x200;  t,  antherozoid,  x  600. 


(Fig.  1).  Both  stems  and  leaves  are  very  simple,  being  often 
no  more  than  a  row  of  cells,  but  sometimes  a  cylindrical 
mass  of  cells.  The  sexual  organs,  which  occur  upon  the 
leaves,  consist  of  antherids  and  carpogones.  The  former  an^ 
globular  bodies  (Fig.  2),  which  at  maturity  are  hollow  ami 
contain  a  number  of  short-celled  threads.  Each  cell  con- 
tains a  spiral  antherozoid,  which,  escaping  into  the  water, 
swims  actively  with  a  rotating  motion.  The  carpogone  con- 
sists of  a  central  cell,  the  oSsphere,  which  soon  becomes  cov- 
ered by  a  layer  of  spirally  twisted  cells,  the  pericarp,  sur- 
mounted by  one  or  two  rows  of  short  cells,  the  coronula 
(Fig.  2,  &,  c).  Fertilization  takes  place  by  the  entrance  of 
the  antherozoid  through  the  opening  in  the  coronula,  and 
its  fusion  with  the  oSsphere,  which  then  acquires  a  thicker 
wall.  This  ripened  spore-fruit  soon  falls  to  the  bottom  of 
the  pond,  and  after  a  period  of  rest  germinates  by  sending 
out  a  jointed  filament,  which  eventually  gives  rise  to  a 
branching  plant  again. 

The  stoneworts  number  about  150  species,  which  are  dis- 
tributed among  five  genera  and  two  families,  viz^  yitella 
and  Tolypella,  constituting  the  family  Niiellece,  and  Larn- 
prothamnua,  Lychnothamnus  and  Charay  constituting  the 
family  CharecB.  In  North  America  there  are  about  sixty- 
two  species,  widely  distributed  in  ponds  and  slow  streams." 

The  best  works  on  the  Characem  are  T.  F.  Allen's  Chara- 
cecB  of  America  (New  York,  1888) ;  W.  Migula's  IHe  Chara- 
ceen  in  Rabenhorst's  Kryptogamen  Flora  von  DeuUchland, 
Oeaterreich  und  der  Schweiz  (Leipzig,  1890) ;  and  A.  Branus 
Fragmenta  einer  Monographie  der  Charateefi,  edited  bv 
0.  Nordstedt  (Berlin,  1882).  Charles  E.  Besset.  ' 

Stonington:  town  (incorporated  in  1658);  port  of  en- 
try ;  New  London  co..  Conn. ;  on  Long  Island  Sound,  and 
the  N.  Y.,  N.  n.  and  Hart.  Railroad ;  12  miles  E.  of  New 
London,  one  of  the  county-seats  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Connecticut,  ref.  11-L).  It  includes  the  borough  of  Ston- 
ington,  the  villages  of  Old  Mystic,  Mystic,  and  Pawcatuck, 
and  the  farming  region  known  as  the  Road  districts  The 
town  has  an  excellent  harbor,  protected  by  a  breakwater, 
and  is  in  daily  steamboat  communication  with  New  York. 
The  principal  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  silk  and 
cotton  machinery,  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  printing- 
presses,  paper-cutters,  spools  for  silk  and  thread,  velvet  antl 
thread,  boilers,  and  iron  and  brass  goods,  Stonington  has  a 
national  bank  with  capital  of  $200,000,  a  savings-bank,  ami 
a  weekly  newspaper.  In  Aug.,  1814,  the  town  was  bom- 
barded by  a  Bntish  fleet,  but  the  people  successfully  resisted 
occupation.    Pop.  (1880)  7,355 ;  (1890)  7,184. 

Editor  of  "  Mibror," 
Stony  Point :  town ;  Rockland  co.,  N.  Y. :  at  the  head 
of  Haverstraw  Bay;  on  the  west  side  of  the  Hudson  river, 
and  on  the  N.  J.  and  N.  Y.,  the  N.  Y.,  Ont.  and  VV.,  and  the 
W.  Shore  railways ;  42  miles  N.  of  New  York  (for  location, 
see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  8-J).  It  is  on  a  rocky  prom- 
ontory, which  was  fortified  early  in  the  Revolutionary  war, 
was  captured,  strengthened,  and  garrisoned  by  the  British, 
was  retaken  by  the  U.  S.  forces  under  Gen.*  Wayne  in  a 
night  attack  July  16, 1779,  and  soon  afterward  the  fortifica- 
tions were  destroyed  and  the  place  abandoned.  The  summit 
contains  a  lighthouse  and  fog-oell  tower.  The  house  in  which 
Benedict  Arnold  held  his  treasonable  interviews  was  de- 
stroyed bv  fire  in  1802.  Remains  of  the  fortifications  are  still 
preserved.  Pop.  (1880)  3,308 ;  (1890)  town  4,614,  village  514. 
Stop :  in  the  organ,  a  series  or  set  of  pipes  of  similar  tone 
and  quality,  tuned  in  regular  gradation  according  to  the 
order  of  the  scale,  and  corresponding  with  the  key-board 
either  in  the  whole  or  a  part  only  of  its  range.  These  stops 
are  either  simple  or  compound.  A  simple  stop  (as  a  diaf>a- 
son,  fiute,  or  trumpet)  has  only  one  pipe  allotted  to  each  key 
on  the  keyboard,  but  in  a  compound  stop  (as  the  sesquial- 
tera  or  mixture)  there  are  from  two  to  n\^  pipes  for  each 
key.  The  stops  in  a  large  organ  are  not  only  or  various  qual- 
ities of  tone — soft,  loud,  delicate,  bold,  shrill,  and  the  like 
— or  imitations  of  the  trumpet,  violin,  flute,  etc.,  but  are 
also  distinguished  by  peculiarities  of  pitch,  some  stops  giv- 
ing the  sound  represented  by  the  finger-keys  to  whicn  they 
belong,  others  the  octave  or  double  octave'  below  or  above, 
while  others  are  tuned  in  triple  octaves  above,  and  even  in 
double  and  triple  thirds  and  nf  ths,  the  whole  combining  and 
blending  together  with  united  effect,  as  if  each  key  soundtnl 
only  one  richly  toned  pipe.  The  theoretical  basis  of  this 
latter  class  of  stops  is  explained  in  the  article  HARMoxir 
Stops  (q,  r.).  Organ-pipes  are  of  two  classes — flue-pijx^s  and 
reed-pipes.     The  former  are  either  metallic  cylinders  of 


«liif«f*m»*i  ill  f  rMi*«hi 


ji4.44ijbl  |»tdt* JuMitHk  iit  iiHitt  iu |ictt*«tii  JeBVrr 


766 


STORER 


STORM 


Harvard  University,  and  dean  of  the  Bussey  Institution ;  has 
oontributod  to  scientific  periodicals;  was  the  American  edi- 
tor of  Barreswiil's  Repertoire  de  Chimie  appUqtUe,  and  has 
published  Alloys  of  Copper  and  Zinc  (1859) ;  Manufacture 
of  Paraffin  Oils  (1860) ;  First  Outlines  of  a  Dictionary  of 
the  Solubilities  of  Chemical  Substances  (1863-64),  and  with 
Charles  W.  Eliot,  Manual  of  Inorganic  Chemistry  (1869); 
Manual  of  (^wlitative  Chemical  Analysis  (1870) ;  and  Agri- 
culture in  some  of  its  Relations  with  Chemistry  (2  vols.,  New 
York,  1887). 

Storer,  Horatio  Robinson,  M.  D.  :  surgeon ;  b.  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Feb.  27, 1830 ;  educated  at  Harvard,  where  he  received 
A.  B.  1850,  and  M.  D.  and  A.  M.  in  1853 ;  was  Professor  of 
Obstetrics  and  Medical  Jurisprudence  in  the  Berkshire  Med- 
ical College ;  has  contributed  largely  to  medical  literature, 
and  has  published  ^Ay  not?  A  Book  for  every  Woman^ 
which  received  the  gold  medal  of  the  American  Medical  As- 
sociation (1866)  \  hit  If  A  Book  for  every  Man  (1867) ;  De- 
crease of  the  Rate  of  Increase  of  the  Population  in  Europe 
and  America  (1867)*;  Nurses  and  Nursmg  (1868);  with  F. 
P.  Heard,  Criminal  Abortion^  its  Nature,  its  Evidence,  and 
its  Law  (1868)  and  Volunteer  Sanitary  Organizations  as  an 
Aid  to  Official  Boards  of  Health  (1890).  He  was  coeditor 
of  The  Journal  of  the  Gyncecoloaical  Society  of  Boston  from 
1869  to  1872.  He  is  a  high  authority  on  medals,  jetons,  and 
tokens  illustrative  of  the  science  of  medicine.         S.  T.  A. 

Stork  [0.  Eng.  stork :  0.  H.  Germ,  storah  (>  Mod.  Germ. 
storch) :  Icel.  storker.  Cf.  Gr.  r6p/yos,  vulture] :  any  bird  of 
the  genus  Ciconia  and  of  the  family  Ciconiiace,  which  con- 
tains half  a  dozen  species,  all — save 
Ciconia  magnari — inhabitants  of 
the  Old  World.  In  general  ap- 
pearance they  resemble  the  Euro- 
pean stork  {Ciconia  alba).  This  is 
a  large  bird,  about  3i  feet  long; 
the  head,  neck,  and  body  above,  as 
well  as  below,  are  white,  the  wings 
partly  black,  and  the  bill  and  legs 
red.  It  is  a  migratory  species, 
which  in  the  warm  season  extends 
into  Northern  Europe,  and  in  win- 
ter (as  well  as  other  seasons)  is 
found  in  Northern  Africa  and 
Asia.  It  has  no  cry,  but  claps  its 
bill  together  with  a  loud  noise. 
Storks  are  great  favorites  with  the  people,  who  conceive  that 
their  presence  brings  good  luck.  They  often  build  upon  the 
roofs  of  houses.  They  devour  oflfal,  reptiles,  and  other  ver- 
min. The  stork  displays  remarkable  affection  for  its  young, 
and  is  of  old  a  popular  emblem  of  filial  piety  and  conjugal 
faithfulness.     See  also  Shoebill  and  Shadow-bird. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 
Stork,  Charles  Augustus,  D.  D.  :  clergyman ;  b.  at  Jef- 
ferson, Md.,  Sept.  4,  1838;  graduated  at  Williams  College, 
Massachusetts,  1857;  Professor  of  Greek  Language  and 
Literature,  Newberry  College,  South  Carolina,  1859-60; 
pastor  Philadelphia,  1861-62,  Baltimore,  Md.,  1863-81 ;  Pro- 
fessor of  Didactic  Theology,  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  1881-83.  D. 
in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  17,  1883.  After  his  death  a  selection 
from  his  writings  was  published,  with  the  title  TAght  on  the 
Pilgrim's  Way  (Philadelphia,  1885),  with  a  biographical 
sketch  by  his  brother,  T.  B.  Stork.  See  also  The  Stork  Fam- 
ily in  the  Lutheran  Church  (Philadelphia,  1886). 

H.  E.  Jacobs. 
Storm :  an  intense  atmospheric  disturbance,  which  may 
be  general  or  local,  and  may  be  characterized  by  high  winds, 
when  it  is  of  especial  importance  to  navigators,  or  by  heavy 

f)recipitation  of  rain  or  snow,  when  it  is  most  important  in- 
and,  or  by  both  wind  and  precipitation.  General  storms 
are  areas  of  low  pressure  ("  lows,  or  cyclones)  of  intense 
action,  which  travel  eastward  in  temperate  latitudes,  but 
westward  in  the  tropics.  In  summer  very  few  of  the  "  lows  " 
are  sufficiently  intense  to  deserve  the  name  of  storm;  in 
winter,  perhaps,  half  of  them  are  stormy,  and  in  spring  and 
autumn  the  ratio  is  still  larger. 

Stormy  weather  increases  in  frequency  from  the  tropics 
toward  the  poles.  The  ocean  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Honi 
has  the  reputation  of  being  the  stormiest  sea  in  the  world, 
but  the  North  Atlantic  is  the  stormiest  frequented  ocean. 
The  Pacific  Ocean  deserves  its  name  only  in  lower  latitudes. 
About  the  Aleutian  islands  and  S.  of  Australasia  it  is  very 
stormy.  In  the  U.  S.  the  storm  frequency  is  greatest  in 
New  England  and  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes.    Next  come 


White  or  European  stork. 


the  extreme  northwest,  and  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  most 
destructive  general  storms  in  the  U.  S.  are  of  tropical  origin 
(see  Hurricanes),  but  they  ailect  only  the  eastern  part  of 
the  country,  and  occur  only  in  late  summer  and  autumn. 
The  general  storms  which  enter  the  U.  S.  from  the  western 
Gulf  coast  or  Mexico  in  the  colder  seasons  bring  warmer 
weather  with  abundant  precipitation,  sometimes  torrential 
rains.  Most  of  the  general  storms  which  affect  the  eastern 
part  of  the  U.  S.  appear  first  in  sight  on  the  plains  K.  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  Alberta  or  Assiniboia.  The  gen- 
eral storms  from  the  Pacific  come  from  the  N.  W.,  and  enter 
on  the  coast  of  British  Columbia,  Washington,  and  Oregon. 
General  storms  are  unknown  on  the  Pacific  coast  from 
Lower  California  to  Panama,  but  are  more  common  over 
the  West  Indies,  and  occasionally  pass  far  enough  westward 
to  affect  Spanish  Honduras,  Yucatan,  and,  to  a  less  dcCTce. 
British  Honduras.  The  western  portion  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  is  subject  to  severe  winter  gales  from  the  N.  The 
American  storms  which  last  long  enough  to  cross  the  At- 
lantic usually  pass  northward  of  the  British  islands.  A 
few  pass  over  Great  Britain,  or  sometimes  pass  farther  S.. 
over  Prance,  or  even  Spain.  The  most  of  the  Euro^»ean 
storms,  however,  do  not  previously  appear  on  the  Americtan 
weather-map.  Manchuna  and  Central  and  Northern  Japan 
are  crossed  by  many  storms,  and  the  Sea  of  Japan,  on  whit  h 
Russia  has  established  her  Pacific  ports,  is  verv  stormy. 
The  typhoons  of  the  China  Sea  bring  stormy  weatlier  to  t  lie 
Chinese  coast  S.  of  Shanghai,  to  the  Philippine  islan<K 
Formosa,  and  Southern  Japan.  Similar  typnoons  m-cur 
about  the  Samoan  and  Fiji  islands  and  about  the  Ma<^va- 
renes,  and  Southern  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania  have  stormy 
coasts.  The  general  storms  of  South  America  enter  from 
the  Pacific  on  the  coasts  about  Chiloe,  then  pass  northeast- 
ward, affecting  Patagonia,  Southern  Argentina,  Uruguay, 
and  the  coasts  of  Southern  Brazil. 

The  approach  of  a  general  storm  is  heralded  by  a  falling; 
barometer,  a  rising  thermometer  (generally),  and  a  sht-et  of 
clouds  ascending  From  the  W.  and  preceded  by  long  filmy 
streaks  of  cirrhus.  These  signs  usually  give  a  day's  no- 
tice, and  the  weather-map  a  notice  of  two  or  three  da^s. 
The  storm  lasts  from  one  to  three  days;  the  maximum  Of 
rainfall  and  wind  usually  precede  by  a  few  hours  the  mini- 
mum of  air-pressure;  and  the  retreat  of  the  signs  of  tlu- 
storm  is  more  rapid  than  their  advance  with  the  appruach- 
ing  storm.  The  official  forecasts  of  general  stonns  can  U- 
made  with  more  accuracy  than  those  of  moderate  chani:*  s 
of  weather,  and  their  approach  is  heralded  by  stonn-sipial-j 
and  warnings  at  the  ports  likely  to  be  affected.  (S<v 
Weather  Signals.)  A  general  storm  occupies  an  area  of 
about  500  miles  in  diameter  on  the  average,  and  may  livt> 
from  three  days  to  a  fortnight. 

While  the  advance  of  the  general  storm  can  be  forcca>te<l 
with  fair  accuracy  a  day  or  two  beforehand,  the  same  is  un- 
fortunately not  true  of  local  storms.  They  are  small,  arv 
not  of  long  duration,  travel  but  short  distances,  occur 
usually  in  warm  weather,  and  only  in  the  hottest  jiart  of 
the  day.  The  individual  storms  give  but  brief  warning  of 
their  approach,  and  though  the  conditions  under  which  thoy 
develop  are  known  and  can  be  predicted,  yet  the  indivijlunl 
storms  will  be  only  sparsely  scattered  over'the  area  in  which 
these  conditions  exist.  Tornadoes  and  squalls  are  fonn<  «>f 
local  storms  es|3ecially  characterized  by  high  winds,  aii«l 
thunder-storms  and  cloudbursts  those  characterized  by  hcav  y 
precipitation.  In  the  U.  S.  local  storms  usually  occur  lu 
the  warm  season  a  few  hundred  miles  to  the  southward  of  a 
large,  moist,  and  warm  "  low,"  especially  when  this  is  closely 
followed  by  a  sharp  fall  of  temperature.  In  the  tn»i»irs 
they  have  no  association  with  general  areas  of  low  pressure, 
but  have  a  marked  diurnal  periodicity.  For  instance,  at 
San  Jos6,  Costa  Rica,  in  the  rainy  season  there  is  rain  two 
days  in  three,  and  the  rain  is  always  after  noon.  Nine-tenths 
of  the  rain  there  falls  between  2  p.  M.  and  7  p.  m.  See  als^ 
Squalls,  Cloudburst,  Meteorology,  and  Oceak. 

Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Stomi,  Johan  Frederik:  philologist;  b.  at  Loin.  X<»r- 
way,  Nov.  24, 1836;  educated  at  the  University  of  Christiania: 
Professor  of  Romanic  and  English  Philology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Christiania  since  1873 ;  author,  among  other  work*, 
of  Practical  Course  in  English  (1862,  in  Norwegian) ;  Tht 
Romance  Nations  and  Languages  (1871.  in  Norwegian  r. 
Selections  of  Phrases  for  Tourists  Traveling  in  Nonrnti 
(4th  cd.  1881);  English  Phihloay  (1879,  in  Norwegian): 
Englische  Philologie,  die  lebende  Sprache  (revised  translaii'-n 


y.  VV.  I 


IpiYTTimfi;  b 


story.  U/»T>rj»T 

:.    .ir-        UKrr.I...rf,    •, 


768 


STOTHARD 


STOVE 


he  has  resided  chiefly  in  Rome.  Besides  the  practice  of 
his  art  he  has  been  a  somewhat  prolific  writer.  He  pub- 
lished The  American  Question  (1862) ;  Roba  di  Roma 
(1862);  Proportions  of  the  Human  Figure  (1866);  Graffiti 
d^ Italia  (1869) ;  A  Roman  Lawyer  %n  Jerusalem  (1870) ; 
The  Castle  S,  Anaelo  and  the  Evil  Eye^  being  a  second 
volume  of  Roha  di  Roma^  in  1877;  and  five  volumes  of 
poems.  As  a  sculptor  he  is  known  chiefly  by  his  large 
allegorical  statues,  Medea,  Cleopatra,  The  African  Sibyl ; 
by  the  statue  of  George  Peabodv  executed  for  the  corpora- 
tion of  London  ;  the  statue  of  £dward  Everett  in  the  Bos- 
ton Public  Garden ;  the  monument  at  San  Francisco  of 
Francis  Scott  Key ;  and  busts  of  his  father,  James  Russell 
Lowell,  William 'Cullen  Bryant,  Josiah  Quinc3r,  and  Theo- 
dore Parker.  He  was  made  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878. 

Stothard,  Charles  Alfred:  painter  and  architectural 
draughtsman ;  son  of  Thomas  Stothard,  painter ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don in  1786;  early  disting[uished  himself  by  his  skill  as  an 
artist.  His  best-known  painting,  The  Death  of  Richard  IL, 
was  exhibited  in  1810,  and  in  the  following  year  he  began 
the  publication  of  the  Monumental  Effigies  of  Or  eat  Britain, 
a  series  of  etchings  with  descriptions,  completed  (1811-23) 
after  his  death  by  others,  and  valuable  for  its  accuracy.  He 
was  selected  by  the  Antiquarian  Society  to  make  drawings 
of  the  famous  Bayeux  tapestry,  and  in  1819  made  sketches 
from  the  newly  discovered  old  pictures  on  the  walls  of  the 
Painted  Chamber  of  the  House  of  Lords.  D.  at  Bere  Friars, 
in  Devonshire,  England,  May  27,  1821. — His  widow,  Anne 
EuzA  (d.  1883),  who  assisted  her  brother,  Mr.  Kempe,  in  the 
completion  of  the  Monumental  Effigies,  afterward  married 
the  Kev.  Edward  Brav.  She  was  the  author  of  several  cred- 
itable novels  and  otter  works  written  during  her  second 
marriage.  Revised  by  Russell  Sturois. 

Stothard,  Thomas,  R.  A.:  painter  and  designer;  b.  in 
London,  Aug.  17, 1755;  was  apprenticed  to  a  designer  of 
patterns  for  the  silk  trade,  but  soon  became  an  illustrator  of 
books,  and  finally  a  painter.  He  illustrated  the  set  of  Hie 
Novelists^  Library,  oegun  about  1780,  and  other  popular 
works,  and  became  known  as  a  most  prompt  ana  useful 
workman,  so  that  he  was  constantly  employed.  He  was 
elected  fellow  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  17v4,  and  its  libra- 
rian in  1812.  His  illustrations  for  books  number  more  than 
4,000,  among  them  being  those  for  Robinson  Crusoe  and 
The  Pilgrim's  Progress,  1788,  the  Rape  of  the  Lock,  1798, 
the  works  of  the  German  poet  Gessner,  1802,  Cowner*s 
Poems,  1825,  and  Rogers's  Italy  and  Poems,  of  which  he 
illustrated  not  only  the  solendid  octavos  of  1830  and  1834, 
but  also  the  small  12mo  euitions  with  wood-cuts.  His  work 
as  an  illustrator  of  books  is  graceful  and  pure,  not  very 
realistic  nor  careful  about  costume  and  architecture  or  other 
matters  where  historical  accuracy  is  thought  necessary,  but 
artistic  in  a  very  high  degree.  Among  his  best  paintings 
are  the  Canterbury  Pilgrims,  the  Flitch  of  Bacon,  and  Four 
Periods  in  a  Sa%lor*s  Life.  Besides  his  work  in  pure  art 
he  made  man}[  designs  for  goldsmiths  and  other  decorative 
workers.  D.  in  London,  Apr.  27,  1834.  See  the  Life  by 
Mrs.  Bray  (1851).  Revised  by  Russell  Sturgis. 

StOQghton,  sto'tt/n:  town;  Norfolk  co.,  Mass.;  on  the 
N.  y.,  N.  H.  and  Hart.  Railroad ;  17  miles  S.  of  Boston  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  5-1).  It  contains 
the  villages  of  Stoughton,  North  Stoughton,  and  West 
Stoughton;  is  nrincipally  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
boots,  shoes,  and  rubber  and  woolen  goods;  and  has  4  hotels, 
a  public  high  school,  17  district  schools,  public  library  (found- 
ed in  1874),  a  co-operative  bank,  and  2  weekly  newspapers. 
The  assessed  valuation  in  1894  was  $2,819,252.  Pop.  (1880) 
4,875;  (1890)4,852. 

Stoaghton :  city  (founded  in  1847) ;  Dane  co.,  Wis. :  on 
the  Yohara  river,  and  the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  Paul  Railway ; 
14  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Madison,  the  State  capital  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  7-D).  It  is  in  the  center  of  the 
great  tobacco  belt;  and  contains  8  churches,  high  school, 
academy,  4  public-school  buildings,  water-works,  electric 
lights,  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  cigars,  har- 
ness, and  flour  and  feed  mills,  2  State  banks  with  combined 
capital  of  $55,000,  and  3  weeklv  newspapers.  The  citv  is  an 
important  tobacco-market.  Pop.  (1880)  1.353 ;  (1890)*2,470 ; 
(1895)  estimated,  3,000.  Editor  of  "  Courier." 

Stoughton,  John,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  and  author;  b.  at 
Norwich,  England,  Nov.  15,  1807;  educated  at  Highbury 
College,  Islington,  and  University  College,  London ;  pastor 


of  Congregational  churches  at  Windsor  1832-43,  at  Kensinj;- 
ton,  London,  1843-76;  Professor  of  Historical  Theology  ami 
Homiletics  in  New  College,  St.  John's  Wood,  Ix>ndon,  1872- 
84.  He  was  Congregational  lecturer  1855,  and  chairman  c.f 
the  Congregational  Union  1856.  He  edited  for  many  yeanj 
The  Evanaelical  Maaazine,  and  published  many  very  popu- 
lar as  well  as  scholarly  volumes,  including  Lectures  on 
Tractarian  Theology  (Ijondon,  1843);  Windsor:  a  HiMory 
and  Description  of  the  Castle  and  the  Town  (1862) ;  Horn*-* 
and  Haunts  of  Luther  (1875);  Italian  Reformers  (18t^l); 
Spanish  Reformers  (1883) ;  but  chiefly  the  series  of  Chunh 
histories  of  England  from  the  opening  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment (1640)  to  1800,  issued  in  revised  lorm  in  1881  under  the 
title  History  of  Religion  in  England  (6  vols.);  supplement 
carrying  the  story  to  1850,  18^4,  2  vols.  He  issued  his 
autobiography,  Recollection  of  a  Long  Life,  in  1894, 

Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisuer. 

Stourbridge,  st^r'brij :  town ;  in  Worcestershire,  Knp- 
land ;  on  the  Stour,  12  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Birmingham  (^i-e 
map  of  England,  ref.  9-G).  It  manufactures  iron,  gla^^N 
earthenware,  and  fire-bricks,  the  latter  from  a  peculiar  kind 
of  clay  called  Stourbridge  clay,  on  which  fire  has  only  a  small 
effect.    Pop.  (1890)  9,886. 

Stont :  See  Beer. 

Store  [from  Dutch  stoof^  foot-stove,  drying-room  :  Germ. 
stubs  <  (J.  H.  Germ,  stuba,  room  that  can  be  heated,  bath- 
room. The  original  meaning  was  "  heated  room."  How  the 
Romanic  words  :  Fr.  ituve,ltaX.  stufa.  Span,  estufa^  of.  Fr. 
itouffer  are  related  is  still  a  question] :  an  apparatus  for  re- 
taining and  diffusing  heat,  as  for  warming  and  ventilating 
or  cooking.  In  the  Middle  Ages  stoves,  constructed  of  brick 
or  tiles  and  sometimes  of  slate  or  steatite,  were  used  for  warm- 
ing dwellings.  They  were  large,  often  filling  the  side  of 
a  room,  and  in  Scandinavia  their  broad  flat  surfaces  were 
sleeping-places.  The  fire  was  kindled  at  the  bottom,  and  t  ht' 
heat  and  smoke  passed  through  flues  before  making  their  exit 
into  the  chimney.  Some  of  these  stoves  had  ovens  and  flues 
for  cooking,  and  when  once  thoroughly  heated  required  fettl- 
ing but  once  in  twenty-four  hours.  An  early  attempt  at  mak- 
ing a  stove  or  closed  flreplace  of  iron  was  made  by  Cardinal 
Polignac  in  France.  He  published  a  description  of  this  in 
La  MScani^e  du  Feu,  ou  VArt  d'en  augmenier  les  EffetA, 
et  d'en  dimtnuer  la  Dipense  (1709).  The  Polignac  flrepla(^'«* 
were  constructed  with  hollow  backs,  hearths,  and  jambs  of 
iron  to  economize  the  heat.  Des  Aguliers  translated  Vo\i- 
gnac*s  treatise  (London,  1716).  and  modified  his  fireplaces  $<> 
as  to  use  them  for  coal.  Neither  these  nor  the  Holland 
stoves,  which  were  introduced  soon  after  (plain  box  stoves 
with  a  small  smoke-pipe  or  fine  at  the  top,  and  a  single  d(H>r 
into  which  the  wooa  or  coal  was  thrown),  became  popular  in 
England,  owing  to  the  prejudice  of  the  people  in  favor  of 
open  fires.  Dr.  Franklin,  writing  of  stoves  after  his  inven- 
tion in  1745,  refers  to  a  German  stove  recently  introduce<i 
into  England,  consisting  of  an  iron  box  made  of  five  platen 
fastened  together  with  screws,  one  side  of  which  was  left 
open,  but  when  the  stove  was  set,  this  open  side,  with  the 
smoke-pipe,  was  in  an  ante-room,  while  the  body  of  the  stcve 

Srojected  through  the  partition  to  warm  a  larger  room,  the 
re  being  fed  and  the  smoke  conducted  off  in  the  ante-nx>m. 
Franklin's  stove  was  a  great  advance.  Although,  in  its  ordi- 
nary use,  a  fireplace,  it  was  capable  of  being  closed,  and  had 
a  downward  draught,  distributing  the  heat  through  the  air- 
boxes  in  its  sides,  till  at  last  the  i-emainder  of  the  heat 
escaped  with  the  smoke  through  a  flue  leading  into  the  ba>*' 
of  the  chimney.  A  register  or  "damper"  of  sheet-iron  was 
introduced  into  the  descending  flue,  which  checked  and  c^m- 
troUed  the  fire.  In  1771,  and  later,  Franklin  invented  other 
stoves^-one  for  burning  bituminous  coal  which  would  <*«  -n- 
sume  its  own  smoke  ana  had  a  downward  draught,  and  an- 
other intended  for  the  same  purpose,  having  a  basket  grnt»» 
or  cage,  with  movable  bars  at  the  top  and  bottom,  suni>orteii 
by  pivots  at  its  center.  The  latter,  after  being  filled  an<i 
kindled  at  the  top,  could  be  inverted  and  so  made  to  bum 
from  the  base.  Between  1785  and  1795  Benjamin  Thomps<^n. 
('ount  Rumford,  devised  several  improvements  in  stoves,  in- 
tended to  economize  fuel  and  heat. 

In  the  U.  S.  before  1825  the  use  of  stoves,  generally  of  the 
box  pattern  and  very  rude,  was  confined  to  shops  and  of- 
fices, public  rooms,  and  churches  in  cities  and  larger  villages. 
In  the  countrv  the  churches  were  seldom  warmed,  but  the 
women  carried  foot-stoves,  and  the  men  protected  their  fet^t 
by  stout  overshoes  called  **  boxes."  Among  the  wealthy  in 
cities  cannel  and  other  English  coal  ("  sea  coal ")  was  bumol 


770 


STOWE 


STRAFFORD 


volume  of  Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Uebrews 
(1^9);  began  an  Introduction  to  the  Criticism  and  Inter- 
pretation of  the  Bihle^  of  which  only  vol.  i.  was  published 
(Cincinnati,  1885) ;  and  the  Origin  and  History  of  the 
Books  of  the  Bible  (part  L,  containing  the  New  Testament, 
Hartford,  1867).  He  also  published  several  addresses  and 
educational  reports,  and  contributed  largelv  to  religious  pe- 
riodicals.   D.  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  Aug.  22, 'l 886. 

Stowe,  Harriet  Elizabeth  (Beecher) :  author ;  daughter 
of  Lyman  Beecher;  b.  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June  14, 1811. 
At  the  age  of  thirteen  she  was  sent  to  the  school  kept  by  her 
sister  Catherine  at  Hartford,  where  she  studied  ana  taught 
until  1832,  when  she  removed  with  her  father  to  Cincinnati ; 
was  married  in  1836  to  Rev.  Calvin  E.  Stowe,  then  professor 
at  Lane  Seminary,  Cincinnati.  In  1849  she  published  Tlie 
Mayflower,  or  Sketches  of  the  Descendants  of  the  Pilgrims, 
and  in  1851  began  in  Ths  National  Era  of  Washington  a 
serial  story  designed  to  illustrate  the  horrors  of  African 
slaverv,  which  was  published  separately  in  1852  under  the 
title  Vncle  Tom's  Cabin,  and  attained  a  rapid  and  almost 
unparalleled  success  at  home  and  abroad.  Within  five  years 
600,000  copies  were  sold  in  the  U.  S.;  within  ten  years 
there  had  been  made  from  it  two  or  three  French  versions 
and  more  than  a  dozen  German  ones.  It  was  also  translated 
into  Danish,  Swedish,  Portuguese,  Spanish,  Italian,  Welsh, 
Russian,  Polish,  Hungarian,  Wendish,  Wallachian,  Armeni- 
an, Arabic,  Romaic,  Chinese,  and  Japanese.  It  did  more 
than  any  other  literary  agency  to  rouse  the  public  conscience 
against  slaver}',  and  nas  been  repeatedlv  dramatized.  In 
1§5;3  she  put  forth  a  Key  to  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  in  which 
were  set  forth  the  main  facts  upon  which  the  story  was 
based,  together  with  manv  incidents  in  corroboration  of  its 
truthfulness.  In  1850  Mrs.  Stowe  removed  to  Brunswick, 
Me.,  where  her  husband  had  been  appointed  to  a  professor- 
ship in  Bowdoin  College.  In  1852  they  went  to  Andover, 
Mass.,  where  he  had  accepted  a  chair  in  the  theological  sem- 
inary. In  1853  she  accompanied  her  husband  and  her 
brotner  to  Europe,  and  upon  her  return  published  Sunny 
Memories  of  Foreign  Lands  (2  vols.,  1854).  Her  subsequent 
writings,  which  were  mostlv  inferior,  usually  first  apjieared 
in  pericxlicals,  especially  in  !rhe  Atlantic  Monthly  and  in  the 
Hearth  and  Home,  of  which  she  was  for  a  time  one  of  the 
editors.  Among  these,  as  published  separately,  are  Dred,  a 
Tale  of  the  Great  Dismal  Swamp,  suljsequently  published 
under  the  title  Nina  Gordon  (1859) ;  The  Minister's  Woo- 
ing (1859) ;  The  Pearl  of  Orr's  Island  (1862) ;  Agnes  of  Sor- 
rento {\mS)\  Oldtown  Folks  (1869);  Pink  and  White  Tyr- 
anny (1871) ;  My  Wife  and  /(1872) ;  Bible  Heroines  (1878) ; 
Pogannc  People  (1878);  A  Dog's  Mission  (1881);  and  a  vol- 
ume of  religious  poems.  Her  paper  in  The  Atlantic  Month- 
ly in  1869,  The  True  Story  of  Lord  Byron's  Life,  started 
an  unfortunate  scandal,  and  she  replied  to  her  critics  with 
Lady  Byron  Vindicated,  a  History  of  the  Byron  Contro- 
versy (1869).  In  1864  Mrs.  Stowe  removed  to  Hartford, 
Conn.,  where  she  still  (1895)  resides.  See  the  Life  by  her 
son  (Boston  and  Now  \  ork,  1889).  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Strabismus :  See  Squixtino. 

Stra'bo:  Greek  geographer;  b.  at  Amaseia,  in  Pontus, 
63  B.  c. ;  d.  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  after  21  a.  d.  He  re- 
ceived an  excellent  education  under  eminent  masters  in 
philosophy  and  in  literature,  went  to  Rome  about  29  b.  c, 
and  undertook  extensive  travels  in  Asia  Minor,  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Italy.  At  a  mature  age  he  wrote  a  history, 
which  is  lost,  and  a  geography  in  seventeen  books,  which  has 
come  down  to  us,  and  is  especially  valuable  for  its  historical 
notes,  which  are  the  more  abundant  as  Strabo  looks  at 
geography  from  an  historical  point  of  view,  and  shows  that 
he  is  a  disciple  of  Polybius.  11  is  work  is  unequal,  and  it  is 
a  natural  inference  tliat  where  his  descriptions  are  meager 
and  incorrect  his  information  is  derived  from  books,  and 
that  where  they  are  full  and  accurate  we  have  before  us  the 
result  of  i)ersonal  observation.  His  style  is  sim])le.  and  the 
grouping  of  the  heterogeneous  materials  shows  something 
of  the  Greek  feeling  for  proportion.  The  first  two  books 
of  his  works  form  an  introductory  to  geography;  with  the 
third  the  description  begins.  Eight  books  are  devoted  to 
Europe,  six  to  Asia,  and  the  seventeenth  and  last  to  Egypt 
and  Libya.  Editions  by  Kramer  (3  vols.,  1844-52)  and 
Meineke  (8  vols.,  1852-53).  English  translation  by  Falconer 
and  Hamilton  (3  vols.,  1854-57).  The  French  translation, 
made  by  La  Porte  du  Thcil,  Coray,  and  Gossollin,  at  the 
command  of  Napole<m  I.  (5  vols.,  1805-19).  is  very  rich  in 
notes.    There  is  a  valuable  German  translation,  with  notes, 


by  Groskurd,  1831-34.  On  Strabo,  see  Bunburr,  History  »' 
Ancient  Geography,  voL  ii.,  209,  seq, ;  and  also  the  inlnVi ac- 
tion to  Tozer's  Selections  from  Strabo  (1893). 

Revised  by  B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

8trabo,  Walahfbid  (Walafridus  Strabus,  **  the  Squint - 
er  **) :  ecclesiastic  and  author ;  b.  in  Suabia  about  809  :  tniu- 
cated  in  the  Benedictine  abbey  school  of  Reichenau,  on  ti.^ 
island  in  Lake  Constance ;  then  at  Fulda,  54  miles  S.  K.  •  f 
Cassel,  under  Rabanus  Maurus  (826-^29).  From  Fulda  h.« 
went  to  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  became  tutor  to  Charles,  sj^hi  "f 
the  Emperor  Louis  the  Pious.  The  latter  made  hiw  abl>«>t  i  T 
Reichenau  838.  He  was  driven  from  his  post  by  I^mis  th** 
German  840,  but  restored  842.  He  died  while  cros.».ing  tli^* 
Loire,  Aug.  18,  849.  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer.  Hi^ 
principal  work,  the  so-called  Glossa  ordinaria,  is  a  \\nz*^ 
exegetical  compilation,  the  oldest  printed  edition  of  whi.  h 
— without  date  and  place,  but  about  1480— comprises  fr.iir 
volumes  in  folio.  It  was  for  several  centuries  the  priniii«l 
source  and  the  highest  authority  of  biblical  science  in  th** 
Latin  Church,  being  in  use,  indeed,  to  the  seventeenth  ttn- 
tury.  His  De  exordiis  et  incrementis  rerum  ee-clejiiastirannu, 
printed  in  Hittorp's  De  officiis  divinis  (Cologne,  1568),  and  in 
several  later  editions,  best  by  A.  Knoepfler  (Munich,  1890).  i-^ 
an  interesting  handbook  in  ecclesiastical  archaH>]ogy.  T<> 
him  we  owe  tne  authentic  lives  of  St.  Gall  (ed.  R.  Shute.  St. 
Gall,  1890)  and  St.  Othmar.  He  was  a  poet  and  not  a  nien> 
monastic  rhymer.  The  most  curious  of  his  poems  is  his  Vit^it/n 
of  Wettin,  which  relates  his  journey  to  hell,  purgatory.  an«i 
paradise.  He  has  the  hardihood  to  introduce  Charlemairric 
m  purgatory  suffering  for  his  incontinence.  Another  jk«mu. 
ana  perhaps  his  best,  is  Hortulus,  upon  the  plants  in  th>* 
convent  garden.  See  his  works  in  Migne,  Pdt.  Lot.,  cxiii.. 
cxiv.,  and  his  i)oems  separately  in  DQmmler,  Pbet,  Lot.  <fn 
Carolini  IL,  259-473.  Samuel  Macauley  Jacksos. 

Strachej,  Willum:  historian;  b.  in  England  aU>i  t 
1585 ;  was  the  first  secretary  to  the  colony  of  Virginia  16 H^- 
12,  having  been  shipwrecked  on  the  Bermudas  1609  x^'vh 
Gates,  Somers,  and  ri ewport ;  wrote  A  True  Reportory  (> ' 
the  Wracke  and  Redemption  of  Sir  Ttiomas  Gates,  «/>.'• 
and  from  the  Islands  of  the  Bermudas,  in  Purcha*fi  i'»/- 
grims  (vol.  iv.,  lib.  ix.,cap.  vi.).  upon  which  Shakespeare  mj- 
pears  to  have  drawn  in  his  description  of  a  storm  in  tl.^- 
Tempest — an  inference  strengthened  by  the  reference  in  tht 
same  drama  to  the  **  still- vexSi  Bermoothes  " ;  compiled  F  r 
the  Colony  in  Virginia  Britannia,  Lawes  Divine,  MornV, 
and  Martiall  (London,  4to,  1612) ;  and  was  author  of  //»•»- 
torie  of  Travaile  info  Virginia  Britannia,  written  as  earl) 
as  1618,  and  first  published  by  the  Hakluyt  Society  from  an 
original  MS.  (No.  6, 1849)  under  the  editorship  oi  Riihani 
II.  Major — a  quaint  and  valuable  work  which  supplieiii  tht- 
means  of  correcting  the  false  details  of  the  early  nistory  ..f 
Jamestown  (especially  in  relation  to  Pocaliontas)  which  ha^o 
been  so  often  repeated  upon  the  authority  of  Capt.  .1«  h'l 
Smith.  Strachey  proiected  a  larger  work,  of  which  thi>  ^  <•;- 
ume  forms  but  "  the  first  and  second  books  of  the  first  d'  •  - 
ade."  The  time  and  place  of  his  death  are  unknown.  >«••■ 
A  History  of  American  Literature,  by  Moses  Coit  Tvl^r 
(1878),  vol.  i.,  pp.  41-45.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Stradlva'rins,  Antonio  :  maker  of  musical  instrunuMits: 
b.  at  Cremona,  Italy,  in  1644;  learned  the  art  of  makn.:: 
violins  and  other  siring  instruments  from  Nicolo  Aniati. 
under  whom  he  worked  for  several  years;  in  1668  be^ran  ii» 
make  violins  marked  with  his  own  signature,  and  b^  iK'^^n>  - 
not  only  rivaled  but  even  outshone  his  master.  Ills  lit*^t  :ti- 
struments  were  made  in  the  period  between  1700  and  17'J'». 
and  command  from  $1,000  to  |3,000.    D.  Dec.  17,  17:i7. 

Strafford,  Thomas  Wentworth,  Earl  of:  minister  -f 
Charles  I.;  b.  in  London.  Apr.  13,  1593;  studie<l  at  I'.tii- 
bridge;  traveled  on  the  Continent;  sat  in  Parliament,  at <i 
was  at  first  active  in  opposition  to  the  court,  though  unwili- 
ing  to  go  to  radical  lengths,  and  had  no  sym|>athy  wit  h  i'  •' 
religious  policy  of  the  rarlianient.  In  1628  he  went  t»ver  i* 
the  king's  side ;  was  created  Baron  Wentworth,  IhtMi  vi- 
count.  lord  president  of  the  council  of  the  North,  a  prw 
councilor  in  1629,  and  lord  deputy  of  Ireland  in  1683.  U< 
rule  in  Ireland  was  harsh  and  despotic,  aiming  at  the  e>t..;  - 
lishment  of  his  system  of  "  thorough  "  or  the  absolute*  |m.w.  r 
of  the  king,  and  he  acquired  the  designation  of  **  the  %k  ii  k-  . 
earl.*'  In  Jan.,  1640.  he  was  createti  Earl  of  St  rati.,  n. 
and  soon  afterward  j>repared  an  army  in  Ireland  to  h)'i 
against  the  Scots.  I  pon  his  return  to  England  hv  si.j- 
norted  the  harshest  measures  of  the  crown.  The  fani.  •- 
Long  Parliament  convened  Nov.  3, 1640,  and  within  ci^.:  i 


-Iill'iilivr>ll| 


inn*wnrf 


(72 


STRATEGY 


STRATHCLYDE 


Church  are  also  noticeable.  A  German  university  was  opened 
May  1, 1872,  and  numerous  educational  and  benevolent  in- 
stitutions exist.  Commerce  and  industry  flourish  in  conse- 
quence of  the  favorable  situation  on  the  river.  Important  to- 
bacco-factories are  in  operation,  numerous  breweries,  printing 
establishments,  oil  and  saw  mills,  wool-spinning  establish- 
ments, manufactures  of  oilcloth,  straw  hats,  gloves,  paper- 
hangings,  chocolate,  mustard,  goose-liver  pies,  soap,  candles, 
chemicals,  musical  instruments,  furniture,  jewelry,  etc.  The 
cultivation  of  vegetables,  fruits,  and  flowers  is  considerable. 
Under  French  dominion  the  city  had  a  strong  bastioned 
circumvallation,  but  since  it  has  become  part  of  the  Ger- 
man empire  a  new  system  of  fortification  has  been  applied, 
consisting  of  a  number  of  large,  strong  forts  surrounding  the 
inner  fortifications,  so  that  an  army  can  encamp  between 
the  city  and  the  forts,  while  the  city  is'entirely  protected  from 
the  enemy's  fire  bv  the  outer  forts. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  Strassburg  was  one  of  the  most 
powerful  free  cities  of  the  German  empire,  and  during  the 
})eriotl  of  the  Reformation  it  played  a  prominent  part  as  one 
of  the  centers  of  the  Protestant  movement.  Sept.  80, 1681, 
Ijouis  XIV.  captured  it,  and  by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  he 
retained  it.  It  continued,  however,  a  completely  German 
city  down  to  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  when  French  grad- 
ually gained  the  ascendency.  By  the  Peace  of  Frankfort 
(1871)  it  returned  to  Germany,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  civil 
and  military  government  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  Pop.  (1890) 
123,500.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Strat'egy  [from  Gr.  <rrparriyla,  office  of  a  general,  deriv. 
of  arpemry^s,  general ;  trrparis,  army  +  iytuf,  lead]  :  that 
branch  of  the  art  of  war  wnich  has  for  its  object  the  initia- 
tion and  conduct  of  wars,  campaigns,  and  battles  in  such  a 
manner  as  (1)  to  take  advantage  of  all  available  means  for 
securing  success,  and  (2)  to  cause  the  greatest  benefits  to 
result  from  victory  and  the  least  injury  from  defeat.  The 
scope  of  strategy  was  formerly  considered  as  restricted  to 
the  movements  of  organized  armies  after  they  were  placed 
in  the  field  and  before  they  came  within  cannon-range  of 
the  enemy.  Modern  wars,  however,  are  conducted  on  so 
grand  a  scale  and  with  such  rapidity  that  they  involve  all 
the  functions  of  a  government,  and  aefinite  plans  for  their 
•conduct  must  be  prepared  in  advance.  Consequently  ques- 
tions of  statesmanship  and  diplomacy  are  frequently  the 
leailing  factors  in  planning  campaigns  and  battles,  and  thus 
l>ecome  strictly  strategical  considerations.  The  domain  of 
strategy  must  therefore  be  extended  to  include  the  methods 
of  organizing  and  stationing  active  armies  and  reserves  so 
that  without  unintentionally  threatening  or  irritating  neigh- 
boring countries  they  can  be  immediately  mobilized  for  cam- 
paign when  necessary.  Financial  and  commercial  consider- 
ations have  the  greatest  possible  weight  in  this  connection, 
and  frequently  fix  the  time  for  beginning  hostilities  and  de- 
termine the  plan  of  campaign.  In  a  country  with  a  popular 
government,  in  order  to  arouse  enthusiasm  and  lead  the  peo- 
ple to  make  necessary  sacrifices,  strategy,  as  defined  above, 
sometimes  requires  a  plan  of  campaign  which,  under  other 
circumstances,  might  not  be  desiraole. 

An  army  in  campaign  seeks  to  obtain  possession  of  some 
point  which  is  known  as  its  objective,  which  is  selected  with 
a  view  to  the  injury  infiicted  upon  the  enemy  by  its  loss,  and 
the  advantages  resulting  from  its  capture.  The  first  may  be 
material,  moral,  or  political ;  the  second  generally  consist  in 
facilities  for  further  advance,  better  communications,  and 
greater  ease  in  supplving  the  army.  Hence  objectives  are 
frequently  capitals,  large  commercial  or  manufacturing 
cities,  arsenals,  river  crossings,  or  railway  centers. 

The  base  of  operations  is  that  part  of  a  country  from 
which  an  army  draws  its  supplies.  The  portion  of  country 
between  the  armv  and  its  base  which  contains  the  railways, 
wagon-roatis,  and  water-routes,  bv  which  the  army  advances 
and  receives  its  supplies,  is  called  its  line  of  operations  or  its 
communications.  Since  the  combatants  of  an  army  can  not 
be  expected  to  carry  with  them  more  ammunition,  provi- 
sions, etc.,  than  are  needed  for  one  battle,  the  necessity  for 
securing  its  line  of  operations  from  being  broken  is  mani- 
fest. Strategical  movements  very  frequently  are  directed 
with  a  view  to  threatening  the  enemy's  communications 
and  protecting  one's  own. 

A  large  army  covering  a  very  extended  front  may,  bv  a 
skillful  attack.'have  one  wing  destroyed  before  the  other 
can  come  to  its  support.  To  accomplish  or  prevent  this  is 
another  problem  in  strategy  of  frec|uent  application.  Simi- 
lar problems  arise  when  a  small  but  concentrated  army  tries 


to  beat  in  detail  the  parts  of  a  larger  one  which  attempt^  u. 
concentrate  u|>on  a  point  at  or  near  that  occupied  by  r.M 
smaller  force,  and  also  in  raancpuvering  to  strike  a  h<>M:.i 
force  in  flank,  in  the  larger  or  even  in  the  smaller  o^cm- 
tions  of  war. 

The  guiding  principles  of  strategy  consist  in  so  coniiu't- 
ing  the  preliminary  operations  and  movements  as  t<>  f<r.  .• 
the  enemy  to  fight  at  a  disadvantage  either  in  numlH*r>.  m 
position,  or  in  tTie  relative  results  which  will  follow  victnrv 
or  defeat  The  best  strategical  combinations,  however,  will 
not  secure  victory  unless  supplemented  by  the  proper  han- 
dling of  the  troops  in  the  battle,  which  is  the  climax  of  niili- 
tary  operations  and  which  is  the  field  of  Tactics  (q.  v.). 

The  principles  of  strategy  are  best  studied  in  the  eriiiral 
histories  of  the  campaigns  of  great  leaders.  See  also  tl^ 
Commentaries  of  Napoleon  ;  Hamley*8  Operations  of  Wnr. 
Jomini  and  Clausewitz  on  the  Art  of  War,  La  Strafigie 
Appliquh  Fixe,  etc.  James  Mercir. 

Stratford :  town ;  in  the  county  of  Essex,  England ;  on 
the  Lea ;  4  miles  K.  N.  E.  of  London  (see  map  of  Engiu:itl. 
ref.  12-nJ).  It  has  a  fine  town-hall  (1869),  several  breweri.-N. 
and  manufactories  of  chemicals  and  carriages.  Pop.  (1*<1»1 
42,982.  On  the  other  side  of  the  Lea  is  the  parish  of  Strat- 
ford-le-Bow.    Pop.  (1891)  40,378. 

Stratford:  post-village;  capital  of  Perth  County,  ni- 
tario,  Canada ;  on  the  river  Avon,  at  the  crossing  of  (iranil 
Trunk  Railway  and  its  Buffalo  and  Goderich  Division  i>*^ 
map  of  Ontario,  ref.  4-C).  It  has  extensive  repair-shopi?.  a 
fine  railway-station,  good  water-power,  extensive  manufac- 
tures, and  a  town-hall.  It  is  an  inland  jwrt  of  entry.  P«'p. 
(1891)  9,501. 

Stratford  de  Redcllife,  Stratford  Caxnixg.  ViscH>nhr : 
diplomatist ;  b.  in  London,  Nov.  4, 1 786 :  was  educrat^frl  at 
Eton  and  Cambridge;  in  1807,  while  still  an  undergni<!.i- 
ate,  received  diplomatic  appointments  and  did  not  take  \\> 
degree  till  1812.  In  1814  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  Swi'/- 
erland,  in  1820  on  a  special  mission  to  the  U.  S.,  in  1824  !•• 
Russia,  and  in  1825  as  ambassador  to  Turkey.  Diplomat  .c 
intercourse  having  been  interrupted  by  the  naval  battle  <'f 
Xavarino,  he  returned  to  England  and  subsequently  sat  in 
Parliament  for  Government  Doroughs  until  1842,  when  he 
was  again  sent  as  ambassador  to  Turkey,  retaining  that  \n>- 
sition  till  1858,  during  which  time  his  influence  at  the  Otto- 
man court  was  very  great,  and  always  exercised  in  fayor  "f 
reforms,  especially  those  involving  the  amelioration  t»f  thr 
condition  of  the  Christian  population  of  Turkey.  The  ni«t>t 
interesting  point  of  his  whole  career  was  the  contest  bt^^i  wt-^n 
him  and  Prince  Menchikoff,  in  1853.  The  question  «*- 
whether  British  or  Russian  influence  should  prevail  in  (  «u- 
stantinople — or,  rather,  whether  Russia  should  be  alU'^tii 
to  settle  the  future  destinies  of  Turkey  to  her  own  ad^^v!^- 
tage  and  without  paying  any  regard  to  the  views  of  ih- 
other  European  powers.  The  keenly  contested  di^doniati- 
struggle  between  Lord  Stratford  and  the  Russian  aniliH-v^- 
dor  extraordinary — the  result  of  which  was  the  Crirn.ar. 
war — is  narrated  with  dramatic  power  by  Mr.  King^lake  n 
his  Invasion  of  the  Crimea.  Canning  was' raised  to  t  he  jh*.  r- 
age  in  1852  by  the  title  of  Viscount  Stratford  de  RtHh-ln!..-. 
and  ma<le  Knight  of  the  Garter  in  1869.  He  publisht-ii  ,i! 
essav.  Why  am  la  Christian f  (1873),  and  a  drama,  Ahf-^ 
the  'Great  in  Athelney  (1876).  D.  Aug.  15,  1880.  See-  h.- 
Life,  by  Stanley  Lane-Poole  (1888). 

Stratford-on-ATon :  town ;  in  Warwickshire,  Englan-I : 
8  miles  S.  W.  of  Warwick ;  on  the  Avon,  which  is  here  en  nvMii 
by  a  bridge  with  fourteen  arches  built  in  the  fifteenth  *•«  ri- 
tiiry  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  10-11).  The  house  in  ^!ii.  i. 
Shakspeare  was  born  is  still  preservctl ;  that  in  which  he  tli-i 
has  been  razed.  The  former,  which  is  a  Shakspeare  Mus«m.m.. 
and  Anne  Hat  ha  way's  cottage,  are  national  pn)pert  y.  T*  * 
parish  church  is  a  cruciform  structure  rebuilt  li{32-150<l.  ii. 
the  chancel,  restored  1890-92,  Shaksj)eare  was  buried.  V*'\ . 
(1891)  8,318. 

Strathclyde' :  an  inde^iendent  kingdom  formed  \w  <*  u*  •»- 
western  Scotland  at  the  dissolution  of  the  ancient  Briini.sr.- 
confederacy,  and  consisting  chiefly,  as  its  name  in)p*»rt.N.  .  :' 
the  broad  valley  or  dale  of  Clyde. '  The  capital  was  th*-  i-  r- 
tn'ss  of  Alclyde,  now  Dumbarton.  The  annals  of  its  s.'\tr- 
eigns  are  involved  in  deep  obscurity,  little  more  than  il-.  •" 
names  being  known.  It  fell  to  the  crown  of  Scotland  v.r.  "^ 
in  the  twelfth  century,  was  heM  for  some  years  by  Prn  •• 
David  as  an  independent  kingdom,  and  was  pornmntMiiiji 
united  to  Scotland  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  in  1124. 


^^B|^tlitt*f«^^'  '  *  tih*  i«>i'iif  tfiiii-t'  ^^  *f*^            ^ 

j^H 

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M^^^^^^^^^H 

^^^^^^^^^Ki                                                                    Linu 

1 

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774: 


STRAW   AND  ITS  MANUFACTURES 


Main,  the  Leben  und  Schriften  des  Dichiera  und  Phihlogen 
Nikodemus  Frischlin,  representing  the  German  culture  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  In  1857  he  produced  at  Leipzig  in 
a  more  important  work,  the  Life  of  Ulrich  vofi  Hutten  (2 
vols.;  an  abridged  ed.  1871;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1874), 
prepared  for  Booking's  edition  of  Hutt«n*s  works;  and  in 
1860  a  volume  of  Hutten's  Converaaiions.  It  was  here  first 
that  he  so  highly  eulogized  and  vindicated  the  German 
nationality,  whicli  he  afterward  advocated  in  such  a  brill- 
iant style  in  his  correspondence  with  Renan,  Krieg  und 
Friede  (1870).  In  1862  he  revived  the  memory  of  a  Ger- 
man rationalist  of  high  critical  attainments — a  forerunner 
of  Leasing — Hermann  Samuel  Reimanis.  These  and  other 
literary  and  biographical  works,  all  wrought  out  with  aes- 
thetic 'care,  added  to  his  reputation  for  general  scholar- 
ship. In  1864  he  returned  to  theology  in  the  attempt  at 
writing  another  life  of  Christ  under  the  title  Daa  Leben 
Jesu  fur  dcM  deutuche  Volk  bearbeitet  (Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1865).  The  school  of  Baur  of  TQbingen  and  the  progress  of 
historical  criticism  had  effectually  supplanted  the  mythical 
theory  of  Strauss's  first  Leben  Jeau,  His  object  in  the  sec- 
ond work  is,  in  general,  to  show  what  remains  of  Christ  for 
the  people  after  German  criticism  has  had  its  full  course ; 
and  he  still  grants  that  "  Christianity  is  a  moral  and  spirit- 
ual power  in  the  earth  " ;  that  "  we  can  not  do  without  it, 
nor  can  it  be  lost " ;  that  Jesus  "  stands  foremost  among 
those  who  have  given  a  higher  ideal  to  humanity."  In  1865 
he  reviewed  Schleiermacher's  Life  of  Christ  then  first  pub- 
lished, in  a  work  entitled  Der  Christus  des  Olaubens  und 
der  Jesus  der  Oeschichte  (Berlin).  In  1866,  under  the  title 
Die  Halben  und  die  Oamen,  he  criticises  the  semi-ration- 
alistic theology  of  Schenkel  even  more  severely  than  he 
does  the  unbending  orthodoxv  of  Hengstenberg.  His  essays 
on  Voltaire  (Leipzig,  1870 ;  Sd  ed.  1872)  were  prepared  for 
the  Princess  Alice,  and  are  praised  for  their  critical  skill 
and  elegant  diction  as  standing  by  the  side  of  Goethe's 
Wahrheit  und  Dichtung.  His  last  work,  Der  alte  und  der 
neue  Glauben,  ein  Bekenntniss,  appeared  in  Oct.,  1872.  It 
is  intended  to  give  the  result  of  his  life's  thought  and  work. 
It  rapidly  went  through  seven  editions  in  Germany,  was  pub- 
lished in  French,  and  in  an  English  version  by  Mathilde  Blind 
in  London  and  in  New  York  Fl873). 

Strauss  founded  no  school,  either  in  philosophy  or  the- 
ology. He  was  a  critic,  learned,  sagacious,  yet  without  any 
well-defined  ultimate  system.  His  life  is  a  refiex  of  the 
most  extreme  anti-Christian  theory  of  human  life.  He  be- 
i;an  as  an  idealist  and  ended  as  a  materialist.  He  gave  up 
his  early  Hegelian  pantheism  to  the  latest  theory  of  athe- 
istic evolution.  D.  at  Ludwlgsburg  of  cancer,  after  long 
and  patient  suffering.  Feb.  8,  1874,  and  was  burietl,  by  his 
own  direction,  without  anv  church  service.  His  Gesam- 
melte  Schrifteti,  edited  bv  fe.  Zeller,  appeared  at  Bonn  (12 
vols.,  1876-78).  See  his  Life,  by  E.  Zeller  (Bonn,  1874 :  Eng. 
trans..  London,  1874),  and  by  A.  Hausrath  (2  vols.,  Heidel- 
berg, 1876-78).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Straw  and  its  Mannfactnres  [straw  is  O.  Eng.  streaw  : 
O.  H.  Germ,  stroh,  >  Mo<i.  Germ,  sfroh^  connected  with 
afreuen,  Eng.  strew] :  The  stalk  or  stem  of  certain  grains, 
chiefly  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  and  buctkwheat,  and  some- 
timesof  peas  and  beans, called  straw,  finds  large  use  in  the 
manufacture  of  textile  fabrics,  paper,  and  braid  for  hats  and 
trimmings.  Originally,  the  employment  of  straw  was  one  of 
the  primitive  arts,  and  it  is  still  practiced  among  the  rudest 
tribes  known.  Mats  for  sleeping  on  are  perhaps  the  earliest 
objects  that  were  made  from  straw.  Baskets  and  bags  of 
braided  straw  are  still  common  among  many  aboriginal  peo- 
ples. Those  made  in  the  South  Sea  islands  are  so  close  in 
texture,  though  quite  flexible,  as  to  be  impervious  to  water, 
and  are  used  to  carry  liquids.  A  higher  uevelopment  of  the 
art  is  shown  in  the  so-called  Panama  hats  and  cigar-cases 
that  are  made  in  South  and  Central  America  from  the  straw 
of  the  Carludovica  palmata.  The  leaves  of  this  plant,  which 
resemble  a  palm,  are  gathered  before  they  unfold,  and,  after 
the  ribs  and  coarser  veins  have  bi»en  removed,  are  cut  into 
shreds.  These  are  exposed  to  the  sun  and  then  tied  into  a 
knot  and  immersed  in  boiling  water  until  they  bec^ome  white, 
when  they  are  hung  up  in  the  shade  and  afterward  bleached. 
The  finest  of  these  Panama  hats  take  several  months  to  make, 
and  come  from  Ecuador,  while  commoner  kinds  are  made 
in  a  few  days.  In  certain  of  the  U.  S..  as  Florida  and  Geor- 
gia, a  domestic  straw  from  some  varieties  of  hair  grass  was 
formerly  used  in  making  women's  hats.  Other  uses  to  which 
straw  in  its  natural  state  is  put  include  its  employment  as 


littering  in  stables;  as  fodder;  as  filh'ng  for  mattresses:  .is 
thatching  for  roofs :  as  packing  material  for  delicate  art  id*-*, 
such  as  crockery,  glass,  etc. ;  as  bottle-covers ;  as  5taffin»r.  a* 
in  saddles;  as  **  straws"  infancy  drinks;  as  sandals:  foriI*-<- 
oration  and  ornamentation,  as  in  kindergarten  work ;  or  fan«T 
straw  frames  and  baskets.  Its  use  as  a  fuel  has  been  sult- 
gest«d  in  the  event  of  the  coal-supplies  becoming  exhaust*  ti. 
It  is  the  filler  from  the  straw  of  the  flax  plant  that  is  larg*)  v 
used  in  the  making  of  linen.  The  most  important  applii-atif  ii 
of  straw  is  probably  in  paper-making.  The  eruae  stravv  •* 
cut  and  put  into  vats  with  lime.  It  is  then  cooked  and  work«>il 
into  pulp  in  a  beating-machine.  This  pulp  is  run  off  in  h 
web  machine  into  straw-paper,  used  in  wrapping,  etc.,  or  ir.t. . 
straw-board,  used  in  maKing  boxes,  etc  When  bleache<l  it 
is  white.  The  tissue-paper  used  in  the  making  of  cigarettt-^ 
is  commonly  made  from  straw.  The  rye  straw  yields  ihv 
best  qualities  of  paper.  In  the  form  of  braid,  straw  is  lartre- 
ly  used  in  the  making  of  hats,  and  as  trimming  in  millin- 
ery. Straw  hats  were  worn  by  the  Romans,  but  the  mthis- 
try  remained  in  a  primitive  condition  until  toward  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is  said  that  Mary,  Queen  ^*{ 
Scots,  engaged  a  company  of  Lorraine  straw-pl&iters  to  re- 
turn with  her  to  Scotland  in  order  to  instruct  her  eountrv- 
women  in  their  art ;  and  thus  **  was  the  first  straw-bat  manu- 
factory established  in  Scotland  under  the  kind  auspices  of 
a  female  sovereign  of  eighteen."  Notwithstanding  her  in- 
ability to  care  for  the  little  colony  she  brought  from  France, 
they  struggled  on  until  her  son  James  became  Kine  of  Eti<:- 
land,  and  then  they  were  transferred  to  Luton,  Bedfordshire. 
England.  In  Italy  the  chief  seat  of  the  industry  wa^  in 
Tuscany,  and  the  Leghorn  hats  have  acquired  a  high  reputa- 
tion. A  grand  ducfu  decree  of  1575  enumerates  the  dealer^ 
in  straw  hats  among  the  Tuscan  traders  liable  to  a  matric  u- 
lation  tax :  but.  according  to  a  monumental  inscription  in 
the  Church  of  San  Miniato  at  Signa,near  Florence,  Seliaiiti- 
ano  Michelacci  di  Bologna,  who  died  in  1739,  was  the  fir>t 
to  export  straw  hats  to  England,  and  he  is  hence  regard*! I 
as  the  founder  of  this  branch  of  national  commerce.  In 
Italy,  as  the  making  of  straw  plaits  grew,  certain  straws, 
raetliods  of  treatment,  and  patterns  gave  rise  to  characteri*t  u 
varieties  of  bonnets  with  special  braids,  as  the  Tuscan  atui 
Leghorn  hats  which  were  typical  and  fashionable.  For(-i^^l 
wars  prevented  their  importation  into  England,  and  th** 
Dunstable  bonnet  of  home  manufacture  was  the  result,  t  'n 
the  restoration  of  peace  unplaited  straws,  imported  fn'm 
Tuscany,  resulted  in  the  Tuscan  grass  bonnet,  one  of  which  wn> 
publicly  worn  by  Queen  Adelaide,  Thus  the  industry,  ori^'i- 
nally  that  of  the  finished  product,  passed  in  England  into  fue 
where  various  straws,  lx)th  native  and  imported  were  mami- 
factured  into  the  desired  article.  This  result  was  some^  hat 
due  to  the  efforts  of  the  British  Society  of  Arts,  which  nuuw 
great  efforts  to  sustain  the  industry.  In  1822  it  awanifi 
a  silver  medal  and  twenty  guineas"  to  Miss  Sophia  Wo.^!- 
house,  of  Connecticut,  for  a  new  material  for  fine  plaits,  iIm' 
Poa  pratensia,  then  supposed  to  be  equal  to  the  Italian  ^t  mvf 
for  making  fine  straws.  For  some  time  the  industry  ha<i 
been  in  existence  in  the  U.  S.,  and  the  first  straw  bonritt 
braided  in  the  U.  S.  is  said  to  have  been  made  in  IVJs  l.y 
Miss  Betsey  Metcalf,  of  Providence,  R,  L,  but  the  intlusiry 
has  followed  the  practice  of  Great  Britain,  and  now  the  cm.  it- 
braid  is  chiefiy  imported  and  made  up  into  the  vHri.ii> 
finished  products  as  hats  (of  which  there  are  103factorit>  in 
the  U.  S.  and  Canada).  The  principal  sources  of  the  stniw 
imported  into  the  U.  S.  are  Cnina,  Italy,  England,  Switz^r- 
land,  Germany,  Japan,  Belgium,  and  France.  For  bmi.i- 
wheat  straw  is  preferred,  but  rye  straw  has  longer  stems  him 
can  be  braided  into  more  delicate  and  even  tissues.  It  in 
however,  less  durable,  and  does  not  wash  as  well  as  wht-nr. 
In  Tuscany  the  preferred  straw  is  from  a  variety  of  sprir'j: 
wheat,  thickly  sown,  best  on  a  sandy,  hilly  ground,  in  Vvl- 
ruary  or  March,  according  to  season' and  local  climate,  ai.il 
harvested  by  pulling  the  bearded  wheat  while  the  ear  is  in  a 
soft  milky  state.  The  straw  is  left  spread  upon  clean  ground 
or  grass  for  some  days  for  the  sake  of  the  action  of  the  dew 
in  bleaching  it;  it  is*  then  gathered  into  sheaves,  from  whi.  h 
the  laborers  draw  out  the  stalks,  breaking  them  at  the  joint* 
and  breaking  off  the  heads.  They  are  then  sorted  by  a 
species  of  sieve  composed  generally  of  sixteen  tin  plaii-^ 
pierced  with  holes  and  briskly  moved  by  a  wheel.  They  arv 
then  plaited  and,  if  for  straw  hats,  are'shippe<l  in  bales  •►( 
240  pieces  of  50  meters  each.  English  straws  are  made  int*'' 
lengths  of  20-yard  pieces,  although  sometimes  14  and  12 
yard  pieces  are  made.  Originally,  the  "  whole  straw  "  wa* 
used  m  plaiting,  but  in  England  the  splitting  of  the  straw 


776 


STREET-RAILWAYS 


STRENGTH  OP  MATERIALS 


local  passenger  traffic.  The  first  application  of  the  railway 
to  the  facilitation  of  short-distance  passenger  traffic  in  towiis 
was  made  by  John  Stephenson  in  New  York  in  1831.  A 
track  of  flat  iron  bars  spiked  to  timbers  resting  on  stone 
blocks  was  laid  on  the  Bowery  and  Fourth  Avenue  from 
Prince  Street  to  the  Harlem  riVer.  An  omnibus  car,  with 
flanged  wheels  and  built  in  three  compartments  entered 
from  the  side  and  each  holding  ten  persons,  and  with  seats 
on  the  roof  for  thirty  more  pf^sengers,  was  drawn  by  horses. 
Commercially  this  enterprise  was  not  successful,  and  was 
abandoned  after  four  years,  but  was  resumed  in  1845  with 
cars  of  the  form  used  at  present,  entered  from  the  ends. 
In  1852,  the  Second,  Third,  Sixth,  and  Eighth  Avenue  lines 
in  New  York  were  begun.  Boston  began  the  construction 
of  horse-car  lines  in  1856,  Philadelphia  in  1857,  and  New 
Orleans  in  1861,  using  for  the  first  time  the  one-horse  small 
car  usually  known  as  the  **  bob-tail."  In  France  a  line  was 
constructed  in  Paris  in  1853.  In  Great  Britain  George  Fran- 
cis Train,  after  three  years  of  earnest  endeavor,  succeeded 
in  1860  in  building  a  road  at  Birkenhead  and  one  in  London, 
which  was  removed  in  a  few  months,  and  not  until  1870  were 
horse-cars  permitted  in  that  city.  In  1866  a  number  of  horse- 
car  lines  were  built  in  South  America. 

The  passage  of  the  General  Tramways  Act  by  Parliament 
in  1870  gave  an  impetus  to  street-railway  construction  in 
Great  Britain,  and  during  the  following  twelve  years  671 
miles  of  lines  were  laid. 

In  1894  there  were  in  operation  in  the  U.  S.  12,500  miles 
of  street-railway  track,  in  the  United  Kin^om  1,000  miles, 
and  on  the  continent  of  Europe  1,200  miles.  There  were 
also  lines  in  Africa,  Japan,  Australia,  New  Zealand  and 
Ceylon,  and  South  America. 

Prior  to  1873  all  street-cars  were  drawn  by  horses.  In 
that  year  Andrew  Hallidie  constructed  a  road  in  San  Fran- 
cisco,' Cal.,  on  which  the  motive  power  was  provided  by  a 
stationary  steam-engine  which  drove  a  drum,  around  which 
passed  an  endless  wire  cable  which  was  carried  in  pulleys  in 
a  conduit  underneath  the  surface  of  the  street  on  which  the 
rails  were  laid.  Through  a  slot  in  the  top  of  the  conduit  a 
flat  bar  passed  from  the  car  to  the  cable,  fitted  with  appa- 
ratus for  grasping  the  cable  tightly  or  releasing  it  at  will, 
which  could  oe  controlled  from  the  car.  After  several 
years  of  successful  operation  of  this  mode  of  propulsion  in 
San  Francisco,  it  was  introduced  in  Chicago  in  1881,  in 
Philadelphia  in  1883,  on  the  Brooklyn  bridge  in  the  same 
year,  on  Tenth  Avenue  and  125th  Street  in  New  York  in 
1886,  and  on  Broadway  and  Third  Avenue  in  1894,  and  in 
Baltimore  in  1893.  A  cable  road  was  built  in  New  Zealand 
in  1883  and  one  in  London  in  1884.  In  1894  there  were  662 
miles  of  cable  road  in  operation  in  the  U.  S.,  and  20  miles 
in  England. 

The  first  commercially  successful  application  of  elec- 
tricity to  the  traction  of  street-cars  was  made  at  Lichter- 
felde,'  near  Berlin,  by  Siemens  and  Halske  in  1881.  On 
July  27,  1884,  the  first  operation  of  an  electrically  propelled 
line  in  direct  competition  with  horse-cars  was  fcegun  at 
Cleveland,  O.,  on  the  Bentley-Knight  system.  In  the  same 
year  the  first  practical  system  of  conveying  the  electricity 
from  wires  overhead  to  a  motor  on  the  car  by  a  trolley,  or 
small  grooved  pullev  on  the  end  of  a  flexible  pole  extend- 
ing above  the  roof  of  the  car,  was  made  in  Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Improvements  in  the  apparatus  made  by  Sprague  in  1888 
led  to  the  construction  of  the  first  installation  on  a  larce 
scale  of  an  electrically  propelled  street-car  system  at  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  in  that  year.  The  greater  economy  and  effi- 
ciency of  electric  roads  was  quickly  recognized,  so  that 
while  in  1888  there  were  89  miles  of  roads  so  operated, 
there  were  in  1894  9,008  miles  in  the  U.  S.  and  195  miles  in 
Europe.  For  description  of  the  system,  see  Electric  Rail- 
ways. 

In  1881  Mekarski  applied  compressed  air  with  success  as 
a  motive  power  to  street  cars  at  Nantes,  France,  and  the 
same  method  has  since  been  applied  in  Paris  and  in  Berne, 
Switzerland. 

The  desire  for  more  rapid  transit  between  distant  points 
in  large  towns  than  is  safe  in  a  street  used  by  pedestrians 
and  vehicles  drawn  by  horses  has  led  to  the  construction  of 
lines  of  travel  above  and  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  first  effort  in  this  direction  was  in  London  in  Jan., 
1863,  when  a  3-mile  section  of  underground  railway  was 
opened  for  traffic.  Its  success  led  to  the  extensions  of  the 
line  until  1884,  when  15  miles  of  line  were  completed.  In 
Dec,  1890,  another  underground  road,  the  City  and  South 
London,  3  miles  long  and   operated    by  electricity,  was 


opened  for  travel.  In  Berlin  a  viaduct  carrying  railway 
tracks  above  the  street-level  for  7i  miles  through  the  «*nt**V 
of  the  city  was  opened  in  1882.  In  New  York  an  elevat»-d 
railway,  4  miles  long,  supported  on  columns  on  the  si<ii- 
walk  of  streets,  was  put  in  operation  in  June,  1869.  oiht- 
ated  by  a  cable.  This  was  unsuccessful,  and  locomotivt' 
engines  were  substituted  on  Apr.  9,  1871.  In  1877  aiidi- 
tional  lines  were  built,  until  in  1879  there  were  32*4  niil«^ 
in  operation  on  Manhattan  Island.  Between  1886  and  1h!H 
the  Suburban  Rapid  Transit  Railroad  was  built,  extendiii;; 
the  system  3*7  miles  N.  of  the  Harlem  river,  and  introduc- 
ing improved  methods  of  construction  and  heavier  n>llins; 
stock.  In  Brooklyn,  in  1885,  an  elevated  road  was  put  lii 
operation,  and  in  1895  there  were  25  miles  in  operation.  In 
1893  an  elevated  railway,  5  miles  long,  was  opened  in  Liver- 
pool, England,  operated  by  electricity. 

The  relative  cost  of  building  and  equipping  each  mile  of 
double-track  railway  for  the  different  methods  of  tract  ion. 
the  rate  of  speed  attained,  and  the  expense  of  running  a  car 
a  mile,  are  approximately  as  follows : 


MOTIVE  POWER. 

Oo^p^^fl..      ^^'^ 

Horses 

$71,000 
800,000 
115,000 
600,000 
1,600,000 

6 
10 
12 
18 
13 

18  cents 

Cable 

Electric  surface 

14      •* 

18 

Steam  elevated 

18      *• 

Underground 

15      " 

J.  J.  R.  Ceoe^. 

Streitbenr,  strit'barch,  Wilhelm:  comparative  philob»- 
gist ;  b.  at  KUdesheim,  Germany,  Feb.  23, 1864 ;  educalt-d 
at  the  gymnasium  in  Wiesbaden  and  at  the  University  of 
Leipzig ;'  decent  at  Leipzig  1889,  and  in  autumn  of  same 
year  Professor  of  Indo-European  Philology  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Freiburg  in  Switzerland.  He  is  one  of  the  most  air- 
gressive  of  the  younger  generation  of  comparative  philolo- 
gists. He  is  the  author  of  Die  Ahstufuihg  der  Su^xe  in 
und  ieu  im  Germaniacheh  (1888);  Perfective  und  tmft^rf. 
Adionsart im  Germ.  (1889);  Die  aerm. Komparativa  auf-i'i 
(1890);  Zur  germ.  Sprcuih^esehichte  {IS92);  Entstehung  d^r 
Dehnstufe  (1894);  joint  editor  with  K.  Bnigmann  of  hidog*-r- 
manische  Forschungen  since  1891,     Benj.  Ide  Wheeleil 

Strength  of  Materials :  the  resistance  of  materials  to 
forces  wnich  tend  to  change  their  form;  often  called  the 
elasticity  and  resistance  of  materials.  The  science  of  the 
strength  of  materials  is  sometimes  called  the  mechanics  of 
materials.  The  subject  is  partly  exf)erimental  and  partly 
theoretical,  the  experiments  fumishuig  the  fundamental 
facts,  while  the  application  of  theory  to  these  deduces  the 
rules  and  formulas  for  practical  use.  * 

The  materials  used  in  engineering  constructions  are  mon' 
or  less  elastic  when  the  applied  forces  are  not  too  great,  that 
is,  they  spring  back  to  their  original  form  upon  the  removal 
of  these  forces.  For  elastic  materials  it  is  found  that  iht* 
change  of  form  is  proportional  to  the  applied  force ;  this  law 
holds  until  a  point  called  the  elastic  limit  is  reached,  aft»r 
which  the  change  of  form  increases  more  rapidly  than  the 
force,  and  rupture  Onally  occurs.  It  is  a  fundamental  rule 
in  engineering  that  materials  should  not  be  strained  beycmd 
the  elastic  limit,  since  then  the  elasticity  is  impaired  and  a 
permanent  deformation  results. 

The  molecular  resistance  which  is  developed  by  an  ap- 
plied force  is  called  stress.  Stresses  are  tensile  when  the 
forces  tend  to  pull  a  body  apart,  compressive  when  they  teml 
to  crush  it,  and  shearing  when  they  tend  to  cut  it  across.  lu 
bending  a  beam  stresses  are  produced  often  called  flexural, 
but  they  can  always  be  resolved  into  those  of  tension,  com- 
pression, and  shear;  in  twisting  a  shaft  stresses  are  pro- 
duced often  called  torsional,  but  they  can  also  be  resolvetl 
into  the  three  kinds  of  simple  stress. 

Tension. — When  two  equal  forces  are  applied  at  opiK>site 
ends  of  a  bar  or  rod  a  tensile  stress  equal  to  one  of  the  lon'os 
is  produced  at  every  cross-section  of  the  bar.  If  P  be  th* 
intensity  of  each  of  the  forces  then  the  internal  stress  is  al-o 
P.  If  A  be  the  area  of  the  cross-section  of  the  bar  the  unit- 
stress  is  P-H  A,  and  this  is  represented  by  S.  Unit-stresst-< 
are  usually  expressed  in  pounds  per  square  inch  or  in  kili>- 
grammes  per  square  centimeter.  If  the  force  P  be  gradu- 
ally applied  the  unit-stress  S  also  gradually  increases,  and  is 
accompanied  by  an  elongation  of  the  bar.  When  P  is  largi' 
enough  to  cause  the  rupture  of  the  bar  the  unit-stress  *S  j> 
called  the  ultimate  tensile  strength  of  the  material.  The 
elastic  limit  is  reached  for  some  materials  when  the  unit- 


STRENGTH    OF  MATPIRIALS 


wt 


^truss  is  al)out  one-half  the  ultimate  strength;  when  S  is 
it  -s  than  this  elastic  limit  the  bar  springs  back  to  its  original 
i.  Mirth  u\Hm  the  removal  of  the  applied  forces:  when  it  is 
LTnaior  it  does  not  entirely  spring  back,  but  a  permanent  set 
n*  mains. 

If  /  be  the  original  length  of  the  bar  and  X  the  elongation 
pr.Miuce<l  at  any  stage  of  the  test,  X  -*-  /  is  the  unit-elonga- 
t  ioii.  Within  the  elastic  limit  the  ratio  of  the  unit-stress  to 
tho  unit-elongation  is  called  the  coetUcient  of  elasticity,  or 
--•iiu'iiines  the  mo<hilus  of  ehisticity.  Let  8  be  the  unit- 
ed' -ligation,  and  E  the  coefficient  of  elasticity  ;  then 

8         A\ 

.iikI  the  value  of  E  is  sensibly  a  constant  for  any  simultane- 
ous values  of  S  and  «,  provided  that  S  is  less  than  the  elastic 
.Hiiit. 

I'he  following  are  average  values  of  the  tensile  elastic 
limit,  ultimate  strength,  coefficient  of  elasticity,  as  also  the 
«1<. nidation  at  the  elastic  limit  and  the  ultimate  elongation, 
f»r  f»»ur  principal  materials  used  in  engineering: 


MATERIAL. 

POUKDS  PER  WJCARK   INCH. 

KLONOATION. 
PER  CENT. 

Elutie 
limit. 

Ultimate 
ttrength. 

Co^fflctent  or 
cUitidty. 

At  tUrtic          At 

Itmlt.     1    n]*un. 

Ti!ti*>er 

3.'WX)           lOJlOJl 

i.sno.ixw 

15.U)<).0()(1 
25.(MX».(KX) 

a),ox»,ux) 

0  20 

0  m 

0  10 
0  17 

rs 

<  avt  iron 

\Vr'»\i>fhl  iron 

SJ»*.-1 

6,(»()0 
25JKW 
50,(XX> 

20.(N)0 
55.(>«l0 
lOO.OlK) 

0-5 
25  0 
15  0 

TIm^c  values  are  subject  to  much  variation,  particularlv  for 
>n.^A.  which  may  range  from  60,000  to  300.000  lb.  per  s^juare 
:n«h  in  ultimate  strength.  Iron  wire  luvsan  ultimate  strength 
«'f  nearly  100,000  lb.  per  square  inch,  and  cast  iron  has  l>een 
made  with  a  tenacity  of  46.000  lb.  The  strongest  kinds  of 
timlK-r,  as  lx)x,  ash,  and  beech,  reach  nearly  20,000  lb.,  while 
wiaker  kinds,  like  f)oplar  and  white  pine,  may  be  only  4,000 
<»r  ."i.iXK)  lb.  per  square  inch  in  ultimate  strengtli. 

The  diagram  in  Fig.  1  gives  graphical  representations  of 
the  average  tensile  properties  of  these  four  materials.  The 
-tn'-^ses  jxir  square  inch  are  laid  off  as  ordi nates  and  the  per- 
c»  iitages  of  elongation  as  abscissas, and  for  any  point  on  one 
of  the  curves  the  approximate  values  of  these  two  quantities 
are  seen  by  insi^ection.    The  curve  for  each  material  is  a 


90  000 

>'-^^ 

1 

*?       M  AM) 

y 

= 

# 

/^ 

i  ^''**|     / 

i 

/ 

\voJi^^- — 

' 

^ 

p^ 

-     90000         ^ 

t    w.ooo 

lO.OOO 

l/^/ 

lb 

0 

p^ 

D                      1 

\               1 

PerCt 

Fi 

0                        1 

nt.  of  Elouf 
O.  1. 

5               a 

jaUon 

0                     2. 

^»  raJLdit  line  from  the  origin  until  the  elastic  limit  is  reached, 
tfj»'  unit -stresses  being  proportional  to  the  elongations.  At 
tfM"  ela-stic  limit  a  sudden  change  in  the  curve  is  note<l.  an<l 
tlu'ii  the  elontration  increases  more  rapidly  than  the  stress. 
Th*'  are^i  between  the  curve  and  the  base  is  a  measure  of  the 
w«»rk  n-quire<l  to  rupture  a  cubic  unit  of  the  material. 

A'>  the  elongation  of  a  bar  increases  under  tension  a  lat- 
.thI   c()ntracti(m  ensues,  the  unit-contraction  l)eiiig  alnrnt 

•  .ue-third  of  the  unit-elongation  until  the  maximum  si  renjrth 
1^  n»<hed,  and  then,  for  ductile  materials,  the  contraction 
irit  n*a.ses  very  rapidly  owing  to  the  flow  of  the  metal.  The 
H»n«»iint  of  ultimate  contraction  of  area.  whi<'h  often  atnounts 
!..  .">U  i»er  cent,  of  the  ori^rinal  area,  is  regarded  as  a  valuable 
ir«<l«x  r)f  ductility  and  toughness. 

( 'on»presifion. — The  phenonu^na  of  compression  are  similar 
♦<•  Tli<»e  of  tension,  provided  that  theehi>tic  limit  be  not  ex- 

•  •i«  'led,  and  that  the  length  of  the  bar  does  not  exceed  about 


five  times  its  least  diameter.  Rupture  usually  occurs  by 
cracking  and  shearing,  or  sometimes  by  lateral  bulging. 
The  following  are  average  values  of  the  comi)ressive  elastic 
limit,  ultimate  strength,  and  coefficient  of  elasticity  for  the 
six  principal  materials  used  in  engineering  constructions, 
all  in  pounds  f>er  squai'e  inch  : 


MATERIAL. 

ELutJc  limit. 

intimau 
>tr«iigth. 

Co«tf5rl«ii  of 
•UstliHy. 

Tlml)*^r 

8,000 

!W.(X»0 
60,000 

8.«)00 

6,(NiO 
90,UiO 

150.000 

1.500,000 

Brick 

Stone 

tf  Olio  Olio 

Cast  iron 

ir).(M>.u>o 

2.-».<XMI,(MH» 

3i».00<».00<J 

Wnmght  iron 

St4>el 

It  should  be  notetl  that  these  average  values  are  subject  to 
much  variation  in  different  Qualities  of  materials.  For  in- 
stance, the  strength  of  some  kinds  of  brick  may  be  as  low  a^j 
1,000  and  of  others  as  high  as  15.000  lb.  per  wjuare  inch  ; 
that  of  some  kinds  of  building-stones  may  be  as  high  as 
20,(KX)  lb.  Cast  steel  has  been  made  with  an  ultimate  com- 
pressive strength  of  nearly  400,000  lb.  ner  sciuare  inch.  The 
figures  given  hence  should  be  used  with  caution  in  particu- 
lar cases. 

When  the  length  of  a  bar  or  column  is  less  than  ten  times 
its  least  diameter  the  compressive  force  P  may  be  reganled 
as  uniforndy  distributed  over  the  cross-section  A,  so  that 
the  unit-stress  *S  is  simply  P-*-  A;  but  for  greater  lengths 
a  lateral  flexure  of  the  column  occurs  so  that  the  compres- 
sive stress  on  the  concave  side  is  greater  than  that  on  the 
convex  iide.  If  C  denote  the  greatest  unit-stress  on  the 
concave  side,  /  the  length  of  the  column,  r  the  least  radius 
of  gvration  of  the  cross-section,  then 

w'Ef^ 

in  which  S  is  the  mean  unit-stress  P -^  A,  and  n  is  a  num- 
ber dej)ending  on  the  arrangement  of  the  ends  of  the  column, 
being  1  when  both  ends  are  round,  4  when  one  end  is  round 
and  the  other  fixed,  and  \  when  both  ends  are  fixed. 

Shearing. — A  shearing  stress  occurs  whenever  two  e(jual 
forces,  acting  like  a  pair  of  shears,  tend  to  cut  a  bo<ly  ajmrt. 
When  a  hole  is  punclied  through  a  plate  the  ultimate  shear- 
ing strength  of  the  material  must  be  overcome  over  the  cy- 
lindrical surface  of  the  hole.  When  a  rivet  connects  two 
plates  that  are  in  tension  the  plates  tend  to  shear  the  rivet 
across. 

The  ultimate  shearing  strength  of  timber  is  about  3,000 
lb.  {KT  square  inch  across  the  grain  and  only  about  500  lb. 
parallel  with  the  grain  :  for  cast  iron  it  is  about  the  same  as 
the  t^'nsile  strength;  for  wrought  iron  and  steel  i>erhaps  one- 
fifth  less  than  the  tensile  strength.  Little  is  known  regarding 
the  elastic  limit  in  shearing,  but  the  coefficient  of  elasticity 
is  l)etween  one-half  and  one-third  of  that  for  direct  tension. 

A  shearing  stress  is  always  developed  in  an  ol)li(jue  scH'tion 
of  a  bar  which  is  subject  to  direct  tension  or  compn'ssion. 
If  .S'  be  the  tensile  or  compressive  unit-stress  the  maxinium 
shearing  unit-stress  is  |.S',  and  this  occurs  in  a  direction 
making  an  angle  of  45  degrees  v^ith  the  axis  t>f  the  bar. 
Shearing  stresses  also  occur  in  all  cases  of  the  bending  of 
beams  and  the  torsion  of  shafts. 

Working  Stresses. — The  unit-stresses  which  should  l)e 
used  in  the  design  of  structures  are  much  less  than  the  ulti- 
mate strength  of  the  material,  and  indeed  less  than  the  elas- 
tic limit.  The  ratio  of  the  ultimate  stn*ngth  to  the  working 
unit-stress  is  called  the  factor  of  safety,  a lul  the  following 
are  average  values  of  the  factors  of  safety  usually  employed 
in  cases  of  design  : 


For  stpa<1v  stresst*s  . . 
For  vary  III  jf  stresses. . 
ForHh.^-ks 


Timber. 

Brick 

Uld  (tOM. 

CMtlron. 

Wmajfbt 
Irvn. 

10 
15 

15 
25 

0 
15 

ao 

4 
6 
10 

Stca<ly  stresses  occur  in  buildings,  varying  stresses  in 
bridges,  while  shocks  are  lial»le  to  <H*eur  in  machinerv  and 
on  railway  wheels  and  rails.  The  iiijuri«»us  nature  of  sliocks 
requires  a  high  factor  of  safety,  and  hence  a  low  working 
stress.  A  load  suddenly  ap|)lied  theon*tically  prtKluces 
twice  the  strt^ss  cauM'd  by  the  same  load  when  applied 
grailually,  and  the  elongation  is  also  dout»le.     When  a  load 


778 


STRENGTH   OP  MATERIALS 


STREPSIPTERA 


drops  upon  a  bar  the  resulting  stresses  and  deformations 
are  often  more  than  double  those  caused  by  a  gradually  ap- 
plied load.  In  all  cases  it  is  desirable  that  such  a  factor  of 
safety  should  be  used  that  the  maximum  working  unit- 
stress  may  not  exceed  one-half  the  elastic  limits  of  the 
material. 

Repeated  stresses  beyond  the  elastic  limit  cause  a  change 
of  molecular  structure,' or  as  commonly  expressed,  the  ma- 
terial becomes  fatigued.  The  greater  the  range  of  stress  the 
less  should  be  the  working  unit-stress  used  in  the  design. 
Stresses  alternating  from  tension  to  compression  require 
almost  double  the  material  that  is  necessary  when  the  range 
is  in  tension  alone,  and  nearly  four  times  as  much  as  for  the 
case  of  steady  stress. 

Tesli fig-machines. — The  most  common  method  of  testing 
is  by  tension,  the  (Quantities  determined  being  the  elastic 
limit,  maximum    or    ultimate    stren^h,   ultimate 
elongation,  and  contraction  of  area.    Fig.  2  shows 
the  form  of  specimen  generally  used,  the  heads  be- 
I  «     ing  clamped  m  blocks  to  which  the  pulling  force 
l!  11     ^^  applied.     Marks  are  made  at  regular  intervals 
\i^     along  the  specimen,  and  measurements  made  be- 
tween these,  both  before  and  after  the  test,  give  the 
data  for  computing  the  elongation.    The  diameter 
of  the  specimen  is  usually  about  half  an  inch,  and 
its  lengtn  between  the  heads  about  8  inches. 

The  numerous  forms  of  testing  apparatus  may 
be  classified  as  screw  machines  and  hydraulic  ma- 
chines, the  power  being  applied  in  the  former  by  a 
screw  and  wheel,  and  in  the  latter  by  pressure  trans- 
mitted through  oil  by  means  of  a  iump.  Fig.  8 
shows  a  machine  of  the  latter  class  for  testing  wire 
and  small  rods.  The  wire  clamped  in  position  is 
Fio.  2.  seen  in  the  foreground.  The  handle  of  tne  pump  is 
worked  by  hand-power,  and  the  pressure  thus  pro- 
duced is  transmitted  through  the  oil  by  means  of  a  small 
tube  to  the  cylinder  above  the  specimen,  where  it  acts  upon 
a  piston  which  causes  the  cross-head  to  move  up,  and  tnus 
bnn^  tension  upon  the  specimen.  A  scale  and  weights  are 
provided  for  reading  the  tensile  stress  applied.  This  ma- 
chine is  4  feet  high,  nearly  4  feet  long,  weighs  890  lb.,  and 
can  exert  a  tension  of  10,000  lb. 

Probably  the  best  and  most  precise  testing-machine  in 
the  world  is  that  constructed  for  the  U.  S.  Government  by 


Fio.  3. 

A.  H.  Emery,  and  now  at  the  Watertown  arsenal ;  it  has  a 
capacity  of  '1,000.000  lb.,  and  can  break  a  bar  30  feet  long. 
Special  machines  of  greater  eapaoitv  have  been  constructed 
for  testing  eye-bars  and  other  bridf^e  members.  The  ma- 
chine of  tlie  Union  Bridge  Coinpany,  at  Athens.  Pa.,  has  a 
capacitv  of  1,234,000  lb.,  and  it  can  r>reak  a  bar  40  feet  long. 
That  of  the  Phtrnix  Bridge  Com|)any,  at  Phcenixville,  Pa., 
built  in  1893.  has  a  capacity  of  2,160,000  lb.,  and  it  can  break 
a  bar  45  feet  long. 


Compressive  tests  are  more  difficult  to  make  than  teri«- 
ones,  on  account  of  the  greater  labor  of  preparing  the  s|n*«  j 
mens,  and  of  insuring  a  uniform  distribution  of  pre.^-^i.^ 
over  the  surfaces.    Even  for  a  material  like  cement,  wiiP 
is  always  used  in  compression,  the  tensile  test  is  preftrr- 
Flexural  tests  of  beams  are  often  made  to  detenninf.-  ! 
modulus  of  rupture.     (See  Flexure.)     Tests  for   tht-    r 
sistance  of  sjKfcimens  to  twisting  are  easily  made    hy   t'.- 
machine  devised  by  Thurston  in  1873,  which  furnish*-^   n- 
autographic  record  of  the  stress  and  deformation,  aii<i  tf..- 
renders  possible  a  thorough  study  of  the  properties   of  in  a 
terials  under  Torsion  {q,  v.). 

Resilience  of  Materials, — When  a  body  falls  from  a  lu  ii:'  ' 
upon  a  bar  or  beam  it  expends  an  amount  of  energ-y  e<ju . 
to  the  product  of  its  weight  and  height  of  fall.    ThiserwrL'^ 
is  resisted  by  the  work  of  the  internal  stresses  in  the  bar    r 
beam.    All  the  work  of  these  internal  stresses  is  calle<l  re-:.- 
ience,  which  is  thus  a  measure  of  the  capacity  of  the  bar  «- 
beam  to  resist  shock.    Resilience  is  proportional  to  stn — 
and  deformation  jointly.    Elastic  resilience  is  the  work  t  f  i^^t 
can  be  resisted  up  to  the  elastic  limit,  and  ultimate  resilit'T:  - 
is  the  total  work  up  to  the  point  of  rupture,  the  latter  biinj: 
far  greater  than  the  former.    The  elastic  resilience  for  <i;f 
ferent  materials  in  tension  can  be  compared  by  taking  \v.iA 
the  product  of  the  elastic  limits  by  the  corresponding  t-J.-n- 
gations;  this  quantity  is  often  called  the  modulus  of  n-  :.- 
ence.     The  ultimate  resilience  of  materials  can  be  rc^u^'l.  > 
compared  by  the  areas  included  between  the  curves  in  F.J. 
1  and  the  base.    The  following  mean-values  of  these  qii«i.- 
tities  for  tensile  resilience  are  in  inch-pounds  per  cubic  m.  'a 
of  material : 


UUteafU  r«L'i>:<«. 

Timber 

8 
1 

18 
42 

100 

Cast  iron 

70 

Wrought  Iron 

IS  Oi%> 

Steel 

12  CM  1 

The  laws  of  elastic  resilience  show  that  the  total  refilien. . 
of  a  bar  or  beam  is  proportional  to  its  volume,  and  inde- 
pendent of  the  form  of  cross-section,  so  that  a  beam  rt>i-t- 
shock  with  equal  efficiency  whether  struck  on  the  narr  w 
or  broad  side;  also  the  effect  of  a  blow  at  the  middle  <>f  s 
beam  is  no  greater  than  at  any  other  point  These  e(»ni  li- 
sions  are  approximately  true  for  ultimate  resilience  only  ir. 
the  cose  of  cast  iron ;  for  other  materials  the  laws  are  yet  '•• 
be  determined. 

History  and  Literature. — The  study  of  the  strength  ■  f 
materials  began  with  the  announcement  by  Robert  H<H.kf  .r. 
1678  of  the  law  of  proportionality  between  stress  and  el«-ijja- 
tion.  Few  experiments  of  value  were  made,  however.  limI 
after  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  work  ;•! 
Tredgold  and  Hodgkinson,  prior  to  1850,  has  since  l>een  i  x- 
tendwi  by  Kirkaldy,  Bauschinger,  WShler, Thurston,  How anl. 
and  others,  so  that  volumes  would  be  required  to  give  e\.  r. 
a  fair  summary  of  the  properties  of  the  numerous  qualrK■^ 
of  iron  and  steel.  The  strength  of  alloys  of  copjier.  /::.«. 
and  tin  has  been  fully  investigated  by  Thurston.  M-: 
valuable  work  was  done  by  the  British  Government  in  1M>. 
and  by  a  U.  S.  board  in  1876.  Numerous  testing-lab'-ra- 
tories  nave  been  established  by  manufacturers  and  by  t«t  fi- 
nical schools,  and  progress  in  the  knowledge  of  material  l> 
rapid  and  continuous. 

The  theory  of  the  resistance  of  materials  is  intimately  as- 
sociated with  that  of  beams,  columns,  and  shafts.  Beam- 
were  first  discussed  by  Galileo  in  1638,  and  during  the  iiiKt- 
teenth  century  the  theory  of  all  branches  of  the  subje<-t  l.a^ 
been  developed  by  Navi'er,  Poncelet,  Saint-Venant,  l^n.t^, 
Weyrauch,  Hankine,  and  many  others.  Todhunter  an.l 
VcATsons  Jlistory  of  the  Mathematicxil  Theory  of  Elustia'* 
and  of  the  Sfrengtn  of  Materials  (London,  1^3)  ^ves  a  ful] 
account  of  these  researches.  Thurston's  Materials  of  En- 
gineering (3  vols..  New  York,  1884)  and  Burr's  Elai^ftr'tu 
and  Resistance  of  Materials  (New  York,  1888)  may  be  r..r.- 
sulted  for  experimental  results;  Unwin's  Testina  of  Mn^ 
rials  (London,  1890)  and  Abbott's  Testing-machines  {^iV 
York,  1885)  for  the  methods  of  conducting  tests.  Cone*  rn- 
ing  beams  and  columns,  reference  is  made  to  the  arti<  lo 
Flexure,  and  concerning  shafts  to  the  article  Torstox.  Sy 
also  Brick,  Buildino-stone,  Cement,  Concrete,  and  FattiiIE 
of  Materuls.  Mansfield  Merriman. 

Strepslp'tera  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  irrp4^  aorist  of  irro4^a. 
twist  +  irr€p6p,  wingj :  a  group  of  insects,  formerly  eonsiden-d 


780 


STRIGES 


STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS 


can  still  be  passed  through  the  narrowed  passage  large 
enough  to  guide  a  small  knife,  which  cuts  and  opens  the 
stricture  from  inside.  Revised  by  Roswell  Park. 

Stri^ges  [Lat.  airix,  sirigia,  a  kind  of  owl ;  possibly  akin 
to  Gr.  oTol^,  a  screeching  bird] :  an  order  or  other  group  of 
birds  embracing  the  owls.  The  eyes  are  directed  forward, 
and  are  surrounded  by  a  more  or  less  completely  formed 
facial  disk  of  radiating  featliers ;  the  plumage  is'very  soft 
and  lax  and  the  feathers  are  without  an  aftershaf t ;  the  toes 
are  four,  the  outer  reversible ;  the  claws  are  long,  sharp,  and 
decurved ;  the  external  ear  is  very  large,  often  with  a  mova- 
ble flap.  The  bones  inclosing  the  cerebral  cavity  have  a 
spongy  diploe ;  the  maxillo-palatines  are  spongy,  the  latter 
separated  by  an  interval  wide  throughout  or  reduced  to  a 
cleft  below,  and  basipterygoid  processes  are  developed.  This 
group  has  been  placed  with  the  Raptores,  but  recent  author- 
ities remove  it  from  this  association  and  place  it  near  the 
Caprimulgidm  or  goat-suckers.    See  Steioid^e. 

Strig^idiB  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Strix,  the  typical 
genus,  from  Lat.  atrix,  atrigia ;  possibly  akin  to  Gr.  orplf,  a 
screeching  bird] :  a  family  of  birds  variously  limited  and  de- 
fined. In  the  restricted  and  generally  accepted  sense,  the 
StrigidcB  are  owls  having  the  breast-bone  entire  behind,  with 
a  central  emargination,  the  f  urculum  ankylosed,  and  the  in- 
ner and  middle  toes  of  nearly  equal  length,  the  latter  with 
its  claw  pectinate.  It  thus  embraces  the  barn-owls,  which 
are  mostly  of  the  Old  World,  though  Strix  pratincola  is 
North  American.  The  correlated  Bubonidce  have  the  ster- 
num notched  behind,  the  furculum  free,  the  inner  toe  shorter 
than  the  middle,  and  the  middle  claw  not  pectinate.  The 
feathers  on  the  sides  of  the  head  are  often  elongated  into 
ear-tuft«  in  this  family,  which  includes  the  common  owls  of 
the  U.  S.  When  the  Strigidca  are  regarded  as  embracing  all 
the  species  the  groups  above  defined  have  sub-famihr  rating. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Strike  (in  geology) :  See  Faults. 

Strikes  and  Lockouts :  As  defined  by  Carroll  D.  Wright, 
commissioner  of  labor  for  the  U.  S.,  a  strike  is  the  refusal 
of  "  the  employees  of  an  establishment  to  work  unless  the 
management  complies  with  some  demand."  A  lockout  oc- 
curs when  **  the  management  refuses  to  allow  employees  to 
work  except  under  some  condition  dictated  by  the  manap:e- 
ment."  Strikes  and  lockouts,  therefore,  are  both  warlike 
measures,  and  are  declared  to  effect  a  specific  object. 

Antiquity  of  Strikea.  —The  first  great  strike  of  which  we 
have  recordf  was  that  of  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt.  There  was 
a  prolonged  labor  agitation,  lasting  many  years,  which  the 
Egyptians  endeavored  to  repress  by  imposing  severer  tasks 
upon  the  Hebrews.  This  was  resisted,  and  many  bloody 
encounters  between  serfs  and  masters  occurred.  Finally 
the  labor  forces  were  organized  by  Moses,  with  a  general 
strike  so  thorough  and  well-arranged  that  the  whole  labor 
population  marched  out  in  a  bodv  and  left  their  employers 
to  their  own  devices.  The  employers  were  also  saia  to  be 
glad  to  get  rid  of  their  turbulent  workmen.  Ancient  and 
mediifivaT  history  furnishes  numerous  examples  of  labor  agi- 
tations of  the  nature  of  strikes,  since  inequalities  of  condi- 
tion resulting  from  differences  of  ability  in  individuals  keep 
a  perpetual  ferment  in  societies  which  issues  in  iU  feeling 
and  resentful  strife  between  classes.  Contention  has  char- 
acterized the  history  of  all  civilized  nations,  and  where  the 
industrial  classes  have  been  content  to  submit  to  unfavor- 
able conditions  the  least  ailvance  has  been  made  in  civiliza- 
tion. The  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  has  seen  the 
machinery  and  system  of  strikes  brought  to  su6h  perfection 
as  to  throw  into  the  shade  all  previous  movements  of  the 
same  kind.  The  extension  ana  generalization  of  trades- 
unions  have  led  to  such  organization  that  strikes  have  be- 
come a  recognized  evil  in  social  progress  as  much  to  be  ex- 
pected as  changes  of  weather.  They  amount  to  a  kind  of 
inherent  civil  war. 

Ohjecta  of  Strikea. — A  strike  may  be  declared  for  one  or 
more  of  the  following  objects :  1.  To  secure  an  advance  or 
resist  a  reduction  in  wages.  2.  To  effect  a  reduction  or  op- 
pose an  increase  of  the  hours  of  labor.  3.  To  resist  the  dis- 
charge of  union  men  and  hinder  the  employment  of  non- 
union men.  4.  To  regulate  methods  of  work,  materials  used, 
number  of  apprentices,  kind  of  work  done  by  each  branch  of 
laborers,  and  the  like.  5.  To  support  a  strike  in  some  other 
industry  or  in  some  other  branch  of  the  same  industry,  as 
when  pavers  strike  to  help  granite-cutters,  or  brakemen  to 
help  switchmen  on  a  railway.  These  are  known  as  sym- 
pathetic strikes.    Strikes  are  wisely  held  by  workmen  to  be 


the  last  resort  of  a  contest,  and  never  to  be  risked  until  it  is 
clear  that  the  desired  object  can  not  be  reached  without 
them.  They  are  exi)ensive,  arduous,  and  uncertain,  and  if 
rashly  undertaken  end  in  disaster  after  much  suffering. 

Boy  cot  ta. — To  the  earlier  weapons  of  strikers,  modem  in- 
genuity has  added  the  boycott,  by  which  all  markets  are 
closed  against  the  goods  of  the  employer  against  whom  a 
strike  is  ordered.  Even  his  household  business  is  interfer»-<l 
with,  so  that  his  grocer  and  butcher  are  forbidden  to  supply 
his  necessities  under  pain  of  being  cut  off  from  most  olli<-r 
customers.  This  has  proved  a  very  effective  weapon  in  the 
hands  of  laborers. 

Strikea  in  Great  Britain. — Philip  Bevan  gives  the  num- 
ber of  strikes  in  Great  Britain  from  1870  to  1880  as  2,353.  <>r 
2^5  per  annum.  In  1888  they  had  risen  to  504  for  tJmt 
year;  in  1889,  8,164;  in  1890, 1,028,  involving  4,382  estal>- 
lishments.  Strikes  would  seem,  therefore,  to  be  on  the 
increase. 

Strikea  in  the  U.  S. — The  first  recorded  strike  in  tlie 
U.  S.  was  that  of  the  journeymen  bakers  in  1741.  The 
leaders  were  tried  for  conspiracy.  Next  came  the  shoemak- 
ers of  Philadelphia  in  1796, 179&,  and  1799 ;  then  the  sailors 
in  Philadelphia  in  1803,  who  struck  for  $14  against  $1<)  a 
month.  Thev  were  arrested,  and  the  leaders  imprisoned  i. 
In  1809  the  New  York  cordwainers  struck,  and  used  the 
term  "scab"  to  denote  non-strikers  of  their  association. 
Printers  struck  in  1821,  using  the  word  "rat"  for  non- 
union men  against  whom  they  struck.  In  1834  the  first 
women *8  strike  took  place  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  in  the  shoe-trade 
It  was  unsuccessful.  In  1848  the  workmen  of  Allegheny 
city  struck  for  ten  hours,  and  carried  their  point  after  eight 
weeks  of  rioting,  though  with  16  per  cent,  reauction  of  wages. 
In  1860-^1  1,300  workmen  at  Fall  River  were  idle  for  six 
months  at  a  loss  of  $140,000  in  waees.  A  strike  at  Pittsburg- 
in  1850,  marked  by  violence,  resulted  in  sentences  of  fin<'s 
and  imprisonment  to  manv,  afterward  pardoned.  In  1852 
mill-hands  in  Salisburv,  Aiass.,  struck  for  fifteen  minutes* 
recess  at  lunch.  In  1§68  Pennsylvania  passed  a  law  mak- 
ing eight  hours  a  legal  dAj ;  much  striking  resulted  among 
the  coal-miners,  resulting  in  less  hours  of  work  and  more 
wages.  In  1877  occurred  the  great  railway  strikes  on  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Erie  sys- 
tems, resulting  in  the  destruction  on  July  21-23  of  1,600 
cars,  126  locomotives,  and  $5,000,000  worth  of  propertv, 
$2,000,000  of  which  loss  fell  on  the  railways.  In  1880  there 
were  762  strikes  and  lockouts  together,  617  of  which  related 
to  wages.  Up  to  1881  1,491  strikes  and  lockouts  had  taken 
place.  Of  these  1,089  were  about  wages,  and  583  failed. 
Prom  1880  to  1890  there  were  7,114  strikes,  which  involved 
2,268,272  persons. 

According  to  statistics  of  Carroll  D.  Wright,  the  strikes  of 
1882  affected  2,105  establishments ;  those  of  1883,  2,759  ; 
1884,  2,367;  1885,  2,284;  1886,  9,861.  The  average  duration 
of  strikes  was  twenty-three  days.  Loss  in  wages  is  estimatt*d 
at  $51,814,723,  and  to  employers  over  $30,000,000:  1,323,- 
203  employees  were  striking  or  involved,  and  487,615  days 
were  lost  in  all.  Nearly  four-fifths  of  these  strikes  were  or- 
dered by  labor  organizations.  From  1881  to  1886  strikes 
affecting  over  10,000  establishments  succeeded,  while  strikes 
affecting  about  9,000  failed.  The  trades  represented  were 
building,  6,075  establishments ;  tobacco,  2,959 ;  mining,  2.060 ; 
clothing,  1,728 ;  metallic  goods,  1.570 ;  transportation,  1,478. 
The  loclcouts  were  2,214,  of  which  1,753  were  ordered  by  or- 
ganizations ;  564  of  these  succeeded  and  190  partially,  and 
1 ,339  failed .  See  Third  Anntuxl  Report  of  the  Comm  iationer 
of  Labor,  1887. 

In  1890  there  were  798  strikes  and  201,683  strikers.  In 
the  spring  of  1892  occurred  the  granite-cutters' strike,  which 
extended  finally  to  pavers  in  New  York,  and  arrested  for  a 
time  the  whole  stone  industry.  This  was,  however,  quite 
eclipsed  by  the  famous  strike  in  the  Carnegie  iron-works 
at  Ilomestead,  which  was  attended  with  such  bloodshed 
and  violence  as  to  attract  general  attention.  The  Carnegie 
works  were  kept  in  a  state  of  siege  for  several  days,  and  the 
town  presented  the  appearance  of  a  military  camp.  Eight 
thousand  soldiers  were  required  to  subdue  the  rioters,  and 
though  the  strike  apparently  failed,  yet  it  had  a  profound 
effect  upon  the  industrial  situation,  and  prolmbly  minimized 
the  willingness  of  both  laborers  .and  capitalists  to  enter  upon 
future  battles.  In  the  summer  of  1894  a  railway  strike  in 
Chicago  and  other  Western  cities,  although  a  failure,  threat- 
ened for  a  time  the  commercial  interests  of  the  whole  coun- 
try. It  was  ordered  by  E.  V.  Debs  as  president  of  the  Amer- 
ican Railway  Union,  in  sympathy  with  striking  employees  of 


782 


STROMBIDJE 


STRONTIUM 


distance  between  two  successive  openings.  The  body  will 
be  seen  in  succession  at  the  same  phase  of  its  motion,  and 
will  hence  appear  stationary.  If  the  vibration  period  be 
slightly  greater  or  less,  the  body  will  be  seen  successively  in 
slightly  different  phases,  and  the  visual  impression  is  that 
of  slow  motion,  the  rate  of  which  is  calculable  if  the  rate  of 
rotation  of  the  disk,  the  number  of  openings,  and  the  period 
of  the  body  be  known.  If  the  interval  of  time  between  the 
successive  momontaiy  views  of  the  body  be  equal  to  or  less 
than  the  duration  of  the  retinal  impression  produced  by  it, 
the  perception  is  uninterrupted.  This  duration  decreases 
with  increase  of  time  of  exposure  of  the  retina  and  with  in- 
crease in  intensity  of  the  light.  The  law  determined  experi- 
mentally by  E.  S.  Ferry  (see  American  Journal  of  Science^ 
Sept.,  1892,  p.  204)  is  that  retinal  persistence  varies  inversely 
as  the  logarithm  of  the  number  which  expresses  the  bright- 
ness. This  means  that  if  the  intensitv  is  increased  bv  mul- 
tiplying it  by  the  second,  third,  or  fourth  power  of  some 
constant  numl>er,  the  corresponding  duration  will  be  one- 
half,  one-third,  or  one-fourth  of  its  original  value.  Under 
the  conditions  of  ordinary  daylight  this  duration  varies  from 
one-fiftieth  to  one-tenth  of  a  second. 

The  principle  of  the  stroboscope  is  applied  in  instruments 
to  which  a  variety  of  names  have  been  given,  such  as  thau- 
matrope,  phenakistoscope,  vibrosco|>e,  zoetrope,  zoSpraxi- 
scope,  kinctoscope,  etc.  If  a  succession  of  photographs  of  a 
rapidly  moving  body  be  taken  at  intervals  of  less  than  one- 
tenth  of  a  second,  and  these  be  appropriately  arranged  for 
examination  by  the  stroboscopic  method,  the  resulting  per- 
ception is  that  of  the  body  in  actual  motion.  With  the  de- 
velopment of  instantaneous  photography  the  preparation  of 
such  series  of  pictures  has  been  brought  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection.  W.  Lb  Conte  Stevens. 

Strom'bidie  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Strom'huB,  the  typ- 
ical genus,  from  Lat.  strom'bus  =  Gr.  trTo6/A0ot,  a  kind  of 
spiral  snail,  also  top,  pine-cone,  deriv.  oi  arpd^uf^  twist] : 
a  family  of  gasteropod  molluscs.  The  shells  vary  consider- 
ably in  superficial  character,  but  all  have  a  more  or  less 
conic  spire,  and  in  roost  the  outer  lip  is  expanded  and  deep- 
ly notcncd  anteriorly.  Species  are  generally  diffused  in  all 
tropical  seas,  and  between  seventy  and  eighty  are  known. 
They  are  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  form  of  the  foot, 
which  is  fitted  for  leaping  rather  than  the  crawling  progres- 
sion common  to  most  gasteropods,  and  by  the  pedicles  bear- 
ing the  eyes  and  tentacles.  They  are  Q^ite  active,  but  are 
reputed  to  be  chiefly  carrion-feeders.  The  shells  are  often 
employed  as  ornaments,  and  especially  is  this  the  case  with 
the  Stromhua  gigas,  often  known  as  the  fountain-shell. 
This  is  the  largest  of  the  family,  and  sometimes  weighs  4  or 
5  pounds.  It  is  also  largely  employed  for  the  manufacture 
of  cameos.  Revised  by  J.  S.  Kinosley. 

Strom'boli :  northernmost  of  the  liipari  islands,  in  the 
Mediterranean,  off  the  north  coast  of  Sicily :  area,  8  sq.  miles. 
It  is  wholly  of  volcanic  formation,  and  has  a  constantly 
active  volcano  3,040  feet  high  with  an  extinct  crater  on  top, 
but  an  active  one  on  the  side  at  the  height  of  about  2,150 
feet.  Cotton,  wine,  and  fruit  of  superior  quality  are  pro- 
duced, and  sulphur  and  pumice-stone  are  largely  exported. 
On  the  east  side  lies  the  small  town  of  Stromboli.  Pop.  of 
island,  500.  M.  W.  H. 

Strong,  Augustus  Hopkins,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  minister, 
educator,  and  author ;  b.  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  3, 1836 ; 
graduated  at  Yale  College  1857,  and  at  Rochester  Theo- 
logical Seminary  1859 ;  became  Baptist  pastor ;  pastor  at 
Haverhill,  Mass.,  1861,  Cleveland,  O.,  1865 ;  president  and 
Professor  of  Biblical  Theology,  Rochester  Theological  Semi- 
nary, 1872.  He  has  published  the  following  works :  St/stem- 
atic  Theology  (Rochester,  1886 ;  3d  ed.  Kew  York,  1890) ; 
Philosophy  and  Religion  (1888).  W.  H.  W. 

Strong,  George  Crockett:  soldier:  b.  at  Stockbridge, 
Vt.,  Oct.  16.  1832  ;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academv 
in  July,  1857 ;  assigned  to  the  ordnance,  and  in  1861  took 
temporary  command  of  the  Watervliet  arsonal.  West  Troy. 
He  was  ordnance  oflTicer  on  Gen.  McDowell's  staff  at  Bull 
Run,  and  was  then  attached  successively  to  the  staffs  of  Gen. 
McClellan  and  of  Gen.  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  whose  chief  of 
staff  he  became.  He  aided  in  the  or«irtinizHtion  of  the  expe- 
dition for  the  capture  of  New  Orleans  1861  ;  in  Apr.,  1862, 
cofnmantled  the  successful  expedition  from  Ship  island  to 
Biloxi,  Miss.,  and  in  September  that  to  Ponehat«)ula.  which 
destroyed  a  large  amount  of  property  belonging  to  the  Con- 
federates. In  N^ov.,  1862,  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  volunteers,  and  in  June,  1863,  assigned  to  command 


of  the  brigade  which,  in  the  operations  about  Charleston^ 
effected  the  landing  on  Morris  island,  July  10,  1863,  Gen. 
Strong  leading  the  successful  assaulting  column,  as  also  the 
ineffectual  assault  on  Fort  Warner  the  following  momiu^. 
Again,  a  week  later  (July  18),  his  brigade  led  the  second  as- 
sault on  that  work,  at  the' head  of  which  Strong  fell  woundc?*!. 
His  commission  as  a  major-general  bore  the  date  of  the  as- 
sault, July  18.  and  the  name  of  Fort  De  Kalb,  on  the  southern 
side  of  the  Potomac,  was  changed  to  Fort  Strong  in  his  honor. 
D.  of  his  wounds  in  New  York,  July  80, 1863. 

Strong,  James,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D. :  educator  and  author  ; 
b.  in  New  York,  Aug.  14,  1822;  graduated  at  Wesleyan 
University  in  1844 ;  taught  in  Troy  Conference  Academy. 
Poultney,  Vt.,  1844-46 ;  in  1847  removed  to  Flushing,  I-ioriV 
Island  ;  projected  and  built  the  Flushing  Railroad,  of  which 
he  was  president ;  gave  private  lessons  in  Greek  and  Hebrew. 
In  1856,  although  not  a  clergyman,  he  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  sacred  theology  from  Wesleyan  University,  which 
institution  also  made  him  LL.  D.  in  1881 ;  in  185^-41    wa< 
Professor  of  Biblical  Literature  and  acting  president    of 
Troy  University,  and  in  1868  became  Professor  of  Exep^t- 
ical*  Theology  in  Drew  Theological  Seminary  at  MadL<on. 
N.  J.    He  was  a  member  of  the  Anglo-American  commi*^- 
sion  for  the  revision  of  the  English  vei-sion  of  the  Bible.      I  n 
1873  he  was  chosen  chairman  of  the  archieological  council 
of  the  Oriental  Topographical  Society,  and  in  1874  maiie 
an  extended  tour  in  the  East;  prepared  for  Lange's  Cow- 
mentary  the  English  translation  of  the  part  on  the  book  of 
Daniel,  and  published  Harmofiy  and  Ejrposifion  of   thr 
Gospels,  in  English  (New  York,  1852),  Harmony  of  the  Goa- 
pels,  in  Greek  (1854),  and  brief  manuals  of  the  Goepels  and 
of  Greek  and  Hebrew  grammar.    About  1853  he  project e«l. 
in  association  with  Rev.  John  McClintock,  D.  D.,  a  Cycltf 
pcedia  of  Biblical,  Theological,  and  Ecclesiastical  Litera- 
ture (10  vols.,  1867-81,  2  supplementary  vols.,  1884,  1HN7, 
with  later  addenda,  bringing  the  work  down  to  1891).  I>r. 
Strong  taking  the  department  of  biblical  literature,  incliKi- 
ing  sacred  geography,  antiouities,  and  natural  history,     i  >n 
Dr.  McClintock*s  death.  Mar.  4,  1870,  Dr.  Strong  as^umtsi 
the  supervision  of  the  whole  Work.    He  also  published  Jren  icft 
(1886);  The  Tabernacle  of  Israel  {1S8H);  Sa4Ted  Idyls  {l><Si^) : 
Future  Life  (1891);  Jewish  Life  (1891);  Our  Lord's  Lift 
(1892);  Commentary  on  Eccle»iastes{\W6)\  and  an  exhau>t- 
ive  Concordance  of  the  Bible  (1894),  on  which  he  labored  for 
more  than  thirty  years.    D.  at  Round  Lake,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  7, 
1894.  Revised  by  A.  Osborn. 

Strong,  JosiAH,  D.  D. :  clergvman  and  author ;  b.  at 
Naperville,  O..  Jan.  19, 1847 ;  graduated  at  Western  Reserve 
College,  Hudson,  O..  1869 ;  studied  theology  at  Ijane  Thoo- 
logic^  Seminary  1869-71.  He. was  successively  pastor  <»f 
several  Congregational  churches  (at  Cheyenne,  Wyo.,  1871-78. 
at  Hudson,  0..  1873-76,  at  Sandusky,  0.,  1876-81) ;  secretary 
of  the  Ohio  Home  Missionarv  Society  1881-84;  pastor  in 
Cincinnati  1884-86,  when  he  became  general  agent  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance  of  the  U.  S.  of  America.  He  is  the 
author  of  Our  Country  (1885,  reissued  in  revised  form  18$)1 ) : 
The  New  Era,  or  the  Coming  Kingdom  (1893).      G.  P.  F. 

Strong,  William,  LL.  D. :  jurist ;  b.  at  Somers,  Conn.. 
May  6, 1808 ;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1828 ;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1832,  and  commenced  practice  at  Read- 
ing, Pa. ;  was  representative  in  Congress  1849-54 ;  in  1857 
was  elected  a  juage  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Pennsylvania 
for  fifteen  years  :  resigned  the  position  in  1868,  and  resumed 
practice  at  the  bar,  and  in  1870  was  appointed  associate 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S.    He  retired  18S0. 

StrongylMdiB  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Stron'gylus.  the 
typical  genus,  from  Gr.  trrpcyyCXof,  round,  spherical]  :  a  fam- 
ily of  parasitic  round  worms  (nematoiles)  in  which  the 
mouth  IS  usually  surrounded  by  six  papillae  or  with  a  ciin- 
iike  toothed  expansion  of  these.  Frequently  in  the  male 
the  end  of  the  body  has  a  bell-like  expansion.'  Some  specii^ 
are  parasitic  in  man,  one,  Dochmius  auodenalis,  causing  the 
"tunnel  disease"  among  the  workers  on  the  St.  Gothard 
tunnel,  or  **  Egyptian  chlorosis  "  in  Africa,  a  disease  oi-ca- 
sionally  fatal.  Other  species  live  in  domestic  animals,  ihi> 
"  gapes  "  of  fowl  being  caused  by  the  presence  of  Syngnmun 
fracnealis  in  the  windpipe.  J.  S.  Kix«sley. 

Stron^iam  [Mo<l.  Lat.,  deriv.  of  Sfron'tia,  from  Stnm- 
tiaUy  in  Argyleshire,  Scotland,  where  strontia  was  first 
found] :  the  metallic  basis  of  strontia,  one  of  the  alkaline 
earths,  first  obtained  from  native  carbonate  of  strontium  l)r 
Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1808.    It  is  a  pale  yellow,  bums  witt 


784 


STRUTT 


STUART 


of  Columbia  College,  Xew  York,  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  awarded  Lord  Rayleigh 
in  1895  "  the  Barnard  medal  for  meritorious  service  to  sci- 
ence.** The  discovery  originated  from  the  fact  that  the  sup- 
posed nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  was  always  found  to  be 
neavier  than  the  nitrogen  obtained  by  chemical  means — 
from  ammonia,  for  instance — the  explanation  being  given 
by  the  admixture  of  the  heavier  gas,  argon,  with  the  for- 
mer. The  atomic  weight  of  argon  is  19*9,  as  compared  with 
14  of  nitrogen,  if  it  is  assumed  to  be  a  single  element.  It 
would  thus  come  between  fluorine  and  sodium  in  the  series 
of  elements.  It  is  believed  that  the  gas  was  obtained  in 
181^  from  the  mineral  uraninite  by  the  American  chemist 
W.  F.  Hillebrand,  who  by  not  applying  sufficient  tests  con- 
eluded  that  it  was  nitrogen.  Argon  has  since  (1895)  been 
found  by  Ramsay  in  the  Norwegian  mineral  cleveite  in  con- 
junction w^ith  the  solar  element  helium.  (See  Spectrum.) 
It  differs  in  a  remarkable  way  from  all  other  known  ele- 
ments in  its  inertness  or  absence  of  chemical  properties, 
whence  its  name  (Gr.  ipy^y,  neut.  of  iipy6t,  lazy).  Ijord 
Rayleigh,  however,  believes  that  it  has  some  affinity  with 
certain  of  the  hydrocarbons,  and  Prof.  Berthelot,  of  Paris, 
has  induced  it  to  combine  with  the  vapor  of  l)enzine,  the 
product  formed  being  a  yellow  resinous  substance.  In  the 
course  of  his  experiments  m  passing  electric  currents  through 
argon  mixed  with  benzine,  Berthelot  has  obtained  splendid 
displays  of  colors  similar  to  those  of  the  aurora  borealis, 
which  phenomenon,  it  is  thus  suggested,  may  be  due  to  the 
action  of  electric  currents  upon  the  argon  in  the  atmos- 
phere. Its  spectra  have  been  studied  by  Crookes  ;  they  are 
of  two  kinds,  with  bright  lines  conveniently  named  red 
and  blue,  which  are  obtained  under  different  conditions  of 
pressure  and  electric  current.  The  gas  has  been  liquefied 
and  solidified  by  Olszewski  of  Cracow.  It  dissolves  in  water 
under  the  ordinary  pressure  at  W  C.  in  the  proportion  of  4 
volumes  to  100,  and  is  thus  about  three  times  as  soluble  as 
nitrogen.  The  critical  temperature  under  50  atmospheres 
is  —  121.  The  density  of  liquid  argon  at  its  boiling-point 
is  about  1*5.  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Stratt,  Joseph  :  antiquary :  b.  at  Springfield,  Essex,  Eng- 
land, Oct.  27,  1742:  was  apprenticed  to  an  engraver,  but 
early  devoted  himself  specially  to  the  study  of  British  an- 
tiquities. His  principal  ^orks  in  this  department  are  The 
Regal  and  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  of  England  (1773; 
new  ed.  by  Planche,  1842) ;  IIorda-An^el-Cynnan^  l)eing  a 
view  of  the  customs,  arms,  etc.,  of  the  inhabitants  of  Eng- 
land from  the  arrival  of  the  Saxons  till  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  (1774-70) ;  The  Chronicle  of  England,  completed  only 
to  the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest  (1777-78) ;  Complete 
View  of  the  Dress  and  Habits  of  the  People  of  England 
from  the  Establishment  of  the  Saxons  to  the  Present  Time 
(1796-99;  new  ed.  lS7o):'The  Sports  and  Pastimes  of  the 
Peovle  of  England  (1801 ;  often  republished).  He  also 
published  a  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Engravers  (1785- 
86),  and  left  several  tales,  one  of  which.  Queen  lloo  Ilall^ 
was  edited  after  his  death  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  1).  in  Lon- 
don, Oct.  16,  1802. 

Strnye,  stroo'v?,  Priedrich  Georo  Wiliielm,  von :  as- 
tronomer ;  b.  at  Altona,  Holstein,  Apr.  15, 1793  ;  studied  first 
philology,  and  afterward  astronomy,  at  the  University  of 
Horpat;  received  an  appointment  at  the  observatorv  in 
1813,  and  became  its  director  in  1817.  From  1834  to  1889  he 
planned  and  superintended  the  construction  and  erection  of 
the  observatory  at  Pulkowa,  near  St.  Petersburg,  wliich  he 
has  described  m  his  Descripfiofi  de  V Observatoire  central  de 
la  Russie  (1845),  and  of  which  he  was  director  to  his  death 
Nov.  23,  1864.  This  observatory  became  the  most  noted  of 
the  world.  The  earlier  part  of  his  career  was  mostly  occu- 
pied by  studies  of  double  stars  and  of  the  construction  of 
the  Milky  Way — Observat ione^  Dorpatenses  (8  vols.,  1817- 
39):  Catalog  us  nonis  stetlarum  duphcium  (1827);  Sfellanim 
duplicium  mensura  micrometriciB  (1837);  Stellurnm  lix- 
arum,  imprimis  compositarum,  positiones  medi(P  (1852): 
and  Etudes  d'astronomie  stcllnire  (1847).  Subsetjuently  hi* 
undertook  several  great  geodetic  works,  such  as  the  triangu- 
lation  of  Livonia  (1816-19)  and  the  measurement  of  a  merid- 
ian arc  in  the  Baltic  provinces  (1822-27),  which  he  con- 
tinued to  the  North  Pole  in  connection  with  Hansteen,  and 
to  the  Danube  in  connection  with  (ten.  Tenner,  and  which 
he  has  described  in  his  Arc  du  meridien  entre  la  Danube  et 
la  Mer  Glaeiale  (1861).  Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 

Strure,  Georg  Adam  :  jurist ;  b.  nt  Magdeburg,  in  what 
is  now  Saxony  in  Prussia,  Dec.  27,  1619;  studied  law  at 


Jena  and  Helmstedt ;  held  the  offices  of  court  assessor,  privx* 
councilor  to  the  Duke  of  Weimar,  and  Professor  of  Law  ir  i 
the  University  at  Jena ;  and  in  1680  was  appointed  prt-j  - 
dent  of  the  regency  of  Weimar,  the  then  dute  being  a   mi- 
nor.    Of  his  numerous  elaborate  legal  treatises  the   mo^r 
important  are  Syntagma  Juris  Feudalis  (1653);  Syntny- 
mata  Jurisprudeniice  Civilis  (1655);  and  Juri^prudenti^r 
Romano-Germaniea  Eore?isis  (l(i70).    D.  at  Weimar.  Si^jit- 
15, 1692. — His  son,  Burkhard  Gotthelf  Struve  (b.  at  W«'i- 
mar.  May  26, 1671 ;  d.  at  Jena,  May  24,  1738),  was  a  juri^-t 
and   historian.    He  studied  law,  traveled,  was  appoint eti 
librarian  of  the  University  of  Jena  1697,  then  Professor  of 
History  1704  and  of  Junsprudence  17^.    He  was  histori- 
ograpKer  to  the  house  of  daxonv.    The  most  important  *  >{ 
his  many  works  are  Syntagma  Historian  Oermantc^  (171«j : 
Corpus  Juris  Gentium;  Publici  (1717);  and  Biblioth*cn 
Ilistorica  (11  vols.,  1705).  F.  Sturoes  Allkn. 

Strnye,  Otto  Wilhelm,  von :  astronomer;  b.  at  DorjwT. 
Russia,  May  7, 1819;  son  of  Friedrich  Georg  Wilhelm  v.m 
Struve,  under  whom  he  studied  astronomy ;  succeeded  him 
as  director  of  the  observatory  of  Pulkowa,  and  became  know  n 
in  the  history  of  astronomy  by  many  valuable  researc-lif^. 
His  Determinalion  of  the  Constant  of  Procession  is  a  cla^^it , 
as  is  also  his  Mea^irements  of  Double  Stars,  a  continual  i*  >i\ 
of  his  father's  work.  He  visited  the  U.  S.  in  1879  to  onii*r 
the  object-glass  of  the  proposed  great  telescope  of  his  ol>S4*r- 
vat<)ry  from  A.  Clark  &  Srms,  and  again  in  1883  to  rei-4-ive 
the  glass.    He  resigned  the  directorship  at  Pulkova  in  IMiiu. 

SiHOX  Newcomb, 

Strychnine,  or  Strychnia :  See  Xux  Vomica. 

StrycVnos  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  ffrp^pot,  a  kin«I  if 
nightshade]  :  a  genus  of  trees  and  climbing  woody  vint's  ««f 
the  family  Logamacece,  found  in  the  tropical  parts  of  A>ia 
and  America.  Most  species  are  poisonous.  S.  nux  vomirtt 
of  India  (see  Xux  Vo.mica),  a  tree  of  moderate  size,  Tifi«l> 
the  alkaloids  strychnine,  brucine,  and  igasurine,  all  a<'livi> 
poisons  in  overdoses.  Equally  poisonous  are  the  S.  ignatifi 
of  the  Philippines  and  S,  tieute,  a  climbing  vine  of  Java. 
The  East  Indian  *S'.  ligustrina  and  *S'.  colubrina  are  repui««l 
to  cure  snake-bites.  S. pseudo-quina  of  Brazil  yields  c<>- 
palche-bark,  a  valued  febrifuge ;  S.  potatorum  of  India  i-j 
the  clearing-nut  tree ;  and  *S'.  toxifera  of  South  America 
probably  anords  the  dreaded  curare  (or  woorari)  poison. 

Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Stryker,  Melaxcthox  Woolsey,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  clergy- 
man and  educator ;  b.  at  Vernon,  X.  Y.,  Jan.  7,  1851 :  e<iii- 
cated  at  Hamilton  College  and  Auburn  Theolc^eal  S<»i!ii- 
nary:  pastor  of  Calvarv  church.  Auburn,  X.  \.,  1876-7*^: 
First  Presbyterian  church,  Ithaca,  X\  Y.,  1878-88 ;  Con^n- 
gational  church.  Holyoke,  Mass.,  1883-85 ;  Fourth  Presby- 
terian church,  C'hicaffo,  1885-92;  since  1892  president  of 
Hamilton  College.  He  has  published  The  Alleluia  (18s<)' : 
Church  Praise  Book  (New  \  ork  and  Chicago,  1881);  Chris- 
tian Chorals  (1885);  Church  Song  (1890);  Choral  S^nt; 
(1891);  Miriam  and  other  Verse  (1888);  Essay  on  IfuM 
lr(P  (1892);  and  Inaugural  Address,  Hamilton  CoUt-i^t 
(1893).  C.  K.  Ho^T. 

Strr pe, John.  I). D. :  ecclesiastical  historian;  b.  at  Stoj- 
ney,  England,  Xov.  1,  1643;  eilucated  at  St.  Paul's  Siht*"*! 
and  at  Cambridge  ;  from  about  1670  to  about  1732  held  Iht- 
living  of  Low  Ley  ton  in  Essex ;  later  was  settled  at  Tar- 
ring, Sussex.  His  important  works  are  Annals  of  the  Rtf- 
ormation  in  Englana  (4  vols.,  1709-4J1);  lives  of  Tftoimts 
Cranmer  (1694),  Sir  Thomas  Smith  (1698),  John  Aylm^-r 
(1701).  Sir  John  Cheke  (1705).  Edmund  Grindall  (1710», 
Matthew  JMrker  (1711),  and  John  Whitgift  (1718) ;  and  Ec- 
clesiastical Memorials  (3  vols.,  1721).  Editions  of  the  //i^- 
torical  and  Biographical  Works  of  John  Strype  were  issinMl 
from  the  Oxford  Press  in  27  vols.  (1827-40).  I),  at  Hackiuv. 
Dec.  11,  1737. 

Stnart :  town ;  Guthrie  and  Adair  cos.,  la. ;  on  the  Chi.. 
U<K'k.  Is.  and  Pac.  K^iilway  :  41  miles  W.  of  Des  Moines,  !(»■"> 
miles  E.  of  Omaha  (for  location,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  5-Fi. 
It  is  on  a  high  rolling  prairie,  and  contains  6  churches.  4 
public-school  buildings,  electric  lights,  larjge  locomotiNo 
and  machine  shops,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  |I75,(¥K>. 
a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  and  2  weekly  new >- 
papers.     Pop.  (1880)  1,994;  (1890)  2,052;  (1895)  estimattil, 

2,500.  EdITOE  of  "  LtKOMOTIVE." 

Stnart,  or  Stewart:  a  royal  family  which  has  given  s*  v. 
oral  sovereigns  to  Scotland  and  England.  They  trace  tlitir 
descent  to  a  Xorman  bai*on,  Alan,  who  accompanied  William 


4"^»'»*t»»"'"^'  •»**♦' 


ifrrAKT 


l-KA^^    . 


-wd  In  r 


Ivi^tir,  wlvwiti  »tiw  I 


786 


STUART 


STUCCO 


Lee  in  September,  Stuart,  covered  the  Confederate  rear,  re- 
sisting the  Union  cavalry  advance  at  South  Mountain  and 
holding  the  Confederate  left  at  Antietain.  During  the  sub- 
sequent period  of  inaction  he  crossed  the  Potomac  above 
WiUiamsport  with  1,500  cavalry  Oct.  9,  1862,  and  passing 
through  Maryland,  he  entered  Pennsylvania  and  occupied 
Chambersburg  on  the  10th,  and  recrossed  the  Potomac  be- 
low Harper's  Ferry  Oct.  12.  In  the  battle  of  Fredericks- 
burg his  command  formed  the  extreme  right  of  the  Confed- 
erate line.  At  Chancellorsville,  aiter  the  fall  of  Stonewall 
Jackson  and  the  disablement  of  Ambrose  P.  Hill,  Stuart 
succeeded  to  the  temporary  command  of  Jackson's  corps, 
which  he  led  with  ability  in  the  severe  fighting  of  Sunday, 
May  3.  In  anticipation  of  the  proposed  invasion  of  Penn- 
sylvania, a  large  cavalry  force  had  been  accumulated  at 
Culpeper  under  command  of  Stuart,  against  which  Gen. 
Hooker  dispatched  two  divisions  of  cavalry  and  two  bri- 
gades of  infantry,  which,  crossing  at  Beverley  and  Kelly's 
Fords  (June  9),  soon  encountered  Stuart  advancing  to  cover 
the  flank  of  the  main  movement.  A  fiercely  fought  but  in- 
decisive battle  between  the  cavalry  on  both  sides  ensued, 
resulting  in  a  loss  to  each  of  500  or  600.  During  the  subse- 
quent campaign  of  Gettysburg  he  passed  up  through  East- 
em  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania,  and  rejoined  Lee  at  Get- 
tysburg. In  the  campaign  of  1864,  Stuart  by  a  wide  detour 
succeeded  in  interposing  himself  between  the  Confederate 
capital  and  Sheridan*s  advancing  column.  Concentrating 
all  his  forces  at  Yellow  Tavern,  near  Richmond,  he  was 
here  attacked  by  his  able  rival.  During  the  obstinate  but 
ineffectual  struggle  Gen.  Stuart  was  mortally  wounded.  D. 
May  12,  1864,  soon  after  reaching  Richmond.  See  The 
Campaigns  of  StuarVs  Cavalry,  by  H.  B.  McClellan  (Boston, 
1885).  Revised  by  James  Mercur. 

Stnart,  James  FaANas  Edward:  See  James  F&ancis 
Edward  Stuart. 

Stuart,  John,  Earl  of  Bute :  See  Bute. 

Stnart,  Moses  :  biblical  scholar  and  educator ;  b.  at  Wil- 
ton, Conn.,  Mar.  26,  1780  ;  graduated  at  Yale  College  1799  ; 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1802,  and  for 
two  years  was  tutor  in  Yale  College  ;  afterward  studied  the- 
ology with  President  Dwight,  and  in  1806  was  ordained 
fastor  of  the  First  church  (Congregational)  in  New  Haven, 
n  1809  he  became  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Andover,  Mass.,  and  occupied  the 
chair  until  1848.  By  his  stimulating  influence  as  a  teacher 
and  author,  he  made  an  epoch  in  tlie  study  of  biblical  lit- 
erature in  the  U.  S.  He  was  the  teacher  of  more  than 
1,500  ministers.  lie  held  his  Drofessorship  for  thirty-eight 
years.  He  published  several  Hebrew  and  Greek  grammars, 
commentaries  on  various  lHx>ks  of  the  Bible,  of  which  his 
works  on  the  epistles  to  the  Romans  and  the  Hebrews  are 
among  the  most  prominent,  and  Elements  of  Interpretation 
from  the  Latin  of  Ernesti  (1822) ;  The  Sabellian  and  Atha- 
nasian  Modes  of  Representing  the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
from  the  German  of  Schleiermacher  (1835);  Philological 
View  of  Modern  Doctrines  of  Geology  (1836) ;  Hints  on  the 
Prophecies  (1842) ;  Critical  History  and  Defense  of  the  Old 
Testament  Canon  (1845) ;  Conscience  and  the  Constitution 
(Boston,  1850) ;  and  other  works.  D.  at  Andover,  Mass.,  Jan. 
4, 1852.  Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisher. 

Stub,stoob,  Ambrosius  :  poet;  b.  on  the  island  of  Flinen, 
Denmark,  May,  1705.  The  greater  part  of  his  life  was  spent 
in  poverty,  his  genius  failing  to  win  recognition  till  long  after 
his  death.  After  serving  as  private  tutor  at  various  estates 
he  finally  established  a  private  school  in  Ribe,  where  he  spent 
the  latter  part  of  his  life.  He  was  the  only  great  lyric  poet 
of  his  time,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  worthy  predecessor  of 
Ewald  and  Wessel.  All  but  one  of  his  poems  were  pub- 
lished posthumously  (1771).  He  is  the  original  of  the  hero 
of  C.  K.  F.  MoU)ech's  romantic  dranm  Atnbrosins.  D.  at 
Ribe,  July  15, 1758.  His  collected  poems  were  edited  by  Fr. 
Barfod  (Copenhagen,  5th  ed.  1879).  D.  K.  Dodoe. 

Stabbs,  William,  D.  D.,  Bishop  of  Oxford  :  historian  ;  b. 
at  Knaresborough,  England,  June  21, 1825  ;  was  educated  at 
the  grammar  school  at  Kipon  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
where  he  took  a  first  class  in  the  chissics  and  a  third  class 
in  mathematics,  and  was  elected  to  a  fellowship  in  Trinity 
College  ;  took  holy  orders  in  1848  ;  became  vicar  of  Xa ve- 
st ock  in  1852 ;  librarian  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
at  Lambeth  in  1862,  and  was  school  inspector  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Rochester  1860-66,  when  he  received  the  appoint- 
ment of  Regius  Professor  of  Modern  History  at  Oxford. 


In  1869  he  became  curator  of  the  Bodleian  Library  ;    w»'j 
chosen  as  a  member  of  the  hebdomadal  council  in  18^:?.  an 
in  1875  received  the  presentation  of  the  rectory  of  CiioM.-r 
ton,  Wiltshire.     He  was  appointed  canon  resident  iar>    *  •; 
St.  Paul's  in  1879,  consecrated  Bishop  of  Chester  in  is ^4 
and  became  Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1889.    He  has  pubii-li»  .  i 
Hymnale  secundum  Usum  Sarum  (1850);  Registrum    >//- 
crum  Analicanum  (1858);    The  Foundation  of  Wttifhtt- 
Abbey  (1861);   Chronicles  and  Memorials  of  Richnrfi    I 
(1864);  the  Chronicle  of  Roger  de  Hoveden  (1868);   *S/A.-.' 
Charters,  etc.,  of  English  Constitutional  History  (l?^7o   : 
Memorial  of  Walter  of  Coventry  (1872) ;  Memorials  of  >' 
Dunstan  (1874) :  The  Constitutional  History  of  England   - 
vols.,  1874,  1875,  and  1878):  and  (with  Haddam)  Counrt-^ 
and  Ecclesiastical  Documents  relating  to  Great  Britat'^ 
and   Ireland    (1869-78).     His  Constitutional  Histort/    nf 
England  is  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  authoritative   wt.rk> 
on  the'  period  of  which  it  treats.  P.  M.  Colby. 

Stneco  [=  Ital. :  Fr.  stuc,  from  0.  H.  Germ,  stftcchi,  pir.o 
>  Mod.  Germ.  stUck] :  plastic,  adhesive  composition  apj»ht*«i 
to  walls  both  internally  and  externally  in  oraer  to  give  xluu. 
a  smooth  and  even  surface,  either  decorative  or  plain  in  e<.d<  r 
or  form.    The  cementing  medium  of  the  composition  for  in- 
side work  is  common  lime  or  calcined  gypsum,  or  a  combi- 
nation of  the  two,  generally  mixed  with  a  certain  projK.r- 
tion  of  sand,  depending  on  the  special  object  to  be  securtf... 
The  word  stucco  technically  applies  to  a  mixture  of  liim- 
putty  and  white  sand  or  powdered  marble,  and  to  a  coat  in 
produced  with  this  compound.    The  rudest  example  of  ti. 
plasterer's  art  is  the  application  of  a  single  coat  of  niort^. 
composed  of  lime-paste  and  common  sand  laid  on  the  sur- 
face of  a  wall  with  the  trowel,  while  the  highest  consists  in 
imitating  fine  marbles  and  other  beautiful  building-st4»iui; 
by  using  pure  calcined  gypsum,  mixed  with  ^m^  isingla». 
and  sui^ole  coloring-matter,  laid  on  in  a  vanety  of  decom- 
tive  forms  in  order  to  produce  panels,  pilasters,*  mould  in  ir^. 
cornices,  etc.    The  implements  used  by  the  plasterer  an*  of 
the  simplest  kind  ana  few  in  number.    They  comprise  <i 
lath ing-nammer,  the  hawk, the  plastering  or  laying-<m trow- 
el, the  float,  a  brush,  and  straight-edges  and  moulds  of  va- 
rious kinds,  together  with  a  screen,  shovel,  rake,  and  hinl  f<r 
his  attending  laborer.    The  hawk  is  used  by  the  pla>tenr 
for  holding  the  mortar  in  his  left  hand  while  he  applies  if 
with  the  trowel  held  in  his  right  hand.    It  is  simply  a  pic  r 
of  board  al>out   10  to  11  inches  square,  held  by' a  stout 
handle  fixed  on  the  under  side  in  the  center  of  the  Ixianj 
and  at  right  angles  to  it.    The  laying-on  trowel  is  a  thin 
plate  of  hardened  steel  or  iron  about  3  inches  wide  huA 
9  to  10  inches  long,  rounded  slightly  at  the  front  en«l. 
square  at  the  other  end,  and  a  little  convex  on  the  face.     It 
is  provided  with  a  handle  on  the  back  parallel  to  the  blail.'. 
The  hand-float  is  of  wood,  shaped  something  like  the  layini:- 
on  trowel.    It  is  used  to  rub  down  finish^  work  and  givt- 
it  a  hard,  smooth,  and  even  face.    A  cork  float  is  soraetinit  ^ 
used  upon  surfaces  which  are  to  receive  a  high  degnt*  .f 
polish.   A  derbv  is  a  long,  two-handed  float,  used  principni- 
ly  in  forming  the  floated  coat  of  lime  and  hair.    Jointioi:- 
trowels  are  of  steel,  the  plate  being  triangular,  with  an  acut.- 
angle  at  the  front  end,  tne  handle  being  attached  to  the  ]u  ♦'! 
or  base  of  the  tool.    They  are  used  about  cornices  and  moul.i- 
ings  in  forming  the  miters  where  fine  workmanship  i<  de- 
sired.    A  corner-trowel  is  like  a  small  laying-on  tn>wel 
with  its  face  bent  lengthwise  to  a  right  angle ;  it  is  use<l  at 
the  intersections  of  walls  and  ceiling,  etc*     Moulds  an- 
pieces  of  hard  wood  cut  to  the  form  of  the  cornices  or 
mouldings  that  are  to  be  formetl,  to  assist  the  workman 
in  securing  accuracy  and  uniformity  in  his  work.    They  ar.' 
sometimes  made  of  cop|ier  plates  inserted  in  a  wooden  8t«<k. 
The  plasterer's  brush  is  broad  and  thin,  and  is  used  for  kf<»|»- 
ing  the  material  wet  and  plastic  until  it  is  finishe<l  to  th.- 
reciuired  form.     The  plasterer's  materials  are  lath-n;iiis 
laths,  lime,  calcined  gypsum  or  plaster,  hydraulic  cemenr. 
and  sand,  together  with  various  pigments  for  giving  tlu- 
requisite  colors. 

The  mortars  used  for  inside  plastering  are  "  coarse  stuff," 
"  fine  stuff,"  "  gauge  stuff,"  called  also  "  hard  finish."  mu\ 
"bastard  stucco."  Coarse  stuff  is  simply  common  lime-incr- 
tar,  of  the  qualitv  suitable  for  brick  masonry,  mixed  with 
well-switched  bullock's  hair  free  from  all  animal  am]  \vi:v 
table  matter.  Fine  stuff  is  prepared  by  slaking  pure  lump- 
lime  with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  and  afterward  aiiilmc 
water  until  the  jmste  is  diluted  to  the  consistency  of  ereain. 
It  is  then  allowed  to  stiffen  by  evaporation  to  the  pn^jKr 


788 


STURGEON 


STUTTGART 


to  which  the  brain  is  liable.  It  may  exist  in  all  degrees  of 
severity.  There  is  a  form  of  stupor,  met  with  in  certain 
diseases  of  the  brain,  in  which  the  individual,  though  uncon- 
scious, is  nevertheless  not  altogether  deprived  of  the  power 
to  think  and  to  move  the  limbs.  There  is,  in  fact,  a  marked 
degree  of  restlessness,  though  the  movements  are,  as  it  were, 
automatic,  and  the  speech  is  incoherent.  This  condition  is 
known  as  "  coma  vi^u."  It  generally  only  occurs  in  cases  of 
great  gravity,  and  it  indicates  a  fatal  termination. 

Revised  by  W.  Peppeb. 

Stanton  [from  Fr.  esturgean  :  Ital.  storione  :  Span,  es- 
turUm  from  Teuton,  aturjoy  appearing  in  0.  H.  Germ,  aturio, 
sturo  >  Germ,  atdr :  O.  Eng.  stynd] :  any  ganoid  fishes  of 
the  family  AcipensericUe.  All  tne  species  have  the  body 
elongated  and  subc^lindrical,  or  slightly  compressed  and 
tapering  backward  into  a  rather  slender  caudal  peduncle ; 
the  skin  is  generally  armed  with  minute  bony  plates,  as  well 
as  five  rows  of  larger  keeled  bucklers,  one  dorsal,  one  pair 
lateral,  and  one  pair  on  the  sides  of  the  abdomen ;  there  is 
no  well-defined  lateral  line ;  the  head  is  produced  into  a 
projecting  snout,  which  is  provided  below  with  four  barbels 
in  a  transverse  row ;  the  operculum  proper  well  developed ; 
the  mouth  is  small,  inferior,  transverse,  protractile,  with  fleshy 
lips ;  teeth  entirely  wanting  in  the  adult ;  the  dorsal  fin  far 
behind,  and  short ;  the  anal  still  nearer  the  tail  than  the 
dorsal ;  the  caudal  with  the  upper  lobe  prolonged ;  ventral 
behind  the  center  of  gravity.  The  skeleton  is  cartilaginous. 
The  stomach  is  not  csBcal ;  the  pyloric  appendages  are  nu- 
merous ;  the  rectum  has  a  spiral  valve ;  the  air-bladder  is 
large  and  simple,  and  communicates  with  the  cesophagus ; 
two  accessory  gills  occur.  Species  are  found  in  all  the  tem- 
perate portions  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  All  breed  in 
the  fresn  water,  but  some  are  residents  of  the  sea  part  of  the 
year,  while  others  are  permanent  denizens  of  the  lakes  and 
rivers.  They  nearly  agree,  in  fact,  in  distribution  with  the 
salmonids,  save  that  they  are  lessgenerally  found  in  streams, 
on  account  of  their  larger  size.  T^ere  are  two  primary  types 
— (1)  Acipenaer,  which  embraces  several  subordinate  sub- 
genera or  genera ;  and  (2)  Scaphirhynchus,  of  which  only 
two  species  are  known,  one  {S.  plcttyrhynchua)  confined  to 
the  Mississippi  river  and  its  tributaries,  and  another  from 
Central  Asia.  The  number  of  species  of  Aeipenaer  is  about 
twenty.  The  most  common  American  species  are  A.  brem- 
roatriSy  or  short-nosed  sturgeon,  and  A.  oxyrhynehns^  or 
sharp-nosed  sturgeon,  which  ascend  the  rivers  of  the  Atlan- 
tic slope,  and  the  fresh-water  A,  ruhietttidus  of  the  Great 
Lakes  and  their  tributary  rivers.  Their  flesh  is  reddish,  and 
is  by  some  highly  esteemed.  Their  eggs  are  often  made 
into'caviare ;  their  air-bladders  can  vield  a  kind  of  isinglass. 
They  are  the  largest  of  fresh-water  fishes,  the  huso  (A.  huso) 
of  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas  and  Sea  of  Azov  sometimes 
exceeding  the  length  of  15  feet  and  the  weight  of  2,000  lb. 
See  also  Fisheries  and  Sterlet.  For  illustration,  see  Fishes. 

Revised  by  J.  S.  Kinosley. 

Sturgeon  Bay :  city ;  capital  of  Door  co.,  Wis. ;  on  Stur- 
geon Bay,  about  midway  between  Green  Bay  and  Lake 
jlichigan,  and  on  the  ship-canal  connecting  those  t>odies  of 
water  (for  location,  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  4-F).  The 
bay  is  8  miles  long  by  2  miles  wide,  and  affords  an  excellent 
harbor  for  the  largest  vessels.  The  city  is  in  an  agricultural 
and  lumbering  region,  has  large  shipping  interests,  and  con- 
tains a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $25,000,  a  private  bank, 
and  a  monthly  and  two  weekly  periodicals.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,199;  (1890)2,195. 

Stnrges,  Octavius:  physician;  b.  in  London,  England, 
1833  ;  educated  at  Addiscombe  as  a  cadet  in  the  ser\'ice  of 
the  East  India  Company;  served  in  India  as  a  lieutenant  in 
the  Bombay  Artillery;  returned  to  England  and  entered 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  taking  the  degrees  A.  B.  and 
A.  M.  in  1862 ;  entered  St.  George's  Hospital,  London ;  in 
1862  became  a  member  and  in  1870  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians  ;  M.  D.,  Cambridge,  1867 ;  lecturer  on 
forensic  medicine  1868-71,  on  materia  medica  1871-74,  on 
medicine  1874-93  in  Westminster  Hospital.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Clinical  Medicine 
(Ijondon,  1873) ;  The  Natural  History  and  Relations  of 
Pneumonia  (London,  1876) ;  On  Chorea  and  other  Allied 
Movements  (London,  1881).     D.  Nov.  3,  1894.         S.  T.  A. 

Stuixis :  village ;  St.  Joseph  co.,  Mieh.;  on  the  Gr.  Rapids 
and  Ind.  and  the  Lake  Sh.  and  Mich.  S.  railroads;  31  miles 
E.  by  N.  of  Elkhart,  and  36  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Kalamazoo  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  8-11).  It  is  in  an  agricul- 
tural region,  and  contains  9  churches,  public,  central,  and 


ward  schools,  water-works,  elec^tric  lights,  £air-^roiiD*l>, 
mile  race-track,  several  large  manufactories,  a  nation&l  i>»^: 
(capital  $65,000),  a  State  bank  (capital  $50,000),  and  a  zu  oi  j  ' 
ly  and  3  weeklv papers.  Pop.  (1880)  2,060 ;  (1890)  2,489  ;  <  1  ??i » 
State  census,  1^,834  Editor  of  *•  JorRSf  a  l-'' 

Sturgis,  Russell  :   architect  and  writer  on  art  ;     l>.    : 
Baltimore,  Md.,  Oct.  16,  1836;   studied  architecture    in 
New  York  architect's  office  and  in  Europe,  and  prac-tii- 
from  1865  to  1878.    He  then  retired  on  account  of    /*-*  1-. 
health  and  has  since  occupied  himself  with  archieolo^^'  u  i 
fine  art,  and  the  work  of  societies  devoted  to  fine  art  in'  >»'»-' 
York  and  elsewhere.    Among  the  buildings  designed  by  L  i '  i 
are  Battell  Chapel,  Farnam  Hall,  Durfee  Hall,  and  '!.»&%* 
ranee  Hall  of  Yale  College,  the  Homoeopathic  Medic&l  <   • 
lege  and  Flower  Hospital  in  New  York,  the  Mechanics*  m.- 
Farmers'  Bank  at  Aloany,  and  churches,  business  buihlin.:- 
and  residences  in  New  York,  Albany,  Aurora,  TarrTt«>wr 
Watertown,  N.  Y.,  New  Haven,  Farmington,   and  'Lit«  i 
field.  Conn.,  Minneapolis,  and  Louisville.     He  was   c^lir* 
for  decorative  art  ana  mediaeval  archieology  of  The  Vmt*t  t  . 
Dictionary,  for  fine  art  in  general  of  Webster's  Iniemati**/^ .  r 
Dictionary,  and  for  archaeology  and  art  of  Johnson*s  L't,  -- 
versal  Ct/clopcedia ;  otherwise  nis  published  writings  h2i\» 
been  limited  to  periodicals. 

Sturlason,  Snorre  :  See  Snorri  Sturluson. 

Sturm,  stdbrm,  Johannes,  von :  educator ;  b.  at  Schleiii «-r. . 
Germany,  Oct.  1,  1507;  founded  (1537)  the  gymnasium  n 
Strassburg,  which  attained,  under  him,  worldwide  eelebrit  ^ 
He  was  generally  regarded  as  the  greatest  educator  eonnei^-i '  . 
with  the  Reformed  Church,  and  received  the  title  Proecfj'^  -r 
OermanicB.  His  work  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  esiiuL- 
lishment  of  classical  schools.  To  read,  write,  and  spe/^k 
Ciceronian  Latin  was  the  great  object  of  his  instractio^i. 
and  to  this  end  a  course  of  twenty-one  years — six  at  horr.  f. 
ten  at  school,  five  at  college  or  university — ^was  thou^lit 
about  sufficient.  D.  at  Strassburg,  Mar.  3, 1589.  See  Jo>tr]  ih 
Payne,  Lectures  on  the  History  oj  Edueaiion,       C.  H.  T. 

Start,  Sir  Charles:  explorer;  b.  in  England  early  in 
the  nineteenth  century ;  entered  the  army  at  an  early  atrf. 
In  1828  he  was  the  leader  of  an  exi>edition  organize«l  to  ex- 
plore the  interior  of  Australia,  during  which  he  discover.  •! 
the  Macquarie,  Castlereagh,  and  Darling  rivers,  and  s«h.]. 
after  led  another  expedition  which  explored  the  cours*-  «•: 
the  Murrumbidgee  river,  and  in  June,  1830,  discovered  iri'. 
great  Murray  river,  which  he  followed  to  its  mouth  in  Ijik'. 
Alexandrinii,  returning  early  in  1831.    In  1844  he  penetraTt .. 
to  the  great  stony  desert  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  ctn.ti- 
nent.    He  was  made  registrar-general  and  subsequently  ( *»- 
lonial  secretary  of  South  Australia.    In  conseauence  of  ii> 
exposure  in  these  expeditions  he  became  totally  blind,  ani 
returned  to  England,  where  he  was  knighted  a  short  tint 
before  his  death.    He  published  Two  Expeditions  intu  tf.r 
Interior  of  Southern  Australia  in  1828^1  (1838)  and  Nnr- 
ratitfe  of  an  Expedition  into  Central  A%tstralia  in  lS4^-^\ 
(1849).    D.  at  Cheltenham,  England,  June  16,  1869. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harri>-gton. 

Stnrzenbecker,  stoorts'«n-bek-kcr,  Osrar  Patrick  (<>r«ir 
Odd):  writer;  b.  in  Stockholm,  Sweden,  1811.  He  was  fnn. 
the  first  one  of  the  warmest  advocates  of  the  union  of  Si*ati- 
dinavian  countries,  on  behalf  of  which  he  began  to  writv  m: 
1830.  His  greatest  success  was  achieved  in  the  light  feuiil.  - 
ton  style  imitated  from  the  French,  in  which  he  has  ne\<T 
been  equaled  in  Sweden.  His  best  sketches  are  collecttni  .r. 
Orupper  och  Personagen  frdn  igdr  (Groups  and  Persons  f  n  m. 
Yesterday).  He  was  also  the  author  of  lyrics  that  di<{'!a} 
patriotic  warmth  and  a  deep  sympathy  for  human  pro^r»  ^-^ 
b.  near  Helsinerborg,  Feb.,  1869.  Selected  works  were  \ni\- 
lished  at  Stockholm  in  1878.  D.  K.  Dodol. 

Stuttering :  See  Stammering. 

Stuttgart,  stobt'gaart :  caoital  of  the  kingdom  of  Wr.r- 

temberg,  Germany;  on  the  rfesenbach,  an  affluent  of  tl- 
Neckar;  38  miles  *E.  S.  E.  of  Carlsruhe  (see  map  of  Germ  n. 
Empire,  ref.  7-D).  It  lies  in  a  charming  vallev  amomr  Inn- 
covered  with  forests  and  gardens,  and  is  regularly  and  boai.'  • 
fully  built.  The  Altstadt,  occupying  nearly  the  center,  a:.!  i 
grouped  around  the  market-place,  contains  several  small  a:;-: 
narrow  streets,  but  the  new  parts  of  the  city,  mostly  en^  •»«. 
during  the  nineteenth  century,  have  broad  and  beaut  if  u 
streets  and  symmetrical  squares.  The  most  prominent  \^^v  ' 
is  the  palace  s<iuare.  ornamented  with  gardens  and  fountai:.^ 
containing  the  jubilee  column,  over  50  feet  high,  and  Mir 
rounded  by  magnificent  buildings.    Among  theee  the  ntv 


•4fl  I  fW. 


,.,,1.1^. 


790 


SUABIA 


SUBLIME 


Saabia :  See  Swabia. 

Suokiiu,  swaa-keem',  or  Sawakin:  fortified  town  of 
Nubia  and  best  port  on  the  Red  Sea ;  on  an  island  a  few 
hundred  feet  from  shore ;  lat  19°  7  N.  (see  man  of  Africa, 
ref.  3-(J).  It  has  been  in  the  possession  of  the  British  since 
1882.  Formerly  the  head  of  the  caravan  routes  into  the 
interior,  it  lost  much  of  its  importance  as  a  result  of  the 
Mahdist  rebellion,  and  this  is  not  yet  recovered,  because  of 
the  insecurity  of  the  interior.  The  influence  of  the  British 
hardly  extends  beyond  the  reach  of  their  cannon.  Opposite 
Suakim  on  the  mainland  is  the  suburb  of  El-Kef,  also  forti- 
fied, connected  with  the  city  by  a  low  bridge  and  short  rail- 
way. The  latter  is  all  that  was  made  of  a  railway  projected 
to  Berbera  on  the  Nile  in  1884,  but  prevented  at  that  time 
by  the  Mahdists.  Suakim  is  considered  of  great  strategical 
and  commercial  importance,  and  is  the  most  suitable  ter- 
minus for  a  railway  into  Egyptian  Sudan.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  gum  arabic,  silver,  ivory,  senna,  and  skins. 

Mark  W.  Harbixoton. 

Subcarbonirerons  Series:  in  American  geologv,  the 
lowest  group  of  Carboniferous  strata.  It  occupies  tne  in- 
terval l^tween  the  Devonian  system  and  the  coal-measures. 
Earlier  designations  of  the  same  division  are  mountain 
limestone,  Carboniferous  limestone,  and  Lower  Carbonifer- 
ous, and  a  later  proposed  title,  Mississippian  series,  has  much 
to  commend  it.  In  the  Mississippi  valley  it  consists  princi- 
pally of  limestones  and  shales,  ana  includes,  in  an  ascending 
order,  the  Kinderhook,  Burlington,  Keokuk,  Warsaw,  St. 
Louis,  and  Chester  formations  or  groups.  In  Pennsylvania 
the  equivalent  series  consists  principally  of  sandstone  and 
shale,  having  a  maximum  thickness  of  5,000  feet  The 
series  has  also  been  recognized  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick,  and  has  a  great  development  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region.  The  fossils  are  principally  marine  in- 
vertebrates, some  of  which,  especially  the  brachiopods,  are 
of  worldwide  distribution.  Remains  of  fishes  and  of  rep- 
tiles also  occur.  Rocks  corresponding  to  the  Mississippian 
series  in  time  have  a  wide  distribution  in  other  countries, 
and  especially  in  Europe.  See  Carboxifeboi's  Period  and 
Devonian  Period.  Israel  C.  Russell. 

Subconscious  States :  states  of  mind  which  belong  to 
us  and  which  we  can  pay  attention  to,  but  which  we  ma^ 
not  be  actually  thinking  of ;  such  as  our  sense  of  the  furni- 
ture in  the  room  about  us.  Such  states  or  elements  are  very 
common  in  our  mental  history,  and  are  called  subconscious 
as  long  as  there  is  evidence  that  they  have  not  sunk  entirely 
out  of  the  whole  of  our  present  state  of  mind.  On  the  other 
hand,  things  which  we  may  merely  remember  on  occasion, 
and  are  in  no  sense  conscious  of  at  a  particular  moment,  are 
then  "  unconscious,"    See  Unconscious  State.      J.  M.  B. 

Snber'ic  Acid  [aubertc  is  from  Lat.  au'ber,  cork-tree, 
cork] :  a  homologue  of  oxalic  and  succinic  acids.  Its  gen- 
eral characters  are  those  of  that  family  of  dibasic  acids,  and 
its  empirical  formula  is  C»Hi404.  The  name  was  originally 
due  to  the  fact  that  this  acid  was  first  obtained  by  the  action 
of  nitric  acid  on  cork.  Fats  generally,  however,  yield  it  by 
the  same  treatment,  and  it  is  oy  no  means  a  characteristic 
product  of  cork.  To  obtain  suberic  acid  free  from  the  other 
acids  produced  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  fats,  the  mixed 
product  is  treated  with  cold  ether,  in  which  this  acid  is  al- 
most insoluble.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  purify  it  further 
by  recrystallization.  It  may  be  obtained  in  large  needles, 
which  sublime  like  oxalic  acid.  It  is  sparingly  soluble  in 
cold,  but  easily  in  boiling  water,  and  soluole  in  alcohol. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Suberine :  See  Cork. 

Sttbiaco,  sdb-bee-aa'ko  (anc.  Sublagueum) :  town ;  in  the 
province  of  Rome,  Italy;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Teverone ; 
42  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Rome  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref. 
6-E).  It  derived  its  name  from  its  situation  below  a  villa 
belonging  to  Nero,  in  the  grounds  of  which  were  three  lakes. 
In  the  monastery  of  Santa  Scolastica,  founded  in  the  fifth 
and  restored  in  the  tenth  century,  the  printing-press  was 
first  used  in  Italy,  a  Lactantius  (146*5)  being  the  nrst  issue. 
The  monastery  of  St.  Benedict,  the  first  founded  by  the  saint 
himself,  was  rebuilt  in  817.    Pop.  6,503. 

Subinfeudation :  See  Landlord  and  Tenant. 

Sublima'tion  [from  Lat.  siibtima're,  raise,  deriv.  of  sub- 
It' mi8,  lifted  up,  on  high] :  a  chemical  process  of  separation 
and  purification,  applicable  onlv  occasionally  in  cases  in 
which  a  volatile  substance  condenses  or  crystallizes  from 
the  condition  of  vapor  directly  to  the  solid  condition,  and 


not  to  the  usual  li(}uid  form.  In  such  cases  tjiis  met  Ij^'**!  o 
obtaining  bodies  m  pure  and  crystallized  form  is  >»i;-rM; 
convenient  and  valuable.  Amon^  the  more  important  -^i. '» 
stances  to  which  this  method  is  applicable  are  suIf»Kfjr 
iodine,  vermilion,  corrosive  sublimate,  calomel,  sails  r^f  .imi- 
monia,  arsenious  oxide,  oxalic,  benzoic,  succinic,  and  f '  >  r  ^ 
gallic  acids,  camphor,  caffeine,  etc.  As  those  suljstsir.i  ♦•? 
which  volatilize  at  low  temperatures  will  readily  (>ass  t  h  r<  •  i  j  ^  I ; 
porous  diaphragms  like  paper  when  in  a  vaporous  stat*-.  it  .<!< 
often  convenient  to  cover  the  lower  vessel,  contain  in  >r  ?  -  •=• 
substance  to  be  volatilized,  with  paper,  which  will  preven  t  t  L  •«- 
crystals  that  condense  in  the  head  or  upper  inverted  ^-e-^-'i 
from  falling  back  and  causing  waste  of  time.  In  ca»^^  t 
bodies  requiring  high  temperatures  wire-gauze  screens  xinAy 
be  employed  in  the  same  way.      Revised  oy  Ira  Remse:>'. 

Sublime  [from  Lat  sMi'mxs,  lifted  up,  lofty,  sublini*  "  : 
Contradistinguished  from  the  beautiful,  which  cbarxus  a  : .  1 
attracts  us,  tne  sublime  awes  us,  moves  us  with  a  ftH^Iii.^ 
of  pleasure  mixed  with  fear.     The  sublime  in  nature-    :-» 
usually  found  in  the  boundless  expanse  of  the  ocean,  in    t  K«- 
resistless  might  of  its  waves  when  moved  by  a  storm .  •  r 
more  frequently  in  the  thunder-storm  with  its'  threaten  f  i.  ;r 
look,  its  vivid  and  destructive  lightnings,  and  its  deafen  '.i  ^ 
crashes  of  thunder.     Still  more  adequate  is  the  maiiif* -ro- 
tation  of  the  sublime  in  instances  of  moral  heroistii — in 
deeds  of  daring  and  self-denial;   the  sublime  in  art   h.-t-- 
most   frequently  made  use  of  this  phase.    Kant,  in    !•:- 
Critique  of  the  Judgment  (g  23-53),  has  given  the  first  tl\«  r  - 
ough  and  systematic  treatment  of  the  sublime.    Accor<lii.  ir 
to  him,  "while  the  beautiful  in  nature  appertains  to  ri.  • 
form  of  an  object — hence  to  its  circumscribed  limits — tfjt- 
sublime,  on  the  contrary,  is  to  be  found  also  in  formless  ob- 
jects: a  want  of  limitation  attaches  to  it.    It  is.  howevi-r. 
represented  as  a  whole,  and  not  as  something  merely  fni.L:- 
mentary.    The  beautiful  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  tl.e 
portrayal  of  an  idea  of  the  understanding  (not  a  mere  t-<»n- 
cept),  but  the  sublime  is  rather  the  portrayal  of  an  idea  t  >f 
the  i-eason,  which,  from  its  nature,  can  not  be  adequatf.\ 
represented   by  material  things."     "The  pleasure  of  tfi'r* 
beautiful  appertains  to  the  quality  of  an  object,  while  tl.* 
sublime  is  manifested  chiefly  in  the  quantitative  aspect  •  -f 
it."    "To  the  charm  of  the  beautiful  there  is  frequency 
joined  a  sportiveness,  but  the  sublime  is  always  eamc^-t." 
"The  sublime,  in  its  proper  form,  is  not  preisented   in  a 
sensuous  manner,  but  concerns  only  ideas  of  the  rea«^>n. 
whose  very  incommensurability  with  sensuous  forms,  beiiit: 
exhibited,  stirs  the  heart."    *•  The  beautiful  pleases  us  in.- 
mediately,  but  in  its  presence  we  feel  disinterested ;  t  h»- 
sublime  pleases  us,  but  through  its  hostility  to  our  sensin>i]^ 
interests,"     Cousin   {On  the   True,  Beautiful,  and  G'ot^i. 
lecture  vii.)  says:  "A  beautiful  object  is  something  Cfi:.- 
pleted,  circumscribed,  limited,  which  all  our  faculties  ea>:!y 
embrace,  because  the  different  parts  are  on  a  somewhat 
narrow  scale.    A  sublime  object  is  that  which,  by  fornix 
not  in   themselves  disproportional,  but  less  definite  an.l 
more  difficult  to  seize,  awakens  in  us  the  sentiment  of  t  hr- 
infinite."     He^l  {Pathetics,  2d  part,  div.  i.,  chap,    ii.- 
makes  the  sublime  a  province  of  symbolic  art.  whose  ehitf 
function  is  to  portray  the  purification  of  spirit  and  its  m-^*- 
aration  from  the  world  of  sense  and  all  visible  existenrv. 
"The  highest  principle  is  regarded  as  existing  apart   l»y 
itself,  and  as  incapable  from  its  very  nature  of  finding  adt^ 
quate  expression   in  the  finite  appearances   of   the    renl 
world."    "  The  sublime  arises  in  an  attempt  to  express  lh» 
infinite  without  finding  in  the  domain  of  visible  phenomena 
an  object  capable  of  representing  it.    The  infinite  ele vat* •>: 
itself  above   particular    existences,  considered    either    in 
themselves  or  in  their  totality;  they  are  as  nothing  bef<»re 
it ;  and  the  positive  relation  which  sensuous  objects  have  to 
the  beautiful,  in  the  sublime  changes  to  a  negative  relatiim 
which  is  more  in  conformity  to  the  divine  nature.    Gotl  i-^ 
thus  represented  as  purified  of  all  contact  and  participation 
of  visible  appearance."    "In  the  Orient,  in  India,  the  Ont\ 
or  Substance,  is  conceived  as  immanent  in  contingent  tx- 
istences  created  by  it ;  they  are  portrayed  as  mere  instru- 
ments of  the  divine  power,  or  as  mere  oniaments  for  th.- 
display  of  the  glory  of  the  Absolute."    In  the  Bhapm^if 
Oita  (ch.  xi.)  the  vision  of  the  Universal  Form  of  Vishn:. 
furnishes  us  the  highest  example  of  this  phase  of  the  suK 
lime.    The  speech  of  the  Erageist  in  Goethe*8  Faust  is  an 
example  quite  similar  in  form  and  content.     In  Ilebnw 
poetry  Hegel  finds  the  highest  realization  of  the  sublime  : 
"  Jehovah  is  not  *  immanent '  in  nature,  but  *  transcendent  * 


SUBLIME   PORTE 


SirBMARIXE  NAVIGATION 


791 


— lord  over  the  uniTersc — ami  in  his  presen<?e  the  eotire 
craAiioQ  if  devoid  of  power  diid  sinltB  into  nothiiigiiesi*^* 
The  grandeur  of  th«s  f^jnl  is  revealed  by  ibe  liift  thftt  tht* 
rP4il  worlds  with  all  its  s|>icndor*  i>om|\  and  njBgnifit^enctfJg 
fi  tucr^ac^identf  t^n  in^uumeiM,  an  epheineiitl  fui[ieAriiriee 
in  ix>inp»ri8on  with  th<.'  tttin>al  and  ini mutable  li^irifr*  In 
r.hi?  loith  Pdiilm  God  is  represented  as  cnvvnng  himsflf 
with  light  A3  with  a  irarmenl,  and  a«4  streichiiif:  tiut  thi- 
h*'iiveiia  Uk&  »  tent,  *  Jle  iayeth  the  beam*  of  his  chambers 
til  ihf  waters;  htMnaketh  the  elou<k  hi^^  chariot ;  he  walketli 
•If too  the  wings  of  the  wind  :  he  looketh  on  the  earth,  hml  it 
tr*:mblfth  i  he  tmieheth  the  hills»  and  they  smok^.  He  laid 
tilt  fimndatioTiS  of  the  earth,  that  it  shouhl  not  be  removed 
fon?ver."  In  the  i>salm  of  Mtise^  {Pg.  xc.)  the  ftnitinte  of 
in  an  funiisihes  the  eontra,-*!  which  tnakes  the  portrayal  of 
Ih'-  omrdi>r>tem'e  cif  God  sublime/'  For  other  but  Ipsj* 
ivlL-q^tiatu  treatises  on  tliH  su1iject»  the  remler  i;*  referred  to 
tho  W^ri tings  of  Burke^  Dugnkl  Stewart,  and  Addison,  The 
fftmoiis  tjneatise  ot  Longinus  iUtpl  ""T^oos)  i^hiiuld   Tn>t  be 

•  utiitteid*  W'lUJAM  T.  H-iftats. 

t^TtMlitiP  Tortei  See  Porte. 

SiihliiXjiniin  :  SeeSptiAi>'. 

Stihiiiurhie  XaTlg'atlau  [mihtnarine  is  from  I^T.  »iih^ 
under  -»-  marine,  from  Lat.  mari'nus,  deriv.  of  mare,  sea] : 
tl.»*  art  of  navigating  a  submerged  vessel.  In  submarine 
n.i vibration  it  is  requisite  that  an  operator  should  be  able  to 
move  freely  in  any  direction  and  at  any  depth,  and  with  no 

•  •Minmunication  with  the  surface  except  at  long  intervals. 
I'lif  accounts  of  early  attenipts  to  accomplish  these  results 
are  exceedingly  meager.  William  Bourne,  of  London,  is 
mentioned  as  proposing  a  plan  in  1578,  and  Cornelius  Deb- 
hnd.  in  1624,  is  said  to  have  constructed  a  submarine  boat 
to  carry  twelve  rowers,  besides  passengers,  and  also  to  have 
discovered  a  liquid  which  had  the  property  of  restoring  air 
wlien  it  became  impure  by  breathing:  but  he  die<l  before  his 
plans  were  perfected,  and  his  secret  died  with  him.  Papin 
and  Borelli  are  mentioned  in  1672,  and  Stapleton  in  161)3; 
t  .ut  little  was  apparently-  accomplished  till  1771,  when  David 
I5u>hnell  first  suggeste<l  the  idea  of  attacking  a  vessel  un- 
«Krneath  the  water,  and  constructe<l  a  submarine  boat  cap- 
«l)Ie  of  accomplishing  the  desired  object.  There  is  no  drawing 
«  \tant  of  this  remarkable  invention,  but  the  accompanying 
tiiriire  corresponds  with  the  descriptions,  which  are  quite  ac- 
<  unite,  and  will  serve  to  illustrate  an  invention  which,  for  the 
purpose  for  which  it  was  desigiied,  was  the  most  perfect  thing 
« 'f  its  kind  that  has  ever  been  invented.  The  boat  wfvs  shaped 
like  a  turtle,  and  floated  in  the  water  with  the  tail  down.  It 
c«  »iitaine<l  air  enough  to  support  life  for  half  an  hour,  and  air 
could  be  renewed  at  the  end  of  that  time  through  small  ven- 
t  i  lators  bv  rising  to  the  surface.  The  operator  was  seate<l  in 
the  middle,  the  seat  forming  a  brace  between  the  two  sides, 
and  in  this  position  he  had  his  eyes  opposite  one  of  the  nu- 
merous glass  plates  in  the  cover  or  top  of  the  boat.  In  front 
of  him  was  the  handle  of  a  screw,  by  which  the  boat  was  pro- 
ptllt'd  ;  another,  by  which  it  was  raised  or  lowereil ;  a  compass 
mnrked  with  phosphorus ;  a  water-gauge,  to  show  the  depth, 
marke<l  with  oil  and  phosphorus;  and  near  him  the  handles 
or  treadles  of  various  small  pumps  and  levers,  bv  which  water 
ami  foul  air  were  expelled,  the  rudder  moved,  ballast  let  go, 
et^*.  The  torpedo — or  submarine  magazine,  as  Bushnell 
calle<l  it — consisted  of  a  block  of  oak  containing  a  charge  of 
at>out  150  lb.  of  powder.     This  blo<'k  was  on  the  upper  after 


underneath  the  bottonit  fasten  the  torpedo  h^  means  of  thi 
sRTew,    The  torpedo  and  screw  were  then  detached  from  tUi 


Fio.  8.— Bushneirs  submarine  boat :  elevation. 

operator's  boat,  a  clock-work  n»eclianism  inside  the  torpedo 
being  set  going  at  the  same  time.  This  clock-work  could  be 
set  for  six,  eight,  or  twelve  hours*  run,  thus  allowing  the 
o[>erator  ample  time  to  make  his  escape.    See  Torpedoes. 


Fio.  8.'BuBhnell*8  submarine  boat : 

A,  permanent  ballast. 

B,  movable  ballast. 

C,  waler-jfauge. 

D,  compass. 

E,  screw. 

F,  screw. 

G,  rudder. 
I,  entrance. 
L  L,  air-pipes. 


vertical  longitudinal  section. 

M.  ventilator. 

X  X,  valves  in  L  L. 

N,  valve  to  admit  water. 

O  O,  water-tank. 

P.  pump  for  discharging  O. 

Q,  Dilgepump. 

K,  wood  screw. 

8,  magazine. 

T,  percussion  clock-work. 


Fig.  1.— Bushn^-irs  snrimarine  boat  :  plan. 

f»art  r)f  the  V>oat  and  connocted  by  nwans  of  a  rope  t^  a  wood 
MT«w,  the  han<ll«'  ijf  which  was  din-clly  in  fn.m  of  the 
o|..  rator.  The  mo<le  of  operation  wju<  to  move  slowly  along 
\\u'  surface,  with  tiie  top  just  awa-^li,  till  witliin  a  short  dis- 
tance of  a  vessel  at  anchor,  then  to  sink,  and,  coming  up 


In  1S45  a  shoemaker  of  Michigan  City,  Ind.,  named 
Phillips,  devised  a  submarine  boat  in  which  he  made  fre- 
quent descents,  sometimes  taking  his 
family.  In  1864  occurred  the  only  suc- 
cessful use  of  a  subnuirine  boat  in  war- 
fare, when  the  U.  S.  S.  Housatonic  was 
sunk  by  a  spar-tor|>edo  carried  by  a  Con- 
federate **  David.'  a  ciijar-shaped  br>nt 
built  of  l>oiler-iron  an<i  having  a  crew 
of  nine  men,  eight  of  whom  worked  the 
propeller.  This  l)oat  is,  however,  sun- 
posed  to  have  been  only  partially  sun- 
morged  when  the  attack  was  made.  She 
wjus  sunk  with  her  entire  crew  by  the 
explosion  of  her  own  torpedo.  About 
the  same  time  the  Freneh  (lovernment 
tried  a  boat  calle<l  the  Plongeur,  dc- 
siirned  by  A<lniiral  Bourgeois  an<l  M. 
Rrun.  This  vessel  was  <»f  about  2(K)  tons  disjilacement  and 
propelled  by  K>  horse-|>ower  coinprr>se<l-air  enijines.  Her 
depth  of  immersion  was  to  Ix*  regulated  by  the  admission  or 
expulsion  <if  water,  but  horizontal  rudders  of  large  area  were 
found  a  better  means  of  attaining  this  end,  and  a  vertical 


792 


SUBMARINE  NAVIGATION 


screw  worked  by  hand  was  afterward  added  to  assist  in  the 
depth  regulation.  Although  since  Bnshnell's  time  many  in- 
ventors, including  Fulton,  have  turned  their  attention  to 
submarine  navigation,  little  real  progress  was  made  for  over 
a  century.  The  principal  naval  powers,  however,  have  con- 
ducted experiments  looking  to  the  adoption  of  submarine 
boats  for  war  purposes,  and  it  has  been  shown  that  subma- 
rine navigation  is  feasible,  though  opinions  differ  greatly  as 
to  its  value  for  actual  service. 

In  Great  Britain  the  Nordenfelt  boats  have  attracted 
widespread  attention.  Their  principal  features  are  steam- 
propulsion  on  the  surface,  the  use  of  the  reserve  heat  stored 
in  the  water  and  superheated  steam  for  propulsion  under 
water,  and  submergence  by  vertical  screws.  The  first  boat, 
built  in  1883  and  sold  to  Greece,  had  a  surface  speed  of  9  knots. 
The  second  and  third  boats  were  of  160  tons  displacement, 
with  12  knots  surface  speed,  and  were  built  for  the  Turkish 
Government.  The  fourth  boat  embodies  numerous  improve- 
ments over  her  forerunners.  Her  displacement  is  250  tons 
submerged  and  160  tons  when  running  on  the  surface.  En- 
gines of  1,000  horse-power  give  a  speed  of  15  knots  on  the 
surface,  and  the  heat  stored  in  her  boilers,  which  contain  27 
tons  of  hot  water,  furnishes  power  for  a  submerged  run  of 
about  20  knots  at  5-knot  speed.  Submergence  is  effected 
by  vertical  screws,  working  in  wells,  one  at  each  end  of  the 
boat,  and  actuated  by  separate  engines,  the  boat  being  first 
brought  awash  by  filling  certain  compartments  with  water. 
The  reserve  buoyancy  is  never  less  than  half  a  ton,  and  can 
be  increased  by  expelling  the  water  by  powerful  pumps.  In 
the  conning-tower  are  placed  the  necessary  connections  for 
controlling  the  machinery  for  driving  and*  steering  the  ves- 
sel, sinking  or  rising,  and  for  discharging  the  Whitehead 
torpedoes  with  which  she  is  equipped. 

ni  France,  where  perhaps  tne  greatest  advance  in  the  art 
of  submarine  navigation  has  been  made,  the  Goubet  boats, 
a  number  of  which  are  said  to  have  been  bought  by  Rus- 
sia, succeeded  the  Plongeur.  These  are  verv  small  boats 
and  originally  were  driven  by  hand-power,  tliough  in  the 


Holland,  of  New  York,  have  been  tried.  The  esseotia.!  f  e: 
ture  of  the  Baker  boat  is  the  use  of  two  screws  on  &  traii 
verse  shaft  through  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  boat,  th*  - 1 
screws  being  susceptible  of  movement  so  that  the  tbrurl 
developed  by  their  rotation  can  be  directed  at  'wrill  in  i 
plane  at  right  angles  to  the  shaft  The  motive  po'wer  :  i 
electricity  from  storage-batteries,  and  submergence  is  f^f 
fected  and  maintained  by  giving  the  screws  a  sixffioit:-!.  I 
angle  to  overcome  the  buoyancy  bv  the  vertical  thrust  ar*  I 
at  the  same  time  propel  her  by  the  horizontal  compont  nt, 
This  plan  renders  it  less  important  to  preserve  horizontal  it ; 
of  the  boat's  axis  than  in  a  boat  whose  motive  |)ower*  i?-  «* 
the  stern,  but  it  has  the  disadvantages  of  being  wasteful  •  f 
power  and  of  placing  the  screws  in  a  greatly  exposed  jk'^'- 
tion.  The  Holland  boat,  which  has  been,  perhaps,  as  su'.  - 
cessful  as  any  yet  built,  is  shown  in  the  drawing.  Slie  ^*  :i^ 
31  feet  long  by  6  feet  in  diameter,  circular  in  cross-seot  i*  i*. 
and  weighed  18  tons  when  submerged.  The  motive  j^^-wt^r 
was  obtained  from  a  petroleum-engine  which  gave  a  ?^ur- 
face  speed  of  8  knots  and  a  submerged  speed  of  abK>u  t  t> 
knots.  Reservoirs  containing  240  cuoic  feet  of  air  at  ::^  *»-» 
lb.  per  square  inch  supplied  the  air  necessary  for  brent  )iii;  ^'' 

Surposes,  for  the  engine,  for  the  propelling  charge  of  a  tnin 
xed  in  the  bow,  and  for  expelling  water  from  the  wat^L-r- 
ballast  tanks  if  it  became  necessary  to  ascend  quickly  to  t  r^'.- 
surface.     The  engine-compressor,  drawing  its  air  directly 
from  the  living  space,  gave  sufficient  ventilation.    The  e-=- 
sential  feature  of  this  boat  was  the  use  of  diving-rudders  *.  ri 
a  horizontal  shaft  at  the  stern,  to  produce  and  maintain  =?iiW- 
mergence,  the  boat  bein^  steered  m  a  vertical  direction  ju-t 
as  an  ordinary  boat  is  m  the  horizontal  plane.    The  pra*  - 
ticability  of  this  method  was  proved  by  numerous  dives  in 
water  of  various  depths,  and  it  was  found  possible  to  niaii.- 
tain  a  nearly  constant  depth  either  by  hand-steering  or  f»v 
an  automatic  device  similar  to  the  depth-regulator  of   t% 
Whitehead  torpedo.    A  camera-lucida  projecting  al)ove  th»- 
water  gave  a  clear  view  while  the  boat  was  running  several 
feet  below  the  surface. 


Fio.  4— Vertical  longitudinal  section  of  Holland's  submarine  boat:  a,  submarine  srun  and  projectile;  b,  firing-charge  chamber;  /,  automatic 

air-pressure  regulator  ;  gg^  water-ballast  tanks ;  j\  camera-lucida. 


later  ones  an  electric  motor  working  from  accumulators  is 
used.  The  submerged  displacement  is  2  tons  and  the  speed 
5  knots.  Trim  is  preservea  by  water-tanks  at  each  end  con- 
nected by  a  pump  which  transfers  water  from  one  to  the 
other  on  being  started  by  the  automatic  action  of  a  pendu- 
lum. The  crew  of  two  men  are  provided  with  suiDcient  air, 
from  a  reservoir  at  50  atmospheres  pressure,  for  ten  hours. 
The  screw  is  fitted  with  a  universal  joint  so  that  the  pro- 
pelling power  can  be  applied  to  changing  the  course  in  any 
direction.  The  armament  consists  of  a  torpedo  carried  out- 
side the  boat  and  intended  to  be  released  at  the  proper  mo- 
ment so  as  to  rise  under  the  enemv's  bottom  and  there  be 
exploded  by  a  wire  leading  to  the  boat  after  she  has  with- 
drawn to  a  safe  distance.  The  uttor  impracticability  of  this 
method  of  attack  is  evident.  A  later  French  production  is 
the  Oymnote,  of  30  tons  displacement,  spindle-shaped,  and 
56  feet  long  by  6  feet  maximum  diameter.  This  boat  was 
so  successful  that  a  larger  boat  of  the  same  general  de- 
sign, and  named  after  the  inventor,  Gustave  Zed^,  was  also 
ordered.  The  Gymnote  is  propelled  by  a  55  horse-power  elec- 
tric motor  worked  by  accumulators,  submergence  being  ef- 
fected by  filling  water-compartments  until  she  has  only  a 
slight  buoyancy  and  then  causing  her  to  dive  by  means  of 
horizontal  rudders.  She  has  a  speed  of  10  knots  and  is 
worked  by  a  crew  of  three  men.  An  electric  gyroscope 
indicates  angular  movements  in  the  horizontal  plane,  and 
enables  her  to  maintain  a  fixed  course  beneath  the  surface. 
In  the  U.  S.  two  improved  types  of  submarine  boat,  in- 
vented respectively  by  George  C.  Baker,  of  Detroit,  and  J.  P. 


In  1892  an  appropriation  of  $200,000  was  made  to  enalle 
the  Navy  Department  to  build  and  test  a  submarine  boat, 
and  Mr.  Holland's  plans  for  a  boat  of  about  150  tons  dis- 

Slacement  were  adopted.  This  boat  differs  from  that  above 
escribed  in  having  a  70  horse-power  electric  motor,  worked 
from  storage-batteries,  for  under-water  propulsion.  Her 
surface  speed  was  designed  to  be  15  knots,  witn  1,000  hors*^ 
power  steam-engines  actuating  twin  screws,  and  her  sub- 
merged speed  8  knots  for  six  hours.  An  automatic  device 
controlling  the  vertical  rudders  enables  a  straight  course 
to  be  held  under  water.  The  armament  adopted  consists 
of  Whitehead  torpedoes  expelled  from  a  pair  of  bow  tuUs. 
In  addition  to  the  diving-rudders  this  boat  has  a  vertical 
screw  at  each  end  actuated  by  an  8  horse-power  electric 
motor  to  maintain  submergence  when  not  moving.  An 
important  feature  is  an  automatic  safety  device  by  mean* 
of  which,  when  a  dangerous  depth  is  reached,  air  is  ad- 
mitted into  a  bow  compartment,  expelling  a  large  quantity 
of  water,  and,  by  raising  the  bow,  changing  the  course 
upward. 

General  requirements  for  submarine  boats  for  war  pur- 
poses— and  this  is  their  only  practical  use — stated  in  the 
order  of  their  importance,  are  safety,  facility  of  manceuvor. 
speed,  endurance,  and  offensive  power.  For  safety  the  lx*t 
must  have  strength  to  resist  the  crushing  force  of  the  great- 
est depth  to  which  she  will  descend,  and  must  possess  a  re- 
serve buoyancy,  overcome  during  submergence  oy  mechan- 
ical means  but  never  destroyed.  She  must  have  stability 
enough  to  prevent  capsizing  or  considerable  change  of  trim 


7W 


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sii»Mi.fii»«  rf ^ ' 


794 


SUBSIDIES 


important  grants  of  this  kind  in  favor  of  roads  and  canals. 
In  1B50  large  grants  of  public  land  were  made  to  the  Illinois 
Central  and  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  railroads,  throuch  the  me- 
dium of  the  States  of  Illinois,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi, 
Congress  for  form's  sake  delivering  the  land  to  the  States, 
to  be  in  turn  by  them  delivered  to  the  railway  companies. 
The  example  was  rapidly  followed  in  other  parts  of  the  U.  S., 
the  system  being  extended  to  Missouri  in  1852,  to  Arkansas 
in  1853,  and  in  1856  to  Michi^n,  Wisconsin,  Ibwa,  Florida, 
and  Louisiana,  besides  additional  grants  to  Alabama  and 
Mississippi.  It  was  a  game  of  sectional  interests,  each  part 
of  the  republic  being  anxious  to  secure  its  share  of  the  spoil. 
Some  27,000,000  acres  were  given  to  corporations  in  this  way 
before  the  crisis  of  1857  put  a  temporary  stop  to  all  schemes 
of  the  kind. 

The  civil  war,  though  it  stopped  railway  building,  gave  a 
new  impulse  to  the  policy  of  subsidies.  California  was  at 
that  time  so  far  out  of  communication  with  the  rest  of  the 
republic  that  its  adherence  to  the  Union  was  a  matter  of 
sentiment  rather  than  of  direct  connection.  To  strengthen 
this  sentiment  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  secure  the  means  of 
communication  by  land  when  it  was  no  longer  safe  by  sea, 
public  attention  was  directed  to  the  project  of  a  Pacific  rail- 
way, which  seemed  to  be  a  political  necessity,  to  be  obtained 
at  almost  any  price.  The  Pacific  Railroad  Bill,  carried  by 
Thaddeus  Stevens  in  1862,  gave  to  the  Union  and  the  Cen- 
tral Pacific  railroads  a  money  subsidy  amounting  to  over 
$25,000  a  mile,  and  more  than  30,000,000  acres  of  land  in 
addition.  The  money  subsidy  took  the  form  of  a  loan,  but 
it  was  not  expected  tnat  it  would  be  repaid.  It  seemed  for 
a  time  doubtful  whether  the  road  woula  be  built  at  all ;  but 
the  work  proved  unexpectedly  easy,  and  the  Cr^it  Mobilier, 
a  construction  company  formed  for  the  purpose  of  building 
the  road,  realized  enormous  profits,  involving  a  public  scan- 
dal, since  many  Congressmen  were  found  to  hold  the  stock 
of  this  construction  company  without  having  furnished  any 
consideration  therefor.  The  unexpected  success  of  this  en- 
terprise made  the  company  profitable,  and  it  might  have 
paid  interest  on  the  moneys  advanced  by  the  U.  S.,  but, 
taking  advantage  of  a  technical  defect  in  the  remedies  by 
which  the  lien  of  the  U.  S.  could  be  enforced,  the  company 
evaded  this  obligation.  The  Thurman  Act  of  1878  attempted 
to  settle  the  matter  by  providing  for  the  payment  to  the  U.  S. 
of  a  portion  of  the  earnings  of  the  company,  to  form  a  sink- 
ing fund  which  should  meet  the  amount  of  the  debt  at  ma- 
turity ;  but  these  earnings  proved  much  less  than  had  been 
expected. 

The  Northern  Pacific  road  did  not  succeed  in  getting  a 
cash  subsidy,  like  that  of  the  Union  Pacific,  but  its  promot- 
ers secured  a  double  grant  of  land  per  mile,  amounting  to 
about  47,000,000  acres  in  all.  The  two  southern  routes  se- 
cured about  70,000,000  acres,  so  that  there  have  been  granted 
in  aid  of  railways  something  like  160,000,000  acres  of  terri- 
torial land.  In  addition  to  this.  Congress,  in  the  years  im- 
mediately following  the  war,  renewed  the  policy  of  StAte 
land  grants,  renewing  those  which  had  been  forfeited  and 
adding  new  ones  to  the  amount  of  some  30,000,000  acres. 
Besides  these  grants  of  U.  S.  land,  certain  swamp  and  tim- 
ber lands,  which  under  general  laws  had  been  maae  the  prop- 
erty of  the  States  themselves,  were  also  devoted  to  the  aid  of 
railway  construction.  The  nominal  amount  of  land  thus 
granted  in  aid  of  railways  under  various  acts  exceeds  200,- 
000,000  acres,  but  only  a  little  more  than  a  fourth  of  this  has 
been  actually  patented. 

The  method  adopted  in  the  granting  of  the  lands  was  in- 
genious. The  whole  country  being  divided  into  quarter  sec- 
tions of  160  acres  each,  the  U.  S.  reserved  the  alternate 
squares  or  quarter  sections,  like  the  black  souares  on  a 
checker-board,  and  granted  to  the  railways  onfv  the  inter- 
mediate parts.  On  the  lands  thus  reserved  by  the  U.  S.  the 
price  was  at  once  doubled,  so  that  the  treasury  was  as  well 
off  as  before,  and  even  better  off,  since  its  land  came  into 
market  more  rapidly,  owing  to  the  construction  of  the  roads. 
Meantime,  it  was  ingeniously  argued  that  a  settler,  so  far 
from  being  burdened  by  the  change,  was  better  off  than  be- 
fore, for  he  could  better  afford  to  pay  $2.50  an  acre  for  land 
that  was  near  a  railway  than  $1.25  an  acre  for  land  which 
was  wholly  out  of  reach.  Thus  it  was  thought  that  the  help 
might  be  rendered  to  the  railways  without  sacrifice  of  any 
other  interests.  Unfortunately,* it  proved  that  the  system 
stimulated  unsound  railway  schemes  and  caused  railway 
building  to  be  misdirected  ;  that  the  provisions  intended  to 
protect  the  Government  interests  were  disregarded :  that  the 
settler  was  induced  to  move  too  far  West,  where  he  was,  for 


the  time  being,  at  the  mercy  of  the  railway ;  and  tliat    t  h 
real  gainer  by  these  schemes  was  usually  either  the    lai 
speculator  or  the  financial  operator  of  the  worst  sort.       1  • 
best  practical  proof  of  these  mistakes  is  seen  in  the  re-a-c-r  i- 
against  land  grants  which  made  itself  suddenly  felt    at    \\ 
time  of  the  granger  movement.    Since  1872  the  polioy  h 
been  abandoned,  though  it  has  been  impossible  always  to  i  :: 
force  forfeitures,  even  in  cases  where  such  a  procedure  mt  *  ►  • . . 
be  clearly  just.   The  whole  history  of  the  land  grant  !?y  st  *• : . . 
as  well  as  that  of  municipal  subscriptions  to  railway  «i'  - 
and  bonds,  gives  force  to  the  views  of  those  who  disl>eli*-  ••  • 
in  Government  interference.    It  appears  that  business  lu*- : 
as  a  rule,  can  judge  better  than  Congressmen  of  the  nt?-<.-tr--- 
ties  of  the  various  sections  of  the  U.  S.,  and  that  ttt^    m- 
tempts  to  stimulate  enterprise   in    particular  direeti* -t.-. 
though  well  meant,  have  been  apt  to  do  harm  rather  i  h  •  -< 
good.    It  is  probable  that  the  subsidy  to  the  Union  Pair* it: 
was  justified  by  the  result,  and  perhaps  that  to  the  III  in*  :  - 
Central  also,  but  the  number  of  mistakes  is  largely  out    <.  i 
proportion  to  the  number  of  successes. 

A  most  important  system  of  subsidies  has  been  that    «  f 
the  Dominion  Government  to  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail ^  ay  . 
The  reasons  in  this  case  were  a  good  deal  like  those  for  r  li 
Union  Pacific  route  in  the  U.  S.,  and  the  success  of  tli*-  <-:i- 
terprise  seems  to  have  justified  the  policy  of  its  proni<»t*'i^. 

Steamship  Subsidies, — Ocean  steam-navigation  was  pr*  ♦%♦■• ! 
possible  as  early  as  1818,  but  it  was  not  until  many  vt-ar- 
afterward  that  the  commercial  success  of  any  such  eiit»r- 
prise  was  assured.    The  marine  engines  of  that  periixi  \»  r  r^ 
not  economical  in  their  construction,  and  sails  fumi^hr  /: 
cheaper,  though  less  sure,  motive  power.    It  was  a  j^olir  :<  :.. 
necessity,  however,  for  Great  Britain  to  have  steaiii>lii|  - 
sooner  than  any  other  nation,  even  if  such  steamships  wt-r- 
for  the  time  being  unprofitable.    Her  colonial  possessions  w »    ^ 
so  scattered  that  every  argument  in  favor  of  the  Uni«iii  I'  i- 
cific  Railway  subsidy  in  the  U.  S.  applied  with  vastly  preatt^' 
force  to  steamship  subsidies  for  Great  Britain.    In  18^  |  .r.  ~ 
posals  were  asked  for  a  line  of  Atlantic  steamers,  and  in  1**:.;' 
the  contract  was  awarded  to  Samuel  Cunard.    In  1840  f'    ir 
ships  were  put  on,  with  an  annual  subsidy  of  £81.000.     TLr 
contract  was  gradually  extended  until  1858.    It  was  ii"* 
until  about  1870  that  if  was  gradually  reduced.    About  iht- 
time  of  the  establishment  of  the  Cunard  subsidy  a  cont  m  r 
was  made  with  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steamship  i  \ ••!.- 
pany  for  the  carriage  of  the  mails  to  Gibraltar,  and  this  r.  i\- 
tract  was  afterward  extended  so  as  to  secure  the  carriapv  <  f 
the  mails  by  the  same  company  to  Alexandria,  CaK-utia, 
Bombay,  and  finally  to  Australia.    In  1840  a  contract  \».m> 
also  made  with  the  Royal  Steam  Packet  Company  for  tlu. 
carriage  of  mails  to  the  West  Indies,  and  afterward  to  Stmt !. 
America.    At  the  time  when  the  subsidy  system  was  Illo<^t 
largely  developed,  the  British  Government  was  spending  ii. 
round  numbers  £1,000,000  annually  for  the  conveyant-e  ci 
the  mails — a  sum  which  has  been  reduced  to  about  £700.1^  1/ 
annually. 

To  the  Cunard  Company  and  to  the  Royal  Mail  Compaij) 
these  contracts  were  unquestionably  of  great  value.  In  i  hr 
case  of  both  these  companies  the  price  paid  was  soroetim-- 
much  more  than  the  service  was  commercially  wort  h.     Ir 

{troof  were  needed,  this  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  Inmar- 
ine,  established  in  1850,  has  worked  successfully  with^.u* 
the  aid  of  subsidies.  Other  unsubsidized  companies  of  th« 
same  sort  soon  followed,  and  ultimately  public  sentimti.t 
forced  the  Government  to  reduce  the  payments  to  thi 
Cunard  line.  The  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company  T»a- 
not  quite  so  liberally  dealt  with  as  the  two  other  great  sir- 
sidized  lines.  In  many  cases  it  would  appear  that  the  sj^^evial 
requirements  as  to  construction,  sailing  ports,  and  penahi^< 
for  delay  almost  offset  the  advantage  of  a  subsidy.  Gn^^M 
Britain  was  paying  not  for  mail  contracts  but  for  military 
strength,  ana  she  got  what  she  paid  for.  and  on  the  wh.ir 
she  got  it  cheaply.  In  one  instance,  at  least,  that  of  t  \w 
Galway  and  the  Anchor  line,  a  subsidized  line  failed  in  th^ 
competition  with  an  unsubsidized  one. 

The  admiralty  subsidies  in  Great  Britain  are  at  pres«Mit 
£33,847  annually.  Besides  this,  the  payments  for  carnm:: 
the  mails  in  the  fiscal  year  1893-94  were  £710,585.  w'hicl. 
is  about  £450,000  in  excess  of  the  receipts  for  sea-post ap*. 

The  U.  S.  did  not  want  Great  Britain  to  get  the  start  in 
ocean  steam-navigation.  In  1841,  two  years  after  the  fir^t 
Cunard  contract,  there  was  an  agitation  in  favor  of  sinnLtr 
action  on  the  part  of  the  U.  S.  In  1845  the  Postma^t*  :- 
General  was  authorized  to  make  contracts  for  the  ctrnvev- 
ance  of  foreign  mails  in  steamships  sailing  under  the  X*.  t^. 


796 


SUBSTITUTIONS,  THEORY  OP 


SUCCESSION 


defined  its  scheme  as  the  **  permanence  of  the  real  in  time  " 
{Critique  of  Pure  Reckon,  p.  iii.,  Meiklejohn's  translation). 
Heffel  defines  sabstance  as  the  '*  absolute,  as  relation  to  it- 
self "  (Logik,  pt.  2,  p.  185,  ed.  1834),  and  as  "the  uncondi- 
tioned essence  (Weaen)  existing  in  and  for  itself  as  being 
immediate  existence  "  (Propddeutik,  p.  105).  Mill  and  the 
English  school  mostly  follow  Locke.  In  the  orthodox  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity,  substance  is  used  of  the  essential  unity 
of  the  Divine  Being  as  distinct  from  the  tripersonality. 

Thomas  Davidson. 

Substitutions,  Theory  of:  a  recondite  but  most  attrac- 
tive branch  of  modem  mathematics,  which  has  placed  the 
theory  of  algebraic  equations  on  a  new  basis.  A  substitu- 
tion is  an  operation  which  is  conceived  to  interchange  quan- 
tities or  symbols  among  themselves,  putting  one  in  place  of 
another,  but  taking  none  away,  and  adding  no  new  ones. 
If  we  have  an  algebraic  expression  containing  several  sym- 
bols, say  the  roots  of  an  algebraic  equation,  some  substitu- 
tions may  change  the  value  of  the  expression  and  others 
may  not.  For  example,  in  the  expression  a;  +  y  —  z,  an  in- 
terchange of  X  and  y  makes  no  change  of  value,  because 
a;  +  y  =  y  +  a: ;  but  interchanging  either  of  these  quantities 
with  z  changes  the  value.  An  excellent  treatise  on  the  sub- 
ject is  that  of  Netto,  of  which  an  English  translation  from 
the  German  original  has  been  made  by  Prof.  Cole,  of  the 
University  of  Michigan,  and  published  at  Ann  Arbor.  The 
most  exhaustive  treatise  is  that  of  Jordan,  of  Paris,  pub- 
lished in  1870.  S.  Newcomb. 

Succession  [from  Lat.  aucces'sio,  deriv.  of  succe'dere,  sue- 
ce8'»umy  go  under,  follow  after ;  sub,  under  +  ce'dere,  go] : 
in  European  law,  a  term  which  covers  all  cases  where  rights 
or  obligations  previously  established  are  acquired  or  assumed 
by  new  parties.  Where  one  acquires  a  right  previously  held 
by  another,  the  jurist  speaks  oi  an  active  succession  ;  where 
one  takes  the  place  of  a  debtor,  they  speak  of  the  succession 
as  passive.  Tne  ordinary  transactions  of  life  give  rise  only 
to  special  or  "  singular "  successions.  In  case  of  death, 
however,  the  Roman  law,  and  the  majority  of  modern  legis- 
lations provide  that  some  person  or  persons  shall  step  into 
the  place  of  the  deceased,  acquiring,  in  principle,  all  his 
rights,  and  becoming  answerable  for  all  his  obligations. 
These  persons  are  the  "  heirs  "  (see  H^ees),  and  their  suc- 
cession is  termed  universal. 

The  heir  or  heirs  may  have  been  designated  by  the  de- 
ceased. At  Roman  law  this  could  be  done  only  by  testa- 
ment. (See  Will.)  Teutonic  custom,  however,  permitted 
rights  of  inheritance  to  be  created  by  contract  also,  and  most 
of  the  modem  Gennan  codes  retain  the  Teutonic  rule  (so 
the  Prussian  and  Saxon  codes,  the  German  draft  code,  and, 
with  limitations,  the  Austrian  code).  In  the  French  law, 
rights  of  inheritance  can  be  created  by  antenuptial  con- 
tracts, but  by  such  contracts  only. 

In  the  absence  of  heirs  designated  by  the  deceased,  the 
succession  is  determined  bv  the  law.  Succession  ab  intestato 
may  be  based  upon  the  family  organization  or  upon  con- 
sanguinity. The  first  principle  would  wholly  exclude  ille- 
gitimate children.  The  second  would  exclude  succession 
between  husband  and  wife,  and  between  adoptive  parents 
and  children.  The  Roman  law,  in  its  latest  development, 
represents  a  compromise  between  the  two  principles.  The 
same  is  true  of  all  modem  European  legislations.  Illegiti- 
mate children  have  some  rights  oi  inheritance,  not  only  from 
the  mother  and  her  relatives,  but  also  (if  **  recognized  "J 
from  the  father.  Husband  and  wife  also  have  reciprocal 
rights  of  succession,  but  the  exact  position  assigned  to  the 
surviving  spouse  differs  in  different  legislations.  The  law 
of  intestate  succession  is  often  modified  in  this  point  by  the 
rules  of  matrimonial  property.    See  Married  Women. 

In  general,  succession  is  determined  by  the  degree  of  kin- 
ship, nearer  relatives  excluding  the  more  remote.  (For  the 
different  methods  of  reckoning  degrees,  see  Consanguinity.) 
It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  degree  of  consanguin- 
ity is  never  wholly  decisive.  In  every  legal  system  direct 
descendants,  though  of  remoter  degree,  are  preferred  to  as- 
cendants and  collaterals ;  and  even  among  collaterals  the 
remoter  relative  mav  be  preferred — e.  g.  a  brother's  grand- 
child will  always  take  precedence  of  an  uncle,  although  by 
either  the  Roman  or  the  canonical  computation  the  latter 
is  one  degree  nearer.  In  other  words,  every  legal  system  re- 
gards the  kind  of  relationship  as  well  as  the  degree,  and 
divides  the  relatives  into  classes,  so  that  any  member  of  a 
prior  class  excludes  all  members  of  a  posterior  class.  Such 
a  classification  becomes  perfectly  logical  only  when  succession 


is  avowedly  based  on  the  preference  of  the  nearer  par^9hi^2a^ 
This  term  designates  the  descendants  of  one  ancestor.  The 
parentela  system  divides  all  the  relations  of  a  deceased  j>er- 
son  into  a  series  of  such  ancestral  groups.  The  direot  de- 
scendants of  the  deceased  constitute  the  first  parerttrla. 
His  parents  and  their  other  descendants  (i.  e.  bis  brothers, 
sisters,  nephews,  nieces,  etc.)  make  up  the  second  iMir^n /<-/'/. 
His  grandparents  and  their  descendants  (not  already  in- 
clude in  tne  first  or  second  group)  are  of  the  third  part-n- 
tela,  and  so  on.  As  long  as  any  member  of  a  nearer  paren- 
tela is  in  existence,  all  members  of  other  parentela  are  shut 
out.  This  is  claimed  to  be  the  Teutonic  principle  of  saeoe?- 
sion.  It  lies  at  the  basis  of  the  English  law  of  succession  to 
real  property.  It  is  logically  carried  out  in  the  Aast:ri&n 
code  and  in  the  codes  of  several  Swiss  cantons.  It  is  adopt- 
ed in  the  German  draft  code. 

Whenever,  under  any  system  of  succession,  there  are  sev- 
eral heirs  of  the  same  class,  those  nearer  in  degree  are  pre- 
ferred. This  principle  is  modified,  however,  by  the  right  of 
"  representation,"  by  which  more  remote  relatives  may  t-^e 
put  into  the  place  of  their  ancestor,  and  take  the  share  t  r* 
which  he  would  be  entitled  if  he  had  survived  the  intestate. 
In  such  a  case  succession  within  the  class  is  said  to  be  /**./• 
«/trp€«,  by  lines.  (See  Descent.)  In  all  modem  legislation 
direct  descendants  take  per  stirpes;  and  the  same  syst«?n. 
obtains,  to  some  extent  at  least,  among  collaterals.  Amon  ir 
remoter  collaterals,  however,  the  right  of  representation  i^ 
frec|uently  refused,  because  it  tends  to  an  undesirable  sub- 
division of  property. 

Teutonic  law  never  developed  a  "universal  succession-" 
It  always  recognized  distinct  succe-ssion  to  realty  and  to  j>er- 
sonalty*  It  often  drew  further  distinctions,  it  exhibit e*i. 
in  particular,  a  tendency  to  consider  the  channel  throuirh 
which  property  had  come  to  the  deceased;  to  prefer  the 
paternal  relatives  when  the  property  had  been  inherited 
from  the  father,  the  maternal  when  it  had  come  from  the 
mother.  Modem  European  codes  generally  reject  this  dis- 
tinction. 

Special  variations  in  the  law  of  succession,  which  have 
existed  in  past  times  and  still  exist  sporadically,  are  the 
exclusion  of  females  or  of  the  descendants  of  females  (ohier 
Roman  law),  or  a  preference  of  the  male  line  (classical  Ro- 
man law).  Similar  tendencies  reveal  themselves  in  the 
older  Teutonic  law  of  real  property ;  and  under  the  influence 
of  feudalism  the  preference  of  males  was  associated  with  the 
preference  of  the  eldest  son.  (See  PRiMOOENrruRS.)  In  the 
succession  to  Oerman  peasant  estates,  also,  the  system  of 
primogeniture  generally  obtained  through  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  still  obtains  in  some  territories.  Sporadically,  a  prefer- 
ence of  the  youngest  son  has  also  existed. 

At  Roman  law  the  estate  of  a  deceased  person  did  not 
devolve  ipso  jure  upon  the  heir  unless  he  was  a  child  or 
slave  of  the  deceased.  All  others  had  to  **  enter,"  and  oould 
refuse  to  enter.  The  Teutonic  principle,  on  the  contrary,  is 
that  death  vests  seizin  (at  least  as  regards  real  property) — 
i.  e.  the  legal  heir  acquires  ipso  jure.  This  rule  is  recog- 
nized in  the  French  code  and  in  the  German  draft  code  (in 
the  latter  for  testamentary  as  well  as  intestate  heirs) ;  but 
the  heir  may  divest  himseli  of  the  inheritance  by  an  express 
renunciation. 

Since  the  acouisition  of  an  inheritance  makes  the  heir  per- 
sonally liable  for  the  debts  of  the  deceased,  the  Roman  law 
established  the  rule,  first  for  the  children  and  then  for 
other  heirs,  that  they  might  take  with  the  "  benefit  of  in- 
ventory," in  which  case  their  liability  was  limited  to  the 
amount  of  the  assets.  This  rule  obtams  g^enerally  in  mod- 
ern Europe.  Conversely,  when  the  heir  is  insolvent,  the 
creditors  of  the  estate  may  demand  a  separation. 

See  Demolombe,  Des  J^uceessions  (Paris,  1880) ;  Koeppen, 
Erhrecht  (Wttrzburg,  1888),  and  Motive  zum  deutschtn 
bUrgerlichen  Gesetzhich  (vol.  v.,  Berlin,  1888). 

MuNROE  Smith. 

Succession,  in  the  common-law  svstem.  is  employed  in  a 
more  limited  sense  than  in  the  civil  law.  In  England  and 
the  U.  S.  the  tenn  is  used  only  to  describe  the  transmis^ic>n 
of  property  (a)  from  a  person  or  group  of  persons  composing 
a  corporation  to  his  or  their  successors ;  or  {b)  upon  the  deaih 
of  a  person  to  his  heir,  devisee,  or  next  of  kin.  Technically. 
it  is  only  in  the  former  sense — as  describing  the  persist ciuv 
of  the  rights  of  a  corporation  through  all  changes  in  it? 
membership — that  the  term  has  any  footing  in  the  common 
law.  The  power  of  perpetual  succession  is  one  of  the  pe- 
culiar properties  of  a  corporation,  and  the  terai  successor, 
applied  to  a  person  in  his  corporate  capacity,  is  the  legal 


r98 


SUCCESSION  WARS 


SUCHOW 


His  death,  however,  in  1609,  reopened  the  question,  now 
farther  complicated  by  the  fact  that  there  was  no  third  can- 
didate on  whom  all  could  agree.  In  the  intrigues  which 
ensued  Louis  was  successful,  and  Charles  II.,  just  before  his 
death  in  Nov.,  1700,  made  a  will  bequeathing  all  his  posses- 
sions to  Philip  of  Anjou.  The  latter  was  well  received  in 
Spain,  and  his  title  was  generally  recognized  throughout 
Ehirope,  but  Louis  took  a  course  that  was  at  once  aggressive 
and  impolitic.  He  alienated  the  other  nations  by  declaring 
that  Philip's  succession  to  the  Spanish  throne  had  in  no- 
wise affected  his  right  to  the  tnrone  of  France,  and  he 
angered  England  by  pronouncing  the  Pretender  the  lawful 
heir  to  the  English  throne.  In  the  winter  of  1701-02  the 
Grand  Alliance  was  concluded  between  England,  the  em- 
peror, the  Dutch,  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  the  Grand  Duke 
of  Hesse,  with  the  object  of  breaking  the  power  of  the 
Franco-Spanish  monarchy.  For  ten  years  the  war  was  ac- 
tively carried  on,  the  chief  campaigns  being  in  Spain,  in 
Italy,  in  the  Rhine  countries,  and  in  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands. In  Spain  the  French  were  generally  successful,  and, 
first  under  Berwick  and  afterward  under  Vendome,  expelled 
the  invaders  and  maintained  Philip  on  the  throne.  In 
Northern  Italy  the  Austrians,  under  Prince  Eugene,  con- 
quered Milan  and  Mantua,  and  finally,  after  a  victory  at 
Turin,  forced  the  French  to  withdraw  altogether  from  Italy. 
In  the  meanwhile  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  had  won 
the  important  victory  of  Blenheim  (q.  v.)  in  1704.  Marl- 
borough's victory  at  Ramillies,  two  years  later,  drove  the 
French  out  of  the  Netherlands,  and  their  attempts  to  re^in 
their  lost  footing  were  foiled  by  Marlborough  and  Prince 
Eugene  at  Oudenarde  (1708)  and  Malplaquet  (1709).  Louis 
now  sued  for  peace,  but  the  terms  imposed  by  the  allies 
were  so  humiliating  that  he  preferred  to  continue  the  war. 
Circumstances  soon  came  to  the  rescue  of  France :  the 
death  of  Leopold  I.  and  of  his  son  and  successor,  Joseph  I., 
brought  the  Archduke  Charles  to  the  throne.  To  unite 
the  thrones  of  Spain  and  the  German  empire  seemed  even 
more  menacing  to  the  balance  of  power  than  to  maintain 
the  Bourbon  king  in  Spain.  In  England  the  Tories,  who 
had  supplanted  the  Whigs,  desired  peace,  and  in  1713  was 
signed  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  stipulating  that  the  two  lines 
of  the  Bourbon  house  should  renounce  all  claims  of  inherit- 
ing from  each  other,  and  the  two  crowns  should  never  be 
held  by  the  same  person.  In  the  following  year  the  treaties 
of  Rastadt  and  Baden  settled  the  particular  questions  at 
issue  between  Austria  and  France. 

The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession, — As  the  Emperor 
Charles  \^I.  had  no  male  heirs,  he  tried  to  obtain  the  acces- 
sion of  all  the  powers  concerned  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
by  which  it  was  stipulated  that  after  his  death  all  the  Aus- 
trian possessions  should  be  transmitted  undivided  to  his 
eldest  daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  The  nearest  claimant  to 
the  Austrian  inheritance,  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  Charles 
Albert,  never  gave  his  consent  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
and  when  Charles  VI.  died  (Oct.  20,  1740)  a  general  desire 
was  manifested  among  the  other  European  powers  to  break 
up  the  Austrian  state  and  divide  its  dominions.  Claims 
were  advanced  by  Spain,  Augustus  III.  of  Poland  and  Sax- 
ony, the  King  of  Sardinia,  and  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prus- 
sia^ to  whom  France  was  added  by  her  traditional  hatred  of 
the  Hapsburgs.  Great  Britain  alone  went  to  the  aid  of  Aus- 
tria, The  Elector  of  Bavaria  took  possession  of  Bohemia  in 
1741,  and  in  the  following  year  was  crowned  emperor.  Fred- 
erick the  Great  had  in  the  meanwhile  seized  Silesia.  Stripped 
of  her  provinces  and  threatened  with  an  advance  of  the 
Bavarian  and  French  troops  upon  her  capital,  Maria  Theresa 
appealed  to  her  Hungarian  subjects  for  aid.  It  was  granted, 
and  a  large  army  was  soon  in  the  field.  A  period  of  Austrian 
success  followed,  due  in  part  to  the  purchase  of  Prussian 
neutrality  by  the  surrender  of  Silesia  to  Frederick  the  Great ; 
but  the  latter,  alarmed  by  the  continued  success  of  the  Aus- 
trians, again  took  the  field  in  support  of  the  emperor  (1744). 
At  the  same  time  a  reverse  took  place  in  the  Austrian 
fortunes  at  other  points  of  the  contest.  In  Upper  Italy  a 
French  army  joineu  the  Spanish,  and  fought  with  great  suc- 
cess, and  in  the  Netherlantls  Marshal  Saxe  began  his  brilliant 
campaign  with  the  victory  at  Fontenoy  May  11, 1745.  Soon, 
however,  events  occurred  which  gradually  prepared  people's 
minds  for  peace.  On  Jan.  20.  1745,  the  emperor,  Charles 
VW.,  died,  and  in  September,  Joseph,  the  husband  of  Maria 
Theresa,  was  elected  Eini)eror  of  Germany  under  the  name 
of  Francis  I.  Frederick  the  Great  had  become  thoroughly 
disgusted  with  his  allies,  the  French,  and  in  the  deatli  of 
Charles  VII.  he  found  an  opportunity  of  retiring  from  the 


coalition;  peace  was  concluded  between  Prussia  and  Austria 
on  Dec.  25, 1745.  The  war  with  France  continued.  M«j^liai 
Saxe  ^ined  brilliant  victories  in  the  Netherlands  (&t  H>tu- 
coux  Oct.  11, 1746;  at  Laufeldt  July  2, 1747)  and  penetrate  .i 
into  Holland,  where  he  took  Bergen-op-Zoom  and  Maef«t  H<*hr . 
The  British,  however,  had  nearly  destroved  the  Freneli  shif- 
ping  and  conquered  many  French  colonies,  and  when  Itu>?-ia. 
in  June,  1747,  joined  Austria  and  sent  an  auxiliary  army  i" 
Germany,  France  was  willing  to  make  peace.  Pea<re  wa* 
concluded  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  Oct.,  1748.  Austrixi.  g-ave 
up  Parma,  Guastalla,  ana  Piacenza  to  Don  Philip,  of  the 
Spanish  Bourbon  line,  several  districts  of  Milan  to  oaj-idinia, 
and  confirmed  Frederick  II.  in  the  possession  of  Silesia. 

F.  M.  Colby. 

Succin'ic  Acid  [succinic  is  from  Lat.  sue'cinutn^   sii- 
dnuvHy  amber,  deriv.  of  suc'cus^  «m'cu«,  juice] :  one  of  the 
series  of  acids  of  which  oxalic  acid  is  the  first  member.      Its 
composition  is  CiHeO*.    Succinic  acid  was  known  to  the 
ancients  as  volatile  salt  of  amber,  from  which  it  is  obtain- 
able by  distillation.    It  is  found  ready  formed  in  several 
plants,  and  even  in  animal  bodies.    It  has  been  identified  in 
the  urine  of  dogs  and  rabbits.    It  is  formed,  with  Su^cair 
Acid  {q.  v,)  and  others  of  this  homologous  series,  by  the  aet  ion 
of  nitric  acid  on  fatty  substances.    Pasteur  found  that  it  is 
an  invariable  product  of  the  alcoholic  fermentation  of  sac- 
charine liquids.    Many  other  organic  transformations  en- 
gender it.    It  is  found  in  the  watery  part  of  the  products  of 
the  distillation  of  amber,  in  solution,  and  crystallizes  out  by 
cooling.    Warming  with  nitric  acid  will  destroy  the    im- 
purities, and  enable  pure  succinic  acid  to  be  obtained  hy 
recrystallization.     It  is,  however,  obtainable  much   more 
cheaply  from  crude  calcic  malate,  prepared  from  mountain- 
ash  berries.    This  is  fermented  with  yeast  or  rotten  cheese, 
and  the  calcic  succinate  formed  decomposed  by  salphurie 
acid.    Succinic  acid  crystallizes  well,  and  is  soluble  m  five 
parts  of  cold  water.    It  melts  at  856°  F.,  and  boils  at  4o5 
F.,  and  is  decomposed  with  formation  of  water  and  succinic 
anhydride,  C«H40«.  Revised  by  Iha  Remsex. 

Succory :  See  Chiccory. 

Snc'coth  (tents  or  booths) :  the  Hebrew  name  of  the  sec- 
ond station  in  the  Exodus  itinerary  (Ex.  xii.  37,  xiii.  20: 
Num.  xxxiii.  5,  6).  Excavations  made  by  Naville  in  l^SS-3. 
at  Tell  el-Maskhfita  near  the  eastern  end  of  the  Wfidi  TdmiUt 
in  the  eastern  Delta  region  of  Egypt,  and  just  westerly  of  the 
middle  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  resulted  m  the  discovery  of 
a  place  which  bore  the  civil  or  political  name  Theku-t  (Suc- 
coth),  the  religious  or  sacred  name  Pi-Tum  (Pithom,  g.  v.), 
the  Greek  name  HeroOpolis  {q.  v.\  and  the  Latin  name 
Ero-Castra.  The  importance  of  the  discovery  was  in  the 
confirmation  of  the  record  of  the  building  of  Pithom  as  one 
of  the  *' store  cities"  (Ex.  i.  11)  constructed  for  Ramses  II., 
the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression  (thus  approximately  fixing 
the  date  of  the  Exodus),  and  in  the  determination  of  the 
starting-point  and  of  the  route  followed  by  the  Israelites 
when  they  left  Egypt.    See  also  Migdol.  C.  R.  G. 

Sachet,  sll'cha',  Louis  Gabriel,  Duke  of  Albufera:  sol- 
dier ;  b.  in  Lyons,  France,  Mar.  2,  1770.  Entering  the  army 
in  1792,  he  served  under  Bonaparte,  Brune,  Massena,  Jou- 
bert,  and  Moreau  in  the  campaigns  in  Italy  and  Switzer- 
land, passing  through  the  gratles  from  chef  de  haiaillon 
(major)  to  that  of  lieutenant-general  before  the  age  of 
thirty.  Subsequently  he  distinguished  himself  at  V\m. 
Jena,  and  Austerlitz.  Under  orders  of  Lannes  he  servtMl 
with  the  Fifth  Corps  at  the  siege  of  Saragossa,  and  was  <le^- 
ignated  by  him  to  Napoleon  on  his  departure  for  the  com- 
mand in  Aragon.  A  series  of  battles  and  sieges  (of  Lerida, 
Mequinenza,  Tortosa,  Tarragona)  gained  for  nim  the  mar- 
shal's baton  (July  8, 18U),  and  after  the  battle  of  Albufera 
and  the  siege  and  capture  of  Valencia  he  was  created  Due 
d'Albufera  (Jan.  24, 1812).  He  immediately  joined  Napoleon 
on  his  return  from  Elba.  Under  the  Restoration  he  liveil 
for  several  years  in  retirement,  but  was  apiin  invited  to 
the  court  in  1819.  The  Memoires  du  Marechal  Snchet  mtr 
ses  Campagjies  en  Espagne  forms  one  of  the  classics  of 
military  literature.    D.  in  Marseilles.  Jan.  3, 1826. 

Siichow,  or  Soo-chow-foo :  a  city  of  China,  caf)ital  of 
a  department  of  the  stime  name,  and  of  the  province  of 
Kiangsu :  situated  on  the  Grand  Canal,  80  miles  W.  of  Shang- 
hai (see  map  of  China,  ref.  6-K).  The  city  is  rectangulir 
in  plan,  with  walls  30  feet  high  and  12  miles  in  circuit. 
Outside  five  of  the  six  gates  by  which  the  walls  are  pierced 
are  large  suVnirbs.    The  original  plan,  engraved  in  stone, 


800 


SUETONIUS  TRANQUILLUS 


SUGAR 


Suetonlas  (sweVtd'ni-iis)  Tranqnirins,  Gaivb  :  author ; 
b.  probably  aboat  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Vespasian, 
and  employed  for  some  time  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian  as  his 
magister  episiolarum.  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown, 
perhaps  about  160.  His  principal  work,  Dttodecim  Catsarum 
VitcB,  has  been  preserved  entire  and  in  authentic  form.  It 
contains  biographies  of  the  first  twelve  Roman  emperors, 
beginning  with  G.  Julius  Csesar  and  ending  with  Domitian. 
The  best  editions  are  by  Baummrten-Crusius  (Leipzig,  1816), 
C.  B.  Hase  (Paris,  1828),  and  Roth  (Leipzig,  1858).  The 
other  writings  are  best  given  by  Reiff erscheid  (Leipzig,  1860). 
English  translations  of  the  Ki'to,  by  John  Clark  (London, 
1733),  and  by  Thomson  and  Forrester  in  Bohn*8  Classical 
Library  (1855).  Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Sneri,  swee'vl:  originally  a  collective  name,  comprising 
several  individual  Gr'ermanic  tribes  which  formed  a  kind  of 
union.  It  is  thus  used  by  Caasar  and  Tacitus.  In  the  fourth 
century  the  name  was  applied  to  a  single  tribe,  one  branch 
of  which  settled  in  the  regions  alone  the  Neckar,  afterward 
called  Suabia,  while  another  branch  broke  into  Gaul,  and 
in  409  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  penetrated  into  Spain, 
where  thev  embraced  Christianity,  conquered  Galicia,  and 
formed  a  kingdom,  which  in  585  was  united  with  the  Visi- 
gothic  empire. 

Suez,  soo-ez' :  town  of  Egypt ;  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Suez,  an  inlet  of  the  Red  Sea,  in  lat.  29'  69'  N.  and  Ion.  32° 
31'  E.,  and  2  miles  from  the  southern  end  of  the  Suez  Canal 
(see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  2-G).  The  surrounding  region  is  a 
desert,  and  provisions  and  water  must  be  brought  to  the 
town  from  a  distance.  Since  the  opening  of  the  railway 
from  Cairo  to  Suez,  and  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  the 
citv  has  grown  rapidly.  Pop.  (1882)  10,918 ;  estimated  (1895) 
12,500.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Habrinoton. 

Suez  Canal :  See  Ship-canals. 

Suez,  Gnlf  of:  the  western  and  larger  of  the  branches 
into  which  the  Red  Sea  divides  lying  between  Egypt  and 
the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  Its  extreme  length  is  about  180 
miles ;  its  average  breadth  20  miles.  It  was  known  to  the 
ancients  as  the  Gulf  of  Hero5polis,  and  the  generally  received 
scene  of  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  by  the  Israelites  is  near 
the  present  head  of  the  gulf. 

Suez,  Isthmns  of:  a  neck  of  land  connecting  the  conti- 
nents of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  separating  the  Mediterranean 
from  the  Red  Sea.  Its  extreme  breadth  from  the  Gulf  of 
Suez  to  that  of  Pelusium  is  about  72  miles  in  a  straight  line, 
but  following  the  course  of  the  canal  the  distance  is  100 
miles.  The  surface  is  low  and  sandy,  having  an  avera^ 
elevation  of  not  more  than  6  or  8  feet  above  the  sea,  but  m 
places  reaching  to  50  or  60  feet.  In  general,  the  isthmus  is 
almost  a  desert ;  where  irrigation  has  been  practiced,  how- 
ever, it  is  quite  fertile.  It  is  probable  that  the  whole  isthmus 
was  once  covered  by  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
Red  Seas,  which  were  then  connected. 

Suffix :  See  Stem  and  Root. 

Suffocation :  See  Asphyxia. 

Suffolk :  county  of  England ;  bounded  N.  by  the  Ouse,  S. 
bv  the  Stour,  and  E.  bv  the  North  Sea ;  area,  1,475  sq.  miles. 
The  surface  is  fiat,  and  the  soil  for  the  most  part  productive 
and  excellently  cultivated.  Wheat,  barley,  beans,  oats,  and 
hemp  are  raised,  dairv-farming  is  extensively  carried  on, 
and  butter  is  one  of  the  principal  products  of  the  county. 
Five  members  are  returned  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Pop. 
(1891)  369,351.    Capital,  Bury  St.  Edmunds. 

Suffolk :  town ;  capital  of  Nansemond  co.,  Va. ;  on  the 
Nansemond  river,  and  the  Atl.  and  Danv.,  the  Norf.  and 
Car.,  the  Norf.  and  W.,  the  Seaboard  Air  Line,  and  the  Suf. 
and  Car.  railways ;  18  miles  S.  W.  of  Norfolk  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Virginia,  ref.  7-1).  It  is  in  an  agricultural 
region;  is  engaged  in  lumbering,  oyster-packing,  and  the 
manufacture  of  iron,  lime,  and  woolen  goods ;  and  contains 
a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $20,000,  and  a  dailv,  a  monthly, 
and  2  weekly  newspapers.   Pop.  (1880)  1,963 ;  (1*890)  3,354. 

SnrfragAD  [from  O.  Fr.  auffrof/ant  <  Lat.  suffragans, 
pres.  partic.  of  suffrctga'riy  vote  for,  assist;  cf.  also  Late 
Lat.  suffraga'neus,  suffragan] :  a  bishop  of  a  single  diocese 
in  an  ecclesiastical  province  subject  to  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority of  the  metropolitan  of  that  province.  A  coadjutor 
is  sometimes  said  to  be  suffragan  to  his  superior  bishop.  A 
bishop  of  a  limited  part  of  a  diocese  is  a  suffragan  to  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese.  For  instance,  the  Bishop  of  Dover  is 
a  sunragan  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  while  all 


bishops  of  the  province  of  Canterbury  are  suffrairans  »^i 
the  same  metropolitan  in  a  different  sense.  In  the  Protest 2a  n  * 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.  S.  suffragan  bishops  are  not  al- 
lowed, the  canons  forbidding  their  creation.  All  attexupt^r 
to  remove  this  prohibition  have  failed. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perky. 
Snff!rage :  See  Citizen  and  Piuvileoe. 

Sn'fls,  or  Soofees:  the  mystics  of  Islam,  deriving^  the:r 
name  from  a  coarse  woolen  cloak,  their  principal  ganne)  r. 
Rabia,  a  Mussulman  woman  who  lived  not  long  after    il.- 

{>rophet  Mohammed,  taught  as  her  central  doctrine  divixir- 
ove,  and  is  reckoned  by  them  their  founder.  Abu  Said,  >•  i\ 
of  Abul  Khair,  in  the  ninth  century,  advanced  further,  ar.*i 
urged  abandonment  of  the  world  and  consecration  to  &  e«  'ii- 
templative  life.  The  various  doctrines  developed  by  his  a^l- 
herents  and  followers  embrace  every  possible  phase  of  niy>- 
ticism.  Many  are  pantheists,  and  declare  that  God  is  k\l. 
but  that  all  is  not  God.  Some  claim  direct  communicati'  >li 
with  the  Deity,  and  a  mysterious  union  or  identification  wit  f. 
him.  They  are  numerous  in  Persia,  and  have  furnished  notc-.i 
scholars  and  poets.    See  Dervishes.      E.  A.  Gbosvenor. 

Sugar  [M.  Eng.  augre,  from  O.  Pr.  sucre,  Ital.  zuccher*j. 
from  Arab,  sokkary  from  Sanskr.  ^rkara,  whence  Gr.  a-d^x^- 
pw,  whence  Lat.  sac'charon,  whence  Eng.  saccharine']  :  nny 
compound  of  a  carbohydrate  nature  which  is  soluble  in 
water.  In  the  common  acceptation  of  the  word,  it  is  ari\ 
such  compound  having  a  sweet  taste,  but  the  term  usua  1 1  y 
includes  only  cane-sugar  (sucrose,  or  saccharose),  and  p<js.-i- 
bly  also  sugars  made  from  starch,  known  as  glucose  or  er»}  **^ 
sugar,  and  consisting  chiefly  of  dextrose,  dextrin,  and  mal- 
tose. 

The  sugar  of  commerce  is  derived  almost  exclnsivel  j  fmm 
sugar-beets  and  sugar-cane,  the  former  supplying  a  littlr^ 
less  than  two-thirds  and  the  latter  a  little  more  than  oitt- 
third  of  the  world's  consumption ;  sugar  from  either  of  thi-st 
sources  is  usually  caUed  cane-sugar,  although  the  more  cor- 
rect term  is  sucrose.  The  other  sources  of  sugar,  such  a> 
maple,  palm,  sorghum,  and  starch,  while  of  importance  for 
special  purposes  and  in  limited  localities,  do  not  supply  suffi- 
cient quantities  to  affect  sensibly  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

Oceurrence,S\xga,T  is  a  normal  product  of  almost  ever>- 
kind  of  vegetable  growth.  It  is  the  first  and  principal  rf^ 
suit  of  the  biochemical  activity  of  all  green  plants,  and  i> 
an  important  component  of  many  plants  devoid  of  chlon>- 
phyll,  such  as  the  mushroom.  Its  formation  is  the  result  . jf 
the  condensation  in  the  living  plant-cells  of  it«  elements 
pre-existing  in  the  air.  These  elements  are  carbon  dioxide 
and  water.  The  sugar  thus  formed  furnishes  the  princip.ii 
food-supply  for  the  growth  of  all  the  other  tissues  of  t  h*- 
plant.  From  it  are  iformed  directlv  the  wood-fiber,  the  di- 
gestible fiber,  the  pentosans  and  tne  starches,  all  of  whii  ii 
have  essentially  the  same  centesimal  chemical  compositimi. 
Indirectly,  it  enters  into  the  formation  of  the  fats  and  oil? 
and  of  the  nitrogenous  constituents  of  the  plant  organism. 

In  manv  plants  almost  all  the  sugar  produced  is  consumeil 
in  their  further  growth  and  development.  In  others  the 
amount  of  sugar  produced  is  far  in  excess  of  the  demanii> 
of  nutrition,  and  it  is  then  stored  as  a  waste  or  excess  prrxl- 
uct  in  some  part  of  the  plant  it«elf.  In  the  sugar-cane,  5i»r- 
ghum,  and  green  Indian  com  it  is  found  in  the  stalks.  In 
root-crons,  such  as  beets  and  turnips,  it  is  found  in  the  flesh  j 
roots.  In  trees,  such  as  the  maple  and  sugar-palm,  it  is  dis- 
solved bv  the  first  fiowing  sap  of  the  spring.  It  exists  in 
nearly  all  seeds,  and  of  many,  such  as  tne  coffee-bean,  tht* 
peanut,  and  the  cottonseed,  it  forms  an  important  constitu- 
ent. Sugar  is  also  formed  as  a  normal  proauct  of  the  func- 
tional activity  of  certain  animal  organs,  such  as  the  livt-r, 
and  is  an  abnormal  product  of  these  in  certain  forms  of  dis- 
ease, as  diabetes  mellitus.  Many  kinds  of  sugar  have  tkUo 
been  formed  synthetically  in  the  chemist's  laboratory. 

History. — (1)  It  is  quite  certain  that  the  nations  of  remote 
antinuity  were  not  acouainted  with  sugar  as  such,  but  honev 
was  Known  to  them  all.  The  bees  must  be  regarded  as  til*- 
first  manufacturers  of  sugar.  The  sugar  which  is  found  in 
Honey  (q.  v.)  is  derived  chiefiy  from  the  nectar  of  flower^, 
and  this  nectar  consists  of  mixtures  of  cane-sugar  and  a 
sugar  made  by  the  inversion  thereof,  known  as  invert  sugar 
or  fruit-sugar.  The  sugar  of  the  nectar  of  fiowers  in  it- 
fresh  state  consists  largely  of  pure  cane-sugar,  but  this,  in 
passing  through  the  organism  of  the  bee,  b^mes  inventnl 
probably  by  some  indirect  biochemical  action  or  under  the 
mfiuence  of  the  formic  acid  which  the  bee  secretes.  The  rt^ 
suit  is  that  the  honey  which  is  stored  by  bees,  and  which  the> 


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of  the  world  into  the  hands  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Holland.  In  Great  Britain  the  consumption  of  suear  in- 
creased rapidly.  In  1700  it  was  10,000,  in  1750  80,000,  and 
in  1800  150,000  tons  an;iually. 

The  first  sugar  made  in  Louisiana  was  in  1791  by  Don 
Antonio  Mendez,  associated  with  a  farmer  named  Solis. 
fitienne  de  Bore,  about  1794,  was  the  first  to  make  sugar- 
culture  a  commercial  success,  and  his  first  crop  amounted  to 
nearly  100,000  lb.,  for  which  he  received  about  $12,000.  His 
plantation  is  now  a  part  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans.  In  1818 
Joseph  Coyron  erected  the  first  steam-engine  ever  used  to 
grind  sugar-cane  in  Louisiana.  The  variety  of  cane  in 
cultivation  at  first  was  known  as  Creole,  and  was  a  very 
tender  plant,  easily  injured  by  frost.  In  1820  the  red-ribbon 
cane,  a  much  hardier  variety,  was  introduced  from  Georgia. 
The  vield  of  sugar  gradually  increased  in  Louisiana  until 
1853*  after  which  it  slightly  decreased  until  1861,  when  the 
largest  crop  ever  made  in  the  State  up  to  that  time  was 
secured,  viz.,  230,000  tons.  The  civil  war  almost  paralyzed 
the  sugar  industry  in  Louisiana,  and  for  three  years  no  data 
of  yields  are  recorded.  In  1864  the  crop  amounted  to  only 
5,000  tons.  From  this  time  on  the  production  of  sugar  in 
Louisiana  increased,  but  not  with  regularity  on  account  of 
disasters  from  fiood  and  frost,  until  the  season  of  1893-94, 
when  it  amounted  to  320,000  tons. 

Sugar-cane  is  also  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
Texas  and  Florida,  and  in  a  smaller  way  in  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama, and  Mississippi. 

3.  The  sugar-beet,  Beta  vulgaris,  originally  came  from  the 
lowlands  of  Burgundy,  and  was  carried  by  the  Mennonite 
exiles  into  the  Palatinate.  From  this  locality  it  graduallv 
spread  to  all  parts  of  Germany,  and  was  grown  as  cattle-food. 
In  1747  Marggraf  (1709-82)  discovered  that  sugar  could  be 
obtained  from  the  common  beet.  Achard  (1753-1821),  in 
Kaullsdorf ,  near  Berlin,  was  the  first  who  undertook  a  sys- 
tematic culture  of  the  beet,  and  he  largely  increased  its  con- 
tent of  sugar.  In  France  the  sugar-beet  apoeared  soon  after 
its  introduction  into  Germany  and  Holland,  and  was  culti- 
vated by  Vilmorin  in  1775,  but  its  first  systematic  culture 
there  was  undertaken  by  Abbe  Rozier  in  1782.  In  1786  it 
was  introduced  into  England  by  Perkins  and  in  1830  into 
the  U.  S.  by  Vaughn  and  Ronaldson.  In  1798  Achard,  in 
Berlin,  succeeded  in  preparing  crystallized  sugar  from  beets 
in  considerable  quantities,  and  as  much  as  16  cwt.  was  used 
in  1800  in  the  bakeries  of  Berlin. 

The  fii-st  real  beet-sugar  factory  was  erected  by  Achard, 
with  royal  aid,  at  Kunem,  in  Silesia,  and  put  in  operation 
in  Mar.,  1802.  Many  attempts  were  made  to  manufacture 
beet-sugar  in  Germany  during  the  decade  beginning  in 
1800,  but  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  comjietition  with 
cane-sugar  was  practically  removed  by  the  Napoleonic  em- 
bargoes these  attempts  were  generally  unsuccessful.  In 
France  the  Emperor  Napoleon  appointed  a  commission  to 
investigate  Achard's  work,  and  as  a  result  an  imperial  de- 
cree, in  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  established  the  beet- 
sugar  industry  in  France,  and  a  considerable  subvention 
from  the  imperial  treasury  was  accorded  it.  Two  factories 
were  built  at  St.-Ouen  and  Chelles,  but  for  lack  of  scientific 
supervision  they  failed  of  their  purpose. 

In  1808  Delessert  undertook  the  culture  of  the  sugar-beet 
at  Passy,  and  by  means  of  clarification  with  lime,  sulphuric 
acid,  and  charcoal,  succeeded  in  making  a  good  merchant- 
able sugar.  In  1812  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  as  a  result  of 
a  personal  inspection  at  Passy,  ordered  that  ten  new  fac- 
tories be  immediately  constructed,  and  committed  the  work 
of  construction  to  Delessert.  In  Great  Britain,  on  account 
of  her  tropical  colonies,  the  introduction  of  the  beet-sugar 
industry  was  vigorously  opposed,  and  its  further  develop- 
ment on  the  Continent  discouraged. 

In  the  U.  S.  attempts  were  made  as  early  as  1830  by  a 
Philadelphia  company,  of  which  John  Vaughn  and  James 
Ronaldson  were  successively  presidents,  to  introduce  the 
culture  of  the  sugar-beet.  By  reason  of  the  absence  of 
practical  information  little  was  accomplished.  In  1839  a 
beet-sugar  company  was  formed  at  Northampton,  Mass., 
by  David  L.  Child,  and  1,300  lb.  of  sugar  was  made  and 
the  enterprise  was  then  abandoned.  The  next  company  of 
which  there  is  any  account  formed  for  the  purpose  of 

Eromoting  the  culture  of  the  sugar-beet  was  in  1863,  in 
livingston  co..  111.,  but  no  practical  results  were  obtained. 
In  1864  the  Gennert  Brothers  established  a  beet-sugar  fac- 
tory at  Chatsworth,  III.,  but  failed  for  lack  of  capital.  The 
establishment  was  subsequently  bought  by  a  German  com- 
pany and  removed  to  Freeport,  111.    All  these  attempts, 


however,  ended  in  failure.     The  next  beet-sugar  factory  in 
the  U.  S.  was  established  in  1866  at  Fond  du  Lac,  Wi^.,  eud 
for  two  or  three  years  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar    wa^ 
made  at  that  point.    In  1870  the  proprietors  removo<l   t4 . 
California  and  organized  the  Alvarado  Sugar  Company, 
which,  after  various  vicissitudes,  finally  succeeded  in  est^lV 
lishing  itself  on  a  firm  basis,  and  is  still  in  operation. 
Companies  were  also  organized  for  the  manufacture    *»f 
sugar  from  the  sugar-beet  at  Sacramento,  San  Jose«  ttn*! 
Soquel,  but  none  of  them  except  the  Alvarado  company  ^pra< 
finally  successful.    In  1878  a  large  factory  built  on  modem 
principles  was  established  at  Portland,  Me.,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  factories  were  also  established  at  Wilraingt<*n. 
Del.,  and  Franklin,  Mass.,  and  large  sums  of  money   ^vrere 
invested  therein.    After  unsuccessful  attempts  at  profitable 
manufacture  all  of  these  establishments  were  abandoned. 
For  many  years  no  further  attempts  were  made  to  manufac- 
ture beet-sugar  in  the  U.  S.,  except  at  Alvarado.  CaJ.       In 
1888  a  factory  was  built  at  Watsonville,  Cal.,  and  in  rapid 
succession  factories  were  established  at  Grand  island  &n<i 
Norfolk,  Neb.,  Chino,  Cal.,  and  Lehi,  Utah.     At  present 
(1895)  there  are  six  fully  established  beet-sugar  factor!*** 
in  the  U.  S.    The  total  quantity  of  sugar  manufactured  at 
these  localities  during  the  season  of  1893-94  amounted   to 
45,191,296  lb. 

Palm-tree  Sugar,— An  old  and,  at  one  time,  important 
sugar  of  commerce  is  the  product  of  certain  of  the  varieties 
of  the  palm-tree.  It  has  teen  and  is  produced  principally 
in  India,  where  it  is  known  as  jaggery,  a  word  which  is  <*f 
the  same  origin  as  the  word  sugar.  The  palms  used  for 
sugar-making  are  planted  in  rows  in  high  and  dry  land, 
and  can  be  used  from  five  to  thirty  years.  The  trees  are 
tapped  in  the  same  manner  as  the  maple,  but  usually  a 
small  triangular  hole  is  cut  into  the  tree  for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  the  sap,  which  is  removed  bj  boring  a  hole  into 
this  receptacle  from  below  and  inserting  therein  a  small 
bamboo  cane,  which  conduct-s  the  sap  into  an  earthenware 
receptacle.  The  sap  fiows  principally  during  the  night, 
and  should  be  removed  the  following  morning  before  the 
sun  becomes  very  hot.  After  tapping,  the  tree  will  con- 
tinue to  afford  a  supply  of  sap  for  about  three  days,  and 
must  then  be  allowea  a  period  of  rest.  The  sugar  season 
begins  in  November  and  lasts  until  the  middle  of  February. 
The  cooler  and  calmer  the  weather  the  better  the  harvest. 
The  juice,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  lime,  is  evaporated 
over  the  naked  fire  to  a  thick  simp.  Part  of  it  is  some- 
times further  dried  in  the  sun  to  a  hard  mass.  This  thick 
sirup  is  sometimes  called  date-tree  honey,  and  was  known 
as  an  article  of  commerce  at  the  time  of  Herodotus  and 
probably  for  many  years  before.  The  sugar  of  the  palm  as. 
it  comes  from  the  tree  is  nearly  pure  sucrose,  or  cane-sugar, 
but  much  of  it  becomes  inverted  in  the  crude  process  of 
manufacture.  Good  palm-trees  yield  from  30  to  40  lb.  of 
sugar  in  a  season.  The  varieties  cultivated  are  chiefly 
Phoenix  aylveatria,  Cocos  nuciferoy  Borassus  fiabeUiforrnik, 
Caryota  urens^  and  Arenga  aaceharifera.  A  grove  of  from 
600  to  800  palms  is  considered  a  valuable  possession.  Tlie 
annual  production  in  India  is  estimated  at  1,000,000  metric 
centners  (100,000  tons  of  2,204*6  lb.). 

Maple-sugar. — The  maple-tree  is  the  sugar-palm  of  tem- 
perate climates.  Of  the  several  varieties  of  tnis  tree,  only 
the  Acer  barbatum  (also  called  A,  saecharinum)  is  nsetl  to 
any  extent  for  sugar-making.  The  principal  centers  of  the 
maple-sugar  industry  are  in  Vermont,  New  York,  and  Ohio, 
but  almost  everywhere  in  the  northeastern  parts  of  the 
U.  S.,  and  also  in  parts  of  Canada,  some  sugar  and  molasst^ 
are  made.  Only  the  old  trees  are  used  for  sugar-making,  and, 
until  within  a  few  years,  the  natural  forests.  Within  the 
past  few  decades  there  hks  been  some  planting  of  maple- 
trees  for  sugar-producing  purposes,  although  a  grove  is  n«>t 
Erofitable  for  use  until  it  is  thirty  or  forty  years  old.  The 
est  groves  for  sugar-making  are  those  in' which  the  under- 
brush and  small  trees  have  been  cut  away,  allowing  the 
larger  trees  an  opportunity  to  increase  their  leaf  and  twi<f 
growth.  As  a  rule,  the  shorter  trees  with  dense  spreadin*: 
overgrowth  are  better  for  sugar-production,  botn  in  the 
sweetness  and  quantity  of  sap.  Woodpeckers  are  quick  ti> 
discover  the  sweeter  trees,  which  they  fill  with  holes  in  the 
springtime  for  the  purpose  of  drinking  the  sap.  The  excels 
of  sap  fiowing  over  the  bark  darkens  it,  and  the  sweeter 
trees  thus  often  have  almost  a  black  exterior. 

The  sugar  season  begins  after  the  breaking  up  of  the 
winter,  in  the  more  southern  latitudes  the  sap  will  flow 
freely  after  the  first  thaw  in  winter,  often  in  January.    In 


804: 


SUGAR 


therefrom,  but  all  enthusiastic  promoters  of  enterprises  for 
making  sugar  from  maize-stalks  should  be  reminded  that 
economically  the  task  is  a  hopeless  one  so  long  as  cheaper 
and  better  sources  of  raw  material  are  available  in  practi- 
cally inexhaustible  supplies. 

Sorghum  Sugar, — The  history  and  method  of  making 
sugar  from  sorghum  are  descrikied  in  the  article  Soeghum 
{q.  v.). 

Culture  of  Sugar-cane. — Since  the  sugar-cane  and  sugar- 
beet  are  practically  the  sources  of  all  commercial  sugar,  a 
description  of  the  methods  of  cultivation  will  be  confined 
to  these  two  plants.  Sugar-cane  is  propagated  by  cuttings, 
and  in  rare  instances  from  the  seed.  All  parts  of  the  cane 
having  well-formed  joints  may  be  used  for  planting.  In 
some  localities  it  is  customary  to  cut  off  the  top,  which  is 
less  rich  in  sugar,  and  use  it  for  planting,  while  the  rest  is 
employed  for  sugar-making.  The  more  common  practice, 
however,  is  to  use  the  whole  cane,  with  the  exception  of  that 
portion  of  the  top  devoid  of  well-formed  joints.  In  the 
tl.  S.  the  time  of  planting  extends  from  October  to  March. 
As  a  rule,  autumnal  planting  is  to  be  preferred.  The  soil 
is  prepared  by  plowing  and  reducing  with  harrows  and 
cultivators  to  a  good  tilth.  Furrows  are  then  opened  by  a 
double  mould-board  plow,  at  distances  varying  from  5  to 
8  feet.  The  canes,  cut  into  sections  of  about  2  feet  in 
length,  are  laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and  the  soil 
thrown  over  them  either  by  a  hand-hoe  or  by  a  plow.  Some 
planters  prefer  not  to  cut  the  canes  unless  they  are  crooked. 
When  the  seed  is  good,  two  canes  alongside  are  enough  to 
make  a  good  stand.  A  third  cutting  is,  however,  often  laid 
at  the  points  of  union  of  the  canes,  making,  in  the  language 
of  the  planter,  "  two  canes  and  a  lap  "  in  a  row.  The  tot^l 
quantity  of  seed  rewquired  varies  from  4  to  6  tons  an  acre. 
After  planting  it  is  best  to  either  roll  the  top  of  the  soil 
or  to  smooth  the  space  over  the  furrows  with  a  hand-hoe, 
removing  all  clods  which  might  interfere  with  the  exit  of 
the  young  canes  from  the  soil.  The  young  canes  grow  from 
eyes  held  on  the  joints  of  the  parent  cane.  When  spring 
planting  is  practiced,  the  eyes  of  the  cane  are  preserved 
from  the  injurious  effects  of  frost  by  being  preserved  be- 
tween the  4X)ws,  the  top  of  one  cane  being  spread  over  the 
stalk  of  the  one  previously  cut.  This  process  is  called  wind- 
rowing.  A  light  covering  of  earth,  which  can  be  thrown 
over  the  canes  by  running  a  plow  on  either  side,  is  suffi- 
cient to  protect  the  seed  from  aJl  ordinary  frosts  and  to  pre- 
vent it  from  becoming  too  dry.  If  a  better  protection  be 
desired  the  seed  is  preserved  in  mats,  piles  of  cane  care- 
fully laid  down  ana  covered  with  cane-tops  arid  earth. 
The  preservation  in  windrows  is  usually  preferred  to  that 
in  mats,  unless  very  cold  weather  be  expected.  Cane  pre- 
served for  seed  is  subject  to  disasters  due  to  drying  up, 
frost,  insects,  and  fungous  diseases.  For  this  reason  the 
seed  preserved  for  spring  planting  is  often  of  poor  quality, 
requiring  a  larger  weight  per  acre. 

Young  canes  are  not  seriously  hurt  by  frost  unless  it 
comes  very  late  in  the  spring.  In  the  cane-growing  dis- 
tricts of  the  U.  S.  frosts  are  not  often  experienced  after 
Mar.  1.  In  fields  which  have  long  been  under  cultivation 
sugar-cane  requires  generous  fertilizing.  Superphosphates, 
potash  salts,  and  cottonseed-meal  are  the  fertilizing  materials 
usually  employed.  The  highest  tonnage  per  acre  has  been 
obtained  by  using  350  lb.  of  cottonseed-meal,  430  lb.  of 
acid  phosphate,  and  100  lb.  of  sulphate  of  potash. 

The  sugar  lands  of  Louisiana  consist  almost  wholly  of 
alluvial  deposits  embracing  two  types,  a  light  and  a  dark 
soil.  The  cultivation  of  the  growing  cane  consists  in  keep- 
ing the  ground  well  plowed  and  free  from  weeds.  As  the 
cultivation  goes  on  it  is  the  general  custom  to  throw  the 
soil  toward  the  row,  so  that  at  the  time  of  "  laying  by  "  the 
field  is  left  in  ridges,  the  canes  growing  on  the  summits. 
The  cultivation  usually  lasts  until  the  latter  part  of  June. 
After  the  first  crop  of  canes  is  harvested  the  stubbles  will 
produce  in  the  succeeding  years  a  second  crop  and  often  a 
third  or  fourth.  In  the  U.  S.  the  replanting  of  the  fields, 
however,  usually  takes  place  every  second  or  third  year, 
while  in  tropical  countnes  the  fields  may  run  from  ten  to 
fifteen,  and  even  a  greater  number  of  years,  without  re- 
planting. The  first  crop  from  the  fields  is  known  as  plant- 
cane,  and  subsequent  crops  as  first  and  second  year  stubble, 
etc.  The  beginning  of  the  cultivation  of  stubble-cane  con- 
sists in  barring  off,  that  is,  in  throwing  the  soil  from  the 
stubble  by  means  of  a  single  mould-board  plow.  In  addition 
to  this  the  stubble  is  often  shaved,  that  is,  cut  off  smoothly 
just  beneath  the  surface.    At  this  time  it  is  also  customary 


to  apply  the  fertilizers.  After  a  few  days  the  soil  is  thrown 
to  tne  stubble  and  the  middles  broken  out  and  reduces!  t*.> 
good  tilth,  and  the  subsequent  cultivation  is  the  same  as 
that  for  plant-cane  already  mentioned.  The  stubble  er«  »rs 
from  year  to  year  become  harder  and  contain  more  woolly 
matter,  but  the  juices  are,  as  a  rule,  richer  in  sugar,  so  that 
the  total  amount  of  sugar  per  ton  is  about  the  same  in  bor  h 
plant  and  stubble  crops.  In  harvesting  the  canes  are  out  as 
near  the  surface  of  the  soil  or  as  little  thereunder  as  may 
be  with  a  broad  steel  knife  furnished  with  a  hook  on  the 
back,  by  means  of  which  the  laborer  by  a  skillful  stroke  4*d 
either  side  of  the  cane  relieves  it  of  its  leaves,  after  which 
the  top  is  cut  at  the  first  immature  joint  and  the  cauf:> 
thrown  in  a  pile  for  subsequent  removal  to  the  factory  by 
cart  or  portable  railway.  A  good  laborer  will  cut  f  rcMn  S 
to  6  tons  of  cane  per  day. 

Culture  of  the  Sugar-beet. — Sugar-beets  are  grown  to  the 
best  advantage  for  su^-making  purposes  in  northern  tem- 
perate regions.    In  going  southward,  as  a  general  rule,  the 
beet  becomes  less  sweet  and  more  pithy  and  tends  to  grow  to 
a  larger  size.    A  mean  temperature  of  70°  F.  is  well  suite*!  t<» 
the  growth  of  beets  of  high  sugar  content.    The  soil  in 
which  beets  are  planted  should  be  plowed  to  the  depth  of 
about  10  inches  and  loosened  by  a  subsoil  plow  to  an  addi- 
tional depth  of  6  inches.    The  plowing  is  often   accom- 
plished in  the  late  autumn.    In  all  cases  before  planting 
the  surface  should  be  reduced  to  perfect  tilth.    Any  s<iil 
suited  to  the  growth  of  good  crops  will  produce  beets,  but 
they  do  not  grow  well  in  a  stiff  clav.    The  seeds  are  planted 
in  rows  about  18  inches  apart,  and  covered  to  the  depth  of 
about  1  inch.    Deep  planting  should  be  avoided,  inasmuch 
as  the  tender  shoots  of  the  young  plants  are  not  able  to 
emerge  from  a  very  deep  covering  of  earth.    From  12  to  '20 
lb.  of  seed  are  planted  per  acre.    When  the  plants  are 
grown  until  they  show  four  well-<ieveloped  leaves,  the  thin- 
ning process  is  commenced,  leaving-  one  vigorous  shoot  at 
about  every  9  inches  in  the  row.    The  number  of  plants 
per  acre  is  determined  in  a  large  measure  by  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  and  the  degree  of  fertilization  practiced ;  but  in  all 
cases  they  should  be  numerous  enough  to  limit  the  average 
weight  at  harvest- time  to  a  little  more  than  1  lb.     The  cul- 
ture of  the  beet  consists  in  keeping  the  soil  well  stirred  and 
free  of  weeds.    Deep  culture  is  not  admissible  on  account 
of  the  danger  of  disturbing  the  young  plants  in  their  po- 
sition and  of  covering  up  the  tops.    At  the  time  of  laying 
by,  which  is  about  the  middle  of  July,  the  surface  of'  the 
soil  should  be  left  as  smooth  and  level  as  possible.    The 
planting  in  the  chief  beet-sugar  countries  extends  from  the 
last  day  of  April  till  the  end  of  May.    In  California,  where 
are  found  exceptional  climatic   conditions,  the  pluitin? 
begins  as  early  as  January  and  extends  to  June.    As  a  mle, 
the  earlier  plantings  produce  the  better  crops.    In  German  j 
and  France  the  harvest  begins  about  Sept.  15.  and  is  con- 
cluded by  the  middle  or  end  of  November.    In  California 
the  harvest  begins  as  early  as  August  and  continues  until 
the  end  of  the  manufacturing  season.    The  beets  can  he 
left  without  much  danger  until  January,  or  until  there  ii; 
danger  of  second  growth  from  the  winter  rains.    In  har- 
vesting, the  beets  are  loosened  by  a  digger  which  parses 
under  them,  and  are  then  removed  from  the  soil  by  their 
tops  and  thrown  into  heaps.    The  tops  with  a  portion  of 
the  neck  of  the  beet  are  then  removed  by  means  of  a  large 
sharp  knife,  and  the  beets  are  then  ready  for  preferring  in 
silos  or  delivering  to  the  factory.    In  siloing  tne  beets  thev 
should  be  covered  as  lightlv  as  possible,  to  preserve  them 
from  danger  of  freezing.    If  the  temperature  of  the  silo 
becomes  too  high  the  beets  are  apt  to  be  iniureil. 

The  manufacturing  season  begins  in  California  in  August, 
and  in  other  countries  in  September.  The  average  dura- 
tion of  the  manufacturing  season  is  about  three  month>. 
but  in  exceptional  cases  it  lasts  for  four  or  five  raonths. 
With  the  approach  of  spring,  however,  the  beets  rapidly  .]i«- 
teriorate.  and  for  this  reason  manufacturers  try  to  close  the 
season  by  the  end  of  January. 

The  production  of  a  beet  rich  in  sugar  has  become  a  sepa- 
rate branch  of  the  sugar  industry.  From  an  original  con- 
tent of  from  4  to  6  percent,  of  sugar,  the  development  of  tlu 
beet  has  continued  until  it  now  shows  from  13  to  15  pi^r 
cent.,  and  in  exceptional  cases  from  15  to  19  per  cent. 

At  the  time  of  harvest  certain  beets  of  typical  shape  an«i 
size  and  of  apparently  perfect  nature  are  selected  and  pre- 
served in  silos  over  the  winter  without  having  their  necb 
removed.  In  the  following  spring  the  silos  are  opened  an«i 
each  beet  examined  separately  by  taking  out  a  core  cut 


806 


SUGAR 


however,  it  is  found  to  be  profitable  to  repeat  the  process 
iust  described.  In  the  second  saturation  the  quantity  of 
lime  used  is  much  less  than  in  the  first,  not  exceeding  from 
^  to  1  lb.  to  100  lb.  of  juice.  The  second  saturation  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  second  filtration,  and  the  bright  juices  thus  ob- 
tained are  ready  for  evaporation,  although  they  still  contain 
large  quantities  of  soluble  materials  other  than  sugar,  chief 
among  which  are  salts  of  potassium. 

The  evaporation,  concentration,  and  crystallization  of  the 
purified  juices,  both  from  beets  and  sugar-cane,  are  carried 
on  in  the  same  manner,  and  one  description  of  the  process 
is  sufiicient. 

Evaporation  and  Cryatallizafion, — The  two  chief  points 
to  be  Kept  in  view  in  securing  the  sugar  from  the  saccharine 
juices,  clarified  as  above  described,  are  the  removal  of  the 
water  and  the  prevention  of  the  inversion  of  the  sugar  dur- 
ing boiling.  Evaporation  in  open  kettles  is  lar^y  prac- 
ticed in  making  sugar  in  a  small  way.  The  heat  is  applied 
directly  to  kettles  or  pans  by  means  of  a  fire  of  wood  or 
bagasse,  or  indirectly  by  means  of  copper  coils  connected 
with  a  steam-boiler.  As  the  concentration  proceeds  the 
condensed  juices  are  carried  to  the  finishing  kettle  or  pan, 
fresh  juices  being  added  to  the  others.  When  the  evapora- 
tion has  proceeded  to  the  crystallizing-point,  which  is  de- 
termined by  the  temperature  or  the  appearance  of  the  boil- 
ing material,  portions  of  the  mass  may  also  be  removed, 
cooled,  and  tested.  The  sugar,  still  in  a  liquid  state,  is  put 
into  vessels,  where  it  crystallizes.  When  the  crystallization 
is  complete,  the  molasses  is  removed  by  transferring  the 
mass  to  hogsheads  with  perforated  bottoms.  Sugar-canes 
are  often  pushed  into  the  crystalline  mass  to  open  up  chan- 
nels for  the  liquid  portions.  The  sugar  thus  formed  is  of  a 
more  or  less  pronounced  yellow  color  and  quite  moist. 
When  made  from  cane  it  retains  the  natural  aromatic 
flavoring  matters  of  the  original  juices,  and  is  highly  prized, 
especially  by  bakers.  The  process,  however,  is  not  an  eco- 
nomical one,  both  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  fuel 
required  and  by  reason  of  the  loss  of  sugar  by  inversion  at 
the  high  temperature  reached  in  the  end  process.  Even  in 
Louisiana,  where  this  method  was  once  the  leading  one,  it 
has  almost  entirely  given  way  to  more  modern  processes. 

All  modem  sugar-factories  of  a  magnitude  to  be  of  any 
commercial  importance  conduct  the  evaporation  of  sugar 
juices  in  a  partial  vacuum.  This  not  only  secures  great 
economy  in  the  use  of  fuel,  but  also,  by  reason  of  the  lower 
temperature  which  is  maintained,  avoids  all  loss  by  inver- 
sion. To  avoid  confusion,  some  of  the  technical  terms  in 
use  in  sugar-factories  should  be  defined.  The  word  juice  or 
liquor  is  applied  to  all  saccharine  liquids  of  moderate  den- 
sity in  the  raw  state  after  extraction  from  the  cane  or  beets, 
or  in  the  clarified  state  with  its  attendant  concentration. 
The  term  sirup  designates  the  saccharine  liquid  after  its 
first  evajwration  but  before  it  is  finally  boiled  for  sugar. 
The  expression  massecuite  is  used  to  designate  the  mass  as 
it  is  finally  boiled  for  sugar,  and  embraces  not  only  the 
crystallized  but  also  the  liquid  contents  of  the  vacuum-pan 
at  the  end  of  the  boiling.  Molasses  is  a  term  applied  to 
the  separated  portion  of  the  massecuite,  whether  obtained 
by  drainage  or  by  centrifugal  action.  Multiple  effect  is  the 
name  given  to  the  series  of  evaporators  joined  en  suite,  by 
means  of  which  the  juice  is  reduced  to  a  sirup.  When  only 
two  are  en  suite  it  is  called  double,  and  when  three  a  triple 
or  multiple  effect.  They  are  arranged  in  such  a  way  as  to 
require  steam  to  be  applied  only  to  the  first  one.  The 
vapors  arising  from  the  first  pan  become  the  source  of  heat 
for  the  second,  those  from  the  second  of  the  third,  and  so 
on.  This  is  accomplished  by  so  arranging  them  as  to  have 
the  lowest  vacuum  in  the  first  of  the  series  and  the  highest 
in  the  last.  If  three  pans  be  used,  the  reading  of  the 
vacuum-scale  on  the  first  one  will  be,  for  example.  5  inches, 
on  the  middle  one  15  inches,  and  on  the  last  one  25  inches, 
30  inches  representing  practically  a  perfect  vacuum. 

In  point  of  fact,  by  this  arrangement  there  is  no  economy 
of  speed,  four  pans  not  evaporating  any  more  than  one 
would  at  the  highest  vacuum  and  with  the  same  amount  of 
steam.  The  amount  of  fuel  re(^uired,  however,  for  a  given 
volume  of  evaporation  is  approximately  only  one-third  that 
which  would  be  required  ii  only  one  pan  were  used  plus  the 
amount  necessary  to  operate  the  vacuum-pump.  Inasmuch, 
however,  as  the  quantity  of  steam  required  for  the  pump  is 
the  same  whether  one  or  three  pans  be  used,  there  is  saved, 
approximately,  two-thirds  of  the  fuel.  In  practice  it  is 
found  that  no  economy  is  secured  bv  increasing  the  number 
of  pans  beyond  three  or  four.    The  saccharine  liquor  is 


gradually  transferred  during  the  operation  to  the  third  pAn, 
from  which  the  finished  sirup  is  removed  from  time  t^» 
time  or  continuously  by  means  of  a  pump  which  will  crcAt*? 
a  higher  vacuum  than  that  existing  m  the  pan.  The  f«r4  >o- 
ess  in  a  multiple-effect  apparatus,  when  once  started,  i«%  a 
continuous  one,  fresh  juice  entering  the  first  pan  and  t  tkc 
finished  sirup  flowing  from  the  last  one. 

The  strike-pan  is  a  boiling  apparatus  used  with  a  hi<^li 
vacuum  in  wnich  the  sirup  is  concentrated  to  massecuite. 
Its  size  corresponds  to  the  capacity  of  the  factory,  and   i'r.i- 
those  houses  which  use  from  200  to  400  tons  of  raw  material 
a  day  the  strike-pan  will  vary  from  6  to  10  feet  in  diamett-r 
and  from  10  to  20  feet  in  height,  and  with  a  capacity  of 
from  20,000  to  70,000  lb.  of  massecuite  at  each  strike.   IIt^^l.t 
is  applied  in  the  strike-pan  by  means  of  a  series  of  eopp*^r 
coils,  one  above  the  other,  beginning  near  the  bottom  azKcl 
extending  half  way  or  more  to  the  top.    These  coils  of  co(>- 
per  are  of  large  diameter,  in  order  to  permit  the  free  cireu- 
lation  of  exhaust  steam,  at  low  pressure,  from  the  enginc-TS 
and  pumps  of  the  factory.    Live  steam  is  not  used  in  tlie 
pan  except  when  the  exhaust  steam  proves  to  be  insafficient^ 
For  the  manufacture  of  raw  sugar  the  vacuum  is  main- 
tained as  high  as  possible.    With  a  good  pump  and  other 
apparatus,  at  sea-level,  it  can  be  kept  at  from  28  to  29 
inches.    In  this  vacuum  the  boiling  will  take  place  at  a 
temperature  of   from  120*"  to  160°  F.,  according  to  the 
density  of  the  mass. 

The* operation  is  begun  by  taking  into  the  pan  a  quantity 
of  sirup  large  enough,  when  concentrated  to  the  crystalliz- 
ing-point, to  cover  the  first  coil.  By  means  of  the  proof- 
stick  the  sugar-boiler  determines  when  the  sirup  has  a 
proper  deforce  of  consistence.  At  this  point  a  consider- 
able additional  quantity  of  sirup  is  quickly  drawn  into  the 
pan,  whereby  a  crystallization  is  produced  in  the  thick- 
ened sirup  in  the  pan.  The  crystals  formed  at  first  are 
too  small  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  but  when  some 
of  the  mass  is  put  on  a  piece  of  glass  it  is  seen  to  have  a 
turbid  appearance.  The  art  of  the  sugar-boiler  consists  in 
feeding  these  crystals  with  fresh  quantities  of  sirup,  added 
in  such  a  way  as  to  avoid,  on  the  one  hand,  the  melting  of 
the  crystals  already  formed,  and,  on  the  other,  the  forma- 
tion of  a  new  crop  of  crystals  known  as  false  grain.  When 
the  operation  is  properly  conducted,  the  pan  is  gradually 
filled  with  the  growing  mass  of  crystals,  and  coil  after  coil 
of  the  heating  apparatus  is  brought  into  use  until  all  are  in 
operation.  After  this  the  boiling  goes  on  with  great  activ- 
ity until  the  pan  is  full.  At  the  end  the  further  supply  of 
sirup  is  cut  off,  usually  after  the  addition  of  a  considerable  . 
quantity  of  sirup,  for  the  purpose  of  washin^^  the  crystals, 
and  the  mass  is  thickenea  by  further  boiling  until  the 
minimum  quantity  of  water  consistent  with  the  proper 
handling  of  the  massecuite  is  secured,  viz.,  from  6  to  10  per 
cent.  The  large  valve  at  the  bottom  of  the  pan  is  then 
opened,  after  the  vacuum  has  been  broken,  and  the  masse- 
cuite falls  directly  into  a  mixer  or  into  wagons  in  which  it 
is  carried  to  a  mixer.  When  the  sirup  is  rich  and  pure  the 
massecuite,  as  it  drops  from  the  pan,  is  already  in  appear- 
ance a  solid  body.  In  the  mixer  the  massecuite  is  kept  in 
motion  by  revolving  paddles,  and  thus  prevented  from 
setting  into  solid  masses,  which  would  be  difficult  to  break 
up  and  dry.  Prom  the  mixer  the  massecuite  passes  directly 
into  the  centrifugal  machines,  where  the  sugar  is  separateii 
from  the  molasses.  So  quickly  is  this  accomplished  that 
within  a  few  minutes  after  leaving  the  strike-pan  the  dry 
sugar,  still  warm,  may  be  found  in  packages  ready  for  shi{>- 
ment  to  the  consumer  or  the  refiner. 

The  molasses  secured  by  the  above  process  is  still  rich  in 
crystallizable  sugar,  and  is  reboiled  for  a  second  crop  of 
crystals.  When  very  rich  it  can  be  boiled  to  grain,  as  in 
the  first  instance,  but  if  too  poor  for  this  it  is  boiled  to 
string  proof  to  the  proper  consistence,  placed  in  cars  in  a 
warm  room,  and  allowea  to  remain  for  a  week  or  ten  days. 
By  this  time  the  crystallization  is  completed,  and  the  con- 
tents of  the  cars  are  thrown  into  the  mixer,  well  broken  up. 
and  the  sugar  separated  in  the  centrifugal  in  the  manner 
already  described. 

The' molasses  obtained  from  this  second  crystallization  is 
sometimes  rich  enough  to  be  again  reboiled,  after  which  it 
is  placed  in  wagons  or  large  cisterns,  and  allowed  to  re- 
main for  several  months,  yielding  a  third  crop  of  cr^'stals, 
which  when  dried  form  a  low-grade  sugar.  The  residual 
molasses  is  finally  either  sold  for  culinary  use  or  for  mix- 
ing with  glucose  to  make  table  sirups,  or  is  sent  to  the  dis- 
tiller. 


SUGAR 


807 


Beet-sugar  molasses  is  unfit  for  table  or  culinary  use  on 
account  of  the  large  quantity  of  mineral  salts  whien  it  con- 
tains.  It  is  either  sent  to  the  distiller  or  the  sugar  it  con- 
tains is  recoyered  by  combining  it  with  strontium  or  lime, 
whereby  an  insoluble  sucrate  of  the  base  used  is  obtained, 
which  is  separated  from  the  soluble  salts  and  other  imi>uritie8 
by  means  of  a  filter-press.  In  this  case  it  is  the  residue  in 
the  press  cake  which  forms  the  valuable  product  The  su- 
crates  therein  contained  are  beaten  to  a  cream  with  water, 
and  the  lime  or  strontium  precipitated  by  means  of  carbonic 
acid.  The  carbonate  of  tne  base  is  separated  by  filtration, 
and  the  comparatively  pure  sugar  juices  obtained  are  con- 
centrated and  crystallized  in  the  usual  way. 

The  Refining  of  Sugar. — The  sugar  which  is  obtained  by 
the  above  described  processes  is  not  white  nor  pure,  and  fs 
prepared  for  table  use  by  the  refiner.  In  the  historical 
sketch  above  given  it  was  stated  that  the  early  processes  of 
refining  consisted  at  first  in  simply  melting  and  reboilin^ 
the  crude  sugar.  Each  successive  crystallization  obtained 
in  this  way  showed  an  improvement  in  color  and  purity,  but 
the  quantity  of  fairly  white  sugar  finally  obtained  was  a  very 
sroaU  part  of  the  raw  material  originally  taken.  The  aid  of 
clay,  bme,  and  the  white  of  e^es  or  blood  was  found  to  assist 
in  the  refining  process,  but  without  adding  much  to  the  total 
yield. 

In  India  the  term  refined  sugar  includes  sugars  which  have 
been  purified  by  charcoal  strainers  and  freed  from  all  admix- 
ture of  uncrystallized  sirup,  and  also  the  raw  native  sugars 
prepared  in  the  following  way :  The  immediate  product  of 
the  first  boiling  of  the  cane  juice  is  known  as  gurh  or  rab, 
according  as  the  sugar  is  boiled  down  to  a  hard  mass,  or 
allowed  to  remain  in  a  semi-liquid  condition.  Both  gurh 
and  rab  contain  some  uncrystallized  sirup.  Gurh,  as  a  rule, 
is  intended  directly  for  home  consumption,  and  is  compara- 
tively seldom  used  in  the  manufacture  of  refined  sugar.  Kab, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  always  intended  for  refining.  In  the 
process  of  refining  the  molasses  known  as  shira  is  partially 
expressed  from  the  rab  by  the  primitive  contrivance  of  a  man 
standing  on  a  pile  of  bags  filled  with  rab,  and  working  them 
backward  and  forward  bv  the  movement  of  his  body.  The 
rab  partially  refined  in  tdis  way  is  called  putri,  and  though 
it  still  contains  a  large  percentage  of  shira  it  is  far  more 
compact,  and  shows  more  granulation  than  before  pressing. 
The  putri  is  thrown  into  a  crate  covered  with  a  species  of 
water-weed  known  as  siwar  ( Vallieneria  spiralis),  and  the 
remaining  simp  slowly  drains  out  at  the  bottom  of  the 
crate,  ana  the  putri  gradually  whitens  into  a  mealy  looking 
suprar  called  pachani,  and  it  is  then  dried  in  the  sun  and 
broken  up  by  being  trampled  on  for  some  hours.  When 
dried  it  is  known  as  shakar. 

These  crude  methods  in  sugar-refining  liave  led  to  the 
modem  processes,  which  are  so  perfect  as  to  permit  of  the 
recovery  in  a  state  of  purity  of  almost  all  the  sugar  in  the 
crudest  articles  of  commerce. 

The  process  of  refining  is  often  carried  on  in  connection 
with  tne  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the  raw  materials. 
Various  methods  are  employed.  In  one  process  the  juices 
are  subjected  to  the  action  of  sulphur-fumes,  whereby  they 
become  bleached.  In  the  subsequent  boiling  the  massecuite 
is  left  in  a  less  dense  state,  so  that  the  crystals  are  more 
readily  separated  from  the  molasses,  and  more  easily  washed. 
When  the  crystals  are  dried  in  the  centrifugals  they  are 
washed  with  a  little  water,  and  also  with  a  solution  of  chlo- 
ride of  tin,  which  give  them  a  bright  appearance.  Sugar 
made  in  this  way,  especially  from  cane-juice,  is  quite  pure, 
and  has  a  white  or  delicate  yellow  tint,  and  is  much  prized 
by  some  consumers.  The  yield,  however,  as  can  be  readily 
ju?en,  is  much  less  than  that  obtained  by  the  dense  boiling 
l>efore  described. 

Instead  of  sulphur-fumes  bone-black  is  also  employed  in 
making  a  white  sugar  directly  in  the  factory.  The' bone- 
black  IS  generally  used  on  the-  sirups  until  they  are  practi- 
cally decolorized.  Sugar  made  with  the  use  of  bone-black  is 
wasned  in  the  centrifugals  with  a  little  water,  followed  by  a 
solution  of  ultramarine.  The  bluing  thus  practiced  gives  a 
whiter  tint  to  the  crystals. 

These  refining  processes  are  profitable  only  where  there 
U  a  i^ood  domestic  demand  for  high-grade  sugar,  and  in 
i«.M.-alities  remote  from  refineries,  where  the  freights  attend- 
ing the  shipment  of  refined  sugar  materially  increase  the 
pnce. 

From  an  economical  point  of  view  the  refining  of  sugar 
is  entirely  distinct  from  its  manufacture  from  the  raw  ma- 
terials.   It  is  carried  on  in  the  most  economical  way  in  large 


establishments  kept  in  operation  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  year.  In  the  U .  S.  there  are  in  active  operation  less  than 
a  dozen  refineries  supplying  nearly  2,000,000  tons  a  year. 

Following  is  a  brief  description  of  the  process  of  refining 
sugar  on  a  large  scale : 

The  raw  sugar  is  dumped  into  vats,  where  it  is  stirred 
with  warm  water  until  melted.  In  this  manner  a  sirup  is 
obtained  containing  from  80  to  40  per  cent,  of  sugar.  The 
bags  and  other  packages  in  which  the  sugar  is  smpped  are 
washed,  and  the  wash-water  added  to  the  sacchanne  mix- 
ture. The  liquor  thus  formed  is  filtered  through  bags  or 
filter-presses,  to  remove  suspended  matters.  Sometimes  the 
liquor  is  made  thinner,  and  treated  with  lime  and  clarified 
in  the  manner  described  for  cane  juices.  After  filtration 
the  limpid  liquors  are  bleached  with  sulphur-fumes,  or  by 
passing  over  bone-black,  which  is  the  more  usual  way. 
Bone-mack  is  prepared  bv  subjecting  bones  to  distillation 
in  a  retort  practically  excluded  from  the  air.  A  large  part 
of  the  organic  matter  in  the  bones  is  by  this  process  con- 
verted into  carbon,  and  left  in  a  finely  divided  state  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  molecules  of  lime  phosphate  of 
which  the  mineral  matter  of  bones  is  chiefly  composed. 
This  combination  of  animal  char  and  lime  pnosphate  has 
the  property  of  rapidly  oxidizing  the  colormg-matter  of 
sugar  solutions,  ana  thus  of  bleaching  them.  The  freshly 
burned  char  is  contained  in  cylindrical  vessels  of  steel  or 
iron  arranged  in  convenient  senes.  The  most  highly  colored 
solutions  are  passed  first  through  those  filters  which  have 
been  in  use  some  time,  and  thus  have  lost  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent their  decolorizing  power.  The  process  is  continued  in 
such  a  way  that  the  less  colored  solutions  are  finally  brought 
into  contact  with  some  fresh  char,  whereby  they  are  rendered 
almost  if  not  quite  water-white.  The  more  complete  the 
decoloration  the  laiger  the  percentage  of  white  sugar  which 
will  be  obtained.  The  bone-black,  when  it  has  once  lost  its 
decolorizing  power  by  use,  can  have  it  restored  by  washing 
in  a  dilute  acid,  followed  by  water,  and  then  burning  in 
specially  constructed  retorts.  These  retorts  are  continuous 
in  their  operation,  the  spent  black  being  fed  in  at  the  top 
and  the  revivified  char  Ming  removed  at  the  bottom.  After 
repeated  using,  however,  the  char  loses  its  virtue,  and  is 
then  sold  for  Fertilizing  purposes. 

The  nearly  white  liquor  finally  obtained  is  ready  with- 
out further  preparation  for  treatment  in  the  strixe-pan. 
The  ^neral  method  of  boiling  is  the  same  as  that  already 
described.  The  crystals  are  made  large  or  small  to  meet 
the  demands  of  the  trade  and  at  the  will  of  the  sugai^boiler. 
If  a  hard  crystal  be  desired  the  boiling  takes  place  at  a  lower 
vacuum,  say  24  to  26  inches,  while  if  a  soft  crystal  be  de- 
manded the  vacuum  is  made  as  high  as  possible,  from  28  to 
29  inches.  After  leaving  the  strike-pan  the  crystals  are 
dried  in  the  centrifugals  in  the  manner  already  noted.  The 
still  slightly  moist  crystals,  as  they  come  from  the  centrifu- 
gal, may  be  mouldedT  into  cubes  and  dried  (loaf-su^r),  or 
dried  in  larger  masses  and  cut  or  broken  into  approximately 
cubical  pieces  (cut  or  broken  loaf)«  or  dried  and  ground  to  a 
fine  powder  (powdered  sugar).  The  hard  crystals  are  also 
dried  in  revolving  drums  heated  by  steam,  and  form  thus 
the  granulated  sugar  of  commerce,  a  form  in  which  by  far 
the  larger  part  of  refined  sugar  now  reaches  the  consumer. 

The  molasses  from  the  first  granulation  is  reboiled  and 
lower  grades  of  nearly  white  sugar  made  therefrom.  These 
sugars  are  sold  under  many  names,  such  as  coffee  A,  coffee 
C,  brown  sugar,  etc.  A  third  and  even  fourth  crop  of  crys- 
tals is  sometimes  obtained,  and  finall3r  nearly  all  the  sugar 
originally  present  in  the  crude  material  is  secured  in  a  re- 
fined state.  The  art  of  the  sugar-boiler  is  constantly  brought 
into  use  to  make  grades  of  sugar  which  the  trade  demands, 
and  also  to  use  the  material  placed  in  his  hands  to  the  very 
best  advanta^.  When  his  work  has  been  properly  con- 
ducted there  is  finally  little  waste  material  left  to  be  sold  to 
the  mixers  or  distillers  as  '*  black  strap." 

In  some  countries,  especially  in  Great  Britain,  su^ar  in  the 
form  of  large  yellow  crystals  is  much  in  demand.  These 
crystals  were  first  made  in  Demerara,  and  hence  the  name 
w^ich  they  bear.  They  are  made  by  building  a  very  large 
crystal  in  the  strike-pan  and  then  producing  thereon  a  su- 
ficVficial  coating  of  caramel  to  give  a  yellow  color.  This 
was  formerly  accomplished  by  introducing  a  quantity  of  sul- 
phuric acid  into  the  pan  just  before  the  strike  was  dropped. 
At  present  tin  chloride  is  chiefly  used  for  coloring  the  crys- 
tals. In  making  these  large  crystals,  after  the  sirup  in  the 
pan  has  been  reduced  to  a  certain  consistence,  a  large  quan- 
tity of  ordinary  granulated  sugar  is  put  in  the  pan,  and  on 


808 


SUGAR 


these  crystals  the  larger  ones  are  built  in  the  manner  already 
described. 

Relative  Sweetness  of  Beet  and  Cane  Sugars. — In  chem- 
ical and  physical  character  pure  refined  sugar  made  from 
beets  is  the  same  as  that  made  from  cane.  In  the  raw  sug- 
ars,  however,  and  in  the  sugars  made  from  molasses,  there 
are  marked  differences.  The  beet  contains  a  large  quantity 
of  alkaline  salts,  and  these  bodies  are  found  to  some  extent 
in  the  raw  beet-sugars  and  in  beet-molasses.  An  unrefined 
beet-sugar  has  a  higher  percentage  of  ash  than  the  same 
grade  of  cane-sugar.  The  aromatic  organic  ethers  and  es- 
sential oils  that  give  an  agreeable  odor  and  flavor  to  cane- 
sugar  are  mostly  absent  from  beet-sugar.  A  stranger  enter- 
ing a  cane-sugar  factory  during  the  working  season  will  at 
once  notice  the  agreeable  aromatic  odor  everywhere  present. 
On  the  contrary,  m  a  beet-sugar  factory,  espieciall^  if  much 
molasses  be  in  process  of  manufacture,  the  opposite  will  be 
noticed.  Kaw  or  unrefined  cane-su?ar  may  ne  used  on  the 
table  or  in  the  kitchen,  and  the  old-fashioned  open-kettle 
molasses  is  a  luxury.  Unrefined  beet-sugar  can  not  be  used 
with  comfort  on  the  table,  and  beet-molasses  as  a  culinary 
article  is  unknown.  Beet-molasses  contains  a  certain  Quan- 
tity of  the  sugar  known  as  raffinose,  which  modifies  both  the 
physical  and  chemical  characters  of  the  sugars  made  there- 
from. Even  in  the  refined  sugars  a  difference  may  be  no- 
ticed between  cane  and  beet  sugars  if  the  samples  are  kept 
well  stoppered  for  some  time.  An  air-tight  package  of 
granulatea  cane-sugar  will  have  an  agreeable  aromatic  odor 
when  opened,  while  beet-sugar  in  the  same  condition  gives 
an  unpleasant  sensation  to  the  nostrils.  In  respect  of  the 
sweetening  properties  of  pure  cane  and  beet  sugars  there  is 
no  difference  wnatever  between  the  two  varieties. 

Chemistry, — Until  within  recent  years  there  has  been  much 
confusion  in  the  classification  of  sugars  and  sugar-like  bodies 
as  made  by  different  chemists.  By  many  authors  only  those 
bodies  were  classed  as  carbohydrates  which  contain  six  atoms 
of  carbon  or  some  multiple  thereof,  together  with  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  in  the  proportion  to  form  water.  In  1882  von 
Lippmann  published  a  work  in  which  he  took  the  view  first 
prop(»ed  by  Fittig,  that  the  carbohydrates  were  all  derived 
irom  a  hypothetical,  heptatomic  alcohol  having  the  compo- 
sition CeHtCOHT).  From  this  form  by  dehydration  are  pro- 
duced the  anhydrids,  such  as  C«HiaO«  or  CiaHt«On,  repre- 
senting glucose* and  saccharose  respectively. 

In  1888  a  marked  advance  in  the  knowledge  of  carbohy- 
drates was  secured  by  the  publication  of  Tollens*s  Handbodfc, 
Tollens  defines  carbohydrates  as  always  or  nearly  alwavs 
neutral  bodies  which  form  only  loose  compounds,  especially 
with  the  bases,  and  consequently  all  bodies,  such  as  methyl- 
hydroxyglutaric  acid  (CftHxoO*)  and  its  lactone  acid  (CeH.OO, 
as  well  as  the  saccharines  which  possess  the  general  formula 
of  carbohydrates  but  pass  over  easily  into  the  form  of  acids, 
must  be  excluded  from  the  list. 

According  to  Tollens  the  carbohydrates  have  many  com- 
mon properties,  and  they  possess  these  properties  either  in 
themselves,  as,  for  instance,  the  glucoses,  fruit  sugars,  and 
dextrose,  or  they  are  easily  converted  into  bodies  which  do  pos- 
sess them,  as,  for  instance,  cane-sugar,  cellulose,  and  starch. 
In  some  of  the  undoubted  carbohydrates  one  of  the  general 
properties  may  be  wanting,  but  there  are  other  properties 
which  are  indispensable,  and  those  bodies  which  do  not  pos- 
sess them  must  DC  left  out  of  the  class  even  should  they  be 
indifferent  chemically  and  have  the  general  carbohydrate 
formula.  According  to  this  view  the  properties  peculiar  to 
the  true  carbohydrates  are  the  following : 

(a)  The  power  of  reducing  alkaline  metallic  salt  solutions 
and  of  forming  a  yellow  color  with  alkalies. 

(b)  When  in  solution  they  must  possess  the  ability  to  ro- 
tate the  plane  of  polarized  light 

(c)  They  must  have  the  power  of  fermenting  when  treated 
with  yeast,  with  the  production  of  alcohol  and  carbon  di- 
oxide. 

(d)  When  heated  with  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  acid  they 
should  produce  levulinic  and  formic  acids  and  humus  sub- 
stances. 

(c)  They  should  have  the  property  of  giving  a  yellow  crys- 
talline precipitate  when  treated  with  phenylhydrazin  acetate. 

(/)  They  should  give  characteristic  color  reactions  when 
treated  with  acids  and  aromatic  alcohols. 

(a)  They  should  be  soluble  in  water  either  directly  or  after 
hyarolvsis  with  an  acid. 

(h)  When  subjected  to  strong  heat  all  carbohydrates  are 
decomposed,  turning  brown  at  first  and  afterward  black,  with 
a  production  of  many  different  substances. 


Tollens,  in  accordance  with  his  views,  classifies  the  ca.rl>»'>- 
hydrates  and  nearly  related  bodies  according  to  the  nurxx  l>Cf  r 
01  carbon  atoms  which  they  contain,  as  monosaccharids  f»a.  >~- 
ing  6  atoms  of  carbon,  disaccharids  with  12  atoms,  and  polj^- 
saccharids  with  18,  24,  or  36  atoms,  etc.    By  this  classifi^-?*- 
tion  the  number  of  true  carbohydrates  is  diminished  u  1:1 1  i  1 
it  is  comparatively  small,  while  the  number  of  earbohycirii- 
toid  bodies  is  large.    The  common  su^rs  and  carboti  ir- 
drates,  according  to  the  above  classification,  are  grouped   hj=i 
follows : 

I.  Monosaccharids  or  glucoses,  type  C«HiaO«. 

1.  Dextrose. 

2.  Levulose,  invert  sugar,  mannitose. 

3.  Galactose. 

4.  Sorbin  or  sorbose. 

5.  Different  little-known  glucoses. 

II.  Disaccharids  or  saccharoses,  type  CisH«tOxi. 

1.  Cane-sugar. 

2.  Milk-sugar. 

3.  Maltose. 

4.  Trehalose. 

5.  Melezitose. 

III.  Polysaccharids. 

(a)  Crystallizable  polysaccharids. 

1.  Raffinose,  C,.H.40„  +  10H,O. 

2.  Lactosin,  CieH«sOai. 

(h)  Difficultly  or  non-crystallizable  polysaccharids. 

1.  Starch. 

2.  Inulin. 

8.  Saccharocolloids,  gums,  and  slimes. 

4.  Cellulose. 

5.  Pectin  and  pectose  bodies. 

IV.  Substances  which  resemble  the  glucoses,  but  do  not 
have  either  the  exact  composition  thereof  or  for  other  rea- 
sons are  not  to  be  classed  therewith. 

(a)  Substances  which  contain  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  the 
proportion  to  form  water. 

1.  Arabinose,  CsHioO*. 

2.  Cerasinose. 

3.  Formose,  CeHjoO*. 

4.  Phenose,  CeHjsOt. 

6.  Inosit,  CeHiaO*. 

6.  Dambose,  CeHjaOe. 

7.  Scyllit,  C,H„0.. 

8.  Quercin,  C.HisOe. 

9.  Bergenin,  C.HeO*. 

(h)  Substances  which  contain  more  hydrogen  than  would 
be  necessary  to  form  water  with  the  oxygen  present. 

1.  Isodulcit?  C«H„0». 

2.  Quercit,  CeHnO^ 

3.  Pinit,  C.HasO.. 

4.  Sennit,  CsIIisOb. 

(e)  Mannit  and  its  isomers. 

1.  Mannit,  CsHuOt. 

2.  Dulcit,  C.HmO.. 
8.  Perseit,  CeHi*©.. 

4.  Sorbit,  CeH,*©.  -{■  i(n,0). 
(d)  Arabit,  C.HxaO,. 

Of  the  carbohydrates  conforming  to  the  above  definition 
dextrose,  levulose,  galactose,  and  mannit  are  types.  They 
respond  to  the  reactions  given,  and  have  been  found  to  pos- 
sess the  composition  of  Ketones  or  aldehydes  of  the  hex- 
avalent  alcohol  CsH^Ot.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  c&r- 
bohvdrate  bodies,  such  as  arabinose,  having  the  formula 
CftBLi«Oft,  which  are  sugars  having  all  the  properties  of  a  car- 
bohydrate, and  evidently  should  be  classed  with  those  bodies. 
There  is  another  sugar,  erythrose, having  the  formula  C^HbO,, 
which  is  an  aldehyde  of  the  tetratomic  alcohol  erythrite,  and 
another  sugar  glycerose  having  the  formula  CilitOa,  which 
also  has  valid  claims  to  be  classed  with  the  other  sugars. 
From  the  researches  of  Fischer  on  synthetic  sugars  it  appears 
that  the  old  classification  is  hardly  a  proper  one,  and  a  new 
one  based  on  his  work  is  preferable.  It  appears  from  these 
researches  that  there  is  a  homologous  series  of  aldehyde  or 
ketone  alcohols  having  the  general  formula  CbHsbOb  which 
have  these  common  properties:  1,  Sweet  to  the  tast«;  8, 
optically  active;  3,  reducing  alkaline  metallic  solutions; 
4,  yielding  with  phenylhydrazin  characteristic  crystalline 
compounds.  All  these  bodies  therefore  possess  the  e^ential 
characteristics  of  true  carbohydrates  and  are  as  a  conse- 
quence eligible  to  classification  as  such.  According  to 
Fischer,  the  classification  of  the  substances  which  consti- 


SUGAR 


80ft 


Tute  this  hainologoua  series,  so  far  mthtj  have  been  miuic 
knoww,  is  as  ftdli>ws : 

1.  Trioses,  type  CJIiOj.  typical  meinljer  glycerose, 

2.  Tetroses,  type  CiHsl>i,  typk-iil  memher  t'Vythroae. 

;i.  Pentoses,  ijpo  CallioOj",  typical  members  lurabinose, 

xyluse, 
4*  itekn^eis,  typfl  (%n,,t)a,  ty(>ieal  tDembcr?  dextrose,  levu- 

Jose,  galactose,  mannuse. 

5.  Heptoses,  type  C7H14O7,  typical  raemljer  heptose. 

6.  Ootoses,  ty|!>e  CaEf,«Oe,  typical  member  octose. 

7.  Nonoses,  type  CbUibOb,  typical  member  nonose. 

According  to  Fischer,  every  asymmetric  carbon  atom  in 
a  carbohydrate  molecule  makes  two  forms  possible.  There 
can  therefore  be  at  least  eight  hexoses,  and  each  of  these  is 
optically  paired,  making  sixteen  in  all.  Of  tfie  sixteen  pos- 
sible forms,  ten  have  already  been  discovered.  Of  the 
thirty-two  possible  heptoses  only  six  have  been  discovered, 
ami  of  the  128  possible  nonoses  only  two  are  known.  There 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  series  will  be  extended  by 
the  discovery  of  new  types,  increasing  very  largely  the  num- 
Ikt  of  possible  sugars.  In  the  sugars  classified  as  above  all 
those  which  contain  three  atoms  of  carbon  or  multiples  of 
three  are  susceptible  of  fermentation,  while  the  interven- 
ing^ meml)ers  can  not  be  fermented.  Thus  only  the  trioses, 
hoxoscs,  and  nonoses  are  fermentable. 

Natural  sugars  all  have  the  power  of  rotating  a  plane  of 
polarized  light,  and  this  quality  serves  as  a  basis  for  optical 
Sai  (  harimetey  iq.  v,).  Synthetic  sugars,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  devoid  of  rotatory  power,  and  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  are  composed  of  twinned  molecules  having  opj)osite 
rotatory  powers  of  equal  value.    See  Stereo-Chemistry. 

All  sugars,  natural  or  synthetical,  containing  three  atoms 
of  carbon  or  some  multiple  thereof  in  each  molecule,  are 
susceptible  to  fermentation  when  treated  with  yeast.  The 
I>nKlucts  of  fermentation  are  chiefly  alcohol  and  carbon  di- 
oxide, but  a  large  number  of  secondary  products  are  formed, 
such  as  glycerol  and  organic  acids. 

Cane-sugar,  sucrose,  or  saccharose  forms  a  molecule  rep- 
ro-iented  by  the  formula  CuHmOi,.  Cane-sugar  belongs  to 
the  disaccharids,  according  to  ToUens's  classification,  or  to 
the  hexoses  according  to  that  of  Fischer.  Under  the  lu- 
ll iKUce  of  acids  and  certain  ferments  it  undergoes  hydroly- 
sis, assimilating  a  molecule  of  water  and  forming  equal 
quantities  of  two  hexoses  known  as  dextrose  or  glucose 
and  levulose  or  fructose.  The  reaction  wliich  takes  place 
is  represented  by  the  formula  C,9HaaOu-»-II,0=  CeH,,0fl-|- 
<'en,,0«.  From  the  above  it  is  seen  that  the  two  sugars 
f..rined  are  chemically  identical,  but  optically  and  physi- 
cally they  have  very  different  qualities,  one  being  a  right- 
handed  sugar  and  easily  crystal  I  izable  and  the  other  a  left- 
htiuded  sugar  and  crystal lizable  with  difficulty. 

Cane-sugar  forms  compact,  monf)clinic  crystals  having  a 
sjH^cific  gravity  of  1-58.  Sugar  is  very  soluble  in  water.  At 
a  tcra{>erature  of  32'  F.  a  saturated  solution  of  sugar  in 
water  contains  in  each  100  parts  sixty-five  parts  of  sugar, 
and  at  120  F.  eighty-three  parts.  In  pure  arjueous  solu- 
ti<»ns  of  sugar  the  density  of  the  solution  is  directly  propor- 
tional to  the  quantity  of  sugar  present.  Upon  this  fact  is 
ba^'d  a  method  of  determining  the  |)ercentage  of  sugar  in 
a  S4>lution  from  its  specific  gravity.  The  instrument  most 
commonly  used  is  the  Brix  spindle.  (See  Hydrometer.) 
For  instance,  a  sugar  solution  which  marks  5°  Brix  con- 
tains 5  per  cent,  of  sugar  and  has  a  specific  gravitv  of 
10 11^7.  and  one  which  marks  50  Brix  contains  50  per  cent, 
of  stiu'ar  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1'2:J28.  Elaborate 
tables  are  found  in  works  on  sugar  analysis,  giving  the  per- 
<-.ntages  of  sugar  for  varying  degrees  of  density,  and  the  spe- 
cilic  trravities  for  each  degree  and  half  degree  of  the  stand- 
ard hydrometers  in  common  use.  It  is  only  when  sugar  so- 
luti.»ns  are  free  of  impurities  that  these  tables  can  be  used. 

Cane-sugar  does  not  possess  the  power  of  reducing  an 
alkaline  solution  of  copi>er,  but  the  dextrose  and  levulose 
pnxluced  by  the  treatment  of  cane-sugar  with  an  acid  or 
inverting  ferment  possess  this  power.  The  process  of  con- 
verting cane-sugar  into  dextrose  and  levulose  is  known  as 
irjvor^ion  or  hydrolysis.  Upon  the  proi>erty  of  reducing 
alkaline  copper  solutions  to  suboxide  is  based'the  process  of 
catMJ  ieal  saccharimetry. 

When  cane-sugar  is  subjected  to  a  strong  heat  it  suffers  a 
[lartial  decomjx)sition,  becomes  brown,  and  forms  caramel  or 
harnt  sugar. 

Many  oxidizing  bodies  act  uf)on  cane-sugar  with  great 
vit;or.     For  instance,  if  a  mixture  of  cane-sugar  and  j>otas- 


siiim  chlorate  Ijo  touched  with  a  drop  of  snlphuric  acrid  the 
oxidari«.m  will  bt  m  rapid  ft3  to  jirotluce  a  brillmnt  dttfln- 
gration,  Uot  nitric  utid  also  oxidiisea  cane-sugiir  witli  tho 
ppixiuetirm  of  orgimie  acid?.  A  saturated  solution  of  earu.* 
sugar  stirrer!  with  stronge^st  sulpJuirie  acid  will  lo«e  ifs  water 
of  corjipu^ition,  ajid  will  give  a  jMirou^s  mas$  of  carljon  iitid 
hurnu!^  Uxlitisj,  Cani^sugHF  unitcis  witli  tlie  ba^^s,  e*sjic*timily 
ihutiis  of  the  fUka line  earths,  forming  dibtkict  cbeiiiicfll  com- 
pounds known  as  sucrates.  The  sucrates  of  calcium  and 
strontium  play  an  important  part  in  the  separation  of  sugar 
from  beet  molasses. 

Statistics. — The  total  production  of  cane  and  beet  sugar 
in  the  world  in  1893-94  was  over  7,550.0(K)  tons,  and  in  1864- 
95  over  8,500,000.  The  following  table  includes  all  the  most 
important  countries  producing  sugar-cane  except  China. 
Most  of  the  sugar  consumed  in  Japan  (125,000  tons  per  an- 
num) is  imported. 

THE   world's   production  OF    Sl'OAR   FROM   SUGAR-CANE   FOR 

THREE   YEARS,  IN   TONS  OF  2,240  LB. 

Willett  &  Oray*8  estimates  of  cane-«ugar  crops.  May  2,  1805. 


OOUNTRT. 


1892-93. 


United  States 

Spanish  West  Indies : 

Cuba,  crop 

Porto  Rico 

British  West  Indies : 

Trinidad,  ex]>orttt 

Barbados,  €xport$ 

Jamaica 

Antig-ua  and  St.  Kilts  ^ 

French  West  Indies: 

Martinique,  export$ 

(iuatlclouiK? 

Danish  West  Indies— St.  Croix 

Haiti  and  San  Doniinj?o 

Le&ser  Antilles,  not  named  above. . 

M«'xico 

Central  America : 

San  Salvador,  crop 

Nicaragua,  crop 

British  Honduras  iBelize),  crop . . 
South  America  : 

British   Guiana  (Demerara),  ex- 
pitrta 

Dutch  Guiana  (Surinam),  crop.. . 

Pel  u,  crop 

Arpentine  Republic,  crop  {no  ex- 
ports) 

Brazil,  exports 

Total  in  America 


Asia  : 
British  India,  exports. 

Siain.  crop 

Java,  export  a 

Philippine  islands 

Cochin-china, 


Total  in  Asia . 


Australia  and  Polynesia : 

Oueensland 

New  South  Wales 


Hawaiian  islands.. 
Fiji  islands 


Total  in  Australia  and  Polynesia 

Africa : 

E^'.vpt.  crop 

Mauritius  and  other  British  pos- 

sessi«  ma 

Reunion  and  other  French  pos- 
sessions   

Total  in  Africa 

Euroije— Spain 

Total  cane-suf?ar  production. 


60,000 

70,080 

8.5.000 

lfi.'>.(>J0 
2u.()00 

3,4:^6,700  I    8.4«7,33l  |    3,029.114 


PRODUCTION  OF  BEET-SUGAR   IN   EUROPE  FOR  FOUR  YEARS,  THE 
LAST  YEAR  ESTIMATED,  IN  TONS. 


COUNTRY, 

German  F.mpire,... 
Austria-Hun^^ary.. , 

France 

Rii»<^ia  

H»'liriMm , 

Holland 

Other  countries 

Totals 


fvTii.ni 

C'v'<.o70 

244 '.:^  17 

7.'..i)I.') 

li3.r>io 
3,KH'.)..'>.r. 


4.V.. 

i'.m;. 

92. 


-93. 


(CO 

«KI0 


3,42H.516 


1891-92. 


1,1W. 

IHt, 

4''., 

8H, 


;i77 
•■J77 
,('►35 


Tho  annual  prtwliiction  of  hcct-sugar  in  the  U.  S.  is  about 
20,000  Ions,  and  in  Canada  300  tons. 


810 


SUGAR 


SUGGESTION 


I 


PEODUCTION  OF  SUOAE  AND  MOLASSES  IN  THE  U.  8.  FOR  THE 
CENSUS  YEARS  184^^,  1869-60,  186(^70,  1879-80,  AND  180^90, 
FROM  THE  REPORTS  OF  THE  SEVENTH  TO  THE  ELEVENTH 
CENSUSES,  INCLUSIVE. 


SUGAR-CANS. 

BOnOHUM. 

MAPUB. 

TKAR. 

pound.. 

MollMM, 

BAlloiu. 

8ug»r, 
pounds. 

gkllao*. 

1850 

I860 

297.092,400 
277,178,400 
104.451,600 
214,646,400 
301,284.395 

i4.'963,W6 
6,593,323 
16,573,878 
25,409,228 

*6,749.V» 
16,050,0H9 
28,444.»)2 
24.286;210 

34.253,436 
40,120.205 
28.443,645 
86,576,061 
82,952.927 

'l,'597',589 

1870 

1880 

1890 

921,057 
1,796,048 
2,258,376 

CONSUMPTION   OF   SUGAR   IN  THE  U.  S.   FROM    1884   TO   1894,  IN 
TONS  OF  2,240  LB.,  AND  CONSUMPTION  PER  CAPITA  IN  POUNDS. 


1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
188S. 
1889. 
1890. 
1891  . 
1892. 
1893. 
1894. 


Tons. 


1,252,366 
1,254,116 
1,355,809 
1,392,909 
1,457.264 
1,439,701 
1,523.731 
1,872,400 
1,853,870 
1.9(».862 
2,024,648 


Pooada  p«r  okplta. 


61  00 
49-96 

62  55 
68-11 
64  23 

62  64 
64  66 
67-46 

63  76 
63  88 
67-07 


The  total  consumption  of  foreign  sugar  in  1893  was  1,623,- 
872  and  in  1894  1,700,685  tons.  The  total  consumption  of 
domestic  cane-sugar  in  1893  was  235,816  and  in  1894  265,500 
tons.  The  total  consumption  of  domestic  beet-sugar  in  1893 
was  20,453  and  in  1894  20,000  tons.  The  total  consumption 
of  domestic  sorghum-sugar  in  1893  was  394  and  in  1894  300 
tons.  The  total  consumption  of  domestic  maple-sugar  for 
1893  was  15,257  and  for  1894  15,000  tons. 

CONSUMPTION   OF   SUGAR   IN   EUROPE   FOR   THE   TEAR   1894,  IN 
TONS  OF  2,240  LB.,  AND  CONSUMPTION  PER  CAPITA  IN  POUNDS. 


Great  Britain 

Germany 

France 

Austria 

Holland 

Belgium 

Russia. 

Italy 

Spain 

Sweden  and  Norway. 


1,484.000 

70 

623,000 

19 

488.000 

24-5 

825,000 

14 

65,000 

26 

75.000 

26 

450,000 

10 

66,000 

4 

40,000 

6 

80,000 

10 

At  present  (1895)  Canada  consumes  about  140,000  tons  of 
sugar  annually,  amounting  to  approximately  56  lb.  per 
capita,  and  Australia  and  ^ew  Zealand  175,000  tons  annu- 
ally, amounting  approximately  to  90  lb.  per  capita.  From 
the  above  data  it  is  seen  that  the  English-speaking  people 
of  the  world  are  the  great  consumers  if  not  the  great  pro- 
ducers of  sugar. 

Prices  of  Sugar. — It  is  diflBcult  to  compare  modem  with 
ancient  prices,  not  only  on  account  of  tne  change  in  the 
weights  and  names  of  coins,  but  especially  because  gold, 
which  is  the  ultimate  standard  of  value,  has  itself  varied  so 
much  in  its  purchasing  power  in  the  last  thousand  years. 

From  the  best  authorities  the  prices  of  sugar  in  England 
at  the  dates  mentioned  below,  calculated  to  the  present  val- 
ue of  gold,  are  as  follows : 

Prom  1259  to  1350,  |156  per  100  lb. ;  from  1351  to  1400, 
$237  per  100  lb. ;  from  1401  to  1540,  |150  per  100  lb.;  from 
1541  to  1582,  $181  per  100  lb. ;  and  from  1583  to  1702,  $106 
per  100  lb.  From  1700  to  1800  the  price  varied  through 
wide  limits,  but  still  remained  pretty  high,  being  in  1800 
about  $38  per  100  lb.  From  that  time  the  price  was  much 
less,  being  $16  per  100  lb.  in  1810  and  $4  per  100  lb.  in  1885. 

In  the  U.  S.  from  1845  to  1895  the  average  price,  duty 
free,  for  fair  refining  sugar,  polarizing  about  96  per  cent, 
was  $4.38  per  100  lb.  The  lowest  price  recorded  for  fair 
refining  sugar  was,  Feb.  21,  1895,  $1.94  per  100  lb.  net  cash, 
duty  free.  The  selling  price  of  refined  granulated  sugar, 
including  the  duty,  was  on  Feb.  21, 1895,  4  cents  a  pound. 

Literature. — Historical :  History  of  Sugar,  by  Dr.  Ed- 
ward 0.  von  Lippmann. 

Cane-sugar  I  Sugar  Growing  and  Refining,  by  Lock  and 
Newlands  Brothers ;  Bulletins  of  the  Louisiana  Sugar  Ex- 
periment Station  ;  Bulletins  5, 11,  15,  17,  18,  21,  22,  23,  Di- 
vision of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Beet-sugar :  Books  by  Horsin-D6on,  F.  Stohniann.  1^  « 
Stammer,  FrUhling  &  Schulz,  and  Lewis  Ware ;  Bullet  i  x  j  _-  j 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Special  BuUetii  i  >r 
28,  by  Wm.  McMurtrie,  Bulletins  of  the  Division  of  C'1i*-t^ 
istry  Nos.  27,  30,  83,  36,  39,  and  Farmers'  Bulletin  Xc>-  -1 
The  Sugar-beet,  by  Lewis  Ware. 

Sorghum-sugar  I  ^Sbr^Awm,  by  Peter  Collier ;  Annual  TC* 
ports  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1878,  J  .**  -  ^ 
1880.  1881,  and  1882;  Bulletins  of  the  Division  of  Ch«-ri.  i^ 
try,  Nos.  2,  3,  5,  14, 17,  18,  20,  26,  29,  34,  40 ;  Report  oT  t  i  ^ 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  on  Sorghum. 

Technological:  The  works  of  Horsin-Deon,  StohmAr;-! 
and  Stammer,  referred  to  above  ;  Spencer's  Sugar-^o  *€-*-  r- 
Manual ;  Bulletin  No.  8,  Division  of  Chemistry,  L .  S.   X  •  - 
partment  of  Agriculture. 

Chemical :  Bandhook  of  the  Carbohydrates,  by  B.  Toll  *•  r.  - 
Prof.  Emil  Fischer^s  papers  in  the  Berichte  of  the  Grerui  ti  i  i 
Chemical  Society. 

Analytical;  Tucker's  Sugar  Analysis;  WiechmaTiii'i 
Sugar  Analysis;  Bulletin  ^,  Division  of  Chemistry,  L'i.- 
partment  of  Agriculture. 

5/a/w^tca/ :  Willett  &  Gray's  Weekly  Statistical  Stf<7*^^- 
trade  Journal;  Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the  Un**^-: 
States,  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  Treasury ;  Eleven th  CV-n- 
sus  of  the  U.  S. 

Bibliographical :  A  Guide  to  the  Literature  of  Sugar ^  L  \ 
H.  Ling  Roth. 

Periodical:  Louisiana  Planter  and  Sugar  Manufacfu r^ »-. 
New  Orleans;  The  Sugar  Planters*  JotimeU,  If ew'OrU'&Ti-  : 
The  Suaar  Beet,  Philadelphia;  Sugar  Cane,  Manche>t»  r. 
Enrfand ;  Sugar,  London,  England ;  Sugar  Planters'  Mot*  f*- 
Zy,  Honolulu;  Mackay's  Sugar  Journal,  Australia;  Jourrtf^ 
aes  Fahricants  de  Sucre,  Paris ;  Sucrerie  Indigene,  Pari<  : 
Bulletin  de  f  Association  de  Chimistes  de  Sucrerie,  Pari>  ; 
Bulletin  de  V Association  Beige  de  Chimistes,  Bruss*-]-  : 
Zeitschrift  fikr  Rdbemucker-Industrie,  Berlin  ;  Keue  Z^  i  •'- 
schrift  fur  Eubenzueker-Industrie,  Berlin ;  Die  DeutsrAi 
Zuckerindustrie,  Berlin ;  Die  OSsterreichische-RObenzuckt  r- 
industrie,  Vienna.  Harvey  W.  Wii-ey. 

SodTArberry :  See  Hackderrt. 

Sagar-cane :  See  Sugar. 

Sogar,  Moontaln-ash :  See  Sorbite. 

Sngar  of  Lead :  See  Lead  {Compounds  of  Lead). 

Sngar  of  Milk :  See  Milk. 

Sngar-palm :  See  Caryota  and  Sugar. 

Sogden,  Edward  Burtenshaw,  Lord  St.  Leonanl?. 
LL.  D.,  D. C.  L. :  jurist;  b.  in  London,  England,  Feb.  1*2. 
1781,  his  father  being  a  wig-maker.  He  was  largely  s^4f- 
educated,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  tnn  in 
1807.  He  almost  immediately  rose  to  the  front  rank  of  h> 
profession  by  the  publication  of  his  Praetic€il  Treat isf  nf 
Powers,  previous  to  which  he  had  published  (Feb.,  1805)  h\< 
Concise  and  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Vendors  and 
Purchasers ;  was  made  king's  counsel  in  1822,  and  a  bencht  r 
of  Lincoln's  Inn ;  was  elected  M.  P.  for  Weymouth  and 
Malcombe  Regis  as  a  Tory ;  and  in  1829  appointed  Solicits  r- 
General  and  kniefhted  ;  elected  M.  P.  again  in  1830,  and  sat 
in  the  Short  Parliament  which  passed  the  first  reform  l«i:!. 
of  which  he  was  one  of  the  most  persistent  and  shrewd  o\^ 
ponents ;  was  sworn  member  of  the  privy  council  1834,  Lori 
Chancellor  of  Ireland  1835,  and  again  1841-46;  Lord  Hi-h 
Chancellor  of  Great  Britain  from  Mar.  to  Dec.,  1852,  btii.}: 
raised  to  the  peerage.  He  was  a  deputy  lieutenant  fur 
Sussex,  a  ti-ustee  of  the  British  Museum,  and  lord  hi^rh 
steward  of  the  borough  of  Kingston-on-Thames.  Althouirh 
a  Conservative  he  effected  reforms  in  the  law  of  conteni['t 
of  courts,  and  in  the  laws  relating  to  the  conveyance  of  tht 
property  of  infants,  lunatics,  mortgages,  etc  He  was  rec- 
ognized as  the  highest  authority  on  the  law  of  real  pn>{v 
erty,  and  as  the  first  practitioner  of  his  time  in  the  court  of 
chancery.  D.  at  Boyle  Farm,  near  Thames  Ditton,  Jan.  29. 
1875.  Besides  his  treatise  on  Powers,  and  great  work  on  i\w 
law  of  Vendors  and  Purchasers  (which  has  gone  through 
many  editions),  he  published  many  technical  works  of  lesii.  r 
importance,  including  A  Handy  Book  on  Real  Prftprrtj/ 
Law  (1858).  See  Irish  Law  Times  and  Law  Times  U't 
Feb.,  1875.  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Snggestio  Falsi :  See  Fraud. 

Suggestion :  a  great  class  of  phenomena  typified  by  the 
abrupt  entrance  from  without  into  consciousness  of  an  uIva 
or  image  which  becomes  a  part  of  the  stream  of  thought 


SUGGESTION 


SUICIDE 


811 


and  t«nds  to  produce  the  rauscalar  and  volitional  effects 
which  ordinarily  follow  upon  its  presence.  I  suggest  a 
course  of  action  to  my  friend — he  may  adopt  it.  Besides 
this  fact  of  ideal  suggestion  there  is  what  may  be  called 
physiological  suggestion,  covering  the  same  class  of  phe- 
nomena in  cases  where  the  suggestion  does  not  attain  the 
standing  of  a  conscious  image,  but  remains  subconscious. 
It  is  called  physiolo^cal  because  the  nervous  process,  as  in 
all  cai>es  of  very  faint  degrees  of  consciousness,  is  largely 
solf-acting  or  reflex.  By  physiological  suggestion,  there- 
fore, is  meant  the  bringing  about  of  a  reaction  subcon- 
sciously by  means  of  an  extra-organic  stimulus. 

The  clearest  examples  of  such  sugj;estions  occur  in  sleep. 
Wonls  spoken  to  the  sleeper  are  intelligently  answered. 
Positions  given  to  his  limbs  lead  to  others  ordinarily  asso- 
ciated wit  h  them ;  the  sleeper  defends  himself,  withdraws 
from  dangers,  etc.  The  early  development  of  the  child's 
consciousness  proceeds  largely  by  such  suggestions.  Before 
mental  images  are  definitely  lormed  and  subject  to  associa- 
tion, we  find  many  motor  reactions  stimulated  by  such  phys- 
ioloi^cal  suggestions  from  the  environment. 

From  physiological  the  child  passes  to  sensori-motor 
su«;<restion,  the  type  of  reaction  which  illustrates  most 
dearly  the  law  of*  dynamogenesis.  In  this  case  it  is  a  sen- 
sation*, a  cleAr  state  of  consciousness,  which  liberates  motor 
energjT  and  produces  movement.  Besides  the  inherited 
sensori-inotor  couples,  which  are  numerous  and  well  marked, 
other  reactions  grow  up  early  in  life  and  become  habitual. 
Of  the  latter  the  following  may  be  mentioned  in  particular: 

S/eep'Suggestions. — The  early  surroundings  and  methods 
of  inducing  sleep  become  powerful  re-enforcements  of  the 
cliild's  drowsiness,  or  even  substitutes  for  it. 

^ood^suggestians  and  Clothing'Suggesiiana, — These  rep- 
ri'sent  the  spheres  of  most  frequent  and  highly  spiced  joys 
and  sorrows,  and  their  reactions  soon  take  on  the  involun- 
tary and  yet  highly  purposive  character  which  marks  our 
adult  attitudes  towara  dress  and  the  table. 

Siiggestions  of  Personality, — The  child  shows  preferences 
for  individuals  at  a  remarkably  early  age.  He  seems  to 
learn  and  respond  to  a  personal  presence  as  a  whole.  Prob- 
ably the  voice  is  the  first  indication  of  his  nurse's  or  moth- 
er's' personality  to  which  he  responds,  then  touch,  then  the 
•«i^ht  of  the  face. 

Imitative  Suggestion, — The  simple  imitation  of  move- 
ments and  sounds,  clearly  manifested  about  the  seventh 
month  of  life.    See  Initatiox. 

In  ideo-motor  or  idecU  sug^stion  we  pass  to  the  motor 
aspects  of  images,  reproductions ;  and  here  the  motor  ac- 
companiments are  largely  associations  and  follow  the  laws 
of  asso<.*iation.  As  soon,  further,  as  reproductions  come  up, 
with  their  suggested  trains,  we  find  the  rise  of  will ;  that  is, 
they  become  stimuli  to  the  voluntary  consciousness.  Yet 
there  is  a  state  of  conflict  and  hindrance  among  presenta- 
tions which  is  mechanical  in  its  issue,  the  attention  being 
drawn  in  a  reflex  way.  So  states  of  vexation,  divided  coun- 
wl.  conflicting  impulse,  and  hasty  decision  against  one's 
desire  for  deliberate  choice.  We  often  find  ourselves  drawn 
violently  apart,  precipitated  through  a  whirl  of  suggested 
courses  into  a  course  we  feel  unwilling  to  own  as  our  own. 
This  is  the  case  in  the  disease  called  aooulia,  or  loss  of  will. 
The  man  is  prey  to  conflicting  impulses.  This  state,  called 
by  the  writer  deliberative  suggestion,  characterizes  many 
actions  of  the  young  child  before  will  is  clearly  exercised. 

Organic  Stimtdi  to  Movement. — In  general,  any  condition 
of  the  organism,  be  it  active  or  passive,  which  is  sufficient 
to  reach  consciousness,  tends  to  muscular  expression,  either 
natural  or  acquired.  Any  derangement  of  the  digestion, 
respiration,  or  circtilation  (quickens  or  deadens  muscular 
t  >ne,  and  comes  out,  if  not  in  the  face,  yet  in  the  conduct 
of  the  man.  The  muscular  feelings  themselves,  so  large  a 
l>.irtion  of  the  general  sensibility,  reflect  direct  changes  in 
the  tendency  and  direction  of  motor  reactions.  Diseases  of 
the  nervous  system  find  their  diagnosis  in  their  effects  upon 
the  muscular  apparatus:  paralysis  means  rigidity  ;  epilepsy, 
convulsions;  sleep,  flabbmess  of  the  muscles.  The  effect 
of  organic  stimulation  upon  the  motor  consciousness  is  best 
swn  in  conditions  of  pleasure  and  pain.  Among  direct  or 
native  reactions  an  important  class  are  called  expressive ; 
they  are  differentiated  muscular  movements  whicn  reflect 
uniformly  various  affective  states  of  consciousness. 

Ptean^tre-miggetttion  and  Pa in-«ii^^es/ion.— Perhaps  the 
most  direct  and  invariable  stimulus  to  involuntary  move- 
ment is  pain ;  and  its  motor  force  is  independent,  as  it 
seems,  of  the  intrinsic  experience  of  which  it  is  the  tone. 


The  motor  force  of  a  sensation  of  light,  for  example,  may 
be  in  direct  antagonism  to  the  motor  force  of  tne  pain 
which  the  light  causes  to  a  diseased  eye.  Despair  besets 
inaction,  but  the  painfulness  of  it  begets  restlessness.  This 
is  only  to  say  that  the  tone  is  an  element  of  sensibility  apart 
from  the  sensation  it  accompanies,  and  that  both  the  one 
and  the  other  have  motor  force. 

Yet  the  fact  that  there  are  no  experiences  absolutely  in- 
different as  respects  pleasure  or  pain  gives  the  motor  aspect 
of  them  an  universality  and  importance  which  must  be 
acknowledged  and  provided  for  in  any  mental  theory.  It 
is  a  question  answered  often  in  the  negative  whether  any 
course  of  conduct  is  ever  pursued  without  primary  reference 
to  the  pleasure  it  will  bring  or  the  pam  it  will  avoid. 
However  this  question  may  be  answered,  it  may  be  said  at 
this  point  that  no  line  of  muscular  reaction  is  possible  in 
which  an  element  of  motor  discharge  due  to  pleasure  or 
pain  has  not  entered.  This  must  Be  true  if  the  funda> 
mental  position  is  true  that  every  ingoing  process  alters  the 
equilibrium  of  the  central  system  and  mcMifies  the  direction 
of  its  outward  tendency.  Pleasure  and  pain  arising  from 
bodily  states  may  therefore  be  called  the  most  general  in- 
ternal stimuli  to  the  reactive  consciousness. 

Motor  Spontaneity, — ^The  observation  of  infants  clearly 
tends  to  show  that  movement  is  no  less  original  a  fact  than 
feeling.  It  is  impossible  to  say  whether  all  antenatal 
movements  are  in  response  to  feeling  conditions,  as  claimed 
by  some,  just  as  it  is  impossible  to  prove  that  the  begin- 
ning of  feeling  is  possiole  only  after  sufficient  physical 
organization  to  make  motor  reaction  possible,  as  claimed 
by  others.  It  is  altogether  probable  that  the  two  kinds  of 
pnenomena  are  equally  onginal,  and  depend  npon  each 
other.  This  is  certainly  the  case,  at  any  rate,  at  the  dawn 
of  independent  life.  Internal  conditions  of  the  organism 
itself  are  sufficient  stimuli  to  an  endless  variety  of  move- 
ments. Such  reactions,  which  are  simply  the  discharges, 
the  outbursts,  of  the  organism,  independent  of  definite 
external  stimulation,  are  called  spontaneous.  So  the  inces- 
sant random  movements  of  infants  and  the  extraordinary 
rubber-like  activity  of  the  year-old  child. 

The  movements  of  infants  seem  to  indicate  greater  nig- 
gestibility  than  is  found  in  adults.  A  child's  extreme  rest- 
lessness is  due  to  a  high  feeling  of  potential  or  readiness  of 
discharge ;  and  fatigue  is  accompanied  by  a  correspondingly 
complete  collapse  of  muscular  movements.  This  follows 
from  the  mobuity  of  the  infant's  cerebral  elements  before 
they  are  pressed  into  definite  connections  and  systems  which 
give  them  greater  inertia,  on  the  one  hand,ana  greater  gen- 
eral capacities  for  continued  expenditure  on  the  other.  Upon 
this  superfluity  of  motor  energy  is  built  up  the  so-called  play 
instinct,  whicn  is  not  definite  enough  in  its  channels  to  be 
classed  properly  as  an  instinct. 

References. — Bemheim,  Suggestive  Therapeutics  (New 
York,  1890) ;  Baldwin,  Mental  Developments:  Methods  and 
Processes^  chap.  vi.  (New  York  and  London,  1805).  See  also 
the  articles  Association  of  Ideas  and  Hypnotism. 

J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Sahm,  soom,  Peter  Frederih  :  historian ;  b.  in  Copen- 
hagen, Denmark,  Oct  18,  1728 ;  studied  law  and  philology 
at  the  university  of  his  native  city;  settled  in  1751  in 
Trondhjem  in  Norway,  where  he  lived  till  1765,  devoting 
himself  to  the  study  of  Danish  and  Norwegian  history  ana 
antiquities  in  preparation  for  his  great  works.  D.  in  Co- 
penhagen, Sept.  7, 1798.  Among  his  many  writings  relating 
to  the  history  of  Denmark  may  be  mentioned  Forsdg  t%l 
Forbedringer  i  den  gamle  danske  og  norske  Historie  (1757) ; 
Om  de  nordiske  Folks  aldste  Oprindelse  (1770) ;  Kritisk 
Historie  af  Danmark  i  den  hedenske  Tid  (4  vols.,  1774-81) ; 
Danmarks  Historie  (14  vols.,  1782-1828).  In  spite  of  its 
many  faults  of  style  and  arran^ment  this  last  still  remains 
the  greatest  worlc  of  its  kind  in  the  Danish  language,  the 
chief  authority  from  which  later  historians  have  borrowed. 
By  his  Letter  to  the  King  (1772),  indorsing  the  conspiracy 
against  Struensee  and  calling  npon  Christian  VII.  to  re- 
store the  ancient  liberties  of  Denmark,  he  became  for  the 
moment  the  most  popular  man  in  the  North.  Both  as 
patron  and  author  he  devoted  himself  to  the  advancement 
of  freedom  and  culture.  His  magnificent  library,  contain- 
ing 100,000  volumes,  he  bequeathed  to  the  Koyal  Library. 
Of  Scriptores  Rerum  Dantcarum  Medii  ^vi  he  edited 
vols,  iv.-vii.  (1776-02).  Revised  by  D.  K.  Dodoe. 

Saiclde  [Lat.  sfit,  of  one's  self  +  cte'dere,  slay,  kill] :  in- 
tentional death  by  one's  own  hand.    Among  the  ancients 


812 


SUICIDE 


8uicide  was  considered  neither  a  crime  nor  dishonorable, 
Demosthenes,  Themistocles,  Mark  Antony,  Cleopatra,  Han- 
nibal, and  many  others  having  chosen  this  way  of  ending 
their  days.  The  Scriptures  and  the  Apocrypha  furnish  ex- 
amples, as  Samson,  Eleazar,  and  Judas  Iscanot.  In  modern 
times  history  furnishes  numerous  striking  suicides.  The  fa- 
mous suicides  among  the  ancients  followed  various  motives, 
the  vindication  of  honor  being  a  common  obiect.  Mithri- 
dates  and  Hannibal  died  in  this  way  rather  than  be  taken 
prisoners.  Others  have  committed  suicide  through  false 
pride  or  timidity :  a  striking  case  in  point  was  the  death  of 
Cato ;  determined  not  to  live  under  the  despotism  of  Caesar, 
he  stabbed  himself,  but,  having  fainted,  his  wound  was 
dressed.  When  he  recovered  he  tore  off  the  bandages,  let 
out  his  entrails,  and  expired. 

Many  writers  have  defended  this  crime,  the  most  able  of 
whom  were  Madame  de  Sta^l,  Gibbon,  Hume,  Schopenhauer, 
and  von  Hartmann.  Suicide  is  rarely  committed,  however, 
except  when  the  functions  of  the  brain  have  been  impaired 
and  the  action  of  the  mind  perverted  and  directed  m  im- 
proper channels. 

Suicide  has  sometimes  been  epidemic  in  character.  A 
remarkable  epidemic  prevailed  in  Versailles  in  1793;  the 
number  of  suicides  in  that  year  reached  1,300,  which  was 
greatly  disproportionate  to  the  population.  Instances  have 
been  cited  where  children  have  followed  the  example  of 
one  of  their  number  and  have  taken  their  own  lives.  An 
epidemic  of  suicide  took  place  in  the  army  of  the  First 
Napoleon,  and  it  was  only  after  a  strong  appeal  made  by 
the  emperor  to  the  pride  and  courage  of  tne  men  in  the 
ranks  tnat  it  was  finally  stopped.  One  of  these  outbreaks 
followed  the  suicide  of  a  convict,  who  hanged  himself  to  the 
crossbar  of  his  cell.  Five  others  hanged  themselves  on  the 
same  bar  within  two  weeks.  The  public  prints  probably 
have  much  to  do  with  the  increase  of  suicide.  A  morbid 
person  who  reads  the  account  of  such  a  case  will  very  often 
nave  a  train  of  thought  started  that  will  end  in  the  com- 


The  consideration  of  suicide  from  the  medical  point  of 
view  has  cleared  up  many  mooted  points,  such  as  the  degrt^e 
of  responsibility  the  person  is  under,  the  degree  of  prev*^n- 
tion  possible,  et<j.  In  certain  forms  of  insanity  the  impulse 
to  suicide  is  now  a  recognized  symptom,  notably  in  all  tfie 
disorders  which  involve  melancholia.  Alcoholic  mania  i«< 
liable  also  to  issue  in  this  impulse.  The  peculiar  liability 
of  persons  whose  mental  balance  is  at  all  weakened  to  the 
influence  of  suggestions  of  all  kinds  makes  it  a  necessary 
part  of  competent  medical  treatment  that  any  accounts  of 
suicide,  murder,  or  suggestions  of  de^th  be  kept  from  them. 
On  the  other  hand,  solitary  confinement  is  found  to  increa><* 
the  number  of  suicides ;  probably  because  by  diminishing  t  Ij.- 
number  of  the  patient's  interests  his  thought  is  bronchi 
home  more  forcibly  to  his  own  condition,  grievances,  etc. 

Statistics. — Thorough  and  adequate  statistics  of  suiei^Io 
are  not  to  be  had.  Those  now  given  are  current  ones,  and 
should  be  (juoted  only  with  reservation.  In  Roman  Cath- 
olic countries  the  number  of  suicides  is  considerably  less 
than  in  Protestant  countries  (about  half),  the  figures  in  the 
aggregate  for  Protestant  countries  being  about  175  to  20^1 
for  each  million  of  the  population.  As  to  the  difference 
between  men  and  women,  suicides  are  oftener  men  by  about 
three  to  one. 

From  Table  I.  (from  Morselli)  and  other  sources  we  get  the 
average  annual  number  of  suicides  per  million  of  inhabit- 
ants :  Denmark,  268 ;  Germany,  175 ;  Norway  and  Swetlen. 
100;  France,  150;  to  which  may  be  added  England  and  the 
U.  S.,  each  70.  Among  uncivilized  and  barbarous  tril)es  an<l 
peoples,  suicide  is  practically  unknown.  It  is  therefore  jte- 
culiarly  a  disease  of  civilization.  In  all  countries  it  is  more 
frequent  among  the  mercantile  than  among  the  professional 
classes ;  and  more  frequent  among  the'  responsible  heads  of 
institutions,  business  houses,  etc.,  than  among  the  dependent 
classes  represented  by  clerks.  Indeed  the  &ct  of  responsi- 
bility seems  to  be  a  prevailing  cause  of  suicide.  Those,  on 
,  the  contrary,  who  live  a  most  precarious  life,  such  as  the  day- 


TABLE  I. — SHOWING   THE  AVERAGE  ANNUAL  NUMBER  OF  SUICIDES   PER  MILLION   INHABITANTS  IN   VARIOUS  COUNTRIES   AT 

SUCCESSIVE   PERIODS. 


STATES. 


Sweden 

Norway 

Denmark 

England 

Ireland 

Pnusia 

Hanover , 

Mecklenburg 

Nassau 

Kingdom  of  Saxony 

Bavaria 

WttrtemberK 

Baden  

Belgium 

France 

Italy 


1816-20. 

1821-25. 

1826-80. 

1881-35. 

1836-40. 

1841-45.1 

48 

58 

G9 

60 

66 

80 

97 

109 

107 

213 

232 

628 

..     10 

74 

88 

89 

96      1      103 
83 

no 

106 

68 

.. 

185 

, , 

f5 

;: 

158 

198 
55 

107 
68 

89 

48 

62 

54 

64 

76 

85 

67 

110 

258 

(64?) 

*99 
109 
142 

199 


71 
107 
272 


180 
118 


73 
106 


248 


97 


(87) 
100 


57 
94 
276 
65 

123 
181 
162 
95 
245 

80 
85  I 
108  I 

55 
110  I 


76 

85 

288 

66 

(14) 

122 

(133) 

102 
9M 


123 
109  I 

134 

(28) 


76 

67 

15 

142 

161 

297 
90 

139 
66 

135 
30 


81 
f73) 
2f>8 

06 

IH 
1.34 
J  40 
107 
147 
299 

91 
IGO 
156 

150 
S5 


TABLE   IL — SHOWING  THE  NUMBER 

aF  DEATHS  BY  SUICIDE   IN  THE   CITY  OF   NEW 
NATIVITY  AND  SEX,  FROM  1878  TO  1891. 

YORK 

ACCORDING 

TO  THE   MEANS  USED, 

NATIVITY. 

Cat  aad  iteb. 

Drowning. 

Gunihot. 

Hanging. 

h«ighi. 

Pobon. 

OUmtimibs. 

Total*. 

M. 

F. 

M. 

F. 

M. 

F.     1     M. 

1 

F. 

M. 

F. 

M. 

F. 

M. 

F. 

M.     I    r. 

Austria-Hungary 

4 

8 
2 

3 
17 

6 

92 
82 

5 

2 
4 

3 
3 
52 
6 
5 

10 
10 

1 

3 
2 

46 
9 
3 

i 

1 
1 

21 
10 
5 

16 
13 

21 

11 

8 

6 

81 

27 

866 

87 

17 

11 

7 

6 

17 

6 

251 

48 

9ft 

5 

2 

31 
14 

ii 
2 

3 
2 

•i 
5 
3 
85 
19 
1 
2 

i 

1 
1 

34 
2 
5 

2 

1 

■5 
3 

10 
10 
3 

1 
1 

i 

24 
1 
2 

14 
» 

8 

81 

14 

218 

59 

3 

6 

4 

7 

3 

2 

181 

21 

19 

6 
8 

5 
10 
5 
76 
69 
6 
2 
5 

'4 
2 
113 
4 
8 

*2 

48    1      14 

Bohemia 

Belgium 

14 
23 

9 
2 
2 
5 
9 
233 
24 

? 
10 

"4 
4 

06 
19 
10 

'^l    * 

British  America 

18 
91 
59 
W(9 
182 
82 
25 

0 

England 

France 

18 
13 

Ghirmany 

15H 

Ireland 

](X 

Italy 

9 

Poland 

Russia 

3 

8 

Scotland 

1 

Switzerland 

29    1       7 

Sweden 

17    1       ^ 

United  States 

5.56        185 

Unknown 

107    1       S 

Other  foreign  countries 

70    '       S 

1 

1 

2  806    I    Vv?! 

Totals 

239 

85 

103 

89     I  RQi 

48 

411 

66 

115 

64 

543 

302 

4 

1 

mission  of  the  act  Favorable  opportunities  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  self-murder  will  also  produce  a  sudden  irre- 
sistible impulse.  People  who  have  gone  up  into  towers  and 
naonuments,  or  above  precipices,  have  often  refrained  with 
difficulty  from  casting  themselves  down. 


laborers,  who  may  be  thrown  out  of  employment  at  an?  mo- 
ment, seem  to  take  their  chances  witn  less  brooding  and 
personal  violence.  There  is  here  a  discrepancy  between  the 
tendency  to  munier  and  that  to  commit  suicide ;  for  tho 
murderers  are  more  common  among  the  laboring  class,  or 


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814 


SULA  ISLANDS 


SULLA 


"  boundless  light,"  but  also  of  great  mercy  and  sympathy.  H  is 
worship  is  peculiar  to  the  northern  school  of  Buddhists,  among 
whom  it  talces  the  place  of  Nibvana  {q,  v,),  which  is  too  difficult 
of  attainment.  SukhSvati  is  situated  in  some  universe  in  the 
far  West,  and  hence  is  known  as  the  **  Paradise  of  the  West." 

Sola  Islands  (Dutch,  Soela) :  a  group  of  three  islands 
and  many  islets  in  the  Dutch  Moluccas,  E.  of  Celebes  and 
N.  W.  of  Bum,  between  lat.  1"  40'  S.  and  2'  80'  S.,  and  124" 
and  127*  E.  Ion.  Area,  2,590  sq.  miles.  The  largest  and 
westernmost  is  Taliabu  (70  miles  lon^^  and  15  broad) ;  im- 
mediately E.  is  Mangola,  the  second  m  size,  and  S.  of  the 
latter  is  Besi,  the  smallest  but  most  thickly  populated,  and 
containing  Senana,  the  capital.  Pop.  about  7,000,  formerly 
six  times  as  large,  but  depopulated  by  pirates  and  slave- 
merchants.  The  islands  are  prosperous  under  Dutch  man- 
agement. M.  W.  H. 

Salelman' :  Ottoman  prince.  After  the  battle  of  Angora 
(1402)  he,  as  the  eldest  surviving  son  of  Bayezid  I.,  ascended 
the  throne  at  Adrianople,  but  was  overthrown  by  his 
brother  Musa  (1410).  The  ()ttoman  historians  do  not  con- 
sider him  a  sultan,  inasmuch  as  he  reigned  only  over  a  part 
of  the  empire.  K  A.  0. 

Snlelman :  the  name  of  two  Ottoman  Sultans.  SuleI- 
XAN  I.,  El  Kanouni,  the  Legislator,  often  called  the  Great, 
the  Magnificent,  the  Sublime  (1520-66) ;  b.  in  1495,  son  of 
Selim  I.  His  reign  is  a  series  of  generally  successful  wars, 
during  which  he  conducted  thirteen  campaigns  in  person. 
In  1521  he  crushed  a  rebellion  in  Svria,  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Venice,  wherein  she  promised  an  annual  tribute  of 
10,000  ducats,  and  captured  Belgrade.  In  1522  he  subdued 
Rhodes,  expelling  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem, 
whose  stronghold  it  had  been  214  years,  who  found  an  asy- 
lum at  Malta.  In  1526  he  concluded  a  partial  alliance  with 
Francis  I.  of  France  against  Charles  V. ;  broke  the  Hunga- 
rian power  at  the  battle  of  Mohacz,  where  King  Louis  and 
25,000  Hungarians  were  slain,  and  brought  to  Constanti- 
nople 100,0(K)  Christian  captives,  the  royal  jewels  of  Hun- 
gary, and  the  precious  library  of  Mathias  Corvinus.  Be- 
sieging Vienna  with  120,000  men  and  400  cannon,  he  was 
repulsed  (1529) ;  concluded  an  oflfensive  and  defensive  alli- 
ance with  Francis  I.  (1535) ;  and  took  Bagdad  from  Persia 
(1534).  Meanwhile  his  admiral,  Khatredain  Pasha,  terror- 
ized the  Mediterranean  and  subjected  Northern  Africa.  Mol- 
davia and  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea  made  submission  (1538). 
Venice,  after  a  disastrous  war,  purchased  peace  by  promis- 
ing annual  tribute  of  300,000  ducats  (1539),  and  Austria,  by 
like  tribute  of  50,000  ducats  (1547).  He  conquered  Persian 
Kurdistan,  captured  Van  and  Tebriz,  and  partially  subdued 
Georgia  (1548).  Austria  fared  better  in  tne  next  war,  de- 
feating the  Ottomans  with  fearful  loss  in  their  five  months* 
siege  of  Erlau  (1552).  Though  Suleiman  formed  an  offen- 
sive and  defensive  alliance  with  Henrv  11.  of  France,  dis- 
sensions prevented  real  benefit  to  either.  Fruitless  wars 
followed  with  Persia  (1554-55)  and  with  the  Hungarians 
(1558).  Instigated  by  his  favorite,  Roxelana,  who  sought 
the  succession  for  her  son,  he  put  to  death  his  oldest  son, 
Mustapha  (1553).  Enraged  with  his  son  Bayezid,  who  ficd 
to  Persia,  he  paid  the  Shah  Tahmasp  400,000  gold  pieces 
to  insure  the  murder  of  the  fugitive  and  of  his  four  sons 
(1561).  To  break  the  naval  power  of  Spain  and  control  the 
Mediterranean  he  attacked  Malta,  but  was  defeated  with 
the  loss  of  20,000  men  (1565).  Carrying  on  a  last  war  with 
Austria,  he  died  at  the  siege  of  Szigeth  (1566).  which,  after 
an  heroic  resistance,  fell  three  weeks  later.  Meanwhile  the 
death  of  Suleiman  was  kept  secret,  that  his  successor,  Selim 
II.,  might  have  time  to  reach  Constantinople  from  Kutahia. 
During  his  reign  the  Ottoman  empire  reached  its  acme  and 
began  its  decline.  The  discipline  of  the  janissaries  was  re- 
laxed :  the  harem,  in  the  person  of  Roxelana,  first  began 
to  exert  undue  and  hence  pernicious  infiuence,  and  expen- 
diture was  carried  to  its  utmost  extravagance.  More  ratal 
still,  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  bulelman  partially 
withdrew  into  Oriental  seclusion,  leaving  affairs  to  his  min- 
isters. Yet  this  was  the  golden  age  of  Ottoman  jurispni- 
dence,  literature,  and  art.  Suleiman  remodeled  and  almost 
recreated  the  code,  determined  ecclesiastical  procedure,  in- 
troduced a  less  vicious  system  of  taxation,  and  erected  the 
mosques  of  Suleiman — the  masterpiece  of  Ottoman  archi- 
tecture—of Selim,  the  Shahzadeh,  Djeanghir,  and  the  Has- 
seki.  He  had  statesmen  and  generals  of  untisual  ability  in 
Ibrahim  Pasha,  Rustem  Pasha,  and  Sokolli  Ptisha.  His  ad- 
mirals, Khalrcddin  Pasha,  Dragut  Pasha,  and  Piali  Pasha, 
were  the  most  skillful  naval  commanders  Turkey  has  pos- 


sessed. But  Suleiman  was  the  spoiled  favorite  of  Ottoman 
fortune,  and  his  successes  were  mainly  won  during  the  earl  > 
years  of  his  reipn.  Though  he  extended  the  boundaries  <*t 
his  empire,  he  left  it  at  his  death  weakened  and  exhausted. 
— SuleTman  II.  (1687-91),  b.  in  1642,  the  son  of  SulUn  Ibra- 
him. Timid  and  incapable,  he  committed  the  administra- 
tion of  affairs  to  his  vizier,  Kuprul;  Zadek  Mustapha  Pasha, 
the  Virtuous,  who  was  slain,  with  28,000  Ottomans,  at  tin- 
terrible  defeat  of  Selankemen  (Aug.  19, 1691),  two  months 
after  the  death  of  his  master.  £.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Salelman  Pasha :  Ottoman  prince ;  son  of  Orkhan  and 
grandson  of  Osman  I.  He  captured  Tzympe  and  GalHpoli 
(135*3},  the  first  territorial  acouisition  made  in  Europe  >>j 
the  Ottomans.  He  was  killea  by  a  fall  from  his  horse  in 
1359,  and  his  father  died  of  grief  in  1360.  E.  A.  a. 

Sn'lidn  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Sula,  the  typical  genu?, 
from  Icel.  «ti/o,  gannet] :  a  family  of  swimming  birds  <if 
the  order  Steganopodes,  limited  to  the  gannets.  The  nei-k 
is  moderately  long,  although  shorter  and  stouter  than  in 
either  the  pelicans  or  cormorants ;  the  bill  about  as  long  as 
the  head,  straight,  but  with  the  tip  decurved,  with  the 
lateral  grooves  well  defined,  composite  as  in  the  other 
members  of  the  group,  and  with  the  edges  serrate ;  narial 
openings  lacking ;  no  gular  pouch  developed ;  wings  mo^i- 
erately  long  ana  pointed ;  tail  lon|^  and  cuneate,  and  with 
twelve  to  fourteen  feathers;  tarsi  moderately  short;  toes 
(four,  as  in  all  Sieganopodea)  well  developed  and  connecte<i 
by  a  full  membrane.  The  skull  is  of  tne  desmognathou!> 
type,  and  exhibits  modifications  co-ordinate  with  the  ex- 
ternal characteristics.  The  species  are  almost  exclusively 
marine,  and  one  or  more  may  be  found  on  the  seacoa^^t  «.»f 
every  country.    See  Gannet.       Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Suliman'  Monntalns :  a  chain  of  mountains  forming 
the  boundary  between  India  and  Afghanistan.  They  range 
from  N.  to  S..  and  reach  their  greatest  height,  11,300  feet, 
in  Takht-i-Suliman,  in  lat.  31°  25'  N.  They  connect  S. 
with  the  Kurlekhi  Mountains  of  Kelat,  and  X.  with  the 
Sefid  Koh,  which  is  15.622  feet  high  and  ranges  from  E.  to 
W.  The  descent  toward  India  is  steep,  but  gentle  toward 
the  Afghan  plateaus;  the  valleys  drain  eastwani  to  the 
Indus.  The  most  convenient  ascent  to  Kandahar  is  effected 
along  the  Gomal  from  Dera  Ismael  Khan  on  the  Indus. 
Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Soll'na:  the  name  of  the  central  delta-branch  of  the 
Danube.  The  Danube,  at  45  miles  from  the  coast,  divides 
into  the  Kilia  and  Toulcha  branches,  the  former  conveying 
more  than  half  the  entire  discharge.  The  latter  again  di- 
vides into  the  Sulina  and  St.  George  branches.  The  Kilia 
and  St.  George  mouths  are  38  miles  apart,  and  the  Sulina 
mouth  nearly  half  way  between.  The  European  Commi««- 
sion  of  the  Danube,  representing  eight  European  states,  wik» 
created  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  (1856),  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
moving obstructions  to  navigation  and  deepening  the  chan- 
nel, and  its  powera  were  prolonged  until  Apr.,  1904,  by  the 
treaty  of  London  (1883).  This  commission  has  so  far  suc- 
ceeded that  the  Sulina  branch  is  navigable  by  the  largest 
vessels.  (See  Harbors.)  The  town  of  Sulina,  at  the  comer 
of  the  ri^ht  bank  and  the  Black  Sea,  originally  a  miserable 
fishing-village,  has  remarkable  public  works.'  Pop,  (18^10 
4,315.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Sa'liotes  [deriv.  of  Suli,  in  the  Cassopeian  Mountains, 
formerly  their  chief  village]:  a  band  of  1,500  Albanian 
Christian  warriors  who  forced  the  Ottomans  to  acknow]e<l!;e 
their  independence  about  1730.  In  1788  and  again  in  ITl'i 
thev  successfully  resisted  Ali  Pasha  of  Tepeleni,  who  under- 
took their  subjection.  From  1799  to  1803  they  were  block- 
aded and  practically  besieged  in  their  mountain  fastnesses 
by  Ali  Pasha ;  their  strongholds  were  gradually  capture.1. 
despite  desperate  resistance,  and  they  finally  surrendered 
on  favorable  terms.  The  conquerors  violated  their  oath,  ami 
men,  women,  and  children  were  indiscriminately  massacreti. 
Only  a  few  .escaped.  The  story  of  the  twenty-two  Sulit'ie 
women,  who,  rather  than  fall  into  the  hands' of  the  <.)tii>- 
mans,  hurled  their  children  from  a  precipice  and  then  leai>eil 
after  them,  is  everywhere  known.  Marco  Botzaris  was  a 
Suliote.  They  were  avaricious  and  haughty,  but  loved  their 
freedom  above  all.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Salla,  or  Sylla,  Lucius  Cornelius,  surnanied  Feus: 
dictator;  b.  138  B.  c. ;  was  noted  in  youth  for  his  vices,  but 
distinguished  himself  under  Marius  as  a  cavalry  leader  in 
the  Jugurthine  war,  and  it  was  through  his  skill  as  a  iietrt^ 
tiator  that  Jugurtha  was  surrendered  to  the  Roman  general. 


IXtVA 


iilhAii.  i; 


SnUh^i 


MllltflllT  «*MV7  •«l«itUl  nf 


111*11    I 


816 


SULLIVAN 


SULPHUR 


Historical  Society.  Among  his  works  are  Observations  on 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  (Boston,  1791);  His- 
tory of  Maine  (1795) ;  Review  of  the  Causes  of  the  French 
Revolution  (1798);  and  History  of  Land  Titles  in  Massa- 
chusetts (1801).  D.  in  Boston,  Dec.,  1808.  See  Life,  with 
selections  from  his  writings,  by  his  grandson,  Thomas  C. 
Amory  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1859). 

SalliYan,  John,  LL.  D.  :  soldier ;  brother  of  James  Sulli- 
van, jurist;  b.  at  Berwick,  Me.,  Feb.  17, 1740;  studied  law 
and  practiced  successfully ;  was  a  member  of  the  first  general 
congress,  and  in  Dec,  1774,  led  a  company  which  captured 
a  fort  near  Portsmouth,  N.  H.  In  June,  1775,  Congress  ap- 
pointed him  a  brigadier-general,  and  during  the  siege  of 
Boston  he  commanded  the  left  wing  under  Gen.  Lee.  In 
1778  he  commanded  the  Northern  army  in  Canada,  attacked 
Three  Rivers  unsuccessfully,  and  retreating,  joined  at  New 
York  the  army  under  Gen.  Washington.  On  Aug.  10,  1778, 
he  was  made  a  major-general,  and  in  the  battle  of  Long  Isl- 
and commanded  temporarily  the  division  of  Gen.  Greene ; 
was  taken  prisoner,  out  soon  afterward  exchanged ;  com- 
manded at  Trenton  and  Princeton  the  division  of  Gen.  Lee, 
who  had  been  captured ;  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine  com- 
manded the  right  wing  of  the  army,  and  defeated  the  Brit- 
ish left  at  Germantown.  Transferred  in  the  winter  to  com- 
mand in  Rhode  Island,  he  laid  siege  to  Newport  in  Aug., 
1778,  but  the  French  fleet  under  d'Estaing  failed  to  co- 
operate, and  he  was  compelled  to  withdraw  his  forces  from 
the  island,  after  defeating  the  enemy  at  Butt's  Hill,  Aug. 
29.  In  the  summer  of  1779  he  marched  against  the  Indians 
of  the  Six  Nations,  defeated  them  and  their  Tory  allies,  and 
laid  waste  the  country  to  prevent  their  return.  Shortly 
after,  he  resigned  from  the  army,  and  in  1780  was  again  a 
member  of  Congress.  Resuming  the  profession  of  law  in 
New  Hampshire,  he  was  attorney-general  1782-86,  and  presi- 
dent of  the  State  1788-89 ;  in  1788  his  exertions  secured  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution.  In  Oct.,  1789,  he  was  ap- 
pointed U.  S.  district  judge  of  New  Hampshire.  D.  at  Dur- 
ham, N.  H.,  Jan.  28, 1795. 

SnH Ivan's  Island :  a  long,  narrow  island  in  Charleston 
CO.,  S.  C. ;  6  miles  from  Charleston,  and  on  the  north  side  of 
the  entrance  to  Charleston  harbor.  It  is  the  site  of  Fort 
Moultrie  (q,  v.),  and  is  a  fashionable  resort  for  sea-bathing. 
There  are  many  summer  residences.  The  island  is  con- 
nected with  Charleston  by  steam-ferryboats,  which  convey 
some  200,000  passengers  annually.  The  island  is  8  miles 
long,  and  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  tidal  channel. 

Sallirant,  Willulm  Starling,  LL.  D. :  botanist ;  b.  near 
Columbus,  0.,  Jan  15,  1803 ;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1823 ;  took  charge  of  the  extensive  landed  estates  left  by  his 
father,  and  devoted  himself  with  great  zeal  to  botany,  mak- 
ing the  mosses  a  special  subject  of  study.  He  published 
Catalogue  of  Plants  Native  or  Naturalized  in  the  Vicinity 
of  Columbus,  Ohio  (1840) ;  Musci  AlUghanienses,  to  produce 
which  he  made  a  journey  from  Maryland  to  Georgia  (1845) ; 
Musci  and  Hepaticm  of  the  United  States  Hast  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  (1856);  Mosses  brought  Home  by  Wilkes's 
Ezptoring  Expedition  (1859);  Mosses  and  Hepaticce,  col- 
lected mostly  in  Japan  (1880) ;  Musci  Cubenses  (1861) ;  Icones 
Muscorum  (vol.  i.,  1864 ;  vol.  ii.  (posthumous),  1874) ;  and  in 
conjunction  with  L.  Lesquereux,  two  series  of  Musci  Bore- 
ales  Americani,  D.  in  Columbus,  Apr.  30,  1873. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Sttl'ly,  James,  M.  A.,  LL.  D. :  psychologist ;  b.  in  Bridg- 
water, Somersetshire,  England,  Mar.  3,  1842 ;  educated  at 
Taunton,  London,  and  Gottingen ;  was  lecturer  in  College 
of  Preceptors,  London,  until  1892,  when  he  became  Professor 
of  Philosophy  in  University  College,  London.  His  principal 
works  are  Sensation  and  Intuition  (London,  1874) ;  Pessi- 
mism (London,  1877) ;  Illusions  (London,  1881) :  Outlines  of 
Psychology  (London,  1884) ;  Tlie  Teacher's  Handbook  of 
Psychology  (London,  1886);  The  Human  Mind  (London, 
1891).  J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Sally,  sU'lee',  Maximilien  de  B^thune,  Baron  of  Rosny, 
Duke  of:  chief  minister  of  Henry  IV.  of  France;  b.  at 
Rosny,  department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  Dec.  13, 1560,  of  a  Prot- 
estant family ;  was  from  his  eleventh  year  educated  with 
Henry  of  Navarre ;  accompanied  him  through  his  shifting 
fortunes  at  the  court  and  in  the  camp,  and  became  his  Min- 
ister of  Finance  and  chief  adviser  in  all  public  and  private 
affairs  when  he  ascended  the  throne  under  the  name  of 
Henrv  IV.  A  skillful  administrator  rather  than  a  states- 
man, ne  made  no  radical  changes,  but  contented  himself  with 


improving  the  efficiency  of  the  existing  system.  Bis  chief 
work  was  the  reform  of  the  finances,  which  were  in  a  di^- 
organized  condition,  and  managed  in  such  a  manner  as  K> 
invite  fraud  and  corruption.  By  enforcing  a  proper  systerti 
of  auditing  accounts  and  by  insisting  that  the  levy  of  all 
sums  should  be  authorized  by  the  Government,  he  did  awHv 
with  illegal  taxation,  saved  France  more  than  120,000,O(n.» 
francs  annually,  and  amassed  a  reserve  of  30,000,000  livrt-is, 
His  economical  views  were  characteristic  of  his  time;  hv 
considered  agriculture  as  the  only  productive  source  of  the 
wealth  of  a  nation,  but  his  policy  had  the  advantage  of  mak- 
ing France  independent  of  foreign  nations  for  the  priii.e 
necessities  of  life,  at  a  time  when  she  was  on  the  point  <'t' 
entering  upon  a  lon^  period  of  war.  After  the  assassinati<  n 
of  Henry  iV.,  he  resigned  his  offices  and  retired  into  private- 
life.  D.  at  Vielebon,  Dec.  22,  1641.  Of  his  Memoires,  two 
volumes  were  published  by  himself  in  1634,  and  two  more  in 
1662  by  Jean  le  Laboureur ;  translated  into  English  by  Mrs. 
Lenox  (1884).  F.  M.  Colby. 

SariT,  Thomas:  painter;  b.  at  Homcastle, Lincolnshire, 
England,  June  8, 1783 ;  was  taken  to  the  U.  S.  by  his  j  pa- 
rents, who  were  actors,  in  1792 ;  lived  in  Charleston,  Rich- 
mond, New  York,  and  finallv  in  Philadelphia ;  painted  Jef- 
ferson, La  Fayette,  Washington  crossing  the  Delawarey  Fanny 
Kemble,  Charles  Keroble,  Mrs.  Wood,  Cooke  the  tra^^ian. 
and  other  actors  of  celebrity.  In  England  he  painted  a 
portrait  of  Queen  Victoria  for  the  St.  Geor^'s  bociety  of 
Philadelphia.  The  Jefferson  is  at  West  Point,  the  Wash- 
ington in  Boston.  Sully  did  not,  like  Stuart,  confine  himself 
to  portraiture.    D.  in  Philadelphia,  Nov.  5, 1872. 

Sulphates :  See  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Sulphates. 

Solphides,  or  SoFplmrets  [derivs.  of  sulphur] :  com- 
pounds of  sulphur  with  metals  and  other  elements  more 
basylic  or  less  electro-negative  than  itself.  This  class  of 
compounds  is  probably  quite  as  large  in  number  aa  the  ox- 
ides. Indeed,  sulphur  combines  with  one  element,  fluorine, 
which  is  not  known  to  combine  with  oxygen  at  all.  There 
seems  a  ^neral  strict  analogy  between  sulphur  and  oxygen 
in  combination,  ninninj^  through  very  extended  ranges  of 
compounds.  The  sulphides  of  the  metals  possessing  prac- 
tical importance  will  generally  be  found  described  under 
the  head  of  the  metal 

Snlpliites :  See  Sulphurous  Acid. 

Salphocyan^le  Acid,  also  called  Hydrosnlphocyanfe 
Acid  and  SnlphocyanliyMric  Acid  [(the  names  being  vari- 
ous combinations  of)  sulphur  +  cyanic  +  hydrogen^ :  a  com- 
pound of  cyanogen,  CNHS,  analogous  in  composition  to  cy- 
anic acid,  UNHO,  in  which  the  atom  of  oxygen  is  replaced 
bv  one  of  sulphur.  It  occurs  in  saliva,  and  in  some  sul- 
phuretted essential  oils  of  plants,  such  as  mustard  and  rad- 
ish. It  may  be  prepared  from  sulphocyanate  of  mercury, 
which  is  first  made  by  precipitating  a  mercurous  salt  with 
sulphocyanate  (sulphocvanide)  of  potassium,  the  material  of 
the  so-called  "  Pharaoh's  serpents."  Potassium  sulphocy- 
anate (CNKS)  is  a  salt  of  much  interest  from  being  an  im- 
portant and  delicate  laboratory  reagent  for  ferric  com- 
pounds, with  which  all  sbluble  sulphocvanates  strike  a  deep 
and  characteristic  blood-red  color,  "f  he  potassium  salt  is 
prepared  bv  fusing  cyanide  of  potassium  and  sulphur  and 
subsequently  purifying.  Revised  by  Ira  Kemsen. 

Solphor,  or  Brimstone  Isulphur  is  from  O.  Fr.  soulfrf 
<  Lat.  sulfur,  sulphur;  cf.  Sanskr.  gulvdri,  sulphur;  brim- 
stone is  M.  Eng.  brimston,  bremston^  brenston,  bemston: 
brennen,  bemen,  burn  ■{■  ston,  stone] :  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  elements  of  matter,  very  abundantly  and  al- 
most universally  distributed  throughout  the  earth  and  the 
sea.  It  occurs  native  as  a  mineral  in  many  countries.  It 
is  also  found  in  mineral  form  as  Gtpsum  (q,  r.)  and  in  a 
great  variety  of  metallic  Sulphides  {q,  v.) ;  also  dissolved 
in  the  ocean  as  sulphates.  It  is  an  important  essential  ele- 
ment of  the  blood,  muscles,  skin,  hair,  and  other  parts  of 
animals,  and  exists  also  in  some  essential  components  of 
plants,  though  not  in  the  woodv  substance  thereof.  It  i> 
evolved  also  from  volcanoes,  botn  as  vapor  of  sulphur  and 
as  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  sulphurous  dioxide,  theso 
gases  being  doubtless  proilucts  of  the  action  of  oceanic  wa- 
ter, that  has  penetrated  to  the  volcanic  focus,  upon  metallic 
sulphides  it  nnds  there.  Indeed,  it  is  more  than  probable 
that  such  action  is  itself  one  tfera  causa  of  vulcanicity. 

Most  commercial  sulphur  is  merely  the  native  mineral 
purified  bv  fusion  or  further  by  distillation  and  sublima- 
tion.   In  Sicily,  where  the  crude  sulphur,  mixed  more  or 


,i  «>Mt. .!.*.» 


|ltTmA.|If,milf*' 


I  f 


lp^^^rt■ 


ill   1- 

flllltllA«l   ^ 


818      SULPHUKIC  ACID  AND  SULPIIATKS 


SULPICIA 


eter.  The  following  figures  are  condensed  from  tftbulatcd 
determinations  of  densities  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  by  J. 
Kolb: 


DEGREES  BAUMi. 

DauittM. 

so,  in  100  pwti. 

1 

1007 
1087 
1076 

in« 

1168 

ijno 

1-268 

raw 

1-8H8 
1-468 
1  580 
1-615 
1-711 
1819 
1'84« 

or 

5 

4-7 

10 

8-8 

15 

13  2 

20    

18-0 

25    

38*2 

30 

28-3 

85     

88  9 

40 

88  5 

45 

45*2 

50 

61 -0 

55 

67- 1 

ito          

63-8 

65 

78-2 

(jfi  .   ..   

816 

Usfs  of  Sulphnrir  Acid. — Among  those  materials  and 
pn»ducts  of  science  and  art  that  constitute  the  main  pillars 
of  modem  civilization  sulphuric  acid  occupies  incontcstably 
a  first  rank.  Probably  none  otlier  except  iron  could  be  justly 
ranged  with  it  in  this  regard.  This  will  appear  on  a  mere 
enumeration  of  some  of  the  principal  protlucts  necessary  to 
human  life,  health,  comfort,  luxury,  or  necessity  which  are 
dependent,  dii-ectly  or  indirectly,  upon  sulphuric  acid  as  an 
essential  agent  in  their  production  :  soda  from  common  salt, 
and  through  this,  gla-M,  soap,  sodium,  ahiminium,  magihusi- 
«m;  nitric  and  hydrochloric  cwids^  ujK>n  which  depend  tlie 
art*  of  refining  gold  and  silver  for  money  and  jewelry,  witli 
the  elect'roplaUrs  and  piwtogrnphers  arts:  artificial  min- 
eral waters ;  all  the  vegetable  acids  and  alkaloids ;  alum  \ 
ammonia:  ultramarine:  i\\^  aniline  colors:  bleachin^-potr- 
der:  chrome  compounds;  chloroform  Mid  ether:  phosphorus 
and  matches  ;  artificial  fertilizerh  ;  kerosene  :  and  so  on. 

Sulphates, — Among  tlie  compounds  of  sulphuric  acid  with 
metals  are  many  of  commen'iai  value  and  importance  wliicli 
are  described  under  the  heads  of  the  different  metals.  The 
following  is  a  more  complete  enumeration : 

Aluminium  Sulphates, — Of  these  there  are  several,  some 
of  which  occur  as  native  minerals.  The  normal  sulphate  is 
Alj(S04)i.l8HtO,  constituting  the  mineral  alunoaen,  Tlie 
alums  (see  Alum)  are  double  salts  of  normal  aluminium- 
sulphate  with  the  sulphates  of  pcitash,  ammonia,  or  scnla, 
containing  24  equivalents  of  crystal- water. 

Ammonium  Sulphate,  (NIl4)iS04. — A  commercial  salt  of 
great  importance,  anhydrous,  not  deliquescent,  made  largely 
from  the  ammoniacal  liquor  of  gasworks,  and  \\^h\  as  a  fer- 
tilizing agent. 

Barium  Sulphate,  the  mineral  harite,  Imrt/tes,  or  heart/ 
8jmr  (BaSOi). — Insoluble  in  water,  very  heavy;  densities, 
4*123  and  4*554.  The  sourc^e  of  most  commercial  barium 
compounds.  It  is  gmund,  purified,  and  sold  largely  as  a 
pigment  or  inferior  substitute  for  white  lead. 

Calcium  Sulphates:  the  anhydrite  mineral  is  CaSO*. — It 
is  orthorhombic.  Minimum  and  maximum  densities,  2-911 
and  3*104.    See  GvpsrM  and  Selkxite. 

Cobalt  Sulphate  (CoS04.7II,()).— The  mineral  bieberife. 

Copper  Sulphate  (CuS04.5II,()).— /^/i/e  vitriol,  an  im|x>r- 
tant  commercial  salt.    Crystals  triclinic. 

Iron  Sulphates  {FoSOt.71UO).—Cof>peras  or  ^reen  vitriol. 
A  large  article  of  commerce.  (Vystals  monoclinic.  This  is 
ferrous  sulphate.  Ferric  «M/p7*rt/f  (normal)  is  0„S,Fet.9II,0, 
as  the  mineral  coquimbite.  Tliere  are  many  basic  ferric  sul- 
phates. 

Lead  Sulphate  (PbSO*).— The  mineral  anglenite.  Splendid 
orthorhombic  crvstals.  Minimum  and  maximum  densities, 
6-2  and  6-42. 

Magnesium  Sulphate,  JCpwrni  Salt  (MgS()4.71I«()).     See 

MaOxN'KSITM. 

Manganfse  Sulphate  (MnSO^.TIUO).— Monoclinic,  like 
green  vitriol. 

Mercury  Sulphatfs.—Mvrvurous  sulphate  is  HgaSO^,  and 
mercuric  sulphate  is  IlgSO*.  The  former  is  insoluble,  like 
calomel  or  mercunms  chloride:  tlie  latter  soluble,  like  cor- 
rosive sublimate  or  mercuric  clilorich'.  The  mercuric  salt 
is  obtained  by  boiling  mercury  witli  oil  of  vitriol. 

Nickel  Sulphate  (XiSOi.TlliO).— Very  iK^autiful  green 
crystals,  right  rhombic  and  isomorphous  with  Epsom  snW. 
This  salt,  of  mucli  commercial  importance  by  reason  of  its 
large  use  in  nickel-plating,  is  liable  to  contain  iron  and  cop- 
per as  impurities,  both  wholly  destructive  to  its  usefulness. 

Potassium  Sulphate  (K9SO4). — A  hard  anhydrous  s«ilt. 


crystals  trimetric;  minimum  and  maximum  densities,  1i'4'2\ 
and  2'8H8.  Much  less  soluble  than  other  potash-salt^  p-r:> 
erally.  Water  at  0"  C.  dissolves  but  8*86  per  cent.  It  i>  .1 
consideral)le  article  of  commerce  for  fertilizing  purf**--. 
for  which  it  has  great  f)Ower. 

Silver  Sulphate  (AggSO*). — Trimetric  cri'stala,  turn.-, 
green  by  light.  Kcquires  as  nmch  as  200  parts  of  cold  i*  a^  r 
for  solution. 

iSoda  Sulphate  or  OLArsER's  Salt  (g.  v.). 

Strontium  Sulphate  {Sri>Oi)  forms  the  beautiful  miiH-ra! 
c/flejttine:  trimetric.  Densities,  minimum  and  maxiinun.. 
3-589 and  8092. 

Uranium  Sulphate  (UiSO«.3IIjO). — Small  lemoQ-yeli«»w 
prisms. 

Zinc  Sulphate  {7,ni^04.tlUO\  White  Vitriol,  also  the  nni  - 
eral  snecies  goslarile, — Orthorhombic  and  iscimorphous  wr  i. 
nickel-sulphate  and  Epsom  salt. 

Sulphur  forms  with  oxygen  two  compounds:  siilfihur  di- 
oxide (SOj),  that  combines  with  water  to  form  Sixpuiri**  * 
Acid  (g.  v.),  and  sulphur  trioxide  (SOt),  that  combines^  wi: .-. 
water  to  form  Sulpir-ric  Acid  (g.  r.).  Salts  of  sulphunni- 
acid  are  calle<l  sulr>hites,  and  salts  of  sulphuric  Hci<l  ar^* 
called  sulphates.  Also  there  is  known  in  combinatic»n  miI- 
phur  sesquioxide  (StOt).  which  is  contained  in  hvfiostilphur- 
ous  acid  (IIaS,04),  whose  salts  are  called  hypoaulphit**^.  ai  •: 
sulphur  heptoxide  (StOt),  which  isccmtaineci  in  i)ersul|»hiir. 
acid  (IIjSjObJ,  whose  salts  are  called  ])ersiilphates.  Thi-^- 
sulphurie  aciii  was  formerly  called  hyposulphurous  or  hTj«»- 
sulphuric  acid,  and  its  salt*  hyposulpliitesorhyposulpb «*!»-. 

Revised  by  Ira  Hem  sen. 

Hnlphnrle  Ether:  See  Ether. 

HnPphurous  Acid:  an  acid  formed  when  sulphun»us  di- 
oxide gas  is  passed  into  water.  A  crystalline  h yd  nit.-. 
IUSO1.6H1O,  was  obtained  by  SchSnfeld.  ftulphurousaiiU  i^ 
a  strong  reducing  a^ent.  It  deoxidizes  iodic,  arsenic.  cjjr<- 
mic,  and  jK»rmanganic  acids  and  gold  chloride,  precipitntiji.; 
metallic  gold  from  the  latter. 

Sulphites. — Of  these  the  sulphites  of  calcium  and  of  «<-:i- 
um  only  are  of  much  practical  interest,  they  l>eing  propar  -f 
commercially  to  some  extent  for  bleaching  and  for  tb«^  pr— 
venticm  of  fermentation  of  wines,  sirups,  and  other  organ !• 
liquids.  There  are  two  soila-salts— one  neutral,  XatS(  >s,  an/ 
one  acid,  IINaSOf.  The  latter  is  obtained  iis  a  crvstall.ii«- 
precipitate  on  cooling  a  warm  solution  of  soiliuiu  carUniittt 
which  has  been  supersaturateti  with  sulphurous  oxi<le  u-ii-. 
This  salt  is  used  as  a  reagent.  Sulphites  that  contain  nn 
additicmal  atom  of  sulphur  are  called  hyjiosulphites.  as  >«- 
dium  hyposulphite  (XajSjOt),  which  is  used  in  mediiinc  f.-r 
febrile  diseases  and  in  dyspepsia.   Itevised  by  Ira  Kemmin. 

Salphiirons  Oxide,  Snlplinr  Dioxide,  or  Snlphnron^ 
Anhydride:  the  craseous  sulistance  (SOi),  fonnea  by  th^ 
combustion  of  sidpnur  in  the  air.  Even  in  pure  oxygen  il''* 
same  ciunpound  is  formed.  It  is  emitted  by  volcanin***.  h 
may  be  obtained  artificially,  in  a  pure  state,  by  lieatint:  "i! 
of  vitriol  with  some  metals,  copj)er  and  mercury  Wing  amonu^ 
these.  Sulphate  of  the  metal  and  water  are  at  the  sanir  tiiiM- 
formed :  Ilg  +  2(lIrS04)  =  IlgSO*  +  2H,()  +  SO,.  It  is  al-. 
obtainable  pure  by  heating  together  sulphur  and  sulphur.'- 
trioxide,  SOi,  in  one  limb  of  a  sealed  U-tube.  It  then  «|- 
pears  as  a  liquid,  condensed  by  the  pressure,  in  the  other 
limb.  Sulphurous  oxide  is  colorless,  with  the  well-know  f» 
suffocating  odor,  Bunsen  gives  its  density  as  2*21122  (m't 
being  1),  and  its  solubility  in  water  as  about  69  per  tvnt.  «•' 
the  volume  of  the  latter  at  zero,  and  41  jier  cent,  at  nonna: 
temf)erature.  Alcohol  at  zero  takes  up  nearly  five  \\\mz>  a- 
mudi  as  water.  A  pressure  of  about  three  atmospheres,  "r 
the  cold  of  snow  and  salt,  condenses  it  to  a  liquid,  whi- b 
produces  so  much  cold  in  its  evaporaticm  as  to  freeze  wat.r 
when  poured  uixin  it.  Sulphurous  oxide  has  strong  bloat- 
ing power  over  most  vegetable  colors,  and  is  then^fore  um-^I 
f«)r  bleaching.    See  HKFRKtERATiNo  Processes. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remskn. 

Sulphur  Springs :  city:  capital  of  ITopkins  co.,  Tex. :  -n 
the  St.  \i.  S.  W.  and  the  Sherman,  Shreveport,  and  S.  rail- 
ways: 80  miles  ?i.  by  N.  of  Dallas  (for  location,  see  map  -f 
Texas,  rcf.  2-»T).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and  coji- 
tains  Central  College  (Methcxlist  EpiFco])al  S<»uth,  oikmt'1 
in  1870),  2  national  Imnks  with  combined  capital  of  i:'2iNi.- 
000.  and  4  weekly  papers.    Pop.  (1880)  1,854 ;  (1890)  3,08^. 

Snlpic'la :  (1)  a  Roman  poetess,  probably  the  dauglit»*r 
of  Servins  Sulpicius  Rufus.  and  niece  of  Messalla,  to  wh«>m 
are  attributed  a  group  of  six  charming  elegies  de,<tTil»in-' 


820 


SUxMBAWA 


SUMMARY  PROCEEDINGS 


several  river  systems  are  connected  with  each  other  by  arms 
and  canals,  and  on  the  banks,  in  the  midst  of  a  luxuriant 
vegetation,  stand  the  towns  and  villages.  The  climate  varies 
in  the  different  parts  of  the  island,  but  is  generally  healthful, 
with  the  exception  of  the  low  coast  regions  to  the  W.  The 
heat  varies  on  the  coast  between  82"  and  86"  F.,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  from  2,500  to  3,000  feet  between  64'*  and  73" ;  these 
highlands  are  known  for  their  healthful  climate.  The  mon- 
soons are  not  so  steady  and  regular  as  elsewhere.  The  dry 
season  lasts  N.  of  the  equator  from  October  to  May,  and  S., 
from  the  end  of  April  to  the  end  of  October. 

Natural  Products, — The  natural  productions  are  more 
varied  and  more  abundant  than  those  of  any  other  island 
in  the  archipelago.  Of  metals,  gold,  iron,  copper,  and  tin 
abound ;  brown  coal  occurs,  but  anthracite  is  not  found. 
Rice  forms  the  principal  food,  then  s^o,  beans,  and  roots 
(jolichos,  batatas,  and  dioscoreas).  The  most  palatable 
among  the  fruits  are  the  mangosteen,  durian,  rambutan, 
rambei,  pisang,  pineapples,  etc.,  many  of  which  thrive  only 
here,  ana  can  not  be  introduced  into  other  countries.  Of 
trees,  the  species  of  Sideroxylon  (justly  called  kayu  (wood) 
htsi  (iron),  that  is,  iron-wood)  yield  the  best  wood  for  ship- 
building, it  beine  so  hard  that  it  blunts  the  sharpest  arrow ; 
teak  is  not  found.  The  most  important  plants  entering  into 
commerce  are  cotton,  black  pepper,  caoutchouc,  benzoin, 
gutta-percha,  dyestuffs,  and  campnor,  for  which  the  island 
was  celebrated  among  the  ancients.  The  Dutch  have  in- 
troduced coffee,  tobacco,  and  cacao.  The  fauna,  Indian  in 
its  general  character,  corresponds  nearer  to  that  of  Borneo 
than  to  that  of  Java.  Of  mammals  there  are  eighty  species, 
among  which  are  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  tapir,  tiger,  pan- 
ther, and  bear ;  among  the  ruminants,  the  Cervus  equinus  Is 
noticeable;  among  the  many  species  of  apes  are  tne  orang 
ut4in  and  two  gibbons,  the  siamang  {Hylooaies  ayndactylua) 
and  the  wau-wau  {Hylohates  variegatus) ;  the  buffalo  occurs 
both  wild  and  domesticated  ;  the  horse  is  small,  but  vigor- 
ous, adapted  to  a  mountainous  country. 

Population, — The  population,  which  was  2,9?i,383  in  1892, 
is  chieflv  Malayan.  There  are  about  25.000  Europeans,  most- 
ly Dutch,  some  Chinese,  and  other  Asiatic  races.  Sumatra 
was  the  cradle  of  the  Malavs  as  a  nation ;  in  the  interior 
they  founded  the  empire  of  Manang-Kaban,  once  very  pow- 
erful. Next  to  them  the  Battas  are  the  most  important  divi- 
sion ;  they  formerly  inhabited  the  country  N.  of  fat.  1°  N.,  but 
the  population  of  Achin  has  se^mrated  from  them,  and  they 
themselves  have  decreased  in  number,  and  are  crowded  to- 
gether in  a  small  space.  The  Orang  Koabos  live  in  the  for- 
ests ;  in  physical  respects  they  do  not  differ  from  the  other 
inhabitants  of  the  islands,  but  they  are  uncivilized,  though 
harmless ;  they  are  agriculturists.  The  Malays  are  all  Mos- 
lems. The  Battas  are  fetich-worshipers  and  addicted  to  can- 
nibalism— a  custom  which  the  Dutch  have  tried  in  vain  to 
abolish. 

History, — Ptolemy  calls  the  island  Aurea  Chersmiesiis^ 
the  Arabs  Fantsaur;  the  name  Sumatra  occurs  in  1330, 
used  of  the  city  of  Saniatrah.  The  Arabs  visited  Sumatra 
al)out  860  A.  D. ;  Islamism  was  introduced  into  Achin  in 
1205 ;  the  Venetian  merchant  Marco  Polo  landed  here  in 
1290;  the  Portuguese  under  Alvaro  Talesso  in  1506,  the 
Dutch  in  1597 :  an  English  squadron  appeared  before  Achin 
in  1602.  The  Dutch  East  Indian  Company  established  set- 
tlements on  the  eastern  coast  in  1618.  Great  Britain  tried 
to  compete,  but  was  compelled  in  1783  to  return  all  its  pos- 
sessions in  Sumatra  k)  Holland.  In  1811  it  once  more  oc- 
cupied the  island,  but  by  the  treaty  of  Mar.  17, 1824,  it  ex- 
changed all  its  jjossessions  in  the  archipelago  for  the  Malayan 
peninsula,  and  thus  Holland  became  the  only  Europiean 
[Kjwer  holding  dominion  in  Sumatra.  Since  then  the  Dutch 
have  been  occupied  in  gradually  extending  their  conquests 
over  the  entire  island.  The  last  to  hold  out  were  some  tribes 
of  the  Battas  in  the  interior,  and  about  150,000  of  them  were 
yet  practically  independent  in  1895. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Snmba'wa :  an  island  of  the  Sunda  islands,  Dutch  East 
Indies,  E.  of  Java,  between  Lombok  and  Flores.  Area, 
5,400  sq.  miles.  It  is  high,  mountainous,  and  volcanic.  The 
still  active  volcano  TamVK)ra,  on  the  north  coast,  8,940  feet 
high,  caused  a  terrible  destruction  by  its  eruj)tion  in  1815  ; 
the  ashes  fell  in  Sumatra,  840  miles  distant,  and  in  a  large 
part  of  the  island  itself  all  vegetation  was  completely  de- 
stroyed. The  sea  also  rose  and  swept  away  men  and  houses. 
More  than  12,000  people  are  said  to  have  lost  their  lives. 
Another  eruption,  less  destructive,  occurred  in  I8ii6.     The 


principal  products  are  gold,  sulphur,  saltpeter,  rice,  irarious 
kinds  of  wood,  and  a  fine  breed  of  horses.  The  inhal>itarjr  >. 
150,000  in  number  and  closely  allied  in  habits  and  niaiint-!^ 
to  those  of  Celebes,  live  in  four  states  which  are  unticr 
Dutch  authority.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harri>'GTo.\. 

Snm'bal  [from  Pers.  and  Hind,  sumbul,  spikenanl]  :  an 
umbelliferous  plant,  the  Ferula  aumbul,  indigenous  li>  it>r- 
tain  parts  of  Central  Asia.    It  was  originally  thoiig^ht  t.> 

{)ossess  the  properties  of  musk,  and  to  be  a  nervous  s»tiniu- 
ant,  or,  more  properly,  a  drug  to  "  steady  "  the  ner»  c»ijs 
system.  In  reality  it  is  of  very  little  value,  but  is  fMipuJar 
with  some  physicians,  who  give  it  to  nervous  women  ir. 
association  with  more  powerful  remedies.       H.  A.  Hare. 

Snme'rians :  the  people  who  are  believed  by  most  A:^ 
Syrian   scholars   to  have  occupied  Babylonia  before   th^ 
Semites  appeared  in  that  region ;   to  have  invente<l   the 
cuneiform  script;  and  to  have  been  the  teachers  of  ih*- 
Semites,  by  whom  they  were  finally  displaced  or  abFoH.ie<i. 
It  would  seem  that  there  were  two  branches  of  this  fie<'pl»' 
— the  Sumerians  and  the  Akkadians.    To  designate   th*- 
whole  people,  sometimes  one  name,  sometimes  the  other,  aiul 
sometimes  the  compound  name,  is  employed.   In  the  Sumen  - 
Akkadian  language  are  written  some  of  the  oldest  inscri^)- 
tions  from  Babylonia,  like  those  discovered  by  de  Sarzec  ai 
Telloh.    There  are  also  many  bilingual  productions  of  a  later 
date,  notably  from  the  library  of  Asshurbanipal.     These  arv 
mainly  grammatical,  lexical,  magical,  ritual,  or  religious  in 
content.    The  language  seems  to  have  become  a  sacrwi 
tongue,  like  the  Latin  of  the  Middle  Ages.     While  this  a4'- 
count  represents  the  prevailing  view,  it  must  be  added  that 
several  eminent  scholars,  in  particular  Joseph  Halevy  in 
France  and  Friedrich  Delitzsch  in  Germany,  deny  in  ioto 
the  existence  of  a  Sumero- Akkadian  people  or  language. 
(Cf.  J.  Halevy,  La  pretendue  Iqngue  aAccad,  etc.    (Pari.>, 
1875);   J.  Halevy,  Recherche  critique  mir  Vori^ine  dt  ia 
civilisation  babylonienne  (Paris,  1876);   F.  Delitzsch,  A^ 
syrische  Grammatik  (Berlin,  1889),  ji)  25.    On  the  other  hand, 
cf.  E.  Schrader,  in  Zeitschrift  der  deutschen  Morgenlond- 
isehen  Oesellschaft,  xxix.,  1-52  (1875) ;  P.  Haupt,  Akkad- 
ische  und  Sumerische  Keilschriftttxte  (Leipzig.  1881->!2): 
P.  Haupt,  Die  Akkadisehe  Sprache  (Berlin,  1883).)    Tliese 
scholars  maintain  that  in  the  so-called  Sumerian  or  Akka- 
dian we  have  not  a  language  different  from  Assyrian,  but 
genuine  Assyrian  in  archaic  form,  or  written  in  a  hieratic 
script.    The  question  is  not  one  of  linguistics  merely,  but  it 
involves  the  origin  of  the  Babylonian  culture.     It  can  not 
be  considered  definitely  settled  so  long  as  the  lack  of  airree- 
ment  among  specialists  prevails.    The  vast  majority  of  As- 
syrian scholars,  however,  feel  no  doubt  as  to  the  reality  of 
tne  Sumero- Akkadian  language  and  people,  as  A.  H.  .Sayw. 
in  Hihhert  Lectures  for  lS87,vp,  415-436,  while  others  held 
themselves  neutral,  as  Tiele  dfoes  in  his  Babylonisch-A>i»y- 
rische  Geschichte,  pp.  58-71.  D.  G.  Lyon.' 

Snmern:  See  Meru. 

Summary  Proceedings:  in  a  general  sense,  any  lei.'al 
proceedings,  or  proceedings  before  a  judicial  tribunal^  whi<h 
are  of  a  summary  and  peremptory  nature,  that-  is,  those  which 
are  short  and  simple,  and  ordinarily  dispense  with  the  aid  v>t 
a  jury.  Such  proceedings,  except  perhaps  in  cases  of  am- 
tempt,  can  be  instituted  only  under  express  authority  of 
statutory  laws,  which,  being  in  derogation  of  the  common 
law,  must  be  strictly  construed. 

The  ordinary  pur|')oses  for  which  summary  proceedings  are 
resorted  to  are  :  (a)  Ejectment  of  a  tenant  for  non-payment 
of  rent,  or  for  holding  over  his  term.  Authority  to' bring 
these  proceedings  was  first  granted  in  England  by  the  Siat- 
ute  of  Laborers,  followed  by  others  down  to  the  Sum  mart 
Act  of  1879,  which  greatly  extended  the  power,  and  in  tho 
U.  S.  it  has  been  granted  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  bv  thf 
statutes  of  the  various  States,  {b)  For  the  recovery  of  ^ebl? 
due  the  state  of  the  U.  S.  from  a  collector  of  taxes  or  rev- 
enue, (f)  For  the  punishment  of  the  contempt  of  court.  \d' 
For  the  punishment  of  many  minor  offenses,  violations  «'f 
municipal  ordinances,  etc.,  wfiich  may  l)e  proceeded  against 
without  a  jurj';  while  in  respect  to  others,  the  constitutional 
rcquirementsas  to  due  process  of  law  are  satisfie<l  if  a  trial 
by  jury  in  an  a))pellate  court  is  acconled  the  accused. 

In  the  U.  S.  statutes  autliorizing  summary  proceed ini? 
are  unconstitutional  and  invalid  when  they  conflict  with  fl"' 
constitutional  provisions  requiring  that  a  trial  by  jury  shall 
remain  inviolate.  Such  provisions  as  to  the  right  of  trial 
by  jury  did  not  extend  the  right,  but  prevente<l  its  l>eini' 
abridged.    The  offense  to  be  punishable  by  summary  pri*- 


Sill 


rilMKU 


,  bf  i>.  P»  3 
(Niri  of 


aUiic  UMUftittiX  u:f«f*i«  ttuftim/Mt' 


;',•'•'.  •^-■•i«**i...K 


I  al^vii^t' 


822 


SUMNER 


SUMPTUARY  LAWS 


His  injuries  proved  more  serious  than  was  at  first  su|>- 
posed,  illness  detained  him  nearly  four  years  from  Con- 
gress, with  the  exception  of  one  brief  attenipt  in  the  winter 
of  1857-58  to  attena  the  Senate  sessions,  to  which  he  found 
himself  unequal.  Two  visits  to  Europe,  rest,  and  the  best 
medical  skill  of  both  hemispheres  enabled  him  at  last  to 
resume  his  seat  on  Dec.  5, 1859.  On  Jan.  18.  1857,  during 
his  illness,  he  had  been  elected  unanimously  by  the  Senate, 
and  almost  unanimously  by  the  House  of  Representatives 
of  Massachusetts,  to  the  senatorship.  Again  m  Jan.,  1868, 
and  subsequently  in  1869,  he  was  re-elected,  passing  the  last 
twenty- three  years  of  his  life  in  the  Senate. 

His  attention  was  by  no  means  g^ven  exclusively  to  slav- 
ery. His  speec^hes  cover  all  topics  of  national  importance, 
and  are  always  able.  He  Utok  a  leading  part  in  all  great 
debates.  His  speech  in  Jan.,  1862,  advocating  the  surren- 
der of  Mason  and  Slidell,  taken  from  the  British  uiail- 
steamer  Trent,  is  a  masterlv  exhibition  of  maritime  law, 
and  did  much  to  reconcile  the  republic  to  that  distasteful 
course.  His  speech  on  the  Alabama  claims  in  1869,  bitterly 
offensive  to  alt  his  English  friends  and  severely  criticised 
by  John  Bright,  was  undoubtedly  a  fair  representation  of 
opinion  in  the  U.  S.,  and  was  the  basis  of  final  settlement. 
His  addresses  on  the  constitutional  law  respecting  seceding 
States,  on  reconstruction,  the  war  powers  of  the  Govern- 
ment, international  relations,  internal  improvements,  etc., 
exhaust  the  subjects  of  which  they  treat.  His  sketches  of 
Story,  Allston,  Granville  Sharpe,** Lincoln,  and  liafayette 
show  rare  powers  of  portraiture.  His  articles  on  White 
Slavery  in  the  Barhary  States,  Prophetic  Voices  cwicerning 
America^  and  other  literary  efforts,  show  good  taste,  inge- 
nious research,  and  exact  scholarship. 

Worn  down  by  the  labor  and  excitement  of  the  session, 
and  by  a  return  of  the  illness  which  Brooks's  assault  pro- 
duced, he  again  sailed  for  Europe  on  Sept.  5,  18?2,  return- 
ing in  November.  In  May,  1872,  he  had  moved  in  the  Sen- 
ate that  the  names  of  victories  in  the  civil  war  should  not 
be  inscribed  on  the  regimental  flags.  On  Dec.  2,  1872,  the 
first  day  of  the  session,  he  again  intro<luced  a  similar  resolve 
to  the  Senate.  For  this  he  was  censured  by  the  Legislature 
of  Massachusetts  Dec.  18, 1872.  This  was  rather  a  political 
trick  than  any  real  expression  of  Massachusetts  feeling. 
The  censure  was  resciniled  the  last  month  of  his  life.  Dur- 
ing this  session  of  1872-78.  and  the  following  one,  he  gave 
most  of  his  time  to  his  Civil  Rights  Bill,  which  puts  the 
Ne^ro  on  the  exact  level  of  the  white  in  respect  to  iims, 
juries,  sch(X>ls.  churches,  public  convevaiices.  and  all  civil 
privileges.  His  health  was  much  broken,  however,  and  an 
attack  of  his  old  malady,  agony  of  the  chest,  in  the  Senate 
Mar.  10, 1874,  proved  fat^l  in  his  own  house  at  Washington 
on  Mar.  11,  1874.  Almost  his  last  words  were  a«ldressed  to 
Judge  Hoar:  **  Take  care  of  my  Uivil  Rights  Bill." 

His  natural  powers  were  not  of  the  highest  order.  "  Indus- 
try was  his  talisman.*'  He  knew  how  to  work,  and  had,  as  he 
said  of  Story,  "  the  genius  for  labor."  In  mind  he  was  more 
like  Story,  trained  to  exhaustive  research  and  clear  state- 
ment, than  like  Kent  and  Marshall,  born  lawyers.  In  pre- 
paring to  write  or  speak  he  ransacked  libraries,  laying  under 
contribution  all  ages  and  tongues.  He  had  read  everything 
and  listened  to  everybody.  His  memory  never  lost  a  phrase 
or  a  fact  he  had  once  heanl,  and  could  always  recall  it  at  the 
right  moment.  His  wealth  of  illustration  was  no  effort,  but 
the  natural  action  of  a  full  and  ready  mind.  When  first  in 
the  Senate  his  speeches  were  carefully  prepared  and  written 
out.  It  took  him  five  to  seven  years*  to  acquire  the  power 
of  extemporaneous  debate ;  but  to  the  last  he  usually  wrote 
out  his  sfieeches.  It  htis  been  genenilly  sup(K)sed  he  was  a 
mere  scholar,  fit  only  for  investigation  or  debate.  In  truth, 
no  man  in  Congress  was  more  methoilical.  exact,  painstak- 
ing, prompt,  and  efficient  in  attending  to  theiletails  of  busi- 
ness pertaining  to  his  office.  His  eloquence  l)elongs  to  the 
school  of  Burke,  whom  he  liked  to  l)e  thought  to  resemble, 
as  indeed  he  did  in  features.  His  sj)eeche.s  had  more  learn- 
ing than  Burke  care<l  to  show,  but  in  wealth  of  illustration, 
gorgeous  rhetoric,  lofty  tone,  and  a  "gigantic  morality  which 
treads  all  sophistry  under  foot,"  the  resomblance  was  close. 
His  real  power  lay  in  the  sincerity  and  fiery  enthusiasm  of 
the  s|K3aker,  whose  whole  soul  freighted  his  words,  and  in 
the  fact  that  there  was  **  always  a  man  l)ehind  the  speech." 
He  did  not  know  what  fear  was.  Alone  in  Baltimore  on 
Apr.  18,  1861,  he  yielded  nothing  to  that  mob  which  the  day 
after  shot  down  the  Massm*husetts  troo[)S.  For  ten  years  he 
walked  Washington  streets,  his  life  constantlv  threatene<l, 
and  well  knowing  that  if  a  fanatic's  or  drunkard's  hand  ti>ok 


his  life  the  assa-ssin  would  not  only  be  sheltered  by  the  \n  'M  e' 
of  ten  State>s,  but  f)etted  and  applauded  as  a  chain |»i":i 
When  he  enteretl  the  Senate,  free  speech  could  not  Ih?  >;tM 
to  exist  there.  To  him,  as  much  as  to  any  man,  was  liu' 
the  breaking  of  that  chain.  Sumner  was  exact  in  all  vw- 
quette,  careiul  in  dress,  fond  of  society,  easy  of  aec*e».  an.j 
had  always  time  for  every  comer,  his  hours  of  study  riuiniii.' 
to  midnight  and  long  after.  His  manner  was  always  <.x«rr- 
teous,  but  in  his  last  vears  had  a  marked  tendemes.s.  '1" 
the  very  last  day  of  his  life  he  was  a  loving  student  <*t  \^\- 
classics  of  all  languages ;  a  **  bite  of  the  classics!^  being  h:^ 
preparation  for  bed  somewhere  about  two  or  tbr^  o'(li>(-k 
in  the  morning.  He  cultivated  art,  and  was  a  diligent  cii- 
lector  of  autographs,  pictures, rare  books, bronzes, and  other 
objects  of  rir/tt,  most  of  which  he  beoueathed  to  the  .V rt 
Museum  of  Boston  and  to  Harvard  College.  To  the  colN  ir* 
librarv  he  also  gave  half  of  his  estate.  He  was  marricMl  ( K-i. 
17, 1866,  to  Alice  (Mason)  Hooper,  widow  of  W.  S.  IltMij^r. 
of  Boston.  They  separated  very  soon,  and  he  was  divonv»; 
May  10, 1873.  His  complete  works  were  published  in  15  vol- 
umes (Boston,  1870-83).  £leven  of  the  volumes,  with  eopi^  >u« 
notes,  were  published  under  his  own  supervision.  For  ful; 
details  of  his  life,  see  Pierce's  Life  of  Charles  Sumner  (4  vi  »K. 
Boston,  1877).  Wendell  Phillip>. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Sumner,  Charles  Richaed,  D.  D.  :  bishop  and  author: 
b.  at  Kenilworth,  Warwickshire,  England,  Nov.  22,  17SM»: 
educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge  (B.  A.  1814):  took  hni) 
orders;  became  curate  of  Highclere  1816;  librarian  and  hi^ 
toriographer  to  George  IV.  and  chaplain  to  his  maje^tx  < 
household  at  Carlton  House,  London,  and  rector  of  Abiit::- 
don — all  in  1821 ;  was  made  prebendary  of  Worcester  in  1^^2J 
and  of  Canterbury  in  1825 :  aean  of  St.  Paursand  Bishojn»i 
Llandaff  1826 ;  in  1827  was  transferred  to  the  more  ini{x«r- 
tant  see  of  Winchester,  which  he  resigned  in  1869  on  ac- 
count of  the  infirmities  of  age.  He  published  Prfflertiim"* 
AcademicfB  Oxon,  habitce  (London)  and  the  MtniMtnai 
Character  of  Christ  J^actically  Considered  (1824).  l>e«>i<l»'- 
several  Charges^  and  edited  in  the  original  and  traib^l^u-*! 
the  long-lost  Ijatin  manuscript  of  Milton,  De  Docirum 
ChrintiatM  (1825),  which  gave  occasion  to  Macaulav's  brni- 
iant  essay  on  Milton.  He  was  a  brother  of  John  Bird  Stirn- 
ner,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  I),  at  Farnham  Castle.  Mir- 
rey,  Aug.  15, 1874.  His  Life,  by  G.  H. Sumner,  a|)peAn'd  in 
1876  (London).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackm».v. 

Snmner,  Increase,  LL.  1). :  jurist ;  b.  at  Roxbury,  ^la<.v. 
Nov.  27,  1746;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1770,  ancl  U'i:»ii 
practice  in  his  native  town  ;  was  representative  in  the  L*i:- 
islature  1776-80,  State  Senator  1780-82,  associate  judge  iff 
the  Supreme  Court  1782-97,  Governor  of  Massachu>tH- 
1797-99,  and  in  1789  member  of  the  convention  for  lU 
adoption  of  the  U.  S.  Constitution.  D.  at  Roxburv.  Juiit 
7,  1799. 

Snmner,  William  Graham,  LL.  D. :  economist:  l«.  ai 
Paterson,  N.  J.,  Oct.  30, 1840 ;  prepared  for  college  at  Han- 
ford  (Conn.)  grammar  school ;  graduated  at  Yale  CoIKiTf^ 
1863  ;  traveled  in  Europe,  residing  at  Geneva  durincr  win- 
ter of  1863-64  ;  studied  philosophy  at  the  University  of  Gr»r- 
tingen  1864-66,  and  at  (jxford,  England ;  was  tutor  in  Yal« 
College  1866-69 ;  took  orders  in  tne  Protestant  Epi>(o|'iil 
Church  Dec.  29,  1867 ;  was  for  a  time  assistant  miuisster  of 
Calvary  church,  New  York :  appointed  Professor  of  I'olif- 
ical  and  Social  Science  at  Yale  College  1872,  Among  his 
works  are  a  History  of  Afnerican  Currency  (1874);  (W- 
lected  Efisaya  in  Pdlitteal  attd  Social  Scietice  (1885) ;  iVo- 
fectiofiism,  the  System  trhieh  teaches  Diat  Waste  mah* 
Wealth  (1885) ;  The  Fiymncier  and  Fit\anees  of  the  Amn- 
can  Revolution  (1891) ;  and  Robert  Morris  (1892). 

Snmptnnry  Laws  [from  Lat  sumptua'rius^  deriv.  of 
sumptus,  expense,  extravagance] :  laws  which  seek  to  re- 
strict and  regulate  private  expenditures,  and  generally  an* 
uimed  at  extravagant  outlays  for  food,  for  clothing,  or  f"r 
funerals.  Such  laws  were  enforced,  in  past  centuries,  ly 
every  nation  of  the  Old  World,  and  have  been  indulged  in.i" 
some  extent,  even  by  the  modern  States  of  North  Amorica- 
For  example,  Massachusetts  thought  it  necessary  at  one  tinn- 
to  regulate  by  legislation  the  cost  of  funerals.  These  Ihw* 
have  flourished  most  abundantly  in  the  i>eriods  of  transition 
from  semi-barbarism  to  civilization.  Witness  the  lepsla- 
tion  of  Lycorgus  and  of  Solon,  in  Greece,  that  of  the  Roina^j 
re[)ublic  especially  from  the  Twelve  Tables  to  the  secumi 
century  U'fon^  Christ,  and  that  of  modem  Kuropean  stat*"" 
during  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centurii**. 


824 


SUN 


Fio.  1. 


plate  of  rice  soup.  This  appearance  probably  arises  from 
a  constant  rising  of  currents  of  heated  matter  from  the  in- 
terior. Although  attempts  have  been  made  to  assign  defi- 
nite shapes  to  these  seeming  rice-grains,  the  writer  believes 
that  they  are  quite  irregular,  both  in  size  and  shape,  and  have 
no  well-marked  outline  or  distinctive  features. 

When  the  apparent  center  of  the  sun  is  compared  with  the 
edge  of  the  disk,  it  is  seen  to  be  markedly  brighter ;  this 
difference  can  be  seen  without  a  telescope,  if  the  sun  is 
examined  through  a  very  dark-green  or  blue  glass,  so  as  no 
longer  to  dazzle  the  eye.  It  is  attributed  to  absorption  of 
the  rays  by  the  solar  atmosphere,  a  view  which  is  confirmed 
by  the  fact  that  different  rays  of  the  spectrum  are  absorbed 
in  very  different  degrees.  The  absorption  is  greatest  of  all 
in  the  case  of  the  photographic  rays,  so  that  a  photograph 
of  the  sun  will  ordinarily  show  very  dark  at  the  extreme  limb 
unless  over-exposed  at  the  center.  The  absorption  is  less  in 
the  visual  rays  and  still  less  in  the  heat  rays,  which  shows 
that  as  we  descend  in  the  spectrum  the  transparency  of  the 
sun*s  atmosphere  to  the  rays  increases. 

Solar  Spots. — The  most  striking  and  peculiar  feature  of 
the  photosphere  is  formed  by  the  spots,  which  may  nearly 
always  be  seen  when  the  sun  is  examined  with  a  telescope. 
They  were  seen  by  the  earliest  telescopes,  and  have  formed 
a  subject  of  constant  study  by  astronomers  ever  since.  When 
examined  with  a  high  power,  and  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, a  sun-spot  is  found  to  possess  marked  peculiarities 
of  structure.  A  general  idea  of 
the  appearance  may  be  formed 
from  Fig.  1.  We  have  in  the 
center  a  dark  portion  called  the 
nucleus,  or  umbrae  which  is 
commonly  of  irregular  form. 
The  word  dark  must,  however, 
be  interpreted  in  a  relative 
sense ;  though  apparently  dark 
in  contrast  with  the  effulgence 
of  the  photosphere,  the  spot 
would  be  intensely  bright  if 
isolated.  Around  this  dark  cen- 
ter is  a  gray  fringe  intermediate 
in  brightness  between  the  nucleus  and  the  photosphere, 
which  is  called  the  penumbra.  To  ordinary  examination 
the  penumbra  appears  to  be  nearly  uniformly  gr&y,  but 
when  best  seen  in  a  good  telescope  it  is  found  to  have  a 
striated  or  fibrous  appearance,  being  composed  of  an  im- 
mense number  of  root-like  filaments  directed  from  the  out- 
side toward  the  center.  Groups  of  minute  specks,  brighter 
than  the  general  surface  of  the  sun,  are  often  seen  in  the 
neighborhood  of  spots  or  elsewhere  and  are  called  faculm. 

The  spots  vary  m  size  from  the  smallest  visible  points  to 
objects  large  enough  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  and 
therefore  nearly  1(X),000  miles  in  diameter.  A  curious  cir- 
cumstance is  that  the  spots  ai-e  not  seen  all  over  the  solar 
disk,  but  only  near  to  what,  in  our  globe,  would  correspond 
to  the  tropics.  They  are  most  numerous  about  twenty  de- 
grees on  each  side  of  the  solar  equator;  they  are  rarely  seen 
exactly  at  the  eauator,  and  scarcely  ever  in  more  than  thir- 
ty-five or  forty  degrees  of  latitude.  They  frequently  appear 
in  groups  comprising  two  or  three,  and  sometimes  many 
more.  In  consequence  of  the  sun's  rotation,  each  spot  is 
seen  to  move  slowly  across  its  disk,  occupying  about  thir- 
teen days  from  the  time  it  appears  on  one  side  until  it  dis- 
appears on  the  other,  always  supposing  that  it  endures  as 
long  as  this.  The  duration  of  a  spot  is  very  variable,  rang- 
ing from  a  few  days  to  several  months. 

A  view  very  generally  entertained  is  that  the  spots  are 
cavities  in  the  photosphere.  This  was  believed  because,  as 
the  spot  approaches  the  edge  of  the  sun,  the  umbra  is  sup- 
posed to  appear  wider  on  the  side  toward  the  sun*s  limo, 
which  would  be  the  case  if  it  were  a  hollow  cone  at  which 
we  were  looking  obliquely.  But  the  figure  and  size  of  the 
penumbra  are  so  irregular  that  it  is  not  easy  to  establish 
such  a  fact  as  this,  and  Schorer,  of  Potsdam,  one  of  the  in- 
dustrious students  of  solar  spots,  denies  that  there  is  any 
such  difference.  According  to  his  view,  the  penumbra  is  on 
the  same  level  with  the  photosphere.  Yet  another  view  is 
that  the  spots  are  cooled  portions  of  matter  floating,  as  it 
were,  upon  the  hotter  photosphere.  They  have  also  been  at- 
tributea  to  down-rushes  of  matter,  carrymg  the  cooler  por- 
tions near  the  surface  with  them.  Between  these  various 
views  it  is  impossible  at  present  to  decide. 

Periodicity  of  the  Spots. — It  has  been  well  established  by 
careful  observation  since  about  1850,  as  well  as  by  previous 


records,  that  the  frequency  of  the  sun-spots  goes  tlirough  a 
fairly  regular  period  of  about  eleven  years.    In  recent  yoiirs 
the  maxima  have  occurred  about  the  years  1848, 1860,  'it^TU, 
1881,  and  1892.    The  next  maximum  may  therefore  be  ex- 
pected about  the  year  1903  or  1904.    During  the  years  of 
maximum  the  sun  is  rarely  seen  without  spots,  aiid  gen- 
erally with  a  considerable  number.    During  the  interme- 
diate years  of  minima  the  sun  is  seen  without  spot«  aU>ut 
half  the  time.    The  variation  does  not,  however,  go  on  with 
entire  uniformity,  the  general  rule  being  that  the  rise  from 
minimum  to  maximum  is  more  rapid  than  the  fall   fmin 
the  maximum  to  the  minimum.     For  instance,  a  maximum 
occurred  about  the  year  1860,  a  minimum  about  1867,  and 
another  maximum  about  1870.    Thus  the  number  of  s[H»ts 
took  seven  years  to  fall  to  a  minimum,  and  only  three  to  ri^- 
to  a  maximum.    We  also  have  here  an  illustration  of  the 
irregularity  of  the  period.    The  interval  is  not  always  ex- 
actly eleven  years,  out  sometimes  a  little  mor^  and  some- 
times a  little  less,  varying  in  an  irregular  manner.     Suffi- 
cient data  have  not  yet  been  accumulated  to  determine  ac- 
curately the  law  of  change.    It  was  formerly  supposed  that 
the  maxima  and  minima  might  be  associated  with  the  rev<> 
lutions  of  the  planets,  a  view  which  was  first  suggested  by 
the  close  approximation  of  the  period  of  the  sun-spots  to 
that  of  Jupiter,  the  latter  being  somewhat  less  than  twelve 
years;  but  careful  investigation  shows  that  the  sun-.^p»t 
period  can  not  be  as  great  as  the  period  of  Jupiter,  so  thai 
the  close  approach  to  coincidence  can  be  regarded  only  as 
an  accident.    The  fact  seems  to  be  that  the  variation  occurs 
in  consequence  of  a  cycle  of  changes  going  on  within  the 
body  of  the  sun  itself,*  but  of  the  nature  of  tho8e  changes 
nothing  is  known. 

The  Sun's  Surroundings. — The  glare  of  the  sun's  rays  in 
our  atmosphere,  even  in  tne  finest  climates,  is  such  that  ol>- 

i'ects  in  its  immediate  neighborhood  are  ordinarily  invisible. 
int  from  time  to  time  there  aiff  a  few  rare  minutes  in 
which  this  glare  is  removed,  in  consequence  of  the  moon 
passing  over  the  sun's  disk  in  a  total  eclipse.  Tlie  oppor- 
tunities thus  offered  for  scrutinizing  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood of  the  sun  have  resulted  in  bringing  to  light  a 
number  of  singular  phenomena,  many  of  which  can  be  seen 
only  during  total  eclipses.  (See  Corona.)  It  is  known  that 
the  photosphere  is  surrounded  by  a  comparatively  thin  lavtr 
of  vaporized  or  gaseous  matter.  Known  as  the  ehromosphert. 
Continuous  with  this  layer,  and  yet  possibly  having  a  differ- 
ent origin,  are  the  protuberances,  which  appear  to  consist  of 
vast  masses  of  glowing  gas  ejected  from  tne  sun  with  incon- 
ceivable force,  the  velocity  sometimes  amounting  to  200  mile? 
a  second.  These  protuberances  exhibit  »^reat  variety  of  the 
most  fantastic  forms,  sometimes  appearing  like  immense 
flames,  sometimes  like  clouds  floating  above  the  sun  and  re- 
maining for  hours,  or  even  days,  in  the  same  re^on.  It  has 
been  noticed  that  they  are  more  frequently  seen  m  the  neigh- 
borhood of  sun-spota  than  elsewhere,  yet  not  necessarily  over 
the  spots.    Some  of  the  forms  are  shown  in  Fig.  2,  on  a  scale 


firrMriiii^im^ii 


A 


txo.  2. 

on  which  the  earth  would  be  represented  by  a  globe  of  pe^ 
haps  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  coronal  light  is  so  much  fainter  than  that  of  the 


>  (Ui  « 


h^  4l(»  -f 


82G 


SUN  ANIMALCULES 


SUNDAY 


Connecte<l  with  and  yet  apart  from  this  is  the  question 
of  the  invariability  of  the  supply  of  heat.  Can  we  be  sure 
that  this  supply  has  been  every  year  the  same  during  many 
ages  past,  and  that  it  will  remain  unchanged  for  ages  in  the 
future  f  May  it  not  be  that  the  glacial  epoch  was  due  to  a 
diminution  of  the  sun's  radiation  1  May  this  radiation  not 
increase  or  diminish  in  the  future  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
affect  seriously  the  activities  and  destiny  of  the  human  race  f 
These  are  questions  to  which  the  science  of  to-<lay  can  re- 
turn no  positive  answer.  All  that  can  be  said  is  that  during 
the  two  or  three  centuries  of  accurate  ob»*crvations  of  tem- 
perature and  climate  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  permanent 
change.  Adding  to  this  the  fact  that  a  comparison  of  the 
ancient  records  of  the  magnitude  of  the  stars  with  their 
present  magnitudes  does  not  show  any  evidence  of  change, 
and  that  the  sun  is  undoubtedly  a  star  which  is  brighter 
than  others  because  we  are  so  much  nearer  to  it,  the  conclu- 
sion is  that  there  is  no  reason  to  apprehend  any  sudden  or 
rapid  changes  in  the  supply  of  solar  neat. 

biBLiooRAPHY. — The  Sufi,  by  C.  A.  Young,  in  the  Interna- 
tional Scientific  Series,  is  the  latest  complete  work  in  English 
on  the  subject.  Proctor's  The  Sun,  Ruler ^  etc.,  of  the  Mane- 
tary  System,  will  also  be  found  extremely  interesting.  A  yet 
more  voluminous  work  is  that  of  Secchi,  Le  SoieiT{2  vols., 
Paris,  1870),  which  is  beautifully  illustratetl. 

SiM03f  Newcomb. 

Sun  Anlmalcnles :  See  IIeliozoa. 

San-blrd :  any  bird  of  the  family  XectariniidiB,  inhabit- 
ing a  great  part  of  Africa,  Southern  Asia,  and  Australasia. 
Although  only  distantly  related,  the  sun-birds  have  a  super- 
ficial resemblance  to  the  humming-birds,  with  which  tney 
are  generally  confounded  by  coloniists,  in  their  smallness, 
slender  build,  brilliant,  often  metallic  colore,  and  habits  of 
feeding  from  flowers,  but  belong  to  a  different  order,  the 
passerines.  The  tongue  is  practically  tubular  and  suctorial, 
although  their  food  consists  mainly  of  insects.  Their  nests, 
which  are  roofed  over,  are  swung  from  a  slender  twig  or 
the  tip  of  a  leaf ;  the  eggs,  generally  three  in  number,  are 
white,  nlentifuUy  sprinkled  with  grayish  green.  There  are 
over  100  species,  which  have  been  described  in  a  Mono- 
graph of  tfie  Sun-birds,  by  Capt.  Shelley  (London,  1876-80). 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Suii-bitt«ni :  a  wading  binl  {Eurypyga  heiicui)  of  some- 
what uncertain  affinities,  bat  usually  placed  in  a  separate 
family  {Eurypygid<v)  near  the  cranes  and  rails.  It  is  about 
16  inches  long.  The  he^id  is  black,  with  a  white  stripe  above 
and  beneath  etich  eye ;  the  balance  of  the  plumage  is  curi- 
ously and  elaborately  mottled  with  black,  white,  chestnut, 
And  various  shades  of  buff  and  brown.  The  sun-bittern  is 
found  along  the  banks  of  rivers  in  the  northern  and  east- 
ern parts  of  South  America,  and  feeds  on  fishes  and  insects. 
Its  nearest  relative  is  the  Kaou  {q,  v.).  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Snnbnrj :  borough ;  capital  of  Northumberland  co.. 
Pa. ;  at  the  junction  of  the  northern  and  west  cm  branches 
of  the  Susquehanna  river ;  on  the  N.  Cent.,  the  Penn.,  and 
the  Phila.  and  Reading  railways ;  54  miles  N.  of  If  arris- 
bur^,  the  State  caj)ital  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, ref.  4-G).  It  is  in  a  lumbering  region ;  is  an  ira- 
fMirtant  shipping-point  for  coal;  and  contains  the  repair- 
shops  of  the  rhila.and  Erie  Division  of  the  Penn.  Railroad, 
roUmg-mill,  organ-factory,  saw  and  planing  millsj  nail- 
works,  and  coffin,  table,  and  sjish  and  door  factories,  a  na- 
tional bank  with  capital  of  $200,000.  a  tnist  and  safe-ile- 
|x)sit  company  with  capital  of  $125,000,  and  a  daily,  a 
monthlv,  and  two  weeklv  periodicals.  The  borough  'was 
founded  in  1772;  was  the  site  of  the  Indian  village  of 
Sharaokin  and  of  Fort  Augusta,  erected  by  the  provincial 

fovemment  in  1756  as  a  defense  against  the  French  and 
ndians,  the  magazine  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  Fifth 
Wanl  of  the  borough  ;  and  is  seiiarated  from  East  Sunbury 
borough  (incorporated  in  1891)  by  a  small  stream.  The  in- 
terests of  the  two  boroughs  are  identical.  Pop.  (1880) 
4,077;  (1890)  5,930;  (1895)  estimated,  Sunburv,  8,000 ;  East 
Sunbury,  2,(100.  Editor  of  "  Sunbury  Daily." 

Sunda  Islands :  the  chain  of  large  islands  belonging  to 
tlie  Malav  Archipelago,  which,  beginning  with  Sumatra  and 
ending  with  Timor,  seiMirates  the  Java  Sea  from  the  Indian 
Ocean.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  indigenous  name  of 
the  western  part  of  Javu,  adjoinhig  the  Suiida  Straits.  See 
Java.  M.  W.  II. 

SnnMarbans,  or  Snnderbnnds:  the  part  of  the  delta  of 
the  Ganges  which  extends  from  the  Hugli  to  tlie  Megna.    It 


has  an  area  estimated  at  7,550  sq.  miles,  and  consists  of  a 
great  number  of  smaller  and  larger  islands  covered  with 
dense  forests  and  infested  by  tigers  and  crocodiles.  As  x\i'\> 
tract  of  land  is  in  the  highest  degree  pestiferous,  the  (iov- 
ernment  has  taken  measures  to  improve  it,  or  at  least  inak< 
it  innoxious,  and  in  many  places  the  forests  have  been  olean*<i 
and  the  ground  transformed  into  fields  of  rice  and  sti^nu-. 
Revised  by  M.  W.  llARRUfuTON. 

Sunday  [0.  Eng.  &uwiand(pg  {sunne,  sun  +  dttg^  ciu\ ;. 
transl.  of  Lat.  di'es  so  lis :  dies,  day  +  solis^  genii,  of  tuj/, 
sun.  See  SunI:  the  secular  name  of  the  first  day  of  thi- 
week,  which  is  neld  among  Christians  as  a  Sabbath,  or  rest- 
day,  and  in  remembrance  of  Christ's  resurrection.  As  soim 
as  the  Christian  religion  was  recognized  by  the  state,  lavs 
were  enacted  for  the  observance  of  Sunday.  Constantiue 
(821)  prohibited  all  business  except  agricultural  labor  and 
all  legal  proceedings  except  the  manumission  of  slaves. 
Subsequent  emperors  made  similar  enactments.  Theodoe»i  u^ 
II.  (425)  forbade  games  and  theatrical  exhibitions  on  Sun- 
day {Cod,  Tlieod,,  XV.,  tit  7).  The  most  strict  of  these  laws 
is  that  of  Leo  and  Anthemius  (409,  Cod.  Justin,,  iiL,  tit.  12). 
The  laws  of  Theodoric  the  Great,  several  kings  of  pFanc«. 
and  especially  Charlemagne  (818),  prohibited  serrile  V4»rk 
and  secular  business. 

In  England  Sunday  laws  were  of  very  early  origin.  Th*- 
common  law  distinguished  Sunday  from  other  days  by  al- 
lowing no  judicial  acts  on  that  day,  according  to  the  maxim. 
Dies  dominieus  nofi  est  furidieus.  The  code  of  Ina,  Kiiij: 
of  the  West  Saxons  (about  608),  punished  servile  worik  by 
fine.  Alfred  the  Ureat  (876)  forbade  work,  traffic,  and  legal 
proceedings  on  Sunday.  Similar  laws  were  in  force  through 
all  the  Saz(m  period,  and  were  often  enacted  in  sub$«qut?ni 
reigns.  The  statute  27  Hen.  IV.,  c.  5,  enacts  that  aU  fairs 
and  markets  on  Sundays,  except  in  harvest,  shall  cease  on 
pain  of  forfeiture  of  goods.  Tne  statute  5  and  6  Edw.  VI., 
c.  8,  makes  Sundays,  with  Christnias,  Easter,  etc.,  holy  dnys. 
but  permits  work*  in  harvest  and  in  other  cases  of  nevti. 
The  statute  1  Eliz.,  c.  2,  punishes  by  fine  persons  absenting 
themselves  from  church  without  excuse.  In  1618  James  1. 
isHued  his  Hook  of  Sports,  in  which  he  tlcclares  certain 
games,  sijorts.  etc.,  lawful  on  Sundavs  after  divine  service. 
Charles  I.  in  1688  reissueil  the  Book  of  Sports,  The  nnr<i 
important  of  the  English  statutes  is  29  Chas,  ll.,c.  7,  whi<*h 
prohibits  all  worldly  labor  or  business  (works  of  necc^sMty 
and  charily  only  excepted),  the  sale  of  goods,  traveling  fur 
purposes  of  trade,  and  the  serving  or  executing  of  any  pnx.-e>* 
or  warrant,  except  in  ease  of  treason,  felony,  or  b'reaeh  uf 
peace.  The  dressing  of  meat  in  families  and  its  sale  in  inns 
and  eating-shous  and  the  crying  of  milk  befiyre  nine  and 
after  four  are  allowed.  This  statute,  somewhat  modifiini  by 
subsequent  laws,  is  the  present  Sunday  law  of  Great  Hritaii:. 
and  lies  at  the  basis  of  the  Sunday  laws  of  the  U.  S. 

In  France,  during  the  Revolution,  when  the  Christian 
calendar  was  aliolished  and  the  decade  substituted  for  the 
week,  each  tenth  day  was  made  a  rest'-day,  and  its  ol»5er%- 
aiK.'e  was  enforced  by  a  law  (17  Thermidor,  An  Vl.)  which 
required  the  public  offices,  schools,  workshops,  stores.  eU\. 
to  be  closed,  and  prohibited  sales  except  of  eatables  and 
medicines,  and  public  labor  except  in  the  conntry  daring 
seed-time  and  harvest.  On  the  restoration  of  the  (vregoriaii 
calendar,  Sunday  was  recognized  in  the  Code  Xafjoi^on 
(Art.  25,  260).  A  law  of  Nov.  18,  1814,  prohibited  oniinary 
labor,  traffic,  et<».,  and,  though  declared  bv  the  amrts  in 
18v$8  and  1845  to  be  still  in  force,  it  has  oeeo  for  many 
years  a  dead  letter.  The  International  Sunday-reel  C( in- 
gress, in  connection  with  the  Paris  Ex^iosition  of  1889,  and 
the  Berlin  Ijabor  Conference,  convened  by  the  German  em- 
peror in  1890,  gave  increased  prominence  to  the  que^-tion  of 
tbe  legal  j:>rotection  of  Sunday  rest  which  had  been  pre- 
viously agitated  by  labor  and  other  associati<»us.  I^ws 
restricki ng  Sunday  labor  and  trade  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent exist  in  Geni'iany,  Switzerland,  Austria,  Hungary,  Bel- 
gium, Hc^land,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 

The  early  English  colonists  of  North  America  brought 
with  them  the  observance  of  Sunday,  both  as  a  n»ligit»us 
and  as  a  civil  institution,  and  lioth  the  religioits  and  secular 
observance  of  the  day  was  enforced  by  laws  similar  to  tiw 
English  statutes,  though  modified  by  the  popular  feeling> 
and  modes  of  life.  The  eariy  laws  of  Massachmsetts,  Con- 
necticut, Georgia,  South  Carolina,  ami  Virginia  eompelU^i 
attendance  at  church,  the  Massachusetts  law  (1782)  provid- 
ing that  such  attendance  was  iu»t  rec^uired  where  there  wa> 
no   place   of   W(»i*ship   which    the   jierson   cwuild    conscieu- 


828 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


1763;  in  Bedale,  England  (by  Miss  Harrison),  in  1765;  in 
High  Wycombe,  England  (by  Miss  Hannah  Ball),  in  1769; 
in  Doagh,  County  Antrim,  Ireland  (by  William  Gait),  in 
1770 ;  in  Bright,  County  Down,  Ireland  (by  Rev.  Dr.  Ken- 
nedy), in  1774 ;  in  Little  Lever,  near  Bolton,  England  (by 
James  Heys),  in  1775;  in  Mansfield,  England  {by  Rev. 
David  Simpson),  in  1778 ;  also  about  the  same  time  in  As- 
bury,  England  (by  Rev.  Thomas  Stock),  and  in  Dursley, 
England  (by  William  King). 

Beginnings  in  the  U,  S. — For  the  credit  of  introducing 
the  modern  Sunday-school  into  the  U.  S.  there  arc  many 
claimants.  It  would  seem  that  in  several  places  Sunday- 
schools  which  were  started  within  a  few  years  after  Raikes's 
beginning  in  Gloucester  were  continued  for  a  time  and  then 
given  up  without  leaving  immediate  successors.  Thus  a 
Sunday-school  was  organized  under  the  direction  of  Bishop 
Asbury  at  the  house  of  Thomas  Crenshaw,  in  Hanover  co., 
Va.,  in  1786 ;  yet  little  is  known  of  it  save  its  beginning. 
A  minute  in  favor  of  organizing  Sunday-schools  was  adopt- 
ed by  the  Methodist  Conference  in  (Charleston,  S.  C,  in 
Feb.,  1790 ;  yet  no  record  is  found  of  Sunday-schools  or- 
ganized. In  Dec,  1790,  a  meeting  was  called  in  Philadel- 
phia to  consider  the  importance  of  this  work,  and  early  in 
Jan.,  1791,  the  First-day  or  Sunday-school  Society  was 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  securing  reli^ous  instruction 
to  poor  children  on  Sunday.  This  society  is  still  active,  yet 
its  schools,  like  those  of  Robert  Raikes,  had  paid  teachers 
during  the  earlier  years  of  its  operation.  In  1791  there  was 
started  a  Sunday-school  in  Boston;  in  1793  one  in  New 
York  by  Katy  Ferguson,  a  Negro ;  in  1794  one  in  Pat- 
erson,  N.  J. ;  in  1797  one  in  Pawtucket,  R.  I.,  by  Samuel 
Slater ;  in  1800  one  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.  In  1803  a  Sunday- 
school  was  gathered  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Divie  Bethune  in  New 
York,  and  subsequently  other  schools  were  begun  by  them. 
Mrs.  Bethune  was  a  daughter  of  Mrs.  Isabella  GraHam  the 
philanthropist.  Mr.  Bethune  had  seen  something  of  Raikes's 
work  in  England,  and  the  New  York  school  was  in  imita- 
tion of  that.  In  the  same  year  with  this  beginning  in  New 
York  a  Sunday-school  was  begun  in  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
and  the  jear  following  one  in  Baltimore,  Md.  In  1800  a 
systematic  Sunday-school  movement  was  organized  in  Pitts- 
burg, Pa.  The  Rev.  Robert  May,  from  London,  gave  a  new 
start  to  Sunday-schools  in  Philadelphia  in  1811,  which 
proved  a  beginning  of  permanent  progress.  A  local  union 
for  Sunday-school  work  was  organized  in  New  York  in  1816, 
another  in  Boston  the  same  year,  and  another  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1817.  These  societies  became  the  nucleus  of  the 
American  Sunday-school  Union,  a  national  society  organ- 
ized in  1824. 

Progress  and  Influence. — The  Sunday-school  movement 
led  to  a  new  interest  in  popular  education,  and  to  new 
measures  for  the  Christian  evangelization  of  the  home  field 
and  the  foreign.  J.  R.  Green,  the  historian,  says:  "The 
Sunday-schools  established  by  Mr.  Raikes  .  .  .  were  the  be- 
ginning of  popular  education."  The  system  of  penny  post- 
age, and  the  organization  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  and  of  other  benevolent  societies,  were  an  out- 
growth of  interest  in  this  movement.  Adam  Smith  said  at 
the  time :  **  No  plan  has  promised  to  effect  a  change  of  man- 
ners, with  equal  ease  and  simplicity,  since  the  days  of  the 
apostles."  A  century  later  John  Bright,  looking  back  on 
the  record,  said :  **  There  is  no  field  of  labor,  no  field  of 
Christian  benevolence,  which  has  yielded  a  greater  harvest 
to  our  national  interests  and  national  character  than  the 
great  institution  of  Sunday-schools." 

In  the  U.  S.  the  influence  of  the  Sunday-school  has  been 
even  more  important  than  in  Great  Britain.  When  the 
Sunday-school  was  introduced  as  a  practical  power  into  the 
U.  S.,  unbelief  and  error  werealreariy  largely  in  the  ascend- 
ant, and  a  flood  of  godless  immigration  was  making  the 
matter  worse  year  by  year.  The  new  agency  was  by  vari- 
ous changes  adapted  to  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  republic, 
and  it  became  a  means  of  instructing  and  influencing  chil- 
dren and  youth  in  the  field  of  organized  churches  and  of  pio- 
neer religious  work  in  new  communities. 

Present  Status. — The  Sunday-school  is  a  recognized  de- 
partment of  the  Church  in  the  U.  S.  for  the  religious  in- 
struction of  the  young,  and  for  systematic  Bible  study  by 
young  and  old.  It  is  also  employed  as  a  pioneer  agency  of 
evangelism  in  newer  portions  of  both  tne  older  and  the 
newer  communities,  as  in  the  outlying  districts  of  cities  and 
villages,  and  on  the  borders  of  an  advancing  and  extending 
|;K)pulation,  beyond  the  limits  of  existing  church  organiza- 
tions.   Both  as  a  denominational  and  as  an  undenomina- 


tional agency  it  is  of  marked  and  growing  prominence. 
Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  alike  recognize  its  impor- 
tance, and  it  is  in  favor  among  the  Jews  as  among  Christians. 
Its  management  varies  accoming  to  the  ecclesiastical  sys- 
tems of  which  it  has  become  a  part,  but  its  main  features 
are  alike  throughout. 

Buildings  for  the  use  of  Sunday-schools  are  often  arranged 
so  that  numerous  rooms  can  be  used  separately,  and  yet  all 
opened  together  into  the  sight  of  the  superintendent's  de>k 
at  a  moment's  notice.  Sunday-school  hymns  and  music  are 
an  important  aid  to  social  worship.  An  extensive  liti-r- 
ature,  m  the  form  of  books  and  periodicals,  has  been  creal«*d 
by  and  for  the  Sunday-school.  Improved  methods  of  teach- 
ing have  been  promoted  by  Sunday-school  normal  classy 
and  teachers'  institutes.  Conventions  and  assemblies  have 
extended  the  influence  and  uplifted  the  standard  of  Sun- 
day-school instruction. 

international  Lessons. — In  1873  a  plan  of  uniform  BibU* 
lessons  was  formally  inaugurated,  on  the  recommendation 
of  a  national  convention  of  Sunday-school  workers,  and 
that  plan  was  approved  in  Canada  and  England,  and  came 
to  be  known  as  the  international  system.  Gradually  this 
system  overbore  opposition,  and  was  employed  more  and 
more  generally  in  North  America  and  throughout  the  world, 
until  now  from  6,000,000  to  8,000,000  are  engaged  each 
week  in  the  study  of  the  Bible  according  to  its  outline. 
This  centerin|f  of"  interest  on  particular  portions  of  the 
Bible  has  justified  the  issue  of  many  special  works  as  aids 
to  intelligent  study,  and  of  the  employment  of  the  ablejJt 
scholarship  and  talent  for  critical  and  popular  expositions. 
As  a  result,  there  is  more  of  biblical  stuay  and  of  interest 
in  biblical  research  than  at  any  previous  stage  in  the  world's 
history.  Criticisms  of  this  international  system  and  at- 
tempts at  a  better  one  have  been  incessant,  but  it  has  made 
progress  steadily  in  public  favor.  A  scheme  of  Bible  lessons 
widely  used  in  the  U.  S.,  and  considered  by  many  as  an  im- 

grovement  upon  the  international  lessons,  is  known  as  thi* 
ilakeslee  or  inductive  system ;  and  other  schemes  have  their 
enthusiastic  advocates. 

The  influence  of  the  Sunday-school  has  been  manifestly 
for  good  over  the  individual,  the  family,  and  the  commu- 
nity ;  and  schools,  colleges,  and  churches  have  felt  that  in- 
fluence, as  widely  and  as  steadily  as  the  Sunday-school  has 
made  progress. 

The  following  statistics  of  Sunday-schools  in  all  nations 
were  compiled  for  the  second  world's  Sunday-school  conven- 
tion, at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Sept.  4  and  5, 1893 : 


OOUlfTRT. 


Europe : 

Ennfland  and  Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Belf^ium 

Austria 

Denmark. 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

Holland 

Italy 

Norway 

Portuf^ 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

European  Turkey 

Asia: 

India  and  Ceylon 

Persia 

Siara 

China 

Japan 

Central  Turkey 

Africa 

North  America: 

United  States 

Canada 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador.. 

West  Indies 

Central  America  and  Mexico . 

SoiTH  America , 

Ockanica  : 

Aimtralasia 

Fiji  islands 

Hawaiian  islands 

Other  islands 


Totals 824,562 


87.901 
6.875 
8,564 

812 
606 

6,858 

1.450 

6,000 

4 

1.560 

408 

660 

11 

88 

88 

5.750 

1.687 

85 

5,648 
107 
16 
105 
150 
516 

4,846 

188.178 

8,886 

850 

8,186 

660 

860 

4,766 

1,474 

880 

810 


586,467 
68,904 
27.740 
810 
518 
8.043 
11.584 
8.800 

84.on 

4.600 
654 

4.800 
66 
7T7 
180 
17.900 
6.016 
175 

10,715 
440 
64 

1.068 
800 

8,450 

8,455 

l.aOB.080 
60^1 
8J9;5 
0.678 
1.80O 
8,000 

64.811 

8,700 

1.418 

800 


8,880,788 


5,076.557 

604.^ti» 

808.516 

4.112 

7,196 

55.316 

147,154 

60.<^O 

740,7>6 

168,0«K1 
I0.9i» 

6a.»« 

1J«6 
15,5^4 

942,150 

11S.3N3 

l.^CM 

107,754 

4>r6 

7.019 
85,K« 
161.304 

0,718.489 

57«,i>;4 

22.976 

110.*« 

15.t*X> 

150.000 

58R.0S9 
42  9l*> 
15.SU) 

io,a» 


90.S6R,9SS 


830 


SUNSTROKE 


SUPKRIOK,  LAKE 


sels  uttered  by  the  Prophet ;  (3)  his  deeds  and  practices;  and 
(3)  his  silence,  it  being  considered  that  what  the  Prophet  ab- 
stained from  doing  or  saying  fully  indicates  his  opinion  and 
hence  the  duty  of  his  followers.  The  Sunnites  are  divided 
as  to  ritual  into  four  classes,  the  Hauefites,  Malekites,  Scliail- 
yites,  and  Hannbelites.    See  Mohammedanism.      E.  A.  ii. 

Sunstroke,  Insolation,  or  Coup  de  Solell :  See  Ther- 
mic Feveb. 

Sun-worship :  commonly  reganled  as  one  of  the  charac- 
teristic features  of  the  religion  of  ancient  Persia.  The  Pe- 
ruvians of  old  who  worshiped  every  aspect  of  nature,  paid 
the  chief  honors  to  the  sun.  The  Egyptians,  the  Greeks,  the 
Italians  of  antiquity,  and  the  Celtic  and  Teutonic  races,  the 
East  Indians,  and  some  African  pagans,  w^ere,  as  some  hea- 
then races  still  are.  sun- worshipers.  In  fact,  sun-worship  is 
one  of  the  most  widely  diffused  forms  of  nature- worship,  the 
genial  and  fructifying  warmth  and  brightness,  the  mysteri- 
ous nature,  and  the  constant  course  of  the  great  luminary 
appealing  ix)werfully  to  the  religious  feelings  of  the  nider 
peoples.    See  the  article  Worship. 

Revised  by  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Sapereroga'tion,  Works  of  [supererogatian  is  from 
Late  Lat.  supererogation  deriv.  of  mipereroga  re,  pay  out  in 
addition ;  Lat.  super,  over,  above  +  eroga're,  pa,y  out,  ex- 
pend ;  e,out  +  roga're,  ask]  :  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
good  works  performed  by  a  Christian  over  and  above  his 
simple  duty.  These  works,  it  is  alleged,  constitute  a  fund 
of  merit  which  is  applied  to  the  relief  of  souls  in  purgatory. 
The  definition  is  based  on  a  <listinction  between  what  is  com- 
manded and  what  is  only  counseled — a  distinction  which 
is  known  only  to  Roman  Catholic  dogmatics. 

Superior :  city :  port  of  entry :  capital  of  Douglas  co.. 
Wis. ;  at  the  head  of  Lake  Sup)erior,  on  St.  Ijouis,  Superior, 
and  Allouez  Bays,  and  the  Gt.  North..  N.  Pac.,  Chi.,  St..  P., 
Minn,  and  Cm.,  St.  P.  and  Duluth,  Dul.  and  Winnij>eg,  and 
the  Dul.,  S.  Shore  and  Atl.  railways;  opposite  DiUuth, 
Minn,  (for  lo(.'ation,  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  2-B).  It  has 
three  perfect  landlocked  harbors,  all  connected,  with  total 
length  of  18  miles  and  width  of  from  1  to  3  miles.  The 
city  is  platted  at  right  angles  to  the  water  front,  with  streets 
80  feet  wide,  avenues  100  feet,  and  alleys  20  feet.  The  cli- 
mate is  crisp,  dry,  and  healthful,  with  average  tempi»rature 
for  twenty  year's  40' ;  average  velocity  of  wind,  7  miles  j)er 
hour;  average  number  of  fair  and  clear  days  per  aimum,  260. 
Tlie  water-supply  is  drawn  from  Lake  Superior,  and  the 
sewerage  system,  planned  when  the  citv  was  laid  out,  is  suf- 
ficient for  a  city  of  1,500,000  people.  'There  are  81  miles  of 
paved  streets,  89  miles  of  gra<ted  streets,  47  miles  of  sewers, 
87  miles  of  sidewalks,  43  miles  of  water-mains,  15  miles  of 
gas-mains,  and  15  miles  of  double-track  electric  railway. 

Churches  and  Schools. — Superior  has  36  church  organiza- 
tions and  35  church  edifices.  There  are  12  public  schools, 
with  96  teachers  and  5,160  pupils,  4  parochial  schools,  a 
Finnish  univei-sity.  and  a  business  college.  The  public- 
school  buildings  cost  J^456,000. 

Finances  and  Baivking, — The  assessetl  valuation  in  1894 
was  $19,680,000 :  bonded  debt,  general.  $363,598 ;  special 
improvements,  $942,667;  school  district  bonds,  $235,000. 
In  1895  there  were  3  national  banks  with  combined  capital 
of  $635,000,  8  State  banks  with  capital  of  $600,000.  5  loan 
and  investment  companies,  and  5  building  and  loan  associa- 
tions, local  and  serial,  with  447  shareholders  and  7,159 
shares  in  force. 

Business  Interests. — The  manufactures  are  chiefly  flour, 
lumber,  lath,  shingles,  iron,  wagons,  clmirs,  barrels,  bags,  coke, 
and  woolen  goods.  There  are  8  flour-mills  with  a  combined 
capacity  of  23,000  barrels  per  day  ;  9  elevators  with  a  stor- 
age capacity  of  15,000,000  bush. ;  8  coal-docks  with  a  capac- 
ity of  6,000,000  tons,  one  of  which  is  the  largest  in  the  world, 
with  capacity  of  4,0(X),000  tons,  and  one  of  solid  steel  in 
which  all  coal-handling  is  done  in  largo  steel  tunnels  be- 
neath the  ground ;  a  bank  of  coking-ovens ;  an  inm-ore 
dock;  shipyards  for  the  construction  of  whaleback  steam- 
ers ;  4  sawmills ;  the  largest  dry  dock  on  the  Great  Lakes ; 
and  many  other  industrial  plants.  The  receipts  by  water 
are  coal,  oil,  salt,  cement,  sugar,  iron,  and  general  merchan- 
dise ;  .shipments,  wheat,  flour,  lumber,  copper,  and  wool. 
The  port  collector's  oflicial  report  for  1894  showed,  arrivals 
and  clearances,  2.001 ;  tonnage,  2,830.000 ;  coal  receipts, 
l,142,614tons;  wheat  shipped,  10,7:39,000 bush. ;  flourshipped, 
3,077,000  barrels ;  lumber  shipped,  24,600.000  feet ;  copper, 
iron  ore.  etc.,  shipped,  560.000  tons  ;  and  wheat  in  store  on 
Jan.  1,  1895,  7,110.000  bush. 


Shipning  F(icilities. — Besides  those  furnished  by  the  rail- 
ways, the  city  has  exceptional  facilities  for  receiviug*  and 
shipping  freight  by  water.  The  water  front  is  divided  iuio 
harbor  districts,  so  that  the  city  mavmake  improvements  in 
any  one  of  them  when  needed  and  charge  the  cost  to  the 
property  in  the  district.  There  are  10  miles  of  substantial 
wharfage,  and  the  water  front  mav  be  slipped  so  as  to  fur- 
nish 138  miles  of  wharfage.  The  U.  S,  Government  hiu<  ex- 
pended $650,000,  and  [)rivate  parties  about  $600,000  in  har- 
bor improvements;  and  the  city  $3,200,000  and  private 
corporations  and  parties  $2,225,00ib  on  docks. 

History, — Superior  was  a  station  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
panv,  over  200  years  ago ;  trading-post  for  Daniel  Greysohl*  ai 
du  Lhut  (Duluth)  in  1680;  and  headquarters  for  Kadisson  and 
Grosseilliers  in  1661.  In  1853,  when  it  was  supposed  tht- 
U.  S.  Congress  would  charter  and  suteidize  the  Northern 
Pac.  Railroad  from  Lake  Superior  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  an<i 
after  the  great  land  grant  nad  been  made  by  Congress  to 
the  State  of  Michigan  to  aid  in  constructing  the  first  canal 
and  locks  around  St.  Mary's  Falls,  distinguished  men  pre- 
empted the  land  where  Superior  now  stands  for  a  town-site. 
The  canal  was  completed  and  a  land  oflice  and  lighth<>us«^ 
established  at  Superior  in  1855,  and  the  town  lx)omed.  The 
Northern  Pacific  charter  failed  and  the  panic  of  1857  para- 
lyzed the  city.  In  1881  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  for 
a  gift  of  about  half  the  town-site,  built  a  branch  to  the 
water  front  and  erected  a  dock.  In  1883  Gen.  John  II. 
Hammond  organized  a  company  which  acquired  land  W.  of 
the  original  town-site,  on  St.  Louis  and  Su|>erior  Bays,  and 
in  1885  platted  a  new  city.  In  laying  out  the  town  a  right 
of  way  was  provided  for  terminal  tracks  to  reac^i  every  rail- 
way coming  to  the  head  of  the  lake,  and  connecting  them 
with  every  dock  and  slip  on  the  entire  90  miles  of  wal»-r 
front.  More  than  1,000  acres  of  land  near  the  Imy  and  mi 
one  side  of  the  town,  separated  from  all  residence  and  bu^i- 
ness  streets,  was  re45erve<l  exclusively  for  railway,  switch- 
ing, and  storage  yards.  Thus  every  dock,  mill,  and  whole- 
sale house  has  equal  facilities  for  receiving  and  shipping 
freight  over  all  the  railways  at  the  head  of  the  lake.  The 
city  comprises  the  parts  locally  known  as  'East  Superior. 
West  SufKirior,  South  Superior,  and  Old  Superior.  Pop. 
(1880)  Douglas  County,  655  ;  (1890)  city,  11,983;  (1894)  e?^ti- 
mate  on  school  census.  35,000. 

Frank  A.  Flower,  proprietor  of  **  liRADKR." 

Siii)erior,  Lako:  the  largest  of  the  Lanrentian  chain  of 
lakes.  It  is  also  the  largest  fresh-water  lake  in  the  worhl. 
and  the  largest  inland  water-body  except  the  Caspian  S»»a. 
Its  area,  as  determined  from  the  charts  of  the  U.  S.  lake  sur- 
vey, is  30.829  sq.  miles;  another  computation  from  the  same 
data  gave  31,2()0  s<i.  miles.  The  only  possible  rival  to  I^ke 
Superior  in  size  is  Ijake  Victoria  Nyanza,  which  is  «»?sii- 
mat<jd  to  have  an  area  of  27,000  S(}.  miles.  The  mean  eleva- 
tion of  the  surface  of  Lake  Superior  is  602  feet  alH>ve  t  he 
sea,  and  20  feet  al)Ove  Lake  Huron,  into  which" it  discharjr^vs 
through  St.  Mary's  river.  Its  greatest  measured  depth  i> 
l.()08  feet;  the  bottom  of  the  basin  is  therefore  over  4(n) 
feet  below  sea-level.  Its  hydrographic  basin,  including  the 
lake  surface,  has  an  area  of  about  85,000  aq.  miles.  The 
mean  discharge  through  St.  Mary's  river  is  estimated  at  H6,- 
000  cubic  feet  per  second.  In  the  deeper  portions  of  t  he 
lake  the  temperature  varies  but  little  from  39"^  F.,  the  teni- 
j)erature  of  water  at  it*  maximum  density.  Analyses  have 
shown  that  the  water  at  all  depths  is  fresh. 

The  boundary  between  Canada  and  the  U.S.  passes  throueh 
the  lake,  about  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  latter  beloncrinic 
to  the  Dominion.  The  north  shore  is  formed  of  crystal lin<^ 
rocks,  and  in  places  is  bold  and  picturesque.  The  south- 
em  shore  is  mostly  low  and  covered  to  a  great  extent  wiih 
blown  sand,  glacial  deposits,  and  fine,  evenly  laminat«Hi. 
pinkish  clays,  which  were  dejMwited  from  the  lake  during  a 
former  high-water  stage,  when  it  extended  for  many  mih-s 
S.  of  its  present  bonndnries.  The  rocks  beneath  those  .<iu- 
perficial  deposits  belong  mainly  to  the  Algtmkian  wriotl. 
which  includes  the  copper  and  iron  bearing  series,  ana  to  the 
Cambrian  period,  which  includes  the  red  sandsron«\  largely 
used  for  building  in  Marquette  and  other  cities.  The  l*ic- 
tured  Kocks.  about  100  miles  W.  of  the  outlet  of  the  lake, 
are  cliffs  of  sandstone.  forme<l  by  the  edges  of  nearly  hon- 
zontal  strata,  and  together  with  other  bold  features  al>out 
the  lake  are  remnants  of  an  old  tojK>graphy  which  was 
fashioned  by  stream  erosion  and  weathering  previous  t*>  the 
(Jlacial  period. 

The  land  bordering  Lake  SujK'rior  is  not  well  adapted  for 


?<ri'KUNATURAl^ 


SltHKTYSnrP 


m 


•  I  itn  I  f* « tvsts  i  ti  J  ti  rtf ,  t  i  t'^i}  I  h  er  w  i  1 1  i  li  ^1  M*ri  n^  jt  m  ll  1+ 1  *  fnc  •  j  I  i  1  i  >.'?* 

1>ka*:l  i\  iti  H.HKI.U 
Siiprrniititnil  :  St-t'  Mir-v*  lhh. 
S II lih i H  [  I vs^y ] U .  Kh  nfti .  l  h i^  /"  "A  tftpn  •  i f  M  i  n  h l< » I  ti k  it i m I  Hie 

•  Mh^l  kiit^  of  tlic  foiirih  Ku:ypUam]ynasi:\\  iSij^iiJiN**  prone- 
'•nUtii;  lln'    WAIN    mntiirunih'ii  by  his   ]!ri4lwi?As*>r.  Snnfvu 

•  Mr  S>Ri!s^,  jipihiHf  tlio  Uihos  rhf'Sirijii.  \w  wm  onpi^^i^'l  ii^ 
C»  i:i*n  1 14'  V*n  i  1  rl  i  1 1  ■:  rs  j « *  in  r  i  on  ^  in  Bi,'  y  j  it ,  T  \  i  c  lit  ti^v  ^t  j  >  y  m  - 
rruU  lit  nUch  {^•*'  PVKA>HikH)  w^s  i-n-ctP*^  lis  hi-^  timil),  njut 
fhivc  j^mallor  |ivrfinii<ls  nmr  bv  wiTt!  rnvteil  for  n  bil  ivi-*., 
Thr  fntin^Unt'of  di"  li'nq>li"  of  Hjilln^r  iil  l)<"rMli'rt'h  is  nUn 
.•, -■•t-'Ih-.]  Io  hirti.  A'H'itrrliri^i;  t.«  Mphfii-^rU.i  lir  rrr^'in'<t  -li^ly- 
riir.-t-  ytai>.  bill  llii*  Turin  pHpyrus  rtMlm  «*s  liii^  tinuMo  twon- 
ry-thrw  or  twenty-four  years.  Charles  H.  GiLLKrr. 

Siipp^,  soo[)  pa'.  Franz,  von  :  o^K»ra-cfmipos<^r,  whoso  l)ap- 
tisinal  name  wa.s  Frnneesco  Ezechiele  Kruiengildo  C'avaliere 
Siippe  Demelli :  b.  Apr.  18. 1820,  on  board  ship  near  Spaiato. 
lit-  very  early  manifested  musical  talent,  and  at  fifteen  eom- 
j>'.>i'd  ai  mass  which  was  sung  at  tlie  Franciscan  church  at 
/.mi.  After  study  with  the  best  masters  he  Vjecaine  con- 
d  in -lor  at  the  Josejihstadt  theater,  Vienna,  succeeded  by 
<^)tlier  similar  engagements.  11  is  first  operatic  work  was 
S'ftnmt'rnnchtHtra}im^  founded  on  Sliakspeare.in  1844.  Then 
raine  a  l<»ng  list  of  oj)erettas,  many  of  which  were  verv  |h»jv 
ular.  In  the  V.  S.  he  is  best  known  by  his  Fnthtitza, 
H>tr((icrio,txm\  his  overture  Poet  and  Peasant.  I),  in  Vi- 
enna, May  21,  18U5.  D.  E.  IIervkv. 

Supper,  Lord's :  See  Eithakist. 

Snppressio  Verl :  Sec  Fraid. 

Suppnra'tion  [from  liiit. w/;>//«r«7jo,deriv.  of  suppurare^ 
'^iipjMinite,  form  matter:  i<ub,  under,  fn»m  under, (in  compos.) 
\i\i  ■\- pus,  pa  rift,  matter,  j>usj :  a  form  of  inflammation 
v^hich  gtHi^  on  to  the  <levelopment  of />/<k  or  matter.  This 
IS  >efn  ill  abscesses,  inflammations  of  the  miuous  mem- 
branes, and  in  granulating  wounds.  The  pnxluct  is  a  cix'amy 
vf'llow  liouid  composed  of  a  fluid  part,  the  In^uor puru8,Aiu\ 

•  «llidar  elements,  the  pus  corpuscles.  The  causes  of  snppu- 
raiion  have  occasioned  much  study.  Formerly  a  varii'ty  of 
tnmmalic,  chemical,  or  other  local  injuries,  together  with 
i-»Tiain  general  bodily  conditions,  were  regarded  jis  causes: 
but  aft4}r  the  development  of  bacteriology  attention  was 
«iirecte<l  to  micro-organisms  as  tin*  active  agents.  Certain 
bacteria  are  now  recognized  as  [)Us-pr<Mlucing  or  pi/ogenefic  ; 
I'lii  it  is  also  a«lmitted  that  suppuration  may  occur  ^pon- 
taiu-ously  or  experimentally  without  the  presence  of  bacteria. 
Injections  of  cah>meL,  turpentine,  and  certain  other  sub- 
stances, for  example,  are  capable  of  exciting  suppuration. 
In  studying  the  process  microscopically  it  is  fcmnd  that,  as 
in  other  forms  of  inllammation.  the  while  bhxxl-corfniM'les 
..r  the  bliMKl  leave  the  vessels  and  accumulate  in  the  tissues; 

at  the  same  time  a  r|uantity 


I  the  j.rnviiH't*  of  SvHh, 
Mi'^bbrraiiciiru  \^1»t'  fi 


'^"'^  "^-^\^)       time  the  surrounding  tissues 

,        ^,  \.       pro<luce  a  wall  of  vonntrcells 

I'l  IS  corpuscle's.     Tilt*  same,  nfter    '  ...  .    ,•  -  .• 

a.H  hU-o  id  the  AdditiMD  around  the  |H-nphery  of  the 
healiiiy  pus.  of  acetic  acid,  suppurating  focus,  and  thus 
an  absiess  with  a  retaining 
wall  is  formed.  The  older  theory  of  the  oritjin  of  pus-cells, 
\  iz..  that  thev  are  altered  tissue-cells,  is  tlius  .'<«*en  to  i)e 
abandoned.  It  is  likely,  of  coursc%  that  some  t)f  the  cells  of 
a  tissue  are  loostMied  and  mingle  with  the  pus.  but  the  tnie 
piis-corpuscde  itself  is  a  white  bl(MMl.corpus<-le  which  has 
♦  iiM-rged  from  the  bhx^l-ves.si'ls  and  subsequent  ly  undergone 
mole  ur  less  degeneration.  When  treated  with  acetic  acid 
the  protoplasm  of  the  cells  cleai-s,  and  n'veals  a  multiple 
niK  l«us,  as  sh<)wn  in  the  accompanying  illiistnif ion.  The 
nmltinuclear  character  of  tin*  pus-cells  is  explained  bv  the 
diMovery  that  only  these  forms  of  white  corpuscles  have 
the  j.roperty  of  readily  escaping  from  the  bl«HKl-vessels. 

Pus  formed  on  the  free  surfaces,  as  in  bn)nchitis,  nasal 
ratarrh.  in  granulating  wounds,  and  the  like,  comes  from 
iIm*  underlying  bUxHi- vessels,  an<l  filters  through  the  super- 
ti<iHl  lining  cells.  Spreading  suppuration  is  found  in  ery- 
^i|Klas  Aii^  certain  other  conditions  in  IIk*  submuenn.*^  or 


mdw^nlrtUPOHi*  tUsiM'-i*  The  symploins  indicolivc  of  Mippttllft* 
lion  aiv  tfiosi^  t^f  infliimmatioti— hmt,  rpdne^s,  XfXn^  «lli 
f^welling;  but  Ihe  im\n  bus  often  n  iiceuUar  rJinjlibmg  ehiir* 
aclen  ar\d  the  s-welling  is  fuumHo  Ite  (liuHunUug  c*r  idanticu 
In  a^IdiELiiTi,  p'oernl  fever  of  irfegnlar  tyfH%  jiwrtfif^,  or  t^hilJH 
may  b<*  noted:  and  ge(i«*ral  infeittoii  of  the  bliMni  (pjM'iiiIa 
aiiil  s^^pitetnniaj  may  iMietir. 

The  rreainient  of' suppn ration  eonsisis  in  al»artive  mt'tts- 
ure^,  and,  ih*'^  failing,  ih  rnv-asim^s  to  promoU'  "  [lomtiiig,** 
and  in  thi'  evacuation  i>r  the  rtit^;viN*»  Applicatinnf*  id  eoM 
are  iiiosl  uis^^ful  fc»r  the  first  f*ur|*oM.':  for  llie  j*i^rMiid  U*?al, 
«md  e5j»eeiaHy  |Minllk-iis.  is  of  value,  .Uter  the  dev*dopinent 
of  lliietuaUou  niri-iion  is  ealk'd  for,  VV.  P^:p|*KK, 

^Hpreillflt*),  A  1*1  of:  N  e  Arr, 

Snr,  i>r  Soor  u\nv.  Tticm) :  town  ;  ii 
Asialte  Tiirkoy ;  on  an  i^hiiid  in  ibe 
Alexander  the  Great,  when  besieging  Tyn?,  e<innecte«l  wilh 
the  mainland  by  a  broad  <lam.  Sur  lias  sufTereil  very  much 
from  earthrpiakes.  and  its  harlM)r  has  become  so  silted  ui»  as 
to  be  accessible  for  small  vessels  only.     Pop.  about  5,0()0. 

Surabaya,  soo-ra'a-lii  aa  :  town  on  the  north  coast  of  Java ; 
capital  of  the  Dutch  |)rovince  (»f  Surabaya  :  oj»|»osite  Madura, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Kediri  (see  map  of  East  Indies,  ref.  H-E). 
It  has  a  giMul  harU>r,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  contains  bar- 
racks, magazines,  hospitals,  and  other  military  establish- 
ments. It  is  a  station  on  the  railway  from  Surakarta  t<» 
Probolinu'o,  <-oinmunicates  regularly  with  Samarang,  Ha- 
tavia,  and  other  places  by  sieamlM»ats,  and  carries  on  an 
important  trade,  exporting  annually  rice,  coffee,  cotton, 
•<ut;ar.  tobacco,  and  cocoanuts.  Its  shii^building  is  also  ex- 
tensive. Pop.  (IHJK))  107,878,  <.f  whom  G.tKMJ  (181)2)  are  Eu- 
n)peans.  the  rest  Javanese.  Malays,  and  Chinese. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrinoton. 

Siirakar'ta :  t(»wn  of  Java :  capital  of  the  Dutch  residency 
of  Surakarta:  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Solo:  connected  with 
Samarang  and  Surabaya  by  railway  (see  map  of  East  Indies, 
ref.  H-E).  It  contains  a  magnificent  palace  of  the  native  em- 
peror, who  lives  here  as  a  pensioned  rather  than  as  a  tribu- 
tary princi';  the  I)ut<-h  fortress  is  opp<»site  the  emperor'.s 
p:ilaee.  The  trade  is  verv  large,  especially  in  pej)per,  vanilla, 
an<l  cacao.     Pop.  (1890)  i)l,:i(i8. 

Snrat':  town  ;  in  the  presidency  of  Hoinbay,  British  India ; 
on  the  Taf>tee,  in  lat.  21'  12  N.,  Ion.  72  47  E.  (see  map  of 
S.  In<lia.  ref.  2-C).  It  is  6  miles  in  circumference,  and  sur- 
rouiuled  bv  walls  surmounted  by  towers.  It  is  said  to  have 
ha<l  80(MMM)  inhabitants  at  the 'end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, but  its  manufactures  died  out,  its  trade  is  lost,  and 
many  of  the  Dutch,  French,  and  Portuguese  establishments 
are  deserte<l.  The  place  is  most  imiM)rtant  from  a  military 
].oint  of  view.    Pop.  (1891)  109,229.  M.  \V.  H.  " 

Snrd:  See  Sonant. 

Surety:  Sec  (Jlaranty  and  Suretyship. 

Snretyshll)  [via  O.  Fr.  from  Lat.  seen  rifas,  safely,  .se- 
curity, (Late  liiit.)  security  for  a  (lebt]:  a  term  cr>vering  ail 
crises  of  secondary  liability  of  one  per>on  for  the  debt,  di'- 
fault.  or  miscarriage  of  another,  who  is  the  ]trimary  obligor, 
whi'ther  the  relationship  results  from  expn'ss  agreement  or 
fn)m  implication.  Giarantv  (7.  v.)  aii<l  indorMMuent  (see 
Bill  OK  ExcMANoE  and  Nkootiahlk  Lnstrimknts)  are  em- 
braccMl  by  this  definition.  The  word  is  u.se«l  fre«|uently  in  a 
specific  sense  to  designate  the  relationship  existing  where 
tlie  primary  and  S4'cnndan'  obligations  are  assumed  in  a 
single  contract,  as  wheiv  one  person  signs  a  promissory  note 
as  makiT  and  another  adds  his  signature  as  surety.  The 
distinction  U'tweeii  sun»tyship  in  this  siis**  and  guaranty  is 
stated  clearlv  in  a  lea<ling  case  as  follows:  **  A  contract  of 
suretyship  is  a  direct  liaf)ility  to  the  (rn^ditor  f(»r  the  act  to 
be  iierformeil  by  the  debtor,  and  a  guaranty  is  a  liability 
♦mly  for  his  ability  to  perform  this  act.  Frt^in  the  luiture 
of  the  former  the  undertaking  is  immediate  and  din^'t  that 
the  act  shall  U*  dt»ne.  which  if  not  done  makes  the  surely 
n's|MHisible  at  once." 

Till*  cHMlJior  is  uixler  no  legal  obligation,  as  a  nile.  ti>  dis- 

clo«»all  the  faets  atfecting  the  siin'ty's  ri*«k.     If,  howi-ver. 

he  makes  any  iiii*irepres<Mitat ion  as  to  the  subjeet-matter  <)f 

the  surety's  undertaKing.  the  latter  will  not  U'  boun<l.     The 

gen»'ral  principle**  irovernimr  the  formati«»n  of  this  contract 

have  U'en  thus  slateil :  "The  surety  is  «*ntitled  t(»  know  the 

I  real  nature  of  the  transaiMion  he  guarantees  nnd  r)f  the  lia- 

I  bility  he  is  undertaking,  and  generally  and   naturally  he 

I  l<M>ks  to  the  cre<litor  for  iiiforriuition  on  this  point,  although 

he  le^iially  is  aeliiii^  at  the  debtor'**  leqmst  and  as  hi*«  friend, 


832 


SURFACE 


SURGERY 


and  so  relies  on  him  for  collAteral  information  as  to  general 
credit  and  the  like.  In  that  case  the  creditor's  description 
of  the  transaction  amounts  to  or  is  at  least  evidence  of  a 
representation  that  there  is  nothing  further  that  mi^ht  not 
naturally  be  expected  to  take  place  between  the  parties  to  a 
transaction  such  as  describea."  Accordingly,  it  has  been 
held  that  a  bank  can  not  enforce  against  the  sureties  a  bond 
for  the  faithful  and  honest  conduct  of  a  teller  who  was 
known  to  the  bank  officers  to  have  been  dishonest  unless 
such  dishonesty  was  disclosed  to  the  sureties  before  their 
execution  of  the  bond.  The  failure  to  communicate  such 
knowledge  is  declared  to  be  fraudulent  toward  the  sureties. 
Express  contracts  of  suretyship  are  to  be  construed  so  as  to 
give  effect  to  the  intention  of  the  parties.  The  language  is 
to  be  read  in  the  light  of  the  circumstances  surrounding  the 
execution  of  the  instrument,  and  full  effect  is  to  be  given  to 
its  meaning  as  thus  ascertained.  The  surety's  responsibility 
is  not  to  be  extended  or  enlarged  b^  implication  or  con- 
struction, but  is  to  be  treated  as  striehssimi  juris.  It  is  also 
well  established  that  any  change  in  the  contract  made  by 
the  creditor  and  primary  debtor  without  the  surety's  con- 
sent discharges  tne  latter.  Nor  will  the  courts  inquire 
whether  the  change  operates  to  increase  or  diminish  the 
surety's  burden.  He  nas  a  right  to  stand  upon  his  own 
terms.  An  extension  of  the  term  of  credit,  however  slight, 
pursuant  to  a  binding  agreement  between  the  principals, 
must  be  assented  to  by  the  surety  or  he  will  be  released. 

Upon  discharging  his  principal's  oblieation  the  surety  is 
entitled  to  Subrogation  {q,  v.),  to  all  the  creditor's  rights 
and  securities.  If  there  are  two  or  more  sureties  either  is 
entitled  to  Contribution  (g.  v.)  from  the  others. 

Francis  M.  Burdick. 

Surface :  in  mathematics,  the  locus  of  a  point  in  space 
whose  co-ordinates  are  connected  by  a  single  relation.  It 
may  also  be  generated  by  the  movement  of  a  straight  or 
curved  line.  A  surface  forms  the  superficial  configuration 
or  boundary  of  a  solid.  It  is  said  to  be  of  the  nth  degree, 
when  it  is  intersected  by  an  arbitrary  line  in  n  points,  real 
or  imaginaiT.  The  surface  of  the  first  degree  is  a  plane, 
and  the  surrace  of  the  second  degree  includes  several  varie- 
ties, treated  under  Cone,  Cylinder,  Uyperboloid,  Parabo- 
loid, Sphere,  and  Spheroid  {qq,  ik). 

Surf-bird :  a  small  wading  bird  {Aphriza  virgaia)  of  the 
American  Pacific  coasts,  about  10  incnes  long,  named  from 
its  habit  of  allowing  the  surf  occasionally  to  dash  over  it  as 
it  seeks  its  pre^  on  the  rocky  shores.  Its  flight  is  short  and 
irregular.  It  is  related  to  the  oyster-catchers  and  the  turn- 
stones.  F.  A.  L. 

Snrf-duck:  a  seacoast  duck  of  America,  the  Oidemia 
perapicillata^  known  to  gunners  as  the  skunk-head  coot.  It 
oelon^  to  the  group  called  scoters  in  Great  Britain  and 
coots  m  the  U.  S.  It  is  quite  black,  except  a  little  patch  of 
white  on  the  head  and  another  on  the  nape.  F.  A.  L. 

Surgeon,  or  Surgeon-fish :  a  fish  of  the  family  Acan- 
thurid^  {q,  v.). 

Surgery  FM.  Eng.  surgerie,  from  O.  Fr.  cirurgie  >  Fr. 
chirurgie  < Lat. chirurgia  =  Gr.  x^ipovpyla, handicraft,  skill, 
surgery,  deriv.  of  x^'povpy^s^  working  by  hand,  handicrafts- 
man, skilled  workman,  surgeon ;  xcio,  hand  +  IpToy,  work] : 
that  branch  of  medical  science  which  has  for  its  object  the 
treatment  by  manual  operations  of  all  lesions  or  malforma- 
tions of  the  human  body. 

It  is  probable  that  in  antiquity  of  origin  surgery  must 
take  precedence  of  medicine,  since  attempts  to  assuage  the 
pain  or  to  remove  the  inconveniences  of  wounds  or  injuries 
resulting  from  external  violence  would  be  likely  to  be  made 
before  internal  diseases  were  in  any  degree  understood  or 
supposed  to  be  within  the  control  of  human  means.  Baron 
Percy  has  remarked  that,  while  the  internal  diseases  of  man- 
kind were  still  ascribed  to  the  anger  of  the  goils,  and  the 
smoke  of  expiatory  sacrifices  ascended  from  altars,  surgeons 
had  already  become  renowned  by  bold  and  salutary  opera- 
tions. He  is  inclined  to  attribute  the  origin  of  this  art  to 
the  first  occasion  when  some  one,  pierced  by  a  foreign  body, 
invoked  the  aid  of  a  skillful  comnwle  for'  its  removal,  re- 
marking that  in  ancient  times  it  was  sufficient  to  extract 
adroitly  darts  or  arrows,  and  to  place  on  the  wounded  part 
some  soothing  balm,  in  order  to  be  reckoned  a  benefactor  of 
humanity  entitled  to  divine  honors  (Homer,  Jiiad,  lib.  xi.). 
Students  of  Sanskrit  literature,  and  those  who  have  sought 
to  decipher  the  inscriptions  of  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  ruins, 
find  some  grounds  for  the  belief  that  surgery  was  more 


advanced  among  those  ancient  peoples  than  is  commonlj 
supposed,  pictures  and  baasi-rilievi  naving  been  found  di.^ 
playinff  surgical  instruments  and  operations  not  unlike 
many  m  use  in  modem  times.  It  is  certain,  at  least,  that 
the  custom  of  embalming  the  dead,  which  implies  somr 
anatomical  and  surgical  knowledge,  was  prevalent  in  rery 
early  times,  and  that  among  the  «^ws  the  operation  of  cir- 
cumcision was  practiced  by  divine  command  through 
many  ages. 

Greek, — ^The  first  definite  traditions  regarding  surgery, 
and  the  first  collected  body  of  doctrine,  came  from  thf 
Greeks,  who  were,  however,  the  pupils  of  the  Asiatics  and 
Egyptians,  and  Dujardin,  in  his  erudite  Hiatory  of  Surgery, 
has  carefully  traced  the  channels  through  which  informa- 
tion was  transmitted  to  a  more  gifted  and  brilliant  nation. 
He  would  accept  Plutarch*s  account,  that  Agenor,  a  Phoeni- 
cian king,  practiced  surgery  with  distinction,  dressing  the 
wounded  arm  of  a  son  of  Priam,  and  devising  the  scuf  or 
sling  now  so  indispensable  in  many  injuries  of  the  upper  ex- 
tremities. Chiron,  the  Thessalian  centaur,  is  more  generally 
accredited  the  father  of  surgery  in  the  fabulous  ages  of  Gre- 
cian history.  His  reputation  is  eclipsed  by  that  of  .^scula- 
Eius,  a  son  of  Apollo,  by  some  reckoned  the  pupil  of  Chiron, 
y  others  his  contemporary  and  superior,  believed  to  have 
been  deified  fifty  years  before  the  Trojan  war,  although 
skeptics  have  called  his  very  existence  in  question.  Jason, 
Theseus,  and  Hercules  practiced  surgery,  and  Epione,  th^ 
wife  of  uSsculapius,  as  well  as  Medea,  proved  that  women 
thus  early  not  only  shared  with  men  the  perils  of  war,  but 
aided  in  repairing  its  ravages.  A  Thracian  king,  Orpheus 
had  such  knowledge  of  the  virtue  of  plants  that  he  cured  a 
woman  bitten  by  a  snake,  whence  arose  the  fable  that  hv 
had  rescued  her  from  hell.  The  Greeks,  prodigal  in  anothe- 
osis,  made  many  demigods  partly  because  of  their  achieve- 
ments in  the  healing  art.  Two  sons  of  uEsculapius  are  nameil 
among  the  heroes  of  the  Uiad.  Menelaus,  wounded  by  an 
arrow  from  Pandarus,  and  Philoct«tes,  struck  by  apoisoned 
javelin,  are  cured  by  the  skillful  Machaon ;  and  Pansanisj^ 
records  that  the  Messenians,  over  whom  he  reigned,  raised 
a  temple  to  his  honor.  Podalirius,  his  brother,  though  much 
praised  for  his  surgical  skill  in  the  Trojan  war,  has  no  im- 
portant cures  circumstantially  ascribed  to  him,  except  that 
of  the  daughter  of  Damcetus,'  King  of  Caria,  whom  ne  bled 
from  both  arms  when  she  was  stunned  by  a  fall,  and,  on  her 
survival,  married  her,  receiving  the  province  of  the  Cher- 
sonese as  a  dowry.  Hence  the  oripn  of  phlebotomy  is  at- 
tributed to  this  surgeon.  The  surgical  attainments  of  these 
sons  of  .^Esculapius  seem  not  to  have  extended  further  than 
the  extraction  of  darts,  the  suppression  of  hemorrhage  by 

gressure  or  stjrptics,  and  the  a{)plication  of  lenitive  salves, 
[omer  says  that  when  the  warriors  at  the  Trojan  siege  sus- 
tained fractures  of  the  bones,  recourse  was  had,  as  when  pes- 
tilence arose,  to  invocations  to  the  gods. 

For  six  centuries  after  the  Trojan  war  there  is  little  in- 
formation of  any  advances  in  surgery.  In  common  with 
other  branches  of  knowle<lge,  it  was  passing  through  that 
stage  in  which  the  intervention  of  supernatural  powers  is 
recognized  rather  than  the  scope  of  human  possibilities.  It 
was  thus  with  the  Asclepiadie,  or  reuuted  descendants  of 
.^culapius,  in  the  course  of  whose  long  monopoly,  how- 
ever, schools  for  the  instruction  in  such  surreal  informa- 
tion as  the  professors  possessed  or  were  wilhng  to  impart 
were  established  about  the  temples,  and  those  at  Rhodes, 
Cnidos,  and  Cos  became  distinguished.  Real  achievements 
in  surgery  appear  to  have  been  known  during  this  perio<i, 
such  as  cutting  for  the  stone  and  o|)erating  for  cataract,  al- 
though these  advances  were  discredited  by  the  priests,  a> 
suitable  only  for  specialists  of  the  baser  sort. 

Hippocratic  Surgery. — It  was  not  until  Pythagoras 
brought  the  light  of  philosophy  to  bear  upon  the  practice 
of  the  healing  art  that  the  way  was  paved  toward  raising 
its  dignity  in  the  direction  oi  positive  knowledge.  The 
school  that  he  founded  at  Crotona  not  only  produced  sur- 
geons of  distinction  (among  others,  Damocedes,  who,  made 
captive  by  the  Persians,  treated  Darius  for  a  disWateii 
anxle  and  his  Queen  Atossa  for  a  cancer  of  the  breast),  hut 
also  inspired  the  schools  of  Cnidos  and  Cos  with  the  philo- 
sophic spirit,  so  that,  a  century  later,  there  appeared  m  the 
latter  that  splendid  genius  Hippocrates.  Bom  in  the  80lh 
Olympiad,  about  460  years  before  the  Christian  era,  this 
great  man  did  much  to  free  njedicine  from  the  absurdities 
with  which  superstition  and  ignorance  had  surrounded  it, 
and  through  a  long  life  gave  a  noble  example  of  persever- 
ing industry,  of  philosophical  rest»arch,  and  of  louy  moral 


834 


SURGERY 


abused  the  actual  caiitenr,  and  enthusiasticallj  extols  the 
surgical  virtues  of  fire.  \le  employed  the  cautery  to  sup- 
press haemorrhage,  and  styptics  likewise,  but  also  complete 
division  of  th«  vessel,  and  even  the  ligature,  lie  was  the 
first,  apparently,  to  remark  the  occlusion  of  a  divided  artery 
by  a  eoagulum.  He  practiced  enterorrhaphy,  and  invented 
a  probang  for  dislodging  foreign  bodies  from  the  gullet, 
and  an  instrument  for  operating  in  lachrymal  fistula.  These 
and  various  other  instruments  he  figures  in  his  writings. 
After  Albucasis  arose  two  notabilities  of  the  Saracenic 
school  who  were  natives  of  Spain,  yet  wrote  in  the  Arabic 
language.  Avenzohar  (1162  a.  d.).  a  Jew«  practiced  at  Se- 
ville in  Andalusia,  and  his  compendium  entitled  Thaisayr, 
though  mainly  a  compilation,  contains  some  orinnal  mat- 
ter. He  describes  abscess  of  the  mediastinam,  and  a  case  of 
suppuration  of  the  kidney  with  discharge  of  14  pints  of 
pus.  He  treats  judiciously  of  fracture  involving  tne  hip- 
joint,  and  of  wounds  of  the  blood-vessels^  His  pupil»  Aver- 
roes  (1198  A.  D,),  a  native  of  Cordova,  achieved  a  great  repu- 
tation. A  manuscript  of  386  ouarto  pages,  by  an  unknown 
author,  was  discovered  in  1868  in  the  library  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Madrid,  which  gives  an  extended  view  ol  the 
Arabic  treatment  ol  wounds,  including  shot  wounds  by  mis- 
siles of  iron  and  stone.  In  a  prize  essay  bv  I>r.  Don  An- 
tonio, entitled  Memoria  sobre  el  Origen  y  \%cisiiud€8  de 
la  T^rapeuiiea  que  hem  ufwdo  los  Ciruiano8  esjtaftoles  en  las 
Jleridas  de  Arma  de  Fuego^  (Madrid,  1863),  it  is  claimed 
that  the  nature  and  treatment  of  shot  wounds  are  judicious- 
ly discussed  in  this  parchment,  and  that  it  dates  from  the 
closing  part  of  the  fourteenth  century,  or  shortly  after  the 
introduction  of  gunpowder  in  warfare.  Should  the  date  and 
authenticity  of  this  manuscript  be  established,  it  would  be 
the  earliest  treatise  on  shot  injuries  extant.  Neither  Arnold 
of  Villanova  nor  Guy  of  Chauliac  mentions  these  injuries, 
and  priority  in  adverting  to  them  has  commonly  been 
ascribed  to  the  German  surgeon  Heinrich  von  Pfolsprundt 
(1460  A.  D.),  whose  manuscript,  Buch  der  Wwidt-Artzney, 
was  printed  in  1868  by  Haeser  and  Middeldorpf. 

Mediavai, — ^For  several  centuries  there  is  among  the  suc- 
cessors of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  no  name  in  surgery  to 
arrest  attention  by  association  with  improvements  either  in 
theory  or  practice.  The  only  attempts  worthy  of  notice 
are  in  connection  with  the  schools  established  at  Salerno 
and  Monte  Casino^  which  maintained  their  prestige  until 
the  thirteenth  century,  when  they  were  eclipsed  by  the  ris- 
ing reputation  of  the  schools  of  Bologna  and  Paris.  Most 
of  the  halian  surgeons  of  the  thirteenth  century  whose 
names  have  left  any  trace  in  the  history  of  the  art  appear 
to  have  derived  their  knowledge  from  one  or  the  other  of 
these  schools.  The  first  of  these  in  date  is  Rogerius  of 
Parma  (alx)ut  1206).  His  Chirurgia  Magna  was  long  a  text- 
book in  Italy.  He  practiced  enterorrhaphy,  even  in  cases 
of  complete  division  of  the  intestine,  attempting  to  unite 
the  divided  surfaces  by  direct  apposition  over  a  cylinder  of 
elder-wood.  His  disciple,  Roland  Capelluti,  professed  sur* 
gery  at  Bologna  (1364),  and  composed  a  voluminous  com- 
mentary on  the  work  of  his  preceptor — wht)m  he  far  sur- 
passes in  eiiidition — citing  the  Greek  classics  as  well  as  the 
works  of  the  Arabians.  In  a  case  of  hernia  of  tlie  lung  he 
excised  the  protruding  part,  and  the  patient  survived.  An- 
other disciple  of  Rogerius  was  Jamerius,  who  is  described  by 
Guy  of  Chauliac  as  a  brutal  and  eccentric  surgeon,  but  is 
placed  by  Peter  of  Argelata  among  celebrated  operators  of 
nis  time.  Great  obscurity  envelops  the  history,  and  even  the 
names^  of  the  Four  Masters,  to  whom  are  ascribed  some 
important  improvements  in  surgery,  especially  a  method 
of  suture  of  wounded  intestines  which  still  holds  a  place  in 
the  art.  According  to  Devaux.  they  were  fi>ur  monks  liv- 
ing at  Paris  in  the  time  of  Lanfranc  (at  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century),  devoting  themselves  to  good  works. 
According;'  to  others,  they  were  four  teachers  of  surgery, 
who  professed  in  four  liinguagcs — Magister  Salernus  \n 
Latin,  M.  Pontus  in  Greek,  M.  Abdalhih.  in  Arabic,  and 
Rabbi  Elimus  in  Hebrew.  WeVjer  and  others  believe  that 
Rogerius,  Jamerius.  Theodoric,  and  William  of  Salicet  are 
the  four  teachers  rcferre<l  to  under  the  designation  of  the 
Four  Masters.  The  little  evidence  extant  gives  most  plau- 
sibility to  the  first  of  these  conjectures.  Manuscri])t  copies 
of  their  voluminous  work  on  sur^rery  existed  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  at  Avignon  and  at  Paris,  and  some  frag- 
ments are  said  to  be  still  preserved  in  the  Bodleian  Iji- 
brary  at  Oxford  ;  but  the  work  was  never  printed,  and  the 
opinions  of  these  skillful  masters  are  known  only  tli rough 
citations  in  the  works  of  their  contemporaries.   *  Hugo  of 


Lucca  (d.  1252)  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Bolojgne*^ 
school.    He  reduced  a  luxation  at  the  hip  of  a  year's  stAJUii- 
ing  in  a  man  of  twenty-five,  and  used  alcoholic   lot  i<*ti-i 
largely  as  topical  applications  to  wounds.    After  Hug<)  carne 
Brunus  of  Longobucco,  a  professor  at  Padua  (126^ >.     iJ- 
composed  a  Chirurgia  Magna,  and  approved  of  dry  <ln*7«— 
ings  to  wounds.    Theodoric  of  Cervia,  a  pupil — and,  «e<f  >r.  i- 
ing  to  Tiraboschi,  a  son — of  Hugo  of  Lucca,  expomiderl  th*- 
views  of  his  predecessoi^.     He  is  accredited  with  hnvmj 
substituted  sort  and  simple  bandages  and  splints  in  fractun-^ 
for  the  cruel  appliances  in  vogue  in  his  day.    According  i- 
Guy  of  Chauliac,  the  Italian  surgec«s  of  this  period  iiia>  \^ 
classified  in  two  schools.    One,  with  Rogerius,  Rolaudu^^, 
Jamerius,  and  the  Four  Masters  as  its  exponents,  treated  hj. 
wounds  and  ulcers  by  emollient  fomMitatioos  and   cata- 
plasms; the  other,  in  which  Hngo^  Brunus.  and  Thnxloric 
were  conspicuous,  employed  dry  dressings  or  desici-atinir 
lotions.    William  of  Salicet  (b.  at  Piaceuza  in  1210)  |»ra^  - 
ticed  in  armies  and  at  Cremona,  Pavia,  and  Verona,  and 
finally  went  to  Bologna*  and  there  (June  8, 1275)  compWt«^I 
his  work  on  snrgery.    He  is  the  first  Italian  surgeon  who 
treats  at  any  length  of  the  surgical  affections  of  wi>m*>ih 
Gilbertus  Anglicanos  (1290)  appears  to  be  the  first  EDgli>h 
writer  on  suina^ery.    In  1271  Pitard  founded  the  College  (rf 
St.  C6me  at  Paris^  which  was  the  origin  of  the  Academy  cf 
Surgery  that  became  so  famous  in  later  vears.    Pitanl  was 
a  man  of  eminence  in  his  day,  and  his  observations  on 
wounds  of  the  head  and  on  poisoned  wounds  are  still  re- 
membered.   Lanfranc,  a  Milanese  and  a  pupil  of  William 
of  Salicet,  is  generally  regarded  as  the  creator  of  surgery  m 
Prance.    H^  was  the  first  to  speak  of  the  healing  of  woiuid> 
by  "'first  intention.'*    At  this  time  fiourished  Master  Jehan 
Vpermann  (1295-1350).  lately  staled  the  father  of  Flemi-h 
surgery,  whose  manuscript  treatise  on  the  art  was  discovered 
and  published  as  late  as  1854  by  the  medical  Society  •»/ 
Ghrait.    During  the  fourteenth  century  surgical  science  wa> 
dead  in  Italy.    Rienzi  states  that  Bartolomeo  de  Varignara 
dissected  hnman  bodies  in  1290.    Mondini  de  Lucci  aL^i 
publicly  dissected  at  Bologna  the  cadavers  of  two  womt-n. 
braving  the  prejudices  of  his  time,  and  published  au  anatom- 
ical work  illustrated  by  wood  engravings  (1325). 

Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries. — Eariy  in  the  four- 
teenth century  John  of  Gaddesden,  after  studying  at  Mont- 
pelUer,  practiced  surgery  with  success  at  Oxford,  and  et»tn- 
posed  his  Rosa  AngUca.  John  of  Ardern  fi«>nrished  in 
Newark  about  1350,  and  subsequently  removed  to  London. 
He  compiled  voluminously,  but  a  treatise  oa  fistula  in  anu, 
published  in  1588  by  John  Reed,  is  the  only  one  of  his  writ- 
ings that  was  printed.  Guy  of  Chauliac  practiced  in  Avi- 
gnon in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  centurv  with  renown. 
In  his  writings  is  found  the  first  mention  of  the  Car^arpjui 
operation.  Guv  is  esteemed  a  bolder  surgeon  than  Lanfranc. 
Ackerman  dec'lares  that  his  Grande  Chirtirgie  em  brat*  > 
all  of  value  written  on  surgery  up  to  its  ep*)ch.  Pre-emi- 
nence in  surgical  knowledge  seems  to  have  pas¥ied  fn»m 
Salemum  to  Bologna,  and  thence  to  Montpellier.  The  latter 
school,  fostered  by  the  neighboring  papal  court  at  Avignon, 
was  enriched  by  manuscripts  from  both  Spain  and  Italy. 
Guy  described  the  use  of  weight-extension  in  fractures  of  t  [i** 
lower  extremity  (now  commonly  known  as  the  "  Amerii-nn 
method '^,  and  treated  imlolent  ulcers  by  binding  on  tluui 
a  leaden  plate.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  eentun 
the  school  of  Montpellier  rapidly  declined.  Both  Italy  tuu\ 
Prance  were  desolated  by  eon  tending  factions;  the  library- 
of  Guy  was  scattered.  Balescon  of  Taranta,  a  Portugui's*' 
professor  who  succeeded  to  the  chair  of  surgery,  laments  tht- 
loss  of  the  works  of  Paul  us,  Rufus,  and  others.  Balescon  (•  -r 
Valescus,  as  his  name  is  sometimes  Latinized)  is  said  to  ha>  •• 
first  jui vised  the  employment  of  mercurial  ointment  for  the 
removal  of  lice  and  other  parasitic  vermin.  Leonanio  Ber- 
taptigilia  (1429)  is  said  to  have  practiced  human  dissect iou*. 
and  to  have  brought  a  certain  luster  upon  the  chair  of  sur- 
gery at  Pa<iua.  He  wrote  on  ulcers  and  wounds,  and  enume- 
rates twenty-two  kinds  of  punctured  wounds  by  darts  tui<\ 
arrows.  He  seems  to^have  first  describcil  the  tenaculuui. 
Among  otlier  Italian  surgeons  who  in  some  measure  aidrti 
in  the  progress  of  surgery  may  be  mentioned  Guaineriu.-, 
professor  at  Pavia,  who  wrote  on  diseases  of  the  joints :  h;> 
successor,  Matthew  of  Gradi;  and  Bartolomeo  Montagnana 
(1441),  professor  at  PaiUia.  who  wrote  on  hernia,  and  lir^t 
distinguished  that  variety  of  ventral  hernia  that  protrude? 
through  the  linea  alba.  Arculanus  also  (1427)  taasiit  with 
ci-edit  at  Verona  and  Ferrara,  and  devised  several  kinds  <>( 
trusses  and  tux  instrument  for  extracting  foreign  bodios  frum 


836 


SURGERY 


Hendrik  Callisen  (1740-1824)  was  the  most  prominent  sur- 
geon of  Denmark  of  his  time.  In  Germany,  Heister  (1683- 
1758)  wrote  a  system  of  surgery  that  was  translated  into 
many  languages,  and  still  enjoys  a  certain  repute ;  and  the 
encyclopiSiic  Albert  von  lialler  (1708-77)  was  Professor  of 
Surgery  at  Gottingen. 

United  States.— X>t,  William  Shippcn,  of  Philatlelphia,  in 
1763  first  delivered  lectures  on  anatomy  and  surgery,  and 
the  first  medical  school  in  America  (the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania) was  founded  bv  Dr.  Morgan  in  176o.  Dr.  John 
Warren  (1753-1815),  Professor  of  Surgery  in  Harvard  Col- 
lege, and  James  Til  ton  (1745-1822),  a  surgeon  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary war  and  afterward  surgeon-general  of  the  army, 
were  likewise  eminent. 

Nineteenth  Century, — Europe, — At  the  be^nning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  French  surgeons  were  still  in  the  fore- 
ground. Jean  Dominique  Larrey  (1776-1842),  the  friend 
of  Napoleon  I.,  was  an  almost  undisputed  authority  in 
military  surgery  in  his  time.  Boyer  (1757-1833)  prepared  a 
systematic  treatise  on  surgery  that  was  long  a  standard 
text-book.  Delpech  (1776-1832)  tought  surgery  at  Mont- 
pellier  with  nearly  equal  reputation.  Dupuytren  (1777- 
i83o)  may  be  regarded  almost  as  the  founder  of  a  school. 
Many  of  "the  great  French  surgeons  of  the  middle  of  the 
century  were  his  pupils — Velpeau  (1795-1867),  Malgaigne 
(1806-65),  Jobert  (1799-1868),  Vidal  (1803-56),  N^laton  (1807- 
73),  and  Goyrand  of  Aix ;  Roux  (1780-1854)  was  Dupuy- 
tren's  contemporary  and  rival.  It  would  be  endless  to  enu- 
merate the  eminent  surgeons  of  the  time.  Lisfranc  (1788- 
1847)  acQuired  an  unrivaled  distinction  in  operative  surgery. 
Cloquet  (1790-1855)  was  renowned  as  a  clinical  teacher.  Civ- 
iale  (1794-1867)  originated  and  Leroy  (1798-1861)  improved 
lithotritj.  Bonnet  of  Lyons  (1809-58)  was  among  the  first 
to  treat  m  a  scientific  manner  of  diseases  of  the  joints.  Fol- 
lin  (1823-67),  Guerin,  and  Sedillot,  also  were  distinguished. 
In  Germany  the  advance  of  surgery,  if  not  as  brilliant,  was 
relatively  as  decided.  Kern,  of  Vienna  (1760-1829),  Rust,  of 
Berlin  (1775-1840),  von  Walther,  of  Munich  (1782-1842), 
Graefe,  of  Berlin  (1787-1840),  Konrad  J.  M.  Langenbeck,  of 
GSttingen  (1776-1850),  Dieffenbach,  of  Berlin  (1795-1847),  C. 
von  Textor,  of  WUrzburg  (1782-1860),  all  aided  the  progress 
of  surgery  by  their  writings,  and  several  of  them  made  im- 
portant improvements  in  the  art.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
century  the  Vienna  school  in  ophthalmology  was  pre-emi- 
nent. G.  J.  Beer  (1762-1821)  was  perhaps  its  most  dis- 
tinguished representative.  The  name  of  Albrecht  von 
Graefe,  of  Berlin  (1828-70),  is  indissolubly  associated  with 
the  modern  methods  of  treating  glaucoma  and  cataract. 
The  great  illustrator  of  military  surgery  in  Germany,  the 
illustrious  Louis  Stromeyer  (1804-76),  the  worthy  successor 
of  Pare  and  Larrey,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  modern 
conservative  surgery  in  cases  of  injury.  Volkmann  (1801- 
77)  and  Nussbaum  (1829-90)  stand  high  in  the  annals  of 
German  surgery.  In  Belgium,  Seutin  devised  the  method 
of  treating  fractures  by  starch  bandages,  which  has  led  the 
way  to  the  plaster  treatment  of  the  present  time.  In  Italy, 
Assalini  (1765-1840)  and  Porta  acquired  distinction.  In 
Great  Britain  a  succession  of  sur^ons  of  the  first  merit  ri- 
valed their  French  contemporaries.  The  London  school 
points  with  pride  to  Cline  (1750-1827),  to  Abernethy  (1764- 
1831),  to  Sir  Astley  Cooper  (1768-1841),  to  Wardrop,  Earle, 
Stanley,  Travers,  Hodgson,  Lawrence,  and  Aston  Key ;  to 
Sir  Charles  Bell ;  to  the  oohthalmic  surgeons  Tyrrell,  Saun- 
ders, and  Dairy m pie ;  and  to  the  illustrious  Sir  Benjamin 
C.  Brodie  (1783-1862).  In  Ireland,  Colles,  Carmichael,  Ja- 
cob, Bellingham,  and  Tufnell  are  known  by  original  re- 
searches, and  Cusack,  Crampton,  R.  W.  Smith,  and  Maurice 
Collis  earned  high  reputations.  Scotland  may  boast  of  Lis- 
ton,  of  Miller,  of  Syme,  of  Spence,  and  of  Sir  J.  Y.  Simpson, 
the  obstetrician  who  recommended  acupressure  as  a  substi- 
tute for  the  ligature,  and  introduced  chloroform  as  an  an- 
esthetic. The  annals  of  British  surgery  in  the  century  are 
further  advanced  by  two  names  that  will  always  be  remem- 
bered in  the  front  rank  of  military  surgeons — John  Ilennen 
(177(^1829)  and  G.  J.  Guthrie  (1785-1856).  Worthy  con- 
temporaries of  Larrey,  their  works  will  ever  be  reaS  with 
reverence  by  students*  of  anny  surgery.  The  names  of  Fer- 
gusson,  Callender,  Savory,  and  many  others,  now  deceased, 
add  luster  to  the  annals  of  British  surgerv,  while  Paget, 
Erichsen,  Henry  Thompson,  Spencer  Wells,  Hutchinson, 
Holmes,  Lister,  and  many  more  worthily  sustain  the  repu- 
tation of  their  predecessors. 

United  States. — In  the  U.  S.  in  the  nineteenth  century 
great  advances  have  been  made  in  practical  surgery.    A 


pupil  of  John  Hunter,  Philip  Syng  Physick  (1768-183Ti. 
IS  often  styled  the  father  of  American  surgery.  Ue  lefi 
no  work  to  record  his  vast  experience,  but  his  views  werr* 
to  some  extent  recorded  by  his  ne[>hew,  John  S.  I>ors«'y 
(1783-1818),  the  author  of  the  first  systematic  treatise  oii 
surgery  published  in  America.  John  Collins  Warren*  of 
Boston  (1778-1856),  wrote  a  treatise  on  tumors,  and  was  tht- 
first  to  perform  (Oct.  16,  1846)  an  operation  of  importance 
on  a  patient  anaesthetized  by  ether.  Valentine  Mott  (17^5- 
1865)  acquired  an  immense  fame  by  his  daring  operat  ion> 
on  the  arteries.  According  to  Prof.  Gross,  *•  no  sur^^^t^n, 
living  or  dead,  ever  tied  so  many  vessels,  or  so  successfully, 
for  the  cure  of  aneurism,  the  relief  of  injury,  or  the  arrest  of 
morbid  growths."  Benjamin  Winslow  Dudley  (1785-l«7Ui, 
of  Kentuckv,  had  marvelous  success  as  a  lithotomist,  and 
was  noted  for  his  dexterity  in  bandaging.  Ephraim  Mc- 
Dowell (1771-1830),  of  Kentuckv,  first  performed  ovariot- 
omy (1809).  William  Gibson  (1788-1868),  of  Philadelphia, 
was  the  first  to  tie  the  common  iliac  artery  and  to  success- 
fully {)erform  the  Caesarean  operation  twice  on  the  samt^ 
subject.  Nathan  Smith  (1762-1828),  of  New  Haven,  was  a 
bold  surgeon  of  indomitable  industry  and  great  versatilitv. 
Thomas  D.  Matter  (1811-59)  was  noted  for  his  skill  in  tlie 
treatment  of  deformities.  He  bequeathed  a  valuable  sur- 
gical museum  to  the  Philadelphia  College  of  Physicians, 
with  a  liberal  endowment  fund.  George  Hay  ward,  of  B<»>- 
ton  (1791-1863),  J.  Rhea  Barton  (1796-1871)  and  Geor^  W. 
Norris  (1808-75),  of  Philadelphia,  and  J.  Mason  Wam-ii 
(1811-67).  of  Boston,  were  able  nospital  surgeons,  whose  c<»n- 
tributions  to  the  literature  of  the  art  are  of  permanent  value. 
Other  eminent  names  are  those  of  Gross,  Pancoast,  and  Aj;- 
new,  of  Philadelphia ;  of  Van  Buren,  Hamilton,  and  Pijst,  vi 
New  York  ;  of  Nathan  R.  Smith,  of  Baltimore,  Eve,  of  Nash- 
ville, Hodgen,  of  St.  Louis,  and  Bigelow,  of  Boston. 

Advances  in  the  Art. — The  boundaries  of  nationality  set'iii 
to  be  vanishing  from  the  domain  of  surgery.  With  mar- 
velously  increased  facilities  of  intercommunication,  all  a<l- 
vances  are  speedily  known  throughout  the  civilized  world. 
At  no  former  period,  assuredly,  was  there  greater  scientilic 
activity.  One  result  of  the  emulative  ardor  with  which  sur- 
gery has  been  latterly  cultivated  is  the  prevalent  tendency 
to  pursue  special  branches  of  the  art.  Ophthalmolog}-.  in- 
voking the  aid  of  physical  science,  has  been  revolution ize<l. 
and  in  many  other  directions  light  has  been  thrown  upon 
branches  of  surgery  until  lately  enveloped  in  the  deepest  ol»- 
scurity.  The  discoveries  and  improvements  in  surgery  in 
the  nineteenth  century  are  not  inferior  to  those  of  any  pre- 
ceding age.  The  practical  use  of  amesthetics,  introdaced  iu 
the  shape  of  ether-inhalation  by  Morton  in  1846,  and  by  the 
use  of  cnloroform  by  Simpson  in  1847,  constitutes  an  epx-h- 
making  advance  in  the  art,  while  the  employment  of  cocaine 
for  securing  local  anaesthesia  is  a  discovery  of  real  thou<rh 
minor  importance.  The  introduction  of  ovariotomy  (18&) 
by  McDowell,  of  lithotrity  (1822)  by  Ci  viale,  and  of  litholapaxy 
(1878)  by  Bigelow,  are  improvements  of  the  first  order.  The 
extensions  of  reparative  surgery  to  the  relief  of  cleft  palatr. 
vesico- vaginal  fistula,  and  a  great  variety  of  deformities,  liave 
been  of  much  value.  The  employment  of  metallic  suturi's 
and  ligatures  (Levert,  1829),  of  immovable  apparatus  in  the 
treatment  of  fractures  (Seutin,  1842)  and  spinal  affection> 
(Sayre,  1877),  and  of  manipulation  in  the  reduction  of  lux- 
ations (W.  W.  Reid,  1855),  are  most  important  innovations. 
The  bloodless  method  of  Esmarch  (1873)  and  the  antiseptic- 
method  of  Lister  (1869)  are  of  far-reaching  application.  The 
great  advances  made  in  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  the 
joints,  of  blood-vessels  and  nerves,  of  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord,  eye,  ear,  larynx,  thoracic  and  abdominal  viscera,  urethra, 
and  rectum,  and  of  outgrowths  and  tumors,  are  most  credit- 
able. 

It  would  be  impossible  within  the  limits  of  this  article 
even  to  enumerate,  still  less  to  describe,  the  many  triumphs 
of  the  surgical  art  which  have  been  won  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  a  few  of  them  may  be 
briefly  referred  to.  Beginning  with  the  external  integument, 
the  introduction  of  skin-grafting  has  rendered  it  possible  by 
the  transplantation  of  small  portions  of  cuticle,  taken  froiii 
the  patient  himself  or  borrowed  from  other  indiA-iduals,  to 
secure  the  healing  of  large  ulcerated  surfaces  after  burns 
or  other  injuries,  which  formerly  would  have  been  al)an- 
doned  as  totally  incurable.  The  dread  which  the  older  sur- 
geons felt  in  aealing  with  nerves  has  been  replaced  by  a 
boldness  which  enables  the  mixlem  Of^erator  to  sew  or  splice 
nerves  which  have  been  accidently  severed,  thus  restoring 
function  and  preventing  loss  of  power,  and  on  the  other 


838 


SURROGATE 


SURVEYING 


quartered  the  royal  arms  upon  his  escutcheon  with  the  de- 
sign of  securing  for  his  family  the  honor  of  the  regency. 
Upon  his  trial  he  proved  conclusively  that  he  had  a  right 
to  bear  these  arms  together  with  his  own,  but  was  notwith- 
standing condemned,  and  beheaded  upon  Tower  Hill,  Jan. 
21,  1547.  His  works  consist  of  sonnets,  amatory  poems,  ele- 
gies, paraphrases  of  the  Bible,  and  translations  of  the  sec- 
ond and  fourth  books  of  the  ^neid.  They  present  the  ear- 
liest instances  of  the  use  of  blank  verse  in  English  poetry, 
and  have  bet* n  several  times  republislied,  the  latest  edition 
being  G.  F.  Nott*s  (1871).  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Sarrograte  [from  liat.  surroga  fun,  perf.  partic.  of  «wr- 
roga're,  put  in  another's  place,  substitute ;  sub,  under  -f 
roga're,  ask]:  one  a|]ipointed  as  a  substitute  for  another; 
and  particularly  an  officer  appointed  to  act  in  the  place  of  a 
bishop,  or  of  a  judge,  in  matters  relating  to  marriages  and 
to  probate  jurisdiction.  In  England,  since  the  abolition  of 
the  probate  jurisdiction  of  ecclesiastical  courts,  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  civil  court  of  probate,  the  surrogate's  prin- 
cipal function  is  dispensing  licenses  to  mavry  without  lianns. 
lie  is  prohibited  by  statute,  unless  '*  a  qualified  practitioner," 
from  preparing  for  a  fee  any  papers  on  which  to  found  a 
grant  of  probate. 

In  some  of  the  U.  S.  the  term  is  employed  to  designate 
the  officer  upon  whom  probate  jurisdiction  is  conferred.  It 
is  a  survival  from  the  colonial  period,  during  which  the 
governor  of  a  colony  was  vested  with  full  authority  and 
jurisdiction  over  matters  of  probate,  but  exercised  them 
through  local  delegates  or  appointees.  The  Supreme  Court 
of  Massachusetts  declared  in  an  early  case  that,  before  the 
Revolution,  the  judges  of  probate  were  considered  as  surro- 
gates of  the  Governor  and  council,  who  derived  from  the 
royal  charter  the  authority  to  prove  wills  and  to  grant  ad- 
ministration. In  New  York  the  title  of  surrogate  seems  to 
have  been  first  assumed  by  the  Governors  delegate  shortly 
after  1702.  Later  the  Governor  appointed  a  delegate  in 
each  county  to  act  in  his  stead  in  probate  affairs ;  and  from 
that  period  to  the  present,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  years, 
the  county  officer  exercising  probate  jurisdiction  has  been 
known  assurrogate.  In  New  Jersey  probate  jurisdiction  is 
vested  in  the  orphan's  court,  of  which  the  surrogate  is  a 
subordinate  officer.  In  other  States  the  courts  exercising 
such  jurisdiction  bear  various  titles,  such  as  probate  courts, 
parish  courts,  county  courts,  or  courts  of  the  ordinary.  As 
a  rule,  they  are  tribunals  of  limited  jurisdiction,  whose 
organization,  procedure,  and  authority  are  prescribed  by 
statutes,  which  should  be  carefully  examined.  It  is  generally 
declared  that  the  surrogate,  or  corresponding  officer,  of  the 
county  in  which  the  deceased  had  his  legal  residence  at  the 
time  of  his  death  shall  have  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  ad- 
ministering his  estate,  although  provision  is  made  for  grant- 
ing letters  of  administration  in  foreign  States,  where  such 
a  couree  is  necessary  to  the  control  of  property  in  such 
States. 

In  some  jurisdictions  surrogates  or  probate  courts  have 
the  power  to  appoint  guardians  for  infants  and  imbeciles,  to 
hear  and  determine  disputes  affecting  estates  before  them 
for  administration,  to  entertain  and  dispose  of  proceedings 
for  the  sale  of  real  estate,  and  even  to  aaminister  the  estates 
of  insolvent  debtors.  As  a  rule,  these  courts  do  not  i)ossess 
a  general  equity  jurisdiction.  In  some  States  they  are  not 
allowed  to  exercise  any  equity  powers,  but  in  others  it  is 
held  that  where  an  estate  is  in  settlement  before  a  court  of 
probate,  and  an  equity  arises  between  the  persons  interested 
m  such  estate,  the  court  may  exercise  the  fullest  e(]uity 
powers  if  necessary  to  do  justice  to  all  parties. 

Francis  M.  Burduk. 

Surveying  [from  Anglo-Fr.  svrvee.r  :  O.  Fr.  surveoir  < 
Lat.  supervide' re^  oversee,  look  over ;  super,  over  +  vide're, 
see] :  the  art  of  measuring  land  for  the  j)urposcs  of  deter- 
mining aretis,  locating  lines,  and  making  maps.  Siirv^eying 
is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  Egypt,  where  pror)erty 
lines  were  annually  obliterated  by  the  inundation  of  the 
Nile,  and  its  theory  was  then  identical  with  geometry 
(Greek,  y^,  land  4-  fAirpov,  a  measure),  which  still  furnishes 
the  most  imfujrtant  part  of  the  theoretical  principles. 

Plane  snrveying  is  confined  to  areas  so  small  that  the 
surface  of  the  earth  maybe  reganled  as  plane,  the  curva- 
ture being  inappreciable.  It  is  divided  into  land-surveying, 
whose  object  is  the  determination  of  pr(){>erty  lines  and 
areas  of  fields ;  topographical  surveying,  which  jiroduces 
maps  showing  the  undulations  of  the  surface,  the  forests, 
swamps, and  waters:  hydrographic surveying,  which  locates 


rocks,  shoals,  and  all  the  features  of  bays  and  rivers ;  mininc^ 
surveying,  which  locates  the  underground  passages  mui 
shafts  of  mines;  railway  surveying,  which  establishes  the 
best  routes  and  grades  for  railway  lines;  and  city  survey- 
ing, which  deals  with  streets,  sewers,  and  water-supfdi*^. 
Geological  surveying  notes  the  outcrops  of  rock  format  ion^. 
and  lays  them  down  on  topographical  maps,  the  field  oiieni- 
tioiis  being  usually  of  the  nature  of  a  rough  reconnoiss^ancc. 

Geodetic  surveying  extends  over  areas  so  large  that  it  i< 
necessary  to  take*  into  account  the  curvature  of  the  earth. 
For  this  branch  of  the  subject,  see  the  articles  Coast  am> 
Geodetic  Survey  and  Geodesy. 

Instruments, — The  Gunter's  chain  of  66  feet,  the  engi- 
neer's chain  of  100  feet,  and  tape-lines  of  various  leng:th< 
are  used  for  measuring  distances,  and  it  would  be  pos^ibi*- 
bv  these  alone  to  obtaiii  all  the  results  required  in  ordinary 
plane  surveying.  By  the  use  of  the  compass  and  transit", 
however,  for  measuring  angles,  many  distances  can  be  com- 
puted from  a  few  measured  ones,  an&  the  work  thus  greatly 
expedited  and  economized.  The  compass  determines  the 
bearings  of  lines  with  respect  to  the  magnetic  meridian, 
while  the  transit  measures  angles  on  a  graduated  liiiib. 
The  theodolite,  of  which  an  illustration  is  given  in  the  ar- 
ticle Hypsometry,  is  a  form  of  the  transit  used  in  (ireat 
Britain.  Leveling  instruments  and  rods  (see  Levels  aud 
Leveling)  are  needed  for  determining  elevations  and  differ- 
ences of  heights.  In  topographical  work  the  plane-table  and 
stadia-rods  are  used  in  connection  with  a  triangulation,  *\i>- 
tances  being  measured  by  the  spaces  intercepted  on  iht* 
stadia-rods  by  wires  in  the  telescope.  See  Stadl4  Measure- 
ment and  Plane-table. 

Chain-surveying, — A  few  elementary  problems  in  the  de- 
termination of  distances  and  areas  by  means  of  linear  meas- 
urements alone  may  here  be  noted,  but  others  in  great  va- 
riety will  be  found  in  treatises  on  surveying.  Instead  of 
using  a  chain  the  ilistances  may  be  approximately  found  by 
pacing,  or  by  walking  over  the  lines,  and  counting  the 
steps,  the  length 
of  a  step  being 
first  ascertained 
by  going  over  a 
distance  which 
is  accurately 
known. 

Two  methods 
of  finding  the  dis- 
tance AX  across 
a  river  are  shown 
in  Fig.  1.  By 
the  first  method 
a  parallelogram. 
ABCD,  is  laid  out,  AB  being  a  prolongation  of  XA  :  then 
E  is  marked  on  AD  at  its  intersection  with  CX.  The  dis- 
tances AB,  AK,  DE  being  measured,  the  distance  AX  \< 
computed  by  multiplying  together  AB  and  AE,  and  divid- 
ing the  pnxluct  by  I)E,  By  the  second  method  XA  is  pnv 
duced  to  B,  and  a  stake,  C,  placed  at  any  convenient  j^nnnt : 
then  D  and  E  are  taken  on  BC  and  j4C,  so  that  thev  are  in 
line  with  X  The  distances  AB,  BD,  DC,  C£,  and  EA  Wing 
measured,  the  distance  ^  JC  is  equal  to 

AB  X  AE  X  CD 
BD  X  CE -AE X  CD' 

which  will  be  somewhat  simplified  if  /)  be  taken  in  the 
middle  of  BC. 

A  method   of  finding         X ^ 

the  length  of  an  inaeces-         J:.^^__, 

sible  line.  X\\  is  shown  "  "^^v^^--  '"""'^ 
in  Fig.  2.  A  stake  is 
first  placed  at  any  con- 
venient ])oint  A,  two 
stakes.  B  and  (  \  at  points 
on  AX  and  J  1',  and  a 
fourth  stake,  D,  so  as  to 
make  ABDC  a  parallel- 
ogram. Then  E  and  F 
arc  placed  on  BD  and 
CD  at  their  intersections  A 

wit  h  CX  and  B  Y  res|»ec-  Fig.  2. 

tivoly.    The  distances  AB,  BD,  DF,  and  ^'Z"  being  meas- 
ured', the  distance  A'}' is  equal  to 

AB  X  BT)  X  EF 

DE  X  DF      ' 


Fio.  1. 


bURVEVLNG 


srRVEVS,  OEOLtHUfWU 


Tlh'  (ireaof  a  fii'lil,  us  AECDE  m  Fi^.  3»  may  bn  found 


Fio  3. 


-'iWMi.incasurino:  all  the  lines,  and  then  computing  the  area 
«  r  fach  triangle  separately.  To  find  the  area  of  a  triangle 
\%  h'»^  three  sides  are  known,  aild  the  three  sides  togoth<'r, 
:ii»<l  tuke  half  the  sum;  from  the  half  sura  subtract  each 
-I  U*  separately,  multiply  U^gother  the  half  sum  and  the 
:  iirco  remainders,  and  tlie  square  root  of  the  product  will  l>e 
t  'i*'  areju 

A  nirtf)  of  an  island  or  irregular  field,  as  in  the  second  dia- 
trr;tm  of  Fig.  3,  may  be  ma^le  by  staking  out  a  polygonal 
iv!-.  a  ABCDEy  and  measuring  either  its  diagonals  or  the 
«ii-iances  to  a  central  point.  Then  perpendicular  lines, 
«-;tHt'd  offsets,  are  set  off  from  ciU'h  side  to  the  boundary 
,H!i«i  their  lengths  measured,  thus  giving  all  the  data  for 
Li..i[)[ting  and  computing  the  area. 

( 'o//i pass-siirvet/ ing, — By  means  of  the  compass  the  angles 
«  r  U  Hfings  which  each  line  makes  with  the  magnetic  merid- 
i.in  are  read,  and  thus  a  smaller  number  of  linear  measure- 
m.-ntij  is  required.  For  instance,  in  the  case  of  Fig.  1,  the 
Inn-  A  PJ  may  be  measured,  and  the  l>earings  of  .4  A",  AE, 
ii'id  J-JX  be  read:  then  the  angles  EAX  and  A  EX  are 
kin»vvn,  and  the  distance  AX  can  be  computed  by  the  rules 
4 if  trigonometry. 

Ttie  area  of  a  field  is  determined  in  compass-surveving  by 
n..'a<uring  the  lengths  and  bearings  of  the  sides,  Vot  ex- 
:  '.r.ple,  for  the  case  shown  in  Fig.  4,  the  field-notes  would 
».«•  its  follows: 


LINE. 

BnrlDf. 

Diitanoft. 

AH 

^f 

<  //        

N.  52°  E. 

s.  t?.»r  E. 

8.  3li»  W. 
N.  61 «  W. 

5;«  feet. 

I'A 

362     " 

From  these  data  the  distances  Ab,  Ac,  Ad.  called  latitudes, 
ami  the  distances  Eb^  Cc,  Dd,  called  departures,  are  com- 
puted, and  from  these,  in  turn,  the 
areas  included  l>etween  each  line  and 
its  projection  on  the  meridian  XS. 
Then  the  area  of  the  field  is  the  sum 
of  the  areas  Bhc C  nuii  ("cdD.  dimin- 
ished bv  the  sum  of  the  areas  BbA 
and  DdA. 

The  methrnl  of  balancing  the  lati- 
tudes and  departures  so  as  to  elimi- 
nate errors  of  observations,  and  the 
computations  of  areiis  by  means  of 
double-meridian  distances,  given  in 
most  text-l)ooks  on  surveying,  was 
perfected  by  David  Kittenhouse 
'  1 7:{'i-0<5),  and  wjis  formerly  called  the  Peinisylvania  method. 
(Ml  at-'count  of  oscillati(ins  in  the  forces  of  magnetism 
and  of  local  attrm^tions  the  conq)ass  is  not  an  accurate  in- 
vnnncnt,  and  should  be  used  only  for  rough  rcconnois«<ance 
or  for  fann  survevs,  where  precision  is  nv»t  important.  In  all 
i«  w  n  or  city  work,  as  also  in  the  surveying  of  railways  and 
ihiues.  the  transit  is  generally  employed  for  the  clirect  meas- 
iir«  inent  of  angles. 

TufKKjrnphicdl  Survpiih)fj,—\  to|)ogrHphical  survey  of  a 
r.'^^ioii  embracing  more  than  a  few  s(|uare  \\\\V-<  should  be 
t  a>«d  on  a  triangulation  which  locates  the  positions  in  liiti- 
•  .«»«.•  and  longitude  of  a  number  of  stations.  Then,  starting 
from  these  siHtions,  lines  are  run  in  various  direetions.  and 
rh.'  location  of  roads,  houses,  streafus,  and  (»ther  features,  is 
ninth'  by  offs«^ts  or  by  stn<lia  sights.  Levels  are  also  run 
IV  svhirh  the  contours  or  lines  of  etpial  elevatit.ns  are  de-  ' 
t-nijincd,  and  thus  a  picture  of  the  relief  t>f  the  surfaee 
iiiay  be  obtained.  l^»ugh  topoj^^rapliical  work,  miieh  of 
vMiH  h  is  *<ket(hing.  may  be  done  for  Jfo  per  sfpiare  miN*.  but 
u'<K>d  work  will  cost  four  or  five  times  as  nju«h.  Thotog- 
'if'liy  is  an  aid  in  thi*^  chu^^s  of  w(»rk,  views  beitig  taken 
'I'.in  different  jxtints  which  enable  the  contours  of  the  sur- 
fa'  e  to  Ik;  sketched  in  the  olliie.     See  al>o  Topo(;raphv. 


In  the  survL*y  of  a  railway  to|K>gniphicai  work  is*  doin*  on 
each  side  of  lJn?  lirifl;,  and  \his  is  ncces^itrily  at  a  ptr^itiso 
ohiinicter  su)  lis  to  eiuible  coifiptitaLiniis  of  pxejivaiion  ur 
comparative  estimates  of  the  cost  of  iliifercnt  loeaiions, 

Euhlic-land  Surveys. — The  public  lands  consist  of  tracts 
of  territory  that  l>elonged  to  the  V .  S.  alter  the  Revolution, 
together  w'ith  all  celled  by  individual  States  soon  after  the 
formation  of  the  Constitution,  with  the  adilitions  since 
ma<le  by  trt^aty  with  Indians  or  by  conquest.  In  1H02  Col. 
Mansfield,  then  surveyoi\jf  the  Northwestern  Territory,  in- 
augurated a  plan,  which  with  slight  alteration  is  still  in  use, 
for  surveying  and  reconling  sucli  |^>ortions  as  were  offereil 
for  sale.  lis  general  features  are  as  follows:  The  entire 
public  domain  is  first  divided  into  f)arts  called  land  dis- 
tricts, e.'ich  of  which  is  put  in  charge  of  a  survey<»r-gtMieral, 
who  controls  all  the  surveys  in  his  particular  district.  In 
each  district  a  meridian-line  is  run,  exten<ling  through  tho 
entire  district,  and  from  some  p(»int  of  this  meridian  an  K. 
and  W.  line  is  run,  which  also  extends  thi-ough  the  district. 
These  lines  are  determine<l  astronomically,  and  when  lo* 
catetl  serve  as  axfcs  to  which  the  suUiivisions  of  the  district 
are  referred.  Parallel  to  the  axes,  and  on  each  side  of  them, 
other  lines  are  run  6  miles  apart,  dividing  the  whole  terri- 
tory into  stpiares,  each  containing  86  sq.  miles,  and  called 
townships.  To  take  into  account  the  obliquity  of  the  merid- 
ians, suitable  ofisets  are  nuule  in  accordance  with  an  es- 
tablished system.  The  townships  lying  between  two  consec- 
utive meridians  6  miles  apart  constitute  a  range,  and  tho 
ranges  are  numl>ered  from  the  princi|Mil  meridian,  both  E. 
and  VV.  In  each  range  the  townships  are  numbered  both 
N.  and  S.  from  the  princi(ml  K  and  \V.  line.  Thus  if  a 
township  lies  12  mill's  E.  of  the  principal  meridian  and  18 
miles  N.  of  the  principal  E.  and  W.  line,  it  is  called  town- 
ship 3  N.,  range  2  E,  Each  township  is  divided  l)y  merid- 
ians and  E.  and  VV.  lines  into  squares  having  (as  near  as 
may  be)  a  mile  on  each  side.  These  are  called  sections,  and 
each  contains  ap|>roximately  640  acres.  The  sections  of  a 
township  are  numbercni  from  the  northeast  corner,  running 
along  the  northern  tier  of  sections  to  No.  6,  thence  back- 
ward to  section  No.  12,  which  lies  exactly  S.  of  No.  1,  and 
so  on  alternately,  running  from  right  to  left  and  from  left 
to  right,  to  the  southeasterly  cf»rner,  wliich  is  No.  M,  Tho 
four  middle  sections  are  numbered  respectively  15.  16,21, 
22.  In  some  of  the  Western  States  section  N'o.  16  is  set 
ajiart  for  si*hool  pur|>oses. 

LiTERATt'KE. — Among  the  numerous  text-books  on  survey- 
ing nuiy  Ik?  mentioned  Bellows'sand  Hodgeman's  Jlanudl  of 
L<ind  Surveying,  (iillespie's  Trentine  on  Surveying,  John- 
soirs  Theory  and  J*rurfire  of  Surveying ;  and  on  railway 
surveying,  Searles's  Field  Engineering  and  Shunk's  Field 
Engineer,  A  journal  ptil)lished  by  the  German  Ass<K*iation 
of  Surveyors  since  1872  is  ZeiLtchrift  fur  \'erniessungii' 
iresen,  which  is  mainly  devoted  to  precise  methods. 

ilANSFIELD  MeRRIMAN. 

Surreys,  (ileoloplcal :  1,  systematic  investigations  of  the 
character,  arrangement,  atid  distril)Ution  of  the  roik  forma- 
tions of  a  district :  2,  state  organizations  or  bureaus  for  the 
conduct  of  such  investigations.  In  1H2JJ  the  1  legislature  of 
North  Carolina  provided  for  the  geological  survey  of  the 
State  by  Prof.  r)enison  Ohnsted,  a|)propriating  the  sum  of 
^2.")()  a  year  for  four  years.  In  IKiO  Massachusetts  followed 
the  example  of  North  Carolina,  making  a  somewhat  larger 
ai»propriati<m,  and  placing  Prof.  Edward  Hitchcock  in 
charge  of  the  work.  Between  IH^U)  and  1^40  similar  surveys 
Were  institute*!  in  Tennessee,  Virginia,  Marvland,  New  Jer- 
sey, New  York.  Pennsylvania,  Maine.  Ohio,  'Mi<higan,  I)ela- 
ware,  and  Kentucky;  and  before  IHIC)  all  the  Stalt*s  <if  the 
I'nion  E.  of  the  (ireat  Plains,  as  well  as  California  and 
Oregon  on  the  Pacific  coiu^t.  had  made  sitiiilar  frrovi-^inn  for 
the  investigati(»n  of  the  rocks  and  njirierals  within  their 
bord«'rs.  Some  States,  after  a  few  years  of  continuance, 
aban<loned  the  work,  or  it  was  diseontinue«l  f«>r  a  jM-riod. 
Others  comnletcd  the  invest iirnt ions  according  to  the  original 
I»lan,  and  tlie  residts  were  communi<'ate<l  to  the  citizens  in 
a  series  (»f  final  reports.  Penn««ylvaiiia  conqiletcd  the  sur- 
vey first  planned,  and  then  after  a  lapse  of  yt-ars  e\«'rul«'d 
a  seeond  survey  upon  a  more  elabnrate  plan.  New  .lei^iey, 
Ohio,  and  Alai>ama  nuiintain  siiudl  permanent  geoloi:ie}d 
corfi«i  in  the  inlt-reM  of  the  development  of  tln-ir  mineral  re- 
source<.  New  V<irk.  whieh  early  pnhlished  systematic  re- 
ports on  the  stratiirraphy  an<l  'itruetural  g«'ology  r»f  its  t»Tri- 
tory.  has  since  eaitie<l  forward  an  elaborate  stu<ly  of  its 
fos>ils.  colli  intiously  maintaining  theref(»r  a  small  corps  and 


810 


SURVIVAL  OF  THE  FITTEST 


SUSO 


hi 


ublishing  a  series  of  paleontologic  monographs,  which 
lave  been  of  the  utmost  service  to  the  geological  corps  of 
other  States. 

The  U.  S.  early  established  the  custom  of  attaching  geolo- 
gists to  parties  sent  out  for  the  exploration  of  little-known 
portions  of  its  territory.  Expeditions  having  geological 
mquiry  for  their  primary  purpose  were  instituted  under 
Featherstonehaugh  in  1834,  Owen  in  1839,  Burt  and  Hub- 
bard in  1845,  Owen  in  1847,  Jackson  in  1847,  and  Foster 
and  Whitney  in  1848.  The  work  under  Owen  and  Foster 
and  Whitney  should  perhaps  be  classed  as  surveying  rather 
than  reconnoissance.  In  18o7  Ferdinand  V.  Hayden,  who  had 
previously  been  connected  with  exploratory  jparties,  was  au- 
thorized to  make  a  geolo^cal  survey  of  Nebraska,  and  his 
work  was  afterward  continued  in  other  Territories.  In  the 
same  year  provision  was  made  for  the  survey  of  a  belt  of 
country,  including  the  40th  parallel,  under  the  direction  of 
Clarence  King.  In  1871  John  W.  Powell,  who  had  previously 
explored  the  Colorado  caflons  under  Government  authority, 
was  authorized  to  begin  the  geological  survey  of  a  tract 
Viordering  the  river,  and  this  work  also  was  continued.  In 
the  same  year  explorations  under  the  direction  of  Lieut. 
(Jeorge  M.  Wheeler  assumed  the  character  of  a  topograph- 
ical and  geological  survey,  In  1879  the  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey  was  created,  being  made  to  replace  the  Hayden, 
Powell,  and  Wheeler  surveys.  Two  years  later  it«  field  of 
operations,  which  had  originally  included  onljr  the  Terri- 
tories, was  enlarged  so  as  to  comprise  the  entire  republic, 
and  its  corps  was  gradually  enlarged  until  it  came  to  be  the 
most  important  of  all  governmental  organizations  for  the 
prosecution  of  geological  investigation. 

Great  Britain  was  the  first  European  country  to  establish 
a  geological  survey,  De  la  Beche  being  placed  in  charge  of 
the  work  in  1832.  Austria  and  Spain  followed  her  example 
in  1849,  and  works  of  this  character  are  now  in  progress  in 
nearly  all  the  countries  of  Europe  as  well  as  in  the  British 
colonies.  The  first  reports  of  the  surveys  of  New  Bruns- 
wick and  Newfoundland  were  published  in  1839,  and  the 
official  survey  of  Canada,  which  is  (1895)  still  in  progress, 
was  begun  in  1842. 

Geological  surveying,  or  the  work  of  a  geological  corps, 
consists  primarily  in  the  preparation  of  maps  showing  tne 
horizontal  distribution  of  the  various  formations,  and  of 
sections  showing  their  vertical  arranerement.  The  facts 
exhibited  by  maps  and  sections  are  called  respectively  the 
areal  geology  and  structural  geology.  For  their  compilation 
it  is  necessary  that  the  rocks  l)e  classified,  and  the  study  of 
the  formations  for  the  purpose  of  classification  involves  the 
determination  of  their  position  and  other  physical  charac- 
ters, and  also  the  determination  of  the  fossils  thev  contain. 
In  extensive  geological  surveys  it  has  been  founcf  advanta- 
geous to  differentiate  the  work,  employing  specialists  for 
the  chemical  analysis  of  rocks,  for  their  petrographic  deter- 
mination, and  for  the  study  of  fossils,  in  regions  not  pre- 
viously provided  with  tomographic  maps  on  which  to  de- 
lineate tne  outcrops  of  the  formations,  the  geological  corps 
has  performed  topographical  as  well  as  geological  work,  and 
in  large  organizations  the  topographical  work  also  is  per- 
formed by  a  special  corps.  In  Great  Britain  and  most  of 
the  countries  of  continental  Europe  topographical  map- 
work  was  well  advanced  before  geological  mapping  was 
begun,  and  the  geological  corps  have  no  topographical  divi- 
sions. In  the  L .  S.  the  State  surveys  have,  as  a  rule,  exe- 
cuted little  or  no  topographic  work,'  but  have  made  use  of 
such  maps,  usually  inaccurate,  as  happened  to  be  available. 
The  national  survey  prepares  its  own  topographical  base- 
maps,  employing  for  that  purpose  a  large  cori)s  of  engineers. 

G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Snrylyal  of  the  Fittest :  See  E\-olution  (Struggle  for 
Existence), 

Snryiyorship :  (1)  the  state  of  outliving  another.  Wheth- 
er A  outlives  B  is,  as  a  rule,  an  easily  determined  question 
of  fact.  If  they  are  the  victims  of  a  common  disaster,  how- 
ever, no  evidence  as  to  survivorship  may  be  obtainable.  In 
such  a  case  the  Roman  law,  and  some  modern  codes  found- 
ed upon  it,  establish  presumptions  for  its  determination, 
which  are  based  upon  the  assumption  that  survivorship  de- 
pends upon  the  comparative  physical  strength  of  the  vic- 
tims. I<or  example,  if  a  father  and  son  perish,  the  father  is 
y)rL*sumed  to  survive,  if  the  son  is  under  puberty,  while  if 
the  latter  is  above  that  age  he  is  presumed  to  survive.  (See 
4  Bur«re,  Colonial  and  Foreigji  Laws,  ch.  1,  §  1 ;  Code  Civil, 
Des  Successions,  g§  720-722 ;  Code  of  La.,  g^  930-939 ;  Code 


of  Civ.  Proc.  of  Gal.,  §  1963.)    English  law  reco^nizt-s  l 
artificial  presumption  on  this  subject.    It  will  not  balai. 
"probabilities  either  that  there  was  a  surWvor  or  wjn*  r 
was.    We  may  guess,  or  imagine,  or  fancy,  but  the  law  .  • 
England  requires  evidence,"  and  evidence  which   f^H'^  1  '• 
yond  that  of  the  sexes,  the  relative  ages  and  physieai  p«»W'   ■ 
of  the  persons  who  are  victims  of  a  common  disaster,     i 
the  absence  of  other  evidence  than  the  above,  the  tia-i  • 
survivorship  is  deemed  unascertainable,  and  projyerty  riirs-:- 
are  disposea  of  as  if  death  occurred  at  the  same  time.    J^"  .•'  - 
ell  vs.  Nichols,  75  New  York  78;  Fhle's  Estate,  73  Wis,  44>". 
(2)  The  devolution  of  rights  or  obligations  unon  the  -nr- 
vivor  by  the  death  of  a  joint  owner  or  a  joint  ooligur.     Tl. 
survivorship  of  rights  is  often  tennodjtta  arcrfseen^Ji,  ••  \  »- 
cause  the  right  upon  the  death  of  one  joint  tenant  aec-iiini]- 
lates  and  increases  to  the  survivor."    Such  a  doctrine*  w  i- 
favored  by  the  common  law,  for  the  reason  that  it  tt»n<l.  . 
to  prevent  a  division  of  tenures,  and  to  secure  the  contii tr- 
ance of  the  feudal  system.    It  was  not  favored  in  etjiiii>. 
and  was  repudiated  by  mercantile  law.     Modem  statut.* 
have  almost  abolished  it.    This  branch  of  the  topio  i'i  lii— 
cussed  in  the  articles  Joint  and  Several,  Joint  Owners  mi-, 
and  Partnership.  Francis  M.  Blrdk  k. 

Sns :  See  SuiDiB. 

Snsa  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  rk  Xov(ra\ :  capital  of  the  ant  !•  ti* 
kingdom  of  Elam,  and  afterward  one  of  the  residenf**s  .  ' 
the  kings  of  Persia ;  in  lat.  32**  N.,  Ion.  48"  E.  It  was  tak«  r 
by  Asshurbanipal  (668-^26  b.  c),  and,  as  appears  from  hlz: . 
iv.  9,  10,  some  of  its  inhabitants  were  sent  to  live  in  Pah  — 
tine.  W^hen  Alexander  took  the  city,  331  B.C.,  he  f«»!in<i 
great  treasures  of  gold.  Susa  is  the  scene  of  several  inten'-r- 
ing  biblical  narratives:  (1)  The  vision  of  Daniel  (viii.  *2  ; 

(2)  Nehemiah's  office  as  cupbearer  to  the  king  (i.  2,  ii.  1   : 

(3)  the  feast  of  Xerxes  (Estner  i.  2).  One  of  the  build i ne- 
at the  place  is  reverenced  by  the  natives  as  the  tomb  of  JoiihIi. 
The  site,  which  is  marked  by  ruins,  was  excavated  for  tlir- 
Louvre  bv  Marcel  A.  Dieulafoy,  1884-^6,  who  was  aidtnl  in 
the  work  by  his  wife.  (('f.  Jane  Dieulafoy.  La  Perse^  la  ( l^n!- 
dee  et  la  Susiane  (Paris,  1887);  Jane  Dieulafov.  .4  Su.'-*. 
Journal  deg  Fouilles  I884S6  (Paris,  1888);  ^larrel  A. 
Dieulafoy,  L*Acropole  de  Suae  d'apr^8  les  Fouilles  ex^cut*^/^* 
en  1884.  1885, 1886,  etc.  (Paris,  1890-92);  B.  T.  A.  Evptt>. 
Xew  Light  on  the  Bible  and  the  Holy  Land  (London,  1}^9J, 
pp.  229-257).)  The  ruins  are  in  the  form  of  three  lan.v 
mounds.  In  one  of  these  Dieulafoy  excavated  the  pala*-»- 
which  was  built  by  Darius  Hystaspes  (521-485  b.  c),  dam- 
aged by  fire  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  (4t>>- 
424),  and  restored  by  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  (405-362).  Th- 
art  treasures  brought  thence  to  the  Louvre  are  most  remark- 
able. Si)ecially  noteworthy  are  the  capitals  of  the  colunu)^. 
the  procession  of  the  "  immortals  "  (raised  figures  in  enanit-:. 
of  various  colors,  on  the  surface  of  the  brick- work),  and  tl..^ 
figures  of  lions  (also  in  enamel).  D.  G.  Lvox. 

8n8a,  or  Sons :  town  of  Northern  Africa :  70  miles  S.  S,  K. 
of  Tunis ;  is  surrounded  with  olive-groves,  and  has  an  exten- 
sive tratle  in  oil  and  manufactures  of  woolen  fabrics.  Pop. 
estimated  at  12,000,  of  whom  2,000  are  Europeans  and  2.(Xn» 
Jews.  M.  W.  II. 

Snsan'na,  History  of:  a  short  book,  considered  by  tl.t- 
Roman  Catholic  Church  to  be  canonical,  and  reganloil  h^ 
the  thirteenth  chapter  of  Daniel,  but  put  among  the  \\mh- 
rypha  in  the  English  Bible.  It  relates  the  attempt  on  tli.' 
virtue  of  Susanna,  a  beautiful  Jewish  matron,  her  false  a<(u- 
sation,  her  final  rescue  from  death,  and  the  overthrow,  hy 
the  judgment  of  young  Daniel,  of  the  wicked  men  who  de- 
signed her  niin.  It  is  probably  a  fiction  of  neo-Hehn-w 
origin.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson, 

Siisenilhl,  soo'z^-metd,  Franz:  Greek  scholar;  b.  nt 
Laage,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Germany,  Dec.  10,  is^fi : 
studied  in  Leipzig  and  Berlin;  private  docentat  Greifswai<i 
1852 ;  Professor  of  Classical  Philology  at  the  same  univtr- 
sity  since  1856.  His  works  chiefly  relate  to  Plato  and  Ari- 
totle.  Among  them  are  Genetische  Entrrickelung  der  Phi- 
toniachen  Philosophie  (2  vols.,  1860);  Aristotle  s  I*oefir^, 
with  translation  and  notes  (2d  ed.  1874);  text  edition-^  «'f 
the  Politics  and  yicomachean  EthicH.  In  1891  he  publi>lu-.l 
his  profoundly  learned  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Litrm- 
tur  in  der  Alexandrintrzeit  (2  vols.),  the  standanl  work  on 
the  subjett.  Alfred  Gudlman. 

Snso,  or  Sense,  IIeixrich  (otherwise  known  as  St.  Amai.- 
dus  and  Ileinrich  von  Berg) :  mystic ;  b.  at  Ueberlingen.  ni 
the  present  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  8  miles  X.  of  Conslam  i\ 


842 


SCTTEK 


SWAINSON 


Slitter,  John  Al'ousTrs :  pioneer ;  b.  at  Kadern,  Baden, 
Feb.  15,  1803,  of  Swiss  parentage;  was  educated  at  the 
military  college  at  Berne;  entered  the  French  service  as  an 
officer  of  the  Swiss  guard  and  served,  1823-24,  through  the 
Spanish  carapaien ;  emigrated  to  the  U.  S.  1834 :  carried 
on  a  trade  with  Indians  and  trappers  at  Santa  Fe ;  crossed 
the  Rocky  Mountains  1838 ;  traded  in  a  vessel  along  the 
Pacific  coast ;  founded  1839  a  settlement  on  the  site  of 
Sacramento ;  received  a  grant  of  land  from  the  Mexican 
Government,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  the  northern 
frontier  country ;  encouraged  the  annexation  of  California 
to  the  U.  S. ;  was  a  delegate  to  the  convention  to  form  a 
State  constitution ;  and  after  t  he  admission  of  California  as 
a  State  was  elected  first  alcalde  of  his  district.  In  Feb., 
1848,  gold  was  discovered  on  his  estate  in  Coloma,  his  lands 
were  invaded  by  gold-digffers,  and  the  claim  he  had  filed  for 
33  sq.  leagues  was  decided  against  him  on  appeal  to  the  Su- 
preme Court.  Being  reduced  to  poverty,  he  was  pensioned 
by  the  State  Legislature;  in  1873  removed  to  Litiz,  Lan- 
caster CO.,  Pa.    D.  in  Washington,  D.  C,  June  17,  1880, 

Sutter  Creek :  town ;  Amador  co.,  Cal. ;  on  Sutter  creek ; 
4  miles  X.  W.  of  Jackson,  the  county-scat,  45  miles  E.  S.  E. 
of  Sacramento  (for  location,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  6-D). 
It  is  in  a  gold- mining  and  agricultural  region,  and  has  a 
weekly  newspaper.    Pop.  (1880)  1,324 ;  (1890)  1,351. 

Satton:  village;  Brome  co.,  Quebec,  Canada;  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  near  the  U.  S.  boundary  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Quebec,  ref.  6-C).  Near  the  village  is  Sut- 
ton Mountam,  over  1,000  feet  high,  the  slopes  of  which  are 
covered  with  magnificent  maple  groves.  It  is  the  center  of 
the  maple-sugar  export  trade.    Pop.  of  parish  (1891),  3,362. 

Sntton:  town  (incorporated  in  1714);  Worcester  co., 
Mass.;  on  the  N.  Y.,  N.  II.  and  Hart.  Railroad;  9  miles  S. 
of  Worcester  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Massachu- 
setts, ref.  3-G).  It  contains  the  villages  oi  Sutton,  West 
Sutton,  South  Sutton,  Mauchau^,  Wilkinsonville,  Pleasant 
Valley,  Woodbury,  and  Marble  viUe;  has  5  churches,  high 
school,  15  public  schools,  public  library,  and  assessed  valu- 
ation of  $1,296,578 ;  and  is  principally  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture and  the  manufacture  of  cotton  gootls.  Pop.  (1880)  3,105 ; 
(1890)  3,180. 

Sutnre  [from  Lat.  sufu'ra,  seam,  deriv.  of  su'ere,  su'tnm, 
sow;  Eng.  sev)] :  in  anatomy,  the  line  of  union  of  two  bones 
between  which  there  is  no  motion.  Where  motion  is  in- 
tended, the  union  is  a  joint  or  diarthrosis.  The  general 
term  for  an  immovable  joint  is  synarthrosis ;  this  includes 
the  suture  {mtura\  or  linear  articulation ;  the  schindylesis, 
in  which  a  thin  lamina  of  bone  is  received  between  two 
laminae  of  another  bone;  and  the  gomphosis,  in  which  a 
long  process  is  inserted  into  a  socket.  A  serrated  suture  is 
one  between  bones  whose  edges  have  projections  and  inden- 
tHtions  fitting  into  each  other ;  a  squamous  suture  is  between 
bones  whose  edges  overlap.  In  surgery,  suture  is  either  the 
uniting  of  the  edges  of  a  wound  by  means  of  stitches,  or  it 
is  one  such  stitch.  The  most  common  materials  for  sutures 
are  prepared  catgut,  silk,  and  silver  wire. 

Suwa'row,  or  Suvo'roff,  Alexei  Vasilievitch  :  soldier; 
b.  in  Moscow,  Nov.  24,  1729:  entered  early  the  Russian 
army,  and  was  made  a  colonel  after  the  battle  of  Kuners- 
dorf,  1759,  and  a  general  in  1783,  after  the  campaign  against 
the  Lesghians  on  the  Kuban.  In  the  second  Turkish  w^ar  he 
defeated  the  Turks  in  several  important  battles,  and  in  1790 
captured  the  fortrcj^s  of  Ismail.  In  1794  he  commanded  in 
Poland,  and  took  Praga  Sept.  24,  1794,  after  which  Cather- 
ine II.  made  him  field-marshal.  His  most  brilliant  exploit 
was  his  Italian  cami)aign  in  1799.  He  had  fallen  into  dis- 
grace under  Paul  I„  and  had  even  been  deprived  of  his 
rank,  but  on  the  demand  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria  he  was, 
nevertheless,  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  Russian  army 
which  was  sent  to  Italy  to  co-operate  with  the  Austrian's 
against  France.  He  defeated  the  French  on  tlie  Trebbia 
and  at  Novi,  and  then  crossed  the  Alps  to  join  Korsakoff 
and  the  Austrians  under  Hotz.  Both  the  generals  had  been 
defeated,  however,  and  Suwarow  wa.'?  conjpclled  to  retreat. 
Shortly  after  the  Russian-Austrian  alliance  was  dissolved, 
and  the  Russian  army  witlidrawn  from  tlie  theater  of  war. 
He  died  a  few  days  after  his  return  to  St.  P('tei*sl)urg,  May 
18,  1800.  \\'\s  Autobiography,  written  in  French,  was  edited 
bv  (ilinka  in  2  vols.  (Moscow.  1819).  See  hioi^'ranhies  by 
Polevoi  (1853)  and  Spalding  (1890).  F.  M.  Colby. 

SvarabhaktifSanskr., vowel-fragment ;  A<7v/rr/-,  tone,  vowel 
-h  bhakti',  divibion,  deriv.  of  bknj-,  to  allot,  divide] :  a  teeh- 


nical  term  of  Indian  grammar  (Prati^khyas)  applied  to  a 
subsidiary  vowel-souml  inserted  between  r  or  /  and  a  fol- 
lowing consonant.  This  term  has  been  adopted  into  ni<Ml- 
ern  grammar  to  denote  the  vowel  appearing  in  the  various 
familiar  forms  of  anaptyxis  with  r  or  /;  as  in  Lat.  famil*n 
for  *famlia ;  stvculum  for  stedum :  O.  U.  Germ,  miluh  tu 
melchan,  to  milk ;  Eng.  ehm  for  elm.  B.  I.  W. 

Sveabor§^ :  See  Sweaboro. 

STend ;  See  Sweyn. 

Sren  Trtfst :  pseudonym  of  Snoilsky  (q,  t\), 

HrStlft,  Karolina  (pseudonym  of  Johanna  Mu2JIkova, 
wife  of  Prof.  Peter  Muzdk,  of  Prague) :  a  Czech  writ<?r  of 
novels  of  considerable  fame;  b.  at  Prague,  Feb.  24.  1886. 
She  published  in  1858  her  first  novels  Double  Awakening,  m 
the  Czech  almanac  Ildj\  and  continued  to  enrich  Bohemian 
literature  with  some  fifty  novels  and  tales.  Her  material  is 
mostly  drawn  from  the  popular  life  and  the  modern  society 
of  heV  native  country;  her  popular  types,  framed  after 
French  models,  are  very  delicate  and  artistic.  She  als<» 
wrote  many  essays  on  education  and  literature,  and  memoirs 
which  are  widely  read.  Among  her  best  novels  are  Ldxka 
k  bdhiikotn,  roma/n  z  fasil  fwvejsieh  (Poet's  Love,  Novel  ot 
the  Present  Time,  Prague,  1860);  Pmvi  Ceaka  (Prague. 
1861 ;  also  published  in  the  collection  of  novels  Slwarutke 
besedy);  Vesfiicky  roman  (The  Village  Romance,  1869); 
Frantina  (1870);  Kriz  a  potoka  (The  Cross  near  the  Brook, 
1871);  The  Atheist  (1873).  KArolina  Sv^T-tU  Ls  besides 
Eliska  KrasnohorskA  (pseudonym  for  Henriette  Peeh),  the 
author  of  the  cycle  of  epic  songs  To  the  Slavic  South,  the 
foremost  woman  representative  of  modem  Czech  literature. 
Many  of  her  novels  have  been  translated  into  Russian,  Ger- 
man, Polish,  and  French.  Hermann  Schoenfeld. 

Srir :  a  river  in  the  government  of  Olonetz,  Russia.  It 
issues  from  the  southwestern  extremity  of  I^ake  Onega.  an<l 
enters,  after  a  course  of  130  miles,  the  eastern  part  of  Lake 
Ladoga.  It  is  navigable  throughout  its  whole  course,  and 
forms  part  of  the  great  system  of  rivei-s  and  canals  which 
connects  the  Baltic  with  the  Caspian  and  White  Sea. 

Swa'bia,  or  Suabia (Germ.  Schiraben,  Mod.  Lat.  Sue  vfn) : 
a  former  territory  of  Southwestern  Germany,  corresponding 
nearly  to  the  nresent  WUrtemberg  and  Baden,  and  iKiundHl 
S.  and  W.  by  tne  Rhine,  which  separated  it  from  Switzerland 
and  France,  and  X.  and  E.  by  the  Palatinate,  Franconia,  and 
Bavaria.  Its  original  name  was  Alemannia^  but  when,  in 
496,  the  Alemanni  were  conquered  by  Clovis,  the  country 
received  the  name  of  Swabia  after  the  Suevi,  who  inhabited 
large  parts  of  it.  In  1080  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  made  it  a 
duchy,  and  lx*stowed  it  as  an  hereditary  fief  on  Freilerick  of 
Hohenstaufen.  Under  this  family  Swabia  prospered  ami 
became  the  seat  of  a  flourishing  civilization ;  but  when  the 
familv  became  extinct  with  Conradin,  who,  as  the  head  of 
the  Ghibelline  party,  was  executed  at  Naples  in  1268,  Swabia 
wiis  broken  up  into  many  small  dominitms  and  free  cities. 
From  1563  to  1806  Swabia  was  one  of  the  ten  circles  into 
which  the  German  empire  wt4s  divided. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  HarriN(jton. 

Swain,  George  Fillmore.  B.  S.  :  civil  engineer  and  edu- 
cator; b.  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  Mar.  2,  1857;  graduated  at 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  in  1877,  and  then 
spent  three  years  in  study  in  Germany.  Since  1883  he  has 
l)een  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  in  the  Massachusetts  In- 
stitute of  Technology,  and  has  also  served  as  expert  on  the 
tenth  census  and  as  (Migineer  of  the  railway  commission  of 
Massachusetts.  He  is  the  author  of  valuable' articles  in  tech- 
nical journals,  of  papers  on  the  water-power  of  the  V .  S.  in 
the  licports  of  the  leiith  Census,  and  of  discussions  in  the 
Reports  of  the  Massachusetts  Hailroad  Commission, 

Mansfield  Merriman. 

Swainson,  William  :  naturalist ;  b.  in  Liverpool,  Oct.  s, 
1789;  served  in  the  commissary  department  of  the  British 
army  1807-15:  accompanied  the  German  naturalist  Kostcr 
in  his  travels  in  South  America  1815,  after  which  he  st'tthnl 
in  London,  and  began  in  1820  the  issue  of  his  works  on  nat- 
ural history.  In  1841  he  emigrated  to  New  Zealand,  wlnre 
he  Wiis  attorney-general,  and  subsequently  published  several 
works  on  the  natural  history  and  s<jcial  and  political  condi- 
tion of  that  colony  and  Tasmania.  Among  his  work<  are 
Zo(Vo(/icai  Illusfrafions  (1st  series,  with  818  colored  plate>. 
1820-23;  2d  scries,  with  136  plates,  1829-33);  Exotic  Con- 
rhnlofj}/  (1821-22 :  new  ed.  1841) ;  The  K(tturnlisi>  Ouith  for 
Collecting  and  Prese^rving  all  Subjects  of  Xatnral  Hist  or'/ 
and  Hot  any,  particularly  Shells  (1840);  11  vols,  on  zoolo*:)  . 


SWALLtnV* 


SWATUW 


843 


XVrf^frrn  Afrit^n  s\Ui\  Thv  T^nhiraf  Arn(ui/im<  uf  ittnf  I/t'*- 
fiifti  i*J  Fhi-nthhi  tH  Oil  *htn|JU("'H  ^utuntUAfH  Lihrm^f^ 
ls:{7-I{8);  Ornithological  Drawinyn,  of  hinls  from  lirazil 
and  Mexico  (18ii4-41) ;  Observations  on  the  C/imate  of  Atw 
X^n/and  (\S4:0),  He  assi.sUMl  Sir  John  Kidiardson  in  the 
ornithological  portion  of  Fauna  B<Mreali-Americana.  Few 
of  his  day  knew  more  about  birds  and  no  one  cxcolkMl  him  as 
a  delineator  of  them.     D.  in  New  Zealand  in  1855. 

Swallow  [O.  Enfif.  swalpwe,  swealwe  :  ().  II.  Germ,  swalawa 
(>  Mod.  Germ,  nchwalbe)  :  Icel.  svala] :  any  bird  belonging 
to  tlie  family  HirundinidcB,  distinguished  by  the  wide  deep 
gape,  allusion  to  which  is  evidently  conveyed  in  the  name. 
Tliey  have  the  neck  rather  short ;  the  head  full ;  the  bill 
yhort,  but  comparatively  broad  and  depressed  ;  the  gape  very 
<leef>,  and  continued  backward  nearly  ss  far  a^,  or  quite 
under,  the  eyes.  There  are  no  distinct  rictal  bristles;  the 
wings  are  very  long  and  pointed,  and  have  (mly  nine  pri- 
iniiries.  of  which  the  second  is  generally  longest,  but  thonrst 
i^  nearly  or  quite  equal  to  it ;  the  tail  is  forked  or  emargi- 
naied,and  normally  consists  of  tw^elve  feathers;  the  legs  are 
weak  and  small,  the  toes  are  long  and  slender,  and  with  the 
normal  number  of  joints ;  the  claws  curved  and  acute,  but 
.slen<ler.  The  anatomical  features  demonstrate  the  close  re- 
lationship of  the  family  with  the  ordinary  singing  birds 
(siuh  as  the  sparrows,  thrushes,  etc.),  and  the  great  diiTer- 
« iices  from  the  swifts,  which  res<Mnble  them  so  mucli  jis  for- 
merly to  have  been  generally  united  with  them.  There  are 
over' 125  species,  and  representatives  are  found  in  almost 
<^very  land  and  every  zone  save  the  extreme  polar  regions. 
The  several  genera  have  been  dilTerentiated  into  two  sub- 
families— Hirundinimp,  in  which  the  outer  edga  of  the  wing 
is  smooth-feathered,  containing  almost  all  of  the  s[>ecies ; 
and  Psalidoprocnincv,  in  which  it  is  serrated  or  armed  with 
>tilT  recurved  hooks,  represented  by  the  African  genus  Psnli- 
d*i/)ntcne  and  the  American  Stptyidopteryx.  The  species  are 
anit»ng  the  most  active  and  graceful  of  birds,  and  their  cir- 
<lingand  sweeping  flight  is  well  known  to  observers.  They 
feed  almost  exclusively  on  insects,  which  thev  take  on  the 
w  ing.  Their  mode  of  nesting  is  various  (for  the  nest  of  the 
barn-swallow,  see  Nksts  of  Birds),  the  eggs  five  or  six.  The 
nmst  common  North  American  species  are  the  purple  martin 
{  Pruyne  subis) ;  the  clifif-swallow  {Pet rochet idon  lunifronn) ; 
the  barn-swallow  (C/i^//t/o?4  erythroyaster);  and  the  bank- 
swallow  or  sand-martin  {Cotyle  riparia).  The  so-called 
chimney-swallow  is  a  swift.    See  Swift  and  Martin. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Litas. 

Swamp'scott:  town;  Essex  co..  Mass.;  on  Ma««sachusetts 
Bay,  and  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  ;  2  miles  N.  E.  of 
Lynn,  and  18  miles  X.  E.  of  Boston  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Mitssachusetts,  ref.  l-I).  It  is  a  noted  watering-place  with 
an  excellent  beach  and  large  accommodations  for  season  ancl 
t  ransient  guests :  contains  the  villages  of  Swampscott,  Beach 
Bluff,  Phillips  Beach,  and  Mountain  Park  ;  and  has  a  high 
.M-hool,  14  district  schools,  public  library,  3  hotels,  and  5 
churches.  In  18U4  the  assessed  valuation  was  JJio.OOU.OOO. 
Pop.  (1880)  2,500  ;  (1890)  3,198. 

Swan  [().  Eng.  swan  :  0.  H.  Germ,  straji  (>  Mod.  Germ. 
.*irh/ran)  :  Icel.  sranr]  :  any  one  of  those  swimming  birds  of 
the  family  Anatidtp.  jiuMnmily  (-yyni me,  which  have  a  bill 
nearly  equally  broa^l  throughout  an<l  as  long  as  the  head  ; 
Th»*  cere  s«)rt  and  exten<ling  to  the  eye  ;  neck  l(»ng  an<l  slen- 
der, consisting  of  twenty-two  to  twenty-six  vertebra':  the 
front  t»H'S  with  a  large  web:  the  hind  toe  withoiit  a  lobe; 
the  tail  short  and  roundefl  ;  thesecondand  third  wing-quills 
the  longest.  They  are  the  largest  species  of  the  family. and 
among  thelargestof  birds.  Some  authorities  place  all  swans 
in  one  genus,  Cyyn  usi  othei-s admit  four  geneni,  ( 'yyuus,  Olor, 
(hutopiH,  and  SthmetiiH.  Omitting  the  Coscin'oba  swan 
<  (  Oftrorotja  coscorobo),  whieh  ftrobably  belongs  wit  h  t  he  ducks, 
there  are  nine  species,  all  but  two  inliabitants  of  the  north- 
^•rn  liemisphere.  'i'he  excejit ions  are  the  blaek-neeked  swan 
iSftH'neluM  rnetuncorypha)  of  ('hili  and  the  bhu'k  swan  {(Iw- 
nnpix  atratn)  of  Australia.  The  North  American  swans. 
wlii>iling  swan  [Otttr  cotutnttionnH)  and  trumpeter  swan  (O. 
tmrrinofor),  are  tine  birds,  both  white.  The  tame  swnns  are 
•  •t"  two  Kuropeafi  species — red-billed  swan  (Cyf/nus  otor)  and 
{'oliNh-^wan  (('.  imnintofniiH).  The  former  is  found  in  a  wild 
siatf  throughout  a  great  part  of  Kumpe.  while  comparatively 
liMle  is  known  of  the  second  species, some  auth<>rs  <'onsider- 
iiil:  it  to  be  a  mere  variety  of  the  first.  ('yynuH  immutahilis 
iS  so  named  from  the  fact  that  the  yoinig — or  cygnets — are 
NOiite,  wliile  th(»se  of  other  sj>ecies  are  gray.     Thougli  once 


hi 'Id  in  cMns[<lemb|p  e^trinn  for  the  inhU\  dnrnt^-ttjc  stwuris  ore 
now  l>rrd  iiK-rily  for  ornam*  iiL  F.  A.  f^tu:*;?. 

Swfliiv '^AMF.ji :  snldier  nnd  mithor ;  b.  in  Fifesiliive,  ScM- 
land,  in  1754;  went  to  Massachusetts  at  an  early  age;  was 
a  clerk  in  Boston  ;  published  a  Dissuasion  to  Great  Britain 
and  the  Colonies  from  the  Slave  Trade  to  Africa  (1772):  be- 
came captain  of  artillery,  secretary  to  the  Massachusetts 
board  of  war,  member  of  the  Legislature  in  1778,  and  after- 
ward adjutant-general  of  the  State.  In  1787  he  went  to 
Paris;  wrote  Causes  qui  sont  opposees  an  Proyres  du  Cojn- 
merce  entre  la  France  et  les  Ktats-Unisde  VAmerique  (1790) ; 
iicquired  a  large  fortune;  returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  1795;  re- 
turned to  Europe  in  1798 ;  in  1815,  upon  the  suit  of  a  Ger- 
man with  whom  he  had  transactions,  he  was  arrested  and 
thrown  into  a  prison  in  Paris,  where  he  remained  fifteen 
years.  He  also  published  Oti  the  Fisheries  (\7H4):  Fisher- 
ies of  Jfassachusetts  (1786):  yattonal  Arithmetick  (\1H^); 
and  an  Address  on  Ayriculture,  Manufactures^  and  Com- 
merce (1817).     1).  in  Paris,  Mar.  18,  ISHU 

Swan-p'an :  See  Abacus. 

Swan'sea  (Welsh,  ^6^'r/aM'e'):  seaport  in  Glamorganshire, 
South  Wales;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tawe;  216  miles  W.  of 
London  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  12-E).  Owing  to  the  rich 
coal-fields  in  the  vicinity,  and  its  position  on  a  bay  afford- 
ing safe  anchorage,  Swansea  has  developed  into  one  of  the 
most  important  manufacturing  towns  in  Great  Britain. 
Nearly  half  the  entire  exports  are  tin-plates,  the  rest  being 
coal,  coke,  iron,  steel,  zinc,  copper,  alkali,  etc.  The  imports 
include  copper,  zinc,  lead,  silver,  tin,  iron,  and  their  ores; 
also  sulphur,  grain,  tind^er,  et^.  The  total  tonnage  of  ves- 
sels entered  and  cleared  in  1893,  exclusive  of  that  coastwise, 
wius  1,320,144.  The  parliamentary  borough  returns  two 
members.    Pop.  of  municipjU  borough  (1894)  95,399. 

Swansea:  town  (incorporated  in  1668);  Bristol  co.,  Mass.; 
on  Mt.  Hope  Bay,  and  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  Hart.  Railroad ; 
4  miles  N.  W.  of  Fall  River  (for  location,  see  map  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, ref.  5-1).  It  contains  the  villages  of  Swans<'a, 
North  Swansi'a,  South  Swansea,  Center  Swansea,  and  Ilor- 
tonville;  has  ten  public  schools,  a  public  library,  and  a 
Protestant  Episcopal  church;  and  is  principally  engaged  in 
agriculture  and  in  bleaching  and  dveing.  Poj).  (1880)  1,355 ; 
(181K))  1,456. 

Swanton:  town:  Franklin  co.,  Vt. ;  on  the  Missisquoi 
river,  near  the  north  end  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  on  the 
Cent.  Vt.  and  St.  Johns  and  Lake  Cham,  niilways;  9  miles 
N.  of  St.  Albans,  the  county-seat  (for  location,  see  ma|)  of 
Vermont,  ref.  2-B).  It  contains  a  union  public  scIhh>1,  a 
national  i>ank  with  ca|)ital  of  1^50,000,  a  weAly  paper,  quar- 
ries of  white  and  variegated  marble,  ami  spring-bed  and 
other  factories.     Pop.  (1880)  3,079 ;  (1890)  3,231. 

Swar^a,  or  Svar?a  [Sanskr.]:  in  Hindu  mythology,  the 
heaven  over  which  Indra  presides.  It  is  the  residence  of 
beatified  mortals  and  of  the  inferior  gods,  and  is  supposed  to 
be  situated  on  Mt  Meru.    See  Ixdra  and  Meru. 

Swarthmore  College:  a  coeducational  institution  at 
Swarthmore,  Delaware  co..  Pa.,  opened  in  1869.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Society  of  Friends  belonging  to  the  Yearly 
Meetings  of  Philadel|)hia,  New  York,  and  Baltimore,  for  the 
purpose  of  furnishing  ojiportunities  for  higher  education 
to  its  own  mend)ers  and  to  persons  of  other  <lenominations. 
Women  as  well  as  men  are  mendiers  of  its  faculty  and  of 
the  board  of  managers.  It  offers  four  courses  of  study — 
arts,  letters,  science,  and  engineering — for  the  completion 
of  each  of  which  a  s«'parate  degree  is  giv<'n.  In  1894  it 
had  twenty  instructors,  185  stu<lcnts,  arul  15.S()0  volumes  in 
its  librarv.  The  presidents  have  been  E<lward  l*arrish, 
Erlward  H.  Magill.  William  Hyde  Appleton,  and  Charles 
De  Garino.  Besidc^s  the  m/iin  college  buililing.  in  which  are 
the  dormitories,  libraries,  the  bi(»logical  lal>oialory  an<i 
nniseum,  and  class-rooms  f(»r  the  departments  of  ancient 
and  modern  lanuruages,  mathematics,  history,  and  economics, 
there  is  a  spacious  scieiice  building  contnininir  the  chemical 
laboratory,  thi"  pfiysical  laboratory  for  teaching  electrical 
engineerintr.  the  draui:hting-room,  and  shops  of  the  engi- 
neering department.  There  is  also  an  a>tronomical  (»bs<'rva- 
tory  and  two  gymnasiums,  one  for  tin*  yountr  men  and  one 
for  the  young  women.  Ciiaklks  De  li armo. 

Swatow:  a  port  of  China,  opened  to  foreign  tra<le  by  the 
treaty  made  at  Tientsin  in  1H5M.  It  is  'situated  on  the  north 
or  left  bank  of  the  rivr-r  lian.  about  5  miles  within  its 
irmuth.  in  the  province  of  Kwanu'tung  Init  ne?ir  the  borders 
of   Fuli-kien:  hit.  23    20  43    N..  Ion.  116     39'   E.  (see  ma[) 


844 


SWAYNE 


SWEATING  SICKNESS 


of  China,  ref.  8-J).  It  is  the  shipping-port  of  the  citjr  of 
Ch'ao-chow-foo,  35  miles  inland,  and  of  San-ho-pa,  40  miles 
farther  up  the  Han.  The  site  of  the  native  town  is  but 
little  raised  above  the  level  of  the  river,  which  is  here  about 
a  mile  wide.  The  southern  bank,  on  which  the  foreign  settle- 
ment is  located,  is  bold,  and  lined  with  hills  of  an  average 
height  of  400  to  500  feet.  The  foreign  community  is  small. 
The  natives,  who  in  both  features  and  language  resemble 
the  people  of  Fuh-kien  rather  than  those  of  Kwangtung, 
are  noted  for  their  turbulence  and  their  hostility  to  for- 
eigners. Their  dialect,  which  is  unintelligible  to  natives 
of  Canton,  approximates  closely  to  that  of  Amoy.  Sugaf- 
making  is  the  great  industry  of  the  neighborhood.  The 
trade  of  Swatow,  which  is  considerable,  is  mostly  in  the 
hands  of  natives,  and  is  chiefly  with  Hongkong  (180  miles 
distant),  Shanghai,  and  Niuchwang.  In  1893  917  vessels, 
with  a  tonnage  of  883,695  tons,  entered,  and  the  same  num- 
ber cleared.  The  net  foreign  imports  for  that  year  amounted 
to  8,238,721  Haikwan  or  custom-house  taels,  and  the  net 
native  imports  to  9,512,749  taels.  Of  the  foreign  goods  im- 
ported, 7,486,902  taels  came  from  Hongkong,  383,617  taels 
from  Cochin-China,  Tonquin,  and  Annam,  96,975  taels  from 
Russia,  and  40,320  taels  from  the  U.  S.  The  chief  imports 
were  opium,  value  2,888,740  taels ;  rice,  3,473,247  taels ;  bean- 
cake  (used  for  manure  in  the  sugar-plantations),  253,786 
taels ;  raw  cotton,  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  metals,  matches, 
and  kerosene  oil.  The  exports  included  tea  (about  7,000 
piculs),  sugar  (valued  at  3,125,009  taels),  grass-cloth,  liquid 
indigo,  prepared  tobacco,  joss-sticks,  and  joss-paper,  and 
amounted  to  6,445,682  taels,  or  about  $676,966  U.  S.  gold. 
In  the  same  year  93,095  native  passengers  left  the  port,  but 
only  56,217  entered.  More  than  half  of  the  native  emigra- 
tion, for  which  the  port  is  noted,  is  directed  to  the  Straits 
Settlements.    Pop.  22,500.        .  R.  Lillev. 

Swayne,  John  Waoer  :  soldier  and  lawyer ;  son  of  Noah 
H.  Swayne ;  b.  at  Columbus,  O.,  Nov.  10, 1834 ;  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1856 ;  studied  law  and  practiced  at  Co- 
lumbus; major  of  the  Forty-third  Ohio  Volunteers  1861; 
became  colonel ;  served  through  the  Atlanta  campaign  ;  lost 
a  leg  at  Salkahatchie,  S.  C. ;  breveted  brigadier-general  U.  S. 
Vols.  Feb.  5, 1865,  promoted  brigadier-general  Mar.  8,  1865, 
and  raajor-^neral  June  20,  1865 ;  mustered  out  of  the  vol- 
unteer service  Sept.  1, 1867.  He  was  a  commissioner  of  the 
Freedmen's  Bureau  in  Alabama,  where  he  commanded  the 
U.  S.  forces  and  administered  the  reconstruction  acts ;  re- 
tired July  1,  1870,    In  1880  he  removed  to  New  York. 

Swayne,  Noah  Haynes,  LL.  D.  :  jurist ;  b.  in  Culpeper  co., 
Va.,  Dec.  7,  1804;  was  clerk  in  an  apothecary's  shop  in 
Alexandria ;  studied  law ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1823, 
and  began  practice  at  Coshocton,  O. ;  in  1826-29  was  prose- 
cuting attorney  of  Coshocton  County ;  in  1829  was  elected  to 
the  State  Legislature;  removed  to  Columbus,  O. ;  was  U.  S. 
district  attorney  1831-41 ;  was  chosen  judge  of  the  court  of 
common  pleas  in  1833,  but  declined  the  office ;  was  again 
elected  to  the  Legislature  in  1836,  and  was  prominent  in  or- 
ganizing asylums  and  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
the  blind,  and  the  insane ;  joined  the  Hepublican  party  on 
its  formation ;  in  1861  was  appointed  a  justice  of  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court ;  resigned  1881.  D.  in  New  York,  June  8, 1884. 

Swaziland :  See  South  African  Republic. 

Sweaborff,  or  Sveaborg,  8i»a'fia-borg:  a  fortress  of  Russia, 
on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland  (see  map  of 
Russia,  ref.  5-C).  The  place  was  originally  fortified  by 
Sweden.  When  Finland  became  a  province  of  Russia  (1809), 
the  latter  made  it  a  military  and  naval  ddpot.  The  isle  of 
Vargoe  is  the  central  or  principal  fortress ;  the  isle  of  Great 
Oester-Svartoe  the  principal  naval  depot  and  dockyard.  See 
Helsinofors.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Sweat,  or  Perspiration  [sweat  is  deriv.  of  sweat  (verb)  < 
M.  Eng.  sweten  <  0.  Eng.  swd'tan,  deriv.  of  siodt,  sweat : 
O.  H.  Germ,  sweiz  (>  Mod.  Germ.  schweiss):\QQh  svi/i;  cf. 
Lat.  suda're^  to  sweat :  Gr.  Upus,  sweat ;  Sanskr.  stnd-,  to 
sweat] :  the  fluid  exuded  through  the  pores  of  the  skin, 
consisting  of  water  with  numerous  solids  in  solution.  The 
amount  of  water  excreted  from  the  skin  either  in  the  form 
of  the  insensible  perspiration,  which  maintains  its  softness 
and  moisture,  or  in  perceptible  sweat,  is  but  little  less  than 
the  volume  of  the  urine  or  the  equivalent  in  water  of  the 
moisture  exhaled  from  the  lungs  in  breathing.  It  varies 
with  the  seasons  and  climate,  sweat  being  most  profuse  in 
summer  and  the  warmer  regions.  The  action  of  the  skin  is 
complementary  to  that  of  the  kidneys,  chilling  of  the  integu- 


Surface  of  the  palm  of  the  hand : 
a  portion  of  the  skin  about 
half  an  inch  aquare,  mBfi^w&ed 
towr  (Ma,meters(Sappey} :  1. 1, 1. 

1,  openings  of  the  sweat-ductR  ; 

2,  2,  2,  2,  grooves  between  the 
•  papillae  of  the  skin. 


raent  producing  renal  hyperaemia.  The  amount  of  solid 
excretory  matter  and  carbonic  acid  gas  eliminated  by  the 
skin  is  small,  but  can  not  be 
suppressed  without  danger 
to  life:  Experiments  of 
closing  the  pores  by  a  coat- 
ing of  varnish  or  tin-foil, 
both  in  man  and  lower  ani- 
mals, have  induced  alarm- 
ing depression  and  death. 
Reversely,  the  artificial 
stimulation  of  the  perspirar 
tion  is  a  valuable  channel 
for  eliminating  morbific 
matter  in  impaired  health 
or  disease.  Bathing,  fric- 
tion, and  clean  clothing,  by 
favoring  activity  of  the 
sweat  -  glands  and  open 
pores,  are  means  of  preserv- 
ing health.  The  sweat  is 
secreted  by  the  sudoriparous 
or  sweat-glands,  coiled  tu- 
bular masses  beneath  the 
skin,  with  excretory  tubules  terminating  on  the  surface. 
(See  Histology,  The  Skin  and  its  Appendaaes.)  The  tul)e  is 
about  Tr7Trth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  tne  coils  or  glands  vary 
from  rirth  to  ^^th  or  -jV^h  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The 
number  of  sweat-openings  varies  on  diflFerent  surfaces; 
thus,  as  enumerated  by  Krause,  the  palm  of  the  hand  (see 
figure)  has  2,736  to  the  square  inch,  the  back  of  the  hand 
1,490,  sole  of  the  foot  2,685,  top  of  the  foot  924,  forehead 
1,258,  cheek  548.  The  number  of  swe^t-glands  in  the  body 
is  estimated  at  381,248,  and  the  aggregate  length  of  tubules 
as  2J  miles.  Revised  by  VV.  Pepper. 

Sweating:  Sickness :  one  of  the  prevalent  and  fatal  epi- 
demics which  occurred  during  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  ami 
early  part  of  the  seventeenth  centuries.  It  was  also  known 
as  pestilent  sweat  and  as  the  English  ephemera,  as  the  Eng- 
lish people  both  at  home  and  abroad  were  chiefly  attacked]. 
In  Germany,  Holland,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  it  prevaile<l 
more  mildly.  It  first  appeared  in  England  in  1485.  It 
was  of  brief  period,  both  in  individual  cases  and  in  dura- 
tion of  single  epidemics.  Fully  half  of  the  population  in 
infected  towns  had  the  disease,  and  the  mortality  was  great, 
but  where  death  did  not  result  all  danger  was  past  in  twenty- 
four  or  forty-eight  hours,  and  epidemics  rarely  lasted  a 
month.  The  other  great  English  epidemics  were  in  1506. 
1517,  1528,  and  1551.  In  the  last  two  the  disease  for  the 
first  time  left  English  soil,  appearing  in  various  parts  uf 
Western  Europe.  After  1551  no  further  epidemics  were 
met  with  till  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  since 
which  numerous  outbreaks  of  the  disease,  now  generallv 
known  as  miliary  fever,  have  occurred.  Miliary  fever  is  of 
common  occurrence  to  the  present  day,  scarcely  a  year  pasiJ- 
ing  without  an  epidemic  in  some  part  of  the  world  ;  but  it 
is  mild  in  character  and  very  rarely  spreads  to  any  consider- 
able distance.  The  attack  consisted  of  a  febrile  and  sweat- 
ing period.  It  began  with  pains  in  the  back,  shoulders,  and 
limbs,  flushes  of  heat,  oppression  at  the  liver  and  stomai-h, 
pain  in  the  head,  delirium,  palpitation,  followed  by  heavinejss 
and  desire  to  sleep,  which  in  fatal  cases  tended*  to  become 
profound  coma  or  stupor.  Profuse  sweating  then  set  in,  in 
favorable  cases  leading  to  speedv  convalescence.  Often  there 
was  an  eruption  in  the  skm,  which  afterward  desquamateii 
in  cases  which  recovered.  The  patient  was  liable  to  one  <»r 
man^  relapses.  The  disease  spaml  the  aged  and  young,  at- 
tacking chiefly  middle-aged,  plethoric  men  of  all  classes  and 
of  every  rank.  Both  in  England  and  on  the  Continent  t  he 
greater  prevalence  of  this  disease  among  Englishmen  was 
attributed  to  their  peculiarly  gluttonous,  excessive  diet.  By 
Ilecker,  Guy,  and  others  the  several  epidemics  of  this  disea5e 
are  ascribed  to  preceding  periods  of  atmospheric  and  telluric 
insalubrity,  the  influence  of  gathered  armies,  and  to  the 
absence  of  house  and  street  drainage  in  the  larger  cities  an<l 
towns.  Its  period  of  incubation,  rapid  progress,  and  spee«ly 
convalescence  disconnect  it  from  epidemics  of  the  tyf»hus 
class.  The  nature  of  sweating  sickness  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  much  conjecture.  Doubtless  it  is  some  special  inft*o- 
tion  and  not  influenza,  malaria,  or  rheumatism,  as  older 
writers  were  disi>osed  to  think.  Probably  various  dise^is*^ 
have  been  described  under  this  name.    The  treatment  con- 


sists mainly  in  rest  and  tonics. 


WiLUAM  Pepper. 


846 


SWEDEN 


mile ;  (1893)  4,824,150.  The  most  of  the  boundary  with  Nor- 
way is  formed  by  the  watershed  of  the  KiSlen  Mountains, 
and  that  with  Finland  by  the  TorneA  river  and  its  branches. 

Topography. — The  coast  is  4,740  miles  long,  of  which  4,100 
are  on  the  Baltic  and  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  the  remainder  on  the 
Cattegat  and  Skager  Rack.  The  fiords  are  few,  and  the 
adjoining  seas  generally  shallow,  with  gentle  slope.  The 
coast  is  bordered  by  a  narrow  ribbon  of  islets  called  the 
skdrgdrd,  rocky  and  bare  on  the  west  coast,  but  green  and 
fertile  on  the  east.  The  Sound,  2^  miles  wide  at  its  narrow- 
est part,  separates  Sweden  from  the  nearest  point  of  Den- 
mark.   The  islands  are  most  numerous  about  Stockholm. 

The  Baltic  slope  of  the  peninsula  is  gentler  than  the  At- 
lantic one,  and  in  Norrlana  (the  northern  part  of  Sweden)  it 
descends  in  a  series  of  terraces,  giving  its  rivers  alternately 
gentle  courses,  when  they  expand  into  lakes,  and  rapids,  or 
cataracts.  The  southern  part  of  Sweden  or  Gothland  has  a 
good  development  of  rocky  hills,  and  is  separated  from  the 
central  part,  or  Svealand  (Sweden  proper),  by  a  broad  low 
land  filled  with  great  lakes.  The  extreme  south  is  ancient 
Skania,  and  is  very  fertile.  Northern  Gothland  is  relatively 
arid.  Beyond  Stockholm  is  Upland,  the  classic  ground  of 
Sweden,  consecrated  to  ancient  traditions.  Dalecarlia,  N.  W. 
of  Stockholm,  and  on  the  Norwegian  frontier,  is  a  beauti- 
ful and  picturesque  land  with  gay,  hardy,  and  independent 
inhabitants;  here  Gustavus  Vasa  found  the  supijort  neces- 
sary to  overthrow  the  tyrannical  Christian. 

The  highest  mountains  are  in  or  near  the  Norwegian 
frontier,  from  66°  to  68^  N.  lat.  The  highest  known  is 
Kebnekaise,  or  Ivanstenen,  in  lat.  68°  N. — more  than  7,000 
feet  high.  Sulitelma,  2°  farther  S.,  and  long  considered  the 
highest  mountain  in  Sweden,  is  6,154  feet  high.  The  cul- 
minating points  of  Norway  are  considerably  higher.  Swe- 
den is  not  properly  mountainous ;  it  only  descends  a  long 
and  relatively  gentle  slope.  Glaciers  are  very  numerous 
in  the  north,  covering  a  total  area  of  150  sq.  miles.  The 
largest  are  about  Sarjektjokko  (6,825  feet  high,  and  between 
the  two  mountains  above  named),  where  on  a  surface  of 
460  »q.  miles  they  cover  70.  The  glaciers  are  reportetl  as 
growing. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — A  score  or  more  of  rivers  descend  the 
sloj^es,  form  lakes  in  their  course,  have  a  len^h  of  150  to 
250  miles,  and  empty  into  the  Bothnia  or  Baltic.  The 
quantity  of  water  they  pour  into  the  Bothnia  keeps  it  almost 
fresh.  The  innumerable  lakes  occupy  one-twelfth  of  the 
entire  surface.  They  are  generally  small,  but  about  thirty 
have  an  area  of  40  sq.  miles  or  more.  The  largest  is  the 
Wener,  between  Gothland  and  Svealand  ;  area^  2,150  sq. 
miles ;  144  feet  above  the  sea ;  greatest  depth,  295  feet.  The 
second  in  size  is  Lake  Wetter,  a  few  miles  S.  E.  of  the  pre- 
ceding ;  area,  733  s(][.  miles ;  290  feet  above  the  sea :  greatest 
depth,  410  feet.  It  is  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  its  shores, 
the  clearness  of  its  waters,  its  fogs,  and  its  sudden  storms. 
Lake  M&lar,  the  third  in  size,  and  penetrating  Stockholm, 
fiord-like  in  form,  is  only  a  few  inches  al>ove  the  Baltic,  and 
is  divided  into  a  series  of  levels  but  a  few  inches  apart.  It 
is  said  to  have  1,200  islands. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  verv  mild  for  the  latitude,  and 
storms  j)ass  usually  W.  or  S.  I'he  annual  precipitation  is 
from  10  to  40  inches,  and  is  greatest  on  the  southwest  coast. 
It  is  said  that  the  harvests  are  fifteen  days  later  than  in  the 
eighteenth  century. 

Geology  and  Mineral  Products. — Primitive  crystalline  and 
azoic  nxjks  cover  the  most  of  the  country,  aiid  the  chief 
metalliferous  beds  are  in  theup|)er  layers  of  these.  Cam- 
brian and  Silurian  rocks  are  not  rare,  and  some  Triassic  and 
Cretaceous  exjiosurcs  are  found.  The  Glacial  period  was  an 
important  one  in  Sweden,  and  has  left  traces  everywhere. 
Mining  is  an  important  industry,  and  the  prwhiction  of  iron 
is  large.  The  chief  districts  are  the  Gellivara,  within  the 
Arctic  Circle,  and  the  Dannemora,  in  Upsala.  In  1892  the 
chief  mineral  products  were  as  follows :  Pig  iron,  478,696 
tons,  and  bar  iron,  273,510  tons  (320,071  out  of  the  total 
1,291,9;^  tons  of  iron  ore  was  exported) ;  coal,  199,380  tons; 
gold,  1,907  oz.;  silver,  113,4;J0  oz. ;  lead,  1,760,721  lb. ;  cop- 
I)er,  1,641,598  lb.  Zinc  and  manganese  are  also  produced, 
and  cobalt  and  nickel  are  found. 

Faiam  and  Flora. — The  fauna  and  flora  must  have  mi- 
grated into  Sweden  after  the  Glacial  period,  and  are  more 
Finnish  than  German.  The  forests  are  very  extensive,  cov- 
ering two-fifths  of  the  area,  and  are  characterized  by  spruces 
and  birches  to  the  north,  pines  and  oaks  in  the  center,  and 
beeches  in  the  south.  The  reindeer  are  nearly  all  domesti- 
cated, but  the  large  pasturage  area  they  require  and  their 


tendency  to  epizootic  diseases  greatly  limit  their  useful- 
ness. The  bear,  wolf,  lynx,  and  glutton  are  di«ap{>ear- 
iug,  while  the  fox  and  elk  appear  to  be  increasing,  and  the 
roe-deer  is  extending  its  range  farther  N.  The  swaii  i^  a 
common  visitant  of  the  lakes. 

Food-fish  are  very  abundant,  and  include,  in  fresh  wator, 
the  salmon  (by  far  the  most  important),  the  eel,  pike,  ))eF('h. 
and  turbot ;  in  salt  water,  the  herring  (by  far  the  most  im- 
portant), flatfish,  cod,  mackerel,  and  sprats.  The  herring 
of  the  east  coast  are  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  west, 

Products. — The  climate  and  soil  are  not  very  favorable 
for  agriculture,  but  this  is  made  up  by  the  care  given  to  tt»e 
art.  Only  one-fifteenth  of  the  area  is  cultivatcKl ;  one  part 
in  ninety-two  in  Norrbotten,  but  one-third  in  Malm5hus. 
Barley  and  potatoes  reach  68''  N.  lat. ;  rye  passes  N.  «>f 
Haparanda, at  the  no^h  end  of  Bothnia;  wheat,  fomierlr 
cultivated  only  S.  of  Stockholm,  reaches  the  Dal  river. 
75  miles  farther  N.  The  farms  are  generally  small,  but 
they  give  occupation  to  about  half  of  the  population.  The 
largest  area  is  in  oats,  but  the  largest  agricultural  erof>  i> 
potatoes.  Horses  are  relatively  numerous  (one  to  ever)-  ton 
persons),  due  to  the  character  of  the  roads.  The  stock' gen- 
erally is  of  poor  native  rac^es,  but  the  dairy  industry  is 
growing  rapidly,  as  London  is  an  accessible  and  profitable 
market. 

Divisions. — The  country  is  divided  into  twenty-four  gov- 
ernments besides  the  city  of  Stockholm,  as  follows: 


GOVERNMENTS  (LAN). 


Stockholm  (city) i  18 

Stockholm  (rural  district) 3,015 

Upsala I  2,061 

Sftdermanland 2.631 

Oster  Gothland '  4,267 

JOnkOping j  4,447 

Kroiioberg i  8.825 

Kalmar 4,443 

Gothland !  1,219 

Blekinge |  1,164 

ChristiansUd I  2.488 

MalmOhuus I  1.880 

Halland '  1,900 

Got^borg  and  Bohus t  ^-^8 

Elfsborg 4.938 

Skaraborp 3.2N0 

Wermland ,  7.435 

Orebro  8,498 

Westmanland 2.625 

Kopparberg ■  11.522 

Gefleborg I  7,614 

VVestemorrlaiid 9,887 

Jemtland 19.712 

Westerbotten 22,754 

Norrbotten i  40,870 

Lakes  Wener,  Wetter,  M&lar,  Hjehnar |  3,516 

Totals ,  172.876 


2R7,rt37 
154.6.St 
lfti,O0H 
158.051 
a66.H&i 
193.2C8 
158,304 
228,577 
51.141 
141.925 
2l8,7o;? 
874.()S>1 
137.iH>2 
3l*4,6:ff> 
272.07V 
243,227 
2S0.935 
l84.7t>S 
140, 1S4 
201.674 
211.»S2 
212,660 
101.234 
128.617 
110,1»3 


Population. — The  population  has  shown  for  150  vejirs  a 
considerable  surplus  of  females  (1,065  to  1,000  males);  it 
has  also  shown  a  steady  g^rowth  of  nearlv  1  per  cent,  per 
annum.  The  last  is  in  spite  of  a  considerable  emigration  to 
America,  and  is  due  to  the  high  birth-rate,  and  not  to  im- 
migration, which  is  very  small.  About  10  per  cent,  of  the 
births  are  illegitimate,  due  not  to  immorality  but  to  thrift 
and  narrow  circumstances:  the  parents  usually  marry  lai»»r. 
The  Finns  number  about  17,000;  Lapps,  6,500;  Jews,  3,0(¥): 
other  foreigners,  15,000.  Aside  from  these,  the  Swedish 
type  is  pure  and  unmixed,  and  the  ancient  division  into 
dota  (Goths)  and  Svea  (Swedes)  has  about  disappeared.  Tiie 
Lutheran  is  the  state  church,  and  other  religions,  thoujzh 
tolerated,  are  few.  Education  is  compulsory,  schools  of  ail 
grades  are  numerous  (including  two  ancient  and  highly 
esteemed  universities,  at  Upsiila  and  Lund  respectively),  and 
the  percentage  of  illiteracy  is  evanescent.  Serious  crimei> 
are  relatively  rare,  but  pauperism  is  large  and  increasing. 

Imports  and  Exports. — The  value  of  the  annual  imiK>rt5i 
is  about  $100,000,000,  chiefly  textiles,  colonial  wares,  and 
coal ;  the  annual  exports  are  valued  at  $90,000,000,  chiefly 
timber,  animals  and  their  products,  and  ores.  Germany  r«i 
tlie  chief  importer.  Great  Britain  the  chief  buyer.  'I'he 
merchant  navy  consists  of  about  1.500  craft  of  over  100  tons 
burden,  one-third  steamers.  Gothenburg  is  the  most  frt»- 
quent*»d  port,  Stockholm  next,  and  22,000  vessels  visit  Swed- 
ish ports  annually. 

Bail  ways. — The  railways  have  a  length  of  5,454  milo< 
(1894),  of  Which  1,851  miles  belong  to  the  state.  The  mo^i 
noteworthy  railway  is  that  which  connects  Stockholm  and 
Trondhjem  in  Norway,  and  the  most  northern  railway  in 


848 


SWEDISH  LANGUAGE 


SWEDISH  LITERATURE 


The  linguistic  separation  of  the  Scandinavian  north  falls 
within  the  Vikina:  age  (700-1050).  Down  to  the  year  1000, 
however,  although  local  differences  are  visible  even  early  in 
the  period,  the  language  is  still,  to  all  purposes,  homogene- 
ous, and  only  after  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  at  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  do  distinct  dialects  arise ; 
namely,  Swedish-Danish  and  Norwegian-Icelandic,  The 
latter  was  not  strictly  differentiated  until  the  beginning  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  the  former  not  until  its  end.  The 
material  for  the  history  of  the  earliest  period  of  Swedish  is 
contained  in  mnic  inscriptions,  in  all  nearly  2,000,  most  of 
them  from  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  The  oldest 
extant  MS.  is  from  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  (1281), 
after  which  time  a  native  literature J)egan  to  appear.  The 
linguistic  territory  of  Old  Swediln  comprised  modern 
Sweden,  with  the  exception  of  parts  of  the  west  which  were 
Norwegian,  and  the  southern  provinces  of  Skaane,  Halland, 
and  Blekinge,  which  were  Danish,  besides,  and  to  a  greater 
extent  than  at  present,  coast  regions  of  Finland,  Esthonia, 
and  Livland.  The  language  of  the  period  shows  numerous 
local  differences,  but  only  in  one  case,  the  dialect  of  the 
island  of  Gothland,  which  is  freauently  described  in  contra- 
distinction to  Old  Swedish  as  Old  Gu'tnic,  are  they  sharply 
defined.  A  common  national  language,  a  movement  to- 
ward which  is  distinctly  visible  after  1350,  gradually  deve- 
loped itself  in  the  main  out  of  the  middle  Swedish  dialect  of 
Sodermanland. 

Modern  Swedish  is  the  continuation,  in  direct  descent,  of 
the  Old  Swedish  dialect  of  the  midland  provinces  of  Soder- 
manland and  Ostergothland,  which  even  in  Old  Swedish 
shows  few  local  differences.  Its  beginning  is  coincident 
with  the  Reformation,  and  its  first  important  literary 
monument  is  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  tlie  so-called 
Gustavus  I.  Bible  of  1541.  The  language  may  be  said  to 
have  assumed  its  present  appearance  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  important  external  modifications  from  Old 
Swedish  down  were  first  the  introduction  of  a  multitude  of 
Low  German  words  into  the  vocabulary  during  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries,  principally  as  a  consequence 
of  commercial  connection  with  the  Hanseatic  League.  A 
Danish  influence,  the  result  of  political  conditions  under 
the  Danish  sovereigns  from  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury to  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth,  made  itself  widely  felt, 
not  only  in  tne  vocabulary  by  the  introduction  of  Danish 
words,  but  in  phonology  and  inflections.  A  second  influx 
of  German  words  came  in  with  the  Reformation.  A  reac- 
tionary tendency  which  looked  toward  the  displacement  of 
foreign  elements  and  the  rehabilitation  of  older  words  and 
forms  has  several  times  shown  itself.  This  movement  was 
directed  at  the  beginning  of  Modem  Swedish  in  the  six- 
teenth century  against  Danicisms.  In  the  latter  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century  many  words  were  introduced  from  Old 
Swedish  and  Old  Icelandic,  a  process  repeated  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  by  the  further  reinstatement  of  Old  Swedish 
forms  and  the  adoption  of  words  from  the  spoken  dialects. 

Internally,  the  general  tendency  of  the  language  from 
the  fourteenth  century    down  has  been  toward    weaker 

Chonetic  conditions  ana  simpler  inflectional  forms.  At  the 
eginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Old  Swedish  sys- 
tem of  inflections  had  to  a  gi-eat  extent  disappeared,  and 
present  conditions  already  prevailed.  Some  of  the  changes 
then  observable  date,  however,  from  an  earlier  period.  In 
the  fifteenth  century,  for  instance,  falls  the  use  of  the  end- 
ing s  for  all  genitives,  and  the  displacement  of  the  first 
plural  of  verbs  by  the  third.  In  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries  all  case-declension  was  lost  in  adjectives, 
and  nominative,  dative,  and  accusative  in  substantives  were 
merged  in  a  single  form. 

Swedish  and  Scandinavian  language  is  distinctively  char- 
acterized by  the  use  of  the  suffixed  definite  article  with  sub- 
stantives, and  the  formation  of  a  passive  voice  of  verbs  by 
the /addition  of  the  reflexive  pronoun,  Swedish  -«,  to  the 
corresponding  active  form.  As  an  East  Norse  dialect  it 
has,  in  common  with  Danish,  as  important  characteristics 
the  change  of  the  diphthongs  ei,  au,  and  ey  to  the  long 
vowels  e  and  5,  respectively ;  the  almost  total  absence  of 
w-umlaut,  and  the  passive  form  in  -s  (Icel.  -st).  In  contra- 
distinction, however,  to  Danish,  which  has  throughout 
weakened  the  vowel  of  the  inflectional  ending  to  a  voiceless 
e,  Swedish  has,  in  many  instances,  retained  a  and  o ;  final 
k,  /,  p  remain  in  Swedish  after  a  vowel  where  they  are 
weakened  to  a,  d,  b  in  Danish.  Swedish  has,  in  point  of 
fact,  on  the  wnole  much  better  preserved  archaic  phonetic 
conditions,  although  it  has  gone  almost  as  far  as  Danish  in 


the  simplification  of  its  grammar.  As  in  Danish,  htit  a 
single  case-ending,  genitive  -«,  occurs  with  substantivt*^ : 
neither  the  strong  nor  the  weak  adjective  has  inflection  f<<r 
case.  Unlike  Danish,  where  there  is  throughout  no  dist  iuc- 
tion  of  person  in  the  verbal  conjugation,  Swedish  has  a  di^i- 
tinctive  form  in  the  second  person  plural,  and  the  threeftdil 
gender  of  substantives  has  been  ret-ained. 

Swedish  is  still  spoken  in  a  number  of  dialects,  some  of 
which,  like  forms  in  Dalecarlia  and  the  island  of  Gothland, 
notably  deviate  from  the  literary  langiiage.  Genericall\, 
they  may  be  arranged  in  a  northern,  middle,  southern,  and 
Gothland  group.  The  northern  or  Norrland  group  inchule^ 
besides  North  Swedish  proper,  the  dialects  of  Finland  and 
Esthonia.  The  southern  group  is  spoken  in  language  terri- 
torv  once  Danish,  to  which  it  is  morphologically  akin. 
Middle  Swedish,  out  of  which  the  literary  language  pn*- 
ceeded,  shows  the  least  dialectic  differentiation,  and  now, 
as  always,  most  nearly  approximates  the  literary  form. 

For  the  pronunciation  of  Swedish,  see  Henry  Sweet.  ^1 
Handbook  of  Phonetics  (Oxford,  1877).  An  exhaustive 
scientiflc  treatment  of  the  older  language  is  contained  in 
the  chapter  by  Adolf  Noreen,  Otschichte  der  nordischen 
Sprachen,  in  Paul's  Orundriss  der  Oermanischen  Philologit 
(vol.  i.,  Strassbur^,  1891);  E.  C.  Otte,  A' Simplified  Gram- 
mar of  the  Swedish  Languaae  (London,  1884).  See  also  S. 
E.  Rydquist,  Svenska  sprdkets  lagar  (4  vols.,  Stockholm. 
1850-70),  an  historical  grammar  of  the  Swedish  langua^t-, 
in  Swedish.  William  H.  Cabpenter. 

Swedish  Literatnre :  the  literature  of  the  Swedish 
people. 

Heathen  Aae, — Although  few  fragments  remain,  it  may 
be  assumed  that  Sweden  produced  various  literary  work's 
before  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  The  laws,  which 
were  given  a  written  form  in  the  following  period,  wert* 
composed  much  earlier,  several  runic  inscriptions  and  fig- 
ures, notably  those  of  ROksten  and  Ramsundsborg^  point  to 
poetical  works  similar  in  character  to  the  poetry  of  lit- 
land-Norway,  and  finally  in  the  preface  to  \tdreks  saga  a* 
Bern  reference  is  made  to  the  existence  of  a  great  body  t»f 
lays  in  Denmark  and  Sweden. 

Mediaval  Period, — The  influence  of  Christianity  on  the 
literature  of  Sweden  made  itself  felt  even  later  than  on 
that  of  Denmark.  Not  until  the  middle  of  the  thirtecndi 
century  did  any  Christian  writings  appear,  but  from  that 
time  great  activity  was  displayed  in  the  cloisters.  The  earli- 
est theological  writer  of  importance  is  Magister  Matthia> 
(d.  about  1350),  canon  of  Linkoping  and  St.  Birgitta's  teach- 
er, who  is  supposed  to  have  made  the  first  translation,  or 
rather  paraphrase,  of  a  portion  of  the  Old  Testament  (lie- 
fore  1340).  During  this  century  and  the  two  following 
centuries  other  books,  both  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment, were  put  into  Swedish.  (See  G.  E.  Klemming, 
Svenska  Medeltidens  Bibelarbtten  1848-55^  Matthias  wa> 
also  the  author  of  commentaries  on  the  Bible,  originally 
written  in  Latin  but  afterward  translated  into  Swedisfi. 
The  only  other  religious  prose  work  from  this  period  that 
deserves  special  mention  is  Heliga  Birgitias  Uppenbarel^r 
(The  Revelations  of  St.  Birgitta),  **  the  first  Swedish  work 
that  entered  into  the  world's  literature."  (See  BiBonTA. 
Saint.)  It  is  full  of  warmth  and  originality  and  abounds  in 
bold  images.  Of  far  greater  importance  is  the  influence  ex- 
erted by  Birgitta  throughout  the  North,  both  on  religion 
and  literature.  In  the  cloisters  of  her  order  a  great  niaSvS 
of  native  writings  was  preserved  and  produced.  The  effort  > 
of  her  followers  were  directed  mainly  toward  translating, 
continental  mystical  writings  into  Swedish.  She  encour- 
aged the  use  of  the  Swedish  language  in  the  pulpit^  and 
consequently  a  great  mass  of  sermons,  both  in  Danish  and 
Swedish,  must  have  been  produced  during  this  peri<Kl. 
comparatively  few  of  which,  however,  have  fcen  preservtil. 
Of  tnese  only  one,  the  Danish  PbstiUe.  was  printed  l)efi»re 
the  Reformation.  For  specimens  of  Swedish  sermons,  siv 
Klemming's  SveJiska  Medeltids-Postillor  (1879). 

Swedish  literature  is  remarkably  rich,  as  compared  witli 
Danish,  in  legendary  compositions.  The  most  important 
collections  are  the  so-called  Fomsvenskt  Legendan'vm,  a 
translation  of  the  Legenda  aurea  of  Jacobus  de  Voragiiu-, 
made  shortly  after  the  appearance  of  the  original,  but  pr^^- 
sorved  in  a  MS.  from  1350  (ed.  by  George  Stephens,  1847-74). 
and  Vita  Patrium,  in  a  MS.  from  1385  (ed.  by  Klemming^. 
Somewhat  similar  in  character  to  these  legends  are  the  c«»I- 
lections  of  miracles,  of  which  a  great  number  existed,  both 
in  Denmark  and  Sweilen.    Here  may  also  be  mentioned  tlio 


850 


SWEDISH   LITERATUUK 


life  distingui8he<l  for  his  studies  in  matheniatics  and  min- 
eralogy, llie  most  marked  feature  of  the  literary  and  sci- 
entific production  of  this  period  is  originality. 

The  interval  between  1640  and  1740  is  often  called  the 
Stjernhjelra  period,  partly  from  the  fact  that  Georg  St jeru- 
hjelm  (1598-1672)  was  its  greatest  poet,  but  far  more  because 
the  influences  introduced  by  him  continued  to  prevail  long 
after  his  death.  He  has  with  sufficient  accuracy  been  called 
the  father  of  Swedish  poetry ;  he  might  more  properly  be 
called  the  creator  of  modern  Swetlish  literary  expression, 
for  it  is  due  chiefly  to  his  efforts  that  Swedish  has  become 
the  most  melodious  of  the  Scandinavian  tongues.  It  was 
not  until  after  he  had  reached  middle  life  that  Stjernhjelm 
discovered  his  poetical  genius  in  the  long  didactic  poem 
IlerJculea,  Filled  with  an  enthusiasm  for  classic  literature 
and  his  native  tongtte,  he  introduced  his  countrymen  to  the 
teachings  of  the  Renaissance  and  showed  them  how  this 
foreign  element  could  be  welded  with  the  national  language 
and  character.  He  was  the  first  in  Sweden  to  make  use  of 
the  hexameter,  the  alexandrine,  the  sonnet,  the  epigram, 
and  the  humorous  lyric.  The  latter,  in  the  hands  of  Bell- 
man, was  destined  to  become  one  of  the  distinguishing 
marks  of  modern  Swedish  poetry.  His  successors,  while 
c<mtinuing  his  efforts  to  refine  and  expand  the  language, 
contributed  but  little  of  real  poetic  worth.  Among  them 
may  be  mentioned  Samuel  Columbus  (1642-79),  a  pupil  of 
Stjernhjelm,  called  the  Swedish  Placcus  from  his  Od(B  Sue- 
thiece ;  Peter  Lft^erlSf  (1648-99),  author  of  a  number  of 
graceful  songs  and  hymns;  Johan  Runius (1679-1713),  whose 
collection  of  poems  Dudnim  was  the  most  popular  of  his 
time;  and  Lasse  Johansson  {circa  1640-74),  called  from  his 
pseudonym  Liicidor  den  olycklige.  By  the  side  of  this 
classical  school  appears  a  pseudo-romantic,  largely  influ- 
enced by  the  second  Silesian  school  and  by  the  later  Italian 
poets,  which  sought  to  oppose  the  formalism  of  Stjern- 
njelm's  successors.  In  spite  of  this,  however,  the  poetry  of 
its  first  prominent  representative,  Gustaf  Rosenhane  (lol9- 
84),  owes  its  value  to  the  form  rather  than  to  the  content. 
He  resembles  Stjernhjelm,  furthermore,  in  his  warm  love  of 
country  and  in  his  attempts  to  introduce  new  verse-forms, 
among  others  the  French  variety  of  the  sonnet,  (xunno 
Eurelius  Dahlstjerna  (1658-1709)  was  possessed  of  far 
greater  originality,  but  his  talents  were  hami^ered  by  their 
foreign  influence.  He  also  introtiuccd  a  new  verse  form, 
the  ottava  rima  with  Alexandrines,  exemplified  in  his  prin- 
cipal poem  Kungaskald  (The  King's  Skald).  The  best 
hymnists  of  this  period  are  H&kon  Spegel  (1645-1714),  called 
tlie  Wallin  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  Jesi>er  Svedljerg 
(1653-1735).  Tlie  most  interesting  prose  work  of  that 
period  is  Rudbeck's  Atlantica. 

Period  of  Freedom^  171(^-72. — In  this  period  the  activ- 
ity of  the  preceding  time  was  c<:)ntinued ;  a  number  of  acad- 
emies and  learned  societies  wore  founded,  the  royal  theater 
was  opened,  and  scientific  investigation  was  carried  still 
further.  Among  the  many  scientists  were  the  naturalist 
Karl  von  Linne  (1707-78),  the  chemists  Torbern  Olof  Berg- 
man (1735-84)  and  Karl  Vilhelm  Strheele  (1742-86),  the 
physicist  Anders  Celsius  (d.  1744),  and  the  medical  writer 
kils  Ros^n  von  Rosenstein  (1706-73),  called  the  father  of 
Swedish  medical  science.  The  most  prominent  linguist  was 
Johan  Ihre  (1707-80). 

The  prevailing  foreign  influence  during  this  period  was 
the  French.  This  was  due  to  many  causes,  but  its  advance 
was  hastened  by  the  marriage  of  Louisa  Ulrika,  sister  of 
Frederick  the  (xreat,  to  the  Swedish  king  Adolphus  Fred- 
erick III.  The  French  influence  made  itself  felt  not  only 
on  the  literature,  but  also  on  the  whole  culture  of  the  period. 
The  dominating  figure  is  Olof  Ton  Dalin  (1708-63),  after 
whom  the  latter  part  of  it,  from  1740,  is  frequently  named. 
In  spite  of  his  French  prejudices  Dalin  rendered  a  real 
service  to  Swedish  prose  through  the  publication  of  Den 
Svenska  Argtui  (1732-34),  modeled  on  The  Sfjectator^  the 
first  serious  attempt  at  pericxlical  literature  in  Swe<ien. 
His  poetical  productiveness  was  forced  by  the  requirements 
of  his  position  as  court  poet.  Of  Dalih's  contemporaries 
may  be  mentioned  Karl  Gustaf  Jl'essin  (1695-1770),  Anders 
Johan  von  Httpken  (1712-89),  both  famous  for  their  elo- 
quence; Jakob  Henrik  Mork  (1714-63),  author  of  the  first 
Swedish  novel,  Adalrik  och  Gdfhifda:  Jakob  Wallenberg 
(1746-78),  whose  Min  ao7i  pd  gate/an  (My  Son  on  the  Gal- 
ley) is  infiuenced  by  Swift  and  itolberg;  Karl  Gyllenlx)rg 
(1679-1746),  author  of  the  first  modern  Swedish  comedy ; 
Fru  Hedvig  Charlotta  Nordenflycht  (1718-83),  who  received 
the  title  of  the  Swedish  Sappho.*  Of  vS|H?cial  interest  as  illus- 


trating the  taste  of  this  period  is  Giu^taf  Philip  Cn^\i*z 
(1731-85),  whose  pastoral  AtiM  och  Camilla  was  fur  h  hjt.j 
time  the  most  popular  Swedish  poem.  Belonging  as  idu<  n 
to  the  following  period  as  to  this  is  Karl  Mikad  Bellninn 
(1740-95),  the  first  great  humorous  poet  of  Sweden.  In  \r^ 
treatment  of  subjects  he  stood  entirely  alone,  and  the  luoml 
undertone  of  his  apparently  reckless  songs  fell  on  denf  ttar^. 
His  genius  did  not  receive  full  recognitiou  until  aft«.*r  hi^ 
death,  when  the  frivolous  spirit  of  the  French  school  hM*i 
given  place  to  the  earneistness  of  the  romanticist^).  Uv  i- 
the  only  Swedish  |M)et  of  the  eighteenth  century  who  enji.\> 
general  popularity. 

Ou8tavian  Period^  177J-1S()9. — The  nsendo-classic  >t\V 
continued  to  be  cultivate<l.  The  Swedish  Academy,  found- 
ed in  1786,  was  a  French  Academy  in  miniature,  while  tlv 
national  theater,  revived  by  the  king,  was  as  convent  ion  a! 
as  the  Theatre  Frangais.  Opposed  to  this  French  innv*- 
ment  was  a  group  of  writers  who  sought  to  develop  t  he  na- 
tional spirit.  The  leatling  spirit  among  the  academic iiui^ 
was  Johan  Henrik  Kellgren  (1751-95),  poet  and  critic,  uh.. 
deserves  the  title  of  the  literary  dictator  of  his  time.  His 
literary  criticisms  were  publisKed  in  Sioekholmspont^n.  ..f 
which  he  was  editor  from  1788.    After  Kellgren 's  death  U\> 

Elace  was  taken  by  Karl  Gustaf  af  Leopold  (1 756-1  «?9),  wh.» 
ad  the  misfortune  to  outlive  his  time.  He  excelleil  in  «ii- 
dactic  poetry,  his  Predikaren  (The  Preacher)  being  his  nn-t 
popular  effort  in  this  direction.  Among  other  poeti<  of  \U< 
group  are  Johan  Gabriel  Oxenstjerna  (1750-1818),  whotran- 
lated  Paradise  Lost,  and  Anna  Maria  Lenngren  (1755-1  hi  T>. 
the  foremost  Swedish  jioetess.  In  oppositicm  to  the  Aca«!- 
cmy  and  the  principle  it  represents  are  Th(»rild,  Bellman. 
Bengt  Ijidner  (1757-93),  a  poet  of  feeling,  and  Karl  Au^T'i^f 
Khrensvanl  (174')-18()0).  The  Finnish  i)oet  Frans  Mikat-l 
Franzen  (1772-1847)  belongs  in  part  to  this  period. 

jmm-30.— After  the  revolution  of  1809  and  the  res^toni- 
tion  of  the  freedom  of  the  press,  the  revolt  against  ili*- 
acatlcmic  sch(X)l  took  definite  shape,  and  went  to  the  furth»-: 
extreme  of  romanticism.  The  first  leaders  in  the  movement 
were  the  two  voung  iH>ets  Per  Daniel  Atterlxmi  (1 790-1  *vVm 
and  Vilhelm 'Fredrik  Palmblad  (1788-1852),  who  in  INH 
formed  a  literary  society  called  Auroraforbundet,  amuiii; 
the  other  members  of  which  were  Samuel  Johan  He<U>«>rii 
(1783-1849),  P.  A.  Sonden  (d.  1837),  and  Kari  Fredrik  Dai.  - 
gren  (1791-1844).  The  main  principles  of  this  society  wtn- 
those  of  the  new  romantic  school  in  Germany.  In  phili»<.»- 
phy  they  followed  blindly  the  system  of  Scfielling.  Th«'jr 
literarv  discussions  and  original  works  were  published  intht^ 
periodicals  Polyfem  (Stockholm,  1809-12)  and  PhoMphoru^ 
(tr}>sala.  1810-13),  from  the  latter  of  which  they  wen*  cnWvii 
Phosphorists.  In^spite  of  the  many  absurd  features  of  tli^ir 
poetry  and  criticisms,  the  Phosphorists  rendered  a  real  serv- 
ice to'Swedish  literature  by  preparing  the  way  for  a  soun4»  r 
conception  of  the  nature  of  poetry.  Their  faults  are  tln-s^- 
of  their  Gennan  models.  The  discussion  between  the  Arn«i- 
emy  and  the  Phosphorists  was  conducted  with  fierceness  ainl 
brutality.  The  leading  disputants  were  Per  Adam  Wali- 
mark  (d*.  1858),  the  representative  of  the  Academy,  and  th.- 
members  of  the  Aurora  Society  already  mentio*ne<l.  T!i- 
discussion  continued  until  about  1825.  In  many  respect^  i: 
resembles  the  contemporary  Baggesen-Oehlensdilftger  feud, 
(See  Danish  Litp:rature.)  '  In  opposition  to  the  Phospho- 
rists, thoiigh  also  representing  a  romantic  movement,  hp* 
GiStema  (The  Goths),  who  sought  inspiration  in  the  cult  up- 
of  their  Scandinavian  ancestors.  They  differe<i  from  th»- 
Phosphorists.  too,  in  avoiding  a  ouarrel  with  the  Acadeiin 
The  representatives  of  the  school  formed  a  society  in  IMl 
called  (i^tiskaforbundet,  with  Idutva  (1811-24)  as  its  orjr?»n. 
Among  the  charter  meml)ers  were  Jakob  Adlert>eth  (d.  lH44t. 
Erik  Gustaf  Geijer  (1783-1847),  and  Leonard  Fretlrik  Kfuf 
(1786-1872).  The  most  valuable  service  renders!  by  the  s..- 
ciety  was  in  arousing  public  interest  in  early  Scandinnvi.Mt. 
literature  and  culture,  especially  through  the  publication  »>y 
Geijer  and  Arvid  August  Afzelius  (1785-1871)  of  the  fir*? 
collection  of  Swedish  Imllads.  The  absurd  side  of  the  m«>\r- 
ment  is  displayed  in  the  epics  and  tragedies  of  Per  Henrik 
Ling  (1776-1839).  Standing  apart,  as  its  name  implit»s.  i-^ 
still  another  sciiool,  Neutrer  (Neutrals),  who  reprcsi»ntc<i  rh.* 
principles  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Henler.  Its  organ  wa^ 
ljifra*um,  and  its  leading  writers  were  Johan  Olof  Wallv; 
(1779-1839),  the  greatest  Swedish  hvmnist,  Franzon,  and  Ben- 
jamin Iloijer  (1767-1812). 

Esais  Tegner  (1782-1846),  the  Swedish  OehlenschlRger,  i- 
sometimes  regarded  as  a  (loth,  sometimes  as  a  Neutml.  !: 
reality  he  was  neither.     For  tlie  exquisite  form  of  \\.U  pn»>»- 


Nil , 


\lt^  I  **' 


•^,5    1  t 


S/r 


M(»lNt: 


f^  ttf  f^ 


852 


SWIFT 


first  and  second  being  of  equal  length  ;  the  tail  is  variable 
in  shape,  deeply  forked  in  some,  almost  square  in  others,  but 
always  composed  of  ten  feathers.  The  first  toe  is  directed 
more  or  less  forward,  and  in  the  more  typical  swifts  {Cypse- 
linm)  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  digits  have  but  three 
joints  each,  owing  to  a  fusion  of  the  basal  phalanges.  Ana- 
tomically the  swifts  are  very  different  from  the  swallows, 
and  do  not  belong  to  the  same  order.  There  are  about  fifty 
species  distributed  over  the  greater  portion  of  the  globe'; 
with  the  exception  of  the  East  Indian  tree-swifts  (i/acrop- 
teryz),  which  are  prettily  clad,  they  are  mostly  of  somber 
plumage.  They  are  insect-eaters  and  pass  the  "greater  por- 
tion of  their  time  on  the  wing,  and  some,  like  the  chimney- 
swift  or  chimney-swallow  {Chcetura  pelagiea)  of  the  U.  S., 
even  gather  the  materials  for  their  nests  in  full  flight. 
They  build  in  caves,  crevices  of  the  rock,  nooks  of  old  build- 
ing, hollow  trees,  or  adapt  themselves  to  civilization  in 
chimneys,  while  an  African  swift  suspends  its  nest  to  the 
fronds  of  a  palm.  The  nests  are  gummed  together  with 
saliva,  and  the  famous  edible  birds'-nests,  built  by  the  little 
swifts  of  the  genus  Calloealta,  consist  entirely  of  a  peculiar 
salivary  secretion.  The  eg^  are  white,  two  in  number  in 
many  species,  four  or  five  m  others,  while  the  tree-swifts 
(Mac7'opteryx)  lay  but  one  egg.  One  species  of  typical  swift 
(Micropus  melanoleticus)  is  found  in  the  western  parte  of  the 
U.  S.,  while  the  common  chimney-swift  abounds  in  the  East- 
em  States.  The  common  s{)ecies  of  Europe  (Micropiis  apii8) 
ranges  from  Great  Britain  to  India,  occurring  also  m  North- 
ern Africa.  The  swifts  are  usually  divided  into  two  sub- 
families, according  tothenumberoi  phalanges,  but  the  tree- 
swifts  (Macropteryx)  are  by  their  numerous  peculiarities 
entitled  to  rank  as  a  separate  family  {M(tcroterygidiw),  In 
the  western  parts  of  the  U.  S.  the  name  swift  is  "applied  to 
a  small  fox  ( Vulpes  velox),  and  in  the  southern  parts  to  a 
small  lizard  (Sceloporus  undulatus).  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Swift,  Jonathan  :  satirist  and  divine ;  b.  in  Dublin,  Ire- 
land, Nov.  30,  1667.  He  was  the  posthumous  son  of  Jona- 
than Swift,  an  Irish  ofiicial,  and  of  his  wife  Abigail  Erick, 
of  Leicester.  Of  his  birth  in  Dublin,  the  dean  remarked 
in  after-life,  "  I  happened  by  a  perfect  accident  to  be  born 
here,  and  thus  I  am  a  Teague,  or  an  Irishman,  or  what 
people  please,"  but  his  descent  was  purely  English.  He 
was  kidnaped,  as  an  infant,  by  his  nurse,  who  carried  him 
to  Whitehaven,  in  Cumberland,  where  he  remained  nearly 
three  years,  when  his  mother  took  him  away  to  Leicester. 
At  the  age  of  six  he  went  to  Kilkenny  School,  and  on  Apr. 
24, 1682,  entered  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  was  an  idle 
scholar,  often  censured,  and  in  1688,  on  his  twenty-first 
birthday,  he  quitted  the  university  in  disgrace.  He*  went 
to  his  mother  at  Leicester,  and  was  prcvsently  glad  to  ac- 
cept the  position  of  amanuensis  in  the  family  of  his  emi- 
nent kinsman,  Sir  William  Temple,  at  Moor  Park.  There 
Swift  remained,  with  two  intermissions,  until  Temple's  death 
in  1699.  His  health  was  bad,  and  aft^r  a  surfeit  of  golden 
pippins  in  1689,  he  began  to  suffer  from  the  mysterious 
complaint  of  his  lifetime,  which,  as  is  now  conjectured,  must 
have  been  a  labyrinthine  vertigo.  In  1692  he  received  the 
degree  of  M.  A.  irom  Oxford,  and  to  the  same  date  belong 
his  earliest  existing  compositions,  his  awkward  and  prosaic 
Pindaric  Odes.  In  1694  he  left  Temple  and  returned  to  Ire- 
land ;  early  in  1695  he  took  priests^  orders  and  the  small 
Ulster  living  of  Kilroot.  The  solitude  weighed  upon  him, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1696  he  went  back  to  Temple's  service. 
In  1696  he  began  A  Tale  of  a  Tub,  and  in  1697  he  wrote 
The  Battle  of  the  Books,  which  was  first  published  in  a 
joint  volume  in  1704,  although  prepared  for  the  press  in 
1698.  At  the  death  of  his  patron  Swift  applied  to  William 
III.,  whose  favorable  attention  he  had  attracted,  but  the 
petition  failed  to  reach  the  king.  lie  therefore  was  glad  to 
accept  tlie  post  of  secret^iry  to  Lord  Berkeley,  but  was  dis- 
missed in  Dublin.  In  Feb.,  1700,  the  living  of  Laracor,  to 
which  were  presently  appended  two  other  small  incumben- 
cies and  a  prebend,  secured  for  him  a  scantv  competence. 
He  was  now  invited  by  an  old  flame.  Miss  Waring,  "  Vari- 
na,"  to  marry  her,  but  he  refused  to  do  so  in  a  strangely 
violent  letter.  He  was  more  interested  in  "Stella,"  Sir 
William  Temple's  orphan  ward,  Esther  Johnson;  in  1701 
she  and  her  friend  Mrs.  Dingley  came  over  to  Ireland  to  be 
near  Swift.  W^hen  he  was  absent  from  Dublin,  and  his 
visits  to  England  were  frequent  and  lengthy,  these  ladies 
occupied  his  chambers.  In  1701  Swift  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance as  an  author,  by  the  publication  of  the  anonymous 
pamphlet  CotUests  and  Dissensions  in  Athens  and  Rome. 


This  was  successful,  and  the  Tale  of  a  Tub  volume,  in  1704, 
raised  a  storm  of  notoriety,  but  Swift  took  little  part  as  yet 
in  literary  or  political  life.  In  1708  he  became  suddenly  a 
great  power  in  the  Whig  party,  and  published  a  succession 
of  vigorous  and  brilliant  tracts.  These,  and  other  hdodt- 
mous  publications  in  prose  and  verse,  were  collected  in  a  vol- 
ume of  Miscellanies  in  1711,  in  which  Batici^  and  PhiUrnon, 
written  in  1706,  and  the  City  Shower  are  to  be  found. 
Meanwhile  Swift  had  risen  to  the  highest  level  of  Loudon 
society.  In  1705  Addison  had  addressed  him  as  '*the  moin 
agreeable  companion,  the  truest  friend,  and  the  greaie3»t 
genius  of  his  a^ere,"  and  Swift  was  accepted  on  these  t4?rms 
by  most  of  the  leading  wits  and  statesmen  of  the  court  of 
Anne.  His  influence  on  behalf  of  others  was  boundless, 
and  most  generously  exercised,  but  he  could  secure  no  pre- 
ferment for  himself.  A  very  clear  light  upon  all  his  move- 
ments and  his  sentiments  is  presently  thrown  by  the  famous 
Journal  to  Stella,  a  correspondence  kept  up  with  Esther 
Johnson  and  Mrs.  Dingley  from  Sept.,  1710,  to  Apr.,  1713.  <  >f 
his  profusion  of  fjolitical  pamphlets  poured  out  at  this  time, 
the  best  known  is  The  Conduct  of  the  Allies,  which,  pul>- 
lished  in  Nov.,  1711,  went  through  four  editions  in  one  week. 
This  gives,  however,  a  very  poor  idea  of  Swift's  iniportani-e 
in  English  politics  during  the  administration  of  Ilarlev. 
When  he  returned  to  London  from  a  temporary  retirement 
at  Laracor  in  Sept.,  1710,  he  was  received  by  the  Whigs 
with  enthusiasm ;  but  they  had  failed  him  before,  and  he 
repulsed  their  advances  and  rejected  their  "  clumsy  apol<»- 
gies."  He  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  Tories,  and  was  n?- 
ceived  into  the  innermost  councils  of  the  new  ministry.  A 
satire,  Sid  HameVs  Rod,  on  the  fallen  Godolphin,  enjoyed 
a  prodigious  success,  and  in  Nov.,  1710,  Swift  took  the  edi- 
torship of  the  Whig  newspaper  The  Examiner,  and  made 
it  the  or^an  of  the  new  Tory  party.  He  proved  bintself 
a  journalist  of  the  very  first  order.  His  success  culmi- 
nated in  the  ministerial  crisis  of  Dec.,  1711,  and  he  fourul 
himself  one  of  the  most  powerful  men  in  England.  H  is 
health,  indeed,  began  to  trouble  him,  but  throughout  1712 
"  Dr.  Swift  was  the  principal  man  of  talk  and  business  "  in 
London.  He  was  able  to  secure  for  his  friends  and  pro- 
tegis  all  the  places  and  the  favors  they  required ;  yet  in  the 
midst  of  his  greatness  his  old  ill  luck  assailed  him,  and  in 
s|iite  of  his  authority  with  the  ministry  he  was  refused  the 
bishopric  of  Hereford.  This  was  a  blow  to  him,  but  he  re^ 
covered  from  it ;  the  death  of  (jueen  Anne  in  1714  annihi- 
lated his  hopes.  As  Arbuthnot  said.  Swift  was  "  like  a  man 
knocked  down,"  and  in  wrath  and  bewilderment  he  retire*l 
to  Dublin.  His  fall  was  broken  by  his  having  been  ap- 
pointed in  the  previous  summer  to  the  deanery  of  St.  Pat- 
rick's. His  spints  languished  in  this  enforced  retirement, 
and  his  relations  with  Stella  and  with  Vanessa  (Miss  Van- 
homrigh)  became  closer  and  more  mysterious.  In  1716,  «<. 
it  has  been  alleged.  Swift  secretly  married  the  former,  and 
the  latter  died  in  1723,  in  consequence  of  the  furious  re- 
sentment showed  by  Swift  at  her  having  endeavore<i  t4. 
force  the  secret  from  Stella.  Meanwhile  Swift  intere>(eii 
himself  in  the  local  politics  of  Ireland,  and,  having  outlive<I 
the  dislike  which  he  originally  inspired,  became  the  nKir»i 
idolized  of  patriots.  His  political  writing  culminatetl  in 
1724  with  the  publication  of  the  Drapier's  Letters,  in  which 
he  attacked  tne  currency  scheme  for  allowing  a  William 
Wood  to  supply  Ireland  with  a  copper  coinage.  The  votrue 
of  these  Letters  was  so  erreat,  and  the  indignation  tliey 
aroused  in  Ireland  so  vociferous,  that  the  Government  with- 
drew Wood's  patent,  and  failed  in  an  attempt  to  prosecute 
the  author.  Swift's  popularity  in  Dublin  knew  no  bounds,, 
and  when  George  II.  came  to  the  throne  it  was  hoped  b\ 
his  English  friends  that  the  dean  would  recover  his  influ- 
ence ;  but  a  visit  to  London  in  1727  had  no  result,  and 
Swift  went  back  for  good  to  **  wretched  Dublin  in  miserable 
Ireland."  Two  years  later  his  foiled  ambition  made  him 
describe  himself  to  Bolingbroke  as  ready  to  ^  die  here  in 
a  rage,  like  a  poisoned  rat  in  a  hole."  Meanwhile  he  bad 
been  more  fortunately  engaged  in  certain  literary  labon-. 
As  early  as  1722,  at  least,  he  had  receivetl  Pone's  encourage^ 
ment  in  the  outline  of  a  satire  on  society,  which  was  to  take 
the  form  of  **very  extraordinary  voyages  into  very  extraor- 
dinary nations,"  and  to  "manifest  the  most  distinguishing 
marks  of  a  philosopher,  a  politician,  and  a  legislator,*'  lU- 
brought  the  completed  MS.  of  this  work,  the  famous  Gulli- 
vers Travels,  to  England  with  him  in  1726,  and  it  appeare^l 
anonymously  during  the  succeeding  winter.  With  the  ex- 
(^eption  of  Defoe's  Robinson  Crusoe,  which  had  been  issuer! 
seven  years  earlier,  no  romance  had  been  written  in  English 


854 


SWINBURNE 


SWINE 


Swimming  rac^es,  especially  in  Great  Britain,  have  become 
carefully  regulated  athletic  events.  Prior  to  1869  there 
were  few  clubs  to  manage  these  oontests,  but  on  Jan.  7  of 
that  year  a  swimming  congress  met  at  the  German  Gym- 
nasium, King's  Cross,  London,  where  was  formed  an  amal- 
gamation called  the  Associated  Metropolitan  Swimming 
Clubs.  The  name  was  changed  shortly  after  to  the  Ijondon 
Swimming  Association,  and  again  changed  in  1874  to  the 
Swimming  Association  of  Great  Britain.  The  Amateur 
Swimming  Association  of  Great  Britain  was  formed  Mar. 
3, 1886.  It  has  a  membership  of  over  300  clubs,  and  is  the 
largest  organization  of  the  kind.  New  Zealand  and  New 
South  Wales  both  have  flourishing  amateur  swimming  asso- 
ciations, the  former  being  formed  in  1890. 

Both  Oxford  and  Cambridge  have  clubs  with  intercolle- 
giate and  inter- Varsity  matches,  and  official  recognition  of 
swimming  as  a  subject  of  instruction  was  secured  in  the  ele- 
mentary board  schools  in  England  in  1891. 

This  art  is  not  so  general  in  the  U.  S.  as  in  Great  Britain, 
nor  is  club  organization  at  all  thorough. 

SWIMMING   RECORDS. 

100  feet,*      W.  C.  Johnson,    New  York,  Feb.  4, 1891,  80  seconds. 

100  yards,*   T.  Meadham,       Australia,  I>ec.  4,  1892,  1  minute. 

220     *'  J.  Nuttall,  London,  Sept.  2,  1893,  2  min.  4U  sec. 

440     •'  *'  ••  *•         "  6  inln.  49i  sec. 

880     **  "  "  "         "  12  mln.  7  sec. 

1  mile,  ''  England,  Aug.  19. 1893,  26  min.  8  sec. 

*  Indicates  an  amateur  performance. 

E.  Hitchcock,  Jr. 

Swin'bnrne,  Algernon  Charles:  poet;  b.  in  London, 
Apr.  5, 1837 ;  son  of  Admiral  Swinburne ;  received  his  edu- 
cation partly  at  Eton,  partly  in  France,  and  in  1857  entered 
Baliol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  remained  only  a  short  time. 
Ilis  life  has  been  mainly  spent  in  London. '  He  has  pub- 
lished Rosamond  and  'The  Queen  Mother,  two  dramas 
(1861) ;  Atalanta  in  Galydon,  a  tragedy  const ructed'-fefter 
the  Greek  model,  in  which  he  first  manifested  his  peculiar 
powers  (1864) ;  Chastelard^  a  Tragedy  (1865) ;  Poems  and 
BalladSj  which  were  so  severely  criticised  for*  their  erotic 
character  that  the  English  publisher  endeavored  to  suppress 
them,  and  which  were  put  forth  in  New  York  uudor  the  title 
Laus  Veneris  (1866);  A  Song  of  If  of y  (1867);  Ode  on  the. 
Proclamation  of  the  Fre?ich  Republic  (1870) ;  Songs  before 
Sunrise  (1871);  Bothwell  (1874),  a  dramatic  seguel  to 
Chastelard ;  Essays  and  Studies  (1875) ;  Studies  in  Song 
(1881);  A  Century  of  Roundels  (1883);  Life  of  Victor  Hugo 
(1886) ;  Lfjcrifie,  a  Tragedy  (1887) ;  The  Sisters,  a  tragedy 
(1892),  and  other  works.    See  Engush  Literature. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Bekrs. 

Swine:  any  artiodactyl  mammal  of  the  family  Sum.f; 
(q.  v.).  The  wild  species  of  Sfis  are  variously  enumerated 
by  zoologists.  Of  these,  the  wild  boar  (Sus  scrofa)  of  Eu- 
rope, North  Africa,  and  Asia  Minor  is  the  best  known,  and 
is  generally  regarded  as  the  original  of  the  common  do- 
mestic forms.  The  validity  of  many  of  the  other  species, 
which  are  found  mostly  in  the  East  Indies,  is  open  to  ques- 
tion, as  they  may  be  feral  descendants  of  introduwd  do- 
mestic specimens.  A  small  species  {Sus  salviayius)  of 
Nepal,  the  Terai,  and  Bhutan  has  been  separated  generically 
as  Porcula.  The  river-hogs  of  the  genus  Potamochoprus, 
the  babirussa,  and  the  wart-hogs  are  other  swine.  The  chief 
seat  of  the  world's  swine-rearing  industry  is  in  the  more 
northerly  States  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  where  favoring 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate  encourage  the  production  in 
enormous  quantities  of  Indian  corn,  which  is  chiefly  relied 
on  to  feed  the  swine  during  both  their  growing  and  fatten- 
ing periods.  In  the  U.  S.  swine,  when  very  young,  are  des- 
ignated as  pigs,  when  partly  grown  as  shotes,  and  later  as 
liogs.  In  Jan.,  1895,  the  number  of  swine  in  the  U.  S.,  as 
given  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  was  44,165.716, 
worth  $219,501,267;  of  these.  Iowa  alone  had  5,516,485,  or 
50  per  cent,  more  than  the  United  Kingdom,  which  in  its 
immbers  does  not  vary  widely  from  Missouri.  In  the  U.  S. 
the  number  doubled  in  seventeen  years  following  1876.  Prior 
to  1850  swine  had  little  uniformity  except  that  they  were 
white  and  slow  in  maturing;  there  were  innumerable  vary- 
ing breeds,  each  a  favorite  in  some  county  or  section  of  a 
State,  and  those  growing  to  the  largest  size  were  esteemed 
best,  regardless  of  excessive  oflfal  or  cost  of  pro<luction.  At 
present  nine-tenths  of  the  hogs  in  the  U.  S.  are  blat^k,  with 
small  markings  of  white  on  the  face,  feet,  and  tail,  and 
sometimes  elsewhere.  These  are  of  the  Poland-China  and 
Herkshire  breed,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two;  the  next  most 


{)rominent  breed  is  the  Chester  White.  Other  breeds,  equal- 
y  distinct,  but  roared  in  limited  numbers,  are  the  K:^'<<;x, 
black  ;  Duroc-Jersey  or  Jersey,  red,  sandy,  or  reddish ;  Vii- 
toria  and  Suffolk  or  Small  Yorkshire,  white.  The  Cds$ex 
and  Yorkshires  are  from  England,  the  Duroc-Jerse}^  are  r.f 
uncertain  origin,  and  the  Victorias  originated  since  IbTH^ 
in  Indiana.  The  predominant  breed,  the  Poland-China, 
originated  in  Butler  and  Warren  cos..  O.,  between  1838  an«i 
1840  in  the  crossing  of  various  families  there  known  as 
Big  China;,  Russia,  Byfield,  Bedford,  and  Irish  Grazier,  ami 
the  offspring  was  a  large  black  and  white  spotted  kind 
called  by  manv  names,  from  which  a  national  convention 
of  swine-breecTers  in  1872  selected  that  of  Poland-C^hiiia. 
These  were  crossed  with  imported  Berkshires  to  give  re- 
finement and  propensity  to  earlier  fattening,  and  inciden- 
tally they  acquired  the  Berkshire's  black  color  and  wfaitr 
markings.  The  Berkshire  in  its  improved  form  originated 
(as  did  the  Essex)  in  England — Italian  and  Spanish  swine 
being  crossed  with  the  coarser  native  stock — ^between  17N! 
and  1800,  but  although  first  introduced  into  North  Amer- 
ica about  18S0  it  did  not  obtain  general  favor  until  1870- 
80.  Chester  Whites  are  the  result  of  mating  some  large 
white  stock  from  Bedfordshire,  England,  with  the  white 
hogs  common  in  Chester  co..  Pa.,  about  1818-30;  the  de- 
scendant-s  being  swine  that  gradually  improved  by  selec- 
tion, and  have  maintained  their  popularity  in  North  Anien- 
ca  better  than  any  other  of  their  color.  Hogs  of  a  dark 
color  are  most  largely  reared  because  of  a  belief  that  they 
are  hardier  and  less  susceptible  to  affections  of  the  skin  in- 
cident t-o  sudden  changes  of  temperature  and  the  muddy 
quarters,  severe  winds,  and  burning  suns  to  which  they  an* 
too  often  continuously  subjected.  Poland-Chinas,  berk- 
shires, Chester  Whites,  and  Duroc-Jerseys  are  classes!  as 
large  breeds,  weighing,  when  properly  reared,  from  800  t«» 
450  lb.  at  twelve  months,  and  from  500  to  600  and  even 
more, at  eighteen  months,  and  they  have  been  bred  to  a  de- 
gree of  fineness  in  bone,  smallness*  of  offal,  compactness  of 
form,  and  early  maturity  which  makes  them  well-nigh  per- 
fect. EvSjsex,  victorias,  and  Suffolks  or  Small  Yorkshires  an* 
termed  small  breeds,  and,  although  of  excellent  quality,  do 
not  grow  to  such  weights  as  others,  and  mature  more  quickly. 
Pi'eparation  of  Hog  Products, — The  two  principal  niiir- 
kets,  slaughtering  and  packing  points,  for  swine  are  Chicago, 
111.,  and  Kansas  City,  Kan.  There  were  marketed  in  the  fur- 
mer  city  in  1894  7,483,228  head,  and  in  the  latter  2,547.077. 
Chicago  packed  in  the.  year  ending  Mar.  1,  1895,  5.293,*2(r2, 
and  Kansas  City,  2,105,333 ;  these  numbers  have  Ijeen  largely 
exceeded  in  some  previous  years  when  the  supply  was  m«  Tt- 
plentiful.  The  average  live  weight  of  16,003,645  Hogs  packed 
m  the  U.  S.  in  the  year  ending  Mar.  1, 1895,  was  231-22  Ih. ; 
average  weight  of  their  lard,  33*31  lb.;  and  average  co>t 
alive,  $4.67  \)er  100  lb.  Careful  calculation  of  the  per  capita 
rate  of  domestic  consumption  in  recent  vears  indicates  55 
to  57  lb.  of  pork  and  about  8  lb.  of  lard.  Jjext  to  cotton  and 
wheat  the  swine  interests  furnish  the  larg&st  values  in  ex- 
ports from  the  U.  S.,  which  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1894,  were  as  follows : 

Bacon  and  hams 50S,8S8,148  lb. 

Pork M,7'M,528  lb. 

Lard 447,666,86?  lb. 

Total 1.015,939,643  lb. 

Value $98,438,588 

Average  per  pound 9*  19  cents. 

Countine  on  the  customary  basis  of  175  lb.  of  product  tt> 
equal  one  nog,  the  exjmrted  pro<luct  for  the  year  mention***! 
was  equivalent  to  5,805,369  hogs.  Of  the  total  exports  ft>r 
the  twelve  months  indicated  the  United  Kingilom  purchast^i 
the  following  quantities : 

Bacon  and  hams 408,979,637  lb. 

Pork 14,2^,057  Ib. 

I^rd 149,691,959  lb. 

Total 572,944,653  lb. 

The  British  provinces  of  North  America  pack  annually  fn  »m 
350,000  to  500,000  hogs,  and  import  from  the  U.  S.  from  30.- 
000,000  to  65,000,000  lb.  of  product.  All  other  countries  ef 
the  world  produce  from  40,000,000  to  46,000,000  swine,  of 
which  Russia  has  one-fourth,  followed  by  Germany,  Austria- 
Hungary,  France,  and  Spain  respectively,  which  "have  fnau 
7,000,00()  to  4,000,000  in  the  order  named.  Thev  give  but 
little  attention  to  breed,  quality,  or  pe<ligree.  tn  the  five 
years  ending  with  1840  the  U.  S.  sold  in  pjurope  hog  prol- 
ucts  to  the  value  of  $1,533,522  annually,  or  the  enuivalent 
of  92,154  hogs  at  $16.65  per  head.     Forty  years  later  the 


jP,£  i;eW  YORK 
PUBLIC     LIBRARY 


^t-O".  LtNOX  AND 
Tl/o-N  FOUNDATIONS. 


L 


C»4 


Icn^itTidpEl  Ea»t        twi.        fi 


THE  NEW  YORK 
PUBLIC    LIBBARY 


ASTOtf,  L<t*^«C  AND 

TILD    N  ^«j»«(,t)Al  IONS. 


856 


SWITZERLAND 


(44).  The  Swiss  glaciers  number  471,  and  of  these  138  are 
of  the  first  rank  (having  a  length  of  4}  miles  or  more).  The 
largest  is  the  Aletsch,  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Jungf rau, 
15  miles  long  and  covering  42  sq.  miles.  The  Pennine  Alf)S 
alone  have  140  or  more  glaciers,  and  the  Rhone,  just  N.,  is 
fed  by  263.  The  lowest  point  reached  by  a  glacier  in  Switz- 
erland is  3,225  feet,  in  1818  by  the  Grindelwald  on  the 
northern  slope  of  the  Jungf  rau.  The  line  of  perpetual  snow 
varies  between  9,023  feet  and  9,259  feet.  The  Aletsch  begins 
at  9,820  feet  and  descends  to  5,000  feet.  The  Eastern  Alps 
have  many  glaciers,  but  they  are  generally  of  the  second 
rank.    See  Glaciers. 

Otology, — Notwithstanding  the  mountainous  character  of 
Switzerland  its  geology  is  simple.  Eruptive  rocks  are  few 
and  belong  to  very  early  geologic  times.  The  core  of  the 
Central  Alps  is  made  up  of  primitive,  azoic,  crystalline 
rocks,  and  these  make  the  ridge  of  this  roof  of  Europe.  To 
them  are  applied  a  series  of  schistose  Carboniferous  rocks 
serai-crystalhne  in  character.  The  Triassic  is  found  only  at 
the  east  and  west  ends  of  this  ridge.  The  whole  was  raised 
out  of  the  sea  in  Jurassic  times  (named  from  the  Jura  Moun- 
tains on  the  N.  W.  of  Switzerland),  and  the  Jurassic  rocks 
are  applied  next  outside  the  Carboniferous  composing  some 
of  the  secondary  ranges.  In  them  are  found  some  of  the 
most  interesting  fossils  ever  discovered.  Next  in  succes- 
sion from  the  azoic  ridge  are  found  well-developed  layers  of 
Cretaceous  and  then  extensive  Tertiary  beds,  especially  the 
Miocene.  The  Glacial  period  and  the  more  recent  glaciers 
have  left  their  traces  and  remains  over  all  Switzerland,  and 
the  alluvial  work  of  the  present  age  has  been  and  is  still  ac- 
tive in  filling  up  lakes  and  making  plains. 

Climate, — The  Swiss  climate  has  been  studied  with  special 
care,  and  presents  features  of  great  interest.  There  are  four 
meteorological  stations  at  heights  from  6,290  to  8,215  feet,  and 
the  Mont  Blanc  station  is  iust  beyond  the  boundary.  The 
southern  slo{)e  is  remarkably  mild,  but  the  northern  part 
has  a  rigorous  continental  climate.  The  mean  temperatures 
run  from  35°  P.  to  55^"  in  the  inhabited  portions,  about 
equal  to  the  range  from  Winnijwg  to  Cape  Charles  in  North 
America.  The  decrease  of  temperature  with  each  1,000  feet 
of  increased  altitude  is  3*2°  on  the  northern  slopes  and  2*8^ 
on  the  southern.  The  contrast  of  the  seasons  is  greatest  in  the 
valleys,  where  winter  temperatures  of  —25°  P.  sometimes 
occur.  The  precipitation  is  lar^e  (40  to  60  inches),  and  is 
greatest  at  an  elevation  of  about  6,o00  feet.  The  run-off  is  par- 
ticularly large,  and  causes  rapid  and  sometimes  destructive 
accumulation  of  sediment  ana  wash.  The  most  noteworthy 
wind  is  the  foehn,  which,  coming  from  southerly  directions, 
descends  on  the  leeward  side  so  dry  and  warm  that  the 
snow  disappears  as  if  by  magic,  and  the  parching  greatly 
increases  the  danger  of  fires. 

Like  the  temperature,  the  population  decreases  with  the 
height.  There  are  no  villages  beyond  5,000  feet,  except  the 
little  hamlet  of  Juf  at  7,000  feet,  the  highest  in  Europe.  On 
the  Great  St.  Bernard  the  hospice  is  at  8,110  feet,  and  the 
Alpine  Club  has  some  retreats,  the  highest  of  which  (on  the 
Matterhorn)  is  at  12,800  feet.  The  inhabitants  of  the  high 
valleys  have  larger  bodies  and  feet  than  those  below,  and  are 
more  free  from  several  maladies,  notably  phthisis.  Pneu- 
monia and  pleurisy  are  more  common  and  more  dangerous 
than  below,  as  are  also  asthma,  scrofula,  and  rheumatism. 
In  the  deep,  moist  valleys,  with  little  sunshine,  goiter  and 
cretinism  occur  in  large  ratio,  but  increasing  attention  to 
cleanliness  and  general  comfort  diminishes  this. 

Natural  Proauciiona. — Switzerland  is  not  productive  in 
metals.  There  are  several  mines  of  anthracite,  lignite,  or- 
dinary coal  and  salt,  and  one  of  graphite.  Quarries  of 
building-stone  are  more  numerous  ana  important.  The 
flora  falls  easily  into  five  zones,  defined  by  the  elevation ; 
the  zone  of  the  vine  goes  up  to  2,000  feet ;  tnat  of  cereals  to 
3,000  feet,  and  includes  most  of  the  plain ;  that  of  the  forests 
to  6,000  feet;  the  sub- Alpine  to  8,000  feet;  and  the  Alpine 
above  8,000  feet.  The  arable  land  is  chiefiy  confined  to  the 
first  two.  The  forests  occupy  3,032  so.  miles  of  area,  and 
include  the  oak,  beech,  and  spruce.  Tney  are  valuable  not 
only  for  the  ordinary  uses  of  trees,  but  adso  to  protect  the 
lower  levels  from  destructive  overfiows;  forestry  is  care- 
fully practiced.  Peat  exists  in  large  quantities,  and  forms 
an  important  resource  for  fuel.  The  sub-Alpine  zone  is 
rich  botanically ;  in  the  Alpine  region  a  species  of  violet  and 
the  much-praised  edelweiss  reach  the  very  margin  of  per- 
petual snow. 

The  fauna  is  not  rich,  and  animals  suitable  for  hunting 
are  protected  by  stringent  game-laws.    Wolves  and  deer  are 


very  rare ;  a  few  bears  still  remain  in  the  wilder  reoesse?  of 
Valois  and  the  Grisons ;  the  wild  boar  survives  in  the  Jura  ; 
the  chamois  can  be  hunted  only  twenty  days  in  the  yenr. 
and  is  increasing  in  number ;  the  fox  is  common.  The  Wt- 
known  bird  is  the  lammergeier.  Fish  are  very  abundant, 
and  fish-culture  is  much  practiced. 

Aariculture, — Of  the  total  area  72  per  cent,  is  classed  as 
productive,  and  of  the  productive  part  36  per  cent,  is  in 
grass  and  meadow,  29  in  forests,  19  in  fruit,  and  16  in  crof^s 
and  gardens.  There  are  about  300,000  peasant  proprietors, 
representing  2,000,000  of  the  population.  Rye,  oats,  and 
i)otatoes  are  the  chief  crops,  but  the  importation  of  foods  is 
large.  Cheese  and  condensed  milk  are  manufactured  in 
large  quantities  for  export.  About  22,000,000  gal.  of  wine 
are  produced  annuallv.  In  1886  there  were  98,338  hors(>^. 
1,211,713  cattle,  341,632  sheep,  415,619  goats,  and  394,451 
swine ;  and  in  1893  there  were  imported  10,198  horses,  65.- 
199  cattle,  51,386  swine,  and  92,461  sheep. 

Indiistry, — The  soil  does  not  yield  sufficient  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  population,  and  a  large  percentage  finds  emplov- 
ment  in  industries,  very  generally  small,  occupying  only 
the  family.  The  larger  ones  subject  to  the  factory  law  only 
are  enumerated.  Of  these  on  Jan,  1,  1893,  there  were  4,606 
devoted  to  the  manufactures  of  textiles,  leather,  articles  of 
food,  chemical,  metal  and  wood  products,  paper  and  print- 
ing, pottery,  glass,  watches,  etc. 

Switzerland  has  over  1,000  hotels,  employing  16,000  people, 
representing  a  capital  of  $64,000,000,  and  giving  a  gross 
annual  income  of  |10,500,000. 

Population. — The  population  from  1880  to  1888  increased 
at  the  annual  rate  of  0*4  per  cent.  In  1888  it  was  2.917,514 ; 
and  there  were  1,041  females  for  every  1,000  males.  The 
density  of  population  was  least  in  the  Grisons  (34  per  sq. 
mile),  Uri  (41 -5),  and  Valois  (50*3) ;  greatest  in  the  canton  of 
Geneva  (977).  of  Basel  (674),  and  of  Zurich  (506);  all  of  the 
latter  have  cities  of  considerable  size.  German  is  spoken 
by  the  majoritv,  and  is  hence  the  official  language  in  six- 
teen cantons,  l^rench  in  five,  and  Italian  in  one.  In  the 
Grisons  about  46  per  cent,  of  the  population  use  German, 
about  40  per  cent.  Komansh,  and  14  per  cent.  Italian.  Ital- 
ian and  Komansh  are  receding,  French  is  growing  in  use. 
and  German  remains  about  stationary.  The  official  F'rench 
is  full  of  Teutonisms.  The  birth-rate  is  high,  and  5  per 
cent,  of  the  births  are  illegitimate.  The  annual  emigra- 
tion amounts  to  about  8,000,  but  is  decreasing;  the  emi- 
grants are  generally  agriculturists  and  unmarried.  They 
are  chiefiy  from  Bern,  Zurich,  St.-Gall,  and  Ticino,  and  nearly 
all  go  to  the  U.  S.  There  is  absolute  freedom  of  conscience'; 
about  60  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  Protestant,  the  re- 
mainder Roman  Catholic.  The  Protestantism  is  Calvinistic 
in  doctrine  and  Presbyterian  in  government.  Education  is 
compulsory,  primary  education  is  free,  and  the  percentage  of 
illiteracy  nearly  evanescent.  There  are  5,000  schools  of  all 
grades,  with  13,000  teachers  and  542,000  pupils;  also  five 
universities  (at  Basel,  Zurich,  Bern,  Geneva,  and  Lausanne, 
the  last  since  1891 X  with  400  teachers  and  25,000  pupils,  of 
whom  nearly  a  half  are  aliens.  The  principal  towns  (with 
the  communal  population  for  1893)  are  Zurich  (103J371, 
including  suburbs);  Geneva  (78,777,  including  suburljs); 
Basel,  Basle,  or  B&le  (75,114);  Bern  (47,620);  Lausanne  (35.- 
623);  St.-Gall  (30,934) ;  Chaux-de-Ponds  (27,511);  Luzem  or 
Lucerne  (21,778);  and  Neuchatel  (16,772). 

Commerce. — The  effective  imports  (not  in  bond)  for  1893 
were  valued  at  $168,200,000,  and  the  exports  at  $181,400,- 
000.  The  chief  imports  were  foodstuffs,  tobacco  and  spirits, 
silk,  wools,  cottons,  and  other  textiles,  metals,  minerals,  and 
chemical  colors,  bullions,  and  coin.  The  chief  exports  were 
textiles,  timepieces,  and  colors.  Wheat  and  flour  are  largely 
imported.  The  trade  is  chiefly  with  Switzerland's  immwii- 
ate  neighbors,  Germanv  first,  but  a  considerable  proportion 
of  the  exports  goes  to  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S. 

There  were  2,220  miles  of  railway  in  operation  in  1893. 
with  a  total  cost  of  $210,000,000,  and  a  gross  income  in  18J»2 
of  $18,150,000,  and  expenses  of  $12,075,000 ;  also  4,515  miles 
of  telegraph  and  4,0^  miles  of  telephone  line.  The  num- 
ber of  post-offices  was  1,491. 

The  unit  of  money  is  the  franc  of  the  same  value  (about 
20  cents)  as  that  of  Prance,  Swiss  coin  makes  onlv  aljout  5 
per  cent,  of  that  circulated ;  the  remainder  is  chiefly  Italian 
and  Prench.  The  «/wnd  =  1*10  lb.  avoirdupois;  tbe  r^n/- 
ner  =  100  pfund ;  the  arpeni  of  land  =  8*9  acres. 

Cantons. — Switzerland  is  composed  of  twenty-two  can- 
tons, although  the  splitting  of  each  of  three  cantons  into 
two  demi-cantons  makes  the  total  number  of  federative  units 


858 


SWORD 


Republic  and  lasted  four  years.  To  that  form  of  govern- 
ment succeeded  a  soil  of  league  bai<e<l  upon  federal  princi- 
ples. Under  this  constitution  Switzerland  recovered  an 
appearance  of  peace,  but  the  mediator  of  that  •*  mediation 
act  **  (Feb.  13,  1803)  was  a  meddlesome  neighbor  and  a  des- 
potic ruler.  The  mediation  lasted  ten  years,  and  came  to 
an  end  at  the  fall  of  the  French  empire.  The  European  re- 
action against  France  took  place,  and  Switzerland  had  to 
participate  in  it;  her  soil  was  invaded  by  the  allies,  as  it  had 
been  so  often  and  so  long  by  the  French  armies.  By  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  (1815)  her  independence  and  neutrality 
were  acknowledged  and  guaranteed.  The  spirit  of  self-pres- 
ervation and  sense  of  dignity  developed  in  Switzerland,  and 
new  efforts  were  made  to  give  the  country  a  stronger  and 
more  independent  basis.  Switzerland  was  led  to  it  oy  new 
internal  disturbances  and  external  occurrences — notably  the 
revolutions  in  France  in  1830  and  1848.  In  the  latter  year 
a  new  constitution  was  adopteil  without  foreign  interfer- 
ence ;  this  gave  place  on  May  29, 1874,  to  that  now  in  force. 

F.  M.  Colby. 

Hword  [O.  Eng.  sweard  :  O.  Sax.  swerd  :  O.  H.  Germ. 
ncert  (>  Mod.  Germ,  aehwert) :  Icel.  gver^]  :  a  weapon  of  of- 
fense, consisting  of  a  long  blade  and  a  handle  large  enough 
for  the  grasp  of  one  hand  or,  rarely,  of  both  hands.  The 
characteristic  of  the  weapon  is  that  the  blade  is  not  mounted 
on  a  long  handle  or  staff,  while  yet  it  is  larger  than  the 
dagger  or  poniard. 

Stcord  is  the  general  term,  and  includes  weapons  as  unlike 
one  another  as  the  cavalry  saber  and  the  slender  trlangular- 
bladed  court  sword  worn  by  gentlemen  at  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  It  is,  however,  well  to  separate  the 
saber  in  all  its  vaneties  from  the  sword  proper. 

The  aaher  has  one  ed^e  only  and  has  a  thick,  broad  back. 
Toward  the  point  a  few  mches  of  the  back  may  be  sharpened, 
though  this  is  uncommon.  The  edge  invariably  curves  back- 
ward to  meet  the  back  in  a  sharp  point,  which  is  practically 
a  triangular  point;  moreover,  the  whole  blade  usually  curves 
backward,  the  back  concave  and  the  edge  convex.  Some  cav- 
alry sabers  are  straight.  The  cavalry  and  artillery  sabers  of 
the  U.  S.  service  are  slightly  curved,  the  curve  being  al)out 
one  in  twenty.  The  northern  nations  of  Europe  in  the  early 
M  iddle  Ages  used  sabere  as  well  as  swords ;  that  is,  both  their 
long  and  their  short  weapons  of  this  kind  often  had  but  a  sin- 
gle edge  and  a  broad  back.  These  weapons,  really  long  and 
heavy  knives,  were  called  scramasaxcs,  and  were  probably  the 
arms  most  constantly  in  use.  The  celebrated  Japanese  weapon 
is  curved  about  as  much  as  the  U.  S.  saber,  but  is  mounted 
very  differently  on  its  handle.  The  Eastern  blade  slopes 
backward  from  the  handle  at  the  very  point  of  junction,  but 
the  Western  one  is  set  so  that  the  blade  slopes  forward.  The 
Japanese  two-handed  saber  had  a  blade  alxjut  3  feet  long ; 
this,  or  a  somewhat  shorter  weapon,  formed  the  principal 
badge  of  the  Samurai  or  military  class,  and  was  worn  in 
the  sash  with  a  much  shorter  weapon  of  almost  exactly  the 
same  general  form.  These  Japanese  sabers  deserve  their 
great  reputation,  as  the  blades  are  of  extraordinary,  perhaps 
unequaled,  excellence.  The  scimiter  of  the  Mohammedan 
nations  is  a  light  saber  with  the  blade  very  much  curved 
backward,  the  curve  of  a  Persian  scimiter  of  the  eighteenth 
^^•entury  and  earlier  being  one  in  seven  or  one  in  eight.  In 
these  the  blade  is  set  almost  exactly  tangent  to  the  straight 
line  formed  by  the  handle.  Earlier  scimiters  seem  to  have 
had  the  blade  made  heavier  and  broader  near  the  point  than 
at  the  hilt,  perhaps  with  the  view  of  striking  a  heavier  blow 
ufK>n  armor;  but  so  little  is  known  of  the  system  of  fenc- 
ing or  sal)er-practice  in  use  among  the  Moslem  nations  that 
this  is  only  offered  as  a  suggestion.  The  drawing  cut  with 
the  sword  arm  kept  bent,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  fa- 
vorite manner  of  attack,  would  not  seem  to  require  a  heavy 
blade  or  one  weighted  toward  the  point.  The  steel  of  which 
the  scimiter  is  made  is  or  affects  to  be  of  the  famous  steel 
of  Damascus,  that  is,  of  a  steel  wrought  in  such  a  way  that 
the  surface  is  covered  with  delicate  waving  lines  in  its  sub- 
stance. A  weapon  almost  exactly  like  the  Mohammedan 
scimiter  was  carried  by  officers  of  high  rank  in  the  French 
service  during  the  first  republic.  Oriental  blades  and  Ori- 
ental scimiters  complete  were  worn  indifferently  in  exchange 
with  similar  weapons  of  French  make.  English  field-mar- 
shals are  represented  as  late  as  1885  carrying  sabers  of  a 
like  curvature.  A  modification  of  the  saber  used  only  in 
some  parts  of  India  has  its  sharpened  edge  concave  and  the 
back  convex.  One  form  of  this,  the  deadly  koukri  of  the 
•Goorkhas,  is  weighted  toward  the  [»oint.    l^hc  yataghan  of 


the  Mohammedan  nations  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  from 
the  Danube  to  Morocco,  has  also  its  sharp  edge  concave ; 
the  form  varies  erreatly.  The  cutlass  is  the  saber  short^^ued 
and  roughly  and  cheaply  mounted,  as  for  sailors,  both  in 
the  navy  and  in  private  service.  The  dtisack  or  tesack  is 
nearly  the  same  weapon,  and  especially  one  forged  in  a  sin- 
gle piece,  the  handle  bein^  a  mere  hole  in  a  plate.  This 
simple  weapon  was  used  m  Germany  in  the  later  Middle 
Ages  and  down  to  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  ordinary  hunting-knife,  of  which  the  famous  Ameri- 
can bowie-knife  is  one  form,  is  a  shortened  saber;  the^' 
weapons  are  to  the  saber  what  the  European  dagger  of  the 
Middle  Ages  is  to  the  sword  proper. 

Swords  among  Ancient  Nations, — The  special  weapon  of 
the  ancient  Roman  Infantry  was,  at  least  after  the  oegin- 
ning  of  the  second  century  b.  c,  straight,  double-edged, 
sharp-pointed,  and  much  longer  and  heavier  than  bad  been 
in  use  in  earlier  times  or  at  any  time  among  the  Greeks. 
Little  is  known  of  its  exact  character,  as  the  steel  blades 
have  been  destroyed  by  rust,  but  the  general  shape  is  known 
from  such  sculptured  representations  as  are  found  on  the 
columns  of  Trajan  and  Alarcus  Aurelius  at  Rome.  The 
length  of  the  blade  may  be  put  at  from  20  to  24  inches  It 
was  used  mainly  for  thrusting,  but  we  are  not  to  imagine 
a  legionary  thrusting  like  a  modem  fencer  with  the  hand 
high  and  the  fingers  uppermost;  a  more  common  way  of 
"  giving  point "  was  certainly  with  the  hand  veir  low  and 
the  point  higher,  the  thrust  being  upward.  The  bronze 
swords  of  the  northern  nations  were  often  what  is  calle<l 
leaf -shaped,  that  is,  they  were  broad  toward  the  point  and 
narrowest  at  a  distance  of  3  or  4  inches  from  the  handlt*. 
and  symmetrical  in  shape,  that  is,  both  of  the  edges  had 
the  same  elongate  S-curve,  but  reyersed,  the  two  meeting  at 
a  sharp  point.  The  sword  of  the  Gauls  at  the  time  of  tiie 
Roman  conquest  seems  to  have  been  sometimes  of  bronze, 
sometimes  of  steel ;  it  was  long,  very  heavy,  and  often  re- 
tained the  leaf-shape  of  earlier  times.  Amon^  Eastern 
nations,  whether  ancient  or  modem,  the  most  important 
weapon  which  can  be  called  a  sword  is  the  Malayan  crettiie. 
This  has  a  blade  about  18  inches  Ions,  sometimes  shortt^r. 
sharp-pointed,  and  having  on  each  side  a  waved  edge,  the 
undulations  being  very  decided,  one  in  five  or  one  in  six  of 
their  length.  Another  important  peculiarity  is  the  setting 
of  the  bliule,  often  not  at  all  in  the  prolongation  of  the  han- 
dle, but  at  a  decided  angle  with  it,  the  angle  varying  in  dif- 
ferent weapons.  These  blades  form  a  great  contrast  with 
the  smooth,  close-grained,  highly  finished  Japanese  blades. 
The  Malayan  steel  is,  as  it  were,  a  carrying  further  of  the 
Damascus' waved  or  watered  steel :  it  is  extremely  rough  and 
with  depressions  between  the  lines  of  the  waving  nearly  like 
the  graining  of  wood  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  weath- 
er. The  straight  sword  used  by  the  Uamrau  Arabs  in  hunt- 
ing as  well  as  war  seems  to  be  of  European  origin,  perhaj>s 
a  lingering  on  of  the  knightly  sword  described  below. 

Jn  (he  Middle  Ages. — With  the  appearance  of  what  is 
known  as  chivalry,  after  the  firm  establishment  o£  the  feu- 
dal system,  the  sword  of  the  knight  was  broad-bladed  and 
straight,  symmetrical  in  shape.  From  the  beginning  to  the 
end  of  the  age  of  heavy  armor  and  knighthood  the  peculiar 
weapon  of  the  knight  was  the  sword  with  a  thin,  flat  blade 
and  both  edges  alike.  The  well-known  sword  of  Childeric, 
found  in  his  tomb  and  now  in  the  Louvre,  could  not  have 
had  a  blade  more  than  18  inches  long,  judging  by  the  sheath, 
which  is  in  good  preservation.  The  sword  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury had  a  blade  nearly  or  quite  3  feet  in  length.  That  of 
the  twelfth  century  was  often  shorter.  Some  swords  of  the 
thirteenth  century  had  a  blatle  45  inches  long;  but  the 
sword  of  the  knight,  intended  to  be  wielded  by  one  hand, 
could  hardly  exceed  this  length,  and  when  heavy  armor  was 
to  be  broken  or  wrenched  apart  a  mace  or  a  horseman's  axe 
was  used.  The  two-handed  swords  of  the  later  Middle  Ages 
may  have  been  used  on  occasion  by  mounted  knights ;  thus 
the' famous  bronze  statue  of  King  Arthur  in  the  Church  of 
St.  Francis  in  Innsbmck,  which  dates  from  about  1520,  is 
furnishe<l  with  a  sword  whose  grip  has  two  distinct  holds 
for  the  two  hands :  but  the  two-handed  sword  was  essential- 
ly a  weapon  of  foot-soldiers,  having  a  blade  4  feet  or  more 
in  length  and  a  handle  about  16  inches  long,  weighted  at 
the  butt  to  partly  counterpoise  the  blade.  It  is  probable 
that  but  little  delicate  sword-play  was  used  daring  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  Each  combatant  struck  liard  and  caught  his  ene- 
my's blows  on  his  shield  or  trusted  to  his  armor. 

In  Later  Times. — With  the  gradual  disappearance  of  ar- 
mor the   gentlemen  of   Europe  introduced  swords  which. 


860 


SYDNEY 


SYKES 


medicine  at  the  college  of  MoDtpellier,  France;  took  his 
degree  of  M.  D.  at  Cambridge,  and  established  himself  about 
1660  as  a  physician  in  Lonoon,  where  he  soon  attained  the 
foremost  place.  He  abandoned  the  mere  routine  system 
of  practice  then  prevalent,  basing  his  own  upon  the  theory 
that  there  is  in  nature  a  recuperative  power  which  it  is  the 
province  of  the  physician  to  aid.  He  was  especially  acute 
m  observing  and  describing  the  symptoms  of  diseases,  and 
carefully  studied  the  relations  between  epidemics  and  the 
conditions  of  the  atmosphere.  Among  the  services  which 
he  rendered  to  medical  practice  were  the  treatment  of  in- 
termittent fever  by  cinchona  and  the  administration  of 
cooling  remedies  in  smallpox.  His  works,  which  are  not 
numerous,  were  written  in  Latin,  but  have  been  frequently 
translated.  Among  them  is  Methodus  Curandi  Febres 
(1666 ;  8d  ed.,  Observationes  MediccB,  1676).  In  1843  was 
founded  the  Sydenham  Society,  for  the  purpose  of  printing 
important  medical  works  in  English  and  other  languages. 
Its  first  issue  was  the  complete  works  of  Sydenham,  in  Latin 
(1846 ;  English  trans,  by  Dr.  Greenhill,  with  a  memoir  by 
Dr.  Latham,  1848).    D.  in  London,  Dec.  29,  1689. 

Sydney  [named  after  Thomas  Townshend,  first  Viscount 
Sydney! :  capital  and  chief  port  and  railway  center  of  New 
South  Wales,  Australia,  and  the  oldest  city  of  Australasia; 
on  the  southern  side  of  Port  Jackson,  in  lat.  38°  52'  S.,  Ion. 
151°  12'  E.  (see  map  of  Australia,  ref.  7-J).  The  climate  is 
temperate  and  generally  healthful.  The  mean  temperature 
is  62''  F.,  ranging  from  a  minimum  of  35°  to  a  maximum  of 
106°,  The  mean  annual  rainfall  is  52  inches.  Port  Jack- 
son is  a  long,  slender  inlet  on  the  east  coast,  of  irregular 
form,  with  numerous  bays  and  coves,  forming  a  magnificent 
harbor  with  a  water  front  of  more  than  100  miles.  The  en- 
trance is  only  a  mile  wide,  but  just  inside  is  a  bar  with  only 
20  feet  of  water  at  low  tide,  increased  by  dredging  to  a  few 
feet  more.  At  the  opposite  end  of  the  port  enters  George's 
river,  navigable  to  Liverpool,  a  distance  of  14  miles. 

The  city  proper  is  about  4  miles  from  the  heads,  on  a 
peninsula  between  Rushcutter  Bay  on  the  P],,  and  Black- 
wattle  Bay  on  the  W.  It  has  a  water  front  of  8  miles,  of 
which  6  are  available  for  the  use  of  commerce.  The  surface 
is  undulating,  with  a  maximum  height  of  230  feet.  The 
streets  are  often  crooked  and  steep,  but  this  gives  the  city 
an  old-fashioned  aopearance  unique  in  Australia,  and  af- 
fords frequent  and  charming  vistas  over  the  waters  of  the 
bay  and  to  the  opposite  shores.  There  are  many  public 
parks,  including  tne  Domain  (130  acres),  extending  to  the 
water  front  along  the  most  densely  populated  and  busiest 
part  of  the  city,  and  Moore  Park  (500  acres),  to  the  S.  E.  of 
the  city.  The  suburbs  are  numerous  and  contain  a  large 
population.  The  more  fashionable  suburbs  are  toward  the 
E.,  while  the  business  portion  is  extending  westward.  The 
entire  distance  to  Parramatta,  about  15  miles,  is  practically 
suburban  along  the  railway.  The  manufactories  are  more 
on  the  southern  side,  and  population  is  rapidly  extending 
toward  Botany  Bay,  6  miles  to  the  S.  There  are  also  con- 
siderable suburbs  on  the  north  shore  of  the  bay,  which  are 
connected  with  the  city  by  steam-ferries  and  by  rail. 

The  water-supply  was  first  obtained  from  the  small  Tank 
stream  flowing  into  Sydney  Cove,  along  which  the  nucleus  of 
the  town  was  h  rst  formed.  Later  it  was  derived  from  a  stream 
flowing  into  Botany  Bay,  brought  to  the  city  by  a  long  tun- 
nel. As  this  proves  insufficient,  a  plan  is  under  way  to 
bring  water  from  the  Nepean  river,  taken  at  a  point  63 
miles  distant  and  conducted  to  a  large  storage  reservoir 
near  Parramatta.  The  sewage  is  conducted  to  the  water 
front,  but  as  the  size  of  the  city  renders  this  unsanitary,  a 
large  sewer  is  under  construction  to  a  headland  on  the  ocean 
shore,  where  the  sewage  will  be  delivered  into  deep  water 
and  carried  away  by  the  current  from  the  N. 

The  public  and  many  private  buildings  are  of  fine  style 
and  go<Kl  aspect,  and  are  generally  made  of  a  fine  sandstone 
found  in  the  vicinity.  The  university  is  the  most  impor- 
tant edifice  in  Australia,  the  principal  fa9ade  being  500  feet 
in  length.  Together  with  the  affiliated  colleges  of  St.  Paul's 
and  St.  John's,  it  lies  in  a  domain  of  150  acres.  With  re- 
gard to  its  degrees  it  has  the  status  of  the  English  univer- 
sities. The  metropolitan  cathedral  of  St.  Andrew's  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  Cathedral  of  St.  Mary  are  two  of  the  finest 
structures  in  Australia.  The  royal  branch  mint  at  Sydney 
issues  nearly  £3,000,000  worth  of  coin  annually,  mostly 
gold,  but  with  a  little  silver  and  bronze.  The  city  is  in  the 
center  of  a  large  coal-basin,  and  the  beds  probably  pass 
under  the  city  itself.    Coal  is  cheap  and  abundant,  and  the ' 


commercial  advantages  are  great.  The  manufactures  in- 
clude all  the  products  of  the  pastoral  industry,  and  es^iecially 
boot  and  shoe  making,  railway  manufactures,  carriage  and 
wagon  making,  manufactures  of  glass,  pottery,  furniture, 
stoves,  tobacco,  etc.,  and  distilling  and  brewing.  In  1H93 
1,323  vessels  cleared  from  Sydney,  as  compared  with  l,59:i 
from  the  other  ports  of  the  colony. 

The  city  was  founded  in  1788  by  Capt.  Phillip  as  a  penal 
station,  and  long  remained  a  humble  village.  In  1861  it 
had  56,845  inhabitants,  93,685  with  the  suburbs.  In  \B\n 
the  census  gave  the  city  and  suburbs  883,386  inhabitantb, 
which  was  M:  per  cent,  of  that  of  the  entire  colony.  At  the 
end  of  1893  the  estimated  population  was  421,03(),  bringing 
this  city  to  a  ()oint  not  far  behind  Melbourne. 

Mark  W.  Harrinotox. 

Sydney:  chief  port  of  Cape  Breton,  Novh  Scotia,  and 
capital  of  Cape  Breton  County,  formerly  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Cape  Breton ;  on  the  east  side  of  Sydney  Harbor, 
lat.  46*  18'  N.,  Ion.  60**  12'  W.  (see  map  of  Quebec,  etc.,  ref. 
1-D) ;  station  on  the  Intercolonial  Railway,  275  miles  N.  K. 
of  Halifax.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  provinces, 
but  it  is  ice-bound  during  the  lon^  winter.  It  is  the  prin- 
cipal port  for  the  coal-mining  district  northeast,  with  whi<h 
it  is  connected  by  rail.  The  harbor  was  originally  the  ren- 
dezvous of  the  Spanish  fishing-fleet,  and  was  then  called 
Spanish  Bay.  Later  it  was  a  center  for  British  militar}*  ac- 
tivity, and  so  remained  until  the  Crimean  war.  France  has. 
by  treaty,  coaling  privileges  here,  and  utilizes  them  to  inakt- 
this  the  station  of  her  naval  squadron  on  the  North  Atlantic. 
Regular  connection  is  kept  up  with  Newfoundland  by  steam- 
er in  summer.    Pop.  4,0()0.  Mark  W.  Harrixotos. 

Sydney :  See  Sidney. 

Syene :  See  Assouan. 

Sy'enlte :  granular  crystalline  rock,  consisting  of  alkali- 
feldspars  (mostly  orthoclase)  with  some  lime-sooa-feldsjmr. 
one  or  more  ferromagnesian  silicate :  biotite,  amphibole.  or 
pyroxene ;  and  little  or  no  quartz,  besides  other  mineral>. 
According  to  the  kinds  of  minerals  accompanying  the  al- 
kali-feldspars varieties  are  distinguished  as  qu(|rtz-8yenitt% 
augite-syenite,  mica-syenite,  hornblende-syenite  (syenit** 
proper),  zircon-syenite,  sodalit«-syenite,  etc.  Its  texture 
vanes  from  coarse-granular  to  fine-granular,  often  exhibit- 
ing lath-sha|)ed  feldspars  on  the  surface  of  fracture.  CK*- 
casionally  porphyritic,  passing  into  syenite-porphyry  and 
orthoclase-porphyry.  With  increasing  quartz  it  grades  into 
granite,  and  witn  more  lime-soda-feldspar  it  grades  into 
diorite.  Varieties  low  in  silica  carry  nephilite  and  sodalite, 
and  ^ade  into  eleolite-(nephelite)syenite,  which  properly 
constitute  a  separate  rock-group.  (See  Rocks.^  This  variety 
is  relatively  high  in  soda  and  potash,  which  characterizi^ 
the  feldspars  and  feldspathic  minerals,  and  enter  into  the 
ferromagnesian  minerals,  producing  arfvedsonit*,  barkevi- 
kite,  acmite,  apgerite.  This  rock  usually  carries^  rare  miner- 
als, containing  the  rarer  elements  cerium,  lautlianum,  tho- 
rium, yttrium,  etc. 

The*  name  syenite  was  first  used  by  Pliny  for  the  nx-k 
from  Syene  (Assouan)  in  Egypt.  It  was  subsequently  a|>- 
plied  by  Werner  to  the  rock  from  the  Plauensche  Grund, 
near  Dresden,  from  which  it  has  grown  into  its  present  sig- 
nificance. It  has  been  found  that  the  rock  from  Syene  is 
rich  in  quartz,  and  therefore  a  granite.  Until  recently  the 
name  syenite  has  been  applied  to  honiblende-granite  to  di!»- 
tinguish  it  from  mica-granite. 

Syenite  proper  is  much  less  common  than  granite,  and 
has  been  identified  in  comparatively  few  localities  in  the 
U.  S.  outside  of  New  Hampshire.  Eleolite-syenite  is  st>Die- 
what  better  known,  occurring  in  Arkansas,  New  Jersev, 
Maine,  and  Canada.  It  is  known  in  Brazil,  and  especially 
in  Norway,  where  numerous  rare  minerals  associated  with 
it  have  been  described  by  BrSgger.    See  Granitk. 

J.  P.  Iddings. 

Sykes,  George  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Dover,  Del.,  Oct.  9, 1822 : 
graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1842 :  served  in 
the  war  with  Mexico;  was  on  frontier  and  garrison  duty 
1848-fll ;  was  in  May,  1861,  appointed  major  of  the  Four- 
teenth Infantry;  commanded  the  regular  troops  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Bull  Run ;  commanded  as  brigadier-general  the  regular 
infantry  in  the  defenses  of  Washington  during  the  winter  of 
1861-62,  and  in  the  Virginia  Peninsular  campaign  of  1862 
the  division  of  regulars  (Porter's  corps)  which  so  stub- 
bornly maintained  its  position  on  the  n^ht  at  the  battle  of 
Gaines's  Mill.  He  commanded  this  division  at  the  second 
battle  of  Bull  Run ;  also  at  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  and 


Irv        ( »     ,M     t  < 


frnrrt  lit    f^%^^S|0ar««r    .rti\  \nA  • 


iifikHMifMlr  1 4 


SYxMBOLIC   liOGK.' 


directly  and  by  intuitive  perception,  as  did  the  old  Greek 
geometry.  What  Descartes's  analytic  geometry  did  for  the 
science  of  space,  that  Boole's  algebra  did  for  logic.  His  dis- 
coveries, startling  as  they  appear,  yet  rest  upon  a  principle 
well  known  to  the  modern  mathematician.  Though  he  had 
noteworthy  forerunners,  algorithmic  logic,  as  a  practical 
system,  owes  its  creation  wholly  to  his  genius,  lie  was,  in  a 
sense,  the  outcome  of  his  time,  the  period  when  algebra  was 
given  a  real  plural.  Ilis  discoveries  in  the  algebra  of  linear 
substitutions  are  regarded  as  the  foundation  of  the  present 
vast  theory  of  invariants,  llis  General  Mefhod  in  AtuUysis, 
discovered  in  his  researches  on  differential  eq[uations,  reads 
like  a  prelude  to  his  Symbolic  Logic,  His  remarkable 
pamphlet,  entitled  The  Mathemctfical  Analysis  of  Lo^ic, 
ieifig  an  Essay  towards  a  Calculus  of  Deductive  Reasomng^ 
by  a  curious  coincidence  made  its  appearance  on  the  very 
same  day  as  De  Morgan's  Formal  Logic,  In  this  he  shows 
that  by  simply  assuming  1  to  signify  what  is,  and  0  what  is 
not,  he  can,  witliout  any  further  assumption,  express  the 
premises  of  a  syllogism  as  two  equations  from  which,  bv 
ordinary  algebraic  procedure,  the  conclusion  can  be  deduced. 
This  is  a  pregnant  connecting  of  the  concepts  of  being  and 
nothing  with  a  number  system.  Still  more  profound  and 
unexpected  is  his  developing  a  function  of  a  general  logical 
symbol  by  Maclaurin's  theorem  : 


4>(^0  =  4>(0)  +  4>'  (O)a;  +  ~j|^  J--*  -t- 


etc. 


Thus  at  a  touch  Boole  changed  a  dead  into  a  living  sci- 
ence. Moreover,  to  the  old  synthetic  logic  he  added  a  new 
analytic  logic,  namely,  that  the  validity  of  the  pnxjesses  of 
an  algebra  does  not  depend  upon  the  inter{)retation  of  the 
symbols  which  are  employed,  but  solely  upon  the  laws  of 
their  combination.  Every  system  of  interpretation  which 
does  not  affect  the  formal  operational  laws  is  equally  ad- 
missible, and  so  the  same  piece  of  symbolic  algebra  may, 
under  one  scheme  of  interpretation,  represent  the  solution 
of  a  question  on  the  properties  of  numbers,  under  another 
that  of  a  geometric  problem,  under  a  third  that  of  a  problem 
of  kinematics,  under  a  fourth  that  of  a  new  question  in  logic. 

This  principle,  so  fundamental  that  Boole  assigns  it  as  the 
definitive  characteristic  of  a  true  calculus  or  algebra,  may 
be  illustrated  as  follows  :  If  we  define  a  sect  as  the  piece  of 
a  straight  between  two  definite  points  ;  if  we  indicate  sects 
by  the  symbols  jr,  y,  2,  etc. ;  if  we  define  the  product  of  two 
sects,  xy,  as  the  rectangle  of  those  sects  (not  the  area  of  the 
rectangle  of  the  sects,  but  the  surface  of  the  rectangle  de- 
termined by  them) ;  if  we  define  the  product  of  three  sects, 
xyz,  as  the  cuboid  of  those  sects  (not  the  volume  of  that  cu- 
boid), then  all  the  theorems  of  Euclid's  Book  II.  are  rigor- 
ously demonstrated  by  the  little  equations  usually  appended 
to  the  propositions  as  mere  numerical  illustrations  (e.  g.  in 
Playfair) ;  and  that,  too,  without  any  introduction  of  the  idea 
of  measurement  or  ratio.  Moreover,  each  proposition  may 
at  once  be  generalized  for  space  of  three  dimensions,  and  the 
mere  algebraic  statement  of  the  generalization  will  contain 
its  rigorous  demonstration. 

This  general  principle  likewise  exi>1ains  why  a  professional 
mathematician  in  working  out  a  way  of  acciimtely  express- 
ing by  an  algebra  the  operations  and  valid  proce^sses  by 
w^hich  reasoning  is  ordinarily  performed  shouhl  make  it  as 
similar  as  possible  to  the  ordinary  algebra  for  number ;  not 
because  thmking  in  its  general  character  has  any  reference 
to  number,  but  simply  to  get  the  benefit  of  as  many  as  pos- 
sible of  the  results  and  procedures  produced  by  centuries  of 
algebraic  advance. 

The  aim  of  Boole's  investigations  was,  in  the  first  instance, 
crmfined  to  the  expression  of  the  antique  logic,  and  to  the 
forms  of  the  Aristotelian  arrangement,  but  he  soon  found 
that  restrictions  were  thus  introduced  which  were  purely 
arbitrary  and  had  no  foundation  in  the  nature  of  things. 
Feeling  with  the  instinct  of  genius  the  high  importance  of 
his  work,  Boole  applied  his  best  powers  to  an  elaboration, 
which  appeared  m  1854  under  the  title  An  Investigation 
of  the  Laws  of  Thought  on  which  are  Founded  the  Mathe- 
matical Theories  of  Logic  and  ProbahilitieM,  a.  work  of  which 
llerljert  Spencer  has  said  that  it  "  constitutes  a  step  far 
greater  in  originality  and  importance  than  any  taken  since 
Aristotle."  The  following  is  a  summary  of  Boole's  actual 
working  method : 

Convene  to  represent  any  class  by  a  letter,  as  men  by  a 
and  good  thing^  by  6.  ('ombined  in  thought  one  acts  as  a 
selective  adjective,  and  whichever  this  be  the  result  is  the 
same  ;  so  that  ba^  or  "  good  men,'*  gives  us  the  same  collec- 


tion of  individuals  as  aA,  or  "  human  good  l>eings."  U.sing^ 
the  sign  =  as  meaning,  in  the  most  general  way.  identity,  co- 
existence, or  equality,  we  say  ab  =  b<t,  "  We  are  periuitted., 
therefore,  to  employ  the  symbols  z,  y,  a,  i,  etc.,  in  the  viiave 
of  substantives,  adjectives,  and  descriptive  phrases,  subje<i 
to  the  rule  of  interpretation  that  any  expression  in  which 
several  of  these  symbols  are  written  together  shall  represent 
all  the  objects  or  individuals  to  which  their  several  meaii- 
ings  are  together  applicable,  and  to  the  law  that  the  order 
in  which  the  symbols  succeed  each  other  is  indifferent." 
Again,  to  form  the  aggregate  conception  of  a  group  of  ol»- 
jects  consisting  of  partial  groups,  we  use  the  conjunctions 
"and,"  **  or."  Convening  that  tne  classes  so  joined  are  quite 
distinct,  so  that  no  individual  is  added  to  himself,  we  *cc 
that  these  conjunctions  hold  precisely  the  same  jiosition 
formally  as  the  sign  -i-  in  algebra,  and'are  represen table  by 
that  sign. 

As  the  onler  of  addition  is  indifferent,  we  have  j-.  -^  y  = 
y  -{-  X,  Again,  to  separate  a  part  from  a  whole,  we  cxpn-^s 
in  common  language  by  the  word  "except,"  as  **AI1  men, 
except  Asiatics. 

This  is  our  minus  sign.  As  it  is  indifferent  whether  we 
express  excepted  cases  first  or  last,  we  have  ir  —  y=— y-fr. 

But  just  as  the  algebra  of  quaternions  differs  in  one  fun- 
damental law  from  the  algebra  of  number,  namelv.  in  its 
multiplication  being  non-commutative,  so  that  ab  does  not 
equal  ba,  so  I^ole's  algebra  for  logic  differs  in  a  law  equally 
fundamental :  in  it  «*  =  o ;  and  from  this  conies  the  fatt 
that,  in  it.  every  equation  can  be  solved  and  every  solution 
interpreted.  Only  two  symbols  of  number  obey  this  fonnal 
law.  They  are  Oand  1.'  Their  interpretation  for  logic  is. 
nothing  and  universe,  the  two  limits  of  class-ext«nsi<^n. 
This  law  .r'  =  x  it  is  which  in  Boole's  algebra  makes  division 
indeterminate:  but  his  genius  overcomes  this  indefinitude 
by  his  expansion  theorem.  For  example,  from  the  proposi- 
tion "  All  men  are  all  the  rational  animals,"  tn  =  ra,  what 

can  we  get  about  animals  f    By  developing,  a  =  —  =:f(tn.  r^ 

=  /(!,  l)7/i.r  +  /(!,  0)  m.r  -h/(0,  l)m'r  +/(0,  0)  m  r. 
Hence  all  animals  consist  of  all  men  and  some  irrational 
things  (r)  not  men  (w). 

If  we  would  use  trial  references  to  the  premises  the  cot^f- 
ficients  of  the  expansion  are  no  longer  needed,  and  by  milk- 
ing these  trial  references  mechanical  we  have  from  boole's 
one  theorem  the  interesting  logical  machines  of  Jevons  anrl 
Marquand.  In  the  latter,  tlie  premises  being  reduced  to  tht* 
form  of  the  combinations  to  be  excluded,  as  suggested  by 
Boole,  the  operation  of  excluding  these  combinations  is  per- 
formed mechanically  by  the  machine,  and  the  conclusion 
exhibited.  B(K)le's  wonderful  creation  was  so  strange  that 
it  germinated  slowly. 

In  1864  Jevons  begjin  using  +  to  unite  different  terms 
into  one  aggregate,  whether  tney  be  mutually  exclusive  or 
not.  McColl  and  C.  S.  Pierce  gave  slightly  Varying  alge- 
bras, adding  a  new  sign  to  express  existence.'  In  1877  Ernst 
Schroder,  in  his  Operationskreis  des  Logikkalkuls,  gave'  a 
beautiful  simplification  of  the  Boolian  calculus,  in  which 
appears  a  duality  like  that  of  modem  synthetic  geometry. 
In  1879  Dr.  Alexander  Macfarlane  published  an  algebra  of 
logic  which  is  particularly  powerful  for  handling  questions 
of  probable  inference  and  relationship. 

Leslie  Ellis,  De  Morgan,  Joseph  Jonn  Murphy.  Alexamler 
Macfarlane,  and  particularly  C.  S.  Pierce,  have  develo[)ed  a 
highly  interesting  symbolic  logic  of  relatives.  Pn)f.  Peano. 
of  Turin,  is  publishing  a  formulary  containing  the  known 
propositions  of  the  various  subjects  of  mathematics,  all  writ- 
ten in  a  general  symbolic  language  formed  on  the  basis  of 
algorithmic  logic. 

Finally,  Dr.  Ernst  Schroder  has  collected  in  two  encyclo- 
panlic  volumes  a  systematic  and  critical  account  of  all  that 
makes  the  present  status  of  algorithmic  logic,  including  his 
own  exceedingly  im[X)rtant  developments  of  many  essential 
parts.  In  the  first  volume  of  this  great  work,  Vorlesungrft 
fiber  die  Algebra  der  Logik  {exakte  Lo^ik)  (first  vol.,  Leip- 
zig, 18JK)),  tfie  logical  operations  called  identical  multiplica- 
tion and  addition  are  shown  to  deserve  these  names,  sinro 
all  lawsof  additi<mand  multiplication  in  general  arithmetic 
which  hold  as  general  formulas,  that  is,  without  reference  to 
the  nature  or  individuality  of  the  combined  numbers,  hold 
also  for  these  logical  opt^fations;  while  the  inverse  opera- 
tions may  always  be  replaced  by  a  simpler  operation,  neua- 
tion,  which  appeal's  as  a  coinmon  special  case  of  each.  The 
method  of  using  the  logical  calculus  is  thns  surprisingrly 
simplified.  George  Bruce  Halstkd. 


SYMBOT^ft 


SYMPATnY 


tm 


Symbols,  in  zoology :  See  Z<x*>l<kjy. 

Symbols,  Chemical :  Stf  Chemistry. 

Svrae,  Jamks,  M.  D.  :  surgooii ;  b.  in  Kdinbiirgli,  Scot- 
I.-.ikI,  Nov.  7,  1799 ;  prtt<luated  in  surgery  1831  ;  was  lecturer 
.mmI  I*rofo8sor  of  Surgery  at  Edinburgh  fnany  years,  and 

•  •riirinated  many  improvements,  including  tlie  resection  of 
4i-^t';i.sed  j(»ints  in  place  of  amputation,  the  process  known 
ii--  Syme's  operation  for  amputation  of  the  foot  at  the  ankle- 
joint,  and  tlie  removal  of  large  tumors  of  the  lower  jaw  by 
«  xci^ion  of  the  entire  bone.  He  was  the  author  of  7V/e  Ej-- 
nston  of  Diseased  Joints  (1881)  and  Principles  of  Sn/yery 
(is;t2),  both  reprinted  at  Philadelphia  (1866).  1).  in  Edin- 
i)iirgh,  June  26,  1870.  Sec  the  Memorial  by  Dr.  Robert 
Patterson  (Edinburgh.  1874). 

Sym'maehns  (Gr.  Jv/x/uoxoj) :  one  of  the  thn^e  chief  trans- 
lat«Vrs  of  the  Old  Testament  into  (ireek  who  attempted  to 
improve  \\\^i\  the  LXX.  Fragments  of  his  translation  have 
Ueii  preserved  in  that  which  remains  of  the  Jh.rnpla  of 
Origen.  According  to  Epiphanius  (/>  Mens,  et  Pond.  16), 
h«-  was  a  Samaritan  living  at  the  time  of  Severus  (19:3- 
•211).  Eusel)ius  {Hist,  FJrrl..  6.  17)  an«l  Jerome  (0/>/;.,ii.,  p. 
si>4>  sav  that  he  was  an  Ebionite.  (t'f.  also  Nestle.  Theol. 
Stud,  and  Krit.,  1879,  p.  7:38.)  (reiger  (Jud.  Zeitsriir.,  i.,  p. 
62)  tried  to  prove  that  he  was  a  Jew.  He  must  have  lived 
Inter  than  Irenanis,  who  in  ISO  a.  u.  {Adv.  I[an\,  8,  24)  does 
MMt  mention  him.  Symmachus  translated  freely,  and  at- 
tempted to  write  a  polished  Greek.  See  also  Fifld,  Ifeua- 
j^/'i.  i.,  chap,  iii.;  Bleek-Wellhausen,  Einleitunq,  p.  582  ;  F. 
Hiihl,  Katwn  des  Alt.  TeM.  (Leipzig,  1891,  §  :A). 

KlCUARI)  GOTTUEIL. 

SyramachiiS :  pope  (498-514) :  a  Sardinian  by  birth  ;  con- 
secrated Nov.  22,  498,  after  the  death  of  Anastjtsius  II.,  but 
his  election  was  contested,  and  Laurent ius  was  on  the  same 
diiv  made  antipope.  Symmachus  was  supported  by  Theo- 
lio'ric.  King  of  Italy,  and  Laurentiiis  by  tlie  Byzantine  em- 
p«'r<ir.  The  contest  lasted  about  seven  years,  but  was  de- 
cided  in  favor  of  Symmachus.  Of  more  interest  are  the  en- 
art  incuts  of  the  synods  which  were  held  during  his  reign,  and 
wliirh  contributed  much  to  the  systematic  organization  of 
I  lie  papal  administration.  Some  seven  councils  were  held 
(499-ot>4)  in  which  the  election  of  the  po|)e  wjis  regulated, 
I  lie  free  disposition  of  Church  goods  forbidden  to  laymen 
liWiX  made  more  diihcult  even  for  the  clergy,  the  principle 
ppM-laimed  that  the  occupant  of  the  Uoman  see  could  be 
3iu1i;(hI  t)y  no  inferior,  etc.  Ho  was  distinguished  for  his 
/.t'ai  in  biiihling  and  restoring  churches,  in  redeemintr  ca|>- 
tivt's,  and  aiding  the  needy.  I).  July  19,  514.  See  Duchesne, 
Ltb*^r  Pontifical  is,  i.,  p.  cxxxiii.,  260.  JouN  J.  Keaxe. 

Symmachus,  (^riNTUs  Ai'RELirs:  autlior  and  orntor ;  b. 
about  :350  A.  I). ;  educated  in  Gaul  ;  held  some  of  the  highest 
civil  otVices  in  Home  in  the  latter  jmrt  of  the  fourth  century 
A.  i>.  Of  his  works,  the  Episfolarum  Libri  X.  are  extant, 
and  are  of  considerable  historical  interest;  editions  by  Ju- 
n-tus  (1580),  Scioppius  (1608),  and  Parens  (1651).  Frag- 
m»'nts  of  his  s])eeches  were  discovered  by  Cardinal  Mai,  and 
piiblished  in  Scriptorum  Veterum  norn  Collfcfio  (1815)  and 
in  Meyer,  Oral.  Bom.  Fragm.,  pp.  627-6^^6.  The  host  edition 
of  all  the  works  is  by  O.  Seeck  ( Berlin,  1883);  smaller  edition 
liy  Kroll  (Leipzig,  189:3).  Symmachus  was  one  of  the  last 
rhainpions  of  i)aganism,  and  a  noble  and  pure  character.  D. 
alM.ut  405  A.  D.  Revised  by  M.  Wakrkn. 

Symonds,  John  Addinoton:  critic.  biogra}»her,  and  lit- 
erary historian;  b.  at  Bristol,  Kiiglaiid,  Oct.  5,  1840;  edu- 
cated at  Harrow  School  and  Baliol  College,  Oxford,  where 
lie  took  the  Newdigate  prize  ;  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Mag- 

•  hilen  in  1862.  Ill  health  necessitated  his  residence  for  s<'v- 
eral  yeiirs  at  Davos-Platz,  Switzerland.  Among  liis  writings 
arc  An  Introduction  to  the  Stud  if  of  Dante  (1872);  Studies 
<ff  ttte  Greek  Poets  (187:?-76) ;  S/ietc/ieji  in  Paly  and  Greece 
ii>^74):  an  exhaustive  work  in  seven  vobnues  on  T/ie  Pe- 
naisMnnce  in  Pal  if  (1875-86) ;  Sketches  and  Studiis  in  Ifali/ 
(1879);  Essays  (1890);  In  the  Key  of  Wue  (IHIKJ);  Shak- 
^p*- re's  Predecessors  (1884);  W(dt  W/iitman  (189:J);  besitkw 
-<veral  volumes  of  vei*se,  original  and  translated,  lives  of 
Shelley,  Michelangelo,  Ben  Jonsoii.  antl  Sir  Phili|>  Sidney, 
and  a  iranshition  of  the  Autohioi/rapliif  of  Penrenufo  <  'ellini 
axsl).     D.  in  Kome,  Italy,  Apr!  19,  18|KJ.       H.  A.  Bkers. 

Symons,  George  James,  F.  H.  S.  :  meteorologist  ;  b.  in 
London,  England.  Aug.  6,  18:J8;  oducatt'd  by  private  tutors. 
I-Voin  1860  to  1864  he  was  assistant  to  Admiral  Fit/rov  in 
the  British  Meteomlogieal  OlViee.  In  1860  he  established 
the   annual   publication   entitled    Prifis/i  Painfoll,  and   in 


1865  the  monthly  called  ^Sytnons^s  Meteorohtgical  Magazine^ 
both  of  which  he  still  conducts  (1895).  lie  established  a 
rainfall  service  of  his  own,  and  this  now  extends  over  the 
British  islands.  Ho  was  chairman  of  the  Krakatoa  com- 
mittee of  the  Royal  Society  (1884),  and  editor  of  their  Pe- 
port.  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Sympathy  [from  Gr.  wixwAB^ul,  community  of  feeling, 
deriv.  of  avfurae^js.  aflFected  by  like  feelings;  crw,  together  + 
irdSos.  feeling] :  the  emotion  arous«*d  by  any  pi'ost'ntation 
which  suggests  suffering  or  [»leasure. 

1.  It  is  arous<Hl  by  states  clearly  pleasurable  or  painful. 
There  is  no  occasion  for  sym[iathy  with  one  who  does  not 
need  it ;  that  is.  with  one  who  is  not  in  a  state  of  positive 
feeling.  g<MMl  or  ba4j.  Further,  the  study  of  the  first  sym- 
pathies of  children  shows  that  they  extend  to  things  as  well 
as  to  persons,  and  (mly  gradually  get  narrowed  down  to  ob- 
jects which  feel.  Sympathy  as  an  emotion  is  shown  befon? 
the  child  makes  any  distinction  between  things  that  feel 
and  those  that  do  not.  But  whatever  the  object  be,  tlie 
emotion  is  called  forth  only  by  such  hap^MMiings  as  have  be- 
fore excite<l  the  child's  own  feelings  of  pleasure  or  pain. 

2.  Si^ne  degree  of  interest  is  necessary  to  symi>atny.  The 
confirmation  of  this  apy>ears  broadly  m  everyday  experi- 
ence. For  example,  a  man  re^ids  in  the  morning  p'ajier  that 
thousands  of  jH*ople  perish  in  a  Chinese  AikkI,  and  the  cuf> 
of  colfi'e  that  follows  it  up  is  much  more  important  to  him 
than  their  iK-reaved  families;  but  a  single  death  in  his  own 
community  makes  him  at  once  solicitous  in  reference  to  the 
dece^Lsed  man's  relatives.  Yet  mere  exploring  interest  when 
it  comes  u|)on  sullering  always  starts  the  sympathetic  feel- 
ings. 

3.  A  jM*rson's  sympathv  is  in  a  rough  way  proportionate 
to  the  nearness  of  the  individual's  connection  with  himself. 
This,  again,  needs  no  detailed  [)r<X)f ;  if  one's  brother  breaks 
his  leg  one  feels  nior»i  sympathy  than  if  a  casual  comrade 
meets  the  ainie  misfortune;  and  the  difference  is  greater  still 
if  the  latter  be  only  an  animd,  as,  for  instance,  a  favorite 
horse. 

4.  Sympathy  is  arouse<l.  not  merely  by  real  beings,  but  l»y 
any  idea  of  suffering.  It  is  not  necessary  that  one  believe 
in  the  object  of  one's  synifrnthies.  Pictures  in  memory  win 
sympathy,  imaginations  in  fiction  arouse  it,  vague  forebod- 
ings of  misfortune  to  others  excite  it.  Whenever  then* 
arises  in  consciousness  an  idea  of  a  conscious  creature — lx» 
he  fact,  memory,  fancy,  illusion,  reality  in  any  of  its  kinds, 
that  is,  l>e  he  a  possibility  in  any  form — his  fortune  as  suf- 
fering or  enjoying  moves  our  sympathy.  This  is  true  in 
spite  of  our  efforts — often  successful  as  they  are — \o  sup- 
press sympathetic  emotion  by  dwelling  upon  the  unreality 
or  ill  desert  t){  the  sul)ject  of  it.  Little  Dorrit  will  move 
s<ime  rea<lers  in  siiite  of  their  sense  that  the  character  is  fic- 
titious. We  all  leel  the  stirrings  of  fellow-feeling  for  the 
condemned  criminal,  even  though  we  be  convince<l  of  the 
justice  of  his  sentence.  In  cases  in  which  we  do  suppress 
the  emotion  it  is  liy  getting  rid  of  the  idea,  turning  tin-  at- 
tention to  something  els(\  exciting  some  new  interest,  that 
we  do  it ;  not  by  depriving  the  subject  in  question,  the  idea 
of  suffering,  of  its  force  to  alTect  us. 

In  this  <iefinition  several  further  (considerations  are  in- 
volved. By  the  use  of  the  wonl  "sugj^'cstion  "  an  important 
distinction  is  intended  lietween  the  object  on  which  sym- 
jmthy  terminates  and  that  by  which  it  is  caused.  A  sug- 
gestion is  a  stimulating  idea  ^*hich  is  brought  into  c<»n- 
s<iousness  from  wit  liout,  or  comes  by  an  associat  ion.  in  such  a 
way  that  it  does  not  belong  in  the  cours4»  of  my  real  life.  A 
suggestJ'd  pain,  for  example,  is  a  pain  which  a  person  is  led 
to  think  of,  but  which  he  is  not  really  suffering.  Suggested 
snfferinir,  therefore,  is  the  idea  of  pain  as  far  as  it  ditters  in 
coTisciousness  fn)m  the  actual  pain  of  the  experience  pre- 
sente<l. 

But  the  (jiiestion  arises:  T>t>es  such  a  sugirestion  exciti* 
STmj>athy  i  Snpi»ose  a  crut»l  father  who  punishes  his  child 
by  pinching,  the  presentation  of  the  father  may  suggest 
pain  to  the  child  ;  but  thi>  <loes  not  mmmu  to  be  sympathy — 
It  may  be  f»'ar,  or  memory  of  pain.  Vet.  on  looking  closer 
and  observing  children,  we  find  that  if  the  father  take  the 
attitude  whieli  the  pain  before  accompanied,  real  sympathy 
is  exeited.  Let  him  pineli  a  piece  of  wood,  paper,  even  his 
own  linger,  and  tin' chihl  a  year  old  gives  clear  expres>ion 
to  its  sympathetic  emotion.  The  child  does  nt»t  need  the 
notitiu  of  aimther  person  who  suffers,  nor  even  of  another 
objeet  that  sutTi'i-s;  he  only  nee<ls  two  thintrs:  first,  a  pres- 
entation  whi«h   sut;gests   vivid  pain,  and   second,   the  ab- 


SC4 


SYMPHONY 


SYXAGOGUE 


8cnce  of  the  coefficient  of  reality  which  his  own  Buffering 
had.  In  other  words,  the  emotion  of  sympathy  does  not  re- 
quire an  object  at  all.  It  ac^ires  an  object,  and  then 
maintains  itself  by  the  emphasis  of  this  object ;  but  in  the 
first  place  it  attaches  to  any  convenient  presentation  in  close 
connection  with  its  exciting  cause. 

Kinds  of  Sympathetic  Supgetition. — We  may  sympathize, 
therefore,  without  sympathizing  with  anything,  ana  at  first 
this  is  the  experience  of  the  young  child.  But  its  sympathy 
gets  an  object,  and  so  maintains  and  develops  itself.  The 
child  inherits  a  susceptibility  to  a  social  response  to  others' 
actions,  and  also  by  imitating  their  expressions  he  learns  how 
similar  organic  conditions  feel. 

Altruietic  Element  in  Sympathy. — The  much  discussed 
q^ucstion  of  egoism  versus  altruism  in  the  sympathetic  emo- 
tion may  receive  partial  consideration  here.  If  it  be  true 
that  suggesti>d  suffering  excites  sympathy,  and  that  it  is 
only  suggested  suffering  that  excites  it,  namely,  suffering  not 
present  as  real  suffering  is,  and  for  that  reason  attributed, 
when  knowledge  is  sufficiently  advanced,  to  some  one  else — 
then  we  must  believe  that  sympathy  is  not  entirely  egoistic. 
Suggested  suffering  is  at  first  neither  egoistic  nor  altruistic, 
because  neither  the  ego  nor  the  alter  exists  in  consciousness 
when  symoathy  at  first  arises.  The  reference  of  real  pain 
to  self,  ana  of  suggested  pain  to  another,  seem  to  be  ooth 
late  acuuirements.  But  as  it  is  true  that  the  child  gets  his 
external  objects  clearly  presented— especially  his  external 
personal  objects — before  ne  clearly  presents  himself,  so  sym- 
j)athy  must  be  a  conscious  emotional  motive  before  self-seek- 
ing is. 

Varieties  of  Sympathetic  Emotion, — ^A  large  number  of 
varieties  or  shades  of  emotion  may  be  classed  as  svmpa- 
thotic,  i.  e.  kindness,  benevolence,  charitableness,  etc.  When 
felt  toward  an  equal  m  character  or  station,  we  call  it  con- 
gratulation, fellow-feeling,  fellow-suffering,  companionship, 
common  well  or  ill  desert,  solicitude,  heartache ;  toward  an 
inferior,  compassion,  pity,  mercy ;  toward  one  much  supe- 
rior, it  approaches  awe,  but  differs  from  it  in  an  unnamaole 
way.  J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Sym'phony,  or  Slnfo^nia  {symphotiy  is  vifi  O.  Fr.  and 
Lat,  from  Gr.  ovu^Wo,  a  chording,  unison,  svin phony, 
deriv.  of  Hf»/pvm>s,  nannonious,  chording ;  o^y,  witti  +  ^v4, 
sound,  voice.  Sinfonia  =  Ital.  <  Lat.  sympho'nia  =  Gr.]  : 
in  music,  an  elaborate  composition  designed  for  perform- 
ance by  a  full  orchestra,  ana  consisting  of  several  distinct 
movements  (usually  four  in  number),  each  of  which  has  its 
own  individual  character,  as  the  allegro.,  andante.,  adagio, 
minuet,  scherzo,  etc.,  while  the  whole  unite  in  forming  one 
symmetrical  and  complete  work  of  art.  There  ap|>ears  to 
have  lx»en  no  important  difference  between  the  symphony 
and  the  overture  until  about  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Revised  by  Dudley  Buck. 

Synipho'slns :  a  I^atin  writer  of  the  fourth  or  fifth  cen- 
tury, about  whom  nothing  definite  is  known.  A  collection 
of  100  riddles,  each  in  thn'c  hexameters,  is  extant  under 
his  name.  Sih»  Baehren's  P^iet.  Jjat.  Minores,  vol.  iv.,  pp. 
JW4-^S85,  and  ('orj»et's  AnigmeM  de  Si/tnjx)ninH  rentes  sur 
pluj<iturs  manuMcnts  et  traduites  (Paris,  1868).         M.  \V. 

STm'phyla  [MchI.  I^at.,  frt)m  Gr.  <ru^A.ot,  of  the  same 
sttH'k;  dnJir,  togi^thor  +  ^wX^,  trilie] :  in  entoniologv.  the 
group  containing  the  |K»culiar  myria|KMl  Scolopendrella, 
The  name  wiis  given  under  the  impression  that  it  united 
the  characters  t>f  the  Mvriapoda  and  Thysaxura  {qq.  r.). 
Srolof)endrtiia  is  really  an  aberrant  diplojMxl,  and  has  no 
other  affinities,  J.  s.  K. 

Symphytam :  See  Comfrky. 

Sympiesom'et^r  [(ir.  wfiwlwis.,  compression  (deriv.  of 
^tat^4(9ip ;  cv¥,  topHher  -f  wi4(tiv,  press)  +  iiirpw,  nieasun^] : 
an  instrument  for  indicating:  the  amount  and  variations  of 
atin«>spheric  pn»ssure.  consisting  of  a  vertical  gl»iss  tul»e,  I 
tenniimleil  aUive  by  an  oblong^  bulb,  and  U-iit   upward  at  ! 
its  lower  extn»mity,  where  it  expands  into  a  cistern  ojK'n  at 
the  t4>p.     The  bulb  and  up|K»r  \M\n  of  thetiiln?  contain  hv-  j 
dn\i^'n,  the  cistern  and  lower  irnrt  of  the  tuU*  ct>lonil  oil  «*if  , 
almond.     As  the  pn*ssuri»  of  the  atnu>sphere  varies,  the  in-  I 
cIos^hI  hydn>p*n  expands  or  contnu't.s  by  pn>|M>riional  but  ' 
larije  ipianiiiiejs  ami  the  li.niid  ci>ns«Miiiei»tly  ri^es  or  falls" 
in  the  lulv  thnnnjh  lan^»  spates:  the  st-ilo  .'ittachetl  is  cor-  ' 
nvttxl  alsiWv>r  teni|H^ratun',  and  its  iiidicaiions  corn'simnd 
to  lluvse  of  a  mereurial  barometer.  | 

Sympleirades.  sim-plesr  aa-<Kv7.,  or  Cya'iieaii  Rocks  (anc.  ! 
SvMV^*rra8<t  or  Kvorfoi) :  two  small  islands  ai  the  Black  S<»a  ' 


mouth  of  the  Bosphorus,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  strait : 
famous  in  mythology.  When  any  living  thing  was  passiiic 
between  them  they  were  supposed  to  come  together  imnie- 
diately  and  then  separate,  Jason  with  the  Argo  by  a 
stratagem  eluded  their  collision,  and  they  have  since  bct-i.- 
immovable.  That  on  the  Asiatic  side 'has  disintegrat^nl 
and  almost  entirely  disappeared.  That  on  the  Europear. 
side  is  about  550  feet  long  and  70  wide,  consisting  of  thr».-. 
masses  of  volcanic  rock.  On  its  highest  point  is  a  marbh 
pedestal  with  the  inscription  "  Divo  Cs«ari  Augusto." 

E.  A.  Grostexor. 

Symptoms  [from  Mod.  Lat.  sympto'ma,  symptom,  fr^m: 
Gr.  (i^/iVTftMta,  mischance,  casualty,  symptom,  deriv.  of  avpt- 
vlwrtuf,  fall  in  with,  meet  with ;  <r^,  with  +  whr^u^  (i>>rf. 
w4wrwea),  fallT:^  in  medical  diagnosis  and  prognosis,  the  phe- 
nomena by  which  the  physician  judges  of  the  nature  an«) 
probable  course  of  the  disease  he  deals  with.  Svniptoni- 
are  objective,  that  is,  perceptible  to  the  physician's  seD^e>. 
or  subjective,  perceptible  only  to  the  patient's  senses,  such  a> 
pain,  deafness,  etc.  Each  may  be  valuable,  but  the  form^^r 
are,  as  a  rule,  much  more  to  be  depended  upon.  These  art- 
by  some  writers  called  physical  signs,  as  distinguished  from 
intal  symptoms,  but  these  are  sometimes  objective,  and  prac- 
tically all  are  classed  as  symptoms.  Few  symptoms  are  a  1  - 
solutely  pathognomonic,  or  infallible  signs  of  some  one  dis- 
ease ;  but  in  general  the  import  of  symptoms  can  be  learned 
only  by  the  use  of  careful  observation  and  patient  and  Imj;- 
ical  thought,  guided  by  experience.  In  early  times,  wh^Tn 
the  knowledge  of  diseases  was  less  advanced  than  at  pr.--- 
ent,  certain  syrantoms  were  regarded  as  diseaf^es.  Thu^ 
dropsy,  asthma,  diarrhaea,  and  the  like  have  passed  fnmi 
their  position  as  diseases  to  their  proper  station  as  nicr»* 
symptoms  of  various  and  often  quite  dissimilar  affection-. 
It  is  still  necessary  to  regard  certain  symptoms  as  dis«»ar^->. 
particularly  in  the  case  of  the  nervous  system,  but  atlvant- 
ing  knowledge  makes  these  fewer  and  fewer. 

,      ^     ^  WiLUAM  Pepper, 

Synnresls :  See  Sykizesis. 

Syn'agogne  r=  Fr.  <  Lat.  synago'ga,  from  Gr.  avmrp^. 
a  bringing  together,  collecting,  (in  Septuagint  and  New  Te^ 
tament)  assembly,  synagogue ;  o^,  together  +  *ytir,  lead. 
The  Hebrew  name  was  Keneseth  or  Beth  ffaJckenf^^^th  : 
Aram.  Kenishtd.  Other  Greek  names  are  tfvpa>^ioy,  vpe- 
o'cvY^,  vpoo'cvrr^pior,  aufifiteruoif]  :  a  congregation  or  assend»lv 
(»f  Jews  met  for  the  purposes  of  religious  instruction  an.'] 
worship ;  also  the  building  devoted  to  such  purposes. 

Ort^m.— It  is  impossible  to  fix  with  any  accnraov  th*- 
date  at  which  the  synagogue  took  its  rise.  Despite'  rab- 
binical traditions,  its  beginnings  probably  do  not  pi>  U- 
yond  the  Babylonian  captivity.  Far  away  from  the  na- 
tional religious  center,  prayer  became  for  the  Jews  a  sul»-i  i- 
tute  for  sacrifice,  and  a  study  of  the  traditional  literaturv  a 
religious  exercise.  Upon  its  return  to  Palestine  the  ne» 
community  regarded  the  Law  as  an  end  in  itself,  and  a 
knowledge  of  its  contents  of  supreme  importance  (Joseph us 
Contra  Apion.,  ii.,  17).  The  first  synagogues  were  estal- 
lished  for  the  reading  and  study  of  the  I^aw,  and  Philo  di- 
tinctlv  calls  them  MaincaXtTd  \  Vita  Jfo»is,  iii.,  27).  It  i- 
thought  by  some  that  Psalm  Ixxiv.  8  has  reference  to  su.  r. 
assemblies.  In  the  New  Testament  the  synagogue  is  alread  v 
a  fixetl  institution  (Matt.  iv.  23,  Luke  iv.  15,  etc.). 

Development. — Side  by  side  with  the  temple  nunier<>n> 
svnagotrues  were  established  in  Jerusalem.  Acta  vi.  9  nit»n- 
tions  those  of  the  Liliertines  (freetimen),  Cyrenians,  A\f\- 
andrians,  Ciliciaiis,  and  Asiatics.  They  seem'  to  have  spn-i«4i 
over  the  whole  of  Palestine.  Ruins' of  synagogues  haw 
bwn  found  in  Galilee,  in  Kasiuro.  Kefr  Birim,  Kl-Ji-^K. 
Meiron.  Nabartein,  Kedes,  Tell-Ilum,  Keraze,  and  Irbik. 
Judpng  from  the  architectural  remains,  these  belong  to  il.<- 
time  lH*twetni  the  first  and  fourth  centuries  of  our  em. 
Aivonling  to  rabbinical  law,  ten  men  are  sufficient  t-- 
form  a  ctngn'tralion.  But  also  in  the  Diaspora,  wherev.-r 
tht'  Jews  wt'nl,th»»y  built  synagogues  (Philo,  De  Septennri*'. 
v\u\\\  vi).  In  Alexandria  there  were  a  number(Phiio,  I^tijni 
ad  ( V/Zi/w,  5;  20),  Inst-riptions  found  in  Rome  tell  us  of  nine 
differiMit  svFiaixogiies  in  the  citv  (Berliner,  Gesch.der  Judru 
in  Rom,  18l«;i,  p.  6*2). 

Fitrni  and  Coftxtitution. — According  to  express  rabbinji 
law,  the  <ynair.»irue  was  alwav?  to  be  built  on  the  higbt-i 
lK»int  of  the  city,  ihouijh  there  are  traces  of  some  whirh 
must  have  U^n  built  outside  the  limits  of  the  citv  or  vil- 
lai^^  S»n»e  SiTvi(v*5  (as  on  fastniays)  were  held  in  t\xe  inn-u 
market-place.    The  style  of  the  early  synagogues  iii  lars^clv 


SYNAGOGUE 


SYNCOPE 


865 


Oneco-Roman.  In  Palestine  they  were  built  with  the  en- 
trance (front)  at  the  S.  They  were  given  into  the  charge  of 
a  body  of  elders  who  in  Palestine — at  least  in  the  smaller 
places — were  also  the  political  heads  of  the  community.    In 

f»laccs  of  mixed  population  and  in  the  Diaspora  a  special 
MMly  {wp9fffiir9poi)  was  appointed  for  that  purpose,  the  hea<l 
of  which  was  called  y9pouvid^o$.  To  this  body  was  also 
<lelegatod  the  power  of  hurling  the  ban.  For  the  reading  of 
the  service  there  were  no  stated  functionaries,  though 
throughout  the  Roman  empire  we  find  the  ^px^tf^^'^Twy*' 
(lioHh  IlakkerUseth),  who  watched  in  general  over  the  serv- 
ii'e  and  selected  the  readers  and  preachers  for  each  office. 
As  collections  for  charity  were  regularW  made,  there  were 
specially  appointed  almoners  {aabbdi  taedakdh).  The  beadle 
iCkazzan  JIakkeniseih,  Twnplnn)  had  charge  of  the  build- 
ing. 

SertHee,-^The  most  important  object  in  the  synagogue 
was  the  Ark  {Tebhdh),  which  contained  the  scroUs  of  the 
law,  wrapped  in  linen  and  deposited  in  boxes  (^«u).  The 
readers  and  preachers  officiated  from  a  raised  platform 
OirM.  On  New  Year's  day  and  on  fast-days  horns  were 
blown  (Shoferdth,  Chatzotzeroth),  The  congregation  was 
seated  according  to  a  certain  order  of  precedence.  The 
5«ervice,  which  was  in  Hebrew  (though  in  the  Diaspora 
<treek  seems  also  to  have  been  used),  consisted  originally  of 
the  recitation  of  the  Shema  (Deut  vi  4-9,  to  which  xi. 
i:j-21.  Numb.  XV.  37-41  were  added  later);  the  reading 
of  the  Law  {Torah\  which  was  done  by  at  least  seven  men, 
in  a  three-year  (later  on  in  a  yearly)  cycle ;  a  reading  from 
the  Prophets  or  Ilagiographa  {Ilaftardh);  and  the  priestly 
blessing.  The  portions  from  the  Torfth  and  Uaftftrfih  were 
also  translated  aloud  into  Aramaean 'by  a  specially  ap- 
pointed officer  (Meturgenidn).  Gradually  other  pra^rers 
were  added  ;  the  first  and  last  three  of  the  so-called  Eigh- 
/^rn  Benedictions  have  their  origin  in  the  times  of  the 
Mishn&h.  Expositions  of  the  weekly  Tfirfth  readings  were 
U:iven  by  any  prominent  teacher  present  {9iBdffmup  49  rait 
^wuywymt.  Matt.  iv.  23),  from  which  the  Chrbtian  sermon 
and  the  Jewish  Midrash  (q.  v.)  were  evolved.  The  one  who 
was  invited  to  act  as  reader  was  called  **  Messenger  of  the 
( Congregation  "  {Shellaeh  Tsibbur).  Services  were  also  held 
ou  Saturday  afternoon,  and  on  the  mornings  of  Tuesday 
and  Thursday,  the  chief  market-days  of  the  week.  It  will 
Ite  seen  how  closely  the  organization  of  the  early  church 
followed  that  of  the  synagogue.        I 

/further  Development, — Ttie  building  of  new  synagogues 
in  the  Roman  empire,  though  technically  illegaf,  was  per- 
^istently  carried  on,  and  every  community  of  Jews  had  one 
or  more.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  synagogue  was  used 
as  a  treasury  ancf  as  a  refuge-place  from  impending  death 
(Stobbe,  Die  Juden  in  Deutsehland,  p.  168).  The  services 
grew  in  number.  Minor  local  festivals  were  added;  the 
old  ones  (the  Day  of  Atonement  excepted)  being  celebrated 
in  all  places  outside  of  Palestine  for  two  days  instead  of 
one.  The  ritual  was  developed  by  the  addition  of  Psalms 
and  of  poetical  compositions.  (See  Jewish  Literature — 
Charaeleriaties  of  Hebrew  Poetry.)  The  best  of  the  Jewish 
poets  of  Spain  (1(K)0-1230  a.  d.)  worked  in  the  interests 
of  the  synagogue.  Though  the  framework  of  the  liturgy, 
the  prayer  par  excellence,  remained  the  same,  each  coun- 
try, and  almost  each  city,  had  its  peculiar  additions  (JTin- 
Avi^  =  custom,  rite).  It  is  customary  to  distinguish  two 
chief  rites,  the  Spanish-Portuguese  and  the  Polish-German ; 
though  there  are  special  African,  Arabian,  Italian,  Greek, 
Stjanish,  Provencal,  German,  etc.,  rituals.  The  old  custom 
of  preaching  on  every  Sabbath  gradually  fell  into  disuse. 
It  was  relegated  to  the  afternoon  service  or  confined  to 
festivals  and  special  occasions.  The  rabbi  became  more  of 
a  teacher  than  a  minister,  so  that  by  his  side  there  grew  up 
the  Mochiach  and  Maggid,  the  moral  preachers.  The 
<  'hazzan  developed  into  the  reader  and  intoned  the  service. 
Women  were  rigidly  separated  from  men.  The  reform 
movement  in  the  Jewish  Church,  which  began  with  Moses 
MendelsHohn,  chiefly  concerned  the  synagogue.  His  transla- 
tion  of  the  Pentateuch  into  literary  (Serman  (1783)  induced 
the  desire  for  the  translation  of  the  prayers  into  the  vernac- 
ular. These  had  grown  to  intolerable  lengths ;  and,  owing 
to  the  protracted  misfortunes  of  the  Jews,  the  whole  service 
had  kiecome  somewhat  un^^raceful  and  uncouth.  With  a 
view  to  remedring  these  evils,  the  Reform  congregations  in 
Tferlin  and  England  have  modified  the  synagogue  service 
to  some  degree,  and  have  in  a  few  synagogues  introduced 
hymn-books  in  the  vernacular,  though  nearly  all  the  syna- 
gogues in  Europe  and  a  large  number  of  orthodox  and 
396 


conservative  ones  in  the  U.  S.  still  hold  to  the  old  ritual. 
In  the  U.  S.,  where  the  congregational  system  has  been 
carried  to  its  furthest  extent  among  the  Jews,  the  advanced 
Reform  synagogues  have  largely  curtailed  the  ritual,  have 
introduced  many  English  prayers,  have  laid  aside  the  hat 
and  the  praving-scarf  {TalUh)^  have  emphasized  the  im- 
portance of  the  sermon,  and  administer  the  rite  of  confirma- 
tion to  both  boys  and  girls,  which  was  first  introduced  in 
Berlin  in  1817.  A  number  of  these  synagogues  have  also 
added  to  the  Friday  evening  and  Satunlay  morning  services 
a  short  service  and  lecture  on  Sunday  morning. 

Literature. — See  especially  SchQrer,  Oeach,  des  Jikd, 
Volkes  im  Zeitalt,  Jesu  Christi,  ii.,  g  27  (Eng.  trans,  div. 
ii.,  vol  ii.),  where  the  older  literature  will  be  found.  Cf. 
also  Stapfer,  Palestine  in  the  Time  of  Christ  (New  York, 
1885.  p.  333) ;  C.  G.  Monteflore,  The  Ilihbert  Lectures  (1892, 

?i.  388);  Herzfeld,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Jisrael  (iii.,  pp. 
29, 183) :  Zunz,  Die  Oottesdienstlichen  Vortrdge  der  Juaefi 
(2d  ed.  1892) ;  Zunz,  Die  Eitfis  des  synagogalen  Uottesdienstes 
(Berlin,  1859) ;  L5w,  Der  Synaaogale  Ritus  {Mntsehr,  fikr 
Oesch.  und  Wissen,  des  Judenth.  (1884) ;  Hamburger,  Real- 
Eneyclopddie  far  Bibel  und  Talmud  (part  ii.,  1888,  s.  v. 
Synagogue) ;  Holdheim,  Oesch.  der  Jud,  Reformgemeinde 
(Bertin.  1857). 

The  Great  Stnaooque  {Keniseth  ffaggedhdldh)  was  an 
assemblage  of  120  men  which,  according  to  Jewish  tradi- 
tion, Nehemiah  brought  together  for  the  reorganization 
of  religious  worship  and  the  maintaining  of  civil  order. 
They  are  supposed  to  fill  up  the  gap  between  the  last  of 
the  prophets  and  the  first  of  the  rabbis.  To  this  body  are 
ascnbea  the  reconstitution  of  public  worship,  the  final  col- 
lection of  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  certain  prayers.  Many  other  ordinances  are  re- 
ferred to  their  initiative.  Richara  Simon  {Histoire  Cn't, 
du  FiVmj*  Test.,  i.,  chap,  viii.)  was  the  first  to  question  the 
authenticity^  of  this  tradition.  Abraham  Kuenen*s  treatise 
on  the  subject  seems  to  have  removed  all  doubts  that  we 
have  here  simply  a  m^th  based  upon  the  assembly  of  the 
people  mentioned  in  Nehemiah  viii.-x.,  which  solemnly  ac- 
cepted the  Law,  and  that  there  never  existed  a  legal  or  re- 
ligious body  known  as  the  Great  Synagogue. 

Literature. — Kuenen,  Over  de  mannen  der  groote  Sima- 
goge  (  Verslaa.  en  Jfeded.  der  Kon.  Akademie,  Amsterdam, 
1876 ;  trans,  by  K.  Budde  in  Oesamm.  Abhand.  von  A.  Kue- 
neih  (Freiburg,  1894),  p.  125) ;  Zunz,  Gottesdienst  Vortrdge 
(2d  ed.,  p.  84) ;  Grfttz,  Die  Orosse  Versammlung  {Mntseh.  ffir 
Oesch.  und  Wissensch.  des  Judenth.,  1857,  p.  31);  D.  Hoff- 
mann, Ueber  die  Mdnner  der  grossen  Versammlung  (Mag. 
far  Wissefisch.  des  Judenth.,  iSSS,  p.  45) ;  Ginsburg,  Kittys 
Cyclopaedia  s.  v. ;  SchQrer,  Oesch.  des  JOd.  Volkes  (iL,  p. 
291);  Bleek-Wellhausen,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament 
(4th  ed.,  p.  558) ;  Buhl,  Kanon  und  Text  des  Alte  Testament 
(Leipzig.  1891,  §  9) ;  Ed«  K5nig,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte 
Testament  (1893,  p.  445).  Richard  Gottheil. 


Synap'ta  [from  Gr.  ffvptarr6s,  joined  together,  fastened]  : 
a  genus  of  Holothuriaks  {g.  v.).  embracing  worm-like  trans- 
parent forms  noticeable  for  the  anchor-like  plates  in  the 
skin,  which  are  favorite  objects  with  microsoopists. 

Synaptase :  See  Emulsik. 

SyneopaHlon  [from  Lat  syn'eope  =  Gr.  ^vynami,  syncope 
(in  med.  and  in  ^m.) :  0^,  together  +  jrtfvrciy,  strike,  cutj : 
in  music,  a  certain  arrangement  of  notes  which  often  pro- 
duces a  sudden  check  of  tne  rhythmical  movement,  thus  dis- 
turbing the  regular  accent,  and  rendering  emphatic  that 
part  of  a  bar  or  measure  which  would  otherwise  be  unac- 
cented.   See  a,  b,  and  e  in  the  example  following : 


^^^Pr 


Syncopation  of  a  simpler  kind  occurs  when  the  la<  note  of 
any  bar  and  the  first  note  of  the  bar  succeeding  are  tied  to- 
gether by  a  "  bind,'*  and  thus  form  in  reality  only  one  note. 
Formerly,  instead  of  writing  two  notes  serwrately  with  a 
bind,  it  was  usual  to  write  only  one  (equal  to  the  stuft  of 
both),  and  place  it  directly  across  the  bar-stroke. 

Revi!$cd  by  Dudley  Blxk. 

Syncope  [Gr.  cvytmrh,  deriv.  of  wynSurtw,  chop  up, 
squeeze  togetner;  viv,  together  +  K^wr^tM,  chop] :  the  short- 
ening of  a  word  by  a  syllable  through  the  omission  of  a 


866 


SYNCOPE 


SYNONYMS 


medial  vowel  or  a  medial  vowel  and  one  or  more  consonants. 
This  is  the  strictest  and  proper  meaning  of  the  term,  but  it 
is  sometimes  loosely  apphed  also  to  the  omission  of  a  medial 
consonant.  Examples  of  syncope  are  hemp  for  O.  Eng. 
Kenep,  muU  for  O.  Eng.  mynet,  church  for  O.  Eng.  cyrice, 
^'>u^^  f^i>  «vn7V/<«  KUfi/iHK  for  hsliM^a.  M'oose  for  suvnose :  Germ. 


p'lice  tor  police,  brieve  for  believe,  appose  for  suppose ; 
'  r  *ge'lauben,  gleise  for  ^ge-leise.     The  oi 


Germ, 
glaiUfen  {or  *ge'lauben,  gUise  for  ^ge-Uise.  The  omission 
of  an  initial  vowel  is  called  aphaeresis ;  of  a  final  vowel, 
apocope.  Bknj.  Ide  Wheelee. 

Syncope :  See  Fainting. 

Syn'eretism  (Gr.  vvyKfnirurfJs) :  said  by  PluUrch  to 
have  originated  as  the  designation  of  a  custom  characteris- 
tic of  the  inhabitants  of  Crete,  who  forgot  or  overlooked  all 
their  internal  dissensions  as  soon  as  a  controversy  occurred 
with  any  foreign  country.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the 
word  was  used  to  denote  those  attempts  which  were  made 
by  Pico  de  Mirandola,  Bessarion,  and  others  to  reconcile  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle  with  that  of  Plato.  But  a  still 
more  extensive  use  for  the  name  was  found  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  it  being  applied  to  the  views  of  Georg^e  Cal- 
lixtus  and  his  followers,  who  hoped  to  heal  the  schism  of 
the  Christian  Church  by  acknowledging  the  traditions  of 
the  first  Christian  centuries  besides  the  Bible,  and  declaring 
the  Symbolum  Aposiolicum,  the  common  basis  of  the  vari- 
ous Christian  denominations,  as  sufficient  for  the  definition 
of  true  Christianity.  Revised  by  W.  T.  Haeris. 

Syndicate :  See  Trusts. 

Synec^doche  [=Lat.  =  Gr.  owticJox^,  liter.,  an  under- 
standing of  things  together  or  of  one  thing  with  anotlier ; 
deriv.  of  itw^kUxw^  ;  <r^,  with,  together  +  itcUx^ir^  un- 
derstand,  liter.,  t«ke  from;  4k,  from  +  «rfx««^«i  receive, 
take] :  a  figure  of  speech  which  displaces  an  ordinary  term 
by  one  which  naturally  suggests  it,  on  account  of  the  rela- 
tion whole  to  part  or  part  to  whole,  genus  to  species  or  spe- 
cies to  genus;  thus  city  tor  people  of  the  citv,  Uade  for 
sword,  bcUd'hectd  for  bald-headed  man,  bird  for  fighting- 
cock,  man  for  humankind,  etc.  See  Metaphor  and  Me- 
tonymy. Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Syn'ergism  [deriv.  of  synergy,  from  Gr.  awtpyla,  a 
working  with,  assistance,  deriv.  of  ^vy^pyuf,  work  with,  as- 
sist, deriv.  of  trivt^yot,  working  with  or  together;  vlnt,  with, 
together  4-  i^t^v,  a  work] :  in  theology,  the  view  that  God 
and  man  share  in  the  work  of  regeneration,  the  human 
will  responding  to  the  Spirit  of  God,  So  Melanchthon  taught, 
opoosing  the  view  of  Luther  as  to  the  bondage  of  the  will 
ana  its  complete  passivity  in  conversion.  Flacius  and  his 
party  charged  Melanchthon  with  teaching  that  the  human 
will  had  the  initiative  in  conversion.  This  misunderstand- 
ing was  repudiated  by  Melanchthon,  who  endeavored  to 
make  his  meaning  clearer  by  employing  other  phraseology. 
This  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  will  led  to  vehe- 
ment and  long-continued  controversies,  and  divided  the 
Lutherans  into  the  Flacians,  or  the  orthodox,  and  the  syn- 
ergists. The  former  carried  the  day  in  the  Formula  of 
Concord  (1577),  but  few  modern  Lutherans  defend  their 
view.    See  Rbqeneration  and  Concord,  Formula  of. 

Samuel  Macauley  Jackson. 

Syne'slns :  bishop,  philosopher,  and  poet ;  b.  in  Cyrene, 
the  civil  metropolis  of  the  Libyan  Pentapolis  about  375; 
studied  philosophy  in  Alexandria  under  Hypatia,  of  whom 
he  became  an  enthusiastic  disciple ;  was  sent  at  the  head  of 
a  provincial  embassy  to  the  Emperor  Arcadius  at  Constanti- 
nople in  397,  and  stayed  there  for  three  years,  which  time 
he  describes  as  exceedingly  painful ;  visited  Athens  in  402, 
but  found  himself  greatly  disappointed,  and  spent  most  of 
his  time  in  rural  retirement  near  the  frontier  of  Cyrenaica, 
occupied  with  the  studv  of  philosophy  and  literary  pursuits. 
In  410  he  was  elected  fiishop  of  Ptolemais,  the  ecclesiastical 
metropolis  of  the  province,  out  his  relation  to  Christianity 
previous  to  his  election  is  rather  obscure,  and  it  can  not  be 
made  out  with  certainty  whether  he  was  baptized  or  not. 
He  accepted  the  election  with  great  reluctance.  Manv  of 
the  Christian  doctrines  he  could  not  reconcile  with  the  ideas 
of  the  Neo-Platonic  philosophy  which  formed  his  innermost 
conviction.  The  date  of  his  'death  was  about  415  (Zcller). 
Of  his  wwks  are  extant  several  essays,  among  which  are  Z)e 
LtBomniis ;  several  orations,  among  which  that  held  before 
Arcadius  {De  regno) ;  a  number  of  hymns,  often  translated 
into  modem  European  languages,  and  considered  to  be  tlie 
finest  specimens  of  mysticism  in  its  highest  flights  ;  and 
•  letters  of  great  interest.  Collected  edition,  with  Latin 
translation,  bv  Petavius  (Paris,  1612 ;  2d  ed.  1640) ;  critical 


editions  by  Krabinger  of  separate  works.  See  H.  N. 
Clausen,  De  Synesio  (Copenhagen,  1831);  C.  Thilo,  Com- 
meniarii  in  Syfiesii  Hymnos  (Halle,  1842-48);  and  Volk- 
inann,  iSynesius  t*on  Cyrene  (Berlin,  1869). 

Revised  by  W.  T,  Harris. 

SyngnathMdn  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Syngnath\u,X.\u^ 
pipe-fish,  the  typical  genus;  Gr.  o^,  together -H7i»«teM, jaw]: 
a  family  of  niarine  lophobranchiate  fishes.  The  form  i< 
much  elongated  with  little  flesh,  the  body  is  almost  covereil 
with  partially  ossified  plates,  the  hea4  and  snout  are  lou^ 
and  tubular/and  the  males  have  pouches  in  which  the  eg^rs 
of  the  female  are  hatched.  They  attain  a  length  of  2  or  ''\ 
feet,  live  upon  small  marine  animals  and  the  eggs  of  ot  h«^r 
fishes,  and  have  great  affection  for  their  young,  which  oft«^n 
return  to  the  egg-pouch  of  the  male  parent  for  protection. 
Not  all  the  pipe-fishes  belong  to  this  familv,  that  name  be- 
ing often  given  also  to  the  fGhes  forming  the  family  Fi»iu- 
laridfB,  also  called  pipe-mouths  and  flute-mouths. 

Synize'siS  [Gr.  <n/ylfy<ris,  deriv.  of  avplCti^,  sit  down  t.)- 
gether,  sink  together;  <r^,  together -f  Tfcir,  to  sit]:  the 
blending  of  two  vowels  into  one  syllable.  The  term  is  gen- 
erally used  of  vowel-contractions  'not  indicated  in  the  writ- 
ten form  of  language.  Thus  when  in  Homer  the  words 
rtix^a,  iiiUas  are  scanned  as  disyllables  without  change  of 
written  form,  the  phenomenon  is  called  synizesis,  but  when, 
as  in  Attic  Greek,  the  written  form  presents  tci^x^,  i^^,  the 
change  is  called  contraction,  or  syna?resis,  the  opiKJsite  of 
diaeresis.  It  is  only  in  terms  therefore  of  the  written  and  not 
of  the  spoken  language  that  synizesis  differs  from  contrac- 
tion. Contraction  between  vowels  of  different  words  is  calletl 
crasis.  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Synod  [via  Fr.  from  liat.  synodus  =  Gr.  o^^oSos,  a  eomint; 
together,  meeting,  synod ;  oi^,  together  +  Ms,  way] :  an  ec- 
clesiastical assemblv  or  council.  Synods  may  be  local,  dioc- 
esan, or  (Ecumenical ;  for  the  last,  see  Councils.  (Ecuxeku  .4L. 
The  supreme  body  of  the  Russian  Church  is  the  Holv  Gov- 
erning Synod.  In  the  Presbyterian  Church  the  synod  is  ihe 
ecclesiastical  court,  composeil  of  lay  and  clerical  representa- 
tives, which  comes  between  the  presbytery  and  the  General 
Assembly.  In  the  Northern  Pressbyterian  tlmrch  it  takes  in. 
generally  speaking,  the  presbyteries  of  only  one  State,  and  i< 
composed  of  delegat-es  cnosen  by  these  presbyteries.  In  thi* 
Reformed  Church  (Dutch  and  German)  the  highest  court  i< 
called  the  General  Synod,  the  next  in  rank  the  Particular 
Synod.  The  word  synod  is  also  used  in  the  Lutheran 
Church,  both  on  the  Continent  and  in  the  U.  S.,for  a  chunli 
court  composed  of  clerical  and  lay  delegates.  The  synoiK 
in  Reformation  times  in  Germany  were  exclusively  clerical ; 
but  the  earliest  in  whicji  the  lav  element,  now  an  inteuntl 
part,  appeared  was  that  held  in  t*aris  in  looO.        S.  M.  ^. 

Synodites :  See  C(enobites. 

Synod  of  Dort :  See  Dort,  Synod  of. 

Syn'onyms  [from  Fr.  synmiyme  <\j9X.  synonym  ti m  = 
Gr.  trwAyuftou,  synonym,  liter.,  neut  of  ^wvirv^t,  having: 
the  same  name  or  meaning;  irvv,  together -f-  6nfta,  nanu]: 
words  so  nearly  equivalent  in  meaning  as  to  be  in  Si>n)i> 
of  their  uses  interchangeable.  In  a  thoroughly  organiz^nl 
and  digested  language  it  is  doubtful  whether  two  words  an.- 
ever  perfect  synonyms  for  all  pur^K)6es.  The  suf^erfluim-^ 
material  whicli  tenas  to  accumulate  m  a  language  especially 
a  literary  language,  through  the  formation  of  new  deriva- 
tives, the  widening  and  shifting  of  signification,  and  the  in- 
troduction of  loan-words  (see  Doublets),  is  either  applittl 
by  differentiation  to  the  indication  of  special  phases  or  shadt^ 
of  meaning  or  is  discanled  in  the  survival  of  the  firtt^sK 
Conscious  discrimination  of  the  exact  values  of  synonym^ 
is  often  a  most  difficult  tAsk.  Books  which  aid  in  this  are : 
Smith,  Synonyms  Discriminated  (4th  ed-  London,  181M)): 
Crabbe,  English  Synonyms  Erplmned  (revised  ed.  ISJM): 
lioget.  Thesaurus  of  English  Words  and  Phrases  (n.e.  L<»n- 
don,1883.a  particularly  useful  lx>ok);  Schmidt,  Synonym *k 
der  griech.  Sprache  (5'  vols.,  1876-86,  the  best  work  of  it- 
kind);  Doderlein,  Lateinische  Synonymik  (6  vols.,  1J<^^»: 
Shumway,  Handbook  of  Latin  Synonyms  (based  on  the  <ii»r- 
man  of  Sleissner,  1884 ;  this,  as  well  as  preceding,  unsai  is- 
factory) :  Trench,  Syiumyms  of  the  iV>M;  Testament  (llili 
ed.  London,  1800);  Eberhard,  Synonym.  ITandtror/erbur'* 
der  deutsehen  Sprache  (2d  ed.  18W8);  Sanders,  Bansteine  _-». 
emem  Wdrterb,  dsr  sinnrerw.  Ausdriieke  im  Deutttrftf'< 
(1890);  Ijafaye,  Dictionnaire  de  Synonynies  Frnnf.  (is;\ 
good);  Tomraaseo,  Dizionario  dei  Sinonimi  delta  lingtii 
Italiana  (1867).  Benj.  Ide  Whkelcr. 


868 


SYNTAX 


and  Latin  texts,  by  which  a  purely  empirical  treatment  of 
syntax  became  possible,  as  it,  e.  g.,  appears  in  the  Greek 
grammar  of  Matthiffi  (A.  Matthue,  Ausfuhrliche  griechischt 
Grammatik^  Leipzig,  1807);  {h)  the  awakening  impulse  of 
Teutonic  philology,  connecting  itself  with  the  name  of 
Jakob  Grimm,  who  first  taught  how  grammar,  including 
syntax,  can  be  treated  historically;  and  (c)  the  science  of 
comparative  philology,  which  established  for  the  study  of 
syntax  as  weU  as  of  all  lin^istic  phenomena  a  foundation 
reaching  down  into  most  pnmitive  times. 

The  representatives  of  the  comparative  science  of  lan- 
guage occupied  themselves  first  with  the  cases.  Here  it  was 
at  once  observed  that  Sanskrit  contains,  besides  the  cases 
occurring  in  Latin,  also  the  locative  and  the  instrumental. 
This  led  directly  to  the  conclusion  that  these  cases,  and  per- 
haps still  others,  must  have  existed  in  primitive  times.  What 
now  has  become  of  these  extra  cases  in  the  different  lan- 
guages, e.  g.  in  Greek!  The  idea  readily  suggests  itself 
that  thev  had  been  absorbed  into  the  other  cases ;  for  in- 
stance, the  ablative  into  the  genitive,  the  instrumental  and 
locative  into  the  dative.  It  is  difficult  to  say  who  first  gave 
expression  to  this  conception,  which  is  summari^d  under  the 
term  syncretism ;  it  was  certainly  first  developed  in  detail 
by  Delbriick  (B.  Delbrttck,  Ablativ,  LoccUis^  Instnimefh- 
talis,  Berlin,  1867).  Here  follows,  besides  a  variety  of  mon- 
ographs, the  important  work  of  HUbschraann  {Zur  Casus- 
lehre,  Munich,  1875),  which  contains  not  only  a  good  history 
of  the  theory  of  the  cases,  but  also  adds  a  treatment  of  Iran- 
ian case-usage,  to  which  DelbrQck  had  given  little  or  no 
attention.  Then  follows  Gaedicke,  Der  Accusal ivim  Veda^ 
(Breslau,  1880),  a  superb  piece  of  work,  full  of  ideas  and 
covering  a  larger  field  than  the  title  promises,  a  book  which 
every  syntactician  is  recommended  to  study.  A  first  attempt 
in  the  study  of  the  structure  of  the  sentence  was  made  by 
Ernst  Windisch  in  an  article  on  the  origin  of  the  relative 
pronoun  (Curtius'  Studien,  ii..  Leipzig,  1869).  Even  though 
the  main  idea,  namely,  that  the  relative  was  developed  only 
in  the  separate  languages,  may  perhaps  be  incorrect,  yet  the 
presentation  of  the  pronominal  usage  in  the  different  lan- 
guages was  important  and  suggestive.  The  syntax  of  the 
verb  is  the  general  subject  of  a  series  of  worts  which  ap- 
peared in  the  Syntaktische  Forschungen  ^Halle,  1871-),  puo- 
lished  first  by  Delbriick  and  Windisch  conjointly,  later  by 
DelbrUck  alone.  In  these  the  attempt  is  made  to  trace 
through  the  usage  of  the  two  languages  compared  the  uni- 
form fundamental  idea  of  will  for  the  subjunctive  and  of 
tpisfi  for  the  optative,  in  doing  which  it  was  necessary  of 
course  to  construct  a  theory  for  the  development  of  the  dif- 
ferent forms  of  the  sentence.  In  this  work  the  presentation 
of  the  actual  existing  facts  of  Vedic  syntax  was  notably  in- 
sufficient. This  it  has  been  the  purpose  of  the  Altindische 
Syntax,  to  be  mentioned  later,  as  far  as  possible  to  correct. 
In  immediate  connection  with  these  first  attempts  there  ap- 
peared in  1872  a  work  of  Ludwig  Lange,  Ueher  den  hotner- 
iachen  Gehrauch  der  Partikel  c2  {Ahhandlungen  der  sdchs- 
ischen  Gesell.  d.  Wiss,,  1872,  vol.  vi.),  in  which  DelbrQck's 
theories  concerning  the  sentence-types  were  corrected  and 
complemented,  and  an  example  given  of  statistical  treat- 
ment of  an  individual  phenomenon  which  has  seldom  been 
paralleled.  A  foundation  for  the  study  of  t«nse  is  presented 
m  the  second  volume  of  the  Syntaktische  Forschungen,  Die 
altindische  Ternpuslehre,  by  B.  Delbrttck  (Halle,  1876),  in 
which  was  especially  demonstrated  that  the  Sanskrit  has  an 
aorist  usage  which,  as  may  be  shown,  though  not  shown  in 
this  work,  corresponds  in  substance  with  the  Greek  and  the 
Slavic  usage.  In  reference  to  the  verb  is  to  be  added  the 
work  of  Julius  Jolly,  Geschichte  des  Infinitivs  im  Indoger- 
manischen  (Munich,  1873).  The  infinitive  is  nothing  more 
than  a  case  introduced  into  the  verb  system. 

Of  prime  importance  for  comparative  syntax  is  the  Ver- 
gleichende  Syntax  der  slavischen  Sprachen,  by  Franz  Miklo- 
sich  (Vienna,  1868-73).  Though  the  theoretical  outlines  of 
this  work  are  in  many  regards  unsatisfactory,  and  the  com- 
parison of  the  different  Slavic  languages  with  each  other 
and  of  the  Slavic  with  other  languages  is  not  sufficiently 
true  to  historical  method,  yet  all  the  defects  of  this  excel- 
lent work  are  redeemed  by  the  presentation  of  an  inexhaus- 
tibly fresh  body  of  language-material,  from  which  all  sub- 
se(^uent  writers  have  drawn  and  continue  to  draw.  In  Mik- 
losich's  syntax  the  idea  of  the  sentence  scarcely  claimed  a 
proper  place.  Thus  there  is  lacking,  for  instance,  a  chapter 
on  the  order  of  words.  How  much  is  to  be  observed,  how- 
ever, in  this  field  has  been  illustrated  in  an  article  of  A. 
Bergaigne,  Mem,  de  la  soc,  de  linguistique  (vol.  iii.,  Paris, 


1875),  and  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Syntalctisehe  Forsch- 
ungen, Die  altindische  Wortfolge  aus  aem  Qatapathabrdh- 
mana  (Halle,  1878),  which  limits  itself,  however,  to  the  San- 
skrit. The  fifth  volume  of  the  Syntaktische  Forschungen, 
Altindische  Syntax,  by  B.  Delbrttck  (Halle,  1888),  deals  also 
with  the  Sanskrit,  while  the  fourth  volume  contains  sketches 
in  Greek  syntax. 

All  these  works,  and  such  others  as  might  be  added,  con- 
tain only  special  discussions,  and  seldom  venture  upon  the 
field  of  theoretical  inquiry.  A  summarizing  treatment  Lh 
attempted  in  Delbrttck's '  Vergleichende  Syntax  (part  i.« 
StrassDurg,  1893 ;  EngL  transl.  Comparative  Syntax),  which 
forms  the  continuation  of  Brugmann's  Grundriss  der  ttr- 
aleichenden  Grammatik  der  indogermanischen  Sprachen. 
Theoretical  discussions  appear  in  an  earlier  work  of  Lud- 
wig Lange,  Ziel  und  Methods  der  syntaktisehen  Forschung, 
an  address  at  the  Gdttinger  Philotogenversammlung,  1852; 
also  in  the  Prindpien  der  Sprachgeschichte,  by  Hermann 
Paul  (2d  ed.  Halle,  1886);  and  finally  in  the  above-men- 
tioned introduction  to  Delbrttck's  Comparative  Syntax. 
What  follows  will  be  devoted  to  a  brief  statement  of  certain 
theoretical  considerations. 

I.  Limits  and  Classifications  of  Syntax, — As  regards  the 
question  how  syntax  is  to  be  defined  and  limited  in  refer- 
ence to  other  departments  of  grammar,  complete  agreement 
has  not  yet  been  reached,  as  indeed  it  has  not  been  reached 
regarding  the  mutual  provinces  of  the  grammar  and  the 
lexicon  ;  it  is,  for  instance,  still  customary  to  discuss  in  tlie 
grammar  certain  things  like  the  numerals,  which  properly 
belong  only  in  the  dictionary.  This  need  not,  however.  !•*» 
regarded  as  strange.  In  questions  of  this  sort  are  mvolvo<} 
not  only  difficult  matters  of  principle,  in  reference  to  which 
the  stubbornness  of  scholars  is  w^ont  to  assume  monumental 
proportions,  but  also  practical  considerations  and  neci^- 
ties.  Every  author  aesires  to  present  a  comprehensive 
treatment  of  his  material,  and  every  one  who  wishes  to 
avoid  discourtesy  feels  himself  hampered  by  the  traditional 
yiews  and  usages  of  his  readers.  Apparently  all  are  now  of 
the  opinion  that  one  thing  belongs  with  certainty  to  syntax, 
namely,  the  doctrine  concerning  the  organization  of  the 
word-forms  into  the  sentence,  i.  e.  the  doctrine  of  the  sen- 
tence in  the  narrower  sense.  An  exception  appears,  how- 
ever, it  must  be  admitted,  in  F.  Miklosich,  who  expre^*« 
himself  as  follows  concerning  the  conception  of  syntax: 
"  That  department  of  grammar  which  undertakes  to  set 
forth  the  signification  of  the  word-classes  and  word-forras 
is  calletl  syntax;  syntax  is  accordingly  divided  into  twf» 
parts,  of  wlhich  the  one  deals  with  the  signification  of  the 
word-classes,  the  other  with  the  signification  of  the  word- 
forms.!'  Under  this  limitation  of  the  conception,  however, 
the  author  himself  is  often  involved  in  embarrassment. 
Thus  the  verbs  without  a -subject,  which  we  commonly  call 
the  impersonal  verbs,  he  has  been  obliged,  inasmuch  as  he 
does  not  recognize  a  doctrine  of  the  sentence,  to  include  iii 
an  appendix  to  the  nominative.  The  order  of  words  he  ha< 
not  discussed  at  all,  though  there  is  undoubtedly  a  tradi- 
tional type  of  word-order  in  the  Indo-European  languages 
as  well  as  in  the  Slavic.  Miklosich  was  evidently  led  to 
this  view  by  an  exaggerated  empiricism.  He  insisted  on 
recognizing  only  the  facts  of  tradition,  and  the  union  of 
word-forms  into  the  sentence  did  not  seem  to  him  tradi- 
tional, but  a  product  in  each  several  case  of  the  free  choice 
of  the  speaker.  This  view  is,  however,  incorrect.  As  al- 
rfeady  indicated,  certain  types  of  word-connection  and  word- 
order  are  transmitted  as  psychological  realities,  and  even 
one  who  declines  to  recognize  psychological  realities  must 
yet  allow  that  there  is  an  objectively  perceptible  part  of  a 
sentence,  namely,  the  sentence  accent,  which  is  in  and  by 
itself  a  matter  of  actual  tradition.  That  we  do  not  indicate 
tliis  in  writing  is  a  matter  of  accident.  It  is  in  no  way  less 
real  than  the  accent  of  individual  words.  Certainly  one 
can  not  doubt  that  the  interrogative  sentence  differs  in  the 
traditional  accent  from  the  declarative  sentence,  or  that  the 
differences  between  dialects  express  themselves  with  especial 
distinctness  in  the  different  accentuations  of  the  sentence. 

Besides  the  doctrine  of  the  sentence  in  the  narrower  sense, 
we  commonly  include  under  syntax  the  doctrine  of  the 
parts  of  speech.  Many  scholars,  to  be  sure,  decline  to  ad- 
mit this,  and  prefer  to  classify  grammar  under  the  heads  doc- 
trine of  sounds,  doctrine  of  forms,  doctrine  of  signification, 
doctrine  of  sentence-structure.  This  is  at  bottom  largely  a 
matter  of  terminology.  It  is  of  slight  importance  whether 
a  given  part  of  the  grammar  is  classed  as  the  first  part  of 
syntax  or  by  itself  as  the  doctrine  of  signification.    It  is  a 


870 


SYPHAX 


SYPHILIS 


the  action  becomes  one,  but  yet  complex,  s(^  the  mental  con- 
tent tends  to  become  one,  but  yet  complex  also. 

This  becomes  more  evident  when  we  call  to  mind  that 
the  "objects"  of  the  external  world  are  very  complex  men- 
tal constructions.  They  are,  for  the  most  part,  made  by  as- 
sociation. Objects  have  some  very  general  aspects  in  com- 
mon, such  as  color,  resistance,  odor,  etc.  But  these  bare 
qualities,  taken  alone,  might  go  to  constitute  one  object 
about  as  well  as  another ;  and  really  would  constitute  none. 
What  kind  of  an  object  such  or  such  a  bai*e  stimulus  shall 
turn  out  to  l)e — this  is  largely  a  matter  of  association  and 
suggestion.  Hence  if  the  mind  has  to  construct  anyhow,  in 
each  case,  and  to  dej)end  largely  upon  memory  of  earlier  in- 
stances for  its  material,  then  it  falls  back  at  once  upon  those 
habitual  reactions  by  which  groups  of  associated  elements 
are  reinstated  together  and  as  one  content.  These  old 
group  thus  usurp  the  new  elements  by  assimilation,  if  it  be 
within  the  range  of  organic  possibility. 

Generally,  therefore,  it  may  be  said  that  assimilation  is  due 
to  the  tendency  of  a  new  sensory  process  to  be  drawn  off 
into  performed  motor  reactions ;  these  preformed  reactions 
in  their  turn  tending  to  reinstate,  by  the  principle  of  imita- 
tion, the  old  stimulations  or  memories  which  led  to  their 
preformation,  with  all  the  associations  of  these  memories. 
These  memories,  therefore,  tend  to  take  the  place  or  stand 
for  the  new  stimulations  which  are  being  thus  assimilated. 

All  perception  is  accordingly  a  case  of  assimilation.  The 
motor  contribution  to  each  presented  object  is  just  begin- 
ning to  be  recognized  in  cases  of  disease  called  by  the  ^n- 
eral  term  apraxia,  i.  e.  loss  of  the  sense  of  the  use,  function, 
utility,  of  oDJects.  A  knife  is  no  longer  recognized  by  these 
patients  as  a  knife,  because  the  patient  does  not  know  how 
to  use  it,  or  what  its  purpose  is.  The  complex  system  of 
elements  is  still  there  to  the  eye,  all  together ;  the  knife  is  a 
thing  that  looks,  feels,  etc.,  so  and  so.  This  is  accomplished 
by  the  simple  contiguous  association  of  these  elements, 
which  has  become  hardened  into  nervous  habit.  But  the 
central  link  by  which  the  object  is  made  complete,  by  which 
these  different  elements  were  originally  reproduced  together 
by  being  imitated  together  in  a  single  act — this  has  fallen 
away.  So  the  Apperception  {q,  v.\  the  synthesis  which  made 
the  whole  complex  content  a  thing  for  recognition  and  for 
use,  is  gone  in  these  cases.  J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Sjphax :  See  Masinissa. 

Syph^lHs  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Sy'philua,  name  of  a  shepherd 
in  the  Latin  poem  of  the  Italian  physician  Fracastorius 
(1483-1563),  Syphilus,  sive  Morbtis  Oallicus;  (irregularly) 
Gr.  <rOf,  hog,  swine  +  ^Uot,  loving] :  a  specific,  chronic,  con- 
tagious disease,  peculiar  to  the  human  organism,  and  always 
more  or  less  closely  associated  with  the  venereal  act.  It 
is  always  acquired  through  contact  with  a  human,  being 
already  suffering  with  the  disease,  or  from  some  material 
which  has  been  in  contact  with  the  discharges  from  a  svphi- 
litic  individual.  In  the  poem  by  Fracastorius  Syphilua  is 
afflicted  with  the  disease  by  Apollo  in  punishment  for  paying 
divine  homage  to  his  king  instead  of  to  the  god.  Under  vari- 
ous names  the  disease  has  been  described  in  the  earliest  writ- 
ten history  of  every  part  of  the  globe.  One  Chinese  account  of 
it  dates  back  to  the  writings  of  Hoan-Ti,  b.  c.  2637*  In  India 
its  record  appears  in  the  Ajur  Vedas  of  Sucrutas,  a.  d.  400. 
Hippocrates  and  later  writers  describe  it  as  existing  among 
the  ancient  Greeks.  Celsus  speaks  of  it  among  the  Romans. 
The  Abbe  Brasseur  de  Bourbour^  writes  that  numerous  docu- 
ments in  the  languages  of  the  tribes  of  the  valley  of  Anahuac 
have  proved  to  him  conclusively  the  existence  of  syphilis  in 
A  merica  prior  to  the  discovery  of  Colum  bus.  Those  who  read 
the  Old  Testament  attentively,  particularly  certain  psalms  of 
'  David,  may  find  ample  evidence  of  the  existence  of  the  dis- 
ease among  the  nations  and  tribes  of  the  Orient  in  biblical 
times.  The  existence  of  syphilis  in  very  remote  periods  of 
the  history  of  mankind  is  thus  demonstrated;  but  the  first 
well-authenticated  record  of  its  recognition  in  Europe  dates 
from  the  year  1494,  when  a  notorious  outbreak  occurred  in 
the  army  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  who  was  then  besieg- 
ing Naples.  It  was  characterized  by  ulcers  upon  the  geni- 
tals, pains  in  the  bones,  and  eruptions  iipon  the  skin,  and 
was  known  then  as  the  morbus  Gallicus  or  French  disease.  It 
spread  to  a  fearful  extent,  and  became  a  veritable  terror  in 
the  land.  Its  cause  was  attributed  to  almost  every  imagin- 
able influence  except  the  right  one.  Later  it  was  recognized 
fis  the  result  of  venereal  contarit,  and  was  then  claimed  to 
have  been  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  followers  of 
Columbus. 


In  the  literature  of  those  times,  the  disease  was  usually 
known  in  each  country  by  the  name  of  some  other  country, 
and  was  designated  as  the  mal  Anglais,  morbus  Gallicus 
maladie  de  Naples,  pox,  lues  venerea,  etc.  I^ater  it  was  re- 
garded as  distinct  from  the  contagious  genital  ulcers  whoH> 
effects  were  simply  local,  and  also  from  gonorrhoea,  although 
so  late  as  the  time  of  John  Hunter  this  distinction  was  not 
known  to  him,  having  been  for  a  time  lost  sight  of.  The 
present  accurate  classification  of  venereal  disease  is  in  large 
measure  due  to  Ricord,  of  Paris,  who  published  extensively 
concerning  the  subject  in  1831.  Later,  in  1862,  his  pupij. 
Bassereau,  made  clear  the  difference  between  the  local  ukr r 
i.  e.  "  chancroid,"  the  local  lesion  followed  quickly  by  con- 
stitutional infection  (see  Venereal  Ulcee),  sypfiilis,  an<l 
the  other  local  infection  of  mucous  membranes  known  as 
gonorrhoea.  Since  this  time  and  almost  up  to  the  present 
day  a  few  writers  have  claimed,  however,  the  unity  of  tht> 
poison  producing  the  first  two  lesions.  Others  have  stoutly 
maintained  their  duality  or  distinctness,  and  this  view  is  now 
positively  accepted  by  all  writers  of  distinction. 

Effects  of  tke  Dtaeiise. — The  nature  of  syphilis  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  human  system  is  infected  by  it  are  vH 
undetermined.  Opinions  concerning  these  subjects  have 
been  very  numerous  and  variable.  A  number  of  investiga- 
tors have  at  various  times  detected  micro-organisms,  some  of 
these  being  bacteria,  which  they  have  thought  to  be  the  ac- 
tive agents  in  producing  the  disease,  but  research  has  shown 
that  the  presence  of  these  micro-organisms  does  not  accK>unt 
for  the  disease.  The  problem  must  be  solved  by  different 
methods  of  investigation,  yet  higher  powers  of  the  micro- 
scope, or  the  introduction  of  some  entirely  new  methods  of 
studying  the  discharges. 

When  this  poison  of  syphilis  is  inoculated  upon  a  healthy 
surface,  it  shows  no  imniediate  signs  of  virulence,  and  heal- 
ing of  the  wound  takes  place  promptly,  as  if  no  such  in- 
oculation had  occurred.  Then  ensues  a  period  of  complete 
rest,  the  so-called  period  of  incubation,  varying  from  ten  u* 
seventy  days,  when  a  thickening  or  induration  of  the  integu- 
ment or  mucous  membrane  at  the  point  of  inoculation  i.« 
noticeable.  Soon  a  discharging  lesion  results,  the  discharge 
being  extremely  infectious.  Inasmuch  as  this  lesion  i*  sur- 
rounded by  a  zone  of  tissue  induration,  i.  e.  cell  prolifera- 
tion, we  have  an  ulcer  or  a  papule,  situated  upon  an  in- 
durated basis;  and  this  is  known  as  the  chancre,  or  initial 
lesion  of  syphilis.  Then  occurs  another  period  of  apparent 
rest,  the  so-called  secondary  incubation,  auring  which  theiv 
is  little  or  no  consciousness  on  the  part  of  the  patient  of  thi* 
trouble  brewing  in  his  system,  the  local  disease  manifesta- 
tion frequently  healing  with  or  even  without  the  proj^r 
treatment.  This  secondary  period  continues  for  from  four 
to  six  weeks,  perhaps  longer,  when  the  lymphatic  no<les  in 
all  parts  of  the  body  will  be  found  enlarged  and  h&niene<l, 
and  there  breaks  out  upon  the  surface  of  the  body  a  rash  or 
eruption,  usually  more  or  less  resembling  that  of  meai>le<. 
This  is  seen  most  commonly  upon  the  thorax  and  abdomen, 
from  whence  it  may  spread  to  all  parts.  This  rash,  usually 
known  as  syphilitic  roseola,  marks  the  second  or  constitu- 
tional stage*  of  syphilis.  Then,  or  within  a  short  time,  the 
patient  begins  to  experience  constitutional  disturbantrs 
chiefiy  at  night,  including  pains  in  the  bones,  increase  of 
temperature  and  general  discomfort,  which  is  usually  known 
as  syphilitic  fever.  This  stage  is  still  further  characterized 
by  the  tendency  to  engorgement  and  infiammation  of  tlK»se 
parts  containing  much  lympathic  tissue,  such  as  the  ton<il!^. 
the  pharynx,  the  soft  palate,  etc.  If  unchecked  the  eru|»- 
tion  assumes  more  of  a  papular  type,  the  papules  varying  in 
size  from  that  of  a  pinhead  to  that  of  a  split  pea,  ooc^upying 
the  upper  part  of  the  body  usually,  commonly  symmetrieal- 
ly  distributed,  but  not  often  ulcerating  at  this  time.  Thi> 
is  the  papular  or  secondary  eruption  of  syphiUs,  sometime^ 
assuming  rather  the  pustular  type,  or  becoiningpustular  as 
the  result  of  a  depraved  state  of  the  system.  The  papule^ 
which  occur  upon  the  mucous  membrane  discharge  a  in<»st 
infectious  material,  and  are  known  as  mucous  patches.  They 
may  be  found  upon  the  membranes  of  the  mouth,  the  inner 
surface  of  the  nose,  the  eyelids,  and  about  the  genitals: 
while  papules  upon  the  skin  wherever  there  is  abundant 
secretion  and  moisture  often  assume  the  characteristics  of 
mucous  patches,  and  are  spoken  of  as  mucous  tubercle^. 
The  secretions  from  both  of  these  lesions  being  so  highly  in- 
oculable  constitute  one  of  the  most  important  dangers  in 
dealing  with  the  disease.  Inoculation  of  a  healthy  person 
with  syphilis  frequently  occurs  through  contact  with  the 
secretions  of  a  mucous  patch  situated  in  the  mouth,  as  in 


872 


SYRACUSE 


SYRACUSE  UNIVERSITY 


support  its  inhabitants.  Hermoapolis,  the  capital,  built  of 
glaring  white  houses,  presents  a  strilting  appearance  as  it 
rises  amphitheatricaily  and  almost  precipilousiy  from  the 
water.  It  has  dockyards,  machine-shops,  hospitals,  good 
schools,  and  a  college.    Pop.  (1890)  22,104. 

E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Syr'acuse  prom  Lat.  Syracu'sm^zGr.  :ivpdKowrcu;  Ital. 
Siracusd]:  chief  town  of  the  province  of  Syracuse,  Sicily; 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  island,  in  lat.  37**  0'  N.,  Ion.  15°  20'  lE. 
(see  map  of  Italy,  ref .  10-G).  The  modern  town  occupies  the 
rocky  islet  Ortygia  (1  mile  in  length,  ^  mile  in  breadth),  which 
serves  as  an  irresistible  breakwater  to  protect  the  large  har- 
bor on  the  W.,  across  the  mouth  of  which  it  lies.  This  har- 
bor was  formerly  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  is  even 
now  the  best,  perhaps,  in  Sicily.  Ortygia,  though  at  some 
periods  united  to  the  main  island  by  a  viaduct  or  causeway, 
IS  now  connected  with  it  only  by  bridges.  According  to  Thu- 
cydides,  Ortvgia  was  colonized  by  the  Corinthians  734  b.  c, 
though  the  Fncenicians  had  probably  made  an  earlier  settle- 
ment here.  (See  Gelo,  IIiero,  Dionysius  the  Elder,  and 
DioNYSius  the  Younger.)  When,  however,  after  long  and 
cruel  wars,  the  Romans  obtained  possession  of  the  rest  of 
Sicily,  Syracuse,  together  with  some  important  places  in  its 
neighborhood,  was  left  to  Hieron  II.  (275  b.  c),  who  had  be- 
come an  ally  of  Rome.  Under  this  king  the  city  rose  to  its 
highest  point  of  magnificence,  and  is  said  to  have  contained 
an  immense  population  within  its  walls,  then,  according  to 
some  authorities,  22  miles  in  circumference;  according  to 
others,  14  miles.  The  grandeur  of  the  edifices  and  the  ar- 
tistic wealth  and  refinement  of  Syracuse  were  altogether 
worthy  its  colossal  size;  but  in  the  course  of  the  Second 
Punic  war,  Hieronymus,  the  successor  of  Hieron,  broke  off 
the  alliance  with  Rome  and  joined  the  Carthaginians — a 
step  which  prove<l  the  ruin  of  liis  kingdom.  After  a  long 
ana  desperate  resistance,  in  which  the  celebrated  Archimedes 
exerted  all  the  powers  of  his  wonderful  mechanical  genius 
in  the  defense  oi  his  country,  Syracuse  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Romans  under  Marcellus  (212  b.  c),  by  whom  it  was 
barbarously  sacked  and  an  immense  booty  carried  off  to 
Rome.  From  this  time  Syracuse,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  Sicily, 
was  but  a  subjugated  Roman  province,  unscrupulously  op- 
pressed and  plundered  by  that  power  for  its  own  aggran- 
dizement. The  town  at  the  time  of  its  capture  consisted  of 
four  distinct  quarters — or  five,  if  Epipolas  be  included,  as  it 
no  doubt  was  by  those  ancient  writers  who  describe  it  as  a 
pentafolia.  Epipola%  however,  seems  to  have  served  rather 
as  a  citadel  and  fortress  to  defend  the  town  on  the  N.  W., 
and  was  probably  never  thickly  inhabited.  The  four  quar- 
ters proper  were:  (1)  Ortygia,  or  the  islet;  (2)  Achraaine, 
occupying  the  eastern  coast  of  the  main  island,  N.  of  Or- 
tvgia ;  (3)  Tyche,  W.  of  Achradine ;  (4)  Neapolis,  S.  of  Tyche. 
'f  lie  most  important  remains  of  ancient  Syracuse  are  found 
on  the  main  island,  thougli  some  objects  of  interest  are  still 
to  be  seen  in  the  modern  town.  Pop.  (1893)  25,200.  See 
Serradifalco,  Antichitd  di  Sicilia;  Gregorovius,  Wander- 
Jnhre  in  Italien^  Siciliana  (1872) ;  Cavallari,  Sicilia  arti»- 
h'ou  ed  archeologica  (1889) ;  Lupus,  Die  Stadt  Syrakus  im 
ACterthum  (1887).  Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Syracuse :  city ;  capital  of  Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on  Onon- 
daga Lake,  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  Del.,  Lack.,  and  W.,  the 
X.  Y.  Cent,  and  llud.  Riv.,  the  Rome,  Water.,  and  Ogdens.,  and 
the  W.  Shore  railways ;  147i  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Albany,  and 
loOJ  miles  E.  of  Buffalo  (for  location,  see  map  of  New  York, 
ref.  4-F).  It  is  at  the  foot  of  the  Onondaga  valley,  though 
the  southern  part  is  embraced  by  hills  on  either  side  opening 
to  the  right  and  left,  thus  broadening  the  valley  where  it 
joins  the  city.  There  are  highlands  to  the  N.  E.  also  which, 
with  those  on  the  S.,  are  populated.  The  length  of  the  citv 
proper  from  N.  to  S.  is  about  4  miles ;  from  E.  to  W.  about 
3  miles.  Salina  Street  is  the  principal  thoroughfare.  The 
streets  mainly  cross  at  right  angles;  most  of  those  otherwise 
laid  out  followed  early  Indian  trails  and  wagon-roads.  They 
contain  so  many  trees  that  the  citv  resembles  a  forest  when 
seen  from  the  adioining  hills.  There  are  about  250  miles 
of  streets,  52  miles  of  street-railway,  24  public  parks  (of 
which  Burnet  Park,  of  100  acres,  situated  on  the  highlands 
W.  of  the  city,  is  the  chief),  and  6  public  squares.  The  city 
has  a  new  water  system,  with  its  source  at  Skaneateles  Lake, 
and  with  90  miles  of  mains ;  it  cost  $4,000,000.  There  are 
34  newspapers  (6  daily)  and  periodicals. 

Public  Buildings, — The  v.  S.  Government  building,  the 
county  court-house,  and  the  city-hall,  all  built  of  limestone; 
the  county  clerk's  and  surrogate's  offices ;  the  First  Pres- 


byterian, St.  Paul's,  and  St.  Mary's  churches ;  the  Onondaga 
County  and  the  Syracuse  Savings-bank  buildings;  the  Kirk 
building,  the  Granger  block,  the  Bastable  block,  Dey's  aiul 
McCarthy's  buildings,  and  the  Wieting  block,  are  among  the 
most  imposing  structures.  The  State  Asylum  for  Feeble- 
minded Children  and  the  buildings  and  grounds  connecte^l 
therewith  are  attractive  and  interesting  to  visitors.  The 
Onondaga  penitentiary  and  jail  has  room  for  about  300  pris- 
oners, is  situated  within  the  city  limits  on  elevated  ground, 
and  its  inclosure  embraces  about  40  acres.  The  Onondaga 
Countv  Orphan  Asylum,  St  Vincent  de  Paul  Orphan  Asy- 
lum, the  House  of  Providence,  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd 
(hospital),  St.  Joseph's  Hospital,  St.  Ann's  Maternity  II<^ 
pital.  Shelter  for  Fallen  Women,  Women's  and  Children's 
Hospital,  Old  Ladies'  Home,  German  Hospital,  Needlework 
Guild,  Emplovment  Society,  Women's  Union,  Bureau  of 
Labor  and  Charity,  Women's  Aid  Society,  Deaconesses' 
Home,  and  King's  Daughters  are  the  principal  charitable 
institutions  and  organizations. 

Churches  and  SclwoU, — There  are  84  churches  (with  a 
total  seating  capacity  of  about  52,000),  as  follows:  Presby- 
terian, 9 ;  Baptist,  8 ;  Methodist  Episcopal,  20 ;  Protestaiit 
Episcopal,  7;  Roman  Catholic,  11 ;  Lutheran,  7;  Congrega- 
tional, 5;  Evangelical,  4;  Jewish,  7;  Unitarian,  Universal- 
ist,  Refonned,  Disciples,  Independent,  and  Scientists,  eaih 
1.  The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  owns  the  large  and  commodious  build- 
ing it  occupies,  together  with  its  music-hall  and  athletk- 
rooms.  The  Syracuse  University  (q,  i'.)  leads  the  educa- 
tional institutions.  The  public  schools  are  31  in  uumUr. 
including  the  High  School,  and  all  are  built  of  brick.  Thi- 
enrollment  is  over  16,000;  average  attendance,  over  12,000; 
annual  cost  of  maintenance,  over  $303,400;  number  of 
teachers,  320.  The  City  Library,  now  independent  of  tln^ 
board  of  education,  has  about  26,000  volumes,  and  occu- 
pies a  city  building.  Keble  School,  which,  with  several 
others,  has  an  attendance  of  about  ^OO  pupils,  is  the  priu> 
cipal  private  school. 

Finance  and  Banking, — The  assessed  valuation  is :  real 
estate.  $44,827,180;  personal,  $3,838,205— total,  $48,665,.38.j  ; 
receipts  and  expenditures,  about  $1,000,000 ;  bonded  in- 
debtedness, $5,056,500.  There  are  0  commercial  banks,  with 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $1,705,000  and  surplus  of  $1,100,000; 
2  savings-banks,  with  assets  of  $19,000,000  and  surplus  of 
$2,110,(>00;  and  8  national  savings  and  loan  associatioDs, 
with  aggregate  assets  of  about  $3,500,000. 

Business  Interests, — The  manufacturing  interests  are  ex- 
tensive and  cover  a  wide  range  of  producU.  Iron  and  stetl 
are  extensively  worked  in  various  forms.  Salt  is  no  longer 
an  important  factor.  The  State  took  possession  of  the  salt- 
springs  in  1797;  since  then  361,200,742  bush,  of  fine  and 
coarse  salt  have  been  produced.  The  largest  quantity  mad** 
in  any  year  was  9,053,874  bush,  in  1862 ;  the  smallest,  2">.- 
474,  in  1797.  Competition  at  home  and  abroad,  with  a  low 
tariff  aiding  the  latter,  has  nearly  ruined  the  industry.  At 
one  time  the  investments  were  valued  at  $14,000,000 ;  n(»w 
they  are  scarcely  worth  $500,000.  There  are  in  all  245  in- 
corporated manufacturing  companies,  of  which  one,  making 
soda-ash,  is  the  principal.  In  1890  over  $17,000,000  capital 
was  invested  in  1,175  establishments:  about  15,500  persons 
were  employed,  to  whom  nearly  $7,500,000  was  iwid  in 
wages  ;  material  costing  over  $12,000,000  was  used  in  manu- 
facturing ;  and  the  output  of  the  manufactories  had  a  value 
of  over  $25,500,000. 

History, — Syracuse  was  settled  in  1797,  and  was  known 
first  as  Bogardus  Corners ;  afterward  as  Milan,  South  Salina. 
Cossitt's  Comers,  Corinth,  and  in  1824  Syracuse.  In  1820 
the  village  was  incorporated ;  in  1847  the  rival  villages  of 
Syracuse  and  Salina  were  brought  under  a  city  incorpora- 
tion. The  Jesuits,  in  1654,  were  the  first  to  visit  the  lr»cal- 
ity  then  inhabited  by  Indians,  a  remnant  of  425  of  whom 
now  occupy  a  reservation  6  miles  S.  of  the  citv,  and  6  miles 
square.  Pop.  (1880)  51,792 :  (1890)  88,143  ;  (1892)  State  cen- 
sus, 91,944 ;  (1895)  estimated,  127,089.    Dwiqht  H.  Brh  e. 

Syracuse  llniversity :  a  coeducational  institution  at 
Syracuse,  N.  Y. ;  founded  in  the  year  1848,  but  locat***!  »t 
Lima,  N.  Y.,  and  known  as  (fenesee  College  until  VTA, 
when  it  was  removed  to  Syracuse.  The  removal  was  deter- 
mined by  a  great  convention  held  in  Syracuse  in  Feb..  lt<70. 
The  most  prominent  citizens  of  the  city  aided  in  its  new 
founding,  and  the  city  gave  $100,000  as  its  contribution. 
The  first  chancellor,  Alexander  Winchell,  LL.  D.,  was  in- 
augurated Feb.  13,  1873.  He  was  succee<ied  in  1H74  br  K.. 
O.  Haven,  1).  I).,  LL.  D.,  he  by  C.  N.  Sims.  D.  H..  in  \^\ 


874 


SYRIAC   LANGUAGE 


SYRIAC  LITERATURE 


(301-281  B.  c),  was  their  capital.  For  centuries  it  was  the 
largest  and  most  brilliant  citj  of  the  East,  and  was  fur- 
ther influential  through  the  civilization  therein  developed. 
The  Syrian  empire  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity  rivaled 
in  extent  that  of  Alexander.  Antiochus  III.,  the  Great 
(233-187  B.  c),  was  a  most  formidable  enemy  to  Rome. 
Antiochus  XIII.  (69-^)  was  overthrown  by  Pompey,  who 
made  Syria  a  proconsular  Roman  province  (64  b.  c.).  It 
continued  part  of  the  Roman  and  then  of  the  Byzantine 
empire,  but  (635-638)  was  gradually  conquered  by  the  Mus- 
sulmans. Damascus  was  made  the  capital  of  Syria  in  654 ; 
under  the  Ommiade  dynasty  of  caliphs  it  continued  the 
capital  of  the  entire  Mussulman  empire  (661-752).  The 
Abasside  caliphs,  hating  all  that  was  associated  with  their 
Ommiade  predecessors,  degraded  Syria  to  the  rank  of  a 
province  and  removed  the  capital  to  the  newly  founded 
Bagdad.  Distracted  by  rebellions  Und  by  frequent  wars 
between  the  caliphs  and  the  Byzantine  empire,  the  condi- 
tion of  Syria  was  deplorable  during  the  three  subsequent 
centuries,' till  it  fell  under  the  humane  sway  of  the  Seljuk 
sultan  Malek  Shah  (10T3-93).  Next  the  crusaders  deluged 
the  country,  and  the  succeeding  two  centuries — ^from  10^9, 
when  the  Christian  kinedom  of  Jerusalem  was  set  up,  until 
1291,  when  Acre,  the  last  Christian  stronghold  in  Syria, 
was  retaken  by  the  Mussulmans — formed  the  most  disas- 
trous and  destructive  period  Syria  has  ever  known.  From 
that  time,  except  dunng  the  invasions  of  Tamerlane  and 
his  successors,  Syria  was  ruled  by  the  Mameluke  sultans  of 
Egypt  until  1516,  when  it  was  conquered  by  Sultan  Selim  I. 
From  1832  to  1841  it  was  governed  by  Ibrahim  Pasha  under 
the  authority  of  his  father,  Mehemet  AH  of  Egypt.  With  the 
exception  of  this  brief  period  it  has,  since  the  days  of  Sul- 
tan Selim,  formed  an  intesral  part  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 

See  Burckhardt,  Travels  in  Syria  athd  the  Holy  Land 
(London,  1822) ;  Porter,  Five  Years  in  Damascus  (London, 
2  yds.,  1870) ;  Robinson,  Biblical  Re^xirches  (1841)  and 
Later  Researches  (1856) ;  Yanoski,  Syrie  Ancienne  et  Mo- 
deme  (1848);  Baedeker,  Palestine  and  Syria ;  Haskett  Smith, 
Handbook  of  Syria  and  Palestine  (1892). 

Edwin  A.  Grosvrmob. 

Syriac  Language :  See  Aramaic. 

Syriac  Literatare:  the  literary  productions  of  the 
Syriac  Church.  Its  rise  is  lost  in  the  first  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era.  It  is  at  its  best  from  the  fourth  to  the 
seventh  centuries,  when  Arab  dominion  begins  to  impose  its 
language  upon  Syria  and  Mesopotamia.  From  the  tenth 
century  on  Syriac  is  only  a  literary  tongue.  Productiveness 
in  that  language  dies  out  in  the  thirteenth  century,  just 
after  a  short  period  of  revived  glory.  From  the  sixtK  cen- 
tury the  split  in  the  Eastern  Church  into  Nestorians  and 
Jacobites  makes  itself  felt  in  the  literature.  It  is  probable 
that  at  one  time  there  existed  a  heathen  Syriac  literature, 
but  none  of  it  has  come  down  to  us.  The  first  writer  in 
Svriac  (Bardesanes,  the  last  Gnostic)  was  a  convert  to 
Christianity.  The  translation  into  Syriac  of  the  Bible  (see 
Peshito)  and  of  Greek  theological  and  secular  works  laid 
the  foundation  upon  which  later  scholars  built.  Learning 
had  found  a  home  in  the  great  schools  of  Mesopotamia — 
Edessa  (destroyed  by  the  Persians  in  489),  Nisibis,  Machoze, 
Dor-Koni,  Jerablis,  Mosul,  etc.  The  literature  is  largely  a 
theological  one,  and  of  importance  because  of  the  many 
translations  it  contains. 

In  these  schools  the  study  of  the  Bible  was  the  chief  in- 
terest. It  was  necessary  to  fix  accurately  the  wording  and 
tlie  pronunciation  of  tfie  more  difficult  expressions  in  both 
the  Old  and  New  Testament.  This  Masoretic  work  seems  to 
have  centered  in  certain  convents — e.  g.  in  the  Jacobite  one 
of  Karkaftha,  near  Ras'ain,  whence  the  best  of  such  MSS. 
come  (Martin,  La  Massore  ehez  les  Syriens,  Paris,  1880). 
With  this  there  went  hand  in  hand  the  w^riting  of  commen- 
taries upon  the  Bible,  which  were,  of  course,  more  theolog- 
ical than  critical.  The  great  Syrian  Father  Ephraem  (d. 
373)  wrote  commentaries  upon  both  Testaments  and  upon 
the  Diatessaron  of  Tatian.  Among  Nestorians  were  Han- 
nana  (d.  607),  a  determined  opponent  to  the  exegesis  of 
Thecxiore  of  Mopsuestia ;  Babai  the  Elder  (610) ;  Elias  of 
Merv ;  Isho'dad  of  Merv  (852).  The  Jacobites  have  names 
of  greater  prominence — Jacob  of  Edessa  (640-70H) ;  Daniel 
of  Salah  (eighth  century) ;  Moses  bar  Krpha  (813-903);  and 
Danielbar  Salib!  (d.  1171),  Bishop  of  Mar'ash.  ISIore  like 
the  Jewish  Midrash  and  the  pseiiaepigraphic  literature  are 
such  compilations  upon  bibkcal  historv  as  the  Cave  of 
Treasures  (ed.  Bezold,  1883-88).  Tlie  Rook  of  the  Bee  (ed. 


Budge,  Oxfonl,  1886).  Of  purely  theological  interest  arc* 
the  collections  of  church  and  monastic  rules  (Canones) 
which  were  formulated  at  various  times — those  of  the  Jac- 
obite Church  by  Jacob  of  Edessa  and  Gregory  Bar  'Ebhra- 
va,  those  of  the  Nestorian  by  Abhdisho.  The  great  schism 
in  the  Church  has  called  forth  a  large  fsolemical  literature. 
One  of  the  best  apologies  on  the  Nestorian  side  was  written 
by  Elias  of  Nisibis  (b.  975),  ed.  by  Horst,  Colmar,  lJ!i»3: 
while  the  Monophysites  were  defended  by  that  elegant 
writer  Philoxenus  of  Mabng  (485).  The  homily  was  a  favor- 
ite form  of  religious  exhortation.  A  large  number  of  such 
homilies  have  come  down  to  us  from  Ephraem  (ed.  Larov, 
3  vols.,  Mechlin,  1882-86):  Ibas  (435);  Jacob  of  NisibiV, 
called  Afraates  the  Persian  Sage  (d.  838),  trans,  into  Ger- 
man by  Bert  (Leipzig,  1888) :  Philoxenus  (ed.  Budge,  189;)): 
and  Jacob  of  Lerug  (503),  who  is  said  to  have  composed  as 
many  as  760. 

Poetry  was  also  known  in  the  service  of  the  Church, 
though  even  historical,  philosophical,  and  gnimmatical 
works  were  put  into  verse.  Bardesanes  (b.  154)  is  the  first 
poet;  he  is  followed  by  Ephraem,  Balai  (431),  Cyrilluna, 
Isaac  of  Antioch  (d.  460),  Narsai  (489).  and  the  Nestorians 
George  of  Mosul  (d.  987),  George  Warda  (1225),  whose 
hymns  are  largely  used  in  the  Nestorian  ritual,  and  Chamis 
bar  Jjj^ardahe  of  Arbel.  Syriac  poetry  can  not  lay  claim  to 
great  originality.  Its  system  of  meter  is  based  upon  two 
principles — the  rhythmic  sequence  of  accented  or  unaccented 
syllables,  the  one  the  arsis,  tne  other  the  thesis  of  the  verse, 
and  the  counting  of  the  syllables.  See  Grimme,  Der  Sfro- 
phenbau  in  deti  uedichten  I!phr,  des  Syrers  (Freibure,  1893). 

Syriac  literature  is  rich  in  historical  works  which  throw 
much  light  upon  the  ecclesiastical  and  political  history  of 
the  Christian  Church  in  Mesopotamia.  The  Didascalin 
and  Constitutiones  Apostolorum,  the  legends  of  Absar  and 
the  apostle  Addai,  and  the  Edessenian  chronicle  (Uallier. 
Unters,  fiber  die  Ed.  Chranik^  1892)  are  of  prime  imjwr- 
tance  (Duval,  Hist,  d  Edesse,  1892).  The  ancient  martyr- 
ologies  (re-edited  by  Bedjan,  4  vols.,  Paris,  1890-95)  are 
full  of  interesting  material,  as  are  also  the  Nisibene  hvmiis 
of  Ephraem,  the  poems  of  Isaac  of  Antioch,  and  the  histor- 
ical romance  dealing  with  the  persecutions  under  Julian  the 
Apostate  {Zeit,  der  Deutsch,  Morgenl,  Oesellschaft  28,  26:i). 
Other  historical  works  deal  largely  with  the  war  between 
Rome  and  Persia.  An  anonymous  Monophysite  has  turned 
the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Zacharias  Rhetor  of  Mitvleue 
(560)  into  Syriac,  and  united  it  with  other  works.  Very 
full  and  accurate  is  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  John  of 
Ephesus  (b.  505)  in  three  parts.  Other  writers  are  Sim- 
eon Barkayfi  (591) ;  George,  Bishop  of  the  Arabs  (686) ;  Ja- 
cob of  Odessa,  wno  finished  in  692  a  continuation  of  the 
chronicle  of  Eusebius;  Dionysius  of  Tel  Mahre  (817); 
Thomas  of  Marga  (832),  author  of  a  monastic  historv  (e«l. 
Budge,  1893);  Elias  bar  Shinaya;  Michael  (1163),  wh<.^ 
work  exists  in  an  Armenian  translation,  etc. 

Translations  were  made  from  the  Greek  at  a  verv  early 
time — e.  g.  the  Recognitiones  of  Clement;  the  Apology  of 
Aristides  (ed.  Harris,  Cambridge,  1891) ;  the  discourses  of 
Titus  of  Bostra;  the  Theophaniaot  Eusebius;  the  commen- 
taries of  Themlore  of  Mopsuestia;  the  Oeoponiea  (ed.  Iji- 
garde,  1860);  the  Physiohgus;  the  works  of  Homer;  the 
collection  of  Leges  Seculares  (ed.  Sachau,  1880);  the  fables 
of  JEsop;  the  medical  works  of  Galen  and  Hippocrates. 
Many  or  these  are  useful  for  text-critical  purposes ;  some 
have  not  been  preserved  in  the  original  Greek.  Amonir 
translators  known  by  name  are  Ma'na  (430),  Moses  of  Air- 
ghel  (550),  Athanasius  II.  (684\  A  great  many  of  the  work** 
of  Aristotle  were  also  translated,  especially  the  Organan  (Goti- 
heil,  Hebraica,  ix.,  166).  Probus  (about  450),  George  of  the 
Arabs,  Sergius  of  Ras'ain  (about  540),  Jacob  of  Edessa,  and 
Honain  (878)  are  tlie  leaders  in  this  work.  From  the  Syriac 
they  were  translated  into  Arabic,  and  from  Arabic  into  the 
languages  of  Europe.  The  old  Sanskrit  stories  of  Kalilae 
and  Damnag,  of  Sindban,  and  the  history  of  Alexander  the 
Great  were  done  into  Syriac  from  the  Pahlavl.  The  transla- 
tions of  Aristotle  formed  the  natural  starting-point  for  all 
philosophical  study,  but  the  Syrians  hardly  got  l^eyond 
commentating  and  excerpting  their  Greek  master.  To  the 
names  already  mentioned  may  be  added  those  of  Paul  of 
Persia  (575),  Severus  Sabocht*(d.  631).  MSr  Abhft  II.  (74t)). 
Antonius  Rhetor,  Moses  bar  Kepha  (b.  813),  Bazlidh,  and 
Severus  bar  Shakko  (d.  1241).  See  Renan,  De  PhiL  Peri- 
pat,  apud  Syr  OS  (Paris,  1852). 

The  only  non-theological  science  that  was  really  cultivated 
was  that  of  philology.    Syriac  lexicography  haa  its  beg^in- 


876 


SZE-CnUEN 


SZE-MA  TS*IEN 


Sze-ehaen,  or  Ssii-chnen,  se'chwijan'  [literally,  four 
streams]:  the  largest  province  of  China,  bounded  N.  by 
Kansuh  and  Shensi,  E.  by  Uupeh,  S.  by  Kwei-chow  and  Yun- 
nan, and  W.  by  Tibet;  area,  166,800  geographical  square 
miles,  or  220,000  statute  square  miles.  The  portion  lying  W. 
of  the  river  Min  (an  important  affluent  of  the  Yang-tse,  re- 
l^arded  by  some  as  the  upper  course  of  the  Yang-tse  itself) 
IS  little  known.  It  has  an  area  of  120,000  sq.  miles,  is  exceed- 
ingly mountainous,  and  forms  part  of  the  great  mountain 
lands  of  Central  Asia.  With  the  exception  of  some  small  in- 
closures  it  is  little  populated,  is  almost  uncultivated,  and  of 
inferior  importance  as  regards  the  value  of  its  products.  Here 
are  found  several  Tibetan  and  aboriginal  tribes,  such  as  the 
Jdan-tse  (a  people  considered  by  the  Chinese  to  be  the  rem- 
nants of  the  ancient  occupants  and  rulers  of  the  province), 
the  Si'fan,  who  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes,  each  with 
its  own  chieftain,  and  the  Loloa^  who  are  practically  inde- 
pendent, and  from  whose  frequent  raids  the  Chinese  settlers 
suffer  greatly.^ 

The  eastern  'portion,  which  may  be  reganled  as  Sze-ohuen 
proper,  has  been  described  by  Baron  von  Kichthofen  as  a 
large  triangular-shaped  basin  surrounded  by  mountains 
(mostly  of  Silurian  and  Devonian  age),  some  of  which  rise 
above  the  snow-line,  and  all  of  which  are  difficult  to  cross. 
The  basin  he  calls  the  Red  Basin,  from  the  accumulations 
of  red  clayey  sandstones  and  sandy  clays  which  are  found 
in  it.  The  summit  lines  within  the  basin  are  nearly  at  a 
level  with  one  another,  and  would  if  connected  represent  an 
undulating  plain,  f3,0()0  to  4,000  feet  above  sea-level,  but 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  bed  of  the  Yang-tse  is  1,500  feet 
or  more  below  the  level  of  the  plain,  and  that  rocks  of  the 
Red  Basin  are  soft  and  easily  aestructible,  the  rivers  have 
eroded  deep  channels,  and  converted  the  entire  basin  into  a 
hill^  country.  With  the  exception  of  the  plain  of  Ching- 
tu,  Sze-chuen  contains  no  level  ground  wortn  speaking  of. 

Sze-chuen  can  be  approached  from  the  E.  by  only  two 
routes :  (1)  by  the  Yang-tse,  up  whose  gorges  boats  and  junks 
(never  exceeding  70  tons  burden)  are  dragged  slowly  and  at 
great  expense  and  risk,  and  (2)  by  the  "  Great  North  Road  " 
over  the  mountains  from  Si-ngan-*foo.  Communication  with- 
in the  province  is  everywhere  difficult  (except  in  the  plain 
of  Chin^-tu),  and  is  kept  up  chiefly  by  utilizing  the  affluents 
of  the  xang-tse  and  their  numerous  branches.  Several  pack- 
roads,  paved  with  flagstones,  have  been  constructed,  and 
steps  cut  in  the  rocks  at  very  steep  places.  That  which  con- 
nects Ch'ung-K'ing  with  Ching-tu-foo  is  a  good  example. 
The  sedan-chair  is  the  commonest  mode  of  conveyance  used 
by  travelers,  while  goods  are  transported  by  coolies.  Beasts 
o)  burden  are  little  used. 

Coal  is  found  in  Sze-chuen,  but  is  not  mined  extensively. 
The  manufacture  of  iron  from  its  ores  is  perhaps  the  most 
generally  distributed  industry  of  the  province.  Salt  is  ex- 
tensively made  from  brine  raised  from  wells  ranging  in 
depth  from  700  to  3,000  feet,  and  evaporated  in  some  places 
by  coal,  but  in  many  by  natural  gas.  Petroleum  is  plentiful, 
but  is  not  utilized.  The  value  of  the  salt  produced  annually 
is  about  $63,000,000.  On  this  the  provmco  receives  a  tax 
of  $3,150,000,  while  the  province  of  Hupeh,  which  levies  a 
tax  of  18  cash  a  catty,  takes  $2,100,000.    The  other  chief 

?roducts  of  the  provmce  are  silk,  opium,  insect  wax  (see 
'EH-LA),  tobacco  (which  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  is  use<l 
by  the  natives  in  leaves  rolled  up  in  the  shape  of  cigars), 
tea  (only  green  and  of  inferior  quality),  and  t'ung  oil. 

The  inhabitants  are,  as  a  rule,  gentle  in  character  and  re- 
fined in  manners,  and  are  both  industrious  and  prosperous. 
All  the  great  commerce  of  the  province,  however,  is  in  the 
hands  of  men  from  Shensi  and  Kiangsi,  and  banking  and 

{)awnbroking  are  controlled  by  men  from  Shansi.  The  popu- 
ation  is  about  67,000,000.  Ch'unq-k'ino  {q,  v.)  is  the  only 
river-port  opened  to  foreign  residence  and  trade,  but  mission- 
aries, Doth  rrotestant  and  Roman  Catholic,  are  found  in 
many  places.    The  capital  is  Chin(i-tu  (q,  v.).    See  Baber's 


Travels  and  Researches  in  Western  China  (London, : 
Hosie's  Three  Years  in  Western  China  (London  and  New 
York,  1890);  and  Little's  Through  ths  Yang-tse  Oorgts 
(London,  1887).  K.  Lilley. 

Szegedin,  se<;h-ed-een' :  city ;  in  Hungry,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Maros  with  the  Theiss ;  118  miles  by  rail  S.  E.  of 
Budapest ;  connected  by  a  bridge  of  boats  with  Neu-Szege- 
din  on  the  opposite  bank  (see  map  of  Austria-Hun|nu7,  ref. 
7-H),  The  nouses  are  generally  only  one  story  high,  with 
thatched  roofs ;  the  streets  are  broad,  but  mostly  nnpavcd. 
and  sometimes  are  rivers  of  mud.  The  old  Turkish  c&<«tle 
in  the  center  of  the  town  is  the  sole  reminder  that  Szeeedin 
was  once  an  important  fortress.  In  1879  the  town,  witn  the 
surrounding  country,  was  submerged  by  inundation ;  almost 
half  the  houses  were  destroyed,  and  nearly  2,000  persons 
perished  from  drowning  or  exposure.  »oda,  soap,  and 
cloth  are  manufactured  on  a  large  scale,  and  an  active  trade 
is  carried  on  in  corn,  wine,  tol^co,  salt,  and  lumber.  At 
its  annual  fairs  vast  exchanges  of  goods  take  place.  The 
town  is  famous  for  its  floating  mills  and  river-ooats.  The 
Hungarians  were  defeated  here  by  the  Austrians  (Aug.  3, 
1849).    Pop.  (1890)  85,569.  £.  A.  Gbosvejcob. 

8ze-ma  (or  Ssii-ma)  Kwang :  one  of  the  most  prominent 
statesmen  and  writers  of  China,  and  as  a  histonan  secomf 
only  to  Sze-ma  Ts'ien ;  b.  in  1009 ;  d.  1086.  He  was  re- 
markable for  precocious  intelligence,  and  a  story  is  told 
that  illustrates  his  presence  of  mind  and  resourcefulness 
even  when  a  boy.  A  playmate,  having  fallen  into  one  of 
the  large  earthenware  vessels  in  which  the  Chinese  keep  tame 
flsh,  was  on  the  point  of  drowning,  when  Kwang  dashed  a 
large  stone  against  the  jar  and  broke  it,  thus  letting  th(- 
water  escape  and  saving  the  life  of  his  companion.  He  was 
employed  at  an  early  age  in  Government  office,  and  rose  to 
high  rank  in  the  ministry.  He  is  not-ed,  first,  for  his  strenu- 
ous and  successful  opposition  to  the  reforms  advocated  br 
his  contemporary  Wang  An-Shih,  usually  called  "the  In- 
novator " ;  and,  second,  for  his  great  historical  work,  in  2W 
books.  The  Comprehensive  Mirror  of  History,  on  which  he 
spent  the  leisure  of  nineteen  years.  It  covers  a  period  ex- 
tending from  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  b.  r.  t<> 
960  A.  D.  He  was  also  the  author  of  several  important  dic- 
tionaries. R.  L. 

8ze-ma  (or  Ssll-ma)  Tslen  :  author  of  the  first  general 
history  of  China ;  b.  at  Lung-mfin,  in  what  is  now  the  prov- 
ince of  Honan,  about  168  B.  c.  He  early  devoted  himself  to 
study,  and  at  twenty  entered  upon  an  extended  course  (if 
travel  throughout  the  empire.  After  this  he  held  several 
minor  offices  under  the  Government  until  110  b.  c,  when  he- 
succeeded  his  father,  Sze-ma  T'an,  as  grand  recorder  and 
astronomer,  and  shortly  thereafter  entered  upon  the  task  of 
completing  the  great  nistorical  work  begun  by  his  father. 
This  was  finished  in  91  B.  c,  and  received  the  name  of  Shih- 
ki,  or  Historical  Records.  It  extends  from  the  beginnini: 
of  the  reign  of  Hwang- ti  (b.  c.  2697)  to  104  B.  r.  It  has  be- 
come the  model  for  all  Chinese  historical  works,  and  is  <li- 
vided  into  five  parts:  (1)  Imperial  Rcconls;  (2)  Chrono- 
logical Tables ;  (3)  Treatises  on  Rites,  Music,  Chronolopv, 
Astrology,  Sacrificial  Service,  Watercourses,  Weights  and 
Measures,  etc. ;  (4)  Genealogical  History  of  the  Princes  and 
Grandees;  and  (5)  Narratives,  or  biographies,  and  accounts 
of  foreign  countries  and  their  affairs.  About  the  year  J<H 
B.  c.  Sze-ma  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  emperor,  and 
was  thrown  into  prison  because  of  his  defense  of  Gen.  Li 
Ling,  who  having  foolhardily  advanced  far  into  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Huns  with  a  body  of  5,000  foot-soldiers,  hail  l)een 
overthrown,  and  then,  afraid  to  face  the  wrath  of  the  eraj>er- 
or,  had  surrendered.  Sze-ma  is  also  noted  for  refonninir 
the  calendar,  and  the  chronology  determined  by  him  still 
obtains  in  China.  He  died  in  disgrace  about  85  b.  r.  For 
a  specimen  of  his  writings,  see  Giles's  Gems  of  Chinese  Lit- 
erature (London  and  Shanghai,  1884).  R.  L. 


;  the  twentieth  letter  of  the  English  alphabet. 

Form. — The  form  T  is  inherited  vi&  the 

Roman  alphabet  from  the  early  Greek  T  or 

-^  X  X .    The  form  of  the  Semitic  original 

was  that  of  a  cross,  +  or  X.    It  occupied 

the  last  or  twenty-second    place  in  the 

original  alphabet  adopted  by  the  Greeks 

from  the  Pncenicians. 

Name. — The  Semitic  name  of  the  letter  was  taw,  i.  e. 

mark,  cross,  whence  the  Greek  toC.    The  Latin  phonetic 

nnine  te  passed  through  the  French  U  into  English  as  te, 

now  pronounced  like  tea, 

Sound. — It  commonly  denotes  a  voiceless  dental  (or  al- 
Tpolar)  explosive  formed  by  breaking  a  closure  between  the 
toiiiTue-tip  and  the  alveolar  terrace  back  of  the  upper  front 
teeth  as  in  tar^  or  by  effecting  a  check  at  the  same  point  as 
in  rat.  Generally  there  is  in  the  latter  case  an  additional 
after-puff  caused  by  again  breaking  the  closure ;  thus  in 
<jrt  the  after-puff  constitutes  the  only  characterization  of 
the  s^>und.  The  same  sound  is  denoted  also  by  th  in 
Thames^  Thomas,  thyme^  phthisis,  and  by  {e)d  in  preterites 
i\\u\  participles,  as  asked,  rushed.  The  letter  t  is  silent  in 
hautboi/,  hasten,  listen,  often,  etc.,  hustle,  thistle,  etc.,  ehest- 
uiif,  Christmas,  mortgage,  bankruptcy,  waist  coat,  Matthew, 
in  the  combination  ti  before  vowels  it  often  has  the  value 
<<»f  f<h  (x),  as  in  initial,  action,  etc.,  but  in  -sti-  it  has  the 
value  of  tsh  {ts),  as  in  question.  Christian.  In  the  com- 
i>ination  th  it  represents  a  spirant,  either  voiceless,  as  in 
t/iin,  or  voiced,  as  in  then. 

Source. — The  sound  represents  in  Teutonic  words  an 
Indo-European  d;  cf.  ten:  Lat.  decern;  tooth:  Lat.  dens; 
iwo  :  Lat.  duo  ;  h*:art :  Lat  cor,  cordis ;  or  when  following 
<K,  h,  or  /.  an  Indo-European  /,  as  in  stand :  Lat.  stare ; 
hinht :  Lat.  nox,  noctis  ;  eight :  Lat.  octo.  Between  s  and  r 
it  is  excrescent,  i.  e.  a  special  development  of  Teutonic ;  cf. 
stream,  Indo-European  root  sreu-,  sister  from  swesr-,  Lat. 
jioror.  It  is  also  an  excrescent  product  of  Mod.  Eng.  after 
finnl  -«,  e.  g.  in  betwixt  <  M.  Eng.  betwix;  against  <  M. 
Enjx.  ageines, 

Sijmfjolism. — T  =  Tuesday,  ton,  Tullius  ;  Ta  =  tantalum  ; 
Te  =  tellurium  ;  Th.  =  Thursday,  thorium ;  Ti  =  titanium ; 
Tl  —  thallium.  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

TaafTe,  taa'fe,  Eor  ard.  Count :  Austrian  statesman ;  b. 
in  Prague,  Feb.  24,  1888,  of  an  Irish  family ;  was  educated 
with  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph ;  entered  the  public  service 
in  1K57  ;  became  Austrian  Minister  of  the  Interior  in  1867  ; 
Minister  I*resident  in  1869  and  again  in  1879.  The  chief 
object  of  his  policy  has  been  to  form  a  middle  party  which 
j^fiould  unite  conflicting  nationalities  and  creeds.  He  has 
^ouiTJit  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  Slavic  element  in  the 
empire.  In  1898  he  alienated  the  conservatives,  the  Ger- 
inuu  liberals,  and  the  Poles  by  his  electoral  reform  meas- 
ure, and  was  forced  to  resign  Oct.  29.  F.  M.  Colby. 

Tabas'co :  a  southeastern  state  of  Mexico,  bounded  N. 
by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  E.  by  Campeche,  S.  E.  by  Guate- 
uiala,  S.  by  Chiapas,  and  W.  by  Vera  Cruz.  Area,  9.844  sq. 
miles.  Tlie  soutnem  portion  only  is  mountainous,  the  rest 
consists  of  extensive  plains  and  low  rolling  lands  borderine: 
the  river  Grijalva  and  its  tributary,  the  Usumncinta,  both 
of  which  are  navigable.  There  are  extensive  swamps  and 
lacroons  near  the  coast,  much  of  the  surface  is  covered  with 
matted  forest,  and  the  roa<ls,  even  in  the  most  settled  por- 
tions, are  execrable.  The  climate  is  warm  and  damp  ;  there 
is  no  true  dry  season,  but  rains  are  most  copious  from  July 
to  October  and  in  December  and  January.  The  soil  nearly 
everywhere  is  very  fertile ;  besides  the  common  crops  of 
maize,  etc.,  cacao  and  suL:ar-cane  are  raised,  the  former  for 
f-xportation  and  the  latter  principally  for  the  manufacture 
of  rum.  There  are  no  mines  of  im])ortance.  In  general, 
Tahaseo  is  one  of  the  least  progressive  of  the  Mexican  states. 
Pop.  (1898)  estimated,  111,820.     Capital.  San  Juan  Hautista. 

Herbert  II.  Smitu. 
Tabasco  Rirer :  See  Grijalva. 

Tabasheer' [from  Pers..  Hind.,  and  Arab,  fdhdsh'ir:  cf. 
Sanskr,  tavakstilra]  :  a  wliite  variety  of  opal  obtained  from 


the  hollow  stems  of  certain  bamboos.  It  appears  to  be  the 
product  of  an  exudation  of  the  siliceous  sap  of  the  plant 
into  its  internal  cavitv,  caused  by  disease  or  injury  of  the 
plant  It  is  very  light,  brittle,  porous,  and  has  hygromet- 
ric  properties.  There  are  several  varieties.  The  transpar- 
ent kinds  have  a  very  low  refractive  power.  The  Hindus 
ascribe  to  it  valuable  medicinal  virtues. 

Tabatin  Va :  a  town  of  the  state  of  Amazonas,  Brazil ;  on 
the  north  side  of  the  river  Amazon,  close  to  the  frontier  of 
Peni  (oce  map  of  South  America,  ref.  8-C),  It  is  the  ter- 
minal port  for  the  regular  Brazilian  steamboat  lines,  and 
the  point  of  departure  for  small  steamers  which  ply  on  the 
Peruvian  rivers ;  there  is  a  growing  trade,  especially  in  rub- 
ber. Ocean  steamships  have  ascended  to  this  point,  nearly 
2,000  miles.    Pop.  about  3,000.  H.  H.  S. 

Tab'ernacle  [via  O.  Fr.  from  I^t.  tabema'eulum,  tent, 
(in  Late  Lat)  tabernacle,  dimin.  of  iaber'na,  shed,  booth, 
shop,  used  as  transl.  of  Heb.  mish'kan,  dwelling-place,  tent, 
tal)emacle,  or,  *Ohel,  tent  tabernacle] :  a  tent  erected,  under 
minute  divine  directions  (Exod.  xxv.-xl.),  by  the  Israelites 
at  Mt.  Sinai,  and  carried  with  them  into  the  IIolv  Land.  It 
wai*  set  up  at  Gilgal  (Joshua  iv.  19).  then  at  Shiloh  (Joshua 
xviii.  1),  next  at  Nob  (1  Sam.  xxi.  1),  then  at  Gibeon,  where 
it  is  last  mentioned  (1  Chron.  xxi.  29).  It  was  designed  as 
the  place  where  God  should  esj)ecially  manifest  his  presence 
to  his  people,  and  where  they  should  offer  to  him  their  sacri- 
ficial worship,  and  was  replaced  bv  Solomon's  temple  which 
exactly  doubled  its  dimensions.  It  was  a  rectangle  45  feet 
long  and  15  broad  and  15  high.  Its  two  sides  and  western 
end — the  eastern  end  was  left  open — were  made  of  acacia 
boards  placed  on  end  in  silver  sockets,  and  bound  together 
by  rods  overlaid  with  gold  :  and  the  frame  was  covered  with 

(1)  linen,  on  which  was  embroidery  representing  cherubim  ; 

(2)  black  goats'-hair  cloth ;  (3)  rams'  skins  dyed  red ;  (4)  seals' 
skins  (or  porpoise-skins).  It  consisted  of  two  adjoining 
rooms,  with  an  outer  court  surrounding  both.  The  inner 
room,  which  was  an  exact  cube,  contained  the  ark  of  the 
covenant,  with  its  contents;  over  this  were  the  figures  of 
two  cherubim,  and  between  them  the  Shekinah.  The  only 
access  to  this  room,  which  was  called  '•the  holy  place,"  or 
"the  holv  of  holies,"  "the  holiest  of  all,"  **the  second  taber- 
nacle "  (Heb.  ix.  3,  7),  was  from  the  outer  room,  which  was 
called  *'  the  holy  place,"  also  *'  the  sanctuary,"  "  the  first  tab- 
ernacle "  (Heb.'ix.  6),  of  the  same  width  and  height,  but  just 
twice  the  length.  Between  them  hung  a  veil,  or  rather 
double  curtain,  which  was  passed  only  by  the  high  priest, 
and  by  him  only  on  one  day  of  the  year,  the  great  day  of 
atonement  In  the  outer  room  was  the  golden  censer,  the 
golden  altar  on  which  incense  was  burned  every  morning 
and  evening,  the  table  of  shew-bread,  on  which  were  twelve 
loaves  of  bread,  replaced  each  week,  and  the  golden  candle- 
stick, the  lamps  of  which  were  trimmed  every  morning  and 
lighted  every  evening.  Into  this  the  high  priest  and  the 
priests  entered  daily,  in  the  course  of  their  regular  ministra- 
tions, but  no  others.  The  entrance  was  at  the  eastern  end 
from  the  court  in  front.  In  the  court  the  principal  object 
was  the  large  brazen  altar,  on  which  all  bunit-offcrings  and 
the  appointed  parts  of  other  sacrifices  were  burned.  Between 
this  and  the  sanctuary  itself  was  placed  the  brazen  laver 
for  the  ablutions  of  the  priests.  This  court  was  entered  not 
only  by  the  priests  and  Levites,  but  by  all  Israelites — who 
must  be  ceremonially  clean — who  came  to  offer  sacrifices. 
The  entrance  to  this  also  was  by  a  hanging  of  curtains  gor- 
geously wroui^ht  in  colors,  su|>ported  on  pillars,  and  was  20 
cubits  in  width.  The  three  entrances  were  thus  in  one  line, 
all  faring  eastward.  The  dimensions  of  the  court  were 
1(K)  X  50  cubils;  it  was  ineli^sed  on  all  sides  by  pillars  of 
brass  5  cubits  hi:,'h  and  5  cubits  a))art,  resting  in  sockets  of 
brass;  and  on  these  were  hunsj.  by  honks  of  silver,  curtains, 
one  for  each  side,  of  "fine  twini'd  linen." 

Kevisi'd  by  S.  3f.  Jackson. 
Tabernacles,  Feast  of:  the  last  of  the  three  great  an- 
nual festivals,  at  which  all  the  males  of  Israel  were  required 
to  present  them^ielves  at  the  sanctiuiry  (Lev.  xxiii.  :W-43). 
It  began  on  the  loth  Tisri,  the  fir^t  month  of  the  civil  and 

(877) 


878 


TABERNiEMONTANA 


TABORITES 


seventh  month  of  the  ecclesiastical  year,  corresponding  to 
the  last  part  of  September  or  first  part  of  October,  and  con- 
tinued seven  days,  with  a  supplementary  eighth  day.  On 
the  first  and  on  the  eighth  day  there  were  "  holy  convoca- 
tions," when  no  servile  work  might  be  done,  although  the 
other  activities  of  life  were  allowable.  On  the  remaining 
days  there  was  no  legal  restriction  on  labor,  but  from  the 
manner  of  keeping  the  feast  it  must  have  been  largeljr 
suspended.  It  was  also  called  the  "feast  of  ingathering  ' 
(Exod.  xxiii.  16),  and  was  pre-eminently  a  thanksgiving  fes- 
tival after  harvest,  and  was  far  more  joyously  kept  than  any 
of  the  other  feasts.  It  was  distinguished  by  two  peculiar 
ob8ervanceaH-(l)  the  dwelling  in  booths,  in  memory  of  their 
wilderness  wanderings.  These  booths  were  to  be  constructed 
of  the  branches  of  **  goodly  trees,"  and  were  not  tents.  Ac- 
cording to  Jewish  tradition,  the  sides  were  built  up  of 
boards,  and  only  the  roof  made  of  branches.  The  booths 
were  placed  on  the  roofs  and  in  the  courts  of  the  houses,  and 
in  any  unoccupied  places  in  the  streets.  As  little  furniture 
as  possible  was  to  be  placed  in  them,  and  it  was  not  required 
that  women  and  children  should  dwell  in  them,  but  only 
men.  Tradition  interpreted  the  word  dwell  to  mean  taking 
at  least  two  meals  a  day  in  them.  (2)  The  singular  manner 
in  which  the  sacrifices  were  arranged  (Num.  xxix.  13--38). 
There  was  offeretl  daily  a  kid  for  a  sin-offering,  with  two 
rams  and  fourteen  lambs  for  a  burnt-offering ;  but  besides 
this  there  was  a  further  burnt-offering  of  bullocks,  thirteen 
on  the  first  day,  twelve  on  the  second,  and  so  on  diminish- 
ing by  one  on  each  successive  day.  until  only  seven  were 
offered  on  the  seventh  day.  On  the  eighth  dav  the  sacri- 
fices were  a  goat  for  a  sin-offering,  one  bullock,  one  ram, 
and  seven  lambs  for  a  burnt-offermg.  The  Law  required 
that  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles  in  the  sabbatical  year  the 
Law  should  be  publicly  read  to  the  whole  people,  men, 
women,  and  children. 

Two  other  customs  arose  at  an  early  date :  (1)  One  of  the 
priests  drew  water  in  a  golden  pitcher  from  the  Pool  of 
Siloam,  and  brought  it  through  the  water-gate  of  the  temple 
to  the  altar.  As  ne  entered,  the  trumpets  sounded.  Then, 
just  before  the  offering  of  the  sacrifices,  the  water  was 
poured  upon  the  altar,  amid  the  joyous  chanting  of  Ps, 
cxviii.  on  the  part  of  the  great  concourse  of  people,  in  holi- 
day attire  ana  carrying  lulabs  or  green  branches  tied  to- 
gether. So  great  was  the  jovousness  of  the  occasion  that  it 
became  a  rabbinical  proverb,  "  He  has  never  seen  joy  who 
has  not  seen  the  joy  of  the  pouring  out  of  the  water  of 
Siloam."  To  this  custom  allusion  is  made  in  John  vii.  37. 
38.  In  the  evening  of  the  day  of /'holy  convocation"  the 
men  and  women  ax^sembled  in  the  courts  of  the  temple  ex- 
pressly to  rejoice  over  the  drawing  of  the  water  of  Siloam  in 
the  morning,  and  gave  themselves  up  to  unrestrained  hilar- 
ity. (2)  On  this  occasion  two  great  lights  were  set  up  in  the 
court,  each  consisting  of  four  lamps,  the  oil  for  which  was 
supplied  by  the  sons  of  the  priests,  and  the  wicks  made  of 
cast-off  priestly  garments.  The  light  is  said  to  have  reached 
over  nearly  the  whole  city.  The  passage  John  viii.  12  is  sup- 
posed to  allude  to  this  light.      Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Tabernnmonta'na :  See  Cow-trees  and  Forbidden 
Fruit. 

Ta'bes  Dorsa'lis,  or  Locomotor  Ataxia  [tabes  dorsnlia 
is  Lat.,  liter.,  a  wasting  away  {tabes)  in  the  back ;  locomotor 
ataxia  is  in-co(5rdi nation  of  movements;  Mod.  Lat.  loco- 
motor (Lat.  locus,  place  +  motor,  a  mover)  +  Or.  ira^ia,  dis- 
order (4-,  not  +  aajec.  Tcurrrfy,  deriv.  of  rauraftp,  arrange)] : 
a  chronic  affection  of  the  posterior  columns  of  the  spinal 
cord,  characterized  by  in-coordination,  sensory  and  nutri- 
tive disturbances,  and' a  loss  of  the  light  reftexof  the  pupil. 
It  is  a  disease  of  middle  life,  and  is  much  more  frequent  in 
men  than  women.  While  syphilis  is  the  most  frequent  cause, 
sexual  excess,  overwork  with  exposure,  and  possibly  even 
injury  may  produce  it.  Alcoholism  alone  exerts  but  little 
causative  influence.  The  disease  usually  logins  with  attacks 
of  violent,  stabbing  pains  in  the  legs,  coining  on  suddenly 
and  lasting  only  for  a  moment,  recurring  for  months  before 
the  onset  of  other  symptoms,  and  usually  diagnosed  as  rheu- 
matic. On  examination  the  knee  jerks  are  found  to  be  ab- 
sent, and  later  the  superficial  reflexes  also  disappear.  The 
pupils  are  small,  and  while  still  contracting  on  accommoda- 
tion cease  to  do  so  when  exposed  to  light.  This  condition 
is  called  the  A rgyle- Robertson  pupil.  Optic  atrophy  may 
be  present.  Later  the  characteristic  gait  due  to  in-coonli- 
nation  appears.  The  foot  is  raised  too  high,  is  thrown  vio- 
lently forward,  and  the  entire  sole  touches  the  floor  at  once. 


Walking  is  made  much  more  difficult  by  closure  of  the  eye^ 
and  on  attempting  to  stand  with  the  feet  close  together  ami 
the  eyes  shut  the  whole  body  sways  sometimes  so  violently 
as  to  throw  the  patient  to  the  floor  (Romberg's  symntoiii). 
The  gait  greatly  resembles  that  of  a  drunken  maii.  ln-c«»- 
Srdination  is  also  present  in  the  hands.  On  trying  to  tou(-h 
the  nose  or  ear  with  the  finger,  the  eyes  being  closed,  it  gf)es 
wide  of  the  mark.  It  is  diflBcult  for  the  patient  to  butti»i» 
or  unbutton  his  clothes,  and  to  pick  up  small  objects  with- 
out the  aid  of  vision.  There  is  no  true  palsy,  but  simply  thi< 
inability  to  direct  muscular  effort,  until  late  in  the  disease. 
Sensation  is  delayed,  sometimes  ten  seconds  elapsing  be- 
tween a  touch  and  its  recognition.  The  ability  to  localize* 
sensation  may  be  lost.  There  are  spots  of  ana^thesia.  The 
patient  often  feels  as  if  walking  on  wool.  Numbness  an<l 
tingling  occur  in  the  hands  and  feet  Often  a  tight  bftnU 
is  felt  around  the  body.  Attacks  of  violent  pain  in  the 
stomach,  with  vomiting  (|^astric  crises),  are  frequent  Laryu- 
geal  crises  are  characterized  by  noisy  inspiration,  dyspncea, 
and  cough.  Infrequently  there  are  crises  in  other  organs. 
There  is  apt  to  be  difficulty  in  micturition.  Sexual  power 
is  entirely  lost.  Trophic  changes  occur.  The  most  frequent 
are  perforating  ulcer  of  the  foot,  skin  eruptions,  changes  in 
the  larger  joints  characterized  by  erosion  of  the  cartilufri"' 
and  effu.sion  into  the  joint  cavity,  and  britrleness  of  the 
bones  rendering  them  peculiarly  liable  to  fracture.  The  di>- 
ease  extends  over  many  years.  Death  usually  results  fr«)iii 
some  intercurrent  affection.  While  locomotor  ataxia  never 
causes  disease  of  the  mind,  one  form  of  insanity  (general 
paralysis^  occasionally  begins  with  identical  spinal  s\m\>- 
toms.  Fully  developed  locomotor  ataxia  is  incurable,  hot 
treatment  may  benefit  and  for  a  time  even  stay  the  progress 
of  its  course.  Pathologically  tabe^  dorsalis  is  a  sclerosi.^^  of 
the  posterior  columns  of  the  spinal  cord,  with  involvement 
of  the  posterior  nerve-roots,  the  meninges,  and  sometimes  a 
peripheral  neuritis.      William  Pepper  and  C.  W.  Bire. 

Table-land :  See  Plateau. 

Tables :  See  Furniture. 

Taboo',  or  Tabu  [from  Polynesian  (Marquesas  isIamK). 
/aoM,  forbidden,  (as  noun)  talioo]:  a  Polynesian  intenliit 
which  makes  persons,  places,  or  things  sacred,  so  that  cer- 
tain persons  can  not  touch  or  come  near  them  without  he- 
coming  defiled  and  outlawed.  The  system  of  taboo  p«»ne- 
trates  the  whole  social  life  of  most  of  the  unchristianis^ed 
Polynesian  islands,  and  is  a  powerful  agent  in  the  hands  of 
chiefs  and  priests  in  controlling  the  people. 

Tabor,  Mount  [Tabor  is  from  Heb.  Tabor,  liter.,  lofty 
place  (or  perhaps  stone  quarry)] :  an  insulated  mountaiu  of 
rCorthern  Palestine,  in  Galilee,  6  miles  S.  E.  of  Nazareth, 
rising  1,053  feet  above  the  plain  and  2,018  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  commanding  a  large  and  beautiful  view  of  the  sur- 
rounding country.  It  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  was  from  the  fourth  century  generally  reganletl 
as  the  scene  of,  the  transfiguration  of  Christ,  although  it  is 
now  known  that  at  the  time  when  that  event  took  place  it> 
summit  was  occupie<l  by  a  fortified  town. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Tabor  College:  a  coeducational  institutifm  at  Talxir. 
Fremont  co.,  la. ;  incorporated  under  the  name  of  Talw.r 
Literary  Institute  in  1854  and  reineoriwrated  under  tlie 
name  of  Tabor  College  in  July,  18fi6.  It  is  an  outgn>wth 
of  a  colony  of  Congregationalists  from  Oberlin,  (>.,  who 
formed  the  settlement  at  Tabor  in  1852.  Many  citizens  of 
Tal)or  gave  largely  of  their  property  to  the  institution  at  the 
opening  of  the  college  department.  *  The  first  nineteen  donors 
gave  in  cash  and  notes  60  per  cent,  of  the  assessed  value  cf 
their  property.  An  academy  was  ofiened  in  1857.  and  a  it»l- 
lege  department  in  1866.  Talx>r  College  includes  cla5^i(.Hl, 
scientific,  and  literary  courses  of  study  of  four  years  eaih, 
also  a  preparatory  academy,  an  English  course  of  f<nir 
yeai*s,  a  conservatory  of  music,  and  a  department  of  fine 
arts.  The  entire  number  of  students  in  1894  was  218.  Kev. 
W^illiam  M.  Brooks,  D.  D.,  the  present  incumbent  (18tt5>.  wa-j 
principal  of  the  academy  and  first  president  of  the  coIKlv. 
Tabor  College  has  five  buildings,  13  acres  of  land,  a  librnry 
of  over  6.0()0  volumes,  and  a  cabinet  of  12,000  specimens 
The  property  is  valued  at  $160,000.  The  number  oi  student> 
from  the  first  exceeds  3,000.  The  faculty  consists  of  eitrhi 
professors  and  five  instructors,  besides  a' number  of  assi^^- 
ants.  William  M.  Brooks. 

Ta'borltes  [from  Tabor,  one  of  their  strongholds,  65  mih « 
S.  of  Prague] :  the  radical  wing  of  the  Hussites  {q.  v.)  or- 


880 


TACKING 


TACOMA 


Agricola  in  77  A.  D. :  was  praetor  in  88 ;  consul  suCfectus  in 
98,  and  probably  survived  Trajan,  who  died  in  117.  He  had 
already  acquirea  great  reputation  as  an  orator  when  Pliny 
entered  public  life.  They  became  intimate  friends.  Of 
Pliny^s  letters,  eleven  are  addressed  to  him,  and  it  is  appar- 
ent that  his  friendship  was  considered  by  Pliny  as  a  distinc- 
tion. As  an  author  he  was  much  appreciated  by  his  con- 
temporaries, as  well  as  by  the  writers  of  the  following  cen- 
tury. The  Emperor  Tacitus  claimed  relationship  to  him, 
and  ordered  his  works  to  be  placed  in  all  public  libraries, 
and  ten  copies  to  be  made  every  year  at  the  public  expense 
and  deposited  in  the  archives.  During  the  latter  part  of  the 
Roman  epoch  and  during  the  Middle  Ages  he  was  not 
much  read,  and  most  of  his  works  have  been  handed  down 
only  in  a  mutilated  and  corrupted  form.  The  dialogue  De 
Oraforibua  is  his  earliest  worx;  its  authenticity  has  been 
denied  by  some  scholars,  but  is  generally  accepted.  The 
Agricola,  a  biography  of  his  father-in-law,  is  an  artistic 
masterpiece,  and  of  special  interest  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  Agricola  spent  so  much  of  his  time  in  Britain.  The 
Germania  or  De  Situ  etc  populis  GermanicB  is  an  ethno- 
graphical-geographical work,  of  the  greatest  value  for  its 
description  of  early  Germany.  Some  scholars  look  upon  it 
as  a  political  pamphlet  or  as  serving  a  moral  purpose.  Of 
his  HistoricBy  written  before  the  AnncUeSt  only  the  first  four 
and  a  half  books  are  extant,  giving  the  history  of  the  years 
69-70  A.  D.  Of  the  Annales^  oe^nning  at  the  death  of  Au- 
gustus— hence  the  proper  title  oS  exceasu  divi  Augusti — and 
ending  at  the  deatn  of  Nero,  14-68  A.  d.,  only  the  first  four 
books,  part  of  the  fifth,  the  sixth,  and  from  the  middle  of 
the  eleventh  to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth,  are  extant.  The 
style  of  these  writings  is  very  peculiar.  To  the  common 
reader  it  is  harsh  and  obscure,  yet  at  the  same  time  exceed- 
ingly powerful.  Scholars  who  are  familiar  with  the  author 
generally  admire  not  only  the  intellectual  and  moral,  but 
also  the  literary  character  which  these  works  show.  Edi- 
tions by  Bekker  (Leipzig,  (1831),  Orelli  (Zurich,  1846  and 
1848,  and  revised  by  other  scholars  1859,  and  Berlin,  1877), 
Ritter  (1848),  and  Halm  (1884).  Of  the  Annalea,  Nipperdey- 
Andresen  (Berlin,  1892) ;  Germania,  Zemial  (Berlin,  1890) ; 
Agricola  and  Germania^  Hopkins  (Boston,  1893) ;  Dialogus; 
Andresen  (Leipzig,  1891) ;  A.  Gudeman  (Boston,  1894) ;  Ilis- 
toriea,  Spooner  (London,  1891);  AnnaleSf  Fumeaux  (vol. 
i.,  1884;  vol.  ii.,  1892,  Oxford).  English  translations  by  Gor- 
don (1728-31),  by  Murphy  (1793),  and  by  Church  and  Brod- 
ribb  (London,  1876-77).  Revised  by  M.  Wakren. 

Tacking :  a  doctrine  of  English  equity  whereby  a  sub- 
sequent mortgagee  or  incumbrancer  for  value  is  allowed  on 
discovering  the  existence  of  intervening  incumbrances,  of 
which  he  was  ignorant  when  he  advanced  his  money,  to  pur- 
chase the  first  mortgage  and  compel  the  intervening  incum- 
brancers to  pay  off  not  only  the  nrst  mortgage,  but  also  his 
own  incumbrance  under  penalty  of  losing  the  property  by  a 
foreclosure.  This  inet^uitable  doctrine  of  English  equity,  by 
which  a  subsequent  incumbrancer  is  enabled  to  **  squeeze 
out "  intervening  incumbrancers,  is  an  unjustifiable  excep- 
tion to  the  rule  that  as  between  conflicting  but  equal  equities 
that  which  is  prior  in  point  of  time  prevails,  and  has  found 
no  acceptance  in  the  U.  S.  William  A.  Keener. 

Tacking  and  Wearing :  the  common  methods  of  work- 
ing a  vessel  from  one  tack  to  the  other ;  they  differ  in  that 
while  in  tacking  the  vessel  turns  toward,  in  wearing  it 
turns  from  the  wind.  Square-rigged  vessels  when  close- 
hauled  lie  within  about  six  points  of  the  wind ;  fore-and- 
aft  rigged  vessels  lie  a  point  or  two  higher ;  therefore,  in 
tacking  a  ship  turns  through  twelve  and  in  wearing  through 
twenty  points  of  the  compass.  A  vessel  wears  when,  through 
hi^h  winds  or  heavv  weather,  or  some  other  reason,  tacking 
is  impracticable.  If  in  tacking  a  vessel  comes  up  into  the 
wind  and  lies  there,  it  is  said  to  be  in  irons ;  it  may  then 
by  shifting  the  helm  be  made  to  fall  off  on  the  other  tack 
when  stern-board  is  gathered,  otherwise  it  may  be  boxed  off 
on  the  same  tack.    See  Box-hauling.    Charles  Belknap. 

Tac'na  :  the  northernmost  province  (provisionally)  of 
Chili,  bordering  on  Peru,  Bolivia,  the  Chilian  province  of 
Tarapacit  and  the  Pacific.  Area,  8,686  sq.  miles.  The 
Andes  on  the  E.  separate  it  from  Bolivia,  and  there  is  a 
coast  range  rising  in  parts  to  3,000  feet.  Most  of  the  inter- 
mediate space  is  a  rainless  desert ;  but  this  is  crossed  by 
the  valleys  of  several  streams,  and  wherever  they  afford 
sufficient  moisture  the  land  is  well  fitted  for  cultivation. 
The  streams  are  scanty  and  intermittent,  and  there  is  no 
good  system  of  irrigation.    Some  of  the  valleys  are  insalu- 


brious, and  the  climate  everywhere  is  hot ;  earthquakes  arv 
frequent.  Silver,  copper,  etc..  occur,  but  are  mined  only  on 
a  small  scale.  A  portion  of  the  commerce  of  Bolivia  passes 
through  Tacna,  but  railways  are  rapidly  drawing  it  into 
other  channels.  The  scanty  population  (29,533  in  1885)  i<^ 
nearly  all  gathered  at  Tacna,  the  port  of  Ariea,  and  two  or 
three  other  points.  Tacna  is  divided  into  the  departments 
of  Tacna  and  Arica.  Formerly  these  were  provinces  of  the 
Peruvian  department  of  Moquegua.  They  were  occupie*! 
by  the  Chilians,  after  several  battles,  in  1880.  By  one  of 
the  clauses  of  the  treaty  of  peace  between  Chili  and  Peru, 
ratified  Mar.  31,  1884,  it  was  agreed  that  the  former  re- 
public should  hold  Tacna  and  Arica  for  ten  years ;  at  the 
end  of  that  time  the  people  of  the  territory  so  held  to  de- 
cide, by  a  popular  vot^,  which  country  they  will  belong  to: 
the  country  so  chosen  to  pay  |10,OOO,OOO  to  the  other.  Thi> 
decision  should  have  been  made  in  Mar.,  1894.  Owing  to  the 
disturbed  state  of  Peru,  and  to  financial  difficulties  in  both 
republics  the  question  has  been  postponed,  and  is  still  (18*J5) 
unsettled.  Herbert  H,  SurrH. 

Tacna :  capital  of  the  province  of  Tacna,  Chili :  in  a  fer- 
tile valley  near  the  western  base  of  the  Andes ;  48  miles  by 
railway  from  its  port,  Arica  (see  map  of  South  Ainericii, 
6-C).  The  plain  is  irrigated  from  the  little  river  Tacna. 
The  town  is  well  built,  has  &  seminary,  hospital,  and  small 
theater,  and  a  fine  public  promenade.  The  water-supply  i.** 
scanty  and  bad.  Tacna  has  many  foreign  merchants,  who 
control  the  trade  with  Bolivia  across  the  Andes.  Fonnerly 
this  was  very  important,  and  it  is  still  considerable.  Dur- 
ing the  first  year  of  the  war  of  the  Pacific  (1879),  Tacna  wa< 
the  principal  post  of  the  allied  armies  of  Peru  and  Bolivia. 
Here,  on  May  27, 1880,  they  were  defeated  by  the  Chilians, 
under  Gen.  Baquedano,  abandoning  the  town  and,  soon  after. 
the  province.    Pop.  about  15,000.  H.  H.  S. 

Taco'ma  J^from  the  Indian  name  for  Mt.  Tacoma  or  Mt. 
Rainier] :  city ;  sea[)ort ;  capital  of  Pierce  co..  Wash. ;  on 
Commencement  Bay,  the  Puyallup  river,  and  the  N.  Pac.  and 
the  Tac,  Lake  Park  and  Columbia  Riv.  railways ;  25  miU-> 
N.  E.  of  Olympia,  and  41  miles  S.  of  Seattle  (for  l(x?ation. 
see  map  of  Wasnington,  ref .  4-D).  It  is  on  the  western  shnn- 
of  Commencement  Bay,  on  the  east  side  and  near  the  south- 
em  extremity  of  Puget  Sound.  The  Puyallup  river  eraptie> 
into  the  bay  within  the  city  limits,  and  aids  in  making  a  fine 
natural  harbor,  and  the  shipping  facilities  and  regulations 
are  excellent. 

Plan  and  General  Appearance, — Most  of  the  manufac- 
turing and  railway  industries  are  in  the  eastern  part,  on  or 
about  the  level  tide-flats  at  the  head  of  the  bay.  The  bu«i- 
ness  and  residence  portions  are  on  a  bluff  80  feet  above  th* 
water,  on  ground  rising  gradually  to  320  feet,  to  a  level 
plateau,  over  which  the  city  is  spreading.  The  principal 
streets  are  100  feet  wide,  and  the  others  80  feet.  The  sur- 
rounding waters,  forests,  and  snow-capped  mountains  are  of 
unusual  grandeur,  with  the  Olympic  or  Coast  Range  in  thi* 
west  and  the  Cascade  Range  in  the  east ;  Mt.  Tacoma  (by 
some  called  Mt.  Rainier)  rises  to  a  height  of  over  14,40() 
feet.  Wright  Park,  containing  40  acres,  and  Point  Defiant' 
Park,  662  acres,  are  the  principal  parks.  The  region  imme- 
diately S.  of  the  city,  interspersed  with  numerous  lakes,  is 
a  park  land  of  much  beauty.  The  city  owns  the  water  and 
electric-light  plants,  on  which  have  been  expended  about 
$2,000,000 ;  cable  and  electric  street-car  lines  reach  all  sec- 
tions of  the  city  and  several  suburban  resorts  and  other 
towns.  There  are  about  120  miles  of  ^aded  streets,  ami 
60  miles  of  sewers.  Notable  buildings  mclude  the  covmty 
court-house,  city-hall,  Tacoma  hotel,  the  offices  of  the  North- 
em  Pacific  Railroad,  Tacoma  theater,  Union  Club,  Chamber 
of  Commerce,  and  a  number  of  modem  oflfice  buildings. 

Churches,  iSehools^  and  Charities. — The  church  organisa- 
tions are  divided  denominationally  as  follows :  15  Methodist 
Episcopal,  8  Presbyterian,  8  Lutheran,  7  Protestant  Epis- 
copal, 6  Congregational,  6  Baptist,  5  Roman  Catholic,  i? 
Christian, '2  Christian  Science,  2  Salvation  Army,  and  1 
each  Adventist,  German  Evangelical,  United  Presbyterian. 
Scandinavian  Free  Evangelical,  Spiritualist,  Jewish,  ami 
Universalist,  besides  the  First  Free  Church  of  Universtil 
Religion.  The  aggregate  membership  of  the  churches  i< 
about  10,000.  The  public  schools  embrace  a  high  school, 
with  a  manual-training  department,  and  grammar  and  pri- 
mary schools,  occupying  twenty  buildings  (cost,  with  their 
sites',  nearly  $1,000,000);  daily  attendance  of  pupils,  alxMit 
5,000;  teachers  employed,  125 ;  annual  cost  of  maintenanci'. 
over  $200,000.    There  are  16  private  schools,  academies,  arid 


TACTICS 


themselves  almost  entirely  to  the  atldition  of  the  revolver 
and  the  abolition  of  body-armor.  The  first  adds  somewhat 
to  his  aggressive  value,  while  the  second  is  the  direct  result 
of  the  improvement  in  the  infantry  weapon.  This  alteration 
in  equipment  has,  however,  introduced  no  material  change 
in  the  tactics  of  combat  of  bodies  of  men  fighting  mounted, 
the  detailed  regulations  and  instructions  for  which  in  the 
most  modem  treatises  correspond  in  every  respect  with  the 
methods  used  by  the  cavalr^  of  the  Romans.  The  most 
marked  change  in  the  organization  and  the  tactics  of  mod- 
em cavalry  is  the  conversion  of  all  mounted  troops  into  dra- 
goons, armed  with  a  rifle  or  carbine,  and  trained  to  fight  on 
foot  or  mounted  as  necessity  determines ;  or  even  in  some 
cases  into  mounted  infantry  who  use  their  horses  for  trans- 
portation only  and  fight  altogether  on  foot.  In  recent  oper- 
ations cavalry  has  been  used  as  a  veil  or  screen,  to  cover  the 
advance  of  the  rest  of  the  army,  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  it  was  formerly,  although  cavalry  has  frequently  been 
used  in  this  way  in  times  past;  a  notable  inst-ance  being 
Napoleon's  use  of  Murat  in  his  advance  upon  Ulm  in  1805. 
Scouting,  reconnoissances,  and  map-making  have  become  a 
most  important  part  of  the  duties  of  cavalry,  and  instruc- 
tion in  the  methods  used  in  the  field  form  an  important  part 
of  the  tactical  instruction  of  the  trooper  and  his  officers. 

The  modem  minor  tactics  of  infantry,  in  order  to  fulfill 
the  requirements  laid  down  in  the  definition  above  given, 
are  designed  with  a  view  to  beginning  an  action  with  a  dis- 
persed sKirmishing  line,  in  which  the  front  of  each  battalion 
or  company  is  covered  by  its  own  men,  who  are  re-enforced 
and  strengthened  by  their  own  comrades  and  commanded 
by  their  own  officers,  thus  avoiding  the  disorganiiiation  re- 
sulting from  mingling  different  commands  on  the  front  line 
of  battle.  In  attempting  to  accomplish  this,  great  promi- 
nence is  necessarily  given  to  the  advance  of  successive  lines 
in  open  order,  which,  by  short  rushes  and  by  taking  advan- 
tage of  all  possible  cover,  may  diminish  as  much  as  possible 
the  losses  caused  by  modern  small-arms  and  machine-guns, 
and  at  the  same  time  collect  for  the  final  charge  a  strong 
line  of  companies  and  battalions.  It  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  any  single  method  will  be  approved  by  all  military 
men,  but  each  of  the  great  nations  has  a  system  which,  un- 
der the  constant  supervision  and  study  of  its  officers,  is 
modified  as  new  developments  are  made  in  weapons  and  new 
lessons  learned  from  experience  in  war. 

Grand  tactics  includes  planning  battles,  perfecting  the 
preliminary  arrangements,  conducting  them  during  their 
progress,  and  securing  the  results  of  victory  or  avoiding  the 
consequences  of  defeat.  It  is  concerned  generally  with  the 
action  of  the  several  arms  in  combination  on  or  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  battle-field ;  but  it  reaches  out  on 
the  one  hand  into  the  domain  of  logistics  and  strategy  in 
the  movement  of  troops  and  the  character  of  battle  sought, 
and  on  the  other  into  that  of  minor  tactics  in  the  handling 
and  placing  of  the  different  arms  upon  the  field.  It  is  es- 
sentially the  province  of  generals,  and  one  in  which  they 
should  have  full  and  unrestricted  command,  as  success  or 
failure  almost  invariably  results  from  the  character  of  the 
position  selected,  the  manner  in  which  the  troops  are  placed, 
and  the  instant  at  which  the  different  bodies  are  brought 
into  action.  These  questions  can  be  decided  only  by  the 
commander  present  on  the  field  and  as  they  arise. 

Battles  are  usually  preceded  and  followed  by  minor  ac- 
tions, classed  as  combats,  skirmishes,  etc.,  which  are  gener- 
ally not  intended  to  be  decisive,  but  arise  between  detached 
parts  of  the  main  army,  and  which  may  cease  without 
marked  effect  or  mav  be  continued  and  finally  merge  into 
the  general  battle.  Battles  are  classed  as  offensive,  defen- 
sive, and  defensive-offensive,  the  latter  name  being  applied 
to  those  actions  in  which  the  attack  having  exhausted  its 
strength,  the  defense  takes  the  offensive  to  gain  the  victory. 
In  great  battles  the  fighting  is  not  carried  on  in  the  same 
manner  at  all  points  of  the  line.  False  attacks  and  demon- 
strations of  the  class  known  as  "  containing  movements  "  ai*e 
made  at  some  parts  of  the  line,  while  the  strength  of  the 
attack  is  concentrated  at  another,  thus  "  making  one's  self 
stronger  than  the  enemy  at  the  time  and  place  of  actual 
confiict,"  which  is  the  guiding  principle  in  all  the  opera- 
tions of  the  art  of  war,  and  is  tne  very  soul  of  success  in 
battles. 

It  is  this  principle  which,  by  overshadowing  all  others, 
has  led  to  the  statement  that  "  the  rales  of  tactics  are  in- 
variable and  are  the  same  now  as  they  were  in  the  time  of 
Alexander."    This  is  true  only  of  grand  tactics. 

In  open  battle  it  is  evident  that  the  application  of  the 


above-given  principle  is  most  easily  made  by  the  offensive, 
which  also  generally  develops  the  enthusiasm  of  the  men 
and,  in  case  of  success,  will  usually  render  the  result  deci- 
sive. History  shows  that  success  has  generally  attended  the 
aggressive  leader  when  other  things  were  equal ;  but  wh<ii 
an  army  is  weak  in  men,  in  training,  or  in  morale,  its  leader 
can  only  seek  to  give  it  superior  strength  in  actual  c^n flier 
by  fighting  a  defensive  battle  in  a  well-selected  po^^ition 
made  strong  by  fortifications,  against  which  the  enemy  may 
exhaust  his  superior  strength. 

Much  has  been  written,  with  very  little  profit,  upon  the 
orders  of  battle,  with  their  relative  advantages.  These  sf)- 
called  orders  result,  as  a  rule,  from  the  natural  features  of 
the  ground  in  the  first  position  and  from  the  developmenr 
of  the  strong  attack  when  the  battle  opens.  Necessarily,  if 
the  lines  remain  in  contact  when  one  assumes  a  "  convex 
order,"  the  other  must  take  up  a  "  concave  order,"  and  rir*' 
versa ;  while  the  great  and  manifest  advantages  which  re- 
sult from  an  oblique  attack  upon  one  wing,  by  which  it  is 
rolled  back  and  beaten  in  detail,  are  obtained  either  by  over- 
lapping it  or  by  throwing  against  it  a  preponderating  ferine. 
Any  attempt  to  take  up  a  geometrical  "oblique  order" 
would,  as  a  rule,  be  at  once  seen  by  the  enemy,  who  would 
take  measures  to  meet  it.  The  same  is  true  of  the  other 
orders.  The  use  of  the  terms,  however,  when  properlv  un- 
derstood, may  be  convenient  in  the  description  of  battles,  if 
too  much  weight  be  not  given  to  them. 

The  works  upon  tactics  are  very  numerous ;  see  especially 
Home's  PrScis  of  Modem  Tactics  (London,  1878);  Bogu- 
slawski,  Tactical  Deductions  from  the  War  of  1870-71  (Lon- 
don, 1872);  Clery,  Mirwr  Tactics  (London,  1883);  Shaw, 
Modem  Topics  (London,  1884) ;  Mayne,  Fire  Tactics  (Ix>n- 
don,  1888) ;  Meckel,  MSments  de  la  Taetigue  (Paris,  1887): 
Clausewitz,  On  War  (London,  1873);  Jomini,  Art  of  Wur 
(Philadelphia,  1877);  Mercur,  Elements  of  the  Art  of  War 
(New  York,  1894);  Derrecagaix,  Jfo(f em  ITar  (Washington, 
1888).    See  also  Fortification,  Steategy,  and  War. 

James  Mercur. 
Naval  Tactics. — The  subject  may  be  divided  into  gran<l 
tactics,  or  the  tactics  of  battles,  and  elementary  tactics,  or 
the  tactics  of  instruction.  The  history  of  naval  tactics  can 
very  properly  be  separated  into  three  ^rand  divisions.  Tin* 
first,  which  may  be  called  the  oar  period,  begins  where  tni- 
dition  merges  into  authentic  history,  and  ends  about  the 
time  of  the  battle  of  Lepanto  (1571),  covering  a  period  <.f 
about  2,000  years.  The  second,  or  sail  period,  may  be  said 
to  be  embraced  between  Lepanto  and  the  battle  of  Lissa 
(1866),  lasting  only  295  years,  since  which  time  there  h»5 
been  only  the  steam  period,  which  is  yet  in  its  infancy.  The 
sail  period  having  completely  passed  away,  and  the  tactic-^ 
under  oars  being  based  upon  the  same  general  principles  ar^ 
steam  tactics,  the  latter  fuone  will  be  described. 

The  key  to  any  system  of  naval  tactics  is  the  line  of  bat- 
tle. If,  in  the  line  of  battle,  the  vessels  are  all  in  line — or. 
as  it  was  called  in  the  tactics  under  sail. "  line  abreast  '*  and 
heading  toward  the  enemy — we  have  the  line  of  battle  of 
the  oar  period,  when  war-galleys  were  armed  at  the  bow 
with  a  spur  (rostrum),  and  depended  for  success  in  battle  on 
ramming  and  sinking  the  galleys  of  the  enemy  or  grappling 
and  boarding  him.  This  formation  gives  us  also  the  line  of 
battle  of  modem  fighting  ships  when  their  principal  offen- 
sive power  lies  in  their  rams.  If,  however,  tne  power  of  the 
ship  lies  in  her  broadside  (artillery  placed  on  the  side  of  tho 
ship),  it  is  obvious  that  such  ship  must  present  her  broad- 
side to  the  enemy,  in  which  case  the  line  of  battle  must  be 
the  "  line  ahead,"  or,  as  it  is  now  properly  calleti,  in  "  col- 
umn." In  addition  to  the  above,  there  are  certain  "orders** 
in  which  it  is  convenient  for  a  fleet  or  squadron  to  navigate 
the  sea,  to  go  in  and  out  of  port,  to  anchor  and  to  get  under 
way.  To  cnange  from  one  of  these  orders  to  another,  or  to 
change  from  any  given  order  of  steaming  to  the  order  of 
battle,  constitutes  elementary  tactics.  The  disposition  of 
the  fleet  for  actual  contact  with  the  enemy  unaer  various 
conditions  constitutes  grand  tactics.  It  was  in  the  tactics 
of  battle  that  Nelson's  genius  was  most  conspicuous^  The 
following  definitions  have  been  adopted  with  a  view  to  st^ 
curing  uniformity  of  movement  in  tactical  evolutions :  The 
coefficient  of  speed  is  the  ratio  between  the  number  of  reviv 
lutions  per  minute  of  the  engines  of  a  given  ship  and  th(»sr 
of  the  fiag-ship,  when  the  speed  of  both  is  the  same;  the  co- 
efficients of  helm  are  tlie  ratios  between  the  angles  of  a 
given  ship's  helm  and  those  of  the  flag-ship*s  helm  when 
describing  the  same  circle. 

Fleet  Ta4>tics  under  Steam. — An  assembly  of  twelve  or  more 


TACTICS 


TABL 


8S3 


M<-of-ll9llto  4bif^  ^^  vessels  of  equal  mililarTf  ralae,  is 
..<ij;e»J  ik'jftf^,  and  b  separjiU^d  mto  ihn^  divisions  of  one, 

Q    0    0    0    0    0 
A    fl     A    Q    0    0 

Fio.  1. 

two,  or  three  squadrons  eaoh,  each  sqnadi-on  comprising  not 
l.'>s  ilian  four  vessels.    The  commander-in-chief  commands 

the    entire    fleet; 
]  A     tlie  second  in  com- 

"  A       A     ni*"i<i»  llie  van  di- 

[.  'J       0     vision     (or    right 

A  0       A      wl^^n  J"  line);  the 

»-'  A  third,  the  rear  di- 

(1  "       ()     ^i^i^*"      <or      left 

A  .  when  in  line);  and 
^  0  the  fourth,  the 
(j  center. 

The  line,  the  or- 
der of  \mn\e  for 
I  »f -bat  tie  ships,  rams,  and  torpedo- vessels,  is  formed  as 
in  Fig.  1. 

The  column  is  the  order  of  battle  for  vessels  whose  princi- 
[►ul  (K>wer  is  in  their  broadside  batteries.    (Fig.  2.) 


n 


Uno 


Fio  2. 


•d. 


■■•0, 


-->- 


r 


Fio.  3. 


r 


\ 


\ 


D'.iible  Echelon  orders  are  offensive  (salient  angle)  and  de- 
f.'fivive  (re-entrant  angle)  for  vessels  for  all  descriptions. 
.Fu^3.) 

Vessels  are  said  to  be  in  direct  single  echelon  when,  steer- 
iti.r  the  same  course,  each  bears  from  it-s  next  astern  at  an 
•iTiLrh'  of  45  (four  points)  from  the  course  ;  consequently  the 
w  iriL'^  of  a  fleet  in  double  echelon  form  a  right  angle.  One 
voscl  shuuM  always  be  designated  by  signal  to  act  as  guide. 
r»y  which  the  movements  of  the  other  vessels  are  to  be  gov- 
*-r:uii,  and  should  wear  a  guide-flag  at  the  main.  When 
manauvering,  the  vessel  upon  which  a  formation  is  made 


6    0 


A 

Fig  C. 


0    0 


LiilillllLilllilWlllU 


Ilcor  S^^uadron. 


L.  Centre. 


R.  Centre. 


V 

Rear  Division. 


-yv- 


V 

Centre  Division. 
Fio.  4. 


n;u«it  necessarily  be  the  guide.  When  the  fleet  is  in  line  in 
r:.:Tiiral  onler,  the  van  squadron  is  on  the  right.  (Fig.  4.) 
"i  '.<\<  was  the  line  of  battle  formed  by  Callicratidas,  the 
S[';l^^ln,  at  the  battle  of  Arginusje,  his  fleet  being  composed 
.  f  ;i<K)  tralleys.  The  fleet  in  column  is  in  the  natural  order 
V.  ii'ii  the  van  squadron  is  leading. 

Fig.  5  exhibits  the  fleet  in  ctUumn  of  s(piadrons,  or  of 


eian,  then  piiinlmg  Naupactu.*,  the  niodem  lje|ianto.  Thcj^c 
two  iUustmtionFEhow  how  closely  the  fle4?t;  Uittits  ijt  the  oar 
period  re.9(Mnbb 
tht>5e  of  the  steam 
period.  The  sin- 
gie  line,  as  in  Fig. 
4,  is  Ofi^ilv  -ihau 
lened  or  doubknl 
up.  It  should 
therefore  be  re-en- 
forced as  in  Fig.  1. 
As  the  single  cohimn  may  l>e  broken  and  the  rear  ships  cut 
off,  it,  tfKj,  should  be  re-enforced  as  in  Fig.  2.  In  any  ca*^, 
there  should  l»e  a  reserve  (K,  F^ig.  2),  ready  to  succor  any 
portion  of  the  fleet  that  may  need  it. 

A  strong  order  of  battle  is  the  French  pelofmi  formation, 
for  facility  of  manceuvering,  affording  mutual  support,  etc. 


Fio.  7. 

Three  vessels  act  as  a  unit,  and  these  pelofons  may  be  formed 
in  line  (F^ig.  6),  in  column  (Fig.  7),  or  in  echelon. 

The  simple  oniers  are  the  line,  column,  and  echelon  ; 
compound  orders  are  those  wherein  the  squadrons  or  divi- 
sions, considered  as  units,  are  ranged  on  one  of  the  simple 
orders.  See  yaval  Tactics  (New  York,  1859),  bv  J.  11.  Ward, 
U.  S.  navy ;  Fleet  Tactics  finder  Steam  (186^).  by  Com.  F.  A. 
Parker.  U.  S.  navy ;  Aaval  Warfare  with  Steam  (1832),  by 
Sir  Howard  Douglas;  7'actique  yavale,  and  Fleet  Drill- 
book%  U.  S.  navy.  S.  B.  Luce. 

Tacnbaya,  tiia-krK>-baa  yaa :  a  town  of  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict, Mexico,  3  miles  S.  W.  of  Mexico  city  (see  map  of 
Mex'co,  ref.  7-G).     It  is  a  fashionable  suburb  of  the  capital, 
and  is  associated  with  many  episcnles  of  the  later  history  of 
the  republic.     The  castle,  military  school,  and  observatory  of 
Chapi'Ltepec  {q.  v.)  are  included  in  it.      Pop.  (1889)  esti- 
mated, 12,000.  H.  H.  S. 
Tacnnga:  See  Latai  cxga. 
Tadmor,  or  Thadmor :  See  Palmyra. 
Tadonsac':  a  summer  resort  in  the  united  Chicoutimi  and 
Saguenay  Counties,  (Quebec,  Canada;  near  the  confluence  of 
the  Saguenay  with  the  St.  liawrence.  on  a  semicircular  raised 
beach  of  sand  (see  map  of  (Quebec,  etc.,  ref.  2-H).     Tadou.«iac 
is  the  oldest  village  in  Canada,  having  been  a  center  of  the 

fur -trade  in  early 
days.  The  Jesuit's 
had  a  religious  estab- 
lishment here,  of 
which  only  the  trac(»s 
of  the  foundation  re- 
main, and  for  a  time 
it  wtis  the  home  of 
Father  Marquette, 
the  explorer  of  the  Mississippi.  It  contains  the  oUU*st 
church  edifice  erected  in  Canada.  From  Tadousac  to  the 
(lulf  the  salmon  and  sea-trout  tithing  is  unsurpasse<l.  Pop. 
of  district,  2,400.  J.  M.  Uahper. 


-/\- 


Van  Squadron. 

V 

Van  Division. 


0    I)    0    M    0    0    0    'J    0    0    C    D    0    U 


Fro.  5. 

.-.r^.  Shfiuld  Signal  \o.  319.  By  fours,  left  wheel,  bo  made, 
n  h  »«ir|ua<^iron  on  coming  into  line  must  find  its  place  in  the 
:m-  without  crowding  or  confusion.  It  was  this  evolmion 
at  was  performed  by  Cnemus.  conimander  of  the  Lace<lH»- 
•nian  fleet,  in  th<' battle  in  the  Crisean  liav,  when  he  en- 


Tadpole  [Mixl.  Eng.  taddffXfl  \  tudde,  toad  +  /^oZ/e,  head, 
poll]  ;  the  larval  or  young  stage  of  the  frogs  {Rnnid(T>), 
...^^  ..^B    which  is  distinguished  bv  the 

large    head,   compres^^ed   ta- 
<^m  '^K    periiig     tail,     and     (in     the 

voungest  stage)  want  of  legs. 
"^*  ^^    ^'he  name  is  also  applied  to 

^^     /  ^^    the   corresponding   stage    in 

"^"    .'  "^^    other  anqinibians   and   even 

to  the  larva*  of  many  as<'id- 
ians.  having  a  su|>erficial  re- 
semblance to  the  lad|Hdes  of 
frogs.    See  Batkacuia,  F'roij, 
and  Tl' NIC  ATA. 
Tnol,  tal  [Portug.,  from  Hindi  tola,  throui:h  Malay  tahil, 
weij^ht]:    the  name,  in  common  use  among   foreigners  in 
China  and   Hongkong,  for  the  Chines*'  liauff  or  ounce  of 
fine  silver,  the  monetary  unit  of  rcckrming  there.     It  ecjuals 
in  weiirht  Ij  oz.  avoirdu[>ois.    The  haikwan  tael  is  the  statid- 


•<1  the  force  under  Phormio,  the  skillful  Athenian  tacti-  j  ard  recognized  by  the  cu>toms  authorities.     See  Chix.\, 


834 


T-ffiNIA 


TAINE 


Tenia :  See  Tapewosm. 

Tnnioglos'sa  [from  Gr.  rmtda,  ribbon  +  yKwairOf  tongue]  : 
a  large  group  of  molluscs.    See  Monotocardia. 

Talt,  Alphonso,  LL.  D.  :  jurist ;  b.  at  Townshend,  Vt., 
Nov.  5, 1810 ;  graduated  at  \  ale  1833,  where  he  was  after- 
ward tutor  and  law  student ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1838, 
and  moved  to  Cincinnati,  0.,  in  1840;  iudge  of  superior  court 
of  Cincinnati  1865-71 ;  resigned  and  resumed  practice  of 
law ;  U.  S.  Secretary  of  War  Mar.  8  to  May  22,  1876 ;  At- 
torney-General U.  S.  1876-77 ;  appointed  envoy  extraordi- 
nary and  minister  plenipotentiary  of  U.  S.  to  Austria  Apr. 
26,  '1882,  and  to  Russia  in  1884 ;  resigned  in  Aug.,  1885. 
D.  at  San  Diego,  Cal.,  May  21,  1891. 

Taganrog' :  town  ;  in  the  government  of  Ekaterinoslav, 
Russia ;  on  the  N.  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Azov,  opposite  and  18 
miles  W.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Don  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref. 
10-E).  It  was  founded  by  Peter  the  Great,  and  was  a  fa- 
vorite residence  of  Alexander  I.,  who  died  here  Dec.  1, 1825. 
Though  its  harbor  is  so  shallow  that  ships  must  load  half  a 
mile  from  the  shore,  it  carries  on  a  large  export  trade  in 
timber,  hemp,  copper,  tar,  wheat,  and  meat.  Pop.  (1890) 
48,999.  E.  A.  G. 

Taghkanic :  See  Taconic. 

Taglioni,  taal-yo'nee :  the  name  of  a  celebrated  family 
of  dancers  and  ballet-masters,  of  Italian  origin,  but  prin- 
cipally connected  with  the  roval  theater  of  Berlin.  The 
most  illustrious  member  was  4Iaria  Taglioni,  b.  in  Stock- 
holm, Apr.  23, 1804.  She  made  her  debut  in  Vienna  in  1822, 
danced  subsequently  in  all  the  capitals  of  Europe,  and  cre- 
ated great  entnusiasm,  especiallv  W  her  performance  of  the 
title-rule  in  her  father's  ballet  La  &ylphide.  She  retired  in 
1847,  and  lived  in  Venice  and  at  Lake  Como.  D.  in  Mar- 
seilles, Apr.  23,  1884.— Her  brother,  Paul  Taolioni.  b.  in 
Vienna,  Jan.  12, 1808,  was  ballet-master  in  the  royal  theater 
of  Berlin,  and  composed  the  ballets  Sardanapal,'Satanella, 
Flick  und  Flock,  and  others.     D.  in  Berlin,  Jan.  7, 1884. 

TaVns  :  one  of  the  principal  rivers  of  Spain.  It  rises  in 
the  Sierra  Albarracin,  in  lat.  40'  38'  N.,  Ion.  1"  35'  W., 
flows  mostly  W.  and  S.  W.  through  Spain  and  Portugal,  and 
empties  into  the  Atlantic  at  Lisbon,  after  a  course  of  666 
miles.    It  is  navigable  115  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Tahiti,  taa-hee'te^,  or  Otaliei'te:  the  largest  of  the 
Society  Islands  {a,  v.) ;  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  lat.  17°  29' 
S.,  Ion.  149'  29'  W.  It  is  high,  reaching  7,336  feet  at  its 
highest  point,  but  traversed  by  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys, 
in  whicn  all  tropical  plants  grow  luxuriantly.  It  is  120 
miles  in  circumference,  with  an  area  of  401  sq.  miles,  and 
had,  in  1889,  9.603  inhabitants,  who  have  been  converted  to 
Christianity.  It  is  the  principal  island  of  the  French  estab- 
lishments in  Oceania,  and  contains  Papiti,  the  capital  of  the 
colony.  See  Dora  Hort,  Tahiti,  the  Oarden  of  the  Pacific 
(1891).  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Tahleqnali':  town  (founded  in  1840);  capital  of  the 
Cherokee  Nation,  Indian  Territory;  in  the  valley  of  the  Il- 
linois river  ;  26  miles  E.  of  the  Mo.,  Kan.  and  Tex.  Railway, 
and  65  miles  N.  W.  of  Fort  Smith,  Ark.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Indian  Territory,  ref.  2-G).  It  is  in  an  agricultural 
region,  and  contains  national  Cherokee  schools,  Female 
Seminary  (building  cost  $100,000),  Male  Seminary  (building 
cost  $80,000),  Capitol  (cost  $20,000),  Baptist  and  Presbyterian 
mission  schools,  2  school  libraries,  a  private  bank,  and  4 
weekly  newspapers  (2  printed  in  English  and  2  in  both  Eng- 
lish and  Cherokee).    Pop.  (1895)  about  3,000. 

Editor  of  "  Telephone." 

Tahoe^  Lake:  a  lake  partly  in  Nevada  and  partly  in 
California,  at  an  elevation  of  6,225  feet  in  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
Its  maximum  length  from  N.  to  S.  is  22i  miles  and  its 
greatest  width  13  miles ;  area,  195  sq.  miles ;  hydrographic 
basin,  500  sq.  miles.  Soundings  by  Prof.  John  Le  Conte  gave 
a  depth  of  1,506  feet,  but  it  is  thought  that  a  more  detailed 
survey  will  show  a  greater  depth.  Its  waters  are  wonder- 
fully clear,  and  are  inhabited  by  excellent  trout  and  other 
fishes.  It  is  the  source  of  Truckee  river,  which  empties  into 
Pyramid  and  Winnemucca  Lakes.  Surveys  have  been  made 
with  the  view  of  drawing  off  its  waters  through  a  tunnel,  for 
irrigation  purposes.  Sec  Physical  Studies  of  Lake  Tahoe, 
by  Prof.  John  Le  Conte,  in  Overland  Monthly,  1883  and 
1884.  Israel  C.  Russell. 

Tahpanhes  (Jer.  xliii.  7-9),  or Tahpenes  (the  Tehaphnehes 
of  Ezek.  XXX.  18,  the  Adipvcu  of  Herodotus,  ii.,  30,  107,  and 
the  Tdtpyri,  Td4>yau  of  the  Septuagint):  an  Egyptian  strong- 


hold erected  bv  Psammetichus  I.  as  an  eastern  walled  gar- 
rison for  his  Greek  mercenaries,  on  the  site  of  an  earlier 
Ramesside  town.  It  was  to  the  E.  what  Naucratis  {q,  v.) 
was  to  the  W.  of  the  Delta,  and  guarded  the  road  to  Asia. 
It  was  on  the  Roman  road,  16  miles  from  Pelusium  towanl 
Memphis  (Itinerarium  Antoninif  Wess.  162),  on  the  Pelusia<: 
branch  of  the  Nile,  at  the  present  Tell  Defeuneh  (30'  52'  N. 
lat.,  32"  8'  E.  of  Greenwich).  The  main  portion  of  tl.e 
mound  is  known  as  the  Palace  of  the  Jew*s  Daughter  ivf, 
Jer.  xliii.  6-9),  and  its  foundation  deposits  show  that  it  uu> 
the  work  of  Psammetichus  I.  (q,  v.).  A  large  elevated  plao^ 
before  the  fort  has  been  identified  with  the  *•  brick-work  "* 
in  which  Jeremiah  hid  large  stones  (Jer.  xliii.  9)  at  the  com- 
mand of  God.  The  site  has  furnished  many  Greek  remain^, 
but  little  that  is  Egyptian.  In  style  the  pottery  of  Tah- 
panhes was  (}uite  distinct  from  that  of  Naucratis,  and  shows 
attempts  to  imitate  Egyptian  bronze  vases.  This  difference 
of  style  points  to  manufacture  on  the  spot,  not  to  importa- 
tion from  Greece.  The  date  of  the  city  is  shown  further  by 
numerous  impressions  of  the  cartouch  of  Psammetichus  f. 
on  the  seals  of  wine-jars.  The  overthrow  of  Hophra  (Apri.>^> 
by  Amasis  and  the  reduction  of  his  eastern  stronghold  mark 
the  existence  of  the  place  as  from  665  to  564  b.  c. 

Charles  R  Gillett. 

Taillandfer,  taa'y^n'di-a',  Rene  Gaspard  Erxest.  gin- 
erally  known  under  the  name  Saint-Ren^  Tatllaniher: 
educator  and  author;  b.  in  Paris,  Dec.  16,  1817;  studithl 
philosophy  and  literature  in  Paris  and  Heidelberg ;  was  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Foreign  Literatures  at  Strassburg  in 
1841,  at  Montpellier  in  1843,  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1863,  ami 
became  in  1870  secretary  in  the  department  of  public  e«iu- 
cation.  He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in  187B.  Bt^sidf  < 
poems,  he  wrote  Scot  £rig^ne  (1843J;  bistoire  de  la  Jevur 
Allemagne  (1849) ;  Etudes  sur  la  Revolution  en  AUemnijnf 
(2  vols.,  1853) ;  Michel  Lermontoff  (1856) ;  Maurice  de  S"u^ 
(2  vols.,  1865);  Tchequea  et  Magyars,  Boheme  ei  Honurir 
(1869);  LaSerhie{V6'^\)\  Dixansderilistoire  d'Allemoan^ 
(1875);  Le  roi  Leopold  et  la  reine  Victoria  (2  vols.,  is;^.'. 
D.  in  Paris,  Feb.  24, 1879.       Revised  by  A.  G.  Caa'field. 

Tailor :  the  Bluefish  {q.  v.),  Pomatomus  saltatrix,  Tlie 
name  is  also  applied  (usually  in  the  form  tailor-herring)  to 
the  fall  herring,  Clupea  (or  Pomolobus)  mediocrts.  It  is 
probably  applied  to  the  bluefish  on  account  of  its  sharp  cut- 
ting teeth,  but  its  applicability  to  the  herring  is  not  apparent. 

Tailor-bfrd  [so  called  from  its  habit  of  sewing  togethi  r 
the  tips  of  two  or  three  leaves  to  make  a  nesting-place] :  a 
small  bird  (Sutoria  autoria),  a  representative  of  the  family 
Lusciniidce;  found  in  India  and  other  eastern  countries.  It 
is  about  5  inches  long,  with  a  slender  and  slightly  decurvo.l 
bill,  short  and  rounded  wings,  and  very  long  tail  compcsvl 
of  narrow  feathers;  olive  ffreen  above  and  white  beneath, 
and  brick-i*ed  on  top  of  the  head.  For  its  nest,  generally  two 
leaves  at  the  end  of  a  bough  are  brought  in  contact*,  ari<l 
sewed  together  by  the  bill,  vegetable  fibers  being  used  as  the 
threads;  sometimes  a  large  leaf  is  rolled  together  and  &ewt.*<l 
at  its  margins.  Within  the  cavity  thus  formed  are  depo>it»'<i 
soft  downy  or  cotton-like  vegetable  substances,  and  the  ne>i 
is  then  completed  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs,  of  which  six 
to  eight  are  laid.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas, 

Tainan,  ti'nakn' :  the  name  given  to  the  treaty-p>ort  <:»f 
Taiwan-foo  in  Formosa  since  it  ceased  to  be  the  capitiil  i-f 
the  department  and  of  the  province  of  Taiwan.  (^»ee  Tai- 
wan-foo.) Pop.  about  135,000.  Tainan  imports  cotton  an* I 
woolen  goods,  opium,  metals,  medicines,  kerosene  oil.  ^iu- 
seng,  cuttlefish,  rice,  flour,  gunny-bags,  silk  piece-go,  >.!?. 
and  matches;  and  exports  sugar,  camphor,  hemp,  luiii:- 
ngan  pulp,  and  turmeric.  In  1893  the  net  foreign  im|H»ri.- 
amountea  to  1,596,166  haikwan  or  custom-honse  ta*  Is 
(=  11,675,974),  of  which  92  per  cent,  came  from  Hongki^nc. 
while  the  net  native  imports  amounted  to  127.852  taoU, 
The  total  exports  amounted  to  1,648,220  taels  (=  $1.730.6:n\ 
including  480,529  piculs  of  sugar,  valued  at  1,272,757  ta»  N. 
and  5,934  piculs  of  camphor.  In  the  same  year  70  steanui-^ 
and  14  sailing  vessels  (aggregating  53,686  tons)  entered  imtt, 
and  69  steamers  and  12  sailing  vessels  (aggregating  52,4  »-> 
tons)  cleared.  R-  L. 

Taine,  Hippolyte  Adolphe:  philosopher  and  historian; 
b.  at  Vouziers,  Ardennes,  France,  Apr.  21,  1828;  was  e^i id- 
eated at  the  College  Bourbon  and  the  Ecole  Normalo  «f 
Paris,  and  became  a  teacher,  but  soon  gave  it  up  becau-o  of 
the  hostility  of  the  authorities  in  consequence  of  his  i<loH^ 
His  Easai  sur  Tite-Live  (1854) and  Les  Philosophea  fran*^ «i. > 


886 


TAIWAN-FOO 


TALC 


Talwan-foo :  a  walled  city  of  Formosa  and  a  treaty-f)ort: 
situated  on  the  west  coast  of  the  island,  in  about  lat.28''  N. 
and  Ion.  129"  E.  (see  map  of  China,  ref.  8-K).  Until  1885 
it  was  the  capital  of  the  island  and  the  residence  of  the  chief 
civil  and  military  officials.  Since  1886  it  has  been  called 
Tainan  {q.  v.).  It  stands  on  a  level  plain  of  considerable 
extent,  about  3  miles  from  the  sea,  from  which  canals  run 
right  up  to  the  west  gate,  so  that  merchandise  can  be  landed 
from  ships  in  the  roadstead  alongside  the  godowns  or  store- 
houses in  the  western  suburb,  where  most  of  the  business  is 
carried  on.  Kok-si-kon,  the  port  of  Taiwan-foo,  3  miles  dis- 
tant, is  an  open  roadstead,  in  which  ships  anchor  about  3 
miles  from  snore.  It  is  fairly  well  protected  for  vessels  in 
the  northeastern  monsoon,  but  unsafe  during  the  southwest- 
ern monsoon.  For  trade  statistics,  see  Tainan.  Between  this 
western  suburb  and  the  sea  is  the  village  of  Anping,  near 
which  are  found  the  ruins  of  the  famous  stronghold  called 
Zelandia,  built  by  the  Dutch  in  1624-30,  when  they  estab- 
lished themselves  on  the  island.  It  consisted  of  a  single  keep 
on  a  small  hill,  in  the  form  of  a  bastioned  fort,  with  another 
wall  on  the  northern  side  at  a  distance  of  100  yards.  The 
walls  were  of  great  thickness  and  were  built  of  small  bricks, 
brought  from  Batavia  for  this  special  purpose.  R.  L. 

Tai-ynen :  a  walled  city  of  China,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Shansi,  but  of  no  commercial  importance  (see  map 
of  China,  ref.  4-1).  It  lies  between  two  hills  near  the  head 
of  a  fertile  plain  of  considerable  extent,  about  3,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  consists,  like  Peking,  of  an 
inner  and  an  outer  city,  but  has  no  extra-mural  population. 
The  outer  city  is  surrounded  by  mud  walls,  pierced  for  three 
gates,  but  only  two  are  opened.  The  inner  citv,  or  city 
proper,  which  is  2|  miles  long  by  If  wide,  has  walls  of  mod- 
erate height  pierced  with  eight  gates  sunnounted  by  fine 
towers.  The  streets  are  50  to  75  feet  wide,  and  the  people 
are  well-behaved.  Tai-yuen  has  a  powder-mill  and  an 
arms-factory,  and  was  anciently  noted  for  its  sword-blades 
and  knives.    Pop.  about  200,000.  R.  L. 

Takashi'ma :  an  island  of  Japan ;  about  8  miles  from 
the  entrance  to  Nagasaki  harbor.  It  is  only  250  acres  in 
extent,  and  was,  until  a  comparatively  recent  date,  unin- 
habited. Coal-mining  operations  on  a  primitive  scale  were 
Iwgun  before  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century;  in  1867 
Scottish  miners  were  employed,  and  now  (1895)  several  thou- 
sand workmen  turn  out  the  largest  output  of  any  coal  mine 
in  Asia.  At  one  time  it  was  feared  that  the  supply  was  near 
exhaustion,  but  later  new  veins  were  discovered  and  the  out- 
put is  undiminished.  The  mines  extend  for  a  considerable 
distance  under  the  sea.  J.  M.  Dixon. 

Takata,  taa-kalt'tali :  a  town  in  the  province  of  Echic^o, 
Western  Japan ;  about  4  miles  from  the  seacoast  and  74  miles 
S.  W.  of  Niigata  (see  map  of  Japan,  ref.  5-D).  Its  port, 
Naoetsu,  is  the  western  terminus  of  the  railway  from  Tokio 
to  the  west  coast.  It  was  formerly  the  castle-town  of  a 
daimio,  Sakakibara,  one  of  the  four  families  entitled  to  sup- 
ply a  regent  during  the  minority  of  a  shogun.  Cotton-weav- 
ing is  extensively  carried  on,  as  also  are  leather-working  and 
furrierv.  The  Presbyterians  of  the  U.  S.  have  a  mission 
here.    Pop.  28,000.  J.  M.  D. 

Takil'man  Indians:  a  stock  of  North  American  Ind- 
ians, represented,  so  far  as  is  known,  by  only  one  tribe,  the 
Takelma.  Their  habitat  was  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
Uo^ue  river,  Oregon  (whence  they  are  called  Rogue  River 
Indians),  and  their  villages,  numbering  seventeen,  extended 
along  the  south  side  of  the  river  from  the  vallev  of  Illinois 
creek  to  "  Deep  Rock,"  probably  Rock  Point.  6.  of  Wood- 
ville,  in  Jackson  County.  It  is  probable  that  they  were 
once  the  occupants  of  a  territory  larger  than  that  jiist  de- 
scribed, and  that  later  there  was  an  invasion  by  the  Atha- 
pascan Indians,  who  established  villages  on  all  sides  of  them 
and  imposed  Athapascan  names  on  Takilman  villages, 
though  they  never  succeeded  in  forcing  the  Takelma  to 
abandon  their  own  language.  The  present  representatives 
of  the  tribe  number  about  twenty-five,  and  are  on  the  Siletz 
Reservation,  Tillamook  co..  Ore.  Apparently  the  Takilman 
Indians  differed  in  no  essential  respect  from  their  neighbors, 
except  in  their  language.  J.  Owen  Dorsey. 

Takonf,  taa'kow' :  a  town  on  the  west  coast  of  Formosa  : 
lat.  22''  38'  N.,  Ion.  130=  16*-  30'  E. ;  about  20  miles  S.  of 
Taiwan-foo  (see  map  of  China,  ref.  8-K).  It  was  thrown 
open  to  foreign  residence  and  trade  in  1864,  but  its  trade 
has  never  been  great.  The  custom-house  returns  are  in- 
cluded in  those  of  Taiwan-foo,  now  called  Tainan  {q.  v.). 


Takn,  taa'koo' :  a  Chinese  village,  situated  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Pei-ho.  on  the  right  or  south  bank ;  about  70  mile*  by 
water  from  Tientsin,  but  only  35  by  land  (see  map  of  China, 
ref.  3-J).  Here  are  situated  the  famous  Taku  forts,  which, 
though  deemed  impregnable  by  the  Chinese,  were  taken 
three  times  1 
1858-60.  See 
to  China  in 
paign  of  1800.  R.  JL 

Talayera  de  la  Reiua,  taa-I^-va  rala-da-laa-ra-ee  niik:  an 
old  but  well-built  town  in  the  province  of  Toledo,  Spain : 
on  the  Tagus,  75  miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of  Madrid;  in  an  ex- 
ceedingly fertile  plain,  covered  with  vineyards  and  olive- 
groves  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  16-E).  It  has  raanufactun^ 
of  silk  and  earthenware.  Here  was  fought  a  severe  battle 
on  July  28, 1809,  between  the  French  under  Jourdan  and  Vic- 
tor, and  the  allied  Spaniards  and  British  under  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  (afterward  Duke  of  Wellington),  in  which  the  lat- 
ter were  victorious.  It  was  the  birthplace  (1536)  of  the  his- 
torian Mariana.    Pop.  about  10.500. 

Talbot,  Richard  :  See  Tyrconnel. 

Talbot,  Silas  :  naval  officer ;  b.  at  Dighton,  Bristol  co., 
Mass.,  in  1751 :  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution 
was  made  captain  in  a  Rhode  Island  regiment,  and  was  prc^ 
ent  at  the  siege  of  Boston ;  in  1776  accompanied  the  army  to 
New  York,  where  he  planned  an  attack  by  fii-e-ship  on  tlie 
British  shipping,  for  which  he  received  a  commission  as 
major  and  the  thanks  of  Congress;  was  severely  woundeil 
in  1777  during  an  engagement  with  British  vessels  in  I>ela- 
ware  river,  and  in  1778  he  captured  the  British  blockading 
schooner  the  Pigot,  and  was  appointed  captain  in  the  navy 
Sept.,  1779;  fitted  out  the  Pigot  and  captured  several  prizes, 
but  in  1780  was  made  prisoner  and  sent  to  England;  was 
exchanged  in  Dec,  1781 ;  settled  in  New  York,  and  in  1793- 
94  was  m  Congress ;  when  the  navy  was  reor^nizcd  in  1704 
he  superintended  the  construction  of  the  frigate  Constitu- 
tion, which  was  his  flag-ship  during  a  cruise  in  the  We<t 
Indies  in  1799.  D.  in  New  York,  June  30,  1813.  See  the 
Life  by  Henry  T.  Tuckerman  (1850). 

Talbot,  William  Henry  Fox,  LL.  D.  :  photographer  and 
antiquarian ;  b.  at  Lacock  Abbey,  near  Cnippenham,  Eng- 
land, Feb.  11,  1800 ;  graduated  at  Cambridge  1821 ;  sat  for 
Chippenham  as  a  Liberal  in  the  first  reformed  Parliament 
1832-34 ;  pursued  for  some  years  from  1833  a  series  of  ex- 
periments which  resulted  in  Sept.,  1840,  in  the  discovery  of 
the  essential  principle  of  the  art  of  photography,  and  in  1841 
of  the  calotyjie  process;  received  in  1842  a  medal  from  the 
Royal  Society,  and  in  later  years  devoted  himself  to  ant i- 

?[uarian  pursuits  and  philological  studies,  being  one  of  the 
ew  scholars  who  have  successfully  deciphered  the  Assyrian 
cuneiform  inscriptions.  Among  his  works  are  ffermes^  or 
Classical  and  Antiquarian  Researches  (vol.  i.,  18*^ ;  vol.  ii., 
1839) ;  Legendary  Tales  in  Verse  and  Prose  (1830) ;  The  A  u- 
tiquity  of  the  Book  of  Genesis  illustrated  by  some  New  A  rgu- 
ments  (1839) ;  The  Pencil  of  Nature^  a  Collection  of  Genuine 
Specimens  of  the  New  Art  of  Photography  (6  parts,  1844- 
46).    D.  at  Lacock  Abbey,  Sept.  17,  1877. 

Talbotype :  same  as  calotype.    See  Photograpbt. 

Talc  [from  Fr.  talc,  from  Arab.  *talaq]:  a  magnesium  sili- 
cate, usually  somewhat  hydrated,  whicn  sometimes  makes 
up  the  mass  of  geological  formations.  Talc,  when  crys- 
tallized, is  right  rhombic.  It  belongs  to  the  softest  min- 
erals, ranking  with  graphite  in  this  respect,  and  is  used  as 
the  lowest  member.  No.  1,  of  the  scale  of  hardness.  It  is 
seldom  found  well  crystallized,  but  usually  in  compact  or 
in  foliated  masses,  the  foliation  arising  sometimes  from  the 
cleavage  of  the  mineral,  which  is  micaceous  in  its  character. 
Its  usual  color  is  a  light  green,  due  to  ferrous  oxide  ass4>- 
ciated  with  the  magnesian  base ;  but  this  color  and  this  con- 
stituent are  not  essential,  and  it  is  found  perfectly  white, 
sometimes  with  a  silvery  luster.  The  massive  varieties  an> 
called  soapstone.  (See  Steatite.)  The  average  com pi>sit  inn 
of  the  commoner  varieties  of  talc  is  stated  as  Oi»Si»Mir«. 
2HaO;  but  there  is  an  anhydrous  talc,  not  separated  f mm 
this  species  by  Dana  and  other  authorities,  which,  accord- 
ing to  analyses  of  Genth,  Senft,  LychneU,and  Kersten,  com- 
putes distinctly  to  the  formula  Oi6Si8Mg4.  Dana  suggci-ts 
that  quartz  may  have  been  present  as  an  impurity  in  these; 
but  this  would  not  account  for  the  entire  absence  of  water 
from  many  of  the  analyses;  and,  moreover,  the  densitv 
would  be  diminished  by  quartz,  whereas  one  of  LvchnelVs 
anhydrous  talcs  gave  the  maximum  density  of  all,  2'T!>o. 


Til  IK 


rSFwHiifcrtii 


11 '1    " 


-tf  Tmr»f. 


tatft«wfl!t  <hM  h*** 


888 


TALLIEN 


TALLOW 


man ;  b.  in  Paris,  Feb.  13, 1754 ;  was  compelled  by  his  fami- 
ly to  renounce  his  right  of  primogeniture  on  account  of  his 
being  lame,  and  was  educated  for  the  Church.  He  studied 
at  St.-Sulpice,  the  Sorbonne,  and  at  Rheims,  and  attracted 
much  attention  by  his  wit  and  other  brilliant  gifts.  In 
1775  he  was  ordained  priest  in  spite  of  the  notorious  licen- 
tiousness of  his  life,  in  1780  was  chosen  agent-general  for 
the  clergy,  and  in  1789  the  king  made  him  Bishop  of  Autun. 
Elected  a  deputy  to  the  States-General,  he  was  one  of  the 
first  of  the  clergy  who  joined,  and  prompted  his  colleagues 
to  join,  the  Hera  Stat,  and  in  intimate  harmony  with  Mira- 
beau  and  Sieyes  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates  of 
the  Assembly.  On  Oct.  10,  1789,  he  proposed  the  confisca- 
tion of  all  Church  property;  July  14, 1790,  he  officiated  at 
the  grand  national  festival  in  the  Champ  de  Mars,  and  con- 
secrated the  new  colors  of  the  national  guard;  Dec.  28, 
1790,  he  took  the  oath  to  obey  the  constitution,  and  when 
the  pope  excommunicated  him  (May  1, 1791)  he  resigned  his 
episcopal  see.  In  the  Representative  Assembly  his  speeches 
on  financial,  educational,  and  other  reforms  exercised  great 
influence.  Nevertheless,  a  rumor  was  circulated  that  he  was 
con.spiring  with  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  his  friends  saved 
him  oy  procuring  for  him  a  diplomatic  mission  to  London. 
While  there  his  name  was  placed  on  the  list  of  Smigris,  He 
lived  for  some  time  in  London  and  afterward  in  the  U.  S., 
but  returned  to  Paris  in  1796,  and  became  Minister  of  For- 
eign Affairs  in  July,  1797,  which  office  he  held  to  Aug., 
1807,  with  one  short  interruption.  Recognizing  the  force  of 
Napoleon's  character,  he  gave  him  his  support  loyally  in 
his  struggle  for  power.  He  negotiated  all  the  various  trea- 
ties of  peace  of  this  epoch — the  concordat  with  the  pope, 
who  relieved  him  from  excommunication  and  secularized 
him ;  the  confederacy  of  the  Rhine,  after  which  he  was  made 
Prince  of  Benevento,  etc. ;  but  he  disapproved  Napoleon's 
policy  toward  Great  Britain,  opposed  his  plans  with  respect 
to  Spain,  and  when,  after  the  Peace  of  Tilsit,  an  alliance 
was  formed  between  France  and  Russia,  he  resigned  his 
office  and  retired  to  his  estates  at  yalen9ay.  Before  the 
Russian  disaster  he  predicted  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  and 
entered  into  communication  with  the  Bourbons;  and  during 
the  last  three  years  of  Napoleon's  career  he  was  one  of  his 
most  active  and  most  dangerous  enemies.  He  negotiated 
the  first  Peace  of  Paris,  and  represented  France  at  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna.  Here  he  succeeded  in  dissolving  the  gen- 
eral feeling  of  concord  with  which  the  powers  met,  and  pro- 
duced a  confusion  of  jealousy,  mistrust,  rivalry,  and  hatred 
which  he  understood  now  to  use  to  the  advantage  of  France. 
After  the  second  restoration,  however,  he  fell  into  disgrace, 
'  and  during  the  reigns  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.  took 
very  little  part  in  public  life.  In  Sept.,  1830,  Louis  Phi- 
lippe sent  him  as  ambassador  to  London,  and  he  succeeded 
in  establishing  cordial  and  intimate  relations  between  the 
courts  of  St.  James  and  the  Tuileries,  and  concluded  the 
quadruple  alliance  between  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain, 
and  Portugal  Apr.  22, 1834.  He  returned  to  France  short- 
ly after.  D.  at  Valen9ay,  May  17, 1838.  His  MSmoirea  were 
intended  by  him  to  be  published  thirty  years  after  his  death, 
but  in  1868  the  publication  was  postponed  for  twenty-two 
years  on  the  proposition  of  Napoleon  III.  They  were  pub- 
lished in  5  volumes  1889-91.  For  an  account  of  his  course 
at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  see  Correspondence  between  Tal- 
leyrand and  Louis  XVIII.  (1881) ;  for  estimates  of  his  char- 
acter, Laraartine,  Mimoires  Politiquea ;  Blanc,  Hisfotre  dc 
Dix  An8\  Guizot's  Mimoires;  and  Bastide,  Vie  Religieuae 
et  Politique  de  Talleyrand,  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Tallfen,  t&'li-ftn',  Jean  Lambert  :  revolutionist ;  b.  in 
Paris  in  1769 ;  became  noted  in  1792  as  the  editor  of  a  Ja- 
cobin journal,  L'Ami  du  Citoyen ;  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Convention  ;  advocated  the  condemnation  and  immedi- 
ate execution  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  attacked  the  Girondins 
with  senseless  fury.  In  1793  he  was  sent  to  Bordeaux  to 
exterminate  the  moderate  party,  but  here  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Madame  de  Fontenay,  one  of  the  most  at- 
tractive women  of  that  time,  and  this  acquaintance  suddenly 
changed  him  from  an  extreme  radical  to  a  decided  mod- 
erate. He  was  immediately  recalled,  his  name  was  erased 
from  the  lists  of  the  Jacobin  Club,  Madame  de  Fontenay 
was  thrown  into  prison,  and  his  own  life  was  endangered  ; 
but  in  this  emergency  he  rallied  the  partisans  of  Danton 
and  Hebert,  and  by  his  energy  and  coolness  at  the  de- 
cisive moment  the  overthrow  of  Robespierre  and  the  Ter- 
r  rorists  was  accomplished  July  27,  1794.  He  then  became 
one  of  the  most  conspicuous  figures  in  the  republic,  and 


married  Madame  de  Fontenay.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  but,  trusted  by  neither  mon- 
archists nor  republicans,  was  forced  to  withdraw.  He  went 
with  Bonaparte  to  Egypt  as  a  «aro7i/,  but  quarreled  with 
Gen.  Menou  and  was  sent  back  to  France  in  1800.  He  was 
captured  by  a  British  cruiser  and  taken  to  London,  where 
he  was  feasted  and  flattered  by  the  Whig  party  as  a  hero. 
He  returned  to  France  in  1802,  and  died  in  Paris,  Nov. 
16, 1820.  F.  M.  Colby. 

TalHs,  Thomas:  organist;  b.  about  1520;  was  perhaps 
organist  to  Henry  VIII.,  and  certainly  gentleman  of  the 
chapel  to  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth,  and  organist  to 
the  last  named;  and  has  been  styled  the  father  of  English 
cathedral  music.  In  conjunction  with  his  pupil,  William 
Byrd,  he  issued  Cantiones  mim  SacrcB  vocantur^  etc.  (1575). 
which  are  masterpieces,  and  were  protected  for  twenty-one 
years  by  Elizabeth,  this  being  the  first  patent  of  the  kind 
granted  by  her.  There  are  also  extant  nis  Order  of  Daily 
Service  (ed.  by  Bishop,  1843,  and  by  Rimbault,  1847),  Full 
Cathedral  Service  (ed.  by  Rimbault,  1847),  and  Order  fin- 
Morning  Prayer^  with  the  Litany  Noted  (new  ed.  1854).  It 
is  said  that  for  portions  of  his  Service  he  was  indebted  to 
Peter  Marbeck,  organist  of  Windsor.  D.  Nov.  23, 1585.  A 
complete  list  of  his  works  is  in  Grove*s  Dictionary  ofMtisie. 

Tallmadge,  Benjamin,  M.  A. :  soldier;  b.  at  Setauker. 
N.  Y.,  Feb.  25, 1754;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1773;  principal 
of  a  high  school  at  Wethersfield,  Conn. ;  entered  a  Connecti- 
cut regiment  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution  ; 
rose  to  the  rank  of  major;  performed  a  brilliant  exploit  in 
crossing  Long  Island  Sound,  surprising  and  capturing  500 
Tories  at  Lloyd's  Neck,  L.  I.,  Sept.  5,  1779 ;  planned  and 
executed  the  capture  of  Fort  George  at  Oyster  Bay  ami  the 
destruction  of  British  forces  on  Long  Island,  May,  178<); 
was  engaged  in  several  prominent  battles;  was  intrusted 
with  the  custody  of  Maj.  Andr^,  and  superintended  his  exe- 
cution ;  was  a  member  of  Congress  1801-17.  D.  at  Litch- 
field, Conn.,  Mar.  7, 1835.  His  Memoirs  were  published  in 
1859  by  his  son,  Frederick  A.  Tallmadge. 

Tallmadge,  Frederick  Augustus  :  lawyer ;  son  of  Ben- 
jamin Tallmadge ;  b.  at  Litchfield,  Conn.",  Aug.  29,  1792 ; 
Graduated  at  Yale  College  1811 ;  studied  law  under  Judge 
'apping  Reeve  at  Litchfield,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar ;  began  practice  in  New  York  1814 ;  soon  became  one 
of  the  most  successful  advocates,  and  filled  many  public 
posts,  including  those  of  member  (1837-40)  and  president  of 
the  State  Senate,  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Errors, 
recorder  of  New  York  1841-46  and  1848-51,  member  of 
Congress  1847-49,  superintendent  of  the  metropolitan  tk>- 
lice  1857,  and  clerk  of  the  court  of  appeals  1862-65.  lie 
became  best  known  for  the  energy  he  aisplayed  while  re> 
corder  in  suppressing  the  Astor  Pl&ce  riot  of  May,  1849. 
D.  in  New  York,  Sept.,  1869. 

Tallmadge,  James,  LL.  D.  :  lawyer ;  b.  at  Stamford, 
N.  Y.,  Jan.  28, 1778 ;  son  of  Col.  James  Tallmadge  (1744- 
1821),  an  officer  of  the  Revolution ;  graduated  at  Brown 
University  1798 ;  studied  law,  which  ne  practiced  several 
years,  but  gave  his  chief  attention  to  agnculture ;  was  for 
some  time  private  secretary  to  Gov.  George  Clinton ;  held  a 
military  command  in  New  York  during  the  war  of  1812-15 ; 
was  member  of  Congress  1817-19;  introduced  an  amend- 
ment to  the  bill  admitting  Missouri  excluding  slavery  from 
the  region  W.  of  the  Mississippi ;  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  New  York  constitutional  conventions  of  1821  ana  1846  ; 
sat  in  the  Assembly  1824 ;  was  Lieutenant-Governor  1825- 
26.  In  1836  introduced  into  Russia  several  American  me- 
chanical inventions,  especially  cotton-spinning  machinery  ; 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  University  of  the  City  of 
New  York.    D.  in  New  York,  Sept.  29, 1853. 

Tallow  [M.  Eng.  taluh  :  Low  Germ,  (hence  Germ.)  talg] : 
the  hard  fat  of  animals,  more  properly  called  suet.  The 
term  also  includes  those  fats  of  a  less  degree  of  hardness, 
e.  g.  lard  and  grease,  as  distinguished  from  oils.  The  fats 
obtained  from  the  rendering  of  animal  fats  of  all  kinds  arc 
technically  known  as  tallow,  and  are  chiefiy  used  by  the 
tallow-chandler  for  the  production  of  soap  and  c«mdlesw 
The  animal  fats  are  hard  in  proportion  as  they  contain 
more  stearin  and  palmitin  and  less  of  olein.  The  quality 
of  animal  fats  is  much  influenced  by  the  mode  of  feetling 
and  the  quality  of  the  food.  The  quality  of  tallow  is  also 
very  dependent  on  its  being  renderea  at  a  low  temperature 
by  steam,  and  the  cleanliness  of  the  operation,  the  cnaracter 
of  the  animals  treated,  etc. 


Viiirvr 


K*  U;^U  iLuU  i- r-su  Mi 


890 


TALMUD 


The  suppression  of  the  Sadducean  Sanhedrin  at  the  death 
of  Alexanuer  Jannai  and  the  triumph  of  Pharisees  at  the 
recall  of  Simon  ben  Shetach  must  have  given  the  first  im- 
mediate impulse  to  a  classification  of  the  Oral  Law.  Such 
classification,  with  its  anti-Sadducean  tendency,  was  intro- 
duced in  the  exegesis  of  the  Law  {Midra8h)—e,  g.  the 
method  of  procedure  of  the  Sanhedrin  in  the  exegesis  of 
Deuteronomy.  Uillel  the  Elder  (b.  c.  32)  carried  on  this 
work.  Installed  as  patriarch  in  Palestine,  he  became  the 
head  of  a  numerous  and  learned  school.  To  him  is  attrib- 
uted the  general  arrangement  of  the  Oral  Law  in  six  divi- 
sions. It  is  very  probable  that  every  great  teacher  had  his 
own  compilation  which  he  handed  down  orally  to  his  imme- 
diate disciples.  We  hear  especially  of  a  Mishna  of  Rabbi 
Akiba  (about  100  a.  d.),  the  celebrated  Talmudist  and  mar- 
tyr ;  and  the  compilation  of  R.  Meir  (about  150  a.  d.) — to 
whom  are  ascribea  the  majority  of  the  anonymous  canons 
in  our  Mishna — became  the  foundation  of  the  Mishna  as  it 
now  exists.* 

R.  Jehudah  Hannasi,  simply  called  "  Rabbi "  (about  160 
A.  D.),  was  the  one  who  gave  final  form  to  the  Mishna.  He 
examined  anew  the  vast  accumulation  of  ordinances, 
abridged  and  amplified  it  where  necessary,  but  preserved  the 
teachings  of  the  Fathers — in  so  far  as  they  met  with  his  ap- 
proval— in  exactly  the  form  in  which  he  had  received  them. 
Ilere  and  there  a  few  additions  were  made  by  later  teach- 
ers, but  these  are  unimportant,  and  are  generally  to  be  found 
at  the  end  of  the  tracts.  Whether  the  division  of  the  Seda- 
rim  into  tracts  was  the  work  of  Rabbi  or  of  his  predecessors 
it  is  impossible  to  decide.  The  tracts,  however,  were  known 
to  the  doctors  of  the  Gemara,  and  Frankel  has  conclusively 
shown  {Hodo^etica,  p.  264)  that  the  Babylonian  Gemara  was 
already  familiar  with  the  division  of  the  tracts  into  chapters. 
The  arrangement  of  the  chapters,  however,  in  their  present 
order  is  said  to  have  been  the  work  of  the  later  Saborsans. 
The  period  of  time  which  includes  the  men  who  are  men- 
tioned as  authors  of  canons  in  the  Mishna  extends  over  five 
centuries  and  a  half — namely,  from  the  last  of  the  scribes  to 
the  death  of  Rabbi.  In  the  post-Mishnic  epoch  the  name 
Tannalm  (teachers)  was  applied  to  those  who  had  advanced 
opinions  of  their  own  in  the  disputations  of  the  academies. 

(c)  LanqiMge  of  the  Mishna, — This,  though  essentially 
Hebrew,  differs  from  the  more  ancient  Hebrew  in  important 
particulars.  The  natural  development  is  shown  in  new  and 
modified  meanings  which  have  sprung  up  side  by  side  with 
the  old :  in  the  invention  of  new  terms ;  in  formal  changes 
by  means  of  which  biblical  words  have  been  adapted  to  ex- 
press new  modes  of  thought.  The  influence  of  the  Aramaic, 
which  in  the  second  century  b.  c.  had  become  the  ordinary 
language  of  the  people,  shows  itself  in  the  many  Aramaic 
words  received  bodily  into  the  language  of  the  Mishna,  as 
well  as  in  many  grammatical  forms  and  syntactical  con- 
structions. Besides  this,  the  spread  of  Grecian  culture  in 
Palestine  favored  the  introduction  of  many  Greek  terms, 
and  also,  indirectly,  of  some  Latin  ones.  Many  of  them, 
however,  passed  through  Syrian  channels  on  their  way  to 
Palestine,  and  are  thus  more  or  less  modified  in  form. 

{d)  The  Composition  of  the  Mishna, — That  the  Mishna 
was  not  cast  in  a  single  mould  must  be  plain  to  every  one 
who  is  acquainted  with  its  contents,  form,  and  language. 
In  many  places  the  Mishna  simply  lays  down  the  Law, 
omitting  to  mention  the  confiict  of  opinion  that  existed  in 
regard  to  it.  Elsewhere  even  the  slightest  diversity  of 
opinion  is  noted.  Certain  ordinances  are  twice  and  three 
times  repeated.  One  and  the  same  ordinance  is  sometimes 
supported  by  totally  different  arguments  in  the  difl'erent 
places  in  which  it  occurs.  All  this  points  to  the  conclusion 
that  a  considerable  number  of  minor  compilations  already 
existed  in  the  days  of  Rabbi  Jehudah  which  he  adopted,  ar- 
ranged, and  enlarged,  and  in  this  way  the  general  arrange- 
ment can  be  yet  recognized.  The  oldest  layer  of  Mishnas, 
dating  back  to  the  time  of  Alexander  Jannai  (see  above), 
busied  itself  with  the  temple  service  and  the  court  of  jus- 
tice. The  tone  is  a  general  one,  and  a  certain  rhythm  is 
perceptible.  Their  tendency  was  anti-Sadducean.  The  sec- 
ond layer  busied  itself  with  more  minute  and  individual  af- 
faire. As  nothing  was  reduced  to  writing,  the  material  was 
arranged  (1)  as  far  as  possible  in  the  same  order  as  the  laws 
occur  in  the  Pentateuch,  (2)  according  to  the  outward  agree- 
ment in  the  form  of  expression  or  in  subject-matter.  There 
are  also  indications  by  means  of  which  the  author  of  some 

•  Dr.  Lewy,  Ueber  einige  Fragmente  atis  der  Minchna  des  Abba 
Saul,  has  endeavored  to  show  that  Abba  Saul  (about  100  a.  d.)  col- 
lected a  Mishna  which  was  used  in  the  /lual  redaction. 


of  the  individual  parts  of  the  work  of  R.  Jehudah  can  be 
discovered. 

(c)  Reduction  of  the  Mishna  to  Writing, — It  was  a  gen- 
eral principle  with  the  men  of  the  Talmud  that  the  tradi- 
tional law  ought  not  to  be  committed  to  writing.  Unity  of 
development  was  threatened  if  each  teacher  were  to  fix  in 
writing  his  own  collection.  There  is,  however,  sufficient 
evidence  to  show  that  at  an  early  time  both  Haggada  (exe- 
gesis) and  Halacha  (law)  were  committed  to  writing.  But 
concerning  the  exact  time  at  which  the  Mishna  was  written 
down,  great  diversity  of  opinion  prevails.  Some  hold  that 
Rabbi  Jehudah  arranged  tne  Mishna  in  his  own  mind  and 
transmitted  it  by  word  of  mouth  to  his  disciples ;  that  it  was 
thus  preserved  with  verbal  accuracy  down  to  the  time  when 
the  academies  sank  in  importance,'and  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  fix  the  traditions  in  writing. 

Some  hold,  with  a  greater  show  of  reason,  that  Rabbi 
Jehudah  himself  wrote  out  the  greater  part  of  the  Mishna 
in  f  ulL 

(/)  Authenticity  of  the  Mishna  Text.—Uhe  text  of  the 
Mishna  has  suffered  much,  as  it  has  passed  through  the  hands 
of  many  copyists  and  compositors.  It  exists  at  present  in 
three  recensions:  one  in  the  manuscripts  and  editions  of 
the  Mishna,  another  embodied  in  the  Talmud  of  Babvlon, 
and  a  third  in  the  Talmud  of  Palestine.  All  these  differ 
greatly,  and  the  t€xt  which  was  before  the  ancient  commen- 
tators differs  from  that  of  any  of  the  three  recensions  men- 
tioned. Frankel  has  shown  (MebOy  p.  20)  that  even  during 
the  lifetime  of  R.  Jehudah  and  soon  after  his  death  the 
great  authorities  of  Palestine  did  not  scruple  to  subiect  his 
work  to  revision.  For  this  reason  criticism  of  the  Mishna 
text  plays  so  important  a  part  in  the  Gemara  of  Babylon 
and  of  Palestine. 

(g)  Commentaries  on  the  Mishna. — Maimonides  (twelfth 
century)  heads  the  list  with  his  commentary,  written  in 
Arabic,  of  which  only  parts  have  been  printed  (Edward 
Pocock,  Porta  Mosis'  ((Jxford,  1655) ;  J.  Barth,  Maimon- 
ides Commentar  zum  Traciat  Makkoth  (Leipzig,  1881) :  J. 
Derenbourg,  Commentaries  de  Maimonide^  et<5.  (Berlin, 
1886-91) ;  E.  Weill,  Der  Commentar  des  Maimonides  zum 
Tra^tat  Berachoth  (Berlin,  1891) ;  J.  Zivi,  Der  Comment, 
des  Maimonides  zum  Tractat  Demai,  (Berlin,  1891):  S. 
Bamberger,  Commentar  zum  Tractat  Kilajim  (Frankfort, 
1891).  A  Hebrew  translation  may  be  found  in  many  edi- 
tions of  the  Mishna  and  the  Talmud.  He  was  followed  by 
R  Tanchum,  of  Jerusalem,  who  wrote  a  lexicon  of  the 
Mishna  in  Arabic  (Neubauer,  catalogue  of  Hebrew  MS.  cols., 
534,  535).  Of  the  many  commentaries  which  have  appeared 
since  then,  it  is  onlv  necessary  to  mention  those  of  Asher 
ben  Yechiel  (1327),  Obadya  of  Bertinoro  (end  of  fifteenth 
centurv),  Yomtov  Lipmann  Heller  (157&-1654),  Jacob  ben 
Samuel  Chagis  (seventeenth  century),  which  are  to  be  found 
in  the  different  editions  of  the  Mishna. 

(h)  Translations  of  the  Mishna, — About  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  centurv  the  desire  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  contents  of  tne  Mishna  was  manifested  also  by 
Christian  scholars.  Translations  of  all  or  single  portion's 
of  the  Mishna  began  to  appear  in  Latin,  Spanish,  Italian, 
French,  English,  and  German.  The  most  important  art* 
Guilielmus  Surenhusius,  Mishna  siite  totius  Hebraontm 
juris  Systema  (Amsterdam,  1698-1703);  Mishnayott,  edited 
by  J.  M.  Jost  (vocalized  text  with  German  transl.  in  Hebrew 
letters),  Berlin,  1833-34 ;  J.  J.  Rabe,  Misehnah  oder  der  Tejcf 
des  Talmuds  (Ansbach,  1760-63) ;  E.  Baneth,  Misehnaiott 
.  .  .  nehst  Deut,  Uebersetz,  (Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1888) ; 
A.  Sammter,  Mischnayott  .  .  .  mit  ,  ,  .  Deut,  Uebers,  (Ber- 
lin, 1886) ;  D.  A.  de  Sola  and  M.  J.  Raphal,  Eighteen  Trea- 
tises  from  the  Mishna  (London,  1843) :  J.  Barclay,  The  Tal- 
mud (London,  1878);  Yoma^  or  the  Day  of  Atonemefit^ 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  Quarterly  Statement  (1885) : 
Middoth,  or  the  Measurements  of  the  'Temple,  ibid  (1887). 
For  an  account  of  the  numerous  editions  of  the  Mishna, 
see  Ffirst,  Bibliotheca  Judaica,  ii.,  p.  40,  i. ;  Ben  Jacob,  Owir 
Hassepfiarim  (1880),  pp.  399  ff. 

(B)  The  Gemara, — The  term  Gemara  is  of  Aramaic  origin, 
and  its  signification  is  the  same  as  that  of  Talmud — tcjich- 
ing.  It  is  also  used  to  designate  the  method  of  deduction 
current  in  the  schools  as  well  as  tradition  itself.  Ordinarily 
it  denotes  the  whole  body  of  controversies  ,and  teaching* 
which  arose  in  the  academies  after  the  close  of  the  Mishna, 
and  which,  being  collected  in  writing,  now  form  the  secoml 
and  major  part  of  the  Talmud.  There  are  two  Gemara^, 
the  one  elaborated  in  the  academies  of  Babylon,  the  other 
having  Palestine  for  its  birthplace.    The  customary  name 


TALMUD 


Gemara.  Even  passages  from  the  famous  commentary  of 
R.  Yitschaki  have  been  incorporated  in  the  text.  Indeed, 
in  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  a  mooted  point  whether  R.  Ashi 
himself  wrote  down  any  of  the  Gemara.  It  seems  impossible 
to  believe  that  R.  Ashi  could  have  orally  arranged  so  volu- 
minous a  work  (ten  or  eleven  times  as  large  as  the  Mishna) ; 
and  there  exists  an  authentic  tradition  that  R.  Ashi  re- 
vised the  Gemara  in  a  second  edition. 

Of  the  authorship  and  date  of  completion  of  the  Pales- 
tinian Gemara  still  less  is  known.  By  an  ancient  tradition 
its  authorship  is  ascribed  to  R.  Jochanan  (end  of  second  cen- 
tury). But  that  is  impossible,  as  everywhere  one  meets  with 
the*  names  of  Amoraim  who  flourished  centuries  after  R. 
Jochanan.  Perhaps  the  tradition  merely  indicates  that  R. 
Jochanan  was  the  author  of  the  Mishna  recension  found  in 
the  Palestinian  Gemara.  J.  H.  Weiss  has  endeavored  to 
prove  that  R.  Jose  ii.  (about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury) laid  the  foundation  upon  which  the  Palestinian  Tal- 
mud was  built.  In  regard  to  the  date  of  composition  the 
same  uncertainty  exists.  Isaac  Alfassi  asserts  that  the  au- 
thors of  the  Babylonian  Gemara  were  acquainted  with  that 
of  Palestine.  During  the  Middle  Ages  all  deferred  to  his 
authority.  Jost  declares  that  it  was  edited  hardly  100  years 
after  theclose of  the  Mishna.  Rappoport  and  Ghayoth  (MebOy 
p.  28  b)  agree  with  Alfassi.  Frankel  refutes  their  argu- 
ments ;  but  concedes  that  the  close  of  the  Palestinian  pre- 
ceded that  of  the  Babylonian  by  several  centuries.  Wiesner 
assigns  to  its  completion  so  late  a  period  as  that  between 
760-900.  Steinschneider  is  correct  in  saying  that  it  was  not 
edited  before  the  last  third  of  the  fourth  century  (as  Dio- 
cletian, Ursicinus,  and  Julian  are  mentioned) ;  and  it  proba- 
bly received  its  final  form  at  the  time  of  the  abolition  of  the 
patriarchate  of  Tiberias,  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  fifth 
century. 

(h)  Condition  of  the  Text  of  the  Oemaras, — It  is  hardly  to 
be  expected  that  the  text  of  the  Babylonian  Gemara,  wHich 
has  passed  through  the  hands  of  so  manv  copyists  and  com- 
positors, should  be  very  correct ;  but  the  disfigurement  of  the 
text  as  it  stands  is  greater  than  in  the  case  of  any  other 
work  which  has  been  handed  down  to  us  from  ancient  times. 
Three  causes  have  occurred  to  bring  about  this  result :  (1) 
Unfortunately,  the  text  of  the  Talmud  was  not  treated  with 
that  care  accorded  to  the  biblical  text.  Incompetent  men 
have  inserted  marginal  notes  in  the  text,  have  omitted  whole 
sentences,  and  have  confused  names  and  things  in  general. 
Would-be  critics  have  made  uncalled-for  changes  in  the  text 
to  suit  their  pleasures — an  abuse  already  complained  of  by 
Hai  Gaon.  (2)  Pious  censors,  who  contmued  to  pursue  the 
A  literature  of  the  Jews  with  a  fanatical  hatred  almost  to  the 
present  day,  found  a  peculiar  pleasure  in  venting  their  spit^ 
upon  the  Talmud.  Ignorant  and  overzealous  as  most  of 
them  were,  they  not  only  expunged  the  few  passages  that 
refer  to  the  founder  of  Christianity,  but  many  others  which 
they  wrongly  construed  to  be  disguised  attacks  upon  Chris- 
tianity. Jewish  editors  themselves,  in  sheer  self-defense, 
undertook  to  erase  what  a  mournful  experience  had  taught 
them  was  liable  to  give  offense.  (3)  Gooa  MSS.  became  very 
scarce,  owing  to  the  bigotry  of  mediaeval  popes.  Acting 
upon  the  order  of  Louis  IX.,  cartloads  of  the  Talmud  were 
burned  in  Paris  1242.  Clement  IV.  (1265-68)  sent  to  the 
Bishop  of  Tarragona  a  bull  ordering  that  all  copies  of  the 
Talmud  should  oe  handed  over  to  the  Franciscans  and  Do- 
minicans, who  were  to  burn  whatever  was  anti-Christian. 
Gregory  IX.  in  1239  ordered  the  archbishops  in  France, 
Spam,  and  Portugal  to  confiscate  all  possible  copies  of  the 
Talmud.  Fortunately  the  passages  which  have  been  ex- 
punged or  disfigured  have  been  published  separately. 

Since  the  invention  of  printing  not  less  than  fifty  com- 

Elete  editions  of  the  Talmud  have  been  published  (see  Rab- 
inovicz,  Dikduke  Soferim,  p.  42),  besides  hundreds  of  sin- 
gle tracts.  None  of  these,  however,  can  be  said  to  contain  a 
philological ly  correct  text.  It  is  true  that  from  the  six- 
teenth  century  on  attempts  have  been  made  to  justify  the 
*  text  of  the  Gemara,  notablv  by  such  scholars  as  Solomon 
Luria  (1582),  Samuel  Kaidohover  (1697).  Isaac  Berlin  (1800), 
Elia  of  Wilna  (1797),  and  Akiba  Eger  (1837).  R.  Rabbino- 
vicz,  in  his  Varies  Lectiones,  15  vols.,  Munich,  1868-86,  has 
collected  a  large  number  of  variants,  especially  from  the 
celebrated  Munich  MS.  But  the  first  systematic  attempt 
to  formulate  the  requirements  for  such  an  edition  was  mauc 
by  F.  Lebrecht.  In  1886  the  Semitic  section  of  the  Seventh 
Oriental  Congress  publicly  expressed  its  desire  in  this  di- 
rection. M.  Friedmann  has  accordingly  attempted  such  a 
critical  edition  of  Sukkoth,  but  hardly  with  success. 


A  trustworthy  scientific  text  can  be  gotten  only  by  (1)  a 
comparison  of  all  available  MSS.,  (2)  a  comparison  of  paral- 
lel passages  in  both  Gemaras,  (3)  a  collection  of  all  the  citar 
tions  in  the  older  compendia,*  in  the  commentaries,!  and  in 
the  lexicon  of  R.  Nathan  ben  Yechiel.  A  good  beginning 
has  been  made  in  this  direction  by  Max  L.  Margolis  in  his 
Commentarius  laaacidis  quatenus  ad  textum  Tatmudis  in- 
vesiigandum  adhiberi  poasit  (New  York.  1891) ;  The  Colum- 
bia College  MS,  of  MegUlla  (New  York,  1892). 

The  Palestinian  Gemara  has  fared  still  worse.  The  cor- 
ruption of  its  text  is  visible  on  every  page.  It  has  not  suf- 
fered so  much  as  the  Babylonian  from  censorial  interference 
and  from  the  mistakes  of  copyists,  for  during  a  long  period 
it  remained  unknown  in  the  schools,  and  even  after  it  had 
become  known  it  was  barely  noticed,  much  less  critically 
studied  by  scholars.  But  it  has  suffered  from  want  of  atten- 
tion and  pure  ignorance  of  the  Aramaic  dialect  in  which  it 
is  written.  Its  une^uarded  condition  has  caused  it  to  be 
largely  interpolated,  especially  in  its  Haggadic  portions* 
Wiesner  has  endeavored  to  show  that  such  interpolations, 
evidently  aimed  against  the  reputation  of  the  great  bearers 
of  Talmudic  tradition,  were  at  times  the  work  of  the  Kara^ 
ites,  whose  chief  seat  was  in  Palestine.  Though  this  has 
been  denied  by  Geiger,  S.  Adler  has  brought  additional 
proof  of  this  view  in  his  Kobes  al  Yadh.  Only  one  complete 
MS.  of  the  Palestinian  Gemara  exists  in  Ley  den  and  one 
fragment  in  Oxford. 

(i)  The  Literature  of  the  Talmud, — For  eighteen  centuries 
Jewish  thought  has  almost  wholly  moved  within  a  sphere  of 
which  the  Talmud  was  the  center.  The  more  the  Jews  were 
oppressed  the  more  fruitful  did  their  literary  activity  be- 
come. It  kept  the  soul  alive  while  the  body  was  almost 
dead.  An  immense  literature  has  grown  out  of  and  around 
the  Talmud.  A  bare  list  of  such  would  fill  a  bulky  volume, 
(For  the  older  literature,  see  Steinschneider,  Jew,  Lit,^  Lon- 
don, 1857,  and  CataZ,  Libr,  Hebrceor,  in  Bibl,  Bodleiana, 
Berlin,  1860.  For  the  newer  literature,  Ben  Jacob,  Osar 
Hasaepharim^  Wilna,  1880,  and  the  ordinary  bibliographies.) 
They  may  be  rouffhly  referred  to  the  following  categories : 
(1)  Epitomes  (HiUachoth).  (2)  Commentaries,  primary  and 
secondary.  (3)  Nov  elite  (extended  disputations  on  Talmudic 
topics).  (4)  Digests,  and  commentaries  on  them.  (5)  Col- 
lections of  commandments  (containing  the  Talmudic  ordi- 
nances in  peculiar  arrangement.  (6)  Ritual  and  legal  ques- 
tions and  answers,  (7)  Religious  discourses.  (8)  Polemic  and 
apologetic  works.  (9)  Lexica  and  works  of  reference.  (10) 
Collection  of  Proverbs.  (11)  Historical  and  bibliographical 
works.  (12)  In  modem  times  monographs  and  larger  trea- 
tises of  a  scientific  character.  This  great  literature  is  writ- 
ten mainly  in  rabbinical  Hebrew,  but  a  number  of  works 
have  appeared  in  Arabic,  and  latterly  in  almost  every  Eu- 
ropean language. 

(J)  Some  Auxiltanes  to  the  Study  of  the  Talmud. — ^Verj* 
little  has  been  done  toward  the  grammatical  treatment  of 
the  Talmudic  texts ;  but  see  S.  D.  Luzzato,  Elementi  Oram- 
maticali  del  Caldeo  Biblico  e  d^l  Dialetto  Talm,  BabyL^ 
Padua,  1865  (Germ,  transl.  by  Krilger,  Breslau,  1873;  Eng. 
by  J.  S.  Goldammer,  New  York,  1876) ;  and  the  monographs 
G.  RUlf,  Zur  Lautlehre  der  Aram,  Talmud.  Dialekie  ^res- 
lau,  1879) ;  I.  Rosenberg.  Das  Aramaische  Verbum  tm  BabyL 
Talmud.  (Marburg,  1888) ;  M.  G.Xiandau,  Geist  und  Sprache 
der  Hebrder  (Prague,  1822) ;  G.  Dalman,  Gramm,  a.  gait" 
Idischen  Aram&ische  (Leipzig,  1894). 

As  to  lexicons,  the  situation  is  more  favorable.  The  ArucK 
by  Rabbi  Natlian,  of  Rome,  after  having  been  enlarged  by 
Benjamin  Musaphia  and  M.  J,  Landau,  has  been  re-edited 
according  to  the  editio  princeps  and  some  MSS.  in  the  mon- 
umental work  of  A.  Kohut,  Plenus  Aruch  (or  Aruch  com- 
pletum ;  8  vols.,  Vienna,  1878-92).  Buxtorf  s  Lex,  Talmudi- 
cum  has  been  re-edited  and  enlarged  (though  not  success- 
fully) bv  B.  Fischer  (Leipzig,  1875).  See  also  S.  M.  Boiiidi, 
Or  Esther  (Dessau,  1812);  A  Stein,  Talmudische  Teifmi- 
nologie  (Pragjie,  1869).  In  moilern  languages  should  bo  rineu- 
tioned  J.  Levi,  Chald.  Wdrterb,  uber  die  Targumim  (I'^eip- 
zig,  1867);  Neuhebr,  und  Chald,  Wdrterb,  (Leipzig,  1^7^- 
89) ;  M.  Lattes,  Saggio  di  giunte  e  correzione  al  LeAsico 
Talm,  (Turin,  1879);  Niwvo  Saggio  (Rome,  1881);  JUikcel- 
lanea  Postuma,  fasc.  i.,  ii.  (Milan,  1884-85) ;  M.  JastronV  A 
Diet,  of  the  Targumim,  the  Talmud,  etc.  (London  and  Mew 
York,  1886,  seq.) ;  J.  Fflrst,  Glossarium   Grceeo-HebrcttLm 

*  Such  as  the  Halakhot  Oedholoth,  the  Sheeltoth  of  R,  Aci^voi 
Oaon  ;  the  compendiuni  of  Alfan;  Jacob  ibn  Chahib*8  uon]pendiuJ||n 
of  the  Haggada  En  Jacob.  \ 

tGershon  ben  Jehudah,  Chananel,  Nlssim.  Solomon  ben  Isaaip 
(Rashi),  the  compilers  of  the  Toeaphot  or  additions.  Hoses  ben  SlaimonV. 


894 


TALPID^ 


TAMARIND 


losophy  or  of  psychology,  so  there  is  no  real  system  of  ethics 
contained  in  the  Talmud.  We  find  there  the  individual 
opinions  of  different  teachers,  living  at  different  times  and 
under  different  circumstances.  It  is  as  wrong  to  make  the 
whole  Talmudlc  Judaism  responsible  for  certain  views  as  it 
is  to  foist  upon  the  official  Halacha  the  beautiful  flights  of 
individual  teachers.  The  terrible  accusations  of  Wagenseil, 
Eisenmenger,  and  Rohling  (where  they  are  not  directly  fal- 
sified), have  magnified  the  one,  while  the  panegyrics  of 
Emanuel  Deutsch  and  S.  R.  Hirsch  have  contributed  little 
toward  arriving  at  a  just  estimate;  but,  on  the  whole,  it 
may  be  truthfully  said  that  the  general  ethical  level  of  both 
Halacha  and  Haggada  is  a  high  one,  reaching  in  many  of 
the  leading  spirits  of  the  day  to  the  full  height  of  moral 
excellency  of  their  time,  and  that  where  it  does  recede  from 
this  height  it  is  due  to  political  and  social  oppression,  or  to 
an  excessive  use  of  casuistical  argumentation. 

Non-Jewish  scholars  who  were  acquaint^  with  its  con- 
tents, such  as  Reuchlin,  Buxtorf,  Herder,  F.  Delitsch,  and 
H.  Strack,  have  even  become  its  strenuous  defenders ;  and  it 
may  indeed  be  said  that  it  is  due  to  the  Talmud  that  the 
long  centuries  of  heartrending  persecutions  which  the  Jews 
have  had  to  suffer  have  been  unable  to  break  down  their 
spirit  or  degrade  their  intellectual,  moral,  and  emotional 
life.  See  Ad.  Lowy,  Die  TSigend  und  Sitfenlehre  dea  7'cU- 
mud  (Vienna,  1890) ;  S.  Schaffer,  Daa  Recht  und  seine  SteU 
lung  zur  Moral  (Frankfort,  1889) ;  Ijeopold  Dukes,  Rahhin- 
ische  Blumeniese  (Leipzig,  1844) ;  and  cf.  A.  Keunen,  Volks- 
religion  und  Weltreligion  (Berlin,  1883),  p.  188.  See  Bible. 
Revised  by  Richard  Gottheil. 

Tal'pidflB  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Taipa,  the  typical 
genus,  from  Lat  tal'pa^  mole] ;  a  family  of  insectivorous 
mammals  embracing  the  moles  and  the  desmans.  The  ears 
are  rudimentary,  and  the  eyes  very  small ;  the  skull  is 
nearly  smooth,  and  the  posterior  ridges  are  obsolete ;  the 
foramen  magnum  is  oblong,  and  inclined  far  forward  be- 
low ;  there  are  no  distinct  post  glenoid  processes ;  the  tym- 
panic elements  form  auditory  bullae ;  tne  zygomatic  arches 
are  slender  rods :  the  teeth  are  in  number  M.  J,  P.  M.  JiJ, 
C.  I,  I.  f  :J  X  2,  and  also  differ  in  development ;  in  the  upper 
jaw  the  true  molars  mostly  (i.  e.  M.  1  and  M.  2)  have  each 
four  primary  external  and  two  primary  and  more  elevated 
internal  cusps,  and  an  internal  ledge  bearing  a  cusp  along 
its  inner  wall,  but  no  secondary  lower  ledge  behind  the 
principal  internal  one;  in  the  lower  jaw  the  true  molars 
nave  each  two  primary  external  cusps  and  three  primary 
internal  ones,  connecting,  and  by  their  union  circumscril>- 
ing,  triangular  areas;  the  other  teeth  vary  much  in  the 
several  groups ;  the  vertebrae  are  characteristic  in  that  the 
cervicals  have  no  hypapophyses,  and  the  dorsal  and  lumbar 
no  hyperapophyses ;  the  sternum  has  a  broad  and  keeled 
manubrium  ;  the  fore  limbs  are  generally  developed  more 
than  the  posterior  ;  the  carpi  are  more  or  less  enlarged,  and 
have  at  least  each  an  additional  ossicle  developed  as  an  os 
intermedium ;  the  scapulae  are  long  and  narrow.  (1)  The 
TalpincB  include  the  moles,  and  have  the  body  large  and 
subcylindrical,  the  neck  short,  and  the  fore  limbs  short  and 
very  wide,  and  eminently  adapted  for  digging;  the  skull  is 
inflated  at  the  pterygoid'  regions,  and  has  no  distinct  ptery- 
goid fossip ;  the  lower  jaw  is  contracted  under  the  ascend- 
ing rami:  the  incisor  teeth  are  in  good  number  (a?^);  the 
sternum  has  a  very  elongated  manubrium ;  the  clavicles 
are  short  and  broad,  the  humeri  broad,  and  enlarged  at  tlieir 
angles ;  and  the  carpi  have  each  an  enlarged,  sickle-shaped 
bone.  (2)  The  Myogalinm  are  in  external  appearance  con- 
siderably like  the  shrews  or  long-snouted  mice ;  the  skull  is 
not  inflated  at  the  pterygoid  regions,  and  has  distinct  ptery- 
goid fossa) ;  the  lower  jaw  is  extended  below  under  tne  as- 
cending rami ;  the  incisor  teeth  are  in  reduced  number 
(for?);  the  sternum  has  a  manubrium  of  moderate  size; 
the  clavicles  are  elongated ;  tlie  humeri  subcylindricul ;  and 
the  carpi  have  no  sickle-sliaped  bones.  The  family  is  en- 
tirely confined  to  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  each  great 
region  is  characterized  by  peculiar  forms.  Of  the  moles, 
the  typical  species  (forming  the  group  Talpce,  distinguish- 
able by  dental  characters)  are  represented  by  the  genera 
Talpa  and  Scaptonyx  in  Kur()f)e  and  Eastern  Asia,  and 
aberrant  groups  {CondyIur(B  ami  Scalopes)  are  exemplified 
by  four  genera  in  North  America— viz.,  Comlylura,  Scalops, 
ParascalopSy  and  Scapanim.  Of  the  Myogalincp,  one  genus 
{Desman  or  MyogaJe)  is  represented  by  species  in  cert^iin 
parts  of  Europe  (e.  g.  Pyrenees)  and  Asia;  another  {Urop- 
silus)  is  peculiar  to  Southern  China  or  Tibet;  a  third  {Uro- 


trichus)  has  species  in  Japan;  and  a  fourth  (Neuroiriehtis) 
in  America  W.  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  See  Desman  and 
Mole.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Talases:  See  Physioorapht. 

Talri :  pseudonym  for  Therese  Albertine  Luise  Robin- 
son (q.  v.). 

Tama:  city;  Tama  co.,  la.:  on  the  Chi.  and  N.  W.  and 
the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.  railways;  2  miles  S.  of  Toledo,  the 
county-seat,  and  51  W.  of  Cedar  Rapids  (for  location,  s<o 
map  of  Iowa,  ref.  5-1).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and 
has  a  public  park,  6  churches,  public  and  parochial  schools, 
water-works,  electric-light  and  street-railway  plants,  a  na- 
tional bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  a  private  bank,  and  2 
weekly  papers.  The  city  has  excellent  water-power,  and  flour, 
saw,  and  paper  mills,  egg-case,  cigar,  and  broom  factories, 
and  3  machine-shops  and  factories.  The  reservation  of  the 
Sac  and  Fox  Indians  is  in  the  township.  Pop.  (1880)  1,289 : 
(1890)  1,741 ;  (1893)  2,027.  Editor  of  •*  Herald." 

Tamagawa :  a  river  of  Japan,  flowing  eastward  into  th^ 
Bay  of  Tokio,  which  it  enters  a  few  miles  S.  of  that  city. 
For  over  two  centuries  Tokio  has  received  a  supply  of  pure 
water  from  a  canal  cut  from  this  river  to  the  Yedogawa : 
and  the  water-works,  with  modern  plant,  obtain  their  suj>- 
ply  from  the  same  source.  Cormorant-fishing  is  practicetl 
at  the  Sekido  ferry  on  this  river.  The  finest  cherry-bk»s- 
soms  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Tokio  occur  at  Koganei,  on  its 
banks.  Hachioji,  a  silk-manufacturing  center,  is  near  the 
Tamagawa  and  about  25  miles  from  its  mouth.     J.  M.  D. 

Tamaii'dna  [  =  Portug.,  from  the  native  name;  said  to 
be  Tupi  iaa,  ant  +  munden,  trap] :  a  species  of  ant-t^attr 
(family  MyrmecophagidcB)^  found  m  Brazil  and  other  i>arts 
of  northeastern  Soutn  America,  and  distinguished  by  its  ar- 
boreal habits  and  long  prehensile  tail.  The  hair  is  short ; 
the  color  of  the  head,  shoulders,  fore  limbs,  hind  lirab«  out- 
side, and  tail  along  the  middle  is  white ;  a  stripe  from  each 
side  of  the  neck  over  the  shoulder  and  remaining  part  black. 
The  native  name  has  been  accepted  as  a  generic  term,  and 
the  species  is  now  known  as  Tamandua  ietradaciyla. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Tama'qna :  borough  (settled  in  1799,  incorporated  in  1832) ; 
Schuylkill  CO.,  Pa. ;  on  theTamaoua  or  Little  Schuylkill  river, 
and  the  Cent,  of  N.J.  and  the  Phila.  and  Read,  railways :  17 
miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Potts ville,  the  county-seat,  and  40  miles  N. 
of  Reading  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  5-II). 
It  is  in  a  coal-mining  region,  and  contams  a  public  high 
school,  24  graded  public  schools,  12  churches,  gravity  water- 
works, gas  and  electric  lights,  a  national  bank  with  capital 
of  $100,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $47,130, 3  foundries 
and  machine-shops,  2  planing-mills,  flour-mill,  powder-mill, 
screen-works,  ana  a  semi-weekly  and  a  weekly  newspaper. 
Pop.  (1880)  5,730 ;  (1890)  6,054;  (1895)  estimated,  7,000. 

Editor  of  **  Courier." 

Tamarack :  See  Hackmatack. 

Tamarind  [from  Arab. /amarAtn^l,  liter.,  Indian  date; 
taniar,  date  (cf.  Heb.  tdmdr,  palm-tree)  -h  Hindi,  Indian, 
deriv.  of  Hind,  India]:  a  beautiful  le^iminous  tree,  the 
Tamarindus  indica,  from  Southern  Asia  and  Africa,  now 
naturalized  in 
most  warm  re- 
gions. The  pods 
are  filled  with 
a  pleasant  sour 
pulp,  which  is 
preserved  with 
sugar,  and  is 
used  for  mak- 
ing a  drink  for 
fever  patients, 
etc.  Tamarind- 
pulp  contains 
citric,  tartaric, 
and  malic  acids, 
potash,  sugar, 
vegetable   jelly, 

etc.  As  a  salt' of  copper  is  a  common  adulteration,  a  piece 
of  polished  iron  (as  a  knife)  should  be  left  in  the  pulp 
for  about  an  hour,  when,  if  copper  be  present,  it  will  be  de- 
posited on  the  iron.  Tamarind-pulp  is  refrigerant  and  gent- 
ly laxative,  and  is  employed  in  the  aiseases  of  children.  The 
tree  is  sparingly  grown  in  Southern  Florida  and  along  the 
nort  h  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  wood  is  very  haril 
and  handsome.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailev. 


Tamarind  (Tamarindtu  indica). 


T§m»* 


^ 


896 


V. 


TAMPA  BAY 


The  principal  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  cigars,  which 
has  120  establishments,  employs  4,000  persons,  and  turns 
out  goods  of  an  annual  value  of  $6,000,000.  In  1834  the  in- 
ternal revenue  collections  aggregated  $185,000,  and  the 
custom-house  collections  $600,000.  During  the  year  35,000 
tons  of  phosphate  were  shipped  to  domestic  ports  and  105,- 
000  tons  to  foreign.  The  citv  has  hotel  property  valued  at 
$3,000,000.  Tampa  was  mad'e  a  port  of  entry  in  1886.  and 
has  grown  rapidlv  since.  Pop,  (1880)  720; '(1890)  5,532; 
(1894)  estimated,  16,000.  Editoe  op  "  Tribune." 

Tampa  Bay :  a  body  of  water  on  the  west  coast  of  Flori- 
da, chiefly  in  Hillsboro  County.  Its  upper  portion  is  di- 
vided into  two  ^rts,  Old  Tampa  Bay  and  Hillsboro  Bay. 
It  is  some  35  miles  long  and  from  6  to  15  miles  wide.  A 
line  of  keys  fences  its  entrance  from  storms,  so  that  it  con- 
stitutes a  safe,  spacious,  accessible,  and  excellent  harbor. 
The  bay  contains  many  small  islands,  and  abounds  in  fish 
and  turtle.  On  Egmont  Key,  at  the  entrance,  is  a  brick 
lighthouse  86  feet  high,  lat.  iT  86'  N.,  Ion.  82'  45'  15"  W. 

Tampico,  taam-pee'ko:  town  and  port  of  the  state  of 
Tamaulipas,  Mexico ;  a  short  distance  above  the  mouth  of 
the  Pdnuco  river,  which  divides  Tamaulipas  from  Vera 
Cruz ;  terminus  of  railways  to  Monterey  and  San  Luis  Po- 
tosi  (see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  6-H).  The  harbor,  formed  by 
the  river,  has  been  made  good  and  safe  by  extensive  im- 
provements, including  a  breakwater  and  jetty,  so  that  ves- 
sels drawing  24  feet  of  water  may  enter  the  harbor.  The 
town  is  built  on  flat  land  surrounded  by  swamps ;  in  the 
summer  it  is  hot  and  unhealthful,  but  less  so  than  Vera 
Cruz.  The  Pdnuco  and  its  branch,  the  Tamesi,  are  navi- 
gated for  some  distance  by  small  steamers,  and  there  is  a 
canal  to  afford  inland  communication  between  Tampico 
and  Tuxpan,  Vera  Cruz,  through  the  lagoon  of  Tamianua. 
Tampico  was  opened  as  a  port  in  1823,  when  the  fort  in 
Vera  Cniz  was  still  held  by  the  Spaniards.  During  the  fre- 
quent blockades  of  Vera  Cruz  it  has  been  the  most  impor- 
tant gulf  port  of  Mexico,  and  its  trade  is  increasinsr.  Pop. 
(1889)  11,680.  Herbert  H.  Imith. 

Tamsai,*  taam'soo'-e"e  [literally,  fresh  water  (town)l:  a 
treaty-port  of  Formosa,  on  the  north  end  of  the  island,  in 
the  hien  or  district  called  Changhwa ;  lat.  25"  10'  N.,  Ion. 
101"  26'  E.  (see  map  of  China,  ref.  7-K).  It  lies  between  a 
double-peaked  hill  of  about  1,700  feet  on  the  S.  W.,  and 
the  Tamsui  range  of  mountains  (2,800  feet),  which  extend 
far  into  the  interior,  and  is  distant  about  13  miles  from  the 
large  trading-town  of  Bangka.  The  anchorage  is  poor,  and 
has  at  its  mouth  a  bar  covered  with  10  feet  of  water  at  low 
tide.  The  water-supply  of  the  town  is  remarkable  for  its 
excellence,  being  obtained  from  a  mountain  stream  8  miles 
inland  from  Bangka,  and  conducted  to  the  city  by  a  tunnel 
cut  in  the  solid  rock,  and  a  wooden  aqueduct  8  feet  wide 
and  5  feet  deep  supported  on  crutches  30  feet  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  of  an  affluent  which  it  has  to  cross  in  its 
course.  The  village  of  Kien-pai  and  the  towns  of  Bangka 
and  Twa-tu-tia  are  supplied  from  the  same  sources.  Tam- 
sui (which  includes  Kilung,  29  miles  to  the  E.)  imports  cot- 
ton and  woolen  goods,  opium,  metals,  matches,  kerosene  oil, 
rice,  beans,  native  cloth,  joss-sticks,  etc. ;  and  exports,  among 
other  things,  camphor,  tea,  and  coal.  In  1893  the  foreign 
importfi  amounted  to  2,137,805  haikwan  or  custom-house 
taels  (=  $2,244,695),  and  the  native  947,417  taels;  while  the 
exports  were  valued  at  5,197,652  taels.    Pop.  100,000. 

^  R,  LiLLEY. 

Tan :  See  Freckles. 

Tana :  See  Dembea. 

Tanafirers  [from  Mod.  Lat.  Tan'agra,  from  Braz.  tan- 
gara,  a  bird  of  the  tanager  kind] :  the  TanagridcB,  a  family 
of  passerine  birds,  having,  as  a  rule,  a  thick,  conical,  tri- 
angular bill  with  the  cutting  edges  not  much  inflected,  and 
generally  notched  or  toothed  behind  the  tip ;  the  angle  of 
chin  is  not  far  forward;  the  nostrils  are  placed  very  high  ; 
the  wings  are  moderate,  angulated,  have  nine  primaries,  and 


TANANARIVO 

the  inner  secondaries  are  not  produced.  They  are  o 
related  to  the  FringillidcB,  with  which  they  shrnild 
ably  be  united.  The  colors  are  in  almost  all  tJi<*  st 
quite  brilliant.  The  group  is  peculiar  to  the  Xew  M 
and  is  chiefly  developed  in  the  tropical  regions.  Ovej 
species  have  been  described,  arranged  under  fort  v- 
genera.  One  genus  (Kraw^a)  is  represented  in  iho  \ 
by  five  species,  the  most  conspicuous  of  which  are  the 
let  tanager  {Piranga  erythromelaa)  and  summer  rtc; 
{Piranga  rubra).  The  species  feed  upon  grains  a.s  mv 
insects,  etc.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lrrj 

Tan'agra  Fignrines:  statuettes  and  groups  of  t^ 
cotta  found  since  1873  among  the  ruins  of  Tanai^m  in 
modem  province  of  Boeotia,  Greece.  The  name  i><  i 
loosely  for  statuettes  and  groups,  fragments  of  wliicli 
found  at  other  places,  in  Sicily,  Southern  Italy,  NorrI 
Egypt,  as  well  as  in  Greec^e  proper.  In  all  the  amui 
colonized  or  influenced  bv  the  ancient  Greeks  these  fi-i 
were  once  as  common  as  the  painted  vases  which  are  so  v, 
able  to  modem  students,  and  Tanagra  was  only  one,  thr. 
an  important  one,  of  the  many  towns  where  keraniic  w 
was  carried  on.  Thus  outside  the  walls  of  Smvrna  in  J 
Minor  are  rabbish  heaps  from  which  have  been  l>rnu 
hundreds  of  delicatelv  finished  heads  in  terra-cot  i  a 
bodies  being  often  left  behind  as  unimportant,  iu 
earthenware  figures  are  found  in  tombs,  but  it  does  nr.t  ] 
low  that  they  were  made,  like  the  thin  gold  jewelry  fnu 
in  similar  tombs,  for  interment  with  the  body.  It  i< 
more  likelv  that  they  were  buried  as  the  favorite  works 
art  of  the  deceased,  or  in  some  cases  as  portraits  of  f  n\  n 
It  is  the  theory  of  some  archaeologists  that  the  veiled  fori 
fiffures  represent  goddesses  of  the  dead,  as  Peiseph.r 
Many  of  tlie  statuettes  are  colored  in  an  elaborate  fusliii 
but  this  coloring  is  rarely  fired  so  as  to  form  true  keran 
painting;  it  is  therefore  very  perishable.  These  paint 
statuettes  generally  bring  the  highest  prices  when  r>trer 
for  sale.  As  the  laws  of  the  Turkish  empire  and  of  (ire. 
against  the  exportation  of  works  of  art  have  not  lon<.'  In 
enforced,  and  as  these  figures  are  small  and  easily  conr.  ah' 
thousands  of  them  have  been  sold  in  Europe;  and*  the  pnar 
number  of  these  have  passed  into  private  hands.  The  m 
seums  of  Europe  and  the  U.  S.  have  also  fine  examples. 

The  greater  number  of  the  figures  discovered  are  stjirj 
ing,  draped  female  figures  from  6  to  9  inches  high.  Thr 
have  been  generally  made  in  moulds,  with  the  head  aloi 
showing,  signs  of  being  finished  by  hand  and  mucii  nnn 
carefully.  The  back  of  the  figure,  the  draperv,  etc.,  is  pv\ 
erally  much  less  carefully  modeled  than  the  front.  Moul.i 
have  been  found  exactly  corresponding  to  some  of  tlieii 
Groups  of  two  or  three  figures  are  not  uncommon,  and  s(;n« 
of  these  are  curiously  made  like  appliques,  that  is,  with  ih 
back  absolutely  flat  and  blank,  the  whole  group  haviii| 
one  face  only,  as  if  a  bas-relief  of  which  the  backgroun< 
had  been  cut  away  and  removed. 

Very  few  instances  of  the  copying  of  important  Greel 
statues  are  known  among  these  terra-cottas,  but  these  Jji: 
ures  have  given  to  the  modem  world  a  very  important  in 
stance  of  what  might  be  called  genre  sculpture  anionir  the 
ancients,  fanciful,  graceful,  sometimes  humorous,  sonu  times 
pathetic,  and  of  a  domestic  sort.  The  theory  cited  above, 
that  many  of  the  pieces  are  religious  in  character,  is  nnt 
contrary  to  the  evidently  decorative  and  fanciful  character 
of  others.  Many  modem  copies  exist,  sometimes  made  in 
the  ancient  moulds,  and  it  has  become  difficult  to  distiniruish 
the  genuine  ancient  specimens.  For  treatises  upon  the  sub- 
ject, see  A.  S.  Murray's  Handbook  of  Grecian  Arcfupofofp/ ; 
the  Monumefiia  Orecs,  a  kind  of  periodical  published'  in 
Paris ;  Rayet's  Art  Antique,  which  has  splendid  photoerraph- 
ic  plates  ;  Kekule's  Griechische  Tfionfiguren  aus  Tanagrn 
(Stuttgart,  1878) ;  and  many  papers  'in  the  Gazette  \ies 
Beaux- Arts  and  in  other  artistic  and  archffiological  perioti- 
icals.  Russell  Sturois. 

TananariTO :  capital  of  Madagascar.  See  Antananarivo. 


EifD   OF  VOLUME   SEVEN. 


3'